,,something ,,about ,,sugar ,illustration3 ,refined ,sugar ,showing ,form of ,crystals ,,something ,,about ,,sugar ,,its ,,history ,,growth1 ,,manufacture ,,and ,,distribution ,,by ,,george ,m4 ,,rolph ,illustration ,sugar is nothing more nor less than concentrated sunshine ,,san ,,francisco ,,john ,j4 ,,newbegin ,,publisher #aiag ,,copyright1 #aiag1 ,,by ,,george ,m4 ,,rolph ,,printed ,,by ,,taylor ,,taylor1 ,,san ,,francisco ,,dedication3 ,,to ,r4 ,p4 ,,rithet ,,foreword ,the purpose of this book is to tell in simple language 8,something ,about ,sugar40 ,it gives a brief history of the commodity and its production in different parts of the world1 and seeks to show1 for the information1 especially1 of the layman and the pupil in school1 the various steps by which sugar from cane and beets is prepared for the consumer4 ,g4 ,m4 ,r4 ,,contents ,,page ,,part ,i ,growth1 ,manufacture and ,distribution ,,what ,,sugar ,,is #c ,,the ,,growing ,,of ,,sugar ,,cane #f ,,soil ,,analysis #h ,,entomology #h ,,pathology #i ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,raw ,,sugar #bb ,,extraction #bb ,,purification #be ,,evaporation #bh ,,concentration ,,and ,,crystallization #ca ,,preparation ,,of ,,crystals ,,for ,,the ,,market #cc ,,transportation ,,and ,,delivery ,,of ,,raw ,,sugar #cg ,,polarization #ci ,,refining ,,of ,,raw ,,sugar #dd ,,washing #ej ,,melting #ed ,,defecation #ed ,,bone-,,char ,,filtration #ei ,,crystallization #fe ,,partial ,,drying #fi ,,final ,,drying ,,of ,,crystals #fi ,,screening #ga ,,packing #gc ,,cube ,,sugar #gg ,,powdered ,,and ,,bar ,,sugar #gi ,,yellow ,,sugars #ha ,,mechanical ,,department #hd ,,laboratory #hg ,,cost ,,of ,,refining #hh ,,shipping ,,department #ia ,,marketing #ic ,,beet ,,sugar #ajj ,,the ,,sugar ,,beet #ajb ,,selection ,,of ,,the ,,soil #ajc ,,planting #ajd ,,thinning #ajf ,,cultivation #ajg ,,harvesting ,,and ,,topping #ajg ,,manufacture ,,of ,,beet ,,sugar #aaj ,,transportation ,,and ,,cleaning #aaj ,,extraction ,,of ,,juice1 ,,slicing ,,and ,,diffusion #aaa ,,purification ,,of ,,juice1 ,,carbonation ,,and ,,filtration #aab ,,concentration ,,of ,,juice #aac ,,sulfitation #aad ,,formation ,,of ,,grain #aae ,,steffen ,,process #aae ,,part ,,ii ,history of the ,industry ,,early ,,history #aai ,,beet ,,sugar ,,in ,,europe #abh ,,beet ,,sugar ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states #adh ,,territory ,,of ,,hawaii #afc ,,louisiana #age ,,porto ,,rico #ahb ,,the ,,philippines #ahi ,,cuba #bja ,,jamaica #bac ,,barbados #bbj ,,trinidad #bbd ,,santo ,,domingo #bbg ,,guadeloupe ,,and ,,martinique #bcc ,,guadeloupe #bcc ,,martinique #bcd ,,guadeloupe ,,and ,,martinique #bcf ,,mexico #bdc ,,peru #bdi ,,brazil #bef ,,british ,,guiana #bfd ,,argentina #bga ,,formosa #bgf ,,java #bhc ,,australia #cjb ,,mauritius #cji ,,natal #cag ,,egypt #cbj ,,spain #cbd ,,india #ccj ,,conclusion #cch ,,illustrations ,,part ,i ,growth1 ,manufacture and ,distribution ,,refined ,,sugar1 ,,showing ,,form ,,of ,,crystals ,frontispiece ,,sugar ,,cane1 ,,showing ,,eyes ,,or ,,buds ,to face page #d ,,roots ,,of ,,sugar ,,cane #f ,,jungle-,,like ,,vegetation ,,of ,,cane ,,field #g ,,leaf-,,hopper #aj ,,sugar ,,cane #aa ,,experiment ,,station #ab ,,plantation ,,scene ,,in ,,hawaii--,,light-,,colored ,,foliage ,,is ,,sugar ,,cane #ac ,,steam ,,plough #ad ,,planting ,,cane #ae ,,irrigation ,,ditch1 ,,showing ,,tunnel #af ,,irrigation ,,ditch #ag ,,young ,,sugar ,,cane #ah ,,ripe ,,sugar ,,cane1 ,,showing ,,tassels #ai ,,cutting ,,cane #bj ,,loading ,,cane #ba ,,train-,,load ,,of ,,cane ,,ready ,,for ,,the ,,mill #bb ,a ,,modern ,,mill #bc ,,cane ,,carrier ,,and ,,mechanical ,,unloader #bd ,,another ,,type ,,of ,,cane ,,unloader #be ,,twelve-,,roller ,,mill #bf ,,modern ,,crushing ,,plant2 ,,two ,,fifteen-,,roller ,,mills ,,and ,,crushers1 ,,capacity #aje ,,tons ,,per ,,hour #bg ,,delivering ,,bagasse ,,to ,,fire-,,room #bh ,,general ,,interior ,,view ,,of ,,modern ,,raw-,,sugar ,,mill #bi ,,filter ,,presses #cj ,,set ,,of ,,quadruple ,,evaporators #ca ,,vacuum ,,pans #cb ,,centrifugal ,,machines #cc ,,filling1 ,,weighing ,,and ,,sewing ,,sacks #cd ,,train-,,load ,,of ,,raw ,,sugar ,,leaving ,,mill #ce ,,steamer ,,loading ,,sugar ,,alongside ,,of ,,dock #ch ,,loading ,,sugar ,,at ,,an ,,outport ,,in ,,hawaii #ci ,,polariscope 7in body of text7 ,page #dj ,a ,,modern ,,refinery1 ,,showing ,,water ,,and ,,rail ,,transportation ,,facilities ,to face page #df ,,plan ,,elevation ,,of ,a ,,modern ,,refinery #dg ,,steamer ,,discharging ,,raw ,,sugar ,,at ,,refinery ,,dock #dh ,,sugar ,,stored ,,in ,,warehouse--#be1jjj ,,tons ,,shown ,,in ,,this ,,picture #di ,,cut-,,in ,,station1 ,,showing ,,sugar ,,first ,,entering ,,the ,,refining ,,process #ej ,,centrifugal ,,machine1 ,,motor ,,driven #ea ,,bag ,,filters1 ,,showing ,,bags ,,in ,,place #ef ,,filter ,,presses #eg ,,making ,,new ,,bags ,,and ,,lining ,,the ,,washed ,,bags #eh ,,printing ,,the ,,empty ,,raw-,,sugar ,,bags #ei ,,char ,,filters #fj ,,char ,,filters1 ,,showing ,,outlet ,,pipes #fa ,,top ,,of ,,char ,,filters1 ,,showing ,,pipe ,,connections #fb ,,exterior ,,view ,,of ,,char ,,drier #fc ,,interior ,,arrangement ,,of ,,char ,,drier #fd ,,exterior ,,view ,,of ,,char ,,kilns1 ,,showing ,,oil-,,burning ,,apparatus #fe ,a ,,refinery ,,vacuum ,,pan ,,and ,,pump #ff ,,arrangement ,,of ,,steam ,,coils ,,in ,a ,,vacuum ,,pan #fg ,,refinery ,,centrifugal ,,machines #fh ,,exterior ,,view ,,of ,,sweater #fi ,,front ,,view ,,of ,,sweater1 ,,showing ,,steam ,,coils ,,for ,,heating ,,the ,,air #gj ,,interior ,,view ,,of ,,sweater #ga ,,separator1 ,,closed1 ,,ready ,,for ,,operation #gb ,,separators1 ,,one ,,of ,,which ,,is ,,open1 ,,showing ,,three ,,screens ,,for ,,separating ,,the ,,sugar ,,grains #gc ,,filling1 ,,weighing ,,and ,,sewing #ajj-,,pound ,,sacks #gd ,,filling1 ,,weighing ,,and ,,sewing #be-,,pound ,,sacks #ge ,,filling ,,barrels #gf ,,method ,,of ,,handling ,,barrels #gg ,,cube ,,sugar ,,machine #gh ,,carton ,,machine #gi ,,filling1 ,,weighing ,,and ,,sewing #b-,,pound1 #e-,,pound ,,and #aj-,,pound ,,bags #hj ,,laboratory #hf ,,oil-,,burning ,,boiler ,,plant #hg ,,inland-,,waterway ,,steamer ,,loading ,,sugar ,,at ,,refinery ,,dock #ib ,,car-,,float ,,arriving ,,at ,,refinery ,,dock #ic ,,sugar ,,beet#a #ajj ,,another ,,type ,,of ,,sugar ,,beet #aja ,,ploughing ,,with ,,caterpillar ,,engine #ajb ,,planting ,,beet ,,seed #ajc ,,thinning #ajd ,,cultivating #aje ,,field ,,of ,,ripe ,,beets #ajf ,,topping ,,beets #ajg ,,hauling ,,beets #ajh ,,delivering ,,beets ,,to ,,the ,,factory ,,by ,,wagon #aji ,,delivering ,,beets ,,to ,,the ,,factory ,,by ,,train #aaj ,,general ,,interior ,,view ,,of ,,beet-,,sugar ,,factory1 ,,showing ,,filter ,,presses ,,in ,,foreground2 ,,pans ,,and ,,evaporators ,,in ,,rear #aaa ,,diffusion ,,battery1 ,,showing ,,diffusion ,,cells ,,in ,,circular ,,arrangement #aab ,,diffusion ,,battery1 ,,showing ,,diffusion ,,cells ,,in ,,straight ,,lines #aac ,,weighing1 ,,filling ,,and ,,sewing ,,bags ,,in ,a ,,beet ,,factory #aad ,,cattle ,,feeding ,,on ,,beet ,,pulp #aae ,,the ,,first ,,successful ,,beet-,,sugar ,,factory ,,in ,,america--,,alvarado1 ,,california #aaf ,,part ,,ii ,history of the ,industry ,a ,,modern ,,beet-,,sugar ,,factory #aag ,,christopher ,,columbus #abd ,,olivier ,,de ,,serres #abh ,,andreas ,,marggraf #abi ,,franz ,,carl ,,achard #acj ,,first ,,beet-,,sugar ,,factory ,,in ,,the ,,world--,,built ,,at ,,cunern1 ,,silesia1 #ahjb #aca ,,napoleon ,i #acb ,,building ,,in ,,salt ,,lake ,,city1 ,,utah1 ,,in ,,which ,,the ,,first ,,beet-,,sugar ,,machinery ,,brought ,,to ,,the ,,west ,,was ,,installed #aej ,e4 ,h4 ,,dyer1 ,,the ,,father ,,of ,,beet ,,sugar ,,in ,,america #aea ,,hauling ,,cane ,,in ,,the ,,fields1 ,,louisiana #agh ,,hauling ,,cane ,,in ,,the ,,fields1 ,,louisiana #agi ,,sugar ,,plantation ,,scene ,,in ,,porto ,,rico#b #ahb ,,sugar-,,shipping ,,port1 ,,porto ,,rico #ahc ,,ploughing ,,cane ,,field ,,with ,,steam ,,plough1 ,,porto ,,rico #ahd ,,unloading ,,sugar ,,cane ,,at ,a ,,mill1 ,,porto ,,rico #ahe ,,ploughing ,,field ,,before ,,planting ,,cane1 ,,philippines #aij ,,ploughing ,,at ,,la ,,carlota1 ,,occidental ,,negros1 ,,philippines #aia ,,hauling ,,cane1 ,,philippines #aib ,,carabao ,,mill1 ,,philippines #aic ,,old-,,style ,,sugar ,,mill1 ,,philippines1 ,,showing ,,poor ,,crushing #aid ,,tinguian ,,cane ,,crusher1 ,,lingayen1 ,,philippines #aie ,,old ,,water-,,driven ,,mill1 ,,island ,,of ,,negros1 ,,philippines #aif ,,mill ,,driven ,,by ,,water ,,power1 ,,occidental ,,negros1 ,,philippines #aig ,,native ,,sugar ,,factory1 ,,pampanga ,,province1 ,,philippines #aih ,,interior ,,of ,,camarin1 ,,philippines #aii ,,luzon ,,sugar ,,refinery1 ,,malabon1 ,,rizal1 ,,philippines #bjj ,,loading ,,sugar ,,on ,,lorchas1 ,,philippines #bja ,,central ,,factory1 ,,general ,,view1 ,,cuba#c #bjb ,,cuban ,,central1 ,,general ,,view #bjc ,,cane ,,field1 ,,cuba #bjd ,,loading ,,cane ,,on ,,ox-,,carts1 ,,cuba #bje ,,train-,,load ,,of ,,sugar ,,cane1 ,,cuba #bjh ,,self-,,dumping ,,cane ,,car1 ,,cuba #bji ,,morelands ,,sugar ,,mill1 ,,vere1 ,,jamaica4 ,photo by ,h4 ,h4 ,cousins #baf ,,the ,,fleet1 ,,morelands1 ,,vere1 ,,jamaica4 ,photo by ,h4 ,h4 ,cousins #bag ,,leveling ,a ,,cane ,,field1 ,,peru #bej ,,leveling ,,ground ,,by ,,steam1 ,,peru #bea ,,planting ,,cane1 ,,peru #beb ,,portable ,,branch ,,line ,,of ,,field ,,railway ,,and ,,cane ,,cutters1 ,,peru #bec ,,hauling ,,cane-,,laden ,,cars ,,with ,,ox-,,team1 ,,peru #bed ,,train-,,load ,,of ,,cane ,,en ,,route ,,to ,,the ,,factory1 ,,peru #bee ,,sugar ,,plantation ,,between ,,rio ,,de ,,janeiro ,,and ,s,o ,,paulo1 ,,brazil #bfj ,,train-,,load ,,of ,,cane ,,en ,,route ,,to ,,the ,,ingenio ,,la ,,mendieta1 ,,argentina #bgj ,,unloading ,a ,,car ,,of ,,cane1 ,,tucum,n1 ,,argentina #bga ,,battery ,,of ,,boilers1 ,,ingenio1 ,,la ,,trinidad1 ,,tucum,n1 ,,argentina #bgb ,,home ,,of ,,superintendent ,,of ,a ,,sugar ,,plantation1 ,,tucum,n1 ,,argentina #bgc ,,ingenio ,,nueva ,,baviera1 ,,tucum,n1 ,,argentina #bgd ,,ingenio ,,nueva ,,baviera1 ,,tucum,n1 ,,argentina #bge ,,kohekirin ,,mill1 ,,formosa #bhj ,,sugar ,,cane ,,affected ,,by ,,the ,,sereh1 ,,java #bif ,,seedling ,,canes1 ,,java #big ,,cutting ,,cane1 ,,maroochy ,,river1 ,,south ,,queensland #cjb ,,carting ,,cane ,,to ,,mill1 ,,ingham ,,district1 ,,north ,,queensland #cjc ,,isis ,,central ,,mill1 ,,childers1 ,,south ,,queensland #cjd ,,cane ,,unloader1 ,,mulgrave ,,central ,,sugar ,,mill1 ,,cairns ,,district1 ,,north ,,queensland #cje ,,sugar ,,mill1 ,,nahan ,,factory1 ,,india #ccj ,,centrifugal ,,worked ,,by ,,hand1 ,,india #cca ,,wooden ,,mill ,,from ,,gorakhpur1 ,,india 7in body of text7 ,page #ccb ,,boiling ,,by ,,old ,,method1 ,,india ,to face page #ccb ,,furnace ,,and ,,pans ,,for ,,making ,,rab1 ,,india #ccc ,,stone ,,mill1 ,,agra1 ,,india 7in body of text7 ,page #ccc ,,small ,,locomotive ,,used ,,to ,,draw ,,cane-,,cars1 #b-;,,foot ,,gauge1 ,,india ,to face page #ccd ,,loading ,,cane ,,carrier1 ,,marhourah ,,factory1 ,,india #cce ,,water-,,driven ,,centrifugals1 ,,marhourah ,,factory1 ,,india #ccf ,,champaran ,,sugar ,,company1 ,,ltd41 ,,barrah ,,chakia1 ,,champaran1 ,,india #ccg ,,part ,i ,growth1 ,manufacture and ,distribution ,,what ,,sugar ,,is ,among the many varieties of sugar the most important are the sucroses and the glucoses4 ,they form a natural group of substances1 chiefly of vegetable origin4 ,chemically considered1 all sugars are carbohydrates1 that is to say1 bodies composed of three elements3 carbon1 hydrogen and oxygen4 ,sucrose contains twelve atoms of carbon1 twenty-two atoms of hydrogen and eleven atoms of oxygen4 ,apart from sucrose1 which is usually cane and beet sugar1 the variety most generally met with is dextrose--one of the glucoses4 ,it possesses less sweetness than sucrose and differs from the latter in chemical composition4 ,as an example3 dextrose is found in the raisin in small grains4 ,it also occurs in other fruits and is the result of the inversion of sucrose4 ,glucose enters largely into the manufacture of candy1 being particularly necessary in the preparation of soft filling for creams1 as a certain amount of it added to cane-sugar syrup prevents crystallization4 ,sucrose is derived from sugar cane1 maple sap1 sorghum and the sugar beet4 ,it is a solid1 crystallizing in the form of monoclinic prisms1 generally with hemihedral faces1 which are colorless1 transparent1 have a sweet taste1 a specific gravity of #a4f and a melting point of about #cbj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,it is soluble in about one-half its weight in cold water1 and in boiling water in almost all proportions4 ,it is practically insoluble in alcohol1 turpentine1 ether1 chloroform and similar fluids4 ,the crop of #aiad-ae showed a world's production of #ah1dji1jaf long tons of sugar1 and in the chapters relating to the history of sugar will be found a statement setting forth the amount produced by each country4 ,the total was derived about one-half from cane and one-half from beets1 produced as follows3 ,,cane ,,beet ,total in ,america #e1jag1cge #ffj1bcf 0 ,asia #d1bfh1fah 0 ,australia and ,polynesia #cdh1djh 0 ,africa #ebc1ghh 0 ,europe #g1cgfd #g1ehc1bae ---------- --------- #aj1afe1efe #h1bdc1dea ,sugar cane1 described in botany as ,saccharum officinarum1 is a giant-stemmed perennial grass that grows from eight to twenty-four feet long4 ,when ripe it produces at the top of its stalk a large feathery plume of flowers of a gray inflorescence called the 8tassel10 which is from two to four feet in length4 ,there are many kinds of cane1 all of which are regarded as varieties of one species1 although some botanists have raised a few to the rank of distinct species4 ,the cultivated types are distinguished by the color of the internodes1 yellow1 red1 purple or striped1 and by other general characteristics4 ,illustration3 ,,sugar ,,cane--,,showing ,,eyes ,,or ,,buds ,the stem of the cane is solid1 with joints at intervals of three to six inches4 ,in diameter it ranges from one to two and a half inches1 and is unbranched1 bearing in its upper part numerous long1 narrow grass-like leaves1 arranged in two rows4 ,the leaves spring from large sheaths around the joints1 and have a more or less spreading blade from three to five feet in length and two inches or more in width4 ,the pith1 of open cellular structure1 contains the sugary juice4 ,the tops1 which contain but little sugar1 are not crushed1 but are used for seed1 as the plant germinates from the eyes1 or buds1 which grow on the stem around the joints4 ,practically no cultivated cane is propagated from its seed4 ,the roots that remain in the ground after the cane is harvested throw up fresh canes or ratoons for many seasons1 after which replanting is necessary4 ,hawaiian growers do not count on ratoons for more than a few crops1 whereas in ,cuba this process can be repeated for many years4 ,as a rule1 sugar cane consists of about eighty-eight per cent of juice and twelve per cent of fiber1 the juice content varying from time to time1 both as regards quality and amount4 ,the quantity of the juice pressed from the cane determines the efficiency of the extraction1 while quality is the main factor when the result of subsequent manufacture is under analysis4 ,it is difficult to arrive at a fair average of the composition of the juice of the cane1 as it varies in different countries1 on different plantations in the same country1 and at different periods in any one year4 ,the following is an approximation3 ,water #hj4h per cent ,sugar #af4d 0 ,invert sugar #a4ih 0 ,organic non-sugar 4#ed 0 ,ash 7mineral matter7 4#bh 0 ,,the ,,growing ,,of ,,sugar ,,cane ,sugar cane grows almost exclusively in the tropical belt1 extending from twenty-two degrees north to twenty-two degrees south latitude1 where the three essentials for its successful culture1 viz41 fertile soil1 hot sunshine and plenty of moisture1 are present4 ,it flourishes in the islands of the ,pacific ocean1 particularly in the ,hawaiian group1 in ,cuba1 ,mexico1 ,central ,america1 the islands of the ,east and ,west ,indies1 ,australia1 ,china1 ,india1 along the shores of the ,china sea and the ,indian ocean1 and in certain parts of ,africa and ,south ,america4 ,in the low latitudes of the temperate zone it is grown with only fair success4 ,owing to peculiar climatic conditions1 sugar cane has been raised in southern ,spain for generations1 notwithstanding the fact that the provinces in which the sugar cane is grown lie1 roughly speaking1 between thirty-six degrees and thirty-eight degrees north latitude4 ,the ,gulf ,stream is no doubt largely responsible for this phenomenon4 ,the quantity of sugar produced in ,spain1 however1 is small1 the crop of #aiad-ae amounting to less than #hjjj tons4 ,sugar cane thrives best in a moist1 warm climate1 with moderate intervals of dry1 hot weather1 and plenty of water for irrigation4 ,it requires marly soil1 free from saline ingredients4 ,as a rule1 it is raised on the lowlands1 where the temperature is highest and where it is easy to bring water for irrigation4 ,in ,hawaii it takes eighteen months to ripen1 and 8tasseling0 occurs about thirty days before it is ready to be cut4 ,in ,louisiana and ,texas1 because of the short seasons1 cane is harvested in from nine to ten months from the time of sprouting1 and1 consequently1 before it has attained maturity4 ,in ,cuba it is cut in twelve months1 whether it is ripe or not4 ,illustration3 ,,roots ,,of ,,sugar ,,cane ,illustration3 ,,jungle-,,like ,,vegetation ,,of ,,cane ,,field ,as the scientific culture and manufacture of sugar is probably further advanced in the ,hawaiian islands than in any other part of the world1 a description of the industry as carried on there will serve to illustrate the intensive cultivation and scientific methods of the present day4 ,the ,hawaiian islands are situated in the ,pacific ocean1 in latitude nineteen degrees to twenty-two degrees north and in longitude one hundred and fifty-four degrees to one hundred and sixty-one degrees west1 and are free from the destructive hurricanes of the ,east and ,west ,indies4 ,they are of volcanic formation and1 as a rule1 their centers are mountainous1 in some instances reaching an elevation of nearly fourteen thousand feet4 ,during the ages1 torrential rains carried volcanic ash from the mountains toward the sea1 near which it was deposited1 thus forming alluvial areas of vast richness around the circumference of the islands4 ,parts of some of the islands are fringed with coral reefs1 barriers that retain the washings from the mountains4 ,in these low-lying areas the soil is extraordinarily fertile1 and it is on such ground that the most generous crops are raised4 ,the soft1 warm trade winds that blow from the northeast become laden with moisture as they sweep over the ocean2 when they strike the cold mountain peaks the moisture condenses immediately into copious rains4 ,the precipitation in some places reaches the astounding total of three hundred inches per annum4 ,the rain water is conserved and1 when needed1 is carried to the various plantations by immense irrigation ditches4 ,in this tropical region there is an abundance of sunshine1 accompanied by humid heat1 exactly the conditions needed4 ,it required only man's ingenuity to utilize what nature so lavishly provided4 ,the commercial cultivation of sugar cane in these islands began about #ahej1 when a few hundred tons of raw sugar were produced1 but the methods of husbandry and manufacture were crude4 ,time and experience worked great changes1 until in #aiad-ae the crop of raw sugar totaled #fdf1ddh tons of #bjjj pounds each4 ,for many years past the sugar planters have maintained in ,honolulu an experimental station that is the marvel of the agricultural world4 ,the bulletins issued by it are recognized as authoritative1 and are read with interest in every sugar-producing country4 ,the most important features of the work carried on at this station are3 #a4 ,,soil ,,analysis ,skilled chemists examine the soils of the various plantations and1 when occasion demands1 advise the planter what necessary element is lacking1 as well as how to obtain and apply it4 ,a few years ago this branch of the work was considered highly important4 ,recently1 however1 the agriculturists have been depending more upon well-defined systems of experimentation4 ,each plantation has on its own lands plots of ground on which different methods of culture are tried and on which various kinds of fertilizer are used4 ,experiments are also made to determine the exact amount of water needed for irrigation4 ,particular attention is paid to seed cane1 and a number of types of it are planted in order to obtain seed that will produce stalks that grow rapidly1 yield a large tonnage per acre1 contain a maximum amount of sugar1 and have a high resistant power against disease and insect pests4 ,the success attending this practical experimental work is such that soil analysis is being relegated to second place4 #b4 ,,entomology ,a staff of trained experts assiduously study the insect life and eagerly watch for harmful1 troublesome pests1 which in the past have wrought great damage4 ,it is their duty to find the means of eliminating these pests1 and this they usually accomplish through the skillful use of insect parasites4 #c4 ,,pathology ,the pathologists attached to the station supplement the scientific labors of the chemists and the entomologists by prescribing for any disease that may attack the cane4 ,plant life is subject to as many ills as the human family1 and the work of these specialists in restoring health to ailing cane is of the highest importance4 ,to fully illustrate the character and scope of their work1 a particular instance for each department may be cited3 ,a certain planter found that the amount of sugar obtained from his cane was decreasing yearly1 though he could see no good reason for it4 ,the land looked right2 he ploughed deeply1 harrowed well1 kept the weeds down1 gave the cane plenty of water1 could find no reason to complain of climatic conditions1 but still did not get satisfactory results4 ,finally the head of the experimental station was consulted and an agricultural chemist was sent to the plantation4 ,this chemist1 after careful investigation1 took samples of the soil from various parts of the land2 these were analyzed and the source of the trouble was found to be the lack of potash4 ,just here it may be explained that when the same crop is taken from the land many years in succession1 without adequate fertilization1 some of the essential properties of the soil become exhausted4 ,speaking generally1 these are lime1 soda1 potash1 phosphates and nitrogen4 ,in this particular instance1 as has been said1 the land had been gradually drained of its potash4 ,the experimental station recommended the planter to scatter a certain fertilizer over his fields4 ,this advice was followed and the next crop showed remarkable improvement1 the yield of cane and sugar per acre being greater than ever before4 ,at one time the sugar industry of the ,hawaiian islands was threatened with annihilation by a little insect called the 8leaf-hopper40 ,the harm done by this pest was so enormous that one plantation having an average yearly crop of #ai1jjj tons was so severely affected that the yield dropped from #ai1jjj to #ab1jjj1 and then to #cjjj tons in three successive crops4 ,all the plantations on the islands suffered to a greater or lesser extent1 and the entire sugar industry of ,hawaii was jeopardized4 ,the hoppers punctured the stalks and leaves of the young cane1 and in the holes thus formed laid their eggs by thousands4 ,when the young hoppers hatched out1 they fed on the juices in the stalk and in the leaves1 thus destroying the leaves and depriving the cane of its protection and principal means of absorbing nourishment from the air4 ,as soon as the leaf-hopper by its ravages made itself known in the islands1 the entomologists were consulted1 and they were confronted with the task of studying the life and habits of the hopper for the purpose of finding1 if possible1 some other insects that would attack and exterminate it4 ,it is well known to entomologists that every insect pest has natural enemies2 the vital question in this case was--what were the natural enemies of the leaf-hopper and where were they to be found8 ,obviously1 too1 the problem was to discover insectivorous enemies that would not themselves attack the cane after they had destroyed the hopper4 ,after careful investigation it was concluded that the leaf-hopper had been introduced in ,hawaii in new varieties of seed cane imported from ,australia1 and1 as the hopper was not doing material damage on the plantations in ,australia1 the inference was that it must be controlled there by its natural enemy4 ,the chief of the ,department of ,entomology was sent to ,london4 ,there in the archives of the ,british ,museum he found a full description of the leaf-hopper and that its native habitat was ,queensland1 ,australia4 ,on his return to ,hawaii1 entomologists were sent to ,australia and the search for the enemy of the hopper began4 ,illustration3 ,,leaf-,,hopper 7,,greatly ,,magnified7 ,illustration3 ,,sugar ,,cane ,for weeks the entomologists virtually lived in the cane fields1 undergoing extreme privations1 but at last their faithfulness was crowned with success4 ,several species of parasites that kept the ,queensland leaf-hopper in check were discovered1 and later on more were found in the islands of ,fiji4 ,these tiny creatures as a rule were invisible to the naked eye and could only be seen with the aid of a powerful magnifying glass4 ,all of these insects were parasites either of the leaf-hopper or its eggs4 ,two of them were particularly efficacious4 ,one1 quicker in movement than the hopper1 caught it unawares and attached itself to the hopper's body much in the same way that a mosquito does to a human being4 ,after catching it1 the parasite would sting the hopper and lay an egg in its body4 ,in a few days a young parasite was hatched from the egg1 and so ravenous was this young insect that it devoured the hopper in a short time and then sought a fresh victim in which to lay its eggs4 ,the other insect was even more effective4 ,it liked the hoppers' eggs and for a long time found plenty in ,hawaii to stay its appetite4 ,as soon as the leaf-hopper laid its eggs in the cane1 this particular insect would appear and lay its eggs in the eggs of the leaf-hopper4 ,when the little enemies hatched out1 they fed on the hoppers' eggs and in turn laid their eggs in the eggs of the hopper4 ,it came to pass that the hoppers1 attacked by the parasite on the one hand and by the enemy on the other1 rapidly dwindled in number until only a few remained1 and these not enough to do material damage4 ,as the hoppers and their eggs diminished1 so did the parasite and the enemy1 for the latter could live on insect food only4 ,how the scientists collected these tiny animalcules1 kept them alive1 transported them thousands of miles across the ocean1 bred them in ,hawaii and saved the ,hawaiian sugar industry1 reads like a romance4 ,the study of entomology is extremely interesting and the every-day business man rarely understands its importance4 ,the finding1 breeding and distribution of parasites of insect pests vitally affects the world's food supply4 ,the entomological name of the leaf-hopper family is ,hemiptera1 and ,dr4 ,sharp1 an authority on the subject1 has said3 8,there is probably no order of insects that is so directly connected with the welfare of the human race as the hemiptera2 indeed if anything were to exterminate the enemies of hemiptera1 we ourselves should probably be starved in the course of a few months40 ,it has been estimated by competent authority that the damage done in the world each year by the hemiptera1 in spite of all their parasites1 is conservatively #fjj1jjj1jjj4 ,were it not for the parasites1 it would only be a year or two at most before every green leaf and spear of grass would disappear from the face of the earth4 ,the direct influence of the practical application of this science to the production of sugar is readily apparent4 ,pathology is almost equally important4 ,in former years when cane failed to grow strong and sturdy and did not yield much sugar1 the planter usually attributed the difficulty either to lack of water1 poor soil1 cool weather1 too much rain or insufficient cultivation of the field by his manager1 when in fact the trouble was due to none of these causes4 ,he would personally oversee the operations of the following year1 but with no better results4 ,illustration3 ,,experiment ,,station ,illustration3 ,,plantation ,,scene ,,in ,,hawaii--,,light-,,colored ,,foliage ,,is ,,sugar ,,cane ,when the roots of the cane became matted1 stuck together and turned black1 when a thick gum exuded from the stalk and leaves1 preventing the plant from drawing proper nourishment from the air1 it was thought that these troubles arose from climatic or local conditions1 while in reality the plant was sick and needed a doctor4 ,today1 under the new rgime1 whenever the plant shows any symptoms of ill-health1 the pathologists are called in to eradicate the disease by scientific treatment4 ,insect pests and plant diseases are generally brought into a country through planters sending to other cane-raising countries for new varieties of cane for seeding purposes that they think may produce more sugar than their own4 ,great trouble and heavy loss have been occasioned in this way and1 as a consequence1 the ,united ,states government has established a strict quarantine1 allowing plant life to be landed only after rigid examination and when it is clear that no danger exists4 ,another example of the work of the entomologists may be of interest3 ,during the visit of a well-known ,hawaiian to ,mexico many years ago1 his attention was attracted by a beautiful shrub that he thought would make a splendid hedge around his home4 ,it grew about five feet in height and its foliage was of a rich green1 with a brown1 red and yellow flower4 ,the slips he brought to ,honolulu thrived wonderfully and cuttings of the plant were taken to the other islands for a like purpose4 ,wherever planted it grew amazingly fast4 ,it quickly spread over the hillsides and became so dense that cattle could not penetrate the thickets formed by it4 ,it made valueless large areas of land that formerly had been used for the pasturing of cattle and plantation stock1 and reduced the grazing area at an alarming rate4 ,land that adjoined the plantations and that in the course of time became needed for plantation purposes was also over-run by it4 ,the curtailment of the grazing lands and the increased cost of clearing were so great that the entomologists were finally sent for and asked if they could not eradicate the trouble4 ,after a careful investigation they went to ,mexico1 whence the lantana1 as the shrub is called1 had come4 ,on their return journey they brought back with them a fly4 ,the fly laid its eggs in the bud of the lantana1 and when the young flies were hatched they fed upon the lantana seeds4 ,the flies multiplied rapidly and soon made away with the seeds1 thus preventing the shrub from spreading any further4 ,when it was once cleared from the land or the plantation it did not reappear4 ,these illustrations demonstrate the fact that the culture of sugar cane involves a constant struggle between science and unrestrained nature4 ,as a rule1 ,hawaiian sugar plantations are located close to the seacoast1 between it and the base of the mountains4 ,the lands slope gently toward the sea1 thus insuring good drainage and easy application of water for irrigation4 ,most of the cane is grown on land less than five hundred feet above sea-level1 although in a few rare instances it is cultivated at an elevation as great as three thousand feet4 ,parts of the leeward side of the islands1 where it is extremely dry and hot1 and where the cane thrives best1 depend entirely on irrigation1 the water being brought to the plantations by ditches or pumped from wells4 ,on the windward side of the island of ,hawaii1 where the rainfall is abundant1 irrigation is unnecessary except during very dry periods4 ,in cultivating1 the ground is turned with steam ploughs to depths up to twenty-four inches4 ,these ploughs are operated by powerful engines that work in pairs1 one on each side of a field1 usually from one thousand to fifteen hundred feet apart4 ,one engine pulls a gang-plough across the field and the other draws it back4 ,by this method the rich soil is thoroughly loosened and a wonderful vegetable growth results4 ,ordinarily in ,california the farmer ploughs only from four to six inches deep4 ,illustration3 ,,steam ,,plough ,illustration3 ,,planting ,,cane ,after the lands are ploughed and harrowed and all the weeds turned under1 double mould-board ploughs are used to make the furrows in which the seed is planted4 ,the furrows are not like those made for planting potatoes1 but are about five feet apart and eighteen inches deep1 each furrow and hill being symmetrical4 ,they follow the contour of the land so that the irrigation water will fill the furrow and remain there until it is absorbed by the soil and penetrates to the cane roots4 ,at regular intervals of about thirty-five feet1 lateral ditches are cut1 from which there is an entrance into every furrow4 ,these lateral ditches deliver the water from the main ditches to the various parts of the fields4 ,the land is now ready for the seed4 ,meanwhile1 the harvesting of the ripened cane in other fields is going on4 ,as the laborers cut the cane1 they top it1 that is to say1 they cut off about twelve inches of the upper part of the solid stalk4 ,sugar cane resembles bamboo1 in that it is cylindrical in shape and divided every few inches into sections by rings or joints4 ,in every joint there is a bud or eye1 from which a shoot of cane will sprout1 if properly planted in the ground and watered4 ,these tops1 always cut from untasseled cane1 contain very little sugar4 ,they are carried to the newly prepared field and placed in rows in the furrows1 end to end1 lengthwise1 the ends overlapping a trifle in order to guard against blank spaces in the growing cane4 ,they are then covered1 according to the season1 with one to one and a half inches of earth1 and the water is turned in until the furrow contains from three to four inches of water4 ,between six and ten days afterward1 the little green cane shoots appear above the ground4 ,from this time forward continuous irrigation and cultivation1 together with proper fertilization1 are required until the cane matures4 ,planting usually begins in ,march and continues until ,september1 sometimes later1 and the cane ripens one year from the following ,december4 ,growing cane should be watered every seven days1 and the amount of water used for this purpose is enormous4 ,for example3 a plantation producing thirty-five thousand tons of sugar per annum needs twice as much water per day as the city of ,san ,francisco4 ,the appearance of growing cane is much like that of ,indian corn4 ,the whole field area is covered with a dense1 jungle-like vegetation of brilliant green4 ,the leaves are long and narrow and hang in graceful curves4 ,the cane grows so thick that it is almost impossible to crawl through it1 and so seldom do the sun's rays penetrate to the ground that rapid evaporation of the irrigation water cannot take place1 hence the cane gets the full benefit of the moisture4 ,in certain varieties of cane1 the great weight of the juice in the stalks causes them to bend1 droop and take fantastic shapes4 ,sometimes they lie on the ground with the ends turned upward1 and in fields where the stalks grow to a length of twenty-four feet1 the average height of the tops above the ground is not over twelve feet4 ,in other kinds the stalks stand straight up to a height of from eight to fourteen feet4 ,the production of cane per acre varies in different countries and in different parts of the same country1 according to the character of the soil1 climatic conditions1 care and attention1 use of fertilizer and amount of rainfall or irrigation4 ,in ,hawaii it ranges from twenty to eighty-five tons1 and the amount of sugar obtained per acre runs from two and one-half tons to twelve tons1 the average being about five tons4 ,broadly speaking1 lack of a normal amount of cane per acre1 lack of sugar in the cane1 or the prevalence of disease1 is primarily due to an unsanitary or unsuitable condition of the soil4 ,this can usually be corrected by proper cultural methods1 such as adequate aeration of the soil1 the turning under of the cane tops and leaves1 application of lime and suitable combinations of fertilizing ingredients4 ,fundamentally1 cane requires a well-aerated1 moist1 alkaline soil and a fertilizer in which the nitrogen content is high and in excess of the potash and phosphoric acid4 ,it is found that nitrate of soda1 when applied alone or in combination with potash and phosphoric acid1 produces a very strong growth4 ,the proper sanitation of the soil tends to promote the beneficial bacterial action so essential to the growth of the cane4 ,illustration3 ,,irrigation ,,ditch--,,showing ,,tunnel ,illustration3 ,,irrigation ,,ditch ,in ,december and ,january the cane tassels or flowers1 which indicates that it has about reached maturity and is ready for cutting4 ,thenceforward very little irrigating is done1 as additional water applied at this time might retard ripening1 which would mean a reduced amount of sugar stored up in the cane4 ,it is interesting to note that while the cane is growing and in an unripe state1 there is no discernible sucrose or pure sugar in it4 ,as the ripening process goes on1 the content of the cane juice is changed by the action of the sun's rays1 and the amount of sucrose as determined by polariscopic test shows when the time for harvesting is at hand4 ,nature's operation in thus changing glucose or invert sugar into sucrose or pure sugar cannot be accomplished by any human means4 ,the harvesting then begins and continues until the end of ,july or ,august4 ,usually the field is set on fire before cutting4 ,on account of the great amount of moisture or juice in the cane1 the stalks do not burn1 but the leaves are thoroughly consumed4 ,this operation eliminates a good deal of leaf material that is not only useless1 but which1 if sent to the mill1 would increase the cost of crushing1 besides absorbing a certain quantity of the juice expressed from the cane4 ,formerly men stripped the leaves from the cane in the fields1 but it was a difficult matter to accomplish such work1 and the cost was heavy4 ,an accident changed the method of doing this work4 ,a field took fire and it was found that while all the leaves were consumed1 little or no damage was done to the stalks provided they were cut promptly and sent to the mill to be crushed4 ,the practice of burning has since become general1 although the advisability of continuing it is now being given very careful study4 ,burning eliminates the arduous labor of stripping1 and no doubt does away with many harmful insects and fungi1 but at the same time it destroys the enemies and parasites of these insects and this loss is severely felt4 ,another disadvantage of burning is that the nitrogen contained in the cane leaves is liberated and not returned to the soil as would be the case if the leaves were stripped and ploughed under4 ,in the latter case the leaves rot rapidly1 add humus to the soil1 help aeration1 and improve the sanitary condition1 all of which tends to increase the yield of cane per acre4 ,from recent experience it is not improbable that burning will be discontinued in the near future4 ,as soon as the field is ready1 whether burned or not1 the laborers go in to cut the cane4 ,a long1 heavy knife is used4 ,the cutter grasps the stalk and drives the knife into it1 severing it just at the ground4 ,he then tops it1 that is1 he cuts off the upper part that contains no sugar1 and1 to aid in subsequent handling1 the long stalks are cut into convenient lengths4 ,as the burning destroys the eyes or buds1 certain fields are cut and topped for seed before the burning takes place4 ,there are two general methods of transporting the cane to the mills4 ,one is by rail and the other by flumes4 ,on the irrigated plantations where water is never overplentiful1 railroad tracks and locomotives are invariably employed1 while on the non-irrigated plantations1 located in districts where there are copious annual rains1 ,v-shaped flumes are extensively used4 ,in some cases a combination of both systems is adopted to advantage4 ,from the upper lands where it is difficult to construct railroads1 the cane is flumed to a convenient point on the railroad system1 at a lower elevation1 and delivered into cars1 while the water is conducted into ditches and used for irrigating the lower cane lands4 ,illustration3 ,,young ,,sugar ,,cane ,illustration3 ,,ripe ,,sugar ,,cane--,,showing ,,tassels ,in the case of rail transportation1 paths one hundred and fifty feet apart are cut through the fields so that temporary railroad tracks may be laid and cars run in and loaded on these tracks4 ,the whole field is then cut in the same way and the work continued until the entire crop is harvested4 ,the loaders follow up the cutters4 ,these men lay a strap on the ground and pile the stalks on the strap until they have a bundle of cane weighing from seventy-five to one hundred pounds4 ,with a dexterity born of long practice1 they sling a bundle upon their shoulders and carry it up an inclined runway to a railroad car not over seventy-five feet away and dump it on the car4 ,the cutting and loading are usually done by contract1 at so much per ton1 and it is remarkable how proficient the men become4 ,when flumes are used exclusively1 much the same methods are adopted4 ,paths are cut through the fields and in these paths are placed the flumes which1 like the temporary railroad tracks1 are moved from time to time as necessity demands4 ,the mill is located at the lowest point on the plantation and the flumes are placed so as to insure a good grade from the cane fields on the uplands to the mill below4 ,the flumes are either carried on low trestles or run along the ground1 but always at a height which enables the laborers to throw the cane into them conveniently4 ,water is turned into the upper end of the flume and1 rushing rapidly down1 carries or floats the cane to the mill4 ,cane is flumed in this way for distances up to seven miles at low cost and with satisfactory results4 ,the cars when loaded in the fields are made up into trains and hauled by locomotives to the mill1 which is generally located about the center of the plantation1 or at a point where most of the cane can be delivered on a downward grade4 ,each car is carefully weighed on a track scale and the exact quantity of its load of cane is ascertained and recorded4 ,for years past the planters have been offering large rewards for the invention of a machine to cut and load the cane1 but the old hand method is still employed1 although some experimental loading machines are meeting with more or less success1 but none are in common use4 ,the problems involved in cutting cane by machinery seem insurmountable1 and1 while many devices have been tried1 not one has proved successful4 ,after the cane is cut the first time1 ploughs are sent through the fields and a furrow is ploughed along each side of the stubs of the cane which are left in place4 ,this ploughing opens up the ground1 aerates the soil1 and affords the irrigating or rain water a means of easy access to the cane roots4 ,the water tenders follow up the ploughs and the furrows are filled with water1 which is gradually absorbed by the old cane roots left in the ground4 ,in time new sprouts spring up from buds on the old stalks of the cane and another growth begins4 ,the second crop is called 8first ratoons0 and1 when cultivated for a single year only1 it is designated 8short ratoons40 ,as a rule it does not yield as much sugar as plant cane1 but the saving in seed1 in the preparation of the fields and in other labor frequently makes up for the reduced amount of sugar4 ,if allowed to grow for two years1 as is generally the case1 it is called 8long ratoons0 and produces proportionately more sugar4 ,in the past a very large percentage of the ,hawaiian crop was planted with fresh seed every year and but a small percentage ratooned4 ,nowadays1 however1 the tendency is to ratoon the crop as long as the yield justifies1 which in many cases is from three to four times4 ,in ,cuba the cane when once planted is ratooned for many years4 ,there have been specific instances in ,hawaii where ratoons that have been allowed to grow for two years 7long ratoons7 have shown a better yield than the first planting4 ,according to the best information1 this is due to the presence of poisonous matter in the ground1 turned up for the first time at the first planting4 ,illustration3 ,,cutting ,,cane ,illustration3 ,,loading ,,cane ,the object of all the ploughing1 weeding1 cultivating1 fertilizing and irrigating1 is to produce a large number of strong1 sturdy stalks of cane1 yielding a maximum amount of sugar4 ,the sugar is contained in solution in the sap or juice and the amount can be materially increased by due care and attention4 ,as some of the elements which form the plant are absorbed from the air through the leaves1 favorable climatic conditions are essential to its full growth and development4 ,proper fertilizers must be added to the soil1 and water applied regularly and in sufficient quantity4 ,commercial fertilizers are used in ,hawaii probably to a greater extent than in any other country in the world4 ,it is quite common for plantations to use half a ton of fertilizer per acre per crop1 and at times as much as two thousand pounds per acre4 ,the yearly fertilizer cost per acre will probably average twenty-five dollars4 ,as it takes eighteen months for a crop to mature in ,hawaii1 it will readily be seen that the plantation area must be at least double that used for any one crop4 ,while one crop is being harvested1 another crop is in the ground growing4 ,as soon as the cane is cut1 the lands are immediately prepared for replanting or ratooning1 as the case may be4 ,during certain periods each year1 usually in ,june and ,july1 a visitor on an ,hawaiian plantation can see one crop growing1 one being harvested and one being planted4 ,from the foregoing it will be seen that the harvesting begins in ,december and ends in ,july or ,august4 ,the planting begins from ,march to ,june and usually ends in ,september1 according to plantation conditions and whether or not the land is irrigated4 ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,raw ,,sugar ,the details of the manufacture of raw sugar from cane and of sugar from beet roots differ1 but there are several processes common to both4 ,the operations necessary for making raw cane sugar are as follows3 #a4 ,the extraction of the juice4 #b4 ,the purification of the juice4 #c4 ,the evaporation of the juice to syrup point4 #d4 ,the concentration and crystallization of the syrup4 #e4 ,the preparation of the crystals or grains for the market by separating them from the molasses4 ,every mill has an extensive laboratory where skilled chemists are constantly engaged in sampling and analyzing cane1 raw juices1 syrups1 sugars and molasses4 ,in fact the chemical work is a most important feature in the raw-sugar house1 beet-sugar factory or refinery4 ,the superintendent should be an expert chemist1 as the proper recovery of the sugar from the cane and beet juices is wholly dependent upon the technical control of manufacturing processes4 ,,extraction ,after passing the scales1 the cars containing the cane are switched alongside the carrier which feeds the cane into the mills4 ,before the cane is unloaded1 however1 samples are taken from each car and sent to the laboratory1 where they are carefully analyzed4 ,the amount of sugar present is ascertained1 as well as the quantity and quality of the juice in the cane4 ,it is1 however1 impossible to get a fair average sample of the cane in this way1 and therefore the efficiency of the mill work is determined on the basis of an analysis of the juice and the fiber after it has passed through the crushers4 ,illustration3 ,,train-,,load ,,of ,,cane ,,ready ,,for ,,the ,,mill ,illustration3 ,a ,,modern ,,mill ,the carrier just referred to is a wide slat conveyor1 running alongside the railroad tracks in the yards to a point directly over the first set of crushers4 ,the cane is taken from the cars by a mechanical unloader1 the arms of which reach out and with distended fingers pull the cane stalks off and land them on the slow-moving carrier1 which takes them onward and upward to the crusher4 ,the crusher consists of two large rolls1 with immense interlocking1 corrugated teeth on the circumference of each4 ,these rolls are set close together1 and the cane passing through is broken into short pieces and matted to an even layer4 ,the juice squeezed out by this preliminary crushing runs through a metal trough into a large receptacle known as the juice tank4 ,from the crusher the mat of cane passes to the mills proper4 ,these mills consist of from nine to eighteen rolls1 about thirty-four inches in diameter and seventy-eight inches long1 arranged in groups of three1 set in the form of an isosceles triangle1 one above and two below1 one set following the other in a direct line4 ,the lower rolls are parted enough to allow the expressed juice to fall through them1 while the half-crushed cane is carried over by means of an iron bar called the returner4 ,the faces of the rolls are more or less roughened1 or grooved1 so as to draw the cane through and give a better crushing action4 ,they are turned slowly by powerful engines1 which transmit the power to each set of rolls through a system of gears4 ,the rolls are forced together by hydraulic rams exerting a pressure of from four hundred to six hundred tons4 ,it is this tremendous pressure that squeezes the sugar-bearing juice out of the cane4 ,from the crusher the matted cane passes through the first set of rolls1 where a large percentage of the remaining juice is liberated4 ,this is caught in a metal trough and1 after passing over a fine screen to remove the small pieces of cane1 runs to the juice tank4 ,the cane passes through the second set of rolls1 thence to the third set1 and so on to the end of the mill4 ,in front of the last set of rolls1 hot water is sprayed on the cane to soften the fiber and dilute the remaining juice1 thus aiding the final extraction4 ,the adding of hot water is termed maceration4 ,by the time the cane has passed through the last set of rolls1 all the economically recoverable juice is out of it and delivered into the juice tank1 with the exception of the juice and maceration water from the last set of rolls1 which is always returned to the preceding set of rolls for maceration purposes4 ,the juice or maceration water coming from the last set of rolls contains very little sugar1 and the object is to secure greater concentration by using it for double maceration instead of adding that much additional water which would have to be evaporated later on in the process4 ,in well-designed1 modern mills1 with cane carrying not over twelve per cent of fiber1 more than ninety-eight per cent of the sugar in the cane is extracted1 the remainder being left in the fiber4 ,this is almost perfection today4 ,what it will be tomorrow no one can say4 ,the fibrous1 woody part of the cane1 or bagasse as it is called1 is comparatively dry as it leaves the last rolls4 ,it is conveyed from the mills to the boiler house on a wide slat conveyor1 and fed directly into the furnaces under the boilers that generate the steam for power and boiling purposes4 ,a modern raw-sugar mill requires practically no other fuel than that obtained as a by-product from the crushing of the cane4 ,the boiler plant is usually of large capacity1 as a great deal of steam is required to drive the engines that run the crusher1 the rolls1 the electric lighting system1 the pumps and other machinery4 ,besides1 a large amount is needed to evaporate the water in the juice and to boil and dry the sugar4 ,the ashes from the furnaces are returned to the fields as fertilizer1 so that very little is lost4 ,illustration3 ,,cane ,,carrier ,,and ,,mechanical ,,unloader ,illustration3 ,,another ,,type ,,of ,,cane ,,unloader ,,purification ,the juice as it comes from the mills contains impurities such as dirt from the fields1 small pieces of cane stalks and other foreign matter1 besides salts1 gum1 wax and albumen4 ,it is necessary to remove as many of these substances as possible1 and this is where the chemist's work begins4 ,so long as the juice is confined in the living cells of the cane it does not quickly ferment1 but when liberated it rapidly undergoes such change4 ,therefore no time is lost in arresting this action4 ,the juice is pumped to the top floor of the mill and there a solution of milk of lime is added in sufficient proportions to neutralize the acidity4 ,the mixture is then heated in closed tanks under pressure to #bae degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,the heat causes the lime to combine rapidly with the gums and salts in the juice1 and the albumen to coagulate4 ,the hot juice is then run into large settling tanks1 where the insoluble solids and the albumen sink to the bottom1 carrying with them vegetable and other matter suspended in the juice4 ,certain foreign substances of light specific gravity float to the surface in the form of scum4 ,after settling for a time the clear juice is drawn off and the scum1 mud and cloudy liquor left in the tank4 ,as a vast amount of liquor must be handled every hour1 it is not practicable to have tank capacity great enough to admit of the liquor standing a sufficient length of time for every particle of foreign matter to settle1 so as an adjunct to the settling tank1 filters are used4 ,these are cylindrical iron tanks1 packed tightly with ordinary wood fiber1 known as excelsior4 ,the juice is conducted to these filters1 and as it percolates through the excelsior1 practically all of the remaining foreign matter is caught and retained in the fiber4 ,the clear juice is then run to the receiving tanks for the evaporators and the mud and scum that remain are drawn off into mud tanks1 where more lime is added and the mass stirred up4 ,finally it is delivered to the filter presses1 where the mud and other impurities are taken out and the clear liquor containing sugar is sent to the evaporators4 ,another method for cleaning1 called 8precipitation in motion10 is to carefully lime the juice and then heat it in closed vessels and under sufficient pressure to carry it through a pipe to large insulated settling tanks4 ,these settling tanks1 usually of sheet steel1 are made in the form of truncated cones with conical bottoms1 the small diameter of the tank being at the top4 ,suspended in the center is a vertical cylinder somewhat less in diameter than the upper part of the tank4 ,this cylinder extends downward about eight feet to a point opposite the largest diameter1 which makes the area between the circumference of the suspended cylinder and the tank at that point very much greater than the area of the cylinder itself4 ,this difference in area is necessary to retard the flow of the juice and allow the sediment1 mud and insoluble solids to be deposited at the bottom of the tank4 ,the juice is delivered by a pipe into the top of the cylinder which projects a few inches above the edge of the surrounding settling tank4 ,it passes slowly down the central passageway1 turns at the bottom1 where its speed is materially slackened1 and goes out through a pipe line connected to the side of the tank just below the upper edge4 ,there are several other methods in general use1 but in all of them the principle of settling1 upon which the separation or cleaning depends1 is the difference in specific gravity between the juice and the dirt4 ,a high and even temperature should be maintained by preventing radiation1 as lowering the temperature would increase the specific gravity and viscosity of the juice without increasing that of the dirt in equal proportion4 ,illustration3 ,,twelve-,,roller ,,mill ,illustration3 ,,modern ,,crushing ,,plant--,,two ,,fifteen-,,roller ,,mills ,,and ,,crushers4 ,,capacity1 ,,one ,,hundred ,,and ,,five ,,tons ,,per ,,hour ,there are many different types of filter presses1 but those at present in general use are long1 oblong machines1 set horizontally on the floors1 with layers of corrugated iron plates1 covered with canvas sheets1 between which are hollow frames so arranged that the juice will pass from the hollow frames through the canvas to the corrugations in the plates4 ,in passing through the presses under pressure the sediment1 scum and other impurities are caught on the canvas sheets and the clear juice passes through the canvas1 down the corrugations and out through small holes in the plates controlled by valves on the outside of the presses1 from whence it runs to the evaporator tanks4 ,the sugar in the mud caught in the hollow frames is washed out of the mud with water and is sent to the evaporator1 while the mud itself is finally returned to the field1 to be used as a fertilizer4 ,the clarified juice from the settling tanks1 filters or presses1 is light brown in color1 but is thin and watery1 and must now be reduced to syrup point4 ,all the suspended impurities have been removed1 but some impurities in solution and the original coloring matter still remain4 ,some of these foreign substances are subsequently eliminated during the process of crystallization in the vacuum pans described later on4 ,the object to be attained in a raw-sugar house is the production of a sugar containing ninety-six per cent of sucrose1 and there is little or nothing to be gained by carrying the process of manufacture beyond the stage that insures such result4 ,the final extraction of all the impurities and the conversion of the impure raw into pure white granulated sugar is the work of the refiner1 which is dealt with in a subsequent chapter4 ,from the time the juice leaves the cane until it is crystallized it is kept at a high temperature1 as cold juices or syrups are viscous and run slowly4 ,high temperatures kill germs1 prevent fermentation and expedite manipulation4 ,,evaporation ,under ordinary atmospheric pressure at sea-level1 water boils at a temperature of #bab degrees ,fahrenheit and sugar juice at a few degrees higher1 according to its density4 ,this temperature if long applied to sugar juice would tend to burn and destroy the sugar1 but the juice can be heated to #bej degrees for a short time without deterioration4 ,the clarified juice contains about eighty-five per cent of water and fifteen per cent of solid matter4 ,a large proportion of the water must be removed by evaporation4 ,to accomplish this under ordinary atmospheric conditions would require heat increasing from #bab degrees ,fahrenheit1 as the solution increased in specific gravity above the standard of pure water4 ,this would require a large amount of fuel1 and the juice would also be more or less adversely affected by long maintenance of comparatively high temperature4 ,to obviate these conditions the juice is boiled in a multiple evaporator1 the invention of ,norberto ,rillieux1 whose first construction in ,new ,orleans in #ahdj was a double effect horizontal submerged tube apparatus which has since undergone many changes and improvements4 ,the theory of evaporation in vacuo was extended to two or more cells or vacuum bodies1 using the steam or vapor from the first to heat the juice or syrup in the second and so on4 ,at the present time the quadruple effect1 or four-cell evaporator1 is most commonly in use1 although sextuple effects are not rare4 ,the ordinary practice is as follows3 ,the juice enters cell ,no4 #a and covers the heating tubes1 to which is admitted sufficient steam--generally exhaust from the engines--to cause the liquid to boil4 ,the steam or vapor liberated from this first boiling is conducted through the vapor pipe directly into the heating tubes of cell ,no4 #b1 while the juice from cell ,no4 #a is passed into the second1 or cell ,no4 #b1 and surrounds the heating surfaces which contain the hot vapor given off from the same juice in cell ,no4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,delivering ,,bagasse ,,to ,,fire-,,room ,illustration3 ,,general ,,interior ,,view ,,of ,,modern ,,raw-,,sugar ,,mill ,as there is little or no pressure above the liquid in the first cell1 the juice boils at from #bae degrees to #bbj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,by maintaining a vacuum of five inches in the second cell1 the temperature at which the liquid will boil is reduced to #bjc degrees1 and the vapor from cell ,no4 #a is hot enough to boil the juice in cell ,no4 #b without any addition of heat4 ,the vapor from cell ,no4 #b in the same way enters the heating tubes of cell ,no4 #c1 while the juice entering this cell is exposed to a vacuum of fifteen inches1 which reduces the boiling temperature to #ahj degrees1 so that the difference of #bc degrees between the conditions of cell ,no4 #b and cell ,no4 #c causes a third boiling and evaporation without any additional steam being added4 ,a vacuum of twenty-six inches in the last cell1 ,no4 #d1 brings the final boiling temperature down to about #aej degrees4 ,the vapor from this last cell enters a condenser1 where it is exposed to a spray of cold water1 is condensed and passes down a pipe not less than thirty-four feet long1 terminating in a water seal1 and called the ,torricellian tube1 after ,torricelli1 who discovered that mercury would rise thirty inches in a tube while water would rise thirty-four feet with a perfect vacuum4 ,the juice in passing through these evaporating cells is boiled to a syrup containing about thirty-five per cent of water and sixty-five per cent of solid matter4 ,it is pumped out of the fourth cell into the receiving tank for the vacuum pan4 ,this quadruple system of boiling only requires about one-fourth the amount of heat that would be necessary to do the same work in a single vessel4 ,as the evaporators operate continuously1 a constant level of the boiling liquid is maintained in each cell1 the juice being drawn from one to the other by increasing vacuum and controlled or regulated by means of valves4 ,a powerful vacuum pump draws the air and other incondensable gases from the condenser and maintains the vacuum1 which is applied to the necessary extent in each cell4 ,the heating tubes are connected to drain pipes1 which remove the condensed vapors4 ,vacuum1 simply and concisely stated1 is the absence of air or gas4 ,it is usually obtained by pumps which suck the air or gas out of closed containers or pipes4 ,no doubt many of the readers in their younger days have sucked on the end of a bottle and were amused to find the bottle hanging on the end of the tongue4 ,it was the vacuum1 or lack of air in the bottle1 which caused it to hang thus4 ,the outside atmospheric pressure 7which at sea-level is fifteen pounds per square inch7 was doing its best to gain an entrance through the tongue into the bottle from which the air had been extracted4 ,the pumps simply suck the air out of the containers or pipes and discharge it through valves1 in much the same way that the air was sucked out of the bottle4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that in boiling water or juice1 the vacuum is being continually broken or reduced by the liberation of air and gases from the juice1 steam and condensing water4 ,this action must be overcome by the constant work of the vacuum pump4 ,to determine the amount of vacuum carried in any container1 a small mechanical contrivance1 known as a vacuum gauge1 is used4 ,this1 in its simplest form1 is a bowl of mercury with a long glass tube leading from it4 ,if the upper end of the glass tube is attached to the container from which the air is to be drawn1 the mercury in the tube will rise in proportion to the amount of air extracted4 ,when an absolute vacuum has been formed1 the mercury in the glass will stand at a height of thirty inches4 ,illustration3 ,,filter ,,presses ,illustration3 ,,set ,,of ,,quadruple ,,evaporators ,in commercial operations a vacuum greater than twenty-eight inches is seldom required1 as this is sufficient for all practical purposes4 ,the degree of vacuum for any container can be varied easily by mechanical manipulation1 so that a vacuum anywhere from one to twenty-eight inches may be maintained4 ,,concentration ,,and ,,crystallization ,from the receiving tanks the syrup is drawn into the pans by a vacuum ranging between twenty-five and twenty-seven inches4 ,the pans are large cast-iron or copper cylinders1 standing in a vertical position1 with dome-like tops and conical bottoms1 almost spherical in shape4 ,leading from the top is a large pipe through which the vapors from the boiling are drawn off and condensed4 ,on the conical bottom is a large valve1 which may be opened when the boiling is finished to allow the massecuite 7a ,french term meaning cooked mass7 to drop out4 ,at regular intervals in the height of the pan there is a series of copper coils1 connected with a steam line at one end and a drain line at the other4 ,the general principle involved in boiling sugar is the separation of the sucrose contained in a solution from the impurities present in that solution1 and this is accomplished by evaporation and concentration through the agency of heat4 ,after the sugar is once formed in definite crystals these crystals attract and appropriate the sucrose in solution in the process of building up the crystal structure1 while repelling or excluding the impurities1 so that1 as a consequence1 the latter remain in solution4 ,the crystals thus formed are subsequently removed from the solution by means of centrifugal machines4 ,crystallization1 whether in a pure or impure solution1 will proceed to only a certain extent1 and will only partially remove the sucrose from the solution in one boiling1 the limit of crystallization being governed by the amount and nature of impurities present4 ,the process of boiling is begun by drawing some of the concentrated juice into the pan and turning steam into the coils1 which starts the boiling4 ,this is continued until the supersaturation is such that minute crystals of sugar form or 8grain out40 ,by properly timed admissions of fresh concentrated juice1 drawn into the pan by vacuum as before1 the crystals grow in size and at last the pan becomes filled with a mass of sugar crystals of regular shape and size1 immersed in a thick 8mother liquor0 containing sugar and the impurities that were not removed by the filters or settling tanks4 ,the size of the grain may be varied at will by the operator in charge1 who is known as the sugar boiler4 ,after the grains are once formed1 their number 7if the sugar boiler is an expert7 does not increase1 but the size does1 as the original grain continually builds up on itself from the outside4 ,the question may be asked1 why is all the moisture not boiled out in the pan and the sugar dropped in a dry1 crystallized state8 ,there are several reasons why such a course is impracticable2 first1 because the impurities1 which must be eliminated by crystallization and which are carried off in the mother-liquor1 would be boiled into the sugar and make it unsalable2 second1 because to aid crystallization and prevent scorching or burning on the hot steam coils the mass must be kept in active circulation during the boiling process1 or1 long before all the moisture could be driven off1 a large part of the contents of the pan would be burned on the coils2 and third1 even if it were practicable to boil the contents down to a solid state1 the grains would stick to each other and become one solid mass1 which would have to be removed from the pan with bars1 picks or chisels4 ,enough moisture1 or rather liquor1 is left in the mass to enable it to flow from the pan by gravity4 ,this liquor1 with the impurities it carries1 is subsequently removed from the sugar by a drying or separating process which will be explained later on4 ,massecuite is a viscous1 sticky1 semi-fluid mass of the consistency of half-formed ice4 ,illustration3 ,,vacuum ,,pans ,illustration3 ,,centrifugal ,,machines ,the reason sugar 8grains0 is because the water in the juice has the power to hold in solution only so much sugar4 ,as it goes into the pan1 the juice is almost a saturated solution1 and as the water is driven off by evaporation1 the solids that up to this point have been in solution must of necessity crystallize4 ,when the sugar boiler decides that the 8strike10 that is1 the massecuite contained in the pan at one boiling1 is satisfactorily grained1 he breaks the vacuum by opening a valve on the top of the pan1 thus allowing the air to enter4 ,he then opens the valve at the bottom of the pan and the mass drops into a long tank with a rounded bottom1 called the mixer1 in which a shaft1 equipped with paddles1 is revolving4 ,the paddles are for the purpose of keeping the mass agitated and in an even condition4 ,the agitation prevents the grains from dropping to the bottom of the tank and forming a solid block1 called concrete4 ,,preparation ,,of ,,crystals ,,for ,,the ,,market ,from the mixer the massecuite runs through spouts into the centrifugal machines4 ,centrifugal machines are cylindrical-shaped1 perforated brass baskets1 usually forty inches in diameter and twenty-four inches deep1 hung on a central shaft suspended from beams overhead1 and surrounded by a solid outside curb or casing4 ,on the shaft is a pulley1 which is driven by a belt connected with an engine or an electric motor4 ,the inside of the basket is lined with a fine-meshed brass screen1 which retains the grains of sugar1 but allows the liquor to escape freely into the outer casing4 ,as soon as the centrifugal machine is filled with massecuite from the mixer above1 the power is turned on and the machine begins to spin around at an increasing speed until a velocity of one thousand revolutions per minute is reached4 ,the centrifugal action forces practically all the liquor out through the screen and leaves in the machine all the grains of sugar that were formed in the pan4 ,a little dry steam is sometimes turned in to assist in reducing the moisture in the sugar4 ,the centrifugal is then stopped1 a valve in the bottom is opened1 and the nearly dry crystallized raw sugar is dropped into bins4 ,from the bins it is drawn off through spouts and packed in sacks containing about one hundred and twenty-five pounds each4 ,it has been demonstrated that raw sugar containing a large amount of moisture inverts or deteriorates more rapidly than that with a low-moisture content4 ,it is apparent that as moisture adds to the weight1 the transportation charges1 which are based on tonnage1 are greater in the case of wet sugar than in the case of dry4 ,in many of the modern mills1 therefore1 a further treatment is given the sugar to reduce loss by inversion and lessen freight charges4 ,from the bins last mentioned the sugar is dropped into revolving drums six feet in diameter and twenty-six feet long1 set at an incline so that as the drum revolves the sugar is carried round to the highest point on the circumference of the drum and dropped to the lower side1 at the same time traveling from the receiving to the discharging end4 ,the shape1 motion and inclined position of the drum cause a perfect shower of sugar in the drum for its entire length and breadth4 ,while it is revolving a current of hot1 dry air is drawn through the drum by means of suction fans1 and as a result the moisture in the sugar is absorbed by the air and carried out of the building4 ,at this stage the product has a good hard grain of a yellowish-brown color2 contains from ninety-six to ninety-seven per cent of pure sugar and about one-half of one per cent of moisture4 ,illustration3 ,,filling1 ,,weighing ,,and ,,sewing ,,sacks ,illustration3 ,,train-,,load ,,of ,,raw ,,sugar ,,leaving ,,mill ,from the end of the revolving drum the sugar is drawn off into sacks holding about one hundred and twenty-five pounds each4 ,these sacks are sewed by machinery and put into railroad cars to be hauled to the docks at the shipping port1 where the cars are switched under huge hoisting cranes or alongside speedy conveyors which carry the sugar into large seagoing steamers especially built for the trade4 ,some of these ships have a cargo capacity of two hundred and twenty thousand sacks1 and they transport the sugar to the buyers on the mainland in ,san ,francisco1 ,new ,york or ,philadelphia1 as the planter directs4 ,the liquor thrown off by the centrifugals is not lost2 it is taken back to the pans and reboiled4 ,after this has been done several times and most of the sugar extracted1 the purity is so low and the sugar content so small that it does not pay commercially to reboil further1 and the residue is sold as molasses4 ,it contains about thirty-five per cent of sugar and from twelve to fourteen per cent of invert sugar1 or glucose1 as it is generally called4 ,some of the waste molasses is mixed with fodder and tender cane tops and fed to cattle and plantation stock1 the sugar content proving of great value as a fattening agent and energy builder4 ,part of the molasses is sprayed on the bagasse as it leaves the crushers and serves1 first1 as a fuel under the boilers1 and1 second1 as a fertilizing agent in the form of ashes after it has been burned4 ,during the past few years much of it has been shipped in tank steamers to the mainland1 where it is used for the manufacture of spirits and vinegar1 and also as the principal ingredient in prepared stock foods which are much in demand today4 ,every bag of sugar shipped from the plantation is marked to indicate the plantation from which it came4 ,the net weight of the sugar in each bag is recorded1 a sample of the sugar taken and its sucrose content ascertained1 for it is on the basis of weight and sucrose content that raw sugar is bought and sold4 ,from the beginning to the end of the process of manufacture1 chemists are vigilantly alert sampling1 testing1 analyzing and supervising the operations4 ,records are made of all analyses1 temperatures1 purities1 densities1 extractions1 etc41 and the results tabulated for future reference4 ,the average cost in ,hawaii of preparing the fields1 planting1 irrigating1 fertilizing1 cultivating and cutting the cane1 manufacturing the sugar and delivering it in the ,new ,york market1 is about #ef4jj per ton of two thousand pounds4 ,,transportation ,,and ,,delivery ,,of ,,raw ,,sugar ,it has been explained that in ,hawaii sugar is packed in one-hundred-and-twenty-five-pound sacks4 ,methods and customs vary in different countries4 ,for instance1 in ,cuba it is put up in large gunny bags1 each holding an average of three hundred and twenty-five pounds4 ,the same custom prevails in ,porto ,rico4 ,in ,peru1 and to a limited extent in ,java1 sacks containing two hundred and twenty-four pounds are used4 ,a large part of the sugar in ,java1 however1 is put up in bamboo baskets of native make1 containing from five hundred to eight hundred pounds4 ,they are about thirty inches in diameter1 from thirty-six to forty-eight inches high1 and are lined with coarse leaves to prevent the sugar from sifting out between the weavings of the bamboo4 ,philippine sugar is packed in leaf-lined mats of tough vegetable fiber1 each holding about seventy pounds4 ,these various styles of containers necessitate different methods of handling to and from the ships and by the buyers1 but ,hawaii will again serve as an example of efficient1 modern practice4 ,outside of what is consumed locally1 all ,hawaiian sugars are shipped to the mainland of the ,united ,states by steamers or sailing vessels to ,san ,francisco1 or by steamers to ,new ,york or ,philadelphia1 via the ,panama canal4 ,as sailing vessels are rapidly disappearing from the seas so far as the sugar trade is concerned1 reference will be made to steamer traffic only4 ,the steamers are specially built for carrying sugar1 having a cargo capacity of from five thousand to thirteen thousand tons1 and the best loading and discharging facilities4 ,when loading in ,honolulu1 the steamers usually lie alongside wharves covered with immense warehouses1 where rapid-speed conveyors carry the sacks of sugar to a point above the ship's hatches and drop them into chutes which guide them down into the hold of the ship1 where they are compactly stowed4 ,on the off-shore side of the vessel small steamers from other island ports lie alongside and hoist the sacks by means of steam winches to a point over the hatch and deposit them in similar chutes4 ,when steamers are loaded from both sides in this manner1 as much as three thousand tons1 or forty-eight thousand sacks1 can be loaded in nine hours4 ,after a vessel is completely loaded and