,every ,boy's ,mechanical ,library ,illustration ,,automobiles ,,every ,,boy',s ,,mechanical ,,library ,by ,j4 ,s4 ,,zerbe1 ,m4,e4 ,price1 per volume1 #fj cents1 ,net4 ,postage extra4 ,,automobiles ,this is a subject in which every boy is interested4 ,while few mechanics have the opportunity to actually build an automobile1 it is the knowledge1 which he must acquire about every particular device used1 that enables him to repair and put such machines in order4 ,the aim of this book is to make the boy acquainted with each element1 so that he may understand why it is made in that special way1 and what the advantages and disadvantages are of the different types4 ,to that end each structure is shown in detail as much as possible1 and the parts separated so as to give a clear insight of the different functions1 all of which are explained by original drawings specially prepared to aid the reader4 ,,motors ,to the boy who wants to know the theory and the practical working of the different kinds of motors1 told in language which he can understand1 and illustrated with clear and explicit drawings1 this volume will be appreciated4 ,it sets forth the groundwork on which power is based1 and includes steam generators1 and engines1 as well as wind and water motors1 and thoroughly describes the ,internal ,combustion ,engine4 ,it has special chapters on ,carbureters1 ,ignition1 and ,electrical systems used1 and particularly points out the parts and fittings required with all devices needed in enginry4 ,it explains the value of compounding1 condensing1 pre-heating and expansion1 together with the methods used to calculate and transmit power4 ,numerous original illustrations4 ,,aeroplanes ,this work is not intended to set forth the exploits of aviators nor to give a history of the ,art4 ,it is a book of instructions intended to point out the theories of flying1 as given by the pioneers1 the practical application of power to the various flying structures2 how they are built2 the different methods of controlling them2 the advantages and disadvantages of the types now in use2 and suggestions as to the directions in which improvements are required4 ,it distinctly points out wherein mechanical flight differs from bird flight1 and what are the relations of shape1 form1 size and weight4 ,it treats of kites1 gliders and model aeroplanes1 and has an interesting chapter on the aeroplane and its uses in the great war4 ,all the illustrations have been specially prepared for the work4 ,,cupples ,,leon ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,,new ,,york ,illustration3 ,overview of car parts ,every ,boy's ,mechanical ,library ,,automobiles ,,by ,j4 ,s4 ,,zerbe1 ,m4,e4 ,author of ,motors--,aeroplanes ,,illustrated ,,new ,,york ,,cupples ,,leon ,,company ,,copyright1 #aiae1 ,,by ,,cupples ,,leon ,,company ,,contents ,,page ,,introductory #a ,,chapter ,i4 ,,automobile ,,history ,,and ,,development #e-ab ,development of the ,industry4 ,the ,first ,patent4 ,newton's car4 ,watt's ,invention4 ,traction4 ,push legs4 ,power4 ,springs4 ,water ,tube ,boiler4 ,the ,first ,differential4 ,the ,first ,gas ,motor ,car4 ,gasoline ,car4 ,flash ,boiler ,system4 ,the ,carbureter4 ,improved ,structures4 ,the ,order of ,development4 ,speed vs4 ,power4 ,lighter ,vehicles4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,frame ,,and ,,its ,,accessories #ac-bc ,the ,frame4 ,channel-bar ,frames4 ,how the ,frame is suspended4 ,fore and aft ,motion4 ,lateral ,motion4 ,cantilever ,spring4 ,shock ,absorbers4 ,the ,axle4 ,live ,axles4 ,dead ,axles4 ,semi-,floating ,axle4 ,full ,floating ,axle4 ,wheels4 ,flexibility4 ,large vs4 ,small ,wheels4 ,minimizing ,shocks4 ,resiliency4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,tires1 ,,tubes ,,and ,,rims #bd-cf ,tires4 ,solid ,tires4 ,cushion ,tires4 ,pneumatic ,tires4 ,single ,tubes4 ,double ,tubes4 ,the ,outer ,tube4 ,the ,inner ,tube4 ,advantage of ,double ,tube4 ,putting on and ,taking off ,double ,tubes4 ,damage to ,tires4 ,repair to ,tires4 ,vulcanizing4 ,oil as an enemy of ,tires4 ,non-skidding ,tires4 ,tires for ,city ,use4 ,side slipping4 ,faulty ,alinement4 ,broken ,fabric4 ,bruises4 ,under ,inflation4 ,stretched ,tires4 ,blistered ,tires4 ,rim ,cutting4 ,inflation ,pressures4 ,expansion of ,heated ,air4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,steering ,,gear ,,and ,,brakes #cg-de ,the ,steering ,column4 ,motor ,control4 ,throttle ,movement4 ,steering ,wheel ,type4 ,steering ,gear4 ,front ,axle4 ,running ,brake4 ,double-acting ,contracting ,brake4 ,contracting ,brake4 ,equalizers4 ,the ,emergency ,brake4 ,combined ,service and ,emergency ,brake4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,differential #df-ed ,the ,meaning of ,differential4 ,equalizing ,bar4 ,unequal ,resistance4 ,balanced ,equalizer ,bar4 ,transmission ,wheel4 ,action of ,transmission ,gearing4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,drive #ee-fa ,power ,transmitted to ,wheels through ,springs4 ,illustrating power transmission4 ,torsion ,rod4 ,the ,torque ,tube4 ,radius ,rod4 ,chain ,drive4 ,jack ,shaft4 ,objections to ,chains4 ,shaft ,drive4 ,train of ,shafting4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,clutches #fb-fh ,clutch ,requirements1 ,frictional ,contact4 ,cone ,clutch4 ,compression ,spring in ,clutches4 ,the ,multiple ,disk ,clutch4 ,its ,construction4 ,disadvantages of ,multiple-,disk ,clutches4 ,care of ,multiple ,disk ,clutch4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,transmission1 ,,or ,,change ,,speed ,,gears #fi-hi ,transmission ,leverage4 ,economy of ,transmission ,gearing4 ,types of ,transmission4 ,the ,progressive4 ,low ,gear4 ,intermediate ,gear4 ,high ,gear4 ,reverse4 ,selective ,type4 ,low ,gear4 ,intermediate ,gear4 ,high ,gear4 ,reverse ,gear4 ,control ,lever for ,progressive ,transmission4 ,operation of the ,selective ,gear4 ,selector ,bars4 ,shifting ,lever4 ,speed ,selectors4 #c-speed ,selectors4 #d-,speed ,selectors4 ,an approved ,type of ,selector4 ,controlling the ,selector4 ,using the ,clutch and ,selector4 ,planetary ,transmission4 ,frictional ,transmission4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,motor #ij-ajh ,value of ,fuel ,utilized4 ,the ,waste4 ,water ,absorption4 ,engine ,types4 ,the ,four-,cycle ,engine4 ,the ,two-,cycle4 ,compression4 ,economy of ,four-,cycle ,engine4 ,valve ,movements4 ,the ,ignition point in the ,cycle4 ,the ,fly-wheel4 ,impulses in ,four-,cycle ,engine4 ,the ,cylinder ,case1 and ,connections4 ,piston and ,crank ,construction4 ,calculating the ,efficiency4 ,pressures in ,explosions4 ,expansion ,line4 ,mean ,effective ,pressure4 ,the ,two-cycle ,engine4 ,foot ,pounds4 ,work or ,energy4 ,cycle of ,operation4 ,the ,crank ,shaft4 ,special ,metal4 ,engine ,troubles4 ,difficulties pointed out4 ,starting the ,engine4 ,carbureter4 ,low ,compression4 ,mixtures4 ,spark ,plugs4 ,the ,weather4 ,drainage4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,cooling ,,systems #aji-aag ,air ,cooling4 ,air-,cooling ,devices4 ,water ,cooling4 ,gravity ,system4 ,locating the ,reservoir4 ,force ,system of ,cooling4 ,the ,radiator ,connections4 ,radiators4 ,construction of ,radiator4 ,operation of ,radiator4 ,the ,pump4 ,pump ,construction4 ,action of ,pump4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,carbureters #aah-acb ,carbureted ,air4 ,composition of ,gasoline4 ,gasoline ,expansion4 ,requirements of a ,carbureter4 ,evaporation4 ,air ,saturation4 ,air ,contact with ,gasoline4 ,instantaneous ,combustion4 ,compression4 ,compression as a ,mixing ,means4 ,carbureter ,types4 ,the ,spraying ,carbureter4 ,dissecting the ,carbureter4 ,the ,mixing ,chamber4 ,the ,float ,chamber4 ,the ,venturi ,tube4 ,the ,inlet ,valve4 ,the ,throttle ,valve4 ,the ,secondary ,air ,supply4 ,automatic ,admission of ,secondary ,air4 ,carbureter ,adjustments4 ,special ,points ,concerning ,carbureters4 ,thin ,mixtures4 ,speeds and ,mixtures4 ,surface ,carbureter4 ,the ,float4 ,the ,oil ,inlet4 ,securing ,surface for air ,contact4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,ignition ,,systems #acc-aeh ,seeing the ,effect of ,electricity4 ,action of a current4 ,amperes and ,volts4 ,conductivity4 ,resistance4 ,generating ,electricity4 ,magnetic ,field4 ,armature4 ,batteries4 ,metallic ,couples4 ,what ,determines ,voltage4 ,controlling ,amperage4 ,dry ,batteries4 ,cell ,construction4 ,connecting up ,cells4 ,the ,series ,connection4 ,the ,parallel ,connection4 ,series-,multiple ,connection4 ,storage ,batteries4 ,the ,sparking ,methods4 ,air ,resistance4 ,make and ,break ,spark4 ,the ,high ,tension ,system4 ,the ,spark ,plug4 ,how ,produced4 ,the ,magneto4 ,difference ,between ,dynamo and ,magneto4 ,advantages of ,magneto4 ,different ,kinds of ,magnetos4 ,primary and ,secondary4 ,igniters4 ,high ,tension ,coils1 ,inductance4 ,constructing a coil4 ,a ,simple ,high ,tension ,sparking ,system4 ,condenser4 ,interrupter4 ,arrangement of a high ,tension ,system4 ,the ,high ,tension ,connections4 ,the ,secondary ,coil4 ,operation of ,system4 ,the ,spark ,gap4 ,function of the ,interrupter4 ,vibratory ,coils4 ,operation of ,vibratory ,coil4 ,surging ,movement of ,current4 ,timing ,device4 ,contact ,makers4 ,the ,contact ,breaker4 ,sparking ,plugs4 ,testing ,plugs4 ,short ,circuiting ,faults4 ,short ,circuiting of ,secondary ,wires4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,automobile ,,accessories #aei-afh ,self ,starting4 ,simple ,type of ,starter4 ,the ,distributer4 ,lighting4 ,car ,signals4 ,speed ,signals4 ,mufflers4 ,exhaust4 ,construction of ,muffler4 ,ball and ,roller ,bearing4 ,race ways4 ,the ,three-point ,contact4 ,wrong ,constructions4 ,roller ,bearings4 ,form of ,roller ,bearings4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,running ,,an ,,automobile #afi-agi ,running ,close to the ,curb4 ,the ,middle of the ,road4 ,community ,regulations4 ,approaching ,car ,track4 ,coasting4 ,signs of the ,road4 ,operating the ,control4 ,the ,crucial ,point4 ,clutch ,pedal and ,spark control4 ,neutral ,position of ,transmission ,lever4 ,throwing in ,gear4 ,in ,reversing4 ,quick ,stops4 ,ease in ,manipulating ,progressive ,system4 ,wiring for ,lighting ,system4 ,wiring up for ,ignition4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,fuel ,,and ,,lubricants #ahj-aij ,an ,experiment with ,gasoline4 ,air ,necessary for ,explosion4 ,making an ,explosive ,mixture4 ,gunpowder4 ,filled ,tank not ,explosive4 ,why ,gasoline will not ,burn ,within a closed ,tank4 ,filling ,tanks having ,dried out ,gasoline4 ,to ,extinguish ,gasoline ,fires4 ,ammonia as an ,extinguisher4 ,leaks4 ,lubricants4 ,viscosity4 ,carbonization4 ,acid in ,lubricants4 ,composition of ,lubricants4 ,grease4 ,graphite4 ,the ,test for ,cylinder ,lubricants4 ,fire ,test4 ,lubricating ,systems4 ,pressure ,method4 ,the ,precision ,system4 ,combined ,force1 ,feed1 and ,splash ,system4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,car #aia-bjj ,regular ,inspection a good ,habit4 ,the ,brake ,shoe4 ,familiarity with ,working ,parts4 ,the ,engine4 ,connecting ,rods4 ,valves4 ,cam ,shaft4 ,the ,clearance4 ,clutches4 ,the ,clutch ,leather4 ,rivets in the ,leather4 ,transmission ,system4 ,the ,differential4 ,universal ,joints4 ,steering ,gear4 ,worm and ,worm ,wheel4 ,batteries4 ,the ,vibrator4 ,the ,electrolyte4 ,contact ,points4 ,the ,magneto4 ,magneto ,impulses4 ,timing the ,magneto4 ,the ,carbureter4 ,wrong ,adjustment4 ,weather4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,electric ,,vehicles #bja-bad ,requirements4 ,gasoline-electric ,trucks4 ,the ,current ,used4 ,mechanically-produced ,electricity4 ,current from ,batteries4 ,primary ,battery4 ,secondary or ,storage ,battery4 ,reversal of ,current4 ,charging4 ,time required1 and ,current4 ,troubles in ,use4 ,overcharging4 ,the ,circuiting4 ,economy in ,use of ,current4 ,series and ,parallel4 ,the ,connections4 ,the ,controller4 ,the ,general ,equipment4 ,accessories4 ,seating ,arrangement4 ,the ,transmission4 ,brakes4 ,,glossary #bae ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,fig4 ,,page #a4 ,views of ,plain ,frame #ac #b4 ,quarter ,elliptic #ad #b;a4 ,half ,elliptic #ae #c4 ,three-quarter ,elliptic #ae #d4 ,full ,elliptic #af #d;a4 ,cantilever ,spring #ag #e4 ,fore and ,aft ,motion #ag #f4 ,lateral ,motion #ah #g4 ,floating ,axle #bj #h4 ,semi-floating ,axle #bj #i4 ,crossing ,depression #bb #aj4 ,striking ,obstruction #bb #aa4 ,solid ,tire #bd #ab4 ,single ,tube #be #ac4 ,double ,tube #bf #ad4 ,illustrating ,tire-removing ,tool #bg #ae4 ,vulcanizer #bi #af4 ,turning ,action on ,front ,wheel #ca #ag4 ,illustrating the ,strain on ,fabric #cc #ah4 ,illustrating the ,strain on ,fabric #cc #ai4 ,effect of ,flat ,tire #cd #bj4 ,steering ,wheel #ch #ba4 ,steering ,gear #ci #bb4 ,type of ,front ,axle #dj #bc4 ,contracting ,brake #da #bd4 ,expanding ,brake #da #be4 ,contract ,mechanism #dc #bf4 ,equalizer ,bar #dd #bg4 ,rear ,axle4 ,service and ,emergency ,brake #de #bh4 ,equalizing ,mechanism #dg #bi4 ,resistance in ,equalization #dg #cj4 ,equalizer and ,differential ,movements #dh #ca4 ,differential in ,housing #ej #cb4 ,section of ,differential #ea #cc4 ,side ,view of ,differential ,wheel #ea #cd4 ,top ,view of ,differential ,wheel #eb #cd;a4 ,differential ,gears #ec #ce4 ,radius ,rods #ef #cf4 ,torque ,tube #eg #cg4 ,chain ,drive #eh #ch4 ,shaft ,drive #fj #ci4 ,straight ,line ,drive #fj #dj4 ,cone ,clutch #fc #da4 ,multiple ,disk ,clutch #fe #db4 ,progressive ,transmission4 ,low #gj #dc4 ,neutral ,position #ga #dd4 ,intermediate #gb #de4 ,high #gc #df4 ,reverse #ge #dg4 ,selective ,transmission4 ,low ,gear #gg #dh4 ,intermediate #gh #di4 ,high #gi #ej4 ,reverse #hj #ea4 ,progressive ,control ,mechanism #ha #eb4 ,selective ,control ,mechanism #hc #ec4 #c-,speed #he #ed4 #c-,speed #he #ee4 #c-,speed #he #ef4 #d-,speed #he #eg4 #d-,speed #he #eh4 #d-,speed #he #ei4 #d-,speed #he #fj4 ,control-,lever ,bracket #hf #fa4 ,planetary ,transmission #hh #fb4 ,frictional ,transmission #hi #fc4 ,firing ,position #id #fd4 ,return ,first ,cycle #id #fe4 ,drawing in ,charge #if #ff4 ,compression #if #fg4 ,automatic ,inlet ,valve #ih #fh4 ,calculating ,efficiency #ajj #fi4 ,two-,cycle ,expansion ,position #ajb #gj4 ,exhausting #ajc #ga4 ,compression #ajc #gb4 ,crank ,shaft #ajd #gb;a4 ,increasing ,cooling ,area #aaj #gc4 ,movement of ,heated ,water #aaa #gd4 ,cooling ,system #aab #ge4 ,radiator ,type #aad #gf4 ,side ,view of ,pump #aaf #gg4 ,section #aaf #gh4 ,carbureter ,float and ,needle #abc #gi4 ,carbureter ,inlet ,valve #abd #hj4 ,carbureter ,discharge ,port #abe #ha4 ,carbureter ,secondary ,air ,inlet #abg #hb4 ,complete ,carbureter #abh #hc4 ,surface ,carbureter #aca #hd4 ,series ,wiring #acg #he4 ,parallel ,wiring #ach #hf4 ,multiple ,wiring #aci #hg4 ,dynamo ,connection #adb #hh4 ,magneto #adb #hi4 ,induction ,coil #adf #ij4 ,high ,tension ,circuit #adg #ia4 ,high ,tension ,connections #adi #ib4 ,vibratory ,coil #aeb #ic4 ,contact ,maker #aed #id4 ,contact ,breaker #aee #ie4 ,starting ,mechanism #afj #if4 ,muffler #afd #ig4 #c-,point ,roller-,bearing #afe #ih4 ,wrong ,bearing #afe #ii4 ,improper ,alinement #aff #ajj4 ,correct ,raceways #aff #aja4 ,cage for ,roller ,bearing #afg #ajb4 ,roller ,bearing #afh #ajc4 ,caution ,signs #aga #ajd4 ,wiring for ,lighting ,circuit #age #aje4 ,ignition ,wiring #agg #ajf4 ,lubricating ,system #ahi ,,introductory ,the building and development of auto vehicles form one of the most remarkable pages in the history of manufactures4 ,the subject nearest the boy is the motorcycle1 which is a direct development of the bicycle4 ,from this to the larger power vehicles is but another step1 so that in setting forth the structures involved the aim should be to show how one form of device grew out of the preceding one1 and how each structure following in the train1 became desirable and necessary4 ,it would be impossible in a limited work of this kind to show the various modifications of all the elements which make up a complete structure4 ,when these vehicles were first brought out1 the mechanism was exceedingly simple1 being1 in reality1 nothing more than the hitching up of some form of motive power with running gears4 ,but now all that is changed4 ,the old type steering mechanism was imperfect2 the attachment of the wheels to the axles had to be modified2 the wheels themselves entirely revolutionized2 speed changing and reversing especially adapted for quick and positive work2 and even the easy starting of the motor had to be provided for4 ,the entire equipment required a multiplicity of new devices1 such as signaling apparatus1 lighting systems1 safety appliances1 means to prevent skidding1 wind shields1 a reorganization of body and seating arrangement1 and a reconstruction of the springs and their attachment to the chassis4 ,the electrical part has made as rapid strides1 and in the development the sparking mechanism has approached perfection1 and brought into existence a wonderful variety of systems1 so that each cycle of improvements has made them more efficient1 but simpler to construct1 understand and use4 ,it is a rare thing to-day to see any of the power machines dragged home by horse power4 ,not many years ago this was a common sight4 ,the size1 shape1 and materials used1 have been understood by scientific analysis and study1 so that breakage1 under ordinary uses1 is not at all a common thing4 ,it is the aim of this book to show in as simple a manner as possible how this wonderful transformation has been brought about1 and to furnish one or more types of each element1 properly constructed and arranged1 so that the boy may understand how each part is built1 and the particular reasons for the structures4 ,in no branch of manufactures can be found such a variety of technical designations as have grown out of this industry4 ,by virtue of necessity1 many of these names have been coined to suit the conditions4 ,this knowledge is imparted in these pages1 which contains a complete glossary of every term used in the art4 ,,the ,,author4 ,,automobiles ,,chapter ,i ,,automobile ,,history ,,and ,,development ,it is generally believed that automobiles originated within the present century1 this idea having gained currency because1 until within the past twenty years1 no practical machines were put on the market4 ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,industry4--,the development of the industry has been a peculiar one1 in some respects4 ,as early as the year #abge1 ,roger ,bacon speculated on the possibilities of using steam1 or some other form of motive power on wagons1 for propelling them4 ,this is remarkable1 when it is understood that the steam engine1 as constructed by ,watt1 was not invented until about #aghj4 ,prior to ,watt1 steam engines were in operation1 the valves of which were manually operated4 ,watt's energies were directed to making the valves work automatically1 and in economizing the use of steam4 ,,the ,,first ,,patent4--,in #afai1 two ,englishmen1 ,ramsey and ,wildgoose1 secured a patent for 8drawing carts without horses10 and even before that time inventors in ,germany had made vehicles which were propelled by powerful springs4 ,in the ,netherlands devices were constructed to move wagons by means of the wind4 ,,newton',s ,,car4--,in #agjj ,sir ,isaac ,newton invented a steam car1 in which he used ,hero's steam engine1 and ,n4 ,j4 ,cuguet1 a ,frenchman1 invented a steam car which had some remarkable properties4 ,,watt',s ,,invention4--,later ,watt invented1 and was granted a patent1 in #aghd1 for a steam vehicle1 and twelve years thereafter1 the first ,american patent was issued to ,w4 ,read1 of ,massachusetts1 for a steam-driven automobile4 ,these were followed by ,symington1 about the same time1 together with ,trevithick1 in #ahjb1 ,evans in #ahje1 and ,griffith in #ahba4 ,while numerous others contributed to the art1 the foregoing were the pioneers4 ,evans has the distinction of being the first to build a combined boat and wagon2 and ,griffith was the originator of the body type which had cabins or apartments for the use of travelers4 ,,traction4--,steam engines were in a fairly perfected condition two hundred years ago1 and it has been considered remarkable that for over one hundred and fifty years no practical road device was brought out4 ,the reason for this was not due to engine faults1 but attributable to other things which were not understood at the time4 ,one of these was the question of traction4 ,,push ,,legs4--,it was believed in the early history of the art1 that some other means should be adopted for applying the power1 rather than to exert it on the wheels2 but as late as #ahbd ,gordon secured a patent for an improved form of 8push legs10 which stepped along and thus propelled the vehicle4 ,this form of propulsion has been revived1 in a measure1 by the so-called 8caterpillar tractors10 in which the wheels are provided with feet1 which step along1 and are thus specially adapted for heavy trucks on soft roads or on cross country travel4 ,,power4--,one other difficulty was in the construction of the boiler4 ,what is now understood as the water tube boiler was then unknown1 hence they were made in such a manner that a large body of water had to be carried in the boiler1 and this meant great weight to be transported4 ,,springs4--,prior to the attempted introduction of steam1 vehicles had springs1 and the great problem then appeared to find a type of vehicle which would permit the transfer of the power from the engine to the wheels1 since the springs change the relative positions of the engine and axle4 ,,water ,,tube ,,boiler4--,from #ahbj to #ahdj was the great period of boiler development4 ,the water tube type provided a means whereby considerably less than one-half of the water was required in the boiler itself2 and in #ahcb a motor drawn vehicle1 having springs arranged for carrying the entire load1 was devised by ,dr4 ,church1 of ,birmingham1 ,england4 ,,the ,,first ,,differential4--,hills1 in #ahdj1 made the first differential4 ,before that time the power was applied to a single wheel1 but in that year ,dietz invented a form of rubber tire4 ,this1 and the differential1 made wheels the tractors for all time4 ,but now a new era was ushered in4 ,it was not a period of active work in the development of motor-driven wagons1 but the possibilities of using other than steam-driven vehicles was felt4 ,,the ,,first ,,gas ,,motor ,,car4--,in ,france1 ,lenoir was the first to devise a gas motor car4 ,compressed gas was used2 and ,ravel1 in #ahgj1 also produced a gas-driven machine4 ,as early as #ahfb ,gardner used a gas motor fed with carbureted air instead of gas1 but the weight of the engine was against all attempts in that direction4 ,,gasoline ,,car4--,markus1 of ,vienna1 built a gasoline car in #ahgg1 and this was followed by ,levassor1 the engineer of ,panhard and ,levassor1 in ,france1 who used ,daimler's invention in the development of their car4 ,gottlieb ,daimler1 the father of the automobile industry1 produced the first practical gasoline motor1 his invention being based on the four-cycle type of engine4 ,the invention of the gasoline1 or the ,internal ,combustion ,engine as it is called1 was the first great advance4 ,the weight of the fuel was so small1 compared with the power produced1 that it revolutionized the art4 ,and now began that series of developments which embraced every part of the vehicle from the wheels to the top4 ,at first the improvements were slowly effected1 and many of them were most unsatisfactory4 ,,flash ,,boiler ,,system4--,the flash system of using water in boilers1 invented by ,serpollet in ,france1 for a long time kept even pace with gasoline cars1 in economy1 and in ease of management2 but now that system has been entirely driven out1 and gasoline taken its place4 ,this1 in time1 must make way for a still cheaper fuel1 and one more easily handled1 either through the crude oil itself1 or from some cheap derivative of it2 or1 possibly1 a spirit distillation1 in the form of alcohol1 which will take the place of the high-priced article now so universally used4 ,the natural consequence of improvements has been to bring forth a multiplicity of devices1 particularly in the direction of more readily assimulating and using the hydro-carbon fuels4 ,the efforts of inventors will now be in the direction of eliminating many of them4 ,,the ,,carbureter4--,heretofore the carbureter has been regarded as an essential element in every system4 ,what a world1 or1 rather1 worlds of troubles1 hung about the carbureter4 ,it was1 and is1 delicate1 susceptible of the most minute adjustment1 and in times past1 before it had reached the present perfected form1 was the bane of every motorist4 ,a fuel1 ignitable at a very low temperature1 or capable of ready volatilization1 has been considered absolutely necessary to successful operation4 ,such is not the case now4 ,,improved ,,structure4--,the delicate parts of the operative mechanism are being replaced by strong1 non-breakable forms1 all of which tend to make a more perfect machine1 and this1 in turn1 insures a greater demand for vehicles4 ,,the ,,order ,,of ,,development4--,in undertaking any work requiring mechanical skill1 and in which the action of coperative elements is necessary1 the uses must be considered4 ,in a vehicle1 the first element is the weight to be carried2 then the strength of the frame and wheels necessary to maintain the load4 ,next should follow1 in order1 the power needed1 and this entails a consideration of the speed element4 ,these features are comparatively simple with a motorcycle2 but they are more complex with the automobile type1 particularly as to the structure of the frame and the gearing and wheels which are to be operated by the motor4 ,,speed ,,vs4 ,,power4--,thus1 a motor exerting twenty horse power may run the vehicle at a maximum of twenty miles an hour1 and carry a load of fifteen hundred pounds2 or it may have a maximum speed of eight miles an hour1 and carry three thousand pounds with equal safety4 ,it will thus be seen that speed is just as important as power1 in considering utility4 ,,lighter ,,vehicles4--,the tendency of the day is toward lighter vehicles1 brought about1 in a large measure1 by improved materials in every direction4 ,it is no longer urged that heavy1 ponderous machines are required to furnish stable and durable vehicles4 ,nothing can stop or retard this great industry4 ,it is attractive to men and fascinating to boys4 ,to acquire a knowledge of its 8mysteries10 should be a part of the education of every young man4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,frame1 ,,and ,,its ,,accessories ,under this title should be included the frame1 axles1 springs1 wheels1 steering gear and brakes4 ,from the beginning it was recognized that the different strains and stresses set up by the passing of the wheels over uneven ground and by the motor and driving mechanism1 must be taken care of before reaching the body of the automobile1 which otherwise would soon go to pieces4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,views of ,plain ,frame4 ,,the ,,frame4--,therefore1 not only springs had to be interposed between the body and the wheel axles1 but also a substructure for the body1 called the frame1 which must be rigid enough to prevent any destructive strains from reaching the body4 ,in ,fig4 #a1 ,a shows a top view of a frame made up of channel bars and ,b shows a side view to illustrate how the torsion or twist takes place4 ,it will be understood that the frame thus made is not designed to lend itself to the entire inequalities of the road1 as the springs are interposed for that purpose4 ,experience in the construction and use of tubular frames1 as first employed in bicycles1 proved too expensive for assembling1 when used in automobiles4 ,the tubular form of construction was very soon displaced by frames consisting of metal parts bolted or riveted together4 ,the main or side members are now usually made of channel steel which gives great rigidity and strength1 compared with its weight4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,quarter ,elliptic4 ,,how ,,the ,,frame ,,is ,,suspended4--,the important feature is to mount this frame on the axle4 ,the frame1 carrying a body and all the load of the vehicle1 has to permit three distinct movements4 ,first4 ,that due to the inequalities of the road1 which produces a torsional twist4 ,second4 ,a lateral swing1 caused by traveling alongside a hill1 or due to centrifugal force when making a turn rapidly4 ,third4 ,a fore and aft movement1 as when traveling over undulating surfaces1 or in suddenly stopping and starting4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b;a4 ,half ,elliptic4 ,for these reasons springs must be made to compensate for such motions1 and to absorb the jar as much as possible4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,three-quarter ,elliptic4 ,,the ,,springs4--,many forms of spring mountings have been devised1 but the following illustrations show the types which set forth the principles involved4 ,outside of coiled springs which are used in some forms of delivery cars1 the standard springs are leaf springs1 built up from a number of steel leaves4 ,there are four distinct forms of springs used1 as follows3 #a4 ,the quarter elliptic1 used on ,ford1 and similar cars1 as illustrated in ,fig4 #b4 #b4 ,the half elliptic1 ,fig4 #b;a1 which is the most widely-used form4 ,these springs are usually attached with their front end directly to the frame1 and with the rear end by means of a shackle2 the center is fastened by spring clips to the axle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,full ,elliptic4 ,where a distance rod is used1 as on the rear axle1 both ends are attached by shackles4 #c4 ,the three quarter elliptic1 ,fig4 #c1 always used as a suspension for the rear axle4 ,this form gives more flexibility than a half elliptic1 and is still stiffer so far as side motion is concerned1 than the following type4 #d4 ,the full elliptic1 ,fig4 #d1 was formerly used much more than at the present time4 ,there are also in use springs comprising a combination of half elliptic1 or three quarter elliptic1 on each axle1 in which the front end is shackled to the frame1 and the rear ends connected by shackles to another half elliptic spring1 the center of which is fastened to the frame4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d;a4 ,cantilever ,spring4 ,fore and ,aft ,motion4 ,provision must be made1 in all cases1 for the fore and aft movement of the car body which takes place in stopping or starting1 and1 particularly when the wheels strike an obstruction4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,fore and ,aft ,motion4 ,flues4 ,fig4 #e shows a side view of a car1 in which the dotted lines indicate the position of the body1 relative to the normal1 when the wheels strike an obstacle4 ,lateral ,motion4 ,in like manner when the car swings around a corner1 or is traveling along a hill-side1 the springs must hold the body from swinging too far4 ,fig4 #f illustrates1 by means of the dotted lines1 the side movement4 ,it is obvious1 therefore1 that the springs have a duty to perform in addition to that of merely giving flexibility to the body4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,lateral ,motion4 ,,cantilever ,,spring4--,a special form of half elliptic springs1 lately developed1 and of increasing use1 is the cantilever spring1 where the axle is attached to one end1 the center of the spring being pivoted to the frame1 and the other end shackled to or sliding in the frame4 ,,shock ,,absorbers4--,shock absorbers are mechanical means placed between the frame and the axles for the purpose of dampening the sudden recoil of the springs after being compressed1 when meeting a road obstacle4 ,in the absence of such a device the recoil is likely to suddenly throw up the frame1 body and passengers1 or produce an unpleasant shock4 ,originally1 simple leather straps were used1 reaching from the body to the axle1 which only limited1 but did not dampen or gradually absorb the shock4 ,now different forms of frictional resisting toggle-levers are used1 which not only absorb the shocks1 but also prevent the bumping of the axle against the frame1 and eliminate breaking of springs4 ,,the ,,axle4--,axles are of two kinds1 generally designated as 8live10 when they turn the wheels2 and 8dead0 when they do not turn the wheels1 but simply support the weight of the frame and of the body4 ,dead axles are used with double chain drive1 as1 in that case1 the sprocket wheels are attached directly to the sides of the wheels and the wheels turn on the studs1 or ends of the dead axle4 ,,live ,,axles4--#a4 ,plain live axles originally consisted of a shaft without differential gearing1 having one wheel fast on it1 the other turning4 ,modern construction shows two axle shafts in a housing1 the weight of the car1 and the tooth pressure of the differential being carried by the axle shafts4 #b4 ,semi-floating axles have the weight of the car carried by the axle shafts1 whereas the tooth pressure of the differential is supported by the housing1 and only the turning effect or torsion is transmitted by the axle shafts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,floating ,axle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,semi-floating ,axle4 #c4 ,full floating axles carry the full weight of the car1 and the differential bevel gear teeth pressure with the housing1 so that the axle shafts carry no load but only the torsional stress4 ,both full and semi-floating constructions are applied to rear axles only4 ,the front wheels are now universally applied to knuckles1 which swing on vertical pivot