,,insect ,,manufactures4                
,,published ,,under ,,the ,,direction   
,,of ,,the ,,committee ,,of ,,general   
,,literature ,,and    ,,education1      
,,appointed ,,by ,,the ,,society ,,for  
,,promoting ,,christian ,,knowledge4    
,,london3                               
,,printed ,,for ,,the                   
,,society ,,for ,,promoting ,,christian 
,,knowledge4                            
,,sold ,,at ,,the ,,depository1         
,,great ,,queen ,,street1 ,,lincoln',s  
,,inn ,,fields                          
,,and #d1 ,,royal ,,exchange4           
#ahdg4                                  
,,london                    ,r4 ,,clay1 
,,printer1 ,,bread ,,street ,,hill4     
,illustration3 ,,insect ,,manufactures  
,,contents4                             
,page   ,,introduction                  
#c                                      
,,chapter ,i4   ,,manufacture ,,of      
,,silk ,,by ,,caterpillars ,,of         
,,various ,,kinds                  #i   
,,chapter ,,ii4   ,,manufacture ,,of    

,,silk ,,by ,,the ,,silkworm            
#ca                                     
,,chapter ,,iii4   ,,manufacture ,,of   
,,silk ,,by ,,spiders                   
#ee                                     
,,chapter ,,iv4   ,,manufacture ,,of    
,,wax ,,by ,,the ,,hive ,,bee1 ,,the    
,,humble ,,bee1 ,,and ,,the ,,white     
,,wax ,,insect ,,of ,,china             
#gc                                     
,,chapter ,v4   ,,manufacture ,,of      
,,honey ,,by ,,the ,,hive ,,bee         
#ii                                     
,,chapter ,,vi4   ,,manufacture ,,of    
,,cochineal ,,by ,,the ,,coccus ,,cacti1
 ,,or ,,cochineal ,,insect   #aac       
,,chapter ,,vii4   ,,manufacture ,,of   
,,gum ,,lac ,,by ,,the ,,lac ,,insect   
#acc                                    
,,chapter ,,viii4   ,,manufacture ,,of  
,,nut ,,galls ,,by ,,the ,,gall ,,insect
                         #adc           
,,chapter ,,ix4   ,,other ,,insect      
,,productions ,,useful ,,to ,,man       
#aed          ,illustration             

,,introduction4      ,if we are struck  
with wonder and admiration at the       
progress of the arts  and manufactures1 
and have daily reason to congratulate   
ourselves on the  skill and ingenuity of
 our fellow-creatures1 by which our     
comforts and  conveniences are so much  
increased2 it must also occasionally    
have  crossed our minds1 that some of   
the meaner creatures1 though not gifted 
with our reasoning powers1 and therefore
 not able to profit by the  experience  
of the past1 are yet employed in their  
several departments1  and according to  
their several wants1 in exceedingly     
curious and useful  manufactures1 mostly
 designed for the shelter and           
preservation of  themselves or their    
offspring1 but serving1 not             
unfrequently1 a higher  purpose1 in     
administering to the wants of mankind4  
,in reading the history1 or in watching 
the proceedings of birds and  insects1  
how many remarkable instances do we meet
 with of that which may  be called      

manufacture1 though performed without   
hands6 ,how curious to  watch in the    
early spring the proceedings of those   
busy basket-making  birds1 the rooks6   
,rude and clumsy as their nests may at  
first appear1 it  is just the sort of   
workmanship best calculated for their   
wants4 ,they do  not1 indeed1 choose the
 smooth and flexible osier-twigs which  
we should  think necessary for          
basket-making1 but they contrive by     
means of  brittle1 dead1 forked sticks1 
to plait together a strong bristling    
out-work1 within which they interweave a
 finer basket-work of fibrous  roots1   
rude indeed1 but not inelegant or       
unsuitable4 ,then1 among birds  and     
insects too1 what persevering and       
industrious carpenters1 masons1         
tailors1 miners1 and weavers may we not 
find4 ,perhaps there are not many       
persons who have watched the mason-wasps
 boring their galleries in brick  or    
sand1 or building the round towers which
 serve them as out-works2 nor  the      

mason-bee1 as she plasters together her 
neat mud-wall cottage or  cell1 as the  
future habitation of her young2 but     
there are few persons  unacquainted with
 the masonry of the chimney swallow1 or 
of the  house-martin twittering on the  
eaves4 ,with no other tools than those  
which nature supplies1 how cleverly do  
these creatures shape and mould  their  
nests into the required form1 using for 
their work a mortar  carefully prepared 
by their own labour and skill1 and just 
of the  consistency required4 ,few1     
again1 may have had an opportunity of   
seeing  carpenter-bees boring holes in  
posts or palings1 and forming their     
smoothly chiselled cells1 or of         
inspecting the partitioned galleries dug
  out in old timber by carpenter-wasps2 
but perhaps many persons have  observed 
the colonies of emmets1 or              
carpenter-ants1 working in the  trunks  
of decaying oak or willow trees2 or they
 may have listened to  that interesting 
carpenter-bird1 the wood-pecker1 tapping

 and boring  into trees1 in pursuit of  
insects1 and for the purpose of making a
  nesting-place for its young4 ,most of 
us know only by hearsay that there  are 
tailor-birds1 common enough in ,american
 orchards1 who sew together  broad      
pieces of grass to make their nests1    
working them through and  through1 as if
 actually done with a needle2 but almost
 every one can say  from his own        
knowledge1 that there are weaver-birds1 
such as our common  hedge-sparrow and   
chaffinch1 who weave a circular piece of
 haircloth for  the interior of their   
nests1 each hair being collected and    
interwoven  singly1 and always bent so  
as to lie smoothly in the hollow of the 
nest4  ,then who shall describe all the 
wondrous proceedings of tent-making     
caterpillars1 upholsterer-bees1         
turret-building ants1 net-making        
spiders1 paper and card-making wasps1   
and spinning worms8 ,volumes have  been 
written1 and volumes might still be     
written on the history of these         

creatures4 ,any one possessing a garden1
 and taking delight therein1 has  ample 
opportunity of watching the habits of   
birds and insects1 and of  confirming1  
if not of adding to1 the accounts given 
by naturalists1 of  the commoner        
species4 ,but we must still be indebted 
to the patient  observations of those   
who have made insects or birds their    
especial  study1 for many of the most   
curious particulars1 and for all our    
knowledge of rare or foreign species4   
,interesting as is the whole subject of 
bird and insect manufactures1  there is 
one department in which we are more     
concerned than the rest2  namely1 that  
in which the product can be applied to  
our own use1 either  in the way of food 
or clothing4 ,now this department is    
supplied wholly  by insects1 no bird1   
that we are aware of1 producing by its  
own  manufacturing powers1 any substance
 that can be so employed1 unless1       
indeed1 we except the curious edible    
nests of the ,java swallow1 which  have 

been converted by the taste of oriental 
epicures into an article of  food4      
,let us then proceed to notice such of  
the insect manufactures as are  useful  
to man1 and trace1 at the same time1 the
 history and performances  of these     
small but not insignificant             
manufacturers4          ,illustration3  
,butterflies                            
,,chapter ,i4           ,,manufacture   
,,of ,,silk ,,by ,,caterpillars ,,of    
,,various ,,kinds4      ,the most       
important of all the insect manufactures
 is doubtless that of  silk-spinning4   
,it seems almost past belief that the   
magnificent velvets1  satins1 and silks 
which form so elegant a part of female  
attire1 and  which are heaped together  
in such costly profusion in the shops of
 the  metropolis1 and in those of all   
considerable towns1 whether in our own1 
or in foreign countries--that these     
splendid fabrics1 together with all     
ribbons1 gauzes1 damasks1 or other      
articles composed of silk1 should owe   

the raw material of which they are      
formed to the labours of a race of      
little creeping caterpillars1 which in  
this their early and imperfect  state   
spin for themselves cocoons1 or cases of
 silk1 where they may  quietly undergo  
their changes until they become perfect 
winged insects4    ,illustration3       
,,caterpillar ,,suspended ,,by ,,its    
,,silken ,,thread4      ,the astonishing
 task of supplying silk for the whole   
civilized world is  performed almost    
without exception by the common         
silkworm1 or  caterpillar of the        
mulberry-tree moth4 ,but it must not be 
supposed that  this is the only         
silk-producing insect4 ,on the contrary1
 all the  caterpillars of butterflies   
and moths have the power of spinning a  
certain quantity of silken thread1      
however small1 and however inferior  to 
that of the silkworm1 properly so       
called4 ,it is very common in  gardens  
to see numbers of caterpillars dangling 
by their silken threads  from the young 

branches of fruit-trees4 ,in this way   
they let themselves  down1 or break     
their fall if blown off by the wind1 or 
otherwise shaken  from their favourite  
tree4 ,and in the case of some          
caterpillars when the  insect has       
completed the term of its existence and 
becomes a chrysalis1  it suspends itself
 by silken cords to some fixed point1   
where it remains  in complete repose1   
without food1 perhaps for months before 
the perfect  winged insect bursts forth1
 as different a creature from the       
caterpillar  as the chrysalis is from   
either1--and yet these are but three    
different  states of existence of the   
same insect4    ,illustration3          
,,chrysalis ,,suspended ,,by ,,silken   
,,cords4      ,according to the         
particular species of caterpillar1 the  
silk will vary  in strength and         
fineness1 and also in colour1 but seldom
 will it be  found strong enough1 or in 
sufficient quantity to be of use to us4 
,the  insects themselves employ it in   

many ways for their own safety and      
shelter4 ,how common it is to find some 
of the leaves of a lilac-tree  made up  
into little rolls1 or folded together at
 their edges1 where they  stick so fast 
that it requires some little force to   
pull them asunder4  ,this is the work of
 a small caterpillar1 whose subsistence 
is found on  that tree4 ,a single egg   
has been laid on each leaf selected by  
the  parent moth1 and soon after it is  
hatched1 the caterpillar begins  rolling
 up the lilac leaf1 and fastening the   
edges with silk4 ,this is a  work of    
time1 but gradually proceeds as the     
caterpillar increases in  strength1     
until at last it is shut up in a gallery
 of its own making1  safe from the      
attacks of birds and larger insects4    
,the leaves of various  other trees are 
rolled in a somewhat similar manner1 as 
those of the  oak1 the willow1 and the  
rose1 and also those of humbler plants1 
as the  plantain1 nettle1 thistle1 c4   
,the mode in which these leaf-rolling   

caterpillars set to work to form        
convenient habitations of the leaves of 
the plants on which they feed1 is well  
described by ,kirby and ,spence4        
,illustration3      ,,oak ,,leaf        
,,rolled ,,by ,a ,,caterpillar4         
8,some of these merely connect together 
with a few silken threads several       
leaves1 so as to form an irregular      
packet1 in the centre of which the      
little hermit lives4 ,others confine    
themselves to a single leaf1 of  which  
they simply fold one part over the      
other4 ,a third description form  and   
inhabit a sort of roll1 by some species 
made cylindrical1 by others  conical1   
resembling the papers in which grocers  
put their sugar1 and as  accurately     
constructed2 only there is an opening   
left at the smaller  extremity for the  
egress of the insect in case of need4   
,if you were to  see one of these rolls1
 you would immediately ask by what      
mechanism it  could possibly be         
made--how an insect1 without fingers1   

could contrive to  bend a leaf into a   
roll1 and to keep it in that form until 
fastened with  the silk which holds it  
together8 ,the following is the         
operation3 the  little caterpillar first
 fixes a series of silken cables from   
one side  of the leaf to the other3 she 
next pulls at these cables with her     
feet2  and when she has forced the sides
 to approach1 she fastens them together 
with stronger threads of silk4 ,if the  
insect finds that one of the  larger    
nerves of the leaf is so strong as to   
resist her efforts1 she  weakens it by  
gnawing it here and there half through4 
,what engineer  could act more          
sagaciously8 ,to form one of the conical
 or horn-shaped  rolls1 which are not   
composed of a whole leaf1 but of a long 
triangular  portion cut out of the edge1
 some other manuvres are requisite4     
,placing  herself upon the leaf1 the    
caterpillar cuts out with her jaws the  
piece  which is to compose her roll4    
,she does not1 however1 entirely detach 

it2  it would then want a base4 ,she    
detaches that part only which is to form
  the contour of the horn4 ,this portion
 is a triangular strap1 which she  rolls
 as she cuts4 ,when the body of the horn
 is finished1 as it is  intended to be  
fixed upon the leaf in nearly an upright
 position1 it is  necessary to elevate  
it4 ,to effect this1 she proceeds as we 
should with  an inclined obelisk4 ,she  
attaches threads1 or little cables1     
towards the  point of the pyramid1 and  
raises it by the weight of her body40   
,other larv form their habitations      
wholly of silk3 one that inhabits the   
leaves of pear-trees forms a little     
tent2 another a sort of cloak2  another1
 as in the case of the silkworm1 a      
complete ball of silk4    ,illustration3
      ,,pendulous ,,nests ,,of          
,,caterpillars4      ,among leaf-rolling
 caterpillars1 one of the most curious  
is described by  ,bonnet1 in which the  
nest hangs suspended from the branch of 
a  fruit-tree by a strong silken thread4

 ,it is formed of one or two leaves     
neatly folded and fastened together with
 silk1 and in this small  enclosure     
several caterpillars live harmoniously  
together4    ,illustration3      ,,leaf 
,,cutting ,,caterpillar4      ,there is 
also a very curious and beautiful nest  
formed by a rare insect1  which has only
 yet been observed in its caterpillar   
state2 but its  proceedings therein are 
interesting and highly remarkable4 ,the 
length of  the body in this caterpillar 
varies from six to eight inches1 the    
thickness is half a line4 ,the general  
colour is bluish green1 tending to      
yellow about the head2 the feet are     
black1 and six in number4 ,at the       
extremity of the body are two points    
projecting sideways4 ,the eyes are      
visible and prominent in this           
caterpillar1 and besides the antenn     
there  are two or three pairs of palpi  
or feelers1 which perform the office of 
hands4 ,this insect inhabits the        
nut-tree1 and cuts out from its leaves a

  most ingenious case1 which serves for 
its dwelling-place4 ,this case is  of a 
singular form1 being an elongated cone1 
very narrow at the  extremity1 and      
tolerably wide at the orifice4 ,it is   
formed of a strip of  nut-leaf1 wound up
 in a spiral manner1 but so cleverly    
contrived that  the strip is very narrow
 at the extremity1 and gradually widens 
as the  work proceeds4 ,this happens    
from the gradual progress of the work1  
which  is begun in the early stage of   
the caterpillar's existence1 when it    
does  not require a large               
dwelling-place1 and becomes more and    
more extended  to suit the growth of its
 inmate4 ,when it is completed1 it is   
rather  more than an inch long1 and two 
lines in diameter at the orifice4 ,the  
outside of the case presents the upper  
surface of the leaf in which the        
indentations are preserved4 ,the        
dwelling is a spacious one for the      
caterpillar1 so that it can turn round  
in it with perfect ease4 ,the band  of  

which the cone is composed is taken from
 the edge of the leaf1 which  the       
caterpillar cuts away in proportion as  
it winds it round its own  body4 ,when  
one portion has taken the required form1
 a little more is cut  out1 but always  
in a direction parallel with the edge of
 the leaf4 ,while  the insect is thus   
gradually rolling itself up in a case1  
it also feeds  vigorously on the leaf1  
taking care1 however1 always to spare   
the band  which forms its habitation4   
,another part of the cleverness of this 
insect consists in maintaining this     
strip of leaf in its spiral form1  which
 would otherwise naturally unwind by its
 own weight1 and flutter in  the wind as
 a torn fragment4 ,here it is that silk 
is again skilfully  employed4 ,the      
caterpillar commences much as other     
leaf-rolling insects  do1 by fastening a
 thread to the edge of the leaf and     
drawing it towards  the desired point4  
,but as the work proceeds the insect    
generally has  three skeins or bands of 

silk extended from the opening of its   
case to  the leaf4 ,the first is the    
shortest and the most direct1 issuing   
from  the interior of the roll2 the     
second is fastened to the middle of the 
last spiral1 and extends to the leaf2   
the third is more extensive still1  and 
all three are admirably disposed for    
keeping the leaf bent to the  proper    
form4 ,these skeins are composed of a   
great number of threads  parallel with  
each other1 which not only serve to     
retain the leaf in its  spiral form1 but
 also serve the caterpillar as a kind of
 ladder1 by  which it mounts1 and on    
which it rests while cutting out fresh  
portions  of leaf4    ,illustration3    
,,leaf-,,nest ,,unwound4      ,it       
sometimes happens accidentally to this  
caterpillar that the case  becomes      
detached from the leaf1 or naturalists  
have purposely severed a  portion to see
 what would be the result2 but this does
 not greatly  disturb the insect1 for as
 long as a single thread of silk remains