gets her clearance from the custom house1 she departs for ,san ,francisco1 twenty-one hundred miles away1 or for the ,atlantic seaboard1 via ,panama1 as the planter may direct4 ,the voyage ended1 and the quarantine and health regulations complied with1 she proceeds to the dock of the buyer1 usually a sugar refiner4 ,the ,hawaiian planter invariably sells his sugar under contract prior to arrival of the vessel at destination4 ,planters in other countries operate differently4 ,occasionally sugar is sold on the plantation at an agreed price1 and the buyer arranges his own transportation4 ,the planter sometimes ships his sugar unsold and negotiates its sale while it is en route4 ,if so sold1 it is delivered directly to the buyer on arrival2 if not1 it must be stored in a warehouse at the planter's expense pending sale4 ,the practice of the ,hawaiian planter is to sell his sugar to refineries in ,san ,francisco1 ,new ,york or ,philadelphia1 under contracts extending over a term of years4 ,it is agreed that the sugar shall be shipped as soon as made and that the refiner will receive it immediately on arrival1 the price for each cargo being that quoted in the open ,new ,york market for ninety-six-degree centrifugal sugar on the day preceding its arrival4 ,illustration3 ,,steamer ,,loading ,,sugar ,,alongside ,,dock ,illustration3 ,,loading ,,sugar ,,at ,,an ,,outport ,,in ,,hawaii ,the value of raw sugar1 like that of other staples1 is based on supply and demand1 and the price fluctuates from day to day according to the requirements of the refiners or the necessities of the sellers4 ,there are certain rules or trade conditions governing all sales1 so that when one man buys and another sells at an agreed price1 each knows what he is bargaining for4 ,for instance1 raw sugar is bought on the ninety-six-degree centrifugal basis1 that is1 the price agreed to be paid is for centrifugal sugar containing ninety-six per cent of sucrose4 ,if it contains more sucrose1 a higher price is paid2 if it contains less1 a lower price is paid2 all according to an established scale of additions and deductions4 ,then again1 the time of payment for the sugar is well understood4 ,it is usually ten days after the sugar has been finally discharged from the ship1 as this allows a sufficient period in which to determine the exact weight of the sugar and the percentage of sucrose it contains4 ,an instrument called a polariscope is invariably employed to determine the amount of sucrose present and the results obtained from its use are absolutely accurate4 ,a description of the operation will undoubtedly prove interesting4 ,,polarization ,the practical working of the polariscope is based upon the property of sucrose to rotate a ray of polarized light to the right4 ,ordinary light is the effect on the eye of vibrations of the ether4 ,these vibrations occur in all directions1 but by certain optical devices they may be confined to a single plane1 and light thus confined is called polarized4 ,if rays of polarized light pass through a layer of certain bodies1 e4 g41 quartz1 sugar and many others1 the plane in which the vibrations occur is rotated1 and the polariscope has been devised for the purpose of measuring the rotation of the plane of polarization4 ,polarized light1 as used in the polariscope1 is obtained from the ,nicol prism or some development of it4 ,ordinary light passing through crystals of certain bodies1 of which ,iceland spar is an example1 is split into two rays1 one of which is known as the ordinary and the other as the extraordinary ray4 ,a ,nicol prism is made of two wedge-shaped pieces of ,iceland spar1 cemented together with a film of ,canada balsam4 ,the accompanying sketch gives a good idea of the arrangement of an ordinary polariscope4 ,illustration3 ,,polariscope ,a strong white light1 e1 enters the instrument through a lens at f1 to the ,nicol prism b1 by which it is polarized4 ,the ordinary ray is dispersed1 while the extraordinary or polarized ray passes straight through and enters the sugar solution contained in the tube c1 which has glass ends4 ,in passing through this solution it is given a rotary motion to the right or to the left1 according as the sugar in the solution is sucrose or levulose4 ,when it emerges from the tube containing the sugar solution1 the now rotated polarized ray encounters a second ,nicol prism1 of which one of the wedges is fixed and the other movable4 ,this prism is called the analyzer4 ,a pointer1 controlled by a thumb screw1 is attached to it1 and when the correction of the polarized ray's rotation has been made with precision by adjustment of the wedges1 the pointer will indicate directly and accurately on a scale the amount of sucrose in the solution under test1 because the polarized ray was rotated in exact proportion to the amount of sucrose contained in the solution through which it passed4 ,the polariscope is made and set so that a standard weight of pure sugar 7,c,h,o71 dissolved in a standard quantity of pure water1 and placed in a tube of given length1 will rotate the ray of polarized light in passing through1 to a point on the scale marked one hundred degrees1 the equivalent of per cent4 ,also1 that by using the same quantity of water1 but twenty-five per cent1 fifty per cent1 or seventy-five per cent less weight of sugar1 the rotation will show seventy-five degrees1 fifty degrees or twenty-five degrees of pure sugar1 as the case may be4 ,a sample is drawn from each bag of sugar and all of these go to make up a general average sample4 ,the standard quantity is carefully weighed1 dissolved with the standard amount of water1 clarified1 filtered and poured into a tube with glass ends1 which is then inserted in the polariscope between the eye of the operator and a strong artificial light4 ,when the operator making the test applies his eye to the instrument1 he sees a distinct shadow on a lens in the line of vision1 one side being light and the other dark4 ,he then turns the thumb screw which adjusts the analyzer until the whole field of vision is neutral1 which indicates that the rotation of the polarized ray has been corrected4 ,the pointer on the scale now shows the exact percentage of sucrose present in the raw sugar1 ninety-four1 ninety-five1 ninety-six degrees1 or whatever it may be4 ,this test determines the real value of the sugar1 based on the market quotation for ninety-six-degree sugar4 ,if the polarization should show exactly ninety-six degrees1 the price to be paid for the sugar and the market quotation will be identical4 ,in most sugar-producing countries the government imposes an import tax on all foreign sugars1 in order to obtain revenue to defray governmental expenses and to protect the domestic industry1 if any1 against competition with other countries in which cost of materials and labor may be lower4 ,commodities produced in a country naturally add to its development and wealth1 and this explains the fostering of the sugar industry by various governments4 ,the ,united ,states duty on foreign sugar is at present #a4bef per one hundred pounds of ninety-six-degree raw sugar4 ,on account of our treaties with ,cuba1 the ,cuban planter is allowed a deduction of twenty per cent1 and1 therefore1 pays a duty of #a4jjdh per hundred pounds1 which1 owing to trade conditions1 is the duty effective today in the ,united ,states4 ,sugars produced in the insular possessions1 ,porto ,rico and the ,philippine islands1 are admitted free of duty4 ,in #ahih1 the ,hawaiian islands1 through annexation1 became a part of the ,united ,states1 consequently no duty is assessed on sugar or any other ,hawaiian product4 ,every vessel coming into a port of the ,united ,states must be entered at the custom house1 where a record is kept of the port whence she came and of what her cargo consists4 ,if from a domestic port1 she is permitted to discharge her cargo without delay2 if from a foreign one1 customs officials are immediately sent on board to watch the cargo as it is discharged and supervise the tallying1 checking or weighing1 according to the class of merchandise4 ,besides being weighed1 sugar is carefully sampled and the percentage of sucrose ascertained by the polariscope1 for the customs duty is based upon the purity of the sugar1 all raws testing not above seventy-five degrees polarization paying 4#ga cent per pound and 4#jbf cent per pound for each additional degree4 ,this is equivalent to #a4bef cents per pound for ninety-six-degree sugar4 ,the people of the ,united ,states used #d1beg1gad short tons of sugar in the year #aiae4 ,it was nearly all produced within the ,united ,states or in countries enjoying tariff concessions1 as follows3 ,,short ,,tons ,hawaiian islands 7,cane7 #egj1cge1 ,u4 ,s4 territory4 ,louisiana 7,cane7 #bea1gdj1 ,u4 ,s4 territory4 ,domestic production 7,beet7 #hfa1efh1 ,u4 ,s4 territory4 0 0 7,maple7 #ag1bdh1 ,u4 ,s4 territory4 ,porto ,rico 7,cane7 #ccf1cdg1 insular possession4 ,philippine islands 7,cane7 #acd1fbf1 insular possession4 ,cuba 7,cane7 #b1jfb1eid1 reciprocity treaty4 ,foreign sugar 7,cane7 #bc1baf1 full duty-paying4 ---------- #d1beg1gad ,aside from the small amount of full-duty-paying foreign sugar imported1 the only sugar in the above list that paid duty came from ,cuba4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that under ordinary conditions an increase in the crops of any of the places mentioned would result in a surplus of sugar in the ,american market4 ,in #aiaf1 with the beet production of ,continental ,europe locked up by the war1 ,cuba's increased output has been absorbed by ,great ,britain1 ,france1 ,italy and ,greece4 ,steamers from ,hawaiian ports1 after arriving and entering at the custom house and passing quarantine and health officers1 proceed immediately to refinery docks to discharge cargo4 ,,refining ,,of ,,raw ,,sugar ,cane-sugar refineries are always located in great seaport towns for the reason that1 as practically all cane sugar is grown in the tropics1 it must be transported by water to the world's markets4 ,the refining operation is by no means as simple as may at first appear4 ,it is essential that the finished product be almost chemically pure 7#ii4h per cent71 and the greatest care must be exercised to obtain a perfectly white color1 as well as a hard1 lustrous grain4 ,the question naturally arises1 why do not the planters of ,hawaii1 ,cuba1 ,java and other raw-sugar-producing countries carry their process a few steps further and make a pure white sugar as the refiners do8 ,this has been attempted many times1 but has almost always been found impracticable1 notwithstanding the fact that there is no mechanical or chemical reason why4 ,among the arguments in favor of a mainland seaport site1 the following may be mentioned3 #a4 ,the producing centers are generally far distant from consuming markets4 ,refineries located in the tropics would be under unusual expense for transporting and selling the refined article4 #b4 ,a refinery in the tropics would be out of direct and prompt touch with the individual requirements of the buyers4 #c4 ,refined sugar should be moved and sold as soon as possible after its manufacture1 so there follows the necessity for adequate dock and rail facilities as means of quick communication with the market4 #d4 ,an abundant supply of pure1 soft water for refining purposes1 and salt or fresh water for condensing1 as well as fuel for the generating of steam1 must be readily available4 ,another most important requisite is skilled labor1 which is more easily obtained in populous seaport cities than in the small1 isolated towns of the tropics4 #e4 ,there are many commodities used in the refining of sugar and in packing it for shipment that can be purchased more advantageously1 both as regards price and promptness of delivery1 in the great commercial ports than in the sugar-growing districts4 ,among these are bone-char1 lime1 acids1 cotton filter-bags1 burlap1 cotton cloth1 boxes1 barrels1 cartons1 iron1 steel and machinery of all kinds4 #f4 ,a sugar refinery is operated the entire twelve months of the year1 while a raw-sugar mill must of necessity take care of the crop of cane in about eight months4 ,to refine sugar where it is grown would require refining machinery capable of handling the entire output in the eight-month period1 and during the remaining four months the plant would remain idle4 ,this would mean a larger investment proportionately than that made in a refinery in a consuming center1 running steadily the year round4 #g4 ,refined sugar very rapidly absorbs moisture1 and while in transit from the tropic to the temperate zone it is very apt to become lumpy or caked1 which would involve reprocessing at great expense at the point of consumption4 ,the unavoidable damage to the packages in loading and discharging results in heavy expense1 as all packages must be delivered to the buyer in first-class condition4 ,to avoid hardening1 refined sugar should never be piled very high1 and it is an unsolved problem whether refined sugar will stand long ocean transportation in cargo lots without caking and damage by breaking of the inside cotton sacks4 ,if shipped in barrels1 the freight rate is proportionately higher4 #h4 ,larger capital would also be required1 as refined sugar must be carried on hand and must await the consumer's demand1 while raw sugar generally has a prompt and ready market and can be quickly converted into cash4 ,with these difficulties presenting themselves to a prospective sugar refiner in a raw-sugar-producing country1 the shipping of raw sugar to refineries at great distances does not seem at all unreasonable4 ,raw sugars show considerable variance in their component parts1 and so it follows that some are less easily refined than others4 ,such differences are generally due to diverse methods of culture1 amount of fertilizer used1 the processes of manufacture and the efficiency of extraction4 ,if the extraction be high1 a large percentage of the salts in the cane is taken up1 and these salts prevent or retard the complete crystallization of the pure sugar in refining4 ,one part of ash prevents several times its own weight of sugar from crystallizing1 hence it is readily seen that raw sugars with a low ash content are preferred by refiners4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,modern ,,refinery--,,showing ,,water ,,and ,,rail ,,transportation ,,facilities ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,elevation ,,of ,a ,,modern ,,refinery ,sugar refining is the production of pure white sugar in granular form1 after the removal of the impurities from the raw product4 ,nine operations are necessary to bring about this result3 #a4 ,washing3 ,removal of superfluous impurities4 #b4 ,melting3 ,changing the solid raw sugar into liquid form by melting with water4 #c4 ,defecation3 ,precipitation of suspended and insoluble impurities4 #d4 ,bag and ,bone-char ,filtration3 ,removal of suspended impurities1 color and soluble impurities4 #e4 ,crystallization3 ,production of crystals by concentration4 #f4 ,partial ,drying3 ,purging crystals from syrup in centrifugals4 #g4 ,final ,drying3 ,the driving off of all remaining moisture4 #h4 ,sorting of ,crystals3 ,sorting of grains according to size to meet market demands4 #i4 ,packing3 ,putting in various forms of containers4 ,a refinery consists of a group of buildings1 each of which has been constructed for a special purpose and for convenience and economy in operation4 ,they are as follows3 #a4 ,the melt or wash house4 #b4 ,the char house4 #c4 ,the pan house4 #d4 ,the packing house4 #e4 ,the boiler house4 #f4 ,the pump and power house4 ,in addition there are offices1 shops1 laboratories1 and last1 but by no means least1 very extensive warehouses4 ,to begin at the beginning it will be necessary to start with the steamer laden with raw sugar and made fast to the wharf in front of the warehouse that forms part of the refining plant4 ,the sugar is hoisted out of the ships in sling-loads by powerful winches1 and landed on a platform on the dock alongside the ship4 ,each sling-load consists of from twelve to twenty sacks1 or the equivalent weight in baskets or mats1 as the case may be4 ,as soon as the sacks are landed1 they are sorted according to mark1 put on trucks to be run over a scale set in the floor1 and their gross weight recorded4 ,as the truck leaves the scale1 the samplers take a sample from each sack4 ,this is done with a tryer1 a long1 hollow steel tube1 open on one side and sharp at one end1 with a handle on the other for the sampler to grasp when forcing the tryer into the sack4 ,the individual sample from each sack of each different mark is deposited in large closed cans until the cargo is completely discharged1 when an average sample of all the individual samples of each mark is made up and used in the laboratory to determine the polarization or sucrose content of the various lots comprising the entire cargo4 ,the value of the sugar is fixed by this polarization4 ,the weights of the various truck-loads of sugar passing over the scales are totaled and the weight of the sacks1 baskets or mats deducted1 giving the net weight of the sugar4 ,hawaiian sacks weigh exactly one pound2 ,cuban1 ,javan and ,peruvian sacks about three and one-half pounds4 ,javan baskets weigh from twelve to fifteen pounds1 and ,philippine mats about four pounds4 ,in order to facilitate the weighing and simplify the calculations1 in cases where the exact weight of the sacks is known1 every truck is made to weigh the same by ascertaining the weight of the heaviest and then putting small iron nuts or washers on the rods of the other trucks until each of them exactly counterbalances the heaviest4 ,one truck is then placed on the scale and the scale is brought to a perfect balance1 just as though there were no truck on it4 ,in this way the weight of the truck is never recorded1 which greatly simplifies the entire weighing operation4 ,one crew of men will discharge from #acjj to #aejj sacks of sugar per hour from each hatch of a steamer1 or a minimum of #gca tons per day of nine hours4 ,as three hatches are usually worked at the same time1 it will be seen that from #bbjj to #bejj short tons are taken out every day4 ,illustration3 ,,steamer ,,discharging ,,raw ,,sugar ,,at ,,refinery ,,dock ,illustration3 ,,sugar ,,stored ,,in ,,warehouse--,,twenty-,,five ,,thousand ,,tons ,,shown ,,in ,,this ,,picture ,from the scales the sugar is deposited on a depressed conveyor in the floor and carried directly into the melt house of the refinery1 except the sugar that must of necessity be stored in the warehouse for future use1 in which case it is dumped from the trucks on piling machines that elevate it to any height desired1 and it is arranged neatly and compactly by the piling crew4 ,the wharves and docks of a sugar refinery are1 as a rule1 scenes of unusual activity and interest4 ,besides the large number of men engaged in hoisting1 trucking1 weighing1 sampling and piling the sugar1 there are the sailors1 whose calling always possesses a certain fascination for the landsman4 ,a motley crew they are1 bronzed by wind and sun1 gathered from all countries and climes4 ,there is the simple1 kindly native of ,hawaii1 gentle-eyed1 soft of speech and born with a love for the sea2 he prides himself upon his skill in swimming and diving1 and when the day's work is done1 entertains his shipmates by singing the plaintive melodies of his native land1 accompanying himself on the ukulele1 the stringed instrument of the ,south ,seas4 ,should there be a number of his fellow islanders among the crew1 the evening's program is almost certain to be varied by the native hula hula dance1 which generally brings marked applause from the onlookers4 ,presiding over the galley1 or ship's kitchen1 is the almond-eyed ,chinaman1 now shorn of his queue2 an excellent cook who loves to gamble after his pots and pans are washed and put away in place2 a shrewd gamester1 but scrupulously honest4 ,beside him stands a fierce-looking ,malay1 sullen1 morose and taciturn1 whose sharp1 white teeth carry a sinister suggestion of the good old days of cannibalism4 ,his neighbor is a ,filipino1 short in stature1 keen-eyed and alert1 while in the background are one or two individuals who from their appearance might be direct descendants of the buccaneers who ravaged the ,spanish ,main in ,sir ,henry ,morgan's time4 ,the average sailor is fond of pets1 and here there is no lack of them1 parrots and monkeys for the most part1 and the sayings of the former clearly indicate a total absence of ,sunday-school training4 ,sugar ships bring rare fruits and vegetables from the tropics1 and the employs of the refinery have plenty of opportunities to enjoy such luxuries as fresh pineapples1 bananas1 guavas1 papaias1 alligator pears1 breadfruit and mangoes4 ,a visit to the docks of a sugar refinery during the time vessels from foreign ports are lying there is well worth while1 although in these days of steam1 the picturesque features are not so pronounced as they were before the passing of the sailing vessel4 ,,washing ,,removal ,,of ,,superficial ,,impurities ,as a starting point in the refining process the melt house will be first considered4 ,it is so called because it is there that the raw sugar enters the refining process by being melted or dissolved in water4 ,the conveyor1 upon which the bags were deposited in the warehouse1 delivers them on a platform on the top floor of the building4 ,as they come to this platform from the conveyor1 workmen with keen-edged knives seize them and1 with a deft1 swift slash1 cut the twine sewing at the top of the bag without injuring the burlap fabric4 ,the bag is then pulled off the platform1 mouth downward1 so that the sugar falls out and passes through an iron grating into a large bin beneath4 ,if the sugar should happen to be caked or lumpy1 it is sent through crushers and broken up4 ,illustration3 ,,cut-,,in ,,station--,,showing ,,sugar ,,first ,,entering ,,the ,,refining ,,process ,illustration3 ,,centrifugal ,,machine--,,motor ,,driven ,as a certain amount of sugar adheres to the inside of the bags1 they are washed in large revolving machines and in this operation the sugar dissolves in the water 7called sweet water71 from which it is extracted later4 ,they are then partially dried in centrifugal machines and hung on hooks on a traveling chain conveyor that passes through the upper part of the boiler house1 where the waste heat thoroughly dries them4 ,in returning1 the conveyor passes through the bag room and1 by means of an automatic device1 the bags are dropped alongside the printing presses4 ,here the name of the refinery1 the kind of sugar and the net weight they are to contain are printed upon them4 ,these burlap bags are then lined with a white cotton bag1 after which they are made into bundles and sent to the packing room to be filled with sugar4 ,it will be seen1 therefore1 that the bags from ,hawaii in which the raw sugar is received are put to good use4 ,this1 however1 does not apply to those that come from ,cuba or ,java2 they are too large to serve as containers for the refined product1 and after being washed and dried are sold for what they will bring4 ,the white cotton bags are made at the refinery1 and a plant turning out one thousand tons of sugar each twenty-four hours will use twenty-five thousand yards of cotton sheeting per day if all the output is packed in one-hundred-pound bags4 ,the bin into which the raw sugar is dumped holds enough sugar to keep the refinery supplied during the twenty-four hours run1 but the entire quantity is 8cut in0 during the day4 ,the advantages of this arrangement are that it avoids any delay in operation due to mechanical troubles with conveyors and because more efficient work is accomplished during the daylight hours4 ,the employs prefer to work on the day shift and1 wherever possible1 night work is avoided4 ,from the bottom of the bin the sugar falls into a mixing machine1 called the mingler4 ,this is an oblong tank with a semi-cylindrical bottom1 near which is a revolving horizontal shaft1 with arms or paddles attached which thoroughly stir and mix the sugar with syrup that is added at this point4 ,the reason for using syrup instead of water is that the former1 being a saturated sugar solution1 does not melt the sugar as water would4 ,the resultant mixture1 called magma1 looks a good deal like a soft1 brown mortar4 ,it is1 in fact1 raw-sugar crystals swimming in syrup4 ,this consistency is needed to allow the magma to work freely in the centrifugals1 the next operation4 ,most of the impurities contained in raw sugar are superficial1 that is1 adhering to the outside of the grain4 ,they may be more or less readily removed by washing the surfaces of the crystals with water4 ,from the mingler the magma drops to the floor below into centrifugal machines running at the rate of #aajj revolutions per minute4 ,a 8charge0 consists of about nine hundred pounds of magma4 ,as the machine fills1 the centrifugal force causes the magma to rise in a vertical wall around the inside circumference of the basket1 at the same time throwing off the syrup that was added on the floor above1 and leaving in the machine about five hundred pounds of the raw sugar as it came from the plantation4 ,water is then sprayed into the machine under high pressure1 through a nozzle which divides it into very fine particles and throws it against the wall of sugar in the machine4 ,the water1 passing through the sugar by the centrifugal force1 washes each face of each crystal and carries off the impurities1 together with a certain amount of sugar4 ,the quantity of water used per machine in each filling is from one to two and a half gallons1 depending upon the quality of the sugar4 ,this water1 now a syrup1 with the impurities and sugar it contains1 is drawn from the machine1 part of it being pumped to the floor above to mix with new raw sugar coming in4 ,the remainder is treated1 filtered1 boiled and made into raw sugar1 which1 in turn1 goes direct to the melt or through the washing process again4 ,the result of this washing is that the purity of ,hawaiian raw sugar is raised from about #ig4b to #ii4b per cent1 and there now remains but #j4h per cent of impurities to be removed4 ,the washed sugar is dropped from the centrifugal basket through a large opening in the bottom of the machine with the aid of a mechanical device called a discharger1 which greatly reduces the manual labor4 ,until very recently the sugar was discharged from the centrifugals by hand1 the men digging it out with wooden paddles in a difficult1 laborious way4 ,one day1 a few years ago1 a clear-brained1 observant ,american lad working in a beet-sugar factory1 conceived the idea that a centrifugal could be emptied by mechanical means4 ,he worked long and assiduously upon the problem1 and after much experimenting and many trials and disappointments was granted a patent by the ,united ,states government4 ,full of hope and confidence1 he had several machines constructed and took them to a sugar refiner1 sure of being favorably received4 ,he met with rebuff and ridicule4 ,the refinery engineer was too busy with other matters to examine or give any attention to the appliance4 ,the next man to whom he presented it was even more indifferent than the first2 he coldly informed the patentee that he had been in the sugar business for thirty years1 that no such machine would work1 and that the only way to take sugar out of a centrifugal was by hand4 ,after months of effort and repeated failures1 he induced the superintendent of a beet-sugar factory to allow him to install and test the device at his own expense4 ,it was thrown out after a few days' trial1 and the inventor became well-nigh desperate1 although still positive as to the merits of his discharger4 ,finally he succeeded in gaining the ear of the manager of a large refinery1 who1 after listening attentively to his earnest argument1 at length became convinced by it4 ,as a result of the interview1 it was arranged between them that the machines rejected by the beet-sugar factory should be installed in the refinery and operated for a period of thirty days1 under the direct supervision of the inventor4 ,the test was successful in every particular and conclusively proved the efficiency of the discharger4 ,the refiner was gratified because on account of the saving in time the capacity of the centrifugals was materially increased2 the men operating the centrifugals were hugely pleased1 as the arduous work of emptying by hand was entirely eliminated1 and the inventor was happy1 for he had vindicated himself4 ,an order for a large number of the machines was placed at once and every centrifugal in the refinery was equipped with one4 ,today they are installed in nearly every refinery and factory in the ,united ,states1 and in many raw-sugar plantation mills as well4 ,,melting ,,changing ,,the ,,solid ,,raw ,,sugar ,,into ,,liquid ,,form ,from the centrifugals the washed sugar drops to the melter pan on the floor below4 ,this is a cylindrical tank in the center of which is a revolving vertical shaft1 to which are attached horizontal paddles that serve to facilitate the dissolving of the sugar with the hot water that is now added4 ,only enough water is added to bring the resultant liquor to a density of #eh4f per cent of solid matter4 ,the raw sugar having been washed and1 to use a technical term1 melted1 leaves the melt house at this point4 ,,defecation ,,precipitation ,,of ,,suspended ,,and ,,insoluble ,,impurities ,from the 8melt0 the liquor is pumped to the top floor of the char house1 which is usually a structure of from twelve to fourteen stories high4 ,the reason for building to such a height is the advantage gained by utilizing the force of gravity and by this means handling the liquors and bone-char from floor to floor without mechanical aid4 ,the liquor is delivered into a number of cylindrical tanks equipped with a coil of pipe through which steam is passed for heating the liquor1 each tank being capable of holding #be1jjj pounds of liquor4 ,around the bottoms of the tanks are perforated pipes through which compressed air is forced to agitate and thoroughly mix the solution4 ,on account of this air being blown in1 these tanks are called blow-ups4 ,by means of the steam coil the temperature of the liquor is kept at #aij degrees1 which makes it less viscous than cold liquor1 thus facilitating subsequent filtration and hastening the reaction of the lime and acid added at this point4 ,as the liquor comes into the blow-ups it varies in color from a straw yellow to a dark brown1 and contains a considerable amount of suspended and insoluble impurities which must be removed4 ,some of these impurities are present in the raw sugar1 and others1 such as pieces of twine1 lint from the bags1 fine particles of leaves from the ,java baskets and ,philippine mats1 are traceable to the opening of the containers in the melt house4 ,the process of removal is called defecation4 ,in former years this was accomplished by adding bullocks' blood to the raw-sugar liquor in the blow-ups and heating the mixture until the scum which rose to the surface cracked1 when the solution below was found perfectly clear1 or1 in the language of the refinery man1 bright4 ,today1 however1 chemicals are the defecating agents1 those most commonly used being phosphoric acid and lime4 ,phosphoric acid1 neutralized with lime1 throws down a heavy1 flocculent precipitate which1 as it settles1 sweeps the solution and drags down all the suspended matter1 gums1 etc41 leaving the liquor above clear and transparent4 ,the precipitate must now be removed1 and this is accomplished by running the liquor through the bag filters on the floor below4 ,these filters are tight iron boxes1 about sixteen feet long1 six feet wide and seven feet high4 ,the top of the box is depressed about eight inches below the sides and ends1 thus forming a tank4 ,this top is perforated with five hundred holes1 one and one-half inches in diameter4 ,from the bottom of the iron box is an outlet pipe leading into tanks below4 ,in each of the holes on the inside top of the box is screwed a so-called 8brass bottle10 conical in shape1 to which is securely attached a closely-woven cotton filter bag1 about twenty-four inches wide and seventy inches long4 ,this filter bag is encased in a heavier and stronger cotton sheath1 or sleeve1 about eight inches wide1 which adds strength and keeps the twenty-four-inch bag in folds so as to give an effect similar to that of a folded paper filter1 frequently seen in drug stores4 ,each bag filter contains five hundred of these bags1 suspended vertically from the top4 ,before any liquor is run on the filters1 the bags and the iron box are heated by means of steam to bring the apparatus to a temperature of about #aij degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,this prevents the chilling of the sugar liquor by cold bags1 which would cause the bags to become 8blocked10 as it is technically called4 ,the liquor from the blow-ups1 at #aij degrees temperature1 is now turned into the depressed tank on the top of the filter and flows through the perforations into the bags attached on the inside1 down through the bags1 and finds an exit through the bottom of the filter into the tanks below4 ,as the first liquor comes through the bags1 it is a little cloudy1 but in a few minutes1 as the pores of the bags fill with the insoluble substances1 it becomes perfectly bright1 all the suspended and insoluble impurities remaining in the bags1 together with the precipitates drawn over from the blow-ups4 ,the cloudy liquor is pumped to the top of the filter and clarified by being run through a second time4 ,it is interesting to know that it is not really the bag that does the filtering1 but the thin layer of sediment that is deposited from the liquor itself on the inner surface of the bag4 ,the cotton bags are made in a particular manner1 and from a fabric especially adapted to catch the sediment and to form1 in conjunction with it1 an excellent filtering medium4 ,illustration3 ,,bag ,,filters--,,showing ,,bags ,,in ,,place ,illustration3 ,,filter ,,presses ,the liquor1 as it runs into the tanks1 must be carefully watched1 for sometimes a bag inside the filter breaks1 which causes cloudy liquor by allowing the precipitates to gain entrance into the clear liquor4 ,as soon as this is noticed1 samples are taken from the outlet of each filter and the defective one found and investigated4 ,when a bag is torn1 or develops a hole1 the liquor runs through the opening on the top of the filter so fast that it forms a little whirlpool1 which shows the bag that is broken4 ,a wooden plug is immediately driven into the opening and that particular bag cut out4 ,the men on the bag filters soon become so expert that they detect broken bags and plug them before the cloudy liquor gets to the inspection station4 ,it is essential that the liquor be freed from all suspended impurities at this station before the next step is taken1 hence great care and watchfulness must be exercised4 ,in time the coating of sediment1 gums and precipitates on the inside of the bag becomes so thick that the liquor runs very slowly and finally stops4 ,the refinery term for this condition is 8stuck-up40 ,depending on the impurities in the original liquor1 the bag filters will continue to filter the liquor for from twelve to twenty hours and sometimes longer4 ,after the bags are 8stuck-up10 the liquor remaining in them is sucked out by means of vacuum through a small pipe attached to a long rubber hose and inserted in the bags through the holes in the top of the filter4 ,the liquor thus sucked out of the 8stuck-up0 bags is sent to the blow-ups and reprocessed with new liquor1 thus beginning its journey anew4 ,as soon as the liquor is sucked out1 hot water is run through to reduce the sugar contents of the filter4 ,this water is saved and the sugar it takes up is subsequently recovered4 ,the filter is then opened by means of an electric hoist traveling on an overhead track immediately above the filters4 ,chains are attached to the top of the filter and the hoist elevates top1 bags and all1 to a point sufficiently high for the bags attached to the top to clear the adjoining filters4 ,the top and bags are then moved along the track to the washing station4 ,meanwhile another hoist has delivered a duplicate top1 with fresh bags attached1 to the filter1 where it is lowered into place4 ,in this way the filter is again in operation within five minutes4 ,at the washing station the bags just taken from the filter are detached from the top for washing1 and the top is sent to a point where clean bags are again attached4 ,it is then ready to go into another filter4 ,at the washing station the dirty bags are pulled out of the sheaths and turned inside out in tanks containing water1 thus releasing a large quantity of the impurities4 ,the bags and sheaths are then thrown into washing machines1 where all the remaining impurities and sugar are washed out of them4 ,from the washers the bags are put into centrifugal machines1 or through powerful wringers1 and dried sufficiently to permit being rehandled4 ,they are then resheathed and made ready to be attached to another top4 ,the water from the washers contains a large amount of sugar and is conducted to a tank similar to one of the blow-ups1 where it is treated with lime and diluted with water at #aij degrees ,fahrenheit until it contains only from ten to twelve per cent of solid matter4 ,this liquid is then pumped through filter presses and the impurities removed4 ,the 8sweet water10 as it is termed1 which now contains practically all the sugar1 is collected in tanks and the sugar is ultimately extracted by evaporation1 filtration and boiling to grain4 ,illustration3 ,,making ,,new ,,bags ,,and ,,lining ,,the ,,washed ,,bags ,illustration3 ,,printing ,,the ,,empty ,,raw-,,sugar ,,bags ,the impurities removed by the filter presses consist of sand1 portions of bags and baskets1 phosphates1 hair1 lime1 salts and gums1 in fact every kind of foreign matter that finds its way into raw sugar either in the process of manufacture or in transportation4 ,a small amount of sugar accompanies this refuse1 but as its recovery would cost more than it is worth1 it is allowed to run to waste4 ,the filter-press cake1 as it is called1 contains valuable fertilizing agents1 and when conditions permit it is used for fertilizing purposes1 otherwise it is run to waste4 ,,bone-,,char ,,filtration ,,removal ,,of ,,color ,to resume the course of the bag-filtered liquor1 from which the superficial1 the suspended and insoluble impurities have been removed and which is now the color of clear amber1 the next step is bone-char filtration4 ,bone-char1 bone-coal or bone-black1 as it is variously called1 is made from the bones of animals4 ,after the fat and glue are removed1 the bones are subjected to a dry distillation which carbonizes them4 ,these charred bones are then broken into very small pieces1 or until they will pass through a ten-mesh screen and remain on a thirty-mesh screen2 in other words1 the size of the grains used in a sugar refinery vary from one-tenth to one-thirtieth of an inch4 ,if properly manufactured1 the grains are hard1 porous1 and have a great affinity for moisture4 ,bone-char has the peculiar property of removing from the sugar liquor1 in some unknown mechanical way1 not only the soluble salts but the coloring matter as well4 ,the elimination of the salts and coloring matter facilitates the subsequent crystallization4 ,the char house is1 therefore1 by far the most important station in a refinery1 for failure in the char house means failure throughout4 ,contrary to the general practice in ,europe1 beet-sugar factories in the ,united ,states do not use bone-char1 and consequently do not take all the coloring matter and salts out of the liquor4 ,they secure a white sugar by other methods1 which will be explained later on4 ,in a cane-sugar refinery1 however1 the coloring matter and impurities are entirely eliminated1 and the product is invariably pure and white4 ,the char filters are cast-iron cylinders1 usually ten feet in diameter and twenty feet high1 with doors at the top for entrance of the char and openings at the bottom through which it is removed4 ,there are also many pipe connections for the introduction and outlet of liquors1 steam1 hot water and compressed air4 ,the filters are insulated on the outside with asbestos or some other non-conductor of heat to prevent the temperature of the liquor from being lowered as it passes through4 ,each filter has a capacity of from sixty thousand to eighty thousand pounds of bone-char4 ,at the bottom of the filter is a perforated iron plate4 ,over this is placed a coarsely woven cotton blanket1 through which the liquor will pass1 but which prevents the char from escaping from the filter with the liquor or wash water4 ,after the blanket is set in place1 the char is delivered by gravity through an overhead pipe into the filter1 until it is entirely full4 ,the char1 as it goes in1 has a temperature of from #agj to #ahj degrees ,fahrenheit1 and the bag-filtered liquor which is then run on has a slightly higher temperature4 ,illustration3 ,,char ,,filters ,illustration3 ,,char ,,filters--,,showing ,,outlet ,,pipes ,when the liquor in the filter reaches the top and the char has settled in a compact mass1 the cover is put on and fastened securely to prevent leakage4 ,the liquor is again allowed to run into the filter by gravity1 from the tanks about fifteen feet overhead4 ,the valve on the bottom of the filter is then opened and the liquor1 as it filters slowly through the char1 is led through a copper pipe to the liquor gallery1 to which station all the char-filtered liquor is delivered4 ,this pipe1 instead of leading downward from the filter1 leads upward and nearly to the top1 so that the flow of liquor through the char will be slow and uniform and the filter will always remain full of liquor4 ,the diameter of the filter is ten feet1 while that of the outlet pipe is two inches1 so that the flow of liquor through the char is necessarily very slow4 ,the reason for this is that the liquor must remain in contact with char a certain time to enable the char to absorb the coloring matter and soluble salts4 ,the first liquor from the filter appears cloudy and is sent back for refiltration1 but it soon becomes bright1 perfectly colorless and transparent as plate glass4 ,this white liquor is pumped from the liquor gallery into the tanks on the top floor in the pan house1 ready for the next process1 which will be dealt with presently4 ,after a filter has been running for from twenty-four to thirty-six hours1 depending on the character of the sugar in the liquor1 the char becomes 8tired0 or spent4 ,in other words1 it has absorbed so much of the impurities and coloring matter from the liquor passing through it that its capacity to absorb more is gone and the liquor begins to show a slight straw or canary color4 ,the inspector in the liquor gallery immediately notices this and orders the liquor stopped4 ,immediately afterwards a lower-grade liquor is turned into the filter1 which forces the first liquor out before it4 ,in due time the man at the liquor gallery notices the number two liquor coming from the filter and turns it into separate tanks4 ,in time a still lower grade of liquor is turned on and the filter run until the bone-char is absolutely exhausted1 when it is ordered 8sweetened off40 ,hot water is then turned in at the top of the filter to wash out the remaining sugar liquor which gradually becomes more and more dilute4 ,when its density has been lowered to about thirty-five per cent of solid matter1 it is diverted to other tanks1 and this is continued until only three-tenths of one per cent of sugar remains in the sweet water1 as it is now called4 ,the washing of the char in the filter in this manner1 by hot water1 is kept up for twelve hours1 but as soon as the sugar content falls below three-tenths of one per cent the solution is allowed to run to waste1 as the recovery of this small percentage of sugar would cost more than its value4 ,the sweet water is sent to the evaporators1 concentrated to #eh4f per cent of solid matter1 and it then begins its refining journey over again4 ,this long and continued washing of the filters is for the purpose of removing as much as possible of the organic and mineral impurities absorbed by the char4 ,the washing completed1 compressed air is applied to the filter to force out the remaining water4 ,the bottom doors of the filter are then opened and the char1 containing about twenty per cent of water1 drops to the floor below4 ,here it passes through mechanical driers and is delivered comparatively free from moisture to the kilns4 ,there it is revivified1 that is1 the organic matter in the char which could not be removed by washing is converted into carbon by being heated to a cherry red in the absence of air4 ,this is accomplished by allowing the char to pass by gravity through the red-hot retorts of the kilns4 ,as the wet char leaves the filter1 it drops on a moving belt which carries it to large cast-iron hoppers leading to the driers immediately beneath1 where the greater part of the moisture is expelled from the char prior to its being treated in the revivifying kilns4 ,the driers are made up of a number of thin1 hollow1 cast-iron1 triangular pipes1 enclosed in a large1 rectangular1 outside casing4 ,the wet bone-char passes over these hollow pipes as it falls slowly through the drier4 ,the hot gases from the furnaces of the kilns below pass through these cast-iron pipes1 giving off heat as they ascend1 thus driving off the moisture in the char as it falls down over the outer surface of the pipes4 ,at the same time1 hot air obtained from cooling the char in the cooling pipes below the retorts is drawn through the drier1 coming in direct contact with the char4 ,the moisture given off by the char is absorbed by this hot air and carried out of the drier and building by fans or smokestacks4 ,by this means the water in the char is reduced to ten per cent1 and in this comparatively dry1 hot state it runs freely by gravity from the bottom of the drier into a second set of hoppers1 through which it drops into the retorts of the kiln4 ,the hot gases1 after drying the char1 pass out at the top of the drier through a flue leading to a stack outside the building4 ,illustration3 ,,top ,,of ,,char ,,filters--,,showing ,,pipe ,,connections ,illustration3 ,,exterior ,,view ,,of ,,char ,,drier ,the kilns are large square boxes of brick1 built around a strong supporting iron structure4 ,on each side of these boxes are a number of large flat pipes of cast iron1 nine feet long and twelve inches by three inches in section1 the iron being three-quarters of an inch thick4 ,these pipes are called retorts and are arranged vertically in the kilns1 forty on each side4 ,the space in the center between the retorts is known as the furnace and extends the entire length of the kiln1 a distance of about sixteen feet4 ,intense fires are maintained in this central space and the flames playing around the retorts keep them red-hot4 ,the upper ends of the retorts lead into the hoppers above and the lower ends to the cooling pipes below4 ,as the char passes gradually through the red-hot retorts1 it becomes heated to #ijj degrees ,fahrenheit and the organic matter it absorbed from the sugar liquor is changed into carbon4 ,in this way the char becomes almost as good as new1 or1 as the term goes1 revivified4 ,each kiln has a capacity of revivifying sixty thousand pounds of bone-char per day4 ,if the char in this red-hot state were suddenly exposed to the air1 the contact with oxygen would bring about combustion and the char would be quickly reduced to ashes1 so a cooling process is necessary4 ,it is1 therefore1 drawn from the cast-iron retorts into cooling pipes located directly beneath4 ,these pipes are of thin sheet-iron and are about three by four and a half inches in section4 ,there are three under each retort1 and a mechanical device at the bottom allows only a small amount of char to escape at a time4 ,this amount can be regulated at will by the operator1 and in this way the char is held in the retorts the exact time necessary for its revivification4 ,a current of cold air circulates continually around the cooling pipes1 taking up the heat from the char and delivering it through pipes to the drier overhead1 so that when the char leaves the bottom of the pipes its temperature is about #ahj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,from the cooling pipes1 it drops on a belt conveyor from which it is carried by endless belt or chain bucket elevators to the top of the char filters to be used again4 ,the manipulation of the char filters varies in different refineries1 some running the liquor over the char for a longer period than others1 but a fair average of the time required for filling1 settling running liquors and syrups1 sweetening off1 washing1 applying air and emptying1 is eighty-six hours1 the shortest time being seventy-two hours4 ,taking eighty-six hours as a basis1 it will be seen that the char is handled and revivified eighty-one times each year after making due allowance for ,sundays1 holidays and annual clean-up periods4 ,each time the char is handled1 a certain amount of it is broken into dust1 and this is taken out by passing it over fine screens1 and also by exhaust fans4 ,obviously1 the amount of dust taken out each day must be replaced by its equivalent in new char4 ,it is estimated that the original char put into the filters will last from five to six years before it finally becomes disintegrated and is taken out as dust4 ,illustration3 ,,interior ,,arrangement ,,of ,,char ,,drier ,illustration3 ,,exterior ,,view ,,of ,,char ,,kilns--,,showing ,,oil-,,burning ,,apparatus ,as approximately one pound of char is required for every pound of sugar melted1 it will be seen that as the liquor is in contact with the char for only twenty-four hours out of seventy-two1 a refinery turning out two million pounds of sugar per day should have filter capacity for six million pounds of char4 ,the amount of the latter that is handled each year is1 therefore1 very great and requires a large and costly plant to take care of it properly4 ,,crystallization ,,production ,,of ,,crystals ,,by ,,concentration ,the refining process has been described up to and including the purification and decolorizing of the sugar liquor1 the last step being the delivery of the pure white liquor into the receiving tanks in the pan house4 ,after the white liquor leaves the char filters1 the greatest care must be exercised to keep all the machinery1 piping and apparatus scrupulously clean1 for if any foreign matter becomes mixed with the liquor or sugar it can only be removed by refiltering or remelting4 ,by means of vacuum1 the liquor is drawn from the tanks into the vacuum pans1 this being the last operation in which the sugar is handled in a liquid state4 ,from this point on it drops by gravity from floor to floor in a solid or semi-solid form1 until it reaches the packing room as a finished product4 ,in a first-class refinery1 the vacuum pans1 as well as all the piping through which the liquor passes1 are made of copper instead of iron and steel1 which eliminates the possibility of rust or scale getting into the sugar4 ,refinery vacuum pans are usually from fourteen to sixteen feet in diameter and from sixteen to seventeen feet high1 while in shape they appear almost spherical4 ,the boiling takes from one hour and twenty-five minutes to one hour and forty-five minutes1 and about forty-five tons of granulated sugar can be made at each boiling in a fourteen-foot pan4 ,before the liquor is drawn in1 the pan is thoroughly cleansed with hot water and steam4 ,all openings are then closed and the vacuum pump started4 ,the air is quickly exhausted1 a valve in the pipe line leading from the receiving tank is opened and the pan is given a charge of liquor4 ,steam is turned into the coils of the pan and the boiling process begins4 ,soon sufficient moisture is driven off to cause the sugar to 8grain40 ,shortly after the grain forms1 another charge of liquor is drawn into the pan and the operation is repeated until the pan is full of a thick1 white1 mushy substance called massecuite1 that looks very much like half-formed ice4 ,the vapor driven off in the boiling passes out through a large pipe at the top of the pan and is condensed by being sprayed with cold water4 ,on account of the high vacuum1 the liquor boils violently at temperatures ranging from #adj degrees to #aie degrees ,fahrenheit2 thus the risk of scorching1 discoloration or caramelization of the sugar is minimized4 ,on the front of the pan is a vertical row of windows made of heavy plate-glass1 and through these the liquor is watched during the boiling4 ,the massecuite in the pan is sampled at intervals by the sugar boiler1 by means of a 8proof stick10 a brass rod about three feet long and one and one-quarter inches in diameter1 in the pan end of which there is a hollow space4 ,this stick is pushed through an opening in the side of the pan into which it fits tightly1 and then partly withdrawn4 ,a small quantity of the contents of the pan remains in the hollow space1 and this the sugar boiler removes and places on a piece of clear glass4 ,on holding it up to the light1 he sees exactly how the crystallization of the sugar is progressing1 and by observing and feeling the crystals1 he is enabled to control the boiling perfectly4 ,when he concludes that the evaporation is complete and the massecuite of the proper consistency1 the pump is stopped and the vacuum broken by opening a valve near the top of the pan1 admitting the outside air4 ,the foot valve is then opened and the massecuite drops from the pan into a mixer directly underneath4 ,there it is kept constantly in motion by a revolving shaft with paddles1 to prevent the crystals from sinking to the bottom4 ,from the mixer it is drawn into the centrifugals and purged of the mother liquor1 the pure crystals being left in the machine4 ,the liquor thus drawn off contains whatever impurities may have remained in the original liquor4 ,it is now pumped back and run through the char filters again1 after which it is boiled in the vacuum pan and the granulated sugar taken out in the centrifugals4 ,this completes the process of producing crystallized sugar by concentration4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,refinery ,,vacuum ,,pan ,,and ,,pump ,illustration3 ,,arrangement ,,of ,,steam ,,coils ,,in ,a ,,vacuum ,,pan ,there are many interesting and intricate problems in connection with the extraction of the sugar from the wash waters1 sweet waters and low-grade syrups that are constantly accumulating in a sugar refinery1 but space will not admit of their being dealt with here4 ,suffice it to say that the process of extraction is carried to a point where the sugar recovered barely pays for the labor and fuel expended in the operation4 ,the ultimate result is white sugar1 table syrup and molasses4 ,this molasses is used largely in the manufacture of vinegar and alcohol4 ,mixed with grain and alfalfa meal1 it makes an excellent stock food that cattle take to readily and that possesses high value as a fattening agent4 ,the sucrose and glucose content of molasses as it leaves the refinery is about fifty per cent4 ,naturally1 in a process involving so much handling1 filtering and boiling1 there must be some loss1 and the efficiency of a refinery is based upon the percentage of granulated sugar recovered from the raw article delivered to the melt4 ,it may be stated for general guidance that1 taking an average of the refineries of the ,united ,states1 one hundred pounds of refined white sugar is made from each one hundred and seven pounds of ninety-six-degree raw sugar melted4 ,some of the sugar lost is accounted for in the molasses1 in the sediment from the filter presses1 and in the wash waters from the char filters4 ,the remainder is the undetermined loss in handling1 in sugar destroyed by heating1 and in sugar dust escaping during the manufacturing operation4 ,as has been said1 the component parts of raw sugars vary more or less1 and the recovery in white sugar from two lots of raws1 each polarizing ninety-six degrees1 might differ considerably according to the refractory matter in the original raw sugar4 ,the following figures give a fairly accurate idea of the disposition of one hundred pounds of ninety-six-degree raw sugar in refining3 ,water1 which is eliminated 4#gj per cent ,non-sugar1 which is eliminated #c4cj 0 ,sucrose loss1 undetermined 4#ge 0 ,sucrose left in molasses #a4ge 0 ,sucrose extracted in granulated form #ic4ej 0 ------ ,raw sugar melted #ajj4jj 0 ,the undetermined loss includes every loss from the time the raw sugar is weighed into the warehouse until the granulated article is sold to the buyer4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that one of the principal items of refining cost is the actual loss of weight in converting raw into refined sugar4 ,assuming that the raw sugar costs four cents per pound1 the refiner has lost on each one hundred pounds melted1 four cents #f pounds1 or twenty-six cents1 less the small value of the resulting molasses4 ,if the raw sugar cost six cents1 the loss would be thirty-nine cents4 ,at four cents1 the loss is equivalent to #e4bj per ton1 or1 in the case of a refinery melting two million pounds of raw sugar daily1 #e1bjj4jj for each working day4 ,this does not include any of the operating expenses1 such as labor1 fuel1 bone-char1 containers1 selling expense or administration--just the actual value of the raw sugar lost in the process of refining4 ,illustration3 ,,refinery ,,centrifugal ,,machines ,illustration3 ,,exterior ,,view ,,of ,,sweater ,,partial ,,drying ,,purging ,,crystals ,,from ,,the ,,syrup ,returning to the sugar left in the centrifugals1 the force developed in a machine forty inches in diameter1 spinning at the rate of eleven hundred revolutions per minute1 is so great that it quickly dispels all the liquor surrounding the crystals1 leaving them nearly dry1 in a solid1 vertical wall4 ,water1 filtered to insure its purity and cleanliness1 is then sprayed on this spinning wall of sugar1 only to be immediately thrown off through the sugar by the centrifugal motion4 ,in passing through the sugar it washes the last of the syrup from the grains and leaves them perfectly white4 ,cold water1 rather than hot1 is used for this purpose1 as it dissolves less sugar4 ,in former years a small quantity of bluing was added to the spraying water in order to enhance the whiteness of the sugar1 just as bluing is employed in washing fine linen fabrics4 ,since the pure-food laws became effective1 however1 the practice has been discontinued in all cane-sugar refineries4 ,after the sugar is thoroughly washed1 the centrifugal machine is stopped1 a large valve in the bottom opened and the mechanical discharger rapidly ejects the sugar 7now containing only about #a4b per cent moisture7 from the machine into a storage bin beneath4 ,,final ,,drying ,,of ,,crystals ,for some reason not well understood1 the next step in refining is called 8granulation40 ,actual granulation1 or crystallization1 takes place in the pans1 and the process about to be described should properly be called drying4 ,the manufacturing term1 however1 is as given4 ,drying is effected in an apparatus consisting of two large cylindrical drums of wrought iron4 ,these drums are about six feet in diameter1 thirty feet long and have a slight downward pitch from the receiving to the discharging end4 ,the first drum rests on the floor1 directly below the storage bin1 and is called the sweater4 ,it turns slowly on revolving wheels1 by means of circular tracks bolted to it4 ,the power that moves it is delivered from an electric motor1 through a pulley1 shaft and pinion1 the latter working in a gear bolted to the outside circumference of the drum4 ,fastened to the inner surface of this drum is a series of short1 narrow shelves with saw-tooth edges that serve to carry the sugar to the top of the revolving cylinder1 whence it falls to the lower side1 causing a continual shower of sugar throughout the entire length and breadth of the drum4 ,the sugar is delivered through a pipe at the upper end of the sweater1 and the revolving motion together with the incline of the cylinder gradually works it down to the lower end4 ,here it drops through a chute to the granulator on the floor below1 where the process of drying is completed4 ,a strong current of hot air is drawn through the sweater by a powerful fan connected to the upper end by a very large pipe4 ,the air introduced in this way is brought to a high temperature by passing around a number of coils of pipe charged with steam1 which are placed directly in front of the sweater4 ,the hot air sweeping through the drum absorbs nearly all of the moisture in the sugar1 which carries #a4b per cent of water when it enters the drum and about #j4a per cent as it leaves it4 ,the granulator1 or lower drum1 is the same size as the sweater and is constructed in very much the same manner1 having shelves for carrying the sugar to the top and dropping it at the proper point1 and being equipped with a large fan to draw off the hot1 moist air4 ,instead of having steam coils in front1 however1 it has in its center a steam-heated drum about twenty-four inches in diameter that revolves with it4 ,the sugar crystals1 as they fall in a shower from the shelves1 come in contact with the hot inner drum on their way through the granulator1 and in this manner become thoroughly dried4 ,the moisture in the sugar1 as it emerges from the granulator1 is less than four-hundredths of one per cent1 an amount too slight to determine except with the most delicate apparatus4 ,illustration3 ,,front ,,view ,,of ,,sweater--,,showing ,,steam ,,coils ,,for ,,heating ,,the ,,air ,illustration3 ,,interior ,,view ,,of ,,sweater ,to insure perfect drying1 the damp sugar must be fed to the upper drum or sweater with unfailing regularity4 ,this is accomplished by the use of revolving screws located under the storage bins4 ,by turning a certain number of revolutions per minute1 they deliver an even and steady supply of sugar4 ,from the granulators the sugar is dropped on thin cotton belts that1 passing around highly magnetized pulleys1 carry it to the dry storage bins4 ,the sugar is cooled to normal temperature before being packed in containers1 thus preventing subsequent absorption of moisture and consequent caking4 ,magnetic pulleys are used to extract any particles of iron scale or rust that may drop into the sugar after the liquor leaves the char filters4 ,rust sometimes forms in the pans1 mixers1 conveyors1 elevators1 sweaters or granulators1 and should it get into the sugar the magnetic pulleys will surely remove it4 ,storage bins and storage tanks are prominent accessories of all sugar refineries1 for if a breakdown should occur at any point1 there must always be a supply of material on hand to keep the refining operations going while the trouble is being remedied4 ,,screening ,,separating ,,crystals ,,into ,,various ,,sizes ,the now thoroughly cold1 dry and free-running granulated sugar is drawn from the storage bins through galvanized metal pipes and taken to the separators by screw conveyors1 which deliver it at an even1 steady feed--a most essential feature4 ,the sugar as it comes from the pans is made up of crystals of various sizes4 ,it also contains a number of small lumps formed in the centrifugal machines1 or in some part of the process after it leaves the pans4 ,it is necessary to separate the crystals according to size and to screen out the lumps1 for the following reason3 ,in some parts of the country1 people have been educated to use a coarse-grained sugar2 in other sections1 they are accustomed to sugar of a fine grain4 ,for example1 on the ,pacific coast1 the demand is for the fine-grained article2 the consumers of the ,mississippi river valley like a fairly large grain2 while the ,atlantic coast trade calls for a still coarser product4 ,there is a difference1 too1 as to containers4 ,in the ,east the preference is for the barrel package1 while the ,western buyer wants his sugar put up in bags4 ,there are many different types of separators commonly in use1 but in all of them the governing principle is the same4 ,it is the elimination of lumps and dust from the final product and the separation of the sugar crystals according to size4 ,the separator here specifically referred to will explain the principle as well as any other type1 and a glance at the accompanying illustration will give the reader a good idea of its construction4 ,it is made up of a number of wire screens of various sizes1 fixed at a sharp incline1 one above the other1 and all enclosed in a tight1 dust-proof steel case4 ,at the top of the case is a steel screw conveyor by which the sugar is fed evenly and steadily across the entire width of the top screen4 ,on the outside face of the case are a number of shafts to which hammers are attached4 ,as the shafts revolve1 the hammers tap the various screens below1 lightly and at rapid intervals1 thus causing them to vibrate4 ,illustration3 ,,separator--,,closed1 ,,ready ,,for ,,operation ,illustration3 ,,separators1 ,,one ,,of ,,which ,,is ,,open--,,showing ,,three ,,screens ,,for ,,separating ,,the ,,sugar ,,grains ,the upper screen1 called the scalper1 is quite coarse and allows all the sugar to fall through except the lumps1 which run down the face of the screen into a pipe that carries them to the melt1 where they begin the refining process over again4 ,these lumps1 however1 represent a very small proportion of the whole4 ,the second screen is finer than the scalper4 ,it permits part of the sugar to pass through1 but retains a certain amount which falls down on the face of the screen1 whence it is led through a pipe to a special bin4 ,sugar of this size is known as coarse granulated4 ,the next screen lets the finer grains drop through1 but catches the standard granulated1 which in turn is drawn off to its special bin4 ,the last screen1 an extremely fine one1 retains the extra fine granulated1 and this in turn is delivered to its appointed bin4 ,the sugar passing through the last screen is so fine as to be classed as 8dust10 which1 not being marketable1 is usually remelted4 ,the amount of any one grade of sugar obtained from the separator may be changed1 within certain limits1 by the boiling in the vacuum pans4 ,if a large proportion of fine-grained sugar is required1 the sugar boilers are instructed accordingly4 ,it is impossible1 however1 to boil all the grains in each strike a uniform size1 or to boil any two strikes exactly alike1 so the separators are necessary1 especially for removing the lumps and dust4 ,the dust is caused by the constant falling of the dry sugar crystals against each other in the driers and granulators1 and by the grinding action upon the sugar crystals in the screw conveyors4 ,,packing ,,filling ,,various ,,kinds ,,and ,,sizes ,,of ,,containers ,when putting up his goods1 a sugar refiner--like every other manufacturer--must needs cater to the wishes and tastes of the consuming buyer4 ,the modern tendency in containers is in favor of sealed air-tight and dust-proof packages4 ,some refiners spend great sums of money every year in advertising the merits of special sugars packed in dust-proof cartons4 ,their rivals generally follow suit1 as competition in the marketing of sugar is probably far keener than in any other line of business4 ,the plain truth is that all refined granulated cane sugar offered for sale in the markets of this country today is almost identical1 irrespective of the manner in which it may be packed4 ,the poorest quality of refined sugar made has1 in all likelihood1 a purity not lower than #ii4e per cent1 while the highest grade cannot possibly exceed #ii4i per cent1 a difference of only four-tenths of one per cent1 hence it is evident that all refined sugars are practically pure1 the fancy package simply meaning a fancy price4 ,the methods of transporting and handling the sugar after it leaves the refinery may justify the additional expense1 but this is subject to argument4 ,however1 it makes but little difference to the manufacturer1 as the cost of the package as well as the extra handling is always included in the selling price4 ,a few years ago all sugar went out in barrels or bags1 while today a modern refinery turns out about twenty different styles of container1 and twenty-four kinds of sugar4 ,it is obvious1 therefore1 that the packing room of a refinery is an interesting place1 covering as it does a large area and including a great amount of special1 intricate machinery for filling1 weighing and sewing or sealing packages4 ,in the bottom of the bins into which the sugar is delivered from the separators is a series of galvanized iron pipes1 through which the sugar runs to the various filling devices1 the latter being usually arranged in long rows4 ,under the end of each pipe is an automatic weighing machine4 ,in packing bags1 a workman hangs a bag on the weighing machine and presses a lever1 thus allowing the sugar to run into the bag4 ,as soon as the exact amount required is reached1 the flow is automatically cut off4 ,these weighing machines are so accurate that they gauge the amount to within a fraction of an ounce4 ,the operative removes the full bag1 places it on a conveyor that runs in and level with the floor and quickly adjusts an empty one on the weighing machine4 ,these men become so expert that a single operative will fill two hundred and fifty one-hundred-pound bags per hour4 ,the weighing machines are designed to fill and weigh four hundred and eighty one-hundred-pound bags per hour1 but the operative cannot handle them at this rate4 ,illustration3 ,,filling1 ,,weighing ,,and ,,sewing #ajj-,,pound ,,sacks ,illustration3 ,,filling1 ,,weighing ,,and ,,sewing #be-,,pound ,,sacks ,four sewing machines1 specially designed for sewing the filled bags1 are located immediately over the conveyor and in direct line with it4 ,as the bag passes along on the conveyor1 the operative at the first machine picks up the end of the inner cotton sack and passes it through his machine1 stitching it securely4 ,the bag then passes along to the third machine1 where the operative takes hold of the outer burlap bag and sews it in the same manner4 ,each operative has a spare machine ready for instant use in case the one he is running gets out of order4 ,continuing its journey to the end of the conveyor1 the bag is deposited on the main belt conveyor1 which takes it without manual aid to the shipping floor or the storage warehouse4 ,a sewing-machine operative will sew as many as seventeen bags per minute1 but it is trying work and the men relieve each other at intervals during the day4 ,both the one-hundred- and the forty-eight-pound sacks are handled in this manner4 ,formerly the half sacks weighed fifty pounds1 but since the ,parcel ,post law went into effect they have been changed to forty-eight pounds to permit of their shipment by mail4 ,those containing twenty-five1 ten1 five and two pounds are weighed and sewed in much the same way1 by the aid of specially designed1 rapid-handling machinery4 ,the small package machines will accurately weigh and fill five-pound bags at the rate of twenty-five packages per minute1 the others in proportion4 ,the paper boxes1 or cartons as they are called1 are weighed and filled by special machinery4 ,this machinery seems to possess an intelligence almost human4 ,one girl feeds the cartons 7the tops and bottoms of which are open7 into the machine at the rate of thirty-two per minute4 ,the machine glues the bottom1 weighs the sugar to within one thirty-second of an ounce1 fills the carton1 glues the top1 seals it and passes it on to a conveyor which delivers the finished package to a table1 from which it is packed into a box for shipment4 ,women are usually employed in putting up the lighter packages4 ,a short distance from the bag-weighing machines1 and running parallel with them1 is a line of pipes or spouts for filling barrels4 ,on the floor under each spout is a barrel shaker4 ,this is a heavy cast-iron plate that is lifted about one inch1 first on one side1 then on the other1 by the action of two cams or arms attached to a revolving shaft underneath4 ,the shaker drops back violently on the supporting frame after each lift1 causing the sugar to settle compactly in the barrel as it is filled to an average weight of three hundred and fifty pounds4 ,naturally1 the greater the amount of sugar packed in a barrel1 the less the container costs per unit of output1 and as the average cost of a sugar barrel in the ,united ,states is fifty cents1 the container cost per one hundred pounds of sugar is #ad4c cents4 ,without the shaker1 not more than three hundred and thirty pounds of sugar could be put in a barrel1 which would increase the cost per one hundred pounds to #ae4a cents4 ,this difference on a single day's output of two million pounds represents one hundred and sixty dollars1 an eloquent argument in favor of the shaker4 ,illustration3 ,,filling ,,barrels ,illustration3 ,,method ,,of ,,handling ,,barrels ,in packing barrels1 the operative first lines the barrel with heavy paper to prevent the sugar from coming in contact with the rough wooden sides and to keep it from sifting out between the staves4 ,the barrel1 thus lined1 is placed on the shaker1 a valve on the spout opened and the shaking barrel filled to the top4 ,the barrel is then removed and turned over to the cooper1 who heads it up and rolls it on the scale for weighing4 ,before an empty barrel reaches the packing room1 it is weighed and the weight 7generally from nineteen to twenty-five pounds7 is stamped on its side4 ,the gross weight of the filled barrel is determined by the packing-room scales4 ,the weight of the empty barrel is deducted and the net weight of the sugar stenciled on the head4 ,the full barrel is then sent down a chute to the waiting freight car or to the dock for steamer shipment1 or to a conveyor that automatically delivers it to the storage warehouse4 ,in addition to the bags1 barrels1 half barrels1 cartons and boxes1 tins of various sizes are used for the different sugars4 ,all of these are filled and weighed automatically1 and taken from the packing room by conveyors4 ,some of the boxes are lined with paper and some with cotton cloth2 some are nailed up in the ordinary way1 and others are strapped with iron at each end4 ,as a rule1 the individual tins are cased with wood1 but sometimes there are a number of tins in a case4 ,cartons contain two pounds1 three pounds or five pounds of sugar4 ,they are packed in fiber cases holding thirty twos1 twenty threes or twelve fives and also in wooden cases which hold sixty twos1 forty threes or twenty-four fives each4 ,the style of package depends upon the demand of the trade catered to4 ,at this point a word or two about some of the specialties1 such as cube1 powdered and bar sugars1 as well as yellow or soft sugars1 may be of interest4 ,,cube ,,sugar ,the sugar from which the cubes are made is of a rather fine grain1 boiled in special pans from liquor that has been filtered over the char at least twice4 ,from the centrifugals under the pan it falls into a hopper in which there is a revolving screw4 ,directly over the screw is a tank containing a warm1 white sugar liquor1 very sticky and viscous by reason of its density4 ,a pipe leads from the bottom of this tank to a point over the screw1 and the liquor1 which is controlled by a valve1 is allowed to drip upon the sugar4 ,the action of the screw causes the sugar and the liquor to become thoroughly mixed and feeds the damp mass thus formed into a spout leading to the cube press1 the machine in which cube sugar is made4 ,at the top of this machine is another hopper1 into which the damp sugar drops from the spout overhead1 and revolving in the last-mentioned hopper are a number of small shafts with brass pegs inserted at certain intervals along the length of the shafts1 like spokes in the hub of a wheel4 ,these pegs are like human fingers in their action and they press the sugar down into the pockets of a large revolving drum placed directly under the hopper4 ,each pocket is the size of a cube or half cube4 ,working in these pockets are plungers1 which fall back as the revolving drum reaches the highest point directly under the mechanical fingers in the hopper4 ,the fingers fill the open pockets and1 as the drum turns1 the plungers1 at a certain point in its circumference where a heavy bronze bar is placed across its face1 slowly enter the pockets and in so doing compress the sugar into cube form4 ,two belts run through the machine under the cylinder1 carrying galvanized iron plates about twenty-four inches wide1 or the same width as the cylinder1 and thirty inches long4 ,as the line of pockets into which the sugar has been pressed reaches the lowest point on the