,,lives ,,of ,,the ,,electricians4 ,,lives ,,of ,,the ,,electricians3 ,,professors ,,tyndall1 ,,wheatstone1 ,,and ,,morse4 ,,first ,,series4 ,,by ,,william ,t4 ,,jeans4 8,the electric telegraph is the most precious gift which ,science has given to civilisation40--,,sir ,d4 ,,brewster4 ,,london3 ,,whittaker ,,co41 #b1 ,,white ,,hart ,,street1 ,,paternoster ,,square1 ,e4 ,c4 ,,george ,,bell ,,sons1 ,,york ,,street1 ,,covent ,,garden4 #ahhg4 ,,richard ,,clay ,,and ,,sons1 ,,london ,,and ,,bungay4 ,,contents4 ,,introduction4 ,use of lives of electricians--,world-wide distribution of electricians--,eminent authorities on biographical studies ,pages ix-xvi ,,professor ,,tyndall4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,position as a scientist--,origin and early career--,work on ,ordnance ,survey1 and as a teacher--,student life at ,marburg-- ,sense of duty and early friendships ,pages #a-bj ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,subjects of study in ,germany--,discovery of diamagnetism-- ,investigation of it--,scientific acquaintances--,early connection with ,royal ,institution--,slaty cleavage--,glacier phenomena explained ,pages #ba-da ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,researches on ,radiant ,heat--,aqueous vapour and new glacial theory--,calorescence--,formation of clouds--,germ theory--,smoke respirator--,experiments on sound and its production by heat ,pages #db-ei ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,alpine travels--,ascent of ,monte ,rosa1 ,mont ,blanc1 ,weisshorn1 ,col-du-,gant1 and ,piz ,morteratch--,visit to ,vesuvius--,an ,american's impressions--,visit to ,america--,exploration of ,niagara ,falls--,presidental address to ,british ,association ,pages #fj-hc ,,chapter ,v4 ,changes at ,royal ,institution--,development of electricity explained--,experimental illustrations and anecdotes--,reminiscences of ,thomas ,carlyle--,scientific adviser to the ,trinity ,house ,pages #hd-ajd ,,professor ,,wheatstone4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,forecasts of the telegraph--,early descriptions and history of it--,birth and early achievements of ,wheatstone--,enchanted lyre or first telephone--,experiments in audition--,invention of concertina--,velocity of electricity measured--,spectrum analysis--,lightning conductors ,pages #aje-acb ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,origin of telegraph--,early evidences of ,wheatstone's-- ,working of first needle telegraph--,dispute with ,mr4 ,w4 ,f4 ,cooke as to priority of invention--,wheatstone's vindication --,his electro-magnetic telegraph1 magneto-electric machine1 electric clock1 printing telegraph1 chronoscope1 method of measuring electricity1 and improved needle telegraphs ,pages #acc-agb ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,first uses of telegraph--,means of arresting criminals-- ,early charges for telegraphing--,formation of ,electric ,telegraph ,company--,wheatstone's magneto-electric exploder-- ,his early experiments with submarine cables--,cable from ,dover to ,calais--,faraday on ,wheatstone's ,a4,b4,c4 telegraph instrument--,his automatic instruments ,pages #agc-bjc ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,origin of ,dynamo--,invention of stereoscope--,improvement by ,sir ,d4 ,brewster--,illustration of earth's rotatory motion--,wheatstone's cryptograph--,his minor inventions-- ,honours conferred on him--,his death ,pages #bjd-bcj ,,professor ,,morse4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,birth and education--,diverted from electricity to art-- ,labours as an artist in ,england and ,america ,pages #bca-bda ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,travels to study art--,first conception of ,recording ,telegraph--,experiments with it in ,new ,york--,invention of ,relay--,his poverty and disappointments--,his originality disputed--,first exhibitions of his apparatus-- ,descriptions of it--,foreign patents--,introduction of photography--,congress asked to try his telegraph-- ,appropriation granted--,experimental line made and opened ,pages #bdb-bgh ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,morse ,telegraph offered to ,government and declined--,rapid extension of it by ,companies--,determination of longitude2 ,morse transmitter and sounder--,first ,atlantic ,cable ,pages #bgi-cja ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,rewards of inventors--,morse patents vindicated--,rival inventions--,pioneers of practical telegraphy--,honours and emoluments of ,morse--,statue in ,new ,york--,last days--,death ,pages #cjb-cbb ,,introduction4 ,although this work is the first of its kind relating to electricians1 its design is neither novel nor tentative4 ,its object is not only to give a popular account of the most memorable achievements of those men who have succeeded in evolving the laws of electricity1 but to convey to unscientific readers some knowledge of the nature of those laws1 and the means by which they have been applied to the purposes of man4 ,in some senses electrical science and its practical applications might be described as the creation of the present century2 and the author has been encouraged to adopt this method of giving a popular account of the great and useful work that our electricians have done by the success of a similar work dealing1 in like manner1 with the men and the inventions that have multiplied and cheapened the production and use of the most useful of metals4#a ,an eminent reviewer of that work justly observed that 8our inventors might well boast that with a piece of steel and the recent developments of the magnetic force--so far at least as manufactures and commerce are concerned--they have revolutionised the world40 ,it is this revolution and the men who have effected it1 that this work proposes to give an account of1 hoping to realise the truth of ,tacitus' observation1 that 8the age which is most fertile in bright examples is the best qualified to make a fair estimate of them40 ,of books on electricity there is already abundance4 ,they have been poured from the press in yearly increasing numbers4 ,during the present generation the laws of electricity have been explained in every variety of form--in the rigid demonstrations of the geometrician1 in the abstract symbolism of the mathematician1 in the technical language of numerous text-books1 and in the experimental illustrations of popular lecturers4 ,but to the ordinary reader the theorems of the mathematician are written in an unknown tongue2 and more elementary books on electricity1 to be made interesting to the popular mind1 would have to be written in 8that language which can give a soul to the objects of sense1 and a body to the abstractions of mathematics40 ,add to this the fact that1 as ,prof4 ,c4 ,a4 ,young puts it1 8since #ahdh all things have become new in the scientific world4 ,there is a new mathematics and a new astronomy1 a new chemistry and a new electricity1 a new geology and a new biology4 ,great voices have spoken1 and have transformed the world of thought and research as much as the material products of science have altered the aspects of external life4 ,the telegraph and dynamo-machine have not more changed the conditions of business and industry than the speculations of ,darwin and ,helmholtz and their compeers have affected those of philosophy and science40 ,the conquest of these fresh fields of knowledge has been almost the life's work of professional scientists2 and is that which was said of the past to continue true of the future1 that ideas which in one generation are those of the learned few1 in the next become those of the educated and middle class1 and in the third those of the general public8 ,even if no work were necessary to indicate the advances made in electrical knowledge1 biographies of the electricians would still be a desideratum4 ,carlyle has said of art in general that biography is almost the one thing needful4 ,in the literature of electricity1 it has hitherto been the one thing lacking4 ,the subject is not destitute of historic as well as scientific interest2 and hence it is possible that the general reader may be led to regard it from ,terence's point of view that 8whatsoever concerns mankind concerns me40 ,it is possible1 too1 that a record of the achievements which have brought electricity to its present state of utility1 may impart a reflex interest to that science4 8,art is art10 says ,carlyle1 8yet man also is man4 ,had the ,transfiguration of ,raphael been painted without human hand2 had it grown merely on the canvas1 say by atmospheric influences1 as lichen pictures do on rocks--it were a grand picture doubtless2 yet nothing like so grand as the picture which on opening our eyes we everywhere in heaven and earth see painted1 and everywhere pass over with indifference1--because the ,painter was not ,man4 ,think of this2 much lies in it4 ,the ,vatican is great2 yet poor to ,chimborazo or the ,peak of ,teneriffe2 its dome is but the foolish chip of an egg-shell1 compared with that star-fretted dome where ,arcturus and ,orion glance for ever2 which latter notwithstanding who looks at8 ,the biographic interest is wanting3 no ,michael ,angelo was ,he who built that #8,temple of ,immensity2' therefore do we1 pitiful ,littlenesses as we are1 turn rather to wonder and to worship in the little toy-box of a ,temple built by our like40 ,now it has been well observed that science is to the present age what art was to the middle ages2 and such being the case1 may not a similar interest to that described by ,carlyle attach to the marvellous things done by means of electricity8 ,a great deal is said about electricity1 but very little about the men who made it subject to the will of man1 who converted it into 8the pulse of speech0 which annihilates time and space1 and who made it 8the greatest blessing that science has given to civilisation40 ,of them it has often been said that 8their line has gone out through all the earth1 and their words to the end of the world10 but of their lives not much has been communicated to the general public in a popular form4 ,the men who have made electricity the handmaid of industry are nearly as widespread as the subtle force with which they have had to deal4 ,the ,united ,kingdom was the birth-place of the monarch of modern machinery--the steam-engine1--and also of the leading inventions in metallurgy which supply the framework of all our manufacturing machinery2 but the pioneers and engineers of electricity have been of different nations and tongues4 ,in the infancy of the science no country produced more electricians than ,germany2 in the discovery and exposition of its subtlest laws1 as well as in their application to useful purposes1 no country has done more than ,england2 while in the most novel and most extensive use of electrical appliances for industrial purposes the ,new ,world may be said to have outstripped the ,old4 ,but smaller countries have also made splendid contributions to the general store of knowledge4 ,volta1 the first philosopher who from his youth devoted himself to the study of electricity1 and who has given his name to one department of it1 was an ,italian2 so was ,galvani1 who discovered that a frog was the most sensitive electrometer1 and whose name became a synonym for electricity4 ,oersted1 who made himself famous by the discovery of the mutual action of magnets and electrical conductors1 was a ,dane2 while ,ampre1 whom some writers have called 8the ,newton of electricity10 and ,arago1 who discovered the development of magnetism by rotation1 were ,frenchmen4 ,most of these pioneers have already taken their place in the ,temple of ,science2 and this work not being intended to go over beaten ground1 it was expected1 at the outset1 to comprise in one volume sufficient biographies to illustrate the more recent progress of electrical science and its applications to industrial purposes2 but the more the writer investigated the subject1 the more it grew1 not only in magnitude1 but in magnetic attractiveness4 ,he found that to give a complete account of the revolution effected by means of electricity would require biographies of the three classes of men1--scientific1 engineering1 and commercial--that had been instrumental in bringing electricity to its present state of usefulness2 while to do justice to these men would require such a varied picture of their lives as would illustrate their marvellous versatility1 or their multifarious works1 thus showing that they were among the ornaments as well as the benefactors of their race4 ,he was encouraged to begin this work by the success of his previous effort1 and he was encouraged to continue it beyond the limit originally intended by experiencing a feeling of pleasure akin to that which led ,plutarch to say in the course of his work1 that when he first applied himself to the writing of ancient lives it was for the sake of others1 but he pursued that study for his own sake3 for it was like living and conversing with these illustrious men1 when he considered how great and wonderful they were4 ,more recently ,lord ,bacon said he 8could not but wonder that our own times have so little value for what they enjoy1 as not more frequently to write the lives of eminent men2 for though kings1 princes1 and great personages are few1 yet there are many excellent men who deserve better than vague reports and barren eulogies40 ,nor is there any lack of authority as to the value of our subject in the estimation of contemporary schools of thought4 ,an eminent ,greek scholar 7,dr4 ,lushington7 in addressing the students of ,glasgow ,university as their ,lord ,rector in #ahhe1 observed that 8the hope of adding something more to the store of accomplished good to mankind cheered and upheld many daring pioneers of science1 whose venerated names1 now become household words1 are linked together for ever in the history of human progress1 known and honoured throughout the whole civilised world4 ,yet who in the age of ,watt1 even in the boldest flights of presaging imagination1 could have foretold such wondrous conquests over space and time as the spectroscope1 the electric telegraph1 and the telephone have revealed80 ,the object of this work is to give some account of 8such wondrous conquests40 ,the guiding principle in its compilation has been the maxim of ,goethe1 that the main object of biography is to exhibit man in relation to the features of his time2 and not as ,dumas1 on the other hand1 sarcastically put it1 8to trace each man's innermost life1 ascertain whether he was born on a calcareous or a granite soil1 learn whether his ancestors and himself have drunk wine1 cider1 or beer1 or eaten meat1 fish1 or vegetables--nay1 to penetrate the meanest details of his existence1 to descend from the heights of criticism and from a scientific system to the gratification of a paltry curiosity40 ,this volume opens with an account of the labours of the physicist who made a special study of the phenomena of magnetism1 electricity1 and co-relative forces2 and in the course of it occasion is taken to explain certain elementary principles of these forces4 ,it then proceeds to give1 in the life of ,professor ,wheatstone1 an account of some of the methods by which such scientific principles were made serviceable to man2 and it concludes with an account of the man who made it the labour of his life to produce a telegraphic apparatus and alphabet which have found universal favour4 ,technical language has been avoided as far as possible1 and yet it is hoped that the descriptions given of electrical laws and mechanism will convey substantially correct impressions1 without entering into elaborate details or straining after scientific exactness4 ,while it may thus become a means of imparting to unscientific readers some knowledge of the history of electrical science and engineering1 it is hoped that the narrative will be found sufficiently instructive to point a moral to that wider class of readers who take a sympathetic interest in the struggles and achievements of those unobtrusive but beneficent men1 8who1 departing1 leave behind them foot-prints on the sands of time40 ,,footnotes3 #a ,the ,creators of the ,age of ,steel4 ,,lives ,,of ,,the ,,electricians4 ,,professor ,,tyndall4 ,,chapter ,i4 8,precious is the new light of knowledge which our ,teacher conquers for us2 yet small to the new light of ,love which also we derive from him3 the most important element of any man's performance is the ,life he has accomplished40--,,carlyle4 ,the position of ,professor ,tyndall in the world of science is somewhat unique4 ,he is one of our most popular teachers of physical science2 he is one of our most successful experimentalists2 and he is one of our most attractive writers4 ,by his discoveries he has largely extended our knowledge of the laws of ,nature2 by his teaching and writings he has probably done more than any other man in ,england to kindle a love of science among the masses2 and by his life he has set an example to students of science which cannot be too widely known or appreciated4 ,there are men who have made greater and more useful discoveries in science1 but few have made more interesting discoveries4 ,there are men whose achievements have been more highly esteemed by the devotees of pure science1 but rarely has a scientific man been more popular outside the scientific world4 ,there are men whose culture has been broader and deeper1 but who have nevertheless lacked his facility of exposition and gracefulness of diction4 ,the goddess of ,science1 which ofttimes was presented to the public with the repulsive severity of a skeleton1 he has clothed with flesh and blood1 making her countenance appear radiant with the glow of poesy1 and susceptible even to a touch of human sympathy2 while amongst scientific contemporaries1 though he does not rank as one of those creative minds that mark an epoch in the history of physical philosophy1 he may yet be said to have 8built many a stone into the great fabric of science1 which gives it an ever-broader support and an ever-growing height without its appearing to a fresh observer as a special and distinctive work due to the sole exertion of any one scientific man40 ,he commenced his scientific career at the time when ,sir ,william ,grove began to elaborate that theory of the co-relation of the physical sciences which ,newton suspected and ,faraday elucidated2 namely1 8that the various affections of matter1 heat1 light1 electricity1 magnetism1 chemical affinity1 and motion are all correlative or have a reciprocal dependence3 that neither1 taken abstractedly1 can be said to be the essential or proximate cause of the others1 but that either may1 as a force1 produce the others2 thus heat may mediately produce electricity1 electricity may produce heat2 and so of the rest40 ,professor ,tyndall has extended or simplified our knowledge of these forces4 ,indeed he may be said to have revealed some hidden links in the chain of causation4 ,he has extended and consolidated our knowledge of magnetism2 as an explorer and discoverer in the domain of radiant heat he stands almost alone2 and as a lecturer and experimentalist he has probably done more than any other man to popularise the science of electricity4 ,there is a growing tendency in the present day to appreciate personal achievement more highly than ancient lineage2 and it is becoming more a matter of boast in the intellectual world to say that an eminent man was self-made than to say he was of noble birth4 ,the subject of this memoir can boast both of high descent and of lowly birth4 8,i am distantly connected10 he says1 8with one ,william ,tyndale1 who was rash enough to boast1 and to make good his boast1 that he would place an open ,bible within reach of every ploughboy in ,england4 ,his first reward was exile1 and then a subterranean cell in the ,castle of ,vilvorden4 ,it was a cold cell1 and he humbly1 but vainly1 prayed for his coat to cover him and for his books to occupy him4 ,in due time he was taken from the cell and set upright against a post4 ,round neck and post was placed a chain1 which being cunningly twisted1 the life was squeezed out of him4 ,a bonfire was made of his body afterwards40 ,it is said that the martyr ,tyndale was descended from the ancient barons of ,tyndale in ,northumberland1 whose title eventually passed into the family of the ,percies1 and that the said ancestors1 leaving the north during the war of the ,roses1 afterwards sought and found refuge in ,gloucestershire4 ,of one of these refugees the martyr of ,vilvorden was the great-grandson1 and was1 it is believed1 born in #adhd4 ,both family tradition and documents show that some members of the ,tyndale family1 who were cloth manufacturers1 migrated from ,gloucestershire to the county of ,wexford in ,ireland about two centuries ago4 ,one ,william ,tyndale landed on the coast of ,ireland in #afgj1 and his descendants in later years became scattered over ,wexford1 ,waterford1 and ,carlow4 ,their fortunes varied2 but for our purpose it is sufficient to know that the grandfather of the ,professor had a small estate in ,wexford2 and that on removing thence to the village of ,leighlin ,bridge on the banks of the ,barrow1 county ,carlow1 he continued to prosper until he got into easy circumstances4 ,but throughout the whole race of ,tyndale1 from the ,martyr down to the ,professor1 intellectual independence appears to have been preferred to worldly independence1 and it was the exercise of this trait that cost the ,professor the small patrimony which his grandfather had acquired4 ,a high sense of rectitude and a benevolent disposition are not incompatible with excessive susceptibility to opposition2 and hence persons of high principles sometimes stand like adamant on points that to worldly minds appear too trifling even for controversy1 much less for self-sacrifice4 ,though the opinions of the ,tyndales may have differed1 the leading principles that governed their conduct appear to have been maintained with remarkable consistency and self-denial4 ,john ,tyndale1 the father of the ,professor1 differed in opinion with his own father1 ,william ,tyndale of ,leighlin ,bridge1 on some point that has long since been forgotten1 but in consequence of that difference ,william revoked his will in favour of his first-born son1 ,john1 and left his property to two sons of a second marriage4 ,leighlin ,bridge1 where ,john ,tyndall was born in humble circumstances in #ahbj1 was a thriving town of #b1jjj inhabitants1 forty-six miles south-west of ,dublin4 ,it was then the entrepot where the great southern road from ,dublin to ,waterford and ,cork crossed the ,barrow1 and it has consequently been declining ever since the development of the railway system diverted the traffic4 ,it was not destitute of historical associations1 which to the ,irish mind were of an exciting character4 ,nor was the country destitute of natural attractions4 ,when ,tyndall was a youth its general aspect was described as soft and agreeable1 with little of forcible or imposing scenery1 yet free from those harsh features which so frequently mar the effect of ,irish landscape4 ,in some parts it so closely resembled the 8champaign1 ornate1 and agreeable districts of central ,england10 that it was said constantly to remind an ,english traveller passing through the country of the 8equable1 grateful scenery1 the calm and soft-faced prettiness of territorial view to which his mind had been accustomed40 ,yet to the ordinary ,english reader its loneliness would appear to have little that was likely to fire the opening mind of the ,apostle of ,physical ,science4 ,it need not1 however1 appear an inauspicious birthplace to those who believe that it is no mere accident that has made great enthusiasts generally proceed from lonely or sterile countries4 ,let us therefore look a little more into this home from which so much light was to be reflected in after years by its then youngest inhabitant4 ,the ,professor's father1 being left dependent on his own resources1 early joined the ,irish ,constabulary force and remained in it for several years4 ,he was regarded as a man of exceptional ability and unswerving integrity1 and was respected by all who knew him4 ,a sturdy politician and a zealous ,orangeman1 he preserved as a precious relic a bit of flag which was said to have fluttered at the ,battle of the ,boyne4 ,in such a man ,protestantism was no mere hereditary faith4 ,it was evolved from his own inner consciousness1 and was part of his intellectual being4 ,his earnest and capacious mind had mastered the works of ,tillotson1 ,jeremy ,taylor1 ,chillingworth1 and other writers who were not only the pillars of the ,protestant faith1 but still remain unsurpassed as masters of ,english prose4 ,in our own day men of respectable theological attainments are content to reflect1 in lunar-like scintillations1 the intellectual splendour1 the massive diction1 the rich and glowing periods that adorn their pages2 and no better evidence could be given of the fine intelligence of ,john ,tyndall1 of ,leighlin ,bridge1 than to say that his delight was in the works of these great men4 ,it is the fashion nowadays for critics of the 8newspaper0 school to sneer at their 8pompous grandeur10 but it is those living writers who in elevation of thought and graces of style show the greatest affinity to them that are the most popular4 ,it was with such works that ,john ,tyndall1 pre1 sought to imbue the mind of his only surviving son2 and the subtle thoughts and inspiring sentiments which he gathered from such classic ground must have had an invigorating effect on his son's susceptible mind4 ,besides his early familiarity with the works of these powerful thinkers1 it is said that he soon knew the ,bible almost by heart4 ,this species of intellectual discipline has sometimes been pointed to as presenting a strange contrast with his excursions in later life into those regions of natural philosophy which have sometimes been regarded as antagonistic to theology4 ,but it is more than probable that this early training did much to model and chasten the rich1 transparent1 simple language in which he has so beautifully expounded the laws of ,nature4 ,there is high authority for saying that he could have had no better model4 ,alexander von ,humboldt1 after reviewing the whole course of ancient literature for 8images reflected by the external world on the imagination10 says that 8as descriptions of nature the writings of the ,old ,testament are a faithful reflection of the character of the country in which they were composed1 of the alternations of barrenness and fruitfulness1 and of the ,alpine forests by which the land of ,palestine was characterised4 ,the epic or historical narratives are marked by a graceful simplicity1 almost more unadorned than those of ,herodotus1 and most true to nature4 ,their lyrical poetry is more adorned1 and develops a rich and animated conception of the life of nature4 ,it might almost be said that one single psalm 7the #ajdth7 represents the image of the whole cosmos4444 ,the meteorological processes which take place in the atmosphere1 the formation and solution of vapour1 according to the changing direction of the wind1 the play of its colours1 the generation of hail1 and the rolling thunder are described with individualising accuracy1 and many questions are propounded which we in our present state of physical knowledge may indeed be able to express under more scientific definitions1 but scarcely to answer satisfactorily40 ,most of our great writers have acknowledged that the literature that first made a lasting impression on their mind materially influenced their style of writing1 and in the writings of ,professor ,tyndall will be found a good deal of the beautiful simplicity and poetic feeling which abound in ,hebrew literature4 ,the origin of his love of nature is a problem that has exercised his own mind4 8,i have sometimes tried10 he says1 8to trace the genesis of the interest which ,i take in fine scenery4 ,it cannot be wholly due to my early associations2 for as a boy ,i loved nature1 and hence to account for that love of nature ,i must fall back upon something earlier than my own birth4 ,the forgotten associations of a foregone ancestry are probably the most potent elements in the feeling40 ,he then accepts as exceedingly likely ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer's idea that the mental habits and pleasurable activities of preceding generations had descended with considerable force to him4 ,he has1 indeed1 repeatedly supported the view that intellectual character is largely formed from ancestral peculiarities2 and if that be so1 he may surely be said to have reproduced some of the higher mental characteristics of the ,irish race with marvellous exactness4 8,in the ,celtic genius10 says ,michelet1 8there is a feeling repugnant to mysticism1 and which hardens itself against the mild and winning word1 refusing to lose itself in the bosom of the moral ,god4 ,the genius of the ,celts is powerfully urged towards the material and natural2 and this proneness to the material has hindered them from easily acceding to laws founded on an abstract notion4444 ,in the seventh century ,st4 ,columbanus said3 #8,the ,irish are better astronomers than the ,romans4' ,it was a disciple of his1 also an ,irishman1 ,virgil1 ,bishop of ,saltzburg1 who first affirmed the rotundity of the earth and the existence of the ,antipodes4 ,all the sciences were at this period cultivated with much renown in the ,scotch and ,irish monasteries40 ,these characteristics appear to predominate in the ,irish intellect at the present day4 ,physical science1 which is the glory of our age1 owes much to ,ireland4 ,sir ,william ,thomson1 one of the most versatile and brilliant of natural philosophers1 was born in ,ireland2 so was ,george ,gabriel ,stokes1 one of ,newton's worthiest successors in the ,lucasian chair of mathematics at ,cambridge as well as ,president of the ,royal ,society2 ,henry ,smith1 the greatest mathematician of his time at ,oxford1 who died in #ahhc1 was an ,irishman2 ,sir ,william ,rowan ,hamilton1 the ,astronomer-,royal for ,ireland1 was also one of ,ireland's most precocious sons2 and in such a constellation of ,irish genius ,professor ,tyndall excels as a popular expositor of the laws of nature4 ,at the age of seven he began to show his natural taste for the works of nature1 and his father gave him glowing accounts of the achievements of ,newton as 8,that sun of science1 whose meridian ray ,kindled the gloom of nature into day40 ,a good education was the only patrimony which his father could bestow upon him4 ,he was therefore sent to the best school within reach1 and remained at it till his nineteenth year4 ,in his earlier schooldays he preferred physical to mental exercises1 and thus became expert in running1 swimming1 climbing1 and other sports4 ,the branch of study in which he excelled was mathematics4 ,under the tuition of a good teacher in an ,irish national school1 he acquired a knowledge of elementary algebra1 geometry1 trigonometry1 and conic sections4 ,his favourite 8arithmetic0 was the treatise of ,professor ,thomson1 the father of ,sir ,william ,thomson1 who in later years became one of his most brilliant contemporaries4 ,at the age of seventeen he showed exceptional facility in solving geometrical problems1 and on his way home from school1 in company with his teacher1 he would work out demonstrations on the snow in winter4 ,but even that accessory he became able to dispense with2 for he could so clearly present the relations of space to his mind without the aid of diagrams1 that he was able to draw mentally the lines illustrating the solution of complex problems and to preserve this mental image so distinctly that he could reason upon it as correctly as on the diagrams drawn upon paper required by ordinary students4 ,when he came to solid geometry he was able by means of this power of mental representation to dispense with models1 which to other students were indispensable4 ,his powers of reasoning were not confined to mathematics4 ,in his youth he was accustomed to debate with his father the points of doctrine that divide the ,protestant from the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 reasoning high 8of ,providence1 fore-knowledge1 will1 and fate40 ,sometimes the son took the ,protestant side and at other times the ,romish side2 and in either case he showed much dialectical skill and theological knowledge4 ,he also took more than ordinary interest in the study of ,english grammar1 which he has described as being to his youthful mind a discipline of the highest value and a source of unfailing delight4 ,leaving school in ,april1 #ahci1 he joined a division of the ,ordnance ,survey then stationed in that district1 under the command of ,lieut4 ,geo4 ,wynne1 of the ,royal ,engineers1 who afterwards became an intimate friend of his1 and to whom he has frequently expressed his obligation for acts of kindness that promoted his welfare in after life4 ,about that time a good deal of astonishment was publicly expressed at the mathematical powers of one of the many boys employed in calculations on the ,ordnance ,survey2 his name was ,alexander ,gwin1 a native of ,derry1 and it was reported that at the age of eight years he had got by rote the fractional logarithms from #a to #a1jjj1 which he could repeat in regular rotation1 or otherwise4 ,his rapidity and correctness in calculating trigonometrical distances1 triangles1 c41 were extraordinary3 he could make a return1 in acres1 roods1 and perches1 in less than one minute of any quantity of land1 on receiving the surveyor's chained distances2 a calculation which the greatest arithmetician would take nearly an hour to do1 and would not be so sure of accuracy at the end of that time4 ,the intention of young ,tyndall was to become a civil engineer1 which then appeared a most attractive profession to him4 ,as a preliminary qualification he determined to master all the operations of the surveyors4 ,draftsmen being the best paid1 he worked as a draftsman1 but applied himself so well to learning the whole business that he soon became able to do the work of the computor1 the surveyor1 and the trigonometrical observer4 ,he then asked to be allowed to go on field-work1 and his desire was granted4 ,in #ahda1 while he was stationed at ,cork1 a circumstance occurred which may be described as the turning point in his career4 ,he worked at mapping in company with a gentleman1 who1 assuming a paternal interest in him1 one day1 asked the young and promising surveyor how he employed his leisure hours4 ,dissatisfied with the account given1 the gentleman said to him3 8,you have five hours a day at your disposal1 and this time ought to be devoted to study4 ,had ,i1 when ,i was your age1 had a friend to advise me as ,i now advise you1 instead of being in my present subordinate position1 ,i should be the equal of the director of the ,survey40 ,pregnant words6 ,next morning young ,tyndall was at his books by five o'clock1 and the studious habits then commenced he continued for twelve years4 ,next year he was in ,preston1 and there becoming a member of the ,preston ,mechanics' ,institute he attended its lectures and made use of its library4 ,one experiment which he saw there he never forgot4 ,in a lecture on respiration1 ,surgeon ,cortess showed the changes produced by the passage of air through the lungs1 and in order to illustrate the fact that what went in as free oxygen came out in carbonic acid1 he forced his breath through lime water in a flask by means of a glass tube dipped into it2 the carbonic acid from the lungs converted the dissolved lime into carbonate of lime1 which being practically insoluble was precipitated4 ,all this1 he says1 was predicted beforehand by the lecturer1 8but the delight with which ,i saw this prediction fulfilled by the conversion of the limpid lime-water into a turbid mixture of chalk and water remains with me as a memory to the present hour0 7#ahhd47 ,his diligence in study he was soon able to turn to good account4 ,on one occasion there was a dearth of men capable of making trigonometrical observations when such observations were required4 ,tyndall offered his services in that department2 but the offer was not readily accepted4 ,his superiors hesitated to intrust him with a theodolite on account of his inexperience in work of that description3 and indeed there were bets made against his chances of success4 ,however1 being allowed to try his hand at it1 he at once took his theodolite into an open field1 where he examined all its parts1 and studied their uses4 ,he then made the trigonometrical observations prescribed to him1 and when they were compared with the measurement previously made on a larger scale1 his work was pronounced to have been successfully done4 ,when he quitted the ,ordnance ,survey in #ahdc he had practically mastered all its operations4 ,the pay upon the ,ordnance ,survey1 however1 was very small1 but having ulterior objects in view1 he considered the instruction received as some set-off to the smallness of the pay4 ,in order to 8prevent some young men from considering their fate specially hard1 or from being daunted1 because from a very low level they had to climb a very steep hill10 he has stated that on quitting the ,ordnance ,survey in #ahdc1 his salary was a little under twenty shillings a week1 adding1 8,i have often wondered since at the amount of genuine happiness which a young fellow1 of regular habits1 not caring for either pipe or mug1 may extract even from pay like that40 ,in #ahdd affairs in this country did not look very tempting to him1 and he therefore resolved to go to ,america1 whither some relatives had emigrated early in the century4 ,he had actually made preparations for going there before some of his friends succeeded in dissuading him from it4 ,a sudden outburst of activity in railway construction at the same time opened up a brighter prospect at home4 ,after a pause1 he says1 there came the mad time of the railway mania1 when he was able to turn to account the knowledge he had gained upon the ,ordnance ,survey2 in ,staffordshire1 ,cheshire1 ,lancashire1 ,durham1 and ,yorkshire especially1 he was in the thick of the fray4 ,as a workman at that period he has been highly spoken of by his contemporaries4 ,one of them has stated that 8,extreme caution and accuracy1 together with dauntless perseverance under difficulties1 characterised the performance of every piece of work he took in hand4 ,habitually1 indeed1 he pushed verification beyond the limits of all ordinary prudence1 and1 on returning from a hard day's work1 he has been known to retrace his steps for miles in order to assure himself of the security of some #8bench mark1' upon whose permanence the accuracy of his levels depended4 ,previous to one of those unpostponable thirtieths of ,november1 when all railway plans and sections had to be deposited at the ,board of ,works1 a series of levels had to be completed near ,keighley in ,yorkshire1 and ,manchester reached before midnight4 ,the weather was stormy beyond description2 levelling staves snapped in twain before the violent gusts of wind2 and level and leveller were in constant peril of being overturned by the force of the hurricane4 ,assistants grumbled #8,impossible1' and were only shamed into submissive persistence by that stern resolution which1 before nightfall1 triumphed over all obstacles40 ,of these stirring scenes the ,professor has given a graphic account4 ,he says3--8,it was a time of terrible toil4 ,the day's work in the field usually began and ended with the day's light1 while frequently in the office1 and more especially as the awful #cjth of ,november--the latest date at which plans and sections of projected lines could be deposited at the ,board of ,trade--drew near1 there was little difference between day and night1 every hour of the twenty-four being absorbed in the work of preparation4 ,strong men were broken down by the strain and labour of that arduous time4 ,many pushed through1 and are still among us in robust vigour2 but some collapsed1 while others retired with large fortunes1 but with intellects so shattered that1 instead of taking their places in the front rank of ,english statesmen1 as their abilities entitled them to do1 they sought rest for their brains in the quiet lives of country gentlemen4 ,in my own modest sphere ,i well remember the refreshment ,i occasionally derived from five minutes' sleep on a deal table1 with ,babbage and ,callet's ,logarithms under my head for a pillow4 ,on a certain day1 under grave penalties1 certain levels had to be finished1 and this particular day was one of agony to me4 ,the atmosphere seemed filled with mocking demons1 laughing at the vanity of my efforts to get the work done4 ,my levelling staves were snapped1 and my theodolite was overthrown by the storm4 ,when things are at their worst a kind of anger often takes the place of fear4 ,it was so in the present instance2 ,i pushed doggedly on1 and just at nightfall1 when barely able to read the figures on my levelling staff1 ,i planted my last #8benchmark' on a tombstone in ,haworth ,churchyard4 ,close at hand was the vicarage of ,mr4 ,bront1 where the genius was nursed which soon afterwards burst forth and astonished the world4 ,it was a time of mad unrest--of downright money mania4 ,in private residences and public halls1 in ,london reception rooms1 in hotels and the stables of hotels1 among gipsies and costermongers1 nothing was spoken of but the state of the share market1 the prospects of projected lines1 the good fortune of the ostler or potboy who by a lucky stroke of business had cleared #aj1jjj4 ,high and low1 rich and poor1 joined in the reckless game4 ,during my professional connection with railways ,i endured three weeks' misery4 ,it was not defeated ambition2 it was not a rejected suit2 it was not the hardship endured in either office or field2 but it was the possession of certain shares purchased in one of the lines then afloat4 ,the share list of the day proved the winding-sheet of my peace of mind4 ,i was haunted by the ,stock ,exchange4 ,i became at last so savage with myself that ,i went to my brokers and put away1 without gain or loss1 the shares as an accursed thing40 ,when in ,halifax in #ahde he attended a lecture which was delivered by ,mr4 ,george ,dawson1 and which appeared to make a lasting impression on his mind4 ,that popular lecturer then defined duty as a debt owed2 and with reference to the ,chartist doctrine of 8levelling0 then in vogue1 he said3 ,supposing two men to be equal at night1 and that one rises at six while the other sleeps till nine1 what becomes of the gospel of levelling then8 ,the ,professor regarded these as the words of ,nature1 and there was1 according to his impression1 8a kindling vigour in the lecturer's words that must have strengthened the sense of duty in the minds of those who heard him40 ,it was while working in ,yorkshire about that time that he first met ,mr4 ,t4 ,a4 ,hirst1 then an articled pupil1 who became one of his most intimate friends1 and who afterwards became ,professor of ,mathematics in ,university ,college1 ,london4 ,at that time1 too1 ,sir ,john ,hawkshaw1 who afterwards was ,prof4 ,tyndall's successor as ,president of the ,british ,association1 was chief engineer on the ,manchester and ,leeds ,railway1 and it was in his ,manchester office that ,tyndall spent the last days of his railway life4 ,a calm followed the storm of competition just described2 work became scarce1 and the prospects of engineers were once more overcast4 ,in these circumstances he accepted1 in #ahdg1 an appointment as a teacher in ,queenswood ,college1 ,hampshire4 ,the well-known ,socialist reformer1 ,robert ,owen1 and his disciples built that college--a fine edifice occupying a healthy position--and called it ,harmony ,hall1 as it was meant to inaugurate the millennium2 the letters 8,c4 of ,m0 7commencement of millennium7 being inserted in flint in the brickwork of the house4 ,around this college were large farms1 where lessons were given by ,prof4 ,tyndall to the more advanced students on the subjects which he had mastered in his previous labours4 ,with teaching he combined self-improvement4 ,the chemical laboratory was under the charge of ,dr4 ,frankland1 with whom he soon became friendly4 ,in order to spend part of his time in study in the chemical laboratory1 ,tyndall relinquished part of his salary1 and there he laid the foundations of that knowledge of physical science which was destined afterward to be his own passport to fame and to afford delight to many thousands of his fellowmen4 ,he was also very successful as a teacher in ,queenswood ,college4 ,he is said to have exercised a kind of magnetic influence over his students1 and such was their faith in him that when any disturbances arose among them he was invariably called upon to settle them1 and he did so merely by the power of moral influence and force of character4 ,as to his impressions of life at ,queenswood1 the ,professor says3-- 8,schemes like ,harmony ,hall look admirable upon paper2 but1 inasmuch as they are formed with reference to an ideal humanity1 they go to pieces when brought into collision with the real one4 ,at ,queenswood1 ,i learned1 by practical experience1 that two factors went to the formation of a teacher4 ,in regard to knowledge he must1 of course1 be master of his work4 ,but knowledge is not all4 ,there might be knowledge without power--the ability to inform without the ability to stimulate4 ,both go together in the true teacher4 ,a power of character must underlie and enforce the work of the intellect4 ,there were men who could so rouse and energise their pupils--so call forth their strength and the pleasure of its exercise--as to make the hardest work agreeable4 ,without this power it is questionable whether the teacher could ever really enjoy his vocation--with it1 ,i do not know a higher1 nobler1 and more blessed calling than that of the man who1 scorning the cramming so prevalent in our day1 converts the knowledge he imparts into a lever1 to lift1 exercise1 and strengthen the growing minds committed to his care40 ,after pursuing their scientific studies together for some time1 both ,tyndall and ,frankland began to think of extending the range of their scientific culture4 ,but that could not then be done in ,england4 ,in #ahde a man could not easily get first-class instruction in practical chemistry and the other physical sciences that were then making great strides forward4 ,between #ahdj and #ahej ,germany assumed the lead in these sciences4 ,in that country science then organised itself on a vast scale1 and from that time to this it has been growing there at a most extraordinary rate2 indeed1 ,prof4 ,huxley declared in #ahhd that in the whole history of the world there has never been such a tremendous amount of organised energy bestowed in the development of physical science as in ,germany4 8,at the time here referred to10 says ,professor ,tyndall1 8,i had emerged from some years of hard labour the fortunate possessor of two or three hundred pounds4 ,by selling my services in the dearest market during the railway madness the sum might1 without dishonour1 have been made a large one2 but ,i respected ties which existed prior to the time when offers became lavish and temptation strong4 ,i did not put my money in a napkin1 but cherished the design of spending it in study at a ,german university4 ,i had heard of ,german science1 while ,carlyle's references to ,german philosophy and literature caused me to regard them as a kind of revelation from the gods4 ,accordingly1 in the autumn of #ahdh1 ,frankland and ,i started for the land of universities1 as ,germany is often called4 ,they are sown broadcast over the country1 and can justly claim to be the source of an important portion of ,germany's present greatness4 8,our place of study was the town of ,marburg1 in ,hesse-,cassel1 and a very picturesque town ,marburg is4 ,it clambers pleasantly up the hillsides1 and falls as pleasantly towards the ,lahn4 ,on a ,may day1 when the orchards are in blossom1 and the chestnuts clothed with their heavy foliage1 ,marburg is truly lovely4 ,it is the same town in which my great namesake1 when even poorer than myself1 published his translation of the ,bible4 ,i lodged in the plainest manner in a street which perhaps bore an appropriate name while ,i dwelt there4 ,it was called the ,ketzerbach--the heretics' brook--from a little historical rivulet running through it4 ,i wished to keep myself clean and hardy1 so ,i purchased a cask and had it cut in two by a carpenter4 ,that cask1 filled with spring-water over night1 was placed in my small bedroom1 and never during the years that ,i spent there1 in winter or in summer1 did the clock of the beautiful ,elizabethekirche1 which was close at hand1 finish striking the hour of six in the morning before ,i was in my tub4 ,for a good portion of the time ,i rose an hour and a-half earlier than this1 working by lamp-light at the ,differential ,calculus when the world was slumbering around me4 ,i risked this breach of my pursuits and this expenditure of my time and money1 not because ,i had any definite prospect of material profit in view1 but because ,i thought the cultivation of the intellect important2 because1 moreover1 ,i loved my work1 and entertained a sure and certain hope that armed with knowledge one can successfully fight one's way through the world4 ,i ought not to omit one additional motive by which ,i was upheld at the time here referred to--that was the sense of duty4 ,every young man of high aims must1 ,i think1 have a spice of this principle within him4 ,there are sure to be hours in his life when his outlook will be dark1 his work difficult1 and his intellectual future uncertain4 ,over such periods1 when the stimulus of success is absent1 he must be carried by his sense of duty4 ,it may not be so quick an incentive as glory1 but it is a nobler one1 and gives a tone to character which glory cannot impart4 ,that unflinching devotion to work1 without which no real eminence in science is now attainable1 implies the writing at certain times of stern resolve upon the student's character3 #8,i work not because ,i like work1 but because ,i ought to work4' ,at ,marburg my study was warmed by a large stove4 ,at first ,i missed the gleam and sparkle from flame and ember1 but ,i soon became accustomed to the obscure heat4 ,at six in the morning a small milch-brod and a cup of tea were taken to me4 ,the dinner hour was one1 and for the first year or so ,i dined at an hotel4 ,in those days living was cheap in ,marburg4 ,dinner consisted of several courses1 roast and boiled1 and finished up with sweets and dessert4 ,the cost was a pound a month1 or about eightpence per dinner4 ,i usually limited myself to one course1 using even that in moderation1 being convinced that eating too much was quite as sinful1 and almost as ruinous1 as drinking too much4 ,by attending to such things ,i was able to work without weariness for sixteen hours a day4 ,my going to ,germany had been opposed by some of my friends as quixotic1 and my life there might1 perhaps1 be not unfairly thus described4 ,i did not work for money2 ,i was not even spurred by #8the last infirmity of noble minds4' ,i had been reading ,fichte1 and ,emerson1 and ,carlyle1 and had been infected by the spirit of these great men1 the ,alpha and ,omega of whose teaching was loyalty to duty4 ,higher knowledge and greater strength were within reach of the man who unflinchingly enacted his best insight40 ,even a statue was capable of impressing this truth upon him4 ,but it was the statue of the man who said of his own features3 8,this is the face of a man who has struggled energetically0--the man of whose portrait ,carlyle says3 8,reader1 to thee thyself1 even now1 he has one counsel to give1 the secret of his whole poetic alchemy4 ,think of living6 ,thy life1 were thou the pitifullest of all the sons of earth1 is no idle dream1 but a solemn reality4 ,it is thy own2 it is all thou hast to front eternity with4 ,work1 then1 even as he has done and does--,,like ,a ,,star1 ,,unhasting ,,yet ,,unresting40 ,equally impressive was the effect produced on ,professor ,tyndall by even the sight of the form of such a man4 ,finding himself one fine summer evening standing beside a statue of ,goethe in a ,german city1 the contemplation of this work of art1 which he considered the most suitable memorial for a great man1 excited a motive force within his mind1 which he thought no purely material influence could generate4 8,there was then10 he says1 8labour before me of the most arduous kind4 ,there were formidable practical difficulties to be overcome1 and very small means wherewith to overcome them2 and yet ,i felt that no material means could1 as regards the task ,i had undertaken1 plant within me a resolve comparable with that which the contemplation of this statue of ,goethe was able to arouse40 ,from his youth ,tyndall appeared to have a remarkable power1 not only of attracting friends1 but of retaining them4 ,the circumstances under which he early became acquainted with his life-long friends1 ,general ,wynne and ,professor ,hirst1 have already been mentioned4 ,hirst was scarcely sixteen years of age when he became acquainted with ,tyndall1 who was ten years older4 ,though they stood in the relation of pupil and teacher1 their intimacy ripened into an enduring friendship which separation heightened rather than dissolved4 ,an incident that occurred while ,tyndall was studying at ,marburg affords honourable evidence of this fact4 ,the death of a relative in #ahdi made ,hirst the possessor of a small patrimony1 which he determined to divide between himself and his former teacher4 ,he accordingly pressed ,professor ,tyndall to accept one half of his small fortune1 but much to his disappointment ,tyndall would have none of it4 ,entreaties to accept it for friendship's sake were unavailing1 but friendship1 like necessity1 can invent strange means for attaining its end4 ,hirst took counsel with a ,german banker as to a way of conveying the money to his friend1 and soon a device was carried out1 by means of which the devotee of science had to sacrifice his self-denial on the altar of friendship4 ,while at work one morning in his lodgings in ,marburg the postman brought him a heavy roll closely packed and sealed1 which1 to his astonishment1 contained all sorts of ,german coins amounting to #bjl4 sterling1 a considerable gratuity for a student to receive in those days4 ,he had no alternative but to accept it4 ,on a subsequent occasion when ,tyndall left ,marburg to visit ,england another friend of his youth1 ,general ,wynne1 offered to replenish his exchequer1 which he feared must be nearly empty1 but the offer was declined with assurances that such generous assistance was unnecessary4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 8,no man ever yet made great discoveries in ,science who was not impelled by an abstracted love40--,,sir ,,humphry ,,davy4 ,at the time when ,professor ,tyndall was studying at ,marburg ,university1 the principal figure there was ,bunsen1 who had been appointed ,professor of ,chemistry in #ahch4 ,he was a profound chemist1 and his fame as a lecturer was so eminent as to attract many foreign students4 ,a prolific discoverer1 and peculiarly happy in his manner of demonstrating his scientific teaching1 he soon fascinated the ardent minds of the two students from ,queenswood4 ,for two years ,tyndall attended his chemical lectures4 ,indeed he learned ,german chiefly by listening to ,bunsen4 ,he has himself stated that ,bunsen treated him like a brother1 giving his time1 space1 and appliances1 for the benefit of his studies4 ,the subject which most attracted ,tyndall's attention was electro-chemistry1 upon which ,bunsen delivered an admirable course of lectures in #ahdh4 ,the whole principle of the voltaic pile was thus explained to him in a masterful manner4 ,he also made himself acquainted with chemical analyses1 both quantitative and qualitative4 ,he displayed no less zeal in the study of mathematics4 ,for a considerable period he got private lessons from ,professor ,stegmann1 under whose tuition he worked through analytical geometry of two and three dimensions1 the ,differential and ,integral ,calculus1 and part of the ,calculus of ,variations4 ,his first scientific paper was a mathematical essay on screw surfaces1 respecting which he says3--8,professor ,stegmann gave me the subject of my dissertation when ,i took my degree3 its title in ,english was1 #8,on a ,screw ,surface with ,inclined ,generatrix1 and on the ,conditions of ,equilibrium on such ,surfaces4' ,i resolved that if ,i could not1 without the slightest aid accomplish the work from beginning to end it should not be accomplished at all4 ,wandering among the pine wood and pondering the subject1 ,i became more and more master of it2 and when my dissertation was handed in to the ,philosophical ,faculty it did not contain a thought that was not my own40 ,but the man whose acquaintance at ,marburg appeared to exercise most influence over his career was ,dr4 ,knoblauch1 who had just come thither from ,berlin as extraordinary ,professor of ,physics1 and who had already distinguished himself by his researches in radiant heat4 ,he illustrated his lectures with a choice collection of apparatus brought from ,berlin2 and he not only suggested to ,tyndall an exhaustive series of experiments bearing on a newly-discovered principle of physics1 but supplied him with the necessary apparatus1 and placed his own cabinet at his disposal for that purpose4 ,the subject of investigation was diamagnetism4 ,faraday's discoveries and experiments in magnetism were then attracting the attention of the scientific world4 ,he had shown in #ahcj that by moving a magnet within the hollow of a coil of copper wire an electrical current was produced in the wire4 ,this was a startling and pregnant discovery4 ,taking six hundred feet of insulated copper wire and winding it into a large vertical coil1 he arranged the two ends of the wire into a small coil a little distance away from the large coil1 and immediately above this small coil he suspended a balanced compass needle by a silk thread4 ,then1 on dropping a bar magnet1 or piece of iron magnetised1 into the large coil1 the needle1 which was pointing towards the ,north ,pole1 instantly swung round1 evidently impelled by magnetic force2 when1 again1 the bar magnet was raised out of the hollow of the large coil1 the needle moved round in the opposite direction2 while it remained motionless so long as the bar magnet was at rest either inside or outside the coil4 ,it thus appeared that an electrical current could be produced by the movement of the bar magnet--by dropping it into the coil or taking it out2 and the current so produced he called an induced current4 ,this operation is called magneto-electric induction4 ,in #ahde ,faraday greatly extended his magnetic discoveries4 ,he not only established the magnetic condition of all matter by showing that every known body or thing could be influenced by magnetism1 but he discovered a new property of magnetism1 which he called diamagnetism4 ,this was considered his greatest discovery4 ,by suspending bodies of an elongated form between the ends or poles of powerful magnets1 he found that every substance was attracted or repelled from the magnetic poles2 and he divided all bodies into two great classes1 called magnetic and diamagnetic4 ,the way in which a piece of iron is attracted by the poles or ends of a horseshoe magnet is a familiar illustration of the action of magnetic bodies1 and the position that such bodies assume1 pointing in a line from one pole to the other1 he termed axial4 ,on the other hand1 diamagnetic bodies were those which1 when freely suspended within the influence of the magnet1 assumed a position at right angles to the line joining the poles of a magnet1 or to the magnetic meridian2 in other words1 magnetic bodies pointed axially from pole to pole1 or north and south2 while diamagnetic bodies pointed east and west1 or in an equatorial direction4 ,bismuth is a conspicuous example of diamagnetic substances4 ,scientific curiosity soon became excited as to the exact nature of the diamagnetic force in relation to crystals1 some of which behaved in a mysterious manner between the poles of a magnet4 ,professor ,plcker1 of ,bonn1 discovered that some crystals formed of diamagnetic substances were not subject to the diamagnetic force2 and to account for this he attributed to crystals an optical axis1 upon which the poles of a magnet exercised a peculiar force4 ,plcker brought this theory before the ,british ,association in #ahdh1 and called it a new magnetic action4 ,at the close of the same year1 ,faraday told the ,royal ,society that he had often been embarrassed by the anomalous magnetic results given by small cylinders of bismuth1 and after investigation he referred these effects to the crystalline condition of the bismuth4 ,in concluding his lecture on this subject1 ,faraday said3--8,how rapidly the knowledge of molecular forces grows upon us1 and how strikingly every investigation tends to develop more and more their importance1 and their extreme attraction as an object of study4 ,a few years ago1 magnetism was to us an occult power affecting only a few bodies3 now it is found to influence all bodies1 and to possess the most intimate relations with electricity1 heat1 chemical action1 light1 crystallisation1 and1 through it1 with the forces concerned in cohesion40 ,he thought there was in crystals a directive impelling force distinct from the magnetic and diamagnetic force4 ,frequent conversations on this subject took place between ,knoblauch and ,tyndall in ,germany during #ahdi4 ,knoblauch suggested that ,tyndall should repeat the experiments of ,plcker and ,faraday2 and as this operation was proceeding they agreed to make a joint inquiry into the deportment of crystals under the diamagnetic force4 ,they laboured long at the problem before attaining any encouraging success4 ,they examined the optical properties of crystals as well as made magnetic experiments with them1 a great many experiments being made without discovering any new fact4 ,eventually1 however1 they found that various crystals did not act in accordance with the principles enunciated by ,plcker1 and the more they worked at the subject the more clearly it appeared that the deportment of certain bodies under the influence of magnetism was due1 not to the presence of some force previously unknown1 but to the crystalline structure of the substance under investigation1 or as ,tyndall put it1 to peculiarities of material aggregation4 ,for example1 he showed that while a bar of iron attracted by a magnet sets itself in a line from pole to pole1 an iron bar made of an aggregate of small bars sets itself in the opposite direction4 ,tyndall showed that the cause of the latter bar assuming an equatorial position was simply its mechanical structure1 the small plates composing the 8aggregated0 bar setting from pole to pole4 ,he found that the same law regulated the magnetic deportment of crystals1 whose mechanism or structure1 however1 was generally less evident4 ,in #ahdi eminent natural philosophers were studying this subject in ,england1 ,france1 and ,germany1 and it was expected that the investigation of diamagnetic phenomena would rapidly throw some new light upon the molecular forces which determine the conditions of the material creation4 ,in allusion to this expectation1 ,tyndall said in #ahej1 that as nature acts by general laws1 to which the terms great and small are unknown1 it cannot be doubted that the modifications of magnetic force1 exhibited by bits of copperas and sugar in the magnetic field1 display themselves on a large scale in the crust of the earth itself1 and as a lump of stratified grit1 though a magnetic material1 could be made1 on account of its planes of stratification1 to act as if it were diamagnetic1 he suggested that this element might have some influence in determining the varying position of the magnetic poles of the earth--a subject which still perplexes the scientific world4 ,not only has the north magnetic pole gradually been changing its position1 as shown by the records of three centuries1 but1 according to ,barlow1 every place has a magnetic pole and equator of its own2 and according to ,faraday the earth is a great magnet1 whose power1 as estimated by ,gauss1 is equal to that which would be conferred if every cubic yard of it contained six one-pound magnets2 the sum of the force being thus equal to #h1dfd1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj such magnets4 8,the disposition of this magnetic force is not regular10 said ,faraday1 8nor are there any points on the surface which can be properly called poles3 still the regions of polarity are in high north and south latitudes2 and these are connected by lines of magnetic force 7being the lines of direction71 which1 generally speaking1 rise out of the earth in one 7magnetic7 hemisphere1 and passing in various directions over the equatorial regions into the other hemisphere1 there enter into the earth to complete the known circuit of power40 ,it was in connection with his investigations on this subject that ,prof4 ,tyndall first saw ,prof4 ,faraday4 ,returning from ,marburg in #ahej1 he called at the ,royal ,institution and sent in his card1 together with a copy of a paper he had prepared1 giving the results of his experiments on magne-crystallic action4 ,prof4 ,faraday conversed with him for half-an-hour1 and being then on the point of publishing one of his papers on magne-crystallic action1 he appended to it a flattering reference to the notes which ,tyndall had placed in his hands4 ,tyndall went back to ,germany1 where he worked for another year4 ,in the beginning of #ahea he went to ,berlin1 where1 he says1 ,prof4 ,magnus had made his name famous by physical researches of all kinds4 8,on ,april #bhth1 #ahea1 ,i first saw this ,professor on his own doorstep in ,berlin4 ,his aspect won my immediate regard1 which was strengthened to affection by our subsequent intercourse4 ,he gave me a working place in his laboratory1 and it was there ,i carried out my investigations on diamagnetism and magnecrystallic action published in the ,philosophical ,magazine for ,september1 #ahea4 ,among the other eminent scientific men whom ,i met at ,berlin was ,ehrenberg1 with whom ,i had various conversations on microscopic organisms4 ,i also made the acquaintance of ,riess1 the foremost exponent of frictional electricity1 who more than once opposed to ,faraday's radicalism his own conservatism as regarded electric theory4 ,du ,bois-,reymond was there at the time1 full of power1 both physical and mental4 ,his fame had been everywhere noised abroad in connection with his researches on animal electricity4 ,du ,bois-,reymond became perpetual secretary to the ,academy of ,sciences1 ,berlin4 ,from ,professor ,magnus1 and from ,clausius1 ,wiedemann1 and ,poggendorff1 ,i received every mark of kindness1 and formed with some of them enduring friendships4 ,helmholtz was at this time in ,knigsberg4 ,he had written his renowned essay on the 8,conservation of ,energy10 which ,i afterward translated4 ,helmholtz had1 too1 just finished his experiments on the velocity of nervous transmission1 proving this velocity1 which had previously been regarded as instantaneous1 or1 at all events1 as equal to that of electricity1 to be1 in the nerves of the frog1 only #ic ft4 a second1 or about one-twelfth of the velocity of sound in air of the ordinary temperature4 ,in his own house ,i had the honour of an interview with ,humboldt4 ,he rallied me on having contracted the habit of smoking in ,germany1 his knowledge on this head being derived from my little paper on a water-jet1 where the noise produced by the rupture of a film between the wet lips of a smoker is referred to4 ,he gave me various messages to ,faraday1 declaring his belief that he 7,faraday7 had referred the annual and diurnal variation of the declination of the magnetic needle to their true cause--the variation of the magnetic condition of the oxygen of the atmosphere4 ,i was interested to learn from ,humboldt himself that1 though so large a portion of his life had been spent in ,france1 he never published a ,french essay without having it first revised by a ,frenchman4 ,in those days ,i not unfrequently found it necessary to subject myself to a process which ,i called depolarisation4 ,my brain1 intent on its subjects1 used to acquire a set1 resembling the rigid polarity of a steel magnet4 ,it lost the pliancy needful for free conversation1 and to recover this ,i used to walk occasionally to ,charlottenburg or elsewhere4 ,from my experiences at that time ,i derived the notion that hard thinking and fleet talking do not run together40 ,prof4 ,tyndall was exceptionally fortunate in getting so easily and so early into the friendship of such eminent men of science4 ,in those days to form such eminent acquaintances was no small achievement for a young ,irishman2 but on the other hand1 he had fully earned this distinction by the vigour and originality with which he attacked the latest and most perplexing problem of that time4 ,during the five years that had elapsed since ,faraday discovered diamagnetism1 the subject had been investigated by the greatest scientists in ,england1 ,france1 and ,germany1 and no one had done so much to elucidate it as ,prof4 ,tyndall4 ,in order to master that subject he began in ,november1 #ahej1 an investigation of the laws of magnetic attractions4 ,the laws of magnetic action at distances in comparison with which the thickness of the magnet vanishes1 had long been known1 but the laws of magnetic action at short distances1 where the thickness of the magnet comes fully into play1 had not previously been subjected to reliable experiments1 and were therefore at that time a perplexing matter of speculation4 ,that desideratum he now supplied4 ,he found1 among other things1 that the mutual attraction of a magnet and a sphere of soft iron1 when both are separated by a small fixed distance1 is directly proportional to the square of the strength of the magnet1 and that the mutual attraction of a magnet of constant strength and a sphere of soft iron is inversely proportional to the distance between them4 ,next year 7#ahea7 he published the results of further investigations into the relations between magnetism and diamagnetism4 ,he found that the laws which govern magnetism and diamagnetism are identical1 that the superior attraction or repulsion of a mass in any particular direction is due to the direction in which the material particles are arranged most closely together1 that the forces exerted are attractive or repulsive according as the particles are magnetic or diamagnetic1 and that this law is applicable to matter in general4 ,a paper on 8,the ,polarity of ,bismuth10 which might be regarded as a temporary instalment of his diamagnetic researches1 ended with the remark that during this inquiry he had changed his mind too often to be over-confident now in the conclusion at which he had arrived4 ,part of the time he was a hearty subscriber to the opinion of ,faraday that there existed no proof of diamagnetic polarity2 and if1 he said1 8,i now differ from that great man1 it is with an honest wish to be set right1 if through any unconscious bias of my own ,i have been led either into errors of reasoning or mis-statements of fact40 ,the theory of diamagnetism was still an apple of discord in the scientific world2 and although ,prof4 ,tyndall used the language of deference rather than of doubt1 he did not allow the subject to remain in a state of uncertainty4 ,he continued his researches in ,berlin1 in the private laboratory of ,prof4 ,magnus1 who afforded him every possible facility for carrying on experiments1 and took a lively interest in the investigation4 ,the result was the confirmation of his previous impression that the action of crystals within the range of a magnet's influence 7technically called the 8magnetic field07 was due to peculiarities of molecular arrangement4 ,he found1 for example1 that a crystal of carbonate of iron1 which1 when suspended in the magnetic field1 showed a certain deportment1 could be pounded into the finest dust1 and the particles could be so put together again that the mass would exhibit the same deportment as before4 ,dr4 ,bence ,jones1 the ,secretary of the ,royal ,institution1 who had heard of ,tyndall in ,berlin in #ahea1 afterwards invited him to give a ,friday evening lecture at the ,royal ,institution4 8,i went10 he says1 8not without fear and trembling1 for the ,royal ,institution was to me a kind of dragon's den1 where tact and strength would be necessary to save me from destruction40 ,the lecture1 which was delivered on ,february #aath1 #ahec1 was 8,on the ,influence of ,material ,aggregation upon the ,manifestations of ,force10 and it gave a beautiful and simple exposition of the principles of magnetic and diamagnetic action discovered by himself1 the chief being that the line of greatest density is that of strongest magnetic power4 ,in the course of his lecture he pointed out that anything which increases density increases magnetic power2 and upon that principle he contended that the local action of the sun upon the earth's crust must influence in some degree the diurnal range of the magnetic needle1 which ,faraday1 on the other hand1 attributed to the modification of our atmosphere by the sun's rays4 ,while thus endeavouring to upset ,faraday's theory1 he concluded by saying3 8,this evening's discourse is1 in some measure1 connected with this locality1 and thinking thus1 ,i am led to inquire wherein the true value of a scientific discovery consists8 ,not in its immediate results alone1 but in the prospect which it opens to intellectual activity1 in the hopes which it excites1 in the vigour which it awakens4 ,the discovery which led to the results brought before you to-night was of this character4 ,that magnet was the physical birthplace of these results2 and if they possess any value they are to be regarded as the returning crumbs of that bread which in #ahdf was cast so liberally upon the waters4 ,i rejoice in the opportunity here afforded me of offering my tribute to the greatest worker of the age1 and of laying some of the blossoms of that prolific tree which he planted at the feet of the great discoverer of diamagnetism40 ,at the conclusion of the lecture ,faraday quitted his usual seat1 and crossing the theatre to the corner where the lecturer stood1 cordially shook him by the hand and congratulated him on his success4 ,a second lecture was delivered by him on ,june #crd1 #ahec1 8,on some of the ,eruptive ,phenomena of ,iceland10 and a month later he was unanimously elected ,professor of ,natural ,philosophy in the ,royal ,institution4 ,some years previously he had read in a serial publication an account of ,davy's experiments on radiant heat at the ,royal ,institution1 and he remembered ever after the longing then excited in him to be able to do something of the same kind4 ,now he was to occupy a position in which he should use1 in his own lectures1 the same apparatus of which illustrations were given in the magazine article that had fired his youthful ambition4 ,to that position he was promoted on the recommendation of ,faraday1 and respecting his appointment he himself said3 8,i was tempted at the time to go elsewhere1 but a strong attraction drew me here4 ,it was his 7,faraday's7 friendship that caused me to value my position here more highly than any other40 ,while the controversy respecting magnetic and diamagnetic hypotheses was still raging1 ,faraday delivered a lecture at the ,royal ,institution early in #ahee with the express object of cautioning the investigators of scientific truths against placing too much confidence on any hypothesis4 ,he stated that every year of increased experience had taught him more and more to distrust the theories he had once adhered to2 and his present impression with regard to existing ,magnetic and ,electrical hypotheses was1 that they were very unsatisfactory1 and that the propounders of them had been following in a wrong track4 ,as an instance of the obstacles which erroneous hypotheses throw in the way of scientific discovery1 he mentioned the unsuccessful attempts that had been made in this country to educe magnetism from electricity1 until ,oersted showed the simple way4 ,he said that the identity of magnetism and electricity had been strongly impressed upon the minds of all3 when he came to the ,royal ,institution1 as an assistant in the laboratory1 he saw ,davy1 ,wollaston1 and ,young trying by every way that suggested itself to them to produce magnetic effects from an electric current2 but1 having their minds diverted from the true course by their existing hypotheses1 it did not occur to them to solve the point by holding a wire1 through which an electric current was passing1 over a suspended magnetic needle--the experiment by which ,oersted afterwards proved1 by the deflection of the needle1 the magnetic property of an electric current4 ,such cautions1 however1 did not deter ,professor ,tyndall from defending the position he had taken up with regard to magnetism and diamagnetism4 ,he still maintained that the influence of structure was supremely important1--that under the influence of magnetism or electricity a normal diamagnetic bar always exhibits a deportment precisely antithetical to that of a normal magnetic bar2 but that1 by taking advantage of structure1 it is possible to get diamagnetic bars which exhibit precisely the same deportment as normal magnetic ones1 and magnetic bars which exhibit a deportment precisely similar to normal diamagnetic ones4 ,he showed numerous experiments before the ,british ,association in support of his contention that the diamagnetic force is a polar one1 with a direction opposite to that of the force in ordinary magnetic bodies4 ,professor ,william ,thomson1 who witnessed the experiments1 certified the success of every one of them2 and stated that ,professor ,tyndall's discoveries in this domain of science had cleared away a mass of rubbish and set things in their true light1 adding that in many cases he had repeated and varied ,tyndall's experiments1 and had found them to be true4 ,in #ahee he delivered the ,bakerian lecture1 in which he gave an elaborate account of his latest researches respecting the phenomena of diamagnetism4 ,he was now firmly convinced1 he said1 that the force that repelled a body was similar in character to that which attracted a body2 in other words1 that diamagnetic bodies possess the same kind of polarity1 but in the opposite direction to that of magnetic bodies4 ,but the opponents of diamagnetic polarity1 who were not yet satisfied by the evidence he adduced1 said that his experiments were made with electrical conductors in which induced currents could be formed that might account for the attractions and repulsions4 ,professor ,tyndall thought it would tend to settle the question if he were to use a new kind of apparatus that would obviate that objection4 ,he therefore wrote to ,professor ,weber1 of ,gttingen1 whom ,professor ,william ,thomson described at the time as the most profound and accurate of all experimenters1 asking him to devise more delicate and powerful means than had hitherto been used in experimental tests4 ,weber not only devised a greatly improved apparatus1 but had it constructed under his own superintendence at ,leipsig4#b ,with this apparatus ,professor ,tyndall was able to satisfy the severest conditions proposed by those who discredited the results of previous experiments4 ,he then silenced doubt by demonstrating that magnetism and diamagnetism stand1 in respect of polarity1 on the same footing1 with this difference1 that the one polarity is the inversion of the other4 ,this diamagnetic polarity1 previously established in the case of bismuth1 he showed to exist in slate1 marble1 calcspar1 sulphur1 c4 ,he also established the polarity of liquids1 magnetic and diamagnetic4 ,at the ,royal ,institution in ,february1 #ahef1 he showed that prisms of the same heavy glass as that with which ,faraday discovered the diamagnetic force1 behaved under the magnet in the same way as bismuth2 and this evidence was admitted to be conclusive by the opponents of diamagnetic polarity4 ,the controversy thereafter subsided4 ,his chief papers recording his most important investigations in connection with diamagnetism were afterwards collected into a volume entitled ,researches on ,diamagnetism and ,magnecrystallic ,action4 ,in #ahee ,professor ,tyndall was appointed ,examiner under the ,council for ,military ,education1 and an incident which occurred shortly afterwards illustrated the confidential relations into which his intimacy with ,faraday had ripened1 as well as the independence of character which distinguished both4 ,being strongly impressed with the advantage of increasing the knowledge of physical science given to artillery officers and engineers1 ,professor ,tyndall advocated a more liberal recognition of scientific attainments in their examinations4 ,at that time a committee of the ,british ,association was endeavouring to get the ,british ,government to recognise the claims of science2 and in reply to inquiries made by that committee as to the expediency of offering inducements for the acquisition of science and of offering orders and decorations as rewards for proficiency1 ,professor ,faraday said3 8,i cannot say that ,i have not valued such distinctions2 on the contrary1 ,i esteem them very highly2 but ,i don't think ,i have ever worked for1 or sought after1 them40 ,lord ,harrowby1 in his address as ,president of the ,british ,association1 said that the ,state had till recently done absolutely nothing for the promotion of science2 and it was remarked