,,the ,,geography ,,and ,,geology ,,of ,,south-,,eastern ,,egypt4 ,,plate ,i4 ,illustration3 ,,orographical ,,map ,,of ,,south-,,eastern ,,egypt4 ,ball4 ,geography ,geology of ,south-,eastern ,egypt4 ,photo-,metal-,process4 ,survey ,dept4 ,cairo #aiaj4 7#fj-aij7 ,,ministry ,,of ,,finance4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,survey ,,department1 ,,egypt4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,geography ,,and ,,geology ,,of ,,south-,,eastern ,,egypt4 ,,by ,,john ,,ball1 ,ph4,d41 ,d4,,sc41 ,f4,g4,s41 ,a4,r4,s4,m41 ,m4,,inst4,c4,e4 ,decoration ,,cairo3 ,,government ,,press4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to be obtained either directly or through any ,bookseller1 from the ,,publications ,,office1 ,government ,press1 ,bulaq2 from the ,,sale-,,room1 ,geological ,museum1 ,ministry of ,public ,works ,gardens2 or from the ,,survey ,,department1 ,gza 7,mudiria74 99 99 99 99 99 #aiab4 ,,price #dj ,p4,t4 ,,preface4 99 99 99 99 99 ,this book is an attempt to give a systematic account of the geography and geology of ,south-,eastern ,egypt according to the latest information available4 ,it is based on surveys which ,i carried out by order of the ,egyptian ,government during the four years #aije-aijh1 and has been written in the intervals of other official work during the succeeding three years4 ,in the first or introductory chapter1 ,i have given a summary1 with some criticisms1 of previous accounts of the region4 ,this seemed advisable in that the literature1 although not very extensive1 is scattered in books and papers in various languages1 and is not always easy of access4 ,the second chapter is a concise systematic account of the district1 designed mainly as a summary for those who do not wish to go into the details2 it also contains sections dealing with matters of insufficient importance1 or of which our knowledge is too scanty1 to be treated of specially in the succeeding chapters4 ,the third chapter is an account of the surveying methods employed and the principal geographical results obtained4 ,the surveying methods are treated at some length1 firstly because an adequate specification of the survey methods used is necessary for the assessment of the value of any contribution to modern geography1 and1 secondly1 because some of the methods are either new or little known1 and have been found by experience to be specially adapted to the mapping of this type of country4 ,the principal geographical results are given1 mostly in tabular form1 as exhibiting clearly the groundwork of the actual maps1 and as indicating a series of adequately fixed positions which may be employed as a basis in any further surveys4 ,in the fourth to sixth chapters the drainage lines and hill features are systematically described4 ,a knowledge of the drainage lines1 as the key to a precise understanding of the relief1 is nowhere more important than in these deserts4 ,in the seventh chapter the important question of water supplies is considered1 and the positions and particulars of the various water sources are tabulated for easy reference4 ,the eighth to tenth chapters deal with the various rocks occurring in the district4 ,the petrology of the region has been discussed with some fulness1 because while the district offers a remarkable wealth of rock-species1 well exposed in considerable masses1 detailed studies of ,egyptian petrology have hitherto been few4 ,my great regret in this connexion is that ,i have been unable to add chemical analyses of the rocks4 ,the eleventh chapter summarises the general geological structure and history of the region1 as gathered from a broader outlook over the detailed geological evidences4 ,in the twelfth chapter ,i have set down the information ,i was able to obtain regarding the territorial limits of the different ,bedouin tribes inhabiting the region4 ,the thirteenth and concluding chapter of the book consists of brief notes taken on the return march to ,port ,sudan4 ,in regard to the cartographic material1 most of which is new1 special attention has been given to the place-names1 and it is believed that these are correct in almost every case4 ,but as the names are in languages not understood by ,european draughtsmen1 it is almost impossible that mistakes have been entirely avoided2 in any case where map and text may disagree in spelling 7the differences will1 ,i trust1 never be so great as to leave doubts of identity71 the text should be followed in preference to the map1 as mistakes in the text are usually more easily perceived and corrected4 ,i would remark that although the whole of the field maps have been employed in preparing the small scale ones1 yet the full detail can be recorded only on the large scale maps1 which are given for the most important districts2 a future explorer would do well1 therefore1 to refer to the manuscript field maps which are filed at the ,survey ,office at ,gza1 before concluding that no more detailed survey exists than is shown on the maps in this book4 ,the plates illustrating the scenic types are from my own photographs1 while those illustrating the natural-size aspect of the typical rocks are reproductions from water-colour drawings which ,i made from actual specimens4 ,these coloured plates of rocks are mainly designed to enable prospectors to identify readily the ordinary kinds of stone they meet with in the field2 but they will also serve to give to petrologists an idea of the appearance of hand specimens of rocks from this part of the world1 which are not frequently met with in the great museums4 ,the text figures of rock sections ,i have mostly drawn at the microscope on silver prints from photographic plates1 the prints being afterwards bleached out with mercuric chloride2 they will appear slightly diagrammatic in places1 owing to the necessity of using lines and dots for tints1 but ,i find ,i myself get a better idea of a rock from a drawing of this kind than from a photograph4 ,much detailed surveying of this mountainous and arid region remains yet to be done1 especially in the districts round the heads of the ,wadi ,alaqi1 before our knowledge of it can be considered complete4 ,it is hoped1 however1 that a substantial beginning has been made towards this end1 and that future work may be facilitated by the observational data recorded in the following pages4 ,,john ,,ball4 ,,contents4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,page4 ,,chapter ,i4 -- ,introduction #a ,,ii4 -- ,general ,description of ,south-,eastern ,egypt #ah ,,iii4 -- ,surveying ,methods and ,principal ,geographical ,results #ci ,,iv4 -- ,the ,wadis draining ,westwards to the ,nile #gh ,v4 -- ,the ,wadis draining ,eastwards to the ,sea #id ,,vi4 -- ,the ,mountains and ,hills #afd ,,vii4 -- ,water ,supplies #bcd ,,viii4 -- ,geology4--,sedimentary ,rocks #bea ,,ix4 -- ,igneous ,rocks #bfb ,x4 -- ,metamorphic ,rocks #cca ,,xi4 -- ,tectonics and ,general ,geology #ced ,,xii4 -- ,tribal ,boundaries #cff ,,xiii4 -- ,notes on the ,road from ,halaib to ,port ,sudan #cgb ,,index #cgi 99 99 99 99 99 ,,list ,,of ,,plates4 99 99 99 99 99 ,plate4 ,to face page ,i4 -- ,orographical ,map of ,south-,eastern ,egypt ,,frontispiece4 ,,ii4 -- ,sketch ,map showing ,drainage ,basins #bb ,,iii4 -- ,sketch ,map showing ,water ,sources and ,roads #bf ,,iv4 -- ,views of ,ruins at ,um ,eleiga and in ,wadi #cj ,shenshef ,v4 -- ,views of ,tomb of ,sheikh ,shadli and ,bir ,shadli #cb ,,vi4 -- ,map of the ,district of ,nugrus and ,sikait #ajf ,,vii4 -- ,summit ,views of ,gebels ,nugrus and ,abu ,hamamid #aff ,,viii4 -- ,views from ,gebel ,migif #afh ,,ix4 -- ,descending ,gebel ,zabara #agj ,x4 -- ,views from the ,summit of ,gebel ,atut #agb ,,xi4 -- ,views in ,wadi ,muelih and of ,gebel ,selaia #agb ,,xii4 -- ,typical ,views among the ,mountains of ,hamata and ,abu ,hamamid #agf ,,xiii4 -- ,views on ,gebel ,kahfa #agh ,,xiv4 -- ,views of ,gebel ,kalalat and the ,summit of ,gebel ,faraid #aib ,,xv4 -- ,map of the ,district of ,abraq and ,abu ,saafa #bjb ,,xvi4 -- ,panoramas from the ,summits of ,gebels ,niqrub and ,gerf #bjf ,,xvii4 -- ,map of the ,district of ,gebel ,gerf #baj ,,xviii4 -- ,map of the ,district of ,meisah and ,wadi ,di-ib #bah ,,xix4 -- ,map of the ,district of ,elba and ,halaib #bbf ,,xx4 -- ,geological ,map of ,south-,eastern ,egypt #bej ,,xxi4 -- ,geological ,map of ,ras ,benas #beh ,,xxii4 -- ,acid ,igneous ,rocks #bfh ,,xxiii4 -- ,intermediate ,igneous ,rocks #bhd ,,xxiv4 -- ,basic and ,ultra-basic ,igneous ,rocks #cjj ,,xxv4 -- ,metamorphic ,rocks #ccd ,,xxvi4 -- ,sketch ,map showing ,tribal ,boundaries #cfh ,,xxvii4 -- ,sketch ,map of ,route from ,halaib to ,mohamed ,ghul #cgb ,,xxviii4 -- ,sketch ,map of ,route from ,mohamed ,ghul to ,port ,sudan #cgb ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,in ,,the ,,text4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,fig4 ,,page4 #a4 ,sketch-map showing position of area described #a #b4 ,map of ,abraq ,springs #abc #c4 ,view from the summit of ,gebel ,elba #bbi #d4 ,granite of ,gebel ,fereyid #bfi #e4 ,red pegmatitic granite of ,wadi ,gemal #bga #f4 ,biotite-granite of ,gebel ,abu ,hegilig #bgc #g4 ,hornblende-granite of ,gebel ,elba #bge #h4 ,hornblende-granite of ,gebel ,hamata #bge #i4 ,granite-porphyry of ,kreishim ,hill #bgf #aj4 ,quartz-felsite of the ,wadi ,huluz #bgg #aa4 ,quartz-felsite from a dyke at ,gebel ,kolaiqo #bgh #ab4 ,altered quartz-felsite of ,gebel ,igli el ,iswid #bha #ac4 ,microperthitic structure in felspar of quartz-felsite of ,gebel ,hadarba #bhb #ad4 ,fractured felspar crystals in crushed quartz-felsite of ,wadi ,huluz #bhb #ae4 ,syenite of ,gebel ,zergat ,naam #bhd #af4 ,syenite-porphyry of ,gebel ,zergat ,naam #bhd #ag4 ,trachyte from a dyke at ,gebel ,kahfa #bhe #ah4 ,diorite of ,gebel ,allawi #bhg #ai4 ,diorite of ,wadi ,baaneit #bhg #bj4 ,augite-diorite of ,wadi ,um ,hargal #bhi #ba4 ,augite-diorite of ,gebel el ,anbat #bij #bb4 ,mica-diorite from a dyke at ,gebel ,abu ,hegilig #bia #bc4 ,diorite-porphyrite of ,gebel ,abu ,hodeid #bib #bd4 ,augite-porphyrite of ,wadi ,muelih #bic #be4 ,kersantite of ,gebel ,fereyid #bid #bf4 ,view near the top of ,gebel ,sufra #bif #bg4 ,andesite of ,gebel ,sufra #bif #bh4 ,gabbro of ,gebel ,dahanib #bih #bi4 ,gabbro of ,um ,eleiga #bii #cj4 ,hypersthene-gabbro of ,hadal ,aweib ,meisah #cjj #ca4 ,olivine-gabbro of ,gebel ,um ,bisilla #cja #cb4 ,olivine-gabbro of ,gebel ,atut #cjb #cc4 ,olivine-gabbro from hill ,s4-,e4 of ,gebel ,selaia #cjc #cd4 ,troctolite of ,gebel ,um ,bisilla #cjd #ce4 ,pyroxene-granulite of ,kolmanab ,hill #cje #cf4 ,diabase from under the ,nubian sandstone1 ,rod el ,nagi #cjf #cg4 ,diabase from ,gebel ,abu ,hamamid #cjh #ch4 ,olivine-diabase from a dyke at the junction of ,wadis ,gemal and ,huluz #cjh #ci4 ,diabase from a dyke in ,wadi ,kreiga #cji #dj4 ,mica-diabase of ,gebel ,um ,khariga #caj #da4 ,basalt of ,gimeida ,hill #caa #db4 ,basalt of ,einiwai ,hill #cab #dc4 ,amphibolite from hills near ,gebel ,um ,gunud #cag #dd4 ,amphibolite containing olivine and bronzite1 ,qrein ,salama #cai #de4 ,serpentine 7probably from a mica-peridotite71 east of ,erf el ,fahid #cba #df4 ,serpentine 7from lherzolite71 hills near ,wadi ,um ,khariga #cbb #dg4 ,serpentine 7from dunite71 low hills near ,bir ,abraq #cbf #dh4 ,serpentine 7from dunite71 low hills near ,bir ,abraq #cbf #di4 ,serpentine 7from wehrlite71 ,gebel ,gerf #cbg #ej4 ,bronzite passing into serpentine1 ,gebel ,gerf #cbg #ea4 ,serpentine 7from harzburgite171 ,gebel ,korabkansi #cbi #eb4 ,crushing of quartz and felspar in granite-gneiss1 ,gebel ,um ,rasein #ccd #ec4 ,diorite-gneiss1 ,wadi ,muelih #ccd #ed4 ,crushed and altered syenite 7schist71 near ,gebel el ,anbat #cci #ee4 ,hornblende schist1 ,wadi ,muelih #cdj #ef4 ,schist composed of crushed volcanic rocks1 ,gebel ,abu ,hamamid #cda #eg4 ,hornblende schist1 near ,gebel ,eqrun #cdc #eh4 ,emerald and quartz1 near ,sikait #cde #ei4 ,tourmaline in talc-schist1 ,sikait #cdf #fj4 ,section of sandstone at ,gebel ,um ,khafur #ceh #fa4 ,junction of sandstone and granite1 west of ,gebel ,um ,reit #cei #fb4 ,faulting near ,wadi ,saalek #cei 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,geography ,,and ,,geology ,,of ,,south-,,eastern ,,egypt4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,i4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,introduction4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--,sketch-,map of ,egypt4 ,the shaded area shows the district treated of in this book4 ,the district treated of in this volume constitutes the extreme south-east corner of ,egypt1 lying between the parallels of #bb and #be of north latitude1 and between the meridian of #cd ,e4 and the ,red ,sea coast4 ,it comprises an area of about #ef1jjj square kilometres1 and includes some of the most mountainous and least accessible portions of the ,khedive's dominions4 ,the district has been comparatively little visited by travellers1 and the literature concerning it is not very extensive4 ,berenice 7,jh7#a was founded by ,ptolemy ,,ii 7#bhe-bdg ,b4,c471 who named the town after his mother1 as a station at one end of the road for transporting goods from the ,red ,sea to the ,nile at ,koptos 7,quft74 ,the emerald mines in the ,zabara area were worked at least as early as ,ptolemaic times1 and gold mines in the south at a much earlier date4 ,references to this part of ,egypt occur in the writings of ,,strabo1 ,,diodorus ,,siculus1 and ,,pliny1 as well as in ,,ptolemy's ,geography and the ,,antonine ,,itinerary4 ,both ,strabo and ,pliny state that in ,berenice1 as in ,syene1 the sun cast no shadow at the summer solstice from which they inferred the town to be on the tropic of ,cancer1 though in reality it lay in their day some twenty-five kilometres1 and is now about #bh1 or some fifty-two kilometres1 north of the tropic1 the difference being caused by the secular change in the obliquity of the ecliptic since the beginning of the ,christian era4 ,ptolemy gives the latitude of ,berenice as #bc #ej1 which is only #e too low2 the ,smaragdus mons1 or emerald mountain1 he places in latitude #be1 which is about #ae higher than the true position of ,gebel ,zabara 7,ec74 ,diodorus gives a very clear description of the working of gold mines in the ,eastern ,desert in his day1 by miserable convict labour4 ,the road from ,koptos to ,berenice is mentioned1 with lists of stations and water reservoirs and their distances from each other1 both by ,pliny and the writer of the ,antonine ,itinerary2 and though ,pliny gives fewer stations than the ,itinerary1 the two accounts agree very closely in estimating the total distance at about #beh ,roman miles1 which1 so far as can be judged from a partial identification of the stations marking the route1 is pretty correct4 ,the island of ,zeberged 7,ok71 on which occurs the green gem called peridot1 is probably the ,topazos ,insula of ,diodorus1 and the ,agathon of ,ptolemy2 but ,diodorus gives its length as eighty stades 7about twelve kilometres71 which is three times greater than its present size1 and ,ptolemy's latitude of #bc is some #af too low4 ,ptolemy states that the coast was inhabited by the ,ichthyophages1 or fish-eaters1 while the ,troglodytes1 or cave-dwellers1 of ,strabo1 were probably the workers in the mines4 ,the books of the ,arab geographers1 ,,edrisi and ,,abu ,,el ,,feda1 contain some references to the roads and mines of the ,eastern ,desert1 but their descriptions are unimportant and contain frequent palpable errors4 ,d',,anville1 in his ,mmoires sur l',egypte1 ,paris1 #agff1 pp4 #bcj-bce1 attempted to construct a map of the coast of the ,red ,sea by combining the classical records with some early ,portuguese and other charts1 but the latter were too crude to enable any approach to be made to an accurate map4 ,it has been thought that ,,bruce discovered the island of ,zeberged and the emerald mines of ,zabara in #agfi1 but it is tolerably certain that he saw neither of these places4 ,he estimated the latitude of the island he saw 8pretty exactly0 as #be #c1 and its distance from the coast as three miles1#b whereas ,zeberged is really in latitude #bc #cf1 and is over thirty miles from the nearest coast4 ,the mines he saw were so close to the coast that he could walk to them from his boat and back in less than a day 7in fact he states that they were only three miles from the coast71 while both the ,sikait and the ,zabara mines are over a day's journey from the sea4 ,nor could the mines have been the sulphur workings near ,el ,ranga 7,he71 unless ,bruce made a large error in his observation for latitude1 for the sulphur mines are about in latitude #bd #be1 and1 moreover1 ,bruce states that he found 8brittle green crystals10 not sulphur4 ,it is to the ,french traveller ,,cailliaud#c that we owe the first modern account of ,berenice and the emerald mines4 ,cailliaud was a mineralogist1 in favour with ,mohammad ,ali ,pasha1 who sent him on two expeditions in #ahaf and #ahag to search for mines in the ,eastern ,desert4 ,on his first expedition1 starting from ,redesia 7near ,edfu71 he discovered the rock temple of ,seti ,i1 forty-five kilometres east of the ,nile1 and several ancient stations on his route1 and proceeded to the emerald mines of ,zabara and the sulphur mines of ,el ,ranga4 ,on his second expedition he took with him sixty ,albanian workmen to exploit the mines1 and led them by nearly his former route to ,zabara1 where they extracted ten lbs4 weight of emeralds 7beryls7 for presentation to the ,pasha4 ,on this second expedition ,cailliaud discovered the mines and ruins of ,sikait1 and also other ruins in the ,wadi ,nugrus 7,ed74 ,cailliaud's drawings of the ruins of ,sikait greatly exaggerate their size and elegance4 ,,jomard1 in notes prefaced to ,cailliaud's account of his travels1 made a careful study of the probable positions of the ancient roads and mines in this part of ,egypt2 he thought that ,wadi ,gemal ,island 7,hd7 was ,zeberged4 ,in #ahah1 ,,belzoni1#d fired by ,cailliaud's discoveries1 set out to discover the ancient ,berenice4 ,starting from ,edfu1 he travelled eastward for some days over ,cailliaud's route1 then marched via ,bir ,samut 7where he discovered the ancient station7 and ,wadi ,ghuel to the ,zabara mines1 where he found ,cailliaud's miners still at work4 ,from ,zabara he journeyed through the ,wadi ,sikait1 passing the mines and ruined temples which had been discovered by ,cailliaud1 and down the ,wadi ,gemal to the sea4 ,proceeding then southward along the coast1 he examined the sulphur mines at ,el ,ranga near the mouth of the ,wadi ,abu ,ghusun1 and then made his discovery of the ruins of the temple and town of ,berenice1 near the peninsula of 8,cape ,galahen0 7,ras ,benas74 ,the ruins were so inconspicuous as to be only found with difficulty1 and the temple was so buried in sand that ,belzoni could only make a very imperfect plan of it4 ,the ancient town he estimates to have covered a space near the temple #a1fjj feet broad and #b1jjj feet long4 ,leaving ,berenice the same day on which he made his discovery1 ,belzoni returned to ,sikait by way of ,abu ,greia1 ,haratreit 7where he discovered ancient stations71 ,hefeiri well1 and the spring of ,um ,sueh4 ,after copying some ,greek inscriptions at ,sikait1 he returned to ,edfu by way of ,wadis ,hafafit 7,dc71 where he found an ancient station1 ,abu ,had1 and ,samut4 ,belzoni's map#e of his routes is of course very crude and erroneous1 but the fact that he gives the names of the places he passed enables one to reconstruct his routes on modern maps with fair exactitude4 ,his drawings of the ruins he visited are fairly accurate1 that of the rock temple of ,sikait being a much truer picture than ,cailliaud's4 ,the extreme south-east corner of ,egypt was first explored in #ahca and #ahcb by ,,linant ,,de ,,bellefonds1 who twenty years later published an interesting account of his travels and discoveries4#f ,the manner in which ,linant ,bey's expedition arose is very curious4 ,he had read the accounts of ,diodorus and ,arabic writers concerning the ancient gold mines of the ,eastern ,desert1 and when he accidentally discovered small crystals of gold in quartzose detritus brought down the ,wadi ,alaqi into the ,nile by a storm torrent1 he at once inferred that this wadi would lead him to the mines4 ,the ,arabs told him1 quite correctly1 that the down-wash had its origin far up the wadi1 nine days' journey from its mouth4 ,reporting his discovery to ,mohammad ,ali ,pasha1 that prince commissioned him to lead an expedition to search for the mines4 ,starting from ,aswan1 ,linant journeyed south-east and discovered the ancient mines and ruins at ,gebel ,seiga 7,bp71 and subsequently the more extensive workings at various places round the head of ,wadi ,alaqi1 such as ,egat 7,ft7 and ,darahib 7,gu74 ,from the ,alaqi district he proceeded northward to ,bir ,shinai 7,hr71 and thence eastwards round the spurs of the mountains to ,bir ,meisah 7,kr71 east of which he discovered the old mines of ,romit 7,ls74 ,crossing the great ,wadi ,di-ib1 he appears to have reached ,bir ,akwamtra 7,os71 at the foot of ,gebel ,elba4 ,his desire to explore the mysterious ,elba mountains was frustrated by the ,arabs1 and he only ascended a minor peak before commencing his return march4 ,from ,elba he returned via ,bir ,meisah1 ,bir ,beida 7,ho71 and the ,wadis ,khashab 7,gn71 ,hodein1 ,rod el ,kharuf 7,ch71 and ,kharit to ,daraw on the ,nile1 discovering the springs of ,abu ,saafa 7,em7 in the course of his march4 ,linant thus performed for the south portion of the district a similar service to that which his compatriot ,cailliaud had already done for the north portion4 ,his remarks on the people of the country1 their manners and customs1 are no less interesting than his descriptions of the ruins and mines which he discovered4 ,the notes on certain points1 such as the manner of trapping the wild ass which then roamed these deserts1 are specially interesting as illustrating past usages4 ,linant also compiled a small ,bisharin-,french vocabulary as an appendix to his work4 ,the large map accompanying his book1 though it is well engraved and depicts well the general mountainous character of the country1 is unfortunately full of large errors2 ,gebel ,is 7,jt71 for example1 is placed more than sixty kilometres too far south2 while many of the place-names are either wholly incorrect or so loosely transliterated as to be almost unrecognisable4 ,but with all its defects1 ,linant's map remained the only source for cartographers for a large portion of the ,eastern ,desert down to the time of the commencement of the present survey2 the map of ,egypt published in #aije by the ,topographical ,section of the ,british ,general ,staff1 for instance1 contains much of ,linant's material1 though a comparison of that map with the one joined to this report will show how great were the errors in the matter thus incorporated4 ,,wilkinson#g gives very brief notes on ,berenice and the ancient roads leading to it1 as well as on the emerald mines of ,zabara and the ruins of the ,sikait district4 ,wilkinson believed he had identified all the ancient stations on the ,koptos-,berenice road1 besides another smaller one not mentioned in classical itineraries4 ,in the temple of ,berenice he found a small fountain1 which is now in the ,british ,museum4 ,but his work added little to what had already been learned by ,cailliaud and ,belzoni regarding this part of ,egypt4 ,in #ahcf1 ,,wellsted1#h a lieutenant in the ,indian ,navy1 who had been employed in surveying the ,red ,sea coast1 described the topography of ,berenice1 and assigned to the place its true latitude of #bc #ee4 ,he gives a plan and view of the temple1 which he partially cleared1 and in which he found fragments of ,greek tablets and of a statue4 ,between #ahcj and #ahdj important contributions were furnished to the geography of ,eastern ,egypt by the surveys of the ,red ,sea1 carried out by ,,moresby1 ,,wellsted1 and other officers of the ,east ,india ,company's ,navy4 ,their sailing directions formed the foundation of the 8,red ,sea and ,gulf of ,aden ,pilot10 now published by the ,british ,admiralty4#i ,both the charts and sailing directions have been continually revised by ,admiralty surveys1 and furnish much accurate information about the coast4 ,the principal errors are that almost the entire coast-line between latitudes #bb and #be is placed too far to the west1#aj and some of the place-names are wrong1 or at least unknown to the local sailors of to-day4 ,such details of the inland relief as are given on the charts are not correct1 as was of course to be expected in a hydrographic survey2 but the main summits are fairly accurately laid down1 and their altitudes agree well with my determinations4 ,thus the 8,southern peak0 of the chart1 in latitude #bc #ah1 is ,gebel ,fereyid2#aa the 8,black conical hill10 near ,mersa ,shab1 is ,gemeida2 8,scragged hill0 is ,qash ,amir2#ab 8,high peak0 is ,gebel ,elba2 8,castle hill0 is ,gebel ,shendodai2 and 8,south peak0 is ,asotriba1 the highest mountain of the ,elba group4 ,in #ahdf1 ,,barth made a journey from ,aswn to ,berenice and thence to ,qoseir1 and subsequently published a brief journal of his expedition4#ac ,going eastward from ,aswn1 he passed north of ,gebel ,hamrat ,mukbud 7,cf71 via the ,wadi ,khashab1 past the tomb of ,sheikh ,shadli 7,df7 and the granite boss of ,selaia 7,fh71 which he thought to be of slate1 and then descended to the coast by ,wadi ,salib ,abiad and ,wadi ,khoda 7,hf74 ,he discovered the old station 7now called ,garia ,kalalat7 south-west of ,berenice1 on his way to the temple1 of which he took measures4 ,barth remarks on the insignificant nature of the ruins and on the badness of the site for a town4 ,on his return journey1 he discovered the wells and ruins of ,shenshef 7,jj71 where there are well preserved remains of substantial dwellings which he thought denoted a settlement by people from ,berenice4 ,ascending the ,wadi ,shut after returning to ,wadi ,khoda1 he turned westward and reached the plain south of the ,abu ,hamamid-,hamata mountains4 ,crossing this mountain track by the difficult pass of ,hilgit1 he descended the ,wadi ,huluz 7,ef71 into ,wadi ,gemal1 whence he turned northward and visited the ruins of ,sikait4 ,from ,sikait he proceeded by winding tracks past ,bir ,ghadir 7,ec7 and on to ,qoseir4 ,the next traveller to visit the district1 ,,von ,,heuglin1 examined the country from the coast4#ad ,sailing southward from ,qoseir1 he discovered ruins which he thought to be those of ,ptolemy's ,nechesia1 in latitude #bd #ee1 a little south of ,ras ,tundeba4 ,further south1 he enumerates the various openings and anchorages of the coast to ,suakin4 ,gebel ,hamata 7,gf7 he wrongly thought might be the ,alaqi of the ancient mining records4 ,his 8,wadi el ,hemmah0 is doubtless ,wadi ,lahami 7,hg74 ,rounding ,ras ,benas1 he passed the coral island of ,mukawar 7,geziret el ,ras71 and anchored by the ruins of ,berenice1 which he states to be called ,sikait ,qibli4#ae ,in and near the temple ruins von ,heuglin found copper nails1 fragments of statues1 ,roman coins1 a quartz sistrum and pieces of beryl1 besides potsherds and broken glass4 ,passing ,mersa ,shab 7,sherm ,hel el ,madfa71 he notes a few fishermen's dwellings on ,seyal ,island1 and a pearl fisher from ,jidda plying his calling at a small anchorage called ,gota1 near ,ras ,fatma4 ,he mentions ,kwolala as 8,geziret ,elba10 close to the 8peninsula of ,halaib0 7now an island1 ,geziret ,halaib74#af ,the ,elba mountains he states to be the ,prionotus mons of ,ptolemy4 ,the 8,sherm ,qubeten10 which he notes to the south of ,halaib1 is doubtless ,mersa ,qabatit of my map4 ,it is to the veteran ,african traveller ,,schweinfurth that we owe the first investigations of the ,elba mountains1 as long surrounded with mystery as the stronghold of dreaded ,bisharin tribes4#ag ,like von ,heuglin1 ,schweinfurth visited the country from the coast1 making excursions inland4 ,starting from ,qoseir in ,march1 #ahfd1 he proceeded with frequent stoppages to ,suakin1 spending nearly six months in exploring the littoral districts4 ,his chief object was the investigation of the flora of the country1 but his accounts#ah contain much geographical and geological information of great interest4 ,he compares the coastal ranges of ,africa with the ,cordilleras of ,south ,america1 and the ,abyssinian highlands with ,quito4 ,the flora of the ,elba district he found to be sharply marked off from that of the rest of ,egypt by the presence of large numbers of plants of ,abyssinian types4 ,among his geological notes1 it is interesting to come across a reference to serpentine1 which ,i have lately found to form the great mountain masses of ,abu ,dahr 7,gk71 ,korabkansi 7,fq71 and ,gerf 7,hp74 ,schweinfurth wrote1 however1 in the early days of petrography1 and his term 8basalts0 includes a variety of fine-grained dark eruptive rocks which we should now call by other names4 ,the sulphur mines of ,el ,ranga he characterised as worthless1 the mineral being in very small quantity4 ,schweinfurth's map of the ,elba district was a great advance on anything of the kind previously existing1 though it contains many inaccuracies1 particularly of place-names1 as was in fact only to be expected from his very short stay in the locality4 ,he remarked the separation of ,gebel ,elba 7,pr7 from the more southern mountains1 but failed to notice that ,qash ,amir 7,os71 7the 8,scragged ,hill0 of the ,admiralty ,chart71 is in its turn quite distinct from ,elba1 ,halaib is called ,elei1#ai and the ,geziret ,halaib is shown as a peninsula2 ,kwolala is called 8,geziret ,elei10 and the ,geziret el ,dibia 7the ,elba ,island of the charts7 is called ,geziret ,abu ,fendira by ,schweinfurth4 ,my ,wadi ,shellal he calls 8,wadi ,heberah10 and ,cape ,elba 7my ,ras ,hadarba7 is noted as 8,ras ,edineb40 ,his 8highest peak0 7,south ,peak of the charts7 is ,asotriba1 the highest mountain of the group1 lying just within the ,sudan2 the name ,asotriba 7,schweinfurth's 8,soturba07 means 8green mountain10 and refers to the vegetation on its slopes4 ,schweinfurth's experience of the ,bisharin led him to give them a very bad character1 though he gives high recognition to their beauty of feature and figure2 but being unfamiliar with their language was1 he admits1 an obstacle to forming a fair judgment of them4 ,in #ahgc1 ,colonels ,,purdy and ,,colston1 two ,american officers attached to the ,egyptian ,army1 were commissioned by the ,khedive ,ismail ,pasha to carry out a reconnaissance for a proposed railway line between ,berenice and ,berber4 ,colston#bj travelled overland from ,qena via ,qoseir to ,berenice1 discovering several ancient stations on his way to join ,purdy4 ,though ,purdy sanguinely states#ba that 8la construction d'un chemin de fer de ce point 7,berenice7 ,berber n'offrirait pas de grandes difficults10 the reconnaissance appears to have been singularly rough for a decision in so weighty a matter4 ,distances were mere guesses1 and the only instruments employed seem to have been a compass1 aneroid1 and hypsometer4 ,the compass must often have been unreliable owing to magnetic rocks1 which in places deflect the needle as much as #dj from its normal position1 while the use of the aneroid was so little understood that ,purdy could actually write1 in the concluding paragraph of his paper3 8,je me permets de rappeler l'attention sur les notes baromtriques jointes ce rapport4 ,a ce propos1 je dois faire observer que quoique l'anrode soit trs sensible aux changements de niveau1 il ne l'est pas assez pour la pression atmosphrique1 et sa marche est excessivement irrgulire4 4 4 4 ,il m'est arriv1 par exemple1 de constater1 le matin1 au moment du dpart1 une diffrence sensible du point marqu le soir prcdent mon arrive40 ,not only are many of the place-names given by ,purdy erroneous1 but some of his most important statements are contrary to fact2 to take only a few examples1 the ,wadi ,kalalat is confused with ,wadi ,shenshef1 and ,gebel ,shut with ,gebel ,dahanib1 while it is stated that no water exists between ,gebel ,dif 7,fm7 and ,gebel ,egat 7,ft71 although there are several good wells between the two places4 ,the map accompanying ,purdy's paper is full of errors1 and almost worse than useless4 ,of ,colston's route from ,qena to ,berenice there was no published cartographic record until #ahia1 when ,g4 ,,cora#bb endeavoured to place ,colston's track on a map from his manuscript sketches4 ,cora's map shows no new material except the route1 and even this cannot be very correct1 for it is evident on comparison with the results of the recent survey that ,colston's sketch map was of the same rough and inaccurate character as ,purdy's4 ,in ,january #ahhi1 ,,gol,,nischeff made an expedition from the ,nile to ,berenice and back4 ,his object was to collect archological information1 especially concerning the ancient roads and stations1 but the careful account#bc which he has given of his journey is also of geographical interest4 ,starting from ,redesia by ,cailliaud's route1 he examined the temple of ,seti ,i1 and then discovered the ancient station of ,abu ,medrik#bd further to the south-east4 ,passing the ruins at ,samut and ,dweig 7,cc71 he found another small station on the way to ,abu ,had1 and arrived at the station in ,wadi ,gemal 7,ed71 near ,wadi ,hafafit4 ,from the ,wadi ,gemal he proceeded via the ,wadis ,abiad 7,fe71 ,abu ,hegilig1 ,hefeiri1 ,abu ,ghusun 7,ge71 ,haratreit 7,hf71 ,khashir 7in which another ancient station was discovered71 and ,lahami 7,hg71 past the ,abu ,greia ruins1 to ,berenice4 ,he returned by way of ,wadis ,naait 7,hh7 and ,lahami on to the plain of ,kharit1 and thence past ,hamrat ,mukbud 7,cf71 via the ,wadis ,khashab1 ,kharit 7,ag71 and ,abu ,modellim1 to the ,nile4 ,golnischeff1 besides giving small plans of the various ancient stations and a carefully measured plan of the temple of ,berenice1 made a comparison of his itinerary with the descriptions of the old roads by classical writers and by ,colston4 ,he considers there can be no doubt that ,abu ,greia is the ,vetus hydreuma of ,pliny1 and the ruins in ,wadi ,khashir the ,novum hydreuma of the same writer4 ,the ruins in ,wadi ,haratreit he considers to be the station ,cabalsi of the ,antonine ,itinerary1 ,apollonus being identified with the well found by ,colston at ,hefeiri1 ,falacro with the ruins in the ,wadi ,gemal1 and ,aristonis with those in ,wadi ,dweig4 ,in #ahia1 ,,floyer1 at the head of a scientific exploring expedition sent out by the ,khedive ,tewfik ,pasha1 travelled over the country north of #bc #cj1 and his results were published in ,french in #ahic4be ,a little later1 the geographical results of the expedition were embodied in an ,english paper read at the ,royal ,geographical ,society4#bf ,the general map in the ,french essay is only on a very small scale1 but the ,english publication is accompanied by a much more illuminating map on a scale of #a3gfj1cbj1 reduced from one prepared by the ,intelligence ,division of the ,war ,office from ,floyer's original plane-table sketches4 ,this latter map1 in spite of many errors and defects1 was a very great advance on anything which had previously appeared1 and it formed the principal source of geographical information concerning the north part of the district at the commencement of my survey in #aije4 ,the geological observations made by ,floyer during his expedition formed the subject of a paper read by him before the ,geological ,society of ,london in #ahib4bg ,this paper is chiefly remarkable for the number of grave errors of observation into which ,floyer's limited acquaintance with geology caused him to fall1 and later researches have fully justified the scepticism with which his deductions were received by the ,society4 ,thus1 for instance1 he refers to the ancient schists and slates of ,zabara as 8blue clay10#bh and to the dark schists and diorite of ,abu ,hamamid and ,abu ,gurdi as 8compact granite40 ,the rocks which ,floyer considered to be 8metamorphosed sandstone0 are diorites and schists at ,um ,eleiga and in the ,wadi ,gemal1 and typical gneisses and granites in the ,nugrus and ,hafafit ranges4 ,not a trace of sandstone has been found to exist within many miles of the places where ,floyer records its metamorphism1 nor has any evidence of the recent volcanic activity reported by him 7,geog4 ,journal1 #ahic1 p4 #dcj7 been discovered4 ,an account of a short visit to the ,elba district was published by ,,bent#bi in #ahif4 ,bent landed at ,halaib and camped near ,gebel ,shellal 7,qt74 ,he thinks that ,halaib may have been the town of ,aydat mentioned by the ,arab geographers ,abu el ,feda and ,edrisi1 and that it is a place of purely ,arab origin4 ,at ,suakin el ,qadim 7,qs7 he found among the mounds nothing earlier than ,cufic remains1 unless certain graves1 formed of four large blocks of coral set deep in the ground1 may be looked upon as a more ancient form of sepulture4 ,his 8,gebel ,shendeh0 should be correctly ,gebel ,shendib1 and his 8,shendoeh0 is correctly ,shendodai2 the 8,riadh0 mentioned by him ,i have not been able to identify4 ,his estimated heights are considerably in error2 thus ,gebel ,shendib is really #f1bgc feet and ,gebel ,shellal #d1fbc feet instead of the #d1ejj feet and #d1ajj feet which he gives4 ,the paper contains interesting remarks on the ,hamedorab tribe1 which ,bent was informed totalled only some #cjj fighting men in the entire district from ,asotriba to ,ras ,benas4 ,the reference to the sheikh as 8the batran0 is due to a misconception2 ,batran was the late sheikh's first name1 and is not a title of station4 ,the map accompanying ,bent's paper is only to a very small scale1 and formed practically no addition to existing knowledge4 ,,macalister#cj has given a detailed and interesting account of the ,sikait district 7,ed71 with special reference to its geology1 as the result of an expedition there in #ahii4 ,the small scale sketch map of the route followed in reaching the mines from the valley is not very correct1 but the detail maps of the ,sikait neighbourhood give an accurate representation of the area in which the mines are situated1 while the geological notes give an excellent idea of one of the most highly metamorphic areas of the entire ,eastern ,desert4 ,macalister gives some notes also on the ruins and the people of the neighbourhood4 ,his experience of the ,ababda as workers was very unfavourable2 though his characterisation is unfortunately only too well merited by a large section of the tribe1 it is probable that a longer acquaintance with ,arabs would have enabled him to select men of a better class4 ,a sufficiency of good men for a caravan of #acj camels cannot be raised without great expenditure of time and care1 even by those who have lived for many years among the ,arabs1 and a few bad characters in a desert camp soon exert a bad influence over the rest4 ,the brilliant series of investigations carried out by the officers accompanying the ,austrian research ship 8,,pola0 in the ,red ,sea in the winter of #ahie-if1 though chiefly concerned with oceanographic questions1 contain not a few observations of interest connected with the land4#ca ,the positions determined include ,sherm ,sheikh1 ,berenice1 ,st4 ,john's or ,zeberged ,island1 and ,halaib4 ,the latitudes observed agree well with the values which ,i found by triangulation4#cb ,for longitude the method used was the transport of chronometers1 and this method is liable to such considerable errors that we need have no hesitation in preferring my triangulation values1 especially as our latitudes are in agreement4 ,the observations made by the officers of the 8,pola0 on the compass-variation at ,berenice and ,halaib are of considerable importance as enabling us1 by comparison with my own observations at the same places1 eleven and twelve years later1 to obtain a reliable value for the rate of secular change of this magnetic element in the district4 ,a large scale map of ,halaib is given1 and amongst other observations of interest to the geographer in ,south-,eastern ,egypt are analyses of the water at ,halaib1 a series of pendulum observations which show a decided increase in the force of gravity over the sea as compared with the intensity over the land1 and descriptions with figures of some of the reptiles which are found in the region4 ,turning now to the work of the ,,geological ,,survey in the district1 the maps and descriptions in the present volume are the result of surveys carried out by me in the three seasons #aije-aijh1 or about twenty-two months' work in all4 ,the survey was commenced primarily with the view of enabling mining concessions to be accurately marked out4 ,how little possibility of this existed so recently as #aijb may be gathered from the fact that although a ministerial order of that year had defined the administrative frontier between ,egypt and the ,sudan as being a line joining certain important mountains and wells1 which were named1 yet it was impossible to lay this frontier down correctly on a map because the geographical positions even of these important features were uncertain to many kilometres4 ,the main interest in the field methods used1 which will be described in detail in a subsequent chapter1 lies in the fact that many of them are wholly or in part new1 having been devised as the work proceeded to meet the special exigencies of the case4 ,the costly nature of camel-transport1 and the relatively small value of the country1 precluded the employment of the ordinary sequence of survey operations1 and it was necessary to carry on reconnaissance1 precise triangulation1 detailed topographical mapping1 and geological surveying1 all at once1 and to move rapidly so as to cover a large area in a moderate time4 ,starting from a measured base near ,gebel ,muelih1 which had been previously connected by triangulation with the ,nile ,valley1 a network of large triangles was thrown over the country4 ,the essential feature of the triangulation was the employment of observations at relatively few occupied main summits1 to fix large numbers of points by intersection2 in some cases over a hundred triangulation points were sighted from a single occupied station4 ,the triangulation was continued so as to join to a second base line near ,gebel ,um ,harba 7,ck71 and was also connected on to main points in the trigonometrical survey of the ,sudan1 thus linking up a continuous chain of triangles from ,alexandria to ,berber4 ,the total number of main 7occupied7 stations was sixty-four1 while the intersected points numbered #dej4 ,in addition to these1 about #a1bjj minor points were fixed by subsidiary triangulation from short local bases4 ,levels were taken trigonometrically for all points fixed by triangulation1 using the actual sea-level as the datum4 ,the altitudes of nearly all camps were likewise found trigonometrically1 and between successive camps aneroid readings1 adjusted to the initial and terminal points of the day's march1 were employed to supplement trigonometrical determinations made on the journey4 ,for the control of the maps1 latitudes and azimuths were taken at intervals1 the former by equal altitudes of three or more stars1 the latter by elongations of close circumpolar stars4 ,the topographical sketching1 carried out on plane-tables on a scale of #a3ajj1jjj1 was based on the points triangulated1 these being computed in camp and plotted by their geographical coordinates as much ahead of the lines of march as possible4 ,when marching1 plane-table stations were fixed by re-section from three or more triangulated points1 the compass being useless owing to abundance of magnetic rocks4 ,details along the line of march were put in by tacheometric readings from the stations1 using specially devised long distance methods4 ,but the greater portion of the sketching was done from the mountain tops while occupying them as trigonometrical stations1 and for this again special methods1 involving an extensive use of vertical angles1 were employed4 ,on an average1 about thirty square kilometres were sketched in during each day's march1 and about #djj square kilometres from each main trigonometrical station1 where it was usually necessary to remain for at least a week to get sufficiently clear weather for the more distant sights4 ,it was not1 of course1 possible to sketch every portion of the area in uniform detail1 for some parts lay so far from the line of march and from the triangulation stations that little or no detail was visible4 ,the lacun were filled in as far as possible in the field from guides' statements1 taking care on the field maps to distinguish parts so filled as only approximate4 ,a few additions near the west limit of the map have been added from reconnaissance surveys by various colleagues of the ,survey ,department4 ,for details of the upper part of the basin of the ,wadi ,alaqi1 ,i have taken advantage of an admirable reconnaissance-survey of this tract recently made by ,mr4 ,j4 ,,morrow ,,campbell1 ,b4,,sc41 ,f4,r4,g4,s41 for the ,egyptian ,options1 ,ltd41 who kindly placed their map at the disposal of the ,government4 ,my triangulation gave the positions and altitudes of all the principal peaks of this region1 and thus enabled ,mr4 ,campbell's map to be accurately adjusted to the ,survey positions1 and his drainage lines and other topographical details have been inserted with great advantage to the map1 which would otherwise have been almost blank in this particular area4 ,mr4 ,campbell's map does not1 unfortunately1 give any altitudes1 and the only altitude data for the orographical sketching were the peaks and other points of connexion with the ,survey map2 but by taking into account the depth of shading of the different hill masses and the known altitudes determined by triangulation1 it is believed that a fairly approximate picture of the orography has been obtained4 ,the sea coast north of latitude #bd #aj was adapted from the ,admiralty ,chart1 fitting it on to coast points trigonometrically fixed4 ,south of #bd #aj the coast was surveyed in detail by means of depression angles from the occupied peaks of the triangulation4 ,the local circumstances1 in the existence of high mountains pretty close to the sea1 are so favourable to the employment of this method1 that it is confidently believed that the maps represent a considerable advance in accuracy over the ,admiralty ,charts4 ,it was frequently possible to check the accuracy of the coast-line delineation by plane-table rays1 and it was invariably found that the errors were insensible1 even on the fairly large scale employed in the field-maps4 ,the coast-line shown is the high water-line4 ,the tidal change of level1 though it is generally less than a metre1 uncovers in many places extensive coral reefs at low water1 but no attempt was made to map these4 ,very special care was taken with place-names1 which are transliterated on the ,egyptian ,government system4 ,it may be remarked that this system is based on the ,arabic spelling1 not on pronunciation4 ,thus1 in this part of the country1 the letter g is almost always soft1 like an ,english j1 and the q is always sounded like a hard g4 ,the same system was used for the ,bishari and ,ababda names1 these being first written by a guide in ,arabic characters and then transliterated4 ,it is believed that the orthography is correct in almost all cases4 ,the geology was examined along every line of march1 and additional specimens were obtained by sending guides to collect rocks from mountains otherwise unvisited4 ,where possible1 the principal geological boundaries were drawn direct on the plane-table sheets in the field1 and the remainder have been placed from field notes4 ,the limits of the different igneous and metamorphic rocks shown on the geological map aim only at showing general relationships1 for in many cases it is difficult1 owing to insensible gradations1 to decide exactly where granites and diorites end and gneisses and schists begin1 while in other places rocks of two or three distinct species are so intimately mixed that the boundaries could not be shown on the small scale used1 even if the exact limits were traced by a life-time's work2 in these latter cases the areas are coloured in accordance with what appeared to be the dominant rock within them4 ,throughout the three seasons' work ,i was accompanied by ,dahab ,effendi ,hassan1 who rendered useful assistance in booking angles and in reconnaissance1 and in the third season ,mr4 ,o4 ,n4 ,bakewell also accompanied me and gave me much useful help4 ,the ,egyptian unskilled staff employed consisted almost entirely of ,bedouin and comprised on an average about twenty-five camel drivers 7for thiry-five baggage camels71 six porters1 three guides1 and two postmen1 all placed under an ,arab sheikh4 ,the total cost of the field-work was approximately ,l4,e4 #e1jij1 or about #aej milliemes for each square kilometre of country mapped in detail4 ,nearly two-thirds of the entire amount were expended in camel-transport1 the remainder representing the expenditure on salaries and allowances of the author and assistants engaged in actual surveying operations4 99 99 99 99 99 ,footnote #a3 ,the references in parentheses after place-names refer to their positions on the map1 ,plate ,i4 ,footnote #b3 ,bruce's ,travels to discover the ,sources of the ,nile4 ,halifax1 #ahde4 pp4 #gh-hj4 ,footnote #c3 ,,cailliaud1 ,travels in the ,oasis of ,thebes and in the ,deserts east and west of the ,thebaid1 edited by ,,jomard4 ,translated from the ,french4 ,london1 #ahbb4 ,this work contains two small maps and many engravings4 7,the map of the ,eastern ,desert is unfortunately wanting in the ,khedivial ,library copy1 which is the only one ,i have seen47 ,footnote #d3 ,,belzoni1 ,narrative of the ,operations and ,discoveries in ,egypt and ,nubia1 and of a ,journey to the ,coast of the ,red ,sea1 in search of the ancient ,berenice4 ,london1 #ahbj4 ,footnote #e3 ,plates illustrative of the ,researches and ,operations of ,g4 ,belzoni in ,egypt and ,nubia4 ,london1 #ahbb4 7,this is a large folio atlas of #dd plates47 ,footnote #f3 ,,linant ,,de ,,bellefonds1 ,l',etbaye1 ,paris 7,n4 ,d41 but the title of the map accompanying the work gives the date as #ahed74 ,footnote #g3 ,,wilkinson1 ,topography of ,thebes and ,general ,view of ,egypt4 ,london1 #ahce4 pp4 #dae-dbb4 ,modern ,egypt and ,thebes4 ,london1 #ahdc4 ,vol4 #b1 pp4 #chi-cid4 ,footnote #h3 ,,wellsted1 ,notice of the ,ruins of ,berenice4 ,journal of the ,royal ,geographical ,society4 ,london1 #ahcf4 pp4 #if-ajj4 ,footnote #i3 ,red ,sea and ,gulf of ,aden ,pilot4 #eth edition4 ,london1 #aijj 7with several later supplements74 ,admiralty ,charts of the ,red ,sea4 ,sheets #b and #c4 ,footnote #aj3 ,at ,halaib ,fort the difference is as much as #a #ec1 or nearly #b miles2 see p4 #ff4 ,footnote #aa3 ,this should not be confounded with the higher ,gebel ,faraid to the northward4 ,footnote #ab3 ,qash ,amir is quite a separate mountain from ,gebel ,elba1 not part of the same range as the chart indicates4 ,footnote #ac3 ,,barth1 ,reise von ,assuan ber ,berenike nach ,kosser--,zeits4 fr allgem4 ,erdkunde4 ,berlin4 ,vol4 ,,vii 7#ahei71 pp4 #a-ca4 7,there is no map to this work1 but the route followed is easily traceable on a modern map owing to the place-names being given in the journal47 ,footnote #ad3 ,v4 ,,heuglin1 ,reise in ,nordost ,africa und lngs des ,rothen ,meeres im ,jahre #aheg4 ,petermann's geogr4 ,mittheilungen1 #ahfj4 pp4 #ccb-cce4 7,this paper is accompanied by a map1 which is1 however1 lacking in the copy of the ,khedivial ,library74 ,footnote #ae3 ,this ,i think is an error4 ,a small isolated granite hill west of ,berenice is called ,sikeit1 and has been visited by ,barth and myself2 but it is devoid of ruins4 ,my ,arabs called ,berenice ,medinet el ,haras4 ,footnote #af3 ,there was no 8,geziret ,elba0 known to the sailors of ,halaib at the time of my survey4 ,the 8,elba ,island0 of the ,admiralty ,chart is called ,geziret el ,dibia2 it is a very small island1 which looks like a boat from a distance4 ,footnote #ag3 ,though the ,bisharin are now very orderly and friendly1 the ancient dread of their country still persists to such a degree that it is almost impossible to persuade ,ababda ,arabs to go near the ,elba district4 ,footnote #ah3 ,,schweinfurth1 ,reise an der ,kuste des ,rothen ,meeres von ,kosser bis ,suakin1 ,zeits4 fr allgem4 ,erdkunde4 ,berlin1 ,band ,,xviii 7#ahfe71 pp4 #aca-aej1 #bhc-cac1 #cbj-chd4 ,a special account of the ,elba district is given with a map1 in another paper1 ,das ,land am ,elba- und ,soturba-,gebirge in ,petermann's geog4 ,mittheilungen1 #ahfe4 pp4 #ccj-cdj4 ,schweinfurth also published several other papers dealing with the rich botanical results of his expedition4 ,footnote #ai3 ,i found many of the natives could not recognise the name ,halaib1 which has become the official name of their village4 ,they call it 8,oleiyib10 sounding the final consonant only slightly2 so that ,schweinfurth's 8,elei0 is not very different from the local name4 ,footnote #bj3 ,,colston1 ,journal d'un voyage du ,caire ,keneh1 ,brnice et ,berber4 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,khdiv4 de ,gographie4 #ahhf4 pp4 #dhi-efh4 ,footnote #ba3 ,,purdy1 ,reconnaissance entre ,brnice et ,berber4 ,ibid4 pp4 #dca-dce1 with a map4 ,footnote #bb3 ,,cora1 ,la route de ,kneh ,brnice leve en #ahgc1 par le ,colonel ,r4 ,e4 ,colston4 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,khd4 de ,gog4 ,cairo1 ,sept4 #ahia4 pp4 #ecc-ech1 with map4 ,footnote #bc3 ,,gol,,nischeff1 ,une ,excursion ,brnice4 ,recueil de ,travaux4 ,vol4 ,,xiii 7#ahia71 pp4 #ge-if4 ,footnote #bd3 ,golnischeff names this place ,abu ,grea1 a name which he remarks is the same as that of a station near ,berenice4 ,garia ,abu ,medrik is the name given to it by the ,arab guides accompanying the ,survey expeditions4 ,footnote #be3 ,,floyer1 ,etude sur le ,nord ,etbai4 ,cairo1 #ahic4 ,footnote #bf3 ,further ,routes in the ,eastern ,desert of ,egypt4 ,geog4 ,journal4 ,london1 #ahic4 pp4 #djh-dca4 ,footnote #bg3 ,notes on the ,geology of the ,northern ,etbai4 ,quart4 ,journal ,geol4 ,soc4 ,london1 #ahib4 pp4 #egf-ehb4 ,footnote #bh3 ,professor ,,hull1 in the discussion on ,floyer's paper1 suggested1 even in the absence of specimens1 that ,floyer's 8blue clay0 was really a decomposed ,archan schist4 ,my observations have proved the sagacity of this suggestion4 ,footnote #bi3 ,,bent1 ,a visit to the ,northern ,sudan4 ,geogr4 ,journal4 ,london4 ,vol4 ,,viii 7#ahif71 pp4 #cce-cec4 ,footnote #cj3 ,,macalister1 ,the ,emerald ,mines of ,northern ,etbai4 ,geog4 ,journal4 ,london4 ,vol4 ,,xvi 7#aijj71 pp4 #ecg-edi4 ,footnote #ca3 ,berichte der ,commission fr ,oceanographische ,forschungen4 ,sechste ,reihe1 ,wien #ahih1 and ,siebente ,reihe1 ,wien1 #aija4 ,footnote #cb3 ,see p4 #fe4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,general ,,description ,,of ,,south-,,eastern ,,egypt4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in this chapter will be given a brief general account of the district1 under the heads of3-- #a4 ,extent4 #b4 ,relief4 #c4 ,hydrography4 #d4 ,coast-line4 #e4 ,climate4 #f4 ,scenery4 #g4 ,animal and ,plant ,life4 #h4 ,water ,supplies4 #i4 ,geology4 #aj4 ,mineral ,products4 #aa4 ,antiquities4 #ab4 ,inhabitants4 #ac4 ,languages4 #ad4 ,industries4 #ae4 ,communications4 #af4 ,government4 ,the subjects of topography1 water supplies1 and geology1 will be further considered more fully in succeeding chapters4 ,extent4 ,as already mentioned in the introduction1 the district treated of in this volume lies between the parallels of #be and #bb of north latitude1 and between the meridian of #cd ,e4 and the ,red ,sea4 ,it comprises an area of about #ef1jjj square kilometres 7#bb1jjj square miles74 ,relief4#cc ,the higher mountains of the ,eastern ,desert generally form the watershed between the ,nile and the ,red ,sea4 ,this watershed is much nearer to the coast than to the ,nile1 with the result that the eastward drainage is much steeper than to the west4 ,commencing from the north 7see the orographical map1 ,plate ,i71 the principal mountain masses are3-- 7i7 ,the ,migif -- ,hafafit -- ,nugrus -- ,hangalia -- ,zabara group 7#a1eje metres#cd71 cut off to the south by the ,wadi ,gemal 7,fd74 7ii7 ,the ,abu ,hamamid -- ,hamata -- ,abu ,gurdi group 7#a1igh metres71 limited on the south by the ,wadi ,lahami 7,hg74 7iii7 ,the ,um ,gunud -- ,dahanib -- ,batoga group 7#a1bgj metres71 lying between ,wadi ,lahami on the north and ,wadi ,khoda 7,hj7 on the south4 7iv7 ,the ,abu ,dahr -- ,orga -- ,um ,tenedba group 7#a1aca metres71 separating the drainage of ,wadi ,betan 7,fl7 from ,wadis ,khoda and ,rahaba 7,hl74 7v7 ,the ,faraid group1 the ,mons ,pentadactylus of ,ptolemy1 comprising some very remarkable granite peaks 7#a1cff metres71 lying near the coast between ,wadi ,khoda and ,wadi ,rahaba4 7vi7 ,the ,awamtib -- ,abraq -- ,dif -- ,aqab el ,negum -- ,mishbih group 7#a1cec metres71 forming the tripartite watershed between the great ,wadi systems of ,kharit and ,alaqi on the west1 and that of ,wadi ,hodein on the east4 7vii7 ,the ,gerf -- ,abu ,hodeid group1 a mighty mass rising to #a1gcf metres1 lying between ,wadi ,hodein 7,jn7 and ,wadi ,hasium 7,hs74 7viii7 ,the ,meisah -- ,adar ,qaqa -- ,is group1 between the ,wadis ,hasium and ,di-ib 7,mr74 7ix7 ,the ,elba -- ,shendib group 7#a1iab metres#ce71 a great mass of spiky mountains lying near the sea between ,wadi ,di-ib and the coast4 ,besides these main groups1 there are numerous more or less isolated mountains1 of which ,gebels ,abu ,khrug 7,bd1 #hgj metres71 ,hamrat ,mukbud 7,cf1 #hij metres71 ,zergat ,naam 7,ej1 #hde metres71 and the two ,niqrubs 7,fn and ,fo1 #hbi metres and #a1jgh metres7 are examples4 ,some of the mountains1 especially the granite 8bodkin0 of ,gebel ,faraid 7,hl71 and some of the peaks of the ,elba group1 appear to be unclimbable4 ,a few others are rather dangerous of ascent1 as1 for example1 ,gebel ,abu ,hamamid 7,ef7 on account of its steepness1 and ,gebel ,abu ,dahr 7,gk7 by reason of combined steepness and rotten rock1 which comes away in tons at a touch4 ,the highest peak of all within the district1 ,gebel ,hamata 7,gf71 is a comparatively easy climb from the north4 ,hydrography4 ,the course of the main watershed which parts the ,red ,sea and ,nile drainages is highly irregular both in altitude and direction1 as will be evident from the orographical map 7,plate ,i71 on which it is shown by a red line4 ,from ,gebel ,hamrat ,wogud1 in the north1 it passes east of ,gebel ,atut1 thence through the high masses of ,gebels ,hangalia1 ,nugrus1 ,hafafit1 and ,migif1 beyond which it drops southward through the low country round ,gebel ,abu ,had4 ,entering the mountains again at ,gebel ,nukheira1 it takes an eastward bend1 passing along the great ridges of ,gebels ,abu ,hamamid1 ,um ,usher1 ,um ,hasidok1 and ,ras el ,kharit4 ,striking southward across the head of ,wadi ,kharit1 it courses through the mountains of ,mikbi and ,abu ,gurdi1 thence dropping to the south on the plain near the hills called ,marwot ,elemikan4 ,turning here sharply westward over the plain1 it passes through the hill-mass of ,gebel ,abu ,derega and on to ,gebel ,zergat ,naam1 south-west of which it crosses the low tract at the head of ,wadi el ,arned to the sandstone plateaux of ,dagalai1 whence it courses a little to the west of ,gebel ,um ,reit and enters the mountainous tract of ,gebel ,aqab el ,negum4 ,its further course has not been traced in detail1 but from guides' statements and the indications of the main drainage-lines it is believed to run as shown on the map1 in a great curve through the two sharp peaks of ,gebel ,sheyenit to the west of ,gebel ,mishbih1 and then in another flatter curve south-eastwards to ,gebel ,soaorib1 at the head of ,wadi ,hasium4 ,continuing along the mountain ridges of ,gebel ,soaorib1 it crosses to ,gebel ,is1#cf separating the ,wadi ,is from the heads of ,wadi ,alaqi on the ,sudan frontier4 ,the watershed is for a great part of its course quite impassable for camels4 ,the principal places where it can be crossed are at the head of ,wadi ,nugrus1 near ,abu ,had1 the ,wadi ,marasan between ,huluz and ,wadi el ,sheikh1 the heads of ,wadi ,lahami1 ,wadi el ,fil1 ,wadi ,arned1 and ,wadi ,um ,reit1 passes at ,aqab el ,negum and ,hamrat el ,feg1 near ,gebel ,mishbih1 the head of ,wadi ,hasium1 and the pass of ,adar ,ameit1 north of ,gebel ,is4 ,all these places are practicable for baggage camels1 though in some of them1 as1 for instance1 at the head of ,wadi ,nugrus1 care is required because the track is steep and stony4 ,the principal drainage-basins are shown on the small scale map on ,plate ,,ii4 ,the westward drainage ultimately reaches the ,nile by the three main trunk wadis of ,shait1 ,kharit1 and ,alaqi2 ,shait and ,kharit enter the ,nile ,valley at ,kom ,ombo1 while ,alaqi debouches near ,dakka4 ,the eastward drainage is much more complex1 the principal trunk wadis1 such as ,um ,khariga1 ,gemal1 ,khoda1 ,rahaba1 ,hodein1 ,ibib1 ,di-ib1 and ,serimtai1 being separated by very numerous minor wadis draining independently to the sea4#cg ,nearly all the wadis contain vegetation in the form of trees and bushes1 and plant life flourishes as a rule far more luxuriously in wadis draining seawards than in those leading to the ,nile4 ,feqoh1 ,naam1 and the lower reaches of ,hodein are1 however1 exceptionally barren4 ,forming1 as they do1 the only possible roads1 furnishing the entire supply of camel food1 and containing most of the wells1 the wadis are to the desert what the ,nile is to ,egypt proper4 ,the intervening mountains are of no interest to the ,arabs1 except when they contain water-reservoirs4 ,hence the place-naming starts from the wadis1 even the smallest of which have names unless they are barren4 ,mountains are generally named after the nearest wadi1 and may thus have two names when situated between two wadis1 the particular name used depending on which side the mountain is seen from4 ,coast-line4 ,the coast-line of this part of ,egypt is somewhat irregular1 the peninsula of ,ras ,benas forming a prominent projection in latitude #bd4 ,in the south part of the area the eastward extension of the country1 culminating in ,ras ,hadarba 7,cape ,elba of existing maps71 is very marked1 extending nearly to #cg of east longitude4 ,the coast is almost entirely fringed by coral reefs1 passage through which is only possible at certain points1 and then only with the utmost care in navigation4#ch ,between the feet of the mountains and the sea there extends a gently sloping plain1 varying in width from about eight to twenty-five kilometres1 covered with sand1 over which the drainage meanders in shallow courses1 often only traceable by the vegetation which occurs along them4 ,a rather surprising result brought out by the levelling observations is that the slope of the coast plain1 even where it looks flattest and sandiest1 is as steep as the floors of some of the wadis draining on to it1 and several times more steep than the beds of the wadis which drain westwards to the ,nile1 its fall seawards averaging six metres per kilometre and reaching over ten metres per kilometre in some sections4 ,climate4 ,the climate of the district is predominantly hot and dry to the west of the watershed1 hot and moist eastward of it2 but very cold weather is apt to prevail for a few weeks in ,january and ,february1 with strong north winds1 on both sides of the watershed1 and the transition from piercing cold to great heat at these times is often brought about very suddenly by a change of wind direction4 ,there is seldom any frost1 but water-bags are occasionally frozen on the mountain tops at night4 ,cool north-west winds prevail in the north part of the area1 while hot damp winds from the south-east are usual in the south4 ,in the central part1 round ,berenice1 absolute calms are frequent4#ci ,the highest mountain-masses are frequently swathed in clouds for weeks together1 especially from ,january to ,march4 ,the hot1 dry1 sand-laden winds called ,khamsin occasionally blow for four or five days together in ,march and ,april2 at these times the shade temperature rises to over #de ,c41 and the air is thick with sand and dust4 ,rain falls in most years1 but its quantity is very variable2 in some years there is barely enough to keep the wells supplied1 and much of the vegetation withers2 in others1 heavy storms produce wild downrushes in the wadis1 filling them for short periods with raging torrents4 ,curious electrical and optical phenomena can sometimes be seen on the mountain-tops during storms and in mists4#dj ,the ,elba region is seldom free from clouds1 and receives far more rain than any other portion of the area1 forming in fact the northern limit of the rainy tropical zone2 it is in consequence relatively well wooded1 while the other mountains are a dreary waste of naked rocks4 ,,plate ,,ii4 ,illustration3 ,,sketch-,,map ,,of ,,south-,,eastern ,,egypt4 ,showing ,drainage-,basins4 ,ball4 ,geography ,geology of ,south-,eastern ,egypt4 ,photo-,metal-,process4 ,survey ,dept4 ,cairo #aiaj4 7#fj-aij7 ,scale #a3b1jjj1jjj4 ,scenery4 ,the predominant types of scenery are extensive sandy plains and gaunt rugged mountains4 ,in the low-lands1 pleasant relief from the stony monotony is afforded by the trees and scrub which occur along most of the wadis1 though their struggle for existence is often evidenced by miles of withered and blackened scrub in places which a few years ago were green and flourishing4 ,the bareness of the mountains becomes slightly relieved in the ,elba district1 where beautiful trees and flowering plants thrive high up the mountain-side along all the drainage lines4 ,as to the forms of the mountains1 one sees extensive broken sandstone plateaux at ,gebel ,abraq 7,el71 remarkable rounded granite bosses at ,gebels ,muelih 7,ab71 ,nugrus 7,dc71 ,selaia 7,fh71 and ,um ,rasein 7,jr71 jagged and spiky granite peaks in the mountains of ,faraid 7,jk71 ,qash ,amir 7,os71 and ,elba 7,ps71 and broken masses of gneiss1 dark schists and serpentines at ,gebels ,hafafit 7,dc71 ,hangalia 7,dc71 ,abu ,hamamid 7,ef71 ,hamata 7,gf71 and ,gerf 7,hp74 ,perhaps the most remarkable of all the peaks are those of ,faraid 7,jk71 which from the north look like the expanded fingers of a huge hand1 whence they received their name of ,mons ,pentadactylus in antiquity1 while one specially sharp peak is styled very appropriately 8the ,bodkin0 on ,admiralty ,charts4 ,the mass of ,elba forms a very fine view from the north1 but the prevalence of clouds about its summits frequently hides it from view for months together4 ,the views from the mountain-tops are extensive and beautiful1 especially at sunrise and sunset1 when the peaks take on wonderful colours1 and the views from the summits when the entire lower landscape is bathed in clouds1 through which only the higher peaks project like islands from a great sea1 are not less remarkable4 ,though a good look out was kept from the highest mountains across the sea1 the mountains of the opposite shore of ,arabia were never with certainty made out2 the cone of ,zeberged ,island was1 however1 often seen4 ,it is stated by d',anville1 on the authority of ,castro1#da that both the ,arabian and ,african mountains can be seen from the summit of ,zeberged4 ,animal and ,plant ,life4 ,both animal and plant life is mainly confined to the drainage lines4 ,of wild animals suitable for human food1 gazelles can be shot fairly frequently in the south part of the area1 but are very scarce in the north4 ,sand grouse and partridges can occasionally be obtained round ,abu ,saafa1 while doves are very abundant in the groves near ,bir ,akwamtra1 at the foot of ,gebel ,elba4 ,ibex were never seen with certainty1 though their horns and lairs were often found on the mountains4 ,conies inhabit the rocks near ,bir ,abraq and ,bir ,madi4 ,the wild ass has disappeared from the area1 as also has the ostrich1 though fragments of ostrich eggs picked up here and there1 and drawings of this bird on the rocks1 attest its presence here in recent times4 ,vultures1 kites1 and ravens are everywhere in evidence1 and several kinds of smaller birds1 such as swallows and wagtails1 are often seen about the greener wadis4 ,lizards of many kinds are to be seen4 ,scorpions and snakes are seldom met with4 ,of butterflies and moths1 especially the latter1 many varieties occur4 ,the common fly occurs in such numbers as to be a great pest1 but mosquitoes and sand-flies are practically absent4 ,camel ticks infest the ground under all trees used as shade by travelling ,arabs4 ,earwigs are in some places very abundant1 and a great variety of beetles and bugs occur4 ,near the sea1 whole armies of crabs are to be seen marching on the shore1 and hermit crabs are very numerous in all sorts of gasteropod dwellings4 ,of plant life the district contains a great variety4 ,the north and central parts of the area contain the same trees and bushes as abound further north in ,egypt1#db and camel food is moderately abundant4 ,as ,elba is approached1 many beautiful flowering plants not found further north are met with1 while in the clefts of the slopes of ,elba itself is a far richer vegetation than occurs wild in any other part of ,egypt4 ,i found the approach to ,elba was stopped for baggage camels some four kilometres from the summit owing to the closeness of the trees1 and the ascent on foot up the clefts of the mountain-face for the remainder of the way was more like going through an ,english wood than up a desert mountain4 ,many varieties of sweet-smelling flowers and some fruit-bearing trees unfamiliar in ,egypt were seen1 while mosses and lichens covered the tumbled masses of granite in many places4 ,schweinfurth1 who examined the botany of this region in #ahfd1 found that of #cjj species of plants collected in the ,elba district1 the vast majority were of ,abyssinian types2 scarcely #ajj were living in other more northerly parts of the ,eastern ,desert of ,egypt1 while still fewer are indigenous to the ,nile ,valley1 and only fifteen species were of those found wild in ,europe4#dc ,water ,supplies4#dd ,the sources of water comprise galts 7rock basins forming rain water reservoirs in the mountains71 springs and wells4 ,of these1 galts yield the purest water1 and form the principal supply of the pastoral ,arabs1 except in years of no rainfall1 while springs and wells1 the latter usually rude excavations in the alluvia of wadis1 are most used by travellers from their easier accessibility4 ,small galts are called megal 7,ababda7 or megwel 7,bisharin72 they are frequently accompanied by small springs4 ,the small scale map on ,plate ,,iii1 which shows all sources known to exist within the area1 gives a good idea of the distribution of water supplies4 ,water is scarce in the western parts of the country1 ,bir ,abu ,hashim being the only source within a radius of about sixty kilometres of itself1 but galts and wells are fairly frequent among the mountainous tracts further east4 ,the springs of ,abraq and ,abu ,saafa are the most important sources in the central area4 ,the portion of the country under the ,sudan ,administration is far richer in water that the ,egyptian part1 containing numerous fine wells and springs1 such as ,birs ,meneiga1 ,abu ,hodeid1 ,akwamtra1 and ,frukit4 ,the coast plain is waterless1 except for salty wells near the sea4 ,water can usually be obtained at intervals of about two or three days when on the march1 and in some parts much more frequently4 ,the water of certain wells and springs has a purgative effect due to the absorption of magnesium salts1 especially after a long interval without rain4 ,that of others1 again1 such as ,muelih and ,shalatein1 is so salty as to be only drinkable by camels4 ,geology4#de ,the rocks composing this part of ,egypt are principally igneous and metamorphic deposits of very ancient origin4 ,granite is most prominent in the ,nugrus1 ,faraid1 and ,elba areas1 schists and diorites cover a large portion of the remaining country1 and huge masses of serpentines form the mountains of ,abu ,dahr1 ,korabkansi1 and ,gerf4 ,of sedimentary rocks1 plateaux of ,nubian sandstone 7,cretaceous7 cover large areas round ,bir ,abraq and westward of it1 while a narrow belt of the same rock also occurs along the sea coast in the north part of the district4 ,gypseous limestones 7,miocene87 form the hills of ,ras ,benas and occur along the coast north of ,wadi ,lahami1 as well as in small areas near the coast further south in the neighbourhood of ,halaib4 ,,plate ,,iii4 ,illustration3 ,,sketch-,,map ,,of ,,south-,,eastern ,,egypt4 ,showing the ,water-sources and the ,roads connecting them4 ,ball4 ,geography ,geology of ,south-,eastern ,egypt4 ,photo-,metal-,process4 ,survey ,dept4 ,cairo #aiaj4 7#fj-aij7 ,scale #a3b1jjj1jjj4 ,crushing of the older rocks is almost everywhere strongly evidenced1 but faulting is difficult to trace except in the sandstone areas1 where it is strongly marked4 ,the presence of clearly defined overthrust faulting in the ,abraq area shows that tangential earth movements1 so rare in this part of the world1#df have not been altogether absent4 ,mineral ,products4 ,the mineral resources of this part of ,egypt are not of very great importance1 owing partly to its inaccessible situation and desert character4 ,gold and copper ores occur in places2 other localities contain beryl and peridots1 while others1 again1 bear iron ores1 gypsum1 sulphur1 steatite1 asbestos1 and magnesite1 and good building stones abound over large areas4 ,the presence of ruins and excavations at places like ,hangalia1 ,sikait1 ,zabara1 ,romit1 and ,darahib1 are evidence of mining activity in the past1 but the mean nature of the accommodation for the workers1 and the presence of old stone hand mills where gold was the thing sought for1 confirm the statement of ,diodorus#dg that the mines were worked by miserable convicts4 ,in recent years much prospecting has been done to test whether the ancient mines could be developed and made commercially productive under modern conditions4 ,in the case of many areas1 including that round ,darahib1 the mines of which are believed to be those referred to with a map in the ,turin papyrus of the ,nineteenth ,dynasty1#dh the prospecting licences have been surrendered to the ,government because the results were unfavourable4 ,in a few other cases prospecting is still being carried out1 and in three localities the results have been sufficiently encouraging for exploitation to be undertaken4 ,the following tables1 compiled from information supplied by the ,mines ,department1 give particulars of the prospecting licences and mining leases at present 7#aiab7 held within the area described in this book3-- ,,prospecting ,,licences4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,licence,date of ,licence4,principal,holder of ,situation of ,area ,no4 ,mineral ,licence4 licensed4 sought4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #di ,nov4 #a1 #aiji ,gold4 ,mr4 ,mack4 ,kurdeman district4 #ej #a1 #aiji ,sabahia district4 #ge ,may #ad1 #aiaa ,north-east side of ,gebel ,zabara4 #ei ,feb4 #ag1 #aiaj ,sulphur4 ,mr4 ,gebel ,ranga1 near the ,venizelos4mouth of ,wadi ,abu ,ghusun4 #fj #ag1 #aiaj ,adjoining the foregoing4 #fa ,march #ai1 #aiaj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,mining ,,leases4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,lease,date of ,lease4 ,period ,mineral ,holder of ,area leased4 ,no4 for which exploited4 ,lease4 granted4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #ac ,dec4 #a1 #aiaj #cj years4 ,gold4 ,african #be acres ,reefs1 ,ltd4near ,gebel ,um el ,tiur el ,tahtani4 #ae ,jan4 #a1 #aiab #cj years4 ,gold4 ,mr4 ,wells4 #be acres near ,gebel ,sukari4 #ee ,june #a1 #aijf #cj years4 ,peridot4 ,peridot ,zeberged ,egyptian 7,st4 ,john's ,gems ,co41 ,island74 ,ltd4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,of the above three mining leases1 the last mentioned 7the ,peridot and ,egyptian ,gems ,co41 ,ltd47 is the only one under which any considerable exploitation has been carried on1 large numbers of beautiful peridots having been obtained from the mines4 ,the two gold mining undertakings have been commenced too recently for much to have been as yet accomplished4 ,antiquities4 ,the archological remains of pre-,arab times in this part of ,egypt comprise the small ruined temples of ,berenice and ,sikait1 the ruins of stations along the old mining roads1 the ancient mines with the rude habitations of the miners1 and sundry markings on rocks near the roads4 ,the ,temple of ,berenice is a low inconspicuous structure measuring only some ten metres square1 containing five small rooms and a tiny corridor and staircase4#di ,owing to its exposed situation on the coast and the soft limestone 7from ,ras ,benas7 of which it is built1 it is in a very dilapidated condition1 and it is difficult to make out many of the inscriptions on its walls4 ,the axial direction of the temple 7#fc #bj east of true north7 appears to show that it was oriented to face the rising sun at the summer solstice4 ,of the village 7one can hardly call it a city7 of ,berenice1 only insignificant remains exist near the temple4 ,the houses were mere hovels built of rough lumps of coral4 ,there are three temples in ,wadi ,sikait2 they are small rock-hewn structures in even worse preservation than that of ,berenice4#ej ,many attempts have been made to trace the ancient mining roads mentioned by classical writers4 ,the stations on the road from ,koptos 7,quft7 to ,berenice1 enumerated by ,pliny and ,antoninus1 have not been with certainty identified4 ,the absence of any reliable map of the main features of the country has hitherto prevented travellers from locating the positions of stations found1 while in careful surveying it has generally been necessary to travel by other roads than the ancient ones1 so that it cannot be hoped that all the ruined stations1 many of which are invisible till one is close to them1 have been included in the maps4 ,now that all the principal features of the country have been accurately laid down1 it will be much easier for future travellers to locate precisely any ruins they may come across4 ,of the road leading from ,contra-,apollinopolis 7,edfu7 to the emerald mines of ,sikait and ,zabara1 much more is known1 this route having been traversed by ,golnischeff#ea and most of its stations located by the ,geological ,survey4 ,leading from ,edfu1 past ,bir ,abad1 the ruins of a large station and rock temple occur at a distance of about forty-five kilometres from the ,nile1 at a place now called ,kanais 7the churches71 where a well yielding good water was sunk three years ago by the ,mines ,department4 ,about forty-five kilometres further on is the station called ,gariat ,abu ,medrik1 where there are two ancient stucco-lined cylindrical reservoirs1 but no well4 ,at the next station1 called ,samut1 there is a good well in the centre of a large rubble ruin4 ,as all the stations just mentioned lie outside the limits of the maps which accompany this memoir1 ,i give their approximate geographical positions below3-- ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,station4 ,latitude ,n4,longitude ,e4 ,altitude above ,sea4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ metres4 ,edfu #bd #eh #cb #ed #ij ,kanais #be #j #cc #ai #bje ,gariat ,abu ,medrik #bd #ee #cc #da #bie ,samut #bd #di #cc #ed #cdj ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,the next station after ,samut appears to have been the ruins near ,gebel ,dweig4 ,further on1 after passing over the watershed1 is another station with two cisterns in a semicircular enclosure4 ,the road continues past ,gebel ,abu ,had to the ,wadi ,gemal1 where there are two more cisterns1 this time in a triangular enclosure1 and thence up to the ,wadi ,nugrus and ,wadi ,sikait to the mines4 ,the ,edfu-,sikait road may have joined the ,quft-,berenice road at the ,wadi ,gemal station4 ,a third ancient road is believed to have led northward from ,berenice to ,qoseir1 along the coast2 while a fourth1 from near ,dakka on the ,nile up the ,wadi ,alaqi to the gold mines of the south1 is now a regular route to the ,nile ,valley ,company's mine of ,um ,gariart4 ,the ancient emerald mines of ,zabara and ,sikait consist of numerous irregular shafts1 mostly of no very great depth1 excavated in schists of micaceous and talcose types4 ,the old gold mines1 such as those at ,sukari1 ,um ,eleiga1 ,seiga1 ,romit1 and the ,darahib district1 are on a considerable scale1 excavations having been carried on in quartz veins to fair depths4 ,the dwellings at the mines were for the most part only miserable hovels of rubble stone4 ,a view of those of ,um ,eleiga is given on ,plate ,,iv4 ,the ancient quartz-grinding mills1 mostly made of a hard diorite1 are frequently found among the ruins of the hovels4 ,there is no clear evidence that any of the mines yielded a very rich output2 the workings were of the nature of penal settlements 7,prof4 ,mahaffy#eb has aptly termed them a 8tropical ,siberia07 in times when life and labour were cheap1 and a very moderate yield may under those conditions have been satisfactory4#ec ,,plate ,,iv4 ,illustration3 ,ruins of ,um ,eleiga4 ,gebel ,abu ,dahr in the ,background4 ,illustration3 ,ruins in ,wadi ,shenshef4 ,besides those at the mining camps and stations1 there are some other extensive collections of ruins in the district1 two of the most considerable being at ,shenshef and ,bir ,meneiga4 ,the ruins at ,shenshef 7see ,plate ,,iv7 are in part those of well-built houses1 furnished with doors and windows1 formed of slabs of fissile quartzose schist1 quarried in the neighbouring hills4 ,there are wells at ,shenshef1 but apparently no mines2 the presence of watch towers on the hills1 and the peculiar situation of the place1 suggest that it may have been a slave dealer's stronghold where slaves were herded till they could be shipped from ,berenice4 ,the better houses may have been those of the overseers1 while the ruder hovels accommodated the slaves1 and sentinels at the watch towers prevented any attempt at escape4 ,the ruins at ,bir ,meneiga1 though extensive1 are very rude1 and probably only represent a camping ground near the springs4 ,a large rubble enclosure near ,abraq springs has been thought by ,purdy#ed to have been a hunting station of the ,ptolemies4 ,in many places there are marks and drawings on the rocks near roads4 ,these are frequently spirited representations of animals1 among which the ostrich is often seen4 ,at the ,galt el ,aguz1 near the watershed at the head of one of the branches of ,wadi ,garara1 the drawings are accompanied by rude ,greek inscriptions4 ,at ,abu ,saafa1 one of the springs issues from a niche cut in the sandstone1 having a carved cornice with the remains of a ,greek inscription on it4 ,another class of remains are found scattered over the area in the form of cylindrical rubble piles1 four metres in diameter and from one to two metres high4 ,the natives consider these to be tombs of pre-,arab date4 ,of ,arab tombs in the area1 the most considerable is that of ,sheikh ,shadli1 near ,gebel ,abu ,hamamid1 a view of which is shown on ,plate ,v4 ,it is a well-built tomb of several domes1 inhabited by a ,moorish guardian4 ,a yearly pilgrimage is made to this place by the ,ababda ,arabs1 who hold the memory of ,shadli in high veneration4 ,the next largest tomb is probably that of ,sheikh ,hamid1 near ,abraq springs4 ,near the nose of ,ras ,benas is a large sheikh's tomb1 where sailors perform their devotions1 and smaller tombs of the same type1 built of drift-wood1 are to be seen at other points near the coast4 ,cemeteries of small ,arab graves exist near every well and spring4 ,inhabitants4 ,the ,south-,eastern ,desert of ,egypt is inhabited by nomad ,arabs of the various ,ababda and ,bisharin tribes4#ee ,ababda 7,ashabab and ,meleikab7 occupy the country north of ,muqsim and ,bir ,shalatein1 while ,bisharin 7,hamedorab1 ,kurbeilab1 ,koatil1 and ,balgab7 inhabit the country to the south4#ef ,only guesses are available as to their numbers1 but it is not probable that they comprise so much as one inhabitant for each five square kilometres4 ,a casual journey through the country would lead one to think that it was inhabited to an even less degree1 but the ,arabs mostly camp in selected narrow wadis out of sight of the traveller4 ,they are a people of good physique1 hardy1 intelligent1 and fair workers if once their employer knows how to handle them4 ,they share1 however1 in the universal ,bedouin dislike to protracted regular work2 after a few months of regular routine1 even the semi-nomad routine of a survey-expedition1 they experience strong desires for their own independent roaming life1 and it is impossible to retain them for longer periods4 ,many of the ,ababda who are settled near the ,nile have lost their true desert character1 and on desert expeditions men of this class are far less satisfactory than nomads2 they do not know the country1 but fear the desert and are continually desirous of returning to the valley4 ,the better desert guides1 on the other hand1 love the wilderness1 and they have a perfectly marvellous geographic instinct4 ,the skeleton on which they arrange their knowledge is always the system of drainage4 ,if a map of their country is laid before them1 and a few points named to them1 they will delight in tracing out and naming all the wadis and peaks4 ,but they have very vague ideas of proportion1 and can only read a map when it is laid on the ground in its true orientation with respect to the meridian4 ,the ,ababda are generally regarded as the best type of ,egyptian desert ,arab1 while my experience of the ,bisharin of the ,elba district is that they are superior1 in industry1 intelligence1 truthfulness1 and orderliness1 to the ,ababda4#eg ,it is1 however1 necessary either to understand the ,bishari tongue1 or to have men who can interpret into ,arabic1 as the great mass of the ,bisharin understand only their own language1 which is quite different from ,arabic4#eh ,education is very backward1 but there is a kuttab 7elementary school7 at ,halaib1 where instruction in ,arabic reading and writing is given to boys4 ,all the ,arabs are of course ,moslems1 but they are not at all fanatical4 ,,plate ,v4 ,illustration3 ,tomb of ,sheikh ,shadli4 ,illustration3 ,bir ,shadli4 ,the manner of life of the ,arabs is very simple4 ,most of the men have only a single cotton wrap about their middle1 though some wear the ordinary galabia and cotton drawers4 ,their camps are rude tents of matting about two metres in diameter1 but the men commonly sleep in the open1 sheltering themselves from winds by their camel saddles1 covered only with their cotton wrap1 which they spread over their entire bodies1 including their heads4 ,they wear no head covering1 having heavy 8mops0 of curled black hair plentifully supplied with mutton fat4 ,their food consists almost entirely of milk and meat1 of which their flocks and herds give them a plentiful supply2 they eat but little bread1 but they are fond of a kind of gruel of flour and water1 and of dates1 which are imported from ,arabia via ,suakin4 ,only a few of them smoke tobacco1 and that generally in soapstone pipes which they carve out for themselves4 ,intoxicants are unknown amongst true desert ,arabs4 ,for arms1 they carry swords and knives1 seldom fire-arms4 ,of their tribal customs1 ,i saw but little2 ,linant de ,bellefonds gives an interesting account of them in his 8,l',etbaye40 ,on festive occasions1 camel-racing and dancing are favourite amusements4 ,slavery appears to be non-existent at present1 for in the course of my twenty months' wanderings ,i received no complaint under this head1 as ,i should almost certainly have done had any oppressive servitude existed4 ,languages4 ,my own study of the ,ababda and ,bishari tongues has been mainly confined to their geographical terms4 ,the ,ababda nowadays almost all speak ,arabic1 and most of their place-names are either ,arabic or closely akin to it4 ,a marked feature of their tongue is a fondness for diminutives4 ,thus we have ,sellim and ,seleim1 ,hafafit and ,hefeifit1 ,faraid1 and ,fereyid1 ,wadi and ,wadai1 in each of which the second of the pair is a diminutive formed by vowel-change1 generally accompanied by a change in the placing of the stress4 ,the commonest special geographical terms in ,ababda country are3 erf1 a ridge2 rod1 a tributary wadi2 talet1 a small tributary wadi2 kab1 a watershed or pass2 hamrat1 a 7red7 granite mountain2 zergat1 a black mountain2 galt1 a rock basin containing rain water2 and megal1 a small water hole4 ,thus we have such names as ,hamrat ,selma1 ,zergat ,naam1 and so on1 the name often giving a clue to the nature of the rock4 ,as soon as one passes into ,bisharin country the change in the nature of place-names is very striking4 ,the definite article is no longer el1 but o1 u1 ei1 e 7masc471 and to1 tu1 tei1 ti 7fem474 ,many place-names end in ai and oi4 ,the principal geographical terms are3 kwan1 a wadi2 da-aiyob1 a depression from which there is no drainage outlet2 aweib and riba1 a mountain2 kulet1 a hill2 megwel1 a water hole2 adar1 red2 hadal1 black2 sotai1 green2 eire1 white2 sarara1 deep2 salala1 rather deep 7applied to wells74 ,hence we get such combinations as3 ,hadal ,aweib ,meisah1 the black mountain near ,wadi ,meisah2 ,eir ,arib1 the white 7granite7 rock2 ,sarobi ,kwan1 the wadi where the ,sarob plant 7,capparis sodada7 grows2 ,bir ,sararat ,seyet1 the deep well in ,wadi ,seyet1 and so on4 ,a mountain called adar is generally of red granite1 while one called hadal is usually diorite or serpentine4 ,asotriba1 the green mountain south of ,gebel ,elba1 receives its name from the vegetation on it4 ,industries4 ,the principal industries carried on by the desert ,arabs are the rearing of camels1 sheep and goats1 especially the first-named4 ,the ,bisharin devote much attention to camel-breeding1 and supply many animals annually to the ,coast ,guard ,administration4 ,their camels are very superior animals1 and need to be hardy in order to negotiate the steep mountain passes of their country4 ,sheep and goats can be bought cheaply in the south1 and are driven in to ,aswn for sale at the higher rates there prevailing4 ,it is common to find a flock of hundreds of sheep being watered at wells such as ,bir ,abu ,hashim and ,qoleib on the route to ,kom ,ombo2 but many animals drop and die on the weary march from well to well4 ,charcoal burning has been practised1 especially in the ,ababda country1 but is not much carried on now2 this industry deserves strong opposition1 for it only impoverishes the country1 and the seyal trees are few enough for the support of camels in years of drought4 ,in recent years some employment has been found for the ,arabs by prospectors for mining companies1 both as miners and for camel-transport1 and they are occasionally1 as in the present expedition1 employed on ,government work4 ,for the information of future travellers1 it may be worth while to mention the prices paid for local labour on the survey expeditions4 ,the men and animals were all the best obtainable of their particular class1 and the prices include saddles and fodder for camels1 their own provision of water and food for the men1 and1 in the case of sheikhs1 postmen1 and guides1 their riding camels and fodder3-- ,mills1 per day4#ei ,responsible sheikhs in charge of all ,arabs #bjj ,skilled guides 7also employed as beacon builders7 #aej ,postmen journeying regularly to and from the ,nile ,valley #aej ,baggage camels1 each to carry #cjj pounds' load1 with one driver to every two camels1 the drivers to act as general labourers at a camp and to collect wood and water and to carry supplies up the mountains when required #abj ,riding camels #abj ,porters #gj to #hj ,a small amount of agriculture is practised in the ,wadi ,di-ib1 slightly south of the ,sudan frontier1 but there is none actually within the district here described4 ,my camels were fed for some time on durra 7,indian corn7 brought from ,wadi ,di-ib4 ,a little fishing is carried on near ,berenice and at ,mersa ,shab and ,halaib1 but only for the food of the fishermen1 who subsist almost entirely on it1 and thus recall the ,ichthyophages of ,ptolemy4 ,when ,i had abundance of excellent fish at ,shab and ,halaib1 ,i noticed that but few of my ,bisharin cared to partake of what was to me a very welcome change of diet4 ,halaib is the only permanent village1 and even it is merely a miserable collection of wooden huts and tents1 where trade is confined to dates1 fat1 corn1 sugar1 and such like necessaries2 supplies are brought by boat from ,suakin and sold to the local ,arabs4 ,communications4 ,there are numerous camel-roads connecting the various wells with each other and with the ,nile1 the principal of which are indicated on ,plate ,,iii 7p4 #bf74 ,the most usual starting points from the valley are ,edfu1 ,kom ,ombo1 ,aswn1 ,dakka1 and ,berber4 ,the roads lie mostly along wadis1 and are far from being very direct1 being necessarily so chosen as to pass water supplies and to avoid very steep places4 ,from ,aswn or ,kom ,ombo1 ,berenice can be reached in about seven or eight days by luggage camels1 and the roads are fairly good2 water is least scarce on the ,kom ,ombo road1 which takes advantage of the wells of ,qoleib and ,abu ,hashim4 ,between any two wells1 there are generally several possible roads4 ,the one taken by any particular traveller is naturally that which his guides happen to know best1 or that along which the most camel food is to be found at the time2 hardly any two ,europeans have journeyed by precisely the same road4 ,a 8road0 in desert parlance is only a track by which camels have passed at some time or other2 there is nothing of the nature of a made road1 even along the ancient routes mentioned in the ,antonine ,itinerary2 and the tracks are sometimes obliterated by sand4 ,since the opening up of ,port ,sudan1 the ,elba district is most easily reached from that place1 whence it is about #cdj kilometres distant1 by two roads of nearly equal length1 one skirting the coast and the other more inland2 the latter passes good wells at about two days' intervals4#fj ,to reach ,elba from the valley1 a camel journey of more than #ejj kilometres is necessary whether ,aswn1 ,dakka1 or ,berber be the starting point4 ,the ports of ,berenice1 ,shab1 and ,halaib are only touched occasionally and irregularly by coasting boats and ,coast ,guard steamers4 ,news is passed orally among the wandering ,arabs with remarkable rapidity1 but naturally it frequently gets somewhat modified in transit4 ,government4 ,the geographical frontier between ,egypt and the ,sudan is the #bbnd parallel of north latitude4 ,but for administrative purposes it has been found convenient to consider all ,bisharin ,arabs as under the ,sudan ,government1 and all ,ababda under that of ,egypt4 ,the administrative frontier therefore runs between the districts of the two main tribal divisions1 along a zigzag line from ,gebel ,muqsim1 via ,gebel ,um el ,tiur el ,foqani1 ,gebel ,niqrub el ,foqani1 and ,bir ,meneiga1 to ,bir ,shalatein on the coast4#fa ,a territory of some #af1jjj square kilometres in the extreme south-east corner of ,egypt is thus placed for purposes of government under the ,sudan mudiria of ,berber1 under which arrangement a moawin and small police force are maintained in the fort of ,halaib4 ,the remainder of the area is administered by the ,egyptian mudir of ,aswn4 ,in ,egypt1 the ,arabs are not taxed except in respect of any lands they may own in the ,nile ,valley4 ,in the ,sudan a tax is levied on each tribe in return for police protection and other advantages2 the tax is paid very willingly1 for the ,bisharin are less poor than the ,ababda1 and thoroughly appreciate the advantage of good government1 while they have unbounded faith in the justice of ,anglo-,egyptian officials in settling their disputes4 ,one of the incidents which most strongly impressed itself on my remembrance during my travels in the district was the meeting near ,gebel ,korabkansi of an ,english inspector from ,berber1 to whom a number of ,bisharin ,arabs engaged in disputes stated their rival claims quietly and reasonably1 both sides having the utmost confidence that the judgment given would be just and fair4 ,in ,egypt1 the ,arabs are less friendly in their feelings towards the government1 and prefer to settle their differences among themselves2 a circumstance no doubt due to the fact that ,egyptian governors have had their hands full with matters connected with the valley1 and have had no time to become acquainted with ,bedouin ideas and customs1 while the ,arabs1 independent for centuries and very poor1 are afraid of misunderstanding and taxation4 ,it would1 ,i think1 be unfair to tax the true desert ,arabs of ,egypt1 even to the moderate extent which is done for the ,arabs of the ,sudan1 for their country is much more barren than that of the ,bisharin1 and their sources of income are consequently fewer4 ,in a year of little or no rainfall1 there is not enough vegetation to feed their animals1 so that many are lost1 and the only way a tax could be raised at such times would be by cutting down trees for charcoal2 but1 as already mentioned1 any encouragement of the charcoal industry would soon impoverish the country still further1 the thorny acacia trees being the principal reserve camel food in rainless years4 ,that so many ,ababda are settled in and near the ,nile ,valley is possibly in part due to their having been driven from the desert by the growing scarcity of trees consequent on the prosecution of the charcoal industry in the past4 99 99 99 99 99 ,footnote #cc3 ,the mountains and hills will be found described in fuller detail in ,chapter ,,vi4 ,footnote #cd3 ,the altitudes refer to the highest points of the groups4 ,footnote #ce3 ,this is the altitude of ,shendib1 the highest of the group in ,egypt2 but the peaks of ,asotriba1 which is part of the same mass lying within the ,sudan1 rise considerably higher4 ,footnote #cf3 ,in the map on ,plate ,i1 ,i have shown the watershed crossing directly from ,gebel ,soaorib across the high intervening mountains to ,gebel ,is1 which is how it appeared to me from my station on ,hadal ,aweib ,meisah4 ,but ,mr4 ,morrow ,campbell's map 7referred to on p4 #ae7 shows the heads of ,wadi ,soaorib to extend further west than ,i could see them2 and if this is correct1 as it probably is since ,mr4 ,morrow ,campbell doubtless approached the watershed more closely than ,i did1 the watershed between ,gebel ,soaorib and ,gebel ,is lies further west than ,i have shown it on ,plate ,i4 ,in drawing the wadis on the geological and tribal maps on ,plates ,,xx and ,,xxvi1 ,i have shown the westward extension of the heads of ,wadi ,soaorib according to ,mr4 ,morrow ,campbell4 ,footnote #cg3 ,the wadis will be found described at length in ,chapters ,,iv and ,v4 ,footnote #ch3 ,see the ,red ,sea and ,gulf of ,aden ,pilot1 published by the ,admiralty4 ,footnote #ci3 ,see my short paper on the meteorology of the ,berenice district in ,survey ,notes1 ,sept4 #aijg1 p4 #cbe4 ,footnote #dj3 ,i have given short accounts of some of these phenomena in ,survey ,notes1 ,april #aijg1 p4 #bai1 and in the ,cairo ,scientific ,journal1 ,may #aijh1 p4 #bjf4 ,footnote #da3 ,d',,anville1 ,mmoires sur l',egypte4 p4 #bcd4 ,footnote #db3 ,see ,,barron and ,,hume1 ,topography and ,geology of the ,eastern ,desert1 ,central ,portion4 ,cairo1 #aijb4 pp4 #ih-ajd4 ,footnote #dc3 ,,schweinfurth1 in ,petermann's ,mittheilungen1 #ahfe4 ,footnote #dd3 ,for a fuller description of the water-sources of the region1 see ,chapter ,,vii4 ,footnote #de3 ,for a fuller account of the geology1 see ,chapters ,,viii to ,,xi1 and the geological map on ,plate ,,xx4 ,footnote #df3 ,,suess1 ,the ,face of the ,earth4 ,miss ,sollas' translation4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,oxford1 #aijd4 p4 #cgf4 ,footnote #dg3 ,lib4 ,,iii1 #ab-ad4 ,footnote #dh3 ,see ,,dunn1 ,notes on the ,mineral ,deposits of the ,anglo-,egyptian ,sudan1 published by the ,sudan ,government4 ,khartoum1 #aiaa4 p4 #ae4 ,footnote #di3 ,for a plan of the temple and notes on its inscriptions1 see ,,gol,,nischeff1 ,une ,excursion ,brnice1 ,recueil de ,travaux4 ,,xiii 7#ahia74 pp4 #ge-if4 ,footnote #ej3 ,,macalister1 ,geog4 ,journal4 ,vol4 ,,xvi 7#aijj74 p4 #edf4 ,footnote #ea3 ,op4 cit4 ,golnischeff gives sketch plans of the stations4 ,footnote #eb3 ,the ,empire of the ,ptolemies4 ,london1 #ahie4 p4 #acj4 ,footnote #ec3 ,,diodorus 7,i4 #di7 probably greatly exaggerated the value of the produce of the mines4 ,see ,,uhlemann1 ,handbuch der gesammten aegyptischen ,alterthumskunde1 ,zweiter ,theil1 ,leipzig1 #aheg1 pp4 #adh-aea1 where a very clear account1 mainly derived from ,diodorus1 is given of the mining methods used by the ancients4 ,footnote #ed3 ,bulletin ,soc4 ,khd4 de ,gogr4 #ahhf4 p4 #ddc4 ,footnote #ee3 ,according to ,mr4 ,bramly 7,the ,anglo-,egyptian ,sudan4 #aije4 p4 #ia7 the ,bisharin are not true ,arabs1 and are of ,hamitic descent4 ,footnote #ef3 ,regarding the geographical boundaries of the different tribes1 see ,chapter ,,xii4 ,footnote #eg3 ,schweinfurth did not have the same experience in #ahfd2 but one speaks as one finds4 ,schweinfurth was reluctant to pass judgment1 not knowing the language1 and possibly in the interval since #ahfd the people have improved4 ,footnote #eh3 ,on the ,bishari language1 see ,,almkvist1 ,die ,bishari-sprache1 ,upsala1 #ahha-ahhe2 ,,reinisch1 ,die ,bedauye-sprache in ,nordost-,africa1 ,wien1 #ahic2 and ,,reinisch1 ,wrterbuch der ,bedauye-sprache1 ,wien1 #ahie4 ,footnote #ei3 ,the millieme is practically equivalent to an ,english farthing4 ,footnote #fj3 ,for a detailed description of this road1 see ,chapter ,,xiii4 ,footnote #fa3 ,arrt of the ,ministry of ,interior1 ,egypt1 ,june #be1 #aijb4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,surveying ,,methods ,,and ,,principal ,,geographical ,,results4 99 99 99 99 99 ,triangulation4 ,base-,lines--,the triangulation was commenced by measuring a base line#fb near ,gebel ,muelih by means of a #ajj-metre steel tape1 which had been previously standardised at the ,khedivial ,observatory4 ,a level tract having been selected1 in such a position as to afford easy connection with points already triangulated from the ,nile ,valley1 a line about two and a half kilometres long was ranged out1 along which wooden pegs were driven flush with the ground at #ajj-metre intervals4 ,the inequalities of the ground between the pegs were levelled off by tiny embankments and cuttings1 so as to enable the tape to lie flat4 ,on each peg was nailed a zinc plate having a millimetre scale running in the direction of the line4 ,in measuring1 the tape was laid on the ground1 stretched to a constant tension by a spring balance at each end1 in such manner that its end marks fell on the zinc scales1 and readings were simultaneously taken on the scales at the two ends4 ,temperatures were taken in several places along the tape by mercurial thermometers4 ,the operation of measurement was carried out in the early morning1 so as to avoid any large difference of temperature between the ground and the air4 ,the levels of the pegs were found by spirit levelling4 ,after correction for the initial error of the tape1 temperature1 stretch1 and inclination1 the true length of the base-line reduced to sea-level was found1 as the mean of two separate measurements at different tensions1 to be #b1dhbbhj metres4 ,the azimuth of the line was found by observations of ,polaris at elongation to be #cj #cj #f ,e4 of ,n4 ,the geographical position of the west end of the line was found by triangulation-connexion with the ,nile ,valley by ,mr4 ,villiers ,stuart to be latitude #bd #ec #cfg ,n41 longitude #cd #d #agi ,e4 ,a second connexion to a base-line was made near ,gebel ,um ,harba1 where a base had been previously measured by ,mr4 ,villiers ,stuart in the course of his triangulation of the western part of the desert4 ,in this case the connexion was not made to the actual base-line1 but to another main line tied directly on to it4 ,the data at this point of connexion from the two triangulations afforded a useful check on the accuracy of the work1 and were as follows3-- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,from ,mr4 ,stuart's ,from my ,difference4 triangulation4 triangulation4 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,latitude ,n4 #bc #cf #eej #bc #cf #eef #jf ,longitude ,e4 #cd #cj #cha #cd #cj #cgf #je ,length of line to ,dagalai beacon #ac1agjb metres4 #ac1afgi metres4#bc metres4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,reconnaissance for triangulation points was carried out simultaneously with the triangulation itself4 ,the distance of likely looking peaks was determined either by intersecting them from distant stations1 or by special small triangulations from short bases1 and such selection made as seemed most likely to secure well shaped figures and a good command of surrounding country4 ,as a rule1 the highest summits were selected as main 7occupied7 stations1 while all other prominent peaks and other features were fixed by intersection from two or more main stations4 ,the form adopted for the main triangulation net was a series of quadrilateral figures with diagonals1 combined with centric polygons1 all the angles of the figures being generally measured4 ,the average length of side was about thirty-five kilometres4 ,beacons4--,main stations were marked by wrought-iron beacons1 consisting of two lengths of stove piping about #ae centimetres diameter by #a metres long1 the upper length fitting into a faucet made by splaying out the lower tube4 ,near the top of the tube were affixed four sheet iron wings1 bolted on to angle iron cleats4 ,a conical cairn of stones was built up round the tube1 nearly up to the wings1 so that the beacon when erected was about three metres high1 two metres in diameter across the base of the cairn1 and about a metre wide across the wings4 ,the beacons were taken down while a station was being occupied1 and replaced on leaving4 ,intersected points were sometimes marked with a beacon or cairn1 but in general the peaks were simply bisected from several stations1 as it was found that this gave sufficiently accurate results4 ,measurement of ,horizontal ,angles4--,angles were measured with a #f-;inch theodolite furnished with reading microscopes graduated to #aj and permitting of reliable estimations to #a4 ,the angles between main points were read on four arcs to eliminate circle errors4 ,intersected points were observed on one arc only4 ,the average error of closure of main triangles was #cc4 ,field ,computation and ,plotting of ,triangulated ,points4--,the triangles were computed by the ordinary method1 but the angles were rounded off to #aj to enable the sines to be taken direct from the logarithmic tables1 and the logarithms were only taken to five places4 ,the length of the sides having been thus found1 the geographical positions were found by the ordinary ,l ,m ,z computation1 using1 however1 only two latitude terms and #e-place logarithms1 while azimuths were only taken out to the nearest #aj4 ,the abbreviated form of computation used will be best illustrated by an example3--#fc ,computation of ,position of ,no4 #bfj from ,no4 #bge4 l #bjjdb m4 #bc #ee #cjf #bge ,z #fd #bi #bj ,e of ,n4 #cd #ed #cfi ,log l #dcjaid ,log l #hfjd - - ,log cos ,z #afcdaf ,log sin ,z #aiaa - - ,b #beaaid ,c #ijec ------- ----- - #bddhjd #aefh ------- ----- d1 #ast term #bhjf ,log l #dcjaid - #bnd term #jd ,log sin ,z #aieede -------------- - d #bhjb ,a #bejidh ------- #d #djb #bgffhg - #bc #ee #cjf ,log cos #aifjgb -------------- ------- #bd #j #ajh #bhjfae -------------- ------- d #fdjj ,whence #aj #djj #bd #j #ajh #cd #ed #cfi #bfj -------------- #ce #e #afi #ce #e #afi -------------- ,in the above1 it will be noticed that the azimuth is always noted as so much east or west of north or south4 ,if this convention be adopted1 one may consider the first term of d as always 1 and the second term will be if the azimuth contains the word south1--if it is from the north1 while the total d is to be added or subtracted according as one is going north or south4 ,a somewhat similar convention is adopted in neglecting the sign of d till the actual addition or subtraction is made4 ,it was found in the field that this method prevented any mistake of sign1 while being much simpler to work than one involving angles greater than #ij4 ,the geographical coordinates thus found were plotted directly on to the plane-table sheets1 on which the graticule at #aj intervals was the first thing drawn4 ,the odd minutes and seconds were first converted into minutes and decimals1 and then into kilometres by multiplying by the factors appropriate to the latitude1 so that the plotting could be done by the ordinary scale of kilometres4 ,to avoid difficulties of paper-shrinkage1 as many points as possible were plotted at the time of drawing the graticule1 and in general the points had to be plotted as far ahead as possible for controlling the traversing and sketching4 ,astronomical ,observations4--,astronomical checks on the triangulation were obtained by observations of latitude at certain selected main stations #fj-abj kilometres apart1 and by azimuth observations for certain main lines4 ,the method used for latitude was that of observing the times of equal altitudes of three or more stars1 selected as near to the meridian#fd as possible4 ,this method presents great advantages over the usual ,polaris and circummeridian altitudes1 in that the observations are more easily made1 and yield much more accurate results1 because uncertainties in refraction are largely eliminated and the errors of circle graduation are not involved1 the altitudes not being read at all4#fe ,the theodolite used was the same as was employed in triangulation1 and the times were taken by a half chronometer watch1 preferably one marking sidereal time with a rate which could be considered negligible during the hour or so occupied by the observation4 ,the first star taken was usually ,polaris1 and the vertical circle was left clamped at its altitude4 ,for the other stars1 any dislevelment was corrected by touching up the levelling screws just before the instant of observation2 this was found better1 than taking bubble readings and correcting for slight difference of altitude4 ,the method which ,i found best in the field for reducing the observations differs somewhat from that described by ,chauvenet4 ,assuming approximate values for the latitude and watch error1 ,i first calculated the altitude of each star from the formula sin h sin sin cos cos cos t ,if the assumed latitude and watch error were correct1 all the stars would give the same value for h4 ,if not1 each star would give an equation of the form h cos ,a d cos sin ,a d,t h#j #j where ,a is the star's azimuth1 d the required correction to the assumed latitude1 d,t the required correction to the assumed watch times1 and h#j the true altitude common to the three stars4 ,the values of cos ,a and cos sin ,a were calculated from the ordinary formula sin ,a 7cos sin t7_/cos h by four-place logarithms 7using the approximate values for 1 t1 and h1 since these are quite sufficiently accurate for the purpose7 and inserted into the three star-equations4#ff ,by then solving the three simultaneous equations for d1 the required correction to the assumed latitude was at once obtained4 ,as the method is one not usually treated of in books on practical astronomy1 ,i give on the following pages the reduction of an observation worked out in full4 ,latitude by ,equal ,altitudes of ,three ,stars4 ,station on ,gebel ,um ,heshenib4 ,january #cj1 #aijf4 ,approximate #bd #bj #ej ,n4 #cd #ea #j ,e4 ,sidereal watch ,u4 and ,c4 #cjhaa1 approximately #bm #bbs fast on ,l4,s4,t41 rate negligible4 ,observed times of equal altitudes by watch3-- ,polaris #c;h #ccm #eds#b ,columb #c #db #dj #h ,canis majoris #d #bd #ce #h ,polaris4 ,watch time #c;h #ccm #eds#b ,watch fast #b #bb #j ------------ ,l4,s4,t4 #c #ca #cb #b ,star's ,r4,a4 #a #be #i #a ------------ t #b #f #bc #a #ca #ce #dfe ,w4 of meridian4 ------------ - #bd #bj #ej log sin #afaeagfi - #hh #dh #cca log sin #aiiiijfb --------- - - #afaejhca log cos #bcagg - ,nat4 7#a7 #jdabagfd log sin t #agaic --------- ------ - #bjcgj - - #bd #bj #ej log cos #aieiedhh log cos h #aiefj ------ - - #hh #dh #cca log cos #bcagfhgj log sin ,a #bjhaj - - t #ca #ce #dfe log cos #aicjcagi log cos #aieie --------- ------ - #bjdje - - #bbjgeecg ,nat4 #jjaa --------- ,nat4 7#b7 #jjafabgj ,nat4 7#a7 #jdabagfd log cos ,a #aiiii --------- #jdbhcjcd ,nat4 #ajjj - log sin h #afcageae h #be #ba #ceh ,whence the equation for ,polaris is #ceh #ajjj d #jjaa d,t h#j #j 7#a7 ,columb4 ,watch time #c;h #dbm #djs#h ,watch fast #b #bb #j ------------ ,l4,s4,t4 #c #dj #ah #h ,star's ,r4,a4 #e #cf #ae #f ------------ t #a #ee #ef #h #bh #ei #abj ,e4 of meridian4 ------------ - #bd #bj #ej log sin #afaeagfi - #cd #g #deg log sin #agdijaah --------- - #acfdahhg - ,nat4 7#a7 #jbcacjgj log cos #aiagi --------- - log sin t #afhed ------ - - #bd #bj #ej log cos #aieiedhh #afjcc - - #cd #g #deg log cos #aiagiaab log cos h #aiefj ------ - - t #bh #ei #abj log cos #aidahgec log sin ,a #afdgc --------- - - #ahaiccec log cos #aieie --------- ------ ,nat4 7#b7 #jfeifhcj #afjfh ,nat4 7#a7 #jbcacjgj ,nat4 #jdjd --------- #jdbhcgfj - - log sin h #afcahaif log cos ,a #aiebc ,nat4 #jhif h #be #ba #eaa ,whence the equation for ,columb is #eaa #jhif d #jdjd d,t h#j #j 7#b7 ,canis majoris4 ,watch time #d;h #bdm #ces#h ,watch fast #b #bb #j ------------ #d #bb #ac #h ,star's ,r4,a4 #f #ed #eg #a ------------ t #b #cb #dc #c #ch #aj #die ,e4 of meridian4 ------------ - #bd #bj #ej log sin #afaeagfi - #bh #ej #ebg log sin #afhcdheg --------- - #abihffbf ,nat4 7#a7 #jaihiabh --------- - #bd #bj #ej log cos #aieiedhh - - #bh #ej #ebg log cos #aidbdefa log cos #aidbd - - t #ch #aj #die log cos #ahiedfjb log sin t #agiaa --------- ------ - - #agigdfea #agcce --------- - ,nat4 7#b7 #jfbgbhec log cos h #aiefj ------ - ,nat4 7#a7 #jaihiabh log sin ,a #aggge --------- - #jdbhcgbe log cos #aieie - ------ log sin h #afcahbae #agcgj ,nat4 #jedf h #be #ba #eae - log cos ,a #aijcd ,nat4 #jhja ,whence the equation for ,canis majoris is #eae #jhja d #jedf d,t h#j #j 7#c7 ,collecting the equations of the three stars1 we have #ceh #ajjj d #jjaa d,t h#j #j 7#a7 #eaa #jhif d #jdjd d,t h#j #j 7#b7 #eae #jhja d #jedf d,t h#j #j 7#c7 ,by solving these equations for d1 we find d #fe whence the latitude is found to be #bd #bj #efe ,it may be remarked that the above process was considerably shortened when it was possible to get a pair of observations on the same south star both east and west of the meridian1 instead of on two separate south stars4 ,in that case the watch error was found at once from the difference between the star's ,r4,a4 and the mean of the two observed times1 and the latitude could be found from two equations instead of three4 ,the condition for this modification of the method was that a nautical almanac star could be found culminating at an altitude slightly greater than that of ,polaris at a time convenient for the observation4 ,it is not advisable to select a star which would give too long an interval between the equal east and west altitudes4 ,the best results are obtainable when the interval between the two observations of the south star is about an hour1 and when ,polaris is near its transit4 ,under such circumstances the watch correction is obtained quite nearly enough for a good latitude2 for1 as ,gauss#fg pointed out1 8the essential condition is not so much that the precise instant when the star reaches a supposed place should be noted1 as that at the time which is noted the star should not be sensibly distant from that place40 ,the following table shows the latitudes found by observation and triangulation at the various points4 ,it may be remarked that the method used for latitude determination was liable to observational errors of #b or so1 as well as to errors of possibly more than double that amount due to plumb-line deflection among the mountains1#fh so that the observed latitudes were only taken as checks to prevent any gross error in triangulation being overlooked1 and not for any determination of the figure of the earth1 for which latter purpose more elaborate observations would have