 to  hold the pieces together1 the      
caterpillar is able to repair the evil4 
,it  will unite the fractured portion   
almost imperceptibly by means of silken 
threads1 and proceed with its case as   
before2 but if the leaf dry up and      
wither1 the insect is then compelled to 
desert it1 and to select a  younger and 
fresher leaf for its operations4        
,what is still more curious1 on the     
completion of the dwelling1 the         
caterpillar sometimes wishes to make an 
excursion to another part of the  leaf1 
and to take its house with it1 and this 
it accomplishes in the  following       
manner4 ,coming more than three parts   
out of the cone1 the  creature makes new
 skeins in advance of the old1 and      
attempts to pull  the cone forward by   
their means2 but finding that this does 
not succeed1  it bends its body back1   
and quickly severs the old threads and  
the  portion of leaf which keeps the    
case immovable4 ,it is now able to draw 
the case onwards a certain distance1    

after which it has only to repeat  the  
operation1 and make other new skeins in 
advance of these1 to  continue its      
onward journey4 ,thus it arrives at the 
opposite edge of the  leaf1 where it    
carefully adjusts its case to the under 
side1 fastening  it with great          
ingenuity1 and drawing the threads      
tighter where the cone  is not properly 
balanced4 ,in all these cases1 silk is  
the useful  material by which the       
caterpillar secures its nest1 and       
provides for its  own safety3 it is also
 a constant resource in case of danger1 
or of  accident1 as the following       
anecdote will show4 ,a caterpillar of   
the  goat-moth1 being confined in a     
smooth glass sugar-basin1 managed to    
crawl up the slippery sides and escape4 
,this excited great surprise in  the    
naturalist 7,rsel7 who had imprisoned   
the creature1 and he therefore  took    
occasion closely to watch its           
proceedings when again placed in a      
similar vessel4 ,it was with surprise   

and admiration that he now saw the      
caterpillar constructing a silken ladder
 on the side of the glass2 the  natural 
gum of the silk being sufficient to     
secure it even to that  perfectly smooth
 surface4 ,up this ladder the creature  
crawled1 and thus  easily and           
expeditiously made its escape4          
,illustration3      ,,silken ,,ladder   
,,spun ,,by ,,the ,,goat-,,moth         
,,caterpillar4      ,silkworms abound in
 our own country1 as well as in others2 
but the silk  they spin is too fragile  
and scanty to be employed for other     
purposes  than their own4 ,it is        
different with some of the caterpillars 
of ,india4  ,although the great supply  
of silk is there obtained1 as with us1  
from  the silkworm of the mulberry-tree1
 yet the caterpillars of various moths  
also furnish a considerable quantity4   
,the most important of these are  the   
,tusseh and ,arindy silkworms1 both     
natives of ,bengal4 ,the first  feeds on
 the leaves of the jujube tree and of   

the asseen1 and is found  in such       
abundance as from time immemorial to    
have afforded a constant  supply of     
coarse1 dark-coloured silk1 which is    
woven into a cheap but  very durable    
cloth4    ,illustration3      ,,the     
,,tusseh ,,silkworm4      ,when the     
caterpillars approach their full size   
they are too heavy to  crawl in search  
of their food with the back upwards1 as 
is usual with  most caterpillars1 but   
traverse the small branches suspended by
 the  feet1 as is shown in the figure4  
,illustration3      ,,cocoon ,,of ,,the 
,,tusseh ,,silkworm4      ,when the     
caterpillar is ready to spin its cocoon1
 it connects by means  of the silk1     
7which is always glutinous when newly   
spun17 two or three  new leaves into an 
outer envelope1 which serves as a basis 
to spin the  complete cocoon in1 besides
 the cocoon being suspended from a      
branch of  the tree in a wonderful      
manner1 by a thick1 strong1 consolidated
 cord1  spun of the same material by    

this persevering creature4    ,the      
cocoon is of an exact oval shape1 and   
very firm in texture3 in it  the animal 
remains dormant1 and perfectly          
protected1 for about nine  months1      
namely from ,october until ,july2 so    
that it makes its appearance  in time   
for the caterpillars to come into       
existence1 when ,providence has         
furnished them with the greatest plenty 
of proper food4 ,when the insect  is    
prepared to make its escape and be      
changed into its perfect state1 it      
discharges from its mouth a large       
quantity of liquid1 with which the      
upper end of the case is so perfectly   
softened as to enable the moth to  work 
its way out in a very short time2 an    
operation which is always  performed    
during the night4 ,in their perfect     
state these insects do not  exist many  
days3 the female deposits her eggs in   
the branches of the  tree she may be    
resting on1 to which they adhere firmly 
by means of the  gluten they are covered

 with when newly laid4    ,the eggs are 
white1 round1 and compressed1 with a    
depression in the  centre on each side4 
,they hatch in from two to four weeks1  
according to  the state of the weather4 
,the larv or caterpillars acquire their 
full  size1 which is about four inches  
in length1 and three in circumference1  
in about six weeks3 they are nearly the 
colour of the leaves they feed  on1 with
 a light yellowish stripe on each side2 
under these stripes the  middle segments
 are marked with an oblong gold-coloured
 speck4 ,the back  is also marked with a
 few round darker coloured spots1 from  
which issue  a few long1 coarse1        
distinct hairs1 while others of smaller 
size are  scattered over the insect4    
,the ,tusseh silkworm is found in such  
abundance over many parts of ,bengal    
and the adjoining provinces1 as to      
afford to the natives a large supply  of
 the durable1 coarse1 dark-coloured     
silk1 already mentioned1 commonly       
called ,tusseh silk1 which is woven into

 a kind of cloth called ,tusseh         
doot'hies1 much worn by ,brahmins and   
other sects of ,hindoos4 ,this          
substance would no doubt be highly      
useful to the inhabitants of many  parts
 of ,america and the south of ,europe1  
where a cheap1 light1 cool1  durable    
dress1 such as this silk makes1 is much 
wanted4 ,millions of  cocoons of the    
,tusseh silkworm are annually collected 
in the jungle1 and  brought to the silk 
factories near ,calcutta4 ,in other     
parts the people  gather and transplant 
them to the trees near their own        
dwellings1 that  they may watch over the
 safety of the caterpillars1 which are  
very  liable to be devoured by crows    
during the day time1 and by bats at     
night4    ,the ,arindy silkworm feeds   
only on the leaves of the ,palmi        
,christi2 it  produces so delicate and  
flossy a silk that it cannot be wound   
from the  cocoons2 it is therefore spun 
like cotton1 and the thread woven into a
  coarse kind of white cloth1 of a loose

 texture1 but so durable that a  person 
can scarcely in his lifetime wear out a 
garment made of it4    ,eleven different
 species of silkworm have been          
enumerated as natives of  ,india1 which 
has thus the internal means of providing
 the whole of  ,europe with a material  
which would rival cotton and woollen    
cloth1 and  would often be preferred to 
both1 could it be obtained at a low     
price4  ,the produce of the ,arindy     
silkworm1 when sent to this country was 
much  admired1 and some manufacturers to
 whom it was shown seemed to think  that
 they had been hitherto deceived in the 
account of the shawls of  ,india being  
made from the wool of a goat1 and that  
this silk1 if sent  home1 could be made 
into shawls equal to any manufactured in
 ,india4    ,many of the larv of the    
,european moths afford a very strong    
silk1 and  it is said1 that a           
manufacture of silk from the cocoons of 
the emperor  moth was at one time       
established in ,germany4 ,there is no   

doubt1 however1  that silk might be     
collected in abundance from many native 
silkworms in  ,america4 ,cocoons have   
been described eight inches long1 made  
of grey  silk1 which the inhabitants of 
,chilpancingo1 ,tixtala1 and other      
places  in ,south ,america1 manufacture 
into stockings and handkerchiefs4       
,humboldt  also observed similar nests  
in the provinces of ,mechoacan1 and the 
mountains of ,santa ,rosa2 they were of 
dense tissue1 resembling ,chinese       
paper1 of a brilliant whiteness1 and    
formed of distinct and separate  layers4
 ,the interior layers1 which are the    
thinnest1 and of  extraordinary         
transparency1 were used by the ancient  
,mexicans as writing  tablets4          
,illustration                           
,,chapter ,,ii4                         
,,manufacture ,,of ,,silk ,,by ,,the    
,,silkworm4      ,we now come to the    
most important of all silk-spinning     
insects1 the  common silkworm1 or       
caterpillar of the mulberry-tree moth4  

,the labours  of this insect were known 
and appreciated in other parts of the   
world  long before we had tidings of its
 existence2 so that the peasantry of    
other lands were clad in raiment which  
our kings would have been proud  to     
wear4 8,when silk was so scarce in this 
country that ,james the ,first1  while  
,king of ,scotland1 was forced to beg of
 the ,earl of ,mar the loan of  a pair  
of silk stockings to appear in before   
the ,english ambassador1  enforcing his 
request with the cogent appeal1 #8for ye
 would not1 sure1  that your king should
 appear as a scrub before strangers2'   
nay1 long  before this period1 even     
prior to the time that silk was valued  
at its  weight in gold at ,rome1 and the
 ,emperor ,aurelian refused his empress 
a  robe of silk because of its dearness1
 the ,chinese peasantry in some of  the 
provinces1 millions in number1 were     
clothed with this material2 and  for    
some thousand years to the present time1
 it has been both there and  in ,india  

7where a class whose occupation was to  
attend silkworms appears  to have       
existed from time immemorial1 being     
mentioned in the oldest  ,sanscrit      
books17 one of the chief objects of     
cultivation and  manufacture4 ,you will 
admit1 therefore1 that when nature      
----,set to work millions of spinning   
worms1           ,that in their green   
shops weave the smooth-haired silk      
,to deck her sons1    she was conferring
 upon them a benefit scarcely inferior  
to that  consequent upon the gift of    
wool to the fleecy race1 or a fibrous   
rind  to the flax or hemp plants2 and   
that mankind is not under much less     
obligation to ,pamphila1 who1 according 
to ,aristotle1 was the discoverer  of   
the art of unwinding and weaving silk1  
than to the inventors of the  spinning  
of those products40    ,illustration3   
,,eggs ,,and ,,silkworms ,,in ,,the     
,,first ,,age4      ,it is so common an 
amusement with young persons in this    
country to  procure the eggs of         

silkworms1 rear the insects1 and watch  
their changes  that numbers are         
acquainted with the growth1 habits1 and 
manner of  spinning of these interesting
 creatures4 ,perhaps a sheet of paper is
  given to a little boy or girl1 on     
which are a number of small specks1 no  
bigger than pins' heads3 these specks1  
the child is told1 are silkworms'  eggs1
 and if he keeps them dry during winter1
 and then places them in a  sunny window
 in spring1 he will get a number of     
caterpillars from them4  ,taking care to
 do this1 the child is delighted some   
fine morning to see  a few little dark  
coloured worms crawling about the paper1
 while others  are just issuing from the
 eggs4 ,perhaps a difficulty now arises 
about  their food4 ,in warm countries   
the leaves of the mulberry-tree are     
ready  for the insects as soon as they  
are hatched2 but in ,england1 unless the
  eggs are purposely kept back1 by      
putting them in a cold place1 the       
caterpillars come out before the        

mulberry-tree has put forth its leaves4 
,a few tender leaves of the lettuce are 
therefore spread lightly over the  young
 caterpillars1 and upon these they      
mount1 and at last begin to  feed1 after
 searching in vain for their natural    
food4 ,but the worms do  not thrive on  
this diet1 and it is much better so to  
manage the eggs  that they may be       
hatched when the young leaves of the    
mulberry are just  opening4 ,these form 
the best possible food in that tender   
state1 and in  order to economise it1   
the leaves should be cut in small       
pieces2 because  the caterpillars feed  
only on the edges1 and thus great part  
of a leaf1  when given to them whole1 is
 entirely wasted4    ,illustration3     
,,the ,,white ,,mulberry4      7,morus  
alba47      ,in ,italy1 where great     
attention is paid to the cultivation of 
the  silkworm1 the eggs are hatched in a
 room heated by a stove1 and the  young 
caterpillars are then removed on their  
mulberry-leaves to a cooler  apartment  

called the nursery1 where they are      
managed with great care and  skill4     
,wicker shelves are arranged in the room
 at convenient distances1  and are lined
 with paper1 on which the worms are     
placed4 ,care is taken  to place        
together only such worms as are hatched 
at the same time1 for  without this     
precaution the treatment1 with respect  
to food1 could not  be regulated1 and   
the moultings would not take place at   
the same time4  ,great care is also     
taken to secure the worms from rats and 
mice1 as well  as from certain insect   
enemies4    ,silkworms are so little    
disposed to wander away from their food 
that  open trays are sufficient to      
secure them3 but unless great           
cleanliness  is observed in their       
management1 and frequent change of food 
given1 a  sickly smell is observed1 and 
the caterpillars languish and die in    
great  numbers4 ,supposing the young    
brood goes on well1 and is properly     
attended by the child whom we have      

supposed to undertake the charge1  there
 will be about five or six days'        
feeding1 and then the worms will  begin 
to sicken for their first moult1 or     
casting the skin4 ,silkworms  have four 
of these moults1 at each of which they  
appear to suffer pain  or inconvenience2
 they also entirely leave off eating for
 two or three  days4 ,the caterpillars  
at that time raise the fore part of     
their bodies1  and show tokens of       
uneasiness4 ,they have grown rapidly1   
and their skins1  not having grown in   
proportion1 now appear to press and     
inconvenience  them2 but after two or   
three days fasting1 they become thinner 
and are  able gradually to rid          
themselves of their skin4 ,it is now    
that their  owner may see the use they  
begin to make of their silk4 ,by        
watching them  closely he sees each     
caterpillar throw out a number of very  
fine silken  lines1 by which it fastens 
the skin to one spot4 ,having done this1
 it is  able to creep out1 without      

dragging the skin about after it1 as    
would  otherwise be the case4 ,in this  
operation the whole covering of the     
body1  including that of the feet1 of   
the jaws and teeth1 is cast off2 but it 
sometimes happens that the animal cannot
 entirely cast its skin1 a  portion of  
it breaking and remaining attached to   
the extremity of the  body4 ,as the     
animal increases rapidly in size1 this  
portion of the old  skin compresses its 
body tightly1 causing inflammation and  
much  suffering1 which usually ends in  
death4    ,worms that have newly moulted
 are readily distinguished by their pale
  colour1 and the wrinkled appearance of
 the new skin4 ,soon after moulting     
they recover health and vigour1 and feed
 with increased appetite4 ,to  keep them
 in health they must be fed with great  
regularity1 and not  crowded together in
 their trays4 ,in the course of five    
days the rapid  growth of the insect    
causes the wrinkles to disappear from   
the skin2 it  is now half an inch in    

length2 a second sickness1 and a second 
moulting1  prepare it for increase of   
growth2 it casts its skin as before1 and
  feeds without intermission during     
another five days1 during which time  it
 attains a length of three quarters of  
an inch4 ,it then falls sick and  moults
 a third time4 ,it again feeds during   
five days1 after which it  casts its    
skin for the fourth and last time in the
 caterpillar state4    ,illustration3   
,,progressive ,,growth ,,of ,,the       
,,silkworm4      ,it is now about one   
and a half or two inches in length1 and 
devours its  food most voraciously1     
increasing rapidly in size during ten   
days4 ,when  the worms are fed a slight 
hissing noise is heard similar to that  
of  green wood burning4 ,according to   
some writers this noise proceeds from   
the action of the jaws1 but others      
attribute it solely to the action of    
the feet1 which are continually moving  
until the worms have fastened to  their 
food1 when the noise ceases4 ,in a large

 nursery of silkworms this  noise sounds
 like a soft shower of rain4            
,illustration3      ,,silkworm ,,on     
,,mulberry-,,leaf4      ,when the       
caterpillar has attained its full       
growth1 it is a very  different creature
 from the little black worm which first 
issued from  the egg1 being from two and
 a half to three inches in length1 and  
its  body consisting of twelve          
membranous rings1 which contract and    
elongate  as the animal moves4 ,it is   
furnished with sixteen legs1 in pairs3  
three  pairs in front1 under the first  
three rings1 are covered with a shelly  
or scaly substance2 the other five      
pairs1 called holders1 are furnished    
with little hooks1 which assist the     
insect in climbing4 ,the head is        
covered with a scaly substance similar  
to the covering of the fore legs4  ,the 
mandibles are of great strength1 and    
indented like the teeth of a  saw4      
,beneath the jaw are two small openings1
 through which the insect  draws its    

silken lines4 ,the substance of which   
the silk is composed is a  fine yellow  
transparent gum1 secreted in two slender
 vessels1 8which are  wound1 as it were1
 on two spindles in the stomach2 if     
unfolded1 these  vessels would be about 
ten inches in length40 ,the insect      
breathes by  means of eighteen holes or 
spiracles1 distributed along the body1  
nine  on each side4 ,on each side of the
 head1 near the mouth1 are seven small  
eyes2 the two specks higher up on the   
head1 which are generally mistaken  for 
eyes1 are only parts of the skull4      
,illustration3      ,,full ,,grown      
,,silkworm4      ,when the silkworm is  
ready to spin1 it gets upon the leaves  
without  eating them1 rears its head as 
if in search of something1 or crawls to 
the edges of the tray and moves slowly  
along2 its rings draw in1 and its       
greenish colour changes to a deep golden
 hue2 its skin becomes wrinkled  about  
the neck1 and its body feels like soft  
dough1 and on taking it in  the hand1   