as a strange circumstance that though there were then in the ,cabinet the ,president and ,president-elect of the ,british ,association1 it was considered too hazardous to apply to the ,government for money for scientific purposes4 ,while this neglect of science was being freely discussed a number of well-instructed young men were sent from ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin1 to compete at the ,woolwich examinations in #ahef for appointments in the artillery and engineers1 and their scientific knowledge appeared so creditable that ,professor ,tyndall thought it unnecessary to say anything about it4 ,his colleagues1 on the other hand1 sent in as usual brief reports with their returns calling attention to the chief features of the examination1 and a leader in the ,times pointed out that the concurrent testimony of the examiners was that1 both in mathematics and classics1 the candidates showed a marked improvement1 but that on other points they broke down4 ,this appeared to ,professor ,tyndall an unjust reflection upon their scientific attainments1 which were thus ignored4 ,he accordingly wrote to the ,times simply stating that 8in justice to the candidates for commissions in the artillery and engineers examined by me in natural philosophy and chemistry1 you will perhaps permit me to state that the general level of the answers in the last examination was much higher than that attained in the first2 many of the papers returned to me gave evidence of rare ability1 and if during their future career the authors of these papers continue to cultivate the powers which they have shown themselves to possess1 they will1 ,i doubt not1 justify by their deeds the high opinion entertained of them40 ,this modest statement1 intended to put the students right1 put himself wrong4 ,the ,secretary of ,state for ,war promptly informed him that an examiner appointed by the ,commander-in-,chief had no right to appear in the public papers as ,professor ,tyndall had done without the sanction of the ,war ,office4 ,to this reproof he at once wrote a firm but respectful reply1 which1 however1 he submitted to ,faraday before despatching it4 ,faraday pointed out that the consequence of sending such a reply would be dismissal4 ,professor ,tyndall said he knew that1 but he would not silently accept the reproof of the ,war ,office4 8,then send the reply10 said ,faraday2 and it was sent4 ,henceforth ,professor ,tyndall was in daily expectation of receiving his discharge4 ,after a delay1 the length of which surprised him1 he received a reply1 the contents of which still more surprised him4 ,his explanation was 8deemed perfectly satisfactory0 by the ,secretary for ,war1 and he therefore continued for many years afterwards in the service of the ,council for ,military ,education4 ,one of the next subjects that occupied his attention was the cleavage of slate rocks4 ,it is a question of great importance in connection with geological problems1 and hitherto only speculative solutions had been offered of what appeared to be one of the most mysterious but grandest operations of nature4 ,for twenty years previously geologists were mostly content to accept on trust the suggestion of ,professor ,sedgwick1 that crystalline forces had rearranged whole mountain masses so as to produce a beautiful crystalline cleavage4 ,in #ahed ,professor ,tyndall visited the quarries of ,cumberland and ,north ,wales1 where the question of cleavage came prominently before him4 ,when at ,penrhyn ,quarry he was told that the planes of cleavage were the planes of stratification lifted up by some convulsion into an almost vertical position4 ,but a little observation satisfied him that this view was essentially incorrect2 for in certain masses of slate in which the strata were distinctly marked1 the planes of cleavage were at a high angle to the planes of stratification4 ,a little experiment1 he said1 demonstrated that the cleavage of slate was no more a crystalline cleavage than that of a hayrick4 ,an elaborate examination of all the conditions of the phenomena led him to the conclusion that cleavage was the result of pressure1 and that this effect of pressure was not confined to slates4 ,in a lecture delivered in #ahef he stated that for the previous twelve months the subject had presented itself to him almost daily under one aspect or another4 8,i have never10 he said1 8eaten a biscuit during this period in which an intellectual joy has not been superadded to the more sensual pleasure1 for ,i have remarked in all such cases cleavage developed in the mass by the rolling-pin of the pastrycook or confectioner4 ,i have only to break these cakes and to look at the fracture to see the laminated structure of the mass40 ,he exhibited some puff-paste baked under his own superintendence1 and explained that while the cleavage of our hills was accidental1 in the pastry it was intentional4 ,among those who heard the lecture upon slaty cleavage was his friend ,professor ,huxley1 who suggested that probably the principles then enunciated might account for the structure of glaciers1 another subject that had long perplexed scientific observers4 ,the greatest authority on glaciers at that time was ,professor ,j4 ,d4 ,forbes1 of ,edinburgh ,university1 who in #ahdb declared that a 8glacier is an imperfect fluid or viscous body1 which is urged down slopes of a certain inclination by the mutual pressure of its parts10 and who detected in glaciers a veined structure which he explained as fissures produced by particles of ice in motion sliding past each other1 leaving the fissures to be filled with water and to be frozen in winter4 ,on examining the published observations of ,forbes1 ,professor ,tyndall was struck with the probable accuracy of ,professor ,huxley's suggestion1 and in order to examine the matter more thoroughly1 the two advocates of the cleavage theory arranged to visit together the glaciers of ,grindelwald1 the ,aar1 and the ,rhone4 ,this personal investigation and subsequent reflection confirmed ,professor ,tyndall in his views4 ,he found that glaciers were formed by the property of ice which ,faraday called regelation2 that is1 the freezing together of two pieces of ice by simple contact and slight pressure4 ,it is the same property that enables boys to make snowballs and snow men when the snow is beginning to melt1 or when the warmth of the hand raises its temperature to the point at which regelation takes place4 ,professor ,tyndall found that when two confluent glaciers united to form a single trunk1 their mutual pressure developed the veined structure in a striking degree along their line of junction4 ,in his lectures on the subject at the ,royal ,institution he ingeniously illustrated the processes of ,nature which make and unmake the glacier4 ,to show that ice only becomes compressed into a solid mass at a temperature near that of freezing water1 he cooled a mass of ice by exposing it to the action of the coldest freezing mixture then known4 ,he then crushed this cooled mass of ice into fragments1 and applied pressure to the fragments for the purpose of making them cohere1 but they did not show the slightest cohesiveness4 ,very different was their action when their temperature was raised to the freezing point4 ,when placed in a wooden cup and pressed by a hollow wooden die a size smaller than the cup1 the pieces of ice became united into a compact cup of nearly transparent ice4 ,glaciers1 he contended1 were formed by a similar operation4 ,as particles of snow or ice descend the mountain side1 the pressure becomes sufficiently great to compress the particles into a mass of solid ice1 which eventually assumes the magnitude of a beautiful glacier4 ,he observed that in the laboratory of ,nature it was exactly at the places where squeezing took place that the cleavage of the ice was most highly developed4 ,in fact1 he said1 the association of pressure and lamination was far more distinct in the case of the glacier than in the case of the slate rock1 and as it was now known that pressure caused the lamination of slate rock1 he contended that it was the same cause that produced like effects in glaciers4 ,in a lecture delivered early in #aheh1 he gave an account of some beautiful phenomena of the glacier4 ,in the preceding ,september and ,october he examined the effect of sending a beam of radiant heat through a mass of ice4 ,when sunbeams condensed by a lens were sent through slabs of ice1 the path of the beam was instantly studded with lustrous spots like brilliant stars1 and 8around each the ice was so liquefied as to form a beautiful flower-shaped figure1 possessing six petals4 ,from this number there was no deviation4 ,at first the edges of the liquid leaves were clearly defined3 but a continuance of the action usually caused the edges to become serrated like those of ferns4 ,when the ice was caused to move across the beam1 or the reverse1 the sudden generation and crowding together of these liquid flowers1 with their central spots shining with more than metallic brilliancy1 was exceedingly beautiful40 ,by means of the electric light and a piece of ice prepared for the purpose he was able to exhibit these lovely ice-flowers to a delighted audience at the ,royal ,institution4 ,during the years #aheg and #aheh ,professor ,tyndall continued his observations of glacier phenomena amid the solitude of the ,alps4 ,in the summer of the latter year he betook himself to the mountains with the view of settling once for all 8the rival claims of the only two theories1 which then deserved serious attention1 namely1 those of pressure and of stratification40 ,again his former views were completely confirmed4 ,it is difficult1 he said1 to convey in words the force of the evidence which the glacier of ,grindelwald presents to the mind of the observer who sees it2 it looked like a grand laboratory experiment made by ,nature herself with special reference to the point in question4 ,the squeezing of the mass1 its yielding to the force brought to bear upon it1 its wrinkling and scaling off1 and the appearance of the veins at the exact point where the pressure began to manifest itself1 left no doubt on his mind that pressure and structure stood to each other in the relation of cause and effect4 ,the conclusions at which he arrived as to the structure and movement of glaciers brought him into collision with ,professor ,forbes1 whose views1 enunciated fifteen years previously1 were then widely accepted as the most scientific exposition of the subject4 ,forbes seemed rather sensitive about his own theory1 and complained that he had to some extent been misrepresented4 ,but in the conflict of opinions ,professor ,tyndall invariably referred to ,professor ,forbes's labours in connection with the subject in the most appreciative and complimentary language4 ,for instance1 in #aheh he said he would not content himself with saying that the book of ,professor ,forbes was the best that had been written upon the subject2 8the qualities of mind1 and the physical culture invested in that excellent work1 were such as to make it1 in the estimation of the physical investigator at least1 outweigh all other books upon the subject taken together40 ,that is more generous language than ,professor ,forbes ever used respecting ,professor ,tyndall4 ,in #ahfe1 after the heat of controversy had been dissipated1 ,forbes wrote that 8,dr4 ,tyndall's so-called proofs that it is through #8fracture and regelation' that a glacier moulds itself to its bed are to my mind no proofs at all20 and that he regarded ,mr4 ,hopkins's mathematical demonstrations about glaciers as 8irrelevant mathematical exercitations40 ,nevertheless1 ,professor ,tait1 the friend and scientific biographer of ,forbes1 said in #ahgc3 8,to say that ,forbes thoroughly explained the behaviour of glaciers would be an exaggeration2 but he must be allowed the great credit of being the ,copernicus or ,kepler of this science40 ,as the subject still continues to exercise the intellect of the scientific explorers of the ,alps1 suffice it for the present to say that if time ratifies the position which ,professor ,tait has assigned to ,professor ,forbes1 his greatest and boldest successor in the same field may be described as the ,newton of glacier phenomena4 ,,footnotes3 #b ,the force of diamagnetism is vastly feebler than that of ordinary magnetism4 ,according to ,weber1 the magnetism of a thin bar of iron exceeds the diamagnetism of an equal mass of bismuth about two and a-half million times4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 8,every secret which is disclosed1 every discovery which is made1 every new effort which is brought to view1 serves to convince us of numberless more which remain concealed1 and which we had before no suspicion of4444 ,knowledge is not our proper happiness4 ,whoever will in the least attend to the thing will see that it is the gaining1 not the having of it1 which is the entertainment of the mind40--,,bishop ,,butler4 ,next1 probably1 to magnetism and electricity1 the scientific investigation of the laws of heat has yielded the most fruitful and the most curious results4 ,the science of heat made the greatest progress about the middle of the present century1 and ,professor ,tyndall was one of its most successful investigators4 ,being a force co-related to electricity1 it is scarcely remarkable that the same natural philosopher should reveal to us not a few of these silent operations of magnetism and heat that previously were unobserved or were regarded as mysteries4 ,when1 in #ahei1 he turned his attention to the absorption of radiant heat by gases and vapours1 there was considerable diversity of opinion as to the effect of the atmosphere on radiant heat2 and great skill and patience were required in devising experiments1 and in detecting and eliminating the various sources of error4 ,till then it was thought that the subject was outside the realm of experiment1 but ,professor ,tyndall soon demonstrated that heat in gases and vapours was subject to various laws which had most important effects in every part of the world4 ,in his first memoir he established not only the existence of absorption and radiation in gases1 but that the differences of absorption and radiation were as great among gases as among liquids and solids4 ,he showed that the elementary gases1 hydrogen1 oxygen1 nitrogen1 as well as air freed from moisture and carbonic acid1 examined in a length of four feet1 absorb about #c per cent4 of heat radiated from lamp-black at #bab1 the slightest impurity in the gas1 however1 altering the rate of absorption4 ,with compound gases and vapours very different results were obtained4 ,about twenty gases and vapours were examined1 and it was found that while the elementary gases already named gave the feeblest action1 olephiant gas showed the most energetic action1 absorbing #ha per cent4 ,he also made the important discovery that by arranging the various gases in order according to their power1 first of radiating heat and then of absorbing radiant heat1 the order was the same in both cases2 in short1 the order of radiation was exactly that of absorption4 ,in his second memoir he introduced a new and remarkable method of determining absorption and radiation4 ,this method he called 8dynamic radiation40 ,dispensing with the use of any extraneous source of heat1 he obtained his results by the heat or cold produced by the condensation or rarefication of the gases4 ,just as a ball striking a target is heated by collision1 so he heated gas contained in one part of a tube by the collision of its particles against the surface of another part into which they rushed to fill a vacuum4 ,he found1 he said1 by strict experiments that the dynamic radiation of an amount of boracic ether vapour1 possessing a tension of only one #a1jab1ejj1jjjth of an atmosphere1 was easily measurable4 ,his researches on the relation of radiant heat to aqueous vapour1 published in #ahfc1 were the most interesting and useful4 ,such were the difficulties connected with the investigation of this part of the subject that ,professor ,tyndall and his old friend ,professor ,magnus1 of ,berlin1 arrived at and long maintained opposite conclusions as to the absorption of radiant heat by the air and the influence of aqueous vapour4 ,early in his researches ,professor ,tyndall regarded the action of the atmosphere as a particular part of his inquiry1 and1 accordingly1 his third memoir was specially devoted to the radiation of aqueous vapour4 ,the conclusion he came to was that the aqueous vapour in our atmosphere intercepted or absorbed eighty times more heat than the air1 and as there was only one atom of aqueous vapour for every #bjj of oxygen and nitrogen composing the air1 it appeared that one atom of the former absorbed #af1jjj times more than one atom of oxygen or nitrogen4 ,this startling conclusion he verified by a system of checks and counter-checks which were considered as decisive4 ,the applications of this discovery were manifold and important4 ,the aqueous vapour which absorbed so much heat he likened to a blanket which is more necessary to the vegetable life of ,england than clothing is to man4 8,remove for a single summer night10 he said1 8the aqueous vapour from the air which overspreads this country1 and you would assuredly destroy every plant capable of being destroyed by a freezing temperature4 ,the warmth of our fields and gardens would pour itself unrequited into space1 and the sun would rise upon an island held fast in the iron grip of frost40 ,the aqueous vapour constitutes a local dam1 which deepens the temperature at the earth's surface1 but which finally overflows and gives to space all that we receive from the sun4 ,this discovery presented an explanation of some phenomena1 which hitherto had been imperfectly understood4 ,it was evidently the absence of this aqueous screen which made the winters in ,central ,asia almost unendurable2 and it showed how the burning heat of the ,sahara during the day was followed by intense cold at night4 ,before ,professor ,tyndall had published all his observations on the relations between radiant heat and aqueous vapour1 his friend1 ,professor ,frankland1 regarded them as sufficient to account for the glacial era1 and the action of glaciers over the entire globe4 ,during a visit to ,norway in #ahfc ,frankland considered the subject afresh1 and came to the conclusion that the chief cause of the phenomena of the glacial epoch was a higher temperature of the ocean than prevails at present4 ,the critics of the day pointed out that such a view depended upon the accuracy of the assumption that our earth had gradually cooled down from an originally incandescent state2 and it is now generally admitted by natural philosophers that the earth has cooled down from a state of liquid heat4 ,in that case the waters of the ocean1 when cooling down from the boiling point1 would be at a higher temperature than the present2 and ,professor ,frankland maintained that it was in the later stages of the cooling process that the glacial epoch occurred4 ,the great natural glacial apparatus he divided into three parts--the evaporator1 the condenser1 and the receiver4 ,the cooling ocean was the evaporator2 the mountains were the icebearers or receivers2 while the dry air which permitted the heat from the vapour to radiate into space1 acted as the condenser4 ,he made numerous experiments to show that under these conditions the land would cool more rapidly than the sea2 and he maintained that in the glacial epoch the 8rays of heat streamed into space from the ice-bearing surfaces with comparatively little interruption1 whilst the radiation from the sea was as effectually retarded as if the latter had been protected with a thick envelope of non-conducting material4 ,thus1 whilst the ocean retained a temperature considerably higher than at present1 the icebearers had undergone a considerably greater refrigeration40 ,he calculated that an increase of #bj in the temperature of the coast of ,norway would double the evaporation from a given surface1 and such an increased evaporation1 accompanied of course by a corresponding precipitation1 8would suffice to supply the higher portions of the land with that gigantic ice-burden which ground down the mountain slopes during the glacial epoch40 ,such a view did not require the assumption of any natural convulsion or catastrophe2 on the contrary it accounted for the glacial epoch by the evolution of thermal conditions1 the existence of which is now generally admitted4#c ,in his fourth memoir1 published in #ahfd1 8,on the ,radiation and ,absorption of ,heat by ,gaseous and ,liquid ,matter10 ,professor ,tyndall showed that generally the absorption of non-luminous radiant heat by vapours was the same as that of the liquids from which the vapours were produced4 ,his fifth memoir1 entitled 8,contributions to ,molecular ,physics10 was made the ,bakerian lecture for that year4 ,in it he deduced from numerous experiments the remarkable law that the opacity of a substance with respect to radiant heat from a source of comparatively low temperature increases with the chemical complexity of its molecule4 ,he examined the effects of temperature on the transmission of radiant heat1 the radiation from flames of various kinds1 and the influence of vibrating periods on the absorption of radiant heat4 ,in ,november1 #ahfd1 the ,royal ,society presented him with the ,rumford medal for his researches on the absorption and radiation of heat by gases and vapours2 and ,general ,sabine1 in making the presentation1 said such had been the fate of ,professor ,tyndall that each last achievement might almost be said to have dimmed the lustre of those which preceded it4 ,curiously enough his very next achievements thereafter did dim the lustre of those published prior to the presentation of the ,rumford ,medal4 ,it was the discovery of a means of separating light from heat4 ,melloni had previously discovered a combination of screens by which radiant heat could be arrested or separated from light1 an operation which is effected on a vast scale by the moon when it reflects the light of the sun4 ,professor ,tyndall effected the converse operation4 ,he discovered that a solution of iodine in bisulphide of carbon entirely intercepted the light of the most brilliant flames4 ,a hollow prism filled with that opaque liquid and placed in the path of the beam from an electric lamp1 completely intercepted the light1 but transmitted the heat unimpaired4 ,in this way he succeeded in separating with marvellous sharpness the invisible from the visible radiations of the lime light1 the electric light1 and the sun4 ,he not only produced combustion1 fusion1 and incandescence by invisible radiation1 but he proved that in the case of the electric light the invisible rays are no less than eight times as powerful as the visible radiations4 ,he obtained all the colours of the solar spectrum from a platinum foil raised to incandescence at the invisible focus2 and this rendering of a refractory body incandescent by invisible rays he called calorescence4 ,in connection with these investigations he performed a daring experiment4 ,knowing that a layer of iodine placed before the eye intercepted the light1 he determined to place his own eye in the focus of strong invisible rays4 ,he knew that if in doing so the dark rays were absorbed in a high degree by the humours of the eye1 the albumen of the humours might coagulate2 and on the other hand1 if there was no high absorption1 the rays might strike upon the retina with a force sufficient to destroy it4 ,when he first brought his eye1 undefended1 near the dark focus1 the heat on the parts surrounding the pupil was too intense to be endured4 ,he therefore made an aperture in a plate of metal1 and placing his eye behind this aperture1 he gradually approached the point of convergence of the invisible rays4 ,first the pupil and next the retina were placed in the focus without any sensible damage4 ,immediately afterwards a sheet of platinum foil placed in the position which the retina had occupied became red-hot4 ,in a subsequent memoir he dealt with the influence of colour and mechanical condition upon radiant heat1 demonstrating that white bodies are far more potent absorbers of radiant heat than black ones4 ,during the first thirteen years of his researches in the laboratory of the ,royal ,institution he produced thirteen papers1 which were published in the ,philosophical ,transactions4 ,conspicuous among these were his papers on the radiation and absorption of heat1 and his researches on that subject have generally been admitted to be of the most thorough and original character4 ,a lucid epitome of the chief results he obtained was given in the ,rede lecture which he delivered before the ,university of ,cambridge in #ahfe1 when the ,university conferred on him the honorary degree of ,,ll4,d4 ,in #ahfc he published the first edition of one of his most popular books1 ,heat ,considered as a ,mode of ,motion--a book which an eminent electrician has recommended students of electricity to master2 in #ahfg he published a volume of lectures on 8,sound02 and in #ahfi-gd he published his lectures on 8,light40 ,these works have gone through several editions4 ,as an illustration of the interest with which he can invest such impalpable subjects1 it is worth remarking that a ,chinese official1 named ,hsii-chung-hu1 was so pleased with the book on ,sound that he had it translated into the ,chinese language and printed at ,shanghai1 in order that his countrymen might participate in the pleasure and instruction which he had derived from it4 ,it was published at the expense of the ,chinese ,government1 and sold at #as4 #f;d4 a copy4 ,during the ten years from #ahei to #ahfi1 says ,professor ,tyndall1 8researches on radiant heat in its relations to the gaseous form of matter occupied my continual attention40 ,but towards the close of that period his main inquiry1 as it extended into space1 began to spread out into various branches4 ,in #ahff he entered upon an examination of the chemical action of light upon vapours1 and the action of heat of high refrangibility as an explorer of the molecular condition of matter4 8,in this investigation one obstacle to be overcome was the presence of the floating matter in the air4 ,the processes for the removal of these particles became the occasion of an independent research1 branching out into various channels3 on the one hand1 it dealt with the practical problem of the preservation of life among firemen exposed to heated smoke2 and1 on the other1 it approached the recondite question of spontaneous generation4 ,he subjected the compound vapours of various substances to the action of a concentrated beam of light4 ,the vapours were decomposed1 and non-volatile products were formed4 ,the decompositions always began with a blue cloud1 which discharged perfectly polarised light at right angles to the beam4 ,this suggested to him the origin of the blue colour of the sky2 and as it showed the extraordinary amount of light that may be scattered by cloudy matter of extreme tenuity1 he considered that it might be regarded as a suggestion towards explaining the nature of a comet's tail40 ,regions of cloud and smoke are proverbial as symbols of the negation of human interest2 but ,professor ,tyndall imparted new beauties to the one and deprived the other of its terrors4 ,he said to the chaotic vapours 8,light10 and that which was without form and void instantly assumed the loveliest forms that ,nature knows4 ,incredible as this language may appear to some1 it is no mere ,oriental hyperbole4 ,he made the light from an electric lamp to pass through a great glass tube containing transparent1 invisible vapours1 and the action of the light at once commencing chemical decomposition1 various cloud forms resembling organic structures were seen in the tube4 ,the following is the beautiful description he gave to the ,royal ,society of the phenomena presented by hydriodic acid3-- 8,the cloud extended for about eighteen inches along the tube1 and gradually shifted its position from the end nearest the lamp to the most distant end4 ,the portion quitted by the cloud proper was filled by an amorphous haze1 the decomposition1 which was progressing lower down1 being here apparently complete4 ,a spectral cone turned its apex towards the distant end of the tube1 and from its circular base filmy drapery seemed to fall4 ,placed on the base of the cone was an exquisite vase1 from the interior of which sprang another vase of similar shape2 over the edges of these vases fell the faintest clouds1 resembling spectral sheets of liquid4 ,from the centre of the upper vase a straight cord of cloud passed for some distance along the axis of the experimental tube1 and at each end of this cord two involved and highly iridescent vortices were generated4 ,the frontal portion of the cloud which the cord penetrated assumed in succession the form of roses1 tulips1 and sunflowers4 ,it also passed through the appearance of a series of beautifully-shaped bottles placed one within the other4 ,once it presented the shape of a fish1 with eyes1 gills1 and feelers40 ,in #ahfi it was stated before the ,british ,association that ,m4 ,morren1 while living in the ,south of ,france1 had succeeded in producing similar results by the use of sunlight instead of the electric light4 ,for a long time during his researches on the decomposition of vapours he was troubled by the presence of floating matter revealed by a powerful condensed beam of light1 and he tried numerous expedients for the purpose of intercepting this matter4 ,at last he succeeded4 ,by causing the air intended for experimental purposes to pass over the tip of a spirit-lamp flame1 the floating matter disappeared4 ,he therefore concluded that it was organic matter1 which had been burned out by the flame4 ,this discovery took place on ,october #eth1 #ahfh4 ,till then he regarded the dust of our air as for the most part inorganic and noncombustible4 ,this led him on to the investigation of the germ theory4 ,on the one hand he added proof to proof1 and experiment to experiment1 to show that when a consuming heat was applied to air its organic matter disappeared2 and on the other hand he maintained that as surely as a fig comes from a fig1 a grape from a grape1 and a thorn from a thorn1 so surely does the typhoid virus or seed1 when planted or scattered about among people1 increase and multiply into typhoid fever1 scarlatina virus into scarlatina1 and small-pox virus into small-pox4 ,these conclusions formed the subject of a famous lecture on 8,dust and ,disease10 delivered at the ,royal ,institution on ,january #bast1 #ahgj4 ,among his audience were some of the foremost men of the day1 such as ,mr4 ,w4 ,e4 ,gladstone1 then ,prime ,minister1 ,earl ,granville1 ,dean ,stanley1 ,sir ,edwin ,landseer1 ,sir ,henry ,holland1 and ,professor ,huxley4 ,the views which ,professor ,tyndall then put forth were received with marked disfavour among the medical profession4 ,even scientific men did not hesitate to pour ridicule upon the germ theory4 ,for example1 ,professor ,bloxam1 ,lecturer on ,chemistry to the ,department of ,artillery ,studies1 suggested in one of his lectures that the ,committee on ,explosives should abandon gun cotton1 and collecting the germs of small-pox and similar malignant diseases in cotton or other dust-collecting substances1 should load shells with them1 and we should then hear of the enemy being dislodged from his position by a volley of typhus or a few rounds of ,asiatic cholera4 ,like most truths1 the germ theory survived the ridicule of its opponents4 ,the labours of ,pasteur in relation to the germ theory always appeared to command ,professor ,tyndall's admiration4 ,a large part of his lecture on 8,dust and ,disease0 consisted of an account of the successful way in which ,pasteur dealt with the epidemic among silkworms in ,france4 ,writing in ,april1 #ahgj1 the ,professor said3 8,there is more solid science in one paper of ,pasteur than in all the volumes and essays that have been written against him4 ,schroeder and ,pasteur have demonstrated that air filtered through cotton-wool is deprived wholly1 or in part1 of its power to produce animalcular life4 ,why8 ,an experiment with a beam of light answers the question2 for while it proves our ordinary air to be charged with floating matter1 the beam pronounces air1 which has been carefully filtered through cotton-wool1 to be visibly pure2 there are no germs afloat in it2 hence it is impossible as a generator of life4 ,again1 ,pasteur prepared twenty-one flasks1 each containing a decoction of yeast1 which he boiled in order to destroy whatever germs it might contain4 ,while the space above the liquid was filled with pure steam he sealed the necks of his flasks with a blow-pipe4 ,he opened ten of them in the damp1 still caves of the ,paris ,observatory1 and eleven of them in the courtyard of the same establishment4 ,of the former only one showed signs of life subsequently4 ,in nine out of the ten flasks no organisms of any kind were developed4 ,in all the others organisms speedily appeared4 ,pasteur ascribed this unexpected result to the subsidence of the germs in the motionless air of the caves4 ,is this surmise correct8 ,the beam of light enables us to answer this question4 ,i have had a chamber constructed1 the lower half of which is of wood1 and the upper half of glass4 ,on the #fth ,february this chamber was closed1 and every crevice that could admit dust or cause a disturbance of the air was carefully stopped4 ,the electric beam when sent through the glass showed the air at the outside to be loaded with floating matter4 ,the chamber was examined almost daily1 and a gradual diminution of the floating matter was observed4 ,at the end of the week the chamber was optically empty4 ,the floating matters1 germs included1 had wholly subsided1 and the air held nothing in suspension4 ,here again the ocular demonstration furnished by the luminous beam goes hand in hand with the experimental result of ,pasteur40 ,professor ,tyndall did not1 however1 adopt the germ theory on the authority of ,pasteur4 ,he not only discovered it for himself1 but demonstrated its accuracy by innumerable experiments1 in the course of which he made use of #aj1jjj vessels4 ,to him1 too1 science owes the use of the electric beam as an explorer of germ particles which could not otherwise be made visible by the best optical aids4 ,the most exquisitely minute particles1 which could not be detected by the most powerful glasses1 have been revealed in the air by the electric beam4 ,for some time he carried on a controversy with some doughty champions of the old theory of spontaneous generation2 but as the evidences in favour of the germ theory increased1 the antagonism to it diminished4 ,one practical evidence1 not only of the reality1 but of the utility of the germ theory1 was ,pasteur's discovery of the nature of the organisms in yeast that produced 8beer disease20 and when ,pasteur visited ,england1 after that discovery1 and explained the cause of beer turning sour1 ,professor ,tyndall afterwards visited some of the most prominent breweries in ,london to make inquiries on the subject4 ,he was extremely surprised at the paucity of knowledge possessed by the brewers1 although they had over and over again incurred disastrous losses in consequence of their lack of knowledge4 ,he said that when the brewers found their beer becoming bad they used to exchange their yeast among themselves1 and thus get on with their losses1 when five minutes' examination with the microscope would have prevented this waste and loss2 for it would have shown them the minute organisms which spoiled the beer4 ,in connection with his researches on the germ theory1 he produced a useful invention which had a philanthropic rather than a commercial object4 ,to the title of inventor he never made any claim2 on the contrary1 he repeatedly expressed his view of the difference between a scientific discoverer and a mechanical inventor2 contending that while the practical man is not usually the man to make the necessary antecedent discoveries1 the cases are rare in which the discoverer in science knows how to turn his labours to practical account4 ,nevertheless scientific reflection enabled him to devise a form of respirator which protects firemen from the stifling effects of dense smoke4 ,his attention had repeatedly been directed to the risks that firemen encountered when in conflict with smoke and flame1 and he had been told that smoke was a greater enemy to them than flame4 ,he therefore endeavoured to find a means of protecting them from suffocation4 ,first he tried a respirator made of cotton-wool1 but that was insufficient2 so to the cotton-wool he added glycerine2 and though this was an improvement1 still it only enabled them to remain in dense smoke for three or four minutes4 ,he next added charcoal and this greatly increased the utility of the respirator1 which when complete was composed of a layer of cotton-wool moistened with glycerine1 next a thin layer of dry wool1 then a layer of charcoal fragments1 succeeded by another thin layer of dry cotton-wool and a layer of fragments of caustic lime4 ,these were inclosed in a wire gauze cover4 ,the first experiments with this respirator were made in a small cellar-like chamber with stone flooring and stone walls in the basement of the ,royal ,institution4 ,a fire of resinous pine-wood was lighted1 and was so covered over as to generate dense smoke instead of flames4 ,professor ,tyndall and his assistant1 having each put on one of the new respirators1 and suitable glasses to protect their eyes1 were able to remain for half an hour or longer in that apartment full of smoke so dense and pungent that he believed a single inhalation through the undefended mouth would have been perfectly unendurable4 ,captain ,shaw1 the chief officer of the ,metropolitan ,fire ,brigade1 on being asked whether such a respirator would be of use to him1 replied that it would be most valuable2 but he had made himself acquainted with every contrivance of the kind in this and other countries1 and had found none of them of any practical use4 ,however1 at the request of ,professor ,tyndall1 the ,captain and some of his men went to the ,royal ,institution to test the new invention4 ,the small room was again filled with dense smoke1 three men went successively into it1 and remained there as long as their ,captain desired4 ,on coming out they declared that with the respirators they had not felt the least discomfort1 and that they could have remained all day in the smoke4 ,captain ,shaw himself then tested it with the same result1 and he afterwards stated that ,professor ,tyndall1 in the kindest possible manner1 at once placed his invention at the service of the ,fire ,brigade4 ,in #ahgj he accompanied the eclipse expedition to ,oran1 and having been disappointed in the special object of his journey1 he determined in returning to investigate the causes of the varying tints presented by sea-water4 ,on board ,h4,m4,s4 ,urgent1 between ,gibraltar and ,spithead1 he filled nineteen bottles with sea-water1 and afterwards examined them by the electric light4 ,this examination showed that the yellowish water of the coast and harbours contained a large quantity of particles1 that in the green water the particles were finer and less abundant1 and that the blue water of the deep was comparatively clear of them4 ,the explanation he gave of the colours of the ocean1 in a lecture at the ,royal ,institution1 was that when a beam of light entered the sea the heat-rays were absorbed at the surface1 the red rays by a very superficial layer of water1 the green rays next1 and ultimately the blue rays2 but when the light encountered particles in the water the green rays would be reflected by them4 ,if there were no particles1 the green rays would continue their course till they were wholly quenched1 and thus water of more than ordinary depth and purity would appear as black as ink4 ,in later years he made some practical additions to our knowledge of sound4 ,his advice had repeatedly been asked as to the laws which affected the distribution of sound variously in different buildings--a subject upon which volumes had been written1 but which was still imperfectly understood4 ,as an illustration of the unexpected circumstances that affected the transmission of sound1 he sometimes related what occurred to himself in the ,senate ,house of ,cambridge ,university when he delivered the ,rede lecture in #ahfe4 ,on going to the ,senate ,house to test its acoustic qualities1 he was astonished to find that from the usual place of speaking his words could not be heard at all by a friend whom he had placed at the extreme end of the hall as his auditory4 ,he found that the reverberation from the floor and walls followed the direct sound of his voice in such a way as to destroy the clearness of the words as they were uttered4 ,dismayed at this effect1 he made up his mind that in respect of audibleness his lecture was doomed to be a failure4 ,but the reverse was the case4 ,the lecture was in every respect a great success4 ,an overflowing audience filled the hall1 and listened to him with rapt attention4 ,during the hour and a half that he spoke every syllable was heard by the most distant hearer2 and he attributed this unexpected result to the presence of the audience1 which1 he said1 quenched the prejudicial effect of the reverberation of his voice produced by the sides and bottom of the room4 ,after that experience1 he advocated the making of different experiments with the view of extending the practical knowledge of acoustics4 ,to that knowledge he himself became a valuable contributor4 ,in #ahgc he conducted a series of experiments with a view to determine the properties of the atmosphere as a vehicle of sound4 ,navigators had often been at a loss to understand how it was that the most powerful fog-signals--such as gongs1 whistles1 and guns--were sometimes easily heard at a great distance on rainy days1 and were inaudible at comparatively short distances on fine days4 ,even within a few minutes the acoustic properties of the atmosphere sometimes underwent remarkable variations4 ,professor ,tyndall's experiments led him to the conclusion that the aqueous vapour raised by the sun1 though often invisible1 produced a cloud which formed as impervious a barrier to the waves of sound as a dense black cloud does to the waves of light4 ,the presence of water in a vaporous form being the real enemy to the transmission of sound through the atmosphere1 it was easy to understand its frequent occurrence on days apparently clear and bright4 ,this was previously unknown4 ,he also furnished an interesting illustration of the corelation of heat and sound4 ,notwithstanding the elaborate data upon which he had founded his conclusions as to the interaction of radiant heat on vapours1 some ,continental physicists questioned their accuracy1 and accordingly ,professor ,tyndall in later years resumed the inquiry and obtained some remarkable results4 ,he had previously shown that heat will pass without any loss through a long glass tube filled with nitrogen or air1 and closed up at the ends by lenses of crystal2 but if the same tube is filled with carbonic acid or the vapour of ether the heat1 instead of being transmitted through it1 is almost entirely intercepted4 ,in #ahhj ,mr4 ,graham ,bell showed him that musical sounds were produced by a beam of light striking upon thin discs of matter2 and ,professor ,tyndall at once discovered the secret of this surprising effect4 ,he said that before making an experiment he pictured in his mind a highly-absorbent vapour exposed to the shocks of an intermittent beam suddenly expanding at the moment of exposure1 and as suddenly contracting when the beam was intercepted2 and thus pulses of an amplitude probably far greater than those obtainable with solids would be produced1 and would be sufficient to give forth musical sounds4 ,he soon proved this surmise to be correct4 ,he filled a glass tube or bulb with absorbent gas or vapour1 and between it and the limelight he placed a round piece of cardboard with equi-distant holes in it2 then by placing the bulb in such a position that when the light passed through the holes it impinged upon the glass bulb1 and by causing the cardboard to revolve1 the action of the beam became intermittent1 as it only reached the vapour when one of the holes in the revolving cardboard came in front of the bulb4 ,by this contrivance a series of calorific shocks were produced that gave sound vibrations of surprising intensity4 ,when1 however1 the bulbs were filled with gases or vapours1 such as nitrogen or air1 that transmitted the heat1 no sounds were produced4 ,he tried the sounding power of ten gases and eighty vapours1 and found that the sounds produced by chloride of methyl were the loudest2 and that1 conveyed to the ear by a tube of indiarubber1 they seemed as loud as the peal of an organ4 ,he also found that in respect of intensity the order of the sound in gases was the same as the order of their absorption of radiant heat4 ,these marvellous results he described in his ,bakerian lecture for #ahha1 8,on the ,action of ,free ,molecules on ,radiant ,heat and its ,conversion thereby into ,sound40 ,,footnotes3 #c ,this glacier theory is all the more deserving of prominence since the publication in #ahhf of ,lieutenant ,greely's discovery of lakes1 rivers1 and valleys rich in vegetation and animal life in the interior of ,grinnell ,land at points the farthest north ever reached by explorers4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 8,undaunted he hies him ,o'er ice-covered wild1 ,where leaf never budded1 ,nor spring ever smiled2 ,and beneath him an ocean of mist1 where his eye ,no longer the dwellings of man can espy40 --,,schiller4 ,as a traveller in search of ,nature's grandest works1 ,professor ,tyndall occupies a foremost place for his adventures in ,alpine regions previously regarded as unapproachable1 as well as for his descriptions of the views presented and the sentiments inspired by those peaks of everlasting snow4 ,the narrative of his achievements as an ,alpine traveller fills a larger volume than this one4 ,two or three specimens must therefore suffice here4 ,the following is the account he gave in a letter to ,faraday in ,august1 #aheh1 of his ascent of ,monte ,rosa1 which was then considered much more difficult to climb than ,mont ,blanc3-- 8,i reached this mountain wild the day before yesterday4 ,soon after my arrival it commenced snowing1 and yesterday morning the mountains were all covered by a deep layer4 ,it heaped itself up against the windows of this room1 obscuring half the light4 ,to-day the sun shines1 and ,i hope he will soon banish the snow1 for the snow is a great traitor on the glacier1 and often covers smooth chasms which it would not be at all comfortable to get into4 ,i am here in a lonely house1 the only traveller4 ,if you cast your eye on a map of ,switzerland you will find the valley of ,saas not far from ,visp4 ,high up this valley1 and three hours above ,saas itself1 is the ,distil ,alp1 and on this ,alp ,i now reside4 ,close beside the house a many-armed mountain torrent rushes1 and a little way down a huge glacier1 coming down one of the side valleys1 throws itself across the torrent1 dams it up1 and forms the so-called #8,matmark ,see4' ,looking out of another window ,i have before me an immense stone1 the unshipped cargo of a glacier1 and weighing at least #a1jjj tons4 ,it is the largest boulder ,i have ever seen2 it is composed of serpentine1 and measures #baf1jjj cubic feet4 ,previous to coming here ,i spent ten days at the ,riffel ,hotel1 above ,zermatt1 and explored almost the whole of that glacier region4 ,one morning the candle of my guide gleamed into my room at three o'clock1 and he announced to me that the weather was good4 ,i rose1 and at four o'clock was on my way to the summit of ,monte ,rosa4 ,my guide had never been there1 but he had some general directions from a brother guide1 and we hoped to be able to find our way to the top4 ,we first reached the ridge above the ,riffel1 then dropped down upon the ,grner glacier1 crossed it1 reached the base of the mountain1 then up a boss of rock1 over which the glacier of former days had flowed and left its mark behind4 ,then up a slope of ice to the base of a precipice of brown crags3 round this we wormed till we found a place where we could assail it and get to the top4 ,then up the slopes and round the huge bosses of the mountain1 avoiding the rifted portions1 and going zigzag up the steeper inclinations4 ,for some hours this was mere child's play to a mountaineer--no more than an agreeable walk on a sunny morning round ,kensington ,gardens4 ,but at length the mountain contracted her snowy shoulders to what ,germans call a kamus--a comb1 suggested1 ,i should say1 by the toothed edges which some mountain ridges exhibit1 but now applied to any mountain edge1 whether of rock or snow4 ,well1 the mountain formed such an edge4 ,on that side of the edge which turns toward the ,lyskamm there was a very terrible precipice1 leading straight down to the torn and fissured nv of the ,monte ,rosa glaciers4 ,on the other side the slope was less steep1 but exceedingly perilous-looking1 and intersected here and there by precipices4 ,our way lay along the ledge1 and we faced it with steady caution and deliberation4 ,the wind had so acted upon the snow as to fold it over1 forming a kind of cornice1 which overhung the first precipice to which ,i have alluded4 ,our attack for some time was upon this cornice4 ,the incessant admonition of my guide was to fix my staff securely into the snow at each step1 the necessity of which ,i had already learned4 ,once1 however1 while doing this1 my staff went right through the cornice1 and ,i could see through the hole that ,i had made into the terrible gulf below4 ,the morning was clear when we started1 and we saw the first sunbeams as they lit the pinnacles of ,monte ,rosa1 and caused the surrounding snow summits to flush up4 ,the mountain remained clear for some hours1 but ,i now looked upwards and saw a dense mass of cloud stuck against the summit4 ,she dashed it gallantly away1 like a mountain queen2 but her triumph was short4 ,dusky masses again assailed her1 and she could not shake them off4 ,they stretched down towards us1 and now the ice valley beneath us commenced to seethe like a boiling cauldron1 and to send up vapour masses to meet those descending from the summit4 ,we were soon in the midst of them1 and the darkness thickened2 sometimes1 as if by magic1 the clouds partially cleared away1 and through the thin pale residue the sunbeams penetrated1 lighting up the glacier with a supernatural glare4 ,but these partial illuminations became rarer as we ascended4 ,we finally reached the weathered rocks which form the crest of the mountain1 and through these we now clambered up cliffs and down cliffs1 walking erect along edges of granite with terrible depths at each side1 squeezing ourselves through fissures1 and thus jumping1 swinging1 squeezing1 and climbing1 we reached the highest peak of ,monte ,rosa4 8,snow had commenced to fall before we reached the top1 and it now thickened darkly4 ,i boiled water1 and found the temperature #ahdib ,fahr4 ,but the snow was wonderful snow4 ,it was all flower--the most lovely that ever eye gazed upon4 ,there1 high up in the atmosphere1 this symmetry of form manifested itself and built up these exquisite blossoms of the frost4 ,there was no deviation from the six-leaved type1 but any number of variations4 ,i should hardly have exchanged this dark snowfall for the best view the mountain could afford me4 ,still1 our position was an anxious one4 ,we could only see a few yards in advance of us1 and we feared the loss of our track4 ,we retreated1 and found the comb more awkward to descend than to ascend4 ,however1 the fact of my being here to tell all about it proves that we did our work successfully4 ,and now ,i have a secret to tell regarding ,monte ,rosa4 ,i had no view during the above ascent1 but precisely a week afterwards the weather was glorious beyond description4 ,i had lent my guide to a party of gentlemen1 so ,i strapped half a bottle of tea and a ham sandwich on my back1 left my coat and neckcloth behind me1 and in my shirt sleeves climbed up ,monte ,rosa alone40 ,the latter act has been described as a feat of daring never heard of before4 ,between #ahef and #ahfb he ascended ,mont ,blanc three times4 ,one ascent1 made in #ahei1 was for the purpose of carrying into effect a proposal he had made to the ,royal ,society some months previously to place suitable thermometers at different stations between the top and the foot of the mountain4 ,on that occasion he was accompanied by his friend ,dr4 ,franklin1 the notable guide ,balmat1 ,mr4 ,alfred ,wills1 and several porters4 ,professor ,tyndall afterwards gave a graphic account of the ascent to the ,british ,association at ,leeds1 when he spoke in the highest terms of the services rendered by ,balmat4 ,mr4 ,wills says he made the ,leeds ,town ,hall ring with well-deserved applause as he recounted to the first savants in ,europe the dangers ,balmat had undergone1 and the courage and disinterestedness he displayed4 ,the ascent was made late in ,september in fearful weather1 and in order to cut a hole four feet deep in the solid glacier1 ,balmat used his hands for shovelling out the ice and snow1 till both hands were soon found to be badly frost-bitten and quite black4 ,when the circulation began to return1 after half-an-hour's rubbing and beating1 he suffered great agony2 and though he was for some time in danger of losing his hands1 he said he could have endured even that calamity in the cause of science4 ,in ,august1 #ahfa1 ,professor ,tyndall succeeded in reaching the top of the ,weisshorn1 a mountain #ad1hjj feet high1 which he regarded as the noblest peak in the ,alps4 ,people at the base described him and his two guides as appearing like flies upon the summit4 8,i never10 he said afterwards1 8witnessed a scene that affected me like this one4 ,i opened my note-book to make a few observations1 but soon relinquished the attempt4 ,there was something incongruous1 if not profane1 in allowing the scientific faculty to interfere where silent worship seemed the #8reasonable service4'0 ,in like manner ,principal ,forbes1 who preceded but did not equal ,professor ,tyndall as an ,alpine traveller1 said that 8the seeds of a poetic temperament usually germinate amidst mountain scenery1 and we envy not the man1 young or old1 to whom the dead silence of sequestered nature does not bring an irresistible sense of awe--an experience which a picturesque writer has thus expressed3 ,it seems impious to laugh so near ,heaven10 ,hence probably the words of ,byron3-- 8,there stirs the feeling infinite1 so felt ,in solitude1 when we are least alone2 ,a truth1 which through our being then doth melt1 ,and purifies from self3 it is a tone1 ,the soul and source of music1 which makes known ,eternal harmony1 and sheds a charm1 ,like to the fabled ,cytherea's zone1 ,binding all things with beauty2--'twould disarm ,the spectre ,death1 had he substantial power to harm40 ,professor ,tyndall translated such sentiments into actions4 ,at the time when he began to ascend the highest of those ,alpine peaks1 accidents of the most painful description were frequently reported as occurring to travellers1 owing to the absence of that more intimate knowledge of the routes and methods of travelling which has since been acquired by experience or revealed by science--knowledge which he himself rendered generous and valuable aid in acquiring and diffusing4 ,for instance1 while he was at ,breuil on ,august #ahth1 #ahfj1 intelligence reached him that three ,englishmen and a guide had perished on the ,col-du-,gant4 ,the more he heard of the sad occurrence1 he said1 the stronger became his desire to visit the scene of it4 ,he accordingly went to ,cormayeur on the #bbnd1 and called on the resident ,french pastor1 ,m4 ,curie1 who had visited the place and made a sketch of it4 ,accepting this gentleman's offer to accompany him1 ,professor ,tyndall reached the ,pavilion early on the morning of ,thursday1 the #bdth4 8,wishing10 says the ,professor1 8to make myself acquainted with every inch of the ground over which1 from the commencement of their glissade1 the unfortunate men had passed1 ,i walked straight up from the ,pavilion to the base of the rocky couloir along which they had been precipitated4 ,this couloir was described as being so dangerous that a chamois hunter had declined ascending it some days before2 but ,i secured at ,cormayeur the service of an intrepid man who had once made the ascent1 and whom it was now my intention to follow4 ,we commenced our climb at the very bottom of the rocks1 while the pastor made a dtour and joined us on the spot where the body of the guide had been found4 ,from this point upward1 ,m4 ,curie shared the dangers of the ascent--strongly1 ,i confess1 against my will--until we reached the place where the rocks ended and the fatal snow slope commenced4 ,here we parted company1 he deeming it more prudent to resort to a stony arte to the right than to trust himself upon the snow4 ,i was urged by ,m4 ,curie to content myself with an inspection of the place1 but no inspection1 however close1 could have given the information ,i desired4 ,i asked my guide whether he feared the slope1 and his reply being negative1 we entered upon the snow1 and ascended it along the course of the fatal glissade1 the traces of which had not been entirely obliterated4 ,among the rocks below we had frequent and often melancholy occasion to assure ourselves that we were on the proper track4444 ,from the beginning to the end of this fatal track1 ,i made myself acquainted with its true character1 and as ,i stood upon the summit of the incline and scanned the ground over which ,i had passed a feeling of augmented sadness took possession of me4 ,there was no sufficient reason for this terrible catastrophe4 ,with ordinary precaution the glissade might in the first instance have been avoided1 and with average capacity to cope with such an accident the motion might1 ,i am persuaded1 have been arrested after it commenced40 ,he concluded a long letter to the ,times1 from which the foregoing extract is taken1 by saying that the guides of ,chamouni ought to regard this terrible disaster as a stain upon their order which it would require years of services faithfully and wisely rendered to wipe away4 ,it is much easier to censure than to set a good example1 and from that point of view ,professor ,tyndall was blamed at the time for being so severe in his strictures4 ,ere long1 however1 an opportunity occurred which put his own resources to the severest test4 ,while staying at ,pontresina in #ahfd1 he1 along with ,mr4 ,hutchinson and ,mr4 ,lee-,warner1 of ,rugby1 ascended the ,piz ,morteratch1 a very noble mountain1 which was thought safe and easy to ascend4 ,the top was reached without any exceptional difficulty2 but in descending they came to a broad couloir filled with snow1 which1 having been melted and refrozen1 appeared like a sloping wall of ice4 ,the party were tied together1 with one guide named ,jenni in front1 and another named ,walter in the rear4 ,jenni cut steps in the ice1 and then reached snow1 which he expected would give them a footing4 ,as he led the party he said1 8,keep carefully in the steps1 gentlemen2 a false step here might detach an avalanche40 ,the word was scarcely uttered1 says the ,professor1 whose account has been corroborated by his companions1 8when ,i heard the sound of a fall behind me1 then a rush1 and in a moment my two friends and their guide1 all apparently entangled together1 whirled past me4 ,i suddenly planted myself to resist their shock1 but in an instant ,i was in their wake1 for their impetus was irresistible4 ,a moment afterwards ,jenni was whirled away1 and thus1 in the twinkling of an eye1 all five of us found ourselves riding downwards with uncontrollable speed on the back of an avalanche which a single slip had originated4 8,previous to stepping on the slope1 ,i had1 according to habit1 made clear to my mind what was to be done in case of mishap2 and accordingly1 when overthrown1 ,i turned promptly on my face1 and drove my bton through the moving snow1 and into the ice underneath4 ,no time1 however1 was allowed for the break's action2 for ,i had held it firmly thus for a few seconds only when ,i came into collision with some obstacle and was rudely tossed through the air1 ,jenni at the same time being shot down upon me4 ,both of us here lost our btons4 ,we had been carried over a crevasse1 had hit its lower edge1 and1 instead of dropping into it1 were pitched by our great velocity far beyond it4 ,i was quite bewildered for a moment1 but immediately righted myself1 and could see the men in front of me half buried in the snow1 and jolted from side to side by the ruts among which we were passing4 ,suddenly ,i saw them tumbled over by a lurch of the avalanche1 and immediately afterwards found myself imitating their motion4 ,this was caused by a second crevasse4 ,jenni knew of its existence and plunged1 he told me1 right into it--a brave act1 but for the time unavailing4 ,by jumping into the chasm he thought a strain might be put upon the rope sufficient to check the motion4 ,but though over thirteen stone in weight1 he was violently jerked out of the fissure1 and almost squeezed to death by the pressure of the rope4 8,a long slope was before us which led directly downwards to a brow where the glacier fell precipitously4 ,at the base of the declivity ice was cut by a series of profound chasms1 towards which we were rapidly borne4 ,the three foremost men rode upon the forehead of the avalanche1 and were at times almost wholly immersed in the snow2 but the moving layer was thinner behind1 and ,jenni rose incessantly and with desperate energy drove his feet into the firmer substance beneath4 ,his voice1 shouting #8,halt6 ,herr ,jesus1 halt6' was the only one heard during the descent4 ,a kind of condensed memory1 such as that described by people who have narrowly escaped drowning1 took possession of me1 and my power of reasoning remained intact4 ,i thought of ,bennen on the ,haut de ,cry1 and muttered1 #8,it is now my turn4' ,then ,i coolly scanned the men in front of me1 and reflected that1 if their vis viva was the only thing to be neutralised1 ,jenni and myself could stop them2 but to arrest both them and the mass of snow in which they were caught was hopeless4 ,i experienced no intolerable dread4 ,in fact the start was too sudden and the excitement of the rush too great to permit of the development of terror4 8,looking in advance1 ,i noticed that the slope for a short distance became less steep and then fell as before4 #8,now or never we must be brought to rest4' ,the speed visibly slackened1 and ,i thought we were saved4 ,but the momentum had been too great2 the avalanche crossed the brow and in part regained its motion4 ,here ,hutchinson threw his arm round his friend1 all hope being extinguished1 while ,i grasped my belt and struggled to free myself4 ,finding this difficult1 from the tossing1 ,i sullenly resumed the strain upon the rope4 ,destiny had so related the downward impetus to ,jenni's pull as to give the latter a slight advantage1 and the whole question was whether the opposing force would have sufficient time to act4 ,this was also arranged in our favour1 for we came to rest so near the brow that two or three seconds of our average motion of descent must have carried us over4 ,had this occurred1 we should have fallen into the chasm1 and been covered up by the tail of the avalanche4 ,hutchinson emerged from the snow with his forehead bleeding1 but the wound was superficial2 ,jenni had a bit of flesh removed from his hand by collision against a stone2 the pressure of the rope had left black welts on my arms2 and we all experienced a tingling sensation over the hands1 like that produced by incipient frost-bite1 which continued for several days4 ,this was all40 ,another incident which illustrates the nature and variety of his experience as a traveller he has himself described as prompted more by the instincts of the mountaineer than by the curiosity of the man of science4 ,in #ahfh he visited ,vesuvius2 and if he did not collect information of much scientific value1 he saw a good deal that was very interesting4 ,he said he was most struck with the condition of the country all round ,naples2 it was so seething1 and smoking1 and hot1 showing the presence of vast subterranean fires4 ,it was the same at ,vesuvius1 where in one place at the entrance to a gallery in the side of the mountain1 he found a little boy quite naked1 who volunteered to enter the gallery and cook an egg which he held in his hand4 ,both the ,professor and his companion 7,sir ,john ,lubbock7 determined to explore the gallery4 ,on doing so they found at the end of it a hot salt spring1 where they cooked the egg4 ,the guide told them of a hotter gallery adjoining1 which they also explored2 and a hotter one still being pointed out1 they likewise tried it and found it very hot indeed4 ,they also visited the grotto ,del ,cano1 where the floor was covered with carbonic acid gas1 a broad stream of which flowed out of the mouth of the cavern4 ,there he performed what he called some of the commoner ,royal ,institution experiments for the benefit of the natives4 ,he collected some of the heavy gas in his hat1 carried it to a distance1 and then put out lighted matches by pouring the heavy gas over them4 ,a little dog being kept near the cave for the purpose of showing visitors how easily the gas could half choke it1 he protested against the cruelty of that experiment4 ,at ,pompeii1 he came to the conclusion that the ashes which burned it could not have been of very high temperature when they fell1 having been much chilled by their previous passage through the air4 ,among the evidences of this was the fact that a fountain of pure lead1 which was uncovered during the excavations1 was uninjured4 ,the analysis of a piece which he took away with him showed that the temperature of the ashes in which it was engulfed1 was lower than the melting point of lead4 ,in ascending ,vesuvius they crossed a ridge which formed the ancient crater of the mountain2 others had been thrown up since1 the latest being #cjj feet higher than the ancient one4 ,vesuvius1 he said1 was nineteen feet higher in #ahfh than it had ever been before in human history4 ,in the midst of the smoking centres of eruption1 they listened to the noises in the mountain beneath1 and saw three discharges of red-hot stones from the crater4 ,the wind was so strong that one gust blew down ,sir ,john ,lubbock on his face4 ,on another occasion when they ascended the mountain1 they were favoured with a strong wind1 and going further than the guide would lead them1 they went to the edge of the principal crater1 and looked down into the great central hole of the volcano itself1 where they saw little but smoke and a lurid glare4 ,sometimes they were enveloped in smoke and sulphurous acid gas1 but they avoided any risk from it by keeping well to windward4 ,as to the dispute among geologists on the question whether the cones on the top of ,vesuvius were made by eruption or upheaval1 he came to the same conclusion as ,lyell1 that they were craters of eruption4 ,it was afterwards estimated that during the eruption which was in progress at the time of ,professor ,tyndall's visit1 ,mount ,vesuvius emitted about #bj1jjj1jjj cubic feet of lava4 ,his travels and explorations in another part of the world where ,nature displays her operations on a grand scale1 and where personal achievement is the only recognised title to fame1 were still more memorable4 ,when in ,june1 #ahea1 ,professor ,tyndall came back from ,germany to ,england1 he met on his way to the meeting of the ,british ,association at ,ipswich 8a man who has since made his mark upon the intellect of his time10 and to whom he was ever afterwards attached by the strong law of mental affinity4 ,this was ,professor ,huxley1 and both the young scientists being then on the look out for work1 they determined to apply for the vacant chairs of natural history and physics in the ,university of ,toronto1 but their applications were declined4 ,faraday1 who was ,tyndall's philosopher and friend in the matter1 wrote a letter urging him to apply for the ,toronto appointment2 but happily for both of them and for the glory of ,british science1 ,toronto would not have them1 and ,england could not spare them4 ,twenty years after that ,professor ,tyndall visited the ,united ,states1 whence his reputation as a scientific lecturer had preceded him4 ,no people are so quick in their observations of men and manners as the ,americans1 and it may therefore be opportune here to give an ,american's impressions of the man to whom that people gave an enthusiastic reception in #ahgb4 ,mr4 ,george ,ripley gave the following description of him3-- 8,professor ,tyndall has all the ardour of a reformer1 without any tendency to vague and rash speculations4 ,recognising whatever is valuable in the researches of a former age1 he extends a gracious hospitality to new suggestions4 ,with a noble pride in his favourite branches of inquiry1 he is not restricted to an exclusive range of research1 but extends his intellectual vision over a wide field of observation4 ,the ,english1 as a rule1 are inclined to be suspicious of a man who ventures beyond a special walk in the pursuit of knowledge4 ,they have but little sympathy with the catholic taste which embraces a variety of objects1 and is equally at home in the researches of science1 the speculations of philosophy1 the delights of poetry1 and the graces of elegant literature4 ,but a single exception to this trait is presented by ,professor ,tyndall4 ,his mind is singularly comprehensive in its tendencies1 and betrays a versatility of aptitude and a reach of cultivation1 which are rarely found in unison with conspicuous eminence in purely scientific pursuits4 ,in his own special domain his reputation is fixed4 ,his expositions of the theory of heat and light and sound1 and of some of the more interesting ,alpine phenomena1 are acknowledged to be masterpieces of popular statement1 to which few parallels can be found in the records of modern science4 ,but1 in addition to this1 he possesses a rare power of eloquence and manifold attainments in different departments of learning4 ,i do not know that he has ever written poetry1 but he is certainly a poet in the fire of his imagination and in his love for all the forms of natural beauty4 ,nor has he disdained to make himself familiar with the leading metaphysical theories of the past age1 in spite of the disrepute and comparative obscurity into which science has been thrown by the brilliant achievements of physical research4 ,i noticed with pleasure in his conversation his allusions to ,fichte1 ,goethe1 ,r4 ,w4 ,emerson1 ,henry ,heine1 and other superior lights of the literary world1 showing an appreciation of their writings which could only have been the fruit of familiar personal studies4 ,besides the impression produced on a stranger by his genius and learning1 ,i may be permitted to say that ,i have met with few men of more attractive manners4 ,his mental activity gives an air of intensity to his expression1 though without a trace of vehemence1 or an eager passion for utterance4 ,in his movements he is singularly alert1 gliding through the streets with the rapidity and noiselessness of an arrow1 paying little attention to external objects2 and1 if you are his companion1 requiring on your part a nimble step and a watchful eye not to lose sight of him4 ,though overflowing with thought1 which streams from his brain as from a capacious reservoir while his words #8trip around as airy servitors1' he is one of the best of listeners1 never assuming an undue share of the talk1 and lending an attentive and patient ear to the common currency of conversation1 without demanding of men the language of the gods4 ,the singular kindness of his bearing1 ,i am sure1 must proceed from a kind and generous heart4 ,with no pretence of sympathy1 and no uncalled for demonstrations of interest1 his name will certainly be set down by the recording angel as one who loves his fellow men40 ,such was the man who had now come amongst the ,americans to enjoy their hospitality and to enlighten them on the subject of light4 ,he delivered a course of lectures at ,boston1 ,new ,york1 ,philadelphia1 ,baltimore1 and ,washington4 ,at ,boston1 he said he would long gratefully remember his reception on the occasion of his first lecture there1 and that if he was treated in the same manner elsewhere he would return to the old country full of gratitude4 ,other places tried to outdo ,boston in the cordiality of their reception4 ,the halls in which he lectured were crowded by audiences described as distinguished for their appreciation of learning and their enthusiasm in the presence of 8the great teacher40 ,his lectures were reported verbatim with illustrations in the daily newspapers2 and the ,new ,york ,tribune published a cheap reprint of them of which over #cjj1jjj were sold4 ,while in ,america he did not miss an opportunity not only of inspecting but of exploring its grandest cataract4 ,with him the roar of the waterfall was early a subject of scientific investigation4 ,at a meeting of the ,british ,association in #ahea he showed by some simple experiments that water falling for a certain distance into another vessel of water would produce neither air-bubbles nor sound2 but that1 as soon as the distance is so increased that the end of the column becomes broken into drops1 both air-bubbles and sounds1 varying from the hum of the ripple to the roar of the cataract and of the breaker1 were produced4 ,about the same time he published a paper in the ,philosophical ,magazine for the purpose of showing that in waterfalls sound was produced by the bursting of the bubbles1 and he therein stated that 8were ,niagara continuous and without lateral vibration1 it would be as silent as a cataract of ice4 ,it is possible1 ,i believe1 to get behind the descending water at one place2 and if the attention of travellers were directed to the subject1 the mass might perhaps be seen through4 ,for in all probability it also has its #8contracted sections2' after passing which it is broken into detached masses1 which1 plunging successively upon the air-bladders formed by their precursors1 suddenly liberate their contents1 and thus create the thunder of the waterfall40 ,on the #ast of ,november1 #ahgb1 he visited ,niagara1 and not only got behind the descending water1 but 8saw through0 it1 and afterwards graphically described it4 ,he states that 8the season0 being then over1 the scene was one of weird loneliness and beauty4 ,on reaching the village he at once proceeded to the northern end of the ,american ,fall4 ,after dinner he1 accompanied by a friend1 crossed to ,goat ,island and went to the southern end of the ,american ,fall4 8,the river is here studded with small islands4 ,crossing a wooden bridge to ,luna ,island1 and clasping a tree which grows near its edge1 ,i looked long at the cataract which here shoots down the precipice like an avalanche of foam4 ,it grew in powder and beauty as ,i gazed upon it4 ,the channel1 spanned by the wooden bridge1 was deep1 and the river there doubled over the edge of the precipice1 like the swell of a muscle1 unbroken4 ,the ledge here overhangs1 the water being poured out far beyond the base of the precipice4 ,a space1 called the ,cave of the ,winds1 is thus inclosed between the wall of rock and the cataract4 8,at the southern extremity of the ,horseshoe is a promontory1 formed by the doubling back of the gorge1 excavated by the cataract1 and into which it plunges4 ,on the promontory stands a stone building called the ,terrapin ,tower1 the door of which had been nailed up because of the decay of the staircase within it4 ,through the kindness of ,mr4 ,townsend1 the superintendent of ,goat ,island1 the door was opened to me4 ,from this tower1 at all hours of the day1 and at some hours of the night1 ,i watched and listened to the ,horseshoe ,fall4 ,the river here is evidently much deeper than the ,american branch2 and instead of bursting into foam where it quits the ledge1 it bends solidly over and falls in a continuous layer of the most vivid green4 ,the tint is not uniform but varied2 long stripes of deeper hue alternating with bands of brighter colour4 ,close to the ledge over which the water falls1 foam is generated1 the light falling upon which and flashing back from it is shifted in its passage to and fro1 and changed from white to emerald green4 ,heaps of superficial foam are also formed at intervals along the ledge1 and immediately drawn down in long white stri4 ,lower down1 the surface1 shaken by the reaction from below1 incessantly rustles into whiteness4 ,the descent finally resolves itself into a rhythm1 the water reaching the bottom of the fall in periodic gushes4 ,nor is the spray uniformly diffused through the air1 but is wafted through it in successive veils of gauze-like texture4 ,from all this it is evident that beauty is not absent from the ,horseshoe ,fall1 but majesty is its chief attribute4 ,the plunge of the water is not wild1 but deliberate1 vast1 and fascinating40 ,on the first evening of his visit the guide to the ,cave of the ,winds1 a strong-looking and pleasant man1 told him that he once succeeded in getting almost under the green water of the ,horseshoe ,fall4 ,professor ,tyndall asked whether the guide could lead him to that spot to-morrow4 ,such a cool question coming from a slender and refined-looking man seemed to non-plus the guide2 but on being assured that where he would lead the ,professor would endeavour to follow1 the guide1 with a smile1 said 8,very well1 ,i shall be ready for you to-morrow40 ,they met according to agreement on the morrow4 ,first the ,professor had to change his clothes drawing on two pairs of woollen pantaloons1 three woollen jackets1 two pairs of socks1 and a pair of felt shoes1 which supply of woollens the guide said would preserve him from cold4 ,over all was put a suit of oil-cloth1 and the ,professor was advised to carry a pitchfork as his staff4 ,it was decided to take the ,horseshoe first as being the most difficult of access4 ,descending the stairs they commenced to cross the huge boulders which cover the base of the first portion of the cataract1 and among which the water pours in torrents4 ,they got along without difficulty till they came to a formidable current1 and the guide on reaching the quietest part of it1 told the ,professor that this was their greatest difficulty2 8if we can cross here10 he said1 8we shall get far towards the ,horseshoe40 ,the guide entered the torrent first1 and was soon up to the waist in water4 ,he had to wade his way among unseen boulders which increased the violence of the current4 ,on reaching the shallower water on the other side1 he stretched his arm across to the ,professor and asked him to follow4 8,i looked10 says the undaunted traveller1 8down the torrent as it rushed to the river below1 which was seething with the tumult of the cataract4 ,i entered the water4 ,as it rose around me1 ,i sought to split the torrent by presenting a side to it2 but the insecurity of the footing enabled it to grasp the loins1 twist me fairly round1 and bring its impetus to bear upon the back4 ,further struggle was impossible1 and feeling my balance hopelessly gone1 ,i turned1 flung myself towards the bank ,i had just quitted1 and was instantly swept into the shallower water40 ,the oil-cloth covering1 which was too large for him1 was now filled with water1 and notwithstanding this incumbrance1 the guide urged him to try again4 ,after some hesitation he determined to do so4 ,again he entered the water1 again the torrent rose1 again he wavered2 but instructed by the experience of his first misadventure1 he so adjusted himself against the stream that he was able to remain upright4 ,at length they were able to clasp hands1 and on thus reaching the other side he was told that no traveller had ever been there before4 ,soon afterwards he was again taken off his feet through trusting to a piece of treacherous drift1 but a protruding rock enabled him to regain his balance4 ,as they clambered over the boulders the weight of the thick spray now and then caused them to stagger4 ,among such volumes of spray nothing could be seen4 8,we were10 he says1 8in the midst of bewildering tumult1 lashed by the water which sounded at times like the cracking of innumerable whips4 ,underneath this was the deep resonant roar of the cataract4 ,i tried to shield my eyes with my hands and look upwards2 but the defence was useless4 ,my guide continued to move on1 but at a certain place he halted1 and desired me to take shelter in his lee and observe the cataract4 ,on looking upwards over the guide's shoulder ,i could see the water bending over the ledge1 while the ,terrapin ,tower loomed fitfully through the intermittent spray gusts4 ,we were right under the tower4 ,a little farther on the cataract1 after its first plunge1 hit a protuberance some way down1 and flew from it in a prodigious burst of spray2 through this we staggered4 ,we rounded the promontory on which the ,terrapin ,tower stands1 and pushed1 amidst the wildest commotion1 along the arm of the ,horseshoe until the boulders failed us and the cataract fell into the profound gorge of the ,niagara ,river4 ,here my guide sheltered me again1 and desired me to look up4 ,i did so1 and could see as before the green gleam of the mighty curve sweeping over the upper ledge1 and the fitful plunge of the water as the spray between us and it alternately