been necessary4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,lat4 observed4,lat4 computed ,difference ,point4 from computed-observed4 ,triangulation4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,west ,peg1 ,muelih #bd #ec #djc #bd #ec #cfg #cf ,base ,beacon on ,gebel ,um #bd #bj #efe #bd #bj #dib #gc ,heshenib ,hill near#bc #ee #ccb #bc #ee #cjf #bf ,gebel ,selaia ,berenice #bc #ed #cie #bc #ed #djc #jh ,temple ,gimeida #bb #df #ccb #bb #df #bid #ch ,hill ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,azimuths were determined in the usual manner#fi by elongations of close circumpolar stars1 ,polaris or #ea ,cephei being usually selected4 ,the azimuth mark used was an ordinary ,egyptian shamadan 7candlestick with spring feed7 with a glass globe1 placed at a distance of one to two kilometres1 with its foot firmly bedded in sand and stones to prevent any motion4 ,the azimuths observed at the different stations are shown in the following table3-- ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,station of ,observation4 ,point to which ,azimuth observed4 ,azimuth is given4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,peg at ,west end of ,peg east end of base #cc #cj #f ,e4 of ,n4 ,muelih ,base ,beacon on ,gebel ,um ,beacon on ,gebel ,hamata#de #ae #cd ,e4 of ,s4 ,heshenib ,hill near ,abu ,gurdi #be #cj #ce ,n4 of ,e4 ,gebel ,selaia ,berenice ,kalalat #fa #aj #ca ,w4 of ,s4 ,temple ,gimeida ,hill ,hamra ,dom #f #ad #df ,e4 of ,s4 ,centre of ,halaib ,fort ,elba #hc #be #j ,w4 of ,s4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,the observed azimuths1 unlike the observed latitudes1 were more accurate than the results of triangulation1 repetition having shown them to be reliable within #b or #c1 an error of which magnitude would soon be surpassed in the process of continuing a chain of azimuths with the unadjusted values of the angles of the triangles1 which were the only values possible to be used in the field4 ,on arriving at an azimuth station1 therefore1 a fresh chain of azimuths was begun from the results of the observation1 and continued to the next station where astronomical observations were undertaken4 ,the accumulated azimuth error was1 however1 never found to exceed #aj in any chain1 a quantity which could not sensibly affect the computed positions of points for plotting on the maps4 ,connexion with the ,sudan ,surveys4--,at the south end of the area1 connexion was made to a number of points triangulated by the ,sudan ,surveys1 but as the ,sudan triangulation was commenced as an independent piece of work from an observed latitude and a telegraphically determined longitude1 the connexion affords no check on the accuracy of the triangulations4 ,the difference found between my positions and those of the ,sudan ,surveys was practically constant for all the ,sudan points connected1 and amounted to #ce in latitude and #bf in longitude#gj2 these figures represent the errors in the assumed latitude and longitude of the starting point of the ,sudan ,surveys1 and will be employed as corrections to the ,sudan positions now that a complete chain of triangulation connects ,berber with the ,mediterranean4 ,levels of ,triangulation ,points4--,the altitudes above sea-level of all triangulation points were determined by vertical angular measurements carried out at the occupied stations1 an actual sea-level datum being obtained by including rocks awash in the sea among the triangulated points4 ,to secure constancy of atmospheric refraction as far as possible1 vertical angles were always read in the middle of the day1 where the change of refraction is slowest4 ,for the occupied stations1 refraction and curvature were eliminated by reciprocal observations4 ,for intersected points the formula h d tan 7#a k7_/#br d was used1 the value of d tan being first found by five-figure logarithms and then that of the curvature and refraction correction 7#a k7_/#br d by means of the very convenient 8,universal0 slide rule of ,nessler4#ga ,the value of k found from a discussion of the first few reciprocal observations was found to be very nearly #jac1 corresponding with the mean of ,european determinations1 and this value for the coefficient was employed throughout the work for intersected points4#gb ,for obtaining the correction 7#a k7_/#br d by the slide rule1 a mark ,r was scratched at #abajgc on the lower scale of the slide2 by bringing this mark ,r opposite to the distance 7in kilometres7 on the lower scale 7or1 where the logarithm of the distance was more convenient1 by bringing the mark vertically under that logarithm on the log scale of the rule by means of the cursor7 the correction could be read off directly on the lowest fixed scale opposite the end-graduation of the slide4 ,usually four or five values for the altitude of a single point were obtained from a corresponding number of stations1 and the mean taken2 the various values generally agreed within two metres4 ,the constant combination of vertical angular measurements with horizontal ones was of great service from another point of view from that of providing altitude data for the maps4 ,it frequently happened that a peak observed at one station could not be identified among a number of similar peaks visible at another station4 ,when this trouble arose1 the vertical angles offered a way out of the difficulty4 ,vertical and horizontal angles were read off to a number of likely-looking peaks2 on working out the triangles to the nearest minute of the observed angles1 the distance of each peak was obtained on the assumption that it was the one required4 ,then to find which of the several peaks was the correct one1 the elevations were worked out1 assuming the distances correct2 in only one case would the level agree from the two stations1 and this obviously discriminated the peak required4 ,the working out of the triangles for this purpose could be done with sufficient accuracy in a very few minutes by means of the slide rule1 and many points were thus saved from rejection consequent on misidentification4 ,checks on absolute level were frequently obtained by observing depression angles to the sea horizon1 using the formula #ajgh h1 where is in seconds of arc and h is the altitude in metres4 ,but for high stations the horizon is so distant that very small variations in refraction cause rather large errors in the result1 so that this method only furnished a rough check4 ,summary of ,triangulated ,positions4 ,the following tables give the geographical positions and altitudes above sea-level of all points triangulated1 arranged in order of diminishing latitude1 i4e41 from north to south4 ,the list includes the points fixed within the ,sudan for connexion with the ,sudan ,surveys4 ,stations occupied are indicated by an asterisk against the number of the point4 ,it will be noticed that in some cases several different mountains bear the same name though widely distant from each other2 also that where a single mountain mass possesses several peaks or summits1 each of these has been fixed separately4 ,,summary ,,of ,,triangulated ,,positions4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,field ,number ,name4 ,mark4 ,latitude,longitude,altitude of ,n4 ,e4 ,metres4 ,point4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #ba ,g4 ,hamrat ,wogud cairn4 #be #i #cdcd #bj #j #a1ajc #bi ,g4 ,iteima #be #h #acd #aa #ac #hdi 99 #bjd ,g4 ,igli #be #d #fcd #cf #af #ige 99 #bf;a,g4 ,atut #be #j #efcd #bc #di #ijh 99 #bjc ,erf el ,fahid #be #j #ecd #aa #eb #egi #ad ,g4 ,hagar ,dungash #bd #ei #abcd #b #cc #hae 99 #bah ,g4 ,sukari #bd #ef #ejcd #db #ej #dgf #baf ,g4 ,um ,tundeba summit4 #bd #ee #dhcd #dg #bi #eej 99 #bjb ,muelih base ,e4 peg4 #bd #ed #ddcd #e #g #djf #bai ,isolated hill near summit4 #bd #ed #bccd #ed #ba #aij sea 99 #bja ,muelih base ,w4 peg4 #bd #ec #cgcd #d #ah #cih #ai ,g4 ,muelih cairn4 #bd #eb #ddcd #j #cg #gjg 99 #bbe ,kurdeman mines #bd #eb #cecd #da #ce #ebe #ga ,marwot ,rod el ,ligah #ba #ea #cacd #h #ba #ead #bjf ,g4 ,mudergeg summit4 #bd #ea #jcd #bb #a #hhe #bje ,g4 ,hangalia #bd #ej #bicd #ch #dc #a1bda 99 #bae ,g4 ,ghadir cairn4 #bd #ej #icd #dg #bb #fcf 99 #cb;a,g4 ,nugrus #bd #dh #cdcd #ce #dg #a1eje 99 #be ,g4 ,migif #bd #dg #bccd #bg #cj #a1aii 99 #bad ,g4 ,allawi #bd #df #dbcd #di #ci #eae #baa ,g4 ,zabara #bd #de #bacd #da #ec #a1cfa #bbd ,g4 ,lewewi #bd #dd #chcd #df #ci #fed #bab ,ridge near ,g4 ,zabara ,n4 end4 #bd #dc #dhcd #dj #ef #a1ajd #bba ,hill near sea summit4 #bd #db #ca #ce #c #ae -- #bjh ,g4 ,hamrat ,selma #bd #da #ehcd #bj #eh #gfa #baj ,peak in ,g4 ,hafafit cairn4 #bd #dj #ddcd #cg #h #gbb #bdj ,wadi ,gemal island ,n4 end4 #bd #dj #dece #i #f #j 99 #bbc ,g4 ,sikait cairn4 #bd #ci #eecd #dh #e #gga #bac ,g4 ,um ,moghar summit4 #bd #ci #afcd #da #e #hfj #bd;a,g4 ,abu ,khrug cairn4 #bd #ch #egcd #af #ai #hgj #bj ,g4 ,sufra beacon4 #bd #ch #dbcd #d #ac #fij #bda ,wadi ,gemal island ,s4 end4 #bd #ch #chce #aj #cf #j #bjg ,g4 ,nahud ,n4 cone4 #bd #ce #cfcd #bb #ad #ffb 99 #bji ,peak in ,g4 ,hafafit beacon4 #bd #ce #cbcd #de #bb #gdd 99 #bbb ,madaret ,um ,gamil #bd #cd #ebcd #ef #bh #ded #bbf ,g4 ,abu ,had summit4 #bd #cd #abcd #cf #f #fcc #bdb ,low spur of coast tip4 #bd #cc #dgce #aj #b #j #bce ,g4 ,um ,regeba summit4 #bd #cc #cfcd #db #bi #ega #bcc ,g4 ,nahud ,s4 cone4 #bd #cc #cecd #bj #aa #ffb #bci ,low spur of coast tip4 #bd #bh #dcce #aj #eh #j #bdg ,g4 ,um ,suerab summit4 #bd #bf #ejcd #db #cc #a1jbd #bca ,g4 ,um ,sueh #bd #bf #decd #ed #cj #gha #bcf ,g4 el ,abiad #bd #bf #bgcd #dh #ef #hib 99 #bbg ,g4 ,abu ,hegilig #bd #bf #afcd #eh #cb #fjg #bcg ,g4 ,um el ,abbas #bd #bf #aacd #ef #cc #fig #bcb ,g4 ,nukheira #bd #be #ehcd #cb #ec #hgf #gc ,g4 ,um ,goraf cairn4 #bd #be #cccd #ah #bh -- #beb ,g4 ,durunkat centre4 #bd #bc #dccd #de #ea #ibd #bgd ,s4 end of low sandy -- #bd #bb #dace #bb #ef #j island #bee ,g4 ,um ,sedri ,s4 peak of #bd #bb #jcd #da #c #igj twin4 #bcd ,g4 el ,heda summit4 #bd #bj #efcd #cj #aa #hfb #bdh ,g4 ,sarobi 7,s4 peak7 #bd #bj #ejce #i #j #dga 99 #bbh ,g4 ,um ,heshenib beacon4 #bd #bj #dicd #ej #ec #a1ace #bdc ,g4 ,hefeiri summit4 #bd #bj #bbce #a #ba #fab #bdf ,g4 ,khulla #bd #ai #dccd #ch #db #igh #bec ,g4 ,tarfawi ,n4 end of #bd #ah #dfcd #ee #ed #a1cfc ridge4 #bea ,g4 ,marasan summit4 #bd #ag #cdcd #dd #ef #a1bfa #bdi ,g4 ,abu ,ghusun #bd #af #acd #eh #ag #a1chi #bde ,g4 ,metawit #bd #ae #eacd #ca #dh #gda 99 #bcj ,g4 ,abu ,hamamid beacon4 #bd #ad #dacd #dg #ch #a1gdg #bej ,g4 ,um ,usher summit4 #bd #ad #aacd #ec #ba #a1dhg #bei ,g4 ,um ,hasidok #bd #ab #decd #ed #df #a1dig 99 #bbi ,g4 ,hamata beacon4 #bd #ab #agce #j #af #a1igh #beh ,g4 ,abarun summit4 #bd #aa #bjcd #ej #ah #a1fjb #beg ,g4 ,abu ,argub #bd #aa #acd #de #dc #a1fji #ge ,g4 ,hamrat ,mukbud cairn4 #bd #i #eccd #bc #ag #hij #bed ,g4 ,ras el ,kharit peak4 #bd #i #bece #a #ee #a1ffa #bfa ,g4 ,khashir summit4 #bd #i #adce #d #ej #a1efe #bfb ,g4 ,ras el ,kharit peak4 #bd #i #bce #j #bh #a1efd 99 #bef ,g4 ,kahfa beacon4 #bd #h #ahcd #ch #ee #a1jah 99 #cii ,hill near ,bir ,qoleib beacon4 #bd #h #fcc #db #df #cee #djj ,bir ,qoleib clay basin4#bd #f #cfcc #da #bj #bci #bhg ,g4 el ,anbat summit4 #bd #e #abcd #ed #eh #ghh #bfc ,g4 ,mikbi ,s4 end of #bd #d #edce #d #di #a1chh ridge4 #bgf ,g4 ,um ,huk cairn4 #bd #d #dace #ae #cd #eag #bgi ,g4 ,um ,sellim ,e4 peak4 #bd #c #ebce #i #ea #idg #cbj ,peak ,n4 of ,berenice summit4 #bd #c #da #ce #bf #cj #bgf #bfd ,g4 ,egat peak4 #bd #c #dj #ce #c #cb #a1bgg #bgc ,g4 ,egat summit4 #bd #b #eb #ce #b #bi #a1dbb #bhj ,g4 ,abu ,ghalqa cairn4 #bd #a #g #ce #af #dg #efa 99 #bfj ,g4 ,abu ,gurdi beacon4 #bd #j #aa #ce #e #ag #a1efb #bhh ,g4 ,derhib summit4 #bd #j #h #ce #a #bi #a1afj 99 #cae ,hill near ,berenice beacon4 #bd #j #d #ce #cj #cg #aif #bfh ,g4 el ,homur summit4 #bc #eh #edcd #ee #af #gca #bhi ,g4 ,um ,gunud cairn4 #bc #eg #dfce #ab #aj #ihi 99 #cci ,limestone hill on beacon4 #bc #eg #afce #dc #aj #ahg ,ras ,benas #bga ,g4 ,selaia summit4 #bc #eg #adcd #eb #ac #ghg 99 #cag ,hill on ,ras ,benas beacon4 #bc #ef #djce #ci #dd #aic 99 #caf ,limestone peak1 ,ras #bc #ef #cf #ce #cf #i #ahi ,benas 99 #cch ,hill on ,ras ,benas cairn4 #bc #ef #a #ce #dj #ec #aig #bia ,g4 ,aidab summit4 #bc #ee #ebce #ac #ch #hdh #bgj ,hill near ,g4 ,selaia #bc #ee #dfcd #ec #eh #fbc 99 #bge ,low hill near ,g4 beacon4 #bc #ee #cjcd #ed #cg #efc ,selaia #bgh ,g4 ,geneina peak near #bc #ed #efcd #dg #de #edh ,n4 end4 #ccf ,g4 ,um ,maiat ,n4 end4 #bc #ed #dece #ac #ce #ibh 99 #cac ,berenice ,temple beacon4 #bc #ed #cice #bh #bf #h #bij ,marwot ,elemikan summit4 #bc #ed #ad #ce #f #h #fdh #cai ,peak ,n4 of ,g4 #bc #ed #ajce #ac #ee #hgj ,kalalat #ccd ,hill near ,wadi #bc #ec #eg #ce #bb #j -- ,mindeit #cdj ,sheikh's tomb at centre4 #bc #ec #ejce #dg #ac #c ,ras ,benas #cda ,tip of ,ras ,benas sandy #bc #ec #db #ce #dg #e #j point4 #bff ,g4 ,abu ,derega summit4 #bc #ec #chcd #ei #ac #hca #cce ,g4 ,um ,maiat ,s4 end4 #bc #ec #cdce #ad #dh #hdb #ccc ,high range ,n4 of ,g4 ,n4 end4 #bc #ec #c #ce #ae #a #hge ,kalalat #gg ,g4 el ,nekeiba cairn4 #bc #eb #cdcd #bb #aj #egj #ccj ,hill near ,wadi summit4 #bc #eb #bice #bb #ah #cbh ,kalalat #cah ,g4 ,um ,maiat central #bc #eb #bdce #ae #cf #hba peak4 #ccb ,high range ,n4 of ,g4 ,s4 end4 #bc #ea #eice #af #bi #gfb ,kalalat #cca ,g4 ,kalalat minor peak4#bc #ej #dhce #ae #ea #gdc #bid ,n4 end of ,mukawar -- #bc #ej #dgce #dh #ca #j ,island #bic ,g4 ,batoga central #bc #ej #g #ce #bj #df #hjb peak4 #cbi ,g4 ,kalalat ,n4 peak4 #bc #di #eg #ce #ag #f #a1jhj #bid;a,s4 end of ,mukawar -- #bc #di #ecce #dh #ai #j ,island #cad ,g4 ,batoga 7,s4 peak7 beacon4 #bc #di #cg #ce #ba #i #ghe 99 #bhb ,g4 ,kalalat #bc #di #i #ce #ag #cf #a1abe #cbh ,g4 ,batoga minor peak4#bc #dh #egce #bb #dg #dac #cec ,minor peak of ,g4 ,s4 one of #bc #dg #cgce #ah #df #hid ,kalalat pair4 #cee ,g4 ,um ,hegilig summit4 #bc #dg #acce #ad #cb #iff #cbg ,g4 ,dibag ,,nw4 peak4 #bc #df #dgce #ba #bc #eag #cjh ,g4 ,dibag ,,se4 peak4 #bc #df #dj #ce #bb #d #edd 99 #bfe ,g4 ,dahanib beacon4 #bc #de #ddce #aa #aj #a1bgj 99 #bfi ,g4 ,um ,bisella #bc #de #cdcd #eg #ci #hbd 99 #bgg ,g4 ,zergat ,naam #bc #de #bhcd #dj #cd #hbc #cde ,g4 ,reyan ,n4 peak4 #bc #de #bjce #ag #ej #gdj #cdf ,g4 ,reyan ,s4 peak4 #bc #dd #g #ce #ag #bj #hfc 99 #cdc ,hill near ,shenshef beacon4 #bc #dd #e #ce #bb #dj #bij ruins #bib ,erf el ,gemal ,w4 end of #bc #dc #cgcd #eb #aj #fgc ridge4 #bgb ,g4 ,hagar el ,fil summit4 #bc #dc #e #cd #db #c #hde #bha ,g4 ,shut #bc #db #cece #af #ei #icj #cih ,bir ,abu ,hashim principal #bc #da #ef #cd #d #bf #cbj well4 99 #cig ,hill near ,bir ,abu beacon4 #bc #da #dd #cd #c #cc #chf ,hashim #cdh ,hill near ,w4 ,salib summit4 #bc #da #e #ce #g #c #gjc ,abiad #cbe ,g4 ,um ,etli central #bc #ci #edce #bc #bb #gie peak4 #chd ,g4 ,abu ,husenat summit4 #bc #ci #de #ce #a #ae #gbe #cbf ,g4 ,um ,etli ,w4 peak4 #bc #ci #cbce #ba #eb #hdd #cbd ,g4 ,um ,etli ,e4 peak4 #bc #ci #bfce #bc #ec #gfd #bie ,g4 ,hendusi sharp peak4#bc #ci #aecd #eh #dd #fgh #cdd ,g4 ,um ,akra beacon4 #bc #cg #ehce #af #da #a1jej 99 #che ,ruins of ,um ,eleiga #bc #cg #bj #ce #c #e #eii #cjb ,peak near ,g4 ,abu summit4 #bc #cg #af #ce #f #dd #hdj ,dahr 99 #gi ,um ,harba beacon4 #bc #cf #efcd #cj #ch #fhh #cef ,g4 ,um ,akra ,s4 peak4 #bc #cf #cece #af #eh #igj #cdg ,g4 ,hindia summit4 #bc #cf #bgce #ac #ci #hgc #ccg ,zeberged ,island central #bc #cf #afcf #aa #db #bch peak4 99 #bfg;a,g4 ,abu ,dahr beacon4 #bc #cf #h #ce #e #df #a1aca #cje ,g4 ,abu ,sieiyil summit4 #bc #ce #af #ce #a #d #hcc #cba ,g4 ,faraid peak4 #bc #cd #h #ce #bc #ah #a1aca #cbc ,g4 ,faraid #bc #cc #bice #ba #ej #a1cda #cfa ,hill ,s4 of ,g4 ,abu summit4 #bc #cc #bh #ce #d #db #iab ,dahr #cbb ,g4 ,faraid highest #bc #cc #g #ce #bb #aj #a1cff peak4 #cdb ,g4 ,faraid #bc #ca #ecce #bb #df #a1jfh #cfj ,hill ,s4 of ,g4 ,abu summit4 #bc #ca #dc #ce #e #ae #ggb ,dahr #cfb ,hill ,s4 of ,g4 ,abu #bc #ca #cg #ce #b #di #gic ,dahr #cei ,hill ,s4 of ,g4 ,abu #bc #ca #ag #ce #f #bb #ghd ,dahr 99 #bhe ,g4 ,faraid peak4 #bc #cj #ecce #bj #be #a1bei 99 #he ,g4 ,um ,khafur beacon4 #bc #bi #edcd #bi #ai #efj #ceg ,g4 ,faraid minor peak4#bc #bi #cece #ag #cj #hfb #bhf ,g4 ,faraid 8,the #bc #bh #ehce #bj #ce #a1bcb ,bodkin40 #cej ,g4 ,faraid outlying #bc #bh #cice #ag #ce #hge peak4 #cea ,g4 ,faraid peak4 #bc #bh #cece #af #ca #ied #ceb ,granite peak near summit4 #bc #bg #dhce #ac #ae #fig ,wadi ,rahaba #cdi ,g4 ,faraid outlying #bc #bg #ad #ce #ai #e #ijd peak4 #big ,g4 ,orga beacon4 #bc #bf #ba #ce #h #ag #fhb #cfc ,hill near ,wadi summit4 #bc #bf #ahce #ab #ch #ejf ,rahaba 99 #bif ,g4 ,abraq beacon4 #bc #be #aicd #df #dh #ffg #cfe ,hill near ,wadi summit4 #bc #be #b #ce #aa #db #ecf ,rahaba #chi ,g4 ,faraid minor peak4#bc #bd #egce #bd #db #ehe #ceh ,g4 ,faraid peak4 #bc #bb #cice #bb #ai #iaf #cie;a,g4 ,abraq #bc #bb #bfcd #ej #ah #fii #cie ,g4 ,abraq #bc #bb #ai #cd #ej #d #gje 99 #hg ,g4 ,awamtib beacon4 #bc #bj #eicd #bf #ci #gic 99 #bii ,g4 ,um ,tenedba #bc #ai #dhce #aj #dj #fef #cfh ,hill near ,g4 ,um summit4 #bc #ah #dcce #ab #cf #eee ,tenedba 99 #cij ,plateau near ,abu beacon4 #bc #ah #djcd #dh #cj #fci ,saafa #cjg ,g4 ,saalek peak ,e4 #bc #ah #ahcd #ca #aj #gec side4 99 #ced;a,g4 ,fereyid beacon4 #bc #ag #bice #bb #dh #fab #cid ,g4 ,hodein #bc #af #bjcd #ec #be #fie #chj ,g4 ,hodein corner of #bc #af #ahcd #eb #e #gah scarp4 #cjd ,peak ,w4 of ,g4 ,um summit4 #bc #ae #bfcd #cj #ad #hje ,reit #cjf ,peak ,w4 of ,g4 ,um #bc #ae #bccd #ca #dg #hcg ,reit #cff ,hill near ,wadi #bc #ae #dce #af #be #dbj ,rahaba 99 #cjj ,g4 ,um ,reit beacon4 #bc #ae #dcd #cd #ag #heg 99 #bih;a,g4 ,harhagit #bc #ad #cece #ab #eb #edb #cic ,g4 ,tibatib summit4 #bc #ab #dace #a #bh #cif #chg ,hill near ,wadi #bc #ab #bdce #af #ea #chc ,hodein #cif ,granite peak near #bc #aa #aace #bj #ce #cee ,wadi ,rahaba #cib ,rock in sea 7level #bc #aj #eece #ce #eg #j datum74 #caj ,isolated hill west summit4 #bc #aj #cecd #be #bc #gjc of ,g4 ,etresia #chh ,hill near ,wadi #bc #aj #ccce #af #cb #cji ,hodein #dbc ,g4 ,kala #bc #aj #ccd #de #di #hjh #ejc ,g4 ,etresia ,e4 summit4 #bc #i #bdcd #cj #dc #a1jcg #cjc ,hill ,e4 of ,g4 summit4 #bc #i #aecd #cb #bc #ibb ,etresia 99 #cge;a,g4 ,anfeib beacon4 #bc #h #bdcd #ei #ai #gje #cfd ,hill ,,ne4 of ,g4 el summit4 #bc #h #jce #ba #df #cei ,anbat 99 #chf ,close to ,bir beacon4 #bc #g #egce #cf #bc #ac ,shalatein #ejb ,g4 ,etresia summit4 #bc #g #eccd #ca #bd #a1jch #djg ,g4 ,kala #bc #g #dbcd #db #eh #hdf #caa ,isolated hill north #bc #g #afcd #bd #ci #ija of ,g4 ,shigigat #dbe ,g4 ,kala #bc #g #aacd #db #cg #ghc #dbd ,g4 ,kala #bc #f #eacd #db #cj #gci #eja ,g4 ,etus #bc #f #aicd #bi #ec #iig 99 #cfg;a,g4 el ,anbat beacon4 #bc #f #ece #ai #bg #cij #cab ,g4 ,shigigat conspicuous#bc #e #cg #cd #bc #ci #a1jbc peak4 #djf ,g4 ,kala summit4 #bc #e #afcd #db #ai #fbi #ejj ,g4 ,aqab el ,negum #bc #c #bfcd #bg #bj #a1adi #dif ,g4 ,natetiai peak4 #bc #c #hcd #ba #j #a1jbb #dii ,peak near ,aqab el summit4 #bc #b #dccd #bf #c #iih ,negum #dih ,peak near ,aqab el #bc #b #bbcd #be #cf #igi ,negum #dig ,peak near ,aqab el #bc #a #efcd #be #db #igd ,negum #die ,g4 ,natetiai peak4 #bc #j #dicd #bb #g #a1afd #cgc ,g4 ,niqrub el ,tahtani high #bc #j #dbce #j #eh #hbh pinnacle4 #cgc;a,g4 ,niqrub el ,tahtani beacon4 #bc #j #cice #j #ec #hbi 99 #cfi;a,g4 ,beida #bc #j #adce #af #ed #gaf #did ,g4 ,natetiai peak4 #bb #ei #cecd #bb #bb #igg #ejh ,peak in ,s4 part of summit4 #bb #eh #decd #bj #bi #hhe ,g4 ,feg #cia ,g4 ,humariai #bb #eh #chce #i #cf #efc #chb ,hill ,s4 of ,wadi #bb #eh #ajce #ab #eh #fca ,beida #ejg ,peak in ,s4 part of #bb #eh #bcd #ai #ae #hcf ,g4 ,feg #cha;a,hill ,s4 of ,wadi #bb #eg #cjce #af #ec #fca ,beida #cgi ,g4 ,mismih #bb #ef #efcd #de #cb #eii #cha ,hill ,s4 of ,wadi #bb #ef #dgce #ag #c #fae ,beida #eaj ,conical hill #bb #ed #dhcd #dj #bg #ejd 99 #dja ,g4 ,kolaiqo beacon4 #bb #ed #acce #bd #ce #cbj 99 #cgd ,g4 ,niqrub el ,foqani #bb #ea #bicd #ef #di #a1jgh #eji ,g4 ,waqif summit4 #bb #ea #bacd #ch #eg #eef #dff ,tree at ,mersa ,shab centre4 #bb #ej #efce #dg #c #a #dai ,g4 ,um el ,kalala ,n4 peak4 #bb #ej #bccd #dd #ad #fgb #ejf ,g4 ,sheyenit #bb #ej #accd #ah #bc #hec #eje ,g4 ,sheyenit ,s4 peak4 #bb #di #ehcd #ah #ae #hhg #dae ,g4 ,um el ,kalala #bb #di #bfcd #dd #ah #fee #dah ,hill close to ,bir beacon4 #bb #dg #dfce #a #ci #eef ,madi 99 #djh ,g4 ,meneiga #bb #dg #cece #aa #g #a1jcb 99 #djb ,g4 ,meneiga highest #bb #dg #cace #aj #eg #a1jib point4 #dcj ,hill near ,wadi summit4 #bb #df #bice #bj #aa #ddc ,tikosha 99 #daj ,gemeida hill beacon4 #bb #df #bice #cg #di #abc #dcg ,hill ,,sse4 of ,bir summit4 #bb #de #ehce #ac #c #ihg ,meneiga #dcd ,peak near ,wadi ,ti #bb #dd #cfce #ag #ed #ggd ,ilak #cgf ,g4 ,shabih highest #bb #dd #bfcd #ej #ba #a1aag peak4 #ebg ,g4 ,mishbih ,,nw4 summit4#bb #dd #bacd #da #bc #a1cba #cgh ,g4 ,mishbih beacon4 #bb #dd #ahcd #da #bj #a1caf #ddj ,ridge near head of high point4#bb #dd #aece #ab #ah #a1jib ,w4 ,shellal el ,gharbi #ddg ,qrein ,salama summit4 #bb #dd #ece #bd #cb #ced #dce ,peak near ,wadi ,ti #bb #dd #dce #ag #df #hdi ,ilak #dca ,hill ,n4 of ,wadi #bb #dc #eece #ah #eb #fgj ,muqur #dad ,g4 el ,naga smaller #bb #dc #cbcd #bg #bb #gdg hill4 #ia ,g4 ,seiga cairn4 #bb #dc #cacd #af #af #ije #cgg ,g4 ,mishbih ,e4 peak4 #bb #dc #bhcd #db #ci #a1caa #ebf ,g4 ,mishbih peak4 #bb #db #ebcd #da #bg #a1cec #dac ,g4 el ,naga ,n4 peak4 #bb #db #dbcd #bg #df #ghg #dde ,g4 ,tueiwi summit4 #bb #db #djce #e #ef #hcf 99 #djc ,g4 ,gerf high point #bb #db #aece #aa #dc #a1cci on ridge #dbg ,g4 ,gerf minor #bb #db #acce #ac #cb #a1cbg summit4 99 #cgj ,g4 ,gerf beacon4 #bb #db #fce #ab #af #a1dai #dab ,g4 el ,naga ,s4 peak4 #bb #db #jcd #bh #be #hbg #dcf ,peak near ,wadi ,muqur summit4 #bb #da #ehce #ah #bb #ggh #dic ,g4 ,mishbih ,s4 peak4 #bb #da #ddcd #db #da #ihh #dcb ,peak near ,wadi ,muqur summit4 #bb #da #djce #ag #ce #ifb #chc ,g4 ,muqur #bb #da #cace #af #ej #a1jeh #dcc ,hill near ,bir #bb #da #afce #j #eg #gig ,sararat ,seyet #dbf ,peak near ,wadi summit4 #bb #da #fce #ad #cj #a1beh ,diqdib #dch ,peak near ,wadi #bb #da #cce #ag #ed #iaa ,qadiloi #dbi ,peak near ,wadi #bb #dj #eace #i #ee #a1bbg ,eirahimib #cga ,g4 ,shweib #bb #dj #dccd #dc #eg #iad #dbh ,peak near ,wadi #bb #dj #chce #aj #bi #a1cbg ,eirahimib #eca ,mt4 near ,bir ,baaneit #bb #dj #ace #ah #ae #iji #djd ,g4 ,gerf minor #bb #ci #eice #aj #g #a1cah summit4 #dje ,g4 ,korabkansi #bb #ci #cice #j #dd #a1jeb #ddf ,g4 ,korabkansi ,n4 peak4 #bb #ci #cecd #ei #cb #a1agf #fad ,g4 ,hamra ,dom #bb #ci #cdce #ch #ai #cbf #dci ,peak near ,wadi summit4 #bb #ci #agce #af #aa #a1jbh ,diqdib 99 #cgb ,g4 ,korabkansi beacon4 #bb #ci #afcd #ei #ee #a1bcj #dbj ,peak near ,wadi cairn4 #bb #ci #aace #aj #ba #a1bih ,difoteb 99 #dag ,g4 ,hamra ,dom beacon4 #bb #ci #fce #ch #db #chh #dej ,tibansi ,tikam ,ankwei summit4 #bb #ci #ece #cb #aa #cde #dge ,peak near ,wadi #bb #ch #bjce #aa #db #a1cdd ,sherefa #daa ,g4 ,hamra ,dom central #bb #ch #bce #ci #ab #cha peak #dgc ,hill near ,wadi ,um summit4 #bb #cg #edce #ag #ef #ibf ,saha #ecb ,hill near ,wadi ,um #bb #cg #ecce #ag #ef #icb ,saha #ddd ,g4 ,dreb peak4 #bb #cf #edce #f #bj #a1aci #fae ,g4 ,hamra ,dom ,s4 peak4 #bb #cf #dhce #ci #cf #cag #ddc ,g4 ,dreb peak4 #bb #cf #dace #g #j #a1adh #ddb ,g4 ,dreb #bb #cf #djce #g #df #a1acg #dgf ,g4 ,dreb #bb #cf #afce #i #ae #a1agf #dgh ,g4 ,dreb #bb #cf #ajce #h #ba #a1bbd #dgg ,g4 ,dreb #bb #cf #ace #h #ef #a1aia #ejd ,g4 ,kulyeit summit4 #bb #ce #ejcd #af #ch #gbd #dda;a,g4 ,dreb peak4 #bb #ce #ahce #h #bd #a1bic #ecc ,kilia ,arib summit4 #bb #ce #bce #ah #df #fdg #dda ,g4 ,dreb peak4 #bb #ce #jce #h #cf #a1bhh #ece ,g4 ,dreb #bb #cd #aece #i #db #a1jie #ecd ,tibashoi ,tomakolat summit4 #bb #cc #dce #ai #dj #dfd 99 #ddi;a,kolmanab hill beacon4 #bb #cb #bfce #ec #cf #acg #eff ,hill near ,wadi ,ibib summit4 #bb #cb #bce #cg #cf #dei #fai ,point near ,kolmanab -- #bb #ca #eece #eb #dj #aaj #fab ,g4 ,medarai minor peak4#bb #ca #bcce #ac #e #a1ajc #ebj ,g4 ,medarai summit4 #bb #cj #ehce #ab #e #a1bii #faj ,g4 ,medarai minor peak4#bb #cj #efce #ad #cg #ibb #dhe ,g4 ,anweiyib ,n4 summit4 #bb #cj #bbcd #ec #db #hga 99 #efg;a,g4 ,eqrun 7,w4 summit7 beacon4 #bb #cj #ajce #cg #i #dgc #efg ,g4 ,eqrun ,,se4 summit4#bb #cj #jce #cg #ah #dfh #ffe ,adar ,aweib ,um summit4 #bb #bi #bhce #cc #b #dee ,bishtit #egg ,granite hill #bb #bi #aice #ed #f #adc #ebb ,g4 ,medarai ,s4 peak4 #bb #bi #hce #ab #d #a1aad #ebh ,g4 ,anweiyib summit4 #bb #bi #ecd #ec #cb #hfd #ehg ,g4 ,um ,rasein ,n4 peak4 #bb #bh #ebce #bj #dd #gia 99 #daf ,g4 ,um ,rasein beacon4 #bb #bh #abce #bj #ai #iji 99 #ege ,einiwai hill #bb #bg #ejce #eg #ei #ach #eba ,g4 ,abu ,hireiq ,n4 summit4 #bb #bg #cice #ad #eh #a1aaf #fji ,hill near ,wadi summit4 #bb #bg #bace #ae #ea #hef ,merdiyeb #fac ,tahaqayet #bb #bf #dgce #dj #bc #dcb #eif ,hill near ,wadi ,odruk #bb #bf #dgce #ah #db #fci #eie ,hill near ,wadi ,odruk #bb #bf #bece #ai #ag #fae #ehb ,granite hill #bb #bf #bcce #ef #bj #aee #eib ,near ,wadi ,odruk peak4 #bb #bf #ice #bj #i #fbg #ebc ,g4 ,abu ,hireiq highest #bb #be #egce #ad #ci #a1cai point4 #eha ,osnei hill summit4 #bb #be #chce #ej #db #bea #dee ,hill near ,bir ,um #bb #be #adce #cc #ai #fcd ,bishtit #dgb ,mt4 near ,wadi ,abu #bb #bd #dcce #af #ac #a1bef ,hireiq #faa ,g4 ,adatalob ,hadal beacon4 #bb #bd #chce #dh #bb #cha #dea ,titailibab summit4 #bb #bd #cbce #ch #eb #eic #dei ,g4 ,orgem ,,nw4 peak #bb #bd #cace #ca #a #ggi #egf ,g4 ,orgem ,,se4 peak4 #bb #bd #bace #ca #aa #gge #dhh ,g4 ,anweiyib ,,nw4 summit4#bb #bd #afcd #di #df #hhd #dga ,mt4 near ,wadi ,abu summit4 #bb #bc #efce #af #da #a1bbf ,hireiq #dhf ,g4 ,anweiyib ,,se4 summit4#bb #bc #cgcd #ea #be #iba #ffd ,hill ,s4 of summit4 #bb #bc #bfce #ci #e #eed ,titailibab #dbb ,g4 ,abu ,hodeid beacon4 #bb #bc #ahce #ad #i #a1dhb #egb ,g4 ,adatalob ,adara summit4 #bb #bc #ace #di #eh #che #fjc ,near ,wadi ,tikraneib peak4 #bb #bb #egce #ah #ch #gcb #ded ,g4 ,meis-heit-ar summit4 #bb #bb #cgce #cd #dd #gag #dgj ,mt4 near ,bir ,abu #bb #bb #cace #ag #cc #a1jgd ,hodeid #dgi ,g4 ,mansur ,diab #bb #bb #bhce #aj #di #a1jia #dfi ,mt4 near ,bir ,abu #bb #bb #ajce #ag #ea #a1jgh ,hodeid #deg ,hill near head of #bb #bb #cce #cb #db #gch ,wadi ,qidmib #ehc ,g4 ,tishushi ,tiboki minor #bb #bb #jce #eg #ab #bhd summit4 #fdg ,abu ,hodeid ,oqla summit4 #bb #ba #bice #ag #ea #iib #dib ,g4 ,um el ,tiur el #bb #ba #bfcd #cd #df #ghc ,tahtani #fff ,g4 ,meis-heit-ar #bb #ba #aece #cd #dh #gba #ehj ,g4 ,tishushi ,tiboki highest #bb #ba #adce #ee #df #cei point4 99 #efi;a,ti ,keferiai beacon4 #bb #ba #jce #di #dg #did #eih ,g4 ,hamra ,tit ,,sw4 peak4 #bb #bj #fce #bj #dd #fdb #dfa ,g4 ,qidmib summit4 #bb #ai #eece #cj #de #a1jcg 99 #def ,o ,shakafa #bb #ai #ddce #cd #db #gea #eig ,g4 ,geror ,,ne4 summit4#bb #ai #ca #ce #eb #d #dcd #dfb ,g4 ,qidmib summit4 #bb #ai #acce #cj #bc #a1ajh #dfd ,g4 ,qidmib #bb #ai #dce #bi #ah #a1jgj #dfc ,g4 ,qidmib #bb #ah #dice #cj #ae #a1jii #faf ,g4 ,geror high point4#bb #ah #cgce #ej #ah #eaj #ehd ,g4 ,qidmib summit4 #bb #ah #ahce #bi #bj #a1jhi #dec ,adar ,aqdeib summit4 #bb #ah #fce #cg #ea #gcf #dij ,g4 ,um el ,tiur el #bb #ag #efcd #da #ad #idf ,foqani #fjb ,g4 ,geror summit4 #bb #ag #eace #ej #ee #eaf #fdi ,g4 el ,sela peak4 #bb #ag #cgcf #ad #ag #dcc #dhg ,g4 ,hadal ,derqa summit4 #bb #af #djce #i #ee #a1ajh 99 #dfj ,hadal ,aweib ,meisah beacon4 #bb #af #cice #ca #ee #a1bbd #fej ,g4 el ,sela peak4 #bb #af #cbcf #ab #ei #efj #dia ,g4 el ,adraq summit4 #bb #af #bbcd #ce #c #ggj #dba ,qara ,saba #bb #af #gce #da #cd #ggh #fja ,g4 ,um ,seleim #bb #ae #ehce #ba #ce #a1jih #dhj ,g4 ,hadal ,derqa ,,se4 peak4 #bb #ae #ejce #aj #ei #a1jij #ehe ,hadal ,aweib ,meisah minor #bb #ae #dhce #cj #aj #a1jib summit4 #fjd ,g4 ,leqaq summit4 #bb #ae #djce #bj #h #a1aib #eab ,g4 ,heianai ,,nw4 summit4#bb #ad #djce #a #cj #a1jjg #ffh ,g4 ,hamida minor #bb #ad #cdce #df #ac #ehc summit4 #fbj ,qash ,amir beacon4 #bb #ad #cacf #ab #bj #gbd #fea ,g4 ,sul ,hamid highest #bb #ad #afcf #d #ec #egb peak4 #efh ,g4 ,balatitda summit4 #bb #ac #efce #eh #e #eib #eac ,g4 ,hilwit ,hasium ,,ne4 peak4 #bb #ac #ejce #ad #ch #a1jcg #dfh ,g4 ,adar ,qaqa summit4 #bb #ac #dgce #ai #j #a1fjf #dhb ,g4 ,heianai ,,se4 summit4#bb #ac #dace #c #aa #a1bef #fah ,g4 ,hamida minor #bb #ac #cfce #df #dg #gja summit4 #fjh ,g4 ,adar ,qaqa #bb #ac #ccce #ai #ba #a1edb #ddh ,g4 ,hamida summit4 #bb #ac #cbce #df #cc #ged 99 #deh ,halaib ,fort centre of #bb #ac #becf #ch #ef #h top4 #eef ,g4 ,elba peak #bb #ac #bacf #bb #bc #hbj near ,bir ,kansisrob4 #feb ,hill ,e4 of ,g4 peak4 #bb #ac #bjce #ei #dc #dia ,balatitda #eee ,karam ,elba summit4 #bb #ac #accf #be #dj #ehf #ebe ,g4 ,shanaiyet #bb #ac #dcd #di #dc #ijg #fec ,hill near ,wadi #bb #ac #dce #ej #ab #eaa ,warabeit #fgf ,g4 ,elba peak near #bb #ac #bcf #bj #ed #ice ,wadi ,yahameib4 #ffb ,g4 ,balatitda minor #bb #ab #efce #eg #dd #dic summit4 #dhi ,g4 el ,hateib summit4 #bb #ab #ddcd #dc #ah #hed #fgd ,hill near ,wadi summit4 #bb #ab #dbcf #ac #aj #ejg ,siamtit #eaf ,g4 ,hilwit ,hasium ,,sw4 peak4 #bb #ab #cjce #ac #ad #ieb #ffi ,mt4 south of ,hadal summit4 #bb #ab #bace #cj #dj #a1jgb ,aweib ,meisah #dha ,g4 el ,arib #bb #ab #aece #h #cb #a1aab #egi;a,g4 ,um ,ein beacon4 #bb #aa #ebce #ci #d #ija #ffg ,hill near head of summit4 #bb #aa #djce #dg #f #fea ,wadi ,warabeit #dfg ,g4 ,soaorib #bb #aa #ccce #bj #ac #a1dfi 99 #ecf ,g4 ,elba beacon4 #bb #aa #bgcf #bj #eb #a1dbh #fba ,g4 ,elba minor peak4#bb #aa #afcf #bc #dd #a1ajb #fge ,g4 ,elba #bb #aa #ajcf #bj #ce #a1cid #dhc ,g4 ,heleikonti summit4 #bb #aa #gcd #eg #ei #a1aea #egc ,g4 ,warabeit #bb #aa #ace #dg #eb #gid #eah ,g4 ,soaorib #bb #aj #edce #ag #dh #a1cig 99 #ega ,adar ,aweib beacon4 #bb #aj #ejce #ed #j #fbj #ech ,g4 ,elba minor peak4#bb #aj #agcf #ai #cd #a1bag #fjf ,g4 ,soaorib summit4 #bb #aj #adce #ba #be #a1cdi #ih ,g4 ,muqsim cairn4 #bb #aj #aacd #a #ab #hbe #ehi ,mt4 near ,wadi summit4 #bb #aj #ajce #cj #de #a1bff ,baueiwai #ecg ,g4 ,elba highest #bb #aj #ccf #ba #eb #a1dce point4 #fag ,g4 ,mashushenai summit4 #bb #i #edce #di #de #fcd #fje ,g4 ,soaorib peak4 #bb #i #ejce #ba #de #a1chc #fgh ,g4 ,o ,sir ,eirab summit4 #bb #i #bdcf #bj #ef #hdb #fgg ,hill near ,w4 ,o ,sir #bb #i #gcf #ae #ef #gbd ,hadal #eai ,peak near ,wadi ,kirir #bb #h #bdce #ah #bg #a1cbh #dfe ,g4 ,soaorib #bb #h #bbce #bc #cf #a1dca #eij ,mt4 ,n4 of ,wadi ,adar ,,ne4 peak4 #bb #h #afce #ca #b #a1bid ,ameit el ,sharqi #fgj ,hill near ,wadi ,aqwem summit4 #bb #h #abce #dc #cj #gbd #egh ,hill near ,da-aiyob #bb #g #dece #dd #h #hcc ,wushaq #fha ,g4 ,hanquf minor peak4#bb #g #decf #af #ed #ghi #eia ,mt4 ,n4 of ,wadi ,adar ,,sw4 peak4 #bb #g #abce #bi #ed #a1bii ,ameit el ,sharqi #fhb ,g4 ,hanquf minor peak4#bb #f #ed #cf #ag #ah #hgg #ebd ,g4 ,um ,reddam summit4 #bb #f #bccd #ei #ee #a1aji #feg ,g4 ,miatit ,w4 peak4 #bb #f #adce #cd #ab #a1bbi #eaa ,mt4 near ,g4 ,egat summit #bb #e #eccd #ec #a #ihe #dhd ,g4 ,egat #bb #e #cicd #eb #ae #a1ade #ehf ,g4 ,miatit ,,se4 peak4 #bb #e #cfce #ce #cd #a1beg #fei ,mt4 near ,wadi ,adar peak4 #bb #e #bjce #be #cj #a1ddj ,ameit el ,gharbi #edj ,g4 ,hanquf ,n4 peak4 #bb #d #ebcf #ah #de #a1cig #deb ,hill near ,w4 ,di-ib summit4 #bb #d #adcf #a #cb #dia #fee ,g4 ,suruk ,e4 peak4 #bb #d #ajce #ch #g #a1jei #ehh ,g4 ,suruk highest #bb #c #ejce #ce #bh #a1cbg point4 #fgc ,hill near ,g4 ,suruk peak4 #bb #c #dfce #dj #af #hdf #fef ,g4 ,shendib #bb #c #djce #cf #a #a1bge #eae ,mt4 near ,g4 ,himeitra #bb #c #agce #ag #eb #a1acd #fhe ,g4 ,shendib #bb #c #hcf #ac #dd #a1dbg #eci ,g4 ,shendodai highest #bb #c #acf #be #ca #a1ebi peak4 #fgb ,hill near ,g4 ,suruk peak4 #bb #c #jce #dj #be #hdg #ffa ,g4 ,shiab #bb #b #egce #de #ah #hee 99 #fjg ,g4 ,hadarba beacon4 #bb #b #eccf #dg #bc #bag #fed ,g4 ,shiab highest #bb #b #eace #dd #g #ihg point4 #eag ,g4 ,himeitra summit4 #bb #b #dfce #ad #ai #a1bca #dgd ,g4 ,is cairn on #bb #b #cfce #bh #d #a1gcf summit4 #eii ,g4 ,is peak4 #bb #b #bdce #bg #ce #a1fei #fbg ,g4 ,shendodai ,s4 peak4 #bb #b #abcf #be #bb #a1cie #fhd ,hill near ,g4 ,shendib summit4 #bb #b #abcf #i #f #fja #fjj ,g4 ,is peak4 #bb #b #aace #bf #ef #a1eid #fga ,hill near ,g4 ,suruk #bb #a #edce #dj #bj #ijc #eic ,mt4 east of ,g4 ,is ,n4 peak4 #bb #a #chce #ca #ef #a1bij #egj ,g4 ,hanquf highest #bb #a #cbcf #bj #ad #a1dfe point4 #fdj ,g4 ,shendib peak4 #bb #a #bfcf #ad #dg #a1gbd #fda ,g4 ,shendib #bb #a #hcf #ad #ei #a1fih #eid ,mt4 east of ,g4 ,is ,s4 peak4 #bb #a #bce #ca #aa #a1dgd #fdb ,g4 ,shendib peak4 #bb #j #eacf #ae #j #a1fif #edc ,g4 ,shendib beacon4 #bb #j #dhcf #af #cj #a1iab #edf ,g4 ,shendib peak4 #bb #j #dfcf #ad #di #a1fgd #edd ,g4 ,shendib peak4 #bb #j #decf #af #aj #a1heb #fhg ,hill near ,g4 ,shellal summit4 #bb #j #djcf #i #b #fad #eeg ,g4 ,shellal peak4 #bb #j #cicf #cj #cj #a1bfi #ebi ,g4 ,shellal ,e4 peak4 #bb #j #cdcf #cj #de #a1bgi #egd ,g4 ,shellal highest #bb #j #aecf #bi #dj #a1dji point4 #ede ,g4 ,shendib peak4 #ba #ei #efcf #ag #f #a1hfc #edg ,g4 ,shendib #ba #ei #dicf #ae #db #a1ffh #eej ,g4 ,shendib #ba #ei #hcf #ad #af #a1efe #fde ,g4 ,shendib #ba #ei #gcf #ac #bb #a1bbg #edi ,g4 ,shendib #ba #ei #fcf #ad #dj #a1ebe #fdd ,g4 ,shendib #ba #ei #jcf #ae #bj #a1eeb #fdf ,g4 ,shendib #ba #eh #ehcf #ac #aa #a1aif #ffj ,low hill near ,w4 summit4 #ba #eh #bdcf #d #be #ejj ,shendib #eda ,g4 ,qeda ,e4 peak4 #ba #ef #bdcf #bh #aa #a1hej #edb ,g4 ,qeda ,w4 peak4 #ba #ef #afcf #bf #ab #a1hgb #ead ,hadal ,aweib summit4 #ba #eb #djce #bb #bf #a1ghj #fbh ,g4 ,asotriba highest #ba #ea #eecf #cj #bf #b1baf point4 #eea ,eir ,aweit peak4 #ba #ej #cjcf #bb #dh #a1gae #eeb ,eir ,aweit #ba #di #efcf #bc #a #a1fgh #efd ,g4 ,obkeik ,n4 peak4 #ba #di #eece #ci #dj #a1hcg #edh ,g4 ,asotriba ,s4 peak4 #ba #di #cjcf #cj #dj #b1jhb #efe ,g4 ,obkeik ,s4 peak4 #ba #di #fce #ci #bi #a1hef #eec ,eir ,aweit highest #ba #dg #egcf #bb #dj #a1hec peak4 #eed ,eir ,aweit peak4 #ba #dg #chcf #bb #cb #a1gei #feh ,adar ,it sharp peak4#ba #dg #acf #ai #ad #a1agj #dji beacon4 #ba #dd #bacd #cf #ec -- #eeh ,arit peak4 #ba #dj #bfcf #bb #ej #a1ebi #eei ,arit #ba #ci #becf #bb #cb #a1ggb #ffc ,karai ,awa summit4 #ba #ci #ahcf #aj #ba #a1jef #efb ,arit peak4 #ba #ch #ccf #ah #eg #a1daj #efj ,arit highest #ba #cf #eacf #bc #bg #a1haj peak4 #efc ,arit high peak4 #ba #cf #acf #ai #eb #a1gbg #efa ,arit ,w4 end of #ba #ce #ejcf #bb #dh #a1ecb ridge4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,comparison of ,positions determined on the ,red ,sea with those previously found in ,official ,marine ,surveys4 ,it is interesting to compare the positions found for certain triangulation points with those determined by the ,british ,admiralty surveyors and by ,lieut4 ,koss1 who accompanied the ,austrian research-ship 8,pola0 in #ahie-f4gd ,the three best defined points of comparison are ,berenice temple1 the central peak of ,st4 ,john's ,island1 and ,halaib ,fort4 ,in the case of ,berenice and ,st4 ,john's ,island the observation of the two prior surveys were made at stations a little distance from my triangulation points1 but the published charts enable one to scale off the necessary corrections to reduce the positions to those of the triangulated points4 ,at ,berenice1 the ,british ,admiralty observation point1 for which the latitude is given as #bc #ef #af1 is #a #bf north of the temple1 so that the equivalent ,admiralty latitude for the temple is #bc #ed #ej4 ,similarly ,lieut4 ,koss's observation point1 where the latitude found was #bc #ef #bg1 is #a #dg north of the temple1 giving the latitude of the temple as #bc #ed #dj4 ,my triangulation gives the latitude of the temple as #bc #ed #ci1 thus showing a remarkably good agreement with that found by the 8,pola0 observer4 ,at ,st4 ,john's ,island1 owing to the smallness of the scale of the available charts1 it is a little more difficult to scale off accurately the ,admiralty position for the peak and the reduction to the peak of ,lieut4 ,koss's point4 ,as nearly as ,i can scale1 the ,admiralty latitude for the peak is #bc #cf #dj1 while the point where ,lieut4 ,koss observed his latitude of #bc #ce #dg1 near the south-west shore of the island1 is approximately #dj south of the peak1 giving the latitude of the peak as #bc #cf #bg4 ,i found the latitude of the peak to be #bc #cf #af1 thus again showing as good an agreement as could be expected1 having regard to the fact that it is not easy to scale the latitude of the point much within #aj from the existing charts4 ,at ,halaib ,fort1 the ,admiralty latitude is #bb #ad #aj1 while the 8,pola0 expedition found it #bb #ac #bf1 and my triangulation gave the value #bb #ac #be4 ,the close agreement between my triangulation value and that observed by ,lieut4 ,koss seems to prove the ,admiralty latitude of this point to be some #de too high4 ,summarizing the latitudes of the three points for comparison we have3-- ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,berenice ,st4 ,john's ,halaib ,fort4 ,temple4 ,peak4 ----------------------------------- ,admiralty ,chart #bc #ed #ejbc #cf #djbb #ad #aj 8,pola0 ,expedition #bc #ed #djbc #cf #bgbb #ac #bf ,ball 7,triangulation7#bc #ed #cibc #cf #afbb #ac #be ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,if we make corresponding comparisons of the longitudes of these three points1 ,berenice ,temple1 ,st4 ,john's ,peak1 and ,halaib ,fort1 we obtain much more wide divergences1 as is only to be expected from the fact that the ,admiralty and 8,pola0 determinations were made by transport of chronometers from ,suez1 which is over #ejj miles distant from ,halaib4 ,for ,berenice ,temple the ,admiralty longitude 7obtained by applying the scaled reduction of #dj to the observed longitude #ce #bi #aa at the observation point7 is #ce #bh #ca4 ,lieut4 ,koss's transport of chronometers from ,suez via ,jidda leads to a longitude of #cc #cj #bj for his observation point1 which lies #ed east of the temple2 thus the 8,pola0 longitude for the temple is #ce #bi #bf4 ,my triangulation gives #ce #bh #bf1 thus agreeing very nearly with the ,admiralty value and differing by exactly #a from the value found by ,lieut4 ,koss4 ,for ,st4 ,john's ,peak1 the longitude scaled from the ,admiralty ,chart is #cf #aj #bj4 ,the observations of ,lieut4 ,koss lead to a longitude of #cf #ab #ch for his observation point1 which is about #ce west of the peak2 thus the 8,pola0 longitude for the peak is #cf #ac #ac4 ,my triangulation gives #cf #aa #db1 being thus between the ,admiralty and 8,pola0 values4 ,for ,halaib ,fort1 the ,admiralty longitude is #cf #cg #c1 while ,lieut4 ,koss's figures lead to the value #cf #dj #ch2 my triangulation gives #cf #ch #ef1 thus again showing a value between the two marine determinations4 ,summarizing the longitudes obtained for the three points1 we have3-- ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,berenice ,st4 ,john's ,halaib ,fort4 ,temple4 ,peak4 ----------------------------------- ,admiralty ,chart #ce #bh #cacf #aj #bjcf #cg #c 8,pola0 ,expedition #ce #bi #bfcf #ac #accf #dj #ch ,ball 7,triangulation7#ce #bh #bfcf #aa #dbcf #ch #ef ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,there can1 of course1 be no doubt of the immensely greater accuracy of the triangulation method of determining longitude as compared with that of chronometer transport in voyages lasting for months1 no matter how many chronometers are carried nor what care is taken in the work4 ,the above differences of longitude are small when one considers that no absolute control of the chronometer of the 8,pola0 expedition was obtained from ,october #bc1 #ahie1 when the ship left ,suez1 till its return to the same port on ,january #bg1 #ahif4 ,if we examine the difference of longitude between points fairly close together1 we find rather better agreement between chronometers and triangulation4 ,thus1 for instance1 between ,berenice and ,halaib1 a six days' voyage1 we have3-- ---------------------------------------- ------- ,longitude by ,longitude by ,chronometers ,triangulation 7,koss74 7,ball74 --------------------------- ,halaib ,fort #cf #dj #ch #cf #ch #ef ,berenice ,temple #ce #bi #bf #ce #bh #bf --------------------------- ,difference #a #aa #ab #a #aj #cj ---------------------------------------- ------- showing an error of only #db1 or about three seconds of time in the six days4 ,the triangulation-positions3-- ---------------------------------------- ----- ,latitude ,n4 ,longitude ,e4 --------------------------- ,berenice ,temple #bc #ed #ci #ce #bh #bf ,st4 ,john's ,peak #bc #cf #af #cf #aa #db ,halaib ,fort #bb #ac #be #cf #ch #ef ---------------------------------------- ----- may therefore be taken as practically correct1 and the three points may be used as well-determined positions both for further discussion of the 8,pola0 results and in further surveying expeditions in the ,red ,sea4#ge ,detail ,surveying along ,lines of ,march4 ,all detail visible along lines of march from camp to camp was recorded on plane-table sheets on a scale of #a3ajj1jjj4 ,the usual process was as follows3 ,the plane-table sheet was first provided with a graticule at #aj intervals of latitude and longitude1 and all the triangulation points previously fixed within the area covered by the sheet were marked in their computed places4 ,stations were chosen along the route at an average distance apart of two or three kilometres1 the most commanding hills being selected1 and the positions of these were found by plane-table re-section from three or more triangulation points4 ,the compass1 being frequently disturbed by magnetic rocks1#gf was only used to get a first approximation to the true orientation of the table4 ,the plane-table station having been fixed on the map1 tacheometric readings were taken to all conspicuous points easy of access within a radius of about two kilometres1 and plotted at their measured distances along the directions given by the alidade4 ,in the telemetric measurements a #e-;inch tacheometer was used side by side with the plane-table1 and two staff-men were employed4 ,as the scale of the map was small1 the sights were much longer than is usual in tacheometry1 and the maximum distance of #hjj metres directly readable by the four-metre staves employed was generally exceeded4 ,for the long distance readings1 where the distance between two cross-wires subtended more than the length of the staff1 ,i devised the following process4 ,bringing the centre wire to the base of the staff1 a reading of the vertical circle was taken2 next1 by the tangent-screw1 the wire was brought to the top of the staff1 and a second reading of the vertical circle was taken1 the difference giving the angle subtended by the four-metre staff4 ,it is clear that the distance is as many times greater than #hjj metres1 as the angle subtended is less than #ag of arc1 and the distance is thus found by simple proportion4 ,in the case of very long sights1 even this method failed1 because the circle could only be read to half-minutes1 which was too coarse a graduation to give a good result1 and in these cases the method used was one of repetition4 ,the wire being brought to the base of the staff as before1 and a first reading of the vertical circle taken1 the wire was brought to the top of the staff by the tangent screw1 then to the bottom again by altering the levelling screws slightly1 again to the top by the tangent screw1 and so on1 three or four times1 and then a second reading was taken on the vertical circle4 ,the slight alteration of level had no sensible influence on the result1 and it is obvious that by automatically summing up1 say1 four intercepts in this way1 a very much more accurate value of the subtense angle was obtained than was possible from a single measurement4 ,in practice ,i found it was best to carry in the waistcoat pocket a card giving the distance corresponding to any number of minutes of difference of reading after a four-fold repetition1 and it was quite practicable to measure up to three kilometres of distance within one hundred metres of the truth2 as this only represented a millimetre on the sheet1 and as1 moreover1 errors were not cumulative1 owing to the independent fixation of each successive station by re-section1 the accuracy was all that could be desired1 and the rapidity of measurement was very great4 ,in this long distance type of tacheometry1 finely graduated staves were of no use2 the form of staff employed was a broad-faced one1 fifteen centimetres wide1 bearing fifty-centimetre divisions painted alternately black and white right across the whole breadth of the staff4#gg ,an average of about six or eight conspicuous points having been telemetrically fixed from a station1 the detail was sketched in around them1 and other more distant points were at the same time fixed by plane-table intersections from several stations4 ,at the stations the pencil sketching of relief was by form-lines which were subsequently replaced by hachure-rendering when inking up the sheets in camp4 ,occasionally1 when a high hill-station was employed overlooking a long wadi1 time was saved by reading only two distances1 both in the same wadi1 one very near to the station and the other two or three kilometres away1 at the same time observing the depression-angles to these points4 ,the slope of the wadi being found in this way1 the depression-angles to intermediate points gave the distances of such points without the necessity of staff reading at the intermediate points at all4 ,thus1 suppose the near point was close under the station1 with a distance of #ejj metres and a depression-angle of #ah1 while the remote point up the wadi had a distance of three kilometres and a depression-angle of #b #cj4 ,by means of a slide rule or three-figure logarithms1 the near point was found to be #afc metres below the station1 and the distant one #acj metres4 ,a point in the wadi estimated roughly as half way between the two would be about #adf metres below the station2 so that if the observed depression-angle to it was1 say1 #d #dj1 its distance would be #adf_/7tan #d #dj71 or #ah kilometres4 ,any possible error of preliminary estimation of the distance in order to find the level would be without sensible influence on the resulting true distance4 ,the process of traversing between stations was seldom resorted to1 as the method of fixing stations by re-section from triangulation points is much more accurate 7the errors not being cumulative7 besides being more rapid4 ,but in certain tortuous caon-like wadis1 where great and time-consuming climbs would have had to be undertaken in order to see any triangulation points1 the method of traversing with the tacheometer had to be employed4 ,levels along the line of march were measured trigonometrically whenever possible2 the vertical angles to one or more triangulation points being read with the tacheometer1 and the distances scaled off the map1 the differences of height1 corrected for refraction1 were found by the slide rule in the same manner as in the triangulation already described4 ,heights of passes and camps whence no triangulation points were visible were determined by barometer-comparisons between them and points of precisely determined altitude4 ,names of places were written down by the guides in ,arabic characters on the spot where they were ascertained1 and transliterated on the ,egyptian ,government system for insertion in the map4 ,most of the place-names were checked by getting the guides to give them from several different stations4 ,detail ,surveying at ,occupied ,triangulation ,stations4 ,it was generally necessary to remain for at least a week on the mountain summits which formed the main triangulation stations1 for only on about one day in seven was the air clear enough for sighting the beacons on the longer lines4 ,occasionally the entire landscape was blotted out for ten or more consecutive days by clouds surrounding the summit1 while at other times it was possible to see only for a limited distance round the station owing to haze4 ,such times were made use of to map all visible detail within a moderate range 7say within a radius of twelve kilometres7 round the station4 ,in this work the first stage was to find a small base1 one end of which was the station itself4 ,usually a minor peak of the same range1 #ejj to #a1jjj metres away from the station1 was fairly easily accessible1 and was chosen for the other end of the base4 ,the six-inch theodolite being at the main station1 the five-inch tacheometer was set up at the auxiliary station1 and all noteworthy hill tops1 as well as a few points along each main line of drainage1 were triangulated off this small base4 ,the length of the base was found by including one or two main triangulation points in the round of angles4 ,these minor triangles were conveniently reduced by the slide rule1 and the points plotted at once on the plane-table by means of the alidade and the calculated distances4 ,the base being short1 it was necessary to observe to fine marks2 cracks in the rocks1 and the droppings of birds on the peaks1 and the centres of selected tree trunks in the wadis1 were usually chosen4 ,the levels of these minor points were determined by vertical angulation in the ordinary way4 ,usually about thirty points were thus fixed round each high station4 ,once a number of points were fixed in the wadis1 the levels of these gave the slope1 and the difference of height between any other parts of the wadis and the station could be estimated to within a few metres by means of the knowledge thus obtained4 ,a sketch being now made of the wadis1 which appeared spread out almost like a map below the station1 a hundred or more points along them were selected1 and their depths below the station being very approximately known from the wadi slope1 their distances were found by observing depression angles to them and reducing the vertical triangle by means of the slide rule on the spot4 ,in all1 therefore1 measurements were usually made of the distances of from #ajj to #bjj conspicuous points in the area round the station1 and when these were plotted with the alidade on the plane-table sheet it was not difficult to sketch in all the detail with considerable accuracy4 ,usually it was not possible to see all round the mountain from the station itself1 so that subsidiary plane-table stations near the main one were necessary4 ,in other cases more than one small base was measured in order to get good angles to various points by the minor triangulation4 ,by the combined use of minor triangulation for peaks1 and vertical angulation for points situated along drainage lines1 it was found that far more sketching could be done in a few days at a main station than would have been possible in the same time by tacheometric work on the lower ground1 and that of greater accuracy4 ,more than half of the entire detail sketching was in fact done at the main stations4 ,survey of the ,coast-line4 ,in the earlier portion of the work1 i4e41 north of latitude #bd1 the work on the coast-line was confined to the fixation of prominent points such as spurs and tips of islands4 ,some of these were fixed as intersected points during the triangulation1 while others were determined by observing the depression angle and azimuth to them from trigonometrical stations of known altitude4 ,in this latter method1 taking the mean coefficient of refraction as #jac1 the formula#gh employed was d #cedig 7 #aafba h7 where d distance in metres1 depression angle in seconds1 and h altitude of station in metres4 ,this formula is rather tedious to work out1 though the work is relatively not so great if a number of points are to be calculated from observations at the same station4 ,prominent points having been fixed in this way1 the coast-line north of #bd was sketched in from the ,admiralty ,chart1 adjusting the longitude to fit the points fixed4 ,it was sometimes a little difficult1 however1 to identify the fixed points on the existing charts1 and hence ,i tried to find some process of surveying the entire remaining coast-line de novo in detail4 ,traversing along the coast was placed out of question by the great expenditure of time and money which it would have entailed4 ,eventually ,i was led to devise a new method1 by which long stretches of coast-line could be mapped by polar co-ordinates from mountain stations with great speed and accuracy4 ,the directions of a series of points sufficiently close together along the coast were taken by theodolite1 and the depression angles simultaneously observed with the vertical circle4 ,then1 instead of computing the distances to the points1 they were plotted by a special scale graduated directly in angles of dip2 by thus doing away with all calculation at the station1 it was possible to lay down the points on the chart as fast as the observations could be taken1 usually at the rate of four or five points a minute1 and it was frequently possible to map thirty kilometres or more of coast-line in an hour with great accuracy4 ,as ,i have given a full account of this new method in a separate publication1#gi ,i shall not go into it further here1 but would refer those interested to the publication just mentioned4 ,with the aid of the new method the entire coast-line from just north of ,ras ,benas southwards to the parallel of #bb1 a distance of over #bjj miles1 was mapped in detail on the #ajj1jjj scale4 ,i had frequent opportunities of testing the accuracy of the delineation of the coast1 both by mapping the same stretch from two widely-distant stations of different heights1 and by subsequently surveying small portions of the coast directly by plane-table and tacheometer from triangulation points on or near the coast2 and in all cases ,i found the accuracy to be very high1 the differences found rarely exceeding the thickness of a line on the map4 ,the tides in the ,red ,sea are so small in range 7generally only about a metre7 that variations of sea-level were practically negligible during the operations4 ,bearing in mind the great difficulties attending the survey of so inhospitable a coast by the ordinary method of traversing1 ,i believe the resulting outline of the coast on my maps is very much more correct than that shown on any previous charts4 ,an accurate delineation of the coast-line in this region is of course chiefly of value as indicating the extent of land2 it is of little importance to the navigator1 for whom the positions of the outlying dangerous reefs1 mapped by the ,admiralty surveyors1 are far more important4 ,location of the ,administrative ,boundary between ,egypt and the ,sudan4 ,by an ,arrt of the ,ministry of ,interior issued in #aijb it was enacted that the boundary between the administrative divisions of ,egypt and the ,sudan should be as follows3-- ,commencing at ,bir ,shalatein on the coast of the ,red ,sea1 the limit runs to ,bir ,meneiga1 thence to ,gebel ,niqrub1 thence to ,gebel ,um el ,tiur and to ,deiga4 ,from ,deiga the line continues to ,bir ,esmet ,omar1 thence to ,gebel ,bartazuga1 and finally to the ,nile at ,korosko4 ,this frontier was defined after a commission had sat1 at the ,mudiria of ,aswn1 to make enquiries as to the vested rights of the ,bedouin tribes1 the guiding principle being that all ,bisharin tribes should be under ,sudan administration1 and all ,ababda tribes 7with one exception7 under the ,government of ,egypt4 ,a map accompanied the decision1 but was of a very rough character1 and the positions of the points specified were not known within several miles4 ,part of my work comprised the precise fixation of the points specified in the ,arrt1 with a view to laying down the boundary accurately on a map4 ,as was natural in the case of a boundary settled without careful reference to the ground1 certain difficulties arose in the location4 ,in the first place1 there are two distinct ,gebels ,niqrub1 and two distinct ,gebels ,um el ,tiur4 ,i assumed the higher mountain of each pair to be the one indicated4 ,secondly1 the precise point of the mountain was unspecified2 ,i assumed the highest peak to be the point referred to4 ,thirdly1 the text of the ,arrt disagrees with the map accompanying it1 in that the map shows the line curved to pass close to ,gebel ,mishbih1 which is not mentioned in the ,arrt4 ,i assumed the text of the order to be determinative1 and that between the points specified the limit followed great circles on the globe1 i4e41 practically straight lines on the map4 ,the locality called ,deiga was not visited1 and can only be approximately fixed2 it is said by guides to be a narrow road near ,gebel ,muqsim1 of which mountain several peaks were fixed by triangulation4 ,the following table gives the positions found for the various points along the boundary from the sea to the meridian of #cd 7#a7 from my survey operations1 and 7#b7 as scaled from the map accompanying the ,ministerial ,arrt4 ,a comparison of the two sets of positions will show how much the survey has added to our knowledge of the geography of this part of the desert4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,latitude ,n4 ,longitude ,e4 ,point4 ---------------------------------------- ------- ,from my ,from ,from my ,from ,survey4 ,arrt ,map4 ,survey4 ,arrt ,map4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,bir ,shalatein #bc #h #ebb #ci #jce #cf #bhcf #b #cj ,bir ,meneiga #bb #dg #hbb #da #cjce #ab #bjce #b #cj ,gebel ,niqrub 7,el #bb #ea #bibb #dh #jcd #ef #dhcd #ea #j ,foqani7 ,gebel ,um el ,tiur #bb #ag #edbb #ah #cjcd #da #acd #cb #j 7,el ,foqani7 ,deiga 7approx47 #bb #aj #jbb #i #jcd #a #jcd #c #j ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,variation of the ,compass4 ,careful observations were made of the variation of the compass at three stations1 viz41 ,berenice ,temple1 ,abu ,saafa ,springs1 and near ,halaib ,fort1#hj these three points being selected as being well-known places and at the same time likely to be free from local magnetic disturbance4 ,berenice is on the coast-plain where only coral and sand occur2 ,abu ,saafa is in a sandstone district about #ajj kilometres south-west of ,berenice1 and ,halaib is on the calcareous and gypseous rocks of the coast about #bbj kilometres south-east of ,abu ,saafa4 ,the instrument used was a five-inch theodolite fitted with a good trough compass4 ,a lens was used to bring the needle accurately to zero1 and the sun or a star was employed to find the true meridian4 ,in each case several observations1 each with an independent setting of the needle1 were made1 and the mean taken4 ,the values obtained were3-- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,place4 ,date and ,time4 ,compass-,variation ,west4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,berenice ,temple ,january #f1 #aijg1 #ecj p4m4 #b #dd ,abu ,saafa ,springs ,october #be1 #aijg1 #d p4m4 #b #cg ,near ,halaib ,fort ,may #g1 #aijh1 #aj a4m4 #b #ah ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,in order to find to what degree of accuracy the results of these determinations might be relied on1 the instrument used was tested against the ,kew magnetometer at the ,khedivial ,observatory1 ,helwn1 after the completion of the work4 ,three observations for the declination at ,helwn gave the westerly variation as #b #dab #b #ehh #b #eej -------- ,mean #b #eej -------- while the true declination as given by the ,kew magnetometer at the same time was #b #eb #e4 ,thus it appears reasonable to believe the observed values to be within about #e of the truth4 ,it is rather curious to note that the declination observed at ,abu ,saafa is less than that at ,berenice1 which lies further east1 even if allowance is made for the secular change in the interval4 ,the difference from what one would expect is1 however1 possibly owing to errors of observation of the magnitude above-mentioned1 or it may be due to a slight local influence of magnetic rocks underground at ,abu ,saafa1 where the ground is near to the base of the ,nubian sandstone beds1 which rest presumably on eruptive and metamorphic rocks4 ,it is interesting to compare the observations of declination at ,berenice and ,halaib with those recorded by ,,rossler#ha at the same places in #ahie4 ,thus we have3-- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,berenice4 ,mersa ,halaib4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,rossler1 ,nov4 #bg1 #ahie #c #ed ,rossler1 ,nov4 #ah1 #ahie #c #cf ,ball1 ,jan4 #f1 #aijg #b #dd ,ball1 ,may #g1 #aijh #b #ah --------- ---------- ,diff4 in #aaa years#a #aj ,diff4 in #abe years#a #ah ,yearly decrease #fc ,yearly decrease #fc ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,we thus arrive at a yearly secular diminution of declination of #f #c1 confirming the value arrived at by ,mr4 ,,keeling#hb for the rate of secular change in the ,red ,sea area from a comparison of other observations4 ,it may be therefore concluded that the rate of #c per annum given in the 8,admiralty ,pilot0#hc is only about half the true value4 ,travellers in the ,eastern ,desert should exercise care in the reliance they place on compass bearings4 ,bearings taken with a compass are generally normal in granite and sandstone country2 but wherever dark igneous and metamorphic rocks abound1 disturbances are likely to occur4 ,local deviations of #e to #aj are quite common1 and in some serpentine areas even #dj of disturbance may be observed4 ,in some places1 one can deflect the needle through a large angle by means of a fragment of the rock no larger than a nut1 so rich are some of the basic rocks in magnetic minerals4 ,some lumps of rock even show strong polarity1 attracting or repelling the north pole of the needle according as one part or another of the lump is presented to it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,footnote #fb3 ,this measurement was made in conjunction with ,messrs4 ,villiers ,stuart1 ,charteris ,stewart1 and ,clarke4 ,footnote #fc3 ,the logarithms ,a1 ,b1 and ,c are taken from ,merriman's ,precise ,surveying and ,geodesy1 #ahii1 #bee4 p4 ,footnote #fd3 ,,chauvenet 7,spherical and ,practical ,astronomy1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #bhc7 shows that when both latitude and time are required1 the three stars should differ in azimuth by #abj to give the most accurate results4 ,but when only the latitude is required the stars are best selected near to the meridian north and south of the zenith4 ,this is evident by considering that if two stars could be observed to culminate at the same altitude on opposite sides of the zenith1 the latitude would be precisely determined independently of any reference to time4 ,footnote #fe3 ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,b4 ,h4 ,wade1 of the ,survey ,department1 for drawing my attention to this method4 ,footnote #ff3 ,the signs of the coefficients follow from those of the trigonometrical functions2 but it is useful to remember that the coefficient of d is or according as the star is north or south1 while that of d,t is or according as the star is east or west of the meridian4 ,footnote #fg3 ,,chauvenet1 ,astronomy1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #bhc4 ,footnote #fh3 ,in this connexion it is interesting to note that as the general level of the country to the south of ,gebel ,um ,heshenib is some #bej metres higher than that to the north of it1 the plumb-line will be deflected to the south by local attraction1 thus explaining why the observed latitude at that station exceeds by so much the value calculated from the triangulation4 ,berenice temple1 on the other hand1 is on a coast-plain remote from mountains1 and the observed latitude agrees closely with the calculated one4 ,footnote #fi3 ,the method of observation and reduction was that usually described in text books of field astronomy4 ,see1 for instance1 ,michie and ,harlow's ,practical ,astronomy1 #aijb1 pp4 #afa-afh1 and the tables on pp4 #aih-bja of the same work4 ,footnote #gj3 ,the ,sudan ,survey's positions are all south-east of those which ,i obtained for the same points4 ,footnote #ga3 ,for calculations of this type and for tacheometric and other reductions in the field1 the ,nessler 8,universal0 slide rule1 which is specially designed for surveyors1 was found to be a most valuable time-saver4 ,see my paper in the ,cairo ,scientific ,journal1 8,on the ,use of the ,slide-rule in ,surveying10 ,dec4 #aijg4 ,footnote #gb3 ,a careful discussion which ,i have recently undertaken of the entire series of reciprocal observations made during the three seasons' work shows that k varies according to the altitude of the lines and according as the lines pass over land or sea4 ,i hope later to publish a separate account of this discussion1 which has an important bearing on the vertical distribution of temperature in the air4 ,but ,i may here state that for overland lines the formula k #jaejc #jjjjjafd 7h #hcj71 where h is the mean altitude of the line in metres1 gives a good agreement with the observations2 while on oversea lines at altitudes above #ajj metres k is always very near to #jace4 ,the errors in the resulting altitudes of intersected points due to the uniform employment of k #jac1 are very trifling1 and will seldom exceed one or two metres2 for example1 at a distance of thirty kilometres the substitution of k #jaf for k #jac will only change the altitude by two metres4 ,footnote #gc3 ,this number #abaj represents the significant figures of #ajfhd1 #fhd metres being the correction given by 7#a k7_/#br d for a distance of ten kilometres4 ,footnote #gd3 ,berichte der ,commission fr ,oceanographische ,forschungen1 ,sechste ,reihe1 ,wien1 #ahih1 pp4 #ac1 #ad4 ,footnote #ge3 ,in particular1 the adoption of the above three longitudes as of equal accuracy with ,suez will lead to a better longitude for ,jidda4 ,the longitude of ,jidda is at present fixed only by chronometer transport from ,suez1 a distance of some #fej miles2 but by regarding ,halaib as a fixed point the distance of comparison can be reduced to #aej miles4 ,the data for this revision of the longitude of ,jidda already exist in the ,reports of the 8,pola0 expedition1 and the discussion is certainly worth undertaking before any future surveys are conducted in the central portion of the ,red ,sea4 ,footnote #gf3 ,the disturbance of the needle was of course most frequent in the areas where dark igneous and metamorphic rocks prevailed2 in these regions disturbances of #aj were very frequent1 and in some cases1 as for example on the serpentine deposits of ,sikait1 as much as #dj was noticed4 ,in the sandstone areas no disturbances were marked4 ,footnote #gg3 ,i have given a somewhat fuller account of this process in a little paper on 8,long-distance ,tacheometry40 ,cairo ,scientific ,journal1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 ,february #aiaj4 ,footnote #gh3 ,,jordan1 ,handbuch der ,vermessungskunde4 ,stuttgart1 #ahig4 ,bd4 ,,ii1 p4 #ebb4 ,footnote #gi3 ,a ,new ,method of ,coast ,surveying1 ,survey ,department ,paper1 ,no4 #ba4 ,cairo1 #aiaa4 ,footnote #hj3 ,the observations at ,halaib were made at a point far enough from the fort to avoid any chance of disturbance by the iron rails which form part of the building4 ,footnote #ha3 ,berichte der ,commission fr ,oceanographische ,forschungen1 ,sechste ,reihe4 ,wien1 #ahih4 pp4 #bba1 #bbc4 ,footnote #hb3 ,magnetic ,observations in ,egypt1 #ahie-aije1 ,survey ,dept4 ,paper1 ,no4 #f4 ,cairo1 #aijg4 p4 #ah4 ,footnote #hc3 ,red ,sea and ,gulf of ,aden ,pilot4 #eth edition4 #aijj4 p4 #g4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,wadis ,,draining ,,westwards ,,to ,,the ,,nile4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it has been already mentioned 7p4 #ba7 that all the drainage westward from the main watershed ultimately reaches the ,nile by the three great trunk ,wadis ,shait1 ,kharit1 and ,alaqi4 ,in the present chapter a detailed description will be given of those parts of these wadis and their tributaries which are known within the area under discussion4 ,the following scheme shows the relations of the principal tributaries1 important feeders of the tributaries themselves being indicated in 7brackets73-- ,wadi ,dweig4 ,,wadi ,,shait ,wadi ,muelih 7,wadi ,gerf1 ,rod el ,ligah1 ,wadi ,sibrit74 ,wadi ,hamish4 ,wadi ,hilgit 7,wadi ,um ,hasidok1 ,wadi ,um el ,tiur74 ,wadi ,egat4 ,wadi el ,anbat4 ,wadi ,abarun4 ,wadi ,um ,daba4 ,wadi ,abu ,argub4 ,wadi ,safihat4 ,wadi ,um ,sellim4 ,wadi ,medsus4 ,,wadi ,,kharit ,wadi ,abu ,gurdi4 ,wadi ,elemikan 7,rod el ,geneina74 ,wadi ,abu ,hashim4 ,wadi ,helie4 ,wadi ,abu ,hamamid 7,wadi ,marasani1 ,wadi el ,sheikh74 ,rod el ,kharuf 7,wadi ,abu ,had74 ,wadi ,khashab 7,wadi ,metawit1 ,wadi ,antar74 ,wadi ,garara 7,wadi el ,kreim1 ,wadi ,timsah1 ,wadi ,ghadrib1 ,wadi ,abu ,hashim1 ,wadi ,abu ,homur74 ,wadi ,natash4 ,wadi ,himeitra4 ,miti ,kwan 7,wadi ,duag1 ,wadi ,kirir1 ,wadi ,merau1 ,wadi ,miaus74 ,wadi ,dageina4 ,wadi ,alfawi4 ,wadi ,egat 7,wadi ,hiteib74 ,wadi ,hateib 7,wadi ,suhin74 ,,wadi ,,alaqi ,wadi ,guqub4 ,wadi ,um ,teneideb4 ,wadi ,defeit 7,wadi ,sarid1 ,wadi ,dauriai1 ,wadi ,hamida1 ,wadi ,bint el ,feqoh1 ,wadi ,anweiyib1 ,wadi ,meladoyeb1 ,rod ,hawanin1 ,wadi ,bagharid74 ,wadi ,eleifat4 ,wadi ,seiga 7,wadi ,um ,derera1 ,wadi ,abu ,had1 ,wadi ,um ,gholqa74 ,most of the drainage-lines mentioned in the description will be found marked on the orographical map which forms ,plate ,i2 but the scale of that map is too small for all the minor feeders to be indicated with clearness4 ,wadi ,shait1 an important main trunk wadi draining westwards to the ,nile1 originates at the west foot of ,gebel ,ras ,shait1 in lat4 #bd #ej1 long4 #cd #ca1 and joins the ,nile ,valley a little to the north of ,kom ,ombo4 ,it has a total length of very nearly #bjj kilometres1 and an average fall of three metres per kilometre4 ,the fall is much more rapid in the upper reaches than lower down2 in the first fifty-five kilometres of its length1 from the foot of ,gebel ,ras ,shait to ,bir ,um ,gubur1 the fall is #cdj metres1 or an average gradient of six metres per kilometre1 while from ,bir ,um ,gubur1 for the remaining #adj kilometres of its course1 its fall is only #bej metres1 or an average gradient of less than two metres per kilometre4 ,the head of ,wadi ,shait is formed by the union of a number of drainage channels from a kind of cul-de-sac formed by ,gebels ,migif1 ,ras ,shait1 and ,mudergeg1 where it is separated from the heads of ,wadi ,gerf and ,wadi ,hafafit by flat sandy divides4 ,passing in a south-westerly direction to the west of ,gebel ,migif and ,gebel ,dweig1 it receives as a tributary ,wadi ,dweig 7in which are the ruins of an ancient station7 on the left4 ,taking thence a more westerly course it traverses more open country1 and then narrows among hills north-west of the remarkable peak of ,gebel ,abu ,khrug4 ,at a bend further on is ,bir ,murra1 a shallow well sunk in the alluvium of the wadi floor at the foot of a serpentine scarp2 the water here 7as the name of the well indicates7 is very bitter1 and is generally drunk only by camels4 ,after passing ,bir ,murra1 the wadi turns south-west1 then curves again near ,bir ,um ,gubur1 about three kilometres south-east of ,gebel ,sufra1 and about twelve kilometres below ,bir ,murra4 ,bir ,um ,gubur is a shaft about two and a half metres diameter1 sunk about eight metres deep in the alluvium of the wadi2 it was yielding good supplies of excellent water in #aijf4 ,about ten kilometres below ,bir ,um ,gubur1 ,wadi ,hamish joins ,wadi ,shait from the north-east4 ,in the remainder of the course of ,wadi ,shait to the ,nile1 the principal water source is ,bir ,heliwat1#hd about ten kilometres below the point of influx of ,wadi ,hamish1 and the chief tributary wadis are ,muelih1 ,beza1 and ,midrik1 all of which join it from the north-east4 ,the upper portions of ,wadi ,shait contain a fair abundance of trees and scrub1 but the lower parts are sandy arid wastes4 ,wadi ,muelih originates in the mountain called ,gebel ,iteima1 in lat4 #be #h4 ,for about sixteen kilometres its course lies ill-defined over a sandy plain with scattered low hills1 to ,erf el ,fahid1 a remarkable east and west quartz ridge nearly two kilometres long rising among crushed diorites and schists to a height of #egi metres above sea1 or ninety-five metres above the wadi1 in lat4 #be #j4 ,after passing ,erf el ,fahid1 the course of the wadi changes to south-west1 and gradually becomes more enclosed by low hills4 ,the first hills passed on the right are high ridges formed by great quartz veins striking south-west1 at the foot of which the wadi forms a plain nearly a kilometre broad1 with low hills and mounds of dark gneisses and schists on the left4 ,at ten kilometres below ,erf el ,fahid1 on the left of the wadi1 is a horse-shoe shaped hill of aplite called ,marwot ,rod el ,ligaia1 to the north and south of which are other hills penetrated by networks of quartz veins4 ,two kilometres further on1 a band of diorite gneiss cuts across the wadi1 which then commences to narrow in among hills of crushed diorites1 grey gneisses1 and schists1 with many dykes of porphyrite and felsite4 ,these hills become progressively higher as one descends1 and near the meridian of #cd the wadi curves round the foot of ,gebel ,muelih1 a great bare white granite boss rising through darker rocks to a height of #ccj metres above the wadi1 or #gjg metres above sea4 ,just after passing ,gebel ,muelih the wadi1 which has here a width of only some #bjj metres1 turns south-west again4 ,at this turn1 nearly in the centre of the wadi floor1 is ,bir ,muelih1 an excavation about six metres deep in the alluvium1 yielding very salt water drinkable only by camels4 ,north-east of the well a track strikes over the hills towards ,dungash mine4 ,from ,bir ,muelih the wadi continues in a roughly south-west direction past ,bir ,samut 7well about one kilometre north of ,wadi ,muelih7 and then takes a more southerly course draining into ,wadi ,shait in longitude #cc #df4 ,the wadi floor falls from a level of #dhd metres near ,erf el ,fahid to #cge metres at ,bir ,muelih1 the length of the wadi between the two places being about twenty-seven kilometres2 this gives an average fall of about four metres per kilometre2 the actual gradient varies from about two metres per kilometre in the broader portions to over six metres per kilometre in the more enclosed parts of the wadi4 ,the upper parts of ,wadi ,muelih are barren and sandy1 but the lower portions contain a fair amount of vegetation4 ,the principal feeders of ,wadi ,muelih are ,wadi ,gerf1 which enters by several openings on the left above ,gebel ,muelih1 ,wadi ,samut1 entering on the right in long4 #cc #ed1 and ,wadi ,sibrit1 entering on the left in long4 #cc #ej4 ,wadi ,gerf is the collective name given to a number of rather complicated drainage channels forming tributaries to ,wadi ,muelih4 ,the principal heads are to the east and west of ,gebel ,nugrus4 ,the eastern head is called ,wadi ,hangalia2 it commences at about an altitude of #haa metres due east of the highest point of ,gebel ,nugrus1 at a difficult pass leading over the main watershed to ,wadi el ,nom1 and curves round the north spurs of ,gebel ,nugrus to join the western head4 ,in the ,wadi ,hangalia are some old ruins of a mining camp1 and also some recent prospecting workings and a well giving a poor supply of water4 ,the ,western head of ,wadi ,gerf commences in nearly level ground on the main divide west of ,gebel ,nugrus1 at an altitude of #fia metres4 ,these two main heads unite close to the east of ,gebel ,ras ,shait1 whence ,wadi ,gerf courses about north-west through low hills4 ,a third head is in lat4 #bd #eb1 at a pass leading into ,wadi ,um ,khariga4 ,a fourth1 called ,rod el ,atut1 takes the drainage from all sides of the conspicuous black cone of ,gebel ,atut4 ,a fifth1 called ,rod ,um el ,farag1 drains from the mass of moderately high hills further west called ,um el ,huetat2 these hills contain some old mines1 chiefly in talc schists4 ,the drainages from these various heads all eventually take a west-south-west course among low hills and over a sandy plain and enter ,wadi ,muelih by several openings near longitude #cd4 ,minor tributaries are ,wadi ,abu ,seyal and ,wadi ,um ,seyal1 south-east of ,gebel ,atut1 ,rod el ,ligaia1 in longitude #cd #aj2 and ,rod el ,ligah1 in latitude #bd #ej4 ,the principal hills of the plain over which ,wadi ,gerf and its tributaries run their course are some very remarkable small black peaks collectively called ,khusa el ,faraon1 a light coloured hill called ,marwot ,rod el ,ligah1 and a ridge called ,erf el ,sagur2 these two last rise to #ead and #ebc metres above sea-level respectively4 ,wadi ,gerf possesses a fair amount of vegetation1 except where it meanders over the sandy plains2 in the tributaries ,wadi ,um ,seyal and ,wadi ,abu ,seyal acacia trees are specially numerous4 ,wadi ,sibrit is a long narrow wadi following a course somewhat south of west1 originating to the west of ,gebel ,mudergeg and joining ,wadi ,muelih in longitude #cc #ej4 ,it possesses many trees and a good well1 ,bir ,sibrit4 ,this latter is an excavation in the wadi floor1 in longitude #cc #eh2 it is said to yield a constant supply4 ,in the spring of #aijf ,i found the water was at a depth of eight metres below the surface1 and of good quality4 ,wadi ,kharit1 one of the greatest trunk wadis of ,egypt1 has its principal head at ,gebel ,ras el ,kharit1 on the main watershed in latitude #ad #aj and longitude #ce4 ,pursuing a course the prevailing direction of which is a little north of west1 and collecting the drainage from numerous great wadis on its way1 it debouches on the ,kom ,ombo plain and reaches the ,nile at the same point as another great wadi1 ,shait1 in latitude #bd #ce4 ,the length of the main channel is over #bfj kilometres1 and of its tributaries probably more than twenty times as great4 ,it drains an area of more than #bc1jjj square kilometres4 ,its average fall is about two metres per kilometre1 but in its lower reaches its gradient is less than half this amount4 ,the principal tributaries of ,wadi ,kharit1 which will be separately described1 are the ,wadis ,natash1 ,antar1 ,khashab1 ,abu ,hamamid1 ,elemikan1 and ,garara 7this last with ,wadis ,timsah and ,ghadrib as great feeders74 ,i now propose to trace out the course of the main wadi in some detail1 leaving its greater tributaries for separate description1 but including its minor feeders4 ,the main head of ,wadi ,kharit is on the ,nile-,red ,sea divide1 between ,gebel ,ras el ,kharit and ,gebel ,mikbi1 at an altitude of considerably more than #fjj metres above the sea4 ,the wadi at first courses a little south of west1 over a gently falling sandy plain with hills of bouldery granite1 and curves round the south spurs of ,gebel el ,anbat4#he ,here it receives two tributaries1 one from the north-west called ,wadi ,hilgit1 and one from the south-east called ,wadi ,egat4#hf ,wadi ,hilgit originates on the main watershed in longitude #cd #eb1 near ,gebel ,um ,usher4 ,a very steep and difficult pass over the watershed separates its head from that of another ,wadi ,hilgit draining northward to ,wadi ,huluz4 ,the two wadis are called ,wadi ,hilgit lil ,kharit and ,wadi ,hilgit lil ,huluz respectively when it is necessary to distinguish them4 ,on its course southward to ,kharit1 ,wadi ,hilgit receives as tributaries ,wadi ,um ,hasidok and ,wadi ,um el ,tiur1 draining the mountains of the same names4 ,wadi ,egat drains part of the west slopes of ,gebel ,abu ,gurdi and the south part of ,gebel ,egat1 for the first half of its course being shut in by high hills and for the latter half passing over a gently falling plain4 ,after passing ,gebel el ,anbat1 ,wadi ,kharit continues its course a little south of west1 in broad shallow drainage channels over a great sandy plain4 ,in this part of its course it receives many important feeders from the mountain masses which limit the plain to the north4 ,the principal of these feeders are the ,wadis ,anbat1 ,abarun1 ,um ,daba1 ,abu ,argub1 ,safihat1 ,um ,sellim1 and ,medsus4 ,near where ,wadi ,medsus enters1 ,wadi ,kharit takes a more southerly course1 passing north of a mass of low dark hills called ,gebel ,geneina1 and here it receives ,wadi ,abu ,gurdi1 draining the west slopes of the mountain of the same name1 the ill-defined ,wadi ,elemikan 7see p4 #hd71 draining the extensive plain south of ,gebel ,abu ,gurdi1 and the ,rod el ,geneina1 draining from the hills of ,geneina4 ,a little further on1 curving to the north-west1 it receives ,wadi ,abu ,hashim and ,wadi ,abu ,selili1 which drain the south flanks of ,gebel ,kahfa4 ,the next feeder is the ,wadi ,helie1 which drains the west slopes of ,gebel ,kahfa and enters ,kharit from the north-east2 a well1 ,bir ,helie1 exists in this wadi about eight kilometres above its junction with ,kharit4 ,the well appears to be of the same character as ,bir ,abu ,hamamid2 it was yielding plenty of good water in the spring of #aijf1 but in the autumn of the same year the supply was said to be smaller and rather salty4 ,about ten kilometres below the point of influx of ,wadi ,helie1 ,wadi ,kharit receives ,wadi ,abu ,hamamid 7see p4 #he71 coming from the north-east1 and some fourteen kilometres further on another tributary1 the ,rod el ,kharuf1 enters from the opposite side conveying the drainage from the north-west flanks of ,gebel ,zergat ,naam4 ,in the remaining portion of its course to the ,nile1 ,wadi ,kharit receives numerous other tributaries1 of which the principal are ,wadi ,khashab and ,wadi ,antar on the north1 and the ,wadi ,garara on the south 7see pp4 #hf and #hg74 ,on the whole1 ,wadi ,kharit is poor in vegetation2 trees are fairly abundant in the central portion of its course1 but both near its head and near the river it is very barren4 ,in consequence of its sandy and arid character near the ,nile1 it is not usual for caravans to journey along the wadi from its mouth2 ,arabs from ,daraw usually go up the tortuous and sandy ,wadi ,allawi1 and thence enter ,kharit either by the ,rod ,abu ,modellim or by a track among hills which leads eastward to ,bir ,qoleib4 ,bir ,qoleib is a good well in a small tributary of ,wadi ,kharit1 about seventy kilometres by road from the ,daraw4 ,from ,bir ,qoleib to the wells of ,abu ,hamamid and ,helie the westward journey is about #aaj kilometres1 while from ,bir ,qoleib to the well of ,abu ,hashim1 south-east 7on the road to ,abu ,saafa71 is a distance of about seventy-five kilometres4 ,wadi ,elemikan is the name given to an ill-defined system of drainage channels meandering over the plain south of ,gebel ,abu ,gurdi4 ,it originates on the main watershed1 and at its head there is a very easy pass over into the ,wadi ,lahami1 which descends to the sea4 ,at this point1 which is #eij metres above the sea1 the watershed is ill-defined1 being a sandy plain2 but while to the west the plain continues with only a slight fall1 to the east it soon gives place to rugged country through which narrow wadis descend rapidly towards the sea coast4 ,the plain west of the watershed is remarkable for the presence of three great bosses of quartz1 the largest of which1 called ,marwot ,elemikan1 rises as a conspicuous cone of dazzling whiteness to a height of sixty-eight metres above the plain4 ,besides the drainage from the plain itself1 ,wadi ,elemikan receives feeders from the hills which flank ,gebel ,abu ,gurdi to the south1 and also a portion of the drainage from the ,wadi ,abu ,gurdi1 which divides into two channels on emerging from the mountains4 ,passing between the granite hills of ,gebel ,abu ,derega and ,gebel ,selaia1 ,wadi ,elemikan courses a little north of westward over a great sandy plain to join the ,wadi ,kharit north of ,gebel ,geneina in longitude #cd #cf4 ,it is a barren wadi1 but water can sometimes be obtained a little north of it at a small spring called ,megal el ,selaia1 at the foot of a low hill one kilometre south-east of the great rounded granite boss of ,gebel ,selaia4 ,i obtained a small supply of very good water here early in #aijf1 but the spring is a very slow one and is said to fail altogether in dry seasons4 ,wadi ,abu ,hamamid1 an important tributary of ,wadi ,kharit1 originates as a series of gullies in the mountains of ,gebel ,abu ,hamamid1 on the west face of the main watershed1 in longitude #cd #dh4 ,it courses1 among high hills a little north of west to longitude #cd #da1 then turns south-west and enters the plain which extends to the west of ,bir ,shadli4 ,here it receives part of the drainage from ,wadi el ,sheikh1 and turns westward among lower hills1 passing north of the red hills called ,el ,hamra1 to ,bir ,abu ,hamamid1 and then turning south-west between ,el ,hamra and ,hamrat ,mukbud to join ,kharit in longitude #cd #bc4 ,bir ,abu ,hamamid is an important well2 it is a rude irregular excavation1 about six metres deep1 in the wadi floor1 down which men can walk to fill their water skins4 ,this well was yielding more plentiful supplies in the autumn of #aijf than any of the other wells in the neighbourhood2 the water was rather salty and muddy1 but quite drinkable4 ,from near ,bir ,abu ,hamamid1 a track leads north-westward over the hills to ,bir ,khashab and on to ,bir ,masur4 ,to reach ,bir ,shadli1 one follows up the ,wadi ,abu ,hamamid till it opens on to a plain1 and then strikes almost due eastward across the plain4 ,a small tributary which joins ,wadi ,abu ,hamamid from the north-east1 in longitude #cd #da1 called ,wadi ,marasani1 is important as leading to a pass over the main watershed into ,wadi ,marasan1 a tributary of ,wadi ,huluz4 ,the altitude of the pass is #fhe metres above sea2 it is quite practicable for baggage camels4 ,wadi el ,sheikh1 the only great tributary of ,wadi ,abu ,hamamid1 originates in longitude #cd #dj1 in the hilly tract west of ,gebel ,abu ,hamamid4 ,in the upper part of its course1 it is a narrow winding wadi1 mostly shut in by high hills1 pursuing mainly a direction a little west of south1 fed by numerous lateral wadis entering from among the hills to the east1 of which the principal are the ,wadis ,um ,somra1 ,krioni1 ,um ,nasir1 ,um ,hereini1 ,um ,sereiha1 ,um ,deheisi1 ,um ,retba1 and ,um ,hargal4 ,near the point where ,wadi ,um ,deheisi joins it1 the ,wadi el ,sheikh emerges from the hill country and meanders over a plain4 ,at its entry on to the plain is the tomb and well of ,sheikh ,shadli1 views of which are given on ,plate ,v4 ,the tomb1 from which the wadi derives its name1 is a white domed structure1 tended by a ,moorish guardian4 ,the ,ababda ,arabs hold the memory of ,sheikh ,shadli in high veneration1 and make yearly pilgrimages to his tomb4 ,the well1 ,bir ,shadli1 close to the tomb1 is a shallow excavation in the stony alluvium of the wadi floor4 ,here there is a perennial supply of water1 which1 however1 varies much in quality and quantity2 after rain1 there forms a large pool of good water1 the surface being maintained almost level with the ground by underground influx2 while when there has been no rain for a year or more the water is only found by digging to several metres depth1 and then only infiltrates slowly at the bottom of the hole1 the quality simultaneously falls off and the water acquires a saline and purgative character4 ,after passing ,bir ,shadli and entering on the plain1 ,wadi el ,sheikh splits up into numerous channels1 one of which joins the ,wadi ,abu ,hamamid1 while the others continue in a south-westerly direction1 fed by the ,wadis ,um ,retba and ,um ,hargal1 draining from the north flanks of ,gebel ,kahfa4 ,uniting together as they leave the plain to re-form a single ,wadi el ,sheikh1 these drainages turn westward among the hills to join the ,wadi ,abu ,hamamid4 ,bir ,shadli is one of the best-known centres of the ,ababda ,arabs4 ,though there is no permanent settlement1 it is seldom that many days elapse without ,arabs coming to the place to water their animals1 which graze in the adjoining wadis4 ,many roads converge here4 ,to the west1 a track leads to ,bir ,abu ,hamamid4 ,to the north-east1 a track leads up the ,wadi ,sheikh1 across ,wadi ,abu ,hamamid1 and by an easy pass near ,gebel ,marasan over the main watershed into ,wadi ,huluz4 ,to the south-east there are several alternative routes by which one can journey over easy passes north of ,gebel ,kahfa on to the plain of ,selaia and down the ,wadi ,lahami to ,berenice4 ,yet another road leads a little west of south across the ,wadi ,um ,hargal1 and by an easy pass into ,wadi ,helie1 a small tributary of ,wadi ,kharit which drains the west side of ,gebel ,kahfa1 and in which there is a well of similar character to that of ,abu ,hamamid4 ,wadi ,khashab commences its course near ,gebel el ,heda1 a little east of longitude #cd #cj1 and continues in a generally south-west direction to the latitude of ,gebel ,hamrat ,mukbud4 ,here it takes a westerly course1 passing south of ,gebel ,homr ,akarim and entering ,wadi ,kharit from the north in about longitude #cc #di4 ,wadi ,khashab receives its name from its relatively well-wooded character2 in its upper parts it presents the appearance of a broad valley1 in which trees are so numerous as to give a very pleasing contrast to the dreary wastes on either side of it4 ,bir ,khashab is a series of pits sunk in the wadi floor in about longitude #cd #bc1 which were yielding small supplies of water in #aijf4 ,the principal feeders of ,wadi ,khashab are ,wadi ,metawit and ,wadi ,antar4 ,wadi ,metawit is a short valley originating near ,gebel ,metawit1 and joining ,wadi ,khashab a short distance above ,bir ,khashab4 ,it possesses an important well1 ,bir ,metawit1 excavated about eight metres deep in the centre of the wadi floor1 about three kilometres north-north-west of the summit of ,gebel ,metawit1 on a road leading south-east from ,bir ,masur to ,bir ,shadli4 ,this well1 near which are some large acacia trees1 was yielding a plentiful supply of excellent water in the spring of #aijf4 ,wadi ,antar originates near the hills of ,nukheira and ,el ,heda1 and courses westward as a very wide shallow sandy depression south of ,gebel ,um ,goraf4 ,at the foot of ,gebel ,derera it turns southward1 receiving the tributary ,wadi el ,anz from the left a little further on2 it turns again westward and then north-west to near ,gebel ,muktil1 beyond which it courses south-west and joins ,wadi ,khashab in longitude #cc #ee1 a short distance only above the point where that wadi enters ,kharit4 ,wadi el ,garara1 the great southern tributary of ,wadi ,kharit1 heads on the main watershed east of ,gebel ,um ,harba4 ,pursuing at first a north-westerly course over a sandy plain1 it emerges between two high sandstone hills ten kilometres north of ,gebel ,um ,harba1 and turns somewhat more to the west1 receiving the ,wadi el ,kreim1 which drains the south-east flanks of ,gebel ,zergat ,naam4 ,a little further on it receives an unnamed tributary which courses north-westward from ,gebel ,um ,harba as a great valley nearly full of blown sand4 ,still further on its course it is fed by another unnamed tributary which1 coming from the main watershed in latitude #bc #cj1 courses over a wide sandy plain north-westwards4 ,this latter tributary is very barren1 but is of some importance as forming a very easy though sandy road over the main watershed to the ,wadi ,arned 7which leads to the springs of ,abu ,saafa7 and as passing1 about five kilometres before reaching the pass1 a well known water-hole called ,galt el ,aguz4 ,this galt is a huge sandstone basin in the hills on the east side of the road1 fairly easy of access4 ,after rain it holds an immense supply of water1 but owing to the porous nature of the sandstone it becomes dry in a few months of drought2 rude ,greek inscriptions on the rocks1 mixed with spirited drawings of animals1 show that this source of water supply was known and used in ,ptolemaic days4 ,besides the drainage from the pass1 the tributary first mentioned takes that from the sandstone hills of ,um ,khafur situated further east4 ,a little lower down1 ,wadi ,garara receives feeders from the north-east1 draining the hills round ,gebel ,nikeiba and ,gebel ,felieiti1 and then the long ,wadi ,timsah coming from the south4 ,wadi ,timsah heads among high granite hills a little north of latitude #bc1 and courses in a nearly northerly direction for nearly ninety kilometres to join ,wadi ,garara4 ,the prevailing character of ,wadi ,timsah itself is sandy and dreary1 but its feeders from the eastern hills are richer in vegetation1 and in years when there is rain they furnish in their upper portions good grazing ground for ,arab camels4 ,the principal of these feeders1 enumerating from the south northwards1 are the ,wadis ,um el ,rid1 ,awamtib 7with ,wadi ,um ,marakh71 ,shabakhit1 and ,dagalai4 ,all these drain the western parts of the high sandstone hills called by the same names4 ,water can be got from galts here after rain4 ,near the head of ,wadi ,um el ,rid1 there is a very easy pass over the main watershed into ,wadi el ,dreb1 which leads to the well of ,um ,reit4 ,of the ,wadi ,ghadrib1 which heads near the hills of ,gebel ,abu ,rahia and ,gebel ,um ,rewat1 in latitude #bc1 and follows a course roughly parallel to1 but a few kilometres west of that of ,wadi ,timsah1 not very much is known4 ,its prevailing character is sandy and arid4 ,the small tributary called ,wadi ,abu ,hashim1 which enters ,wadi ,garara from the south in about longitude #cd #e1 is important as containing the important wells known as ,bir ,abu ,hashim4 ,the wells are excavations in the alluvium of the wadi floor1 and furnish good water at a depth of about eight metres4 ,a beacon has been erected on a high hill to the west of the wells and overlooking them1 the position of which is latitude #bc #da #dd ,n41 longitude #cd #c #cc ,e41 altitude #chf metres above sea and sixty-six metres above the wells4 ,the principal roads from ,bir ,abu ,hashim are1 to ,aswn 7first water at ,um ,hibal1 nearly one hundred kilometres distant71 to ,daraw 7first water at ,bir ,qoleib1 seventy-five kilometres distant71 and to ,abu ,saafa ,springs 7a journey of about one hundred kilometres with possibly water en route at the ,galt el ,aguz1 sixty kilometres from ,abu ,hashim74 ,wadi ,natash commences among the low hills forming the ,nile -- ,red ,sea watershed between ,gebel ,migif and ,gebel ,abu ,had4 ,it pursues a course roughly parallel with that of ,wadi ,shait1 at first over a sandy plain from which rise the two conspicuous cones called ,el ,nahud 7the breasts71 and afterwards narrowing in among hills4 ,pursuing a somewhat devious course in a direction generally a little south of west1 ,wadi ,natash passes south of ,gebel ,nugra 7in longitude #cc #dj7 and enters on the great plain called ,atmur ,nugra1 where it joins the ,wadi ,kharit and drains to the ,nile near ,kom ,ombo4 ,there is1 ,i believe1 no water source in ,wadi ,natash itself1 but ,bir ,masur is situated in a branch wadi only a few kilometres north of it in longitude #cd4 ,at ,bir ,masur there are numerous pits sunk in the alluvium of the wadi1 in one or more of which good water can generally be found at a depth of about ten metres2 but the supply cannot always be relied on1 for although ,i obtained plenty of water in ,march #aijf1 ,i found there was only a very small quantity available in ,october of the same year4 ,wadi ,alaqi1 the greatest of all the ,egyptian wadis draining westwards to the ,nile1 has its head on the main watershed near ,gebel ,is1 close to the #bbnd parallel in longitude #ce #bg4 ,its main channel1 over #cej kilometres in length1 pursues a general westerly course1 winding at first1 past the old mining centres of ,darahib and ,alfawi1 towards ,gebel ,muqsim1 on the #cdth meridian1 and then1 curving round to the north of that mountain1 it turns to the north-west1 past the gold mines of ,um ,gariart1 and enters the ,nile ,valley opposite the large village of ,dakka1 in latitude #bc #h4 ,the area of its basin is unknown1 much of it being unexplored1 but it probably comprises no less than four square degrees of the earth's surface1 or #dd1jjj square kilometres4 ,its heads and upper tributaries lie among high mountainous tracts partly in ,egypt and partly in the ,sudan1 and occasionally the rainfall in these southern parts of the eastern desert is sufficient to convert the usually dry wadi into a temporary stream for a part or all of its length4 ,that it may on the rare occasions of sufficient rainfall discharge no inconsiderable quantity of water into the ,nile is proved by ,linant's experience about #ahcj1 when he records that the torrent from the ,wadi ,alaqi into the ,nile was so great as to prevent his dahaba sailing up the river past the point of influx1 even with a good wind and all sails set4#hg ,a great flow of water down the ,wadi ,alaqi also occurred in the autumn of #aijb as a consequence of heavy rains in the mountainous country east of the meridian #cd #cj4 ,this torrent was observed by ,mr4 ,john ,f4 ,wells1 who was then manager of the ,um ,gariart mine4 ,in the early morning news was brought to the mine that great waters were coming down the wadi4 ,except for a slight rainfall at the heads of the ,wadis ,qoleib and ,haimur1 the drainage of which did not appreciably swell the flood of the main wadi1 there had been no rain within one hundred kilometres of the mine1 and when the alarm was given1 at #f4cj a4m41 only a small trickling of water down the wadi was visible1 and the news was thought to be an exaggeration4 ,but an hour later the whole wadi was a raging torrent1 and by nine o'clock there was a mighty stream1 over #cjj metres wide and from one to two and a half metres deep1 rushing past the mine4 ,the flow continued for about two and a half days4 ,on this occasion the stream1 in spite of its magnitude at ,um ,gariart1 did not reach the ,nile2 after flowing for some seventy kilometres past the mines1 it entered a wide depression at ,hagab ,kara1 some forty kilometres from the mouth of the wadi1 where it formed a great pool and sank into the sand4 ,mr4 ,wells informs me that the water did not penetrate the sandy and gravelly floor of the wadi to the bed rock 7the thickness of the sandy and gravelly layer at ,um ,gariart is fourteen metres7 till three months later1 and then the rock1 though damp1 did not absorb enough water to yield any supply to wells sunk in it4 ,the local ,arabs stated that these downrushes of water1 which they term 8seil10 occur on an average at about ten-year intervals2 the last one occurred seven years before that of #aijb4 ,the part of the basin of ,wadi ,alaqi falling within the limits of the district described in this volume includes the whole country west of the main watershed between the parallels of #bb and #bc4 ,this area is drained by numerous tributaries of ,alaqi1 all entering the main wadi from its north side4 ,the following is a brief description of these tributaries1 commencing with the uppermost 7easternmost7 of them4 ,wadi ,himeitra is a small wadi draining the south face of ,gebel ,himeitra4 ,it contains a well1 ,bir ,himeitra1 at the foot of the mountain1 which is said to yield constant supplies of water4 ,below the well1 ,wadi ,himeitra continues for about ten kilometres in a south-westerly direction1 joining the ,wadi ,alaqi about seven kilometres above the ruins of ,darahib4 ,the ,miti ,kwan1 the next tributary of ,alaqi1 has its heads in the north flanks of ,gebel ,himeitra4 ,near its head it receives as feeders from the north-east the ,wadis ,kirir and ,duag1 draining mountains of the same name which form part of the ,adar ,qaqa range4 ,about fourteen kilometres further down its course1 the ,miti ,kwan receives the ,wadi ,merau1 which drains the hills of the main watershed round ,eir ,arib4 ,below the point of influx of ,merau1 the ,miti ,kwan pursues a very winding course among the hills for some eleven kilometres1 then receives from the north the ,wadi ,miaus1 a small wadi with many branches among the hills and containing a well1 ,bir ,miaus1 about seven kilometres up from its mouth4 ,after receiving ,wadi ,miaus1 the ,miti ,kwan continues a winding course for about nine kilometres and enters the ,wadi ,alaqi on the #bbnd parallel1 about fifteen kilometres below the ruins of ,darahib4 ,a well-known road1 connecting the ,wadi ,alaqi with the ,abu ,hodeid and ,meisah wells1 leads up the ,miti ,kwan for a distance of some twenty-three kilometres1 and then passes northwards over a stony plain1 crossing the watershed into the head of ,wadi ,hasium1 in which is ,bir ,kagog4 ,wadi ,dageina is a small many-branched tributary of ,alaqi1 draining the hills east of ,gebel ,egat4 ,wadi ,alfawi1 which enters ,wadi ,alaqi a little lower down its course1 is likewise a small wadi draining the hilly tract east of ,gebel ,egat2 there are some old mines on its western side close to its junction with ,wadi ,alaqi4 ,wadi ,egat1 the next important tributary of ,alaqi1 drains by very numerous branches the remarkable peak of ,gebel ,egat and the south faces of ,gebel ,heleikonti4 ,it contains a well1 ,bir ,egat1 situated east-south-east of the peak1 about twenty-six kilometres up from its junction with ,alaqi1 and there are extensive remains of old mining operations to be seen in the same neighbourhood4 ,passing east and south of ,gebel ,egat1 the wadi emerges from the mountains1 coursing almost due west2 and after receiving various feeders1 the principal of which is ,wadi ,hiteib1 from the mountains to the north1 it enters ,wadi ,alaqi in longitude #cd #dj1 about twenty kilometres west of ,gebel ,egat4 ,wadi ,hateib1#hh which enters ,wadi ,alaqi about twenty kilometres below ,wadi ,egat1 has its heads in the south faces of ,gebel ,um el ,tiur el ,foqani and the north flanks of ,gebel el ,hateib or ,suhin4 ,coursing generally south-westward1 it receives small feeders on the west from ,gebels ,adraq and ,guqub4 ,about four kilometres above where it enters ,wadi ,alaqi1 ,wadi ,hateib is joined from the east by ,wadi ,suhin1 the heads of which drain the south faces of ,gebel ,hateib or ,suhin4 ,wadi ,guqub1 a very small wadi which enters ,alaqi six kilometres lower down than ,hateib1 drains the hilly tract which here lies to the north of ,alaqi2 it contains an important well1 ,bir ,guqub1 which yields good water though in varying quantity4 ,a road leads from ,wadi ,alaqi up the ,wadi ,guqub past the well and on to ,aswn1 via ,el ,haimur4 ,wadi ,um ,teneideb drains the western faces of ,gebels el ,adraq and ,guqub1 and joins ,wadi ,alaqi in longitude #cd #aa1 about thirty-three kilometres below ,wadi ,gugub4 ,it has two main branches1 which unite about ten kilometres above the point of junction with ,wadi ,alaqi4 ,the old mines of ,betam are situated near the northern of the two branches1 about seven kilometres west of ,gebel el ,adraq1 on the road just mentioned as leading from ,wadi ,alaqi to ,aswn4 ,wadi ,defeit1 which is probably the most important ,egyptian tributary of ,wadi ,alaqi1 has its heads in ,gebels ,heleikont and ,heianai1 about the meridian of #ce4 ,its general course is that of a flat circular arc convex to the north and having its chord east and west2 the total length of its main channel1 from its head in ,gebel ,heleikont to its junction with ,wadi ,alaqi in longitude #cd #aj1 is over one hundred kilometres1 while its numerous tributaries probably reach a total length three times as great4 ,the principal head of ,wadi ,defeit is called ,wadi ,sarid2 its branches extend among the hills close to the heads of ,wadi ,egat and ,wadi ,miaus4 ,the name ,defeit is applied to the wadi where ,wadi ,sarid is joined by the feeders from ,gebel ,heleikont4 ,passing between the high ranges of ,heianai on the north1 and ,heleikont and ,shanaiyet on the south1 ,wadi ,defeit receives numerous feeders1 of which the principal are the ,wadis ,dauriai and ,hamid1 both entering it from the mountain to the south2 continuing westwards1 it cuts through the north end of the mass of ,gebel ,um el ,tiur el ,foqani1 and on emergence is joined by the ,wadi ,bint el ,feqoh1 a great westward-coursing tributary draining the north flanks of the ,heianai range and the more northerly mountain of ,anweyib4 ,continuing its westward course1 ,wadi ,defeit passes between ,gebels ,um el ,tiur el ,tahtani and ,adraq2 then it enters on an extensive tract of more open country1 receiving three main feeders1 ,wadi ,meladoyeb1 ,rod ,hauanin1 and ,wadi ,bagharid1 from the hills to the north1 before joining ,wadi ,alaqi4 ,wadi ,seiga1 the next great northern tributary of ,wadi ,alaqi1 has only been partially explored4 ,its head is in the watershed range near the conspicuous twin peaks of ,gebel ,sheyenit4 ,pursuing at first a southerly course1 it cuts through the east side of the mass of ,gebel ,seiga2 and about thirty kilometres lower down passes through hills with old gold mines on either hand4 ,below the mines1 ,wadi ,seiga takes a south-westerly course1 and receives a large tributary from either side4 ,that from the west1 called ,wadi ,deheis1 heads in ,gebel ,deheis and curves round east of ,gebel ,abu ,brush1 receiving in its course two great feeders1 the ,wadis ,um ,gholqa and ,abu ,had1 both of which head far to the north in the main watershed4 ,the eastern tributary1 called ,wadi ,um ,derera1 drains the south part of the hill-mass in which the ,seiga mines are situated4 ,wadi ,seiga joins ,wadi ,alaqi in longitude #cc #ec1 some forty-five kilometres below the mines2 the junction is outside the limits of the maps in this volume4 99 99 99 99 99 ,footnote #hd3 ,dry in #aijf4 ,footnote #he3 ,to be distinguished from another mountain of the same name further south1 near the ,wadi ,hodein4 ,footnote #hf3 ,to be distinguished from the better known ,wadi ,egat much further south1 a feeder of ,wadi ,alaqi4 ,footnote #hg3 8,l',etbaye40 p4 #a4 ,footnote #hh3 ,mr4 ,campbell's map names this ,wadi ,hadaiber4 ,my guides1 however1 gave the name ,gebel ,hateib to the mountain which is drained by the wadi1 and ,i have ventured to alter the name on this ground4 ,mr4 ,campbell's map names the mountain ,gebel ,suhin2 it probably has two names1 as is quite usual in desert nomenclature1 because its two sides are drained by different wadis4 ,there is a ,wadi ,hiteib draining from the south-eastern part of the same hill-mass into ,wadi ,egat4 ,,chapter ,v4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,wadis ,,draining ,,eastwards ,,to ,,the ,,sea4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the eastward drainage differs strikingly from the westward in being much steeper and more complex1 due to the greater proximity of the mountains to the sea than to the ,nile4 ,while all the westward drainages form parts of but three great basins1 there are on the seaward side no less than forty-seven distinct drainage basins1 each having a separate outlet to sea 7see ,plate ,,ii74 ,only two of the eastern basins1 ,hodein and ,di-it1 are comparable in size with the great basins of the west1 the remainder being relatively small4 ,the following list gives the names in order1 from north to south1 of the main wadis draining to the sea1 with their tributaries so far as they fall within the area treated of in this volume1 the principal feeders of the tributaries being indicated in parentheses4 ,it may be remarked that the minor feeders and tributaries are frequently of greater importance to the ,arabs than the main channels1 owing to their containing vegetation in greater abundance4 ,,wadi ,,dabur4 ,,wadi ,,igli4 ,,wadi ,,um ,,khariga4 ,,wadi ,,sukari4 ,,wadi ,,um ,,tundeba4 ,,wadi ,,amba-,,ut4 ,wadi ,ghuel4 ,wadi ,fegas4 ,wadi ,ma-ud4 ,,wadi ,,ghadir ,wadi ,sabahia4 ,wadi ,zabara 7,wadi ,atabi1 ,wadi ,um ,abid1 ,wadi ,um ,dafiri74 ,wadi ,allawi 7,wadi ,lewewi74 ,,wadi ,,um ,,gamil4 ,wadi ,huluz 7,wadi ,abiad lil ,huluz1 ,wadi ,mahali1 ,wadi ,tarfawi1 ,wadi ,hilgit lil ,huluz1 ,wadi ,um ,semiuki1 ,wadi ,um ,hegiligi lil ,huluz1 ,wadi ,marasan1 ,wadi ,um ,suerab lil ,huluz1 ,wadi ,abu ,gerifat1 ,wadi ,um ,iteili1 ,wadi ,ga-etri1 ,wadi ,abu ,etl74 ,wadi ,um ,suerab lil ,gemal4 ,wadi ,durunkat4 ,wadi ,hafafit 7,wadi ,abu ,had1 ,wadi ,hefeifit74 ,,wadi ,,gemal ,wadi ,nugrus 7,wadai el ,nom1 ,wadi ,abu ,rusheid1 ,wadi ,abu ,sada1 ,wadi ,sikait74 ,wadi ,mukhatatat4 ,wadi ,um ,sueh4 ,wadi ,um ,heran4 ,wadi ,nasbia4 ,wadi ,abiad 7,wadi ,um ,seyal74 ,wadi ,um ,kabu4 ,,wadi ,,um ,,el ,,abbas ,wadai el ,anz4 ,,wadi ,,abu ,,ghusun ,wadi ,romit 7,wadi ,shoab1 ,wadi ,abu ,hegilig1 ,wadi ,hefeiri74 ,,wadi ,,el ,,ranga4 ,,wadi ,,hamata4 ,,wadi ,,haratreit4 ,,wadi ,,khashir4 ,,wadi ,,mikbi4 ,wadi ,um ,karaba4 ,wadi ,eidab4 ,wadi ,um ,gunud4 ,wadi ,um ,rishan4 ,wadi ,um ,homar4 ,,wadi ,,lahami ,wadi ,sefent4 ,wadi ,um ,khuzama4 ,wadi ,um ,ghobasha4 ,wadi ,gumudlum4 ,wadi ,abu ,marwa lil ,lahami4 ,wadi ,naait 7,wadi ,um ,sumur1 ,wadi ,abu ,marwa lil ,,wadi ,,mukhit ,naait1 ,wadi ,abu ,ghalqa74 ,wadi ,abu ,daba 7,wadi ,murra74 ,,wadi ,,abu ,,dibban4 ,,wadi ,,mindeit ,wadi ,um ,sellim lil ,mindeit4 ,wadi ,um ,maiat4 ,,wadi ,,kalalat ,wadi ,dibag lil ,batoga4 ,wadi ,um ,sellim4 ,,wadi ,,um ,,goran4 ,,wadi ,,kunserob ,wadi ,dibag lil ,kunserob4 ,,wadi ,,abu ,,beriga4 ,wadi ,abu ,debebi lil ,khoda4 ,wadi ,salib el ,abiad4 ,wadi ,salib el ,azraq 7,wadi ,um ,karaba74 ,wadi ,allawi4 ,wadi ,um ,tawil lil ,khoda4 ,wadi ,hindia4 ,wadi ,um ,akra4 ,,wadi ,,khoda ,wadi ,shut 7,wadi ,abu ,hugban1 ,wadi ,tawil lil ,shut74 ,wadi ,um ,gubur4 ,wadi ,shib4 ,wadi ,um ,seyal lil ,khoda4 ,wadi ,gumudlum4 ,wadi ,bulluk4 ,wadi ,um ,lassaf4 ,wadi ,shenshef4 ,,wadi ,,um ,,etli4 ,,wadi ,,sorubiab ,wadi ,bint el ,kurdum4 ,wadi ,titai4 ,wadi ,abu ,nikheil4 ,wadi ,abu ,reye4 ,wadi ,um ,buerat4 ,,wadi ,,rahaba ,wadi ,abiad 7,rod ,elbel1 ,wadi ,abu ,ribian74 ,wadi ,megah4 ,wadi ,hutit4 ,wadi ,dagalai lil ,rahaba4 ,wadi ,abu ,had4 ,wadi ,marafai4 ,wadi ,arned 7,wadi ,muegil1 ,wadi ,um ,arta74 ,wadi ,saalek4 ,wadi ,um ,reit 7,wadi ,dreb1 ,wadi ,malhat74 ,talet ,um ,danaqa4 ,talet ,um ,sideiri4 ,wadi ,gihab 7,wadi ,gihab ,abu ,derb74 ,wadi ,maghal4 ,wadi ,naam 7,wadi ,fil1 ,wadi ,abu ,seyal1 ,wadi ,um ,bisilla1 ,wadi ,erf ,um ,araka1 ,wadi ,arais1 ,wadi ,silsila1 ,wadi ,abraq1 ,wadi ,betan74 ,wadi ,dif 7,wadi ,feqoh1 ,talet ,um ,karaba1 ,wadi ,enqireidia1 ,wadi ,gelabat ,shabai74 ,wadi ,orga el ,atshani4 ,,wadi ,,hodein ,wadi ,orga el ,rayani4 ,wadi ,anfeib 7,wadi ,anfeib el ,tawayib1 ,wadi ,atalab1 ,wadi ,mitatib74 ,wadi ,khasiya4 ,wadi ,madi 7,wadi ,difotib1 ,wadi ,eirahimib1 ,wadi ,faditiai1 ,wadi ,shellal el ,gharbi1 ,wadi ,sinatib1 ,wadi ,tugudbaia1 ,wadi ,berendiyeb1 ,wadi ,atluk1 ,rod ,mukrayib1 ,wadi ,kolaiqo1 ,wadi ,edunqul74 ,wadi ,um ,tenedba4 ,wadi ,khashab 7,wadi ,dehaiartib74 ,wadi ,um ,seleim4 ,wadi ,kreiga 7,wadi ,korbiai1 ,wadi ,meneiga1 ,wadi ,abiad1 ,wadi ,eberer1 ,wadi ,shigig74 ,,wadi ,,kolaiqo4 ,wadi ,radad4 ,wadi ,shellal el ,sharqi4 ,wadi ,muqur 7,wadi ,ti ,ilak1 ,wadi ,tikosha74 ,wadi ,qadiloi 7,talet ,tihu ,shana74 ,,wadi ,,shab ,wadi ,baaneit4 ,wadi ,kilanai4 ,wadi ,diqdib4 ,wadi ,um ,saha4 ,wadi ,sherefa el ,sharqi4 ,kwat ,hewah4 ,wadi ,mantil ,hasium4 ,wadi ,hilwit ,hasium4 ,wadi ,shinai4 ,wadi ,delawet4 ,wadi ,abu ,hodeid4 ,rod ,anut ,berer4 ,wadi ,tikraneib4 ,,wadi ,,ibib 7,,hasium7 ,wadi ,abu ,hireiq4 ,wadi ,odruk4 ,wadi ,nilateib4 ,wadi ,medarai 7,wadi ,merdiyeb1 ,wadi ,um ,rasein74 ,wadi ,soaorib 7,wadi ,haiyo1 ,wadi ,hankuk1 ,wadi ,dishlo1 ,wadi ,eimya1 ,wadi ,qidmib74 ,wadi ,um ,bishtit 7,wadi ,delawet1 ,wadi ,orgem74 ,wadi ,habliai4 ,wadi ,sarobaiya4 ,wadi ,awitla4 ,wadi ,lasewid4 ,,wadi ,,meisah ,sarob ,kwan4 ,akla ,da-aiyob4 ,hanqun ,ra-ub4 ,wadi ,eqaiyib4 ,wadi ,shendib4 ,wadi ,hareitra4 ,wadi ,qurat 7,wadi ,dibir1 ,wadi ,hashimaiyib1 ,wadi ,oshqeq1 ,wadi ,mashushenai74 ,o ,harbub4 ,,wadi ,,kiraf 7,,di-,,ib7 ,wadi ,salalob4 ,wadi ,warabeit 7,sarob ,kwan1 ,wadi ,wi-eqwer1 ,wadi ,kwileimidaiyeib74 ,wadi ,qumad ,lim4 ,wad el ,qireira 7,wadi ,didaut1 ,wadi ,baueiwai74 ,wadi ,halal ,hendiyeb4 ,,wadi ,,di-,,it4 ,,wadi ,,eikwan4 ,wadi ,o ,sir ,hadal4 ,wadi ,qeirat4 ,,wadi ,,yoider ,wadi ,siamtit4 ,wadi ,akwamtra4 ,,wadi ,,aideib ,wadi ,yahameib 7,wadi ,akau1 ,wadi ,kansisrob74 ,,wadi ,,todhi4 ,,wadi ,,delowa4 ,wadi ,um ,seyal4 ,,wadi ,,serimtai ,wadi ,o ,sir ,eirab4 ,,wadi ,,shellal4 ,,wadi ,,aqilhoq4 ,,wadi ,,aqwei4 ,,wadi ,,kreit-,,reit-,,or4 ,,wadi ,,qabatit4 ,wadi ,dabur falls only partly within the district to be described in the present volume4 ,it drains the hill country between ,gebels ,atut and ,igli1 by numerous feeders1 and courses north-east to enter the sea about latitude #be #af1 beyond the limits shown on the map4 ,wadi ,igli is a short wadi draining from ,gebel ,igli and coursing a little north of east to the sea somewhat south of latitude #be #aj4 ,wadi ,um ,khariga has its principal head in a cul-de-sac west of ,gebel ,ghuel and north of ,gebel ,hangalia1 at an altitude of approximately #hjj metres above sea-level4 ,near its head there is an easy pass entering from the west1 forming a line of communication with ,hangalia mine2 the highest point of the pass is #ggc metres above sea-level4 ,after coursing for about twelve kilometres a little west of north between the high hills called ,gebel ,um ,khariga1 with a rapid fall1 the wadi turns north-east1 receiving just below the bend a large tributary which heads in an easy pass to ,wadi ,ghadir4 ,near this place a road crosses the wadi northwards through the low hills1 and passes west of ,gebel ,igli el ,iswid2 it is said to go on to ,qena4 ,further on in its course towards the sea1 ,wadi ,um ,khariga receives another tributary draining the south flanks of ,gebel ,igli el ,iswid4 ,the lower portion of ,wadi ,um ,khariga has not been surveyed in detail2 but it passes through a tract of lower hills and enters the sea in about latitude #be #e4 ,the total length of the main channel of ,wadi ,um ,khariga is about fifty kilometres1 and the area of its basin is about #cjj square kilometres4 ,wadi ,sukari1 the next wadi to the south1 heads at a pass from ,wadi ,ghadir2 for about nine kilometres it courses east of north between the eastern range of ,gebel ,um ,khariga and the craggy ,gebel ,sukari1 then turns more to the east and enters the sea a little south of ,wadi ,um ,khariga4 ,near the south end of ,gebel ,sukari there are numerous ruins and some ancient gold mines4 ,wadi ,um ,tundeba heads near the mountain of the same name1 and courses about north-east to the sea4 ,in one of the heads of this wadi1 about three kilometres west of the summit of ,gebel ,um ,tundeba1 is an important water source1 called ,galt ,um ,tundeba4 ,this is a rock basin situated about one kilometre up a little wadi2 it contained a good supply of water in ,december #aije1 but as it depends for its supply on rainfall in the surrounding hills1 it cannot be relied on as a permanent water source4 ,wadi ,amba-ut is a small wadi originating near the granite hills called ,gebel ,amba-ut1 and following a course about parallel with the ,wadi ,um ,tundeba seawards4 ,wadi ,ghadir1 which drains by numerous tributaries the eastern face of ,gebels ,hangalia and ,zabara1 as well as the hilly country round ,gebels ,ghadir1 ,allawi1 and ,lewewi1 has a basin of over #ejj square kilometres and a length along its main channel1 not counting its feeders1 of about forty-five kilometres2 it enters the sea in latitude #bd #ej4 ,the principal head of ,wadi ,ghadir is at an easy pass between ,gebels ,ghuel and ,um ,khariga1 in latitude #bd #ee1 at an altitude of about #ejj metres above sea-level4 ,coursing south-east1 it receives important feeders from gorges in the west face of ,gebel ,ghuel2 the principal of these feeders1 ,wadi ,ghuel1 contains water holes1 which gave an excellent supply of rain water in #aije-jf4 ,a little further along its course1 ,wadi ,ghadir passes the low hill district called ,kurdeman1 where there are some old gold mines1 and then receives as tributaries ,wadi ,fegas and ,wadi ,ma-ud1 draining the mountains of ,ghuel and ,hangalia4 ,taking now a more easterly direction towards ,gebel ,ghadir1 it receives from the north-west ,wadi ,sabahia1 draining the craggy felsite hill of the same name2 there are some old gold mines about a kilometre north-east of this hill1 in a branch of ,wadi ,sabahia4 ,the ,wadi ,zabara1 an important tributary draining the north flanks of ,gebel ,zabara and the south-east part of ,gebel ,hangalia1 enters ,ghadir from the south-west1 nearly opposite ,wadi ,sabahia4 ,wadi ,zabara has itself three main heads1 called by the separate names of ,wadi ,atabi1 ,wadi ,um ,abid1 and ,wadi ,um ,dafiri4 ,there are ruins and ancient mines close to where the ,wadi ,atabi joins ,wadi ,zabara1 while in the upper part of ,wadi ,um ,dafiri are more extensive ruins and numerous ancient emerald mines1 as well as a series of rock basins which were yielding good water in #aije-aijf4 ,after receiving the ,wadi ,zabara1 ,wadi ,ghadir continues its course south-east past ,gebel ,ghadir1 