and looking through it1 the whole body  
has assumed the  transparency of a ripe 
yellow plum4 ,when this is observed1 the
 owner of  the insects puts each singly 
into a little cone of white paper1 which
 he  pins to the wall or elsewhere1 so  
that the creature may be undisturbed  at
 its work4 ,but in the nurseries abroad 
little bushes are set up on the  wicker 
shelves1 and the insects mount them and 
form their cocoons among  the twigs4    
,supposing the worm to be left to itself
 on the tray1 without either of  these  
precautions1 it at last selects some    
corner or hollow place which  will      
conveniently hold the cocoon it is about
 to spin1 and begins by  throwing out a 
number of irregular threads1 which are  
intended to  support its nest4 ,upon    
these it forms1 during the first day1 a 
loose  structure of floss silk of an    
oval shape1 within which1 during the    
next  three days1 it winds the firm1    
hard1 yellow ball1 remaining1 of course1
  all the time within it4 ,in this      

operation the insect does not greatly   
change the position of the hinder part  
of its body1 but continues  drawing its 
thread from various points and attaching
 it to others1 so  that after a time the
 body becomes to a great extent enclosed
 by the  thread4 8,the work is then     
continued from one thread to another1   
the  silkworm moving its head and       
spinning in a zigzag way1 bending the   
fore  part of the body back to spin in  
all directions within reach1 and        
shifting the body only to cover with    
silk the part which was beneath it4  ,as
 the silkworm spins its web by thus     
bending the fore part of the body  back1
 and moves the hinder part of the body  
in such a way only as to  enable it to  
reach the farther back with the fore    
part1 it follows that  it encloses      
itself in a cocoon much shorter than its
 own body1 for soon  after the beginning
 the whole is continued with the body in
 a bent  position4 ,from the foregoing  
account it appears that with the most   

simple instinctive principles all the   
ends necessary are gained4 ,if the      
silkworm shifted its position much at   
the beginning of the work1 it  could    
never enclose itself in a cocoon2 but by
 its mode of proceeding1  as above      
explained1 it encloses itself in a      
cocoon which only consumes  as much silk
 as is necessary to hold the chrysalis40
    ,illustration3      ,,the ,,cocoon4 
7,a portion of the floss silk has been  
removed47      ,the use of the cocoon1  
in the natural state of the insect1 is  
to afford  a warm nest1 where1 secure   
from the inclemencies of the season1 and
 the  attacks of enemies1 it may undergo
 its final changes4 ,the cocoon is made 
water-tight by an internal lining of    
gum1 and the silken thread of which  the
 ball is made is also smeared with a    
similar gum1 which hardens in  the air4 
,illustration3      ,,the ,,chrysalis4  
,illustration3      ,,girl ,,winding    
,,silk4      ,while the worm is spinning
 its cocoon it takes no food1 and as it 

is  continually emitting silk1 its body 
gradually diminishes to less than  half 
its original length4 ,when its labour is
 completed it rests awhile1  and then   
once more throws off its skin2 but it is
 no longer a  caterpillar2 its form is  
changed into a chrysalis1 or aurelia1   
with a  smooth brown skin1 and pointed  
at one end4 ,a few days after the insect
  has finished spinning1 the cocoons    
will be ready to be unwound4 ,our       
amateur silkworm cultivator then takes  
the cocoons out of the paper  cones and 
separates the outer floss silk4 ,he then
 throws several cocoons  into a glass of
 water slightly warm1 to make them more 
easy to unwind1  and having found the   
ends1 proceeds to wind the silk on a    
reel1 or he  gives the task to a        
sister's gentler hands1 while he        
prepares a little  box of bran1 in      
readiness to put the poor exposed       
chrysalis the moment  it is released    
from the cocoon4 ,as the winding        
proceeds1 the cocoons  become thinner   

and thinner until the insects within are
 visible4 ,the  chrysalis1 though       
covered with a horny skin1 and          
apparently without much  sensation1     
shows very plainly that it is sensible  
of the rough treatment  it is receiving1
 as the cocoon is tossed about in the   
water by the  motion of the reel4 ,it   
rapidly moves the rings of its tail1    
which is  doubtless a sign of uneasiness
 or pain4 ,when nearly all the silk is  
wound off1 there still remains a        
transparent film like silver paper1     
which is torn open to let out the       
chrysalis4 ,the latter is immediately   
buried in bran1 where it remains very   
quietly for a week or two1 then  changes
 into a cream coloured moth1 lays its   
eggs1 and dies4 ,this is the  common    
domestic treatment when silkworms are   
kept for amusement1 but in  a commercial
 establishment such as those of ,italy1 
they are very  differently treated4     
,illustration3      ,,female ,,silkworm 
,,moth ,,and ,,eggs4      ,the cocoons  

are collected in large quantities1      
separated and sorted  according to their
 quality1 about one-sixtieth part being 
saved for the  production of eggs1 after
 which the life of the chrysalis is     
destroyed  in all the rest4 ,this is    
done in hot countries by exposure to the
 sun2  but in more temperate climes by  
artificial heat1 such as that of an oven
  after the bread has been withdrawn4   
,before the cocoons can be reeled  they 
must be separated from the floss1 which 
is done by opening the  floss covering  
at one end and pushing out the cocoon4  
,care is taken in  reeling to use       
cocoons of one quality1 as different    
qualities require a  different          
treatment4    ,the natural gum of the   
cocoons is first softened in warm water1
 kept at  the proper temperature1 either
 by a charcoal fire or by a steam pipe4 
,after remaining in this for a few      
minutes1 the reeler 7generally a  woman7
 gently stirs up or brushes the cocoons 
with a short birch rod1  and to this the

 loose threads of the cocoons adhere1   
and are thus drawn  out of the water3   
they are then taken commonly four or    
five together1  twisted with the fingers
 into one thread1 and passed through a  
metal  loop1 to get rid of dirt and     
impurities3 the thread then passes on to
  the reel1 which is so constructed as  
to have a slight lateral motion1 so     
that the thread of one revolution does  
not overlay the other2 for if it  did   
so1 the threads would be glued together 
before the gum had had time  to harden  
by exposure to the air4 ,the threads of 
the four or five  cocoons are thus      
united into one strong and smooth       
thread4 ,sometimes as  many as thirty   
cocoons are united into one thread1 and 
it is difficult  to wind more4 ,as often
 as a thread of any single cocoon breaks
 or comes  to an end1 the attendant     
supplies its place by a new one1 so that
 by  continually keeping up the same    
number the united thread may be wound to
  any length3 these joinings are not    

made by a knot1 but the new end is      
simply laid on the compound thread1 to  
which it adheres by its gum2 and  as the
 threads are finer near their           
termination than at the  commencement1  
it is necessary for the reeler to add   
other cocoons before  the first set is  
quite exhausted2 so that the compound   
thread may be of  uniform thickness4    
,the filaments of three fresh cocoons1  
added to two  half-wound ones1 make a   
thread about equal to that from four    
fresh  cocoons4 ,the cocoons are not    
entirely wound off1 but the husk        
containing  the chrysalis is used       
together with the floss silk under the  
name of  waste4 ,improved methods of    
reeling have been introduced on the     
continent1 but they are similar in      
principle to the above4    ,eleven or   
twelve pounds of cocoons yield about one
 pound of reeled silk2  and as from #bdj
 to #bej cocoons weigh a pound1 the     
number of cocoons  required to produce a
 pound of silk may be estimated at      

#b1hag4 ,the  length of filament yielded
 by a single cocoon is #cjj yards1 but  
some  have yielded as much as #fbe      
yards4    ,the reeled silk is made up   
into hanks for sale or use4 ,the form   
and  contents1 as well as quality1 of   
these hanks1 differ greatly1 as will be 
seen by the following wood-cuts4        
,illustration3      ,,hanks ,,from      
,,italy4      ,illustration3      ,,book
 ,,of ,,silk ,,from ,,china4            
,illustration3      ,,slip ,,from       
,,bengal4      ,we may aptly conclude   
our account of this most industrious    
silk-manufacturer in the words of the   
,rev4 ,samuel ,pullein1 ,m4,a41 who1 so 
long ago as #ageh1 wrote an ,essay on   
the ,culture of ,silk1 in which the     
following passage occurs3--    8,there  
is scarce anything among the various    
wonders which the animal  creation      
affords more admirable than the variety 
of changes which the  silkworm          
undergoes2 but the curious texture of   
that silken covering with  which it     

surrounds itself when it becomes a moth1
 and arrives at the  perfection of its  
animal life1 vastly surpasses what is   
made by other  animals of this class4   
,all the caterpillar kind do indeed     
undergo  changes like those of the      
silkworm1 and the beauty of many of them
 in  their butterfly state greatly      
exceeds it2 but the covering which they 
put on before this change into a fly is 
poor and mean1 when compared to  that   
golden tissue in which the silkworm     
wraps itself4 ,they indeed come  forth  
in variety of colours1 their wings      
bedropped with gold and  scarlet1 yet   
are they but the beings of a summer's   
day2 both their life  and beauty quickly
 vanish1 and they leave no remembrance  
after them2 but  the silkworm leaves    
behind it such beautiful1 such          
beneficial monuments1  as at once record
 both the wisdom of their ,creator1 and 
,his bounty to  man40    ,on the        
importance of the silk itself1 ,kirby   
and ,spence have the  following         

remarks3--    8,to estimate justly the  
importance of this article1 it is not   
sufficient  to view it as an appendage  
of luxury unrivalled for richness1      
lustre1  and beauty1 and without which  
courts would lose half their splendour2 
we  must consider it what it actually   
is1 as the staple article of            
cultivation in many large provinces in  
the south of ,europe1 amongst the       
inhabitants of which the prospect of a  
deficient crop causes as great  alarm as
 a scanty harvest of grain with us2 and1
 after giving employment  to tens of    
thousands in its first production and   
transportation1 as  furnishing          
subsistence to hundreds of thousands    
more in its final  manufacture1 and thus
 becoming one of the most important     
wheels that  give circulation to        
national wealth40                       
,illustration3 ,,the ,,geometric        
,,spider                                
,,chapter ,,iii4                        
,,manufacture ,,of ,,silk ,,by          

,,spiders4      ,our history of the silk
 manufacture among insects would be     
incomplete  without a notice of the     
labours of spiders4 ,not only do these  
insects  produce filmy webs to entrap   
their prey1 but they also spin1 for the 
protection of their eggs1 a bag not much
 unlike the cocoon of the  silkworm4 ,at
 the beginning of the last century a    
method was discovered  of procuring silk
 from these spiders' bags1 and of making
 it into  several useful articles4 ,the 
experiments took place in ,france1 and  
it  was there discovered that two       
species of spider in particular produced
  strong and beautiful silk1 capable of 
being usefully employed4 ,the  structure
 of these insects was closely examined  
by the celebrated  naturalist ,raumur1  
and he found that the silk is spun from 
five  papill1 or small nipples1 placed  
in the hinder part of the body2 these   
serve the purpose of so many            
wire-drawing irons1 to mould a gummy    
liquor1 which dries as it is drawn out  

and exposed to the air4                 
,illustration3      ,,spinning          
,,apparatus ,,of ,,the ,,spider4        
7,greatly magnified47      ,on pressing 
the body of a spider1 the liquor flows  
into these nipples1  by applying the    
finger against which1 distinct threads  
may be drawn out  through the numerous  
openings2 and1 what is very astonishing1
 every  separate thread is made up of   
innumerable smaller threads1 so that    
,raumur thought himself far within the  
limits of the truth when he  stated that
 each of the five nipples supplied one  
thousand separate  fibres1 in which case
 the slender filament of the spider's   
nest must be  made up of five thousand  
fibres4 ,by applying the whole1 or a    
part1 of  this apparatus to her work1   
the spider can make the thread stout or 
fine  at pleasure3 thus the webs for    
entrapping flies are very slight and    
fragile2 but the nest for securing the  
eggs is much stronger1 to afford  them  
shelter from the cold4 ,the threads are 

wound loosely round the eggs  in a shape
 similar to that of the silkworm's      
cocoon4 ,the colour of the  silk is     
generally grey1 becoming blackish on    
exposure to the air3  sometimes it is   
pale yellow1 and also of very fine      
quality2 but this is  the production of 
comparatively rare species1 which could 
not be  depended on for the purposes of 
manufacture4 ,a spider's nest preserved 
by the writer during the last winter was
 of a beautiful yellow1 almost          
approaching that of the cocoon of the   
silkworm4 ,as spring approached it      
increased in bulk and became rather     
paler1 until at last a dark  appearance 
in the centre betokened the bursting of 
the eggs4 ,at the  present time 7,april 
#ajth7 ninety-six small yellow-bodied   
spiders have  come forth1 and are       
actively engaged in weaving their       
delicate webs  across the glass which   
contains them4 ,a muslin cover admits   
air to the  interior1 and these minute  
insects appear perfectly healthy        

although  deprived of their natural     
food4 ,some sugar was placed in the     
glass1 but  they do not appear to have  
consumed any of it1 although some of    
them  have been hatched for more than a 
fortnight4 ,from the appearance of the  
nest1 more of these spiders yet remain  
to be hatched4    ,in the ,french       
experiments1 spiders' nests in large    
quantities were  collected from the     
trunks of trees1 corners of windows and 
vaults1 and  eaves of houses at the time
 above mentioned1 and from these a new  
kind  of silk was obtained by ,m4 ,bon1 
who declared it to be in no respect     
inferior to that of the silkworm4 ,it   
was afterwards proved that he was       
greatly mistaken in this respect2 yet   
the spiders' silk readily took all      
kinds of dyes1 and was actually wrought 
into stockings and gloves1  specimens of
 which were presented by ,m4 ,bon to the
 ,royal ,academy of  ,paris1 and also to
 the ,royal ,society of ,london4 ,his   
method of preparing  the silk was as    

follows3--    ,twelve or thirteen ounces
 of the bags were beaten with the hand1 
or by a  stick1 until they were entirely
 free from dust4 ,they were then washed 
in  warm water1 which was frequently    
changed1 until it was no longer         
discoloured by the bags4 ,they were next
 steeped in a large quantity of  water1 
wherein soap1 saltpetre1 and gum-arabic 
had been dissolved4 ,the  whole was then
 set to boil over a gentle fire for     
three hours4 ,lastly1  the bags were    
rinsed in clear warm water1 and set out 
to dry4 ,they were  then fit for the    
operation of carding1 which was         
performed with very  fine cards1 and    
thus silk of a peculiar ash colour was  
obtained1 which  was spun without       
difficulty4    ,illustration3           
,,spider',s ,,nest ,,attached ,,to ,a   
,,flat ,,surface4      ,illustration3   
,,spider',s ,,nest ,,laid ,,open4       
,the great obstacle which prevented the 
establishment of any considerable       
manufacture from these spiders' bags1   

was the difficulty of obtaining  them in
 sufficient abundance2 but ,m4 ,bon1 who
 was enthusiastic  respecting the value 
of his discovery1 fancied that he could 
easily  overcome this obstacle1 and at  
first his efforts appeared remarkably   
successful4 ,he formed a large spider   
establishment1 which1 for a time1  was  
very prosperous4 ,having ordered all the
 short-legged spiders 7which  are the   
most industrious spinners7 to be        
collected for him by persons  employed  
for the purpose1 he enclosed them in    
paper boxes1 with  pin-holes pricked in 
them to admit the air to the prisoners4 
,the insects  were regularly fed with   
flies1 and prospered well on their diet4
 ,in due  time most of them laid their  
eggs1 and spun their silken bags4 ,m4   
,bon  affirmed that each female produced
 from six to seven hundred eggs1        
whereas the silkworm moth lays only     
about one hundred4 ,he also stated1     
that out of seven hundred or eight      
hundred young spiders which he kept1    

scarcely one died in a year2 while of   
one hundred silkworms1 not forty  lived 
to form their cocoons4    ,these        
favourable statements led the ,royal    
,academy of ,paris to take the  subject 
into consideration1 and ,raumur was     
appointed to inquire into  the merits of
 the new scheme4 ,this careful inquirer 
found many serious  obstacles in the way
 of such establishments4 ,the fierceness
 of spiders1  and their propensity to   
destroy each other1 were noticed as     
unfitting  them to be bred and reared   
together4 ,on distributing about five   
thousand  spiders in cells1 in companies
 of about fifty or a hundred1 it was    
found  that the larger spiders quickly  
killed and ate the smaller1 until there 
were only one or two occupiers of each  
cell4 ,the silk of the spider was  also 
found inferior in lustre and strength to
 that of the silkworm1 and  had the     
disadvantage of being incapable of      
winding off the ball1 but  must         
necessarily be carded4    ,illustration3