gathered and disappeared4 ,my companion knew no more of me than that ,i enjoyed the wildness2 but as ,i bent in the shelter of his large frame1 he said3 #8,i should like to see you attempting to describe all this4' ,he rightly thought it indescribable40 ,their egress was nearly as adventurous as their entrance4 ,they had another struggle with the torrent which proved such a formidable barrier in entering1 but they succeeded in crossing it without serious mishap4 ,he next endeavoured to see the fall from the river below it2 but on reaching the base of the ,horseshoe he found the water so violent1 and the rock and boulders so formidable1 that after a fierce struggle the attempt to go further had to be relinquished4 ,he therefore returned along the base of the ,american ,fall4 8,seen from below10 says the ,professor1 8the ,american ,fall is certainly exquisitely beautiful1 but it is a mere fringe of adornment to its nobler neighbour1 the ,horseshoe4 ,at times we took to the river1 from the centre of which the ,horseshoe ,fall appeared especially magnificent4 ,a streak of cloud across the neck of ,mont ,blanc can double its apparent height1 so here the green summit of the cataract1 shining above the smoke of spray1 appeared lifted to an extraordinary elevation40#d ,in his ,american lectures he never appeared to miss an opportunity of telling his audience that the pursuit of scientific truth should be conducted regardless of monetary considerations1 and that the men who had made the great discoveries in science that had so enriched the world were not actuated by the love of money4 ,at ,new ,york he said the presence there for six inclement nights of an audience1 embodying to a great extent the mental force and refinement of the city1 showed their sympathy with scientific pursuits4 8,that scientific discovery may put not only dollars into the pockets of individuals but millions into the exchequers of nations the history of science amply proves1 but the hope of its doing so is not the motive power of the investigator4 ,it never could be the motive power4444 ,you have asked me to give these lectures1 and ,i cannot turn them to better account than by asking you to remember that the lecturer is usually the distributor of intellectual wealth amassed by better men4 ,it is not as lecturers but as discoverers that you ought to employ your highest men4 ,keep your sympathetic eye upon the originator of knowledge4 ,give him the freedom necessary for his researches2 above all things avoiding that question which ignorance so often addresses to genius--,what is the use of your work8 ,let him make truth his object1 however impracticable for the time being that truth may appear4 ,if you cast your bread thus upon the waters1 then be assured it will return to you though it may be after many days40 ,in #ahgc his advice appeared to be like seed sown in good ground1 for immediately after his visit several munificent gifts were made by private individuals for the promotion of science4 ,his example was also as worthy as his teaching4 ,the profits of his lectures1 amounting to nearly #c1jjjl41 he gave as a contribution towards the establishment of a fund for the advancement of theoretic science and the promotion of original research1 especially in the department of physics4 ,in the first instance the interest of the fund was to be applied to assisting and supporting two ,american students with a decided talent for physics2 so that they might thus be able to spend at a ,german university at least four years1 of which three should be devoted to the acquisition of knowledge and the fourth to original investigation4 ,some difficulty being experienced by the trustees in selecting suitable persons1 they represented to ,professor ,tyndall1 after some years of experience1 that the object aimed at by him would probably be better accomplished by placing the administration of the fund in the hands of some one or more educational institutions1 where numbers of young men were always on trial1 and where suitable subjects for his benefaction would probably be more easily found4 ,in #ahhe ,professor ,tyndall1 acting on this advice1 divided the money1 which had increased from #ac1jjj to #cb1jjj1 into three equal parts1 and gave one part to ,columbia ,college1 one to ,harvard ,university1 and one to the ,university of ,pennsylvania4 ,on ,february #dth1 #ahgc1 he was entertained at a farewell banquet at ,new ,york 8in the great hall of the finest restaurant in the world40 ,on that occasion he stated with regard to the work done and the reception of that work during his visit to ,america1 that nothing could be added to his cup of satisfaction2 his only drawback related to the work undone2 for he carried home with him the consciousness of having been unable to respond to the invitations of the great cities of the west2 but the character of his lectures1 the weight of instrumental appliances which they involved1 and the fact that every lecture required two days' possession of the hall--a day of preparation and a day of delivery--entailed heavy loss of time and even severe labour4 ,he then returned to ,england1 where he found many friends ready to welcome him4 ,next year 7#ahgd7 he was ,president of the ,british ,association1 and the address which he delivered at the annual meeting1 held that year in ,belfast1 caused some sensation among 8the orthodox40 ,for this he was not unprepared4 ,he admitted that he had touched on debateable questions1 and gone over dangerous ground--and this partly with the view of telling the world that as regards religious theories1 schemes1 and systems which embrace notions of cosmogony1 science claims unrestricted right of search4 ,the address was condemned by the unscientific as veiled materialism1 and a flood of sermons and pamphlets were published to expose its 8heresies40 ,one writer went so far as to publish 8an inquiry of the ,home ,secretary as to whether ,professor ,tyndall had not subjected himself to the penalty of persons expressing blasphemous opinions40 ,it seemed to be generally forgotten that ,professor ,tyndall had stated before the ,british ,association in #ahfh that the utmost the materialist 8can affirm is the association of two classes of phenomena1 of whose real bond of union he is in absolute ignorance4 ,the problem of the connection of body and soul is as insoluble in its modern form as it was in the pre-scientific ages4 ,if you ask him whence is this #8matter1' who or what divided it into molecules1 he has no answer4 ,science also is mute in reply to these questions4 ,but if the materialist is confounded and science rendered dumb1 who else is entitled to answer8 ,to whom has the secret been revealed8 ,let us lower our heads and acknowledge our ignorance one and all40 ,in #ahgd he desired to set forth equally 8the inexorable advance of man's understanding in the path of knowledge1 and the unquenchable claims of his emotional nature1 which the understanding can never satisfy4 ,and if1 still unsatisfied1 the human mind1 with the yearning of a pilgrim for his distant home1 will turn to the mystery from which it has emerged1 seeking so to fashion it as to give unity to thought and faith--so long as this is done1 not only without intolerance or bigotry of any kind1 but with the enlightened recognition that ultimate fixity of conception is here unattainable1 and that each succeeding age must be held free to fashion the mystery in accordance with its own needs--then1 in opposition to all the restrictions of ,materialism1 ,i would affirm this to be a field for the noblest exercise of what1 in contrast with the knowing faculties1 may be called the creative faculties of man40 ,next year1 in introducing ,sir ,john ,hawkshaw as ,president of the ,british ,association1 ,professor ,tyndall said his successor would steer the ,association through calm water1 which would be refreshing after the tempestuous weather which 8rasher navigators had thought it their duty to encounter rather than to avoid40 ,carlyle says we pardon genial weather for its changes1 but the steadiest climate of all is that of ,greenland4 ,,footnotes3 #d ,for the descriptions of the ,falls of ,niagara and of the adventure on the ,piz ,morteratch we are indebted to the kindness of ,professor ,tyndall1 who readily granted permission to quote them from his copyright works4 ,,chapter ,v4 8,there is something in the contemplation of general laws which powerfully persuades us to merge individual feeling1 and to commit ourselves unreservedly to their disposal2 while the observation of the calm1 energetic regularity of nature1 the immense scale of her operations1 and the certainty with which her ends are attained1 tends irresistibly to tranquillise and reassure the mind1 and render it less accessible to repining1 selfish1 and turbulent emotions40--,j4 ,f4 ,w4 ,,herschel4 ,the ,royal ,institution1 the scene of ,professor ,tyndall's labours1 is situated in ,albemarle ,street1 ,london1 and was founded in #ahjj by ,count ,rumford4 ,george ,,iii41 appreciating the importance of 8forming a public institution for diffusing knowledge and facilitating the general introduction of useful mechanical inventions and improvements1 and for teaching by courses of philosophical lectures and experiments the application of science to the common purposes of life10 granted it a charter of incorporation in the fortieth year of his reign2 and in #ahaj the objects of the ,institution were extended to the prosecution of chemical science and the discovery of new facts in physical science1 as well as the diffusion of useful knowledge4 ,curiously enough1 while the ,royal ,institution of ,great ,britain was founded by an ,american1 the great ,smithsonian ,institute in ,washington was founded by an ,englishman4 ,as in most institutions founded by private enterprise1 the first arrangements made in the ,royal ,institution were on a humble scale4 ,the building selected for a chemical laboratory was originally a blacksmith's shop with a forge and bellows2 and the physical laboratory remained in its original state for nearly seventy years1 during which period it was the scene of the great discoveries of ,davy1 ,faraday1 and ,tyndall1 including the laws of electro-chemical decomposition1 the decomposition of the fixed alkalies1 the investigation of the nature of chlorine1 the philosophy of flame1 the condensability of many gases1 the science of magneto-electricity1 the twofold magnetism of matter1 comprehending all known substances1 the magnetism of gases1 the relation of magnetism and light1 the physical effects of pressure on diamagnetic action1 the absorption and radiation of heat by gases and vapours1 the transparency of our atmosphere1 and the opacity of its aqueous vapour to radiant heat4 ,a place hallowed by so many scientific achievements ,professor ,tyndall desired to preserve1 notwithstanding that1 owing to the progress made in other scientific institutions1 its reputation had changed from that of the best to that of the worst in ,london2 but when he saw that a transformation of the scene was inevitable he did what he could to promote it4 ,accordingly new laboratories were built in #ahgb4 ,in reference to this event1 ,mr4 ,spottiswoode said in #ahgc1 when he was treasurer to the ,institution1 that 8the one act of wisdom1 among the many aberrations of an eccentric member of ,parliament1 saved ,faraday to us1 and thereby1 as seems probable1 our ,institution to the country4 ,the liberality of a ,hebrew toy-dealer#e in the east of ,london1 has made the rebuilding of our laboratories possible4 ,it is said that ,mr4 ,fuller1 the feebleness of whose constitution denied him at all times and places the rest necessary for health1 could always find repose and even quiet slumber amid the murmuring lectures of the ,royal ,institution2 and that in gratitude for the peaceful hours thus snatched from an otherwise restless life1 he bequeathed to us his magnificent legacy of #aj1jjj40 ,on his return from ,america in #ahgc1 ,professor ,tyndall presented to the ,royal ,institution the new philosophical apparatus that he had used in his lectures in the ,united ,states1 and it was thereupon resolved to present the warmest congratulations of the members of the ,royal ,institution 8to their ,professor of ,natural ,philosophy upon his safe arrival in ,england from the ,united ,states1 in which1 upon the invitation of the most eminent scientific men of ,america1 he has been recently delivering a series of lectures unexampled for the interest they have created in that country1 and the large and distinguished audiences who have been attracted to them4 ,the members rejoice and welcome him on his return to what they are proud to be able to designate as his own scientific home1 with satisfaction and delight1 and wish him all continued health and prosperity4 ,they also thank him for his liberal gift to the ,institution of the splendid and extensive apparatus employed by him in his lectures in ,america1 and congratulate him on the generous spirit and the love of science which has led him to appropriate the profits of his lectures in the ,united ,states to the establishment of a fund to assist the scientific studies of young ,americans40 ,another evidence of the respect entertained for him was given on the occasion of his marriage1 in #ahgf1 to ,lady ,louisa ,charlotte1 eldest daughter of ,lord and ,lady ,claude ,hamilton4 ,the ceremony was performed by ,dean ,stanley in ,henry the ,seventh's ,chapel1 ,westminster ,abbey2 and in commemoration of the event a silver salver with #cjj guineas was presented to ,professor ,tyndall by the members of the ,royal ,institution1 the subscriptions being limited to one guinea each4 ,professor ,a4 de la ,rue stated in #ahdc1 before ,professor ,tyndall had begun his scientific studies1 that the study of electricity was always a favourite and popular study in ,england1 and as evidence of that observation he added that ,professor ,faraday had delivered in ,london lectures on electricity at the ,royal ,institution1 to which resorted in crowds not only men of the world and elegant ladies1 who came in great numbers to admire the graces and enjoy the charm which the amiable professor so well knew how to diffuse over his teaching1 but also savants who always found something new to acquire from the interesting views of the learned philosopher4 ,these words might with equal propriety be applied to the lectures of ,professor ,tyndall4 ,during his reign the ,royal ,institution made marked progress in popularity and usefulness4 ,according to his own statement1 the main object of its existence is that of a school of research and discovery2 and during the whole time he has been there no manager or member of the ,institution ever interfered with his researches1 though a bye-law gave them power to do so4 ,the salient features of his researches have already been described2 but only those who have had the privilege of hearing the ,professor's own descriptions1 and seen his simple and beautiful experiments illustrating the subtle laws of matter1 can adequately appreciate the charm with which he invests scientific subjects4 ,it is not an unusual occurrence for the theatre to be full of people nearly an hour before the lecture begins1 and whether addressing an audience of young or old people1 he rivets attention by his easy1 lucid1 and fascinating exposition and illustrations of the science of electricity1 heat1 light1 and sound4 ,as a specimen of the descriptive power with which he can impart interest to a subject generally regarded as unattractive1 take the following exposition of the development of electricity3--8,volta found that by placing different metals in contact with each other1 and separating every two pairs of metals by what he called a #8moist conductor1' he obtained the development of electricity4 ,he imagined that the source of power was simply the contact of the two metals that he employed2 he regarded the moist conductor as a neutral body2 and his theory was called1 in consequence of this view1 the #8contact theory4' ,he was perfectly correct in affirming that the contact of different metals produces electricity2 one of the metals in contact being positive1 and the other being negative4 ,the voltaic current was capable of producing light and heat2 but light and heat require the expenditure of power to produce them2 and it was shown by ,roget that if ,volta's conception were correct1 it would be tantamount to the production of a perpetual motion2 if the simple contact of metals produced an unfailing source of electricity1 it would be the creation of power out of nothing4 ,here ,volta failed4 ,afterward he devised an instrument which showed the conversion of mechanical power into electricity1 and thus into heat and light4 ,that instrument he called the electrophorus1 and it furnishes perhaps the simplest means of showing the conversion of mechanical power into electricity1 and thence into heat and light4 ,volta himself was not aware of the doctrines which we now apply to his discoveries4 ,i will go through the form of ,volta's experiment4 ,i have here a piece of vulcanised indiarubber1 and ,i would first remark that when ,i place a sheet of tin with an insulating handle upon the table and lift it1 ,i simply overcome the gravity of the tin2 but if1 after having whisked a sheet of vulcanised indiarubber with a fox's brush1 ,i place the plate upon it1 ,i find that on lifting it something more than the weight of the plate is to be overcome4 ,that plate now is in a different condition from its former one4 ,it is now electrified1 and if ,i bring my knuckle near it ,i receive an electric spark4 ,what ,i want to make clear is this3 that there is1 first of all1 the expenditure of an extra amount of mechanical force in order to lift the sheet of tin2 that1 by the lifting of the tin1 you liberate electricity upon its surface2 and that then1 if you bring your knuckle near it1 you receive an electric spark4 ,there is1 therefore1 first of all1 an expenditure of mechanical power in lifting the sheet of tin2 then an intermediate stage when the tin is electrified2 and finally1 the passage through that electric stage into heat4 ,so that you have mechanical power1 electricity1 and heat2 mechanical power and heat being the two extremes of the circuit4 8,when you have electricity developed1 the connection of heat and light is necessarily accompanied by resistance to the passage of the electricity4 ,the action of lightning conductors1 for example1 is entirely dependent upon that fact4 ,the chimneys that the conductors protect offer resistance to the passage of the discharge1 and therefore would be destroyed by that discharge2 but the conductor offering small resistance1 the current passes through it without any disruptive action4 8,i will explain the principles of an ordinary ,grove's battery1 in order to give a better idea of what internal and external resistances there are in the current4 ,in a ,grove's battery there are two metals1 zinc and platinum4 ,they are in contact with each other4 ,there are also two liquids1 nitric acid and dilute sulphuric acid4 ,if ,i connect by a wire one end or pole of the battery with the other1 ,i1 being close at hand1 can see a small spark4 ,there is now flowing through that connecting wire what we call an electric current1 which passes from one end of the battery through the wire to the other end4 ,when there is very little resistance offered to the passage of the current1 there is no sensible heat developed2 but if ,i sever the wire in the middle and unite the ends by a thin platinum wire1 the thin platinum wire introduced into the circuit is first raised to incandescence and then fused4 ,it is because of the resistance that it offers that we see the incandescence of the wire4 8,the source of power in this battery is the combustion1 for it is to all intents and purposes combustion of the metal zinc4 ,when we connect the two poles of that battery by a thick wire we have no sensible external heat produced4 ,the heat due to the combustion of the zinc is liberated wholly in the cells of the battery itself4 ,that quantity of heat1 as is very well known1 is the amount developed by the solution or oxidation of zinc in dilute sulphuric acid4 ,supposing that we allowed the current to pass through the thick wire until a certain definite weight of zinc was dissolved in the battery1 that would produce in the cells of the battery a perfectly definite amount of heat4 ,let us compare that amount of heat with the amount produced in the battery when we introduce the thin platinum wire4 ,in the one case we have no external heat1 and in the other we have4 ,the great law which regulates these transactions is this3 that the sum of the internal and the external heats is a constant quantity2 so that when the platinum wire was ignited we had less heat developed in the battery than before4 ,the zinc in the battery is burned as fuel upon a hearth2 the heat1 however1 being developed either upon the hearth itself or at any distance from it4 8,as a primary source of electricity here is the combustion of a metal1 the voltaic battery is not an economical source of power for producing electric light4 ,had it been so we should have employed the electric light long before the present time4 ,davy1 seventy years ago1 made most important experiments upon the light and heat of the voltaic circuit1 but the reason why it was not applied previously is simply that zinc is an exceedingly expensive fuel4 ,that stopped the economical application of the electric light to the purposes of public lighting4 8,if we burnt the zinc in the open air instead of in the battery there would be a considerable amount of heat and light produced4 ,to burn it in the acid fluid of the battery1 afterwards converting it into heat and light1 is only another mode of burning it3 both are due to the same combustion4 8,in the year #ahbj ,arago discovered that when he carried an electric current parallel to a magnetic needle1 he deflected the needle to the right or to the left1 as the case may be4 ,soon afterwards one of the greatest geniuses that ever lived1 ,ampre1 within eight or ten days of the description of ,,oersted's discovery before the ,academy of ,sciences of ,paris1 enriched this field by a sudden burst of new discoveries and experiments4 ,to ,ampre we are indebted for our knowledge of the action of electric currents one upon another4 ,for instance1 if ,i suspend two flat coils in the presence of each other1 it is easy to send an electric current in the same direction through both4 ,the consequence of that would be an immediate attraction of the two coils for each other4 ,it would be also easy to send currents in opposite directions1 and the immediate consequence of that would be repulsion4 ,if1 having sent an electric current through one of these coils1 a magnet is brought to bear upon it1 the coil and the magnet interact almost like two magnets4 ,the great law established by ,ampre was that currents flowing in the same direction attract each other1 whilst currents flowing in opposite directions repel each other4 ,to show the interaction of magnets and currents1 and to illustrate the simulation1 if ,i may use the term1 of magnetism by electricity1 ,ampre1 by an extremely ingenious device1 suspended spiral wires1 and proved that when an electric current is sent through such a wire1 it behaves1 to all intents and purposes1 like a magnet2 it will set like a magnetic needle in the magnetic meridian4 ,it was ,ampre who first of all established the interaction of electric currents amongst themselves1 and also between electric currents and magnets4 8,arago was engaged at the same time in joint work with ,ampre4 ,perhaps one or two further illustrations might be given4 ,here we have a piece of copper wire4 ,at the present moment there is no action whatever of that wire upon iron filings2 the copper wire has no magnetic power whatever4 ,but ,i send what for want of a better name1 we call an electric current1 through the wire1 and then the iron filings crowd round the wire4 ,if ,i break the circuit1 the magic entirely disappears4 ,this is one of the effects that enables us to see that a current is passing through the wire4 ,arago1 who noticed this1 went further and showed that1 when you coil a wire round a piece of iron1 the piece of iron is rendered strongly magnetic by the passage of the current through the wire40 ,it is1 however1 as an experimentalist that ,professor ,tyndall excels1 especially in illustrating by experiments the effects of electricity and magnetism4 ,he was the first to show publicly the elongation of a solid bar of iron by magnetising it4 ,he had a small mirror so connected with the end of a bar of iron two feet long that it reflected a long beam of light on a screen1 and the beam moved on the screen as the bar of iron was lengthened or shortened4 ,when the iron was magnetised by electricity from a battery the mirror showed a lengthening movement on the screen2 and he explained that the bar being composed of irregular crystalline granules1 the magnetism tended to set the longest dimensions of the granules lengthwise1 or parallel to the flow of the current4 ,mr4 ,joule who discovered this lengthening effect of magnetism1 found that a bar of soft iron was by this means extended one #gbj1jjjth of its length2 and in later years ,professor ,hughes demonstrated the mechanical theory of magnetism1 which1 like the mechanical theory of heat1 attributes such phenomena to a simple mechanical motion of the molecules of matter4 ,numerous researches and experiments led him to the conclusion that each molecule of a piece of iron1 as well as the atoms of all matter1 solid1 liquid1 and gaseous1 is a separate and independent magnet1 that each molecule can be rotated upon its axis by magnetism and electricity1 and that the inherent polarity or magnetism of each molecule is a constant quantity like gravity4 ,professor ,tyndall also exhibited1 both at the ,royal ,institution and at the ,royal ,society1 ,faraday's marvellous experiment showing the magnetisation of light1 which he described as ,faraday's third great discovery1 and compared 8to the ,weisshorn among mountains--high1 beautiful1 and alone40 ,in a dark room a ray of light from a lamp passed between the poles of a large horse-shoe1 and appeared as a spot of light on a screen4 ,when by connecting a battery with the horse-shoe1 the latter became powerfully magnetic1 the spot of light was instantly moved on the screen1 being visibly deflected by the magnetism of the horse-shoe4 ,to illustrate the velocity of the electric current he showed that a spark sent through a copper wire which passed through some gunpowder1 did not ignite the gunpowder1 because it had not time2 but when a wet string--a slower conductor--was substituted for the copper wire1 the passage of the current was retarded and the powder ignited4 ,another illustration of an accidental character he frequently narrated4 ,while lecturing to an audience of young and old people at the ,royal ,institution1 he caused fifteen ,leyden jars to be charged with electricity1 and by some awkwardness his shoulder touched the conductor leading from the jars4 8,i am extremely sensitive to electricity10 he said1 8yet a charge from such a powerful battery as fifteen jars seemed to have no disastrous effect upon me4 ,i stood perfectly still1 wondering that ,i did not feel it2 but ,i knew something had occurred2 and after standing for a moment or two ,i seemed to open my eyes1 which probably were open all the time4 ,i saw a confused mass of apparatus about me4 ,i felt it necessary to reassure the people before me1 so ,i said3 #8,over and over again ,i have wanted that battery to be discharged into me1 and now ,i have had it4' ,although ,i appeared unaffected1 really the optic nerve in me was so affected that ,i saw my arm severed from my body4 ,i soon1 however1 recovered proper sight1 and saw that ,i was all right40 ,the explanation given for his intellect being thus clear while his vision was distorted1 is that the electric current moved with much greater rapidity than the nervous agency by which the consciousness of pain is excited4 ,according to ,professor ,bois-,reymond1 the latter moves at the rate of ninety-eight feet per second1 while1 according to ,professor ,wheatstone1 electricity moves in a copper wire at the rate of #bhh1jjj miles per second4 ,hence it is probable that death by electricity or lightning is painless4 ,in a course of lectures delivered to a juvenile audience in ,december1 #ahhd1 he gave a fresh illustration of the ease with which electricity can be generated in a rather unusual way4 ,it is stated in text-books on electricity that if a man could be suspended between the poles of a common magnet1 he would point equatorially1 because all the substances of which he is made are diamagnetic4 ,professor ,tyndall1 however1 showed how easily his body could be made to act the part of a magnet4 ,in the presence of his audience1 a man repeatedly struck the back of the ,professor's coat with a piece of catskin1 and in a minute or two sufficient electricity was generated to make his hand1 held out in front of him1 magnetic and capable of attracting to it different objects1 just as a small magnet attracts bits of iron near it4 ,he stated that this experiment had never1 so far as he knew1 been performed before4 ,in other lectures he illustrated the resistance of a telegraph cable to the transmission of the electric current over a length of #ad1jjj miles1 by introducing into the path of the current gaps containing feebly conducting liquids1 so distributed as to represent intervals equal to those in telegraphing between ,gibraltar1 ,malta1 ,suez1 ,aden1 ,bombay1 ,calcutta1 ,rangoon1 ,singapore1 ,java1 and ,australia4 ,connected with these gaps were mirrors which cast ten dots of light on a large screen1 being one for each gap or station2 when the electric current was sent through the miniature cable1 it so deflected a needle attached to each mirror as to cause dot after dot to start aside upon the screen4 ,the interval between the movement of each dot of light exactly represented the time which the electric current would require to reach the several stations named in the working of a real cable4 ,he thus strikingly illustrated the fact that the resistance of a cable depends in some degree upon its length1 and visibly showed the time consumed in overcoming that resistance4 ,to show the different resistances of different metals and how resistance produces heat1 he took pieces of platinum and silver1 and arranging them alternately in a long line1 sent an electric current through them4 ,thereupon each piece of platinum1 being a metal of great resisting power1 glowed with a brilliant red heat1 while the intervening pieces of silver1 being good conductors1 were invisible4 ,in #ahgh he was exhibiting and explaining to a ,parliamentary ,committee the electrical effects produced in working by hand a dynamo machine1 when ,lord ,lindsay asked1 as 8an elementary question10 what was the source of the mechanical power by which he was able to turn the wheel of the dynamo4 ,the ,professor explained that it was simply the combustion of the fat and tissues of his muscle4 8,then will you explain10 said ,lord ,lindsay1 8how it is that as the temperature of your muscle and your blood is only #ajj1 you get it up to fuse a wire which would require a temperature of #c1ejj40 ,to that the ,professor replied3 8,i would give all that ,i possess to be able fully to answer that question2 but this much is absolutely certain1 that all the heat developed in that dynamo1 amounting to between #c1jjj and #d1jjj ,fahr41 is certainly derived from the combustion of my muscle4 ,it is nothing more mysterious than the combustion of zinc in the voltaic battery40 ,the facility with which he extemporises illustrations to make science entertaining appears from the following incident4 8,on one occasion10 he says1 8,i paid a visit to a large school in the country1 and was asked by the principal to give a lesson to one of the classes4 ,i agreed to do so provided he would let me have the youngest boys in his school4 ,to this he willingly assented2 and after casting about in my mind as to what could be said to the little fellows1 ,i went to a village hard by and bought a quantity of sugar-candy4 ,this was my only teaching apparatus4 ,when the time for assembling the class had arrived ,i began by describing the way in which sugar-candy and other artificial crystals were formed1 and tried to place vividly before their young minds the architectural process by which the crystals were built up4 ,they listened to me with the most eager interest4 ,i examined the crystal before them1 and when they found that in a certain direction it could be split into thin lamin with shining surfaces of cleavage1 their joy was at its height4 ,they had no notion that the thing they had been crunching and sucking all their lives embraced so many hidden points of beauty40 ,that incident occurred many years ago2 and as illustrating his own perennial admiration of the phenomena of crystallisation another incident may be added that occurred in a lecture delivered in the ,royal ,institution in #ahee4 ,he was exhibiting the effect of applying an electric current by means of two wires to acetate of lead--vinegar and lead4 ,the mixture becoming decomposed1 the atoms of water appeared1 when magnified and reflected on a large screen1 as beautiful rings moving up and down the one wire1 while the atoms of lead on the other wire formed themselves by crystalline action into pretty fern-like leaves and plants of all shapes and sizes4 8,is not that beautiful80 said the ,professor2 8,i have seen it done a hundred times1 but ,i can never see it without wonder40 ,professor ,tyndall has seen the triumph of several scientific principles of which he was one of the earliest and foremost advocates4 ,thus in #ahhd he said3 8,with regard to the theory of evolution1 ,i cannot help noting the wide toleration which has been infused into the public mind since the appearance of ,mr4 ,darwin's ,origin of ,species in #aheh4 ,well do ,i remember the cry of anguish and detestation with which the views of ,mr4 ,darwin were assailed when they were first enunciated4 ,to one example of this ,i will here refer4 ,there was a meeting of the ,british ,association at ,oxford in #ahfj1 when the subject of the origin of species was discussed by the late ,bishop ,wilberforce4 ,i was at a distance from the platform1 my neighbours being for the most part clergymen4 ,the vehemence with which the ,bishop's powerful sarcasm was cheered was extraordinary2 and knowing full well that he would be effectually answered by a friend of mine1 ,i was not able to forecast the consequences4 ,but whatever these might be ,i was determined to share them2 so ,i gradually edged my way through the crowd1 overturning in my passage a seat on which many people were standing1 till ,i got close to my friends1 who1 ,i feared1 incurred some risk of a physical mauling4 ,but the discussion passed away without violence1 and in virtue of that plasticity with which the human mind in the long run takes the stamp of truth1 those who were then so perturbed in spirit are now ready to admit1 not only that the origin of species did them no particular harm1 but that they are quite prepared to accept its doctrine40 ,on the occasion in question the ,bishop of ,oxford stated that the greatest names in science were then opposed to the ,darwinian theory1 which was chiefly defended by ,professor ,huxley and ,dr4 ,hooker4 ,in like manner ,professor ,tyndall was able to say in #ahhe that the germ theory of infectious diseases had grown like a mustard tree in his time4 8,i remember10 he said1 8the time when it was referred to as an extravagant absurdity1 but far-seeing men saw its final triumph4 ,now ,i suppose there is hardly a scientific physician in ,europe that does not hold the germ theory of disease4 ,in #ahgc cases came before me of men suffering from intermittent or relapsing fever1 and ,i longed to examine their blood2 for it is a small spiral-looking organism in the blood that is the cause of relapsing fever4 ,in #ahgf ,professor ,cohn1 of ,breslau1 was in this country1 and he handed me a memoir that marks an epoch in the history of the subject with which it dealt4 ,it was called in ,england the wool sorter's disease1 or splenic fever4 ,it was sometimes also called ,siberian plague4 ,the paper had been drawn up from his own experiments and observations by a perfectly unknown physician1 who held a small appointment in the neighbourhood of ,breslau4 ,the investigation impressed me as masterly in execution and as pregnant in result4 ,the writer followed with the most unwearying patience and the most consummate skill1 the life history of bacillus anthracis1 which is the contagium of splenic fever4 ,i said at the time this young man will soon find himself in a higher position1 and next time ,i heard of him he was at the head of the ,imperial ,sanitary ,institution of ,berlin4 ,that young man was ,dr4 ,koch1 who succeeded in detecting the living organism and in proving it to be beyond all doubt the veritable cause of the disease4 ,some years ago ,i paid a visit to a laboratory in ,paris where ,i was shown by ,pasteur himself1 who verified ,dr4 ,koch's results as to the parasitic origin of splenic fever1 this formidable bacillus anthracis1 and it was curious to reflect how a thing so truly mean and contemptible should have such power over the lives of brutes and men40 ,a report published in #ahhf of examinations made by ,dr4 ,miquel of the bacterial condition of the air at ,paris and ,mountsouris disclosed some remarkable facts4 ,he stated that in the ,rue de ,rivoli the average number of bacteria in a cubic metre of air during the year #ahha was #f1bie1 whilst in #ahhd the average number was only #a1hcj--;a diminution which he attributed to the better draining and scavenging of the city4 ,in the same period the deaths from zymotic disease in ,paris showed a decrease of #bg per cent4 ,the air over the ,atlantic ,ocean and on the top of high mountains showed only one to six bacteria per cubic metre4 ,such investigations are now recognised as a special department of science4 ,some reminiscences which ,professor ,tyndall gave in #ahhj of ,thomas ,carlyle showed his sympathetic appreciation of literary as well as scientific excellence4 ,he exhibited the 8sage of ,chelsea0 in a more favourable light than some of his literary friends have done4 8,it has been said that in respect to science ,mr4 ,carlyle was not only incurious but hostile4 ,this does not tally with my experience10 says ,professor ,tyndall4 8,during the lifetime of his wife and afterwards ,i frequently saw him1 and as long as his powers continued unimpaired ,i do not remember a single visit in which he failed to make inquiries both regarding my own work and the general work of science4 ,in physical subjects ,i never encountered a man of stronger grasp and deeper penetration than his4 ,during my expositions1 when these were clear1 he was always in advance of me1 anticipating and enunciating what ,i was about to say4 ,he not unfrequently called to see me in ,albemarle ,street1 and on such occasions ,i usually described to him what ,i was doing there4 ,when ,i was engaged on the #8chimera' of spontaneous generation1 ,i took him into my warm room1 and explained to him the part played by the floating matter in the air in the phenomena of putrefaction and infection4 ,he was profoundly interested1 and as docile as a child4 8,this1 however1 was not always his attitude4 ,he sometimes laid down the law in matters where special study rendered my knowledge more accurate than his1 and had in consequence to bear my dissent4 ,allow me to cite an illustration4 ,in #ahff ,i accompanied him to ,mentone1 and by desire of his generous hostess stayed with him two or three days4 ,one evening while returning from a drive the glow of sunset on sea and mountain suggested a question regarding the light4 ,he stated his view with decision1 while ,i unflinchingly demurred4 ,he became dogmatic 7#8arrogant' is a word which can only be applied to ,carlyle by those who never felt his influence7 and invoked his old teachers1 ,playfair and ,leslie1 in support of his view4 ,i was stubborn1 and replied that though these were names meriting all honour1 they were not authorities regarding the matter in hand4 ,in short1 ,i flatly and firmly opposed him2 and it was not for the first time4 ,he lapsed into silence1 and we drove home4 ,i went with him to his room4 ,as he drew off his coat he looked at me mildly and earnestly1 and pointing to an arm-chair1 said in his rich ,scotch accent1 #8,i did not want to contradict you2 sit down there and tell me all about it4' ,i sat down1 and beginning with the alphabet of the question1 carried it as far as my knowledge reached4 ,for more than an hour he listened to me1 not only with unruffled patience1 but with genuine interest4 ,his questions were always pertinent1 and his remarks often profound4 ,i don't know what ,carlyle's aptitude in the natural history of science might have been1 but in regard to physics the contrast between him and ,goethe was striking in the highest degree4 ,his opinions had for the most part taken their final set before the theory of man's descent was enunciated1 or rather brought within the domain of true causes1 by ,mr4 ,darwin4 ,for a time he abhorred the theory as tending to weaken that ethical element in man which1 in ,carlyle's estimation as in that of others1 transcends all science in importance4 ,but a softening1 if not a material1 change of his views was to be noticed later on4 ,to my own knowledge he approved cordially of certain writings in which ,mr4 ,darwin's views were vigorously advocated1 while a personal interview with the great naturalist caused him to say afterwards that ,charles ,darwin was a most charming man40 ,of ,carlyle's own disposition1 ,professor ,tyndall gives a more generous estimate than the public have been led to form since his death4 8,knowing10 he says1 8the depth of ,carlyle's tenderness1 ,i should almost feel it to be bathos to cite the cases known to me which illustrated it4 ,i call to mind his behaviour towards some blind singers in the streets of ,marseilles1 and the interest he took in the history of a little boy1 whom1 during my momentary separation from him1 he had found lying in the shade of a tree1 and over whose limbs paralysis was slowly creeping4 ,there was a kind of radiance in the sorrow depicted in the old man's face1 as he listened to the tale and probably looked to woes beyond4 ,the self-same radiance ,i saw for the last time as he lay upon his sofa1 and for some minutes raised his head upon my shoulder a few weeks before his death40 ,professor ,tyndall succeeded ,faraday not only as ,professor of the ,royal ,institution1 but also as ,scientific ,adviser to the ,trinity ,house1 a position which he also regarded as one of honour on account of its associations with his distinguished predecessor4 ,he has stated that1 8,when1 in #ahcf1 ,professor ,faraday accepted the post of ,scientific ,adviser to the ,trinity ,house1 he was careful to tell the ,deputy ,master that he did not do so for hire4 #8,in consequence1' he says1 #8of the goodwill and confidence of all around me1 ,i can at any moment convert my time into money4' ,in my little book on ,faraday1 published in #ahfh1 ,i have stated that he had but to will it to raise his income in #ahcb to #e1jjjl4 a year4 ,in #ahcf the sum might have been doubled4 ,yet this son of a blacksmith1 this journeyman bookbinder1 with his proud and sensitive soul1 rejecting the splendid opportunities open to him--refusing even to think them splendid in presence of his higher aims--cheerfully accepted from the ,trinity ,house a pittance of #bjjl4 a year4 ,and when1 in #ahff1 his mind1 worn down in the service of his country and of mankind1 was no longer able to deal with lighthouse work1 ,i accepted his position1 on terms not less independent than his own4 ,i had no need to play the part of a candidate4 ,the late able and energetic ,deputy ,master of the ,trinity ,house1 ,sir ,frederick ,arrow1 came to the ,royal ,institution1 where1 in courteous and indeed apologetic terms1 he asked me to accept the post4 ,i say apologetic1 because1 inasmuch as it was desired to continue ,faraday's salary to the end of his life1 #ajjl4 a year was all that could for the moment be offered to me4 ,i set the mind of the ,deputy ,master at rest by expressing my willingness1 for the sake of my illustrious friend1 to do the work for no salary at all4 ,in due time the larger income became mine1 and later on1 the scope of my duties being extended by the ,board of ,trade1 my salary was raised from #bjjl4 to #djjl4 a year4 ,with this ,i was entirely content4 ,still1 the chances open to a man of my reputation in physical science have not diminished since ,faraday's time2 on the contrary1 they have indefinitely increased4 ,no person of understanding in such matters will doubt me when ,i say that had ,i gone in for consultations and experiments on commercial and technical matters1 ,i could with ease have converted every hundred rendered to me by the ,trinity ,house and ,board of ,trade into a thousand4 ,and if ,i chose the lesser sum instead of its tenfold multiple1 it was because ,i deemed its source to be one of peculiar honour1 and the work it involved a work of peculiar beneficence40 ,the ,elder ,brethren of the ,trinity ,house have control of the lighthouses1 lightships1 beacons1 and buoys around the ,united ,kingdom2 and some difference that arose as to a new invention for lighthouse illumination led to the retirement of ,professor ,tyndall from the position of ,scientific ,adviser to that body in ,may1 #ahhc4 ,the incident gave rise to an animated1 not to say acrimonious1 correspondence in the press1 in the course of which the ,professor stated that1 8the head and front of my offending was my effort to protect from official extinction an able and meritorious man1 who had the misfortune to raise a rival at the ,trinity ,house1 and to ruffle the dignity of the gentlemen of the ,board of ,trade4 ,struggling single-handed1 relying solely on his own industry and talents1 and with no public funds to fall back upon at pleasure1 ,mr4 ,john ,wigham1 to whom ,i refer1 during the brief period of his permitted activity1 had made advances in the art of lighthouse illumination which placed him far ahead of all competitors4 ,this man ,i did my best to protect from the effects of professional jealousy and bureaucratic irritation4 ,it was my earnest desire to utilise ,mr4 ,wigham's genius for the public good4 ,it was the object of officials whom he had offended to extinguish him4 ,they did what they could to weary him and worry him and take the heart of enterprise out of him1 and they certainly succeeded in checking the development of his system of lighthouse illumination4 ,had it not been for an opposition which1 considering the interests at stake1 seemed to me at times criminal1 that system would assuredly be far more advanced than it now is4 ,his rival was encouraged to push forward1 while he was held back4 ,the boldest attempt made against ,mr4 ,wigham was the appropriation of his invention of superposed lenses for the new ,eddystone lighthouse4 ,this high-handed proceeding would have provoked litigation1 had not the ,elder ,brethren1 reverting to their more generous instincts1 lately taken a more reasonable course than that which they were at one time advised to pursue4 ,a compensation of #b1ejjl4 was offered to ,mr4 ,wigham1 and eventually accepted by him40 ,it thus appears that the independence of mind and chivalrous defence of scientific merit which characterised his early career were displayed with undiminished vigour and self-denial in later years1 when the mellowing influences of age and the sunshine of popularity would have induced minds of a more flexible fibre to yield complacently to self-interest and power4 ,,footnotes3 #e ,mr4 ,alfred ,davis1 after paying his composition of sixty guineas as a member of the ,institution and three annual donations of twenty guineas for the promotion of research1 at his death in #ahgj bequeathed #b1jjj for the same purpose4 ,his deafness prevented him deriving any benefit from the lectures4 ,,professor ,,wheatstone4 ,,chapter ,i4 8,talent may follow and improve2 emulation and industry may polish and refine2 but genius alone can break those barriers that restrain the throng of mankind in the common track of life40--,,roscoe4 ,the saying is as old as ,lucretius that time by degrees suggests every discovery1 and skill evolves it into the regions of light and celebrity2 thus in the various arts we see different inventions proceed from different minds1 until they reach the highest point of excellence4 ,the electric telegraph is sometimes mentioned as one of the latest illustrations of this theory of evolution4 ,one of its first inventors1 ,steinheil1 defined telegraphic communication1 in its most general sense1 as the method employed by one individual to render himself intelligible to others2 and regarding it in that light as synonymous with intercourse1 declared that it was no human discovery1 but one of the most wonderful gifts of nature4 ,in man1 he said1 this gift of nature has attained an astonishing development in the form of speech and writing2 and as writing redeems the passing sounds from fleeting time1 so in like manner are the remotest distances to be annihilated and thoughts to be interchanged with those far away2 8the means of accomplishing this do not lie directly within our reach1 but by patient observance of the powers and the phenomena of nature1 we render these subservient to us and make them the bearers of our thoughts2 and it is this task which in the ordinary acceptation of the word is termed telegraphic communication40 ,such was the philosophic view of the nature of the electric telegraph propounded by ,steinheil in #ahch when it was in nonage1 and later writers have not hesitated to say that the idea of using the transmission of electricity to communicate signals is so obvious as hardly to deserve the name of an invention4 ,but the fact is that this 8idea0 was in existence for two centuries before it could be turned to good account1 because the one thing wanting in order to utilise it was an invention4 ,in #afag1 ,strada1 in one of his prolusions published at ,rome1 mentioned the possibility of one friend communicating with another at a great distance by means of a loadstone so influencing a needle on a dial containing the letters of the alphabet as to make it point to the letters intended to form the communication4 ,the same idea was recorded in #affi by ,sir ,thomas ,browne1 who stated that this conceit was widespread throughout the world1 and that credulous and vulgar auditors readily believed it1 while the more judicious and distinctive heads did not altogether reject it4 8,the conceit10 he said1 8is excellent1 and if the effect would follow1 somewhat divine3 it is pretended that from the sympathy of two needles touched with the same loadstone and placed in the centre of two rings with letters described round about them1 one friend keeping one and another the other1 and agreeing upon the hour wherein they will communicate1 at what distance of place soever1 when one needle shall be removed unto another letter1 the other1 by wonderful sympathy1 will move unto the same40 ,dr4 ,johnson1 in his ,life of ,sir ,thomas ,browne1 says that 8he appears indeed to have been willing to pay labour for truth4 ,having heard a flying rumour of sympathetic needles1 by which1 suspended over a circular alphabet1 distant friends or lovers might correspond1 he procured two such alphabets to be made1 touched his needles with the same magnet1 and placed them upon proper spindles2 the result was that when he moved one of his needles1 the other1 instead of taking by sympathy the same direction1 #8stood like the pillars of ,hercules4' ,that it continued motionless will be easily believed2 and most men would have been content to believe it without the labour of so hopeless an experiment40 ,the prevalence of this 8idea0 on the ,continent is shown by the following passage which appeared in a book of ,mathematical ,recreations by ,schwenter1 published in #affj3 8,if ,claudius were at ,paris and ,johannes at ,rome1 and one wished to convey some information to the other1 each must be provided with a magnetic needle so strongly touched with the magnet that it may be able to move the other from ,rome to ,paris4 ,now suppose that ,johannes and ,claudius had each a compass divided into an alphabet according to the number of letters1 and always communicating with each other at six o'clock in the evening2 then 7after the needle had turned round three and a half times from the sign which ,claudius had given to ,johannes71 if ,claudius wished to say to ,johannes--#8,come to me1' he might make his needle stand still1 or move it till it came to c1 then to o1 then to m1 and so forth4 ,if now the needle of ,johannes' compass moved at the same time to the same letters1 he could easily write down the words of ,claudius and understand his meaning4 ,this is a pretty invention2 but ,i do not believe a magnet of such power could be found in the world40 ,addison1 in the ,spectator of #agaa1 called attention to the 8idea0 of ,strada1 and like ,dr4 ,johnson spoke of it as a chimera4 ,it thus appears that the two greatest intellects in ,england in the eighteenth century1 the former adorning its opening and the latter its closing years1 treated with supreme contempt the 8idea0 that intelligence could be communicated to a distance by magnetised needles pointing to the letters of the alphabet on a dial4 ,yet in the next century this 8idea0 became an accomplished fact1 and ,charles ,wheatstone did more than any other man to make it an every day occurrence4 ,hence his name in ,england has been most prominently associated with the invention of the electric telegraph4 ,many able men had tried to solve the problem before him1 but had not succeeded4 ,yet that which our wisest forefathers regarded as chimerical1 and scientists of different nations laboured for in vain1 we are now told was so obvious and simple as scarcely to deserve the name of an invention4 ,the electric telegraph claims a long pedigree4 ,one of the first attempts to transmit signals through a wire by means of electricity was made in #agbg by ,stephen ,gray1 a pensioner of the ,charterhouse4 ,he connected a glass tube with the end of a wire #gjj feet long1 and by rubbing the tube the wire became so electrified as to attract light bodies at the other end4 ,he also discovered that a wire loop should not be used to fasten up his conductor1 because such a loop not being an insulator the electricity escapes through it4 ,his observations were written down by the ,secretary to the ,royal ,society the day before his death4 ,he stated that 8there may be found a way to collect a greater quantity of electrical fire1 and consequently to increase the force of that power1 which by several of these experiments seems to be of the same nature with that of thunder and lightning40 ,similar experiments were made a few years afterwards by ,winkler of ,leipsig1 ,lemonnier of ,paris1 and ,watson in ,london1 ,franklin at ,philadelphia1 and ,de ,luc at the ,lake of ,geneva4 ,in #agec a definite scheme of telegraphic communication was published4 ,in the ,scots ,magazine for ,february appeared a letter from a ,renfrew correspondent1 who signed himself ,c4 ,m41 on 8,an ,expeditious ,method of ,conveying ,intelligence40 ,this writer said3 8,let a set of wires equal in number to the letters of the alphabet be extended horizontally between two given places2 at the end of these wires let balls be suspended against a glass sheet1 and the wires striking the glass1 these balls would drop upon an alphabet arranged upon the table1 and thus by a spelling method1 communication could be made of words40 ,in a book published in #agib1 ,mr4 ,arthur ,young1 who travelled in ,france in #aghg1 stated that 8a very ingenious and inventive mechanic10 ,m4 ,lomond1 had made a remarkable discovery in electricity3 8,you write two or three words on a paper2 he takes it with him into a room and turns a machine inclosed in a cylindrical case1 at the top of which is an electrometer1 a small fine pith ball2 a wire connects with a similar cylinder and electrometer in a distant apartment2 and his wife by remarking the corresponding motions of the ball1 writes down the words they indicate2 from which it appears that he has formed an alphabet of motions4 ,as the length of the wire makes no difference in the effect1 a correspondence might be carried on at any distance4 ,whatever the use may be1 the invention is beautiful40 ,twenty years after the publication of the letter of ,c4,m4 in the ,scots ,magazine1 ,le ,sage of ,geneva endeavoured to work a telegraph by means of twenty-four wires with a pair of pith balls attached to each1 thus representing the letters of the alphabet4 ,by the use of frictional electricity any of the balls at one end of the wire could be moved by the operator at the other end1 but it was found difficult to get the balls after being electrified to resume their respective places4 ,to overcome this difficulty1 and also to produce the requisite number of signals with fewer wires1 experiments were afterwards made by different men on the ,continent1 and notably by ,ronalds in ,england4 ,this experimenter erected a wire eight miles long in his garden at ,hammersmith1 and laboured for seven years to solve the problem of telegraphy with frictional electricity4 ,he used a dial containing letters and figures1 and the collapsing or diverging of a pith ball was to correspond with the desired letter4 ,he offered this telegraph to the ,government1 who informed him in reply1 that 8telegraphs of any kind are now wholly useless1 and no other than the one now in use will be adopted40 ,in a book which he wrote in #ahbc he described a complete system of telegraph1 and expressed the hope that he would see the day when the ,king at ,brighton would be able to communicate by telegraph with his ministers in ,london4 ,both his plan and his book were neglected1 but his wishes for the success of the telegraph were abundantly fulfilled4 ,in #ahgd ,mr4 ,gladstone conferred on him the honour of knighthood in recognition of his early efforts in connection with the telegraph4 ,he died shortly afterwards at the patriarchal age of ninety-one4 ,the discovery of the ,voltaic pile1 described in a previous chapter1 gave a fresh impulse to electricians1 and eventually supplied the requisite kind of electricity for working a practical telegraph4 ,so great was the sensation excited among the learned by the discovery of the ,voltaic pile1 that in #ahja ,napoleon called ,volta from ,pavia to ,paris1 and attended a meeting of the ,institute to hear the theory of the pile explained by its discoverer4 ,there and then ,napoleon caused a gold medal to be voted to ,volta1 and afterwards gave him a valuable present of money4 ,indeed it is said that the pile excited the enthusiasm of ,napoleon more than any other scientific discovery4 ,volta was made a member of the ,french ,institute in #ahjb1 and in the same year was born the man whose name was destined to be for ever associated with one of the most useful applications of ,voltaic electricity--the electric telegraph4 ,charles ,wheatstone was born at ,gloucester in ,february #ahjb4 ,his father was a music-seller in that town2 and on removing afterwards to ,london he became a teacher of the flute1 and was accustomed to boast that he had been engaged in connection with the musical education of the ,princess ,charlotte4 ,his son1 ,charles1 was educated at a private school in his native city4 ,it is said that he early showed an aptitude for mathematics and physics2 but not much is known of his youthful career4 ,on his removal to ,london he became a manufacturer of musical instruments1 the scientific principles of which formed with him the subject of profound studies4 ,his practical ingenuity was displayed in the application of the scientific principles he discovered to new purposes1 to the construction of philosophical toys and the improvement of musical instruments4 8,in #ahbc10 says a friend of his who wrote a notice of him in the ,proceedings of the ,royal ,society1 8at the age of twenty-one1 we find him in conjunction with his brother1 long since deceased1 engaged in the manufacture and sale of musical instruments in ,london40 ,but there is unquestionable evidence of his having obtained distinction in ,london by his ingenuity at the age of nineteen4 ,of his first notable achievement in ,london the following curious account was given in ,september1 #ahba1 in the leading literary journal of that time3 8,we have been much gratified10 said the writer1 8with an exhibition in ,pall ,mall of an instrument under the denomination of the enchanted lyre1 the invention of a ,mr4 ,wheatstone4 ,the exhibition room presents a work of handsome construction in the form of an ancient lyre suspended from the ceiling4 ,its horns terminate in mouths resembling bugles4 ,its centre is covered on both sides with plates of a bright metallic lustre1 and there is an ornamented keyhole1 like that of a timepiece1 which admits of its being wound up1 but which is evidently a mere ruse1 as the instrument certainly does not utter melodious sounds in consequence of that operation4 ,round it there is a slight hoop-rail1 perhaps five feet in diameter1 which is supported by equally slight fixtures in the floor4 ,the inventor disclaims mechanism altogether 7though he winds up the machine7 and asserts that the performance of the enchanted lyre is entirely the result of a new combination of powers4 ,be that as it may1 its execution is both brilliant and beautiful4 ,the music seems to proceed from it2 the tones are very sweet2 the expression soft or powerful1 and the whole really charming4 ,we listened to ,steibelt's battle-piece with unfeigned pleasure1 and were equally delighted with several other compositions of simple melody and of more difficult harmony4 ,mr4 ,wheatstone professes to be able to give a concert1 producing by the same means an imitation of various wind and stringed instruments2 the lovers of music will have a treat in hearing the enchanted lyre go through a half hour's entertainment40 ,another contemporary account is more prescient1 if not amusing4 ,on the #ast of ,september1 #ahba1 it was reported in the ,repository of ,arts that 8,under the appellation of the enchanted lyre ,mr4 ,wheatstone has opened an exhibition at his music shop in ,pall ,mall1 which has excited considerable sensation among the votaries of the art4 ,the form of a lyre of large dimensions is suspended from the ceiling apparently by a cord of the thickness of a goose-quill4 ,the lyre has no strings or wires1 but these are represented by a set of metal or steel rods1 and it is surrounded by a small fence4 ,the company being assembled1 ,mr4 ,wheatstone applies a key to a small aperture1 and gives a few turns representative of the act of winding up1 and music is instantly heard1 and apparently from the belly of the lyre4 ,the sceptical he invites to stoop under the fence1 and hold their ears close to the belly of the lyre2 and they1 including ourselves1 are compelled to admit that the sound appears to be within the instrument2 but while making this admission1 the attentive auditor is instantly convinced that the music is not the effect of mechanism 7a fact indeed which ,mr4 ,wheatstone not only concedes1 but openly avows1 even in his notice74 ,it is quite obvious that the music is produced by a skilful player1 or perhaps two1 upon one or more instruments4 ,the music seems to proceed from a combination of harp1 pianoforte1 and dulcimer2 it certainly at times partakes of the character of these three instruments2 and in point of tone1 the difference sometimes is considerably in favour of the lyre2 the piano and forte appear more marked1 the crescendo is extremely effective1 and the forte in the lower notes is inconceivably powerful in vibration4 ,the performance lasts an hour3 various pieces of difficult execution are played with precision1 rapidity1 and proper expression40 8,it is evident that some acoustical illusion1 effected through a secret channel of some sort or other1 is the cause of our hearing the sound in the belly of the lyre4444 ,how then is sound thus conducted so as to deceive completely our sense of hearing8 ,this seems to be the only question that can suggest itself on witnessing this singular experiment2 it is a secret upon which ,mr4 ,wheatstone rests the interest and merit of this invention2 and to this question1 no one1 as far as we can learn1 has yet been able to return an answer that could solve every difficulty4 ,it is really a very ingenious invention1 which the proprietor as yet wishes to keep a secret4 ,it may be proper to add that ,mr4 ,wheatstone represents the present exhibition to be an application of a general principle for conducting sound1 which principle he professes himself to be capable of carrying to a much greater extent4 ,according to his statement1 it is equally applicable to wind instruments2 and the same means by which the sound is conducted into the lyre will1 when employed on a larger scale1 enable him to convey in a similar manner the combined strains of a whole orchestra4 ,this promised extension of the principle of conducting musical sounds from one place to another gives rise to some curious reflections on the progress which our age is constantly making in discoveries and contrivances of every description4 ,who knows but by this means the music of an opera performed at the ,king's ,theatre may ere long be simultaneously enjoyed at ,hanover ,square ,rooms1 the ,city of ,london ,tavern1 and even at the ,horns ,tavern at ,kennington1 the sound travelling1 like gas1 through snug conductors1 from the main laboratory of harmony in the ,haymarket to distant parts of the metropolis2 with this advantage1 that in its progress it is not subject to any diminution8 ,what a prospect for the art1 to have music #8laid on' at probably one-tenth the expense of what we can get it ourselves6 ,and if music be capable of being thus conducted1 perhaps words of speech may be susceptible of the same means of propagation4 ,the eloquence of counsel1 the debates in ,parliament1 instead of being read the next day only--,but we really shall lose ourselves in the pursuit of this curious subject40 ,it has been said that the death of mystery is the grave of interest4 ,nevertheless1 ,charles ,wheatstone did not keep secret the means by which this mysterious music was produced4 ,in #ahbc he contributed a paper to ,thomson's ,annals of ,philosophy in which he described the remarkably simple and original experiments that led him to the invention of this apparatus1 and explained how molecular vibrations produced sound4 ,with reference to phonic vibrations in linear conductors he said3 8,in my first experiments on this subject ,i placed a tuning-fork at the extremity of a glass or metallic rod five feet in length communicating with a sounding-board4 ,the sound was heard as instantly as when the fork was in immediate contact1 and it immediately ceased when the rod was removed from the sounding-board or the fork from the rod4 ,from this it is evident that vibrations inaudible in their transmission1 being multiplied by meeting with a sonorous body1 become very sensibly heard4 ,pursuing my investigations on this subject1 ,i discovered means of transmitting1 through rods of much greater length1 and of very inconsiderable thickness1 the sounds of all musical instruments dependent on the vibrations of solid bodies and of many descriptions of wind instruments4 ,one of the practical applications of this discovery has been exhibited in ,london for about two years under the appellation of the #8,enchanted ,lyre4' ,so perfect was the illusion in this instance from the intense vibratory state of the reciprocating instrument and from the interception of the sounds of the distant exciting one1 that it was universally imagined to be one of the highest efforts of ingenuity in musical mechanism40 ,it is a noteworthy evidence of the interest evoked by this article that it was reproduced in the leading ,french and ,german publications of that year4 ,this 8,enchanted ,lyre0 has since been described by ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,preece as the first telephone4 ,it was exhibited1 he says1 8to delighted crowds at the ,adelaide ,gallery2 it was often used by ,prof4 ,faraday1 and has frequently since been produced by ,prof4 ,tyndall at the ,royal ,institution4 ,a large special box was placed in one of the cellars of the ,institution1 and a light rod of deal rested upon it4 ,no sound was heard in the theatre until a light tray or other sounding-box was placed on the rod1 whereupon its music pealed forth over the whole place4 ,the vibrations of the musical box1 with all their complexity and beauty1 are imparted to the rod of wood and are thence given up to the sounding-box4 ,the sounding-box impresses them upon the air1 and the air conveys them to the ear1 whence they are transmitted to the brain1 imparting those agreeable sensations called music40 ,wheatstone's invention of the ,enchanted ,lyre or the 8first telephone0 was no accidental discovery or lucky idea3 it was the result of a profound and original investigation of the scientific principles of sound4 ,he discovered and demonstrated by numerous experiments that sound was produced by the vibrations of the atmosphere2 and in #ahbc when he announced for the first time that 8the loudness of sound is dependent on the excursions of the vibrations1 volume or fulness of sound on the number of the coexciting particles put in motion10 he stated that he had just seen ,fresnel's paper1 in which the same conclusions were arrived at with respect to light as he 7,wheatstone7 had proved with respect to sound4 ,he added that 8the important discoveries of ,dr4 ,thos4 ,young have recently re-established the vibratory theory of light1 and new facts are every day augmenting its probability4 ,the new views in acoustical science which ,i have opened will1 ,i presume1 give additional confirmation to the opinions of these eminent philosophers40 ,prophetic words6 ,the analogy between sound and light as results of wave-motions in air or ether is now part of the alphabet of science4 ,charles ,wheatstone made an independent discovery of the principles of sound2 but in this he was partly anticipated by ,young4 ,nor was he alone in the original and practical experiments by which he demonstrated their accuracy4 ,at the time he made these experiments 7he was then only twenty years old71 he thought he was the first who had indicated the phenomena of sound in that way2 but ,professor ,oerstead1 of ,copenhagen1 on seeing him perform these experiments1 informed him of some similar ones he had previously made4 ,in the middle of the year #ahbg he invented a small instrument consisting of a steel rod on the top of which a glass silvered bead was placed4 ,by concentrating on it an intense light and making the rod to vibrate1 beautiful forms were created4 ,in this respect this philosophical toy resembled the ,kaleidoscope which ,brewster invented2 and it was therefore called the kaleidophone4 ,there is1 however1 no similarity between the construction or mode of action of the two instruments4 ,in #ahbh he devised the terpsiphone which made music by the reciprocal vibrations of columns of air4 ,in #ahcc he contributed to the ,royal ,society a paper on acoustic or ,chladni figures1 so called because ,chladni in #aghg showed that by strewing sand on vibrating surfaces1 and then throwing the particles into vibration by means of a violin bow1 beautiful and varied symmetrical figures could be produced4 ,wheatstone showed that all the figures of vibrating surfaces result from very simple modes of vibration1 oscillating isochronously1 and superposed upon each other1 the figures varying with the component modes of vibration1 the number of the superpositions1 and the angles at which they are superposed4 ,as indicating the variety of subjects that engaged his attention about the same time1 a fact recorded by a friend may be quoted here4 ,at one period ,wheatstone's attention was for a time directed to problems of mental philosophy1 and especially to the quasi-mechanical solution of them which was hoped for by the followers of ,gall and ,spurzheim2 he was an active member of the ,london ,phrenological ,society1 then presided over by ,dr4 ,elliotson1 and in ,january #ahcb he read a paper at one of the meetings on dreaming and somnambulism1 which was published in extenso in the ,lancet of that date4 ,this paper is remarkable like all his writings for the extreme clearness with which known facts are stated and the deductions based upon them4 ,another subject which occupied his attention for some years was the construction of speaking-machines1 upon which he made certain improvements1 and of which he wrote a short and interesting history4 ,he declared in #ahcg that the advantages which would result from the completion of a speaking-machine rendered the subject worthy of the attention of philosophers and mechanicians2 and he endorsed a remark of ,sir ,d4 ,brewster that before another century was complete a talking and singing machine would doubtless be numbered among the conquests of science4 ,in a paper which he communicated to the ,journal of the ,royal ,institution in #ahca 8,on the ,transmission of ,musical ,sounds through solid ,linear conductors and on their subsequent ,reciprocation10 he gave an account of some experiments that evolved a principle now found to be next in importance to that of the telegraph4 ,he said3 8,i believe that previous to the experiments which ,i commenced in #ahbj1 none had been made on the transmission of the modulated sounds of musical instruments1 nor had it been shown that sonorous undulations1 propagated through solid linear conductors of considerable length1 were capable of exciting in surfaces with which they were in connection a quantity of vibratory motion sufficient to be powerfully audible when communicated through the air4 ,the first experiments of this kind which ,i made were publicly exhibited in #ahba2 and on ,june #cjth1 #ahbc1 a paper of mine was read by ,m4 ,arago at the ,academy of ,sciences1 in which ,i mentioned these experiments1 and a variety of others relating to the passage of sound through rectilinear and bent conductors4 ,i propose in the present instance to give a more complete detail of these experiments40 ,he then proceeds to give an account of the experiments he had made during the intervening ten years1 and concludes by saying3 8,as the velocity of sound is much greater in solid substances than in air1 it is not improbable that the transmission of sound through solid conductors1 and its subsequent reciprocation1 may hereafter be applied to many useful purposes4 ,sound travels through the air at the rate of #a1adb feet in a second of time1 but it is communicated through iron1 wire1 glass1 or wood with a velocity of about #ah1jjj feet per second1 so that it would travel a distance of #bjj miles in less than a minute4444 ,should any conducting substance be rendered perfectly equal in density so as to allow the undulations to proceed with uniform velocity without any interference1 it would be easy to transmit sounds through such conductors from ,aberdeen to ,london1 as it is now to communicate from one chamber to another4 ,the transmission to distant places of a multiplication of musical performances are objects of far less importance than the conveyance of the articulations of speech4 ,i have found by experiment that all these articulations1 as well as the musical inflections of the voice1 may be perfectly1 though feebly1 transmitted to any of the previously described reciprocating instruments1 by connecting the conductor either immediately with some part of the neck or head contiguous to the larynx1 or with a sounding-board1 to which the mouth of the singer or speaker is closely applied40 ,nearly half a century elapsed before these observations found their full application in the telephone and microphone4 ,it may be here noted that in a paper on experiments in audition published in #ahbg ,wheatstone said3 8,the great intensity with which sound is transmitted by solid rods at the same time that its diffusion is prevented1 affords a ready means of augmenting the loudness of external sounds and of constructing an instrument which1 from its rendering audible the weakest sounds1 may with propriety be named the microphone40 ,it is said that that was the first time the word microphone was ever used2 and it was the name given in #ahgh to an instrument which has since come into general use as the complement of the telephone1 the microphone being the best adapted for sending spoken messages by electric wire1 and the telephone the best for receiving them4 ,concurrently with these scientific studies1 his practical powers as an inventor were being advantageously exercised in the improvement of musical instruments1 old and new4 ,in a communication to the ,royal ,institution in ,february1 #ahbh1 he gave an account of a ,javanese musical instrument called the ,gnder1 which was brought to ,england by the late ,sir ,s4 ,raffles1 and in which 8the resonances of unisonant columns of air0 were used to augment the sounds of the vibrations of metallic plates4 ,a hollow bamboo of a certain length was placed perpendicularly under each metallic plate which1 being struck and made to vibrate1 produced a deep1 rich tone by the resonance of the column of air within the bamboo4 ,he then stated that1 though other rude ,asiatic and ,african instruments made use of the same principle1 he did not know of its being used in any ,european instrument2 and he therefore promised to publish soon an account of several methods which he had devised for utilising the resonance of columns of air4 ,about two months afterwards his attention was called to a newly-invented ,german instrument which made use of that principle4 ,it was called the ,mund ,harmonica2 and1 as the name implies1 music was produced in it by placing the mouth over some small metallic tongues or springs and blowing upon them so as to cause them to vibrate2 8these vibrations produced so many impulses upon the current of air and thus caused sound40 ,this instrument is now best known as a child's toy4 ,it was soon improved in ,germany into a primitive kind of accordion1 in which keys were placed over the metallic tongues1 and the requisite current of air to vibrate them when the keys were opened was produced by compressing a kind of bellows1 which formed the body of the instrument4 ,this was the most simple form of wind instrument2 and ,charles ,wheatstone soon increased its range and facilitated its manipulation4 ,his improvements consisted in the employment of two parallel rows of finger studs or keys on each end1 and in so placing them with respect to their distances and positions as that they might1 singly1 be progressively and alternately touched or pressed down by the first or second fingers of each hand without the fingers interfering with the adjacent studs1 and yet be placed so near together as that any two adjacent studs might be simultaneously pressed down when required by the same finger2 the peculiarity and novelty of this arrangement consisted in this1 that whereas in the ordinary keyed wind musical instrument then in use the fingering was effected by a motion sideways of the hands and fingers1 in the new arrangement that mode of fingering was rendered entirely inapplicable3 and he made available a motion not previously employed1 namely1 the ascending and descending motions of the fingers4 ,by this method of arranging the studs he was able to bring the keys much nearer together than had been done previously1 and the instrument was made more portable4 ,he also introduced two additional rows of finger studs on each end of the instrument for the purpose of introducing semitones when required4 ,in other words1 he invented the concertina1 the first patent for which was dated ,june #aith1 #ahbi1 under the title of improvements in the construction of wind-musical instruments4 ,the accordion1 7said to have been invented at ,vienna by ,damian in #ahbi17 is described by the best musical authorities as little more than a toy in comparison with the concertina4 ,indeed1 the concertina is one of the few musical instruments distinguished for sweetness and compass1 that is known to be the exclusive invention of one man4 ,music intended for the oboe1 flute1 and violin1 can be played on it2 while the only other instruments upon which music written for the concertina can be played1 are the organ and harmonium4 ,nothing1 says ,dr4 ,grove1 but the last-named instruments can produce at once the extended harmonies1 the sostenuto and the staccato combined1 of which the concertina is capable4 ,the origin of the organ is lost in the myths of antiquity1 and it has been the subject of improvements during the last #ejj years4 ,the harmonium is an evolution of the present century1 and has been brought to its present state by the combined improvements of several musical men1 including ,charles ,wheatstone4 ,but of the concertina he was the sole inventor2 and if it be true that the unknown man 7or rather men7 who invented the fiddle was a greater genius than the inventor of the steam-engine1 surely the invention of the concertina was no mean achievement4 ,certainly it was not an instant achievement4 ,its perfection appeared to be a work of time2 for in #ahdd he took out another patent for improvements1 consisting of 7#a7 the arrangement of the touches or finger-stops which regulate the opening of the various valves covering the apertures in which the springs or tongues vibrate2 7#b7 a mode of obtaining