from the slopes of which numerous small feeders enter the main channel4 ,almost due south of ,gebel ,ghadir1 in the southern one of two branches into which the wadi splits as it passes round a low island-like mass of hills1 is ,bir ,ghadir1 a well sunk in the alluvium of the wadi floor4 ,when ,i visited it early in #aijf this well was filled by downwash1 and the ,arabs of the district deferred digging it out until the rock basins were empty2 it is an important water source and is said to yield good supplies4 ,the mines of ,hangalia were supplied by water from ,bir ,ghadir in #aije1 when nearer sources were dry4 ,about six kilometres below the well1 ,wadi ,ghadir passes close north of ,gebel ,allawi1 where there are some old gold mines4 ,the ,wadi ,allawi1 which with its tributary ,wadi ,lewewi drains the hilly country between ,gebels ,zabara and ,sikait1 enters ,ghadir a little to the east of ,gebel ,allawi2 both ,allawi and ,lewewi are very tortuous wadis1 their names in fact meaning 8crooked0 in the ,ababda tongue 7,lewewi is a diminutive of ,allawi74 ,wadi ,um ,gamil1 the next wadi entering the sea to the south1 drains the hilly country south-east of ,sikait4 ,very little is known about its course1 the only part surveyed being the heads east of ,gebel ,sikait4 ,wadi ,gemal is the terminal portion1 about sixty kilometres in length1 of the main drainage channel from a basin nearly #bjj square kilometres in area4 ,with its numerous large feeders1 the principal of which is ,wadi ,huluz1 about eighty kilometres in length1 the ,wadi ,gemal drains the ,hafafit and ,nugrus ranges of mountains on the north1 and a great mass of high mountains1 including ,gebel ,hamata1 on the south4 ,it will be convenient here to describe only the ,wadi ,gemal proper1 leaving the great wadis which join to form it1 and its major tributaries1 for separate treatment4 ,the name ,wadi ,gemal is first given to the drainage at the point where ,wadi ,huluz turns sharply eastward in longitude #cd #ci4hi ,at this point the country becomes more open than in the gorge-like ,wadi ,huluz4 ,to the north is a mass of low granite hills1 some of which have remarkable shapes1 with a great deal of drift sand1 while to the south are the higher dark hills flanking ,gebel ,um ,suerab4 ,among these surroundings the wadi pursues a winding course1 with a general north-easterly direction1 receiving the ,wadi ,um ,suerab lil ,gemal and the ,wadi ,durunkat as tributaries from the south4 ,about six kilometres below the point of influx of ,wadi ,durunkat1 on the right 7south7 side of ,wadi ,gemal1 is a locality called ,geli1 where there are extensive ruins4 ,a very remarkable rock in the middle of the main wadi marks the place whence a track leads south-east past the ruins and across the heads of ,wadis ,um ,ghazal and ,mukhatatat into the upper part of ,wadi el ,abiad4 ,passing a remarkable bell-shaped hill 7,gebel ,um ,regeba1 rising to #ega metres above sea1 the 8mosque rock0 of ,floyer's map7 about four kilometres on the left1 ,wadi ,gemal receives two small feeders coming from among the hills to the south1 and then the important tributary called ,wadi ,hafafit enters from the north-west4 ,below the point of influx of ,hafafit1 the ,wadi ,gemal becomes more narrow1 and shut in by high hills4 ,near the meridian of #cd #di there are some ruins on the north side of the wadi1 and a little further on the ,wadi ,nugrus1 one of the largest tributaries of ,wadi ,gemal1 enters from the north-west at a rather sharp bend4 ,further down1 ,wadi ,gemal receives ,wadi el ,mukhatatat and ,wadi ,um ,sueh from the south1 and ,wadi ,um ,heran and ,wadi el ,nasbia from the north4 ,the ,wadi ,abiad1 which next joins ,wadi ,gemal from the south1 is an important feeder4 ,two kilometres below the mouth of ,wadi el ,abiad1 the ,wadi ,um ,kabu enters ,wadi ,gemal from the north-west1 while nearly opposite to it is a small wadi1 called ,um ,sellimi1 in which there are water pools after rain4 ,the wadi now curves more northward round the base of the double-topped hill mass called ,madaret ,um ,gamil4 ,just beyond the northward turn a road#ij leads up a narrow tortuous gully in a north-westerly direction1 passing close south of the hill summit and forming the most ready means of ascent of ,madaret ,um ,gamil2 the climb from the road at the top of the gully is only about #bjj metres4 ,the course of the ,wadi ,gemal to the sea has not been surveyed beyond four kilometres east of ,madaret ,um ,gamil2 it goes through low hilly country and enters the sea in about latitude #bd4 ,the fall of the ,wadi ,gemal averages about six metres per kilometre1 being as low as four metres per kilometre in some places1 and probably exceeding ten metres per kilometre where it emerges from the hills on to the coast-plain4 ,it is interesting to note that the observations of level indicate a local increase of gradient above the place of influx of ,hafafit and ,nugrus4 ,the ,wadi ,gemal is well supplied with trees1 as are also almost all its tributaries with the exception of the sandy ,wadi ,hafafit4 ,wadi ,huluz is a long winding wadi1 mostly shut in by high rock walls1 draining the high mountains round ,gebel ,hamata and coursing north-east for a distance of over seventy-five kilometres to the point1 near ,gebel ,um ,suerab1 where1 turning sharply eastward1 it enters more open country and takes the name of ,wadi ,gemal4 ,the slope of ,wadi ,huluz averages fifty metres per kilometre for the first ten kilometres from its heads in the mountains4 ,in the next ten kilometres the slope is much flatter1 being twenty metres per kilometre4 ,from twenty to forty kilometres from its head the average fall is only ten metres per kilometre1 while still further down the rate of fall lessens till in the last reaches1 just before entering the ,wadi ,gemal1 it is only six and a half metres per kilometre4 ,the principal heads of ,wadi ,huluz are close to the south-east of ,gebel ,hamata1 in a cul-de-sac formed by the high mountains of ,gebel ,hamata 7#a1igh metres above sea7 and ,gebel ,ras el ,kharit 7#a1ffa metres74 ,here a number of steep gorges unite to form the main channel1 which due south of ,hamata has an altitude of #a1jec metres above sea-level4 ,following a winding course among the mountains as a rapidly falling valley with a sandy floor averaging #ajj metres or more in width1 it passes west of the great mass of ,hamata1 receiving the drainages from the north-east flanks of that mountain and from the north face of ,gebel ,um ,hasidok4 ,at its crossing the meridian of #ce it receives as a feeder the ,wadi el ,abiad lil ,huluz1 which drains the north face of ,hamata and the south flanks of ,gebel ,abu ,ghusun2 draining mostly from granite country1 this feeder has a floor of coarse granitic sand1 from the whitish colour of which it takes its name4 ,the next feeder of ,wadi ,huluz1 called ,wadi ,mahali1 enters from the south1 its head being on the main watershed between ,gebels ,um ,usher and ,um ,hasidok4 ,passing between ,gebels ,um ,usher and ,um ,laham1 the ,wadi ,huluz receives ,wadi ,tarfawi1 draining the mountain of the same name from the east4 ,further down1 feeders come in from ,gebel el ,mehali on the south and from the high hills south of ,gebel ,um ,heshenib on the north4 ,near the meridian of #cd #ej two important tributaries enter ,huluz near together from the south4 ,the upper one1 ,wadi ,hilgit lil ,huluz1 heads in a very steep and difficult pass1 leading into ,wadi ,hilgit lil ,kharit4 ,the lower one1 called ,wadi ,um ,semiuki1 drains the north-east flanks of ,gebel ,abu ,hamamid4 ,nearly opposite the mouth of ,wadi ,um ,semiuki is another feeder of ,wadi ,huluz1 which ,i believe forms the main drainage channel for the south face of ,gebel ,um ,heshenib2 but it is said to be very steep and stony1 and my ,arabs preferred to reach ,gebel ,um ,heshenib by a small wadi1 containing several tombs1 some four kilometres higher up ,wadi ,huluz1 whence there is a stony pass leading into the above-mentioned main drainage channel at a point above the obstructions in it4 ,about eight kilometres further on1 on the north-east side of the wadi1 there is a low gap over which by a very easy pass one can descend into the head of ,wadi ,durunkat1 leading to ,wadi ,gemal4 ,some three kilometres lower down1 ,huluz receives two tributaries together2 one1 from the south-east1 is called ,wadi ,um ,hegiligi lil ,huluz1 while the other1 from the south-west1 is called ,wadi ,marasan and heads in an easy pass on the main watershed1 over which a track leads south-east and south to the well and tomb of ,sheikh ,shadli4 ,two sheikhs' tombs and some smaller graves exist at a bend in the ,wadi ,huluz1 three kilometres below the point of influx of ,wadi ,marasan4 ,below these enter as feeders ,wadi ,um ,suerab lil ,huluz from the north1 and ,wadi ,abu ,gerifat from the south4 ,the wadi now becomes very tortuous4 ,near the meridian of #cd #dj1 on the south side of the wadi1 at a bend where trees are very abundant1 is a small gully containing the important water holes called ,um ,gerifat4 ,these are rock basins fed by rain water draining down steep gorges from the hills round the twin-peaked ,gebel ,um ,sedri2 they are easily accessible in a few minutes from the main wadi1 and contained good supplies of water in the winter of #aije-aijf4 ,about four kilometres lower down1 the ,wadi ,um ,iteili enters from the east1 and about five kilometres beyond this ,huluz opens out into a somewhat triangular space1 when the ,wadi ,gaetri enters from the west and ,wadi el ,khisei from the east4 ,the ,wadi ,gaetri leads by an important pass into the more open country to the west 7wells of ,wadi ,khashab and ,wadi ,natash74 ,at the open space above-mentioned1 ,wadi ,huluz turns northward1 winding somewhat1 for some eight kilometres1 and then1 after receiving the ,wadi ,abu ,etl as a feeder from the west1 turns sharply eastward and becomes the ,wadi ,gemal4 ,wadi ,durunkat1 a tributary of ,wadi ,gemal1 forms an important road from ,wadi ,gemal into the higher parts of ,huluz4 ,by following it up to its head about twenty kilometres from its junction with ,wadi ,gemal1 one can enter ,wadi ,huluz by a very easy pass in longitude #cd #df1 thus cutting off the long winding course of ,wadi ,huluz itself2 and from this pass one can cross the main watershed by the ,wadi ,marasan to reach ,bir ,shadli4 ,wadi ,hafafit1 another tributary of ,wadi ,gemal1 has its head situated close to the east side of ,gebel ,migif1 in latitude #bd #ej1 on the main watershed1 where there is an easy pass into the head of ,wadi ,shait4 ,following a very straight course for nearly forty kilometres south-east1 with the remarkable range of high gneiss mountains called ,gebel ,hafafit on the left1 and the sugar loaf granite hills of ,abu ,had on the right1 ,wadi ,hafafit forms a broad barren valley in which there are heavy accumulations of blown sand4 ,wadi ,abu ,had1 a small western feeder of ,hafafit1 is well known by reason of the well of bitter water1 ,bir ,abu ,had1 at its head4 ,an eastern feeder of ,wadi ,hafafit1 which joins it shortly before the junction with ,wadi ,gemal1 is called by the diminutive name of ,wadi ,hefeifit4 ,wadi el ,abiad1 likewise a tributary of ,wadi ,gemal1 derives its name from the coarse white granitic sand which forms its floor4 ,its heads are situated near latitude #bd #bj1 among the granite mountains called ,gebel el ,abiad and on the northerly slopes of ,gebel ,um ,heshenib4 ,there is a very steep pass from its head1 east of ,gebel ,um ,heshenib1 into ,wadi ,huluz4 ,pursuing an almost northerly course and falling rather rapidly1 ,wadi el ,abiad is at first very wide1 with high granite hills on each side4 ,it narrows further down1 at a point opposite ,gebel ,shoab1 where a small eastern feeder leads by an easy sandy pass into the ,wadi ,shoab4 ,a little lower down1 passing into diorite country1 it turns more to the east1 and after receiving the ,wadis ,um ,seyal el ,foqani and el ,tahtani from the south-east1 enters the ,wadi ,gemal near ,madaret ,um ,gamil4 ,the wadis called ,um ,seyal receive their name from the abundance of acacia trees in them2 at the head of ,wadi ,um ,seyal el ,foqani there is a pass leading by the ,wadai el ,anz into ,wadi ,um el ,abbas4 ,wadi ,nugrus1 an important tributary of ,wadi ,gemal1 commences its course on the main watershed west of ,gebel ,nugrus1 in latitude #bd #dh1 at the pass into ,wadi ,gerf1 #fij metres above sea-level1 and courses south-east in almost a straight line for nearly forty kilometres to join the ,wadi ,gemal in latitude #bd #cd and longitude #cd #ej4 ,the fall to this point is some #dej metres1 or an average of over ten metres per kilometre1 but the fall is most rapid near the head1 where the floor of the wadi is rocky and steep2 the slope for the first few kilometres is over double the average4 ,the approach to the head of ,wadi ,nugrus from the north1 by one of the heads of ,wadi ,gerf1 is almost a plain4 ,but as soon as ,wadi ,nugrus is entered one becomes very sensible of the greater steepness of the eastern drainage by the stony nature of the track and the rapid fall4 ,the wadi here is in fact only a narrow gorge with the huge mountains of ,hafafit and ,nugrus on the west and east sides respectively4 ,some three kilometres below the pass1 close to the west side of the wadi1 in a narrow gorge1 is the spring called ,megal el ,harami1 situated in gneiss rocks1 and giving supplies of good water2 the water infiltrates slowly1 however1 so that the yield is not sufficiently rapid to supply large quantities at once4 ,lower down1 the wadi broadens out considerably1 with a sandy floor in the middle of which low dark hills rise like islands4 ,about thirteen kilometres below the head1 an important feeder1 the ,wadai el ,nom1 comes in from the north-east4 ,this wadi drains the south-east flanks of ,gebel ,nugrus and the west flanks of ,gebel ,hangalia2 it contains rock basins holding water for some time after rain1 and leads to a steep winding pass which enables one to make a circuit round the great granite mountain of ,gebel ,nugrus4 ,the pass is1 however1 impracticable for baggage camels1 and one has to dismount from a riding camel in order to get over4 ,beyond the junction of ,wadai el ,nom1 the ,wadi ,nugrus continues its straight course south-east1 between the long range of ,gebel ,hafafit on the west and ,gebel ,zabara on the east4 ,some thirty kilometres below its head1 ,wadi ,nugrus receives the ,wadi ,abu ,rusheid from the north1 and a little further on one encounters on the east the ruins of an old village called ,medina ,nugrus4 ,just opposite the ruins is a small feeder called ,wadi ,abu ,sada1 a short distance up which are rock basins yielding water after rain1 but these were dry in #aije4 ,not far below this1 there are some old workings in a small feeder on the east side of the ,wadi ,nugrus1 six kilometres above its junction with ,wadi ,gemal4 ,wadi ,sikait1 a tributary of ,wadi ,nugrus1 heads in some high red granite hills north-west of ,gebel ,sikait4 ,a pass leads over the western head1 while in the eastern one is a small spring1 which1 though a mere trickle1 is said to be constant and to yield excellent water4 ,these two heads join at a well recently sunk by miners4 ,lower down1 on the flanks of ,gebel ,sikait1 are numerous emerald mines1 with an ancient tower and many other ruins1 and in the wadi near these is another recently sunk well1 which has only yielded water of inferior quality4 ,from near the mines there lead two tracks on either side of the wadi4 ,that to the west is a rough path over gneiss hills into ,wadi ,abu ,rusheid4 ,that to the east winds past the ancient tower1 ascending gradually to a pass into one of the heads of ,wadi ,um ,gamil4 ,lower down the ,wadi ,sikait are many ancient mines1 and the ruins of three rock temples and an ancient village4 ,just before the ,wadi ,sikait enters ,wadi ,nugrus1 a track leaves on the east for ,wadi ,um ,heran1 in which ,i am told water is sometimes to be found4 ,the length of the ,wadi ,sikait is about fourteen kilometres1 and its fall is from #ece metres above sea at the pass at its head to about #bej metres where it enters ,wadi ,nugrus1 or an average slope of twenty metres per kilometre4 ,it is a narrow gorge shut in by high hills1 with a fair abundance of trees4 ,wadi ,um el ,abbas originates by the union of several heads in the neighbourhood of the high granite hills of ,um el ,abbas and ,abu ,hegilig4 ,one of its heads leads to an easy pass called ,kab el ,haram1 four and a half kilometres east of ,gebel ,abu ,hegilig4 ,another1 close east of ,gebel ,abu ,hegilig1 leads to another easy pass into the head of a tributary of ,wadi ,romit4 ,a third head1 called the ,wadai el ,anz1 leads to yet another pass into ,wadi ,um ,seyal el ,foqani1 a tributary of ,wadi el ,abiad4 ,the course of the ,wadi ,um el ,abbas has only been surveyed for a short distance below the place where its heads unite2 it pursues a north-easterly course among low hilly country and enters the sea in about latitude #bd #cf4 ,,plate ,,vi4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,the ,,district ,,of ,,nugrus ,,sikait ,ball4 ,geography ,geology of ,south-,eastern ,egypt4 ,photo-,metal-,process4 ,survey ,dept4 ,cairo #aiaj4 7#fj-aij7 ,wadi ,abu ,ghusun commences its course among the high mountains of ,gebel ,abu ,ghusun1 north of ,gebel ,hamata4 ,pursuing a northerly course for about ten kilometres1 it passes close east of the sharp granite peak of ,gebel ,hefeiri1 then turns more to the east1 receiving ,wadi ,romit as an important tributary from the west near the bend1 and reaches the sea in about latitude #bd #bi4 ,wadi ,romit1 a tributary of ,abu ,ghusun1 originates in the granite mountains called ,gebel el ,abiad1 near the parallel of #bd #bj and follows a winding course in a general easterly direction for about sixteen kilometres to its junction with ,wadi ,abu ,ghusun4 ,it receives several important tributaries4 ,the chief of these1 ,wadi ,shoab1 originates close to the south-west of ,gebel ,shoab1 where there is an easy pass into the ,wadi el ,abiad4 ,another tributary of ,romit1 the ,wadi ,abu ,hegilig1 drains the south part of ,gebel ,um el ,abbas1 while a third is the ,wadi ,hefeiri1 draining the hills round the granite peak of the same name4 ,all these tributaries1 like ,wadi ,romit and ,wadi ,abu ,ghusun itself1 contain abundance of trees1 and have a rather rapid fall4 ,wadi ,hamata drains the eastern flanks of the high hills north of ,gebel ,hamata1 its principal heads being about latitude #bd #ae4 ,only the heads of this wadi have been surveyed2 it follows a winding course among the lower hill country and reaches the sea in about latitude #bd #bd4 ,of the three wadis draining seawards south of ,hamata1 called ,wadi ,haratreit1 ,wadi ,khashir1 and ,wadi ,mikbi1 very little is known1 not even their heads having been visible from the stations which ,i occupied4 ,the summits of the mountains drained by them have1 however1 been mapped1 and their courses are approximately known from the accounts of ,floyer2 these are indicated on the map probably in nearly their true positions4 ,draining mostly steep and precipitous mountain faces1 the upper parts of these wadis must have an extremely rapid fall1 and consequently a rough stony floor4 ,wadi ,lahami1 which enters the sea north of the peninsula of ,ras ,benas1 is well known by reason of the easy pass over the main watershed at its head forming an important means of access to ,berenice from the west4 ,at this point1 four kilometres north-east of the white quartz cone called ,marwot ,elemikan1 the watershed is sandy1 level1 and low1 being only #eij metres above the sea4 ,the drop on crossing the watershed is fairly rapid1 the wadi winding about among the hills in a general north-easterly direction4 ,about six kilometres below its head1 ,lahami receives the ,wadi ,um ,karaba1 which drains the south face of ,gebel ,abu ,gurdi4 ,a little further on1 ,wadi ,eidab enters from the south-east2 this feeder is said to head in a rough steep pass over the hills into the ,wadi ,abu ,daba4 ,after passing between the high hills of ,gebels ,um ,goradi and ,um ,gunud1 ,wadi ,lahami receives the short ,wadi ,um ,gunud1 in which there are two well known galts1 or rock basins forming reservoirs of rain water2 these contained good supplies in #aijf-g4 ,lower down1 ,wadi ,lahami crosses a stony sloping plain1 where it receives the drainage from the north and east flanks of ,gebel ,abu ,gurdi and from the mountains to the north of it1 by a series of feeders1 the principal of which are ,wadi ,um ,rishan1 ,wadi ,um ,homar1 and ,wadi ,sefent4 ,east of the plain there is a sort of shunt or loop-line of ,wadi ,lahami1 called the ,wadi ,abreik1 which is preferred to the main channel for a road4 ,just receiving ,wadi ,sefent1 ,wadi ,lahami turns sharply eastward1 and then north-eastward1 receiving as feeders ,wadis ,um ,khuzama1 ,um ,ghobasha1 and ,gumudlum1 draining ,gebels ,um ,sellim and ,gumudlum to the north2 these feeders are said to contain natural reservoirs full of water after rain4 ,from the south1 ,lahami is fed by the ,wadis ,um ,eshub and ,abu ,marwa lil ,lahami1 draining the lower hill country4 ,the lower course of ,wadi ,lahami has not been traced in detail4 ,it passes north-west of the well marked granite peak called ,gebel ,um ,huk1 as remarked above1 and reaches the sea north of the peninsula of ,ras ,benas4 ,to get to ,berenice1 one leaves ,wadi ,lahami about twenty-four kilometres below the pass at its head1 and turns off south-east up the tributary ,wadi ,abu ,marwa1 which leads to ,wadi ,naait by an easy road4 ,wadi ,lahami is well supplied with trees2 it presented a very green appearance early in #aijf1 but the absence of rain for a year made it much more desolate looking in #aijg1 all the foliage being then blackened and withered4 ,its length is approximately fifty kilometres1 its average slope twelve metres per kilometre1 and the area of its basin is about #fej square kilometres4 ,the drainage from the low hills on the ,peninsula of ,ras ,benas1 except for a small portion which joins ,wadi ,mukhit1 reaches the sea by a multitude of small wadis1 none of which bear special names4 ,the hills being nearer to the south side of the peninsula than to the north1 the wadis draining southwards are on the whole much shorter and steeper than those draining northwards1 and the latter cross a sloping plain two or three kilometres wide to reach the sea4 ,passage across the hills from south to north is only possible to camels at a few places4 ,the southern wadis are mostly barren1 but the northern ones contain abundance of a dark coloured grass of which camels are fond4 ,there is no permanent water source on the peninsula1 the nearest reliable source of supply being a galt in ,wadi ,mindeit1 on the main land1 about twelve kilometres west of ,berenice4 ,the tip of the low sandy projection of ,ras ,benas is marked by a sheikh's tomb1 one of the largest on the coast4 ,it is chiefly built of wreckage cast up on the beach4 ,from the hills it looks like a rectangular rock1 and ,i determined its position by triangulation as latitude #bc #ec #ej ,n41 longitude #ce #dg #ac ,e4 ,the sheikh's memory appears to be greatly venerated by sailors1 and several of my camel men made pilgrimages to the tomb to pray4 ,the ,island of ,mukawar1 about six kilometres south of the sandy tip of the ras1 is nearly two kilometres in length from north to south4 ,i did not visit it1 but it has the appearance of being made of coral2 its highest point1 near the south end1 is thirty-four metres above the sea-level4 ,wadi ,abu ,daba drains the eastern flanks of ,gebel ,eidab and ,gebel ,um ,maiat1 and courses eastward through the lower hill country to the coast plain1 where it joins the drainage from ,naait in ,wadi ,mukhit4 ,the principal feeder of ,abu ,daba is ,wadi ,murra which enters it from the south-west a few kilometres before its emergence on to the plain4 ,at the head of ,wadi ,abu ,daba there is said to be a rough steep pass over the mountains into ,wadi ,eidab4 ,the place where ,abu ,daba debouches on to the coast plain is marked by a group of low bouldery looking granite hills called ,khasheib ,abu ,daba4 ,wadi ,abu ,dibban is a short wadi draining eastwards from the hills across the coast plain to the sea a little north of ,berenice4 ,in its course across the plain it passes a little north of a conspicuous granite hill called ,sikeit1 a well known landmark five kilometres north-west of ,berenice4 ,wadi ,mindeit drains the hills between ,gebel ,um ,maiat and ,gebel ,kalalat1 entering the sea at ,berenice4#ia ,wadi ,um ,sellim lil ,mindeit1 a shorter wadi coursing across the plain a little further south1 is interesting as furnishing the nearest fresh water source to ,berenice2 it leads to a rock basin or galt among the hills1 where rain water collects4 ,this source is some ten or twelve kilometres from ,berenice4 ,wadi ,naait#ib is a narrow tortuous gorge1 with a sandy floor shut in by high hills1 coursing eastward to the coast plain a little south of the #bdth parallel4 ,though only a small wadi some sixteen kilometres in length1 it is well known because it forms the usual road from ,wadi ,lahami to ,berenice4 ,its actual head has not been surveyed1 but lies probably between the mountains of ,um ,gunud and ,um ,hegilig4 ,its principal feeders are ,wadis ,um ,sumer and ,abu ,marwa lil ,naait1 which enter it from the north-west1 and ,wadi ,abu ,ghalqa1 entering from the north and draining the granite hills called ,gebel ,abu ,ghalqa4 ,all three of these feeders enter ,naait near together1 some ten kilometres before it emerges on the plain2 the lower part of the wadi is free from lateral branches4 ,the fall is ten metres per kilometre among the hills4 ,on emerging from the hills on to the sandy coast plain1 it joins an ill-defined drainage line called ,wadi el ,mukhit1 which enters the sea at ,port ,berenice1 some fifteen kilometres further east4 ,the name ,wadi el ,mukhit is also given to other ill-marked drainage lines entering ,port ,berenice from the sandy tract between the hills of the main land and the hills of the peninsula of ,ras ,benas4 ,some three kilometres north-east of the mouth of ,wadi ,naait1 on the coast plain1 is a conspicuous isolated low hill1 forming a well-known landmark and called ,grain el ,rih4 ,the plain drained by ,wadi el ,mukhit is a dreary sandy waste1 and the crossing of it in a high wind is very trying by reason of the immense clouds of sand raised and carried in the air4 ,wadi ,kalalat heads in the north-west portion of ,gebel ,kalalat1 and courses nearly eastward to reach the sea in latitude #bc #eb4 ,for the first two-thirds of its course of about thirty kilometres1 ,wadi ,kalalat is shut in by high hills1 and falls rather rapidly4 ,at its head a rough steep pass is said to exist into the head of ,wadi ,shut4 ,after passing round the north flank of ,gebel ,kalalat1 the wadi receives two small tributaries called ,wadi ,um ,maiat and ,wadi el ,dibag lil ,batoga1 the former draining the north-east face of ,gebel ,kalalat and the latter the north-west face of ,gebel ,batoga4 ,after receiving ,wadi ,dibag1 the ,wadi ,kalalat makes a bend northward for about two kilometres1 then turns south-eastward to the opening of the hills on the coast-plain4 ,about two kilometres above the point where it leaves the hills1 on the south side of the main wadi1 is a rocky gully containing the ,galt ,batoga a rock basin which contained good water in #aijg and which is very easy of access in a few minutes from the main wadi4 ,about one and a half kilometres further down1 the small ,wadi ,um ,sellim1 draining the north-east parts of ,gebel ,batoga1 joins the ,wadi ,kalalat just before it opens on to the coast-plain4 ,the course of ,wadi ,kalalat from here to the sea1 about eleven kilometres1 is ill-marked1 over a sandy plain4 ,a ruined enclosure of considerable size1 called ,garia ,kalalat1 lies close south of the wadi about seven kilometres from the sea4 ,wadi ,um ,goran is a small wadi draining by many heads from the east face of ,gebel ,batoga and its foot hills to the sea in latitude #bc #ej4 ,wadi ,kunserob1 draining the south parts of ,gebels ,kalalat and ,batoga1 courses at first nearly southwards1 then curves round south of ,gebel ,dibag1 and after receiving ,wadi ,dibag lil ,kunserob from the north-west1 proceeds eastward through the hills and across six kilometres of sandy coast-plain to the sea in latitude #bc #dg4 ,wadi ,abu ,berig is a short drainage line from among the hills to the sea1 a little south of ,wadi ,kunserob4 ,wadi ,khoda is an important main drainage channel some forty-five kilometres in length1 coursing a little north of eastward to reach the sea in latitude #bc #dc4 ,for the greater part of its length it is shut in by high hills1 only the last six kilometres being across the sandy coast-plain4 ,with a basin approximately #ghj square kilometres in area1 it drains the mountains of ,abu ,dahr1 ,dahanib1 ,shut1 ,reyan1 ,shenshef1 ,hindia1 and ,um ,akra1 some of which rise to over #a1jjj metres above the sea2 it thus receives a fair amount of water in rainy years1 and is well supplied with trees and bushes4 ,its average fall is about nine metres per kilometre4 ,the head of ,wadi ,khoda is formed by the union of three wadis1 coming approximately from the north1 west1 and south1 in the form of a cross4 ,the central one of these1 ,wadi ,abu ,debebi lil ,khoda1 heads in a very easy pass leading to ,bir ,betan and the old mines of ,um ,eleiga4 ,the one to the north1 ,wadi ,salib el ,abiad1 is said to lead into ,wadi ,khiua1 and to possess some old mines1 but has not been explored4 ,the remaining one of the three1 ,wadi ,salib el ,azrak1 drains the east face of ,gebel ,abu ,dahr and the high hills east of it2 the feeder of it from ,abu ,dahr1 called ,wadi ,um ,karaba1 leads by an easy pass1 just north of the mountain1 to ,bir ,betan and the ,um ,eleiga mines1 while some eight kilometres from its junction with ,khoda a track leads up a gully south-westward over another easy pass to ,bir ,rahaba4 ,the names ,salib el ,abiad and ,salib el ,azrak refer to the form of the wadis and the nature of their floor1 salib meaning 8cross10 while abiad and azrak refer to the prevailing white and dark colours of the sand in the respective arms of the cross2 these colours are due to the wadis draining light-coloured granites and dark-coloured serpentines and schists respectively4 ,a little below the union of the three arms above-mentioned1 ,wadi ,khoda expands into a small rather stony plain1 where the sinuous ,wadi ,allawi#ic enters from the north4 ,this important feeder1 which drains the eastern face of ,gebel ,dahanib1 is mostly shut in by high hills1 and is relatively well wooded2 if it be followed up for about ten kilometres1 one comes to the tomb of ,sheikh ,farhan1 near which meet many small feeders1 one of them containing a small rock basin near its head4 ,about eight kilometres below the point of entry of ,wadi ,allawi1 ,wadi ,khoda receives two feeders from opposite sides2 that from the north1 ,wadi ,um ,tawil lil ,khoda1 drains from ,gebel ,dahanib1 while that from the south1 ,wadi ,hindia1 is a sandy rapidly-falling wadi draining ,gebel ,hindia4 ,some five kilometres further down1 ,wadi ,um ,akra1 draining the mountains of the same name1 enters ,khoda from the south1 while another two kilometres brings us to the place of influx of ,wadi ,shut1 an important feeder from the north4 ,the head of ,wadi ,shut is on the west side of ,gebel ,kalalat1 whence its course is westward for about ten kilometres2 it is then joined by the ,wadi ,abu ,hugban1 coming from the south-west1 and from this point it runs south-south-east for some twenty-three kilometres to its junction with ,wadi ,khoda4 ,wadi ,shut is a rather wide wadi with a sandy floor1 fed by many tributaries from the mountains of ,dahanib1 ,um ,hegilig1 ,reyan1 and ,shut4 ,its principal feeder in the lower part of its course is ,wadi ,um ,tawil lil ,shut1 which drains the south part of ,gebel ,dahanib and enters ,shut from the west about five kilometres above its junction with ,khoda4 ,the ,wadi ,shut has a fair growth of trees1 and is said to possess also a large water source1 the exact locality of which has not1 however1 been ascertained4#id ,just below the place where ,wadi ,shut joins it1 ,wadi ,khoda receives a small feeder called ,wadi ,um ,gubur1 entering from the north and marked by several graves near its mouth4 ,on the other side1 two kilometres further on1 ,wadi ,shib enters from the south1 and five kilometres further the ,wadi ,um ,seyal lil ,khoda enters ,khoda from the north4 ,the ,wadi ,gumudlum1 the next great feeder of ,khoda1 enters from the north four kilometres below ,wadi ,um ,seyal4 ,it is a wadi some eighteen kilometres in length1 coursing south-south-east1 and having its head on the west side of ,gebel ,kalalat4 ,a little below wadi ,gumudlum1 near a boss of white quartz1 several small feeders1 of which the two principal are called ,wadi ,buluk and ,wadi ,um ,lassaf1 enter ,wadi ,khoda from the south2 these drain the north side of the high hills called ,gebel ,um ,etli4 ,the last feeder of ,wadi ,khoda1 the ,wadi ,shenshef1 enters the main wadi some three kilometres above the place where it debouches on to the coast-plain1 or eight kilometres from the coast4 ,it is a narrow and very tortuous gorge winding among high hills4 ,if it be followed up for about ten kilometres1 one comes to several small wells called ,bir ,shenshef1 which contained water in #aijg1 and a little above the wells1 where the wadi becomes more open1 there are ruins1 called ,hitan ,shenshef1 which attest the former existence of a town or large village4 ,the ruins are on both sides of the wadi1 and many of them are extremely well built of slabs of quartz schist2 besides the houses in the wadi itself1 there are small towers on the hills4 ,as there are apparently no mines in the hills here1 the origin of the ruins is not clear2 from the strong situation and the watch towers1 and its proximity to fresh water and the sea1 it may possibly represent an old slave dealer's stronghold4 ,for some eighteen kilometres south of the ,wadi ,khoda1 the seaward drainages have not been explored1 but they are believed to be only short wadis1 as the high mountains of ,faraid are here only about ten kilometres from the coast4 ,from guides' statements1 the ,wadi ,um ,etli1 coursing eastward and draining the south faces of ,gebel ,um ,etli1 enters the sea in about latitude #bc #ch1 and there is probably at least one other short wadi draining to the sea about in latitude #bc #ce from the north part of ,gebel ,faraid4 ,the sandy coast-plain in this region is about five kilometres wide4 ,the ,wadi el ,sorubiab1 draining from the north part of ,gebel ,faraid1 and the ,wadi ,bint el ,kurdum1 draining the mountains around the remarkable 8,bodkin0 peak1 enter the sea together by way of a small lagoon in latitude #bc #cj4 ,another wadi1 for which ,i could not obtain any name from my guides1 drains the extreme south parts of ,gebel ,faraid and the north slopes of the smaller ,gebel ,fereyid1 entering the sea in about latitude #bc #ai4 ,wadi ,rahaba1 with a basin of about #ijj square kilometres in area1 drains the country between ,gebels ,faraid and ,abu ,dahr4 ,from its head1 situated about six kilometres south-east of ,gebel ,abu ,dahr1 there is an easy pass into ,wadi ,salib el ,azrak1 a tributary of ,wadi ,khoda4 ,about three kilometres below its head1 a feeder called ,wadi ,titai enters ,rahaba from the hill country to the east2 and a kilometre lower down1 another feeder called ,wadi ,abu ,nikheil1 comes in from the west4 ,at this point there is an important well1 ,bir ,rahaba1 sunk in the alluvium of the wadi floor2 this is said to yield good summer supplies1 but was filled up by downwash when ,i visited it early in #aijg4 ,some three kilometres below ,bir ,rahaba1 a tributary called ,wadi ,abu ,reye enters ,wadi ,rahaba from the north-west2 and there is said to be a well1 called ,bir ,abu ,reye1 about one and a half kilometres up this wadi4 ,another feeder1 the ,wadi ,um ,buerat1 joins ,rahaba from the south-west a little further on1 and then the wadi1 which has thus far taken a southerly course1 turns south-east1 winding considerably for some eight kilometres till it is joined by its most important feeder1 the ,wadi el ,abiad4 ,this ,wadi el ,abiad drains the western side of the northern peaks of ,gebel ,faraid1 and derives its name from the white granitic sand which forms its floor4 ,it has a length of some twenty kilometres and is fed by the ,rod ,elbel1 which heads in a sandy plain at the foot of the highest peak of ,faraid1 and by the ,wadi ,abu ,ribian1 which collects the drainage from the lower hill country west of the ,bodkin peak4 ,about three kilometres lower down than the point of influx of ,wadi el ,abiad1 ,wadi ,rahaba receives the ,wadi ,megah as a tributary from the north-west2 a well1 called ,bir el ,gahlia is said to exist at the head of this wadi1 about twelve kilometres up from its opening into ,wadi ,rahaba4 ,some six kilometres further down1 ,wadi ,rahaba opens out2 its course down to this point has been shut in by high hills1 but now becomes an ill-marked drainage line over a sandy plain4 ,the plain is broken by small hills1 and is limited east and west by other hills which increase in height further away1 forming in fact the foot-hills of ,gebels ,orga and ,um ,tenebda on the west and of ,gebel ,faraid on the east4 ,in this part of its course ,rahaba receives several tributaries1 the principal being ,wadi ,hutit from the north-west1 ,wadi ,dagalai lil ,rahaba and ,wadi ,abu ,had from the east1 and ,wadi el ,marafai1 which runs for some ten kilometres nearly parallel to ,wadi ,rahaba1 among low hills two or three kilometres east of the main ,wadi1 joining the latter about due west of ,gebel ,fereyid4 ,wadi ,rahaba curves round to the south of ,gebel ,fereyid in a quadrant of about seven kilometres radius1 and then proceeds nearly due east to reach the sea in about latitude #bc #ab4 ,the upper parts of ,wadi ,rahaba1 where it is shut in by high hills1 contain many trees and bushes2 but the lower parts are more barren and sandy1 the actual drainage line being in places difficult to define on account of the paucity of vegetation and the openness of the plain4 ,the total length is about seventy-five kilometres1 and the total fall #dej metres2 the slope averages eight metres per kilometre in the upper twenty-five kilometres1 where the wadi is narrow and shut in1 but only five metres per kilometre in the broad and sandy course which forms the remaining fifty kilometres4 ,wadi ,hodein1 one of the largest and most important of the seawards draining wadis of the ,eastern ,desert1 has a basin of nearly #ab1jjj square kilometres1 or over a square degree of the earth's surface4 ,its main channel1 formed by the union of the ,wadis ,arned1 el ,sania1 ,um ,sumur1 ,saalek1 ,um ,reit1 and el ,nom1 in latitude #bc #ah1 longitude #cd #dc1 and reaching the sea at ,bir ,shalatein#ie in latitude #bc #h1 longitude #ce #cg1 has a length of #ajh kilometres and an average slope of three metres per kilometre4 ,for the first fifteen kilometres of its course it is shut in by the high sandstone scarps of ,gebel ,abraq and ,gebel ,hodein2 but shortly after passing the ,abu ,saafa ,springs its channel becomes wide and sandy1 passing through lower metamorphic hill country2 and in the last twenty-five or thirty kilometres of its course it is merely an ill-defined drainage line over the sandy coast-plain4 ,its lower reaches are dreary and inhospitable1 but its upper-portion is pleasantly wooded1 and contains the perennial springs of ,abu ,saafa4 ,wadi ,hodein is remarkable for the large number and length of its tributary wadis1 some of which exceed the main channel itself in length1 while many of them contain wells and form important lines of communication by leading to easy passes over the main watershed4 ,in the description which follows1 ,i shall first consider the wadis which by their union form the head of the main channel1 afterwards tracing the course of the main wadi in detail to the sea1 noting the influx of the various tributaries on either hand1 and finally describing the larger tributaries themselves4 ,the most important of the wadis which join to form the head of ,wadi ,hodein are ,wadis ,arned1 ,saalek1 and ,um ,reit4 ,these join in a small plain with the ,wadis el ,sania1 ,um ,sumur and ,el ,nom1 which are smaller and will not need further mention4 ,wadi el ,arned originates on the main watershed about five kilometres south-east of ,galt el ,aguz4 ,the watershed here is only #dbg metres above sea-level1 and is so flat and sandy that it is almost impossible to say within a kilometre where the divide actually is2 the wadi in fact heads in a sandy plain about two kilometres wide with low sandstone hills on either hand1 from which feeders join the main drainage line4 ,about six kilometres below its head1 ,wadi ,arned is joined from the south by its most important feeder1 the ,wadi ,muegil4 ,this wadi1 which has a length of some twenty kilometres1 originates in the hill country about nine kilometres north of ,gebel ,um ,reit1 where an easy pass connects it with ,wadi ,saalek2 it flows in a northerly direction1 entirely among sandstone hills1 and is fairly provided with vegetation4 ,some two kilometres lower down1 ,arned receives a smaller feeder from the north1 called ,wadi ,um ,arta2 by following this up for about five kilometres1 one can reach a rather steep and sandy eastward pass into the head of ,wadi ,silsila1 and this forms the shortest route from the ,galt el ,aguz to the springs of ,abraq4 ,about four kilometres below the junction of ,wadi ,abu ,arta1 near an isolated hill on the east side of the ,wadi ,arned1 there appears to be another opening into one of the heads of ,wadi ,silsila2 this opening is very sandy and looks like a practicable alternative route to ,abraq ,springs1 though it has not been explored4 ,lower down its course1 ,wadi ,arned is at first very sandy and bare1 with high sand-drifts swathing the feet of the hills on the east2 but it gradually narrows into a gorge and becomes less sandy1 then opens out again1 and near its junction with ,wadi ,hodein it contains abundant vegetation4 ,the ,wadi ,arned forms the easiest and most direct road from ,abu ,saafa to ,daraw1 via ,galt el ,aguz1 ,bir ,abu ,hashim1 and ,bir ,qoleib4 ,wadi ,saalek is a short wadi with many feeders1 draining the hills round ,gebel ,saalek2 one of its northern feeders leads to a pass into the head of ,wadi ,muegil1 while one of its south branches heads in a pass leading round the west side of ,gebel ,um ,reit to ,wadi and ,bir ,um ,reit4 ,wadi ,um ,reit heads in the granite mountain called ,gebel ,um ,reit and flows north-eastward1 to the south of the mountain1 for about twenty-two kilometres1 to its junction with ,arned and ,saalek to form ,wadi ,hodein4 ,the head of ,wadi ,um ,reit leads to a pass north-west of the mountain into ,wadi ,saalek1 while the western head of ,um ,reit1 which bears the name ,wadi el ,dub1 leads on to a sandy plain forming the main watershed1 whence there are easy tracks to the various feeders of ,wadi ,timsah4 ,the well called ,bir ,um ,reit is a deep excavation1 in the wadi floor at the foot of the mountain1 near a large tree4 ,dr4 ,hume1 who visited it in #aijf1 found it to yield water of only mediocre character4 ,it is about one hundred kilometres by road from ,bir ,abu ,hashim1 the nearest well to the west1 but only about thirty kilometres from ,abu ,saafa ,springs1 the nearest water eastward2 to get to ,abu ,saafa from ,bir ,um ,reit1 one has only to follow down the wadi1 and the supply at ,abu ,saafa can always be relied on for quantity and quality4 ,near the well1 ,wadi ,um ,reit receives feeders draining the high granite hills of ,etresia2 the principal of these is called ,wadi ,malhat4 ,the lower part of the course of ,um ,reit is almost entirely in sandstone hills2 it has not been mapped in detail except near its junction with ,hodein4 ,we turn now to the main channel of ,wadi ,hodein1 which originates1 as above-mentioned1 by the union of the ,wadis ,um ,reit1 ,saalek1 ,arned1 and other smaller wadis in a small plain1 and shall follow its course onwards to the sea4 ,three small feeders1 ,talet ,um ,danaqa and ,talet ,kurit on the south1 and ,talet ,um ,sideri on the north1 join the channel a few kilometres below its head1 while about nine kilometres from the head there enters a larger wadi coming from the south1 called the ,wadi el ,gihab4 ,the main ,wadi ,gihab has not been followed1 but its eastern branch1 called ,wadi ,gihab ,abu ,derb1 contains a large and very easily accessible galt about four kilometres from ,hodein1 and leads about ten kilometres further on1 to a very steep and difficult pass into ,wadi ,dif2 this pass is practicable only on foot1 being risky even for unladen camels4 ,the ,springs of ,abu ,saafa are situated in the ,wadi ,hodein1 about two kilometres below the point of influx of ,wadi ,gihab1 at an altitude of #caj metres above sea-level4 ,the ,wadi ,hodein is here narrow1 and shut in by very high steep sandstone scarps4 ,there are four springs1 all issuing from the northern scarp at intervals of about sixty metres along the wadi1 and all about three metres above the wadi floor1 trickling into pools about a metre in diameter close by4 ,the most westerly of the four springs is a mere trickle2 the next yields a rather greater flow1 from a carved niche in the rock1 with a ,greek cornice2 the third is the one most used1 having the greatest flow of the four1 while the easternmost is almost stagnant and has yellow incrustations near it4 ,the rate of flow1 even from the largest spring1 is very slow1 probably not more than ten litres per minute1 and the overflow from the pools is only a tiny stream a few centimetres wide which soon loses itself in the sand of the wadi floor2 but the pools are large enough for a dozen or more camels to drink from1 and soon fill up again when emptied4 ,the water is of excellent quality1 very clear1 and the supply never fails4 ,near the springs there are five or six small date palms1 and the wadi hereabouts has many other trees4 ,after rain1 this part of ,wadi ,hodein at times becomes a stream2 this was the case in ,october #aijg1 for ,i found numerous pools in the wadi floor1 and scum and froth showing that an impetuous stream about half a metre deep had flowed down the wadi only a few days prior to my visit4 ,just below ,abu ,saafa ,springs1 ,wadi ,hodein receives the short ,wadi ,maghal from the north-west2 this wadi1 which is walled in by high sandstone plateaux1 contains water holes about three kilometres from ,wadi ,hodein2 but these are less important than the springs of ,abu ,saafa1 and are1 moreover1 off the main road4 ,wadi ,hodein now opens out1 the high sandstone scarps of ,gebels ,abraq and ,hodein running north and south-east1 and enters a sandy plain with very low hills1 from among which some small feeders join the main wadi4 ,about fifteen kilometres below the opening of scarps1 ,wadi ,hodein receives1 from the north-west1 the ,wadi ,naam1#if a great tributary draining the mountains of ,zergat ,naam1 ,um ,bisilla1 and ,abu ,dahr4 ,the next influx is from ,wadi ,dif1 which enters ,wadi ,hodein from the south-west about six kilometres further on2 ,wadi ,dif itself is only a short wadi1 but it collects the drainage of an immense area to the south by long feeders1 and contains a good well4 ,nearly opposite to ,wadi ,dif1 the ,wadi ,orga el ,atshani joins ,wadi ,hodein from the north-west2 the ,wadi ,hodein has here two large island-like masses of low hills in it1 between which the main drainage line passes4 ,lower down1 ,wadi ,orga el ,rayani enters by two mouths from the north4 ,both the ,wadis ,orga are said to originate near ,gebel ,orga1 some thirty kilometres to the north1 but their courses have not been mapped2 the one called ,el ,rayani is said to lead to a good well1 ,bir ,orga1 about twelve or fourteen kilometres above its junction with ,hodein4 ,on the opposite 7south7 side1 ,wadi ,hodein receives the ,wadi ,anfeib1 draining the high sandstone plateau of ,gebel ,anfeib4 ,a little further on the small ,wadi el ,khasiya comes in from the north1 by two channels1 one on either side of a small group of isolated hills2 and nearly opposite is the mouth of ,wadi ,madi1 which drains the west side of the great mountain mass of ,gerf1 some sixty kilometres to the south1 and possesses a good well about fifty kilometres up its course from ,wadi ,hodein4 ,several feeders come in from the north a little further down the wadi1 of which the chief is the ,wadi ,um ,tenedba1 draining the mountain of the same name1 while others drain the hill country round ,gebel ,harhagit4 ,on the other 7south7 side is the mouth of ,wadi ,khashab1 draining the west side of ,gebel ,khashab and the hills west of it4 ,a few kilometres further on1 ,wadi ,hodein widens considerably1 and from here onward it is very sandy and arid4 ,a long spur running north-west from ,gebel el ,anbat nearly cuts across the wadi1 the main channel of which passes north and east of the spur1 while to the west of it is a rather broad sandy plain with ill-marked drainage lines from the hills1 of which the chief bears the name of ,wadi ,um ,seleim4 ,near ,gebel el ,anbat are numerous small feeders of ,wadi ,hodein from that hill and the other hills to the north-east4 ,about eight kilometres below ,gebel el ,anbat1 ,wadi ,hodein quits the hills and1 turning a little north of east1 merges into the coast-plain1 over which its remaining course of about twenty-seven kilometres is very ill-defined4 ,just where it leaves the hills1 ,wadi ,hodein is joined from the south-west by ,wadi ,beida1 draining the mountain of the same name and containing two wells2 and a little further on it receives ,wadi el ,kreiga1 which drains the hill country round ,bir ,meneiga4 ,the junctions of ,wadi ,beida and ,wadi ,kreiga with ,wadi ,hodein are very difficult to trace on the ground1 being almost lost in the general sandy plain4 ,bir ,shalatein1 a very salt well in the ,wadi ,hodein1 about two kilometres from its mouth and only about seven metres above the sea1 is chiefly of importance by reason of its marking the administrative limit of the ,egyptian and ,sudan spheres of government4 ,it is merely a few shallow pits sunk in the wadi bed1 yielding water drinkable only by camels4 ,an iron beacon two metres high has been erected on a low bank close to the well1 and will enable the well1 which is itself inconspicuous1 to be easily found4 ,wadi ,naam1 a great tributary of ,wadi ,hodein coming from the north-north-west1 originates about ten kilometres south-east of ,gebel ,zergat ,naam by the union of the ,wadis ,abu ,seyal1 ,el ,fil1 and ,um ,bisilla1 and courses south-south-east for about forty-nine kilometres to its junction with ,wadi ,hodein4 ,it is a very barren wadi1 being for most of its length a broad1 shallow1 and very sandy drainage line among low hills1 and in its lower parts1 where it crosses the plain of ,abraq1 its course is very ill-marked4 ,its slope decreases from five metres per kilometre near its head to about three metres per kilometre in its lower reaches4 ,besides the three wadis which1 as above-mentioned1 unite to form its head1 ,wadi ,naam has several large tributaries1 of which the chief are the ,wadis ,silsila and ,abraq on the west1 and ,wadis ,erf ,um ,araka1 ,arais1 and ,betan on the east4 ,the ,wadi el ,fil1 which may be regarded as the main head of ,wadi ,naam1 though it is not the longest1 drains the north-east portion of ,gebel ,zergat ,naam 7sometimes called ,hagar el ,fil74 ,the rocky gullies forming its heads contain rock basins which yield water for a short time after rain4 ,wadi ,abu ,seyal drains the south part of the same range2 its head is very steep1 and is said to contain a very large galt1 which holds supplies of water for five months after rain4 ,wadi ,um ,bisilla drains ,gebel ,um ,bisilla1 which it half encircles1 its main head being north-east of the mountain1 where there is an easy pass into ,wadi ,abu ,nilih1 and thence an easy road to the head of ,wadi ,lahami4 ,about eleven kilometres west of the mountain1 ,wadi ,um ,bisilla receives1 from the north-east1 the ,wadi el ,khiua1 which1 with its tributaries1 ,wadis ,abu ,fagir and ,abu ,nilih1 drains the low hill country north of ,gebel ,um ,bisilla4 ,the lower parts of ,wadis ,um ,bisilla and ,khiua have not been surveyed in detail2 their courses as shown on the map are only approximate1 but being based on guides' statements near the spot they are probably substantially correct4 ,wadi ,erf ,um ,araka heads as a series of small wadis among the low hills south of ,um ,bisilla1 and curves round westward between the high hills of ,abu ,shigelat and ,erf el ,gimal on the north1 and ,erf ,um ,araka or ,gebel ,belamhandeit on the south1 to join ,wadi ,naam about five kilometres lower down than ,wadi ,um ,bisilla4 ,the hill country round the heads of ,wadi ,erf ,um ,araka is fairly open1 so that one can proceed freely from the head of ,wadi ,arais1 across those of ,wadi ,erf ,um ,araka1 and on into the heads of ,wadi ,um ,bisilla4 ,wadi ,arais originates by the union of many small feeders in the low hill country between ,gebels ,um ,guruf and ,hendusi1 and courses for the first fourteen kilometres in a south-south-west direction4 ,about nine kilometres below its head the ,wadi ,um ,guruf1 draining the hills round the conspicuous granite boss called ,gebel ,um ,guruf1 enters from the north-west4 ,some five kilometres further on1 just beyond the place where ,arais makes a sharp westward bend1 ,wadi ,belamhandeit1 draining the east face of the long gneiss range called ,erf ,um ,araka or ,gebel ,belamhandeit1 enters from the north4 ,wadi ,arais now narrows into a winding gorge1 cutting westward for about ten kilometres through the complex of high gneiss hills called ,gebel ,arais to join ,wadi ,naam4 ,its junction with ,wadi ,naam takes place in a small plain1 with the sandstone plateaux of ,gebel ,um ,sididad on the west and the gneiss hills of ,gebel ,arais on the east4 ,the fall of ,wadi ,arais is from #dfd metres above sea at the pass into ,wadi ,erf ,um ,araka1 to #cde metres where it joins ,wadi ,naam after a course of twenty-five kilometres2 so that its slope averages four and a half metres per kilometre4 ,wadi ,silsila#ig heads in high sandstone hills on the meridian of #cd #dj1 north of ,gebel ,abraq1 where at least one pass1 steep and sandy1 leads to the ,wadi ,arned4 ,its course is almost due east1 over a plain with low sandstone banks1 with a great deal of blown sand4 ,feeders enter it from the sandstone hills which bound the plain1 the principal being the ,wadi ,um ,sididad1 draining the high sandstone hills1 called ,gebel ,um ,sididad1 on the north4 ,about seven kilometres before it joins ,naam1 ,wadi ,silsila cuts through the range of low sandstone hills which stretches southward from ,gebel ,um ,sididad to near ,abraq springs2 in proceeding to ,abraq from the pass at the head of ,wadi ,silsila1 one bears off to the south before reaching this range1 entering the drainage of ,wadi ,abraq over an open sandy plain4 ,wadi ,abraq is a rather ill-defined drainage line which originates on the north side of ,gebel ,abraq1 and after skirting the high sandstone scarp1 from which it receives small feeders1 for about thirteen kilometres1 turns eastward to join ,wadi ,naam1 about nine kilometres above its junction with ,hodein4 ,wadi ,abraq is sandy and barren1 and would be scarcely worthy of mention but for the fact that it contains some of the most important water sources of the entire ,eastern ,desert1 the ,abraq ,springs4 ,there are no less than five springs within a length of as many kilometres of the wadi1 yielding perennial supplies of excellent water4 ,the first spring from the north1 called ,bir el ,sunta1 is a pool about two metres in diameter at the entrance to a little gully in the face of the high sandstone scarp2 it is very easily accessible to camels1 being practically on the plain1 and fills as rapidly as it is emptied4 ,the second and third springs1 called together ,bir ,abu ,dibesat1 are about #a1ejj metres south-east of ,bir el ,sunta1 near the tomb of ,sheikh ,hamid2 they form smaller pools at the foot of the scarp4 ,the fourth spring1 ,bir ,abraq1 is situated a short distance up a stony gully which emerges from the scarp a little further south2 the water lies in large pools under dipping sandstone beds on the south side of the gully4 ,the fifth spring1 ,bir ,gumbit1 is said to be some three kilometres further south-east1 and1 like the others1 at the foot of the sandstone scarp2 it has not1 however1 been visited by the survey party4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--,map of ,abraq ,springs4 ,scale3 #e centimetres to a kilometre4 ,the water at all the ,abraq ,springs is of excellent quality2 it contains masses of green alg1 but these are easily avoided in baling out1 and the water can be obtained quite clear4 ,of the four springs visited1 the one called ,bir ,abraq is the chief2 but ,bir el ,sunta is rather easier of access for camels4 ,the springs are practically all at the same level1 viz41 #ccj metres above sea1 and all derive their water from the same sandstone beds4 ,no camel food grows near the wells1 and there are very few trees in the vicinity2 consequently1 the ,arabs of the neighbourhood do not camp near the springs1 but in ,wadi ,hodein and its tributaries1 drawing water from ,abraq or ,abu ,saafa at intervals4 ,there are1 however1 ruins of a large ancient fort on a low hill east of ,bir ,abraq1 and some ,arab graves a little further north2 among these latter is a large tomb said to be that of ,sheikh ,hamid4 ,wadi ,betan originates on the north side of ,gebel ,abu ,dahr1 where an easy pass1 #faj metres above sea-level1 connects its head with ,wadi ,um ,karaba1 and courses at first westward to near ,gebel ,hendusi2 it then turns southward to join ,wadi ,naam a few kilometres only above its junction with ,wadi ,hodein4 ,its total length is over fifty kilometres1 and its average slope is about seven metres per kilometre4 ,only the head of ,wadi ,betan has been surveyed in detail2 but this is the most important part1 as containing water sources and old mine workings2 and the lower part of its course as shown on the map is probably substantially correct1 being based on statements made near the spot by guides familiar with the district4 ,about five kilometres below its head1 ,wadi ,betan contains the two wells called ,bir ,betan4 ,these are excavations in the alluvium of the wadi4 ,the lower one is at the mouth of the small ,wadi ,um ,eleiga1 while the other is about #fjj metres further up ,wadi ,betan1 close to a small tree4 ,both these wells were filled up by downwash when ,i visited them in ,february #aijg1 and their places were only recognisable by the clay 8hds0 near them2 at this time there was no necessity for the ,arabs to open them1 as a galt at the head of the wadi1 just south of the pass into ,wadi ,um ,karaba1 was yielding a good supply of water4 ,just above the wells1 ,betan receives from the south the feeder called ,wadi ,mistura1 draining the west side of ,gebel ,abu ,dahr4 ,the little ,wadi ,um ,eleiga1 which drains into ,betan close to the south well1 is of importance as leading to some extensive ruins and old workings about two kilometres up from its mouth4 ,the ruins are mostly rubble hovels1 while the workings1 which were evidently for gold1 vary from mere scratchings to pits ten metres deep in the rock4 ,a diorite mill-stone is to be seen near the ruins4 ,the ,wadi ,abu ,debebi lil ,betan1 which joins ,betan on the north about three kilometres below the wells1 leads by an easy pass into ,wadi ,abu ,debebi lil ,khoda1 one of the heads of ,wadi ,khoda1 and forms the nearest way to the coast from ,bir ,betan4 ,wadi ,abu ,sieiyil is a small feeder entering ,betan from the south1 three kilometres further down4 ,the principal remaining tributaries of ,betan are the ,wadis ,hefeiri1 ,abu ,beid1 and ,egat4 ,wadi ,hefeiri runs westward from near the ,abu ,debebi pass1 and turning south near ,gebel ,hendusi1 receives the ,rod el ,hendusi just before entering ,betan4 ,wadi ,abu ,beid el ,azrak originates near ,gebel ,abu ,sieiyil west of ,abu ,dahr1 and flows southwards to join ,wadi ,abu ,beid el ,abiad1 which in turn flows into ,wadi ,betan4 ,a well1 ,bir ,abu ,beid1 is situated near the junction of ,wadi ,abu ,beid el ,abiad and ,wadi ,abu ,beid el ,azrak1 where there are numerous seyal trees2 it was yielding a fair quantity of good water in #aijf4 ,of the ,wadi ,egat1 nothing has been seen2 it is1 however1 stated by the ,arabs to originate in the rugged hilly tract south of ,gebel ,abu ,dahr1 and to join ,wadi ,betan lower down its course than ,abu ,beid4 ,wadi ,dif originates in the sandstone hills round ,bir ,dif1 and pursues a very sinuous north-easterly course1 cutting through the high sandstone plateau which is named ,gebel ,hodein to the north1 and ,gebel ,dif to the south of it4 ,for the major part of its length of twenty-nine kilometres it is very narrow1 with very high steep sandstone scarps on either side1 but it is a little more open near its origin1 where ,wadi ,feqoh joins it1 and in its lower part it winds as a broad sandy valley through the low hills which separate the ,wadi ,hodein from the high sandstone plateaux2 it joins ,wadi ,hodein close to the meridian of #ce4 ,except the ,wadi ,feqoh1 which is of immense length1 and drains a very large area1 ,wadi ,dif has only a few insignificant feeders4 ,of these1 ,talet ,um ,karaba and ,wadi ,enqireidia enter from the south plateau near the place where ,wadi ,dif leaves the high sandstone hills2 and ,wadi ,gelabat ,shabai1 coursing north-east through the low hill country flanking the plateau1 joins ,wadi ,dif just above its junction with ,hodein4 ,bir ,dif is situated in a small gully forming the head of ,wadi ,dif1 in latitude #bc #ab #db4 ,to a traveller coming up ,wadi ,dif1 ,wadi ,feqoh forms the main continuation of ,wadi ,dif1 and the gully containing ,bir ,dif appears to be a lateral tributary coming in from the west2 but the ,arabs restrict the name ,dif to the drainage line below the spring1 and apply the name ,feqoh to all the upper main channel4 ,bir ,dif is a spring forming two pools of good water1 situated about a kilometre up the gully1 at the junction of sandstone and schists4 ,the approach to the pools is very stony1 but camels can easily reach the water2 the spring is #bij metres above sea-level4 ,wadi ,feqoh1 a tributary of ,wadi ,dif1 is many times longer than ,wadi ,dif itself1 and even longer than the ,wadi ,hodein of which ,wadi ,dif is a tributary1 having a length along its main channel of #aej kilometres1 with feeders totalling several times that length4 ,though only portions of ,wadi ,feqoh have been surveyed in detail1 the position of its entire course is known with tolerable accuracy from the statements of guides at various stations from which portions of it could be pointed out4 ,it is for the most part a very barren wadi1 forming an ill-defined drainage line through a dreary waterless sandy waste4 ,its very name1 which means 8devoid of nourishment10 indicates its character4 ,it originates near the west side of ,gebel ,soaorib1 only some twenty kilometres north of the #bbnd parallel of latitude1 where the main watershed separates it from the feeders of the ,wadi ,alaqi4 ,from here it follows a north-westerly course1 passing between the mountains of ,eir ,arib and ,hadal ,derqa4 ,curving slightly to the north1 it crosses the great sandy plain west of ,gebel ,korabkansi1 and passes close west of the isolated mountain called ,gebel ,shabih4 ,further on1 it enters a country of low hills with sandy interspaces1 passing close west of the low range called ,gebel ,um el ,kalala1 and then sweeps round in a great curve towards the east to join the ,wadi ,dif close to ,bir ,dif4 ,the fall of its bed from near ,gebel ,shabih to its junction with ,wadi ,dif1 that is1 in a length of seventy-two kilometres1 is from #dgj metres to #bhj metres above sea1 giving an average slope of only about #bf metres per kilometre2 ,wadi ,feqoh has in fact the most gentle gradient of all the great seawards-draining wadis4 ,wadi ,feqoh has many tributaries4 ,those near its head1 and others coming in from the western mountains through the low hill country north of ,gebel ,mishbih1 have not been traced2 but those draining ,gebel ,korabkansi and ,gebel ,niqrub1 which are probably the most important1 have been mapped in detail4 ,most of the drainage from these localities eventually finds its way into the great trunk feeder of ,wadi ,feqoh1 called the ,wadi ,gimal1#ih which joins ,wadi ,feqoh about sixteen kilometres before its junction with ,wadi ,dif4 ,the tributaries of ,wadi ,feqoh are of much more interest than ,wadi ,feqoh itself1 as they contain in many places a fair or even relatively rich assemblage of trees and bushes1 and at least one good well1 ,bir ,sararat ,seyet4 ,the most southern tributaries of ,wadi ,feqoh which have been mapped are ,wadi ,kamoyib1 draining eastward from ,gebel ,wadhait1 and ,wadi ,tawayib1 draining the east face of ,gebel ,korabkansi4 ,these are for the most part barren wadis each coursing for about sixteen kilometres across a sandy plain to join ,feqoh4 ,the main head of ,wadi ,gimal is called ,wadi ,seyet4 ,it originates between ,gebel ,wadhait and ,gebel ,dreb about latitude #bb #ce1 and by means of many feeders drains the east face of ,gebels ,dreb and ,gerf4 ,the principal feeder of ,wadi ,seyet from the south-west is ,wadi ,wadhait1 collecting the south drainage of ,gebel ,korabkansi1 while on the east the ,wadi ,sherefa el ,gharbi1 which leads to the important ,sherefa pass1 contributes the drainage from the northern parts of ,gebel ,dreb and the south-west parts of ,gebel ,gerf4 ,these both join ,wadi ,seyet a little south of latitude #bb #dj1 while a little further down there enter from the east two small feeders called ,wadi ,delawet and ,wadi ,buyet4 ,the name ,seyet is given to this wadi only down to where it passes through a narrow gap between high hills in latitude #bb #db2 below that point it is called ,wadi ,gemal4 ,wadi ,seyet is remarkably well wooded1 containing an immense number of fine large acacia trees1 and presented an almost park-like appearance at the end of #aijg4 ,it also contains a deep well1 ,bir ,sararat ,seyet1 excavated in the wadi floor just above the gap between the hills above referred to4 ,this well was full of downwash in the winter of #aijg4 ,it is said to be twenty metres deep and to yield plenty of good water1 but at that time there was plenty of water in galts in the mountains1 and the ,arabs said they preferred to derive their supplies from these so long as they lasted1 only digging out the well when further supplies were necessary4#ii ,an unnamed feeder from the west1 joining ,wadi ,seyet just below the well1 leads by an easy pass into the head of ,wadi ,hushenab1 which drains through ,wadi ,sortdau into the ,wadi ,gemal lower down its course4 ,the country between ,gebel ,korabkansi and ,gebel ,niqrub ,foqani1 through which the course of ,wadi ,gemal lies1 is a gently sloping plain with mere low banks1 among which the drainage lines branch out forming numerous loops4 ,the main channel runs fairly straight in a north-westerly direction1 receiving ,wadis ,sortdau and ,remalib1 draining the hills north-west of ,gebel ,korabkansi as tributaries on its west side2 but a sort of loop line runs off eastward and reaches the main channel again by the ,wadi ,haletiai1 which also collects the drainage from the south parts of ,gebel ,niqrub ,foqani4 ,after passing west of this last-named mountain1 ,wadi ,gemal takes a more northerly course2 it receives an immense number of feeders from the west and north of ,gebel ,niqrub ,foqani1 of which the principal is called ,wadi ,umeiatib4 ,other feeders enter from among the low hills on the west1 the principal being ,wadi ,hadelshisheib1 coming from the neighbourhood of the dark cone called ,gebel ,mismih4 ,from ,bir ,sararat ,seyet to its junction with ,wadi ,feqoh the length of the main channel of ,wadi ,gemal is fifty-seven kilometres1 and its fall is from #efj metres above sea to about #caj metres1 or on the average about four and a half metres per kilometre2 its slope is thus much more rapid than that of ,wadi ,feqoh1 though in its lower parts1 where it passes over what is almost a plain1 its gradient is less than half this average amount4 ,the upper parts of the ,wadi ,gemal and its tributaries contain as a rule a fair abundance of trees and bushes4 ,wadi ,abu ,hashim1 which joins ,wadi ,feqoh about three kilometres above ,bir ,dif1 commences its course near ,gebel ,butitelib1 where an easy pass1 broad and sandy1 #dje metres above sea-level1 divides it from the heads of ,rod ,mukrayib1 a tributary of ,wadi ,madi4 ,wadi ,abu ,hashim follows a north-westerly course1 nearly in a straight line1 collecting principally the drainage from the western slopes of the range of high schist hills which flank the sandstone plateau of ,gebel ,anfeib4 ,it has a length of seventeen kilometres1 and an average slope of about six metres per kilometre4 ,it is a fairly open wadi1 without much vegetation2 on its west side are only very low hills4 ,wadi ,anfeib1 which enters ,wadi ,hodein from the south-west eight kilometres below the point of influx of ,wadi ,dif1 is formed by the union of three main heads1 called ,wadi ,anfeib el ,tawayib1 ,wadi ,atalab1 and ,wadi ,mitatib1 draining respectively the northern1 central1 and southern parts of the great sandstone plateau of ,gebel ,anfeib4 ,mitatib is joined half-way down its course by ,wadi ,unfagalan1 which likewise heads in the plateau4 ,below the junction of its three main heads1 ,wadi ,anfeib has a course of only about seven kilometres to run1 through low hill country1 before it joins ,wadi ,hodein4 ,wadi ,madi1 the next great tributary of ,wadi ,hodein from the south1 heads in the western side of the complex group of mountains called ,gebel ,gerf1 and courses in a northerly direction for over seventy kilometres before joining ,wadi ,hodein in longitude #ce #g1 five kilometres lower down ,wadi ,hodein than the mouth of ,wadi ,anfeib4 ,the heads of ,wadi ,madi are extremely complex1 consisting of a multitude of branching drainage lines1 and some of them divide their drainage with the ,wadi ,gemal1 which enters ,wadi ,hodein by way of ,wadis ,feqoh and ,dif4 ,the most southerly head is the ,wadi ,difoteb1 draining from the west side of ,gebel ,gerf in latitude #bb #ci2 but only a part of the drainage from this gets into ,wadi ,madi1 the rest going into ,wadi ,sherefa el ,gharbi4 ,a similar fate is shared by ,wadi ,eirahimib1 which heads in a slightly difficult pass1 leading into ,wadi ,um ,reddam1 about three kilometres west of the highest point of ,gebel ,gerf in latitude #bb #db2 this wadi courses in a direction a little south of west1 falling very rapidly1 past the hill mass of ,gebel ,tueiwi1 where it divides1 part of its drainage going northwards as ,wadi ,madi1 and part crossing the plain as ,wadi ,buyet and joining the ,wadi ,seyet4 ,the next head of ,wadi ,madi to the north is formed by ,wadi ,faditiai1 which drains the high hills east of ,gebel ,tueiwi1 and captures a part of the drainage brought down by the above-mentioned ,wadi ,eirahimib4 ,exactly where the name ,madi commences to be applied to the drainage is uncertain1 as ,arabs differ on the point1 but it is probably most correct to consider ,madi as commencing just south of ,gebel ,tueiwi1 where the drainage of ,wadi ,eirahimib1 with part of that from ,wadi ,difoteb1 divides into two parts1 the lesser going down ,wadi ,buyet to join ,wadi ,seyet1 while the greater forms ,wadi ,madi itself4 ,on this basis1 ,wadi ,faditiai is a tributary of ,wadi ,madi1 joining it by several openings between latitudes #bb #dd and #bb #df4 ,there are numerous feeders from the low hill country both to ,wadi ,faditiai and to ,wadi ,madi proper4 ,after receiving ,wadi ,faditiai1 ,madi flows in a well-defined trench1 with many trees1 north-west for a few kilometres to latitude #bb #dg1 where it turns sharply1 almost at a right angle1 to the north-east4 ,a kilometre and a half beyond the bend where there is a high granite hill on the west side of the wadi1 is ,bir ,madi4 ,this is a well sunk in the alluvium of the wadi floor1 having its mouth lined with stone slabs2 in ,december #aijg1 when ,i visited it1 the water was four and a half metres deep1 with its surface three and a half metres below the wadi floor1 and the water was good4 ,the wadi floor here is #dgf metres above sea-level4 ,a beacon on the granite hill overlooking the well has the position latitude #bb #dg #df ,n41 longitude #ce #a #ch ,e41 altitude #eef metres above sea4 ,below the well1 ,wadi ,madi follows a rather winding course among moderately high hills to a little north of latitude #bb #ej1 where it gets into more open country and continues as a broad sandy valley1 curving gently in a northerly direction1 to latitude #bc #e4 ,beyond this point1 where it receives the ,rod ,mukrayib and the ,wadi ,kolaiqo from the west and east respectively1 ,wadi ,madi becomes narrower1 and winds about1 though still keeping a general northerly direction1 among low hill country to its junction with ,wadi ,hodein4 ,wadi ,madi has many tributaries1 the chief being the ,wadis ,shellal el ,gharbi1 ,tugudbaia1 ,sinatib1 ,atluk and ,kolaiqo1 and the ,rod ,mukrayib1 which will be treated separately further on4 ,the upper parts of ,wadi ,madi and many of its tributaries are well stocked with trees1 but its central parts1 where it is wide and sandy1 are more barren4 ,its principal head1 the ,wadi ,eirahimib1 falls at an average rate of sixteen metres per kilometre2 from near ,gebel ,tueiwi to ,bir ,madi the average slope is nine metres per kilometre2 while in the final fifty-four kilometres of its course from ,bir ,madi to ,wadi ,hodein1 the average gradient is rather less than six metres per kilometre4 ,wadi ,shellal el ,gharbi1 a tributary of ,wadi ,madi1 originates in the mountains about six kilometres north of the highest peak of ,gebel ,gerf1 where a pass connects it with ,wadi ,shellal el ,sharqi1 a tributary of the eastward draining ,wadi ,radad4 ,flowing at first nearly due west1 ,wadi ,shellal el ,gharbi receives the ,wadi ,um ,reddam1 which collects the drainage from the north faces of the highest peaks of ,gebel ,gerf4 ,two of the heads of ,um ,reddam lead to passes2 one eastward to ,wadi ,shellal el ,sharqi1 and one westward into the head of ,wadi ,eirahimib4 ,entering a lower hill country from which it receives numerous feeders1 ,wadi ,shellal el ,gharbi turns north-west to join ,wadi ,madi about eight kilometres below ,bir ,madi4 ,it has a rather rapid fall1 and contains a fair quantity of trees and bushes4 ,its total length along its main channel is twenty-one kilometres4 ,wadi ,sinatib1 which enters ,wadi ,madi about six kilometres below ,shellal el ,gharbi1 is a small wadi coursing north-west through the low hill country north of ,wadi ,shellal4 ,wadi ,tugudbaia conveys to ,wadi ,madi the drainage from the dyke country south-east of ,gebel ,niqrub el ,foqani4 ,it is only a short wadi1 and enters ,wadi ,madi nearly opposite ,sinatib4 ,wadi ,berendiyeb1 which joins ,wadi ,madi from the west about latitude #bb #ed1 drains the western flanks of ,gebel ,niqrub el ,foqani4 ,it is a many headed wadi1 coursing at first among the low foot-hills of the mountain1 and then crossing almost a sandy plain to join ,wadi ,madi4 ,its length along its main channel is about twelve kilometres4 ,north of ,berendiyeb1 there are two other feeders of ,wadi ,madi coming from the low hills north-east of ,gebel ,niqrub el ,foqani2 they have no special names1 being broad and sandy and without much vegetation in consequence of their draining only low country4 ,wadi ,atluk1 which flows into ,wadi ,madi from the south-east almost opposite ,gebel ,niqrub el ,tahtani1 has a rather curious origin4 ,it arises from a splitting of the course of ,wadi ,korbiai1 part of the drainage of which passes eastward down ,wadi ,kreiga1 while the other part retains its northerly direction as ,wadi ,atluk4 ,the total length of ,wadi ,atluk is about twenty-one kilometres4 ,it has not been surveyed in detail1 but for most of its course it lies in low hill country4 ,rod ,mukrayib is a many-branched wadi which drains the hilly country between ,gebel ,niqrub el ,tahtani and ,gebel ,anfeib4 ,one of its heads leads by an easy pass near ,gebel ,butitelib into the head of ,wadi ,abu ,hashim2 another head drains the north face of ,gebel ,niqrub el ,tahtani2 while a third drains the south end of ,gebel ,anfeib1 coursing between the sandstone plateau and the schist hills west of it4 ,from the pass into ,wadi ,abu ,hashim to its junction with ,wadi ,madi the length of its channel is fifteen kilometres1 with a fall of from #dje metres to #bej metres above sea1 giving an average slope of ten metres per kilometre4 ,it joins ,wadi ,madi on the north side of an isolated group of hills1 just where ,wadi ,madi begins to narrow in1 about nineteen kilometres above its junction with ,wadi ,hodein4 ,from the point where ,rod ,mukrayib joins ,wadi ,madi there is a good open road across the heads of ,wadi ,edunqul into those of ,wadi ,anfeib4 ,wadi ,kolaiqo1 which joins ,madi almost opposite ,rod ,mukrayib1 originates in the hills between ,gebel ,niqrub el ,tahtani and ,gebel ,khashab1 where a pass at its head leads into the heads of ,wadi ,khashab4 ,it is a fairly wide wadi1 shut in by rather high hills1 coursing west-north-west with a length of nine kilometres and a fairly rapid fall4 ,wadi ,edunqul1 a small tributary entering ,wadi ,madi1 about ten kilometres above its junction with ,wadi ,hodein1 drains by numerous gullies the south end of ,gebel ,anfeib1 coursing a little north of east with a length of about eleven kilometres4 ,wadi ,khashab1 a tributary of ,wadi ,hodein1 drains by many branches the hilly country east of ,gebel ,beida4 ,one of its heads leads to a pass six kilometres due west of the summit of ,gebel ,beida1 whence there is a road to ,bir ,beida2 just before reaching the pass1 there is a large quartz vein with some ruins near it4 ,another feeder of ,wadi ,khashab1 the ,wadi ,dehaiartib1 heads in a pass leading to the head of ,wadi ,kolaiqo4 ,wadi ,khashab has not been explored south of #bc #j4 ,from this parallel to ,wadi ,hodein its length is about twenty-six kilometres1 but its head may be five kilometres or more further south4 ,the country on the west side of ,wadi ,khashab consists of low hills1 but on the east it drains very high hills1 and its feeders course in trenches across the stony slopes at the feet of the hills to join the main channel4 ,wadi ,khashab contains large numbers of trees1 whence its name 7,khashab wood74 ,its average slope is about eight metres per kilometre4 ,wadi ,beida originates at a pass #cie metres above sea-level1 six kilometres west of the summit of ,gebel ,beida1 where a road leads over into ,wadi ,khashab4 ,from the pass ,beida courses south-east for seven kilometres1 receiving feeders from the high hills on either side4 ,it then turns abruptly at an acute angle1 following a northerly direction for one and a half kilometres2 then turning east for one kilometre1 it receives a great feeder draining the south slopes of ,wadi ,beida1 afterwards turning south for one and a half kilometres to a point marked by the ruin of a small well built stone structure1 in which mortar and stucco has been used4 ,from this point the wadi follows a winding course1 at first south-east but gradually working round into a north-easterly direction1 as a narrow gorge through the high hills of ,gebel ,beida4 ,just where the wadi begins to turn northward1 about one and a half kilometres below the ruin above-mentioned1 are the two wells called ,bir ,beida4 ,the upper well is at the opening of a defile leading south-eastward to a pass1 forming the point of departure in the nearest road from ,bir ,beida to ,bir ,meneiga2 this well was dry in ,november #aijg4 ,the lower well is about #ejj metres further down the wadi1 at a sharp bend in its course2 it is an excavation in the alluvium of the wadi floor1 and was yielding good water in #aijg from a depth of about six metres4 ,the ,arabs say that the supply at this well only fails after three or four years without rainfall1 but the water only infiltrates slowly1 so that after it has been emptied by a caravan it requires a day or so to refill4 ,the top of the well is #bje metres above sea-level4 ,about four kilometres below the well1 ,wadi ,beida emerges from the high hills1 and crosses a tract of much lower hill country seven kilometres wide1 receiving in this part of its course many feeders from the eastern face of ,gebel ,beida2 it then divides1 still preserving its general north-easterly direction1 into a number of shallow channels coursing across the sandy plain to join the ,wadi ,hodein4 ,from ,bir ,beida the nearest wells are ,bir ,meneiga and ,bir ,shalatein2 the water of the latter is1 however1 very salt and only drinkable by camels4 ,to ,bir ,meneiga1 a distance of thirty-seven kilometres1 the track leads over the pass already mentioned south-east of the upper 7dry7 well1 thence into ,wadi ,kreiga1 and up that wadi into ,wadi ,meneiga2 the road is rather stony near ,meneiga1 and rises rapidly1 so plenty of time should be allowed4 ,to reach ,bir ,shalatein1 forty kilometres distant1 one descends ,wadi ,beida into ,wadi ,hodein and follows ,wadi ,hodein towards the sea2 the road is easy1 being mostly across a falling sandy plain4 ,wadi ,kreiga1 the last great tributary of ,wadi ,hodein1 originates by the union of the ,wadis ,korbiai and ,meneiga1 both draining that north extension of the mountain mass of ,gebel ,gerf which is sometimes called ,gebel ,korbiai or ,gebel ,meneiga4 ,wadi ,korbiai and ,wadi ,meneiga have their heads only separated by a narrow mountain ridge1 but there is no possible track over this ridge from one to the other4 ,in each case the wadi contains two water sources near its head1 and the limit of 8navigability0 of the wadi is formed practically by these sources1 above which there are steep stony gorges4 ,bir ,korbiai consists of two wells1 both situated at the foot of a sudden drop in the rocky bed of ,wadi ,korbiai1 about #aej metres apart1 sunk in the bouldery alluvium2 there is some rude timbering at the mouth of the wells over which a large stone is placed to prevent infilling by downwash4 ,in ,december #aijg both wells contained abundance of excellent water1 only a metre below ground level4 ,both wells are easily accessible1 though the road to them is stony4 ,the wells are stated to yield good supplies for three or four years after rain has fallen1 but after longer drought they only yield a little4 ,below the wells1 ,wadi ,korbiai sweeps round in a semicircle of about three kilometres radius round the west flank of the hills to join ,wadi ,meneiga4 ,on its right side are the steep slopes of ,gebel ,korbiai1 but on the left is lower hill country4 ,small feeders enter from both sides4 ,the bed of the wadi is stony1 but there are a fair number of trees in it4 ,only a part of the drainage of ,wadi ,korbiai turns eastward to join ,wadi ,meneiga in forming ,wadi ,kreiga2 the other part pursues a northerly course into the ,wadi ,atluk1 a tributary of ,wadi ,madi4 ,bir ,meneiga is important1 not only as giving a perennial supply of good water1 but also as marking a point on the administrative frontier of ,egypt and the ,sudan4 ,it consists of two springs in the stony bed of ,wadi ,meneiga1 near its head4 ,the northern spring is taken as marking the frontier2 its position is latitude #bb #dg #h ,n4 longitude #ce #ab #bj ,e41 altitude #fje metres above sea-level4 ,the southern spring is about #cbj metres further up the wadi1 at a level four or five metres higher4 ,each of the springs consists of a tiny pool among the rocks of the wadi floor1 easily accessible to camels4 ,the pools only contain eight or ten gallons each1 but camels can drink as fast as they like and the pool keeps full4 ,the water is excellent4 ,there are numerous ruins at ,bir ,meneiga2 they consist of rude rubble hovels and extend for over a kilometre down the wadi below the springs4 ,above the springs1 ,wadi ,meneiga soon becomes impassable1 ending in rocky gorges in the mountains4 ,below the springs it courses for about seven kilometres in a direction a little west of north to join ,wadi ,korbiai and form the head of ,wadi ,kreiga4 ,the fall in this seven kilometres is #bjj metres1 so that the slope is the phenomenally rapid one of twenty-eight metres per kilometre1 and of course the floor of the wadi is very stony and camel progress is very slow4 ,there are several lateral feeders1 including one from the east1 three kilometres below the springs1 leading to the head of ,wadi ,radad2 but ,i am not sure whether the pass is practicable as ,i only saw it from the mountain top4 ,from the mouth of ,wadi ,meneiga1 ,wadi ,kreiga courses about #ae north of east1 as a fairly wide wadi with a stony floor1 with high hills on either side from which small feeders enter4 ,the first large feeder1 the ,wadi ,abiad1 enters from the north-west1 six kilometres below the mouth of ,wadi ,meneiga2 it is a steeply falling wadi1 which1 like all wadis bearing the name of ,abiad1 has a floor of light-coloured granitic sand4 ,some eight kilometres lower down1 two feeders enter from opposite sides3 that from the north is called ,wadi ,eberer1 while that from the south bears the name of ,wadi ,shigeg4 ,neither of these has been followed up far1 and their length is unknown2 but they are believed to be of no great extent4 ,below this point the country opens out considerably1 and the wadi anastomoses round low hills1 while its floor becomes less stony and more easy under foot4 ,the various channels unite again about eight kilometres further down1 where the wadi receives a tributary from the north-west just before it passes the high hill mass which forms the southward extension of ,gebel ,beida4 ,this tributary leads to an easy pass1 forming a direct road to ,bir ,beida4 ,lower down several lateral feeders come into ,kreiga from either side1 and the wadi emerges on to a sandy plain with scattered low hills4 ,across this plain ,kreiga takes a more northerly direction for about sixteen kilometres to join the ,wadi ,hodein4 ,the length of ,wadi ,kreiga from the mouth of ,wadi ,meneiga to ,wadi ,hodein is about fourty-one kilometres4 ,its fall between these points is from #dje metres to about #gj metres above sea-level1 giving an average slope of eight metres per kilometre2 the slope in the upper parts1 where the wadi bed is stony1 is of course somewhat greater1 and that in its lower more sandy reaches is somewhat less than this average4 ,wadi ,kolaiqo is a very ill-defined drainage line heading in the low hills called ,gebel ,kolaiqo1 and coursing north-east for about thirty kilometres across the sandy coast-plain to reach the sea about latitude #bc #j4 ,it is very sandy1 and absolutely barren except for a little scrub in its upper parts4 ,it would hardly have been noticed had not the triangulation station on the hill at its head been occupied4 ,wadi ,shab1 with a basin of about #a1bej square kilometres1 drains the eastern and southern portions of the great group of mountains of which ,gebel ,gerf is the centre1 and reaches the sea in latitude #bb #eb1 a little to the north of ,mersa ,shab4 ,it has a great number of heads1 most of which bear special names1 the name ,shab being applied collectively to them from the locality near the hill of ,qrein ,salama1 about forty kilometres from the sea1 where they begin to unite together into one great trunk channel4 ,from the circumstance that its heads are situated in a high mountain mass where the rainfall is relatively great1 and moreover have steeply falling stony beds which absorb but little of the precipitation1 the upper portions of ,shab and its feeders are well stocked with trees4 ,only in the last stages of its course to the sea1 where the absorption of its drainage by the sandy coast plain becomes great1 does the abundance of vegetation fall off and the channel become barren4 ,its principal heads and feeders are ,wadi ,radad 7fed by ,wadi ,shellal el ,sharqi71 ,wadi ,tikosha1 ,wadi ,muqur 7fed by ,wadi ,ti ,ilak71 ,wadi ,qadiloi 7fed by ,tilat ,tihu ,shana71 ,wadi ,baaneit1 ,wadi ,kilanai1 ,wadi ,um ,saha1 ,wadi ,diqdib1 ,wadi ,sherefa el ,sharqi1 and ,kwat ,hewah4 ,at least three of these contain good water sources1 ,bir ,muqur1 ,bir ,baaneit1 and ,bir ,diqdib being situated in the upper parts of the wadis bearing the same names4 ,the various heads and feeders of ,shab will be described in detail below1 commencing from the northernmost one4 ,wadi ,radad may be more properly described as a tributary than as one of the heads of ,wadi ,shab1 as it joins the trunk wadi some fifteen kilometres below the other feeders4 ,it originates in a rugged tract of high hills near ,bir ,meneiga1 and courses eastward for about thirty-six kilometres1 joining ,wadi ,shab on the coast-plain near the low hills of ,ti ,qireira1 about twenty-four kilometres up from the point where ,wadi ,shab enters the sea4 ,it has not been surveyed in detail1 but its course was mapped from the triangulation station of ,gebel ,gerf and from other occupied stations whence portions of it were visible4 ,wadi ,shellal el ,sharqi1 a large feeder of ,wadi ,radad1 originates in the mountains between ,bir ,diqdib and ,bir ,muqur4 ,it has many heads1 the best known of which is one coming from the west1 leading to a pass into ,wadi ,shellal el ,gharbi1 a tributary of ,wadi ,madi2 while another1 a little further south1 leads to another pass into ,wadi ,um ,reddam and forms a possible road to ,bir ,sararat ,seyet4 ,wadi ,shellal el ,sharqi follows generally a northward course1 with a rapid fall1 and joins ,wadi ,radad about eighteen kilometres below the head of the latter4 ,wadi ,muqur heads in the eastern mountains of the ,gerf group1 which are sometimes called ,gebel ,muqur4 ,here the drainage from several steeply falling rocky gullies collects into a single winding gorge shut in by the mountains4 ,the limit to which camels can go up the gorge is marked by a well called ,bir ,muqur4 ,at the time of my visit to this1 in ,february #aijh1 the well was filled up by debris1 through which1 however1 the water constantly rose and trickled into pools in a series of rock basins at slightly lower levels4 ,the flow was at the rate of about five litres per minute1 the overflow from the basins running to waste at this rate in the sand of the wadi4 ,the water was of excellent quality4 ,the ,arabs state that when the water ceases to flow as a spring they dig out the debris and use the place as a well4 ,below the well1 ,wadi ,muqur pursues a winding course north-eastward for about two and a half kilometres2 then1 receiving the short ,wadi ,ti ,ilak1 draining the mountains to the west1 it turns sharply eastward and emerges from the high hills into lower country about three kilometres further on4 ,in the lower country the wadi changes its direction to east-north-east1 receiving many feeders from among the low hills west of ,qrein ,salama1 and its bed divides and anastomoses into a series of channels1 which eventually unite just before it enters ,wadi ,shab1 five kilometres north-east of ,qrein ,salama4 ,from near its head at ,bir ,muqur to its junction with ,shab1 ,wadi ,muqur has a length along its main channel of about nineteen kilometres2 it falls from #dgj metres above sea-level at the well to #bjj metres at its junction with ,shab1 so that the average gradient is about fourteen metres per kilometre4 ,a few kilometres before reaching ,wadi ,shab1 ,wadi ,muqur is joined by the ,wadi ,tikosha1 draining the moderately high hills which lie between ,wadi ,radad and ,gebel ,muqur1 and winding among low hills over the plain4 ,the ,wadis ,qadiloi and ,baaneit drain from the east faces of ,gebel ,muqur and the mountains and hills close south and east of it1 into ,wadi ,shab4 ,there is an eastward extension of hills from ,gebel ,muqur1 partly drained by ,tilat ,tihu ,shana1 which flows into ,wadi ,qadiloi2 south of this extension there is a sort of bay1 occupied by lower hills separating ,wadi ,qadiloi from ,wadi ,baaneit1 through which several cross channels connect the two wadis4 ,bir ,baaneit is a small well in ,wadi ,baaneit1 near its head2 it is said to yield water always1 but refills slowly1 so that only six to ten camels can be watered at once4 ,a little below the well1 ,wadi ,baaneit leaves the hills and courses north-east across a rapidly falling stony plain4 ,on the plain1 south of the main channel1 are the two ruins called ,darahib ,baaneit4 ,they are built of rubble stone set in plaster1 with stucco facing in places1 and appear to be ancient ,moslem tombs1 the larger one having evidently once supported a dome2 there are about twenty ,arab graves near the ruins4 ,south of ,wadi ,baaneit the plain is crossed by many drainage channels coursing north-east to join ,wadi ,shab1 and the plain is covered here with quite a park-like growth of acacia trees4 ,the principal channel1 which comes from the hills about four kilometres south ,bir ,baaneit1 is called ,wadi ,kilanai4 ,a little south of ,wadi ,kilanai the plain cuts far back to the west1 and the drainage entering this portion comes from the heart of the ,gerf mountains to the north-west4 ,a large isolated granite hill-mass called ,kilia ,arib and numerous smaller hills break the monotony of the plain and cause much branching and looping of the drainage channels4 ,the principal artery draining the south parts of ,gebel ,gerf is the ,wadi ,diqdib1 which originates on the south flanks of the highest peaks1 right in the heart of the mountain mass4 ,in one of the heads is a well called ,bir ,diqdib1 which1 though of great service to the ,koatil ,arabs who inhabit this district with their camels and other animals1 is of little importance to the traveller because of its situation in a closed-in wadi and thus not being on any route4 ,from its head1 ,wadi ,diqdib courses south-westward for fifteen kilometres or more among the mountains1 receiving many feeders1 before it emerges on to the plain4 ,on leaving the mountains it splits up1 part of its drainage going round by the north side of ,kilia ,arib1 and part by the south1 in each case by a number of anastomosing channels4 ,the ,wadi ,um ,saha drains the hills south-west of ,bir ,baaneit1 and after coursing southwards among the mountains turns the corner and runs north-east across the plain to ,wadi ,shab4 ,wadi ,sherefa el ,sharqi1 which drains the south portion of the ,gerf massif and the north-east flanks of ,gebel ,dreb1 heads in the important ,sherefa pass1 #hjg metres above sea-level1 and forming the direct route from ,gebel ,hamra ,dom and ,gebel ,um ,rasein to ,bir ,sararat ,seyet by way of ,wadi ,sherefa el ,gharbi4 ,the pass is a fairly easy one1 though the fall is rapid1 especially on the east side1 where ,wadi ,sherefa el ,sharqi falls no less than one hundred metres in the first two kilometres of its course4 ,a feeder which enters ,wadi ,sherefa el ,sharqi from the south about two kilometres below the pass is said to lead by another pass to a well called ,bir ,bint el ,dreb1 situated at the head of ,wadi ,dreb1 a tributary of ,wadi ,feqoh4 ,for the first seven kilometres of its east-south-easterly course below the pass1 ,sherefa el ,sharqi is shut in by very high hills1 from which numerous feeders join it2 it then divides just before reaching the great white granite hills called ,eir ,arib1 part of its drainage going southward to join ,kwat ,hewah1 and part continuing its course on the north side of the granite hills to join ,diqdib near the granite cones of ,tibashoi and thence turning northwards over a large sandy plain to enter ,wadi ,shab4 ,kwat ,hewah drains the eastern flanks of ,gebel ,dreb and the north flanks of ,g4 ,medarai4 ,its heads unite to form a series of channels in a small plain south-west of ,eir ,arib1 and here it receives a contribution from ,wadi ,sherefa el ,sharqi as mentioned above4 ,as it passes ,eir ,arib1 ,kwat ,hewah divides1 part of its drainage curving round to the north to join that of ,wadi ,diqdib and ,wadi ,sherefa el ,sharqi on its way to ,wadi ,shab1 and the remainder going south-west to join the ,wadi ,medarai4 ,from the head of ,kwat ,hewah there is said to be an easy pass into the ,wadi el ,krim1 a tributary of ,wadi ,feqoh4 ,wadi ,ibib1 which drains the eastern slopes of ,gebels ,medarai1 ,abu ,hireiq1 and ,abu ,hodeid1 and the eastern and northern faces of ,gebels ,soaorib1 ,adar ,qaqa1 ,leqaq1 ,um ,seleim1 ,qidmib1 ,orgem1 and ,um ,bishtit1 as well as ,gebel ,hamra ,dom and the smaller hills south of it1 is formed by the union of the ,wadis ,hasium and ,medarai1 a little east of ,gebel ,um ,rasein1 and enters the sea at ,mersa ,shab4 ,it has a drainage basin of about #a1hjj square kilometres4 ,including ,wadi ,hasium1 which is simply the upper portion of ,ibib1 its total length along its main channel is slightly over one hundred kilometres4 ,its principal tributaries are the ,wadis ,shinai1 ,abu ,hodeid1 ,abu ,hireiq1 ,medarai1 ,soaorib1 and ,um ,bishtit4 ,wadi ,hasium1 which forms the upper portion of ,wadi ,ibib1 originates on the main watershed in about latitude #bb #aj and longitude #ce #ae2 a pass leads from its head on to a stony plain1 whence a track leads to ,miti ,kwan1 a tributary of ,wadi ,alaqi4 ,near its head1 ,wadi ,hasium contains a small well called ,bir ,kagog4 ,a few kilometres further down1 the short ,wadi ,mantil ,hasium1 draining the western face of ,gebel ,adar ,qaqa1 enters from the east1 while the ,wadi ,hilwit ,hasium1 draining the mountain of the same name and containing a galt near its head1 joins ,wadi ,hasium from the west4 ,continuing its course northward past the mountains of ,adar ,qaqa and ,leqaq1 ,wadi ,hasium enters an extensive sandy plain1 open to the north1 bounded on the west by the mountains of ,abu ,hodeid and ,um ,rasein1 on the south by those of ,leqaq and ,um ,seleim1 and on the east by those of ,qidmib and ,orgem4 ,this plain1 which averages fifteen kilometres in width1 is broken by low hills1 the principal of which1 ,gebel ,hamra ,tit1 ,kulet ,meiqrum1 and ,kulet ,tinasal1 rise to considerable heights4 ,hasium courses slightly east of north near the western edge of this plain to near ,gebel ,um ,rasein1 then curves to the east across it1 receiving the ,wadi ,medarai and becoming ,wadi ,ibib4 ,in its northward course through the plain1 ,wadi ,hasium receives a number of important tributaries from the western mountains1 besides a few smaller feeders from the mountains to the south and from the hills on the plain4 ,these may be briefly described in order4 ,wadi ,shinai1 draining the hills south of ,gebel ,abu ,hodeid1 courses a little south of east and enters ,wadi ,hasium about latitude #bb #ai2 it has not been surveyed in detail1 but it contains a well known water source1 ,bir ,shinai1 which is said to be about seven kilometres from its junction with ,hasium4 ,wadi ,delawet1 another small feeder which likewise drains the hills south of ,abu ,hodeid1 and enters ,wadi ,hasium about three kilometres below ,wadi ,shinai1 is of importance as leading to a camel track over hills which forms the means of access to ,bir ,odis ,maaleq1 ,i have not visited this water source1 but it is said to yield immense quantities of good water1 and to be situated at a rather high level in the head of a small wadi called ,wadi ,odis1 a tributary of ,abu ,hodeid4 ,it appears to be a spring fed by the rainfall on the surrounding high mountains1 the overflow filling large rock basins4 ,the reason why it is approached by the ,wadi ,delawet and the track over the mountains1 instead of by ascending ,wadi ,abu ,hodeid and the ,wadi ,odis directly1 is that the latter route is very difficult for camels owing to the steep and stony nature of the wadi floor2 it is1 however1 possible to use this route on foot4 ,as nearly as ,i could make out from my guides' statements1 the total distance of ,bir ,odis ,maaleq from the mouth of ,wadi ,delawet is about nine kilometres1 of which the first four are in the ,wadi ,delawet and the remaining five on the hill track4 ,the distance by the other route from ,bir ,abu ,hodeid is about four kilometres1 some of which is climbing4 ,my native assistant1 who was sent to erect the beacon on ,gebel ,abu ,hodeid1 took two and a half hours to go on foot from ,bir ,abu ,hodeid to ,bir ,odis ,maaleq1 and estimated the latter spring to be some #aej metres higher than ,bir ,abu ,hodeid4 ,wadi ,abu ,hodeid1 which drains the mountain mass of the same name1 lies to the east of the highest peaks of ,gebel ,abu ,hodeid and is shut in between them and another high range further east4 ,it has a general south-south-easterly direction1 and a very rapid fall4 ,its principal feeder is the short ,wadi ,odis above referred to1 which falls into it from the west about six kilometres below its head4 ,about one and a half kilometres below the point of influx of ,wadi ,odis1 there is a large and important spring of good water in the wadi1 called ,bir ,abu ,hodeid4 ,though ,i have not visited this spring1 its situation is shown on the map with tolerable accuracy1 as its position with regard to neighbouring triangulated points was indicated by the guides4 ,my native assistant1 who passed the spring on his way to erect the beacon on ,gebel ,abu ,hodeid1 reported it to be very similar to the springs of ,abu ,saafa in appearance1 though the latter are in a different rock4 ,from its position in the midst of high mountains1 ,wadi ,abu ,hodeid must at times of rainfall collect a great deal of water1 and this explains the constant supplies yielded by the spring4 ,above the spring1 the steepness of the wadi renders its ascent very difficult for loaded camels1 and there is no road through its head1 but guides state that there is good grazing at certain seasons in its upper parts1 and animals are taken there to feed4 ,below the spring1 the wadi opens out and curves eastward round the foot of the remarkable rounded peak of ,abu ,hodeid ,oqla to join ,wadi ,hasium on the plain4 ,the ,rod ,anut ,berer1 which joins ,wadi ,hasium about the same point as ,wadi ,abu ,hodeid but from the opposite side1 drains the mountains of ,leqaq and ,um ,seleim which bound the plain to the south4 ,wadi ,tikraneib1 a small wadi full of trees1 drains a jagged range north of ,abu ,hodeid ,oqla1 and joins ,wadi ,hasium on the plain by several channels4 ,wadi ,abu ,hireiq1 draining the mountains of the same name1 originates about latitude #bb #bg4 ,on leaving the high mountains its channel divides1 part of the drainage going north-east as ,wadi ,merdiyeb1 and part south-east as ,wadi ,abu ,hireiq4 ,this latter wadi passes between the main mountains and a high isolated range of hills for about seven kilometres1 then curves round to the eastward to join ,wadi ,hasium4 ,there are numerous loopings and branchings of the wadis in this neighbourhood1 caused by the feeders from the hills and by the presence of isolated hill masses1 which the drainage lines frequently encircle1 and it becomes impossible to say which of the various channels is the main wadi1 so that the name ,wadi ,abu ,hireiq is applied to all of them collectively4 ,wadi ,odruk is a small wadi draining between two groups of high hills south-west of ,gebel ,um ,rasein2 it joins one of the channels of ,wadi ,abu ,hireiq about four kilometres above its junction with ,hasium4 ,wadi ,nilateib1 another small wadi further north1 drains the south end of ,gebel ,um ,rasein and the north-east faces of the hills close south-west of it4 ,coursing at first south-east for about three kilometres1 it then curves round the foot of ,gebel ,um ,rasein to join ,wadi ,hasium by two channels4 ,there is a clear passage from the heads of both ,wadi ,odruk and ,wadi ,nilateib into ,wadi ,merdiyeb4 ,all the wadis hereabouts contain plenty of trees and scrub1 especially in their upper parts2 as ,wadi ,hasium is approached they become more sandy and barren4 ,it is1 of course1 the presence of vegetation available for grazing which determines the possession of a name by such small wadis as these two4 ,the drainage from the east face of ,gebel ,um ,rasein joins ,wadi ,hasium directly by many small channels1 which appear not to bear any special name4 ,wadi ,medarai1 which forms the ,wadi ,ibib by its junction with ,hasium1 ten kilometres due east of ,gebel ,um ,rasein1 has its main head in ,gebel ,medarai1 its length along its main channel being about twenty-five kilometres4 ,by numerous tributaries1 many of which contain abundance of trees and scrub1 it drains the whole of the high hill country between ,gebel ,medarai and ,gebel ,um ,rasein1 and it also takes a part of the drainage from ,kwat ,hewah4 ,one of its heads is said to lead to a rather difficult pass1 south of ,gebel ,medarai1 into the ,wadi ,kirwau1 a tributary of ,feqoh4 ,for the first ten kilometres or so of its length1 ,wadi ,medarai courses a little north of east2 it then receives the feeder from ,kwat ,hewah above referred to1 and changes its direction to a little south of east1 passing close north of ,gebel ,um ,rasein on its way to join ,wadi ,hasium on the sandy plain of the numerous feeders of ,wadi ,medarai from the hills west and north of ,um ,rasein1 the principal is ,wadi ,merdiyeb1 which originates ten kilometres south-west of ,gebel ,um ,rasein by the splitting of ,wadi ,abu ,hireiq4 ,from this point of origin1 it runs in a north-easterly direction in a rather sinuous course among the hills for about twelve or thirteen kilometres1 joining ,wadi ,medarai close north of ,gebel ,um ,rasein4 ,another little feeder of ,wadi ,medarai1 though only about two kilometres long1 is of some importance from its leading to ,bir ,um ,rasein1 a small well among the north foot-hills of ,gebel ,um ,rasein4 ,vegetation ceases to be abundant both in ,wadi ,medarai and in ,wadi ,hasium before their junction to form ,wadi ,ibib1 and ,wadi ,ibib itself is for the most part a barren sandy ill-defined channel coursing north-eastward across a dreary plain for some fifty-seven kilometres to ,mersa ,shab4 ,in this fifty-seven kilometres its fall is very nearly #cjj metres1 giving an average slope of only a little over five metres per kilometre4 ,the slope of the lower part of ,wadi ,hasium is rather steeper than this1 while that of ,wadi ,medarai is about twice as great4 ,but though ,wadi ,ibib itself is barren1 it has some great tributaries which contains abundance of trees and scrub in their upper reaches1 as well as several wells4 ,the principal of these tributaries are the ,wadis ,soaorib and ,um ,bishtit1 which with their feeders drain the mountains of ,soaorib1 ,qidmib1 ,orgem1 and ,um ,bishtit1 while other smaller tributaries drain the lower hills north-east of ,um ,bishtit and ,gebel ,hamra ,dom4 ,wadi ,soaorib originates in the midst of high mountains a little south of latitude #bb #aj1 between the southern portion of ,gebel ,soaorib and the range which extends southwards from ,hadal ,aweib ,meisah4 ,at its head is a difficult pass westward into the head of ,miti ,kwan1 a tributary of ,alaqi4 ,curving at first eastward1 it soon takes on a north-westerly direction1 and in latitude #bb #aa #cj reaches a small open space called ,mitba2 here it is met by several tributary wadis of which the principal is the ,wadi ,haiyo1 draining the eastern slopes of ,gebel ,soaorib4 ,from ,mitba the direction of ,wadi ,soaorib becomes more northerly1 and about nine kilometres below ,mitba it turns to the west1 emerging from the mountains into the more open country which forms the south end of the great plain already referred to4 ,here it is joined by the ,wadi ,hankuk1 draining north-eastward from ,gebel ,adar ,qaqa1 and a few kilometres further on by the ,wadi ,dishlo1 which drains the western flanks of ,hadal ,aweib ,meisah and enters ,soaorib from the east4 ,about three kilometres below the point of influx of ,wadi ,dishlo1 ,wadi ,soaorib is joined from the south-west by another tributary which drains the west side of ,gebel ,um ,seleim4 ,from this point onwards1 ,wadi ,soaorib courses a little east of north in a not very well defined course for about twenty-two kilometres over a gently falling sandy plain1 joining ,ibib to the north-west of the sand-swathed hills called ,baqari ,daba4 ,in this part of its course1 ,wadi ,soaorib receives small feeders from among the hills west of it on the plain1 the principal of them draining north-eastward between the hills called ,kulet ,meiqrum and ,kulet ,tinasal4 ,it also receives more important tributaries from the mountains to the east of it1 the principal of these being the ,wadis ,eimya and ,qidmib4 ,wadi ,eimya drains the western face of ,gebel ,qidmib1 while ,wadi ,qidmib drains the northern parts of the same mountain4 ,wadi ,qidmib has two main heads2 the western one lies between two high mountain ridges1 and contains a well called ,bir ,qidmib1 while the eastern one leads to a steep pass by which ,wadi ,meisah can be reached4 ,before reaching ,wadi ,soaorib1 ,wadi ,qidmib is joined by other feeders draining the western flanks of ,gebel ,orgem and ,baqari ,daba4 ,from its head at the pass into ,miti ,kwan to its junction with ,ibib1 ,wadi ,soaorib has a length of about fifty kilometres4 ,the level of the pass is unknown1 but from ,mitba to ,ibib the level of the wadi floor falls from #eje metres above sea to #bfj metres in a length of about forty-one kilometres1 giving an average slope of six metres per kilometre4 ,most of the upper portions of ,wadi ,soaorib and its tributaries are well stocked with trees and bushes1 but as the wadi crosses the sandy plain it becomes more and more barren4 ,the place where it enters on the plain in latitude #bb #bj marks a tribal boundary1 the upper parts1 including ,wadi ,dishlo1 belonging to the ,balgab ,arabs1 while the lower parts1 including ,wadis ,eimya and ,qidmib1 are ,kurbeilab territory4 ,wadi ,um ,bishtit1 which joins ,wadi ,ibib some five kilometres lower down its course than does ,wadi ,soaorib1 heads in a small open space in latitude #bb #bf and longitude #ce #ce4 ,at its head there are two easy passes1 one leading northward into the head of ,wadi ,habliai1 another tributary of ,wadi ,ibib1 and the other southward into the heads of ,wadi ,meisah4 ,just below its head ,wadi ,um ,bishtit is joined by the small ,wadi ,delawet1 draining the hills close to the south2 while a little lower down is another small tributary from a rocky gorge among the south hills1 which is important as leading to ,bir ,um ,bishtit4 ,this well1 which was filled by downwash when ,i visited it in ,march #aijh1 is situated in the floor of the gorge at a sharp bend1 about a kilometre up from the main wadi4 ,according to the guides1 it requires excavating about five metres deep1 and yields water in quantity for about a year after rain1 but when there has been no rain for a year only small supplies can be got1 as it fills slowly2 at the time of my visit there was no necessity to open the well because there was plenty of water in galts in the mountains of ,meis-heit-ar1 a little further south4 ,the well is easy of access1 and lies at #ccj metres above sea-level4 ,the total length of ,wadi ,um ,bishtit is about fourteen kilometres4 ,in the first half of its course it runs north-westward1 shut in by high hills1 and contains abundance of small trees4 ,after cutting through the hills it receives the ,wadi ,orgem from the south1 and turns northward in opening country to join ,wadi ,ibib north of the hills called ,adar ,aweib ,um ,bishtit4 ,its average slope is about nine metres per kilometre4 ,wadi ,orgem1 which joins ,wadi ,um ,bishtit about four kilometres below the gorge containing the well1 has its head at an easy pass near the remarkable peak of ,o ,shakafa2 this pass leads into ,wadi ,meisah1 about three kilometres above ,bir ,meisah4 ,from the pass1 the ,wadi ,orgem runs between the high hill ranges of ,orgem and ,um ,bishtit1 in a direction a little west of north1 for about sixteen kilometres to its junction with ,wadi ,um ,bishtit4 ,wadi ,habliai1 which heads in an easy pass about three kilometres east of ,bir ,um ,bishtit1 and runs northwards for about ten kilometres to join ,wadi ,ibib1 is a broad sandy and rather barren wadi draining gneiss hills2 the hills on the east are much lower than those on the west1 and their feet are swathed in drift sand4 ,the last feeders of ,wadi ,ibib are those draining from the isolated range of high granite hills called ,gebel ,hamra ,dom4 ,these feeders are very numerous1 some coming from the west side of the hills and curving round its south end to join ,wadi ,ibib1 while others from the east side course east and north-east over the plain directly into ,wadi ,ibib4 ,they contain numerous small trees near their heads1 and after rain there springs up short grass in this locality1 affording for short periods grazing for great flocks of sheep4 ,the most northerly drainage channel from the east side heads in the hills a little north of the highest peaks1 and here1 after rain has fallen recently1 shallow wells are dug in the sand and yield good water4 ,the place where the wells are is called ,ti ,dabei ,hamra ,dom4 ,one cannot rely on getting water there for long after rain has fallen1 as the supplies are soon exhausted4 ,in ,january #aijh1 ,i heard that water and grass were extremely abundant1 and large numbers of ,arabs were encamped there with their flocks and herds4 ,but when ,i reached the place at the end of the next month1 most of the grass had been eaten up2 only a few ,arabs remained1 and these were baling out the last drops of water from the holes to fill their skins preparatory to forsaking the place4 ,wadi ,meisah1 which drains the north and east slopes of ,hadal ,aweib ,meisah1 the eastern slopes of ,gebel ,qidmib1 and the mountains of ,meis-heit-ar1 besides the lower hills of ,titailibab1 ,tahaqayet1 and ,eqrun1 has a total length along its main channel 7including ,wadi ,awitla1 the central one of its three main heads7 of about seventy-five kilometres1 and enters the sea about latitude #bb #de4 ,wadi ,meisah has three main heads1 called by separate names4 ,the most northerly is the ,wadi ,sarobaiya1 draining from between ,gebels ,qidmib and ,meis-heit-ar2 one of the heads of this leads to a steep pass into ,wadi ,qidmib4 ,the central head1 ,wadi ,awitla1 drains the north slopes of ,hadal ,aweib ,meisah4 ,the southern head1 the ,wadi ,lasewid1 drains the eastern slopes of ,hadal ,aweib ,meisah and the lower hills to the east of it2 by ascending its southern feeders1 one can pass easily into the heads of ,wadi ,baueiwai1 while one of the gullies opening into it from ,hadal ,aweib ,meisah contains a series of rock basins and a small spring called ,megwel ,um ,edwa1 rather difficult of access for camels1 which was yielding fair supplies of water in ,april #aijh4 ,these three heads1 each of which has numerous feeders1 join together in a small plain at the south-east foot of ,o ,shakafa1 a remarkably prominent peak practically isolated from the mountains near it1 and from this point onwards the main drainage channel is called ,wadi ,meisah4 ,the little plain where the three head wadis unite is covered with trees1 and has almost the aspect of a park2 it is #dee metres above sea-level4 ,curving eastward and northward close round the foot of ,o ,shakafa1 ,wadi ,meisah receives from the south the ,sarob ,kwan1 a short and very broad wadi leading to an easy pass into ,wadi ,didaut1 and then winds about as a narrow gorge shut in by high hills4 ,just where it leaves the foot of ,o ,shakafa1 there is a track from the east side of the wadi over a very easy pass into the head of ,wadi ,orgem4 ,bir ,meisah is a well sunk in the alluvium of the wadi bed about three kilometres below ,o ,shakafa1 and #daj metres above sea-level4 ,when ,i visited it in ,march #aijh1 it was filled with downwash1 and as there was plenty of water in the rock basins of the mountains further north there was then no