      ,,garden ,,spider--7,natural      
,size47      ,indeed1 it could require  
no very great consideration to decide1  
that  spiders' silk1 when compared with 
that of the silkworm1 was vastly        
inferior for manufacturing purposes1    
though employed in many useful and      
highly ingenious ways by the insect     
itself4 ,a few of these we must not     
omit to notice4 ,every one must have    
seen the common garden spider  7,epeira 
diadema7 suspended by its silken rope1  
or forming its  beautiful web2 but every
 one is not aware that that silken rope 
is made  up of a multiplicity of        
threads1 and that when the spider       
attaches the  rope to any object by     
pressing her spinneret against it1 she  
spreads out  these threads over an area 
of some diameter1 thus securing a much  
greater degree of strength than could be
 gained by merely fixing her  thread to 
one point4 ,this contrivance may be seen
 best when the threads  are attached to 
a black object4 ,under the microscope   

they appear thus3--    ,illustration3   
,,spider',s ,,method ,,of ,,attaching   
,,her ,,thread4      ,the uses of silk  
in the webs and nests of common spiders 
are too obvious  to be dwelt on1 but    
there is a most clever and surprising   
adaptation of  the same material by     
several foreign species of spider which 
must be  briefly stated4 ,in the ,ionian
 islands1 and also in the ,west ,indies1
  there are found certain spiders1      
commonly known as trap-door spiders1    
which make a cylindrical nest in the    
earth1 and cover the entrance with  a   
door of their own construction1 framed  
of alternate layers of silk and  earth1 
and fastened to the opening by a hinge  
of stout silk4 ,these  spiders also line
 their nests throughout with numerous   
layers of silken  web to the thickness  
of stout cartridge paper1 and finish it 
with the  greatest care4 ,this beautiful
 lining is yet further strengthened in  
particular parts1 where the nest is     
likely to be exposed to danger4 ,but    

the greatest amount of skill and care is
 bestowed upon the trap-door and  its   
silken hinge4 ,this door is about the   
eighth of an inch thick1 rough  on the  
outside1 not much unlike an oyster      
shell1 which it also resembles  in being
 thick and strong near the hinge1 but   
thinner towards the  circumference4 ,the
 breadth of this hinge is various1 but  
sometimes it is  very considerable1 as  
shown in the accompanying figure4 ,it   
also  possesses great elastic force1 so 
that on being opened1 it closes again   
of itself4 ,this is principally         
accomplished by a fold or doubling of   
the  web1 at each end of the hinge1     
which permits the door to be opened     
nearly to a right angle with the        
aperture1 but no farther1 unless        
violence be used4 ,the under side of the
 door is perfectly smooth and  firm1    
being shaped so as to fit accurately1   
and yet to offer no  resistance when    
pushed open by the insect4              
,illustration3      ,,trap-,,door       

,,spider4      ,illustration3           
,,nest ,,of ,,trap-,,door ,,spider4     
,illustration3      ,,trap-,,door       
,,opening ,,by ,a ,,lever4      ,as     
might be expected1 there are varieties  
in the shape and size of these  nests4  
,some specimens found in the island of  
,zante had the silken layers  of the lid
 extended into a sort of handle or lever
 just above the hinge1  on pressing     
which in ever so slight a degree the    
trap-door opened4 ,from  this it would  
appear that the entrance to such a nest 
could be effected  as easily by the     
enemies of the spider as by the spider  
itself3 this1  however1 is not the case2
 for repeated observation has shown that
 the  spider keeps guard at the         
entrance1 and actually holds the door   
with her  fore feet and palpi1 while the
 hinder feet are extended down the side 
of  the nest1 and the mandibles are     
thrust into the opposite side near the  
door4 ,by this means the insect gets    
such power as to resist with            

considerable force the opening of the   
door4 ,if it be asked how this is       
known1 we are able to refer to the      
experiments of careful observers1 who   
extracted a number of nests from the    
ground1 and opening them at the  lower  
end1 looked up1 and saw the spider so   
occupied4 ,a sectional view  of the nest
 will show that the curved form of the  
cover1 and the shape  of the side walls1
 must favour this method of keeping the 
door shut4 ,in  some cases1 small       
hollows were formed round the interior  
edge of the  lid1 into which the spider 
thrust its feet when keeping guard4 ,it 
is a  curious fact1 that when several of
 these spiders enclosed in their nests  
were kept as a matter of curiosity in a 
box of earth1 and the doors  frequently 
opened to examine their proceedings1 one
 or two of them1 as  if wearied at these
 repeated interruptions1 effectually    
closed their  doors by weaving a piece  
of silken tapestry1 which was spread    
over the  interior of the opening1 and  

rounded like the inside of a thimble4   
,this  was so strongly attached to the  
door and to the side walls1 that no     
opening could be made without destroying
 the nest4    ,illustration3            
,,section ,,of ,,nest4      ,it was long
 a matter of surprise to the observer to
 find1 that in the  case of some nests1 
and not of others1 there was a trap-door
 at the  bottom as well as at the top of
 the nest3 this was at last explained by
  the following fact4 ,a spider's nest1 
which was accidentally broken off  in   
being extracted from the ground1 was    
purposely restored to the earth  in a   
reversed position1 with the trap-door   
downwards1 and the broken and  exposed  
part level with the surface4 ,the spider
 immediately set to work  to make a new 
door over the broken part1 and finished 
it with as much  completeness as the    
other4 ,doubtless1 then1 those nests    
which were  provided with two doors were
 such as had been upset and broken4     
,this is  the more likely because in    

,zante1 where such nests were found1 the
 earth  is annually dug up round the    
roots of the olive tree1 a favourite    
nesting place of these trap-door        
spiders4    ,illustration3      ,,nest  
,,with ,,two ,,openings4      ,we must  
not omit to mention1 that in some parts 
of ,south ,america1  especially in      
,paraguay1 there is a spider which forms
 a spherical cocoon  for its eggs1 an   
inch in diameter1 of a yellow silk1     
which the  inhabitants spin on account  
of the permanency of the colour4 ,it    
must  also be observed that the silk of 
spiders is useful to the astronomer1    
who employs the strongest thread 7the   
one1 namely1 which supports the  web7   
for the divisions of the micrometer4 ,by
 its ductility1 this thread  acquires   
about a fifth of its ordinary length4   
,illustration3      ,,white ,,wax       
,,insect ,,of ,,china4                  
,,chapter ,,iv4   ,,manufacture ,,of    
,,wax ,,by ,,the ,,hive ,,bee1 ,,the    
,,humble ,,bee1 ,,and ,,the ,,white     

,,wax                                   
,,insect ,,of ,,china4                  
,illustration3      ,,grub ,,in ,,cell4 
,illustration3 ,chrysalis    ,the most  
notable insect manufacturer1 after the  
silkworm1 is the common  hive bee1 which
 is able to produce three distinct      
substances1 honey1  wax1 and silk2 the  
first two only being useful to mankind4 
,persons who  have never seen bees in   
any other than their perfect state1 and 
are  unacquainted with the internal     
economy of the hive1 will learn with    
surprise that the first appearance of   
this insect is that of a small  straight
 worm1 which rapidly increases in size  
until it touches the  sides of the cell 
which forms its dwelling-place4 ,it then
 coils itself  up1 until the extremities
 meet and form a complete ring4 ,when it
 ceases  eating1 the nurse-bees seal up 
the cell1 leaving the caterpillar to    
spin  its cocoon in safety4 ,the silken 
film in which the insect now begins to  
wrap itself1 proceeds from a spinner1   

situated in the middle part of the      
under lip1 and is composed of two       
threads1 gummed together as they issue  
from the two orifices of the spinner4   
,the caterpillar is employed during     
thirty-six hours in making its cocoon2  
three days after which it becomes  a    
chrysalis4 ,over this chrysalis1 or     
rather over the cell in which it is     
contained1 the nurse-bees brood until   
the warmth of their bodies  penetrates1 
and assists in producing the last change
 of the insect  within4 ,the cocoon1 by 
degrees1 becomes attached to the        
interior of the  cell like a lining1 and
 the bee1 having its parts gradually    
unfolded1  begins at length to cut its  
way through the cover of the cell4 ,it  
is now  a perfect bee1 and capable at   
once of taking its part in the labours  
of  the hive4 ,these labours chiefly    
relate to food1 shelter1 and care of the
  young4 ,in the article of food1 the   
bee is a most industrious collector  of 
the sweet juices of flowers1 which are  

converted into the luscious  honey with 
which she stores her hive4 ,she also    
collects pollen1 as an  ingredient in   
the food of the young1 and a gummy      
substance called  propolis1 which oozes 
from the poplar1 birch1 and willow1 and 
which she  uses as a sort of varnish and
 cement to the projecting parts of the  
hive4    ,illustration3      ,,bees     
,,gathering ,,honey4      ,illustration3
      ,,head ,,of ,,bee4                
7,magnified47      ,for the purpose of  
collecting1 carrying home1 and          
manufacturing these  several products1  
the working bee is provided with a      
complete and  beautiful apparatus1      
consisting of a proboscis 7almost as    
wonderful in  its way as that of the    
elephant71 by which she ascertains the  
nature of  food1 and imbibes such as is 
adapted to her wants2 a honey bag1 or   
second stomach1 which is a small        
transparent globe about the size of a   
pea1 where she deposits her nectar2 a   
pair of baskets1 one in each  hind leg1 

in which she stores the pollen of       
flowers1 and the propolis or  gum of    
trees2 and lastly1 in the case of the   
wax-makers1 four pairs of  wax pockets1 
or membranous bags1 contained in the    
abdomen1 where by  some unknown process 
wax is secreted from the food taken into
 the  stomach4 ,what an astonishing     
provision for the requirements of a     
single  insect6    ,illustration3       
,,hind ,,leg ,,of ,,worker4      a1 the 
haunch2 b1 the thigh2 c1 the tibia1 or  
pallet1 containing      the basket or   
cavity2 d1 e1 the foot4                 
,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,wax4    ,the 
honey-comb of a bee is a beautiful and  
highly curious object1 and is  composed 
of wax1 a substance which man1 with all 
his skill1 is unable to  fabricate4     
,whether the hive be natural or         
artificial1 the plan of its             
construction is much the same4 ,a number
 of honey-combs1 chiefly composed  of   
six-sided cells1 regularly applied to   
each other's sides1 and  arranged in two

 layers1 are fixed to the upper part and
 sides of the  interior of the hive4    
,these combs are arranged at a small    
distance from  each other1 and the cells
 have their openings into the spaces    
between  them1 which are wide enough to 
allow two bees to pass each other       
easily4  ,besides these vacancies the   
combs are here and there pierced with   
holes1  which serve as a means of       
communication from one comb to another1 
without losing time by going round4     
,illustration3      ,,interior ,,of     
,,the ,,hive4      ,the cells being     
formed of wax1 a substance secreted by  
the bees in no  great abundance1 it is  
important that as little as possible    
should be  consumed4 ,bees1 therefore1  
in the formation of their cells have to 
solve  a problem in geometry1 namely1 8a
 quantity of wax being given1 to form   
of it similar and equal cells of a      
determinate capacity1 but of the        
largest size in proportion to the       
quantity of matter employed1 and        

disposed in such a manner as to occupy  
in the hive the least possible  space40 
,every part of this problem is          
practically solved by bees4 ,if  their  
cells had been cylindrical1 which form  
seems best adapted to the  shape of a   
bee1 they could not have been applied to
 each other without  leaving a number of
 useless vacant spaces4 ,if the cells   
had been square  or triangular1 this    
last objection would be removed2 but a  
greater  quantity of wax would have been
 required1 and the shape would have been
  inconvenient to a round-bodied animal4
 ,hexagonal cells are admirably  fitted 
to the form of the insect1 at the same  
time that their sides  apply to each    
other without the smallest vacant       
intervals4 ,another  important saving in
 materials is gained by making a common 
base serve  for two layers of cells4    
,much more wax as well as room would    
have been  required1 had the combs      
consisted of one layer only4 ,but this  
is not  all4 ,the base of each cell is  

not an exact plane1 but is usually      
composed of three lozenge-shaped pieces1
 placed so as to form a  pyramidal      
concavity4 ,from this form it follows   
that the base of a cell  on one side of 
the comb is composed of portions of the 
bases of three  cells on the other4 ,by 
this arrangement a greater degree of    
strength is  obtained1 and also a more  
roomy cell1 with less expenditure of    
wax4 ,this  has been clearly proved1 as 
also that the angles of the base of the 
cell  are exactly those which require   
the smallest quantity of wax4 ,it is    
obvious that these angles might vary    
infinitely2 but by a very accurate      
measurement ,maraldi found that the     
great angles were in general #aji  #bh1 
the smaller ones #gj #cb4 ,raumur1      
suspecting that the object of  choosing 
these angles was to spare wax1 proposed 
to ,m4 ,knig1 a skilful  geometrician1  
to determine by calculation what ought  
to be the angle of  a hexagonal cell    
with a pyramidal bottom1 formed of three

 similar and  equal rhomboid plates1 so 
that the least possible matter might    
enter  into its construction4 ,after an 
elaborate calculation1 the geometrician 
found that the great angles of the      
rhombs should be #aji #bf1 and of the   
small angles1 #gj #cd1 a surprising     
agreement between the solution of  the  
problem1 and the actual measurement4    
,illustration3      ,,front ,,and       
,,reverse ,,view ,,of ,,cells4          
,illustration3      ,,method ,,of       
,,joining ,,cells4      ,the bees have  
also another contrivance for saving wax4
 ,they form the  bottoms and sides of   
the cells of wax not thicker than       
writing paper2  but as walls of this    
thinness at the entrance would be       
perpetually  injured by the going in and
 out of the workers1 they make the      
margin at  the opening of each cell     
three or four times thicker than the    
walls4    ,illustration3      ,,festoon 
,,of ,,wax-,,makers4      ,it has       
already been said that wax is a         

secretion naturally formed in  certain  
membranous bags in the body of the bee4 
,as the secretion goes  on1 the wax     
oozes through the membrane1 and forms in
 thin plates on the  outside4 ,the      
position adopted by the insects during  
this process is  strange and almost     
ridiculous4 ,their proceedings are as   
follows3--,the  wax-makers1 having taken
 a quantity of honey or sugar into the  
stomach1  suspend themselves to each    
other1 the claws of the fore legs of one
  being attached to those of the hind   
pair of another1 until they form        
themselves into a cluster1 consisting of
 a series of festoons or  garlands1     
which cross each other in all           
directions1 until they form a  dense    
curtain1 and in which most of the bees  
turn their back upon the  observer4 ,in 
this position the wax-makers remain     
immovable for about  twenty-four hours1 
during which period the secretion of wax
 takes place4  ,at last one of them is  
seen to detach itself from the rest1 and

 to make  its way to the top of the     
hive1 where it turns itself round1 and  
clears  a space of about an inch in     
diameter4 ,it then seizes one of the    
plates  of wax with a pincer1 formed at 
the joints of the leg1 and drawing it   
forwards1 one of the fore legs takes it 
with its claw and carries it to  the    
mouth4 ,the insect then proceeds by     
means of its mandibles and its          
proboscis to reduce the plate to a      
riband of wax1 which it softens with  a 
frothy liquor4 ,during this operation   
the proboscis is sometimes  flattened   
like a spatula1 then like a trowel1 at  
other times it is like  a pencil1       
terminating in a point4 ,the liquor     
mixed with the wax gives it  a whiteness
 and ductility which it had not before1 
the object being to  make it fit for    
working into any shape4                 
,illustration3      ,,the ,,proboscis4  
,illustration3      ,,laying            
,,foundation ,,of ,,cell4      ,the     
parcels of wax thus prepared are applied

 against the vault of the  hive1 the    
little builder arranging them in the    
direction she wishes them  to take3 when
 she has thus employed the whole plate  
that she had  separated from her body1  
she takes a second1 and proceeds in the 
same  manner4 ,at length she leaves her 
work1 and is lost in the crowd of her   
companions4 ,another succeeds1 and      
resumes the employment2 then a third3   
all follow the same plan of placing     
their wax2 and if one by chance  gives  
it a contrary direction1 another1 coming
 after1 sets it right4 ,the  result of  
all these operations is a little wall of
 wax1 with uneven  surfaces1 five or six
 lines#a long1 two lines high1 and half 
a line  thick1 which descends           
perpendicularly from the vault of the   
hive4 ,in  this first work there is no  
angle1 nor any trace of the figure of   
the  cells4 ,it is a simple partition1  
in a right line1 without any bend4      
,footnote #a3      ,a line is the       
twelfth part of an inch4    ,the        

wax-makers having thus laid the         
foundation of a comb1 the nurse-bees    
come to model and complete the work4    
,the former are the labourers1 who      
convey the materials2 the latter1 the   
artists1 who work them up into the      
required form4 ,one of the nurse-bees   
places herself horizontally on the      
vault of the hive1 her head             
corresponding to the centre of the wall 
which the wax-makers have left1 and     
which is to form the partition of  the  
comb into two opposite assemblages of   
cells2 and rapidly moving her  head1 she
 moulds with her jaws a cavity which is 
to form the base of one  of the cells4  
,when she has worked some minutes she   
departs1 and another  takes her place1  
deepening the hollow1 and heightening   
its sides by  heaping up the wax to the 
right and left1 by means of the teeth   
and fore  feet4 ,more than twenty bees  
successively employ themselves in this  
work4  ,when arrived at a certain point1
 other bees begin on the yet untouched  