circumference of the drum1 the plungers drop down1 forcing the pressed cubes out of the pockets onto the galvanized iron plates which the moving belt carries along out of the way of the next lot coming from the cylinder4 ,each plate1 as it leaves the cube press1 contains five hundred and four cubes and one hundred and sixty-eight half cubes1 and the time required to fill a plate is between six and seven seconds4 ,illustration3 ,,cube-,,sugar ,,machine ,illustration3 ,,carton ,,machine ,the belts carry the plates to a series of ovens1 or driers1 so placed that a large number of plates with their contents may be inserted through a door on the belt side4 ,when the ovens are filled with plates holding the soft1 moist cubes1 a current of hot air is turned on at the top of the ovens1 passing out at the bottom4 ,the hot air circulating in this manner dries the cubes and carries off the moisture4 ,eight hours in the ovens suffice to render the cubes thoroughly dry and hard4 ,they are then removed through doors opposite to those through which they were put in4 ,this arrangement prevents the men who are putting the cubes into the ovens from interfering with those taking them out1 for the process is a continuous one and cubes are placed in and removed from the ovens at the same time4 ,as the cubes are taken out of the ovens1 they are deposited on a belt conveyor which delivers them into bins in the packing room1 ready to be put into boxes1 bags1 barrels and other containers4 ,,powdered ,,and ,,bar ,,sugar ,powdered and bar sugars are made by grinding coarse granulated sugar into fine particles and then separating these particles by screening them through fine silk cloth4 ,the bolting of flour is a similar process4 ,powdered sugar has a decided tendency to cake and become hard1 and the coarse sugar from which it is ground should be particularly free from moisture4 ,after being crushed or ground between corrugated rolls turning at high speed1 the ground sugar passes into a screening or sifting device1 of which there are many kinds in use1 the most common being the horizontal1 revolving centrifugal screen4 ,the crushed sugar goes in at the head end1 and1 as it enters1 a number of revolving arms throw it against a silk screen on a circular frame1 revolving in an opposite direction1 that permits the finest1 or powdered1 sugar to pass through a silk cloth having over sixteen thousand openings per square inch4 ,the powdered sugar extracted1 the remainder drops into another screen where a similar sifting action takes place1 the silk of the second screen being coarser than that of the first1 and bar sugar is the result4 ,such grains as are too large to pass through the bar screen are carried back to the rolls and reground4 ,the bar screen has about five thousand openings per square inch4 ,bar sugar1 as the name implies1 is generally used in preparing beverages4 ,it dissolves almost instantly when dropped in water4 ,singularly enough1 the average housewife is not aware of the advantages attending the use of this grade of sugar4 ,it does not become caked as readily as powdered sugar does1 and is the ideal sweetening for berries and cereals served at the breakfast meal4 ,it is far more desirable than powdered sugar for most of the purposes for which the latter is commonly used4 ,it is believed by many that all powdered sugar is adulterated with chalk1 starch1 white corn meal or similar substances4 ,such is not the case1 and it is safe to assume that no mixing whatever is done by any refiner in ,america4 ,powdered sugar has a strong tendency to cake or become hard1 and some manufacturers who buy coarse granulated sugar from the refiners for grinding purposes use starch to the extent of from two to three per cent4 ,chalk is never used1 nor are other non-edible or deleterious substances4 ,starch is not introduced for the purpose of making a greater profit1 but to prevent the powdered sugar from caking4 ,the adding of starch1 in all probability1 increases the cost of making powdered sugar1 as starch costs almost as much as sugar1 and the expense of handling it and feeding it into the grinding machinery is quite an item4 ,illustration3 ,,filling1 ,,weighing ,,and ,,sewing #b-,,pound1 #e-,,pound ,,and #aj-,,pound ,,bags ,,yellow ,,sugars ,yellow sugars1 or 8softs0 as they are usually called1 comprise fifteen grades1 ranging in color from a creamy white to a dark brown4 ,these sugars are used chiefly by bakers in making gingerbread1 pies and cakes1 although a small quantity finds its way directly into households for ordinary domestic consumption4 ,the characteristics of yellow sugars are that they have a small grain and contain a sufficient amount of molasses to make them moist to the touch1 properties brought about by a radically different method of boiling from that applied to white sugars4 ,they also contain a certain amount of invert sugar which preserves the softness of grain and prevents subsequent caking or hardening4 ,to properly explain how yellow sugars are boiled1 reference must be made to the method of boiling white sugars1 which may be briefly summarized as follows3 ,the object to be attained in boiling white sugars is the separation of the crystallizable sucrose contained in a given solution from the impurities1 moisture and non-crystallizable content of that solution4 ,the formation of sugar crystals is a natural result of the evaporation of the moisture from the liquor or solution4 ,in order to obtain pure white crystals1 it is vitally essential that1 as far as possible1 all impurities and non-sugars1 except water1 be removed from the liquor before the boiling takes place1 for if the coloring matter is not thoroughly taken out1 obviously the crystals will be colored4 ,the purifying and decolorizing operation is accomplished in the char filters4 ,after the grain is once formed in definite crystals1 these crystals attract and appropriate the sucrose in solution in the process of building up their structure1 while repelling or excluding the impurities1 so that in consequence the latter remain in solution4 ,irrespective1 however1 of whether crystallization of sucrose takes place in solutions of high or low purity1 it will only partially remove the sucrose from the solution in one operation1 the limit being fixed by the amount and nature of impurities present4 ,in order to bring about further crystallization of sucrose the solution or mother liquor surrounding the crystals must be separated from them and be again diluted1 filtered and concentrated4 ,briefly1 the procedure in boiling white sugar in a vacuum pan is to take liquors of the highest purity for the first boiling4 ,after the first crystals have been removed from the mother liquor in the centrifugal machines1 the liquor is again diluted1 decolorized by bone-char and boiled to grain4 ,this operation is continued a number of times1 the purity of the liquor decreasing each time4 ,finally1 when the purity of the liquor falls to a certain point1 the boiling is discontinued1 for at this point conditions do not admit of further formation of pure sucrose crystals1 and1 if the process were pursued further1 the resulting sugar would not be white4 ,therefore1 when this state is reached1 these low-grade liquors are boiled into a semi-refined sugar1 commonly called 8refinery raw10 which corresponds fairly closely in test with the original raw sugar1 or they are used for making soft yellow sugars as explained later on4 ,this refinery raw is then washed1 melted and put through the whole process all over again4 ,the liquor1 from which the crystals formed in repeated boilings have been removed as made1 at length becomes so charged with impurities that further crystallization of sucrose is impossible and this residue1 or final waste1 is known as blackstrap molasses4 ,this manner of boiling white sugar has been called the 8out and out0 method1 in contradistinction to the 8in and in0 method employed in boiling soft yellow sugars1 of which a few words of explanation now follow4 ,in boiling soft yellow sugars1 the aim is to produce a large number of small sucrose crystals having the property of attracting and combining with the molasses content of the liquor and that will retain some of the molasses after they are purged of mother liquor in the centrifugal machines4 ,this process gives a sugar that may be described as a mechanical mixture of sucrose1 invert sugar and the non-sugars in the molasses4 ,in the case of yellow sugars1 the lighter the color the better price they bring4 ,the greatest profit1 therefore1 is derived from the manufacture of sugars of the lightest color and carrying a reduced percentage of sucrose4 ,in boiling such sugars1 low-purity liquors from which the coloring matter has been removed as far as practicable by bone-char filtration are required4 ,for the purpose1 it is generally found most advantageous to use the liquors taken from white sugar massecuite at the point when1 owing to repeated boilings1 its purity has fallen so low that further extraction of pure white sucrose crystals is impossible4 ,as a result of the numerous filtrations through bone-char preparatory to reboiling in the manufacture of white sugar1 these liquors are usually lighter in color than any of corresponding purity obtained in the refining process4 ,nevertheless1 they are not necessarily the only liquors suitable for the purpose1 and this particularly applies to the making of the lower grades of yellow sugars4 ,it is1 however1 beyond the scope of this book to elaborate upon that phase of sugar refining4 ,the object sought here is to give a general idea of how yellow sugars are boiled1 without going into all the details4 ,as is the case with white sugars1 yellow sugars are made by a succession of boilings in vacuum pans1 the liquor used for each boiling or strike being that obtained from the massecuite of the previous strike4 ,the operation is continued until the liquor becomes too low in purity and dark in color4 ,each successive strike boiled is lower in test than the preceding one1 due to the fact that the sucrose crystals represent the purest part of the massecuite1 and1 consequently1 each time they are removed the quality of the liquor is lowered4 ,this accounts for the various grades of yellow sugar that are made1 fifteen in all1 starting with a creamy white and ending with a dark brown4 ,the sucrose content of the best is about #ib per cent and that of the poorest about #hj per cent4 ,in making white sugars1 the aim is to produce from liquors of high purity sucrose crystals that are pure white1 hard and absolutely free from molasses4 ,in making yellow sugars1 the object is to boil from low-purity liquors soft sucrose crystals that possess the property of attracting and retaining the molasses and to make this combination of crystals and molasses as complete as possible4 ,the essential difference between the two methods1 as well as the appropriateness of the descriptive terms 8out and out0 and 8in and in10 will be readily apparent4 ,the impurities in yellow sugars are natural and consist of invert sugar1 glucose1 organic non-sugars and salts1 all of which were originally present in the raws or were formed in the process of refining4 ,it is not unusual to hear it said that yellow sugars are sweeter than granulated4 ,to the average palate this is apparently so1 but1 as has been shown1 granulated sugar contains #ii4h per cent of sucrose or sweetening matter1 while the highest grade of yellow carries only #ib per cent4 ,soft sugars dissolve more readily on the tongue than granulated1 and the syrup or molasses in them accentuates their sweet taste4 ,there are several other grades of sugar prepared for the consuming market1 but lack of space precludes a description of them or the methods by which they are produced4 ,,mechanical ,,department ,it is needless to say that the conveying1 melting1 filtering1 boiling1 drying1 screening1 weighing and packing of one thousand tons of sugar in twenty-four hours necessitates a great amount of steam and a multiplicity of machinery4 ,the boilers generate steam to drive huge pumps that deliver cold salt water to the condensers throughout the refinery1 to drive vacuum pumps that make boiling and evaporation in vacuo possible1 and to drive large turbine or reciprocating engines that supply the electric power4 ,the exhaust steam as it leaves the cylinders has a pressure of about fifteen pounds per square inch4 ,it is conducted through pipes to the evaporators1 pans1 driers and tanks1 where it is again used for concentrating the liquors1 boiling in the pans1 drying the sugar and keeping the liquors hot throughout the process4 ,it leaves the various heating coils and tubes as hot water and is returned to the boilers for the generation of more steam4 ,live steam1 that is to say1 steam just as it comes from the boilers1 is used extensively in the vacuum pans for boiling the liquor to grain4 ,a refinery melting one thousand tons of raw sugar each day requires about #eejj boiler horse power4 ,on the ,atlantic coast coal is the fuel used1 while on the ,pacific coast oil is burned4 ,the amount of fuel consumed in different refineries varies to some extent1 but a fair average per ton of raw sugar melted is one and one-third barrels of oil1 or one-third of a ton of coal4 ,in modern plants all the moving machinery1 except the pumps and main engines1 is usually driven by electric motors4 ,this does away with many dangerous belts1 as well as expensive transmission machinery4 ,the motor drive is simple and efficient and therefore used extensively4 ,the mechanical department is under the general supervision of the superintendent1 but in direct charge of a mechanical-electrical engineer4 ,this man is known as the chief engineer1 and he is directly responsible1 not only for the operation of all the machinery in the plant together with its upkeep and repair1 but he has also to cope with engineering problems that are constantly arising4 ,under his direction1 a corps of draughtsmen is always busily engaged in planning and designing improvements and additions4 ,he also maintains a force of mechanics1 watching1 operating and repairing the machinery4 ,these men represent almost every trade1 including machinists1 blacksmiths1 coppersmiths1 tinsmiths1 millwrights1 boilermakers1 riggers1 masons1 painters and many others4 ,the diversity of the mechanical work around a refinery is remarkable1 and the engineer in charge must be a man of exceptional mechanical ability1 as his duties include not only steam1 electrical and civil engineering1 but construction engineering of an advanced character4 ,as refineries are always built on sites bordering on deep water1 harbor engineering problems are also constantly before him4 ,in connection with every refinery there are many shops1 where mechanical work incidental to repairs and construction is carried on4 ,these shops are equipped with the necessary tools and implements for quick repairs and are under the supervision of the chief engineer4 ,in addition1 there is the cooper shop where many thousands of barrels are turned out daily1 and the bag factory where twenty cotton bags and twenty burlap bags must be made for each and every ton of output packed in that manner4 ,the mechanical department of a modern refinery is as important as it is extensive1 for failure in any one of its branches means costly delays4 ,the machinery is run twenty-four hours each day1 except ,sundays1 during about eleven months in the year4 ,the plant is closed down the remaining thirty days for annual cleaning and repairs4 ,intelligence and ability1 tempered with good judgment1 bring about the esprit de corps that gives the necessary results4 ,the mechanical is almost as important as the chemical department and1 as before stated1 it is subject to the general supervision of the chemical engineer4 ,illustration3 ,,laboratory ,illustration3 ,,oil-,,burning ,,boiler ,,plant ,,laboratory ,the chemical laboratory is really the heart of the institution1 for upon it depends the success of every manufacturing operation4 ,the superintendent of a refinery must possess a thorough knowledge of chemical engineering1 for the process of sugar refining is largely chemical from beginning to end4 ,competent chemical engineers1 as distinguished from chemists1 are rare1 and yet their calling offers more promising prospects to young men than most other professions do today4 ,it is clear to the intelligent observer that in these times of intensely keen competition1 the manufacturer will1 sooner or later1 inevitably be driven to seek a considerable percentage of his profits in the utilization of by-products that now go to waste or bring but little return4 ,the men to solve the manufacturing problems of the future will be chemical engineers4 ,broadly speaking1 comparatively little has been done in this field in the ,united ,states1 and its possibilities are incalculable4 ,in the laboratory1 day and night1 a corps of chemists is constantly engaged in the study of questions that arise in connection with the operation of the various departments4 ,polarizations for account of buyers and sellers of all raw sugars purchased1 are made and checked there2 hundreds of samples of liquors and syrups are tested daily for control work1 as the purity of both must be known at all times and a record kept of their temperatures and densities4 ,samples of all the sugars entering the refining process1 as well as of the finished product1 are carefully analyzed1 and upon these analyses are based elaborate calculations regarding yield and efficiency4 ,the wash waters from the char filters are examined and tested frequently1 the bone-char is tested every twenty-four hours as a check upon the process of revivification in the kilns1 and once a month the bone-char is completely analyzed to determine the deterioration that has taken place in it4 ,tests are made of materials used in the refining process1 such as lime1 soda1 acids and lubricating oils2 of the feed water for the steam boilers2 of the fresh water used throughout the plant2 and of the fuel1 whether coal or oil4 ,even the gases from the fires under the boilers are tested as they pass through the smokestack1 in order to determine whether or not the firemen perform their duties properly4 ,taking all this in conjunction with frequent tests and experimental work on driers1 condensers1 evaporators and other apparatus1 it will be seen that there is plenty to keep a large staff of chemists fully occupied4 ,in refinery work1 what is to be feared more than anything is the house becoming 8sour40 ,raw sugars and sugar liquors1 and particularly the sweet waters1 have a tendency to ferment1 and fermentation1 like fire1 if not checked and brought under control before it gains much headway1 soon pervades the entire establishment1 affecting all the liquors and syrups1 thus turning the sucrose or sugar into glucose1 which cannot be recrystallized4 ,in a refinery of two million pounds daily capacity1 there is double this quantity of sugar in the house in the form of liquors1 syrups1 sweet water1 massecuite and raws4 ,if all of this four million pounds turned 8sour10 the money loss1 with raw sugar worth four cents a pound1 would be about one hundred and sixty thousand dollars4 ,such a contingency1 while remote1 clearly demonstrates that chemical control is an absolute necessity4 ,,cost ,,of ,,refining ,in concluding that part of the story that deals with refining1 some reference may be made to the refining cost and to the price at which refined sugar is sold4 ,the cost of refining sugar varies in different parts of the ,united ,states on account of the difference in the cost of commodities entering into the refining process1 such as labor1 fuel1 cotton1 burlap1 containers1 bone-char1 etc4 ,on the ,pacific coast nearly all these items are higher than in ,new ,york1 and consequently the cost of refining is probably greater4 ,in #aiaa nearly all the sugar refiners of the ,united ,states appeared before the ,hardwick ,congressional committee at ,washington and the testimony given by them before that body showed that the cost of refining ranged from #fj cents to #fe cents per #ajj pounds4 ,on the day the ,congressional committee began its investigation1 raw sugar was selling in ,new ,york for #c4hf cents per pound1 and the testimony regarding the cost of refining was no doubt based on this price for the raw sugar entering the refining operations4 ,it is therefore fair to assume that under normal conditions1 with raw sugar at about #c cents1 the average cost of refining in the ,united ,states is #fb cents per #ajj pounds4 ,this includes every item from the time the raw sugar is landed on the dock until the refined is loaded on the cars or boats for shipment4 ,it includes the selling and overhead expenses1 but not the transportation charges after the sugar leaves the refinery4 ,during the last six years 7#aiji-ad inclusive7 the actual differential in the ,united ,states between the purchase price of raw sugar and the selling price of refined has been #hb cents per #ajj pounds4 ,the difference between this figure and the cost of refining represents the refiner's gross profit2 in other words1 about #bj cents per #ajj pounds1 out of which he must pay for all additions and improvements to his plant4 ,the remainder is available for returns on capital invested4 ,this difference varies with the time of year and in different localities1 but the average will probably hold good4 ,a refiner of cane sugar buys his raw product in the open market and must pay for all his operating and administration expenses and obtain his profit from the margin between the buying price of raw and the selling price of refined sugar4 ,the cost of refining is not constant1 as it varies with the fluctuating values of fuel1 containers1 labor1 and particularly the cost of raw sugar4 ,if it costs #fb cents per #ajj pounds to refine sugar with raws at #c4hf cents per pound1 it will cost about #hb cents per #ajj pounds with raw sugars at #f cents1 assuming that such items as fuel1 containers1 labor1 etc41 remain constant4 ,this is due to the greater value of the raw sugar lost in refining1 to the heavier insurance premiums and higher interest charges4 ,with high-priced raws1 the margin between raws and refined must be proportionately greater to offset the increased cost of refining4 ,the refiner1 like the consumer1 would prefer to see sugar selling on a low basis1 while the producer always hopes for the opposite4 ,,shipping ,,department ,here will be found every modern convenience for the rapid loading of cars and steamers4 ,adequate railway trackage is provided for the handling of shipments moving by rail1 and on the waterfront side of the warehouses there is ample berth room for steamers that carry the sugar to cities and towns on the inland waterways and the seacoast1 together with points tributary thereto4 ,facilities are also at hand for local delivery by drays4 ,railroad cars are sometimes sent to refineries by water1 on car barges1 to be loaded with sugar and then towed to what are known as railroad terminals1 where the cars are taken from the barges and started on their journey to destination4 ,the capacity of a car varies from twenty-four thousand to one hundred thousand pounds4 ,if an amount of sugar equal to that consumed in the ,united ,states in #aiae were loaded into cars containing #ajjj sacks of #ajj pounds each1 it would require #ha1jhg cars1 which would make up a train #gfh miles long4 ,a large part of the product is delivered direct from the packing-room conveyors into the waiting cars and steamers1 thus avoiding unnecessary handling4 ,a single shipment frequently includes a number of different styles of package1 and great care must be exercised to insure accuracy in count and description4 ,as dry granulated sugar readily absorbs moisture1 every precaution must be taken to make the storage rooms thoroughly damp-proof1 so that the sugar may always be in good condition when shipped from the refinery4 ,shipments are made only on written orders from the sales department to the head of the shipping department4 ,these orders set forth the name of the buyer1 the kinds and quantity of sugar desired1 the point to which the sugar is to go1 the route by which it is to travel1 the date on which it is to be shipped1 and the terms of sale4 ,at the proper time the sugar is loaded1 shipped1 and in due course delivered to the buyer4 ,illustration3 ,,inland-,,waterway ,,steamer ,,loading ,,sugar ,,at ,,refinery ,,dock ,illustration3 ,,car-,,float ,,arriving ,,at ,,refinery ,,dock ,,marketing ,the amount of sugar used in the ,united ,states in #aiae was #d1beg1gad short tons4 ,of this1 #c1chi1age tons were raw cane1 the remainder consisting of #hfa1efh tons of domestic beet and #f1iga tons of foreign refined cane and beet4 ,of the #c1chi1age tons of raw cane1 #aej1jjj tons were consumed in the raw state1 and from the remainder1 #c1bci1age tons1 about #c1jdd1hbe tons of refined sugar were produced4 ,the per capita consumption was #hc4hc pounds1 and was made up of3 ,,short ,,tons ,,per ,,cent ,refined made from raw cane #c1jdd1hbe #gd4id ,domestic and foreign beet #hfb1fid #ba4bc ,foreign refined cane #e1hde 4#ad ,consumed in the raw state #aej1jjj #c4fi --------- ------ #d1jfc1cfd #ajj4jj ,among articles of food that contain a large percentage of sugar are jams1 jellies1 chocolate1 canned fruits1 condensed milk1 confectionery1 chewing gum and cordials4 ,it is estimated by ,willett ,gray that in #aiae the direct per capita consumption was #ca4dc pounds1 and that the remaining #eb4dj pounds were used in various prepared or manufactured foodstuffs4 ,over ninety-nine per cent of all the cane sugar consumed in the ,united ,states is refined in ,new ,york1 ,boston1 ,philadelphia1 ,new ,orleans and ,san ,francisco4 ,the beet comes chiefly from ,california1 ,colorado1 ,michigan1 ,utah and ,idaho2 the maple from the ,new ,england states1 ,ohio and ,canada2 and the small amount of full duty-paying foreign cane from ,java1 ,peru1 ,mexico1 ,central ,america and ,santo ,domingo4 ,during the past eleven years the consumption in the ,united ,states has grown at an average rate of #c4eg per cent per annum4 ,in #aiaa1 on account of the abnormally high prices1 the increase was practically nil4 ,the annual per capita consumption of sugar in some of the other countries of the world is as follows3 #aiad ,servia #d4fj lbs4 ,greece #h4ii 0 ,bulgaria #i4id 0 ,italy #aj4de 0 ,portugal #ac4fj 0 ,spain #ae4ia 0 ,roumania #ag4ab 0 ,turkey #bj4cc 0 ,russia #bi4bf 0 ,finland #cb4ed 0 ,austria-,hungary #cg4ch 0 ,france #ci4ja 0 ,belgium #db4gi 0 ,holland #ec4dd 0 ,norway #fj4cg 0 ,sweden #fj4dh 0 ,switzerland #gd4hg 0 ,germany #gd4ie 0 ,england #hi4fi 0 ,denmark #ic4dh 0 ,the sale and distribution of large quantities of refined sugar is a serious problem and just as important as the production and the refining of the raw product4 ,competition is so keen1 and the questions involved so complex1 that the sale of the product really results in commercial warfare4 ,to dispose of the output of a large plant successfully requires great intelligence1 a broad grasp of business principles1 strict honor and integrity1 and prompt1 decisive action in times of fluctuating markets4 ,sales managers of the sugar-refining companies of the ,united ,states command high salaries1 for the success of the business depends to no small extent upon their ability and judgment4 ,their knowledge of human nature must be broad and sound and it is tested to the utmost in their selection of assistants and brokers1 for representatives always reflect the ideals1 principles and methods of the parent authority4 ,the selling of sugar by the refiner direct to the consumer has not been found practicable1 as an organization complete enough to keep in touch with consumers in every city1 town and village of the country would be so top-heavy and costly to maintain that the price of the commodity to the consumer would be needlessly increased4 ,as matters stand1 people living in the frozen valleys of ,alaska1 in the scarcely accessible regions of the ,rocky mountains and in the lumber and mining settlements of the ,west1 many miles from railroads1 can obtain their supply of sugar with almost the same facility as the residents of ,new ,york or ,san ,francisco4 ,a system of distribution that makes this possible leaves little to be desired1 and a word or two concerning it will be timely at this point4 ,sugar is sold by the refiner to the wholesale grocer through the medium of the refinery's broker4 ,from the wholesaler it goes to the retailer1 who in turn delivers it to the consumer4 ,brokers are important factors in distribution4 ,in every large city and consuming center1 each refinery is represented by its own brokers1 who keep in constant touch with all the wholesale grocers and manufacturers of their district4 ,a thorough knowledge of men and methods1 sound business principles1 diplomatic talents of no mean order and the capacity to act rapidly1 but coolly1 in business crises are found combined in the successful broker4 ,he occupies a position between the seller and buyer1 and it is just as much his prime duty to see that in all transactions full justice is accorded to both as it is to sell the sugar4 ,every refinery having its own broker in each consuming center1 it follows that the competition for business among the brokers is very keen4 ,when a broker obtains an order from a jobber or manufacturer1 he telegraphs it to his principal4 ,the order is usually confirmed and the goods shipped promptly4 ,for his services the broker receives three cents for every one hundred pounds of sugar sold4 ,this compensates him for the services of his salesmen and himself1 his office expenses and cost of telegrams1 which is heavy4 ,manufacturers of foodstuffs of which sugar is an ingredient1 buy their supplies through brokers4 ,they do not resell the sugar as such1 but use it only in the manufacture of their own special products4 ,wholesale grocery jobbers1 of whom there are about twenty-five hundred in the ,united ,states1 are also very important factors in the distribution of sugar4 ,as a rule1 they are located in the large centers of population1 and have efficient organizations for the purchase and resale of all kinds of foodstuffs4 ,they deal in as many as three thousand different commodities1 and their expense of doing business is apportioned over all of these items1 thus reducing to a minimum the expense of handling any one of them4 ,generally speaking1 they have large establishments where stocks of all kinds of goods are carried ready for immediate distribution4 ,the aggregate capital tied up in these stocks throughout the country is enormous1 but necessary1 as the jobber must at all times be ready to deliver to the retailer whatever is wanted in any of his lines4 ,wholesale jobbers occupy a unique position in the scheme of things4 ,they are to the commerce of the country what the bankers are to its finances4 ,in other words1 they are the bankers of commodities4 ,their operating staff consists1 first1 of the buyers1 and1 second1 of the salesmen4 ,the buyers are men possessing special knowledge concerning the various articles handled by the house4 ,for instance1 in the grocery line one will buy nothing but teas and coffees1 another canned goods1 another sugar1 and so on4 ,these men as a rule have devoted years of study to the particular commodity which they are delegated to buy4 ,they are shrewd1 keenly alert and always ready to take advantage of market fluctuations in their favor4 ,the margin of profit between the buying and selling price of any commodity is usually so small that the acumen of the buyer is an important factor in the final results4 ,the salesmen are trained1 tactful1 tireless and efficient4 ,they travel from town to town and place to place1 visiting every nook and corner where human beings congregate1 in order to sell the goods carried by the firm4 ,while his calling is a most useful one1 the life of a 8knight of the grip0 is not always pleasant1 as he meets with many deprivations and discomforts4 ,to compensate him for capital invested1 for the expense of doing business and for the losses he incurs in bad debts and declining markets1 the jobber probably obtains a gross return of fifteen cents on each one hundred pounds of sugar he sells4 ,the next important link in the chain is the retailer4 ,it is roughly estimated that there are three hundred thousand retail grocers in the ,united ,states1 many of whom handle and distribute almost as many articles as the jobber4 ,their lot on the whole is not cast in pleasant places1 because of the severe competition they meet in selling their goods4 ,competition is a word regarded almost with affection by the buyer1 but for the seller of goods it is probably the most unpleasant one in the ,english language4 ,there is an old axiom which reads3 8,competition is the life of trade40 ,it may be so1 but the expression was no doubt coined by a buyer4 ,among sellers1 competition is in direct proportion to the number engaged in any particular business4 ,it therefore follows that as there are three hundred thousand retailers in the ,united ,states1 and hundreds in each of all the large cities1 the struggle to keep on their feet and continue their various enterprises must be severe4 ,the number of failures occurring every year amply substantiates this assertion4 ,reckless and unscrupulous men engage in every business1 and the competition thus forced on all others in their line is not only unfair1 but positively dishonest4 ,any individual can break a price or introduce new and expensive experiments in selling terms1 which must be followed with equally attractive terms by the other sellers1 thus resulting in great loss to all4 ,it is no satisfaction that such men finally fail and go out of business1 for the losses sustained in the interim can never be recovered4 ,another grave difficulty with which the retailer has to contend is the fact that the average individual to whom he delivers his wares is apt to be rather callous when pay-day comes around4 ,it is sad1 but true1 that those best able to pay are sometimes the most unsatisfactory customers of the retail grocer4 ,a retailer's expense of doing business is proportionately much greater than that of the wholesaler1 and his losses1 due to bad or uncollectible accounts1 are much heavier4 ,the cost of delivering goods to the consumer's door is high1 and a fact that should be remembered1 but which is frequently overlooked1 is that it costs the grocer just as much to deliver a five-pound package of sugar as a wagon-load4 ,householders are proverbially careless1 and telephone calls for late and urgent deliveries are a source of great annoyance and expense4 ,to create a pleasing impression1 the grocer must keep a clean1 sanitary store1 and the expense incident to attractive window and shelf displays to invite attention is an important item4 ,department and other stores in his town or neighborhood often advertise 8leaders0 to attract the buying public1 in the hope of selling with these leaders other goods at a profit1 or because they are overstocked with a particular commodity4 ,every retailer must1 as a rule1 meet this unfair competition or lose his trade4 ,sugar more than any other staple article is used as a leader1 and1 as a result1 the retail grocer's profit on it is very small4 ,what remains to him out of the selling price of one hundred pounds of sugar does not exceed thirty-five cents1 and more than likely it has cost him twenty-five cents to sell it4 ,it is the retail grocer's employ who delivers sugar in the quantity desired to the housewife at her door1 and through her hands the pure1 glistening crystals reach the family table4 ,,beet ,,sugar ,,short ,,review ,,of ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,beet ,,sugar ,the extraction of sugar from beets dates back to #agdg1 when ,andreas ,marggraf1 professor of physics in the ,academy of ,science of ,berlin1 discovered the existence of a sugar in beets similar in its properties to that obtained from cane4 ,the discovery was little utilized at first1 however1 and the manufacture of sugar from beets did not attain commercial importance for over half a century1 when ,franz ,karl ,achard1 a pupil of ,marggraf1 made discoveries which led to the construction of the first beet-sugar factory in the world1 in ,silesia1 in the year #agii4 ,the work of ,achard soon attracted the attention of ,napoleon ,bonaparte1 who appointed a commission of scientists to go to ,silesia to investigate ,achard's factory4 ,upon their return1 two small factories were constructed near ,paris4 ,although these two factories were not altogether a success1 the results attained greatly interested ,napoleon1 and in #ahaa he issued a decree appropriating one million francs 7#bjj1jjj7 for the establishment of sugar schools1 and compelling the farmers to plant a large acreage to sugar beets the following year4 ,he also prohibited the further importation of sugar from the ,indies after ,january #a1 #ahac4 ,as a result of these and other drastic decrees1 three hundred and thirty-four factories were erected in ,france during the years #ahab and #ahac1 and their production was seven million seven hundred thousand pounds of sugar1 or an average of eleven and one-half tons to the factory4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,truman ,g4 ,palmer1 ,esq4 ,,sugar ,,beet ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,truman ,g4 ,palmer1 ,esq4 ,,another ,,type ,,of ,,sugar ,,beet ,with the fall of ,napoleon ,bonaparte1 disaster came upon this1 one of his greatest achievements1 and but one factory survived4 ,the industry was destined to flourish again1 however1 under the reign of ,louis ,philippe4 ,in #ahcf-cg there were five hundred and forty-two factories in ,france1 producing thirty-five thousand tons of sugar1 as compared with fourteen hundred and eight tons in ,germany1 which country had only recently begun the culture of beets4 ,when ,napoleon ,,iii became emperor1 he so stimulated the industry that in #ahec the ,french output had doubled4 ,meanwhile the ,germans were making rapid strides1 and in #ahhj the ,german output of sugar exceeded that of ,france4 ,as a result of legislative encouragement1 ,germany today is the largest beet-sugar producer in the world4 ,the first successful beet-sugar factory in the ,united ,states was constructed by ,e4 ,h4 ,dyer1 at ,alvarado1 ,california1 in #ahgi4 ,the next successful factory was erected at ,watsonville1 ,california1 in #ahhh1 by ,claus ,spreckels4 ,the ,oxnard brothers followed with the construction in #ahij of a factory at ,grand ,island1 ,nebraska1 one at ,norfolk1 ,nebraska1 and a third at ,chino1 ,california1 the last built in #ahia4 ,from this it will be seen that the commercial production of beet sugar in the ,united ,states really dates back to about #ahij1 since only three factories of small capacity had been established prior to that date4 ,the development of the industry since the year #ahib has been rapid1 and the general results of the beet industry in the ,united ,states in #aiae showed the following3 ,factories in operation #fg ,acres of beets harvested #faa1cja ,average yield of beets per acre #aj4aj short tons ,beets worked #f1aej1bic 0 ,sugar manufactured #hgd1bbj 0 ,the season of #aiaf promises a notable increase in tonnage4 ,,the ,,sugar ,,beet ,the botanical name of the sugar beet is ,beta vulgaris4 ,it grows exclusively in the temperate zone1 and with satisfactory soil and climatic conditions a yield of thirty tons per acre has resulted4 ,the average yield in the ,united ,states1 however1 is slightly over ten tons per acre4 ,there are many varieties of beets1 some of which do better in one locality than another1 so that great care must be used in the selection of the seed4 ,the beet1 unlike sugar cane1 grows below the ground1 is white in color and shaped like the ordinary carrot1 but larger4 ,the beets vary greatly in size1 depending upon variety1 soil and climatic conditions1 the average weight ranging between one and two pounds4 ,the foliage has a rich1 brilliant green color and grows to a height of about fourteen inches4 ,the leaves are numerous and broad and grow in a tuft from the center or crown of the beet1 which is usually level with or just above the ground surface4 ,the average composition of a sugar beet is about as follows3 ,sugar #ag4c per cent ,marc or pulp #d4d 0 ,ash and organic non-sugar 4#g 0 ,water #gg4f 0 ,the value of the beet to a factory depends on the amount and purity of the sugar content4 ,factories as a rule decline to purchase beets containing less than twelve per cent of sucrose1 as it is unprofitable to handle them4 ,in order to induce the farmer to devote particular care and attention to the culture of his fields and thus increase the sugar content1 the factories pay a premium for beets containing over fifteen per cent of sugar4 ,the premium is usually twenty-five cents per ton of beets for each additional one per cent of sugar4 ,encouraged by this bonus1 the ,california grower has improved the quality of his beets1 until today they contain on an average about eighteen per cent of sugar of a purity from eighty to eighty-four4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,truman ,g4 ,palmer1 ,esq4 ,,ploughing ,,with ,,caterpillar ,,engine ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,truman ,g4 ,palmer1 ,esq4 ,,planting ,,beet ,,seed ,,selection ,,of ,,the ,,soil ,the sugar beet1 like sugar cane1 needs a peculiar soil and climate for its successful cultivation4 ,the most important requirement is that the soil shall contain a large supply of plant food1 be rich in humus and have the property of retaining a great deal of moisture4 ,a certain amount of alkali is not necessarily detrimental1 as sugar beets are not especially susceptible to injury from this salt4 ,the ground should be fairly level and well drained1 especially where irrigation is practiced4 ,while the physical character is of secondary importance1 as generous crops are grown in sandy soil as well as in heavy loams1 still the ideal soil is a sandy loam1 i4 e41 a mixture of organic matter1 clay and sand4 ,a subsoil of gravel1 or the presence of hard-pan1 is not desirable1 as cultivation to a depth of from twelve to fifteen inches is necessary to produce the best results4 ,climatic conditions1 temperature1 sunshine1 rainfall and winds have an important bearing upon the success of beet culture4 ,a temperature ranging from #fj degrees to #gj degrees ,fahrenheit during the growing months is most favorable4 ,sixteen inches of rainfall are necessary to raise an average crop of beets without irrigation4 ,high winds are very harmful1 as they generally crust the land and prevent the young beets from coming through the ground4 ,the best results are obtained along the coast of southern ,california1 where warm1 sunny days succeeded by cool1 foggy nights seem to meet every requirement4 ,sunshine of long duration but not of great intensity is the most important factor in the successful cultivation of sugar beets4 ,the nearer the equator is approached1 the poorer the beets become in sucrose because of the shorter days and the greater heat of the sun4 ,beets have never been raised with success in the hot interior valleys1 as the hot days followed by warm1 dry nights sap the vitality of the plant4 ,in the elevated ,rocky mountain region of ,colorado and ,utah1 where the temperature is high during the daytime but where the nights are cool1 the quality of the beet is excellent4 ,in ,michigan the long summer days and the influence of the great lakes result in satisfactory climatic conditions for sugar-beet culture1 and the crops raised in that state are large4 ,in order to cultivate beets successfully the land must be properly prepared4 ,deep ploughing is the first principle of beet culture4 ,it allows the roots to penetrate the subsoil without much obstruction1 thereby preventing the beet from growing out of the ground1 besides enabling it to extract considerable nourishment and moisture from the lower soil4 ,if the latter is too hard1 the roots will not penetrate it readily and1 as a result1 the plant will be pushed up and out of the earth during the process of growth4 ,a hard subsoil is impervious to water and prevents proper drainage4 ,it should not be too loose1 however1 as this allows the water to pass through more freely than is desirable4 ,the character of the surface soil is equally important4 ,careful preparation by harrowing should be done to afford a finely pulverized and clean bed for the seed4 ,to sum up1 the soil should be deep1 fairly fine and easily penetrable by the roots4 ,it should also be capable of retaining moisture and at the same time admit of a free circulation of air and good drainage4 ,,planting ,the preliminary preparation of the ground finished1 the seed should be put in as soon as the soil is firm enough to allow it to germinate readily and the young plants to grow normally4 ,the time of planting varies according to climatic conditions4 ,in ,california planting begins as a rule in ,december and ends in ,march1 while in ,utah1 ,colorado and ,michigan it ranges from ,march until ,may4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,truman ,g4 ,palmer1 ,esq4 ,,thinning ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,truman ,g4 ,palmer1 ,esq4 ,,cultivating ,about twenty pounds of seed to the acre are required to produce a satisfactory stand4 ,the seed is planted in rows1 about eighteen inches apart1 and is drilled in solidly to a depth of from three-quarters to one and a half inches4 ,the latter is the maximum1 as any greater depth than this weakens the plant and should1 therefore1 be avoided4 ,the soil around the seed is well packed by the planter in order to draw the moisture necessary for germination4 ,the production of beet seed presents many problems2 the chief one is to obtain the particular kind of seed that will bring forth a hardy beet containing a large percentage of sugar of a high purity4 ,the beets from which the seed is produced are selected with the greatest care1 and for nearly a century the ,luther ,burbanks of ,europe have devoted their time and skill to improving the quality4 ,until recently1 practically all of the beet seed used in the ,united ,states was imported from ,europe4 ,since the outbreak of the great war in #aiad1 however1 the difficulties attendant upon securing a supply have caused the beet growers to turn their attention to raising seed in this country4 ,their efforts have been rewarded with a fair measure of success1 and while the cost is greater than that of ,european seed1 the germinating properties have proven to be excellent4 ,the best results have been obtained in ,idaho4 ,owing to the fact that the culture of the beets and the picking and sorting of the seed are done chiefly by hand1 labor enters largely into the cost of production1 and consequently1 under normal conditions1 the growers in the densely populated countries of ,europe have a great advantage over those in the ,united ,states1 where the main difficulty is securing labor for the field work4 ,like sugar cane1 beets are subject to plant diseases of various kinds1 as well as to injury by insect pests1 and great care has to be exercised to ward off these dangers4 ,probably no other crop exhausts the soil so rapidly as beets1 and1 if they are planted for many years in succession1 they deteriorate year by year4 ,on the other hand1 if crops are rotated so that beets are grown in the same ground every third year1 peas1 beans or grain being raised the other two years1 it is a remarkable fact that all of these crops will improve each year4 ,this is due to the intensive cultivation of the beets and to the humus left in the ground in the form of rootlets4 ,experience has taught the farmer that no other crop is so beneficial to the soil as beets grown in the right rotation and with proper care4 ,,thinning ,as soon as the beets are up and the rows clearly defined1 thinning becomes necessary4 ,this is one of the most important features of beet culture and is a tedious and expensive operation4 ,it consists of cutting out the plants so that individual roots remain1 spaced about eight inches apart4 ,the work is done by hand1 a hoe being used to block out the spaces1 and the roots surrounding the one which it is desired to retain are pulled up4 ,due partly to faulty germination1 but principally to defective thinning of the beets1 in which operation a great many of the small1 tender beet plants are injured or killed1 very much less than the theoretical number of mature beets are secured per acre4 ,with rows eighteen inches apart and a plant every eight inches in the row1 #dc1jjj beets per acre should be obtained1 which1 at an average weight of one and one-half pounds per beet1 would mean #cb4be tons4 ,owing1 however1 to the facts just mentioned and to other causes1 the actual yield is always much less4 ,the average in ,california for a number of years past has been only #aj4fh tons per acre4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,truman ,g4 ,palmer1 ,esq4 ,,field ,,of ,,ripe ,,beets ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,truman ,g4 ,palmer1 ,esq4 ,,topping ,,beets ,,cultivation ,the purpose of cultivation is two-fold2 first1 to retain the moisture in the soil1 and1 second1 to destroy the weeds and grass1 as in the early stages of the growth of the beets weeds might spoil the stand by choking the plants4 ,cultivation should be continued until the plants have attained such a size that the leaves cover the ground4 ,it increases the fertility of the soil by opening the land to the atmosphere1 thus facilitating the penetration of oxygen and absorption of air moisture and the resulting decomposition and assimilation of nutritious elements4 ,,harvesting ,,and ,,topping ,the time when harvesting takes place depends on the many factors that influence the growth and maturing of the beet4 ,in the colder countries the harvesting lasts from ,september until the ground becomes frozen1 while in warmer climates like that of ,california1 where the seed is planted early1 harvesting begins about ,july first and lasts for a period of from seventy-five to ninety days4 ,the beets are first loosened by means of a specially shaped plough1 called the 8puller10 which lifts them from the ground4 ,they are then picked up by hand and the crown of each beet1 together with the leaves1 is cut off with a large knife4 ,the leaves contain no sugar1 and are1 therefore1 not taken into the factory1 but are utilized for stock feeding1 being quite valuable for this purpose4 ,the sugar contained in the crown is accompanied by so many organic salts that it does not pay to extract it4 ,the topped beets are then loaded into wagons or railroad cars and transported to the factory1 at which point they are carefully weighed4 ,in this country most of the beets are raised by farmers and sold under contract to the factories1 at so much per ton1 so that the determination of the exact weight and sucrose content is important4 ,for the season of #aiae the average price paid to the farmers for beets was #e4fg per ton4 ,on arrival at the factory a certain number of beets are taken from every wagon- or car-load1 and these represent a fair average of all the beets of that particular delivery4 ,they are sent to the laboratory and their exact weight ascertained1 after which they are trimmed of all adhering roots1 leaves and parts of the crown1 if not properly topped in the field4 ,any remaining soil is carefully brushed off and the beets thoroughly cleaned4 ,they are then reweighed and the difference between this and the first weight is the tare4 ,this difference represents a certain percentage of the total of the sample beets weighed1 and that small percentage is deducted from the gross weight of the total load4 ,in this way the exact net weight of beets delivered by the farmer is determined and he is paid according to this net weight4 ,the sugar content of the beet and the purity of the juice must now be ascertained1 for the price paid the farmer varies according to the amount of sugar the beet contains4 ,as in the case of weighing1 sampling and polarizing raw cane sugar1 representatives of both parties--the farmer and the factory--are present when all weights are taken and tests made4 ,there are several different methods for determining the percentage of sugar in the beet and the purity of the juice1 but the following gives a fair idea of the general practice4 ,the sample beets having been cleaned1 are cut into quarters1 one-quarter of each beet being taken for the general sample4 ,this general sample is placed in a grinding or shredding machine1 the beets are disintegrated to a fine pulp and thoroughly mixed4 ,a specific amount of this fine pulp is then accurately weighed and placed in a copper pan or dish called a capsule4 ,a small quantity of dilute lead solution is introduced to assist in clarifying1 and sufficient water added to bring the volume up to #bjj cubic centimeters4 ,it is then heated for about twenty minutes and vigorously agitated1 so that the sugar-bearing juice of the beet will mix evenly with the water that was added4 ,the mixture1 after being allowed to stand for several minutes1 is filtered through paper and a certain amount placed in the observation tube of a polariscope4 ,the instrument will show the amount of sugar in the solution1 and by multiplying the reading by two the per cent of sugar in the beets will be found4 ,if in preparing the sample only sufficient water had been added to bring it to a volume of #ajj cubic centimeters1 the polariscope would give a direct reading of the percentage of sugar in the beets4 ,practice has demonstrated1 however1 that the method described is the more accurate4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,truman ,g4 ,palmer1 ,esq4 ,,hauling ,,beets ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,truman ,g4 ,palmer1 ,esq4 ,,delivering ,,beets ,,to ,,the ,,factory ,,by ,,wagon ,to ascertain the purity of the juice1 the procedure is as follows3 ,a part of the shredded sample is taken and the juice is squeezed out of it4 ,the amount of sugar in this juice is determined by aid of the polariscope1 and a ,brix spindle shows the amount of solids it contains4 ,by dividing the polarization by the ,brix and multiplying by #ajj the purity is obtained1 which means the percentage of pure sugar in the total amount of solids contained in the solution4 ,the purity of the juice has an important bearing on the subsequent manufacture of the sugar4 ,it is difficult and costly to extract sugar from low-purity juices1 and the loss of sugar in the process is very high4 ,the reverse is naturally true if the juices have a high purity4 ,the purity of the juice in the beet is materially affected during the growing period by climatic conditions1 rainfall1 irrigation1 fertilization1 state of soil and cultivation4 ,great care and attention must be given the beet to insure high purity and heavy content of sugar4 ,from the above it will be seen how the net weight and the percentage of sugar in any particular wagon- or car-load of beets are ascertained1 as well as the purity of all the beets that enter a factory4 ,the efficiency of the work in a factory is based on the figures thus obtained4 ,,manufacture ,,of ,,beet ,,sugar ,the process of making sugar from the beet is highly technical in its details and cannot be fully discussed within the scope of this work4 ,a brief description1 however1 will give an idea of the general methods followed4 ,the process of manufacture may be classified under seven headings3 #a4 ,transportation and cleaning of beets4 #b4 ,extraction of juice1 slicing and diffusion4 #c4 ,purification1 carbonation1 filtration1 concentration and sulfitation4 #d4 ,formation of grain4 #e4 ,partial drying1 purging crystals from syrup in centrifugals4 #f4 ,final drying4 #g4 ,packing4 ,,transportation ,,and ,,cleaning ,the beets1 after delivery to the factory1 are stored in ,v-shaped bins1 in the bottom of which is a flume covered by removable boards4 ,by removing the boards1 one at a time1 the beets are fed into the flume1 where a swift current of water floats them into the factory4 ,from this flume the beets are lifted by means of a large wheel1 a helical screw or any other suitable device1 and discharged into a washer4 ,the common form of washer consists of a horizontal1 semi-cylindrical tank provided with rotating1 kicking or stirring arms for keeping the beets in motion4 ,in this tank the beet is completely cleaned and separated from adhering earth1 weeds and pebbles4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,truman ,g4 ,palmer1 ,esq4 ,,delivering ,,beets ,,to ,,the ,,factory ,,by ,,train ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,truman ,g4 ,palmer1 ,esq4 ,,general ,,interior ,,view ,,of ,,beet-,,sugar ,,factory--,,showing ,,filter ,,presses ,,in ,,foreground2 ,,pans ,,and ,,evaporators ,,in ,,rear ,the beets are delivered from the washer into an elevator1 which takes them to a point near the top of the factory and discharges them into automatic weighing and recording scales4 ,from the scales the beets fall by gravity into the slicing machines4 ,,extraction ,,of ,,juice1 ,,slicing ,,and ,,diffusion ,the slices are made in various shapes and forms4 ,the slicing machines consist of revolving1 corrugated knives which cut the beets into long1 thin slices or 8cossettes40 ,the object is to produce slices which expose the greatest amount of surface1 and yet sufficiently firm to lie not too closely together when placed in the diffusion battery1 thereby preventing the circulation of the diffusion liquors4 ,the cossettes are conveyed on an endless belt1 or through a hopper1 to the cells of the diffusion battery4 ,as the term implies1 the juice in the beet is extracted by diffusion1 and not by crushing1 as in the case of cane4 ,when two liquids1 separated by a membrane1 are brought in direct contact with each other and allowed to stand for a time1 they mix uniformly without the assistance of mechanical or other force4 ,beets are made up of a great number of plant cells1 the walls of which are porous membranes4 ,these cells are placed in contact with water or juice of lesser sugar content than the juice in the plant cell1 in consequence of which the juice is gradually diffused from the beet and carried away in the circulating water which is added4 ,when this water1 or rather juice1 has reached a certain stage of concentration1 it is drawn out of the cells and sent to the next stage in the process of manufacture4 ,a diffusion battery1 or the apparatus in which the process of diffusion is carried on1 consists of a number of tanks or cells1 usually from ten to fourteen1 cylindrical in shape and terminating in truncated cones provided with covers4 ,there are two ways of arranging the cells of a diffusion battery2 in the one case the cells are placed in a straight line2 in the other they are grouped in a circle4 ,these cells are filled with cossettes in rotation1 and water is introduced into the one in which the cossettes were first placed4 ,thus the water enters the tank in which the cossettes are nearly exhausted of their sugar1 and it flows successively through the other cells that contain cossettes of greater sugar content until the last cell1 or the one containing fresh cossettes1 is reached4 ,the juice passing through this cell is alternately sent to the measuring tank or to the next cell1 which has just been filled with fresh cossettes4 ,the process is continuous1 one cell being emptied of exhausted cossettes while another is being filled with fresh ones1 and the juice flowing either to the measuring tank or to the freshly filled cell4 ,the exhausted cossettes1 now called pulp1 are dropped from the bottom of the diffusion tanks into a large bin1 from which they are conveyed or pumped to pulp separators and presses for the separation of the surplus water4 ,this pressed pulp is usually stored in large bins or silos1 where it is allowed to ferment before being fed to cattle4 ,recently the practice of drying the pulp has been carried on to a large extent4 ,in this process the moisture in the pulp is reduced to ten per cent1 the same proportion as in cured hay4 ,dried to this point1 it is packed in bags and may be stored for an indefinite period without deteriorating4 ,after being treated thus it forms an excellent stock food1 particularly if waste molasses is sprayed on it before drying4 ,,purification ,,of ,,juice1 ,,carbonation ,,and ,,filtration ,the diffusion juice obtained as above described is quite dark in color1 and after passing through the measuring tanks it is conveyed to carbonation tanks where it is treated with from three to four per cent of caustic lime in the form of a thick milk4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,truman ,g4 ,palmer1 ,esq4 ,,diffusion ,,battery--,,showing ,,diffusion ,,cells ,,in ,,circular ,,arrangement ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,truman ,g4 ,palmer1 ,esq4 ,,diffusion ,,battery--,,showing ,,diffusion ,,cells ,,in ,,straight ,,lines ,after being thoroughly agitated1 the mixture is treated with carbonic acid gas obtained from the lime-kilns1 as the result of the decomposition of limestone and the combustion of the fuel used for burning it4 ,by this process some of the impurities in the juice are removed and the color reduced to a brilliant amber4 ,as is the case in the cane mills and refineries1 it is essential to keep the juice hot throughout the process4 ,the carbonation is continued until the juice is only slightly alkaline1 when it is passed through filter presses for the removal of the precipitated lime carbonate and other solid matter4 ,the solid matter in suspension is retained in the frame of the press1 and1 as soon as the frame is full1 the cake is washed by passing water through it4 ,when the sugar content of the cake has been sufficiently reduced1 the press is opened and the cake discharged and sent to the fields to be used as a fertilizer4 ,as a rule1 the filtration is repeated for the elimination of any solids that may have passed through the first filtration4 ,this double filtration is usually practiced in all the filtrations in the course of the juice through the factory4 ,the juice after being filtered a second time is again treated with carbonic acid gas for the further reduction of the caustic lime and then undergoes a third filtration1 following which it is sent to the evaporators for concentration4 ,,concentration ,,of ,,juice ,when the juice reaches the evaporators it contains about eighty-two per cent of water1 which1 by concentration1 must be reduced to about forty per cent4 ,as already explained1 the removal of water is generally accomplished in multiple-effects4 ,the apparatus consists of a number of boiling bodies connected in such a manner as to secure a progressive decrease in atmospheric pressure4 ,the thin juice enters the first body where evaporation takes place under a slight pressure4 ,the steam for this evaporation is usually the waste or exhaust from the engines and pumps4 ,the vapors generated by the evaporation of water from the juice in the first body enter the heating tubes of the second body and are used in further concentrating the somewhat concentrated juice from the first body4 ,the evaporation in this second body is conducted at a higher vacuum and corresponding lower temperature than in the first body4 ,this proceeding is continued until five or even six bodies are used in the series4 ,the last body is usually under a vacuum of about twenty-six inches of mercury4 ,it is obvious that by this arrangement the concentration of the thin juice is effected with the maximum of economy1 direct steam being admitted into the first body only and the rest of the operation accomplished by the steam generated in the boiling of the juice4 ,,sulfitation ,the thickened liquor leaving the last body of the evaporators is sent to the sulphur station and treated with sulphur fumes1 in order to further precipitate the soluble impurities and reduce the color of the liquor4 ,it is then heated to boiling point in closed tanks and passed through a double set of cloth filters4 ,this is the final process in the purification of the beet juice1 and it is then ready for graining4 ,in a cane-sugar refinery no sulfitation of the liquor takes place1 and in a beet factory there is no char filtration for removal of color and impurities in the liquor4 ,these two points constitute the main difference in the methods of making white sugar from the cane and the beet in the ,united ,states4 ,in ,europe1 however1 many factories make a raw beet sugar1 which is subsequently refined with the aid of bone-char4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,truman ,g4 ,palmer1 ,esq4 ,,weighing1 ,,filling ,,and ,,sewing ,,bags ,,in ,a ,,beet ,,factory ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,truman ,g4 ,palmer1 ,esq4 ,,cattle ,,feeding ,,on ,,beet ,,pulp ,,formation ,,of ,,grain ,the formation of the crystallized grain and its progress through the vacuum pans1 centrifugals1 driers1 granulators and screens1 and into the bags in the packing room1 is identical with the process in a cane refinery1 which has already been described4 ,,steffen ,,process ,in some of the beet factories the sugar left in the final molasses is extracted by what is known as the ,steffen process4 ,the final low-purity molasses is diluted with water and cooled to a very low temperature1 after which finely powdered lime is constantly added to the solution at a uniform and slow rate4 ,the sugar combines with the lime and a saccharate of lime is formed which is insoluble in the liquid4 ,the suspended matter or saccharate is then separated and washed in filter presses4 ,the cake from these filter presses1 which is the saccharate of lime1 is mixed with sweet water to a consistency of cream and takes the place of milk of lime in the carbonation process4 ,when the ,steffen process is employed1 about ninety per cent of the sugar originally in the beet is extracted4 ,the loss of sugar that does take place is accounted for in the exhausted cossettes or pulp1 in the pulp water which surrounds them when they are dumped from the diffusion cells1 in the cake and wash waters from the carbonation presses and in the waste and wash waters from the ,steffen process4 ,as the water used in washing the saccharate press cake is rich in fertilizing qualities1 it is used for irrigating the lands adjoining the factory4 ,the #f1eaa1bgd tons of beets harvested in the ,united ,states during the season of #aiae contained an average of #af4di per cent of sucrose1 of which #ad4ba per cent found its way into the sacks as white sugar4 ,the difference1 #b4bh per cent1 represented the loss in working up the beets4 ,as only a few factories1 however1 were using the ,steffen process1 a considerable amount of sugar was left in the waste molasses4 ,for the same period1 the beets produced in ,california contained #ag4hb per cent of sugar1 of which #ae4fd per cent found its way into the sacks1 showing a loss of only #b4ah per cent4 ,this may be accounted for by the fact that probably more of the ,california factories were equipped with the ,steffen process than the average for the ,united ,states1 and that the purity of the juices of ,california beets was higher than the average for the ,united ,states4 ,a factory equipped with the ,steffen process and running on beets containing #ag4hb per cent sugar1 with a purity of #hb1 should lose not over #a4i per cent of the sugar in the beet4 ,the same factory without the ,steffen process would probably lose #e4jd per cent of the sugar4 ,it is interesting to know that1 according to the testimony given before the ,hardwick committee1 the average cost of producing and selling one hundred pounds of white beet sugar in the ,united ,states today is about three dollars and fifty cents4 ,the selling price1 which is from ten to twenty cents per one hundred pounds less than the selling price of refined cane sugar1 fluctuates with the value of raw cane sugar4 ,for instance1 if raw cane sugar is selling in ,new ,york at four dollars per one hundred pounds1 the selling price of refined cane will probably be four dollars and eighty cents4 ,beet sugar1 therefore1 would be four dollars and seventy cents or four dollars and sixty cents4 ,on the other hand1 if raw cane were selling for three dollars per one hundred pounds1 refined would probably be three dollars and eighty cents and beet sugar three dollars and seventy or three dollars and sixty cents4 ,in the one case the beet factory makes a large profit2 in the other a very small profit4 ,as the value of raw sugar is determined absolutely by the law of supply and demand in the world's markets1 it is clear that the fortune or misfortune of the beet-sugar producer is beyond his control4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,truman ,g4 ,palmer1 ,esq4 ,,the ,,first ,,successful ,,beet-,,sugar ,,factory ,,in ,,america--,,alvarado1 ,,california ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,truman ,g4 ,palmer1 ,esq4 ,a ,,modern ,,beet-,,sugar ,,factory ,,part ,,ii ,history of the ,industry ,,early ,,history ,india1 the land that ,kipling has called 8the grim stepmother of mankind10 is1 according to the best authorities1 the original habitat of the sugar cane2 and there is but little doubt that the properties of the plant were known to the ,hindustani many centuries before the ,christian era4 ,nothing concerning it is found in the ,old ,testament1 the ,talmud or in the oldest ,hindu literature2 and even in ,buddha's time 7#ejj ,b4 ,c47 it was little known4 ,the legend runs that sugar cane was created by the famous hermit ,vishva ,mitra to serve as heavenly food in the temporary paradise arranged by him for the sake of ,raja ,trishanku4 ,it was the desire of this prince to be translated to heaven during his lifetime1 but ,indra1 the ruler of the celestial realms1 had refused to admit him4 ,in order to gratify ,trishanku's wish1 ,vishva ,mitra prepared a temporary paradise for him4 ,when a reconciliation between ,indra and ,trishanku was brought about1 the paradise was demolished and all its luxuries destroyed save a few1 among which was sugar cane4 ,this subsequently spread over the land of mortals as a lasting token of ,vishva ,mitra's miraculous deeds4 ,among the ,chinese the first historical mention occurs in writings of the eighth century ,b4 ,c41 where the fact is recorded that their knowledge of sugar cane was derived from ,india4 ,that it was considered of great value by the ,chinese is shown by manuscripts of #bjj ,b4 ,c41 wherein it is stated that the kingdom of ,funan paid its tribute to ,china in sugar cane4 ,from this it may be inferred that the secret of extracting crystals from the sugar-cane juice had not been discovered4 ,more than three centuries before ,christ1 the triumphant progress of ,alexander the ,great was halted upon the banks of the river ,indus by the refusal of his troops to venture farther eastward4 ,on their return journey1 the ,macedonian soldiers carried the 8honey-bearing reed0 to ,europe4 ,a number of classical writers of the first century allude to the sweet sap of the ,indian reed and to the granulated1 salt-like product imported from ,india under the name of saccharum1 or 1 from the ,sanskrit arkar1 gravel1 sugar4 ,the names of sugar in modern ,european languages are derived through the ,arabic from the ,persian shakar4 ,the people dwelling in the valleys of the ,ganges possessed a knowledge of boiling sugar juice1 and this spread from there to ,china in the first half of the seventh century4 ,sugar refining1 however1 could not then have been known1 for ,marco ,polo#e states that the ,chinese learned this from ,egyptian travelers only during the ,mongol period1 some five hundred years later4 ,von ,lippmann says that solid sugar began to be known in ,india somewhere between #cjj and #fjj ,a4 ,d41 probably nearer the latter date4#f ,in the ,middle ,ages1 the best sugar came from ,egypt#g2 and in ,india today1 coarse sugar is still called 8,chinese0 and fine sugar 8,cairene0 or 8,egyptian40 ,the ,nestorians1 a ,christian religious sect in ,gondispr1 ,india1 planted sugar cane in ,persia about #ejj ,a4,d4 ,when ,heraclius1#h the ,byzantine emperor1 pillaged the palace of ,dastargerd1 ,persia1 in #fbg ,a4 ,d41 solid sugar was taken among the other loot4#i ,this is the first authentic evidence of crystallization4 ,at the time of the ,arabian conquest in the year #fci1 sugar was 8prepared with art0 in ,gondispr2 and its manufacture on a large scale was carried on at ,shuster1 ,ss#aj and ,askar-,makram#aa through the ,middle ,ages4 ,thalib1 a writer of the eleventh century1 says that ,askar-,makram had no equal for the quality and quantity of its sugar1 8notwithstanding the great production in ,irk1 ,jarjn and ,india40 ,it used to pay fifty thousand pounds of sugar to the ,sultan in annual tribute4#ab ,persian physicians of the time attributed extraordinary healing powers to sugar1 and used it freely in the practice of their art4 ,mohammed's#ac religious wars carried the knowledge of sugar throughout the cities of the then civilized world4 ,the ,arabs first learned of it when they overran ,persia4 ,they took to it eagerly1 and under their rule a great number of plantations were started4 ,artificial irrigation was employed in the growing of the cane1 and the juice was expressed by means of millstones4 ,at this period1 however1 sugar was looked upon as a rare and costly luxury1 to be indulged in only by the wealthy1 and sparingly even by them4 ,arabian doctors who were well advanced in learning gave sugar an important place in their pharmacopia4 ,the ,moslem armies took it westward with them2 and when ,amru#ad conquered ,egypt 7#fdj-fdf ,a4 ,d471 it was introduced in that country4 ,careful methods of cultivation1 coupled with the ,egyptians' intimate knowledge of chemistry1 brought about excellent results4 ,this cultured people had a simple process for purifying and recrystallizing saltpeter1 and they soon found that sugar could be similarly treated4 ,the first crystals were remelted2 and to the liquor so obtained albumen and lime were added4 ,the precipitated impurities were removed by filtration1 and the clear syrup boiled down to a grain once more4 ,the syrup1 or mother-liquor in which these grains remained after boiling1 was eliminated by washing1 leaving the white sugar crystals1 which in point of quality far surpassed any product then known4 ,from this time forward1 the traffic in sugar began to gain in importance and volume4 ,nasiri ,khosrau1 in his account of his travels in ,egypt in the eleventh century1 narrates that at the celebration of the great ,ramazn feast1 the ,sultan's table was decorated with sweetmeats consisting entirely of marzipan#ae modeled into shapes of orange trees and statues4 ,the continuation of the movement of the ,arabs toward the west carried the cultivation of sugar over the entire northern coast of ,africa and thence into ,spain in the year of the conquest of ,granada by the ,moors 7#gae ,a4 ,d474 ,it made its way to ,sicily in #gjc2 it was found growing at ,assuan1 on the ,nile1 in #gff1 and the ,crusaders discovered important sugar plantations in ,tripoli1 ,mesopotamia1 ,syria1 ,palestine1 ,antioch and other places in the ,levant4 ,commercial relations between these points and the principal ,italian cities were established during the ,crusades1 and a considerable trade in sugar followed4 ,sugar-cane cultivation seems to have appealed to the ,crusaders as a profitable venture--so much so that they actively interested themselves in it1 making ,tyre an important center of the traffic4 ,king ,baldwin and various orders of knighthood established large cane plantations in ,antioch1 ,syria and ,cyprus and did much to advance sugar production in those countries4 ,the ,crusaders who had acquired a taste for sugar when in the ,far east naturally wished to continue its use after their return home2 thus1 a trade sprung up between northern ,europe and ,venice1 ,genoa and ,pisa4 ,after the fall of ,acre in #abia1 the ,crusaders lost their foothold in ,asia ,minor2 but ,tyre1 ,beirut1 ,antioch and the valley of the ,jordan continued to produce good crops of sugar1 while ,damascus and ,tripoli became refining centers4 ,cyprus1 still under ,venetian rule1 extended its trade in sugar1 and sent considerable quantities annually to the mother city4 ,all this time the production in ,egypt went steadily forward4 ,this prosperity was rudely interrupted by the aggression of the ,turks4 ,constantinople was captured in #adec and ,trebizond fell in #adfa4 ,the other commercial towns of ,asia ,minor and all of ,genoa's ,black ,sea colonies followed in quick succession4 ,trade between ,europe and ,asia ,minor decreased as a matter of course and the manufacture of sugar languished under ,turkish rule4 ,in #aeag ,cairo was taken by the ,turks1 and ,egypt became a province of the ,ottoman empire1 with disastrous results to the sugar industry there4 ,in #aebb ,rhodes1 and in #aega ,cyprus1 passed under the sway of the ,turk2 but by that time sugar cultivation in these islands had fallen off greatly1 while in ,sicily it had completely died out4 ,other causes militated to bring about the decline of the sugar trade in these countries4 ,the ,portuguese took sugar cane to ,madeira in #adai4 ,in #adcb they captured and colonized the ,azores2 and between #adef and #adfb they acquired the ,cape ,verde islands4 ,so ,thom1 ,principe and ,annobon were annexed in #adif2 and in that same year the ,spaniards colonized the ,canaries4 ,sugar cane grew luxuriantly in the mild1 moist climate of these islands1 and the cost of production by slave labor was so low that neither ,cyprus nor ,sicily could compete2 consequently1 the once large and prosperous sugar trade of the ,mediterranean became a thing of the past4 ,during the ,middle ,ages1 ,venice was the chief sugar-distributing center in ,europe4 ,one of the earliest references to sugar in ,great ,britain is that concerning one hundred thousand pounds shipped to ,london in #acai by ,tomasso ,loredano1 a ,venetian merchant4 ,wool1 which at that time constituted the most important staple of ,english products1 was exchanged for sugar4 ,in the same year1 an entry appears in the accounts of the ,chamberlain of ,scotland1 showing a payment for sugar at the rate of one shilling and nine pence halfpenny per pound4 ,it is said that at the end of the fifteenth century a citizen of ,venice received a reward of #ajj1jjj crowns 7#aaa1idj7 for having invented the process of making loaf sugar4 ,vasco da ,gama's exploit in finding the way to ,calicut by sea in #adih deprived ,venice of her position as a dominant commercial center2 and new routes for the world's trade were opened up4 ,the discovery of ,america exercised a still greater influence upon the production and distribution of sugar4 ,christopher ,columbus' first attempt to establish sugar growing in ,santo ,domingo in #adicaf was not a success2 but when negro slaves were brought to the ,west ,indies by the ,portuguese and the ,spaniards1 the industry took a new lease of life1 and with slave labor1 ideal climate and fertile soil1 it increased abundantly4 ,as illustrative of the extensive development in ,santo ,domingo1 it is interesting to note that ,charles ,v of ,spain obtained from import taxes on ,santo ,domingan sugar the vast sums of money expended in the building of the royal palaces at ,madrid and ,toledo4#ag ,brazil was discovered by ,pinzon in #adiiah and sugar cane was taken there from ,madeira4 ,about thirty-three years later plantations had been laid out and the first sugar factory built4 ,the year #aeij saw one hundred and two mills in operation in the provinces of ,bahia and ,pernambuco2 and in #afjj the quantity of sugar exported from ,brazil was #ae1jjj tons4 ,at that time ,brazil belonged to ,spain1 which had annexed ,portugal and her colonies in #aehj4 ,it was conquered by the ,dutch in #afbi1 and a great many sugar plantations and factories were destroyed2 but these were subsequently restored by the new rulers4 ,the ,dutch1 in turn1 were expelled in #afee2 and in #affa ,brazil was acknowledged to be a ,portuguese possession4 ,the sugar trade suffered1 however1 on account of the banishment of twenty thousand ,dutch in #afee1 and also through the discovery of gold in #agbe1 which drew the laborers from the sugar fields and mills2 and the production fell off to a large extent4 ,illustration3 ,christopher ,columbus ,fra ,sebastiano ,del ,piombo ,copyright1 #aijf4 ,braun1 ,clment et ,cie41 ,braun et ,cie41 ,successeurs ,the island of ,st4 ,christopher 7now ,st4 ,kitts7 was occupied in #afbe by both the ,english and the ,french4 ,ten years later the ,french took ,guadeloupe and ,martinique2 ,barbados became a ,british possession in #afbg1 and ,jamaica was annexed in #afef4 ,sugar cane was planted in all these colonies1 but through lack of knowledge and experience the product obtained was of indifferent quality4 ,a decided improvement was brought about when the ,dutch1 who were expelled from ,brazil1 came to the islands in #afee4 ,santo ,domingo was taken over permanently by the ,french in #afig after it had previously been occupied and abandoned by them4 ,from this date the industry throve there and for upward of one hundred years ,santo ,domingo ranked among the foremost of the sugar-producing islands of the ,west ,indies4 ,tyranny and cruel treatment caused the slaves to revolt in #agia2 the whites who failed to escape were exterminated and the sugar plantations and mills were destroyed4 ,santo ,domingo has never recovered the prestige in the sugar world that she lost in this way4 ,her misfortune gave a great opportunity to ,jamaica1 whose production increased so rapidly that at the close of the eighteenth century she outstripped all the other ,west ,indian islands4 ,the falling off in ,santo ,domingo stimulated the industry in ,cuba as well4 ,as a dependency of ,spain1 ,cuba was hampered by a number of restrictions2 these were repealed in #aggb1 after which the sugar tonnage grew apace4 ,st4 ,eustatius and ,curaao belonging to the ,dutch1 and ,st4 ,croix1 ,st4 ,john and ,st4 ,thomas to ,denmark1 also came in for their share of the benefit growing out of the impetus given to the sugar trade at this time4 ,it must be borne in mind1 however1 that they were conveniently situated for sugar smuggling1 of which there was not a little during the ,american ,revolutionary war4 ,in the countries of ,south ,america1 ,brazil excepted1 the sugar trade had become well established4 ,french planters settled in ,cayenne in #afcd and in ,surinam six years later1 but production was handicapped by the difficulty attendant upon securing labor1 and this condition continued to exist even after the taking of ,surinam1 ,essequibo1 ,demerara and ,berbice by the ,dutch4 ,finally the trouble was overcome by bringing in slaves1 and with the end of the ,french war the sugar industry began to prosper1 especially in ,surinam4 ,during subsequent hostilities these colonies were taken by ,france1 afterwards by ,england1 and later still they reverted to the ,dutch4 ,today they are all ,british with the exception of ,surinam and ,cayenne4 ,sugar cane was not known in ,peru at the time of ,pizarro's first expedition to that country 7#aebg71 but it was brought there shortly afterward4 ,in ,chile and the ,argentine its introduction was comparatively recent4 ,the ,jesuits took it from ,santo ,domingo to ,louisiana in #agea1 and in ,mexico it dates back to the time of ,corts4 ,the rapidity of the increase in the production of the ,americas threatened the plantations of ,madeira1 the ,cape ,verde islands and the ,canaries with extinction and drove them from the world's markets4 ,sugar cane was planted by the ,french in the ,ile de ,france 7,mauritius7 in #agdg1 and some years later in ,bourbon 7,runion7 and sugar made in these islands was sent to ,europe about the end of the eighteenth century4 ,in ,java sugar cane has been grown since a very remote period4 ,it was probably brought there by ,chinese traders and there is evidence that the ,chinese introduced it in the ,philippine islands1 as the names of the implements and methods used there distinctly point to ,chinese origin4 ,the cultivation of sugar cane in ,australia was begun only fifty years ago2 it was started in the ,fiji islands in #ahhj1 while ,captain ,cook found cane growing luxuriantly in the ,hawaiian islands when he discovered them in #aggh4 ,the wars between ,great ,britain and ,france during the latter part of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth had a very bad effect on the cane-sugar trade and its development4 ,there was constant fighting in ,west ,indian waters and many merchant vessels were taken as prizes2 a disastrous state of affairs for planters and merchants alike4 ,after the battle of ,trafalgar had definitely established ,british supremacy on the seas1 ,napoleon put into effect his 8,continental ,system10 which dealt a severe blow to cane sugar4 ,this opens up a new and interesting chapter in the history of the industry4 ,,beet ,,sugar ,,in ,,europe ,the destruction of the ,french fleet by ,nelson in #ahje thwarted ,napoleon's long-cherished plans for the invasion of ,england4 ,nothing daunted1 however1 he immediately bent his efforts toward isolating ,great ,britain and cutting commercial communications between her and the continent of ,europe4 ,the ,berlin edict of #ahjf prohibited all trade relations with ,england and made her goods and those of her colonies subject to seizure4 ,england's reply was to forbid ships of all nationalities to enter ,french ports under penalty of confiscation4 ,napoleon followed this with the ,milan decree which made any vessel that had submitted to ,english examination or paid dues in ,english ports subject to confiscation4 ,the one government vied with the other in preying on commerce4 ,the interference with the importation of sugar due to this condition drove prices upward to a point where only a few could afford its use4 ,napoleon was fully cognizant of what a privation this was to his people1 but he felt confident that means would be found to bring sugar from the ,far east to western ,europe by way of ,constantinople and ,vienna2 besides1 he had strong hopes that a substitute for cane sugar could be produced in ,europe itself4 ,he encouraged experimental and research work1 keeping thoroughly informed as to progress made1 and on ,march #be1 #ahaa1 he issued the famous decree that set in motion the beet industry of the world4 ,illustration3 ,,dan ,,sweeney ,olivier de ,serres ,illustration3 ,,dan ,,sweeney ,andreas ,marggraf ,the original home of the sugar beet 7,beta vulgaris7 is not definitely known4 ,the plant was found in a wild state in southern and middle ,asia and it is said to have been cultivated in southern ,europe and northern ,africa in olden times4 ,according to ,professor ,griffin1#ai ,herodotus mentions the sugar beet as one of the plants that served to nourish the builders of the pyramids4 ,dr4 von ,lippmann cites the same instance and also quotes ,voltz as authority for the statement that the ,romans first brought the beet into ,gaul4 ,when the beet was originally grown in southern latitudes it was an annual1 but when it was taken north it became a biennial1 storing sugar the first year and not developing its seed until the second4 ,jules ,hlot1 an eminent ,french authority1 in his 8,histoire ,centennale du ,sucre de ,betterave10 says3 8,a great ,french agronomist1 called the father of agriculture1 ,olivier de ,serres 7#aeci-afai71 was able to find out that the beet-root contained sugar1 long before ,marggraf set about to extract sugar from this root4 ,olivier de ,serres wrote3 #8,the beet-root1 when being boiled1 yields a juice similar to syrup of sugar1 which is beautiful to look at on account of its vermilion color'40 ,dr4 von ,lippmann1 however1 contends that ,olivier de ,serres never claimed in his writings that he discovered the sugar content in the beet1 and that the statement 8that the boiled juice of the red beet was similar in appearance to sugar syrup0 cannot be construed as evidence that de ,serres actually recognized the presence of sugar in the beet-root4 ,in the year #agdg ,andreas ,marggraf1 a chemist and a member of the ,royal ,academy of ,science and ,literature of ,berlin1 demonstrated that various kinds of beet-root contained sugar and that the sugar could be extracted and crystallized4 ,this discovery1 however1 was regarded for many years as being merely a laboratory determination and without practical value4 ,in #aghf ,franz ,karl ,achard1 a pupil of ,marggraf1 attacked the problem of beet-root cultivation and succeeded in extracting sugar from beets on a scale hitherto unknown4 ,he issued a report of the methods employed and the results obtained and stated that a good muscavado sugar should be made from beets for six cents per pound4 ,his claims met with incredulity and no little ridicule1 but the ,french ,institute made a careful investigation of what he had done and found that the sugar content of the beets was over #f per cent4 ,from a number of tests of ,achard's process1 they estimated that the cost of producing refined sugar from beet-roots on a commercial basis would be eighteen cents per pound4 ,frederick ,william ,,iii1 king of ,prussia1 took a keen interest in the making of sugar from beets1 and1 after having convinced himself that ,achard was on the right track1 he bought the crown land at ,cunern1 ,silesia1 for exploitation on a large scale4 ,he provided ,achard with funds for the erection of the first real sugar factory built in ,germany1 at which operations were begun in #ahjb4 ,the king also supplied money for the construction of other factories in ,brandenburg1 ,silesia1 and ,pomerania1 and lent his support to the growers of beets as well as to the manufacturers of sugar4 ,despite the reverses in war suffered by the ,prussians1 the progress in sugar making was so manifest that in #ahaj it was clear that the industry was bound to succeed under intelligent management4 ,illustration3 ,,dan ,,sweeney ,,franz ,,carl ,,achard ,illustration3 ,,first ,,beet-,,sugar ,,factory ,,in ,,the ,,world--,,built ,,at ,,cunern1 ,,silesia1 #ahjb ,achard1 who was of ,french extraction1 had corresponded with a number of scientific men in ,france and through them reports of his work reached the ,french ,institute4 ,the verdict of this body was favorable and two sugar factories were built1 one at ,st4 ,ouen and the other at ,chelles4 ,both of these enterprises failed through lack of practical knowledge and the inferior quality of the beet-roots4 ,although this setback brought the manufacture of beet sugar to a standstill for a time1 there is plenty of evidence to show that hope of ultimate success was never abandoned4 ,the effect of the closing down of these two beet factories was to divert the attention of scientists to making sugar from grapes4 ,proust and ,parmentier1 both chemists of note1 demonstrated that it could be obtained from this source and the ,french government issued instructions for the preparation of sugar and syrup from the vine4 ,parmentier published a bulletin advising against the attempt to make beet sugar in ,france as the soil of the country would not produce beet-roots containing sugar4 ,in #ahaj ,napoleon ordered an appropriation of #bjj1jjj francs to be divided as a premium among the factories recovering the highest percentage of sugar from grapes4 ,meanwhile the friends of the beet movement had not been idle1 and early in ,march1 #ahaa1 the ,society for the ,encouragement of ,national ,industry submitted to the emperor a report of what had been accomplished in the manipulation of beets1 together with samples of the sugar obtained1 and on the #beth of that month ,napoleon issued the edict that established the manufacture of beet sugar in ,france4 ,the decree provided that #gi1jjj acres of land in various parts of the empire should be devoted to the raising of beets and directed that all the acreage named should be under cultivation the first year1 or at latest the second4 ,it created six experimental stations for the instruction of the farmers and land owners in cultivation and also for the furtherance of the interests of the manufacturer4 ,delessert had established a factory at ,passy in #ahja and by dogged perseverance1 despite many failures1 obtained excellent results by a new method of clarification and the use of charcoal4 ,napoleon visited his plant in #ahab and ordered the construction of ten new factories at once4 ,on ,january #a1 #ahac1 all further imports of sugar from the ,east and ,west ,indies were prohibited4 ,in #ahab and #ahac the output of sugar in ,france was #bbjj tons and the factories of ,germany and ,austria gave promise of soon supplying the wants of their respective countries4 ,during the following two years there were unusually heavy rains and the beet fields of ,france were occupied by hostile troops4 ,the defeat of ,napoleon at ,waterloo and the consequent abolition of the blockade caused a decline in the price of sugar to a point where the new beet industry was unable to compete and only one factory succeeded in avoiding the general disaster4 ,from #ahaf to #ahba the average yearly output of beet sugar was #ajjj tons4 ,the domestic product had a great advantage over the foreign article1 as all sugars coming into ,france from abroad were subject to a heavy duty1 while no tax was levied on home-grown sugar4 ,in #ahba1 a duty of #di4e francs was imposed upon every #ajj kilograms 7#bbj4dfbb lbs47 of raw sugar coming from ,french colonies and #gj francs on white sugar4 ,the tax on sugar from foreign countries was #ij francs per #ajj kilograms1 and this was increased to #abe francs in #ahbi4 ,shortly afterward the surtax#bj on foreign sugar was increased and an extra duty was exacted on sugar brought into ,france in foreign bottoms4 ,even with this protection the domestic producers were not satisfied4 ,french colonial sugar1 when exported1 received the benefit of customs drawback of #abj francs per #ajj kilograms1 and the same privilege was accorded home-grown sugar upon which no duty whatever had been paid4 ,this was tantamount to an export premium of #abj francs per #ajj kilograms1 and it may well be imagined that under this paternal arrangement old factories came back to life and new ones sprang into being4 ,under this rgime by #ahcf nearly one-third of the sugar refined in ,france was beet4 ,the payment of this premium was so great a drain on the government treasury that in #ahdj the authorities seriously considered the buying up of all the beet-root sugar factories then in operation for forty million francs and the equalizing of the tax on foreign and domestic sugar4 ,the scheme was not carried out1 but in #ahdc beet-root sugar and cane sugar were placed on the same basis4 ,this hurt the domestic industry severely1 and if it had not been for the setback to the cane production by the abolition of slavery1 the beet interests might have met with ruin4 ,nevertheless1 in spite of many adverse turns of fortune1 the general trend was forward4 ,illustration3 ,,napoleon ,i ,beginning with the year #ahcf1 the beet-sugar industry in ,germany1 which had been paralyzed by the raising of the ,continental blockade1 went ahead rapidly4 ,the ,german manufacturers gradually succeeded in obtaining a higher extraction of sugar from the beet and consequently their operations showed an increased profit4 ,krause of ,austria and ,schubarth of ,prussia1 both of whom had studied beet-sugar making in ,france1 did much by their efforts to rehabilitate the industry in ,germany1 where it has steadily grown in importance ever since4 ,the manufacture of beet sugar was revived by ,austria in #ahca and by #ahdj there were many factories in operation4 ,in #ahed the output of domestic sugar equaled the tonnage brought in from foreign countries and beet sugar had established itself throughout ,europe as a strong competitor of the cane sugar of the colonies4 ,the ,european consumption1 however1 had grown at such a rate that the domestic beet-sugar production did not keep pace with it1 hence the cane manufacturer was scarcely sensible of the competition for some years2 in fact ,europe took rather more than less cane from the tropics for a time4 ,during the nineteenth century ,europe became less and less dependent upon the cane countries of the ,new world for its supplies4 ,the abolition of slavery in most of the ,european possessions 7#ahbe-ej71 the development of the cultivation of cane in ,india and ,java1 and the expansion of the bounty-fed beet-sugar industry in ,europe all contributed to bring this about and many colonial cane growers found themselves on the brink of ruin4 ,slavery1 upon which cane sugar raising so greatly depended1 was entirely abolished in ,british possessions in #ahcd1 in ,france in #ahdh during the ,second ,republic1 in the ,dutch ,west ,indies in #ahfc1 in ,porto ,rico in #ahgc1 in ,st4 ,thomas in #ahgf1 and in ,cuba in #ahhj4 ,great ,britain appropriated the sum of #bj1jjj1jjj sterling as an indemnity1 and of this #af1ejj1jjj went to ,west ,indian planters1 the remainder going to ,mauritius and the ,cape1 but indemnification1 while most welcome1 did not restore the supply of labor4 ,many of the freed slaves refused to work and great numbers of them left the plantations4 ,british colonists were at a serious disadvantage1 too1 as after their slaves were liberated slavery still existed in other ,west ,indian islands1 and to offset this a special import tax was imposed on sugar produced by slave labor4 ,strenuous efforts were made to secure an adequate labor supply4 ,chinese coolies1 free negroes and ,hindus were tried1 but the cost was great and the number available was insufficient for the proper cultivation and upkeep of the plantations4 ,this condition obtained in the ,british ,west ,indies1 ,cuba1 ,louisiana1 ,peru1 ,brazil1 the ,guianas1 ,mauritius1 ,runion and other places1 and the cane growers had hard work to keep from going under during the adjustment period1 when they were learning how to operate their plantations with a limited number of hands4 ,importation of labor1 subdivision of cane lands into small tracts1 to be rented or sold to farmers--many plans were tried--but naturally under such circumstances development was impossible1 and beet sugar1 which had been steadily increasing1 finally outstripped cane in #ahhc-hd1 while in #ahii-aijj cane only furnished #cd4g per cent of the world's crop4 ,in #aiab-ac the cane tonnage exceeded that of beet by #baa1jhb tons of #bbdj pounds4 ,the great war in ,europe has curtailed the production of beet sugar in that country to such an extent that of the world's output for #aiae-af the proportion of cane to beet was roughly as two-thirds to one-third in favor of the former4 ,the actual figures are3 ,cane #aj1ecc1jci tons ,beet #e1ihf1djd 0 ---------------- ,excess of cane over beet #d1edf1fce tons ,the following table giving the world's production of cane and beet from #aheb to #aiaf will be of interest1 but it should be borne in mind that this comparison between beet and cane is not a fair one1 because the figures are incomplete as far as cane is concerned4 ,in some instances in former years1 only the quantity exported from a country was included in the world's statistics and the amount consumed at home was left out of the calculations4 ,this is particularly noticeable in the case of ,india1 whose production of over two million tons of sugar annually was omitted from the older estimates as it all went into domestic consumption--while the beet figures were invariably given in full4 ,the world's crop figures as furnished by ,willett ,gray for the period from #aheb to #aiaf include ,british ,india's production for the last eleven years only3 ,,beet-,,root ,,year ,,sugar ,,cane ,,sugar ,,total ,,per ,,cent ,,tons ,,tons ,,tons ,,cane ,,sugar #aheb-ec #bjb1haj #a1bfj1djd #a1dfc1bad #hf4j #ahei-fj #dea1ehd #a1cdj1ihj #a1gib1efd #gd4c #ahfd-fe #ebi1gic #a1ddf1icd #a1iif1gbg #gc4e #ahfi-gj #hdf1dbb #a1gdj1gic #b1ehf1iae #fg4c #ahgd-ge #a1cjb1iii #a1ijc1bbb #c1bjf1bba #ei4d #ahhj-ha #a1hbj1gcd #b1jbg1jeb #c1hdg1ghf #eb4g #ahhc-hd #b1dhe1cjj #b1baj1jjj #d1fie1cjj #dg4j #ahhd-he #b1fgi1djj #b1bbe1jjj #d1ijd1djj #de4d #ahhe-hf #b1agb1bjj #b1cjj1jjj #d1dgb1bjj #ea4d #ahhf-hg #b1fhf1gjj #b1djj1jjj #e1jhf1gjj #dg4a #ahhg-hh #b1cfg1bjj #b1eda1jjj #d1ijh1bjj #ea4g #ahhh-hi #c1eee1ijj #b1cei1jjj #e1iad1ijj #dj4j #ahhi-ij #c1ecf1gjj #b1ach1jjj #e1fgd1gjj #cg4g #ahij-ia #c1fgi1hjj #b1eig1jjj #f1bgf1hjj #da4b #ahia-ib #c1dhj1hjj #c1eja1ijj #f1ihb1gjj #ea4f #ahib-ic #c1chj1gjj #c1jdj1ejj #f1dba1bjj #dg4c #ahic-id #c1hcc1jjj #c1efa1jjj #g1cid1jjj #dh4b #ahid-ie #d1gbe1hjj #c1eca1djj #h1beg1bjj #db4g #ahie-if #d1bbj1ejj #b1hci1ejj #g1afj1jjj #ci4f #ahif-ig #d1hja1ejj #b1hda1ijj #g1fdc1djj #cg4b #ahig-ih #d1fie1cjj #b1hfh1ijj #g1efd1bjj #ch4j #ahih-ii #d1fhi1fjj #b1iie1djj #g1ghe1jjj #ch4e #ahii-jj #e1daj1ijj #b1hhj1ijj #h1bia1hjj #cd4g #aijj-ja #e1idc1gjj #c1fdf1jjj #i1ehi1gjj #ch4j #aija-jb #f1hjj1ejj #d1jgi1jjj #aj1hhj1ejj #cg4e #aijb-jc #e1bjh1gjj #d1afc1ijj #i1cgb1fjj #dd4d #aijc-jd #f1jhi1dfh #d1bdd1bjf #aj1ccc1fgd #da4j #aijd-je #d1iah1dhj #d1fac1edj #i1ecb1jbj #dh4d #aije-jf #g1bag1cff #f1gcc1fbf #ac1iej1iib #dh4b #aijf-jg #g1adc1hah #g1ccd1bjg #ad1dgh1jbe #ej4f #aijg-jh #g1jjb1dgd #f1iab1ebj #ac1iad1iid #di4f #aijh-ji #f1ibg1hge #g1fcd1abe #ad1efb1jjj #eb4d #aiji-aj #f1ehg1ejf #h1cci1hhh #ac1ibg1cid #ei4h #aiaj-aa #h1efj1cdf #h1dba1ecd #af1iha1hhj #di4e #aiaa-ab #f1hbj1bff #i1jff1ifd #ae1hhg1bcj #eg4j #aiab-ac #h1igf1bga #i1bcb1edc #ah1bjh1had #ej4g #aiac-ad #h1ijh1dgj #i1hgi1bge #ah1ghg1gde #ed4c #aiad-ae #h1bda1igd #aj1afe1efe #ah1djg1eci #ee4b #aiae-af #e1ihf1djd #aj1ecc1jci #af1eai1ddc #fc4g ,france held the first place in output of beet sugar until #ahhj1 when ,germany took the lead and has maintained it ever since4 ,the beet industry assumed important proportions in ,austria-,hungary1 ,russia1 ,holland and ,belgium shortly after #ahej1 but it was not established in ,sweden1 ,spain and ,italy until comparatively recent times4 ,the laws that were passed by the various ,european countries for the encouragement and protection of beet sugar were so beneficial in their effect that these countries not only were able to supply their own domestic demand1 but found themselves able to export sugar4 ,this stimulation finally led to abuses1 as a result of which the ,brussels convention was brought about and the bounties abolished4 ,apart from certain details1 the various regulations in ,european countries for the purpose of building up the manufacture of beet sugar and making it a revenue producer were very much alike4 ,the essential features were a prohibitive import duty and a slightly lower excise tax4 ,the latter provided revenue for the government1 and the difference between the import duty and the excise shut out foreign competition and fixed the amount of profit the domestic beet-sugar producer could make4 ,still worse1 it created pools or combinations for the control of both output and price4 ,with increased production1 which was more than sufficient to supply the home demand1 these countries were in a position to export sugar1 and in order to enable their manufacturers to compete in outside markets1 a drawback of the excise was allowed on all exported sugar4 ,a peculiar condition of the law affecting this drawback was that it really1 though not directly1 provided for a bounty on export sugar1 and while this was not the original intent of the law1 the improvements that it encouraged accomplished the purpose4 ,in ,germany the principle was that the excise was levied upon the quantity of beet-root sliced1 while the export drawback was allowed on the actual sugar produced4#ba ,at the time of the passing of the law that was in operation from ,september1 #ahfi1 to ,july1 #ahhf1 the assumption was that the yield in sugar would be #h4ea per cent of the weight of the beets1 allowing #aa4ge tons of beets for one ton of sugar1 and on all raw sugar exported the manufacturer was given #b4jc per hundredweight drawback1 the exact equivalent of the excise tax1 which was #ag cents per hundredweight of beets4 ,for some years after this law became effective it took twelve tons of beets to make a ton of sugar1 consequently the drawback allowed the exporter did not represent all of the excise4 ,thus it became the aim of the manufacturers to raise the sugar content of the beets and to improve the extraction4 ,by #ahhb they had succeeded so well that a ton of sugar was produced from #aj4df tons of beet-roots instead of #aa4ge tons1 as predicated when the law was drawn up4 ,the drawback1 however1 was still allowed at the rate of #b4jc per hundredweight1 which netted the producer a clear gain of #bb cents4#bb ,in ,france from #ahfd to #ahge the calculations were made from the quantity and purity of the juice4 ,in other words1 a certain arbitrary rendement#bc of sugar from the beet-root was the basis of taxation1 while any excess recovery was exempt4 ,this was equivalent to an indirect bounty1 but the ,french government saw to it that the estimates and the actual outturn did not get too far apart4 ,no bounty whatever was paid on ,french sugar from #ahge to #ahhd4 ,about #ahhj the sugar production of ,germany exceeded that of ,france1 so that in #ahhd the ,french authorities revived the indirect bounty system to put new life into the industry1 and the effect of this action was soon apparent4 ,sugar legislation in other sugar-producing countries of ,europe was similar in general principles and gave practically the same results4 ,amendments were made from time to time with a view to bringing the basis provided for in the law closer to what was actually attained in production1 but the manufacturers by constantly improving their processes managed to keep the advantage and consequently to receive a secret indirect bounty or rebate4 ,the payment of these drawbacks taxed the treasuries of the different countries concerned and in the case of ,austria-,hungary amounted to more than the entire revenue from sugar4 ,this brought new regulations and the payment of direct bounties instead of hidden or indirect4 ,furthermore1 a limit was set upon the total that could be paid in any one year4 ,nevertheless1 the producers in all the sugar-raising countries used their utmost efforts to send as much sugar as they possibly could to foreign markets in order to secure the drawback4 ,it naturally followed that the production was stimulated to an abnormal degree1 and toward the end of #ahhc there was a slump in prices that affected all raisers of sugar1 both beet and cane1 throughout the world4 ,the governments of ,europe came to find these bounties a serious burden1 and when ,lord ,salisbury arranged for a convention to be held in ,london in #ahhf1 the proposal to do away with all bounties met with a good deal of favor4 ,france1 however1 opposed the idea1 as she wished to discontinue the direct bounty only and to leave the indirect still in force1 while the ,british themselves1 who used prodigious quantities of sugar and who1 under the bounty plan1 got all they needed at a price below the actual cost of production1 did not wish to forfeit this advantage4 ,so the interests of the ,british colonists were sacrificed and the ,london conference accomplished nothing4 ,in #ahij ,germany resolved to divest sugar of all its privileges in order that the treasury should receive the entire amount of the taxes4 ,a measure was proposed in #ahia providing for direct export bounty4 ,this was to be reduced in #ahie and entirely abolished by #ahig4 ,owing1 however1 to a severe agricultural crisis at this time1 ,american cereals were brought into ,europe at such low prices that the home grower could not compete4 ,it therefore became necessary to find another crop for the land that had been sown to corn and the beet-root was the logical substitute4 ,the increase in beet production from this cause was followed by a crash in sugar prices4 ,with such a condition confronting it1 the ,german government could not do away with1 or even reduce1 the bounty1 especially as none of its neighbors seemed to have any intention of doing anything in this direction4 ,in the interests of the beet growers1 the output of beets in #ahie1 instead of being restricted as proposed1 was doubled1 and the export bounty on raw sugar was raised from #a4bebd marks to #b4ej marks per #ajj kilograms and on refined from #b marks to #c4ee marks per #ajj kilograms4 ,this legislation was meant to foster the export trade and bring the sugar business of foreign countries to ,german manufacturers1 and the framers of the law were confident that other countries would not venture to follow suit4 ,in this they were utterly mistaken4 ,germany's competitors simply raised their bounties to her figures1 thus nullifying her plans for expansion of her export sugar trade4 ,in #ahig the ,united ,states levied a countervailing duty on all bounty-nourished sugar1 in addition to the regular protective tariff1 so that the bounty paid by ,european countries on sugar exported to the ,united ,states simply went to enrich the ,united ,states treasury4 ,the manufacturers of ,germany and ,austria enjoyed a profit over and above the bounty by the adoption of what was termed a cartel1 or pool1 a plan borrowed from ,russia4 ,in ,russia the government fixes the amount of sugar required each year for domestic consumption and this quantity may be sold by the manufacturer4 ,then it determines what quantity shall be kept in reserve1 to be sold when the price exceeds that named by the government commission 7#d4cj rubles#be per pood#bf in winter1 or #d4de rubles in summer74 ,should the production exceed the amounts fixed for domestic consumption and reserve1 exportation is permitted and the exporter gets back the excise1 #a4ge rubles per pood1 or if he elects to sell this excess at home1 he may do so by paying double tax1 or #c4ej rubles per pood4 ,of the alternatives1 exporting the surplus is the more advantageous to the owner of the sugar1 as the fixed price for domestic sugar is a profitable one4 ,he therefore can afford to take a loss on the sugar he sells for export and still make money on the total operation4 ,the stipulation that the contingent interest in the profitable home market shall keep pace with the growth of the output of the factory is also a substantial encouragement to manufacturers to increase their production4 ,regulations like these naturally have the effect of supplying foreign markets with cheap sugar4 ,the manufacturer makes an excellent profit and the domestic consumer pays the entire bill4 ,primarily1 the intent may have been to keep the price of domestic sugar at one level and to enable the manufacturer to fill the home demand without having to go outside the country for his raw-sugar supply4 ,but the plan in its actual working fosters exportation at the expense of the home consumer4 ,while in ,russia the cartel was a government measure1 the pooling of interests by ,german and ,austrian manufacturers in their respective countries accomplished the same end4 ,a cartel formed in ,russia in #ahij came to grief after four years through the individual greed of its members4 ,in #ahih a new combination of raw-sugar producers and refiners was formed1 with the express proviso that the manufacturers of raws were to sell their product only to refiners who were members of the cartel4 ,the domestic trade in white sugar was prorated among the refiners1 in consideration of which they had to allow the producer a fixed price of #cj kronen 7#f4jh7 per #ajj kilograms 7#bbj4dfbb lbs47 for raw sugar1 the market price of which was paid by the buyer and the difference by the cartel1 which got the money by notching up the price of domestic refined sugar4 ,with the cartel the only seller of refined1 and sugar from foreign countries shut out by the high surtax 7the difference between the impost on imported and domestic sugars71 the consumer had to pay the price demanded by the cartel as long as the difference between the world's price and that established by the cartel was less than the surtax4 ,the profit thus obtained constituted a working fund to be used in forcing into line such factory owners as remained outside the pool1 either by reducing the price when a factory was about to begin to make white sugar1 or by buying stock in the corporations that still held out4 ,out of the rest of the fund was paid the difference between the market price 7with #bb kronen per #ajj kilograms as a minimum7 and the #cj kronen4 ,any amount remaining was the cartel's profit4 ,to illustrate and estimating that no kilograms of raw sugar produced #ajj kilograms of refined3 ,price of refined sugar for domestic use per #bbj4d lbs4 #ag4be ,raw sugar #bdb4d lbs4 #d4df per #bbj4d lbs4 #d4ia ,refining cost and profit #a4ec ,revenue tax #g4ga #ad4ae --------------- ,net profit of cartel #c4aj ,with an open market price of #d4df for raws1 the difference between that and the arbitrary figure of #f4jh is #a4fb per #bbj4d lbs4 on #bdb4d lbs4 #a4gh --------------- ,net profit from cartel for refiners #a4cb ,reference has been made to the abortive results of the ,london conference of #ahhf1 when a deaf ear was turned to the appeal of the planters of the ,british ,west ,indies on account of the advantage to the ,british manufacturer and consumer of securing all the sugar they wanted at a figure lower than it cost to produce4 ,in #ahie1 ,joseph ,chamberlain1 then ,colonial ,secretary of ,great ,britain1 appointed a royal commission to investigate conditions in the ,west ,indian colonies4 ,the facts brought out in its report came as a surprise to the statesmen of the mother country and remedial measures were undertaken4 ,the anxiety of the ,austrian and ,german governments to get rid of the bounty incubus led them to sound ,france as to her views1 and in #ahih the ,belgian government invited representatives of ,great ,britain1 ,germany1 ,austria1 the ,netherlands1 ,france1 ,russia1 ,spain and ,sweden to meet in conference in ,brussels1 but no definite agreement was arrived at1 chiefly because of ,france's unwillingness to discontinue the giving of indirect bounty4 ,the meeting adjourned on ,june #ast with the understanding that it would again convene at the call of ,belgium1 when the preliminary negotiations through ,belgium's good offices had progressed sufficiently to make unanimity possible4 ,meanwhile1 public opinion in ,england with regard to the ,west ,indies had undergone a change1 partly on account of the report submitted by the ,chamberlain commission and partly owing to the fact that ,britain1 needing the support of her colonies in her ,south ,african war1 was anxious to shape her policy to please them4 ,a third conference was held in ,brussels in ,december1 #aija4 ,in the discussion concerning the ,german and ,austrian cartels1 it had developed that the heavy surtax permitted the ,germans and ,austrians to realize such high prices in their home markets that1 even with the bounty repealed1 their overproduction was very great and the large tonnage exported by them depressed values in foreign markets4 ,great ,britain and ,belgium1 therefore1 demanded that the surtax be reduced to a point where1 while giving protection against foreign sugar1 it would afford no inducement for the formation of cartels4 ,austria and ,germany demurred to this and it looked as if a deadlock would again be reached1 when ,great ,britain declared that if nothing came of the conference a measure would be introduced in ,parliament excluding bounty-fed sugars entirely1 or that some action equally drastic would be taken4 ,it was further pointed out that an extra duty of an amount equal to the cartel profit had already been under consideration by the ,indian government4 ,with a countervailing duty effective in the ,united ,states1 the market of ,great ,britain was the only important outlet left for bountied export sugars from the ,continent4 ,then again1 the ,british colonies had to be reckoned with1 for if preferential privileges were accorded to their sugars ,continental beet would suffer4 ,great ,britain's ultimatum1 therefore1 carried the day1 and on ,march #e1 #aijb1 the convention was signed by the plenipotentiaries of ,great ,britain1 ,france1 ,germany1 ,austria1 ,belgium1 ,spain1 ,italy1 the ,netherlands1 ,norway and ,sweden4 ,the most important provisions of the convention were3 #a4 ,the suppression of all bounties1 direct or indirect4 #b4 ,the limitation of the surtax1 i4 e41 the excess of import duty over domestic revenue tax1 to #ec cents per #ajj pounds on refined and #dh cents per #ajj pounds on raw sugar4#bg #c4 ,prohibition of importation of bounty-fed sugar from other countries1 unless a countervailing duty is imposed4 #d4 ,great ,britain and the ,netherlands pledge themselves that no preferential treatment will be given sugar from their colonies during the life of the agreement4 #e4 ,the agreement to come into force ,september #a1 #aijc1 and to remain effective for five years from that date1 and in case none of the signatory powers notifies the ,belgian government of its intention to withdraw1 it shall continue to remain in force for one year and so on from year to year4 #f4 ,the appointment of a permanent commission charged with supervising the execution of the provisions of the convention4 #g4 ,spain1 ,italy and ,sweden not to be bound by the principal restrictions1 so long as they do not export sugar4 ,russia declined to come into the pact1 stating as her reason that she paid no bounty4 ,great ,britain's action in joining the ,brussels convention aroused a good deal of feeling at home4 ,the contention was made that it worked an injury to the ,british consumer in causing an advance in prices2 it was also argued that the plea put forth in behalf of the ,west ,indies was really instigated by the selfishness of ,british investors in colonial sugar plantations4 ,the rise in price that followed the convention was stimulated by the shortage in the ,european beet crop in #aijd1 and provoked much agitation and dissatisfaction in ,england1 so that it was not certain that ,great ,britain would be a party to a renewal of the pact upon its expiration4 ,subsequently ,peru1 ,luxembourg and ,switzerland joined the convention1 and the contracting parties were so well satisfied with results obtained that they extended the agreement for five years beginning ,september #a1 #aijh4 ,the conditions were to remain unchanged1 except for an amendment that permitted ,great ,britain to disregard the article that prohibited the importation of bountied sugar1 unless paying countervailing duty4 ,this prohibition directly affected ,russian sugars1 of which ,england did not wish to be deprived4 ,russia joined the convention in #aijh1 with the understanding that her existing fiscal laws and excise regulations should not be interfered with and that the method of fixing the price of sugar for home consumption should rest undisturbed4 ,on her part1 ,russia undertook not to export more than one million tons during the next five years outside of ,finland1 ,persia and neighboring ,asiatic countries4 ,the convention with these modifications was thus extended to ,september1 #aiac1 and on ,march #ae1 #aiab1 it was agreed to prolong it until ,august #ca1 #aiah1 on practically the same conditions as the #aijh convention4 ,because of the great drought in central ,europe in the summer of #aiaa1 there was a shortage of #b1jjj1jjj tons in the beet-sugar crop of #aiaa-ab1 as compared with the former year1 and1 on account of the consequent rise in price1 ,england demanded that the ,russian exports be increased4 ,the other signatory powers agreed to this and the amount that ,russia was permitted to export in the seven years beginning ,september #a1 #aiaa1 was fixed at #a1fej1jjj tons4 ,in ,august1 #aiab1 ,sir ,edward ,grey gave notice of ,great ,britain's intention to retire from the convention on ,september #a1 #aiac1 and on that date she ceased to be a party to it4 ,nevertheless1 after her withdrawal she undertook to observe all the obligations of the convention1 and in return the signatory powers agreed not to discriminate against her manufactures of sugar4 ,the convention stopped exportation of beet sugar at abnormally low prices4 ,it was instrumental in lowering the revenue tax1 increasing the consumption and abolishing artificial conditions4 ,the outbreak of the war in ,europe in ,august1 #aiad1 interrupted the operations of the convention1 and it remains to be seen whether or not1 when hostilities come to an end1 it will be renewed and its terms reaffirmed according to procedure customary when peace is concluded between warring nations4 ,as soon as the industry got on a sound basis1 cane began to feel the benefit of the new order of things4 ,factories that had been closed were put in operation again and new enterprises were undertaken4 ,up to the year #ahhj the manufacture of cane sugar had been conducted in a slipshod manner4 ,the planters were lavishly extravagant and spent their incomes as they made them1 giving no thought to putting aside funds for extensions and betterments4 ,hard times taught them a severe lesson1 by which they profited1 and with admirable courage they bent all their energies to the improvement of methods of cultivation and cutting down the cost of production4 ,this was particularly true of ,java2 beginning with #ahhd1 abundant new capital was brought in1 experimental stations and laboratories were built and equipped and all that scientific knowledge1 energy and sound business judgment could do was done4 ,at the same time ,hawaii1 ,mauritius1 ,porto ,rico and ,cuba made extraordinary progress1 but each of these countries deserves an individual chapter4 ,,beet ,,sugar ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,while the manufacture of sugar from beet-roots is one of the foremost industries in the ,united ,states today1 the early stages of its growth and development were marked by numerous failures and setbacks4 ,the first beginning was made by a company headed by ,john ,vaughn and ,james ,ronaldson1 which built a small factory in ,philadelphia in #ahcj1 where a few hundred pounds of sugar were produced4 ,owing to lack of knowledge of beet culture and extraction of sugar from the roots1 the venture proved unsuccessful and no further attempt has been made in ,pennsylvania4 ,northampton1 ,massachusetts1 was the scene of the next experiment in #ahch and #ahci by ,david ,lee ,child1 who had studied the growth and manufacture of beet sugar in ,europe for a year and a half4 ,he succeeded in getting #f per cent of sugar and #b per cent of molasses from the beets and his estimate of the cost of the sugar per pound was eleven cents4 ,after producing #acjj pounds of sugar he abandoned the enterprise4 ,a report made in #ahch by the ,committee on ,agriculture1 a government body1 contains the following statement3 8,from all the information which the committee have been able to obtain1 they are induced to believe that no country in the world is better adapted for the production of sugar beets than most parts of the ,united ,states1 whether we consider the soil1 the climate or the people40#bh ,in #ahea ,john ,taylor1 who afterward succeeded ,brigham ,young as president of the ,mormon church1 was carrying on missionary work in ,england1 and in ,september of that year he met ,elias ,morris1 whom he engaged to go to ,utah to establish a plant for the manufacture of beet sugar4 ,machinery for the purpose was purchased in ,france and sent to ,liverpool1 from where it was shipped to ,new ,orleans in charge of ,morris in ,march1 #aheb4 ,from ,new ,orleans it was taken up the ,mississippi river to ,st4 ,louis1 thence to ,kanesville1 ,ohio1 where it was loaded on wagons for transportation across the plains4 ,the journey from the river was begun on ,july #dth1 with oxen as the motive power4 ,it proved long and arduous1 but the members of the party reached ,green river1 ,wyoming1 four months later1 having suffered much from hunger and cold4 ,there they were met by a detachment sent out from ,salt ,lake city by ,brigham ,young and they finally arrived at their destination about the middle of ,november4 ,the original intention was to start operations at ,provo1 and the sugar machinery was taken there1 but the company that ,john ,taylor had organized was dissolved and the machinery turned over to the church1 under whose direction it was installed in an adobe building still standing in ,salt ,lake city4 ,once more lack of knowledge resulted in failure4 ,instead of sugar1 the ,mormons only succeeded in making a massecuite that was utterly inedible4#bi ,in #ahef1 a coppersmith named ,bepler erected a small beet-sugar factory at ,ocean ,view1 near ,san ,francisco1 ,california1 but the enterprise was unsuccessful4#cj ,the next noteworthy attempt was made at ,chatsworth1 ,illinois1 in #ahfc by the brothers ,gennert1 who came from ,braunschweig1 ,germany1 and who were familiar with the methods of beet-sugar making4 ,they formed the ,germania ,beet ,sugar company1 planted a thousand acres of land in beets and sent to ,europe for machinery1 but their highest extraction of sugar from the beet-roots was only #e4e per cent4 ,weather conditions were unfavorable and the soil they selected was not suited to beet culture1 so six years of effort ended in failure and the loss of more than a quarter of a million dollars4 ,the plant was removed to ,freeport1 ,illinois1 where the final result was disaster4 ,otto and ,bonesteel1 two ,germans1 established a factory at ,fond-du-lac1 ,wisconsin1 in #ahff1ca and during the two following years they achieved some measure of success4 ,subsequently1 they moved to ,alvarado1 ,california1 where they began operations in #ahgj4 ,they managed to keep their factory running for a few years1 but finally gave up the struggle in #ahgf4 ,in #ahgb the state of ,new ,jersey passed a law providing that all capital and property employed in the raising of sugar beets should be free from taxation for ten years4 ,new ventures were undertaken in ,california1 ,delaware and ,maine1 and these states stimulated the industry by bounties1 or tax exemption1 or both4 ,a factory was built at ,hartford1 ,maryland1 in #ahgi1 but it was afterward abandoned1 and the only going concerns engaged in the manufacture of beet sugar east of the ,alleghanies during recent years were the small plants in ,new ,york at ,rome and ,lyons4 ,dismantled in #aije and #aiaa1 respectively1 part of the machinery of the former was moved to ,visalia1 ,california1 and the latter plant in its entirety to ,anaheim1 ,california4 ,all of these failures were traceable to the lack of practical knowledge of beet culture and the making of sugar from beet-roots4 ,then1 too1 the agricultural lands at first selected were unsuited to the purpose and the seed used up to the year #ahij gave beets of a low sugar content1 from #f per cent to #h per cent4 ,the development of the ,western states gave the beet-sugar industry a permanent place in ,california1 and a little later in ,utah1 ,colorado1 ,idaho1 ,montana and ,wyoming4 ,illustration3 ,,building ,,in ,,salt ,,lake ,,city1 ,,utah1 ,,in ,,which ,,the ,,first ,,beet-,,sugar ,,machinery ,,brought ,,to ,,the ,,west ,,was ,,installed ,illustration3 ,e4 ,h4 ,,dyer4 ,,the ,,father ,,of ,,beet ,,sugar ,,in ,,america ,the ,california ,beet ,sugar ,manufacturing company was organized by ,e4 ,h4 ,dyer and ,c4 ,s4 ,hutchinson in #ahfi with #bej1jjj capital and a factory was erected at ,alvarado on ,mr4 ,dyer's ranch4 ,otto and ,bonesteel were induced to leave ,fond-du-lac1 ,wisconsin1 and come west to assume the management4 ,operations were begun in #ahgj and on ,november #agth of that year the first beet sugar was made in ,california4 ,the factory and equipment cost #abe1jjj2 the daily capacity was fifty tons of beets and one hundred and twenty-five men were employed4 ,between one thousand and fifteen hundred acres were planted in beets1 the factory paying #c4ej per ton for them4 ,the finished product cost about ten cents a pound1 while the market price ranged from twelve to fifteen cents a pound4 ,the first year's output was #bej tons1 the second #djj tons1 the third #efb tons and the fourth #gej tons4 ,then financial troubles came and the plant was closed4 ,the machinery was sold to a new concern1 which built a factory at ,soquel1 ,santa ,cruz county4 ,this enterprise failed in #ahgf1 but the plant was put in operation again in #ahhj1 when #aej tons of sugar were produced4 ,that was the end of the ,soquel venture4 ,in #ahgi ,mr4 ,dyer bought the buildings and land of the old ,california ,beet ,sugar ,manufacturing company1 and1 with ,o4 ,f4 ,giffin1 formed the ,standard ,sugar ,manufacturing company1 with a capital of #ajj1jjj4 ,subsequently a reorganization was effected under the name of the ,standard ,sugar ,refining company and the capital was increased to #bjj1jjj4 ,the machinery and diffusion batteries of a plant built at ,brighton by some ,sacramento people about eight years previous were purchased and installed at ,alvarado in buildings newly erected for the purpose4 ,while it is true that in the operation of this company there was a constant struggle to overcome obstacles and difficulties1 it is nevertheless a fact that it achieved success from the beginning4 ,in #ahhd the capacity of the mill was increased to #ajj tons of beets per day1 but disaster overtook the concern toward the end of #ahhf4 ,two of the boilers exploded1 making it impossible to operate during the season of #ahhg-hh4 ,nothing daunted1 ,mr4 ,dyer grappled with the problem once more and succeeded in floating a new corporation1 the ,pacific ,coast ,sugar company1 with #a1jjj1jjj capital and headed by ,john ,l4 ,howard as president4 ,in #ahhg and #ahhh this company built the middle part of the present factory at ,alvarado1 where it installed most of the machinery from the old plant1 together with some new apparatus4 ,the campaign of #ahhh was barren of results and in ,march of the following year the ,pacific ,coast ,sugar company sold its property to a new concern1 the ,alameda ,sugar company1 whose first president was ,m4 ,h4 ,hecht4 ,in #ahij two additions to the factory were built1 one at each end4 ,from small beginnings1 this ,alvarado enterprise1 the pioneer of ,american success in the production of sugar from beets1 continued its yearly operations from #ahgi until #aiad1 with the exception of the year following the boiler explosion4 ,in #ahhi the output was #hgb tons1 in #aiaa it reached #iiff tons4 ,at the beginning of #aiad1 sugar prices were low and tariff prospects very discouraging4 ,under such conditions1 the owners of the plant did not believe that they could make sugar at a profit1 and the factory remained closed during that season4 ,the sharp advance in sugar values1 due to the war in ,europe1 completely changed matters2 beets were planted and #fcfc tons of sugar were produced in #aiae4 ,for a long time ,mr4 ,dyer was looked upon as an enthusiast and a dreamer whose sincerity was unquestioned1 but whose energies were misdirected4 ,in the midst of the gloomy forebodings of those around him1 he held tenaciously to his purpose and devoted his brains and his money to the solution of the problem confronting him4 ,that the beet-sugar industry of the ,united ,states proved a success when it did is due to his unfailing courage and persistent effort4 ,a year before the ,alvarado factory was built1 a number of moneyed men of ,sacramento1 head by ,julius ,wetzlar1 then president of the ,capital savings bank1 conceived the idea of starting a beet-sugar plant there4 ,after some experimenting with local beets1 the ,sacramento ,valley ,sugar company was organized and machinery for a seventy-ton plant was ordered from ,germany4 ,construction was delayed for a year1 and thus the ,sacramentans lost the honor of being the first in the field4 ,in #ahga they built a factory at ,brighton1 six miles east of ,sacramento1 near the ,american river4 ,an expert was brought out from ,germany and work was begun on ,november #ahth4 ,the first diffusion battery used in the ,united ,states was employed in the extraction of sugar from the beets4 ,the season of #ahga gave good results1 but the following year the crop suffered greatly from the ravages of the army worm4 ,the campaign of #ahgc opened on ,august #eth1 lasting until ,november #bbnd4 ,the yield of beets was ten tons per acre1 the average sugar content #h per cent and the total output #ihb1abj pounds of sugar1 including all grades4 ,this enterprise struggled along until #ahge1 in spite of troubles from drought1 army worm1 grasshoppers and last1 but not least1 lack of experience4 ,the plant was then closed and the equipment put up for sale4 ,briefly1 it may be said that at the outset very poor sugar was turned out1 and later1 when the quality was improved1 the cost of manufacture was found to be greater than what the sugar would bring4 ,the final outcome was that the stockholders lost nearly all the money they had invested4 ,about #ahgd1cb the ,california ,sugar ,manufacturing company was formed4 ,sixty-eight acres of land at ,isleton were bought1 a factory structure of brick was erected and machinery installed1 the total expenditure being about #bej1jjj4 ,sugar of good quality was made1 but the financial result was disastrous4 ,isleton land was ill suited to beet culture1 as when the ,sacramento river was high the beet fields were covered with water4 ,one authority states that the original idea was to manufacture sugar from watermelons1 and when it was found that this was not practicable1 attention was turned to beets4 ,in #ahgf numerous mechanics' liens were filed against the company4 ,later1 the factory was leased to ,h4 ,m4 ,ames of ,oakland1 who operated it during the campaign of #ahhj4 ,two years afterward the entire plant was sold at sheriff's sale for #aj1jjj4 ,the land and building were purchased by ,p4 ,h4 ,gardiner of ,isleton and the machinery went to a ,san ,francisco junk dealer4 ,this venture is said to have caused financial distress to many of the farmers in the vicinity4 ,in #ahhh1 ,claus ,spreckels1 so long a prominent figure in the sugar world1 established a beet factory at ,watsonville1 ,santa ,cruz county1 in the rich ,pajaro valley4 ,at first its capacity was #cjj tons of beets per day1 and1 the result of the operations being favorable1 this was increased from time to time until it reached #ajjj tons of beets per day4 ,the ,watsonville factory developed into the largest beet plant in ,america and remained so until #ahih1 in which year ,mr4 ,spreckels erected a modern #cjjj-ton plant at ,salinas1 fifteen miles distant4 ,since then the new factory has sliced all of the beets grown in that territory and the old one has been dismantled4 ,the capacity of the ,salinas plant now is greater than that of any other beet factory in the ,united ,states1 being #djjj tons per day4 ,the ,oxnard brothers1 ,henry ,t41 ,benjamin1 ,james ,g4 and ,robert1 with ,j4 ,g4 ,hamilton1 ,w4 ,bayard ,cutting and ,r4 ,fulton ,cutting1 organized the ,oxnard ,beet ,sugar company in #ahhi1 and in ,december of that year broke ground for a beet-sugar factory of #cej tons slicing capacity at ,grand ,island1 ,nebraska4 ,in #ahia they built two more1 one at ,norfolk1 ,nebraska1 and one at ,chino1 ,california1 both of the same size as the ,grand ,island plant4 ,the machinery for the first two factories was bought in ,france and that for the last one came from ,germany4 ,toward the end of #ahig1 construction at ,oxnard was begun1 and in #ahii a consolidation of all these factories was effected under the corporate title of the ,american ,beet ,sugar company4 ,at the close of #ahij1 sixty years after the first experiment at ,philadelphia1 there were only three beet-sugar factories in operation in ,america2 those at ,alvarado1 ,watsonville and ,grand ,island4 ,the total capacity of the three plants was eight hundred tons of beets a day1 or ten thousand tons of sugar a year4 ,france in the same period increased her production from #ejjj to #ggj1jjj tons a year through favorable legislation providing for the payment of bounties4 ,in the ,united ,states1 whenever beet-sugar enterprises have been started1 there has generally been some legal provision for payment by the state of bounty on the quantity of sugar produced4 ,the story of how this responsibility was evaded is hardly a pleasant one4 ,in ,nebraska1 for example1 three different legislatures enacted laws providing for bounty on beet sugar1 but in each case the following legislature either repealed the act or failed to make appropriations for the necessary funds4 ,in the early nineties1 ,michigan passed a bounty law which resulted in several beet factories being established in that state1 but when the claims for bounty were presented for payment1 the state auditor refused to honor them1 and his action was upheld by the state supreme court on the ground of unconstitutionality4 ,a similar condition arose in ,idaho4 ,minnesota paid bounties in #ahij and #ahii1 after which the law was declared unconstitutional4 ,the ,mc,kinley bill of ,april1 #ahia1 was the first national legislation to encourage the beet industry4 ,it called for a bounty of two cents on each pound of domestic sugar produced testing over #ij degrees1 and admitted beet seed and sugar machinery free of duty4 ,this encouraged the ,oxnards to build the factories at ,norfolk1 ,nebraska1 and ,chino1 ,california1 of which mention has already been made4 ,at the same time ,thomas ,r4 ,cutler and his associates put up a beet factory at ,lehi1 ,utah1 which state offered a bounty in addition to that granted by the ,federal government4 ,the tariff act of ,august #bh1 #ahid1 abolished the bounty on sugar and fixed an ad valorem duty of #dj per cent4 ,as a result of the loss of the bounty and the financial stress that reigned at that time1 no beet factories were started except that at ,menominee ,falls1 ,wisconsin1 which was a flat failure4 ,the following rsum of the ,united ,states tariffs on sugar since the year #ahdf may be found useful for purposes of reference3 ,tariff act ,july #cj1 #ahdf3 ,all sugars #cj per cent ad valorem4 ,tariff act ,march #c1 #aheg1 to be effective from and after ,july #a1 #aheg3 ,all sugars #bd per cent ad valorem4 ,tariff act ,march #b1 #ahfa1 effective ,april #a1 #ahfa3 c per pound on raw1 #b;c per pound on refined4 ,tariff act ,august #e1 #ahfa3 #b;c per pound on raw4 ,sugars above #ab ,d4 ,s4 and not yet refined1 #b;c per pound4 #d;c per pound on refined4 ,tariff act ,july #ad1 #ahfb1 effective ,august #a1 #ahfb3 ,sugars not above #ab ,d4 ,s41 #b;c per pound4 ,sugars above #ab ,d4 ,s41 not above #ae ,d4 ,s41 #c;c per pound4 ,above #ae ,d4 ,s41 not above #bj ,d4 ,s41 and not stove dried1 #c;c per pound4 ,refined and above #bj ,d4 ,s41 #d;c4 ,joint resolution of ,april #bi1 #ahfd1 in effect for sixty days3 ,sugars not above #ab ,d4 ,s41 #b;c per pound plus #ej per cent equals #c;c per pound4 ,sugars above #ab ,d4 ,s4 and not above #ae ,d4 ,s41 #c;c plus #ej per cent equals #d;c per pound4 ,sugars above #ae ,d4 ,s4 and not above #bj ,d4 ,s41 #c;c per pound plus #ej per cent equals #e;c per pound4 ,all refined sugars #d;c per pound plus #ej per cent equals #f;c per pound4 ,tariff act ,june #cj1 #ahfd1 effective ,july #a1 #ahfd3 ,sugars not above #ab ,d4 ,s41 #c;c per pound4 ,sugars above #ab ,d4 ,s41 not above #ae ,d4 ,s41 #c;c per pound4 ,sugars above #ae ,d4 ,s41 not above #bj ,d4 ,s41 and not stove dried1 #d;c per pound4 ,all refined sugars and all sugars over #bj ,d4 ,s41 #e;c per pound4 ,tariff act ,july #ad1 #ahgj1 to be effective on and after ,december #ca1 #ahgj1 which means ,january #a1 #ahga4 ,later amended by tariff act of ,december #bb1 #ahgj1 to be effective immediately3 ,sugars not above #g ,d4 ,s41 #a;c per pound4 ,sugars above #g ,d4 ,s41 not above #aj ,d4 ,s41 #b;c per pound4 ,sugars above #aj ,d4 ,s41 not above #ac ,d4 ,s41 #b;c per pound4 ,sugars above #ac ,d4 ,s41 not above #af ,d4 ,s41 #b;c per pound4 ,sugars above #af ,d4 ,s4 and not above #bj ,d4 ,s41 #c;c per pound4 ,all sugars above #bj ,d4 ,s4 and all refined1 #d;c per pound4 ,tariff act ,march #c1 #ahge3 ,sugars not above #g ,d4 ,s41 #a;c per pound plus #be per cent equals #b4ai;c per pound4 ,sugars above #g ,d4 ,s41 not above #aj ,d4 ,s41 #b;c per pound plus #be per cent equals #b4ej;c4 ,sugars above #aj ,d4 ,s41 not above #ac ,d4 ,s41 #b;c plus #be per cent equals #b4ha;c per pound4 ,sugars above #ac ,d4 ,s41 not above #af ,d4 ,s41 #b;c plus #be per cent equals #c4dd;c per pound4 ,sugars above #af ,d4 ,s41 not above #bj ,d4 ,s41 #c;c plus #be per cent equals #d4jf;c per pound4 ,all sugars above #bj ,d4 ,s4 and all refined sugars1 #d;c per pound plus #be per cent equals #e;c per pound4 ,tariff act ,march #c1 #ahhc1 effective ,june #a1 #ahhc3 ,sugars not above #ac ,d4 ,s4 and not above #ge-;degree polarization1 #a4dj;c per pound and 4#jd;c additional per degree or fraction thereof4 ,sugars above #ac ,d4 ,s41 not above #af ,d4 ,s41 #b4ge;c per pound4 ,sugars above #af ,d4 ,s41 not above #bj ,d4 ,s41 #c;c per pound4 ,sugars above #bj ,d4 ,s41 #c;c per pound4 ,tariff act ,october #a1 #ahij1 effective ,april #a1 #ahia 7,mc,kinley bill73 ,bounties effective ,july #a1 #ahia4 ,bounties declared unconstitutional by the ,united ,states supreme court3 ,bounty on domestic productions1 sugars testing #hj degrees to #ij degrees1 #a;c per pound4 ,bounty on domestic productions1 sugars testing at least #ij degrees1 #b;c per pound4 ,all sugar not above #af ,d4 ,s41 free4 ,all sugar above #af ,d4 ,s41 duty c per pound4 ,all sugar above #af ,d4 ,s4 from bounty-paying countries1 duty c per pound4 ,tariff act ,august #bg1 #ahid1 effective ,august #bh1 #ahid 7,wilson bill73 ,bounty on domestic production repealed4 ,all sugars #dj per cent ad valorem4 ,all sugars above #af ,d4 ,s4 and all sugars discolored1 #dj per cent and c per pound4 ,all sugars from bounty-paying countries1 c per pound additional4 ,tariff act ,july #bd1 #ahig 7,dingley bill73 ,raws not above #af ,d4 ,s4 and not above #ge-;degree polarization1 4#ie;c per pound4 ,each additional degree or fraction thereof1 4#jce;c per pound additional4 ,sugar above #af ,d4 ,s4 and all refined1 #a4ie;c4 ,all sugars from bounty-paying countries1 countervailing duties equal to bounties additional4 ,tariff act ,august #e1 #aiji 7,payne-,aldrich bill73 ,raws not above #af ,d4 ,s4 and not above #ge-;degree polarization1 4#ie;c per pound4 ,each additional degree or fraction thereof1 4#jce;c per pound additional4 ,sugar above #af ,d4 ,s41 and all refined1 #a4ij;c per pound4 ,all sugars from bounty-paying countries countervailing duties equal to bounties additional4 ,tariff act ,october #c1 #aiac1 effective ,march #a1 #aiad 7,underwood bill73 ,raws testing not above #ge-;degree polarization1 4#ga;c per pound4 ,each additional degree or fraction thereof1 4#jbf;c per pound additional4 ,no4 #af ,d4 ,s4 clause repealed4 ,all ,philippine sugars to be admitted free4 ,after ,may #a1 #aiaf1 all sugars to be admitted free of duty4 ,in ,april1 #aiaf1 a bill was passed by ,congress repealing the free-sugar clause of the tariff act of ,october #c1 #aiac4 ,the ,president signed the bill on ,april #bg1 #aiaf4 ,the ,democratic party was defeated in #ahif and the following year saw the passage of the ,dingley bill1 which levied a duty of #a4fhe on #if-;degree raw centrifugals under #af ,d4 ,s4 in color and #a4ie on raws over #af ,d4 ,s4 and on refined sugars4 ,under the beneficial influence of this law the industry revived and within a period of about two years from the enactment of the bill twenty-four beet factories sprang into being4 ,one-half of the number were unsuccessful#cc because the stimulating provisions of the new tariff caused ventures to be made hastily and without regard to actual conditions4 ,of the twelve factories that survived1 nearly all were situated in ,california and ,michigan4 ,from #aijj to #aijb the building of beet plants was not so rapid1 for the reason that the failures just mentioned and the popular demand for preferential terms for ,philippine and ,cuban sugars were not exactly encouraging4 ,a #be per cent preferential was given to ,philippine sugars ,march #h1 #aijb1 and a concession of #bj per cent of the duty was allowed ,cuba ,december #bg1 #aijc2 still1 notwithstanding the failures and the political agitation1 five or six beet factories were erected each year during this period4 ,the number of beet factories operating in the ,united ,states in #aiae was sixty-seven and the total daily slicing capacity was #gc1cbj tons4 ,the acreage harvested was #faa1cja acres1 ninety-three per cent of which was worked by independent farmers and seven per cent by the factories4 ,the total amount of beets sliced during that season was #f1aej1bic short tons1 which produced #hgd1bbj short tons of sugar4 ,the following is a list of the factories themselves3 ,,date ,,slicing ,,built ,,capacity ,,arizona ,southwestern ,sugar ,land ,co4#cd ,glendale #aijc #fjj tons ,,california ,alameda ,sugar ,co4 ,alvarado #ahgj #gej 0 ,american ,beet ,sugar ,co4 ,chino #ahia #ijj 0 ,american ,beet ,sugar ,co4 ,oxnard #ahih #cjjj 0 ,anaheim ,sugar ,co4 ,anaheim #aiaa #hjj 0 ,holly ,sugar ,co4 ,huntington ,beach #aiaa #abjj 0 ,los ,alamitos ,sugar ,co4 ,los ,alamitos #ahig #hjj 0 ,santa ,ana ,co-op4 ,sugar ,co4 ,dyer #aiab #ajjj 0 ,southern ,california ,sugar ,co4 ,santa ,ana #aiji #fjj 0 ,spreckels ,sugar ,co4 ,spreckels #ahii #djjj 0 ,union ,sugar ,co4 ,betteravia #ahih #ijj 0 ,sacramento ,valley ,sugar ,co4#cd ,hamilton ,city #aijf #gjj 0 ,san ,joaquin ,valley ,sugar ,co4 ,visalia #aijf #dej 0 ,pacific ,sugar ,co4#cd ,corcoran #aijh #fjj 0 ,,colorado ,american ,beet ,sugar ,co4#cd ,lamar #aije #djj 0 ,american ,beet ,sugar ,co4 ,las ,animas #aijg #hjj 0 ,american ,beet ,sugar ,co4 ,rocky ,ford #aijj #afjj 0 ,great ,western ,sugar ,co4 ,brush #aijf #aajj 0 ,great ,western ,sugar ,co4 ,eaton #aijb #ajjj 0 ,great ,western ,sugar ,co4 ,fort ,collins #aijc #bjjj 0 ,great ,western ,sugar ,co4 ,fort ,morgan #aijf #aaej 0 ,great ,western ,sugar ,co4 ,greeley #aijb #ajjj 0 ,great ,western ,sugar ,co4 ,longmont #aijc #bjjj 0 ,great ,western ,sugar ,co4 ,loveland #aija #ahjj 0 ,great ,western ,sugar ,co4 ,sterling #aije #ajjj 0 ,great ,western ,sugar ,co4 ,windsor #aijc #aajj 0 ,holly ,sugar ,co4 ,swink #aijf #abjj 0 ,national ,sugar ,mfg4 ,co4 ,sugar ,city #aijj #ejj 0 ,western ,sugar ,land ,co4 ,grand ,junction #ahii #fjj 0 ,,idaho ,amalgamated ,sugar ,co4 ,burley #aiab #gbe 0 ,utah ,idaho ,sugar ,co4 ,blackfoot #aijd #hfj 0 ,utah ,idaho ,sugar ,co4 ,idaho ,falls #aijc #iej 0 ,utah ,idaho ,sugar ,co4 ,sugar #aijd #ijj 0 ,,illinois ,charles ,pope ,riverdale #aije #dej 0 ,,indiana ,holland ,st4 ,louis ,sugar ,co4 ,decatur #aiab #hjj 0 ,,iowa ,iowa ,sugar ,co4#cd ,waverly #aijg #ejj 0 ,,kansas ,garden ,city ,sugar ,land ,co4 ,garden ,city #aijf #ijj 0 ,,michigan ,continental ,sugar ,co4 ,blissfield #aije #ijj 0 ,german ,american ,sugar ,co4 ,bay ,city #aija #aejj 0 ,holland ,st4 ,louis ,sugar ,co4 ,holland #ahii #djj 0 ,holland ,st4 ,louis ,sugar ,co4 ,st4 ,louis #aijc #fjj 0 ,menominee ,river ,sugar ,co4 ,menominee #aijc #aaej 0 ,michigan ,sugar ,co4 ,alma #ahii #adjj 0 ,michigan ,sugar ,co4 ,bay ,city #ahii #adjj 0 ,michigan ,sugar ,co4 ,caro #ahii #abjj 0 ,michigan ,sugar ,co4 ,crosswell #aijb #gjj 0 ,michigan ,sugar ,co4 ,carrollton #aijb #ijj 0 ,michigan ,sugar ,co4 ,sebewaing #aijb #hej 0 ,owosso ,sugar ,co4 ,lansing #aija #fjj 0 ,owosso ,sugar ,co4 ,owosso #aijc #abjj 0 ,mt4 ,clemens ,sugar ,co4 ,mt4 ,clemens #aijb #fjj 0 ,western ,sugar ,refining ,co4#cd ,marine ,city #aijj #fjj 0 ,west ,bay ,city ,sugar ,co4 ,west ,bay ,city #ahii #ijj 0 ,,minnesota ,minnesota ,sugar ,co4 ,chaska #aijf #gjj 0 ,,montana ,billings ,sugar ,co4 ,billings #aijf #bjjj 0 ,,nebraska ,scottsbluff ,sugar ,co4 ,scottsbluff #aiaj #ahej 0 ,american ,beet ,sugar ,co4 ,grand ,island #ahij #djj 0 ,,nevada ,nevada ,sugar ,co4#cd ,fallon #aiaa #fjj 0 ,,ohio ,continental ,sugar ,co4 ,fremont #aijj #ejj 0 ,continental ,sugar ,co4 ,findlay #aiaa #hjj 0 ,german ,american ,sugar ,co4 ,paulding #aiaj #ijj 0 ,ottowa ,sugar ,co4 ,ottowa #aiab #fjj 0 ,toledo ,sugar ,co4#cd ,toledo #aiab #aajj 0 ,,utah ,amalgamated ,sugar ,co4 ,lewiston #aije #ijj 0 ,amalgamated ,sugar ,co4 ,logan #aija #gej 0 ,amalgamated ,sugar ,co4 ,ogden #ahih #gej 0 ,utah ,idaho ,sugar ,co4 ,elsinore #aiaa #fbj 0 ,utah ,idaho ,sugar ,co4 ,garland #aijc #iej 0 ,utah ,idaho ,sugar ,co4 ,lehi #ahia #aafe 0 ,utah ,idaho ,sugar ,co4 ,payson #aiac #gjj 0 ,layton ,sugar ,co4 ,layton #aiae #dej 0 ,,wisconsin ,chippewa ,sugar ,refining ,co4 ,chippewa ,falls #aijd #ejj 0 ,rock ,county ,sugar ,co4#cd ,janesville #aijd #fjj 0 ,u4 ,s4 ,sugar ,co4 ,madison #aijf #fjj 0 ,wisconsin ,sugar ,co4 ,menominee ,falls #aija #fjj 0 ,,wyoming ,sheridan ,sugar ,co4 ,sheridan #aiae #gej 0 ----------- ,total capacity 7#gf7 ,u4 ,s4 factories #gc1cbj tons ,,territory ,,of ,,hawaii ,the ,hawaiian islands lie in the north ,pacific ocean1 between #ah degrees #ed minutes and #bb degrees #ae minutes north latitude and #aed degrees #ej minutes and #afj degrees #cj minutes west longitude4 ,the group consists of eight inhabited islands and a number of small barren islets extending several hundred miles in a west-northwesterly direction4 ,the area of the various inhabited islands in square miles is as follows3 ,hawaii #dbaj ,maui #gbh ,oahu #fjj ,kauai #edg ,molokai #bfa ,lanai #aci ,niihau #ig ,kahoolawe #fi ---- ,total #ffea ,all of them are of volcanic and comparatively recent origin1 and their age1 or at least the time since the last eruptions on them1 decreases from west to east4 ,on ,hawaii1 the largest and most easterly of the group1 the volcanic forces are still active and its surface is covered with lava thrown up at no very remote period4 ,the principal port is ,hilo and the highest mountain peaks are ,mauna ,kea 7,white mountain71 #ac1hbc feet1 and ,mauna ,loa 7,great mountain71 #ac1fge feet4 ,maui is formed by two mountains connected by an isthmus4 ,mauna ,haleakala1 the higher of the two1 rises to a height of #aj1jcb feet4#ce ,kahului is the most important town and seaport4 ,oahu is of irregular quadrangular shape4 ,two nearly parallel mountain ranges traverse it from southeast to northwest and between them is a plateau that slopes down to the sea both in a northerly and southerly direction4 ,the principal port is ,honolulu1 the 8cross-roads of the ,pacific10 a flourishing city of about #fj1jjj inhabitants and the capital of the group4 ,it is admirably situated on a fine harbor and1 in addition to its commercial importance1 is one of the most attractive spots in the world on account of its balmy climate and wondrously beautiful surroundings4 ,it is strongly fortified and a considerable military force is maintained there4 ,pearl ,harbor lies about seven miles from ,honolulu in a westerly direction4 ,here the ,united ,states government has established a great naval station1 one of the finest in existence4 ,it has the most improved apparatus for supplying coal or fuel oil to vessels2 there are machine shops1 storehouses and barracks2 and the huge dry-dock when completed will accommodate the largest dreadnaughts4 ,the entrance from the sea has been dredged to make it navigable for ships of the greatest draft and the station is protected by powerful long-range guns of the most modern type4 ,kauai1 the oldest island of the group1 is irregularly circular in shape1 with a maximum diameter of about #be miles4 ,on the northwest a precipice rises to a height of #bjjj feet and beyond that is a mountain plain1 but the other portion of the island consists of shore plains with the mountain peak1 ,waialeale1 #ebej feet high1 in their midst4 ,the shore plains are broken by ridges and broad1 deep valleys and the island is well watered on all sides by mountain streams4 ,there are a number of ports1 but no large towns4 ,the climate of the ,hawaiian islands near sea-level does not vary greatly from one year's end to the other4 ,it is cooler than other regions in the same latitude and extremely healthful4 ,the northeast trade winds blow with periodic variations from ,march to ,december1 or1 as one writer says1 #bfd days out of #cfe every year4#cf ,the leeward coast1 protected by high mountains1 is refreshed by regular land and sea breezes4 ,the heaviest rainfall is from ,january to ,may1 and naturally the greatest precipitation takes place on the windward side of the principal islands4 ,the extremes of local rainfall in the larger islands have been known to range from #ab inches to #cjj inches for the year4 ,in ,honolulu the average temperature runs from #gb degrees to #gd degrees1 the maximum about #hh degrees and the minimum #eb degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,in ascending the mountains a lower temperature will be encountered as a matter of course and some of the highest mountain peaks are covered with snow nearly all the year round4 ,winds seldom blow with extreme violence and hurricanes are unknown4 ,singular it is that so little should have been written upon a subject so important as the history of the growth of the sugar industry of the ,hawaiian islands4 ,jarves and ,thrum bring the narrative down to #ahge and ,mr4 ,h4 ,p4 ,baldwin1 in his book entitled 8,the ,sugar ,industry in ,hawaii0 7#ahie71 contributes a fund of valuable information which is freely drawn upon in this chapter4 ,tradition has it that a ,japanese junk touched at the island of ,maui during the thirteenth century and a ,spanish vessel is said to have put in on the south coast of ,hawaii during a voyage from ,mexico to the ,philippines in #aeej4 ,be this as it may1 our knowledge of these islands dates only from the time of their discovery by ,captain ,cook in #aggh4 ,he found sugar cane growing there when he landed and speaks of it in his description of his first visit as being 8of large size and good quality40 ,according to the old natives1 it grew wild and luxuriant in the valleys and lowlands4 ,as far back as #ahcg ,mr4 ,d4 ,d4 ,baldwin recalls having seen fields