necessity to dig it out4 ,the ,arabs say the well is about ten metres deep1 and its water is not so good as that obtainable from the galts1 so that they only open it when the other sources in the neighbourhood are exhausted4 ,two gullies entering ,wadi ,meisah from the east1 just below the well1 each contain large galts1 called ,meis-heit-ar1 a short distance up from their mouths2 these were both yielding good and plentiful water supplies in the spring of #aijh4 ,after winding about among the hills for ten kilometres below the well1 ,wadi ,meisah receives a feeder from the west having three heads4 ,the northern one1 ,akla ,da-,aiyob1 is a very sandy gully1 in fact it is choked by drift sand1 and all the trees in it are dead4 ,the central one1 coming westward from among high hills1 is called ,hanqun ,ra-ub1 while the southern one1 called the ,wadi ,eqaiyib1 is only separated from ,meisah at its head by an easy pass1 so that it almost forms a loop of ,meisah itself4 ,to go from ,bir ,meisah to ,bir ,um ,bishtit1 one crosses this pass into ,wadi ,eqaiyib1 then up ,akla ,da-aiyob1 and over another easy pass at its head into ,wadi ,um ,bishtit2 the total distance between the two wells by this route is only sixteen kilometres4 ,in its lower stages ,wadi ,meisah traverses broad open sandy spaces between low hills1 receiving a number of small feeders from either side4 ,it curves round to the eastward a little south of the hills of ,eqrun and then courses in a north-easterly direction across the sandy coast-plain to the sea4 ,in the last stages of its course its channel is very ill-defined1 the drainage spreading over the plain4 ,the trees1 which are fairly abundant in its upper parts1 become fewer as one descends1 but its lower portions are not always entirely barren1 for after recent rain short grass springs up in its broad shallow bed and affords a moderate amount of grazing for sheep4 ,the slope of the wadi floor just below the well is about ten metres per kilometre2 lower down1 the gradient gradually lessens1 and in the last forty kilometres of its course is only a little over five metres per kilometre4 ,wadi ,kiraf1 the next wadi to enter the sea south of ,meisah1 is really the terminal portion of the great ,wadi ,di-ib1 the name ,kiraf being only applied to the drainage from the point of junction of the ,wad el ,qireira with ,di-ib to the sea1 that is1 for a distance of some thirty-one kilometres up from its mouth4 ,the ,wadi ,di-ib is probably the most important and remarkable of all the seawards draining wadis of the ,eastern ,desert of ,egypt and the ,northern ,sudan4 ,i have only seen that terminal portion of its length which lies in ,egypt1 that is1 north of the #bbnd parallel2 but the examinations of that length 7the part of it lying within ,egyptian territory1 including ,kiraf1 is some eighty-five kilometres7 is enough to show that the wadi must drain an enormous basin1 for the average slope is the remarkably small one of two metres per kilometre1 and the wadi floor in many places1 instead of being sandy1 consists of mud similar to that of the ,nile ,valley4 ,according to the 8,sudan ,handbook10 it rises far to the south1 probably near the #bjth parallel1 and flows generally northwards1 so that its length must be well over #cjj kilometres4 ,just before it enters ,egypt proper1 there is an expansion in its bed covered with rich alluvial mud1 on which crops of durra are grown2 my camels were fed for some weeks on durra obtained from this source whilst ,i was working in the neighbourhood4 ,in the present volume ,i shall only deal with that portion of ,di-ib and its tributaries which lie north of the #bbnd parallel1 describing first the main channel and afterwards its principal tributaries4 ,wadi ,di-ib enters ,egypt a little west of the #cfth meridian1 as a broad sandy drainage channel with many trees4 ,its bed is here only #agj metres above sea-level4 ,wadi ,di-ib receives two feeders from the east near the #bbnd parallel2 the ,wadi ,shendib1#ajj draining the western flanks of the high mountain mass of ,gebel ,shendib1 is believed to join ,wadi ,di-ib a little south of the frontier1 while the ,wadi ,hareitra1 draining the north-eastern flanks of ,gebel ,shendib and the western slopes of ,gebel ,hanquf1 probably enters ,di-ib a little north of it4 ,for the first eighteen kilometres of its course north of #bb1 ,wadi ,di-ib flows northward over a sandy plain1 with low hills and ridges1 their feet often swathed in drift sand1 on either side4 ,it then receives an important tributary from the west1 called ,wadi el ,qurat1 draining the north slopes of ,gebel ,shiab and the hilly country between ,gebel ,mashushenai and ,adar ,aweib4 ,after receiving ,wadi el ,qurat1 ,wadi ,di-ib enters mountainous country1 being shut in for some fifteen kilometres by ,adar ,aweib on the east and ,gebel ,balatitda on the west4 ,in its northerly course here ,wadi ,di-ib receives many feeders from the hills1 of which two entering from opposite sides near ,bir ,meheriqa are of interest4 ,that from the east is really a drainage channel from the sandy plain south of ,gebel ,sul ,hamid2 but it is choked by huge accumulations of drift sand so that the drainage never reaches ,wadi ,di-ib1 but accumulates in a depression called ,o ,harbub1 about four kilometres above its mouth4 ,this channel1 though very sandy1 is quite a practicable road1 as ,i found by traversing it on my way to ,gebel ,elba from ,bir ,meheriqa4 ,the feeder from the west1 which enters ,wadi ,di-ib about one and a half kilometres below ,bir ,meheriqa1 is called ,wadi ,salalob2 it drains the north face of ,adar ,aweib1 and heads in a very steep pass into ,wadi ,wieqwer4 ,i managed to get my riding camel over this pass only with difficulty when unmounted1 and it is quite impracticable for loaded camels2 the rise in the last kilometre before reaching the top of the pass from the direction of ,wadi ,di-ib is over one hundred metres1 the summit of the pass being #cae metres above sea-level4 ,bir ,meheriqa is a spring situated in the mouth of a small gully at the foot of ,gebel ,balatitda1 close to the east side of ,wadi ,di-ib1 and practically on the same level as the wadi floor 7#abj metres above sea-level71 so that it is extremely easy of access4 ,the floor of the gully is covered with conglomerate of recent formation and in this are several holes with pools of clear water about one metre in diameter by twenty centimetres deep1 which fill as fast as emptied4 ,the water is rather salt1 but is drinkable4 ,the portion of ,wadi ,di-ib which lies among the mountains has a floor of sandy mud1 with abundance of trees and plants1 among which several gazelles were grazing as ,i passed through4 ,about six kilometres below ,bir ,meheriqa1 ,wadi ,di-ib is joined from the west by ,wadi ,warabeit1 which drains a rather large extent of high hills to the west and cuts through the hills north of ,adar ,aweib to reach ,wadi ,di-ib4 ,this wadi forms the route to ,bir ,meisah from ,bir ,meheriqa via the well known easy passes of ,bani ,sana and ,sarob ,kwan2 the total distance is about sixty-five kilometres4 ,soon after receiving ,wadi ,warabeit1 ,wadi ,di-ib gets into lower hill country1 with great accumulations of drift sand4 ,from near ,gebel ,tishushi ,tiboki it receives the ,wadi ,qumad ,lim from the north-west1 and then after passing the extensive group of low hills of ,tishushi it is joined by the ,wad el ,qireira1 which drains a large area east of ,hadal ,aweib ,meisah4 ,from its junction with ,wad el ,qireira to the sea1 ,wadi ,di-ib is called by the special name of ,wadi ,kiraf4 ,it is merely an ill-defined drainage channel coursing north-east across a great sandy plain for a distance of thirty-one kilometres to the sea1 with only one insignificant feeder1 ,halal ,hendiyeb1 joining it from the westward close to the dark little hill called ,einiwai4 ,the ,wadi ,kiraf is almost barren1 the great accumulations of sand about the lower parts of ,wadi ,di-ib probably absorbing most of the drainage4 ,but to the west of the mouth of ,kiraf there is quite a dense growth of bushes and trees1 covering a large tract and visible from low hills at considerable distances4 ,this locality is called ,shekra el ,delam2 ,i did not visit it1 but the ,arabs say there is no wadi there1 and it is possibly due to the drainage of ,wadi ,kiraf running below the surface of the sandy plain and being dammed back by the sea4 ,a salt well1 called ,bir ,adal ,deib1 exists close to the shore in the same locality4 ,of the ,wadi ,shendib1 only a few of the heads are situated in ,egypt1 ,gebel ,shendib being a mass of mountains cut through by the #bbnd parallel4 ,collecting from the west face of the mountain group1 a number of drainage lines unite1 in the lower hills flanking the main mass1 to form the main channel of ,wadi ,shendib1 which courses westward through low hill country a little south of the #bbnd parallel to join ,wadi ,di-ib4 ,none of the heads have been surveyed in detail2 their position is shown on the map from the statements of guides combined with the knowledge gained by triangulating fourteen of the principal peaks and sketching the mountain forms from a considerable distance4 ,as the mountain peaks are of great height 7the highest peak of ,shendib1 marked by an iron beacon1 is #a1iab metres above sea7 and frequently wrapped in clouds for days or even weeks together1 it is probable that the heads of ,wadi ,shendib are very steep and convey considerable streams at certain seasons4 ,wadi ,hareitra1 which lies just within ,egypt1 has likewise only been sketched in from a distance1 but having been approached more closely its course is better known than that of ,wadi ,shendib4 ,its main head is nearly on the frontier1 in longitude #cf #bj1 between ,gebels ,shendib and ,hanquf4 ,from its head it makes a nearly quadrantal turn northward and westward1 with a radius of about ten kilometres1 among the mountains from which it receives tributaries1 and then crosses the plain westward1 turning south-west among low dark hills to join ,wadi ,di-ib after a course of about forty to forty-five kilometres from its head4 ,the unnamed drainage channel which is blocked by sand at ,o ,harbub before reaching ,wadi ,di-ib heads in a tract of low hills with sandy interspaces about thirteen kilometres west of ,gebel ,elba2 it receives no part1 however1 of the drainage of ,elba itself1 which goes northward by other more important channels4 ,it is a broad and shallow ill-defined drainage line across the sandy plain1 with very few trees1 but its feeders from the low hill tract of ,sul ,hamid are less barren4 ,the principal interest of this drainage line lies in its forming a convenient direct road from ,bir ,meheriqa to ,bir ,akwamtra and ,halaib1 being far less sandy1 as well as shorter1 than any alternative route round the north side of ,sul ,hamid4 ,in using this road1 one leaves the drainage line to the south on the plain1 and skirts the hills of ,sul ,hamid till one reaches the flat sandy divide at the head of ,wadi ,eikwan1 with the 8,scragged hill0 of ,qash ,amir in view4 ,here one turns eastward about four kilometres south of ,qash ,amir1 and follows an easy pass into ,wadi ,siamtit1 a small feeder of ,wadi ,yoider1 whence tracks lead to ,bir ,akwamtra1 ,bir ,kansisrob1 and ,halaib4 ,wadi el ,qurat1 which joins ,wadi ,di-ib from the west in latitude #bb #h1 is a broad wadi with great abundance of trees4 ,its main head1 which has not been surveyed in detail1 appears to be in ,gebel ,shiab1 about twenty-four kilometres above its junction with ,di-ib1 and the first part of its course is through a rugged tract of low hills4 ,before reaching ,wadi ,di-ib it is joined by the ,wadi ,dibir1 and ,wadi ,hashimaiyib on the north and by ,wadi ,oshqeq on the south4 ,the northern feeders are rather complex1 owing to numerous anastomosings and cross-connexions in the low hill country between ,gebel ,mashushenai and ,adar ,aweib2 but they contain abundance of vegetation and give good grazing grounds4 ,the short ,wadi ,dibir heads in ,wadi ,mashushenai1 part of the drainage of which it captures4 ,wadi ,mashushenai is a little wadi to the south of ,gebel ,mashushenai1 with a well1 ,bir ,mashushenai1 near its head2 part of its drainage goes south to ,wadi ,dibir as above mentioned1 while the rest continues as ,wadi ,mashushenai1 flowing south-eastward among low hills for about five kilometres to join ,wadi ,hashimaiyib4 ,wadi ,hashimaiyib heads between ,gebel ,warabeit and ,gebel ,mashushenai4 ,curving round the north of ,gebel ,mashushenai almost in a semicircle1 it runs south-south-east among low hills to join ,wadi el ,qurat after a course of about sixteen kilometres4 ,besides the ,wadi ,mashushenai above-mentioned1 ,hashimaiyib receives1 just before entering el ,qurat1 the ,wadi ,sinqinyeib1 which drains part of the west face of ,adar ,aweib and the hills west of it1 with a length along its main channel of ten kilometres4 ,there is an easy road up this wadi1 passing close west of ,adar ,aweib into ,wadi ,wieqwer1 a tributary of ,wadi ,warabeit2 there is no actual pass1 because the westward drainage of ,adar ,aweib actually splits1 one part going north by ,wadi ,wieqwer1 and the other south by ,wadi ,sinqinyeib4 ,wadi ,warabeit has its most important head at the easy and well known pass of ,bani ,sana1 leading into ,wadi ,hamida4 ,it is here a rather wide wadi1 with a fairly rapid fall 7about thirteen metres per kilometre71 between the high hills of ,gebel ,hamida and those forming the south prolongation of ,gebel ,geror1 and receives numerous feeders from either side4 ,for the first six kilometres1 it runs south-east2 it then arrives at a small open space1 where it is joined by eastward drainages from ,gebels ,hamida and ,warabeit1 and turns rather sharply to the east-north-east4 ,after coursing in this direction for some five kilometres1 it enters another open space1 where it receives several feeders1 the principal being the ,wadi ,wieqwer1 draining northwards from the hills west of ,adar ,aweib4 ,it then receives the ,wadi ,kwileimidaiyeib from the north1 and cuts eastward through the hills to join ,wadi ,di-ib4 ,the total length of the ,wadi ,warabeit from the pass of ,bani ,sana to ,wadi ,di-ib is nineteen kilometres1 and in this length it falls from #cce to #aac metres above sea-level1 so that its average slope is nearly twelve metres per kilometre4 ,both the wadi itself and its feeders are abundantly supplied with trees and bushes1 while coarse grasses abound in places4 ,wadi ,warabeit forms a convenient road from ,bani ,sana to ,bir ,meheriqa1 being free from sand and well stocked with camel food4 ,wad el ,qireira1 which joins ,wadi ,di-ib from the south-west to form ,wadi el ,kiraf1 is really only the terminal portion of the more important ,wadis ,didaut and ,baueiwai1 which join to the north-east of the conspicuous dark hill mass called ,ti ,keferiai4 ,it is a broad shallow drainage line across the sandy plain1 with little vegetation4 ,to the north of it1 small hills are dotted over the plain1 the most important being one of red granite1 called ,osnei1 containing a galt which yields water for some time after rain4 ,to the south are the low hills of ,tishushi1 partly smothered in drift sand4 ,wadi ,didaut1 a feeder of the ,wad el ,qireira1 commences its course south-west of the hill of ,adar ,aqdeib4 ,one of its heads leads to the easy pass of ,sarob ,kwan1 on the road to ,bir ,meisah4 ,another leads to a water source in the hills south of ,adar ,aqdeib1 called ,megwel ,didaut1 while a small feeder a little lower down1 coming from ,adar ,aqdeib1 also contains a water source called ,megwel ,adar ,aqdeib4 ,both these water sources are within about half an hour's journey from the main wadi4 ,after passing ,adar ,aqdeib1 ,wadi ,didaut curves round to the north1 receiving feeders from the hills of ,um ,ein and ,qara ,saba to the south1 then turns east-north-east1 passing between the hills called ,kikeiyet ,sharqi and ,kikeiyet ,gharbi1 and then between the red granite hills of ,adatalob ,adara and the black mass of ,ti ,keferiai to join ,wad el ,qireira4 ,the total length of ,wadi ,didaut is about thirty-five kilometres1 and its average slope is about eight metres per kilometre4 ,its upper parts possess abundance of vegetation1 the beautiful flowering bush called ,sarob being conspicuous in ,sarob ,kwan2 but in its lower portions it becomes almost lost in drift sand4 ,there is an easy open track from near ,megwel ,adar ,aqdeib1 passing between the high hills called ,qara ,saba and ,gebel ,um ,ein1 to the ,wadi ,baueiwai4 ,wadi ,baueiwai heads in the mountains south of ,hadal ,aweib ,meisah4 ,numerous feeders from the mountains course across a tract1 about six kilometres in diameter1 of very low granite hills called ,iarih ,meisah2 this tract is almost entirely shut in by mountains and high hills1 with an outlet south-west of ,gebel ,um ,ein4 ,through this outlet the main channel passes1 and receives the ,wadi ,miatit1 draining the mountains of the same name1 from the south-west4 ,curving in a great sweep round the foot of ,gebel ,um ,ein1 ,wadi ,baueiwai turns north-eastward1 passing close south-east of the hills of ,qara ,saba and ,ti ,keferiai to join the ,wadi ,didaut and form the ,wad el ,qireira4 ,from the head of ,wadi ,baueiwai there appears to be an easy pass by the east side of ,hadal ,aweib ,meisah into the heads of ,wadi ,meisah4 ,a small feeder of ,wadi ,baueiwai1 draining the north-east flanks of ,gebel ,um ,ein1 leads to a water source called ,megwel ,um ,ein4 ,another feeder coming in from the west side of ,qara ,saba forms an easy route to ,wadi ,didaut1 as already mentioned above4 ,the principal other tributaries of ,wadi ,baueiwai are the ,wadis ,aqwem and ,hamida4 ,wadi ,aqwem is a broad and very sandy wadi coursing north-north-east along the west side of ,gebel ,nubitra1 and reaching ,wadi ,baueiwai in about latitude #bb #ah2 it leads to a water source called ,megwel ,aqwem1 situated just south of the end of a long spur of high hills running out north-eastward from ,gebel ,miatit4 ,lower down its course ,wadi ,aqwem is fed by tributaries from the high hills east of it1 one of which1 the ,wadi ,nubitra1 contains a well4 ,this well1 called ,bir ,nubitra1 is said to yield only very small supplies2 it is situated about three kilometres up the ,wadi ,nubitra1 among high hills4 ,one of the many heads of the small ,wadi ,nubitra leads northwards by an easy pass into the head of ,wadi ,hamida4 ,the ,wadi ,hamida heads in the mountain of the same name1 and courses parallel to ,wadi ,aqwem1 from which it is separated by a long ridge of high hills4 ,about one and a half kilometres below its head at the easy pass into ,wadi ,nubitra above referred to1 it receives a small gully from the east2 by following up this gully1 which is narrow and tortuous1 for about a kilometre1 one can reach a tiny spring called ,megwel ,hamida4 ,when ,i visited it in ,april #aijh1 the spring was a mere trickle1 very salt2 a galt a little further up the gorge was dry at the same time1 but bears signs of holding a useful store of water after rain4 ,about three kilometres below the gully containing the spring1 ,wadi ,hamida reaches an opening whence one can either go south-east for two kilometres to the easy pass of ,bani ,sana1 or north-west through a gap in the longitudinal ridge which encloses the wadi on the left4 ,wadi ,hamida itself1 however1 keeps straight on its course past ,gebel ,geror1 and joins ,wadi ,baueiwai south-east of the hill of ,ti-,keferiai4 ,the heads of ,wadi ,hamida contain a fair amount of vegetation1 but its lower parts are more barren and very sandy4 ,wadi ,di-it drains the north parts of the hill mass of ,sul ,hamid1 and courses north-east to reach the coast independently about latitude #bb #bi4 ,it has not been explored1 and is of no great importance2 vegetation in it is probably confined to its upper parts among the hills4 ,of its total course of about thirty-five kilometres1 a large portion lies over the sandy coast-plain4 ,wadi ,eikwan is a broad shallow and sandy channel draining the high jagged hill called ,qash ,amir and the eastern parts of the low hill mass of ,sul ,hamid4 ,its head is about four kilometres south of ,qash ,amir1 in the flat sandy plain4 ,taking at first a northerly direction past the west side of ,qash ,amir1 it turns to the north-east further on and crosses the coast-plain to reach the sea only a little south of the mouth of ,di-it4 ,its total length is about thirty six kilometres1 and its average slope is about nine metres per kilometre4 ,wadi ,yoider1 the next wadi to the east1 is of considerable importance1 as it drains the west portion of ,gebel ,elba and its heads are extremely rich in trees and other vegetation1 while one of its tributaries contains a large well of good water 7,bir ,akwamtra74 ,the main head of ,wadi ,yoider may be considered to be the wadi which bears the special name of ,wadi ,o ,sir ,hadal1 draining the south-west flanks of ,gebel ,elba and the north-west flanks of ,gebel ,hanquf1 and heading in an easy pass close to the well of ,bir ,salalat ,o ,sir1 about #dej metres above sea-level4 ,wadi ,o ,sir ,hadal courses north-west between the mountain ranges for about eight kilometres1 receiving a rather large feeder from the south about six kilometres below its head4 ,it then emerges from the mountains and turns north among lower hills1 here receiving the ,wadi ,qeirat1 draining westwards from near the summit of ,elba4 ,a few kilometres further on it enters an open plain sloping rapidly downwards to the north1 receiving the small and narrow ,wadi ,siamtit from between two high hill masses to the west4 ,from here onwards ,wadi ,yoider courses in gentle curves a little north of east to reach the coast in about latitude #bb #bg4 ,a well called ,bir ,nabit1 situated in ,wadi ,yoider1 a few hundred metres up from its mouth1 is believed to yield only brackish water4 ,in its journey to the coast ,wadi ,yoider receives several feeders from among the rugged granite hills of ,el ,sela to the west of it1 as well as the important ,wadi ,akwamtra from the north-east flank of ,gebel ,elba4 ,the head of this ,wadi ,akwamtra is quite close to the summit of ,elba1 and its course is at first almost due west1 afterwards changing to nearly north among the lower flanking hills1 and dividing into two channels which re-unite lower down4 ,bir ,akwamtra1 one of the best water sources in the ,bisharin country1 is situated at an altitude of #ccj metres above sea-level in the eastern channel of ,wadi ,akwamtra1 about three kilometres up above the place where it leaves the hills4 ,it is an excavation in the stony floor of the wadi4 ,the water in ,april #aijh was about four metres below the wadi floor1 and formed a pool about two metres in diameter in a wide open hollow which filled as fast as it could be emptied4 ,the water was of excellent quality4 ,there are two other wells a few hundred metres further down the same wadi2 one of these contained a little water1 while the other was dry1 and only the principal well was being used4 ,the floor of the wadi near and above the well is very stony1 so that it is not a very good camping ground1 and the ,hamedorab ,arabs pitch their tents of matting further down the wadi4 ,when ,i visited the place there were numerous ,bisharin ,arabs at the well with their women and children1 all busily employed in watering their flocks and herds and washing their clothes4 ,the wadi1 in spite of its stony floor1 is literally full of large trees1 principally acacias1 so close together that laden camels cannot pick their way through them for more than a short distance above the well1 and thousands of doves inhabit the trees4 ,there are some ruins near the wells1 built of boulders set in mud2 they are said to have been erected by ,dervishes in #ahhf1 when they seized ,halaib and ,bir ,akwamtra4 ,these ,dervishes were killed off by ,egyptian troops1 some of them being chased to ,bir ,meisah and shot there4 ,as the densely wooded and stony character of ,wadi ,akwamtra prevents camels from passing up it much above the well1 ,i found it necessary1 in order to pitch a camp within a reasonable distance of the summit of ,gebel ,elba1 to descend ,wadi ,akwamtra for about a kilometre and to cross the ,asut ,duk pass leading east into the head of ,wadi ,yahameib4 ,this pass is too steep for loaded camels1 and even riding camels have to be led down it2 baggage camels have to go round the hill spurs north of the pass4 ,the head of ,wadi ,yahameib is also full of trees and scrub1 but it is possible to get camels up within four kilometres of the summit of ,elba by this route1 whereas ,bir ,akwamtra is over six kilometres from it4 ,wadi ,aideib1 with its principal tributary the ,wadi ,yahameib1 drains the north-east portion of ,gebel ,elba and reaches the sea in about latitude #bb #ba4 ,a well1 called ,bir ,abu ,ramad1 is situated in the wadi bed not far from the sea2 like that of almost all the wells close to the coast1 its water is probably brackish4 ,the main head of ,wadi ,aideib is on the east side of the main peaks of ,elba4 ,coursing at first north-eastward1 this drainage channel runs through an open sloping plain about one and a half kilometres wide between the mountain spurs1 its channel here dividing into a great loop with numerous feeders from the ranges on either side4 ,passing west of the high isolated granite mass of ,karam ,elba1 it runs northward over the sloping plain1 receiving the ,wadi ,yahameib from the west near the low red granite hills called ,ti ,hamra1 and then courses north of east to the sea4 ,wadi ,yahameib originates on the north-west flanks of ,gebel ,elba1 where steep well wooded gorges unite in a steeply sloping stony plain1 covered with trees and scrub1 between two great spurs of the mountain4 ,there is no pass at its main head1 but just before it enters the plain there is a small feeder from among the hills to the west1 by following up which one can get over a rather steep pass called ,asut ,duk2 this pass forms a short cut for unladen camels between the wells of ,kansisrob and ,akwamtra1 but is too steep for animals loaded with baggage4 ,curving round to the east1 ,wadi ,yahameib is fed1 just before it joins ,wadi ,aideib1 by the ,wadis ,akau and ,kansisrob1 both draining the north parts of a great spur of ,gebel ,elba4 ,wadi ,akau contains a small spring1 called ,megwel ,akau1 a short distance above its opening from the hills1 while ,wadi ,kansisrob contains a great well of good water called ,bir ,kansisrob1 a short distance up from its mouth4 ,bir ,kansisrob is second only to ,bir ,akwamtra in importance1 and there are usually many ,bisharin camps in the wadi just below it4 ,like all the wadis draining from ,elba1 ,wadis ,yahameib and ,aideib are full of trees and scrub and grasses2 in going to the foot of ,elba up the head of ,wadi ,yahameib with baggage camels1 much more difficulty is caused by the closeness of the trees and scrub than by the stony nature of the floor4 ,the ,elba district is1 ,i believe1 the only place in the ,eastern ,desert of ,egypt where vegetable growth is so abundant as seriously to hinder one's caravan in approaching the mountains2 for the progress of baggage camels to be arrested while still four or five kilometres from a peak by the steep and stony nature of the ground is common enough2 but for the arrest to be due to trees and scrub was a new and interesting experience4 ,even the sand dunes on the west side of ,wadi ,yahameib are half-covered with coarse grasses1 and look green instead of the usual yellow4 ,when we could get no further with our camping equipment1 ,mr4 ,bakewell1 who had been in ,south ,africa1 informed me that we were in what would be called in that country 8open bush02 but in comparison with the rest of the desert the place was a jungle4 ,wadi ,todhi drains the high hills about ,karam ,elba4 ,in the upper part of its course it flows north-east between ,karam ,elba and a range of lower granite hills called ,mikeriba2 emerging thence on to the plain1 its drainage spreads out over a tract1 called ,karam ,hindi1 covered with trees1 whence part drains to the ,wadi ,aideib while another part goes to the sea near ,suakin el ,qadim4 ,suakin el ,qadim1 is a collection of mounds close to the sea a little south of latitude #bb #bj4 ,bent1 who visited the place in #ahif1 found 8nothing earlier than ,cufic remains1 unless the graves1 formed of four large blocks of madrepore sunk deep into the ground1 may be looked upon as a more ancient form of sepulture40#aja ,my native assistant reported there was no well at the place1 nor anything of interest besides the graves4 ,wadi ,delowa is a small wadi entering the sea about six kilometres south-east of ,suakin el ,qadim4 ,it originates in the low hill country near ,mikeriba and flows north-east between the little red hill of ,alafot and the low banks called ,alafot ,onqwab on the north and the granite hills of ,kreishim and ,taar ,ara on the south4 ,wadi ,serimtai is an important drainage line1 the main head of which is situated in the ,sudan1 probably near the great mountain of ,asotriba4 ,it enters ,egypt in longitude #cf #bb1 coursing northward between ,gebel ,hanquf and ,gebel ,shendodai1 from which last-named mountain it receives a feeder called ,wadi ,um ,seyal4 ,after passing ,gebel ,shendodai it crosses a tract of low granite hills to the foot of ,gebel ,o ,sir ,eirab1 where it receives the wadi of the same name and numerous feeders from ,gebel ,hanquf4 ,it then turns north-east1 passing along the foot of the spurs of ,elba1 and north of the granite hills of ,o ,wota and ,abai ,sis to reach the sea ten kilometres north-west of ,halaib4 ,about twenty-five kilometres up from its mouth1 ,wadi ,serimtai contains a well called ,bir ,sararat ,serimtai1 which has1 however1 not been visited4 ,the ,wadi ,o ,sir ,eirab1 an important tributary of ,serimtai1 drains the south flanks of ,gebel ,elba1 coursing at first south-west and then turning sharply eastward4 ,at the turn is a well in the wadi floor called ,bir ,salalat ,o ,sir1 #ddj metres above sea-level1 close to which is an easy pass leading into the head of ,wadi ,o ,sir ,hadal1 a tributary of ,wadi ,yoider4 ,from its entry into ,egypt to its mouth1 ,wadi ,serimtai has a length of forty-five kilometres1 and an average slope of twelve and a half metres per kilometre4 ,it contains plenty of trees and scrub1 especially in its upper parts4 ,mera ,kwan is a wadi draining north-eastward from ,gebel ,shendodai and entering the sea a little north of ,halaib4 ,it has not been surveyed in detail1 but as it drains from high mountains it doubtless contains plenty of vegetation1 especially in its upper parts4 ,the lower half of its course is rather sandy1 passing among low hills on to the coast-plain4 ,halaib1 the only permanent village on the ,red ,sea coast of ,egypt south of ,qoseir1#ajb is situated in latitude #bb #ac #be ,n41 longitude #cf #ch #ef ,e4#ajc ,the name of the place is pronounced locally ,oleiyib1 and though ,i have retained the established ,european spelling as given on the charts1 none of the natives would recognise the name if pronounced in its ,europeanised form4 ,its most conspicuous buildings1 and the only ones composed of masonry in any form1 are a fort and a block-house2 there are a few rude wooden shanties1 mostly built of timber which has been cast up on the beach1 but the bulk of the population live in little reed huts and tents of matting4 ,halaib is the headquarters of a small police force under the command of a moawen1 the men being lodged in the fort4 ,the fort1 which stands about forty metres from the sea on low ground1 is an irregular octagon in plan1 about ten metres in diameter by six and a half metres high4 ,as its top is only eight metres above the sea and there are low banks west of it1 the fort is not very conspicuous as one approaches it from the landward side1 but being whitewashed and open to the sea it is a good landmark for sailors in the neighbourhood4 ,it has two flagstaffs1 from which the ,british and ,egyptian flags are flown on ,fridays4 ,the fort is entered by a ladder1 the floor forming the police quarters being about three metres above ground4 ,below are water tanks1 and above a trap door gives access to the roof1 which is carried on iron rails and plastered over with stucco4 ,the roof vibrates too much for it to be used as a triangulation station1 and observations here were taken from an eccentric point on the ground and afterwards reduced to centre4 ,the block-house is a smaller rectangular structure1 whitewashed1 situated on a low bank about #djj metres south-west of the fort4 ,a small jetty1 built of coral1 runs out from near the fort far enough for a small boat to get alongside4 ,there are five wells at ,halaib1 all within a few hundred metres of the fort4 ,the water is very hard1 and exerts a very strongly aperient action on those unused to it1 though the ,arabs of the place consider it very good4 ,a small ,government garden near the fort contains a few small date palms1 but there is no other cultivation4 ,there is a sort of bazaar1 where one can buy clothes1 sugar1 dates1 fat1 etc41 but the supplies are small and there was no flour to be got when ,i was there4 ,eggs can be purchased from the ,arabs1 who possess a few fowls1 and excellent fish can be got very cheaply from the fishermen4 ,for a daily wage of eight piastres a fisherman supplied me with as much fresh fish daily as ,i and my men could eat4 ,sheep can be got from the hills at a day's notice1 a good fat one costing ,l4,e4 #a4 ,firewood has to be brought in from the mountains1 and any ,european making a stay at the place would do well to send to ,bir ,kansisrob or ,bir ,frukit for pure water at the same time4 ,the people are very friendly1 but only a few speak ,arabic4 ,there is a kuttab where boys learn to read and write ,arabic under the tuition of a sheikh from ,suakin1 so that ,arabic may perhaps be more spoken after another generation4 ,there are two islands a little north of ,halaib1 both low and sandy4 ,the larger one1 called ,geziret ,halaib el ,kebir1 is nearly triangular1 with sides about three and a half kilometres long4 ,it can be reached easily by wading across a narrow channel in low states of the sea4 ,on it is the grave1 marked by a wooden cross1 of ,lieut4 ,stewart1 ,r4,n41 who lost his life in a fight with ,dervishes here in #ahhf4 ,the smaller island lies further north2 it is called ,geziret ,kwolala#ajd on account of its nearly circular shape4 ,halaib possesses an excellent harbour1 though it is sometimes difficult of access to sailing vessels owing to the direction of its entrance4#aje ,it is visited occasionally by ,coast ,guard cruisers as well as by small trading boats from ,suakin4 ,on enquiry of the local sailors1 ,i found most of the names given on the ,admiralty ,charts of this district to be unknown to them4 ,for example1 ,abu ,dara1 ,sherm ,alueda1 ,ras ,abu ,fatma1 ,elba ,island1 ,ras ,jazriyal1 and ,cape ,elba were all unknown4 ,abu ,dara was called by the natives ,shekra el ,delam1 while ,elba ,island was called ,geziret el ,dibia1 and ,cape ,elba is locally known as ,ras ,hadarba4 ,i obtained the following names for the small anchorages north and south of ,halaib1 though ,i could not locate them exactly on the maps1 as the sailors could not read a map sufficiently well1 and the harbours themselves are mere gaps through the outer coral reef1 not visible indentations of the actual coast-line4 ,starting from ,bir ,adal ,deib and going southward1 ,mersa ,abu el ,qsim is near the mouth of ,wadi el ,kiraf2 a big tree forms a landmark for entering it4 ,further on is ,mersa ,harba1 then ,mersa ,abu ,naam with an island opposite to it1 then1 after passing ,ras ,unbilat1 comes ,mersa ,yoider1 at the mouth of ,wadi ,yoider1 where there is a well called ,bir ,nabit4 ,passing ,abu ,ramad well in ,wadi ,aideib1 and ,suakin el ,qadim1 one comes to ,mersa ,aqwetit1 then to ,mersa ,serimtai1 at the mouth of ,wadi ,serimtai1 opposite the island of ,kwolala1 and then to ,mersa ,halaib itself4 ,south of ,halaib the principal anchorage is ,mersa ,shellal1 at the mouth of ,wadi ,shellal4 ,the cape in latitude #bb #aj is called ,ras ,qubet ,isa4 ,a small anchorage south of ,ras ,hadarba 7,cape ,elba7 appears to be called indifferently ,mersa ,hadarba 7from the hills near it7 or ,mersa ,qabatit 7from the wadi and well near it72 but ,i could not make quite sure if these are one and the same1 or two separate anchorages4 ,wadi ,shellal heads between the high mountain masses of ,gebels ,shendodai and ,shellal1 and courses north-east for about thirty kilometres to reach the coast about four kilometres south-east of ,halaib4 ,in its lower part1 where it crosses the coast-plain1 it is a broad shallow drainage channel full of scrub4 ,its upper parts1 which have not been explored1 are doubtless well supplied with trees1 and are stated to be the principal habitat of the ,hamedorab ,arabs4 ,wadi ,aqilhoq1 which drains the eastern parts of ,gebel ,shellal1 courses about parallel to ,wadi ,shellal a few kilometres further south4 ,it contains a well1 ,bir ,frukit1 about twenty kilometres up from its mouth1 near some dark conspicuous foot hills called ,gebel ,balatitda4 ,this well yields a constant supply of very good water1 and is the place where ,i sent for my water supplies in commencing my return march to ,port ,sudan4 ,the position of the well as shown on the map is only approximate1 but its direction having been pointed out with the alidade by guides from two plane-table stations1 ,i believe the location is pretty nearly correct4 ,wadi ,aqwei drains east of north from among the foot-hills east of ,gebel ,shellal1 and enters the sea four kilometres west of ,ras ,qubet ,isa4 ,where ,i crossed it two kilometres from its mouth it was a broad shallow wadi with plenty of scrub1 dividing round a low but conspicuous gravel bank before reaching the sea4 ,kreit-reit-or is a similar wadi to that last mentioned1 coursing north-eastward over the plain from among low hills1 and entering the sea five kilometres south-east of ,ras ,qubet ,isa4 ,about two kilometres south of ,kreit-reit-or1 at a distance of three and a half kilometres from the coast1 and thirty metres above sea-level1 are the bitter wells of ,ti ,kureitra4 ,these are four wells1 sunk about twelve metres deep in the gypseous strata which here underlie the sand and gravel of the coast-plain4 ,the wells are lined with slabs of selenite4 ,the water is so strongly purgative that a number of my ,arabs who drank of it were made extremely unwell1 and the wells are chiefly used for watering the flocks of sheep which graze in the neighbouring valleys4 ,from the group of conspicuous though not very high hills called ,gebel ,hadarba1 ten kilometres west of ,ras ,hadarba 7,cape ,elba7 many drainage channels cross the coast-plain towards the sea in a direction north of east4 ,some of the drainage lines form the north side of the hills reach the sea east of ,ti ,kureitra wells2 but others lose themselves in a quicksand called ,kuatianai1 or 8the devourer10 which covers a large triangular space of about twenty square kilometres about the cape4 ,at the actual cape1 rocks are visible at the coast1 and the quicksand1 so far as ,i could judge from a distance1 appears to be really a lagoon1 filled with the sand washed down from the hills4 ,the ,arabs state that camels wandering on this sand get swallowed up2 the colour of its surface is distinctly darker than the rest of the plain4 ,on either side of the #bbnd parallel1 near the sea are low gravel-covered banks of calcareous grit1 seventy metres high in places1 and through these pass several broad wadis draining from the low hill country further west4 ,the chief of these wadis1 called ,wadi ,qabatit1 enters the sea at a well defined inlet of the coast called ,mersa ,qabatit4 ,a well1 ,bir ,qabatit1 is situated in the bed of another drainage channel a little south of the main wadi1 one and a half kilometres south-east of the mersa and #che kilometres south of the #bbnd parallel4 ,the ground at the well is only five metres above the sea4 ,the well is a big excavation in the wadi floor1 and its water surface is about at sea-level4 ,to me the water tasted decidedly salt1 but the ,arabs say it does not purge them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,footnote #hi3 ,floyer's map 7,geog4 ,journal1 #ahic7 gives the name ,gemal as continuing further up as far as the pass into ,wadi ,durunkat2 but my guides say this is an error4 ,footnote #ij3 ,this road is said to lead via ,ghuel1 ,um ,khariga1 and ,dabur1 to ,gebel ,hamrat ,wogud4 ,footnote #ia3 ,for a brief mention of the ruins of ,berenice1 see p4 #bi4 ,footnote #ib3 ,each of the three vowels in ,naait is pronounced broad and separately1 so that the word has three syllables4 ,footnote #ic3 ,allawi crooked4 ,footnote #id3 ,i did not hear anything of this in #aijg when in the neighbourhood1 perhaps owing to the ignorance of my ,ababda guides4 ,the information was given me further south in #aijh by several ,bisharin guides1 who appeared to know the place well and who all agreed on the point4 ,footnote #ie3 ,the authors of 8,the ,anglo-,egyptian ,sudan10 #aije 7,vol4 ,i1 p4 #hg7 erroneously place ,bir ,shalatein in ,wadi ,hasium instead of at the mouth of ,wadi ,hodein4 ,the mistake has led to erroneous delineation of the administrative boundary between ,egypt and the ,sudan in existing maps 7see p4 #gd74 ,footnote #if3 ,this and the other main feeders of ,wadi ,hodein are described in more detail in following pages4 ,footnote #ig3 ,the final syllable in ,silsila is hardly heard when the name is spoken by an ,ababda ,arab2 it sounds like ,silsi unless one is listening specially for the end of the word4 ,footnote #ih3 ,to be distinguished from the ,wadi ,gemal further north mentioned on p4 #ajj4 ,footnote #ii3 ,bir ,madi1 #ab kilometres north of ,bir ,sararat ,seyet1 was at this time open and giving good supplies4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,this and the other main ,egyptian tributaries of ,di-ib are described in more detail in the following pages4 ,footnote #aja3 ,geographical ,journal1 #ahif4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,qoseir is in latitude #bf #f north1 about #djj kilometres as the crow flies from ,halaib4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,the position given is that of the centre of the fort1 as determined by my triangulation from the ,nile ,valley4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,kwolala is the ,bishari word for circle4 ,footnote #aje3 ,red ,sea ,pilot4 #aijj4 p4 #acj4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,mountains ,,and ,,hills4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it has been already mentioned 7p4 #ai7 that the principal mountain masses are divisible into ten main groups as follows3-- i4 ,the ,migif -- ,hafafit -- ,nugrus -- ,hangalia -- ,zabara group2 ii4 ,the ,abu ,hamamid -- ,hamata -- ,abu ,gurdi group2 iii4 ,the ,um ,gunud -- ,dahanib -- ,batoga group2 iv4 ,the ,abu ,dahr -- ,orga -- ,um ,tenebda group2 v4 ,the ,faraid group2 vi4 ,the ,awamtib -- ,abraq -- ,dif -- ,aqab el ,negum -- ,mishbih group2 vii4 ,the ,gerf -- ,korabkansi -- ,abu ,hodeid group2 viii4 ,the ,meisah -- ,adar ,qaqa -- ,is group2 ix4 ,the mountains of the ,alaqi basin west of ,gebel ,adar ,qaqa2 x4 ,the ,elba -- ,shendib group2 while there are numerous more or less isolated mountains and hills lying outside these principal masses4 ,in the present chapter a more detailed account will be given of each of the main groups1 taking them in order from north to south1 the principal outlying hill-masses being considered along with the mountain group to which they are in greatest proximity4 ,it may be remarked that the geographical positions of all the principal peaks are tabulated in ,chapter ,,iii4 ,the ,migif -- ,hafafit -- ,nugrus -- ,hangalia -- ,zabara ,group4 ,the highest mountains of the group 7see the detailed map on ,plate ,,vi7 form a close cluster1 round ,gebel ,nugrus 7#a1eje metres7 as a centre1 between latitudes #bd #dj and #bd #ee1 while other more or less detached masses are scattered to the north and west4 ,a striking feature of the central cluster is the tendency to extension in a north-west and south-east direction1 which is specially marked in the ,hafafit and ,hangalia ranges4 ,gebel ,nugrus1 the central and highest mountain of this northerly group1 is a great boss of red granite rising to a height of #a1eje metres among schists and gneisses4 ,it is an almost isolated mass1 for though the ,hangalia and ,hafafit ranges close in on it from either side1 there are passes both east and west of it by which a circuit of the mountain can be made4 ,in plan1 it is a pear-shaped mass1 about fourteen kilometres in length by six kilometres in width1 having its long axis north-west and south-east4 ,gebel ,nugrus is on the main watershed2 its north parts are drained ,nilewards by the ,wadi ,hangalia and other feeders of ,wadi ,gerf1 while the drainage from its south portion passes by the ,wadi ,nugrus and ,wadai el ,nom to the ,wadi ,gemal and thence to the sea4 ,the ascent of the mountain was made from a camp about four kilometres west of the summit1 at the top of the pass leading into the stony head of ,wadi ,nugrus4 ,the divide here is flat and sandy1 at an altitude of #fia metres above sea-level1 so that the ascent from camp to summit was #had metres4 ,striking eastwards over the lower ridges which flank the main back-bone of the mountain1 the summit was reached after a climb of nearly four hours4 ,when ascended from this side1 there appear to be two main peaks1 of which the further one1 marked by a beacon1 is the triangulation point2 the best way up is between the two peaks1 as the passage from one to the other is very rough and steep4 ,though tiring1 the climb is not very difficult4 ,the top of the mountain 7see ,plate ,,vii7 is a mass of great rounded knobs of granite1 on which a suitable place for setting up instruments was only found after some searching4 ,the beacon1 in latitude #bd #dh #cd1 longitude #cd #ce #dg1 is on a rounded eminence not large enough to receive an instrument1 so that eccentric observations were necessary2 the distance between the eccentric point of observation and the beacon had to be found by a subtense method1 as the roughness of the mountain top rendered any process of chaining or taping impossible4 ,the view from the summit is very fine4 ,to the west1 one sees the pinnacles of ,migif and the nearer long range of ,hafafit2 to the north-east is the black cone of ,atut2 northward1 seen over a sea of hills1 is ,igli2 to the east is the high ridge of ,hangalia1 culminating to the south in ,gebel ,zabara4 ,the sea is visible to the north-east and east1 but the sea horizon was obscured during the three days ,i spent on the summit by banks of clouds4 ,these cloud banks simulated the sea horizon very closely1 their upper surface appearing perfectly horizontal4 ,they caused a peculiar phenomenon at sunrise1 producing the optical effect of two suns rising one after the other owing to the refraction through the cloud4 ,the first thing seen was a blood-red image of the sun rising over the true sea horizon1 which was only thus discovered1 the sun being seen through the cloud2 about three minutes later1 when a little more than half the blood-red disc had risen1 the true sun rays flashed out from another and much brighter segment appearing over the top of the cloud1 so that parts of two sun disks were seen at once1 quite separately1 one over the other4 ,before descending from the mountain1 ,i went along the ridge south-east and north-west of the highest point to get plane-table stations2 in either direction progress along the top is extremely difficult4 ,to the north-west it appeared as though the way would be easier by keeping on the east side of the ridge1 but in reality this was not so1 as the slope was so steep and smooth that some stretches could only be got over by wriggling along with as much as possible of one's body in contact with the rock4 ,the descent from the north-west end of the ridge to camp was difficult and rather dangerous in places4 ,it is possible that a better way up the mountain could be found from the pass at the head of ,wadi ,hangalia1 on the opposite side to where ,i started2 that pass is #abj metres higher than the west one1 so that the total climb would be lessened by that amount1 and the horizontal distance is about the same4 ,gebel ,hafafit is a very long range1 chiefly of gneiss1 running in a nearly straight line south-eastward for over thirty kilometres4 ,its highest peaks are at its north end1 where they are not very much lower than those of ,gebel ,nugrus2 the heights decrease gradually further south4 ,half way down the range is a very conspicuous peak called ,um ,moghar1 #hfj metres above sea1 while another well marked summit1 the only one which ,i climbed1 exists near the south end and rises to #gdd metres4 ,this last-named point is marked by a beacon1 in latitude #bd #ce #cb1 longitude #cd #de #bb4 ,on either side of the main back-bone of ,hafafit are high flanking ridges4 ,the drainage of ,hafafit practically all flows seaward by the ,wadi ,gemal2 the west faces are drained by ,wadi ,hafafit1 and the east ones by ,wadi ,nugrus4 ,east of the south part of ,gebel ,hafafit are some remarkable bosses of granite1 of which the chief1 ,gebel ,abu ,had1 rises to #fcc metres above sea1 and is a landmark for ,bir ,abu ,had4 ,another remarkable hill1 closer in to ,hafafit and the ,wadi ,gemal1 is shaped like a bell with a handle on the top2 this hill1 which forms a good landmark1 is called ,gebel ,um ,regeba1 and its summit is #ega metres above the sea4 ,,plate ,,vii4 ,illustration3 ,summit of ,gebel ,nugrus4 7,granite74 ,illustration3 ,summit of ,gebel ,abu ,hamamid4 7,schists74 ,gebel ,migif is a very spiky gneiss mass situated about thirteen kilometres west of ,gebel ,nugrus4 ,it has several summits of about equal height1 fairly close together1 but separated by deep clefts4 ,the triangulation beacon is on the western peak1 in latitude #bd #dg #bc1 longitude #cd #bg #cj1 #a1aii metres above sea-level4 ,the foliation planes of the rock dip to the north1 and the only safe means of ascent is up the resulting north slopes4 ,the south aspect is precipitous4 ,when ascending the mountain1 ,i pitched my camp #bg kilometres north of the beacon1 in a gully draining into ,wadi ,shait1 west of another gully containing the water holes called ,galt ,um ,karaba1 at an altitude of #fjg metres above sea-level4 ,the ascent1 of #eib metres1 took two hours steady climbing1 and was not difficult4 ,i kept on the west side of the gorge till near the top1 and this is the best way up the mountain1 for ,i found the gorge itself to be steep and abounding in impassable precipices4 ,the view from ,gebel ,migif is shut in to the east by the high masses of ,gebels ,hafafit and ,nugrus2 ,gebels ,atut and ,igli are conspicuous to the north2 to the south-east1 one overlooks the great sandy basin of ,wadi ,hafafit2 while to the south-west is more open country in which the two remarkable cones of ,el ,nahud1 the sharp peak of ,gebel ,abu ,khrug1 the ridge of ,gebel ,hamrat ,selma1 and closer in the ranges called ,gebel ,dweig1 are striking features4 ,on a clear day1 the huge mountains of ,hamata and ,abu ,hamamid1 eighty kilometres to the south-south-east1 can be discerned4 ,the photographs on ,plate ,,viii will give an idea of the views looking towards ,gebels ,nugrus and ,dweig respectively4 ,in the upper view ,gebel ,nugrus is seen behind the ,hafafit range2 in the lower1 the masses close in are ,gebel ,dweig1 while in the distance1 to the right of the centre1 is ,gebel ,hamrat ,selma1 and behind it on the horizon the spike of ,gebel ,abu ,khrug4 ,the precipitous nature of the south side of ,gebel ,migif is evident in both views4 ,the north and west sides of ,gebel ,migif are drained by the ,wadi ,shait1 which passes the foot of the mountain2 the steep south face drains into ,wadi ,dweig1 a tributary of ,shait2 while the eastern face1 flanked by low hills1 is drained by ,wadi ,hafafit4 ,gebel ,dweig is a small group of high hills close to the south of ,gebel ,migif1 with which it combines to form a cul-de-sac round the head of ,wadi ,dweig4 ,gebel ,dweig resembles ,gebel ,migif in character1 except that it is lower2 the hill on the south side of the narrow opening by which ,wadi ,dweig leaves the cul-de-sac is #hfd metres above sea1 and this is believed to be the highest of the group4 ,the eastern part of the mass is a curiously curved range sweeping round nearly in a semicircle4 ,gebel ,hamrat ,selma is a high ridge rising from the plain about fifteen kilometres south-west of ,gebel ,migif4 ,i did not approach it closely1 but fixed the position of its highest point1 which is #gfa metres above sea-level1 by triangulation4 ,el ,nahud 7the breasts7 is the name given to two very remarkable conical hills of volcanic rock rising from the plain on the north side of ,wadi ,natash to the south of ,gebel ,hamrat ,selma4 ,the two hills are about five kilometres apart1 one being south-east of the other4 ,the north-eastern cone is the sharper of the two1 but they have both the same altitude of #ffb metres above the sea and rise about #acj metres above the surrounding country4 ,gebel ,abu ,khrug is a granite hill-mass with a remarkably sharp high peak1 about twenty-five kilometres south-west of ,gebel ,migif4 ,the summit1 which is surmounted by a triangulation beacon1 in latitude #bd #ch #eg1 longitude #cd #af #ai1 has an altitude of #hgj metres above sea-level4 ,abu ,khrug1 from its striking ,matterhorn-like shape and its situation in fairly open country1 is a conspicuous landmark for great distances4 ,the ,arabs who were sent to erect the beacon stated that the ascent was very difficult4 ,gebel ,sufra is a mass of rather flat-topped high hills1 partly of volcanic origin1 about eighteen kilometres west of ,abu ,khrug1 on the north side of ,wadi ,shait4 ,the triangulation beacon on the summit is in latitude #bd #ch #db1 longitude #cd #d #ac1 at a height of #fij metres above sea-level1 and #cdj metres above the well of ,um ,gubur1 which is in the ,wadi ,shait about three kilometres to the south-east4 ,gebels ,nazla and ,um ,serg are moderately high hills lying to the south of ,gebels ,sufra and ,abu ,khrug1 between the ,wadis ,shait and ,natash4 ,gorf el ,natash is a syenite hill on the south side of ,wadi ,natash1 about five kilometres south-west of ,bir ,masur1 while ,gebels ,muktil 7#dgj metres71 ,derera1 and ,um ,goraf1 are prominent hills lying still further south near ,wadi ,antar4 ,,plate ,,viii4 ,illustration3 ,view from ,gebel ,migif1 looking east1 showing the ,hafafit and ,nugrus ,ranges4 ,illustration3 ,view from ,gebel ,migif1 looking south-west1 showing ,gebel and ,wadi ,dweig4 ,gebel ,ras ,shait is a group of high rugged-looking reddish hills1 probably of granite1 at the head of ,wadi ,shait1 near ,gebels ,nugrus and ,migif4 ,its highest peak rises to #a1jai metres above sea4 ,the west face drains directly into ,shait1 while the eastern and northern slopes drain into ,wadi ,gerf1 which joins ,shait far to the south-west4 ,between ,gebels ,migif and ,ras ,shait is a small range of hills dividing ,wadi ,shait from the head of ,wadi ,hafafit2 across the south end of this range1 which is composed of dark schists with white granite at its western foot1 there runs a zigzag pass1 fairly easy for camels1 to the head of ,wadi ,nugrus4 ,gebel ,mudergeg is a high range of reddish hills1 which with ,gebels ,ras ,shait and ,migif encloses the heads of ,wadi ,shait4 ,its highest point is #a1jhf metres above sea4 ,to the east of it are several other lower ranges1 some of white and others of black aspect1 which have not been approached closely4 ,gebel ,hangalia is a great mountain ridge running south-south-east for about twelve kilometres1 from ,gebel ,ghuel to ,gebel ,zabara1 consisting chiefly of schists4 ,its highest peak is #a1bda metres above sea-level4 ,its western faces are drained partly to the ,nile by the ,wadi ,hangalia 7a tributary of ,wadi ,gerf7 and partly to the sea by the ,wadai el ,nom 7a tributary of ,wadi ,nugrus72 its eastern faces1 which are flanked by high ridges1 drain into the various feeders of ,wadi ,ghadir4 ,gebel ,zabara1 a mountain mass rising to #a1cfa metres above sea-level1 forms a southward extension of the ,hangalia range4 ,the cairn on its summit is in latitude #bd #de #ba1 longitude #cd #da #ec4 ,the mountain is drained on the north and east sides by feeders of the ,wadi ,ghadir1 while its western flanks are partly drained by the ,wadai el ,nom4 ,gebel ,zabara is chiefly composed of schists of various types4 ,the ancient emerald mines of ,zabara are in the north-east part of the mountain1 about two and a half kilometres from its summit4 ,a triangulation beacon marks the highest point of the mountain1 but this was only used as an intersection point4 ,i ascended some of the flanking ridges near the old mines2 these consisted of splintery schists1 and though the climbing is steep and rough 7see ,plate ,,ix71 the schists give a good foothold so that the ascent to the top is probably not very difficult4 ,the ruins in the ,wadi ,zabara1 near the old mines1 are at #ead metres above sea-level2 the climb from them to the summit is thus one of #heg metres4 ,due south of ,gebel ,zabara is a high ridge1 the north-west end of which is #a1ajd metres above sea-level2 this ridge is the most conspicuous of a mass of high hills flanking ,gebel ,zabara to the south1 which have not been seen except from a distance1 but which are probably drained by the ,wadi ,nugrus4 ,gebel ,ghuel1 which forms a northward extension of ,gebel ,hangalia1 is likewise composed of schists4 ,its highest point1 the south end of a conspicuous high ridge1 is #a1ajd metres above sea4 ,its eastern faces are drained by the ,wadis ,ghuel and ,fegas1 both tributaries of ,wadi ,ghadir1 while its western flanks drain into the heads of ,wadi ,um ,khariga4 ,high hills flank the main ridge on both sides1 especially the east1 and through these the drainage channels form deep gloomy gorges4 ,wadi ,ghuel contains important water holes4 ,gebel ,um ,khariga is the name given to several high hill ranges on either side of the ,wadi ,um ,khariga4 ,two of these ranges1 one on either side of the upper part of the wadi1 form like ,gebel ,ghuel north extensions of the high ridge of ,hangalia2 the western range can be crossed at a gap by an easy pass1 #ggc metres above sea-level1 which separates the heads of ,wadi ,gerf from those of ,wadi ,um ,khariga4 ,these two ranges shut in the wadi on either side for some ten kilometres of its northward course1 beyond which the country becomes more open and the wadi curves round to the north-east1 passing the north end of a third range of high hills which is likewise called ,gebel ,um ,khariga4 ,this third range extends northward for about ten kilometres from ,gebel ,ghuel1 from which it is separated by a pass forming a good road over the head of ,wadi ,ghadir4 ,its most conspicuous feature is a twin peak at its north end1 #fgd metres above sea-level4 ,the main ridge is flanked by high hills1 especially on the east side4 ,only the north and west flanks of this range are drained by ,wadi ,um ,khariga1 the eastern side being cut up by feeders of ,wadi ,sukari4 ,besides the pass separating it from ,gebel ,ghuel1 there are two other passes1 one round its north end into ,wadi ,sukari1 and another at its south end between ,wadi ,ghadir and ,wadi ,sukari1 so that a complete circuit of this range can be made by camels4 ,some of the hills composing the mass consist of highly magnetic schists1 and compass readings in the region may be disturbed by many degrees4 ,,plate ,,ix4 ,illustration3 ,descending ,gebel ,zabara4 7,schists74 ,gebel ,igli el ,iswid is a rather rugged mountain mass rising among a sea of lower hills1 thirty kilometres north of ,gebel ,nugrus4 ,its highest point1 marked by a triangulation beacon1 in latitude #be #d #f1 longitude #cd #cf #af1 is #ige metres above sea-level4 ,the mountain forms a tripartite watershed between the basins of ,wadi ,um ,khariga 7draining the south slopes71 ,wadi ,dabur 7draining the north and west slopes71 and ,wadi ,igli 7draining the eastern face71 each of which three wadis courses separately to the sea4 ,in occupying the triangulation station on the summit1 ,i placed my camp in a gully draining to ,wadi ,um ,khariga1 about two kilometres south-south-west of the summit at an altitude of #fje metres above sea4 ,the climb of #cgj metres to the top from this camp was not difficult1 and occupied only a little over an hour and a half4 ,the mountain consists of very hard grey siliceous rocks1 which ring under the hammer1 and are probably crushed and devitrified felsites 7see p4 #bha74 ,there are galts in some of the gullies draining from this mountain1 hence it is sometimes called ,igli el ,rayani4 ,at the time of my visit 7,december #aije7 there was said to be a little water in a galt on the west side of the mass2 but the rock basins in the gully which ,i ascended were empty4 ,gebel ,igli el ,ahmar1 sometimes called ,el ,atshani1 is a lower hill mass of granite some ten kilometres north-east of ,igli el ,iswid4 ,gebel ,atut is a high black conical hill thirty kilometres north-west of ,gebel ,nugrus4 ,rising considerably above the hills which immediately surround it1 ,atut is visible from a great distance from the west1 and its conical form renders it easy of recognition4 ,its summit1 marked by a beacon1 in latitude #be #j #ef1 longitude #cd #bc #di1 is #ijh metres above sea-level and #cjj metres above the branches of the ,rod el ,atut which encircle its base4 ,a camp can be placed close to the foot of the cone1 and the ascent is easily made in about an hour4 ,the rock of ,gebel ,atut is olivine gabbro 7see p4 #cjb71 of great hardness1 and the whole surface of the mountain is formed of great blocks1 rounded and boulder-like below1 but angular higher up4 ,the blocks have rusty-looking surfaces1 but are perfectly sound rock inside1 and they ring like bells under the hammer4 ,the upper illustration on ,plate ,x shows a view of the summit of ,gebel ,atut1 from which its blocky nature will be evident4 ,the view from ,gebel ,atut is a very extensive one4 ,to the west and north 7see the lower illustration on ,plate ,x7 one can see the peaks of ,gebels ,muelih1 ,haggar ,dungash1 ,iteima1 ,abu ,diab1 and ,hamrat ,wogud2 to the south-east are the masses of ,migif and ,nugrus1 while eastward one looks over a great expanse of hills towards ,gebels ,dabur and ,um ,khariga1 with the sea beyond4 ,the hills of ,um el ,huetat1 the highest of which rise over #bjj metres above the wadis round them1 are situated about eight kilometres due west of ,gebel ,atut2 they are composed of schists of various types1 and contain some old mines1 mostly in talc schist4 ,they are drained by the ,rod el ,farag1 a tributary of ,wadi ,gerf4 ,on the other side of the ,rod el ,farag1 i4e41 further west of ,gebel ,atut1 are numerous scattered hills1 the higher of which bear the names of ,hamrat ,mastura1 ,el ,hamra1 and ,um ,himar4 ,these are of granite1 gneiss1 and schists1 with some coarse gabbro and numerous quartz veins4 ,still further west is the remarkable ridge called ,erf el ,fahid1 a great quartz vein ten metres wide and two kilometres long1 rising nearly one hundred metres above the ,wadi ,muelih4 ,a beacon on its highest point1 #egi metres above sea-level1 marks the triangulation station1 its position being latitude #be #j #e1 longitude #cd #aa #eb4 ,south-east of ,erf el ,fahid is a line of similar but smaller ridges1 also formed of great quartz veins rising through diorites and schists4 ,still further down the ,wadi ,muelih is a curious horse-shoe-shaped hill of aplite1 called ,marwot ,rod el ,ligaia1 round which the hills of crushed diorite are penetrated with a network of quartz veins running in various directions4 ,gebel ,muelih is a great boss of white granite situated close to the north side of ,wadi ,muelih in longitude #cd4 ,its summit1 marked by a beacon1 in latitude #bd #eb #dd1 longitude #cd #j #cg1 is #gjg metres above sea and #cej metres above the wadi which courses round its south flank1 and from which it is easily climbed4 ,the upper view on ,plate ,,xi gives an idea of its appearance as seen from the base line camp in the wadi six kilometres east of it4 ,gebel ,hagar ,dungash is a great mass of high hills situated north of ,gebel ,muelih4 ,the beacon on its highest point1 in latitude #bd #ei #ab1 longitude #cd #b #cc1 is #hae metres above sea-level4 ,in the hills which flank the main mass are numerous sharp peaks1 one of the most conspicuous of which1 eight and a half kilometres south-west of the beacon1 is called ,gebel ,um ,dalalil4 ,a ridge five kilometres due east of the beacon bears the name of ,erf ,rod ,um ,rashid4 ,the rocks of ,haggar ,dungash are chiefly dark schists4 ,,plate ,x4 ,illustration3 ,summit of ,gebel ,atut4 ,illustration3 ,view from ,gebel ,atut1 looking north-west1 showing ,gebels ,abu ,diab and ,hamrat ,wogud in the distance4 ,,plate ,,xi4 ,illustration3 ,view in ,wadi ,muelih 7,base-line ,camp74 ,gebel ,muelih in the ,distance4 ,illustration3 ,granite-boss of ,gebel ,selaia4 ,gebel ,iteima is a group of high granite hills rising from the plain fifteen kilometres north of ,erf el ,fahid4 ,its highest peak is #hdi metres above the sea4 ,it is drained southwards by the ,wadi ,muelih4 ,gebel ,hamrat ,wogud1 which is likewise of granite1 is a higher mountain mass fifteen kilometres east of ,iteima4 ,its highest point1 marked by a beacon1 is in latitude #be #i #cd1 longitude #cd #bj #j1 and #a1ajc metres above sea4 ,it is drained southwards by the ,rod ,um el ,farag1 a tributary of ,wadi ,gerf4 ,between ,gebels ,muelih and ,mudergeg is a sandy plain with low hills1 the more conspicuous of which bear special names2 among them are ,marwot ,rod el ,ligah1 ,erf ,sagur1 and ,khusa el ,faraon1 the last-named being a group of small but very remarkable black hills eleven kilometres due south of ,erf el ,fahid4 ,marwot ,rod el ,ligah is a triangulation point2 its beacon is #ead metres above sea-level4 ,gebel ,sukari is a very craggy high ridge of granitic rock twenty-two kilometres north of ,gebel ,zabara4 ,its highest point1 which is at its north end1 is #fcj metres above sea-level1 but the triangulation beacon was erected on a lower part of the ridge further south1 in latitude #bd #ef #ej1 longitude #cd #db #ej1 at an altitude of #dgf metres1 in order to be near to the extensive old mines and ruins which exist in the locality4 ,gebel ,sukari is drained by various feeders of ,wadi ,sukari4 ,kurdeman is the name of a low hilly district on the east side of ,wadi ,ghadir1 thirteen kilometres north of ,gebel ,zabara4 ,it is interesting as containing some ancient mines1 doubtless worked for gold4 ,a triangulation beacon has been erected on a hill just above the workings1 in latitude #bd #eb #ce1 longitude #cd #da #ce1 at an altitude of #ebf metres above sea1 or about fifty metres above the wadi4 ,gebel ,sabahia is a craggy felsite hill five kilometres south-east of ,kurdeman1 rising to #ebj metres above sea1 or about ninety metres above the wadi4 ,it is drained by the ,wadi ,sabahia1 a tributary of ,wadi ,ghadir4 ,in the heads of the ,wadi ,sabahia1 north-east of the hill1 are some old gold mines4 ,gebel ,um ,tundeba is a high granite hill near the head of ,wadi ,um ,tundeba4 ,its summit is #eej metres above the sea4 ,it forms a landmark for the water hole called ,galt ,um ,tundeba1 which is situated in a small gully1 three kilometres west of the summit of the hill4 ,gebel ,amba-ut1 seven kilometres south of the foregoing1 is likewise believed to be of granite2 the southern hill of this group is of a red colour and very conspicuous as one passes from ,um ,tundeba to ,ghadir4 ,gebel ,ghadir1 the summit of which1 in latitude #bd #ej #i1 longitude #cd #dg #bb1 and #fcf metres above sea1 is marked by a triangulation beacon1 is thirteen kilometres north-east of ,gebel ,zabara4 ,i ascended it from a camp #dbd metres above sea-level in one of the gullies draining westward to ,wadi ,ghadir4 ,the ascent is easy4 ,the rocks are greenish serpentines and ophicalcites below1 with a white quartz felsite above4 ,gebel ,allawi1 situated on the south side of the ,wadi ,allawi1 is a diorite hill rising to #eae metres above sea4 ,it is best approached by ascending a small feeder of ,wadi ,allawi1 in which a camp can be placed within a kilometre of the summit and #afj metres below it4 ,there are some interesting old gold mines in the quartz veins just below the beacon on the summit of the hill1 and a band of graphitic schist crops out near the north foot of the hill4 ,the position of the beacon is latitude #bd #df #db1 longitude #cd #di #ci4 ,gebel ,lewewi is a dark craggy hill range eight kilometres east-south-east of ,gebel ,zabara1 between ,wadi ,allawi and its tributary ,wadi ,lewewi4 ,its highest point1 marked by a cairn1 is #fed metres above sea-level4 ,there are some old mines in the lower hills two and half kilometres south-east of ,gebel ,lewewi1 and others a little further off in the same direction4 ,gebel ,sikait is a rugged ridge of schists and serpentine situated in the midst of hilly country fourteen kilometres south-east of ,gebel ,zabara4 ,the triangulation beacon which marks its summit is in latitude #bd #ci #ee1 longitude #cd #dh #e1 and #gga metres above sea-level1 and #ccj metres above the wadi which skirts its western foot4 ,gebel ,sikait is of interest from the abundant ruins and old emerald mines which exist near it1 as well as from the variety of minerals present in its rocks4 ,it is the ,sicily of the ,eastern ,desert4 ,beryl1 tourmaline1 actinolite1 various micas1 chlorite1 talc and crystals of calcite are amongst the commoner minerals found4 ,the serpentine which abounds in its upper parts is highly magnetic1 and the compass was found to be disturbed by no less than #dj near the triangulation point4 ,gebel ,sikait is drained from the west by the ,wadi ,sikait1 a tributary of ,wadi ,nugrus1 and from the east by the ,wadi ,um ,gamil4 ,the best place to climb it from is the ,wadi ,sikait1 and the ascent1 not a difficult one1 is rendered interesting by the ruins and old mines encountered2 part of the way one passes over an ancient made road1 now broken in many places by the downwash from the hill4 ,gebel ,ras ,um ,gamil and ,gebel ,um ,gamil are two high hill ranges south-east of ,sikait1 which have only been sketched from a distance4 ,madaret ,um ,gamil is a conspicuous double-topped hill on the north side of the ,wadi ,gemal1 seventeen kilometres south-east of ,sikait4 ,the beacon which marks its highest point is in latitude #bd #cd #eb1 longitude #cd #ef #bh1 and #ded metres above sea4 ,it is best ascended by a very winding tributary of the ,wadi ,gemal2 this gully1 up which there is a road1 leads past the south-west foot of the hill1 and the climb is only one of some #bjj metres4 ,the rocks round ,madaret ,um ,gamil are mostly schists1 but the top of the hill is a hard gabbro like that of ,gebel ,atut1 weathered into rusty looking blocks4 ,a good view seawards is obtained from the summit1 some very red granite forming a conspicuous feature in the low hills between it and the coast4 ,the ,abu ,hamamid -- ,hamata -- ,abu ,gurdi ,group4 ,this group of mountains is remarkable both for its extent and for the loftiness of many of its peaks1 some of which are among the highest in ,egypt4 ,it is a mass of rugged ridges and peaks1 covering about a quarter of a square degree of the earth's surface between latitudes #bd #j and #bd #cj1 in which the two dominant summits1 ,abu ,hamamid 7#a1gdg metres7 and ,hamata 7#a1igh metres7 are the most conspicuous features in the west and east portions respectively1 while ,abu ,gurdi 7#a1efb metres7 forms the great terminal peak of a south-easterly extension of the mass4 ,plate ,,xii shows two typical views in this rugged region4 ,gebel ,abu ,hamamid is a great ridge of hard greenish schists towering above the surrounding mountains to a height of #a1gdg metres above sea4 ,its crest is broken into a number of separate summits1 which appear from most aspects of almost a sugar loaf form2 the beacon is on the most northerly and highest of these1 its position being latitude #bd #ad #da1 longitude #cd #dg #ch4 ,the mountain is best ascended from the ,wadi ,um ,semiuki1 a tributary of ,huluz1 which drains its north-east face4 ,by ascending this wadi till camels could go no higher owing to its increasingly rough and stony floor1 ,i was able to pitch a camp at #hfe metres above sea-level and two and a quarter kilometres north-east of the summit1 leaving an ascent of #hhb metres to be made on foot4 ,the ascent1 which occupied four hours1 was free from difficulty till within about one hundred metres of the top1 but the last portion was extremely steep and was only negotiated with considerable trouble2 it represents pretty nearly the limit of possibility in getting instruments up difficult places4 ,once the top was reached1 however1 the magnificence of the view obtainable1 and the excellence of the point as a station for triangulating the principal peaks among the thousands visible1 seemed an ample recompense for the trouble of reaching it4 ,the top of the ridge 7see ,plate ,,vii1 p4 #aff7 is very rough and narrow1 only a little over a metre wide1 and it is difficult to find a spot near the summit where one can spread one's blankets for the night with even a slight approach to comfort4 ,the eight nights of enforced bivouacking which ,i was obliged to spend on the top of ,abu ,hamamid in ,february #aijf1 before ,i could complete my observations1 belong to the least pleasant of my experiences in the desert4 ,a little work only was possible the first day1 owing to haze obscuring the more distant peaks4 ,on the second day clouds enveloped us in a wet drizzle1 and a bitterly cold north wind blew with great violence2 a rude rubble shelter which my men built on the summit1 covered with a blanket1 was a very poor protection1 and ,i found it better to throw a rubble embankment across a steep gully on the lee side1 forming a small level platform where we were sheltered from the biting wind4 ,for the next five days1 we were alternately wrapped in clouds or left free under a brilliant blue sky with clouds covering all the surrounding country4 ,it was curious on these days to look over the surface of the clouds1 as over a boundless level sea1 with only the highest peaks projecting sharp and black above the white surface1 and to see the sun rise and set exactly as though one were on the ocean4 ,then at last the clouds began to disappear1 and on the first clear day a very large amount of triangulation was accomplished1 all the more prominent peaks within a radius of about sixty kilometres being observed4 ,gebel ,abu ,hamamid forms a culminating point on the ,nile -- ,red ,sea watershed1 its eastern parts draining to ,wadi ,huluz and its western ones to ,wadi ,abu ,hamamid1 a tributary of ,wadi ,kharit4 ,,plate ,,xii4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,typical ,views among the ,mountains of ,hamata and ,abu ,hamamid4 7,the high peak in the distance in the lower view is ,gebel ,hamata74 ,gebel ,um ,semiuki is a sharp cone rising to #a1bhc metres above the sea among a mass of lower hills three kilometres north-east of ,gebel ,abu ,hamamid4 ,it is of a reddish aspect1 due to a film which covers the weathered surface of the green and grey hornfels of which it is composed4 ,it is drained by the ,wadi ,um ,semiuki4 ,gebel ,abu ,argub is a very conspicuous mountain1 almost conical in shape1 seven and a half kilometres south-south-west of ,gebel ,abu ,hamamid1 from which it is separated by lower hills4 ,to the south1 ,gebel ,abu ,argub overlooks the plain of ,selaia4 ,its peak1 #a1fij metres above sea-level1 is a good landmark from the south and west4 ,gebel ,kahfa is a many-peaked mountain of granite rising abruptly to a height of #a1jah metres above sea from among lower hills of dark schists1 nineteen kilometres south-west of ,gebel ,abu ,hamamid4 ,it is detached from the main mountain-mass1 being separated from it by the heads of ,wadi ,um ,retba4 ,its faces are in many places sheer precipices of several hundred metres 7see ,plate ,,xiii71 but the ascent of it from the north is not very difficult4 ,in occupying ,kahfa as a station ,i approached it from ,bir ,shadli by a well-marked track which skirts the western foot-hills and leads to the ,wadi ,helie4 ,leaving this track where it crosses ,wadi ,um ,hargal some six kilometres from ,bir ,shadli1 ,i ascended the ,wadi ,um ,hargal and crossed the pass at its head into the head of ,wadi ,um ,retba1 where ,i pitched my camp at an altitude of #efc metres1 at the foot of ,gebel ,kahfa #ac kilometres north-north-east of the beacon on its summit4 ,the climb of #dee metres from this camp to the top occupied three hours4 ,there is good bivouacking ground close east of the summit1 between two ridges4 ,the beacon which marks the triangulation point is in latitude #bd #h #ah1 longitude #cd #ch #ee4 ,a walk round the top is full of interest2 one can reach many points overlooking tremendous precipices1 and the forms assumed by the granite peaks are very remarkable4 ,on the west side of the mountain is a rather large open space forming the head of ,wadi ,helie1 but elsewhere one is surrounded by low hills4 ,the principal drainers of ,kahfa are the ,wadis ,um ,hargal and ,um ,retba 7tributaries of ,wadi el ,sheikh7 to the north1 and ,helie and ,abu ,hashim 7tributaries of ,wadi ,kharit7 to the south4 ,gebel ,medsus is a small group of high hills rising among lower ones between ,gebel ,abu ,hamamid and ,bir ,shadli4 ,gebel ,metawit is a high granite hill rising conspicuously among much lower hills thirteen kilometres north-west of ,bir ,shadli4 ,a track leading from ,bir ,shadli to ,bir ,metawit and other wells further north-west passes close east of the hill4 ,gebel ,metawit is a good landmark for ,bir ,metawit1 which is situated in the wadi of the same name about three kilometres north-west of it4 ,the summit is #gda metres above sea-level or about #bie metres above the wadi floor at the well4 ,gebel ,hamrat ,mukbud is a great red granite mass rising from the plain about twenty-five kilometres west of ,bir ,shadli4 ,its isolated character and great altitude 7#hib metres above the sea and about #dej metres above the surrounding country7 render ,hamrat ,mukbud one of the finest and best known landmarks in this part of the desert4 ,a cairn on its summit marks the triangulation point1 in latitude #bd #i #ec1 longitude #cd #bc #ag4 ,its ascent is a matter of some difficulty1 owing to its great steepness4 ,el ,hamra is another red granite mass1 much smaller than ,hamrat ,mukbud1 lying about half-way between that mountain and ,bir ,shadli1 and separating the ,wadi ,abu ,hamamid from the ,wadi el ,sheikh4 ,gebel ,homr ,akarim is a hill about thirty-three kilometres west of ,gebel ,hamrat ,mukbud1 close to the north of ,wadi el ,khashab4 ,its summit1 #dij metres above sea1 is marked by a triangulation cairn4 ,gebel ,marasan is a range of mountains north-west of ,abu ,hamamid4 ,it is cut through by an important pass over the main watershed1 #fhe metres above sea-level1 connecting the ,wadis ,huluz and ,abu ,hamamid by their respective tributaries ,marasan and ,marasani1 which drain north-east and south-west from the pass4 ,the highest peak of the mountains south of the pass is #a1bfa metres above sea-level1 while those to the north are lower4 ,the name ,gebel ,marasan is1 however1 commonly given only to the peaks north of the pass1 as they rise more abruptly from it1 while those to the south are unnamed or regarded as part of ,gebel ,hamamid because the ,wadi ,abu ,hamamid drains their southern flanks4 ,,plate ,,xiii4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,two ,views on ,gebel ,kahfa4 7,granite74 ,gebel ,khulla is a range lying a few kilometres west of ,gebel ,marasan from which it is quite separated4 ,its highest point is #igh metres above sea4 ,it is drained by ,wadi ,khulla1 a tributary of ,wadi ,abu ,hamamid4 ,gebel ,um ,sedri is a remarkable pair of twin peaks on or near the main watershed seventeen kilometres north-west of ,gebel ,abu ,hamamid1 and a little to the south of the ,wadi ,huluz4 ,these peaks1 which are #igj metres above sea-level and about #dfj metres above the floor of ,wadi ,huluz1 are very conspicuous from the surrounding high country1 but they cannot be seen from the ,wadi ,huluz itself as they lie a little way back from the scarps which bound the gorge4 ,it is the drainage from the hills round ,gebel ,um ,sedri which feeds the water holes of ,um ,gerifat1 in a little gorge opening to ,wadi ,huluz about two kilometres north-west of the peaks4 ,gebel el ,heda is a conspicuous hill situated ten kilometres north-north-west of ,gebel ,metawit1 between the ,wadis ,antar and ,khashab4 ,its highest point is #hfb metres above sea-level4 ,gebel ,nukheira is a group of high hills on or near the main watershed1 close to the head of ,wadi ,antar and about ten kilometres north-north-west of ,gebel el ,heda4 ,its highest point is #hgf metres above the sea4 ,gebel ,ras ,abu ,etl is a lower hill seven kilometres north-east of ,gebel ,nukheira4 ,as seen from the upper part of the ,wadi ,gemal it appeared to have a flat top1 which is #fdh metres above the sea4 ,it is probably drained by the short ,wadi ,abu ,etl1 which joins ,wadi ,huluz to form the ,wadi ,gemal4 ,gebel ,um ,suerab is a great high ridge of dark looking rocks1 surrounded by high flanking hills1 rising conspicuously in the hilly country between the ,wadis ,huluz and ,gemal1 about twenty-four kilometres north-north-west of ,gebel ,abu ,hamamid4 ,the top of its ridge1 which appears to be nearly level for about a kilometre of its length1 is #a1jbd metres above sea-level4 ,from its neighbourhood drain two wadis in opposite directions2 one1 called the ,wadi ,um ,suerab lil ,gemal1 goes northward to join ,wadi ,gemal1 while the other1 called ,wadi ,um ,suerab lil ,huluz1 is the longer and courses southward to join ,wadi ,huluz4 ,gebel ,durunkat is another apparently flat-topped hill eight kilometres south-east of ,gebel ,um ,suerab1 on the west side of the ,wadi ,durunkat1 about thirteen kilometres above its junction with ,wadi ,gemal4 ,its summit is #ibd metres above sea-level4 ,gebel ,abarun is a mountain range situated a short distance north-east of ,gebel ,abu ,argub1 from which it is separated by the ,wadi ,abarun4 ,its highest peak1 almost due east of that of ,abu ,argub1 from which it is separated by the ,wadi ,abarun1 is #a1fjb metres above sea1 and overlooks the great plain of ,selaia to the south4 ,gebel ,um el ,tiur is a range extending south-east from ,gebel ,abarun1 forming a southward prolongation of the mountains4 ,its highest peak is #a1dej metres above the sea1 while the terminal peak southward is #a1jhj metres4 ,it is drained on the west by the ,wadis el ,shel and el ,anbat 7tributaries of ,wadi ,kharit7 and on the east by the ,wadi ,um el ,tiur 7a tributary of ,wadi ,hilgit lil ,kharit74 ,gebel el ,anbat is a group of lower dark coloured hills forming the south foot hills of ,gebel ,um el ,tiur4 ,its highest point is #ghh metres above sea1 while a detached black hill a little west of it on the plain rises to #fhj metres above sea1 or #age metres above the plain at its base4 ,these hills are drained by the ,wadi el ,anbat and other small feeders of ,wadi ,kharit4 ,gebel ,um ,usher and ,um ,hasidok are conspicuous peaks on the main watershed ten kilometres east1 and twelve and a half kilometres east-south-east respectively of ,gebel ,abu ,hamamid1 rising to #a1dhg and #a1dig metres above sea-level4 ,they are drained to the south by the ,wadi ,hilgit lil ,kharit1 and to the north by the ,wadi el ,mahali1 a feeder of ,wadi ,huluz4 ,gebel el ,mahali is a rather high peak of grey porphyry which forms a northerly extension of ,gebel ,um ,usher1 close south of the ,wadi ,huluz4 ,its top is #a1aab metres above sea1 or #ccj metres above the adjacent wadi floor4 ,gebel ,hamata1 with one exception#ajf the highest mountain in the ,eastern ,desert of ,egypt1 is situated on the meridian of #ce1 in latitude #bd #ab1 thirty-three kilometres from the nearest point of the coast and #bac kilometres from the nearest point of the ,nile1 and rises to an altitude of #a1igh metres above sea-level2 the summit is marked by a triangulation beacon1 the position of which is latitude #bd #ab #ag1 longitude #ce #j #af4 ,gebel ,hamata lies some five kilometres east of the main watershed1 which curiously enough is not always formed by the highest peaks4 ,it is drained principally by the ,wadi ,huluz1 the heads of which almost encircle it4 ,the ,wadi ,hamata heads in the eastern face of the high ridge which connects ,gebels ,hamata and ,abu ,ghusun1 and thus only takes a small portion of the drainage of ,gebel ,hamata itself4 ,though surrounded by other high mountains1 ,hamata towers above them so as to be a very conspicuous feature on the sky line from great distances4 ,looked at from the north or south1 it is like a great1 rather flat1 cone with a smaller cone east of it4 ,the best way to ascend the mountain is from the head of the ,wadi el ,abiad1 that feeder of ,wadi ,huluz which drains the north face of it4 ,in proceeding up the ,wadi el ,abiad from ,wadi ,huluz1 one is shut in by high hills on either side till about six kilometres from the mountain2 then the wadi opens into a rough plain with low granite hills1 and the imposing mass of ,hamata springs suddenly into full view4 ,my camels were coaxed on with their loads up this wadi1 which becomes very steep and stony as its head is approached1 to within two and a quarter kilometres of the summit1 where they actually reached an altitude of #a1jbe metres above the sea4 ,the ascent of the remaining #iec metres on foot1 though tiring1 was fairly easy1 and occupied less than four hours4 ,the lower third of ,hamata is a whitish granite2 this gives place higher up to a hard quartz felsite1 which rings under the hammer and weathers into rusty brown blocks4 ,to the east of the main summit the rock changes to a green breccia1 which seems to form a considerable portion of that part of the mountain4 ,the view from the summit is a fine one in clear weather1 including as it does an extensive prospect of the rugged mountains around1 and a large extent of coast-line4 ,but it was on this mountain that ,i had my first experience of the chronic haze which seems to hang almost perpetually over the coastal regions in the neighbourhood of the tropic1 and which is the greatest enemy of the surveyor in these parts4 ,on each of the three days which ,i spent on ,hamata1 the morning sun rose over cloud-banks to the east2 clouds filled all the wadis and covered the lower country1 while the highest peaks stood up clear and sharp above the sea of cloud4 ,towards #aj a4m41 the clouds gradually melted away over the land under the increasing solar influence1 but there remained a continuous haze1 especially over the coast and out to sea4 ,the explanation of the almost perpetual clouds and haze was soon seen1 and is very simple4 ,if the wind blows from the north-west1 it is generally cool or even cold in winter4 ,if this north wind is dry and persistent1 the air is clear2 but should it fail and warm moist breezes set in from seaward1 these drop their moisture on reaching the cooler air of the mountains4 ,if the air is still or nearly so1 the moisture is evaporated in the sun's rays during the day1 only to precipitate itself again as the air cools by rapid radiation at night4 ,as a consequence1 dews on the mountains are extremely heavy1 and one soon learns to seek the shelter of an overhanging rock or to improvise a rude tent from a blanket and a few sticks over one's nightly resting-place4 ,gebel ,abu ,ghusun is a mountain range north of ,hamata1 with which it is connected by a ridge of lower peaks so as to close in the small rough granite plain north-east of the latter mountain4 ,its highest peak1 eight kilometres north-north-west of ,gebel ,hamata1 is #a1chi metres above sea-level4 ,it is drained on the south by the ,wadi el ,abiad1 the same tributary of ,wadi ,huluz which drains the north face of ,hamata1 and on the north by the ,wadi ,abu ,ghusun1 which enters the sea separately4 ,gebel ,um ,laham is a mass of lower hills a little west of ,gebel ,abu ,ghusun1 forming the side of ,wadi ,huluz opposite to ,gebel el ,mahali4 ,gebel ,tarfawi is a complex mountain range fourteen kilometres north-west of ,gebel ,hamata4 ,its highest point1 at the north-west end of a ridge1 is #a1cfc metres above the sea4 ,it is probably drained to the south by the ,wadi ,tarfawi1 a tributary of ,wadi ,huluz1 and to the north by feeders of ,wadi ,romit4 ,gebel ,um ,heshenib is a great ridge situated twenty-two kilometres north-west of ,gebel ,hamata4 ,the beacon on its highest point1 in latitude #bd #bj #di1 longitude #cd #ej #ec1 has an altitude of #a1ace metres above the sea4 ,its lower parts are granite1 but the upper third is of dark schists1 while the actual ridge on which the beacon stands is a grey porphyrite4 ,gebel ,um ,heshenib is drained to the north by the ,wadi el ,abiad1 a tributary of ,wadi ,gemal1 and to the south by tributaries of ,wadi ,huluz4 ,i ascended it on two occasions from opposite sides4 ,the north approach is the easier road for camels1 as they can pass easily up the broad and sandy ,wadi el ,abiad1 while to reach it from ,wadi ,huluz one has to journey over a rather stony pass and along narrow stony wadis4 ,but the climb is longer from the north side1 being one of #fce metres against #chj metres from the south1 and the southern climb is easier as well as shorter4 ,it is interesting to note that as the ground south of the mountain lies at an average level of #bej metres higher than that to the north1 the plumb-line ought from theoretical considerations to be attracted to the south by several seconds1 and this was found to be the case when the mountain was used as a latitude station 7see p4 #dg7 ,there is a very difficult pass east of the mountain from the head of ,wadi el ,abiad into a tributary of ,wadi ,huluz2 ,i was told that loaded camels could not possibly get over the pass1 and have reason to believe the statement true1 as although ,i did not consent my men were desirous of going over it and volunteered to carry the baggage over themselves to relieve the camels4 ,gebel el ,abiad is the name given to two distinct ranges of high granite hills on either side of the ,wadi el ,abiad1 north and east of ,gebel ,um ,heshenib4 ,the eastern of these two ranges extends in a north-westerly direction for about twelve kilometres from ,gebel ,tarfawi to near the place where ,wadi el ,abiad turns to the north-east4 ,it has numerous peaks1 of which the most conspicuous is at the south-east end of a high ridge six and a half kilometres north-east of ,gebel ,um ,heshenib1 and rises to #ieg metres above sea4 ,this eastern range is drained from the west by the ,wadi el ,abiad1 and from the west by the ,wadis ,shoab and ,romit4 ,the western range is slightly lower and less extensive2 one of its most conspicuous peaks1 eleven kilometres north-north-east of ,um ,heshenib1 is #hib metres above the sea1 and there are numerous other peaks further south of almost equal altitude4 ,this western range is almost entirely drained by the ,wadi el ,abiad1 a feeder of which curves round the south end of the range1 thus separating it from ,gebel ,um ,heshenib2 the drainage from the north end probably passes into the ,wadi ,mukhatatat1 while a portion of the eastern slopes may be drained by feeders of ,wadi ,durunkat4 ,it is the coarse white granitic sand resulting from the disintegration of the rocks of these hills which gives its name to the ,wadi el ,abiad1 and the hills take their name from the wadi4 ,the heads of the wadi near ,gebel ,um ,heshenib are1 however1 blackened by hornblendic downwash from the schists which overlie the granite of that mountain4 ,gebel ,shoab is a very high white granite hill close to the head of ,wadi ,shoab1 on its north side4 ,it rises to #hcj metres above the sea1 or about #djj metres above the wadi floor4 ,gebel ,hefeiri is a very sharp granite peak a little west of the ,wadi ,abu ,ghusun1 about fifteen kilometres north of ,hamata4 ,rising to #fab metres above the sea1 or about #cjj metres above the wadi near it1 among lower granite hills1 it is a good landmark4 ,there is a smaller very sharp peak two and a half kilometres to the north-east1 on the opposite side of the ,wadi ,abu ,ghusun1 while to the west are sugar loaf shaped hills4 ,gebel ,um ,sueh is a conspicuous granite hill six and a half kilometres east of the ,wadi el ,abiad and four and a half kilometres north of the ,wadi ,shoab1 rising to #gha metres above sea4 ,it is probably drained from the north-east by the heads of ,wadi ,um el ,abbas4 ,gebel ,um el ,abbas is a very remarkable granite hill between ,gebels ,um ,sueh and ,abu ,hegilig4 ,from the north1 it looks like a square block with precipitous sides1 having a sheer drop of about #bjj metres4 ,its summit is #fig metres above sea4 ,it is drained by the ,wadi ,um el ,abbas1 which goes independently to the sea4 ,gebel ,abu ,hegilig is another high granite hill1 three and a half kilometres east of ,gebel ,um el ,abbas and twenty-six kilometres north of ,gebel ,hamata4 ,its summit1 #fjg metres above sea1 is marked by a beacon1 the position being latitude #bd #bf #af1 longitude #cd #eh #cb4 ,the hill is drained by feeders of ,wadi ,um el ,abbas4 ,the camp from which ,i ascended the hill was in one of these feeders #a1bjj metres north-east of the beacon and #bfg metres above sea-level2 the climb of #cdj metres was not difficult1 and only occupied a little over an hour4 ,the beacon is on a block not large enough to take an instrument1 so that observations here were taken from an eccentric point a little way along the ridge and afterwards reduced to centre4 ,gebel ,sarobi is a small hill-range twenty-two kilometres north-east of ,gebel ,hamata and some eleven kilometres from the sea coast4 ,the peak at its south end is #dga metres above sea-level4 ,this range has not been closely approached nor well seen1 but it must be very conspicuous to any one travelling in the low hill country near the sea4 ,gebel ,ras el ,kharit is a mountain range forming part of the main watershed1 running in a nearly east and west line a little south of ,gebel ,hamata4 ,its highest peak is extremely sharp1 and rises to #a1ffa metres above sea-level six kilometres south-south-east of ,hamata4 ,of the many other peaks of the range1 the chief is one three kilometres west of the highest point1 and six kilometres due south of ,hamata2 this reaches an altitude of #a1efd metres4 ,the northern face of the range is drained by the heads of the ,wadi ,huluz1 while the southern is drained by the heads of ,wadi ,kharit1 whence the name of the mountain range4 ,gebel ,khashir1 which forms an eastward extension of ,gebel ,ras el ,kharit1 reaches an altitude of #a1efe metres above sea-level2 its highest peak is nine and a half kilometres south-east of ,gebel ,hamata4 ,it is drained to the sea by the ,wadi ,khashir1 the heads of which end in the precipitous eastern faces of the mountain4 ,gebel ,mikbi is a long high ridge on the main watershed1 seven kilometres south of ,gebel ,khashir4 ,its highest point1 at the south end of the ridge1 is #a1chh metres above sea-level4 ,gebel ,mikbi is connected with ,gebel ,ras el ,kharit by a lower ridge running north-west and forming the continuation of the watershed across the head of ,wadi el ,kharit4 ,there is a pass across this ridge into the head of ,wadi ,mikbi1 which drains ,gebel ,mikbi seawards1 but it is a very difficult one for loaded camels owing to the great steepness of the eastern side4 ,gebel ,zatit is another high ridge about five kilometres east of ,gebel ,mikbi1 on the south side of the head of ,wadi ,mikbi4 ,gebel ,egat is a high mountain close to the south-west of ,gebel ,mikbi1 forming the continuation of the watershed4 ,it has two principal peaks1 two and a quarter kilometres apart1 of which the south-west one is the higher1 being #a1dbb metres1 while the north-east one is #a1bgg metres above the sea4 ,the western face of the mass is drained by the ,wadi ,egat1 a tributary of ,kharit1 while the eastern flanks are cut up by feeders of the ,wadi ,sefent1 a tributary of ,wadi ,lahami4 ,gebels ,um ,sellim and ,gumudlum are high hill ranges forming an eastward extension of the ,egat and ,mikbi mountains1 on the north side of ,wadis ,sefent and ,lahami4 ,the highest point of ,gebel ,um ,sellim is #idg metres above sea1 or about #fbj metres above the floor of ,wadi ,lahami4 ,these ranges are flanked by lower hills through which run various small wadis such as ,um ,khuzuma1 ,um ,ghobasha1 and ,gumudlum1 all feeders of ,wadi ,lahami4 ,some of these small wadis contain rock basins or galts which retain large supplies of water for some time after rain has fallen on the hills4 ,gebel ,abu ,gurdi is a great mountain in latitude #bd #j1 forming the terminal peak to the south of the ,hamata group4 ,the beacon on its summit1 in latitude #bd #j #aa1 longitude #ce #e #ag1 is #a1efb metres above sea-level4 ,though in reality a ridge1 ,abu ,gurdi from most points of view looks like a rather flat cone1 surrounded by lower hills4 ,it is on the main watershed1 which crossing to the summit from ,gebel ,egat1 continues south-eastward along a narrow ridge descending to the pass at the head of ,wadi ,lahami4 ,the south-west parts of ,abu ,gurdi are drained by the ,wadis ,abu ,gurdi and ,elemikan1 both tributaries of ,kharit1 while its southern and eastern parts drain into ,wadi ,lahami by various feeders1 of which the chief are the ,wadis ,um ,karaba1 ,um ,rishan1 ,um ,homar1 and ,sefent4 ,gebel ,abu ,gurdi could probably be ascended from the west by following up the ,wadi ,abu ,gurdi1 but in occupying the mountain as a triangulation station ,i descended the ,wadi ,lahami as far as the point of influx of ,wadi ,um ,karaba and then ascended the latter wadi as far as the camels could get1 pitching my camp two kilometres south of the summit at #hjd metres above sea-level4 ,the ascent of #geh metres to the beacon on foot from the camp occupied two and a quarter hours of fairly stiff climbing2 it presented no serious difficulties1 but the rock near the top is much broken up and one has to be careful lest blocks are dislodged under one's foot4 ,the view from the top of ,abu ,gurdi on a clear day must be extremely fine1 but during the three days ,i remained there a thin haze spoiled the distant prospect1 especially towards the coast2 the remarkable shapes of the granite peaks of ,gebel ,faraid1 sixty kilometres to the south-south-east1 formed the most striking feature in the scene4 ,gebel ,derhib1 #a1afj metres above the sea1 is a mountain separating ,wadi ,abu ,gurdi from ,wadi ,egat2 it is really an extension of ,gebel ,abu ,gurdi1 from the beacon on which its summit is six and a half kilometres west4 ,gebel ,um ,goradi is likewise in reality part of the ,abu ,gurdi mass1 forming the end of a spur extending south-eastward for ten kilometres from the main peak4 ,the ,wadi ,lahami curves round its foot northward1 passing between it and ,gebel ,um ,gunud4 ,gebel ,selaia#ajg 7the bald head7 is a very remarkable rounded granite boss rising from the plain thirty-one kilometres south-south-west of ,gebel ,hamata4 ,owing to its peculiar shape1 isolated position1 and considerable height 7its top is #ghg metres above sea-level and about #bfj metres above the plain71 ,selaia is a conspicuous landmark for great distances round it4 ,the lower illustration on ,plate ,,xi 7p4 #agb7 gives an idea of its appearance as seen from the east2 from the north or south it appears much steeper4 ,south-east of ,gebel ,selaia stretches a line of four smaller granite hills4 ,the first of these1 about a kilometre from the great boss1 is interesting as having a small spring1 called ,megal el ,selaia1 at its foot4 ,the next1 one and a half kilometres further on1 is larger1 while the third is larger still1 rising to #fbc metres above sea-level4 ,the fourth1 five kilometres from ,gebel ,selaia1 is marked by a triangulation beacon1 #efc metres above sea-level and about fifty metres above the plain1 in latitude #bc #ee #cj1 longitude #cd #ed #cg4 ,gebel el ,homur is an isolated mass of granite hills on the plain six kilometres north-east of ,selaia4 ,its highest point is #gca metres above sea and #bcj metres above the plain at its foot4 ,it is drained by small feeders of the ,wadi ,abu ,gurdi1 which passes north of the mass on its way across the plain to join ,wadi ,kharit4 ,gebel ,abu ,derega is an isolated mass of higher granite hills thirteen kilometres south-east of ,gebel ,selaia4 ,its highest point is #hca metres above sea-level1 and about #cjj metres above the plain4 ,gebel ,abu ,derega is on the ,nile -- ,red ,sea watershed1 which crosses the plain from east to west in this locality4 ,the northern drainage is to the ,wadi ,elemikan1 which runs between ,gebels ,abu ,derega and ,selaia to join ,wadi ,kharit1 while the southern faces of the hills are drained by feeders of the ,wadi el ,khiua1 a tributary of ,wadi ,um ,bisilla1 in the basin of ,wadi ,hodein4 ,besides the hills above described1 there are many smaller ones scattered at intervals over the great sandy plain of ,selaia1 but the only others calling for special notice are the three very remarkable white conical hills called ,marwot ,elemikan1 situated twelve kilometres east of ,abu ,derega4 ,these hills1 though small1 are conspicuous from considerable distances1 owing to the dazzling appearance of the pure milk-white quartz of which they are composed4 ,the highest and most northerly one1 with a triangulation beacon on its summit1 rises to #fdh metres above sea1 or #fh metres above the plain1 in latitude #bc #ed #ad1 longitude #ce #f #h4 ,the other two lie about two kilometres south-east and south respectively1 with a black hill mid-way between them4 ,the ,um ,gunud -- ,dahanib -- ,batoga ,group4 ,the mountains of this group1 occupying the country east of the watershed between ,wadi ,lahami and ,wadi ,khoda1 are considerably lower than those of the preceding two groups1 only a few peaks rising more than #a1jjj metres above sea4 ,the north portion of the group is formed by the line of mountain ridges which as seen from the sea near ,berenice appears to connect ,gebel ,kalalat with ,abu ,gurdi1 while the south part spreads further east and west and contains the highest peaks4 ,gebel ,um ,gunud is the northernmost mountain of the range west of ,berenice4 ,it is a dark rugged ridge1 surmounted by a cairn#ajh #ihi metres above sea-level1 forming the east side of the ,wadi ,lahami opposite ,gebel ,abu ,gurdi4 ,it is drained from the west by the ,wadi ,um ,gunud1 a feeder of ,wadi ,lahami1 and on the east by feeders of ,wadi ,naait4 ,gullies in the west flanks of the mountain contain rock basins1 called ,galt ,um ,gunud1 which hold water supplies for a long time after rain has fallen1 and which are fairly easy of access from ,wadi ,lahami4 ,gebel ,eidab1 the next member of the range to the south1 rises to #hdh metres above sea4 ,it is drained on the west by the ,wadi ,eidab1 a tributary of ,wadi ,lahami1 and on the east by the ,wadi ,abu ,daba1 a tributary of ,wadi ,mukhit2 a rough and steep pass is said to exist from east to west between the heads of these two wadis near the mountain4 ,gebel ,um ,maiat1 a long high ridge stretching south-east from ,gebel ,eidab1 has three marked summits near its ends and centre2 that at the north end1 which is the highest1 is #ibh metres1 while the other two are #hgj and #hdb metres above sea respectively4 ,another broken ridge1 of similar height1 for which ,i could get no name from my guides1 forms a south-eastern prolongation of ,um ,maiat1 and extends to the ,wadi ,kalalat2 this likewise has three well defined summits1 rising in order from north to south1 to #hge1 #hba1 and #fbg metres respectively4 ,these ridges are drained to the east by the ,wadis ,murra 7tributary of ,abu ,daba7 and ,mindeit4 ,their western drainage has not been studied in detail1 but it all reaches the sea1 none of it going ,nilewards2 part of the drainage is probably taken by each of the ,wadis ,kalalat1 ,shut1 and ,el ,khiua4 ,to the east and north-east of the ,um ,gunud -- ,eidab -- ,um ,maiat range is a great expanse of lower hill country through which the wadis cut their way eastwards for about fifteen kilometres to the coast plain4 ,the most conspicuous peaks in this lower hill country are ,gebels ,um ,huk1 ,abu ,ghalqa1 and ,um ,hegilig1 all situated in its north portion round about ,wadis ,lahami and ,naait4 ,other low rugged hills fill a triangular tract south-west of the main range4 ,gebel ,um ,huk is a sharp granite peak1 surmounted by a cairn1#aji rising to #eag metres above sea-level near the south side of ,wadi ,lahami1 fourteen kilometres north-north-east of ,gebel ,um ,gunud4 ,gebel ,abu ,ghalqa is another high granite hill1 also marked by a cairn on its summit1 seven kilometres south-south-east of ,um ,huk4 ,the cairn is #efa metres above sea-level1 and is in latitude #bd #a #g1 longitude #ce #af #dg4 ,gebel ,um ,hegilig in a small rather spiky range of red granite hills situated a little to the north-east of ,gebel ,um ,gunud1 near the heads of ,wadi ,naait4 ,to the north-west of ,berenice are several low hills on the coast plain1 which serve as landmarks and bear special names4 ,grain el ,rih is a conspicuous isolated low hill nearly opposite the place where ,wadi ,naait emerges from the hills on to the plain1 thirteen and a half kilometres north-west of ,berenice4 ,khasheib ,abu ,daba is the name of some low bouldery granite hills at the place where ,wadi ,abu ,daba enters the plain4 ,sikeit1 a landmark for ,berenice1 from which it lies five kilometres north-west1 is a low granite hill1 isolated on the plain and very conspicuous2 its summit is seventy metres above sea-level1 or thirty-eight metres above the plain at its foot4 ,the ,hills on the ,peninsula of ,ras ,benas are sharply marked off into two portions by differences of colour4 ,the most striking are the dazzling white hills of gypseous limestone which form a narrow sinuous broken plateau nearly along the long axis of the peninsula4 ,the highest points of these white hills are #ahh metres above the sea4 ,deep ravines cut up the plateau and separate it into more or less detached hills4 ,the surface of the gypseous rock is very rough1 and frequently weathered into knife-like projections which cut one's hands and boots badly in climbing4 ,near the tip of the peninsula the gypseous beds contain a little sulphur in places1 and there are some shallow pits which seem to have been dug for exploiting that mineral4 ,but the quantity appears far too small to be of any commercial value1 and the pits were probably only exploratory trial holes4 ,the other hills on the peninsula are darker in colour1 being chiefly diorite4 ,they form two masses1 one near to where the peninsula joins the main land1 and the other on the south side of the peninsula twenty kilometres east of ,berenice4 ,the highest point of the first-named group is #bgf metres1 while that of the second is #aig metres1 above sea-level4 ,all the hills on the peninsula are quite separated from those of the main land by the broad sandy plain through which ,wadi ,mukhit courses south-eastwards to the sea4 ,gebel ,batoga1 a granite mountain fifteen kilometres south-east of ,berenice1 is sharply marked off from the other mountains near it by its light colour4 ,it is a great boss of acid granite seamed with dykes1 having two main peaks4 ,the highest 7central7 peak rises to #hjb metres above sea-level2 the southern peak1 surmounted by a triangulation beacon in latitude #bc #di #cg1 longitude #ce #ba #i1 is seventeen metres lower4 ,gebel ,batoga is drained from the north by feeders of the ,wadi ,kalalat1 and from the south by the ,wadi ,kunserob4 ,there is a good water source1 ,galt ,batoga1 at its north-east foot1 consisting of a rock basin which holds a good supply of water for a long time after rain1 situated in a small gully close to the ,wadi ,kalalat1 the floor of which is here about #afj metres above sea-level4 ,gebel ,kalalat1 situated about six kilometres west of ,gebel ,batoga1 is a mass of ridges1 higher and darker in colour than ,batoga4 ,its highest point1 marked by a beacon in latitude #bc #di #i1 longitude #ce #ag #cf1 is #a1abe metres above the sea1 while another conspicuous peak one and a half kilometres north-east of the beacon1 rises to #a1jhj metres1 and there is a third peak three and a half kilometres south-east of the beacon which attains #hid metres4 ,in ascending ,gebel ,kalalat to occupy the triangulation station1 ,i followed up the ,wadi ,kalalat to where the little winding ,wadi ,um ,maiat enters it from the south1 then turned up the latter wadi and pitched my camp as far up as the camels could go4 ,the camp was three kilometres north-east of the beacon and #cjj metres above sea1 so that the climb to be made on foot was #hbe metres4 ,though long and tiring1 the ascent to the beacon was not dangerous4 ,further up the head of the wadi than my camp1 ,i came on a line of galts 7rock basins7 containing rain water1 but they were not easy of access to camels1 being in a steep and stony gorge4 ,perched on the east flank of ,kalalat is a very remarkable pinnacle rock1 well seen in the illustration on ,plate ,,xiv4 ,a very good view of the surrounding mountains is obtained from the summit in clear weather1 but the top was wrapped in clouds for a great part of two out of the four days ,i remained on it4 ,gebel ,kalalat is drained from the north by feeders of the ,wadi ,kalalat1 and from the south by the ,wadis ,gumudlum and ,kunserob4 ,wadi ,kalalat curves round the north-west side of the mass1 and it is possible that the ascent might be easier by following that wadi as far as possible and climbing up the north-west face of the mountain4 ,a rough steep pass1 impracticable for loaded camels1 is said to lead from the head of ,wadi ,kalalat into ,wadi ,shut4 ,gebel ,dibag is a high dark ridge five kilometres south of ,gebel ,batoga1 with a peak at each end4 ,the north-west peak is #eag metres1 and the south-east one #edd metres above sea-level4 ,the ,wadi ,kunserob curves round its east and south flanks1 while the ,wadi ,dibag lil ,kunserob drains its eastern face into the same channel4 ,gebel ,shenshef is a mass of high dark hills between the ,wadis ,shenshef and ,gumudlum1 close to the ,wadi ,khoda4 ,on one of its eastern peaks1 situated in latitude #bc #dd #e1 longitude #ce #bb #dj1 on the west side of ,wadi ,shenshef1 and not so high as others further west1 a beacon has been erected overlooking the ruins called ,hitan ,shenshef4 ,there are wells in the wadi a short distance below this hill4 ,the beacon is #bij metres above the sea and #aae metres above the wadi floor at its foot4 ,gebel ,dahanib is a mountain of dark coloured rocks 7diorite and gabbro71 situated twelve and half kilometres south-east of ,gebel ,kalalat and eleven kilometres north of the ,wadi ,khoda4 ,its summit1 on which is a triangulation beacon1 is in latitude #bc #de #dd1 longitude #ce #aa #aj1 and #a1bgj metres above sea-level4 ,gebel ,dahanib is surrounded by other mountains and hills1 and access to it is not very easy4 ,in order to reach it from ,gebel ,kalalat ,i had to make a journey down the ,wadi ,kalalat1 along the coast-plain and up the ,wadis ,khoda and ,allawi1 a total distance of over eighty kilometres1 although the direct distance between the two peaks is only twelve and a half kilometres4 ,by ascending one of the heads of the ,wadi ,allawi until camels could get no further1 ,i was able to pitch a camp #edj metres above sea-level and three kilometres south-west of the beacon1 leaving #gcj metres to be climbed on foot4 ,the ascent1 though tiring1 was free from difficulties or dangers1 and occupied two and a half hours4 ,a galt1 containing only a small supply of water at the time of my visit1 exists a little further up the head of the wadi than where ,i fixed my camp4 ,there is a good view from the summit1 but in the winter months ,dahanib1 like all the mountains near the coast1 is frequently wrapped in clouds for days together4 ,of seven days spent on the summit in ,february #aijg1 three were passed entirely in clouds1 while only portions of the other four were free from fog or haze4 ,it was on ,gebel ,dahanib that ,i first noticed the curious electric phenomena which may be observed at high stations when electrified clouds are passing close overhead1 my attention being first drawn to them by a spark from the eye-piece of my theodolite striking me over the eye4 ,at the same moment a rapid succession of sparks a centimetre or so long passed between my hand and the adjusting screws of the instrument1 while both the theodolite and my hair hissed loudly4 ,in this and all other cases of a like kind1 ,i judged it best to suspend operations for a time and descend a little below the summit till the cloud had passed over4 ,gebel ,dahanib is drained by the ,wadis ,allawi1 ,um ,tawil1 and ,shut1 all tributaries of ,wadi ,khoda1 which course for a considerable distance through the surrounding hills before reaching the main trunk wadi4 ,,plate ,,xiv4 ,illustration3 ,gebel ,kalalat4 ,illustration3 ,summit of ,gebel ,faraid4 7,granite74 ,gebels ,um ,hegilig1 ,reyan1 and ,shut1 are high hills situated between the ,wadis ,shut and ,gumudlum1 both tributaries of ,khoda4 ,gebel ,um ,hegilig1 a dark peak rising to #iff metres above sea-level1 is almost exactly midway between ,gebels ,dahanib and ,kalalat4 ,gebel ,reyan1 a little further south-east1 is a group of peaks and ridges of which the highest point is #hfc metres above sea4 ,gebel ,shut1 the most remarkable of the three1 is a great cone rising to #icj metres above sea1 about five kilometres north of the ,wadi ,khoda4 ,a very large galt is said to exist among these hills1 approachable from ,wadi ,shut2 it is probably in one of the feeders draining westward from ,gebel ,reyan1 which name signifies 8the wet mountain40 ,gebel ,um ,bisilla is a dark mountain of gabbro rising conspicuously among lower hills twenty-two kilometres west of ,gebel ,dahanib4 ,the triangulation beacon on its summit is in latitude #bc #de #cd1 longitude #cd #eg #ci1 and #hbd metres above sea-level4 ,gebel ,um ,bisilla is drained by ,wadi ,um ,bisilla1 the head of which encircles its southern half1 while the northern flanks are drained by feeders of the ,wadi el ,khiua1 which courses south-west to join ,wadi ,um ,bisilla about ten kilometres west of the mountain4 ,there is an easy passage for camels round the east side of the mountain from the head of ,wadi ,um ,bisilla into a feeder of ,wadi ,abu ,nilih1 a tributary of ,wadi ,el ,khiua4 ,in ascending the mountain ,i pitched my camp in one of the gullies draining from it to ,wadi ,um ,bisilla1 at an altitude of #eac metres above sea and #a1cjj metres south-east of the beacon4 ,the climb of #caa metres from this camp to the summit presented no difficulties1 and occupied only an hour and a half4 ,erf el ,gimal is a high dark ridge surrounded by lower hills ten kilometres west-south-west of ,gebel ,um ,bisilla4 ,its highest point1 the west end of the ridge1 is #fgc metres above sea4 ,about seven kilometres further west is a conspicuous conical hill called ,gebel ,abu ,shigelat4 ,gebel ,zergat ,naam1 sometimes called ,hagar el ,fil1 is a mountain mass on the main watershed thirty kilometres west of ,gebel ,um ,bisilla4 ,it forms a curved range round the head of the ,wadi el ,kreim1 a tributary of ,garara4 ,its northern part is drained partly by the ,wadi ,abu ,had1 a feeder of the ,rod el ,kharuf1 and partly by the heads of the ,wadi el ,fil1 which is itself the head of ,wadi ,naam4 ,the highest peak of the range is a conical one near its south end1 #hde metres above sea-level1 but the northern peaks are more conspicuous from some points of view1 and it is on the highest of these1 #hbc metres above sea1 in latitude #bc #de #bh1 longitude #cd #dj #cd1 that the triangulation beacon has been