pins at the ends of the dead axles4 ,,wheels4--,wheels are now in a transition state4 ,the ultimate wheel has not yet appeared2 but whatever its form or construction1 certain things are essential4 ,,flexibility4--,in the ordinary wagon or carriage wheel1 there is but little1 if any1 flexibility2 but in automobiles1 where speed is a consideration1 elasticity1 either in the rim1 or in some other part of the wheel1 is necessary4 ,one of the reasons for this is1 that on account of tire expense1 motor wheels are smaller than carriage wheels4 ,making them smaller1 however1 produces certain disadvantages4 ,one is that in going over the inequalities of the road1 the axle on the small wheel has a greater vertical movement than on a large wheel1 and the jar on striking an obstruction is more pronounced1 also4 ,these disadvantages1 however1 are more than counterbalanced by the elasticity of the invention4 ,,large ,,vs4 ,,small ,,wheels4--,fig4 #i shows a large wheel ,a1 passing over a depression ,b4 ,the large arc of the wheel does not permit the rim to go to the bottom4 ,on the other hand1 the small wheel ,c goes to the bottom of the depression1 and the vertical distance which the axle of this wheel must travel1 is three times as far as in the case of the wheel ,a4 ,in ,fig4 #aj1 where the large wheel strikes an obstruction ,d1 the angle of its upward movement1 as designated by the line ,e1 is much less than the impact force of the small wheel1 as shown by the greater slope or incline of the line ,f4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,crossing ,depression4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,striking ,obstruction4 ,,minimizing ,,shocks4--,it is obvious1 therefore1 that if part of this shock can be taken up by the tire1 the difference due to the smaller diameter of the wheel1 will not be so apparent4 ,the thickness1 or widths of the tires also minimizes the impact and distribute the jars while running1 so that with these advantages a small wheel has been found to be more practical than a large one4 ,,resiliency4--,most wheels are now made with wooden spokes1 secured by means of a pair of metal-flanged hub plates1 bolted together so as to clamp the radiating spokes1 but wire wheels are now coming more into favor1 whereas cast or pressed solid steel wheels are used on some heavy trucks4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,tires1 ,,tubes1 ,,and ,,rims ,,tires4--,three kinds of tires are now used1 namely3 ,solid1 cushion1 and pneumatic4 ,these forms all use rubber1 or some compound with the qualities and characteristics of rubber1 so as to afford a good tractive surface1 as well as resiliency4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,solid ,tire4 ,the solid tires are used on heavy trucks1 where weight and not speed must be provided for4 ,cushion tires are sometimes employed on cars and trucks of medium weight4 ,pneumatic tires1 in which air is used1 are universally used in automobiles for all other purposes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,single ,tube4 ,the air is confined in two ways3 ,first1 by what is known as the 8single tube40 7,fig4 #ab47 ,second1 by the 8double10 or inner tube system4 7,fig4 #ac47 ,the single tube is well adapted for light vehicles1 or where great speed or weight are not considered1 and this type is now confined to bicycles4 ,but it has certain disadvantages1 namely3 ,that of creeping1 due to the impossibility of properly securing it to the rim of the wheel4 ,sand and grit are also liable to creep in between the tire and rim1 and wear the material1 thereby ruining it4 ,the outer casing1 or shoe1 is split on its inner side1 and usually provided with an annular flange on each side of the split1 which rests against the rim of the wheel1 and is adapted to receive a rim which securely fastens the annular flange of the shoe1 to the rim of the wheel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,double ,tube4 ,various ways are provided for holding the shoe to the rim of the wheel2 but in the different types shown by the illustrations1 ,figs4 #ac and #ad1 the shoe has a flange which is held within channels on the rim1 or by some form of fastening device4 ,the inner tube is usually of thin elastic rubber1 so made that when properly inflated it will fit the outer tube or casing4 ,the outer part1 which can be made of a different rubber compound1 and is better adapted to stand wear1 whereas1 the inner tube1 which is made of the best1 and more costly material is protected4 ,,advantage ,,of ,,double ,,tube4--,the great advantage of the double tube is due to the positive means of fastening it to the rim of the wheel1 so as to prevent creeping4 ,in the single tire construction the latter is liable to roll out of its bed where quick turns are made1 but with the double tube this is not possible4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,illustrating ,tire-removing ,tool4 ,,putting ,,on ,,and ,,taking ,,off ,,double ,,tubes4--,to do this properly with clincher tires is quite an art4 ,a pair of blunt1 round-ended levers is best for the purpose4 ,the practice is to use cold chisels1 screw drivers and like sharp or pointed tools4 ,this is bad practice4 ,a pair of levers1 as shown in ,fig4 #ad1 can be made by any one1 and you may be sure that their use will not be liable to jag a hole in the inner tube during the removal process4 ,when the inner tube is put into the outer casing1 or tire1 as it is called1 powdered talcum should be liberally applied1 to the tube and also placed within the casing4 ,the tube is then put in and carefully distributed and straightened out before the clinchers are put on4 ,a little air blown into the tube will prevent it from being pinched under the flanges of the casing4 ,the spare tubes should be inclosed in a receptacle of some kind which will exclude light1 and protect them from heat4 ,with the advent of the quick detachable rims of different forms these troubles have happily disappeared in the modern automobile4 ,,damages ,,to ,,tires4--,many things must be provided for in the matter of tire keep4 ,the thing most necessary to guard against is punctures1 caused either by sharp stones1 or nails4 ,when a casing has a heavy protective tread the inner tube may not be effected1 but it frequently happens that the outer casing is slitted for some distance1 and the great pressure forces the thin wall of the inner tube into the slitted opening1 and it is thus ruptured1 not on account of its being punctured1 but because the outer tire did not afford protection against the pressure4 ,,repairs ,,to ,,tires4--,it is not a difficult job to repair tires1 and the apparatus for doing it is very simple4 ,rubber1 in its natural state1 is a white1 thick1 milky juice1 which after several heating and refining processes becomes dark and sticky4 ,,vulcanizing4--,when in this condition and properly mixed with sulphur1 it may be vulcanized1 which destroys the stickiness1 and makes it firm and elastic4 ,vulcanizing is a kind of baking process1 the maximum heat being about #bge degrees1 but generally less4 ,the time required is from #ab to #ae minutes1 dependent on the thickness of the mass to be vulcanized4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,vulcanizer4 ,when the torn or cut portion of the tube or tire is carefully cleaned1 it is filled with the plastic rubber1 and the heater is applied4 ,the heater1 one form of which is shown in ,fig4 #ae1 is merely a shell with a heater connection1 and this being partly filled with water1 generates steam1 the temperature of the shell being1 of course1 dependent on the pressure of the steam developed4 ,to repair the inner tube1 it should be first rubbed with sand paper1 and liquid rubber cement applied4 ,when this becomes tacky apply the patch and dry4 ,it is then ready to be vulcanized4 ,,oil ,,as ,,an ,,enemy ,,of ,,tires4--,all literature on the subject of tires give warnings as to the insidious character of oil1 which deteriorates the rubber4 ,most manufacturers now make an oil proof quality1 but the cheaper grades are not to be depended on4 ,the action of oil shows itself in several ways1 but principally because it dissolves the rubber4 ,,non-,,skidding ,,tires4--,various means are provided in the shape of tire treads to prevent skidding1 the most important being vacuum cups1 the herring-bone formation1 and various ribbed or ridged surfaces4 ,nevertheless1 for smooth asphalt pavements1 chains or similar substitutes are found most satisfactory4 ,sudden application of the brakes1 or the sliding of wheels on hillsides or the skidding of the car in making short turns at too great speeds1 are the most destructive things for tires1 however good they may be4 ,,tires ,,for ,,city ,,use4--,a tire which may be of good service for country roads1 might not be available for city work4 ,the tendency of many drivers is to hug the curb too closely1 and the result is a wear on the side1 which is its weakest point4 ,it is like the side of a shoe1 the upper of which can be readily worn through1 whereas the sole will stand hard usage4 ,in country use the great danger is in the winter months1 where the wheels must pass over or along frozen ruts4 ,there the same difficulties of side wear are liable to destroy the best material4 ,,side ,,slipping4--,the same remarks apply to the weakness of tires due to side slipping4 ,the fibers of the fabric are ruptured at the weak point and the least external abrasion assists in destroying it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,turning ,action on ,front ,wheel4 ,,faulty ,,alinement4--,another cause of ruptured tires is attributable to improper alinement of wheels1 due to the wheel being not exactly true1 through a bent axle1 or improper adjustment4 ,this is more frequently the case with front than with rear wheels4 ,it will be readily understood that while the rear wheels have the traction applied to them1 the front wheels1 fixed as they are1 to the short turning knuckles1 are affected by a movement diagonally across the tire1 at every turn which is made4 ,this is shown by reference to ,fig4 #af4 ,the movement of the car is in the direction of the arrow ,a1 consequently1 when the wheels are turned1 the momentum of its forward end is in the direction of the arrows ,b ,b4 ,when the turn is to the right1 the strain is on the inside of one tire and on the outside of the other1 and when the movement is to the left the conditions are reversed in the stress1 and this explains why the tires of front wheels are so liable to yield1 in all cases where turns are made at high speeds4 ,,broken ,,fabric4--,the fabric of a tire may be ruptured without giving any indications on its outer side4 ,when there is a strong impact force1 like a transverse ridge1 which will force in the tire1 several things occur4 ,first1 the body of the tire is flattened out so that it has a bulging cheek on each side2 and1 second1 a strain is produced on the longitudinal fibers4 ,,bruises4--,the result of such a severe bruise is to cause a break1 not transversely1 or longitudinally1 but usually1 obliquely1 for the following reason4 ,the fabric has one set of its threads running across the tire1 and the other set around the perimeter4 ,this arrangement of the fabric usually prevents a straight break in either direction1 and the weakest part of the fabric is across the diagonal direction4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,illustrating the ,strain on ,fabric4 ,fig4 #ah4 ,try the experiment with a handkerchief1 as shown in ,fig4 #ag by stretching it in the direction of the threads2 and then look at ,fig4 #ah1 in which case the tension is diagonally1 or across the corners4 ,this will be sufficient1 probably1 to suggest to your mind the reason for the break on diagonal lines4 ,the rubber material is not sufficient to prevent the stretch which the fabric permits1 hence the break follows4 ,,under ,,inflation4--,to permit a wheel to run flat causes a tire to stretch more on the tread than along the clinch line4 ,,stretched ,,tires4--,a good illustration of this is shown in ,fig4 #ai1 where the tread is a succession of irregular wavy surfaces1 whereas the sides remain round and full4 ,many attribute this to poor or defective tires4 ,the best tire in the market will show symptoms of this kind1 if allowed to run when deflated4 ,in such cases the flatness produces a continual pouching out of the sides1 which follow the wheel around1 and tend to produce a creeping of the fabric4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,effect of ,flat-,tire4 ,in time the rubber works away1 or along on the fabric1 until it becomes stretched at the tread1 and all the pressure in the tire will not again restore it to the proper condition4 ,,blistered ,,tires4--,a blister is a plain case of the rubber being separated from the fabric4 ,at first the injury may be a small cut down to the fabric1 which1 after being neglected for a time1 permits sand to enter1 and a grinding takes place1 each movement of the parts causing a further separation1 and pressure expands the rubber1 until1 finally1 it bulges out and gives an unsightly appearance1 as well as starts the tire on its road to destruction4 ,such defects can be cured1 if taken in time1 as many compounds are on the market for this purpose4 ,,rim ,,cutting4--,this is caused by sand or sharp particles being forced in between the tire and edges of the rim1 which causes a wearing out at the contact points4 ,insufficient air is another cause4 ,the tires flatten and are then cut by the metal4 ,frequently the tire is too small for the rim1 and this is always bad for it4 ,heavy loads will cause cutting1 because the tire will be flattened out1 although inflated to the proper tension4 ,it is good practice to turn a tire1 when one side wears more than the other4 ,this wearing on one edge excessively1 shows some defect in the wheel alinement1 which needs correcting4 ,possibly the wheels may not be parallel4 ,this is a frequent trouble with front wheels1 on account of the bending of the arm which runs from the knuckle4 ,,inflation ,,pressures4--,manufacturers of tires furnish data with respect to the proper pressures for their products1 and these vary somewhat1 and it is wise to observe the pressures which they indicate for the different sizes4 ,,expansion ,,of ,,heated ,,air4--,there is another cause of tire expansion1 not generally considered1 which is due to the expansion of heated air4 ,it is not infrequently the case that a tire will1 in running1 heat up fifty or sixty degrees1 which means an expansion of one-eighth the volume of air within the tube4 ,if1 therefore1 there is any weakness in the walls of the tire1 a blowout follows4 ,as this heating is liable to take place to a greater extent in the summer than in winter1 it is obvious that it is better to under inflate during that period1 than to have an over pressure1 particularly with old1 or considerably worn1 or injured tires4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,steering ,,gear ,,and ,,brakes ,,the ,,steering ,,column4--,this is a very important mechanical element of the car4 ,its direct useful functions are to carry or hold the mechanism for steering the machine1 and for the motor control1 controlling the air supply for the fuel1 as well as for regulating the sparking mechanism4 ,,motor ,,control4--,some machines are provided with a foot lever mechanism 7accelerator7 as well as the throttle lever on the steering wheel4 ,this is advantageous1 because in moving through crowded streets1 where frequent and quick changes are necessary1 the foot is the most convenient for controlling purposes4 ,,throttle ,,movement4--,a downward pressure of the foot opens the throttle1 and a spring returns it to its normal position4 ,the foot throttle is also convenient when shifting the transmission gear1 as both hands are otherwise engaged1 one to operate the gear-shifting levers1 and the other for steering4 ,the hand throttle on the steering wheel1 however1 is most convenient for long runs1 when little change is required1 and it can then be set so as to avoid the use of the foot lever4 ,the levers are so arranged that they do not entirely close the throttle1 but1 when fully thrown to a closed position1 will still provide a sufficient opening to keep the engine running light4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,steering ,wheel4 ,,steering ,,wheel ,,type4--,the drawing1 ,fig4 #bj1 shows a type of steering wheel1 which has a segment ,a4 ,the long lever ,b is for throttling purposes1 as above described1 and the short lever ,c for operating the sparking device4 ,these levers are differently disposed and arranged on the wheel1 or on the column supporting the wheel shaft1 but the illustration is sufficient to show the principle of construction1 and we are interested only in the types and not in the modifications which are available1 and are constantly being made to meet certain conditions4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,steering ,gear4 ,,steering ,,gear4--,fig4 #ba shows an approved form of construction for the gear1 which converts the rotating motion to a direct line movement4 ,in this the hollow supporting column ,a1 is firmly fixed to a base ,b4 ,the shaft ,c which passes through the column1 has a worm ,d at its lower end1 and is journaled in a base ,e1 which carries a cross shaft ,f1 in which is mounted the worm wheel ,g4 ,one end of the shaft ,f has an arm ,h for moving the arms of the wheel knuckles4 ,within the tubular shaft ,c1 is a tubular shaft ,i1 for the throttle lever to operate1 the lower end of which has an arm ,j1 and within the shaft ,i1 is a shaft ,k for the sparking lever1 the lower end having an arm ,l4 ,in the best cars all these parts are made adjustable1 so as to provide for wear4 ,in examining or selecting a car1 this is one of the points to note4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,type of ,front ,axle4 ,,front ,,axle4--,fig4 #bb shows a common form of front axle1 with knuckles and cross connecting rod ,a1 the latter providing means1 by the nuts ,b ,c1 for alineing the wheels4 ,,the ,,brakes4--,these are made in two types1 one which is usually in the form of a contracting band1 and the other which expands4 ,all cars are now equipped with two braking systems1 one being the service1 or running brake1 and the other the emergency brake4 ,these brakes are all of the drum type1 and are either expanding1 or contracting bands tightening against the drums4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,contracting ,brake4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,expanding ,brake4 ,,running ,,brake4--,the running brake is operated by the foot pedal1 whereas the emergency brake is generally connected up with the lever at the side of the seat4 ,the foot pedal is on some cars connected with the clutch in such a way that when pedal is pressed to set the brake1 the clutch is released4 ,this prevents an inexperienced or confused driver from applying the brake when he forgets to release the clutch4 ,,double-,,acting ,,contracting ,,brake4--,fig4 #bc shows the manner in which a double-acting contracting brake operates4 ,as the band ,a1 has a tension on each end1 when the rod ,b1 is drawn forwardly1 it is immaterial which way the brake drum ,c travels4 ,in ,fig4 #bd the drum ,c has a pair of oppositely-disposed shoes ,d1 which are held in such a position that they are not revoluble1 and may be moved outwardly by the lever ,e and links ,f4 ,these figures1 of course1 show merely the simple forms of the two types1 and do not go into the refinements of construction which make them so effective in service4 ,it is obvious1 however1 that the power exerted through either type of brake1 depends on the leverage afforded by the relative lengths of the limbs of the bell-crank lever ,e1 to each other4 ,,contracting ,,brake4--,fig4 #be shows a well-known type of contraction brake1 in which the cylinder ,a1 has thereon two brake bands ,b ,c1 hinged together at their rear ends4 ,at their front ends they are connected with a bell-crank lever ,d1 the forward movement of the upper end of the lever being such as to cause the bands to pinch the drum ,a4 ,a contractile spring ,e draws back the lever when the foot releases the pedal1 and the link ,f1 between the bell-crank lever and the upper band ,c1 has a turnbuckle arrangement to provide for taking up in case of wear4 ,the brake bands have means for automatically holding them clear of the wheels when not in use4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,contract ,mechanism4 ,,equalizers4--,sometimes the brake is placed on the propeller shaft2 but when one of the brakes is placed on each wheel1 an equalizing bar1 or other means1 must be used4 ,one form of this is shown in ,fig4 #bf1 in which ,a is the bar1 ,b the rod which goes to the brake lever1 and ,c ,c1 the rods that run back to the brakes on the wheels4 ,naturally1 the equalizer will not act with the same effect on both wheels1 unless they are in the same condition4 ,frequently one of the brake cylinders will be dry and the other coated with grease1 or accumulate moisture from some source4 ,it is1 therefore1 a necessary part of inspection and care to keep them in serviceable condition4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,equalizer ,bar4 ,,the ,,emergency ,,brake4--,the emergency brake has a pawl which acts in the teeth of a segment alongside of the lever1 so it may be held in any position to which the lever may be thrown4 ,this lever has no provision whereby the clutch is disengaged when the brake is applied1 for the reason that should it become necessary to stop a car going up hill1 and when the emergency brake is required1 the brakes would have to be released before the clutch could be thrown in1 so that the car would be likely to start down hill before this could be done4 ,on this account the emergency brake has no connection with the clutch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,rear axle4 ,service and ,emergency ,brake4 ,,combined ,,service ,,and ,,emergency ,,brake4--,fig4 #bg represents a standard type of service and emergency brake1 each of the internal expanding type4 ,as both are inclosed in a drum they are absolutely free from dirt and dust1 and the construction shown eliminates rattling of the parts4 ,the wheel bearing is also represented by the annular ball-bearing type of construction1 in which the balls are unusually large1 and therefore1 capable of taking great weight and high speed without undue wear4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,differential ,,the ,,meaning ,,of ,,differential4--,this is a term used to designate the difference in the turning movement of two wheels on opposite ends of an axle4 ,for various reasons they do not turn at the same rate of speed1 particularly in turning corners1 where the outer wheel must travel a greater distance than the inner wheel4 ,if both wheels are fixed to the shaft the latter would be submitted to a torque1 or one of the wheels would slip1 and thus be destructive of tires4 ,on the other hand1 if one wheel should be loose1 then1 as power is applied to the shaft1 the tractive action would be on one wheel only1 and this would be bad practice1 and frequently cause the wheel to slip1 and thus unduly increase the wear of the tire4 ,the differential is made up of a system of gears1 which are so arranged that one wheel may turn independently of the other1 and at the same time the effective driving power is utilized by each4 ,various forms of this mechanism have been developed4 ,while the differential is an exceedingly simple piece of mechanism1 it is not such an easy matter to describe its operation1 so that the principle will be explained by a series of illustrations4 ,,equalizer ,,bar4--,examine ,fig4 #bh4 ,let ,a be an equalizer bar1 mounted on the end of a thrust bar ,b1 by a pivot ,c1 so the ends will swing back and forth freely4 ,a horizontal bar ,d is hinged at each end of the equalizer1 which bars project forwardly parallel with each other and these are provided with right-angled bends ,e ,e1 simply for convenience in describing the operation4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,equalizing ,mechanism4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,resistance in ,equalization4 ,while differential gears are very simple structurally1 it is not an easy matter to explain the principle on which a faster motion is transmitted to one wheel than another1 and under conditions where the speed is constantly changing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,equalizer and ,differential ,movements4 ,for instance1 in ,fig4 #cj1 a cord ,a1 over a pulley ,b1 has weights ,c1 ,d1 at its ends4 ,if the pivot or fulcrum ,e1 of the wheel1 is stationary1 as in sketch #a1 and the wheel is turned1 say a quarter of the way around1 one weight will move down below the line ,x the same distance that the other weight moves above it1 as shown in #b4 ,thus far we have an equalizer1 pure and simple4 ,but a differential requires something more4 ,it is necessary1 under certain conditions1 for the weight ,d to move a greater distance in the same time than ,c1 or the reverse4 ,or1 as sometimes happens1 one of the weights1 as for instance1 in #c1 remains fixed while the other moves4 ,in this case1 with the pivot pin ,e fixed1 such a thing would be impossible1 hence1 in order to make such a relative movement between the two weights1 the pin must move1 and this motion is shown in #c1 where it moves down from the line ,f4 ,that movement1 or change of position of the pivot ,e1 is what takes place in the small intermediate gears in a train of differential gearing4 ,,transmission ,,wheel4--,in ,fig4 #cb is shown a section of the differential housing1 #a1 in which1 for convenience1 all refinements of construction are eliminated4 ,this shows the divided axle shafts #e1 #f4 ,in ,fig4 #cc is shown a side view of the same housing4 ,this may be connected with the motor shaft by means of bevel gears1 or driven by a sprocket chain4 ,in either case the housing #a is the substitute for the thrust bar ,b1 in ,fig4 #bh1 and the bevel pinions #b1 which are mounted within the wheel #a1 represent the equalizer bar of that figure4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,differential in ,housing4 ,the gears which make up the train are usually put into a suitable casing1 as illustrated in ,fig4 #ca1 which gives a good example of the construction4 ,the housing ,a is fixed to the side of a large bevel gear ,b1 this gear being designed to receive power from the motor through a bevel pinion ,c4 ,one part of the axle ,d passes through the gear ,b1 and is fixed to a bevel gear ,e within the housing1 and the other part of the axle ,f passes through the housing and is fixed to a bevel gear ,g1 the same size as gear ,e4 ,intermediate the two gears is a pair of bevel pinions ,h1 ,h1 and these latter are mounted on pivots ,i1 ,i1 projecting inwardly from the housing4 ,the fact that the pinions are attached to housing has the effect of complicating the matter1 so that it may be well to show the relative arrangement of the gears without the housing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,section of ,differential4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,side ,view of ,differential ,wheel4 ,in ,fig4 #cd we have added to ,fig4 #cc1 two bevel gears #c1 #d1 which are mounted on the axles #e1 #f1 these representing the rear drive axles of the car4 ,,action ,,of ,,transmission ,,gearing4--,from the foregoing it will be seen that the axles abut each other1 within the hub of the large gear #a1 within which they are journaled4 ,we might1 therefore1 call these pinions the counterparts of the bars ,e ,e4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,top ,view of ,differential ,wheel4 ,as long as the resistance to the turning movements of the pinions #c1 #d is the same1 the housing through pinions #b1 #b1 will simply carry the bevel gears #c1 #d around with it1 without turning them1 just the same as the equalizer bar ,b was moved forward without either end swinging back or forth2 but the moment the wheel of the shaft #e1 for instance1 is compelled to travel at a higher rate of speed1 or the wheel on shaft #f meets with a greater resistance1 the small equalizing gears #b will turn1 and the revoluble motion of the housing #a1 while transmitting the power1 and also carrying the gears1 will act1 in effect1 the same as the push bar shown in the previous illustration4 ,like the equalizing bar1 the effect is to turn one wheel1 say #c1 with less1 and the other wheel #d with more than the normal power or speed4 ,fig4 #bh shows the principle on which all differential automobile gearing is based1 that is1 that both wheels receive half of the driving power even if one wheel should turn faster1 as shown at ,fig4 #bi1 which is the case when turning a corner4 ,this is what causes the power to drive both wheels at all times1 whether going straight or on a turn4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd;a4 ,differential ,gears4 ,if1 however1 one wheel gets on slippery ground1 then ,a1 ,fig4 #bi1 will move forward1 without pulling on the lower end4 ,as the lever ,a has the same action as the pinion in a differential1 shown in ,fig4 #cd;a1 it will be seen that if the pinion center is moved in the direction of the arrow1 and if the wheel ,w#a slips1 the pinion will simply roll on the bevel gear ,g#b without driving it on the wheel ,w#b4 ,this is the disagreeable characteristic of a differential1 that makes one wheel spin when it touches a slippery spot on the road1 and stalls the car1 because the other wheels cannot get any driving power4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,drive ,the term used to designate the transmission of power from the engine to the wheels1 is called the drive4 ,in nearly all cars the engine shaft runs fore and aft1 and consequently is at right angles to the axles4 ,this1 of course1 necessitates some sort of gearing between the engine shaft and axle4 ,this change is made in the bevel gear drive hereafter explained4 ,as the engine is mounted on the frame of the car1 which rests on springs1 and the axle is below the springs1 it is obvious that the drive must be transmitted between two parts which have a relative up and down movement4 ,this necessitates several things1 structurally1 which should be considered4 ,first4 ,a flexible joint must be interposed in the system1 where a shaft is used to transmit the power4 ,second4 ,torsion rods are necessary to prevent the housing or casing of the rear axle from turning1 due to reaction of the driving bevel gear4 ,third4 ,a rod1 or rods1 are required to prevent a fore and aft movement of the rear axle4 ,the rods run from the ends of the rear axle housing to some convenient point on the frame4 ,,illustrating ,,power ,,transmission4--,for convenience1 these mechanical elements are illustrated on a frame4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,radius ,rods4 ,fig4 #ce shows a frame which has its rear axle provided with a pair of radius rods ,a ,a4 ,these have their rear ends attached1 in any suitable manner1 to the axle housing1 near the springs and the forward ends are brought forward and pivoted to the cross beam ,b4 ,,torsion ,,rod4--,these rods thus take care of any undue strain which takes place by the wheel striking obstructions4 ,c represents the torsion rod which has its rear end firmly secured to the housing ,d1 and its forward end to the cross piece ,e4 ,this prevents the housing from turning1 and also serves to provide against any undue thrust of the driving bevel4 ,some cars dispense with the torsion rod1 by incasing the shaft in a torsion tube4 ,such a form of construction is shown in ,fig4 #cf4 ,the torque tube ,a1 as it is called1 is rigidly secured to the housing ,b1 of the rear axle1 the forward end being pivoted to a cross piece ,c of the frame4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,torque ,tube4 ,the radius rods ,d ,d1 have their forward ends attached to a sleeve ,e1 located near the forward end of the torque tube ,a1 and the rear ends are secured to the axle housing ,f at the spring seats4 ,some manufacturers avoid the use of these radius rods by such a construction in the springs as will prevent any forward and rearward movement of the axle4 ,,chain ,,drive4--,the chain drive machines require the radius rods1 or some other means to counteract the movement of the axle when it meets an obstruction1 particularly where the chain transmits the power to the differential on the wheel shaft4 ,,jackshaft4--,with the double chain drive no differential is used on the axle1 but1 instead thereof1 it is placed on the jackshaft which carries the small driving sprocket wheels4 ,the chain transmits the power direct to each wheel1 and a radius rod is necessary to hold the shaft of the drive sprocket wheel the proper distance from the rear axle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,chain ,drive4 ,such an arrangement is shown in ,fig4 #cg1 in which the drive1 or jackshaft ,a is mounted transversely across the vertically-movable frame ,b1 and the torque bar ,c1 therefore1 serves as the means for keeping the jackshaft and the axle ,d the proper distance apart1 and it is also arranged to serve as a radius rod to prevent any undue tension on the chain when a wheel strikes an obstruction4 ,the wheels of such a truck turn freely on the axle stubs of a dead axle4 ,,objections ,,to ,,chains4--,few pleasure cars are now equipped in this manner1 as the shaft drive is more desirable for several reasons3 ,the use of chains is always objectionable1 as the efficiency