of white cane on the edge of the woods at ,hana1 ,maui1 at an elevation of #bjjj to #cjjj feet4 ,the natives made no attempt to use sugar cane except as an article of food1 although it is said that in ancient days it served as an offering to their gods1 particularly the god 8,mano0 7shark74 ,cleveland#cg says that upon his first visit to the ,sandwich group in #agii the natives came alongside the ship in canoes bringing many fruits and vegetables1 among which was sugar cane4 ,l4 ,l4 ,torbert1 one of the early planters1 in a paper read before the ,royal ,agricultural ,society in ,january1 #aheb1 claims that the earliest sugar factory was put up on the island of ,lanai in #ahjb by a ,chinaman who came to the islands in one of the vessels trading for sandalwood4 ,he brought with him a stone mill and boilers1 and after grinding one small crop and making it into sugar1 went away the next year taking his apparatus with him4 ,anderson#ch makes a statement that #beg tons of sugar were exported from the islands in #ahad1 but cites no authority upon which to base his assertion4 ,according to ,jarves#ci the first instance of the manufacture of sugar goes back beyond #ahbj1 but the name of the pioneer planter is unknown4 ,it is certain that at first molasses was manufactured and then sugar some time before #ahbj4 ,don ,francisco de ,paula ,marin made sugar in ,honolulu in #ahai1 the year before the arrival of the first missionaries4 ,lavinia1 an ,italian1 did the same thing in #ahbc4 ,his method was to pound the cane with stone pestles on huge wooden trays 7poi boards7 by native labor1 collecting the juice and boiling it in a small copper kettle4 ,accounts from various sources agree that the making of sugar and molasses was general in #ahbc-bd4 ,this undoubtedly had direct connection with the manufacture of rum1 which was extensively carried on at that time4 ,in #ahbh a considerable amount of cane was raised in the neighborhood of ,honolulu and mills were built in the ,nuuanu valley and ,waikapu1 ,maui4 ,a pioneer cane grower1 ,antonio ,silva by name1 lived at the latter place1 and some ,chinamen had a sugar mill near ,hilo4 ,in those days mills were made of wood1 very crudely put together and worked by oxen4 ,the first attempt at sugar cultivation on a large scale was made at ,koloa1 ,kauai1 by ,ladd company1 a ,honolulu merchant firm1 in #ahce4 ,this was the beginning of what is now known as the ,koloa plantation1 and the first breaking of the soil for planting cane was done with a plough drawn by natives4 ,a mill was established here at the same time1 and the enterprise was managed by a ,mr4 ,hooper4 ,as has been said1 the general character of the mills was rude and primitive and it continued to be so up to #ahej4 ,the rollers were generally of wood and the kettles in which the juice was boiled were whalers' trypots4 ,the buildings were adobe or simple grass huts4 ,only one grade of sugar was made4 ,the juice was boiled to a thick syrup and put into coolers to grain1 after which the granulated mass was packed in mats1 bags1 boxes or barrels with perforated bottoms for the molasses to drain off4 ,the mills were run by bullocks1 horses and in some cases by water power1 and were fed by hand1 one stalk at a time4 ,the whole process1 both in the field and in the mill1 was very crude and imperfect4 ,the value of the sugar exported from the islands from #ahcf to #ahda was #cf1jjj and that of the molasses for the same period #ag1acj4 ,an article by the late ,william ,ladd on the 8,resources of the ,sandwich ,islands10 published in the 8,hawaiian ,spectator0 for ,april1 #ahch1 speaks thus prophetically of the manufacture of sugar1 then in its infancy3 8,it is a very common opinion that sugar will become a leading article of export4 ,that this will become a sugar country is quite evident1 if we may judge from the varieties of sugar cane now existing here1 its adaptation to the soil1 price of labor and a ready market4 ,from experiments hitherto made1 it is believed that sugar of a superior quality may be produced here4 ,it may not be amiss to state that there are now in operation1 or soon to be erected1 twenty mills for crushing cane propelled by animal power1 and two by water power40 ,just here it may be remarked that at that time the price of labor was a potent argument in favor of making the islands a sugar-producing country1 for native labor was available in abundance and the current rate of wages was from #ab cents to #cg cents per day1 or #b4jj to #e4jj per month4 ,in an article on commercial development1#dj ,thrum says3 8,hawaiian produce in the early days had to seek distant markets1 for we find shipments of sugar1 hides1 goat skins and the first shipment of raw silk moving to ,new ,york per the bark ,flora in #ahdj4 ,a trial shipment of sugar was sent to ,france1 but it did not offer sufficient encouragement for any renewals4 ,the ,sydney market was also exploited with sugar1 where it obtained better figures than similar grades of ,mauritius40 ,between the years #ahdj and #ahej a cane field and rude mill in ,lahaina1 ,maui1 were owned by ,david ,malo1 a well-known ,hawaiian1 who made molasses and sold it for home consumption4 ,his apparatus consisted of three whaling-ship trypots set up on adobe and stone mason work4 ,the crushing was done with wooden rollers1 strengthened by iron bands4 ,in #ahda1 ,kaukini1 governor of ,hawaii1 planted about one hundred acres of cane in ,kohala and the crop when harvested was ground under contract by a ,chinese named ,aiko4 ,in ,wyllie's 8,notes0 on the islands1 published in the 8,friend10 ,december1 #ahdd1 the quantity of sugar exported from the island of ,kauai is estimated at about #bjj tons1 and the molasses at #bj1jjj gallons4 ,hilo1 in the same year1 exported #db tons of sugar4 ,maui had1 at that time1 two mills1 but the amount of sugar produced is not reported4 ,in #ahea1 ,d4 ,m4 ,weston1 then manager of what is now the ,honolulu ,iron ,works1 invented the first centrifugal machine for drying sugar1 and this machine was installed on the ,east ,maui plantation in the same year4 ,this1 it is claimed1 was the first centrifugal to be used for the purpose anywhere4 ,prominent among the early planters are the names of ,stephen ,reynolds1 ,william ,french1 ,ladd company1 ,dr4 ,r4 ,w4 ,wood1 ,l4 ,l4 ,torbert1 ,w4 ,h4 ,rice1 and later on ,s4 ,l4 ,austin1 ,a4 ,h4 ,spencer and ,captain ,makee4 ,in the year #ahed or #ahee1 ,captain ,edwards of the ,american whaler ,george ,washington brought from ,tahiti two varieties of cane1 one known as ,cuban and the other as ,lahaina4 ,the latter proved to be profitable to raise and fifteen or sixteen years later began to displace other species throughout the islands4 ,since then its popularity continued to increase and up to twenty years ago it was the variety most in favor on all ,hawaiian plantations4 ,twelve varieties of cane were imported from ,queensland1 ,australia1 in #ahhj1 but of these only one--the ,rose ,bamboo--compared with the ,lahaina in productiveness1 and that only in high altitudes4 ,in #ahih ,lahaina and ,rose ,bamboo seemed to have outlived their usefulness on the ,hamakua coast of the island of ,hawaii1 and while they continued to give excellent results in the low1 sheltered valleys1 it became evident that they could not be profitably grown on the uplands4 ,the yields in the ,hamakua region were becoming smaller each year and the plantation owners had to seek a new variety4 ,a cane known as ,yellow ,caledonia#da solved the difficulty and wonderful crops of it have been raised uninterruptedly in that section ever since4 ,in #ahef no fertilizers were used and practically nothing was known of irrigation4 ,the average yield of sugar at that time was one ton per acre4 ,the extraction of sugar from the cane was less than #ej per cent1 while today in the best mills it exceeds #ih per cent and the average result from all ,hawaiian factories shows over #ij per cent4 ,the industry struggled along under severe handicaps and discouraging circumstances until #aheg1 when the number of plantations on the islands had dwindled down to five3 ,koloa and ,lihue on ,kauai1 the ,east ,maui and the ,brewer on ,maui and a ,chinese outfit near ,hilo1 ,hawaii4 ,in #aheh-ei steam was adopted as the motive power in the mills2 wooden mills were superseded by those built of iron and in #ahfa the first vacuum pans were introduced4 ,the same year saw the number of plantations increase to twenty-two1 nine of which employed steam for the grinding of the cane4 ,the outbreak of the ,civil war in the ,united ,states cut off the supply of sugar drawn from the ,southern states and caused the price of ,hawaiian sugar in kegs to advance to ten cents a pound4 ,this gave the ,hawaiian producers their first real start4 ,in #ahfc the export tonnage was #bfjj1 and this increased until in #ahfj it reached #hhfi tons4 ,a small plantation was started at ,paia1 ,maui1 by a ,captain ,bush in #ahfh and in the following year he disposed of it to ,s4 ,t4 ,alexander and ,h4 ,p4 ,baldwin4 ,the former gentleman was then manager of the ,haiku plantation and the acquisition of his interest in the ,paia venture necessitated his going to ,honolulu to borrow the sum of #ijjj1 which he managed to do1 but not without difficulty4 ,mr4 ,alexander was the father of irrigation in ,hawaii4 ,he promoted and built the ,haiku ditch1 which was the forerunner of the present magnificent water-distributing system of the islands4 ,the period from #ahfi to #ahgf was one of arduous struggle for the planters4 ,their very existence was at stake4 ,the duty levied on imports by the ,united ,states cut their margins down to nothing1 labor was scarce and the cost of obtaining it great1 the rate of interest was from ten to twelve per cent1 agents' commissions for buying and selling ran from five to ten per cent2 in short1 many plantations were threatened with utter ruin1 and so seriously discouraged did the business men become that the only gleam of hope for the salvation of the sugar industry seemed to be annexation4 ,repeated efforts were made to negotiate a reciprocity treaty with the ,united ,states4 ,finally this was accomplished2 the treaty was consummated in #ahgf and a new ,hawaii was born4 ,the expansion that followed was more rapid than the finances of the country could stand4 ,depression ensued1 and as a result the resources of the islands were taxed to the utmost4 ,the demand for labor during this period of expansion was so great that the pay of the laborers in the fields was raised to one dollar a day1 with free rent1 fuel and medical attendance4 ,laborers were sought for in the far corners of the earth1 and in consequence the islands have a race mixture rarely found anywhere else in the world4 ,in #ahgf the annual crop of the islands could have been put in one vessel of the capacity of those that are now engaged in freighting ,hawaiian raw sugars to the ,united ,states1 the total being in the neighborhood of #ac1jjj short tons4 ,at that time1 however1 this seemed an enormous amount to the planters with their small acreage and mills4 ,it is well known that one planter was very much exercised as to how he was possibly going to handle the extraordinary production of #aajj tons from his plantation1 which was then the largest in the islands4 ,the crop came on the market in such small quantities that it was of no value to refiners1 as they could not depend upon definite deliveries4 ,it was therefore put up in special containers1 known as 8island kegs10 and sold directly to the wholesale grocers on the ,pacific coast4 ,some plantations turned out sugars that found especial favor with the trade1 and these grades brought as high as #ad cents per pound4 ,under the benefits of reciprocity the crop increased by leaps and bounds and in a short time the planters ceased selling these raw grocery sugars and turned their attention to supplying the wants of refiners4 ,the 8island keg0 became a thing of the past and the small sailing vessels which had heretofore carried all the island products to the mainland gave way to steamers4 ,at the present day there is only one sailing vessel plying regularly between ,san ,francisco and the islands1 and she usually loads at a port where the large freighting steamers do not care to venture4 ,annexation to the ,united ,states in #ahih was the next important step in the development of ,hawaii4 ,its immediate effect was to create a feeling of security and confidence in every direction1 for while the reciprocity treaty had produced excellent results1 the danger of its being made the subject of attack in ,congress was ever present4 ,the hoisting of the ,american flag in the islands permanently dispelled any anxiety on that score4 ,of all the early pioneers whose steadfastness and courage kept the sugar industry alive through so many vicissitudes1 but few survive4 ,their descendants have succeeded to their possessions and responsibilities1 and today in ,hawaii cane cultivation and sugar manufacture have attained a higher degree of development than has been reached by any other country in the world4 ,crude methods and appliances have long since disappeared4 ,scientific principles govern the treatment of the land and the selection and care of the cane4 ,the irrigation works are marvels of engineering skill4 ,the mills are modern steel-frame structures1 with concrete floors and equipped with machinery of the most improved type4 ,and the end is not yet4 ,the minds of many highly trained men are constantly at work upon the various problems presented by the industry1 and what the fruit of their effort will be1 who shall say8 ,production of ,hawaii since #ahcg in tons of #bbdj pounds3 #ahcg #b #ahch #dj #ahci #de #ahdj #afa #ahda #bg #ahdb 444 #ahdc #eaa #ahdd #bbi #ahde #ace #ahdf #acd #ahdg #bbe #ahdh #bbc #ahdi #bib #ahej #cce #ahea #i #aheb #cab #ahec #bhg #ahed #beg #ahee #abi #ahef #bdh #aheg #cac #aheh #ech #ahei #haf #ahfj #fde #ahfa #a1add #ahfb #a1cdb #ahfc #b1cfc #ahfd #d1fdi #ahfe #f1hch #ahff #g1iae #ahfg #g1fdf #ahfh #h1age #ahfi #h1aga #ahgj #h1chf #ahga #i1gae #ahgb #g1ehg #ahgc #aj1cbf #ahgd #aj1ifg #ahge #aa1aig #ahgf #aa1fdj #ahgg #aa1dah #ahgh #ag1aeg #ahgi #ba1hhd #ahhj #bh1chf #ahha #da1hgj #ahhb #ej1egb #ahhc #ej1ida #ahhd #fc1fhe #ahhe #gf1dif #ahhf #if1ebh #ahhg #id1ihd #ahhh #aje1cjg #ahhi #ajh1aaj #ahij #aae1igg #ahia #abb1gfa #ahib #aji1agh #ahic #acf1bfi #ahid #adh1fjj #ahie #acc1eif #ahif #bja1fcb #ahig #bbd1bjj #ahih #bjd1hcd #ahii #beb1ejf #aijj #beh1ebb #aija #cba1dfc #aijb #cag1eaj #aijc #cia1jfc #aijd #cbh1ajc #aije #chj1egi #aijf #chc1bbf #aijg #cib1hgb #aijh #dfe1bhh #aiji #dgg1hah #aiaj #dfa1fhg #aiaa #ejf1jij #aiab #eca1dhj #aiac #dhh1bab #aiad #eej1ibf #aiae #egg1ahc #aiaf #ede1jjj ,,louisiana ,the cane crop of ,louisiana comes from the southern part of the state1 principally along the banks of the ,mississippi1 the ,bayou ,teche and the ,bayou ,lafourche4 ,as this region is outside the tropics1 being between #bi degrees and #ca degrees north latitude1 frosts must be looked for in winter4 ,the sugar industry of ,louisiana1 therefore1 as well as that of ,texas1 ,florida and ,georgia1 has to cope with climatic conditions that are unknown in most other cane-producing countries4 ,all of the sugar plantations are situated in the low plains1 the highest elevation above sea-level not exceeding #hc feet4 ,the annual rainfall varies from #fg to #ie inches1 and #hj inches may be taken as a fair average1 which amply suffices for the needs of the growing cane4 ,in ,december1 ,january and ,february there is always the danger of frost and planters must be constantly alert to guard against this as far as possible4 ,during the autumnal equinox much damage to the cane is caused by hurricanes that rush in from the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,sugar cane was brought to ,louisiana in #agea4 ,according to ,gayarr1 two ships that were transporting troops from ,france to ,louisiana touched at a port in ,hispaniola during the voyage and the ,jesuits of the island obtained permission to put some sugar cane on board these vessels to be taken to ,louisiana and there delivered to their ,jesuit brethren4 ,the same means were employed to send a number of negroes to cultivate the cane1 which was planted according to direction on a piece of ground belonging to the order situated just above the present course of ,canal street1 ,new ,orleans4 ,the cane grew to maturity and was sold in the market as a luxury4 ,in #agei a rich colonist1 ,dubreuil by name1 built a mill and attempted to make sugar1 but his efforts were unsuccessful and the idea was abandoned4 ,tafia1 a kind of rum1 was made from sugar cane shortly afterward4 ,in #agia ,don ,antnio ,mendez1 an officer of the ,spanish crown who lived in ,st4 ,bernard parish1 bought from a ,spanish refugee from ,santo ,domingo named ,solis his land1 crop of cane and distilling outfit and attacked the problem with a firm determination to conquer it4 ,he called in a ,cuban sugar maker named ,morin to assist him1 but whether it was that he lacked the means to erect a proper factory1 or whether he became discouraged1 the fact remains that he only succeeded in turning out a few small barrels of sugar4 ,there is evidence that he did something in the way of refining as well1 but not in an appreciable quantity4 ,the first crop of sugar sufficiently large and profitable to serve as an incentive to others was raised by ,etienne de ,bor about #agid4 ,of this achievement ,gayarr says3 8,when the whole agricultural interest of ,louisiana was thus prostrated and looking around for the discovery of some means to escape from annihilation1 and the eager and anxious inquiry of every planter was #8,what shall ,i do to pay my debts and support my family8'1 the energy of one of the most spirited and respected citizens of ,louisiana suddenly saved her from utter ruin and raised her to that state of prosperity which has increased with each successive year40#db ,in #agid de ,bor purchased seed cane from ,mendez and ,solis and after planting it he went ahead with his preparations for harvesting1 crushing and manufacturing4 ,the following year the sugar he produced sold for #ab1jjj1 a considerable sum of money in those days4 ,the boiling of the sugar juice to grain was done under the direction of ,antoine ,morin1 the former associate of ,mendez4 ,the method was naturally very primitive1 the mill being driven by animal power1 and much sugar was lost in the bagasse4 ,following the example of de ,bor1 many planters set out cane and built sugar mills4 ,their operations were highly successful and they all became wealthy within a comparatively short period4 ,the industry continued to flourish and prosper1 and the year #ahbj marked a decided step forward4 ,up to that time the only two kinds of cane that had been grown in ,louisiana were the ,creole 7from ,malabar or ,bengal7 and the ,tahiti4 ,the cane originally planted by de ,bor and from which he made his first sugar was the ,creole2 the ,tahiti variety was not introduced from ,santo ,domingo until #agig4 ,it became patent to the planters that neither of these canes was suited to the ,louisianan climate1 and they set about looking for a hardier plant4 ,toward the middle of the eighteenth century the purple and striped varieties were brought by the ,dutch from ,java to the island of ,st4 ,eustatius1 and from there a quantity of these canes was taken to ,savannah1 ,georgia1 about #ahad4 ,they throve extremely well and a former resident of ,savannah who had moved to ,louisiana and become a planter there1 having heard about them1 secured some for seed purposes4 ,his experiment proved wonderfully successful and from this single estate the cultivation of the new canes spread over the entire sugar-producing region4 ,as these varieties could stand greater cold than the ,creole and the ,tahiti1 the planters were able to extend their growing area northward and in this way greatly increase their acreage4 ,as recently as #ahig these canes still constituted the crops of ,louisiana with a few exceptions4 ,of late years1 however1 seedling canes obtained from ,demerara have come into great favor in consequence of the researches of the botanists at the experiment station4 ,in addition to an advantage both in cane and sugar over the varieties previously used1 the time of vegetation is shorter1 so that the canes mature earlier1 and this1 on account of the short season in which ,louisianan cane has to ripen1 makes the ,demeraran decidedly desirable4 ,it has also been proved that ,demeraran cane is better able to resist damage by storms1 so that taking it all in all it would appear that the newer varieties are quite likely to displace the older kinds4 ,cane is usually planted in the same ground every three years4 ,the crop of plant cane is followed by a crop of ratoons and then maize is put in4 ,as soon as the maize is cut the field is sown with a species of large pea 7,vigna sinensis7 and when summer is over the pea vines and the maize stubble are ploughed under4 ,a month after this is done1 furrows are dug about six feet apart and early in ,october cane is planted once more4 ,in this operation two rows of whole cane stalks are placed in the furrows and covered with five or six inches of earth as a protection against frost4 ,most of this layer of earth is removed in the spring to help the growth of the young cane shoots4 ,stable manure1 cotton-seed meal1 nitrates1 phosphates and kainite are used as fertilizers4 ,harvesting begins at the end of ,november1 and1 weather permitting1 the cane is allowed to remain standing in the fields until required for grinding4 ,if1 however1 the ,government ,weather ,bureau should predict cold1 the cane is cut without delay1 piled in the furrows and covered with dry cane leaves to prevent it from freezing4 ,cane stored in this manner keeps well so long as the weather remains cold1 but as soon as warm weather comes it rapidly deteriorates4 ,labor in ,louisiana is both scarce and costly1 consequently agricultural machinery is used in the fields as far as possible4 ,illustration3 ,,hauling ,,cane ,,in ,,the ,,fields1 ,,louisiana ,illustration3 ,,hauling ,,cane ,,in ,,the ,,fields1 ,,louisiana ,the steam engine was first employed in the crushing of cane in the year #ahbb4 ,about this time1 when slavery was such a tremendous factor in the ,south1 sugar raising was marked by a tendency toward the large plantation method4 ,from #ahcj to #ahdj the number of plantations in ,louisiana decreased1 but the number of slaves employed on them increased #dj per cent4 ,later1 however1 the plantations began to grow in number and by #ahec there were more than fifteen hundred of them1 as against #ffh thirteen years previous4 ,in those days1 each plantation had its own sugar mill1 so that #ahec may be taken as close to the high-water mark for the number of mills in the ,south4 ,with the outbreak of the ,civil war1 the industry was virtually wiped out of existence1 and when its rehabilitation was begun1 it was carried on along entirely different lines and the separation of the raising of sugar from the manufacture was gradually brought about4 ,year by year the small mills were abandoned and the crops of cane raised by the planters1 large and small1 were brought to the central factory to be worked up4 ,today1 where large plantations still exist1 it is the practice to rent subdivisions of land from twenty to fifty acres in size to tenants who grow cane for the central mill4 ,in #ahhj there were #aadd small sugar mills in ,louisiana and their output of sugar was #aba1hhf tons4 ,in #aiaa1 #ahg mills handled a crop of #e1icj1jjj tons of cane which gave #cjh1dci tons of sugar1 and this would have been considerably exceeded had it not been for a disastrous freeze4 ,in #ahhj1 #bgc factories used horse power1 in #aijj only #e1 in #aije none at all4 ,the advent of the vacuum pan and the consequent abolition of the open-kettle method marked another great advance in manufacturing development4 ,in #ahhj about #db per cent of the sugar produced in ,louisiana was turned out by factories equipped with vacuum pans4 ,the government statistics for #aiji show a total of #caf1hbi tons of sugar boiled in vacuum pans and only #c1fgh tons of open-kettle sugar4 ,as has been said1 the growing season for cane in ,louisiana is limited and the harvesting is done before the plant has attained its full maturity4 ,whether or not this has any effect upon the flavor of the sugar and molasses produced is a moot point4 ,it is none the less true1 however1 that the ,louisiana 8,clarifieds0 and the so-called ,new ,orleans molasses possess a flavor distinctively their own4 ,in the plantation fields1 too1 the scientists have worked wonders4 ,to illustrate the benefit resulting from the application of modern methods to the cultivation of cane1 in #ahhe the average yield of cane per acre in ,louisiana was about three-quarters of a ton1 while in #aiji the average yield per acre in cane was about #bj tons1 the recovery of sugar per ton of cane over #aeg pounds1 or #cadj pounds of sugar per acre4 ,the ,louisiana state experiment station was established by the sugar planters at ,audubon park1 ,new ,orleans1 in #ahhe and endowed for a term of years4 ,this institution has grown in importance until at the present time it has ample grounds1 well-equipped laboratories and a sugar house with an installation of the latest and best sugar-manufacturing machinery1 all directed and operated by the students of the institution4 ,here is carried on the work of developing seedlings1 improvement of cane varieties1 investigation of cane diseases1 together with the study of all questions of bettering plantation and factory methods4 ,the sugar production of ,louisiana in long tons from #ahfj-fa to the present time is as follows3 #ahfj-fa #aag1dca #ahfa-fb #bce1hef #ahfb-fc #dc1bcb #ahfc-fd #ci1fij #ahfd-fe #e1cca #ahfe-ff #i1bhg #ahff-fg #ba1jgd #ahfg-fh #ai1bhi #ahfh-fi #db1fag #ahfi-gj #dd1chb #ahgj-ga #ge1cfi #ahga-gb #fe1fce #ahgb-gc #ee1hia #ahgc-gd #df1jgh #ahgd-ge #fj1ajj #ahge-gf #gb1ieh #ahgf-gg #he1ajb #ahgg-gh #fe1hce #ahgh-gi #ajf1iji #ahgi-hj #hh1hcf #ahhj-ha #aba1hhf #ahha-hb #ga1cjd #ahhb-hc #acf1afg #ahhc-hd #abh1cah #ahhd-he #id1cgb #ahhe-hf #abg1ieh #ahhf-hg #hj1heh #ahhg-hh #aeg1igj #ahhh-hi #add1hgh #ahhi-ij #abh1cdc #ahij-ia #bae1hdc #ahia-ib #afj1icg #ahib-ic #bja1haf #ahic-id #bfe1hcf #ahid-ie #cag1cjf #ahie-if #bcg1gbj #ahif-ig #bhb1jji #ahig-ih #caj1ddg #ahih-ii #bde1eaa #ahii-jj #adg1afd #aijj-ja #bgj1cch #aija-jb #cba1fgf #aijb-jc #cbi1bbf #aijc-jd #bbh1dgf #aijd-je #cee1ecj #aije-jf #ccf1gea #aijf-jg #ahh1ega #aijg-jh #cjb1hee #aijh-ji #bgc1agh #aiji-aj #bfi1dca #aiaj-aa #bfc1cjh #aiaa-ab #cae1jff #aiab-ac #acg1aai #aiac-ad #bfa1ccg #aiad-ae #baf1fif #aiae-af #abb1gfh ,,porto ,,rico ,porto ,rico1 the most easterly and the fourth in size of the ,greater ,antilles1 lies at the entrance to the ,caribbean sea1 between #ag degrees #ej minutes and #ah degrees #cj minutes north latitude and between #fe degrees #cj minutes and #fg degrees #ae minutes west longitude4 ,it is about #ajj miles long by #cf miles wide and has an area of #cfjf square miles4 ,a range of mountains from #bjjj feet to #cgjj feet in height runs from east to west4 ,the south slope of the island rises abruptly from the foothills1 while on the north the ascent is more gradual and broken to a great extent by rugged spurs and deep ravines4 ,there is but little coastal plain on the north1 except at the river mouths1 but on the south a considerable stretch of lowlands is found4 ,although many indentations occur in the coast line1 few of them afford safe shelter for ships4 ,there are thirty-nine rivers and a great number of smaller streams1 but none of the rivers is navigable for more than a mile or two from the sea4 ,the climate is healthful and is tempered by the northeast trade winds that1 with certain modifications due to local conditions1 blow steadily the year round4 ,the mean annual temperature is about #hj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,the rainy season begins in ,may and ends in ,november and the average yearly precipitation at the foot of ,mount ,el ,yunque on the northeast coast is #abj inches4 ,at ,san ,juan it is #ee inches1 while other sections of the island are semi-arid or subject to severe droughts4 ,porto ,rico is particularly free from epidemics4 ,the last case of yellow fever was reported in #ahig4 ,cholera and bubonic plague are unknown1 and dysentery diseases1 formerly common1 are steadily decreasing4 ,like other ,west ,indian islands1 it is subject to hurricanes1 that of #ahii having been unusually disastrous4 ,the census of #aiaj gave the population as #a1aah1jab4 ,illustration3 ,a4 ,moscioni1 ,photo4 ,,sugar ,,plantation ,,scene ,,in ,,porto ,,rico ,illustration3 ,a4 ,moscioni1 ,photo4 ,,sugar-,,shipping ,,port1 ,,porto ,,rico ,the soil is fertile and may be divided into three classes4 ,first1 the red soil1 generally found in the mountains2 second1 the black soil1 containing much humus1 and third1 the coral sand soil of the coast plains4 ,the black has proved to be the best for sugar cane1 although excellent yields have been obtained from the coast lands4 ,notwithstanding the fact that both soil and climate are well suited to cane cultivation1 the extension of the industry is checked by the formation of the country4 ,the hilly character of the island and the comparatively limited transportation facilities do not admit of cane being grown in the interior4 ,all of the modern plantations are near the coast1 where sugar can be easily transported to steamers4 ,in the north cane may be raised without irrigation1 but in the south1 where the greater part of the crop is produced1 irrigation is necessary4 ,about #djj1jjj acres of the surface of ,porto ,rico are under cultivation and half of this area is devoted to sugar4 ,the cane grows chiefly on the rich alluvial lowlands along the coast4 ,on the southern seaboard there is plenty of good land that has never been planted1 but to make this available for agriculture means the construction of costly irrigation works with extensive aqueducts and much tunneling4 ,porto ,rico was discovered by ,columbus in #adic4 ,the name ,puerto ,rico dates from #aeba1 when gold was found in the island4 ,the natives suffered cruelly at the hands of their conquerors up to the year #aedd1 when they were set free by the order of ,king ,charles ,i of ,spain4#dc ,out of a population originally estimated at #fjj1jjj only a few hundred remained4 ,great numbers had died and many had fled to ,mexico and ,peru1 but the ,spaniards soon filled their places with ,african negroes4 ,for three centuries the island was harried by the ,english1 attacked by pirates and freebooters1 torn by rebellion among the slaves or terrorized by the fleets of the ,dutch1 who were intent upon its conquest1 so that ,spain was kept constantly on her guard to prevent her colony from being wrested from her4 ,this state of affairs naturally did not encourage population4 ,the country could not meet the cost of its administration and the deficit had to be paid out of the revenues of ,mexico4 ,up to #aggh only ,spaniards were allowed to settle there1 but after that date the privilege was granted to people of other countries1 provided they were of the ,roman ,catholic faith1 and in #ahae all restrictions were removed4 ,foreigners were welcomed to the island and many inducements offered them4 ,trade with the ,united ,states was permitted in #ahae1 but only in ,spanish ships4 ,this liberal policy brought many planters from the ,british and ,french islands1 and as they had experience1 capital and slaves1 they did much to develop the resources of the colony4 ,subsequently many refugees came from ,haiti1 ,santo ,domingo and ,venezuela4 ,slavery in ,spanish possessions was abolished in #ahgc and #cd1jjj slaves in ,porto ,rico received their freedom4 ,after ,alphonso ,,xii ascended the ,spanish throne in #ahge1 commercial conditions in the island showed a certain improvement1 but politically the situation was deplorable1 reflecting as it did all the bad features of an obsolete system of government1 complicated by a liberalism that was premature4 ,by reason of its arbitrary decrees and many acts of persecution1 the administration stirred up a feeling of bitter antagonism on the part of the colonists4 ,a step toward reform was taken in #ahgg1 when the provincial deputation was re-established1 and eighteen years afterward1 the home government1 in response to vigorous demands from foreign nations1 attempted to pass measures to effectively remedy existing evils1 but it was far too late4 ,the island received a grant of autonomy in ,november1 #ahig1 and in ,july of the following year it was taken over by the ,united ,states4 ,illustration3 ,a4 ,moscioni1 ,photo4 ,,ploughing ,,cane ,,field ,,with ,,steam ,,plough1 ,,porto ,,rico ,illustration3 ,a4 ,moscioni1 ,photo4 ,,unloading ,,sugar ,,cane ,,at ,a ,,mill1 ,,porto ,,rico ,as soon as this became an accomplished fact1 there was a marked improvement in conditions1 especially from a sugar point of view4 ,up to this time much attention had been given to the cultivation of coffee1 and sugar production had suffered to a certain extent in consequence4 ,spain had admitted ,porto ,rican coffee free while protecting it by duties levied on foreign coffee1 but when the island passed into the hands of ,america1 this advantage to the coffee raiser disappeared4 ,besides1 the hurricane of #ahii had caused great damage to the coffee plantations and the combination of circumstances proved a severe setback to the coffee industry4 ,the sugar planters1 on the other hand1 benefited greatly by annexation4 ,in #ahhi the government allowed a reduction of #he per cent on the duty assessed on ,porto ,rican sugars entering the ,united ,states4 ,in #aija they came in absolutely free and ,porto ,rico has enjoyed the full protection of the tariff ever since4 ,in #aijj ,congress passed a law known as the ,foraker act1 which provided that no corporation should be allowed to acquire more than #ejj acres of land in ,porto ,rico and that no stockholder in any agricultural company operating there should be permitted to hold shares in any other corporation of the kind4 ,the object of the law was1 of course1 to prevent capitalists from buying up great tracts of land for the cultivation of sugar on a large scale to the detriment of the native land owner4 ,the act1 however1 did not serve the interests of the small ,porto ,rican farmer as its framers apparently intended it should4 ,the owners of large holdings were non-resident and the small farmers lacked the money and enterprise to carry on the industry in a proper manner4 ,the law excluded that which was most urgently needed1 namely foreign capital1 and when this fact became apparent1 the provisions of the measure were construed liberally by the authorities1 so that of late years extensive sugar estates have been started in ,porto ,rico with ,american1 ,british and ,french backing1 and the production has grown from #he1jjj tons in #aijb to #cgh1eji tons in #aiaf4 ,formerly the ,porto ,rican planters used to harvest cane from the same lands year after year1 without using fertilizers of any kind4 ,when they planted new cane1 the soil was only partially prepared2 the subsoil was never cleared of roots and rough grasses and cultivation was only indifferently done4 ,the result is that many cane fields are now practically exhausted and some planters find that their lands are becoming spoiled by rapidly multiplying weeds4 ,today the usual method is to plough the ground twice before putting in the seed4 ,deep ploughing is taking the place of scratching the surface and steam ploughs are being used on the larger estates4 ,where the soil is heavy and the rainfall abundant1 the furrows are dug about eight feet apart and two feet deep and the cane planted in double rows at four-foot intervals4 ,in dry1 sandy soil the planting is in single rows and the distance between the furrows ranges from four to six feet1 according to how rich the soil is4 ,the fields are kept free from weeds and manure is used but seldom4 ,the greater part of the cane is planted during the last four months of the year and crushing is begun in the second ,january following1 which gives the cane a growing period of fourteen months or more4 ,some planting is done in ,january1 ,february and ,march and this cane is cut in twelve months4 ,then a certain amount is planted between ,march and ,june1 and if the sugar content proves satisfactory1 it is ground the following season2 if not1 it is allowed to remain standing for another year4 ,planting is done every four years and the best results are obtained from the first and second ratoon crops4 ,the yield of cane per acre averages about #ah long tons1 although this has been exceeded in good years4 ,the cane is cut close to the ground with a machete and loaded on ox-carts to be taken to the mill or the railway station1 according to the location of the field4 ,almost all of the cane grown in ,porto ,rico is ground in the large central factories1 but it is only during the last ten or twelve years that this has been done4 ,the small mills have disappeared for the most part1 although a few have been able to struggle along4 ,the centrals usually raise about one-half of the cane they grind4 ,the rest they buy from the colono1 who grows cane either on his own land or upon ground rented to him by the central owner4 ,as a rule the price paid to the colono for his cane is #e per cent of the weight of the cane in sugar1 although this is subject to modification at times4 ,as the central factories are of recent construction1 they are equipped with the newest and best machinery and the most scientific methods govern their operation4 ,in #ahec ,porto ,rico exported #aab1jjj tons of sugar2 the following year the amount was #gj1jjj tons and during the next twenty years it remained nearly stationary4 ,in #ahga the production reached #aje1jjj tons1 dropping back to #hi1jjj tons in #ahhe and #fe1jjj tons in #ahhf4 ,the crop of #aijj was very small--#ce1jjj tons--owing to the havoc wrought by an unusually severe hurricane1 but from that time on it has increased year by year4 ,as most of the diseases and pests that attack sugar cane are met with in ,porto ,rico1 it is obvious that the work of the ,united ,states agricultural station at ,mayaquez has been of inestimable benefit to the planters4 ,experimenting with different varieties of cane1 importing seed cane from other countries1 analysis of soils1 scientific advice upon the use of fertilizers and instruction as to the best means to destroy or control harmful parasites1 these are but a few of the many important services rendered by the station4 ,the outlook for ,porto ,rico's sugar industry seems hopeful4 ,labor is cheap and abundant1 climatic and soil conditions are favorable and an irrigation project at present under way promises to convert lands now arid into productive cane fields4 ,since #aijj the production of sugar in ,porto ,rico in tons of #bbdj pounds has been3 #aijj #ce1jjj #aija #hj1jjj #aijb #he1jjj #aijc #he1jjj #aijd #acj1jjj #aije #ade1jjj #aijf #bac1jjj #aijg #baj1jjj #aijh #bjj1jjj #aiji #bde1jjj #aiaj #cjh1jjj #aiaa #bie1jjj #aiab #cbj1jjj #aiac #cej1cbc #aiad #cbe1jjj #aiae #cjh1agh #aiaf #cgh1eji ,,the ,,philippines ,this group of islands is situated about #ejj miles off the southeast coast of ,asia1 between #d degrees #aj minutes and #ba degrees #aj minutes north latitude and between #aaf degrees #dj minutes and #abf degrees #cd minutes east longitude4 ,it is bounded on the west and north by the ,china sea1 on the east by the ,pacific ocean and on the south by the ,celebes sea4 ,it comprises #cada islands1 of which #bgge contain less than one square mile each4 ,according to the ,philippine census of #aijc the total area is #aae1jbf square miles1#dd although some authorities estimate it to be as much as #abg1hjj square miles4 ,two-thirds of this is forest land and not more than #i per cent of the entire archipelago was classified under ,farms in #aijc4 ,the area devoted to sugar cane the year previous was #agg1fbh acres1 about #e per cent of the cultivated land4 ,the islands are chiefly of volcanic origin and their surface is much broken by hills1 isolated volcanoes and mountain ranges running north and south1 northwest and southeast or northeast and southwest4 ,there are twelve active volcanoes in the group and eight others with well-defined cones that are either dormant or extinct4 ,the highest elevation in the islands is ,mount ,apo1 an extinct volcano on ,mindanao1 #aj1cab feet1 with ,mount ,mayon1 an active volcano on ,luzon1 next1 #higj feet4 ,earthquakes are frequent and occasionally violent4 ,the most important of the group are ,mindanao1 ,luzon1 ,samar1 ,palawan1 ,panay1 ,negros1 ,leyte1 ,mindoro1 ,ceb1 ,masbate and ,bohol4 ,the coast line1 which is over #aa1jjj miles in length1 is fringed with coral reefs and indented by many gulfs and bays4 ,there are plenty of good natural harbors1 the principal one being ,manila in ,luzon1 which affords perfect shelter for shipping1 even in the severest storms4 ,next in importance are the harbors of ,iloilo and ,ceb4 ,climatic conditions vary widely4 ,however1 it may be said in a general way that the climate is characterized by a uniformly high temperature1 excessive humidity1 heavy rainfall and violent tropical storms4 ,near the seacoast1 it is moderate between ,november and the first of ,march4 ,the latter part of ,march and the months of ,july1 ,august and ,september are warm and very hot weather comes in ,april1 ,may and ,june4 ,the nights1 however1 are always cool4 ,the temperature naturally changes as the elevation above the sea increases1 but at ordinary levels it averages #gg degrees ,fahrenheit in ,january1 and #hc degrees in ,may4 ,the annual rainfall is about #gd inches1 and two-thirds of this comes in ,july1 ,august1 ,september and ,october4 ,of course the precipitation in certain localities is affected by mountain ranges that cause condensation from moisture-laden trade winds4 ,in the lowlands that are not protected by mountains1 the rainfall is regular4 ,typhoons occur between ,april and ,october1 but they are not nearly so severe as the hurricanes that visit the ,west ,indies and ,mauritius4 ,in ,october1 #ahhb1 a typhoon did a great deal of damage in ,manila1 and there was a serious loss of life in the great storm that visited ,samar and ,leyte in #ahig4 ,the well-appointed observatory in ,manila sends out warnings of the approach of typhoons and much life and property are saved by this means4 ,the soil is generally reddish-brown in color and is largely made up of disintegrated lava with an admixture of decayed vegetable matter2 sometimes decomposed coral limestone is present4 ,illustration3 ,,ploughing ,,field ,,before ,,planting ,,cane1 ,,philippines ,illustration3 ,,ploughing ,,at ,,la ,,carlota1 ,,occidental ,,negros1 ,,philippines ,john ,w4 ,dwinelle1 in an address delivered in ,san ,francisco in #ahff1 said3 8,previous to the discovery of ,america by ,columbus in #adib1 the ,portuguese had discovered the ,azore islands in longitude #ca ,w41 and on the strength of that discovery claimed that the countries discovered by ,columbus belonged to the crown of ,portugal1 and that the ,spaniards should be wholly excluded from them4 ,but the ,spaniards refused to admit this pretension and referred the matter for decision to the ,pope1 ,alexander ,,vi4 ,it was then part of the law of nations1 and of the public law of the world1 that the ,pope was the ultimate source of all temporal power2 that he could make and unmake kings1 and dispose of all the kingdoms of the earth--powers which he frequently exercised and against which it were vain to contend4 ,he was therefore1 by general consent1 the acknowledged source of all lawful title to land4 ,he assumed to decide the case thus referred to his decision1 and on ,may #c;d1 ,a4 ,d4 #adic1 determined the matter in dispute between the crowns of ,portugal and ,spain1 by drawing an imaginary line of longitude one hundred leagues west of the ,azores1 and granting to the ,spanish monarchs all countries inhabited by infidels1 which they had already discovered1 or might afterwards discover1 lying to the west1 and to the crown of ,portugal all those lying to the east of that line4 ,this line was afterwards removed two hundred and seventy leagues further to the west1 by a treaty subsequently made in the year #adid1 between the kings of ,portugal and ,spain2 but so thoroughly was the title thus conceded by the ,pope respected by the civilized world1 that when ,henry ,,vii of ,england was afterwards about to intrude upon some of the dominions thus granted to ,spain1 he abandoned his project upon being warned by the ,pope to desist40 ,this division of the surface of the globe into two parts gave to ,portugal all the territory both known and unknown east of the arbitrary meridian drawn #dgj miles west of the ,cape ,verde islands1 and to ,spain everything west of this line4 ,ferdinand ,magellan1 the famous ,portuguese navigator1 in the service of the ,emperor ,charles ,v of ,spain1 set out on a voyage west-bound with the object of taking possession of the ,moluccas1 as they lay west of the line of demarcation4 ,sailing around ,cape ,horn1 ,magellan discovered the ,philippine islands in #aeba1 landing first on ,malhou1 between ,samar and ,dinagat4 ,afterward1 he touched at ,mindanao1 from which he sailed to ,ceb4 ,thence he went to the small island of ,mactan1 where he was killed in a skirmish4 ,but little action was taken with regard to this territory until after the accession of ,philip ,,ii 7hence 8las ,filipinas0--,philippines71 when an important expedition was fitted out at the ,mexican port of ,navidad4 ,it sailed in ,november1 #aefd1 under the command of ,migul ,lopez de ,legaspi1 the distinguished conquistador1 who1 in the following year established on the island of ,ceb the first permanent settlement in the ,philippines4 ,the city of ,manila was founded in #aega and became the capital of the group4 ,through his tact1 courage and resourcefulness1 ,legaspi won the confidence of the people and placed the colony on a sound footing4 ,at the same time he checked all attempts at encroachment on the part of the ,portuguese4 ,spanish rule was undisturbed until #agfb1 when a ,british naval force bombarded ,manila and occupied it4 ,at the conclusion of the war between ,great ,britain and ,spain in #agfd1 the ,british withdrew and the domination of ,spain endured until #ahih1 when the ,spanish fleet was destroyed by ,dewey at ,manila bay4 ,the title to the ,philippines therefore passed through the ,pope to ,spain and from ,spain to the ,united ,states4 ,when ,magellan reached these islands he found that sugar was made in a primitive fashion4 ,the methods employed were very much like those in vogue in ,china1 and the sugar1 when made1 greatly resembled the ,chinese product4 ,this is very strong presumptive evidence that cane and the knowledge of its manufacture were originally brought to the ,philippines by the ,chinese4 ,illustration3 ,,hauling ,,cane1 ,,philippines ,illustration3 ,,carabao ,,mill1 ,,philippines ,the industry1 however1 amounted to very little prior to #ahdi1 in which year the island of ,negros was placed under the jurisdiction of the religious order of ,recoletos1 who did much to encourage the manufacture of sugar1 and this movement was stimulated by the high prices resulting from the ,crimean war4 ,in consequence1 cane sugar was exported with profit from ,negros1 ,luzon and ,ceb4 ,notwithstanding the lack of capital1 the rough1 crude mills1 the planters' scant knowledge of manufacturing methods and the wretched transportation facilities1 the sugar trade forged rapidly ahead until in #ahic the exports totaled #beg1eej long tons4 ,a slump in the price of silver1 however1 brought on a financial crisis1 and subsequently internal dissensions affected the crops so that in #aija only #ea1ddh tons were exported4 ,since then a change for the better has taken place and the figures for #aiae-af indicate a production of #cde1jjj tons4 ,sugar cane is used as a delicacy in all of the inhabited islands of the ,philippine group1 but the growing and manufacture of it as a regular industry are confined to ,negros1 ,mindoro1 ,ceb1 ,panay1 ,luzon and ,leyte4 ,in #aiad-ae about #cej1jjj acres altogether were planted in cane1 and the quantity of sugar exported during #aiaf was about #cjj1jjj tons4 ,the first care of the ,united ,states after its occupancy of the ,philippines was the bettering of conditions in sanitation1 education1 banking methods1 railway communication and deep water terminals4 ,apart from the primitive character of the sugar mills and the loss growing out of poor extraction of juice1 open-kettle boiling and curing in earthen pots1 the sugar producer was generally in debt to the buyer for advances that carried a high rate of interest4 ,the government has taken steps to correct this evil and has made it possible for the farmer to get credit on reasonable terms1 limiting its loans1 however1 to those who have ,torrens titles to their property1#de but the ,filipino has been under the influence of the money-lenders too long for him to break his bonds entirely4 ,besides1 his instinctive dislike for anything new is a hindrance to progress in this direction4 ,in addition to the measures just alluded to1 a special law was passed in #aijb1 under which all ,philippine sugars entering the ,united ,states paid #be per cent less than the regular customs tariff4 ,the ,payne-,aldrich bill of ,august #e1 #aiji1 provided for free admission of ,philippine sugars up to #cjj1jjj gross tons1 and it stipulated that the small producer 7less than #ejj tons per annum7 was to receive first consideration in the event of the importation exceeding #cjj1jjj tons4 ,any excess coming into the ,united ,states would have been assessed the full tariff4 ,during the life of this legislation1 however1 the largest production of the islands was that of #aiac-ad1 which amounted to #bfe1jjj tons1 of which #bbe1jjj tons were exported4#df ,the tariff act of #aiac1 which became effective ,march #a1 #aiad1 admits all ,philippine sugars free of duty without any restriction as to quantity4 ,the religious orders were formerly large land owners in the ,philippines1 and the feeling of discontent that ultimately led to the insurrection of the ,filipinos against ,spain in #ahif was largely due to agrarian difficulties between the friars and their tenants4 ,when the revolution came1 the friars had to flee for their lives1 and after peace was restored by the ,united ,states1 the insular government felt that if they returned to their possessions they would be in constant danger from the hostility of the natives4 ,it was1 therefore1 decided to acquire these lands and to that end ,congress passed an act authorizing the ,philippine government to issue bonds to the amount of #g1jjj1jjj and to purchase the lands of the various orders with the money so raised4 ,with one or two minor exceptions1 all of these lands1 amounting to something over #fjj1jjj acres1 were bought by the government and are being resold on long-term payments at a price that will reimburse the government4 ,in disposing of this property preference is always given to the resident tenants4 ,illustration3 ,,old-,,style ,,sugar ,,mill1 ,,philippines--,,showing ,,poor ,,crushing ,illustration3 ,,tinguian ,,cane ,,crusher1 ,,lingayen1 ,,philippines ,a measure was carried through the ,philippine legislature approving the sale of the unoccupied portions of these friar estates to individuals without restriction as to acreage1 and it was under the provisions of this act that large tracts of land were acquired by the interests connected with the ,mindoro company in the ,san ,jos estate in ,mindoro and by the people associated with the ,calamba estate in the ,calamba1 ,santa ,rosa and ,bian districts of ,laguna province1 ,luzon4 ,apart from these so-called friar lands1 the public lands in the ,philippine islands are held for sale or lease subject to the following conditions3 ,corporations can purchase or lease up to #ajbd hectares1 or #bejj acres1 and individuals up to #fd hectares1 or #aeh acres4 ,the terms of sale are a minimum of #aj pesos1 or #e per hectare1 #be per cent of which must be paid at the time the contract is entered into and the remainder within five years1 with interest at #f per cent1 or leased at a minimum rental of #ej centavos1 or #be cents1 per hectare per annum1 leases running for fifty years4 ,the ,mindoro and ,calamba companies1 controlling #ee1jjj and #bj1jjj acres respectively1 and the ,san ,crlos ,milling company of ,san ,crlos1 ,negros1 have erected the first and only modern sugar mills in the ,philippines1 and they have gone into cane cultivation and sugar manufacture in a scientific way4 ,the management of these three enterprises has been entrusted to men who have had thorough field and factory experience in ,hawaii4 ,unlike the other two large companies1 the ,san ,crlos ,milling company operates a central pure and simple4 ,the company owns no land except the site for the mill and the outbuildings connected with it4 ,it has1 however1 acquired leases of a certain amount of railway trackage4 ,the capacity of the mill is #ajjj tons of cane per day1 which means about #abe tons of centrifugal sugar4 ,it was completed at the end of #aiac at a cost of about one million dollars1 and the first cane ground was from the #aiad crop4 ,in the ,philippines cane is not planted every year4 ,herbert ,s4 ,walker1 in his work 8,the ,sugar ,industry in the ,island of ,negros0 7,manila1 #aiaj71 says3 8,a decidedly large proportion of the total land under cultivation in ,negros is not replanted every year1 but is allowed to ratoon1 from two to eight crops being taken off without replanting4 ,this is especially true in the rich soils of the districts around ,ilog-,cabancalan1 ,binalbagan-,isabela1 ,san ,crlos and ,bais4 ,theoretically1 cane planted in some of these alluvial soils1 which are flooded and fertilized each year by silt brought down from the mountains by the overflow of a river1 might go on ratooning indefinitely4 ,practically1 the period between plantings is limited strictly by financial considerations4 8,much time and expense are saved by not being obliged to replant4 ,on the other hand1 the yield from plant cane is1 as a rule1 greater than even from first ratoons1 and with each successive ratoon crop the total amount of sugar produced per hectare of land is decidedly diminished4 ,this is partially due to the shorter time in which the cane is allowed to ripen4 ,owing to excessive rains prevalent in this country1 canes must be cut every year1 and the practice so common in ,hawaii of allowing ratoons to ripen for eighteen months or more1 is here out of the question4 ,a further obstacle1 especially when canes are planted closely in rows1 is the tendency of ratoons to spread out in every direction from the original plant so that in the course of a few years the cane rows lose all semblance of regularity1 and proper tillage of the soil is rendered very difficult2 thus many young ratoons are stunted in their growth by weeds40 ,illustration3 ,,old ,,water-,,driven ,,mill1 ,,island ,,of ,,negros1 ,,philippines ,illustration3 ,,mill ,,driven ,,by ,,water ,,power1 ,,occidental ,,negros1 ,,philippines ,the time of planting in most parts of the islands is usually from ,december until ,april1 but in ,negros1 where the soil is good and the rainfall well distributed1 planting can be done at almost any time1 except during the period of very heavy rains1 i4 e41 from ,july to ,october4 ,the yield of sugar per acre may be approximated as follows3 ,plant cane #b4e tons ,first ratoons #b4j 0 ,second ratoons #a4ge 0 ,third ratoons #a4ej 0 ,fourth ratoons #a4be 0 ,when the yield drops as low as eight-tenths of a ton of sugar per acre1 replanting is necessary1 and allowing for the reduced yield of first and second ratoons1 it may be reckoned that one-half of the production is from plant cane and the other half from ratoon crops4 ,the length of time during which the cane is allowed to remain in the ground varies from nine to fourteen months and will probably average between eleven and twelve4#dg ,the labor problem is present in the ,philippines as in all cane-sugar countries4 ,the natives are willing enough to work1 but shrink at the idea of leaving their homes to take employment at any considerable distance away4 ,apart from the three modern factories previously mentioned1 sugar-making facilities are greatly behind the times1 although there are a few minor exceptions4 ,over one thousand small mills were in operation in the islands in #aijg and of these #ebh were driven by steam1 #dgj by carabao 7water oxen7 or natives1 and #gg by water power4 ,the carabao mills1 however1 are rapidly disappearing4 ,the capacity of most of these small mills is from #ej to #fj tons of cane per day1 and1 as the cane is only crushed once1 there is a considerable loss in recovery4 ,a little lime is added to the juice to clarify it and it is then boiled to grain in a series of five or six open pans4 ,the general arrangement is shown by the accompanying sketch1 which is taken from ,herbert ,s4 ,walker's 8,sugar ,industry in the ,island of ,negros40 ,illustration ,the drawing shows two sets of pans1 each set being built over a separate furnace4 ,the number #e pan1 into which the juice from the crusher flows1 is connected to both sets4 ,the furnaces are fed directly under number #a pan1 where the final boiling is done and where the greatest heat is required4 ,the two furnaces converge when they reach the boiler1 which may be fired separately1 so that grinding and boiling may1 if necessary1 be done independently of each other4 ,as the juice leaves the crusher through an open wooden trough1 particles of cane and other matter are removed by straining through a cloth or a close-meshed wire screen4 ,it runs into the receiving pan--number #e--;and is heated to between #afj and #age degrees ,fahrenheit1 which brings certain impurities to the surface in the form of froth4 ,this is skimmed off and thrown into the scum tank2 the juice is then ladled by hand as required into the smaller pans 7number #d7 where lime is added for clarification4 ,violent agitation takes place in pans numbers #c and #b1 and as fast as scum forms it is skimmed off4 ,the clarified juices are then concentrated in pans number #b and number #a1 after which the massecuite is put into wooden trays and stirred with a spade until it granulates4 ,it is then ready to be taken to market4 ,illustration3 ,,native ,,sugar ,,factory1 ,,pampanga ,,province1 ,,philippines ,illustration3 ,,interior ,,of ,,camarin1 ,,philippines ,as has been pointed out1 the loss in this primitive method of manufacture is very heavy4 ,notwithstanding the fact that all of the molasses is retained in the sugar1 the amount of sucrose that is lost or wasted is #dd per cent1 and over one-half of this is left in the bagasse4 ,apart from centrifugals1 ,philippine sugars consist of the following grades3 ,superior1 ,humedo 7wet7 and ,corriente 7current74 ,sugars polarizing from #hg to #hh4i degrees are called ,superior ,no4 #a1 those testing from #he to #hf4i degrees1 ,superior ,no4 #b1 and those running from #hj to #hd4i degrees1 ,superior ,no4 #c4 ,humedo sugars polarize from #gf to #gi4i degrees and ,corriente from #gj to #ge4i degrees4 ,roughly speaking1 the proportions are about #he per cent of ,superior of #hd degrees purity and #ae per cent of wet sugar testing somewhere near #ge degrees4 ,the ,bureau of ,agriculture of the ,philippines maintains experiment stations at ,la ,granja1 near ,la ,carlota1 ,occidental ,negros1 and at ,calamba1 ,luzon1 for the study of cane1 soil analysis and the solving of fertilization problems4 ,this work of scientific investigation is sure to be of great benefit to the industry4 ,some experimental work with sugar cane is also carried on at the station at ,alabang1 ,laguna province1 ,luzon4 ,american control in the ,philippines promises much for the future of the sugar industry of these islands1 for when it is remembered that for many years1 in spite of the handicap of crude1 uneconomic methods1 export duties at home and import duties abroad1 sugar was made and sold at a profit in the markets of the world1 it is not unreasonable to look for a considerable stimulus to be given to production by advanced scientific management and free admission of the commodity to the markets of the ,united ,states4 ,quantity of sugar exported from the ,philippine islands from #ahie to #aiaf1 in tons of #bbdj pounds3 #ahie #bbg1bgi #ahif #bbf1bgi #ahig #aih1hii #ahih #agg1ifb #ahii #ia1ehc #aijj #fa1geb #aija #ea1ddh #aijb #ij1fag #aijc #hh1add #aijd #hb1fef #aije #ajc1ccd #aijf #abb1dag #aijg #abj1jej #aijh #adj1aig #aiji #abe1bgf #aiaj #aad1ejf #aiaa #bjc1cid #aiab #aij1gjb #aiac #aee1bja #aiad #bcb1gfa #aiae #bjg1fgi #aiaf #cjj1jjj ,illustration3 ,,luzon ,,sugar ,,refinery1 ,,malabon1 ,,rizal1 ,,philippines ,illustration3 ,,loading ,,sugar ,,on ,,lorchas1 ,,philippines ,,cuba ,the island of ,cuba lies between #gd degrees and #he degrees west longitude and #ai degrees #dj minutes and #bc degrees #cc minutes north latitude2 its length is about #gcj miles1 running nearly east and west1 and its width varies from #be to #ajj miles4 ,in area it comprises about #de1hhc square miles1 or #bi1cfe1abj acres1 which is approximately that of ,pennsylvania or ,louisiana4 ,habana1 the capital1 is almost on the same parallel as ,honolulu and the ,city of ,mexico4 ,with the exception of a strip of the central-southern coast1 ,cuba rises boldly out of the sea and presents a rugged appearance to the eye on approach4 ,about one-quarter of its surface is mountainous2 three-fifths consists of gently sloping country1 valleys and rolling plains2 the rest is swampy4 ,a variety of topographic and climatic characteristics divides the island naturally into three distinct parts4 ,the eastern end is high and broken1 with tall commanding peaks2 the wide central region1 lying well above sea-level1 is made up of excellently drained1 undulating plains1 interrupted at intervals by low1 wooded hills2 the western portion is a picturesque country of mountain and valley1 but of lower altitude than the eastern end4 ,the entire island is covered with a mantle of luxuriant verdure1 kept always green by warm mists and generous rains4 ,a coral reef extends around the greater part of the coast1 but between the forbidding rocks and the marshes there are a number of good harbors1 chiefest among which is that of ,habana1 one of the finest in the world4 ,the distance from ,cuba to ,key ,west1 ,florida1 is one hundred miles4 ,the census of #aijh placed the population at #b1jdh1hij4 ,the prevailing winds are the northeast trades1 but these are interrupted at frequent intervals by variable winds from other directions which bring changes in temperature and rainfall4 ,compared with those of ,hawaii1 the mountains are low1 usually not over #bjjj feet1 and do not produce the effect of a wet side and a dry side to the island1 as the trades sweep it from end to end and not transversely4 ,to give an idea of climatic conditions1 the average maximum temperature in ,habana in #aiad was #ij degrees ,fahrenheit1 the minimum #ec degrees and the mean average #gg degrees4 ,the total rainfall was #df4ae inches4 ,seventy-five per cent of the rain occurs in the summer months1 between the first of ,may and the first of ,october1 and the precipitation is greater in the eastern part of the island than in the western4 ,the winters are comparatively dry4 ,this combination of dry winters and wet summers is extremely favorable to the growing and harvesting of sugar cane4 ,the low plains along the coast are of coral formation and the soil overlying the coral is often found to be shallow4 ,the richest and most productive soil is that of the uplands some distance from the sea4 ,in ,cuba the soils may be said to consist of two kinds--the red and the black4 ,the red is generally of great depth1 from #cj to #ej feet1 and rests on a stratum of free limestone4 ,the black soil1 varying in color from a mulatto to a 8gumbo0 black1 overlies a clay formation1 and as a general rule is not so deep as the red soil4 ,owing to the fact that the black soil retains such a large percentage of water during the extremely rainy period1 the cost of cultivation is double that of working the red soil4 ,illustration3 ,american ,photo ,co41 ,habana4 ,,central ,,factory1 ,,general ,,view1 ,,cuba ,illustration3 ,american ,photo ,co41 ,habana4 ,,cuban ,,central--,,general ,,view ,the date of the introduction of sugar into ,cuba is uncertain4 ,different authorities place it anywhere from shortly after the discovery of the island in #adib to #aehj4 ,von ,humboldt is silent on the point1 but says that ,cuba did not participate in the sugar industry to any extent in the sixteenth century1 so that its importance in that respect belongs to a later period4#dh ,up to #aggb sugar cultivation was greatly hampered by restrictions of the ,spanish government2 after that date special privileges were canceled and the right to grow sugar was given to all ,spaniards4 ,this naturally encouraged production1 which from #dcij tons in #agfj increased to #ad1jjj tons in #agij4 ,the revolution which destroyed the sugar plantations and mills of ,santo ,domingo in #agia stimulated the development in ,cuba still further4 ,during the ten years that followed1 the number of mills increased from #dgc to #hgj1 and by #ahjb the output of sugar reached #dj1hjj tons4 ,in those days mills were very small1 crude affairs and were worked by oxen4 ,cuba1 in common with all sugar-raising countries1 felt the effects of the ,european wars very severely1 but her sugar trade revived after the overthrow of ,napoleon and the resumption of commerce through normal channels4 ,with increased production the question of labor became a serious one4 ,the number of slaves on the island had been sufficient as long as the sugar crop was limited1 but with expansion came the need for more ,african negroes1 so in #ahcd the governor1 ,migul ,tacon1 caused many new slaves to be brought in4 ,he did much to help the industry in other directions1 particularly by suppressing abuses1 and under his administration the planters enjoyed prosperity such as had never been known4 ,fresh lands were brought under cultivation and the shipping ports grew in importance and activity4 ,while figures showing the annual production of ,cuba were tabulated1 beginning with #ahej1 their accuracy was open to question until #ahhb1 in which year an export duty was imposed1 and the records kept by the authorities from that time forward are reasonably correct4 ,nevertheless1 it is known beyond any doubt that #faj1jjj tons were produced in #ahgj from #abjj small mills4 ,the first war with ,spain 7#ahfh-gh7 and the abolition of slavery worked havoc with the industry4 ,all children born of slaves were proclaimed free in #ahgb and slavery was entirely abolished in #ahhj1 without any indemnification to the slave owners4 ,sugar producers found freeman labor both costly and hard to obtain1 the island was ravaged by fire and sword1 and in the markets of the world beet-root sugar1 protected by bounties1 was proving a powerful competitor4 ,these were dark days for the planter4 ,with the restoration of peace1 conditions improved4 ,by #ahij1 #dgj mills were in operation and their production in that year was #fbe1jjj tons4 ,in ,cuba a change in methods came about1 just as had been the case in ,louisiana2 the cultivation of sugar was gradually dissociated from its manufacture1 and as mills became fewer in number1 plantings increased4 ,the manufacturers leased tracts of land to farmers1 from whom they bought the cane raised on it4 ,independent planters1 too1 sold their cane to the central mills1 and the plan was adopted so generally throughout the island that but little cane was grown by the owners of the centrals4 ,during this period of peace and development1 the tonnage mounted steadily upward and in #ahid it totaled #a1jed1bad tons4 ,illustration3 ,american ,photo ,co41 ,habana4 ,,cane ,,field1 ,,cuba ,illustration3 ,american ,photo ,co41 ,habana4 ,,loading ,,cane ,,on ,,ox-,,carts1 ,,cuba ,the following year saw the renewal of hostilities with ,spain1 which dragged along with brutality and devastation until ,may1 #ahih1 when the ,united ,states declared war against ,spain and finally established the ,cuban republic4 ,the period of this second rebellion against ,spain was marked by ruthless destruction of property1 the burning of mills and cane in the fields1 and the killing of the cattle that were used for transport purposes4 ,in #ahig the output of sugar had shrunk to #bab1jea tons4 ,the work of reconstruction after the expulsion of the ,spaniards was slow1 involving as it did a tremendous amount of effort and the investment of a great deal of new capital4 ,manufacturers who were unable to raise money to rebuild or re-equip their mills turned planters and grew cane for the nearest centrals4 ,some1 more fortunate1 succeeded in securing the money they needed and restored and extended their property4 ,far the greatest number1 however1 being unable to command the ready cash for immediately necessary repairs1 incorporated or sold their holdings outright to newcomers4 ,the many small1 old-fashioned mills have given way to a limited number of large plants1 or centrals1 that are under corporate ownership and governed by scientific business principles4 ,this process of consolidating several small factories into one big one is constantly going on1 and in addition ,american capital and enterprise are opening up new lands to cultivation in many parts of the island4 ,to a great extent the old-time planter has had to make room for the corporation1 with its powerful resources and modern methods1 and while the individual has suffered in many instances1 the industry has greatly benefited4 ,cuban plantations may be divided into two classes1 the ingenios and the centrals4 ,the ingenio is a small plantation whose lands lie in the neighborhood of the mill1 while the central1 in addition to its own cane1 handles the crops of a number of ingenios4 ,the ingenio hauls all of its cane to the factory by ox-carts2 the central is served by railroads1 both privately and publicly owned1 and its equipment and machinery are of the most modern type4 ,approximately #ij per cent of the cane grown in ,cuba comes from what are termed colonias1 i4 e41 farms varying in size from a few acres up to several hundred4 ,colonos1 or farmers1 may be classified in three groups3 in the first is the man with his small estancia1 or farm1 on which he raises foodstuffs and cattle1 and who takes his few hundred arrobas#di of cane to the central when the price is good1 or feeds it to his animals when the pasturage is short4 ,in this class1 too1 is the man who has a hundred or two hundred caballeras#ej of land1 but whose chief interests are in other channels and whose operations in cane growing are merely an adjunct to his regular business4 ,in the second group is the independent farmer1 who owns his land and cane and sells his crop to whom he pleases4 ,the third and most numerous group comprises those who plant cane on lands belonging to the central4 ,these people either pay rent1 or receive a certain fixed amount for their cane1 or both4 ,their work is at all times subject to inspection by the central administration and under such circumstances they may be likened to contractors or employs1 whose compensation is based upon the success of their own efforts4 ,the average size of a colonia1 exclusive of those owned by colonos of the first-mentioned class1 who are independent of cane growing1 doubtless depends upon what would afford a man a decent living with a few luxuries4 ,h4 ,c4 ,prinsen ,geerligs1 in his book 8,the ,world's ,cane ,sugar ,industry10 states that one hundred arrobas 7#bejj pounds7 of cane costs the ,cuban farmer #b4jg at the mill4 ,if #b cents be taken as an average price for sugar and #ijj per annum as a fair living wage1 then the colono who gets an average yield of #ej1jjj arrobas per caballera and is paid for it at the rate of #e per cent1 receives #aefj per caballera for cane that has cost him #ajce to produce4 ,according to this reasoning1 a colonia should not be less than #a4ge caballeras in size1 but of course this is purely speculative4 ,the farmer who owns his land is paid about six per cent#ea of the weight of the cane he furnishes in centrifugal sugar of #if degrees1 sacked and ready for shipment1 and occasionally delivered at the nearest shipping port4 ,sometimes settlement is made in cash1 based upon the value of the agreed percentage of sugar at the ,habana quotation on the day the cane is delivered4 ,in other words1 for every one hundred pounds of clean cane in bundles1 delivered on board the cars1 the plantation pays the grower about six per cent of #if-;degree centrifugal sugar1 or its equivalent in money4#eb ,where the land is furnished by the plantation1 the farmer is paid from four to five per cent of the weight of the cane in sugar4 ,he is given a house free of rent and an acre or two of garden land as well4 ,all material1 labor or stores supplied to him are debited to him to be accounted for when final settlement is effected4 ,planting cane in ,cuba is a simple matter4 ,in preparing virgin forest land for seed1 no ploughing whatever is done2 the trees and shrubs are cut down and allowed to dry1 the valuable timber is carried away1 and the remainder is burned4 ,when this is done the land is found to be smooth and level1 as a rule4 ,planting consists in making holes in the ground with a heavy pole shod with iron that is driven obliquely into the earth at regular intervals1 the seed is then dropped in these holes and covered with earth1 completing the operation4 ,grassy ground1 however1 must be ploughed1 in which case furrows are made six feet apart4 ,the seed cane is planted in them at intervals of from six inches to twelve inches1 covered with earth and left to grow4 ,there are the spring plantings and the autumn plantings1 the first from ,april to ,june and the second in ,october and ,november1 that is to say1 one at the beginning and one at the end of the rainy season4 ,in the case of the former1 if the rains come soon after planting1 the cane can be cut in the following ,march or ,april1 i4 e41 after a growing period from nine to twelve months4 ,if1 however1 the rains are late the cane cannot mature before the advent of the new rains and therefore cannot be ground until the following ,december4 ,cane planted in the fall ripens in ,december of the next year or sometimes a month later4#ec ,notwithstanding the little care given to the planting1 the cane once started yields a generous crop1 which is followed by profitable ratoon crops for a number of years without fertilization or a great amount of tillage4 ,finally1 when through age the cane ceases to produce a paying crop of ratoons1 the old roots are taken up1#ed and the same soil reseeded brings forth excellent results for another period of years without any rotation of crops being necessary4 ,not more than ten per cent#ee of the total area of ,cuba is devoted to the growing of cane4 ,in addition to the ground on which cane is actually planted1 large tracts are needed as pasture for draft cattle4 ,besides1 there is much forest land and many barren spaces that are undoubtedly included in the acreage classified as being under cane cultivation4 ,according to ,dr4 ,w4 ,d4 ,horne1#ef the average yield is from fifteen to twenty tons of cane per acre#eg and the crops are usually allowed to ratoon for ten years4 ,illustration3 ,american ,photo ,co41 ,habana4 ,,train-,,load ,,of ,,sugar ,,cane1 ,,cuba ,illustration3 ,american ,photo ,co41 ,habana4 ,,self-,,dumping ,,cane ,,car1 ,,cuba ,in ,cuba1 cane diseases are of rare occurrence1 but in dry years swarms of mice invade the fields and cause great damage by gnawing the cane4 ,they rapidly disappear1 however1 as soon as the wet season sets in4 ,it is the weather that brings success or failure to the sugar crop1 for the growth of the cane is entirely dependent upon rainfall and a long period of drought is extremely hurtful4 ,hurricanes that sweep in from the ,caribbean sea work havoc in the plantations1 beating the cane flat to the ground or uprooting it altogether1 which results in heavy damage both to the growing crop and the one following it4 ,harvesting is generally begun in ,december and over in ,may1 although one or two centrals continue in operation practically all the year round4 ,weather conditions determine when the grinding starts and ends1 for1 as a rule1 the cane has to be hauled from the fields to the weighing station in huge carts drawn by oxen4 ,when the roads are dry1 three pairs of oxen can pull a load of #gejj pounds of cane with ease1 but as soon as the heavy rains set in the ground quickly softens1 the roads become impassable and the movement of cane by carts is out of the question4 ,the cane is cut close