erected4 ,my camp at the base was in one of the heads of ,wadi el ,fil1 #ebg metres above the sea1 and about #gjj metres north-east of the beacon4 ,the ascent from here on foot to the beacon was fairly easy4 ,zergat ,naam is a mass of syenite rising through schists1 but the northern summits are formed by east and west bands of a very hard quartz felsite4 ,from the summit1 looking northwards one sees long lines of north-and-south felsite dykes forming ridges on either side of the head of ,rod el ,kharuf1 while close south of one is the enclosed sloping plain across which run the feeders of ,wadi el ,kreim4 ,to the south-south-east1 a range of lower hills runs north-westward from the end of the main range1 and between the two there appears to be a remarkably sudden drop into the head of ,wadi ,abu ,seyal4 ,the ,arabs state that there is a very large galt at this point1 reached by ascending the ,wadi ,abu ,seyal2 the galt is said to hold water for five months after rain4 ,but during my occupation of the station recent rains had filled other smaller rock basins in the gullies to the north1 and it was unnecessary to send far from the camp to get supplies4 ,it is interesting to observe from the summit of ,zergat ,naam the disposition of the rocks forming the lower hills to the south and west2 these are of sandstones with marked dips1 the area being one of much disturbance by faulting along the ,wadi el ,kreim4 ,on the great sandy plain to the north and north-east of ,zergat ,naam are two extensive groups of low hills1 which stand out remarkably owing to their dark colour4 ,one of these groups1 twenty kilometres north of ,zergat ,naam1 is called ,gebel ,geneina ,gharbi2 it is a mass of hills composed chiefly of dioritic and gabbroid rocks 7through there are some schists and granites intermingled7 and is drained northward by the ,rod el ,geneina1 a feeder of ,wadi ,kharit4 ,the other group1 called ,gebel ,geneina ,sharqi1 is smaller and situated fifteen kilometres further east2 ,i did not visit it1 but from its dark colour it is probable that it consists of similar rocks to those above-mentioned4 ,the hills of both groups rise to about #eej metres above the sea1 or about eighty to one hundred metres above the plain4 ,in the low country to the west of ,zergat ,naam1 between the ,wadi ,garara and the ,rod el ,kharuf1 the most conspicuous hills are ,erf el ,dubeis1 a ridge twenty-six kilometres due west of the beacon1 ,gebel el ,nikeiba1 a granite hill marked by a triangulation cairn1 #egj metres above sea-level and thirty-four kilometres west-north-west of ,zergat ,naam2 ,gebel ,felieiti1 a sandstone hill1 also marked by a triangulation cairn1 #ejj metres above sea and sixteen kilometres south-west of ,gebel ,nikeiba2 ,erf ,abu ,homur1 a ridge at the head of ,wadi ,abu ,homur 7a tributary of ,garara71 about seven kilometres north of ,gebel ,felieiti2 ,erf el ,mohaib1 marked by a triangulation cairn #dfe metres above sea-level1 about nine kilometres north-west of the last-named hill2 and ,gebel el ,ghar1 a hill on the south side of ,wadi el ,kharit1 close to the point where the ,rod el ,kharuf enters it4 ,the ,abu ,dahr -- ,orga -- ,um ,tenedba ,group4 ,the mountains of this group occupy the tract between the ,wadi ,naam and ,gebel ,faraid1 and are limited on the south by the ,wadi ,hodein4 ,gebel ,abu ,dahr1 the highest mountain of the group1 is a great mass of serpentine1 situated in latitude #bc #ce and about forty kilometres from the coast4 ,its summit1 marked by a triangulation beacon in latitude #bc #cf #h1 longitude #ce #e #df1 is #a1aca metres above sea-level4 ,its western face is drained by the heads of ,wadi ,betan1 its north-east flanks by those of ,wadi ,khoda1 and its south-east parts by feeders of ,wadi ,rahaba4 ,abu ,dahr is surrounded by high hills except on the west1 where there is low hilly country containing the wells of ,betan and the old mining ruins of ,um ,eleiga 7see ,plate ,,iv1 p4 #cj74 ,the mountain can be most easily reached either by following up the ,wadi ,betan to its head1 or by ascending the ,wadi ,salib el ,azrak 7a tributary of ,wadi ,khoda7 and its feeder the ,wadi ,um ,karaba4 ,there is an easy pass #a1hjj metres north of the beacon1 between the central mass of ,abu ,dahr and the high hills north of it1 connecting the heads of ,wadi ,betan and ,wadi ,um ,karaba4 ,a short distance to the south-west of this pass there is a galt in a spur of the mountain which holds water for some time after rain1 and which furnished supplies during my stay at the place in #aijg4 ,in occupying the triangulation station1 ,i fixed my camp in a small stony wadi draining from the north of the mountain1 on the east side of the pass just referred to2 the camp was #fjj metres above sea-level and #a1bjj metres north-north-east of the beacon4 ,the ascent1 which occupied three hours1 was rather difficult and dangerous1 the mountain being not only steep#aaj but composed of rotten highly crushed rock which came away in tons at a mere touch4 ,there is a very extensive view from the summit1 the striking peaks of ,faraid being a marked feature to the east and south-east1 while to the south are the great masses of ,mishbih1 ,niqrub and ,gerf1 with the sandstone plateaux of ,dif1 ,hodein and ,abraq limiting the view to the south-west4 ,the rock of ,gebel ,abu ,dahr is highly magnetic1 and several pieces which ,i examined showed strong polarity4 ,the compass needle points in all sorts of directions as one moves about the mountain4 ,gebel ,abu ,dahr and the high hills round it1 especially to the south1 form an important rain-collecting area1 the drainage from which feeds1 wholly or in part1 the wells of ,betan1 ,rahaba1 ,abu ,reye1 ,abu ,beid1 and ,gahlia1 all of which are within a radius of about fifteen kilometres of the summit of the mountain4 ,the relative abundance of water in this area is caused by two main factors4 ,in the first place1 the situation of the mountain on the eastward side of the watershed1 only about forty kilometres from the coast1 and its considerable height1 condition the frequent accumulation of clouds about its summit1 with relatively high rainfall as a consequence4 ,and in the second place1 the steepness of the slopes1 and the fact that the serpentine rocks are not only of an impermeable nature1 but are so crushed that the downwash into the gullies around is chiefly composed of smooth faced blocks rather than of absorbent sand1 condition a higher ratio of run off to rainfall than exists in the case of most other localities in the ,eastern ,desert4 ,a similar state of things is found in the case of ,gebel ,gerf1 which1 as will be mentioned further on1 likewise consists of serpentine and is the centre of a district relatively rich in good wells2 while in the case of the mountains of ,faraid1 which are much higher and closer to the sea1 but consist of granite weathering into sand1 though the rainfall is probably greater1 the absorption by the sand is so rapid that there are no wells known to exist in their neighbourhood4 ,between ,gebel ,abu ,dahr and ,gebel ,um ,bisilla there are three remarkable little groups of granite hills4 ,gebel ,abu ,arta is a small range of red peaks six kilometres south of ,um ,bisilla2 ,gebel ,hendusi1 five kilometres further south1 is a very conspicuous sharp granite peak rising to #fgh metres above the sea and forming a good landmark2 while ,gebel ,abu ,husenat1 four kilometres east of ,hendusi1 has another well-marked peak rising to #gbe metres above sea-level4 ,gebel ,abu ,sieiyil is a many-peaked hill range running north and south for about four kilometres1 situated eight kilometres west of the beacon on ,gebel ,abu ,dahr4 ,it has the appearance of being composed of a pink gneiss1 but has not been visited4 ,its central peak1 fixed by triangulation1 is #hcc metres above sea4 ,the ,wadi ,abu ,beid el ,azrak runs south-westward past the south end of the range1 through a gap between it and a smaller hill range to the east4 ,gebel ,arais is a considerable range of gneiss peaks situated on the east side of ,wadi ,naam in latitude #bc #cd4 ,one of the most conspicuous of its many summits is a pair of twin peaks near the south end of the range1 rising to #fac metres above the sea4 ,the range is cut through from east to west by the narrow and winding ,wadi ,arais1 a tributary of ,wadi ,naam4 ,the drainage from the western faces of the range passes by many feeders over a sandy plain to join the ,wadi ,naam directly4 ,gebel ,belamhandeit or ,erf ,um ,araka is a long range of granite or gneiss hills north of ,gebel ,arais4 ,it extends for a length of nine kilometres in a north-and-south direction on the meridian of #cd #ej4 ,it is drained on the north and west by the ,wadi ,erf ,um ,araka1 a tributary of ,wadi ,naam1 and on the east by the ,wadi ,belamhandeit1 a tributary of ,wadi ,arais4 ,to the east of ,gebel ,belamhandeit are several granite bosses1 of which the most conspicuous is called ,gebel ,um ,guruf2 it is drained by the ,wadi ,um ,guruf1 a tributary of ,wadi ,arais4 ,gebel ,orga1 eighteen kilometres south by east from ,gebel ,abu ,dahr1 is a high dark-looking range which has not been closely approached4 ,its highest peak1 surmounted by a beacon1 the position of which has been fixed by triangulation1 as latitude #bc #bf #ba1 longitude #ce #h #ag1 is #fhb metres above sea-level4 ,it is drained by the ,wadi ,orga 7a tributary of ,wadi ,hodein71 which contains the well called ,bir ,orga4 ,gebel ,um ,tenedba is a mass of dark hills of crushed basic rocks situated thirty kilometres south by east from ,gebel ,abu ,dahr and twelve kilometres north of the ,wadi ,hodein4 ,its highest point1 marked by a triangulation beacon1 is in latitude #bc #ai #dh1 longitude #ce #aj #dj1 and #fed metres above sea-level4 ,it is drained by the ,wadi ,um ,tenedba1 a tributary of ,wadi ,hodein4 ,the ascent of the hill is conveniently made in about an hour from a camp in one of the heads of ,wadi ,um ,tenedba1 about #a1bjj metres south-east of the beacon and #cbj metres above sea-level4 ,gebel ,harhagit is an isolated granite boss rising among schists ten kilometres south-south-east from ,gebel ,um ,tenedba and five kilometres north of the ,wadi ,hodein4 ,the beacon on its summit is in latitude #bc #ad #ce1 longitude #ce #ab #eb1 at an altitude of #edb metres above sea-level1 or #cbf metres above the wadi encircling its base4 ,from its isolated character ,gebel ,harhagit is a conspicuous landmark for considerable distances round the ,wadi ,hodein4 ,gebel el ,anbat is conveniently considered here1 though it lies on the south side of the ,wadi ,hodein4 ,it presents a somewhat similar appearance to ,gebel ,harhagit1 from which it lies nineteen kilometres south-east1 and like it bears a beacon on its summit4 ,the position of the beacon is latitude #bc #f #e1 longitude #ce #ai #bg4 ,el ,anbat is lower than ,harhagit1 being only #cij metres above sea-level2 it consists also of a different rock1 being chiefly composed of curious brown and reddish calcareous schists4 ,gebel el ,anbat is practically in the ,wadi ,hodein1 the main channel of which is deviated by its foot-hills so as to pass round the east side of the hill4 ,it is best ascended from the south1 where a camp can be fixed about #fjj metres south of the beacon and about #bee metres below it2 the ascent is easy and occupies less than an hour4 ,eastward of ,gebel ,abu ,dahr there extends for some thirty kilometres along the south side of ,wadi ,khoda a mountainous tract of dark rocks1 the principal masses of which1 from west to east1 bear the names of ,gebel ,hindia1 ,gebel ,um ,akra1 and ,gebel ,um ,etli4 ,these mountains have only been seen from a distance1 and little is known about them beyond the positions and altitudes of their principal peaks1 which have been fixed by triangulation4 ,gebel ,hindia1 thirteen kilometres east of ,abu ,dahr1 rises to #hgc metres above sea-level1 and is drained partly by the ,wadi ,hindia to the north1 and partly by the ,wadi ,salib el ,azrak4 ,gebel ,um ,akra1 six kilometres further east1 is higher1 its highest peak1 marked by a beacon1 being #a1jej metres above the sea1 while a ridge a little further south reaches #igj metres2 it is drained to ,wadi ,khoda by the ,wadi ,um ,akra4 ,gebel ,um ,etli1 which forms the south side of the ,wadi ,khoda just before that wadi emerges on to the coast-plain1 has three main summits1 reaching respectively to #hdd1 #gie1 and #gfd metres above the sea4 ,it is a rather extensive mass1 drained on the north by the ,wadis ,buluk and ,um ,lassaf1 tributaries of ,wadi ,khoda1 and on the south by the ,wadi ,um ,etli1 which reaches the sea independently4 ,the ,faraid ,group4 ,the mountains of this group cover a tract about forty kilometres in length from north to south1 between the ,wadis ,um ,etli and ,rahaba and lie closer to the sea than any other mountains in the area described1 their peaks being only ten to twelve kilometres from the coast4 ,they consist entirely of granite1 weathered into a forest of peaks the forms of which render them in respect of shape the most remarkable mountains in ,egypt4 ,there are four main masses in the group1 of which the three northern ones are called collectively ,faraid1 while the southern one1 which is smaller than1 and separated from1 the rest1 is called by the diminutive name ,fereyid4 ,the most northern mass of ,gebel ,faraid is the highest1 its principal peak1 situated in latitude #bc #cc #g1 longitude #ce #bb #aj1 being #a1cff metres above sea-level4 ,as seen from the north1 this mass appears somewhat like an outspread hand1 its western peak seeming to overhang slightly like a thumb1 while the higher eastern peaks resemble fingers4 ,the name ,mons ,pentadactylus given to the mountain in antiquity1 and quoted by ,ptolemy1 would appear to have referred only to this northern mass1 and not to the ,faraid group as a whole4 ,the second mass presents from most aspects the form of a nearly flat-topped mountain with a little peak on it and very steep sides4 ,its highest point1 situated in latitude #bc #cj #ec1 longitude #ce #bj #be1 is #a1bei metres above sea1 and forms a main triangulation point2 it is too sharp to support an instrument or even a beacon1 and observations had to be taken from an auxiliary station a little distance away from the summit and reduced to centre4 ,in ascending this peak as a survey station ,i approached it from the west by the ,wadi el ,abiad and ,wadi ,abu ,ribian1 placing my camp close under the mountain1 on a sandy plain #dej metres above sea-level and one and a half kilometres north-west of the summit4 ,the climb of #hjj metres was steep1 but not dangerous1 and occupied about three hours4 ,the lower illustration on ,plate ,,xiv 7p4 #aib7 shows the top of the mountain2 the lower of the two peaks is the one occupied for triangulation4 ,the third mass of ,faraid is a great expanse of peaks extending over eighteen kilometres north and south and some twelve kilometres east and west4 ,its highest peak1 called 8,the ,bodkin0 by the ,admiralty surveyors1 has the position latitude #bc #bh #eh1 longitude #ce #bj #ce1 and rises to #a1bcb metres above sea-level1 dominating the rest of the mass both by its height and its singular form2 it is a great sharp pinnacle1 apparently unclimbable1 visible from distances of over #ajj kilometres in nearly all directions1 and a very conspicuous landmark4 ,south and west of 8,the ,bodkin0 are numerous other peaks1 some of which have been fixed by triangulation2 several of them rise to over #ijj metres above the sea1 and the whole forms a compact mass across which there appears to be no passage for camels4 ,gebel ,fereyid1 the fourth and most southerly of the masses constituting the ,faraid group1 is a small spiky range quite detached from the rest1 about seven kilometres north of the ,wadi ,rahaba4 ,it has two main peaks1 close together1 of which the north-western one is slightly the higher and is surmounted by a beacon1 #fab metres above sea-level1 in latitude #bc #ag #bi1 longitude #ce #bb #dh4 ,in occupying this peak as a triangulation station1 the camp was fixed in one of the heads of a nameless wadi draining past the north face of the mountain to the sea1 at an altitude of #bjj metres above sea-level and #hej metres north-north-east of the beacon4 ,the ascent was easy till within about fifty metres of the summit1 when it became difficult and rather dangerous1 and there is very little room on the top4 ,i had to remain six days on this mountain owing to almost continuous haze and clouds blocking the view4 ,the drainage from the western faces of the entire ,faraid group is taken by the ,wadi ,rahaba4 ,that from the peaks north of 8,the ,bodkin0 is collected by the ,wadi el ,abiad and its feeders the ,rod ,elbel and ,wadi ,abu ,ribian1 while the more southern parts are drained by various other tributaries of ,wadi ,rahaba1 of which the principal are the ,wadis ,dagalai lil ,rahaba1 ,abu ,had1 and el ,marafai4 ,the heads of ,wadi el ,abiad and its feeders cross a sloping sandy plain which flanks the main peaks on the west4 ,of the eastern drainage1 less has been seen2 the two principal drainers of the eastern face appear to be the ,wadis el ,sorubiab and ,bint el ,kurdum1 which unite together in a small lagoon close to the coast in latitude #bc #cj4 ,the head of the ,wadi ,bint el ,kurdum is between 8,the ,bodkin0 and the flat-topped mountain to the north of it1 and from the summit of the latter it appeared as though there might be a possible pass by it across the range into the heads of ,wadi ,abu ,ribian2 but ,i did not have an opportunity of testing this4 ,the foot-hills are only some five or six kilometres from the coast near the north parts of the range1 but as one goes south the width of the coast-plain increases somewhat1 and is about twelve kilometres near ,gebel ,fereyid4 ,notwithstanding the height of the ,faraid mountains1 their proximity to the coast1 and the clouds they frequently attract1 there appear to be no wells in the wadis draining from them2 the explanation is probably to be sought in the fact that the weathering of the granite of which they are composed produces large expanses of coarse sand round their feet1 in which the rainfall is rapidly absorbed4 ,the ,awamtib -- ,abraq -- ,dif -- ,aqab el ,negum -- ,mishbih ,group4 ,the mountains of this large and irregular group occupy the western parts of the great drainage basin of ,wadi ,hodein1 some of the chief of them forming the main watershed separating that basin from those of the ,wadis ,kharit and ,alaqi4 ,the northern mountains of the group are high broken sandstone plateaux1 while the southern ones consist largely of granite4 ,the sandstone ranges of ,abraq1 ,hodein1 and ,dif are remarkable for the numerous springs at their bases1 which render this district 7see the large scale map on ,plate ,,xv7 one of great importance to travellers4 ,gebel ,awamtib is the highest peak of a great mass of high sandstone hills forming the main watershed between latitudes #bc #bj and #bc #cj and extending for some eight or ten kilometres on either side of the meridian of #cd #cj4 ,the highest peaks of the mass are mostly well to the west of the actual watershed1 and the principal drainage channels run westward1 those to the east1 the feeders of ,wadi ,muegil1 being shorter4 ,gebel ,awamtib is near to the south-east corner of this mass1 and is itself situated about six kilometres west of the watershed4 ,it is nearly separated from the surrounding hills by wadis1 and forms a conspicuous peak from the west2 but the neighbouring hills approach it so nearly in height that it is not so easily distinguished from the east4 ,it may1 however1 be picked out by the triangulation beacon which marks its summit1 #gic metres above sea-level1 in latitude #bc #bj #ei1 longitude #cd #bf #ci4 ,gebel ,awamtib is drained westward by the ,wadi ,awamtib 7a tributary of ,wadi ,timsah71 the heads of which nearly surround it4 ,in occupying the station ,i pitched my camp in a small feeder of the ,wadi ,awamtib1 two and a quarter kilometres south-west of the summit and #def metres above sea-level4 ,the climb from this place was easy enough1 but rather long1 and on reaching the top ,i found it would have been better to have approached the mountain by another feeder almost due west of the beacon1 as by this means a camp could have been placed much closer and the ascent would not have been more difficult4 ,it is inadvisable to ascend from the east face of the mountain1 for although one of the wadi heads passes close east of the beacon1 the slope on that side is extremely steep and probably unscalable4 ,the top of the mountain is formed of large sandstone blocks under which one can get good shelter from dews1 though with little head-room4 ,the view from it is shut in to the east by the peaks of ,gebel ,shebakhit1 only two kilometres distant2 but the peaks of ,gebels ,um ,harba and ,zergat ,naam can be seen to the north1 while to the south and south-east one looks out over high sandstone hills in the foreground to the granite peaks of ,gebels ,shigigat1 ,aqab el ,negum1 ,etresia1 ,um ,reit and ,saalek4 ,the most striking thing round ,awamtib itself is the strong westward dip of the sandstone beds of which it is composed1 which has conditioned the drainage and the steep eastern face4 ,gebel ,shebakhit is a group of high sandstone hills a few kilometres north of ,awamtib4 ,it is drained north-westward by the broad ,wadi ,shebakhit1 a tributary of ,wadi ,timsah4 ,gebel ,dagalai1 the next member of the sandstone hill-mass to the north1 has numerous peaks ranging from #fgj to #gab metres above sea4 ,it is drained north-westward by the ,wadi ,dagalai1 in which it is said that water can sometimes be obtained4 ,,plate ,,xv4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,the ,,district ,,of ,,abraq ,,abu ,,saafa ,ball4 ,geography ,geology of ,south-,eastern ,egypt4 ,photo-,metal-,process4 ,survey ,dept4 ,cairo #aiaj4 7#fj-aij7 ,gebel ,um ,khafur is a group of high sandstone ridges overlooking the sandy plain of ,um ,harba to the north4 ,one of its higher ridges1 #efj metres above sea-level1 bears a triangulation station1 marked by a beacon1 in latitude #bc #bi #ed1 longitude #cd #bi #ai4 ,a remarkable feature of ,gebel ,um ,khafur is the north-north-easterly dip of its sandstone beds at an angle of about #ac1 almost constant over a large area1 with probably step-faulting parallel to the strike of the beds2 owing to these features there are developed a series of long ridges1 with a flat dip slope northward and a steeper drop to the south1 while the drainage channels run along the lines of strike and only break across the ridges at a few points4 ,the drainage from these channels1 the chief of which is called the ,wadi ,um ,khafur1 meanders northward over the plain to join a feeder of ,wadi ,garara4 ,gebel ,um ,harba is a conspicuous sandstone peak marked by a triangulation beacon in latitude #bc #cf #ef1 longitude #cd #cj #ch4 ,rising to a height of #fhh metres above sea-level1 it forms the highest and central point of a long range running north-north-west and south-south-east from the ,wadi el ,garara past the ,galt el ,aguz4 ,the north end of this range is forked1 the east and west arms being separated by a broad high valley1 filled with blown sand1 draining from near the peak of ,gebel ,um ,harba northwards to ,garara4 ,a marked feature of the range is the almost constant north-easterly dip of the sandstone beds of which it is composed2 the ridges follow the strike of the beds1 and present gentle dip slopes to the east with steep basset edges to the west4 ,gebel ,um ,harba overlooks to the west a great sandy plain1 so that it is a good landmark for travellers coming from that direction4 ,in occupying it as a station1 ,i approached it by the broad sandy valley above-mentioned1 and fixed the camp at #dhg metres above sea-level and #hjj metres north of the summit2 the hill can also be reached from the west1 though the climb from the plain is about one hundred metres more4 ,the ascent becomes rather steep near the top of the hill1 but presents no great difficulty4 ,for a short time after rain1 water can be found in pools in the gullies close to the east of the hill1 but owing to the porosity of the rock these never last long4 ,the ,galt el ,aguz1 nine and a half kilometres south-south-east of ,gebel ,um ,harba1 in a gully on the east side of the road to ,bir ,abu ,saafa1 lasts longer than other pools in the neighbourhood1 but even it only yields supplies within a few months at most after rain1 for the same reason4 ,gebel ,um ,sididad is a mass of high sandstone hills on the north side of ,wadi ,silsila1 thirty kilometres east-south-east of ,gebel ,um ,harba and overlooking the broad and sandy ,wadi ,naam to the east4 ,the hill ,i ascended1 one of the highest1 was #fbc metres above sea-level and nearly #cjj metres above the plain at its foot4 ,high sandstone hills extend north-westwards from ,gebel ,um ,sididad to ,gebel ,zergat ,naam1 forming the western side of ,wadi ,naam4 ,gebel ,abraq is a great high sandstone plateau cut up by gullies into more or less separate hills1 outlined by the ,wadis ,silsila on the north1 ,hodein on the south1 ,arned on the west1 and ,abraq on the east4 ,the highest hills of the mass are probably two peaks close together on its east side1 midway between ,bir ,abraq and the ,wadi ,hodein1 which rise to #gje and #fii metres above the sea4 ,the principal interest of ,gebel ,abraq lies in its forming a collecting ground for the important springs of ,abraq and ,abu ,saafa1 which occur along its eastern and southern feet4 ,these springs yield constant supplies of excellent water1 due to slow percolation through almost pure siliceous rocks1 and are of great value both to the local ,arabs and to the passing travellers4 ,there are two beacons on ,gebel ,abraq1 one near ,bir ,abraq and the other near ,abu ,saafa springs4 ,the former1 a main triangulation point1 is #ffg metres above sea-level on a conspicuous ridge in latitude #bc #be #ai1 longitude #cd #df #dh2 while the latter is on the eastern edge of the plateau1 in latitude #bc #ah #dj1 longitude #cd #dh #cj1 and #fci metres above the sea4 ,the eastern and southern slopes of the plateau are very steep1 becoming almost precipices at many points1 and are the home of many conies and rock partridges1 but one can ascend by taking advantage of the frequent gullies which cut up the mass4 ,the climb to either beacon from the plain is about #ccj metres1 and free from serious difficulty4 ,gebel ,hodein is a high sandstone plateau forming the south-east continuation of the ,abraq mass1 from which it is separated by the ravine of ,wadi ,hodein4 ,to the south it is cut off by ,wadi ,dif4 ,a triangulation beacon near the north-east point of the plateau in latitude #bc #af #bj1 longitude #cd #ec #be1 is #fie metres above sea-level1 but further west the summits are rather higher4 ,an extremely steep pass1 practicable only on foot1 exists to the south of the mass1 leading from the ,wadi ,gihab into ,wadi ,dif1 and forming a short cut from ,abu ,saafa ,springs to ,bir ,dif1 but camels have to go round the east spurs of the mountain4 ,gebel ,dif and ,gebel ,anfeib together form a still further continuation south-eastward of the same great sandstone plateau1 being separated from ,gebel ,hodein by the deep winding gorge of ,wadi ,dif4 ,the sandstone beds here dip to the north-east1 and the highest points are near the west edge of the mass1 where they are flanked by lines of lower hills1 formed of schists cropping out from under the sandstone4 ,a triangulation beacon in latitude #bc #h #bd1 longitude #cd #ei #ai1 marks the south end of the high plateau of ,gebel ,anfeib2 it is #gje metres above sea-level1 and very conspicuous from the east1 but it is generally invisible from the west side of the mass1 owing to the ridges north-west of it being slightly higher4 ,in occupying the point as a station1 ,i approached it from ,bir ,dif1 following up the ,wadi ,abu ,hashim to its head1 then down the ,rod ,mukrayib round ,gebel ,lilowit1 the south tip of the schist range1 and turning north across various small wadis to a camp in one of the heads of ,wadi ,edunqul1 at #cae metres above sea-level and #a1bjj metres south-east of the beacon4 ,this camp could also have been reached from ,bir ,abu ,saafa via the ,wadis ,hodein and ,anfeib4 ,the climb to the beacon1 of #djj metres1 is steep1 but not difficult1 and occupies less than two hours4 ,gebel ,tibatib is a conspicuous dark conical peak among the low dark hills which extend from ,gebel ,anfeib to ,wadi ,hodein4 ,its summit is #cif metres above sea-level4 ,gebel ,butitelib is a steep-sided little hill mass of grey felsite close west of the easy pass which leads from the head of ,wadi ,abu ,hashim into the ,rod ,mukrayib1 near the south end of ,gebel ,anfeib4 ,it rises to #dhe metres above sea1 or eighty metres above the sandy pass4 ,gebel ,lilowit1 the south end of the schist range which flanks ,gebel ,anfeib on the west1 is #dhe metres above the sea4 ,gebel ,niqrub el ,tahtani is a conspicuous isolated jagged mountain south of the ,rod ,mukrayib 7which drains its northern face71 and west of ,wadi ,madi4 ,the beacon on it is in latitude #bc #j #ci1 longitude #ce #j #ec1 #hbi metres above sea-level and about #ejj metres above the ,rod ,mukrayib4 ,a conspicuous pinnacle close north-east of the beacon has practically the same altitude4 ,gebel ,niqrub el ,foqani is a mountain of granite and felsite rising to a height of #a1jgh metres above the sea1 from among the low hill country which separates ,wadis ,madi and ,gemal1 in latitude #bc #eb4 ,its great height and isolated position render it a conspicuous object in the landscape from great distances4 ,it is drained by myriads of small wadis radiating in all directions1 but which all eventually join ,wadi ,madi on the east or ,wadi ,gemal on the west4 ,it is best ascended from the west side1 where a camp can be got #a1ejj metres due east of the beacon on the summit and #dif metres above sea-level1 in one of the stony heads of the channels draining towards ,wadi ,gemal4 ,the ascent from this camp occupied a little over two hours1 and was not very difficult2 but an attempt from any other direction would most likely have failed1 as the slopes to the south and east are extremely steep and in places precipitous4 ,the top of the mountain is a very rugged ridge1 so broken that it is an hour's hard work to get along its #gjj metres of length4 ,the main ridge is surrounded by lower flanking peaks on the north1 east and south1 while from the west there runs off a long ridge1 curving round to the south and enclosing a small sandy plain south-west of the summit4 ,this curved ridge is cut through from east to west by a rather steep pass1 #dij metres above sea-level4 ,the view from the summit of ,gebel ,niqrub el ,foqani is very extensive1 as will be seen from the panorama drawn to scale from theodolite measurements on ,plate ,,xvi1 but in the winter months the mountain is frequently wrapped in clouds for days together2 ,i had to remain eight days on the summit in ,december #aijg1 before ,i could complete my observations1 most of the time being spent in a cold wet mist which blotted out the landscape4 ,the beacon on ,gebel ,niqrub el ,foqani1 in latitude #bb #ea #bi1 longitude #cd #ef #di1 marks a point on the administrative boundary between ,egypt and the ,sudan1 the limit proceeding east-south-east to ,bir ,meneiga1 and south-south-west to ,gebel ,um el ,tiur el ,foqani4 ,the low hill country between ,gebel ,niqrub and ,wadi ,madi consists chiefly of east and west ridges formed by dykes4 ,a rather high granite hill about ten kilometres to the south-east1 close to ,wadi ,madi1 is marked by a beacon and overlooks the well called ,bir ,madi2 the beacon is #eef metres above sea-level1 or eighty metres above the well4 ,to the south-west of ,gebel ,hodein the sandstone runs off in a mass of very high hills called ,gebel ,kala1 leaving a much lower area of schist hills in between1 through which the ,wadi ,feqoh pursues its sandy barren course4 ,gebel ,kala has not been closely approached1 but its principal peaks have been fixed by triangulation1 and the highest is #hdf metres above sea-level4 ,the scarps of these hills are very steep1 and the mass appears to be much cut up by wadis draining to ,feqoh4 ,the sandstone ceases just beyond ,gebel ,kala1 and its place is taken by granite1 which forms the mountains of the watershed further south-west4 ,,plate ,,xvi4 ,illustration3 ,,measured ,,panoramas ,,from ,,the ,,summits ,,of ,,gebels ,,niqrub ,,gerf4 7,plotted to scale from theodolite-observations telescopic sketches47 ,ball4 ,geography ,geology of ,south-,eastern ,egypt4 ,photo-,metal-,process4 ,survey ,dept4 ,cairo #aiaj4 7#fj-aij7 ,gebel ,um ,reit is a conspicuous granite mountain rising to #heg metres above sea1 seventeen kilometres south-east of ,gebel ,awamtib1 on the east side of the watershed4 ,it can be approached either from the west by ascending the tributaries of ,wadi ,timsah and crossing the watershed 7which is here flat and sandy7 into ,wadi el ,dreb1 or from the east by ascending the ,wadi ,um ,reit4 ,the best place from which to ascend the mountain is in one of the heads of ,wadi ,um ,reit1 which drains the west side of the mass4 ,by following this up1 a camp can be placed about a kilometre north-west of the beacon and #ebj metres above sea-level4 ,the climb of #ccg metres from the camp is fairly easy1 and only occupies about an hour4 ,from the beacon 7latitude #bc #ae #d1 longitude #cd #cd #ag71 a good view is obtainable of the granite peaks to the south1 which forms a complex mass with ,aqab el ,negum as the highest point2 to the eastward the outlook is mostly over high broken sandstone plateaux4 ,extending south-west from ,um ,reit is a complex of granite mountains1 which has not been surveyed in detail4 ,the principal peaks have1 however1 been fixed by triangulation1 and their positions will be found tabulated in the list of points given in ,chapter ,,iii4 ,the chief peaks are ,gebels ,etresia 7#a1jcg metres71 ,um ,markha1 ,shigigat 7#a1jbc metres71 ,hamrat el ,feg1 ,aqab el ,negum 7#a1adh metres71 ,etus 7#iig metres71 and ,natetiai 7#a1afd metres74 ,an important pass is said to cross the watershed at ,aqab el ,negum1 though quite practicable for camels1 it is a very high pass1 whence the name of the mountain1 which signifies 8,pass of the ,stars40 ,to the north of ,gebel ,shigigat there is a sandy plain from which two conspicuous isolated hills rise to heights of #ija and #gjc metres respectively above sea-level2 these hills appear1 however1 not to bear any distinctive names4 ,further south along the watershed1 in latitude #bb #ej1 are two conspicuous peaks of nearly equal height and not far apart1 which from the east look like two hop-kilns4 ,these are called ,gebel ,sheyenit4 ,the southern one is the higher1 rising to #hhg metres above sea-level1 while the northern one attains #hec metres4 ,gebel ,mishbih is a huge bristling mass of granite peaks a little east of the main watershed1 rising from the plain west of ,wadi ,feqoh in latitude #bb #dd4 ,being much higher than any other mountain in the neighbourhood1 it is a very remarkable feature for long distances4 ,though it has not been surveyed in detail1 its chief peaks have been triangulated and the general shape of its eastern parts is tolerably known by observations from ,niqrub and ,korabkansi4 ,the highest of its many peaks1 near the south-west end of the mass1 reaches #a1cec metres1 while the north-east peak1 marked by a beacon in latitude #bb #dd #ah1 longitude #cd #da #bj1 is #a1caf metres above the sea4 ,the mountain is believed to be almost entirely drained by feeders of the ,wadi ,feqoh4 ,gebel ,shweib is a smaller hill-mass a little to the south-east of ,gebel ,mishbih4 ,its highest peak1 which is at the north-east end1 is #iad metres above sea-level4 ,gebel ,shabih is a very remarkable granite mountain rising abruptly from the sandy plain traversed by ,wadi ,feqoh in latitude #bb #de1 about twelve kilometres east of ,gebel ,mishbih4 ,from the north1 it looks like a very perfect cone1 but as one passes it going south it is seen to be slightly elongated meridionally1 and to have two distinct peaks1 of which the northern and higher one rises to #a1aag metres1 or about #fej metres above the plain4 ,its sides are very steep1 and an ascent would probably be a matter of some difficulty4 ,the ,wadi ,feqoh passes close west of the mountain4 ,gebel ,um el ,kalala is a small range of granite peaks close to the east side of ,wadi ,feqoh in latitude #bb #ej4 ,the peaks at its north and south ends1 nearly two kilometres apart1 rise to #fgb and #fee metres above sea respectively4 ,in the low hilly country further north there are three conspicuous little peaks of dark aspect rising above the general level4 ,gebel ,mismih1 the highest of these1 rises to #eii metres above the sea2 it is a nearly perfect cone twelve kilometres north of ,um el ,kalala1 and about six kilometres east of ,wadi ,feqoh4 ,gebel ,waqif1 nine kilometres west-north-west of ,um el ,kalala1 is less sharp1 and reaches #eef metres above the sea2 while the third hill1 which is unnamed1 lies nearly between the last two1 on the west side of ,wadi ,feqoh1 and attains only #ejd metres4 ,to the west of the ,um ,harba and ,awamtib ranges there is open country1 formed by a great sandy plain1 over which the ,wadis ,ghadrib and ,timsah pursue their northward courses to join ,garara1 and the monotony of which is broken at intervals by extensive masses of moderately high sandstone hills4 ,the principal of these hill masses are ,gebels ,nuggur1 ,mulgata1 ,ziraga1 and the ,abu ,hashim ,hills4 ,gebel ,nuggur1 marked by a cairn1 lies seventeen kilometres west of ,um ,harba1 and a little east of the ,wadi ,timsah2 it forms a detached north-westerly extension of ,gebel ,dagalai4 ,gebel ,mulgata 7#ede metres7 and ,gebel ,ziraga 7#eec metres71 both marked by triangulation cairns1 are the chief members of a long line of sandstone hills separating the ,wadis ,timsah and ,ghadrib4 ,the ,abu ,hashim ,hills extend for great distances south and west of ,bir ,abu ,hashim2 the triangulation beacon on the hill west of the well in latitude #bc #da #dd1 longitude #cd #c #cc1 is #chf metres above sea1 and sixty-six metres above the wadi floor1 but other hills of the group further south attain higher levels4 ,gebel ,mowisat1 seventeen kilometres south of ,gebel ,ziraga and a few kilometres west of the ,wadi ,timsah1 is a granite hill capped by sandstone4 ,it is drained by the ,wadi ,mowisat4 ,a track from ,aswn to ,bir ,um ,reit passes a little north of this hill4 ,round the heads of the ,wadi ,ghadrib1 about the parallel of #bc north and the meridian of #cd east1 are numerous higher hills1 of which the principal are ,gebels ,abu ,rahia 7#hce metres71 ,romit1 ,baid el ,khuruf1 ,reietit 7#hbe metres71 ,um ,rewat1 ,um ,ghalqa1 and ,um ,gotto1 while between these and ,gebel ,mowisat are the ,hamiskul ,hills4 ,these hills are all composed of granite1 gneiss1 and schists1 the higher ones1 such as ,abu ,rahia and ,reietit1 having sandstone capping the igneous and metamorphic rocks which build up the main masses4 ,gebel ,um ,rewat forms the divide between the basins of ,wadi ,kharit and ,wadi ,alaqi1 its northern parts being drained by the ,wadi ,reietit1 a tributary of ,ghadrib1 while the south flanks drain into the ,wadi ,um ,ghalqa1 a feeder of ,wadi ,seiga4 ,to the west of ,gebel ,mishbih there is hilly country1 in which many of the peaks reach considerable heights4 ,the principal hill-masses in this part are ,gebel el ,naga1 a range about four kilometres long running north-west and south-east1 twenty-two kilometres west of ,gebel ,mishbih1 with several peaks1 of which the highest is #hbg metres above sea2 ,gebel ,seiga1 a high hill 7#ije metres7 about twenty kilometres further west1 surmounted by a triangulation beacon and drained by the ,wadi ,seiga2 ,gebel ,nesheb ,hasan and ,gebel ,abgeya1 two hills west and south-west of ,gebel ,seiga1 between ,wadis ,seiga and ,abu ,had2 ,gebel ,um ,krush1 between ,wadis ,abu ,had and ,um ,ghalqa2 ,gebels ,ribdab1 el ,deheis1 and ,abu ,brush 7#haj metres71 to the west of ,wadi ,um ,ghalqa2 and ,gebel ,kulyeit1 a conspicuous cone about fifteen kilometres south of ,gebel ,seiga1 rising to #gbd metres above sea4 ,most of these hills are of schists1 though ,gebels ,abu ,brush and ,ribdab are of granite4 ,the ,gerf -- ,korabkansi -- ,abu ,hodeid ,group4 ,the central mountains of the ,gerf -- ,korabkansi -- ,abu ,hodeid group form a compact cluster to the east of the main watershed between the great eastward draining ,wadis ,hodein and ,ibib4 ,the most considerable mass in extent is ,gebel ,gerf1 an extremely rugged mountain tract some twenty kilometres in diameter1 having its highest point #a1dai metres above sea-level4 ,the ,abu ,hodeid range1 forming a southward extension of the ,gerf mass1 attains the somewhat higher level of #a1dhh metres2 while the detached mass of ,korabkansi on the west rises to #a1bcj metres4 ,besides these main masses1 from which ,i have named the group1 there are numerous outlying ranges of lesser height1 the principal being the ,beida range to the north1 and the ,hamra ,dom range to the east4 ,the main characteristics of the central group are its extreme ruggedness1 the presence of great masses of serpentine among its constituent rocks1 and a relative abundance of good water supplies4 ,the wells and springs in the wadis draining from this group of mountains are among the best and most permanent of the water sources of the ,eastern ,desert of ,egypt4 ,gebel ,gerf 7see map on ,plate ,,xvii7 is a mass of rugged mountains1 roughly circular in plan1 some twenty kilometres in diameter1 extending between latitudes #bb #ce and #bb #ej1 and between longitudes #ce #h and #ce #bj4 ,its highest point1 marked by a beacon #a1dai metres above sea-level1 is somewhat north of the centre of the mass1 being situated in latitude #bb #db #f ,n41 longitude #ce #ab #af ,e4 ,approached from any side1 ,gerf blocks out the entire view ahead4 ,the central parts of the mass are entirely impassable for camels4 ,there is no possible track across it from north to south1 nor is there any east to west pass across it north of the ,sherefa ,pass 7which skirts its south end7 except by the heads of ,wadi ,shellal4 ,the northern part of the mass1 which is semi-detached by the passes in the heads of ,wadi ,shellal above-mentioned1 is sometimes called ,gebel ,meneiga or ,gebel ,korbiai after the important water sources of the same name in the wadis draining from it2 and the north-eastern peaks are sometimes called ,gebel ,muqur from the spring ,bir ,muqur4 ,but these names are1 ,i am told1 quite local1 and the entire mass is usually known to the ,arabs as ,gebel ,gerf4 ,this application of a single name to an entire group of mountains1 with scores of separate peaks1 extending over about #ejj square kilometres1 is very unusual1 especially when1 as in this case1 it is drained by wadis containing good wells and plenty of vegetation4 ,the explanation given to me by the guides was quite comprehensible2 they stated that ,gerf was the only mountain mass in that part of the desert which was so extensive in every direction as to prevent them getting a clear idea of its true shape in their wanderings over it4 ,they can get all round it only by a rough journey of several days1 and any endeavour to cross its main portion met with failure1 so that they had perforce to regard it as a single great mass1 of the true structure of which they could form no satisfactory notion4 ,the immense interest which the guides took in the mapping of this particular mountain tract fully confirmed the explanation given4 ,the mapping was accomplished by making an entire circuit of the mass1 and ascending a few of the principal summits4 ,,plate ,,xvii4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,the ,,district ,,of ,,gebel ,,gerf4 ,ball4 ,geography ,geology of ,south-,eastern ,egypt4 ,photo-,metal-,process4 ,survey ,dept4 ,cairo #aiaj4 7#fj-aij7 ,the highest point of ,gebel ,gerf had been singled out as a triangulation station from far to the north1 while approaching the mass from the ,wadi ,hodein4 ,it was eventually reached from the west side after leaving ,gebel ,korabkansi1 the approach being made by ascending the ,wadi ,eirahimib1 and going over the pass at its head 7#hcj metres7 into one of the heads of ,wadi ,um ,reddam1 turning round a spur and ascending another of the heads of the same wadi4 ,the camp1 placed as high up the wadi as possible1 lay about #a1ejj metres west of the beacon1 at an altitude of #hbj metres4 ,the climb of nearly #fjj metres to the summit occupied three and a quarter hours1 and was free from serious difficulty1 though involving some tiresome traversing of connecting ridges4 ,the summit of ,gebel ,gerf is often wrapped in clouds for weeks together in winter1 and cold northerly gales are prevalent4 ,i found it necessary to remain on the summit for no less than twenty-one days and nights in ,january #aijg1 in order to obtain the observations necessary1 and the discomfort due to enforced inaction and piercingly cold winds was considerable4 ,the top of the mountain is a narrow ridge on which there is barely standing room for an instrument1 but about #ajj metres southward along the ridge from the beacon there is a slight broadening where a small tent may be pitched by hitching the ropes round rocks instead of tent-pegs4 ,on a clear day1 the view from the summit of ,gerf is a magnificent one4 ,the numberless rugged ridges and peaks of the ,gerf mass itself stretch for miles around1 and out beyond1 in every direction except to the east1 one can see the more distant mountains4 ,in the north1 the most striking features are the distant spikes of ,gebel ,faraid1 and still further off one may discern the blunter forms of ,gebels ,abu ,gurdi1 ,hamata1 and ,abu ,hamamid1 #ahj kilometres away4 ,to the east is the coast-plain1 with the granite peaks of ,gebel ,hamra ,dom breaking the monotony4 ,to the south-east one may see the great peaks of the ,elba and ,shendib mountains1 #acj kilometres away1 though these are often hidden by mist when everything else is clear4 ,to the south1 one looks out1 over the gneiss boss of ,gebel ,um ,rasein1 to the mountains1 rising rank behind rank1 of ,medarai1 ,abu ,hodeid1 ,adar ,qaqa1 and ,is2 while a little to the left of the last-named one may see the double-headed granite mass of ,gebel ,obkeik in the ,sudan1 more than #ajj kilometres distant1 towering above the intervening ,egyptian mountains4 ,the panorama visible to the south and south-east is shown drawn to scale from theodolite measurements in the lower figure on ,plate ,,xvi 7p4 #bjf74 ,to the south-west1 one can make out the principal mountains of the ,alaqi basin1 while to the west the mountains of ,korabkansi1 ,shabih1 and ,mishbih are conspicuous features4 ,the north portion of the ,gerf mass1 sometimes called ,gebel ,meneiga1 is drained by the ,wadi ,kreiga1 which is a tributary of ,wadi ,hodein4 ,one of the principal feeders of ,wadi ,kreiga is the stony ,wadi ,meneiga1 important as containing perennial springs of good water1 easily accessible to camels4 ,the eastern and southern parts of the mass are drained by various feeders of ,wadi ,shab1 the principal of these feeders being ,wadi ,shellal el ,sharqi1 ,wadi ,muqur1 ,wadi ,baaneit1 ,wadi ,diqdib1 and ,wadi ,sherefa el ,sharqi4 ,the ,wadis ,muqur1 ,baaneit1 and ,diqdib1 all contain wells or springs1 that in ,wadi ,diqdib being right in the heart of the mountain mass1 while the others are nearer to its periphery4 ,the western flanks of the ,gerf mass are drained by the feeders of ,wadis ,feqoh and ,madi1 the principal being the ,wadis ,sherefa el ,gharbi1 ,eirahimib1 ,shellal el ,gharbi1 and ,korbiai4 ,the ,wadi ,sherefa el ,gharbi is important as leading to the ,sherefa ,pass 7#ijg metres7 which forms a direct road from ,bir ,sararat ,seyet to the well of ,um ,rasein1 while ,wadi ,korbiai contains an excellent well at its head1 easily reached by camels4 ,gebel ,dreb is a many-peaked mass of mountains covering some sixty square kilometres1 situated south-west of the ,gerf mass1 from which it is separated by the ,sherefa ,pass4 ,its highest peak is #a1bic metres above sea1 but there are numerous other peaks of but little inferior altitude4 ,its south-western portion looks on to the plain at the head of ,wadi ,feqoh1 while to the south-east it is separated from ,gebel ,medarai by an easy pass leading from the head of ,kwat ,hewah westwards into the head of ,wadi ,kreim1 a tributary of ,wadi ,feqoh4 ,another pass is said to exist leading from ,wadi ,sherefa el ,sharqi into the head of ,wadi ,dreb1 where there is a well called ,bir ,bint el ,dreb4 ,gebel ,medarai1 the next mountain mass to the south-east1 is separated from ,gebel ,dreb by the pass into ,wadi ,kreim above referred to1 while at its south faces it is separated from ,gebel ,abu ,hireiq by another pass leading from one of the heads of ,wadi ,medarai westwards into the ,wadi ,kirwau1 a tributary of ,wadi ,feqoh4 ,the highest point of ,gebel ,medarai1 marked by a large cairn1 is in latitude #bb #cj #eh1 longitude #ce #ab #e1 and rises to #a1bii metres above sea-level4 ,the north faces of the mass are drained by ,kwat ,hewah1 a tributary of ,wadi ,shab2 the eastern flanks by ,wadi ,medarai1 a tributary of ,wadi ,ibib1 while the western faces drain by various feeders into ,wadi ,feqoh4 ,gebel ,abu ,hireiq1 the mountain-mass next south of ,medarai1 extends eastwards1 as a broad tract of many high ridges1 almost to the gneiss-boss of ,um ,rasein1 while to the south it is united with ,gebel ,abu ,hodeid4 ,the highest point of ,abu ,hireiq is #a1cai metres above sea4 ,its eastern flanks are drained by tributaries of ,wadi ,ibib1 while the western parts drain into ,wadi ,feqoh4 ,gebel ,abu ,hodeid1 which forms a higher southward extension of ,gebel ,abu ,hireiq1 is really two ranges with the ,wadi ,abu ,hodeid draining between them4 ,the western range is the higher1 its summit1 marked by a beacon in latitude #bb #bc #ah1 longitude #ce #ad #i1 being #a1dhb metres above sea4 ,the highest point of the eastern range is #a1bef metres above sea4 ,the south termination of this eastern range is a very conspicuous rounded peak of granite1 #iib metres above sea1 called ,abu ,hodeid ,ogla1 which forms a good landmark for travellers in making the wells of ,abu ,hodeid2 the wells lie west of this peak4 ,the south parts of the ,abu ,hodeid mountains are drained by the ,wadis ,shinai1 ,delawet1 and ,abu ,hodeid1 all feeders of ,wadi ,hasium1 and all leading to important water sources4 ,the eastern faces are drained by ,wadis ,abu ,hireiq and ,tikraneib1 which are likewise feeders of ,hasium1 while the western flanks are drained by feeders of ,wadi ,feqoh4 ,the broad opening where ,wadi ,hasium passes to the south of the range makes a natural division separating the mountains of ,abu ,hodeid from those of the ,adar ,qaqa group4 ,gebel ,mansur ,diab1 a dark mountain1 #a1jia metres high1 lying six kilometres west of ,gebel ,abu ,hodeid1 is not often visible from the east1 being hidden by the higher ranges in front of it2 but it forms a conspicuous landmark to any one approaching from the west4 ,to the south of ,gebel ,mansur ,diab1 between the heads of ,wadi ,feqoh and ,wadi ,hasium1 are some other mountains of considerable height1 the positions of whose summits were fixed by triangulation1 but which were not closely approached4 ,these are ,gebel ,hadal ,derqa 7#a1ajh metres71 which as seen from the north appeared like a hog-backed dark ridge with a conical semi-detached hill at its south-east end2 and ,gebel ,hilwit ,hasium1 which appeared to consist of two separate peaks some three and a half kilometres apart1 the higher or north-east one rising to #a1jcg metres1 the south-west one to #ieb metres above sea4 ,gebel ,korabkansi is a rugged mass of dark serpentine peaks and ridges occupying a nearly isolated position some twenty kilometres west of ,gebel ,gerf4 ,its highest point1 marked by a triangulation beacon1 is situated in latitude #bb #ci #af1 longitude #cd #ei #ee1 and rises to #a1bcj metres above sea4 ,the main mass is flanked by lower hills to the north and south1 but is more open to the east and west4 ,it is drained entirely by feeders of ,wadi ,feqoh1 the most important of these being the ,wadi ,gemal4 ,the upper portion of ,wadi ,gemal is called ,wadi ,seyet1 and is important as containing a well1 ,bir ,sararat ,seyet2 the well is about five kilometres north-east of the main peak1 at a place where the wadi cuts through the flanking hill range4 ,for the ascent of the mountain1 it is best to turn westward from near the well1 and follow up one of the tributaries of ,wadi ,seyet which leads right into the heart of the mountain2 here a camp can be pitched at #gfe metres above sea-level1 and the ascent of #dfe metres to the summit1 from which there is a grand view1 can be accomplished in less than two hours4 ,the ascent and descent require some care1 owing to the steepness of the slopes 7the observed depression angle from summit to camp was #bi7 and the rottenness of the rock1 which comes away in lumps at a touch4 ,the accumulated debris1 consisting of small fragments of serpentine1 sets at just the angle of repose1 so that in coming down one can stick one's feet firmly in the mass and slide down with it for a hundred metres or more without exertion1 taking care only not to be shot over a sudden drop of the face4 ,the rocks are highly magnetic1 and the compass is much disturbed anywhere on or about the mountain4 ,the mass of high hills which forms the southward extension of ,korabkansi1 with peaks and ridges rising to over #ijj metres above sea-level1 is called ,gebel ,wadhait4 ,it is drained on the north by ,wadi ,wadhait1 a tributary of ,wadi ,seyet1 and on the west by the ,wadi ,kamoyib1 a tributary of ,wadi ,feqoh4 ,gebel ,um ,rasein is a triple-headed gneiss boss rising up boldly among schists to the east of ,gebel ,medarai4 ,its remarkable form and light colour render it a conspicuous feature to a traveller approaching it from the north-east1 and it is an important landmark for the well1 ,bir ,um ,rasein1 which exists in a small wadi at its north foot4 ,the highest peak of the three1 marked by a triangulation beacon in latitude #bb #bh #ab1 longitude #ce #bj #ai1 is #iji metres above sea-level4 ,for ascending the mountain1 it is best to follow up the ,wadi ,merdiyeb for a short distance on the west side of the range1 and a camp can be placed at #chf metres above the sea in a small tributary gully which drains from the main mountain4 ,the climb of #ebc metres to the beacon is steep in places1 but can be accomplished in two hours without difficulty by any one used to negotiating smooth steep rocks4 ,the top of the mountain is more convenient for observation than most others in this region1 and there is a good view from it4 ,the beacon is on a smooth hard granite surface1 with plenty of room to walk round an instrument1 while a little to the west there is a good place to pitch a small tent1 and a convenient cave for servants to sleep in4 ,kilia ,arib1 another isolated granite mass about six kilometres further east1 rises to #fdg metres above sea1 and is a landmark for the mouth of ,wadi ,diqdib1 which contains a well4 ,to the east and south of ,kilia ,arib are some smaller granite hills called ,tibashoi4 ,though rising only some fifty or sixty metres above the plain1 these hills are conspicuous landmarks from their isolated position4 ,the northern1 central1 and southern ones are called respectively ,tibashoi ,dumat1 ,tibashoi ,tumalhoi1 and ,tibashoi ,tomakolat4 ,another hill of similar size and character1 five kilometres north-north-east of ,kilia ,arib1 is called ,tuquq4 ,qrein ,salama is a little group of diorite hills rising from the coast-plain to the east of ,gebel ,gerf4 ,the highest hill of the group1 #ced metres above sea1 forms a conspicuous landmark which is visible for long distances4 ,berget ,abu ,sarib is a tract of low dark hills1 with much drifted sand1 lying a few kilometres north-east of ,qrein ,salama4 ,gimeida1 a small but conspicuous black conical hill1 rising to sixty metres above the coast-plain1 or #abc metres above sea-level1 is important as a landmark for ships entering ,mersa ,shab4 ,a triangulation beacon has been erected on the summit1 the position of which is latitude #bb #df #bi1 longitude #ce #cg #di4 ,the azimuth from the beacon to the big tree at ,mersa ,shab is ,n4 #fb ,e4 ,a much lower dolerite ridge1 two kilometres east of ,gimeida1 is called ,umarawi4 ,gebel ,hamra ,dom is a range of remarkable red granite hills rising abruptly from the coast-plain near latitude #bb #dj and longitude #ce #dj4 ,the range has a total length from north to south of about eleven kilometres1 the highest peak being near the centre of the range4 ,a beacon on this highest peak has the position latitude #bb #ci #f1 longitude #ce #ch #db1 altitude #chi metres above sea4 ,care is necessary in sighting this peak1 for there are two others near it of nearly equal height2 the beacon is on the southernmost one of the three peaks near the centre of the range4 ,a pass leads across the range a kilometre south of the beacon4 ,gebel ,hamra ,dom is a locality well known to the ,arabs1 in consequence of its being occasionally favoured with some rainfall4 ,in ,january #aijg the district round the mountain was covered with grass after a recent fall of rain1 but the hundreds of camels and other animals which the ,arabs took to graze at the place had eaten it all up when ,i arrived there in ,february4 ,at times of rainfall there is water to be got in the sandy bed of a little wadi to the north of the beacon1 at a place called ,ti ,dabei ,hamra ,dom2 but it does not last long after rain4 ,gebel ,hamra ,dom is drained almost entirely by feeders of ,wadi ,ibib4 ,there are numerous smaller hills to the west of ,gebel ,hamra ,dom1 but only the largest of them1 ,tibansi ,tikam ,ankwei1 bears a special name4 ,this is a granite hill rising to #cde metres above sea-level1 situated eleven kilometres due west of the beacon on ,gebel ,hamra ,dom4 ,gebel ,khashab and ,gebel ,beid together form a complex range of high hills mostly composed of schists to the north of ,gebel ,gerf4 ,the range has its long axis north-west and south-east1 with a length of some twenty-five kilometres and an average breadth of about eight kilometres4 ,the highest point of the range is marked by a triangulation beacon on ,gebel ,beid1 #gae metres above sea-level1 in latitude #bc #j #ad1 longitude #ce #af #ed4 ,the north-west part of the range is drained by the heads of ,wadi ,khashab1 a tributary of ,wadi ,hodein4 ,the eastern faces are drained by the ,wadi ,beid and various other feeders of ,wadi ,hodein1 while the south and south-west portions of the mass are drained by small tributaries of ,wadi ,kreiga1 itself a tributary of ,wadi ,hodein4 ,so far as ,i know1 the range can only be crossed by camels at one place1 near the centre of its length1 where it is cut through by the ,wadi ,beid2 coming from the west1 one must make for the pass 7#cie metres above sea1 stony but not steep7 which separates the heads of ,wadi ,khashab and ,wadi ,beid2 the road is well known as leading to the well called ,bir ,beid4 ,gebel ,humariai is an isolated hill1 #efc metres above sea1 a few kilometres to the west of ,gebel ,beid4 ,gebel ,kolaiqo is a small hill-mass lying off the south-eastern extremity of the ,khashab -- ,beid range1 from which it is separated by the ,wadi ,kreiga4 ,its highest point1 marked by a triangulation beacon1 is in latitude #bb #ed #ac1 longitude #ce #bd #cd1 at an altitude of #cbj metres above sea-level4 ,the drainage is mostly into ,wadi ,kreiga1 but the south-eastern parts of the hills drain into ,wadi ,kolaiqo1 a very shallow ill-defined drainage line coursing independently to sea across the sandy coast-plain4 ,to the north of ,gebel ,kolaiqo there are two long lines of low hills forming low outliers of ,nubian sandstone4 ,ti ,qireira is the name given to two low hills rising from the coast-plain about half-way between ,gebel ,kolaiqo and the black conical hill of ,gemeida4 ,these hills1 four kilometres apart1 rise only some fifty or sixty metres above the plain1 but they are conspicuous landmarks1 and hence bear a name4 ,the ,meisah -- ,adar ,qaqa -- ,is ,group4 ,the ,meisah -- ,adar ,qaqa -- ,is group of mountains extends northwards from the ,sudan frontier in longitude #ce4 ,it is separated from the ,gerf -- ,abu ,hodeid masses to the north by the ,wadi ,hasium2 on the east1 the great ,wadi ,di-ib divides it from the mountains of the ,elba group2 while to the west it is not sharply marked off from the rather lower mountainous tract of the upper ,alaqi basin4 ,gebels ,adar ,qaqa 7#a1dfi metres7 and ,is 7#a1gcf metres7 are on the main watershed1 while ,hadal ,aweib ,meisah 7#a1bbd metres7 forms the highest point of a huge rugged spur running northwards on the east side of the watershed4 ,to the east of the main mountains of the group1 between them and the ,wadi ,di-ib1 are a number of detached mountain and hill-masses1 of which the principal are ,gebels ,o ,shakafa1 ,um ,ein1 ,qara ,saba1 ,warabeit1 ,adar ,aweib1 and ,shiab4 ,hadal ,aweib ,meisah is a conspicuous double-topped mountain of a somewhat conical shape4 ,its summit1 marked by a triangulation beacon1 is #a1bbd metres above sea-level1 and has the position latitude #bb #af #ci1 longitude #ce #ca #ee4 ,in plan it is almost circular1 three-fourths of the circumference of its base being formed by the ,wadis ,awitla and ,lasewid 7feeders of ,wadi ,meisah71 while the remaining fourth forms a connexion by which the mountain is joined to the long ridge of ,gebel ,qidmib4 ,the ascent of the mountain was made from a camp one and three-quarter kilometres due east of the summit1 in a small feeder of ,wadi ,lasewid1 close to the spring called ,megwel ,um ,edwa4 ,camels cannot get quite up to the spring1 but a camp can be placed a little way further down the gully at an altitude of #eif metres above sea1 and the climb of #fbh metres to the top of the mountain is easily accomplished on foot in about two hours4 ,the mountain is composed of dark gabbroid rock1 the summit being composed of great blocks1 weathered to a rusty brown on their surfaces2 the rock is highly magnetic1 and the compass points several degrees east of north at the beacon owing to local attraction4 ,,plate ,,xviii4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,the ,,district ,,of ,,meisah ,,wadi ,,di-,,ib4 ,ball4 ,geography ,geology of ,south-,eastern ,egypt4 ,photo-,metal-,process4 ,survey ,dept4 ,cairo #aiaj4 7#fj-aij7 ,iarih ,meisah is the name given to a tract of low granite hills with sandy interspaces1 which lies to the south of ,hadal ,aweib ,meisah4 ,it forms the head of ,wadi ,baueiwai4 ,about three kilometres west of ,hadal ,aweib ,meisah1 a high ridge1 over #a1jjj metres in height1 courses north and south for over fourteen kilometres4 ,the north end of this ridge bifurcates to form ,gebel ,qidmib2 the ,wadi ,qidmib1 draining northwards to ,wadi ,ibib1 has its head between the two branches of the ridge1 where there is a well called ,bir ,qidmib4 ,o ,shakafa is a very remarkable hill seven kilometres north-east of ,hadal ,aweib ,meisah4 ,o ,shakafa derives its name1 which signifies 8the barrier10 from the fact that it appears to block the way to the traveller ascending the ,wadi ,meisah4 ,its crest1 formed by a ridge of hard jaspery quartzite1 rises precipitously from among a mass of softer rocks1 some of which show remarkably brilliant colours due to iron staining4 ,the cairn on the summit is in latitude #bb #ai #dd1 longitude #ce #cd #db1 and #gea metres above sea-level4 ,there is barely standing room on the top of the ridge1 which needs careful climbing owing to its precipitous nature4 ,o ,shakafa is a good landmark for ,bir ,meisah1 which lies in the wadi about three kilometres north-east of the summit2 and for the easy pass of ,sarob ,kwan1 which lies four kilometres to the south-east4 ,to the north of ,o ,shakafa there extends a great tract of high hills1 divided into two portions by the northward-coursing ,wadi ,orgem4 ,the western portion of this hill-tract culminates in ,gebel ,orgem1 the two peaks of which rise respectively to #ggi and #gge metres above the sea1 while its northern end forms the high sand-swathed hill called ,baqari ,daba4 ,the eastern portion of the tract1 containing the important wells ,bir ,um ,bishtit and ,bir ,meisah1 as well as the galts of ,meis-heit-ar1 is rather more complex1 and is cut into two parts by the ,wadi ,um ,bishtit4 ,its northern part ends in a conspicuous gneiss hill called ,adar ,aweib ,um ,bishtit1 while the hills immediately north of ,o ,shakafa are called ,gebel ,meis-heit-ar4 ,gebel ,adar ,qaqa is a very conspicuous granite mountain about twenty-three kilometres west of ,hadal ,aweib ,meisah4 ,its highest peak is in latitude #bb #ac #dg1 longitude #ce #ai #j1 and rises rather precipitously to #a1fjf metres above sea-level4 ,adar ,qaqa is drained principally by the ,wadi ,hasium1 which courses northward past the western side of the mountain4 ,gebel ,soaorib is a rather long mountain range which adjoins the south part of ,adar ,qaqa and sweeps round to the south-east1 forming the main watershed4 ,its highest point is #a1dfi metres above sea-level4 ,its north-western face is drained by ,wadi ,mantil ,hasium1 which forms one of the heads of ,wadi ,hasium4 ,the north-eastern flanks are drained by the ,wadi ,haiyo and other feeders of ,wadi ,soaorib1 while the south-west faces drain into the ,wadi ,kirir and the ,miti-,kwan1 tributaries of ,wadi ,alaqi4 ,gebel ,leqaq 7#a1aib metres7 and ,gebel ,um ,seleim 7#a1jih metres7 are two mountains1 both with long northward spurs1 lying north-east of ,adar ,qaqa1 between that mountain and the ,wadi ,soaorib4 ,they are drained by various feeders of the ,wadis ,hasium and ,soaorib1 the principal being the ,rod ,anut ,berer1 which runs northward from between two mountains to join ,wadi ,hasium1 and the ,wadi ,hankuk1 which rises to the south of ,gebel ,leqaq and courses round the south-east flanks to join ,wadi ,soaorib4 ,to the north of ,gebels ,leqaq and ,um ,seleim there stretches a sandy plain1 over which the ,wadis ,hasium1 ,ibib1 and ,soaorib pursue their northward course4 ,low hills rise here and there from this plain1 the most conspicuous being ,gebel ,hamra ,tit1 a double-peaked granite hill1 rising to #fdb metres above the sea2 ,kulet ,meigrum and ,kulet ,tinasal are two somewhat smaller hills situated respectively six kilometres north-north-east and six kilometres east-north-east from ,gebel ,hamra ,tit4 ,gebel ,is1 the next great mountain to the south1 forms the main watershed just north of the ,sudan frontier1 the triangulation cairn on its summit having the position latitude #bb #b #cf1 longitude #ce #bh #d1 altitude #a1gcf metres above sea4 ,as seen from the north1 ,gebel ,is is a somewhat flat-topped mountain of dark aspect2 but judging by analogy the apparent flat top is probably only a narrow ridge seen broadside on4 ,from the main mass a long spur of flanking mountains runs westward1 and a high ridge1 more or less detached1 rises to #a1dgd metres six kilometres south-east of the main summit4 ,the northern and western faces of ,gebel ,is are drained by feeders of ,wadi ,alaqi1 while its eastern and southern parts are drained by various heads of ,wadi ,is4 ,between ,hadal ,aweib ,meisah and ,gebel ,is there stretches a mass of mountains with many peaks over #a1bjj metres high2 these appear to bear no special names4 ,my guides stated that there are two passes over the main watershed in this region4 ,the first1 called ,adar ,ameit1 is a high pass practicable for camels2 it lies about four kilometres to the north of the beacon on ,gebel ,is1 and connects the two ,wadis ,adar ,ameit el ,sharqi and ,adar ,ameit el ,gharbi which lie on opposite sides of the watershed4 ,the second pass1 said to be a difficult one1 crosses the watershed some five kilometres further north1 forming a connexion between the heads of ,miti ,kwan and ,wadi ,soaorib4 ,gebel ,miatit 7#a1beg metres7 and ,gebel ,suruk 7#a1cgg metres71 are mountain masses a little east of1 and semi-detached from1 the main ,is group4 ,gebel ,miatit sends out a long spur north-eastward1 ending in a rather conspicuous hill at the foot of which there is said to be a water source called ,megwel ,aqwem4 ,gebel ,shiab is a collection of peaks rising from a rugged country of lower hills about twenty-eight kilometres east of ,gebel ,is4 ,its highest point is #ihg metres above sea-level4 ,gebel ,shiab appears to form the main head of ,wadi el ,qurat1 an important feeder of ,wadi ,di-ib4 ,eqrun 7the horns7 is a conspicuous group of schist hills lying between the ,wadis ,meisah and ,ibib4 ,it has two principal peaks2 the higher one1 surmounted by a triangulation beacon1 has the position latitude #bb #cj #aj1 longitude #ce #cg #i1 and is #dgc metres above sea-level2 the other is about #djj metres south-east of the beacon1 and is only five metres lower4 ,eqrun itself is an isolated hill group1 but close to the north-east of it there is another hill-mass of greater extent and of but little inferior height4 ,the country south of ,eqrun forms an extensive tract of low hills with much blown sand4 ,two conspicuous hills in this tract rise above the rest and bear special names2 these are ,tahaqayet 7#dcb metres7 and ,titailibab 7#eic metres74 ,kolmanab and ,einiwai are two small but very conspicuous black hills eleven kilometres apart1 rising from the sandy coast-plain between the ,wadis ,meisah and ,di-ib4 ,both are surmounted by triangulation beacons1 that on ,kolmanab being in latitude #bb #cb #bf1 longitude #ce #ec #cf1 #acg metres above sea1 and that on ,einiwai being in latitude #bb #bg #ej1 longitude #ce #eg #ei1 #ach metres above sea4 ,north-west of ,kolmanab are some low banks called ,tinadei1 while about mid-way between ,kolmanab and ,einiwai is an isolated low hill called ,ankalidot4 ,osnei is a small but conspicuous red granite hill1 rising to #bea metres above sea1 thirteen kilometres west-south-west from ,einiwai4 ,it contains a galt1 which yields water for some little time after rain has fallen locally4 ,ti ,keferiai is a conspicuous little isolated group of dark hills of no very great height1 situated in the fork where the ,wadis ,didaut and ,baueiwai join to form the ,wad el ,qireira4 ,there are heavy accumulations of blown sand round the north-east flanks of the mass4 ,the triangulation beacon on the summit has the position latitude #bb #ba #j1 longitude #ce #di #dg1 and is #did metres above sea-level4 ,ti ,keferiai forms a good landmark for the old mines of ,romit1 which are situated in some lower hills five kilometres south-west of the beacon4 ,there are numerous excavations here in veins of smoky quartz with calcite and chalybite1 which penetrate the country rock of highly crushed and decomposed diorite2 a number of ancient grinding mills of diorite lie scattered about the place4 ,four kilometres north of ,ti ,keferiai1 on the opposite side of ,wadi ,didaut1 is a conspicuous hill of very red granite called ,adatalob ,adara1 #che metres above sea-level4 ,four kilometres further north-west is another hill1 of nearly equal height1 but of black aspect1 called ,adatalob ,hadal4 ,west of ,ti ,keferiai1 at distances of five and a half and nine and a half kilometres respectively1 are two conspicuous little hills rising from the plain1 one on either side of the ,wadi ,didaut2 these are called ,kikeiyet ,sharqi and ,kikeiyet ,gharbi4 ,east of ,ti ,keferiai is a great sandy tract stretching to the ,wadi ,di-ib1 from which low hills rise half swathed in blown sand2 the principal hill groups bear the names of ,gebels ,tishushi and ,tishushi ,tiboki4 ,qara ,saba is a high and steep hill mass of dark aspect1 rising conspicuously to #ghh metres above sea1 between the ,wadis ,didaut and ,baueiwai1 some sixteen kilometres south-west of ,ti ,keferiai4 ,the tract between ,qara ,saba and ,ti ,keferiai is a waste of blown sand through which low hills protrude in places4 ,adar ,aqdeib1 a granite hill #gcf metres high on the north side of the ,wadi ,didaut1 about half-way between ,qara ,saba and ,o ,shakafa1 is a landmark for two small water sources and a pass4 ,the first of these water sources1 ,megwel ,adar ,aqdeib1 is on the east side of the hill1 in a little tributary of ,wadi ,didaut4 ,the second1 ,megwel ,didaut1 is at the head of ,wadi ,didaut itself1 in a separate rugged hill tract south of ,adar ,aqdeib4 ,the west faces of ,adar ,aqdeib are drained by the ,sarob ,kwan1 half of which courses south-east to ,wadi ,didaut1 and half north-west to ,wadi ,meisah1 and the divide forms a well known easy pass4 ,gebel ,um ,ein is a huge hill-mass of dark rocks1 rising to #ija metres above sea-level1 nine kilometres south-south-west of ,qara ,saba4 ,the beacon which marks the summit is in latitude #bb #aa #eb1 longitude #ce #ci #d4 ,gebel ,um ,ein is mainly drained by the ,wadi ,baueiwai1 which curves round the south half of its circumference4 ,a small water source1 ,megwel ,um ,ein1 is said to exist on the north-east side of the hill1 in a small wadi which forms a tributary of ,wadi ,baueiwai4 ,a great tract of high hills lies between the ,wadis ,baueiwai and ,di-ib4 ,the northern part of the tract1 which is cut off from the rest by the ,wadi ,warabeit1 and is called ,gebel ,geror1 has several peaks rising to over #ejj metres2 on the north it is flanked by huge accumulations of blown sand1 while its southern faces are drained by fairly well-wooded wadis1 tributaries of ,wadi ,warabeit4 ,the part of the hill tract south of the ,wadi ,baueiwai is much cut up by wadis into masses which bear separate names4 ,gebel ,hamida1 which with ,gebel ,nubitra forms the westernmost hill-mass of the group1 is a series of high steep schist ridges rising in places over #gjj metres above sea-level4 ,the highest point1 #ged metres above sea1 is best reached by following up the ,wadi ,hamida till one comes due west of the hill1 and then striking up eastwards on foot2 it can also be reached from the east side via the tiny trickling salt spring of ,megwel ,hamida1 but ,i found this a long and wearisome climb4 ,to the north-east of ,gebel ,hamida is the pass called ,bani ,sana1 which is important both as a pass and as being the boundary between the territories of the ,kurbeilab and ,hamedorab ,arabs4 ,gebel ,warabeit1 the part of the tract which forms the head of the ,wadi ,warabeit1 lies south-east of ,gebel ,hamida1 being connected with ,gebel ,hamida on the one side and ,gebel ,mashushenai on the other2 its highest point is #gid metres above sea-level4 ,gebel ,mashushenai 7#fcd metres7 lies a little to the east of ,gebel ,warabeit2 its north parts are drained by the ,wadi ,hashimaiyib1 while the south portions are drained by ,wadi ,mashushenai1 in the head of which is a well1 ,bir ,mashushenai4 ,all the drainage from hereabouts ultimately reaches ,wadi ,di-ib by way of ,wadi el ,qurat4 ,adar ,aweib1 a conspicuous and extensive granite hill-mass lying east of the foregoing1 from which it is entirely separated by wadis1 rises to #fbj metres above sea2 its summit is marked by a triangulation beacon in latitude #bb #aj #ej1 longitude #ce #ed #j4 ,in occupying ,adar ,aweib as a station1 it was approached from the ,bani ,sana pass by following down the ,wadi ,warabeit and then turning up the ,wadi ,wieqwer1 which leads to the eastern foot of the mountain4 ,the camp was placed about a kilometre north-west of the beacon1 at an altitude of #bhd metres above sea1 and the climb of #ccf metres to the top took only an hour and a half4 ,a great variety of flowers could be gathered in the lower part of the ascent2 the upper portion was slippery1 the slopes consisting of debris of decomposed granite resting just at the angle of repose4 ,in descending from the mountain1 ,i went northwards on foot1 whence a steep pass led down to ,bir ,meheriqa1 in the ,wadi ,di-ib2 but the camels had to go round the south end of the mountain by ,wadi el ,qurat1 as the pass was too steep for them4 ,to the south of the group of hills just described1 there is a rugged tract of low hills stretching away south to ,gebel ,shiab4 ,eastwards this tract becomes lower and more sandy1 terminating in a sandy plain with low rocky ridges1 over which the ,wadi ,di-ib pursues its northward course1 becoming closed in again by hills abreast of ,adar ,aweib4 ,the ,mountains of the ,alaqi ,basin ,west of ,adar ,qaqa4 ,the mountains of this group1 which are scattered over an area of some #e1jjj square kilometres between latitudes #bb #j and #bb #bb1 and longitudes #cd #j and #ce #bj1 are comparatively little known4 ,the positions and heights of all the principal peaks have been fixed by triangulation from considerable distances2 but with the single exception of ,gebel ,muqsim1 which was occupied by ,mr4 ,villiers ,stuart as his terminal point1 none of the area has yet been officially surveyed4 ,the positions determined for the principal peaks will be found included in the list on pp4 #ea to #fd1 and a general idea of the relative positions of the mountains and drainage lines will be obtained from the orographical map on ,plate ,i4 ,a brief reference only to the principal mountains is possible here4 ,gebel ,anweiyib 7#iba metres7 and ,eir ,arib 7#a1aab metres7 are on the main watershed4 ,as seen from the north1 the former appeared as a long dark range1 the latter as a light-coloured high short ridge with a peak at its western end4 ,gebels ,duag 7#a1cbh metres7 and ,himeitra 7#a1bca metres7 are connected with the watershed range of ,adar ,qaqa and ,is by westward-running spurs4 ,gebel ,himeitra is a landmark for a well1 ,bir ,himeitra1 which is situated a little south of the mountain1 and also for the ruins of ,darahib1 which lie in the ,wadi ,alaqi some twelve kilometres south-south-west of it4 ,gebel ,heianai 7#a1bef metres7 is a long range of mountains between the ,wadis ,bint el ,feqoh and ,defeit4 ,gebel ,heleikonti 7#a1aea metres7 appeared from the north as a short high steep ridge with a little peak at its western end4 ,gebel ,egat1 one of the best known and most remarkable of the mountains of the group1 is a high steep cone rising to #a1ade metres above sea on the north side of the ,wadi ,alaqi in latitude #bb #e #ci1 longitude #cd #eb #ae4 ,it is a landmark for ,bir ,egat1 which lies about five kilometres to the east1 and for the mines of ,alfawi1 which lie some ten kilometres south-east of the peak4 ,gebel ,shanaiyet 7#ijg metres7 and ,gebel ,hamida lie south of the ,wadi ,defeit1 between that wadi and the ,wadi ,egat4 ,gebel ,hateib or ,suhin 7#hed metres7 forms the main collecting ground for the ,wadis ,hateib and ,suhin1 which are tributaries of ,alaqi4 ,gebel ,um el ,tiur el ,foqani is a group of very high steep hills on the south side of ,wadi ,defeit4 ,it has a well-marked peak as its summit1 in latitude #bb #ag #ef1 longitude #cd #da #ad1 #idf metres above sea-level4 ,this peak forms a point on the administrative boundary between ,egypt and the ,sudan4 ,gebel ,um el ,tiur el ,tahtani1 situated some twelve kilometres west-north-west of the foregoing1 and on the opposite side of the ,wadi ,defeit1 is a somewhat similar but lower group of hills1 its highest point rising to #ghc metres above sea4 ,gebel el ,adraq 7#ggj metres7 and ,gebel ,guqub are two other hill-groups south of ,gebel ,um el ,tiur el ,tahtani1 lying between the ,wadis ,defeit and ,alaqi4 ,gebel el ,adraq is a landmark for some old mines called ,betan1 while ,gebel ,guqub is the collecting ground1 the drainage of which supplies the important well of ,bir ,guqub4 ,gebel ,muqsim is a conspicuous mountain on the south side of the ,wadi ,alaqi near the meridian of #cd4 ,the triangulation cairn on its summit is in latitude #bb #aj #aa1 longitude #cd #a #ab1 at an altitude of #hbe metres above sea-level4 ,gebel ,muqsim forms a point on the administrative boundary between ,egypt and the ,sudan4 ,the ,elba-,shendib ,group4 ,this group of granite mountains is situated near the sea in the extreme south-east corner of ,egypt1 between longitudes #cf and #cg1 on and about the parallel of #bb of north latitude4 ,part of the group1 including the highest peak 7,asotriba1 #b1baf metres7 is in the ,sudan1 and we shall here consider only the northern parts1 which fall within ,egypt proper4 ,the principal mountains of the group are ,gebels ,elba 7#a1dbh metres71 ,shendib 7#a1iab metres71 ,hanquf 7#a1dfe metres71 ,shendodai 7#a1ebi metres71 and ,shellal 7#a1dji metres74 ,besides these1 which form a cluster of high rugged ridges and bristling peaks1 there are some outlying hills to the east and west1 and it is convenient to consider all the hills east of ,wadi ,di-ib as belonging to the group4 ,the principal of these outlying hills are ,gebels ,balatitda1 ,sul ,hamid 7#egb metres71 ,qash ,amir 7#gbd metres71 and ,sela 7#efj metres7 on the west1 and ,karam ,elba 7#ehf metres7 and ,gebel ,hadarba 7#bag metres7 on the east of the main masses4 ,the general relations of the ,elba district will be seen from the orographical map on ,plate ,i1 while the large scale map on ,plate ,,xix shows the detailed features on a larger scale4 ,towering to great heights from the coast-plain1 the mountains of the ,elba group are very conspicuous from long distances either on sea or on land when the air is clear4 ,but often for weeks together they are so shrouded in mist as to be invisible even when one is fairly near to them4 ,these very mists1 which so often hinder the view being obtained1 are the cause of much added beauty to the scene when the air is clear2 for the moisture produces a rich vegetation1 not only in the wadis1 but along all clefts right up to the tops of the mountains1 and furnishes in addition the largest and most important water sources in the ,eastern ,desert4 ,so abundant is the vegetation in all the wadis draining from ,elba1 that it is impossible to approach the mountains very closely with loaded camels1 owing to the closeness of the trees4 ,richest in water supply and in vegetation of all tracts in the ,eastern ,desert of ,egypt1 it is natural that the ,elba district should also be the greatest centre of desert population1 and there are considerable settlements of ,bisharin ,arabs round the feet of the mountains4 ,,plate ,,xix4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,the ,,district ,,of ,,elba ,,halaib4 ,ball4 ,geography ,geology of ,south-,eastern ,egypt4 ,photo-,metal-,process4 ,survey ,dept4 ,cairo #aiaj4 7#fj-aij7 ,gebel ,elba1#aaa the most northerly mountain of the main group1 is cut off from the mountains to the south by the ,wadis ,o ,sir ,hadal and ,serimtai2 there is a pass between the heads of these wadis1 so that a complete circuit of the mountain can be made1 although from almost any aspect ,elba appears to be joined on to the other mountains of the group4 ,in plan1 ,gebel ,elba is nearly a square of about fifteen kilometres sides1 with its diagonal in the meridian4 ,it is a bristling mass of light-coloured granite peaks1 flanked on the south and west by rugged hills of darker rocks4 ,the highest point1 the 8high peak0 of the ,admiralty ,chart1 is in latitude #bb #aj #c1 longitude #cf #ba #eb1 and #a1dce metres above sea2 another peak1 slightly lower1 but more conspicuous and nearer the centre of the mass1 was chosen for the site of the triangulation station4 ,the beacon on this latter peak is #a1dbh metres above sea1 and has the position latitude #bb #aa #bg1 longitude #cf #bj #eb4 ,the peak which bears the triangulation station forms a centre from which drainage lines radiate in all directions4 ,the principal of these drainage lines1 which are all well wooded1 are the ,wadi ,yahameib1 which with its feeders ,wadis ,akau and ,kansisrob drains the north faces of the mountain1 and unites with ,wadi ,aideib1 which drains the north-east flanks2 ,wadi ,serimtai1 which by its feeder the ,wadi ,o ,sir ,eirab drains the south part of the mass and then curves round north-eastwards to the sea2 and the ,wadi ,yoider1 which drains the western parts of the mountain by its three main heads called respectively ,wadi ,akwamtra1 ,wadi ,qeirat1 and ,wadi ,o ,sir ,hadal1 and then courses northward to reach the sea4 ,the approach to ,gebel ,elba by the coast-plain from the north-west is said to be difficult1 on account of having to cross an extensive tract of sand dunes1 called ,i ,hubal1 which lies to the north and north-east of ,gebel ,sul ,hamid4 ,the survey expedition reached the mountain by marching eastward from ,bir ,meheriqa in the ,wadi ,di-ib4 ,on this road the sand was not found a serious hindrance1 though progress was rather slow through ,o ,harbub1 a sand-choked wadi which was entered on turning eastwards just after leaving ,bir ,meheriqa4 ,skirting the south side of ,gebel ,sul ,hamid over a sandy plain1 we continued eastward with a slight northerly bend till the jagged mass of ,qash ,amir came into view2 then striking due east again we entered some low hills and dropped by an easy pass into ,wadi ,siamtit1 a little feeder of ,wadi ,yoider2 crossing the main channel of ,yoider1 we continued our course eastward across very sandy minor wadis1 and turning a little southward we reached ,bir ,akwamtra1 where we found a fairly large ,bisharin camp1 in a stony wadi full of trees4 ,i had hoped to ascend the mountain by way of ,wadi ,akwamtra1 which heads right under the peak selected for the triangulation station4 ,but on arriving at the well we were still more than six kilometres from the head of the wadi1 and further progress for camels was very difficult owing to the closeness of the trees1 and the bouldery nature of the wadi floor4 ,guides sent out to reconnoitre having reported that the ascent could be made with less difficulty from the ,wadi ,yahameib1 we followed a very winding track leading over the ,asut ,duk pass into ,yahameib1 and then made our way southward over the sloping bouldery plain1 thick with trees and scrub1 until the camels could get no farther4 ,the camp was pitched in a slight clearing at the foot of the mountain1 three and a quarter kilometres north-west of the beacon1 at an altitude of #cdc metres above sea1 or #a1jhe metres below the beacon4 ,the climb to the summit was a long and tiring one1 but very interesting4 ,starting at #f4cj a4m4 on ,april #be1 #aijh1 we first followed up the ,wadi ,yahameib to its head in a sort of neck between two peaks2 this neck1 which we reached at #aj a4m41 is #a1jic metres above sea4 ,about half way up to the neck1 among some large granite blocks1 there is a small spring of very pure water2 it forms a pool holding about a gallon and a half1 which fills as fast as it is emptied4 ,passing over the neck1 we dropped down to a level of #ihd metres in crossing the head of ,wadi ,akwamtra1 and then1 climbing up the opposite side1 we reached the beacon 7#a1dbh metres7 at noon4 ,except the last #aej metres to the summit1 which was bare steep granite1 the whole climb was through a thick growth of trees1 very green and fresh1 with a tangled undergrowth of flowering shrubs and some mosses and lichens4 ,the trees grow very near to the summit and give plenty of shady resting-places4 ,acacia 7sellim7 trees cease about #cej metres above sea1 and new forms take their place4 ,the most remarkable is a large tree called ,hohait by my ,arabs2 this tree1 which ,i have not seen elsewhere in ,egypt1 grows in fair abundance to ten metres or more high1 with thick woody looking trunk and branches1 the foliage being great bunches of aloe-like leaves on the ends of the branches2 according to my ,arabs1 it bears an edible fruit1 of which they showed me the stone--a nearly spherical red one1 about as big as a pea1 very hard4#aab ,the top of the mountain is narrow and very rough1 but narrow sleeping places can be found on ledges4 ,the view from the summit in clear weather is very fine and extensive2 the subjoined figure is from a careful sketch which ,i made of the outlook southwards from the beacon4 ,but1 as already remarked1 the mountain is frequently shrouded in cloud1 and of the ten days ,i remained on the summit in ,april and ,may #aijh only three were clear4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--,view from the summit of ,gebel ,elba4 ,the phenomenon of 8glories10 or rainbow-coloured rings round the shadow of one's head cast on to clouds below when the summit was clear1 was well observed in the mornings4 ,three rings were specially distinct and vividly coloured on ,april #bf1 and ,i was able to measure the diameters with an improvised subtense apparatus2 measuring to the middle of the yellow in each case1 ,i found the diameters of the rings to be #d1 #h1 and #ac1 so that the diameters increase in arithmetical progression4 ,the shadow cast by one's head and body was most distinct when the cloud-bank was most opaque2 the rings1 on the other hand1 were most brilliant when there was only a thin film of cloud4 ,the temperatures experienced on the summit were remarkable for their range4 ,on ,april #be1 #bf1 and #bg1 #aijh1 the air was still and full of wet mist1 and the days were oppressively hot1 while the nights were also warm and damp4 ,on ,april #bh1 a cold north-west wind set in1 which soon cleared the air2 but with the clearness came such a chilling of the air that it was impossible to stand up to the instruments for observations for more than a few minutes at a time2 one was glad to take shelter behind rocks from the biting blast1 and though we were well within the tropics and the spring was far advanced1 we sat shivering with blankets round us even in the sunniest and most sheltered spots we could find4 ,the cold lasted till ,may #d1 when we descended the mountain to be half roasted in the plains below4 ,as already remarked1 ,gebel ,elba is well supplied with water sources4 ,the two chief are ,bir ,akwamtra and ,bir ,kansisrob1 both situated on the north side of the mountain4 ,between them is a small spring called ,megwel ,akau4 ,on the south side of the mountain are two other wells called ,bir ,salalat ,o ,sir1 and ,bir ,sararat ,serimtai4 ,in times of rainfall there must be scores of rock pools along every drainage line4 ,karam ,elba is a granite hill rising to #ehf metres above sea1 close to the north-east foot of ,gebel ,elba1 from which it is separated by a narrow wadi4 ,close north of ,karam ,elba are some low granite hills called ,takrat ,riba1 while on the south side is another small granite hill called ,mikeriba4 ,to the east of ,karam ,elba are some granite hills which1 though of no great height1 are conspicuous owing to their position on the coast-plain1 and being used as landmarks by the local ,arabs they bear special names4 ,these are3 ,alafot1 ,taar ,ara1 ,kreishim1 ,abai ,sis1 and ,o ,wota1 the last-named being the largest of them all4 ,some low banks north of ,alafot are called ,alafot ,onqwab4 ,qash ,amir 78,scragged ,hill0 of the ,admiralty ,charts7 is an isolated hill rising abruptly from a sandy plain at the head of ,wadi ,eikwan1 about fifteen kilometres west-north-west of ,gebel ,elba4 ,qash ,amir well deserves the title given to it by the ,admiralty surveyors1 for it is a mass of sharp granite spikes which my best guides1 skilled climbers though they were1 could only ascend with the greatest difficulty4 ,its top1 marked by a beacon1 is #gbd metres above sea-level and has the position latitude #bb #ad #ca1 longitude #cf #ab #bj4 ,i had intended to occupy the summit as a main station1 but the guides who were sent to erect the beacon reported that the summit was so sharp a spike that there was barely room for a beacon to be built1 and that it would be impossible to set up a theodolite tripod on it1 while there was not even a narrow ledge where one could sleep within several hundred metres of the summit4 ,gebel el ,sela is a straggling group of high rugged granite hills rising from the sandy plain to the north-east of ,qash ,amir4 ,the highest of its peaks reaches to #efj metres above sea-level4 ,gebel ,sul ,hamid is an extensive tract of low dark hills1 covering some hundred square kilometres or so to the west of ,qash ,amir4 ,its highest peak is #egb metres above sea4 ,the north part of the tract is drained by the ,wadi ,di-it1 the eastern part by the ,wadi ,eikwan1 while the southern drainages pass into a very shallow channel which courses westward over a sandy plain towards ,wadi ,di-ib1 but becomes choked with sand at ,o ,harbub before reaching that great trunk wadi4 ,gebel ,balatitda is a group of high hills lying between ,gebel ,sul ,hamid and the ,wadi ,di-ib4 ,its highest point is #eib metres above sea-level4 ,bir ,meheriqa is situated at the south-west of the mass1 on the east side of ,wadi ,di-ib4 ,the north flanks of ,gebel ,balatitda are swathed in blown sand4 ,gebel ,o ,sir ,eirab is really the south part of ,gebel ,elba2 its highest point is #hdb metres above sea4 ,though its name ,eirab means 8white10 the mountain is composed of dark-coloured rocks4 ,the explanation is that the ,arabs always give the names to the wadis first1 and the adjacent ,wadi ,o ,sir ,eirab has a white sandy floor because it drains from the granite mass of ,elba2 the mountain is called after the wadi near it4 ,gebel ,hanquf is a range of mountains some twenty kilometres in length1 stretching in a south-easterly direction to the south of ,gebel ,elba and separating that mountain from ,gebel ,shendib4 ,its south-eastern portion1 containing the highest peaks1 is of granite1 while the north-western portion consists of dark rocks4 ,its highest point is the northerly one of two remarkable peaks near the south end of the range1 and rises to #a1dfe metres1 while another summit near the middle of the range reaches #a1cig metres4 ,the northern part of ,gebel ,hanquf is drained by the ,wadi ,o ,sir ,hadal1 a tributary of ,wadi ,yoider2 its eastern flanks by the ,wadi ,serimtai2 while the western drainage is to the ,wadi ,hareitra1 which courses from between ,gebel ,hanquf and ,gebel ,shendib westwards to join the ,wadi ,di-ib4 ,gebel ,shendib1 which lies close south-west of ,gebel ,hanquf1 is a great mass of very high light-coloured peaks flanked on the west by a tract of moderately high hills of dark colour4 ,the beacon which marks the highest point1 #a1iab metres above sea1 is in latitude #bb #j #dh1 longitude #cf #af #cj4 ,shendib is the third highest mountain in ,egypt proper1 being surpassed in altitude only by ,el ,shayeb and ,hamata4 ,besides the main peak1 there are numerous others exceeding #a1fjj metres in height2 one of these1 some two kilometres south-east of the principal summit1 reaches to #a1hfc metres and marks very nearly the ,sudan frontier2 its latitude is #ba #ei #ef1 so that it is only some #abj metres south of the #bbnd parallel4 ,the north portion of ,shendib is drained by the ,wadi ,hareitra1 the south part by ,wadi ,shendib1 both these being tributaries of ,wadi ,di-ib4 ,gebel ,shendodai 78,castle ,hill0 of the ,admiralty ,charts7 is a high mountain mass lying east of ,gebel ,hanquf1 from which it is separated by the ,wadi ,serimtai4 ,its highest point1 a well-marked peak1 is in latitude #bb #c #a1 longitude #cf #be #ca1 and rises to #a1ebi metres above sea-level4 ,gebel ,shendodai is drained by the ,wadis ,um ,seyal 7a tributary of ,wadi ,serimtai71 ,mera ,kwan1 and ,shellal4 ,gebel ,shellal1 situated close south-east of ,gebel ,shendodai on the ,sudan frontier1 is a group of mountains of slightly lower altitude than the foregoing1 its highest peak being #a1dji metres above sea-level4 ,gebel ,shellal is drained by the ,wadis ,shellal and ,aqilhoq1 the latter containing a good well1 called ,bir ,frukit4 ,a tract of low foot-hills1 some twelve kilometres broad1 fronts ,gebels ,shendodai and ,shellal seawards1 leaving a breadth of some twelve kilometres of gently sloping coast-plain between them and the shore4 ,one of the foot-hills of ,gebel ,shellal1 a conspicuous high dark-coloured ridge near ,bir ,frukit1 bears the name of ,gebel ,balatitda4 7,it will be noticed that another hill group west of ,gebel ,elba bears the same name74 ,gebel ,hadarba is a little range of felsite hills with many peaks rising from the coast-plain close to ,ras ,hadarba 7,cape ,elba of the ,admiralty ,charts74 ,a triangulation beacon on one of the highest points is in latitude #bb #b #ec1 longitude #cf #dg #bc1 at an altitude of #bag metres above sea4 ,gebel ,hadarba is drained by a number of small wadis1 most of which empty themselves into the quicksands of ,kuatianai which cover the projection of ,cape ,elba4 ,a high hill at the south-west end of the ,hadarba range bears the special name of ,wiekorei1 while a tract of low red hills on the ,sudan frontier a few kilometres south of the ,hadarba range1 is called ,timaiakwaia2 this latter tract is chiefly drained by the ,wadi ,qabatit4 99 99 99 99 99 ,footnote #ajf3 ,the exception is ,el ,shayeb1 in latitude #bf #eh1 which attains a height of #b1ahd metres4 ,see ,,barron and ,,hume1 ,topog4 and ,geology of the ,eastern ,desert of ,egypt 7,central ,portion74 ,cairo1 #aijb4 p4 #dj4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,each of the last three vowels is pronounced separately1 so that the word has four syllables1 with the accent on the penultimate4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,the position of this cairn is latitude #bc #eg #df1 longitude #ce #ab #aj4 ,footnote #aji3 ,the position of the cairn is latitude #bd #d #da1 longitude #ce #ae #cd4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,by measurement with the theodolite ,i found the average slopes of the mountain to be #ce1 and many parts have double this inclination4 ,the vertical angle from my camp to the summit was over #bc4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,the word ,elba 7,bishari7 means 8white mountain40 ,the designation 8,gebel0 is thus strictly speaking superfluous1 but is convenient as the ,bishari tongue is so little known4 ,footnote #aab3 ,prof4 ,schweinfurth informs me that the tree is the dragon's-blood tree1 ,dracaena ombet v4 ,heuglin2 he himself did not see it in the ,elba neighbourhood1 and its occurrence has not hitherto been recorded further north than the ,erkowit district of the ,sudan 7latitude about #ai71 where the native name for the tree is to-omba or t'ombet4 ,see ,bollettino della ,societ ,africana d',italia3 ,naples1 #ahia4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,water ,,supplies4#aac 99 99 99 99 99 ,the sources of water in ,south-,eastern ,egypt1 as in the ,egyptian deserts generally1 may be divided into three main classes3-- 7#a7 ,springs2 7#b7 ,wells2 7#c7 ,rock basins4 ,springs4 ,as springs are classified those water sources where water issues naturally from the rocks1 either above or near ground level1 without the aid of artificial excavation4 ,as will be seen on looking through the list of water sources on pp4 #bdd to #bej1 springs are less common than wells and rock basins1 but some of the best known water sources1 such as those of ,abraq1 ,abu ,saafa1 ,abu ,hodeid1 and ,meneiga1 belong to this class4 ,the ,arabic word for spring is ,ain1 but the ,bedouin seldom use this word1 calling springs and wells alike ,bir1 which properly signifies a well4 ,small springs are called ,megal by the ,ababda1 and ,megwel by the ,bisharin tribes4 ,springs may occur in any kind of rock1 but the rock must be either of a porous nature or must contain fissures4 ,thus the springs of ,abu ,saafa and ,abraq occur in sandstone1 which is itself porous and permits the passage of water through the body of the rock1 while the springs of ,meneiga occur in a crushed serpentine1 which1 though not itself a porous rock1 is full of fissures and crush-planes1 and thus is capable of holding and giving passage to underground waters4 ,it is in consequence of the non-porosity and the comparative fewness of fissures in granitic rocks that springs are seldom seen to issue from rocks of this class4 ,the collecting areas of the ,eastern ,desert springs are mostly in the immediate neighbourhood of the springs themselves4 ,thus1 for instance1 the springs of ,abu ,saafa and ,abraq are fed by the rainfall on the great sandstone plateaux which surround them1 while those of ,meneiga are supplied by the rainfall on the mountain mass of ,gebel ,gerf4 ,in consequence of the fact that the waters do not travel very far underground before they issue from the springs1 the water is generally cool4 ,the yield of the springs is usually small1 rarely exceeding ten litres a minute from any individual spring1 but it is wonderfully constant2 the rocks of the collecting area form a huge reservoir which only parts slowly with its water contents1 and thus springs may go on yielding supplies when1 after a succession of three or four nearly rainless years1 many of the wells and rock basins are quite dry4 ,as a rule1 spring waters are very clear and potable4 ,the purest are those which pass through siliceous rocks such as sandstone2 where the rocks are rich in lime and magnesia1 as serpentines and gabbros1 the salt-content of the spring may be fairly considerable1 but there is no known spring in this part of ,egypt of which the water is so salt as to be disagreable to the taste4#aad ,it is their constancy combined with the purity of their water that makes the springs the most highly prized of desert water sources4 ,springs are mostly on or near the main camel roads1 for the roads are naturally selected so as to utilise these constant water supplies4 ,frequently1 however1 the spring is situated up a lateral valley some little distance from the main track1 and is more or less difficult of access4 ,the springs of ,abu ,saafa are on a main road1 where the ,wadi ,hodein cuts cleanly through the sandstone plateau2 but those of ,meneiga1 being at the head of a cul-de-sac1 are only approachable by a branch track4 ,at large springs the ,arabs generally dig out a series of basins into which the water flows1 so that these are always full of water ready for the camels of a caravan to drink4 ,at megals there is usually no pool1 or only a very small one1 in sand or detritus2 this sand is scooped out and the water is baled from the hole with a tin can4 ,the absence of a pool is probably due to a desire to check evaporation4 ,the flow at a megal is frequently so small that only a few litres per hour can be obtained2 the small trickling spring of ,sikait1 for instance1 was yielding only twenty gallons of water per diem in #aijf1 but even this small supply was highly prized by the miners working there1 on account of its purity as a drinking water4 ,megals are more likely to run dry than the larger springs1 owing to their smaller collecting area4 ,any attempt to increase the flow of springs by blasting or excavation would probably only give an increase in yield at the expense of constancy2 the throttling of the efflux is doubtless in many cases the chief reason for the perennial character of the yield of a spring1 the rainfall being insufficient to maintain greater supplies than the springs yield at present4 ,wells4 ,the wells of ,south-,eastern ,egypt are mostly shallow excavations in the alluvia of the wadi floors1 tapping the drainage waters which slowly percolate underground ,nilewards and seawards from the mountain ranges4 ,they are naturally more frequent in the districts near to the mountain ranges than in the lower reaches of the wadis1 and the best wells are usually in well-defined trunk wadis which collect the drainage from myriads of smaller valleys4 ,the wells sunk in the wadis at points remote from the mountain ranges are of immense importance to travellers crossing from the ,nile1 forming as they do the only supplies in an otherwise waterless journey of several days4 ,on an average1 water is reached at a depth of eight to ten metres2 occasionally1 where the wadi is crossed underground by a rocky bar1 the natural damming enables water to be reached at very shallow depths4 ,the shafts dug by the ,arabs are generally wide and very crooked1 in order to permit of a man descending to fill a water-skin4 ,usually a 8well0 consists of three or four such shafts sunk in proximity4 ,occasionally1 especially in the ,bisharin country1 the shafts are lined with rubble masonry1 and rough timbers may be stretched across the mouth to facilitate hoisting by ropes4 ,there is never any hoisting gear except at mines2 rope is too much prized by the ,arabs for it to be possible to leave ropes unguarded at a well1 so each caravan uses its own rope and skins4 ,occasionally1 the shaft is so cranked that the water cannot be seen from above4 ,the reason for this is chiefly laziness in excavation2 it is easier to deepen a well by driving out laterally a short distance and then sinking a narrow pit1 throwing out the excavated material into the larger main shaft1 than to hoist all to the surface4 ,near the wells one usually finds hods1 or mud basins1 into which the ,arabs pour the hoisted water for their animals to drink4 ,frequently there are high hods for camels and low ones for sheep and goats4 ,after every considerable rainfall the wells become filled up with stony downwash1 and have to be dug out afresh4 ,there is no protective wall to prevent infilling2 and1 contrary to what might at first be thought1 it is not laziness which conditions this circumstance4 ,to the ,arab1 wells are a last resource4 ,after rain1 all the galts 7rock basins7 are full of good water4 ,the ,arab knows that the supplies in these galts will evaporate1 while those in the wells1 covered in by alluvium1 are safe from loss by this cause4 ,he therefore draws his supplies from galts as long as he can1 and only when these are empty does he open the wells4 ,the main wells never fail except after unusually prolonged drought1 and then the condition of the ,arab is sore indeed4 ,the ,bisharin do not drink much water1 preferring to nourish themselves on the milk of their flocks and herds2 but in times of drought the milk supply falls off because there is not sufficient moist vegetation for the animals to feed on4 ,the quality of water from the wells varies enormously with their situation and at different times4 ,when water is abundant1 it is generally good2 but as the supply falls off and the wells have to be deepened1 the slow infiltration carries abundance of sodium1 calcium1 and magnesium salts from the rocks1 and the water is then often very unpleasant4 ,the following analyses by ,mr4 ,lucas of water-samples from some of the wells in #aijf will give a good general idea of the salts present2 the figures give milligrammes per litre 7parts per million73-- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,bir ,sikait ,bir ,bir ,bir ,abu ,shadli#aae ,bir ,well4,masur4,metawit4,hamamid4--------- ---,helie4 ,i4 ,,ii4 ---------------------------------------- ------- ,total solid matter in solution #g1cfj #hhj #d1jbj #a1gbj #b1chj #b1ihj #d1jdj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,cl #a1bfc #eg #a1jbg #bbe #eee #gdi #cbc ,,so#c #b1ecj #bfc #a1jdb #cah #edj #ggf #a1ddg ,ca,o #aaf #bjj #cej #ccj #caj #aaf #faj ,mg,o #aaf #bi #aaf #hg #fi #aaf #baa ---------------------------------------- -------- ,equivalent of ,cl as ,na,cl #b1jge #id #a1fhg #cgj #iab #a1bca #ecj ,equivalent of ,,so#c as ,na#b,,so#d #a1hej #a1cgg #dff #eej #ifj #a1cgg #b1efi ,alkalinity to methyl orange calculated as ,na,h,c,o#c #ejj #bbb #eej #hdh #bih #bfj #fea ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,all the above waters were quite drinkable1 though that of the ,sikait well was rather disagreably salty4 ,an analysis of the water of one of the ,halaib wells in #ahie is given by ,dr4 ,natterer1#aag who found 7in parts per million73-- ,cl #ccf ,,so#d #ddi ,,co#c #dh ,dr4 ,natterer records that the sample1 which was clear1 tasted slightly alkaline1 and contained very distinct traces of nitrites and nitrates1 free carbon dioxide1 free ammonia1 and organic matter4 ,during my stay of four days at ,halaib in ,may #aijh1 ,i drank regularly of the local well-water2 ,i found it very hard1 and though the ,arabs seemed to like it1 its action on myself was so strongly aperient that ,i sent into the mountains to ,bir ,frukit for purer supplies for use on the long march to ,port ,sudan4 ,as a rule1 it is the magnesium salts which are the most harmful constituents1 the sulphate giving a strong purgative character to the water4 ,such salts are naturally present in greatest quantity where the rocks are gypseous1 as for instance along the coast to the south of ,halaib1 where the wells of ,ti ,kureitra1 sunk in gypsum and lined with blocks of selenite1 yield water of so purgative a character that all my ,arabs who drank of it became violently ill4 ,in districts where the rocks are of very basic igneous types1 such as gabbros and serpentines1 the salt-content may also be fairly high4 ,water from diorite country is somewhat better1 that from granite better still1 and that from sandstone best of all4 ,there are practically no wells in clayey strata within the region here treated of1 but ,bir ,qoleib1 which is on the road from ,daraw at about two days' journey east of the ,nile1 is sunk at the foot of a clayey scarp1 and the water1 when ,i partook of it in #aijg1 was clouded with clayey matter so finely divided as to be unfilterable through a ,berkefeld filter even under strong pressure1 while the physiological action of the water was to produce very marked constipation4 ,wells near the sea coast are liable to be very salty from infiltration of sea water4 ,as a rule1 the very salt wells1 such as ,bir ,murra1 ,bir ,muelih1 ,bir ,shalatein1 and ,ti ,kureitra1 are used only by camels and sheep4 ,when the ,arabs have to drink purgative water for lack of other supplies1 they often mix milk with it1 and ,i have found it wise to imitate them in this respect1 with liberal addition of brandy in some cases4 ,wells are generally named after the wadi in which they occur1 e4g41 ,bir ,abu ,hashim is the well in ,wadi ,abu ,hashim4 ,a bitter well is often called ,bir ,murra4#aah ,a deep well is called ,sararat by the ,bisharin1 e4g41 ,bir ,sararat ,seyet is the deep well in ,wadi ,seyet4 ,questions are often asked as to whether it is not possible to increase the available water supplies by sinking fresh wells4 ,where it is a question of sinking a new well in the middle of a long waterless stretch1 or where the object is to sink a fresh well near an existing salty one in order to obtain a drinkable quality of water 7and these are the two most usual cases71 success cannot be predicted with any certainty1 even in the most likely looking spots4 ,we must remember that though the present ,arabs may be lazy1 the older tenants of the desert were more active4 ,we have only to look at the old mining centres to see this4 ,the probability is that the old miners were just as much worried by the scarcity of water as we are to-day1 and with the cheap convict labour then available we may rest assured that every attempt was made to increase the supply4 ,and it is not probable that the ,arabs will have allowed to fall into disuse any existing well on an otherwise waterless road1 so that it is likely that most of the wells in the wadis remote from the mountains are at spots specially favourable which have been discovered by a laborious process of trial and error4 ,confirmation of this view is supplied by the failure of new wells sunk at considerable cost in likely-looking places1 as for instance at ,abu ,rahal1 where a well carried down to over sixty metres' depth failed to find water4 ,where modern wells have obtained water1 they have usually been sunk near to or on the site of existing wells1 as for instance near the temple of ,seti ,i and at the different mining centres2 in these cases it has sometimes been found possible to increase the supply by going deeper4 ,and with regard to obtaining sweet water by sinking new wells near to old salty ones1 no success can be hoped for if the saltiness is due to a general salt-content in the surrounding rocks2 the ,mines ,department well in ,wadi ,mellaha#aai yielded no better water than the ,arab well in the same wadi1 because the alluvium everywhere in the wadi contains abundance of salt4 ,in some cases1 it may be1 the promotion of a more rapid flow would lead to a slight lessening in the salinity2 but if a well becomes salt merely by evaporation resulting from stagnation1 that very fact shows that it is not much used by the ordinary traveller2 and moreover the rate of flow of the underground water is not as a rule sufficiently rapid to yield large supplies1 even from wide excavations4 ,in the south parts of the country1 where the rainfall is greater1 it is possible1 nay1 even likely1 that many new wells could be sunk with success2 but in these localities existing wells are more abundant and the necessity for new wells does not arise4 ,rock ,basins 7,galts74 ,the typical rock basin1 called a galt#abj by the ,arabs1 is a smooth-sided cavity in the rocky floor of a steep gorge draining a large mass of high hills4 ,galts are generally difficult of access1 being situated in the higher parts of very stony wadis1 so that one has to tramp often over miles of steeply rising stony ground to reach them4 ,galts abound in all high mountain-masses in ,south-,eastern ,egypt1 and furnish the greater portion of the water supply of the population4 ,the capacity of galts varies very much2 some hold millions of litres4 ,often there is a chain of successive galts at intervals along the length of a gorge1 and after rain the whole series is filled1 while much overflows and runs to waste4 ,the origin of the rocky basins is generally due to pot-holing action on a large scale4 ,galts may occur in rocks of any hard type1 but are most commonly met with in eruptive rocks4 ,sandstone galts never remain long full1 owing to the permeable nature of the rocks4 ,the large ,galt el ,aguz near ,gebel ,um ,harba1 which from the inscriptions near it was evidently known and used in ,ptolemaic times1 is in sandstone1 receiving in fact the superficial run-off from the same high mass of sandstone hills as furnish the collecting area for feeding by percolation and underground flow the adjacent springs of ,bir ,abraq and ,abu ,saafa2 but the galt is seldom full for more than a month or two1 while the springs are constant4 ,the water supply of galts depends firstly on the rainfall of the district2 secondly1 on the existing drainage system2 thirdly1 on the presence and size of eroded basins along the lines of drainage2 fourthly1 on the nature of the rocks forming the basin1 and1 lastly1 on the degree of exposure to evaporation4 ,the rainfall in the ,eastern ,desert is often very local4 ,a series of galts full one year may be dry the next1 while those of another area may show a reverse state of things4 ,the drainage system most favourable to galts is one formed by the union of long narrow steep-sided gullies into a single gorge4 ,the presence of basins is conditioned by the steepness of the drainage and the hardness of the rocky floor2 if the rocks are soft or much crushed1 galts are very unlikely to occur4 ,again1 if the basin is formed of permeable though hard rock1 there will be rapid loss by infiltration4 ,evaporation is generally far less rapid at galts than in open country1 because being in narrow gorges galts only receive the sun's rays for a few hours of the day1 and are1 moreover1 sheltered from winds4 ,the quality of galt water varies very much with the interval since rainfall and with the nature of the rocks4 ,sandstone galts are very pure1 because of their short life and the siliceous nature of the rock4 ,serpentine and diorite galts contain magnesium and other salts1 and as the loss by evaporation continues the water may become somewhat bitter and purgative by concentration of these saline constituents1 though galts never suffer to the extent that some wells do in this respect4 ,a galt is frequently accompanied by a small spring 7megal or megwel72 the galt represents the run-off1 while the spring receives the percolating water4 ,thus for months after a galt is empty it may in some cases be possible to obtain water in small quantity by scooping out sand-filled rock cavities close to the basin4 ,galts are generally named after the mountain in which they occur1 though when large and well known they may have special names given