and opposite side of the mass1 and      
commencing the bottom of two cells1  are
 in turn relieved by others4 ,while     
still engaged in this labour the        
wax-makers return1 and add to the mass1 
increasing its extent every way1  the   
nurse-bees again continuing their       
operations4 ,after having worked  the   
bottoms of the cells of the first row   
into their proper forms1 they  polish   
them1 and give them finish1 while others
 begin the outline of a  new series4    
,illustration3      ,,commencement ,,of 
,,cells4      ,the cells themselves1    
consisting of six-sided tubes1 are next 
constructed4 ,the bees commence by      
making the edges of the cavities of     
equal height1 so that all the margins of
 the cells offer an uniformly  level    
surface4 ,the sides are heightened in an
 order similar to that  which the       
insects follow in finishing the bottoms 
of the cells2 and the  length of these  
tubes is so perfectly proportioned1 that
 there is no  observable inequality     

between them4 ,it is to be remarked1    
that though  the general form of the    
cell is hexagonal1 or six-sided1 that of
 those  first begun is an irregular     
pentagon1 the side next the top of the  
hive1  and by which the comb is         
attached1 being much broader than the   
rest2  whence the comb is more strongly 
united to the hive than if these cells  
were of the ordinary shape4    ,in      
giving the proper forms to the bottoms  
of the cells1 the bees make  much use of
 their antenn1 which extraordinary      
organs they seem to  employ as          
directors1 by which their other         
instruments are instructed to  execute a
 very complex work4 ,they do not remove 
a single particle of wax  until the     
antenn have explored the surface that is
 to be sculptured4 ,by  the use of these
 organs1 which are flexible1 and readily
 applied to all  parts1 however         
delicate1 they can perform the functions
 of compasses in  measuring very minute 
objects1 and can work in the dark1 and  

raise their  wonderful combs4    ,all   
these proceedings are conducted with the
 utmost regularity4 ,the  original mass 
of wax is increased in a uniform        
quantity by the  wax-makers1 who merely 
produce and carry the materials1 but    
have not the  art of sculpturing the    
cells4 ,two masses of wax for combs are 
never  begun at the same time2 but no   
sooner are some rows of cells           
constructed  in the first mass1 when two
 other masses1 one on each side of it1  
are  established at equal distances from
 it1 and parallel to it1 and then  again
 two more exterior to these4 ,in a new  
hive the bees work with such  rapidity1 
that in twenty-four hours they will     
sometimes construct a comb  twenty      
inches long by seven or eight inches    
wide1 and the hive will be  half filled 
in five or six days2 so that in the     
first fifteen days as  much wax is made 
as in the whole year besides4    ,the   
commercial value of wax is considerable4
 ,a simple way of preparing  it for use 

is as follows4 ,when the hive has been  
cleared of honey1 the  wax is put into a
 woollen bag firmly tied at the mouth2  
the bag is  plunged into a pan of       
boiling water2 the pure material oozes  
through the  cloth1 and swims upon the  
surface2 it is carefully skimmed off1 as
 long  as any continues to rise1 and    
poured into a shallow earthen bowl1     
which  is previously wetted to prevent  
the wax from adhering to its sides4 ,it 
must be allowed to cool very gradually1 
otherwise the cake which it  forms will 
crack4    ,an inferior kind of wax is   
made by those large bees called humble  
bees1  whose gay colours and booming    
flight make them so well known in our   
gardens4    ,illustration3      ,,female
 ,,humble ,,bee4      ,early in spring1 
as soon as the catkins of the willows   
are in flower1 a  large solitary female 
may be seen about them collecting honey 
and  pollen4 ,she is the only survivor  
of the former year's colony1 and is the 
foundress of a new one4 ,her first care 

on awaking from her winter's  sleep is  
to excavate a hollow in the earth for   
her nest1 which is often  above a foot  
under the surface1 and is entered by a  
passage or gallery4  ,when complete1 she
 lines it with soft leaves1 and then    
proceeds to make  her waxen cells4 ,this
 she does so quickly1#b that she can    
build a cell1  fill it with honey and   
pollen1 deposit one or two eggs in it1  
and cover  them in1 in little more than 
half an hour4 ,a number of these cells  
are  thus constructed2 the eggs are     
hatched1 and the little worms1          
increasing  rapidly in size1 at last    
spin silken cocoons1 and undergo the    
usual  changes4 ,the workers are the    
most numerous portion of the population1
  and have abundant employment          
throughout the summer4 ,one of their    
first  cares is to line the roof of     
their nest with wax1 to keep it warm and
  prevent water from filtering through4 
,the wax of these insects is not so     
delicate1 white1 firm1 or fusible as    

that of the hive bee1 nor is it  applied
 to such exquisite architecture2 it is  
brown and soft1 but well  adapted to the
 rude works of their nest4 ,it is formed
 in wax-pockets  similar to those of the
 hive bee1 and is moulded in plates to  
the shape  of the insect's body4 ,unlike
 the queen of the hive1 the foundress of
  this colony secretes wax1 and does so 
even more abundantly than one of  her   
workers4    ,footnote #b3      ,the     
rapid formation of wax in the case of   
humble bees is very    remarkable4      
,huber confined a number of them1 and   
fed them during many    days with pollen
 only2 they produced no wax1 constructed
 no cells1 and    laid no eggs2 but on  
giving them honey1 wax was produced in a
 few    minutes1 and the work of the    
colony proceeded4    ,the interior of a 
humble bee's nest has none of the beauty
 and  regularity of the hive4 ,instead  
of a number of vertical combs of wax    
there is a confused and clumsy          
assemblage of egg-shaped bodies of      

dirty-coloured wax1 placed one above the
 other1 forming a series of  horizontal 
combs1 resting upon each other and      
connected by small pillars  of wax4     
,these egg-shaped bodies are of         
different sizes2 those in the  middle   
being the largest1 closely joined to    
each other1 and each group  connected   
with those next it by slight joinings of
 wax4 ,these oval  bodies are the silken
 cocoons spun by the young larv2 some   
are closed  at the top1 and include     
inmates2 others1 chiefly in the lower   
combs1 are  open1 the young bees having 
escaped from them4 ,on the surface of   
the  upper comb are several masses of   
wax of a roundish and irregular form1   
about an inch and a quarter in diameter 
and half an inch deep2 these are  brood 
cells1 containing each six or seven     
large larv1 lying close  together upon a
 quantity of pollen and honey placed    
there for the  purpose of nourishing    
them as soon as they are hatched4 ,when 
the food is  consumed1 the workers make 

an opening in the top of the cell and   
introduce a new supply1 taking care to  
seal up the cells again4 ,the  cells are
 sometimes split open as the grub       
increases in size1 upon which  the      
workers fill up the cracks with wax1 as 
fast as they occur4 ,it is a  curious   
fact1 that these insects make use of the
 empty cocoons as  honey-pots1 first    
lining them with wax1 and strengthening 
them round the  edges with a waxen ring4
 ,some nests contain as many as fifty or
 sixty of  these honey-pots1 containing 
stores for daily use1 and which are     
never  sealed over like the cells of the
 hive bee1 because all the colony       
except one female dies at the approach  
of winter1 and this solitary  female    
lies in a torpid state during that      
season4    ,illustration3      ,,cells  
,,of ,,the ,,humble ,,bee4      ,but    
bees are not the only wax-makers in the 
world4 ,there is1 in ,china1  an insect 
called the white wax insect1 which1 in  
its caterpillar state1  deposits a sort 

of wax on the branches of trees4 ,sir   
,george ,staunton  tells us that        
accident led him to observe some swarms 
of uncommon  insects busily employed    
upon the branches of a shrub1 not at    
that time  in fruit or flower1 but whose
 leaves and general growth somewhat     
resembled our privet4 ,these insects1   
not much bigger than common flies1  were
 of curious structure1 having an        
appendage to their bodies1 in shape     
like the tail feathers of our common    
fowl4 ,this1 as well as the whole  body1
 was either perfectly white1 or covered 
with a white powder1 some  of which was 
left in the track of the insect on the  
stems and leaves of  the shrub4 ,this   
was the early stage of the insect's     
life1 and that in  which wax is formed4 
,the wax is described as being a greasy 
white  substance when first deposited on
 the leaves and branches1 where it soon 
hardens into a more compact form4 ,the  
insect in its perfect state is of  a    
blackish chestnut colour1 and is        

furnished with wings4 ,it deposits its  
eggs in little pellets about the size of
 a grain of millet1 but these  enlarge  
in the spring1 and being attached to the
 branches1 give to the  shrub exactly   
the appearance of being loaded with     
fruit4 ,about ,midsummer  these pellets 
open and disclose the insects1 which    
soon begin to crawl  about the branches 
and deposit wax4    ,it is in the       
autumnal months that the ,chinese scrape
 the wax from the  branches of trees1   
collecting it in a vessel1 and then     
melting and  straining it4 ,they next   
coagulate it by pouring it into a vessel
 of cold  water1 and this gives it a    
pasty form1 in which it is easily made  
into  cakes of the required size4 ,this 
wax is exceedingly white and glossy1    
and when mixed with oil and made into   
candles1 it is even superior for  that  
purpose to the wax made by bees4 ,sir   
,g4 ,staunton says that the  product of 
these insects not only coagulates into  
wax1 but will cause  oleaginous         

substances to coagulate likewise1 so    
that if one part of this  wax be        
dissolved in three parts of heated olive
 oil1 the whole1 when  cold1 will       
coagulate into a mass1 possessing a     
degree of firmness nearly  equal to that
 of bees-wax4 ,a ,chinese writer states 
that it was not until  the dynasty of   
,yuen that the wax made by these insects
 became known in  ,china2 but that as   
soon as its properties were ascertained1
 persons of  all ranks began to use it1 
both in medicine and domestic economy4  
,the  medicinal qualities of the wax    
were much extolled by ,chinese          
physicians1  and a curious use of it is 
stated in ,grosier's ,china1 namely1    
that the  ,chinese orators1 when about  
to speak in public and needing          
assurance1  previously eat an ounce of  
this wax to prevent swoonings4 ,but     
apart from  virtues which existed       
chiefly in the fancy of the ,chinese1   
the uses of  this substance in making   
candles1 and for the ordinary purposes  

to which  bees-wax is applied1 are      
highly important4 ,the wax1 it is said1 
is  carried to court and reserved for   
the emperor1 the princes1 and chief     
mandarins4 ,the producing insects are   
found in most of the south-eastern      
provinces of ,china1 as well as in      
,cochin ,china4    ,nearly the whole of 
the wax employed in ,europe1 and the    
greater part of  that consumed in       
,america1 is the produce of the common  
hive bee1 but in  the latter country the
 produce of wild bees is also           
extensively used4  ,wax forms an        
important branch of trade and commerce  
in all those  countries where the ,roman
 ,catholic religion prevails1 being     
extensively  used in the festivals and  
rites of that church4 ,according to     
,humboldt1  wax to the value of         
eighty-three thousand pounds was        
formerly annually  exported from ,cuba  
to ,new ,spain1 where the quantity      
consumed in the  festivals of the church
 is immense1 even in the smallest       

villages4 ,the  total exports from ,cuba
 in the year #ahjc were worth upwards of
  #acj1jjjl4          ,illustration3    
,hive                                   
,,chapter ,v4                           
,,manufacture ,,of ,,honey ,,by ,,the   
,,hive ,,bee4      ,many and various are
 the trees1 shrubs1 and plants1 yielding
 blossoms  rich in honey1 which have    
been recommended to be cultivated in the
  neighbourhood of bee-hives2 and no one
 can have watched the proceedings  of   
the industrious inhabitants without     
observing that the early blossoms  of   
the sallow and of the horse-chestnut    
seem peculiarly acceptable1 and  later  
in the season those of the lime2 while  
mignonette1 thyme1  rosemary1 lavender1 
and various other flowers1 are          
assiduously visited  by these diligent  
collectors4 ,but the best stores of our 
gardens yield a  scanty supply compared 
with the treasures of the fields1 such  
as bean  blossoms1 and clover blossoms4 
,the latter crop 7especially the white  

,dutch clover called honeysuckle7 is so 
rich in sweet juices1 that when  there  
is plenty of it1 a good supply of honey 
is also pretty certain4                 
,illustration3      ,,the               
,,passion-,,flower4      7,passiflora   
,crulea47      ,in autumn1 bees attack  
fruit after birds or snails have removed
 the  outer skin4 ,they also consume    
honey-dew1 the sweet fluid which is     
dropped by the aphis4 ,at this season   
also the ,passion-flower affords a      
seasonable supply of liquid honey4 ,the 
fondness of the bee for the honey  of   
this flower is thus noticed by ,mr4     
,wailes in the ,entomological           
,magazine4 ,he says1 8,against the south
 front of our house1 several  plants of 
the ,passiflora ,crulea are trained1    
which cover it to the  height of some   
twenty feet1 or thereabouts2 and1 from  
,july to ,november1  the constant       
succession of its beautiful flowers     
attract great numbers  of the hive bee1 
especially during autumn1 when flowers  

productive of  much honey are scarce4   
,every one knows the passion-flower1 and
 need  hardly be told that one series of
 the rays of the nectary closely        
surrounds the stipes or shaft1 whilst   
other two are beautifully spread  over  
the horizontal leaves of the corolla2   
but perhaps few are aware  that the tube
 of the calyx contains several drops of 
pure and delicious  honey4 ,on the      
arrival of each bee1 ,i can at once tell
 whether it has  been a prior visitor or
 not1 by its mode of procedure4 ,should 
it be a  first visit1 the little busy   
creature is for a time quite at a loss2 
it1  of course1 scents the honey1 but   
cannot discover the entrance to the     
storehouse4 ,convinced that there is    
plenty of the object of its search  in  
the flower1 the bee hurries over the    
surface in all directions1 now  running 
its head fast between the corolla and   
the outer double series of  the rays of 
the nectary1 now entangling itself      
amongst the beautiful  rays themselves1 

and anon mounting the stipes1 and       
ransacking the parts  of fructification4
 ,at length1 after a bustling scene1    
which frequently  lasts for two or three
 minutes1 and which the bee's certainty 
that honey  is concealed somewhere in   
the neighbourhood prevents its quitting 
in  despair1 sometimes apparently by    
mere chance1 at others by running the   
scent home1 its indefatigable labours   
are rewarded4 ,now1 with its tongue     
inserted amongst the rays surrounding   
the shaft1 and past the projecting  rim 
which almost closes the entrance to the 
tube of the calyx1 it drinks  its fill1 
and flies off for the hive1 to deposit  
its treasure1 and  profit by experience 
on a future trip4 ,far different is the 
manner of  the bee that has been at the 
work before2 it wastes not a moment of  
the  time which the approach of winter  
renders doubly valuable1 but at once    
alights on the flower1 runs to its      
centre1 and plunging its tongue into    
the liquid sweet1 hurries back loaded to

 the hive40    ,ancient writers speak of
 the practice of removing bees to fresh 
pastures  every autumn1 as common in    
their times2 and this practice is still 
continued in many parts of the world    
with great advantage to  bee-keepers4   
,towards the end of ,august1 when wild  
flowers have almost  disappeared1 and   
gardens are fading1 and clover is no    
longer in blossom1  it is very desirable
 to find some fresh pasturage for the   
bees4 ,the  autumnal transportation of  
bees is approved of in the east1 and    
also in  many parts of the ,european    
continent2 but in ,england it is seldom 
adopted4 ,nevertheless1 it is almost    
universal in ,scotland4 8,about five    
miles from ,edinburgh10 says ,dr4       
,bevan1 8at the foot of the ,pentland   
hills stands ,logan ,house1 supposed the
 former residence of ,sir ,w4  ,worthy1 
celebrated by ,allan ,ramsay1 in his    
#8,gentle ,shepherd4' ,the house  is now
 occupied by a shepherd1 who1 during    
,july and ,august1 receives  about a    

hundred bee-hives from his neighbours   
beyond the hills1 that  their bees may  
gather the honey from the luxuriant     
blossoms of the  mountain heather40     
,this is only one instance out of       
numbers1 for in this  way our careful   
northern neighbours manage to double    
their harvest of  honey1 taking not     
unfrequently almost the whole store from
 their hives  before transporting them  
to the moors1 and reaping an ample      
quantity  again on their return in three
 weeks' time4    ,a writer on this      
subject regrets that our own moorlands  
are not made  available to this end4    
8,the very air10 he says1 8is often     
redolent with  the rich perfume1 while  
here and there a solitary bee is seen or
 heard1  labouring with wearied wing    
among the inexhaustible stores of       
nature1  and scarcely able to regain its
 lonely shieling in the distant vale4   
,when we consider the poverty of our    
mountaineers1 and their frequent  want  
of occupation1 it is the more to be     

lamented that so easy a source  of      
emolument should lie open to them in    
vain40 ,from the ,journal of            
,agriculture we learn that ,poland is1  
perhaps1 the greatest  honey-producing  
country in ,europe4 ,in the provinces of
 ,podolia1 ,ukraine  and ,volhynia in   
particular1 the cultivation of the      
honey-bee has long  formed an object of 
national importance2 and these          
bee-gardens are not  only very numerous 
and extensive1 but they are also common 
in other  parts of the kingdom4 ,there  
are cottages in ,poland1 with very small
  portions of land attached to them1 on 
which are to be seen as many as  fifty  
hives2 while there are farmers and      
landed proprietors who are in           
possession of from one hundred to ten   
thousand hives4 ,there are some  farmers
 who collect annually more than #bjj    
barrels of fine honey1 each  barrel     
weighing from #djj to #ejj lbs41        
exclusive of the wax4 ,a tenant is      
often in this way enabled to pay his    