decreases with wear quicker than the shaft drive1 and requires the jackshaft1 sprocket chains and sprocket wheels1 besides the noise and excessive wear1 by stretching of chains1 which are always inherent in the use of chains4 ,it is impossible to prevent dirt1 sand and grit from adhering to the chains1 unless they are inclosed1 a thing which is difficult and expensive4 ,if they are not so protected the lubricant only serves to catch the grit and retain it1 so that when it is carried around by the chain1 the wheel and chain are both worn out4 ,another difficulty in the use of chains is due to the inability to keep them at a proper tension at all times4 ,all chains will stretch in use1 consequently the tension will change1 and when wear takes place1 the distance of the centers of driving and driven sprockets has to be adjusted1 calling again for another mechanical complication4 ,,shaft ,,drive4--,the shaft of the engine1 being on the frame1 has a vertical movement1 and the axle1 to which power is to be transmitted1 is below4 ,the engine must be mounted so the shaft inclines1 or1 be placed low enough1 so that it will be on a direct line with the rear shaft4 ,in either case some flexible means must be provided between the engine shaft and axle on account of the relative vertical motion between engine and rear axle4 ,the straight line drive is most desirable1 in every way1 as the full power of the engine is available1 and this is usually arranged for by lowering the engine bed sufficiently so that the shaft will point straight to the axle when the car is loaded4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,shaft ,drive4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,straight ,line ,drive4 ,,train ,,of ,,shafting4--,several lengths of shafting are often interposed between the engine shaft and axle1 and some cars have two universal joints in the shaft line1 one mounted forward of the transmission case and the other to the rear of it4 ,or1 more frequently1 one in the rear of the transmission and one in front of the rear axle4 ,it seems1 however1 to be the most general practice to have a single universal joint directly behind the gear case1 and the shaft forward of the case only slightly inclined4 ,figs4 #ch and #ci1 show the two types1 the former being the straight line drive1 and the latter a form of construction where the two universal joints make the drive through a line which minimizes the angles as much as possible between the shafts4 ,figs4 #ch and #ci are not intended to show all the elements in the train of shafting1 such as joints and connections1 but is merely designed to illustrate the disposition of the drive shafting relative to the engine and rear axle4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,clutches ,clutches are essential in all gasoline cars1 for the reason that the driving power of the motor must be frequently disconnected from the running gear4 ,these devices are designed to transmit motion from the engine to the transmission shaft1 so that when the clutch is engaged the transmission shaft will turn with the engine shaft4 ,,clutch ,,requirements4--,the first requisite of a clutch is its ability to firmly hold the two shafts together2 the second is1 that it may be engaged gradually1 and not suddenly2 third1 that it must disconnect instantaneously2 and1 fourth1 that the force required to hold the two parts of the clutch together must not produce an end thrust on either shaft4 ,these requirements must be met by a condition that the act of engaging the clutch will not necessitate a long movement of the foot pedal which sets the clutch4 ,other considerations must be taken into account1 also1 and that is facility for examining and repairing1 easy removal of worn or broken parts1 and capability of adjustment as the contact surfaces wear4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,cone ,clutch4 ,it will be seen1 therefore1 that there are many elements necessary to provide a satisfactory clutch1 well adapted for all purposes1 and all these factors must be considered and understood by the boy who would be well informed4 ,,frictional ,,contact4--,in any form of automobile clutches1 there must be a frictional contact1 which means wear1 whatever may be the character of the material employed for the surfaces which are in engagement4 ,as a result1 clutches are now made which will permit the use of oil4 ,others dispense with it entirely4 ,each type has its advantages4 ,the cone clutches usually do not use a lubricant4 ,this is described in the diagram1 ,fig4 #dj4 ,,cone ,,clutch4--,in the drawing ,a represents the engine shaft1 which has a fly wheel ,b1 and ,c is the transmission shaft4 ,the engine shaft has a short projecting stem ,d1 which abuts the end of the transmission shaft ,c4 ,a hollow hub ,e is loosely journaled on the stem ,d1 and is of sufficient length to extend over and have a bearing on the transmission shaft ,c1 this latter being squared so it will turn with the hub1 or it may be provided with a feather to work in a suitable groove in the hub1 so that both will turn together1 while permitting the hub to move longitudinally4 ,the inner end of the hub ,e has a web ,f1 with a conical bearing surface ,g1 which engages with an internal cone on the fly wheel4 ,,compression ,,spring ,,in ,,clutches4--,within the hollow hub ,e is a compression spring ,h1 one end of which rests against the inner end of the hub1 and the outer end contacts against a collar ,i1 which collar is screwed on the threaded end of the stem ,d1 and by means of which the pressure of the spring may be regulated from time to time4 ,the normal action of the spring is to throw the cone surface ,g1 into engagement1 as shown in the diagram1 and when the foot presses down the pedal ,j1 the hub is moved back against the tension of the spring1 and the clutch released4 ,it is obvious that if oil should find its way between the cone surfaces the grip would be materially lessened1 and depending upon the kind of materials used4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,multiple ,disk ,clutch4 ,,the ,,multiple ,,disk ,,clutch4--,a type of clutch which uses oil is shown in ,fig4 #da4 ,the prominent feature of the multiple disk is the large area of contact surfaces available1 and this1 together with the comparative freedom from wear1 owing to the lubricating material1 makes it a favorite structure1 especially on account of its gradual engagement which is not easily obtainable with a cone clutch4 ,in the drawing1 the transmission shaft ,a has its ends reduced to receive thereon a set of disks ,b4 ,the shaft is ribbed along the surface where the disks are located1 and the disks ,b have cut-out portions ,c1 for the ribs1 so that1 while the disks must turn with the shaft1 they are free to move longitudinally4 ,the end of the engine shaft ,d1 has a tubular housing ,e1 to receive the end of the transmission shaft ,a4 ,the inner end of this housing embraces the flange ,f1 of a cylindrical shell ,g1 this shell having within a series of disks ,h1 secured to the shell so they will slide longitudinally1 but turn therewith1 and these disks alternate with the disks on the transmission shaft4 ,it will be observed that the flange ,f1 of the shell ,g1 has a tongue ,i1 which slides within a groove ,j in the housing1 so that the shell ,g1 while turning with the shaft ,d1 may be moved longitudinally on the shaft ,a1 a limited distance4 ,the end of the shaft ,a1 has a collar ,k1 and between this collar and the end of the flange ,f1 is an expansion spring ,l1 so that the normal action of the spring is to push the web of the shell ,g1 toward the disk head ,m1 and thus force all the disks together and produce the friction of a very large surface4 ,in order to release the clutch1 it is necessary to draw back the shell ,g4 ,the mechanical action is merely shown1 not the exact structural arrangement4 ,an annular flange ,n is formed on the head of the shell1 and a pair of hook-shaped bars ,o1 pass through the wall of the case1 their outer ends being actuated by the foot pedal1 in any convenient manner4 ,,disadvantages ,,of ,,multiple-,,disk ,,clutches4--,these clutches have also their weaknesses4 ,sometimes they will grip too quickly1 if the lubricating oil is too thin1 or if there is not enough of it2 or1 if it becomes very thick and gummy1 the disks will not free themselves quickly1 and the clutch will drag4 ,,care ,,of ,,multiple-,,disks4--,when such is the case1 it is better to take out all the lubricant1 and thoroughly clean off the disks1 and put in a fresh supply4 ,if the case is kept properly closed1 so that the oils will not be wasted1 and no dust can enter1 a light1 thin oil1 will last for a long time4 ,when the clutch slips1 it is due to wear1 or to insufficient spring pressure1 and a new adjustment is necessary2 and it is frequently the case that the rod between the clutch and pedal must be taken up1 this being the case1 usually1 where there is any wear in the clutch itself4 ,the disks are1 usually1 wholly of metal4 ,among other materials1 cork is used to face friction surfaces of different clutch designs1 and a variety of materials are constantly added to the list1 which have good wearing qualities4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,transmission1 ,,or ,,change ,,speed ,,gears ,owing to the peculiar character of ,internal ,combustion ,engines1 there is always a certain speed at which it will work more satisfactorily1 and with greater economy4 ,in this respect it is unlike the steam engine1 which has a much wider range of effectiveness4 ,since all cars now use internal combustion motors1 and throttling is unsatisfactory1 as a means of controlling the engine1 or changing the speed and power1 so as to use it economically1 a mechanical speed change system is essential4 ,this contains certain gears1 which are designed to change the speed of the transmission shaft relative to the engine shaft4 ,,transmission ,,leverage4--,it is simply using leverage in order to produce a more effective pull1 or to attain greater speed1 from a shaft which runs at a certain number of revolutions4 ,if we have a motor with a shaft speed of1 say1 #hjj revolutions per minute1 and an axle with a speed of #djj revolutions1 the ratio would be #b to #a4 ,now1 to speed up the machine1 so that the axle will turn #hjj revolutions1 would require an engine speed of #afjj1 which might be impossible4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,progressive ,transmission4 ,low4 ,,economy ,,of ,,transmission ,,gearing4--,from an economical standpoint1 also1 it would be undesirable1 even though the engine should be able to make the speed4 ,owing to the explosion impulses of the gasoline motor1 a heavy fly wheel is necessary on the engine shaft1 in order to store up power by momentum1 and also to give a uniform speed4 ,in hill climbing1 or in carrying heavy loads1 the transmission shaft must have its speed cut down1 while permitting the engine to run at full or normal speed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,neutral ,position4 ,the transmission gearing is1 therefore1 the most satisfactory solution of the problem1 because changing the engine speed destroys its effectiveness1 and we shall1 therefore1 consider some of the types for that purpose4 ,there are two distinct systems of transmission1 namely3 ,the ,positive1 and the ,frictional4 ,of the positive system we have the planetary and the sliding gear types4 ,the sliding gear type has two methods of control1 one known as the progressive1 and the other the selective4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,transmission4--,the progressive1 selective and planetary types1 are entirely different from the frictional system1 for the reason that they effect the changes by step movements1 the speeds being produced at certain ratios1 whereas the frictional method has indefinite and infinite ratios4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,intermediate4 ,the following diagrams will clearly bring out the distinctive features of each4 ,fig4 #db shows a shaft ,a1 which derives power from the engine1 having in line with it a shaft ,b1 which connects with the driven shaft4 ,the shaft ,b is squared1 but it has a round end ,c1 which is socketed axially within the head of the shaft ,a4 ,,the ,,progressive4--,the head ,d has a small pinion ,e1 and on its side is provided with projecting teeth ,f4 ,the loosely-revolving squared shaft ,b has thereon a pair of spur gear ,g ,h1 separated from each other a trifle more than the width of each gear1 and they are united by an intermediate hub so they turn in unison4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,high4 ,below the shaft ,b1 and parallel therewith1 is a shaft ,j1 which carries a spur gear ,k1 that is constantly in mesh with the pinion ,e4 ,to the right is a smaller gear ,l1 which is the same diameter as the gear ,g1 with which it is adapted to mesh2 and a small gear ,m1 about one-third the diameter of the gear ,h1 is also mounted on the right-hand end of the shaft1 which meshes with the gear ,h1 when the latter is moved to the right on its shaft ,b4 ,behind the two gears ,h1 ,m1 is a shaft ,n1 parallel with shaft ,j1 which is so mounted that it has a longitudinal movement1 and this carries a broad-faced pinion ,o1 so that it is wide enough to engage with both of the gears ,h1 ,m1 when they are not in line1 or in engagement with each other1 as shown in ,fig4 #dd4 ,this latter shaft ,n1 is moved longitudinally by means of the reversing lever ,p4 ,this lever1 together with the gear-shifting lever1 hereafter explained1 are merely indicated in their present manner1 in order to show1 diagrammatically1 how the gears are shifted4 ,,low ,,gear4--,the gear-shifting lever ,q1 in ,fig4 #db1 in this instance1 shows the large gear ,h1 moved into mesh with the gear ,m1 so that power is transmitted from the engine shaft ,a1 through gears ,e1 ,k1 shaft ,j1 and gears ,m1 ,h1 to the driven shaft ,b4 ,in examining ,fig4 #dc1 it will be seen that the shifting lever ,i1 has moved the gears ,g1 ,h1 so they are intermediate to the gears ,l1 ,m4 ,the mechanism is now at what is called the neutral position1 which means that the engine drives only the shaft ,a1 and the shaft ,j1 through the gears ,e1 ,k4 ,,intermediate ,,gear4--,now1 when the lever is moved over another step1 as in ,fig4 #dd1 the gears ,g ,l mesh together1 and motion is transmitted from the gear ,e1 to gear ,k1 through shaft ,j1 and gears ,l ,g1 to the shaft ,b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,reverse4 ,this is called the intermediate1 which in this size gears1 drives the shaft at half the engine speed1 or half of the speed of shaft ,a1 for the reason that gears ,g ,l1 are of the same diameter1 and gears ,e and ,k are in the ratio of #a to #b4 ,,high ,,gear4--,when the lever is shifted another notch1 as shown in ,fig4 #de1 the crown teeth ,f ,g1 of the respective gears ,e ,g1 engage1 and the two shafts ,a ,b1 are locked together1 thus turning the two shafts in unison4 ,this is called direct drive1 in which case the shaft ,b1 turns with the engine4 ,,reversing4--,when the car is not running the gears ,g ,h are always in a neutral position1 as shown in ,fig4 #da1 and in order to reverse shaft ,b1 the lever ,p1 is drawn back1 as shown in ,fig4 #dd1 so that the small gear ,o1 will engage with the large and the small gears ,h ,m1 respectively4 ,the result is1 gear ,h1 is reversed1 and this reversal can take place only when the two gears ,g ,h are in a neutral position4 ,the term progressive takes its name from the motion of the control lever involved in changing the gears4 ,it proceeds regularly from the lowest to the highest4 ,,selective ,,type4--,the second method1 the selective1 enables the operator to select any speed at will1 and in doing so1 it is not necessary to go through the other speeds to reach the high or the low1 as is the case with the progressive4 ,where there are only three speeds forward1 and one in reversing1 this is not so material1 but as the better class cars have four speeds forward1 it means that in order to reach high the gear in a progressive system must go through two intermediate speeds4 ,the shaft ,b1 ,fig4 #dg1 which connects with the engine through a clutch1 has its end journaled in a driven shaft ,a1 and a gear ,c is fixed to the shaft ,b1 and provided with a recessed side4 ,this has internal teeth to receive the teeth of a sliding gear ,d4 ,another1 smaller1 sliding gear ,e is also on the shaft4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,selective ,transmission4 ,low ,gear4 ,below the shafts ,a ,b is a shaft ,f1 which carries a gear ,g1 about half the diameter of the gear ,c1 with which it is constantly in engagement4 ,this shaft1 further1 has a gear ,i1 the same diameter as the gear ,d1 with which it meshes1 and the shaft also carries a gear ,k1 smaller than gear ,j4 ,behind the gear ,k is an idler pinion ,l1 in such position that it may be slid into contact with ,k1 and the gear ,e1 on shaft ,b1 is also adapted to be meshed with the pinion ,l by sliding contact4 ,all the gears ,g ,i ,j ,k are keyed to the shaft ,f1 and only the gears ,d ,e and ,l are capable of being shifted4 ,,low ,,gear4--,fig4 #dg shows the gears ,e ,j in engagement1 and the motion is1 therefore1 transmitted from the shaft ,b1 through gears ,e ,j and gear ,g to ,c1 thereby giving a slow speed to the driven shaft ,a4 ,this is called low gear4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,intermediate4 ,,intermediate ,,gear4--,to change into the intermediate1 the gear ,d1 engages with ,i1 ,fig4 #dh1 so that both shafts ,b ,f run at the same speed1 but in opposite directions1 since these two gears are of the same diameter4 ,the selective mechanism1 as hereinafter explained1 shows how this may be done so that the gear ,e1 will also be thrown out of engagement with ,j at the same time4 ,it will1 of course1 be understood that while the gears ,e ,j turn the shaft ,f in a direction opposite the shaft ,b1 the shaft ,a is again reversed by the gears ,g ,c1 so that both shafts ,a ,b1 turn in the same direction1 but the shaft ,a1 now turns at just half the speed of shaft ,b1 because the gear ,g is only half the diameter of ,c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,high4 ,,high ,,gear4--,the direct drive1 ,fig4 #di1 is arranged by connecting the two shafts ,a ,b together1 and this is done by means of the teeth of the wheel ,d1 engaging with the internal teeth of the gear ,c1 so that shaft ,a turns with the engine4 ,,reverse ,,gear4--,the reversing engagement is brought about by putting the gears ,k ,l ,e into mesh with each other1 as in ,fig4 #ej1 thus making the transmission from shaft ,b1 through gears ,e ,l and ,k1 shaft ,f1 and back to ,a1 through gears ,g ,c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,reverse4 ,a four-speed selection transmission uses four1 instead of three1 gears on the driving shaft1 without in any way changing the principles above outlined4 ,,control ,,lever ,,for ,,progressive ,,transmission4--,a careful study of the following mechanism1 taken in connection with the accompanying sketch of the change speed gear1 and the relations of the several elements1 will explain the method now generally employed in the use of the progressive type4 ,the diagram1 ,fig4 #ea1 shows the engine #a1 with its shaft #b1 connected directly with the shaft ,a of the transmission gearing4 ,intermediate the gear box and the engine #a1 is a clutch #d1 with which the foot pedal #e is connected4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,progressive ,control ,mechanism4 ,the gear box has thereon a fore and aft sliding bar #f1 the forward end of which projects through the case and is pivotally connected with the change speed lever #g4 ,the lever has a quadrant #h1 alongside1 with four notches therein1 for the low1 intermediate1 and high and also for the neutral positions of the lever4 ,the sliding bar #f1 has an arm1 the fork of which spans the hub ,i of the gears ,g ,h1 so they may be carried in either direction when the speed lever swings to and fro4 ,the reversing lever #aj may be connected up with a bar1 similar to #f1 but for convenience herein1 we employ a vertical lever ,r1 pivoted to a cross rock-shaft ,s4 ,the lower end of this lever has a fork ,t to engage the collar of the shaft ,n of the idler pinion4 ,the upper end of the lever is connected with the reversing lever #aj by a link ,u4 ,the quadrant1 alongside the reversing lever1 has two notches1 as shown1 one being designed to hold the lever in a cut-out position1 whereas the other notch is to hold the lever #aj when the running gear is in action4 ,,operation ,,of ,,the ,,progressive ,,gear4--,the relative arrangement of the parts gives a comprehensive idea of the mechanical ideas involved1 and by referring to the description and illustrations of the gears1 it will be seen how the change lever #g1 in moving back one notch1 from its neutral position1 will throw the gear ,g into mesh with ,l1 and another movement of the lever to the next notch1 will cause the crown teeth on ,g1 to engage with the teeth on gear ,e1 and thus effect a high gear connection4 ,,the ,,selector ,,mechanism4--,this is more or less confusing to the novice1 and the accompanying illustration1 ,fig4 #eb1 shows a perspective view1 in which some of the parts are drawn out of proportion1 merely for the sake of clearness4 ,the aim is to show principles and not details of exact mechanical construction4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,selective ,control ,mechanism4 ,,selector ,,bars4--,the two selector bars ,a ,b1 are mounted in guide ways so they move longitudinally alongside each other a limited distance4 ,each bar has an arm1 as at ,c ,d1 the end of each having a curved finger ,e to engage the annular grooves on the hubs of the shifting gears4 ,above these bars1 and at right angles thereto1 is a rock-shaft ,f1 mounted in bearings ,g ,g1 so that it is longitudinally-movable a limited distance1 to shift the selector lever ,h from one bar ,a to the other bar ,b4 ,,shifting ,,lever4--,the selector ,i has two fore and aft slots ,j ,k1 these slots being of such width that the gear shifting lever ,l can travel therein back and forth4 ,midway between the ends of the bar the intermediate wall of the selector plate has a cut-out portion as at ,m1 so the lever may pass through4 ,this opening1 or gate-way1 is in such a position1 relative to the cross lots ,n ,o1 of the bars ,a ,b1 that when the lever is in line with the gate-way1 the slots ,n ,o are also in line1 and in a neutral position1 so that when a lateral motion is imparted to the lever ,l1 and the rock-shaft ,f is moved longitudinally1 the selector lever ,h will then engage with the other bar4 ,,speed ,,selectors4--,the selector ,i1 in ,fig4 #eb1 while made substantially the same in all cars1 has a different order of lever movement4 ,each manufacturer has his own preferential type4 ,in some cases the lever must be thrown forward in order to reverse1 and in others it is drawn back4 ,in certain cars the lever is moved forwardly to throw the gears into first1 or low1 while a number of makers insist that the first movement should be to the rear4 ,illustration3 ,types of ,speed ,selectors4 ,fig4 #ec4 #c-,speed4 ,fig4 #ed4 #c-,speed4 ,fig4 #ee4 #c-,speed4 ,fig4 #ef4 #d-,speed4 ,fig4 #eg4 #d-,speed4 ,fig4 #eh4 #d-,speed4 ,fig4 #ei4 #d-,speed4 ,this is1 really1 an immaterial matter1 so long as there is no standard1 and each claims some distinctive feature of value for his particular choice4 #c-,,speed ,,selectors4--,figs4 #ec1 #ed and #ee show the #c-speed selectors1 in each of which the reverse is brought about by moving the lever to the forward end of the selector4 ,in ,figs4 #ec and #ed the lever slot1 for reversing1 is in the inside1 whereas in #ee it is in the outside slot4 ,the form #ec also has1 in certain makes1 the reverse at the rear end of the selector4 #d-,,speed ,,selectors4--,the greatest variety is found in the #d-speed types1 represented by ,figs4 #ef1 #eg1 #eh and #ei1 the almost universal plan being to place the reverse in the single side slot1 as shown in ,fig4 #ef4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4 ,control-,lever ,bracket4 ,one of the most practicable and easily operated selectors is shown in ,fig4 #fj1 which is used on the ,jeffery car4 ,,controlling ,,the ,,selector4--,it will be seen1 on examination of the selector1 that if1 in starting1 the lever is at its neutral position1 as it should be1 and it is moved inwardly the distance of about an inch1 it will be in position where it can be moved forward to the first speed position4 ,the clutch of the car may then be disengaged gently1 by pressing the foot down slowly1 and at the same time pressing the accelerator with the right foot1 so as to increase the speed of the motor sufficiently to take care of the load4 ,after the clutch engages and the car has traveled about ten feet1 pressure on the accelerator is released1 and the clutch pedal pulled down quickly1 and the lever is then pulled straight back to the second speed4 ,,using ,,the ,,clutch ,,and ,,selector4--,for the third and fourth speeds the same course is followed4 ,if1 in hill climbing1 or in going through a heavy stretch of mud or sand1 lower speed is required1 the clutch is thrown out1 and1 if traveling on fourth speed1 the control lever is quickly pulled to the rear end of the slot1 and then the clutch thrown in4 ,if it is on third speed1 the clutch is disengaged1 the control lever pushed forward1 at the same time pressing it inwardly so it will pass through the gate1 and then pulling it back to the second speed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4 ,planetary ,transmission4 ,,planetary ,,transmission4--,fig4 #fa shows the general arrangement of the planetary transmission4 ,the disk ,a1 carries four small planet gears ,b1 ,b1 ,b1 ,b1 the hub ,c of which is attached to the transmission shaft4 ,these four planet wheels mesh with and travel around a central gear ,c1 of the same diameter this gear being attached to the engine shaft ,d4 ,e is a loosely-revolving drum1 with internal teeth1 to mesh with the planet wheels ,b4 ,the drum ,e1 and the disk or planet wheel carrier ,a1 are provided with braking mechanism so that either may be slowed down or entirely stopped4 ,for slow speed ,e is stationary2 for high speed ,a and ,e revolve with the gear ,c2 and for reversing ,a is locked by means of the brake4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4 ,frictional ,transmission4 ,,frictional ,,transmission4--,a single illustration will suffice to show the principle involved in ,frictional transmission4 ,fig4 #fb represents a driven shaft ,a1 which receives its power from the engine1 and on which is mounted a friction wheel ,b1 that is adapted to travel along on the shaft in front of a friction disk ,c1 secured to the transmission shaft ,d4 ,the shaft ,a has a spline ,e1 and means are provided at the end of the wheel ,b to draw it back and forth on the shaft1 the slightest movement toward the center of the friction disk ,c serving to increase the speed of the driven shaft ,d4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,motor ,this is a subject so vast and comprehensive1 that it will require most careful thought and attention in order to get a working idea of the principle4 ,the greatest refinements are resorted to in the building and handling of engines1 and more attention is bestowed on this part of the automobile than on any other feature for the following reason3 ,,value ,,of ,,fuel ,,utilized4--,not more than eighteen per cent4 of the value of the fuel is actually utilized4 ,the rest is waste4 ,a gasoline engine is a heat motor1--that is1 it derives its power from the expansion of the fuel1 and this expansion is produced by the heat4 ,now the loss referred to comes about in this way3 ,about #eb per cent4 of the loss is taken up by the water which surrounds the engine cylinders2 from sixteen to seventeen per cent4 escapes at the exhaust2 and fifteen per cent4 loss is due to conduction and radiation4 ,,the ,,waste4--,the great waste1 therefore1 lies in the cooling means1 which must be employed4 ,the temperature of the ignited gases reaches fully #bbjj degrees1 which is over ten times the temperature required to convert water into steam4 ,water absorbs more heat than any other substance1 so that this quality is utilized2 but the water1 if not kept in motion1 when applied to such a highly-heated surface as an engine cylinder1 would be converted into superheated steam1 and would then be of no further value4 ,,water ,,absorption4--,this necessitates a constant and intermitting motion1 so that the more rapidly the water moves1 the less it will become heated4 ,at the same time1 means must be provided to cool the water in its circuit back to the engine1 and the most efficient means to accomplish this is to provide a radiator at the forward end of the machine4 ,the circulating system1 together with the radiator1 will be described under their proper headings4 ,,engine ,,types4--,there are two distinct types of engine1 one called the two-cycle1 and the other the four-cycle4 ,cycle has reference to a period or turn1 in which certain mechanical operations are completed in regular order so to form a succession of events4 ,,the ,,four-,,cycle ,,engine4--,these events in a four-cycle engine require the crank to make two complete turns1 the order being as follows3 ,starting with the explosion of the charge1 the first element in the cycle1 is the downward movement of the piston 7expansion72 second1 the return of the piston to the upper end of the cylinder 7exhaust72 third1 the downward movement of the piston1 on its second revolution1 and the drawing in of a fresh charge of fuel 7suction72 and fourth1 the return stroke which compresses the fuel for driving the piston down the next stroke 7compression74 ,,the ,,two-,,cycle4--,the two-cycle engine1 at the explosion1 sends the piston downwardly1 and as the crank case and cylinder are connected up together so as to form an air tight receptacle1 within which the crank and shaft turn1 the downward movement of the piston compresses all the gas which has been previously drawn into the crank case4 ,when the piston reaches the extreme limit of its downward movement1 it uncovers a port in the side wall of the cylinder1 so as to afford an outlet for the gases of combustion1 and immediately thereafter the piston also uncovers a duct that leads from the crank case1 so that the previously compressed gases1 as stated1 rush in1 and this inward movement of the fresh gas1 also facilitates the movement of the burnt gases at the opposite side4 ,,compression4--,when the piston starts on its return stroke1 or upward movement1 it compresses the charge thus received1 and when the piston nears the upper end of its stroke the sparking mechanism again explodes it1 so that the cycle is formed by the two operations1 performed by a single turn of the crank shaft4 ,this latter type of engine is not used to a great extent4 ,it has the advantage that no valves are used1 except the one at the inlet of the gas to the crank case1 and no stems1 push rods1 cam shafts1 or springs are required to control the movements of the fresh and burnt gases4 ,aside from that such engines weigh considerably less than the four cycle type4 ,,economy ,,of ,,four-,,cycle ,,engine4--,on the other hand1 the four cycle is more economical1 because there is more time for the admission of the fuel1 and for exhausting the gases4 ,furthermore1 it is obvious that in a two cycle engine more or less of the fresh fuel gas is mixed with and is discharged from the cylinder with the burnt gases4 ,as the discharge of the burnt gases and the admission of a fresh charge1 is practically simultaneous1 the opening of the discharge is placed in the cylinder at such a point that the pressure of the gases cannot be utilized for the full downward stroke1 as is the case with the four cycle type4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,four-,,cycle ,,engine ,fig4 #fc4 ,firing ,position4 ,fig4 #fd4 ,return ,first ,cycle4 ,,valve ,,movements4--,before proceeding to explain the engine in detail1 the different valve movements of a four cycle cylinder are shown1 and this will be of service in explaining the different parts as they are referred to4 ,in the construction of engines1 as will be more particularly pointed out hereinafter1 the inlet and exhaust valves are usually operated by mechanical means1 but certain engines are so constructed that the inlet valve is automatic in its operation1 and the exhaust valve only is actuated mechanically4 ,in the drawings1 ,figs4 #fc to #ff1 inclusive1 both valves are operated from cams on a secondary shaft1 and in the first of these four figures the crank has just turned the point where the piston is at its highest limit1 and is about to descend4 ,both valves ,a ,b are closed1 and the spark fires the charge1 driving down the piston to its lowest limit4 ,in ,fig4 #fd the crank is shown about to move the piston upwardly1 and just as it turns the dead center the cam ,c1 on the secondary shaft1 unseats the valve ,b1 through the stem ,d4 ,as the piston moves upwardly1 the burnt gases are forced out past the valve ,b4 ,when the piston reaches the highest point in its first revolution1 as shown in ,fig4 #fe1 the stem ,d drops off the cam ,c1 thus closing the discharge1 and immediately the valve ,a is opened by the cam ,e moving the valve stem ,f upwardly1 and as the piston now descends1 fuel is now drawn in until the piston reaches its lowest point4 ,in ,fig4 #ff the crank is turning the dead center1 and is