to them1 as in the case of the ,galt el ,aguz mentioned above4 ,remarks on ,water ,transport4 ,as will be gathered from the map on ,plate ,,iii1 water supplies are seldom more than two days' march apart in this part of ,egypt4 ,for the ordinary traveller it will therefore be usually an ample provision to carry four days' supply2 in special cases1 where it is desired to camp for any purpose remote from water sources1 special provision will of course have to be made4 ,there is seldom any trouble with the ,arabs about their own water1 as when their supplies run short one or two camels can always be detached from a caravan to fill their skins from the nearest well1 and they are always content to travel day and night for this purpose4 ,with regard to the quantity of water to be carried1 ,i found ten gallons per ,european per day to be ample1 including water for cooking and for one's personal servants4 ,water is best carried in rectangular galvanized iron tanks1 each holding ten gallons1 fitted with a good brass or wooden plug2 two of these carried horizontally make a light camel load1 and on the march one can add a little in the shape of tents or bedding to the load4 ,i have tried the barrel-shaped galvanised steel tanks used by the mining companies1 which hold sixteen gallons each and are easily carried vertically1 a pair forming a camel load2 but ,i have found them much more liable to damage than the smaller rectangular tanks1 and do not recommend them for regular desert travel4 ,list of ,water ,sources4 ,in the following list ,i have summarized all the water sources known to me in order of latitude from north to south4 ,i believe the list contains all sources that are of importance1 but it is doubtless far from being complete as regards the rock basins of the mountain areas for two reasons4 ,firstly1 the ,arabs are often reluctant to point out the sources1 more especially in the more arid parts of the ,ababda country2 and secondly1 as already remarked1 since the rock basins depend for their supplies entirely on comparatively recent rainfall around them1 they vary very much in yield in different years1 so that basins which are of great use in one year may be totally dry the next1 and vice-versa1 and guides seldom take the trouble to point out a dry basin1 even if in some other year it may have held a useful store of water4 ,with regard to the accuracy of the positions given in the list1 it may be remarked that in the case of wells actually visited the position is given to seconds1 and the localisation may be relied on within at most a few hundred metres2 while for wells not actually seen but whose positions were pointed out by guides from some distance1 the coordinates are usually only given to minutes1 and these positions are uncertain by larger amounts1 up to two or three kilometres in extreme cases4 ,it must not be assumed that water supplies can always be obtained at all the localities named4 ,as already remarked1 rock basins will usually only be full if rain has fallen in the district comparatively recently1 large rock basins may furnish supplies for a year after rainfall1 but the smaller ones last only a few months1 weeks1 or even days4 ,the reserves are the wells1 most of which never run dry except after a succession of rainless years4 ,but when rock basins are full1 many of the wells are filled with downwash1 and digging must be resorted to in order to re-open them4 ,a traveller arriving at a 8well0 sometimes finds no evidence whatever of its existence beyond the guides pointing to a spot on the ground with the statement 8el bir hena0 7the well is here74 ,the explanation is that the well has been filled with alluvial matter washed down the valley by recent rain2 but that same rainfall will have filled the rock basins in the hills1 and the ,arabs leave the digging out of the well until the basins are empty again4 ,in other cases a well may be found to be dry through the water-level having sunk below the depth to which the well was last opened1 and by deepening it a foot or so one may obtain a supply4 ,the notes in the column headed 8,remarks10 on the quality of the water of the various sources1 are mostly based on the observations of a single year1 and must therefore only be taken as general guides4 ,usually1 the shorter the interval since rain has fallen1 the better are the supplies1 both in quantity and quality4 ,,list ,,of ,,water ,,sources4#aba ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,name4 ,latitude,longitude ,remarks4 ,n4 ,e4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,galt ,um ,tundeba #bd #ee #becd #de #ec ,rock basin in ravine1 #a kilometre from ,wadi ,um ,tundeba4 ,gave good supply of pure water in #aijf4 ,galt in ,gebel ,ghuel #bd #ed #jcd #ci #j ,large rock basins1 yielding a good supply in #aije-aijf4 ,bir ,muelih #bd #ea #cecc #ei #eb ,in ,wadi ,muelih4 ,very salt1 only drinkable by animals4 ,hangalia well #bd #ej #bgcd #ce #dj ,modern well in ,wadi ,hangalia1 sunk by miners4 ,supply small and of poor quality4 ,galt ,um ,karaba 7,migif7#bd #dh #dhcd #bg #ee ,large rock basins1 yielding a good supply in #aije-aijf4 ,rather difficult of access for camels4 ,bir ,ghadir #bd #dh #becd #dg #j ,well in ,wadi ,ghadir4 ,filled by downwash in #aijf4 ,megal el ,harami #bd #dg #cdcd #cd #ae ,small spring in ravine on west side of ,wadi ,nugrus4 ,yields for some months after rainfall4 ,water very good4 ,bir ,sibrit #bd #dc #jcc #eh #j ,well in ,wadi ,sibrit2 water about #h metres down1 of good quality4 ,supply stated to be constant4 ,bir ,murra #bd #da #jcd #aa #j ,well in ,wadi ,shait4 ,water salt1 only drinkable by camels4 ,hamish mine #bd #da #jcd #f #j ,water in mine shafts1 that in the westernmost of three shafts good in #aijf4 ,well in ,wadi ,hamish1 close to mines1 #ae metres deep1 dry in #aijf4 ,sikait1 spring #bd #dj #ejcd #dg #aj ,tiny trickling spring of good water4 ,yields only about #ej litres per day1 but supply of very good quality and said to be constant4 ,sikait1 north well #bd #dj #abcd #df #j ,modern well1 sunk by miners4 ,was yielding fair quantity in #aijf1 but of mediocre quality4 ,sikait1 south well #bd #ci #chcd #dg #de ,similar to last2 both wells are in the floor of ,wadi ,sikait4 ,bir ,um ,gubur #bd #cg #jcd #e #j ,well in ,wadi ,shait4 ,water about #h metres down1 good and plentiful in #aijf4 ,bir ,abu ,had #bd #cd #jcd #cf #j ,well in ,wadi ,abu ,had1 near its head1 at junction of two roads to ,sikait4 ,water salty4 ,bir ,masur #bd #ca #jcd #ac #j ,several wells in floor of small wadi4 ,water good1 about #aj metres down in #aijf1 but supplies cannot be relied on4 ,bir el ,ranga #bd #bf #jce #ac #j ,very salt well1 close to sea4 ,galt ,um ,gerifat #bd #bb #eecd #dj #bj ,rock basin in gorge off ,wadi ,huluz4 ,was yielding good supply in #aijf4 ,bir ,metawit #bd #ag #jcd #ca #j ,well in ,wadi ,metawit1 on road between ,bir ,shadli and ,bir ,masur4 ,said to yield constant supply4 ,water about #h metres down1 good and clear in #aijf4 ,bir ,khashab #bd #af #jcd #bc #j ,well in ,wadi ,khashab4 ,not to be depended on4 ,dry in spring of #aijf1 but yielding a small supply of mediocre character in the autumn of the same year4 ,bir ,shadli #bd #ab #ccd #cg #ee ,spring or well near tomb of ,sheikh4 ,perennial supply of variable quality and quantity4 ,favourite meeting place of ,ababda ,arabs4 ,bir ,abu ,hamamid #bd #ab #jcd #bi #j ,well sunk about #g metres in floor of ,wadi ,abu ,hamamid4 ,yielding large supplies of rather salty and muddy water in #aijf4 ,amar ,spring #bd #aj #jce #i #j ,spring of good water in diorite hills south-east of ,gebel ,hamata4 ,well in ,wadi ,abu #bd #g #jcd #bf #j ,wells sunk in wadi floor4 ,hamamid ,dry in #aijf4 ,bir ,helie #bd #e #jcd #cb #j ,well in ,wadi ,helie4 ,excellent water in spring of #aijf1 but rather salty later on in the year4 ,quality evidently varies considerably with interval since rainfall4 ,megal ,um ,gunud #bc #eh #ejce #aj #ej ,a smaller rock basin in ,gebel ,um ,gunud1 off ,wadi ,lahami1 near to ,galt ,um ,gunud4 ,galt ,um ,gunud #bc #eh #ajce #aa #bj ,rock basin1 in ,gebel ,um ,gunud4 ,yielded supplies in #aijf4 ,accessible from ,wadi ,lahami4 ,megal el ,selaia #bc #ef #eecd #eb #ej ,small spring in sand at foot of rocks near ,gebel ,selaia4 ,yield small and not to be depended on for long after rain4 ,galt ,batoga #bc #ea #bjce #ba #cj ,rock basin at foot of ,gebel ,batoga off ,wadi ,kalalat4 ,water good1 plentiful1 and fairly easy of access in #aijg4 ,galt ,um ,maiyat #bc #ej #bce #ah #ae -- ,galt in ,gebel ,dahanib #bc #dd #dece #i #ej ,rock basin in ravine1 containing water after rain2 about a cubic metre in #aijg4 ,bir ,shenshef #bc #dd #jce #bc #j ,several small wells in ,wadi ,shenshef near ruins4 ,water good4 ,bir ,abu ,hashim #bc #da #efcd #d #bf ,several wells in alluvial floor of wadi4 ,water good and plentiful1 about #h metres down in #aijg4 ,bir ,betan1 west well #bc #ch #jce #c #ae ,well in floor of ,wadi ,betan1 about #fjj metres lower down than foregoing1 close to where ,wadi ,um ,eleiga enters ,wadi ,betan4 ,filled by downwash in #aijg4 ,bir ,betan1 east well #bc #cg #eece #c #ce ,well in floor of ,wadi ,betan1 near small seyal tree4 ,filled by alluvium in #aijj4 ,galt near ,gebel ,abu #bc #cg #jce #e #bj ,rock basin in north-west ,dahr flank of ,gebel ,abu ,dahr4 ,was yielding a good supply in #aijg4 ,bir ,rahaba #bc #cc #cjce #i #ed ,well in alluvium of ,wadi ,rahaba4 ,filled by downwash in #aijg4 ,bir ,abu ,reye #bc #cc #jce #i #j -- ,galt el ,aguz #bc #cb #cjcd #ce #j ,large rock basin in sandstone1 near easy pass over watershed at head of ,wadi ,arned4 ,yields excellent water for short time only after rain4 ,bir el ,gahlia #bc #ca #jce #h #j -- ,bir ,abu ,beid #bc #ca #jcd #eh #j ,well in ,wadi ,abu ,beid4 ,was yielding a fair quantity of good water in #aijf4 ,bir el ,sunta #bc #be #ejcd #dg #dj ,spring forming pool at foot of sandstone scarp of ,gebel ,abraq4 ,good water4 ,bir ,abu ,dibesat #bc #be #fcd #dg #aj ,spring forming small pool at foot of sandstone scarp of ,gebel ,abraq4 ,water good4 ,bir ,abraq #bc #bd #efcd #dg #bj ,spring forming pool in gully of ,gebel ,abraq4 ,supply constant1 good1 and plentiful4 ,bir ,gumbit #bc #bd #jcd #di #j ,at edge of sandstone hills2 probably a spring similar to those of ,abraq4 ,bir ,orga #bc #ba #jce #c #j ,well stated to exist in ,wadi ,orga el ,rayani4 ,megal near ,abu ,saafa #bc #ai #cjcd #dh #dj ,spring8 in small wadi off ,wadi ,hodein4 ,unimportant1 being close to ,abu ,saafa ,springs4 ,abu ,saafa ,springs #bc #ah #icd #dg #de ,four springs yielding constant supply of very pure water1 at foot of sandstone scarp in ,wadi ,hodein4 ,pools easy of access to camels4 ,galt in ,wadi ,gihab #bc #ag #ecd #dh #aj ,large rock basin in ,wadi ,gihab ,yakub ,abu ,derb4 ,pool of good rain water #f metres diameter in #aijg4 ,easily accessible to camels4 ,bir ,um ,reit #bc #ac #cfcd #ce #c ,well sunk in floor of ,wadi ,um ,reit4 ,water of mediocre quality4 ,bir ,dif #bc #ab #dbcd #di #ee ,spring forming two pools in the stony bed of ,wadi ,dif4 ,water good4 ,bir ,shalatein #bc #h #ece #cf #bh ,very salt well near sea at mouth of ,wadi ,hodein4 ,drinkable only by camels4 ,point on administrative boundary between ,egypt and the ,sudan4 ,bir ,beida1 north well #bb #eh #fce #ah #aj ,in ,wadi ,beida1 about #ejj metres further down than south well1 at a bend in the wadi4 ,good water1 yields three years after rainfall1 but supply infiltrates slowly4 ,bir ,beida1 south well #bb #eg #ecce #ah #aj ,in ,wadi ,beida1 close to where track to ,bir ,meneiga leaves it4 ,dry in #aijg4 ,bir ,madi #bb #dg #dfce #a #dh ,well sunk in alluvium of ,wadi ,madi1 at a bend in a narrow gorge at foot of a high granite hill4 ,plenty of good water in #aijg-aijh4 ,bir ,meneiga1 north #bb #dg #hce #ab #bj ,similar to ,bir ,meneiga1 spring south spring1 to which it is very close4 ,point on administrative boundary between ,egypt and the ,sudan4 ,bir ,meneiga1 south #bb #df #eece #ab #ae ,tiny pool in rocky spring floor of ,wadi ,meneiga1 which refills as fast as emptied4 ,easily accessible to camels4 ,water excellent4 ,bir ,korbiai #bb #df #eece #aj #ce ,two wells of excellent water in the rocky gorge of ,wadi ,korbiai4 ,said to yield for three or four years after rain4 ,bir ,muqur #bb #db #bfce #ah #e ,trickling spring with pools in serpentine1 in ,wadi ,muqur4 ,was yielding about five litres per minute in #aijh4 ,bir ,sararat ,seyet #bb #da #ajce #a #ei ,deep well in ,wadi ,seyet2 filled by downwash in #aijg-aijh4 ,bir ,diqdib #bb #da #jce #ac #j ,spring8 high up in ,wadi ,diqdib1 south part of ,gebel ,gerf4 ,bir ,adal ,deib #bb #dj #cjcf #d #cj ,salt well1 close to sea4 ,ti ,dabei ,hamra ,dom #bb #ci #eece #ch #dj ,shallow excavations in alluvium and sand in the hills of ,hamra ,dom1 only yielding supplies for a short time after rainfall4 ,bir ,baaneit #bb #ci #cjce #ah #dj ,spring8 situated a short distance up ,wadi ,baaneit4 ,said to yield constant but limited supplies4 ,bir ,bint el ,dreb #bb #cd #jce #i #j -- ,bir ,um ,rasein #bb #bi #ajce #bj #bj ,near ,gebel ,um ,rasein4 ,bir ,nabit #bb #bf #ejcf #ba #ej ,close to sea4 ,probably salty4 ,bir ,um ,bishtit #bb #bf #ccce #cc #de ,in narrow winding gorge off ,wadi ,um ,bishtit4 ,said to yield good water supplies for a year after rainfall and small supplies longer4 ,full of downwash in #aijh4 ,galt ,osnei #bb #be #cece #ej #dj ,rock basin in small granite hill2 full only after rain4 ,meis-heit-ar1 north #bb #bb #dce #ce #ab ,galt in rocky gorge off galt ,wadi ,meisah4 ,yielding good supply in #aijh2 preferred to ,bir ,meisah for quality4 ,bir ,abu ,hodeid #bb #bb #jce #ag #j ,large and important spring in ,wadi ,abu ,hodeid4 ,bir ,odis ,maaleq #bb #bb #jce #af #j ,large and important spring in ,wadi ,odis1 reached by a mountain track from ,wadi ,delawet4 ,bir ,meisah #bb #ba #hce #ce #ej ,well-known well in ,wadi ,meisah4 ,filled by downwash in #aijh4 ,water said to be of only moderate quality4 ,bir ,qidmib #bb #ba #jce #bi #j -- ,bir ,abu ,ramad #bb #bj #djcf #bf #ej ,close to sea4 ,probably salty4 ,bir ,shinai #bb #bj #jce #ae #j -- ,meis-heit-ar1 south #bb #ba #aece #ce #bj ,galt in rocky gorge off galt ,wadi ,meisah4 ,yielding good water in #aijh4 ,megwel ,adar ,aqdeib #bb #ag #ejce #ch #dj -- ,megwel ,um ,edwa #bb #af #ejce #cb #de ,chain of rock basins and small spring in stony gorge on east side of ,hadal ,aweib ,meisah4 ,rather difficult for camels4 ,water good4 ,megwel ,didaut #bb #af #bece #cg #aj -- ,megwel ,akau #bb #ad #ejcf #ba #aj ,small spring8 on north side of ,gebel ,elba4 ,bir ,kansisrob #bb #ad #cecf #bb #j ,large well2 water good and plentiful4 ,bisharin camping ground4 ,megwel ,hamida #bb #ad #bece #dg #j ,a tiny trickling spring of saline water in a narrow gorge4 ,rock basin above it1 dry in #aijh4 ,halaib wells #bb #ac #becf #ch #dj ,several wells in village4 ,water plentiful1 strongly purgative to ,europeans1 though it has no effect on the natives of the place4 ,bir ,akwamtra #bb #ac #acf #ag #eh ,an excellent well at the foot of ,gebel ,elba2 important ,bisharin camping ground4 ,bir ,hilwit ,hasium #bb #ac #jce #ad #j -- ,bir ,nubitra #bb #ab #ejce #df #bj ,said to yield only small supply4 ,megwel ,um ,ein #bb #ab #cjce #ci #dj -- ,bir ,meheriqa #bb #ab #ajce #ef #ce ,spring on east side of ,wadi ,di-ib4 ,water rather salty1 but drinkable and clear4 ,bir ,kagog #bb #aa #jce #af #j ,small well in ,wadi ,hasium1 near its head4 ,galt in ,wadi ,kirir #bb #aj #jce #ai #j -- ,bir ,sararat ,serimtai #bb #h #ejcf #bd #ae -- ,bir ,mashushenai #bb #h #cjce #di #cj -- ,megwel ,aqwem #bb #h #jce #da #j -- ,bir ,guqub #bb #h #jcd #bg #j ,galt and spring8 ,water good but variable in quantity4 ,was yielding in #aijf4 ,bir ,salalat ,o ,sir #bb #g #bccf #ai #j -- ,ti ,kureitra #bb #e #ejcf #df #dj ,four wells sunk in gypseous strata near sea2 water strongly purgative4 ,bir ,egat #bb #e #jcd #ed #j -- ,bir ,frukit #bb #b #jcf #cf #j ,well in ,wadi ,aqilhoq2 water good and plentiful4 ,bir ,himeitra #bb #j #jce #ae #j -- ,bir ,qabatit #ba #eg #eecf #ea #ag ,well in ,wadi ,qabatit1 #a kilometres from sea2 water salty1 but said not to be purgative4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,footnote #aac3 ,part of this chapter is taken from my paper on 8,desert ,water ,supplies0 in the ,cairo ,scientific ,journal for #aijh 7,vol4 ,,ii71 pp4 #bcd-bdb4 ,footnote #aad3 ,i except the tiny spring called ,megwel ,hamida1 which is a mere trickle of very salty water4 ,footnote #aae3 ,samples collected on two different dates2 the figures show the variability of the water at the same well4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,not determined4 ,footnote #aag3 ,berichte der ,commission fr ,oceanographische ,forschungen1 ,sechste ,reihe1 ,wien #ahih1 p4 #eaj4 ,footnote #aah3 ,cf4 the ,marah of the ,israelites1 ,exodus #ae1 #bc4 8,they could not drink of the waters of ,marah1 for they were bitter2 therefore1 the name of it was called ,marah40 ,footnote #aai3 ,this is in latitude #bg #ce ,n41 and therefore outside the limits of the region specially described in this memoir1 but is quoted as a useful example4 ,footnote #abj3 ,pronounced to rhyme with the ,english word shalt4 ,footnote #aba3 ,the map of the roads and water sources on ,plate ,,iii1 p4 #bf1 should be referred to in connexion with this list4 ,,plate ,,xx4 ,illustration3 ,,geological ,,map ,,of ,,south-,,eastern ,,egypt4 ,ball4 ,geography ,geology of ,south-,eastern ,egypt4 ,photo-,metal-,process4 ,survey ,dept4 ,cairo #aiaj4 7#fj-aij7 ,,chapter ,,viii4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,geology4--,,sedimentary ,,rocks4 99 99 99 99 99 ,only a small proportion of ,south-,eastern ,egypt is covered by sedimentary rocks4 ,as will be seen from a glance at the geological map on ,plate ,,xx1 sedimentary strata are to be found only in the north-western and central portions of the area1 where the ,nubian sandstone which covers so much of the country close east of the ,nile terminates in a long south-easterly projection1 and along certain portions of the coast1 where small outliers of ,nubian sandstone and patches and strips of gypseous limestones and coral reef occur4 ,the oldest rocks of undoubted sedimentary origin1 the ,nubian sandstones1 are of ,cretaceous age4 ,tertiary beds are absent1 except for the gypseous strata of ,ras ,benas1 which may possibly be ,miocene4 ,quaternary deposits are represented by ,pleistocene and ,recent coral reefs and beach deposits1 and by accumulations of alluvial downwash1 blown sand1 and calcareous tufa4 ,the sedimentary deposits may thus be classified into3-- 7#a7 ,recent ,deposits 7coral reefs and raised beaches1 blown sand1 alluvial deposits1 and calcareous tufa74 7#b7 ,gypsum and ,gypseous ,limestones 7of uncertain age1 possibly ,miocene74 7#c7 ,nubian ,sandstone 7,cretaceous74 ,coral ,reefs and ,raised ,beaches4 ,coral reefs fringe almost the entire coast-line of ,south-,eastern ,egypt1 rendering the coast one of the foulest in the world for shipping4 ,coral forms the islands of ,wadi ,gemal1 ,gulhan1 ,mukawar1 ,mirear1 ,seyal1 and ,halaib1 these rising to a few metres above the sea2 but in general it is not met with on the main land except close to the shore4 ,the reefs may extend1 slightly raised1 some distance inland1 but cannot be seen owing to the sand and downwash from the mountains which covers the sloping coast-plain4 ,at low water great expanses of nearly level coral reef1 stretching out for a kilometre or more from the shore1 are exposed in places1 especially near ,ras ,benas4 ,frequently a line of reefs can be seen running for many miles parallel to the coast at a distance of a kilometre or more from it2 these outer reefs can be traced in windy weather by the breaking of waves on them1 and in calm weather by the lighter colour of the water over them4 ,there is frequently deep water between the outer reefs and the shore4 ,openings in the outer reefs1 through which boats can pass into the sheltered water within1 are called mersas by the ,arab boatmen2 they frequently occur opposite the mouths of the larger wadis4 ,coral reef forms a tough1 hard1 and very porous limestone1 with an extremely rough surface on which the structure of the astraean and other corals composing it can be clearly seen4 ,it has been used for building the jetty at ,halaib1 and rough blocks of it were anciently employed for building at ,berenice1 as well as in the tombs at ,suakin el ,qadim2 but its porosity and intractability would never recommend it as a building stone if any other could be found locally4 ,in close association with coral reefs are beach deposits of ,pleistocene age4 ,these occur round the hills near the tip and on the north side of the peninsula of ,ras ,benas1 where they cover the slopes of the gypseous limestone hills4 ,low hills and banks of very white aspect occur near the sea further north2 these are probably also raised beaches1 though they have not been visited and may possibly be gypsum4 ,near the tip of ,ras ,benas these beach deposits are gritty limestones with abundant casts of lamellibranchs and gasteropods1 mostly in bad preservation1 as well as various echinoids1 among which ,m4 ,fourtau has identified the species ,brissus carinatus as one of the most abundant4 ,blown ,sand4 ,the dune-forming sand in ,south-,eastern ,egypt is exactly similar to that which covers such large areas in the ,libyan ,desert4 ,it consists of well-rounded quartz grains1 averaging about a millimetre in diameter2 the grains are usually of a golden-yellow colour1 owing to their being coated with a thin superficial film of iron oxide4 ,the only area where sand dunes are of any considerable magnitude or extent in ,south-,eastern ,egypt is the tract called ,i ,hubl 7lit4 8the sand dunes07 which extends from ,wadi ,meisah to ,wadi ,aideib1 fronting the hills of ,ti ,keferiai1 ,geror1 ,balatitda1 ,sul ,hamid1 and ,el ,sela4 ,the north faces of all these hills and the smaller hills north of them are swathed in thickly accumulated sand to such an extent as to make travelling over them difficult4 ,the reason for the heavy sand accumulation at this particular place is that the north-west wind1 which is the prevalent wind over ,egypt proper1 here meets with south-easterly winds coming up the ,red ,sea1 causing a local calm and a consequent dropping of the sand borne from the ,nubian sandstone areas by the north-west wind4 ,thus the same climatic conditions which give rise to the rich vegetation on the ,elba mountains cause at the same time extreme desert conditions in the tract immediately north-west of them4 ,sand accumulations of less magnitude occur in and about the lower reaches of the ,wadi ,hodein1 in the great valley to the north of ,berenice1 on the plain west of ,gebel ,um ,harba1 and at some few other places1 but they are seldom so extensive as to cause a serious hindrance to travel4 ,besides transporting the ordinary dune-forming sand1 the action of the wind is responsible for a considerable amount of redistribution of the coarser granitic and other sand produced by the disintegration of igneous rocks4 ,in high winds this coarse sand1 in angular grains as large as peas1 is blown about on the coast-plain to considerable distances from the places where it was originally deposited by water transport4 ,alluvial ,deposits4 ,the degradation of the mountain and hill masses which is constantly going on under sub-aerial agencies 7disintegration by variations of temperature1 and transport by water during occasional rain storms7 has in the course of centuries resulted in immense accumulations of alluvial material 7sand and gravel7 along all the drainage lines and on the plains4 ,disintegration is in many places greatly facilitated by the crushed nature of the rocks1 due to the tectonic movements which they have suffered during the process of folding and mountain formation4 ,this fact is specially evident in the case of the more basic rocks4 ,serpentines1 for instance1 are frequently so crushed and cracked that one may search in vain over a whole mountain for a place where the rock is sufficiently free from cracks to allow of a hand-specimen of the ordinary size being extracted without breaking up into fragments under the hammer4 ,in the more acid rocks1 like the granites1 crushing has been a less powerful aid to disintegration1 and here the diurnal temperature-range has been the principal factor2 the rock1 being an aggregate of crystals of different materials with different coefficients of expansion1 has been easily broken up at its surface by the constant differential motion of its component grains1 resulting in the formation of coarse granitic sand4 ,chemical action in denudation is of quite subordinate importance4 ,though some chemical action has taken place1 as for instance in the kaolinisation of the felspars1 we find as a rule that the alluvial accumulations consist principally of unaltered rock fragments4 ,in material1 the alluvial accumulations are of the same varied nature as the mountains from whose degradation they have originated1 ranging from very basic mineral substances1 such as serpentine1 to the most acid1 such as quartz4 ,the relative proportions of the different materials in the alluvial deposits do not1 however1 correspond as a rule with the proportions in which they enter into the mountain masses4 ,not only are heterogeneous rocks1 such as granites and diorites1 far more rapidly disintegrated by temperature-changes than are the more homogeneous rocks such as felsites and serpentines1 but the fragments produced by the disintegration of granitic rocks are rounder and of much smaller size than the fragments resulting from the breaking up of felsites1 schists1 and serpentines4 ,the result is that granitic detritus is transported to greater distances and distributed over larger areas than the detritus of the closer-grained and more homogeneous rocks4 ,in approaching a mountain composed of about equal parts of1 say1 granite and serpentine1 we accordingly find the lower portions of the wadi consist chiefly of granitic sand1 while the coarser and more angular detritus of serpentine is only seen in abundance in the higher parts of the drainage channel4 ,the nature of the alluvium of the wadi floor occasionally gives its name to the wadi2 thus1 of the two wadis which by their junction form ,wadi ,khoda1 one is called ,wadi ,salib el ,azrak1 because its alluvium consists of dark rock fragments1 while the other is called ,wadi ,salib el ,abiad1 because its floor is formed of white granitic sand4 7,azrak dark2 ,abiad white74 ,in size1 the fragments composing alluvial detritus vary from huge blocks weighing tons down to the finest sand whose grains are only a fraction of a millimetre in diameter4 ,as a rule1 of course1 the larger fragments are found near the heads of wadis1 and the finer sands in their lower reaches and on the plains4 ,but often we find great boulders mixed with the sand at immense distances from the parent mountain mass2 the heavier rain storms which occasionally break over the mountains produce for short periods such immense rushes of water down the wadis1 that great boulders are swept along and incorporated in the finer material which is deposited in times of more normal rainfall4 ,thus it is no uncommon thing in sinking a well in a wadi fifty kilometres or more from the mountains to encounter great boulders in the sandy alluvium4 ,in shape1 the alluvial fragments vary very much1 according to their mineral nature and the amount of rolling they have received in transport4 ,foliated rocks1 like schists and slates1 produce typically flaky fragments which seldom attain any high degree of rounding2 the same is true of serpentines which have been shattered by crushing4 ,granitic rocks produce generally more symmetrical fragments1 though granitic sand is typically angular unless it has been transported for considerable distances4 ,the larger blocks are generally rounded in the case of granitic rocks1 even when they have not travelled for any great distance2 for if a cubical block of granite be exposed to weathering1 disintegration takes place most rapidly at the corners1 and the block eventually becomes more or less spheroidal without having moved at all4 ,this can be well seen in such masses as ,gebel ,selaia1 where the granite boss is thoroughly well rounded in situ4 ,the same phenomenon can be noticed in certain dolerites1 where portions of the rock detached by joint planes have weathered in situ into forms like cannon balls4 ,the more homogeneous rocks like felsite and serpentine1 as well as the foliated rocks like gneisses1 schists1 and slates1 do not show much of this rounding in situ1 as they yield to the stresses of expansion and contraction by breaking along planes of crushing or foliation1 producing separate masses which preserve most of their angular shape4 ,in the lower reaches of the wadis and on the plains1 of course1 all the materials are more or less rounded1 owing to the attrition to which they have been subjected during transport4 ,of the thickness of the alluvial sands and gravels very little is known4 ,but that it exceeds eight metres in many of the wadis is proved by wells sunk to that depth4 ,on the coast-plain it may be vastly thicker1 for ,grabham#abb mentions that borings made in the maritime plain near ,port ,sudan have been carried down to #a1jjj feet 7#cje metres7 in the deposits4 ,only a very small proportion of the alluvial detritus brought down the wadis enters either the sea or the ,nile2 for the storm-formed streams1 though violent in the mountainous tracts1 commonly cease by being absorbed in the thirsty wadi floors and plains before reaching either the sea or the river4 ,bearing this in mind1 and the ages through which the actions of denudation and transport have gone on1 we can well imagine how great must be the total quantity of detritus accumulated4 ,in some wadis there are high banks of old detritus through which the streams have cut their way4 ,in the ,wadi ,meneiga1 for instance1 there are terraces of alluvium1 some eight or ten metres high1 on either side of the present water channel2 these terraces1 which are about two kilometres lower down the wadi than the wells1 are covered with rude rubble ruins1 the remains of dwellings erected out of reach of the occasional streams which rush down the wadi after rain4 ,at the east foot of ,gebel ,hamra ,dom are some well stratified friable sand rocks and sandy clays1 about ten metres thick1 ending abruptly against the granites and schists of the hill-mass4 ,these beds appear to be ancient alluvial deposits4 ,they contain ferruginous scales and show sun-cracks in places1 while the materials are finer and more distinctly stratified than one would expect to be brought down from the mountain under present conditions4 ,it is to the alluvial material in the wadis that the ,eastern ,desert owes most of its perennial water supplies and the vegetation it possesses4 ,the alluvial deposits are the great conservers of water4 ,pools form1 it is true1 in the bare rocky beds of the higher drainage lines1 and may last for many months where they are screened by the walls of a gorge from wind and sun1 and are in consequence not subject to rapid evaporation4 ,but such pools are difficult of access1 and afford but a precarious source of water supply because they are liable to dry up if a long period passes without rain4 ,the alluvium of the wadis absorbs the rainfall and protects it from evaporation1 so that even in very dry years water may be found by excavating in it at suitable places to depths of a few metres4 ,almost all the wells which are so important to travellers crossing the desert from the ,nile are of this character4 ,the abundance of trees which flourish in so many of the wadis likewise derive their nourishment from the water conserved in the alluvium of the wadi floor4 ,calcareous ,tufa4 ,small deposits of calcareous tufa of recent origin have been noted in the ,wadi ,um ,tundeba and in a gorge on the east side of ,gebel ,ghuel1 as well as round the little trickling spring called ,megwel ,hamida in the south part of the region4 ,at ,um ,tundeba the deposit occurs in a little gully close to a well known galt or pool of rain water4 ,the deposit is not extensive1 and has doubtless been formed by the evaporation of trickling drainage-water which had absorbed lime from the rocks4 ,the tufa 7#aj1cgd7 is a pale brown rock of rather porous nature2 it envelops fragments of schist-debris from the surrounding rocks4 ,the calcareous tufa of ,gebel ,ghuel is a more impressive deposit1 though its total mass is not very great4 ,it occurs at a point of sudden fall in a narrow rocky gorge leading to the ,wadi ,ghadir in about latitude #bb #ec4 ,proceeding up the gully one is confronted with a great curtain-like mass of tufa covering the face of a high ledge like a solidified cascade4 ,here also the origin is clearly due to trickling of lime-laden drainage-waters over the ledge of rock1 which forms a step in the wadi floor4 ,fragments of tufa were also seen round about ,gebel ,allawi1 though the rock was not traced to its source4 ,as only a relatively small number of rocky gullies have been explored1 it is likely that similar deposits to those above described occur in many other places4 ,gypsum and ,gypseous ,limestones4 ,the occurrences of gypsum and gypseous limestone beds in ,south-,eastern ,egypt are restricted to the coastal regions4 ,the most prominent of the deposits are those on ,ras ,benas 7see map on ,plate ,,xxi71 where the beds form white hills rising to #ahh metres above sea-level4 ,further north1 gypseous deposits have been found by ,dr4 ,hume to exist near the sea at ,bir el ,ranga1 and by ,mr4 ,ferrar the same beds have been recorded as occurring near the coast in the neighbourhood of ,wadi ,igli4 ,it appears probable that the gypseous strata form a continuous or nearly continuous strip extending along the coast down to latitude #bd #bb1 as shown on the geological map on ,plate ,,xx1 but more complete observations may show that the distribution of the beds is somewhat different from that indicated4 ,on the coast-plain south of ,ras ,benas1 gypseous beds are not exposed except in the extreme south-east corner of ,egypt1 where they form small patches at ,halaib and round the wells of ,ti ,kureitra4 ,at ,ras ,benas1 where the beds have been studied in most detail1 they consist of gypsum and anhydrite #aa1eacabc alternating with sandy marls and marly sands1 forming hills much cut-up by steep sided narrow ravines4 ,the weathered faces of the rocks are very soft1 and the disintegrated material forms a stretch of soft gypseous sand1 into which one's feet sink four or five centimetres at every step1 between the hills and the shore4 ,at ,halaib1 gypseous limestones crop out from under the gravel of the coast-plain and form low banks2 the gypsum is here associated with calcareous grits #ab1aeb1 #ab1aad and conglomerates1 the latter having boulders of igneous rock set in a calcareous matrix4 ,near ,ti ,kureitra wells1 the gypsum exposures contain much crystalline selenite1 blocks of this material being used in the masonry lining of the wells4 ,both at ,bir el ,ranga and on ,ras ,benas the gypsum is found to contain small pockets of native sulphur4 ,no fossils have been found in the gypseous strata1 and their geological age is uncertain4 ,the beds are younger than the ,nubian sandstone1 since they overlie that formation at ,bir el ,ranga4 ,their occurrence only near the coast leads one to regard them as having been formed after the ,red ,sea occupied its present position2 but whether they originated as direct gypseous deposits1 or were produced by the alteration of pre-existent ,cretaceous or ,tertiary limestones is not yet quite certain4 ,it is noteworthy that at ,ras ,benas1 where the gypseous strata rest on diorite and hornblende granite1 the igneous rocks are considerably altered as if by weathering1 with a strong brick-red colour due to the oxidation of ferruginous matter4 ,,plate ,,xxi4 ,illustration3 ,,geological ,,map ,,of ,,ras ,,benas ,ball4 ,geography ,geology of ,south-,eastern ,egypt4 ,photo-,metal-,process4 ,survey ,dept4 ,cairo #aiaj4 7#fj-aij7 ,the ,nubian ,sandstone4 ,the ,nubian sandstone covers a comparatively small portion of ,south-,eastern ,egypt1 occupying only about one-tenth of the total area under consideration4 ,the greater portion of it forms the eastern termination of the vast sandstone plateaux which stretch eastward from the ,nile towards the igneous and metamorphic back-bone of the ,red ,sea mountains1 but there are in addition some small patches on the eastern side of the watershed which are interesting as showing that the deposition of the sandstone was not confined to the western side of the mountain ranges4 ,the most northerly exposure of ,nubian sandstone in the district here described extends with some breaks southward from near ,gebel ,sufra to near ,gebel ,homr ,akarim1 forming low hills4 ,further south1 it comes in again on both sides of the ,wadi ,garara1 forming the hills of ,felieiti and ,abu ,hashim4 ,in the sandy plain around the ,wadi ,timsah are outlying sandstone hills of considerable height and extent1 the principal being ,gebels ,nuggur1 ,mulgata1 and ,ziraga4 ,further south-west1 the ,nubian sandstone forms an extensive high broken plateau stretching southward from near ,gebel ,zergat ,naam to near ,gebel ,um ,reit1 sending out a long tongue south-eastwards across ,wadi ,dif to near ,gebel ,nigrub el ,tahtani4 ,this tract of broken sandstone plateaux bears various names in different parts1 ,gebels ,um ,harba1 ,um ,khafur1 ,dagalai1 ,shebakhit1 ,awamtib1 ,um ,sididad1 ,abraq1 ,hodein1 ,dif1 ,anfeib1 and ,kala1 all forming parts of the same great sandstone mass1 though separated by wadis from each other4 ,small outliers of ,nubian sandstone cap the hills of ,gebels ,reietit1 just north of latitude #bc1 near the meridian of #cd1 and ,gebel ,seiga1 in latitude #bb #dd1 longitude #cd #af4 ,on the eastern side of the watershed1 ,nubian sandstone extends for some distance near the coast opposite the ,gulhan islands1 and also forms small thin outliers south of the ,wadi ,hodein4 ,the most southerly point where the sandstone has been met with in the area is a small outlier in latitude #bb #cf1 a few kilometres east of ,gebel ,hamra ,dom4 ,in petrographical characters the ,nubian sandstone is remarkably uniform1 consisting of medium-sized silica grains set in a more or less ferruginous cement2 the colour varies from nearly white1 through various shades of brown1 to nearly black1 according to the amount of iron present4 ,it is generally well bedded1 and frequently much jointed4 ,there is usually a marked absence of the clay beds which are associated with the ,nubian sandstone in other parts of ,egypt4 ,the basal beds are generally pebbly1 forming conglomerates in some places4 ,concretions are found in the rock at some points1 notably to the north of ,gebel ,um ,harba4 ,some of the concretions are hollow1 the shell being of hard dark ferruginous sandstone while the interior is filled with a powder of snow-white chalky matter containing sand grains4 ,the only fossils observed in the sandstone within the area described were collected by ,mr4 ,charteris ,stewart in the plain of ,um ,harba2 they consist of crocodile scales and various shells4 ,from these and the fossil shells found further west in sinking a well in ,wadi ,abu ,rahal1#abd it may be concluded that the ,nubian sandstone here1 as in the ,nile ,valley1 is of ,cretaceous age4 ,intrusions of igneous rock into the sandstone have only been observed at two points in the area1 viz41 near the western foot of ,gebel ,awamtib1 where a basic dyke runs through the sandstone1 and on the ,red ,sea coast1 near ,bir el ,ranga1 where ,dr4 ,hume has found andesite interbedded in the sandstone4 ,a bed of diabase1 now much altered1 underlies the sandstone near ,wadi ,muelih1 and is possibly of contemporaneous origin4 ,in thickness1 the ,nubian sandstone attains a maximum of about #cej metres in several places round about ,bir ,abraq and the ,wadi ,hodein4 ,its thickness must at one time have exceeded this1 for the upper surfaces have suffered much denudation1 and are not capped by younger rocks4 ,some interest attaches to the maximum altitude reached by the ,nubian sandstone beds4 ,the highest point at which it has been observed is at ,gebel ,seiga1 whose sandstone cap is #ije metres above sea-level4 ,the highest point reached by the rock on the great plateau round about ,wadi ,hodein is ,gebel ,kala1 #hdf metres above sea4 ,in contradistinction to the same beds which form the plateau between longitude #cd and the ,nile1 the ,nubian sandstones within the area here described show considerable disturbances from their original horizontal bedding1 the dips being as a rule greater and more variable the nearer one approaches to the watershed mountain-ranges4 ,these tectonic disturbances1 which are important in connexion with the geological history of the region1 will be considered in ,chapter ,,xi4 99 99 99 99 99 ,footnote #abb3 ,geol4 ,mag41 ,decade ,v1 ,vol4 ,,vi 7#aiji71 p4 #bga4 ,footnote #abc3 ,the numbers in square brackets are the specimen-numbers in the ,cairo ,geological ,museum4 ,footnote #abd3 ,wadi ,abu ,rahal is a small feeder of ,wadi ,abad1 joining the latter from the south in latitude #be #j1 longitude #cc #cj4 ,at the point of junction of the two wadis1 which lies on the usual camel road from ,edfu to the ,baramia mine1 a well was sunk by the ,mines ,department in #aijf1 in the hope of obtaining a water supply4 ,i visited the well in ,may #aijf1 when it had attained a depth of fifty-four metres4 ,the strata passed through were ten metres alluvium1 then thirty-seven metres of sandstones and clays1 followed by a thin band of bituminous shale1 and seven metres of dark grey clays4 ,from near the bottom of the well ,i collected specimens of ,lingula and a mytiloid shell which ,mr4 ,bullen ,newton compared to ,septifer linearis2 the latter shell differs but little from specimens obtained from the ,english ,gault1 and thus tends to show that the ,abu ,rahal beds are of ,cretaceous age4 7,see ,,hume1 ,preliminary ,report on the ,geology of the ,eastern ,desert of ,egypt4 ,cairo1 #aijg4 p4 #bi74 ,since my visit1 the well has been deepened to seventy-three metres in sandstones with a bituminous seam1 but water was not reached1 and the well has been abandoned4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,igneous ,,rocks4 99 99 99 99 99 ,igneous rocks cover about one-third of the entire area of ,south-,eastern ,egypt1 forming irregularly distributed tracts1 alternating with others occupied by metamorphic rocks1 entering largely into the composition of the principal mountain masses and also underlying a large portion of the areas covered by sand on the coast-plain and elsewhere4 ,regarded broadly1 the igneous rocks of this portion of the ,eastern ,desert form two main divisions1 namely1 an acid division typified by granite rich in felspar1 and a basic division typified by gabbro4 ,intermediate types occur1 as well as ultra-acid and ultra-basic rocks1 but these are less abundant1 and are generally found in close association with one or other of the two main types4 ,rocks of the acid type predominate to the north of latitude #bd1 while further south basic rocks form large portions of the main mountain tracts1 with acid rocks at intervals on either side down to the ,sudan frontier4 ,most of the igneous rocks are plutonic4 ,there is a striking paucity of volcanic rocks1 a circumstance doubtless to be ascribed largely to the enormous denudation which has taken place in the district4 ,the plutonic masses1 with the dykes seaming them1 have been elevated and laid bare1 while most of the volcanic outpourings have been denuded away and others have been altered or devitrified till their original volcanic nature has become less apparent4 ,metamorphism has also affected many of the plutonic masses to such a degree that it is often difficult to decide whether the rocks should now be placed in the igneous group1 or classed as metamorphic rocks4 ,for purposes of classification1 the igneous rocks of ,south-,eastern ,egypt may be divided into five main groups1 based on silica-percentage3-- #a4 ,ultra-acid rocks1 containing over #hj per cent of silica4 #b4 ,acid rocks1 containing from #fe to #hj per cent of silica4 #c4 ,intermediate rocks3-- 7a7 ,sub-acid rocks1 with from #fj to #fe per cent of silica4 7b7 ,sub-basic rocks1 with from #ee to #fj per cent of silica4 #d4 ,basic rocks1 containing from #de to #ee per cent of silica4 #e4 ,ultra-basic rocks1 with less than #de per cent of silica4 ,the classification is based on silica percentage1 for although up to the present it has not been found possible to undertake the chemical analysis of the rocks1 the microscopic examination of thin sections itself gives a very fair guide to the chemical composition1 and the specific gravities of the different rocks1 which increase progressively from the acid to basic groups1 afford a further guide in this direction4 ,the table on the following page shows the different rocks comprised within the five main classes4 ,the five classes are not all of equal importance4 ,as already mentioned1 the acid and basic types are predominant4 ,the ultra-acid and sub-acid rocks are present in relatively small quantity1 and are in close relationship with those of the acid series which occur in great abundance2 the rocks of the sub-basic and ultra-basic groups1 on the other hand1 though by no means insignificant in their distribution 7diorites and serpentines cover very large areas71 appear to be closely linked in the field with those of the basic group4 ,the district is so large1 and the investigation of it has been so limited1 that it would be unwise to draw from the above remarks the deduction that the rocks have originated from two main magmas2 the statements are merely those of the facts of observation1 so far as observation has proceeded4 ,the scheme tabulated above differs from established classifications only in the inclusion of an ultra-acid class of rocks4 ,this inclusion is necessitated by the presence in the district of huge masses of quartz-rocks which are almost certainly igneous in origin4 ,these rocks are almost pure silica1 and though they are properly regarded as an extreme form of pegmatite1 their silica-percentage 7over #ie7 is too high for them to be placed with their near relations the granites2 and on grounds of symmetry of classification it appears justifiable to have an 8ultra-acid0 class corresponding with that of ultra-basic rocks4 ,,classification ,,of ,,igneous ,,rocks4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,intermediate4 ,ultra- ,acid4 ,basic4 ,ultra-basic4 acid4 ---------------------- ,sub-acid4 ,sub-basic4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,quartz-,granite ,syenite ,diorite ,gabbro ,pyroxenite rock ,normal pink ,augite- ,troctolite,amphibolite granite diorite ,red ,mica- ,pyroxene- ,peridotite pegmatitic diorite granulite granite ,aplite 7,serpentine7 ,biotite- granite ,muscovite- granite ,hornblende- granite ,granite- ,syenite- ,diorite- ,diabase porphyry porphyry porphyrite ,augite- ,mica- porphyrite diabase ,kersantite ,quartz- ,trachyte,andesite ,basalt felsite ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,ultra-,,acid ,,rocks4 ,quartz-rock of igneous origin occurs in the form of intrusive bosses and veins penetrating older igneous and metamorphic rocks at ,marwot ,elemikan and elsewhere4 ,the rock is practically pure vitreous quartz4 ,its dazzling white aspect in the sun renders it very conspicuous in the field4 ,the shape of many of the masses 7bosses71 their close association with pegmatite and aplite in at least one locality1 the absence from the veins of other minerals 7calcite and various ores7 such as usually accompany vein-quartz deposited from solution1 and the occasional presence in the rock of mica flakes1 all point to an igneous origin1 and justify us in regarding this quartz-rock as the final product of differentiation of a granitic magma1 representing its ultra-acid portion4 ,the most conspicuous occurrence of quartz-rock is in the three nearly conical hills called ,marwot#abe ,elemikan1 which rise from the granitic plain at the head of ,wadi ,elemikan in latitude #bc #ec1 and which from their snow-white colour form landmarks visible from great distances4 ,the largest and most northerly hill of the three is a boss about #cjj metres in diameter1 rising sixty-eight metres above the plain1 which itself has here an altitude of #ehj metres above sea4 ,the other two hills are somewhat smaller2 they lie respectively two kilometres south-east1 and two and half kilometres south1 of the largest one2 a black hill of about equal size rises from the plain mid-way between them4 ,the highest of the three white hills1 which was occupied as a triangulation station1 is composed almost entirely of glassy quartz1 the only other mineral seen in it being a white mica1 of which a few flakes were visible in the outer portions4 ,the mass is cracked in all directions1 and the faces of the separated blocks frequently show a slight yellowish staining4 ,another remarkable boss of quartz1 similar to that just described and likewise rising through granite1 occurs on the south side of the ,wadi ,khoda 7latitude #bc #db7 about seven kilometres above the point where the wadi emerges from the hills on to the coast-plain4 ,a third occurrence1 of much less size1 in the floor of ,wadi ,abu ,marwa1 on the track from ,wadi ,lahami to ,berenice via the ,wadi ,naait2 the first-mentioned wadi derives its name from the quartz occurrence in it4 ,of igneous quartz veins1 the best example is the huge dyke which forms the back-bone of the ridge called ,erf el ,fahid1 in latitude #be #j4 ,here the vein1 which strikes east and west1 is in schistose country4 ,it is at least ten metres wide1 rising to a height of ninety-five metres above the wadi1 and can be traced for a length of nearly two kilometres4 ,like the rock of ,marwot ,elemikan1 the quartz of ,erf el ,fahid shows faint iron-staining in places1 but appears to contain no other minerals4 ,it is weathered to a sintery appearance in places #aj1cfb1abf and contains some cavities1 from one of which ,i extracted a handful of loose quartz crystals #aj1cfc with pyramids developed at both ends2 these last are evidently deposited from solution1 but it is difficult to assign other than an igneous source for the vein1 and the cavities and loose crystals are probably the product of solution subsequent to the igneous intrusion4 ,going south-west from ,erf el ,fahid1 down the ,wadi ,muelih1 is another line of ridges1 of which the back-bone is a great quartz vein traceable for some two and a half kilometres along its strike4 ,further down the wadi are networks of quartz veins seaming diorite in all directions on either side of a horse-shoe-shaped hill called ,marwot ,rod el ,ligaia2 this hill is of aplite1 and probably represents a less acid part of the same magma which formed the quartz veins4#abg ,it is significant that there are no traces of mine workings at any of the places where quartz veins and bosses of the igneous type occur1 notwithstanding the fact that the masses are so conspicuous as to have surely attracted the eye of every gold-seeking prospector4 ,though the loose crystals found at ,erf el ,fahid show that there at least aqueous solutions have acted on the rock to a slight extent1 these great igneous quartz masses appear never to have been impregnated with gold or other ores4 ,,acid ,,igneous ,,rocks4 ,granites4 ,granites are the most abundant and most widely distributed of the igneous rocks of ,south-,eastern ,egypt4 ,they form a large proportion of the most prominent mountain masses1 such as ,gebels ,hamrat ,wogud1 ,nugrus1 ,hamrat ,mukbud1 ,hamata1 ,faraid1 ,um ,reit1 ,mishbih1 ,adar ,qaqa1 ,adar ,aweib1 and ,elba4 ,they also occur in some great plain tracts1 such as those round ,gebel ,selaia and to the west of ,gebel ,um ,reit1 where low hills of the rock rise through the coarse granitic sand which covers most of the plain4 ,in point of geological age1 the granites appear to be the youngest of the plutonic rocks of the country1 forming great intrusions in the more ancient schists and diorites4 ,though sometimes occurring as rounded bosses1 as at ,gebels ,muelih1 ,selaia1 and ,faraid1 granite typically forms rather jagged mountains1 more especially in the south parts of the area2 the mountains of ,mishbih and ,elba1 for instance1 abound in spiky peaks1 while ,qash ,amir1 the 8,scragged ,hill0 of the ,admiralty ,chart1 is an extreme example of this mode of weathering4 ,the spikes are often made up of more or less rounded blocks piled one on another1 the separation and rounding of the blocks being brought about by jointing and the more rapid weathering of the corners of the separated masses4 ,granite mountains1 though sometimes white1 are usually of a pink or red colour and are often named accordingly by the ,arabs4 ,in ,ababda country1 all mountains named ,hamrat1 as for instance ,hamrat ,wogud and ,hamrat ,mukbud1 are composed of red granite or granitoid gneiss2 while in ,bisharin country the corresponding name ,adar1 as used for example in ,adar ,qaqa and ,adar ,aweib1 has the same significance1 both the names meaning red4 ,the beds of wadis draining from granitic mountains1 and plains adjacent to them1 are invariably covered with a thick accumulation of coarse felspathic and quartzose sand derived from the weathering of the rock4 ,this sand is quite firm to walk on1 and in this respect forms a pleasing contrast to the finer wind-borne sand derived from the disintegration of sandstone4 ,the granitic sand being generally white in colour 7the redness of the felspars having largely disappeared in the process of weathering71 the wadis in whose floors it is largely displayed are frequently named 8,wadi el ,abiad0 7abiad white72 there are numerous wadis called by this name1 all possessing the common characteristic of draining from granitic mountains and consequently having a floor of granitic sand4 ,besides the great mountain-forming masses1 granites also occur frequently in the form of dykes or veins1 penetrating the gneisses1 schists1 and other rocks4 ,viewed as a whole1 the granites of ,south-,eastern ,egypt are characterised by their strongly acid composition4 ,though perfectly normal granites are found in many places1 and a gradual passage into quartz-syenite may be occasionally traced1 yet on the whole the rocks approximate to the aplitic and pegmatitic types in which quartz and felspar are associated with very small quantities of ferro-magnesian minerals4 ,we may consider the granites as falling mainly into the following classes3-- #a4 ,normal pink granite4 #b4 ,red pegmatitic granite4 #c4 ,aplite4 #d4 ,biotite-granite4 #e4 ,muscovite-granite4 #f4 ,hornblende-granite4 ,,plate ,,xxii4 ,illustration3 ,ball4--,geography ,geology of ,south-,eastern ,egypt4 ,,acid ,,igneous ,,rocks4 ,,porphyritic ,,granite4 ,gebel ,fereyid4 ,,pegmatitic ,,red ,,granite4 ,wadi ,gemal4 ,,biotite-,,granite4 ,gebel ,abu ,hegilig4 ,,hornblende-,,granite4 ,gebel ,elba4 ,,quartz-,,felsite4 ,near ,gebel ,kolaiqo4 ,,quartz-,,felsite4 ,near ,gebel ,kolaiqo4 ,,natural ,,size4 ,normal pink granite is the form of granite most commonly met with in ,south-,eastern ,egypt4 ,it forms the principal rock of many of the mountains1 such as ,gebels ,nugrus1 ,selaia1 ,faraid1 ,um ,reit1 ,shigigat1 ,niqrub1 ,abu ,brush1 and ,hamra ,dom1 and also covers large expanses of low hill country1 and occurs as knolls scattered over sandy plains such as that of ,selaia and the tract west of ,um ,reit4 ,the rock #aa1eje1 a full size representation of which is shown on ,plate ,,xxii1 is composed of pink orthoclase1 white oligoclase1 quartz1 and biotite1 with hornblende1 sphene1 apatite1 and magnetite as accessory minerals4 ,the pink orthoclase is the dominant constituent1 and gives the colour to the mass2 it is sometimes in grains of about the same size as those of the quartz1 viz41 two to four millimetres in diameter1 but frequently tends to assume a porphyritic habit1 the crystals then measuring a centimetre or more across1 and inclining to idiomorphic forms4 ,microcline is occasionally sparingly present4 ,the oligoclase is white1 and is far less abundant and less conspicuous than the orthoclase2 in the porphyritic varieties of the rock1 the oligoclase is mixed with the quartz and mica of the ground mass4 ,in some specimens the felspars are fresh1 in others #ab1acc they show clouding due to decomposition1 with formation of kaolin and occasionally of sericite4 ,quartz is present to about half the amount of the felspars1 in grains ranging up to three millimetres in diameter4 ,the biotite is frequently the only ferro-magnesian mineral present1 occurring in wisps and little nests among the other minerals2 under the microscope it is strongly pleochroic1 the colour varying from usually a pale olive brown to nearly black when a crystal is rotated over a nicol prism1 though in a specimen #aa1eca from the little hill called ,sikeit1 about five kilometres west of ,berenice1 colour range is from pale yellow to deep green4 ,hornblende is typically either absent or present only in a very subordinate amount to the biotite4 ,it is sometimes altered to chlorite1 with separation of granules of iron oxide and formation of epidote4 ,sphene1 apatite1 and magnetite are usually only very sparingly present1 and are only visible on microscopic examination4 ,in a slide cut from the rock of ,gebel ,fereyid1 however1 sphene forms a crystal measuring #af millimetres across1 of the characteristic wedgelike form 7see ,fig4 #d74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--;,granite1 ,gebel ,fereyid #aa1eje1 #aj4 f1 felspar 7mostly orthoclase71 somewhat clouded by decomposition2 q1 quartz2 b1 biotite2 s1 sphene4 ,the principal variation in mineral composition of the rock is the greater or less abundance of the biotite1 and the occasional presence of appreciable amounts of hornblende4 ,in a specimen from ,wadi ,kreiga #ab1acc1 the biotite is almost absent1 its place being taken by green hornblende1 now largely altered to chlorite and epidote4 ,the ferro-magnesian minerals are as a rule present in smaller amounts than in average granites1 and in some places1 especially near the periphery of the great intrusions1 they vanish almost entirely1 and the rock passes gradually into a pegmatite4 ,variations in appearance of the rock are also conditioned by the size and habit assumed by the felspar crystals1 by the variations in general coarseness or fineness of grain1 and by the pressures and weathering influences to which the masses have been subjected4 ,where the rock has been crushed1 or subjected to unequal pressures in different directions during consolidation1 the porphyritic crystals tend to lie along definite planes1 and the rock may approximate in appearance to a gneiss4 ,the microscopic sections from these places show further evidence of crushing in the cracking of crystals and undulose extinction between crossed nicols4 ,where the rock is much weathered it usually takes on a whiter aspect due to the bleaching of the orthoclase1 and sometimes exhibits green spots due to the formation of chlorite from the decomposition of biotite and hornblende4 ,it is the pink granite which by its disintegration gives rise to much of the granitic sand which is met with in wadis and on plains4 ,the rock disintegrates very readily under changes of temperature1 the cleavage planes of the orthoclase aiding in the process4 ,change of the felspar to kaolin goes on under weathering influences1 and the felspars become bleached1 but the bulk of the disintegration is a mechanical process1 a large part of the sand consisting of unaltered felspar4 ,red pegmatitic granite is closely associated with the normal pink granite1 occurring in great masses peripherally to the latter1 as for instance at ,gebel ,hamrat ,mukbud and in the low hills about the lower parts of ,wadi ,gemal and ,wadi ,kreiga4 ,the red pegmatitic granite is in fact simply an extreme variation of the normal pink granite in which the ferro-magnesian minerals 7biotite and hornblende7 are either absent or present in very small amounts4 ,that the rock often forms dykes is probably a consequence of its peripheral position rather than of any special manner of formation4 ,the great masses such as ,gebel ,hamrat ,mukbud appear1 like the normal granites1 to have solidified under plutonic conditions1 and the dykes are off-shoots from the main mass4 ,there is1 therefore1 no reason in this locality for classifying the pegmatites separately from the granites into a special division of dyke-rocks1 as is done by ,prof4 ,rosenbusch1 and we shall consider the red pegmatitic granite as simply a coarse grained mica-free granite rich in orthoclase4 ,the pegmatitic granite is usually of a far more pronounced red colour than the normal granite4 ,this is doubtless in part due to the greater abundance of orthoclase1 but it also arises in some cases from the orthoclase having itself a deeper colour4 ,the rocks about the lower parts of ,wadi ,gemal and ,wadi ,kreiga have a strong brick-red aspect4 ,their proximity to the coast suggests that there may possibly be some connexion between the intensity of their coloration and their position near the sea2 this idea is supported in some measure by the strong red colouration of the dioritic rocks of ,ras ,benas1 which occupy a similar position1 but the actual manner of production of the oxide of iron which gives the colour is not clear4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--,red pegmatitic granite1 from low hills near the mouth of ,wadi ,gemal #ab1ajf1 #aj4 q1 quartz2 f1 felspar 7orthoclase7 turbid and full of finely disseminated red oxide of iron4 ,in the hand specimen 7see ,plate ,,xxii71 the red pegmatitic granite #aj1chi is a coarse-grained aggregate of red orthoclase and quartz4 ,the quartz is generally of grey aspect in the mass1 running in strings and networks through the felspar4 ,the rock usually breaks easily into irregular pieces under the hammer1 owing to the facility with which the large felspar crystals can be cleaved1 but the very red variety from near the mouth of ,wadi ,gemal #ab1ajf is extremely hard and tough1 and strikes fire very easily under the hammer4 ,under the microscope 7see ,fig4 #e7 the red colour of the orthoclase often persists even in the thinnest sections1 being evidently due to finely disseminated iron oxide which clouds the felspars4 ,the quartz shows sharply defined angular forms1 and appears to have got somewhat the start of the felspar in crystallisation4 ,owing to its cloudy nature1 the felspar looks like a ground mass1 and between crossed nicols shows a peculiar patchy appearance1 so that a first glance at the slide suggests a quartz porphyry2 but the whole of the patches forming a crystal extinguish at once1 and moreover the characteristic twinning of the orthoclase can be seen in some of the crystals4 ,a little oligoclase is also present in addition to the orthoclase4 ,crushing of the rock is frequently shown by cracked and brecciated crystals1 more especially in the hard form of the rock from ,wadi ,gemal4 ,dykes of pegmatitic granite are very frequent in the neighbourhood of ,gebel ,hamrat ,mukbud2 they are typically rather paler in colour than the larger masses1 and occasionally show graphic structure4 ,in ascending ,gebel ,migif1 the gneiss slopes of the mountain were found to be strewn here and there with crystals of green microcline #aj1cff1 similar to the well-known ,pike's ,peak mineral4 ,the crystals1 which are of imperfect idiomorphic form1 measuring about one to two centimetres in length1 sometimes show cross-striations on certain faces4 ,though the rock was not traced in situ1 the crystals are doubtless derived from pegmatite dykes traversing the gneiss4 ,aplite1 or fine-grained binary granite consisting essentially of quartz and felspar1 with very little or no mica or hornblende1 differs from pegmatite not only in its greater fineness of grain1 but in its structure1 which is essentially granitic rather than pegmatitic1 the two main minerals being both in allotriomorphic grains4 ,in colour1 different aplites vary with that of their felspars from red to white1 and most of them have tiny dark spots in them1 sometimes only visible with a lens1 due to the presence of small quantities of hornblende or biotite4 ,as already mentioned on p4 #bfh1 most of the granites of ,south-,eastern ,egypt incline to the acid or aplitic type1 and one is frequently in doubt whether to classify an acid granite1 such as that of ,gebel ,elba for instance1 as an aplite with a little hornblende1 or as a hornblende granite4 ,under aplites will be here considered only those granites in which the proportion of ferro-magnesian minerals is extremely small1 not forming more than about one or two per cent of the rock4 ,when the definition of an aplite is thus limited1 aplites are comparatively scarce in the area4 ,gebel ,abu ,hireiq consists of a red granitic rock2 ,i did not visit the range1 but the guide sent to erect the triangulation beacon brought back as the typical rock a pink aplite #ab1acd of rather fine grain1 consisting essentially of quartz and pink felspar1 with sparsely scattered specks of hornblende4 ,the dykes #aa1ecf which seam the granite and diorite near where the ,wadi el ,kreim joins ,wadi ,garara may be classed as siliceous altered aplites4 ,they are greyish-white to purplish-pink rocks of rather fine grain1 with a few blackish specks1 the latter visible only with a lens4 ,the microscopic slide shows granitic quartz and red-stained decomposed matter1 with a rather plentiful sprinkling of grains and powder of iron oxide2 the decomposed matter is almost certainly the result of alteration of felspar and hornblende1 the latter in very small proportion4 ,the hill called ,marwot ,rod el ,ligaia1 near the head of ,wadi ,muelih1 is a boss of pink aplite1 and is of interest as lying in close connexion with certain quartz veins which are believed to be of igneous origin 7see p4 #bff74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--;,biotite-granite near ,gebel ,abu ,hegilig #aj1cij1 #ag4 q1 quartz2 f1 felspar 7orthoclase and oligoclase71 somewhat turbid by decomposition2 b1 biotite2 s1 sphene4 ,biotite-granite of a well-defined type #aj1cij occurs somewhat largely in the mountains round the heads of ,wadi ,abu ,ghusun and ,wadi el ,abiad4 ,it is a whitish rock with dark-brown to black spots 7see ,plate ,,xxii74 ,the white portion of the rock consists of quartz and felspar2 the dark spots are biotite4 ,generally the rock is of medium grain1 the biotite being in nests two to four millimetres diameter scattered through the mass1 giving it a speckled appearance4 ,sometimes the biotite is more uniformly scattered1 giving the rock a grey aspect4 ,at some places the rock shows signs of crushing1 this being indicated in hand specimens by a tendency to laminar arrangement of the biotite patches4 ,under the microscope 7see ,fig4 #f71 the felspars1 which are somewhat more abundantly present than the quartz1 are seen to consist of orthoclase and oligoclase1 with here and there crystals showing the characteristic cross hatching of microcline4 ,the biotite is mostly in nests and clusters of ragged-looking crystals1 but it also occurs in tiny flakes included in the felspars1 sometimes showing a distinct arrangement along the cleavage planes of the latter4 ,the biotite is usually fairly fresh2 it is highly pleochroic1 with colour ranging from pale yellow to deep olive-green in different positions over the nicol4 ,associated with the biotite are a few wisps of colourless mica1 probably muscovite1 and irregular granules of opaque iron oxides4 ,granules of epidote are to be seen in the altering felspars1 and there are a few small irregular granules of a brownish highly refracting mineral1 probably sphene4 ,a much more acid type of biotite granite #aa1ejg occurs in close proximity to serpentine in low hills near the wells of ,abraq4 ,in this the proportion of biotite is so small that the rock might almost be classed as an aplite4 ,it is a fine-grained white rock1 very fresh-looking1 with dark spots2 in hand specimens it almost exactly resembles the hornblende granite of ,gebel ,elba 7see ,plate ,,xxii71 but examination with a lens shows the dark spots to consist of biotite instead of hornblende4 ,the microscopic slide shows quartz1 orthoclase1 and oligoclase with granitic structure1 with here and there small straggling crystals of brown biotite2 the brown biotite is sometimes altering to chlorite with change of colour from brown to green4 ,muscovite-granite is rarely met with in ,south-,eastern ,egypt4 ,a specimen from ,gebel ,adar ,qaqa#abh #ab1ach is a fine-grained hard pinkish rock of sp4 gr4 #bfb1 composed of quartz1 orthoclase1 oligoclase1 muscovite1 and garnet4 ,a very coarse-grained variety of muscovite-granite1 in which the individual crystals measure several centimetres across1 forms white hills to the east of ,wadi ,nugrus4 ,hornblende-granite occurs in several forms1 giving rise to rocks of different aspects in different parts of the district4 ,the most important and widely distributed form of hornblende-granite is a fine-grained and very acid rock of sp4 gr4 #bei1 which but for the manner in which it occurs might almost be spoken of as an aplite4 ,it is a white rock1 sometimes with a faintly pink or greenish cast1 of medium to fine grain1 with black specks of hornblende about a millimetre in diameter scattered through it 7see ,plate ,,xxii74 ,this rock forms ,gebels ,muelih and ,elba2 it also occurs in the low country round ,gebel ,hamrat ,mukbud1 and a gneissose variation of it forms the great boss of ,um ,rasein4 ,dykes of the same rock traverse the more basic rocks of ,um ,bisilla4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--;,hornblende-granite1 ,gebel ,elba #ab1aah1 #ag4 q1 quartz2 f1 felspar 7mostly orthoclase71 clouded by kaolinisation2 h1 hornblende2 b1 biotite1 altering with separation of flakes of limonite4 ,under the microscope the rock from ,gebel ,elba #ab1aah is seen to consist of quartz1 orthoclase1 a little oligoclase1 hornblende1 and small quantities of biotite 7see ,fig4 #g74 ,the orthoclase is somewhat clouded in strips parallel to the clino-axis of the crystals4 ,the hornblende is in irregular grains of sharply marked curved outlines2 it is of a very deep bottle-green colour4 ,the accessory biotite is brown1 occurring as small wisps associated with the hornblende4 ,the rock of ,gebel ,muelih #aj1cee is similar to that of ,gebel ,elba1 but the hornblende here is of an extremely pale greenish brown colour1 only slightly pleochroic1 with well-marked vertical cleavage and a very small extinction angle1 so that it might be mistaken for biotite1 which latter mineral appears to be absent4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4--;,hornblende-granite1 ,gebel ,hamata #aj1dje1 #aj4 q1 quartz 7the rock contains a larger percentage of quartz than appears in the drawn portion of the slide72 f1 felspar 7orthoclase71 clouded2 h1 hornblende1 altered4 ,another type of hornblende-granite1 differing from that last described in being of coarser grain and containing much more abundant hornblende1 and thus having much more the appearance of an ordinary grey granite1 occurs in the lower part of ,gebel ,hamata and the surrounding mountains4 ,this rock #aj1dje is slightly heavier than the foregoing type1 having a sp4 gr4 of #bff4 ,under the microscope 7see ,fig4 #h7 the hornblende is seen to be of a dark green colour1 very much altered and clouded by separated iron oxides and epidote4 ,a third type of hornblende-granite is formed by the variation of the normal pink granite already referred to1 in which the place of biotite is largely taken by hornblende4 ,the mass of ,gebel ,mishbih appears#abi to consist of a rock of this type1 which passes by insensible gradations into a syenite4 ,granite-porphyry4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4--;,granite-porphyry1 ,kreishim ,hill #ab1aej1 viewed between crossed nicols1 #aj4 q1 quartz 7the dark triangular area to the left of figure is also a quartz crystal in the position of extinction72 f1 felspar 7oligoclase72 g1 micro-granitic ground mass4 ,under this heading are comprised rocks of granitic composition in which porphyritic crystals of quartz1 felspar1 and mica are surrounded by a fine-grained ground mass of entirely granitic 7holocrystalline7 character4 ,they differ from porphyritic granites in the much finer grain of the general body of the rock1 and from the quartz felsites in the entire absence of glassy matter from the ground mass4 ,rocks of this type are scarce in ,south-,eastern ,egypt4 ,an example #ab1aej occurs at the hill called ,kreishim1 sixteen kilometres west of ,halaib4 ,here the rock1 which appears to form a small boss1 consists of rounded white porphyritic crystals set in a finely crystalline grey ground mass4 ,the sp4 gr4 is #bfi4 ,under the microscope 7,fig4 #i7 the porphyritic crystals are seen to consist of quartz and oligoclase1 the latter in approximately idiomorphic crystals1 often beautifully zoned2 the ground mass1 of micro-granitic structure1 is made up of smaller allotriomorphic crystals of quartz1 felspar1 and biotite4 ,dykes of granite-porphyry also occur traversing the granite of ,gebel ,kahfa #aa1ecg ,b and in the basic rocks of ,gebel ,um ,bisilla #aa1eah4 ,at both these places the rocks are far less fresh than that above described4 ,in the hand specimen they are of a greyish-white or greenish-white colour1 strongly resembling fine-grained aplites in appearance4 ,with the lens1 crystals of quartz and felspar can be made out1 and specks of hornblende and chlorite4 ,the microscopic slides show the characteristic structure of granite porphyry1 but the felspars are all clouded by decomposition products1 and the hornblende1 which is rather sparingly present in the ground mass1 is mostly changed to chlorite and epidote4 ,the specimen from ,gebel ,kahfa contains a small amount of muscovite4 ,quartz-felsite4 ,though covering only small areas1 quartz-felsite is of very wide distribution in ,south-,eastern ,egypt4 ,it typically forms dykes and intrusive sheets traversing the plutonic and metamorphic rocks1 but likewise occurs occasionally in larger masses4 ,felsite dykes are specially abundant in the neighbourhood of ,gebels ,muelih1 ,zergat ,naam1 and ,um ,reit4 ,larger masses occur in the ,wadi ,huluz1 and form the summits of ,gebels ,nigrub el ,foqani and ,hamata4 ,felsites are frequently met with in a highly altered condition4 ,the commonest alteration1 especially in dykes1 is kaolinisation of the felspars and a clouding of the whole rock with finely disseminated iron oxides4 ,in some dykes traversing the granite of ,um ,reit1 a bleaching action has reduced the felsite to the appearance of a limestone4 ,in other cases the rock has been devitrified and indurated to a high degree2 this is well seen in ,gebel ,igli el ,iswid 7latitude #be7 and at ,gebel ,hadarba 7latitude #bb71 where extensive hill-tracts consist of felsitic rocks of almost flinty hardness4 ,the quartz-felsites are in general among the youngest of the igneous rocks of the district1 since they commonly form dykes and intrusions1 not only in the schists1 but also in the granites and other eruptive rocks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4--,quartz-felsite1 ,wadi ,huluz #aj1cid1 #aj4 q1 quartz2 f1 felspar 7orthoclase and oligoclase72 g1 ground mass1 showing flow structure round the porphyritic quartz and felspar4 ,the quartz-felsite of ,wadi ,huluz #aj1cid occurs in considerable masses about a kilometre below the water holes of ,um ,gerifat4 ,in the hand specimen1 it is of granitoid appearance1 with opalescent quartz crystals two millimetres or more in diameter plentifully scattered in a light greyish ground mass4 ,the sp4 gr4 is #bga4 ,under the microscope the crystals of quartz are seen to have rounded forms and to be accompanied by other porphyritic crystals of orthoclase and oligoclase1 often approximating to idiomorphic shape 7see ,fig4 #aj74 ,the porphyritic constituents are embedded in a cryptocrystalline ground mass1 in which augite and minute grains of quartz1 felspar1 and biotite can be made out1 and there are some strings and granules of epidote and fairly large specks of iron oxides4 ,the ground mass shows a fluidal arrangement1 the little biotite flakes in it being often arranged in lines which sweep round the porphyritic crystals4 ,the rock has undergone considerable alteration1 the felspar crystals being clouded and full of tiny micaceous flakes of high double refraction2 the epidote is also doubtless due to the alteration of augite and other minerals in the ground mass4 ,the quartz-felsite which forms the upper part of ,gebel ,hamata #aj1ijf is a dark brown coarse-textured rock1 with remarkably glassy porphyritic quartz in granules about two millimetres diameter scattered plentifully through it4 ,it is a very hard rock which rings under the hammer and weathers into rusty brown blocks4 ,the sp4 gr4 is #bga4 ,under the microscope the quartz crystals are seen to be much cracked4 ,there are also porphyritic crystals of orthoclase and oligoclase1 mostly of irregular shape1 and a few crystals1 of still more irregular form1 of dark green hornblende4 ,the cryptocrystalline ground mass consists chiefly of quartz and felspar1 through which are scattered tiny granules of dark green hornblende4 ,the ground mass shows a matted texture between crossed nicols2 there is no trace of fluidal movement4 ,like the foregoing1 this rock is somewhat altered1 the hornblende in particular being very much attacked2 the felspars are fairly fresh1 but the crystals1 like those of the quartz1 are often cracked1 and thus show the rock to have undergone considerable crushing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4--,quartz-felsite from dyke at ,gebel ,kolaiqo #ab1ade1 #aj4 q1 quartz 7a group of idiomorphic crystals72 f1 felspar 7mostly orthoclase72 g1 microgranitic ground mass of quartz and felspar1 with wisps of hornblende4 ,one of the quartz-felsite dykes traversing the schists at ,gebel ,kolaiqo #ab1ade is a very similar rock to that of ,gebel ,hamata1 except that here the ground mass1 instead of being dark brown in the hand specimen1 is of a reddish brown colour 7see ,plate ,,xxii71 and the porphyritic crystals are partly pink felspar and partly glassy quartz4 ,the sp4 gr4 is #bfb4 ,under the microscope the quartz and felspar crystals are seen to be less crushed than in the ,hamata rock1 while the ground mass1 instead of being of a matted structure1 is microgranitic1 with tiny elongated grains of green hornblende scattered through it 7see ,fig4 #aa74 ,another quartz-felsite dyke at ,gebel ,kolaiqo #ab1ace has a rather different composition1 and in the hand specimen has more the appearance of a felspar porphyry1 porphyritic white felspars being scattered with quartz grains through a dark grey to black ground mass 7see ,plate ,,xxii74 ,its quartz crystals frequently approximate to idiomorphic forms2 they are much corroded by the ground mass4 ,the felspar is chiefly oligoclase1 in more or less idiomorphic crystals1 a little clouded by decomposition products4 ,the ferro-magnesian mineral here is chiefly brown biotite1 in crystals of smaller size than those of the quartz and felspar1 scattered porphyritically through the ground mass4 ,one of the quartz crystals includes a crystal of biotite4 ,the ground mass is crystalline1 and appears to consist of quartz and felspar with a little biotite and some glassy matter4 ,a peculiar type of quartz-felsite #aj1cgg occurs associated with serpentine and ophicalcites in the upper part of ,gebel ,ghadir4 ,the rock1 which has a sp4 gr4 of #bff1 is nearly white1 with a faint greyish tinge and scattered reddish-brown specks4 ,at first the rock was taken for a granulite1 which it very much resembles in appearance1 and the reddish-brown specks for garnet4 ,but examination with a lens shows the specks to be ferric oxide1 and here and there little crystals of glassy quartz can be seen4 ,under the microscope the rock is found to consist mainly of an extremely fine-grained semi-granulitic colourless ground mass in which are sparsely scattered clear crystals of quartz1 sometimes showing corrosion1 and straggling irregular patches of opaque iron oxide1 often mixed with nearly colourless wisps of mica4 ,a few of the clear crystals are in four-sided forms1 and may possibly be felspar2 but they are perfectly free from alteration or twinning4 ,the iron oxide is doubtless the product of alteration of a ferro-magnesian mineral1 probably biotite4 ,the minerals of the ground mass are difficult of determination owing to the minuteness of the grains and the absence of any colour1 but apparently consist of quartz1 felspar1 a colourless hornblende1 and sericite4 ,the quartz-felsite dykes #aj1cef which cut through the granite and schists of ,gebel ,muelih appear as grooves in the granite1 and as back-bone ridges in the surrounding schists4 ,they are pinkish-brown close-textured rocks1 with a dark marbling in places4 ,the microscopic slides show quartz and felspar in a confused ground mass1 with little flakes of a white micaceous mineral 7sericite87 aggregated round the porphyritic crystals and distributed through the felspars and the ground mass4 ,the highly altered quartz-felsite #ab1aeh which forms ,gebel ,butitelib1 near ,gebel ,niqrub el ,tahtani1 appears to have formed a boss or neck in the surrounding schists4 ,the rock is a very fine-grained grey to purplish one1 in which no crystals can usually be made out with the unaided eye4 ,the sp4 gr4 is very low1 being only #bcb4 ,under the microscope one sees small highly corroded crystals of quartz scattered through a clouded and glassy ground mass4 ,no traces of felspars can be seen1 the crystals1 if they existed1 having been decomposed and become undistinguishable from the ground mass2 nor can any ferro-magnesian minerals be made out1 though there are tiny granules and wisps of iron oxides which in places show an arrangement suggestive of their having been derived from the decomposition of such minerals4 ,the specimen #ab1aba brought back from the summit of ,gebel ,shendib1 by the guide who was sent to erect the triangulation beacon on it1 is a compact brown rock with reddish patches1 which under the microscope appears to be an altered and brecciated felsite4#acj ,the slide shows quartz and altered felspars in a spherulitic ground mass1 the whole of the mineral being very much clouded by finely disseminated ferric oxide4 ,the felsite dykes #aa1ech which seam the granite of ,gebel ,um ,reit are a still more highly altered rock4 ,the dykes are about two metres wide1 of a white colour1 and resemble limestone in appearance2 being soft1 they have weathered more rapidly than the granite around them1 leaving vertical-sided chasms4 ,but for the manner of its occurrence1 the rock would have been easily mistaken in the field for a sedimentary one4 ,the microscope1 however1 confirms its eruptive origin4 ,the slides cut from the rock show a confused and clouded semi-crystalline aggregate1 containing clearer small areas of quartz4 ,even the quartz crystals are full of specks1 and only the faintest traces can be seen of the felspars1 which are so decomposed as to be hardly distinguishable from the ground mass4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4--;,altered quartz-felsite1 ,gebel ,igli el ,iswid #aj1cgb1 as seen between crossed nicols1 #dj4 f1 felspar 7mostly orthoclase in the position of extinction72 h1 a crystal of hornblende2 g1 hemi-crystalline ground mass2 m1 micropegmatitic intergrowth of quartz and felspar1 separating the porphyritic crystals4 ,in the rocks of ,gebels ,igli el ,iswid1 ,mahali1 and ,hadarba1 we have quartz-felsites which have been altered in quite a different way4 ,the rocks are extremely hard1 and almost flinty1 breaking with a sub-conchoidal fracture4 ,they are typically of a brown to nearly black colour1 with white spots measuring a millimetre or two across4 ,under the microscope these white spots are seen in the rock from ,gebel ,igli el ,iswid #aj1cgb to be chiefly porphyritic felspar and quartz crystals1 sometimes corroded by the ground mass2 while the black ground mass is largely composed of extremely fine micro-pegmatitic intergrowths of quartz and felspar1 with some glassy matter1 and here and there irregular small clouded and altered crystals of hornblende4 ,the micro-pegmatitic material has possibly originated by devitrification of an originally glassy ground mass4 ,variations of the rock occur in which the porphyritic felspars are infrequent or even altogether absent1 the rock passing gradually into a hornfels #aj1cga4 ,the slide from ,gebel ,mahali #aj1djb exhibits clear porphyritic crystals of quartz and orthoclase1 both minerals in more or less idiomorphic forms1 embedded in1 and occasionally corroded by1 a semi-crystalline ground mass4 ,the ground mass contains some calcite and iron oxides1 probably arising from the decomposition of a hornblendic or micaceous mineral4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4--,microperthitic structure in felspar of quartz-felsite1 ,gebel ,hadarba #ab1adg1 as seen between crossed nicols1 #dj4 ,the rocks of ,gebel ,hadarba #ab1adf-ab1adi are essentially similar to those of ,gebel ,igli el ,iswid1 but in some cases they show bright red veining2 where they have been exposed to the polishing agency of the sand blast1 these veined varieties look as though they had been streaked with melted sealing-wax4 ,in some of the slides the felspars show a well marked microperthitic structure1 while in others they are so decomposed that they are barely distinguishable from the ground mass4 ,the ground mass sometimes contains granules and strings of iron-oxide1 possibly referable to alteration of a hornblendic constituent1 but the rock is too much altered for one to be sure4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4--;,crushed oligoclase crystal in quartz-felsite1 ,wadi ,huluz #aj1djd1 as seen between crossed nicols1 #dj4 ,an altered and crushed quartz-felsite #aj1djd which occurs in the ,wadi ,huluz1 near where the ,wadi el ,abiad joins it about eight kilometres to the north-west of ,gebel ,hamata1 somewhat resembles the rock of ,gebel ,hadarba in appearance4 ,it is a jaspery looking rock of dark colour with red and greenish patches1 in which with a lens one can see scattered grains of glassy quartz4 ,the slide cut from the rock shows clear porphyritic crystals of quartz1 orthoclase and oligoclase in a fine grained ground mass4 ,the porphyritic crystals are mostly in rounded forms1 but some of the felspars show a tendency to idiomorphism4 ,many of the crystals are smashed1 and some show undulose extinction4 ,the ground mass consists of quartz1 felspar1 and some glassy matter1 with abundant epidote in nests and strings1 and a small amount of green hornblende in straggling forms4 ,the east-and-west dykes which traverse the syenite of ,gebel ,zergat ,naam1 and form the actual summit of that mountain1 consist of a very hard compact flesh-coloured rock which weathers brown on the surface4 ,the microscopic section #aa1ebe shows the rock to be a highly indurated felsite4 ,the original felspar crystals can be made out by their shapes1 but between crossed nicols they are seen to consist of a very fine-grained mosaic polarising in low greys1 probably the result of alteration by siliceous solutions4 ,these altered felspars are scattered with some quartz in a cryptocrystalline ground mass4 ,no volcanic rocks of acid type have been with certainty identified in ,south-,eastern ,egypt4 ,it is1 however1 possible that some of the rocks above described are in reality of volcanic origin1 though the manner of their occurrence is more suggestive of intruded masses and sheets4 ,it is also quite likely that some of the hornfels found associated with the schists1 as for instance at ,gebel ,um ,semiuki1 near ,abu ,hamamid1 are altered forms of glassy acid lavas2 but their vast age and the intense metamorphism to which they and the surrounding rocks have been subjected render it impossible to be certain of the manner of their origin4 ,,intermediate ,,igneous ,,rocks4 7a7 ,,sub-,,acid ,,rocks4 ,syenite and ,syenite-porphyry4 ,though hornblendic varieties of granite are fairly common1 true syenite 7i4e41 orthoclase-hornblende rocks with little or no quartz7 is amongst the rarest of rocks in ,south-,eastern ,egypt4 ,it occurs near ,gebel ,nazla 7between ,bir ,um ,gubur and ,bir ,masur71 in the two remarkable conical hills called ,el ,nahud1 which rise from the plain near the head of ,wadi ,natash1 and at ,gebel ,zergat ,naam4 ,in all these three localities the syenite appears to form intrusive bosses rising through the surrounding rocks4 ,the specimens from near ,gebel ,nazla #aj1fbe and from ,el ,nahud #aj1heg are very fine-grained reddish-brown rocks1 which can be seen with a lens to be largely made up of red orthoclase crystals with dark specks of hornblende4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4--,syenite of ,gebel ,zergat ,naam #aa1eae1 #aj4 o1 orthoclase felspar1 showing striations parallel to the basal planes2 h1 hornblende deep green in colour2 g1 interstitial quartz4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4--,syenite-porphyry1 ,gebel ,zergat ,naam #aa1eab1 as seen between crossed nicols1 #aj4 f1 porphyritic felspar 7orthoclase72 h1 hornblende2 g1 microgranitic ground mass containing felspar1 hornblende1 and some quartz4 ,the syenite of ,gebel ,zergat ,naam #aa1eae rises as a great boss from among the surrounding dark schistose rocks4 ,it is typically a pinkish-brown rock of rather fine grain 7see ,plate ,,xxiii71 in which can be seen shining crystals1 three to four millimetres long1 of pink orthoclase1 and specks of dark hornblende1 with here and there a little glassy-looking quartz4 ,the sp4 gr4 is #bfb4 ,under the microscope the rock is found to be mainly composed of orthoclase1 with a much smaller amount of hornblende and a little interstitial quartz4 ,the felspar is fairly clear1 in forms approximating to idiomorphic1 and showing the characteristic simple twinning of orthoclase4 ,the crystals are slightly clouded in streaks parallel to the basal planes1 so that even in ordinary light a faint herring-bone structure is visible1 the streaks on either side of the trace of the plane of composition being inclined to each other at a large angle4 ,between crossed nicols this herring-bone structure is very strongly marked1 and is evidently due to a perthitic intergrowth 7of albite874 ,the intergrown lamell are slightly irregular2 though following generally the direction of the basal cleavage planes they are not perfectly straight1 nor always continuous across the half of the crystal4 ,the lamell extinguish and attain their maximum of brightness simultaneously with the respective halves of the crystal in which they occur1 so that they become invisible in certain positions of the nicols2 but as the nicols are turned they appear as well marked dark bands1 clearly visible even under low powers4 ,the hornblende is of exceptionally dark green colour1 in irregular straggling masses1 often considerably decomposed and clouded with iron oxide4 ,accessory minerals1 other than the clear interstitial quartz1 appear to be almost entirely absent in the slide examined4 ,,plate ,,xxiii4 ,illustration3 ,ball4--,geography ,geology of ,south-,eastern ,egypt4 ,,intermediate ,,igneous ,,rocks4 ,,pink ,,syenite4 ,gebel ,zergat ,naam4 ,,trachyte4 ,gebel ,kahfa4 ,,diorite4 ,gebel ,allawi4 ,,diorite ,,with ,,prismatic ,,hornblende4 ,wadi ,muqur4 ,,banded ,,andesite4 ,gebel ,sufra4 ,,veined ,,kersantite4 ,gebel ,fereyid4 ,,natural ,,size4 ,in places1 the rock of ,gebel ,zergat ,naam takes on a finer grain and a greyer aspect in the mass4 ,a slide cut from this variety #aa1eab shows essentially the same composition1 but the felspars are here porphyritic in a crystalline ground mass of felspar and hornblende4 ,the rock thus passes into syenite-porphyry4 ,the porphyritic felspar crystals show the same lamellar structure as those in the more coarsely crystalline rock4 ,trachyte4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4--,trachyte1 from a dyke at ,gebel ,kahfa #aa1ecg ,a #aj4 ,a clear crystal of orthoclase felspar is seen in the centre of the field1 surrounded by a finely crystalline ground mass of hornblende and felspar4 ,trachyte1 the volcanic representative of syenite1 occurs in dykes #aa1ecg ,a seaming the granite of ,gebel ,kahfa4 ,it is a light grey rock1 of very fine grain1 breaking with a rough surface1 containing pores and small stumpy white pearly-looking porphyritic crystals of orthoclase 7see ,plate ,,xxiii74 ,the sp4 gr4 is #bef4 ,the microscope shows the ground mass surrounding the porphyritic idiomorphic orthoclase crystals to be a holocrystalline mixture of hornblende and felspar4 ,the felspars of the ground mass are usually in more elongated forms than the porphyritic crystals1 and appear to be partly plagioclase4 ,the hornblende1 in small and very irregular crystals of dark olive-green colour1 often clouded and dirty looking1 is scattered plentifully among the feslpars of the ground mass4 ,accessory primary minerals appear to be entirely absent4 ,a rock which occurs in a hill at the head of ,wadi ,amba-ut #aj1cge appears to be essentially similar to the above1 but the porphyritic orthoclases are more numerous and the ground mass contains small quantities of augite and magnetite4 ,this rock is in a highly altered condition1 the felspars being full of kaolin and epidote1 while the hornblende1 which is here of a paler colour than in the trachyte of ,gebel ,kahfa1 is highly chloritised4 7b7 ,,sub-,,basic ,,rocks4 ,diorite4 ,though not forming such conspicuous features as the granites1 rocks of dioritic composition are very widely distributed over the country1 and are specially abundant in the districts to the south of ,ras ,benas4 ,they are almost always sharply marked-off from the granites1 being generally closely connected with the more basic igneous rocks and schists4 ,the coarser-grained varieties usually form parts of irregular intrusive masses1 shading off gradually into the more basic forms of diabase1 gabbro1 and hornblende rock2 the finer-grained types occur as dykes and irregular bands traversing other igneous rocks and schists1 and are themselves frequently so crushed as to resemble schists4 ,owing to their intimate association with other dark rocks1 it is no easy matter to trace the limits of the diorites in the field4 ,the same difficulty is found when they are microscopically examined1 for one finds in their mineralogical composition every gradation from true diorites1 through the intermediate stage of augite-diorite to diabase and gabbro1 while many of the harder dark schists and hornblende gneisses turn out to be merely highly crushed diorites1 so that classification must be more or less arbitrary4 ,diorite typically forms low hill country of dark aspect4 ,the rock weathers as a rule far more easily than granite1 and in some cases the debris of rounded grains set free by disintegration cover the surface and render the climbing of the hills somewhat dangerous1 the effect being like one would imagine to result from walking over slopes covered with hard peas4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4--;,diorite of ,gebel ,allawi #aj1cac1 #aj4 pl1 plagioclase felspar1 clouded by decomposition products2 h1 hornblende1 olive-brown in colour2 ha1 hornblende altering to pale-green chlorite2 m1 magnetite4 ,diorite in the narrowest sense of the term 7plagioclase-hornblende rock7 is not by any means abundant4 ,curiously enough1 it is generally found in the neighbourhood of old gold mines1 as for instance in the ,kurdeman and ,allawi districts1 and it was employed by the ancient miners for their crushing pans4 ,the rock from ,gebel ,allawi #aj1cac is a medium-grained one composed of black and milk-white minerals in about equal proportion 7see ,plate ,,xxiii74 ,its sp4 gr4 is #bie4 ,under the microscope the milk-white material is seen to be plagioclastic felspar1 generally much decomposed1 while the dark grains are of hornblende1 pale green to olive-brown in thin section1 with somewhat feeble pleochroism4 ,like the felspar1 the hornblende is considerably altered2 in places it has lost nearly all its colour and is converted into pale green chlorite4 ,the accessory minerals are iron-oxides and a little sphene4 ,rocks of somewhat finer grain #aj1ceh occur in the ,rod el ,ligaia4 ,in a slide from the last-named locality1 granules of ilmenite are surrounded by sphene1 suggesting the formation of sphene by the alteration of ilmenite4 ,a variety of diorite #aj1djc occurs in the ,wadi ,huluz in which the hornblende is nearly colourless1 showing only a trace of green colour in thin section1 and is accompanied by a small amount of augite4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4--;,diorite1 ,wadi ,baaneit #ab1aea1 #aj4 h1 hornblende2 pl1 plagioclase2 b1 accessory biotite2 q1 accessory quartz4 ,a form of diorite which occurs in and about the ,wadi ,baaneit #ab1aea is very similar to the rock just described1 but differs from it in the more irregular manner in which the two principal mineral constituents are distributed4 ,the hornblende is in patches varying from mere specks to eight millimetres in diameter2 the felspars have a sugary appearance in the hand specimen4 ,the sp4 gr4 is #bha4 ,a more highly specialised type of diorite #ab1ajc occurs in the ,wadi ,muqur4 ,this is a very beautiful heavy rock 7sp4 gr4 #bhg71 with shining prisms of hornblende1 often three centimetres or more in length1 running through a mass of white felspars 7see ,plate ,,xxiii74 ,microscopic examination reveals the presence of some quartz mixed with the plagioclastic felspars4 ,where the alteration of diorite has been very intense1 as in the country rock #ab1abd of the old ,romit mine1 the hand specimen differs from that of the unaltered rock in that not only are the white constituents of duller aspect1 but the dark mineral1 instead of being black and shining1 has a dull greenish-grey appearance4 ,under the microscope one sees no trace of the original felspar1 its place being taken by calcite and a confused aggregate of small plates of kaolin and sericite1 while the hornblende is all replaced by chlorite1 with little strings of limonite4 ,granules of quartz1 often of relatively large size1 are scattered through the mass2 some of these are clouded by minute enclosures1 and evidently represent the accessory quartz of the original rock1 while others are clearer and are probably of secondary formation4 ,fine-grained varieties of diorite are found much more abundantly than the normal plutonic type1 occurring as irregular masses mixed with schists and as dykes in schists and other rocks4 ,these fine-grained diorites are essentially similar to the coarser-grained rocks1 but are generally even more altered4 ,the fine-grained diorite #aa1eag ,a1 which forms the top of ,gebel ,um ,tenedba1 for instance1 consists of a mixture of clouded and altered plagioclase and augite altering to chlorite1 with separated iron oxide along the cleavage planes of the hornblende4 ,another specimen of fine-grained diorite1 from a dyke in ,wadi ,kreiga #ab1aed1 is even more highly altered1 the hornblende being almost entirely chloritised1 with formation of abundant little granules of epidote4 ,the main rock of ,gebel ,beida #ab1afj may also be classed as an altered fine-grained diorite4 ,it is a dark fine-grained greenish-grey rock with white and greenish-yellow spots1 usually about two millimetres diameter1 scattered through it1 and abundant strings of a greenish yellow mineral4 ,the sp4 gr4 is #bif4 ,under the microscope it is seen to be of similar nature to the rocks last described1 the hornblende being largely chloritised4 ,there is a considerable amount of accessory augite1 and this1 though clouded1 has resisted alteration better than the hornblende4 ,the whitish spots seen in the hand specimen are made up of a fine mosaic of quartz grains1 with tiny flakes of a micaceous mineral 7sericite87 probably all of secondary origin1 while the greenish-yellow strings are other alteration products in the shape of epidote and calcite4 ,augite-diorite4 ,under the head of augite-diorite are classed holocrystalline rocks containing1 in addition to the plagioclase and hornblende of ordinary diorites1 notable quantities of augite4 ,the augite-diorites thus form a link between the diorites proper and the diabases or plagioclase-augite rocks4 ,the presence of augite along with the hornblende is difficult to ascertain in the field or in hand specimens1 and can as a rule only be detected by the microscopic examination of thin sections4 ,but augite diorites are generally of somewhat darker aspect than normal diorites in the mass1 owing to a less abundance of felspar1 and are generally tougher under the hammer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4--;,augite-diorite1 ,wadi ,um ,hargal #aa1ece1 #dg4 h1 hornblende2 a1 augite1 with celephytic border c1 of hornblende and iron oxide2 f1 felspar 7labradorite72 ap1 apatite4 ,an augite-diorite #aa1ece which occurs on the pass at the head of ,wadi ,um ,hargal1 near ,gebel ,kahfa1 is a heavy 7sp4 gr4 #bhg7 grey rock of medium grain1 very fresh and hard1 in which can be seen lustrous black crystals mixed with a rather small quantity of white felspars4 ,in thin section1 hornblende1 the most abundant constituent1 is in fairly large allotriomorphic crystals1 with well marked cleavage and strong pleochroism 7bluish-green to pale yellow71 containing abundance of irregular granules of iron oxides4 ,the augite1 which is present to about one-third the amount of the hornblende1 is in crystals of similar size1 and likewise showing well-marked cleavage1 easily distinguished by their pale brown colour1 absence of pleochroism1 and higher extinction angles 7about #dj72 some of the crystals show irregular cracking and clouding by decomposition products1 and are surrounded by celephytic zones of greenish matter of rather lower double refraction containing flakes and strings of iron oxide1 probably representing a marginal alteration to hornblende4 ,the felspar1 though considerably decomposed1 still shows plagioclastic twinning clearly1 and appears from the extinction angles to be an acid type of labradorite4 ,the rock contains considerable amount of magnetite scattered through it1 often in fairly large irregular grains1 also a few small grains of apatite1 and one or two small granules of quartz4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4--;,augite-diorite1 ,gebel el ,anbat #aj1daa1 #dj4 pl1 plagioclase felspar2 a1 augite2 h1 hornblende1 arising from alteration of augite4 ,the rock #aj1daa which forms the dark hills called ,gebel el ,anbat1 near the head of ,wadi ,kharit1#aca is likewise an augite-diorite4 ,in the field it is seen weathered into rounded masses often resembling boulders1 of great hardness1 and covered with a blackish-brown skin4 ,the sp4 gr4 is #big4 ,microscopic examination shows the rock1 which is very fresh1 to be essentially of the same type as that last described1 but the augite is more abundant and so intimately mixed with the hornblende as to suggest even more strongly an alteration of augite to hornblende 7see ,fig4 #ba74 ,mica-diorite4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4--,mica diorite1 from a dyke at ,gebel ,abu ,hegilig #aj1cia1 #ag4 f1 felspar 7mainly plagioclase72 b1 biotite altering with formation of limonite2 h1 hornblende2 ap1 apatite2 m1 magnetite4 ,most of the diorites of ,south-,eastern ,egypt contain little or no biotite as an accessory constituent4 ,an exception occurs1 however1 in a great dyke #aj1cia of very fine grained diorite of sp4 gr4 #bhg1 which traverses the granite of ,gebel ,abu ,hegilig1 and which contains more biotite than hornblende4 ,the dyke is so decomposed that it is difficult to get a coherent hand specimen2 but a slide cut from one of the less altered portions shows the rock to be a very fine grained holocrystalline one1 made up of plagioclase1 biotite1 hornblende1 apatite and magnetite1 with abundant alteration products such as epidote1 kaolin1 and chlorite4 ,all the minerals1 except the apatite and some of the iron oxides1 are allotriomorphic4 ,the felspars are very much altered1 but appear to be mainly plagioclase4 ,the biotite is in little brown ragged-looking plates1 strongly pleochroic1 frequently altered with separation of flakes of limonite4 ,the hornblende is green1 in small and very irregular-shaped crystals1 which show very little trace of cleavage and are frequently chloritised4 ,the apatite is in long hexagonal clear prisms4 ,iron oxides1 sometimes showing square or hexagonal outlines1 and epidote in granules1 are liberally scattered through the rock4 ,from the abundance of biotite and the fine grain and manner of occurrence of this rock it was taken in the field for a decomposed lamprophyre2 but the entire absence of idiomorphism in the ferro-magnesian minerals show that it should rather be placed with the diorites4 ,diorite-porphyrite4 ,rocks which may be somewhat doubtfully classed as altered diorite-porphyrites occur at ,gebel ,abu ,hodeid as well as near the ruins of ,um ,eleiga and at ,gebel ,um ,heshenib4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4--;,diorite-porphyrite1 ,gebel ,abu ,hodeid #ab1adc1 #dj4 f1 porphyritic felspar 7plagioclase72 h1 hornblende2 b1 biotite2 g1 ground mass1 consisting chiefly of plagioclase and hornblende4 ,the triangulation point on ,gebel ,abu ,hodeid not being an occupied station1 ,i have not visited the mountain1 but the guide sent to erect the beacon on the summit brought back a specimen #ab1adc of the rock4 ,it is a very fine-grained dark grey rock with tiny glistening specks4 ,the sp4 gr4 is #bhh4 ,the microscopic slide shows it to consist of porphyritic plagioclase in a very fine-grained holocrystalline ground mass composed principally of brown hornblende and plagioclase1 with a little biotite and a plentiful sprinkling of tiny granules of iron oxides4 ,the porphyritic plagioclases are inclined to idiomorphic forms1 forming crystals about half a millimetre in length1 and hence are not very conspicuous in the hand specimen2 they are considerably clouded by decomposition1 but still show repeated twinning very clearly4 ,the hornblende1 which forms the main constituent of the ground mass1 is of a pale to dark yellow-brown colour1 mostly in rounded granules in which cleavage is not very strongly marked4 ,the plagioclase of the ground mass is likewise in tiny granules1 mixed with the hornblende4 ,biotite is only sparingly present in the slide2 it is in tiny brown flakes4 ,all the minerals of the ground mass show more or less decomposition and clouding1 and contain a fairly plentiful sprinkling of minute grains of iron oxides2 flakes of this latter substance are specially evident in the decomposing biotite4 ,the diorite-porphyrite of ,um ,eleiga #aa1ebg ,b occurs associated with fine grained gabbro round the old mines4 ,it is a grey rock1 breaking with a rough surface1 in which porphyritic lath-shaped felspar crystals1 up to three millimetres long1 are somewhat sparsely scattered in a fine-grained ground mass4 ,the sp4 gr4 is #bhb4 ,the microscopic slide reveals the ground mass to be finely holocrystalline1 composed of plagioclase and pale green to brown hornblende1 with some magnetite4 ,the plagioclase of the ground mass is partly in little laths1 and the hornblende frequently shows a tendency to prismatic and fibrous forms4 ,the whole rock is in a rather advanced state of alteration1 all the crystals in the slide being strongly clouded by kaolin and other decomposition products4 ,the summit rock of ,gebel ,um ,heshenib #aj1cib appears to be a highly altered basic diorite-porphyrite forming a dyke in the surrounding schists4 ,it is a dark-grey heavy rock 7sp4 gr4 #cjd71 of basaltic appearance1 with white porphyritic patches1 more or less rounded in form1 scattered through it4 ,the microscopic slide shows the white patches now to consist mainly of kaolinic matter1 with which is mixed a clear mineral 7sericite871 of very low refractive index1 but showing rather high double-refraction colours2 while the ground mass is a very fine-grained mixture of rather fibrous pale green hornblende with kaolinic matter4 ,hardly a trace of unaltered felspar remains1 but it seems natural to ascribe the kaolin both of the porphyritic areas and of the ground mass to the decomposition of original felspars4 ,a dyke of fine-grained brown rock which occurs in the granite of the lower part of ,wadi ,kreiga #ab1ajb likewise appears to be an altered diorite-porphyrite4 ,it is much less dense than the rock last described1 its sp4 gr4 being only #bfh4 ,the microscopic slide shows the main constituent to be plagioclase felspar in idiomorphic forms1 much altered to kaolin and calcite and stained red by iron oxide4 ,between the felspars are irregular patches of chloritic and serpentinous matter1 with calcite and flakes of limonite1 the alteration products of a ferro-magnesian mineral which was probably originally hornblende4 ,augite-porphyrite4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4--;,augite-porphyrite1 ,wadi ,muelih #aj1cei1 #dj4 a1 augite2 pl1 plagioclase2 h1 hornblende1 much clouded with iron oxides4 ,the rock contains large porphyritic plagioclase and hornblende crystals not shown in the figure4 ,a dyke of augite porphyrite #aj1cec occurs in the ,wadi ,muelih about half-way between ,gebel ,muelih and ,erf el ,fahid4 ,it is a fine-grained reddish-brown rock of sp4 gr4 #bgi1 with porphyritic white plagioclase crystals of considerable size 7up to two centimetres in length7 and other smaller porphyritic crystals of a dark schillerized-looking mineral4 ,the ground mass1 when examined with a hand lens1 is seen to be a very fine-grained mixture of red and dark minerals1 like a syenite in miniature4 ,the microscopic slide reveals the dark porphyritic crystals as green hornblende1 while the ground mass is a holocrystalline mixture of plagioclase and augite1 with a little green to brown hornblende and abundance of magnetite granules4 ,the felspars of the ground mass are mostly lath-shaped2 they are much altered1 and stained red by iron oxide4 ,the augite1 of a very pale purple colour1 is abundant in the ground mass1 sometimes in prismatic forms1 but more often in rounded grains2 it is altered in places to chlorite1 becoming then green in colour4 ,the extinction angles measured in the less-altered crystals range to over #dj4 ,kersantite4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4--,kersantite1 from a dyke at ,gebel ,fereyid #aa1ejd1 #dj4 f1 felspar 7mainly oligoclase72 b1 biotite2 a1 augite1 with a border of hornblende 7h72 ap1 apatite4 ,only one occurrence of a rock which can be with certainty classed as a lamprophyre has been noted in ,south-,eastern ,egypt4 ,the single occurrence referred to is that of a kersantite #aa1ejd which forms a dyke cutting east-and-west through the granite of ,gebel ,fereyid4 ,in the hand specimen 7see ,plate ,,xxiii7 it is a fine grained dark-grey rock1 marbled with veinlets of brownish-white granular 7felspathic87 material1 and containing here and there porphyritic dark-brown platey crystals up to three millimetres in diameter4 ,the sp4 gr4 is #bha4 ,under the microscope1 the rock presents a very fresh appearance1 and is seen to be composed mainly of felspars and brown biotite1 with a little accessory augite1 green hornblende1 apatite and magnetite4 ,the biotite1 the most conspicuous constituent1 is seen partly in basal sections of perfectly idiomorphic forms1 and partly as long lath-shaped sections2 it is strongly pleochroic1 the colour varying from pale yellow-brown to a very dark reddish-brown4 ,the felspar1 which has undergone some alteration1 forms a sort of matrix round the biotite2 here and there large crystals show a tendency to idiomorphism1 but the felspar is essentially allotriomorphic4 ,the felspar appears to be mainly oligoclase2 but there are also some crystals which show only simple twinning1 and these are doubtless orthoclase4 ,the augite and hornblende are very sparingly present1 the former in nearly colourless to purplish crystals1 the latter in tiny forms of a deep emerald or bluish-green colour1 with very high double refraction4 ,magnetite is liberally scattered in small grains through the rock1 seldom included in the biotite4 ,apatite occurs in very fine long needles among the felspars4 ,andesites4 ,andesites1 the volcanic representatives of the diorites1 are much more scarce in the south portion of the ,eastern ,desert than they are further north4 ,in the district here treated of1 only a single deposit1 that of ,gebel ,sufra1 has been noted as belonging certainly to the class of andesitic lavas4 ,some other volcanic rocks consisting chiefly of hornblende and plagioclase have been met with1 as for instance at the hill of ,ti ,keferiai and in the ,wadi ,huluz2 but these are of so basic a nature that they are more properly classed as hornblende-basalts4 ,it is also practically certain that some of the rocks which must be classed as schists on account of their structure are metamorphosed andesites2 among the schists of the ,wadi ,muelih1 for example1 are rocks which in thin section present a ground mass still distinctly andesitic in character1 but the hornblendic constituent1 instead of forming well-defined porphyritic crystals as it doubtless originally did1 is dragged out into fibrous forms1 and the same action can be traced in the hornblendes of the ground mass4 ,the andesite of ,gebel ,sufra #aj1eig occurs as a columnar deposit overlying syenites and diorites at the top of the mountain1 which rises to #fij metres above sea-level in latitude #bd #ci4 ,the rock1 which is a fine-grained greenish-grey one weathering to a brown colour on exposed surfaces1 often shows a banded structure 7see ,plate ,,xxiii74 ,the sp4 gr4 is #bfg4 ,the microscopic section shows the rock to be highly altered1 but sufficient traces of its original nature can be made out to leave little doubt of its being an andesitic lava4 ,the slides show porphyritic felspars in a cryptocrystalline ground mass composed of felspar with a little hornblende and biotite4 ,the porphyritic felspars are too much kaolinised for twinning to be made out1 but a little calcite is visible in their decomposition products1 and the crystals are in rather elongated forms which suggest plagioclase rather than orthoclase4 ,the minerals of the ground mass are likewise much decomposed1 but tiny grains of green hornblende and wisps of brown biotite1 both altering to chlorite1 can be seen4 ,there is an almost complete absence of primary iron oxides1 but a single large porphyritic crystal in the slide shows separated hmatite in flakes and in strings down its cleavage planes4 ,the nature of this single crystal is not very clear1 and it is doubtful if any of its original substance remains2 its form and cleavage are suggestive of augite1 but the clear spaces unoccupied by the iron oxide have the appearance of quartz or clear felspar under crossed nicols4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4--,view near the top of ,gebel ,sufra1 showing the columnar structure of the andesite4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4--;,andesite of ,gebel ,sufra #aj1eig1 as seen between crossed nicols1 #dj4 ,porphyritic felspar crystals in a cryptocrystalline ground mass4 ,,basic ,,igneous ,,rocks4 ,gabbro4 ,gabbros 7or plutonic plagioclase-pyroxene rocks with or without olivine7 are widely distributed in ,south-,eastern ,egypt1 entering largely into the composition of some conspicuous mountains such as ,gebels ,atut1 ,madaret ,um ,gamil1 ,um ,gunud1 ,um ,bisilla1 ,dahanib1 ,gerf1 and ,hadal ,aweib ,meisah1 and also occurring in smaller patches at various other points4 ,though they are all dark-coloured1 tough and heavy rocks 7specific gravity from #bh to #cb71 the gabbros vary very much in appearance at different places owing to variations in size of grain and in mineral composition4 ,thus we have every gradation from the coarse-grained gabbros such as those of ,um ,bisilla and ,gerf1 where the individual crystals