rent and taxes1 to defray other         
domestic expenses1 and often to         
accumulate handsome dowries for his     
daughters4    ,the middle of ,september 
is about the time for the honey-harvest1
 or  in-gathering of the stores of the  
hive4 ,those hives which are designed   
for winter stock must be set apart and  
weighed4 ,a common straw hive when      
empty weighs from five to six pounds1 an
 ordinary swarm about four  pounds1 the 
wax of a full hive two or three pounds1 
the farina in the  cells one pound1     
making in all fifteen pounds4 ,a stock1 
therefore1 to be  secure1 must weigh    
double that amount1 that is1 it should  
not contain  less than fifteen pounds of
 honey4 ,the bees1 it is true1 may exist
  through the winter on a smaller       
quantity than this1 but this would      
depend very much on the nature of the   
season2 whereas with fifteen  pounds    
they are considered safe1 so far as food
 is concerned1 whatever  the temperature
 may be4 ,these stock-hives being       

selected1 the cultivator  now proceeds  
to take the honey from the rest of the  
hives4    ,there are three ways of      
taking honey1 known as 8partial         
deprivation10  8suffocation10 and       
8driving40 ,for the first of these1     
hives of two  stories are mostly        
employed4 ,immediately after the        
swarming season  another story1 or box1 
is added1 either above or below1 and one
 of those  filled with honey is taken   
away4 ,if this be done early enough in  
the  season1 there will be time for the 
bees to fill the empty story before     
winter2 but if it be delayed1 as is     
sometimes the case1 until the  beginning
 or middle of ,september1 then the bees1
 having no opportunity  of replacing    
what has been taken away1 will be       
starved before the winter  is over4     
,this method of taking honey is by no   
means general1 apparently  because1 from
 an error as to the time of performing  
the operation1 it  has frequently       
failed4    ,the second1 or suffocating  

process1 is effected by taking strips of
  linen rag1 dipping them in melted     
brimstone1 and placing them on a few    
sticks in a hollow place in the ground3 
then light is set to the rags1  and the 
hive quickly set over them4 ,every hole 
being stopped up to  prevent the escape 
of the sulphur fumes1 the bees are soon 
suffocated1  and the combs discoloured4 
,this cruel and objectionable practice  
is1  perhaps1 the most common of any1   
being the least troublesome1 though not 
the most economical mode of getting at  
the honey4    ,the third1 or driving    
system1 saves the lives of the bees1 by 
turning  them out into a well-stored    
stock-hive1 and need not give any great 
amount of additional trouble4 ,it is    
thus described in the ,naturalists'     
,library3--8,in the evening1 when all   
are quiet1 turn up the hive which is  to
 be operated upon1 fixing it in a chair 
from which the stuffed bottom  has been 
removed2 place an empty hive above it1  
wrap a cloth round the  point of        

junction1 to prevent the bees from      
coming out and annoying the  operator2  
then1 with a short stick or stone in    
each hand1 beat round the  sides1 but   
gently1 for fear of loosening the combs4
 ,in five minutes the  panic-struck     
insects will hastily mount into the     
empty hive1 with a loud  humming noise1 
expressive of their trepidation4 ,the   
hives are then  separated2 that         
containing the bees is placed on its    
usual pedestal1 and  the other1         
containing the honey1 is carried off4   
,the union is next to be  effected4     
,turn up the stock-hive which is to     
receive the addition to its             
population1--with a bunch of feathers1  
or a small watering-pan1 such as  is    
used for watering flower-beds1 drench   
them with a solution of ale and  sugar1 
or water and sugar made a little warm4  
,do the same to the  expelled bees2 and 
then placing these last over the stock1 
mouth to  mouth1 a smart rap on the top 
of the hive will drive them down among  

the  bees and combs of the undermost    
hive4 ,place this last on its pedestal1 
and the operation is completed4 ,the    
strong flavour of the solution will     
prevent them from distinguishing between
 friend and stranger2 and their  first  
movement after recovering from their    
panic will be to lick the  liquid from  
one another's bodies4 ,it will be an    
advantage1 though a  little additional  
trouble1 to search for and destroy the  
queen of the  expelled bees before the  
union takes place40    ,when the bees   
have been removed from the hives by one 
of the above  processes1 the operation  
of extracting the honey must commence   
immediately1 while the hive is yet warm4
 ,the warmth may also be kept up  by    
allowing it to flow in a room where     
there is a fire4 ,the comb should  be   
kept from the air as much as possible1  
for which purpose some  cultivators make
 use of a tin-covered vessel1 pierced   
with holes at the  bottom1 and made to  
fit into another similar vessel fit to  

receive the  honey4 ,pieces of comb1    
sliced horizontally1 are put into this  
covered  vessel1 and the honey filters  
through the bottom1 being first passed  
through a filter of wire-cloth or muslin
 placed at a little distance  above the 
other4 ,this upper filter prevents the  
vessel from becoming  clogged with      
particles of wax1 and increases the     
purity of the honey4 ,a  spigot in the  
lower vessel allows the honey to pass   
out into store jars4    ,such are some  
of the processes by which the honey and 
wax of bees are  made available to our  
use4 ,honey is of less importance to    
mankind since  the discovery of sugar2  
but it will always rank among the       
wholesome and  agreeable luxuries of    
life2 while in countries where sugar is 
not so  easily obtained as it is among  
ourselves1 it holds a much more         
important  position4 ,in the ,ukraine1  
some of the peasants have four or five  
hundred  bee-hives1 and make more profit
 of their bees than of their corn4 ,in  

,spain1 also1 the number of bee-hives is
 said to be immense1 a single  parish   
priest having been known to possess five
 thousand4    ,rock-honey1 found in some
 parts of ,america1 is thin and clear as
 water1  and is the produce of wild     
bees1 which suspend thirty or forty     
waxen  cells1 resembling a bunch of     
grapes1 to a rock4    ,green honey1     
found in the ,isle of ,bourbon1 and     
exported to ,india1 where  it fetches a 
high price1 is the produce of a bee much
 esteemed in that  island4 ,it produces 
sweet and fragrant honey1 of the        
consistency of oil1  and of a green     
colour4    ,illustration3      ,,another
 ,,interior ,,of ,a ,,bee-,,hive4       
,illustration3      ,,male ,,cochineal  
,,insect4--7,magnified47                
,illustration3      ,,female4--,upper   
surface4      ,illustration3            
,,female4--,under surface4              
,,chapter ,,vi4     ,,manufacture ,,of  
,,cochineal ,,by ,,the ,,coccus ,,cacti1
 ,,or ,,cochineal ,,insect4      ,the   

cochineal insect is extremely valuable  
in commerce1 as yielding a  brilliant   
red dye1 and we may with propriety class
 it among insect  manufactures1 because1
 although its destruction is necessary  
to obtain  the colouring matter1 7the   
actual body of the insect forming the   
dye17  yet this beautiful colour is     
elaborated from the food on which it    
feeds1  as honey and wax are elaborated 
by the bee1 or silk by the silkworm4 ,we
  do not find1 it is true1 any especial 
care or effort on the part of the       
insect in the production of the         
cochineal1 and in this respect it       
differs from the examples already given2
 but the rich colour which  pervades the
 body of the insect appears to result   
simply from the juices  of the          
particular species of cactus on which it
 feeds4 ,yet being to us  the only means
 of obtaining the brilliant dye in      
question1 the cochineal  insects must be
 reckoned highly useful1 though         
involuntary1  manufacturers4            

,cochineal insects are very small1      
delicate creatures1 remarkable for the  
great difference in the form of the male
 and female4 ,the former has a  slender 
body1 long antenn1 and two large wings2 
the latter an oval  body1 without wings1
 and short antenn4 ,the mouth in both   
insects  consists of a small conical    
bill and sucker1 adapted for feeding on 
the  juices of vegetables4 ,at first1   
all the young brood1 whether male or    
female1 resemble tiny red tortoises1 and
 are busily engaged in feeding  on the  
stems and leaves of plants1 which they  
pierce with their sharp  beaks so as to 
do much injury4 ,during this active     
period of their lives  the insects      
continue to increase in size1 but the   
period soon arrives  when they undergo a
 transformation4 ,all the insects fix   
themselves  firmly to plants or stems1  
and the male soon appears in his new    
dress as  a fly1 while the female merely
 changes her skin1 and remains fixed to 
the bark1 which she gradually becomes so

 nearly like1 that it is  difficult to  
distinguish her4 ,she now lays her eggs1
 which are very  numerous1 and which she
 accumulates beneath her body2 but1 at  
the same  time1 she gradually dwindles  
in size until her body becomes a mere   
pellicle or thin membrane enclosing the 
brood4 ,the mother then dies1 but  her  
dried body remains as a sort of shell or
 cocoon for the protection  of her      
young4 ,when these are hatched1 they    
soon make their way from  beneath the   
scaly covering1 and commence feeding    
vigorously on the  juices of the plant4 
,to the persevering exertions of a      
,french gentleman1 ,m4 ,thierry de      
,menonville1 it was owing that the      
culture of the cochineal became known   
in the ,west ,india islands4 ,this      
gentleman left ,port au ,prince1 in ,st4
  ,domingo1 in ,january #aggg1 with the 
express object of procuring some  living
 cochineal insects of the finest sort   
from ,mexico1 and bringing  them for    
propagation in the ,french ,west ,india 

islands2 an enterprise for  the expense 
of which the ,french government had     
allotted the sum of four  thousand      
livres4 ,owing to the jealousy of the   
,spanish government1 there  was great   
difficulty in penetrating as far as the 
cochineal districts1  and ,m4 ,thierry  
pursued a plan to effect his object     
which cannot be  considered justifiable1
 since it involved a departure from     
truth4 ,at  first he feigned ill health1
 and obtained permission to use the     
baths of  the river ,magdalena2 but1    
instead of going thither1 he proceeded  
as fast  as possible in the direction of
 the desired district1 where he was     
successful in getting some plants laden 
with cochineal1 as a pretended  remedy  
for gout4 ,from his account of the      
expedition we gather the  following     
particulars4    ,after numerous fatigues
 and dangers he at length saw himself   
near the  end of his journey1 and       
approached ,guaxaca4 ,at a village1     
within a short  distance of that place1 

he saw1 for the first time in his life1 
and with  the utmost pleasure1 the fine 
cochineal feeding on the nopal1 or      
cactus1  which it frequents4 ,he saw a  
garden full of nopals1 and not doubting 
but  that they were laden with cochineal
 insects1 he sprang from his horse1     
and1 under pretence of adjusting his    
stirrups1 entered into conversation     
with the ,indian proprietor of the      
garden4 ,he asked him with apparent     
indifference what was the use of those  
plants1 and was answered1 that  they    
were for the cultivation of grana4      
,feigning surprise1 de  ,menonville     
asked to be permitted to see this grana1
 and he was really  astonished when the 
insect was brought to him1 for he had   
supposed it  red1 and it was in fact    
covered with a white powder4 8,my       
doubts10 he  says1 8were tormenting1 but
 ,i suddenly thought of the expedient of
  crushing one upon white paper1 when   
what did ,i see8--the true purple of    
kings60 ,full of delight and            

anticipation1 the traveller now set     
forward  towards the spot where he might
 hope to make himself acquainted with   
the  culture of the precious insect1 and
 purchase a store for transportation4   
,nothing could be more beautiful than   
the situation of ,guaxaca1 capital  of  
the province of that name4 ,standing in 
the midst of fertile and  extensive     
plains1 at the foot of a majestic       
mountain range1 and watered  by a fine  
and noble river1 this city is richly    
supplied with corn and  fruits of all   
kinds1 at the same time that its        
environs supply a most  favourable site 
for the culture of the cochineal4 ,the  
air1 continually  refreshed by easterly 
breezes in the morning1 and westerly in 
the  evening1 is pure and delicious1    
like that of a ,may morning4 ,indeed1   
our  traveller asserts1 that for        
magnificence of site1 beauty of         
decoration1  excellence of soil1 fine   
temperature1 and abundance of ,european 
and  ,american fruits succeeding each   

other without intermission1 nothing is  
wanting to ,guaxaca to make it an       
enchanting spot1 but an active and      
industrious people1 to avail themselves 
of its natural advantages4    ,at       
,guaxaca de ,menonville acted with      
caution1 and did not betray any  undue  
anxiety respecting the cochineals4 ,yet 
he provided himself with  chests large  
enough for their conveyance together    
with the plants on  which they fed4     
,under pretence of buying flowers1 he   
went into a garden  where there was a   
beautiful nopalerie1 and while they were
 making up the  bouquet he had ordered1 
he took the opportunity of observing the
  arrangement of the nopals4 ,they were 
planted four feet apart in lines1  the  
lines being six feet asunder4 ,the      
nopalerie belonged to a negro1 and  it  
was here that a purchase might in all   
probability be effected4 ,on  another   
occasion1 therefore1 de ,menonville took
 two ,indian servants1  each bearing a  
large hamper1 and repaired very early in

 the morning to  the garden4 ,he left   
his servants at the entrance1 and       
entered alone4 ,the  negro proprietor   
had scarcely risen1 but he came forward 
in a frank and  agreeable manner4 ,de   
,menonville then told him1 that being a 
physician1  he was anxious to make an   
ointment of his own invention for the   
cure of  gout1 and for this purpose he  
wished to purchase some branches of     
nopals  laden with cochineal1 for which 
he was willing to pay whatever the owner
  should demand1 provided he might make 
his own selection of the branches       
suitable to his purpose4 ,the ,indian   
willingly complied1 and accordingly  the
 hampers were brought in1 and eight fine
 branches1 each two feet high  and so   
loaded with cochineals as to be quite   
white1 were speedily cut1  packed1 and  
covered with cloths4 ,he then asked him 
how much he had to  pay2 the negro      
answered that he could not possibly sell
 them for less  than two reals4 ,our    
traveller fully believed him1 and would 

have  purchased them1 if necessary1 at a
 much larger sum4 ,that the negro might 
not think him dissatisfied with the     
bargain1 he gave him a piaster  7value  
eight reals71 telling him he had no     
change1 and therefore he  should give   
him the rest to drink his health4 ,the  
good old negro rubbed  his eyes1        
thinking he was still dreaming1 and then
 loaded de ,menonville  with thanks1    
while the latter brought in his two     
,indians1 gave them the  hampers to     
carry1 and then set off as fast as      
possible4 8,my heart10 he  says1 8beat  
quickly1 for it seemed to me that ,i had
 carried off the  golden fleece1 but    
might yet be pursued by the furious     
dragon who kept  guard over it4 ,all    
along the road ,i kept saying1 #8,at    
last they are in my  power2' and ,i     
could willingly have sung for joy if ,i 
had not been afraid  of being heard4 ,i 
arrived at my inn quite out of breath1  
without having  met a single person in  
the streets2 it was about sunrise2 no   

one was  awake in the house1 and ,i     
crept quietly to my room1 where ,i      
arranged my  nopals1 with inexpressible 
delight1 in the caskets ,i had purchased
 for  that purpose40    ,illustration3  
,,cochineal ,,cactus4      ,after       
innumerable difficulties and dangers    
this traveller reached ,st4  ,domingo in
 safety1 but with only a small part of  
his insects living4  ,these1 however1 he
 was successful in rearing and          
multiplying until a  flourishing        
nopalerie was established4 ,he found1 by
 experience1 that  five or six species  
of cactus opuntia will nourish these    
insects1 but  that some are far more    
valuable than others4 ,he also proved   
that the  colours of the flowers and    
fruit of the plants1 whether red1       
violet1  yellow1 or white1 did not in   
any way affect the colour of the        
cochineal1  nor indicate the greater or 
less aptitude of the plant to nourish   
the  insect4 ,the thorny species were   
less convenient on account of the pain  

and annoyance to the hands of those who 
managed the nursery2 but in some  of    
these the younger branches were nearly  
free from prickles4    ,the terms       
nopalerie for the nursery1 and nopal for
 the plant1 are  preserved among the    
,french cultivators of cochineal1 in    
remembrance of  the ,mexican origin of  
such nurseries4 ,the enclosure should be
 secured by  walls or a quick hedge2 not
 from the fear that any animal will prey
 upon  the plants1 since no large       
quadruped is known to have a taste for  
them2  but simply to keep out such as   
might by accident or fear be driven     
through the grounds1 and trample on and 
destroy the crop4    ,an acre1 or an    
acre and a half of land1 when planted   
with nopals1 is  sufficient to keep one 
,indian well employed during six months 
of the  year4 ,the plants should be so  
situated as to receive the full         
influence  of the morning sun1 which is 
of great consequence to the welfare of  
the  cochineal4 ,every part of the      

