,,comparative ,,geography4 ,,by ,,carl ,,ritter ,,late ,,professor ,,of ,,geography ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,berlin4 ,translated for the ,use of ,schools and ,colleges ,,by ,,william ,l4 ,,gage4 ,,philadelphia3 ,j4 ,b4 ,,lippincott ,,co4 #ahfe4 ,entered1 according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #ahfe1 by ,j4 ,b4 ,,lippincott ,,co41 ,in the ,clerk's ,office of the ,district ,court of the ,united ,states for the ,eastern ,district of ,pennsylvania4 ,,translator',s ,,preface4 ,the translator of ,ritter's 8,geographical ,studies10 which has received in its ,english dress the hearty greeting of our most cultured scholars1 takes a renewed pleasure in giving to the students of our higher ,seminaries a second volume from the pen of the great ,geographer4 ,the former work1 addressed1 as its contents mainly were1 to the members of the ,royal ,academy of ,berlin1 was too recondite in thought and too abstruse and elaborate in statement ever to become1 whether in ,german or in ,english1 a popular work2 but the present volume--the bright1 compact crystal of ,ritter's life--will pass into a general circulation1 and will be recognized as not merely a simple and perfectly intelligible treatise1 but as a masterly application of the comparative method of ,geography1 and as philosophical as it is practical and interesting4 ,besides the voluminous ,erdkunda1 which deals almost exclusively with ,asia1 and treats it with an exhaustive fullness1 ,ritter has left the world the volume already referred to1 and three courses of ,academical ,lectures4 ,one of these courses is now before the reader2 one of the remaining two relates to the geography of ,europe1 and the other to the history of ,geographical ,science and of ,discovery4 ,of these three courses1 a distinguished ,american scholar#a has said3 8,free from excessive details1 systematic1 clear1 bold1 and fresh1 they are better fitted to bring up to the mind ,ritter1 the university instructor1 than all his other writings40 ,this praise is by no means excessive2 and the student who shall1 with the assistance of a good physical atlas1 go through this work1 will find himself master of a far larger number of special facts than the size of the volume would indicate2 and also of a science of ,geography1 which subsidizes all detail1 and makes it auxiliary to the comprehension of relations no less beautiful and singular than are revealed in the study of the other departments of ,nature4 ,the peculiar difficulties attending the translation of the ,geographical ,studies have not been met in this volume2 in the ,university lecture-room1 ,ritter's style1 which1 before the ,royal ,academy1 was extremely involved1 poetical and inexhaustive1 became simple1 straightforward1 and luminous4 ,in style1 ,ritter carried neglect to the point of slovenliness2 and the finish which ,humboldt cultivated so assiduously1 he rejected as unworthy of a true scholar4 ,the highly figurative words with which he used so liberally to decorate his writings1 ,i have generally had to render with a rather too bare fidelity to a prose style2 for grateful and captivating as they were to his ,german hearers1 they would look over-fanciful to an ,english reader1 and obscure rather than illustrate the thought4 ,it has been my earnest purpose to make this work fill a great void in our educational literature2 and its convenient size gives it an incomparable advantage over the voluminous works of ,sir ,john ,herschel and ,mrs4 ,somerville2 while in rigid philosophical precision1 in method1 in natural growth--not to use that inevitable ,german word development1 7,entwickelung7--even those eminent geographers would1 doubtless1 award it the palm4 ,the demands of the public may yet render needful the translation of other of ,ritter's works2 meanwhile1 the editor of this work purposes to prepare a biography of that great man1 whose memory all his pupils revere1 and whose life was not less beautiful to his friends than it was fruitful and valuable to the whole scientific world4 ,w4 ,l4 ,g4 ,july #e1 #ahfd4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,,introduction4 ,introductory ,remarks ix ,solar ,system4 ,planets4 ,middle ,position of the ,earth4 ,figure of the ,earth4 ,ptolemaic ,system4 ,copernicus4 ,conception of ,geography4 ,the ,earth as the ,dwelling-place of ,man xiv ,general ,remarks4 ,geography as a ,science xv ,the ,earth and ,man4 ,geography4 ,scientific ,definition of ,geography4 ,geography as a ,science4 ,what ,geographical ,science has yet to accomplish xix ,the ,earth a ,unit4 ,geographical ,treatises4 ,comparative ,geography4 ,sources of ,geographical ,science xxv ,the ,study of our own ,neighborhood4 ,strabo1 ,cluver1 ,humboldt4 ,the ,sciences illustrative of ,geography xxvii ,illustrative ,sciences4 ,nautical ,science4 ,,comparative ,,geography4 ,,part ,,first4 ,,the ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,earth ,,considered ,,in ,,its ,,most ,,general ,,relations4 ,the ,spheroidal ,form of the ,earth #ca ,flattening of the ,poles4 ,the ,surface of the ,earth4 ,the ,threefold ,covering of the ,earth #cd ,the ,atmosphere4 ,depth of the ,sea4 ,the ,interior of the ,earth4 ,the ,superficial ,dimensions of the ,land and ,water on the ,globe #ci ,water and ,land4 ,area of the ,earth4 ,contrast of the ,land and ,water ,hemispheres #da ,continents and ,islands4 ,contrast of the ,hemispheres4 ,the great ,coast-belt4 ,historical ,contrast4 ,the ,position of the ,continents and its ,influence on the ,course of ,history #df ,structure and ,architectural ,relations of the ,continents4 ,the ,pyramidal ,forms of the ,great ,land-,masses1 and their ,southward direction toward the ,oceanic ,hemisphere #dh ,pyramidal ,structure4 ,hypothesis as to its ,origin4 ,surface of the ,moon4 ,situation of the ,continents in their ,relation to each other1 and to their ,collective ,whole #ea ,continents4 ,submarine ,volcanic ,connection4 ,arctic ,polar ,lands4 ,the ,polar ,world4 ,america4 ,australia4 ,the ,historical ,element in ,geographical ,science #eh ,matter and ,spirit4 ,steam ,navigation4 ,europe's advantageous ,position4 ,natural ,endowment of the ,various ,continents4 ,perfectability of the ,earth4 ,the ,oldest ,homes of ,culture4 ,,part ,,second4 ,a more extended ,investigation regarding the ,earth's ,surface #fi ,plains4 ,relative and absolute ,heights4 ,highlands and ,lowlands4 ,lands of ,transition4 ,highlands #gc ,general ,remarks4 ,highlands or ,plateaus of the ,first ,class #gd ,the ,asiatic ,plateaus4 ,the ,african ,highland4 ,the ,american ,plateaus4 ,plateaus of the ,second ,class #hj ,lower ,asiatic ,plateaus4 ,lower ,african ,plateaus4 ,lower ,american ,plateaus4 ,lower ,european ,plateaus4 ,use and ,misuse of the word ,plateau4 ,limits of the ,lower ,plateaus4 ,mountains and ,mountain ,lands #hi ,mountains and ,plateaus4 ,height of ,mountains4 ,size of ,mountains4 ,linear ,elevation4 ,mountain ,systems4 ,divisions of ,mountains4 ,mountain ,chains4 ,serrated ,ranges4 ,peaks and ,passes4 ,ranges of ,demarkation4 ,superimposed ,mountains4 ,independent ,mountain ,systems4 ,the ,relations of ,plateau ,systems #ajd ,geological ,differences between ,plateaus4 ,the ,continents with their respective ,plateaus4 ,primeval ,formation of ,plateaus and ,mountains #ajg ,general ,remarks4 ,origin of ,plateaus #ajg ,intumescence of the ,earth4 ,the great ,plateau ,circle4 ,the ,origin of ,mountains #aji ,volcanic ,forces4 ,deposits from ,water4 ,geography and ,geology4 ,lowlands #aad ,limits of ,lowland4 ,the ,polar ,flat ,regions4 ,america1 ,africa1 and ,australia1 the ,continents of ,lowlands4 ,the ,middle ,european ,lowland #aai ,general ,description4 ,the ,origin of the ,great ,central ,european ,plain #abb ,general ,remarks4 ,the ,ponto-,caspian ,plain1 the ,great ,depression of the ,old ,world #abf ,general ,description4 ,the ,origin of the ,ponto-,caspian ,depression #acb ,general ,remarks4 ,the ,depression of the ,jordan ,valley and of the ,dead ,sea #ach ,description4 ,the ,bitter ,lakes of the ,suez ,isthmus #adb ,the ,altitude in ,relation to the ,sea ,level4 ,the ,regions of ,transition between ,highlands and ,lowlands4 ,the ,river ,systems of the ,globe #add ,general ,remarks4 ,terrace ,lands and ,rivers in their ,general ,character #add ,terrace ,lands4 ,rivers4 ,their ,individuality4 ,water-sheds4 ,territory watered4 ,falls4 ,rivers more closely considered #aej ,direction4 ,water-sheds4 ,district drained4 ,river ,valleys4 ,upper ,course of ,rivers #aed ,general ,descriptive ,remarks4 ,middle ,course of ,rivers #aeh ,general ,descriptive ,remarks4 ,lower ,course of ,rivers #afc ,general ,descriptive ,remarks4 ,river's ,mouth4 ,navigation of ,rivers4 ,sinuosity of ,rivers3 its ,influence on ,civilization4 ,sources4 ,double ,streams4 ,cross ,streams4 ,weak and ,strong ,currents4 ,review #agg ,the ,historical ,influence of ,plateaus4 ,the ,influence of ,river ,systems on ,civilization4 ,the ,european ,terrace ,lands4 ,the ,danube ,terraces4 ,,part ,,third4 ,the ,configuration of the ,continents #ahc ,teleology of the ,earth's ,structure4 ,horizontal and ,vertical ,dimensions4 ,articulation4 ,strabo on the ,articulation of ,europe4 ,the ,superficial ,dimensions and ,articulation of the ,continents #ahh ,africa4 ,asia4 ,europe4 ,the ,european ,triangle4 ,the ,articulation of ,europe4 ,its ,extremities4 ,its ,relation to the other ,continents4 ,its ,historical ,function4 ,its complete preparation for the place assigned to it4 ,islands #bjc ,european ,islands4 ,african ,islands4 ,asiatic ,islands4 ,polynesia4 ,concentration and ,dismemberment4 ,europe4 ,the ,results of the above ,considerations briefly stated #baj ,review of the ,old ,world4 ,the ,new ,world #bab ,america4 ,south ,america4 ,terra del ,fuego4 ,north ,america4 ,american ,polar ,regions4 ,the ,future4 ,conclusion4 ,,introduction4 ,the subject of these lectures is ,geography in its most enlarged and comprehensive sense4 ,it will be necessary to preface them with some general observations1 which shall serve to indicate the scientific basis on which the discussion will rest4 ,our starting-point will be with ,nature herself and not with arbitrary geographical systems hitherto constructed4 ,by the word ,nature will be meant the entire ,creation4 ,the grasping of ,nature in all its objects and all its forces becomes1 in conjunction with the agency of ,time and ,space1 the comprehension of a great system4 ,the inanimate creation may be represented under the term inorganic1 the animate creation under the term organic4 ,yet there is not an absolute contrast between them2 for in both there is ceaseless progress1 no pause1 but in a higher and comprehensive sense a cosmical life1 the whole forming one great ,organism1 in which the inorganic world1 so called1 is only the foundation on which the animate creation stands4 ,to us1 our own ,earth is the most marked feature of ,nature viewed on its inorganic side4 ,to us it is the planet best known of all1 or rather the only one closely known1 the point whence we draw conclusions on the whole ,universe1 the resting ground for the glass that searches the ,kosmos1 to use ,humboldt's word1 discerning the place which the ,earth holds in it1 and prying into the mysteries of the entire creation4 ,our globe is one of the major planets of our system1 all of which gird the sun with great elliptic orbits1 midway in which is our own4 ,there begins the first popular division of the planets1--those that are within and those which are without our own orbit4 ,this is one of the most simple of discriminations1 one which we inherit from the ancients in an unmodified form4 ,humboldt retains this primary classification4 ,the external planets are those whose orbits embrace that of the ,earth within their own4 ,the minor planets are those whose orbits are embraced by that of the ,earth4 ,these are ,mercury and ,venus4 ,the ancients1 counting both the sun and moon1 reckoned only seven planets4 ,at the end of the eighteenth century another was added1 ,uranus1 an external planet4 ,through the instrumentality of improved telescopes1 soon after1 four minor ones were discovered1 ,ceres1 ,pallas1 ,juno1 and ,vesta2 and by the still more perfect lenses recently introduced1 and the assiduity and skill of astronomers1 the number of these little planetary bodies1 ranging between the orbits of ,mars and ,jupiter1 has grown great4 ,beyond ,saturn and ,uranus is ,neptune1 discovered mathematically by ,le ,verrier1 in ,paris1 and seen by ,galle in ,berlin1 the #bc;d of ,september1 #ahdf4 ,to these 7now eighty7 planets may be added the twenty to thirty moons of our solar system1 and a number of comets4 ,the middle position of the ,earth's orbit is not without its consequences4 ,the distance of the ,earth from the ,sun is1 in round numbers1 #ib1jjj1jjj of miles1 nearly three times as far as that of ,mercury1 the planet nearest the ,sun4 ,jupiter1 on the other hand1 is five times as far from the ,sun as the ,earth2 ,uranus about nineteen times as far1 and ,neptune about thirty-three times as far4 ,the time of the ,earth's revolution around the ,sun is also equally removed from the extremes2 its year is #cfe days2 ,mercury's being #hg days2 ,jupiter's #aa of our years2 ,uranus #hd years2 and ,neptune's #afe years4 ,the daily revolution of the ,earth on its axis is also of only medium swiftness1 consuming #bd hours4 ,this1 of course1 controls the periods of waking and sleep of the entire animate creation on our globe4 ,some planets revolve slower1 some more rapidly than our own2 ,jupiter's revolution1 for example1 is accomplished in little less than #aj hours4 ,this extreme rapidity seems to account for the much greater flattening at the poles of the planets than the ,earth exhibits1 occasioned doubtless during the formation processes1 while those immense revolving masses were passing from their primitive fluid state into the more rigid forms in which we know them4 ,of all the planets1 however1 the ,earth has most perfectly retained the spherical shape2 and the spherical form is in one sense a medium form2 i4e4 it is removed from all extremes of angularity1 and so falls in with the analogies which ,i am endeavoring to establish1 springing from the position of the ,earth's orbit midway between those of the inner and outer planets4 ,according to ,plato1 the beauty of form lies in symmetry1 and our ,earth is the most symmetrical of planets1 and1 unquestionably1 the spherical shape is the one best adapted to the display of the largest number of phenomena possible4 ,the variations from the spherical form1 produced by elevations and depressions1 are only of medium magnitude in our globe compared with many others in our system4 ,on the smaller planet of ,venus1 for example1 the mountains are thought to rise to a height of many miles1 while five is the greatest altitude of ours4 ,according to ,mdler's conjectures1 the mountains in our own moon rise to a height of over three miles1 an altitude altogether out of proportion to the size of the moon as compared with the earth4 ,in respect to the number of its moons1 too1 our ,earth is no extremist2 it has but one3 other planets1 ,mercury1 ,venus1 ,mars1 have none4 ,on the other hand1 ,jupiter has #d1 ,saturn #g1 ,uranus #f at least1 and doubtless more4 ,the general law seems to be1 the farther from the ,sun the greater the number of moons2 perhaps in the wonderful providence of ,god1 to compensate the feeble light of those distant realms by the number of the reflecting bodies4 ,now1 summing up all that has been said1 it will be seen that the ,earth is equally far removed from every extreme4 ,this fundamental classification1 drawn from the place of its orbit in relation to those nearer the ,sun or more distant from it1 gives it a character which is felt and seen in many different things1 and responds to analogies which it is not incorrect to mark4 ,a medium is seen in all its attributes and relations3 it is neither the largest nor the smallest of planets2 neither the swiftest nor the slowest2 neither the warmest nor the coldest2 in nothing is it either at a minimum nor at a maximum point4 ,and this very medium character brings the ,earth into harmony with the system of which it forms a part2 the symmetry of the one corresponding with the symmetry of the other1 and specially fits it to become the temporary home of a race like ours1 which makes the whole surface of the globe tributary during the short terrestrial life of man to his preparation for a celestial state of being4 ,our globe is certainly the only one of our system which could possibly be inhabited by man2 and as his residence1 and as the arena for his culture1 it is worthy of being studied in all its features2 no point is too trifling to be overlooked4 ,as man looks for a center to the system which evidently pertains to him1 and in which our ,earth plays no slight part1 the ,sun is clearly the source of a large share of what makes our life desirable4 ,thence we receive light1 warmth1 and indirectly1 and yet directly too1 life and the bloom of health4 ,nor can men1 even if ignorant and degraded1 help seeing the relation of the ,sun to the ,earth1 and linking1 in their rude thoughts1 the heavens with the earth2 and hence1 before all higher ,revelation1 the worship of the ,sun has been the primitive instinct of the oldest of nations4 ,looking at the earth as simply one among the innumerable hosts of heaven1 it1 like each one of them1 becomes to the imagination a mere point of light1 a 8star among stars40 ,but1 when we shift our point of view1 and leaving the cosmical or universal for the special1 for what pertains to the individual life1 the mere point of light flames up into a great1 busy world1 full of phenomena demanding investigation and thought4 ,and yet this world1 so attractive in its multiplicity of details1 is almost a chaos at the first sight2 a confused and inextricable mass1 so large1 so high1 so deep as to defy human effort to compass or master it4 ,science alone1 the gift and the growth of centuries1 can measure the field2 science alone can enter it and reduce the chaos to a beautiful and orderly grouping1 and make a perfect picture of the whole2 it alone can dispel crude ideas and give truer ones in their stead4 ,to the rude dweller on the plain1 the earth seems a gigantic floor1 as it did to many a tribe in the past1 and as it does to-day to thousands of wondering ,arabs4 ,the ,south ,sea ,islander1 in the ,pacific1 takes his island or island group to be the whole earth2 the world he considers an endless ocean plain1 from which the ,sun arises1 and1 when the day is over1 into which it sinks4 ,and even within the pale of civilization itself1 the ignorant ,neapolitan lazzarone considers his gulf the center of the world4 ,as men advance in their inquiries1 and1 ascending the sides of mountains1 look out over a larger tract1 or find new lands across the seas1 they do not outgrow their first idea1 the world merely expands from the narrow homestead to a larger circle1 such as the ,romans used to call their orbis terrarum4 ,the conception of the earth as a vast1 unsupported ball1 careering through the heavens1 was the possession1 slowly won1 of such great minds as ,pythagoras and ,aristotle1 and slowly found its way among the ideas which whole nations accepted as true4 ,circumnavigators must sail around the globe and tell their story to the world before the conjectures of science could have real weight with the popular mind in a matter so remote from the crude speculations of the ignorant as this4 ,and less than one century and a half ago 7in #agbg7 another step was taken1 and the theory was propounded by ,newton1 that the ,earth is a spheroid and not a perfect sphere4 ,later investigations have determined that the spheroidal form is only an approximation to perfect accuracy1 and that the ,earth is a polyhedron1 whose exact number of zodes has not yet been determined1 and which may prove indeterminable4 ,bessel has assigned1 as the great task of science for the coming century1 to settle this question with perfect exactness4 ,but what has been said is enough to indicate that in our knowledge1 at present1 certainly there is only progress1 only approximation1 no absolute exhaustion of the processes of discovery4 ,and just as in ruder lands each man looks at his own island1 or village1 as the center of the earth's circle1 so the ancients looked at the earth as the pivot of the universe1 the central point around which all the heavenly hosts revolve4 ,that was the fundamental principle of that ,ptolemaic system which was older than ,ptolemy2 held in the most ancient times in ,arabia1 ,babylon1 ,persia1 and ,india1 but first luminously expanded in the proportions and with the dignity of a system by ,ptolemy4 ,its outlines were1 in one word1 this3 there are seven planets1 the ,moon1 ,mercury1 ,venus1 the ,sun1 ,mars1 ,jupiter1 and ,saturn2 each has its own orbit1 in which it is in a limited sense supreme1 but they all revolve around the common center1 the ,earth4 ,beyond the seven1 and including them all1 is the ,firmament1 in which the other stars stand like golden nails in an imperishable floor2 the whole vast external ,firmament is opaque and motionless4 ,the ,ptolemaic system won and held the greatest regard in the ancient world4 ,mohammed established it in the ,koran as a truth of religion4 ,the advance of science revealed the falseness of the ,ptolemaic scheme of the universe1 and demonstrated the fact that the stars of heaven are not mere torch-bearers for us1 and mere interpreters of human destinies1 but are worlds like our own1 our earth being but one of numberless thousands equally worthy of the ,common ,creator4 ,the ,copernican system1 which was to re-create the whole domain of science1 wrought this great change4 ,the ,sun1 according to this theory1 forms the central point around which1 and not around the ,earth1 all the planets wheel4 ,copernicus1 in #aedc1 left this imperfect and yet fruitful conception to his successors to unfold2 and in the results gained by ,kepler1 in #afca1 by ,newton and ,galileo1 #agbg1 the ,copernican system was firmly established4 ,the vast improvements in the telescope removed the limits of the visible universe to a place till then unrevealed1 and added inexhaustible fields to those which had been known before4 ,the number of the planets was enlarged4 ,the list of determined comets increases yearly4 ,the number of the fixed stars has been determined by the extreme accuracy of such observers as ,lalande1 ,lacaille1 ,bessel1 ,argelander1 and ,lamont4 ,the great work of mapping and cataloguing the heavens has been accomplished4 ,many hundred stars1 supposed to be single fixed stars1 have been ascertained to be double stars1 and some have been resolved into systems like our own4 ,the #cjj-djj1 observed by ,struve1 have grown1 through the labors of ,herschel1 in both the ,northern and the ,southern hemispheres1 at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 and elsewhere1 to over #cjjj1 and the number is constantly increasing4 ,nebul have been analyzed1 and been shown to consist of worlds distinct and perfect as our own4 ,thus there is a steady and perceptible advance in man's conception of the ,earth1 of ,nature1 of what we call the ,world and the ,universe1 though each individual1 generation1 and century are but dimly conscious of this progress4 ,,the ,,earth ,,as ,,the ,,dwelling-,,place ,,of ,,man4 ,the ,earth draws our attention to itself1 however1 not as simply a unit in the planetary system1 but as the home of the human race4 ,the physical description of the globe includes the relations of the ,earth as a star amid the heavenly hosts1 while ,geography1 taken most comprehensively1 regards the ,earth as the dwelling-place of ,man4 ,from a geographical point of view1 the world becomes to us the common home of our race1 the theater1 not of the operations of ,nature in the most unrestricted sense1 but the arena for the development of human life and history4 ,the whole animate and inanimate creation is tributary1 looked at geographically1 to the fashioning of the destiny of ,man4 ,without ,man as the central point1 ,nature would have no interest to the geographer2 without the ,earth1 constituted just as it is1 the races of