measure sometimes two or three centimetres in length1 through the medium grained rocks of ,atut1 ,dahanib and ,hadal ,aweib ,meisah1 to the granulitic gabbro of ,kolmanab hill1 of which the grain is so fine that the rock looks almost like a basalt4 ,in mineral composition1 the gabbros show likewise great variety4 ,some1 like the rocks of ,um ,bisilla1 are relatively rich in felspar1 and are lighter both in colour and in weight than others in which the pyroxenes predominate2 in some cases the proportion of felspar almost vanishes and the rock passes into a pyroxenite4 ,some of the gabbros1 such as those of ,atut1 contain olivine1 while others1 such as the rocks of ,gebel ,dahanib1 do not4 ,the nature of the pyroxene varies1 being sometimes almost entirely diallage1 while in others it is mainly ordinary augite1 and in others1 again1 rhombic pyroxenes such as bronzite and hypersthene occur4 ,a further variation is the presence of hornblende in some gabbros1 either as an accessory primary constituent or as an alteration product of a pyroxene4 ,in the uppermost rock of ,gebel ,um ,bisilla we have an example of troctolite1 a form of gabbro in which there is no pyroxene but only felspar and olivine4 ,in the field1 mountains and hills formed of gabbro are typically of dark aspect1 though frequently less dark than a freshly broken surface of the rock1 owing to a film of iron-oxide which forms on weathered faces4 ,this film is most strongly marked in the olivine-bearing varieties of the rock2 it is very thin1 good sound rock being usually found at a depth of a millimetre or so below the exposed surfaces4 ,in form1 hills of gabbro are usually in the form of flattish cones and ridges1 whose surfaces and summits are covered with a debris of rusty-looking weathered blocks of the rock4 ,this blocky type of summit is well seen at ,gebel ,atut 7see the view on ,plate ,x1 p4 #agb74 ,though sometimes sharply marked-off from the adjacent rocks1 gabbros1 when traced laterally in the field1 are most frequently found to pass gradually into more basic forms such as pyroxenites1 amphibolites1 and serpentines4 ,it is not always easy in the field to distinguish between augite or diallage and hornblende1 and one or two rocks which were taken for gabbros turn out on microscopic study to be really basic diorites or hornblende-rocks2 while a rock at ,um ,eleiga1 which strongly resembles a rather fine-grained diorite in appearance1 turns out to be a gabbro4 ,the limit between gabbros and peridotites is exceptionally difficult to map1 the proportions of olivine1 augite1 bronzite1 and felspar changing very frequently in the same rock mass1 as for instance at ,gebel ,gerf4 ,almost all the gabbros contain a considerable amount of magnetite as an accessory constituent1 and in some cases1 as at ,gebel ,hadal ,aweib ,meisah1 magnetite is present in such quantity as to render the rock strongly magnetic4 ,compass readings in the neighbourhood of large masses of gabbro are almost always subject to more or less error from this cause4 ,in the case of a gabbro discovered by ,dr4 ,hume to the west of ,gebel ,ranga1 near the coast about latitude #bd #bd1 concentration of the ferruginous matter has gone on to such a degree as to give rise to deposits of hmatite containing #ci per cent of iron4#acb ,perhaps the most striking feature evident in the microscopic slides cut from the gabbros is the remarkable freshness of the felspars in most of the specimens1 which1 taken in conjunction with the basic nature of the rocks1 inclines one to consider the basic rocks as probably on the whole amongst the youngest of the plutonic masses4 ,another characteristic feature is 8celephytic0 structure1 in which a shell of green hornblende is found to surround the iron oxides and pyroxenes when they are embedded in1 or in contact with1 the surrounding felspar4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4--;,gabbro1 ,gebel ,dahanib #aa1eji1 #ag4 f1 felspar 7labradorite72 a1 augite2 d1 diallage2 b1 bronzite2 h1 hornblende1 probably produced by alteration of augite4 ,a typical olivine-free gabbro #aa1eji forms the main rock of ,gebel ,dahanib4 ,a specimen taken from the summit1 where the rock is rather finer in grain than that of the rest of the mountain1 is very hard and heavy 7sp4 gr4 #cae71 and is formed of a mixture of dark dull-looking mineral with shining white to colourless felspars4 ,under the microscope it is seen to be a holocrystalline aggregate of fairly fresh labradorite and pyroxene1 both in allotriomorphic forms1 in about equal proportions4 ,about half the pyroxene is in the form of diallage1 the remainder being mostly ordinary augite2 it is almost colourless in thin section1 but some of the crystals show a slight pleochroism1 colourless to pale pinkish-brown4 ,the augite crystals are much cracked1 and frequently show signs of alteration with formation of calcite1 epidote and serpentinous matter4 ,there are a few small irregular areas of very pale green hornblende mixed with the augite1 of which they may possibly be products of alteration4 ,one or two elongated crystals in the slide1 barely distinguishable from the augite under ordinary light1 show a fibrous structure and straight extinction with low double-refraction colours2 these are probably bronzite4 ,there are only a few very tiny grains of iron oxide1 and olivine appears to be absent from the slide examined4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4--;,gabbro1 ,um ,eleiga #aa1ebg ,a1 #ag4 pl1 plagioclase2 pc1 clouded plagioclase2 a1 augite2 m1 magnetite2 s1 serpentinous matter probably from alteration of augite and hornblende4 ,a fine grained gabbro free from olivine occurs associated with diorite round the old mines of ,um ,eleiga #aa1ebg ,a4 ,it is a speckled black-and-white rock which would at first sight be taken for a fine-grained diorite rather than a gabbro4 ,its sp4 gr4 is #bic4 ,on microscopic examination the rock is found to be a holocrystalline aggregate of plagioclase1 augite1 altered hornblende1 and magnetite1 with granitic structure4 ,the plagioclase 7labradorite7 is considerably altered and clouded by kaolinic matter1 especially near the centres of the crystals1 but still shows its characteristic twinning clearly4 ,the augite1 which is sometimes in the form of diallage1 is fairly abundant1 mostly in irregular grains1 though occasionally inclining to prismatic forms2 it is nearly colourless1 but much cracked and slightly clouded4 ,a clouded pale green to brown mineral1 which sends off long tongues into cracks in the surrounding felspars1 is also fairly abundant4 ,this mineral polarises in yellows and greys as a confused serpentine-like aggregate of minute fibres1 but contains clear and nearly colourless areas representing the original mineral from which it is derived2 these clear areas1 in which prismatic cleavage is usually well marked1 are sometimes augite1 but in many cases they polarise in lower colours 7greys and yellows7 than the augite1 with low extinction angles1 and are probably hornblende4 ,magnetite is very abundant in quite large irregular grains1 often surrounded by a thin shell of hornblende or of the clouded alteration product just mentioned4 ,there are a few small six-sided prisms of apatite1 mostly included in the felspars4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4--;,hypersthene-gabbro1 ,hadal ,aweib ,meisah #ab1abf1 #d4 f1 felspar 7labradorite72 a1 augite2 hy1 hypersthene 7the augite and hypersthene have the same appearance in ordinary light72 m1 magnetite2 hb1 hornblende1 forming celyphitic borders round the augite and magnetite4 ,another variety of fine-grained gabbro1 likewise free from olivine1 but containing hypersthene and some hornblende #ab1abf1 forms the upper portion of ,hadal ,aweib ,meisah1 and a very similar rock #aa1eba occurs in the hills five kilometres south-south-west of ,marwot ,elemikan4 ,the rock is very hard1 of a grey colour on fracture1 weathering to blocks which have a rusty-brown skin4 ,its sp4 gr4 is #bih4 ,it is highly magnetic1 and causes great disturbance of the compass needle in its neighbourhood4 ,the hand specimen shows a mixture of shining white felspars with duller black minerals 7see ,plate ,,xxiv74 ,on microscopic study1 the rock is found to be a holocrystalline aggregate of plagioclase1 augite1 hypersthene1 hornblende and magnetite4 ,the plagioclase1 which forms about two-thirds of the rock1 is a very clear and fresh labradorite of a rather acid type4 ,the augite is usually in more or less rounded grains1 often aggregated into irregular strings and mixed with hypersthene and magnetite4 ,only in a few cases does the augite show diallagic lamellation4 ,it is nearly colourless1 with a slight greenish or pinkish-brown tinge and faint pleochroism4 ,the prismatic cleavages are usually distinct1 and in addition the crystals are irregularly cracked4 ,twinning is fairly frequent1 as also are inclusions of magnetite in the augite4 ,the hypersthene occurs in grains similar to those of the augite1 with which it is mixed1 and from which at first sight it is not easily discriminated2 but it can be picked out by its more marked pleochroism1 straight extinction1 and lower double refraction4 ,magnetite is abundant in large irregular grains1 and in smaller granules included in the augite4 ,hornblende occurs in subordinate amount to the other minerals1 and is principally seen as a celyphitic zone round the magnetite and augite crystals1 especially between these crystals and the felspars4 ,it is usually fairly clear1 strongly pleochroic 7deep greenish-brown to very pale yellowish-brown71 and where surrounding two or three grains of other minerals the whole zone extinguishes at once1 showing it to be a single crystal4 ,,plate ,,xxiv4 ,illustration3 ,ball4--,geography ,geology of ,south-,eastern ,egypt4 ,,basic ,,and ,,ultra-,,basic ,,igneous ,,rocks4 ,,olivine-,,gabbro4 ,gebel ,um ,bisella4 ,,fine-,,grained ,,gabbro4 ,hadal ,aweib ,meisah4 ,,troctolite4 ,gebel ,um ,bisella4 ,,diabase4 ,rod el ,nagi4 ,,olivine-,,basalt4 ,einiwai ,hill4 ,,serpentine4 ,gebel ,korabkansi4 ,,natural ,,size4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4--,olivine-gabbro1 ,gebel ,um ,bisilla #aa1ead1 #aj4 pl1 plagioclase felspar 7labradorite72 d1 altered diallage2 o1 olivine1 altered in places to serpentine 7s71 with separation of granules of iron oxide4 ,the main portion of ,gebel ,um ,bisilla is formed of a gabbro #aa1ead containing a relatively small proportion of pyroxene and a considerable amount of olivine4 ,in the mass1 it is a hard tough rock1 consisting of a mixture of white to greenish felspars1 showing plagioclastic twinning with the lens1 with dull dark minerals1 some of a greenish colour and others of a rusty-brown appearance 7see ,plate ,,xxiv74 ,the sp4 gr4 of the rock is #bh4 ,the labradorite1 which forms about two-thirds of the whole1 is very fresh1 but is here and there decomposed with formation of calcite along cracks4 ,the pyroxenic constituent is now mostly represented by dusty looking very pale greenish-brown straggling crystals interstitial to the felspars2 it appears to have been originally diallage1 but is in an advanced stage of alteration1 polarising as a confused fibrous mass of hornblende and chlorite1 with irregular banding in a direction inclined at about #cj to the general direction of the fibres4 ,the olivine is in large rounded grains1 nearly colourless where unaltered1 showing the usual irregular cracks2 some of the grains are altered to yellowish-green serpentine1 with separation of granules of iron oxide4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4--,olivine-gabbro1 ,gebel ,atut #aj1cfe1 #ag4 o1 olivine2 a1 augite2 h1 hornblende2 f1 felspar 7labradorite74 ,of the fine-grained olivine-gabbros1 one of the principal types is the rock of ,gebel ,atut and ,madaret ,um ,gamil #aj1cfe4 ,it is a dark heavy rock1 weathering into angular blocks with a thin rusty skin1 of great hardness and ringing under the hammer4 ,on a fresh fracture1 it is seen to be made up of white glassy felspars and dark brownish minerals1 some of which have a platey structure with cleavage surfaces which flash as the specimen is turned about in the sunlight4 ,the sp4 gr4 is #cja4 ,microscopic examination shows the rock to be a holocrystalline aggregate of plagioclase 7labradorite71 augite1 hornblende and olivine1 with a very little magnetite4 ,the labradorite1 which forms about half the rock1 is very clear and fresh1 in large crystals which frequently show a tendency to idiomorphism4 ,smaller crystals of labradorite are frequently included in the augite and hornblende4 ,augite1 the next most abundant constituent after the felspar1 is present in irregular almost colourless grains with well marked cleavage and numerous irregular cracks1 and sometimes slightly clouded4 ,the extinction angles measure up to #cf4 ,the hornblende is in some crystals of a rather pale greenish-brown colour not showing very strong pleochroism1 while in others it is more strongly coloured1 varying from a rather deep reddish-brown to very pale yellowish-brown when turned over the nicol4 ,the hornblende and augite are frequently associated in such a manner as to suggest that much of the hornblende in the rock originated from alteration of augite4 ,the olivine is fairly abundant in large rounded grains1 with the usual blackened irregular cracks2 it is mostly fresh1 but here and there are patches converted into nearly colourless serpentine with separation of numerous granules of iron oxide4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4--,olivine-gabbro1 from a hill eleven kilometres east of ,gebel ,selaia #aj1dab1 #ag4 pl1 plagioclase felspar 7labradorite72 a1 augite2 hy1 hypersthene2 o1 olivine1 with irregular cracks marked by separated magnetite2 h1 hornblende1 enclosing the other minerals and forming a pseudocelephytic border round the olivine and augite4 ,the rock typically contains a somewhat greater proportion of hornblende than appears in the figure4 ,another olivine-gabbro #aj1dab1 which forms a hill rising from the plain about eleven kilometres east of ,gebel ,selaia1 resembles that of ,gebel ,atut1 but is rather coarser in grain and contains less plagioclase1 a larger proportion of hornblende1 and probably a little accessory hypersthene4 ,it is a dense dark and tough rock of sp4 gr4 #cag1 containing large black schillerized-looking crystals sometimes measuring one centimetre across1 and a liberal sprinkling of white plagioclase with a few tiny grains of pyrite4 ,under the microscope1 very clear and fresh labradorite is seen to form less than one-third of the rock2 the crystals1 which are mostly of irregular outline1 are frequently enclosed in the hornblende4 ,the hornblende occurs very abundantly as larger irregular green and brown crystals1 with well-marked prismatic cleavage2 it often encloses crystals of all the other minerals1 forming a pseudo-celephytic border round the enclosed augite and olivine4 ,augite is somewhat less abundant than the hornblende1 with which it is intergrown1 in pale pinkish-brown crystals1 slightly pleochroic1 with very distinct vertical cleavage and irregular cracks4 ,twinning is not very frequent4 ,the extinction angles are usually under #cj4 ,a few crystals which show slightly stronger pleochroism 7pinkish-brown to very pale green7 than the ordinary augite1 and straight extinction1 are probably hypersthene4 ,olivine is present in about equal quantity with the augite1 in large irregular grains1 much cracked1 but otherwise fairly fresh1 polarising in brilliant colours2 the cracks are blackened with separated iron oxide1 but there is very little serpentinisation4 ,there are a few small grains of pyrite and magnetite1 but iron ores are not nearly so conspicuous as in some of the other rocks of this class4 ,troctolite4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4--,troctolite of ,gebel ,um ,bisilla #aa1ebb1 #ag4 ,the crystals with the dark irregular cracks are olivine 7o71 altering to serpentine 7s72 the resulting expansion has crushed the surrounding clear plagioclase crystals 7pl71 forming large numbers of curved cracks into which little tongues of serpentine project4 ,if the gabbro of ,gebel ,um ,bisilla is followed towards the summit1 a diminution in the pyroxenic content1 with a corresponding increase in the proportion of olivine1 is noted1 and at the top of the mountain we have a troctolite1 or rock composed essentially of plagioclase and olivine #aa1ebb4 ,it is a heavy speckled black-and-white rock1 made up of colourless to milky and greyish-black grains about three millimetres diameter 7see ,plate ,,xxiv74 ,its sp4 gr4 is #bhd4 ,the rock looks like a diorite in the hand specimen2 it weathers to rusty looking blocks of remarkable hardness4 ,under the microscope the mineral which looks greyish-black in the hand specimen is found to be olivine1 colourless where unaltered in thin section2 but the usual alteration to serpentine has gone on along irregular cracks1 and the separated granules or iron oxide give the black colour to the mass4 ,the felspar1 which forms considerably more than half the rock1 is a very fresh1 though occasionally much cracked1 labradorite4 ,both the constituent minerals are present in allotriomorphic grains4 ,pyroxene-granulite4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4--,pyroxene-granulite1 ,kolmanab ,hill #ab1acb1 #dj4 a1 augite2 h1 hornblende2 pl1 plagioclase2 m1 magnetite4 ,the rock #ab1acb forming the hill called ,kolmanab1 which rises from the coast-plain in latitude #bb #cb1 resembles the fine-grained olivine free gabbros very closely in composition1 but on account of its marked granulitic structure1 is termed a pyroxene-granulite4 ,the rounded form of the grains has probably been conditioned by movement of the magma during consolidation1 but the rock contains no garnet or other typically metamorphic mineral1 and there appears to be no reason for regarding this particular granulite as other than an igneous rock4 ,it will have been noted that the augite grains in some of the fine grained gabbros show a marked tendency to granulitic forms1 and the rock of ,kolmanab appears to be merely an example of this tendency extending to the other constituents4 ,the field relations are such as to suggest an intrusive boss4 ,the rock is very hard and heavy1 greyish-black and basaltic-looking2 fresh fractures show tiny glistening grains when turned about in the hand4 ,its sp4 gr4 is #cac4 ,microscopic examination shows it to be essentially a granulitic mixture of augite and plagioclase with a considerable amount of magnetite1 and a little hornblende4 ,all the minerals are of remarkable freshness1 in rounded grains about a tenth of a millimetre in diameter4 ,the augite1 which forms about half the rock1 is of a very pale green colour1 sometimes showing faint traces of pleochroism with the same pinkish tints as hypersthene1 from which1 however1 it is easily distinguished by its high extinction angles4 ,it encloses abundant rounded colourless granules1 which appear to be felspar4 ,the felspar is an acid labradorite1 and forms a mosaic among the augite grains2 besides the twinned crystals1 there are others which show no trace of this feature1 and some of these may possibly be quartz4 ,hornblende occurs1 not very abundantly1 in larger crystals than the other constituents1 grains of which it frequently encloses2 it is of an olive-green colour4 ,magnetite is scattered through the entire rock in rounded grains1 and is specially frequent enclosed in the hornblende4 ,diabases4 ,under the heading of diabase are included plagioclase-augite rocks1 with or without olivine1 of a character intermediate between gabbro and basalt4 ,they differ from the gabbros in their finer grain1 in the general absence of diallagic structures in the augite1 and in the more or less porphyritic nature of their felspars1 which are often ophitically intergrown with the augite4 ,they differ from basalts1 on the other hand1 in being of coarser grain1 and typically containing no glassy matter4 ,the diabases of ,south-,eastern ,egypt are more closely allied to the volcanic division of the basic rocks 7basalts7 than to the plutonic 7gabbros71 and many of the rocks here classed as diabases would be called dolerites by some ,english writers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4--;,diabase from under the ,nubian sandstone1 ,rod el ,nagi #aj1dag1 #dj4 pl1 plagioclase felspar1 ophitically intergrown with a1 augite2 l1 limonite4 ,the rock also contains large porphyritic felspars1 not shown in the figure4 ,perhaps the most interesting occurrence of diabase in this part of ,egypt is a thick bed underlying the ,nubian sandstone and exposed along the feet of its eastern scarps between latitudes #bd #cj and #be4 ,owing to the north-westerly trend of the scarp1 it is cut obliquely by the meridian of #cd1 and consequently only the southern portion of the deposit is shown on the geological map of ,plate ,,xx4 ,the bed is well seen on the west of the road leading from ,baramia to ,dungash mines2 this road follows the foot of the scarp for a long distance4 ,the thickness of the diabase sheet as seen on this road is at least ten metres1 and is very uniform for several kilometres4 ,the rock is crushed and decomposed to such a degree that it is difficult to get a fair-sized specimen4 ,below the diabase1 at a few points along the road1 there are exposures of an ancient conglomerate of dark colour and extreme hardness4 ,the relations of the bed to the sandstone are not absolutely certain1 but the impression ,i got1 when ,i passed the exposure on the two occasions of my outward and return marches1 was that the diabase was an extensive outflow over the old conglomerate 7thus indurating the latter71 the sandstone being subsequently laid down on the undenuded diabase4 ,the diabase is thus probably ,cretaceous in age4 ,a hand specimen #aj1dag from one of the least decomposed portions of the sheet1 in the ,rod el ,nagi1 about fifteen kilometres west of ,gebel ,muelih1 shows white to glassy porphyritic felspar crystals1 frequently in lath-shaped forms measuring up to eight millimetres in length1 in a fine-grained grey ground mass 7see ,plate ,,xxiv74 ,the rock contains many rusty specks1 and occasionally as one turns the specimen about in the hand one can catch a rather dull flash from a crystal of some dark mineral4 ,the sp4 gr4 of the rock is #bhe4 ,under the microscope the porphyritic felspars1 which are very clear1 are seen to be mostly plagioclase1 though some of the crystals show simple twinning and may be orthoclase4 ,the ground mass is holocrystalline1 composed of felspar1 augite1 and limonite4 ,the felspars of the ground mass are in the form of thin laths1 with repeated twinning4 ,the augite is nearly colourless1 with a very pale brownish or greenish tinge1 generally clouded by brown dusty matter and small irregular cracks4 ,it forms irregular grains which are cut up in all directions by the ophitically intergrown felspars4 ,the limonite is extremely abundant1 scattered through the ground mass in rather large irregular grains which frequently show a tendency to square or hexagonal outlines2 it is mostly opaque1 but in some parts it is translucent1 with a deep brown colour4 ,the limonite is doubtless an alteration product of other minerals1 probably magnetite and biotite1 of which1 however1 no distinct traces now remain4 ,besides forming the sheet under the ,nubian sandstone1 diabase occurs fairly abundantly in schists at various points1 where it appears to form intrusions4 ,a characteristic of these occurrences is its weathering into rusty looking brown 8cannon balls40 ,altered forms of diabase are associated with peridotites and other ultra basic rocks in the serpentine mass of ,gebel ,gerf 7see p4 #cbh74 ,diabase also forms veins1 frequently magnetic1 penetrating granites and schists1 and at one point1 near the foot of ,gebel ,awamtib1 a dyke of diabase is even found penetrating the ,nubian sandstone4 ,it is probable that these diabases are of very different ages at different points4 ,while the occurrences associated with the sandstone are certainly of ,cretaceous age1 it seems difficult to imagine that those associated with the schists and serpentines are not vastly older2 for though they are obviously younger than the schists1 and possibly younger than the peridotites1 they frequently show metamorphism to a degree which it is difficult to reconcile with a ,cretaceous age1 and which suggests that they antedated the folding which formed the ancient mountain chain on the flanks of which the ,cretaceous strata were laid down4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4--;,diabase1 ,gebel ,abu ,hamamid #aj1djj1 #dj4 a1 augite2 aa1 augite1 altering with separation of iron oxide2 pl1 plagioclase1 often ophitically intergrown with the augite2 s1 green serpentinous mineral2 m1 magnetite4 ,as an example of a diabasic intrusion with 8cannon ball0 weathering1 we may take the rock #aj1djj1 which occurs in schists on the flanks of ,gebel ,abu ,hamamid4 ,when one of the rusty looking 8cannon balls0 is broken1 the interior is seen to be a dark grey rock of very fine grain4 ,the sp4 gr4 is #bic4 ,the microscopic slide shows the rock to be holocrystalline1 consisting mainly of augite and plagioclase1 ophitically intergrown1 with some rather large grains and strings of a nearly isotropic clear yellow-green mineral1 and scattered grains of iron oxides4 ,the augite is of a pale brown colour2 some of the crystals are fairly clear1 while others show strong clouding and separation of iron oxide4 ,the nature of the yellow-green mineral is somewhat uncertain2 it polarises generally in very low colours1 as an aggregate of fibres and tiny plates1 sometimes showing a spherulitic structure between crossed nicols4 ,occasionally it includes granules of a highly refracting colourless mineral1 possibly olivine2 but there is a remarkable absence of the separated iron oxide which is usual with altering olivine1 and the granules exhibit only very fine irregular hairlike cracks2 if it is serpentine resulting from alteration of olivine1 the olivine must have been a variety poor in iron4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4--,olivine-diabase1 from a dyke at the junction of ,wadis ,huluz and ,gemal #aj1cic1 #ag4 o1 olivine2 pl1 plagioclase4 ,turning now to the occurrence of diabase in dykes1 a large dyke in the gneiss at the junction of ,wadis ,huluz and ,gemal #aj1cic consists of a very hard and heavy1 strongly magnetic1 greyish black rock of rather fine grain1 in which a dark-brown platey mineral is mixed with grey and white matter4 ,the sp4 gr4 is #bie4 ,under the microscope the constituents are seen to be plagioclase1 olivine1 augite and magnetite1 with small amounts of biotite and apatite4 ,the plagioclase appears to have formed in two generations1 for while the bulk of it is in small lath-shaped crystals 7frequently with radial grouping71 there is a very large porphyritic zoned crystal in the slide4 ,the olivine is in large crystals1 usually rounded1 but occasionally tending to hexagonal outline with the usual strongly marked black irregular cracks4 ,a little serpentinisation has gone on at the edges and along cracks of a few of the crystals1 but1 as a rule1 the olivine is very fresh2 it is never intergrown with felspars4 ,the augite is slightly pleochroic1 of a purple to brown tint1 in irregular forms1 partly in moderate sized crystals and partly in tiny grains in the ground mass4 ,the crystals are much cracked4 ,ophitic structures are not conspicuous4 ,brown biotite is very sparingly present in small flakes4 ,magnetite is liberally scattered in small grains in the augite of the ground mass4 ,apatite occurs in minute prisms included in the felspars4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4--;,diabase1 from a dyke in ,wadi ,kreiga #ab1aaj1 #ag4 pl1 plagioclase felspar2 a1 augite2 h1 hornblende2 l1 limonite strings4 ,the diabase dykes which penetrate the granite in ,wadi ,kreiga #ab1aaj differ from the rock last described in their freedom from olivine and in showing marked ophitic structure4 ,they are dense brown to black rocks of very fine grain1 with porphyritic felspar crystals here and there4 ,the sp4 gr4 is #bih4 ,microscopic study shows them to be holocrystalline rocks1 composed of an ophitic mixture of rod-shaped plagioclase with altering augite and hornblende4 ,both the ferro-magnesian minerals are very much clouded1 and contain plentiful strings of iron oxide4 ,the hornblende is dark green1 often forming celephytic shells round the augite1 and is probably largely an alteration from augite4 ,there is very little of the nature of a ground mass1 the augite and hornblende practically filling all the spaces between the felspars4 ,mica-diabase4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4--,mica-diabase1 ,gebel ,um ,khariga #aj1cgc #ag4 pl1 plagioclase felspar2 b1 biotite1 with separated opaque flakes of magnetite1 often in geometric forms2 a1 clouded mineral1 probably altered augite1 with which the felspars are ophitically intergrown4 ,the rock which forms the top of ,gebel ,um ,khariga #aj1cgc appears to be an altered mica-diabase4 ,it is highly magnetic2 the compass was found to point #bj out of its normal position at the station on the hill1 while hand specimens broken off the rock showed strong polarity1 some parts attracting and other parts repelling the needle2 a fragment of the size of a pea deflected the compass needle several degrees when placed near it4 ,it is a dark brown rock1 of sp4 gr4 #bhc1 very rotten1 which in the mass looks like an altered dolerite4 ,microscopic study of a slide reveals the presence of altered plagioclase1 in rather large lath-shaped crystals2 biotite1 largely altered to opaque iron oxide1 the flakes of which show marked geometric forms2 scattered grains of magnetite1 and some secondary calcite4 ,the brown clouded mineral polarises as a confused fine-grained and fibrous aggregate in low colours2 it is probably altered augite1 with which the plagioclases were ophitically intergrown1 but is in too highly altered a state for certain identification4 ,the strongly magnetic character of the rock would appear to indicate that the iron oxides produced by the alteration of the biotite are1 like the primary grains1 in the form of magnetite4 ,basalt4 ,basalt1 the volcanic representative of the gabbros and diabases1 is quite a scarce rock in ,south-,eastern ,egypt1 having been noted at only four or five points4 ,fairly fresh olivine-basalts1 probably comparatively late intrusions1 form the two conspicuous low hills near the coast called ,gimeida and ,einiwai2 more altered rocks of basaltic type occur at the head of ,wadi ,um ,deheisi 7north of ,gebel ,kahfa71 and in the hills on either side of the ,wadi ,huluz some ten kilometres north-west of ,gebel ,hamata2 while an amygdaloidal rock which forms a large part of the hill-mass of ,ti ,keferiai has been classed as an altered hornblende-basalt4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4--;,basalt1 ,gimeida ,hill #ab1aef1 #dj4 ,porphyritic crystals of plagioclase 7pl7 and olivine 7o7 in a hemicrystalline ground mass containing tiny crystals of plagioclase and granules of augite 7a7 and magnetite 7m74 ,the basalt of ,gimeida ,hill #ab1aef1 is a hard heavy block rock of sp4 gr4 #bhh1 of dull aspect1 with glassy white to colourless plagioclase crystals up to three millimetres diameter scattered through it1 and here and there a dark diallagic crystal and some greenish glassy-looking grains of olivine4 ,the microscopic slide shows the rock to be remarkably fresh2 the porphyritic plagioclase and olivine crystals are seen to be embedded in a crystalline ground mass containing little lath-shaped plagioclases1 with granules of pale brown augite1 and abundant grains of magnetite4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4--;,basalt1 ,einiwai ,hill #ab1add1 #ag4 o1 olivine2 a1 augite2 p1 picotite1 with a border of opaque chromite2 gr1 hemicrystalline ground mass4 ,the basalt of ,einiwai #ab1add differs from that of ,gimeida in the absence of porphyritic felspars4 ,it occurs capping the red granite which forms the lower part of ,einiwai ,hill and the surrounding plain4 ,it is a hard dull black rock with little glassy colourless to pale green crystals plentifully scattered through it 7see ,plate ,,xxiv74 ,the sp4 gr4 is #caj4 ,the microscopic slide shows porphyritic crystals of olivine1 augite1 and picotite1 in a very fine-grained semi-glassy ground mass containing tiny laths of felspar and grains of augite and magnetite4 ,the porphyritic crystals all show a remarkable absence of colour in the slide1 which has been cut exceptionally thin on account of the darkness of the ground mass2 this thinness of the slide doubtless accounts for the minerals all showing relatively low polarisation colours4 ,the porphyritic crystals are mostly in six-sided and prismatic forms1 but sometimes show as rounded grains2 cleavage is usually indistinct1 but irregular cracks are common1 and some of the crystals are broken in two and the halves separated4 ,most of the six-sided crystals show straight extinction1 and are probably a non-ferruginous olivine 7forsterite72 they show very little alteration1 there being a general absence of serpentinisation or magnetite-separation along the cracks4 ,the prismatic porphyritic crystals are in forms resembling those of augite1 and some of the crystals show extinction sufficiently oblique to justify their identification as augite2 others1 however1 showing straight extinction and very low polarisation colours1 are probably enstatite4 ,the picotite is in rather large isotropic rounded grains1 of a pale green colour with a well marked opaque border of chromite4 ,a peculiar basaltic rock #aj1djh occurs at the top of ,wadi ,um ,deheisi1 at the pass into ,wadi ,um ,retba1 on the road which passes from ,bir ,shadli to the north-east of ,gebel ,kahfa4 ,it is a black rock of sp4 gr4 #bih1 and of such fine grain that practically nothing can be made out with a lens4 ,it is remarkably magnetic1 the compass being deflected by #ac from its normal direction at a plane-table station on the pass4 ,the microscopic slide shows rounded and angular clear areas in a cryptocrystalline ground mass of greenish colour1 full of specks of magnetite4 ,the rounded clear areas are occupied by a very pale brownish mineral1 probably augite1 forming nests of crystals in different orientations1 with fairly well-marked cleavages1 high extinction-angle and fairly high double refraction4 ,the angular clear areas are mostly colourless2 they seem to consist chiefly of altered felspar1 but some of them are formed of a fine mosaic of quartz granules4 ,the ground mass is largely of chloritic nature1 with small fibres of hornblende and some decomposed felspar4 ,its large content of rounded magnetite granules accounts for the magnetic character of the rock4 ,the basalt of the ,wadi ,huluz #aj1daj is a close grained greenish-black rock containing white spots 7amygdules7 up to three millimetres diameter4 ,its sp4 gr4 is #bic4 ,the microscope shows the main bulk of the rock to be formed of lath-shaped plagioclase crystals1 around and between which is green matter1 now mostly chlorite4 ,here and there are small clear areas within the green patches1 which show bright polarisation colours1 and are probably augite1 being the remains of the original mineral which has been largely chloritised4 ,there is a fair amount of magnetite in scattered grains4 ,the amygdules are partly filled with clear quartz1 and partly with zeolites4 ,the hill mass of ,ti ,keferiai is largely made up of a fine-grained black rock #ab1abj1 of sp4 gr4 #bii1 in which are greenish-white and pink amygdules up to two millimetres diameter4 ,it is frequently much crushed1 and in one place it has been broken into a coarse breccia and cemented with rose quartz #ab1abc4 ,the microscopic slide shows the main part of the rock to be a fine-grained mixture of pale hornblende with altered plagioclase1 while the amygdules are filled with radiating zeolites4 ,the amygdules seem to indicate that the rock is a volcanic one1 and it has been classed as a basalt rather than as an andesite on account of its basic nature and high specific gravity4 ,its texture is microgranitic rather than basaltic1 a circumstance perhaps in part due to the crushing it has undergone2 the rock is passing into a schist4 ,ultra-basic ,igneous ,rocks4 ,the ultra-basic igneous rocks 7i4e41 rocks practically free from felspar and composed entirely of ferro-magnesian silicates such as pyroxenes1 amphiboles1 and olivines71 though forming but a small part of the earth's crust in general1 occur in very large proportion in the igneous masses of ,south-,eastern ,egypt1 where they cover several hundred square kilometres and form prominent mountain-masses such as those of ,gebels ,dahanib1 ,korabkansi1 and ,gerf4 ,they may be classified into3-- 7a7 ,pyroxenites 7rocks composed essentially of pyroxenes72 7b7 ,amphibolites 7rocks composed essentially of hornblende72 7c7 ,peridotites 7rocks composed essentially of olivine1 with or without pyroxenes and amphiboles72 ,all these ultra-basic rocks are easily altered to 7d7 ,serpentines1 in which the original minerals may or may not be traceable4 ,a characteristic of the ultra-basic rocks here1 as in other parts of the world1 is their gradual transition into one another1 showing that the various forms have arisen from consolidation of parts of one and the same magma owing to slight differences in composition or in the physical conditions under which consolidation has taken place4 ,a further noteworthy circumstance is their gradual passage into basic rocks2 there is no hard-and-fast line to be drawn1 for instance1 between basic diorites and amphibolites1 nor between basic gabbros and pyroxenites1 nor between olivine gabbros1 poor in felspar and peridotites1 these various classes being found to pass by insensible gradations one into another as they are followed up in the field4 ,moreover1 being typically coarse-grained rocks1 and pyroxenes and amphiboles being often indistinguishable in the hand specimen1 great caution has to be exercised in naming a rock mass from a few microscopic slides which of necessity each embrace at most but a few square centimetres of section4 ,in the field1 the appearance and cohesive strength of the ultra-basic rocks varies primarily with the extent to which they have been altered towards their final stage of serpentinisation4 ,where they are least altered1 they form black masses of hard heavy crystalline rock of such toughness that they are only broken with difficulty with a sledge hammer2 while in the cases where serpentinisation has proceeded to the greatest extent1 they frequently form foxy red or even pink-looking hills which might almost be taken for granite from a distance1 and they are so shattered that the rock comes off literally in tons at a mere touch2 in these cases1 long search is necessary to find a coherent piece large enough for a museum specimen4 ,the brown or pink colour just referred to is of course only superficial1 but in the untrodden and rainless wilderness surface films remain unbroken and give characteristic colours to the scenery4 ,freshly fractured surfaces are always dark green1 dark brown1 or black1 with more or less crystal structure visible according as the rock is less or more altered2 pyroxenites or amphibolites1 when but little altered1 are a mass of lustrous platey or fibrous dark crystals1 while serpentines are typically of dull aspect4 ,the specific gravity is high1 ranging from as much as #ca in the less altered forms down to about #bf in those which are more completely serpentinised4 ,the process of serpentinisation is of course a chemical change1 consisting largely in the combination of water with ferro-magnesian silicates free from alumina2 but it is remarkable how frequently this chemical change has been accompanied by a parallel physical deformation4 ,serpentines are almost always shattered rocks1 full of slickensided surfaces2 when we compare the low sp4 gr4 of serpentine 7#bf7 with that of augite1 hornblende1 or olivine 7about #cb71 we naturally conclude that the shattering of the rock is in all probability due to the expansion on hydration causing internal stress1 and the slickensiding is due to the rock yielding along certain surfaces4 ,the cracking of felspars and the forcing of serpentine into them1 which are frequently seen in thin sections of olivine rocks1 such as the troctolite shown in ,fig4 #cd on p4 #cjd1 shows on a small scale the physical effect of expansion on serpentinisation1 and should lead us to expect a corresponding effect in rock masses4 ,it is thus not necessary to infer great tectonic movements to explain the shattering of the rock1 and in fact the disposition of the serpentines in broad mountain tracts like ,gebel ,gerf is opposed to the idea of there being here any local accentuation of folding or crushing by general crust-crumpling4 ,i have calculated that a horizontal sheet of pyroxenite of sp4 gr4 #ca1 ten kilometres wide1 confined between fixed abutments and prevented from increasing its thickness1 would rise into an arch having a height of about two and a quarter kilometres at its centre if converted into serpentine of sp4 gr4 #bf2 this is1 of course1 not given as a precise example of what may actually have taken place1 but it will serve to show that expansion on hydration may produce dynamical effects not inferior to those of contraction of the earth's crust1 such as are believed to be the main cause of mountain formation1 and to explain why we may find serpentines shattered to fragments and full of slickensided surfaces in areas where the surrounding rocks show comparatively little evidence of dynamo-metamorphism4 ,pyroxenites4 ,heavy dark green rocks1 of medium to coarse grain1 and consisting almost entirely of a schillerized-looking mineral1 form the hill-masses of ,gebels ,um ,ein and ,qrein ,salama1 and similar rocks are found in connexion with gabbro at ,gebel ,um ,gunud and elsewhere4 ,from the diallagic appearance of these rocks in the hand specimen1 they were classed in the field as pyroxenites or diallage rocks4 ,but an examination of the slides cut from the specimens reveals the main constituent to be hornblende1 and the rocks must therefore be placed in the division of amphibolites4 ,it is1 however1 highly probable that these rocks were originally pyroxenites1 the hornblende having originated mainly from the alteration of augite2 the change from augite to hornblende in the gabbros has already 7p4 #cjb7 been remarked1 and in these ultra-basic forms the same process appears to have gone on4 ,some parts of the great ultra-basic mass of ,gebel ,gerf consist of bronzite-rock4 ,specimens from the least altered portions consist almost entirely of bronzite1 sometimes with a little olivine2 the rocks are1 however1 generally found passing into serpentine1 such as forms the main portion of the mountain1 and on microscopic examination even the freshest portions always exhibit more or less serpentinisation4 ,it will accordingly be preferable to treat of these rocks under the heading of serpentines4 ,amphibolites4 ,rocks consisting almost entirely of hornblende occur in considerable masses in the neighbourhood of ,gebel ,um ,gunud1 and form the conspicuous hills ,gebel ,um ,ein and ,qrein ,salama2 they also occur in a small patch about three kilometres east of ,erf el ,fahid4 ,in the field1 especially with the coarser-grained varieties1 there is often considerable difficulty in identifying the main constituent of the rock as hornblende1 owing to the schillerized appearance of the mineral being more suggestive of diallage2 the mass east of ,erf el ,fahid1 for instance1 was classed in the field as a basic gabbro or diallage-rock1 instead of a very basic diorite or hornblende-rock1 such as the microscopic examination proves it to be4 ,these rocks are always very heavy and extremely tough2 they weather commonly into great rusty-looking rounded blocks1 and a sledge hammer is required to get a specimen4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4--;,amphibolite1 from hills near ,gebel ,um ,gunud #aa1eaa1 #cj4 ,almost the whole of the figure is occupied by hornblende1 which is seen clouded and altering to granular epidote at e4 ,part of a large grain of calcite1 bordered and streaked with iron oxide1 is seen at c1 while q is a small crystal of interstitial quartz4 ,the slide also contains a small proportion of plagioclase felspar1 not shown in the figure4 ,the amphibolite of the hills about ,gebel ,um ,gunud #aa1eaa is a very hard and heavy coarse grained greenish-black rock composed almost entirely of shining platey-looking crystals of hornblende1 which often reach two centimetres in length and breadth4 ,the sp4 gr4 is #cjh4 ,the microscopic slide shows the rock to be granitic in structure and to contain1 in addition to hornblende1 small amounts of plagioclase1 quartz1 calcite1 and iron oxides4 ,the irregular-shaped hornblende crystals show strong pleochroism1 from pale olive-brown to moderately deep green4 ,the extinction angles are large1 being frequently over #bj4 ,twinning of the crystals is fairly common4 ,many of the crystals are clouded1 and the alteration of the mineral has resulted in the formation of much epidote4 ,the plagioclase is only present in very small quantity1 strongly clouded by decomposition1 but still showing twinning clearly4 ,the quartz is clear1 and is likewise present in very small proportion1 mostly interstitial4 ,calcite is fairly plentiful in large rounded and irregular grains1 rather turbid-looking1 of a brownish or greenish tinge1 outlined and streaked with strong lines of iron oxide1 in a way which at times suggests that the calcite may possibly be the result of alteration of a lime olivine4 ,a specimen of amphibolite #aa1ebh obtained from a hill near the junction of ,wadi ,abu ,marwa with ,wadi ,naait1 about seven kilometres north-east of ,gebel ,um ,gunud1 is a dark green rock of rather fine grain1 made up of shining plates and small fibrous crystals of hornblende and chlorite4 ,its sp4 gr4 is #big4 ,under the microscope the hornblende is in rather ragged-looking irregular crystals of various sizes1 all interlocked with each other1 rarely showing any approximation to idiomorphism except in the smaller crystals1 which are commonly limited by prismatic faces2 these smaller crystals are frequently included in the larger ones4 ,the pleochroism is fairly strong1 a pale olive brown1 c moderately deep green4 ,prismatic cleavage is well marked4 ,extinction angles are often large1 ranging up to #bd4 ,a few of the crystals are slightly bent1 and many show more or less clouding owing to partial alteration to chlorite1 but on the whole the rock is fairly fresh4 ,except for a few specks of magnetite1 and the alteration product chlorite1 the rock contains nothing but hornblende4 ,the hornblende-rock or amphibolite of ,gebel ,um ,ein #ab1acj is of medium grain1 almost entirely made up of shining crystals of hornblende with a little chloritic matter4 ,the sp4 gr4 is #cjc4 ,the microscopic slide shows large individuals of hornblende inclining to idiomorphism1 set in a sort of ground mass of smaller crystals4 ,the hornblende shows the same strong pleochroism and high extinction angles as in the two rocks just described2 it is frequently clouded and speckled with iron oxides1 and often full of lighter-coloured patches which extinguish with the rest of the crystal2 in many cases these lighter patches contain a central granule of iron oxide1 and they are doubtless due to a bleaching by segregation of the iron4 ,between crossed nicols many of the crystals are full of small fibres extinguishing differently from the rest of the crystal2 some of these fibres polarise in low colours and are probably chlorite or serpentine1 while others show brilliant tints and are possibly actinolite4 ,the amphibolite which occurs three kilometres east of ,gebel ,erf el ,fahid #aj1cfa is of extremely coarse grain1 looking like a very basic gabbro owing to the schillerized appearance of its large hornblende crystals and the presence of a little interstitial felspar4 ,the sp4 gr4 of the rock is #bih4 ,the section shows the hornblende to be of a very pale green colour1 with an almost entire absence of iron oxide grains and other alteration products4 ,between crossed nicols it has a fibrous woody appearance4 ,the interstitial plagioclase 7probably labradorite7 is likewise very fresh1 showing its repeated twinning very clearly2 the crystals are full of tiny fibres of hornblende1 and are traversed by broad cracks filled with a mosaic of smaller crystals of plagioclase and quartz4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4--;,amphibolite of ,qrein ,salama #ab1aeg1 #ag4 h1 hornblende1 strongly striated1 altering to chlorite2 o1 olivine1 and b1 bronzite1 both passing into serpentine4 ,the rock #ab1aeg1 of the hill called ,qrein ,salama1 to the east of ,gebel ,gerf1 is interesting as containing olivine and bronzite in addition to the more abundant hornblende1 and thus forming a link between the amphibolites proper and the peridotites2 but as about three-quarters of the rock is hornblende it is still classed as an amphibolite4 ,the sp4 gr4 is #cje4 ,in the slide1 the hornblende is seen in irregular crystals1 colourless to very pale green1 with a fibrous structure which is strongly marked by patches of shading of extremely fine black prismatic striations4 ,with crossed nicols the fibrous structure is still more apparent1 the mineral polarising as brilliant fibres separated by chloritic alteration products4 ,the pronounced striation and faint colour of the crystals are more suggestive of diallage than of hornblende1 but the extinction angles measured in the slide are all less than #bb4 ,many of the hornblende-crystals contain large numbers of small rounded grains and strings of iron oxide4 ,the olivine is mostly in rounded crystals1 frequently included in the hornblende2 it is largely serpentinised and full of small grains of opaque iron oxides1 but kernels of the original mineral remain4 ,the bronzite1 which is present in about equal proportion with the olivine1 is likewise extensively serpentinised and full of iron oxide grains2 it is distinguishable from the olivine by a more fibrous appearance 7the serpentinisation having gone on mainly along the direction of the vertical axis instead of along irregular cracks71 and by its generally lower polarisation colours in the unaltered portions4 ,peridotites4 ,the peridotites1 or felspar-free rocks consisting largely of olivine1 are usually classified into3-- 7a7 ,dunites1 consisting entirely of olivine4 7b7 ,harzburgites1 consisting of olivine and enstatite or bronzite4 7c7 ,wehrlites1 containing olivine and diallage4 7d7 ,lherzolites1 containing olivine1 diallage1 enstatite or bronzite1 and picotite or chromite4 7e7 ,hornblende-picrites1 containing olivine and hornblende4 7f7 ,mica-peridotites1 containing olivine and biotite4 ,most if not all of these classes are represented in ,south-,eastern ,egypt1 but in the altered form of serpentine4 ,the change to serpentine has been so complete that it is now hardly possible to extract even a small specimen of the primitive rock2 indeed1 careful search is often required to obtain even specimens containing any unaltered mineral whatever1 and one has frequently to rely on the structure of the serpentine for the identification of the rocks from which it originated4 ,serpentine4 ,serpentines cover about #djj square kilometres of ,south-,eastern ,egypt1 forming the principal rock of several remarkable mountain groups and also occurring in lower hill country4 ,the largest occurrence is that of the great mountain mass of ,gebel ,gerf1 where serpentine with alternations of gabbroid and dioritic rocks can be followed from ,bir ,meneiga southward for some thirty kilometres to beyond the ,sherefa pass1 while the breadth of the tract from east to west is some fifteen kilometres or more at its widest part2 this tract includes a vast assemblage of high peaks and ridges1 towering up in many cases to more than a kilometre above sea-level4 ,to the north1 south1 and east1 the serpentine is bounded by gabbros and diorites1 while on the west a tract of schistose rocks separates it from another great serpentine mass which forms ,gebel ,korabkansi4 ,other remarkable serpentine masses are ,gebel ,abu ,dahr and the upper part of ,gebel ,sikait2 serpentines also enter into the composition of ,gebels ,ghadir and ,um ,tenedba1 while lower hills formed of similar rocks occur near ,bir ,murra in ,wadi ,shait1 in ,wadi ,um ,khariga1 near ,gebel ,kalalat1 and on the plain east of ,abraq ,springs4 ,the foxy red colour of exposed faces of serpentine hills1 and the generally shattered nature of the rock1 have already been referred to4 ,when one approaches the masses closely1 the red colour often becomes less marked1 because the fresh debris flanking the hills is of a darker aspect4 ,the slopes of serpentine hills are usually steep1 and this combined with the rotten nature of the rock renders their climbing not always quite free from danger4 ,any attempt to map out in the field the precise limits of the different peridotites which were the parents of the serpentine ends in failure1 partly because the constituent minerals can generally only be identified on microscopic examination1 and partly because the different peridotites pass gradually one into another1 and are evidently only produced by slight variations in the composition or conditions of consolidation of a single magma4 ,even the limits of the serpentine itself are not always very clear2 for where the associated rock is gabbro1 as for instance to the north of ,gebel ,gerf1 there is a gradual passage through more or less serpentinised olivine gabbro to the true serpentine4 ,golden yellow veinlets of fibrous chrysotile can be seen running through the rock at many places1 and occasionally veins and pockets of magnesite and an inferior kind of asbestos occur 7see p4 #ccj74 ,the serpentines are nearly always more or less magnetic1 and sometimes show strong polarity4 ,the compass was disturbed by #dj at the triangulation station on ,gebel ,sikait2 the amount of disturbance changes greatly when one moves even a short distance1 and all estimations of direction from compass readings in serpentine country are therefore liable to enormous error4 ,in a strictly petrographical sense it would be most systematic to describe the serpentines in classes according to the nature of the parent rock2 grouping together1 for instance1 all those derived from pyroxenites into one class1 those from amphibolites into another1 those from dunites into a third1 and so on4 ,but besides the fact that the nature of the parent rock cannot always be determined with certainty1 such a course would possess the objection of separating the different parts of one and the same mass2 at ,gebel ,gerf1 for example1 we have serpentines derived from rocks of various of these classes1 though probably all formed part of the same igneous intrusion and are thus genetically connected4 ,in the descriptions which follow1 therefore1 the serpentines of each locality will be grouped together1 irrespective of origin4 ,the localities are taken in order of latitude from north to south4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4--,serpentine1 probably derived from a mica-peridotite1 east of ,erf el ,fahid #aj1cfj1 #dj4 cm1 chlorite and magnetite from alteration of biotite2 s1 clear serpentine1 probably altered olivine4 ,a serpentine which occurs associated with amphibolite and various schists about three kilometres east of ,gebel ,erf el ,fahid #aj1cfj may possibly have been derived from a mica-peridotite4 ,in the hand specimen it is a dark brown rock of dull aspect with greenish patches1 and shows marked magnetic polarity4 ,the sp4 gr4 is #bfc4 ,the microscopic slide shows mainly colourless serpentine1 but there are strings and bundles of pale greenish-yellow chlorite1 and specks and strings of magnetite4 ,the arrangement of the magnetite 7see ,fig4 #de7 at once attracts attention1 being frequently aggregated in parallel strings reminding one of the cleavage of mica4 ,between crossed nicols the chlorite is easily distinguished from the serpentine by its slightly higher polarisation-colours 7low yellows as compared with greys72 and its arrangement in long leaves and bundles1 with distinct traces of the original mica1 leaves no doubt as to its derivation from biotite4 ,the parallel strings of magnetite are also most likely due to alteration of biotite1 for it is difficult to account for their peculiar arrangement otherwise2 they are mostly separated by material of lower double refraction than the chlorite above-mentioned1 perhaps a variety of chlorite poorer in iron1 owing to the previous separation of the oxide4 ,the clear serpentine which forms the bulk of the slide does not contain much iron oxide1 and does not include any trace of the original mineral from which it has been formed2 but between crossed nicols it shows an irregular mesh structure which makes one almost certain of its derivation from olivine4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4--,serpentine1 probably derived from lherzolite1 ,wadi ,um ,khariga #aj1cfh1 #ag4 so1 serpentine derived from olivine2 sb and sd serpentine probably derived from bronzite and diallage2 c1 calcite2 p1 picotite2 m1 magnetite4 ,the serpentine of the hills on the west side of the ,wadi ,um ,khariga #aj1cfh is remarkable in the field by its foxy red colour on all exposed surfaces4 ,the rock1 which has a sp4 gr4 of #bfc1 is nearly black on fractured surfaces1 and no crystals can be detected in it4 ,the slide shows colourless to yellow serpentine1 with a fair amount of calcite often arranged along cracks1 a liberal sprinkling of magnetite1 and one or two fairly large grains of picotite1 or chromite4 ,in some parts of the slide the serpentine shows an irregular mesh structure between crossed nicols2 these portions1 in which the magnetite-granules show an irregular honeycomb-like arrangement1 are doubtless altered olivine4 ,in other places the serpentine polarises in clear greys with a fibrous aspect1 and the magnetite is arranged in parallel lines2 calcite is typically developed in these fibrous portions1 sometimes along the cleavages and sometimes in irregular patches4 ,the fibrous-looking serpentine probably represents the alteration-products of both rhombic and monoclinic pyroxenes1 and the parent rock was thus a medium-grained lherzolite1 containing olivine1 diallage1 bronzite and picotite4 ,in the hills on the east side of the ,wadi ,um ,khariga1 about in latitude #bd #ee1 there is some serpentine which has apparently resulted from the alteration of very basic dykes4 ,the sp4 gr4 is #bfe4 ,a slide cut from this rock #aj1cfg shows the same clear fibrous-looking patches as the specimen last described1 and picotite1 in a confused and nearly isotropic mass of fine fibres of serpentine1 with but little magnetite and no calcite4 ,no original mineral remains except the picotite4 ,the clearer fibrous patches may represent diallage or bronzite1 while the rest of the serpentine is somewhat doubtfully referred to olivine4 ,there is some trace of banding in the rock1 perhaps due to movement during consolidation4 ,a serpentine approaching an ophicalcite #aj1cgf forms the main rock at ,gebel ,ghadir1 where it is associated with a peculiar quartz felsite resembling granulite4 ,in the mass the rock1 which has a sp4 gr4 of #bfg1 is black to green1 veined with calcite2 surfaces of the debris are often covered with a brilliant green glaze4 ,the microscopic slide reveals an irregular mixture of nearly colourless serpentine and cloudy-looking calcite1 with abundant specks and a few larger granules of slightly translucent deep-brown chromite or picotite4 ,between crossed nicols1 the serpentine is a mass of fibres and little plates1 in which a strong tendency to linear arrangement can be seen1 and here and there a lattice-structure4 ,though none of the original mineral remains there is not much doubt that the rock is an altered amphibolite or basic diorite2 the calcite is possibly derived from the alteration of an original lime felspar1 but it has been largely redistributed in the crushed rock by solution and redeposition4 ,the serpentine forming the hills on the north side of the mouth of ,wadi ,kalalat is a dark reddish-brown rock1 of sp4 gr4 #bgf1 in which shining crystalline specks of olivine can be seen4 ,it has doubtless resulted from the alteration of a dunite1 or rock consisting almost entirely of olivine4 ,the slide #aa1eaj shows the rock still to contain abundant clear colourless kernels of the original olivine1 in a mesh-work of pale olive-brown serpentine4 ,the serpentinisation has taken place along irregular cracks in the olivine1 each crack being generally marked by a thin streak of opaque iron oxide running longitudinally down its centre1 with serpentine fibres running crosswise and filling the rest of the crack4 ,where the kernels first left have themselves become changed to serpentine1 they are nearly isotropic1 while the cracks polarise in clear greys1 so that even where the whole of a crystal has been serpentinised the structure is still clear1 both in ordinary light by the magnetite strings1 and in polarised light by the way in which the serpentine of the cracks stands out from the more isotropic patches within the meshes4 ,there is a little accessory diallage1 easily recognisable by its fibrous appearance and the oblique extinction of its unaltered portions4 ,the diallage1 like the olivine1 is passing into serpentine1 but here the serpentine goes on along cleavage planes as well as along irregular cross cracks1 giving the partially altered crystals a striped appearance between crossed nicols4 ,where the diallage has become entirely serpentinised1 it can still be differentiated by its clearer appearance from the olivine-serpentine in ordinary light1 and by its striated structure between crossed nicols2 but of course unless kernels of the original mineral are left one cannot be sure whether it was diallage or bronzite4 ,there are a few patches of calcite or magnesite1 and veinlets of the same secondary minerals2 these may have arisen from the alteration of a little original felspar1 or from the diallage4 ,near the head of ,wadi ,arais1 to the south of ,gebel ,um ,bisilla1 there are some dykes of dark magnetic rock of sp4 gr4 #bef4 ,a specimen from one of these dykes #aa1eai1 turns out on microscopic examination to be a schistose serpentine4 ,it is traversed by parallel strings of opaque and brown translucent iron oxides1 and granules of magnetite are also scattered over the interspaces4 ,the interspaces between the iron oxide strings are filled with serpentine showing no recognisable structures1 but containing here and there little nests of clouded green hornblende1 suggesting the possibility of the rock being an altered basic diorite or amphibolite4 ,the highly crushed and rotten serpentine which forms the high and steep-sided mountain mass of ,gebel ,abu ,dahr1 differs considerably in composition in different parts4 ,the most typical form of the rock1 which has a sp4 gr4 of #bgg1 is a dark brown serpentine with little strings of olive-green matter1 and occasionally large dulled black crystals4 ,a slide #aa1eaf ,a1 cut from this portion of the rock shows mostly olivine1 altering to serpentine in the usual manner with abundant clear kernels of the original mineral4 ,associated with the olivine is another mineral of a somewhat fibrous aspect1 altered partly to serpentine and partly to another substance which polarises as a confused aggregate of fibres and flakes in brilliant colours1 the flakes extinguishing with slight obliquity2 the serpentine is formed mainly along the vertical cleavages of the mineral 7though it also fills transverse irregular cracks71 while the other substance 7tremolite87 fills up interspaces4 ,in some parts of the mass the rock has a blacker colour and a slightly higher density 7#bhg71 somewhat resembling a basalt with large greenish fibrous-looking crystals scattered sparsely through it4 ,the slide cut from this form of the rock #aa1eaf ,b shows no olivine whatever1 practically the whole slide being composed of the fibrous mineral just described1 together with a little nearly colourless fibrous hornblende1 in which the change above-mentioned appears to be going on4 ,thus it would seem likely that the rock of ,gebel ,abu ,dahr is essentially an altered hornblende-picrite 7or olivine-hornblende rock7 with variations towards dunite 7olivine-rock7 on the one hand1 and towards an amphibolite or hornblende-rock on the other4 ,the alteration of hornblende here is not a purely serpentinous one1 but results in the formation first of serpentine along cracks and cleavage planes1 and then of a tremolitic mineral in the interspaces4 ,it is worth remark1 moreover1 that in the slide free from olivine the change to tremolite preponderates1 and there is much less serpentine in the altered hornblende than in the slide containing olivine2 this suggests that the presence of the neighbouring olivine has in some way brought about more serpentine in the hornblende1 perhaps by actual forcing of serpentine from the expanding olivine into cracks in the hornblende1 or by the influence of pressure set up by the same expansion4 ,in the serpentine from some low hills on the plain a little to the east of ,bir ,abraq #aa1ejf we have a rock evidently derived from a dunite1 though not a trace of unaltered olivine remains4 ,the sp4 gr4 is #bfa4 ,the microscopic slide consists of nearly colourless serpentine with strings of magnetite marking the cracks along which its formation began 7see ,fig4 #dg74 ,between crossed nicols 7see ,fig4 #dh7 the main portion of the serpentine1 doubtless derived from olivine1 presents a very remarkable appearance2 most of the polygonal spaces between the magnetite-meshwork are lined with plates of clear serpentine1 while the centre is occupied by nearly isotropic material4 ,thus the slide in polarised light presents somewhat the aspect of an aggregate of cells with dark nuclei4 ,besides olivine1 the slide shows a small amount of a fibrous mineral1 probably bronzite1 which is likewise almost entirely altered to serpentine1 though a few original fibres remain2 the magnetite grains in the serpentine derived from this mineral is typically aggregated in strings parallel to the fibres4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4--,serpentine derived from an almost pure olivine-rock1 from a low hill east of ,bir ,abraq #aa1ejf1 #ag4 ,the outlines of the original olivine crystals 7o7 and the cracks in them are marked by granules and strings of magnetite4 ,a serpentinised crystal of bronzite is seen at b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4--;,a small portion of the serpentine derived from olivine in the same slide1 viewed between crossed nicols under a higher power1 showing the cellular structure4 ,a serpentine rock found associated with fine-grained diorite at ,gebel ,um ,tenedba #aa1eag ,b may have been derived from an olivine diabase poor in felspar4 ,the rocks in this locality are highly altered and crushed1 and frequently more or less schistose4 ,in a slide cut from the serpentine of the lower part of the mountain1 which has a sp4 gr4 of #bga1 all the original minerals of the rock have been replaced by alteration products4 ,the main portion of the slide is probably altered augite2 it consists of serpentine with fairly distinct mesh structure in which iron oxides are very abundant in clots and strings4 ,some patches1 which show a more uniform grey aspect under crossed nicols1 are doubtfully referred to altered felspar4 ,smaller areas1 usually free from iron oxide grains and mostly consisting of almost isotropic serpentine with a substance polarising in low yellow tints running along irregular cracks in all directions1 are believed to represent altered olivine2 one of these areas is nearly filled with little brushes of the substance just mentioned1 giving it almost a spherulitic appearance as the nicols are rotated4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4--,serpentine1 derived from wehrlite1 ,gebel ,gerf #ab1abh1 #ag4 s1 serpentine 7mainly altered olivine1 with strings of magnetite72 o1 unaltered olivine1 mixed with granules of augite2 d1 diallage4 ,the predominant rock of the mountain mass of ,gebel ,gerf #ab1abh is a serpentine apparently derived from a wehrlite or olivine-diallage rock4 ,in the hand specimen1 it is a rather heavy black rock 7sp4 gr4 #bge7 with small pea-green spots and a few small bronzy and glassy looking crystals here and there4 ,the microscopic slide 7see ,fig4 #di7 shows the olivine to be largely altered to serpentine in the ordinary manner with separation of magnetite1 but some granules of the original mineral remain1 especially aggregated1 together with augite granules1 round the diallage crystals4 ,the diallage is tolerably fresh1 and easily recognisable by its fine striation and oblique extinction4 ,besides the diallage1 there is some ordinary augite1 not always very easily distinguishable from the unaltered olivine owing to its cleavage not being very marked4 ,some of the diallage crystals show undulose extinction as the result of strain4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4--,serpentinisation of bronzite1 as seen in a serpentine derived from bronzite-rock1 ,gebel ,gerf #ab1aai1 under a high power between crossed nicols4 ,the clearer portions of the figure are unaltered portions of a single large crystal of bronzite2 the serpentine is seen forming mainly along the cleavages of the original mineral1 with subsidiary cross-fibres4 ,at many points the serpentine of ,gebel ,gerf contains a great deal of bronzite1 crystals of this mineral of typical aspect and measuring up to five millimetres diameter being visible in the hand specimen scattered liberally through the duller serpentine4 ,the sp4 gr4 of this portion of the mass is #bha4 ,the slide #ab1aai shows practically nothing but bronzite altering to serpentine1 so that locally the parent rock has been a pyroxenite rather than a peridotite4 ,the serpentinisation of the bronzite has proceeded mainly along the fibres of the original mineral1 but there are numerous cross-fibres 7see ,fig4 #ej71 and here1 as in the hornblende of the rock of ,gebel ,abu ,dahr1 the change to serpentine appears to have been accompanied by the production of tremolite4 ,in another slide #ab1abg the main constituent appears to be still bronzite1 but here it is of a pronounced olive-brown colour even in thin section1 and is accompanied by some nearly colourless diallage2 some of the olive-brown fibrous crystals show extinction-angles of a few degrees1 and it is possible that these are hornblende4 ,though the greater part of the ,gerf serpentine has been derived from rocks free1 or practically free1 from felspar1 it is possible that these were mixed with other rocks1 such as gabbros and diabases1 in which basic plagioclase formed an essential constituent4 ,one of the specimens brought back from the mountain #ab1aae1 having a sp4 gr4 of #bfg1 is a somewhat wedge-shaped block1 about ten centimetres square and four centimetres thick1 covered entirely with the shining black to greenish glaze which is characteristic of shattered serpentine1 except where chipped with the hammer to test its coherence and to look for remains of crystals in it4 ,the fractured surface is mostly dull and nearly black1 with little strings and spots of greenish matter and scattered shining specks4 ,but although the block so thoroughly resembles a serpentine1 the slide cut from it proves the rock to be a fine-grained diabase1 consisting essentially of augite and plagioclase1 with a good deal of iron oxide4 ,the plagioclase is tolerably fresh1 in lath-shaped forms still showing twinning very clearly1 while the augite is very clouded and is changing to hornblende and chlorite or serpentine4 ,in the field nothing was noted which would separate this rock from the rest of the mass1 which it resembles almost perfectly in appearance1 and whether the diabase forms a dyke or sheet1 or the specimen represents a fragment of diabase caught up by the magma1 is not certain4 ,a dyke of this material1 shattered and serpentinised on all the fractured surfaces1 would be indistinguishable from the surrounding serpentine4 ,it is even possible1 though not likely1 that the diabase is not a separate intrusion1 but merely a variation of the same plutonic mass which has given origin to the main bulk of the serpentine4 ,other variations in the serpentine which point to parts of the ,gerf mass having originally been of a gabbroid type1 occur in the mountains round ,bir ,korbiai and ,bir ,meneiga4 ,a specimen from near ,bir ,korbiai #ab1abe1 is a greyish-black fine-grained rock full of little white and greenish specks and strings1 with pale citron-green serpentinous matter covering the slickensided surfaces of the fragments into which the mass readily separates4 ,the sp4 gr4 is #bfg4 ,the microscopic slide shows serpentine with pronounced knitted structure in places1 as though derived from augite1 and considerable patches of calcite which may represent an original lime-felspar4 ,the calcite has1 however1 been largely redistributed along cracks1 where it is often mixed with extremely coarse fibres or plates of serpentine4 ,the specimen from the mountains round ,bir ,meneiga #ab1ajd is a hard dull slatey-grey rock with black streaks and spots2 it is strongly magnetic and shows a tendency to schistose structure4 ,the sp4 gr4 is #bed4 ,on examination with a lens the grey matter has in places something of a resemblance to saussuritised felspar4 ,the slide cut from this specimen contains no original minerals4 ,the bulk of it seems to be composed of very minute fibres or plates1 generally showing a distinctly parallel arrangement along the planes of schistosity1 but exhibiting knitted structure in places1 and thus probably consisting in part of kaolinic matter derived from altered felspar1 and in part of serpentinous matter derived from alteration of augite2 while scattered through the slide are abundant patches and strings of calcite and magnetite4 ,the rock is too intensely crushed and altered for one to be certain of its origin1 but it appears to have been originally a diabase4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4--,serpentine derived from alteration of harzburgite1 ,gebel ,korabkansi #ab1adj1 #ag4 s1 serpentine1 mostly formed from olivine2 o1 unaltered olivine2 b1 altering bronzite2 c1 chromite or magnetite1 enveloping olivine4 ,the serpentine of ,gebel ,korabkansi1 to the west of ,gebel ,gerf1 is an altered olivine-bronzite rock 7harzburgite7 of moderately coarse grain4 ,a slide #ab1adj cut from the least altered portion1 where the sp4 gr4 of the rock is #bgb1 shows olivine to have been the most abundant constituent2 it is largely serpentinised in the typical manner1 but abundant kernels remain unaltered4 ,mixed with the olivine crystals are others of a fibrous mineral1 altered partly to serpentine and partly to a confused mass of tremolite fibres2 in the few cases where any of the original material remains1 this fibrous mineral shows straight extinction1 and is probably bronzite4 ,the alteration of the pyroxene has here proceeded more rapidly than that of the olivine4 ,the pyroxenic mineral is easily picked out in the slide by ordinary light1 owing to the fact that the olivine has altered to greenish-yellow serpentine1 while the mixed material produced from the pyroxene is of a dirty-white aspect4 ,another slide from ,gebel ,korabkansi #ab1aab exhibits in places mesh-structure with clear kernels which extinguish very obliquely to the meshes1 showing augite or diallage also to have been a constituent of the parent rock2 and there is a single ragged-looking crystal of dark green fibrous hornblende1 altering to nearly colourless serpentine4 ,the sp4 gr4 of the specimen from which this latter slide was cut is #bfc4 ,both the slides from ,gebel ,korabkansi are rather poor in iron oxides1 but there are a few irregular crystals of chromite1 generally enveloping olivine4 ,alteration ,products of ,serpentine4 ,magnesite and ,asbestos4 ,in many of the serpentine-masses the effects of solution and pressure can be traced in the formation of veins and pockets of magnesite1 asbestos1 and occasionally talc in the rock4 ,magnesite veinlets are frequently seen1 for instance1 round about ,bir ,meneiga #ab1adb and ,bir ,muqur1 while asbestos has been found in pieces of several kilogrammes weight in the ,wadi ,sherefa el ,sherqi #ab1abb and near ,bir ,muqur #ab1aec4 ,at the last-named locality it occurs along the crush-planes of the serpentine1 and appears to be preceded by the formation of long fibres of a green substance4#acc ,where thickest1 the glaze on the slickensided surfaces of the serpentine fragments seems to consist of this same green substance1 which splits into hard fibres often reaching ten centimetres or more in length and only a few millimetres in diameter #ab1aec ,a and these hard fibres1 which have a sp4 gr4 of #bfd1 break up gradually1 apparently under weathering influences1 into the much finer and more flexible fibres of white asbestos4 ,the quality of the asbestos is1 however1 inferior1 for a specimen of the softest kind sent to ,london for an expert opinion1 was reported to be of no commercial value2 even had it been otherwise1 the quantity seen was too small to justify working1 though of course a thorough search among the mountains might reveal the presence of bigger deposits than were encountered during the survey4 ,footnote #abe3 ,from ,marwa1 the ,arabic term for quartz4 ,footnote #abf3 ,the numbers in square brackets in this and the following chapter are the registration numbers of the specimens in the ,geological ,museum1 ,cairo4 ,footnote #abg3 ,i may here recall that the quartz mass which constitutes the so-called 8alabaster0 quarry north of ,aswn1 and for which ,i have inferred an igneous origin1 is likewise closely associated with aplitic or pegmatitic intrusions4 ,see ,a ,description of the ,first or ,aswn ,cataract4 ,cairo1 #aijg1 p4 #hd4 ,footnote #abh3 ,this specimen was brought back by a guide sent for the purpose to ,gebel ,adar ,qaqa4 ,it is stated to be the main rock of the mountain1 but as ,i did not visit the mountain ,i am unable to vouch personally for this being the case4 ,footnote #abi3 ,from a specimen brought back by the guide who was sent to erect the triangulation beacon on ,gebel ,mishbih4 ,footnote #acj3 ,i did not visit ,gebel ,shendib1 but as seen from ,gebel ,elba the mountain appeared to be granite2 the felsite probably forms a dyke passing through the summit4 ,footnote #aca3 ,there is another ,gebel el ,anbat near the ,wadi ,hodein1 but this latter consists of schists4 ,footnote #acb3 ,preliminary ,report on the ,geology of the ,eastern ,desert of ,egypt1 between latitude #bb ,n4 and #be ,n41 by ,dr4 ,w4 ,f4 ,hume4 ,cairo1 #aijg4 p4 #eg4 ,footnote #acc3 ,this fibrous green substance is probably the columnar variety of serpentine known as ,picrolite2 it strongly resembles the specimens thus labelled in the ,london ,museum of ,practical ,geology4 ,,chapter ,x4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,metamorphic ,,rocks4 99 99 99 99 99 ,metamorphic rocks1 comprising a great variety of gneisses and schists1 are widely and abundantly distributed in ,south-,eastern ,egypt1 forming about half the entire area treated of in this volume4 ,the irregular way in which the metamorphic rocks alternate with those of the igneous and sedimentary groups will be better appreciated by a reference to the geological map on ,plate ,,xx than by any verbal description4 ,as a whole1 the metamorphic rocks represent the remains of a complex of igneous and sedimentary deposits which were laid down in remote geological periods2 subsequently these deposits were crushed1 folded1 and elevated into mountains1 their original structures being largely obliterated in the dynamical process2 in succeeding ages the metamorphosed complex was penetrated by the great granitic and other intrusions which have been described in the preceding chapter1 and then planed down by denudation as an old land surface before being wholly or in part submerged beneath the waters of the ,cretaceous sea in which the ,nubian sandstone was deposited4 ,the elevation of the land after the ,cretaceous period was accompanied by further folding which must have increased the degree of metamorphism of the rocks2 but it is most probable that the forces which produced these post-,cretaceous movements were of less intensity and duration than those of more ancient periods1 and we may regard the metamorphic character of the older rocks as having been for the most part impressed on them in ,archan1 or at latest in ,palozoic times4 ,it is not impossible that some of the more highly foliated gneisses may even have been parts of the primitive crust of consolidation of the earth1 while the clay schists may be the remains of the very earliest sediments4 ,besides the evidences of dynamo-metamorphism above-mentioned1 we find occasionally traces of contact-metamorphism1 where igneous dykes have locally altered the rocks into which they have intruded2 but1 in general1 the subsequent compression of the masses has obliterated these traces1 and the effects of contact-metamorphism are negligible in comparison with those produced by dynamic action4 ,the metamorphic rocks occurring in this part of ,egypt may be classified as follows3-- ,gneisses4 ,granite-gneiss 7crushed granite74 ,diorite-gneiss 7crushed diorite74 ,highly foliated gneisses 7in which all traces of primitive structure have been obliterated by foliation and recrystallization74 ,schists4 ,quartz-schists 7in some cases probably metamorphosed sandstone1 in others crushed aplitic rocks74 ,clay-schists 7metamorphosed clays74 ,hornblende-schists and crushed volcanic rocks4 ,hornfels 7metamorphosed acid lavas74 ,mica-schists 7sometimes containing beryl and tourmaline74 ,chlorite-schists4 ,talc-schists4 ,calcareous schists and marble4 ,graphite-schists4 ,breccias4 ,fluidal breccias1 in which broken fragments of solid rock have been included in an intrusive magma4 ,breccias proper1 formed by fracture and recementing together of fragments without fusion4 ,mineral ,veins4 ,quartz veins 7sometimes containing gold and traces of copper74 ,calcite veins 7with more or less chalybite74 ,magnesite veins 7in serpentine74 ,asbestos veins 7in serpentine74 ,gneisses4 ,the most conspicuous occurrence of gneiss in ,south-,eastern ,egypt is the great mass which extends from ,gebel ,mudergeg and ,gebel ,migif in the north1 down the range of ,gebel ,hafafit1 and along the greater part of the ,wadi ,gemal4 ,with this mass is closely connected another stretch of gneiss to the south of ,gebel ,abu ,khrug2 the hills which rise from the sandy plain round the head of ,wadi ,natash are mostly gneiss1 so that the gneiss is probably continuous across the plain except where it is penetrated by the syenitic cones called ,el ,nahud4 ,the total area covered by gneiss in this locality alone is some two thousand square kilometres1 and includes some remarkable mountain masses1 such as ,gebels ,migif and ,hafafit4 ,other gneissose areas of less extent occur round ,bir ,abu ,beid and to the south-west of ,gebel ,hamrat el ,feg2 while still smaller areas are found in the hills to the north-west of ,berenice1 in the remarkable triple-headed mountain called ,gebel ,um ,rasein1 and to the north of ,bir ,um ,bishtit4 ,gneiss typically forms bold scenery of precipitous hills1 the colour of which varies with the composition of the rock1 from pink to grey4 ,at ,gebel ,migif one ascends the mountain most easily by the northern slopes1 which are formed by the foliation-planes of the rock1 while to the south these are cut across by sheer precipices2 the same is the case at ,gebel ,um ,rasein4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4--;,granite-gneiss1 ,gebel ,um ,rasein #ab1ajh1 viewed between crossed nicols1 #cj4 q1 quartz2 ol1 oligoclase2 or1 orthoclase2 h1 hornblende2 m1 8mortar0 of crushed quartz and felspar between the larger crystals4 ,the black areas are quartz in the position of extinction4 ,of gneisses evidently produced by the deformation of granite1 we may take the rock of ,gebel ,um ,rasein #ab1ajhacd as a type4 ,the bulk of the mountain is formed of a nearly white acid rock1 of sp4 gr4 #bfg1 with dark spots1 resembling the granite of ,gebel ,elba in appearance1 except that here the dark minerals have a marked arrangement along definite planes4 7,compare the coloured figures of the two rocks on ,plates ,,xxii and ,,xxv74 ,in places the rock contains thin bands of almost pure biotite1 and these are often thrown into sharp contortions by the strong compression which the mass has undergone4 ,the strike of the foliation-planes in ,gebel ,um ,rasein itself is about south-south-east1 with a dip of about #bj to the east-north-east1 but the strike swings round to about south at the south end of the mass1 and the inclination of the foliation-planes become much steeper4 ,the gneiss shows very marked pitting due to weathering1 the holes ranging from a few centimetres to a metre or more in diameter and depth4 ,a microscopic section of the rock shows it to be essentially an acid hornblende-granite similar to that of ,gebel ,elba1 but crushed so that there is a 8mortar0 of broken up quartz and felspar between the larger crystals1 and the larger where unbroken frequently show undulose extinction as the result of strain4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4--;,diorite-gneiss1 ,wadi ,nugrus #aj1chf1 #ag4 h1 hornblende1 with small enclosures of felspar and sphene2 pl1 plagioclase felspar2 b1 biotite2 q1 quartz2 ap1 apatite2 sp1 sphene4 ,in the ,wadis ,nugrus and ,gemal there is a great deal of strongly foliated grey gneiss #aj1chf-g1 derived from the intense crushing of diorites4 ,a figure from a typical hand specimen of this gneiss1 looking at the edges of the foliation-planes1 is given on ,plate ,,xxv4 ,the sp4 gr4 of the rock is #bhh4 ,the microscopic slides show plagioclase and green hornblende in about equal proportions1 with some quartz and small amounts of biotite1 sphene1 iron oxides1 and apatite4 ,the hornblende is very fresh-looking1 in strongly pleochroic 7yellowish to deep blue-green7 straggling crystals1 aggregated together along the foliation-planes2 the crystals1 though variously oriented1 show a tendency to lie with their cleavages in the direction of foliation4 ,a very striking feature of the slides is the abundance of small grains of enclosed felspar in the hornblende1 giving the green crystals a perforated appearance in ordinary light4 ,the felspars1 which are likewise fairly fresh1 are much smashed up1 forming with the quartz a mosaic between the irregular bands of hornblende2 the grains often show undulose extinction4 ,biotite1 of a warm brown colour where not bleached1 is sparingly mixed with the hornblende4 ,the sphene is in small rounded grains1 mixed with1 and sometimes containing1 granules of ilmenite2 the grains show a tendency to form little aggregates1 sometimes in the hornblende1 and sometimes in the felspathic portions of the slide4 ,one or two stumpy grains of apatite are enclosed in the felspars1 but this mineral is extremely scarce in the slides examined1 and does not show its usual long prismatic habit4 ,,plate ,,xxv4 ,illustration3 ,ball4--,geography ,geology of ,south-,eastern ,egypt4 ,,metamorphic ,,rocks4 ,,granite-,,gneiss4 ,gebel ,um ,rasein4 ,,red ,,gneiss4 ,gebel ,abu ,beid4 ,,diorite-,,gneiss4 ,wadi ,nugrus4 ,,green ,,breccia4 ,gebel ,hamata4 ,,emerald ,,and ,,quartz ,,in ,,mica-,,schist4 ,gebel ,sikait4 ,,natural ,,size4 ,as an example of gneisses in which the foliation is so intense that all original structures have been obliterated by recrystallization1 we may take the red gneiss of the ,abu ,beid ,hills #aj1fei1 of which a coloured natural size representation is given on ,plate ,,xxv4 ,in this rock1 which has a sp4 gr4 of #bfe1 the main constituent is a pink felspar1 mixed with a little quartz and arranged in fine lenticles separated by greenish lamin which are doubtless altering biotite4 ,this rock bears a strong resemblance to the well-known red gneiss of the ,erzgebirge1 which1 from its chemical composition1 is usually believed to be a metamorphosed granite poor in mica4 ,grey gneisses1 equally intensely foliated with the ,abu ,beid rock1 occur in the range of ,gebel ,hafafit2 these contain a much larger proportion of biotite1 and remind one of the grey gneisses of the ,freiberg district4 ,but as no analyses have yet been made of the ,egyptian rocks1 the absolute similarity to those of the ,erzgebirge is not quite certain4 ,quartzites and ,quartz-schists4 ,about ten kilometres south of ,gebel ,abu ,gurdi is a tract of low hills and ridges composed mainly of quartz-schists4 ,the limits of these rocks have not been mapped1 but they appear to cover a somewhat elliptical area with its long axis1 measuring some eight or ten kilometres1 pointing east and west4 ,where first encountered1 at a point about twelve kilometres east of ,gebel ,selaia1 on the march from that hill towards the pass into the head of ,wadi ,lahami1 the rocks strongly resemble rather friable white to brown fine-grained sandstones1 with bedding planes dipping about #ce to the north4 ,the rock #aj1dac consists almost entirely of white or slightly iron-stained quartz grains1 with1 in places1 scattered minute dull black rods which are apparently hornblende4 ,traced further east1 the rocks have more and more the character of quartz schists1 with harder bands of quartzite1 and the planes of separation1 which gradually become nearly horizontal1 have more the appearance of foliation-planes4 ,the harder quartzite bands #aj1dad are usually brownish to greenish-white in colour1 but sometimes take on a purple tint1 and show micaceous and chloritic scales on cleaved surfaces2 in some places the rock contains 8eyes0 of minette-like composition4 ,to the south the bedding or cleavage planes seem to reverse their dip1 this being now to the south as though there were an anticlinical fold in the mass4 ,there is considerable mixture of other schists with the rocks1 and dykes of diorite and pegmatite1 as well as veins of quartz1 are frequent4 ,a dioritic dyke which cuts through the rocks at a point nine kilometres south-south-west of ,gebel ,abu ,gurdi1 and which is itself crushed almost into a hornblende-schist1 has hardened and altered the quartzose rock on either side of it into a close-grained horny looking rock #aj1dae apparently containing a great deal of finely granular andalusite4 ,these quartz-schists may have arisen from the metamorphism either of sandstones1 in which case the parts to the west of the tract are the least altered1 or of fine-grained aplitic rocks1 on which view the sandstone-like aspect of the western portion of the tract is due to weathering2 the rock is certainly more highly weathered where it most resembles an unaltered sandstone1 and the presence of hornblende and the 8eyes0 of micaceous matter are suggestive of igneous rock4 ,from a consideration of all the evidence ,i was able to gather in a rapid march over the sea1 however1 ,i incline to the view that the rocks are altered sandstone older than the ,nubian series1 and probably of about the same age as the ancient clays which gave rise to the clay-schists of ,zabara and elsewhere4 ,the rocks are completely detached from the nearest undoubted ,nubian sandstone beds 7which lie some forty kilometres to the south-west1 beyond ,gebel ,zergat ,naam71 and they are mixed with schists and veined and altered to a degree which is nowhere approached by beds known to be of the ,nubian series4 ,still1 it is just possible that the quartz-schists represent the remains of ,nubian sandstone strata1 for the nearest beds of that series show-considerable folding and faulting near ,gebel ,zergat ,naam1 and we should expect still greater disturbance and alteration here near the main watershed and close to a principal axis of mountain elevation4 ,a quartz-schist which is certainly derived from the metamorphism of aplitic dykes or sheets1 occurs as great inclined bands cutting across the ,wadi ,shenshef close to some old ruins4 ,the main rock of the district1 in which the bands occur1 is a medium-grained diorite4 ,the quartz-schist is a greyish-white fissile rock1 which splits easily into great slabs2 it has supplied an excellent building material for the houses of the ruined town or encampment1 being used not only for the walls but also for lintels over doors and windows4 ,clay-schists4 ,clay-schists cover extensive areas in the ,south-,eastern ,desert4 ,they occur abundantly in the high hills to the east of ,gebel ,nugrus and form a large portion of ,gebel ,zabara4 ,they abound also to the south of ,wadi ,antar about the longitude of ,gebel ,um ,goraf1 in the hills on the east side of ,gebel ,abu ,dahr1 in the ,wadi ,hodein round about where ,wadi ,um ,tenedba joins it1 in the hills flanking the sandstone plateau of ,gebels ,dif and ,anfeib1 at ,gebels ,kolaiqo and ,eqrun1 on the western flanks of the serpentine mass of ,gebel ,meneiga1 and in the low hills on the plain between ,gebels ,gerf and ,korabkansi4 ,clay-schists are typically of a grey colour1 though greenish1 purple1 and reddish varieties occur4 ,they are soft rocks1 easily scratched with a knife4 ,in some places1 as for instance at ,gebel ,zabara1 they are practically slates1 cleaving into slabs often of considerable size1 while in other localities1 as for instance near ,gebel ,abu ,dahr1 they are crushed into matchwood-like splinters1 which can be used as slate-pencils4 ,they are usually associated with other metamorphic rocks such as crushed diorites and hornblende and mica-schists4 ,the direction of foliation of the slaty and slabby forms is often persistent--at ,gebel ,zabara1 for instance1 a general south-easterly dip of about #bh is maintained over a considerable area2 but there are numerous local variations1 and the number of observations thus far made is too small for any general conclusions to be drawn as to the regional distribution of dip4 ,on the whole1 the clay-schists are remarkably free from knots or other irregularities1 though knotted varieties1 doubtless the result of contact alteration1 have been observed on the south side of ,wadi ,seiga and at a few other places4 ,the clay-schists have probably for the most part been produced by the metamorphism of ancient argillaceous sediments2 in some places1 as for instance in the ,wadi ,beida1 a passage can be observed into what appears to be a crushed conglomerate1 while in other places they pass into quartzites which doubtless represent altered intercalated sandstones4 ,the relation between the direction of the foliation-planes and that of the original bedding is unknown2 it would appear likely that in most cases the traces of bedding have been entirely obliterated by pressure4 ,nor have any fossils been found in the rocks1 though a sharp look-out was kept in the more likely-looking localities1 so that the age of the beds is unknown4 ,at present ,i am inclined to regard them as most likely of ,archan age1 antedating the great granitic intrusions2 but further evidence1 either in the finding of fossils or from a more careful study of the field relations of these rocks to the others1 is required before one can be certain that they are of so great an antiquity4 ,hornblende-schists and ,crushed ,volcanic ,rocks4 ,under the heading of hornblende-schists and crushed volcanic rocks are classified a great variety of rocks1 ranging in colour from green to grey and almost black1 in fissility from the finest lamellation to almost massive forms in which the schistosity is barely evident in the hand specimen1 but all definable as fine-grained dark-coloured schistose rocks consisting largely either of hornblende or of its alteration products4 ,their origin is not always clear1 but many of them appear on microscopic examination to be altered fine-grained syenites1 diorites1 and lavas1 and it is probable that practically the whole are altered forms of various intermediate and basic igneous rocks4 ,the reason for including the hornblende-schists and crushed volcanic rocks in one great group is the difficulty of separating the different classes in the field4 ,they pass one into the other1 and many rocks which in the field would be put down as hornblendic turn out on detailed examination to contain little or none of that mineral1 its place being taken by decomposition products4 ,schists of the types above defined occur probably more abundantly than any other class of metamorphic rocks in the ,south-,eastern ,desert4 ,they enter largely into the composition of some of the main mountain masses1 such as those of ,gebels ,abu ,hamamid and ,abu ,gurdi1 besides covering great expanses of lower hill country4 ,in the mountain ranges they rise in steep-sided ridges with knife edge summits1 a good idea of which is given by the photograph of ,gebel ,abu ,hamamid on ,plate ,,vii4 ,in the lower hill country we have typically a dreary confused looking waste of thousands of dark hills and ridges separated by small winding wadis2 sometimes there is a semblance of system in the distribution of the hills1 owing to the occurrence of parallel dykes harder than the schists which they penetrate1 forming thus back-bones for long lines of schist-ridges4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4--,schist produced by crushing of syenite1 near ,gebel el ,anbat 7,wadi ,hodein74 #aa1ecb ,b1 #cj4 f1 crushed and clouded felspar1 probably orthoclase2 lc1 mixture of calcite and limonite1 produced by alteration of hornblende1 no trace of which remains4 ,schist derived from ,syenite4--,among the schists occurring near ,gebel el ,anbat1 near the ,wadi ,hodein1 is one which appears to be a crushed and altered syenite4 ,it is a speckled grey and reddish-brown rock with a dull and rather granular fracture1 of sp4 gr4 #bib4 ,the slide #aa1ecb ,b shows a rather coarse granitic mixture of clouded felspar and heavily iron-stained calcite4 ,the felspar is considerably altered1 showing no twinning1 but between crossed nicols it extinguishes in irregular bands and is seen to be much crushed4 ,the ferruginous and calcareous matter is almost certainly altered hornblende2 it forms irregular masses1 in which the iron oxide is mostly arranged in parallel lines as though along the cleavage planes of the parent mineral1 while a clouded calcite fills up the spaces between the lines4 ,it would seem that in addition to pressure1 carbonic acid has been the main agent of metamorphism here1 the ferro-magnesian silicate being attacked and its silica entirely removed1 while the aluminous silicate of the felspar has remained to some extent unchanged4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4--;,hornblende-schist 7probably a metamorphosed fine-grained diorite71 ,wadi ,muelih #aj1ceg1 #dj4 h1 pale green hornblende2 f1 mass of decomposed felspar1 containing abundance of finely acicular hornblende and some little patches of quartz mosaic2 m1 magnetite4 ,schists derived from ,diorites4--,hornblendic schists which appear to have been produced by the metamorphism of fine-grained diorites occur largely in the low hill country round the upper parts of the ,wadi ,muelih1 and in the mountain mass of ,gebel ,abu ,gurdi4 ,a specimen of the less altered rock from the ,wadi ,muelih #aj1ceg is a fine-grained hard grey basaltic-looking rock1 of sp4 gr4 #cjd1 in which the schistosity in not very evident1 though it is well seen in the mass4 ,the microscopic slide shows pale green hornblende in ragged fibrous forms in a matted-looking clouded ground mass made up of finely acicular green hornblende and plagioclase1 with a little quartz and orthoclase and a few grains of magnetite4 ,hornblende fibres are often enclosed in the decomposing felspars1 which rarely show definite outlines and appear much shattered4 ,the quartz is probably of secondary formation1 occurring as little patches of mosaic4 ,the schist which forms the summit of ,gebel ,abu ,gurdi #aj1daf is probably also a crushed and altered diorite2 it is a rather fine-grained hard greenish-grey rock1 which with a lens can be seen to be a mixture of greenish-white felspathic material and dark hornblende2 the felspar is mostly dull1 while the hornblende1 on the other hand1 is frequently in shining crystals4 ,the sp4 gr4 of the rock is #cjb4 ,the microscopic slide shows the hornblende to be of a very pale green colour1 in large irregular crystals1 often including felspars4 ,the felspar appears to be plagioclase2 it is typically in smaller crystals than the hornblende1 with a strongly marked tendency to idiomorphism1 highly cracked and almost entirely changed to kaolin4 ,some rather large straggling crystals of a dark brown clouded and semi-opaque highly refracting mineral1 white by reflected light1 are perhaps altered sphene4 ,round the larger crystals is more finely crystalline matter1 much clouded1 apparently composed of altered felspar and hornblende4 ,the crushed dioritic dykes already mentioned as cutting the quartz-schist to the south-west of ,gebel ,abu ,gurdi are possibly offshoots from the same magma which formed the main mass of the mountain4 ,specimen #aj1dae1 taken from one of these dykes1 is a fine-grained grey rock1 of sp4 gr4 #bic1 with an even more decided schistosity than that of the main mountain4 ,the microscopic slide shows clear hornblende of a green colour1 strongly pleochroic 7greenish-yellow to blue-green7 in irregular grains which are frequently aggregated into nests and strings running in the direction of foliation of the rock2 the remaining material is a mosaic of clear quartz1 clouding kaolin1 and sericite1 presumably representing altered felspar4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4--,schist composed of fragments of various volcanic rocks1 summit of ,gebel ,abu ,hamamid #aj1cig1 #cj4 ,schists formed by crushing of ,volcanic ,rocks4--,schists derived from the crushing of volcanic rocks are very abundant in the mountains round ,gebel ,abu ,hamamid and in the ,wadi ,beida4 ,typical specimens from the summit of ,gebel ,abu ,hamamid #aj1cig are hard green to grey rocks1 of sp4 gr4 #bg1 breaking with a rough dull fracture4 ,with a lens1 spots and strings of dull white matter1 with ill-defined outlines1 are seen in a green to nearly black ground mass4 ,the microscopic slides show the rock to be a breccia rather than a simple crushed rock1 for in the same slide very various structures can be seen4 ,some portions1 evidently andesitic1 consist of perfectly idiomorphic lath-shaped felspars scattered with a little decomposed hornblende in a glassy brown ground mass4 ,others1 more abundant1 seem to be altered quartz-diorite-porphyrite2 in these parts1 porphyritic quartz and orthoclase crystals1 in forms strongly inclined to idiomorphism1 clouded and strained1 are scattered in a cryptocrystalline ground mass containing a good deal of green chlorite and epidote4 ,in other parts of the slide1 again1 the chief porphyritic constituent is formed by large green grains1 which have evidently once been biotite or hornblende1 but which now consist of chlorite4 ,in yet other parts of the rock we have fragments of devitrified glassy lava4 ,the different parts1 which are not always well outlined1 are separated by schistose bands composed mainly of strings of chlorite and epidote4 ,whether the rock is a tuff1 or a crushed conglomerate of igneous boulders and pebbles1 or due to complicated crushing of a series of contiguous igneous rocks in situ1 is not quite clear4 ,in some places1 especially about the ,wadi el ,sheikh1 the schists look like crushed conglomerates1 but these may possibly be rocks crushed in situ rather than accumulations of rolled fragments transported by streams4 ,the hornblende-schists which surround ,gebel ,zergat ,naam are of a peculiar type of which the origin is not evident1 but are possibly altered andesites4 ,the typical rock #aa1ebf is a hard grey basaltic one of sp4 gr4 #bie1 with a rusty-brown skin on exposed surfaces4 ,the microscopic slide shows little plates and brushes of nearly colourless hornblende1 liberally scattered in a clouded ground mass consisting mainly of hornblende fibres in radiating and dendritic groups1 with a small amount of kaolinic matter and a few grains of magnetite4 ,the slide contains no distinct quartz1 but possibly a small amount of this mineral may be present in very minute grains with the kaolinic matter4 ,to the metamorphism of andesitic lavas1 too1 are somewhat doubtfully ascribed the grey and green schists of the ,wadi ,beida1 which have specific gravity of about #bge4 ,the slides from the grey variety of the schists #ab1aaf and #ab1aei show a very fine-grained clouded rock1 apparently a mosaic of quartz1 kaolin1 chlorite and sericite1 with larger scattered irregular plates of dark green chlorite4 ,in a pale green variety from the head of the wadi #ab1aaa1 there is less chlorite and a considerable amount of calcite4 ,hornblende ,schists of doubtful origin4--,in the more highly foliated and harder varieties of hornblende schist1 which are typically of a darker colour than most of those already described1 we have rocks in which the process of re-crystallization has been so complete that no trace of the original rock remains4 ,these rocks1 which are true hornblende-schists in the narrowest sense of the term1 are less abundant than the foregoing types1 and generally occur as comparatively narrow bands associated with gneisses and mica and talc schists4 ,all the minerals in them being of secondary origin1 they are usually in a quite fresh state1 and fractured surfaces1 examined with a lens1 exhibit a mass of glistening small crystals of hornblende1 quartz1 and felspar4 ,the density is usually about #bi4 ,microscopic slides show elongated crystals of clear green hornblende1 strongly pleochroic 7pale yellowish-green to deep blue-green7 arranged along the planes of schistosity1 separated by clear granules of quartz and a little felspar1 with scattered magnetite grains4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4--;,hornblende-schist1 near ,gebel ,eqrun #ab1aag1 #cj4 h1 hornblende2 q1 quartz2 m1 magnetite4 ,a little felspar is present mixed with the quartz1 from which it is distinguishable only in polarised light4 ,near ,gebel ,eqrun are found hornblende-schists which exhibit a curious banding in planes at right angles to the main foliation1 in the form of darker lenticular stripes a few millimetres wide and about the same distance apart4 ,a slide #ab1aag cut from this variety shows little trace of the banding1 the lighter spaces between the dark bands merely showing a clouding of the quartz and felspar by tiny granules of epidote4 ,the stripes are most probably the consequence of a secondary compression in a direction perpendicular to the original one rather than relics of a banded structure in the parent rock4 ,actinolite-schists4--,very beautiful bright green schists1 in which the hornblende is in the fibrous to silky form called actinolite1 occur in small quantity associated with mica and talc schists at ,sikait #aj1chj and elsewhere4 ,in these rocks the actinolite fibres1 which often reach two centimetres in length1 are generally aggregated into bundles1 with radiating structure4 ,in the microscopic slide the rock presents even a more beautiful appearance than in the mass1 the long fibres of actinolite polarising in the most brilliant tints2 associated with the actinolite1 there is nearly always more or less chlorite and talc4 ,hornfels4 ,associated with the schists of ,gebel ,abu ,hamamid and the neighbouring mountains there are great masses of very hard horny-looking rock #aj1dja of green to grey colour1 breaking with a sub-conchoidal fracture1 and of such close texture as to appear homogeneous even with a strong lens4 ,the pyramidal peak called ,gebel ,um ,semiuki1 which rises to #a1bhb metres above sea1 three kilometres to the north-east of ,gebel ,abu ,hamamid1 is almost entirely composed of rocks of this type2 in the mountain faces the rock looks red1 but this is only due to a film covering weathered surfaces1 the interior being of a green to grey colour4 ,the rock1 which has a sp4 gr4 of #bga1 is frequently beautifully banded1 light and dark layers alternating with each other1 and often contains tiny cubes of pyrites #aj1cii4 ,the microscopic slide from ,gebel ,um ,semiuki shows a very fine-grained clouded compact rock1 apparently consisting of glassy matter with minute granules of quartz and altered felspar1 together with a little sericite1 the latter especially along certain bands4 ,the slide from ,gebel ,abu ,hamamid is similar1 but here the granules of quartz and felspar are a little larger1 though they are still too small to be seen with a lens in the hand specimen2 the appearance is that of a quartz felsite on a small scale4 ,it has already been mentioned 7p4 #bha7 that the quartz felsites of ,gebels ,igli and ,hadarba pass gradually into hornfels1 and when we remember that the schists of the ,abu ,hamamid district are mostly crushed volcanic rocks1 it becomes almost certain that the hornfels associated with them is a crushed and devitrified glassy lava of acid composition4 ,a yellowish horny rock with grey streaks #aj1cgi1 which occurs near ,gebel ,sabahia1 is conspicuous in the field owing to its weathered surfaces being covered with a bright red ferruginous skin1 resembling cinnabar in colour4 ,the sp4 gr4 is #beb4 ,examination with a lens shows the grey streaks to be filled with myriads of brilliant yellow specks of pyrites4 ,the microscopic slide shows these to be aggregates of little cubes1 while the bulk of the rock is a schistose felsitic mass of quartz and felspar1 with scattered larger felspar crystals1 much broken up and bent4 ,in this rock too we have therefore a rolled up and altered felsite4 ,mica-schists4 ,mica-schists1 composed mainly of golden-brown lustrous lamin of biotite with more or less quartz1 occur near the base of ,gebel ,zabara and at ,gebel ,sikait #aj1fbf1 as well as in small quantity at one or two other points4 ,they are always associated with gneiss1 and appear to form irregular bands1 alternating and mixed with talc and other schists4 ,the lamin of mica can seldom be separated in any large size1 breaking up at a touch into small scales2 they are often highly contorted4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4--;,beryl and quartz1 from a lenticle in mica-schist near ,sikait #aj1ehj1 #cj4 b1 beryl in idiomorphic hexagonal crystals2 q1 quartz1 allotriomorphic4 ,emeralds 7,beryl74--,at ,zabara and ,sikait the mica-schists contain crystals of beryl 7silicate of beryllium and aluminium1 ,be#c;,al#b,si#f,o#ah71 the clear variety of which forms the gem emerald4 ,the beryls are mostly found in lenticular bands of quartz which occur in the mica-schist1 but sometimes they can be seen in the schist itself4 ,the crystals are mostly well developed hexagonal prisms of a pale emerald-green colour1 with characteristic vertical striation4 ,the coloured figure on ,plate ,,xxv will give a good idea of the usual appearance of the mineral4 ,in microscopic slides 7see ,fig4 #eh7 the beryls are conspicuous only by their clear cut hexagonal outlines2 they are quite colourless1 with low polarisation colours about the same as those of quartz4 ,both at ,zabara and ,sikait there are numerous ruins and ancient mines where emeralds have been sought2 most of them are irregular shafts and tunnels1 twisting about as the old miners followed the varying directions of the bands of schists4 ,it is commonly believed that gem emeralds were at one time extracted from these mines1 and it seems incredible that the mining should have been carried on to so great an extent as is shown by the ruins and old workings1 unless stones of considerable value were obtained4 ,the ,zabara mines were re-opened by ,cailliaud in the time of ,mohammad ,ali ,pasha 7#ahag71 but the stones extracted were of little value1 being clouded and full of flaws4 ,a similar result followed a more recent 7#aijd-e7 vigorous attempt by ,mr4 ,james1 acting on behalf of ,mr4 ,edwin ,streeter1 of ,london1 to work the emerald mines of ,sikait2 plenty of beryls were found1 but none clear enough to be of any great value1 and the enterprise was abandoned1 ,mr4 ,james concluding that either the ancient miners had worked out all the bands containing stones of any value1 or else1 what is perhaps more likely1 the ancients were satisfied with a duller stone for a gem than our modern jewellers4 ,the dull forms of beryl are in our own day of very little value1 being principally used as a source for beryllium salts in chemical laboratories4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4--,tourmaline crystals in graphitic talc-schist1 ,sikait mines #i1ijh1 #ag4 t1 tourmaline crystals1 irregularly cracked and clouded2 g1 talc-schist1 heavily clouded by graphite4 ,tourmaline4--,besides beryls1 the mica and talc schists of ,sikait contain in places abundance of black tourmaline in well-developed crystals4 ,at some spots this mineral is so plentiful as to form practically small patches of tourmaline-rock #aj1cie4 ,in thin section #i1hgd and #i1ijh the tourmaline crystals1 which are much clouded and irregularly cracked1 show beautiful pleochroism 7colourless to deep orange71 and very high double refraction colours in prismatic sections4 ,like the beryl1 however1 tourmaline is only of value as a gem when it is clear and transparent1 and all the crystals so far obtained are dull and opaque4 ,calcite1 in rhomb-shaped crystals of a brown colour due to presence of included iron oxides #aj1chb likewise occurs in places in the mica-schists of ,sikait4 ,chlorite-schists4 ,though many of the decomposed hornblende-schists contain more or less chlorite1 ,i have only in two localities come across rocks in situ which contain so large a proportion of this mineral as to deserve the name of chlorite-schists4 ,the first is in the hills of ,um el ,huetat 7latitude #be71 where typical chlorite-schists are mixed with mica1 talc1 and hornblende schists4 ,the second locality is between ,gebels ,ras ,shait and ,nugrus1 where the rock #aj1chh is remarkable not only in its peculiar appearance but also by its strongly magnetic character4 ,it is a thoroughly schistose rock of a rather pale greyish-green colour and rather silky appearance1 with rusty looking spots4 ,the sp4 gr4 is #bgg4 ,the microscopic slide shows the stone to consist essentially of an aggregate of elongated plates and fibres of low double refraction1 which from the hand specimen seem to be chlorite1 but in the slide look more like antigorite4 ,magnetite grains are liberally scattered through the chloritic mass4 ,the rusty spots visible in the hand specimen are translucent foxy red in the slide1 in irregular broken forms with well-marked cleavage and nearly straight extinction4 ,they are somewhat doubtfully regarded as deeply iron-stained hornblende4 ,mixed with the foxy red material are aggregates of granules of a highly refracting but isotropic mineral of deep bottle-green colour 78 spinel71 and chloritic wisps4 ,there are also some clear colourless grains1 resembling apatite in appearance except that they sometimes show well-marked vertical cleavage and high extinction angles2 these are possibly a colourless augite1 but the double-refraction colours are far lower than is usual with this mineral4 ,typical chlorite-schists occur in the ,wadi ,salib ,abiad1 and near ,gebels ,ribdab and ,muqsim1 in the extreme south-west portion of the region4 ,hearing1 from some wandering ,arabs while at ,gebel ,abu ,dahr in ,february #aijg1 that prospectors were at work in the ,wadi ,salib ,abiad1 ,i sent a guide to find out who they were and what they were doing2 the guide reported that on his arrival they had gone away1 but there were some old workings in a green rock of which he brought a sample4 ,i did not get an opportunity of visiting the locality personally1 but the specimen brought back by the guide #aa1ebc is a beautiful apple-green chlorite-schist1 with some brownish calcareous-looking bands4 ,the microscopic slide shows some little quartz