ground should be as neat as a well-kept 
garden1 and every injurious insect      
watched for and destroyed4 ,the spider  
alone is permitted to weave her nets in 
peace1 and for this reason3 she  is the 
great enemy of many insects which       
injuriously affect the  cochineals1     
while she herself does not touch one of 
them4 ,the nopal  requires a good soil1 
where the drainage is excellent4        
,shelter from the  wind1 and exposure to
 the sun1 are the two great requisites1 
and with  this there must be a tolerably
 settled climate1 otherwise the harvest 
will be uncertain4    ,when in a        
favourable situation1 the nopal requires
 less care and  cultivation than almost 
any other plant3 it would even appear   
that the  less it is meddled with the   
better it succeeds4 ,as soon as a       
nursery  ground is laid out1 cleaned1   
and drained1 planting commences1 the    
season  being the dry period just before
 the spring rains4 ,alleys or paths are 
marked out1 forming squares3 parallel   

lines are drawn across these  squares   
north and south4 ,here the nopals are   
planted at two feet  distance from each 
other1 being clean cuttings from the old
 plant1 and  not torn or broken from it4
 ,the ,indians of ,guaxaca plant two or 
three  cuttings in each hole1 lest any  
accident should prevent one from        
striking4 ,eighteen months afterwards   
the plants will be in a state to        
nourish the cochineal4    ,the sowing of
 cochineal1 as it is called1 is         
performed at day-break1 the  insects    
being conveyed from the old plants and  
attached to the new4 ,for  this purpose 
they are placed in little nests made by 
the natives1 and  attached with thorns  
to the leaves of the nopal4 ,here they  
quickly  multiply to an astonishing     
extent4 ,a nopalerie is in perfection   
six  years1 after which the insects are 
taken away and the plants cut down4     
,the cochineal harvest takes place every
 year as soon as the young  insects     
begin to run about4 ,assembling his     

friends1 old and young1 the  owner of   
the cochineal ground enters it at break 
of day with a crowd of  men1 women1 and 
children1 provided with knives six      
inches long and two  wide1 and also with
 dishes and with baskets4 ,the blade of 
the knife is  rounded at the top1 so as 
to injure neither the insect nor the    
plant2  this is passed gently between   
the skin of the nopal and the clusters  
of  cochineals with which it is covered1
 causing the latter to fall into the    
dish or basket1 which the left hand     
holds ready to receive them4 ,a child   
of ten years old may thus gather ten    
pounds of insects in a day1 which  being
 killed and dried will yield about three
 pounds and a half of  cochineal4 ,the  
best method of killing the insects is by
 pouring boiling  water on them1 and    
allowing it to remain one1 two1 or three
 minutes4 ,the  water is preserved1 as  
it necessarily has some of the colouring
 matter  of the insects2 the latter are 
spread out to dry in the sun and wind1  

being turned occasionally by hand4 ,ten 
persons1 it is said1 can thus  prepare  
two hundred pounds of cochineal in two  
days4 ,such is the history  given by de 
,menonville himself1 in his volumes     
entitled #8,voyage   ,guaxaca4' ,baron  
,humboldt1 describing the management of 
cochineals in  this and in other parts  
of ,south ,america1 gives some          
additional  particulars4 ,he ascertained
 that in a colder climate1 the colour of
 the  cochineal is equally fine1 but the
 harvests are more uncertain4 ,plains   
or valleys are generally more favourable
 to the rapid increase of the           
cochineals than elevated ground1 but    
such places also abound in insect       
enemies1 and in lizards1 rats1 and      
birds1 which devour the crop4 ,great    
care is required in clearing all the    
joints of the nopals3 for this  purpose 
,indian women use a squirrel's or a     
stag's tail1 and will sit for  hours    
crouched near a single plant4           
,notwithstanding the high price of      

cochineal1 it is very doubtful whether  
the trade would answer in any  country  
where labour is more valuable4 ,in some 
parts of ,guaxaca 7called  by ,humboldt 
,oaxaca71 they obtain three harvests of 
cochineal in the  year1 the first being 
the least lucrative1 because the bodies 
of the  insects yield very little       
colouring matter when they die          
naturally1 and  this is the case at the 
first harvest1 when they have just      
brought forth  their young4 ,many of the
 negro proprietors of nopaleries1       
especially  those in the neighbourhood  
of ,oaxaca1 have a very ancient and     
singular  custom of making their        
cochineals emigrate during the rainy    
season4 ,as  the ,spaniard causes his   
flocks of merinos to emigrate on the    
approach of  cold1 so do these negroes  
send away their crop during a season    
which  might prove fatal to them4 ,the  
insects are packed in hampers1 and      
carried as quickly as possible1 on the  
backs of negroes1 to a place nine       

leagues distant from the town1 not so   
heavily visited with rain4 ,here  they  
distribute them on the nopals1 and keep 
them there till the month  of ,october1 
when they return with their freight1 and
 replace it in the  nopaleries of       
,oaxaca4    ,the plantations of         
cochineal cultivated by ,m4 ,thierry1 at
 ,st4 ,domingo1  were so successful that
 in #aghi there were more than four     
thousand  plants in a single nopalerie1 
and the produce was ascertained by      
chemists to be quite equal to that of   
,mexico2 but at the time of the  ,french
 ,revolution1 the political troubles of 
,st4 ,domingo caused the  destruction of
 the plantations4 ,cochineal has been   
cultivated with some  success in several
 of the ,british ,west ,india islands4  
,thus the ,rev4 ,l4  ,guilding1 writing 
a few years ago to ,dr4 ,hooker1 says1  
8,i possess a  considerable nursery of  
this cactus1 inhabited by thousands of  
the true  ,coccus cacti1 and ,i do not  
despair of being able to send to the    

,society of ,arts a large quantity of   
dried insects before the termination  of
 the present year40    ,so important was
 the acquisition of this insect to the  
,east ,india  ,company1 that they       
offered a reward of six thousand pounds 
to any one  who should introduce it into
 ,india1 where hitherto the ,company had
 only  succeeded in procuring from      
,brazil the wild kind producing the     
sylvestre cochineal1 which is of        
inferior value4 ,the true cochineal     
insect1 and the cactus on which it      
feeds1 are said to have been of late    
years successfully introduced into      
,spain and the ,french colony of        
,algiers1 and now exist in the stores of
 the ,jardin des ,plantes at  ,paris1   
and also in those of ,king ,leopold at  
,claremont4    ,stephens1 in his        
,travels in ,central ,america1 does not 
omit to notice the  cultivation of this 
insect1 which was carried on extensively
 in the  neighbourhood of the ruined    
city of ,la ,antigua ,guatimala4        

8,emerging from  the city10 he says1 8we
 entered the open plain1 shut in by     
mountains1  and cultivated to their base
 with cochineal4 ,at about a mile's     
distance  we turned into the hacienda of
 ,seor ,vidaury4 ,in the yard were four 
oxen  grinding sugar-cane1 and behind   
was his nopal or cochineal plantation1  
one of the largest in the ,antigua4 ,the
 plant is a species of cactus1 set  out 
in rows like ,indian corn1 and1 at the  
time ,i speak of1 it was about  four    
feet high4 ,on every leaf was pinned    
with a thorn a piece of cane1  in the   
hollow of which were thirty or forty    
insects4 ,these insects  cannot move1   
but breed1 and the young crawl out and  
fasten upon the  leaf4 ,when they have  
once fixed1 they never move2 a light    
film gathers  over them1 and as they    
feed1 the leaves become mildewed and    
white4 ,at  the end of the dry season   
some of the leaves are cut off and hung 
up in  a storehouse for seed1 the       
insects are brushed off from the rest   

and  dried1 and are then sent to        
minister to the luxuries and elegancies 
of  civilized life1 and enliven with    
their bright colours the salons of      
,london1 ,paris1 and ,st4 ,louis in     
,missouri4 ,the crop is valuable1 but   
uncertain1 as an early rain may destroy 
it1 and sometimes all the  workmen are  
taken away for soldiers at the moment   
when they are most  needed for its      
culture4 ,the situation was ravishingly 
beautiful1 at the  base and under the   
shade of the ,volcano de ,agua1 and the 
view was  bounded on all sides by       
mountains of perpetual green2 the       
morning air  was soft and balmy1 but    
pure and refreshing4 ,with good         
government and  good laws1 and one's    
friends around1 ,i never saw a more     
beautiful spot  on which man could      
desire to pass his allotted time on     
earth40          ,illustration3      #a4
 ,,branch ,,covered ,,with ,,lac4 #b4   
,,small ,,twig ,,laden ,,with ,,lac4 #c4
 ,,portion      ,,of ,,lac 7magnified74 

#d1 #e1 #f4 ,,lac ,,insect ,,in ,,its   
,,several ,,forms4                      
,,chapter ,,vii4                        
,,manufacture ,,of ,,gum ,,lac ,,by     
,,the ,,lac ,,insect4      ,another     
insect of the same family as the        
cochineal1 prepares a substance  called 
gum lac1 which is used as a dye1 and    
also as a varnish4 ,this is  the lac    
insect1 7coccus lacca17 found on several
 kinds of trees in the  ,east ,indies1  
especially in the uncultivated mountains
 on both sides the  ,ganges1 where it is
 produced in such abundance1 that were  
the  consumption ten times greater than 
it is1 the markets might be readily     
supplied4 ,so great is the accumulation 
of these insects on the trees  which    
they frequent1 that the branches appear 
as if covered with red  dust1 and their 
sap is so much exhausted1 that they     
wither and produce  no fruit3 the leaves
 also drop off1 or turn to a blackish   
hue4 ,the  insects fix themselves so    
close together1 that it is supposed that

 not  more than one in six can have room
 to complete her cell4 ,it is said they 
are transplanted from place to place by 
birds1 which cannot perch upon  the     
branches without carrying off a number  
to the next place they rest  upon4      
,the female1 when about to lay her eggs1
 becomes completely glued to the  branch
 by a semi-pellucid liquid1 which       
accumulates round the body1 and  hardens
 by exposure to the air4 ,this is the   
gum lac1 the original use of  which is  
to form a cell for the young4 ,when the 
eggs are laid1 the  parent insect       
becomes a mere lifeless bag of an oval  
shape1 containing a  small quantity of  
beautiful red liquid4 ,on this liquid   
the young insects  feed as soon as they 
come to life2 after which they pierce   
the cell1 and  come forth one by one4   
,some small branches of mimosa cinerea1 
gathered  when the lac was in a very    
fresh looking state1 became covered with
  myriads of exceedingly minute animals 
at the end of fourteen days4 ,they      

issued from small holes over the surface
 of the cells1 and when single  ran     
about pretty briskly2 but in general    
they were so numerous as to be  crowded 
over one another4 ,the cells themselves 
were very much like  amber2 the outer   
portion was strong and resisting1 but   
the partitions of  the interior were    
thinner1 and formed irregular squares1  
pentagons1 and  hexagons1 having no     
communication with each other4    ,there
 are four sorts of lac known in         
commerce1 but these are only so  many   
different preparations of the same      
substance4 ,stick lac is the lac  in its
 natural state1 with much of the woody  
parts of the branches  adhering to it3  
this is collected in the ,east twice a  
year1 the only  trouble being to break  
off the twigs and branches1 and take    
them to the  nearest market1 with the   
lac upon them2 or1 if destined for      
exportation1  the lac is separated from 
the larger branches for convenience of  
freight4    ,seed lac is the second     

description known in commerce4 ,this is 
a  collection of granules1 obtained from
 the former after the colouring  matter 
has been extracted by water1 but this is
 seldom imported1 being  manufactured   
into shell lac in ,india4 ,lump lac is  
the third form1 being  merely the       
granules further purified and made into 
lumps4 ,lastly1 there  is shell lac1 in 
which the substance is purified to the  
utmost by being  put in bags and held   
over a fire until sufficiently melted to
 pass  through the pores of the linen4  
,the bags are then pressed and squeezed 
at the same time that they are passed   
over a smooth surface of wood1  thus    
depositing the lac in thin layers4 ,the 
fineness and purity of the  lac will of 
course depend on the fineness of the bag
 through which it is  passed4 ,shell lac
 if pure will take fire when laid on a  
hot iron1 and  will burn with a strong  
but not disagreeable smell4 ,the heat of
 the  ship's hold is very apt to run    
this commodity into a solid mass1 in    

which case its value is much            
depreciated4    ,the different kinds of 
lac are largely used by ,indians for    
ornamental  purposes4 ,of the lump lac  
they make bangles1 or armlets for women 
of  the lower class2 shell lac being    
employed for the same kind of ornaments 
for the upper classes1 and also for     
beads1 chains1 necklaces1 and other     
adornments4 ,they also make a good      
varnish by melting the lac1 colouring   
it with cinnabar or some other pigment1 
and making it into sticks like  our     
sealing wax4 ,the box1 cabinet1 or other
 article about to be  varnished1 is made
 hot by a charcoal fire1 and then rubbed
 over with a  stick of lac1 the surface 
being afterwards smoothed with a piece  
of  folded plantain leaf to make it     
equal4 ,a similar varnish is often used 
on images and ornamental figures4 ,the  
religious houses of the ,indians  are   
often adorned with very thin beaten     
lead1 coloured with various  varnishes  
made from lac4 ,the leaf of lead is laid

 upon a smooth heated  iron while the   
varnish is being applied4    ,lac is    
also extensively used as a dye4 ,by     
pouring warm water on stick  lac1 a     
crimson solution is obtained1 which is  
the source of much of the  value        
attached to lac4 ,this colouring matter 
is extracted in various  ways1 and made 
into small square cakes for sale2 these 
go by the names  of lac dye1 lac lake1  
or cake lake4 ,when broken1 the cakes   
are dark  coloured1 shining1 smooth and 
compact1 and when scraped or powdered   
they  present a bright red colour       
approaching carmine4 ,the native mode of
  dyeing with this substance is         
described as follows4 ,they take one    
gallon  of the red liquid1 and add to it
 three ounces of alum4 ,three or four   
ounces of tamarinds are boiled in a     
gallon of water and strained4 ,equal    
parts of the red liquid and of the      
tamarind water are then mixed over a    
brisk fire2 and the pieces of silk or   
cotton cloth to be dyed are dipped  and 

wrung alternately1 until they have      
received a proper proportion of  the    
dye4 ,to deepen the colour they increase
 the proportion of the red  liquid1 and 
lengthen the time during which the cloth
 remains immersed in  it4 ,the colour is
 rendered permanent by the use of bark  
in the rinsing  water4    ,there is yet 
another and a singular employment of lac
 among the ,indians4  ,the polishing    
grindstones used by eastern lapidaries  
are composed of a  mixture of three     
parts river sand with one part lac3     
these are mixed in  a vessel over the   
fire1 and then formed into the shape of 
a grindstone2  the part of the lac being
 merely that of a cement to hold the    
sand  together4    ,in this country lac 
is valuable partly as a dye1 partly as a
 varnish4 ,as  a dye it is less         
beautiful1 but more durable than        
cochineal4 ,it forms  the best kinds of 
sealing wax1 and is also used in the hat
 manufacture4    ,with regard to its use
 as a dyeing drug we find the following 

remarks in  the ,entomology of ,kirby   
and ,spence4 8,it has been employed to  
impart a  blood red or crimson dye to   
cloth from the earliest ages1 and was   
known  to the ,phnicians before the time
 of ,moses1 under the name of ,tola or  
,thola1 to the ,greeks under that of    
,coccus1 and to the ,arabians and       
,persians under that of ,kermes or      
,alkermes2 whence1 as ,beckmann has     
shown1 and from the epithet vermiculatum
 given to it in the middle  ages1 when  
it was ascertained to be the produce of 
a worm1 have sprung  up the ,latin      
coccineus1 the ,french cramoisi and     
vermeil1 and our  crimson and vermilion4
 ,it was most probably with this        
substance that  the curtains of the     
tabernacle 7,exodus xxvi47 were dyed    
deep red1 7which  the word scarlet1 as  
our translators have rendered it1 then  
implied1 not  the colour now so called1 
which was not known in ,james the       
,first's  reign1 when the ,bible was    
translated27--it was with this that the 