men and the course of human history could not claim his attention4 ,the ,earth is not only the best known of planets1 but1 as the home of man1 infinitely the most interesting4 ,the study of it is at the foundation of history as much as of physics4 ,no man of science can fail to regard it with the deepest interest4 ,more than a hundred years ago1 ,george ,foster remarked that ,european culture had ascended to that height1 that it must include an intimate knowledge of all that is peculiar in the features and phenomena of the entire globe4 ,how much more true is this remark in the middle of our nineteenth century6 ,it is no longer ,european culture that demands this1 but the welfare of all countries claims of scholars this knowledge far more imperatively than a hundred years ago4 ,still1 it must be confessed that we are far from the attainment of a perfect science of ,geography1 in its largest sense2 the science which regards the ,earth as the field of human discipline2 the science of which what was formerly called ,geography is only an outlying1 rudimentary part4 ,the compass of what it holds as its goal is too large1 and its contents too varied for his grasp whose existence is hemmed in by narrow bonds1 and whose life is so brief4 ,and though there have always been detailed descriptions of the different parts of the earth1 many of them remarkable for their accuracy1 yet there has been lacking a knowledge of the principle of organic unity which pervades the whole1 and the mutual play and interdependency of all the parts4 ,the whole subject of relations was unstudied4 ,and it is a knowledge of the relations of things that leads to a scientific interpretation1 not the description of detached parts4 ,geography was and continued to be mere description1 not the teaching of the most important relations4 ,only now are we beginning to comprehend the true elements of geographical science1 only now are the first efforts made to deal profoundly with this science1 although the progress of discovery is still going on with unabated speed1 leaving far behind us all the advances of our predecessors4 ,,geography ,,as ,a ,,science4 ,the ,earth1 considered per se1 is only a fragment of the ,universe1 of the ,kosmos1 in that wide use of the word which ,humboldt has given to it in his celebrated work4 ,the ,earth is the grand floor1 so to speak1 of ,nature2 the home1 or rather the cradle1 of men and of nations1 the dwelling-place of our race4 ,it is not merely a region of immense spaces1 a vast superficies1 it is the theater where all the forces of ,nature and the laws of ,nature are displayed in their variety and independencies4 ,besides this1 it is the field of all human effort1 and the scene of a ,divine revelation4 ,the ,earth must be studied1 therefore1 in a threefold relation3 to the ,universe1 to ,nature1 to ,history4 ,and it is not only as a mere passive agent1 but active1 that it assumes this threefold relation4 ,it is an inseparable1 an integral1 a working member in the great system of things4 ,but higher than this1 and grander than its relation to the system of things1 is its relation to an unseen world1 to an unseen hand1 even that of the ,creator4 ,we view it not as the field of forces and laws and phenomena1 but the crowning gift of ,god1 displaying the tokens of perfect adaptation to our wants1 full of beauty and excellence--a revelation of ,divine wisdom1 in the form of a visible world4 ,how beautifully has the inspired ,david painted this in the #ajdth ,psalm6 ,in relation to its inhabitants1 crowned with the ,imperial gift of reason1 the ,earth is not merely the place where they may stand1 the cradle where they may sleep1 the home where they may live1 it is the school where they may be trained4 ,this is one of the first and one of the greatest lessons that we learn from the history of the race4 ,the ,earth finds its highest mission1 not in its relation to inanimate nature1 but to the world of intelligence--the minds that dwell upon it1 the spiritual world to which it gives bodies4 ,and as the ,earth alone of the planets is adapted to be the home of such a being as man1 so in our world of animate and inanimate things1 man alone partakes of a moral nature1 incapable of being shared or even imitated by the lower creatures4 ,the ,earth was made to be the home of mind1 soul1 character4 ,and ,man was created to make this earth tributary to his largest growth in mind1 and soul1 and character4 ,in this sense the ,earth and its noble possessors are correlative4 ,each individual rises to his own appointed work1 runs his own course1 uses all the appliances of ,nature1 all the help with which ,god invests him1 and then ceases from his mission here2 but the ,earth remains1 the home of the advancing millions1 helping them all onward1 and granting them new power to fulfill the noble purposes of human life4 ,nor can this constitution of things be the result of a happy accident4 ,evidently under the supreme power of a ,divine mind and will1 ,nature is made subservient to ,man4 ,that mutual working and interdependence of things1 which opens to our comprehension the ,history of our race1 cannot be ascribed to a fortuitous combination of events4 ,it can only be the result of ,divine ,providence4 ,had there been no wise ruling of the blind forces of nature1 no subjection of the rough1 unbridled powers of the air1 and sea1 and earth1 the human race would have become extinct1 as so many races of beasts have done4 ,but there are no traces of the extinction of a human race in our ,paleontology4 ,the constitution of the globe is incontestably coincident with a plan to preserve and perfect ,man4 ,there are destructive agencies1 it is true1 but they do not operate on an extended scale2 our earthquakes1 and volcanoes1 and great storms at sea affect but a fraction of the race1 they are no longer universal in their action2 while1 on the contrary1 the instrumentalities which favor mankind remain in force--the earth's changeless garment of green1 the uniform progress of generation among subordinate creatures1 the ease of acclimatization1 and of transferring seeds and germs1 with undiminished fruitfulness1 from one region to another4 ,the very agencies which1 in the dawn of history1 brought death1 have been changed to auxiliaries of life with us to-day4 ,the investigation into the relations of the ,earth1 in this respect1 and into the organization of all the natural laws and phenomena in their bearing on man1 his life and history1 must constitute a prominent department of true geographical science4 ,when ,geography ceases to be a lifeless aggregate of unorganized facts1 and becomes the science which deals with the earth as a true organization1 a world capable of constant development1 carrying in its own bosom the seeds of the future1 to germinate and unfold1 age after age1 it first attains the unity and wholeness of a science1 and shows that it grows from a living root2 it becomes capable of systematic exposition1 and takes its true place in the circle of sister sciences4 ,philosophy gladly grants it a share in its own domain1 and permits it to indulge in those soaring speculations1 which it used to be thought that so simple a thing as ,geography might not enjoy4 ,yet1 it must not be denied that there has for some time been felt a need of bringing the earth1 as an organization1 more into the light of scientific investigation4 ,the study of final causes1 the tracing of infinite wisdom in the works of the ,creator1 the theories touching the first issue of all things1 have grown out of this necessity4 ,many errors have1 doubtless1 drifted in during the course of these speculations2 man has undertaken to measure the ,divine plan with most imperfect data1 and the illusion has been too fondly cherished of attaining final and profound results while men were scarcely in the possession of the elements of knowledge4 ,it is for us1 therefore1 to enter upon our inquiries with investigation rather than theory1 to test the knowledge of which tradition has put us in possession1 and to advance1 as we may1 to the new and the unexplored4 ,man is the first token that we meet1 that our study of the earth must contemplate it as an organized whole1 its unity consummating in him4 ,as every individual must1 in his own career1 epitomize the history of the race1 childhood1 youth1 manhood1 and decrepitude1 so each man mirrors in his own life the locality where he lives4 ,whether dwelling in the ,north or in the ,south1 in the ,east or in the ,west1 whether the shepherd of the ,tyrolese ,highlands1 or the ,hollander of the plains1 every man is1 in a manner1 the representative of the home that gave him birth4 ,in the people the country finds its reflection4 ,the effect of the district upon the nature of its inhabitants in size and figure1 in color and temperament1 in speech and mental characteristics1 is unmistakable4 ,hence the almost infinite diversity in the peculiarities of culture and attainment1 as well as of tendency in different nations4 ,anthropology and ,ethnography1 the science of man and of race1 are the running commentaries of ,geography and ,topography4 ,the historian and the geographer work toward each other1--the historian going back from the acts of men to study the scenes which have conditioned their life1 the geographer going forward from the study of the habitat of men to that of their deeds4 ,the fundamental question of history is1 in fact1 ,what relation does the country bear to the national life8 ,what relation to the civil structure1 the state8 ,in fact1 the whole constitution of ,man is thoroughly connected with the ,earth on which he dwells2 the roots of his being run down into it in uncounted numbers4 ,man receives at birth from the earth not only a spiritual but a physical dowry1 from which he cannot free himself1 and of whose worth he becomes conscious more and more4 ,it is1 therefore1 of course one of the first of the legitimate studies to learn the limits of the realm which ,man makes his home1 and to understand all its secrets1 all its forces1 so as to turn them to his own uses4 ,thus alone can he compass the sublime thought of his own freedom1 the independence of his own will in the kingdom of ,nature1 and learn the majesty of his own spirit2 for the knowledge of that freedom1 which is the most noble of all ,god's gifts to him1 is the most direct key to the attainment of that place in the present1 and that destiny in the future1 which ,god has appointed for man4 ,without a preliminary training1 amid the conditions of a limited life1 can there be no step taken toward the enjoyment of the life without limitations which is to come4 ,without the capacity of breaking the higher law1 there is no glory in obeying it1 no freedom to be valued1 even in the world of thought4 ,there can be no true speculation1 no philosophy of the unlimited and eternal1 without inquiry into and knowledge of the limited and conditioned4 ,he who knows not the earthly1 cannot know the heavenly2 he who knows not the finite1 cannot know the infinite4 ,statement and counter-statement are the substance to the world of thought4 ,pythagoras investigated matters of number and weight1 before he dealt with the mysteries of metaphysical speculation4 ,plato thought on the human soul1 and the practical details of legislation1 before he gave himself to the deepest things of ,philosophy4 ,aristotle was a naturalist and physicist1 before he became a logician and metaphysician4 ,kant was a mathematician and astronomer1 before he dealt with the problems of transcendental science4 ,schelling went from natural philosophy to the study of the soul of things4 ,if there have been evil results from this1 it has not been from antedating metaphysical studies by physical1 but by passing too quickly from the solid foundation-stones to the more unstable heights of the transcendental4 ,without these solid foundation-stones1 philosophy falls1 crushed by its own weight2 but with this preparation1 we may advance to the loftiest and yet most secure speculations4 ,,what ,,geography ,,as ,a ,,science ,,has ,,yet ,,to ,,accomplish4 ,geography can just as little be contented with being a mere description of the ,earth1 and a catalogue of its divisions1 as a detailed account of the objects in nature can take the place of a thorough and real natural history4 ,the very word ,geography1 meaning a description of the ,earth1 has unfortunately been at fault1 and has misled the world3 to us it merely hints at the elements1 the factors of what is the true science of ,geography4 ,that science aims at nothing less than to embrace the most complete and the most cosmical view of the ,earth2 to sum up and organize into a beautiful unity all that we know of the globe4 ,the whole body of facts revealed by past and present discovery must be marshaled into harmony1 before we gain the high pinnacle of ,geographical ,science4 ,the ,earth1 in all its parts1 must be known in all its relations1 before we can speak of it as the scholars of our day ought to speak of the world they inhabit4 ,moreover1 the ,earth is to be considered in two main relations--a relation1 and an absolute relation2 that is1 we are to regard it in its connection with the greater whole1 of which it forms a part1 the ,universe1 and as a body standing alone1 existing1 as it were1 for itself4 ,it is the latter view which falls within the strict province of ,geography4 ,the very prominence of the old ,greek word indicates the pre-eminence which1 in this science1 our own planet1 rather than others1 receives4 ,ge-ography confines our attention to the ,earth1 and concentrates it upon the globe1 regarded per se1 rather than in its relations to the ,universe4 ,taken1 therefore1 strictly1 as already hinted at in the foregoing remark1 ,geography is the department of science that deals with the globe in all its features1 phenomena1 and relations1 as an independent unit1 and shows the connection of this unified whole with man and with man's ,creator4 ,should we go beyond this1 and discuss the relations of the ,earth to the ,universe1 7as is often done in our geographical treatises1 in a singularly imperfect and unfruitful manner17 we should outrun the strict bounds of a single science1 and should be encroaching on the domain of the sister science of astronomy4 ,this we have no right to do4 ,yet1 from time to time1 we must borrow the results of other departments of learning to confirm our own4 ,the field which we have to till has been immensely reduced in its proportions by the publication of 8,kosmos10 which great work has almost exhausted the subject of the earth in its external relations4 ,the limiting of our own department may1 perhaps1 give more opportunity for thorough investigation within itself4 ,the ,earth1 if discussed exhaustorily1 must be spoken of in its relations to ,time as well as to ,space4 ,the word by which we characterize it1 in this regard1 is ,history4 ,the duration of the ,earth outruns all measurement4 ,by thinking of its beginning1 is the only way we have of gaining a conception of ,time4 ,we cannot conceive of the universe as antedating the creation of our earth4 ,by this indefinite1 not to say infinite1 duration of time1 the ,earth is discriminated from all that it contains2 it is older than any of its parts2 it antedates all its kingdoms4 ,the nature of the whole is1 therefore1 radically different from that of any of its divisions4 ,the ,earth has had a development of its own2 hence the too common error of treating it as passive and inorganic4 ,the history of the ,earth displays1 in all the monuments of the past1 that it has been subjected in every feature1 in every division of itself1 to ceaseless transformation1 in order to show that1 as a whole1 it is capable of that organic development on which ,i lay so much stress4 ,the natural powers which the earth includes are constantly obedient to the mechanical laws of chemistry and physics4 ,the animate creation1 plants1 animals1 man1 come and go1 in accordance with the laws of their being1 and as subordinate dependents on the great forces which the earth holds locked up within her bosom4 ,the earth1 the mother of them all1 has her own special advance1 her own development1 to use that overburdened ,german word4 ,she has relations to herself alone2 not simply to organized forms1 plants1 and animals2 just as little to organic things2 not simply to her own countries1 her rocks1 and her crystals4 ,these are but isolated parts2 or1 if not isolated1 yet bound together by a common tie4 ,there is another tie above this2 it is that which binds the earth to itself alone2 that subordinates its parts to such an extent that they almost disappear4 ,there is1 above all this thought of parts1 of features1 of phenomena1 the conception of the ,earth as a whole1 existing in itself1 and for itself1 an organic thing1 advancing by growth1 and becoming more and more perfect and beautiful4 ,without trying to impose on you anything vague and transcendental1 ,i wish to lead you to view the globe as almost a living thing1--not a crystal1 assuming new grace by virtue of an external law1--but a world1 taking on grandeur and worth1 by virtue of an inward necessity4 ,the individuality of the earth must be the watchword of re-created ,geography4 ,to think of the ,earth1 as a seed sown from the hand of ,god himself on the great fields of space1 and filled with a germinant power of life1 which will transform it more and more1 and make it more and more worthy of its noblest inhabitant1 is the first1 as it is the last1 idea which we must take and keep in these inquiries4 ,formerly1 ,geography was regarded as a mere auxiliary of ,history1 ,politics1 ,military ,science1 ,natural ,history1 the ,industrial ,arts1 and ,commerce4 ,and in truth it does reach out and teach all these departments of knowledge and action2 but only in the most recent times has it assumed the place of an independent branch of study4 ,only through the widening of the whole circle of sciences has room been made for this4 ,geography used1 for the sake of commerce1 to be divided into three divisions3 mathematical1 physical1 and political4 ,this was at the time when it was thought that the whole frame-work of the sciences was a disjointed and sundered thing2 before that minor principle of unity which binds them all together was recognized as one of the noblest conceptions that the mind can cherish4 ,in the first two of these arbitrary divisions into which ,geography was severed1 the relations of astronomy1 mathematics1 and physics were studied1 and their applications to the confused phenomena of the globe investigated4 ,yet the most important thing of all escaped notice2 students overlooked their chief task1 the tracing of causation and interdependence in the phenomena1 and the relation of every one to the country which supplies its conditions of being4 ,it was not suspected that each phenomenon was one link of a great chain of phenomena1 the whole revealing a comprehensive law4 ,men discussed porphyritic formations1 basaltic columns1 hot springs1 and a thousand features which dot the earth1 and a thousand kinds of rock which rift the surface of the globe1 and treated them singly as if each was a spore and the whole combination only a sporadic group4 ,they did not discover that in the one feature was to be found the reason of the existence of its neighbor2 that all the layers of stone owe their singularities of structure to one another rather than to themselves2 that each one stands in the closest connection with the upheaval of the loftiest mountains1 with the formation of great volcanic islands1 and1 in truth1 with the building up of entire continents4 ,and1 in like manner1 plants were discussed as if they were obedient to no law of grouping1 as if they were scattered broadcast over the earth1 having no relation to zones of vegetation1 to isothermal and isochimenal lines2 as if1 in fact1 there was no suspicion of any principle underlying the very existence of the whole vegetable kingdom4 ,and so1 too1 with such phenomena as the ,aurora ,borealis2 they were treated as isolated features1 rather than in their relations to the globe2 the connection was not seen between the maritime discoveries of voyagers and the great system of oceanic currents1 on which voyagers are so dependent2 in fact1 the whole influence of the world of matter on the world of mind was unexplored4 ,and in order to study what was called ,political ,geography1 a vast mass of materials was converted into a stiff1 ritualistic frame-work1 in the effort to impose some system and imaginal completeness on it1 and not in order to grasp facts and truths in their mutual relations and inward life2 they were merely arranged for convenient reference and for available use in the departments of military science1 politics1 statistics1 and history2 a method which is plainly our inheritance from the ,middle ,ages1 and which bears the marks of those days4 ,thus from this arbitrary arrangement1 made without reference to any indwelling necessity1 sprang the three groups with which we are familiar3 ,chronography and ,topography forming the first1 ,ethnography and ,anthropology the second1 and ,statistics and ,history the third1 or ,political ,geography4 ,from these three groups our ordinary text-books compile their usual aggregate of facts1 and each becomes after its own pattern a motley in miniature4 ,they contain variable quantities of this triple mass of materials1 and follow no law but the demands of the time when they see the light2 they favor1 like our light literature1 the whim of the hour1 and are political1 military1 or commercial1 as the public may demand4 ,a systematic exposition of geography is very seldom to be found in them4 ,a harmony of parts1 a true harmony1 is very rarely attained in their pages4 ,they are at the foundation only arbitrary and unmethodical collections of all facts which are ascertained to exist throughout the earth4 ,they are arranged according to countries1 or great natural divisions2 but the relation of one great natural division to another1 the mutual and immense influence of one country on another1 is never mentioned4 ,the description of ,europe follows in them to-day the same order in which ,strabo set the pattern4 ,the facts are arranged as the pieces of a counterpane1 as if every one existed in itself and for itself1 and had no connections with others4 ,the setting out of these facts follows the rubrical method of grouping1 according to boundary1 soil1 mountains1 rivers1 products1 and cities4 ,the beginning is usually made with boundaries which are generally most unstable and uncertain1 instead of being made with some rudimental fact around which all others arrange themselves as a center4 ,if we compare these geographical treatises with those made in the interest of any other great department1 we shall speedily discover that they indicate knowledge rather than science2 they form a mere aggregation and index of rich materials1 a lexicon rather than a true text-book4 ,and therefore ensues1 despite the undenied interest of the subject and its high claims1 the mechanical and unfruitful method only too common--the crowding of the memory without judgment1 without thought2 thence comes it that ,geography has taken so low a place among our school studies1 worthy only of the youngest of the pupils1 and presenting little stimulus even to them4 ,it will be my effort1 in the course of these lectures1 to exhibit the subject of relations rather than to detain you with descriptions2 in one word1 to generalize rather than to add new details4 ,in the lack of a thoroughly excellent text-book of geography1 ,i shall presuppose an acquaintance on your part with the materials1 so to speak1 of which the science is to be constructed4 ,it has been a customary method to treat geography in connection with epochs of time2 dealing with it as it was in the past and as it is in the present4 ,we hear of ,ancient ,geography1 the ,geography of the ,middle ,ages1 and ,modern ,geography4 ,in this course of lectures1 it will be treated not as the property of one age or another1 but rather as a growth of all time1 from ,herodotus down to our day4 ,it is only in this way that we can ascertain what is permanent and what is ephemeral2 only in this way can we subject geography to