a different degree of loudness for each side of the concertina independently by applying a partition to divide the bellows into two parts2 7#c7 a mode of arranging and constructing the cavities in which the tongues or spirals are placed1 by which a bass concertina may be made of more portable dimensions than by the mode of arrangement usually adopted in the treble concertina2 7#d7 a mode of constructing concertinas whereby the same tone or spring is made to sound whether the wind be driven into or out of the bellows1 namely1 by means of a double passage valve applied to each tongue separately2 7#e7 a mode of varying at pleasure the pitch of the concertina by apparatus capable of altering the effective length of its tongues or springs2 7#f7 an arrangement of the lever or support of the key or apparatus for admitting the wind to act upon the tongue of the concertina2 7#g7 a mode of applying apparatus to sting a tongue or spring into vibration in addition to the wind on that tongue2 and 7#h7 of modifying or ameliorating the tone of a freely vibrating tongue or spring by means of the resonance of a column of air in a tube tuned in unison with it1 the tube being so placed that the free air shall intervene between its open end and the tongue or spring4 ,in connection with this subject1 it should be added that he made important improvements in the harmonium when it might be said to be in its infancy4 ,without going into details1 suffice it to say that at the ,great ,exhibition of #ahea he exhibited the portable harmonium1 which the jury on musical instruments described as quite original in all its mechanical parts4 ,it had a compass of five octaves1 and although the keyboard was of the same extent as in the larger harmoniums1 the instrument could be instantly folded up so as to occupy less than half its height and length4 ,the jury1 in awarding the inventor a prize medal1 said the portable harmonium was peculiarly constructed for producing expression1 and might either be used by itself for the performance of music written for the organ or harmonium1 or for taking violin1 flute1 or violoncello solos or parts--its capabilities of expression giving it great advantages in imitating these instruments4 ,in #ahcd he was appointed ,professor of ,experimental ,physics in ,king's ,college1 ,london2 and as such he delivered in the following year a course of eight lectures on ,sound2 but while retaining the professorship1 he soon discontinued lecturing because of his invincible distrust of his own powers as a speaker4 ,about the same time he gave to the world what1 in order of time1 might be described as the first fruits of his studies in electricity1 and what1 in point of originality1 many electricians have described as his most brilliant discovery4 ,in #ahca ,professor ,faraday told the ,royal ,institution of the method by which the silent philosopher proposed to ascertain the velocity of the electric spark2 and in #ahcd he himself contributed to the ,philosophical ,transactions 8,an account of some experiments to measure the velocity of electricity and the duration of the electric light40 ,it has been repeatedly said that this one experiment was enough to render his name immortal in the annals of science4 ,the velocity of electricity is so great that it was believed there was no means on earth capable of measuring it4 ,this desideratum ,professor ,wheatstone supplied4 ,he devised means by which a small mirror was made to revolve at the immensely rapid rate of #hjj times in a second1 and in front of it placed half a mile of insulated copper wire1 on the ends and in the middle of which were fixed brass balls intended to interrupt a current of electricity sent through the wire4 ,on connecting the ends of the wire with a ,leyden jar1 he saw three sparks--one was at each end as the electricity left the jar1 the other was at the brass balls in the middle of the wire4 ,the one end of the wire was connected with the inner coating of the jar charged with positive electricity1 while the other end of the wire was attached to the outer coating1 which had negative electricity1 so that at the moment of contact the electricity passed from each end of the wire in order to find an equilibrium4 ,the middle of the wire1 however1 was cut1 and had a small brass ball at each end1 distant one-tenth of an inch2 and when the two currents of electricity reached that interruption the middle spark was produced4 ,these sparks were reflected by the rapidly revolving mirror2 and he had the wire so arranged that if the three sparks were simultaneous1 the mirror would show them in parallel straight lines4 ,but they evidently were not simultaneous1 for the middle one appeared a little later than the other two2 the revolving mirror had in the interval moved round a minute distance1 thus showing the reflection of the middle spark behind the others4 ,the interval between the sparks was found to be the one millionth part of a second1 and their appearance on the mirror1 as it revolved1 supplied data as to the rate at which the current moved1 from which it was easily calculated that the velocity of electricity is #bhh1jjj miles a second4 ,thus1 it was said1 he forced the lightning to tell how fast it was going4 ,this experiment1 which was originally made in his lecture-room at ,king's ,college1 and with the result of which he was much delighted1 instantly spread his name throughout the civilised world as the discoverer of one of ,nature's greatest secrets4#f ,the original apparatus used for that purpose was also used at the ,royal ,institution in #ahef1 to illustrate the instantaneous duration of a spark4 ,it was ascertained that the duration of a spark does not exceed the twenty-fifth thousandth part of a second2 it was explained that a cannon ball1 if illuminated in its flight by a flash of lightning1 would1 in consequence of the momentary duration of the light1 appear to be stationary2 and that even the wings of an insect moving #aj1jjj times in a second would seem at rest4 ,with regard to the scientific value of the revolving mirror1 ,m4 ,dumas said in #ahge3 8,this admirable method enabled ,arago to trace with a certain hand the plan of a fundamental experiment which should decide whether light is a body emanating from the sun and stars1 or the undulating movement excited by them4 ,executed by the accomplished experimentalist1 it proved that the theory of emission was wrong4 ,this method has then furnished to the philosophy of the sciences the certain basis on which rest our ideas of the nature of force1 and especially that of light4 ,by means of this or some other analogous artifice1 we can even measure the speed of light by experiments purely terrestrial1 which1 pursued by an able physicist1 have guided the measure of distance between the earth and the sun40 ,professor ,wheatstone himself suggested that the velocity of light might be measured in the same way as electricity4 ,in ,july1 #ahce1 he told the ,royal ,society that he proposed to extend his experiments on the velocity of electricity to measure the velocity of light in its passage through a limited portion of the terrestrial atmosphere4 ,it may be added that the complete solution of the velocity of light by the revolving mirror1 although the subject of elaborate experiments by ,arago1 was facilitated by some improvements made in the apparatus by later experimenters4 ,the mirror has been used in different ways for the measurement of light4 ,in #ahej1 ,arago gave a description of his attempts to determine its velocity1 but failing eyesight prevented him carrying out his full design4 ,the subject was1 however1 taken up by ,m4 ,fizeau and ,m4 ,foucault1 who employed steam power instead of clockwork to give motion to the mirror4 ,by ,foucault's method a beam of light was reflected from a revolving mirror to a fixed concave mirror1 and before it was reflected back again the revolving mirror had moved a sufficient space to enable him to compute therefrom the velocity of light4 ,fizeau's method was simpler4 ,he made a toothed wheel revolve with great rapidity1 while a beam of light passed through one of the open spaces between the teeth1 and fell upon a reflecting mirror at a considerable distance away4 ,if the wheel were at rest1 the beam would be reflected back through the same space by which it had entered2 but the wheel being in rapid motion1 the reflected beam would either fall on the next tooth which would prevent it passing through1 or if the motion were increased1 it would get through the next opening4 ,a variety of tests like these has given the velocity of light as about #ahg1jjj miles per second4 ,professor ,wheatstone also rendered memorable service in connection with the development of spectrum analysis4 ,in a paper which he communicated to the ,dublin meeting of the ,british ,association in #ahce1 on 8,the ,prismatic ,analysis of ,electric ,light10 he expounded a discovery which has since led to useful results4 ,most metals1 such as iron1 copper1 and platinum1 when exposed to the gas flame1 impart no colour2 for that purpose they must be subjected to a higher temperature2 and ,professor ,wheatstone found that the best way of attaining the requisite temperature was by the use of the electric spark4 ,he found that a single electric discharge passed through a gold wire at once dissipated the metal into vapour4 ,he also showed that by looking through a prism at the spark proceeding from two metallic poles1 the spectra seen contained bright lines which differed according to the kind of metal employed4 8,these differences10 he said1 8are so obvious that any one metal may instantly be distinguished from others by the appearance of its spark1 and we have here a mode of discriminating metallic bodies more ready than chemical examination1 and which may hereafter be employed for useful purposes40 ,hofmann has well said that 8within this fact a new mode of distinguishing bodies from each other lay folded1 like the tree within the seed1 awaiting evolution4 ,the new line of research thus opened by ,wheatstone with reference to bright lines produced by electric discharges1 was pursued in a variety of directions by several observers4 ,foucault 7#ahdi71 ,masson 7#ahea-ee71 ,angstrm 7#ahec71 ,alter 7#ahed-ee71 ,secchi 7#ahee71 ,plckar 7#aheh-ei71 ,bunsen and ,kirchhoff 7#ahfj71 were successively engaged in this inquiry4 ,it would exceed the limits of this sketch to minutely describe the phenomena presented by the spectra of the known metals1 or to dwell on the infinitely minute quantities of substances found to be capable of producing the effect4 ,the extreme delicacy of the new process is now a familiar fact2 and it is equally well known that in using this method1 the presence of one metal scarcely interferes with that of another4 ,it would be out of place here to do more than simply mention the astronomical applications of spectrum analysis2 such as1 for example1 the determination by its means of the composition of the solar atmosphere1 in which ,m4 ,kirchhoff has proved1 with a degree of probability approaching to certainty1 the presence of several metals well known on this earth2 amongst others potassium1 sodium1 calcium1 iron1 nickel1 chromium1 c40 ,this delicate test has made it possible to detect the presence of the two hundred millionth part of a grain 7in weight7 of sodium1 while by revealing bright lines not referable to any known body it has been the means of discovering five new metals--csium and rubidium by ,professor ,bunsen in #ahfj1 thallium by ,mr4 ,crookes in #ahfa1 indium by ,professors ,richter and ,reich in #ahfd1 and gallium by ,m4 ,lecoq in #ahge4 ,the year #ahcf was distinguished in the history of electricity by the discovery of the constant battery of ,professor ,daniell4 ,early in that year ,professor ,daniell1 of ,king's ,college1 announced in a letter to ,faraday1 that he had been led to the construction of a voltaic arrangement which furnished a constant current of electricity for any length of time1 and had thus been able to remove one of the greatest difficulties which had hitherto obstructed those who had endeavoured to measure and compare different voltaic phenomena4 ,this constant battery1 which he improved in the spring of the same year1 is still in general use4 ,in it the zinc is placed in a semi-saturated solution of sulphate of zinc1 and the copper in a saturated solution of sulphate of copper1 the two solutions being separated by a porous earthenware partition4 ,this battery furnishes a constant supply of electricity for weeks together4 ,early in #ahcg ,professor ,wheatstone publicly called attention to the capability of the thermo-electric pile as a source of electricity4 ,seebeck of ,berlin discovered in #ahbb that when different metals are soldered together and their junction heated1 a current of electricity is generated2 and ,nobili and ,melloni contrived on that principle the thermo-multiplier1 an apparatus which indicates the effects of heat by the deflections of a needle on a scale1 like a thermometer1 the needle being moved by the electricity produced by the heat4 ,but this means of producing electricity was better known for its delicacy than for its strength till ,professor ,wheatstone made some experiments--probably the first made in ,england--for the purpose of showing how the thermo-electric pile could be utilised as a source of electricity4 ,in his account of these experiments he stated that 8the ,cav4 ,antinori1 director of the ,museum at ,florence1 having heard that ,professor ,linari1 of the ,university of ,siena1 had succeeded in obtaining the electric spark from the torpedo by means of an electro-dynamic helix and a temporary magnet1 conceived that a spark might be obtained by applying the same means to a thermo-electric pile4 ,appealing to experiments1 his anticipations were fully realised4 ,no account of the original investigations of ,antinori had reached ,england in ,april1 #ahcg2 but ,professor ,linari1 to whom he early communicated the results1 published certain experiments and observations of his own on the subject in ,l',indicatore ,sanese for ,december #ac1 #ahcf40 ,the interesting nature of these experiments induced ,professor ,wheatstone to attempt to verify the principal results4 ,for that purpose he used a thermo-electric pile consisting of #cc elements of bismuth and antimony formed into a cylindrical bundle of an inch in diameter1 and #a in length4 ,the poles of this pile were connected by means of two thick wires with a spiral of copper ribbon #ej feet in length and #a inch broad1 the coils being well insulated by brown paper and silk4 ,one face of the pile was heated by means of a red-hot iron brought within a short distance of it1 and the other face was kept cool by contact with ice4 ,two short wires formed the communication between the poles of the pile and the spiral1 and the contact was broken1 when required1 in a cup of mercury 7a non-conductor7 between one extremity of the spiral and one of these wires4 ,whenever contact was thus broken a small but distinct spark was seen4 ,he added that ,professors ,daniell1 ,henry1 and ,bache assisted in the experiments1 and were all equally satisfied of the reality of the appearance4 ,at another trial the spark was obtained from the same spiral connected with a small pile of fifty elements1 on which occasion ,dr4 ,faraday and ,professor ,johnson were present1 and verified the fact4 ,by connecting two such piles together1 so that similar poles of each were connected with the same wire1 the spark was seen still brighter4 ,he concluded by stating that such experiments supplied a link that was wanting in the chain of experimental evidence tending to prove that electricity1 from sources however varied1 is similar in its nature and in its effects2 and that the effect thus obtained from the electric current originating in the thermo-electric pile might no doubt be easily exalted by those who had the requisite apparatus at their disposal1 till it equalled the effect of an ordinary voltaic pile4 ,as ,professor ,wheatstone was not accustomed to write articles or to deliver lectures1 it is not an easy matter to measure the extent of his knowledge at any particular time2 but one more incident may be mentioned as indicating the range of his studies on electricity about this time4 ,between #ahcj and #ahce ,william ,snow ,harris wrote several articles in the ,nautical ,magazine on the utility of fixing lightning conductors in ships4 ,it was a popular impression then that pointed metal rods attracted lightning4 ,snow ,harris contended1 on the contrary1 that damage to ships occurred not where good conductors were1 but where they were not1 and that such conductors could no more attract lightning than a watercourse could be said to attract water1 which necessarily flowed through it at the time of heavy rains4 ,he afterwards prepared a list of #bbj ships of the ,british ,navy which were struck and damaged by lightning between #agib and #ahdf4 ,in ,june1 #ahci1 a committee of the ,admiralty consulted ,professor ,wheatstone and ,professor ,faraday as to the safety of the continuous conductors advocated by ,snow ,harris4 ,to that committee ,professor ,wheatstone stated that 8it has been proved beyond all doubt that electricity follows the best conducting path which is open to it2 and that when it finds a metallic road sufficient to conduct it completely1 it never flies to surrounding bodies greatly inferior in conducting power4 ,the experiments of ,m4 de ,romas1 made in ,france1 with the electrical kite1 immediately after ,franklin's first attempt1 might satisfy the most timid in this respect4 ,imagine1 writes he to the ,abb ,nollet1 #8that you see sheets of fire nine or ten feet long and an inch broad1 which made as much or more noise than reports of a pistol4 ,in less than an hour ,i had certainly thirty sheets of these dimensions1 without counting a thousand others of seven feet and under4 ,but what gives me the greatest satisfaction in this new spectacle is that the largest sheets were spontaneous1 and notwithstanding the abundance of fire which formed them1 they constantly followed the nearest conducting body4 ,this constancy gave me so much security that ,i did not fear to excite this fire with my discharger1 even when the storm was violent2 and when the glass branches of the instrument were only two feet long ,i conducted wherever ,i pleased1 without feeling the smallest shock in my hand1 sheets of fire six or seven feet long1 with the same facility as those of only six or seven inches4' ,the wire of the kite was insulated1 and the sparks were drawn by a metallic conductor held in the hand by means of an insulating handle1 and communicating with the ground by a chain4 ,the human body is known not to be one of the worst conductors2 yet1 because it was two feet further than a far more perfect one1 it received none of the discharge1 even though the conducting path were an interrupted one4 ,the phenomenon to which the name of lateral explosion has been generally given was first observed by ,henly1 more than half a century ago1 and has been subsequently experimented upon by ,priestly1 ,cavallo1 and more recently by ,biot40 ,the committee attached the greatest weight to the opinion of ,professor ,wheatstone1 which ,faraday supported1 and which was eventually adopted4 ,experiment and experience confirmed its accuracy4 ,at the time when he had attained such a recognised position as an electrician he was making progress in another field of electrical study in which he was destined to gain still greater eminence and to obtain more extensive and permanent results4 ,,footnotes3 #f ,the accuracy of ,wheatstone's experiment has been generally accepted2 but1 as ,faraday said in #ahch1 8the velocity of discharge through the same wire may be greatly varied by circumstances4444 ,if the two ends of the wire in ,professor ,wheatstone's experiment were immediately connected with two large insulated metallic surfaces exposed to the air 444 then the middle spark would be more retarded2 and if these two plates were the inner and outer coating of a large jar1 or a ,leyden battery1 then the retardation of that spark would be still greater40 ,,chapter ,,ii4 8,there is a certain meddlesome spirit which1 in the garb of learned research1 goes prying about the traces of history1 casting down its monuments1 and maiming and mutilating its fairest trophies4 ,care should be taken to vindicate great names from such pernicious erudition4 ,it defeats one of the most salutary purposes of history1 that of furnishing examples of what human genius and laudable enterprise may accomplish4 ,for this reason some pains have been taken to trace the rise and progress of this grand idea 7in the mind of ,columbus72 to show that it was the conception of his genius1 quickened by the impulse of his age1 and aided by those scattered gleams of knowledge1 which fell ineffectually upon ordinary minds40--,,washington ,,irving4 ,in all the inventions and discoveries previously described as made by ,professor ,wheatstone1 his originality has never been seriously challenged1 but when we turn to his greatest work we enter upon contested ground4 ,the contests that ever arise as to the origin of great inventions afford evidence of their greatness2 for1 as ,aeschylus says1 he who is not envied is not worthy of admiration4 8,in #adce10 says ,sir ,james ,mackintosh1 8a law suit was carried on at ,strasburg between one ,john ,guttenberg1 a gentleman of ,mentz1 celebrated for mechanical ingenuity1 and ,drizehn1 a burgher of the city1 who was his partner in a copying press4 ,no litigation could seem more base and mechanical to the barbarous ,barons of ,suabia and ,alsace2 but the copying machine was the printing press which has changed the condition of mankind40 ,in like manner it fell to the lot of ,professor ,wheatstone when he had completed his most useful invention to have his originality disputed by his own partner in business1 ,mr4 ,william ,fothergill ,cooke4 ,there are five mechanical inventions that have conferred incalculable benefit on the industrial world in modern times--the printing press1 the steam engine1 the electric telegraph1 the dynamo1 and the ,bessemer process of steel making4 ,the originality of every one of these has been either divided or disputed1 with the single exception of the ,bessemer process1 which is therefore the only one that is universally known by the inventor's name4 ,in the case of the electric telegraph the originality or priority of ,professor ,wheatstone was disputed not only at home but abroad4 ,hence writers on the subject are accustomed to say that the telegraph was invented independently and almost simultaneously by ,professor ,wheatstone1 of ,london1 ,professor ,morse1 of ,new ,york1 and ,professor ,steinheil1 of ,munich4 ,this was in the year #ahcg4 ,after the discovery of the voltaic pile1 ,oersted discovered in #ahai that if a needle were placed parallel to a conducting wire1 an electric current from a voltaic battery applied to the wire would cause the deflection of the needle to a position at right angles to the wire or across the direction of the current4 ,ampre proposed to make an electric telegraph by utilising this property of a compass needle1 and he designed an apparatus to which twenty-five wires were attached2 and by touching keys which corresponded to the letters of the alphabet1 needles attached to the other ends of the wires were set in motion by the action of an electric current4 ,it was this incipient and very imperfect design that ,professor ,wheatstone brought to perfection by a series of inventions and discoveries extending over a number of years4 ,his own account of the origin of his telegraph is candid and interesting4 8,when1 in #ahbc10 he says1 8,i made my important discovery that sounds of all kinds might be transmitted perfectly and powerfully through solid wires and reproduced in distant places1 ,i thought ,i had the most efficient and economical means of establishing telegraphic 7or rather telephonic7 communication between two remote points that could be thought of4 ,my ideas respecting establishing a communication of this kind between ,london and ,edinburgh you will find in the ,journal of the ,royal ,institution for #ahbh4 ,experiments on a larger scale1 however1 showed me that the velocity of sound was not sufficient to overcome the resistance and enable it to be transmitted efficiently through long lengths of wire4 ,i then turned my attention to the employment of electricity as the communicating agent2 the experiments of ,ronalds and others failed to produce any impression on the scientific world2 this want of confidence resulted from the imperfect knowledge then possessed of the velocity and other properties of electricity2 some philosophers made out a few miles per second2 others considered it to be infinite2 if the former were true1 there would not be much room for hope2 but if the velocity could be proved to be very great there would be encouragement to proceed4 ,i undertook the inquiry1 and with the result the whole scientific world is acquainted4 ,at the same time ,i ascertained that magnetic needles might be deflected1 water decomposed1 induction sparks produced1 c41 through greater lengths of wire than had yet been experimented upon4 ,in the following year1 at the request of the ,royal ,society1 ,i repeated these experiments with several miles of insulated wire1 and the results were witnessed by the most eminent philosophers of ,europe and ,america4 ,i ascertained experimentally 7which had never been done before7 many of the conditions necessary for the production of the various magnetic1 mechanical1 and chemical effects in very long circuits2 and ,i devised a variety of instruments by which telegraphic communication should be realised on these principles4 8,some time before ,mr4 ,cooke introduced himself to me ,i considered my experiments to be sufficiently matured to enable me to undertake some important practical results4 ,i informed ,mr4 ,fox1 the engineer of the ,london and ,birmingham ,railway1 of my expectations1 and told him of my willingness to superintend the establishment of an electric telegraph on that railway4 ,i had also made arrangements for trying an experiment across the ,thames4 ,mr4 ,enderby kindly undertook to prepare the insulating rope containing the wires and to obtain permission from ,mr4 ,walker to carry the other termination to his shot tower4 ,after many experiments had been made with the rope1 and the permission granted1 ,i relinquished the experiment1 because after my connection with ,mr4 ,cooke it was necessary to divert the funds ,i had destined for this purpose to other uses4 ,what ,i have stated above is sufficient to show that ,i had paid great attention to the subject of telegraphic communication by means of electricity1 and had made important practical advances long before ,i had any acquaintance with or ever heard of ,mr4 ,cooke40 ,on reading this account two questions arise3 first1 whether the ,wheatstone telegraph was the first of its kind2 and1 secondly1 whether there is any corroborative evidence of the early labours of its inventor4 ,these two questions at the time became interlinked in a singular way4 ,in #ahcc the celebrated scientists1 ,gauss and ,weber1 placed a line of wire from the ,observatory of ,gttingen ,university to a building a mile distant1 and by sending magneto-electric currents through that wire they communicated intelligible signals2 but as the needle they used weighed nearly a hundredweight they saw that their apparatus needed much improvement before it would be of practical utility4 ,being otherwise engaged themselves1 they invited ,professor ,steinheil1 of ,munich1 to construct an improved electric telegraph2 and ,steinheil1 after much labour1 succeeded in producing an apparatus capable of transmitting signals1 but it was too refined for practical working with the means then available4 ,his instrument for receiving and recording the signals consisted of two needles1 one of which was to be moved by a positive and the other by a negative current1 both currents being sent through one wire4 ,connected with each needle was a small reservoir of ink and a pen1 which1 on being depressed by the motion of the needle1 marked a line upon a strip of paper that was drawn along by means of clockwork4 ,at first he used a second wire for the return circuit1 but in the course of his experiments he discovered that the earth was the best receiver of the return current1 and accordingly dispensed with the second wire4 ,now1 strange to say1 the experiments connected with this telegraph of ,steinheil's became indirectly a circumstantial witness of ,professor ,wheatstone's labours before ever he saw ,mr4 ,cooke4 ,the number of the ,magazine of ,popular ,science published on ,march #ast1 #ahcg1 contained 8an account of some new experiments in electro-magnetism40 ,it was a description of the experiments of ,gauss at ,gttingen1 communicated to the ,munich ,academy of ,sciences by ,prof4 ,steinheil1 who1 in concluding1 stated that he himself 8had fitted up a telegraph similar in principle to that which connected the ,observatory and the ,cabinet of ,natural ,philosophy at ,gttingen4 ,signals made in the room appropriated to the magnetic observations were transmitted to another department at a considerable distance1 whence the answers were returned to the first room4 ,he had arranged this apparatus for the purpose of demonstrating the peculiarities and the practicability of ,professor ,gauss's contrivance1 hoping by these means to draw attention to it1 and to induce persons to employ it for connecting stations far more distant than any to which it has yet been applied40 ,to that was added the following3 8,,note ,,by ,,editor3 ,during the month of ,june last year 7#ahcf71 in a course of lectures delivered at ,king's ,college1 ,london1 ,professor ,wheatstone repeated his experiments on the velocity of electricity1 which were published in the ,philosophical ,transactions for #ahcd1 but with an insulated circuit of copper wire1 the length of which was now increased to nearly four miles2 the thickness of the wire was #a_/afth of an inch4 ,when machine electricity was employed1 an electrometer placed on any point of the circuit diverged1 and wherever the continuity of the circuit was broken1 very bright sparks were visible4 ,with a voltaic1 or with a magneto-electric machine1 water was decomposed1 the needle of a galvanometer deflected1 c41 in the middle of the circuit4 ,but1 which has a more direct reference to the subject of our esteemed correspondent's communication from ,munich1 ,professor ,wheatstone gave a sketch of the means by which he proposes to convert his apparatus into an electric telegraph1 which1 by the aid of a few finger-stops1 will instantaneously and distinctly convey communications between the most distant points4 ,these experiments are1 we understand1 still in progress1 and the apparatus1 as it is at present constructed1 is capable of conveying thirty simple signals1 which1 combined in various manners1 will be fully sufficient for the purposes of telegraphic communication40 ,these words must have been in type1 and most probably were printed before the day on which ,mr4 ,cooke said he first saw ,professor ,wheatstone2 and they were certainly printed before the date fixed by ,professor ,wheatstone as the time of ,mr4 ,cooke's introduction to him4 ,professor ,wheatstone says3 8,i believe it was on the first day of ,march1 #ahcg1 that ,mr4 ,cooke introduced himself to me4 ,he told me that he had applied to ,dr4 ,faraday and ,dr4 ,roget for some information relative to the subject on which he was engaged1 and that they had referred him to me4 ,he gave me no clue as to the purpose he had in hand4 ,i replied that he was welcome to all the information ,i could give him1 and that the experiments ,i had been making for some time relative to employing electric currents for the purpose of telegraphic communication would enable me to give him much of the information he required4 ,at our next interview shortly after1 he told me he was working at an electric telegraph1 and that the questions he had previously put to me related to this subject4 ,after that ,i showed him some of my apparatus1 and explained my proposals4 ,mr4 ,cooke showed me some of his drawings and models4 ,i at once told him it could not act as a telegraph1 and to convince him of the truth of this assertion ,i invited him to ,king's ,college to see the repetition of my experiments4 ,he came1 and after seeing a variety of voltaic magnets1 which even with powerful batteries exhibited only slight adhesive attraction1 he expressed his disappointment in these words which ,i well remember3 #8,here is two years' labour wasted4' 8,with regard to ,mr4 ,cooke's invention1 so far from its being practically useful1 he has never1 during my whole acquaintance with him1 shown it to me in action1 even in a short circuit4 ,mr4 ,cooke's intention was1 as he told me in the early stage of our acquaintance1 to take out a patent for his invention4 ,mine was1 when ,i had finished my experiments1 to publish the results1 and then to allow any person to carry them into effect4 ,when ,mr4 ,cooke found that his instrument was inapplicable to the purpose proposed1 and that my researches were more likely to be practically useful1 he proposed a partnership1 and that we should take out a joint patent4 ,the proposal did not proceed from me1 and the sole reason of my acquiescing in the arrangement was that ,mr4 ,cooke appeared to me to possess the zeal1 ability1 and perseverance necessary to make the thing successful as a commercial enterprise4 ,i felt confident of overcoming myself all the scientific and mechanical difficulties of the subject1 but neither my occupations nor my inclination qualified me for the part ,mr4 ,cooke promised to perform4 ,he said he was not wanting a scientific reputation1 his sole object being to make money by it4 8,the magnetic needle telegraph1 as it appears in its most perfect state in the lecture room of the college1 is to all intents and purposes entirely and exclusively my own invention4 ,the original suggestion of ,ampre 7that a telegraph should be constructed by utilising the tendency of the magnetic needle always to place itself at right angles to an adjoining wire through which an electric current passed7 was all that ,i borrowed in it4 ,the most important point was my application of the theory of ,ohm to telegraphic circuits1 which enabled me to ascertain the best proportions between the length1 thickness1 and circumference of the multiplying coils and the other resistances in the circuit1 and to determine the number and size of the elements of a battery to produce the maximum effect4 ,with this law and its applications none of the persons who had before occupied themselves with experiments relating to electric telegraphs1 had been acquainted40 ,it may here be explained that ,ohm was another eminent electrician1 whose immortal discovery was at first consigned to neglect4 ,his work1 expounding the principle now known as ,ohm's law1 was published at ,berlin in #ahbg2 but was not translated into ,english till #ahda4 ,it is said that for the first ten years after the publication of his work1 only one continental author admitted or confirmed his views1 but between #ahcf and #ahda1 scientific men began to appreciate the value of his researches4 ,wheatstone was one of them4 ,in #ahda ,ohm was presented with the ,copley gold medal of the ,royal ,society1 when the ,president said3 8,ohm has shown that the usual vague distinctions of intensity and quantity have no foundation1 and that all the explanations derived from these considerations were perfectly erroneous4 ,he has demonstrated both theoretically and experimentally that the action of a circuit is equal to the sum of the electromotive force 7,e4 ,m4 ,f47 divided by the sum of the resistances1 and that whatever the nature of the current1 whether voltaic or thermo-electric1 if this quotient be equal1 the effect is the same40 ,mr4 ,george ,cruikshank afterwards published a statement confirming the claims of ,professor ,wheatstone4 ,he said that having been a friend of ,professor ,wheatstone1 he wished to state that 8the discovery of the telegraph arose from the circumstance that when first appointed lecturer at ,king's ,college1 he had seven miles of wire in the lower part of the building which abuts upon the river ,thames1 for the purpose of measuring the speed of lightning or the electric current4 ,upon one occasion when explaining his experiments to me1 he said3 #8,i intend one day to lay some of this wire across the bed of the ,thames and to carry it up to the ,shot ,tower on the other side1 and so to make signals4' ,this was1 ,i believe1 the first idea or suggestion of a submarine telegraph4 ,we are also indebted to him for the electric bell1 for long before the telegraph came before the public1 in explaining the machine to me1 he said that as it was possible that one party might be asleep at one end of the wire1 he had so arranged the working that the first touch should ring the bell at the other end1 even if thousands of miles apart4 ,this1 it will be admitted1 is an important part of the discovery40 ,next to the mechanism by which electric signals are made intelligible1 one of the most important inventions is that by which an electric current is enabled to renew its strength as it goes along a great length of wire4 ,the apparatus used for this purpose is called a relay1 and the first man to publish an account of it was ,prof4 ,wheatstone4 ,its mechanism is delicate and sometimes complex1 but its principle can be easily understood4 ,most people understand that when a railway train has run a great distance1 the engine requires to take in water or coal1 and for that purpose it sometimes moves on to a siding in connection with which there is a constant supply of water or coal4 ,in like manner1 on long telegraphic lines electric batteries are kept in readiness at certain distances2 but if they were connected with the main line it is obvious that their contents would be uselessly dissipated4 ,they are therefore kept in a kind of siding1 and are only temporarily connected with the main line for the purpose of replenishing a passing current4 ,in the case of a railway the service of a pointsman is often needed to connect and disconnect a siding2 but in the case of the telegraph the connecting link between the replenishing battery and the main line is made self acting4 ,this is effected by the use of that property of electricity which causes an electrified wire to attract to it an adjacent piece of wire or iron4 ,in the relay a needle or lever is so adjusted that when a feeble current comes along the main line1 it attracts the needle of the relay line1 and by means of this connection a fresh current from the local battery flows on to the line1 and does the work which the original current had become too feeble to accomplish4 ,this invention was embodied in the first patent of ,professor ,wheatstone2 and ,professor ,henry1 of ,new ,york1 has sworn to the fact that when he was in ,london1 in #ahcg1 ,professor ,wheatstone showed him in ,king's ,college1 early in ,april1 his method of bringing into action a second galvanic current by means of the deflection of a needle4 ,professor ,bache was also present4 ,the first patent was taken out in ,june1 #ahcg1 in the joint names of ,cooke and ,wheatstone4 ,their telegraph had five wires and five needles4 ,the guiding principle of their signalling apparatus was that a current of electricity on passing along a wire deflected the magnet or needle4 ,professor ,wheatstone candidly acknowledged that he was not the discoverer of that principle2 but it was he who discovered the practical basis upon which the wires and magnets should be adjusted so as to produce the desired effects4 ,he arranged in a row five needles like those in a mariner's compass2 and when a current of electricity was sent along one of the wires the needle attached to it could be deflected to the right or left at the will of the sender4 ,in the original form of the receiving instrument the needle was worked or deflected upon the face of a dial1 upon which the letters of the alphabet were so arranged that any letter could be indicated at will by the sender making two of the deflected needles converge towards the desired letter4 ,any person could manipulate this instrument1 as there was no secrecy or code involved in its signals4 ,illustration3 ,,face ,,of ,,wheatstone',s ,,first ,,telegraph ,,instrument4 ,a glance at the illustration will show the simplicity of this apparatus4 ,the objection to it was that it required five wires to transmit the signals and a sixth wire to bring back the electricity after it had done its work4 ,but the only other electric telegraph then announced in ,england required twenty-six wires2 and it is in comparison with previous efforts that the first ,wheatstone instrument should be judged4 ,it is a curious fact that just fifty years after the invention of this instrument with six wires1 a new system of telegraphing was tried by which six messages could be sent almost simultaneously on one wire1 either all in one direction1 or part of them in one direction and the remainder in the opposite direction4 ,the first electric telegraph designed by ,wheatstone was laid down on the ,north ,western ,railway between ,euston ,square and ,camden ,town ,stations1 a distance of a mile and a half4 ,it was first worked on the evening of ,july #beth1 #ahcg1 which may be considered as the birthday of the electric telegraph in ,england4 ,let us see how and where it came to pass4 ,late in the evening1 in a dingy little room near the booking office at ,euston ,square1 by the light of a flaring dip candle1 which only illuminated the surrounding darkness1 sat the inventor with a beating pulse and a heart full of hope4 ,in an equally small room at ,camden ,town ,station1 where the wires terminated1 sat ,mr4 ,cooke1 his co-partner1 and among others two witnesses well known to fame1 ,mr4 ,charles ,fox and ,mr4 ,stephenson4 ,these gentlemen listened to the first word spelled by that trembling tongue of steel1 which will only cease to speak with the extinction of man himself4 ,mr4 ,cooke1 in his turn touched the keys and returned the answer4 8,never10 said ,professor ,wheatstone1 8did ,i feel such a tumultuous sensation before1 as when all alone in the still room ,i heard the needles click1 and as ,i spelled the words ,i felt all the magnitude of the invention now proved to be practicable beyond cavil or dispute40 ,nevertheless the public treated it with indifference2 the directors of the railway soon gave it notice to quit1 and one of them even denounced it as 8a new-fangled thing40 ,the next line of telegraph was made on the ,great ,western ,railway4 ,in ,july1 #ahci1 a line of wires was laid from ,paddington to ,west ,drayton1 a distance of thirteen miles4 ,an arrangement had been made between the ,railway ,company and ,messrs4 ,cooke and ,wheatstone to the effect that within a certain number of months after the telegraph had been laid and efficiently worked between these two places1 the ,railway ,company might call on the patentees to give them a license for the whole of the line1 and the ,railway ,company had the power to construct a telegraph all the way from ,bristol to ,london for a certain number of years2 but the work not being done within the prescribed time1 the agreement became void1 and for some time the telegraph did not extend beyond ,slough--a distance of seventeen miles4 ,from the first the line to ,west ,drayton worked satisfactorily4 ,for the purpose of testing whether it could be relied on1 it was used for nearly two months to communicate to ,paddington the moment of the passing of the trains at ,west ,drayton and ,hanwell1 and it was found to answer admirably4 ,the cost of making that line was from #bej to #cjj a mile1 including the charge for station instruments4 ,at first the wires placed in a tube were put underground1 but it was soon found better to have them above ground1 where they were less liable to injury from wet4 ,early in #ahdj ,professor ,wheatstone claimed as the result of experience that thirty signals could be conveniently made in a minute by this telegraph1 and at the same time he stated that 8having lately occupied myself in carrying into effect numerous improvements which had suggested themselves to me1 ,i have1 in conjunction with ,mr4 ,cooke1 who has turned his attention greatly to the same subject1 obtained a new patent for a telegraph which ,i think will present very great advantages over the present one4 ,it can be applied without entailing any additional expense by simply substituting new instruments for the old ones4 ,this new instrument requires only a single pair of wires to effect all that the present one does with five2 so that three independent telegraphs may be immediately placed on the line of the ,great ,western4 ,it presents in the same place all the letters of the alphabet according to the order of succession1 and the apparatus is so extremely simple that any person1 without any previous acquaintance with it1 can send a communication and read the answer40 ,when ,professor ,wheatstone made the above statement1 he also explained that ,mr4 ,cooke had devised an apparatus whereby a bell worked by one wire could be rung at the other end of the wire by the sender1 in order to draw the attention of the receiver to the message about to be sent4 ,he added that ,mr4 ,cooke had particularly directed his attention to an arrangement by means of which communications could be made from intermediate parts of the line where there were no fixed stations4 ,for that purpose posts were placed at every quarter of a mile along the line from which the guard of a train might1 if necessary1 send a message to a station in either direction by means of a portable instrument which he was to carry with him4 ,it was in the same year1 after these statements were made1 that ,mr4 ,cooke began his series of complaints against ,professor ,wheatstone1 whom he accused of claiming the invention of the telegraph as his exclusive work1 and of omitting all mention of his 7,mr4 ,cooke's7 name in connection with it4 ,mr4 ,cooke now 7#ahdj7 maintained that he himself had invented the first telegraph1 and thereupon a war of words arose as to the respective parts played by the patentees in the joint undertaking4 ,the controversy thus raised between the two partners1 instead of being allowed to produce an instant rupture1 which might have injured the progress of the telegraph1 was submitted to the decision of ,sir ,m4 ,isambard ,brunel1 engineer of the ,thames ,tunnel1 and ,professor ,daniell1 of ,king's ,college1 the one a friend of ,mr4 ,cooke and the other a friend of ,professor ,wheatstone1 and on ,april #bgth1 #ahda1 these two gentlemen drew up the following statement3 8,in ,march1 #ahcf1 ,mr4 ,cooke1 while engaged at ,heidelberg in scientific pursuits1 witnessed1 for the first time1 one of those well-known experiments with electricity considered as a possible means of communicating intelligence which have been tried and exhibited from time to time during many years by various philosophers4 ,struck with the vast importance of an instantaneous mode of communication to the railways then extending themselves over ,great ,britain as well as to ,government and general purposes1 and impressed with the strong conviction that so great an object might be practically attained by means of electricity1 ,mr4 ,cooke immediately directed his attention to the adaptation of electricity to a practical system of telegraphing1 and giving up the profession in which he was engaged1 he from that hour devoted himself exclusively to the realisation of that object4 ,he came to ,england in ,april1 #ahcf1 to perfect his plans and instruments4 ,in ,february1 #ahcg1 while engaged in completing a set of instruments for the intended experimental application of his telegraph to the tunnel of the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway1 he became acquainted1 through the introduction of ,dr4 ,roget1 with ,professor ,wheatstone1 who had for several years given much attention to the subject of transmitting intelligence by electricity1 and had made several discoveries of the highest importance connected with this subject4 ,among these were his well-known determination of the velocity of electricity when passing through a metal wire2 his experiments in which the deflection of magnetic needles1 the decomposition of water1 and other voltaic and magneto-electric effects were produced through greater lengths of wire than had ever before been experimented upon2 and his original method of converting a few wires into a considerable number of circuits1 so that they might transmit the greatest number of signals that can be transmitted by a given number of wires by the deflection of magnetic needles4 8,in ,may1 #ahcg1 ,messrs4 ,cooke and ,wheatstone took out a joint ,english patent on a footing of equality for their existing inventions4 ,the terms of their partnership1 which were more exactly defined and confirmed in ,november1 #ahcg1 by a partnership deed1 vested in ,mr4 ,cooke as the originator of the undertaking the exclusive management of the invention in ,great ,britain1 ,ireland1 and the ,colonies1 with the exclusive engineering department1 as between themselves1 and all the benefits arising from the laying down of the lines and the manufacture of the instruments4 ,as partners standing on a perfect equality1 ,messrs4 ,cooke and ,wheatstone were to divide equally all proceeds arising from the granting of licenses or from the sale of patent rights1 a percentage being first payable to ,mr4 ,cooke as manager4 ,professor ,wheatstone retained an equal voice with ,mr4 ,cooke in selecting and modifying the forms of the telegraphic instruments1 and both parties pledged themselves to impart to each other for their equal and mutual benefit all improvements of whatever kind which they might become possessed of connected with the giving of signals or the sending of alarms by means of electricity4 ,since the formation of the partnership the undertaking has rapidly progressed under the constant and equally successful exertions of the parties in their distinct departments1 till it has attained the character of a simple and practical system worked out scientifically on the sure basis of actual experience4 8,while ,mr4 ,cooke is entitled to stand alone as the gentleman to whom this country is indebted for having practically introduced and carried out the electric telegraph as a useful undertaking1 promising to be a work of national importance2 and ,professor ,wheatstone is acknowledged as the scientific man whose profound and successful researches had already prepared the public to receive it as a project capable of practical application2 it is to the united labours of two gentlemen so well qualified for mutual assistance that we must attribute the rapid progress which this important invention has made during the five years that they have been associated40 ,for a time the rivalry or jealousy seemed at rest4 ,both ,mr4 ,cooke and ,professor ,wheatstone concurred in the above statement1 and ,mr4 ,cooke gave prominence to the portions of it most favourable to him1 claiming that such passages formed the award of an arbitration that resulted in his favour4 ,but ,professor ,daniell in #ahdc explained that this document was not an 8award0 of the arbitrators1 for the arbitration was not proceeded with4 ,the arbitrators1 considering the pecuniary interests at stake and the relative position of the parties1 were of opinion1 he said1 that without entering into the evidence of the originality of the invention on either side1 a statement of facts might be drawn up1 of the principal of which there appeared to be no essential discrepancy in the statement of either party1 and that they might thus amicably settle the unfortunate misunderstanding that had occurred4 ,he added that with a view to promote such an amicable settlement the arbitrators insisted1 as a preliminary step1 upon the withdrawal and destruction of #ajjj copies of an ex parte statement of evidence proposed to be brought forward1 and of a most intemperate address prepared by ,mr4 ,cooke's solicitor4 ,the lull produced by that document was only temporary4 ,when anything was published making favourable mention of ,professor ,wheatstone's originality as the inventor of the telegraph1 ,mr4 ,cooke or his partisans openly accused the ,professor of tampering with the press1 and ,mr4 ,cooke himself was not above publishing protestations for the purpose of showing his 8own surprising forbearance10 as well as the 8egotism10 8humiliation10 and 8perseveringly repeated misrepresentations0 of ,professor ,wheatstone6 ,in later years ,mr4 ,cooke or his friends paraded before the public an article in his favour that appeared in a quarterly review since deceased4 ,that article was represented as having been written by ,sir ,david ,brewster1 and as giving a correct account of the origin of the telegraph4 ,it stated that ,mr4 ,cooke had previously held a commission in the ,indian ,army1 8and having returned from ,india on leave of absence and on account of ill health1 he afterwards resigned his commission and went to ,heidelberg to study anatomy4 ,in the month of ,march1 #ahcf1 ,professor ,mncke of ,heidelberg exhibited an electro-telegraphic experiment in which electric currents1 passing along a conducting wire1 conveyed signals to a distant station by the deflection of the magnetic needle inclosed in ,schweigger's galvanometer or multiplier4 ,the currents were produced by a voltaic battery placed at each end of the wire1 and the apparatus was worked by moving the ends of the wires backward and forward between the battery and the galvanometer4 ,mr4 ,cooke was so struck with this experiment that he immediately resolved to apply it to purposes of higher utility than the illustration of a lecture1 and he abandoned his anatomical pursuits and applied his whole energies to the invention of an electric telegraph4 ,within three weeks1 in ,april1 #ahcf1 he made his first electric telegraph1 partly at ,heidelberg1 and partly at ,frankfort4 ,it was of the galvanometer form consisting of six wires1 forming three metallic circuits1 and influencing three needles4 ,by the combination of these1 he obtained an alphabet of twenty-six signals4 ,mr4 ,cooke soon afterwards made another electric telegraph of a different construction4 ,he had invented the detector1 for discovering the locality of injuries done to the wires1 the reciprocal communicator1 and the alarm4 ,all this was done in the months of ,march and ,april1 #ahcf2 and in ,june and ,july of the same year he recorded the details of his system in a manuscript pamphlet from which it was obvious that in ,july1 #ahcf1 he had wrought out his practical system from the minutest official details up to the records and extended ramifications of an important political and commercial engine40 ,the article goes on to say that when his telegraphic apparatus was completed1 he showed it in ,november1 #ahcf1 to ,mr4 ,faraday1 and afterwards submitted it and his pamphlet in ,january1 #ahcg1 to the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway ,company1 with whom he made a conditional arrangement1 with the view of using it on the long tunnel at ,liverpool4 ,in ,february1 #ahcg1 when he was about to apply for a patent he consulted ,mr4 ,faraday and ,dr4 ,roget on the construction of the electro-magnet employed in a part of his apparatus1 and the last of these gentlemen advised him to consult ,professor ,wheatstone1 to whom he went1 according to ,mr4 ,cooke's account1 on the #bgth of ,february1 #ahcg4 ,now the article containing these statements was doubtless attributed to ,sir ,david ,brewster in the hope that his name would be accepted as a guarantee of its accuracy4 ,fortunately for all concerned1 however1 ,sir ,david ,brewster had previously placed on record his opinion on this question of the telegraph in a manner that put it beyond doubt4 ,asked by a ,committee of the ,house of ,lords in #ahea whether ,professor ,wheatstone was the undoubted inventor of the electric telegraph1 ,sir ,david ,brewster replied3 8,undoubtedly he is40 ,further asked whether there was not a ,swede who had paid great attention to the subject1 ,sir ,david said ,oersted was the discoverer of electromagnetism1 but had that not been discovered at all1 ordinary magnetism was quite capable of being the moving power in the electric telegraph4 ,he added that if electromagnetism had been the only means of working a telegraph1 then the merit1 not of the telegraph1 but of what was necessary to the existence of the telegraph1 would have belonged to ,professor ,oersted4 ,when1 on the other hand1 the same ,committee pressed ,sir ,i4 ,k4 ,brunel to say whom he considered the inventor of the telegraph1 he replied3 8,messrs ,cooke and ,wheatstone derive a large sum of money from the electric telegraph2 but ,i believe you will find fifty people who will say that they invented it also3 ,i suppose it would be difficult to trace the original inventor of anything40 ,it has never been denied1 though often overlooked1 that ,mr4 ,cooke obtained his first idea of a telegraph from ,professor ,mncke of ,heidelberg--a circumstance which detracts from its originality4 ,but the matter did not rest there4 ,when ,mr4 7then ,sir7 ,w4 ,f4 ,cooke died in #ahgi1 ,mr4 ,latimer ,clark published the portion of his private correspondence which related to his first connection with ,professor ,wheatstone1 and although ,mr4 ,latimer ,clark endeavoured to put everything in the light most favourable to ,mr4 ,cooke1 the letters of the latter in essential points confirm the case of ,professor ,wheatstone4 ,for example1 after writing numerous letters to his mother explaining that he was busy trying to make a telegraph1 ,mr4 ,cooke wrote on ,february #bgth1 #ahcg3 8,dissatisfied with the results obtained1 ,i this morning obtained ,dr4 ,roget's opinion1 which was favourable but uncertain2 next ,dr4 ,faraday's1 who1 though speaking positively as to the general results formerly1 hesitated to give an opinion as to the galvanic fluid action on a voltaic magnet at a great distance when the question was put to him in that shape4 ,i next tried ,clark1 a practical mechanician1 who spoke positively in favour of my views1 yet ,i felt less satisfied than ever1 and called upon a ,mr4 ,wheatstone1 ,professor of ,chemistry at the ,london ,university1 and repeated my inquiries4 ,imagine my satisfaction at hearing from him that he had four miles of wire in readiness1 and imagine my dismay on hearing afterwards that he had been employed for months in the construction of a telegraph1 and had actually invented two or three with the view of bringing them into practical use4 ,we had a long conference1 and ,i am to see his arrangement of wire to-morrow morning1 c4444 ,the scientific men know little or nothing absolute on the subject4 ,wheatstone is the only man near the mark40 ,mr4 ,latimer ,clark accounts for the notice of ,professor ,wheatstone's experiments in the ,magazine of ,popular ,science for ,march1 #ahcg1 by saying that it was 8evidently inserted after the remainder of the articles had been completed1 and set in type10 and that ,wheatstone supplied the information after ,mr4 ,cooke's visit to him--a gratuitous assertion which is not supported by any positive evidence4 ,then1 again1 ,mr4 ,latimer ,clark1 an eminent authority upon the laws of electricity1 says1 concerning ,mr4 ,cooke's proposed telegraph1 that 8upon the whole the instrument1 the result of such long cogitation and experiment1 is disappointing1 and one is not surprised at ,wheatstone1 with his exquisite mechanical appreciation1 criticising it as severely as he did40 ,moreover1 he admits that the first telegraph instrument used between ,camden ,town and ,euston was ,wheatstone's4 ,not less emphatic or explicit was the statement of the case given by ,professor ,wheatstone himself1 and moreover it contained some passages of biographical interest4 ,addressing ,mr4 ,cooke1 he said3 8,you state that you alone had succeeded in reducing to practical usefulness the electric telegraph at the time you sought my assistance4 ,this ,i wholly deny4 ,your instrument had never been practically applied1 and was incapable of being so4 ,mine were all founded on principles which ,i had previously proved by decisive experiments would produce the required effects at great distances4 ,your statement that ,i employed myself at your request in perfecting your invention in detail is equally erroneous4 ,my time1 so far as it was devoted to telegraphic researches1 was exclusively occupied in perfecting my own instrument1 which had nothing in common with yours1 and in which ,i was not only known to be engaged by all my scientific friends1 but which was even announced in public print before ,i knew of your existence4 ,i confined myself to carrying out one of my own inventions for two reasons3 ,first1 because my experiments led me to believe that the motions of a needle could be produced at distances at which no effects of electro-magnetic attraction could be obtained2 and1 secondly1 ,i did not wish to interfere with you4 ,with regard to the subsequent development of my first telegraph1 the essential principles of which are the formation of numerous circuits from a few wires and the indication of characters by the convergence of needles1 ,i am indebted to no person whatever2 it is in all its parts entirely and exclusively my own4 ,the modifications you introduced without consulting me in the instruments for the ,great ,western ,railway altered the simplicity and elegance of the arrangement without the slightest advantage1 and ,i certainly should not recognise them in any published description40 8,the circumstances under which your name was allowed to take the lead in the titles of the ,british patents have escaped your memory4 ,i will endeavour to recall them to you4 ,when you first proposed partnership1 you know how strongly ,i opposed it1 and on what grounds4 ,i said ,i was perfectly confident of being able to carry out my views to the end ,i anticipated1 that ,i fully intended doing so1 and publishing the results1 then allowing any person to carry them into practical effect4 ,i told you that1 while ,i admired the ingenuity of your contrivance ,i deemed it inapplicable to the purpose proposed1 and ,i urged that in that case the association of my name with that of others would diminish the credit ,i should obtain by separately publishing the result of my researches4 ,you replied that you were not seeking scientific reputation1 and therefore no difference could arise between us on that account1 and that your sole object was to carry the project into profitable execution4 ,a patent was arranged to be taken out in our joint names which should include our two separate instruments4 ,when we met to settle the preliminaries for the ,english patent ,i was much surprised to find your name inserted first1 considering that1 as we put ourselves on an equality by each contributing an invention1 to put my well-known name after yours1 then totally unknown1 might be construed into an admission of the superiority of your share4 ,you urged that your pecuniary obligations were the greater1 and that as ,i intended to leave negotiations with you1 your authority might be less respected if your name appeared second1 and that your invention was the more valuable--an assumption ,i did not admit1 and the event proved ,i was right4 ,but we agreed that in subsequent patents the order should alternate4 ,some time after we met to settle the ,scotch patent draft1 for which you had prepared the declaration4 ,i was again surprised to find the same order of precedence repeated1 and ,i objected to it as contrary to our previous understanding4 ,you said it had been done without your knowledge1 but objected to the alteration on the ground of delay4 ,after discussion we made a new arrangement1 that on my allowing your name to stand on the ,british patents1 mine should take the lead in all foreign ones4 ,it was resolved afterwards that an ,american patent should be obtained1 and when ,i attended to sign the preliminary papers1 ,i found that again1 without any notice to me1 my name was made to follow yours4 ,i refused to sign the papers1 and you then consented to keep your word4 ,the only reason you alleged was that your authority as manager would be diminished if you appeared as second partner4 8,when ,i had attained some complete results1 ,i invited you to the ,college to see them1 and before describing or showing the new experiments and instruments1 ,i proposed conditions3 ,that having1 at my own expense1 undertaken a series of investigations which led to important consequences greatly increasing the pecuniary value of the patents1 and having invented new instruments which1 besides being applicable to all the purposes for which the existing arrangements could be applied1 might also be profitably applied to other purposes to which the previous instruments were not at all adapted1 ,i required as a compensation that ,i should retain the exclusive right of manufacturing them and all instruments ,i should construct involving the same principles1 and also the privilege of employing them exclusively for domestic and official purposes4 ,to these conditions you assented1 and afterwards ,i showed you the completed instruments1 and read to you a list of the further experiments4 ,you confirmed your assent4 ,on this occasion you breathed not a word respecting the claim since put forward to be considered the joint inventor of my new instruments4 8,you ask me to acknowledge that #8,i1 having certain improvements on our joint invention in progress depending fundamentally upon principles first discovered and applied by you1 had asked as a favour1' c4 ,it is unjust to urge such an acknowledgment upon me1 and ,i state plainly that nothing shall compel me to make it4 ,my instruments are original combinations involving a great number of points entirely new4 ,with equal justice ,mr4 ,ronalds might call upon me to declare that he is the joint inventor1 because1 like him1 ,i use a revolving dial with letters--or ,professor ,steinheil complain of my suppressing his name because1 in one of my most recent important modifications ,i employ1 as he has done1 the magneto-electric machine--as you to put forth that claim1 because in some of my new instruments ,i have employed magneto-electric attraction1 which you had done before me in your instrument2 or with the same reason might ,mr4 ,morse call upon me to proclaim him to be joint inventor because he1 independently of you1 has employed an electro-magnet to move machinery intended for a telegraph4 ,one of your complaints is1 that in the notices of my experiments in ,belgium the employment of two wires for an electric telegraph was not specifically mentioned as a discovery of yours4 ,such a claim on your part has no foundation1 for1 without going further back1 ,ronalds' two telegraphs--two telegraphs on different principles1 which ,i myself proposed before ,i knew you1--and ,steinheil's telegraph1 with which ,i was acquainted before yours1 had two wires4 ,you forget that it is my electric telegraph1 and not yours1 that is in daily use4 ,and1 lastly1 you forget that1 had it not been for my exclusive attention to it since ,i first conceived the idea1 a practical telegraph might still have remained an unaccomplished purpose4 8,do not1 however1 misunderstand me4 ,far be it from me to underrate your exertions2 they have been very great1 and absolutely indispensable to the success of our joint undertaking4 ,without your zeal and perseverance and practical skill1 what has been done would not have been so readily effected2 but on the other hand1 ,i may say1 that had you entered the field without me1 your zeal1 perseverance1 and money would have been thrown away40 ,his subsequent as well as his previous inventions afford the strongest evidence of his originality4 ,his inventions were not more distinguished for ingenuity than for permanent usefulness1 and they had this unusual characteristic1 that nearly every one of them became the parent of a considerable offspring4 ,these form his most enduring monument1 and a simple record of them forms his best vindication4 ,in #ahdj he produced three inventions at one birth--his dial telegraph1 his printing telegraph1 and his electric clock4 ,each of these instruments was worked by utilising one of the great discoveries previously made in electro-magnetism4 ,it was known that when an electric current is sent through a wire coiled round a piece of soft iron1 the iron becomes a magnet4 ,if the current is stopped for a moment1 the iron instantly ceases to act as a magnet4 ,when the piece of iron is magnetic1 it will attract another piece of iron1 and as the attraction ceases as soon as the current ceases1 the iron can then by means of a spring be made to resume its original position4 ,thus by frequently interrupting an electric current1 a piece of iron held in its place by a small spring can be made to move to and fro as often as it is attracted4 ,professor ,wheatstone invented a method of regulating the application of the current to such a magnet1 and of converting the to-and-fro motion of the iron into symbols4 ,the piece of mechanism that regulated the current was a wheel called a commutator or communicator2 around its circumference were twenty-four teeth2 and each tooth was made to act as a conductor of electricity in this way3 ,under the teeth of the communicator there was a metallic circle which was connected with the telegraph wire2 and in this metallic circle twenty-four pieces of wood were inserted at equal distances apart2 so that the teeth of the communicator1 which was connected by wire with the battery1 at one moment touched the conducting metal of the circle underneath it1 and thus imparted a current to the telegraph wire1 while at the next turn a pace round they rested on the non-conducting wood1 by which the current was prevented from passing from the communicator wheel to the telegraph wire4 ,in a complete revolution of such a wheel the current would be twenty-four times established and as often interrupted2 and each of these twenty-four alternations was made to indicate a letter of the alphabet at the other end of the wire by means of a piece of mechanism like a clock4 ,when the current passed along the wire1 it electrified a magnet1 which then drew towards it an armature 7a piece of iron74 ,the movement of this armature 7forward by electricity and backward again by a spring7 acted like a pendulum in moving a wheel1 which in turn moved a hand on a dial containing the letters of the alphabet4 ,just as at each movement of the pendulum of a clock1 a wheel moves one tooth forward2 so at each movement of the armature by an electric current1 a twenty-four toothed wheel was moved one tooth forward1 and at each such movement the hand on the dial moved from one letter of the alphabet to the next one4 ,if1 for instance1 the indicator hand stood at ,a and it was desired to transmit ,e1 this would be done by moving the communicator wheel four teeth onward2 in doing that four successive currents would be transmitted to the indicator1 the hand of which would consequently move over ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 and then reach ,e1 where a pause would indicate that this was the letter intended to be read4 ,this was called ,wheatstone's electro-magnetic telegraph1 because it was worked by an electric current from a battery electrifying a magnet4 ,in #ahda he invented a machine in which magnets produced electricity sufficient to work the telegraph4 ,hence it was called a magneto-electric machine1 and the telegraph worked by it was called a magneto-electric telegraph4 ,in #ahdj he explained that magneto-electricity was of momentary duration as contrasted with the continuous action of electro-magnetism4 ,the magneto-electric machine then in use consisted of a coil or coils of insulated wire being made to revolve in the vicinity of a magnet1 or the magnet revolving in the vicinity of the insulated coils of wire1 and this apparatus only produced a series of shocks1 or instantaneous as compared with continuous currents4 ,his new invention combined several of these machines into one by so uniting their coils as to form one continuous circuit1 thereby producing the same effect as a perfectly continuous current4 ,he said this magneto-electric machine could be used for many purposes for which a voltaic battery had been employed4 ,the patent for it was taken out in his own name4 ,meanwhile another competitor had begun to challenge his originality4 ,on ,november #bf1 #ahdj1 ,professor ,wheatstone read a paper before the ,royal ,society describing his electro-magnetic telegraph clock as his own invention4 ,he also showed the clock in action in the library4 ,in ,january following he received notice from a ,mr4 ,barwise1 of ,st4 ,martin's ,lane1 that he claimed to be the inventor of the clock1 and shortly afterward it was stated in placards that ,messrs4 ,barwise and ,bain were the joint inventors4 ,at first ,professor ,wheatstone took little notice of the attacks thus made upon his originality1 but in ,june1 #ahdb1 he was directly charged by ,mr4 ,bain in the public press with appropriating his inventions4 ,in reply to that accusation1 ,professor ,wheatstone stated that ,alexander ,bain was a working mechanic who had been employed by him between the months of ,august and ,december1 #ahdj2 and to the allegation that ,bain communicated the invention of the clock to him in ,august1 #ahdj1 he answered that there was no essential difference between his telegraph clock and one of the forms of his electro-magnetic telegraph1 which he had patented in ,january1 #ahdj2 that the former was one of the numerous and obvious applications which he had made of the principle of the telegraph1 and that it only required the idea of telegraphing time to present itself and any workman of ordinary skill could put it in practice--in telegraphing messages the wheel for making and breaking the circuit was turned round by the finger of the operator1 while in telegraphing time it was carried round by the arbor of a clock4 ,he also stated that1 long before the date specified1 he mentioned to many of his friends how the principle of his telegraph could be applied 8to enable the time of a single clock to be shown simultaneously in all the rooms of a house1 or in all the houses of a town connected together by wires40 ,the accuracy of these statements was verified by ,dr4 ,w4 ,a4 ,miller1 of ,king's ,college1 and by ,mr4 ,john ,martin1 the eminent artist4 ,the latter stated that ,professor ,wheatstone explained to him in ,may1 #ahdj1 his proposed application of his electric telegraph for the purpose of showing the time of a distant clock simultaneously in as many places as might be required4 ,mr4 ,martin1 on hearing the explanation1 said to him1 8,you propose to lay on time through the streets of ,london as we now lay on water40 ,mr4 ,f4 ,o4 ,ward1 a former student of ,king's ,college1 stated that ,professor ,wheatstone explained the matter to him on ,june #bj1 #ahdj4 ,while watching the motions of the dial telegraph as he turned the wheel that made and broke the circuit1 ,mr4 ,ward remarked that if it were turned round at a uniform rate1 the signals of the telegraph would indicate time1 to which ,professor ,wheatstone replied3 8,of course they would1 and ,i have arranged a modification of the telegraphic apparatus by which one clock may be made to show time in a great many places simultaneously20 and the ,professor showed him drawings of an apparatus for that purpose1 in which the making and breaking of the circuit by the alternate motion of the pendulum of a clock1 would produce isochronous signals on any number of dials1 provided they were connected by wire4 ,the electric clock in question has been repeatedly tried1 but has not answered expectations4 ,mr4 ,alexander ,bain also accused ,professor ,wheatstone of appropriating his printing telegraph4 ,he said he communicated the invention of the electric clock1 together with that of the electro-magnetic printing telegraph1 to ,professor ,wheatstone in ,august1 #ahdj1 before ever ,professor ,wheatstone did anything in the matter4 ,to that the ,professor replied that the printing apparatus was merely an addition to the electro-magnetic telegraph1 of which he was undoubtedly the inventor4 ,as to the way in which this telegraph printed the letters1 he explained that for the paper disc 7or dial7 of the telegraph1 on the circumference of which the letters were printed1 he substituted a thin disc of brass1 cut from the circumference to the centre so as to form twenty-four radiating arms on the extremities of which types were fixed4 ,this type-wheel could be brought to any desired position by turning the commutator wheel4 ,the additional parts consisted of a mechanism which1 when moved by an electro-magnet caused a hammer to strike the desired type--brought opposite to it--against a cylinder1 round which were rolled several sheets of thin white paper along with the alternate blackened paper used in manifold writing4 ,by this means he obtained at once several distinct printed copies of the message transmitted4 ,he maintained that the plan was begun and carried out solely by himself2 and ,mr4 ,edward ,cowper stated1 as corroborative evidence1 that on ,june #aj1 #ahdj1 he sent a note to ,professor ,wheatstone 7who had previously told him of the contrivance by which his telegraph could be made to print71 giving him information1 which he had asked for1 respecting the mode of preparing manifold writing paper1 and the best form of type for printing on it4 ,it was also at the beginning of #ahdj that he invented the 8chronoscope10 an instrument for measuring the duration of small intervals of time4 ,it was used for measuring the velocity of projectiles1 and consisted of a clock movement set free at the moment a ball was discharged from a gun1 and stopped when the ball reached the target4 ,for this purpose a wire in an electric circuit at the gun's mouth was broken at the instant the ball passed out of the gun2 and the circuit was completed when the ball reached the target1 the circuit acting on the clock movement by means of an electro-magnet4 ,it was publicly stated in #ahda by independent witnesses that the chronoscope was capable of indicating the one #gcjjth part of a second2 and the inventor himself stated in #ahde that with it the law of accelerated velocities had been obtained with mathematical rigour1 that with it he could measure the fall of a ball from the height of an inch1 and that by different arrangements which he had adopted to render the instrument applicable to different series of experiments1 he intended to employ it for measuring the velocity of sound through air1 water1 and masses of rock1 with an approximation that had never been obtained before4 ,in #ahdc he brought before the ,royal ,society several methods of measuring the force of an electric current1 and the paper he then read1 and the methods he described1 were for many years unrivalled both for simplicity and ingenuity4 ,speaking of electricity as an energetic source of light1 of heat1 of chemical action1 and of mechanical power--prescient words in those days--he said it was only necessary to know the conditions under which its various effects may be most economically and energetically manifested to enable us to determine whether the high expectations formed in many quarters of some of its daily increasing practical applications are founded on reasonable hope or on fallacious conjecture4 ,he considered that they had ample theory1 but not enough of experiment to supply1 except in a few cases1 the numerical value of the constants which enter into various voltaic circuits2 and without that knowledge accurate conclusions could not be arrived at4 ,he explained that electro-motive force 7,e4,m4,f47 meant the cause which in a closed circuit originated an electric current2 that by resistance was signified the obstacle opposed to the passage of the electric current by the bodies through which it passed2 and that resistance was the inverse of what is usually called their conducting power4 ,the principle of his methods was the use of variable instead of constant resistances1 bringing thereby the currents compared to equality1 and inferring from the amount of the resistances measured out between two deviations of the needle the electro-motive force and the resistances of a circuit1 according to the particular conditions of the experiment4 ,if a needle be connected with two coils of wire1 and if a current be sent through one coil1 the needle will be deflected to one side4 ,if at the same time a current of the same strength be sent through the other coil1 the currents will neutralize each other and the needle will remain at rest4 ,this is what is called a differential galvanometer1 and when two currents of different strength are sent through it simultaneously the needle is only affected by their difference4 ,one form in which ,professor ,wheatstone used this principle has ever since been known as 8the ,wheatstone bridge40 ,it is a method by which pieces of wire of known resistance are interposed in a circuit until the current in the wire to be tested counter-balances that of the wire used as a standard of resistance2 when that happens the needle indicator stands still1 the wire to be tested being now of the same resistance as that of the known standard4 ,professor ,wheatstone perceived that it was of the highest importance to have a correct standard of resistance1 and one that could be easily reproduced for the purpose of comparison4 ,he therefore adopted as a unit of resistance a copper wire one foot in length1 #ajj grains in weight1 and #jga of an inch in diameter4 ,he was the first man who made a unit of resistance1 and who introduced into