about to move upwardly1 and the cams ,g ,e are now both in such position that the valves ,a ,b are closed1 and when the piston moves up again1 to complete the second revolution1 the fuel gas within the cylinder is compressed1 and ready to be fired the moment the crank reaches the position1 shown in ,fig4 #fc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4 ,drawing in ,charge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,compression4 ,,the ,,ignition ,,point ,,in ,,the ,,cycle4--,in practice1 the firing takes place before the crank has made the turn past the dead center1 and this is called pre-ignition1 when the spark is advanced too far to the left4 ,the ignition should take place slightly before the crank turns1 because it takes a small interval of time for the charge to burn the gases1 and during this time the crank will have passed the dead center1 and started on its way downwardly4 ,from the diagrams it will be observed that two of the strokes1 namely the first and the third1 are downward1 and the second and fourth are upward1 and that the downward strokes take place during the admission and impulse1 and the compression and exhaust while the piston moves upwardly4 ,,the ,,fly-,,wheel4--,as the impulse in this type can take place only at each second revolution1 it is obvious that some means must be provided to keep the shaft moving during the two turns1 and for this purpose the fly-wheel is utilized4 ,practice has found the multi-cylinder type the most valuable1 in connection with the fly-wheel1 as in employing two or more cylinders in line1 a smaller fly wheel will be sufficient4 ,,impulses ,,in #d-;,,cylinder ,,engine4--,in such a case the four cylinders are arranged so the impulse will be at four different points of the shaft1 and we may assume that the four cylinders in ,figs4 #fc1 #fd1 #fe and #ff1 show the relative positions of the four pistons in a four cylinder engine4 ,,the ,,cylinder ,,case1 ,,and ,,connections4--,a cross section of a case and the relative positions of the various parts1 is shown in ,fig4 #fg4 ,the cylinder ,a is provided with a water jacket ,b1 so as to form a space ,c around the cylinder which has an inlet pipe ,d at the bottom1 and an outlet pipe ,e at the upper end4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,automatic ,inlet ,valve4 ,the inlet valve ,f is in the head of the cylinder1 and it is held against its seat by a tension spring ,g4 ,the exhaust valve ,h is placed in a lateral extension of the cylinder1 in such a position that it is directly above the secondary shaft ,i running through the crank case4 ,the stem ,j of the valve1 is actuated by a cam ,k on the secondary shaft1 and it is1 preferably1 made in two parts1 the upper being so arranged that it has a limited longitudinal movement independently of the lower part1 and a spring is arranged so as to provide for longitudinal thrust in either direction4 ,the crank shaft ,m has alongside the crank1 a gear wheel ,n1 which meshes with a gear ,o on the secondary shaft ,i1 this latter gear being twice the diameter of the gear ,n4 ,,piston ,,and ,,crank ,,construction4--,the piston is hollow1 and the crank is located as close to the head as possible4 ,this has two or more circumferential grooves1 to receive packing rings4 ,the rings are made of very hard steel1 and are turned up slightly larger than the diameter of the cylinder1 and then cut across diagonally1 so they may be sprung into place1 and when in position they will bear against the inside of the cylinder1 and thus serve to prevent the passage of the gases4 ,,calculating ,,the ,,efficiency4--,the great problem with every beginner is to know something of the power of the engine1 and how it is determined4 ,considering that the boy knows nothing of the terms used to designate the step we shall try to make the following description as free from technicalities as possible4 ,in ,fig4 #fh a cylinder is represented1 containing a piston ,a4 ,b ,c indicate the limits of the stroke1 and for convenience this space is provided with eleven marks to represent the pressure of the ignited gases at various portions of the travel of the piston4 ,,pressure ,,in ,,explosion4--,when the explosion takes place1 at ,b1 the pressure will be1 approximately1 #bcj pounds per square inch of the piston4 ,when it moves to the next mark the pressure has decreased to #bbj pounds1 at the next mark it is #bjj1 and so on1 until1 at the end of the stroke1 opposite ,c1 the pressure is only #dj pounds4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4 ,calculating ,efficiency4 ,,expansion ,,line4--,these figures represent the expansion line4 ,it is now necessary to get the mean effective pressure1 which means that we must know what the average pressure of the gas is in each square inch from ,b to ,c4 ,,mean ,,effective ,,pressure4--,this is obtained by adding together the figures given in the sketch1 and the result is1 #aecj4 ,as eleven pressures were required to produce this sum1 it should be divided by that number1 making the result #adh1 avoiding fractions1 as we shall do in all the calculations4 ,the figures represent that the mean effective pressure of the gases on the piston is #adh pounds4 ,if this is multiplied by the area of the piston1 and this result by the stroke in feet and the number of power strokes per minute1 we get what is called foot pounds4 ,,foot ,,pounds4--,assuming that the diameter of the piston is #e inches1 which1 figure1 if multiplied by #c4adaf1 will give its area as a little over #ae-a_/b square inches4 ,let us assume the crank is #d inches4 ,this will give a power stroke of #h inches4 ,to find out how many power strokes there are in a minute1 we must know the revolutions1 and this being taken at #hjj1 and a power stroke at only every other revolution1 would mean that we have #djj impulses1 and each impulse traveled #h inches1 #cbjj4 ,this represents inches1 which must be converted into feet1 so that we have #bff feet of power strokes per minute4 ,first multiply the mean effective pressure on the cylinder1 that is #adh #ae-a_/b1 which equals #bbid4 ,then1 #bbid #bff1 equals #faj1bjd4 ,this product represents foot pounds4 ,,work ,,or ,,energy4--,a foot pound is the amount of work or energy expended in raising a weight of one pound1 through a distance of one foot4 ,if #eej pounds should be raised one foot in one second of time it would represent one horse power of work accomplished4 ,if #eej pounds should be raised one foot in one minute of time it would be equal to #eej #fj #cc1jjj foot pounds1 and this would mean one horse power1 or the work done in one minute of time4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4 ,two-cycle ,expansion ,position4 ,in our above calculation we have determined how many foot pounds we had in a minute of time1 so that if we divide the foot pounds #faj1bjd1 by #cc1jjj1 we shall get as a result1 a little over #ah-a_/b horse power4 ,,the ,,two-,,cycle ,,engine4--,the longitudinal shell ,a1 ,fig4 #fi1 is separate from the crank case ,b1 the latter being secured to the former by flanges and bolts1 as at ,c4 ,the piston ,d is of such length that when it reaches the limit of its compression stroke1 as shown in this figure1 it covers both the supply port ,e and the discharge port ,f4 ,in its outward stroke the upper end clears both of these ports as in ,fig4 #ga1 the discharge port ,f being the first to open1 as shown in ,fig4 #gj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,exhausting4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4 ,compression4 ,,cycle ,,of ,,operations4--,the cycle of operation is as follows3 ,the inward stroke1 which is in the direction of the head of the cylinder1 draws in the gaseous fuel through the valve ,g1 and at its outward stroke the gas in the crank case ,b is compressed1 and the moment the end of the piston passes the inlet port ,e1 the gas passes through the duct ,h into the cylinder above the piston4 ,the burnt gases within the cylinder pass out the discharge port ,f1 facilitated1 in a measure1 by the compressed inflowing gas4 ,when the piston again returns1 and passes the discharge port1 the gas is trapped1 and is compressed during the inward stroke of the piston4 ,,the ,,crank ,,shaft4--,the most important element in the engine is the crank shaft4 ,it is usually made of a single steel forging1 and out of this are turned up the crank wrists1 the crank arms1 and the bearings which are placed intermediate the different cranks4 ,it is made extremely large to provide for any strain due to the fuel explosions1 and it is the most difficult part of the engine to turn out4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,crank ,shaft4 ,,special ,,metals4--,special metals are used by various manufacturers1 and the sizes and structural shapes are now so well understood that few of them break1 although in the early history of the engine this was the weak and troublesome part of the car4 ,improper alining1 in the case1 and poor or faulty bearings1 were responsible for many accidents1 and now means have been found to overcome most of these objections4 ,,engine ,,troubles4--,when we come to consider the engine troubles1 so-called1 we shall find there are legions of them4 ,in these days many of the troubles are easy to remedy1 but to remedy them means that the causes of troubles should be understood4 ,a physician cannot prescribe for a disease until he has made a diagnosis4 ,sometimes the difficulty will be recognized by the symptoms1 and is easily adjusted4 ,but suppose the firing is all right1 and the engine fails to pick up1 and seems to be dying out1 it may be attributable to several causes1 either one of which would account for it4 ,,difficulties ,,pointed ,,out4--,if the engine seems to run down1 and fails to pick up quickly1 it may be due to water in the carbureter1 or to a weak battery1 or to leaks in the water jacket that will admit water into the compression chamber1 or the trouble may be faulty compression4 ,other things should be looked up3 ,the pump may be out of order1 the connections loose1 and thus permit waste through the leaks1 or there may be a stoppage somewhere in the water circulation1 or the water may be exhausted1 or the gasoline too low or too poor for the kind of carbureter which you have4 ,if anything is due to the engine itself1 in the vast majority of cases1 it is due to poor compression4 ,the engine is too often blamed for faults which belong elsewhere4 ,nevertheless1 it is well carefully to examine the bearings1 to look over the clutch1 and the bearings in the line leading to the drive shaft4 ,,starting ,,the ,,engine4--,in starting1 some engines give a great deal of trouble1 usually due to wrong adjustment of the sparking device4 ,this should not be advanced too much4 ,if the trouble is not at that point1 it may arise from too weak a suction1 or an obstruction in the carbureter itself4 ,,carbureter4--,at slow turning speed of the engine1 the carbureter is very sluggish1 because it must be started up from a condition of repose1 and unless there is the best of compression1 the suction will not be sufficient to dislodge or move the slightest impediment which may be in the way4 ,,low ,,compression4--,low compression arises from numerous causes4 ,a carelessly screwed sparking plug2 defective or partly blown out gasket in the cylinder head2 loose1 or partly open compression cock2 a sticking valve2 a rusted1 or defective inlet valve2 leak in the combustion chamber2 or a worn or scratched cylinder4 ,whenever it is possible1 the engine should be examined to observe the condition of the piston rings4 ,sometimes the rings will break into small pieces1 and these parts will wear the most perceptible creases in the cylinder walls4 ,when such is the case they will have to be taken out and lapped4 ,,mixtures4--,too rich a mixture has the effect1 in many cases1 of causing a deposit of carbon which is bad for the engine4 ,it coats the walls of the cylinders1 and is hard to remove4 ,the application of petroleum and alcohol1 if allowed to remain in the cylinder for some hours1 will aid in taking it out1 but removing the cylinder and scraping is the only safe method4 ,the usual way to test the cylinders to see whether either misses fire1 is to cut out all of the spark plugs except one1 and then test that1 and so with all the others in succession1 and in this way the location of the trouble will be discovered4 ,,spark ,,plugs4--,it is also the case that carbon deposits on the plug points will become heated up to such a point that pre-ignition will take place4 ,over-heated cylinders may cause this1 and in certain cases1 where the rotor arm wears1 at the contact point1 it leaves a trail of metallic particles over which the current will travel4 ,,the ,,weather4--,cold weather is often a serious check to the starting of an engine1 the water jacket1 or some of the piping may be frozen1 or the lubricating oil may become too thick to render proper service4 ,,drainage4--,a careful operator will see to it that when the car is left all the water will be drained from the pipes and the water jacket and pump1 and the parts can be dried out by running the engine for a minute or so1 during the time of draining1 so as to heat up the parts4 ,,chapter ,x ,,cooling ,,systems ,proper cooling is a necessary feature of all gasoline motors1 otherwise the intense heat of the burning fuel would expand the pistons to such an extent as to prevent their free motion in the cylinders1 as well as destroy the spark plugs1 injure the springs1 and make lubrication a difficult matter1 if not impossible1 by burning up the oil4 ,,air ,,cooling4--,cooling was originally obtained by using air1 which was blown against the cylinders2 but this was not generally developed to a satisfactory degree except for small motors4 ,air does not take up heat readily1 whereas water is the greatest absorbent known1 and in the primary stages of the art water was objected to on account of its weight1 and for the further reason that the jacketing of the engine was considered a needless expense4 ,one of the best known devices to increase the cooling capacity with air cooling1 and now largely used in motorcycles1 is to provide the cylinders with a plurality of thin broad ribs1 annularly-disposed1 as shown in ,fig4 #gb;a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb;a4 ,increasing ,cooling ,area4 ,,air-,,cooling ,,devices4--,a highly-heated metallic surface actually repels such a subtile fluid as air1 hence it is necessary to supply the cylinders with a blast of air1 and also provide a greater cooling area1 so that if the ribs themselves can be cooled1 the temperature will be decreased in proportion to the enlarged surface thus provided4 ,in using water this artifice is not necessary1 because it will absorb heat instantly along the surface in contact with the metal1 and quickly change the heated particles in favor of the cooler portions4 ,,water ,,cooling4--,while heat will cause a circulation of water in a definite direction1 for the foregoing reason1 it has been found that1 in practice1 it is more practical to keep up the movement by mechanical means4 ,this is done by a pump placed in the line of the circulating pipe1 and usually so arranged that the cold1 or coldest1 water is forced into the circulating area around the cylinders4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4 ,movement of ,heated ,water4 ,,gravity ,,system4--,the natural circulation is founded on the principle of the well known law1 that heated water will flow upwardly1 hence1 if a cylinder1 such as ,a1 ,fig4 #gc1 which has a water jacket around it1 has its lower end connected by a pipe ,b1 from the bottom of a water reservoir ,c1 and the upper end of the jacket is provided with a pipe connection ,d1 with the upper part of the reservoir1 the water will flow from the bottom of the reservoir to the jacket1 and from the top of the jacket to the reservoir1 in the direction of the arrows4 ,,locating ,,the ,,reservoir4--,this flow would be materially increased if the reservoir should be located a considerable distance above the jacket4 ,but in an automobile it would be difficult to use an elevated reservoir1 and1 furthermore1 as means must be provided to cool the water1 such disposition of the reservoir would be still more impracticable4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gd4 ,cooling ,system4 ,the area forward of the engine is the most available space for placing the water tank1 and1 especially for the reasons that the radiator itself may be utilized for inclosing the engine hood1 and because the air1 which is only partially heated in passing through the radiator1 serves to keep the space within the hood reasonably cool4 ,,force ,,system ,,of ,,cooling4--,under the circumstances the water should be caused to circulate by mechanical means1 which1 while it adds another operative element to the machinery1 is nevertheless so much more effective that it is worth the care1 attention and expense which are involved4 ,,the ,,radiator ,,connection4--,in ,fig4 #gd a radiator1 engine and circulating system are connected together to show the relative arrangement of the various elements1 in which the pump ,a is placed in the pipe line ,b running from the lower end of the radiator ,c to the manifold ,d at the lower end of the water jacket of the engine4 ,the upper end of the radiator is connected by a pipe ,e with the top of the jacket1 and the pipes are thus so disposed as to be free of the other mechanism1 and are all contained within the hood of the engine4 ,a fan ,f1 suitably geared to the crane shaft of the engine1 provides a means for inducing an air current through the radiator whenever the engine is running4 ,,radiators4--,much time and money has been spent in developing a simple and efficient type of radiator4 ,as1 of necessity1 it must be made up of a multiplicity of parts1 leakage is apt to occur1 and while in the past most of the constructions depended on soldering together the various portions1 it will be seen how insecure such a system of construction must be necessarily4 ,,construction ,,of ,,radiator4--,in ,fig4 #ge1 is shown a front and a sectional view of portion of a simple type1 which is made up of square tubes ,a1 their ends being fitted into square holes formed through front and rear plates ,b ,c1 and the tubes are so arranged that there are small spaces ,d between the tubes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4 ,radiator ,type4 ,when water enters through the inlet tube ,e1 it fills the spaces1 and being cooled moves downwardly1 while the air rushing through the open-ended tubes1 cools down the water over the large area thus afforded4 ,all radiators employ substantially the same construction1 the illustration given being merely to show the principle of the device4 ,a drain cock ,g1 ,fig4 #gd should be placed in the system below the radiator1 in the pipe line ,b1 so that water can be drained off from all the pipes1 to prevent liability of freezing4 ,the diagram shows the fan shaft connected and run by a belt ,h4 ,this is not the best construction1 as it is not a positive drive4 ,most cars are provided with gearing for this purpose4 ,,operation ,,of ,,radiator4--,the water is thus carried from the bottom of the radiator to the water jacket space1 and from the upper end of the jacketed area to the top of the radiator1 and used over again4 ,more or less of the water is lost by evaporation1 so more must be added from time to time1 and the radiator should be kept as full as possible to get the best results4 ,if the water level falls too far below the return pipe at the top of the radiator1 the area of the heating surface and the decreased quantity of water exposed to the cooling surface1 are likely to cause undue heating1 or vaporization4 ,,the ,,pump4--,a variety of pumps are used1 but they are generally based on the principle of the turbine impelling system1 or on centrifugal action4 ,a type which utilizes both these principles is shown in ,figs4 #gf and #gg1 in which the former is a cross vertical section of #gg along line #a1 and the latter is a central vertical section on line #b of ,fig4 #gf4 ,the device comprises a cylindrical shell ,a1 with an inlet ,b1 at one edge near the front wall1 and an outlet ,c at the upper edge near the rear wall4 ,,pump ,,construction4--,within is a revoluble tubular hub ,d1 with one end ,e projecting1 to which power is applied4 ,a disk partition ,g is secured to this hub1 midway between its ends1 and on each side of the partition is a pair of oppositely-projecting convolute blades1 those on the inlet side1 indicated by ,h1 and the ones in the discharge side by ,i4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gf4 ,side ,view of ,pump4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4 ,section4 ,it will be noticed that the blades ,h on the intake side are so disposed that their concave surfaces are on the advance sides while those in the discharge end of the shell have their convex faces in the retreating side4 ,,action ,,of ,,pump4--,the hub has inlet ports ,j below each blade1 and discharge ports ,k between each of the blades ,i4 ,when rotating the points of the blades ,h catch the water at the inlet and drive it inwardly through the ports ,j1 from which it passes through the hub to the ports ,k1 and is then violently thrown by centrifugal motion1 and by the action of the blades ,i to the discharge opening ,c4 ,should the pump cease working there is always a free passage way for the natural circulation of water through the pump4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,carbureters ,in considering carbureters it would be well to have an understanding of what is meant by this term4 ,it is the practice to call the vaporized fuel from the carbureter1 a gas2 but this is a misnomer4 ,it is not a gas1 but a vapor1 being merely air which is charged with small particles of gasoline4 ,,carbureted ,,air4--,it has been frequently termed also a carbureted fuel4 ,this is a wrong term4 ,what is meant is carbureted air1 because the air carries the fuel with it1 and is impregnated with a carbon charge4 ,,composition ,,of ,,gasoline4--,gasoline contains1 approximately1 #hb per cent4 carbon1 and #ae per cent4 of hydrogen4 ,this mixture of the two fuel elements requires about two parts of oxygen to one part of the gasoline1 but as common air is only one-fifth oxygen and four-fifths nitrogen1 which does not aid in combustion1 it is necessary to supply five times the amount of air1 which would mean at least fifteen parts of air to one of the gasoline4 ,in speaking of parts it must not be understood1 that reference is made to parts in a liquid form1 but it is necessary for the gasoline to be put into the form of a gas1 and this gas becomes the measure from which we determine the parts4 ,,gasoline ,,expansion4--,if a cubic inch of gasoline is converted into a gas1 it will occupy a space equal to about one cubic foot1 which means that it now has a volume1 or bulk of #agbh cubic inches4 ,now1 for every #agbh inches1 there must be about #cj1jjj cubic inches of air1 in order to make a combustible fuel out of the mixture4 ,,requirements ,,of ,a ,,carbureter4--,a carbureter is designed to do several well-defined things3 ,first2 it must be able to comminute1 or break up the liquid fuel into infinitesimally small particles4 ,second2 it must be able to properly mingle the vapor thus produced4 ,third2 it should be so constructed that it will automatically check the inflow of gasoline1 and prevent flooding1 or waste of the fuel4 ,,evaporation4--,all liquids have the property known as vaporization1 and will change their form into a gaseous state at ordinary temperatures4 ,all solids will vaporize1 if sufficient heat is applied4 ,but at the ordinary temperature1 with which we have to deal1 in considering the use of carbureters1 air is the factor which facilitates the process4 ,,air ,,saturation4--,gasoline1 confined in a vessel1 will vaporize up to a point where it completely saturates the air contained therein1 and then ceases4 ,if allowed to stand in the open air1 it will1 in time1 entirely evaporate4 ,this is true of water1 also4 ,it is well1 in this connection1 to observe another thing4 ,if the same quantity of liquid is placed in two separate vessels1 one very tall1 with a small surface of air in contact with the two surfaces1 and the other vessel very shallow1 so it has a large surface in contact with air1 the latter will produce the most speedy evaporation4 ,this shows that contact with air is the factor of the greatest importance in making a vapor4 ,,air ,,contact ,,with ,,gasoline4--,the office of a carbureter is to provide the proper amount of air to the liquid fuel1--that is1 up to that point where it can be utilized as a fuel to the best advantage4 ,if a drop of gasoline1 in one case is broken up into five hundred tiny particles1 and in the other case into one thousand1 it is obvious that in the latter case the air comes into contact with double the surface of the liquid than in the former case1 hence will be so much more efficient1 for the following reason3 ,perfect combustion is the desired object in the engine cylinder4 ,the more nearly the vapor approaches an impalpable gas the quicker will it ignite4 ,furthermore1 the more intimate the air and the vapor are mixed the better will be the explosion or combustion4 ,,compression4--,the compression of the carbureted air in the engine cylinder performs certain very important things3 ,when any gas is compressed the temperature is increased1 the theory being that at each compression to one-half its volume1 the temperature is increased double its former heat4 ,if1 therefore1 compression in a cylinder reaches1 say1 #ij pounds1 the heat set up is sufficient to instantaneously break up the small globules of gasoline1 and at the same time produce a more intimate unity1 which tends to make a more efficient mixture than would be possible without the compression4 ,,compression ,,as ,a ,,mixing ,,means4--,it will also be understood1 that compression permits the bringing together of a much larger amount of fuel at each charge than would be possible without it1 so that the two factors1 namely1 the volatilizing action of the air1 the mixing of the air and vapor1 and the compression1 all serve to mix together the elements which will produce an explosion when the proper heat is finally applied4 ,,carbureter ,,types4--,there are two distinct types of carbureters1 one in which the gasoline is forced out through a very fine nozzle1 and at the ejecting point is mixed with a current of air which passes to the engine cylinders1 and this is designated as the spraying device4 ,the other form of construction depends for carbureting the air on exposing a large body of the gasoline to a passing blast of air1 and is called the surface type4 ,,the ,,spraying ,,carbureter4--,as most cars now use the spraying system1 that type will be considered first4 ,there is no special form of nozzle required to eject the fuel1 and the distinctive features of the various designs has been to produce positive and regular feed and to assure the proper mixture at all times during the operation of the engine4 ,,dissecting ,,the ,,carbureter4--,for the purpose of making each particular part of a carbureter clear and distinct1 let us build up one1 so that special attention may be directed to the various operative elements4 ,a cored cylindrical casting ,a1 ,fig4 #gh1 is provided1 which has a large opening in its lower end that is closed by a plug ,b4 ,this plug has an upwardly-extending tubular projection ,b4 ,the upper end of the cylinder has a cap ,c1 open centrally1 and having an opening formed by a downwardly-projecting tube ,d1 and this has a contracted throat as at ,e4 ,,the ,,mixing ,,chamber4--,the exterior of the downwardly-projecting cap tube1 is turned up true1 and fits into the tubular extension ,b4 ,the particular feature of this sketch is to show the adjustment of the needle valve which admits the gasoline1 and the relative position of the float4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh4 ,carbureter ,float and ,needle4 ,,the ,,float ,,chamber4--,the circularly-formed chamber ,g1 within which the float operates1 contains the liquid fuel4 ,the inner end of the plug ,b has a cross duct ,i1 and centrally is an upwardly-projecting tubular extension ,j1 the bore being flaring1 as shown1 and in this the needle valve ,k rests and is made adjustable at its upper threaded end4 ,when the needle valve is raised1 gasoline flows through the duct ,i upwardly past the flaring orifice1 in ,j1 and air is permitted to flow in through the openings ,i around the central tube ,j1 so that the air and gasoline meet above the upper end of the tube4 ,,the ,,venturi ,,tube4--,the inwardly-projecting part ,e constitutes what is called a venturi tube1 the upwardly-rushing air between the contracted opening formed around the tube at this point being such that when the two fluids meet and spread out in the enlarged opening above1 the particles of gasoline are not only broken up minutely1 but are intimately mixed with the air4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gi4 ,carbureter ,inlet ,valve4 ,,the ,,inlet ,,valve4--,now if this chamber ,g has at one side an extension1 like ,l1 ,fig4 #gi1 means may be provided for adding a valve to be controlled by the float4 ,within the extension is an upwardly-moving needle valve ,m1 which is designed to close the duct which leads from the gasoline supply4 ,between the valve and the float is the fulcrum ,o1 of a lever ,n1 the short end of which engages with the upper end of the valve and the long end rests on the float ,h1 as shown4 ,the movement of the float above the predetermined point has the effect of seating the needle valve ,m1 thus cutting off the inflow of gasoline until that in the chamber ,g is drawn out so that the float descends and again admits a fresh supply4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4 ,carbureter ,discharge ,port4 ,thus far we have the fuel oil control1 together with the manner in which the primary air supply is introduced4 ,we shall now go a step further1 and illustrate the mixing chamber1 discharge and throttle4 ,,the ,,throttle ,,valve4--,referring to ,fig4 #hj it will be seen that directly above the venturi tube described1 is a space ,o4 ,this is the mixing chamber1 which has an outlet ,p to the left1 which connects with the engine cylinders4 ,within this tube is a throttle valve ,q1 operated by the throttle lever on the steering wheel of the car4 ,it is simply a disk which fits into the interior of the conduit and is adapted to be turned by a stem ,r1 on which it is mounted4 ,while the lower inlets ,k are designed to supply the primary air for carburetion1 it is found necessary to admit a secondary supply1 and this should be taken into the mixing chamber directly instead of passing the tube which conveys the oil4 ,,the ,,secondary ,,air ,,supply4--,the particular reasons for thus admitting the air may be explained as follows3 ,when the engine draws in a supply of carbureted air1 more or less of a vacuum is brought about in the mixing chamber ,o4 ,the faster the engine runs the richer will the mixture become1 because the additional suction draws in an increasing quantity of gasoline1 but the throat of the tube does not change1 and the requisite1 proportionate quantity of air does not follow1 so that the mixture has too much fuel for the air4 ,,automatic ,,admission ,,of ,,secondary ,,air4--,if the engine should be speeded up so twice the amount of oil is drawn into the mixing chamber1 the additional suction will not1 at the same time1 draw in twice the amount of air4 ,this necessitates a provision whereby the secondary air shall be admitted automatically only at times when the suction exceeds the normal requirement1 or to prevent too rich a mixture1 which is explained by reference to ,fig4 #hj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ha4 ,carbureter ,secondary ,air ,inlet4 ,the extension ,s1 on the right side of the shell1 has an opening ,t1 with a seat to receive a weighted valve1 like a ball ,u1 preferably reinforced by a spring ,v1 which is capable of having its pressure on the seat regulated by an adjusting screw ,w4 ,it will be obvious1 therefore1 that during the normal action of the engine suction1 no air will enter the duct ,t2 but when an undue vacuum exists in the chamber ,o1 the ball valve ,u is raised1 and additional air is supplied to the carbureted air within the chamber4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hb4 ,complete ,carbureter4 ,,carbureter ,,adjustment4--,each of these four elements has some particular method of adjustment1 as will be more particularly noticed in the completely assembled carbureter1 made up of the foregoing illustrations1 in which the details are refined and shown as actually made in one of the well known types of carbureters4 ,fig4 #hb shows the different parts arranged in a practical manner1 in which the regulating arm for controlling the throttle1 as well as the secondary air supply and the gasoline inlets are capable of being adjusted by special means4 ,,special ,,points ,,concerning ,,carbureters4--,a rich mixture is undesirable1 except in the case of heavy loads and at slow speed1 for various reasons4 ,it does not burn quickly1 or explode as readily as a lean one1 and owing to the slow combustion the temperature in the engine cylinder remains high to the end of the stroke4 ,,thin ,,mixtures4--,on the other hand1 a thin mixture will compress better and burn with greater facility1 and at the same time heat the cylinder less than the rich mixture1 to say nothing of the saving in fuel4 ,it has long been recognized that a carbureter will not act uniformly with all engines4 ,some have better compression than others1 and some have more efficient sparking means4 ,this has a bearing on the character of the fuel delivered to the cylinders4 ,,speeds ,,and ,,mixtures4--,there is also a wide difference in the performances of engines at high and at low speeds1 as to the quality of the mixtures required1 so it will be seen that a carbureter which is capable of being controlled for all emergencies1 is the one to select4 ,above all1 the structure should be such that the valves can be easily taken out for inspection and repairs4 ,it is impossible to prevent grit from finding its way into the gasoline1 and it is astonishing how the smallest piece of fiber1 finding a lodgment in a valve1 will disarrange the entire power system4 ,,surface ,,carbureter4--,these devices depend on presenting as large an area of gasoline as possible1 and then conducting the air flow over the surface so as to take up the volatile hydro-carbon4 ,,the ,,float4--,such devices also require a float to regulate the inflow of fuel1 and the distinctive feature of construction depends on increasing or decreasing the area so exposed to the moving air column4 ,fig4 #hc shows a well-known type of this character which is a combination spray and surface carbureter4 ,a ,u-shaped tube ,a1 with the air inlet at ,b1 and discharge at ,c1 has a butterfly valve ,d in its latter end4 ,below the ,u-shaped bend1 is a reservoir ,e to contain a float ,f1 vertically-movable around a central stem ,g which is part of and projects down from the ,u-shaped tube4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc4 ,surface ,carbureter4 ,through this stem ,g is a duct ,h1 the lower end of which communicates with the gasoline reservoir1 or float chamber1 and the upper end has a small orifice leading to the ,u-shaped tube4 ,a valve stem ,i is adapted to regulate the inflow of gasoline through the duct4 ,,the ,,gasoline ,,inlet4--,at one side of the reservoir is an extension ,j1 within which is a vertically disposed needle valve ,k1 seated in the duct ,i1 by way of which gasoline is admitted4 ,a lever ,m1 pivoted at ,n1 has one end attached to the float ,f1 and the other end is in engagement with the needle valve ,k4 ,the float is so arranged as to permit the gasoline to flow up into the ,u-shaped tube ,a1 and form a small pool of the fuel before it closes the needle valve ,k4 ,,securing ,,surface ,,for ,,air ,,contact4--,directly above the oil inlet duct ,h1 the ,u-shaped tube is contracted by a downwardly-projecting wall ,p1 the object being to compel all the passing air to intimately come into contact with the gasoline pool1 and thus take up as much vapor as possible4 ,in this arrangement the suction of the engine does not draw up the gasoline from the reservoir1 but all the energy is expended in moving air through the tube1 and past the contracted throat4 ,in starting the engine the float is momentarily depressed by the pin ,q1 and a drain duct ,r is provided to prevent flooding of the tube ,a4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,ignition ,,systems ,the universal use of electricity as a means of igniting the fuel in gasoline motors1 makes it necessary that the novice should know something of the fundamentals of the science4 ,,seeing ,,the ,,effect ,,of ,,electricity4--,while it is impossible to see a current1 there are certain mechanical devices which enables it to be seen by the effects produced on them4 ,one of these devices is the armature which1 if placed across the poles of a horseshoe magnet1 will adhere to the magnet1 by means of its magnetic pull4 ,another exhibition is the spark caused by separating the contact point of a conductor through which a current is flowing1 causing a spark4 ,,action ,,of ,a ,,current4--,the current flowing over a wire acts substantially the same as water flowing through a pipe1 that is1 the quantity is dependent on the size of the wire1 just as in water where the diameter of the pipe determines the flow4 ,,amperes ,,and ,,volts4--,water may flow sluggishly through a pipe1 or be forced through with great violence4 ,so with an electric current4 ,pressure1 therefore1 expresses the second similarity in the two mediums4 ,the quantity of flow in an electric current is called amperes and the pressure is designated as volts4 ,,conductivity4--,all metals conduct a current with greater or less facility4 ,silver is the best conductor1 followed by copper4 ,german silver offers a great resistance1 and many alloys offer greater or less opposition to the flow4 ,,resistance4--,the length of a wire also serves to check the flow1 and this may be overcome by enlarging the size of the wire1 or by increasing the pressure1 or voltage4 ,,generating ,,electricity4--,a current may be generated by a dynamo1 or by means of cells4 ,the dynamo derives its motion from an engine1 which turns1 what is called1 the armature past a number of magnets1 called the field4 ,the armature contains a series of wire wrappings1 extending around from end to end1 and the field is composed of metallic heads1 each carrying a coil4 ,,magnetic ,,field4--,when these coils have a current flowing through them the heads become magnetized1 and have what is called a magnetic field surrounding them and extending out some distance1 and the armature coils pass through these magnetic fields4 ,as these wires cut the lines of force in the magnetic fields1 a current is set up in the armature1 and as the armature windings are connected up with the lead and the return wires which transmit the current1 it will be seen that the strength1 or pressure of the current depends on the speed of the armature movement4 ,,batteries4--,the other method of generating a current is to use a jar of electrolyte1 a liquid which may be either an acid or a salt solution4 ,if certain metals which are opposite to each other1 are placed in this solution1 a chemical action takes place1 which results in producing current1 and this may be shown by connecting together the two metals by a wire outside of the jar4 ,,metallic ,,couples4--,within the jar the solution serves as the conductor between the two metals4 ,copper and zinc are two good metal couples1 in which zinc is the positive1 and copper the negative4 ,as zinc is readily eaten away by the action of the electrolyte1 carbon is used instead4 ,,what ,,determines ,,voltage4--,each cell with the two metals1 will furnish approximately two volts4 ,it is immaterial whether the cell contains a pint or a gallon of liquid1 or what the size of the plates may be4 ,in any event the pressure will not be greater than two volts4 ,,controlling ,,amperage4--,but the metal plates may be made very large1 or have a great surface in each cell4 ,the greater the surface the greater the amperage1 so that while each cell has only two volts1 it may have a very small amperage1 or it may have two1 five1 ten1 or even more amperes flowing therefrom4 ,,dry ,,batteries4--,instead of using cells with liquid in them1 as the electrolyte1 a dry cell is made which acts efficiently4 ,this is usually made in the form of a zinc cup1 within which is centrally held a carbon rod1 and the space around the rod is filled with ground carbon and dioxide of manganese1 and moistened with sal ammoniac4 ,,cell ,,construction4--,the zinc cell and the carbon have upwardly-projecting posts to which the wires are attached1 and when thus made the top of the cup is closed with pitch1 or some suitable preparation to prevent evaporation and to retain the substances within1 and the whole is then inclosed in a jacket1 usually of pasteboard4 ,usually these cells give one and a half volts1 and are very durable4 ,this is1 of course1 a very low voltage1 and it is necessary1 for this reason1 to use at least a half dozen1 to operate the coil used in an ignition system4 ,,connecting ,,up ,,cells4--,if we have a number of cells they can be connected with each other so as to get an additional voltage as well as greater amperage4 ,this statement must be understood in a definite way4 ,supposing we have six cells1 each with an output of #a-a_/b volts1 and an ampere flow of #be in each4 ,multiplying #be by #i makes #bbe watts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hd4 ,series ,wiring4 ,we may connect up the six cells in such a way that we can get ,first3 #i volts1 and #be amperes1 equal to #bbe watts1 or1 ,second3 #a-a_/b volts and #aej amperes1 equal to #bbe watts1 or1 ,third3 #d-a_/b volts and #ej amperes1 also equal to #bbe watts4 ,in either case1 you will see we have #bbe watts4 ,these three windings are designated as series1 parallel1 and series multiple4 ,,the ,,series ,,connection4--,the illustration1 ,fig4 #hd1 shows the series winding4 ,here the positive wire ,b is connected with the carbon pole ,c1 and the wire ,d1 wired up with the zinc pole1 ,e1 the connections being made directly through each cell1 to the outlet wire ,f4 ,now1 as we have six cells1 the combined voltage is #a-a_/b #f #i volts4 ,as1 however1 all the cells now act as one cell1 the amperage is just the same as of one cell1 namely1 #be4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #he4 ,parallel ,wiring4 ,,the ,,parallel ,,connection4--,fig4 #he shows the parallel connection4 ,here all the carbon terminals ,a are connected together in series by a wire ,b1 and all the zinc terminals ,c by a wire ,d4 ,in this method the voltage of the battery is the same as that of a single cell1 but the amperage is the same as that of a single cell multiplied by the number of cells1 namely1 #be amperes #f4 ,,series ,,multiple ,,connection4--,the series multiple1 ,fig4 #hf1 is so arranged as to form two distinct batteries1 #a and #b4 ,each battery is connected up in series1 by means of the wires ,a1 which join the carbon and zinc4 ,in this way we have at one end a pair of carbon terminals which are joined by a wire ,b1 and at the other end a pair of zinc terminals1 joined by a wire ,c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf4 ,multiple ,wiring4 ,if1 now1 these two wires ,b ,c are put into circuit with each other1 as illustrated by the wires ,d1 we shall have a form of battery which will have the voltage equal to the voltage of one cell multiplied by the cells in either battery #a or #b4 ,this is #a-a_/b volts #c1 equal to #d-a_/b4 ,the amperage1 on the other hand1 is found by that of one cell multiplied by the number of batteries4 ,this is #be amperes #b1 equal to #ej4 ,this1 if well understood1 will enable the user1 for instance1 to strengthen a battery1 where it is weak1 by connecting it up in series multiple1 instead of in parallel4 ,naturally1 the cells in the series should be of equal strength and should be frequently tested1 to find where the weakness is4 ,if the combined amperage is below the minimum1 considering the time it has been in use1 it is possible the cause is due to a weak cell1 which takes from others1 instead of giving4 ,this should be replaced4 ,,storage ,,batteries4--,the matter pertaining to these batteries is fully set forth in connection with ,electric vehicles1 in a subsequent chapter4 ,primary as well as storage batteries may be used for ignition purposes1 the object being to obtain a form of battery which shall have a constant and reliable output1 and give a reasonable service in point of time4 ,,the ,,sparking ,,methods4--,automobiles are equipped with either the low or the high tension system4 ,any circuit having a small voltage is termed low tension1 to distinguish it from a high tension1 or high voltage4 ,when a current passes along a conductor1 no visible effect is produced1 unless the voltage should be too great for the carrying wire4 ,in that case it will heat the conductor to redness and thus enable the eye to see it4 ,the heat is thus caused by resistance4 ,,air ,,resistance4--,air has resistance1 the same as all other substances4 ,it is1 in fact an absolute non-conductor1 so that with an ordinary current1 such as is used for electric lighting1 the separated ends of a conductor may be placed very close together and the current would not leap across4 ,,make ,,and ,,break ,,spark4--,on the other hand1 even with the weakest current1 if the two ends are brought into contact1 and then separated1 a spark will follow1 due to the flow of the current which is interrupted at the breaking of the contact1 and the effort of the current to keep on flowing through the wire4 ,this is called the low tension system1 or the make and break method of ignition1 where the act of breaking the circuit produces the spark and ignites the charge4 ,the high tension system1 on the other hand1 depends on producing a current of sufficient pressure to be able to make the current leap across the small gap which is formed between the ends of the conductor4 ,,the ,,spark ,,plug4--,the mechanical device with the separated conductor ends1 where the spark is produced1 is called the spark plug1 and must be located within the cylinder of the engine4 ,the gap is between the separated ends of the conductor within the plug1 is usually about one thirty-second of an inch4 ,,how ,,produced4--,the low tension may be produced either by a primary or a storage battery1 or by a magneto designed for the purpose4 ,this requires some consideration of the meaning and construction of a magneto4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hg4 ,dynamo ,connection4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh4 ,magneto4 ,,the ,,magneto4--,this device is simply a dynamo1 structurally1 but it differs in this respect3 ,what is called the field1 or the cores around which the wires of the field are wound1 are made of permanent magnets4 ,the ordinary dynamo has merely soft iron1 which is demagnetized as soon as the current ceases to flow in the field windings4 ,the permanent magnet cores are made of hardened steel1 the same as is done with horse shoe magnets1 and others of that class1 whereby they are enabled to retain the magnetic charge4 ,a dynamo must have its fields energized4 ,,difference ,,between ,,dynamo ,,and ,,magneto4--,fig4 #hg will give an idea of the difference between the two4 ,in the dynamo the pole pieces ,a of the field have the ends of their windings ,b connected to the brushes ,c1 and the circuit wires ,d for the electric lights are connected with the brushes4 ,on the other hand1 the magneto with its field #a of a permanent magnet1 the armature #b is in a permanent magnetic field1 so that the current can be taken directly from the brushes #c by the wires #d1 as in ,fig4 #hh4 ,,advantages ,,of ,,magneto4--,owing to the permanent magnetized character of the field1 it operates more satisfactory for ignition purposes on an automobile than a regular type of dynamo4 ,the dynamo should be driven at a regular speed1 whereas the magneto can be driven at any speed1 as it is not self regulating1 like the magneto4 ,however1 dynamos are used for the purpose1 but in that case they are provided with mechanical means for giving them a regular motion4 ,,different ,,kinds ,,of ,,magnetos4--,there are two general types of magnetos2 first those which have rotating armature2 and second1 those with stationary armatures and revolving inductors4 ,the high tension type is provided with a self-contained coil1 or it may have a high tension coil separate from the magneto4 ,the low tension magneto has an armature of fairly thick wire1 one end of the wire being grounded to the armature core and the other connected with a terminal which is insulated from the magneto4 ,from these two points the current is distributed4 ,in the high tension magneto two coils are necessary1 one called the primary1 and the other the secondary4 ,the primary generates a low pressure current1 and the secondary a high tension1 and the spark is produced by the latter4 ,,igniters4--,in the low tension system an igniter must be placed in the head of the engine cylinder which will mechanically make and break the circuit2 but in the high tension device a spark plug is available1 the points of which are stationary and in close contact with each other4 ,for the foregoing reasons1 therefore1 while the low tension is very simple so far as the wiring is concerned1 the mechanical devices necessary to make and break1 are somewhat difficult and complicated4 ,the high tension wiring is much more complex1 but it has the advantage that no mechanism is necessary in the engine except the spark plug4 ,,high ,,tension ,,coils4--,before proceeding to an explanation of the systems referred to1 we shall explain the action and operation of the high tension coils4 ,these coils depend for their action on what is called inductance4 ,suppose two wires lie side by side1 but not touching each other1 and a current of electricity is sent through one of these wires1 which we will call the primary1 the other1 called the secondary1 will take a current from the primary4 ,if the wires are the same size1 and of the same material1 the current in the two wires will be of substantially the same potentiality4 ,by this is meant that they will have the same amperage and voltage4 ,,inductance4--,but assuming that the primary wire is larger than the secondary1 then the current carried by inductance across the space between the two wires will be changed in the secondary so that it has a larger voltage1 but a correspondingly lower amperage4 ,this is what high tension means4 ,the convenient way to arrange these wires parallel with each other1 is to wind the two different size wires on the same core1 in which the coarse wire1 which forms the primary1 is first wound around the core1 and on this is wound the fine wire4 ,,constructing ,a ,,coil4--,such a coil is shown in section in ,fig4 #hi1 in which the core ,a is a hard rubber or fiber tube1 with disk ends ,b of the same material4 ,the primary wire ,c is large in cross section1 and carefully insulated4 ,the opposite ends are brought out through the disk heads1 and run to the generator1 that is1 the battery or dynamo4 ,the fine wire ,d1 which constitutes the secondary winding1 is also of insulated wire1 wrapped over the primary1 and its ends are connected up with the sparking mechanism1 as will be more fully explained hereinafter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hi4 ,induction ,coil4 ,a ,,simple ,,high ,,tension ,,sparking ,,system4--,with such a coil1 of proper size1 and adapted to receive the required current1 several things are necessary in order to produce a sparking effect4 ,,condenser4--,one of these is a condenser1 which1 while a spark can be produced without it1 is nevertheless an important element4 ,the office of a condenser is to absorb a certain amount of current4 ,it will be remembered that the drawing apart of the points in a conductor1 produced a spark4 ,now in the secondary current1 of the high tension system1 is an interrupter1 a mechanism that makes and breaks the circuit continuously4 ,,interrupter4--,whenever the interrupter opens the circuit1 the condenser absorbs the surging current produced by the break1 so that it acts like a storage battery in the system4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ij4 ,high ,tension ,circuit4 ,the interrupter may be made something like the mechanism of an electric bell1 in which the current is interrupted as the clapper moves back and forth4 ,by referring to ,fig4 #ij a comprehensive idea may be obtained of a high tension system for igniting the compressed fuel in a gasoline engine4 ,,arrangement ,,of ,a ,,high ,,tension ,,system4--,the dynamo ,a1 or the battery1 as the case may be1 is connected up with the primary coil ,b1 by means of the circuit wires ,c4 ,the secondary coil ,d1 which is1 of course1 wound around the primary ,b1 in practice1 has one of its terminals ,e extending to what we shall call the spark plug ,f4 ,the other terminal ,g1 of the secondary coil1 also extends to the spark plug ,f1 there being1 of course1 a gap between the two ends of these wires in the spark plug4 ,now1 close up to the secondary1 ,d1 is a condenser ,h1 the terminals of which are connected up with the two wires ,e ,g1 and between the condenser and the spark plug ,f1 is the interrupter ,i4 ,,the ,,high ,,tension ,,connections4--,with this understanding of the action of the magneto1 the accompanying sketch of a high tension system will be understood4 ,the magneto ,a1 ,fig4 #ia1 has on its armature shaft ,b1 two distributer rings ,c ,d1 which form the terminals for the two wires ,e ,f1 which run out from the armature winding4 ,c is connected by metallic contact with this shaft1 and ,d insulated therefrom4 ,also1 alongside of the ring ,d1 is the interrupter wheel ,g which engages the finger ,h1 and thus interrupts the circuit4 ,above the armature shaft1 and parallel therewith1 is a shaft ,i1 turned at half the armature shaft by means of the two gear wheels ,j ,k4 ,on the end of this shaft is a finger ,j1 revoluble therewith1 and this engages successively with four contact plates ,k1 each plate being connected with a spark plug in the engine1 assuming1 of course1 that there are four cylinders in the engine4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ia4 ,high ,tension ,connections4 ,the ring ,c has its contact finger connected by a wire ,l with one end of a primary coil ,m1 while the other terminal has a wire ,n which goes to one terminal of the interrupter ,g4 ,the other outlet of the interrupter is connected up with the contact finger of the other collector ring ,d4 ,this contact finger also has a wire connection ,p with one terminal of a condenser ,q1 the other end of the condenser being connected with the wire ,n1 running from the primary coil ,m4 ,,the ,,secondary ,,coil4--,the secondary1 or high tension coil ,r1 has one end grounded1 which means that it is connected up with the metal of the engine1 and the other terminal is connected by a wire ,t1 with the finger ,j on the distributer disk4 ,in operation1 we will assume that the current leaves the armature over the wire ,e2 it has two paths1 one through ring ,d1 wire ,o1 and interrupter ,g1 back to the other wire ,f of the armature2 or1 after passing the ring ,d it may pass over ,o1 to the interrupter1 then through wire ,n1 primary coil ,m1 and wire ,l1 back to the armature4 ,,operation ,,of ,,system4--,the revoluble disk of the interrupter ,g is so arranged that when the armature has the greatest current intensity it is opened by its turning movement1 so that the current is compelled to take the last named course through the primary coil ,m1 and at the same time a certain portion of the current is absorbed by the condenser ,q4 ,this intense charge of the current in the primary induces a high tension current in the secondary coil ,r1 and the result is that the current from the secondary goes through the wire ,t to the finger ,j1 and from the finger ,j to the contact plate ,k1 and to the particular spark plug which happens to be connected up by one of the wires ,u with that plate4 ,,the ,,spark ,,gap4--,the current in leaping over the gap made by the spark plug1 goes through the engine metal to the other end of the secondary coil ,r1 at the place indicated by ,s4 ,it should be understood that the coils ,m ,r are in a separate box1 and usually placed in a convenient position in the machine4 ,the diagram illustrating the foregoing1 is designed merely to show in a simple manner1 how the different mechanical and electrical parts are connected up together4 ,,function ,,of ,,the ,,interrupter4--,the interrupter ,g1 while placed in the primary circuit1 necessarily controls not only the primary1 but also the secondary circuit4 ,it should not be confounded with the distributer to which the wire ,t runs from the secondary coil4 ,the office of the interrupter is to break the primary circuit of the magneto at a time when a spark is required1 and the duty of the distributer is to have its finger ,j in such a position at that particular time as to make the connection in the secondary circuit with the particular spark plug which requires a spark4 ,,vibratory ,,coils4--,the secondary coil may be so constructed that it will give only a single spark at each impulse1 or a plurality of them1 and many argue that the latter is more efficient for that reason4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ib4 ,vibratory ,coil4 ,the diagram1 ,fig4 #ib will show how this type of secondary is made and operated4 ,the induction coil has a core ,a of soft iron1 and at one end is an armature ,b1 mounted on the end of a spring finger ,c1 this finger being attached to a binding post ,d4 ,the spring ,c holds the armature ,b normally out of contact with the end of the core ,a1 and in contact with the end of an adjusting screw ,e which screws through a post ,f4 ,the primary coil has one of its ends connected up with the binding post ,d1 by a wire ,g2 and the other terminal of the primary1 has a wire ,h which goes to the battery ,i1 and from the battery to the post ,f1 through wire ,j4 ,a condenser ,k is placed intermediate the two wires ,g ,j1 by the connections ,l ,m4 ,the wire ,h has a switch ,n in its line1 as shown1 and the secondary coil ,o is wound around the primary in the usual manner4 ,,operation ,,of ,,vibratory ,,coil4--,the operation is as follows3 ,when the switch ,n is closed the current from the battery goes through the primary coil1 wire ,g1 spring finger ,c1 and wire ,j back to the battery which originated the energy4 ,the result of this current is to magnetize the core ,a1 and thus draw the armature ,b away from the adjusting screw ,e1 thereby breaking the primary circuit1 which demagnetizes the core1 and the spring finger returns and again establishes a circuit4 ,this action of the vibrating armature is exactly similar to the electric bell1 but there is one important addition1 and that is the condenser ,k which is added to the familiar mechanism1 and the uses of which should be explained in connection with this apparatus4 ,,surging ,,movement ,,of ,,current4--,whenever a primary current is broken1 a surging effect takes place4 ,when the break occurs the strength of the field or force in the armature winding rapidly decreases1 and when the connection is again made this force rapidly increases4 ,this objection of the current to constantly change its current strength1 produces what is called self inductance4 ,,timing ,,device4--,the current in the secondary1 which makes the spark1 at the time the break occurs1 depends for its strength on the rapidity with which the strength of the primary goes down1 so that a timing device is used on a plain or ordinary coil to effect this4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ic4 ,contact ,maker4 ,in the vibratory coil1 however1 the object is to make the break with exceeding rapidity so there will be a series of sparks1 instead of only a single one at each break4 ,,contact ,,makers4--,this device is designed to afford a means whereby a circuit is closed1 and broken only at the time a spark is made4 ,a type of this device is shown in ,fig4 #ic4 ,it is simply a case ,a1 usually attached to the gear box of an engine1 which serves as the journal bearing for a shaft ,b1 which enters at one side1 and drives a cam ,c4 ,within the case is a spring finger ,d1 attached to a binding post ,e1 and the free end of the spring has an ,a-shaped contact point ,f which is designed to enter the ,v-shaped notch of the cam1 as the latter turns4 ,to prevent the ,a-shaped projection from coming into contact with the cam when the ,v-shaped portion is opposite1 an adjustable screw ,g is provided1 which screws through a bushing of insulating material secured to the case4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #id4 ,contact ,breaker4 ,the current is through the adjusting screw1 spring finger ,d1 and binding post ,e4 ,by this construction the circuit is broken during the entire revolution of the cam1 except when the notch in the cam appears at the ,a-shaped contact point4 ,,the ,,contact ,,breaker4--,compare this with the contact breaker shown in ,fig4 #id4 ,the case is also provided to receive the end of a journal ,a1 which rotates a cam4 ,in this case the cam ,b has an ,a-shaped projection ,c4 ,this projection comes into contact only momentarily with the anti-friction wheel ,d on one end of a lever ,e1 which is pivoted midway between its ends to the case4 ,the free end of the lever is normally held out of contact with a terminal ,f1 by means of a spring ,g4 ,the terminal is insulated from the case4 ,by this arrangement the circuit is closed at all times except during that short period when the point ,c is in contact with the wheel ,d4 ,,sparking ,,plugs4--,much of the difficulty of satisfactory running is due to the sparking plug which contains the small points1 on which everything in the power system depends4 ,the intense heat generated at that point by the secondary coil tends to destroy them1 so that the points should be larger when used with a magneto1 and they should be closer together than if used wholly with a battery4 ,,testing ,,plugs4--,this is a simple matter1 and in so-called engine troubles1 this is generally the first thing considered4 ,it should be unscrewed and laid on the cylinder so it is in metallic contact4 ,the character of the spark exhibited1 when the engine is cranked1 will show whether or not the fault is due to the plug or to the electrical source4 ,if no spark is obtained then the electrical system must be examined4 ,commence at the battery4 ,when the engine is on the sparking point and the primary switch closed1 the terminals of the suspected wires may be touched by a test wire and if a current then flows it will indicate a break at that point4 ,,short ,,circuiting ,,faults4--,a short circuit is one where the path of the current is from the lead to the return wire at some point between the battery1 or source of electrical energy1 and the coil or other mechanism which is to be operated by the electricity4 ,when this occurs the first thing is to examine the conductors and ascertain whether the insulation is intact4 ,sometimes the insulation becomes worn or frayed1 and it is not infrequent for the ends of the wire1 where attached to the binding post to spread out1 where the conductor is made up of a lot of small wires1 and some of them touch the metal alongside of the binding post4 ,,short ,,circuiting ,,of ,,secondary ,,wires4--,the secondary wires often cause short circuiting by lying too close to the metal of the engine or case4 ,great care should be observed to use the best insulated wire1 and to see that they are free from dangerous contact4 ,stranded cables are better for all wiring purposes1 as vibration will not affect the screws which hold them at the contacts4 ,a solid wire will cause a constant jar1 and affect all connections4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,automobile ,,accessories ,self-starting devices are the latest permanent addition to a perfect car equipment4 ,two general types are being made1 one purely mechanical in its character1 and the other operated by the engine itself4 ,the mechanical devices usually have some connection with the forwardly-projecting end of the crank shaft1 where the present cranking shaft is located1 and some of the inventions in this respect have an arrangement whereby the driver is able manually to operate the starter from his seat4 ,the actual work of turning the shaft is now performed by compressed air which actuates mechanism that gives from one to two turns to the shaft1 sufficient to ignite the fuel in several of the cylinders4 ,,simple ,,type ,,of ,,starter4--,the simplest type of starter is that which utilizes the cylinders themselves to give the initial turns4 ,to illustrate the matter we have given some sketches of the engine cycle1 in ,fig4 #ie4 ,the four positions of the piston in a four-cylinder engine are so placed that the spark cannot ignite the charge in either cylinder4 ,cylinders #a and #b are descending1 and #c and #d are ascending4 ,the charge in #d is partially compressed1 but it must reach the position indicated by the dotted lines ,a before it can be ignited4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ie4 ,starting ,mechanism4 ,the sparking mechanism was cut off before the cylinder #a reached its highest point1 at the previous stopping of the car1 so that it still has an unexploded charge2 and piston #c is now discharging the gas from that cylinder4 ,as the engine is now at rest1 the problem is to supply a charge to cylinder #a1 or a pressure of sufficient strength to turn the engine shaft so that the piston in #a will be brought up to the explosion line ,a4 ,it is accomplished in the following manner3 ,one or more of the engine cylinders is connected up by a small pipe with a storage tank1 located at any convenient point1 so that at each explosion a portion of the charge in the cylinders goes into the tank1 where it is held by a check valve4 ,,the ,,distributer4--,this tank is connected with a distributer1 which controls the pressure flow to the different cylinders4 ,in ,fig4 #ia the distributer would send this pressure to cylinder ,no4 #a4 ,the opening of a valve readily accomplishes this1 and if the charge in ,no4 #d should not explode1 the next in order to get the compressed gas from the tank1 would be cylinder #d1 which would bring cylinder #c into position for firing4 ,as soon as ignition takes place1 the driver merely shuts off the valve1 and no further attention is required to operate it4 ,,lighting4--,most cars depend for illumination on the use of compressed gas usually1 some form of acetylene1 which makes a brilliant light1 and is not expensive4 ,the best cars1 however1 are also equipped with electricity1 some depending on storage batteries1 