that comparative method which has given such an impetus to the advancement of the sister sciences of ,natural ,history2 only in this way can we see how the present is the birthright of the past4 ,archology1 ethnography1 and civil science are all gainers by this method of treatment2 in one word1 the whole domain of cotemporaneous study4 ,the less positive knowledge we possess of the formative processes of science1 the more crude our hypotheses1 the more flagrant our errors4 ,this is constantly verified under our eyes2 the errors of the past are the wisdom of the present1 and the gradual upheavals of our knowledge become indices1 not less of outgrown untruths than of truths yet to be revealed4 ,,sources ,,of ,,geographical ,,science4 ,the sources of geography1 as of history1 are twofold--established memorials and continued investigations4 ,the study of it has this great advantage at the outset1 that the surface of the earth is a standing monument of the past4 ,we are obliged to search where all lies open2 where investigation must be crowned with success4 ,no manuscripts in this great library have perished2 they all exist as legible1 as accessible as ever4 ,moreover1 personal investigation must be made by every student in order to understand the results of the investigations of others4 ,wherever our home is1 there lie all the materials which we need for the study of the entire globe4 ,humboldt hints at this when he says in his ,kosmos3 8,every little nook and shaded corner is but a reflection of the whole of ,nature40 ,the roaring mountain brook is the type of the thundering cataract2 the geological formations of a single little island1 suggest the broken coast lines of a continent2 the study of the boulders which are so thickly scattered in token of a great primeval deluge from the north1 reveals the structure of whole mountain chains4 ,the digging of every well may contribute to our knowledge of the earth's crust2 the excavations made in the building of railroads may1 without the loss of time1 labor1 and expense1 be a ceaseless source of instruction4 ,in the structure of a spear of grass1 of a rush1 of a single monocotyledon1 may be studied in miniature the palm-tree1 prince of the tropics2 in the mosses and lichens on our walls1 the stunted growths of mountain tops may be investigated4 ,a small range of hills may be taken as the type of the loftiest ,cordillera4 ,the eye may be easily trained to see all the greater in the less4 ,the study of our own district is the true key to the understanding of the forms and the phenomena of foreign lands4 ,whoever has wandered through the valleys and woods1 and over the hills and mountains of his own ,state1 will be the one capable of following a ,herodotus in his wanderings over the globe4 ,he1 and he alone1 will be able1 with true appreciation1 to accompany travelers through all foreign lands4 ,the very first step in a knowledge of geography is to know thoroughly the district where we live4 ,unfortunately the text-books which we now possess do not discuss1 with any approach to exhaustiveness1 the districts where their readers live2 and hence they cannot give any true inductive generalization of the large and the remote4 ,in ancient times1 the study of geography began with the world of nature1 not with the world of books4 ,herodotus1 being #ddd years ,b4 ,c41 became1 by virtue of his investigations on his wanderings1 the first critical geographer of the ,greeks4 ,polybius traveled through the ,alps and ,pyrenees1 ,gaul and ,spain1 to be able to write the history of ,hannibal's campaigns4 ,he explored the ,black ,sea and ,egypt1 in quest of facts4 ,he is the father of all military geography2 the greatest strategists have busied themselves with writing commentaries on ,polybius4 ,strabo1 the most industrious geographer of his age1 did not write till he had traveled from the ,caucasus to the ,rhone1 and from the ,alps to ,ethiopia4 ,philip ,cluver1 of ,dantzig1 who died in #afbc1 the true founder of classical geography1 collected1 by personal investigations1 the materials of his great work on ,germany1 ,italy1 and ancient ,sicily1 all of which countries he traversed thoroughly1 the classic authors in his hand4 ,alexander von ,humboldt has become1 by his thorough studies of nature in ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america1 the founder of ,comparative ,geography4 ,he was thoroughly acquainted with every geographical form in the neighborhood of his home1 before he traveled into foreign lands4 ,these examples show that personal investigation is one of the most reliable of all sources of geographical knowledge4 ,the second class of these sources is the accounts given in the published memoirs of travelers4 ,in more primitive days than these1 when very little was known regarding the earth1 personal examination was easily completed1 with a good degree of fullness1 by almost any tourist4 ,with the advance of knowledge1 the narratives of travelers have increased1 and the sum total of facts observed has become unwieldy2 and1 where facts have been wanting1 the imagination has amply supplied their place4 ,of course1 a single life soon became too short for the personal examination of every quarter of the globe2 the narratives of those who had thoroughly explored any one were accepted as authoritative1 and these accounts soon became the most generally available of all the sources of geographical knowledge4 ,yet1 with this limitation1 that now their abundance and their exactness tend to repress and almost to destroy any personal inquiry whatever4 ,nothing can take the place of some exploration and investigation on the part of the student of geography4 ,to the accounts of scientific travelers1 may be added those maps and globes which indicate the contour and the vertical elevations and depressions of the earth or its divisions4 ,the demand for perfect accuracy in these is now very great4 ,the map must be a portrait1 not a caricature4 ,in its way1 the map has a certain dictatorial authority2 it is so decisive in its very character1 that errors in it are far more dangerous than in the letter-press of books4 ,the ,english excel in the beauty of their maps3 there are none in the world engraved with the rare excellence of theirs2 but their care to secure accuracy is not commensurate4 ,the ,french and the ,germans vie for the honor of perfectly transcribing nature4 ,,the ,,sciences ,,illustrative ,,of ,,geography4 ,the sciences which are called in to illustrate the thorough study of geography have largely increased in number within the past few years4 ,they are1 for the most part1 the same which illustrate history2 to which may be added mathematics and natural history4 ,it is a very great mistake to suppose that all that bears upon geography can be crowded within the covers of a single book4 ,it is commonly supposed that geography is a matter of memory4 ,even in its elementary forms1 it is capable of a constructive treatment4 ,many a teacher1 who has not paid special attention to this department1 dreams that he can qualify himself by running through a single text-book4 ,no philologist would dream that1 with a grammar and dictionary1 he could grasp any constructive theory of language4 ,there must first be the study1 comparatively1 of the great classes4 ,and in geography1 the personal study of the earth1 with critical closeness1 and in the comparative method1 is the true way4 ,another very common error is1 that geography must subsidize what is most striking in other sciences1 and thereby gain its charms and attain its uses4 ,thus geography becomes everything--history1 statistics1 statecraft1 physics1 a catalogue of all the possessions of natural history1 in all its kingdoms4 ,it takes on all colors1 and meanwhile loses its own4 ,it merges all its individuality in other provinces4 ,in no way can it escape this disintegrating force1 unless by holding fast to some central principle of being2 and that is the relation of all the phenomena and forms of nature to the human race4 ,it cannot exist1 if it is to be merely an aggregate of all science1 a mosaic of all colors4 ,it is to use the whole circle of sciences to illustrate its own individuality1 not to exhibit their peculiarities4 ,it must make them all give a portion1 not the whole1 and yet must keep itself single and clear4 ,for the comprehension of mathematical geography1 a knowledge of the elements of mathematics and astronomy is indispensable4 ,for determining localities1 and for using many needed instruments1 there must be some skill in practical astronomy2 for measuring distances1 for projecting maps and charts1 and locating geographical districts upon them1 there must be some familiarity with trigonometry and the higher mathematics4 ,no one can thoroughly study geography in foreign lands1 and leave all astronomical instruments behind4 ,political geography demands an acquaintance with history1 and the same helps which the study of history requires4 ,the civil status of no country can be determined without this4 ,bsching's 8,europe0 was a master-piece of its time4 ,but it was impossible for even that book to compress within its covers the whole history of that continent in its relation to the geography of ,europe4 ,the study of ,man is1 of course1 in most intimate alliance with geography4 ,it is only since the opening of this century that ethnography has become a prominent and clearly defined province of science1 and enabled to become a great tributary of geography2 in fact1 the greatest tributary4 ,other departments are also drawn upon2 there can be no close study of the soil1 the structure of mountains and plains1 without mineralogy and geology4 ,meteorology1 too1 the science which discusses the climatic conditions of countries and the effects of climate upon the organization of plants1 animals1 and man1 is of no mean value in illustrating geography4 ,nor can one be a great geographer who does not understand the flora of the world4 ,not that he needs to be familiar with the myriads of plants1 but the laws of growth and the characteristics of localization must be known4 ,the geographer does not need to repeat in detail where the cereals and the palm-tree thrive4 ,the general conditions which control the growth of plants are all that he has to concern himself with4 ,the main auxiliary for this is furnished in the botanical garden1 where the eye sees the products of all localities1 arranged1 according to their grouping1 in the countries where they are indigenous4 ,botany and zoology and mineralogy are among the sciences most valuable in throwing light upon geography2 they display best what wealth each country holds in store for the uses of man2 for they are closely connected with the development of industry1 the arts1 and trade4 ,this brings us to the last province1 commerce1 the science of interchange4 ,the study of minerals1 of the distribution of plants and animals1 is of little advantage1 aside from commerce and its uses to man4 ,it is the interchange of the products of one region for those of another which has had1 on the whole1 the greatest influence on the human race4 ,think1 for an instant1 of the transfer of the potato from ,america to ,europe1 of maize to ,asia2 of the far more ancient introduction of wheat and rice from ,asia into ,europe2 and not these alone1 but almost all the fruits4 ,think of the carrying from ,asia to ,america1 and1 in fact1 to all tropical lands1 such products as sugar1 coffee1 and cotton4 ,think1 too1 of the results of the search for gold1 ivory1 and slaves in the interior of ,africa1 and of gold in ,california and ,australia1 opening such immense districts to settlements4 ,the search after platina has disclosed the most guarded recesses of the ,cordilleras and the ,ural chain2 while the need of copper first gave us our complete knowledge of the great system of ,american lakes4 ,without the expeditions to secure the whale1 the walrus1 and the seal1 as well as the fur-bearing animals1 the polar world would be still untraversed4 ,the discovery of coal on a hundred shores otherwise unknown1 led to the settlement of man in colonies from ,india and ,china southward to the ,antarctic ,continent1 and northward to ,nova ,zembla1 ,spitzbergen1 and ,greenland4 ,and not the continents only1 seas and oceans have been thoroughly studied1 in order to secure a safe pathway for man to the regions which contain his spoils4 ,in the furtherance of this1 the highest praise must be awarded to the ,british government4 ,through its enterprise and liberality1 almost every island group has been examined1 a thorough study of marine currents undertaken1 careful soundings made in all waters1 and a most extensive chartography accomplished4 ,the charts published by the ,english admiralty already are counted by thousands4 ,yet the ,french have not been backward in like investigations4 ,understanding the value of commerce1 their ,dpt de la ,marine has not been inactive4 ,scandinavia has also done her part4 ,the ,united ,states has accomplished one of the most thorough coast surveys ever undertaken by any nation2 its difficulties are only to be measured by its extent4 ,in fact1 the whole civilised world has sent its messengers to the ends of the earth1 and have united in this grand crusade of our age1 the enriching of all men by a liberal system of interchange of the commodities of all climes4 ,,comparative ,,geography4 ,,part ,i4 ,,the ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,earth ,,considered ,,in ,,its ,,most ,,general ,,relations4 ,the ,spheroidal ,form of the ,earth4 ,the measurements of1 and investigations into the figure of the earth1 have led1 as already stated in the introduction1 to no absolutely certain conclusion2 yet they have made it certain that the earth is1 in a general sense1 a spheroid4 ,there are many discrepancies1 as were then stated1 from the perfectly spheroidal shape2 still it is in this sense a spheroid1 that the polar diameter is not of the same length with the equatorial diameter4 ,the globular form of the earth1 using that word in a loose sense1 has been established with certainty since ,newton's time4 ,the experience of circumnavigators1 the uniform shield-shape of the shadow of the earth during eclipses of the moon1 are witnesses to this4 ,the gradual emerging and disappearance of objects1 such as ships on the sea1 in coming and going1 caravans on the desert1 of mountains as they are approached1 establish the fact4 ,these proofs are so well known that we but touch on them and pass to what is not so obvious4 ,as soon as the fact was established that the earth was a subordinate member of a system1 it was brought into analogy with other planets1 and their uniformly spherical shape was considered another valid reason for attributing the same to our globe4 ,the discovery of the rotation of the earth on its axis was still another argument in the same direction4 ,mathematical measurements and observations of the pendulum1 taken at different stations1 have confirmed the same result4 ,to measure a spherical body1 it is only necessary to take the length of a degree in one of its great circles1 and to multiply its length by #cfj1 the number of degrees4 ,the method of measuring a degree on the earth's surface is by taking two stars1 just one degree apart1 dropping1 by astronomical and mathematical means1 vertical lines upon the earth from them and measuring the distances apart of the points where those lines impinge upon the globe4 ,this can be done with perfect accuracy4 ,such investigations show that the degrees are not all of equal length1 as they would be were the earth a perfect sphere4 ,nearer the poles they are longer1 nearer the equator they are shorter4 ,the curvature of the earth is therefore greater as you approach the equatorial line1 and less as you recede from it4 ,in general terms1 then1 the earth is an oblate spheroid1 as it would be a prolate spheroid were the lengths of its diameters reversed4 ,by the most accurate measurements1 those of the astronomer ,bessel1 if the equatorial diameter were divided into #bhi equal parts1 the polar diameter would measure #bhh of them1 being shorter4 ,to this must be added what was said in the introduction1 that the surprising accuracy of modern instruments and modern investigations1 applied to meridian circles and parallels of latitude1 have determined the fact that the spheroid is not a perfect one1 7just as so often in nature the ideal is rather striven after than attained17 but an irregular polyhedron of an indeterminate number of sides4 ,still for all practical purposes1 these minute inquiries have no value1 and it is enough to treat of the earth as a perfect globe1 so far1 at least1 as map-drawing is concerned4 ,the deviation from a perfectly spherical shape is so inconsiderable that in an artificial globe of eighteen inches diameter it would hardly amount to the thickness of a sheet of paper2 still1 small as this is represented on a miniature scale1 it has1 doubtless1 great importance on the great scale of a world like this1 both in affecting somewhat the perturbation of other heavenly bodies which depend on the earth1 as well as the perturbations in the earth's own motion4 ,besides this1 which is really not a small point in consideration of the possible results which the minutest perturbation of one little planet may have on the universe1 there is one other1 more appreciable in its results1 the probable influence of this spheroidal1 or rather polyhedrons form1 in producing the unequal division of land and water upon the surface of the earth4 ,the apparent want of any principle or reason for this inequality has long perplexed geographers1 and there seems to be no more satisfactory solution than the one to which ,i have just alluded4 ,in the course of future investigations into the yet undetermined exact mathematical form of the earth1 the law which controls the division into land and water will be more thoroughly understood4 ,unquestionably the position of the great oceans depends upon their distance from the center of the globe1 and although the present proportion of land and water seems fortuitous1 undoubtedly it has a uniformly acting1 and a thoroughly appreciable law4 ,the ,threefold ,covering of the ,earth4 ,what may in the largest and most general sense be called the superficies of the earth1 is threefold in character1 and yet one in function2 consisting of a highly elastic body1 the atmosphere1 water1 and the solid ground4 ,these three forms are variously proportioned2 the more elastic is universal1 the fluid form is more restricted1 and the solid one prevails still less4 ,the more dense the body1 the nearer it is found to the center of the earth4 ,the lightest of all floats over the entire periphery of the globe like a graceful mantle of cloud4 ,man1 and in fact all organisms1 live by contact with all three of these forms4 ,the investigation of the elements1 and phenomena of the air1 regarded in themselves1 is the province of meteorology4 ,the mercury-column is the true language of the atmosphere1 and tells us in distinct tones of all the changes there4 ,mineralogy and geology make us acquainted with all the qualities and all the elements of the soil1 not in their relation to man1 but regarded in themselves4 ,geography deals with the conflict of all these bodies1 their relations to each other1 their mutual action and reaction4 ,meteorology gives occasion for the study of climate1 and for the observation of the phenomena of the lower strata of the atmosphere1--the fall of rain and snow1 for example4 ,geology and mineralogy give rise to the study of plains and mountain formations1 as well as of volcanic phenomena1 affecting the surface of the earth as they do in earthquakes1 upheavals of whole districts1 and the opening of hot springs4 ,thus1 geography has it own province clearly defined1 and uses all this and studies it in relation to the organic world1 and to man foremost of all4 ,the most highly elastic covering of the earth is unbroken1 the other two are sundered1 and each only occupies a part of the surface4 ,formerly1 in most ancient times1 the water seems to have covered the entire earth4 ,the study of this is1 however1 within the domain of geology4 ,we have to do only with the historic period which followed4 ,we have to look at the earth in its present relations1 and as the home of man4 ,now1 the portions covered with water are1 by far1 the largest part of the surface2 a little less than three-fourths are water1 a little more than one-fourth land4 ,the whole water-mass is composed largely of the oceans1 which1 in one sense1 constitute a continent of their own3 in looking at them as we do now1 we are not to regard them as ceasing at the outlines of the great land-masses1 but as penetrating these as far as to the springs which feed the rivers2 for the world of waters1 embracing springs1 brooks1 rivers1 lakes1 seas1 and oceans1 is one1 and but one4 ,the water is1 in some respects1 a form between the other two2 its peculiarities1 weight1 density1 freedom of movement1 and changeableness of form1 are a mean between the opposing extremes of air and the ground4 ,water can pass to a more fluid or a more solid state2 it can become vapor or ice4 ,the measurement of the depth of the world of waters has lately been so clearly connected with the needs of civilization1 that geographers have made many exceedingly accurate investigations4 ,formerly1 this was much neglected2 up to ,captain ,cook's time #aejj feet was the greatest depth ascertained2 in the course of the ,arctic discoveries #gjjj feet limited the plummet's descent2 ,captain ,ross sounded1 near ,st4 ,helena1 to a depth of #cj1jjj feet2 and ,captain ,denhorn1 in the ,south ,atlantic1 reached a point #df1jjj feet from the surface--about twice the height of the loftiest mountains4 ,and not single points alone1 but entire ocean districts have been traversed2 the temperature of these great depths has been studied1 the currents1 the density1 in fact all the features which must be known preliminarily to the laying of great lines of submarine telegraphs1 such1 for example1 as that proposed between ,north ,america and ,europe4 ,the atmosphere1 too1 is by no means thoroughly known to us4 ,it rises to a height between #he and #ie miles from the earth1 of which man has explored in balloons only about five miles1 or the height of the loftiest mountains4 ,at loftier heights than we can live1 the bright light of mid-day even fades into a dim kind of twilight1 and meteoric masses of iron are seen in full glow1 there being oxygen enough even there to support their combustion1 and very little resistance to overcome from the density of the atmosphere4 ,astronomers1 ,benzenberg in particular1 have calculated the distance of the meteors to range from #bc to #ajj miles from the earth1 and have studied them#b in respect to the time when they were visible1 their locality1 and their direction4 ,the limits of the atmosphere must be at that point where the expansive power of air and the attractive influence of the globe neutralize each other4 ,the form of the atmospheric body is therefore1 like the earth1 spheroidal1 but far more oblate than the earth1 in consequence of its much greater fluidity4 ,at the poles1 the distance is therefore much less from the surface of the earth to the confines of the atmosphere than at the equator4 ,the effect of this upon the refraction of light must be very great4 ,the investigation of the interior of the earth is more difficult to us than that of the atmosphere even4 ,we cannot say that we know thoroughly more than we can learn by penetrating part of the distance to the center of the globe4 ,deeper than that our lowest shafts have not sunk4 ,the coal mines of ,england penetrate perhaps the farthest below the sea level2 for the deep mines in ,germany1 in the ,hartz district1 for instance1 have their entrance hundreds of feet above it4 ,one coal mine near ,durham1 ,england1 descends to a depth of about #aehd feet1 and reaches a point where the thermometer is #gi ,fahrenheit4 ,the deep coal mines of ,england have1 however1 one rival1 in a shaft at ,liege1 which is sunk #ahjj feet4 ,the modern ,artesian well has gone to still greater depths1 in the effort to procure brine for the manufacture of salt1 or fresh water for the