electrical science the name of a unit and multiples of a unit2 and when1 nearly a quarter of a century afterward1 the ,british ,association appointed a committee on electrical standards1 their reports describing about a dozen standards1 paid a tribute to the originality of ,professor ,wheatstone as the introducer of the first unit4 ,he was not1 however1 the first to use the method of measuring electrical currents or the resistance of wires1 since known as the ,wheatstone ,bridge4 ,in a note appended to his paper read before the ,royal ,society in #ahdc he stated that ,mr4 ,christie had described the same principle in the ,philosophical ,transactions for #ahcc1 and added that 8to ,mr4 ,christie must therefore be attributed the first idea of this useful and accurate method of measuring resistances40 ,mr4 ,christie1 who was connected with the ,royal ,military ,academy at ,woolwich1 said in his paper that the arrangement he proposed possessed many advantages2 it afforded a very accurate measure of the difference of intensities of two electric currents1 whether they were from the same source and were merely modified by circumstances1 or had different sources2 and it afforded likewise a very accurate measure of the conducting powers of different substances4 ,mr4 ,christie did not1 however1 succeed in drawing attention to this method1 and it lay unheeded till ,professor ,wheatstone revived it and expounded it with matchless clearness4 ,he at the same time devised an instrument called the ,rheostat1 in which a highly resisting wire was so wound round the surface of a cylinder that any length of it could be connected with a circuit by merely turning round the handle of the cylinder till the needle or galvanometer connected with it showed that the resistance of the wire on the cylinder was equal to that of the wire to be tested4 ,as the resistance of the wire on the cylinder was accurately known beforehand1 the length of it required to counterbalance the resistance of the wire in course of being tested became the measure of the latter4 ,the wire on the cylinder may be compared to a winding measuring line2 only being of high resisting power1 a short length of it suffices to measure a long wire of low resistance4 ,professor ,wheatstone told the ,royal ,society in #ahdc that he had employed the ,rheostat and differential resistance measurer 7the ,wheatstone ,bridge7 for several years previously for the purpose of investigating the nature of electrical currents--a statement which had received a singularly generous corroboration2 for in #ahdj ,professor ,jacobi told the ,british ,association meeting in ,glasgow that ,professor ,wheatstone had shown him in ,london an instrument for regulating a galvanic current1 similar in principle to one that he had laid before the ,st4 ,petersburg ,academy of ,sciences at the beginning of that year4 ,professor ,jacobi1 in stating that it was quite impossible that ,professor ,wheatstone could have had any knowledge of his similar instrument1 said he must add that while he had only used his instrument for regulating the force of currents1 ,professor ,wheatstone had founded upon it a new method of measuring those currents and of determining the different elements of them4 ,the ,royal ,society1 which in #ahdj had presented him with a royal medal 8for the ingenious method by which he had solved the difficult question of binocular vision10 presented him with another medal in #ahdc1 when the ,president1 the ,marquis of ,northampton1 said3 8,i now present you with this medal1 one of those intrusted to the ,president and ,council of the ,royal ,society by ,her ,most ,gracious ,majesty1 for your paper entitled1 #8,an account of several new ,instruments and ,processes for determining the ,constants of the ,voltaic ,circuit4' ,this is not the first time that ,i have had the pleasing task of acknowledging on the part of the ,royal ,society the great ingenuity as well as knowledge that you bring to the increase of science4 ,you not only add to our store of knowledge1 but you give to others the means of doing so too4 ,you not only set the example of scientific pursuit1 but you also facilitate it in those who may become at once your followers and your rivals4 ,in the particular case before us you have introduced accuracy where even rough numerical data were almost wholly wanting4 ,the improvement of such facilities in any branch of science can hardly be overstated40 ,in #ahde a patent was taken out for a new form of needle telegraph1 respecting the origin of which ,mr4 ,latimer ,clark relates the following incident as told to him by ,mr4 ,greener some fifteen years after it occurred4 ,a very high tide which occurred in #ahda caused an inundation of the ,blackwall ,railway1 and injured the piping in which were inclosed the seven or eight wires then in use--they were then using a wire to each station2 so that only one wire or two could be worked4 ,mr4 ,cooke1 who was the practical engineer of the telegraph1 was much concerned lest some accident might happen through the failure of the telegraph1 whereby they would1 he feared1 be unable to communicate with the intermediate stations from the ,blackwall end of the line4 ,in view of this contingency ,mr4 ,greener and another clerk arranged a code of signals which could be worked on one wire by simply deflecting the needle alternately1 once1 twice1 or thrice1 to the right or left2 and in this way they managed to carry on communications respecting their dinners and other private matters4 8,mr4 ,cooke1 on being informed that it was still possible to telegraph1 gladly availed himself of the new means of communication by one wire1 and from that moment our well-known single and double-needle instrument was practically invented4 ,if these statements be accurate the first idea of the double-needle telegraph did not originate either with ,wheatstone or ,cooke1 but was suggested by ,mr4 ,greener and his partner1 who was at this time engaged with him on the ,blackwall telegraph40 ,in the popular accounts of great discoveries or inventions it is generally the falling of an apple that is said to suggest to a ,newton the law of gravitation1 or it is the boiling of a tea-kettle that suggests to a ,watt the mechanism of the steam-engine4 ,this has become the orthodox way of accounting for the triumphs of mind over matter in order to make them acceptable to intellectual mediocrity4 ,indeed1 the ,abb ,raynal says that the only difference between a genius and one of common capacity is that the former anticipates and explores what the latter accidentally hits upon4 ,but1 he adds1 8even the man of genius himself more frequently employs the advantages that chance presents to him2 it is the lapidary that gives value to the diamond which the peasant has dug up without knowing its worth40 ,now it is a curious fact that while the needle telegraph was one of the few telegraphic inventions of ,professor ,wheatstone that was undisputed during his lifetime1 the preceding account of its origin was never publicly mentioned till after his death4 ,facts1 however1 are against its accuracy4 ,the high tide referred to in the story occurred on ,november #ahth1 #ahda1 after the five-needle telegraph had been in operation on the ,great ,western ,railway more than two years2 and a few weeks' experience of its working enabled a clerk of ordinary intelligence to tell the letters transmitted by the movement of the needles1 even if the printed letters on the dial to which the needles pointed were covered over or obliterated4 ,a minute's examination of the five-needle instrument shows that a different combination of movements is required to represent each letter1 and if these combinations be learned by a few weeks' practice1 or be written down on paper1 they constitute a complete alphabet of signs4 ,and that alphabet of signs which the five-needle instrument first taught could obviously be produced by a single needle4 ,thus on the five-needle instrument ,a is represented by the movement of the first needle to the right1 and the fourth from it to the left2 but it would also be represented by the movement of one needle first to the right and then four times to the left4 ,in like manner ,b is represented on the five-needle instrument by the first needle moving to the right and the third from it to the left4 ,by means of a single needle it could be represented by one movement to the right and three to the left2 and so on with the other letters4 ,experience has suggested that the alphabet could be represented by fewer movements than those practically exhibited by the five-needle instrument2 but it is obvious that a few weeks' working of the five-needle instrument--and not a flood in the ,thames--was sufficient to show that the movements of needles1 without a dial or a printed alphabet1 could be made to convey intelligence4 ,this is no mere speculation4 ,more than this was in actual operation on the ,blackwall ,railway2 for in a contemporaneous account it is stated that the wires run all along the line inclosed in a metal tube1 and the arrangement is such that whenever a particular index deviates to the right or left at the ,minories ,station1 an index deviates to the right or left at all the other stations at the same instant4 8,if then10 says the contemporary writer1 8a preconcerted alphabet1 or key1 or dictionary1 or table of signals be agreed on1 the relative positions of two or more index-hands will serve to convey a message4 ,by the side of the telegraphic case a large chart is hung up1 containing about a hundred sentences1 instructions or questions1 each of which is symbolled by a particular position of two or three index hands4 ,thus one position1 capable of being effected by two movements of the handles1 implies1 #8,will the next train wait for the next steam-boat8' ,another implies1 #8,will the steam-boat wait for the next train8' ,and others3 #8,how many passengers8' #8,how many carriages8' and various inquiries and directions relating to the engines1 the ropes1 the telegraphs1 and the steam-boats which start from and arrive at ,blackwall40 ,the writer added that by employing the combined simultaneous motion of three or four needles1 the five-wire telegraph would afford nearly #bjj signals1 besides those appropriated to the alphabetic characters4 ,it thus appears that the idea of making the deviations of a needle represent messages or letters was not only obvious but in daily use4 ,yet the erroneous traditions that already envelop the infancy of this telegraph do not end here4 ,the contemporaneous account just quoted concludes with the remark that a telegraph like that used on the ,blackwall ,railway and the ,great ,western ,railway1 if consisting merely of three needles and giving only twelve signs1 has a power of combination fully equal to the semaphore then in use2 and in recent years it has been represented by persons of authority in the telegraph world that the double-needle instrument formed the transition stage from five needles to one4 ,hence the single-needle instrument has generally been regarded as a gradual improvement of the parent instrument of five needles4 ,but the fact is that both the single and double-needle instrument were minutely described in one and the same patent taken out in #ahde4 ,in that description1 which would fill a chapter of this book1 ,professor ,wheatstone was more careful to explain the advantages of the single than of the double-needle instrument4 ,he expressly disclaimed any intention to lay down a particular signification to the signals by which the alphabet could be represented2 he merely gave illustrations to show how easily a sufficient variety of signals could be obtained4 ,at the same time he gave an alphabet of signs suitable for a single-needle instrument1 and although experience has suggested a more convenient combination of signals1 it is on record that within a year or two after the patent for the single and double-needle telegraphs was taken out1 the single-needle instrument was tried on some of the railway lines1 and the alphabet of signals used was that which the five needle instrument suggested1 with slight modifications4 ,the single needle1 however1 was considered deficient in rapidity2 and consequently to obtain greater speed the double-needle instrument was preferred4 ,one of the first lines to adopt it was the ,south ,western2 it soon came to be regarded as the most rapid means of telegraphing2 and hence it came into general use4 ,it maintained its supremacy in ,england till more expeditious instruments were invented1 and then it was gradually superseded by the single-needle instrument1 which was found to be more accurate and economical4 ,now the single-needle instrument may be seen at most railway stations and rural post offices in the ,united ,kingdom4 ,in this instrument the needle when moved by a current to the right hand or the left1 strikes against a projecting pin placed on each side to arrest its motion2 the sender by moving a handle can deflect the needle at will either to the right or the left2 one deflection to the left and one to the right represents ,a2 one to the right and three to the left ,b2 one to the right1 one to the left1 another one to the right and another to the left ,c2 one to the right and two to the left ,d2 and so on4 ,none of the twenty-four letters of the alphabet has more than four deflections4 ,while ,e has one to the left1 ,i has two1 ,s three1 and ,h four4 ,t has one to the right1 ,m two1 ,o three1 and ,ch4 four4 ,it was calculated that about #ae1jjj of these instruments were in use in ,great ,britain in #ahhe4 ,meanwhile another improvement of a permanent nature had taken place4 ,the use of the earth instead of a special wire as the return circuit was first adopted in ,england on the ,blackwall ,railway telegraph in #ahda1 and on the ,manchester and ,leeds line in #ahdc4 ,the history of this improvement is curious4 ,in #ahch ,professor ,steinheil used the earth to complete the circuit of an electric telegraph which he established at ,munich1 and he has generally been regarded as the first electrician who purposely did so4 ,but ,william ,watson discovered the same thing in #agdg4 ,he erected a wire fully two miles long over ,shooter's ,hill1 supporting it upon rods of wood4 ,when electricity was communicated to the wire at one end1 the shock at the other end appeared to be instantaneous1 and the electricity was then communicated to the earth by means of a rod of iron4 ,it is also on record that in #agef ,kennersley1 of ,boston1 suggested to the celebrated ,franklin that 8as water is a conductor as well as metals1 it is to be considered whether a river or a lake1 or sea may not be made part of the circuit through which the electric fire passes instead of a circuit all of wire40 ,this expedient1 though now considered essential to the successful working of a telegraph1 was not practically adopted till nearly a century afterwards1 when it was found that as soon as the electricity had done its work the best thing to do with it was to convey it into the earth1 for just as the flow of rivers is accelerated by their waters falling into the sea1 so electric conduction is greatly improved by establishing a good connection between the end of a telegraph wire and the earth4 ,thus it was found in #ahda that by leading the electricity to the earth1 after it had done its work at the telegraphic apparatus1 the wire which had been previously used to bring it back1 or to complete the circuit1 could be dispensed with1 that by the earth thus absorbing the electricity its transmission along the wire was greatly facilitated1 and that it could be transmitted to a greater distance and through a smaller wire4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 8,in conducting the petty affairs of life1 common sense is certainly a more useful quality than genius itself4 ,genius1 indeed1 or that fine enthusiasm which carries the mind into its highest sphere1 is clogged and impeded in its ascent by the ordinary occupations of the world1 and seldom regains its natural liberty and pristine vigour except in solitude4 ,minds anxious to reach the regions of philosophy and science have indeed no other means of rescuing themselves from the burden and thraldom of worldly affairs40--,,zimmerman4 ,the invention of electrical apparatus had reached a stage of progress in #ahda sufficiently advanced to make the telegraph a practical success4 ,what was next wanted was the general adoption of the telegraph by the public1 and this was the task which exercised the business energy of ,mr4 ,cooke4 ,it was fortunate that the dispute between ,professor ,wheatstone and ,mr4 ,cooke as to the origin of the telegraph did not interfere with their efforts to promote its extension4 ,like most new inventions1 it had to fight its way at first4 ,in #ahda ,mr4 ,cooke wrote a small book on ,telegraphic ,railways2 or the ,single ,way1 in which he contended that the whole system of double way1 time tables1 and signals of railways was a vain attempt to attain indirectly and very imperfectly1 at any cost1 that safety from collision which would be perfectly and cheaply conferred by the electric telegraph4 ,it was well known1 he said1 that on the ,blackwall ,railway 8the carriages on each line are moved by what is called #8a tail rope1' to which they are attached and which is almost incessantly being drawn along the line to be wound up on a drum at one terminus or the other1 by the alternate action of the stationary engines4 ,it is consequently necessary that before the engineman applies the power of his engine to the rope for the purpose of giving motion to a train1 he should receive a specific intimation from every other station that its carriage is attached to the rope ready to start2 otherwise an independent and uncontrolled motive power acting from the terminus would frequently cause dreadful collisions among carriages placed at stations so nearly adjacent as those of ,shadwell1 ,stepney1 ,limehouse1 the ,west ,india ,docks1 and ,poplar40 ,but such a matter of fact illustration was not enough for ,mr4 ,cooke to give2 so after dilating on the good the telegraph was likely to do as the handmaid of the railway1 he concluded by saying that 8as the basis of an essentially new system of railway communication1 at once safe1 economical1 and efficient1 the electric telegraph may diffuse its blessings of rapid intercourse to districts which could never otherwise enjoy them4 ,it may increase the revenues of the greatest lines by adding to them fresh sources of lateral traffic2 it may permanently raise the price of shares by opening important lines now destitute of the means of completion2 and reduce indefinitely the expense of travelling on lines yet to be made4 ,above all it may accomplish the otherwise scarcely attainable union by railway between ,england and ,scotland1 and perhaps realise the patriotic aspirations of those who see in an extended system of railways employing her population and developing her resources1 a restoration of tranquillity to ,ireland40 ,no wonder that ,professor ,wheatstone appreciated ,mr4 ,cooke's 8zeal and perseverance10 not to speak of his imagination4 ,but all these were insufficient4 ,throughout the year #ahdb a prominent advertisement in the ,railway ,times invited the attention of railway companies1 engineers1 and other parties requiring a certain and instantaneous mode of communicating intelligence between distant points1 to ,messrs4 ,cooke and ,wheatstone's electric telegraph1 an invention which1 8besides its superiority for general telegraphic purposes1 in point of expedition1 secrecy1 night action1 and preliminary warning1 is peculiarly adapted to the use of railways10 and 8is also well adapted for mines1 coal pits1 docks1 c40 ,at the same time the general public were being invited to witness its performances as the latest and greatest sensation in ,london4 ,one announcement issued in #ahdb stated that 8under the special patronage of ,her ,majesty and ,h4 ,r4 ,h4 ,prince ,albert1 the public are respectfully informed that this interesting and extraordinary apparatus1 by which upwards of fifty signals can be transmitted #bhj1jjj miles in one minute1 may be seen in operation daily 7,sundays excepted7 from #i ,a4,m4 till #h ,p4,m4 at the telegraph office1 ,paddington1 and telegraph cottage1 ,slough4 ,admission #as40 ,those who were among the first to respond to this tempting invitation must have marvelled at the littleness of the apparatus capable of doing such wonderful work4 ,it was inclosed in a mahogany case a little larger than a hat-box1 which stood upon a table2 it was worked by pressing small brass keys1 similar to those on a keyed bugle1 and spectators were informed that these keys acting1 by means of electric power1 upon various hands placed upon a dial plate at the other end of the line made them point not only to each letter of the alphabet as each key was struck or pressed1 but when desired to numerals and to points of punctuation1 such as a comma1 colon1 c4 ,when any mistake was made in transmitting a message1 and a certain key was struck in consequence1 it made the hand point to an ,x1 which indicated that an 8erasure0 was intended4 ,ere long its utility was shown to be greater than its novelty4 ,as it continued in good working order1 events occurred which demonstrated its value4 ,for instance1 it transmitted the following messages which effected results that excited public interest at the time3-- ,eton ,montem1 ,august #bhth1 #ahdd4--,the ,commissioners of ,police have issued orders that several officers of the detective force shall be stationed at ,paddington to watch the movements of suspicious persons going by the down-train1 and give notice by the electric telegraph to the ,slough station of the number of such suspected persons and dress1 their names if known1 also the carriages in which they are4 ,paddington1 #aj4bj ,a4,m4--,mail train just started4 ,it contains three thieves1 named ,sparrow1 ,burrell1 and ,spurgeon1 in the first compartment of the fourth first-class carriage4 ,slough1 #aj4dh ,a4,m4--,mail train arrived4 ,the officers have cautioned the three thieves4 ,paddington1 #aj4ej ,a4,m4--,special train just left4 ,it contained two thieves3 one named ,oliver ,martin1 who is dressed in black1 crape on his hat4 ,the other1 named ,fiddler ,dick1 in black trousers and light blouse4 ,both in the third compartment of the first second-class carriage4 ,slough1 #aa4af ,a4,m4--,special train arrived4 ,officers have taken the two thieves into custody1 a lady having lost her bag containing a purse with two sovereigns and some silver in it2 one of the sovereigns was sworn to by the lady as having been her property4 ,it was found in ,fiddler ,dick's watch-fob4 ,slough1 #aa4ea ,a4,m4--,several of the suspected persons who came by the various down trains are lurking about ,slough1 uttering bitter invectives against the telegraph4 ,not one of those cautioned has ventured to proceed to the ,montem4 ,it was afterwards reported that when the train arrived at ,slough a policeman1 opening the door of the carriage described in the telegram1 asked if any passenger had missed anything4 ,on search being made by the astonished passengers1 one of them1 the lady1 exclaimed that her purse was gone4 8,then you are wanted1 ,fiddler ,dick10 said the constable to the thief1 who appeared thunderstruck at the supernatural discovery4 ,fiddler ,dick surrendered himself1 and delivered up the stolen money4 ,it was said that after that the light-fingered gentry avoided 8the wire40 ,another placard which was distributed all over ,london informed the public that 8the telegraph1 ,great ,western ,railway1 may be seen in constant operation daily1 ,sundays excepted2 by this powerful agency murderers have been apprehended1 thieves detected1 and1 lastly 7which is of no little importance71 the timely assistance of medical men has been procured in cases which would otherwise have proved fatal40 ,yet something more than sensational placards was necessary to impress upon the public mind the utility of the telegraph4 8,the genius of the ,english people10 says ,smollett1 8is perhaps incompatible with a state of perfect tranquillity3 if it is not ruffled by foreign provocations or agitated by unpopular measures of domestic administration1 it will undergo fermentations from the turbulent ingredients inherent in its own constitution3 tumults are excited and faction kindled into rage by incidents of the most frivolous nature40 ,he goes on to say that in #agec the metropolis of ,england was divided and discomposed in a surprising manner by a dispute in itself of so little consequence to the community that it did not deserve a place in a general history if it did not serve to convey a characteristic idea of the ,english nation4 ,in like manner an incident occurred in #ahde which would not deserve a place here1 if it had not been the means of directing public attention to the value of the telegraph4 ,when the first telegraph was started in #ahcg1 ,england was absorbed in the turmoil of a general election2 and all the efforts made for the next eight years to excite public interest in its favour were of little avail1 till on the evening of ,january #bnd1 #ahde1 it played a notable part in effecting the apprehension of a notorious murderer4 ,between six and seven o'clock in the evening of that day1 a woman named ,sarah ,hart was murdered at ,salt ,hill1 and a man was seen hurrying from her house in a way that aroused suspicion4 ,the police ascertained that the murdered woman was kept by a ,quaker named ,john ,tawell1 living at ,berkhampstead1 who was in comfortable circumstances and respected in the neighbourhood4 ,he answered the description of the man seen near the scene of the murder1 and was believed to have hurried to ,slough ,station and taken the train thence to ,paddington4 ,the police accordingly telegraphed to ,paddington as follows3 8,a murder has just been committed at ,salt ,hill1 and the suspected murderer was seen to take a first-class ticket for ,london by the train which left ,slough at #g;h4 #dbm4 ,p4,m4 ,he is in the garb of a ,quaker with a brown coat on1 which reaches nearly down to his feet2 he is in the last compartment of the second first-class carriage40 ,the distance from ,slough to ,paddington being only seventeen miles1 there was not much time for telegraphing1 and a circumstance occurred which is said to have imperilled the transmission of the message4 ,it was transmitted on one of ,wheatstone's five-needle instruments1 which was afterwards preserved by the ,post ,office authorities on account of the important part it played on this occasion4 ,among the letters of the alphabet stamped on its diamond-shaped face1 there was no 8,q20 and when the telegraph clerk at ,paddington saw1 in the middle of the message1 the needles pointing to the letters ,k-w-a he thought there must be some mistake or fault1 as no ,english word began with these letters4 ,he therefore asked the clerk at ,slough to repeat the word1 and again came the letters ,k-w-a4 ,another repetition threw no fresh light on the difficulty2 and it is said that after several repetitions a sharp boy suggested that the sender should be allowed to finish the word4 ,this being done the word came ,k-w-a-k-e-r1 which the clerk recognised as meaning ,quaker4 ,notwithstanding the delay thus caused by the absence of ,q1 the message was delivered in time1 and after a short interval the following reply to it was received3 8,the up train has arrived1 and the person answering in every respect the description given by telegraph came out of the compartment mentioned4 ,i pointed the man out to ,sergeant ,williams4 ,the man got into a ,new ,road omnibus1 and ,sergeant ,williams into the same40 ,on arriving at ,paddington1 ,tawell endeavoured to elude observation1 but unawares he was watched by the police as he went to a coffee tavern in the ,city1 where he was arrested next day by order of the authorities4 ,he was afterwards tried and convicted of the murder1 which was effected by administering prussic acid4 ,in a written confession left after his execution1 ,tawell said he had made a previous unsuccessful attempt at murder1 as he lived in perpetual dread of his connection with ,mrs4 ,hart becoming known to his wife4 ,the account given of his previous life also tended to increase the public excitement4 ,after a career of concealed profligacy1 he was sentenced to transportation in #ahbj for forgery1 but in ,australia his intelligence and good conduct induced the authorities to grant him first a ticket of leave1 and then emancipation4 ,eventually he became successful in business as a chemist in ,sydney1 and at the end of fifteen years left ,sydney a rich man4 ,returning to ,england1 he married as his second wife a ,quaker lady1 who was thereupon expelled from the ,society of ,friends1 and who lived to see him executed for a crime which startled the whole country1 and for which the telegraph was accredited with effecting his arrest4 ,another instance of telegraphic speed created both astonishment and amusement in #ahde4 ,in a contemporary publication it was reported that 8by the use of the telegraph has been accomplished the apparent paradox of sending a message in the year #ahde and receiving it in #ahdd4 ,thus1 directly after the clock had struck twelve on the night of ,december #ca1 the superintendent at ,paddington signalled to his brother at ,slough that he wished him a happy new year4 ,an answer was immediately returned suggesting that the wish was premature1 as the new year had not yet arrived at ,slough60 ,in ,april following a passenger1 while proceeding from ,paddington by the ,great ,western ,railway1 discovered that he had lost his purse containing notes and cash to the amount of nearly #ajjjl4 ,alighting at ,slough in a state of great agitation1 he telegraphed inquiries to ,paddington1 and was quickly relieved of his load of distress by learning that he had left his purse on the counter there1 and that it was safe in the hands of the clerk4 ,in #ahde1 too1 it was thought a telegraphic achievement worth proclaiming1 that the entire report of a railway meeting was transmitted in less than half an hour from ,portsmouth to ,london2 and that in the spring of #ahde the ,queen's ,speech1 containing #cfjj letters1 was transmitted from ,london to ,southampton4 ,this line of ninety miles was then the longest in ,england4 ,prior to that the old semaphore system was worked between ,london and ,portsmouth4 ,it consisted in the movement in a preconcerted manner of elevated boards1 fans1 or shutters1 in a way that was visible from one station to another1 it being agreed that each particular movement should represent a letter1 a word1 or a sentence4 ,these semaphore stations had to be on elevated spots so as to be visible to each other2 but as the weather often obscured the view1 this means of communication was only available during one-fifth of the year4 ,moreover1 it cost #c1jjjl4 a year to work it1 and it was worked for the last time on ,december #ca1 #ahdg4 ,for the use of the new electric telegraph to ,portsmouth the ,government paid #a1ejjl4 a year2 and to preserve secrecy they had an alphabet of signals of their own1 which could only be read and worked by their own trusted servants4 ,as the line was also used for the transmission of public messages1 it may be noted that the charge for sending a message then was from #cs4 to #is4 to ,southampton1 according to the number of words4 ,by this ,south ,western telegraph a game of chess was played in ,april1 #ahde1 between ,mr4 ,staunton and ,captain ,kennedy at the ,portsmouth terminus1 and ,mr4 ,walker and another gentleman at the ,vauxhall terminus4 ,details of the game were published in the press1 and it was said that 8the electric messenger0 had travelled #aj1jjj miles in course of the game4 ,such were the infantine achievements of an agency which in less than forty years was to transmit about #bjj million messages per annum1 and was to connect the most distant parts of the civilised world4 ,although the telegraph made little progress in ,england during the five years that followed the construction of the line between ,paddington and ,slough1 the capture of ,tawell1 the ,quaker murderer1 followed by reports of such incidents as those related above1 gave such an impetus to its extension that eighteen months after that event nearly #ajjj miles were constructed2 and it was thought in those primitive times worth recording that no less than #cjj tons of wire1 and #ejjj loads of timber had been used in telegraph works4 ,the year of #ahdg was a time of great activity in telegraphic construction4 ,it was not till then that the ,london and ,north ,western ,railway ,company1 on whose line the first working telegraph ever made was tried1 decisively adopted it--just ten years after the first experiment4 ,in #ahdg the ,company considered the commercial advantages of the telegraph to be established beyond doubt1 and they arranged for its construction along their entire line4 ,the ,midland ,company followed their example4 ,the ,south ,eastern ,railway ,company1 which adopted the telegraph in #ahde1 had a line #acb miles long in #ahdf1 and that line was then the longest in existence4 ,on ,september #a1 #ahdf1 that railway company announced that messages of twenty words would be sent for the public on payment of #a;d4 per mile4 ,the minimum charge was #es42 and the cost of sending a message from ,london to ,ramsgate was #abs4 #f;d4 ,mr4 ,c4 ,v4 ,walker1 who had charge of the line1 afterwards stated that the cost of telegraphing was fixed at a ,parliamentary fare and a half1 because it was suggested by 8an authority0 that it would not do to make the telegraph rates too low1 lest they might reduce the traffic receipts of the ,company by inducing passengers to use the wire instead of the trains4 ,that this was no mere fancy appears from a letter published in a respectable weekly journal in ,september1 #ahdf4 ,the writer of that letter complained that the directors had set such high prices upon telegraphic communications as would entirely prevent their use1 and that they would thus by their covetousness defeat their own purpose and interests4 ,five shillings for a message of less than twenty words to ,tonbridge2 #gs4 #f;d4 to ,maidstone2 #ajs4 #f;d4 to ,canterbury and ,folkestone2 #aas4 to ,dover1 and #abs4 #f;d4 to ,ramsgate--who1 he asked1 would pay 8such a price for a few words' conveyance when he can send a sheet of foolscap fully written by the post for one penny2 or when for the amount they charge he can run there and back in the ,company's own trains1 and see his friends or correspond vis vis1 with a ride into the bargain4 ,how different is this from the charges on the ,continent6 ,the telegraph on the ,brussels and ,antwerp line is open1 and the charge is #ej cents 7about #e;d4740 ,events were already in progress which were destined to provide a remedy for such primeval arrangements4 ,on ,october #a1 #ahde1 ,mr4 ,cooke was introduced to ,mr4 ,john ,ricardo1 ,m4,p41 who was so impressed with the value of the telegraph that within three weeks he accepted the terms upon which ,mr4 ,cooke offered to sell it4 ,mr4 ,ricardo then became chairman of the newly formed ,electric ,telegraph ,company1 which obtained an ,act of ,parliament in ,june1 #ahdf4 ,the ,company having been thus empowered to acquire and work the telegraphs1 gave #adj1jjj for the patents of ,messrs4 ,wheatstone and ,cooke4 ,professor ,wheatstone told some of his friends that when the first patent was taken out for his telegraph he had not the means to pay the cost of it1 and hence he had to get the support of others4 ,nine years afterwards when the patents were sold for #adj1jjj1 only #cj1jjj of that sum went into his pocket1 though the original agreement was that he should be 8on a footing of equality0 with ,mr4 ,cooke as to participation in profits4 ,it was ,mr4 ,cooke who negotiated the sale of the patents4 ,from a financial point of view the ,company at the outset was not prosperous1 but under their management the telegraph was rapidly extended2 indeed its extension for a time appeared to exceed the public requirements2 and ,mr4 ,ricardo had to advance money to pull them through their difficulties4 ,it was stated in #ahdg that there were then twenty lines of telegraph in ,england1 while in ,scotland1 where in #ahda ,sir ,charles ,fox ordered a line to be made on the ,glasgow and ,cowlairs ,railway1 there were now three lines4 ,the total length of the lines laid in #ahdg was #a1bej miles2 but as most of the lines had three or four wires the total length of wire in operation was #f1jag miles4 ,there were #bec stations1 and nearly #djj instruments in use4 ,in #ahdi the ,company completed arrangements with the ,post-master ,general and the different lines of railway for further extensions of telegraphic lines from their office at the ,general ,post ,office1 ,st4 ,martin's-le-,grand1 to most of the large towns in ,england and ,scotland1 to which messages of twenty words could be sent for #a;d4 per mile for the first #ej miles1 d4 for the second #ej miles1 and d4 for any distance beyond #ajj miles4 ,in course of their first five years' operations1 the receipts of the ,company increased nearly fivefold4 ,in ,january1 #ahdi1 a message was transmitted direct from ,london to ,manchester for the first time4 ,the ,electric ,telegraph ,company endeavoured to make telegraphic communication a monopoly by buying up every new invention that seemed likely to enable any other ,company to compete with them4 ,with reference to the inventions made for improving the telegraph1 ,mr4 ,ricardo1 the chairman of the ,company1 stated some curious facts in #ahea4 ,he said1 8,it has happened1 not once1 but ,i think twenty times1 that a man has brought to us an instrument of great ingenuity for sale2 we have taken him to a cupboard1 and brought out some dusty old models1 and said1 #8,that is your invention1 and there is wheel for wheel generally4' ,nevertheless he has1 in fact1 invented it4 ,the ideas of several men are set in motion by exactly the same circumstances4 ,one invention was brought for purchase to the ,electric ,telegraph ,company2 no model was brought with it2 there was simply a description of the apparatus4 ,it was on a principle which was received by electricians as impossible1 and the men of science connected with the ,company declared it to be impossible4 ,nevertheless the model was brought2 and it was found that the thing was practicable against all rules by which hitherto they had been guided in the matter4 ,we have bought a good many patented improvements2 in most cases they were valueless in themselves2 but in combination with others which we have1 they may be made useful4 ,we have found1 after every possible experiment1 that the original system of the needles is by far the best for all practical purposes4 ,there is not one invention which is not brought to the ,company before it is started against the ,company1 and we have expended nearly #bjj1jjj in buying patents and litigating them2 but we find1 after all1 that the original patent is by far the best and the most suitable for practical purposes4 ,there is one patent of ,mr4 ,bain's for which we gave #hjjj or #ijjj2 although it did not quite come up to our expectations1 it has proved useful in combination with other patents40 ,this testimony will appear all the more remarkable when it is added that between #ahcg and #aheg about forty different inventors took out patents for telegraphic apparatus1 and that some of these men took out several patents4 ,it is remarkable1 moreover1 that from the time of the formation of the ,company till #aheh1 ,professor ,wheatstone did not patent any improvement of telegraphic apparatus4 ,it has been said that during these years he entirely ceased to be an inventor1 and did not bring his great electrical knowledge and inventive faculties into use4 ,but this is not strictly accurate1 for circumstances had occurred which for a time diverted his attention to another field for the application of electricity in which he became a pioneer4 ,about the year #ahej ,sir ,charles ,pasley was experimenting as to the explosion of submarine mines1 and being acquainted with ,professor ,wheatstone and ,professor ,daniell1 he informed them of his intention to use electricity for that purpose1 and sought their advice on the subject4 ,these eminent electricians took much interest in the proposal1 and under their superintendence the first arrangements for exploding submarine charges were worked out in the laboratory of ,king's ,college4 ,acting on their advice ,sir ,charles ,pasley used electricity to explode the charges of gunpowder that blew up the wreck of the ,royal ,george at ,spithead1 which he was then engaged in removing4 ,in #ahec ,sir ,john ,burgoyne1 ,inspector ,general of ,fortifications1 requested ,captain ,ward1 ,r4,e41 to carry out some experiments for determining the best form of voltaic battery for military purposes4 ,that officer then made himself fully acquainted with the labours of ,professor ,wheatstone and others2 and afterwards reported in favour of a small battery seven inches long by four wide2 but in #ahee ,professor ,wheatstone1 who was then a member of the ,select ,committee on ,ordnance1 advised ,sir ,john ,burgoyne to institute a further experimental inquiry into the relative advantages of different sources of electricity4 ,this investigation was accordingly carried out by ,professor ,wheatstone and ,professor ,abel2 and in the course of it ,wheatstone invented the first efficient magneto-electric machine for the explosion of mines4 ,it was called the ,wheatstone exploder1 and it weighed #cb pounds4 ,in a report on their experiments1 presented to the ,secretary for ,war in #ahfj1 it was stated that by means of 8a magneto-electric apparatus similar to that used in the ,chatham experiments1 and termed by ,mr4 ,wheatstone the #8,magnetic ,exploder1' the ignition at one time of phosphide of copper fuzes1 varying in number from two to twenty-five1 is certain1 provided these fuzes are arranged in the branches of a divided circuit2 to attain this result it is only necessary to employ a single wire insulated by a coating of gutta-percha or india-rubber and simple metallic connections of the apparatus and the charge with the earth40 ,they stated that from twelve to twenty-five charges could be exploded simultaneously on land at a distance of #fjj yards from the apparatus2 but the number of submarine charges which it could explode at one time was more limited4 ,during the next seven years this apparatus was much used in gunnery experiments as well as in mining2 and several modifications of it were devised on the ,continent and in ,america4 ,in #ahfg-h ,professor ,wheatstone constructed a more powerful modification of his magnetic exploder1 and ,professor ,abel ever afterwards spoke in the highest terms of the ingenuity and industry with which his former colleague had worked out the solution of this problem4 ,he said that ,professor ,wheatstone brought under the notice of the ,government the successful labours of ,du ,moncel1 ,savari1 von ,ebner1 and others on the applications of electricity to military purposes2 and if he had only done that service1 he would have done an important work4 ,but he did more2 he constructed the first practical and thoroughly efficient magneto-electric machine for the explosion of mines4 ,let us now pass from submarine mines to submarine cables4 ,there have been several claimants to the honour of being the first to develop the idea of submarine telegraphy2 and among them ,professor ,wheatstone is entitled to honourable mention4 ,one of the first suggestions of a sub-aqueous telegraph was made by him4 ,in #ahdj he was giving evidence before a ,select ,committee of the ,house of ,commons1 and after he had given an account of the short line of telegraph from ,paddington to ,drayton1 then the only line in existence1 he was questioned as to whether an electric telegraph could be worked over a distance of #ajj miles4 ,he replied in the affirmative4 8,have you tried to pass the line through water80 said ,sir ,john ,guest4 8,there would be no difficulty in doing so10 replied ,wheatstone2 8but the experiment has not been made40 8,could you communicate from ,dover to ,calais in that way80 8,i think it perfectly practicable10 replied the enthusiastic inventor4 ,the subject thus started for the first time in public was not new to ,professor ,wheatstone2 for it afterwards appeared from manuscripts in his possession that he had given much consideration to it in #ahcg4 ,mr4 ,john ,watkins ,brett1 who was also honourably connected with the initiation of submarine telegraphy1 stated in #aheg that he was ignorant until three or four years previously that a line across the ,channel had been suggested years before by that talented philosopher1 ,professor ,wheatstone2 and he exhibited at the ,royal ,institution the original plans of ,wheatstone drawn in #ahdj for an electric telegraph between ,dover and ,calais4 ,the cable he then designed was to be insulated by tarred yarn and protected by iron wire2 and his plan of laying down and picking up was also shown in the drawing4 ,the man who made the drawing for ,wheatstone went to ,australia in #ahda1 and did not return4 ,but there were other evidences of its genuineness4 ,professor ,wheatstone showed his plans to a number of visitors at ,king's ,college1 and a ,brussels paper records that in the same year 7#ahdj7 he repeated his experiments at the ,brussels ,observatory in the presence of several literary and scientific men1 for the purpose of showing them the feasibility of making a cable between ,dover and ,calais4 ,for carrying out his plans he designed three new machines1 and minutely worked out the other details of the undertaking4 ,in a manuscript written in #ahdj on 8a means of establishing an electric cable between ,england and ,france10 he stated that the wire should form the core of a wrought line well saturated with boiled tar1 and all the lines be made into a rope prepared in the same manner4 ,his correspondence shows that his plan became the subject of communications with persons of authority during the next few years2 and in the month of ,september1 #ahdd1 he and ,mr4 ,j4 ,d4 ,llewellyn made experiments with submerged insulated wires in ,swansea ,bay4 ,they went out in a boat from which they laid a wire to ,mumblehead ,lighthouse1 and they tested various kinds of insulation4 ,these experiments were so successful that ,wheatstone returned to his original ,channel project4 ,his idea1 says ,mr4 ,r4 ,sabine1 was to inclose the wire1 insulated with worsted and marine glue1 in a lead pipe2 and for some time he was engaged in making inquiries as to the nature of the bed of the ,channel and the action of the tides1 as well as experiments with the metals he proposed to use4 ,there is also evidence to show that in #ahde he proposed to use gutta percha in the manufacture of his proposed cable4 ,it is said that gutta percha was first brought to ,england in the previous year1 and there was such a demand for the small quantity then available that he could not get what he wanted of it4 ,in ,june #ahdf1 the ,times announced1 in reference to a statement made 8some time ago that a submarine telegraph was to be laid down across the ,english ,channel1 by which an instantaneous communication could be made from coast to coast10 that the ,lords ,commissioners of the ,admiralty1 with a view of testing the practicability of this undertaking had now approved of the projector's laying down a submarine telegraph across the harbour of ,portsmouth1 from the house of the admiral in the dockyard to the railway terminus at ,gosport4 8,by this means there will be a direct communication from ,london to the official residence of the ,port-,admiral at ,portsmouth1 whereas at present the telegraph does not extend beyond the terminus at ,gosport1 the crossing of the harbour having been hitherto deemed an insurmountable obstacle4444 ,in a few days after the experiment has been successfully tested at ,portsmouth1 the submarine telegraph will be laid down across the ,straits of ,dover under the sanction of both the ,english and ,french ,governments40 ,there is evidence extant to show that ,professor ,wheatstone was in the previous year in communication with the ,admiralty on the subject of a cable across the ,channel4 ,it was on the twenty-fifth of the same month in which the above remarks were published that the ,corn ,law ,importation ,bill was carried through the ,house of ,lords2 and on the twenty-ninth the ,duke of ,wellington in the ,house of ,lords and ,sir ,robert ,peel in the ,house of ,commons announced the resignation of the ,government4 ,changes of ,government1 the famine in ,ireland1 and the great commercial panic that followed were of more absorbing interest than the laying of a submarine cable4 ,at all events the small cable across ,portsmouth ,harbour was not laid till #ahdg4 ,it was then stated that an offer made to the ,admiralty to lay down a telegraph inclosed in metallic pipes was found to be impracticable4 ,the successful cable had the appearance of an ordinary rope which was coiled into one of the dockyard boats1 and as the boat was pulled across the telegraph rope was paid out over the stern1 an operation that occupied a quarter of an hour4 ,it worked satisfactorily4 ,professor ,wheatstone1 in an agreement which he made with ,mr4 ,cooke in ,april #ahdc1 reserved to himself authority to establish 8electric telegraph communication between the coasts of ,england and ,france 444 for his own exclusive profit40 ,in a subsequent agreement dated ,october #ahde1 with reference to the sale of his patents1 it was provided that 8,mr4 ,wheatstone will take the chair of a committee of three1 to take charge of the manufacture of the patent telegraphic instruments1 and the taking out and specifying future patents and matters of the like nature1 at a salary of #gjjl4 a year1 and shall devote to such objects what time he shall think necessary4 ,it is also understood that a patent shall be applied for immediately to secure ,mr4 ,wheatstone's improvements in the mode of transmitting electricity across the water2 that ,mr4 ,wheatstone shall superintend the trial of his plans between ,gosport and ,portsmouth2 and if these experiments prove successful1 then in the practical application of the improvements to the purpose of establishing a telegraph between ,england and ,france1 the terms on which such telegraph is to be held being a matter of arrangement between the proprietors of the ,english and ,french patents40 ,but something more than the ingenuity of ,professor ,wheatstone was needed to carry the projected cable across the ,channel4 ,it required all the energy and enthusiasm of ,mr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,brett to make it an accomplished fact4 ,he did for the submarine telegraph what ,mr4 ,cooke did for ,wheatstone's land telegraph in ,england1 and he always bore generous testimony to the initiatory efforts of ,professor ,wheatstone4 ,mr4 ,brett1 who was an inventor as well as an entrepreneur1 in #ahde offered to the ,admiralty to connect ,dublin ,castle by telegraph with ,downing ,street for a sum of #bj1jjj1 and the offer being refused1 he turned his attention to uniting together ,france and ,england by a submarine line4 ,in #ahdg ,louis ,philippe granted the requisite permission to land and work a cable on the ,french coast2 but the ,british public considered the scheme too hazardous to give it financial support4 ,three years later he brought the subject before ,louis ,napoleon1 who was favourable to it4 ,accordingly in #ahej1 when #bjjjl4 were subscribed for the work1 a cable was made and laid4 ,on ,august #bhth1 #ahej1 the paddle steamer ,goliath1 carrying in her centre a gigantic drum1 with thirty miles of telegraph wire in a covering of gutta percha wound round it1 started from ,dover about ten o'clock1 with a crew of thirty men and provisions for the day4 ,the track in a direct line to ,cape ,grisnez had been previously marked by buoys and flags on staves4 ,as the steamer moved along that track at the rate of four miles an hour1 the cable was continuously paid out2 leaden weights affixed to it at every one-sixteenth of a mile sank it to the bottom2 and about eight o'clock in the evening the work was done4 ,taking up an elevated position at the ,dover ,railway1 ,mr4 ,brett was able by the aid of a glass to distinguish the lighthouse and cliff at ,cape ,grisnez4 ,the declining sun1 he says1 8enabled me to discern the moving shadow of the steamer's smoke on the white cliff1 thus indicating her progress4 ,at length the shadow ceased to move4 ,the vessel had evidently come to an anchor4 ,we gave them half an hour to convey the end of the wire to shore1 and attach the printing instrument1 and then ,i sent the first electric message across the ,channel3 this was reserved for ,louis ,napoleon4 ,i was afterwards informed that some ,french soldiers1 who saw the slip of printed paper running from the little telegraph instrument1 bearing a message from ,england1 inquired how it could possibly have crossed the ,channel1 and when it was explained that it was the electricity which passed along the wire and performed the printing operation1 they were still incredulous4 ,after several other communications1 the words #8,all well' and #8,good night' were printed1 and closed the evening4 ,in attempting to resume communication early next morning1 no response could be obtained40 ,the cable had broken4 8,knowing the incredulity expressed as to the success of the enterprise1 and that it was important to establish the fact that telegraphic communication had taken place1 ,i that night sent a trustworthy person to ,cape ,grisnez1 to procure the attestation of all who had witnessed the receipt of the messages there2 and the document was signed by some ten persons1 including an engineer of the ,french ,government who was present to watch the proceedings2 this was forwarded to the ,emperor of the ,french1 and a year of grace for another trial was granted40 ,near the rugged coast of ,cape ,grisnez the wire had been cut asunder about #bjj yards out to sea2 but though of short duration the experiment was considered so encouraging that it was determined to lay a much stronger cable next year1 and to land it at a more favourable part of the ,french coast4 ,when next year came the public were informed in the newspapers that the manufacture of the submarine telegraph cable afforded another instance in which rapidity of execution bordered on the marvellous1 for 8though the telegraph-rope was not less than twenty-four miles in length1 it was completed in the short space of three weeks--an undertaking which manual labour could scarcely effect in as many years40 ,this cable was successfully laid1 and on ,thursday1 the #acth of ,november1 #ahea1 communications passed between ,dover and ,calais4 ,the connections1 however1 with the land lines1 giving direct communication between ,london and ,paris1 were not completed till the following ,november4 ,it was remarked at the time as a singular coincidence that the day chosen for the opening of the ,submarine ,telegraph was that on which the ,duke of ,wellington attended in person to close the ,harbour sessions4 ,it was accordingly resolved by the promoters that his ,grace on leaving ,dover by the two o'clock train for ,london should be saluted by a gun fired by the transmission of a current from ,calais4 ,it was arranged that as the clock struck two at ,calais the requisite signal was to be passed2 and1 punctual to the moment1 a loud report reverberated on the water1 and shook the ground with some force4 ,it was then evident that the current had fired a #bb-pounder loaded with #aj lbs4 of powder1 and the report had scarcely ceased ere it was taken up from the heights by the military who1 as usual1 saluted the departure of the ,duke with a round of artillery4 ,guns were then fired successively on both coasts2 ,calais firing the guns at ,dover1 and ,dover returning the compliment to ,calais4 ,professor ,wheatstone also did some useful work in connection with the first ,atlantic cables4 ,in #ahee ,professor ,faraday was explaining the subject of induction at the ,royal ,institution1 when it was mentioned to him that a current was obtained from a gutta percha covered wire1 #cjj miles long1 half an hour after contact with the battery4 8,i remember10 says ,mr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,brett in #aheg1 8speaking to him on the subject1 and inquiring if he did not believe that this difficulty was to be overcome1 and ,i received from him every encouragement to hope it might2 but it at once became necessary that this point should be cleared up1 or it would be folly to pursue the subject of the union of ,america with this country by electricity4 ,i at once earnestly urged on ,mr4 ,whitehouse to take up this subject1 and pursue it independently of every other experiment1 and a successful result was at last arrived at on #ajjj miles and upwards of a continuous line in the submarine wires in the several cables1 when lying in the docks4 ,it did not rest upon one1 but many thousand experiments40 ,but these experiments did not solve the problem1 which exercised the ingenuity of the greatest electricians of the age4 ,professor ,wheatstone conducted several series of experiments to aid in its solution4 ,he showed that iron presented eight times more resistance to the electric current than copper did1 and that differences in the size and quality of conductors and insulators affected the transmission of signals4 ,in #ahei the ,board of ,trade selected ,professor ,wheatstone as a member of the committee appointed to inquire into the subject of submarine cables with special reference to the ,atlantic cable4 ,to that committee he supplied an elaborate report which would fill fifty pages of this volume1 8,on the circumstances which influence the inductive discharge of submarine telegraph cables40 ,he was also a member of the scientific committee appointed in #ahfd to advise the ,atlantic ,telegraph ,company as to the manufacture1 laying1 and working of the cables of #ahfe and #ahff4 ,in #ahdh ,lord ,palmerston made a remark about the telegraph that was at the time regarded as a jest4 ,he said the day would come when a minister1 if asked in ,parliament whether war had broken out in ,india1 would reply1 8,wait a minute1 ,i'll just telegraph to the ,governor ,general1 and let you know40 ,at that time two or three months usually elapsed between the sending of a message and the receipt of an answer from ,calcutta to ,london2 and hence the remark of ,lord ,palmerston was derided as a joke4 ,but in #ahee the electric telegraph performed a feat which astonished the nations of ,europe4 ,on the #bnd of ,march the ,czar ,nicholas died at ,st4 ,petersburg at one o'clock2 and the same afternoon the ,earl of ,clarendon announced his death in the ,house of ,lords--the intelligence having been received by two different lines of telegraph4 ,two years afterwards two different schemes were promoted for connecting ,europe with ,india by telegraph2 but this was not successfully accomplished till eight years afterwards4 ,three years before the ,palmerstonian jest of #ahdh became an accomplished fact1 ,professor ,wheatstone communicated to ,lord ,palmerston the effects of a new telegraphic invention which seemed nearly as incredible as the idea of telegraphing to ,india appeared a few years previously4 ,the noble lord was at ,oxford ,university receiving his honorary degree1 and was watched by ,sir ,henry ,taylor at an evening party as the ,professor gave him a somewhat prolonged explanation of his new invention for facilitating telegraphy4 8,the man of science10 says ,sir ,henry1 8was slow1 the man of the world seemed attentive2 the man of science was copious1 the man of the world let nothing escape him2 the man of science unfolded the anticipated results--another and another1 the man of the world listened with all his ears3 and ,i was saying to myself1 #8,his patience is exemplary1 but will it last for ever8' when ,i heard the issue3--#8,god bless my soul1 you don't say so6 ,i must get you to tell that to the ,lord ,chancellor4' ,and the man of the world took the man of science to another part of the room1 hooked him on to ,lord ,westbury1 and bounded away like a horse let loose in a pasture40 ,if it be true that men of the world regarded with impatience the ingenious devices of ,professor ,wheatstone1 very different was the reception accorded to them by the prince of modern scientists4 ,in the beginning of the following year 7#aith ,january1 #aheh7 ,professor ,faraday wrote the following letter to him3 8,while thinking of your beautiful telegraphs it occured to me that perhaps you would not think ill of my proposing to give an account of the magneto-electric telegraph and the recording telegraph on a ,friday evening after ,easter--about the end of ,may or ,june4 ,i suppose all will be safe by that time4 ,i think that by the electric lamp and a proper lens1 we might throw the image of the face on to the wall1 and so we may illustrate the action to the whole audience40 ,the proposed lecture was delivered by ,professor ,faraday in the ,royal ,institution on ,june #aath1 #aheh1 and his subject was 8,wheatstone's electric telegraph in relation to science 7being an argument in favour of the full recognition of science as a branch of education740 ,that lecture was very interesting1 not only as indicating the progress made in the telegraph1 but as showing his high appreciation of the inventive ingenuity which had accelerated that progress4 ,so far from representing the telegraph as 8no invention0 he spoke of it as a series of inventions4 8,it teaches us to be neglectful of nothing10 he said2 8not to despise the small beginnings1 for they precede of necessity all great things in the knowledge of science1 either pure or applied4 ,it teaches a continual comparison of the small and great1 and that under differences almost approaching the infinite3 for the small as often comprehends the great in principle as the great does the small40 ,as to the work done by ,professor ,wheatstone1 he said3 8,without referring to what he had done previously1 it may be observed that in #ahdj he took out patents for electric telegraphs1 which included1 amongst other things1 the use of the electricity from magnets at the communicators--the dial face--the step-by-step motion--and the electro-magnet at the indicator4 ,at the present time1 #aheh1 he has taken out patents for instruments containing all these points2 but these instruments are so altered and varied in character above and beyond the former1 that an untaught person could not recognise them4 ,in the first instruments powerful magnets were used1 and keepers#g with heavy coils associated with them4 ,when magnetic electricity was first discovered1 the signs were feeble1 and the mind of the student was led to increase the results by increasing the force and size of the instruments4 ,when the object was to obtain a current sufficient to give signals through long circuits1 large apparatus were employed1 but these involved the inconveniences of inertia and momentum2 the keeper was not set in motion at once1 nor instantly stopped2 and if connected directly with the reading indexes1 these circumstances caused an occasional uncertainty of action4 ,prepared by its previous education1 the mind could perceive the disadvantages of these influences1 and could proceed to their removal4444 ,the alternations or successions of currents produced by the movement of the keeper at the communicator1 pass along the wire to the indicator at a distance2 there each one for itself confers a magnetic condition on a piece of soft iron1 and renders it attractive or repulsive of small permanent magnets2 and these1 acting in turn on a propelment1 cause the index to pass at will from one letter to another on the dial face4 ,the first electro-magnets1 i4e41 those made by the circulation of an electric current round a piece of soft iron1 were weak2 they were quickly strengthened1 and it was only when they were strong that their laws and actions could be successfully investigated4 ,but now they are required small1 yet potential2 and it was only by patient study that ,wheatstone was able so to refine the little electro-magnets at the indicator as that they shall be small enough to consist with the fine work there employed1 able to do their appointed work when excited in contrary directions by the brief currents flowing from the original common magnet1 and unobjectionable in respect of any resistance they might offer to these tell-tale currents4 ,these small transitory electro-magnets attract and repel certain permanent magnetic needles1 and the to-and-fro motion of the latter is communicated by a propelment to the index1 being there converted into a step-by-step motion4 ,here everything is of the finest workmanship2 the propelment itself requires to be watched by a lens1 if its action is to be observed2 the parts never leave hold of each other2 the holes of the axes are jewelled2 the moving parts are most carefully balanced1 a consequence of which is that agitation of the whole does not disturb the parts1 and the telegraph works just as well when it is twisted about in the hands1 or placed on board a ship or in a railway carriage1 as when fixed immovably4 ,all this delicacy of arrangement and workmanship is introduced advisedly2 for the inventor considers that refined and perfect workmanship is more exact in its action1 more unchangeable by time and use1 and more enduring in its existence1 than that which1 being heavier1 must be coarser in its workmanship1 less regular in its action1 and less fitted for the application of force by fine electric currents4444 ,now10 added ,faraday1 8there was no chance in these developments2--if there were experiments1 they were directed by the previously acquired knowledge2--every part of the investigation was made and guided by the instructed mind4444 ,the beauty of electricity1 or of any other force1 is not that the power is mysterious and unexpected1 but that it is under law1 and that the taught intellect can even now govern it largely40 ,the instrument which ,faraday described in such appreciative terms has superseded the step-by-step instrument which was invented in #ahdj4 ,the new instrument1 like the old one1 has a dial with the letters of the alphabet round the edge1 and when in operation the indicating hand or finger points successively to each letter forming the message1 which can thus be read by anyone4 ,the sending instrument also has a dial round which are the letters of the alphabet1 and projecting from each letter is a brass key or stud4 ,the new mechanism inside this instrument is so ingeniously designed that when the sender of a message turns round a small handle which puts in motion the magneto-electric apparatus so as to generate electric currents1 the indicating finger on the receiving dial moves round till it is stopped at the desired letter4 ,this stoppage is effected by the sender depressing the brass stud which represents the desired letter4 ,by this depression of any particular stud1 the currents of electricity are cut off just when the indicating finger reaches the letter on the receiving dial corresponding to that of the depressed stud at the sending instrument2 and the indicating finger remains at that letter till the stud of another letter is depressed1 whereupon the indicating finger moves along the receiving dial till it reaches again the letter corresponding to that of the depressed stud4 ,no knowledge of electrical science or of mechanics is needed to work this instrument1 the hidden mechanism of which cannot be easily described in popular language4 ,surely it is an illustration of the classic adage that the highest art is to conceal art4 ,the working of this instrument excelled all others in simplicity2 and at the same time ,professor ,wheatstone invented one which exceeded all others in rapidity4 ,the former became known as ,wheatstone's ,a1 ,b1 ,c instrument1 the latter as ,wheatstone's automatic fast speed printing instrument4 ,the latter is so constructed that the passage of the current is regulated by means of a perforated strip of paper4 ,the apparatus consists of three parts--the perforator1 the transmitter1 and the receiver4 ,the perforator has keys which when pressed down by an operator punch in a strip of paper combinations of holes1 which represent letters of the alphabet1 thus ,a ,b ,c o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o ,one person working a perforator can simultaneously punch duplicate messages1 but only one strip of perforated paper can be put into the transmitter1 which draws it forward with a continuous motion4 ,two small pins1 one on each side1 are underneath the strip of paper1 and whenever one of these pins comes to a perforated hole it momentarily rises through it1 and imparts sufficient electricity from the battery to the telegraph wire to move a pen at the other end of the wire1 so as to make a mark in ink on a clean strip of paper passing through the receiving instrument4 ,the ink marks thus produced in combinations represent letters of the alphabet1 namely1 ,a ,b ,c ,the receiver is thus a recording instrument so exact and sensitive that it mechanically and rapidly imprints on a strip of paper dots1 dashes1 and spaces1 which1 in a sense1 correspond with the holes perforated in the tape passing through the transmitter1 at the other end of the wire4 ,when this apparatus was invented it was represented as capable of forwarding messages at the rate of #ejj letters per minute1 being five times faster than any other system then in use4 ,in #ahfh the inventor stated that although for rapidity of transmission his automatic instrument had never been surpassed1 he did not expect that the existing instruments would in all cases be given up for it4 ,he believed it would be very useful on all 8lines of great traffic10 and particularly on those lines over which newspaper intelligence is sent4 ,in #ahgj the telegraph lines of the ,united ,kingdom were acquired by the ,government--a step which ,professor ,wheatstone advocated as the best means of cheapening messages and extending the telegraph to places unapproached by the ,telegraph ,companies4 ,let us see how his expectations have been realised4 ,in #ahgb ,mr4 ,culley1 the engineer-in-chief of the ,telegraphic system of the ,united ,kingdom1 stated that in order to increase the number of messages which could be sent through the wires in a given time1 a very large use had to be made of the ,wheatstone automatic instrument1 which was in use by the ,electric ,company before the transfer to the ,government4 ,there were only four circuits then2 but in the two years following the transfer fifteen circuits were supplied with that apparatus4 ,in addition to these automatic circuits for ordinary business1 the ,telegraph ,department had also fitted up with that system what they called the ,western ,news circuit running from ,london to ,bristol1 ,gloucester1 ,cardiff1 ,newport1 ,exeter1 and ,plymouth1 the news being then sent to all these places simultaneously1 and at the rate of fifty to fifty-five words a minute4 ,a very great improvement had also been effected1 at considerable expense1 in the single-needle instrument4 ,a very large number of inventions had been brought before the ,department1 and it might have been hoped that very considerable advantage to the public would have arisen from the breaking up of the monopoly of the ,companies and the private interests which almost all the officers had in perpetuating the form of some old instrument4 ,but ,mr4 ,culley had to report that not in any one instance had any apparatus or system of signalling of practical value been laid before him4 ,one system only had been of such a nature as could possibly have any value1 and he said that one would have required fully ten years to mature before it could be brought out4 ,professor ,wheatstone lived to see #adj of his automatic instruments in use4 ,in #ahgb he applied to the ,judicial ,committee of the ,privy ,council for a prolongation of his patent2 and it being then stated that he had received #ab1jjj in #ahgj1 when the transfer of the telegraphs took place1 the ,government agreed to pay him an additional sum of #i1bjj in six yearly instalments as compensation for his patent rights4 ,in #ahgi ,mr4 ,preece1 the electrician to the ,post ,office1 said that the automatic transmitter 8is an instrument of great delicacy and great power2 it is now used to an enormous extent in this country1 and it is one that we are improving every day4 ,for instance1 while about this time last year we were able to transmit all our news to ,ireland at the rate of #fj words a minute1 we are now doing it with ease at the rate of #aej words a minute2 and with the improvements which we have now in hand1 we shall be able next year to transmit nearly #bjj words a minute40 ,this expectation was realised4 ,although experience suggested improvements in nearly every part of the apparatus1 the leading principles remained the same4 ,in #ahhe ,mr4 ,preece gave the following account of the successive stages of the progress made3 it was capable of transmitting in #ahgg1 #hj words per minute2 in #ahgh1 #ajj2 in #ahgi1 #acj2 in #ahhj1 #agj2 in #ahha1 #aij2 in #ahhb1 #bjj2 in #ahhc1 #bej2 in #ahhd1 #cej2 in #ahhe1 #dbj4 ,it thus appears that if three men were speaking at the same time1 one of ,wheatstone's automatic instruments could transmit the three speeches in the same time that they were spoken1 the instrument transmitting three times as fast as one man could speak4 ,towards the close of the first half century of the existence of the telegraph1 the ,wheatstone automatic transmitter achieved the great feat of transmitting #a1ejj1jjj words from ,london on the night when ,mr4 ,gladstone explained his plan for giving self-government to ,ireland1 ,on that occasion 7,april #h1 #ahhf7 one hundred ,wheatstone's perforators were used in the ,central ,telegraph ,office in ,london to prepare the messages4 ,thirty of these perforators punched six slips at once1 thirteen punched three slips at once1 thirty-one punched two slips at once1 and twenty-six punched single slips4 ,the largest number of words previously transmitted in one night was #hfj1jjj2 and to give some idea of what #a1ejj1jjj words represent1 it may be added that if an average quick speaker like ,mr4 ,gladstone were to speak without any stoppage for a week1 night and day1 that would just be about the number of words that he would utter1 or that another person could read aloud4 ,,footnotes3 #g ,the keeper or armature is the piece of iron which is placed across the ends or poles of a horseshoe magnet4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 8,a name1 even in the most commercial nation1 is one of the few things which cannot be bought4 ,it is the free gift of mankind1 which must be deserved before it will be granted1 and is at last unwillingly bestowed4 ,but this unwillingness only increases desire in him who believes his merit sufficient to overcome it40--,,dr4 ,,johnson4 ,from the two preceding chapters it appears that ,professor ,wheatstone was not only the inventor of the first electric telegraph used in ,england1 but that he at last invented the most perfect transmitter of telegraphic intelligence4 ,he not only nursed it from its birth1 but reared it to maturity2 and the period that elapsed between his first and last invention of telegraphic apparatus was exactly twenty-one years4 ,but this was not enough for his versatile mind to accomplish4 ,he had worked successfully as an inventor for seventeen years before his first telegraph was invented1 and he continued to work at his favourite subjects for seventeen years after his last great telegraphic invention4 ,having confined our attention in the last two chapters almost exclusively to the progress of the telegraph1 it remains for us to follow the inventor into the bye-paths which he now and then delighted to tread1 as well as to follow his course during his latter years along the highway of electrical science in which his genius appeared to find its most congenial exercise4 ,it has already been explained that in the early years of his electrical researches1 he was one of the first men in ,england to draw attention to the thermo-electric pile originally constructed by ,nobili and ,melloni in #ahca2 it consisted of a bundle or pile of small plates of bismuth and antimony1 which when heated converts heat into electricity4 ,by connecting this pile by coils of wire with a galvanometer 7a movable needle7 it becomes a delicate means of indicating minute changes of temperature1 the electricity generated by heat moving the needle4 ,this instrument can be affected by the warmth of the hand held several yards away from it2 and it is believed that without it1 as a thermoscope1 the important discoveries respecting radiant heat made by ,professor ,tyndall and others would have been impossible4 ,it has even been found possible by means of this sensitive apparatus to estimate the amount of radiant heat emitted by insects4 ,in #ahcg ,professor ,wheatstone predicted great results from the thermo-electric pile as a source of electricity1 and in #ahfe he constructed a powerful thermo-electric battery of that description4 ,it was composed of sixty pairs of small bars1 and it was stated that by its action 8a brilliant spark was obtained1 and about half an inch of fine platinum wire when interposed was raised to incandescence and fused2 water was decomposed1 and a penny electro-plated with silver in a few seconds2 whilst an electro-magnet was made to lift upwards of a hundredweight and a half40 ,this thermo-electric battery may be said to have electrified the imaginations of men of science1 who saw visions and dreamt dreams about its future4 ,for instance1 it was suggested that 8like windmills1 thermo-electric batteries might be erected all over the country for the purpose of converting into mechanical force1 and thus into money1 gleams of sunshine which would be to them as wind to the sails of a mill40 ,many other attempts have been made to construct a thermo-electric pile capable of being used as a generator of electricity instead of the voltaic battery or the dynamo2 and although much progress was made in later years1 the difficulty in the way1 as ,lord ,rayleigh observed in #ahhe1 was the too free passage of heat by ordinary conduction from the hot to the cold junction4 ,however1 ,professor ,wheatstone1 having once taken in hand the production of electricity by an improved method1 worked at the problem until he solved it4 ,the electrical invention that ranks next in importance to the telegraph is the dynamo machine1 and this also he had a share in introducing and improving4 ,its first conception has been claimed by different electricians4 ,on the #dth of ,february1 #ahfg1 two papers were read before the ,royal ,society1 one by ,sir ,william ,siemens1 8,on the conversion of dynamic into electrical force without the use of permanent magnetism10 and the other by ,professor ,wheatstone1 8,on the augmentation of the power of a magnet by the reaction thereon of currents induced by the magnet itself40 ,both papers described the same discovery--the dynamo machine4 ,the instrument described by ,professor ,wheatstone was made of a strip of soft iron1 the core1 fifteen inches long1 bent in the form of a horse-shoe1 and wound round in the direction of its breadth by #fdj feet of insulated copper wire 7covered with silk74 ,the keeper or armature 7the piece of iron extending across the ends of the horse shoe magnet7 was hollow at two sides for the reception of eighty feet of insulated wire coiled lengthwise4 ,the two wires being connected so as to form a single circuit1 and the armature made to rotate in the opposite direction to that of the hands of a watch1 powerful electrical effects were produced4 ,the electricity generated by this motion of the armature soon made four inches of platinum wire red-hot1 and decomposed water4 ,these effects were thus explained by ,professor ,wheatstone3 ,the electro-magnet always retains a slight residual magnetism1 so is always in the condition of a weak permanent magnet2 the motion of the armature occasions feeble currents in its coils in alternate directions1 which1 brought into the same direction1 pass into the coil of the horse-shoe electro-magnet in such a manner as to increase the magnetism of the iron core2 the strength of the magnet being thus increased1 it produces in its turn stronger currents in the coil of the armature2 and this alternate increase goes on until it reaches a maximum dependent on the rapidity of the motion and the capacity of the magnet4 ,sir ,william ,siemens1 whose paper was sent in ten days before ,professor ,wheatstone's1 described a similar machine1 but that they were independent discoveries has never been questioned4 ,it was almost inevitable1 however1 that the question of priority should be discussed4 ,mr4 ,robert ,sabine1 who defended the rights of ,professor ,wheatstone1 stated in #ahgg that the time when 8the idea of making a machine which would work into itself occurred to ,professor ,wheatstone1 it is of course after his death impossible to determine1 unless some manuscript notes should turn out in evidence4 ,i am also unable to ascertain when the first experimental apparatus was made and tried4 ,we must therefore start from the later stage1 viz41 the finished machine which was exhibited at the ,royal ,society in ,february1 #ahfg40 ,it is interesting1 however1 to go a few years further back1 and to find that the idea of producing powerful electrical effects by mechanical means was present in the mind of ,professor ,wheatstone a quarter of a century before it was announced as an accomplished fact4 ,early in #ahdc he showed ,professor ,a4 ,de ,la ,rive his new electro-magnetic telegraph2 and in publishing an account