to the ground with a long1 heavy knife1 called a machete4 ,it is 8topped10 cut into two- or three-foot lengths1 tied in bundles and loaded on the ox carts to be hauled to the scales and thence by rail to the mill4 ,the stumps that remain in the ground are covered over with dry leaves to conserve the moisture in them4 ,nourished by occasional showers1 the roots quickly sprout and a year afterward a crop of ratoons is ripe and ready to be harvested4 ,wages in ,cuba are higher than in most important cane-producing countries in the tropics1 and ,dr4 ,v4 ,s4 ,clark quotes a number of authorities to show that inefficiency makes ,cuban labor costs in most lines of work relatively higher than in the ,united ,states and other countries on the ,american continent1 although he says that ,american supervision has in some instances increased efficiency greatly4#eh 7,bureau of ,labor1 ,bull4 ,l4 of ,c4 #da1 pp4 #gab1 #ggh47 ,complete1 reliable and up-to-date information and statistics concerning ,cuba's sugar industry are not obtainable at the moment1 nevertheless it is well known that the ,cuban plantations and mills that are operated by modern scientific methods can produce sugar at lower costs than ,germany or any of the beet-raising countries1 while as regards cane-growing countries1 ,java is the only possible rival4 ,and yet1 despite the optimistic views of ,cuba's supporters1 the fact remains that the full development of her resources is still a matter of uncertainty1 though the possibilities for expansion are enormous1 provided that certain obstacles1 notably the labor problem1 can be overcome4 ,at the present time it is doubtful whether the production of sugar could be largely increased1 chiefly because of the growing difficulty of securing adequate help in the fields4 ,during the season ending midsummer1 #aiae1 ,cuba's output of sugar was #b1eib1ffg long tons1 the largest crop raised in any country in the world1 and the vast amount of cane from which it was manufactured was ground by #agf central factories4 ,it is estimated that the production for #aiaf will reach #c1jjj1jjj tons4 ,when it comes to the marketing of her sugar the ,united ,states is ,cuba's best customer1 only a comparatively small amount being taken by ,europe4#ei ,the #bj-per-cent preferential allowed on ,cuban sugar duty under the reciprocity treaty1 however1 does not always go to the ,cuban manufacturer4 ,the real beneficiary is the consumer in the ,united ,states1 for this reason3 when the grinding of the ,cuban crop is in full swing1 the weekly production of raw sugar is approximately #aej1jjj tons1 which speedily exhausts the available storage capacity of the island1 so that movement of the sugar is imperative2 besides this1 the natural anxiety of the planter to realize in order to meet his current expenses causes a strong pressure to sell4 ,it becomes with him a question of whether he can net better figures in ,new ,york or the ,united ,kingdom1 and owing to difference in port charges and dispatch1 the ,new ,york results are generally more satisfactory1 even with the concession of a part1 or at times all of1 or even more than1 the #bj-per-cent preferential4 ,inversely1 it follows that when raw sugars are in keen demand1 the planter pursues his advantage to the limit4 ,the total production of sugar in ,cuba from #ahej to the present year is as follows1 but the figures prior to #ahhb are not entirely dependable1 as has been previously explained3 ,,year ,,tons #ahej #bbc1ade #ahea #bfc1iii #aheb #bea1fji #ahec #cbb1jjj #ahed #cgd1jjj #ahee #cib1jjj #ahef #cdh1jjj #aheg #cee1jjj #aheh #che1jjj #ahei #ecf1jjj #ahfj #ddg1jjj #ahfa #ddf1jjj #ahfb #ebe1jjj #ahfc #ejg1jjj #ahfd #ege1jjj #ahfe #fbj1jjj #ahff #fab1jjj #ahfg #eig1jjj #ahfh #gdi1jjjfj #ahfi #gbf1jjjfj #ahgj #gbf1jjjfj #ahga #edg1jjjfa #ahgb #fij1jjjfj #ahgc #gge1jjjfj #ahgd #fha1jjjfj #ahge #gah1jjjfj #ahgf #eij1jjjfj #ahgg #ebj1jjjfj #ahgh #ecc1jjjfj #ahgi #fgj1jjj #ahhj #ecj1jjj #ahha #dic1jjj #ahhb #eie1jjj #ahhc #dfj1cbgfb #ahhd #eeh1icb #ahhe #fca1jjj #ahhf #gca1gbc #ahhg #fdf1egh #ahhh #fef1gai #ahhi #efj1ccc #ahij #fcb1cfh #ahia #haf1ihj #ahib #igf1jjj #ahic #hae1hid #ahid #a1jed1bad #ahie #a1jjd1bfd #ahif #bbe1bbafc #ahig #bab1jeafc #ahih #cje1edcfc #ahii #cce1ffh #aijj #bhc1feafd #aija #fab1gge #aijb #hfc1gib #aijc #a1jjc1hgc #aijd #a1jeb1bgc #aije #a1ahc1cdg #aijf #a1bbi1gcf #aijg #a1ddd1cajfe #aijh #ifi1bgeff #aiji #a1eba1hah #aiaj #a1hjd1cdi #aiaa #a1dhc1dea #aiab #a1hie1ihd #aiac #b1dbh1ecg #aiad #b1eig1gcb #aiae #b1eib1ffg #aiaf #c1jjj1jjjfg ,,jamaica ,jamaica lies #hj miles south of the eastern end of ,cuba1 between #ag degrees #dc minutes and #ah degrees #cb minutes north latitude and #gf degrees #aj minutes and #gh degrees #bj minutes west longitude4 ,it is #add miles long and #ej miles across at its widest part1 with a total area of #dbjg square miles4 ,the island is traversed from east to west by a mountain range from which a number of spurs run out to the northwest or southeast4 ,this range is more sharply defined in the eastern end1 where the highest point is ,blue ,mountain ,peak1 #gcfj feet above sea-level4 ,the mountains gradually slope westward down to the hills of the western plateau1 which is of limestone formation and comprises two-thirds of the island's surface4 ,as a rule the highlands terminate abruptly in steep bluffs1 a strip of level land lying between them and the sea4 ,on the south coast there are extensive plains4 ,fully one hundred rivers and streams empty themselves into the ,caribbean1 but the greater number of them are not navigable and in flood time they become raging torrents4 ,in #aiaa the population1 of whom only #b per cent are white1 was estimated at #hca1abc4 ,it is made up of ,maroons1 descendants of the slaves of the ,spanish2 descendants of ,african negro slaves2 a mixture of ,british and negro2 laborers from ,india2 a sprinkling of ,chinese1 and the white settlers4 ,on the coast the climate is hot and humid1 but at the higher elevations it is mild and delightful4 ,the temperature at ,kingston and the low sea-level region generally ranges between #gj4g degrees and #hg4h degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,at ,cinchona1 which is #dijg feet high1 it runs from #eg4e degrees to #fh4e degrees4 ,with rare exceptions1 rain falls during every month in the year1 and there are two wet seasons1 each of about three weeks duration1 one in ,may and one in ,october4 ,the amount varies considerably2 the yearly average for ,kingston is #cb4f inches1 for ,cinchona #aje4e inches and for the entire island #ff4c inches4 ,hurricanes1 which were of frequent occurrence during the early part of last century1 have not visited the island so often of late years4 ,earthquakes take place from time to time1 that of #aijg having been particularly violent and destructive4 ,transportation facilities are excellent1 the roads are good and a railway #ahj miles long connects ,port ,antonio1 ,kingston and ,montego bay4 ,jamaica was discovered by ,columbus on ,may #c1 #adid1 and was called ,santiago by him1 but this never supplanted the original ,indian name ,jaymaca1 8the island of springs10 modified into its present form1 ,jamaica4 ,columbus put in at the island for shelter in #aeje1 and four years later his son ,diego sent out ,don ,juan d',esquivel to take possession of it in the name of the ,spanish crown4 ,sant' ,iago de la ,vega1 now ,spanish ,town1 founded in #aebc1 was destroyed by the ,british in #aeif and was rebuilt after their departure4 ,the ,british raided the island again in #afce1 and twenty years later they occupied it permanently1 expelling the ,spaniards entirely by #afeh4 ,during the three years that followed1 ,jamaica was under military rule and then a constitution modeled upon that of the mother country was established4 ,about this time the island became a rendezvous for the buccaneers4 ,these gentry quite often combined the roles of merchants or planters and pirates or sea-rovers4 ,in #afgj the treaty of ,madrid confirmed the ,british in their possession of the island and the buccaneers were suppressed4 ,jamaica then became a great slave market1 and the growing of sugar cane and the manufacture of sugar on an extensive scale were begun4 ,civil disturbances retarded the progress of the colony until #agbh4 ,the town of ,port ,royal was destroyed by a great earthquake in #afib1 while in #agab and #agbb hurricanes of extreme violence carried destruction throughout the island4 ,when the ,dutch were driven from ,brazil by the ,portuguese in #afee many of them settled in ,jamaica1 ,barbados and other ,west ,indian islands4 ,they brought their slaves with them1 and1 besides1 they had a good knowledge of sugar and the necessary capital1 so that the industry entered a new phase of development after their arrival4 ,the keenest competitors of the ,british islands were the ,french sugar producers of ,saint ,dominique1 ,guadeloupe and ,martinique1 as they were more skilled in manufacturing methods and made sugar at a lower cost4 ,a heavy export tax affected the sugar trade of ,jamaica and her sister colonies adversely4 ,the refining of sugar was prohibited and heavy import duties placed upon sugar and syrup entering ,british ,north ,american possessions closed that market to the ,jamaican product4 ,notwithstanding these drawbacks the industry continued to grow and in #agia the destruction of the plantations of ,saint ,dominique removed a formidable rival4 ,since the passage of the emancipation act in #ahcd and the granting of #af1ejj1jjj as partial indemnity to the planters for the loss of their slaves1 there has been persistent agitation by the planters1 both in ,parliament and outside of it4 ,it became very loud when the protection afforded ,west ,indian sugars as against sugars raised in slave-owning countries was lessened and finally withdrawn4 ,it subsided somewhat with the abolition of slavery in the colonies of other ,european nations1 and it was renewed with added vigor when the competition of bounty-nourished beet-root sugar manufactured on the continent of ,europe made itself felt4 ,as has been shown1 bounties and cartels enabled the ,european beet-sugar manufacturers to sell their product in foreign markets below actual cost1 while realizing a handsome profit in the quantity sold for home consumption4 ,jamaica and the other cane-producing colonies which had no domestic trade to fall back upon found themselves in a grievous plight4 ,by #ahie matters had reached such a pass that a royal commission was appointed to make a thorough investigation of conditions and report to the home government4 ,the main features of the remedial measures adopted as a result of the work of this body were3 ,first3 ,the establishing of the farmers as owners of land1 that is to say1 parcels of land were sold to small farmers1 who were assisted by money advances in the cultivation of their crops1 with the understanding that they were to grow cane at their own risk and sell it to the mills4 ,second3 ,planters were encouraged to raise crops other than sugar4 ,third3 ,agricultural experiment stations were built and equipped in ,barbados1 ,trinidad and ,jamaica with sub-stations in a number of the smaller islands4 ,fourth3 ,a direct steamship service to ,canada was established4 ,the service between ,jamaica and ,england was improved and regular steamer communication between the islands was provided4 ,it was stipulated that the cost of building and maintaining the experiment stations was to be borne by the home government until the results obtained justified their being supported by the colonies4 ,in addition1 a grant of money was authorized by ,parliament to take care of the pressing needs of the planters during the year before the ,brussels convention became effective4 ,with improved steamship facilities between ,jamaica and the mother country1 the volume of the trade in fresh fruit was greatly increased4 ,illustration3 ,photo by ,h4 ,h4 ,cousins ,,morelands ,,sugar ,,mill1 ,,vere1 ,,jamaica ,illustration3 ,,the ,,fleet1 ,,morelands1 ,,vere1 ,,jamaica ,in #aijg the value of the fruit shipments in pounds sterling was as follows3 ,bananas #hdb1fhi ,citrus fruits #ij1dfh as against ,sugar #abb1cbh ,rum #ih1ibc ,on ,january #ad1 #aijg1 an appalling earthquake occurred4 ,the buildings in ,kingston and ,port ,royal were destroyed or badly damaged and about one thousand people were killed4 ,in #aijf the area under cultivation in ,jamaica was #gej1jjj acres and of this only #bf1jjj were devoted to cane4 ,sugar planting has been in a stagnant condition for years and only a limited number of the estates that still carry on the industry are making money4 ,many have stopped growing cane entirely and have turned to bananas1 cocoanuts1 coffee or cattle raising4 ,in certain districts there is plenty of fertile alluvial land1 ample water and cheap labor1 but proper cultivation is lacking1 so that the results are far from what they should be4 ,planting simply consists of sticking a piece of cane stalk in a hole in the ground and very little ploughing is done1 consequently the weeds are never under control4 ,it takes about twelve months for the cane to ripen and the yield per acre varies widely1 ranging from ten to forty-five tons4 ,the average may be taken as about twenty tons per acre4 ,the island boasts of three central factories and eighty-two small mills1 only twelve of the latter having vacuum pans4 ,the others make muscavado sugar and rum4 ,in the operation of boiling by no means all of the sugar is extracted1 as a pure liquor is needed for the manufacture of good rum and quite a large amount of cane juice is made into rum direct4 ,in the process of making muscavado sugar in ,jamaica1 the cane juice after being brought to boiling point in an open kettle is transferred into a second kettle1 where it is treated and the heavy impurities allowed to settle4 ,the clear juice then goes into copper walls1 a series of three or more large open copper pans1 called teaches4 ,these pans rest above an open fire fed by bagasse1 cane trash and wood4 ,after the juice has been boiled to a certain density in the first pan it is transferred to the second and the final concentration takes place in the third or fourth1 as the case may be4 ,in some mills the last boiling is done with steam in what is called an ,aspinall pan1 instead of over an open fire4 ,when the mass becomes sufficiently thick1 it is put into large tanks and left to crystallize4 ,sometimes it is kept in motion during crystallization1 but usually no stirring whatever is done4 ,crystallization completed1 the mass is packed in hogsheads with perforated bottoms4 ,these hogsheads are allowed to stand over drainage troughs for two or three weeks so that the molasses may run off4 ,the holes are then plugged up and the sugar is ready to be shipped4 ,the percentage of sugar1 glucose and water in ,jamaica muscavados is approximately3 ,no4 #a ,sucrose #hh4f ,glucose #e4cj ,water #c4db #b #hf4b #d4dj #c4gb #c #hc4i #e4ib #d4ff #d #hc4j #f4ih #c4hd ,management is slipshod and the extraction is poor4 ,it takes fifteen tons of cane and sometimes more to produce a ton of sugar4 ,as for the future of the sugar industry in ,jamaica1 much in the way of improvement could be done by the introduction of systematic management1 proper cultivation1 adequate fertilization and scientific methods of manufacture4 ,labor is plentiful and cheap1 and it would seem that sugar could be produced in ,jamaica at as low cost as in ,cuba4 ,thus far1 however1 there have been no signs of a real awakening4 ,as regards production1 the following figures are taken from ,willett ,gray3 #aijc-jd crop #ad1bee tons #aijd-je 0 #af1jjj 0 #aije-jf 0 #ah1jjj 0 #aijf-jg exports #ac1iga 0 #aijg-jh 0 #aj1gah 0 #aijh-ji 0 #aa1dec 0 #aiji-aj 0 #ab1jjj 0 #aiaj-aa 0 #ai1ifj 0 #aiaa-ab 0 #ba1hce 0 #aiab-ac 0 #h1gbh 0 #aiac-ad 0 #ae1ehc 0 #aiad-ae 0 #ae1jfc 0 #aiae-af 0 #ae1jjjfh tons ,,barbados ,barbados1 the most easterly of the ,windward islands1 lies seventy-eight miles east of ,st4 ,vincent in #ac degrees #d minutes north latitude and #ei degrees #cg minutes west longitude4 ,it is twenty-one miles long1 fourteen and one-half miles at its greatest breadth and its area is #aff square miles4 ,it is of coral origin and at certain points the coral reefs extend out to sea as far as three miles and are a menace to navigation4 ,the island is low and flat1 except in the central and northeastern part4 ,mount ,hillaby1 the highest peak1 rises #aadh feet above sea-level and from it the land slopes in terraces in every direction4 ,carlisle bay on the southwest is a natural harbor1 but only available for vessels of light draft4 ,barbados is densely populated4 ,in #aijf the number of inhabitants was #aif1bhg1 of whom by far the greater number were negroes1 who1 in proportion to the whites1 are as nine to one4 ,the climate is agreeable1 with well-defined wet and dry seasons1 and for eight months in the year the heat is modified by the northeast trade winds4 ,the dry1 or cold1 period is from ,december to ,may4 ,the temperature ranges from #gj degrees to #hf degrees ,fahrenheit1 seldom falling below #fe4 ,there is a plentiful rainfall1 the annual average being sixty inches1 and ,september is the wettest month4 ,moisture readily penetrates the coral subsoil and collects in subterranean reservoirs4 ,porous soil1 thorough cultivation and the absence of swamps give miasma no opportunity and fever is unknown1 but hurricanes are the scourge of the colony4 ,the soil is thin1 but extremely fertile1 and there is a theory that it was originally formed of volcanic ash1 carried by the winds from ,st4 ,vincent during times when ,la ,soufrire was in eruption4 ,it is said that the ,portuguese were the first ,europeans to visit the island2 be this as it may1 they never took possession of it4 ,a ,british ship touched there in #afje1 and1 finding no inhabitants1 annexed it in the name of ,king ,james ,i4 ,since that time ,british ownership has continued without interruption4 ,an actual settlement was established in #afbe1 in which year the king made a grant of the island to ,lord ,leigh1 afterward the ,earl of ,marlborough4 ,bridgetown1 the present capital1 was founded in #afbh4 ,barbados was the first of ,great ,britain's island colonies to grow sugar cane4 ,the plant was brought there in #afdb during ,philip ,bell's governorship1 and slaves were imported at the same time4 ,a number of ,dutch who were expelled from ,brazil in #afee took refuge in the island1 and their knowledge of sugar and experience in its manufacture did much to stimulate the industry4 ,beginning with the middle of the seventeenth century1 ,barbados became an important sugar-producing center4 ,following emancipation in #ahcd1 the ,barbados planters received #a1gbj1jjj to indemnify them for the loss of over #hc1jjj slaves4 ,at the same time a large number of the freed blacks continued to work on the sugar plantations as before1 but under pay2 hence abolition did not bring on the same hardships in ,barbados as it did in some of the other ,west ,indian colonies4 ,labor is plentiful and cheap1 so that cultivation is done carefully and in a thorough manner4 ,the naturally rich soil is treated with fertilizers of various kinds1 and planting is done every year as a rule1 although ratoon crops are often raised on the uplands4 ,formerly ,bourbon cane was grown exclusively1 but owing to the falling off in the yield1 it was discontinued and the varieties now in favor are ,white ,transparent and seedling canes raised locally4 ,the crops suffer from time to time through hurricanes and droughts1 as well as from the common run of cane diseases4 ,of the entire area of #ajf1dgj acres1 about #ajj1jjj acres are cultivated2 between #fj1jjj and #gj1jjj acres of this are in sugar cane4 ,in #aijb there were #ddj estates on the island1 the average area being #afh acres4 ,of these1 #bc exceeded #ejj acres and #aci contained less than #ajj acres2 #ai1 comprising #fgjg acres1 were owned by corporations4 ,each estate had its own mill1 and #dcb of them made muscavado and eight of them centrifugal sugar4 ,today the number of factories is estimated at #cce1 of which #bba are driven by windmills4 ,a few plants are equipped with vacuum pans and modern machinery1 but muscavado sugar and molasses still represent nearly all of the production4 ,the molasses obtained in the open-kettle process has a higher value and finds a much readier sale than that resulting from boiling in vacuum pans4 ,therefore in making comparisons between the yield in sugar from the open-kettle process with that from the vacuum-pan method1 the increased price brought by the rich-flavored molasses made in the old-fashioned way must be taken into account4 ,on an average1 the sugar content of the cane is #ac4e per cent and the recovery is about #g4e per cent muscavado sugar and #c4e per cent molasses4 ,it is evident that imperfect crushing and crude manufacturing methods cause a considerable loss in sugar on most of the estates4 ,in #ahih the ,imperial ,department of ,agriculture established its chief ,west ,indian station in ,barbados4 ,this station has rendered great service to the planters in improving cane varieties1 giving expert advice concerning fertilizing and fighting cane pests4 ,undoubtedly much could still be done to better conditions1 but the small estates are generally mortgaged and their owners are in no position to borrow more money to enable them to operate on a more extended scale4 ,on the other hand1 they are extremely tenacious of their holdings and will not part with them to capitalists who might establish large central factories4 ,it therefore seems altogether improbable that there will be any expansion in the sugar industry of the colony in the near future4 ,the production of ,barbados during the last twenty years in long tons has been as follows3 #ahie #cc1cca #ahif #de1agj #ahig #ea1bge #ahih #df1hgh #ahii #dj1ddb #aijj #dd1bej #aija #ef1iab #aijb #de1egf #aijc #cc1gie #aijd #ee1ghe #aije #da1baj #aijf #ej1fcj #aijg #cc1jcc #aijh #ca1cec #aiji #ae1ega #aiaj #cf1chi #aiaa #cb1ead #aiab exports #cj1edh #aiac 0 #aa1dgi #aiad 0 #cc1chg #aiae 0 #cb1egh #aiaf 0 #ej1jjjfi ,,trinidad ,trinidad lies six miles off the northeastern coast of ,venezuela1 between #aj degrees #c minutes and #aj degrees #ej minutes north latitude and #fj degrees #ci minutes and #fb degrees west longitude4 ,its average length is forty-eight miles1 it is thirty-five miles in width and has an area of #aged square miles4 ,it is the largest of the ,british ,west ,indian islands1 with the exception of ,jamaica1 and the population in #aiad was estimated to be #bee1adh1 one-third of whom were ,east ,indians4 ,the surface is level or rolling1 with a mountain range in the north1 which rises to #cajj feet at its highest point1 ,tucuche ,peak4 ,in the south there is a ridge of hills about #fjj feet high1 and in the central part an upland belt runs from east to west by south4 ,there are a number of small rivers1 none of them navigable4 ,the island enjoys an equable climate1 the temperature varying from #gj degrees to #hg degrees ,fahrenheit1 the mean being #gh4f degrees4 ,the seasons are regular1 rainy from ,may to ,january1 with a four weeks' interval of fine weather in ,october1 and dry from the end of ,january until ,may4 ,the average rainfall is #ff4bf inches1 but in the cane-growing region it is about #hj inches4 ,hurricanes1 earthquakes and long spells of drought are unknown4 ,christopher ,columbus discovered ,trinidad in #adif and the ,spaniards occupied it ninety years later4 ,it remained in their hands until #agig1 when it was taken by the ,british1 to whom it was formally ceded in #ahjb4 ,as was the case in other ,west ,indian islands1 the aborigines were quickly exterminated by the ,spanish conquerors and their places filled with negro slaves4 ,a number of ,french and ,creole settlers came to ,trinidad in #aghj1 and about the middle of the following century ,portuguese refugees from ,madeira joined the colony4 ,after the abolition of slavery by ,great ,britain in #ahcd1 many ,hindus were brought in under contract4 ,the soil of the island is very rich and well adapted to the growing of sugar cane and other tropical products4 ,the sugar plantations are found in the level country bordering on the ,gulf of ,paria1 where the soil is a dark clay1 and which has been described as one of the finest stretches of sugar land in the ,west ,indies4 ,as a result of the financial distress of #ahie1 which caused the home government to pass relief measures1 a number of plantation owners were compelled to dispose of a portion of their land to farmers1 who grew cane upon it and sold the crop to the sugar factories4 ,it is estimated that today about twenty-five per cent of the cane worked up by the factories is furnished by these small growers1 the remainder being raised by the owners of the estates4 ,grinding begins in ,january and is finished in ,may or ,june4 ,trinidad has its own agricultural station1 which is chiefly devoted to the study of sugar-cane culture4 ,it has been of great service to the industry in determining the kinds of cane that can be most profitably grown1 in fighting cane diseases and pests and in working out fertilization problems4 ,from #ahee to #ahhg an average crop of #ei1ggd tons was turned out by ninety estates4 ,of this total1 #bh1ejj tons were vacuum-pan sugar and the rest muscavado4 ,in #ahif1 #fb1ige tons of sugar were made by thirty-nine estates4 ,seven of these made #bjjj tons of common muscavado1 six made #eejj tons of centrifugal muscavado1 and the remaining twenty-six made vacuum-pan sugar4 ,a report made in that year concerning sugar estates in ,trinidad sets forth that advantage has been taken of the most modern improvements in boilers1 furnaces1 multiple evaporators1 crushing mills and other machinery4 ,trinidad produces a large amount of what are known as 8yellow crystals10 which are sold in the ,british market for direct consumption and command a premium over the ordinary raw sugar4 ,statistics compiled in #aiji show that the colony then had sixteen sugar factories1 which turned out #eb1igb tons of sugar1 and the recovery represented #h4gd per cent of the weight of the cane2 #dea1hja tons of this cane were grown by the estates and #aed1ffc tons by the small farmers4 ,there were #aa1dja of the latter1 #fjgg of whom were ,east ,indians and #ecbd ,west ,indians4 ,trinidad is the only ,west ,indian colony where the attempt to fill the places of negro laborers with coolies from ,india has been successful4 ,the production of sugar since #aijj has been as follows3 #aijj #da1bfi tons #aija #ea1jgg 0 #aijb #dd1iac 0 #aijc #df1jbi 0 #aijd #ej1gdd 0 #aije #ch1bdj 0 #aijf #fb1ige 0 #aijg #ej1efd 0 #aijh #dh1icc 0 #aiji #eb1igb 0 #aiaj exports #dd1aci 0 #aiaa 0 #cg1bhb 0 #aiab 0 #cb1eeg 0 #aiac 0 #ca1ffe 0 #aiad 0 #dg1bea 0 #aiae 0 #di1ajg 0 #aiaf 0 #ee1jjj 0#gj ,,santo ,,domingo ,haiti is divided into two unequal parts1 the republic of ,haiti 7,rpublique d',haiti71 comprising #aj1bjd square miles1 and the republic of ,santo ,domingo 7,repblica ,dominicana71 with an area of #ai1cbe square miles4 ,it is one of the four large islands of the ,west ,indies and lies between #ag degrees #cg minutes and #bj degrees north latitude and #fh degrees #bj minutes and #gd degrees #bh minutes west longitude4 ,its length from east to west is about #djg miles and its greatest width is #afj miles4 ,the total population is #b1gcg1gjj4 ,the surface of the island is exceedingly mountainous1 three distinct ranges traversing it from east to west4 ,the loftiest peak1 ,loma ,tina1 near the city of ,santo ,domingo1 reaches a height of #aj1cjj feet4 ,the extensive intervening valleys are fertile and watered by numerous rivers1 none of which1 however1 are deep enough to be navigable4 ,the climate is hot and humid4 ,an average temperature for the month of ,january would be about #ge4d degrees ,fahrenheit1 for ,july #hd degrees1 and for the year #gi4b degrees4 ,there are no active volcanoes1 but great damage is done from time to time by earthquakes and hurricanes4 ,the yearly rainfall is abundant1 averaging about #abj inches4 ,in ,san ,pedro de ,macoris1 however1 where the greater part of the sugar crop of the island is grown1 the annual precipitation is in the neighborhood of #fj inches4 ,as this is not sufficient for the needs of the growing cane1 the planters have to do a certain amount of irrigating1 and the water for this purpose is obtained from artesian wells4 ,the soil of the sugar-growing territory is of porous limestone formation1 which shows evidence of disturbances and upheavals due to volcanic agency4 ,overlying this is a deposit of decomposed vegetable matter from three to twelve inches in thickness1 and there are areas where a rich black or red soil1 varying from one to two feet in depth1 is found4 ,on ,december #e1 #adib1 ,columbus sighted the northern coast of ,haiti and found safe anchorage there4 ,the newly discovered island was named ,espaola1 which was afterward latinized to ,hispaniola4 ,later still1 the settlement founded by the ,spaniards in the southern part under the name of ,santo ,domingo gave its name to the entire island4 ,when ,columbus set foot on its shores1 ,haiti had #b1jjj1jjj inhabitants1 who were governed by five caciques1 each holding both religious and political sway over the separate kingdoms4 ,at the outset the newcomers were received with welcome and honor1 but it was not long before their tyranny caused a rupture between them and the natives4 ,a war of extermination followed1 and by #aejf the entire island had fallen into the hands of the invaders4 ,left in possession of a depopulated country1 the ,spaniards restocked it with ,african negro slaves4 ,meanwhile the interior of the island had been explored1 settlements had been established1 mines opened up and progress made in agriculture4 ,in #aejf sugar was brought in and its cultivation soon assumed important proportions4 ,about #afbe the ,french and ,english began to give trouble to ,spain in the western archipelago1 and a few years later a number of ,englishmen and ,frenchmen1 who had been expelled from ,st4 ,kitts by the ,spaniards1 took refuge on ,tortuga island and became famous under the name of ,buccaneers4 ,they succeeded in establishing themselves in a part of ,haiti1 and in #afig their right of possession was acknowledged and the territory occupied by them was ceded by ,spain to ,france by the treaty of ,ryswick4 ,the new colony was called ,saint ,dominique1 and it entered immediately into an era of prosperity in which the expansion of the sugar industry was the principal factor4 ,when the ,french revolution broke out1 the exportations of sugar amounted to #hj1jjj tons1 and this large production necessitated the employment of a great number of slaves4 ,the whites were few and the unequal proportion led to disaster4 ,the population consisted of whites1 free colored people 7most of whom were mulattoes7 and negro slaves4 ,the mulattoes demanded the same civil rights as the white people and these privileges were accorded them in #agia4 ,incensed beyond measure1 the whites clamored loudly for a reversal of this decree and finally obtained it4 ,on ,august #bc1 #agia1 a violent insurrection of the blacks broke out2 the plantation slaves were joined by the mulattoes and a massacre of the whites followed4 ,those who escaped the slaughter fled1 leaving all their possessions behind2 the sugar plantations were destroyed and the entire sugar industry came to an abrupt end4 ,in #agic ,saint ,dominique was attacked by ,england and ,spain1 whereupon the ,french government1 in order to conciliate the blacks and retain its dominion over the colony1 proclaimed all the slaves free4 ,by the terms of the ,peace of ,ble in #agie1 the whole island passed into the hands of the ,french4 ,toussaint ,louverture1 a negro of marked military ability1 was appointed commander-in-chief by the directory1 and by #ahja he succeeded in restoring order4 ,unfortunately1 the measures that he endeavored to put into effect aroused the suspicions of ,napoleon1 who sent out an army to subdue him and to restore slavery4 ,this expedition met with such determined resistance that the commander1 ,general ,leclerc1 opened negotiations and ,toussaint was induced by solemn promises to lay down his arms4 ,he was treacherously seized and taken to ,france1 where he died in #ahjc4 ,the blacks immediately renewed hostilities under ,jean ,jacques ,dessalines1 and in ,november1 #ahjc1 the ,french withdrew completely4 ,in the following year the independence of the island was declared and its ancient name of ,haiti was restored4 ,dessalines was first made governor for life and in ,october1 #ahjd1 he proclaimed himself emperor4 ,he was assassinated in #ahjf4 ,from that time to the present the country has been in a state of turmoil and the end is not yet4 ,in #ahdd the people of the eastern end of the island seceded and formed the republic of ,santo ,domingo4 ,ever since then there have been two distinct governments in the island1 with the strongest political antipathy existing between them4 ,but little sugar cane is raised in ,haiti1 and the most of this small quantity is either consumed as cane or made into a beverage called tafia4 ,the sugar plantations of ,santo ,domingo are found on the southern coast1 in the level stretches of ,arua and ,romana1 in the valleys near the city of ,santo ,domingo and in the region near ,san ,pedro de ,macoris4 ,no sugar is grown in the interior4 ,while most of the factories are land owners and cultivate cane1 they do not grow all that they grind4 ,a good deal is raised by colonos under the following conditions3 ,the factories assign parcels of land to the colonos rent-free and in addition allow them the use of draft cattle and farming implements4 ,when necessary a certain amount of actual cash is advanced4 ,the colonos plant and till the land1 furnish their own labor and deliver the cane at the point where it is loaded on the railway cars4 ,the field hands are either natives or negroes brought from nearby islands1 and their pay ranges from #ej to #ge cents gold per day4 ,the ground is tilled in an indifferent fashion and no fertilizing whatever is done4 ,when virgin soil is planted1 the seed is put in at seven-foot intervals1 sometimes greater1 without any holes or furrows having been made2 the cuttings are simply stuck in the ground and partly covered with earth4 ,the cane ripens in fourteen months or more4 ,ratooning follows until the yield gets so small that replanting is necessary4 ,when this time comes1 the old roots are ploughed up and furrows from four to six inches in depth are made about five or six feet apart4 ,the seed cane is planted in these furrows at four- or five-foot intervals4 ,the yield from virgin soil is very heavy and has been known to reach ninety tons to the acre1 but the sugar content of such crops is low1 whereas the subsequent ratoons with a decreased tonnage of cane per acre give juice of a better quality4 ,a fair average production on a plantation having #djjj acres in cane would be about twenty-four tons to the acre4 ,naturally this estimate would be affected by the relative proportions of plant cane and ratoons1 as well as by the character of the soil4 ,planting is generally done in ,june and ,october1 while the harvesting begins in ,december and continues until ,april4 ,manufacturing methods in ,santo ,domingo admit of much improvement4 ,single crushing is the method employed for the most part1 so that the loss in extraction is considerable4 ,the juices are treated and the suspended impurities allowed to settle at the bottom of the tanks4 ,filter presses are the exception rather than the rule1 and for want of them the sugar in the resultant mud is lost4 ,the clear juices are then concentrated and boiled to grain in vacuum pans4 ,first sugars generally polarize between #ie degrees and #ig degrees1 seconds about #hf degrees4 ,the molasses is either made into rum or permitted to run to waste4 ,notwithstanding the crude character of the factories and machinery1 the recovery of sugar is generally good1 the average being between #i per cent and #aa per cent of the weight of the cane1 with single crushing4 ,almost all of the factories are managed by ,americans1 but1 as has been said1 the equipment they have to work with is by no means modern1 and under the extremely uncertain political conditions that prevail there is scant encouragement for outside capital to come in and improve matters4 ,just when a change for the better will come is impossible to say4 ,messrs4 ,willett ,gray give the yearly figures since #aijc in long tons1 as follows3 #aijc-jd #dg1jjj #aijd-je #dg1jjj #aije-jf #ee1jjj #aijf-jg #fj1jjj #aijg-jh #fb1bce #aijh-ji #fi1dhc #aiji-aj #ic1jjc #aiaj-aa #hi1igi #aiaa-ab #if1jdf #aiab-ac #hd1ffa #aiac-ad #aje1ggh #aiad-ae #ajh1bfg #aiae-af #abj1jjj ,,guadeloupe ,,and ,,martinique ,,guadeloupe ,the ,french ,west ,indian colony of ,guadeloupe consists of two islands that lie in the middle of the ,leeward group between #ae degrees #eg minutes and #af degrees #ca minutes north latitude and #fa degrees #aj minutes and #fa degrees #di minutes west longitude4 ,they are separated by a channel from one hundred feet to four hundred feet wide1 called ,rivire ,sale4 ,basse-,terre1 the western island1 is twenty-eight miles long1 from twelve to fifteen miles wide and its area is #cfd square miles4 ,it presents a rugged surface1 broken by hills and highlands1 and a backbone of mountains runs through it from north to south4 ,it is of volcanic origin1 having been thrown up by four volcanic centers1 ,grosse ,montagne 7#beij feet71 ,les ,mamelles 7#becf feet and #bcfh feet71 ,morne sans ,toucher 7#dhee feet71 and ,la ,soufrire 7#dhfh feet74 ,the last-named volcano was in eruption in #agig1 and in #ahdc its disturbances wrecked several towns2 today1 however1 the only evidences of life are a few hot springs and the emission of sulphurous vapors at certain points4 ,basse-,terre is watered by a number of streams that become swollen and turbulent during the rainy season4 ,grande-,terre1 the eastern island1 is low and level1 the greatest elevation being only #dej feet4 ,it consists of a plain of limestone formation with a conglomerate of sand and broken shells4 ,it is about twenty-two miles long from north to south and its area is #bee square miles4 ,the population is #aij1bgc1 chiefly negroes and mulattoes4 ,for water supply it is dependent upon ponds and cisterns1 as1 owing to the porosity of the soil1 no rivers or streams exist4 ,the climate is warm and humid4 ,the mean yearly temperature is #gh degrees ,fahrenheit1 the minimum #fa degrees and the maximum #aja degrees4 ,the wet season is from ,july to ,november1 and on the coast the annual rainfall is about eighty-six inches1 with a great deal more in the interior4 ,terrific storms visit the island and hurricanes have wrought much destruction4 ,the soil is fertile and rich and the principal crop is sugar cane1 which is grown on over half the total cultivated area4 ,the principal sugar centers are ,point--,pitre1 ,st4 ,anne and ,le ,moule in ,grande-,terre1 all of which have well-appointed usines4 ,there is also a large usine in ,basse-,terre4 ,guadeloupe was discovered by ,columbus in #adic4 ,one hundred and forty-two years afterward l',olive and ,duplessis took possession in the name of a ,french company called the ,compagnie des ,iles d',amrique4 ,the native ,caribs did not long survive the cruel treatment accorded them by l',olive1 and efforts at colonization were the reverse of successful1 in fact four chartered companies were ruined in the attempt4 ,in #afgd the islands passed into the possession of the ,french crown and they were governed from ,martinique for a long time4 ,in #agei they were captured by the ,british1 in whose hands they remained for four years4 ,the ,british again occupied them in #agid1 but were driven out the following summer by ,victor ,hugues with the help of liberated slaves4 ,the last ,british occupation took place during the ,hundred ,days of #ahae1 and they finally withdrew in #ahaf4 ,slavery in ,guadeloupe was abolished in #ahdh4 ,,martinique ,the ,french colony of ,martinique is the most northerly of the ,windward islands4 ,it is situated between #ad degrees #ee minutes and #ad degrees #bc minutes north latitude and #fj degrees #dh minutes and #fa degrees #af minutes west longitude4 ,its area is #cha square miles1 its greatest length from northwest to southeast #cf miles1 and its extreme width #ah miles4 ,the population1 negroes and half-castes for the most part1 numbered #aij1jjj in #aiac4 ,the surface is mountainous1 the highest peak being ,mt4 ,pele1 which rises #ddbh feet above sea-level4 ,the appalling eruption of this volcano in ,may1 #aijb1 was one of the greatest disasters of modern times and cost the lives of #dj1jjj people4 ,about one-third of the island's surface consists of extensive plains1 most of them occurring in the south4 ,the soil of the northern part is of volcanic formation1 while in the south it is composed of clay4 ,there are a number of streams1 some of them of considerable size4 ,near the coast the average temperature for ,june is #hc degrees1 and for ,january #gg degrees1 the mean for the year being about #hj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,the wet season extends from ,june to ,october and the total yearly rainfall approximates #hg inches4 ,august is the wettest month and ,march the driest4 ,in the low region of the sea coast the climate is not healthful for ,europeans during the hot period1 but a more salubrious atmosphere and a temperature #aj degrees lower is found in the wooded uplands1 #aejj feet above the sea4 ,fresh1 dry northerly winds prevail from ,november to ,february1 easterly winds from ,march to ,june1 and damp1 warm southerly winds from ,july to ,october4 ,earthquakes are frequent1 but hurricanes seldom visit the island4 ,martinique was discovered by ,columbus on ,june #ae1 #adib1 and the ,french ,compagnie des ,iles d',amrique took possession of it in #afce4 ,it was settled in the same year by ,pierre ,belain1 captain-general of the island of ,st4 ,christopher1 and in #afgd it became the property of the crown4 ,sugar culture was begun in #afej1 and a few years later the aboriginal ,caribs were exterminated1 their place being filled by negro slaves1 of whom there were #fj1jjj in the island by #agcf4 ,slavery was abolished in #ahdh4ga ,during the seventeenth century ,martinique was attacked several times by the ,british and the ,dutch4 ,it was captured in #agfb by the ,british under ,admiral ,rodney1 but restored to the ,french in the following year4 ,it was held by the ,british from #agic to #ahja and also between #ahji and #ahad4 ,the capital of the island is ,fort de ,france1 on the west coast4 ,it is situated upon a fine harbor and has #ah1jjj inhabitants4 ,besides the chief product1 sugar1 the colony raises coffee1 cocoa1 tobacco and cotton4 ,,guadeloupe ,,and ,,martinique ,sugar planting in these islands dates from #afce1 the year in which they were first occupied by the ,french1 and the industry grew apace1 so that much sugar was exported to ,france during the latter half of the seventeenth century4 ,the import duties levied by ,france in #affd shut out foreign raw sugars from that country1 while protecting raw sugars from her colonies2 but at the same time the tariff laws excluded white sugar produced in the colonies4 ,this was a death blow to the refineries of ,martinique4 ,a decree entirely prohibiting the refining of sugar in the colonies and the exportation of raw sugar to foreign countries was issued in #affi1 while an export duty was imposed upon the raw sugar shipped to ,france4 ,the tax upon raw sugar was removed in #afhb1 but the duty on refined was increased4 ,the colonial planters then turned their attention to the manufacture of clayed sugars1 which they sold in ,north ,america and southern ,europe4 ,in #agag ,france established relations with her colonies that were almost tantamount to free trade4 ,no duties were assessed upon ,french goods going into the colonies1 and commodities produced in the colonies entered the mother country without duty4 ,as a result of this policy1 the sugar industry grew until the production of ,guadeloupe1 ,martinique and ,saint ,dominique was more than ,france could consume1 and a law was passed permitting the sale of the surplus in other countries4 ,during the closing years of the eighteenth century1 the war between ,england and ,france crippled the trade of the ,french ,west ,indies1 but when peace was finally restored the sugar industry revived and continued to flourish until the abolition of slavery in #ahdh4 ,when the slaves were freed1 the planters cast about them to find laborers1 and ,india was one of the first sources of supply4 ,over ten thousand ,hindus were brought to ,martinique between #aheb and #ahfb1 and with very few exceptions they remained in the island after their five-year contract expired4 ,during the twenty-two years that followed #ahfb1 #be1ejj laborers came to ,martinique from ,pondicherry1 ,yanaon1 ,karikal and ,calcutta with the permission of the ,indian authorities1 but emigration from that country under government auspices was discontinued in #ahhe4 ,in addition to ,hindus1 free ,african negroes1 ,chinese and ,annamese were brought in4 ,the sugar plantations of ,guadeloupe and ,martinique are situated on the low1 alluvial lands around the coast1 although some are found in the interior4 ,the hilly character of the latter1 however1 is not favorable to cane culture1 as the heavy rains wash the arable soil down the slopes1 thus interfering with the growth of the cane4 ,the ground to be planted in cane is first cleared and then ploughed4 ,furrows about two feet deep and four and one-half feet apart are then made and the seed cane is planted in holes five inches deep4 ,three weeks afterward the cane is banked and fertilizer applied4 ,the soil between the canes is loosened from time to time and the crop is cut after a year's growth4 ,as a rule1 ratooning is limited to two years1 one crop being produced each year4 ,the land is then allowed to rest for a time1 after which planting is begun anew4 ,bourbon cane is the variety principally grown1 although seedling canes have been brought in from ,barbados and ,british ,guiana of late years4 ,the average yield per acre of plant cane is twenty-four tons2 first ratoons give sixteen tons and second ratoons about eight tons4 ,after the cane is cut it is loaded on large carts and taken to the factories4 ,some estates are equipped with field railways1 the cars being drawn by mules or locomotives4 ,as mentioned in the chapter on ,jamaica1 the early sugar producers of ,saint ,dominique1 ,guadeloupe and ,martinique excelled the manufacturers of the other ,west ,indian islands in the preparation of the commodity4 ,the result was that their lead was gradually followed by the others1 and a brief description of the methods they employed will be of interest4 ,the cane juice was boiled in a series of five or six copper kettles placed over a furnace fed by bagasse and wood4 ,these kettles were of different sizes1 the largest being farthest from the fire and the size of each decreased as the furnace door was approached1 the smallest being directly above the fire4 ,the kettle next to the largest was set a little higher than the largest one1 the third higher than the second and so on until the last and smallest1 which was the highest of the series4 ,clarification was done with lime and wood ashes1 and sometimes a little crude antimony4 ,as soon as the raw juice reached the first and largest kettle the clarifying material was thrown in and the boiling began4 ,the scum was removed as soon as it formed1 and when the juice became sufficiently clear it was quickly transferred to the second kettle2 a small amount of alkali was mixed with it and further boiling and skimming was done4 ,the liquor was then ladled into kettle number three1 potash lye and an extract of herbs were added1 and after being boiled for a time it was passed to kettle number four1 and finally concentrated in the last and smallest kettle immediately above the fire4 ,when the required consistency was reached1 the massecuite was put into vessels to cool1 at the same time being kept in motion by stirring until the grains began to form4 ,it was then placed in moulds1 and after having become thoroughly cool it was dumped into hogsheads that had perforated bottoms4 ,these hogsheads stood on racks1 beneath which there was a receptacle to catch the molasses as it drained on through the holes in the bottom4 ,the draining was allowed to continue until about one-half the weight of the contents of the hogshead was crystallized sugar4 ,the holes were then plugged up and the sugar was ready for shipment4 ,the molasses was manufactured into rum4 ,a superior grade1 called sucre terr1 or clayed sugar1 was also made4 ,in its preparation1 juice from the best and ripest cane was taken and as little lime as possible was used in clarification4 ,antimony was excluded entirely1 on account of its tendency to darken the color of the juice4 ,as the juice was transferred from kettle to kettle during the various boilings1 it was strained through a cloth each time1 instead of being ladled direct from one kettle to the next4 ,when the syrup was concentrated it was put into earthenware sugar-loaf moulds that held between thirty and thirty-five pounds of massecuite apiece4 ,these moulds had perforations in the bottom that were stopped up before the mass was put in4 ,in filling a mould1 one quarter of its capacity was put in at one time1 making four operations4 ,fifteen minutes after the last lot of massecuite was put in the mould1 a layer of crystals formed on the surface1 and this was thoroughly stirred into the mass1 which was then left to cool4 ,a couple of days later the plugs were removed so that the molasses might drain from the mould4 ,in case it did not run off properly1 the massecuite was remelted1 but if the drainage was satisfactory1 the next step was the claying of the sugar4 ,if the top of the loaves was uneven or dark-colored1 it was scraped smooth and covered with a layer of crushed sugar4 ,the surface was then hammered level and even4 ,a special kind of clay brought from ,rouen was mixed with water and the mould was filled to the top with this mixture4 ,windows and doors were shut to prevent evaporation of the moisture1 and the water draining from the clay gradually passed down through the sugar crystals1 washing the syrup from them4 ,after ten days had elapsed1 the clay1 then thoroughly dried1 was removed1 the surface of the sugar-loaf was cleaned1 another layer of wet clay was applied and allowed to remain as long as the first4 ,when this second layer was taken off1 the loaves were removed from the moulds and allowed to dry in the air for a time4 ,further drying was done in a drying room1 heated for the purpose1 and the sugar1 when all the moisture had been driven from it1 was crushed by wooden pestles4 ,refined sugar was packed for shipment in casks containing between #fjj and #gjj pounds4 ,the first molasses was made into rum or boiled into second sugar1 and the syrup washed from the loaves was made into a sugar called cassonade4 ,this primitive method of manufacture has been entirely supplanted by newer processes and appliances4 ,as a rule1 today cane is crushed twice and maceration is often employed4 ,the juice is treated with sulphur while still cold1 and it is then pumped into defecation tanks1 where powdered lime is added2 after this is done heat is applied4 ,as soon as the scum cracks1 the steam is turned off and the clear juice is separated from the sediment by a siphon and run to the evaporators1 while the muddy precipitate goes to the filter presses4 ,concentration of the juice takes place in double1 triple or quadruple effects of rather an old type1 which means lack of economy in steam and consequent large fuel consumption4 ,as the quantity of bagasse available does not afford sufficient fuel to generate all the steam that is required1 a considerable amount of wood and coal is used in addition for the purpose4 ,the unwise and short-sighted policy of denuding the hillsides of their timber has had the effect of lessening the rainfall1 a condition that has brought great injury to the planter4 ,the vacuum pans are small and of old style2 the centrifugal machines1 too1 are of obsolete design and slow to operate4 ,after the liquor has been boiled to grain in the pans and the sugar crystals have been separated from the mother liquor in the centrifugals1 the sugar is dried and packed for the market in barrels or bags4 ,the first molasses is reboiled and the resulting massecuite sent through the centrifugals4 ,after this operation has been repeated three or four times1 the final molasses is made into rum4 ,today there are eighteen factories in ,guadeloupe and fifteen in ,martinique4 ,the average extraction of sugar is #i4gj per cent of the weight of the cane1 the loss of sugar in the bagasse is #b4ae per cent1 the mechanical loss in manufacture is 4#ij per cent1 and the percentage of sugar not recovered from the molasses is #a4ge4 ,this gives an average total of #ad4ej per cent of sugar in the cane4 ,the manufacturers are dependent upon the small farmers for their raw material1 and the price paid for the cane is determined by a very complex agreement1 which nevertheless seems to be entirely satisfactory to both buyer and seller4 ,the outlook for the sugar industry in ,guadeloupe and ,martinique is far from bright4 ,there is labor in abundance1 but the natives are averse to working steadily1 and consequently are unreliable4 ,there are great possibilities for improvement1 but little can be expected under the circumstances that prevail at the present time4 ,since #ahid the production of the two islands in long tons has been as follows3 ,,martinique ,,guadeloupe #ahid #cf1cec #db1cie #ahie #bh1ggg #bi1cid #ahif #cc1hhf #db1faf #ahig #cd1ahe #ci1dic #ahih #cj1iga #cf1eej #ahii #ca1afe #ci1bei #aijj #cc1bcd #bg1hie #aija #ci1aba #ch1jhf #aijb #ch1ije #ci1iie #aijc #bh1egh #cg1hia #aijd #bc1efa #ce1cdh #aije #bi1ihf #bf1ije #aijf #db1bca #db1ece #aijg #cf1gfd #ch1cde #aijh #ce1idc #ce1dhe #aiji #cg1geg #bd1hab #aiaj #ci1iej #dd1bhi #aiaa #ce1dch #ch1chd #aiab #ci1dcc #ci1cfh #aiac #dj1jjj #cb1jjj #aiad #ch1gcj #ci1ibj #aiae #dj1jjj #dj1jjj #aiaf #dj1jjj #dj1jjj ,,mexico ,the ,united ,states of ,mexico lie between #ad degrees #cj minutes and #cb degrees #db minutes north latitude and #hf degrees #df minutes and #aag degrees #g minutes west longitude4 ,on the north the boundary is the ,united ,states of ,america2 on the east the ,gulf of ,mexico1 the ,caribbean sea1 ,british ,honduras and ,guatemala2 on the south ,british ,honduras and the ,pacific ocean1 and on the west the ,pacific ocean4 ,the superficial area of the country is #gfe1ecg square miles4 ,its greatest length is #aidb miles and its greatest width is #gfb miles4 ,it has a coast line of #edhf miles1 of which #afjc miles are on the ,gulf of ,mexico and the ,caribbean sea and #chhc miles on the ,pacific ocean and the ,gulf of ,california4 ,the surface of ,mexico rises sharply from the seacoast levels by a series of terraces to a central plateau1 that varies in height from #djjj to #hjjj feet and runs northwest and southeast4 ,this tableland has been formed by the material deposited during the gradual erosion of the mountains and by matter thrown up by a great number of volcanoes4 ,in this manner the original valleys became completely filled up and those that now exist are of later formation4 ,to illustrate this filling process1 buried mountains whose peaks appear above the surrounding mass are found in the higher parts of the plateau1 while elsewhere they are met with as continuous ridges4 ,the eastern coast is low and sandy1 except in a few places where the mountains come down close to the shore4 ,the ,pacific coast lands are also low1 but occasionally broken by mountain spurs4 ,owing to the terraced character of the country1 very little river navigation is possible1 but on the other hand an enormous amount of power can be developed from the numerous waterfalls4 ,two high mountain ranges1 one on each coast1 run parallel to the sea the entire length of ,mexico4 ,the eastern chain is about ten miles inland1 while on the west there is only a narrow shelf of land between the sea and the cordilleras4 ,this western range has several branches that run in different directions1 the most important being the ,sierra ,madre ,occidental4 ,in ,mexico the highest mountains are volcanoes4 ,on the ,pacific side and west of the plateau are found the ,volcn de ,colima 7#ab1gej ft47 and the ,nevado de ,colima 7#ad1ced ft474 ,southwest of the ,city of ,mexico is the ,nevado de ,toluca 7#af1faj ft47 and to the south and east are the snow-crowned giants ,popocatepetl 7#ag1edj ft47 and ,ixtaccihuatl 7#ae1gje ft474 ,still farther east are ,orizaba 7#af1agf ft47 and ,cofre de ,perote 7#ad1cji ft474 ,popocatepetl and ,orizaba may be classified as dormant cones1 for the reason that aqueous and sulphurous vapors are constantly being emitted from their perfectly formed craters4 ,one of the highest lakes in the world is found in the crater of the ,nevado de ,toluca4 ,colima has been in eruption continuously for many years and is still active4 ,the snow never leaves the summits of ,orizaba1 ,popocatepetl and ,ixtaccihuatl1 and on the last the ice cap attains a development sufficient to form true glaciers4 ,on the western coast the principal ports are ,guaymas1 ,mazatlan1 ,topolobampo1 ,acapulco1 ,la ,paz and ,salina ,cruz2 on the eastern seaboard1 ,tampico1 ,vera ,cruz1 ,puerto ,mexico1 ,campeche and ,merida4 ,of the numerous rivers1 the most important is the ,rio ,grande1 #aeej miles long1 which forms a natural boundary between ,mexico and the ,united ,states from ,el ,paso to the ,gulf4 ,however1 the conformation of the country does not admit of river navigation to any extent4 ,according to the census of #aiaj1 the population was #ae1jfc1bjg1 of which #bj per cent were whites1 #dc per cent of mixed blood and the remainder of ,indian extraction4 ,in ,mexico there are three distinct climates and a wide range of temperature4 ,the hot country1 tierra caliente1 extends from the seacoast inland to an altitude of about #cjjj feet4 ,here the mean annual temperature is between #hj degrees and #hh degrees1 and the highest between #ajj degrees and #aje degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,in this region the winter climate is delightful1 except when severe gales sweep down from the north4 ,in summer the extreme heat is not so great as in ,new ,york1 because of the moderating effect of cool breezes4 ,the temperate region1 tierra templada1 extends from #cjjj to #fejj feet above sea-level1 and it is here that the ideal climate of ,mexico is found1 the mean annual temperature being between #gc and #gg degrees ,fahrenheit1 with a total variation of possibly not over #f or #h degrees during a season4 ,in this dry1 clear atmosphere the hygienic disadvantages of the seacoast1 the sharp1 cold winds of the upper altitudes1 sudden changes in temperature1 heavy frosts1 extreme humidity and harmful insects are unknown1 and in the dry season there is no malaria4 ,tropical and semi-tropical growths flourish side by side1 and there are estates on which wheat and sugar cane are raised almost in touch of each other4 ,the cold country1 tierra fria1 extends from the #fejj-;foot level to the snow line1 but here the term cold is used in a comparative sense1 as distinguished from the heat of the seacoast4 ,the average temperature runs between #ei degrees and #fb degrees ,fahrenheit1 with slight variations4 ,at times1 however1 a norther will drive the mercury down to #dj degrees or #ce degrees and sprinkle the streets of ,mexico ,city with white4 ,as a rule1 in ,mexico the rainy season begins in ,may or ,june and ends in ,october4 ,the annual rainfall varies greatly according to locality1 ranging all the way from fifteen to fifty inches4 ,earthquakes are of common occurrence1 especially on the western coast4 ,sugar cane was brought to ,mexico by the ,spanish conquistadors4 ,prescott1 in his 8,conquest of ,mexico10#gb says that the sugar cane was transplanted from the neighboring islands to the lower level of the country1 and that1 together with indigo1 cotton and cochineal1 it formed a more desirable staple for the colony than its precious metals4 ,he also states that it was ,hernan ,corts himself who introduced the cane from ,cuba4 ,this famous soldier established the ,atlacomulco plantation1 which lies an easy hour's ride distant from ,cuernavaca in the state of ,morelos1 and there1 in #aebj1 a hundred years before the landing of the ,pilgrim ,fathers at ,plymouth1 he erected the first sugar mill in ,mexico4 ,this mill is owned by the descendants of ,corts and is still in operation4 ,thirty years later sugar was shipped from ,mexico to ,peru and ,spain1 and the production of the commodity was maintained steadily until #agia4 ,in that year all the cane-growing countries of western ,america received a stimulus from the wholesale destruction of the plantations and mills of ,santo ,domingo4 ,in ,mexico natural conditions are very favorable to sugar culture1 but the growth of the industry has been retarded by the primitive methods in vogue1 the inadequacy of transportation facilities and political disturbances4 ,in the seaboard states the sugar plantations are found chiefly in the rich lowlands bordering on the ,pacific ocean and the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,in the ,gulf states the rainfall is ample to insure good crops4 ,the largest sugar producer1 however1 is the inland state of ,morelos1 and there1 as well as on the west coast1 irrigation is necessary4 ,the higher levels do not give such good crops as the lowlands2 on the latter the yield is between forty and sixty tons to the acre1 and on the former it runs between twenty-five and forty-five tons to the acre4 ,sugar beets have been grown on the plateau with marked success4 ,in the low1 tropical regions seven or eight crops of ratoons can be raised1 but on the higher lands replanting must be done every two or three years4 ,the best-known plantations are situated on large estates that have been owned by the same families for many generations4 ,for instance1 in ,morelos1 where about sixty per cent of ,mexico's crop is produced1 the estates are owned by non-resident families and1 as a rule1 managed by ,spaniards4 ,labor is cheap and abundant1 the cane is rich in juice and the sugar content is high1 but the extraction in the small1 crude mills is poor1 the recovery of sugar1 as a rule1 not exceeding six per cent of the weight of the cane4 ,there are a few large factories in ,mexico where the methods and results should be more closely in accordance with modern practice4 ,the nineteenth century saw the industry maintained on a fairly even basis1 but about #aijj an improvement was noted1 as the following table will show3 #ahii-aijj #ge1jjj tons #aijj-aija #ie1jjj 0 #aija-aijb #ajc1jjj 0 #aijb-aijc #aab1jjj 0 #aijc-aijd #ajg1jjj 0 #aijd-aije #ajg1jjj 0 #aije-aijf #ajg1ejj 0 #aijf-aijg #aai1jjj 0 #aijg-aijh #abc1jjj 0 #aijh-aiji #adc1jjj 0 #aiji-aiaj #adh1jjj 0 #aiaj-aiaa #afa1fjb 0 #aiaa-aiab #aea1gce 0 #aiab-aiac #adh1fgb 0 #aiac-aiad #acj1jjj 0 #aiad-aiae #aaj1jjj 0 #aiae-aiaf #ge1jjj 0 ,the effects of the internal disturbances in ,mexico are plainly reflected in the crop figures4 ,in addition to the sugar tonnage shown1 about #ej1jjj tons of piloncillo or panela 7concrete sugar7 are turned out annually by the small mills and the production of molasses is large4 ,a considerable amount of the latter is used in the manufacture of rum and alcohol4 ,as regards the future of sugar in ,mexico1 there is much to justify belief in ultimate expansion and prosperity4 ,labor is cheap and plentiful1 there are vast tracts of rich virgin land awaiting cultivation1 irrigation possibilities are great1 and when the present political disorders shall have been quieted and stable conditions established1 a movement forward will surely follow4 ,,peru ,peru is situated on the west coast of ,south ,america and extends from #c degrees #ba minutes to #ah degrees south latitude and from #gj degrees to #ha degrees #dj minutes west longitude4 ,its area1 including certain disputed territory1 is #fgf1fch square miles4 ,physically1 it is divided into three distinct regions1 the coast1 the sierra and the montaa4 ,in the first1 or the dry side of the ,andean slope1 spurs run out from the main range of mountains toward the ocean1 forming extensive valleys1 some of which are well watered and very fertile4 ,the spaces that lie beyond the life-giving influence of the rivers have the appearance of sandy deserts1 but they only need water to make them productive4 ,the ,andes proper occupy the sierra region1 which abounds in plateaus1 deep ravines1 rich sheltered valleys and snow-capped mountains of stupendous height4 ,east of the ,andes lies the montaa1 or wet side4 ,it is traversed by broad navigable rivers and embraces the sub-tropical forests in the ravines and on the eastern slopes of the ,andes1 as well as the dense tropical forests of the wide valley of the ,amazon4 ,according to the #aiae edition of the ,century atlas1 the population is #d1fji1iii4 ,about #eg per cent of the inhabitants are ,indians1 #ac per cent whites1 #b per cent ,asiatics1 #b per cent negroes1 the remainder being mixed races4 ,the sugar plantations are found on the west or dry side in the coast region4 ,the valleys of this coast country have been upraised from the ocean at a comparatively recent geological period1 and the fertile soils of these valleys are the result of erosion and deposit through the agency of mountain torrents4 ,the most important cane-growing districts lie seven or eight degrees south of the equator1 and yet the climate of that section cannot be called really tropical4 ,it is influenced by the cold antarctic currents and the steady winds that sweep northward4 ,observations on the ,cartavio plantation during the period #aijd-aijg showed the highest maximum temperature to be #ie4e degrees and the lowest minimum to be #eb degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,in the coast territory the rainfall is limited and the cane crops depend upon irrigation4 ,the soils of the coast valleys range from silt to an extremely fine sandy loam1 and vary in thickness4 ,as a rule they are deep1 retentive of moisture1 well drained1 rich in plant food1 easy to cultivate and1 with intelligent treatment1 very productive4 ,ricardo ,palma1 in his work1 8,tradicines ,peruanas10 sets forth that sugar cane was not known in ,peru when ,francisco ,pizarro and his followers first landed there in #aebg1 but that it was brought in a short time afterward4 ,the first plantation was established in #aegj and the first factory was erected on an estate in the valley of ,huanuco4 ,meanwhile1 the sugar used in ,lima came from ,mexico1 and the owner of the ,huanuco mill1 realizing that his product could not compete with ,mexican sugar1 had recourse to a clever stratagem4 ,he loaded a vessel with sugar and sent her to ,mexico4 ,the ruse was successful1 for the ,mexican manufacturers at once concluded that if sugar could be shipped from ,peru to ,mexico1 the production must be large and the cost very low4 ,consequently1 they discontinued their shipments from ,acapulco to ,peru1 much to the advantage of the astute factor of the ,huanuco valley4 ,in the beginning1 the estates were worked by slaves1 and1 as happened in other sugar countries1 after the abolition of slavery the plantation owners were compelled to look abroad for their laborers4 ,as many as #ij1jjj ,chinese were imported from ,macao#gc between #ahdi and #ahgd1 but so many of them succumbed to the severe treatment they received that the ,macao authorities put a stop to the labor traffic altogether4 ,the ,chinese living in ,peru at the present time are tradespeople and the work on the sugar plantations and in the mills is done by the native ,indians4 ,illustration3 ,,leveling ,a ,,cane ,,field1 ,,peru ,illustration3 ,,leveling ,,ground ,,by ,,steam1 ,,peru ,the year #ahfj marked an important change in the industry1 which up to that time had been carried on in a very primitive manner4 ,a large amount of fresh capital was put into sugar enterprises1 new mills were built1 the most approved machinery was installed and the factories were equipped with the best appliances that money could buy4 ,the apparatus for some of the plants was brought from the ,united ,states1 while that for others was supplied by ,european countries1 so that the methods and workmanship of various nationalities are found in the ,peruvian factories4 ,no expense was spared in any department and all went well so long as the price of sugar kept up2 what was easily made was liberally administered1 but when in #ahge the market dropped1 severe competition drove many operators into difficulties and a number of them went under entirely4 ,the war with ,chile in #ahgh and the subsequent revolutionary disturbances impeded the progress of the industry1 but a restoration of tranquillity came in #ahie1 and since then the sugar business of ,peru has prospered and increased in volume4 ,an experiment station was established near ,lima in #aijf for the study of cane cultivation1 irrigation problems and the improvement of yield and quality by the introduction of new varieties of cane4 ,the manufacturing side of the question has also been gone into with great care1 and much is being done to increase efficiency in that direction4 ,today there are #dg modern factories in ,peru and #abe1jjj acres planted in sugar cane4 ,outside of these modern plants1 crushing is also done in a crude manner in wooden-roller mills on small plantations that are scattered throughout the interior4 ,the juice obtained in this way is worked up to chancaca#gd or panela or made into an alcoholic beverage called caaso or chacta4 ,as the plantations do not depend upon any special season of rainy or dry weather1 planting and harvesting may be done at any time4 ,in ,peru the land upon which sugar cane is grown is generally gently sloping4 ,on the large haciendas1 when preparing virgin soil for planting1 the brush is first cleared away and the holes filled4 ,the ground is then ploughed and cross-ploughed by steam-ploughs and broken fine by clod-crushers2 roadways and drainage ditches are laid out1 forming squares or rectangles1 and furrows are made at intervals of three to four feet4 ,this done1 the ground is ready for planting4 ,the cane tops used for seed are cut during harvesting1 loaded on cars and sent to the field that is to be planted4 ,the seed cane is placed horizontally in the furrow and covered with a few inches of earth1 and as soon as the whole field is planted in this manner1 water from the irrigation ditch is turned in and the cane left to grow4 ,the first weeding is done when the cane shoots are a foot high1 and it is continued at intervals until the cane leaves become large enough to shade the ground and prevent weed growth4 ,the cane matures in from eighteen to twenty-four months1 according to location1 soil and weather conditions4 ,some weeks before harvesting1 irrigation is discontinued in order to allow the cane to ripen4 ,in cultivating the first ratoons1 when the cane gets to be a few feet high the crest of the furrow is thrown down into the furrow so that the irrigation water passes between the rows of cane instead of along the furrows1 as in the case of plant cane4 ,ratooning is kept up until it ceases to be profitable4 ,at the ,hacienda ,cartavio1 four ratoon crops have been grown in some places1 and as many as seven in others1 with good results4 ,illustration3 ,,planting ,,cane1 ,,peru ,illustration3 ,,portable ,,branch ,,line ,,of ,,field ,,railway ,,and ,,cane ,,cutters1 ,,peru ,the principal ingredient of the fertilizer used is guano1 which is mixed with lime1 nitrate of soda1 potassium sulphate1 or ashes from the bagasse furnaces1 and it is applied in various ways4 ,some planters throw it in the furrows with the seed cane and allow it to remain there a time before turning on the water2 others place it in the furrows a few months after the planting and cover it immediately1 while still another method is to apply it and turn on the water at the same time4 ,on certain plantations the fertilizer is ground and spread over the entire field just before replanting4 ,water for irrigating is obtained from the mountain streams1 which are dammed at certain points1 and but little is pumped from wells4 ,the quantity needed is far less than in ,hawaii1 owing to the nature of the soil and the presence of underground moisture close to the surface4 ,a fixed amount is assigned to each estate by the government and this is never exceeded during the dry season4 ,in flood time1 however1 the regulations are somewhat relaxed1 as there is then enough for all and to spare4 ,the water is brought on the land by large ditches1 and thence to the cane fields through smaller ones4 ,from these field ditches it flows directly into the cane rows at the upper end of the field or section1 and1 owing to the slight slope of the land1 it passes freely through the parallel rows from the upper to the lower end of the section4 ,it is retained in the furrow by means of a dam at the lower end4 ,other ditches are made at the lower ends of the sections for drainage purposes4 ,the amount of irrigating done varies according to the nature of the land2 in some cases water is applied only once during the season1 in others as many as twenty-four times4 ,the average number of waterings is five4 ,when the cane is ripe it is cut by laborers with heavy knives1 or machetes1 and loaded by hand into cars that run through the fields on portable tracks4 ,these cars1 which hold from two to ten tons each1 are made up into trains and drawn by a locomotive to the mill4 ,the average yield per acre in #aiab was about #cd tons1 but the planters are seeking for better results through improved field methods and new varieties of cane4 ,pests and disease do little damage in ,peru1 although the borer gives some trouble4 ,owing to the long period of growth in a dry climate1 ,peruvian cane is high in fiber and low in juice1 but the juice is rich and very pure2 this combination of high fiber content and high percentage of sugar in the juice1 however1 brings about an unusual loss of sugar in the bagasse4 ,nearly all of the sugar manufactured is a coarse-grained centrifugal raw1 polarizing about #if4e degrees and known to the trade as 8,peruvian crystals40 ,part of it is marketed in the ,united ,states and the rest goes to ,great ,britain1 while the second and third sugars are sent to ,chile to be refined there4 ,a certain amount of white sugar for home consumption is made by washing the brown centrifugal sugar4 ,illustration3 ,,hauling ,,cane-,,laden ,,cars ,,with ,,ox-,,team1 ,,peru ,illustration3 ,,train-,,load ,,of ,,cane ,,en ,,route ,,to ,,the ,,factory1 ,,peru ,at the beginning of the ,chilean war the output was approximately #hj1jjj tons4 ,in #aije the production of sugar and molasses was #aei1bid long tons1 and #acb1bbb tons of this were exported4 ,the following table gives the outturn in long tons since #aije3 ,,year ,,consumption ,,exports ,,total #aije #bg1jgg #acb1acf #aei1bac #aijf #cb1agh #acd1eib #aff1ggj #aijg #cj1aaj #ajh1hhf #ach1ihf #aijh #ca1hie #abb1idj #aed1hcf #aiji #bi1agc #abc1cic #aeb1efg #aiaj #bi1ahi #aai1gdd #adh1icc #aiaa #ca1ihh #aba1geh #aec1gde #aiab #cf1abi #ade1ajf #aha1bcf #aiac #cd1igf #adj1ffi #age1fde #aiad #cb1eee #agc1iaj #bjf1dfe #aiae #dj1jjj #bjh1dhg #bdh1dhg ,the possibilities for expansion in ,peru's sugar industry are large4 ,further impounding and conservation of the flood waters from the mountains would bring under cultivation many thousands of acres that are now unproductive4 ,good flowing wells have been sunk on some estates1 and it is likely that many more will be found1 thus adding substantially to the present water supply4 ,as to cost1 it would seem that ,peru should be able to compete successfully with other cane-growing countries4 ,the plantation lands are level or slightly sloping1 so that cultivating machinery may be used to good advantage4 ,grinding can be carried on without interruption throughout the year1 which means economical factory capacity and an even distribution of labor4 ,the cost of labor1 too1 is reasonable1 and great quantities of fertilizers lie close at hand4 ,in short1 ,peru enjoys many advantages1 and if her planters and refiners keep pace with scientific development1 she will take a prominent place among the cane-sugar countries of the world4 ,,brazil ,brazil is the largest political division of ,south ,america4 ,its area is #c1bgj1jjj square miles1 or slightly greater than that of the ,united ,states1 excluding ,alaska4 ,from ,cape ,orange1 in #d degrees #ba minutes north latitude1 it extends #bfbi miles southward to the river ,chuy1 in #cc degrees #de minutes south latitude1 and