use of cities4 ,at ,rehme1 in ,porta ,westphalica1 a point #bafj feet from the surface has been reached1 and water brought up at a temperature of #ij ,fahrenheit1 containing four per cent4 of salt4 ,by an ingenious application of mechanics to the process of well boring1 doubtless a depth of #ejjj feet could be attained4 ,at ,mondorf1 in ,luxemburg1 a bore has been made through sandstone and the mineral formations lying beneath it1 for a distance of #bgjj feet1 and water reached at #hb ,fahrenheit4 ,the great upheavals caused by earthquakes and volcanoes disclose still vaster depths4 ,in the eruptions of the latter1 immense masses of the inner contents of the earth are thrown out1 sometimes enough to form a not insignificant mountain1 and to desolate large regions with their debris4 ,as a general thing1 the original mineral forms are lost and indistinguishable in the molten mass4 ,yet not seldom perfect specimens are hurled out1 imbedded in lava and cinders2 not always minute fragments1 sometimes huge blocks1 testifying not with any degree of completeness1 yet clearly1 to a certain extent1 of the composition of the region bordering on the great inner sea of molten matter4 ,yet most of our knowledge upon this subject is hypothetical1 and what we know only indicates painfully the great extent of that of which we are entirely ignorant4 ,the uniform increase of temperature1 as we descend into the earth1 at the rate of about #bd ,fahrenheit for every #ajj feet1 the heat of some mineral springs1 leads to the conclusion that1 could we advance to a place about twenty-three miles from the surface1 we should attain the limits where all becomes a molten mass4 ,the cold surface1 on which we walk in such security1 seems1 by all analogies1 to envelop a liquid caldron which has been seething from the morning of the world4 ,this internal mass is1 of course1 the source of all volcanic eruptions1 and of all the phenomena to which ,i have alluded above4 ,a distinguished geologist has well said that 8light and heat are the two extremes of being3 the farther man goes away from the earth's surface1 he encounters light2 the farther he recedes inwardly from its surface1 he encounters heat40 ,it is true we are not absolutely certain that the rate of increase is uniform1 at the rate of one degree ,fahrenheit for every #de feet2 but if it is1 we should reach the boiling point of water at less than #aj1jjj feet from the surface1 and the melting point of iron 7#bb ,fahrenheit7 a little over #abj1jjj feet4 ,the relation of this thickness to the entire diameter of the earth is about as #a to #cdd1 about the ratio of the thickness of an egg-shell to the egg4 ,the ,superficial ,dimensions of the ,land and ,water on the ,globe4 ,the equatorial diameter of the earth1 #gibef miles1 multiplied into the circumference1 #bdhihh1 equals #aig1cci1eij1 the number of square miles on the earth's surface1 reckoning as if of a true sphere4 ,the deduction to be made1 in consequence of its spheroidal shape1 has not yet been estimated with any approach to nicety4 ,the sum indicated above is exact enough to satisfy geographical purposes2 enough to lead to the laws of relative rather than to a minute individualization4 ,the proportion even of land to water has not been determined1 except with approximate accuracy4 ,it has been commonly stated that two-thirds are water and one-third land2 others have computed three-fifths to be water and two-fifths land4 ,the most accurate measurements1 those instituted by ,humboldt1 have left it in this statement1 that if the whole be taken as one1 the sea occupies #gcd1 the land #bfe1 or1 reduced and simplified in almost unchanged form1 a little more than three-quarters water1 a little less than one-quarter land4 ,of course it is impossible1 as yet1 to attain to accuracy in these estimates1 as our knowledge is imperfect regarding the polar regions2 there are about #ag1jjj1jjj square miles unexplored4 ,the ascertaining of superficial areas with exactness is one of the most costly operations undertaken in the interest of science4 ,the first mathematical survey of ,france1 one hundred and fifty years ago1 undertaken by ,cassini1 cost four millions2 the second sixteen millions2 a third1 still more costly1 has been made within the present century4 ,still1 it must be said that few countries have expended money in this direction with as much prodigality as ,france4 ,in ,turkey1 for instance1 so little accuracy has been attained1 that the survey of that country1 undertaken by ,beauchamp early in this century1 resulted in establishing the ,sultan in possession of #ag1jjj square miles which he had supposed were covered by the ,black ,sea4 ,the recent surveys of ,prussia have rectified similar mistakes1 and1 in the constantly increasing accuracy1 have given hundreds of square miles to the ,crown4 ,many countries1 and in truth the most1 have never been subjected to a strict mensuration4 ,the jagged coast lines of islands and continents have been so great a barrier1 that we have to speak with great uncertainty of the superficial contents which they inclose4 ,the statements of these make no pretense1 therefore1 to accuracy4 ,we must be content1 at present1 with the rudest approximation4 ,this accounts for the discrepancy in our geographical compendia2 no two of them agree1 unless one servilely copies the other4 ,the statistics relating to the superficial contents of continents1 and of separate countries1 must be taken with a great deal of allowance4 ,the evil cannot be remedied at present2 it will be1 doubtless1 at some future day4 ,the discrepancies which it occasions will be seen1 from the fact that the area of ,europe has been computed to be between #c1bed1hjj and #c1hgj1ejj square miles2 that of ,asia between #af1ahj1jjj and #af1hca1fjj2 that of ,africa between #aa1beg1bjj and #aa1eac1fjj2 that of ,america between #ab1adj1djj and #ae1ifc1fjj2 that of ,australia between #b1gef1jjj and #c1bja1bjj square miles4 ,according to this1 ,asia is five times as large as ,europe1 and almost six times as large as the continent of ,australia4 ,africa is three times as large as ,europe4 ,america is four times as large as ,europe1 and is as large as ,africa and ,australia combined4 ,europe would make about one-third of ,africa1 one-quarter of ,america1 one-fifth of ,asia4 ,our present knowledge does not allow us to speak more definitely nor exactly4 ,contrast of the ,land and ,water ,hemispheres4 ,whether we divide the globe into northern and southern or eastern and western hemispheres1 their relative amounts of land and water will be different ,the northern hemisphere contains 7speaking approximatively as above7 #ch1eda1fjj square miles of land1 and #ei1fai1gjj of water2 the southern1 #ab1hdg1bjj of land1 and #he1ebf1ajj of water4 ,the eastern hemisphere contains #cf1gfj1hjj square miles of land1 and #fa1dja1jjj of water2 the western1 #ad1fbh1jjj of land1 and #hc1ecc1cjj of water4 ,besides the division quantitatively1 the division in respect to symmetry of shape is entirely irregular4 ,symmetry1 as we usually use the word1 consists in the arrangement of parts at equal distances1 or two sides at least1 from some central point or line4 ,mineral crystals are regarded in relation to the point where crystallization began2 plants are viewed in relation to the stem-axis2 animals in relation to the symmetry of the entire structure4 ,a similar law of symmetry is entirely wanting to the globe2 its arrangement is altogether unlike this2 it is not nearly so perceptible at first glance1 yet it is far more profound in design and comprehensive in its relations4 ,the land is broken up into masses1 varying in size1 and called1 arbitrarily1 continents and islands4 ,strictly speaking1 there are but two continents1 the old world forming one1 the new world the other4 ,australia may be called the smallest continent or the largest island2 it is the connecting link between the forms1 and shows at a glance the arbitrary distinction4 ,we might easily go further and call ,new ,guinea1 ,borneo1 ,sumatra1 ,great ,britain1 and ,java1 continents1 and1 on the other hand1 we might designate the old and the new world as islands4 ,there is nothing absolute here but the usage of speech4 ,the continents and islands lie mainly in the northern hemisphere1 7#ch1cda1fjj square miles17 scarcely a third part of their superficies 7#ab1hdg1bjj square miles7 being in the southern4 ,the continents are so situated also that the eastern contains by far the largest body of land1 7#cf1gfj1hjj square miles17 the western being only about one-third as large1 7#ac1fbh1jjj square miles47 ,america1 the western1 it will be seen1 has no first-class island lying near it2 it stands isolated4 ,it is seen by this that the greatest mass of land lies in the northern hemisphere1 dividing the earth in one way1 and in the eastern dividing it in another2 the smallest mass in the southern and the western4 ,in the northeast the watery realm is the most contracted1 in the southwest the least4 ,we are thus enabled to speak of the land side of the globe1 the land hemisphere1 and a water side1 the water hemisphere4 ,the central point of the water hemisphere is at the island of ,new ,zealand4 ,toward this the points of all the continents are directed4 ,the center of the land hemisphere is in the northwest of ,europe1 at a point near southeast of ,england1 the northeast of ,france1 and the coast of ,holland4 ,the dwellers around the ,north ,sea are the antipodes of the ,new ,zealanders4 ,great ,britain is the country which1 as a whole1 is the middle point of the continental world4 ,in the oceanic world1 the islands lie like scattered dots1 insignificant in respect to area1 in comparison with the waste of waters which surrounds them1 while1 on the other hand1 the land hemisphere is so solidly compacted1 that even the ,arctic ,ocean becomes merely a broad channel4 ,thus arises the first great contrast which we have to study3 the first1 and next to the great primary distinction between the ,north and ,south1 the most important4 ,the division into land and water1 aside from commerce1 must exercise the strongest influence on the distribution of heat and cold1 affecting the temperature of all the zones4 ,this influence has been fully noticed and brought before the world by ,alexander von ,humboldt4 ,it is sufficient to refer to it now as a well-determined fact in physical geography4 ,the heat equator is a little farther north than the mathematical equator1 because the land hemisphere has a greater heat capacity 7if we may use an awkward but apt word7 than the water hemisphere4 ,all other isothermal lines are modified in their greater or less coincidence with the parallels of latitude as they advance from the heat equator toward the maximum of the land hemisphere1 or1 in general terms1 as they go northward4 ,in the western hemisphere the isothermal lines follow much more exactly the parallels of latitude than in the eastern1 which is pre-eminently the land hemisphere4 ,in ,america the proximity of immense masses of water causes a perceptible reduction of the heat from that of the eastern where the land form prevails4 ,and the heat diminishes more as we advance toward the ,south ,pole1 than toward the ,north1 in consequence of the greater deficiency of land in the southern hemisphere2 while in ,lapland1 ,greenland1 and in ,siberia1 even within the polar circle itself1 men find sustenance and trees live1 in the same latitude1 at the ,south ,pole1 no vegetable life1 worth mentioning1 is found4 ,the frigid zone and the temperate zone of the southern hemisphere are not coincident with those of the northern4 ,the icebergs which are formed at the ,south ,pole are carried much nearer to the equator than those found at the ,north ,pole4 ,an important phenomenon1 first pointed out by ,a4 von ,humboldt and ,dove1 is closely connected with what has just been said4 ,the ,atlantic shores of the old world are warmer than those in the same latitude of the new world4 ,norway1 ,england1 and ,france are warmer than ,labrador and ,canada2 ,spain1 ,portugal1 and ,morocco are warmer than ,florida2 ,congo and ,benguela are warmer than ,brazil1 although the countries brought in contrast all lie on the same parallel4 ,a similar analogy is drawn from the west shore of ,america3 ,northern ,california is warmer than ,japan and ,corea1 which are in the same latitude4 ,it is true1 other factors are at work to produce this1 such as winds1 marine currents1 elevations of land1 etc41 of which more will be said hereafter4 ,both of the two great land divisions of the earth1 it will thus be seen1 have their peculiarities4 ,but there is a great equalizer of their diversities1 found in a great coast-belt1 of which ,i must briefly speak4 ,it passes from the ,cape of ,good ,hope northeasterly at an angle of #de1 passing through the ,mozambique channel1 thence skirting the entire southeastern and eastern coast of ,asia1 taking in ,china1 ,corea1 ,japan1 and ,south ,kamtckatka2 thence it turns southward1 following the whole western shore of ,america to ,cape ,horn4 ,this belt is broken at only two points--a brief break at the north1 at ,behring's ,straits1 and a large one between ,cape ,horn and the ,cape of ,good ,hope2 in other words1 at the points nearest to the ,north and the ,south ,poles respectively4 ,this coast belt has a relation to the habitable world similar to that held by the temperate zone as a mediator between the torrid and the frigid4 ,it partakes of the character of the sea and the land1 and shows the advantages of both4 ,it does not run parallel with the lines of latitude1 but crosses them diagonally1 in the same direction with the ecliptic1 though at a more acute angle4 ,this belt moderates all extremes4 ,coincident with it are the paths of the sea and land winds1 the course of the monsoons1 the most fertile shores of the whole globe4 ,it divides the surface of the globe into three great divisions1 the two great bodies of water1 and the great1 and1 comparatively speaking1 unbroken 7for the break at ,behring's ,straits is of little importance7 land-mass4 ,on the great coast line referred to above is the center of the great natural acclivities of the globe4 ,it is the most varied1 the most stimulating1 and the most productive in all departments of the vegetable and animal kingdoms4 ,the ,atlantic coast belt1 which also has great influence on the eastern districts of the new world and the western districts of the old1 crosses the great coast belt at almost right angles at the place of its great sundering between ,cape ,horn and the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,if the contrast between the sea and the land has the effect indicated above on the general development of organic life1 it must of course have great effect also on the life and character of man4 ,man eminently depends upon the conditions amid which his lot is cast4 ,the inhabitant of one of the ,pacific islands dwelt in a world whose utmost possibilities to him lay in the adjacent islands within view1 and which his canoe could reach in a few hours' sail4 ,the difference in culture between him and those whose range of observation has been greater1 must be immense4 ,the compacted land division of the globe1 the solid cluster of continents1 must be the source of stimulus and culture1 of which the isolated inhabitant of the ,pacific islands knew nothing1 till commerce had at length linked the world together4 ,only with the improvements in navigation could civilization reach him4 ,the ,european had to carry his culture to the ,new ,zealander1 his antipode4 ,the ancients had little suspicion of all this4 ,yet the contrast between the land world and the water world did not escape ,strabo's keen glances1 and he hints at its effects on man4 ,it is glanced at in one passage of his #aeth ,book4 ,he is speaking of the effect of the moist air of ,india in contrast with the dry air of ,libya1 and shows that he appreciates that these are not without their influence on the constitution of the ,indian and of the ,ethiopian4 8,some10 he says1 8rightly ascribe it to the sun1 that1 in the absence of moisture in their air1 the rays burn so deeply into the body of the ,african2 the ,indian1 on the other hand1 is not jet black and curly-haired1 because1 in his country1 he enjoys the moisture in the atmosphere40 ,the ,position of the ,continents and its ,influence on the ,course of ,history4 ,besides the three great forms spoken of above--the compacted land-mass1 the great water-mass1 and the subordinate water-mass--the position of the continents leads us to another discovery of prime importance4 ,the question arises1 ,what relation have the continents1 taken separately1 to the entire mass which they constitute8 ,what relation do they bear to each other8 ,what influence does the proximity of great land forms exercise8 ,what influence their remoteness from each other8 ,is the arrangement of the continents fortuitous1 or adapted to great ends always held in view by the ,creator8 ,has ,nature been left in this to a wild1 passionate caprice1 or has she been subjected to law1 and been compelled to subserve the interests of humanity8 ,and is it not worthy of study1 worthy of science1 to investigate these things1 to master their law1 and observe here the workings of the ,divine ,mind8 ,in the solar system1 we have for a long time minutely studied matters of size and distance1 the approach and receding of planets1 and observed the effects of all these things with an accuracy which could not be too thorough4 ,in the study of our ,earth1 this has been neglected1 because heretofore those great tracts of land and water have seemed of little mutual influence2 because they are fixed forms4 ,yet they have a greater influence1 perhaps1 on this very account4 ,although there is in them no law of gravitation to study1 yet there is in them the display of forces no less surprising than those of attraction1 and which are to be read in the light1 not of mathematics1 but in the light of history4 ,it indeed seems self-evident that a grouping of these great forms cannot be without an influence on the progression or retarded development of nations2 on the amount of population1 the progress of colonization1 and the union of ,states in offensive and defensive alliance4 ,should a higher ,power throw the continents out of their present position and relation to each other1 a new history of the world would date from this day4 ,here1 then1 is the primary element of history2 the laws of continental arrangement are the starting-point4 ,mathematics has thrown a network of meridians and parallels over the surface of the globe2 but these lines exercise little influence over the course of history4 ,the symmetry and regularity which they suggest do not belong to the earth2 the earth is not bounded1 like a crystal1 by right lines4 ,there is a freer play than that mathematical mark of parallels and meridians suggests2 there is an interdependence of the great land districts of the globe that these regular lines do not indicate2 a higher law of order1 evolving the most perfect results from elements seemingly the most discordant4 ,the ,pyramidal ,forms of the ,great ,land-masses1 and their ,southward ,direction toward the ,oceanic ,hemisphere4 ,the great land-mass of the globe accumulates in size as we advance toward the ,north ,pole4 ,south of #ee ,s4 lat41 the continental form disappears1 and the tracts discovered of late years in the neighborhood of the ,south ,pole are apparently islands1 or rather long ice-coasts1 whose continental form is very doubtful4 ,the great land division1 embracing both the old and the new worlds1 reaches to about #hj ,n4 lat41 and the extreme points come even yet nearer to the ,pole4 ,the distances of one body from another1 as1 for instance1 from ,greenland to ,iceland1 are very small1 in comparison with the immense spaces which divide the southern points of the continent1 where the hundreds of miles of separation at the north expand into thousands4 ,expansion of the land-mass is the law at the north1 contraction at the south4 ,the great land formations terminate in wedge-shaped extremities1 a fact observed by ,lord ,bacon1 ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 and ,steffens2 ,america ending at ,cape ,horn1 #ee ,s4 lat41 ,australia1 which may be considered to embrace ,tasmania or ,van ,diemen's ,land1 at the southern extremity of the latter1 #de1 and ,africa1 at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 #ce ,s4 lat41 respectively4 ,humboldt gave the name of 8,pyramidal ,structure0 to this cone-shaped form of the great land-mass1 which1 it will be observed1 all are directed toward the south4 ,this pyramidal structure contributes very much1 unquestionably1 to the diminished heat of the southern hemisphere1 and has given a great predominance to the population of the northern in comparison with the southern2 and not in respect to number alone1 but also to mental and moral force of character4 ,but not the southern extremities alone of the continents exhibit this wedge-like form2 it is repeated also in the northern countries of ,europe and ,asia4 ,in ,europe we discover the working of the law in the peninsulas of ,spain1 ,italy1 ,greece1 the ,morea1 and the ,crimea1 and also in the great ,scandinavian peninsula4 ,the same phenomenon is repeated on a scale far more imposing in ,asia1 in the great countries of ,arabia1 ,india1 and ,farther ,india1 ,corea1 and ,kamtchatka2 also in both halves of ,america4 ,exceptions are rare4 ,in ,great ,britain1 the pointed extremity is toward the north1 and the greatest breadth at the south2 but this is a peculiar case1 and has its exceptional causes2 and perhaps with reason1 for this island has hitherto maintained an individual and exceptional character in the development of modern civilization4 ,various explanations have been offered for the almost star-shaped figure which the combined body of great peninsulas assume1 radiating1 as it were1 from the center of the land hemisphere4 ,this is seen very strikingly in looking at a horizontal projection of the northern hemisphere1 viewed from the ,north ,pole4 ,there has been evidently the working out of some great design in this1 and the forces employed must have been of the first order of magnitude4 ,clden attributes it to the rotation of the earth in its plastic1 formative-state4 ,link ascribes it to electrical forces1 generated at the time the earth's crust was hardening into its present consistency4 ,j4 ,r4 ,forster finds an explanation in the theory1 that formerly great currents1 now not existing1 passed1 or sought to pass1 from south to north or northwest4 ,he attributes to these the parallelism of the great gulfs which indent the coast-line of the old world1 the uniform abruptness of the shores at the south1 and the gradual widening of all the great land-masses as we go north4 ,the ,atlantic is a channel cleft by those great currents4 ,behring's ,straits is a smaller one2 but everywhere else the effort was incomplete1 and no opening was effected1 except in the straits of minor importance1 which separate island from island1 or from the main land4 ,the fossils discovered by ,pallas seemed to favor this theory1 but later investigation has showed that they do not4 ,link overthrew ,forster's theory1 yet the phenomenon is worthy of study4 ,viewed on a map of the land hemisphere1 constructed according to ,mercator's projection1 it is a storehouse of interesting observations and studies1 and is to be recommended to the student's careful attention4 ,we must pass over the theories2 scholars disagree as to the cause2 ,pisis ascribes it to a hidden law of geometric construction2 ,necker1 ,brewster1 and ,dana1 to magnetism4 ,we must simply accept the facts for the present4 ,a careful study of the land surface of the globe suggests interesting comparisons with what we know of the heavenly bodies1 ,jupiter1 for example1 and our moon4 ,unquestionably1 the entirely different grouping of what seem to be the great features of that luminary must have had an influence on the whole course of history there4 ,we will not enter into speculations regarding this1 however1 referring the reader rather to the thorough investigations of ,beer and ,mdler4 ,situation of the ,continents in their ,relation to ,each ,other and to their ,collective ,whole4 ,the relation which the continents bear to each other arises1 primarily1 from their position in reference to the cardinal points of the compass4 ,this has been a principle from the earliest times1 and the great laws of population may1 in their working1 be referred to this simple law of grouping4 ,asia was known as the ,orient1 or1 in the apt and beautiful ,german phrase1 the ,morgenland1 or ,land of the morning2 ,europe and the northern rim of ,africa1 as the ,occident1 or1 in the ,german1 the ,abendland1 or ,land of the evening4 ,in the south lay the torrid regions of the ,ethiopians1 in the chill north the country of the ,hyperboreans4 ,this fourfold division of the earth was for many centuries the only one known2 the division into continents being made1 according to ,herodotus1 by the ,phenicians4 ,and in very truth1 a great principle lay in that rude and primitive division2 it was in entire harmony with nature1 and1 up to the latest times and the opening of a new world1 in entire harmony with history also4 ,with ,asia1 the ,orient1 is connected indissolubly the development of the ancient world2 with ,europe1 that of the modern4 ,the contrast between these two great divisions is wonderfully analogous to that of morning and evening4 ,the whole culture of the ,west had its root1 its beginnings at the ,east4 ,the ,east is not merely the place where the sun begins his daily course2 it is the cradle of man1 of nations1 of dynasties of every sort1 in politics1 religion1 and science4 ,all the old royal houses came into ,europe from the ,east2 they are all 8children of the sun10 no less than the princely families of ,india and ,persia4 ,the ,west merely witnesses the progress of what was begun in the ,east4 ,from the most ancient times onward through the ,middle ,ages1--from ,homer to ,dante's 8,purgatorio10--the ,west is associated with the kingdom of the dead1 with 8,hades10 and the 8islands of the blest40 ,and within these two great divisions of ,orient and ,occident are comprised smaller ones1 adapted to more limited conceptions of the extent of the earth1 but growing out of the same root with the larger division4 ,bactriana and ,india constituted the ,orient to the inhabitants of ,western ,asia1 ,syria their ,occident2 ,asia ,minor was the ,orient of the ,greeks1 ,italy and ,sicily their ,hesperia2 while the ,romans called ,spain theirs4 ,between the ,orient and ,occident1 and yet to the south of both1 lay the ,libya of the ancients1 exposed to the sun's direct rays4 ,in the very middle of the earth1 on both sides of the equator1 and not at the ,south ,pole1 is the true ,south4 ,there we must seek the phenomena of the tropical world in their culminations4 ,as high noon1 the middle point in the hour1 is the consummation of the day1 so the torrid climes of the equatorial belt1 at the very middle of the earth1 afford the extremes of luxuriant growth4 ,the broad tracts of land at the northern polar regions formed the true physical contrast to the ,orient and the ,occident1 as well as to the great ,south of central ,africa4 ,they lay around the ,north ,pole like a vast shield of earth1 unbroken except by the comparatively insignificant seas and gulfs of that region4 ,and even where the water has broken its way and severed those northern lands1 a submarine volcanic activity is1 even now1 constantly at work to restore the break1 and bind the coasts together4 ,at about #gj ,n4 lat41 all the countries of the north are brought into great nearness1 and that parallel is a highway of little else than land crossing the ,north ,cape of ,europe1 ,cape ,chelagskoy1 in ,tchooktchee1 at the northeastern extremity of ,asia1 and touching ,cape ,bathurst1 and the ,fury and ,heckla ,straits of ,north ,america4 ,north of this highway and of the ,georgian ,archipelago begins the great group of circum-polar islands4 ,the break between ,asia and ,north ,america1 at ,behring's ,straits1 is but fifty-six miles wide2 it is the mere outlet of the ,sea of ,kamtckatka into the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,the space between the northeast of ,america and the northwest of ,europe is much greater indeed1 but1 in comparison with the distance between the southernmost points of the old and the new world1 insignificant4 ,the distance from northern ,norway to ,greenland is but about #idj miles4 ,it is noteworthy that1 at the north of the great continental land-mass1 where minor seas and channels break through1 great volcanic forces are constantly at work1 as hinted at above1 to restore the unity4 ,in the ,sea of ,kamtchatka lie the ,aleutian islands1 extending more than #iej miles1 and forming what has been happily termed a bridge from the old world to the new4 ,it consists of more than a hundred rocks and islands1 some of which have been thrown up within the memory of man4 ,in #ahjf1 von ,langsdorf and ,tilesius witnessed the emergence of one of these1 with a cone-shaped center1 and about twenty miles in circumference4 ,grewingk has counted more than fifty volcanoes in activity within the limits of this island chain4 ,the ,curile islands1 more to the south1 form another similar volcanic group1 extending from ,japan to ,kamtchatka4 ,in this range there are known to be at least ten volcanoes1 #aj1jjj feet in height4 ,the same high degree of volcanic activity must have formerly existed between ,europe and ,america1 for the traces of it are still visible4 ,and not the traces alone1 but a part of the same activity4 ,and doubtless the shallowness of the waters between those continents hints at the same4 ,more accurate explorations1 then1 will probably reveal multitudes of mountains1 thrown up by these submarine forces1 but not far enough to emerge and bear the name of islands4 ,yet many have emerged--those which fringe the shores of ,norway1 ,scotland1 and ,ireland2 the ,orkneys1 ,shetland1 and ,hebrides islands2 the ,froe group1 with their blistered surface1 their recesses1 and volcanic rocks2 ,iceland1 with its hot springs2 and ,mount ,heckla2 ,jan ,mayen1 with its frightful craters1 and the eastern coast of ,greenland2 one island1 ,sabrina1 in the midst of the ,azore group2 which has had three upheavals within two hundred years1 in #afch1 #agbc1 and #ahaa1--;all these plainly indicate the presence of tremendous forces1 active in the past as well as in the present4 ,we thus fix the character of the arctic polar lands to be a close drawing together4 ,europe has1 fortunately for itself1 the least share in those inhospitable regions2 only her pointed northern shores fringe the shores of the polar sea1 leaving the great bulk of the great land-mass of the north to the broad shores of ,asia and ,north ,america1 with their neighboring island groups4 ,this polar world1 as we may call it1 in contradistinction to the ,orient and the ,occident1 is not separated from more southerly regions by any great physical line of demarkation4 ,the arctic circle is a mere mathematical line #ff ,n4 lat42 it has no geographical character whatever4 ,the true polar world reaches in some places far beyond this mathematical barrier1 bringing all its characteristics with it2 while1 on the other hand1 it withdraws1 at a few other places1 nearer to the ,pole4 ,were the polar world more broken up than it is by inland seas1 and separated from the great land-mass by broad channels1 it would be far more isolated in its whole character than it is4 ,it is this immediate contiguity of the polar world with the great land-mass which opens it to whatever civilization it may be able to receive4 ,and there is the same unity in the polar world that there is in the tropical world4 ,the same phenomena which appear in one part of it are repeated in every other part4 ,there are1 of course1 subordinate modifications found1 but everything essential1 which is discovered in one part1 is discovered in every other part4 ,there is no distinction into 8new world0 and no 8old world20 the new world and the old coincide amid the arctic pole4 ,the characteristic of the polar world1 next to this of unbrokenness1 is the simplicity1 or what might be called the monotony of its productions and all its features2 the uniform reproduction of the same plants and animals1 as well as of geological forms4 ,even ,lapland1 which is the farthest removed from the ,pole of all the arctic regions1 manifests1 in its rounded and polished granite and gneiss and its deep and sharply-defined cuts1 the same uniformity4 ,the syenite found at ,lake ,imandra displays the same characteristics as that found on the islands in the ,white ,sea1 and on the shores of ,greenland4 ,the tops of the mountains1 instead of being green1 are all white with the lichen1 commonly known as reindeer moss4 ,and as with the geological formations and the vegetable kingdoms1 so with the animal kingdom4 ,elsewhere are found bears1 foxes1 reindeer1 seals1 and walruses2 the feathered tribes partake of the general monotony of structure1 and man not less4 ,the range of his development is extremely limited1 and his character little different1 whether in northern ,asia or northern ,america4 ,america forms the real ,west of the great land-mass1 the true ,occident of the earth1 young as yet1 but to receive as its gift the entire culture of the ,east1 and to advance by giant steps to a position of independent influence4 ,already it has far surpassed ,asia in industry and civilization4 ,the old world was the preparation for the new4 ,almost everything which the new world enjoys and values was the gift of the old4 ,its most ancient monuments of religion1 architecture1 and art are closely linked to those of the old world4 ,hieroglyphics have been found among the ,peruvians and the ,mexicans4 ,in like manner embalming of princes1 the engraving of astronomical data upon rocks1 were borrowed from the ,east4 ,the historic character of ,america is more striking in respect to newness than the physical features of the water hemisphere4 ,buffon supposed that the ,american continent is of more recent formation than the old world1 assigning for his opinion that it is more submerged1 because smaller in area1 than the eastern land-mass2 because1 also1 the plants which demand moisture are predominant over those which depend on a dry climate2 and because the forms of homologous animals--the elephant1 rhinoceros1 crocodile1 turtle1 apes1 and serpents1 for instance--do not attain the same size as in ,asia and ,africa4 ,but waiving this1 we use the name ,new ,world1 only with significance in its connection with history4 ,with the discovery of ,america begins a new period in the history of man and of nations in their civil relations4 ,the enlargement of territory occasioned by it was not greater than the enlargement of the bounds of thought4 ,the old world had been developed earliest1 had gone as far as it could go2 it had to wait till another great step should be taken before it could go on in its course4 ,the highest progress of the human race1 the complete development of its possibilities1 was not possible till man should1 in his wanderings from east to west1 compass the globe1 and take possession of it1 not for a day1 but for all time4 ,the primitive settlements in ,mexico1 ,peru1 and ,yucatan could not sustain themselves in consequence of their isolation2 navigation was in its rudest stages1 and it needed to be in its highest before the world should be bound together closely enough to advance in all its parts toward the goal of a perfect civilization4 ,those primitive colonies perished therefore1 as ,canaan perished before ,israel1 and were replaced by others4 ,the reason of this lay in the isolation of the land-masses of the earth4 ,had ,america been discovered and made accessible to the old world before the diffusion of the ,gospel and the establishment of the ,christian ,church1 it would have been too early1 and heathenism might have had its grandest triumph and its loftiest temples in the new world4 ,the way was not open as yet for the high moral development of the race2 and the highways of civilization were not made till the most modern times1 when all was in readiness for the great advance which we are witnessing now4 ,the contrast to the great continental hemisphere is found in ,australia1 a land-mass of no insignificant size1 situated at the center1 or very nearly at the center of the great oceanic hemisphere1 and surrounded by hundreds of groups of islands1 generally of quite unimportant magnitude4 ,the name ,australia was fitly chosen2 it indicates its true relations to the ,southern or ,austral ocean4 ,as ,africa is the true ,south to the eastern hemisphere1 ,australia is the true ,south to the great continental land-mass of the whole globe4 ,as the earth has two magnetic north poles1 and two north poles of cold1 one of the former in ,siberia1 north of ,lake ,baikal1 and east of ,cape ,taimura1 #aaj east of ,greenwich2 the other in the neighborhood of ,melville ,island1 in ,north ,america1 #ajb west longitude from ,greenwich1 so there are1 in a physical sense1 two south poles1 7we do not refer to the magnetic ones and the poles of cold17 a continental south pole in ,africa1 a marine or maritime south pole in ,australia4 ,this country1 the largest of islands or the smallest of continents as we may choose to designate it1 the most remote of all the great divisions from the center of the land hemisphere1 has been the last to feel the pulses of civilization4 ,there1 therefore1 is to-day the most rapid1 the most amazing advancement to be witnessed on the earth2 it has crowded centuries into decades1 and with its shores adorned even now1 in its youth1 with states and cities1 it cannot longer be called a land left behind in the world's advance4 ,it has inherited all that was finished in the knowledge and culture of the continental world2 what the people of that world have toiled for years to win1 becomes at once the birthright of the ,australians4 ,it is only an instance of the truth of ,humboldt's remark1 that the more full the world is of ideas1 the more rapid is its progress--a remark which throws the strongest light upon the connection of geography with history4 ,the ,historical ,element in ,geographical ,science4 ,while so many a spot in the great continental land-mass was once the home of a high culture1 and from being a cradle of arts and sciences has become a deserted waste1 the civil and political condition of many people in the remote districts on the oceanic side of the globe has advanced with unprecedented rapidity4 ,the course of development has been very different from what it was formerly4 ,distances1 natural influences1 natural productions even1 yield always to the victorious march of man1 and disappear before his tread2 or1 in other words1 the human race is more and more freed from the forces of nature2 man is more and more disenthralled from the dominion of the earth which he inhabits4 ,the history of specific districts and of entire continents confirms this4 ,the first inhabitant of the sandy valley of the ,nile was a dweller in a waste1 as the nomadic ,arab is to-day4 ,but the later and more cultivated ,egyptians transformed that waste1 through the agency of irrigation and canals1 into the most fruitful garden of the world4 ,they not only rose themselves1 but raised their own country1 hitherto so sterile1 into a place of the first importance1 and did it by the simplest of means1--the bringing the water and the land into more intimate relations4 ,through neglect and the tyranny of successive kings1 the fruitful valley sank again into its waste condition4 ,the district around ,thebes became a desert1 the fruitful ,mareotis a swamp2 similar phenomena occurred in many parts of ,europe and ,asia4 ,another example of man's subjugation of nature is found in great mountain chains4 ,during the first centuries after ,christ1 the cultivated south of ,europe was separated from the uncultivated ,celtic and ,teutonic north by a great natural barrier1 the unbroken1 untraversed ,alpine chain1 which passed through all central ,europe from west to east4 ,at the south lay the rich states of the old world1 beyond the ,alps was the cold and barren north4 ,but this old formidable barrier has vanished1 as the thronged cantons of ,switzerland and the crowded villages of the ,tyrol yearly bear witness2 and they draw thousands of tourists instead of repelling them4 ,what a mighty change6 ,from ,provence to ,styria run the stately forms of the ,alpine chain2 but the deep recesses and the lofty highlands are thickly peopled1 the forests are thinned1 the obstructing rocks removed4 ,no longer a barrier between the north and the south1 as it was in the time of ,julius and ,augustus ,csar1 ,switzerland has become a country of stupendous highways4 ,the peaks which were once unapproachable1 and around which merely eagles idly flew1 are now the passes of ,mount ,cenis1 the ,simplon1 ,saint ,gothard1 the ,splgen1 and ,saint ,bernard2 while the snowy heights of ,ortler1 in eastern ,alps1 now give place to a public road4 ,over the ,semmering ,alp a railway even passes4 ,just as the wild horse of ,toorkistan has given up his freedom and has become the tame and useful servant of civilization1 so this ,alpine segment of the globe has changed all its relations to the adjacent countries4 ,the influence of the most stupendous natural objects is weakened every year4 ,the physical dimensions may and do remain unchanged1 but their influence on life and on history is undermined by those new conditions which operate so powerfully in freeing man from the dominion of nature4 ,the power of man makes him master of the earth1 and gives even the key to the subjection of the grandest mountain chains into his hands4 ,in further illustration of this1 take the ,ural chain1 which was and still is the eastern division line of one continent1 and the western barrier of another1 but which has become1 since the days of ,peter the ,great1 a grand center of labor and commerce1 a great avenue of civilization in its return passage from ,europe to ,asia4 ,and so everywhere1 from the wild ,caucasus and the ,himalayas to the grand ,cordilleras of ,america1 the same progress is seen2 man becomes more and more the conqueror over nature4 ,and not in mountains alone1 but in the great forest regions of central ,europe1 in the primitive wilderness of ,north ,america1 and in the marshes of the ,netherlands1 does man vanquish the forces which once fettered him4 ,the once fearful wastes of ,sahara have become the track of caravans2 the sterile plains of ,australia and ,california have drawn great colonies to their gold mines2 the ice seas at the north have become1 through the efforts of ,parry1 ,franklin1 and others1 the scene of heroic exploits and of grand struggles of man with nature2 indeed1 the greatest victories of modern civilization have been there1 and the playgrounds of polar bears and walruses have witnessed the noblest humanities1 and the loftiest courage1 and the most disinterested heroism of the age4 ,the continents and oceans have witnessed still greater transformations4 ,the seas were once the impassable barriers of nations4 ,the birds of the air only traversed the great distances which separated shore from shore4 ,the metallic stores of the earth1 the vegetable and animal kingdoms were not transferred to any extent from place to place2 the sea brought nothing from lands remotely foreign but drift-sand1 cocoa-nuts1 floating wood1 ice masses1 and seaweed1 swept by the great currents from shore to shore4 ,but now the seas are no barriers2 they do not separate the continents but bind them together1 and unite the destinies of nations in the closest manner4 ,the great improvements in ocean navigation have entirely changed the relations of the entire globe4 ,the isolated island of ,st4 ,helena1 which was for centuries at the very confines of the known world1 became1 within the second decade of the present century1 a prison-house for the great ,european robber1 and lay guarded under the eye of ,europe4 ,the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 which was for centuries the limit of ,portuguese navigation1 has become a mere halting-place for sailing ships and steamers4 ,the voyage from ,england to ,china has been narrowed1 within one hundred years1 from an eight months' to a four months' sail4 ,these great changes have been mainly effected by the agency of steam4 ,steam has transformed the smaller seas into mere bridges1 and ,england and ,france are securely joined1 ,marseilles and ,algiers2 while ,prussian ,stettin is brought into proximity with ,swedish ,stockholm and ,russian ,petersburg4 ,the voyage to ,america1 that remote land1 which before the days of ,columbus was as inaccessible as the moon1 was made by him in seventy days1 but is now accomplished in ten4 ,even ,australia cannot be said to be distant2 a steamer needs but seventy-five days to reach it1 and ten of those are consumed on the ,isthmus of ,suez4 ,no island now lies beyond the world of commerce4 ,the most active traffic exists between places the most remote4 ,the wool and the wheat of ,australia control the price of those commodities in ,london1 and the value of cotton in ,america fixes that of woven goods and even of bread in ,europe4 ,the great rivers too have been curtailed of their relative importance1 and have been shortened by steam sixfold4 ,they can be stemmed too1 which is an immense gain1 for in the primitive stages of navigation they could only be sailed upon downward1 from source to mouth4 ,in #ahed1 four hundred steamers traversed the ,mississippi and its branches1 and came into contact with a region one-third as large as ,europe4 ,the ,indus1 ,ganges1 ,irrawaddy1 ,nile1 ,la ,plata1 and even the ,amazon1 the monarch of rivers1 which drains a country half as large as ,europe1 are now more or less open to steam navigation4 ,the great river systems of central ,europe too are thoroughly navigated2 and ,southern ,germany1 ,trebizond1 ,mayence1 ,cologne1 and ,london may be grouped as neighbors4 ,the land-locked seas are reduced to insignificance1 and their shores are now covered with villages and cities1 from the ,platten-,see of ,hungary up to the ,caspian and the great lakes of ,north ,america4 ,to sum all up in one word1 the mighty influence of ,time on the geographical development of the earth is displayed in the clearest manner4 ,but this influence is not the same for all localities on the globe4 ,while there are some people and some places which are left behind1 there are others which have made wonderful progress1 and have taken and now hold a foremost place4 ,and such a position is that of ,europe at the present moment4 ,europe1 the most central of all continents1 in relation to the great land-mass of the earth1 and also the one most equally removed from the middle point of the great water-mass1 touches the whole remaining world at the greatest number of points1 and this1 in conjunction with her remarkably broken coast-line1 so favorable to the purposes of navigation1 have given her her place of command1 and have assigned to ,england her evident role of mistress of the seas4 ,and looking from the present to the past1 we see that as some great tribes of men have given the whole fruits of their natural existence to the world for its future use1 so some places1 and those of no insignificant size sometimes1 have conferred upon the world1 the trust which they once held1 and now recede1 as it were1 from view4 ,they were great in the past1 and the results of their greatness are now incorporated in the world's life4 ,the earth is one2 and through the agency of what we may call either time or history1 all its parts are in ceaseless action and reaction on each other4 ,though some great districts seem now to have no part to play1 the element of time draws them into the great cosmos2 they once had a great share in the world's affairs1 and the fruits which they brought to completion are merely in other hands4 ,the earth is1 therefore1 as was stated in the introduction1 a unit1 an organism of itself3 it has its own law of development1 its own cosmical life2 it can be studied in no one of its parts and at no special epoch of its history4 ,the past and the future1 the near and the remote1 are all blended in a system of mutual