of it the ,french ,professor said that he 7,wheatstone7 8has endeavoured to apply the same principle to the production of a useful mechanical force2 but he does not seem to me to have completely succeeded on this point2 and ,i am convinced that a long period must yet elapse before steam is in this respect dethroned by electricity40 ,now it is a remarkable fact that at that very time there was a plan of a dynamo in ,,ms41 which unfortunately did not attract attention till thirty years afterwards4 ,dr4 ,gloesener1 professor of physics at ,lige ,university1 in an extant ,,ms4 which was dated #bjth of ,april1 #ahdb1 and which remained in the custody of public bodies in ,belgium from that date1 described electro-magneto oscillating and rotatory motors which he designed1 and which he spoke of 8as destined to take the place of steam and other motors40 ,in honour of this inventor1 who died unrewarded for his prescience1 the ,electrical ,congress at ,paris admitted his daughter as their only lady member4 ,however1 ,professor ,wheatstone did not announce the practical realisation of his idea till ,february1 #ahfg4 8,the machines then exhibited10 continues ,mr4 ,r4 ,sabine1 8were made for ,professor ,wheatstone by ,mr4 ,stroh in the months of ,july and ,august1 #ahff4 ,when they were finished1 tried1 and approved of1 they were in the usual course of business charged for by ,mr4 ,stroh on the #abth of ,september1 #ahff4 ,mr4 ,s4 ,a4 ,varley says his machine 7as it was exhibited at the ,loan ,collection7 was completed and tried at the end of ,september or the beginning of ,october1 #ahff4 ,sir ,william ,siemens says that his brother tried his first experimental machine in ,december1 #ahff4 ,it is clear therefore that ,professor ,wheatstone's machines--those exhibited at the ,royal ,society--were completed1 tried1 and charged for1 before the first experimental machines of ,sir ,w4 ,siemens or ,mr4 ,varley were finished or ready for trial4 ,the date when the undefined idea of making any machine first occurred to an inventor is of very little comparative importance1 unless the idea be productive of some evidence of its existence1 without which one would1 ,i think1 be inclined to suspect that memory might after a lapse of years be a little treacherous4 ,who had the first happy inspiration of a reaction machine we can scarcely expect to know now4 ,of its fruits we have better evidence1 and ,i venture to think that the claims of the three inventors in question stand thus3 8,professor ,wheatstone was the first to complete and try the reaction machine4 8,mr4 ,s4 ,a4 ,varley was the first to put the machine officially on record in a provisional specification1 dated #bdth of ,december1 #ahff1 which was therefore not published till ,july1 #ahfg4 8,dr4 ,werner ,siemens was the first to call public attention to the machine in a paper read before the ,berlin ,academy on the #agth of ,january1 #ahfg40 ,in such cases the date of publication is generally regarded as the date of discovery2 but whoever was the first inventor of the dynamo1 it is now admitted that ,professor ,wheatstone's machine was the most complete4 ,after explaining how the rotation of the armature generated currents of electricity in the magnet1 he stated that 8a very remarkable increase of all the effects1 accompanied by a diminution in the resistance of the machine1 is observed when a cross wire is placed so as to divert a great portion of the current from the electro-magnet4 ,four inches of platinum wire1 instead of flashing into redness and then disappearing1 remain permanently ignited2 the inductorium wire1 which before gave no spark1 now gave one of a quarter of an inch in length2 and other effects were similarly increased40 ,strange to say this discovery1 announced in #ahfg1 lay dormant till #ahhj1 and then it was utilised by ,sir ,william ,siemens so as to obviate the great fluctuations previously experienced in electric-arc lighting4 ,till then the electric light often flickered instead of shining steadily1 and the cause of its irregularity puzzled the electricians4 ,in #ahhj ,sir ,william ,siemens gave ,professor ,wheatstone full credit for having suggested a remedy for this defect in #ahfg4 ,such an array of electrical inventions and discoveries was surely enough for one man2 but electricity was only one of the many subjects that engaged his attention or exercised his ingenuity4 ,having traced the progress of his electrical inventions over a period of forty years1 we must now collect some of the fruits of his labour in other sciences during that period4 ,after his initial success with the electric telegraph in #ahcg1 he began to publish in the following year his ,contributions to the ,physiology of ,vision1 in which he gave the results of experiments showing 8that there is a seeming difference in the appearance of objects when seen with two eyes1 and when only one eye is employed2 and that the most vivid belief in the solidity of an object of three dimensions arises from two perspective projections of it being simultaneously presented to the mind40 ,at the same time he gave a description of his newly-invented instrument for illustrating these phenomena--the stereoscope1 which was first announced in #ahch1 and was improved in course of the next fourteen years4 ,when he described the stereoscope to the ,british ,association in #ahch and explained the scientific principle which it illustrated1 ,sir ,david ,brewster said he was afraid that the members could scarcely judge--from the very brief and modest account given by ,professor ,wheatstone of the principle and of the instrument devised for illustrating it--of its extreme beauty and generality4 ,he 7,sir ,david7 considered it one of the most valuable optical papers which had been presented to the ,association4 ,he observed that when taken in conjunction with the law of visible direction in binocular vision1 it explained all those phenomena of vision by which philosophers had been so long perplexed2 and that vision in three dimensions received the most complete explanation from ,professor ,wheatstone's researches4 ,at the same time ,sir ,john ,herschel characterised ,professor ,wheatstone's discovery as one of the most curious and beautiful for its simplicity in the entire range of experimental optics4 ,at the date of the publication of his experiments on binocular vision1 said ,professor ,wheatstone1 the brilliant photographic discoveries of ,talbot1 ,niepce1 and ,daguerre had not been announced to the world1 as illustrating the phenomena of the stereoscope4 ,he could therefore at that time only employ drawings made by the hands of the artists4 8,mere outline figures1 or even shade perspective drawings of simple objects1 did not present much difficulty2 but it is evidently impossible10 he says1 8for the most accurate and accomplished artist to delineate by the sole aid of his eye the two projections necessary to form the stereoscopic relief of objects as they exist in nature with their delicate differences of outline1 light1 and shade4 ,what the hand of the artist was unable to accomplish1 the chemical action of light1 directed by the camera1 is enabled to effect4 ,it was at the beginning of #ahci1 about six months after the appearance of my memoir in the ,philosophical ,transactions1 that the photographic art became known1 and soon after1 at my request1 ,mr4 ,talbot1 the inventor1 and ,mr4 ,collen 7one of the first cultivators of the art7 obligingly prepared for me stereoscopic ,talbotypes of full-sized statues1 buildings1 and even portraits of living persons4 ,m4 ,quetelet1 to whom ,i communicated this application and sent specimens1 made mention of it in the ,bulletins of the ,brussels ,academy of ,october #ahda4 ,to ,m4 ,fizeau and ,m4 ,claudet ,i was indebted for the first daguerreotypes executed for the stereoscope40 ,as indicating the relations that continued to exist between him and ,sir ,david ,brewster on the subject of vision1 it is worthy of remark that in #ahdd ,professor ,wheatstone brought before the ,british ,association some singular effects produced by certain colours in juxtaposition4 ,observing that a carpet of small pattern in green and red appeared in the gas-light as if all the parts of the pattern were in motion1 he had several patterns worked in various contrasted colours in order to verify and study the phenomena4 ,both he and ,sir ,david ,brewster brought to ,york separate communications on this subject1 and specimens of coloured rugwork to illustrate it2 but on seeing ,professor ,wheatstone's specimens1 ,sir ,david withheld both his paper and his illustrations1 and simply made a few remarks on ,wheatstone's paper1 stating that when he came to ,york he did not know that the phenomena were produced by any other colours but red and green1 and that he was indebted to ,professor ,wheatstone for showing him that red and blue had the same effect4 ,the ,professor accounted for it by saying that the eye retained its sensibility for various colours during various lengths of time4 ,in the stereoscope designed by ,professor ,wheatstone mirrors were used instead of lenses2 and though the effect produced by mirrors was similar to that which we now see by means of lenses1 its startling novelty did not excite popular interest4 ,indeed it was only used by two or three ,professors to illustrate optical phenomena2 and with that exception it might be said to have been unhonoured and unused for several years4 ,it was ,sir ,david ,brewster who proposed to use lenses instead of mirrors1 and thus gave to it the form in which it eventually became popular2 but even then its popularity might be described as of foreign origin4 ,in addressing the ,british ,association in #ahdh on the theory of vision1 ,sir ,david ,brewster said that the solution of some problems that had long baffled opticians was greatly facilitated by that beautiful instrument1 the stereoscope of ,professor ,wheatstone4 ,next year ,sir ,david exhibited his new form of the stereoscope before the ,british ,association at ,birmingham1 and in #ahej he exhibited it at ,paris1 and explained it to ,m4 ,duboscq ,soleil1 an optician of that city1 who was so impressed with its advantages that he began to manufacture it1 and to call public attention to its powers4 ,one was also exhibited before the ,french ,academy of ,sciences1 who appointed a committee to examine it4 ,in #ahdi ,sir ,david ,brewster offered his improvement in the stereoscope gratuitously to opticians in ,birmingham and ,london2 but they did not accept it2 and it was only after it became an object of wonder in ,france that it began to be appreciated in ,england4 ,at the ,great ,exhibition of #ahea ,m4 ,duboscq ,soleil showed a beautiful instrument together with a fine set of binocular daguerreotypes2 and another instrument by the same maker was presented by ,sir ,david ,brewster to the ,queen4 ,in the same year some were exhibited at one of the soires of ,lord ,rosse1 where they excited much interest4 ,the attention of ,english photographers being then directed to it1 photographic pictures and portraits began to be executed for it in abundance4 ,the stereoscope soon came to be in demand2 it was manufactured by ,english as well as ,french makers2 and thus became a favourite ornament or scientific curiosity4 ,during the next five years #ejj1jjj stereoscopes were sold4 ,while ,sir ,david ,brewster did so much to make the stereoscope popular1 ,professor ,wheatstone was generally accredited with the original invention4 ,in #ahdi the eminent ,french philosophers1 ,,mm4 ,l4 ,foucault and ,j4 ,regnault1 stated in the ,comptes ,rendus that 8in a beautiful investigation on the vision of objects of three dimensions1 ,professor ,wheatstone states that when two visual fields1 or the corresponding elements of the two retin1 simultaneously receive impressions from rays of different refrangibility1 no perception of mixed colours is produced4 ,the assertion of this able philosopher being opposed to the opinion of the majority of those who have attended to the same subject1 we have thought it useful to repeat1 modify1 and extend these experiments2 and the stereoscope of ,professor ,wheatstone offered a simple means of disentangling these delicate observations of all complication capable of injuriously affecting the accuracy of the physiological results40 ,in an account of it published in ,london in #ahea it was truly stated that the phenomena of vision had engaged the attention of the most acute philosophers2 and that the researches of ,professor ,wheatstone had done more than those of any other man to explain the result of single vision with a pair of eyes while under the influence of two impressions2 for in his stereoscope two images drawn perspectively upon plane surfaces1 when viewed at the angle of reflection appear to be converted into a solid body1 and to convey to the mind an impression of length1 breadth1 and thickness4 ,at the same time it was explained that ,sir ,david ,brewster modified the instrument and imitated the mechanical conditions of the eye by cutting a lens into halves1 and placing each half so as to represent an eye with a distance of two and a half inches between them4 ,although it was this use of lenses that made the stereoscope fashionable1 ,professor ,wheatstone continued to recommend his original reflecting instrument as the most efficient form1 not only for investigating the phenomena of binocular vision1 but also for exhibiting the greatest variety of stereoscopic effects1 8as it admits of every required adjustment1 and pictures of any size may be placed in it40 ,but in #ahef the chorus of unanimity as to the original invention of the stereoscope was broken4 ,detraction then began4 ,a book1 which was published in that year1 not only disputed the scientific accuracy of the principles of vision enunciated by ,professor ,wheatstone1 but endeavoured to divest him of all credit in connection with the invention of the stereoscope4 ,who ever could have written such a book8 ,sir ,david ,brewster6 ,nor did a book suffice4 ,in #ahfj he read a paper before the ,photographic ,society of ,scotland 8respecting the invention of the stereoscope in the sixteenth century and of binocular drawings by ,jacopo da ,empoli1 a ,florentine artist40 ,he stated that inquiry into the history of the stereoscope showed that its fundamental principle was known even to ,euclid2 that it was distinctly described by ,galen #aejj years ago2 and that ,baptista ,porta had1 in #aeii1 given such a complete drawing of the two separate pictures as seen by each eye1 and of the combined picture placed between them1 that in it might be recognised not only the principle1 but the construction of the stereoscope4 ,it is noteworthy that ,sir ,david ,brewster first gave ,professor ,wheatstone the credit of being the inventor of the telegraph1 and afterwards ridiculed his claims4 ,as to the principle of the stereoscope1 it was at the meeting of the ,british ,association in #ahdh that ,sir ,david ,brewster definitely disputed the theory of vision which ascribes to experience instead of intuition the correct perception of objects and of distances with two eyes as well as with one4 ,he observed that an infant obtained his first glances of the external world by opening on it both eyes which evidently conveyed single vision to the mind2 and in like manner he contended that young animals saw distances correctly almost at the instant of their birth4 ,the duckling ran to the water almost as soon as it broke the shell2 the young boa constrictor would involve and bite an object presented to it2 and on the other hand no person ever saw a child use such motions as proved it to perceive objects at its eye1 to grasp at the sun or moon or other inaccessible objects1 but quite the contrary4 ,dr4 ,whewell entirely dissented from the views of ,sir ,david ,brewster1 which were not new2 and in confirmation of ,dr4 ,whewell's contention that experience was a necessary guide in the use of the senses1 a ,bristol oculist gave several instances of persons who on being restored to sight from total blindness could not at first form any idea of the distances1 or directions1 or shapes of bodies2 in one instance the patient1 for a length of time1 was in the habit of shutting her eyes entirely and feeling the objects1 in order to get rid of the confusion which vision gave rise to2 and it was only as her experience grew more perfect that she saw with increasing correctness and pleasure1 until at length her sight became perfect4 ,the controversy on this subject has engaged the attention of many philosophers and has not yet been settled4 ,in later years ,helmholtz1 who preferred the mirror stereoscope of ,wheatstone to the lenticular one of ,brewster on the ground that the former gave more sharply-defined effects1 stated that the hypotheses successively formed by the various supporters of the intuitive theories of vision were quite unnecessary1 as no fact had been discovered inconsistent with the empirical theory1 which supposes nothing more than the well-known association between the impressions we receive and the conclusions we draw from them1 according to the fundamental laws of daily experience4 ,in #ahea ,professor ,wheatstone invented the pseudoscope1 an instrument which conveys to the mind false perceptions of all external objects1 called conversions of relief1 because the illusive appearance had the same relation to that of the real object as a cast to a mould or a mould to a cast4 ,thus a china vase ornamented with flowers in relief showed in the pseudoscope a vertical section of the interior with painted hollow impressions of the flowers4 ,in like manner a bust became a deep hollow mask4 ,when two objects at different distances were viewed through it1 the most remote object appeared the nearest1 while the nearest became the most remote4 ,a flowering shrub in front of a hedge appeared in the pseudoscope as behind the hedge1 and a tree standing outside a window was transferred to the inside of the room4 ,this instrument has been useful in illustrating mental phenomena according to the impressions it produces on observers4 ,it is found that with most persons the inverted appearance that an object presents when seen through the instrument is alone seen at first2 but after the real form of the object becomes known1 their visual perception is so much under the control of their matter-of-fact experience that they are unable again to see the inversion of the object4 ,with other observers the real appearance of the object lasts a shorter or longer time1 after which their visual impressions predominate to such an extent that it again appears inverted4 ,nor did his fertility in illustrating visual effects end here4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,plateau stated in the journal of the ,belgian ,royal ,academy for #ahea that ,professor ,wheatstone had communicated to him a plan for combining the principle of the stereoscope with that of the ,phenakisticope1 whereby figures simply painted upon paper would be seen both in relief and in motion1 thus presenting all the appearances of life4 ,in #ahea he supplied the scientific world with a mechanical illustration of the earth's rotatory motion which was much admired1 and which set at rest some disputed points4 ,questions had been raised at that time as to the effect which the rotation of the earth had upon bodies which1 like the pendulum1 oscillated from fixed points2 and ,m4 ,foucault designed mechanical means of showing such effects which were said to make the rotation of the earth as evident to the sight as that of a spinning-top4 ,his original experiment was shown in ,paris to ,m4 ,arago and other scientific men1 and was described as follows3--,to the centre of the dome of the ,pantheon 7#bgb feet high7 a fine wire was attached1 from which a sphere of metal1 four or five inches in diameter1 was suspended so as to hang near the floor of the building4 ,this apparatus was put in vibration after the manner of a pendulum4 ,under1 and concentrical with it1 was placed a circular table1 some twenty feet in diameter1 the circumference of which was divided into degrees1 minutes1 c41 and the divisions were numbered4 ,the elementary principles of mechanics showed that1 supposing the earth to have the diurnal motion upon its axis which explains the phenomena of day and night1 the plane in which the pendulum vibrated would not be affected by this diurnal motion1 but would maintain strictly the same direction during twenty-four hours4 ,in this interval1 however1 the table over which the pendulum was suspended would continually change its position in virtue of the diurnal motion1 so as to make a complete revolution in about #cj;h4 #djm4 ,since1 then1 the table thus revolved1 and the pendulum which vibrated over it did not revolve1 a line traced upon the table by a point or pencil projecting from the bottom of the ball would change its direction relatively to the table from minute to minute1 and from hour to hour2 so that when paper was spread upon the table1 the pencil formed a system of lines radiating from the centre of the table2 and the two lines thus drawn after the interval of one hour always formed an angle with each other of about eleven and a half degrees1 being the twenty-fourth part of the circumference4 ,this was actually shown to crowds who daily flocked to the ,pantheon to witness this remarkable experiment4 ,the practised eye of a correct observer1 aided by a magnifying glass1 could actually see the motion which the table had in common with the earth under the pendulum between two successive vibrations1 it being apparent that the ball did not return precisely to the same point of the circumference of the table after two successive vibrations4 ,this experiment was repeated in other towns both on the ,continent and in ,england with accordant results4 ,it was pointed out1 however1 that the influence of the earth's magnetism and other sources of error might produce discrepancies2 but ,professor ,wheatstone invented an apparatus which presented a complete illustration not only of the general principle1 but of the precise law of the sine of the latitude4 ,he maintained the principle that so long as the axis of vibration continues parallel to itself1 the arc of vibration will continue parallel to itself2 but if the axis does not continue parallel1 the direction of the arc of vibration will deviate4 ,his apparatus illustrated that principle4 ,instead of a pendulum he used the vibrations of a coiling spring1 the axis of which could be placed in any required inclination or latitude with respect to a vertical semicircular frame which revolved about its vertical axis3 the direction of the vibration was seen to change in a degree proportioned to the sine of the latitude or inclination4 ,he remarked1 with reference to ,foucault's experiment1 that the difficulty of the mechanical investigation of the subject1 and the delicacy of an experiment liable to so many causes of error1 had led many persons to doubt either the reality of the phenomena or the satisfactoriness of the explanation2 and he therefore supplied an experimental proof which was not dependent upon the rotation of the earth4 ,his experimental proof was pronounced the most complete and satisfactory that had been given4 ,another subject that attracted his attention for years was the art of writing in cipher4 ,when he was before a ,parliamentary ,committee in #ahdj he was asked whether the telegraph was not open to the objection that the officials working it necessarily became acquainted with the contents of all the messages4 ,his only reply to that objection then was that secret messages could be sent in cipher4 ,in later years he constructed a machine for that purpose1 intending to complete the benefits of the electric telegraph by rendering it possible to transmit telegraphic messages in a way that would render their contents unintelligible to the officials through whose hands they passed4 ,this machine was called the cryptograph1 and it periodically changed the characters representing the successive letters of the written communication1 so that it could not be read except by the receiver1 who1 possessing a corresponding machine set in the same way as the sender's1 could by reversing the operation understand the characters4 ,he stated that by the aid of this instrument an extensive secret correspondence could be carried on with several persons1 and a separate cipher could be employed by each correspondent4 ,the cipher despatches prepared by it were unintelligible to any person unacquainted with the word that might be selected as the basis of the cipher alphabet1 and though any person might possess one of the instruments1 he could not translate the cipher so long as the key-word was kept secret4 ,although this instrument has been scarcely known to the public1 experience has proved its simplicity and efficiency2 and it has been employed by the ,british ,government1 the ,french ,government1 and the ,english police4 ,its principle is easily understood4 ,any word in which the same letter does not recur1 may be selected as the key-word4 ,take the word 8saucer10 and write under the separate letters of it1 the remaining letters of the alphabet consecutively in the following columnar form3 ,s a u c e r b d f g h i j k l m n o p q t v w x y z ,in the machine are two movable spaces1 one containing the letters of the alphabet in the usual order1 and the other adapted to receive in juxtaposition the cipher letters which1 with 8saucer0 as the key-word1 would be the above letters arranged in a row1 one column following another1 thus3 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z s b j p y a d k q z u f l t c g m v e h n w r i o x ,a marvellous instance of his skill in deciphering cryptographic documents occurred in #aheh4 ,sir ,henry ,ellis relates that a good many years previously the trustees of the ,british ,museum purchased at a high price what appeared to be a very important document in cipher1 occupying seven folio pages closely filled with numerals4 ,the top of every page bore the signature of ,king ,charles the ,first1 and was countersigned by ,digbye4 ,for a long time ,sir ,henry ,ellis endeavoured to get it deciphered for the purpose of including it in his series of letters illustrative of the history of ,england1 but he could not get any one able to read it4 ,one evening at ,earl ,stanhope's he accidentally mentioned that fact to ,lord ,wrottesley1 who suggested that ,professor ,wheatstone's ingenuity might be able to unravel the secret writing1 and accordingly ,sir ,henry ,ellis at once sent it to the ,professor1 requesting that he would investigate its contents4 ,this took place on ,june #ast1 #aheh4 ,in the document in question about ninety different numerals were employed to represent the letters of the alphabet1 and besides the complexity of each letter being represented by several distinct numerals1 there was no division between the different words1 and the numbers represented not ,english 7as was at first supposed7 but ,french words4 ,this document1 which had baffled all other experts1 was interpreted by ,professor ,wheatstone4 ,a copy of it having been sent two or three years afterwards to the ,philobiblon ,society1 along with the key to the cipher1 the ,society expressed 8their admiration of this additional instance of that wonderful faculty of interpretation which seems to ordinary minds a special intuition not unworthy of a great scientific discoverer and practical benefactor of the age40 ,among the subjects that engaged his attention both at the beginning and the close of his electrical studies was the construction of self-registering thermometers4 ,in #ahdc he invented a telegraphic thermometer1 or rather an electro-magneto-meteorological register4 ,it recorded the indications of the barometer1 and the thermometer1 and the psychrometer every half-hour1 and printed the result in figures on a sheet of paper4 ,the recording mechanism was a kind of clockwork1 which was capable of registering #ajjj observations in a week without any readjustment1 and it could be prepared in five minutes for another week's work4 ,in consequence of this periodic winding up1 the instrument could not be left for an indefinite time2 and as there were many situations in which it was desirable to have meteorological indications1 but to which access could not be obtained for long periods1 he devised a new telegraphic thermometer whose indications were made visible at distant stations without the aid of clockwork4 ,it consisted of two parts2 one part1 called the responder1 contained a metallic thermometer consisting of a spiral ribbon of two dissimilar metals2 this responder was connected by two telegraph wires with the other portion of the apparatus called the questioner1 which recorded the changes of temperature by the movement of a hand on a dial round the edge of which was a thermometric scale4 ,the responder could be placed at the top of a high mountain for any length of time1 while its indications could be read at the station below2 it could be placed deep down in the earth whose temperature could thus be ascertained over a long period2 or it might be lowered to the bottom of the sea1 and its indications read at intervals during its descent as well as periodically at the bottom1 whereas previous marine thermometers required to be raised at every fresh observation4 ,in #ahga ,mr4 ,spottiswoode delivered a lecture at the ,royal ,institution on 8,some experiments on successive polarisation of light made by ,sir ,charles ,wheatstone40 ,he explained that the experiments then described were made by ,wheatstone some years previously1 but the pressure of other avocations delayed their publication4 ,certain it is that the polarisation of light formed the subject of experiments twenty-five years previously1 for in #ahdh ,professor ,wheatstone described to the ,british ,association an apparatus which by means of the polarisation of light indicated true solar time in places where a sun-dial would be useless4 ,it was called ,wheatstone's polar clock or dial1 and he described several forms of it4 ,it would be tedious to enumerate all his minor inventions2 but it is worthy of observation that from first to last there was a remarkable periodicity in the production of his chief inventions4 ,beginning with his magic lyre in #ahba1 he invented the concertina in #ahbi1h and his first telegraph in #ahcg4 ,between #ahcg and #ahdc he produced eight inventions2 and after that period his next notable inventions were his pseudoscope and his novel apparatus illustrating the rotation of the earth in #ahea4 ,in #aheh he produced his automatic transmitter1 which was succeeded in #ahfg by his dynamo4 ,it thus appears that a period of eight years elapsed between each of these important inventions1 with the single exception of the interval from #ahcg to #ahdc1 when he produced eight inventions4 ,this periodic ripening of his fertile mind into a rich harvest of inventions extended over half a century4 ,it need scarcely be matter of surprise1 therefore1 that when death put a stop to his labours on the eve of another cycle1 he left evidences of fresh fruits which were not yet matured4 ,his last invention was a new recording instrument for submarine cables4 ,it consisted of a globe of mercury which a slight electrical impulse caused to move to and fro in a capillary tube containing acid1 the movements of the globule to the right or left by the delicate current of a cable representing telegraphic signs4 ,it was said at the time to be fifty-eight times more sensitive than any previous recorder4 8,the catalogue of ,wheatstone's valuable labours10 says a friend of his1 8is still far from being exhausted3 but it must now suffice only to mention some of his unpublished and incomplete researches1 of which many exist4 ,at the early part of his career1 when his thoughts were mainly directed to ,acoustics1 he endeavoured to investigate the causes of the differences of #8timbre' or quality of tone in different musical instruments1 presuming it to depend on the nature of superposed secondary vibrations1 and of the material by which they are affected4 ,this the writer frequently1 but in vain1 urged him to complete and publish2 but such was the fecundity of his imagination that he would frequently work steadily for a time at a given subject1 and then entirely put it aside in pursuit1 it may be1 of some more important or more practical idea that had presented itself to his mind4 ,a short treatise is in existence on the capabilities of his well-known wave-machine1 in which rows of white balls1 mounted on rods1 are actuated in two directions perpendicular to each other by guides or templets with suitable curved outlines2 by means of this machine many combinations of plane and helical waves may be demonstrated1 and especially those related to the theory of polarised light4 8,in furtherance of this subject he devised a new form or mode of geometrical analysis1 to which he gave the title of ,bifarial ,algebra1 in which both the magnitude and the relative position of lines on a plane surface are designed to be represented by the introduction of two new symbols to represent positive and negative perpendicular directions4 ,the same principle has also been extended to three dimensions1 with a further proposal of new symbols1 under the name of ,trifarial ,algebra4 ,on this subject a brief treatise exists in manuscript4 8,among the subjects of his more recent but still incomplete investigations in light and electricity1 the following may be mentioned3--colours of transparent and opaque bodies2 colours obtained by transmission and reflection2 absorption-bands in coloured liquids2 spectroscopic examination of light reflected from opaque and dichroic bodies2 electro-motive forces of various combinations2 inductive capacities of various bodies2 experiments on electro-capillarity2 and the construction of relays40 8,although any one would be charmed by his able and lucid exposition of any scientific fact or principle in private1 yet his attempt to repeat the same process in public invariably proved unsatisfactory4 ,an anecdote may here be mentioned in confirmation of this peculiar idiosyncrasy4 ,wheatstone and the writer of this were for several years members of a small private debating society comprising several familiar names in science1 art1 or literature1 that met periodically at one another's houses to discuss some extemporaneous subject1 and every member was expected to speak4 ,wheatstone never could be induced to open his lips1 even on subjects on which he was brimful of information40 ,his familiar form1 says ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,preece1 was well known to the old habitus of the ,royal ,institution4 8,whenever either of his favourite subjects1 light1 sound1 or electricity1 was under discussion1 his little1 active1 nervous1 and intelligent form was present1 eagerly listening to the lecturer4 ,he was no lecturer himself1 yet no one was more voluble in conversation4 ,in explaining any object of his own invention1 or any apparatus before him1 no one was more apt1 but when he appeared before an audience and became the focus of a thousand eyes1 all his volubility fled2 and left him without a particle of that peculiar quality which enables an individual with confidence to come before a critical audience1 such as is represented by the members of the ,royal ,institution1 to develop scientific facts or describe apparatus4 ,this defect proved fortunate1 for it was the cause of ,wheatstone obtaining the aid of the greatest lecturer of the age2 and the annals of that ,institution bear record of many ,friday evenings being occupied by ,faraday in expounding the #8beautiful developments1' as he called them1 of ,wheatstone4444 ,though he was no lecturer1 or prolific writer1 he was an unrivalled conversationalist1 and those who had the pleasure of his conversation could never forget the lucidity with which he explained his apparatus4 ,his bibliographical knowledge was almost incredible4 ,he seemed to know every book that was written and every fact recorded1 and any one in doubt had only to go to ,wheatstone to get what he wanted4 ,the elegance of the design of everything ,wheatstone accomplished must always maintain him in the very first rank of the wonderful geniuses of this wonderful century40 ,many honours and distinctions were conferred on him4 ,he received the degrees of ,d4,c4,l4 and ,,ll4,d4 from the ,universities of ,oxford and ,cambridge1 and he was made a corresponding or honorary member of all the principal scientific academies in ,europe4 ,of the thirty-four distinctions conferred on him by ,governments1 ,universities1 or learned ,societies1 eight were ,german1 six ,french1 five ,english1 three ,swiss1 two ,scotch1 two ,italian1 two ,american1 besides one ,irish1 ,swedish1 ,russian1 ,belgian1 ,dutch1 and ,brazilian4 ,most of his honours were conferred in recognition of his electrical inventions4 ,for these he was knighted in #ahfh2 and both before and after that date he was more lavishly praised abroad than at home4 ,in #ahfg1 the ,president of the ,italian ,society of ,sciences1 in conferring on him the honour of honorary membership1 said that the applications of the principle of the ,rotating ,mirror were so important and so various that this discovery must be considered as one of those which have most contributed in these latter times to the progress of experimental physics4 8,the memoir on the measure of electric currents and all questions which relate thereto and to the laws of ,ohm has powerfully contributed to spread among physicists the knowledge of these facts and the mode of measuring them with an accuracy and simplicity which before we did not possess4 ,all physicists know how many researches have since been undertaken with the rheostat and with the so-called #8,wheatstone ,bridge1' and how usefully these instruments have been applied to the measurement of electric currents1 of the resistance of circuits1 and of electro-motive forces40 ,in #ahgc the ,french ,society for the ,encouragement of ,national ,industry presented him with the great medal of ,ampre which is awarded every six years for what is considered the most important application of science to industry4 ,the former recipients of this medal were ,henri ,st4 ,claire ,deville1 who introduced the manufacture of aluminium2 ,ferdinand ,de ,lesseps1 the engineer of the ,suez ,canal2 and ,boussingault1 the distinguished agricultural chemist4 ,of ,sir ,charles ,wheatstone1 the ,committee of ,economic ,arts said3 8,while his kaleidophone has been the point of departure in a method which permits sound to be studied by the aid of the eye2 while his researches on the qualities of sound and on the production of vowels1 as well as the creation of his speaking machine have realised many points in the theory of the voice2 while his ingenious apparatus illustrating the propagation and the combination of waves has facilitated the understanding of these delicate phenomena and contributed to throw light on the mechanism of undulatory motion1 his numerous researches on the application of electricity1 in which he has shown both profound science and a genius marvellously inspired1 occupy a great place in the history of the electric telegraph4 ,it was he who first realised1 under conditions really practicable1 this admirable means of communication between men and between nations1 and we ought not to forget that more than once he has come personally among us to prepare its organisation and promote its success4 ,the unanimous choice made by the ,committee of the ,economic ,arts1 and cordially ratified by the ,council1 honours our society as much as him who is the object of it4 ,we hope to give on this occasion a testimony of sympathy with a nation in which science is held in such high esteem4 ,in conferring on ,sir ,charles ,wheatstone a reward rendered valuable by those who have already received it1 the ,council performs a pure act of justice1 and acquits1 at least for some among us1 a debt of gratitude40 ,for many years he was a corresponding member of the ,french ,academy of ,sciences1 and on ,june #cj1 #ahgc1 he was elected a ,foreign ,associate in succession to ,baron ,liebig1 deceased1 and his election to this position1 the highest honour which it was in the power of that body to bestow upon 8a foreigner10 was almost unanimous4 ,while the highest honours that ,science could bestow were thus being conferred on him1 he was seized with inflammation of the chest1 from which he died at ,paris on ,october #ai1 #ahge4 ,his remains were removed to ,london and interred in ,kensal ,green ,cemetery4 ,prior to the removal of his body from ,paris1 a religious service was held at the ,anglican chapel1 at which a deputation from the ,academy attended1 and ,,mm4 ,dumas and ,tresca delivered addresses4 ,m4 ,dumas said3 8,to render to genius the homage which is its due1 without regard to country or origin1 is to honour one's self4 ,the ,paris ,academy of ,sciences1 always sympathising with ,english science1 did not hesitate1 during the troubled time of the wars of the ,empire1 to decree a grand prix to ,sir ,humphry ,davy4 ,now in a time of peace it comes to fulfil with grief a duty of affection to one of his noblest successors1 by gathering round his coffin to offer him a last homage4 ,a foreign ,associate of the ,academy of ,sciences1 exercising by a rare privilege in virtue of that title all the rights of its members during his life1 we are bound to render to his mortal remains the same tribute which we render to fellow-countrymen who are our colleagues4 ,the memory of ,sir ,charles ,wheatstone will live among us not only for his discoveries and for the methods of investigation with which he has endowed science2 but also by the recollection of his rare qualities of heart1 the uprightness of his character1 and the agreeable charm of his personal demeanour40 ,the ,president of the ,society of ,telegraph ,engineers1 ,mr4 ,latimer ,clark1 in announcing his death1 said3 8,if you wish correctly to estimate the magnitude of a building1 it is necessary to place yourself at a distance from it2 it is only then you can fully realise its real proportions as compared with its fellows4 ,so it is with the name of ,sir ,charles ,wheatstone4 ,i feel that in order to appreciate how great a man he has been we must look forward many years--,i mean by that a very great many years--if we can take our stand in imagination a thousand years hence1 the name of ,wheatstone will still be well known and highly honoured4 ,so far as we can judge from the history of the human race and of the past1 ,i am of opinion that1 as long as history lasts1 the name of ,wheatstone will be associated with that of ,watt and ,stephenson as men who1 in the era of ,queen ,victoria1 were prominent in the introduction of those magnificent enterprises by which the whole world has been practically reduced to one-twentieth part of its former size4 ,our successors will hear in their day of the giants of the ,victorian era2 they will hear of ,watt in connection with the steam-engine1 and of ,stephenson in connection with the locomotive and railways2 and they will also hear of ,wheatstone in connection with the electric telegraph4 ,we who are closer to him1 and know more of the history of the invention1 are well aware that others are entitled to share with him in the fullest degree the honour of the introduction of the electric telegraph2 but history is written very much by scientific men1 and ,sir ,charles ,wheatstone was himself an eminently scientific man1 and mingled so much with scientific men1 that those who will be the recorders of the history of the future will1 to a great extent1 associate his name alone with the practical introduction of the electric telegraph40 ,,footnotes3 #h ,the date of his musical inventions were #ahba1 #ahbi1 #ahcf1 #ahdd1 and #ahea1 giving an interval of seven or eight years between each4 ,,professor ,,morse4 ,,chapter ,i4 8,the sun1 the moon1 the stars ,send no such light upon the ways of men ,as one great deed40--,,tennyson4 ,the ideas of several men1 says ,mr4 ,j4 ,l4 ,ricardo1 are set in motion by exactly the same circumstances2 and men who are in the habit of putting things together very often have the same ideas at the same time4 ,the history of electrical inventions presents many illustrations of this observation2 and at first sight it might appear as if the old world had1 in like manner1 vied with the new in designing apparatus for applying electricity to useful purposes4 ,the study of electrical phenomena began in ,america about the same time as in ,europe4 ,the story of ,franklin's experiments with lightning has almost become a household tale1 and he is justly regarded as one of the patriarchs of electrical science4 ,but his strength lay in the application or explication of electrical phenomena rather than in their initiation1 and in that respect subsequent ,american electricians may be said to have followed in the footsteps of their illustrious ancestor4 ,hence in the history of electricity ,america occupies a unique position4 ,dean ,swift said that invention was the talent of youth1 and judgment of age2 and certain it is that ,america's electrical inventions have shown the boldness and novelty of youth1 while ,europe might be said to have gathered more of the fruits of judgment or experience4 ,in mechanical appliances the new world has seemed to complete the inventions begun in the old world4 ,such was the case with the recording telegraph1 the telephone1 and the electric light4 ,but in another class of inventions ,america did little or nothing4 ,it was ,europe that supplied the artificial generators of electricity4 ,the voltaic pile1 the thermo-electric pile1 the ,daniell and ,grove batteries1 and the dynamo machine were creations of the old world2 and curiously enough1 while the great inventions made in ,america for the application of electricity were the work of men who had not passed middle age1 the men in the old world who supplied the means of generating electricity did so after they had passed the meridian of life4 ,but if the inventors of generators had no rivals in the new world1 they were far from being exempt from rivalry nearer home4 ,the invention of the dynamo machine1 almost simultaneously as well as independently1 by three different men1 as narrated in a previous chapter1 is pretty well known4 ,nor is the pile which bears the name of ,volta an exception4 ,in #agic ,professor ,robinson1 of ,edinburgh ,university1 wrote that electricity could be generated by using a number of pieces of zinc of the size of a shilling made into a rouleau with as many real shillings4 ,that was the first suggestion of the pile2 but it was not till ,volta1 writing from ,como in #ahjj1 announced1 in a more elaborate manner1 his discovery that zinc and copper interlaid with wet paper or leather produced electricity1 that public attention was directed to its importance4 ,it is worthy of note that nearly all the men who discovered generators of electricity--from ,galvani to ,sir ,william ,thomson1 were natural philosophers1 who1 as already remarked1 made their discoveries at an advanced period of life--a fact which seems to indicate that electrical generators are some of the choicest and ripest fruits of the study of natural philosophy4 ,the close of the eighteenth century1 says ,sir ,john ,leslie1 was distinguished by the accession of a new branch of electrical science more brilliant and astonishing than even the parent stock2 and after describing the discoveries of ,galvani and ,volta1 he says they deservedly commenced a new epoch in physical science and led to the most splendid and wonderful discoveries4 ,the year #agia1 when ,galvani published at ,bologna a complete account of his experiments on animal electricity1 in which the leg of a frog played such a memorable part1 may therefore be described as the birth-time of modern electricity4 ,in the same year was born the immortal ,faraday1 whose researches in electricity not only enriched science but silenced the voice of envy2 and in the same year was born ,samuel ,f4 ,b4 ,morse1 whose ingenuity and perseverance gave to the world one of the most original and useful methods of conveying intelligence by electricity4 ,professor ,daniell1 whose invention of the constant battery gave a marked impulse to the progress of practical electricity1 was born in #agij1 the same year in which ,benjamin ,franklin died1 who1 in the absence of artificial generators1 drew his supplies of electricity from the clouds4 ,it has been often said that ,franklin was the ,american who brought electricity from the clouds to the earth1 and that ,morse made it subservient to the purposes of man4 ,samuel ,finley ,breese ,morse was born on ,april #bg1 #agia1 a little over a mile from where ,franklin was born1 and a little over a year after ,franklin died4 ,franklin was the youngest son of the youngest son for five successive generations1 and he was the fifteenth child of his father4 ,but in the ,morse family it was generally the eldest son who displayed ability or attained distinction4 ,the family was of ,english origin1 but had been settled in ,america a century and a half4 ,anthony ,morse1 who was born at ,marlborough in ,wiltshire in #afjf1 went to ,america in #afce4 ,his son had ten children1 of whom the eldest1 named ,jedediah1 was born in #agbf1 and was an active public man4 ,the eighth son of the latter1 also named ,jedediah1 was the father of ,samuel ,morse4 ,he was an eminent divine and author1 whose attainments were considered of such a high order that a ,scotch ,university conferred on him the degree of ,d4,d4 ,his wife was also described as a person of unusual ability and dignity1 who was born at ,new ,york in a house at the corner of ,wall ,street and ,hanover ,street1 near to which the first telegraph office was afterwards opened4 ,they were living at the foot of ,breeds ,hill1 ,charlestown1 ,massachusetts1 in #agia1 when ,samuel ,f4 ,b4 ,morse was born4 ,he was the eldest of eleven children4 ,in his fourth year he was sent to an old dame's school1 and in his seventh year to the preparatory school of ,andover1 where he is reported to have studied with ability and assiduity4 ,like his prototype ,franklin1 he then read ,plutarch's ,lives1 and this work is said to have given the first impulse to his mind4 ,at the age of thirteen he wrote a ,life of ,demosthenes1 which was preserved as a memorial of his early powers1 and which gave characteristic indications of the excellence that distinguished his literary work in after life4 ,at the age of fourteen he entered ,yale ,college1 where he got his first lessons in electricity4 ,jeremiah ,day1 who was then ,professor of ,natural ,philosophy1 delivered some lectures in #ahji upon the laws of electricity1 and illustrated them by experiments4 ,one proposition which ,day expounded was that if a circuit be interrupted the electricity will become visible at the point of interruption1 and that when it has passed it will leave an impression upon any intermediate object4 ,day declared many years afterward that he remembered one experiment which consisted in letting the electricity pass through a chain or through any metallic bodies placed at small distances from each other1 whereby the current in a dark room became visible between the links or between the metallic bodies4 ,in another experiment he showed that if several folds of paper were placed so as to interrupt a circuit1 they would be perforated by the electricity4 ,in after years ,morse described these experiments as the acorn which1 falling into fruitful soil1 eventually spread its boughs far and wide4 ,another eminent professor at ,yale ,college was ,benjamin ,silliman1 who in later years testified that ,morse attended his lectures on chemistry and galvanism between #ahjh and #ahaj1 and that the batteries then in use were exhibited and explained in detail4 ,moreover1 ,morse himself wrote letters to his parents in #ahji expressing much gratification at the chemical lectures he had heard at ,yale ,college1 and an earnest desire to get apparatus for the purpose of illustrating the experiments at home4 ,in his home letters he especially mentioned ,professor ,day's lectures on electricity as being most interesting1 and as being illustrated by some very fine experiments4 ,those who knew ,morse while at ,yale ,college1 where he took his degree in #ahaj1 described him as gentle1 refined1 studious1 and enthusiastic2 and as he appeared then to be in love with the science of electricity1 it is natural to inquire how he came to forsake it for so many years4 ,dr4 ,johnson states in his ,life of ,cowley that in the window of his mother's apartment lay ,spenser's ,fairy ,queen1 in which he very early took delight to read till by feeling the charms of verse1 he became1 as he relates1 irrecoverably a poet4 8,such are the accidents which1 sometimes remembered and perhaps sometimes forgotten1 produce that particular designation of mind and propensity for some certain science or employment1 which is commonly called genius4 ,the true genius is a mind of large general powers1 accidentally determined to some particular direction4 ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds1 the great painter1 had the first fondness for his art excited by the perusal of ,richardson's treatise40 ,it was an accidental circumstance of a different kind that directed the attention of ,samuel ,morse from electricity to art4 ,his father1 being a man of small means and having a large family1 was unable to supply the enthusiastic student with sufficient funds to complete his college course1 and to provide for the deficiency1 ,samuel betook himself to painting the portraits of such of his companions as could afford to pay him five dollars1 and it is said that by this means he partly defrayed the cost of his education4 ,a first success1 like a first love1 often forms the keynote of a life2 and so pleased was young ,samuel ,morse at the success of his first artistic efforts that he soon determined to make his living by art4 ,he accordingly directed all his energies and resources to the study of art1 and became the pupil of a distinguished ,american artist1 ,washington ,allston1 who took a great interest in him and perceiving his fine powers took him to ,england in #ahaa4 ,though only a young man of twenty1 ,morse got introductions to ,copley and ,west1 who in turn1 introduced him to ,wilberforce1 ,zachary ,macaulay1 and other notable men4 ,while in ,london he lodged with ,charles ,leslie1 who had not then risen to fame1 and who was the son of ,american parents4 ,while in ,london his patron was ,benjamin ,west1 who was himself a native of ,pennsylvania1 and whose early career somewhat resembled that of the young protg who now made him his guide1 philosopher1 and friend4 ,west not only entertained him with encouraging accounts of how he managed to climb to the heights of fame1 but did all he could to initiate him into 8the philosophy of his art40 ,he continued his studies in ,london from #ahaa to #ahae1 and though his circumstances were humble and unpretending1 he regularly associated with several of the greatest men in art and literature of that time1 and in his letters and pursuits gave clear indications of a great future4 ,after a year's study in ,london he wrote to his mother that his passion for art was so firmly rooted that no human power could destroy it1 and that the more he studied it1 the greater he thought was its claim to the appellation of divine4 ,his enthusiasm was not quenched by either penury or disappointment4 ,in #ahad he was induced by some friends to visit ,bristol1 in the hope of getting some employment that would replenish his purse1 but he found that empty praise was the only recompense that his labours could command4 ,he accordingly returned to ,london1 where he was encouraged by the approbation of such severe judges as ,west and ,allston4 ,having been allowed to witness ,west working at some of his historic pictures1 he determined to design and execute a large painting of his own1 and selected as his subject ,the ,dying ,hercules4 ,allston1 who was then engaged on his ,restoration of the ,dead ,man to ,life1 told him that he had first modelled his subject in clay1 and suggested that ,morse should do likewise4 ,the advice was followed4 ,a model of ,hercules was made1 and ,west1 on accidentally seeing it1 praised its vigour and finish1 remarking to his son that it showed that a true painter is a sculptor also4 ,the ,society of ,arts1 ,adelphi1 was then offering a gold medal for the best specimen of sculpture1 and ,morse was advised to finish his model and send it to the ,society for competition4 ,in the few days that remained before the competition began he finished the model1 and it succeeded in winning the prize1 which was presented by the ,duke of ,norfolk1 then ,president of the ,society4 ,when his picture of ,the ,dying ,hercules was ready he went with it to ,west1 who examined it very carefully4 ,in after years ,morse was accustomed to tell his friends that he had worked hard at the picture1 and was so satisfied with it that he expected to receive commendation from ,west4 8,very good1 very good10 said ,west1 as he handed it back1 8go on and finish it40 ,somewhat taken aback1 ,morse1 in a hesitating manner1 said it was finished4 8,oh no1 no10 said ,west1 8see there1 and there1 and there1 the finish is imperfect2 there's much work to be done yet1 go on and finish it40 ,morse quickly appreciated the defects pointed out by ,west2 and accordingly spent another week in perfecting his drawing4 ,he then took it to ,west with a feeling of confidence that it was finished4 ,west was more profuse than ever with his praise1 but concluded by repeating his former advice1 8,go on and finish it40 8,is it not finished80 inquired the almost discouraged student4 8,see10 replied ,west1 8you have not marked that muscle1 nor the articulation of the finger joints40 ,a few days more were spent in supplying the deficiencies pointed out by this exacting critic4 ,when it was again presented for examination1 ,west first praised it and then said1 8,go on and finish it1 young man10 to which the young man in despair replied1 8,i cannot finish it40 ,west1 no doubt observing that patience has its limits1 patted him on the shoulder1 and good-humouredly said3 8,well1 ,i have tried you long enough2 but you have learned more by this drawing than you would have done in double the time by a dozen half finished beginnings40 ,he went on to explain the importance of careful attention to the most minute details1 and to impress on him the value of thorough work as the secret of success and fame1 declaring that it was not numerous drawings but the character of one that made a thorough painter4 ,the picture in question received much praise at the ,royal ,academy4 ,encouraged by these results1 ,morse next painted a picture of the ,judgment of ,jupiter in the case of ,apollo1 ,marpessa1 and ,idas1 which was intended to compete for the gold medal and fifty-guinea prize offered by the ,royal ,academy in #ahad4 ,but an untoward event frustrated this design4 ,when he left ,america it was with the intention of being away only three years4 ,it was now his fourth year of absence2 and his circumstances were so pressing and his means so scanty that he left ,england at once1 offering the picture to the ,royal ,academy for exhibition through ,west4 ,the ,royal ,academy1 however1 refused to admit it because the artist did not present it personally4 ,west1 who had urged ,morse to remain in ,england1 and who was then ,president of the ,academy1 afterwards wrote to him that if he had remained he had no doubt that the picture would have taken the prize4 ,if these early efforts did not replenish the artist's purse1 they probably enriched his mind4 ,fnelon says that 8the mind of a great painter teems with the thoughts and sentiments of the heroes he is to represent2 he is carried back to the ages in which they lived1 and is present to the circumstances they were placed in2 but1 with this fervid enthusiasm1 he possesses also a judgment that restrains and regulates it3 so that his whole work1 however bold and animated1 is perfectly consonant to propriety and truth40 ,while therefore ,morse was zealously prosecuting an art which he was destined eventually to abandon for a new and untrodden avenue to fame and fortune1 his early labours1 by their reflex action1 may have tended to mould those moral and intellectual qualities which were needed to carry him through the trials of after years1 and which in the end won for him 8heroic honours40 ,returning to ,america in the autumn of #ahae full of hope in his success as an artist1 he opened rooms in ,boston where he exhibited his ,judgment of ,jupiter and other pictures2 but though many visitors came to view it and the people of the town treated him in a hospitable manner1 no one made an offer for the great picture1--a disappointment which he keenly felt4 ,pressure of circumstances thus led him to return to his first essay--portrait painting1 which he practised with some success in ,new ,england in #ahag4 ,next year he went to ,charlestown where his uncle ,dr4 ,finley resided1 and where he soon obtained lucrative employment4 ,on ,october #ast1 #ahah1 he married ,lucretia ,p4 ,walker1 of ,concord1 ,new ,hampshire1 who was described as the beauty of the town4 ,he resided in ,charlestown four years4 ,during these years his reputation as a painter continued to rise1 but it did not enrich him4 ,in #ahba-b he was engaged in painting a celebrated picture of the ,house of ,representatives at ,washington4 ,it measured eight feet by nine feet1 and contained eighty portraits4 ,though showing much artistic merit1 it was not a pecuniary success4 ,the first purchaser of it was an ,english gentleman4 ,in #ahbe the ,new ,york ,corporation gave him an order to paint a portrait of ,general ,lafayette1 that 8veteran of liberty10 whom ,lamartine afterwards painted in words as 8tall in stature1 noble1 pale1 cold in aspect with a reserved look1 which appeared to veil mysterious thoughts2 with few gestures1 restrained and caressing2 a weak voice without accent1 more accustomed to confidential whisperings than oratorical explosions2 with a sober1 studied1 and elegant elocution wherein memory was more conspicuous than inspiration2 he was neither a statesman1 nor a soldier1 nor an orator1 but an historical figure1 without warmth1 without colour1 without life1 but not without prestige2 detached from the midst of a picture of another age1 and reappearing in a new one40 ,the acquaintance of ,morse with this remarkable man ripened into friendship4 ,this full-length portrait1 for which he was to be paid liberally1 filled him with joyful anticipations1 but scarcely had he begun the work when he received news of his wife's death4 ,this was a crushing blow to him2 and although the portrait satisfied the ,general1 the artist declared that it was finished under such unfavourable circumstances that it was not a just specimen of his work4 ,in #ahbf he organised in ,new ,york the ,national ,academy of the ,arts of ,design--an association of artists which proved a lasting success1 and of which he was elected president in #ahbg4 ,at the ,new ,york ,athenum he delivered the first course of lectures in ,america on the fine arts4 ,while thus assiduously pursuing his favourite vocation1 his mind was by no means so absorbed in it as to exclude all other subjects4 ,he even tried other avenues to fortune4 ,in #ahag he1 along with his brother1 ,sidney1 took out patents for three machines which they had invented for the pumping of water1 and upon which they had bestowed much labour in the expectation of reaping a profitable return4 ,they did not1 however1 succeed4 ,undeterred by disappointment1 he next invented in #ahbc a machine for carving marble1 of which he formed high hopes which again were doomed to disappointment4 ,both as a mechanical inventor and as an artist the coveted prize of fortune seemed to elude his grasp4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 8,a man may turn whither he pleases1 and undertake anything whatsoever1 but he will always return to the path which nature has once prescribed for him40--,,goethe4 8,it is well that the beaten ways of the world get trodden into mud3 we are thus forced to seek new paths and pick out new lines of life40 ,of this saying the life of ,professor ,morse affords a striking illustration1 and we are now approaching the time when observation should be taken of the circumstances that led to his leaving the beaten track in which he had hitherto been endeavouring to attain distinction and fortune4 ,in #ahbb he took a residence near that of his old college friend1 ,professor ,benjamin ,silliman1 whose lectures he had attended in #ahjh-aj1 and with whom he had since continued on very friendly terms4 ,being now neighbours1 they were in the habit of communicating to each other the latest news in science and art4 ,professor ,morse was often in the laboratory of ,professor ,silliman1 and there witnessed the latest experiments in electrical science4 ,professor ,silliman has stated that at that time he possessed ,dr4 ,robert ,hare's 8splendid galvanic calorimeter10 by means of which he exhibited many interesting and beautiful results4 ,another friend was ,professor ,james ,f4 ,dana1 with whom he was also on intimate terms4 ,professor ,dana was accustomed to visit ,morse's room1 and to give him accounts of his experiments in electricity1 which at that time was his favourite theme4 ,in the winter of #ahbf-g ,professor ,morse attended a course of lectures on electro-magnetism given by ,professor ,dana in the ,new ,york ,university4 ,in these lectures not only were the latest discoveries in science described1 but experiments were performed with apparatus constructed for the purpose4 ,among other things ,professor ,dana stated that 8a spiral placed round a piece of soft iron bent into the form of a horseshoe renders it strongly and powerfully magnetic when an electric charge is passing through it40 ,this experiment he illustrated2 and when in after years the early knowledge of ,professor ,morse in reference to electricity was challenged1 he was able to produce the apparatus then used and to describe the experiments of ,professor ,dana1 who died in #ahbg4 ,but just as the interest in his old study was thus revived1 he came within sight of the position he had long coveted4 ,he was now a successful artist4 ,in ,new ,york he had many eminent friends and wealthy patrons4 ,work was abundant1 and prices were increasing4 ,all that appeared to him necessary to his continued success was greater proficiency in his art4 ,in order to gain this1 he resolved to visit ,italy--the land of painters2 and on his announcing his intention to do so1 a score of influential friends gave him commissions to paint pictures for them there4 ,he accordingly left ,new ,york in ,november1 #ahbi1 and proceeded first to ,england1 where he visited his old friend ,leslie1 now in the sunshine of prosperity1 and several other men eminent in art and literature4 ,he then went to ,paris1 and arrived in ,rome in the latter part of ,february1 #ahcj4 ,after spending a year and a half in ,italy1 enjoying her art treasures1 he returned to ,paris1 where he renewed his acquaintance with ,general ,lafayette1 and exerted himself on behalf of the poor ,poles1 whose sufferings were then attracting attention4 ,but his chief work in ,paris was a painting of the interior of the ,louvre1 wherein he copied the most remarkable paintings on the walls4 ,in the autumn of #ahcb he returned to ,america1 and his voyage back was the turning point in his career1 ,he sailed from ,havre for ,new ,york on ,october #a1 #ahcb2 and it was during that voyage on board the ,sully that he conceived the idea of a recording telegraph4 ,among the passengers was ,dr4 ,charles ,t4 ,jackson1 who was previously a stranger to ,morse1 but who afterwards claimed some share in the credit of the invention--a claim which ,professor ,morse repeatedly and emphatically repudiated4 ,in his account of its origin1 ,professor ,morse said3--8,i have a distinct recollection of the manner1 the place1 and the moment when the thought of making an electric wire the means of communicating intelligence first came into my mind and was uttered4 ,it was at the table in the cabin1 just after we had completed the usual repast at mid-day4 ,dr4 ,jackson was on one side of the table and ,i upon the other4 ,we were conversing on the recent scientific discoveries in electro-magnetism and the experiments of ,ampre with the electro-magnet4 ,dr4 ,jackson was describing the length of wire in the coil of a magnet1 and the question was asked by one of the passengers whether the electricity was not retarded by the length of the wire4 ,dr4 ,jackson replied in the negative1 stating that electricity passed simultaneously over any known length of wire1 and alluded to the experiment by which ,franklin made many miles in circuit to ascertain the velocity of electricity1 but could observe no difference of time between the touch at one extremity and the spark at the other4 ,i then remarked that this being so1 if the presence of electricity could be made visible in any desired part of the circuit1 ,i saw no reason why intelligence might not be transmitted instantaneously by electricity4 ,dr4 ,jackson gave his assent that it was possible4 ,the conversation was not diverted by a remark of mine from the details of the experiments ,dr4 ,jackson was describing for the purpose of obtaining a spark from a magnet1 nor was this thought of the telegraph again mentioned till ,i introduced the subject the next day4 ,while ,dr4 ,jackson's mind was during the voyage more occupied with other branches of science1 of geology1 and anatomy1 the thought which ,i had conceived took firm possession of my mind1 and occupied the wakeful hours of the night2 for ,i used to report to ,dr4 ,jackson and the other passengers my progress1 and to ask questions in regard to the best mode of ascertaining the presence of electricity4 ,i had devised a system of signs and constructed a species of type 7which ,i drew out in my sketch-book7 by which to regulate the passage of electricity2 but ,i had not settled the best mode of causing the electricity to mark4 ,several methods suggested themselves to me1 such as causing a puncture to be made in paper by the passage of a spark between two disconnected parts1 which ,i soon discarded as impracticable4 ,i asked ,dr4 ,jackson if there was not some mode of decomposition which could be turned to account4 ,dr4 ,jackson suggested an experiment which we agreed should be tried together as soon as possible after landing1 but which we never made40 ,he preserved the pocket-book containing his first crude plan of an alphabet of signs1 which became the basis of the ,morse alphabet4 ,so absorbed did he become in his designs of the various parts of the scheme that sleep forsook him1 and it was after a few days brooding over it that he exhibited and explained his designs to his companions4 ,as the voyage came to a close he said to the ,captain3 8,well1 if you hear of the telegraph one of these days as the wonder of the world1 remember that the discovery was made on board the good ship ,sully0--a remark which ,captain ,pell never forgot4 ,on landing at ,new ,york in ,november1 #ahcb1 after a voyage which lasted six weeks1 he was met by his two brothers1 ,richard and ,sidney4 ,on the way to the house of ,richard ,c4 ,morse1 who was editor of the ,new ,york ,observer1 he told both his brothers that during the voyage he had conceived an important invention1 which1 he declared1 would astonish the world1 and of the success of which he was perfectly sanguine4 ,he told them that he had invented a means of communicating intelligence by electricity1 whereby a message could be written down in a permanent manner at a distance from the sender4 ,he also took from his pocket the sketch-book in which he had drawn the kind of characters he intended to make his recording apparatus mark on paper1 and he likewise showed them drawings of portions of his electro-magnetic machinery4 ,his brothers were so impressed with his earnestness of purpose that they allowed him the use of an upper room in a house in ,new ,york1 where he worked1 and cooked1 and slept4 ,he has stated himself that scarcely a day had passed after his return before he commenced the construction of his invention from the plans and drawings made on board the ship4 ,at that time he thought it necessary to embody the signs to be recorded or printed in a kind of type1 which were to regulate the requisite opening and closing of the circuit in order to mark or imprint the points or signs upon a strip of paper at the desired intervals of time4 ,hence a mould of brass was made and a quantity of type cast before the close of the year #ahcb4 ,the rest of the machinery1 except a single cup battery1 a few yards of wire1 and a train of wheels of a wooden clock1 which he adapted to the service of unrolling the strip of paper1 8,i was compelled10 he says1 8from the necessities of my profession1 to leave in the condition of drawings till ,i found a more permanent resting place4 ,from ,november1 #ahcb1 till the summer of #ahce1 ,i had to change my residence three times1 and was wholly without the pecuniary means for putting together and embodying the various parts of my invention in one whole40 ,in #ahce his prospects became more auspicious4 ,he was appointed professor of the literature of the ,arts of ,design in ,new ,york ,university1 and thus obtained a more commodious and more permanent residence4 ,he says that when he took possession of his new home in the new building of ,new ,york ,city ,university in ,july1 #ahce1 he lost not a day in collecting the parts of his apparatus and putting into practical form the first rude instrument intended to demonstrate the working of his invention4 8,i was favoured with a little leisure from the unfinished condition of the university building1 which impeded the access of visitors to my apartments for my usual professional duties4 ,with the aid of a single cup battery1 ,i ascertained as early as #ahcd1 previous to my removal to the university1 that no visible effect was produced upon numerous salts which ,i submitted to trial by putting them in simple contact with the wire charged with electricity4 ,i succeeded1 however1 in #ahcf in marking by chemical decomposition when the electricity was passed through the moistened paper or cloth1 but the process was attended with so many inconveniences that it was laid aside for the moment1 not abandoned1 that ,i might give my attention more directly to an electro-magnetic mode of recording40 ,in accounting for the slowness in completing his instrument and the rudeness of the one first constructed1 he says3 8,the electro-magnet was not an instrument found for sale in the shops1 as it is to-day2 insulated wire was nowhere to be obtained except in small quantities1 as bonnet wire of iron bound round with cotton thread4 ,copper wire1 which was not in use for that purpose1 was sold in the shops by the pound or yard at high prices and also in very limited quantities4 ,to form my electro-magnet1 ,i was under the necessity of procuring from the blacksmith a small rod of iron bent in a horseshoe form2 of purchasing a few yards of copper wire1 and of winding upon it by hand its cotton thread insulation before ,i could construct the rude helices of a magnet4 ,i had already purchased a cheap wooden clock1 and adapted the train of wheels to the rate of movement required for the ribbon of paper4444 ,at the time of the construction of my first instrument ,i had not conceived the idea of the present key manipulator dependent on the skill of the operator1 but ,i presumed that the accuracy of imprinting signs could only be secured by mechanical arrangements and by automatic process4 ,hence the first conception on board the ship of embodying the signs in type mathematically divided into points and spaces4 ,hence also the construction of the type mould1 and the casting of the first type in #ahcb40 ,with the imperfect apparatus thus brought together1 he was able to satisfy himself that the paper ribbon could be moved at a regular speed1 while the requisite motion of a lever that moved a pencil made a succession of marks on the paper4 ,yet though he was confident that his invention had in it the elements of success1 he wanted to do with it what ,benjamin ,west repeatedly told him to do with his picture of ,hercules--8finish it0--before exhibiting it4 ,he was conscious that it was in too rude a form to be seen by the public2 and he has himself recorded that his means were too limited to admit of his constructing such a finished instrument as would insure success if he ventured to invite public attention to it4 ,he was still painting for his living2 and in order to economise both his means and his time he continued to work1 eat1 and sleep in the same room4 ,he purchased his provisions in small quantities1 and in order to conceal his poverty he generally went for his food in the evening as well as cooked it for himself4 ,during the year #ahcg his prospects began to brighten4 ,in the early part of that year he succeeded in solving the problem of working his apparatus at a greater distance than he expected a single current to be effective4 ,he says that 8between #ahce1 when the first instrument was completed1 and #ahcg ,i had devised a means of providing against a foreshadowed exigency when the conductors were extended1 not to a few hundred feet in length in a room1 but to stations many miles distant4 ,i was not ignorant of the possibility that the electro-magnet might be so enfeebled1 when charged from a great distance1 as to be inoperative for direct printing4 ,this possibility was a subject of much thought and anxiety long previous to the year #ahcf4 ,i had before then conceived and drawn a plan for obviating it2 but the plan was so simple that it scarcely needed a drawing to illustrate it2 a few words sufficed to make it comprehended4 ,if the magnet1 say at twenty miles distant1 became so enfeebled as to be unable to print directly1 it yet might have power sufficient to close and open another circuit of twenty miles further1 and so on till it reached the required station4 ,this plan was often spoken of to my friends previous to the year #ahcf1 but early in ,january1 #ahcf1 after showing the original instrument in operation to my friend and colleague1 ,professor ,gale1 ,i imparted to him this plan of a relay battery and magnet to resolve his doubts regarding the practicability of my producing magnetic power sufficient to write at a distance40 ,in like manner ,professor ,gale says3 8,from ,april to ,september1 #ahcg1 ,professor ,morse and myself were engaged together in the work of preparing magnets1 winding wire1 constructing batteries1 c41 in the university for an experiment on a larger but still very limited scale in the little leisure which we each had to spare4 ,we were both at that time much cramped for funds4 ,the labours of ,professor ,morse at this period were mostly directed to modifications of his instrument for marking1 contriving the best modes of marking1 varying the pencil or pen1 using plumbago and ink1 and varying also the form of paper from a slip to a sheet4 ,in the latter part of ,august1 #ahcg1 the operation of the instruments was shown to numerous visitors at the university4 ,it was early a question between ,professor ,morse and myself what was the limit of the magnetic power to move a lever4 ,i expressed a doubt whether the lever could be moved by this power at a distance of twenty miles2 and my settled conviction was that it could not be done with sufficient force to mark characters on paper at a hundred miles distant4 ,to this ,professor ,morse was accustomed to reply1 #8,if ,i can succeed in working a magnet ten miles1 ,i can go round the globe4' ,he often said to me3 #8,it matters not how delicate the movement may be1 if ,i can obtain it at all1 it is all ,i want4' ,he always expressed his confidence of success in propagating magnetic power through any distance of electric conductors which circumstances might render desirable4 ,this plan was often explained to me4 ,suppose1 said ,professor ,morse1 that in experimenting on twenty miles of wire1 we should find the power of magnetism so feeble that it will move a lever with certainty but a hairs breadth2 that might be insufficient1 it may be1 to write or print1 yet it would be sufficient to close and break another or second circuit twenty miles further on1 and a second circuit could be made in the same manner to break and close a third circuit twenty miles further1 and so on round the globe4 ,this general statement of the means to be resorted to was shown to me more in detail early in the spring of the year #ahcg40 ,the plan as explained to ,professor ,gale was that the current on reaching the end of one conducting wire1 round which wire was wound so as to form that end into an electro-magnet1 could attract to it an armature 7or movable hand7 of a contiguous wire1 and the hand thus moved being connected with a fresh battery1 it both continued the circuit and replenished the current4 ,after a few weeks of trial the use of metal blocks or types to regulate the recording marks was abandoned1 and although the construction of the handle1 called the manipulator1 for regulating the transmission at intervals of sufficient electricity to produce the marks1 was a later improvement1 he ever afterwards declared that his first rude instrument had the leading features that characterised the more perfect apparatus of later years2 or to use his own appropriate words1 8,it lisped its first accents and automatically recorded them in ,new ,york4 ,it was a feeble child indeed1 ungainly in its dress1 stammering in its speech4 ,but the maladies of its unfledged infancy were mainly the results of its parents struggles against poverty40 ,here let us pause