from ,olinda #bfia miles west to the ,peruvian border1 between #cd degrees #ej minutes and #gc degrees #ej minutes west longitude4 ,according to the latest census returns at hand1 the population numbers #bj1eae1jjj4 ,speaking generally1 ,brazil is a tropical country with sub-tropical and temperate regions in the south and in a large part of the high central plateau4 ,the sugar-producing states are ,maranho1 ,rio ,grande do ,norte1 ,parahyba1 ,pernambuco1 ,alagoas1 ,sergipe1 ,bahia1 ,minas ,geraes1 ,rio de ,janeiro and ,so ,paulo4 ,the plantations themselves lie between #d degrees and #ba degrees south latitude1 and being swept by the moisture-laden eastern trade winds1 they receive a fair amount of rain during the wet season1 that is1 from ,january to ,may4 ,traces of a vanished civilization had already given rise to the belief that the history of ,brazil1 like that of ,mexico and ,peru1 extended far into remote ages1 when1 in #ahde1 the discovery in the interior of the country of the ruins of a large and very ancient city1 with magnificent buildings bearing inscriptions in unknown characters1 confirmed this opinion4 ,nevertheless1 the known history of ,brazil dates only from the end of the fifteenth century4 ,it was discovered in ,february1 #adii1 by ,vicente ,yaez ,pinzon1 a companion of ,columbus4 ,the following year it was annexed to ,portugal by ,pedro ,alvares ,cabral1 but the new territory received little attention from the ,portuguese monarchs until #aeca1 when an attempt at colonization was made4 ,shortly afterward a sugar mill was erected in ,so ,vicente ,piratininga1 now ,so ,paulo1 and as the soil and climate of that part of the country were well adapted to cane culture1 the industry grew and other factories were built4 ,in #aehj there were #abj mills1 the greater number being in ,bahia and ,pernambuco4 ,that same year ,philip ,,ii of ,spain usurped the crown of ,portugal1 and ,brazil1 with the rest of the ,portuguese possessions1 came under ,spanish rule4 ,under the new rgime she was exposed to attack by powerful foes4 ,dutch forces occupied ,bahia in #afbd1 only to be expelled by the ,spaniards a year later2 in #afbi1 however1 they obtained a foothold in ,pernambuco4 ,they took ,olinda and its port1 but were unable to extend their influence beyond the borders of the town until the arrival of the newly appointed governor1 ,count ,john ,maurice of ,nassau-,siegen1 in #afcf4 ,this able executive carried the ,dutch dominion along the coast from the mouth of the ,so ,francisco to ,maranho1 and an expedition sent out by him captured ,angola and ,so ,thom on the west ,african coast1 thus securing a supply of negro slaves1 while depriving the enemy of them4 ,he did much to build up the sugar industry1 so severely crippled by the war1 and when in #afdd he resigned his post1 the importance of ,brazil as a sugar-producing country had been re-established4 ,the ,portuguese threw off the yoke of ,spain in #afdj and immediately set about to retake their former colony1 ,brazil4 ,after years of fighting1 the ,dutch were finally overcome and in #afee a government decree drove them from the country4 ,this banishment deprived ,brazil of the ,dutch sugar planters1 with their slaves1 their capital1 their practical knowledge and skill4 ,from the time of their exodus the ,brazilian sugar industry began to decline4 ,the greater number of these refugees established themselves in the ,west ,indies1 where they again engaged in sugar planting with marked success4 ,brazil became an independent power in #ahbe as an empire1 with ,dom ,pedro ,i1 son of the ,portuguese king1 on the throne4 ,this monarch abdicated in #ahca in favor of the five-year-old heir apparent1 who took the name of ,dom ,pedro ,,ii and reigned until #ahhi1 when the empire gave way to a republic4 ,the wars carried on by ,brazil against her neighbors between #ahea and #ahgj brought her provinces into touch with each other1 as well as with the outside world4 ,in #ahbf she pledged herself to ,great ,britain that1 beginning with #ahcj1 she would suppress the traffic in ,african negro slaves4 ,this promise1 however1 she failed to keep1 so the ,british parliament passed an act directing the seizure of all slave ships found in ,brazilian waters4 ,in every instance the slaves were liberated and the slave dealers brought before ,british tribunals4 ,complete suppression of the importation of slaves was the result4 ,in #ahga children born of slave parents were declared free by law1 and the movement in favor of emancipation continued until #ahhh1 when slavery was entirely abolished without any indemnity to the slave owners4 ,the long reign of ,dom ,pedro ,,ii was marked by progress and prosperity4 ,the emperor had the best interests of his people always at heart and concerned himself more with economic development than with political activities4 ,broad and liberal in his views1 he made no attempt to prevent the spread of socialistic doctrines1 which1 about the year #ahhj1 began to seriously affect the thought of the educated classes4 ,the feeling of unrest and the desire for change engendered in this way culminated in the military conspiracy of #ahhi1 and1 as was only natural1 the former slave owners1 smarting under their losses1 took sides against the emperor4 ,the monarchy fell and was replaced by a republican form of government1 which1 despite several attempts to restore the empire1 has endured to the present day4 ,in the sugar-growing regions of the north and center methods of cultivation do not show much improvement over the practice of early times4 ,cane is planted in holes about nine inches deep and five feet apart1 no fertilizer being used4 ,some five weeks later the soil is turned up and after fifteen months' growth the cane matures4 ,in ,so ,paulo1 however1 the planters work on more scientific lines1 and ploughing1 furrowing1 tilling1 fertilizing and weeding are done in a thorough manner4 ,the crop depends upon rainfall entirely1 and in a normal season ripens in from fourteen to sixteen months4 ,as soon as the cane is cut the dry cane leaves are burned and ploughing begins4 ,the plough passes close enough to the cane roots to tear them more or less1 thus helping the new growth4 ,shortly after the new cane shoots appear1 the ground is spaded up or ploughed1 just as in the case of plant cane4 ,ratoons ripen in twelve or fourteen months1 and as a rule four to six ratoon crops are grown before replanting is done4 ,the yield of cane varies with the rainfall and the richness of the soil1 and ranges from #bj to #cj tons per acre for first ratoons1 diminishing with succeeding crops4 ,the sugar content frequently reaches #ah per cent4 ,cane is grown either by colonos or by indentured laborers4 ,in the colono system a tract of land from #i to #cf acres in size and planted to cane is assigned by the estate to a group of colonos according to their number4 ,the colonos care for the cane during its period of growth and harvest it when ripe4 ,for this they receive the equivalent of #ab4ej ,american gold per acre4 ,assuming that the yield per acre is #bj tons1 the cost to the owner of the estate of cultivating and harvesting a ton of cane is #fb cents4 ,the colono is given pasture land for his cattle1 fuel and house rent free4 ,the indentured laborers are allotted a certain amount of untilled ground1 which they prepare1 plant and cultivate4 ,seed cane1 houses and pasturage are furnished gratis1 and when the cane is ripe they harvest it4 ,the amount paid the indentured laborers for cane raised in this way fluctuates according to the market value of sugar4 ,for example1 in ,so ,paulo when the price of sugar is #d4da gold per hundredweight1 the laborer gets #b4bc per ton for his cane2 when the price exceeds #d4da and is less than #e4ij per hundredweight1 he receives #b4ee per ton2 when sugar sells between #e4ij and #h4fj per hundredweight1 his share is #c4ah per ton2 should the price go over #h4fj1 he gets #c4hb per ton4 ,the practice in ,bahia is somewhat different4 ,taking as a basis a price of #b4ici gold per hundredweight for sugar1 the cane brings #a4fdf per long ton1 and for every 4#adg cent 7 cent7 per pound fluctuation in the price of sugar1 the value of cane changes #i4hh cents per ton up or down as the case may be4#ge ,in the small factories the methods of manufacture are very old-fashioned4 ,the cane is crushed between rolls of hard wood1 and the juice1 after being strained to remove the suspended impurities1 is boiled to grain in copper kettles4 ,the magma is then run into large wooden moulds having cone-shaped1 perforated bottoms4 ,the holes in the bottom of these moulds are closed when the hot massecuite is dumped in1 but as soon as it cools the plugs are taken out and the molasses allowed to drain off4 ,a layer of very wet clay is then spread over the top of the sugar1 and as the water slowly drains from the clay it passes through the sugar crystals1 carrying the mother liquor with it4 ,after this washing process has gone on for some time1 the sugar is removed from the moulds1 and the upper portion is found to be white1 or nearly so1 while underneath the color deepens into yellow and from that to brown as the bottom is reached4 ,the sugars are carefully separated according to their color1 then dried and packed in bags containing #fj kilograms or about #acb pounds each4 ,illustration3 ,,sugar ,,plantation ,,between ,,rio ,,de ,,janeiro ,,and ,s,o ,,paulo1 ,,brazil ,it will readily be seen that the loss in extraction by such means is very great4 ,in fact1 from cane having a sugar content of #ae per cent1 sometimes not more than between #e per cent and #f per cent of sugar is recovered4 ,the best results are naturally obtained in the large factories1 or usines1 but even there1 owing to poor crushing1 #i per cent of the weight of the cane in sugar is considered satisfactory4 ,in the usines the juices are treated with sulphur and neutralized with lime4 ,they are then allowed to settle1 after which they are boiled to grain and the crystals separated from the mother liquor in centrifugal machines4 ,the sugar is dried and the remaining liquor is returned to the pans for reboiling4 ,the various grades produced are3 ,cristaes blancos 7white washed sugar7 ,cristaes amarellos 7first yellow1 termed ,demerara7 ,mascavinhos 7second yellow1 fine grain7 ,mascavos 7dark brown sugar1 final product7 ,the greater portion of the sugars made in ,brazil is refined1 but a certain amount goes directly into consumption in its raw state4 ,refining on a large scale according to ,european methods has been tried at various times1 but1 owing to the high cost of labor1 fuel and transportation1 all these attempts have proved unsuccessful4 ,then again1 the demand for sugar prepared in the ,european way is not great1 the ,brazilians preferring the moist fine-grained sugar made in the small refineries4 ,this sugar has a molasses taste1 polarizes about #ia degrees and carries about #b per cent of glucose4 ,in manufacturing the white grade1 a liquor of #ca degrees ,baum#gf is first made from raw sugar4 ,this is clarified with ox-blood and filtered through bone-char1 after which the clear liquor is boiled at a temperature of #bff degrees ,fahrenheit over an open fire until only about #d per cent of water remains4 ,it is then removed from the fire1 a small quantity of dry granulated sugar is added and the mass is stirred with a wooden paddle4 ,cool1 dry1 fine-grained sugar is the result4 ,the yellow grade1 or terzira1 as it is called1 is made in exactly the same manner1 except that no clarifying or filtering is done4 ,the rich molasses odor and taste of this sugar please the popular palate to such an extent that it commands a higher price than white granulated sugar refined by the most modern processes4 ,in fact nearly #ge per cent of the sugar consumed in ,rio de ,janeiro is terzira4 ,its manufacture does not require expensive equipment or any great amount of technical skill1 hence it appeals to the native merchants and confectioners4 ,recently the government has put forth some effort to encourage and improve the sugar industry1 but so far without much success4 ,a law was passed in #ahge guaranteeing a return of #g per cent upon the money expended in constructing central factories1 a given number being allowed each state4 ,this act was modified some years later and the rate of interest reduced to #f per cent1 but as the refunding period was longer it met with more favor than the first and a number of concessions were granted4 ,in #ahhi the state of ,pernambuco appropriated a sum equal to #ace1jjj4jj gold to be divided among forty factories1 with the understanding that repayment was to be begun after the harvesting of the third crop and extended over a period of twenty years4 ,all this legislation had no definite result4 ,a few years ago1 a combination of the producers was formed for the purpose of maintaining a high price for domestic sugar by setting aside a certain fixed amount for export4 ,at first this was #bj per cent1 but it was afterward increased to #dj per cent4 ,the plan1 however1 was ineffectual4 ,a heavy import duty 7about #e4hf cents per pound7 prohibits the bringing in of foreign sugars1 so that ,brazil must provide for her requirements within her own borders4 ,accurate information concerning production1 distribution and prices is hard to obtain4 ,bad transportation facilities1 diversity of customs regulations between the states1 and the vast number of small producers who sell to the consumer direct1 make the compilation of dependable data almost an impossibility4 ,the statistics that are submitted1 therefore1 are approximative4 ,brazil's sugar exports grow less and less4 ,the ,united ,states no longer depends upon her for supplies1 so that the outlook for the industry in ,brazil is not bright at the present time4 ,modern refining methods are not regarded with favor by the people and any considerable extension in production seems remote4 ,,production ,,in ,,brazil #ahia #ahe1jjj tons #ahib #bjj1jjj 0 #ahic #bge1jjj 0 #ahid #bge1jjj 0 #ahie #bbe1jjj 0 #ahif #baj1jjj 0 #ahig #bje1jjj 0 #ahih #aea1ejj 0 #ahii #age1jjj 0 #aijj #bef1dfj 0 #aija #cab1ieg 0 #aijb #bed1fic 0 #aijc #ahg1ejj 0 #aijd #aig1jjj 0 #aije #aie1jjj 0 #aijf #bge1jjj 0 #aijg #bae1jjj 0 #aijh #ahj1jjj 0 #aiji #bdh1jjj 0 #aiaj #bec1jjj 0 #aiaa #bhg1jjj 0 #aiab #bce1jjj 0 #aiac #bjd1jjj 0 #aiad #bjc1cid 0 #aiae #bdj1jjj 0 #aiaf #aid1jjj 0 ,,british ,,guiana ,guiana1 in its widest meaning1 is the name given to that part of ,south ,america that lies between #h degrees #dj minutes north and #c degrees #cj minutes south latitude and #ej degrees and #fh degrees #cj minutes west longitude4 ,this vast territory1 about #fij1jjj square miles in area1 comprises ,venezuelan ,guiana1 ,british ,guiana1 ,dutch ,guiana 7,surinam71 ,french ,guiana 7,cayenne71 and ,brazilian ,guiana4 ,the first of these divisions is now part of ,venezuela and the last is included in ,brazil4 ,the coast of ,british ,guiana is fringed by low1 alluvial flats1 the result of deposit by the rivers4 ,beginning at three feet below high-water mark1 these flats extend inland #be or #cj miles1 rising imperceptibly about #ae feet4 ,beyond is a broad1 rolling region of sandy clay formation1 #aej feet above sea-level1 which runs back to the forest-covered hills4 ,two ranges of mountains traverse the country from west to east and a third chain forms the southern boundary and the watershed between the ,essequibo and the ,amazon4 ,the highest mountain peak is ,roraima on the western border1 #hfce feet4 ,the rivers of ,british ,guiana and their tributaries form a network of waterways throughout the country and they are practically the only transportation routes from the coast into the interior4 ,the most important are the ,essequibo1 the ,demerara1 the ,berbice and the ,corentyn4 ,the ,essequibo has its source in the ,acari mountains near the equator at #hej feet above the sea1 and it flows north about #fjj miles1 reaching the ,atlantic by an estuary #ae miles wide1 in which there are a number of large and fertile islands4 ,at one time sugar cane was grown on four of these islands1 but today only one1 ,wakenaam1 has a sugar mill4 ,for the ten months beginning with ,october and ending in ,july1 the temperature on the coast is even1 as the northeast trade winds keep it down to #hj degrees ,fahrenheit on an average1 but the cessation of the trades in ,august and ,september makes the heat oppressive4 ,hurricanes are unknown and but little damage is caused in the coast regions by earthquakes1 owing to the character of the soil4 ,in the interior the year is divided into one wet and one dry season1 but in the low-lying coast country1 where the sugar plantations are1 there are two wet and two dry periods4 ,the long wet season begins about the middle of ,april and lasts until ,august2 the long dry period is from ,september to the end of ,november4 ,the rainfall varies greatly according to locality2 on the coast the yearly average is #hj inches4 ,in #aiad the population was estimated to be #cjd1jhi2 of these #abj1jjj were negroes1 #abd1jjj ,east ,indians1 #aa1fjj ,portuguese1 #dcjj ,europeans of other nationalities1 #fejj aborigines and over #cj1jjj of mixed race4 ,guiana was sighted by ,columbus in #adih and by ,alonzo de ,ojeda and ,amerigo ,vespucci in the year following4 ,vicente ,yaez ,pinzon is credited with having sailed up some of the rivers in #aejj and ,sir ,walter ,raleigh ascended the ,orinoco in #aeie in quest of the mythical city ,el ,dorado4 ,dutch traders reached ,guiana in #aeih and by #afac they had established several settlements on the coast of ,demerara and ,essequibo4 ,meanwhile ,english and ,french adventurers were endeavoring to obtain a foothold in ,surinam and ,cayenne1 which they succeeded in doing in #afeb4 ,the colony of ,essequibo was under the administration of the ,dutch ,west ,india company from #afba until #agia1 when the company was dissolved4 ,a ,dutch settlement established on the ,berbice river in #afbd was the beginning of the colony of that name1 which was taken under the protection of the ,states-general of ,holland in #agcb4 ,demerara1 formerly a dependency of ,essequibo1 became a separate colony in #aggc4 ,in #agha the three colonies1 ,essequibo1 ,demerara and ,berbice1 were captured by ,british privateers4 ,the following year they were taken by ,france1 and restored to ,holland in #aghc4 ,the ,british took possession a second time in #agif1 retaining them for about six years1 at the end of which period they passed back into the hands of ,holland once more4 ,the ,british occupied them in #ahjc and they were formally ceded to ,great ,britain in #ahae4 ,the three colonies were consolidated into one under the name of ,british ,guiana in #ahca4 ,essequibo1 ,berbice and ,demerara all produced a considerable amount of sugar during the ,dutch rgime4 ,the plantations were on coast and river lands that had been diked and drained4 ,like all sugar-growing countries1 this colony was adversely affected by the abolition of slavery1 but owing to the success that attended the introduction of coolies from ,hindustan1 the labor situation never became so acute as it did in many islands of the ,west ,indies4 ,traffic in ,african negro slaves was forbidden in #ahjh4 ,after #ahcd the sugar planters sought free laborers in the neighboring islands and in ,madeira4 ,many people who had been deprived of their means of livelihood by the destruction of the vineyards of ,madeira by disease settled in ,british ,guiana4 ,the importation of free negroes from ,british ,african possessions was sanctioned by the home government in #ahdj1 and between that year and #ahfe a large number of slaves taken by ,british war ships from ,cuban and ,brazilian slavers were landed in ,british ,guiana1 where they found employment as free laborers4 ,this source of labor supply was cut off by the abolition of slavery in ,brazil and other countries4 ,in #ahfg the importation of free blacks from ,british ,africa was prohibited and the movement to supply laborers from ,china came to an end4 ,the ,chinese experiment was repeated in #ahgd and #ahgh1 but never since4 ,the bringing in of ,british ,indians1 however1 proved a success ever since the time it was first done in #ahch4 ,these laborers are indentured for five years1 and five years after the expiration of their contract they have the privilege of being taken back to their homes1 without charge4 ,during the five years following their contract term they can obtain work as free hands and they may acquire small parcels of land4 ,in fact many of them have become land owners and have settled permanently in the colony4 ,there are also a considerable number who1 after having gone back to ,india1 return to ,british ,guiana of their own volition and at their own expense to work as free laborers4 ,most of the sugar plantations are found on the seacoast on lands formerly marshy that have been diked and drained either by sluices or by pumping4 ,the plantations along the river banks1 too1 are on reclaimed lands that have been drained by sluices4 ,in #aiaa there were #afj1jjj acres of reclaimed land in the colony1 and #ha1jjj acres of it were devoted to sugar cane4 ,the plantations are oblong in shape1 one end fronting on the sea or the river1 as the case may be4 ,originally they varied in size from #ejj to #ajjj acres1 but in many instances consolidation has taken place4 ,the dike next to the sea is naturally the strongest and most carefully built1 while those at the sides and rear are less substantial4 ,as a rule1 there is a broad road that runs through the middle of the plantation1 with a navigable canal on either side4 ,these canals contain fresh water1 salt water and flood waters being kept out by a gate through which excess fresh water may run off at low tide4 ,short feeder canals run at right angles1 and as they are not connected with the drainage canals they may contain salt water if necessary4 ,in crossing a transportation canal1 the waters of drainage canals pass underneath through a siphon4 ,between these transportation canals are the cane fields1 from ten to twenty acres in size1 and separated from one another by small drainage ditches4 ,the largest transportation canals are between sixteen and twenty feet wide at the top1 between twelve and sixteen feet wide at the bottom and four to five feet deep4 ,the smaller transportation canals are twelve feet wide at the top1 nine feet wide at the bottom and four to five feet deep4 ,the large drainage canals are fifteen feet wide and four feet deep1 and the irrigation ditches are from two to three feet wide and three feet deep4 ,before planting cane in virgin soil the trees are cut down1 the ground is cleared of grass and weeds1 canals are dug1 furrows are made at intervals of from six to seven feet1 and then the planting is done4 ,a month later weeds are removed1 the young shoots are banked and the ground between the furrows is loosened4 ,when five months old the cane is trashed#gg and weeding is done if necessary4 ,after an interval of three months this operation is repeated1 and when the cane is a year old the final trashing is done1 the harvesting following two weeks afterward4 ,when the cane has been cut1 the ground is loosened once more1 the dry leaves are put in the spaces between the furrows and covered with earth1 the young cane shoots come up1 and in another year the ratoons are ready for harvesting4 ,two or three ratoon crops are grown on the same land1 but as soon as the yield gets too small the ground is left fallow and planting is done elsewhere4 ,until recently ,bourbon cane was the only variety raised in ,british ,guiana4 ,of late1 however1 many kinds of seedling cane have been introduced1 and today it is estimated that more than one-half of the crop comes from seedling stock4 ,fertilizing is done with phosphates1 guano1 potash1 sulphate of ammonia and stable manure4 ,the cane is brought from the fields to the mills by canal in flat-bottomed boats4 ,the equipment in the factories is good1 as a whole2 crushing is efficiently done and the juices are boiled to grain in vacuum pans4 ,in addition to #if-;degree centrifugals and second sugars1 the celebrated 8,demerara crystals0 are produced4 ,in making the latter the juice is kept acid throughout the process1 from one to five per cent being lost through inversion4 ,chloride of tin is added in the vacuum pan to heighten the yellow color4 ,the greater part of the molasses goes into the manufacture of rum1 and a certain quantity1 mixed with ground bagasse1 finds a market in ,england as cattle food4 ,while on virgin soil the yield of cane runs as high as sixty to seventy tons to the acre1 the average is about twenty tons per acre1 and the extraction of sugar equals #h per cent of the weight of the cane4 ,in late years the number of sugar mills has grown less1 owing to the merging of many small plants into a few large ones4 ,in #aijh the area planted in cane was #gc1dga acres1 and there were forty-two plantations1 six of them less than #ajjj acres1 twenty-five over #ajjj acres1 six over #bjjj acres1 four over #cjjj acres1 and one over #gjjj acres in size4 ,over half of the sugar exported goes to ,canada1 the remainder being taken by ,great ,britain and the ,united ,states4 ,as to the future of ,british ,guiana's sugar industry1 early in #aiae a letter was sent by the government secretary of the colony to the ,west ,india committee in ,london in which it is stated that the possible annual crop on suitable sugar lands eastward of the ,pomeroon river is not less than #a1jjj1jjj tons1 while1 if the large virgin alluvial areas to the east of the ,pomeroon river and between there and the ,venezuelan boundary were brought under cultivation1 the maximum total output might reach #b1ejj1jjj tons per annum4 ,this letter was in reply to a communication addressed by the ,west ,india committee to the governors of all of the ,british sugar-growing possessions for the purpose of securing information regarding the possibilities of development of the industry4 ,hitherto the ,united ,kingdom has been largely dependent upon foreign countries for its sugar supply1 and the movement thus set on foot by the ,west ,india committee is to urge upon the home government the importance of drawing the entire sugar requirements of the country from its colonies4 ,this of course would mean the establishment of a preferential tariff4 ,exports from ,british ,guiana since #ahie1 in tons of #bbdj pounds3 #ahie-if #aja1jei #ahif-ig #ajg1jgc #ahig-ih #ajj1hci #ahih-ii #if1fdh #ahii-jj #hd1ghc #aijj-ja #id1gde #aija-jb #aje1fid #aijb-jc #abj1abg #aijc-jd #abe1idi #aijd-je #aja1bgh #aije-jf #aba1fic #aijf-jg #abj1ccd #aijg-jh #ii1gcg #aijh-ji #aag1agf #aiji-aj #aja1hdc #aiaj-aa #ajh1big #aiaa-ab #hc1bid #aiab-ac #hc1ibb #aiac-ad #ajc1ggd #aiad-ae #aac1fcb #aiae-af #aaj1jjjgh ,illustration3 ,,train-,,load ,,of ,,cane ,,en ,,route ,,to ,,the ,,ingenio ,,la ,,mendieta1 ,,argentina ,illustration3 ,,unloading ,a ,,car ,,of ,,cane1 ,,tucum,n1 ,,argentina ,,argentina ,the ,argentine republic occupies the southeastern extremity of ,south ,america1 and extends from #ba degrees #ee minutes to #ee degrees #b minutes south latitude1 and from #ec degrees #dj minutes to #gc degrees #ag minutes west longitude4 ,from north to south its length is #bbhe miles1 and its greatest width is #icj miles4 ,its area is #a1ace1hdjgi square miles1 and the population1 including the nomadic peoples1 numbers about #h1jjj1jjj4 ,physically1 the surface of the country comprises three great divisions3 the ,andes and the high plateaus to the west1 the vast plains of the east and the desolate1 barren wastes of ,patagonia4 ,only the northern part lies within the latitudes where sugar cane can be grown1 and owing to the mountainous character of that region the area available for cane culture is limited4 ,the provinces of ,tucumn1 ,jujuy1 ,salta1 ,santa ,f and ,corrientes1 and the territories of ,formosa1 ,chaco and ,missiones produce the entire sugar crop4 ,argentina's great length and the range of altitude within her borders1 from the lofty1 snow-clad peaks of the ,andes eastward to sea-level1 give a widely varied climate1 upon which the prevailing winds and the mountain barriers exert a further influence4 ,in the extreme north there is a stretch of country extending about ninety miles into the torrid zone and running from the ,pilcomayo river1 five hundred miles west1 to the ,chilean border4 ,the eastern part of this region consists of a low1 wooded plain where the mean annual temperature is #gc degrees ,fahrenheit and the average annual rainfall is #fc inches4 ,the western end is a dry plateau where the temperature drops below #eg degrees ,fahrenheit and the rainfall is only about two inches during the year4 ,in the cane-growing district the rainy season is from ,october to ,march4 ,at times during the winter the frost is severe enough to partially wither the cane leaves1 but it never wholly kills the cane4 ,sugar cane was brought to the ,la ,plata region by the ,jesuits1 and it appears in the records of the ,santo ,domingo monastery that sugar was manufactured in ,tucumn as early as #afgj4 ,after the banishment of the ,jesuits nearly one hundred years later1 the industry quickly declined1 in fact as late as #ahga the total production of ,argentina did not exceed #ajjj tons4 ,development in ,tucumn followed the completion of the railway1 which opened outside markets to the planters of the province in #ahgf4 ,railway transportation facilities brought in modern factory equipment and machinery4 ,as a result numerous small primitive mills were eliminated and their owners turned to sugar-cane growing4 ,stimulated by a heavy protective tariff1 the cane-producing area in ,tucumn increased from #ab1jjj to #ajd1jjj acres between #ahha and #ahif1 and in other provinces the industry made substantial progress4 ,by #ahid the output exceeded the country's requirements4 ,this led the government to concede an export bounty in #ahif1 and a syndicate called the ,unin ,azucarera was formed by the producers1 who agreed to deliver to it #fj per cent of their product4 ,from #ahif to #aijd exports of sugar varied from #ae1jjj to #ej1jjj tons per annum4 ,conditions changed1 however4 ,the other ,south ,american countries would not buy ,argentine sugar1 the ,united ,states had fixed a countervailing duty on all bounty-fed sugars1 and ,great ,britain was contemplating their exclusion entirely4 ,to save the situation1 therefore1 it was decided to curtail the output1 and the following plan was adopted3 ,illustration3 ,,battery ,,of ,,boilers1 ,,ingenio ,,la ,,trinidad1 ,,tucum,n1 ,,argentina ,illustration3 ,,home ,,of ,,superintendent ,,of ,a ,,sugar ,,plantation1 ,,tucum,n1 ,,argentina ,an arbitrary amount was fixed as the total production of the factories in operation1 and this tonnage was prorated among them according to their capacity4 ,upon every #ajj kilograms 7#bbj4df lbs47 produced in excess of the allotment1 a tax equivalent to #dh cents#hj was levied1 and factories where operations were not started until after the passage of the law were taxed at this rate upon #be per cent of their output4 ,the fund raised in this way furnished the compensation for the growers who destroyed their cane crops or left them unharvested4 ,a certain sum was applied to the payment of export bounty#ha and the remainder went into the national treasury4 ,the ,brussels convention1 by its provision for countervailing duties1 nullified the effect of the export bounty and in #aije the export privileges were withdrawn4 ,in #aiab the import duty was established at #c4he cents gold per pound for #if-;degree sugars and #b4igg cents per pound for sugars testing under #if degrees4 ,a yearly reduction of about one-tenth of a cent per pound was provided for until the rate of #if-;degree sugars shall reach #c4jfde cents per pound1 and that for those under #if degrees #b4ai cents4 ,countervailing duties were also imposed on foreign bounty-fed sugars4 ,tucumn produces between #hj per cent and #he per cent of ,argentina's total crop1 the remainder coming largely from ,jujuy4 ,from the 8,boletin ,mensual de ,estadistica ,agricola10 ,buenos ,aires1 ,august1 #aiac1 the following figures are taken3 ,,provinces ,,no4 ,,of ,,factories ,,raw ,,sugar ,,yield ,,tons ,,per ,,cent ,tucumn #bh #aba1eea #f4h ,salta #a #a1bij #h4i ,jujuy #c #bj1jeb #g4i ,chaco #c #b1gfb #e4i ,formosa #a #bca #f4j ,santa ,f #b #hch #f4c ,corrientes #a #ebe #f4f -- ------- --- #ci #adg1bdi #f4i ,at the present time1 ,argentina has over #bjj1jjj acres in sugar cane1 and this area can be considerably increased4 ,the present production about takes care of the country's needs1 although a round amount of ,american refined sugar was imported in the latter part of #aiaf4 ,field methods admit of great improvement4 ,little care is exercised in the selection of seed cane and disinfection is never practiced4 ,planting is done in ,september and ,october1 when the rainy season sets in4 ,irrigation from rivers and streams is the rule2 fertilizers are seldom used1 and no preventive measures are adopted to combat diseases of the cane4 ,the yield of cane per acre in poor soil is from nine to fifteen tons1 in average soil from eleven to seventeen tons1 while on the best lands it is eighteen tons4 ,ratoon crops are raised fifteen or more years in succession without replanting1 and the period between frosts is too short to admit of the cane reaching maturity4 ,grinding is begun about ,june #ast and usually takes one hundred days1 depending1 naturally1 upon the amount of cane to be crushed4 ,illustration3 ,,ingenio ,,nueva ,,baviera1 ,,tucum,n1 ,,argentina ,illustration3 ,,ingenio ,,nueva ,,baviera1 ,,tucum,n1 ,,argentina ,the factories are modern and equipped with machinery and apparatus of the latest type1 but notwithstanding this the recovery of sugar is poor1 owing to the quality of the cane4 ,in #aiaa the average extraction obtained by the factories of ,tucumn was #g4fe per cent4 ,a few factories make white sugar for direct consumption1 but the great part of the output consists of raw centrifugal sugar1 which is subsequently refined4 ,most of ,argentina's refined sugar is produced by the ,refineria ,argentina of ,rosario4 ,argentina's sugar industry could not live without a protective tariff1 on account of the high cost of production1 which even in the best factories is about #d cents gold per pound4 ,there is no chance to build up an export business now1 so1 unless conditions change1 the production must adjust itself to take care of the consumption and no more4 ,the statistics from #aijf to #aiae are in long tons3 ,,production ,,imports ,,raw ,,raw ,,refined #aijf #aad1dbf #fdf #a1bfj #aijg #ajg1fid #ca1dcd #aa1cia #aijh #aeg1hde #aj1fdh #bd1bga #aiji #aba1hia #ac1edf #e1hih #aiaj #adf1dgb #cc1edb #bb1cdb #aiaa #agg1baa #ag1hff #cc1bjf #aiab #adg1gca #ah1gbh #aj1hff #aiac #bge1hcd #be1jha #di1jid #aiad #ccj1dfj #aed #f1bej #aiae #adi1hfd #a #bb ,,formosa ,the ,japanese island of ,formosa 7,taiwan7 lies off the coast of ,china1 about two hundred miles north of the ,philippines1 between #ba degrees #de minutes and #be degrees #ch minutes north latitude and #abj degrees #aj minutes and #abb degrees east longitude4 ,it is about two hundred and twenty-five miles long and narrow in shape2 its width is seventy-seven miles and its total area #ac1ejd square miles4 ,a range of mountains runs from north to south1 and the highest peak is #ac1fjj feet4 ,the mountainous region is rugged and well wooded1 but in the southwestern part there is a fertile plain which is very productive4 ,rice1 tea and sugar are grown pretty much all along the western portion of the island4 ,in the west1 too1 are found the best seaports and bays1 also the most important towns4 ,in #aije ,formosa had about #c1jjj1jjj inhabitants1 nearly all of whom were ,chinese4 ,the climate is tropical1 and at sea-level the average temperature in ,july1 which is the hottest month1 is about #gb degrees ,fahrenheit1 while in ,february1 the coldest month1 the mean is #ea4f degrees4 ,sugar has been known in the island for a great many years4 ,there is a record of a shipment having been made from there to the ,netherlands as far back as #afbb1 from which time the trade was carried on until the competition of the ,west ,indies closed the ,european markets to ,formosan sugars4 ,nevertheless1 the industry prospered and the production grew until during the last years of ,chinese rule it amounted to something between #fj1jjj and #hj1jjj tons annually4 ,nearly all of this was soft brown sugar of fine grain1 the remainder being a so-called white sugar1 made by purging the brown sugar crystals of their syrup4 ,the island was seized by ,japan in #ahie1 but the ,formosans made a stubborn resistance to the invaders1 and it was not until #ahih that they were finally subdued and a stable government established by the ,japanese4 ,an insurrection broke out in #aijb1 but was quickly put down1 and since then there has been no further trouble4 ,in #ahie ,formosa had something near one thousand small mills1 all driven by buffaloes4 ,the product was a brown clayed sugar1 similar to that made in the ,philippines1 and one-half of it was consumed locally1 the other half going to ,china and ,japan4 ,after the subjugation of ,formosa in #ahih1 the ,japanese were not immediately able to set about repairing the damage caused by the war4 ,two years later1 however1 they took up the task with characteristic energy and thoroughness1 and the sugar industry soon felt the effects of the movement4 ,in #aijb measures were passed providing for the establishment of a sugar station at ,tainan and for the investigation of all questions relating to the industry4 ,young ,japanese students were sent to ,java1 ,hawaii and ,europe to look into methods employed in the cultivation and manufacture of sugar in those countries and to determine by careful observation and study what would be best suited to ,formosan conditions4 ,seed cane was brought in from other countries and comparisons of results obtained from the different plantings were made at an experiment station built by the government at ,daimokko4 ,striped ,tanna and ,lahaina canes throve well1 but they were rejected because they required an extraordinary amount of irrigation and constant care4 ,the ,rose ,bamboo1 on the other hand1 was hardier and did not need so much water1 consequently the experts at the sugar station did everything they possibly could to encourage its use4 ,at the same time the government offered companies starting sugar refineries a bonus of six per cent per annum for five years on the paid-up capital1 or a single bonus of twenty per cent of the value of the plant and equipment4 ,other enterprises were supplied with machinery by the government for five years2 in other words1 the machinery was bought with government money and the sugar company was given five years in which to reimburse the government4 ,cane lands could be acquired on very favorable terms1 and any planter who was willing to bind himself to raise a crop of cane for five consecutive years was supplied with fertilizer by the government1 free of cost4 ,these privileges remained open until the early part of #aiaa1 when they were abrogated4 ,about the first enterprise to receive the benefit of this special legislation was the ,taiwan ,sugar company1 incorporated in #aijj with a paid-in capital of #ejj1jjj yen1 which carried a bonus of #cj1jjj yen from the government4 ,the company's intention was to buy the cane from the growers and make it into sugar for the ,japanese market4 ,the factory was ready for business by the fall of the following year1 but as soon as grinding was begun the ,chinese farmers manifested a decided unwillingness to furnish cane4 ,as a consequence1 the sugar company determined to grow its own cane1 and after increasing its capital to #a1jjj1jjj yen proceeded to carry out this plan4 ,arrangements were made to turn out #cj tons of sugar per day during the grinding period of #aej days1 but the first year's results were only #abjj tons4 ,two factories near ,tainan owned by ,chinese were started about this time at the instigation of the government1 and also with its assistance4 ,unfortunately1 the operators did not understand how to use the modern equipment furnished them by the authorities4 ,further trouble arose in connection with the buying of the cane and there was constant friction between the factories and the government experts at the sugar bureau4 ,so the venture proved far from profitable either to the factories or the industry4 ,the ,chinese growers continued to cling tenaciously to their crude method of grinding cane in their buffalo-driven mills1 instead of selling it to the factories1 and they obstinately refused to plant the new and more productive variety of cane1 ,rose ,bamboo1 imported from the ,hawaiian islands by the government for seed purposes--this in spite of the fact that cane tops for planting could be obtained gratis at the sugar station1 and that the substitution of the better cane entitled the farmer to free fertilizer1 irrigation privileges and a money bonus4 ,it was plain that the government would have to take more vigorous action to save its sugar program for ,formosa from complete failure1 so in #aije new regulations were framed and made public4 ,under these rules no one could embark in the business of manufacturing sugar without first securing the official sanction of the director of the sugar bureau4 ,a fixed territory was assigned to the newcomer with the express understanding that no other factory could be established there and that all the cane growers in the territory were obligated to sell their cane to the factory and forbidden to send it out of the district or put it to any other use4 ,the factory owner on his side bound himself to take all the cane grown in his district1 even if the supply should be greater than his needs4 ,in order to stimulate modern methods of manufacture1 the sugar bureau prohibited the grinding of cane by the growers in their buffalo mills1 except by special permission4 ,in certain sections of the island where there was no cane cultivation1 large tracts of land might be granted outright to persons engaging in sugar raising and manufacture4 ,in such cases the capacity of the factory and the period of operation was agreed upon in advance1 and as soon as the land was planted to cane1 the title to it passed to the factory4 ,if1 however1 the owners of the factory failed to act in good faith1 the undertaking was declared void and the factory dismantled4 ,by #aiaa twenty-nine large factories were in operation and nine others were being built4 ,every one of these establishments was new and equipped with the latest and most improved machinery4 ,it was officially announced in ,november1 #aiaj1 that no further charters authorizing the forming of new sugar companies or the extending of the operations of those already in existence would be issued1 the reason given being the desire to limit the production to the requirements of ,japan until such a time as an outlet could be found in the markets of the world4 ,the measure was regarded as a temporary one4 ,the opposition of the native farmer to the new order of things was not overcome at once4 ,cane plantings decreased at first1 but when the natives realized that cane paid them better than other crops1 they gradually resumed cultivating it on the same scale as formerly1 and the government bonus on ,rose ,bamboo cane helped matters still further4 ,as long as the manufacturers are far-seeing enough to pay the grower a fair figure for his cane1 the supply will be forthcoming4 ,conversely1 if too low a price is offered1 the farmer will be driven to raise other crops1 and1 as the factory cannot purchase cane outside of its own district1 lack of material will prevent it from running at full capacity1 which means a heavy loss4 ,so there is an excellent reason for maintaining the price of cane at a point which enables the grower to make a profit4 ,another potent factor1 too1 is that the price must receive the approval of the government4 ,it is significant that the factories built between #aijg and #aiaa have all been put up without government aid4 ,illustration3 ,,kohekirin ,,mill1 ,,formosa ,irrigation in ,formosa has not been developed to any extent and the crop depends upon the rainfall4 ,in the southern part of the island the monsoons are fairly regular and plentiful rains can be counted upon between ,june and ,september1 with a dry period from ,november to ,april4 ,in the north climatic conditions are not so good1 and consequently all of the large sugar enterprises are to be found in the south4 ,ploughing by the natives is poorly done with wooden ploughs1 but the modern plantations use steam ploughs with excellent results4 ,cane is planted every year and there are no ratoon crops4 ,grinding usually takes #aej days1 beginning in ,november and ending in ,may4 ,the old-fashioned mills turn out a soft brown or yellowish white1 open-pan sugar4 ,the modern plants make centrifugal sugar only1 practically all of which goes to ,japan1 although shipments have been made to ,china1 ,korea1 ,hong ,kong and even ,canada4 ,the molasses is consumed at home4 ,just how much of the open-pan brown sugar is used in ,formosa itself it is impossible to determine1 but ,willett ,gray's figures for the crops1 by years1 since #aija clearly show what strides the industry has made3 #aija-jb #dh1cha long tons #aijb-jc #cd1gfi 0 #aijc-jd #fj1fej 0 #aijd-je #ej1bgf 0 #aije-jf #fd1aij 0 #aijf-jg #ha1ddh 0 #aijg-jh #fh1dej 0 #aijh-ji #abb1jjj 0 #aiji-aj #bje1jjj 0 #aiaj-aa #bfg1jjj 0 #aiaa-ab #agc1bbd 0 #aiab-ac #aac1ajj 0 #aiac-ad #aij1jjj 0 #aiad-ae #ahf1jjj 0 #aiae-af #bij1iec 0 #aiaf-ag #cch1iig 0#hb ,the crop of #aiaa-ab suffered severely from prolonged drought at planting time1 and the typhoons of ,august1 #aiaa1 devastated the cane fields4 ,the effect of this disaster was to deter the natives from planting cane the following year1 and in consequence the production for that season was cut down more than fifty per cent4 ,it is obvious that the rapid development in ,formosa has been brought about by the paternal policy of the government1 without whose powerful aid the industry would in all probability have made but slow progress4 ,the total of ,japan's sugar consumption is about #cjj1jjj tons per annum1 and it is perhaps safe to hazard the guess that her statesmen will do everything they can in reason to encourage production in her own territory until this quantity shall have been reached4#hc ,,java ,java1 the seat of the colonial government of the ,dutch ,east ,indies1 lies in the ,indian ocean south of ,sumatra and ,borneo1 between #aje degrees #ab minutes and #aad degrees #ce minutes east longitude1 and between #e degrees #eb minutes and #h degrees #df minutes south latitude4 ,it is #fbb miles long and #aba miles wide at its greatest breadth1 and this narrows to about #ee miles toward the middle of the island4 ,the area of ,java proper is #dh1ejd square miles1 ,madura comprises #agcb square miles and the smaller islands under ,javan jurisdiction cover #adaf square miles4 ,of the three general divisions of ,java1 the east1 the middle and the west1 each has certain structural features of its own4 ,in west ,java the highlands lie to the south and the lowlands to the north4 ,middle ,java takes in the isthmus and part of the wide eastern portion4 ,in the isthmus the mountain barrier on the south is less regular and the northern plains are broken to a certain extent4 ,the eastern division is made up of an intricate confusion of hills and valleys1 except on the south coast1 where the mountain range forms a continuous barrier4 ,the shore line of the north coast is low everywhere1 with morasses1 sand dunes and shifting river mouths1 but it is of much greater importance than the south coast1 which is steep1 at intervals rocky and constantly battered by a violent surf4 ,java is one of the most distinctly volcanic regions of the world--it has fourteen active volcanoes and one hundred and twenty-five recognized volcanic centers4 ,both the north and south coast lines are broken by rivers1 the principal ones being on the north4 ,in the dry season they contain little water1 but during the rainy monsoon#hd they frequently become rushing torrents that burst their banks and overflow the surrounding country4 ,such inundations carry with them a considerable amount of disintegrated volcanic rock1 part of which is deposited on the plains and swept seaward4 ,in this manner the alluvial plains near the river courses are formed and the shoals in the harbors and at the river mouths as well4 ,java enjoys a comparatively even temperature the year round4 ,ninety-six degrees ,fahrenheit was recorded in ,batavia in #ahgg and that is the highest mark known4 ,the lowest was #ff degrees ,fahrenheit1 which was experienced in the same place in the same year4 ,the mean annual temperature is #gi degrees ,fahrenheit1 and the difference between the warmest and the coldest months is #a4h degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,the year is divided into two seasons by the prevailing winds--the rainy period1 that of the wet monsoon1 from ,november to ,march1 and the dry period the remainder of the year1 when the dry monsoon blows4 ,there is no long unbroken rainfall and no long spell of drought4 ,the average rainfall is much greater on the south coast than on the north3 in ,batavia it is #gb4bh inches yearly1 while ,majalenka has an annual fall of #age inches4 ,wind-storms are rare and hardly ever cyclonic1 but thunderstorms are of frequent occurrence4 ,under an almost vertical sun1 the day is of nearly uniform length throughout the year4 ,the plains vary in fertility according to their geological formation1 but with the exception of the regions abounding in marshes1 stretches of disintegrated coral1 and lakes1 they are tillable and productive4 ,sugar cane was brought to ,java by the ,chinese or ,hindus in very remote times4 ,the ,chinese pilgrim ,fa ,hien mentions having found sugar there when he visited the island in #dbd1he and as trading was constantly carried on between ,arabia1 ,india1 ,china and ,java1 there is but little doubt that when the secret of boiling the sugar juice to a grain was discovered it became known to all of them at once4 ,about #aebj the ,portuguese established trade relations with the natives and early in the seventeenth century the ,dutch influence began to make itself felt4 ,the ,dutch ,east ,india company built forts and set up trading stations in the coast towns2 at first it acquired only small pieces of land in ,jakatra 7,batavia7 and it was some time before its holdings were increased4 ,finally ,jakatra was conquered and the ,dutch power in ,java firmly established4 ,but little was done at the outset to help the sugar industry1 as the policy of the ,dutch ,east ,india company was to foster trade in the products of the ,east rather than undertake to raise any of the commodities itself4 ,the sugars that were sent by it to the mother country at the beginning of its operations1 therefore1 came from ,china1 ,formosa1 ,siam and ,bengal1 and no ,javan sugars reached ,holland until after #afcg1 in which year the company decided to establish sugar mills on its own land near ,batavia4 ,it also parceled out land to ,chinese sugar growers and granted them special concessions in consideration of the entire product of the land being sold to the company at an agreed figure4 ,prices and terms changed from year to year1 however1 and much confusion and dissatisfaction resulted4 ,war1 cane pests1 cattle diseases and labor troubles still further complicated the situation4 ,in #afdh the company's plantations produced #abd tons and in #afeb the outturn was #gbc tons4 ,the increase in ,west ,indian production hurt the ,javan factories and the war in ,bantam in #affj stopped development4 ,in #afeb1 twenty mills were running1 but in #affj half of the number had closed4 ,peace with ,bantam was concluded in #afhd and matters then began to improve4 ,by #agaj1 one hundred and thirty mills were in operation and the industry was extended to ,bantam1 ,cheribon and ,japara4 ,the policy of the company1 however1 was to restrict production so as to keep up prices1 and to this end it prohibited the erection of any new mills and limited the output of those that were running to eighteen tons per annum each1 thus fixing a maximum total of #bcdj tons4 ,this amount was not realized1 however1 as the number of factories decreased until in #agde only sixty-five were in operation in the territory near ,batavia4 ,the company then decided to raise the number to seventy1 and five years later it added ten more4 ,as years went on the number of factories diminished1 but their capacity increased1 and in #aggi fifty-five mills furnished #fagf tons of sugar to the company4 ,the ,dutch ,east ,india company was dissolved in #agie and the ,dutch interests in ,java passed under the control of the ,batavian republic1#hf afterward the kingdom of ,holland1 which was brought under ,french rule when ,holland fell into the hands of ,napoleon4 ,in #ahaa it was seized by ,england and was finally restored to ,holland in #ahaf4 ,all this time the regulations governing the sugar industry were being constantly changed4 ,the producers had always been at loggerheads with the company1 for while they were bound to deliver their entire output to the company1 it did not consider itself obligated to take delivery of any definite amount4 ,this left the planters in a very unsatisfactory position1 as they could never look ahead with any degree of certainty4 ,at length a law was passed in #agig calling upon the factories near ,batavia to produce #bhaj short tons yearly for the government1 with the privilege to them to dispose of any sugars made in excess of this amount for their own account4 ,a similar law affecting the factories on the north and east coasts was proposed4 ,in this territory there were thirty-one factories in #agid with a capacity of #ajjj tons1 which quantity it was proposed to increase to #bjjj tons for delivery to the government and #ejj tons for sales for account of the producers4 ,in furtherance of this plan1 the mill owners were to be granted tracts of new cane land and the government was to make cash advances up to #ej per cent of the estimated value of the growing crop4 ,these propositions were never carried into effect1 and a production of #ajjj tons per annum remained the maximum for that section of the country4 ,in the vicinity of ,batavia1 however1 the measure was a success1 especially as the government encouraged the manufacturers by increased advances and by supporting prices4 ,the result was that during the early years of the nineteenth century the production grew1 but a sharp decline came in #ahaa-ac1 and in the latter year the total production of ,java fell to about #fjj tons4 ,the causes were not hard to find4 ,holland was dominated by ,france and sea traffic was blocked by the ,british1 so that ,java had to keep her sugar in storage at home4 ,nevertheless1 the government continued to encourage the production in the hope of an early peace and so that the industry might not die out4 ,each year1 therefore1 added to the government's stocks of sugar until the amount became burdensome for financial reasons1 and the traditional policy of the government was abandoned4 ,manufacturers were allowed to dispose of their sugars freely and without restriction1 but unfortunately the privilege was granted at a time when it was impossible to sell and the ,british occupation of ,java did not mend matters4 ,when ,java was restored to ,holland in #ahaf1 the new government continued the freedom of the industry1 but it had received so severe a check that to revive it was a difficult matter4 ,in #ahbf the output was #abbj tons1 and in this year the authorities renewed the system of making advances and stimulated growth and manufacture1 so that in #ahcj the production had increased to #fgjj tons4 ,that same year a new governor-general1 van den ,bosch1 was appointed4 ,he was entrusted with the task of making the island a producer of the commodities required by the mother country and was given a free hand as to the means to be employed in accomplishing his purpose4 ,the plan he put into effect was known as the 8,cultural ,system0 and its principal features were as follows3 ,in the districts adapted to sugar cultivation1 the natives were to contribute one-third of their arable land to be planted in cane as required4 ,the natives were to till the fields1 supply fuel and cattle for ploughing and transportation1 and in consideration of this they were exempted from the free service due from them by law to the state4 ,payment for labor was to be made out of the proceeds of the crops after deducting the land tax4 ,the crushing of the cane and its manufacture into sugar was done under contract by private individuals who were assisted by government money in the building of factories4 ,the contractors turned over the sugar to the government at a fixed rate1 at the same time repaying the money advanced to them4 ,at the outset there was next to no profit for either the government or the producers1 in fact the first few years showed an actual loss1 so that it became a hard matter to induce anyone to undertake the manufacture of sugar on a contract basis4 ,this led to a modification of the regulations and the manufacturers were permitted to sell a part of their output on their own account4 ,in this way their interest was stimulated and there was a change for the better1 attended by a profit both for the producer and the state4 ,by #ahgj the government1 recognizing that the sugar industry was established on a sound footing1 decided to withdraw from any participation in the manufacture and a new set of rules was formulated1 under which the government's direct connection with the industry was confined to the growing of the cane4 ,the government then had to dispose of a portion of the land and the native labor at a just figure1 and when once the cane crop was turned over to the contractor he had to take care of any further field work1 together with the harvesting and transportation of the cane1 out of his own funds without government help4 ,commencing with the year #ahgi1 the government was to reduce its interest in the original contract plantations one-thirteenth annually1 so that government participation in both cultivation and manufacture of sugar should terminate by #ahia4 ,it was stipulated that the manufacturers could make whatever disposition of their output they wished1 and in lieu of rent for the land they planted to cane1 they were to pay a fixed price for the cane1 and in addition a premium based on the yield of the years #ahfd-fi4 ,on privately owned plantations the government exacted a tax of #aj4jj for every #a4gd acres4 ,this tax on privately grown cane was abolished in #ahhf in order to stimulate the then languishing industry1 and the premium on state plantations was cut down one-half between #ahhg and #ahia1 with the proviso that the payment of the other half should be deferred until #ahib-if4 ,unfortunately for the producers in ,java1 there was a disastrous slump in sugar prices just about the time these new measures were formulated4 ,the tremendous output of beet sugar sent the price below cost in #ahhb-hd1 and besides this a strange disease1 called sereh1 worked havoc with the cane in the fields and caused serious loss4 ,this disease made its appearance in western ,java in #ahhd and spread rapidly1 affecting the production everywhere4 ,after carrying on a hard but losing fight for some years1 the sugar men summoned science to their aid in this difficulty4 ,h4 ,c4 ,prinsen ,geerligs was called to ,java in #ahia and three experimental stations were established to fight the sereh4 ,through the efforts of the officials in charge of the experiment stations1 specimens of cane were brought from all parts of the cane-producing world1 the object being to find a cane that would be as rich in sugar as the ,black ,cheribon 7the most popular variety then grown in ,java7 and yet able to withstand the sereh4 ,fresh healthy cane was planted for seed purposes in the mountains1 far from the disease-infected region1 and much care was taken in the way of disinfection and quarantine precaution to prevent the sereh from spreading into the sections that were free from it4 ,these measures were accompanied by exhaustive scientific experiment work to find out the cause and the nature of the disease and how it could be overcome4 ,these stations not only accomplished the purpose for which they were built1 but they were of great benefit to the industry in all of its branches4 ,as a result1 planting1 growing and manufacturing methods have been vastly improved1 chemical control of factories has been introduced and economic scientific methods govern every department of the work4 ,by these means1 supported by the addition of fresh capital1 the sugar industry of ,java was not only saved from extinction1 but was lifted into a very prominent world's place1 and for years past ,java has furnished an example of remarkable efficiency and low cost of production4 ,java's sugar plantations are situated in the eastern and central part of the island4 ,the surface of much of the western end is broken and mountainous1 lacking uninterrupted stretches of level land suitable for agriculture1 and presenting obstacles to transportation4 ,the great drawback1 however1 even in the vast plain of ,krawang1 is climatic4 ,as has been said1 the ideal climate for sugar cane is one that combines abundant rain during the period of growth with an uninterrupted dry season to ripen the cane and admit of its being readily harvested and transported to the mill4 ,in west ,java these conditions do not obtain1 as the wet and dry seasons are not sharply defined4 ,the plains along the north central coast1 east of the river ,tjimanoek1 between the sea and the foothills are1 with the exception of a few open stretches1 devoted to cane growing4 ,there is also a considerable area in cane south of the central chain of mountains4 ,in east ,java the sugar estates are found in the wide valley of the river ,brantas1 on the plateaus of the provinces of ,madioen and ,kediri1 in the fertile plains along the north coast and in the lowlands bordering upon the ,bali strait4 ,in #aiab ,java had #ahd sugar factories in operation1 divided among the various residencies as follows3 ,,acreage ,,sugar ,,produced ,,residency ,,factories ,,in ,,cane ,,tons ,,of #bbdj ,,lbs4 ,cheribon #ab #bb1cdf #he1gbh ,pekalongan #ae #bi1hdg #abd1cbb ,samarang #ab #bb1dij #ig1dfb ,banjoemas #e #ah1fdj #hb1adb ,kedoe #b ,djokjakarta #ah #bg1ghe #abj1chd ,soerakarta #af #bd1abb #ig1gjf ,madioen #f #ac1cgf #dg1dfc ,kediri #bj #dh1jje #aie1bcb ,sourabaya #ch #fe1fcc #bge1ibj ,pasoeroean #bi #eg1fhd #aii1cij ,bezoeki #aa #af1gfc #eh1dic --- ------- --------- ,total #ahd #cdf1fia #a1chd1bdb ,while these figures show the acreage actually under cane1 the total amount of land used in the production of the crop is much greater4 ,it takes over twelve months for the cane to mature1 and as some fields are being cut others are being planted4 ,the ground required for factory buildings1 dwellings1 roads and other purposes connected with the industry must also be taken into account1 and it has been estimated that altogether #a1bjj1jjj acres are tributary to cane culture4 ,the annual plantings cover about #cej1jjj acres and the portion of the remainder that is not devoted to roads1 buildings and so forth is sown with other crops or allowed to lie fallow for a time4 ,the general plan of crop rotation on an average is3 ,first year ,may-,october1 sugar-cane crop is cut4 0 ,october-,november1 soya beans1 maize1 etc4 0 ,november-,april1 rice4 ,second year ,april-,november1 indigo1 tobacco1 beans1 fallow4 0 ,november-,april1 rice4 ,third year ,april until ,may-,october of the fourth year1 sugar-cane crop4 ,sometimes tapioca is planted instead of rice immediately after the cane crop is harvested1 but cane invariably follows a rice crop4 ,the ,european planter confines his operations to sugar cane1 and the other products are raised by the native farmer exclusively by his own efforts and on his own account4 ,the terms under which plantation land is held in ,java differ widely from those that govern in other cane-growing countries4 ,between #ahcj and #ahgi1 when the compulsory cultural plan was in effect1 the government determined what lands were to be planted in cane4 ,it compelled the natives to cultivate and harvest the crop1 but allowed them compensation for their labor and the use of their fields4 ,the wages thus paid were ultimately accounted for when the sugar was sold by the government4 ,each district1 or group of districts1 delivered the cane product to the mill agreed upon and the grinding was done under a contract with the government4 ,when1 at a later period1 the sugar estates had to produce their own cane1 they gradually took over the land on a rental basis and grew cane upon it by paid native labor4 ,in #ahgi1 when cultivation was free1 the government factories had #geca acres leased from the natives1 in addition to #fd1dgj acres of cane that they ground under contract with the government4 ,at this time the independent factories had #af1hbd acres rented and were growing cane upon it under their own management and for their own account4 ,during the gradual abolition of the cultural system1 the fields first given up by the government were those situated at a considerable distance from the factories and those to which it was difficult to bring water for irrigation4 ,it came about naturally that when the factories had the selecting of the lands they were to rent1 they picked out the best in their neighborhood for their purposes4 ,in this way an exchange of the tilled fields was effected4 ,subsequently1 estates were extended and new tracts of land occupied1 but in increasing the acreage1 each factory was careful to confine its operations to its own district and thus avoid competing with other factories in renting new ground4 ,the old-established factories already had their acreage1 and when the compulsory cultivation plan was abandoned1 they mutually agreed upon the territory in which each factory should rent land without interference on the part of any of the others4 ,whenever a new plantation was established1 its district was clearly defined1 so it will be seen that under this plan there could be no competitive bidding on land rents4 ,there have been instances of newcomers having disregarded this convention1 but in every case they have sooner or later acknowledged their error1 and today there is perfect harmony among the factors as to the territory in which each interest rents its land4 ,in ,java1 cane is almost always grown on lands irrigated by the same means that are employed in irrigating rice1 the privilege of using these works being included in the rent of the land4 ,under the compulsory rgime it was the rule that in the dry season irrigation water should be utilized for the cane fields during the day and for native agriculture during the night1 and this regulation remained effective after the withdrawal of the government from the industry4 ,as the water supply was controlled by private enterprises1 it frequently happened that in a time of scarcity it was not impartially distributed4 ,after #ahij1 when the acreage of the cane plantations was being constantly extended1 the authorities found themselves obliged to prevent encroachment by the cane growers on the land required to produce the necessities of life for the natives1 and also to see to it that the new extensions of cane land should not be allowed to appropriate an undue proportion of the available water to the detriment of both the established plantations and the native agriculture4 ,accordingly1 in #ahid1 legislation touching the renting of land and the use of water was begun1 the principal features being as follows3 ,all new sugar enterprises1 or any addition to an existing enterprise1 to apply to the director of the civil service for his sanction of the undertaking1 and the applicant to declare the maximum area of land to be planted with cane each year1 as well as the names of the districts in which it is desired to rent cane lands4 ,the authorities investigate conditions in order to determine whether or not the proposed increase will conform to the rules governing the 8,lease under contract with the native population40 ,they are also careful to satisfy themselves that the granting of the request will not produce unfair disparity between the amount of land and water used for cane cultivation and that devoted to the raising of foods for the natives4 ,the permit to rent the necessary amount of ground provides that1 while the length of the lease may vary according to conditions1 the land cannot be held by the sugar factory any longer than is necessary to grow and harvest one crop of cane4 ,this takes between fifteen and seventeen months1 and the land must be in the hands of the native farmer directly before and after that period4 ,leases to be valid must be drawn up before a civil-service official and have his approval4 ,no permits for the establishment of new factories or the extension of existing enterprises will be issued for the time being in districts where important changes in the irrigating system1 either new construction or additions1 are contemplated4 ,as a rule1 the period during which the natives are prohibited from renting lands that have been opened up to irrigation for the first time is fixed at five years4 ,this is done in order to afford the natives an opportunity to realize what the land is worth before leasing it4 ,the amount of water to be used in the growing of rice and other crops as well as cane has also been clearly agreed upon and great care is taken to see that full justice is done to all concerned4 ,as the water brought by canal is not sufficient to irrigate the entire cane acreage1 the government has allowed the factories to install a number of large pumping plants by which water is raised from rivers4 ,in such cases1 whenever the factories have pumped water enough for their own requirements1 they are generally willing to operate the pump free of cost to supply water to the native farmer4 ,in the principalities or semi-independent states of ,java1 where the native princes have made grants of land to their nobles as appanage1 another rental system prevails4 ,both princes and nobles lease large tracts of land for long periods to ,european agriculturists1 and such leases include not only the fertile portion with the irrigation facilities and the water1 but the rocky1 barren spaces as well4 ,here the tenant has to make the most of the possibilities of the property and determine what part of it is best suited for cane culture and what part for other purposes4 ,besides the two plans of tenure just described1 certain lands are held under absolute title or perpetual lease4 ,over a hundred years ago large tracts were sold outright at times1 the title carrying all the seignioral rights1 and consequently the owners are free to plant and irrigate without restriction4 ,in later years ,european farmers were no longer permitted to purchase1 but much jungle land was leased for seventy-five-year periods4 ,such leases were made for the most part in mountainous or sparsely settled territory1 and as sugar culture thrives best in the low plains where labor is plentiful1 sugar has not been benefited as much by the long-term leases as have tea and cinchona bark4 ,still there are sugar plantations that hold land under perpetual lease with unrestricted rights and water for irrigation4 ,plantations situated in the thickly populated lowlands have no trouble in securing labor1 but it is another matter in districts that have been newly opened up or on perpetual-lease holdings where the population is small4 ,in the last two cases labor must be brought in from other districts1 and sometimes there is difficulty in doing this1 especially during the rice harvest or when large public works are under construction4 ,however1 such conditions are unusual1 and1 as compared with other sugar-producing countries1 ,java is in a peculiarly fortunate position with respect to a steady supply of good labor at low cost4 ,all of the arduous work is done by men1 but women cut cane tops1 plant seed and do watering and weeding1 while children are employed in destroying insects and other light work4 ,in ,april or ,may1 as soon as the rice crop has been cut1 the field is prepared for planting sugar cane4 ,the soil is first drained of its superfluous moisture1 and1 if the ground be loose1 it is generally ploughed several times4 ,heavy soils1 instead of being ploughed1 are treated by the ,reynoso method4 ,this consists of digging deep ditches to carry off the subsoil water and to supply irrigation water later on4 ,the plot is then divided by cross ditches into pieces about one-sixth of an acre in size and finally the furrows for the seed are dug4 ,these furrows are generally thirty feet long1 from twelve to eighteen inches wide1 twelve or fifteen inches deep and four or five feet apart4 ,the earth displaced in digging is piled up between the furrows4 ,thus prepared1 the field is left exposed to wind and sun for about six weeks and at the end of this period the heavy wet clods have crumbled into a gray or light-brown powder4 ,during the drying-out process the grass has to be removed repeatedly1 and in case of rain1 the soil that is washed down into the furrows is thrown back upon the ridges to prevent the furrows from silting up4 ,the hard bottom of the furrow is loosened or square holes are dug in it and filled with loose soil4 ,part of the earth on the ridges is thrown into the furrow and the field is then ready for planting4 ,illustration3 ,,sugar ,,cane ,,affected ,,by ,,the ,,sereh1 ,,java ,illustration3 ,,seedling ,,canes1 ,,java ,before the outbreak of the sereh1 seed for new plantations was obtained exclusively from tops of ripe cane1 but when the disease became prevalent1 it was found that cuttings taken from sereh-infected cane gave diseased yields1 while cuttings from cane grown in districts not affected by the sereh produced cane that did not suffer so greatly from the disease4 ,at the beginning of the trouble1 cuttings from outside healthy districts were used1 but as the disease spread1 the demand for sound cuttings increased while the sources of supply became fewer4 ,finally1 plantations were established in remote districts free from disease and they were carefully quarantined4 ,here seedlings were grown from young cane cut at full length1 and in this way sound seed was obtainable at all times4 ,formerly1 seed was only to be had in the grinding season1 which frequently occasioned delays in planting4 ,the new plan not only enabled the cane growers to stamp out the sereh1 but even after the disease had been practically eradicated it was continued because of its manifest advantages4 ,seedlings used for planting are cut into lengths1 each having three eyes4 ,unhealthy stalks and any showing the presence of insect pests or fungi are culled1 while the sound pieces are carefully disinfected4 ,the seed thus prepared is placed horizontally in the furrows end-to-end and covered with earth4 ,at first water is applied at four- or five-day intervals1 afterward less frequently1 until the cane has attained a considerable height4 ,about this time the rainy monsoon sets in and further irrigation is not needed4 ,the stalks are banked several times during the early period of growth and fertilizing accompanies the second and third banking4 ,until comparatively recently the fertilizer consisted of nitrogenous substances1 while potash and phosphoric acid were considered of no value4 ,the first investigations concerning fertilizers were made on rich lands that had been irrigated with river water when the wet rice crop was being grown1 and the water brought with it sufficient potash and phosphates for the needs of the cane4 ,in such cases it was shown that adding these substances to the soil was unnecessary and that nitrogen was the only element that could increase the yield of cane4 ,hence groundnut cakes and sulphate of ammonia were used almost entirely4 ,it has been proved1 however1 by more thorough study that much ground is low in phosphates1 and this fertilizer has been added with excellent results4 ,as regards potash1 the soil of ,java seems to contain sufficient for cane cultivation4 ,when the cane leaves become sufficiently thick to shade the ground the weeds die4 ,borers1 beetle larvae and termites are caught during the early growing period1 but all labor stops with the last banking and the advent of the wet monsoon4 ,when the wet season is over1 the cane is trashed and samples of the growing cane are taken from the fields and tested in the laboratory of the factory to determine the degree of ripeness4 ,as soon as the roads become dry enough to admit of cane-laden carts passing over them1 the harvesting of the ripest cane begins4 ,the cane is dug up by the roots1 care being taken to leave as little as