interdependence1 and must be looked at together4 ,this is shown clearly in the past of ,asia1 and the present of ,europe and some parts of the new world1 while the history of all central ,africa seems to lie wholly in the future4 ,heretofore it has enjoyed no progress excepting along its northern rim4 ,the middle portion of the old world has outlived its primitive ethnographical impulse1 and sunk back into a state of slumberous inaction4 ,asia1 to call this region by its recognized name1 has projected its own life from the center to the circumference2 by this ,i mean1 that while it seems to be exhausted of its old vigor1 other countries inherited its power4 ,the population of ,asia is much less than it was in the time of ,alexander the ,great1 much less than during the ,mohammedan and ,mongolian conquests1 when all the habitable parts of that immense continent were bound together by highways of commerce and travel4 ,on the other hand1 the coasts are now of much more value and significance than they were in ancient times1 and navigation has dotted her sea outline with splendid and populous cities4 ,these seem1 by reason of the facilities which steam affords1 to be brought near to ,europe2 while the natives who inhabit central ,asia are not only widely separated from the civilized world1 but are divided up and set against each other by religious and political enmities of the most bitter kind4 ,this is displayed in its fullest force by the comparative inapproachability of the great mountain chains1 the ,ural1 the ,taurus1 and the ,caucasus1 and yet more by the unchanged barbarism of the central tribes1 the hostile political relations1 lacking all of the amenities and mutual dependencies of ,european policy1 and the deadly antagonism of ,mohammedanism and ,christianity4 ,this last is the curse which the natives of the earth have brought upon themselves4 ,it is the clashing of religious faiths which has put the extinguisher on ,asiatic progress1 annihilated her enterprise1 and set her in her present isolation4 ,still this barrier is not absolutely settled and for all time1 but already it shows that it is capable of some modification4 ,the politico-religious system of the ,chinese is rending under our eyes2 the old bonds which ,mohammedanism once laid on ,asia are now sensibly relaxed4 ,the great highways of travel through the country of the ,euphrates and ,tigris and the extended archological investigations of modern times have operated mediatorially between ,europe and ,asia2 while steam navigation on the ,danube has brought ,turkey1 a hitherto undissolved ,asiatic element in ,european life1 into closer relations with the great powers of the ,west4 ,the great missionary enterprise1 too1 of modern times1 has been laboring to remould the ideas of the ,asiatic nations1 while navigation has operated on the material and more appreciable interests of commerce and industry4 ,there are no possible limits to be assigned to the perfectibility of the globe as the abode of man2 no possible bounds to his enterprise4 ,the construction of a canal through the ,isthmus of ,panama would bring the eastern coast of ,asia seven thousand miles nearer than it is now to the ,atlantic shores of ,america and ,europe4 ,by saving the mere doubling of ,cape ,horn1 one-third of the periphery of the globe would be annihilated1 so far as the labor and expense of navigation are concerned4 ,north ,america would nearly double its resources when its ,atlantic and ,pacific coasts stand in close connection and interdependence4 ,the projected canal at ,suez would exercise an unbounded influence over ,asia in binding it anew to ,europe4 ,the building of highways through the passes of the ,ural1 the ,caucasus1 and ,himalayas is yet to be accomplished2 and only now are great roads constructing over the ,rocky ,mountains1 welding ,north ,america together4 ,the construction of railways on the high plateaus of central ,africa will transform that vast undeveloped district1 so rich in resources for the future4 ,the changes which art is yet to effect on our globe are beyond all possible computation1 and it might be said1 beyond any possible exaggeration4 ,we turn away from these glances into the future to look upon the past1 the long ages when men lived in rudeness and ignorance1 having no art1 and knowing nothing beyond the little tract where they were born1 and to which they remained chained4 ,there was no binding of shore to shore1 and of continent to continent1 through the mediatorial agency of seas and oceans4 ,and this gave to the continents a far greater individuality than they have now1 and a much higher degree of apparent influence than now when we cannot view them excepting as parts of the great complex which forms the world4 ,the wanderings of the old nomadic races1 the enlarging of the domains of culture1 the transfer of the natural productions of all climes1 as well as the traditional ideas of all lands1 proceeded from the central portions of the ancient world toward the extremities4 ,the manner of this progress1 following as it does the order of history1 displays more clearly than almost anything else the close dependence of all national development upon geographical conditions1 and their indissoluble connection4 ,without this connection the order of historical events would have been completely changed4 ,in no instance has there been self-evolved progress in the ,north1 ,east1 ,south1 or ,west2 it uniformly began at the geographical center1 at the point of conflict between the ,orient1 the ,occident1 and the tropical ,south4 ,western ,asia1 northern ,africa1 and southeastern ,europe were the homes of the earliest culture1 and it is to them that all other parts of the world owe the light which they enjoy1 though they may have received it at second or third hand4 ,the territory of which ,i speak extended from the highlands of ,india to ,italy1 and from the ,nile to the ,don1 including the valleys of the ,euphrates and the ,gihon4 ,this broad and fertile reach of territory has been the fruitful mother of the world's present thought and culture4 ,nor must we overlook the fact that1 despite what was said above1 regarding the oceans as the greatest barriers to the spread of civilization1 that smaller seas aided it1 for the very country of which ,i speak was intersected by five important seas1 and to them it is under immeasurable obligations for its development4 ,this ,asiatic-,africo-,european belt has exercised the greatest influence on all the course of human affairs1 on all colonization1 on the differing of races and languages1 and the arts of war and of peace1 over the habitable world4 ,this territory lies as the background of all the events of history1 and has given to every one its distinctive character and its appropriate place4 ,nor can we in the future dispense with the element involved in this1 of historical occurrences yet to come dependent on past geographical conditions1 although this will be far less marked than it has been in the past4 ,it demands and will demand a far larger measure of investigation and thought than it has yet received4 ,whatever independent progress the ,new ,world and ,australia may seem to be making1 and whatever interest they may awaken in the minds of students1 not even they can be looked at without regard to their relations to the ancient historical lands1 the source of all the inherited culture which they are enjoying in their vigorous youth4 ,india1 ,egypt1 ,palestine1 ,greece1 and other countries still stand out as the formative lands of all modern history1 and we cannot study the present without studying them4 ,they are to the student what ,plutarch's ,lives are to the biographer1 the imperishable and unequaled models which gain new luster as time rolls on4 ,it is therefore not without reason that ancient geography ought to be subjected to a more systematic treatment than the geography of the ,middle ,ages4 ,the latter1 though not unworthy of a large place1 had no relations of special importance to the whole world1 to the study of the physical conditions of the most imposing objects of nature1 to the connection as cause and effect of events past1 present1 and to come4 ,from these foundation principles1 we advance to a more full study of the configuration of the surface of the globe1 for which we are now in a measure prepared4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,a more extended ,investigation regarding the ,earth's ,surface4 ,it is the province of ,hydrography to deal with the oceanic world2 ,geography proper concerns itself simply with solid forms4 ,the ,hydrography of the globe we must pass over1 however4 ,aside from the fact that it would lead us into studies of the most protracted nature1 it forms strictly one department of nautical science4 ,besides1 there is the less occasion to speak of it here at length1 that works of great excellence have been published1 relating to that branch4 ,we turn therefore to the land1 and shall study the world of waters only so far as it exerts influence on the land4 ,by land we mean the islands as well as the continents1 for1 as remarked before1 the difference between them is merely relative4 ,to the land division of the globe1 however1 belong all rivers and the internal fresh water lakes1 however large4 ,the basis of difference does not lie in the fact that one part of the globe is water1 the other part land1 but in the fact that one is a tract of uniform evenness1 the other of constantly varying surface1 the internal rivers and lakes only being frills1 so to speak1 to the elevated region1 and not sharing the sea level of the great oceanic mass4 ,uniformity of surface is then the chief characteristic of the sea2 a lack of it1 of the land4 ,a mathematical level is a thing unknown on extended districts1 and an approximation to it is very rare4 ,even the basins of former seas do not display a perfectly level bed4 ,the plains of ,north ,germany are characterized by this billowy rolling4 ,the flats along the ,danube1 in ,hungary1 and along the ,po1 in ,north ,italy1 have really important deviations from a true level1 though the eye is not able to discern them4 ,milan is four hundred feet above the ,adriatic2 but the eye does not discern that it is not at the center of a plain as perfect as the surface of the sea itself1 and yet that plain does shelve gradually away till the ,adriatic checks and defines it4 ,pesth is two hundred and fifteen feet above the ocean level1 yet the gradual decline to the ,black ,sea is undiscernible to the eye4 ,the immense plains along the ,amazon1 even the celebrated llanos on the ,orinoco1 which ,alexander von ,humboldt likens to inland seas of verdure1 have a not insignificant slope from west to east4 ,the middle point of these llanos near the ,city of ,calabozo1 about #ajj geographical miles from the sea1 he found to be #ahj feet above the sea level2 far lower indeed than ,milan or ,pesth1 relatively1 yet at a perceptible elevation4 ,all of these plains were once the bottom of the sea2 the ,adriatic laved the base of the ,apennines and the ,cottian ,alps1 and the ,atlantic swept westward over the llanos of the ,orinoco and the ,essequibo1 having the ,sierra de ,venezuela on the north and the ,sierra ,parima on the south1 till it was checked by the ,cordilleras of ,merida and ,pamplona4 ,depression and elevation1 then1 are the characteristics of the land4 ,they are both measured from the level of the sea2 their absolute altitude is reckoned from the imaginary sea level1 extended over the whole globe4 ,their mutual relations to each other are determined from their relative heights4 ,the absolute elevation above the level of the ocean can be determined in a number of ways4 ,if the heights to be measured are in the immediate vicinity of the sea1 a simple system of triangulation will effect it4 ,if they are removed from the sea1 the difficulties are greater1 and increase according to the distance from the sea4 ,the heights of great inland mountains are determined by complicated operations with the spirit-level1 protracted trigonometrical calculations1 the unwearied and skillful use of the barometer1 and constant appeal to the boiling point of water4 ,the description of these methods falls within the province of ,physics4 ,as the determination of the heights of the loftiest mountains could not be made before the appointments of scientific explorers have attained to a certain degree of accuracy and delicacy1 the knowledge of them in former times was almost wholly relative4 ,the inquiries of ,la ,condamine1 ,saussure1 and de ,luc1 in the ,andes and the ,swiss ,alps1 are almost the only ones to be trusted among those of the older observers4 ,all unscientific travelers without accurate instruments confounded absolute heights with relative heights1 and innumerable errors crept therefore into the earlier text-books4 ,it is only within the most recent times that ,hypsometry has attained to the dignity of a science4 ,to meet and counteract the errors alluded to above1 and current in the loose language of popular speech1 we shall use a new and indeed arbitrary terminology1--arbitrary because the data which mensuration will sometimes furnish are now1 in part1 wanting4 ,we will divide the earth not relatively1 but absolutely1 into highlands and lowlands4 ,the great districts often met1 whose elevations are very moderate1 we call lowlands4 ,they are1 for the most part1 immense plains1 varied but little above the level of the sea4 ,the great districts which inclose mountain ranges we call highlands1 and sometimes plateaus4 ,true highlands can often embrace very extended and elevated plains1 and these plains again may include hills and mountains4 ,this does not affect their character as highlands1 which lies in the fact of elevation rather than in more or less modified variation of surface4 ,there may be vast variety in the physical manifestations of a great plateau district1 entirely independent of the relative effects produced by the distribution of its surface into plains1 rolling land1 hills1 and mountains4 ,in the lowlands there may exist hills to some extent1 and these may even be combined in ranges1 provided only that they do not violate the uniform characteristics of the district in which they are found4 ,the highlands are generally met with in the interior of the continents2 the lowlands at the coasts4 ,yet there are exceptions to this4 ,in the transitions from lowlands to highlands there is great diversity4 ,we can speak of three distinct bases of discrimination3 a sudden and abrupt ascent2 a rise in elevation so gradual as scarcely to be perceived2 and a terrace formation4 ,yet in these there is a blending of one variety with another2 there is no place sharply marked1 where we can say that one form ends and another begins4 ,there are constantly found modifications of these three transitional phases4 ,the plains along the ,indus and the ,ganges rise sharply to the plateaus of ,thibet ,the flat ,pacific coast of ,south ,america is exchanged with equal abruptness for the highlands of ,peru4 ,the transition is a gradual one from the lowlands of ,north ,germany1 along the ,baltic and the ,north ,sea1 through ,saxony and ,bohemia to the ,bavarian highlands1 north of the ,alps4 ,the ,spanish highlands form a series of terraces1 increasing in height from south to north4 ,the immense plateaus of central ,asia are also terrace formations1 of diminishing elevation1 as they advance to ,siberia2 so1 too1 are the eastern plateaus of ,peru1 falling off in altitude toward the plains of the ,amazon4 ,just as varied are the heights taken from the sea level of the leading plateaus4 ,yet they never rise to a point of elevation comparable with those of isolated mountain peaks or ranges4 ,these attain1 in no insignificant numbers1 the height of #bd1jjj feet1 while some ascend thousands of feet beyond that4 ,in ,mount ,everest1 of the ,himalaya chain1 the loftiest summit yet measured 7#bi1jjj feet7 is found2 although it may be that future investigations more to the south will disclose yet greater heights4 ,highlands4 ,continuous highlands or plateaus seldom attain an elevation greater than a half or a third of the loftiest mountains2 the most elevated range in altitude1 from #hjjj to #ab1jjj feet above the sea level4 ,on an average1 they lie about #djjj to #ejjj feet above the sea4 ,we take the last height as a convenient point of demarkation between the two classes of highlands--those of the first and those of the second magnitude4 ,it is an arbitrary point1 of course1 and the division there must remain1 without a natural base to rest upon1 till more results in ,hypsometry shall have determined the real point of average between the combined lowlands and the combined highlands of the earth's surface4 ,meantime this division will be of great service to us in enabling us to bring into a definite and appreciable classification many facts which would otherwise not be so well understood in their relations4 ,highlands or ,plateaus of the ,first ,class4 ,by plateaus of the first class1 we mean those high1 continuous plains which lie at the elevation of more than from #djjj to #ejjj feet above the sea level4 ,the extreme height to which such plateaus rise is a fact yet to be ascertained4 ,at an elevation of from #djjj to #ejjj feet the highlands of the first class merge into those of the second4 ,the point of transition is1 of course1 very difficult to fix with precision4 ,the high plateaus of ,asia rise more than #ad1jjj feet4 ,they inclose the head-waters of the ,ganges and the ,indus4 ,all central ,asia is a vast congeries of highlands2 but1 as a body1 they by no means belong to the most elevated of the globe4 ,they are colossal in their length and breadth1 but not in their uniform altitude4 ,in the latter respect1 they are far more varied than is generally supposed4 ,the plateau of ,thibet attains1 in its whole great extent of #ahjj miles in length and #ejj miles in breadth1 an average elevation of #aj1hjj feet above the sea level4 ,in some cases it rises1 of course1 much higher1 as1 near the holy lake ,manasarowar1 for instance1 where it is #ad1jjj feet above the sea4 ,others sink1 as at ,ladakh1 in ,little ,thibet1 to an altitude of about #ijjj feet2 so1 too1 ,gertope1 in the region remarkable for its goats and the rich shawls manufactured there1 and ,shiffke1 are about #ihjd feet above the sea4 ,the plateau of ,great ,thibet1 east of ,lassa1 the capital1 and north of the ,upper ,brahmapootra or ,yam-,dzangbotscha1 is #ijjj feet in elevation4 ,there are also districts filled with mountain groups of great heights1 but where the depressions sink to the level of the valleys of the ,indus1 ,sutlej1 ,brahmapootra1 as low indeed as #edfj feet1 as at ,cashmere1 so that there is no lack of diversity in the great plateau of ,thibet4 ,the plateau of ,mongolia1 or more exactly the desert of ,gobi1 can be ranked only on its lower edges1 where it touches the ,chinese frontier1 as of the first class1 although in extent it is twice as large as the great plateau of ,thibet4 ,only near the north bend of the ,hoang-,ho and near ,peking does it reach an altitude of #hjjj feet1 and gradually sinks away as it advances toward the northern frontier of the ,chinese territory1 to #eajj feet1 and farther north to #djjj feet2 in the middle portions of the great table-land it is depressed to a height of #bdjj to #cfjj feet2 it rises again at the head-waters of the ,orkhon and the ,toola to an elevation of #dfbj feet1 and falls off in terraces toward ,kiakhta1 near the northern boundary1 where it is #accj feet high1 ,selenghinsk1 on the ,selenga1 where it is #afcb feet high1 and ,berch-,udaisk1 where it is #adeh feet high1 till it reaches ,lake ,baikal1 #accb feet above the sea level according to ,humboldt1 though ,erman makes it greater4 ,western ,mongolia1 7west of the meridian of ,lassa1 and west of the point where the ,tarine flows into ,lake ,lop17 upper ,bokhara1 and upper ,toorkistan were formerly considered to be a highland district2 this is now subject to doubt4 ,we shall discuss this further on4 ,africa1 too1 has highlands of the first class1 which1 however1 do not rise to the extreme height of the plateau of ,thibet4 ,as in ,asia1 so in central ,africa1 the old supposition of the existence of a plateau of colossal extent has been very much done away with by the more exact and critical modern investigations4 ,the strip of territory lying between #d and #aj north latitude has been demonstrated by ,barth and ,vogel to be destitute of highlands4 ,the range of mountains announced as discovered by ,mungo ,park1 and called the ,kong ,mountains1 is proved to have no real existence1 and of course his statement fails of verification that that range is the northern limit of an elevated central plateau4 ,the peaks which really do rise in the ,kong territory form no continuous ridge2 they are mere isolated groups of moderate height4 ,between these groups the lowlands continue toward the south1 in an unbroken level1 for an immense distance4 ,how far south of the equator the central ,african plateau begins1 is yet unascertained1 for the snow-tipped peaks of ,kilimandjaro and ,kenia1 discovered by ,rebmann and ,krapf1 in the parallel of ,mombas1 #a to #c south latitude1 are of immense height1 it is true1 but they do not demonstrate the existence of a plateau of the first class there4 ,they rise out of table-land about #bjjj feet above the sea level1 which ,krapf explored in the year #ahdi4 ,the ,abyssinian plateau1 on the contrary1 takes rank among the most elevated on the globe4 ,at #aj north latitude1 south of the sources of the ,blue ,nile1 lies ,upper ,abyssinia1 or the kingdom of ,shoa1 with its capitals1 ,ankobar and ,angolalla1 #aj1jjj feet above the sea4 ,still farther to the north1 in the ancient kingdom of ,gondar1 the ,german naturalist ,rppel ascertained the level of ,lake ,tzana to be #gjjj feet above the ocean2 to the southward of that the land rises to a still greater height1 and northward of ,gondar the plateau ascends to an elevation of #hjjj feet1 and mountains are met with #ad1jjj feet high4 ,the terrace of ,axaw on the east is #ffej feet above the ,red ,sea1 which lies along its border4 ,to the south of ,shoa lie the highlands of ,kaffa and ,enarea4 ,all travelers agree in the statement that the inhabitants of that region are light-complexioned2 and ,johnson draws from this the conclusion that the central plateau must rise to a height of over #aj1jjj feet to harbor people of a whiter hue than the dwellers of the less elevated localities4 ,he saw a number of men of light complexion who came as far as from the fifth degree south latitude1 not from mountain homes1 but from high table-lands4 ,the plateau of ,south ,africa rises at ,lattakoo1 in the country of the ,bechuanas1 north of the ,orange ,river1 to the height of #fjjj feet4 ,to the east1 near the ,snow ,mountains1 where the river has its source1 it ascends to an altitude of over #aj1jjj feet4 ,to the north1 discovery had made great progress since #ahdi4 ,there1 on a broad plateau1 ,oswell and ,livingstone brought to the knowledge of the world the existence of ,lake ,ngami1 whose surface is #bhbe feet above the level of the sea4 ,the plateau which includes this lake at its place of deepest depression cannot be less than #cjjj feet high1 and at some localities yet higher4 ,still more to the north1 at latitude #ad south1 on the water-shed between the ,zaire or ,congo on the west and the ,zambeze in the east1 the plateau reaches an elevation of #ejjj feet1 according to ,livingstone4 ,yet farther to the west1 it rises still higher and takes undisputed rank among plateaus of the first class4 ,there1 at #ah south latitude1 ,galtne1 on his journey of discovery in #ahej1 ascended the table-land of ,ovomp1 a region of great natural productivity4 ,on the way thither1 going from south to north1 at #ba south latitude1 and therefore in the parallel of ,lake ,ngami1 but about #ejj miles westward1 he ascended north of the ,swakop ,river1 the table-land of ,demara1 which he found to be #fjjj feet high4 ,from that plateau mountains1 ,koniati and ,ometako1 for instance1 rise to a height of #hhjj feet4 ,from the ,swakop ,river to ,lake ,ngami there is a continuous plateau4 ,the high table-land of southern