,grecians and ,romans produced their    
crimson2 and from the same source  were 
derived the imperishable reds of the    
,brussels and ,flemish schools4  ,in    
short1 previous to the discovery of     
cochineal1 this was the material        
universally used for dyeing the most    
brilliant red then known2 and  though   
that production of the ,new ,world has1 
in some respects  undeservedly1         
supplanted it in ,europe1 where it is   
little attended to  except by the       
peasantry of the provinces in which it  
is found1 it still  continues to be     
employed in great part of ,india and    
,persia4    ,some other insects besides 
the cochineal and lac insects are found 
to  produce dyes4 ,the galls of a       
peculiar species of aphis are used in   
the  ,levant1 ,persia and ,china1 for   
dyeing silk crimson1 and it is thought  
that the galls of another species of    
this insect1 common on the fir  trees of
 this country1 might be employed for a  
similar purpose4 ,a  species of mite is 

employed in ,guinea and ,surinam as a   
dye1 and it is  suggested that the      
beautiful little dazzling red mite which
 is common  here1 might also yield a    
valuable tincture4 ,raumur has even     
suggested  that water colours of        
beautiful tints not otherwise easily    
attainable1  might be procured by       
feeding the common clothes-moth on      
different  coloured wools4 ,the         
excrement of this insect always retains 
the colour  of the substance forming the
 food1 and mixes well with water to form
 a  pigment4          ,illustration3    
,,nut ,,galls ,,and ,,the ,,gall        
,,insect4                               
,,chapter ,,viii4                       
,,manufacture ,,of ,,nut ,,galls ,,by   
,,the ,,gall ,,insect4      8,no present
 that insects have made to the arts is  
equal in utility and  universal         
interest1 comes more home to our best   
affections1 or is the  instrument of    
producing more valuable fruits of human 
wisdom and genius1  than the gall       

insect3 ,i mean the fly that gives birth
 to the gall-nut1  from which ink is    
made4 ,how infinitely are we indebted to
 this little  creature1 which at once   
enables us to converse with our absent  
friends  and connexions1 be their       
distance from us ever so great1 and     
supplies  the means by which1 to use the
 poet's language1 we can                
8----give to airy nothing               
,a local habitation1 and a name60       
enabling the poet1 the philosopher1 and 
the divine1 to embody their  thoughts   
for the amusement1 instruction1         
direction1 and reformation of           
mankind40#c    ,footnote #c3      ,kirby
 and ,spence4    ,the oak which         
furnishes this gall is common throughout
 ,asia ,minor1 from  the ,bosphorus to  
,syria1 and from the shores of the      
,archipelago to  ,persia4 ,it is more   
frequently seen under the form of a     
shrub than a  tree1 rarely attaining six
 feet in height4 ,its leaves are smooth1
  toothed at the edges1 of a clear green

 on both sides1 and having a very  short
 leaf-stalk2 they fall every year1 at   
the end of autumn4 ,the acorn  is two or
 three times longer than its cup1 the   
latter is sessile1  slightly downy1 and 
furnished with small scales4 ,the gall  
is hard1  woody1 and heavy1 growing out 
of the buds of young branches1 and      
acquiring a diameter of from four lines 
to an inch4 ,it is generally  round1 and
 covered with knots1 some of which are  
pointed4    ,this gall-nut is much more 
valuable if gathered before it is ripe1 
that  is to say1 before the insect which
 produced it has made its escape4 ,in   
this state it has a bluish appearance1  
and is unperforated2 whereas  those from
 which the insect has departed are      
lighter in colour and in  weight1 and   
are less useful in dyeing4    ,the      
,orientals are very careful to gather in
 this crop at the exact time  which     
experience has proved to be the best1   
namely1 that in which the  excrescence  
has attained its greatest size and      

weight4 ,if there is any  delay1 the    
insect undergoes its metamorphosis1     
pierces the shell1 and  appears under   
its form of a winged insect4 ,from this 
time the gall-nut  no longer derives    
from the tree those juices which were   
necessary for  the nourishment of the   
insect1 but dries up1 and loses the     
greater part  of those qualities which  
make it valuable in commerce4 ,the ,aga 
of the  district takes care that the    
cultivators traverse frequently1 at the 
time of the harvest1 the hills and      
mountains which are covered with this   
oak4 ,he has an interest in obtaining   
galls of good quality1 because he       
levies a tax on the produce4 ,the first 
gatherings are set aside2 they  are     
known in the ,east under the name of    
yerli1 and are called in  commerce black
 galls1 and green galls4 ,those which   
have escaped the  first search1 and     
which are gathered a little later1 are  
named white  galls1 and are of a very   
inferior quality4    ,the galls from    

,mossoul and ,tocat1 and in general     
those which come from  the eastern part 
of ,turkey1 are less valued than those  
from the  neighbourhood of ,aleppo1 of  
,smyrna1 ,magnesia1 ,diarbekir1 and all 
the  interior of ,natolia4    ,the      
acorns of this oak are nearly always    
neglected2 being left as  pasturage for 
goats and wild boars3 this it is thought
 contributes much  to render the oak    
small and stunted1 because in devouring 
the fruit1  these animals also consume a
 part of its foliage and young branches4
    ,the body of the insect which       
produces the gall-nut1 is of a fawn     
colour1  with obscure antenn2 the       
abdomen is shining brown4 ,it is        
sometimes  found in its perfect form in 
the interior of the nut4    ,on the same
 oak are frequently found a great number
 of other galls1  which are not         
gathered1 because they are of no use in 
dyeing4 ,one of  these is represented in
 the frontispiece to this chapter1 and  
is  remarkable for its large size4 ,it  

is spongy1 very light1 of a reddish     
brown colour1 and covered with a        
resinous matter4 ,it is also furnished  
with a circular range of tubercles1     
placed near its greatest  circumference4
 ,this is produced by a different       
insect1 called by ,olivier  ,diplolepis 
gall resinos2 a figure of which is also 
given on the  right hand side4          
,gall-flies of various kinds attack our 
oak trees in this country1 and  also our
 willows1 hawthorns1 roses1 c4 ,a few   
words respecting the  excrescences they 
produce1 may therefore assist our ideas 
of the  proceedings of the valuable     
insect described above4 ,very few       
persons are  unacquainted with          
oak-apples1 or small roundish1 flattened
 bodies  growing on the leaves of the   
oak4 ,these are sometimes tinged with   
brown1  or pink1 or pale yellow1 so as  
to appear not much unlike very small    
apples1 attached to the leaf4 ,each of  
these curious bodies is formed by  a    
small fly of the same nature as that    

which forms the gall-nut4 ,this  insect 
alights on the leaf1 pierces it with a  
very sharp instrument with  which she is
 provided for this purpose1 and deposits
 an egg so minute as  to be almost      
invisible to the human eye4 ,the        
puncture of this insect  produces a     
diseased action in the leaf1 so that the
 parts immediately  surrounding the egg 
swell and harden until the apple-shaped 
body is  produced4 ,this is now an      
admirable place of shelter1 and a       
reservoir of  food for the insect       
within1 which remains snugly encased    
until it  arrives at its perfect state1 
when it cuts its way out through the    
solid  substance of the gall4           
,illustration3      ,,leaf ,,galls4     
,illustration3      ,,oak ,,spangle4    
,this is only one out of many forms of  
gall that may be found on the oak1      
where sometimes the leaf is attached1   
sometimes the catkin1 and  sometimes the
 young bud4 ,another form of that on the
 leaf consists of  very small circular  

discs fixed to the under part by their  
central  points4 ,the outer side of the 
disc is red and hairy1 the inner side   
smooth4 ,each disc contains a single    
insect1 which remains in it long  after 
the leaves have fallen to the ground4   
,the common name of this  curious       
excrescence is 8oak spangle40           
,illustration3      ,,currant ,,galls4  
,still more singular is the gall found  
in the catkins of the oak4 ,the  flies  
deposit their eggs in the stalk of the  
stamen-bearing flowers1  which in       
consequence become adorned with what    
appear to be straggling  bunches of     
currants or bird-cherries4 ,placed at   
short distances from  each other on the 
thread-like stem1 these excrescences so 
much resemble  currants in size1 shape1 
and mode of growth1 that they have been 
named  8currant galls40                 
,illustration3      ,,artichoke-,,gall4 
,among the species of gall to which our 
oaks are subject1 there are some  which 
grow at the end of the twig1 as for     

instance1 that called the               
artichoke-gall1 which comes the nearest 
in appearance to the nut-gall of        
commerce1 since it is1 in common with   
that nut1 an irregular  development1 not
 of the leaf or flower1 but of the bud4 
,the  artichoke-gall might indeed be    
easily mistaken for the fruit of the    
tree1 by any one unacquainted with the  
habit of the oak4 ,it is a  cone-like   
body1 consisting of a number of leafy   
scales overlapping each  other1 but on  
being dissected it is found1 like other 
galls1 to contain  insects in various   
stages of their growth1 according to the
 season4 ,in  the same way1 the         
nut-gall1 being a disease of the bud1 or
 extremity of  the young shoots of the  
oak on which it grows1 has the          
appearance common  to some other kinds  
of fruit1 and would seem to be the      
ordinary produce  of the stalk1 did we  
not find that acorns also grow on the   
same tree4  ,the hard and brittle       
texture of the gall-nut also1 so        

different from the  substance of our own
 oak-galls1 would be still more likely  
to deceive1  and indeed has deceived a  
highly respectable writer1 who declares 
from  his observation of the dried galls
 of commerce1 that the nut is the  fruit
 of a tree1 and not a mere              
excrescence4#d    ,footnote #d3         
,aikin4    ,how it is that the different
 species of gall-fly should produce such
  varied results1 and why one           
excrescence should be the oak-apple1    
another  the spangle1 a third the       
artichoke1 and a fourth the nut1 is     
indeed a  mystery4 ,but that these small
 insects do really produce the          
excrescences  in question1 is an        
ascertained fact1 and a most important  
one in the  commercial world4    ,nut   
galls contain a large quantity of the   
vegetable principle called  tannin1     
being the astringent property for which 
oak-bark is in so much  repute4 ,they   
also abound in an acid called from      
thence gallic acid1  which is the       

important ingredient in black dyes1 and 
in fixing and  improving several other  
colours1 as well as in the composition  
of ink4          ,illustration3         
,,blistering ,,beetle4                  
,,chapter ,,ix4                  ,,other
 ,,insect ,,productions ,,useful ,,to   
,,man4      ,almost any article could be
 better spared from the materia medica1 
than  an insect remedy called           
cantharides1 or ,spanish flies4 ,this   
consists  of the bodies of small        
beetles1 in which resides an active     
blistering  principle of great          
importance1 not only as an external     
application1 but  also sometimes as an  
internal remedy4 ,the insect chiefly    
used in ,europe  is the cantharis       
vesicatoria1 for the most part rare in  
,england1 but  seen on some occasions in
 great numbers1 as in the summer of     
#ahcg in  ,essex1 ,suffolk1 and the     
,isle of ,wight4 ,other insects of the  
same family  are employed in foreign    
countries4    ,the true blistering      

beetle has complete wings and wing      
cases2 its body  is long and narrow1    
varying in size1 but in general about   
nine lines  long and two or three lines 
wide4 ,it is of a rich green and golden 
colour1 very shining and delicately     
tinctured1 with the antenn black1       
except the first joint4    8,the        
cantharis is one of those insects which 
have been most anciently  and most      
universally known4 ,physicians1 who were
 the first natural  philosophers1 and   
the first observers of nature1 have made
 mention of  the cantharides in the     
remotest times4 ,but they have only     
considered  them under that relation    
which was most suitable to their own    
profession1 and as furnishing to        
medicine one of its most powerful       
agents4 ,the naturalist1 who is less    
anxious about becoming acquainted  with 
the medicinal virtues of the dead1 than 
with the peculiar habits of  the living 
cantharides1 is yet very far from having
 acquired in this  respect extensive and

 satisfactory information4 ,the only    
species which  has been deemed to be    
endowed with useful properties1 has     
caused a  forgetfulness of all the      
others which compose the entire genus2  
and all  that we know in general        
respecting these insects1 is that in our
  ,european climates they live on       
plants1 devour the leaves of certain    
trees1 shun the cold1 appear at the     
commencement of spring1 and  disappear  
at the beginning of autumn4 99 99 99 ,it
 is more than probable  that experiments
 on insects relatively to their utility 
in medicine and  the arts1 have been too
 much neglected in general4 ,their      
diminutive size  has doubtless caused   
them to be too much despised4 ,it cannot
 however be  doubted1 that there must be
 a great number of them whose virtues   
are at  least equal to those of the     
cantharides1 and many others which are  
less  acrid and less caustic might in   
many cases be taken internally1 with    
less danger and a greater chance of     

success40    ,the early history of this 
insect is not well known4 ,the female   
buries  her eggs in the ground2 the larv
 have a soft body of a yellowish white  
colour2 they live in the earth1 and feed
 on various roots4 ,when full  grown    
they change into the nymph state in the 
earth1 and do not emerge  from it until 
they have assumed the perfect insect    
form4    ,they are very abundant in     
,spain and in the ,south of ,france1    
especially  in ,june1 when they assemble
 in swarms4 ,this is the time for       
gathering  them1 and the hour of sunset 
or sunrise is chosen for the purpose1 as
  they are then in a somewhat torpid    
state4 ,they are found upon ash-trees1  
honey-suckles1 lilacs1 rose-trees1      
poplars1 elms1 c41 the leaves of  which 
they devour1 and when this food fails   
they attack corn and grass1  and do much
 damage4 ,the swarms are preceded by a  
ftid odour resembling  that of mice4    
,they are gathered in various ways2 the 
most simple is to  spread cloths under  

the tree upon which a swarm has settled1
 and then to  shake them down2 they are 
afterwards collected upon a hair sieve1 
and  held over the vapour of boiling    
vinegar1 which kills them2 or the cloth 
in which they are collected may be      
folded loosely up and dipped in         
vinegar1 which has the same effect4     
,another method is to boil a quantity   
of vinegar under the tree where they are
 collected1 and the ascending  vapour   
kills them4    ,the particles emitted by
 these insects are so very corrosive    
that  persons are liable to be violently
 affected who attempt to gather them    
with bare hands during the heat of the  
day4 ,it is also dangerous to be  under 
a tree where a swarm has gathered4      
,persons who collect them should  always
 wear a mask and gloves4    ,after the  
insects are killed they must be dried2  
this is done in the sun  or in a heated 
room1 upon tiles covered with cloth or  
paper4 ,they are  moved about from time 
to time with a stick1 or with the hands 

furnished  with gloves4 ,when properly  
dry they are so light that fifty weigh  
scarcely a drachm4    ,they are packed  
in boxes or barrels lined with paper and
 perfectly dry4  ,if damp gets to them  
they contract a detestable odour1 and   
are unfit for  use4    ,a portion of our
 supply of cantharides is from ,astracan
 and ,sicily3 but  the greatest quantity
 is from ,st4 ,petersburgh1 the ,russian
 insects being  superior to those of    
,sicily and ,france4    ,in using       
cantharides they are reduced to powder1 
mixed with some fatty  substance1 and   
applied in the form of a plaster to the 
surface of the  body3 it begins to act  
immediately1 and separates the outer    
skin from  the dermis with great        
rapidity4    ,a singular employment of  
insects in the composition of soap is   
made in  some parts of ,africa4         
,geoffrey the younger relates1 that     
being at the  village of ,postudal1 some
 leagues from ,senegal1 in search of    
insects1  one of the negroes whom he had

 employed in the same pursuit brought   
him  a vessel containing an immense     
quantity of a small species of carabus1 
and informed him that this insect       
entered into the composition of the     
soap used in that country2 at the same  
time he exhibited a ball of a           
dark-coloured soap1 the properties of   
which are similar to the soap used  in  
,europe4 ,it appears that the insect    
abounds in alkali1 which makes it       
useful for the purpose in question4     
,the following figure of the soap insect
 7,carabus saponarius71 is  copied from 
,m4 ,olivier's large work on insects4   
,illustration3 ,soap ,insect    ,another
 useful insect substance is a kind of   
resin1 or more properly  speaking1 wax1 
which by adulteration with a resinous   
substance is made  heavier for the      
market4 ,this is found in the province  
of ,coquimbo1 ,south  ,america1 and is  
the production of a caterpillar1 which  
feeds on a shrub  called chilca1 a      
species of origanum4 ,the caterpillars  

are of a red  colour1 and about half an 
inch in length4 ,they appear in great   
numbers  in the beginning of the spring 
on the branches of the chilca1 where    
they  form their cells of a kind of soft
 wax4 ,in these they become changed     
into a small yellowish moth1 with black 
stripes upon the wings4 ,the wax  is at 
first very white1 by degrees becomes    
yellow1 and finally brown2  this change1
 and the bitter taste which it acquires1
 is supposed to be  owing to the fogs   
which are very frequent in the provinces
 where it is  found4 ,it is collected in
 autumn by the inhabitants1 who boil it 
in  water1 and afterwards make it up    
into little cakes1 in which form it is  
brought to market4 ,in order to increase
 its weight1 many are accustomed  to mix
 it with the resin obtained from another
 resinous shrub1 and in  this state     
great quantities are sold to            
ship-masters1 who use it for  paying    
their vessels4    ,upon the branches of 
the wild rosemary is also found a       

whitish viscous  substance1 in globules 
of the size of a hazel-nut1 containing a
 very  limpid oil1 which proceeds from  
the shrub4 ,these glands serve for the  
habitation of a kind of caterpillar1    
which becomes transformed into a  small 
fly1 with four brown wings1 of the genus
 ,cynips4                      99       
99       99       99       99    ,the   
foregoing details will be sufficient to 
show that we are indebted in  no small  
degree to the labours of insects for    
comfort1 convenience1 and  health4 ,it  
becomes us then to receive not          
unthankfully the benefits they  confer1 
while we view them as the agents of a   
higher power1 under whose  direction    
they work with ceaseless activity in    
their humble sphere1 and  produce       
results1 not less astonishing in        
themselves1 than valuable and           
beneficial to mankind4    ,illustration3
 ,,finis                                
,,london                    ,r4 ,,clay1 
,,printer1 ,,bread ,,street ,,hill4     

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,,transcriber',s ,,notes       ,page    
,changed from                           
,changed to     #aee3t#aee punctured1   
with the antenn      tinctured1 with the
 antenn        black1 except            
black1 except      ,typos fixed2        
non-standard spelling and dialect       
retained4    ,used numbers for          
footnotes4    ,enclosed italics font in 
underscores4