and see him as others saw him4 ,let us see how some of his own friends viewed his labours as an artist and inventor during those times of adversity which the gods are said to view with complacency4 ,one of his pupils1 ,mr4 ,daniel ,huntington1 who afterwards became ,president of the ,academy of ,fine ,arts1 says3 8,the studio of ,professor ,morse was indeed a laboratory4 ,vigorous1 life-like portraits1 poetic and historic groups1 occasionally grew upon his easel2 but there were many hours--yes1 days--when1 absorbed in study among galvanic batteries and mysterious lines of wire1 he seemed to us like an alchemist of the middle ages in search of the philosopher's stone4 ,i can never forget the occasion when he called his pupils together to witness one of the first1 if not the first1 successful experiment with the electric telegraph4 ,it was in the winter of #ahce-f4 ,i can see now that rude instrument constructed with an old stretching frame1 a wooden clock1 a home-made battery1 and the wire stretched many times round the walls of the studio4 ,with eager interest we gathered about it1 as our master explained its operation1 while with a click1 click1 click1 the pencil1 by a succession of dots and lines1 recorded the messages in cipher4 ,the idea was born1 but we had little faith4 ,to us it seemed a dream of enthusiasm4 ,we grieved to see the sketch upon the canvas untouched40 ,in like manner1 ,mr4 ,william ,cullen ,bryant1 who had become acquainted with ,morse some years before the telegraph entered his mind1 says3 8,he was then an artist1 devoted to a profession in which he might have attained high rank had he not1 fortunately for his country and the world1 left it for a pursuit in which he has risen to more peculiar eminence4 ,even then in the art of painting1 his tendency to mechanical invention was conspicuous4 ,his mind1 as ,i remember1 was strongly impelled to analyse the processes of his art--to give to them a certain scientific precision1 to reduce them to fixed rules1 to refer effects to clearly defined causes1 so as to put it in the power of an artist to produce them at pleasure and with certainty1 instead of blindly groping for them1 and in the end owing them to some happy accident or some instinctive effort of which he could give no account4 ,the mind of ,morse was an organising mind4 ,he showed this in a remarkable manner when he brought together the artists of ,new ,york1 then a little band mostly of young men whose profession was far from being honoured as it now is1 reconciled the disagreements which he found existing among them1 and founded an association to be managed solely by themselves--the ,academy of the ,arts of ,design1 which has since grown to such noble dimensions1 and which has given to the artists a consideration in the community far higher than that before conceded to them4444 ,it was not till #ahce that ,morse found means to demonstrate to the public the practicability of his invention by the telegraph constructed on an economical scale and set up at the ,new ,york ,university4 ,the public1 however1 still seemed indifferent4 ,there was none of the loud applause1 none of that enthusiastic reception which it now seems natural should attend the birth of so brilliant a discovery4 ,i confess ,i was not without my share in the general misgiving1 and although the processes employed were exceedingly curious and highly creditable to the inventor1 ,i had my fears that the new telegraph might prove little more than a most ingenious scientific pastime easily getting out of order in consequence of the delicacy of its construction1 not capable of being used to advantage for great distances1 and for short ones only suitable for messages in their most abbreviated form4 ,the inventor1 however1 saw further than we all1 and ,i think never lost courage4 ,yet ,i remember that some three or four years after this1 he said to me with some disappointment1 #8,wheatstone in ,england and ,steinheil in ,bavaria1 who have their electric telegraphs1 are afforded the means of bringing forward their methods1 while to my invention of earlier date than theirs my country seems to show no favour4'0 ,an incident which began in #ahce and extended into #ahcf throws some light on the character and sympathies of the disappointed inventor4 ,in ,august of the latter year he published a little book entitled3 ,the ,proscribed ,german ,student3 being a ,sketch of some interesting ,incidents in the ,life and melancholy ,death of the late ,lewis ,clausing2 to which is added a treatise on the ,jesuits3 the posthumous work of ,lewis ,clausing4 ,in the ,introduction1 ,professor ,morse stated that in the autumn of #ahce a stranger and foreigner came to his house and introduced himself to him1 apologising for his interruption1 and asking whether he was the author of a work on ,foreign ,conspiracy4#i ,on ,professor ,morse replying in the affirmative1 ,clausing asked him as a favour to peruse a manuscript with a view to recommending it to a publisher4 ,asked why he had selected ,morse to pass an opinion on the book1 ,clausing replied that in his own country1 ,heidelberg1 he had incurred the enmity of the ,jesuits because he did not raise his cap when the procession of the ,host was passing in the street4 ,in consequence of that offence an ecclesiastic left the procession and struck off his cap in a passionate manner4 ,clausing afterwards went to the ecclesiastic's house1 and shot him in the face1 but not fatally4 ,after being in prison awaiting sentence for eleven months1 he escaped in #ahcc1 and since then the ,jesuits had pursued him wherever he went1 in ,france1 ,brussels1 and ,london1 and now in ,america4 ,having in the ,west met with ,morse's work on ,foreign ,conspiracies against the ,united ,states1 he found out the author1 8for10 he said 8if there is a man in the world who ,i can be sure is not a ,jesuit1 it is the writer who signs himself ,brutus40 ,professor ,morse gives an interesting and sympathetic account of the way he treated this poor young man1 who called on him one evening at the ,new ,york ,university1 but not finding him at home1 wrote a letter to him in which he construed the most ordinary circumstances into plots1 and concluded by saying that he saw daily more and more that nothing was so dangerous as to be an honest man among rogues2 yet he never had done and never would do anything of which he could have the remotest reason to be ashamed4 ,the letter ended 8with true admiration for your noble character40 ,the young man1 an accomplished scholar1 aged twenty-five years1 afterwards shot himself with a pistol while walking on a public promenade4 ,his work on the ,jesuits displayed great research and a considerable acquaintance with the literature and literary characters of his day4 ,professor ,morse said of him that 8he conversed in ,english fluently1 with less foreign accent than was usually met with in foreigners of twenty years residence in the country1 and he wrote a clear1 fair1 and neat hand4 ,in his manners he was retiring and modest1 and in his address he had that peculiar courtesy which belongs to well-educated ,germans4 ,he had a fine countenance1 a steady expression1 with a remarkable dark eye1 which fixed itself steadily upon yours without winking1 yet without severity2 it was mild1 and1 in the last interviews with me1 melancholy4 ,he seemed particularly sensitive to kindness1 and when1 in the last interview1 ,i urged him freely to call upon me at all times and unburden his bosom of its troubles1 and endeavoured to cheer him by sympathy1 he wept like a child40 ,the treatise on the ,jesuits1 which ,professor ,morse published immediately after the death of its author1 filled nearly #bjj small pages1 and it was preceded by an account of its author's career from the pen of the ,professor2 who thus showed that at the most trying period of his life1 when absorbed himself in secret cares and beset by chilling poverty1 he could freely spend his time and money in promoting the last wishes of a poor foreigner4 ,in #ahcg circumstances occurred which hastened his preparations for the public display of his telegraph4 ,in ,february of that year the ,house of ,representatives resolved to instruct the ,secretary to the ,treasury to report next session upon the propriety of establishing a system of telegraphs in the ,united ,states4 ,a copy of the circular making inquiries on the subject was sent to ,professor ,morse1 who in reply gave a detailed estimate of the cost of his telegraph and a history of its invention4 ,in ,april of the same year it was announced in the newspapers that a wonderful telegraph had been invented by two ,frenchmen2 and ,professor ,morse and his friends took alarm lest the invention of his electro-magnetic telegraph had become known and appropriated by other hands4 ,it turned out afterwards that the announcement in question referred to a visual telegraph and was of no importance1 but it had the useful effect of rousing ,professor ,morse to more energetic steps for the purpose of bringing his invention creditably before the public4 ,he also consented to a public announcement of the existence of his invention in the ,new ,york ,observer1 and from ,april to ,september1 #ahcg1 he and ,professor ,gale were busy preparing magnets1 winding wire1 and constructing batteries1 with the view of making public experiments on a larger scale4 ,no sooner had news of the successful operation of his telegraph1 as exhibited privately to his friends1 begun to spread about than a fresh source of perplexity arose from an unexpected quarter4 ,dr4 ,jackson1 a chemist and geologist of ,boston1 now came forward and publicly claimed to be a joint inventor of the telegraph1 alleging that he had suggested it to ,professor ,morse on board the ,sully in #ahcb4 ,he said that during the voyage he had 8the pleasure of becoming acquainted with ,s4,f4,b4 ,morse1 a distinguished ,american artist1 who is very ingenious in mechanical inventions4 ,i was enthusiastically describing the various wonderful properties of electricity and electro-magnetism before ,professor ,morse1 ,mr4 ,rivers1 ,mr4 ,fisher1 and others at the table after dinner while the company were listeners1 and1 as it appeared to me1 were somewhat incredulous1 for they knew little or nothing on the subject4 ,i mentioned among many other things that ,i had seen the electric spark pass instantaneously1 without any appreciable loss of time1 four hundred times round the great lecture room at the ,sorbonne4 ,this evidently surprised the company1 and ,i then asked if they had not read of ,dr4 ,franklin's experiments in which he had caused electricity to go a journey of twenty miles by means of a wire stretched up the ,thames1 the water being a portion of the circuit4 ,the answer was from ,professor ,morse that he had not read it4 ,after a short discussion as to the instantaneous nature of the passage1 one of the party1 ,mr4 ,rivers or ,mr4 ,fisher1 said it would be well if we could send news in the same rapid manner2 to which ,professor ,morse replied1 #8,why cannot we8' ,i then proceeded to inform ,professor ,morse in reply to his questions1 how it might be done4 ,first1 ,i observed that electricity might be made visible in any part of a circuit by dividing the wire1 when a spark would be seen at the intersection4 ,secondly1 that it could be made to perforate paper1 if interposed between the disconnected wires4 ,thirdly1 that saline compounds might be decomposed so as to produce colours on paper4 ,the second and third projects were finally adopted for future trial1 since they could be made to furnish permanent records4444 ,i observed that it would be easy to devise a method of reading the markings4 ,here the conversation changed for a while1 and was resumed by ,professor ,morse next day after breakfast4 ,professor ,morse then questioned me again on every point of the invention1 and said he had been thinking much about it4 ,with pencil in hand1 he proposed a method of deciphering the markings1 the dots and marks being made regularly4 ,this was a subject of discussion1 and we both took part in it1 but ,i acknowledge that ,professor ,morse did most in planning the numeration of the marks40 ,it is evident that even if the accuracy of the above version of the conversations was unquestionable1 the information which ,dr4 ,jackson professed to give to ,professor ,morse was substantially the same that ,morse had learned previously4 ,to the claim thus set up by ,dr4 ,jackson ,professor ,morse gave an instant and categorical denial4 ,he said3 8,the discovery belongs to me1 and it must of necessity belong exclusively to one4 ,if by an experiment which we proposed to try together1 we had mutually fixed upon a successful mode of conveying intelligence1 then might we with some propriety be termed mutual or joint inventors2 but as we have neither tried any experiment together1 nor has the one proposed to be tried by ,dr4 ,jackson been adopted by me1 ,i cannot see how we can be called mutual inventors4 ,dr4 ,jackson is not aware perhaps that the mode ,i have carried into effect1 after many and various experiments1 with the assistance of my colleague1 ,professor ,gale1 was never mentioned either by him or to him4 ,the plan of marking by my peculiar type1 and the use which ,i make of the electro-magnet1 were entirely original with me4 ,all the machinery has been elaborated without a hint from ,dr4 ,jackson of any kind in the remotest degree4 ,i am the sole inventor4 ,it is to ,professor ,gale that ,i am most of all indebted for substantial and effective aid in many of my experiments2 but he prefers no claim of any kind40 ,dr4 ,jackson1 on the #agth of ,september1 #ahcg1 admitted that the telegraph he had suggested would require twenty-four wires for conductors4 ,professor ,morse replied that his telegraph was adapted to the use of one wire1 or a single circuit1 a method which ,dr4 ,jackson had declared to be impracticable4 ,dr4 ,jackson admitted that among those who heard his conversations with ,professor ,morse was ,william ,pell1 the ,captain of the ,sully1 who on being asked to give his version of the matter wrote to the ,professor as follows3--8,i am happy to say ,i have a distinct remembrance of your suggesting as a thought newly occurred to you the possibility of a telegraphic communication being effected by electric wires4 ,as the passage progressed and your idea developed itself1 it became frequently a subject of conversation4 ,difficulty after difficulty was suggested as obstacles to its operation1 which your ingenuity still laboured to remove till your invention1 passing from its first crude state through different grades of improvement1 was in seeming matured to an available instrument40 ,in a subsequent letter ,captain ,pell said it was a matter of great astonishment to him that a fellow-passenger on the ,sully from ,havre in ,october1 #ahcb1 should attempt to contest with ,professor ,morse the claim of having been the inventor of the electric telegraph2 the impression rested on his mind with the freshness and force of conviction that ,professor ,morse alone was the originator of the invention4 ,other witnesses who were on board the ,sully gave equally emphatic testimony in support of his originality4 ,when the question of originality was afterwards investigated in a court of law1 ,mr4 ,justice ,woodbury1 after examining all the authorities on the subject1 stated that from #ahcb forward ,professor ,morse was entitled to the high credit of making attempts to construct a practical machine for popular and commercial use1 which would communicate at a distance by electro-magnetism1 and would record quickly and cheaply what was communicated1 and that among sixty-two competitors to the discovery of the electric telegraph up to #ahch1 ,professor ,morse alone in #ahcg seemed to have reached the most perfect result desirable for public and practical use4 ,while rival claims were being made to the invention of the telegraph1 ,professor ,morse succeeded in securing protection by patent in his own country4 ,he had filed his caveat in the ,united ,states on ,october #f1 #ahcg1 and six months afterwards applied for a patent1 which he obtained in #ahdj4 ,just before taking proceedings to obtain patent rights1 some friends of the right sort came to his assistance4 ,in ,september1 #ahcg1 he showed his apparatus and explained his designs to ,professor ,torrey1 ,mr4 ,alfred ,vail1 and others2 and their approbation had a stimulating effect4 ,mr4 ,alfred ,vail and his brother1 after making a thorough examination of it1 became so enthusiastic about its success that they offered to supply the impecunious inventor with the means requisite to try experiments on a larger scale4 ,this ready assistance when he was in need he never ceased to praise4 ,many years after his telegraph was in universal use1 and when he was being crowned with the highest honours of his life1 he stated that the inventor must seek and employ the skilled mechanician in his workshop to put his invention into a practical form1 and for this purpose some pecuniary means are required as well as mechanical skill4 ,both these he received from ,messrs4 ,vail4 ,these gentlemen came to the help of 8the unclothed infant1 and with their funds and mechanical skill put it into a condition creditable to appear before the nation40 ,for this valuable assistance ,professor ,morse assigned to ,mr4 ,vail one fourth share in the patent2 and they continued to work together with the greatest good will4 ,the first really good ,morse instrument was made by ,mr4 ,vail1 assisted by his father and brother1 and their first experiment was made with three miles of copper wire placed round a room of ,vail's factory at the ,speedwell ironworks1 ,morristown1 ,new ,jersey1 on ,january #f1 #ahch4 ,encouraged by its success1 the inventor and his partners invited a number of prominent citizens to witness the performances of the telegraph in the ,geological ,cabinet of the ,university in ,washington ,square1 ,new ,york1 on ,january #bd1 #ahch2 and so much interest was excited by its achievements on that occasion that a fortnight later the ,committee of ,sciences and ,arts of the ,franklin ,institute inspected it4 ,as an authoritative and permanent record of its stage of development at that time their report is instructive4 ,they stated that 8the instrument was exhibited to them in the ,hall of the ,institute1 and every opportunity given by ,mr4 ,morse and his associate1 ,mr4 ,alfred ,vail1 to examine it carefully and to judge of its operation4 ,the instrument may be briefly described as follows3 7#a7 ,there is a galvanic battery of sixty pairs of plates1 set in action by a solution of sulphate of copper4 7#b7 ,the poles of this battery can be connected at pleasure with a circuit of copper wire1 which in the experiments we witnessed was ten miles in length4 ,the greater part of the wire was wound round two cylinders1 and the coils insulated from one another by being covered with cotton thread4 7#c7 ,in the middle of this circuit of wire1--that is1 at what was considered virtually a distance of five miles from the battery1 was the register4 ,in this there is an electro-magnet1 made of a bar of soft iron bent in the form of a horseshoe1 and surrounded by coils of the wire which forms the circuit4 ,the keeper of this magnet is at the short arm of a bent lever1 at the end of the longer arm of which is a fountain-pen4 ,when the keeper is drawn against the magnet1 the pen comes in contact with a roll of paper wound round a cylinder1 and makes a mark with ink upon this paper4 ,while the telegraph is in operation1 the cylinder which carries the paper is made to revolve slowly upon its axis1 by an apparatus like the kitchen jack1 and is at the same time moved forward1 so that the pen if constantly in contact with the paper would describe a spiral or helix upon its surface4 7#d7 ,near the battery1 at one of the stations1 there is an interruption in the circuit1 the ends of the separated wire entering into two cups1 near to each other1 containing mercury4 ,now if a small piece of bent wire be introduced1 with an end in each cup1 the circuit will be completed1 the electro-magnet at the other station will be set in action1 the keeper will be drawn against it1 and the pen will make a mark upon the revolving paper4 ,on the other hand1 when the bent wire is removed from the cups1 the circuit will be interrupted1 the electro-magnet will instantly cease to act1 the keeper will1 by its weight1 recede a small distance from the magnet1 the other end of the lever will rise and lift the pen from the paper1 and the marking will cease4 7#e7 ,the successive connections and interruptions of the circuit are executed by means of an ingenious contrivance for depressing the arch of copper wire into the cups of mercury1 and raising it out of them4 ,this apparatus could not be described intelligibly without a figure2 but its action was simple and very satisfactory4 7#f7 ,two systems of signals were exhibited1 one representing numbers1 the other letters4 ,the numbers consist of nothing more than dots made on the paper1 with suitable spaces intervening4 ,thus 444 44 44444 would represent #cbe1 and may either indicate this number itself1 or a word in a dictionary1 prepared for the purpose1 to which the number is attached4 ,the alphabetical signals are made up of combinations of dots and of lines of different lengths4 ,there are several subsidiary parts of this telegraph which the ,committee have not thought it necessary to mention particularly4 ,among these is the use of a second electro-magnet at the register1 to give warning by the ringing of a bell1 and to set in motion the apparatus for turning the cylinder4 ,the operation of the telegraph as exhibited to us was very satisfactory4 ,the power given to the magnet at the register1 through a length of wire of ten miles1 was abundantly sufficient for the movements required to mark the signals4 ,the communication of this power was instantaneous4 ,the time required to make the signals was as short1 at least1 as that necessary in the ordinary telegraphs4 ,it appears to the ,committee therefore that the possibility of using telegraphs upon this plan in actual practice is not to be doubted1 though difficulties may be anticipated which could not be tested by the trials made with the model4 ,one of these relates to the insulation and protection of the wires1 which are to pass over many miles of distance to form the circuits between the stations4 ,mr4 ,morse has proposed several plans1--the last being to cover the wires with cotton thread1 then varnish them thickly with gum-elastic1 and inclose the whole in leaden tubes4 ,doubts have been raised as to the distance to which the electricity of an ordinary battery can be made efficient2 but the ,committee think that no serious difficulty is to be anticipated as to this point4 ,the experiment with the wire wound in a coil may not indeed be deemed conclusive2 but one of the members of the ,committee assisted in an experiment in which a magnet was very sensibly affected by a battery of a single pair through an insulated wire of two miles and three quarters in length1 of which the folds were four inches apart2 and when a battery of ten pairs was used water was freely decomposed4 ,an experiment is said to have been made with success on the ,birmingham and ,manchester railroad through a circuit of thirty miles in length4 ,it may be proper to state that the idea of using electro-magnetism for telegraphic purposes has presented itself to several different individuals1 and that it may be difficult to settle among them the question of originality4 ,the celebrated ,gauss has a telegraph of this kind in actual operation for communicating signals between the ,university at ,gttingen and the magnetic observatory in the vicinity4 ,mr4 ,wheatstone of ,london has also been for some time engaged in experiments on an electro-magnetic telegraph4 ,but the plan of ,professor ,morse is1 so far as the ,committee are informed1 entirely different from any of those devised by other individuals1 all of which act by giving different directions to magnetic needles1 and would therefore require several circuits of wires between all the stations40 ,a month later the ,committee of ,commerce drew up their report to ,congress4 ,they stated that1 among the suggestions that had been submitted1 the electro-magnetic telegraph of ,professor ,morse was pre-eminently interesting and wonderful2 and that in addition to being examined and confidently recommended by the ,select ,committee of the ,franklin ,institute1 it had been exhibited to the ,president of the ,united ,states1 to several heads of departments1 members of ,congress1 and a vast number of scientific and practical men from all parts of the ,union4 ,all concurred1 without a dissenting doubt1 in admiration of the ingenious and scientific character of the invention1 and appeared to be convinced as to 8its great and incalculable practical importance and usefulness to the country and ultimately to the world40 ,the ,committee also stated that ,professor ,morse concurred in saying that it would be presumptuous to calculate or hold out promises as to what its whole capacity for usefulness might be in either a political1 commercial1 or social point of view if the electrical power on which its action depended proved inefficient over long distances2 but it was obvious1 they thought1 that the influence of the invention among the people of such a widely extended country1 would1 in the event of its success1 amount to 8a revolution unsurpassed in moral grandeur by any discovery that has been made in the arts and sciences from the most distant period to which authentic history extends to the present day40 ,such was the language applied to the first experimental working of the telegraph over ten miles of wire2 nor did the ,committee's first impressions end there4 ,our familiarity with the telegraph has divested it of novelty1 but it suggested to them thoughts which are still impressive and beautiful4 ,they said that1 8with the means of almost instantaneous communication between the most distant points of the country and simultaneously between any given number of intermediate points1 which this invention contemplates1 space for all purposes of information will be completely annihilated between the ,states of the ,union4 ,the citizens will be invested with and will reduce to daily and familiar use an approach to the high attribute of ubiquity in a degree that the human mind till recently had hardly dared to contemplate seriously as belonging to human agency1 from an instinctive feeling of religious reverence and reserve of a power of such awful grandeur40 ,the ,committee concluded by recommending ,congress to grant #cj1jjj dollars for the making of an experiment on a much larger scale1 say #ajj miles4 ,to ,professor ,morse1 who had toiled at the invention now and then for fully five years amid many discouragements1 everything now looked encouraging4 8,i see nothing now10 he said1 8but an unclouded prospect1 for which let us pay to ,him who shows it to us the homage of grateful and obedient hearts1 with most earnest prayers for grace to use prosperity aright40 ,the next step thought necessary to insure the wide success anticipated was the taking out of foreign patents2 and for that purpose the sanguine inventor and ,mr4 ,f4 ,o4 ,j4 ,smith1 who had become a warm friend of his1 paid a visit to ,europe4 ,mr4 ,smith was a member of the ,house of ,representatives1 and as ,chairman of the ,house ,committee of ,commerce1 he had in ,april1 #ahch1 recommended ,congress to grant #cj1jjj dollars for the purpose of testing the telegraph over many miles4 ,in after years ,professor ,morse gave him 8the credit of a just appreciation of the new invention and of the zealous advocacy of an experimental essay1 as well as of inditing an admirably written report in its favour which was signed by every member of the ,committee1 when in #ahch the telegraph appeared in ,washington a suppliant for the means to administer its power40 ,this friend now accompanied the inventor to ,england1 where they applied for a patent4 ,in ,england ,messrs4 ,wheatstone and ,cooke had already obtained a patent for their needle telegraph2 but as the ,morse telegraph was essentially different from theirs1 he unhesitatingly paid the usual fees and went through the preliminary formalities4 ,to his dismay1 however1 he found his application objected to before the ,attorney-,general1 whose sanction was requisite1 on the ground that his telegraph was not new4 ,the arguments were heard on the #abth of ,july1 #ahch1 when ,morse produced his instrument in order to show the ,attorney-,general how different it was from the ,english telegraph2 but the ,attorney-,general held that it was unnecessary to examine it1 because the ,london ,mechanics' ,magazine for the previous ,february had published an article from ,silliman's 7,american7 ,journal for ,october1 #ahcg1 giving a description of the invention4 ,this publication was considered a valid reason for refusing a patent4 ,another hearing was obtained1 but it only confirmed the previous decision4 ,while in ,london on this business ,morse was a spectator of the coronation of ,queen ,victoria in ,westminster ,abbey4 ,in ,france a better reception was accorded to the inventor1 who not only got a patent without difficulty1 but was loaded with compliments4 ,arago brought his telegraph before the ,french ,institute1 where the greatest men of the time1 such as ,humboldt and ,guy ,lussac1 were profuse in their admiration of it4 ,but to make the patent valid in ,france it was necessary that it should be worked there within two years2 and this it was found impossible to do4 ,an agreement was made with the ,st4 ,germain ,railway ,company to erect a line of telegraph upon their railroad1 but the ,government having refused their permission1 the project was dropped4 ,though his visit to ,paris was not attended with the results he desired1 an incident occurred which rendered it memorable and linked his name with another discovery1 which probably encouraged him to persevere with his own4 ,the ,american ,consul introduced him to ,m4 ,daguerre1 who1 in conjunction with ,m4 ,niepce1 had just discovered the art of photography1 then known as 8the new art40 ,the discovery of ,daguerre was causing a great sensation1 but his method was kept a secret4 ,the two inventors agreed to show their inventions to each other1 but ,professor ,morse undertook not to disclose the art of photography just then4 ,negotiations were going on between ,m4 ,daguerre and the ,french ,government with reference to the publication of the process1 and the result was that ,daguerre agreed to disclose it in consideration of the ,government paying him a pension of #bejl4 a year and ,niepce #affl4 a year for life4 ,m4 ,arago took a leading part in guaranteeing the genuineness of the discovery4 ,as soon as a bill conferring the pensions passed the ,french ,chambers1 8the new art0 was to be made public1 and ,m4 ,daguerre in ,january promised to send ,professor ,morse a copy of his description as soon as published4 ,it was not till ,september that this took place1 but ,professor ,morse1 who had returned to ,new ,york in ,april1 #ahci1 was the first in ,america to receive a copy of ,daguerre's own account of his discovery illustrated with six diagrams4 ,from these drawings ,professor ,morse was able to construct the first photographic apparatus used in the ,united ,states2 and the first photograph taken with it was a view of the tower of the ,church of the ,messiah on ,broadway1 as seen from a back-window of ,new ,york ,university4 ,the process was no sooner published than improvements were made in it2 and among the earliest improvers in ,america were ,professor ,morse and ,dr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,draper1 professor of ,chemistry in ,new ,york ,university4 ,experiments which they made in a studio erected on the roof of the ,university resulted in the publication next year of a paper by ,professor ,draper1 ,on the ,process of ,daguerreotype1 and its ,application to taking ,portraits from the ,life4 ,this was the announcement of a great improvement4 ,by the process of ,daguerre the time of taking a photograph at ,paris varied from three to thirty minutes1 and the human face could only be photographed with the eyes shut4 ,by ,professor ,draper's improvements portraits could be taken with the eyes open1 and instead of an average of fifteen minutes1 it could be done in one minute or less4 ,professor ,draper stated that in portraits taken by his process 8the eye appears beautifully2 the iris with sharpness1 and the white dot of light upon it with such strength and so much reality and life as to surprise those who have never before seen it4 ,many are persuaded that the pencil of the painter has been secretly employed to give this finishing touch40 ,for six months ,professor ,morse acted as a photographer1 and was thus enabled to repay the 8great expenses0 he had incurred in improving the process4 ,he then abandoned photography for telegraphy4 ,it thus appears that ,professor ,morse was the first lecturer on art in ,america1 the first sculptor from ,america who received foreign honours1 the first photographer in ,america1 and the first inventor of the recording telegraph4 ,the work now set before him was the introduction of the telegraph1 and to accomplish this work other five years were necessary4 ,they were five years of poverty and disappointment1 occasionally brightened by transient gleams of success4 ,the petition to ,congress for money to make an experiment with it on a large scale had been thrown aside among the unfinished business of the session1 and it was not till #ahdb that the matter was again brought forward4 ,at the close of #ahda the despairing inventor said3 8,i have not a cent in the world4 ,i am crushed for want of means1 and means of so trivial a character1 too1 that they who know how to ask 7which ,i do not7 could obtain in a few hours4 ,one year more has gone for want of means4 ,i have now ascertained that1 however unpromising were the times last session1 if ,i could only have gone to ,washington1 ,i could have got some aid to enable me to insure success at the next session4 ,as it is1 although everything is favourable1 although ,i have no competition and no opposition--on the contrary although every member of ,congress1 so far as ,i can learn1 is favourable--yet ,i fear all will fail because ,i am too poor to risk the trifling expenses which my journey and residence in ,washington will occasion me4 ,i will not run in debt if ,i lose the whole matter2 so unless ,i have the means from some source ,i shall be compelled1 however reluctantly1 to leave it4 ,nothing but the consciousness that ,i have an invention which is to mark an era in human civilisation1 and which is to contribute to the happiness of millions1 would have sustained me through so many and such lengthened trials of patience in proof of it40 ,he even said to one of his art pupils that he was so destitute of money that he would be dead next week from starvation2 and on the pupil giving him ten dollars and taking him to dinner1 ,morse said that was the first meal he had had for twenty-four hours4 ,this appears to have been the darkest hour before the dawn2 for in the midst of his gloom and poverty he determined to make one more experiment4 ,he insulated a wire two miles long with hempen threads saturated with pitch tar and surrounded with india-rubber2 and this1 which he called the first submarine cable ever made1 was laid in ,new ,york harbour between ,castle ,garden and ,governor's ,island on ,october #ah1 #ahdb4 ,the wire was wound round a reel and placed in a boat2 and in the bright moonshine the ,professor unwound and paid out the wire while another man rowed the boat4 ,several signals passed through the wire2 but before he had an opportunity of exhibiting its operation to those whom he wanted to convince1 the wire was dragged up by the anchor of another boat and part of it carried off by the sailors4 ,but it was not destroyed till he had satisfied himself that despatches could be transmitted through it4 ,he renewed the experiment two months afterwards in the canal at ,washington with complete success2 and in after years he ever spoke of these experiments1 especially the first1 as the birthtime of submarine telegraphy4 ,he received the gold medal of the ,american ,institute for this success4 ,encouraged by the success of this experiment1 he wrote a letter on ,december #f1 #ahdb1 to the ,hon4 ,c4 ,g4 ,ferris1 a member of the ,house ,committee of ,commerce1 giving a minute account of his invention1 and asking that an appeal might be made through the ,committee to ,congress for a grant to erect an experimental line of telegraph4 ,mr4 ,ferris at once took up the subject1 and a bill was drawn up appropriating #cj1jjj dollars for that purpose2 but ere it came before ,congress the inventor was able to announce another discovery that strengthened his faith in the marvellous power of the telegraph4 ,in a letter dated ,january #ag1 #ahdc1 he said3 8,professor ,fisher and myself made an important discovery just before we left ,new ,york1 namely1 that several currents of electricity will pass upon the same wire without interference either in the same direction or in opposite directions4 ,the discovery ,i have at once reduced to practice4 ,the wire for the two circuits which ,i use for my two instruments in the ,capitol is composed of three instead of four threads40 ,five weeks after that announcement ,mr4 ,john ,kennedy moved in ,congress to proceed with the bill making the grant for an experimental line4 ,professor ,morse was present in the gallery listening to a debate which1 though not very auspicious1 was not devoid of humour4 ,an abridged report of the proceedings on the #bgth of ,february1 #ahdc1 states that on the motion of ,mr4 ,kennedy1 of ,maryland1 the ,committee took up the bill to authorise a series of experiments to be made in order to test the merits of ,morse's ,electro-,magnetic ,telegraph--a bill appropriating #cj1jjj dollars1 to be expended under the direction of the ,postmaster-,general4 ,mr4 ,cave ,johnson said that1 as the present ,congress had done much to encourage science1 he did not wish to see the science of mesmerism neglected and overlooked4 ,he therefore proposed that one-half the appropriation should be given to ,mr4 ,pisk 7a gentleman at that time lecturing in ,washington on mesmerism7 to enable him to carry on experiments as well as ,professor ,morse4 ,mr4 ,houston thought that ,millerism should also be included in the benefits of the appropriation4 ,mr4 ,stanly had no objection to the appropriation for mesmeric experiments1 provided ,mr4 ,cave ,johnson would be the subject 7,laughter47 ,mr4 ,cave ,johnson retorted that he would have no objection provided ,mr4 ,stanly was the operator4 7,much laughter47 ,several gentlemen having called for the reading of the amendment1 the ,clerk read thus3 8,provided that one half of the said sum shall be appropriated for trying mesmeric experiments1 under the direction of the ,secretary of the ,treasury40 ,mr4 ,mason1 rising to order1 contended that the amendment was not bon fide1 and that such a proposal was calculated to injure the character of the ,house4 ,he appealed to the ,chair to rule it out of order2 but the ,chairman1 declining to judge of the motives of members in offering amendments1 would not undertake to pronounce it not bon fide4 ,he said objections might be raised to it on the ground that it was not sufficiently analogous in its character to the bill under consideration1 but in his opinion it would require a scientific analysis to determine how far the magnetism of mesmerism was analogous to that to be employed in telegraphs4 7,laughter47 ,the amendment was rejected1 and in the end the bill was carried by a majority of six votes--#hi to #hc4 ,professor ,morse was accustomed afterwards to remark that a 8change of three votes would have consigned the invention to oblivion40 8,i was told at the time10 he also said1 8by many personal friends in the ,house1 that the bill finally passed more out of deference to my personal standing than from any just appreciation of the importance of the invention1 a compliment which1 however gratifying to personal pride1 was fully set off by perceiving the low estimate of the result of my labours4 ,other motions disparaging the invention were made1 such as proposing to appropriate part of the sum to telegraph to the moon1 but the majority of ,congress did not concur in this attempt to defeat the measure by ridicule40 ,in the ,senate1 however1 it was not honoured even by ridicule4 ,it was allowed to lie untouched till the last night of the session4 ,here also the ,professor was an eager but despairing spectator of the fate of his project4 ,he sat listening all day--to him a day of gloom and anxiety1 unrelieved by a single ray of hope4 ,the session had to close at midnight1 and at ten o'clock one of the senators advised him to go home1 as it was useless staying longer--the prospect was hopeless4 ,morse thought so too1 and with a heavy heart left for his hotel1 where after paying his bill1 he found that on his return to ,new ,york he would have thirty-seven and a half cents in his pocket4 ,with this capital1 he must again return to his brush and easel1 and work for fresh means to enable him to appeal to ,congress at a more convenient season4 ,such were the reflections that perturbed his mind1 as1 overcome with fatigue1 he retired to rest4 ,little did he dream that night that he was to be an historic illustration of ,shakespeare's remark that 8our little life is rounded with a sleep40 ,rising at a late hour next morning1 he was informed when at breakfast that a lady had called to see him1 and upon his entering the parlour1 he was met by ,miss ,annie ,ellsworth1 daughter of the ,commissioner of ,patents4 ,with a radiant smile she said1 8,i have come to congratulate you1 ,mr4 ,morse10 who was advancing to shake hands with her1 all unconscious that she was a messenger of glad tidings4 8,to congratulate me10 said the care-worn inventor1 8for what80 8,why1 upon the passage of your bill1 to be sure10 she replied4 8,surely you must be mistaken10 said the ,professor1 who probably thought the announcement too good to be true2 8,i left at a late hour and its fate seemed inevitable40 8,indeed ,i'm not10 was the reply2 8father remained till the close of the session2 and your bill was the very last that was passed4 ,i begged permission to convey the news to you1 and ,i am so glad ,i am the first to tell you4 ,it was passed without any discussion40 ,as the ,commissioner of ,patents was a friend who had taken a warm interest in the fate of the telegraph1 the ,professor accepted this assurance1 and warmly pressing the lady's hand1 expressed unfeigned delight at the news4 ,in the course of some further conversation1 he said that as a reward for being the first bearer of the glad tidings1 she should be invited to send the first message over the first line of telegraph4 ,the promise was accepted4 ,he next sought permission to construct his telegraph on the railroad from ,baltimore to ,washington4 ,even this simple matter was not settled without some opposition4 ,happily ,professor ,morse secured the support of ,mr4 ,latrobe1 who was then engineer to the ,baltimore and ,ohio railway1 and who has given an interesting account of his connection with the project4 ,he says that while 8calling on ,mr4 ,louis ,mc,lane1 the president1 on some professional matter1 ,i was asked in the course of conversation whether ,i knew anything about an electric telegraph which the inventor1 who had obtained an appropriation from ,congress1 wanted to lay down on the ,washington branch of the road4 ,he said he expected ,mr4 ,morse1 the inventor1 to call on him1 when he would introduce me to him1 and would be glad if ,i took an opportunity to go over the subject with him1 and afterwards let him 7,mr4 ,mc,lane7 know what ,i thought about it4 ,while we were yet speaking ,mr4 ,morse made his appearance1 and when ,mr4 ,mc,lane introduced me he referred to the fact that1 as ,i had been educated at ,west ,point1 ,i might the more readily understand the scientific bearing of ,mr4 ,morse's invention4 ,the president's office being no place for prolonged conversation1 it was agreed that ,mr4 ,morse should take tea at my dwelling1 when we would go over the whole subject4 ,we met accordingly1 and it was late in the night before we parted4 ,mr4 ,morse went over the history of his invention from the beginning with an interest and enthusiasm that had survived the wearying toil of an application to ,congress1 and1 with the aid of diagrams drawn on the instant1 made me master of the matter1 and wrote for me the telegraphic alphabet which is still in use all over the world4 ,not a small part of what ,mr4 ,morse said on this occasion had reference to the future of his invention1 its influence on communities and individuals1 and ,i remember regarding as the wild speculations of an active imagination what he prophesied in this connection1 and which ,i have lived to see more than realised4 ,nor was his conversation confined to his invention4 ,a distinguished artist1 an educated gentleman1 an observant traveller1 it was delightful to hear him talk1 and at this day ,i recall few more pleasant evenings than the only one ,i passed in his company4 8,of course my first visit the next morning was to ,mr4 ,mc,lane to make my report4 ,by this time ,i had become almost as enthusiastic as ,mr4 ,morse himself1 and repeated what had passed between us4 ,i soon saw that ,mr4 ,mc,lane was becoming as eager for the construction of the line to ,washington as ,mr4 ,morse could desire4 ,he entered warmly into the spirit of the thing1 and laughed heartily1 if not incredulously1 when ,i told him that although he had been ,minister to ,england1 ,secretary of ,state1 and ,secretary of the ,treasury1 his name would be forgotten1 while that of ,morse would never cease to be remembered with praise and gratitude4 ,we then considered the question as to the right of the company to permit the line to be laid in the bed of the road--the plan of construction at that time being to bury in a trench some eight or ten inches deep a half-inch leaden tube containing the wrapped wire that was to form the electric circuit4 ,about this there was1 in my opinion1 no doubt40 ,the ,president accordingly brought the subject before the monthly meeting of the directors held in ,april1 #ahdc4 ,just as the meeting was about to adjourn1 he said he had almost overlooked an application which he had received from ,professor ,morse for permission to lay his telegraph line on the railroad from ,baltimore to ,washington1 and which their chief engineer recommended as worthy of encouragement4 ,a resolution was moved and seconded1 giving 8such facilities as may be requisite to give the invention a proper trial10 provided it could be done without injury to the road or embarrassment to the company4 ,the ,president pointed out that the company reserved the right of requiring the removal of the telegraph at any time1 and the resolution appeared for a moment to command assent2 but one of the older directors then rose and stated that1 notwithstanding all the precautions suggested1 he could not as a conscientious man vote for the resolution without some further examination4 ,he knew that this idea of ,mr4 ,morse1 though it appeared plausible to theorists1 dreamers1 and men of science1 was regarded by all practical people as destined to certain failure1 and must consequently result in loss and possible ruin to ,mr4 ,morse4 ,he felt conscientious scruples in giving a vote which would tempt a visionary enthusiast to ruin himself4 ,however1 ,mr4 ,john ,p4 ,kennedy now1 as in ,congress1 came to the rescue of ,mr4 ,morse1 and the resolution was adopted4 ,the experimental line from ,baltimore to ,washington was at once commenced1 and ,professor ,morse was appointed superintendent of the work with a salary of #b1ejj dollars4 ,different accounts have been given of the progress of the work2 but for authenticity and importance his own account1 given in a letter to the ,secretary of the ,treasury1 is still of historic interest4 ,on ,august #aj1 #ahdc1 he said1 with reference to his experiments with the prepared wire in one continuous line of #afj miles1 that they were attended with perfect success4 8,i had prepared a galvanic battery of #cjj pairs in order to have ample power at command1 but1 to my great gratification1 ,i found that #ajj pairs were sufficient to produce all the effects ,i desired through the whole distance of #afj miles4 ,it may be well to observe that the #afj miles of wire are to be divided into four lengths1 of forty miles each1 forming a fourfold cord from ,washington to ,baltimore4 ,two wires form a circuit2 the electricity1 therefore1 in producing its effect at ,washington from ,baltimore1 passes from ,baltimore to ,washington and back again to ,baltimore1 of course travelling eighty miles to produce its result4 ,one hundred and sixty miles1 therefore1 give me an actual distance of eighty miles1 double the distance from ,washington to ,baltimore4 ,the result then of my experiments is1 that a battery of only #ajj pairs at ,washington will operate a telegraph on my plan eighty miles distant with certainty1 and without requiring any intermediate station6 ,some careful experiments on the decomposing power at various distances were made1 from which the law of propulsion has been deduced1 verifying the results of ,ohm and those which ,i made in the summer of #ahdb4 ,,the ,,practical ,,inference ,,from ,,this ,,law ,,is ,,that ,a ,,telegraphic ,,communication ,,on ,,the ,,electro-,,magnetic ,,plan ,,may1 ,,with ,,certainty1 ,,be ,,established ,,across ,,the ,,atlantic ,,ocean6 ,,startling ,,as ,,this ,,may ,,now ,,seem1 ,i ,,am ,,confident ,,the ,,time ,,will ,,come ,,when ,,this ,,project ,,will ,,be ,,realised4 ,the wire is now in its last process of preparation for enclosing in the lead tube1 which will be commenced on ,tuesday the #aeth of ,august40 ,it thus appears that he had no sooner begun the construction of the first land line in ,america than he had conceived the greatest submarine achievement in telegraphy4 ,this was the first authoritative proposal of an ,atlantic telegraph4 ,the idea of enclosing insulated wires in pipes was taken from the accounts published in ,america of ,wheatstone's first telegraph in ,england2 but this method when tried proved unsuccessful1 and was at once abandoned1 the wires being henceforth placed on poles4 ,about a year was occupied in completing the first practical line2 and then ,professor ,morse sent for ,miss ,ellsworth1 and asked her to supply the first message4 ,this she did1 giving the memorable words3 8,what hath ,god wrought60 ,the ,professor himself worked the transmitter1 which was in the chamber of the ,united ,states ,supreme ,court at ,washington2 the date was the #bdth of ,may1 #ahdd2 and the message was received at ,baltimore in the signs which were henceforth to be known as the ,morse ,alphabet1 as follows3 4-- 4444 4- - 4444 4- - 4444 ,w ,h ,a ,t ,h ,a ,t ,h --4 4 4 -44 4-- 4 44 4 4 ,g ,o ,d ,w ,r ,o 44- --4 4444 - ,u ,g ,h ,t ,an incident soon occurred which brought the telegraph into notoriety4 ,three days after the transmission of the first message the ,national ,democratic ,convention1 then sitting in ,baltimore1 nominated ,james ,k4 ,polk as president2 and as vice-president ,silas ,wright1 who was at that time in the ,senate at ,washington4 ,mr4 ,vail sent the news of the nomination by telegraph from ,baltimore to ,professor ,morse1 and he communicated it to ,mr4 ,wright1 who immediately declined the nomination4 ,the rapidity with which the messages had passed between ,baltimore and ,washington surprised the ,convention1 who are said to have been so incredulous on the subject that they sent a ,committee to ,washington to confer with ,mr4 ,wright1 and adjourned till the desired confirmation was received4 ,the incident caused a sensation4 ,the telegraph became the latest 8wonder40 ,professor ,morse's long winter of despondency and anxious struggle seemed now to be made glorious summer4 ,the hill of difficulty appeared to have been surmounted4 ,his invention answered expectations1 and the experimental line worked well4 ,now his buoyancy seemed to rise to poetic flights2 for in ,march1 #ahde1 he wrote that while travelling on the ,rhine some years previously he saw on a sundial at ,worms the motto ,horas non numero nisi serenas2 the beauty of its sentiment appeared to him to be so well sustained in the euphony of its syllables that he placed it in his note-book1 and he now ventured to expand it into the following stanzas which he dedicated 8,to my young friend ,a----1 sincerely praying that the dial of her life may ever show unclouded hours40 ,,to ,,miss ,a4 ,g4 ,e4 ,,the ,,sundial4 ,horas non numero nisi serenas4 ,i note not the hours except they be bright4 ,the sun when it shines in a clear1 cloudless sky ,marks the time of my disc in figures of light4 ,if clouds gather o'er me1 unheeded they fly1 ,i note not the hours except they be bright4 ,so when ,i review all the scenes that have passed ,between me and thee1 be they dark1 be they light1 ,i forget what was dark1 the light ,i hold fast1 ,i note not the hours except they be bright4 ,,footnotes3 #i ,in #ahcd ,professor ,morse wrote a series of papers which were afterwards published as a volume with the title ,foreign ,conspiracy against the ,liberties of the ,united ,states4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 8,for a man to do benefit from such means as he may have and may cause1 is the most glorious of labours40--,,sophocles4 ,the practical working of the telegraph being now demonstrated1 ,professor ,morse may be said to have forsaken his first vocation4 ,he afterwards assured his artist friends that his leaving their ranks cost him many a pang1 and that he did not leave them till he saw them well established and entering upon a career of prosperity4 ,he also pointed out that in the records of art there were conspicuous examples of men forsaking art to enter upon a career of invention4 ,the ,american ,fulton1 whose scientific studies led to the introduction of steam navigation was a painter1 and 8it may not be generally known that the important invention of the percussion cap was due to the scientific recreations of the ,english painter ,shaw40 ,in like manner ,daguerre1 who in ,france discovered the art of photography1 was an artist2 and just when ,professor ,morse was prosecuting his art studies with the greatest zeal and hope1 it was stated that in early life painting was the favourite amusement of ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 who was diverted from art to chemistry by the results of some experiments instituted for the purpose of preparing colours4 ,to such examples has now to be added the inventor of the recording telegraph4 ,professor ,morse always claimed for himself the credit of being the inventor of the first telegraph1 by which1 however1 he meant a telegraph in the strict definition of the word--a means of recording intelligence at a distance4 ,from that point of view he contended that the invention of ,wheatstone and ,cooke was a semaphore1 which merely indicated letters on a dial by the movement of needles2 and that while the invention of a telegraph was one thing1 its practical introduction was quite another thing--the time of the invention was one thing and the time of its practical introduction another4 8,in #ahcb10 he said1 in reply to a challenge from ,w4 ,f4 ,cooke1 8,i had the idea of producing an automatic record at a distance by means of electricity1 the idea of a true telegraph2 and this original idea was immediately followed by the invention of the means for carrying it into effect4 ,this was the new idea of #ahcb now realised in the ,morse telegraph system1 and the ,chief ,justice of the ,united ,states1 in delivering the judgment of the supreme court1 said there was full and clear evidence that when ,morse was returning from ,europe in #ahcb he was deeply engaged upon this subject during the voyage1 and that the process and means were so far developed and arranged in his own mind that he was confident of its ultimate success40 ,the inventor admitted that #ahdd was the date of the practical introduction of the invention of #ahcb2 and he did not claim exclusive credit for the invention4 ,he himself stated that it rarely1 if ever1 happened that any invention was so independent of all others that a single individual could justly appropriate to himself the entire credit of all its parts4 8,it is only10 he said1 8when the nature of an invention is properly understood that the justice of the ascription of honour to the individual inventor is perceived4 ,invention is emphatically combination1 an assembling or putting together of things known1 whether discoveries or other inventions1 to produce a new effect1 to create a new art40 ,if that definition appears to be especially adapted to suit his own circumstances1 it is worthy of remark that similar definitions were given by ,aristotle and ,bacon4 ,professor ,morse always felt sure that if he had only an opportunity of demonstrating the operation of his telegraph1 its utility would be self-evident4 ,sad experience had taught him that it was not an easy task to convince a money-making people of the value of a mere work of art1--8a thing of beauty20 but how different1 he thought1 would be the case with the electric telegraph1 which he believed capable of uniting1 by 8the pulse of speech10 the ,new ,world with the ,old1 which seemed destined to annihilate space1 and to extend to peoples far apart one of the greatest gifts bestowed by the ,creator upon persons near each other--an instantaneous intercharge of thought4 ,had he not solved the problem which the ancient ,hebrew propounded as a sublime impossibility3 8,canst thou send lightnings that they may go1 and say unto thee1 ,here we are80 ,yea1 more1--he had made the element which ,franklin had proved to be akin to lightning not only the messenger but the recorder of human speech4 ,but even this was not enough to command success4 ,difficulty and disappointment were still before him4 ,in the great tragedy of schylus illustrating the struggle of mind against circumstances and the ingratitude of mankind to inventors1 ,prometheus is represented as conferring a great blessing upon mortals by causing blind hopes to dwell among them1 and thus stopping them from ever looking forward to their fate4 ,but higher aspirations impelled ,morse onward in his beneficent career4 ,have ye never observed1 said ,saurin1 that people of the finest and most enlarged geniuses have often the least success of any people in the world8 8,this may appear at first sight very unaccountable1 but a little attention will explain the mystery4 ,a narrow1 contracted mind usually concentrates itself in one single object3 it wholly employs itself in forming projects of happiness proportioned to its own capacity1 and as its capacity is extremely shallow1 it easily meets with the means of executing them4 ,but this is not the case with a man of superior genius1 whose fruitful fancy forms notions of happiness grand and sublime4 ,he invents noble plans1 involuntarily gives himself up to his own chimeras1 and derives a pleasure from these ingenious shadows1 which for a few moments compensate for the want of substance2 but when his reverie is over1 he finds real beings inferior to ideal ones1 and thus his genius serves to make him miserable4 ,a man is much to be pitied when the penetration of his mind and the fruitfulness of his invention furnish him with ideas of a delighted community attached by a faithful and delicate appreciation4 ,recall to him this world1 above which his imagination had just now raised him2 consider him among men whose knowledge and friendship are merely superficial1 and you will be convinced that the art of inventing is often the art of self-tormenting40 ,need we wonder1 then1 that after the utility of ,morse's telegraph was fully demonstrated1 he experienced unexpected difficulty as to its adoption4 ,his first idea was to attach it to the ,post ,office ,department4 8,my earliest desires10 he said1 8were that the ,government should possess the control of such a power as ,i could not but foresee was inherent in the telegraph4 ,vast as its pecuniary value loomed up in the minds of some1 in the contemplation of its future ,i was neither dazzled with its visions of untold wealth1 nor tempted to make an extortionate demand upon the ,government for its possession4 ,not merely all my own property had been expended on the invention1 but large sums had been advanced by my associates1 and these were items that entered into the calculations of any offer of sale40 ,in ,september1 #ahcg1 he suggested in a letter to the ,secretary that it would be a useful auxiliary to the ,post ,office1 and the ,secretary supported the suggestion in a letter to the ,speaker of the ,house on ,december #f1 #ahcg4 ,two months later the importunate inventor repeated his proposal to the ,chairman of the ,house ,committee of ,commerce4 ,again1 in #ahdb1 the ,hon4 ,c4 ,g4 ,ferris1 writing from the ,committee of ,commerce1 remarked that the prospects of profit to individual enterprise were so inviting that 8it is a matter of serious consideration whether the ,government should not on this account alone seize the present opportunity of securing to itself the regulation of a system which1 if monopolised by a private company1 might be used to the serious injury of the ,post ,office ,department40 ,when negotiating with the ,government in reference to the grant for the experimental line1 ,professor ,morse undertook that1 before entering into any arrangement for disposing of his patent rights to any individual or company1 he would offer it to the ,government for such a just and reasonable compensation as might be mutually agreed upon4 ,accordingly1 after the construction of the experimental line and the successful demonstration of its working1 he offered the whole of his rights to the ,government for #ajj1jjj dollars4 ,the only notice the ,government took of this offer was to request from the ,postmaster-,general a report on the subject4 ,the ,postmaster-,general in #ahde happened to be ,mr4 ,cave ,johnson1 who in ,congress ridiculed and opposed the telegraph bill1 and who now had under his control the experimental line from ,washington to ,baltimore4 ,the reply he gave to ,professor ,morse's offer was that he was not yet satisfied that under any rate of postage the revenue of the telegraph could be made equal to the expenditure4 ,one half of the time for which his patent granted protection had now expired1 and it was therefore necessary to use every means to make it a commercial success4 ,this ,professor ,morse did1 but being unwilling to 8shut the door0 against the ,government1 he inserted a proviso in every contract he made for the use of the telegraph1 that if the ,government concluded arrangements for the purchase of it by the #dth of ,march1 #ahdg1 the contract should cease4 ,nevertheless the ,government allowed the opportunity to go unheeded1 and the ,professor complained not only of the disappointment thus occasioned1 but of the prejudice it created against him4 ,companies had been formed for constructing lines from ,baltimore to ,new ,york and from ,new ,york to ,buffalo1 and the promoters at the outset were hopeful that the revenue would at least equal the expenditure2 but the conduct of the ,government for a time seemed to cast a blight upon their prospects4 ,in after years ,professor ,morse declared that but for the indomitable energy and faith of the friends who then supported him by their influence and money1 his telegraph might have been abandoned as too expensive to be practicable4 ,conspicuous among his supporters was ,mr4 ,amos ,kendall1 who had formerly been ,postmaster-,general1 and who was the prime mover in forming joint-stock companies to construct and work the telegraph4 ,on ,april #ast1 #ahde1 the line from ,washington to ,baltimore was opened for public business1 the charge being a cent 7or a halfpenny7 for every four characters4 ,the first line constructed after the experimental one was that of the ,magnetic ,telegraph ,company from ,philadelphia to ,norristown1 ,pa41 a length of #ad miles1 which was opened in ,november1 #ahde2 it was continued to ,fort ,lee in the ,january following1 and completed from ,philadelphia to ,baltimore on ,june #e1 #ahdf4 ,once fairly started1 the telegraph in ,america made such rapid strides as soon eclipsed its progress in those countries in which it had an earlier start4 ,within half a dozen years about thirty ,companies were formed to carry on the work of telegraphic extension1 and to reap the profits of an invention which the ,government could not be induced to accept4 ,sir ,robert ,inglis1 in his address as ,president of the ,british ,association meeting at ,oxford in ,june1 #ahdg1 stated that he had just received a report presented to the ,legislative ,council and ,assembly of ,new ,brunswick relating to a project for constructing a railway and a line of telegraph from ,halifax to ,quebec1 with reference to which he said3 8,distance is time1 and when by steam1 whether on water or on land1 personal communication is facilitated1 and when orders are conveyed from one extremity of the ,empire to another almost like a flash of lightning1 the facility of governing a large ,state becomes almost equal to the facility of governing the smallest4 ,i remember reading many years ago in the ,scotsman an ingenious and able article showing how ,england could be governed as easily as ,attica under ,pericles2 and ,i believe the same conclusion was deduced by ,william ,cobbett from the same illustration4 ,the system is daily extending4 ,it was1 however1 in the ,united ,states of ,america that it was first adopted on a great scale1 by ,professor ,morse in #ahdd2 and it is there that it is now already developed most extensively4 ,lines for above #a1cjj miles are in action1 and connect those ,states with ,her ,majesty's ,canadian provinces2 and it is in a course of development so rapid that1 in the words of the ,report of ,mr4 ,wilkinson to ,sir ,w4 ,e4 ,colebrooke1 the ,governor of ,new ,brunswick1 no schedule of telegraphic lines can now be relied upon for a month in succession1 as hundreds of miles may be added in that space of time4 ,so easy of attainment does such a result appear to be1 and so lively is the interest felt in its accomplishment1 that it is scarcely doubtful that the whole of the populous parts of the ,united ,states will1 within two or three years1 be covered with a network like a spider's web1 suspending its principal threads upon important points1 along the sea board of the ,atlantic on one side1 and upon similar points along the ,lake ,frontier on the other4 ,i am indebted to the same ,report for another fact1 which ,i think of equal interest3 ,the confidence in the efficiency of telegraphic communication has now become so established1 that the most important commercial transactions daily transpire1 by its means1 between correspondents several hundred miles apart4 ,ocular evidence of this was afforded by a communication a few minutes old between a merchant in ,toronto and his correspondent in ,new ,york1 distant about #fcb miles4 ,when the ,hibernia steamer arrived in ,boston in ,january1 #ahdg1 with the news of the scarcity in ,great ,britain1 ,ireland1 and other parts of ,europe1 and with heavy orders for agricultural produce1 the farmers in the interior of the ,state of ,new ,york--informed of the state of things by the ,magnetic ,telegraph--were thronging the streets of ,albany with innumerable team-loads of grain almost as quickly after the arrival of the steamer at ,boston as the news of that arrival could ordinarily have reached them4 ,i may add that1 irrespectively of all its advantages to the general community1 the system appears to give already a fair return of interest to the individuals or companies who have invested their capital in its application4 ,i cannot refer to the extent of the lines of the electric telegraph in ,america without an increased feeling of regret that in ,england this great discovery has been so inadequately adopted4 ,so far at least as the capital is concerned1 the two greatest of our railway companies have not1 ,i believe1 yet carried the electric telegraph further from ,london than to ,watford and ,slough40 ,about the same time ,professor ,morse stated that1 as the result of improvements in his telegraph1 the ,president's entire message on the subject of the war with ,mexico was transmitted with perfect accuracy at the rate of ninety-nine letters per minute4 ,his skilful operators in ,washington and ,baltimore printed these characters at the rate of #ih1 #aja1 #aaa1 and one of them actually printed #aag letters per minute4 ,it was pointed out that as an expert penman seldom writes legibly more than #ajj letters per minute1 the ,morse telegraph then about equalled the most expeditious mode of recording thought4 ,between #ahdd and #ahee the telegraph was used for another purpose which was regarded in the world of science as of great importance4 ,in #ahci ,professor ,morse1 while in ,paris1 suggested to ,arago that the telegraph might be used for determining the difference of longitude between places with an accuracy previously unattainable4 ,the first experiment for the determination of longitude was made in #ahdd at ,baltimore1 and fully realised the expectation of ,professor ,morse4 ,the ,battle ,monument ,square1 ,baltimore1 was found to be #a m4 #cd sec4 #hfh east of the capital at ,washington1 a difference of three quarters of a second from the former results recorded in the ,american ,almanac4 ,this may appear a trifling matter to unscientific readers1 but a short explanation will show its importance4 ,the latitude of any place--its distance from the equator north or south--can be accurately determined by astronomical observation2 but its longitude1 or distance east or west of any particular place agreed upon as a meridional standard1 such as ,greenwich1 was often determined with difficulty4 ,it is well known that in the diurnal rotation of the earth every portion of its surface is turned towards the sun once in twenty-four hours1 and that noon occurs at places east of ,greenwich earlier than at ,greenwich1 and later at places west of ,greenwich4 ,the difference between the local time at any particular place and ,greenwich time is the longitude of that place from ,greenwich2 but much difficulty was formerly experienced in ascertaining the exact time at both places at the instant adopted for comparison4 ,at sea it was formerly determined by elaborate observations of the position of the moon among the stars2 and latterly both on land and sea it was generally done by carrying a good chronometer from the one place to the other1 the difference between the local time and the ,greenwich time recorded by the chronometer giving the longitude4 ,but the exactness of this method depended upon the accuracy of the chronometer1 and the rapidity with which it could be carried from one place to the other4 ,but now by means of the telegraph1 when the wire is kept clear for the purpose1 the time at one place can be instantaneously transmitted to another place2 and if the local time at each place is correct1 the difference gives the longitude4 ,it is worthy of remark that just about a century before the invention of the ,morse telegraph the marine chronometer was invented by ,john ,harrison1 an ingenious cabinet maker1 expressly for the purpose of determining longitude at sea2 and he was induced to do so by the ,british ,government offering a reward of #bj1jjjl4 #ae1jjjl4 or #aj1jjjl4 for a discovery which might prove successful in determining longitude at sea4 ,now ,morse1 without any offer of reward1 invented his telegraph1 and not only suggested its use for determining longitude on land1 but himself directed the first experiment between ,washington and ,baltimore to prove its practicability for that purpose4 ,in #ahdg it was announced that the relative longitudes of ,new ,york1 ,philadelphia1 and ,washington had been determined by means of the telegraph1 and it was added that two important facts1 before known theoretically1 were then practically demonstrated1 that a clock in ,new ,york could be compared with another at a distance of #bjj miles quite as accurately as two clocks in adjoining rooms1 and that 8the time required for the electric fluid to travel from ,new ,york to ,washington and back again1 a distance of #dej miles1 is so small a fraction of a second that it is inappreciable to the most practised observer40 ,so well was this method appreciated that ,lieutenant ,maury1 of the ,united ,states ,navy1 stated in #ahdi1 that as the electric telegraph then extended through all the ,states of the ,union1 except perhaps ,arkansas1 ,texas1 and one other frontier1 8a splendid field is presented for doing the world a service by connecting1 for difference of longitude through means of magnetic telegraph and clock1 all the principal points of this country with the ,observatory at ,washington4 ,in anticipation of such extension of the wires1 ,i ordered an instrument for the purpose1 and it has recently arrived4 ,it is intended to determine latitude also--so that by its means and this clock ,i hope1 during the year1 to know pretty accurately the geographical position of ,montreal1 ,boston1 ,chicago1 ,st4 ,louis1 ,new ,orleans1 c41 and their difference of longitude from ,washington1 quite as correctly as the difference between ,greenwich and ,paris has been established by the usual method and after many years of observation40 ,the telegraphic method was first tried in ,england in ,may1 #ahec1 when the ,astronomer ,royal ascertained the difference of longitude between the observatories of ,greenwich and ,cambridge4 ,on the ,continent ,professor ,encke in the same year determined the difference of longitude between ,berlin and ,frankfort-on-the-,main2 and the difference between ,greenwich and ,paris was determined in #ahed4 ,in #ahec1 eight years after the opening of the first line of telegraph in ,america1 there were #be1jjj miles of wire erected at a cost of #a1jjj1jjjl41 and it was reported that in working these lines there were consumed #gbj tons of zinc1 worth #ab1jjjl41 over #a1jjj1jjj lbs4 of nitric acid1 worth #bd1jjjl41 and #f1jjjl4 worth of mercury in a year4 ,the most distant points then connected by telegraph were the cities of ,halifax 7,nova ,scotia7 and ,quebec with ,new ,orleans1 a length of #b1jjj miles4 ,the distance by telegraph between ,new ,york and ,new ,orleans was #c1jjj miles1 and messages from the one town to the other were delivered in an hour4 ,a report published in #ahec1 stated that by the aid of the telegraph the vast republic of ,america1 #c1jjj miles long by #c1jjj broad1 could be as easily managed and governed as a single city1 and that 8a long experience in ,america10 with some dozen different lines of telegraph1 established the fact that the velocity of the electric current was about #ae1djj miles per second4 ,the time occupied in transmission between ,boston and ,bangor having been exactly measured1 it was found to be the sixteen-thousandth part of a second1 the velocity of the current being at the rate of #af1jjj miles per second1 or about #fjj miles per second more than the average of other experiments in that country4 ,in #ahhf it was computed that on the telegraph lines of the ,united ,states #cj1jjj ,morse sounders were in daily use1 and that the total consumption of copper in the local batteries amounted to about #gej1jjj lbs4 per annum1 which cost #f1cjjl41 together with #ajj1jjj lbs4 of zinc which cost #a1bjjl4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b ,a short description of the ,morse apparatus in its improved form may be conveniently given here4 ,the illustration shows the transmitting key in its simplest shape4 ,it is evident that by merely depressing the handle till the upper lever comes in contact with the lower bar of metal at the point ,a1 a current of electricity will flow through the point of contact from the battery wire to the telegraph wire4 ,in order to break the contact or circuit1 the operator has simply to desist from depressing the handle of the upper lever1 which is instantly raised from contact by the action of the spring at the other end4 ,the operator can thus make and break the circuit at pleasure1 and according to the frequency and duration of the act of depressing the handle will be the number and length of the signs produced at the far end of the telegraph wire4 ,a long and strong depression of the handle would allow the passage of sufficient electricity to make a long sign2 and if the operator next made two short depressions1 giving two short signs1 the three together1 thus -- - -1 would mean ,d4 ,if the receiving instrument called the ,sounder were in use1 instead of the ,recorder1 long and short sounds would be produced in proportion to the quantity of electricity transmitted1 instead of long and short ink marks4 ,the ,sounder is a simpler instrument than the ,recorder1 and is in more general use4 ,the chief part of its operation is effected by means of the relay or local battery4 ,a simple illustration shows its essential parts4 ,when a current of electricity from the transmitter comes along the telegraph wire1 it enters the electro-magnet ,e ,m1 which forms the central part of the apparatus1 and which1 being thus electrified1 attracts to itself the armature ,c1 just above it4 ,in this way the moveable lever1 ,b ,c ,d1 is drawn down till its point1 ,d1 touches the point of the lower screw1 ,l1 which is saturated with electricity from the local battery4 ,immediately the end of the lever1 ,d1 touches the point of the lower screw1 ,l1 electricity flows from the latter into the former1 the quantity of electricity being proportionate to the length of the contact1 or1 to use a more technical term1 to the time that the local circuit is thus complete2 but the instant the current sent along the telegraph wire ceases1 the electro-magnet1 ,e ,m1 becomes powerless1 the end of the moveable lever1 ,d1 is drawn1 by the spring ,s1 away from the lower screw1 ,l1 and strikes against the higher screw1 ,h1 thus making a clicking sound1 the loudness and duration of which are proportionate to the current of electricity originally sent2 but at the same time the original current1 especially on long lines1 would be quite inadequate to affect the lever with the strength that it acquires from the local battery during its momentary contact with the lower screw1 ,l4 ,the loud and feeble sounds combined with long and short intervals between them represent letters of the alphabet1 but it requires a practised ear to interpret them4 ,in the ,recorder1 the arrival of a current in the electro-magnet and the consequent lowering of the lever brings an ink siphon in contact with a moving strip of paper and thus produces a dash2 and when the current ceases the lever is raised1 thus withdrawing the ink siphon from the paper2 so that the dash produced is long or short in proportion to the current sent along the telegraph wire4 ,such is the simple but ingenious apparatus which1 by its universal use1 has made the name of ,morse known throughout the civilised world4 ,its invention1 however1 was not the only telegraphic achievement with which he was connected4 ,mention has already been made of his first attempt at submarine telegraphy2 and in later years he actively promoted the carrying out of the greatest enterprise of that description4 ,in #ahec it was stated1 in certain ,american and ,english newspapers1 that a recent discovery had been made in telegraphing which might work as great a revolution in the world of letters and commerce as had already been effected by the original application of electricity or magnetism to the purposes of telegraphic communication4 ,it was generally assumed till then that there was a limit to the force of electric currents1 and that they could not be made strong enough to be sent across the ,atlantic4 ,under that impression it had been proposed to construct a submarine telegraph between ,great ,britain and the ,united ,states by a circuitous route across the various straits and channels lying between the intermediate islands of the ,north ,atlantic ,ocean1 commencing at the north of ,scotland1 proceeding by the ,shetland and ,faroe ,islands to ,iceland1 a distance of #cjj miles1 next landing on the shores of ,greenland and going across land to ,davis ,strait1 after crossing which it would reach the mainland of ,labrador4 ,in #aheb it was announced that 8the vast enterprise0 of connecting the ,old and ,new ,worlds by this route had been commenced by sinking the first line in ,transatlantic waters between ,cape ,lormentine1 ,new ,brunswick1 and ,carlton ,head on ,prince ,edward ,island2 and next year it was pompously announced as a new discovery that the electric current might be sent to 8any conceivable distance10 and the newspapers1 in publishing the announcement1 said it could not any longer be doubted that the ocean telegraph would be realised1 and that 8a line of wires will encircle the whole earth1 bringing all parts of it into instantaneous communication with each other4 ,it is impossible for any human foresight to estimate or predict even the results of such a communication1 and we trust that the ,governments of the ,united ,states and ,great ,britain will take up the matter of an oceanic line on a scale commensurate with its importance1 providing such a number of distinct wires enclosed in one cable as will supply the necessities of commerce and intercourse between ,europe and ,america40 ,early in #ahed ,mr4 ,cyrus ,field took an active interest in the project for laying a cable in mid ocean between ,america and ,europe2 and one of the first things he did was to send for ,professor ,morse and to consult him as to the practicability of telegraphing such a long distance4 ,the ,professor called on ,mr4 ,field and entered into a full exposition of the subject1 assuring him that the project was practicable4 ,next year the ,new ,york1 ,newfoundland1 and ,london ,telegraph ,company was formed1 and they obtained from the ,government of ,newfoundland an act of incorporation1 a guarantee of interest on #ej1jjjl4 of the company's bonds1 and a grant of fifty square miles of land on the island of ,newfoundland4 ,the ,governments of ,prince ,edward ,island1 ,nova ,scotia1 ,canada1 and the ,state of ,maine1 as well as those of ,great ,britain and the ,united ,states1 also made substantial grants4 ,in #ahee an attempt was made to connect ,st4 ,john's with the mainland1 but this was not successfully accomplished till #ahef1 and the line was then continued across the island to ,trinity ,bay1 the ,american terminus of the ,atlantic telegraph4 ,in #ahef ,mr4 ,field visited ,england for the purpose of enlisting ,english capitalists in the enterprise1 and his mission was so successful that in #aheg the ,atlantic ,telegraph ,company was formed4 ,it acquired all the rights and privileges of the ,new ,york1 ,newfoundland1 and ,london ,company2 and within a month raised a capital of #cej1jjjl4 ,the ,british ,government offered to the company the use of the war vessel ,agamemnon for the purpose of laying a cable1 while the ,united ,states ,government in like manner offered their newest and finest vessel--the ,niagara--which was #gae feet long and #ef feet wide4 ,the main question at issue was whether electric signals could be transmitted through a cable #b1cjj miles in length4 ,at the close of #ahef ,professor ,morse1 who was then regarded as the greatest authority on the subject1 calculated that ten words could be transmitted in a minute4 ,in a report which he furnished to the company he explained that gutta-percha covered submarine wires did not transmit in the same way as simple insulated conductors1 that they had to be charged like a ,leyden jar before they could transmit at all1 and that the velocity of transmission was consequently much slower than in ordinary conductors4 ,in the ,leyden jar--a glass vessel covered with tinfoil both inside and outside--the electricity1 entering at the neck1 charges the interior metallic coating1 and at the same time induces or generates electricity in the outside coating1 the electricity on the one side being positive1 and on the other side negative4 ,in a submarine cable the electricity charged into the wire behaves in a manner similar to that in a ,leyden jar2 in the one case the gutta-percha is the insulator2 in the other case it is the glass jar4 ,professor ,morse pointed out that as the opposite electricities attracted each other in the wire of a cable1 the current was thus retarded in its rate of motion4 ,this inductive retardation was dreaded in a long cable2 but ,professor ,morse suggested that the velocity of the transmission of signals along insulated submerged wires could be enormously increased1 from the rate of one signal in two seconds to eight in one second1 by making each alternate signal with a current of different quality1 positive following negative1 and negative following positive4 ,in ,april1 #aheg1 the ,niagara came to ,england1 where the first ,atlantic cable was being manufactured4 ,professor ,morse came too2 and the day after he disembarked at ,gravesend he entered fully into the prospects and capabilities of the cable4 ,he was fond of assuring ,english inquirers as to the desire in ,america for a cable1 that it was the ambition of the people of the ,united ,states to know what was done in ,england before it took place2 as an event happening in ,london at noon would1 if the cable were laid1 be published in ,new ,york on the morning of the same day4 ,but he had more solid reasons than that to give in support of the undertaking4 ,he stated that he was anxious to see the cable in active operation under the ocean because he had a firm conviction that then the chances of conflict and of misunderstanding between ,englishmen and ,americans must be diminished in an incalculable degree4 ,he felt sure that it would be used for no hostile purpose1 and that when ,new ,york would become a suburb of ,london1 and ,washington the western half of ,westminster1 an ,american war would be about as likely a thing as ,camberwell organising an attack upon ,camden ,town1 or ,peckham making a raid upon ,pimlico4 ,all wars1 he said1 arise in ignorance and misunderstanding of the real objects and interests of the race by which they are waged3 to increase the facilities for an interchange of ideas1 for the opening out of commercial relations1 and for the development of intelligence1 must be to diminish the need of appeals from reason to force2 and a small cable laid quietly at the bottom of the ,atlantic at a cost of #cej1jjjl4 would do more for the maintenance of international peace and for the furtherance of national prosperity than an expenditure of #aj1jjj1jjjl4 a year on each side of the ,atlantic in the construction and commissioning of such armed ,leviathans as would carry and pioneer the electrical rope to its resting-place4 ,in reporting these words of ,professor ,morse the directors of the ,atlantic ,telegraph ,company said the shareholders would not be unwilling to receive his 8opinion and assurance upon that point as the first instalment of their interest40 ,equally complimentary was the appreciation they expressed of his opinion as to the feasibility of the undertaking4 ,in #ahef when it was determined to make experiments on long lengths of telegraph wires for the purpose of proving that intelligence could be transmitted for long distances1 it was proposed to provide the requisite length of cable by joining together the underground lines of the ,english and ,irish ,magnetic ,telegraph ,company1 extending from ,london to ,dublin vi ,dumfries4 ,these lines were #fjj miles long1 and were capable of forming a continuous length of #e1jjj miles4 ,the directors stated that every possible precaution was taken in this trial to guard against accidental causes of error by the introduction of test instruments at each available point of junction1 and 8to crown the whole1 the veteran electrician1 ,professor ,morse1 of the ,united ,states1 was present at the operations and witnessed the result40 ,on the night of ,october #bnd1 8the conclave of experimenters0 met at the office of the ,magnetic ,telegraph ,company in ,old ,broad ,street1 ,london1 and made their experiments on a circuit of subterranean or submarine wires which was considered to present the nearest approach to the working of a real and continuous submarine cable4 ,the arrangements were considered perfectly satisfactory1 and the result was described as an unquestionable triumph4 ,by means of one of ,morse's ordinary receiving instruments signals were distinctly telegraphed through #b1jjj miles of wire at the rate of #baj1 #bda1 and on one occasion #bgj per minute4 ,elated at the realisation of his anticipations1 ,professor ,morse wrote to ,mr4 ,cyrus ,field1 stating that 8there could be no question that1 with a cable containing a single conducting wire1 of a size not exceeding that through which we worked1 and with equal insulation1 it would be easy to telegraph from ,ireland to ,newfoundland at a speed of at least from eight to ten words per minute4 ,take it at ten words in a minute1 and allowing ten words for name and address1 we can safely calculate upon the transmission of a twenty-word message in three minutes--twenty such messages in an hour1 #dhj in the twenty-four hours1 or #ad1djj words per day4 ,such are the capabilities of a single wire cable fairly and moderately computed4 ,it is1 however1 evident to me that by improvements in the arrangement of the signals themselves1 aided by the adoption of a code or system constructed upon the principles of the best nautical code1 we may at least double the speed in the transmission of our messages4 ,in one word1 the doubts are solved2 the difficulties are overcome2 success is within our reach2 and the great feat of the century must shortly be accomplished40 ,the rate of transmission through the ,atlantic cable was eventually from ten to twenty words a minute1 but great improvements had to be made before the higher speed was attained4 ,in ,july1 #aheg1 the ,niagara went to ,birkenhead to take on board one half of the cable which had been manufactured there1 and having shipped her peculiar freight she proceeded to ,queenstown1 where she was joined by the ,agamemnon1 which had shipped the other half of the cable in the ,thames4 ,off ,queenstown the two halves of the cable in the ships were united so as to form a circuit of #b1ejj miles4 ,when charged with electricity it was found that a current flowed through the cable4 ,indeed1 a distinct message was telegraphed through it1 but the rate of transmitting signals was slow4 ,one current occupied a second and three-quarters in passing through2 but when it was found that three successive signals could be transmitted in two seconds1 the prospect was considered satisfactory4 ,the tests being so far successful1 it was at first intended that the two vessels should proceed to mid ocean1 whence1 having joined together the two halves of the cable1 each vessel could proceed towards the opposite shores4 ,at the last hour1 however1 it was deemed more prudent to start paying out from the ,irish coast4 ,accordingly1 on ,august #dth1 #aheg1 the two cable ships1 each attended by three smaller vessels1 left ,queenstown1 and arrived in ,valencia ,bay on the following day4 ,after some inaugural ceremonies1 the telegraph squadron started to pay out the cable on ,august #gth4 ,professor ,morse was on board the ,niagara1 which began the work of paying out4 ,on the morning of the fourth day 7,august #aath7 the cable parted1 and the #cce miles paid out appeared to be lost at the bottom of the ocean4 ,in a letter describing the accident1 ,professor ,morse said that at the time it occurred 8there was a moderately heavy sea1 which caused the ship's stern to rise several feet and to fall to the same degree2 when the stern fell1 the cable under its immense strain went down into the water easily and quickly1 but when the stern was lifted by the irresistible power of the succeeding wave the force exerted upon the cable under such circumstances would have parted a cable of four times the strength4 ,hence it is no wonder that our cable1 subjected to such a tremendous and unnatural strain1 should snap like a pack-thread4 ,it did snap1 and in an instant the whole course and plan of our future proceedings were necessarily changed4 ,how many visions of wealth1 of fame1 and of pleasure were dependent for their realisation on the integrity of that little nerve thread1 spinning out like a spider's web from the stern of our noble ship and 7in view of the mighty force of steam and waves and winds and mechanism brought to bear upon it7 quite as frail4 ,yet with all its frailties1 nothing could exceed the beauty of its quiet passage to its ocean bed from the moment we had joined it to the shore end till the fatal mistake of not easing the breaks which caused the breaking of it asunder4 ,the effect on shipboard was very striking4 ,it parted just before daylight4 ,all hands rushed to the deck1 but there was no confusion2 the telegraph machinery had stopped2 the men gathered in mournful groups1 and their tones were sad and voices as low as if a death had occurred on board4 ,i believe there was not a man in the ship who did not feel really as melancholy as if a comrade had been lost overboard40 ,on the vessels returning to ,plymouth the chief electricians connected with the enterprise1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,whitehouse1 ,professor ,morse1 and ,professor ,william ,thomson1 issued a report certifying that 8every experiment which we have made upon the cable1 every test to which we have subjected it1 both for its insulating and conducting power1 has uniformly resulted in demonstrating the perfect fitness of the cable for its office4 ,the treble covering of gutta-percha so entirely provides for the remote possibility of an accidental flaw occurring in the first or second coat1 that all risk of defective insulation is avoided40 ,the directors determined to renew the attempt during a more favourable period of #aheh with certain improvements in the paying out machinery and with a greater length of cable4 ,during the winter the whole of the cable was stored at ,keyham ,docks 7,plymouth72 and the ,british and ,american ,governments having again granted the use of the same vessels1 it was reshipped in the spring4 ,the vessels first proceeded1 in the last days of ,may1 to the ,bay of ,biscay1 where experiments were made for three days in splicing and paying out the cable1 and both the mechanical and electrical tests were reported as very promising4 ,the squadron returned to ,plymouth1 whence they sailed again on ,june #ajth1 #aheh4 ,while proceeding to mid ocean1 where they were to join the two halves and then commence paying out1 they encountered a fearful gale1 and when they reached the trysting place three attempts to lay the cable proved unsuccessful4 ,in the first attempt the cable parted after two miles and forty fathoms were paid out1 in the second attempt forty-two miles and #cjj fathoms1 and in the third attempt #ade miles and #icj fathoms were paid out4 ,the vessels then returned to ,queenstown to replenish their coal supplies4 ,they started again on ,july #abth1 and having joined the cable ends together on the #bith1 in mid ocean1 the ,niagara landed at ,trinity ,bay1 ,newfoundland1 on ,august #eth4 ,the ,agamemnon had likewise reached ,valencia1 all well4 ,it was found that through the cable thus laid from shore to shore electric signals passed at the same rate as in the tests made in ,england2 messages were transmitted for nearly a month1 after which defects in insulation gradually increased4 ,after transmitting #cff messages it ceased 8to speak0 on ,october #bjth1 #aheh4 ,in the latter and successful expedition ,professor ,morse took no active part4 ,by that time the work which he had taken a foremost part in initiating had fallen into younger and more energetic hands1 while his attention was diverted to the honours and rewards which ought to crown a well-spent life1 and which are more congenial to a man in his sixty-seventh year than the carrying out of an enterprise that he had pronounced feasible sixteen years previously4 ,he lived to see it made a permanent success a quarter of a century after he had first suggested it4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 8,he that has improved the virtue or advanced the happiness of one fellow-creature1 he that has ascertained a single moral proposition1 or added one useful experiment to natural knowledge1 may be contented with his own performance1 and1 with respect to mortals like himself1 may demand1 like ,augustus1 to be dismissed at his departure with applause40--,,dr4 ,,johnson4 ,the fate of inventors has been one of the enigmas of history4 ,lord ,bacon has praised the justness of antiquity in awarding divine honours to inventors whose benefits might extend to the whole human race1 while only heroic honours were awarded to statesmen who benefited only particular places4 ,but even in antiquity the honours paid to inventors were generally posthumous4 ,horace wrote that 8,though living virtue we despise2 ,when dead1 we praise it to the skies40 ,and a later ,roman writer endeavoured to explain this anomalous treatment by stating that 8we envy the living by whose merit we think ourselves overwhelmed1 but we venerate departed merit because we are edified by it40 ,human nature has not changed much since the ,augustan age2 but in nothing perhaps has public feeling in our own time undergone such a revolution as in respect to inventors4 ,some may think that this change can be accounted for by the greatness of the benefits which inventors have wrought in our day4 ,but there have been great inventors before now4 8,if one looks back10 says ,mr4 ,j4 ,l4 ,ricardo1 8to the times when the most important inventions were produced1 it appears they were all made without even a patent1 so far as we can discover4 ,for instance1 arithmetic1 writing1 and all the first great inventions1 to which we are so habituated that we scarce think they have been invented any more than the flowers or trees1 yet were mighty inventions in their time4 ,paper was invented in the year #abjj1 oil painting in the year #abig1 glass in #acaj1 printing in #adcj1 and gunpowder in #adej4 ,all these inventions1 or very many of them1 were made by men without artificial stimulus1 often at the peril of their lives1 when their reward was not a monopoly1 but perhaps the stake or the gibbet40 ,it may be observed1 however1 that most of these 8great inventions0 might more accurately be described as the result of the discovery of natural laws1 and hence they were generally ascribed to alchemy or sorcery2 whereas in our day the inventions that have been most beneficial have been of a mechanical description4 ,there is scarcely a machine now in use that is not an invention of modern times2 and while many of the discoveries1 called inventions1 of former ages were made accidentally1 who would ever think of saying that the complicated machinery in use nowadays was invented by accident8 ,obviously it has been the result of labour1 skill1 and knowledge2 and its effect is to save labour and supersede skill4 ,it is probably the greater effort required in the production of modern machinery1 and its obvious utility when in operation1 that have secured for inventors an honourable place in public estimation1 as well as more adequate remuneration for their services4 ,at all events such was the case with the ,morse telegraph4 ,not that its success was unalloyed with detraction4 ,after its utility was fully established1 one company after another contested its originality or the validity of his patent rights1 which had consequently to be protected by costly law suits4 ,the first of these took place at ,louisville1 ,kentucky1 in ,august1 #ahdh4 ,the owners of the ,morse system arranged to construct a line from that town to ,nashville1 ,tennessee2 and ,henry ,o',reilly1 supported by a company1 constructed a rival line1 and called it the ,people's ,line1 which they at first tried to work by a piece of electrical apparatus that was only a modification of the ,morse system1 the principle of which they contended they were justified in using on the ground that it did not originate with ,morse4 ,after a patent trial of the case1 the court granted an injunction against the ,o',reilly ,company1 and sustained the validity of the ,morse patent4 ,the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states1 on appeal1 confirmed this decision in ,january1 #ahed4 ,the court held it as established by evidence that 8early in the spring of #ahcg ,morse invented his plan for combining two or more electric or galvanic circuits1 with independent batteries1 for the purpose of overcoming the diminished force of electro-magnetism in long circuits1 that there is reasonable ground for believing that he had so far completed his invention that the whole process1 combination1 powers1 and machinery were arranged in his mind1 and that the delay in bringing it out arose from want of means40 ,the court also held that 8neither the inquiries ,morse made nor the information or advice he received from men of science1 in the course of his researches1 impair his right to the character of an inventor4 ,no invention can possibly be made1 consisting of a combination of different elements of power1 without a thorough knowledge of the properties of each of them1 and the mode in which they operate upon each other4 ,a very high degree of scientific knowledge and the nicest skill in the mechanic arts are combined in the electro-magnetic telegraph and were necessary to bring it into successful operation4 ,it is the high praise of ,professor ,morse that he has been able by a new combination of known powers1 of which electro-magnetism is one1 to discover a method by which intelligible marks or signs may be printed at a distance40 ,such were the sort of compliments that the ,supreme ,court bestowed upon ,professor ,morse1 while they amply vindicated the validity of his patents4 ,another case was heard at ,philadelphia in ,september1 #ahea4 ,it was an action brought by the ,magnetic ,telegraph ,company1 who used the ,morse patent1 against ,henry ,j4 ,rogers and others who worked a line of telegraph from ,washington to ,new ,york on the system of ,alexander ,bain4 ,this ingenious but unlucky invention1 which ,mr4 ,bain made in #ahdf1 was represented as capable of transmitting from #a1jjj to #b1jjj letters a minute4 ,by means of a machine1 holes were stamped in a long strip of paper1 and each hole or group of holes represented a particular letter4 ,the paper was coiled on a wooden roller1 from which it passed to a metal roller2 the mechanism was so arranged that two metallic points underneath the paper passed through the holes as they moved along1 and thus touching the metal of the roller1 imparted sufficient electricity to make a signal at the distant end of the wire2 but when the points only touched the paper no electricity passed4 ,this rapid alternation was made to indicate signals4 ,in the recipient apparatus1 which marked the signals at the distant end of the connecting wire1 the strip of paper used was first soaked in dilute sulphuric acid1 and then in a solution of prussiate of potash2 two metallic points pressed on that paper1 and when electricity passed through these points1 it discoloured the chemically prepared paper and left a number of dark spots on it2 but when no electricity passed no spots were produced4 ,in ,america it was alleged that those who used this apparatus violated ,morse's patent by forming their alphabet and figures 7though using chemicals instead of ink7 in the same way that ,morse did--by dots and lines1 although the same dots and lines did not in both systems represent the same letter or figure4 ,the claim of ,professor ,morse as the inventor of the principle of the dot and dash alphabet was consequently disputed by the defendants4 ,but the judges held that there was no one person whose invention had been spoken of by witnesses or referred to in any book as involving the principle of ,morse's discovery but must yield precedence to him1 and that neither ,steinheil1 nor ,cooke and ,wheatstone1 nor ,davy1 nor ,dyer1 nor ,henry had1 when the ,morse invention was consummated early in the spring of #ahcg1 made a recording telegraph of any sort4 ,in this case the evidence filled over a thousand printed pages2 and in other trials the evidence filled many hundreds of pages4 ,only in one case did a rival inventor establish valid claims to originality4 ,this was ,mr4 ,royal ,e4 ,house1 the inventor of the printing telegraph1 which was described in #ahea1 when it came into use1 as one of the wonders of the age4 ,he invented a machine which1 when a message was transmitted by electric currents over a single wire1 printed the words in ,roman letters that any person could read4 ,for that invention ,house applied for a patent in #ahdf1 but was refused it on the ground that his specification in some points clashed with that of ,morse4 ,it was not till towards the end of #ahdh that he got a patent which dated from ,april1 #ahdf4 ,he was a self-taught man1 who was confined to his dwelling-house with an affection of the eyes during most of the six years that he had been engaged in constructing his instrument4 ,the sending apparatus for despatching messages resembled a pianette1 in which each key represented a letter of the alphabet1 and the sender had simply to press down the key representing any desired letter1 and the receiving apparatus at the other end of the telegraph wire printed that letter on a strip of paper4 ,the electric current moved a wheel around the edge of which were the letters of the alphabet in type properly inked2 and when the particular letter desired came round to the point nearest the paper tape1 the letter was by self-acting mechanism pressed against it1 causing the letter to be printed on the tape4 ,it was stated that #afj letters could be transmitted and printed in that way in a minute4 ,the first line of telegraph worked by the ,house apparatus was completed in ,august1 #ahej1 by the ,boston and ,new ,york ,telegraph ,company4 ,proceedings were at once taken against that company by the owner of the ,morse patent1 of which the ,house apparatus was alleged to be an infringement4 ,judge ,woodbury1 after hearing much evidence and argument1 came to the conclusion that the two methods of telegraphing differed as much as writing differed from printing4 ,he said the ,morse apparatus was less complicated and more easily comprehended2 it could be readily understood by most mechanics and men of science2 while the ,house machine was so much more difficult to comprehend in its operations that it required days1 if not weeks1 to master it4 ,at the same time he declared that ,house had given 8letters to lightning10 as well as 8lightning to letters40 ,while he admitted that the principle of the ,house telegraph was not new1 although now ingeniously applied and worked by a new power1 he gave ,morse every credit for originality in his invention1 and decided in the end that the one was not an infringement of the other4 ,the ,morse alphabet1 the originality of which was practically undisputed1 has not only been found universally useful for telegraphic purposes1 but has been successfully used for signalling intelligence where no electric telegraph was available4 ,its characters have been exhibited from lighthouses in long and short flashes of electric light to tell the lonely mariner in the darkness of night the name of the coast he was passing2 while in lands where the electric telegraph is unknown it has enabled a revival of the old semaphore system to be worked with great advantages4 ,when the ,british squadron entered ,burmah in the end of #ahhe1 communication was kept up between the different portions of the forces by means of the heliostat and heliograph1 sun-signalling instruments1 which displayed to distant stations dots or dashes of light forming the ,morse alphabet4 ,in the heliograph the signalling was effected by altering the angle of the mirror which reflected the light2 while in the heliostat the requisite flash was transmitted by opening temporarily a shutter1 which when shut obscured the light4 ,the ,morse alphabet thus enables distant stations to speak by means of light as well as electricity4 ,at the time when the laying of the ,atlantic cable was absorbing public attention1 ,professor ,morse was enjoying the fruits of his previous labours4 ,rewards and honours were freely bestowed on him4 ,during his long and often disheartening struggle with adversity1 he was not without honour in his own and in other countries4 ,in #ahce he was elected a corresponding member of the ,historical ,institute of ,france2 in #ahcg he was elected a member of the ,royal ,academy of ,fine ,arts of ,belgium2 in #ahci he received the great silver medal of the ,paris ,academy of ,industry for his invention of the telegraph2 in #ahda he was made a corresponding member of the ,washington ,institute for the ,promotion of ,science2 in #ahdb he was awarded the gold medal of the ,american ,institute for his experiments demonstrating submarine telegraphy2 in #ahde he was made a corresponding member of the ,archological ,society of ,belgium2 in #ahdg he was made an honorary ,doctor of ,laws of ,yale ,college2 in #ahdi he was elected a fellow of the ,american ,academy of ,arts and ,sciences1 ,boston1 and so on4 ,what he wanted during these years was emolument1 and now that had come to him after long years of patient expectation4 ,though his patent was not put in profitable operation till #ahdf1 he received before the date of its expiration1 #ahed1 a sum of #ij1hgd dollars1 and during the seven following years1 for which it was renewed1 over #gj1jjj dollars4 ,his fame had now become world-wide1 and foreign honours were bestowed upon him by the chief ,european sovereigns4 ,in ,june1 #ahef1 he visited ,england1 and was delighted to meet once more with several of his old artist friends3 men who had befriended him when in humble circumstances he showed a special pleasure in meeting now1 when he had attained pre-eminent success in another vocation4 ,from ,london he proceeded to ,copenhagen1 where the ,king of ,denmark1 ,frederick ,,vii41 presented him with the ,cross of a ,knight of the ,danneborg4 ,he was thence invited to ,russia by the ,emperor ,alexander ,,ii41 who sent his carriage to convey him from the quay on landing to the ,imperial ,palace1 where he was treated as an honoured guest4 ,then he went to ,berlin1 where he again met the author of the ,cosmos1 ,alexander von ,humboldt1 who entertained him hospitably1 and presented him with a portrait of himself on the margin of which he had written as an inscription the homage of his high and affectionate esteem for ,mr4 ,s4 ,f4 ,b4 ,morse1 8whose philosophical and useful labours have rendered his name illustrious in two worlds40 ,returning to ,london in ,september1 he was next month entertained at a public banquet in the ,albion ,tavern on the same day that he received the announcement that the ,emperor ,napoleon had made him a ,chevalier of the ,legion of ,honour4 ,at that banquet ,mr4 ,w4 ,f4 ,cooke stated that ,professor ,morse stood alone in ,america as the originator and carrier out of a grand conception2 but that not content with giving the benefit of his conception to his own country and ,canada1 he threatened to go still further1 and1 if ,englishmen would not do it1 to carry telegraphic communication across the ,atlantic4 ,dr4 ,o',shaughnessy stated at the banquet that he had made a journey from ,india to ,england in order to introduce into ,india the system of telegraphing which had been perfected by ,professor ,morse4 ,it was this gentleman who1 according to his own statement1 erected in ,april and ,may1 #ahci1 8the first long line of telegraph ever constructed in any country0 in the vicinity of ,calcutta4 ,his line was twenty-one miles long1 and included #g1jjj feet of river circuit4 ,in after years he was accustomed to state that it was the experiments performed on that line which removed all reasonable doubts regarding the practicability of working electric telegraphs through enormous distances1--8a question then and for three years later disputed by high authorities1 and regarded generally with contemptuous scepticism40 ,after the experiments were completed and published1 the line was taken down4 ,it may therefore be said of ,dr4 ,o',shaughnessy that he was in a double sense the father of ,indian telegraphy1 and as such he received the honour of knighthood4 ,it thus appears that the three men who were the pioneers in practical telegraphy were ,morse in ,america1 ,wheatstone in ,england1 and ,o',shaughnessy in ,india4 ,in after ages it may be a question of biographical interest whether these three men1 whose triumphs took place in scenes so far apart1 ever met together4 ,a similar question has been asked of another constellation of great men4 8,it is a remarkable fact10 says ,sir ,david ,brewster1 8in the history of astronomy1 that three of its most distinguished professors were contemporaries4 ,galileo was the contemporary of ,tycho during thirty-seven years and of ,kepler during fifty-nine years of his life4 ,galileo was born seven years before ,kepler1 and survived him nearly the same time4 ,we have not learned that the intellectual triumvirate of the age enjoyed any opportunity of mutual congratulation4 ,what a privilege it would have been to have contrasted the aristocratic dignity of ,tycho with the reckless ease of ,kepler1 and the manly and impetuous mien of the ,italian sage40 ,it is possible that three or four centuries hence similar speculations may be indulged in with respect to the group of remarkable men who made the electric telegraph a practical success in different parts of the world4 ,it may therefore be worth while here to state that there is no record of ,professor ,wheatstone and ,professor ,morse ever having met personally either for mutual congratulation or recrimination4 ,in several respects they were men of like qualities--modest1 unselfish1 persevering1 versatile1 and ingenious in everything except extemporaneous public speaking--a similitude which might perhaps be held to account for the fact that there was no love lost between them1 if it be true1 as ,saint ,pierre contends1 that men are more attached to those qualities that are the complement of their own than to those that are the counterpart of their own--an observation that would not apply to the three professors of astronomy4 ,anyhow1 the absence of ,professor ,wheatstone from the banquet given to ,professor ,morse in ,london in #ahef was publicly commented on at the time in the leading ,english journal1 to which a member of the committee wrote1 in reply1 that 8it was intended to pay all honour to ,professor ,wheatstone1 but to the regret of every one at the dinner he was unable to attend3 his pre-eminent merits as an electrical engineer were repeatedly acknowledged during the evening1 and always with the warmest reception by the whole company40 ,nevertheless1 in the calm perspective of history posterity will probably regard that opportunity for mutual congratulation as a privilege that ought not to have been lost4 ,professor ,morse said in #ahef that it was not in ,england alone that he had experienced unwonted kindness1 but in every place he had visited1--in ,copenhagen1 in ,st4 ,petersburgh1 in ,berlin1 throughout ,germany1 ,belgium1 ,france1 he had everywhere received distinguished marks of regard--and that he was unable to recall a single unpleasant occurrence to mar the gratifying impression which he carried with him to his ,transatlantic home4 ,the first foreign honour he received as an acknowledgment of his invention came from the ,sultan of ,turkey1 who sent him the decoration1 set in diamonds1 of the ,order of ,glory1 and this was the first decoration which the ,sultan conferred on an ,american citizen4 ,italy bestowed on him the ,cross of a ,knight of ,saints ,lazaro and ,mauritio2 ,prussia the ,gold ,medal of ,scientific ,merit in a gold snuff-box2 ,spain the ,cross of ,knight ,commander de ,numero of the ,order of ,isabella2 ,austria the ,gold ,medal of ,scientific ,merit2 and ,portugal the ,cross of a ,knight of the ,tower and ,sword4 ,in #aheh he again left ,new ,york and went to ,paris1 where his fellow-countrymen entertained him at a banquet4 ,a movement was then set on foot to make him some recompense for the use of his invention in ,europe4 ,at a conference of delegates of ten leading ,governments1 held in ,paris to consider the subject1 ,count ,walewski said that the honorary distinctions which several sovereigns had conferred on ,professor ,morse had beyond doubt been appreciated by him as valuable marks of high esteem2 but these had been insufficient to supply the place of the pecuniary compensation which his sacrifices and his labours seemed destined to procure him1 and which were so much the more justly called for1 since electro-magnetic telegraphing1--independently of the immense services which it renders by the rapidity of transmitting news and correspondence1--also brings to the ,governments that have a monopoly of it profits in money which are already considerable1 and must continue to increase4 ,with a conviction that there was justice as well as generosity in acceding to the claim of ,mr4 ,morse1 who was now subject to the infirmities of age1 after devoting the whole of his small fortune to the experiments and voyages necessary to arrive at the discovery and application of his process1 the ,emperor's ,government had solicited the various ,states1 to whose gratitude ,professor ,morse had a right1 to contribute to the remuneration due to him4 ,it was agreed that the different ,governments should contribute in proportion to the number of instruments that they had in use2 and it was found that they had altogether #a1bhd ,morse instruments in operation1 of which ,france had the highest number1 namely #dfb4 ,on ,september #ast1 #aheh1 ,count ,walewski addressed to him the following letter from the ,french ,ministry of ,foreign ,affairs3--8,i have the honour to announce with lively satisfaction that a sum of #djj1jjj francs will be remitted to you in four annuities1 in the name of ,france1 ,austria1 ,belgium1 the ,netherlands1 ,piedmont1 ,russia1 the ,holy ,see1 ,sweden1 ,tuscany1 and ,turkey1 as an honorary gratuity1 and as a reward1 altogether personal1 of your useful labours4 ,nothing can better mark than this collective act of reward the sentiment of public gratitude which your invention has so justly excited4 ,the ,emperor had already given you a testimonial of his high esteem when he conferred on you1 more than a year ago1 the decoration of a ,chevalier of the ,legion of ,honour4 ,you will find a new mark of it in the initiative which ,his ,majesty wished that his ,government should take on this occasion1 and the announcement ,i now make to you is a brilliant proof of the eager and sympathetic response that his proposition has met with from the ,states ,i have just enumerated40 ,the latter years of the ,professor's life were mostly spent in retirement at his country residence--a delightful house1 near ,poughkeepsie1 on the eastern bank of the ,hudson1 where he appeared to possess everything that could promote his comfort or gratify his taste4 ,it was an ,italian villa1 called ,locust ,grove1 surrounded by very picturesque grounds containing deep ravines and lofty forest trees4 ,here he cultivated beautiful gardens1 and adorned the spot with all the chasteness of an artist's taste4 ,here he was surrounded by a lively and affectionate family4 ,here he delighted to entertain his old friends with accounts of his early struggles and disappointments4 ,here he was placed in communication with the busy world of work and thought by means of the agency which his own genius had created--the ,morse telegraph4 ,but here1 amid the repose of ,nature1 he was not idle4 ,in the sunshine of fortune and fame he was as sympathetic and kind as when under the chilly blasts of adversity4 ,he knew well that 8',tis easy to resign a toilsome place ,but not to manage leisure with a grace2 ,absence of occupation is not rest1 ,a mind quite vacant is a mind distress'd40 ,much of his leisure time was spent in assisting struggling inventors and artists1 and in doing works of charity4 ,he purposely devoted one-tenth of his income to ,christian benevolence1 and in honour of his father he gave #aj1jjj dollars as an endowment for a ,morse lectureship on the relation of the ,bible to the sciences4 ,occasionally he was drawn from his retirement to receive some tribute of respect from his fellow-countrymen2 for in his own country where no titles or decorations are conferred1 the sunset of his useful life was made radiant by some exceptional marks of public favour4 ,on the eve of the last day of #ahfh he was entertained at a public banquet in ,delmonico's1 ,new ,york1 when some of the most eminent men in the ,united ,states paid high tributes to his genius4 ,in the toast of 8,our ,guest10 ,professor ,morse was described as the man of science who explored the laws of ,nature1 wrested electricity from her embrace1 and made it a missionary in the cause of human progress4 ,professor ,morse was as rich in humility as his admirers were in eulogy4 ,he said that1 in tracing the birth and pedigree of the ,american telegraph1 8,american is not the highest term of the series that connects the past with the present4 ,there is at least one higher term1--the highest of all1--which cannot and must not be ignored4 ,if not a sparrow falls to the ground without a definite purpose in the plans of ,infinite ,wisdom1 can the creation of an instrument so vitally affecting the interests of the whole human race have an origin less humble than the ,father of every good and perfect gift8 ,i am sure ,i have the sympathy of such an assembly as is here gathered together1 if in all humility1 and in the sincerity of a grateful heart1 ,i use the words of ,inspiration in ascribing honour and praise to ,him to whom first of all and most of all it is pre-eminently due4 #8,not unto us1 not unto us1 but to ,god be all the glory'--not what hath man1 but #8what hath ,god wrought8'0 ,in ,april1 #ahgj1 it was announced in the public press that the telegraph operators of the ,united ,states intended to raise a memorial of the father of their craft1 and from all parts of civilised ,america subscriptions for that purpose were sent to the executive committee1 of which ,mr4 ,jas4 ,d4 ,reid was the chairman4 ,when1 six months afterward1 information of the movement was officially communicated to the aged ,professor1 he replied3--8,i am astonished and deeply impressed with the evidence of such an unexampled universality of kind and friendly feeling from those whom ,i have loved to call my children4 ,i know by early experience some of their trials1 and can therefore sympathise with them2 and ,i should be false to my convictions if to those who have called me ,father1 ,i should be recreant in manifesting my grateful thanks for their expressed sentiments of affection and respect40 ,a bronze statue of him on a granite pedestal was erected in the ,central ,park1 ,new ,york1 and was unveiled on ,june #ajth1 #ahga1 in the presence of a vast multitude1 by the ,governor of ,massachusetts1 the ,state in which the venerable inventor was born eighty years previously4 ,in the course of a long and eloquent address1 ,mr4 ,cullen ,bryant observed that it might be said that 8the civilised world is already full of memorials which speak the merit of our friend and the grandeur and utility of his invention4 ,every telegraphic station is such a memorial2 every message sent from one of these stations to another may be counted among the honours paid to his name4 ,every telegraphic wire1 strung from post to post1 as it hums in the wind murmurs his eulogy4 ,but we are so constituted that we insist upon seeing the form of that brow beneath which an active1 restless1 creative brain devised the mechanism that was to subdue the most wayward of the elements to the service of man1 and make it his obedient messenger4 ,we require to see the eye that glittered with a thousand lofty hopes when the great discovery was made1 and the lips that curled with a smile of triumph when it became certain that the lightning of the clouds would become tractable to the most delicate touch4 ,we demand to see the hand which first strung the wire by whose means the slender currents of the electric fluid were taught the alphabet of every living language--the hand which pointed them to the spot where they were to inscribe and leave their messages4 ,all this we have in the statue which has this day been unveiled to the eager gaze of the public1 and in which the artist has so skilfully and faithfully fulfilled his task as to satisfy those who are the hardest to please--the most intimate friends of the original4 ,on behalf of the telegraphic workers of the ,continent1 who have so nobly and affectionately provided it1 ,i do now present it to the authorities of the city of ,new ,york for perpetual and loving care40 ,in accepting it1 ,mayor ,hall said3--8,our ,middle ,state city loves to remember how her citizen ,franklin modestly passed the portals of the temple of electrical science2 a southern city how her citizen ,whitney developed a cotton empire2 a western city how her citizen ,mc,cormick presented to agriculture its greatest boon2 adjacent eastern cities gratefully recall how their citizens ,morton and ,jackson blessed humanity1 and how ,elias ,howe lightened the toil of the poor4 ,the genius of these ,americans changed the atmosphere of social life1 which now is not in any aspect the same as it was to the elder generation of this ,union4 ,their genius blessed food1 raiment1 and locomotion4 ,but ,new ,york cherishes more proudly and gratefully the thought that the genius of her citizen ,morse put all these inventions into world-wide service1 and is fast bringing together all the peoples who were dispersed at the ,tower of ,babel40 ,the venerable ,professor also delivered a lengthy speech1 during which he said that the subscribers had 8chosen to impersonate in my humble effigy an invention which1 cradled upon the ocean1 had its birth in an ,american ship4 ,it was nursed and cherished not so much from personal as from patriotic pride4 ,forecasting its future1 even at its birth1 my most powerful stimulus to perseverance through all the perils and trials of its early days--and they were neither few nor insignificant--was the thought that it must inevitably be world-wide in its application1 and1 moreover1 that it would everywhere be hailed as a grateful ,american gift to the nations4 ,it is in this aspect of the present occasion that ,i look upon your proceeding as intended1 not so much as homage to an individual as to the invention #8whose lines1' from ,america1 #8have gone out through all the earth1 and their words to the end of the world4'444 ,it is but a few days since1 that our veritable antipodes became telegraphically united to us4 ,we can speak to and receive an answer in a few seconds of time from ,hong ,kong in ,china1 where #aj o'clock to-night here is #aj o'clock in the day there1 and it is perhaps a debatable question whether their #aj o'clock is #aj to-day or #aj to-morrow4 ,china and ,new ,york are in interlocutory communication4 ,we know the fact1 but can imagination realise it80 ,at a public meeting held in the evening in the ,academy of ,music a unique incident occurred4 ,at #i o'clock all the telegraph wires in ,america1 then measuring over #ahj1jjj miles1 with #f1jjj stations1 were so connected together as to be in communication with a single ,morse instrument which stood on a table visible to the large audience present4 ,by means of this instrument the following message was transmitted to all the stations3--8,greeting and thanks to the telegraph fraternity throughout the land4 ,glory to ,god in the highest1 on earth peace1 good will to men40 ,these words were transmitted by an expert lady operator1 and then ,professor ,morse stepped forward to the instrument1 and moved the handle so as to transmit the letters ,s4 ,f4 ,b4 ,morse1 a proceeding which evoked enthusiastic applause4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,orton1 who presided1 said3 8,thus the ,father of the ,telegraph bids farewell to his children40 ,the ,professor afterwards delivered a long address1 recounting the chief events in the early history of his invention4 ,his continued interest and faith in the telegraph was evinced by a characteristic letter1 which he wrote on ,december #dth1 #ahga1 to ,mr4 ,cyrus ,field1 who was then attending a ,telegraphic ,convention in ,rome4 ,he said3--8,the excitement occasioned by the visit of the ,grand ,duke ,alexis has but just ceased1 and ,i have been wholly engrossed by the various duties connected with his presence4 ,i have wished for a few calm moments to put on paper some thoughts respecting the doings of the great ,telegraphic ,convention to which you are a delegate4 ,the telegraph has now assumed such a marvellous position in human affairs throughout the world2 its influences are so great and important in all the varied concerns of nations1 that its efficient protection from injury has become a necessity4 ,it is a powerful advocate for universal peace4 ,not that of itself it can command a #8,peace1 be still1' to the angry waves of human passions1 but that by its rapid interchange of thought and opinion it gives the opportunity of explanations to acts and to laws which in their ordinary wording often create doubt and suspicion4 ,were there no means of quick explanation1 it is readily seen that doubt and suspicion1 working on the susceptibilities of the public mind1 would engender misconception1 hatred1 and strife4 ,how important1 then1 that in the intercourse of nations there should be the ready means at hand for prompt correction and explanation6 ,could there not be passed in the great ,international ,convention some resolution to the effect that in whatever condition1 whether of peace or war between nations1 the telegraph should be deemed a sacred thing1 to be by common consent effectually protected1 both on land and beneath the waters8 ,in the interest of human happiness1 of that #8,peace on earth' which1 in announcing the advent of the ,saviour1 the angels proclaimed1 with #8good will to men1' ,i hope that the ,convention will not adjourn without adopting a resolution asking of the nations their united effective protection to this great agent of civilisation4 ,the mode and terms of such resolution may be safely left to the intelligent members of the honourable and distinguished ,convention40 ,the reading of this letter in the ,convention was hailed with prolonged cheers for the writer of it1 and the letter was ordered to be printed among the records of the ,convention4 ,the death of his brother ,sidney1 a few days later1 affected him very much1 and it then became evident that his own life was ebbing away4 ,while in this state he was asked to unveil a bronze statue of ,franklin1 which ,captain ,albert de ,groot had presented to the printers of ,new ,york1 and which was erected in front of the ,city ,hall4 ,though confined to bed when asked to unveil this statue1 the ,professor said he would do it if he had to be lifted to the spot2 and when he was introduced to the vast concourse of people present at the ceremony as 8the distinguished inventor and pride of our country10 he stated that no one had more reason to venerate the name of ,franklin than himself1 and expressed a hope that ,franklin's illustrious example of devotion to the interest of universal humanity might be the seed of further fruit for the good of the world4 ,mr4 ,horace ,greeley said that ,professor ,morse seemed to have been raised up by ,providence to be the continuer of the great work of which ,franklin was the beginner4 ,his exposure to the keen breeze blowing when he unveiled the ,franklin statue aggravated the neuralgia in his head1 from which he suffered intense pain4 ,he gradually sank1 and distracting pain was followed by stupor4 ,the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,adams1 of the ,madison ,square ,presbyterian ,church1 ,new ,york1 of which the ,professor was a member1 attended him in his illness1 and afterwards gave the following account of his last days3--8,a short time ago he was occupied with other fellow-citizens in acts of attention to a distinguished representative of the ,royal ,house of ,russia4 ,at the ,holy ,communion of this church next ensuing1 an occasion in which for domestic and personal reasons he felt an extraordinary interest1 at the close of the service he approached me with more than usual warmth and pressure of the hand1 and1 with a beaming countenance1 said3 #8,oh1 this is something better and greater than standing before princes4' ,his piety had the simplicity of childhood4 ,when his brother ,sidney died last ,christmas1 he began to die also4 ,through fear of exciting alarm and giving distress to his own household1 he did not speak so much to them as to some others1 of his expected departure1 but he used to say familiarly to some with whom he was ready to converse upon this subject1 #8,i love to be studying the ,guide ,book of the country to which ,i am going2 ,i wish to know more and more about it4' ,a few days before his decease1 in the privacy of his chamber ,i spoke to him of the great goodness of ,god to him in his remarkable life4 #8,yes2 so good1 so good1' was the quick response2 #8and the best part of all is yet to come4' ,though spared more than eighty years1 he saw none of the infirmities of age1 either of mind or body4 ,his delicate taste1 his love for the beautiful1 his fondness for the fine arts1 his sound judgment1 his intellectual activities1 his public spirit1 his intense interest in all that concerned the welfare and the decoration of the city1 his earnest advocacy of ,christian liberty throughout the world--all continued unimpaired to the last4 ,with perfect health and the full possession of every faculty1 urbane and courteous to all who knew him1 there was no infelicity of temper or manner such as sometimes befalls extreme age4 ,surrounded by a young family1 he was their genial friend and companion as well as head1 sympathising in all the simple and innocent pleasures that give the charms to home4 ,in particular qualities he had many equals and superiors1 but in that rare combination of qualities which1 like the harmony of colours in the finished picture1 made him what he was1 he seems to have been unrivalled40--,on the #bnd of ,april1 #ahgb1 8,he passed from sunshine to the sunless land40 ,his remains were interred in ,greenwood ,cemetery three days after his death4 ,the funeral service was held in ,madison ,square ,presbyterian ,church1 and the funeral was attended by representatives of the leading telegraph companies in ,new ,york1 of the ,academy of ,design1 of the ,evangelical ,alliance1 the ,chamber of ,commerce1 the ,association for the ,advancement of ,science and ,art1 and other public bodies4 ,in the ,house of ,representatives a concurrent resolution was passed recording profound regret at the death of 8,professor ,morse1 whose distinguished and varied abilities have contributed more than those of any other person to the development and progress of the practical arts10 and declaring that his purity of life1 his loftiness of scientific aim1 and his resolute faith in truth1 rendered it highly proper that the ,representatives and ,senators should solemnly testify to his worth and greatness4 ,mr4 ,wood1 of ,new ,york city1 being the only member then in the ,house who voted in #ahdc for the bill for the experimental telegraph line1 gave a sketch of the measure which enabled ,professor ,morse to bring his invention to a practical test4 ,other admirers paid their tributes of respect in verses1 such as the following3-- 8,men of every faith and nation ,honor1 love1 revere1 admire ,one who sought not adulation ,when he chained the electric fire2 8,who1 discouraged and defeated1 ,bore it with a patient grace2 ,by no boastful pride elated1 ,when he conquered time and space40 ,,index4 ,a ,acoustic figures1 #aag ,alpine adventures of ,professor ,tyndall1 #fj ,alps1 accidents on1 #fe ,america1 electrical discoveries in1 #bca2 first line of telegraph in1 #bgc2 telegraph in 7see ,morse and ,telegraph72 visit of ,professor ,tyndall to1 #gd ,ampre's electrical discoveries1 #ia2 proposed telegraph1 #acd ,aqueous vapour and radiant heat1 #dd ,arago's electrical discoveries1 #ia ,atlantic cable1 #aic1 #bgf1 #bib ,automatic telegraph1 ,wheatstone's1 #aii ,b ,bain1 ,alexander1 inventions claimed by1 #afj1 #ahe1 #cje ,baltimore and ,washington telegraph1 #bgc ,batteries described--,volta's1 #hh2 ,grove's1 #hi2 ,daniell's1 #abh ,beer disease1 #ec ,bible descriptions of nature1 #f ,biographies1 use of1 xi41 xiv4 ,blackwall telegraph1 #afg1 #agc ,brewster1 ,sir ,david's account of first telegraph1 #aej2 on vision1 #baj2 improvement of stereoscope1 #bab ,bridge1 ,wheatstone1 #afd ,bryant1 ,w4 ,cullen1 on ,morse and his telegraph1 #beb1 #caf ,c ,cables1 earliest1 #ahg1 #bfi1 #bib ,calorescence1 #dg ,carlyle1 ,thomas1 reminiscences of1 #ii ,celtic genius and science1 #g ,channel cable1 first1 #ahg1 #aia ,charges for telegraphing1 #aha ,china1 telegraph to1 #cag ,clark1 ,latimer1 on first ,english telegraph1 #aeb2 on ,wheatstone's single-needle telegraph1 #afg2 on ,wheatstone's works1 #bbi ,clock1 ,wheatstone's electro-magnetic1 #afj ,clouds1 experiments in producing1 #di ,concertina1 invention of1 #abj ,congress1 ,american1 and telegraph1 #bfc1 #bgj ,cooke1 ,w4 ,f41 account of his first connection with telegraph1 #aej1 #aeb2 dispute with ,wheatstone about telegraph1 #acd1 #ach1 #adf2 efforts to extend telegraph1 #agc2 formation of ,electric ,telegraph ,company1 #ahc ,cruikshank1 ,george1 on first telegraph1 #ada ,cryptograph1 invention of1 #bai ,crystals1 formation of1 #if2 magnetic properties of1 #bd ,d ,daniell1 ,professor1 on ,wheatstone's first telegraph1 #adi ,daniell's constant battery1 #abh ,day1 ,professor ,j41 electrical lectures1 #bcd ,dial telegraphs1 ,wheatstone's1 #aeh1 #aif ,diamagnetism discovered1 #bc2 investigated by ,tyndall and others1 #bd1 #bi1 #cc ,dynamic radiation of heat1 #dc ,dynamo machine1 invention of1 #bjf ,e ,earth as return circuit1 #aga2 rotatory motion1 #bag ,earth's magnetic force1 #bf ,electric currents1 measurement of1 #ic1 #afc ,electric telegraph4 ,see ,telegraph4 ,electric ,telegraph ,company1 formation of1 #ahc ,electrical biographies1 use of1 xi4 ,electrical heat and light1 #hi ,electricians1 distribution of1 xii41 #bca ,electricity1 production of1 #bb1 #hh1 #ia1 #id1 #bcb2 force of1 #afc2 velocity of1 #ic ,ellsworth1 ,miss1 connection with ,morse telegraph1 #bgb1 #bgg ,enchanted lyre1 ,wheatstone's1 #aaa ,evolution1 early days of ,darwinian theory of1 #ig ,exploder1 ,wheatstone's1 #ahf ,explosion of mines by electricity1 #ahe ,f ,faraday's associations with ,professor ,tyndall1 #bf1 #cj1 #ajb2 electrical and magnetic discoveries1 #bc2 lecture on scientific theories1 #cb2 on ,wheatstone's telegraph1 #aih ,forbes1 ,professor ,j4 ,d41 on glaciers1 #cg1 #dj ,frankland1 ,dr41 associated with ,professor ,tyndall1 #ae2 glacier theory by1 #de ,g ,gale1 ,professor1 assisted ,morse with telegraph1 #bdi ,gases1 radiation and absorption of heat by1 #db2 sounding power of1 #eh ,gauss and ,weber's telegraph1 #acf ,germ theory1 #ea1 #ih ,german scientists1 #ba1 #bg ,germany1 science in1 between #ahdj and #ahej1 #af2 student life in1 #ag2 telegraph in1 #acf ,glacier phenomena1 #ch ,h ,harmonium1 ,wheatstone's improvements in1 #abc ,heat1 radiant1 investigation of1 #db1 #eh ,house1 ,r4 ,e41 printing telegraph by1 #cjf ,i ,induced electricity1 discovery of1 by ,faraday1 #bb ,inventions1 popular accounts of origin of1 #afg2 ,morse's definition of1 #bhj2 public appreciation of1 #bha1 #cjb ,irish scientists1 #g ,j ,jackson1 ,dr41 disputes with ,morse origin of telegraph1 #bdd1 #bef ,k ,kaleidophone1 #aag ,l ,light1 velocity of1 #abe ,lightning conductors1 #aca ,longitude determined by telegraph1 #bhg ,m ,magnetic attraction1 #bh ,magnetic exploder1 #ahf ,magnetisation of light1 #ic ,magnetism and diamagnetism1 #bc1 #bi2 of the earth1 #bf ,magnetism and electricity1 #bb1 #ia ,magnetism1 mechanical theory of1 #ic ,magneto-electric machine1 ,wheatstone's1 #aei ,magnets1 interaction of1 #ia2 lengthened by electricity1 #ib ,marburg1 student life in1 #ag ,measurement of electric currents1 ,wheatstone's plans for1 #abd1 #afc ,metals1 new1 discovered by electric spark analysis1 #abg ,microphone1 first use of word1 #aai ,morse alphabet1 uses of1 #cjg ,morse1 ,professor ,s4 ,f4 ,b43 artist1 how he became an1 #bcf2 success as1 #bdc2 why he ceased to be an1 #bgi ,atlantic cable1 connection with1 #bgf1 #bib birth and education of1 #bcc ,congress's action towards1 #bfc1 #bgj death of1 #cbj difficulties in constructing his telegraph1 #bdf2 in introducing it1 #bfh1 #bha electrical studies1 #bcd1 #bdb1 #bdd first line of telegraph constructed by1 #bgc funeral of1 #cba honours conferred on1 #cjh1 #caa ,jackson1 ,dr41 controversy with1 #bdd1 #bef law-suits to protect patent rights1 #cjc ,london visited by1 #bcf1 #bie patents1 #bei1 #bfe2 defence of1 #cjc pictures painted by1 #bcg photography1 early connection with1 #bff proscribed ,german student's case1 #bec rewards of1 #cji1 #cac statue of1 #cae telegraph1 distinguishing features of1 #bgi2 first conception of1 #bdd2 first public description of1 #bfj2 labours to improve1 #bdg2 practical working of1 #bfj2 public trial of1 #bfh2 refusal of1 by ,american ,government1 #bhc2 spread of1 #bhd2 uses of1 #bhf2 working of1 #bhi trial of first telegraph line1 #bgg submarine cable1 first1 #bfi1 #bgf1 #bib ,n ,needle telegraph1 #adc1 #afg ,niagara visited by ,prof4 ,tyndall1 #ge ,o ,ohm's work and theory1 #adj ,o',shaughnessy1 ,dr41 introduction of telegraph in ,india1 #caj ,p ,palmerston1 ,lord1 on telegraph1 #aid ,pasteur's experiments with germs1 #eb ,photography1 invention of1 #bff2 introduction of1 #baa1 #bfg ,piz ,morteratch1 accident upon1 #fg ,polarised light1 ,wheatstone's experiments1 #bbb ,printing telegraph1 ,wheatstone's1 #afa ,proscribed ,german student1 ,morse's account of1 #bec ,pseudoscope1 invention of1 #baf ,q ,queenswood ,college1 #ae ,r ,railway mania of #ahde1 #ac ,recording telegraph1 ,morse's1 #bgg1 #bij2 ,wheatstone's1 #aii ,relay1 first accounts of1 #ada1 #bdi ,resistance measurer1 #afc ,return circuit1 #aga ,revolution effected by electricity1 ix4 ,revolving mirror1 uses of1 #abd ,rheostat1 ,wheatstone's1 #afe ,ricardo1 ,j4 ,l41 connection with telegraph1 #ahc ,ronalds's telegraph1 #aaj ,rosa1 ,monte1 ascent of1 #fa ,royal ,institution1 changes at1 #hd2 lectures by ,tyndall at1 #cj1 #ch1 #hg ,s ,scientific attainments1 recognition of1 in ,england1 #ce ,scientific discovery1 the pursuit of1 #gi ,sea-water1 varying tints of1 #ef ,semaphore telegraph1 #ahj ,slaty cleavage1 #cf ,smoke respirator1 invention of1 #ed ,sound1 transmission of1 #ef2 ,wheatstone on1 #aaf ,sounder1 the ,morse1 #bia ,spectrum analysis of electric spark1 #abg ,standards1 electrical1 #afd ,steinheil's telegraph1 #acf ,stereoscope1 invention of1 #baj2 improvement of1 #bab2 principle of1 #bae ,submarine cables1 earliest experiments with1 #ahg1 #bfi1 #bgf1 #bib ,t ,tawell1 murderer1 apprehended by use of telegraph1 #agh ,telegraph1 adoption of1 by public1 #agc1 #bhc automatic telegraph of ,wheatstone1 #aii cables1 earliest1 #ahi1 #bfi1 #bib2 illustration of working1 #ie charges for1 #aha dial1 invented by ,wheatstone1 #aeh2 improvement of1 #aif early forecasts of1 #ajf2 early achievements of1 #agc1 #bgg1 #bhd electro-magnetic1 ,morse's1 #bdh1 #bgg1 #bij2 ,wheatstone's1 #aeh extension of1 #agc1 #aha1 #bhd1 #bib history of1 #acd1 #add1 #aec1 #agc1 #bdd1 #bfj1 #bhb1 #bib idea and invention of1 #aje1 #bdd longitude ascertained by1 #bhg ,morse's recording1 #bdd1 #bfj1 #bhj1 #bij needle1 #adc1 #afg origin of1 #acd1 #ach1 #adb1 #aej1 #bdd1 #bib pedigree of1 #ajh recording1 #aii1 #bdf1 #bfj1 #bfh1 #bgg1 #bij relay1 #ada1 #bdi sounder1 the ,morse1 #bij ,wheatstone's first needle1 #adc2 dial1 #aeh2 printing1 #afa2 recording automatic1 #aii ,telephone1 first1 #aae ,thermo-electric pile1 #abi1 #bje ,thermometers1 self-registering1 #bba ,tyndall1 ,professor ,j43 ancestors of1 #c anecdotes of1 #cd1 #ic1 #ig birth and education of1 #d daring experiment by1 #dg description of1 by ,george ,ripley1 #gb diamagnetism1 explanation of1 #bd1 #bi duty1 sense of1 #ai endowments for scientific purposes1 #hj ,faraday1 associations with1 #bf1 #cj1 #ajb ,germany1 student life in1 #ag1 #ba ,german scientific friends of1 #ba1 #bf investigation of diamagnetism1 #bd1 #bi2 germs1 #ea1 #ih2 glacier phenomena1 #ch2 radiant heat1 #db1 #eh2 sea-water tints1 #ef2 slaty cleavage1 #cf2 sound1 #ef marriage of1 #hf ,ordnance ,survey joined1 #i ,pasteur1 remarks on1 #eb pecuniary assistance declined by1 #bj1 #ajb ,presidential address to ,british ,association1 #ha ,professor of ,natural ,philosophy1 appointed1 #ca radiant heat1 on1 #db1 #eh railway surveying by1 #ab reminiscences of ,thomas ,carlyle1 #ii ,royal ,institution1 at1 #cj1 #he scientific adviser to ,trinity ,house1 #ajb scientific examiner at ,woolwich1 #ce smoke respirator1 invention of1 #ed teaching at ,queenswood ,college1 #ae2 elsewhere1 #if travels of1 in the ,alps1 #fj2 at ,vesuvius1 #gj2 in ,america1 #ga1 #gd vindication of scientific education1 #ce4 working habits1 #ab youthful studies1 #h1 #aj1 #ba ,v ,velocity of electricity1 #ic1 #abd2 of light1 #abe ,vesuvius1 visited in #ahfh1 #gj ,vision1 ,wheatstone's elucidations of1 #baj ,voltaic battery described1 #hh2 discovered1 #aaj ,w ,west1 ,benjamin1 associated with ,morse1 #bcf ,wheatstone1 ,professor ,charles3 birth of1 #aaa bridge1 #afd cryptograph1 #bai death and funeral1 #bbh deciphering secret document1 #bbj dispute with ,w4 ,f4 ,cooke about telegraph1 #acd1 #ach1 #adf1 #aec electricity1 first studies in1 #abc enchanted lyre of1 #aaa harmonium improvements1 #abc honours conferred on1 #aff1 #bbf invention of chronoscope1 #afb2 concertina1 #abj2 cryptograph1 #bai2 dynamo1 #bjf2 electric clock1 #afj2 enchanted lyre1 #aaa2 kaleidophone1 #aag2 magnetic exploder1 #ahf2 magneto-electric machine1 #aei2 polar clock1 #bbc2 pseudoscope1 #baf2 stereoscope1 #baj2 telegraph1 #acd 7see ,telegraph72 thermometers1 #bba inventions1 periodicity of1 #bbc investigation of algebra1 #bbd2 ,chladni figures1 #aag2 earth's motion1 #bag2 mental philosophy1 #aag2 musical instruments1 #abj2 polarised light1 #bbb2 sound1 #aaf1 #aah2 submarine cables1 #ahg2 submarine explosions1 #ahe2 thermo-electric pile1 #abi1 #bje2 tone1 #bbd2 vision1 #baj investigations1 latest and incomplete1 #bbd lightning conductors1 opinions on1 #aca magnetic exploder1 #ahf measurement of force of electric currents1 #afc originality of his telegraph1 #acd1 #ach1 #add patents of1 #adb1 #aed1 #afj1 #afg1 #aif peculiarities of1 #bbe ,professor of ,experimental ,physics at ,king's ,college1 #abc revolving mirror1 #abd speaking machines1 improvements in1 #aag spectrum analysis of electric light1 #abg submarine cables1 early experiments with1 #ahg telegraph1 diagram of first1 #ada2 history of1 #add1 #aec2 origin of1 #acd1 #ach1 #adb1 #aec telegraphic instruments1 automatic1 #aii2 dial1 #aeh1 #aif2 needle1 #ada1 #ade1 #afg2 printing1 #afa thermo-electric pile1 #abi1 #bje ,,richard ,,clay ,,and ,,sons1 ,,london ,,and ,,bungay4 ,new ,series1 ,no4 #h4 #b1 ,,white ,,hart ,,street1 ,,paternoster ,,square1 ,,london1 ,e4,c4 ,,whittaker ,,and ,,co4',s ,,new ,,publications4 ,,lives ,,of ,,the ,,electricians4 ,first ,series4 ,,professors ,,tyndall1 ,,wheatstone1 ,,and ,,morse4 ,,by ,,william ,t4 ,,jeans4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 ,the first volume of a series of ,lives of the ,electricians4 ,it will contain popular biographies of ,professors ,tyndall1 ,wheatstone1 and ,morse1 telling incidentally the story of the progress of the electric telegraph from its origin in #ahcg to the present time4 ,next year will be the jubilee of the electric telegraph in ,england4 8,,the ,,specialists' ,,series40 ,,new ,,volume1 ,,just ,,published3-- ,heat4 ,,on ,,the ,,conversion ,,of ,,heat ,,into ,,work4 ,a ,practical ,handbook on ,heat-,engines4 ,by ,,william ,,anderson1 ,m4,inst4,c4,e4 ,with #ee ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 pp4 viii-#beb1 #fs4 cloth4 ,the object of this work is to popularize the doctrine that1 in heat-engines1 the work given out is due to the conversion of the molecular motion of heat into the visible motion which it is desired to produce2 and further to illustrate1 by numerous practical examples1 the applicability of the doctrine of ,sadi ,carnot to defining the limits within which improvement in the economical working of heat-engines is possible4 ,,the ,,telephone ,,and ,,its ,,practical ,,applications4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,preece1 ,f4,r4,s41 and ,j4 ,,maier1 ,ph4,d4 ,ready shortly4 8,,the ,,specialists' ,,series40 ,a ,new ,series of ,handbooks for ,students and ,practical ,engineers4 ,crown #hvo4 cloth4 ,illustrated throughout with original and practical ,illustrations4 ,,now ,,ready4 ,electric ,lighting4 ,,arc ,,and ,,glow ,,lamps4 ,a ,practical ,handbook on ,electric ,lighting4 ,by ,,julius ,,maier1 ,ph4,d41 ,assoc4 ,soc4 ,tel4 ,eng41 etc4 ,with #gh ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 pp4 viii-#cgf1 #gs4 #f;d4 cloth4 ,just ,published4 ,the whole system of modern electric illumination is dealt with in this volume4 ,it gives a detailed description of all the principal modern generators and lamps1 together with conductors and the other appliances required in electric light installations4 ,it contains also a full account of the various ,applications of ,electric ,lighting up to recent date4 8,the author has collected all the most recent available information concerning the process of manufacture1 life1 c41 of arc and glow lamps in a very convenient and readable form4 ,indeed1 we do not know any work in which the subject is1 on the whole1 so fully handled40--,the ,engineer4 ,electric ,transmission of ,energy4 ,,electric ,,transmission ,,of ,,energy1 and its ,transformation1 ,subdivision1 and ,distribution4 ,a ,practical ,handbook by ,,gisbert ,,kapp1 ,c4,e41 ,associate ,member of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 c4 ,with #aai ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 pp4 xi-#cca1 #gs4 #f;d4 cloth4 ,it has been the aim of the author to present the scientific part of the subject in as simple a form as possible1 giving descriptions of work actually carried out4 ,he has endeavoured in this way to place before the reader an unbiassed report on the present state of electric transmission of energy4 8,this is #8a practical handbook' par excellence--a book which will be read1 studied1 and used not by electricians merely1 but by most engineers4 ,it contains a vast amount of original matter1 and it bears the signs of much patient thought assisted by practical experience4---- 8,we cannot speak too highly of this admirable book1 and we trust future editions will follow in rapid succession40--,electrical ,review4 8,a valuable work2 written with regard to facts only40--,electrician4 ,gas ,motors4 ,,gas ,,engines4 ,their ,theory and ,management4 ,by ,,william ,,macgregor4 ,with #g ,plates4 ,crown #hvo1 pp4 #bde1 #hs4 #f;d4 cloth4 ,list of ,contents4 ,introductory--,direct ,working ,engines without ,compression--,gas ,engines working with ,compression--,compression ,engines with ,compressing ,pump--,theory of the ,gas ,engine--,relative ,speed of ,combustion in ,gaseous ,explosive ,mixtures--,witz's ,theoretical ,cycles of ,gas ,engines--,some further ,theoretical ,data--,clerk's ,theory of the ,gas ,engine--,the ,gas ,engine ,indicator-,diagram--,index4 8,mr4 ,macgregor has collected a considerable amount of information on his subject of a kind which may prove valuable to many readers4 ,all who desire to be well informed in gas engines will be able to get what they want from these pages40--,engineering4 8,from the ,abb ,hautefeuille's powder machine1 invented in #afgh1 to the ,maxim ,patent of #ahhc1 is a long record of progress fully detailed in ,mr4 ,macgregor's useful and interesting book40--,saturday ,review4 8,this handbook may be safely recommended to all students who wish to acquire a thorough practical knowledge of the mechanism and theoretical principles of the gas engine40--,the ,building ,news4 ,electro ,motors4 ,,magneto- ,,and ,,dynamo-,,electric ,,machines4 ,with a ,description of ,electric ,accumulators4 ,from the ,german of ,,glaser ,,de ,,cew4 ,with #fa ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 pp4 xiii-#cja1 #fs4 cloth4 ,in successive chapters the author considers electrical units2 the historical development of magneto- and dynamo-electric generators2 machines generating alternating and direct currents2 the particular applicability of the various electric generators2 automatic switches and current regulation2 electrical storage2 the physical laws bearing on the construction of electric generators2 the construction of the several parts of electric generators2 the employment of these machines in producing the electric light2 and for various other purposes4 8,almost all the best known machines are described and illustrated1 with the discussion of certain theoretical questions40--,electrician4 8,will be welcomed by those who wish1 without studying the matter for professional purposes1 to possess a scientific knowledge of modern electrical machines40--,english ,mechanic4 8,presents in condensed form an epitome of electrical progress up to recent dates40--,scientific ,american4 ,ballooning4 ,,ballooning3 ,a ,concise ,sketch of its ,history and ,principles4 ,from the best sources1 ,continental and ,english4 ,by ,g4 ,,may4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 pp4 vi-#ig1 #bs4 #f;d4 cloth4 ,this deals1 not with the possibilities of aronautics on vague assumption1 but gives information from a practical view of what has been done1 showing the present position4 ,list of ,contents4 ,introduction--,first ,practical ,experiments--,resources and ,incidents--,the ,practical ,application of ,aronautics--,military ,applications of ,ballooning--,steering ,power--,present ,state of ,ballooning and ,recent ,proposals for ,steering ,balloons--,the ,cost4 8,mr4 ,may gives a clear idea of all the experiments and improvements in aro-navigation from its beginning1 and the various useful purposes to which it has been applied40--,contemporary ,review4 8,it confines itself to the statement of facts1 and should fulfil completely the purpose for which it was written40--,the ,graphic4 ,,just ,,published4 ,,theory ,,of ,,magnetic ,,measurements1 ,,with ,,an ,,appendix ,,on ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,least ,,squares4 ,,by ,,francis ,e4 ,,nipher1 ,a4,m41 ,professor of ,physics in ,washington ,university1 ,st4 ,louis1 and ,president of the ,st4 ,louis ,academy of ,science4 ,one ,volume4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4 ,will be ,published early in ,january4 ,one ,volume1 royal #dto1 with #ba double and #cj single ,plates4 ,,technical ,,school ,,and ,,college ,,buildings3 ,,being ,a ,,treatise ,,on ,,the ,,design ,,and ,,construction ,,of ,,applied ,,science ,,and ,,art ,,buildings1 ,,and ,,their ,,suitable ,,fittings ,,and ,,sanitation1 ,,with ,a ,,chapter ,,on ,,technical ,,education4 ,,by ,,edward ,,cookworthy ,,robins1 ,f4,s4,a41 ,fellow of the ,royal ,instit4 of ,brit4 ,architects1 ,member of the ,institute of ,surveyors1 ,member of ,council of the ,sanitary ,institute of ,great ,britain1 c4 c41 ,member of the ,executive ,committee of the ,city and ,guilds of ,london ,institute for the ,advancement of ,technical ,education4 ,,contents4 ,,chap4 ,introduction4 ,i4 ,our ,british and ,foreign ,technical ,education4 ,,ii4 ,an ,analysis of the ,second ,report of the ,royal ,commissioners on ,technical ,education4 ,,iii4 ,buildings for ,applied ,science and ,art ,instruction4 ,illustrated by ,foreign examples4 ,,iv4 ,buildings for ,applied ,science and ,art ,instruction4 ,illustrated by ,english examples4 ,v4 ,fittings necessary for ,applied ,science ,instruction4 ,,vi4 ,a ,description of the various ,drawings illustrating the ,fittings required for ,science ,buildings4 ,,vii4 ,heating and ,ventilation as required for such ,buildings1 and ,belgian mode of ,calculation4 ,,viii4 ,special examples of ,heating and ,ventilation4 ,,ix4 ,buildings for ,secondary ,education generally 7with discussion thereon74 ,x4 ,sanitary ,science in its relation to ,civil ,architecture 7with discussion thereon74 ,,london3 ,,whittaker ,,and ,,co41 #b1 ,,white ,,hart ,,street1 ,,paternoster ,,square1 ,e4,c4 ,the ,cheapest and the ,best ,office ,book1 handsomely bound in fcap4 #hvo4 ,will be ,published early in ,january4 ,,dod',s ,,peerage1 ,,baronetage1 ,,and ,,knightage ,,of ,,great ,,britain ,,and ,,ireland1 ,,for #ahhg1 ,,including ,,all ,,the ,,titled ,,classes4 ,forty-,seventh ,year4 ,this differs from all other ,peerages in--,i4 ,its low price4 ,,ii4 ,its enlarged ,contents4 ,,iii4 ,its facility of reference4 ,cloth1 gilt1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,just ,,published4 ,a ,new ,edition containing all the recent ,parliamentary changes to ,august #bjth4 ,,dod',s ,,parliamentary ,,companion4 #fjth issue4 #ahhf4 ,second ,edition4 ,neatly bound1 gilt edges1 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,surtees' ,,society',s ,,publications4 ,new ,volumes4 ,just ,published4 ,,yorkshire ,,diaries ,,and ,,autobiographies ,,in ,,the #agth and #ahth ,,centuries4 ,with ,portraits1 #hvo1 pp4 ii-#agc4 ,cloth4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,memorials ,,of ,,the ,,church ,,of ,,ss4 ,,peter ,,and ,,wilfrid1 ,,ripon4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 #hvo1 pp4 xii-#cih4 ,cloth4 #aes4 ,,just ,,published4 ,a ,cheap ,edition of ,nimrod's ,celebrated ,letters4 ,,nimrod',s ,,remarks ,,on ,,the ,,condition ,,of ,,hunters4 ,,the ,,choice ,,of ,,horses ,,and ,,their ,,management4 ,,by ,c4 ,,tongue4 ,fourth ,edition1 tastefully bound in cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,practical ,,mercantile ,,correspondence4 ,a ,,collection ,,of ,,commercial ,,letters ,,and ,,forms ,,with ,,explanatory ,,notes1 ,,indicating ,,the ,,correct ,,equivalents ,,in ,,french1 ,,german1 ,,or ,,english1 ,,and ,a ,,vocabulary ,,of ,,commercial ,,terms4 ,,edited ,,by ,l4 ,,simon1 ,,chr4 ,,vogel1 ,,ph4,d41 ,h4 ,p4 ,,skelton1 ,w4 ,c4 ,,wrankmore1 ,,leland ,,mason1 ,,and ,,others4 ,now ,ready1 crown #hvo1 cloth4 ,,english1 ,,with ,,german ,,notes4 #cs4 ,,german1 ,,with ,,english ,,notes4 #cs4 ,,english1 ,,with ,,french ,,notes4 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,french1 ,,with ,,english ,,notes4 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,technological ,,handbooks4 ,,edited ,,by ,h4 ,,trueman ,,wood1 ,b4,b4 ,secretary to the ,society of ,arts4 ,a ,series of ,technical ,manuals for the use of ,workmen and others practically interested in the ,industrial ,arts1 and specially adapted for ,candidates in the ,examinations of the ,city ,guilds ,institute4 ,illustrated and uniformly printed in small post #hvo4 #a4 ,,dyeing ,,and ,,tissue-,,printing4 ,by ,,william ,,crookes1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,v4,p4,c4,s4 #es4 #b4 ,,glass ,,manufacture4 ,,introductory ,,essay by ,h4 ,j4 ,,powell1 ,b4,a4 7,whitefriars ,glass ,works72 ,,crown ,,and ,,sheet ,,glass1 by ,,henry ,,chance1 ,m4,a4 7,chance ,bros41 ,birmingham72 ,,plate ,,glass1 by ,h4 ,g4 ,,harris1 ,assoc4 ,memb4 ,inst4 ,c4,e4 #cs4 #f;d4 #c4 ,,cotton ,,spinning3 ,its ,development1 ,principles1 and ,practice4 ,by ,r4 ,,marsden1 ,editor of the 8,textile ,manufacturer10 with an ,appendix on ,steam ,engines and ,boilers4 #fs4 #f;d4 #d4 ,,coal-,,tar ,,colours1 ,the ,chemistry of4 ,with special reference to their application to ,dyeing1 c4 ,by ,,dr4 ,r4 ,,benedik1 ,professor of ,chemistry in the ,university of ,vienna4 ,translated from the ,german by ,e4 ,,knecht1 ,ph4,d41 ,head ,master of the ,chemistry and ,dyeing ,department in the ,technical ,college1 ,bradford4 #es4 ,ready1 #b vols41 #hvo1 pp4 #gaa-igj1 cloth1 #a #gs4 ,,technological ,,dictionary ,,of ,,the ,,english ,,and ,,german ,,languages4 ,containing ,words and ,phrases employed in ,civil and ,military ,engineering1 ,shipbuilding and ,navigation1 ,railway ,construction1 ,mechanics1 ,chemistry1 ,chemical ,technology1 ,industrial ,arts1 ,agriculture1 ,commerce1 ,mining1 ,physics1 ,meteorology1 ,metallurgy1 ,mathematics1 ,astronomy1 ,mineralogy1 ,botany1 c4 ,in ,co-operation with ,p4 ,r4 ,bedson1 ,o4 ,brandes1 ,m4 ,brtt1 ,ch4 ,a4 ,burghardt1 ,th4 ,carnelly1 ,j4 ,j4 ,hummel1 ,j4 ,g4 ,lunge1 ,j4 ,lroth1 ,g4 ,schffler1 ,w4 ,h4 ,m4 ,ward1 ,w4 ,carleton ,williams4 ,,edited ,,by ,,gustavus ,,eger1 ,professor of the ,polytechnic ,school of ,darmstadt1 c4 ,vol4 ,i4--,english-,german4 ,vol4 ,,ii4--,german-,english4 8,a really valuable work1 which treats the two languages well and exhaustively1 and1 best of all1 correctly4 ,we can confidently recommend it to every one who has to work in ,english and ,german technical terms40--,engineering4 ,just published1 ,vol4 ,i41 ,english-,spanish1 in super-royal #hvo1 pp4 #hgc1 bound in half-morocco1 #a #afs4 ,,technological ,,dictionary4 ,,english-,,spanish ,,and ,,spanish-,,english4 ,containing ,terms employed in the ,applied ,sciences1 ,industrial ,arts1 ,mechanics1 ,fine ,arts1 ,metallurgy1 ,machinery1 ,commerce1 ,ship-building and ,navigation1 ,civil and ,military ,engineering1 ,agriculture1 ,railway ,construction1 ,electro-technics1 c4 ,,by ,,nestor ,,ponce ,,de ,,leon4 ,vol4 ,i4--,,english-,,spanish4 ,vol4 ,,ii4--,,spanish-,,english4 ,in ,preparation4 ,post #hvo1 cloth1 pp4 xii-#bjc1 price #es4 ,a ,,bibliography ,,of ,,electricity ,,and ,,magnetism1 #ahfj to #ahhc4 ,with ,special ,references to ,electro-,technics4 ,,compiled ,,by ,g4 ,,may4 ,with an ,index by ,o4 ,,salle1 ,ph4,d4 ,cloth1 price #bs4 #f;d4 each2 the ,two ,parts in one ,volume1 #es4 ,,part ,i4 ,,english-,,german4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,german-,,english4 ,,technological ,,dictionary ,of the ,physical1 ,mechanical1 and ,chemical ,sciences4 ,by ,f4 ,j4 ,,wershoren1 ,d4,sc4 8,it is worth having1 and by its cheapness in the reach of everybody40--,textile ,colourist4 ,,new ,,edition4 ,,foden',s ,,mechanical ,,tables ,for ,smiths and ,millwrights4 ,fourth ,edition1 ,crown #hvo1 pp4 #dg1 #as4 #f;d4 cloth4 ,,london3 ,,whittaker ,,and ,,co41 #b1 ,,white ,,hart ,,street1 ,,paternoster ,,square1 ,e4,c4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,words and phrases in italics are surrounded by underscores1 like this4 ,those in bold are surrounded by equal signs1 like this4 ,footnotes were renumbered sequentially and were moved to the end of the chapter4 ,obvious printing errors1 such as backwards1 upside down1 reversed order1 or partially printed letters and punctuation1 were corrected4 ,final stops missing at the end of sentences and abbreviations were added4 ,words may have multiple spelling variations or inconsistent hyphenation in the text4 ,these were left unchanged4 ,jargon1 dialect1 obsolete and alternative spellings were left unchanged4 ,spelling corrections3 ,keithly to ,keighley ,leipsic to ,leipsig ,alantic to ,atlantic vice-presedent to vice-president patient to patent ,presidental to ,presidential