central ,africa does not then extend1 as was once supposed1 as far north as #i north latitude1 nor even to the later limit of #d north latitude2 but at about #d #aj the distinction between lowland and highland seems to be sharply drawn1 as the cataracts which terminate the navigation of the ,white ,nile indicate4 ,here ,father ,knoblecher turned back in #ahdi1 but he ascended the first of the mountains which there began to rise2 his eye reached onward to mountains very near or on the equator4 ,he says that those high mountains stand upon an elevated table-land4 ,thus1 here at the source of the ,white ,nile we have a plateau seemingly of the first rank4 ,from such a plateau it is probable that the snow-capped mountains1 seen by ,rebmann and ,krapf in the neighborhood of the equator1 rose1 which they thought1 approaching from the eastern coast1 held the source of the ,nile4 ,at the northwest of ,africa1 too1 at #aj north latitude1 the territory which feeds the springs of the ,senegal and the ,niger is supposed to be a plateau of great elevation and of great extent4 ,but at present our lack of knowledge prevents our attaining certainty regarding it4 ,no thorough system of measurement has been yet applied there4 ,america possesses a number of plateaus of the first class4 ,to the most prominent of these belong the ones which were first thoroughly studied by ,alexander von ,humboldt4 ,it is to him that we owe our first accurate impressions of table-lands which1 before his day1 had been indiscriminately confounded with mountains1 and had had no place assigned to them in the department of ,geography4 ,doubtless1 too1 great prominence was given to plateaus at the outset2 they were pushed into unseemly proportion to other matters as well worthy of investigation1 but they have come into their true place1 and now only wait the development of new facts regarding the size and height of some1 to be properly understood and appreciated4 ,the measurements made in ,north1 ,central1 and ,south ,america give the following results2 much more complete1 it may be remarked1 than the results yet gained in ,asia and ,africa4 ,to the plateaus of the first class belong in ,america1 at latitude #j1 the plain of ,quito1 almost #ijjj feet above the sea1 7,los ,pastos in the north being near #aa1jjj feet17 and to the south1 at #ag south latitude1 the plateau of ,upper ,peru4 ,here the great ,lake ,yiticaca is found1 #ab1jjj feet above the sea2 eastward of the lake1 the table-land rises yet higher1 and at ,alto de ,toleda it is #ad1jjj feet in elevation1 as high as the highest part of ,thibet4 ,at #bj south latitude1 south of ,lake ,yiticaca1 is the ,city of ,potosi1 whose streets are #ab1hbb feet above the ,pacific4 ,in ,central ,america is found1 at #bj north latitude1 the extended table-land of ,mexico1 #ejj miles wide1 rising to a height of #gjjj feet1 and farther to the north1 in ,new ,mexico1 the plateau of ,santa ,f1 #ce north latitude east of the ,rocky ,mountains1 and #gajj feet above the sea4 ,the table-land on the west side of the mountains1 and toward the ,great ,salt ,lake1 is undoubtedly just as elevated4 ,europe and ,australia are wanting in plateaus of the first rank1 and in general the whole immense flat northern districts of the globe1 though we are not yet quite familiar enough with the extreme north of ,america to speak with entire confidence regarding it4 ,plateaus of the ,second ,class4 ,elevated plains which are at once continuous and bounded by a definite line of demarkation1 and which do not attain an altitude of more than #djjj or #ejjj feet1 are considered plateaus of the second class4 ,they are far more general over the whole earth than plateaus of the first class2 in every one of the great divisions of the globe they appear in the utmost possible diversities of elevation1 sometimes so gradually ascending that the lowest limit is hardly to be perceived4 ,this makes it not only expedient but necessary to assign to plateaus a fixed though arbitrary system of classification1 for without it we could attain to no thorough view of all their relations4 ,this general system must afterward be confirmed and justified by protracted special investigations4 ,that not all the vast plains of ,central ,asia1 from ,thibet to the ,altai ,mountains1 and from the ,belur range to the ,chinese ,gobi1 belong to the first class of plateaus1 has been demonstrated by the ,russian measurements1 made by ,fuss and ,bunge in #ahcb1 between ,lake ,baikal1 ,kiakhta1 and ,peking1 and rendered highly probable by the investigations of ,klaproth1 ,humboldt1 and ,zimmermann4 ,toward the northwest the plateaus generally sink from the moderate elevation of the ,middle ,gobi1 #djjj feet1 to ,lake ,baikal1 #accb feet above the sea1 ,lake ,zaison1 not #ajjj feet above the sea1 and the border of the plateau at ,choimailocha1 the ,chinese frontier post on the ,siberian line1 #ajjj feet above the sea1 then to the lower border of the plateau of ,bookhtarminsk 7#icf feet7 and ,semipalatinsk on the ,irtish1 7#gjh feet17 where the great ,siberian plain begins4 ,in the valley of the ,tarim and of ,lake ,lop1 pomegranates and grapes thrive1 and cotton1 which has been raised of an excellent quality in ,eelee1 is found at a height of from #abjj to #bjjj feet4 ,and in contrast with the great arctic plain of ,northern ,asia1 not #ejj feet above the level of the sea1 this central plateau will take its place as distinctively of the second rank4 ,the plateau of ,persia lies on the border of both classes2 for while the central portion touches #djjj feet1 some parts rise much higher and some sink much deeper than the normal point4 ,these balance each other1 and the average is about the maximum elevation of plateaus of the second degree4 ,east of the ,persian plateau lies the plateau of ,cabool1 #fjjj feet above the sea4 ,on the northern edge of ,afghanistan is the plateau of ,bamain1 #gejj feet in elevation4 ,more to the south is the high plain of ,candahar1 being #cejj feet1 and the ,city of ,candahar1 #cbfd feet above the sea4 ,the plateau of ,kweltah west of the ,bolan ,pass is #ebbj feet4 ,still farther to the south is the great plain of ,beloochistan1 #gjjj feet1 with the ,city of ,kelat1 #edah feet above the sea4 ,in the central part of the eastern ,persian plateau in ancient ,gedrosia1 ,drangiana1 and ,parthia1 and ,lake ,zareh1 the depression is the lowest4 ,at ,lake ,zareh the elevation is #bajj feet2 at ,herat1 more to the north1 #bfbh feet4 ,in ,west ,persia1 on the meridian of the ,caspian ,sea1 it rises higher2 on the northern edge at ,teheran it is #cfgb feet2 at ,schabred1 southeast of ,astrabad1 it is #djjj feet2 at ,kasbin1 west of ,teheran1 it is #djjj feet2 and at ,samegon1 #egjj feet4 ,the lowest depression at ,com and ,kashan is not #bjjj feet above the sea4 ,toward the northwest ,persia thrusts up a short arm into the adjoining territory of ,armenia4 ,this is the highland of ,ayerbaijan1 ,zoroaster's 8,land of ,fire40 ,this connecting plateau of #gjjj feet elevation belongs to the first class4 ,to the west of this the plateau of ,armenia extends in varying range of elevation1 from that of ,lake ,van1 #eabd feet1 to the plain of the ,aras1 7the ancient ,araxes17 on which the double cone of ,ararat rises to a height of #ad1fef feet4 ,but the table-land at the northern base of ,ararat1 the site of ,erdschmiazin1 is only #bhfj feet high1 ,erivan a little higher1 and ,erdzeroune1 on the plateau of the ,taurus1 the plain of the ,upper ,euphrates1 #egcj feet4 ,the plateaus of ,asia ,minor embrace wide plains extending through the whole of the country1 at an elevation toward the east1 in ancient ,lycaonia and ,cappadocia1 of #cjjj feet1 and sinking toward the west to #bjjj feet4 ,to the plateaus of ,armenia and ,lycaonia1 ,strabo1 whose home was there1 and who carefully studied them1 gave the expressive name of 1 i4e4 mountain plains1 a term which corresponds remarkably with our word plateau1 but which1 as ,humboldt has remarked1 was not of much use among the ancients4 ,strabo1 however1 directed attention also to the ,oropedia of ,sicily and ,india4 ,in ,india1 ,deccan displays similar formations1 which rise gradually from south to north in ,mysore1 in ,poonah of the ,mahrattas1 and in the table-land of ,vindhya and ,malwah1 to #bjjj1 #cjjj1 and even #djjj feet4 ,deccan enjoys an admirable climate and the richest abundance of all natural productions4 ,china too must have plateaus1 for the ,chinese word youen indicates very clearly a large elevated plain4 ,in ,arabia the plateaus of the second class are largely found1 and their height ascends from north to south1 instead of from south to north as in ,deccan4 ,the ,syrian ,hauran is #bjjj feet high1 the plateau of ,damascus #bbjj feet1 the plateau of ,taif1 above ,mecca1 #cjjj feet1 the plateau of ,sapaa1 in ,southern ,arabia1 #djjj feet4 ,in ,north ,africa that portion of the great ,sahara which has heretofore been considered a low plain1 lying between ,tripoli and ,lake ,tchad1 has been ascertained by the ,german explorers1 ,overweg and ,vogel1 to be a table-land of the second class1 ranging in elevation from #ajjj to #bjjj feet4 ,it begins at the ,chorean plateau 7#bjjj feet7 in the south of ,tripoli1 and sinks to an elevation of #hjj feet in the neighborhood of ,lake ,tchad4 ,the average altitude is about #aejj feet4 ,this moderate elevation of ,sahara corresponds with the equally high plateau of ,cyrenaica1 #bjjj feet4 ,the ,atlas plateau1 in the northwest of ,africa1 rises to a greater height--#bjjj to #cjjj feet2 the upper course of the ,draa1 near the ,sahara1 being #cjjj feet2 the high1 broad table-land on which ,timbuctoo lies1 according to ,renon's measurement1 is #aejj to #ahjj feet above the sea4 ,in south ,africa the low1 or rather the moderate plateau1 which borders the district of the ,bechuanas on the north1 rises1 as it advances toward the lower rim of ,africa1 at ,cape ,colony1 to an altitude of #cjjj feet4 ,america has many plateaus of the second range of elevation1 but her highlands of the first class are so imposing in extent1 as well as in elevation1 that they have been more carefully observed than the table-lands of the second class4 ,along the eastern slope of the ,andes1 on the same parallel with the great plains of the ,orinoco1 the ,amazon1 and the ,la ,plata1 these plateaus extend1 touching the base of the mountains1 and appearing rather as terraces1 or vast plains of transition1 from the highlands to the lowlands1 than as independent forms4 ,where ,alexander von ,humboldt measured them1 west of the low plains of the ,amazon1 he found their height1 measured from the sea1 to range from #ajej to #abjj feet2 he describes them as having the appearance of vast plains1 and as differing from the lowlands of the ,amazon only in their greater elevation2 their slope toward the narrowing of the ,pongo de ,mauseriche being too slight to be appreciable4 ,between the threefold forks of the ,northern ,andes1 ,humboldt ascertained the heights of ten plateaus1 extending as far as the plains of ,orinoco1 and called by the various names1 according to their elevation--,tierras templadas1 or temperate districts1 ,tierras calientas1 or warm districts1 and ,tierras frias1 or cold districts--varying in height from #ahjj to #ffjj feet1 the highest belonging clearly to the first class of plateaus4 ,the mountains of ,brazil are interspersed among plateaus of the second class4 ,the ,brazilian mountains are not true ranges1 but lie in groups1 their height varying from #bgjj to #egjj feet1 and between them are the vast elevated plains1 called ,campas1 which are true plateaus of the second class4 ,the southern point of ,south ,america1 south of the ,rio ,negro1 as far as the ,straits of ,magellan1 known as the plateau of ,patagonia1 is a true table-land of from #abjj to #adjj feet in height4 ,it is composed of ragged strata of porphyry or of vast lava-masses1 and has been explored by ,captain ,fitz ,roy1 in #ahcg1 from the mouth of the ,santa ,cruz ,river to the snow-capped ,andes in the west4 ,the plateau diminishes gradually in elevation from west to east1 till it touches the sea line4 ,in ,north ,america the broad plateau extending through ,northern ,texas and the ,indian ,territory1 and lying on both sides of the ,arkansas ,river1 increases in elevation gradually from ,st4 ,louis1 on the ,mississippi1 less than #ejj feet above the sea1 to ,santa ,f1 on the upper course of the ,rio ,bravo1 #gjjj feet above the sea4 ,it ascends so slightly that the rise is imperceptible to the eye1 the broad plains there taking the name of prairies4 ,st4 ,louis is #dbj feet in absolute elevation2 the eastern ,arkansas plateau #aejj to #cjjj feet2 the high western ,arkansas table-land from #cjjj to #gjjj feet1 where1 at the point of greatest altitude1 lies the ,city of ,santa ,f1 in the ,territory of ,new ,mexico1 #gjdg feet above the sea4 ,this broad1 sloping tract reaches out to a great extent at the north1 crossing the ,missouri1 and embracing the colossal ,north ,american lakes4 ,lake ,huron and ,lake ,michigan1 about #egh feet deep1 and ,lake ,superior1 #fbg feet deep1 lie in vast hollows in that great continuous plateau1 which extends into the ,british ,possessions1 rises again to #hjj or #ajjj feet in elevation1 and is rocky and craggy1 yet not enough so as to take the name of a mountain chain1 but simply to form a clearly-marked water-shed1 which ,fremont and ,nicollet have measured4 ,in ,australia and ,europe plateaus of the second grade of elevation are not wanting4 ,in ,australia1 however1 they are limited to the triangular district in the southeast1 which has become the place of settlement for the chief ,english colonies1 and which1 bearing the name of ,king's ,table-land1 rises to a height of #bejj feet1 and occupies the largest area of all the ,australian table-lands4 ,in ,europe this physical feature is displayed most distinctly in the ,spanish plateaus1 which occupy by far the largest proportion of the entire peninsula4 ,madrid lies on one of these plateaus1 at a height of #bajj feet1 five times as high as ,paris1 on the ,seine1 and as high as ,innspruck1 in the very heart of the ,tyrol2 ,toledo1 in the valley of the ,tagus1 is #agcd feet above the sea4 ,the average elevation of ,new ,castile1 the central part of ,spain1 is #bjjj feet4 ,old ,castile1 which borders it on the north1 separated from it by the ,guadarrama ridge1 is about a thousand feet higher4 ,burgos1 in the center1 is #bgjj feet above the sea2 ,segovia1 to the south1 #cajj feet4 ,the average elevation of ,old ,castile is #cjjj feet4 ,then comes in natural order the ,bavarian plateau1 in southern ,germany1 ranging from #aejj to #afjj feet high1 a broad table-land1 on which lie ,munich and ,augsburg4 ,it extends along the course of the ,danube from west to east1 from ,lower ,switzerland to ,ratisbon4 ,according to the mean measurements of ,humboldt1 the lower plateau of ,auvergne1 in southern ,france1 is #ajdj feet in elevation2 still less in altitude 7#hdj feet7 is the plateau of ,burgundy and ,lothringia1 between the ,vosges and the ,ardennes4 ,limousin1 ,aveyron1 la ,forez1 ,monts1 and ,cte d',or are plateaus4 ,the plateau of ,lothringia1 whose mean elevation is #fdh feet1 lies between the ,rhine and the ,moselle4 ,the plateau of ,luxemburg extends northward to the ,eifel1 where ,prum lies1 and to the ,ardennes1 where ,malmedy1 ,eupen1 ,namur1 ,liege1 and ,aix-la-,chapelle lie4 ,in ,middle ,germany1 a series of plateaus of the second grade begins in ,upper ,hesse1 and extends eastward1 crossed by mountains and valleys1 traversing ,upper ,silesia and ,galicia1 and running along the northern side of the ,carpathian ,mountains to ,podolia1 on the ,dnieper1 thus embracing a strip extending through the larger part of central ,europe4 ,a line of plateaus begins still farther to the north1 at the low hills of ,jutland1 crossing ,holstein1 ,mecklenberg1 the whole southern edge of ,pomerania1 and extending to ,lithuania and the ,valdai ,hills4 ,it is characterized by a band of inland lakes1 whose basins it incloses1 and is crossed by the valleys of the ,oder1 ,vistula1 ,niemen1 and ,duna4 ,it has been called the ,pomerania lake country4 ,in the hollows where the lakes lie1 7whose surfaces are1 at the highest1 not more than #cjj feet above the sea17 and yet more in the depressions1 where rivers break through1 the level descends to as low a point as that of the great plain of ,central ,europe2 but at other places it rises to an elevation as high as #ejj feet1 and so touches upon the limits of plateaus of the second range4 ,many parts of this broad upland may possibly be formed of shifting sand dunes which have been gradually piled up along the sea line4 ,the plateau reaches its highest point at the eastern end1 in the ,valdai ,hills1 where it averages #ajjj feet in elevation4 ,the highest point is #aajj feet4 ,east of the ,volga1 which rises at the eastern side of these hills1 the plateau falls off by imperceptible steps1 till it is lost in the great ,russian plain4 ,in the peninsulas of ,southern ,europe1 as in the ,morea1 7#bjjj feet17 and in the ,crimea1 7#hjj to #abjj feet17 the plateau again appears in not insignificant proportions4 ,the lower range of plateaus1 it will be seen1 is far more frequently met with through all parts of the earth than the higher1 yet both combined occupy a larger share of the surface of the globe4 ,we can designate them as sharply defined and broadly massive elevations1 in contradistinction to the long1 narrow1 and broken masses which have received the name of mountain chains4 ,the latter have too often been confounded with the former and have received from geographers a treatment disproportionately full in relation to their claims4 ,the plateau has been until recently an almost forgotten geographical element4 ,humboldt restored it to its rightful place2 by many hundreds of measurements he has accurately settled its form1 its effect on climate1 on isothermal lines1 on agriculture1 on the physical and moral life of nations1 and even on the course of human history4 ,in closing this attempt at a general consideration of plateaus1 ,i must confirm the reproach which ,humboldt has cast upon most geographers of this day for their abuse of the word plateau4 ,and ,i must at the same time admit that it is justly due to some parts of my own 8,erdkunde10 where ,i have considered the plateau systems of ,central ,asia and ,africa4 ,when ,i wrote the pages of that work1 thirty and more years ago1 there were no scientific measurements then made of those regions1 and the general ignorance led to a premature generalization1 in which ,i used the ascertained features of the ,new ,world as probably in analogy with the unexplored center of the ,old ,world4 ,this use of really untrue analogies was carried by others to great lengths1 and choratographers went so far as to depict the country according to the hypothesis of those who had written at first hand1 and after using all the lights then existing1 but who had never supposed that what they had indicated in general terms1 would be afterward made so definite and real to the public eye4 ,those untrue statements of my own1 ,i must leave however just as they are1 and rejoice that the great advance of science has led to the accurate knowledge of the great plateaus of which the civilized world then knew but little4 ,one word more3 ,i set the lower limit of plateaus of the second grade at #ejj feet1 lower therefore than the great master in ,physical ,geography set his4 8,elevations of the soil10 says ,humboldt1 8which do not display a marked difference in climate and vegetation from the country around them1 are not rightly called plateaus40 ,his meaning is1 that the name does not relate to absolute height measured from the sea1 but harmonious climatic relations existing between contiguous districts1 one of which is more elevated than the other4 ,highland and lowland are therefore to him words of unfixed meaning1 if they do not stand in the contrast of height1 climate1 relief1 and rates of temperature4 ,humboldt therefore did not consider the depression of ,central ,asia1 at the ,taringol1 as a plateau2 and table-lands from #bjj to #abjj feet in absolute elevation1 i4e4 from the sea level1 are passed over by him as not worthy of the same name which he applied to the plains #fjjj to #aj1jjj feet above the sea4 ,dealing as ,i do with the elementary features and the physical contrasts of countries which for the most part are now thoroughly explored1 ,i prefer1 for the purpose of elucidating the subject of ,physical ,geography1 to consider the plateau as beginning at #ejj feet above the level of the sea4 ,by comparing the plateaus of both hemispheres it is not difficult to deal with a variety of features1 and to make a number of discriminations which1 without an absolute standard1 it would be impossible to make4 ,we pass to the consideration of the much more varied and more imposing characteristics of mountains4 ,mountains and ,mountain ,lands4 ,mountain lands cannot1 in the strict use of language1 be compared with plateaus1 except in way of contrast1 because they are not uniform1 broad1 and sharply defined tracts1 but extend in a linear direction1 having as their chief feature the longitudinal axis of the mountain chain4 ,groups of mountain ridges may be separated from each other1 or may be united in any coherent way which does not make them continuous1 and yet1 despite the want of continuity1 form a perfect whole4 ,mountains1 with their fissures1 chasms1 abysses1 valleys1 ravines1 clefts1 precipices1--in a word1 their varied diversities of feature1 broken through in every direction1 the whole chain rent into fragments by these transverse breaks1 are in direct contrast with plateaus4 ,they have quite often a common range of elevation1 which1 measured from the sea level1 is not unfrequently much greater than the districts lying at their base4 ,yet this relation is only incidental1 it is not essential4 ,there is no necessary connection between the height of the outlying plateau and the height of the mountain range4 ,in ,switzerland the mountains rise to the altitude of #ac1jjj or #ad1jjj feet2 the country at the foot of the ,alps is but #ajjj to #bjjj feet above the sea4 ,here the distance between the summit and the plateau at the base suggests no relation between them4 ,the distinctive characteristic of a mountain land is the height of isolated groups4 ,great differences of elevation within small distances characterize mountain regions2 small differences within great distances characterize plateaus4 ,the plateau depends upon uniform evenness of surface1 or an approximation to it1 over a large extent of territory4 ,the mountain range is the exact opposite1 the development of all kinds of extremes within a limited space1 and the consequent individualization of the locality where it stands4 ,mountain lands cannot therefore be identified with the type of the highland and the plateau4 ,the mountain chain has a character of its own1 whether existing in unbroken unity1 or subdivided into subordinate ranges1 ridges1 and spurs1 and whether the summits are conical or sharply pointed1--whether also of moderate1 medium1 or loftiest elevation4 ,and high as mountains rise1 their height is equivalenced by the depth of the depressions which form their valleys2 the higher the mountain1 the deeper the abyss which cleaves to the base4 ,the immensely elevated peaks of the loftiest chains find their correspondence in the narrow ravines and the mountain lakes at the foot2 the precipitous summits of the great ,american chain have their barrancos in the ,andes and their caons in the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,the valleys are in natural contrast with the summits4 ,they have just as little of the uniformity of lowland plains as the mountain tops have of the uniformity of elevated table-lands4 ,they are infinite in variety1 highly individualized1 and always adapt themselves to the characteristics of the chain which conditions them4 ,the mountain1 too1 has no uniformity in its character2 it embraces within the smallest compass the production of all climes1 and unites the characteristics of both highland and lowland4 ,mountain regions have therefore had a great influence