and others on current generated on the car itself4 ,there is nothing in either system that requires any special explanation1 nor are they difficult to care for and operate4 ,,signaling4--,it has been the custom for drivers1 in approaching corners1 or street intersections1 to hold out the right hand as a sign that a turn is to be made to the right1 or the left hand for a turn in the other direction4 ,,car ,,signals4--,numerous devices are now on the market designed to be located both in front and in rear of the vehicle1 which are intended to indicate direction1 as well as to impart other information4 ,these signals are under control of the driver1 and have signs on them which indicate 8stop10 8right10 8left10 or other words which conspicuously display the intention of the driver4 ,all machines have signaling horns of some character1 operated1 usually1 by some mechanical arrangement connected with the gearing or by compressed air1 and others are connected up with the engine exhaust4 ,chime whistles are so operated4 ,,speed ,,signals4--,other inventions are designed to indicate1 by automatic mechanism1 the speed of the car1 in which color displays the relative speed4 ,thus1 a car going at the normal speed1 say #aj miles per hour1 would show a white light2 from #aj to #ae miles1 blue2 from #ae to #bj miles1 green2 and above that speed1 red4 ,the foregoing colors and speeds are arbitrarily selected1 merely to show the ideas involved4 ,the device in question has nothing whatever to do with the regular speed registering mechanism of the car1 but is designed to show pedestrians and police officials the actual running speed at a glance4 ,,mufflers4--,there is really no excuse for noisy automobiles4 ,mufflers are now made which absolutely eliminate all noise from the exhaust4 ,the great difficulty in the past has been to make them sufficiently large for the engine4 ,if too small they do not take care of the exhaust properly1 and they also serve to check the flow of the exhaust gases from the engine1 and thus greatly decrease the power of the engine4 ,,exhaust4--,all racing engines are made without exhausts1 so there will be nothing to retard the flow of the exhaust4 ,the function of the muffler is to receive the exhaust gas and permit it to expand as nearly as possible down to atmospheric pressure before delivering it to the air4 ,fig4 #if shows the simplest form in which it can be made4 ,,construction ,,of ,,muffler4--,the inner pipe ,a1 from the engine exhaust1 passes axially through a cylinder ,b1 the pipe1 however1 being closed at its inner end where it is attached to the head ,c4 ,numerous small holes ,d are formed through this pipe for the escape of the burnt gases4 ,within the cylinder ,b is a smaller cylinder ,e1 surrounding the inner tube4 ,this has one end attached to the head ,c1 and its other end is open so as to provide a passage way ,f from the interior of the cylinder4 ,the discharge ports are at ,g1 through the head ,c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #if4 ,muffler4 ,almost any design of muffler is serviceable1 if it has sufficient area4 ,however large it may be it is always advisable to have a valve in the pipe ,a from the engine manifold1 so the muffler can be cut out going up steep hills4 ,,ball ,,and ,,roller ,,bearings4--,all running gears are provided with either ball1 or roller bearings4 ,for heavy vehicles roller bearings are most serviceable1 but for light vehicles and for speed most manufacturers prefer ball-bearings4 ,,race ,,ways4--,the object in the use of balls1 is to provide two1 three1 or four points of contact1 which should be so arranged as to have the paths of the bearings of equal lengths1 as nearly as possible1 and thus prevent the balls from wearing by creeping along the contact walls1 and also thereby wearing the paths on which they travel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ig4 #c-,point ,roller ,bearing4 ,,the ,,three-,,point ,,contact4--,to understand the full importance of this1 examine ,fig4 #ig1 in which ,a is the roller1 or shaft1 and ,b the hub having the raceway ,c designed to hold the balls ,d1 and gives two points of contact1 the third point being the shaft ,a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ih4 ,wrong ,bearing4 ,compare the foregoing figure with the illustration given in ,fig4 #ih1 where the contact points ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 represent the three bearing circles1 which differ in their circumference1 and it is obvious that a ball in traveling around must slip somewhere on one or more of the paths ,a1 ,b1 ,c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ii4 ,improper ,alinement4 ,,wrong ,,construction4--,another sample of wrong construction is shown in ,fig4 #ii4 ,in this diagram the three bearing points ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 also represent circles of different diameters1 which are sure to wear grooves in the three paths made by the balls4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,correct ,raceways4 ,the most ideal form of bearing is shown in ,fig4 #ajj1 which represents the four-point contact1 and this also provides against longitudinal thrust of the shaft or axle4 ,,roller ,,bearings4--,this type of bearing is ideal because of the large surface which is available4 ,the difficulty is to keep the rollers parallel1 with the shaft4 ,furthermore1 they should not roll in contact with each other4 ,to obviate this the rollers are put into a cage4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aja4 ,cage for ,roller ,bearing4 ,,form ,,of ,,roller ,,bearing4--,fig4 #aja shows a side and a cross section of a set of rollers held within a cage formed of two end rings ,a ,a1 each roller ,b having at its end a reduced bearing ,c1 and intermediate the rollers are tie rods ,d1 which keep the rings in proper relation to each other1 and also prevent them from alining themselves diagonally along the shaft1 or against the bearing within the boxing4 ,to provide means for utilizing roller bearings so they will take up end thrust1 taper rollers are employed1 as shown in ,fig4 #ajb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,roller ,bearing4 ,the shaft1 or axle1 ,a1 has two runways1 ,b1 ,c1 which are conically-formed1 and inclined toward each other4 ,the rollers ,d are tapering1 and have their small ends pointed towards each other so that the outer ends of the bearing surfaces ,e of the hub are at a considerable angle to the axis of the shaft4 ,these rollers are also mounted in cages which turn around the shaft4 ,this structure1 in a modified form1 is largely used in automobile construction4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,running ,,an ,,automobile ,don't look to de right1 don't look to de left2 ,but keep in de middle ob de road4 ,this couplet formed part of an old song long before the automobile was known4 ,it serves as a text for some advice in running a machine4 ,when a novice takes out a car for the first time he feels pretty safe in the block intermediate the crossings1 and it is only when he comes to the intersecting streets that he begins to feel that something must be done with the signal or the levers1 or both4 ,,running ,,close ,,to ,,the ,,curb4--,if he runs near the curb he will find it necessary to go very close up to the corner before he is able to notice an approach of a vehicle from the right4 ,if he nears the corner running near the middle of the road1 it will not be necessary for him to keep such a sharp watch for the sudden appearance of a vehicle1 which gives the novice such a fright4 ,,the ,,middle ,,of ,,the ,,road4--,for this reason1 therefore1 the homely advice above1 is very appropriate4 ,when in the middle of the road1 the looking to the right1 or to the left is a matter which is unnecessary4 ,in every community certain local regulations are established1 which should be learned1 but there are well known rules1 which have grown into well recognized laws everywhere1 and if they are once understood1 will apply wherever you happen to be4 ,,community ,,regulations4--,the first of these is to keep to the right in passing a vehicle which is approaching you4 ,the second is1 to pass to the left of a vehicle which is going in the same direction4 ,third1 in making a turn at the intersection of streets make a loop which will carry you beyond the farther side of the street1 and do not try to turn within the limits of the crossing1 or the corners of the street curbs4 ,fourth1 between street intersections1 do not try to make a turn until you have examined the street behind you1 and never attempt to make a long diagonal cut when the turn is being made4 ,,approaching ,,car ,,tracks4--,in approaching car tracks do so on the principle that a train is coming1 and act accordingly4 ,don't take anything for granted4 ,this applies when there are any obstructions either way along the track for several hundred feet from the roadway on which you are traveling4 ,,coasting4--,it is a mistake to coast down hill with the brakes set for controlling the car4 ,instead1 cut out the ignition1 select a gear best suited for the grade of the hill1 and run the machine down under compression2 that is to say1 against the engine4 ,if the grade is very steep select low gear1 and in that way you have a very strong leverage4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,caution ,signs4 ,this saves an immense amount of wear on the brakes1 and if the grade is extraordinarily steep the brakes may be used to renforce the compression4 ,,signs ,,of ,,the ,,road4--,the ,american ,motor ,league has adopted a series of caution signs shown in ,fig4 #ajc1 which are explained as follows3 #a4 ,approach to a steep descent4 #b4 ,approaching railroad crossing4 #c4 ,branch road to the right4 #d4 ,branch road to the left4 #e4 ,cross roads4 #f4 ,ditch or abrupt depression in the road4 #g4 ,approach to a hummock4 #h4 ,city1 village1 or collection of inhabited dwellings4 ,these signs are placed from #ajj to #cjj yards from the points to which they refer4 ,,operating ,,the ,,control4--,all cars have practically the same arrangement of pedals for controlling the car with the feet4 ,this refers1 of course1 to the clutch1 brake1 and throttle pedals4 ,in cities1 running through crowded streets1 the foot throttle should be used1 so as to keep both hands free2 but in the open country1 where change is not required so frequently1 this control is usually by hand4 ,,the ,,crucial ,,point4--,the crucial point of every learner1 is starting the machine4 ,the first duty is to note that the transmission lever is at the neutral point1 and that the emergency brake is set4 ,the spark control lever is then set at the proper point1 and the engine cranked1 if it has no self starting mechanism4 ,,clutch ,,pedal ,,and ,,spark ,,control4--,now1 before touching the clutch pedal1 adjust the spark control lever until the engine has picked up its speed properly4 ,then depress the clutch pedal so as to disengage the clutch1 and release the emergency brake4 ,leaving the clutch still disengaged move the transmission lever to low gear1 and1 with the right foot1 press down the throttle pedal1 if there is any slacking in the speed of the engine4 ,the clutch pedal may now be slowly allowed to raise by the foot until it gradually takes hold4 ,it is at this point where the beginner must take the utmost care4 ,invariably1 he will do this too quickly4 ,after several trials he will learn to do it deliberately1 so as to avoid the jerk caused by a sudden grip4 ,,neutral ,,position ,,of ,,transmission ,,lever4--,the moment the car stops1 reach for the transmission lever1 and put it into its neutral position4 ,this should never be neglected4 ,after the car starts1 and it is apparent that the engine is running strong1 depress the clutch pedal with the left foot1 and quickly change the transmission lever to the next speed1 and the clutch is then again deliberately thrown in4 ,,throwing ,,in ,,gears4--,there is an art in throwing in the gears which experience will enable a driver to do without grinding4 ,to change from intermediate to high1 observe the same order1--that is1 release the clutch1 then change the transmission lever1 and again slowly bring the clutch into operation4 ,,in ,,reversing4--,for reversing1 wait until the car stops4 ,then cut out1 or release the clutch4 ,the brakes must be released1 the transmission lever moved to a reverse position1 and the clutch then thrown in gradually4 ,,quick ,,stops4--,quick stops are sometimes necessary4 ,this is done by pressing down the clutch and brake pedals1 with the feet1 and setting the emergency brake at the same time4 ,for ordinary stops1 close the throttle1 so as to allow the engine to reduce the speed on its compression1 then throw out the clutch with the left foot1 and follow this up by pressing the brake pedal with the right foot1 so as to gradually bring the car to a stop4 ,then put the transmission lever to its neutral position4 ,,ease ,,in ,,manipulating ,,progressive ,,system4--,of the two types1 the progressive system of transmission is the easiest to master1 as the novice frequently finds it difficult to quickly grasp the position and movement of the lever4 ,he has so many things to learn about at the start4 ,the progressive type is easy to master as it needs to be moved in one direction only4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajd4 ,wiring for ,lighting ,circuit4 ,in either case1 however1 the aim should be to make the two gears engage each other at as nearly the same speed as possible4 ,if the learner will remember that the object of temporarily throwing out the clutch1 is to allow the clutch shaft to slow down1 and then move the transmission lever afterwards1 he will be able1 after several trials1 to catch them at a point where they will easily engage each other without any noise4 ,this applies to the selection type1 also4 ,it has been stated that a locomotive engineer becomes so used to the feel of his engine that he can sense a wrong action of any part of the immense mechanism under his control4 ,there is a vibratory instinct1 if we may so term it1 that affects the driver1 which does not extend to the person seated at his side4 ,it is so particularly in the case of an automobile driver4 ,the steering wheel is a sort of antenn1 which imparts a vibratory intelligence to him1 that cannot be grasped or understood by others in the car4 ,at first the matter of driving is a feeling of intensity in doing certain things1 and in trying to anticipate the conditions4 ,this state of mind continues until driving becomes a reflex action4 ,the throttle1 or the pedals are instinctively moved2 the throwing in of a gear is proceeded with in an easy1 natural fashion1 and the starting movement is brought about without a perceptible jerk4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aje4 ,ignition ,wiring4 ,,wiring ,,for ,,lighting4--,for the purpose of giving a comprehensive idea of the method used in wiring up the lighting apparatus of a car1 a full page diagram is given1 ,fig4 #ajd1 which is regarded as the most approved form4 ,this shows two main head lamps1 a rear lamp1 two side lamps1 and a dash lamp4 ,the system is equally well adapted for battery or dynamo generation1 and by the aid of the sketch all the circuits can be readily traced out on a machine1 or an initial installation put in4 ,,wiring ,,up ,,for ,,ignition4--,as an important part in the care of a car depends on knowing the correct leads of all wires in the ignition system1 a plain diagram is presented1 ,fig4 #aje1 which1 if carefully studied1 will serve as a guide for this type of ignition4 ,the engine shows two independent batteries as the source of electrical power for starting1 and a motor-generator for running service4 ,the motor generator transforms the direct current of the batteries into the alternating current necessary for ignition1 which latter is raised to a high tension in the ordinary way1 as heretofore explained4 ,the sizes of the two sets of wires are also indicated1 and the switch shows how connection is made when the starter switch is thrown in4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,fuel ,,and ,,lubricants ,there is greater misconception and real ignorance about gasoline than concerning any other subject or material connected with automobiles4 ,the explosive nature of gasoline seems to act the same as gunpowder1 whereas1 in fact1 it is entirely different4 ,knowledge on this important subject is lacking1 because not enough care and study has been bestowed on it to bring out the proper information4 ,most people know that in order to explode gasoline in an engine1 air is required2 but few of them stop to consider that air is also the important thing necessary to burn gasoline in the open air4 ,,an ,,experiment ,,with ,,gasoline4--,experiments have been made with gasoline which show better than anything else where the danger lies1 and what should be avoided4 ,a can1 partly filled with gasoline1 was permitted to stand for a few minutes1 until some of the gasoline was allowed to evaporate4 ,the escaping vapor of course readily ignited and burned1 but no explosion followed4 ,it burned1 but the blaze was at the top only4 ,the gasoline in the can did not burn2 only the vapor which was collecting and escaping at the top4 ,gasoline was next put into a half pint cream bottle1 so that it was half full4 ,the opening of such a bottle is nearly as large diametrically as the bottle itself4 ,after allowed to stand so as to permit evaporation to take place1 a lighted match was thrust down into the gasoline4 ,while the vapor at the top burned1 the gasoline extinguished the match1 the reason being that there was not enough oxygen within the bottle at the region of the surface of the gasoline to make an explosive mixture1 and there was not an explosive mixture formed until the vapor had issued from the mouth of the bottle1 and came into contact with the surrounding atmosphere4 ,,air ,,necessary ,,for ,,explosion4--,the fact is1 the hydro-carbon in the gasoline needs air to support combustion1 and it must have at least three parts of oxygen 7which means fifteen parts of air71 to one part of carbon1 before it can be ignited4 ,air1 for this purpose1 cannot by any possibility1 find its way down into the bottle1 hence it will be seen that no danger need be anticipated from this source4 ,the inexperienced1 however1 will tell you1 that he knows it will explode1 because he has had some experience of that kind4 ,let us explain what happened in these explosions1 and then the difference in the conditions will be understood4 ,,making ,,an ,,explosive ,,mixture4--,the same bottle used with the previous experiment was then taken1 and the same amount of gasoline put into it4 ,air was then fanned into it1 and a match applied4 ,an explosion followed1 because enough air has been admitted to make an inflammable gas4 ,if the mouth of the bottle is large enough to permit the products of combustion to pass out1 no harm results2 but if the opening of the bottle is too small1 then the expanding gases will shatter the bottle4 ,,gunpowder4--,gunpowder acts differently1 for the following reasons3 ,enough oxygen is compounded with the gunpowder to support combustion1 and when a sufficient heat is applied it requires no outside air to cause combustion4 ,the principal constituent of gunpowder is a fuel2 so with gasoline4 ,every fuel requires oxygen before it will burn4 ,,filled ,,tank ,,not ,,explosive4--,if a tank is entirely filled with gasoline1 it cannot explode4 ,it may leak1 and the escaping gasoline is thus brought into contact with sufficient air to arate it4 ,when this burns it develops a heat2 this in turn increases the temperature of the gasoline and increases the rate of evaporation1 so that it now begins to issue forth in greater volume1 thus adding to the intensity of the flame2 and as the evaporation increases1 it reaches a point where the tank openings are not large enough to permit it to escape fast enough1 and an explosion follows4 ,,why ,,gasoline ,,will ,,not ,,burn ,,within ,a ,,closed ,,tank4--,now this explosion is attributed to the burning of the gasoline within the tank4 ,such is not the case1 for the reasons stated4 ,it will be found that the difficulty lies in allowing the tank to become filled with an explosive gas1 and it is brought about in this way3 ,if all the gasoline is drawn from a tank1 the sides of the tank will retain enough gasoline to form a heavy vapor of hydro-carbon gases4 ,this gas is heavier than air1 and1 like water1 will remain in the bottom4 ,sooner or later some of the gas will pass out1 particularly the lighter portions1 and air will intermingle with the gas1 and it is then in a ripe condition for an explosion4 ,it is obvious1 therefore1 that the first duty is to see that there are no leaks1 and when discovered1 to repair immediately4 ,,filling ,,tanks ,,having ,,dried ,,out ,,gasoline4--,the second1 and more important care1 is1 to be sure and not attempt to fill a tank which has been allowed to run dry1 without first blowing out the vapor1 if there is any danger from lights4 ,if there is still oil in the tank when you refill1 there is no danger from explosions1 because the vapor within is too heavy1 and requires too much air to explode4 ,,to ,,extinguish ,,gasoline ,,fires4--,when a fire actually takes place in a gasoline tank1 do not use water in trying to extinguish it4 ,dry sand1 or a woolen blanket will be far more serviceable4 ,the latter should not be applied haphazard1 as so many do in the excitement of the moment4 ,try and remember what it is that the blanket is used for4 ,the object is to try and prevent air from reaching the flame1 hence the effort should be to so arrange the blanket that air cannot reach the burning part4 ,,ammonia ,,as ,,an ,,extinguisher4--,it is better1 therefore1 to place the blanket around the lower part of the tank1 or below the flame itself1 so as to prevent air from rushing up into the burning zone4 ,the air coming in from above will soon be inadequate to arate the flame1 and it will be smothered4 ,a bottle of ammonia1 and one should always be kept handy1 is the best1 in the absence of regular extinguishers1 to kill the flame4 ,the lesson learned from the experiments show1 that a large amount of air is necessary to make an explosive compound4 ,,leaks4--,leaks in tanks can be repaired temporarily1 with tire cement1 and patches1 but as gasoline affects the rubber it should be properly soldered up at the first opportunity4 ,water in gasoline is the most serious trouble4 ,all fuel of this kind should be strained through chamois leather4 ,this will effectually prevent water from getting in4 ,,lubricants4--,a necessary element in gasoline engines1 is a lubricant4 ,this is as essential as the fuel itself4 ,the object is to remove friction between the moving parts4 ,cylinders of engines are heated to high temperatures1 and this makes wear between the parts not lubricated a most serious one4 ,while ordinary gasoline would be a good lubricant for some uses1 it would be of no avail in the cylinders of an explosion engine1 for two reasons3 ,first1 it has but little viscosity1--that is1 it has no body which holds together so as to produce a film on the surface of the contacting metals4 ,,viscosity4--,the film produced by gasoline1 for instance1 is very thin1 but that of castor oil is very thick4 ,the latter1 therefore1 has greater viscosity4 ,then again1 gasoline1 is readily affected by temperature4 ,if it ignites readily1 and thus loses its character as a lubricant1 it can be of no service4 ,it is necessary1 therefore1 that the lubricant should not be affected or changed in its character at a low heat4 ,,carbonization4--,some oils when subjected to heat1 or when exposed to air1 will become sticky or gummy4 ,this is one of the most serious things possible in a gas engine cylinder1 because a deposit is formed which causes carbonization through the continued application of heat1 resulting in the scratching of the cylinder by breaking the packing rings4 ,,acid ,,in ,,lubricants4--,in the early production of lubricants1 acid was one of the elements in oils not carefully guarded against2 and even now1 with all the skill of the manufacturer1 a small percentage will be found in most products4 ,the presence of this produces corrosion1 or pitting of the working parts4 ,this1 and the presence of foreign matter1 will condemn any oil for cylinder purposes4 ,,composition ,,of ,,lubricants4--,lubricants are composed of either animal1 vegetable1 or mineral matter1 and they may be liquids or solids1 or a combination of both4 ,of the latter1 graphite is the best and most widely known4 ,it is one form of carbon1 and is used in a finely-divided state1 either dry1 or mixed with a good lubricating oil4 ,soapstone is also frequently employed and generally with a liquid lubricant4 ,,grease4--,grease1 usually of animal origin1 used in connection with graphite1 makes by far the best lubricant for bearings1 and for similar purposes1 as it can be readily retained in the bearings4 ,,graphite4--,on the other hand1 graphite1 if introduced in a cylinder with a good liquid lubricant1 will1 in time1 fill up the pores of the metal1 and thus produce a good surface1 and it also protects the cylinders from carbonizing1 and prevents the pistons from 8,freezing0 as it is called when it is caused to stick together by the heat4 ,,the ,,test ,,of ,,cylinder ,,lubricants4--,for cylinders the lubricant should have a flash point of at least #cge1 and a fire test of #dcj degrees1 ,fahrenheit4 ,flashpoint has reference to the temperature at which it will give off inflammable vapor4 ,fire test has reference to the temperature at which the oil will actually ignite and burn4 ,any oil1 in burning1 will deposit more or less carbon1 because being a fuel1 it must have carbon4 ,as mineral oils will stand higher temperatures before igniting1 than animal or vegetable oils they are best suited for cylinders4 ,,lubricating ,,systems4--,various systems are employed in automobiles4 ,the splash system has the advantage of simplicity since the cylinders1 as well as the bearings1 are provided with a modicum of oil at every revolution of the crank1 the latter1 or the connecting rods1 being adapted to strike the pool of oil in the bottom of the chamber4 ,the cylinder walls do not get the greatest benefit from this method of distributing the lubricant1 as the splash is at the point when the piston reaches the lowest turn1 so the lubrication on the cylinder is effectual only so far as the piston is able to draw it up or entrain it in its upward movement4 ,,pressure ,,method4--,supplementing the splash1 and frequently used as the sole mean is the plan adopted by many1 and known as the pressure system1 which not only lubricates the bearings and cylinders1 but also the other mechanism in the car1 is the use of pressure1 which may be exerted by gravity1 or by the use of hand pumps4 ,some employ the exhaust of the engine to draw up the oil4 ,this requires ducts leading to all the parts which are adapted to take a liquid lubricant4 ,,the ,,precision ,,system4--,the most positive method is that which has a pump connected with the engine1 which forces the oil to all the bearings at each turn of the engine1 and for that reason is called the precision system4 ,it has the advantage that every bearing must get a certain portion of the lubricant1 and as arrangement is made to catch and return the unused oil1 it is also economical in use1 although more expensive to apply4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajf4 ,lubricating ,system4 ,,combined ,,force ,,feed ,,and ,,splash ,,system4--,in ,fig4 #ajf is illustrated one of the latest improved systems1 in which there is utilized an internal force feed and a constant level splash system4 ,in this equipment a reservoir under the crank case contains the supply of oil4 ,from the reservoir the lubricant is pumped through a tube extending the entire length of the crank case1 with lateral connections leading directly to each main bearing and to each cam shaft bearing4 ,any surplus to the bearings drips into small pans directly under the connecting rods4 ,an open end tube projects from the connecting rod1 and leads to the connecting rod bearing4 ,at each revolution of the crank shaft this tube dips into the pan and forces sufficient oil directly to the connecting rod bearing for lubrication4 ,there is a constant circulation of oil directly to and through every bearing in the motor1 by means of a pump driven from the cam shaft4 ,the oil pressure gauge on the dash1 and the gauge on the crank case1 will instantly tell what is going on4 ,this is a very economical system4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,car ,many people have an impression that as long as a car runs all right no care should be given to it4 ,it is for this very reason we urge that a careful inspection should be made at regular intervals4 ,the matter of going over the various parts1 and examining the operative elements1 should be made a habit4 ,become thoroughly acquainted with the mechanism4 ,,regular ,,inspection ,a ,,good ,,habit4--,this is as much a duty1 as to keep the parts well oiled1 or to supply it with water at proper intervals4 ,in the present high state of the art pertaining to the manufacture of automobiles1 the different parts are so made as to stand a great deal of wear and hard usage1 so that before they show any signs of giving away1 they will be worn down to the danger point4 ,,the ,,brake ,,shoe4--,as an illustration1 take the brake shoe4 ,this may work satisfactorily and efficiently for a long time1 and you flatter yourself that you have a perfect car in this respect4 ,the next day it gives out1 and it is sure to be at the most critical moment4 ,this is the history of all breakdowns4 ,if an examination had been made a day or a week before1 it would have shown the worn condition1 and permitted repair at that time when there was ample opportunity4 ,,familiarity ,,with ,,working ,,parts4--,so with every other part of the car4 ,the fact that it is working well should encourage you to examine the different parts to find the loose or worn elements4 ,it will teach you the weak spots4 ,familiarity with a car is an important element1 and is the most efficient training practice1 especially for one who wishes to acquire information and practical knowledge on this subject4 ,,the ,,engine4--,there is nothing so vital as the engine4 ,several hours given each month1 or even an hour or two a week to overhauling it1 will amply repay you4 ,the proper way is to do this inspection and overhauling in a systematic way4 ,one day one part can be examined1 and the next day another part made the subject of investigation4 ,,connecting ,,rods4--,a loose bolt in one of the connecting rods1 while it may run along for a week or two1 and cause no damage1 is sure to cause trouble unless arrested4 ,the moment the connection of a wire begins to loosen1 it will never stop until it has severed the connection entirely4 ,in taking apart an engine every part should be cleaned as it is removed1 taking the utmost care of each pin1 bolt1 or nut4 ,the walls of the cylinders should be examined1 the piston rings tested and note whether they are worn4 ,,valves4--,then the valves need testing separately1 and reground if there is the least indication of undue wear on one side more than on the other1 or if there is the least carbon coating apparent4 ,the best preparation for grinding them is a very fine emery1 mixed with a heavy lubricant1 to which should be added a small amount of kerosene4 ,,cam-,,shaft4--,when the cam-shaft is removed1 note the marks1 to see where they register with the marks on the cam shaft gears4 ,familiarize yourself with these details4 ,,the ,,clearance4--,particularly examine the clearance between the valve stem and plunger rod4 ,if the clearance is too great1 the exhaust valve will open too late4 ,a small clearance is necessary to allow for the expansion of the valve stem4 ,,clutches4--,some clutches are so arranged that they may be removed as a whole2 in others the separate parts may be taken out4 ,if the latter appears worn1 replace it at once4 ,do not wait until necessity compels you4 ,leather for this purpose should always be kept on hand1 and the old leathers used as patterns for cutting the new4 ,,the ,,clutch ,,leather4--,when the leather wears down so the rivet heads are in contact with the metal surface1 they should be taken out1 and the leather countersunk1 so that the new rivets will be deep enough to clear contact4 ,this is something which1 at the time you are examining the car1 has not yet given any trouble1 but the next day1 if not attended to1 the clutch may refuse to release itself quickly1 and you are apt to wonder what the trouble may be4 ,,rivets ,,in ,,the ,,leather4--,keep the rivet heads free of metallic contact4 ,this1 and care in putting on the leather evenly will make a clutch that is sure to give you efficient service4 ,if it does not grip quickly after the foot releases it1 the spring is not at proper tension4 ,on the other hand1 the spring should not be too strong1 and to push back the foot with too great force1 because this will set the clutch1 and give the car an unpleasant jerk4 ,,transmission ,,system4--,the transmission system should be examined at frequent intervals4 ,the main thing is to note the ball bearings1 and to remove old grease which has accumulated there4 ,all ball bearings1 however made1 and applied1 have more or less of a grinding effect4 ,as a result1 small particles of iron are cut off from the contact surfaces1 which is indicated by the fact that the grease is