possible of the roots in the ground4 ,the roots and the earth adhering to them are removed1 together with the leaves and tops1 and the clean cane is loaded on cars to be taken to the mill4 ,formerly carts drawn by oxen and buffaloes were used to transport the cane to the factory1 but the crop has grown to such proportions that cattle-drawn carts have had to give way to the rail4 ,today nearly every plantation has its own railroad with permanent and portable tracks1 over which the cane moves in cars hauled by cattle or locomotives4 ,having been unloaded at the mill1 the cane is taken to the crushers on carriers4 ,three sets of rolls are generally used and water is sprayed on the cane before the last crushing1 after which the bagasse is fed to the furnaces as fuel4 ,the juice is strained to free it from fragments of cane and leaves1 then milk of lime is added and heat applied4 ,the heavy impurities settle at the bottom1 the clear juice is drawn off and the remaining juice is separated from the foreign matter in the filter presses4 ,another method is to treat the juice at a low temperature with a large admixture of milk of lime1 and afterward with carbonic acid or sulphurous acid until all the lime is neutralized4 ,then all the juice is clarified by filtration without the settling operation4 ,next follow evaporation1 refiltering1 boiling to grain and separation of the crystals from the mother liquor in centrifugal machines4 ,in #aijc the ,java manufacturers began to make a bid for the ,british ,indian trade4 ,after some experimenting they succeeded in producing an almost-white raw sugar1 which at once found favor in ,india1 where sugar refined by the bone-char process was objected to for religious reasons4 ,statistics compiled for the year #aiab show that this so-called 8,java white0 represented #ci4b per cent of the entire output2 #bf4b per cent was muscavado1 #bi4i per cent ,european assortment and #d4g per cent second sugars4 ,java1 with her population of more than thirty millions1 presents altogether different conditions to the sugar grower than other cane-producing countries4 ,a large proportion of the agricultural area is needed for crops of food to nourish the inhabitants4 ,the land available for sugar cane is rented at an equitable figure and1 as has been said1 there is always an ample supply of cheap and readily obtainable labor4 ,the aim of the ,javan planter is to produce cane carrying a high sugar content and to get as great a yield as possible4 ,to this end1 unceasing attention is paid to cultivation1 fertilizing and the general well-being of the crop2 in other words1 the soil is worked for all there is in it4 ,while the scientists of the country are absorbed in the task of producing through cross-culture new species of cane that will give a heavier yield per acre with a higher sugar content and greater purity1 the agriculturists are opening up extensive fresh tracts of rice and cane land4 ,new irrigation projects play an important part in this development and everything points to a steady growth of the industry4 ,the following table shows the annual output since #ahdj in tons of #bbdj pounds3 #ahdj #df1bif #ahda #de1agf #ahdb #ej1cbj #ahdc #ee1edd #ahdd #fb1dai #ahde #hi1ebf #ahdf #hf1bfc #ahdg #ha1dca #ahdh #hh1eab #ahdi #ajc1dde #ahej #he1aec #ahea #aah1ddc #aheb #gd1hjf #ahec #aji1ifa #ahed #aaj1cbc #ahee #ajb1cba #ahef #abc1abd #aheg #ajd1dgi #aheh #acj1gbe #ahei #aca1ega #ahfj #acd1jja #ahfa #acd1gbf #ahfb #adb1gee #ahfc #abi1gaf #ahfd #ach1jji #ahfe #ace1gad #ahff #adj1jdb #ahfg #acj1idg #ahfh #age1ifj #ahfi #agi1egi #ahgj #aej1ahd #ahga #ahg1hea #ahgb #bje1iib #ahgc #aie1ibd #ahgd #aih1cah #ahge #aij1egf #ahgf #bcd1aaa #ahgg #bda1icj #ahgh #bba1adj #ahgi #bbi1faf #ahhj #bab1gfc #ahha #bgd1gif #ahhb #bhg1cib #ahhc #cai1egd #ahhd #chh1jai #ahhe #cgd1jda #ahhf #cej1cig #ahhg #cfi1hdg #ahhh #cdi1gai #ahhi #cbg1gce #ahij #cic1fhj #ahia #djj1cgb #ahib #dae1ccb #ahic #dgb1jhb #ahid #ebb1egd #ahie #egb1cha #ahif #ebe1idg #ahig #egg1jcf #ahih #gac1ege #ahii #gej1djj #aijj #gcb1dih #aija #gia1jdf #aijb #hhb1iff #aijc #ibi1hhj #aijd #a1jch1cgc #aije #a1jbb1gei #aijf #a1jej1ibf #aijg #a1aia1jjg #aijh #a1bbb1bfb #aiji #a1bbg1eec #aiaj #a1beh1bbb #aiaa #a1ddc1cig #aiab #a1cca1ahj #aiac #a1cde1bcj #aiad #a1cjc1jde #aiae #a1bfd1jjj #aiaf #a1ejj1jjjhg ,,australia ,the island-continent of ,australia lies south of ,asia1 between the ,indian and ,pacific oceans1 and it extends from #aj degrees #da minutes to #ci degrees #h minutes south latitude and from #aac degrees to #aec degrees #cj minutes east longitude4 ,its area is #b1igd1eha square miles and the population1 not including aborigines1 is #d1dee1jje1 mainly of ,british origin4 ,dutch and ,spanish explorers visited ,australia in #afjf4 ,on ,april #ai1 #aggj1 its eastern coast was first sighted by ,cook1 who1 nine days later1 dropped anchor in ,botany bay4 ,sailing north1 he touched at several points1 and after having completed a survey of the east coast1 he took possession of the territory between #ch degrees south and #aj degrees #cj minutes south4 ,he reached ,australia again in #aggb and in #aggg he landed on the coasts of ,tasmania and ,new ,zealand4 ,the first settlement was established at ,port ,jackson in #aghh and gold was discovered in #ahea4 ,the commonwealth of ,australia comprises the following political divisions3 ,victoria1 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,queensland1 ,south ,australia1 ,northern ,territory1 ,western ,australia and ,tasmania4 ,as over #ij per cent of ,australia's sugar crop comes from ,queensland1 this article will deal with the growth and condition of the industry in that state only4 ,queensland has an area of #ffh1dig square miles1 of which #ibj1jaj acres were under cultivation in #aiac2 of this1 #adg1gdc acres were planted with sugar cane4 ,illustration3 ,,cutting ,,cane1 ,,maroochy ,,river1 ,,south ,,queensland ,illustration3 ,,carting ,,cane ,,to ,,mill1 ,,ingham ,,district1 ,,north ,,queensland ,about one-half of ,queensland lies in the tropics and the remaining area stretches southward to the twenty-ninth parallel4 ,the temperature is affected in a marked degree by the breezes that blow steadily from the sea and moderate what otherwise would be excessive heat4 ,it is warmer along the coast than in the uplands of the interior1 and in the northern part the heat is very trying to people who have come from temperate climes4 ,at ,rockhampton the winter temperature averages #fe degrees ,fahrenheit1 and in summer the mean is nearly #he degrees4 ,the annual rainfall on the seacoast is large1 particularly in the north1 where it ranges between #fj and #gj inches4 ,at ,brisbane it is about #dg inches1 while a large part of the interior receives from #bj to #cj inches1 but it falls below #bj inches in the west and south4 ,there are no active volcanoes in ,australia and no violent earthquakes have occurred in recent years4 ,the sugar plantations of ,queensland are found in a strip of territory running along the eastern coast between the sixteenth parallel and the southern border4 ,this stretch of land has been divided into three districts1 the southern1 the central and the northern1 the last being the most important1 as it furnishes over #fj per cent of the total sugar production of the state4 ,the cane lands are of two kinds--scrub land and forest land4 ,the scrub lands may be divided into two classes1 true scrub and bastard scrub1 the former being characterized by a dense1 almost impenetrable vine growth and timber of soft wood4 ,in the bastard scrub there are both hard and soft woods1 the former predominating1 and very little vine growth is met with4 ,the soil of true scrub lands is of two kinds1 alluvial and volcanic4 ,the alluvial soil is composed of clay1 fine sand1 gravel and vegetable and mineral matter brought from the high levels by water action4 ,the soil of forest lands is diversified and1 for sugar-cane culture1 8blady grassed0 bloodwood country with a porous subsoil is selected4 ,here the yield of cane per acre is not so heavy as on scrub lands1 but the sugar content of the juice is greater4 ,the growth of sugar cane and the manufacture of sugar in ,australia date back to #ahbc1 but no substantial progress was made for a number of years4 ,the first cane to be raised in ,queensland was grown in the botanic gardens in ,brisbane in #ahdg and sugar was first manufactured in that state in #ahfb4 ,the following year ,captain ,louis ,hope had twenty acres in cane on a plantation near ,brisbane and to him is due the credit of establishing the sugar industry in ,queensland4 ,in #ahfg there were nearly #bjjj acres in cane and six mills in operation1 while the next year saw #ejjj acres planted1 with twenty-eight mills at work4 ,the industry grew and throve until #ahge1 when the cane crop was almost completely destroyed by a disease known as 8rust10 which was really due to imperfect cultivation1 lack of proper drainage and the soft variety of the cane4 ,as over #fj per cent of the estates were being operated with borrowed capital1 the planters found themselves in serious financial trouble and many mortgages were foreclosed4 ,up to this time ,bourbon cane was the variety generally grown1 and when the disease wrought such havoc with the crop1 it was noticed that the ,rappoe cane did not suffer from rust4 ,the hardiness of this variety encouraged the growers to substitute it and other sturdy species of cane for the ,bourbon4 ,the change proved entirely successful and the planters enjoyed good times once more4 ,the sugar industry of ,queensland was carried on at the outset under the plantation system1 that is to say1 the planter1 besides growing the cane1 owned the mill and manufactured the sugar4 ,this method worked very well until #ahhd1 when a period of extreme depression came in the wake of the great boom that began in #ahgi4 ,in #ahhe the industry appeared to be in danger of extinction1 and1 as a remedial measure1 the legislative assembly voted #ej1jjj for the establishing of central factories4 ,two mills were operated on the new plan as an experiment with such marked success that an act was passed in #ahic to foster the development of the central-factory system4 ,the act enabled a number of planters to form a co-operative company for the purpose of building and equipping a central mill4 ,the necessary funds were obtained from the government1 the cane lands being pledged as security for the loan1 and the mills erected by this means became the property of the companies upon the payment of the loan4 ,the large estates were gradually cut up into tracts of from fifty to one hundred acres each and were leased or sold on reasonable terms2 in this way the land was settled by a large number of farmers4 ,illustration3 ,,isis ,,central ,,mill1 ,,childers1 ,,south ,,queensland ,illustration3 ,,cane ,,unloader1 ,,mulgrave ,,central ,,sugar ,,mill1 ,,cairns ,,district1 ,,north ,,queensland ,nevertheless1 there was grave danger that the benefit accomplished by this new law would be more than offset by the 8white labor0 agitation4 ,as is well known1 the labor party is very strong in ,australia1 and probably no other branch of agriculture in that country has been so beset with labor troubles as the sugar industry4 ,for nearly thirty years the supply of laborers for the cane fields was drawn from the ,south ,sea islands and ,india1 principally the former4 ,the white laborers were loud and insistent in their protests against the employment of ,kanakas1 as the islanders were called1 and finally1 after the formation of the commonwealth in #aijj1 an act excluding colored labor entirely and providing for the deportation of the ,kanakas to their homes was passed by the federal government4 ,to afford the planter relief for the hardship worked upon him by this measure by reason of the high wages they had to pay in order to secure white laborers1 a duty was placed upon foreign sugar4 ,a bounty upon sugar produced by white labor was also provided for1 but this1 together with the excise tax on sugar1 was abolished in #aiac4 ,today the industry is protected by a customs tariff of one and three-tenth cents per pound4 ,when cane is to be planted in new ground1 the scrub1 stumps and logs are first cleared away and the field is then ready for the seed4 ,holes are made with a mattock at regular intervals1 the seed cane is placed therein1 covered with earth and left to grow4 ,the ground is hoed from time to time to keep the weeds under control1 but the young cane does not require much attention after the first five or six months4 ,on cleared land1 ploughing is done two1 three or four times1 after which the surface is harrowed1 rolled and planted4 ,three or four weedings are necessary during the growth of the crop4 ,from ,mackay northward planting is done between ,february and ,october1 but in certain low-lying districts in the north ,may1 ,june and ,july are not considered good months for planting on account of the possibility of frosts4 ,the cane ripens in from twelve to eighteen months4 ,in the region south of the tropic line1 planting is done early1 although much cane is set out in ,august and ,september4 ,the cane when cut is transported to the mills by narrow-gauge railroads1 some of these lines being portable4 ,in the north crushing begins in ,june and ends in ,december1 while in the south the greater part of it is done from ,august to ,december4 ,from two to four crops of ratoons are raised1 but usually not more than three1 the land lying fallow for one season4 ,fertilizing is not generally practiced1 although some growers make use of legumes or dry manures as enrichers4 ,the former consist of the ,mauritius bean1 the cow-pea and vetches1 which are ploughed into the land after they have attained a certain growth4 ,under ordinary conditions the rainfall is so evenly distributed in the sugar-growing districts that irrigation is not needed4 ,still1 there are places where it has been found necessary to irrigate freely1 owing to the amount of rain being insufficient for the crop needs4 ,in such cases1 wherever practicable1 water is obtained by damming rivers and streams and is distributed over the cane fields through ditches by gravity4 ,where1 however1 the topography of the country does not admit of this being done1 pumping is resorted to and large stations have been established for this purpose4 ,the yield of sugar per acre since #ahid has been #a4fhh tons and the amount of sugar extracted since #aijd averaged #aj4ie per cent of the weight of the cane4 ,the federal government maintains an experiment station at ,mackay and experiment farms have been laid out in the important sugar centers4 ,the value of the work done at this station cannot be too highly estimated4 ,the scientists in charge are constantly on the lookout for new varieties of cane and are on the alert to fight diseases and pests4 ,the chief enemies of the cane in ,queensland are cane grub1 fungus pest1 frosts and floods4 ,today ,queensland has forty-eight sugar mills and two refineries4 ,thirteen of the mills are centrals and four of these are under state control4 ,additional factories are under construction4 ,most of these plants are equipped with three sets of rollers and modern machinery1 the capacity ranging from #gj to #ifj tons of cane per day4 ,the annual production of sugar in ,queensland since #ahid in long tons has been as follows3 #ahid-ie #ia1gab #ahie-if #hf1bee #ahif-ig #aji1ggd #ahig-ih #ig1iaf #ahih-ii #afc1gcd #ahii-jj #abc1bhi #aijj-ja #ib1eed #aija-jb #abj1heh #aijb-jc #gg1hce #aijc-jd #hi1hfb #aijd-je #ade1jbj #aije-jf #aeb1bei #aijf-jg #ahb1ahh #aijg-jh #ahe1jfc #aijh-ji #aej1djj #aiji-aj #acb1haf #aiaj-aa #bjg1cdj #aiaa-ab #agf1jgf #aiab-ac #aac1jfj #aiac-ad #bee1jjj #aiad-ae #bdf1djh #aiae-af #aej1jjj #aiaf-ag #bjj1jjjhh ,,mauritius ,great ,britain's island colony1 ,mauritius1 lies in the ,indian ocean between #eg degrees #ah minutes east and #eg degrees #di minutes east1 and #ai degrees #eh minutes and #bj degrees #cb minutes south1 #eej miles from ,madagascar4 ,irregular in shape1 it extends #cf miles from north-northeast to south-southwest1 and its greatest width is #bc miles4 ,its area is #gaj square miles4 ,mauritius is of volcanic origin1 although signs of volcanic activity no longer exist4 ,it is encircled by a coral reef which is submerged at high tide4 ,the central part of the island is a tableland that rises from #ejj to #bgjj feet above sea-level and occupies more than half of the total surface4 ,in the north and northeastern coast regions there are extensive low plains1 but the rest of the coast territory is more or less broken by hills4 ,the registrar-general's report for #aijh gives the population as #cgd1dej4 ,the climate is agreeable during the cool season1 but oppressively hot in summer1 which begins in ,december and ends in ,march4 ,the temperature falls from ,april to ,june and rises again from ,june to ,december4 ,in the elevated inland plains of the interior the thermometer ranges from #gj to #hj degrees ,fahrenheit in summer1 and in ,port ,louis and the coast region it runs from #ij to #if degrees during that season4 ,the average temperature at ,port ,louis is #gh4f degrees ,fahrenheit throughout the year4 ,the rainfall varies greatly in different parts1 but an average of ten years 7#ahic-aijb7 gave #gi inches for the entire island4 ,cyclones are frequent and generally occur between ,december and ,april4 ,the soil consists chiefly of a very light clay formation1 easily penetrated by water4 ,in some localities the clay is deep and evenly deposited1 while in others many large pieces of lava are found in it1 so that ploughing is impossible4 ,mauritius was discovered by the ,portuguese in #aeje4 ,from #aeih to #agaj it was in the hands of the ,dutch1 and in #agae it was taken by ,france1 from whom it was wrested by the ,british in #ahaj4 ,the ,dutch brought sugar cane from ,java to ,mauritius in #afej1 but their efforts at cultivation were not successful4 ,when in #agda de la ,bourdonnais was appointed administrator of ,mauritius1 or1 as it was then called1 l',ile de ,france1 it was a crown colony under the control of the ,french ,east ,india company4 ,the island was without agriculture or commerce and the inhabitants were sunk in indolence4 ,the genius of the new executive brought order out of chaos1 and his example and assistance aroused the people from their lethargy4 ,sugar cane was again imported in #agdg and in #agej a sugar estate was established at ,pamplemousses in the northern part of the island by de la ,villebague1 the governor's brother4 ,the industry expanded and was carried on with profit4 ,in #agfi an experiment station was established with a view to furnishing planters with the knowledge of which they were so sorely in need4 ,agricultural development1 however1 was not carried forward to any great extent while ,mauritius remained under ,french rule4 ,state interference with the planters had an unfortunate effect1 and besides this the greater number of the inhabitants looked upon the colony not as a permanent home1 but as a means to acquire sufficient money to enable them to return to ,france and live there in comfort4 ,the authorities deemed it essential that the colony should produce the greater part of its foodstuffs1 while the planter on his side was anxious to grow crops that he believed would give him the best results in money2 for example1 sugar1 cotton1 coffee1 indigo and spices4 ,in #aggf there were three small sugar factories on the island1 and in #aghi the production of sugar was #cjj tons4 ,disaster overtook the industry1 owing to conditions that made the cost of the mills abnormally great and the extravagance with which they were operated4 ,in consequence many of those who built factories were ruined4 ,shortly after the ,british occupation there was a change for the better4 ,in #ahaf the production of sugar was #ddcj tons1 and from that time forward the industry made continuous and steady progress4 ,the planters were encouraged and1 as far as could be1 helped in their operations1 while the policy of the government developed the colony's resources and established for it trade relations on a firm basis with other countries4 ,the method of extraction of sugar from the cane employed at the beginning of the last century was primitive indeed4 ,the apparatus consisted of a solid1 heavy table made of thick planks carefully finished and having a perfectly smooth top4 ,it was made in the shape of a parallelogram1 with a groove or gutter on each of its four sides and an opening in the middle of each end gutter4 ,upon this table was a huge1 heavy cylinder of hard wood1 slightly longer than the width of the table4 ,three1 four1 or five stalks of cane were placed lengthwise on the table and submitted to pressure by rolling the cylinder over them from one end to the other and back again4 ,the juice thus expressed from the cane ran into the gutters at the sides and ends and through the holes into two tubs placed to receive it4 ,the cane stalks were then removed1 put in the sun to dry and afterward used as fuel in the boiling of the sugar juice4 ,this operation was repeated until a sufficient quantity of juice was obtained4 ,from the tubs1 or 8bacs10 the juice was run through a series of kettles1 or open-fire caldrons1 for concentration4 ,the kettle next in position to the bac into which the juice from the table fell was called la grande1 because it was really the largest of the set4 ,it was farthest from the fire and served as a defecator4 ,as soon as the juice contained in it became heated1 a thick1 creamy substance formed on the surface and was immediately skimmed off4 ,the liquor was then ladled into the second kettle1 where the boiling became more lively on account of closer proximity to the furnace4 ,the juice bubbled up in foam and at this point the cleansing process began4 ,a long1 flat piece of wood was passed slowly over the surface of the liquor1 thus removing certain impurities4 ,here the mixture of lime begun in la grande was continued until the liquor was found to be perfectly clear4 ,passing to the third kettle1 the liquor was reduced to syrup by the increased heat4 ,it was concentrated in the fourth and boiled to grain in the fifth4 ,directly under the fifth and last kettle of the set was the furnace1 which was fed by bagasse and cane trash4 ,the boiling process finished1 the sugar was removed from kettle number five and placed on tables1 where it remained until it had to be taken to larger tables farther on to make room for a fresh batch4 ,there it stood with other boilings until the following morning4 ,then the crystallized mass was shoveled into pots and carried to large bins constructed so that the liquor1 or syrup1 could drain off4 ,this usually took from fifteen to twenty days1 after which time the sugar was dug out by pick and shovel1 put into baskets and taken to be spread out in the sun to dry4 ,after two to three hours of this drying1 according to the intensity of the sun's rays1 the sugar was packed in a double sack containing about #ace pounds4 ,by such means little more than one-third of the sugar in the cane could have been recovered1 and the product obtained was heavy and dark in color4 ,from #ahaf to #ahde a change was gradually made from the clumsy apparatus just described to three-roller vertical mills1 and from wind- and water-driven mills to steam power1 thus increasing the extraction4 ,no perceptible improvement was effected in field methods during this period4 ,in #aheb a number of vacuum pans and centrifugal machines were in use4 ,some eight or ten years later the efforts made to combat the diseases of the cane began to bear fruit and the planters of the coast and inland estates started to exchange cane tops4 ,during the period of #ahff to #ahge single crushing was almost universal4 ,a few factories used double crushing with maceration1 but the mills were not powerful4 ,marked progress was made in the chemical treatment of the juice4 ,shortly afterward the planters began to appreciate the vital importance of chemical control in their factories and scientific principles were applied to the culture of the cane4 ,up to #ahce the labor in the fields had been done by ,african negro slaves4 ,the emancipation of these slaves was declared on ,february #ast of that year1 and their final liberation took place in ,march1 #ahci4 ,in anticipation of this1 the authorities had arranged five years previously for the bringing in of a number of immigrants from ,india1 and from that time down to the present virtually all the labor required in the cane fields has been drawn from ,india4 ,in #ahcd the immigrants from ,india numbered #ge and in #aijh the ,hindu population was #bfc1dai4 ,one of the most important events in connection with the growth of the sugar industry of ,mauritius was the formation of the ,chamber of ,agriculture in #ahec4 ,this body fostered mutual co-operation and interchange of ideas among the planters4 ,it exercised its influence in bringing about legislation affecting agricultural and industrial questions and the development of the resources of the colony4 ,the ,station ,agronomique1 instituted in #ahic1 and the ,bacteriological ,station in #aijh1 came into being as a result of the efforts of the ,chamber of ,agriculture1 to which credit is also due for the extension of the cane-raising area to its present proportions4 ,during the last hundred years the island of ,mauritius has suffered from a series of disasters--epidemics of cholera1 smallpox and bubonic plague1 hurricanes and droughts4 ,in #ahib a hurricane of extraordinary violence sowed frightful devastation1 destroying cane1 wrecking houses and killing numbers of people4 ,ten years later nearly all the draft animals were carried off by surra1 a deadly cattle disease1 which made its appearance just as the largest crop on record was about to be harvested4 ,in addition to the direct loss of horses1 mules and cattle1 the difficulties of transportation delayed the work of gathering and crushing the cane long after its maximum richness had been reached4 ,the yield for the #aijc crop was thus appreciably reduced1 and the growing period for the crop of the following year greatly curtailed4 ,the shortage in #aijc has been placed at #aa1jjj tons1 while that for #aijd amounted to #bc1jjj tons4 ,these losses caused such distress that it became necessary to invoke state aid1 which was provided by the ,mechanical ,transport loan of #aijc4 ,all agricultural centers are subject to crises more or less serious in character1 and1 as has just been shown1 ,mauritius is no exception to the rule4 ,depressions resulting from crop shortages1 however1 should not be confounded with the general troubles that have seriously menaced the cane-sugar industry during the last half century1 almost all of which are attributable to the competition of the beet4 ,over sixty years ago the ,mauritian planters began to feel apprehensive concerning the future of their sugar trade1 owing to the rivalry of beet-root sugars in the markets of ,europe1 and between #ahgj and #ahhj the prospects were indeed gloomy4 ,what chance had the cane-sugar-growing dependencies of ,great ,britain against bounty-fed beet sugars raised on the continent8 ,if the increased production had taken place in the cane industry1 the disturbance in trade conditions would have been gradually overcome by a process of natural adjustment4 ,but unfortunately for the cane planters1 the enormous extension of sugar-raising possibilities by new means in territory not hitherto available found them totally unprepared to cope successfully with this new competition4 ,in #ahhe the ,chamber of ,agriculture instituted an inquiry into the causes that had brought the cane trade to such a critical state4 ,the attention of the planters was called to the improved methods employed by the beet-sugar manufacturers and to the rapidity with which their trade was expanding4 ,the cane growers were earnestly urged to take steps to meet the conditions that confronted them4 ,manifestly the cost in field and factory was too high4 ,the task of working out the problem took considerable time and involved the outlay of vast sums of money4 ,it was all the more difficult because of the necessity for finding new capital in the face of decreasing revenue1 but it was undertaken with courage and perseverance1 and the results have justified the efforts put forth and the sacrifices made4 ,the growers of sugar cane in ,mauritius have adjusted themselves to the new conditions4 ,they have reduced plantation and manufacturing costs1 and scientific methods have enabled them to grow cane profitably on land which could not possibly have been cultivated in the old way without severe loss4 ,crude processes have given way to the modern sugar factory with its up-to-date roller mills1 clarifiers1 triple effects1 vacuum pans and centrifugal machines1 and the chemical engineer has changed the dark mixture of crystals and molasses into an almost pure white granulated sugar4 ,the crop for the season of #aiae-af amounted to #bae1ebh tons4 ,a great deal in the way of improvement in cultivation still remains to be done1 but it may be truly said that the island has fought its way into the front ranks of sugar-producing countries4 ,with its natural advantages of climate and soil1 the enormous possibilities of irrigation and development of water power1 the accessibility of an unlimited supply of ,asiatic labor1 and the markets of ,india1 ,africa and ,australia at its doors1 there is ample justification of high hopes for the future4 ,yearly output of sugar1 exclusive of local consumption1 since #ahie3 #ahie #adc1jjj tons #ahif #aec1jjj 0 #ahig #abd1jjj 0 #ahih #ahc1jjj 0 #ahii #afa1jjj 0 #aijj #aij1jjj 0 #aija #aee1jjj 0 #aijb #adb1jjj 0 #aijc #bah1jjj 0 #aijd #adb1aja 0 #aije #ahh1cfd 0 #aijf #bbj1jjj 0 #aijg #agj1jjj 0 #aijh #bje1geh 0 #aiji #bdd1eig 0 #aiaj #bbf1jii 0 #aiaa #afd1bfj 0 #aiab #bjf1dig 0 #aiac #bdi1hjj 0 #aiad #bgg1afd 0 #aiae #bae1ebh 0 #aiaf #bbj1jjj 0#hi ,,natal ,on ,christmas day1 #adig1 ,vasco da ,gama1 then on a voyage to ,india1 sighted the entrance to what is now ,durban harbor1 and named the country ,terra ,natalis4 ,this maritime province of the ,british ,union of ,south ,africa lies approximately between #bg degrees and #ca degrees south latitude and #bi degrees and #cc degrees east longitude4 ,on the southeast it is bounded by the ,indian ocean1 on the southwest by the ,cape province and ,basutoland1 on the northwest by the ,orange ,free ,state and on the north and northeast by the ,transvaal and ,portuguese ,east ,africa4 ,its coast line is #cgf miles long and its area is #ce1cga square miles4 ,it is divided into two parts1 ,natal proper and ,zululand1 the former comprising #bd1iaj square miles and the latter #aj1dfa square miles4 ,in #aijh the population1 including that of ,zululand1 was #a1bjf1chf1 of whom #ia1ddc were ,european1 #iih1bfd natives and #aaf1fgi ,asiatics4 ,the surface of the country is of terrace formation4 ,the coast strip south of ,durban is quite narrow1 but north of that point it becomes wider and more level4 ,ranges of hills roll back to the first plateau1 which is about #bjjj feet above the sea4 ,the second plateau rises sharply between #djjj and #ejjj feet and extends to the ,drakensberg mountains1 whose base is from #fjjj to #gjjj feet in elevation1 and in which all the rivers of ,natal1 except the coast streams1 have their source4 ,natal's sugar plantations are situated in the low1 moist regions of the coast zone1 between #bh degrees and #cj degrees south latitude1 i4 e41 quite a distance below the tropic of ,capricorn4 ,the industry had its beginning in #ahej1 when the first cane was brought from ,mauritius4 ,operations did not amount to much at the outset2 a limited amount of cane was ground in small mills and the juice was boiled into sugar4 ,in #ahgh1 however1 a factory with the newest equipment of that time was erected at ,mount ,edgecombe by ,mauritius people4 ,henceforward1 the production of sugar in the colony has shown a steady growth1 and today there are thirty-four factories in active operation with an output of about #ajj1jjj tons of sugar per annum4 ,the climate of the valleys and the coast belt is hot and humid4 ,summer1 beginning in ,october and ending in ,march1 is the wet season1 while ,may1 ,june and ,july are the driest months4 ,at ,durban the temperature ranges from #db degrees ,fahrenheit in winter to #ih degrees ,fahrenheit in summer1 the mean being #gj degrees1 and both the temperature and the humidity are affected by the ,mozambique current that flows southward from the equator4 ,the annual rainfall at ,durban is about #dj inches and the average for the province is placed at #cj inches4 ,the kind of cane most generally grown in ,natal at the present time is the ,uba1 a hard1 yellow variety that was brought from ,hindustan4 ,for fertilization1 stable manure1 cane ash and phosphates are employed4 ,owing to the geographical position of the country1 it takes longer than usual for the cane to ripen4 ,plant cane matures in two years and first and second ratoons in eighteen months for each crop4 ,so five years' time is necessary to produce three crops1 and at the end of this period replanting is done4 ,after the cane is cut1 it is loaded on railway cars for transportation to the mill4 ,all of the raw sugar produced in ,natal is refined there1 except what is consumed in a raw state4 ,in addition to the sugar made in the province1 quite a little is imported from foreign countries1 as ,natal distributes a good deal of the commodity in adjoining states4 ,the home industry is protected by a duty of #a4bae per #aab pounds on foreign sugar1 while no duty is assessed on sugar going from one province to another throughout the ,british ,union of ,south ,africa4 ,formerly the most desirable laborers came from ,india1 but recently the ,indian government has stopped the exportation of natives of that country as plantation laborers1 so ,natal1 like many other sugar-growing sections1 has its labor problems4 ,the production in long tons since #ahid has been as follows3 #ahid #ai1cfi #ahie #bj1ejh #ahif #bj1fea #ahig #bj1bde #ahih #bi1ahf #ahii ,boer war #aijj #af1fhi #aija #cf1ffb #aijb #ba1jie #aijc #cc1idd #aijd #ai1bch #aije #bf1aeh #aijf #ba1dgi #aijg #bd1bbc #aijh #ca1iii #aiji #gg1dia #aiaj #hd1dcg #aiaa #ib1jjj #aiab #hb1ehi #aiac #he1gad #aiad #ia1fai #aiae #ajj1jjj #aiaf #abe1jjjij ,,egypt ,egypt1 the northeastern corner of the ,african continent1 is bounded on the north by the ,mediterranean sea1 on the northeast by ,palestine1 on the east by the ,red sea and on the west by ,tripoli and the ,sahara4 ,the #bbnd parallel of north latitude is the dividing line between it and the ,sudan on the south4 ,its area is about #djj1jjj square miles1 of which by far the greater part is desert2 it has been truly said that the principal features of ,egypt are the desert and the ,nile4 ,in #aijg the entire population was #aa1ahi1igh1 exclusive of nomadic ,bedouin tribes1 who numbered about #ig1jjj4 ,of these #aj1cff1jdf were ,egyptians1 #gce1jab settled ,bedouins1 #fe1afb ,nubians and #bba1aci foreigners--,british1 ,italians1 ,turks and ,greeks4 ,the wonderful fertility of the soil of the valley of the ,nile is due to the annual inundation caused by the melting of the snows and the spring rains in the region in which the ,blue ,nile has its source4 ,the turbulent waters of the swollen stream rush down the ,nubian valley laden with rich loam from the mountains of ,abyssinia1 and this is deposited upon the flat plains on either side when the river overflows its banks4 ,the period of high water begins in ,june and lasts until the end of ,september4 ,the rainfall is slight and there are years when there is none whatever4 ,crops1 therefore1 depend upon irrigation1 and powerful pumping plants supply the needs of the large estates1 while the small native holdings depend upon water-wheels worked by buffaloes or by the natives themselves4 ,the irrigation possibilities of the country were greatly extended by the huge dam constructed by the government at ,assuan in #aijb4 ,in the cane-raising country1 the average temperature in summer ranges between #hb degrees and #aaj degrees ,fahrenheit1 and between #ej degrees and #hf degrees in winter4 ,cool nights are the rule and occasionally there is a killing frost4 ,sugar was introduced in ,egypt by the ,moslems when they conquered the country1 #fdj-fdf ,a4 ,d41 and the ,egyptians were quick to apply their knowledge of chemistry to its preparation4 ,by remelting the first crystals1 then treating the liquor with lime and albumen1 removing the suspended impurities by filtration1 boiling to grain once more and purging the crystals of their syrup by washing1 they succeeded in making a sugar far superior to that produced elsewhere4 ,the cultivation of cane prospered and the excellence of the sugar manufactured in ,egypt was maintained throughout the ,middle ,ages1 until the conquest by the ,turks in #aeag4 ,ottoman dominion ruined ,egypt industrially4 ,a little sugar cane continued to be raised and some sugar was made1 but on so unimportant a scale as to be hardly deserving of mention4 ,this state of affairs lasted until #ahej1 when ,ismail ,pasha 7afterward khedive1 #ahfc-gi17 caused sugar cane to be brought from ,jamaica and five years later the government took steps to foster sugar manufacture4 ,in #ahgg a change came about1 through which the control of the factories passed from the hands of the khedive to a government committee1 under whose auspices several new mills were constructed4 ,in #ahif the output of sugar reached #ge1jjj tons4 ,the factories operated by the government body were sold in #aijc to a ,french corporation1 known as the 8,socit ,gnrale des ,sucreries d',egypte10 which some years previous had built three factories of its own4 ,by this purchase the ,french company practically obtained a monopoly of the sugar business of the country4 ,the financial crisis of #aije proved a setback1 but after the trouble arising from this had passed1 the company formulated plans for enlarging its plantations and grinding an increased amount of cane4 ,sugar cane is grown along the ,nile banks from a short distance above ,cairo up to ,assuan1 or between #bd degrees and #cj degrees north latitude1 a stretch of more than four hundred miles4 ,in width1 however1 this territory is confined to the valley of the ,nile1 which is only twelve miles wide at the extreme and narrowing to very much less4 ,the agricultural possibilities of the eastern or right bank are not so great as those of the left1 owing to the fact that it is mountainous in many places4 ,consequently most of the cane and all of the sugar factories are to be found on the left 7western7 bank4 ,ploughing is done in autumn and the ground is further prepared during the following ,february2 the furrows are then made2 shortly afterward the cane is planted1 covered with earth and the water is turned in4 ,irrigation is kept up until the end of ,october1 when it is discontinued for two or three weeks to allow the cane to ripen4 ,harvesting begins in ,december and lasts until ,april4 ,the cane when cut is transported by camels to the railway and thence to the mill4 ,the customary procedure is to raise one crop of plant cane1 one crop of ratoons and one crop of cotton or beans in succession1 allowing the land to lie fallow the fourth year1 and so on every four years4 ,the yield of cane per acre depends upon the soil1 the adequacy of the water supply and the temperature ruling during the period of growth2 the average from plant cane is twenty-four tons and from ratoons sixteen tons4 ,the factories depend upon cane furnished by the growers1 either large plantation owners or small farmers who cultivate a few acres of rented land1 and one of the serious problems which they have to face is the difficulty of obtaining an adequate supply4 ,the capacity of the factories is large1 the machinery is modern and they could easily take care of a much larger cane tonnage than they have been able to secure4 ,an improvement is looked for as a result of more liberal terms recently offered to growers4 ,the bulk of the output is raw centrifugal sugar1 famous under the name of 8,egyptian crystals10 and much sought after for flavoring chewing tobacco4 ,the vineyardists of the ,champagne district in ,france get from ,egypt the sugar used in making their sparkling wines1 as they hold that cane sugar is the only kind that will not hurt the flavor of the champagne4 ,according to ,willett ,gray the yearly crops in long tons since #aijc were3 #aijc-jd #fj1jjj #aijd-je #fj1jjj #aije-jf #fe1jjj #aijf-jg #db1aie #aijg-jh #ee1fdh #aijh-ji #cd1hce #aiji-aj #eb1ebe #aiaj-aa #di1cid #aiaa-ab #eg1hgi #aiab-ac #ge1dbj #aiac-ad #fi1cfh #aiad-ae #ge1gch #aiae-af #aaj1jjjia ,,spain ,spain lies in the extreme southwest of ,europe and it embraces about eleven-thirteenths of the ,iberian peninsula4 ,its total area is #aid1gjj square miles1 and in #aiad the population numbered #ai1gab1ehe4 ,it is said that ,phoenician traders reached there as early as the eleventh century before the ,christian era4 ,in #bch ,b4 ,c41 or three years after the close of the first ,punic war1 ,hamilcar ,barca1 the famous ,carthaginian general1 crossed from ,africa into ,spain1 taking with him his son-in-law1 ,hasdrubal1 and his son ,hannibal1 both of whom were destined to play great parts in the coming struggle between ,carthage and ,rome4 ,from a few trading posts1 ,hamilcar extended the ,carthaginian dominion in ,spain to that of a great province1 that not only proved a source of immense revenue1 but that also furnished a never-failing supply of warlike troops for the armies of ,carthage4 ,the second ,punic war ended the sway of the ,carthaginians in ,spain1 and from #bja ,b4 ,c4 until #djf ,a4 ,d4 the country was under ,roman rule4 ,then came the barbarian invasion and the ,visigothic kings1 whose power was shattered in turn when the ,berber ,tarik defeated ,king ,roderic in #gaa4 ,for centuries afterward the struggle of reconquest went on until ,granada1 the only remaining ,mohammedan stronghold1 surrendered to ,ferdinand and ,isabella on ,january #b1 #adib4 ,that same year1 under the auspices of these sovereigns1 ,columbus set out on his first journey westward1 and with his discovery of ,america came a revolution in the sugar industry of the world4 ,spain is the only cane-sugar-producing country in ,europe4 ,sugar cane was brought there by the ,arabs when they conquered ,granada1 and its cultivation had assumed important proportions in that kingdom at the time of the expulsion of the ,moors4 ,the introduction of the plant in ,america had a serious effect upon sugar production in ,spain and other countries of the ,old world1 and over three hundred years later the ,spanish growers of cane had to meet the competition of the beet sugar of central ,europe4 ,finally the loss of her colonies in #ahih stimulated the industry in the mother country by relieving the ,spanish planter from protected competition in his home market4 ,in #aijc ,spain had fifty beet-sugar factories1 thirty-two cane-sugar mills1 fifteen syrup mills1 eleven refineries and two factories that turned out sorghum sugar and glucose4 ,shortly afterward1 however1 prices in ,spain dropped below the cost of production1 so that a period of profit was followed by a period of heavy loss4 ,as a result of this state of affairs1 the ,sociedad ,general ,azucarera de ,espaa was formed4 ,this organization comprised forty-three beet factories1 thirteen cane factories and thirteen other mills1 and its object was to limit the number of mills in operation and to introduce greater efficiency into cultivation methods4 ,the plan did not prove successful1 and finally1 after lengthy discussions between the ,sociedad ,general1 the independent producers and the government1 it was decided to fix the excise tax on sugar at thirty-five pesetas per #bbj4d pounds1 and it was agreed that no new factory should be built within a fifty-mile radius of any factory in operation4 ,the output of each mill was fixed every year between the owner and the government1 and if this amount should be exceeded the surplus was debited to the factory for the following year4 ,early in #aiaf a royal decree authorized a reduction in the import duty on sugar from #fj to #be pesetas per #ajj kilograms4 ,since then there has been a heavy increase in imports1 and the government is now being importuned to restore the tariff protection1 lest the home industry be destroyed altogether4 ,the cultivation of sugar cane in ,spain is decreasing year by year on account of competition from the beet4 ,the area devoted to cane culture in #aiac was #iijj acres1 while in #aiae it had dwindled to #djfi acres4 ,the plantations are situated in the provinces that border on the ,mediterranean coast between ,gibraltar and ,almeria1 or1 roughly speaking1 between #cf and #ch degrees north latitude1 a long way outside of the tropics1 but where the climate is warm and free from frost nevertheless4 ,three varieties of cane are grown3 the white1 the red and the striped1 and the kind selected is determined by the nature of the soil4 ,white cane requires a good soil with plenty of fertilization2 red cane needs a deep soil carrying a large amount of moisture and also well manured4 ,the striped cane calls for the same conditions as the red and gives about the same weight of cane per acre4 ,the method of planting is similar with all three4 ,a cane crop is raised every fourth year on land that has previously been planted in wheat1 maize1 barley or sweet potatoes4 ,the fields are ploughed deeply in ,january and ,february and the ground is well fertilized4 ,during ,march the furrows are made three and one-half feet apart1 one foot deep and eight inches wide1 and more manure is added when it is thought to be necessary4 ,sulphate of ammonia1 nitrates1 basic slag1 fish guano and phosphates1 as well as stable manure1 are used for fertilizing4 ,two rows of seed cane are placed in each furrow1 so that the amount of seed required is large1 being about #ihjj pounds to the acre4 ,the reason for this is that in the moderate climate of ,malaga1 ,granada and ,almeria the formation of secondary stalks is not certain1 consequently there must be ample provision for a sufficient number of primary stalks4 ,as soon as the seed is planted it is covered with a layer of earth and enough water to moisten the ground effectually is turned into the furrows4 ,these waterings are continued as often as necessary while the crop is growing1 and the cane is banked from time to time4 ,finally the land is leveled and the last banking done4 ,the furrows now appear raised above the surface instead of being below it as at first4 ,water is turned on at the proper point and allowed to run over the entire field1 and this operation is repeated every ten or fifteen days during the summer4 ,the crop is ready to be cut one year after planting1 so that harvesting and grinding begin in ,march and are finished in ,may4 ,as soon as the cane is cut it is stripped of its leaves and taken to the mill4 ,part of the leaves is utilized as straw for the cattle and the remainder is burnt4 ,if it should be decided to follow this crop by one of ratoon cane1 the spaces between the rows are then ploughed1 fertilizer is added and the process of irrigation and banking is kept up until the ratoons reach maturity4 ,in #aiaj there were thirty-four cane mills in ,spain1 divided into two classes3 first1 the trapiche1 a small affair where the juice obtained from the little cane that is ground is made into table syrup1 and1 second1 the fabrica1 where white and yellow sugars and molasses are manufactured4 ,the average fabrica is well equipped and managed4 ,the diffusion method of extracting the juice from the cane is employed to a large extent4 ,at the beginning of the refining process the juice is treated with sulphur and lime1 after which it is clarified in the usual way4 ,the heavy impurities are removed by bag filters and the clear juice is decolorized by filtration through bone-char4 ,the first liquor is boiled to a fine-grained massecuite1 which is purged of its mother liquor in centrifugal machines and dried in large cones#ib of white sugar1 which are broken up into small pieces and used in that form4 ,a fine white granulated sugar is boiled from the second liquor1 while from the third and fourth liquors soft yellow sugars are made4 ,the final molasses is distilled into alcohol4 ,that the outlook for the cane-sugar industry is far from promising is evidenced by the fact that the output has fallen off from #cd1edh tons in #aijj to #f1cei tons in #aiae4 ,the area available for cane culture is limited and too far from the tropics to give satisfactory crop results4 ,then again1 a high surtax has had the effect of restricting the consumption1 which at the present time is somewhere in the neighborhood of #aej1jjj tons per annum1 all told4 ,as the foregoing figures show1 nearly all the country's requirements are served by beet sugar1 concerning which a word or two may be timely at this point4 ,in #ahii1 the year following the conclusion of the ,spanish-,american war1 which cost ,spain her colonies1 the duty upon foreign sugar brought into that country was increased from fifty pesetas to eighty-five pesetas per #bbj4d pounds1 and the excise tax was fixed at twenty-five pesetas4 ,this legislation effectually barred out the foreign article and at the same time stimulated the home industry4 ,much capital that was withdrawn from the lost colonies was invested in the culture of sugar beets and the manufacture of beet sugar4 ,the profits realized from these operations were very large at first1 which naturally led to expansion and finally overproduction4 ,during the year ending ,july #a1 #aiac1 the total amount of beet sugar turned out was #aef1hib tons4 ,in #aiad the production amounted to #adj1cid tons1 representing the output of thirty-three factories4 ,the latest information obtainable gives the number of factories as thirty-eight1 and two-thirds of these are said to be controlled by the so-called 8,sugar ,trust of ,spain40 ,,production ,,of ,,cane ,,sugar#ic ,,consumption #aijd #bb1age tons #ih1jdc tons #aije #bh1hai 0 #ajg1aia 0 #aijf #ae1gbb 0 #aag1gdi 0 #aijg #af1jib 0 #aac1ifh 0 #aijh #ad1jeg 0 #aag1aij 0 #aiji #ba1ffi 0 #ajd1gdj 0 #aiaj #bj1cja 0 #acc1fjh 0 #aiaa #bj1bie 0 #acj1gfi 0 #aiab #af1agf 0 #adc1ffd 0 #aiac #ac1bca 0 #adc1hbf 0 #aiad #g1cgf 0 #abf1dbe 0 #aiae #f1cei 0 #aef1fah 0 ,,india ,to all intents and purposes1 ,india is a continent rather than a country4 ,it is triangular in shape1 with its base resting upon the ,himalayas and its apex running far out into the ocean4 ,to the east is the bay of ,bengal and to the west the ,arabian sea4 ,its length from north to south and its greatest width from east to west are both about #aijj miles4 ,the ,indian empire1 including ,burma1 comprises #a1gff1jjj square miles1 with #bid1jjj1jjj inhabitants4 ,it extends from #h degrees to #cg degrees north latitude1 which means from the hottest tropical regions to a point well within the temperate zone1 so that it would be idle to attempt to describe here the variety of formation and climate4 ,in this1 the birthplace of sugar cane1 accurate information regarding the state of the industry is extremely hard to obtain1 for various reasons1 among which may be mentioned-- ,first3 ,in certain portions of the empire very indifferent attention is paid to the compilation of reliable statistics concerning production4 ,second3 ,the raising of sugar cane is not carried on by large interests1 but is divided among a vast number of small farmers1 so that it is doubly difficult to secure dependable data concerning the yield and manufacture4 ,third3 ,by no means all of the cane that is grown goes to the sugar mills to be ground4 ,much of it is chewed or eaten in the stalk1 and the manufacturing process itself is1 in most instances1 very primitive4 ,so it is clear that even where the acreage planted to cane is accurately known1 it would be a difficult matter to determine the result in sugar4 ,illustration3 ,,sugar ,,mill1 ,,nahan ,,factory1 ,,india ,illustration3 ,,centrifugal ,,worked ,,by ,,hand1 ,,india ,the area devoted to cane varies year by year and runs between #b1ejj1jjj and #c1jjj1jjj acres1 chiefly in the ,united ,provinces1 ,bengal and the ,punjab1 although the northwest provinces1 ,madras1 ,bombay1 central provinces1 the ,rajput states1 and ,burma contribute4 ,as the cane-sugar crop of ,india is estimated to be between #b1bbe1jjj and #b1ejj1jjj tons1 it would appear that the sugar realized per acre is something near one ton on an average1 as against five and one-half tons in ,hawaii4 ,however1 there is a good deal of uncertainty regarding the figures1 and some authorities consider the total crop very much larger than the amount just mentioned4 ,the general practice in ,india is to plant the cane each year1 and ratooning is seldom met with outside of the ,poonah district4 ,for fertilization1 stable manure1 town refuse and crushed oil cake are used4 ,the cane is planted from ,february to ,april and harvested from the middle of ,january to the middle of ,march of the year following4 ,water for irrigation purposes is taken from rivers and wells4 ,climatic conditions are frequently unfavorable4 ,there are long dry spells1 the low-lying lands are subject to floods in the rainy season1 and in certain sections frost plays havoc with the cane4 ,not only was ,india the original home of sugar cane1 but1 according to recognized authorities1 the secret of preparing sugar from cane juice1 which dates from the seventh century1 also came from there4 ,today modern methods are employed to a certain extent1 but the original processes predominate1 and a word or two concerning the latter will no doubt prove interesting4 ,the cane is cut into short lengths1 placed in a kind of mortar and crushed with a large pestle1 worked by oxen4 ,the juice runs through a hole in the side of the mortar into a vessel placed to receive it4 ,the practice in former days was to saw off a good-sized tamarind tree about three feet above the ground and then scoop out the stump4 ,later1 logs were sunk deep in the ground and hollowed out in the same manner4 ,stone mortars followed1 meeting with great favor1 so that the advent of iron roller mills was delayed for many years4 ,in the mortar-and-pestle operation of cane grinding1 the pestle consists of a lever with two arms4 ,the crushing end of the principal arm rests on the side of the mortar and the cane is ground between the pestle and the mortar wall4 ,the apparatus is driven by oxen4 ,illustration3 ,,wooden ,,mill ,,from ,,gorakhpur1 ,,india ,this method was improved upon by the introduction of the mill with two-geared wooden rolls set vertically1 the core of the taller one projecting upward through a frame and attached to a horizontal lever to which the oxen are harnessed4 ,when the mill is started the cane is fed between the wooden gears and the juice expressed in this manner4 ,a further development brought in geared iron cylinders or drums1 in sets of two and three4 ,the extraction by these means is extremely poor1 ranging from #ej per cent to #fb per cent4 ,illustration3 ,,boiling ,,by ,,old ,,method1 ,,india ,illustration3 ,,furnace ,,and ,,pans ,,for ,,making ,,rab1 ,,india ,indian sugar makers treat the cane juice in many ways1 but all the various grades or kinds produced come under one of two general heads1 gur or rab4 ,illustration3 ,,stone ,,mill1 ,,agra1 ,,india ,when making gur the juice is first freed from floating particles of cane by straining4 ,it is then run into a large earthen vessel sunk in the ground4 ,from there it is ladled into smaller pans placed above a furnace1 which is a very primitive affair1 generally with three pans and having side walls of tiles or brick4 ,cane trash and bagasse are used as fuel4 ,when the juice in the first pan begins to boil1 a thick scum forms on the top and is skimmed off1 and this operation is kept up until the liquor becomes clear4 ,it is then taken to the third pan for further boiling and finally concentrated in the second4 ,in many instances purification is limited to skimming1 but sometimes this is supplemented by adding milk of lime or crude soda ash to the liquor4 ,the scum is set aside to be fed to cattle or very poor people4 ,when the yellowish-brown mass is boiled to a certain density it is constantly kept in motion by stirring and its consistency is tested at frequent intervals4 ,as soon as it is found that it can be rolled into a ball that upon cooling will remain fairly soft1 it is considered sufficiently cooked and the boiling operation comes to an end4 ,sometimes the hot gur is put into earthen moulds to cool and harden1 sometimes it is worked with batons in an earthen vessel and after cooling is made into balls by hand1 or flattened out and cut into triangles4 ,the balls and triangles are placed in baskets to dry1 after which they are supposed to be ready for consumption4 ,gur that is soft and of good grain lends itself admirably to the process of refining4 ,gur that has become solid and hard has to be eaten without further treatment and burnt gur is totally unfit for refining4 ,rab is made in nearly the same manner1 but with more attention paid to cleanliness4 ,there are five iron pans1 which are thoroughly cleansed daily2 the skimming and clarifying operations are conducted with more care and the clear juice is filtered through cloth before being concentrated4 ,when the mass of crystals and liquor is found to be of the proper consistency1 it is poured into earthen pots to cool and well stirred to help crystallization4 ,this process being finally complete1 the moist and somewhat soft sugar can only be removed by breaking the pots containing it4 ,owing to its almost liquid condition1 rab cannot conveniently be transported any distance1 so that it is generally used near the place where it is made1 chiefly for refining purposes4 ,gur1 on the other hand1 being harder1 can readily be carried any distance4 ,illustration3 ,,small ,,locomotive ,,used ,,to ,,draw ,,cane ,,cars1 #b-;,,foot ,,gauge1 ,,india ,illustration3 ,,loading ,,cane ,,carrier1 ,,marhourah ,,factory1 ,,india ,men are sometimes set to work tramping upon sacks filled with rab1 in order to separate the syrup from the sugar2 again sacks of rab are piled upon a floor with holes for drainage and a well for the syrup that runs off4 ,weights are often placed upon the bags in order to hasten the process4 ,after the drainage is fairly complete1 the rab is dumped into vessels having openings at the bottom and covered at the top by a layer of wet water plants4 ,the water as it passes through the mass of sugar washes the syrup from the crystals and the liquor runs off through the apertures in the bottom4 ,several days afterward the operation is repeated1 and so on until all the syrup has been removed by washing4 ,the resulting sugar is either used in that form1 or dried in the sun and worked by human feet in order to lighten its color4 ,saiyid ,muhammad ,hadi1 assistant director of the ,land ,records and ,agriculture at ,allahabad1 has worked out an improved method for making rab which is now widely adopted4 ,under his plan the furnace heat can be readily controlled1 so that the danger of burning the juices during boiling is considerably lessened2 neither is there so much risk of decomposition 7souring74 ,besides1 the cooled rab is purged of its syrup in a centrifugal machine worked by hand instead of by drainage from wet vegetation4 ,at best1 however1 the production of sugar by the natives of ,hindustan is still at a very elementary stage1 and in that country new ideas gain ground very slowly1 so that it will be some time before modern machinery and equipment are generally in use4 ,it would seem that in view of the small production of sugar per acre and the enormous losses in manufacture1 a modern plant1 with machinery of the latest and best type and large financial resources1 should be remarkably successful1 but such is not the case4 ,it appears to be impossible to get a steady supply of cane4 ,in ,india1 plantations like those found in other countries do not exist4 ,instead1 there are a great number of extremely small pieces of land all under different ownership4 ,the cane has to be brought to the mill from considerable distances in small quantities1 and owing to lack of intelligence or initiative on the part of the farmer it is of indifferent quality4 ,transportation facilities are far from good and the manufacturers have to make up the shortage in the supply of cane by using rab and gur4 ,if the latter should contain an excessive amount of glucose or be caramelized1 it does not lose its value as an article for direct consumption2 on the other hand1 either of these conditions unfit it for the purposes of refining1 and as there is but a slight difference in price between gur and the white sugar into which it is made1 the disadvantage to the refiner is readily apparent4 ,another drawback is that the ,hindus do not take kindly to sugar manufactured by the ,european process1 consequently chini1 or sugar made from rab by the native method1 commands a better price than1 sugar made in a modern refinery4 ,religious and caste prejudices exert a strong influence also4 ,in modern sugar refining1 animal charcoal is the principal purifying and decolorizing agent1 and this1 together with the fact that ox-blood has been used for clarification1 causes the ,hindus to reject sugar prepared by such means4 ,finally1 there is the apprehension on the part of the high-caste natives that the sugar may have been produced by low-caste labor and that to eat it would bring defilement4 ,the refiners of ,india have begun to recognize the advantage to them in using raw ,european beet-root sugars and raw cane from ,java and ,mauritius instead of the more costly preparations of rab and gur4 ,as a result1 there is a considerable quantity of foreign sugar imported into ,india which is consumed ultimately by the high-caste native without his being aware of its origin4 ,the imports during the period from #aijh to #aiaf were as follows3 #aijh-ji #ece1ffd tons of #bbdj lbs4 #aiji-aj #eef1hdj 0 0 0 #aiaj-aa #fjh1ghe 0 0 0 #aiaa-ab #ejh1eia 0 0 0 #aiab-ac #fge1jag 0 0 0 #aiac-ad #hjb1igh 0 0 0 #aiad-ae #dbh1eie 0 0 0 #aiae-af #eae1iji 0 0 0 ,of this tonnage1 ,austria supplied the greater amount of the beet1 ,germany the remainder1 while the cane came from ,java and ,mauritius4 ,in #aiac and #aiad the raw beet from ,austria and ,germany was almost entirely displaced by washed ,java raws1 the trade name for which is 8,java white40 ,some sugar is exported1 but the quantity is insignificant4 ,illustration3 ,,water-,,driven ,,centrifugals1 ,,marhourah ,,factory1 ,,india ,illustration3 ,,champaran ,,sugar ,,company1 ,,ltd41 ,,barrah ,,chakia1 ,,champaran1 ,,india ,as to the future of the industry in ,india1 the theory is held by many that with modern scientific methods governing cultivation and manufacture1 that country would be able not only to provide for its own requirements1 but would be a competitor for export trade in the markets of the world4 ,if such a condition is to be brought about1 it will not be by improvement in the cane fields and the manufacturing plants alone4 ,there are other problems to be overcome before there can be any great change for the better1--the stubborn opposition of the natives to innovations1 the extreme smallness of individual holdings1 poverty1 lack of initiative and co-operation1--these are the main obstacles in the way of a material increase in the present enormous production1 and they will not be easily surmounted4 ,,conclusion ,the sugar crops of the world for the year #aiae-af aggregated #af1eeh1hfc long tons1 of which #aj1ega1jgi tons were cane4 ,the following table shows the production of the various countries3 ,,tons ,,north ,,america ,united ,states ,hawaii #ede1jjj ,louisiana #abb1gfh ,texas #a1jjj ,porto ,rico #djj1jjj ,cuba #c1jjj1jjj ,british ,west ,indies ,trinidad #ee1jjj ,barbados #ej1jjj ,jamaica #ae1jjj ,other ,british ,west ,indies #cj1jjj ,french ,west ,indies ,martinique #dj1jjj ,guadeloupe #dj1jjj ,danish ,west ,indies ,st4 ,croix #aa1jjj ,santo ,domingo #abj1jjj ,mexico #ge1jjj ,central ,america #cj1jjj ,,south ,,america ,british ,guiana #aaj1jjj ,surinam #ac1jjj ,venezuela #aj1jjj ,peru #bjj1jjj ,argentina #aee1jjj ,brazil #aid1jjj ,,total ,,in ,,america #e1baf1gfh ,,asia ,british ,india #b1fcf1hge ,java #a1bfd1jjj ,formosa #cia1edi ,philippine islands #cjj1jjj ,,total ,,in ,,asia #d1eib1dbd ,,australia ,,and ,,polynesia ,queensland #aej1jjj ,new ,south ,wales ,fiji #ij1jjj ,,total ,,in ,,australia ,,and ,,polynesia #bdj1jjj ,,africa ,egypt #aaj1jjj ,mauritius #bae1ebh ,runion #dj1jjj ,natal #ajj1jjj ,mozambique #ej1jjj ,,total ,,in ,,africa #eae1ebh ,,europe ,spain #f1cei ,,total ,,cane ,,sugar #aj1ega1jgi ,,beet ,,sugar ,europe #e1aij1chg ,united ,states #ggi1gef ,canada #ag1fda ,,total ,,beet ,,sugar #e1ihg1ghd ,,grand ,,total ,,cane ,,and ,,beet ,,sugar #af1eeh1hfc ,from the time when the soldiers of ,alexander of ,macedon found sugar cane in ,india1 over three hundred years before the ,christian era1 knowledge of sugar and its cultivation has accompanied great political movements4 ,in the sweep of the ,saracen conquest from ,persia to ,egypt and on through northern ,africa into ,spain1 sugar followed the footsteps of the invading armies4 ,the ,crusaders brought it with them when they returned home from ,palestine4 ,daring ,portuguese adventurers carried it to the ,madeiras1 the ,azores1 the ,cape ,verde and other islands of the east ,atlantic ocean when they captured and colonized them in the fifteenth century4 ,the ,new world received sugar cane at the hands of ,christopher ,columbus1 who planted it in ,santo ,domingo in #adic4 ,shortly after ,pizarro's first landing it was brought to ,peru by the ,spanish conquerors4 ,corts himself introduced it in ,mexico1 erecting the first mill there in #aebj2 and when1 during the struggle between ,great ,britain and ,france1 sugar was excluded from ,europe by the blockading ,british fleet1 it was ,napoleon ,bonaparte who called beet-sugar manufacture into being4 ,before the outbreak of the great war in #aiad1 the world's crops of sugar were pretty evenly divided between cane and beet1 with a preponderance in favor of the former4 ,how this titanic conflict has affected the ,european production is clearly seen by the returns for #aiae-af4 ,during that season the world's output was #af1eeh1hfc long tons1 made up of #aj1ega1jgi tons of cane and #e1ihg1ghd tons of beet1 and ,europe was short #b1cib1hbh tons as compared with the previous year4 ,the conclusion is inevitable that after the war shall be brought to an end a period of poverty and distress will ensue and restriction of sugar consumption in ,europe will be one of the results of this condition4 ,apart from countries where sugar production is fostered by protecting tariffs1 it seems certain that future development and progress will take place in lands where favorable climate1 rich soil and adequate1 cheap labor are found together4 ,the natural economic law will cause the industry to thrive best where such conditions obtain in the fullest degree1 and to fall off correspondingly as they diminish4 ,,footnotes #a ,this and seventeen illustrations immediately following are reproduced by permission of ,truman ,g4 ,palmer1 ,esq41 ,secretary of the ,united ,states ,beet ,sugar ,industry1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 #b ,this and the three illustrations immediately following are after photographs by ,a4 ,moscioni1 ,esq4 #c ,this and the five illustrations immediately following are after photographs by the ,american ,photo ,co41 ,habana4 #d ,spain4 #e ,ed4 ,yule1 ,,ii1 #bjh-bab4 #f ,geschichte des ,zuckers1 p4 #hi4 #g ,kazwini1 ,i1 #bfb4 #h #faj-fda ,a4 ,d4 #i ,see ,greece under the ,romans1 by ,george ,finlay1 ,,ll4,d41 page #cch2 8,the sixth campaign opened with the ,roman army in the plains of ,assyria1 and after laying waste some of the largest provinces of the ,persian empire1 ,heraclius marched through the country to the east of the ,tigris and captured the palace of ,dastargerd1 where the ,persian monarchs had accumulated the greater part of their enormous treasure in a position always regarded as secure from any foreign enemy40 #aj ,in ,morocco4 #aa ,important village of the province of ,kzistn4 #ab ,latif1 page #ajg4 #ac ,b4 #ega-;,d4 #fcb ,a4 ,d4 #ad ,amr-ibn-el-,ass4 #ae ,marchpane1 a sweetmeat made of sweet almonds and pounded sugar4 #af ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 ,vol4 ,,xii1 p4 #hbf1 gives #aejf as date of introduction of sugar in ,santo ,domingo4 ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 ,vol4 ,,xxvi1 p4 #dd1 says sugar carried to ,santo ,domingo in #adid4 #ag ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 ,,xxii1 p4 #feh4 #ah ,o4 ,s4 #ai ,quar4 ,jour4 of ,economics1 ,vol4 ,,xvii1 p4 #a4 #bj ,the excess of import duty over the domestic revenue tax4 #ba ,when exported1 of course4 #bb ,roy ,g4 ,blakey1 ,ph4 ,d4 ,the ,united ,states ,beet ,sugar ,industry and the ,tariff1 ,columbia ,university1 #aiab4 #bc ,actual production in sugar4 #bd ,mark #bc4h cents ,u4 ,s4 coin4 #be ,ruble #ea cents4 #bf ,pood #cf4jg pounds4 #bg ,six francs and five and one-half francs1 respectively1 per #ajj kilograms4 #bh ,surface1 ,g4 ,t41 ,story of ,sugar1 p4 #aae4 #bi ,hardwick ,committee ,hearings1 #fbnd ,congress1 #ast ,session1 p4 #gfg4 #cj ,truman ,g4 ,palmer4 #ca ,blakey4 #cb ,professor ,george ,w4 ,shaw says1 #ahgg3 ,the ,california ,industry1 ,sacramento1 #aijc1 page #aa4 #cc ,secretary of ,agriculture1 #fast ,congress1 #ast ,session1 ,sen4 ,doc4 #bb1 p4 #h4 #cd ,closed4 #ce ,height of these mountains taken from ,u4 ,s4 ,geodetic ,survey1 ,march1 #aiae4 #cf ,geerligs1 ,world's ,cane ,sugar ,industry1 p4 #cde4 #cg ,cleveland1 ,richard ,j41 ,narrative of ,voyages and ,commercial ,enterprises1 ,cambridge1 #ahdc4 #ch ,anderson1 ,rufus1 ,the ,hawaiian ,islands1 ,boston1 #ahfd4 #ci ,jarves1 ,james ,jackson1 ,history of the ,sandwich ,islands1 ,honolulu1 #ahgb4 #dj ,overland ,monthly1 ,june1 #ahie1 p4 #fbj4 #da ,from what ,mr4 ,nol ,deerr1 the sugar technologist at the ,honolulu experiment station1 writes on the subject1 it would appear that ,yellow ,caledonia cane is identical with ,white ,tanna4 ,the three varieties of ,tanna cane1 the ,striped1 the ,white and the ,black1 are called after the island of that name1 one of the ,loyalty group1 of which the most important is ,new ,caledonia4 ,all of the ,tanna canes are cultivated extensively in ,australia1 and the ,white ,tanna or ,yellow ,caledonia was brought to ,hawaii from ,queensland4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,p4 ,naquin1 agriculturist of the ,h4 ,s4 ,p4 ,a4 experiment station1 ,honolulu1 says3 8,yellow ,caledonia cane was first grown in the ,kau district by manager ,george ,c4 ,hewitt of the ,hutchinson ,sugar company4 ,the cane first came into prominence in the early nineties when ,rose ,bamboo1 which had replaced ,lahaina cane1 began to show signs of deterioration4 ,yellow ,caledonia1 being a hardier cane than any of the varieties then grown1 and therefore less susceptible to attack of leaf-hoppers and to prevalent diseases1 soon gained favor in ,kau1 from which district it spread to ,olaa and the ,honokaa district4 ,the introduction of ,yellow ,caledonia cane was1 no doubt1 a great help1 if not the salvation of the ,onomea ,sugar company and the rest of the plantations in the island of ,hawaii1 which suffered so severely from leaf-hoppers and the deterioration of the ,lahaina cane40 #db ,written in #ahea4 #dc ,elected emperor of the ,roman empire as ,charles ,v4 #dd ,u4 ,s4 ,war ,department4 ,bureau of ,insular ,affairs1 ,washington1 #ab-af-ad4 #de ,a survey under the ,cadastral survey act1 passed by the ,philippine legislature in #aiac1 i4 e41 a survey of the land and assessment of its value as a basis for taxation would support a ,torrens title4 #df ,harold ,m4 ,pitt in his treatise1 ,reciprocity and the ,philippine ,islands1 ,manila1 #aiaa1 says that it is estimated that from #dj1jjj to #ej1jjj tons of sugar are consumed in the islands4 #dg ,walker1 ,h4 ,s4 ,the ,sugar ,industry in the ,island of ,negros4 ,manila1 #aiaj4 #dh ,prescott1 in his ,conquest of ,mexico1 7,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bbj et seq471 gives the following in connection with the discovery of the new world by ,columbus3 8,of the islands1 ,cuba was the second discovered2 but no attempt had been made to plant a colony there during the life of ,columbus1 who1 indeed1 after skirting the whole extent of its southern coast1 died in the conviction that it was part of the continent4 ,at length1 in #aeaa1 ,diego1 the son and successor of the #8,admiral1' who still maintained the seat of government in ,hispaniola1 finding the mines much exhausted there1 proposed to occupy the neighboring island of ,cuba1 or ,fernandina1 as it was called in compliment to the ,spanish monarch4 ,he prepared a small force for the conquest1 which he placed under the command of ,don ,diego ,velasquez4 ,the conquest was effected without much bloodshed4 ,after the conquest1 ,velasquez1 now appointed governor1 diligently occupied himself with measures for promoting the prosperity of the island4 ,he formed a number of settlements and invited settlers by liberal grants of land and slaves4 ,he encouraged them to cultivate the soil and gave particular attention to the sugar cane40 #di #be4cag lbs4 #a arroba4 #ej ,a caballera is generally taken to mean #cc acres4 #ea ,see ,report of ,e4 ,e4 ,paxton1 ,honolulu1 ,t4 ,h41 #aije4 #eb ,extremely high prices are paid only in districts where the number of sugar mills is unusually large and the competition for cane consequently very keen4 ,for example1 if a central needed #bjj1jjj tons of cane in order to grind at full capacity during the season1 and if its own cane and that which it had already purchased amounted to #age1jjj tons1 it might pay an excessive price for the remaining #be1jjj tons4 ,there is1 however1 no such thing as uniformity in the contracts made with colonos1 except that the price is based on weight and not on sugar content4 #ec ,a well-known authority on sugar culture states that ratoons constitute about #ij per cent of the ,cuban crop1 and that it takes twelve months for ratoons to ripen4 ,primavera1 or cane planted in the spring1 is cut when twelve months old1 and caa fria1 or cane planted in the fall1 is cut when it is between fourteen and eighteen months old4 ,the industry has been greatly extended during #aiae and #aiaf1 and consequently much new planting has been done4 ,these plantings will be ratooned after the first crop is taken off4 #ed ,geerligs1 p4 #agg4 #ee ,on ,december #af1 #aiad1 ,willett ,gray gave the average as between #b1bej1jjj and #b1ejj1jjj1 to which the recent new plantings must be added4 #ef ,journal1 ,society of ,chemical ,industry1 ,vol4 ,,xxv1 pp4 #afa et seq4 #eg ,prinsen ,geerligs says that the average yield is #ej1jjj arrobas per caballera1 or #af4hb long tons per acre1 but that a good crop gives #hj1jjj arrobas 7#bf4ib long tons per acre7 and sometimes #ajj1jjj arrobas per caballera 7#cc4fe long tons per acre7 or even more are obtained4 #eh ,the ,united ,states ,beet ,sugar ,industry and the ,tariff4 ,blakey1 p4 #agi4 #ei ,this is not true of the years #aiae and #aiaf1 when on account of the war ,great ,britain1 ,france and other ,european countries have been compelled to draw large quantities of sugar from ,cuba and the ,united ,states4 #fj ,ten years' war4 #fa ,hurricane4 #fb ,internal disturbances4 #fc ,rebellion against ,spain4 ,spanish-,american war4 #fd ,great drought4 #fe ,particularly favorable weather4 #ff ,great drought4 #fg ,estimated4 #fh ,estimated4 #fi ,estimated4 #gj ,estimated4 #ga ,britannica says #ahfj4 #gb ,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #cef-cah 7,dana ,estes ,co4's edition74 #gc ,portuguese settlement at the mouth of the ,canton river4 #gd ,chancaca is made by boiling the cane juice in open pans to the consistency of massecuite1 then running it into moulds about six inches in diameter and allowing it to cool4 #ge ,these figures based upon ,brazilian milreis1 paper1 being worth #as4 #d;d4 stg4 #gf ,a sugar solution of #ca degrees ,baum contains #ef4b per cent sucrose4 #gg ,trashing is the stripping of dried leaves from the cane4 #gh ,estimated4 #gi ,century ,atlas--,a recent private report 7#aiae7 gives #a1hef1bed sq4 miles4 #hj ,all figures given in dollars and cents are ,united ,states money4 #ha #af centavos1 paper1 per kilogram1 or #g cents per pound4 #hb ,estimated4 #hc ,since the foregoing was written ,formosa's production has passed the #cjj1jjj-ton mark1 as will be seen by the table on page #bha4 #hd ,asiatic trade wind4 #he ,geerligs4 #hf ,formed by ,france out of the ,netherlands in #agie4 ,it existed until #ahjf4 #hg ,estimated4 #hh ,estimated4 #hi ,estimated4 #ij ,estimated4 #ia ,estimated4 #ib ,from #aj to #ae pounds in weight4 #ic ,willett ,gray1 ,january #ac1 #aiaf4