and talc besides the chlorite1 and there are scattered minute highly-refracting rounded grains of a feebly translucent mineral of a reddish-brown colour1 probably rutile4 ,a similar rock from the eastern side of ,gebel ,muqsim has been reported by ,mr4 ,charteris ,stewart1 who also records a normal chlorite-schist as occurring on the north side of ,gebel ,ribdab4 ,talc-schists4 ,talc-schists1 though not widely distributed1 are abundant in certain localities4 ,they form the main rock in many of the hills in the district called ,um el ,huetat1 to the west of ,gebel ,atut in latitude #be1 where there are numerous old mines4 ,in this district there are immense masses of talc-schist of remarkable purity4 ,the rock #aj1cfd is of a grey to green or brown colour1 distinctly schistose1 cleaving easily with a soapy feel1 and easily scratched by the finger nail2 more massive forms occur which can be easily carved into pipes1 and these are frequently smoked by the ,bedouin4 ,i descended one of the old shafts at ,um el ,huetat1 and found no evidence of other minerals having been worked than the talc itself4 ,a somewhat more earthy variety of talc-schist #aj1cif was met with near the ,rod el ,ligaia4 ,talc-schists also occur at ,gebel ,sikait #aj1chc and ,gebel ,zabara1 where1 as at ,um el ,huetat1 they alternate with mica and hornblende schists4 ,but at ,sikait and ,zabara the talc-schists are decidedly subordinate to the mica-schist in which the beryls are found4 ,to the class of talc-schists is also probably best referred a fissile and very rotten purple-brown schist1 containing cubes of limonite1 which was found near the triangulation station on ,gebel ,hamida1 and again near the old mines of ,romit4 ,the microscopic slide of the ,romit specimen #ab1aci shows the bulk of the rock to consist of talc and chlorite1 with blotchy stains and floculent-looking masses of brown iron oxide and occasional clear irregular granules of quartz4 ,in this are plentifully embedded perfect little cubes of limonite4 ,the limonite cubes #ab1abi and #ab1acf weather out easily from the rotten matrix1 and can be gathered from the ground at the foot of the exposed surfaces4 ,calcareous ,schists and ,marble4 ,some very curious calcareous schists are found in ,gebel el ,anbat and its neighbourhood1 near the ,wadi ,hodein4 ,in ,gebel el ,anbat itself a mass of these rocks rises to a height of over #bej metres above the wadi level4 ,they are earthy-looking rocks of varying colour1 chiefly brown and reddish1 often purplish on the rough weathered surfaces1 and sometimes have a talcose feel4 ,a typical specimen #aa1ecb ,a has a sp4 gr4 of #bib1 and the slide cut from it shows it to be almost entirely composed of grains of calcite1 with here and there larger irregular granules of quartz and of what looks like altered felspar1 and a liberal sprinkling of iron oxide4 ,it is difficult to assign an origin to this rock1 but a variation of it #aa1ecb ,b has been already described 7p4 #cci7 as probably an altered syenite1 and the main rock may therefore represent the extreme form of alteration of an igneous rock rich in lime felspars4 ,a hard close-grained reddish-brown rock of sp4 gr4 #bia1 with dark streaks #ab1ajg1 which forms a high ridge1 swathed in blown sand1 rising to #cej metres above sea-level near the ,wadi ,kreiga1 eleven and a half kilometres to the south-east of ,gebel ,beida1 resembles a quartzite in appearance1 but turns out on careful examination to be a calcareous schist4 ,the microscopic section shows a very fine-grained mosaic of calcite with a little quartz1 and scattered grains and strings of iron oxide4 ,the origin of this rock is uncertain2 it may be a metamorphosed limestone4 ,the summit of a high hill rising to #fhf metres above sea1 on the east side of the ,wadi ,um ,khariga in latitude #bd #ef #cj1 is a gozzany mass resembling the outcrop of a mineral vein traversing the schists4 ,on a fresh fracture1 the interior of the rock #aj1cfi is seen to consist mainly of dark crystalline calcite1 with some cubical crystals of pyrites1 numerous rusty looking spots and patches of limonite1 and veinlets of white calcite4 ,the microscopic slide shows a mixture of calcite with kaolinic and serpentinous matter1 with a very pronounced schistose structure1 containing 8eyes0 of mixed calcite and iron oxides2 the rock is therefore in reality a ferruginous calcareous schist4 ,the mass is too highly metamorphosed for more than a guess as to its origin2 but the slide contains some granules resembling picotite and one or two small patches of what looks like altering felspar1 and the suggestion is that the schist is a metamorphosed basic igneous vein4 ,white crystalline marble has been found only at one point1 namely1 about three kilometres south of the jagged peak called ,qash ,amir1 west of ,gebel ,elba1 where it forms a small patch in crystalline rocks4 ,graphite-schists4 ,a considerable mass of graphite-schist occurs associated with diorite rocks near some ancient gold workings at ,gebel ,allawi4 ,the extent of the graphite-schist has not been mapped1 but it occurs on the north slope of the mountain1 and as seen from the summit it appears to run out westward for miles as a broad black band4 ,the rock #aj1cgh1 which has a sp4 gr4 of #bgj1 consists of a mixture of graphite with calcareous and earthy matter4 ,the parts richest in graphite are readily cut with a knife1 and mark paper easily4 ,analysis shows that the graphite1 though sufficiently abundant to appear in the hand specimen the dominant mineral of the rock1 is nevertheless present in surprisingly small proportion2 a sample tested by ,mr4 ,pollard was found to contain only a trifle over one per cent4 of carbon4 ,a similar graphite-schist occurs associated with mica-schist in one of the emerald mines of ,gebel ,sikait1 and it may be remarked that graphitic schists have also been observed by ,dr4 ,hume near the lodes in the gold mines of ,baramia and ,um ,garaiart1 both of which localities1 however1 lie outside the limits of the area here described4 ,the origin of the graphite-schists is uncertain4 ,perhaps the hypothesis presenting the least difficulty is that which supposes them to have been formed from ancient sedimentary rocks containing the remains of plants2 on this view the close association of dioritic rocks suggests that the great of igneous intrusion may have played a part in the distillation of the more volatile matters of the plant remains1 while the schistose structure shows that pressure has also been active in the formation of the rock4 ,but the absence of any associated rocks which bear distinct signs of having originally been ancient sediments makes one hesitate to refer the graphite to an organic origin1 and possibly the carbonaceous matter may have been produced from quite another source than that of plant life4 ,breccias4 ,a very curious rock #aj1che which from a distance looks like a giant diorite1 occurs as a band in gneiss on the west side of the lower part of ,wadi ,nugrus1 is doubtless a fluidal breccia4 ,it contains ovoid masses of white aplite1 sometimes measuring five centimetres in diameter1 embedded in a dark fine-grained dioritic matrix with a marked tendency to schistose structure4 ,most likely the rock has been formed by the catching up of the fragments of a crushed aplite in an intrusive diorite1 and then the whole mass has been subjected to the same pressure which foliated the surrounding gneisses4 ,more normal breccias are found at various points4 ,one which occurs between schists and hornfels near the summit of ,gebel ,abu ,hamamid #aj1cih is made up of fragments of various altered volcanic rocks1 with large black flint-like lumps of hornfels1 all cemented into a very hard rock which breaks across the fragments composing it4 ,this breccia was doubtless formed by the same movements which produced the schists of the summit of the mountain2 these latter 7see p4 #cda7 are themselves almost as much fine breccias as schists4 ,to the west of ,gebel ,zergat ,naam the stones in the wadis are sometimes cemented into hard breccias by calcareous matter1 doubtless deposited by drainage waters which have dissolved out the lime from felspathic rocks4 ,in the hill called ,ti ,keferiai1 a little below the triangulation point which marks the summit1 a highly altered fine-grained dioritic rock1 containing much epidote1 has been crushed into a coarse breccia #ab1abc cemented by rose-coloured quartz4 ,a remarkable green breccia is found in ,gebel ,hamata1 where it appears to form a large mass in the mountain-side to the east of the main peak4 ,this rock #aj1djg1 which has a sp4 gr4 of #bib1 is darker in colour and somewhat softer than the ornamental 8breccia verde antico0 of the ,wadi ,hammamat district further north1#ace but it also is a very beautiful rock4 ,in the hand specimen1 it consists of black angular fragments1 up to two centimetres in diameter1 embedded in a dark green ground mass1 the whole of very fine grain and barely scratchable with a knife4 ,under the microscope1 the black fragments seem to be of basaltic nature1 while the green matrix is probably a highly crushed and brecciated diorite-porphyrite2 the whole of the slide is clouded by decomposition products4 ,fault-breccias1 produced by differential movement of the two sides of faults1 occur in the neighbourhood of the ,wadi ,saalek1 where the sandstones and schists are much faulted 7see p4 #cei74 ,the breccias here #aa1eci are narrow bands which stand up like dykes2 they are very calcareous and highly ferruginous1 with occasional green stains1 perhaps due to traces of copper4 ,mineral ,veins4 ,quartz veins deposited by solutions#acf in cracks and fissures of the igneous and metamorphic rocks are very numerous and widely distributed1 especially in the ,sukari district4 ,they vary immensely in size1 from mere strings to veins two metres or more in thickness2 they cut the rocks in every direction and at every angle of dip4 ,steeply inclined veins are by far the most numerous1 but some have a flat inclination and are then styled 8reefs0 by the miners4 ,the principal interest attaching to the quartz veins is the fact that they frequently contain gold1 though seldom in particles visible to the unaided eye4 ,the quartz veins were worked for their gold by the ancients1 the remains of whose dwellings and stone grinding pans are found at numerous places1 as for instance in the ,wadi ,hangalia1 at ,kurdeman1 near ,gebel ,sabahia1 at ,gebels ,sukari and ,allawi1 in the ,wadi ,lewewi1 and at ,romit and ,darahib4 ,our modern prospectors have found these ruins of ancient mining camps and grinding pans to be the best guide to auriferous veins1 gold being seldom found except in and near the old workings4 ,as mentioned on p4 #bg1 the ancients worked the mines by convict labour1 and they could for that reason afford to work ores which are too poor to pay under modern conditions4 ,but in certain cases the veins have been found rich enough to give possibilities of a commercial return to modern mining enterprise2 a list of the prospecting licences and mining leases now in force is given on p4 #bh4 ,as to the source of the gold1 it is not known whether it came up in solutions from below1 or has been secreted laterally from the country rock4 ,besides gold1 some of the quartz veins contain traces of copper1 but none of the occurrences of copper ore within the area specially treated of in this book appear to be capable of yielding any considerable quantity of the metal1 most of them in fact being mere stains due to oxidation and carbonatisation of traces of sulphides4#acg ,calcite veins are much more rarely met with than those of quartz4 ,in only one of the veins ,i have examined is calcite present in any considerable quantity1 namely in the vein of the old gold mines of ,romit4 ,in this vein1 white to brown crystalline calcite is found mixed with chalybite1 limonite1 and smoky quartz #ab1aje and #ab1ada1 the last-named only being apparently auriferous4 ,there did not appear to be enough chalybite and limonite in the vein to make it worth following up for iron ore1 especially in view of the expense of transport from the place4 ,magnesite and asbestos veins occur in the serpentines of the ,gebel ,gerf district4 ,these occurrences1 which appear not to be large enough to be worth working1 have been described on p4 #ccj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,footnote #acd3 ,the figures in square brackets in this and the preceding chapter are the numbers under which the specimens are registered in the ,geological ,museum1 ,cairo4 ,footnote #ace3 ,see ,barron and ,hume's 8,eastern ,desert40 ,cairo1 #aijb4 p4 #bfc4 ,footnote #acf3 ,other quartz veins which probably originated in quite a different manner are treated of under the heading of ,igneous ,rocks see 7p4 #bff74 ,footnote #acg3 ,the copper smelted in ancient times at ,kubban1 on the east bank of the ,nile opposite ,dakka1 in latitude #bc #aj1 was possibly obtained from mines at ,abu ,seyal 7sometimes misspelt ,absciel71 north of the ,wadi ,alaqi in latitude #bb #dg1 longitude #cc #dd1 where there are extensive old workings1 ,abu ,seyal lies outside the region described in this volume2 a reference to the mines will be found in the ,report of the ,egyptian ,department of ,mines for #aijf1 p4 #cd4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,tectonics ,,and ,,general ,,geology4 99 99 99 99 99 ,evidence of a former ,pluvial ,period4 ,given a sufficiently long period for their activity1 the denuding and transporting agencies at work at the present day are capable of accounting for most of the superficial sculpturing of ,south-,eastern ,egypt4 ,the country is not absolutely rainless1 and within a decade most of the dry valleys have been for a few hours the beds of streams1 the result of rain storms4 ,there is practically no frost in this part of the world1 so that disintegration by the freezing of water in crevices of the rock does not occur on any large scale2 the diurnal variations of temperature1 are1 however1 so great that this cause alone is very potent in breaking up rock material4 ,the disintegrated matter accumulates as heaps of debris and sand1 ready to be transported towards the ,nile or the sea by the streams which follow the next rainfall4 ,both in erosion and in the transport of sand1 wind is a very active agent1 and accounts for the formation and distribution of immense quantities of sand4 ,thus the mountains are slowly being lowered1 and the rocky valleys between them are being widened and deepened1 even at the present day1 and the accumulations of sand on the coast-plain and elsewhere are being slowly increased in thickness4 ,but when we look at the great wadis1 often hundreds of kilometres in length1 cut to a depth of fifty metres with a width of half a kilometre through the sandstone plateaux which separate the mountain ranges from the ,nile1 it is difficult to conceive that rainfall and denudation have not in the past been greater than at present4 ,in our own day1 it is but seldom that the great wadis convey streams as far as the ,nile or the sea1 their waters being usually absorbed by the sandy bed before the end is reached2 erosion nowadays is practically confined to the upper reaches of the wadis1 and unless we postulate greater rainfall in the past1 inconceivable ages must have been occupied in the erosion of these great channels4 ,we are thus driven to believe that what is now a very dry area was formerly one of considerable rainfall4 ,this belief is supported by the traces of glaciation in ,europe1 for it is natural to infer that when temperate ,europe had an arctic climate1 northern ,africa had a temperate one2 the effect1 whatever its cause1 being practically equivalent to an increase of latitude4 ,this change of climate is equally evidenced by geological observation in other parts of ,egypt4 ,it is even likely that the climate of ,egypt may be slowly changing at present2 but the change within the historical period has been so small as to be practically negligible4 ,origin of the ,red ,sea4 ,if the #bjj-metre contour of the bottom of the ,red ,sea1 shown on ,plate ,i1 be examined1 it will be found to exhibit great indentations towards the great mountain masses1 while there is a curious projection including the ,island of ,zeberged which mimics the present ,ras ,benas4 ,some of the indentations of the contour line lie in the direct prolongation of existing great wadis1 such as those of ,lahami1 ,khoda1 ,hodein1 ,di-ib1 and ,serimtai4 ,the obvious suggestion from this coincidence is that the sea has encroached on the land since the drainage-system had substantially its present form1 and we infer a sinking of the region at no very remote geological epoch4 ,the central parts of the ,red ,sea attain depths of over #b1jjj metres2 thus this sea was a great and deep one even when the level of its waters1 relative to the land1 was #bjj metres lower than now4 ,we have no information which would give us a clue to the origin of this primitive sea1 but the inference from the contours is that the present extent of the ,red ,sea has been caused by a great general subsidence of the land1 and not by trough-faulting as has hitherto been usually stated4#ach ,the subsidence just referred to was even greater than would be gathered from a consideration of the present coast-line4 ,at intervals along the entire eastern coast of ,egypt are hills of gypsum2 these are never found except close to the present sea-borders1 and the natural deduction is that the gypsum beds were deposited when the sea was at a higher level than at present4 ,at ,ras ,benas1 the gypseous strata reach altitudes of nearly #bjj metres1 so that at the time when the gypsum was formed the ,red ,sea must have covered a much greater area than now1 extending in fact approximately to the contour of #bjj metres above present sea-level4 ,as to the epoch when this greater extent of the sea existed1 we should have a clue if we knew the age of the gypsum beds1 which unfortunately is not the case2 but they are almost certainly younger ,tertiary beds1 possibly ,miocene or even ,pliocene1 so that in any case the ,red ,sea is a depression of considerable antiquity4 ,possible ,former ,extent of the ,eocene ,rocks4 ,eocene rocks are entirely absent from the district1 and the same is the case with ,cretaceous rocks younger than the ,nubian sandstone4 ,but if we go westward along the parallel of ,berenice1 across the ,nile into longitude #bc #cj1 we come to the plateau face of ,gebel ,garra1 where there are exposed thicknesses of about ninety metres of ,eocene limestone and #bdj metres of ,cretaceous marls4 ,these beds cover great expanses further west and north2 they evidently once extended beyond their present limits1 and we may ask whether they ever reached over the ,red ,sea mountains here1 as is the case in ,north-,eastern ,egypt4 ,to this question no answer can be given2 from ,berenice to ,gebel ,garra is a distance of over #cjj kilometres1 and even a very gradual thinning of the beds eastward would account for their absence from the main mountains2 at the same time the denudation which has removed every trace of the hard ,eocene limestone from the plain between ,gebel ,garra and the ,nile may well have done the same further east4 ,original ,extent of the ,nubian ,sandstone4 ,the ,nubian sandstone is found on both sides of the watershed ranges1 and the question raised by its distribution is in regard to its possible original continuity4 ,did the ,nubian sandstone once extend over the present igneous mountains1 or was it laid down on either side of a great island ridge8 ,in other words1 did the ,red ,sea mountains exist as such in ,cretaceous times1 or have they been subsequently elevated1 and the ,nubian sandstones which covered them denuded away8 ,to this question it may be stated at once that no certain answer can be given2 but a good deal of study has been devoted to the facts bearing upon it1 and these facts will be briefly enumerated and discussed below4 ,evidence from ,volcanic ,intrusions4--,that the ,nubian sandstone is younger than the igneous rocks in general is proved by the almost complete absence of intrusions into the sandstone4 ,apart from an interbedded diabase sheet in the north part of the region and a small basic dyke near ,gebel ,awamtib1 the igneous rocks appear nowhere to penetrate the ,nubian beds4 ,the sandstone is a fortiori younger than the metamorphic rocks into which the igneous masses have been intruded4 ,evidence from ,present ,distribution4--,coming now to the distribution of the sandstone1 though we find it on both sides of the main ranges1 there is not a trace of sandstone among the higher mountains2 this of course proves nothing1 for denudation would be most active among the peaks and in districts of maximum up-thrust1 and sandstone is an easily erodible rock4 ,the long tongue of sandstone plateau which terminates in ,gebel ,anfeib extends indeed right across the main watershed1 but a reference to the orographical map 7,plate ,i7 will show that this extension is along a north-west to south-east general depression1 where the ,wadis ,hodein and ,garara form a cut across the map separating the main mountain masses into north and south groups4 ,the presence of the sandstone tongue here would be equally well accounted for whether the mountains were elevated before or after the deposition of the ,nubian beds4 ,not only is the sandstone absent from the main mountains1 but it is never found in such close proximity to them as to render a decisive answer to our question4 ,thus the eastern scarp of the sandstone plateau in the north part of the area overlooks a broad tract of low country between it and the mountains2 and similarly from ,gebel ,anfeib one overlooks low country to the north1 east1 and south4 ,on the eastern side of the mountains the sandstone deposits are restricted to small patches considerably removed from the main summits1 and even in most cases from their foot-hills4 ,evidences from ,structural ,features4--,with regard to the structural evidences to be gathered from the sandstone itself1 it was hoped that the observations of the dip of the beds at different places would throw light on the question as to whether their deposition antedated the mountain formation or no4 ,to the north of latitude #bd1 the eastern edge of the sandstone scarp showed beds differing but little from the horizontal1 though very gentle folding in various directions is probable4 ,further south1 near ,gebel ,zergat ,naam1 much more decided evidences of folding1 and even of dislocation1 were met with4 ,the head of the ,wadi el ,kreim1 south-west of ,zergat ,naam 7see the geological map on ,plate ,,xx7 is probably a line of fault1 for here on the south-west of the wadi we have sandstones coming right down to the wadi floor1 with a dip of #cj to the south-west near the edge1 becoming flatter the further we go from the wadi1 while on the other side are crushed and brecciated schists4 ,going further west1 in the sandstone hill-mass which lies twelve kilometres west of ,zergat ,naam1 the dip of the beds is in the opposite direction1 being #aj to #ae north-east1 and granite appears at the foot of the steep west-south-west slope2 this1 with the preceding observation1 seems to indicate a synclinal fold terminated near ,zergat ,naam by a fault up-thrusting the schists and syenite4 ,where the ,wadi ,garara cuts through the sandstone hills to receive the ,wadi el ,kreim1 the beds dip markedly to the south1 the observed inclinations being #fj or more at the north edges1 rapidly falling to #bj or less further south2 the north faces show granite and schists at their base4 ,further west1 on the way to ,gebel ,um ,harba1 the sandstone of the hills showed dips to the east of #ae4 ,at ,gebel ,um ,harba itself there are thick beds of sandstone dipping #ac east-north-east1 while all around the mountain one looks out over beds having approximately the same inclination4 ,at ,gebel ,um ,khafur1 the dip is #ac to #ad to the north-north-east1 and is very constant over a large area4 ,from the north side1 where the plain is #chj metres above sea-level1 the hills rise with a succession of dip slopes and basset-edges over a horizontal distance of #bi kilometres 7measured perpendicular to the strike7 to the triangulation beacon at #efj metres above sea1 the beds all along dipping at #ac or #ad4 ,unless there is step-faulting here along the strike-wadis 7see ,fig4 #fj7 the total thickness of ,nubian sandstone here is over #dej metres4 ,this is a much greater thickness than has been noted anywhere else in ,egypt1 and ,i am inclined to think that there is step-faulting along at least two of the strike wadis which separate the hill-mass into ridges4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4--,section of ,sandstone at ,gebel ,um ,khafur4 ,in approaching ,gebel ,awamtib from the north-west1 ,i crossed over a small patch of diorite in the sandstone at the pass from ,wadi ,um ,terbi into ,wadi ,awamtib1 and a basic dyke was found cutting the sandstone of a spur of ,gebel ,awamtib4 ,the beds of ,awamtib itself dip pretty uniformly a little north of west4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4--,sketch section of junction of sandstone with granite1 west of ,gebel ,um ,keit4 ,about nine kilometres to the south of ,gebel ,awamtib1 a station was taken on a sandstone headland with schists and quartz veins at its floor1 and afterwards ,i skirted the limit between sandstone and granitic rocks on the way to ,gebel ,um ,reit4 ,all along this route there was no suggestion of sharp folding or faulting2 the beds were nearly horizontal right up to the limit1 where the granite hills rise suddenly 7see ,fig4 #fa74 ,from the top of ,gebel ,um ,reit1 which itself is granite1 the sandstone limit could be seen to the north and east2 the beds dip #cj in places2 in those on the east the direction of dip is about south4 ,the region round ,um ,reit is evidently one of considerable disturbance1 but the sandstone is too far off for one to get any precise idea of its nature from the summit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4--,sketch of faulting near ,wadi ,saalek4 ,going northwards from ,um ,reit across the ,wadi ,saalek and up one of its branches into the head of ,wadi ,muegil1 there is a good exposure of faulted sandstone overlying schists just before reaching the pass4 ,here 7see ,fig4 #fb7 one of the faults is a distinct overthrust1 with a north-easterly strike1 and there are other faults in a parallel direction4 ,from the ,wadi ,muegil northwards past the ,galt el ,aguz to ,gebel ,um ,harba there are gentle dips and curvings of the sandstone beds1 with a predominant dip about north-east4 ,at the ,galt el ,aguz the sandstone rocks are much tumbled about1 but this appears to be due to fall of over-hanging beds4 ,at the pass from ,wadi ,um ,arta into the head of ,wadi ,silsila1 the dip of the sandstone is north-north-east4 ,in its lower part1 ,wadi ,silsila passes between sandstone ridges the dip of which is constantly east-north-east4 ,round ,bir ,abraq and the triangulation station on ,gebel ,abraq 7see large scale map on ,plate ,,xv7 the main direction of dip is east-south-east2 the pool of ,bir ,abraq itself is under projecting slabs of sandstone dipping in this direction4 ,bir el ,sunta1 a little further north1 appears to lie in a syncline1 the beds of the hills to the north dipping south-east1 while those to the south dip north-west4 ,approaching the sandstone from the east by ,wadi ,hodein1 one traverses granite country with felsite dykes and enters suddenly into high sandstone plateaux4 ,the beds at the ,abu ,saafa ,springs dip about #e northwards4 ,the beds of ,gebel ,dif and ,gebel ,anfeib have a prevalent dip on the west side to the east and north-east1 while on the east face the dip appears to be in the reverse direction4 ,this great mass of sandstone plateau may thus be a syncline with a north-westerly strike 7i4e41 a strike roughly parallel to the main direction of the watershed mountain ranges71 but the eastern face was not examined in detail1 and it may be that the whole mass dips to the north-east2 some outlying small sandstone masses near the head of ,wadi ,edunqul show no reversal1 the dip being still east-north-east4 ,at ,bir ,dif the sandstones are variously tilted1 and probably faulted4 ,the sandstones on the east side of the watershed ranges1 near ,gebel ,ranga1 were observed by ,dr4 ,hume to dip towards the sea4 ,in the south part of the region there are some low hills forming two series of ridges between the sea and ,gebel ,kolaiqo1 separated by hills of red aplitic granite2 these hills were not actually visited1 but were mapped from some little distance1 and the dip of the beds was not measured1 but the nature of the rocks was confirmed by specimens of sandstone brought back by guides sent to the place4 ,summing up the dips and disturbances of the sandstone beds at the different places1 it is clear that the strata are the more disturbed1 the more closely they approach the main mountain ranges2 this and the seaward dip of the beds near ,el ,ranga are so far in favour of the view that the sandstone may once have extended right over the present mountains4 ,but it will be seen that the disturbances of bedding are of an irregular character1 especially between ,gebels ,zergat ,naam and ,um ,reit1 where the folding and faulting are often in directions quite distinct from that of the main mountain axes1 and it may be that these disturbances are due to later movements rather than to the elevation of the main mountain ranges4 ,so far as observations on the sandstone itself go1 therefore1 the question as to whether the ,nubian sandstones of the ,red ,sea border ever directly joined those on the west of the mountains remains open2 the observed disturbances of the beds give us clear proof that considerable earth movements have taken place since the sandstone was deposited1 but they are inconclusive as to whether these same movements caused the elevation of the great mountain ranges4 ,the ,igneous and ,metamorphic ,rocks4 ,turning now to the main mountain-forming rocks1 we find them composed of the two great classes1 igneous and metamorphic4 ,though in places we have transition members1 such as granites passing into gneiss1 yet on the whole the two groups are quite distinct1 and we find typical igneous masses rising in the midst of equally typical schists4 ,under these circumstances there can be no hesitation in considering the two groups to be of different ages1 and that the igneous rocks must be the younger4 ,the igneous masses are divisible geologically into the three classes of 7a7 lavas1 7b7 dykes1 and 7c7 plutonic rocks4 ,lavas4--,amongst the igneous rocks1 the lavas are those most poorly represented4 ,apart from the andesite of ,gebel ,sufra1 and the diabase sheets in or under the ,nubian sandstone1 there are only a few occurrences of volcanic rocks in all the area1 a circumstance which is easily explained by the enormous denudation which has gone on and the fact that lavas1 being superficial out-pourings1 will have been most exposed to denuding forces4 ,dykes4--,dykes seam the schists and igneous rocks1 frequently in such numbers and with such parallelism as to give to the land the form of a succession of ridges separated by long narrow depressions1 forming 8dyke country40 ,in nature1 the dykes vary from extremely acid rocks like aplites and quartz-felsites1 to very basic forms such as diabase and basalt4 ,there is on the whole a preponderance of basic over acid types4 ,as already remarked1 only one instance of a dyke cutting the ,nubian sandstone has been observed in the district4 ,another significant feature in the distribution of dykes is that while dykes of all kinds are found cutting schists and acid plutonic igneous rocks1 the basic plutonic masses are as a rule free from dykes2 this suggests that the basic plutonic rocks may be on the whole younger than the acid forms4 ,plutonic ,rocks4--,the plutonic rocks include granites1 syenites1 diorites1 gabbros1 pyroxenites1 amphibolites1 and peridotites4 ,but these are not all of equal importance1 and a natural division from the field observations is a two-fold one into acid and basic groups1 which are tolerably well marked off from each other and are most likely of different ages4 ,the acid class on this view consists of the granites and syenites1 while the basic class contains all the other rocks above-mentioned4 ,the granites are on the whole of a very acid type2 syenite is very scarce and nearly always occurs in close association with granite4 ,of the basic group1 probably the most abundant and most typical rock is gabbro2 diorites and the various ultra-basic rocks are almost always closely associated with gabbro4 ,where acid and basic rocks occur in proximity 7as for instance near ,bir ,abraq1 where an acid granite occurs side by side with a serpentine7 there is a sharp change1 without transitional forms4 ,the much greater abundance of dykes in the plutonic rocks of the acid group as compared with those of basic composition1 as mentioned above1 inclines us to regard the basic group as the younger--a view which is further supported by the greater frequency with which a tendency to gneissose structure is noticeable in the acid rocks4 ,the fact that the basic members are frequently in a higher state of decomposition than the acid ones is not contrary to this view1 being due to the greater ease with which their constituents undergo weathering2 and as explained on p4 #cae1 the fissured state of the altered peridotes is probably not due to the same earth forces which have sheared the granites1 but to internal stresses set up by the expansion of the rocks on serpentinisation4 ,though we may be fairly sure that the basic plutonic rocks are on the whole younger than the acid ones1 we have no certain guide from which to estimate the geological age of either4 ,we know from their relations to the sandstone that they are both older than the ,upper ,cretaceous1 but we cannot say how much older2 they may be anything from ,archan to ,jurassic2 the circumstance that similar rocks underlie ,carboniferous strata in ,sinai inclines us to place them at least as far back as ,palozoic times4 ,gneisses and ,schists4--,the gneisses and schists which cover so much of the country are obviously older than the plutonic masses which are intruded in them1 and for these metamorphic masses we need have small hesitation in speculating on an ,archan age4 ,they exhibit a wonderful variety of composition4 ,most of the gneisses are doubtless sheared ancient igneous rocks1 such as granite and diorite1 and a similar origin may be assigned to many of the schists4 ,other rocks1 as for instance the clay-schists1 graphite-schists1 and marble1 have almost certainly originated from the metamorphism of ancient sedimentary rocks4 ,but in a large number of cases we have at present no clue to the parent rock from which the schists have been formed4 ,summary of ,geological ,history of ,south-,eastern ,egypt4 ,having in the foregoing pages discussed the evidences for the relative ages of the different classes of rocks and their mutual relations1 we may now endeavour to reconstruct the past geological history of this part of ,egypt from the information gathered4 ,in this process we shall reverse the order of consideration taken above1 and begin with the oldest rocks4 ,the schists and gneisses probably represent1 not the original crust of consolidation of the earth1 but a complex of ancient sedimentary and igneous rocks1 laid down in pre-,palozoic times and subsequently crushed1 folded1 and faulted into mountains which were subsequently denuded and worn down4 ,in parts of the main mountain-masses we may possibly still have the cores of some of these ancient elevations1 but most of the present mountain peaks are formed of a later series of igneous rocks4 ,the first igneous intrusions into the schists and gneisses were the granites which form such peaks as ,gebels ,nugrus1 ,faraid1 and ,elba4 ,then followed crushing and folding of these rocks1 giving them often a gneissose structure and opening fissures1 up which came later intrusions1 mostly of basic rocks1 in the form of dykes4 ,with the dykes or later came great basic intrusions of gabbroid rocks1 forming such masses as ,gebels ,dahanib1 ,gerf1 and ,meisah4 ,a long interval now followed of which the rocks contain no record4 ,we do not know whether the area was submerged or not in ,palozoic and early ,mesozoic times2 but if it was1 all trace of the deposits of these ages has vanished in the great denudation which surely took place before the ,upper ,cretaceous sea swept over the country and deposited the ,nubian sandstone4 ,we do not know whether the ,red ,sea mountains then stood up as islands1 or whether they were subsequently elevated4 ,nor do we know whether the area remained wholly or partly submerged during the ,eocene period4 ,but we are sure that at some time between the ,upper ,cretaceous and ,oligocene epochs there was a great elevation of the land1 with folding and faulting1 especially in the areas now occupied by the great mountain masses1 and possibly the mountains had their origin in this movement of elevation4 ,the ,red ,sea depression may well have originated in a complementary sinking at this same period4 ,the depth of the sea is of the same order 7#b1jjj metres7 as the height of the mountains on the adjacent land4 ,in the succeeding ,oligocene period the land was being sculptured into something like its present form1 and probably the main drainage lines of to-day were then formed4 ,about the ,miocene epoch there was a sinking of the crust in this region4 ,the ,red ,sea increased in area1 and then1 probably as the results of evaporation in a closed sea1 deposits of gypsum were laid down4 ,a subsequent elevation in ,pliocene or post-,pliocene times raised these deposits along the present shores4 ,in geologically recent times a further gentle elevation has gone on1 giving rise to slightly raised coral-reefs and sea-beaches4 ,during the glacial period of ,europe1 the rainfall in ,egypt was probably greater than at present1 and during this period the great wadis received almost their final sculpturing4 ,after the change from this rainy climate to the dry one of to-day1 erosion still went on1 though more slowly1 in the hills2 but on the plains and along the coast accumulation of sands took place1 partly owing to wind transport1 and partly owing to the insufficiency of the drainage waters to carry their load as far as the ,nile or sea4 ,the abundance of coral-reefs in the ,red ,sea is largely conditioned by the lack of in-flowing streams of silt-laden water2 for the coral animal flourishes only where the water is clear4 99 99 99 99 99 ,footnote #ach3 ,,suess1 in ,the ,face of the ,earth 7,english edition1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #cgd71 states that 8the ,red ,sea itself is1 however1 a trough-subsidence1 probably the greatest in the world40 ,,chapter ,,xii4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,tribal ,,boundaries4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,bedouin tribes#aci inhabiting ,south-,eastern ,egypt are3-- ,north of the administrative boundary 7,ababda tribes73-- ,ashabab4 ,meleikab4 ,south of the administrative boundary 7,um ,ali ,bisharin tribes73-- ,hamedorab ,kurbeilab ,aliab ,balgab ,koatil ,sarrarab ,mallak#adj ,mohammad ,omerab#adj ,i had hoped1 in surveying the country1 to be able to place the boundaries of the territories of the different tribes on the field maps1 and with this object in view ,i ascertained the claims of each tribe as precisely as possible from representative men of the different tribes who accompanied me over the ground4#ada ,i found that in several places the tribal claims overlapped1 and in consequence ,i have not inserted the boundaries on the general maps4 ,but ,i was able to obtain a clear and definite idea of the various claims made at the time1 and as this information was obtained on the actual ground1 ,i propose to set it down here as being a useful basis for consideration if ever it is necessary to decide upon the question of rival claims4 ,on the small scale map#adb which forms ,plate ,,xxvi1 ,i have shown the various claims as accurately as the scale will admit of1 and a reference to it will enable the statements of claim to be generally followed2 but as the disputed portions frequently concern somewhat small wadis1 it will in some cases be better to refer to the larger scale maps on ,plates ,,xv1 ,,xvii1 and ,,xviii1 to follow the smaller details4 ,i would remark that there did not appear to be anything in the nature of a quarrel between the various tribes over the areas of disputed ownership1 these areas being occupied indifferently by either tribe1 or by men of both tribes living amicably together4 ,it was only when ,i attempted to lay down on a map the precise boundary of each tribe that ,i found certain areas had two or more claimants4 ,in the country south of the administrative frontier1 the wells and vegetation are sufficiently abundant1 in proportion to the population1 for the question of ownership never to be a matter of heated controversy in ordinary years2 and ,i am told that the present relationships of the tribes are so friendly that although each tribe would resent any statement as to ownership of its traditional grounds by the others1 yet as a matter of fact no objection is raised to camels and sheep of one tribe grazing in the grounds of another1 a give-and-take policy being usual4 ,when ,i was at ,halaib1 ,sheikh ,batran ,ali ,tiut 7of the ,hamedorab7 told me they never had disputes about grazing rights1 as there was plenty of ground for all2 but if a dispute should arise1 he would no doubt be able to settle it amicably with his neighbours1 by going to the place and hearing the evidence of the oldest ,arabs in the particular district and letting custom and tradition decide the point4#adc ,boundary between the ,ashabab and ,meleikab4--,this boundary is defined in the ,ministerial ,arrt of ,june #be1 #aijb1 to run along the ,wadi ,hodein from the sea to ,gebel ,abraq1 and thence southward to ,gebel ,um el ,tiur4 ,the only difficulty in laying down this line on the map is in deciding which part of the great plateau of ,gebel ,abraq to take as the point1 and which of the two ,gebels ,um el ,tiur is meant4 ,with regard to ,gebel ,abraq 7see the large scale map on ,plate ,,xv71 the ,wadi ,hodein passes its south portion2 but the context of the ,arrt1 defines the wells of ,abraq 7,bir el ,sunta1 ,bir ,abu ,dibesat1 ,bir ,abraq1 and ,bir ,gumbit7 to be in the ,meleikab area1 and as these lie further north it is obviously necessary1 in the spirit of the ,arrt1 to take a point in the north portion of ,gebel ,abraq4 ,from an examination of the map on ,plate ,,xv it will be seen that an easy and rational interpretation would be to regard the triangulation point1 marked by a beacon on the plateau #a1gjj metres north-west of ,bir ,abraq1 as being a point on the boundary2 the line from ,gebel ,um el ,tiur to pass through this point northwards till it outs the ,wadi ,abraq1 and thence the boundary line would lie along the course of ,wadis ,abraq and ,naam to ,wadi ,hodein4 ,this boundary fulfils the obvious intention of the ,arrt1 and at the same time has the advantage of being easily traceable on the ground4 ,as to the two ,gebels ,um el ,tiur1 ,i have already mentioned this difficulty in connexion with the location of the administrative boundary 7see p4 #gd71 and have taken the higher of the two mountains of the same name as being the one intended4 ,before leaving the subject of the ,meleikab boundaries1 it may be worth while to mention that at the time the ,arrt of #aijb was issued the country had not been surveyed2 it was then thought that ,bir ,shalatein lay some fifty kilometres further along the coast southward than the mouth of ,wadi ,hodein1 and the ,arrt defined the eastern boundary of the ,meleikab territory to be the coast-line from ,wadi ,hodein to ,bir ,shalatein4 ,but as ,bir ,shalatein is actually in the ,wadi ,hodein1 the real result is that the ,meleikab area ends in a point on the coast1 and does not include any sea-board at all4 ,the matter is not one of great moment1 because the coast-plain for some distance southward of ,wadi ,hodein is very barren2 but it illustrates the impossibility of defining boundaries without either going over the actual ground or having a reliable map4 ,the ,hamedorab ,boundary4--,the ,hamedorab claim their boundary to run from ,bir ,meneiga southward along the watershed of ,gebel ,gerf1 along the east side of the basin of ,wadi ,diqdib to just south of ,bir ,baaneit1 thence to the hill called ,kilia ,arib1 thence to the hill of ,eqrun1 thence to the pass of ,bani ,sana2 at ,bani ,sana the boundary turns south-westward so as to pass west of ,wadis ,hamida and ,nubitra1 then bends to the south-east passing west of ,wadis ,mashushenai and ,dibir1 thence eastward along the south side of ,wadi ,di-ib4 ,,plate ,,xxvi4 ,illustration3 ,,sketch-,,map ,,showing ,,tribal ,,boundaries ,ball--,geography ,geology of ,south-,eastern ,egypt4 ,photo-,metal-,process4 ,survey ,dept4 ,cairo #aiaa4 7#fj-aij7 ,the ,hamedorab state that much of the country included in the ,egyptian administration as belonging to the ,ashabab is really ,hamedorab country2 they claim the north limit of their tribal territory to commence at the mouth of ,wadi ,khoda on the coast 7in latitude #bc #db7 and to pass north of ,wadis ,khoda1 ,shenshef1 and ,shut1 thence southward passing west of ,wadi ,beida to ,bir ,meneiga4#add ,this is of course contrary to the ,ministerial ,arrt of #aijb1 and as ,bramly ,bey 7,the ,anglo-,egyptian ,sudan1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ic7 mentions that on the other hand the ,ababda tribe assert that their country should rightly extend south of the administrative boundary1 it is probable that the administrative frontier represents a fair division of the rival claims4 ,the ,kurbeilab ,boundary4--,the ,kurbeilab claim their eastern boundary to run as follows3 ,from ,bir ,meneiga southward along the watershed of ,gebel ,gerf to near the ,sherefa pass1 thence south-eastward along the north side of ,wadi ,sherefa el ,sharqi on to the small hill called ,tibashoi ,tomokolat1 thence east-north-eastward to ,gebel ,hamra ,dom4 ,from ,gebel ,hamra ,dom south-eastward to the hill of ,osnei1 thence southward to the hills of ,ti ,keferiai1 thence to the pass of ,bani ,sana4 ,from ,bani ,sana southward to ,gebel ,warabeit1 thence along the east side of ,wadi ,dibir1 along the north side of ,wadi el ,qurat1 across ,wadi ,di-ib1 and then southwards along the east side of ,wadi ,di-ib4 ,the ,balgab ,boundary4--,the ,balgab boundary coincides with the main watershed from the parallel of #bb northwards to ,gebel ,adar ,qaqa1 then passes between the drainages of ,wadi ,hasium and ,wadi ,soaorib to the hill called ,kulet ,tinasal4 ,from ,kulet ,tinasal the boundary runs east-south-eastward across ,wadi ,soaorib1 passing north of ,wadi ,dishlo2 thence it turns south along the mountains separating the basin of ,wadi ,soaorib from that of ,wadi ,baueiwai1 thence it passes south of the heads of ,wadi ,miatit1 eastwards across ,wadi ,aqwem1 along the north side of ,wadi el ,qurat1 across ,wadi ,di-ib1 and then southwards along the eastern side of ,wadi ,di-ib4 ,the ,koatil ,boundary4--,the ,koatil claim their boundary to run from the head of ,wadi ,diqdib1 along the mountains forming the eastern side of the basin of ,wadi ,diqdib to a point just south of ,bir ,baaneit1 thence eastward to ,gebel ,hamra ,dom4 ,from ,hamra ,dom1 west-south-westward to ,tibashoi ,tomokolat1 thence along the north side of ,wadi ,sherefa el ,sharqi and along the mountains forming the west side of the basin of ,wadi ,diqdib up to the head of that wadi4 ,the ,koatil further claim as their territory the upper portion of the basin of ,wadi ,medarai west of longitude #ce #ah4 ,the ,koatil also own the well called ,bir ,um ,rasein1 though all the wadis in its neighbourhood belong to the ,kurbeilab4 ,overlapping of ,claims4--,when the boundaries of the different tribes as specified above are laid down on the map 7see ,plate ,,xxvi71 it is found that there are three tracts claimed by more than a single tribe4 ,these three disputed areas are3-- 7#a7 ,a tract south and east of ,bir ,baaneit1 claimed both by the ,koatil and by the ,hamedorab4 ,the western part of this area is relatively well wooded4 ,its eastern portion includes the water source called ,ti ,dabai ,hamra ,dom4#ade 7#b7 ,a tract extending southward from ,gebel ,hamra ,dom to the ,wadi ,qurat1 claimed both by the ,kurbeilab and by the ,hamedorab4 ,this area includes the ,wadis ,hamida1 ,nubitra1 and ,dibir1 and four not very important water sources1 viz41 ,galt ,osnei1 ,megwel ,hamida1 ,bir ,nubitra1 and ,bir ,mashushenai4#adf 7#c7 ,a narrow tract including the ,wadis ,qurat and ,di-ib1 claimed by all three tribes ,balgab1 ,kurbeilab1 and ,hamedorab4 ,ownership of ,water ,sources4--,with the exception of the five water sources just mentioned as lying within the areas claimed by more than one tribe1 there are no disputes about ownership of water supplies4 ,the wells of the different tribes are partly enumerated in the ,arrt of #aijb1 but as the list there given is far from complete and many of the names are incorrect1 ,i give below a list of the water sources belonging to the various tribes within the area surveyed4 ,for particulars of the various water sources reference should be made to ,chapter ,,vii 7p4 #bcd74 ,wells1 etc41 of the ,ashabab4 ,bir ,muelih ,bir ,helie ,igli ,galt ,bir ,ghadir ,bir ,abu ,hashim ,galt ,um ,tundeba ,bir ,murra ,bir ,shenshef ,zabara ,galts ,bir ,abu ,had ,bir ,betan ,ghuel ,galts ,bir ,um ,gubur ,bir ,rahaba ,galt ,um ,karaba 7,migif7 ,bir ,masur ,bir ,abu ,reye ,megal ,harami ,bir ,ranga ,bir ,abu ,beid ,galt ,um ,gerifat ,bir ,khashab ,bir ,gahlia ,galt ,um ,gunud ,bir ,abu ,hamamid ,bir ,orga ,galt ,batoga ,bir ,metawit ,bir ,um ,reit ,galt ,um ,maiat ,bir ,shadli ,amar ,spring ,galt el ,aguz ,galt ,seiga ,wells1 etc41 of the ,meleikab4 ,bir el ,sunta ,bir ,gumbit ,bir ,abu ,dibesat ,bir ,abu ,saafa ,bir ,abraq ,bir ,dif ,bir ,beida ,wells1 etc41 of the ,hamedorab4 ,bir ,shalatein#adg ,bir ,meheriqa ,bir ,salalat ,o ,sir ,bir ,adal ,deib#adg ,bir ,nabit ,bir ,sararat ,serimtai ,bir ,meneiga#adh ,bir ,abu ,ramad ,megwel ,akau ,bir ,muqur ,bir ,kansisrob ,ti ,kureitra ,bir ,baaneit ,bir ,akwamtra ,bir ,frukit ,halaib ,wells ,bir ,qabatit ,wells1 etc41 of the ,kurbeilab4 ,bir ,madi ,bir ,shinai ,meis-heit-ar ,bir ,korbiai ,bir ,kagog#adi ,megwel ,adar ,aqdeib ,bir ,meneiga#adh ,bir ,guqub ,megwel ,um ,ein ,bir ,sararat ,seyet ,bir ,himeitra ,megwel ,um ,edwa ,bir ,bint el ,dreb ,bir ,um ,bishtit#aej ,megwel ,didaut#aea ,bir ,odis ,maaleq#adi ,bir ,qidmib ,megwel ,aqwem ,bir ,abu ,hodeid ,bir ,meisah#aea ,galt ,hilwit ,hasium ,galt ,kirir ,wells of the ,koatil4 ,bir ,diqdib ,bir ,um ,rasein ,according to the ,arrt of #aijb1 ,bir ,egat is ,mallak property4 ,footnote #aci3 ,see notes by ,mr4 ,w4 ,e4 ,jennings ,bramly in ,the ,anglo-,egyptian ,sudan1 edited by ,count ,gleichen4 ,london1 #aije4 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ia-ic4 ,footnote #adj3 ,of these two sub-tribes 7,mallak and ,mohammad ,omerab71 ,i did not hear anything during my travels4 ,the ,mallak country is mostly south of latitude #bb1 but extends into ,south-,eastern ,egypt round about ,bir ,egat1 a locality which ,i did not visit4 ,the ,mohammad ,omerab are stated by ,mr4 ,bramly 7op4 cit47 to own the wells of ,bir ,meisah and ,megwel ,didaut1 which1 as will be seen from what follows1 are included in the area claimed as ,kurbeilab by the ,sheikh who accompanied me4 ,footnote #ada3 ,the men were ,sheikh ,isa ,ali ,tiut1 ,sheikh of the ,hamedorab2 ,sheik ,hatab 7brother of ,mohammad ,katul1 ,sheikh of the ,kurbeilab72 and ,mohammad ,katul ,batkai1 of the ,kurbeilab-,aliab4 ,footnote #adb3 ,in order to render it easier to follow the descriptions of the boundaries1 ,i have purposely omitted from this map most of the place-names other than those mentioned in the descriptions4 ,the map is to the same scale as the general orographical map on ,plate ,i4 ,footnote #adc3 ,jennings ,bramly ,bey1 the ,senior ,inspector of ,berber ,province1 who has kindly favoured me with some useful criticisms of this chapter1 remarks3 8,my experience up to date is that each principal man has a different idea of his own boundaries and that those ideas differ from day to day4 ,my impression is that the ,bisharin are as yet one big family1 and that the grazing is ample for all so that the boundaries are very vague between the different tribes4 ,disputes of course do arise as to the possession of wadis1 but ,i find that a week after a certain wadi has been allotted to one of two tribes1 both tribes are amicably grazing in it side by side without payment4 ,the ownership of wells is more strictly defined40 ,footnote #add3 ,bir ,shenshef and ,bir ,beida are in fact classed as belonging to the ,hamedorab in a ,,ms4 list of wells drawn up by ,bramly ,bey4 ,but he has doubtless so classed them before their true locality was known2 as they lie well to the north of the ,sudan administrative boundary 7,shenshef is over one hundred kilometres from the nearest point of that boundary1 on the ,egyptian side7 the ,hamedorab claim can hardly be maintained4 ,footnote #ade3 ,this water source is recorded in ,bramly ,bey's ,,ms4 list of wells as ,hamedorab property4 ,footnote #adf3 ,mr4 ,bramly 7,anglo-,egyptian ,sudan1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ib71 classes ,bir ,mashushenai as ,koatil4 ,i am1 however1 informed that there are two wells of this same name1 and this classification probably refers to another well than the one mentioned above4 ,footnote #adg3 ,the ,arrt of #aiab ascribes these two wells to the ,ashab1 a tribe of whom ,i heard nothing when in the neighbourhood2 ,bramly ,bey informs me that they are a sub-tribe of the ,hamedorab4 ,footnote #adh3 ,joint ,hamedorab-,kurbeilab4 ,footnote #adi3 ,bramly ,bey1 in his ,,ms4 list of wells already referred to1 classes ,bir ,odis and ,bir ,kadot 7probably the same as my ,kagog7 as ,hamedorab4 ,but they were not so claimed by the ,hamedorab sheikh who accompanied me1 and lie well outside the ,hamedorab boundary as claimed by that sheikh4 ,footnote #aej3 ,bramly ,bey informs me that the ownership of ,bir ,um ,bishtit is disputed between the ,kurbeilab and ,koatil1 but the wadi of the same name appears to be undisputed ,kurbeilab ground4 ,footnote #aea3 ,i have included these two water sources 7,bir ,meisah and ,megwel ,didaut7 in the ,kurbeilab list1 because they lie within the boundary claimed for the ,kurbeilab by the sheikh who accompanied me2 but according to ,mr4 ,bramly 7,anglo-,egyptian ,sudan1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ib7 they belong to the ,mohammad ,omerab4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,notes ,,on ,,the ,,road ,,from ,,halaib ,,to ,,port ,,sudan4 99 99 99 99 99 ,on the completion of the survey work at ,halaib in ,may #aijh1 ,i returned to ,cairo by marching in to ,port ,sudan and thence taking steamer to ,suez4 ,the journey from ,halaib to ,port ,sudan with baggage camels occupied eleven days1 travelling on an average thirty kilometres a day4 ,this rate of travel did not permit of any surveying being done en route1 but ,i took brief notes of the road and the wells on it1 and as this road does not appear to be included in those described in the ,sudan ,handbook1 ,i give here the notes ,i made4 ,the distances are estimated from the times occupied in marching4 ,i would mention that from ,mohamed ,ghul onwards to ,port ,sudan there are two roads2 a lower one near the sea1 usually followed by the ,police patrols1 and an upper one which goes a little distance inland4 ,the upper road was the one ,i followed1 as my guides informed me that while it was only some eight kilometres longer than the lower one1 there was much better water to be found on it4 ,in the sketch maps on ,plates ,,xxvii and ,,xxviii1 ,i have shown the road and the wells on it as correctly as is possible from my notes1 using the ,admiralty ,chart ,no4 #b1ccf as a basis for the coast-line and the maps #cf ,i and #df ,a1 issued by the ,sudan ,survey ,department1 for the position of ,port ,sudan and some topographical details4 ,as the direction of march was roughly north-to-south and the total estimated distances between ,halaib and ,mohamed ,ghul1 and between ,mohamed ,ghul and ,port ,sudan1 agree pretty well with those scaled from the maps after laying down the terminal positions correctly1 it may be taken that the latitudes of the wells are fairly correct1 while the longitudes are liable to greater error as being only rough estimations4 ,,plate ,,xxvii4 ,illustration3 ,ball--,geography ,geology of ,south-,eastern ,egypt4 ,photo-,metal-,process4 ,survey ,dept4 ,cairo #aiaa4 7#aij7 ,rough ,sketch of the ,road from ,,halaib ,,to ,,mohamed ,,ghul ,,plate ,,xxviii4 ,illustration3 ,ball--,geography ,geology of ,south-,eastern ,egypt4 ,photo-,metal-,process4 ,survey ,dept4 ,cairo #aiaa4 7#aij7 ,rough ,sketch of the ,upper ,road from ,,mohamed ,,ghul ,,to ,,port ,,sudan ,scale #a3gej1jjj4 ,,halaib ,,to ,,mohamed ,,ghul4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,kilometres4 ,place4 ------------------- ,description4 ,intermediate4,total4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,halaib -- -- ,village of ,hamedorab ,arabs 7reed huts74 ,small fort of two storeys2 tanks below and native police quarters above4 ,no accommodation for ,europeans4 ,several wells1 with plentiful water1 in and near the village4 ,water hard and aperient1 but drinkable4 ,fish of good quality plentiful and cheap1 from native fishermen4 ,small quantities of sugar1 dates1 fat1 etc41 can be got in the bazaar4 ,no post nor telegraph nor regular communication4 ,rocks around village are limestones and gypsum1 with some calcareous conglomerates4 ,wadi ,shellal #d #d ,road goes over sandy and gravelly undulating ground near sea4 ,wadi ,shellal is a broad shallow wadi 7scrub7 coming from high mountains to the west4 ,wadi ,aqilhoq #c #g ,broad shallow wadi 7scrub74 ,about #ai km4 up the wadi1 west of the road1 ,bir ,frukit1 where there is a constant supply of better water than can be got at ,halaib4 ,wadi ,aqwai #d #aa ,shallow wadis with scrub4 ,kreit-reit-or #i #bj ,ti ,kureitra #b #bb ,four wells1 about #ab metres deep1 lined with gypsum-slabs2 about #d km4 from coast4 ,water bad 7strongly purgative7 only suitable for animals4 ,gypsum beds1 partly covered by gravel1 extend over a broad stretch round the wells4 ,further on1 banks of calcareous grit1 covered mostly with gravel4 ,bir ,qabatit #ah #dj ,about #f km4 from ,ti ,kureitra1 mass of high felsite hills called ,gebel ,hadarba1 passed on right of road2 road continues over sandy and gravelly undulating ground across shallow wadis draining from the hills4 ,bir ,qabatit is a well in a small wadi south of the main ,wadi ,qabatit1 about #a km4 from the sea4 ,water about #e metres down1 very salt1 but was being drunk by the ,arab patrols1 who said it did not purge them4 ,bir ,ma-arob #ad #ed ,good road over coast-plain4 ,at ,bir ,ma-arob1 one well of bad water1 strongly aperient4 ,well is in wadi1 forming a pool about #b metres diameter1 overhung by tamarisk-bush4 ,water about #d metres down from surface4 ,,nw4 of the well1 group of white hills1 about #ej metres high1 called ,tishara1 of calcareous grit4 ,wadi ,na-akreib #h #fb ,road over sandy and gravelly plain1 here crosses a broad shallow wadi4 ,wadi ,hamsiat #e #fg ,wadi draining into lagoons4 ,wadi ,waseb #e #gb ,wadi draining into a great inlet of the sea1 looks like a good harbour4 ,hibi ,kwan #c #ge ,wadi draining into a large inlet4 ,coast about here much broken1 with coral reefs and islets4 ,bir ,delaut #ab #hh ,good road on to ,bir ,delaut4 ,three wells in alluvium of wadi1 about #ejj metres from sea4 ,water about #d metres down4 ,the southernmost well is the best4 ,water good4 #c #ia ,road passes head of long inlet1 then it passes east of a mass of limestone hills called ,abu ,hamama1 about #bjj metres high4 ,a little further on1 another big inlet called ,halaqa1 close south of which are limestone-hills about #aej metres high4 #ac #ajd ,road passes west of limestone hills4 ,further on it crosses the wide and bushy ,wadi ,shenaab4 #ad #aah ,road turns sharply eastward through low hills 7sandstones and grits underlying gypseous limestones1 all dipping gently eastwards74 ,megwel ,shumab #a #aai ,road passes close to ,megwel ,shumab1 a shallow pit excavated in limestone with a little tunnel running eastwards4 ,water very bad1 used only by animals4 #e #abd ,road hitherto over undulating ground1 here becomes nearly level4 ,wadi ,qumat ,yawab #aj #acd ,road crosses broad shallow wadi4 ,dungunab #g #ada ,small village of huts and tents on coast4 ,good water at well about #c km4 inland4 ,mr4 ,crossland is carrying on work here in connexion with pearl-oyster industry4 ,meteorological station4 ,tribal boundary #i #aej ,from ,dungunab1 road detours westward to round an inlet of the sea1 then goes over a sandy and gravelly undulating plain with bushes and grasses4 ,boundary between ,hamedorab and ,amarar country marked by two wooden posts4 ,wadi ,hukeib #c #aec ,road crosses wadi4 ,high white hills1 #aj km4 to west of road2 as seen through field-glass1 these appear to be of white granite seamed by basic dykes4 ,there is a good well1 ,bir ,hukeit-ar1 in ,wadi ,hukeib about #d km4 west of road and #e km4 from sea4 ,wadi ,yameinai #h #afa ,broad wadi1 wherein an acre or two has recently been planted with durra4 ,about #f or #g km4 inland from this point1 is a sheikh's tomb1 white and conspicuous in the morning light4 ,mohamed ,ghul #h #afi ,small village on coast4 ,police fort with two decent rooms above1 used by mamr as office and quarters4 ,no supplies worth mention4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,mohamed ,,ghul ,,to ,,port ,,sudan4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,kilometres4 ,place4 ------------------- ,description4 ,intermediate4,total4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,mohamed ,ghul -- -- ,small village on coast2 see above4 #af #af ,road hitherto over gently rising plain of sand with grasses and bushes1 here enters hills4 ,bir ,di-it #a #ag ,a number of very salt wells1 used only by sheep and goats1 sunk about #f metres deep in the wadi bed and lined with masonry4 ,bir ,salalat ,aseir #bg #dd ,good road from ,bir ,di-it among granite hills with intervening wadis and small plains1 very grassy in places1 to ,bir ,salalat ,aseir1 a masonry-lined well of good water1 about #d metres deep1 sunk in the alluvium of ,wadi ,aseir4 ,small settlement of ,amarar ,arabs here4 #b #df ,road after winding among hills1 here enters on level plains of granitic sand1 with grasses and bushes4 #ai #fe ,rocks change from granite to sandstones and limestones2 road now winds among low banks4 #h #gc ,road goes through east part of a mass of low hills4 ,bir ,eit #ai #ib ,after passing the above-mentioned hills1 the road continues over gently undulating ground with broad sandy wadis with grasses and bushes alternating with strips of igneous gravel4 ,there are low flat-topped hills of limestone 7beds dipping gently seawards7 between the road and the sea4 ,bir ,eit is on the road2 it is a masonry-lined well about #e metres deep sunk in the wadi-alluvium close to some scarps of white gritty limestone4 ,water very good4 7,n4,b4--,there is another ,bir ,eit in the same wadi lower down near the sea1 of slightly bitter water74 ,small settlement of ,amarar ,arabs4 ,hills round ,bir ,eit rise at least #ajj metres above the wadi1 coral overlying marly and gypseous beds4 ,low gravel hills #h #ajj ,road over undulating sandy and gravelly ground to two low gravel hills4 ,tower #ab #aab ,road over sandy plain with dried-up scrub and occasional small patches of igneous gravel1 passes #a km4 west of a small tower on a low gravel bank4 ,wadi ,ga-awit-reb #d #aaf ,ground broken by drainage-lines4 ,small trees and a few ,arab huts4 ,megwel ,ga-awit-reb1 a water source in the wadi a little below where road crosses it4 ,bir ,ta-amai #aa #abg ,road over gently rising very sandy ground to ,wadi ,arba-at1 a sandy wadi with numerous trees4 ,bir ,ta-amai is a well in ,wadi ,arba-at1 a little to the west of the road1 where the latter passes between two masses of low igneous hills4 ,water good1 about #g metres down4 ,rude hut near well4 #aj #acg ,chimneys of ,port ,sudan here become visible in distance on clear day4 ,road lies over sandy plain4 ,port ,sudan #bj #aeg ,rail connexion with ,atbara and ,suakin4 ,post and telegraph4 ,regular steamers to ,suez4 ,permit from ,british ,consul necessary before fire-arms can be taken on board steamers4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,index4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,ababda ,arabs1 #cb4 geographical terms1 #cd4 ,abraq springs1 #abb4 ,abraq springs1 biotite-granite near1 #bgd4 ,abraq springs1 serpentine near1 #cbe4 ,absciel 7,abu ,seyal71 old mines at1 #cec4 ,abu ,beid ,hills1 red gneiss of1 #cce4 el ,feda1 #b4 ,hashim ,hills1 #bji4 ,hodeid ,ogla1 #bad4 ,medrik1 ,gariat1 #cj4 ,rahal well1 #bch1 #bfj4 ,saafa springs1 #aah4 ,seyal 7,absciel71 old mines at1 #cec4 ,actinolite-schists1 #cdc4 ,adar ,aqdeib1 #bbb4 ,ameit1 #bba4 ,aweib1 #bbd4 ,aweib ,um ,bishtit1 #bai4 ,adatalob ,adara1 #bbb4 ,hadal1 #bbb4 ,admiralty ,surveys1 #f4 ,admiralty positions1 comparison of1 #fe4 ,african ,reefs1 ,ltd41 #bh4 ,agathon1 #b4 ,agriculture1 #ce4 ,akla ,da-,aiyob1 #adg4 ,alafot1 #bca4 ,onqwab1 #bca4 ,aliab tribe1 #cff4 ,alluvial deposits1 #bec4 ,amarar boundary1 #cge4 ,amphibolites1 #caf4 serpentine from1 #cbc4 ,andesites1 #bie4 altered to schists1 #cdb4 ,animal life1 #bd4 ,ankalidot1 #bba4 ,antiquities1 #bh4 ,antonine ,itinerary1 #b4 ,aplite1 #bgb4 ,apollonus1 #aa4 ,arabs1 #cb4 ,aristonis1 #aa4 ,asbestos1 #ccj4 ,ashabab tribe1 #cff4 boundary of territory of1 #cfg4 wells of1 #cga4 ,ass1 wild1 #bd4 ,astronomical observations1 #db4 ,asut ,duk pass1 #aei4 ,augite-diorite1 #bhi4 ,augite-porphyrite1 #bic4 ,aydat1 #ab4 ,azimuth1 method used in observations for1 #dg4 ,azimuths1 summary of observed1 #dh4 ,b ,bakewell1 ,mr4 ,o4 ,n41 #ag4 ,balgab tribe1 #cff4 ,balgab tribe1 boundary of territory of1 #cfi4 ,bani ,sana pass1 #aec4 ,baqari ,daba1 #bai4 ,barth1 #g4 ,basalt1 #caj4 ,base-lines1 #ci4 ,basic dykes1 serpentinised1 #cbc4 igneous rocks1 #bif4 ,beach deposits1 #beb4 ,beacons at triangulation-stations1 #dj4 ,bedouin tribes1 #cff4 ,belzoni1 #d4 ,bent1 #ab4 ,berenice1 foundation of1 #a4 position of1 #fe4 temple of1 #bi4 ,berget ,abu ,sarib1 #baf4 ,beryl1 #cde4 ,biotite-granite1 #bgc4 ,bir ,abraq1 #abc4 serpentine near1 #cbe4 ,abu ,beid1 #abe4 ,dibesat1 #abc4 ,had1 #ajd4 ,hamamid1 #hd4 ,hashim1 #hh4 ,hodeid1 #ada4 ,ramad1 #aeg4 ,reye1 #aad4 ,adal ,deib1 #aea4 ,akwamtra1 #aef4 ,baaneit1 #ach4 ,beida1 #acc4 ,betan1 #abd4 ,bint el ,dreb1 #aci4 ,delaut1 #cgd4 ,dif1 #abf4 ,di-it1 #cgf4 ,diqdib1 #ach4 ,egat1 #ia4 ,eit1 #cgf4 ,frukit1 #afb4 el ,gahlia1 #aae4 ,ghadir1 #ajj4 ,gumbit1 #abc4 ,guqub1 #ib4 ,helie1 #hc4 ,heliwat1 #gi4 ,himeitra1 #ia4 ,kagog1 #adj4 ,kansisrob1 #aeh4 ,khashab1 #hf4 ,korbiai1 #acd4 serpentines near1 #cbh4 ,ma-arob1 #cgd4 ,madi1 #acj4 ,mashushenai1 #aeb4 ,masur1 #hi4 ,meheriqa1 #aej4 ,meisah1 #adg4 ,meneiga1 #acd4 magnesite-veins near1 #ccj4 serpentines near1 #cbi4 ,metawit1 #hg4 ,miaus1 #ia4 ,muelih1 #hj4 ,muqur1 #acg4 magnesite and asbestos near1 #ccj4 ,murra1 #gi4 ,nabit1 #aef4 ,nubitra1 #aed4 ,odis ,maaleq1 #ada4 ,orga1 #aai4 ,qabatit1 #afc1 #cgc4 ,qidmib1 #add4 ,qoleib1 #hd1 #bch4 ,rahaba1 #aad4 el ,ranga1 gypseous deposits near1 #beh4 ,salalat ,o ,sir1 #aef1 #aei4 ,sararat ,serimtai1 #aei4 ,shadli1 #hf4 ,shalatein1 #abj4 ,shenshef1 #aac4 ,shinai1 #adj4 ,sibrit1 #hb4 el ,sunta1 #abb4 ,ta-,amai1 #cgg4 ,um ,bishtit1 #ade4 ,gubur1 #gi4 ,rasein1 #adc4 ,reit1 #aag4 ,birds1 #bd4 ,bisharin ,arabs1 #cb4 geographical terms1 #cd4 ,bodkin peak1 #bjj4 ,botany1 #be4 ,boundaries1 administrative1 #gd4 ,boundaries1 tribal1 #cff4 ,bramly1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,e4 ,jennings1 #cff4 ,breccias1 #cej4 ,brissus carinatus1 #beb4 ,bruce1 #c4 ,c ,cailliaud1 #c1 #cde4 ,calcareous schists1 #cdh4 tufa1 #beg4 ,calcite1 in mica-schists of ,sikait1 #cdf4 in veins at ,romit1 #cec4 ,camel-breeding1 #ce4 ,camel-transport1 cost of1 #ce4 ,campbell1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,morrow1 #ae1 #ba1 #ib4 ,cannon-ball weathering of diabase1 #cjg4 ,chalybite1 #cec4 ,charcoal-burning1 #ce4 ,chauvenet1 #db1 #dg4 ,chlorite-schists1 #cdf4 ,clay-schists1 #ccg4 ,climate1 #bb4 ,coast-line1 #bb4 method of surveying1 #gb4 ,coast-plain1 slope of1 #bb4 ,colston and ,purdy1 #i4 ,compass1 disturbance of1 by magnetic rocks1 #gg1 #cba4 ,compass1 variation of1 #ge4 ,computation-methods1 #da4 ,contra-,apollinopolis1 #bi4 ,copper in quartz veins1 #ceb4 ,cora1 #aj4 ,coral-reefs1 #bea4 ,coral-reefs1 conditions for growth of1 #cfe4 ,cretaceous sea1 #cfd4 ,d ,da-aiyob1 #cd4 ,dahab ,eff4 ,hassan1 #ag4 ,d',anville1 #b4 ,darahib1 #hi4 ,baaneit1 #ach4 ,diabase1 #cje4 resembling serpentine1 #cbh4 altered to serpentine1 #cbi4 ,diodorus 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#bbb4 ,ti ,keferiai1 rocks of1 #cac1 #cea4 ,ti ,kureitra wells1 #afb1 #bch1 #cgc4 ,ti ,kureitra wells1 gypsum of1 #beh4 ,tilat ,tihu ,shana1 #ach4 ,timaiakwaia1 #bcc4 ,tinadei1 #bba4 ,ti ,qireira1 #bah4 ,titailibab1 #bba4 ,tombs1 #ca4 ,topazos ,insula1 #b4 ,topographical mapping1 #fh1 #ga4 ,tourmaline1 #cdf4 ,trachyte1 #bhe4 ,transport of water1 #bdb4 ,triangulation-methods1 #ci4 ,triangulation-computations1 #da4 ,triangulation1 minor1 #ga4 ,triangulation1 use of vertical angles in1 #ej4 ,triangulated positions1 summary of1 #ej4 ,tribal boundaries1 #cff4 ,troctolite1 #cjc4 ,troglodytes1 #b4 ,tufa deposits1 #beg4 ,tuquq1 #baf4 ,u ,uhlemann1 #ca4 ,ultra-acid igneous rocks1 #bfe4 ,ultra-basic igneous rocks1 #cac4 ,umarawi1 #baf4 ,um ,eleiga mines1 #abe4 ,eleiga mines1 diorite-porphyrite of1 #bib4 ,eleiga mines1 gabbro of1 #bii4 ,gerifat water-holes1 #ajc4 ,himar1 #agb4 el ,huetat ,hills1 #agb4 chlorite and talc-schists of1 #cdg1 #cdh4 ,moghar peak1 #aff4 ,v ,venizelos1 ,mr41 #bh4 ,vertical angles1 use of1 in triangulation1 #ej4 ,vetus hydreuma1 #aa4 ,volcanic rocks crushed into schists1 #cda4 ,w ,wad el ,qireira1 #aec4 ,wadai el ,anz1 #ajf4 ,wadai el ,nom1 #aje4 ,wadis1 importance of1 #ab4 ,wadis draining to the ,nile1 list of1 #gh4 ,wadis draining to the ,red ,sea1 list of1 #id4 ,wadi ,abarun1 #hc4 ,abiad 7tributary of ,wadi ,kreiga71 #ace4 el ,abiad 7tributary of ,wadi ,rahaba71 #aae4 el ,abiad lil ,huluz1 #ajb4 ,abraq1 #abb4 ,abreik1 #ajh4 ,aideib1 #aeg4 ,alaqi1 #hi4 ,alfawi1 #ia4 ,allawi 7tributary of ,wadi ,ghadir71 #ajj4 ,allawi 7tributary of ,wadi ,khoda71 #aab4 ,abu ,argub1 #hc4 ,beid el ,abiad1 #abe4 ,beid el ,azrak1 #abe4 ,berig1 #aaa4 ,daba1 #aji4 ,debebi lil ,betan1 #abe4 ,debebi lil ,khoda1 #aab1 #abe4 ,dibban1 #aji4 ,etl1 #ajd4 ,fagir1 #aba4 ,gerifat1 #ajc4 ,ghalqa1 #aaj4 ,ghusun1 #ajg4 ,gurdi1 #hc4 ,had 7tributary of ,wadi ,deheis71 #ic4 ,had 7tributary of ,wadi ,hafafit71 #ajd4 ,had 7tributary of ,wadi ,rahaba71 #aae4 ,hamamid1 #hd4 ,hashim 7tributary of ,wadi ,kharit71 #hc4 ,hashim 7tributary of ,wadi ,garara71 #hh4 ,hashim 7tributary of ,wadi ,feqoh71 #abh4 ,hegilig1 #ajg4 ,hireiq1 #adb4 ,hodeid1 #ada4 ,hugban1 #aab4 ,marwa lil ,lahami1 #ajh4 ,marwa lil ,naait1 #aaj4 ,marwa lil ,naait1 amphibolite of hill near1 #cag4 ,nikheil1 #aad4 ,nilih1 #aba4 ,reye1 #aad4 ,ribian1 #aae4 ,rusheid1 #ajf4 ,sada1 #ajf4 ,selili1 #hc4 ,seyal 7tributary of ,wadi ,gerf71 #ha4 ,seyal 7tributary of ,wadi ,naam71 #aba4 ,sieiyil1 #abe4 ,akau1 #aeh4 ,akwamtra1 #aef4 ,amba-ut1 #ii4 rock of hill at head of1 #bhe4 ,anbat1 #hc4 ,anfeib1 #abi4 ,anfeib el ,tawayib1 #abi4 ,antar1 #hg4 ,aqilhoq1 #afb1 #cgc4 ,aqwai1 #afb1 #cgc4 ,aqwem1 #aed4 ,arais1 #aba4 schistose serpentine of1 #cbd4 el ,arned1 #aaf4 ,atabi1 #ii4 ,atalab1 #abi4 ,atluk1 #aca4 ,awamtib1 #hh4 ,awitla1 #adg4 ,baaneit1 #ach4 diorite of1 #bhg4 ,bagharid1 #ic4 ,baueiwai1 #aed4 ,beida1 #acb4 schists of1 #cdb4 ,belamhandeit1 #abb4 ,berendiyeb1 #aca4 ,betan1 #abd4 ,bint el ,feqoh1 #ic4 ,bint el ,kurdum1 #aad4 ,buluk1 #aac4 ,buyet1 #abg4 ,dabur1 #ih4 ,dagalai 7tributary of ,wadi ,timsah71 #hh4 ,dagalai lil ,rahaba1 #aae4 ,dageina1 #ia4 ,dauriai1 #ic4 ,dehaiartib1 #acb4 ,defeit1 #ib4 ,deheis1 #ic4 ,delawet 7tributary of ,wadi ,seyet71 #abg4 ,delawet 7tributary of ,wadi ,hasium71 #ada4 ,delawet 7tributary of ,wadi ,um ,bishtit71 #ade4 ,delowa1 #aei4 ,dibag lil ,batoga1 #aaa4 ,dibag lil ,kunserob1 #aaa4 ,dibir1 #aeb4 ,didaut1 #aec4 ,dif1 #abe4 ,difoteb1 #abi4 ,di-ib1 #adh4 ,di-it1 #aee4 ,diqdib1 #ach4 ,dishlo1 #add4 ,dreb1 #aci4 ,duag1 #ia4 el ,dub1 #aag4 ,durunkat1 #ajd4 ,dweig1 #gi4 ,eberer1 #ace4 ,edunqul1 #acb4 ,egat 7tributary of ,wadi ,kharit71 #hc4 ,egat 7tributary of ,wadi ,alaqi71 #ia4 ,egat 7tributary of ,wadi ,betan71 #abe4 ,eidab1 #ajh4 ,eikwan1 #aee4 ,eimya1 #add4 ,eirahimib1 #abi4 ,elemikan1 #hd4 ,enqireidia1 #abe4 ,eqaiyib1 #adh4 ,erf ,um ,araka1 #aba4 ,faditiai1 #abi4 ,fegas1 #ii4 ,feqoh1 #abf4 el ,fil1 #aba4 ,ga-aweit-reb1 #cgg4 ,gaetri1 #ajd4 el ,garara1 #hg4 dykes of1 #bgb4 tilted sandstones of1 #ceh4 ,gelabat ,shabai1 #abf4 ,gemal1 #ajj4 pegmatitic granite of1 #bga4 diorite-gneiss of1 #ccd4 olivine-diabase of1 #cjh4 ,gerf1 #ha4 ,ghadir1 #ii4 ,ghadrib1 #hh4 ,ghuel1 #ii4 el ,gihab1 #aah4 ,gimal 7tributary of ,wadi ,feqoh71 #abg4 ,gumudlum 7tributary of ,wadi ,lahami71 #ajh4 ,gumudlum 7tributary of ,wadi ,khoda71 #aac4 ,guqub1 #ib4 ,habliai1 #adf4 ,hadelshisheib1 #abh4 ,hafafit1 #ajd4 ,haiyo1 #add4 ,haletiai1 #abh4 ,hamata1 #ajg4 ,hamida 7tributary of ,wadi ,defeit71 #ic4 ,hamida 7tributary of ,wadi ,baueiwai71 #aee4 ,hamish1 #gi4 ,hamsiat1 #cgd4 ,hangalia1 #ha4 ,hankuk1 #add4 ,haratreit1 #ajg4 ,hareitra1 #aea4 ,hashimaiyib1 #aeb4 ,hasium1 #adj4 ,hateib1 #ib4 ,hefeifit1 #ajd4 ,hefeiri 7tributary of ,wadi ,romit71 #ajg4 ,hefeiri 7tributary of ,wadi ,betan71 #abe4 ,helie1 #hc4 ,hilgit1 #hc4 ,hilgit lil ,huluz1 #ajc4 ,hilwit ,hasium1 #adj4 ,himeitra1 #ia4 ,hindia1 #aab4 ,hiteib1 #ib4 ,hodein1 #aae4 ,hukeib1 #cge4 ,huluz1 #ajb4 basalt of1 #cab4 diorite of1 #bhg4 felsites of1 #bgg1 #bhb4 olivine-diabase of1 #cjh4 ,hushenab1 #abh4 ,hutit1 #aae4 ,ibib1 #adj4 ,igli1 #ih4 gypseous beds of1 #beh4 ,kalalat1 #aaj4 serpentine of1 #cbc4 ,kamoyib1 #abg4 ,kansisrob1 #aeh4 ,kharit1 #hb4 ,khashab 7tributary of ,wadi ,kharit71 #hf4 ,khashab 7tributary of ,wadi ,hodein7 #acb4 ,khashir1 #ajg4 el ,khasiya1 #aai4 el ,khisei1 #ajd4 el ,khiua1 #aba4 ,khoda1 #aaa4 quartz-boss in1 #bfe4 ,kilanai1 #ach4 ,kiraf1 #adh4 ,kirir1 #ia4 ,kirwau1 #adc4 ,kolaiqo 7tributary of ,wadi ,madi71 #acb4 ,kolaiqo 7to sea71 #acf4 ,korbiai1 #acd4 ,kreiga1 #acd4 calcareous schist of1 #cdi4 diabase dykes of1 #cji4 diorite dyke in1 #bhh4 diorite-porphyrite dykes in1 #bic4 granite of1 #bfi1 #bga4 el ,kreim1 #hg4 dykes of1 #bgb4 fault in sandstone in1 #ceh4 ,krioni1 #he4 ,kunserob1 #aaa4 ,kwilimandaiyeib1 #aec4 ,lahami1 #ajg4 ,lasewid1 #adg4 ,lewewi1 #ajj4 ,madi1 #abi4 ,maghal1 #aai4 ,mahali1 #ajc4 ,malhat1 #aah4 ,mantil ,hasium1 #adj4 el ,marafai1 #aae4 ,marasan1 #ajc4 ,marasani1 #he4 ,mashushenai1 #aeb4 ,ma-ud1 #ii4 ,medarai1 #adc4 ,medsus1 #hc4 ,megah1 #aae4 ,meisah1 #adf4 ,meladoyeb1 #ic4 ,meneiga1 #acd4 ,merau1 #ia4 ,merdiyeb1 #adc4 ,metawit1 #hg4 ,miatit1 #aed4 ,miaus1 #ia4 ,mikbi1 #ajg4 ,mindeit1 #aaj4 ,mistura1 #abe4 ,mitatib1 #abi4 el ,mukhatatat1 #aja4 ,muegil1 #aaf4 sandstone of1 #cfj4 ,muelih1 #hj4 augite-porphyrite dyke in1 #bic4 schists of1 #cdj4 el ,mukhit1 #aaj4 ,muqur1 #acg4 diorite of1 #bhg4 ,murra1 #aji4 ,naait1 #aaj4 ,naait1 amphibolite near1 #cag4 ,na-akreib1 #cgd4 ,naam1 #abj4 el ,nasbia1 #aja4 ,natash1 #hi4 ,nilateib1 #adb4 el ,nom1 #aaf4 ,nubitra1 #aed4 ,nugrus1 #aje4 diorite-gneiss of1 #ccd4 fluidal breccia in1 #cej4 muscovite-granite near1 #bgd4 ,odis1 #ada4 ,orga el ,atshani1 #aai4 ,orga el ,rayani1 #aai4 ,orgem1 #adf4 ,odruk1 #adb4 ,o ,sir ,eirab1 #aei4 ,o ,sir ,hadal1 #aef4 ,qabatit1 #afc4 ,qadiloi1 #ach4 ,qeirat1 #aef4 ,qidmib1 #add4 ,qumad ,lim1 #aej4 ,qumat ,yawab1 #cge4 el ,qurat1 #aeb4 ,radad1 #acf4 ,rahaba1 #aad4 ,remalib1 #abh4 ,romit1 #ajg4 ,saalek1 #aag4 faults in sandstone of1 #cfj4 fault-breccias near1 #cea4 ,sabahia1 #ii4 ,safihat1 #hc4 ,salalob1 #adi4 ,salib el ,abiad1 #aab4 chlorite-schist from1 #cdg4 ,salib ,azrak1 #aab4 el ,sania1 #aaf4 ,sarid1 #ib4 ,sarobaiya1 #adg4 ,sefent1 #ajh4 ,seiga1 #ic4 ,serimtai1 #aei4 ,seyet1 #abg4 ,shab1 #acf4 ,shabakhit1 #hh4 ,shait1 #gi4 ,shellal 7near ,halaib71 #afb1 #cgc4 ,shellal el ,gharbi1 #acj4 ,shellal el ,sharqi1 #acg4 el ,sheikh1 #he4 ,shendib1 #aea4 ,shenshef1 #aac4 quartz-schist of1 #ccg4 ,sherefa el ,gharbi1 #abg4 ,sherefa el ,sharqi1 #aci4 asbestos of1 #ccj4 ,shib1 #aac4 ,shigeg1 #ace4 ,shinai1 #adj4 ,shoab1 #ajg4 ,shut1 #aab4 ,siamtit1 #aef4 ,sibrit1 #hb4 ,sikait1 #ajf4 ,silsila1 #abb4 sandstone of1 #cfj4 ,sinatib1 #aca4 ,sinqinyeib1 #aeb4 ,soaorib1 #add4 ,sortdau1 #abh4 ,sorubiab1 #aad4 ,suhin1 #ib4 ,sukari1 #ih4 ,tarfawi1 #ajc4 ,tawayib1 #abg4 ,ti ,ilak1 #acg4 ,tikosha1 #ach4 ,tikraneib1 #adb4 ,timsah1 #hh4 ,titai1 #aad4 ,todhi1 #aeh4 ,tugudbaia1 #aca4 ,unfagalan1 #abi4 ,um el ,abbas1 #ajf4 ,abid1 #ii4 ,akra1 #aab4 ,arta1 #aag4 ,bishtit1 #ade4 ,bisilla1 #aba4 ,buerat1 #aad4 ,daba1 #hc4 ,dafiri1 #ii4 ,deheisi1 #he4 basalt of1 #cab4 ,derera1 #ic4 ,eleiga1 #abe4 ,eshub1 #ajh4 ,etli1 #aad4 ,gamil1 #ajj4 ,ghobasha1 #ajh4 ,gholqa1 #ic4 ,goran1 #aaa4 ,gubur1 #aac4 ,gunud1 #ajh4 ,guruf1 #aba4 ,hargal1 #he4 augite-diorite of1 #bhi4 ,hasidok1 #hc4 ,hegiligi lil ,huluz1 #ajc4 ,heran1 #aja1 #ajf4 ,hereini1 #he4 ,homar1 #ajh4 ,iteili1 #ajd4 ,kabu1 #aja4 ,karaba 7tributary of ,wadi ,lahami71 #ajh4 ,karaba 7tributary of ,wadi ,salib ,azrak71 #aab4 ,khariga1 #ih4 serpentine near1 #cbb4 schist of1 #cdi4 ,khuzama1 #ajh4 ,lassaf1 #aac4 ,maiat1 #aaa4 ,marakh1 #hh4 ,nasir1 #he4 ,reddam1 #aca4 ,reit1 #aag4 ,retba1 #he4 el ,rid1 #hh4 ,rishan1 #ajh4 ,saha1 #aci4 ,seleim1 #abj4 ,sellim 7tributary of ,wadi ,kharit71 #hc4 ,sellim 7tributary of ,wadi ,kalalat71 #aaa4 ,sellim lil ,mindeit1 #aaj4 ,sellimi1 #aja4 ,semiuki1 #ajc4 ,sereiha1 #he4 ,seyal 7tributary of ,wadi ,gerf71 #ha4 ,seyal 7tributary of ,wadi ,serimtai71 #aei4 ,seyal el ,foqani1 #aje4 ,seyal el ,tahtani1 #aje4 ,seyal lil ,khoda1 #aac4 ,sididad1 #abb4 ,somra1 #he4 ,sueh1 #aja4 ,suerab lil ,huluz1 #ajc4 ,sumer1 #aaj4 ,sumur1 #aaf4 ,tawil lil ,khoda1 #aab4 ,tawil lil ,shut1 #aac4 ,tenedba1 #abj4 ,teneidib1 #ib4 el ,tiur1 #hc4 ,tundeba1 #ii4 calcareous tufa of1 #beg4 ,umeiatib1 #abh4 ,wadheit1 #abg4 ,warabeit1 #aec4 ,waseb1 #cgd4 ,wieqwer1 #aec4 ,yahameib1 #aeg4 ,yameinai1 #cge4 ,yoider1 #aee4 ,zabara1 #ii4 ,water sources1 list of1 #bdb4 ownership of1 #cgj4 supplies1 #be1 #bcd4 transport of1 #bdb4 ,watershed between ,nile and ,red ,sea1 #bj4 ,wehrlites1 #cai4 ,wells1 #bcf4 ,wells1 analyses of water of1 #bcg4 ,wells ,mr4 ,j4 ,f41 #ij4 ,wellsted1 #f4 ,wiekorei1 #bcc4 ,wilkinson1 #f4 ,z ,zabara1 emerald-mines of1 #cdf4 ,zeberged1 peridot-mines at1 #bh4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,geography ,,and ,,geology ,,of ,,south-,,eastern ,,egypt4 ,,by ,,dr4 ,j4 ,,ball4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,corrigenda4 99 99 99 99 99 ,page4 #aa line #i from top1 for 8,modellin0 read 8,modellim40 #ba footnote1 line #b from bottom1 for 8watershed0 read 8westward40 #bd line #b from top1 for 8figures0 read 8fingers40 #dg in heading of last column of table1 for 8observed-computed0 read 8computed-observed40 #di line #g from top1 for 8area0 read 8sea40 #di footnote1 line #c from bottom1 for 8k of #jac0 read 8k #jac40 #di footnote1 bottom line1 in the denominator of the fraction1 for 8#b--r0 read 8#br40 #ea line #ab from bottom1 in last column1 for 8#j0 read 8--40 #eb line #ab from top1 in last column1 for 8#j0 read 8--40 #ed line #ab from top1 the latitude of point ,no4 #cec is 8#bc #dg #cg0 not 8#bc #dg #dg40 #eg line #ad from top1 for 8,fokani0 read 8,foqani40 #eh line #ad from top1 for 8,mukur0 read 8,muqur40 #ei line #i from bottom1 for 8,un ,rasein0 read 8,um ,rasein40 #fj line #b from bottom1 in last column1 for 8highest0 read 8high40 #fa line #c from top1 delete 8minor40 #fc line #h from top1 for 8,g4 ,di-ib0 read 8,w4 ,di-ib40 #gb last line1 for 8as0 read 8if40 #ge line #aj from top1 for 8added of0 read 8added to40 #gf the observed compass-variation near ,halaib ,fort was 8#b #ah10 not 8#c #ah10 and in the observed variation at ,helwn the figures given as seconds should be decimals of a minute4 #gg the yearly decrease of declination 7in three places7 should be #fc instead of 8#f #c40 #hb line #bb from top1 for 8,wani0 read 8,wadi40 #hc line #ah from top1 for 8,um ,selim0 read 8,um ,sellim40 #hh line #aa from top1 for 8,feleiti0 read 8,felieiti40 #ih line #b from top1 for 8,serimtay0 read 8,serimtai40 #ii lines #d and #g from bottom1 for 8,sabaia0 read 8,sabahia40 #aja line #be from top1 for 8,um ,heram0 read 8,um ,heran40 #ajc line #i from top1 for 8,the one0 read 8,the upper one40 #ajd line #ag from top1 for 8heap0 read 8head40 #aje line #aa from top1 for 8#db #cd0 read 8#bd #cd40 #aji line #ah from top1 for 8#ce #dg #aj0 read 8#ce #dg #ac40 #aah line #aa from bottom1 for 8curved0 read 8carved40 #add lines #aj and #bb for 8,meisa0 read 8,meisah40 #ade top line1 for 8,meisan0 read 8,meisah40 #aeb line #h from top1 for 8,akwantra0 read 8,akwamtra40 #aec line #h from top1 for 8aad0 read 8and40 #aei line #e from top1 for 8,mikreiba0 read 8,mikeriba40 #aei last line1 for 8#bb #ac #bd0 read 8#bb #ac #be40 #aei last line and footnote1 for 8,qosier0 read 8,qoseir40 #afj top line1 for 8#cf #ch #ed0 read 8#cf #ch #ef40 #afb line #g from top1 for 8to0 read 8or40 #afb line #e from bottom1 for 8,qubit0 read 8,qubet40 #afg line #aj from top1 for 8#ajii metres0 read 8#aaii metres40 #afg line #ae from bottom1 for 8,krug0 read 8,khrug40 #agc line #h from top1 for 8,itelma0 read 8,iteima40 #agc line #aj from bottom1 for 8#cd #dd #ce0 read 8#cd #da #ce40 #agf line #d from top1 for 8#bd #ad #dd0 read 8#bd #ad #da40 #ahc line #d from bottom1 for 8,mukhtatat0 read 8,mukhatatat40 #ahf last line1 for 8east0 read 8west40 #ahh line #i from top1 for 8#bd #ed #ah0 read 8#bd #ed #ad40 #ahh footnote1 for 8#bc #eg #fg0 read 8#bc #eg #df40 #ahi line #h from top1 delete 8respectively40 #aid line #i from bottom1 for 8these0 read 8there40 #bjd line #af from top1 for 8western0 read 8southern0 #bjf line #ac from bottom1 for 8#cd #ej #di0 read 8#cd #ef #di40 #baa line #ab from bottom1 for 8which0 read 8while40 #bab line #bj from top1 for 8,um ,rassin0 read 8,um ,rasein40 #bac line #ad from bottom1 for 8,kirwaw0 read 8,kirwau40 #bbc line #aa from top1 for 8exit0 read 8exist40 #bbc line #b from bottom1 for 8,hashushenai0 read 8,mashushenai40 #bbd line #ah from top1 for 8jugged0 read 8rugged40 #bbh last line1 for 8masses0 read 8mosses40 #bcc line #c from bottom1 for 8in0 read 8on40 #bce footnote1 for 8,megwal0 read 8,megwel40 #bch line #i from top1 for 8aad0 read 8and40 #bdb line #c from bottom1 before 8vary0 insert 8they40 #bde top line1 for 8,wadi ,sikait0 read 8,wadi ,shait40 #bdf the latitude of ,galt el ,aguz is 8#bc #cb #cj0 not 8#bc #ca #cj40 #bdh the latitude of ,bir ,muqur is 8#bb #db #bf0 not 8#bb #da #bf40 #bec top line1 for 8,mesah0 read 8,meisah40 #bei line #ag from bottom1 for 8,dib0 read 8,dif40 #bfc line #h from top1 for 8section0 read 8sections40 #bgc top line1 for 8sprinking0 read 8sprinkling40 #bgh last line1 for 8,,xxi0 read 8,,xxii40 #cjd line #aa from bottom1 for 8pale0 read 8free40 #cjd line #i from bottom1 for 8forms0 read 8form40 #cjf line #g from top1 for 8#dd0 read 8#cd40 #caj line #aa from top1 for 8dolorite0 read 8dolerite40 #cag in the description of the figure1 insert the word 8to0 between 8altering0 and 8granular40 #ccc line #b from top1 for 8,modergeg0 read 8,mudergeg40 #cci line #ac from top1 for 8resemblance0 read 8semblance40 #cda line #ad from top1 for 8ericite0 read 8sericite40 #cdb line #ah from top1 for 8dentritic0 read 8dendritic40 #cdb line #e from bottom1 for 8on0 read 8in40 #cdf line #h from top1 for 8ancient0 read 8ancients40 #cea line #ac from top1 for 8p4 #dda0 read 8p4 #cda40 #cec line #ab from top1 for 8,magnetite0 read 8,magnesite40 #ceh line #d from top1 for 8,,xv0 read 8,,xx40 #cfj line #af from top1 for 8,,xx0 read 8,,xv40 #cff footnote1 line #e from bottom1 for 8,megwell0 read 8,megwel40 #cfg footnote1 line #c from bottom1 for 8or0 read 8of40 #chg line #ah from top1 for 8,mitab0 read 8,mitba40 #cij line #ad from bottom1 for 8,balamhandeit0 read 8,belamhandeit40 #cib line #ah from top1 for 8,mokhatatat0 read 8,mukhatatat40 #cib line #be from top1 for 8,kukhit0 read 8,mukhit40 #cic second column1 line #af from top1 for 8,kalabat0 read 8,kalalat40 #cid last line1 for 8,zebeged0 read 8,zeberged40 99 99 99 99 99 ,,short ,,catalogue ,,of ,,the ,,maps1 ,,plans1 ,,and ,,publications ,,issued ,,by ,,the ,,survey ,,department1 ,,ministry ,,of ,,finance1 ,,egypt4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,maps ,,and ,,plans4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the following is a general list of the maps and plans offered for sale by the ,survey ,department4 ,a booklet giving details of all sheets printed may be obtained free1 on application either personally or by letter at the ,headquarters of the ,department1 ,gza 7,mudiria71 or at the ,geological ,museum1 ,public ,works ,ministry ,gardens1 ,cairo1 where all maps and plans are for sale1 or through any bookseller4 ,except where specially stated1 the price of each map-sheet is #ej milliemes on paper1 and #fe milliemes on cloth1 and they are sent post free by the ,department4 ,the reference marks denote3 7997 map is in ,arabic only2 77 map is in ,english only2 7997 map bears place-names both in ,arabic and ,english2 7997 77 map can be obtained either in ,arabic or ,english4 ,town ,maps4 ,the following list gives particulars of the maps published4 ,the map of ,alexandria1 on the scale of #a3a1jjj1 will be completed during #aiac4 ,the survey of ,cairo on the scale of #a3a1jjj is in progress4 ,cairo 79971 #bh sheets1 scale #a3a1jjj 7already printed74 ,alexandria 79971 #bjj sheets1 scale #a3a1jjj4 ,alexandria 7997 771 #ae sheets1 scale #a3e1jjj4 ,general map of ,alexandria ,municipality 7,french and ,arabic71 #aj sheets scale #a3f1jjj4 ,mit ,ghamr 79971 #d sheets1 scale #a3a1jjj4 ,mansra 79971 #af sheets1 scale #a3a1jjj4 ,suez 79971 #bj sheets1 scale #a3a1jjj4 ,suez 79971 #a sheet1 scale #a3b1ejj4 ,sohag 79971 #f sheets1 #a3a1jjj4 ,tanta 79971 #ae sheets1 scale #a3a1jjj4 ,girga 79971 #f sheets1 scale #a3a1jjj4 ,aswn 79971 #bc sheets1 scale #a3a1jjj4 ,port ,said 7in ,french71 #a sheet1 scale #a3e1jjj4 ,zagazig 79971 #bj sheets1 scale #a3a1jjj4 ,damanhr 79971 #ad sheets1 scale #a3a1jjj4 ,benha 79971 #be sheets1 scale #a3a1jjj4 ,faym 79971 #bf sheets in all1 of which #h are printed1 scale #a3a1jjj4 ,cadastral ,maps4 ,these are maps of the villages showing each hod and plot of land4 ,they are printed in ,arabic only4 ,in ordering1 the name of the village and the numbers of hod and plot should be given4 ,the following list gives the particulars of the maps for each mudiria 7province73-- ,beheira mudiria 79971 #c1cjj sheets1 under survey1 scale #a3b1ejj4 ,gharba mudiria 79971 #c1dfj sheets1 scale #a3d1jjj and #a3 #b1ejj4 ,daqahla mudiria 79971 #b1bcg sheets1 scale #a3b1ejj4 ,sharqa mudiria 79971 #b1igd sheets1 scale #a3b1ejj4 ,menufa mudiria 79971 #b1agc sheets1 scale #a3d1jjj and #a3b1ejj4 ,qaliuba mudiria 79971 #ggh sheets1 scale #a3b1ejj4 ,gza mudiria 79971 #gff sheets1 scale #a3d1jjj4 ,faym mudiria 79971 #b1bfc sheets1 scale #a3b1ejj4 ,beni ,suef mudiria 79971 #idb sheets1 scale #a3b1ejj4 ,minia mudiria 79971 #a1fce sheets1 scale #a3b1ejj4 ,assit mudiria1 including ,kharga ,oasis 79971 #b1bgc sheets1 scale #a3b1ejj4 ,girga mudiria 79971 #a1cac sheets1 scale #a3b1ejj4 ,qena mudiria 79971 #a1efh sheets1 scale #a3b1ejj4 ,aswn mudiria 79971 #a1jgf sheets1 scale #a3b1ejj4 ,topographical ,maps4 ,scale #a3aj1jjj 7#aj cm4 #a kilometre2 #fc inches #a mile74--,the names on these maps are in most cases in ,arabic and ,english4 ,the following table shows the number of sheets published3-- ,beheira mudiria 79971 #bfj sheets 7old series74 ,beheira mudiria 79971 #ec sheets already printed1 scale #a3aj1jjj 7new series74 ,gharba mudiria 79971 #aeg sheets 7old series74 ,gharba mudiria 79971 #hc sheets already printed1 scale #a3aj1jjj 7new series74 ,sharqa mudiria 79971 #ec sheets4 ,daqahla mudiria 79971 #aa sheets4 ,menufa mudiria 79971 #gc sheets4 ,qaliuba mudiria 79971 #fe sheets4 ,gza mudiria 79971 #ij sheets 7first edition74 ,gza mudiria 79971 #ac sheets already printed1 scale #a3aj1jjj 7second edition74 ,faym mudiria 79971 #abf sheets4 ,beni ,suef mudiria 79971 #ba sheets4 ,assit mudiria1 including ,kharga ,oasis 79971 #gb sheets4 ,aswn mudiria 79971 #fc sheets4 ,aswn or ,first ,cataract 771 #f sheets4 ,the ,nile ,valley from ,aswn to ,korosko 771 #cf sheets 7paper only1 #be milliemes each74 ,scale #a3be1jjj 7#d cm4 #a kilometre2 #be inches #a mile74--,a provisional map of ,northern ,gharba has been published on this scale1 pending the publication of the #a3aj1jjj sheets of this area4 ,there are #ia sheets4 ,scale #a3ej1jjj 7#b cm4 #a kilometre2 #ac inches #a mile74--,these maps are printed in three colours4 ,names are given in ,english1 and as a rule in ,arabic as well4 ,this series is completed for the whole of the cultivated area of the ,nile ,valley and ,delta4 ,there are #afd sheets4 ,a second and revised edition is being published gradually2 it will include the sheets of certain outlying areas such as ,lake ,menzala1 ,suez ,canal1 ,wadi ,natrun1 etc41 which1 owing to lack of time or opportunity1 have either not been published or published from defective data4 ,scale #a3bej1jjj 7#a cm4 #e kilometres2 #a inch #h miles74--,the preparation of the four sheets of this series1 embracing the area of the ,delta1 is now being proceeded with4 ,the two western sheets are printed in ,english only and the remaining two eastern sheets will be published by the end of the year 7#aiab74 ,price1 #ajj milliemes per sheet4 ,scale #a3a1jjj1jjj 7#a cm4 #aj kilometres2 #a inch #af miles74--,the six sheets of this map1 covering the whole of ,egypt1 have now been published4 ,the names are in ,english4 ,the price of each sheet is #ej and #fe milliemes for paper and cloth editions respectively1 or the whole can be obtained mounted on cloth1 varnished1 and fitted with rollers for #eej milliemes4 ,special ,maps on ,various ,scales4 ,map of ,cairo and ,environs 79971 #a sheet1 scale #a3ajj1jjj4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes on ordinary paper or #aej mounted and folded for the use of tourists4 ,map of the ,delta 7997 771 #d sheets1 scale #a3bjj1jjj4 ,price1 #ge milliemes per sheet1 or the complete map mounted on cloth1 varnished1 and fitted with rollers1 #gjj milliemes4 ,map of the ,delta 771 #d sheets1 scale #a3bjj1jjj1 showing telephone lines4 ,price as the one above4 ,lower ,egypt and the ,faym1 #aijd 7latest edition7 771 #a sheet1 scale #a3ejj1jjj4 ,lower ,egypt1 showing lines of communication 771 #a sheet1 scale #a3ejj1jjj4 ,map of ,menufa mudiria 79971 scale #a3ej1jjj1 in two sheets mounted together on cloth and fitted with rollers4 ,price1 #hej milliemes4 ,northern ,gharba 79971 #a sheet1 scale #a3bjj1jjj4 ,kharga ,oasis 771 #a sheet1 scale #a3ejj1jjj4 ,dakhla ,oasis 771 #a sheet1 scale #a3ejj1jjj4 ,baharia ,oasis 771 #a sheet1 scale #a3ejj1jjj4 ,farafra and ,iddalia ,oases 771 #a sheet1 scale #a3ejj1jjj4 ,provisional map of the ,eastern ,desert of ,egypt1 ,east ,qena-,aswn to ,red ,sea 771 #bj sheets1 scale #a3ajj1jjj4 ,provisional map of the ,eastern ,desert of ,egypt1 between ,qus1 ,sayala1 and ,red ,sea 771 #b sheets1 scale #a3ejj1jjj4 ,provisional map of a part of the ,eastern ,desert ,oilfield 771 #a sheet1 scale #a3ajj1jjj4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes on paper and #aej milliemes on cloth4 ,provisional map of a part of the ,eastern ,desert ,oilfield1 showing registered prospecting areas 771 #a sheet1 scale #a3ajj1jjj4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes on paper and #aej milliemes on cloth4 ,red ,sea and ,sinai ,oilfield1 showing registered prospecting areas 771 #a sheet1 scale #a3caf1hjj4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes on paper and #aej milliemes on cloth4 ,jemsa ,oil ,zone 771 #a sheet1 scale #a3ge1jjj and #a3bej1jjj4 ,price1 #ej milliemes4 ,mersa ,matruh chart 771 #a sheet1 scale #a3d1ejj4 ,mersa ,matruh topographical map 771 #a sheet1 scale #a3aj1jjj4 ,mersa ,matruh and ,ras ,allam ,rum 771 #b sheets1 scale #a3be1jjj4 ,aqaba-,rafa1 #aijf 79971 #c sheets1 scale #a3ajj1jjj4 ,aqaba-,rafa1 #aijf 7997 771 #a sheet1 scale #a3ejj1jjj 7paper1 #be milliemes2 cloth1 #dj milliemes74 ,the ,nile ,valley from ,aswn to ,sudan boundary 771 #a sheet1 scale #a3bej1jjj4 ,port d',alexandrie 7,french71 #c sheets1 scale #a3d1jjj4 ,,atlases ,,and ,,school-,,maps4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the price of the school-maps1 printed in colours1 mounted on cloth1 varnished1 and fitted on rollers1 is #gjj milliemes per copy1 except the ,maps of the ,mediterranean ,basin and of the ,ottoman ,empire which are #ejj milliemes per copy4 ,the price of each part of the ,atlas of the ,world1 published separately1 will be #bjj milliemes4 ,atlases 7published in ,arabic only74 #a4 ,elementary ,atlas of ,egypt1 price per copy #ej mills4 #b4 ,atlas of the ,world1 ,part ,i #bjj ,contains the following maps3 ,egypt1 the ,anglo-,egyptian ,sudan1 ,africa ,political1 ,africa ,physical1 eight inset maps of ,africa1 ,asia ,political1 ,asia ,physical1 ,the ,ottoman ,empire and neighbouring countries1 and ,europe ,political4 ,,school-,,maps4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,title4 ,,scale4 ,,language4 ,,size4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- metres4 #a,lower ,egypt #a3 #bjj1jjj ,arabic #aij #agh #b #a3 #bjj1jjj ,english #aij #agh #c,orographical ,map of the ,nile #a3b1ejj1jjj ,arabic #ace #age ,basin #d #a3b1ejj1jjj ,english #ace #age #e,political ,map of ,egypt #a3 #gej1jjj #age #age #f #a3 #gej1jjj ,arabic #age #age #g,political ,map of ,africa #a3f1jjj1jjj #age #ahe #h,physical ,map of ,africa #a3f1jjj1jjj #age #ahe #i,political ,map of ,asia #a3f1jjj1jjj #bje #ahe #aj,physical ,map of ,asia #a3f1jjj1jjj #bje #ahe #aa,map of ,western ,europe #a3a1ejj1jjj #bbe #ahe #ab,map of the ,mediterranean ,basin #a3c1jjj1jjj #ahj #abj #ac,political ,map of ,europe #a3c1jjj1jjj #bbe #ahe #ad,physical ,map of ,europe #a3c1jjj1jjj #bbe #ahe #ae,the ,world on ,mercator's -- #bje #ahe ,projection #af,western ,hemisphere -- #afe #ahj #ag;,eastern ,hemisphere -- #afe #ahj #ah,physical ,map of the ,british #a3 #gej1jjj #age #age ,isles #ai,political ,map of ,north ,america #a3f1jjj1jjj #bje #ahe #bj,physical ,map of ,north ,america #a3f1jjj1jjj #bje #ahe #ba,political ,map of ,south ,america #a3f1jjj1jjj #bje #ahe #bb,physical ,map of ,south ,america #a3f1jjj1jjj #bje #ahe #bc,political ,map of ,australia #a3e1jjj1jjj #bje #ahe #bd,physical ,map of the ,basin of -- #bje #ahe ,pacific ,ocean 7,this map shows the new ,panama ,canal and its relations to the ,pacific ports74 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,the following ,atlases and maps are in preparation1 and will be published during #aiac3-- ,atlases 7published in ,arabic only74 #a4 ,the ,atlas of the ,world1 ,part ,,ii1 will be published in ,september #aiac1 and will contain the following maps3 #d inset maps of ,asia1 ,europe ,physical1 ,north ,central ,africa showing the ,basin of the ,nile1 ,lower ,egypt4 ,the ,world on ,mercator's ,projection1 ,north ,america ,political1 ,north ,america ,physical1 ,south ,america ,political1 ,south ,america ,physical4 #b4 ,the ,atlas of the ,world1 ,part ,,iii1 is in preparation and will be published in #aiad4 ,,school-,,maps4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,title4 ,,scale4 ,,language4 ,,size4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- #a,the ,ottoman ,empire and ,neighbouring ,countries #a3e1jjj4jjj ,arabic #ace #abj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,geological ,maps4 ,geological map of ,egypt1 scale #a3a1jjj1jjj4 ,english4 ,six sheets1 #gj #eh cm4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes per sheet4 ,complete map1 mounted on cloth1 varnished1 and fitted with rollers1 #hej milliemes4 ,geological map of ,egypt1 scale #a3b1jjj1jjj4 ,english4 ,one sheet1 #fh #fg cm4 ,price1 #bjj milliemes on paper1 and #cjj milliemes mounted on cloth and fitted with rollers4 ,a number of maps have been published in the various ,geological reports4 ,further information may be obtained under the respective headings in the list of ,geological ,reports1 pp4 ,v and ,,vi4 ,,publications4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the following is a general list of the publications of the ,survey ,department1 and a few others which are for sale at the ,headquarters of the ,department1 ,gza 7,mudiria71 and at the ,geological ,museum1 ,public ,works ,ministry ,gardens1 ,cairo4 ,a booklet giving full details can be obtained1 on application either personally or by letter4 ,except where specially stated1 the publications are #hvo1 and in ,english1 and are supplied post free by the ,department4 ,they can also be obtained through any bookseller4 ,archology4 ,,arch,,ological ,,survey ,,of ,,nubia4 ,,bulletin #a4--;,dealing with the work 7archological and anatomical7 from ,september #bj to ,november #cj1 #aijg4 ,english4 #ci pp41 #bg illustrations4 7,out of print47 ,,bulletin #b4--;,dealing with the work 7archological and anatomical7 from ,december #a1 #aijg1 to ,march #ca1 #aijh4 ,english4 #fi pp41 #eb illustrations4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes4 ,,bulletin #c4--;,dealing with the work 7archological and anatomical7 from ,october #a to ,december #ca1 #aijh4 ,english4 #eb pp41 #e illustrations4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes4 ,,bulletin #d4--;,dealing with the work 7archological and anatomical7 from ,january #a to ,march #ca1 #aiji4 ,english4 #bh pp41 #b illustrations4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes4 ,,bulletin #e4--;,dealing with the work 7archological and anatomical7 from ,october #a to ,december #ca1 #aiji4 ,english4 #ce pp41 #e illustrations4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes4 ,,bulletin #f4--;,dealing with the work 7archological and anatomical7 from ,january #a to ,april #ae1 #aiaj4 ,english4 #cj pp41 #h illustrations4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes4 ,,bulletin #g4--;,dealing with the work 7archological and anatomical7 from ,november #a1 #aiaj1 to ,february #bh1 #aiaa4 ,english4 #ai pp41 #c illustrations4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes4 ,,annual ,,report ,,of ,,the ,,arch,,ological ,,survey ,,of ,,nubia1 ,,season #aijg-h4 ,,vol4 ,i3 by ,,george ,a4 ,,reisner4 ,price1 with volume of plates1 ,l4,e4 #b4 ,,annual ,,report ,,of ,,the ,,arch,,ological ,,survey ,,of ,,nubia1 ,,season #aijg-h4 ,,vol4 ,,ii3 ,report on the ,human ,remains1 by ,dr4 ,g4 ,,elliot ,,smith1 ,f4,r4,s41 and ,dr4 ,f4 ,,wood ,,jones4 ,price1 with volume of plates1 ,l4,e4 #b4 ,,phil--,,report ,,on ,,the ,,island ,,and ,,temples ,,of1 by ,,capt4 ,h4 ,g4 ,,lyons1 with introductory note by ,w4 ,e4 ,,garstin4 #ahif4 ,english4 #fg pp41 #gh illustrations4 7,out of print47 ,,phil--,,report ,,on ,,the ,,island ,,and ,,temples ,,of1 by ,,capt4 ,h4 ,g4 ,,lyons4 #aijh4 ,english4 #dto1 #cb pp41 #ad illustrations4 ,price1 #bjj milliemes4 ,geography4 ,,river ,,nile ,,and ,,its ,,basin--,,physiography ,,of ,,the1 by ,,capt4 ,h4 ,g4 ,,lyons4 #aijf4 #daa pp41 #ad maps1 #cd illustrations4 ,price1 #djj milliemes4 ,,turco-,,egyptian ,,boundary ,,between ,,the ,,vilayet ,,of ,,the ,,hejaz ,,and ,,the ,,peninsula ,,of ,,sinai--,,the ,,delimitation ,,of ,,the1 by ,e4 ,b4 ,h4 ,,wade1 together with additions by ,b4 ,f4 ,e4 ,,keeling and ,j4 ,i4 ,,craig4 #aijf4 7,survey ,department ,paper1 ,no4 #d74 #hi pp41 #b maps4 ,price1 #aej milliemes4 ,see also ,geology4 ,geology4 ,,abu ,,roash1 ,,near ,,the ,,pyramids ,,of ,g,,za--,,cretaceous ,,region ,,of1 by ,h4 ,j4 ,l4 ,,beadnell4 #aijb4 #dh pp41 #b maps1 #ai illust4 ,price1 #bjj milliemes4 ,,arsinoitherium ,,zitteli 7,beadnell71 ,,from ,,the ,,upper ,,eocene ,,strata ,,of ,,egypt--,,preliminary ,,note ,,on1 by ,h4 ,j4 ,l4 ,,beadnell4 #aijb4 #d pp41 #f illustrations4 ,price1 #ej milliemes4 ,,asw,n 7,,first7 ,,cataract ,,of ,,the ,,nile--,,description ,,of1 by ,,dr4 ,,ball4 #aijg #aba pp41 #e maps1 #bh illustrations4 ,price1 #bjj milliemes4 ,,baharia ,,oasis1 ,,its ,,topography ,,and ,,geology1 by ,,dr4 ,,ball and ,h4 ,j4 ,l4 ,,beadnell4 #aijc4 #hd pp41 #h maps1 #b illust4 ,price1 #bjj milliemes4 ,,blackened ,,rocks ,,of ,,the ,,nile ,,cataracts ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,egyptian ,,deserts1 by ,a4 ,,lucas4 #aije4 #eh pp4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes4 ,,building ,,stones ,,in ,,egypt--,,disintegration ,,of1 by ,a4 ,,lucas4 #aijb4 #ag pp4 ,price1 #ge milliemes4 ,,building ,,stones ,,of ,,cairo ,,neighbourhood ,,and ,,upper ,,egypt1 by ,,dr4 ,,hume4 #aiji4 #ib pp41 #i illustrations4 ,price1 #aej milliemes4 ,survey ,department ,paper1 ,no4 #af4 ,,cairo ,,and ,,suez--,,topography ,,and ,,geology ,,of ,,the ,,district ,,between1 by ,t4 ,,barron4 #aijg4 #acc pp41 #b maps1 #ad illustrations4 ,price1 #bjj milliemes4 ,,catalogue ,,of ,,the ,,geological ,,museum1 ,,cairo1 by ,,dr4 ,,hume4 #aije4 #cg pp4 ,price1 #be milliemes4 ,,dakhla ,,oasis1 ,,its ,,topography ,,and ,,geology1 by ,h4 ,j4 ,l4 ,,beadnell4 #aija4 #ajg pp41 #i maps1 #g illustrations4 ,price1 #bjj milliemes4 ,,eastern ,,desert ,,of ,,egypt1 ,,central ,,portion--,,topography ,,and ,,geology ,,of1 by ,t4 ,,barron and ,,dr4 ,,hume4 #aijb4 #cca pp41 #aj maps1 #cj illust4 ,price1 #djj milliemes4 ,,eastern ,,desert ,,of ,,egypt1 ,,between ,,latitudes #bb ,,and #be ,n4--,,preliminary ,,report ,,on ,,geology ,,of1 by ,,dr4 ,,hume4 #aijg4 #gb pp41 #d maps1 #e illust4 ,price1 #aej milliemes4 ,survey ,department ,paper1 ,no4 #a4 ,,explanatory ,,notes ,,to ,,accompany ,,the ,,geological ,,map ,,of ,,egypt 7map mentioned on page iv71 by ,,dr4 ,w4 ,f4 ,,hume4 ,d4,,sc41 ,f4,g4,s41 ,f4,r4,s4,e4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes4 ,,farafra ,,oasis1 ,,its ,,topography ,,and ,,geology1 by ,h4 ,j4 ,l4 ,,beadnell4 #aija4 #ci pp41 #h maps4 ,price1 #aej milliemes4 ,,fay,m ,,province ,,of ,,egypt--,,topography ,,and ,,geology ,,of1 by ,h4 ,j4 ,l4 ,,beadnell4 #aije4 #aja pp41 #b maps1 #bb illustrations4 ,price1 #cjj milliemes4 ,,for,,ts ,p,,trifi,,es ,,des ,d,,serts ,,de ,l',,egypte--,,note ,,sur ,l',,ge ,,des1 par ,m4 ,r4 ,,fourteau4 #ahih4 ,french4 #h pp4 7,out of print47 ,,iron ,,ores ,,in ,,egypt--,,distribution ,,of1 by ,,dr4 ,,hume4 #aiji4 #af pp41 #a map4 ,price1 #ej milliemes4 ,survey ,department ,paper1 ,no4 #bj4 ,,jebel ,,garra ,,and ,,the ,,oasis ,,of ,,kurkur--,,topographical ,,and ,,geological ,,results ,,of ,a ,,reconnaissance-,,survey ,,of1 by ,,dr4 ,,ball4 #aijb4 #dj pp41 #b maps1 #e illustrations4 ,price1 #aej milliemes4 ,,kharga ,,oasis1 ,,its ,,topography ,,and ,,geology1 by ,,dr4 ,,ball4 #aijj4 #aaf pp41 #ai maps1 #af illustrations4 ,price1 #bej milliemes4 ,,mammals--,,preliminary ,,note ,,on ,,some ,,new--,,from ,,the ,,upper ,,eocene ,,of ,,the ,,fay,m1 ,,egypt1 by ,c4 ,w4 ,,andrews and ,h4 ,j4 ,l4 ,,beadnell4 #aijb4 #i pp41 #d illustrations4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes4 ,p,,trole ,,de ,,la ,,mer ,,rouge--,,rapport ,,sur ,,les ,,recherches ,,du1 par ,j4 ,,barois4 #ahhe4 ,french4 #af pp41 #a map1 #aj illustrations4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes4 ,,petroleum ,,districts ,,situated ,,on ,,the ,,red ,,sea ,,coast--,,report ,,on1 by ,,col4 ,c4 ,e4 ,,stewart4 #ahhh4 #be pp4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes4 ,,petroleum ,,industry ,,at ,,baku--,,sketch ,,report ,,of1 by ,j4 ,h4 ,,trevithick4 ,may1 #ahhf4 #bb pp4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes4 ,,phosphate ,,deposits ,,of ,,egypt1 by ,,survey ,,department4 #bnd edition1 #aije4 #ce pp41 #c maps4 ,price1 #ej milliemes4 ,,principles ,,and ,,objects ,,of ,,geology1 ,,with ,,special ,,reference ,,to ,,the ,,geology ,,of ,,egypt1 by ,w4 ,f4 ,,hume4 #be pp41 #h illustrations4 ,price1 #ej milliemes4 ,,sinai ,,peninsula 7,,south-,,eastern ,,portion7--,,topography ,,and ,,geology ,,of1 by ,,dr4 ,,hume4 #aijf4 #bhj pp41 #e maps1 #bc illustrations4 ,price1 #cjj milliemes4 ,,sinai ,,peninsula 7,,western ,,portion7--,,topography ,,and ,,geology ,,of1 by ,t4 ,,barron4 #aijg4 #bda pp41 #b maps1 #ac illustrations4 ,price1 #cjj milliemes4 ,,soil ,,and ,,water ,,of ,,the ,,fay,m ,,province--,,preliminary ,,investigation ,,of1 by ,a4 ,,lucas4 #aijb4 #ag pp4 ,price1 #ge milliemes4 ,,soil ,,and ,,water ,,of ,,the ,,wadi ,,tumilat ,,lands ,,under ,,reclamation1 by ,a4 ,,lucas4 #aijc4 #bf pp41 #a map1 #e illustrations4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes4 ,,subsoil ,,water ,,in ,,lower ,,egypt--,,preliminary ,,note ,,on ,,the1 by ,h4 ,t4 ,,ferrar1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,g4,s4 #aiaj4 #af pp41 #c illustrations4 ,price1 #ej milliemes4 ,,the ,,movements ,,of ,,the ,,subsoil ,,water ,,in ,,upper ,,egypt1 by ,h4 ,t4 ,,ferrar1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,g4,s4 ,survey ,department ,paper1 ,no4 #ai4 ,english4 #gd pp41 #cb illustrations1 and #af maps4 ,price1 #aej milliemes4 ,,tertiary ,,vertebrata ,,of ,,the ,,fay,m1 ,,egypt--,,descriptive ,,catalogue ,,of1 by ,c4 ,w4 ,,andrews4 #aijf4 #cai pp41 #abd illustrations4 ,,tortoise-,,land--,,from ,,the ,,upper ,,eocene ,,of ,,the ,,fay,m1 ,,egypt--,,preliminary ,,notice ,,of1 by ,c4 ,w4 ,,andrews and ,h4 ,j4 ,l4 ,,beadnell4 #aijc4 #aa pp41 #c illustrations4 ,price1 #ej milliemes4 ,meteorology4 ,,daily ,,weather ,,report4--,issued daily by the ,survey ,department4 ,contains the readings taken at #bi stations in ,egypt and the ,sudan1 and five stations in ,southern ,europe1 with a map showing the distribution of pressure4 ,post free1 #bjj milliemes quarterly1 including short monthly summary4 ,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,weather ,,in ,,egypt1 ,,the ,,sudan1 ,,and ,,the ,,surrounding ,,region4 ,monthly4--,contains a brief report on the weather for the month1 with maps showing the pressure-distribution for each day4 ,price1 post free1 #cjj milliemes per annum4 ,,annual ,,meteorological ,,report4-- ,contains all the meteorological readings made during the year in ,egypt and the ,sudan4 ,also the readings of the various ,nile gauges4 ,years #ahih-ahii1 #aijj1 #aija1 #aijb1 #aijc ,price1 #bej mill4 each4 ,years #aijd1 #aije 7in two parts3 ,part ,i1 containing the readings taken at ,helwn ,observatory2 ,part ,,ii1 containing the readings for the rest of ,egypt and the ,sudan7 ,price1 #ajj mill4 each part4 ,year #aijf 7,part ,i1 ,helwn7 ,price1 #ajj mill4 ,year #aijf 7,part ,,ii1 ,rest of ,egypt and the ,sudan7 ,price1 #aej mill4 ,year #aijg 7,parts ,i and ,,ii7 ,price1 #aej mill4 each part4 ,year #aijh 7,parts ,i and ,,ii7 ,price1 #aej mill4 each part4 ,year #aiji 7,parts ,i and ,,ii7 ,price1 #aej mill4 each part4 ,nile ,flood4 ,,measurement ,,of ,,the ,,volumes ,,discharged ,,by ,,the ,,nile ,,during #aije ,,and #aijf1 by ,e4 ,m4 ,,dowson2 ,,with ,a ,,note ,,on ,,rating ,,formul ,,for ,,current-,,meters1 by ,j4 ,i4 ,,craig4 ,survey ,department ,paper1 ,no4 #aa4 #hb pp41 #f illustrations4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes4 ,,rains ,,of ,,the ,,nile ,,basin3-- ,in #aijd1 by ,,capt4 ,h4 ,g4 ,,lyons4 #be pp41 #a map1 #e illustrations4 ,price1 #ej milliemes4 ,in #aije1 by ,,capt4 ,h4 ,g4 ,,lyons4 #dj pp41 #d maps1 #e illustrations4 ,price1 #ej milliemes4 ,,rains ,,of ,,the ,,nile ,,basin ,,and ,,the ,,nile ,,flood3-- ,in #aijf1 by ,,capt4 ,h4 ,g4 ,,lyons4 7,survey ,department ,paper1 ,no4 #b74 #gj pp41 #e maps1 #aa illustrations4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes4 ,in #aijg1 by ,,capt4 ,h4 ,g4 ,,lyons4 7,survey ,department ,paper1 ,no4 #i74 #ej pp41 #a map1 #aa illustrations4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes4 ,in #aijh1 by ,,capt4 ,h4 ,g4 ,,lyons4 7,survey ,department ,paper1 ,no4 #ad74 #fi pp41 #a map1 #h illustrations4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes4 ,in #aiji1 by ,j4 ,i4 ,,craig4 7,survey ,department ,paper1 ,no4 #ag74 #ee pp41 #a map1 #h illustrations4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes4 ,in #aiaj1 by ,j4 ,i4 ,,craig4 7,survey ,department ,paper1 ,no1 #bf74 #aji pp41 #ab illustrations4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes4 ,special ,papers on ,meteorology and ,astronomy4 ,,atmospheric ,,electricity-,,discussion ,,of ,,the ,,observations ,,on--,,at ,,helw,n ,,observatory1 ,,from ,,march #aijf ,,to ,,february #aijh1 by ,h4 ,e4 ,,hurst4 7,survey ,department ,paper1 ,no4 #aj74 #fe pp41 #b maps1 #h illustrations4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes4 ,,climate ,,of ,,abbassia1 ,,near ,,cairo1 by ,b4 ,f4 ,e4 ,,keeling4 7,survey ,department ,paper1 ,no4 #c74 #aijg4 #fa pp41 #a map1 #g illustrations4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes4 ,,evaporation ,,in ,,egypt ,,and ,,the ,,sudan1 by ,b4 ,f4 ,e4 ,,keeling4 7,survey ,department ,paper1 ,no4 #ae74 #aiji4 #bi pp41 #a illustration4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes4 ,,meteorite ,,of ,,nakhla ,,el ,,baharia1 by ,,john ,,ball4 7,survey ,department ,paper1 ,no4 #be74 #bb pp41 #c illustrations4 ,price1 #ej milliemes4 ,,observations ,,of ,,halley',s ,,comet ,,made ,,at ,,the ,,khedivial ,,observatory1 ,,helw,n1 by ,h4 ,,knox ,,shaw4 7,survey ,department ,paper1 ,no4 #bc74 #ah pp41 #ef illustrations4 ,price1 #ej milliemes4 ,,platinum-,,resistance ,,thermometers--,,report ,,on ,,the ,,use ,,of--,,in ,,determining ,,the ,,temperature ,,of ,,the ,,air ,,at ,,the ,,helw,n ,,observatory1 by ,e4 ,b4 ,h4 ,,wade4 #aije4 #bj pp41 #e illustrations4 ,price1 #ej milliemes4 ,surveying4 ,,altitudes--,,the ,,determination ,,of--,,by ,,levelling1 by ,e4 ,m4 ,,dowson4 7,technical ,lecture74 #aijh4 #bc pp41 #f illustrations4 ,price1 #ej milliemes4 ,,cadastral ,,survey ,,of ,,egypt1 #ahib-aijg1 by ,,capt4 ,h4 ,g4 ,,lyons4 #aijh4 #dba pp41 #cj maps1 #af illustrations4 ,price1 #djj milliemes4 ,,cadastral ,,survey ,,of ,,egypt--,,comparison ,,of--,,with ,,those ,,of ,,some ,,european ,,countries1 by ,,capt4 ,h4 ,g4 ,,lyons4 7,technical ,lecture74 #aiji4 #bd pp41 #h maps4 ,price1 #ej milliemes4 ,,errors ,,of ,,observation1 by ,t4 ,l4 ,,bennett4 7,technical ,lecture74 #aijh4 #bg pp41 #c illustrations4 ,price1 #ej milliemes4 ,,longitude--,,determination ,,of1 by ,e4 ,b4 ,h4 ,,wade4 7,technical ,lecture74 #aijh4 #ci pp41 #b maps1 #a illustration4 ,price1 #ej milliemes4 ,,longitudes--,a ,,field ,,method ,,of ,,determining--,,by ,,observations ,,of ,,the ,,moon1 by ,e4 ,b4 ,h4 ,,wade4 7,survey ,department ,paper1 ,no4 #e74 #aijg4 #dg pp41 #i illustrations4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes4 ,,map-,,projections1 by ,j4 ,i4 ,,craig4 7,technical ,lecture74 #aiji4 #be pp41 #a map1 #be illustrations4 ,price1 #ej milliemes4 ,,map-,,projections--,,the ,,theory ,,of--,,with ,,special ,,reference ,,to ,,the ,,projections ,,used ,,in ,,the ,,survey ,,department1 by ,j4 ,i4 ,,craig1 ,f4,r4,s4,e4 7,survey ,department ,paper1 ,no4 #ac74 #aiaj4 #gg pp41 illustrated4 ,price1 #bjj milliemes4 ,,new ,,method ,,of ,,coast ,,surveying1 by ,,john ,,ball4 7,survey ,department ,paper1 ,no4 #ba74 #df pp41 #g illustrations4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes4 ,,relief ,,on ,,maps--,,the ,,representation ,,of1 by ,,capt4 ,h4 ,g4 ,,lyons4 7,technical ,lecture74 #aiji4 #ai pp41 #e maps4 ,price1 #ej milliemes4 ,,some ,,general ,,principles ,,of ,,surveying1 by ,j4 ,i4 ,,craig4 7,technical ,lecture74 #aiaj4 #bj pp41 #h illustrations4 ,price1 #ej milliemes4 ,terrestrial ,magnetism4 ,,magnetic ,,observations ,,in ,,egypt1 #ahie-aije1 ,,with ,a ,,summary ,,of ,,previous ,,magnetic ,,work ,,in ,,northern ,,africa1 by ,b4 ,f4 ,e4 ,,keeling4 7,survey ,department ,paper1 ,no4 #f74 #aijg4 #fe pp41 #d maps4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes4 ,,magnetic ,,observations ,,made ,,from ,,april ,,to ,,december1 #aijg1 ,,at ,,helw,n ,,observatory4 #h pp4 ,price1 #be milliemes4 ,,magnetic ,,observations ,,made ,,during #aijh ,,at ,,helw,n ,,observatory4 #aa pp4 ,price1 #be milliemes4 ,the same for #aiji1 #aiaj1 and #aiaa4 ,price1 #ej milliemes each4 ,,magnetic ,,survey ,,of ,,egypt1 ,,values ,,of ,,the ,,magnetic ,,elements ,,at #ha ,,stations4 #f pp4 and #a illustration4 ,price1 #ej milliemes4 ,,standardization ,,of ,,the ,,magnetic ,,instruments ,,at ,,helw,n ,,observatory ,,during #aijg1 by ,h4 ,e4 ,,hurst4 7,survey ,department ,paper1 ,no4 #h74 #aijh4 #de pp41 #d illustrations4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes4 ,miscellaneous4 ,,annual ,,reports ,,on ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,the ,,survey ,,department1 by the ,director-,general1 as follows3 #aije1 #abj milliemes2 #aijf1 #aijg1 #aijh1 #aiji1 and #aiaj1 #ajj milliemes each4 ,,chemistry ,,of ,,the ,,river ,,nile1 by ,a4 ,,lucas4 #aijh4 7,survey ,department ,paper1 ,no4 #g74 #gh pp41 #a map1 #a illustration4 ,price1 #aej milliemes4 ,,collection ,,of ,,statistics ,,of ,,the ,,areas ,,planted ,,in ,,cotton in #aiji1 by ,e4 ,m4 ,,dowson and ,j4 ,i4 ,,craig4 #aiji4 ,english or ,arabic4 #gg pp41 #h illustrations4 ,price1 #aej milliemes each4 ,,collection ,,of ,,statistics ,,of ,,the ,,areas ,,planted ,,in ,,cotton ,,in #aiaj4 #aiaj4 ,english or ,arabic4 ,price1 #ej milliemes each4 ,,khedivial ,,observatory1 ,,helw,n1 ,,bulletins4 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 and #e4 ,price1 #bj milliemes each4 ,,preservative ,,materials ,,used ,,by ,,the ,,ancient ,,egyptians ,,in ,,embalming1 by ,a4 ,,lucas1 ,f4,i4,c4 7,survey ,department ,paper1 ,no4 #ab74 #aiaa4 #ei pp4 ,price1 #ajj milliemes4 ,,work ,,of ,,the ,,laboraries4--,a ,,report ,,on ,,the1 by ,a4 ,,lucas1 ,f4,i4,c41 for #aiaj and #aiaa4 ,price1 #ej milliemes each4 99 99 99 99 99 ,footnote3 #a #ige milliemes2 #a #bjj milliemes2 ,mk4 #a #dh milliemes2 ,fr4 #a #ch milliemes4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i4 ,n4 #fdg-aiab-djj ex4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's note3 ,changes in the ,corrigenda have been made4 ,the ,corrigenda has been moved from3 before the frontispiece to3 after the ,index4 pg xi ,changed3 ,hadal ,aweih ,meisah to3 ,aweib pg #cj ,changed3 very greath depth to3 great pg #cc 7,footnote #eh7 ,changed3 ,upsala1 #aahh-ahhe to3 #ahha-ahhe pg #di 7,footnote #gb7 ,changed3 the altitude of the ines to3 lines pg #fj in the row of ,field point #dgb ,changed3 ,wdi ,abu ,hireiq to3 ,wadi pg #fg second table1 first row1 second column ,changed3 #cf #ch #ef to3 #cf #ch #ef pg #ia ,changed3 the ruins of ,darabib to3 ,darahib pg #ajg ,changed3 about latitude #bd #ae to3 #bd #ae pg #aba ,changed3 ,gebel ,balamhandeit to3 ,belamhandeit pg #adb ,changed3 to joins ,wadi ,hasium to3 join pg #aid ,changed3 longitude #cd #dj #cd to3 #cd #dj #cd pg #bjd ,changed3 latitude #bc #be #ai to3 #bc #be #ai pg #bje ,changed3 longitude #cd #ei #ai to3 #cd #ei #ai pg #bjf ,changed3 object in the lanscape to3 landscape pg #bbh ,changed3 foot of the mountian to3 mountain pg #bed ,changed3 formed of while granitic sand to3 white pg #bib 7caption of ,fig4 #bc7 ,added3 g1 before3 ground mass pg #cjj 7caption of ,fig4 #cj7 ,changed3 nb1 hornblende to3 hb pg #cjj 7caption of ,,plate ,,xxiv47 ,changed3 ,,fine-,,qrained ,,gabbro to3 ,,fine-,,grained pg #caa 7caption of ,fig4 #da7 ,changed3 #dj to3 #dj pg #cab 7caption of ,fig4 #db7 ,changed3 #dj to3 #dj pg #cbf ,changed3 are belived to represent to3 believed pg #cbg 7caption of ,fig4 #di7 ,changed3 #ab1abc to3 #ab1abh pg #cec 7,footnote #acg7 ,changed3 sometimes missspelt to3 misspelt pg #chj ,changed3 ,bir ,qababit to3 ,qabatit pg #cia removed a duplicate entry of3 ,wadi ,kreiga diabase dykes of1 #cji4 pg ,,iv ,changed3 to the ,pacific por-s to3 ports ,minor changes in punctuation have been done silently4 ,other spelling inconsistencies have been left unchanged4 ,periods at the end of words have been removed in the table ,,classification ,,of ,,igneous ,,rocks for the sake of table width4