discolored1 or blackened4 ,the grease which is allowed to remain in the case for a long time has these small particles in contact with the balls and runways1 and is sure to wear more than new grease4 ,plumbago in the grease will be of great service in aiding to coat the balls with a good surface4 ,these remarks as to the removal of old grease is desirable wherever ball bearings are employed4 ,the gears in the case should also be examined to ascertain whether the edges are chipped1 or what the wearing action is4 ,,the ,,differential4--,this also requires care1 but carelessness in lubrication is the only feature lacking in so many cars1 and it is the most frequent shortcoming with the novice4 ,the differential seems to be the one part of a car which1 in his estimation1 requires no attention4 ,if there is any play between the pinions and the studs1 it should be promptly taken up4 ,this can be done1 usually1 by inserting washers of proper thickness behind the gears1 in cases where no provision has been made for adjustment4 ,,universal ,,joints4--,the wearing points of the universal are in the pins4 ,these are susceptible of a great deal of wearing down before the facts will make themselves known in the operation of the machine1 hence the necessity of examining this part when you are on an inspecting tour4 ,,steering ,,gear4--,the steering gear should be taken apart1 and every working portion cleaned4 ,the ball-bearings may be worn1 or the joint out of adjustment1 to which the stiffness of the turning movement is likely due4 ,,worm ,,and ,,worm ,,wheel4--,when wear begins between the worm and worm wheel1 there is a looseness apparent1 so that the steering wheel must1 sometimes make a considerable part of a turn before the effect will be apparent on the wheels4 ,this should be taken up so the wheels will be in full mesh4 ,the rod from the sector lever to the pedal should be taken off and examined1 to see whether or not it is bent1 and properly adjusted as to length4 ,,batteries4--,these need inspection and attention more frequently than any other part of the mechanism4 ,it is often the case that a battery1 particularly storage batteries1 will show strong amperage1 and suddenly give out entirely4 ,,the ,,vibrator4--,when such is the case it may be attributable to the contact point of the vibrator having too heavy an adjustment1 and as a result1 it will be less responsive1 or be slow in its action4 ,this causes corrosion of the contact points4 ,in action the vibrator should give a high-pitched buzzing sound1 which produces a hotter spark1 and also preserves the life of the battery4 ,,the ,,electrolyte4--,the electrolyte in the storage battery may need refilling4 ,the old liquid should be removed1 the case thoroughly washed out with distilled water1 and refilled1 using about three quarters of the old liquid1 and the residue soft fresh water4 ,replace buckled or injured grids with new ones4 ,if a plate has a considerable portion of the minim1 or lead1 broken or removed1 it is always well to take it out and put in a new one as the grid in such a case has a reduced surface4 ,,contact ,,points4--,examine all contact points1 and clear the air vents and terminals1 and particularly note how the wires are arranged within the case1 so they will not be subjected to vibration and thus affect the terminals4 ,the utmost care should be exercised to line up the valves so they act at the proper time in the revolution of the crank shaft4 ,usually the inlet valve plunger has a lock-nut adjustment1 so that it may be set at the proper point4 ,the points are indicated on the fly wheel and engine base1 and when they coincide with1 say cylinder ,no4 #a1 which is usually taken as the guide1 the contact must be made between the valve-stem and plunger4 ,if you find that the contact takes place before the two points are opposite each other1 the valves open too early4 ,,the ,,magneto4--,the only difference between the magneto and the battery system1 as applied on cars1 is in the method of obtaining the primary current4 ,the magneto dispenses with the battery cells1 the coil1 the commutator1 or contact breaker1 which must be used with the battery1 and the switching plug4 ,instead of the foregoing elements however1 the magneto requires a contact breaker1 and a condenser4 ,it is1 therefore1 much more simple to examine and keep in order1 than a battery outfit4 ,the magneto1 owing to the fact that it always has within itself the means to generate a current1 and does not deplete itself1 is far preferable to a battery4 ,owing to the high tension character of most magnetos1 the spark is also much hotter1 and for that reason the ignition is more positive4 ,,magneto ,,impulses4--,as the magneto gives out impulses of certain intensity at each revolution1 which impulses are designed to actuate the sparking mechanism at certain definite periods1 it is obvious that the contact breaker must be properly set4 ,,timing ,,the ,,magneto4--,this is what is called timing the magneto1 and it is one of the things necessary to observe1 and to be able to adjust1 if it is found that1 for any reason1 the disk1 or the wheel of the contact breaker has turned on the shaft1 as will sometimes be the case4 ,all mechanism of this kind should be 8spotted10 that is1 have punch marks on the disk and shaft so that it can always be put back to the proper operative position1 or nearly so1 and thus save the time and labor required for retiming4 ,in general1 however1 it may be said that the magneto is one of the mechanical elements1 which needs less care and attention than any other part of the car1 and it is safe to examine and go through every other part of the machinery before attempting to tamper with the magneto4 ,,the ,,carbureter4--,in the past carbureters have had a bad reputation1 probably1 deservedly so4 ,the great difficulty with most of them has been in the floats1 and the float connections with the inlets4 ,this1 and the fact that small particles1 which somehow get into the oil1 and block the flow at the needle point1 and the presence of water1 are the serious troubles4 ,one can be remedied only by a thorough overhauling1 and the other by using special care in filling the tank with fuel4 ,the float chamber should be kept clean1 as well as the ducts and valve controlling the flow4 ,sometimes a small fiber will be lodged somewhere in the pipes1 and this will catch small particles1 and temporarily arrest them4 ,the accumulated mass when dislodged blocks the valve1 and the mystery seems inexplainable4 ,wrong adjustment in a carbureter manifests itself in three ways3 ,if the smoke is black1 and the flame is red1 the mixture is too rich2 a yellow flame indicates a lean mixture2 and a blue flame and clear exhaust shows that it is properly set4 ,if an explosion takes place in the muffler1 it is an indication that gasoline1 or the vapor1 has been carried over2 and white smoke discharging from it shows that there is too much lubricating material going into the cylinders4 ,weather will affect mixtures1 and more air is generally required on a hot day than during damp weather4 ,this explains why a machine will run without trouble with a certain adjustment one day1 and be very unsatisfactory the next4 ,these things should be observed and mentally noted4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,electric ,,vehicles ,the construction of electrically-equipped cars is one which requires pages of explanations and illustrations to do it justice4 ,the scope of the present work was originally intended to cover only gasoline-driven cars1 so that this chapter1 which in a measure only sets forth the manner in which such automobiles are built1 will more particularly point out the mechanism which pertains to the operation1 and the care needed to maintain them4 ,it is a long and difficult study to understand the electrical details necessary to build1 repair1 or maintain electric cars1 but it is part of the general mechanic's duty to understand where the troubles lie1 when the mechanism fails to respond1 and most of the electrical devices are now so made that the ordinary mechanic is able to make repairs1 even though he may not have a technical knowledge of electricity4 ,within the past five years this type of automobile has been improved to such an extent that it is steadily gaining ground1 and their use growing to such a degree that it may soon become a great rival of the gasoline car1 especially for pleasure purposes4 ,there never has been any question as to the value of electric motors for traction service4 ,wherever a current of electricity can be distributed and transmitted to a motor1 it is the most satisfactory method of moving vehicles1 as has been shown in street railways4 ,,requirements4--,but on individual cars1 incapable of getting current from a system of wiring1 the matter presents an entirely different aspect1 and brings forth new problems1 hence storage batteries must be resorted to1 and this involves the consideration of many elements that may be ignored with the usual traction system4 ,inventors have vied with each other to produce a type of battery that would possess at least three particular features of excellence1 which may be stated as follows3 ,first4 ,exceeding lightness1 proportioned to the energy exerted1 and compactness of structure4 ,second4 ,a form of grid which will hold the matter1 or active material1 within it1 and prevent it from disintegrating or falling out of the recesses into which it is pressed4 ,third4 ,to add to the life of the battery1 or to the individual grids1 or plates1 which means the discovery of new material1 available to receive and accumulate the electric charge4 ,,gasoline-,,electric ,,trucks4--,of late some progress has been made in constructing a type of electrics in which a gasoline engine is used1 that is connected up with an electric generator4 ,the latter is used to charge a storage battery also mounted on the truck1 and the storage battery supplies the motor4 ,the gasoline engine being connected with the electric generator is constantly in condition to charge the storage battery and may be set in motion1 whenever the charge in the storage battery falls below a certain electro motive force4 ,at other times the motor is at rest4 ,in this type the electric motor is connected with the axle of the vehicle1 so that it is always ready for service whether the gasoline motor is running or not4 ,in the ordinary gasoline automobile it is essential that the motor must be maintained in service at all times1 so that any derangement in that part of the system1 which includes the mechanism intermediate the motor and axle1 or the electrical devices1 or the carbureter1 means a dead car4 ,it is urged that by combining the two systems a much wider range of usefulness will be obtained1 and practice shows such to be the case4 ,it has1 however1 some defects1 one of which is the great weight necessary to maintain the entire train of mechanism thus described4 ,the other disadvantage is the great first cost1 although it is maintained that the decreased cost of maintaining the cars1 while in use1 is sufficient to warrant an increased cost in the selling price of the machines4 ,it is undeniably true that such mechanism means additional care1 and is liable to add to the complications necessary to operate the system1 and it is obvious that these considerations will prevent the use of this type in all small vehicles1 whereas it may be most serviceable and available in heavy trucks for transporting merchandise4 ,,the ,,current ,,used4--,storage batteries are charged with and use a direct current4 ,the difference between a direct and an alternating current is1 that in the first the current flows continuously over a wire in one direction1 whereas in the latter it changes its direction1 going1 for an instant1 from the north pole to the south pole1 and the next instant from the south pole to the north pole1 and for this reason it is said to alternate4 ,,mechanically-,,produced ,,electricity4--,the alternating method is the natural form of flow in a current derived from mechanism1 as1 for instance1 by means of a rotating armature4 ,the electricity1 in this case1 is produced by a metallic body moving through a magnetic field1 and as it passes through it takes up a certain electric impulse in one direction when the body approaches the field1 and instantly reverses and flows in the opposite direction as the body recedes from the magnet1 or field4 ,to convert this alternating phase into what is called a direct current1 certain dynamos are provided with a commutator1 and the function of this commutator1 which has two oppositely-disposed fingers contacting therewith1 is to so divert the alternating impulses that they will go over the wire in one direction only4 ,,current ,,from ,,batteries4--,currents derived from batteries do not have the alternating flow4 ,instead1 the movement is in one direction only1 and it is in connection with this method of producing electricity that the terms positive and negative are found convenient in describing the current1 and the action of the mechanism operated by it4 ,,primary ,,battery4--,the primary battery is one which generates an electric current4 ,it comprises one or more pairs of plates1 of which zinc and copper are examples1 although other couples are found to be equally serviceable4 ,two metals1 or materials1 such as carbon and zinc1 are selected1 which are termed electrical opposites1 or which are positive-negative to each other1 and when such couples are immersed in an electrolyte a current will be set up between the two plates1 if a wire is attached to each plate1 and the outer ends of these wires brought together1 a continuous current will flow through the wire4 ,the electrolyte is a solution of water1 with a small amount of sulphuric acid4 ,numerous acid solutions are made1 and salt1 or saline solutions are also frequently employed4 ,,secondary1 ,,or ,,storage ,,batteries4--,these are also called ,accumulators1 because they are so constructed that they will accumulate a certain charge4 ,the term ,secondary is used to indicate the idea that they receive their charge from an outside source1 in distinction from a ,primary1 which generates its own current4 ,after the secondary is once charged it then begins to work on its own account1 the same as a primary battery4 ,,reversal ,,of ,,currents4--,when a storage battery is being charged from an outside source of electricity1 the current flows within the battery in one direction2 but the moment the outside source is discontinued1 and the battery itself is connected up with mechanism1 it becomes a source of energy1 but the current output is in the opposite direction4 ,the foregoing suggestions and features of explanation are thought to be desirable1 in view of the following statements which pertain to the operation of machines of this type4 ,,charging4--,one of the most important things in the care and handling of machines of this character1 is the charging of the batteries4 ,the utmost caution must be exercised to prevent derangement of the batteries4 ,thus1 to connect the positive pole of the charging generator with the negative pole of the storage battery would reverse the current and quickly destroy the plates4 ,,time ,,required1 ,,and ,,current4--,it requires time to charge a battery1 usually from twenty to thirty hours4 ,the usual charging rate is about fifty amperes for a cell with a capacity of forty ampere hours1 and the voltage should be somewhat higher than the normal voltage output designed for the battery when it is in action4 ,,troubles ,,in ,,use4--,the most frequent trouble in the use of batteries comes from short circuiting4 ,this arises from two causes4 ,the grids of the batteries are made of lead1 cast in the form of flat plates1 having small interstices1 or openings1 which are filled with various preparations1 principally peroxide of lead4 ,other types use iron and nickel1 and many are composed of lead and zinc1 but in any case the object of the grid is to receive and hold the active material1 and present as large a surface of the minum as possible to the action of the electrolyte4 ,when in use the lead particles begin to disintegrate1 more or less1 and fall out of the cavities of the grid1 dropping to the bottom of the cell4 ,in time the material thus deposited will form a path between the two adjoining plates1 producing what is called a short-circuit1 and if the accumulation is not removed1 the plates will be seriously injured4 ,,overcharging4--,sometimes the plates are overcharged1 and the result is they will buckle1 so that they touch each other1 and a short circuit results4 ,these hints are usually sufficient to indicate where the trouble will be found if the current measuring instruments indicate an excessive flow of current4 ,in such cases the first direction to which the examiner turns is the battery4 ,,the ,,circuiting4--,it has been found necessary1 in providing for the operations of an electric vehicle1 that the motor should have a means whereby the speed and power of its output can be regulated4 ,this may seem a very simple matter1 at first glance1 because1 without stopping to examine the problem1 and all the elements involved1 it would be easy to settle it by simply giving the motor more or less current4 ,to do so would turn the motor faster or slower4 ,in the gasoline car provision is made whereby1 through the change speed gears1 the engine gets the benefit of the leverage1 by reducing the speed of the axle1 relative to the engine shaft1 at first speed1 and this enables the motor to pull the car up steep grades1 or over difficult roads1 which it would not be able to do if the relative rotations were the same as at high speed4 ,,economy ,,in ,,use ,,of ,,current4--,the same thing is necessary in the operation of the electric motor4 ,the current must be so arranged that at certain periods it will be more effective than at others1 and this effectiveness is generally wanted at times when the axles turn very slow1 just the same as with the gasoline car4 ,this economizes1 and prevents the waste of current4 ,it is accomplished by connecting up the cells in such a manner that they may give a large voltage and small amperage1 or a low voltage and great amperage1 and in doing so will not detract from the efficiency of the battery4 ,,series ,,and ,,parallel4--,the device resorted to1 whereby this may be accomplished1 is in the manner that the cells are connected up with each other4 ,in a general way1 it may be said that the voltage has reference to the force1 or pressure of the current1 whereas amperage is the quantity which flows over the wire4 ,each cell has a voltage of1 approximately1 one and a half volts1 and it matters not how large the cell may be1 the voltage is no more4 ,the amperage1 however1 depends on the surface area of the plates comprising the active agents in the cell1 so that each cell has1 say one and a half volts1 and ten1 or twenty1 or more amperes4 ,if a number of such cells are connected up in one way the output may be represented in high amperage1 or in high voltage4 ,if we have a certain number of cells1 which1 when combined1 give ten volts and hundred amperes1 the result would be #aj #ajj1 equal to #ajjj ,watts4 ,but they may also be so connected together that they will have an output of #ajj amperes and #aj volts1 the total of which is also #ajjj ,watts4 ,such a current would be put through the motor under ordinary running conditions1 as a high driving power is not necessary4 ,but suppose it is desired to have a high or strong driving power2 then the force of all the volts is required1 so that one hundred volts are used1 and only ten amperes4 ,,the ,,connections4--,this is brought about by connecting up the cells in series1 or1 in multiple or in parallel4 ,the series connection is where the cells are placed in a row1 for instance1 and are connected together so that the carbon plate of one cell is joined by a wire with the zinc plate of the other cell2 or the positive plate of one is connected with the negative plate of the other1 and so on4 ,in that case all the current generated in all the cells join and flow along in one stream1 from one end of the battery to the other4 ,but now1 all the positive plates may be connected together with one wire1 and all the negative plates may be connected together with another wire1 so that these two wires will thus be parallel with each other1 and the lead wires which go to the motor are attached to these two parallel wires1 and would represent the parallel type of connection4 ,but it is the most common practice to divide the cell into two sets1 each of which is called a unit4 ,each unit1 having a certain number of cells1 can also have them connected up in series1 or in parallel1 and the different parallel units may be connected up together1 so as to form a connection which is in multiple or in series multiple4 ,suppose there are eight units1 each of ten volts1 the motor would receive eighty volts4 ,but now1 if the cells are in parallel1 or in multiple1 as the case may be1 then the pressure at the motor is equal to that of a single unit1 but the current flow is eight times that of the foregoing example4 ,the object1 therefore1 is to change the battery pressure on the one hand1 and to produce the most effective action on the other hand1 at the motor1 and to do so make both battery and motor more efficient4 ,,the ,,controller4--,the device which performs this operation1 at the will of the operator1 is called the ,controller1 which changes the wiring connection from series to multiple1 or the reverse4 ,the ,controller is1 in all probability1 the most complicated piece of mechanism in the entire electric car4 ,it must make an entire series of changes for each of the different speeds1 of which there are frequently six4 ,the fields of the motor are also connected in series1 or both series and multiple1 so as to give a still greater efficiency4 ,by this means the terminal points of the ,controller may be turned1 7#a71 so they will connect the batteries in multiple and the field windings in series2 or1 7#b71 the batteries in multiple and the fields in series multiple2 or1 7#c71 the batteries in series and the fields in series2 or1 7#d71 the batteries in series and the fields in multiple4 ,the figures in parentheses indicate the first1 second1 third and fourth speeds1 respectively1 and in such an arrangement two battery units are used1 and also two motors4 ,the same rule as to efficiency applies with one motor1 and two or more battery units4 ,the battery unit may be of any desired number of cells1 as stated4 ,,the ,,general ,,equipment4--,cars for pleasure purposes are of different types1 such as runabouts1 roadsters1 victorias1 coups1 broughams1 and the like1 provided with batteries which will permit runs of at least #ajj miles on each charge4 ,,speeds4--,the ,controller will permit of speeds ranging from five to thirty miles an hour4 ,the number of cells vary with different makes1 from twenty to forty1 and the number of plates in each cell average about fifteen4 ,it will thus be seen that the operating limit is wide enough to permit considerable latitude2 but recharging stations are now found everywhere1 particularly in the cities1 and in the large towns4 ,,accessories4--,a fully-equipped electric1 designed for the greatest luxury and comfort1 has two head lamps1 two side1 and a tail lamp1 and one in the interior1 a lighting switch to control all the lights1 a ventilator1 voltammeter1 shaft odometer1 for showing speed and distance traveled1 complete outfit of tools1 novelty toilet set and case1 cut glass flower vase1 eight day clock and mirrors suitably arranged within the body4 ,,seating ,,arrangement4--,the broughams and coups are especially arranged for comfortably seating the occupants4 ,in some the drive is at the rear seats1 and the steering mechanism may be by means of a wheel1 as in gasoline cars1 or through a lever4 ,most ,bodies are now made with aluminum panels1 and sashless quarter windows1 with drop doors1 front and rear windows1 and rain vision front windows4 ,,the ,,transmission4--,this varies in the different types1 and in the makes4 ,chains1 bevel1 or worms gears1 are employed1 and in some cars two of these types are used1 some of these devices being the products of the highest engineering skill4 ,the rear axles of the smaller vehicles are generally of the semi-floating type1 usually made of vanadium steel1 while the housing is drawn from sheet steel4 ,for heavier vehicles of the brougham style1 the rear axles are full-floating and furnished with extra large annular ball-bearings in the hubs4 ,,glossary ,,of ,,words ,,used ,,in ,,text ,,of ,,this ,,volume 99,abrasive499 ,a material which wears away another material4 99,absorbent499 ,a material which will take up a liquid4 99,accumulate499 ,to bring together2 to amass2 to collect4 99,accentuate499 ,to bring out clearly2 to lay great stress upon4 99,accelerator499 ,mechanism for adding to the speed or power4 99,accessories499 ,the adjuncts to a car1 not essential to its running but contributing to its make up4 99,acetylene499 ,a hydro-carbon gas1 generated from a carbide by the application of water4 99,alinement499 ,being in line2 arranging in proper place4 99,ampere499 ,the unit of current2 the term in which strength of the current is measured4 ,an ampere is an electromotive force of one volt through a resistance of one ohm4 99,annular499 ,pertaining to or formed like a ring4 99,annularly-disposed499 ,running around2 circularly-formed on the outside4 99,anticipate499 ,thinking or acting ahead4 99,antennae499 ,a forwardly-projecting feeler1 or hair-like appendage4 ,applies to the wires of a wireless telegraphy outfit1 which are elevated1 and receive the high tension impulses4 99,anti-friction499 ,a device or means to prevent the action of rubbing or wearing4 99,armature499 ,a body of iron or other suitable metal1 which is in the magnetic field of a magnet4 99,arbitrary499 ,stubborn determination4 ,doing a thing without regard to consequences4 99,asphaltum499 ,a combustible mixture of hydrocarbons2 mineral pitch2 also found in certain crude oil4 99,atmosphere499 ,the mass or body of gases surrounding the earth4 99,attributable499 ,to ascribe something to a state or condition4 99,automatic499 ,so made that it will operate without any external aid or mechanism4 99,available499 ,that which can be made use of4 99,auxiliary499 ,an aid2 added to2 giving or furnishing aid4 99,battery499 ,a combination of two or more cells4 99,bearing499 ,a term applied to a metal housing in which a journal or shaft turns4 99,bell-crank499 ,a lever1 which is bent at right angles1 and is pivoted to swing at the point near the right angled bend4 99,binding post499 ,a stud or projection1 usually provided with a hole to receive a screw1 and adapted to hold a wire4 99,buckled499 ,specifically bent or distorted out of shape1 but particularly applied to storage battery plates which are bent4 99,carbureter499 ,a mechanical device which is so arranged that it will receive and discharge a certain proportion of air1 and mix therewith a quantity of hydro-carbon vapor4 99,carbureted air499 ,air which is charged with a vapor of hydro-carbon gas1 like gasoline4 99,carbon499 ,a material like coke1 ground or crushed1 and formed into sticks or plates by molding or compression4 ,it requires a high heat to melt or burn1 and is used as electrodes for arc lamps and for battery elements4 99,carbonization499 ,coated with carbon4 ,turned into the form of carbon4 99,cell499 ,a vessel containing an electrolyte and two elements4 99,centrifugal499 ,the outwardly-moving force from a rotating body4 99,change-speed gears499 ,the part of an automobile which is in the line of the driving shafts1 and designed to change the speed of the axle relative to the speed of the engine shaft4 99,channel bars499 ,a bar made ,u-shaped in cross section4 99,chemical action499 ,a term to describe the change brought about by uniting chemicals of different kinds4 99,circuiting499 ,the manner of wiring up an electric device so the current will perform its work4 99,circumferential499 ,around the outside1 99,clearance499 ,that space in the head of an engine cylinder1 above the piston1 in which the gas is compressed previous to igniting it4 99,clutch499 ,a mechanism which is placed on the abutting ends of a pair of shafts1 and designed to couple or uncouple the two shafts together4 99,cooperation499 ,acting in unison4 ,in harmony4 99,combustion chamber499 ,that part of a cylinder in which the gases are ignited and expanded4 99,comminuted499 ,finely divided4 ,a powder4 99,commutator499 ,a cylinder on the end of the armature of a dynamo or motor1 and provided with a pair of contact plates for each particular coil in the armature1 in order to change the direction of the current4 99,compression499 ,a term used to designate the forcing together of the carbureted air drawn into the chamber of an internal combustion engine4 99,compensate499 ,paying for a thing2 to give ample in return4 99,compounded499 ,the uniting of elements1 in such manner that they are changed4 ,water is a compound4 ,the atmosphere is merely a mixture4 99,comprehension499 ,understanding4 ,a full knowledge4 99,complex499 ,difficult to understand4 ,involved4 99,condenser499 ,a term applied to the changing of gas to a liquid state4 ,used in electrical devices to collect a current in high tension apparatus4 99,conduit499 ,a channel1 or an avenue through which liquids may be transported4 99,conically-formed499 ,made in the shape of a cone4 99,conductivity499 ,pertaining to the quality of a material to transmit an electrical wave or impulse4 99,contracted499 ,drawn in2 made smaller4 99,control499 ,within power to handle4 99,control ,lever499 ,a bar by the side of the driver's seat1 which enables him to check the speed of the car4 99,contact ,maker499 ,a device which is designed to keep the circuit broken during the revolution of the shaft1 and to throw it in only momentarily at each revolution4 99,contact ,breaker499 ,a device which is designed to keep the current established except during a small portion of each revolution4 99,contact ,plates499 ,a series of plates arranged in an electric circuit which are to be successively thrown into the circuit4 99,constituent499 ,an element2 one part of a combination of elementary substances4 99,conspicuously499 ,prominent4 ,in the foreground4 99,constituting499 ,that which comprises the elements in a material4 ,that of which it is made4 99,convolute499 ,a spiral form of winding1 like a watch spring4 99,corrosion499 ,to disintegrate4 ,to be eaten away by acid1 or the action of any material1 or by the weather4 99,counterpart499 ,the same as2 something like another2 similar to4 99,counteract499 ,to act in a contrary direction2 adversely to4 99,crucial499 ,the testing point2 a difficult or trying position4 99,cylindrical499 ,having the form of a cylinder4 ,a barrel-like shape or form4 99,cycle499 ,a period2 a time during which certain elements operate or act4 99,cycle 7,two7499 ,an internal combustion engine1 in which the gas is drawn in and exploded at each revolution of the crank shaft4 99,cycle 7,four7499 ,an internal combustion engine1 in which the gas is drawn in and exploded at every other revolution of the crank shaft4 99,dead ,center499 ,a term to designate the inoperative point of the crank4 99,deflected499 ,driven away2 thrown off4 99,depression499 ,a recess2 a sunken part4 99,designated499 ,named2 set forth2 pointed out4 99,deteriorate499 ,depleted2 grown worse4 99,deviation499 ,changed from a certain course4 99,diameter499 ,the direction across a body4 99,diagonally499 ,any direction which is not across a body at right angles1 nor longitudinal4 99,diagrammatically499 ,a drawing which shows the relation and operation of parts1 without showing them in the correct mechanical structural forms4 99,diagram499 ,a drawing or sketch which shows the characteristics of a structure in simple lines4 99,diagnosis499 ,an examination which takes into consideration all the elements which make up the condition4 99,differential499 ,any mechanism which seeks to take care of and utilize the difference of speed or power in the various elements in a machine4 99,dioxide of ,manganese499 ,the native state of manganese4 99,disengaged499 ,separated from2 not attached4 99,distillation499 ,the act of abstracting a substance by vaporization1 and afterwards returning the vapor to a liquid form by means of a cool temperature4 ,the act of separating the more volatile from the less volatile parts of a substance4 99,dissecting499 ,taking apart2 viewing the separated or different elements4 99,distribution499 ,spread about2 in electricity1 the method of directing the current to various parts of the system4 99,distilled499 ,a liquid which has been vaporized and condensed back into a liquid4 99,dynamo499 ,an apparatus1 consisting of field and core magnets1 which1 when the core is turned1 will develop a current of electricity4 99,effective499 ,producing the best results4 99,electrolyte499 ,any material which is capable of being decomposed by an electric current4 99,eliminate499 ,to take away from2 to remove2 to take out4 99,elliptical499 ,a form which is in the shape of an ellipse4 99,emergency499 ,at the last or critical moment4 99,equipped499 ,built with2 arranged with all the elements4 99,excessive499 ,too much2 more than normal4 99,exhaust499 ,the discharge of the burnt gas from an internal combustion engine4 99,expansion499 ,the term applied to the increases in volume by heat of a gas1 or other substance4 99,expansion line499 ,the line formed by the different pressures at various parts of the piston during the active stroke4 99,explosion499 ,the burning and expansive force of a fuel4 99,equalizer499 ,a mechanical element which is interposed between a moving and two or more moved parts to even up the force upon the moved parts4 99,facility499 ,ease2 easiness in performing4 99,fascination499 ,attraction2 an irresistible or powerful influence4 99,field499 ,a term used to designate the magnetic influence of pole pieces which surround an armature in a dynamo or motor4 99,fire test499 ,the determination of the point at which any substance will actually burst into flame4 99,flash system499 ,a method of igniting substances4 ,a leaping spark4 99,flash point499 ,the temperature at which a fuel will flash but not burn4 99,flexible499 ,yielding2 capable of being distorted4 99,floating499 ,a condition in which a substance will not sink in a liquid4 99,foot pounds499 ,a unit1 usually determined by the number of pounds raised one foot in one second of time4 #eej pounds raised one foot in one second of time1 means #eej foot pounds4 99,formation499 ,the act1 or process of making1 by the combination of materials4 99,frictional499 ,the rubbing together of parts4 99,fulcrum499 ,the point round which a lever turns4 99,function499 ,any specific power of acting or operating that belongs to an agent4 99,fundamental499 ,the first4 ,the primitive order of anything1 or of any act4 99,gasket499 ,a small interposing substance1 usually softer than the united particles1 for the purpose of effecting a tight joint4 99,gear ,box499 ,a case or shell designed to hold the transmission1 or other wheels1 in a piece of mechanism4 99,gear-,shifting499 ,the mechanism for changing the speed gears in an automobile4 99,globules499 ,small particles of liquid4 99,gravity499 ,the attraction of mass for mass2 weight2 the accelerating tendency of material to move toward the earth4 99,graphite499 ,a form of carbon4 ,a natural product especially used as a dry lubricant4 99,ground carbon499 ,usually gas coke4 99,high tension499 ,an electric current which has an exceedingly high voltage4 99,herring bone499 ,a term applied to various mechanical structures4 ,it is primarily made up of a rib from which a number of small spines branch out in opposite directions4 99,hood499 ,the covering or enclosure at the forward part of an automobile1 within which the engine is placed4 99,housing499 ,any enclosure1 or covering4 99,hummock499 ,a rising1 more or less pronounced1 in the roadway4 99,hydro-carbon499 ,usually applied to a gas evolved from gasoline4 ,this substance has from #hj to #hc per cent4 of carbon1 and from #ab to #ae per cent4 of hydrogen4 99,hydrogen499 ,one of the lightest elementary substances4 ,two-thirds of water is hydrogen4 99,idler pinion499 ,a small gear1 usually placed so it may be moved to be in contact with one or more gears1 but is not directly connected up in the line of the gearing4 99,ignitable499 ,the term applied to substances which can be brought to the point of burning or exploding4 99,immaterial499 ,not important4 99,imparted499 ,given to something else2 transferred over4 99,impregnated499 ,to infuse or saturate with another substance4 99,impalpable499 ,exceedingly fine4 99,impulses499 ,an action which is irregular or at certain periods4 99,impediment499 ,something which is in the way4 99,impact499 ,a striking against2 a force which contacts with another4 99,incline499 ,a declivity2 a slope4 99,induction coil499 ,a core with two windings thereon1 one of coarse and one of fine wire1 so as to change a current from a low voltage to a high voltage1 and from a high amperage to a correspondingly low amperage4 99,ingredient499 ,the element in a compound4 99,inductor499 ,any part of an electrical apparatus which acts on another by induction4 99,inflation499 ,the stimulation or the arousing to unnatural action4 ,the enlarging of a substance4 99,inflammable499 ,any substance which will burn is called inflammable4 99,intervening499 ,between2 intermediate certain things1 or parts4 99,integral499 ,a part of2 different parts of a machine which are of the same substance4 99,intersection499 ,to divide at a certain point4 ,the crossing point of one line over another4 99,interrupter499 ,a piece of mechanism which cuts out an electric current at regular intervals4 99,interposed499 ,placed before2 coming between4 99,intimate499 ,very close4 ,nearly related4 99,insidious499 ,an influence1 not of the best4 99,internal1 expanding499 ,referring to the condition of a gas within an internal combustion engine4 99,internal cone499 ,a clutch which has a cone within the wheel1 to receive a part which contacts with it4 99,intermeshing499 ,the meeting of the teeth of gears4 99,intermittent499 ,having periods of intermission4 99,intermingle499 ,mixing4 ,closely united4 99,internal combustion499 ,a burning within a cylinder or chamber4 99,insulated499 ,a conductor1 or other material so coated as to prevent a current of electricity from passing1 to or from the same through the substance so placed on it4 99,invariably499 ,constant2 a uniform condition4 99,journaled499 ,held within a bearing so it may revolve4 99,jump spark499 ,a system of igniting the carbureted air in an explosion engine1 which consists in having a small separation between the points in a conductor1 and in using a current with a sufficiently high voltage to jump across the gap thus made4 99,lapped499 ,a term used to designate the smoothing out of engine cylinders or of any metal too hard to be handled by the lathe4 99,lateral499 ,across2 longitudinal1 means lengthwise1 and lateral is the term to express the direction at right angles to the longitudinal line4 99,lock nut499 ,any device which will prevent the nut from turning loose after being tightened4 99,longitudinal499 ,the long way across an article4 99,low tension499 ,a current which has a low voltage4 99,lubricant499 ,any substance which1 when applied to moving parts1 will decrease friction4 99,lubrication499 ,the act of applying a lubricant4 99,magnet499 ,a metallic substance which has power to attract iron or steel4 99,magneto499 ,a permanent magnet and a revolving armature for generating a current4 99,magnetic pull499 ,the action exercised by a magnet of attracting or repelling4 99,magnetic field499 ,the space or region near a magnet or charged wire4 99,make and break499 ,in igniting systems a piece of mechanism which makes and breaks a circuit1 so as to produce a spark each time when the wires are separated4 99,manifold499 ,a series of piping on the engine1 so as to bring all the inlet or exhaust pipes together4 99,manually499 ,operating by hand4 99,maximum499 ,the utmost2 the greatest amount or sum4 99,mesh499 ,fitting together1 like the teeth of gear wheels4 99,mean ,effective ,pressure499 ,that pressure in the movement of a cylinder which represents the average1 as the piston moves from end to end of its stroke4 99,metallic couples499 ,usually two metals of different structure1 and of different polarities4 99,minimize499 ,to belittle2 the smallest amount4 99,misconception499 ,a wrong idea2 a mistaken view4 99,misnomer499 ,a false name2 a wrong appellation4 99,minutely499 ,very accurate2 correct to the smallest feature4 99,momentarily499 ,for an instant only4 99,momentum499 ,that quality of matter which is the combined energy of mass and speed4 ,inertia4 99,multi-cylinder499 ,more than one2 several put together4 99,multiple499 ,containing or consisting of more than one4 99,multiple disk499 ,a form of clutch where there are a number of disks which contact with one another4 99,muffler499 ,a device for silencing the noise of the explosion of the engine4 99,neutral499 ,neither4 99,normal499 ,the usual form1 manner1 or condition4 99,obliquely499 ,branching off from a straight line1 at an angle4 99,obstruction499 ,something in the way4 99,operation499 ,a process2 an act1 or a manner of doing a thing4 99,oxygen499 ,the life giving element in the atmosphere4 ,one-third of water is oxygen2 one-fifth of the atmosphere is oxygen4 99,parallel499 ,the same distance apart all along4 99,pedestrian499 ,a footman2 a walker4 99,perceptible499 ,that which can be observed with our senses4 99,perimeter499 ,the outer margin of a wheel2 the bounding line of any figure of two dimensions4 99,pedal499 ,a foot operated lever4 99,permanent magnet499 ,a bar of steel1 charged with magnetism which it retains indefinitely4 99,perspective499 ,a view of an object which shows all three dimensions from one side4 99,pinion499 ,a small toothed wheel4 99,planetary499 ,a system of gears where two or more mesh with and revolve around a central gear4 99,plurality499 ,numerous2 more than one4 99,plumbago499 ,graphite2 a form of carbon2 a lubricant4 99,potentiality499 ,the term applied to the volts and amperes in an electric current4 99,positive499 ,one which deflects a needle to the left4 99,pre-ignition499 ,where the spark ignites the charge before the piston begins to descend1 or ahead of its proper time4 99,precision499 ,a system of oiling the machinery which depends on a pump that sends in a definite amount of lubricant at each turn of the engine4 99,predeterminate499 ,arranging beforehand4 99,preferential499 ,a more satisfactory manner1 or time2 estimating one thing above another4 99,primary499 ,the first4 ,as applied to electrical devices it has reference to a battery which generates a current in contradistinction to the secondary or storage battery4 99,proportionate499 ,the ratio to something else4 ,this compared with that4 99,properties499 ,the attributes of matter4 99,protective499 ,that which shields2 a covering1 or an enclosure4 99,progressive499 ,proceeding in a direct line4 99,propelling499 ,moving2 drawing2 giving motive power4 99,pneumatic499 ,pertaining to air4 99,push leg499 ,an old system of propelling mechanism for vehicles4 ,not used in that manner now4 ,the pawl engaging a lever1 is the only form in which the push leg is now employed4 99,puncture499 ,a rupture2 a hole2 a tear4 99,quadrant499 ,one-fourth of a circle4 99,radiating499 ,moving out in all directions from a common center4 99,radiation499 ,applied to the movement of heat from a body4 99,radiator499 ,a device which cools water1 by the application of air4 99,raceway499 ,a track for the movement and guidance of anti-friction balls4 99,radius499 ,that line from a center to the circumferential or outer line or point4 99,rectilinear499 ,right2 straight4 99,recessed499 ,a depression2 a cavity4 99,reinforce499 ,the term applied to any means which may be employed to strengthen any part4 99,requisite499 ,necessary4 99,registering499 ,to indicate2 also applied to mechanism where one part exactly coincides with another part4 99,resorted499 ,where one device is utilized instead of another4 99,refinement499 ,made better2 a more satisfactory form4 99,retreating499 ,falling back2 one part to the rear of another4 99,reversed499 ,turned about2 in the opposite direction4 ,inversed means2 upside down4 99,resiliency499 ,that property of matter which will yield1 or change its form and return to its original form4 99,resistance499 ,that property of all matter to object to a change of form2 the force which opposes the movement of a current through a conductor4 99,ribbed499 ,having raised surfaces1 of greater or less length4 99,rock shaft499 ,a shaft which turns back and forth2 oscillating4 99,rotatable499 ,turning1 as a wheel on its axle2 often confounded with the word revoluble1 which describes the movement of a body through an orbit4 ,the earth rotates on its axis once every twenty-four hours2 it revolves through space around the sun once every year4 99,rotor arm499 ,an arm adapted to swing through an arc4 99,saturate499 ,to absorb a liquid or gas to full capacity4 99,secondary499 ,the second place2 applied to a battery1 it is one which receives and holds a charge4 99,sectional499 ,a part2 a view across the parts4 99,selector499 ,a plate with notches in it for a lever1 which is moved through the openings at the will of the operator4 99,selector plate499 ,the notched1 or slotted plate1 in which the transmission lever travels4 99,series499 ,one following directly after the other2 in electrical connections1 the wires attached in line from positive to negative1 through the different cells4 99,series multiple499 ,a wiring system wherein the cells are placed in two or more groups1 and the groups connected up in series4 99,segment499 ,a portion of a disk cut off by a straight line4 ,distinguished from a sector which is made by two radial lines running from the center to the circumference4 99,self starting499 ,a mechanism on automobiles for starting the engine without muscular effort4 99,self-inductance499 ,in electricity1 the property of one metal to receive an electrical charge without being in contact with the charged wire4 99,selective499 ,the term applied to a system of transmission1 whereby the driver is able to select any speed without going through any intermediate speed4 99,service brake499 ,the brake ordinarily used in running a car4 99,semi-floating499 ,an axle in which the wheels are secured directly to the axle shafts1 but where the reaction of the differential and bevel gear drive is supported by the axle housing4 99,shackle499 ,a device for restraining or holding4 99,simultaneous499 ,at the same time2 occurring at the same moment4 99,solution499 ,to solve a question4 ,to dissolve solid matter in a liquid4 99,soapstone499 ,a rock which has a structure similar to that of soap4 99,speculate499 ,to consider a subject from the standpoint of probabilities4 99,sprocket499 ,a wheel with teeth in it adapted to engage with a chain1 for driving purposes4 99,spur gear499 ,a gear with teeth which are at right angles with the body of the gear4 99,spline499 ,a rib usually along the side of a shaft1 to engage in a groove in the hub or wheel4 99,sparking499 ,the jumping of a spark from one conductor to another due to the high heat developed when the current leaps the gap4 99,spark plug499 ,a plug which has in it two conductors which lead to its inner end1 and have their ends in close proximity1 across which the current leaps4 99,structurally499 ,the manner in which a device is made of its various parts4 99,straight line drive499 ,the system of transmitting power in an automobile1 which consists in employing a train of shafting in a direct line from the engine shaft to the differential4 99,stranded 7cable7499 ,a conductor1 or wire rope1 made up of a number of small wire strands4 99,storage battery499 ,a container1 or accumulator1 of electricity1 which is designed to receive a charge of electricity1 and to give it forth as required4 99,susceptible499 ,a condition in which the truth is considered probable from a knowledge of all the surroundings4 99,superheated499 ,a substance1 such as steam1 heated above the normal temperature which is given to it when it is generated4 99,surging499 ,the term applied to a high tension current1 which1 during the impulses1 appears to move back and forth1 as though it possessed elasticity4 99,symptoms499 ,appearances2 the outward manifestations of a condition4 99,systematic499 ,done in regular order4 99,technicalities499 ,the scientific and orderly terms and requirements4 99,tension499 ,voltage4 ,the force of the current4 ,also the power applied on a spring1 or the amount of force it will exert4 99,terminal499 ,the end1 or the starting point1 as well as the last or final end of a wire or connection4 99,threaded499 ,the spirally-formed ribs on a bolt or in a nut4 99,throttle499 ,the device on an automobile which opens or closes the discharge port of a carbureter4 99,timing499 ,a device which times the sparking mechanism4 99,timing device499 ,the entire mechanism which provides for sparking at certain periods4 99,torque499 ,a twist4 99,torsional499 ,a movement around a shaft4 99,transmission499 ,the mechanism which sends the power from the engine to the axles4 99,tubular housing499 ,a covering1 or shield for a shaft such as a tube1 within which the shaft is mounted4 99,turnbuckle499 ,a device which provides for tightening a rod1 wire1 or strut4 99,undulating499 ,wave-like2 a regular motion of a sinuous character4 99,unison499 ,together2 acting as one4 99,universal499 ,pertaining to all things4 99,universal joint499 ,a joint connecting two shafts so arranged that the shafts may be placed at an angle with each other4 99,utilized499 ,to take advantage of4 ,to use4 99,vacuum499 ,a space from which the air has been exhausted4 99,vaporize499 ,changing from a solid or liquid into a gas4 99,venturi499 ,a form of tube which is contracted between the ends4 99,vertical499 ,a direction at right angles to the surface of water4 99,vibratory coil499 ,a coil in a high tension circuit that has a spring finger which1 in vibrating to and fro1 cuts the current in and out4 99,viscosity499 ,a glutinous1 sticky body2 slowly flowing2 opposed to mobility2 usually applied to thick oils4 ,the degree of cohesion of a liquid1 usually in connection with oils4 99,volatile499 ,that which is easily changed into a gas at ordinary temperatures4 99,volts499 ,the measure of the tension of a current4 99,vulcanizing499 ,the process of treating raw rubber with sulphur in the presence of heat4 ,,the ,,motor ,,boys ,,series 7,trade ,mark1 ,reg4 ,u4 ,s4 ,pat4 ,of47 ,by ,,clarence ,,young #abmo4 ,illustrated4 ,price per volume1 #fj cents1 postpaid4 ,illustration3 ,book3 ,,the ,,motor ,,boys ,the ,motor ,boys or ,chums ,through ,thick and ,thin ,the ,motor ,boys ,overland or ,a ,lone ,trip for ,fun and ,fortune ,the ,motor ,boys in ,mexico4 or ,the ,secret of ,the ,buried ,city ,the ,motor ,boys ,across the ,plains or ,the ,hermit of ,lost ,lake ,illustration3 ,book3 ,,the ,,motor ,,boys ,,afloat ,the ,motor ,boys ,afloat or ,the ,stirring ,cruise of the ,dartaway ,the ,motor ,boys on the ,atlantic or ,the ,mystery of the ,lighthouse ,the ,motor ,boys in ,strange ,waters or ,lost in a ,floating ,forest ,the ,motor ,boys on the ,pacific or ,the ,young ,derelict ,hunters ,illustration3 ,book3 ,,the ,,motor ,,boys ,,in ,,the ,,clouds ,the ,motor ,boys in the ,clouds or ,a ,trip for ,fame and ,fortune ,the ,motor ,boys ,over the ,rockies or ,a ,mystery of the ,air ,the ,motor ,boys ,over the ,ocean or ,a ,marvellous ,rescue in ,mid-,air ,the ,motor ,boys on the ,wing or ,seeking the ,airship ,treasure ,illustration3 ,book3 ,,the ,,motor ,,boys ,,after ,a ,,fortune ,the ,motor ,boys ,after a ,fortune or ,the ,hut on ,snake ,island ,the ,motor ,boys on the ,border or ,sixty ,nuggets of ,gold ,the ,motor ,boys ,under the ,sea or ,from ,airship to ,submarine ,the ,motor ,boys on ,road and ,river 7new7 or ,racing to ,save a ,life ,,cupples ,,leon ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,,new ,,york ,,up-,,to-,,date ,,baseball ,,stories ,,baseball ,,joe ,,series ,by ,,lester ,,chadwick ,author of 8,the ,college ,sports ,series0 #abmo4 ,illustrated4 ,price per volume1 #fj cents1 postpaid4 ,illustration3 ,book3 ,,baseball ,,joe ,,of ,,the ,,silver ,,stars ,ever since the success of ,mr4 ,chadwick's 8,college ,sports ,series0 we have been urged to get him to write a series dealing exclusively with baseball1 a subject in which he is unexcelled by any living ,american author or coach4 ,,baseball ,,joe ,,of ,,the ,,silver ,,stars or ,the ,rivals of ,riverside ,in this volume1 the first of the series1 ,joe is introduced as an everyday country boy who loves to play baseball and is particularly anxious to make his mark as a pitcher4 ,he finds it almost impossible to get on the local nine1 but1 after a struggle1 he succeeds4 ,a splendid picture of the great national game in the smaller towns of our country4 ,,baseball ,,joe ,,on ,,the ,,school ,,nine or ,pitching for the ,blue ,banner ,joe's great ambition was to go to boarding school and play on the school team4 ,he got to boarding school but found it harder making the team there than it was getting on the nine at home4 ,he fought his way along1 and at last saw his chance and took it1 and made good4 ,,baseball ,,joe ,,at ,,yale or ,pitching for the ,college ,championship ,from a preparatory school ,baseball ,joe goes to ,yale ,university4 ,he makes the freshman nine and in his second year becomes a varsity pitcher and pitches in several big games4 ,,baseball ,,joe ,,in ,,the ,,central ,,league or ,making ,good as a ,professional ,pitcher ,in this volume the scene of action is shifted from ,yale ,college to a baseball league of our central states4 ,baseball ,joe's work in the box for ,old ,eli had been noted by one of the managers and ,joe gets an offer he cannot resist4 ,joe accepts the offer and makes good4 ,,baseball ,,joe ,,in ,,the ,,big ,,league or ,a ,young ,pitcher's ,hardest ,struggle ,from the ,central ,league ,joe is drafted into the ,st4 ,louis ,nationals4 ,at first he has little to do in the pitcher's box1 but gradually he wins favor4 ,a corking baseball story that fans1 both young and old1 will enjoy4 ,,cupples ,,leon ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,,new ,,york ,the ,racer ,boys ,series by ,,clarence ,,young ,author of 8,the ,motor ,boys ,series01 8,jack ,ranger ,series01 etc4 etc4 ,fine cloth binding4 ,illustrated4 ,price per volume1 #fj;c postpaid4 ,illustration3 ,book3 ,,the ,,racer ,,boys ,the announcement of a new series of stories by ,mr4 ,clarence ,young is always hailed with delight by boys and girls throughout the country1 and we predict an even greater success for these new books1 than that now enjoyed by the 8,motor ,boys ,series40 ,the ,racer ,boys or ,the ,mystery of the ,wreck ,this1 the first volume of the series1 tells who the ,racer ,boys were and how they chanced to be out on the ocean in a great storm4 ,adventures follow in rapid succession in a manner that only ,mr4 ,young can describe4 ,the ,racer ,boys ,at ,boarding ,school or ,striving for the ,championship ,when the ,racer ,boys arrived at the school everything was at a standstill1 and the students lacked ambition and leadership4 ,the ,racers took hold with a will1 got their father to aid the head of the school financially1 and then reorganized the football team4 ,the ,racer ,boys ,to ,the ,rescue or ,stirring ,days in a ,winter ,camp ,here is a story filled with the spirit of good times in winter--skating1 ice-boating and hunting4 ,the ,racer ,boys on ,the ,prairies or ,the ,treasure of ,golden ,peak ,from their boarding school the ,racer ,boys accept an invitation to visit a ranch in the ,west4 ,the ,racer ,boys on ,guard or ,the ,rebellion of ,riverview ,hall ,once more the boys are back at boarding school1 where they have many frolics1 and enter more than one athletic contest4 ,the ,racer ,boys ,forging ,ahead or ,the ,rivals of the ,school ,league ,once more the ,racer ,boys go back to ,riverview ,hall1 to meet their many chums as well as several enemies4 ,athletics play an important part in this volume1 and the rivalry is keen from start to finish4 ,the ,racer ,boys show what they can do under the most trying circumstances4 ,,cupples ,,leon ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,,new ,,york ,,the ,,dorothy ,,dale ,,series ,by ,,margaret ,,penrose ,author of 8,the ,motor ,girls ,series0 #abmo4 ,illustrated4 ,price per volume1 #fj cents1 postpaid4 ,illustration3 ,book3 ,,dorothy ,,dale',s ,,promise ,,dorothy ,,dale3 ,a ,,girl ,,of ,,to-,,day ,dorothy is the daughter of an old ,civil ,war veteran who is running a weekly newspaper in a small ,eastern town4 ,when her father falls sick1 the girl shows what she can do to support the family4 ,,dorothy ,,dale ,,at ,,glenwood ,,school ,more prosperous times have come to the ,dale family1 and ,major ,dale resolves to send ,dorothy to a boarding school4 ,,dorothy ,,dale',s ,,great ,,secret ,a splendid story of one girl's devotion to another4 ,how ,dorothy kept the secret makes an absorbing story4 ,,dorothy ,,dale ,,and ,,her ,,chums ,a story of school life1 and of strange adventures among the gypsies4 ,,dorothy ,,dale',s ,,queer ,,holidays ,relates the details of a mystery that surrounded ,tanglewood ,park4 ,,dorothy ,,dale',s ,,camping ,,days ,many things happen1 from the time ,dorothy and her chums are met coming down the hillside on a treacherous load of hay4 ,,dorothy ,,dale',s ,,school ,,rivals ,dorothy and her chum1 ,tavia1 return to ,glenwood ,school4 ,a new student becomes ,dorothy's rival and troubles at home add to her difficulties4 ,,dorothy ,,dale ,,in ,,the ,,city ,dorothy is invited to ,new ,york ,city by her aunt4 ,this tale presents a clever picture of life in ,new ,york as it appears to one who has never before visited the ,metropolis4 ,,dorothy ,,dale',s ,,promise ,strange indeed was the promise and given under strange circumstances4 ,only a girl as strong of purpose as was ,dorothy ,dale would have undertaken the task she set for herself4 ,,dorothy ,,dale ,,in ,,the ,,west ,dorothy's father and her aunt inherited a valuable tract of land in the ,west4 ,the aunt1 ,dorothy and ,tavia1 made a long journey to visit the place1 where they had many adventures4 ,,cupples ,,leon ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,,new ,,york ,,the ,,motor ,,girls ,,series ,by ,,margaret ,,penrose ,author of the highly successful 8,dorothy ,dale ,series0 #abmo4 ,illustrated4 ,price per volume1 #fj cents1 postpaid4 ,illustration3 ,book3 ,,the ,,motor ,,girls ,,the ,,motor ,,girls or ,a ,mystery of the ,road ,when ,cora ,kimball got her touring car she did not imagine so many adventures were in store for her4 ,a tale all wide awake girls will appreciate4 ,,the ,,motor ,,girls ,,on ,a ,,tour or ,keeping a ,strange ,promise ,a great many things happen in this volume4 ,a precious heirloom is missing1 and how it was traced up is told with absorbing interest4 ,,the ,,motor ,,girls ,,at ,,lookout ,,beach or ,in ,quest of the ,runaways ,there was a great excitement when the ,motor ,girls decided to go to ,lookout ,beach for the summer4 ,,the ,,motor ,,girls ,,through ,,new ,,england or ,held by the ,gypsies ,a strong story and one which will make this series more popular than ever4 ,the girls go on a motoring trip through ,new ,england4 ,,the ,,motor ,,girls ,,on ,,cedar ,,lake or ,the ,hermit of ,fern ,island ,how ,cora and her chums went camping on the lake shore and how they took trips in their motor boat1 are told in a way all girls will enjoy4 ,,the ,,motor ,,girls ,,on ,,the ,,coast or ,the ,waif from the ,sea ,the scene is shifted to the sea coast where the girls pay a visit4 ,they have their motor boat with them and go out for many good times4 ,,the ,,motor ,,girls ,,on ,,crystal ,,bay or ,the ,secret of the ,red ,oar ,more jolly times1 on the water and at a cute little bungalow on the shore of the bay4 ,a tale that will interest all girls4 ,,the ,,motor ,,girls ,,on ,,waters ,,blue or ,the ,strange ,cruise of the ,tartar ,before the girls started on a long cruise down to the ,west ,indies1 they fell in with a foreign girl and she informed them that her father was being held a political prisoner on one of the islands4 ,a story that is full of fun as well as mystery4 ,,cupples ,,leon ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,,new ,,york ,,ruth ,,fielding ,,series ,by ,,alice ,b4 ,,emerson #abmo4 ,illustrated4 ,price per volume1 #dj cents1 postpaid4 ,illustration3 ,book3 ,,ruth ,,fielding ,,of ,,the ,,red ,,mill ,,ruth ,,fielding ,,of ,,the ,,red ,,mill or ,jaspar ,parloe's ,secret ,telling how ,ruth1 an orphan girl1 came to live with her miserly uncle1 and how the girl's sunny disposition melted the old miller's heart4 ,,ruth ,,fielding ,,at ,,briarwood ,,hall or ,solving the ,campus ,mystery ,ruth was sent by her uncle to boarding school4 ,she made many friends1 also one enemy1 who made much trouble for her4 ,,ruth ,,fielding ,,at ,,snow ,,camp or ,lost in the ,backwoods ,a thrilling tale of adventures in the backwoods in winter1 is told in a manner to interest every girl4 ,,ruth ,,fielding ,,at ,,lighthouse ,,point or ,nita1 the ,girl ,castaway ,from boarding school the scene is shifted to the ,atlantic ,coast1 where ,ruth goes for a summer vacation with some chums4 ,,ruth ,,fielding ,,at ,,silver ,,ranch or ,schoolgirls ,among the ,cowboys ,a story with a western flavor4 ,how the girls came to the rescue of ,bashful ,ike1 the cowboy1 is told in a way that is most absorbing4 ,,ruth ,,fielding ,,on ,,cliff ,,island or ,the ,old ,hunter's ,treasure ,box ,ruth and her friends go to ,cliff ,island1 and there have many good times during the winter season4 ,,ruth ,,fielding ,,at ,,sunrise ,,farm or ,what ,became of the ,raby ,orphans ,jolly good times at a farmhouse in the country1 where ,ruth rescues two orphan children who ran away4 ,,ruth ,,fielding ,,and ,,the ,,gypsies or ,the ,missing ,pearl ,necklace ,this volume tells of stirring adventures at a ,gypsy encampment1 of a missing heirloom1 and how ,ruth has it restored to its owner4 ,,cupples ,,leon ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,,new ,,york ,,the ,,dave ,,dashaway ,,series ,by ,,roy ,,rockwood ,author of the 8,speedwell ,boys ,series0 and the 8,great ,marvel ,series40 #abmo4 ,illustrated4 ,price per volume1 #dj cents1 postpaid4 ,never was there a more clever young aviator than ,dave ,dashaway4 ,all up-to-date lads will surely wish to read about him4 ,illustration3 ,book3 ,,dave ,,dashaway ,,the ,,young ,,aviator ,,dave ,,dashaway ,,the ,,young ,,aviator or ,in the ,clouds for ,fame and ,fortune ,this initial volume tells how the hero ran away from his miserly guardian1 fell in with a successful airman1 and became a young aviator of note4 ,,dave ,,dashaway ,,and ,,his ,,hydroplane or ,daring ,adventures ,over the ,great ,lakes ,showing how ,dave continued his career as a birdman and had many adventures over the ,great ,lakes1 and how he foiled the plans of some ,canadian smugglers4 ,,dave ,,dashaway ,,and ,,his ,,giant ,,airship or ,a ,marvellous ,trip ,across the ,atlantic ,how the giant airship was constructed and how the daring young aviator and his friends made the hazardous journey through the clouds from the new world to the old1 is told in a way to hold the reader spellbound4 ,,dave ,,dashaway ,,around ,,the ,,world or ,a ,young ,yankee ,aviator ,among ,many ,nations ,an absorbing tale of a great air flight around the world1 of adventures in ,alaska1 ,siberia and elsewhere4 ,a true to life picture of what may be accomplished in the near future4 ,,dave ,,dashaway3 ,,air ,,champion or ,wizard ,work in the ,clouds ,dave makes several daring trips1 and then enters a contest for a big prize4 ,an aviation tale thrilling in the extreme4 ,,cupples ,,leon ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,,new ,,york ,,the ,,speedwell ,,boys ,,series ,by ,,roy ,,rockwood ,author of 8,the ,dave ,dashaway ,series10 8,great ,marvel ,series10 etc4 #abmo4 ,illustrated4 ,price per volume1 #dj cents1 postpaid4 ,all boys who love to be on the go will welcome the ,speedwell boys4 ,they are clean cut and loyal lads4 ,illustration3 ,book3 ,,the ,,speedwell ,,boys ,,on ,,motor ,,cycles ,,the ,,speedwell ,,boys ,,on ,,motor ,,cycles or ,the ,mystery of a ,great ,conflagration ,the lads were poor1 but they did a rich man a great service and he presented them with their motor cycles4 ,what a great fire led to is exceedingly well told4 ,,the ,,speedwell ,,boys ,,and ,,their ,,racing ,,auto or ,a ,run for the ,golden ,cup ,a tale of automobiling and of intense rivalry on the road4 ,there was an endurance run and the boys entered the contest4 ,on the run they rounded up some men who were wanted by the law4 ,,the ,,speedwell ,,boys ,,and ,,their ,,power ,,launch or ,to the ,rescue of the ,castaways ,here is an unusual story4 ,there was a wreck1 and the lads1 in their power launch1 set out to the rescue4 ,a vivid picture of a great storm adds to the interest of the tale4 ,,the ,,speedwell ,,boys ,,in ,a ,,submarine or ,the ,lost ,treasure of ,rocky ,cove ,an old sailor knows of a treasure lost under water because of a cliff falling into the sea4 ,the boys get a chance to go out in a submarine and they make a hunt for the treasure4 ,,the ,,speedwell ,,boys ,,and ,,their ,,ice ,,racer or ,the ,perils of a ,great ,blizzard ,the boys had an idea for a new sort of iceboat1 to be run by combined wind and motor power4 ,how they built the craft1 and what fine times they had on board of it1 is well related4 ,,cupples ,,leon ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,,new ,,york ,transcriber's ,notes ,italicized text is surrounded by underscores3 italics4 ,bold text is surrounded by asterisks3 99bold994 ,small capitals are changed to all capitals4 ,illustrations have been moved so they do not break up the paragraphs4 ,obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources4 ,punctuation and capitalisation for figures and glossary has been made consistent silently4 ,otherwise1 except for those changes noted below1 all misspellings in the text1 and inconsistent or archaic usage1 have been retained4 ,the following corrections have been applied to the text 7before_/after73 7,,contents7 444 ,race-ways4 444 444 ,race ways4 444 7p4 #f7 444 he used ,heros steam 444 444 he used ,hero's steam 444 7p4 #dc7 444 is shown in ,fig4 #be1 in 444 444 is shown in ,fig4 #bf1 in 444 7p4 #ec7 444 disagreeable characteristics of a differential 444 444 disagreeable characteristic of a differential 444 7p4 #bja7 444 when the mechainsm fails 444 444 when the mechanism fails 444 7p4 #bja7 444 knowledge of electricty4 444 knowledge of electricity4 7p4 #bjc7 444 some proggress has been 444 444 some progress has been 444 7p4 #bjd7 444 flows continously over a wire 444 444 flows continuously over a wire 444 7p4 #bjf7 444 a continous current 444 444 a continuous current 444 7p4 #bad7 444 made of vadium steel1 444 444 made of vanadium steel1 444