in history and in the development of humanity1 even greater than the more monotonous plateaus1 which in general harbor nomadic races and give little encouragement to permanently settled people4 ,for this reason the geographer cannot1 like the geologist1 classify high table-lands and mountains together2 he cannot draw the same inferences from the plateau as from the mountain range2 to the geographer the plateau is not a lower type of mountain1 but the two1 in their relations to man and to history1 suggest entirely different results and condition entirely different processes4 ,and yet it must be confessed that mountains do stand in intimate connection with plateaus of both classes1 and that the transitions from the one form to the other are well worthy of study4 ,yet the present lack of correct measurements has made this little understood4 ,it is not the element of height alone which gives mountains their significance4 ,there are many other features1 which are little studied1 yet of real import4 ,it is1 however1 not a matter of indifference whether a chain thrusts up its peaks #ajjj1 #ejjj1 #aj1jjj1 or #bj1jjj feet1 and the height has been made and will continue to be made a subject of careful investigation4 ,in reference to height1 we distinguish what1 in a general sense1 we call mountains1#c into hills1 mounts1 and mountains of various degrees of magnitude4 ,yet the height of the highest range1 in comparison with the diameter of the earth1 is insignificant1 only about 1 and the combined mass of mountains are of no more account in comparing them with the entire mass of the globe1 than the roughnesses on the rind of an apple1 or perhaps more exactly still1 than those on the shell of an egg4 ,the combined mountain systems in the world would not suffice1 if transferred to the ,north and ,south ,pole1 to fill out the earth to such an extent that the polar and equatorial diameters would be equal4 ,in following out his profound scientific investigations1 ,alexander von ,humboldt1 in order to ascertain the center of the earth's gravity1 taking into account the existing elevations above the ocean level1 was led to the conclusion that too great importance was formerly assigned to mountains in their relations not to the course of history1 but to the earth as subject to mathematical laws4 ,very careful observations revealed the fact to him that all the mountains of ,france1 if reduced to a level and spread out1 would raise the grade of the whole country to a height not more than #haf feet above the sea line4 ,all the mountains of ,europe1 distributed in like manner1 would raise the level to only about #fcj feet4 ,in ,asia the same process would make the vast plain only #ajhj feet high1 in ,north ,america #gjb feet1 in ,south ,america only #ajfb feet2 while the mountains of the entire globe would raise the level to only #idg feet above the level of the sea4 ,so insignificant are the combined mountain systems of the earth in respect to size1 in comparison with the immense body on which they stand1 though their importance is great when we regard their influence on the localities where they are found4 ,yet in this last regard1 mountains deserve careful study1 for they not only exercise and have exercised a great influence over nature and man1 but they serve as our best key to open to our view the internal structure of the earth4 ,some mountains1 though of great height and broad base1 like ,etna1 ,vesuvius1 ,teneriffe1 and many volcanoes1 belong to no true mountain system2 and even when they lie near together1 and yet have no inner principle of unity1 they are not spoken of as a chain or a range3 they make merely a mountainous district4 ,it is the repetition of the common type and the existence of a continuous valley which gives a right to use the names chain and range4 ,the linear extent and height of mountain ranges vary very much2 no definite limits to these can be assigned4 ,yet there are few chains which are less than #be miles long and #aejj feet high4 ,other features are necessary in order to determine the strict application of the word chain or range2 one is a ridge-like or comb-like aspect2 7that it should be a water-shed is not essential1 although very common27 another feature is that the rock composing it should be of the same geological formation4 ,sand dunes1 although occurring in regular and ridge-like uniformity1 like those in ,holland1 and looking from a distance like a mountain chain1 are not to be reckoned as mountain chains1 though like the tells on the ,syrian steppes and dunes in the ,netherlands and along the ,baltic coast1 they sometimes rise to the height of a thousand feet4 ,in ,south ,germany and in the neighborhood of lofty mountains1 such elevations are called mere hills2 at the north foot of the ,alps1 yet greater heights are almost always called level land4 ,in judging of the fitness with which the word mountain is used1 it must always be remembered whether he who employs it dwells among the ,himalayas or on the lowlands of eastern ,europe2 and in order to give any fixedness to the use of the word1 it is necessary to take into account other physical characteristics besides height4 ,by common usage1 however1 the ,alps have become the standard of comparison for all the mountains of the world1 mainly because1 besides having their imposing height1 they are found in the middle of the temperate zone2 they are the most convenient to study of any great system on the globe4 ,in respect to height1 we divide these into four grades3 the lowest from #bjjj to #ejjj feet above the sea2 the next from #ejjj to #hjjj2 the next from #hjjj to #aj1jjj2 and the highest from #aj1jjj on to the height of ,mont ,blanc4 ,another standard might be found in the colossal ,himalaya chain of ,asia1 and the ,cordilleras of both ,americas1 which could easily be brought into unison with the ,alpine chain of ,switzerland4 ,the linear direction of a mountain chain1 the axis of elevation as we might say1 7so sharply hinted at in the very word mountain-chain17 brings out relations which vary not only according to the longitudinal direction itself1 but to the lateral extent1 the number of mountains1 the situation1 and the ramification of the chain4 ,if the direction be a straight one1 we can rightly speak of an axis of elevation4 ,according to ,humboldt's measurements1 this axis in the ,pyrenees is #bcj miles in length2 in the ,alps1 from ,mont ,blanc to the ,hungarian frontier1 #eae miles2 the ,ural ,mountains1 #eej to #bjdb miles2 the ,scandinavian ,mountains1 #aajj miles2 the ,altai ,mountains1 #iijj miles2 the ,kuenlun1 #afjj miles2 the ,thian-,shan1 in ,inner ,china1 #agjj to #baej miles2 the ,himalayas1 #afjj miles2 the ,yablonoi ,chrabet1 #eej miles2 the ,aldan1 #djj miles2 the ,ghauts1 #gfj miles2 the ,andes of ,south ,america1 #ddjj miles2 and the whole ,cordillera of ,north ,america1 #ibjj miles4 ,there is often much doubt about the true beginning and ending of a mountain chain1 and judgments differ according as they rest on the fact of elevation or on the geological traces of upheaval where they begin to be manifest4 ,geographers are not agreed1 for example1 whether the ,ural ,mountains continue as far north as ,nova ,zembla1 and whether one or two chains in ,america are to be spoken of as traversing the plateau of ,mexico4 ,if there are parallel ranges1 it is correct to speak of a transverse axis1 running at right angles with the main axis4 ,there is1 it is apparent1 a marked difference between simple chains and the accumulated parallel chains1 where breadth is a prominent element1 as in the ,vosges1 the ,black ,forest ,mountains1 the ,fichtel range1 the ,hartz1 the ,ardennes4 ,the parallel rows form a mountain system4 ,yet all great chains are made up of smaller ones1 of groups at least1 and so are mountain systems4 ,often the grouping is seemingly irregular1 a lawless aggregation1 but only because our knowledge is incomplete1 and the law of arrangement concealed from us4 ,this law is traced in the very geological qualities of the chain1 not in the later form4 ,the outer form is often very deceptive1 the very convulsions which indicate the surer signs having served to obliterate what we should suppose the most prominent marks4 ,the present of mountains must often be studied in the light of their past4 ,orography must be interpreted by geology4 ,but the geological surveys of the earth are as yet very imperfect2 the outer form has often to be accepted as the only guide4 ,orography and geology are two sciences which now go on hand in hand4 ,in the simple mountain chain it is easy to discriminate between the parts which make it up2 the base is easily ascertainable and the ascent to the comb-like ridge is readily traced2 the eye does not fail to see the relation between the special prominent heights and the chain from which they rise1 and to trace the manner in which spurs and outlying mountains are connected with the main chain4 ,small isolated collections of mountains are especially valuable as elementary studies1 for they always have a unity of their own4 ,and all the greater and well-known chains are made up of smaller1 simple chains1 whose connection and mutual relations are1 however1 sometimes exceedingly difficult to trace4 ,but the character of the whole is not sometimes ascertainable with this preliminary knowledge of the parts4 ,the true base of a mountain chain1 the line of periphery1 in consequence of the general unevenness of the adjacent country1 must be ascertained by very exact measurements with the level4 ,the geologist does not begin with this step1 he strikes deeper1 and seeks the place where the structure diverges from that of the more level land lying near2 and1 in the search after the basis of structure1 he discovers the unity of the range from the foot to the summit4 ,the whole geological district which has been upheaved into mountains1 ,leopold von ,buch found to be generally ellipsoidal in form1 the longer axis being far more prominent than the shorter one4 ,the axis of most mountain chains is1 then1 the longer axis of an ellipsoid4 ,the ,swiss ,alps display about a dozen such ellipsoids1 of different characteristics1 and arranged according to no perceptible law of harmony4 ,each is developed from its own base1 as the trunk of a tree grows out of its root4 ,these separate bases lie contiguously1 but the peaks which shoot up are widely sundered4 ,the forms of the mountain groups resulting from this are1 of course1 various4 ,some of them ,i will briefly characterize4 #a4 ,the longer axes of the subordinate chains may run in parallels1 as in one portion of the ,swiss ,alps1 the ,jura1 the ,ural ,mountains1 the ,mexican ,cordilleras1 and the ,himalayas4 #b4 ,the chains may diverge or converge4 ,the ,alps diverge at the east1 and the forks run northeast and southeast respectively2 the ,rocky ,mountains1 toward the ,arctic regions1 divide into from five to seven diverging chains4 ,converging ranges may come together at varying angles1 and these can mass themselves into confused mountain knots1 the summits of which soar to amazing heights1 as the ,west and ,middle ,alps do around ,mont ,blanc4 ,alexander von ,humboldt distinguishes five of these mountain knots in the ,andes1 ,porco1 ,cuzco1 ,pasco1 ,assuay1 and ,los ,pastos1 whose construction1 carefully studied1 he considered1 gives the key to the structure of the whole chain4 ,side chains often display this knotted form1 as in ,upper ,peru around ,lake ,titicaca1 the three branches of the ,ural1 at the ,irmel ,tau1 the ,himalaya1 ,kuenlun1 and ,hindoo ,koosh chains1 in upper ,afghanistan1 and the ranges of ,swiss ,alps1 which converge around ,st4 ,gothard4 ,yet the convolutions which these mountain chains make at their point of convergence are never regular1 never mathematically exact1 but to be measured in sections1 and the traces of a linear direction to be carefully sought with the compass4 ,the whole has1 to the eye1 a labyrinthine appearance1 and the law of structure is only ascertained1 with exactness1 by the geological features1 the direction of the strata1 and the like4 ,the geographer must call in the geologist to help him solve his problems4#d #c4 ,if from some high central point the mountain ranges radiate in the form of a star1 they form a new variety of system called1 for convenience1 by the name 8star-shaped40 ,in volcanic mountains this configuration is common1 as in ,mont d',or and in ,auvergne4 ,the southwestern ,alps1 known sometimes as the ,sea ,alps1 the ,ural at the ,arctic ,ocean1 the ,quito range of the ,andes1 are types of this form4 #d4 ,the ring-shaped system is in direct contrast with the last4 ,it is found where mountain chains are arranged in a circle1 inclosing a plateau of larger or smaller extent4 ,there are two marked examples of this form in ,europe3 ,bohemia and ,transylvania4 ,the ring of mountains around the former is made up of a number of ranges1 which dovetail together at the ends1 making a unit1 but only a rude circle1 speaking with mathematical exactness4 ,the inclosed basin is only relatively a lowland2 it is rigid with hills and low mountains1 yet of such little importance1 in comparison with the rim of peaks1 that the common name1 the 8,bohemian ,kettle10 has begun to have an accredited significance1 and is stronger than the more loosely-used word ,basin4 ,transylvania1 too1 partakes of similar characteristics4 ,its border consists of a number of minor ranges1 of varying heights1 up to #ahjj feet2 and the central hollow1 which is much more strongly marked by hilly land than ,bohemia1 lies #bbjj feet above the ,adriatic4 ,the ring-shaped system is one of the rarest met of all4 ,they are1 however1 observed in abundance on the moon4 #e4 ,just as rare is the form where ranges intersect in the form of a cross1 those running1 for example1 from north to south1 meeting those running east and west4 ,as an instance of this1 ,humboldt cites the confluence of the ,himalaya1 the ,kuenlun1 the ,hindoo ,koosh1 and the ,belor or ,belurtagh ,mountains4 ,the belt between #ce and #dj ,n4 lat4 is remarkable for its gridiron-shaped mountain system1 the points of conjunction being marked by knots of peaks of colossal height4 ,the most remarkable one of these is the lofty ,pamir ,pass1 between #cg #cj and #dj #e ,n4 lat41 and #ah1jjj feet high1 known1 historically1 from the sixth century1 and described by ,marco ,polo1 as well as by the ancient ,greek historians4 ,the ,persians dwelling in the neighborhood term it the ,roof of the ,world4 ,elsewhere the same feature is observable1 though on a scale of less magnitude4 ,so in the ,altai range at ,lake ,yetzkoi1 in the western ,swiss ,alps1 and in the porphyritic chain of ,room-,elee1 known to the ancients as ,rhodope1 and now as the ,despoto ,dagh4 ,this gridiron-shape of some mountain systems seems to be the result of upheavals at different times1 which necessarily occasions the most broken configuration at the point where a chain of more recent formation has been projected through one of older date4 ,the varying relations of length1 breadth1 direction1 connection1 and severance of mountain ranges give great diversity to them1 and impart to every system a character of its own4 ,to the features just indicated must be added vertical or precipitous descents1 for the influences which they exert upon the possibility of man's constructing mountain roads1 are very great4 ,the extent of these sudden depressions1 or1 more exactly1 the relation which the distance from the base to the pass bears to the distance from the base to the summit1 gives a key to the uses of certain mountains as adjuncts of civilization1 and shows how some ranges rather than others may become the abode of men1 and produce marked effects on human culture and the world's history4 ,i have before alluded to the comb-like structure of most mountain chains4 ,the resemblance is more striking than may appear2 for not only do the peaks correspond in general uniformity of height with the teeth of the comb1 but the equally uniform height of the passes from the base corresponds with the uniform thickness of the solid part of the comb4 ,the relation1 however1 of the distance from the base to the passes1 to the distance from the base to the peaks1 is widely various4 ,humboldt has estimated it in a few leading chains as follows3-- ,himalayas4 ,height of chain1 #be1jjj ft4 0 pass1 #ae1jjj 0 0 base1 #ajjj 0 7,delhi47 ,alps4 ,mont ,blanc1 #ad1ejj ft4 ,height of pass1 #gbjj 0 0 base1 #abjj 0 ,andes4 ,chimborazo1 #ba1jjj ft4 ,height of pass1 #aj1jjj 0 0 base1 7,sea47 ,pyrenees4 ,maladetta1 #aj1gbb ft4 ,height of pass1 #hjjj 0 0 base1 7,sea47 ,in the ,alps and ,caucasus the relation of the height of the pass to the height of the chain is as #a to #b2 in the ,himalaya1 ,quito ,cordillera1 and ,alleghany ,mountains1 as #a to #ah2 in the ,pyrenees and ,cordillera of ,bolivia1 as #a to #ae4 ,in the ,alps1 therefore1 where the pass is only half as elevated as the chain1 the communication is the most direct1 and the least barrier is put to the purposes of man1--a fact of great import in relation to human culture4 ,the ,pyrenees are in direct contrast in this respect1 the most unapproachable1 the most sundering of mountains4 ,the position of mountain chains is a matter of the first importance in relation to the welfare of man1 and the solution of many of the most important problems in history4 ,whether interior ranges like the ,ural and the ,atlas1 or ranges connecting two seas like the ,caucasus1 or those like the ,mexican ,sierras1 lying between two oceans1 are most open to human approach and use1 is a question which we will not here stop to consider2 but it may be said that1 whether situated in the relations just indicated1 or whether they are meridianal ranges like the ,ural1 the ,scandinavian chain1 the ,alleghanies1 or the great ,cordillera of both ,americas1 which extends from the tropical world to both polar zones2 or whether they run in the same direction with the parallels of latitude1 turning one side to the colder north1 and another side to the sunnier south2 or whether they assume a diagonal direction like the ,swiss ,alps1 from southwest to northeast1 or like the ,caucasus1 from northwest to southeast1 is a matter of the first importance to ascertain4 ,of not less consequence is it to discover whether the chain is the edge or rim of a plateau1 and can have1 therefore1 only a one-sided development1 like the ,himalayas toward the south1 or the ,anti-,taurus toward the north1 because the existence of a plateau on the reverse side dwarfs the slant distance1 and gives but a fractional part of what1 without the plateau1 would be open and clear4 ,as plateaus usually display this edge on both sides1 the border has been aptly compared to a double ledge or rim1 between the two sides of which the table-land lies1 often tolerably high above the sea level4 ,if these rims1 like mountains1 are not contiguous to the plateau2 if they are separated from it by a valley of greater or less width and depth1 running parallel with the edge1 they form what ,humboldt has called natural circumvallations4 ,of such the ,altai range1 on the north side of the ,asiatic central plateau1 is an example4 ,the hollow between the range and the plateau just mentioned is partly filled with inland seas4 ,the ,caucasus may1 in like manner1 be regarded as the circumvallation of the ,american plateau1 separate from it by the ,koor and the ,aras 7ancient ,araxes7 rims4 ,yet in the ,caucasus another modification occurs--a partial linking of the plateau with the range at the west extremity1 by the connecting chain of the ,moschic ,mountains4 ,in like manner the ,pyrenees1 in their eastern half1 form a circumvallation around the north side of the ,castilian plateau1 separated from it by the basin of the ,ebro1 and forming a perfect ring around ,upper ,castile and the elevated province of ,biscay4 ,in cases where a mountain chain rests upon a plateau1 rising up in the very heart of it1 its summits seem to be not high1 although the basis1 the true foot of the chain1 may not be at the level of the plateau1 but far lower1 and such mountains may1 therefore1 be of great absolute height4 ,the name superimposed mountains has been given to them4 ,such are the ,kuenlun and the ,thian-,shan ranges of ,central ,asia1 the ,guadarrama chain between ,old and ,new ,castile1 and the ,rocky ,mountains in ,north ,america4 ,these superimposed ranges often run near to and parallel with the rim or edge of the plateau1 and seem to give it more completeness and breadth4 ,the geologist employs the word 8sutures0 to designate such forms1 because they serve to unite those parts of a plateau which are at different heights above the sea level4 ,he regards the mountains as rising to fill enormous clefts which great convulsions have rent in the earth1 and as passing up1 while in their fluid state1 to a height above the level of the plateau1 and bridging over the abyss4 ,in this way our mountains which rest on plateaus seem to have been formed1 as indeed is indicated by their geological structure4 ,the smaller plateaus display analogies kindred to those seen in the larger superimposed mountain ranges4 ,the extinguished volcanic group of ,auvergne rests upon the central plateau of southern ,france1 which1 according to ,remond1 has an average elevation of #ajjj feet4 ,the now silent volcanic group of the northern ,rhine broke through the moderately elevated gray-wacke formation of that locality1 and is1 therefore1 a superimposed range4 ,mountain chains which diverge from plateaus and their serrated rims seem1 nevertheless1 to have some relation to them1 even though they cannot be considered continuations of them4 ,the ,lebanon chain1 for instance1 which turns away at a right angle from the ,taurus range1 and runs southward through ,syria and ,palestine2 the ,lutznetskia and the ,alatau ,mountains1 mineral ranges running from the ,altai northward to ,tomsk2 the ,yablonoi and the ,stanovoi ,chrabet ranges running to the northeast2 the still unknown or little known range of ,farther ,india1 traversing the whole peninsula of ,malacca1 come under this head4 ,completely unlike the groups thus far considered1 are the isolated mountain systems1 with uniform slopes on all sides1 and with a roof-like form1 distinguishable to the base4 ,the mountains of ,europe are mostly of this class--the ,ural1 ,carpathian1 ,scandinavian ranges1 the ,alps1 ,apennines1 and1 in part1 the ,pyrenees4 ,they give rise to rivers1 not on one side alone1 as do the ,himalayas and the ,andes2 they are rich in resources of all kinds for the student and the economist1 and thus make up in part for their comparatively unimportant dimensions4 ,their double-sidedness gives them a large influence on civilization1 since rivers flow from them in all directions2 while from the ,himalayas they only flow to the south1 and from the ,andes to the east4 ,plateaus and mountains1 different as they are in appearance and characteristics1 yet constitute1 in their mutual action and reaction1 and in their forms of transition from the one to the other1 the highland system of the globe4 ,their relations are inexhaustible as ,nature herself4 ,we cannot study them without profit2 but we can never come to a perfect knowledge of them all4 ,the ,relations of ,plateau ,systems4 ,like mountain systems1 plateaus are not to be estimated in respect to elevated and superficial area alone1 but in respect to form and position as well4 ,the ,american plateaus are elongated from north to south1 but are of disproportionate breadth from east to west4 ,the ,asiatic plateaus1 on the contrary1 are not only of great length1 but also of great breadth4 ,the ,spanish plateau1 that of the ,atlas system1 and that of ,asia ,minor have their length and breadth nearly equal4 ,the surface of plateaus is exceedingly varied4 ,it sometimes assumes the aspect of elevated plains1 sometimes of rolling land1 sometimes of horizontal strata of naked rock1 as in ,patagonia and the western ,sahara4 ,in one place it displays sand-hills1 as in parts of the ,gobi ,desert2 in others barren steppes1 as in portions of ,persia4 ,sometimes we find a gradual ascent of minor plateaus or terraces2 sometimes single mountains rising out of the plateaus1 as does ,demavend2 sometimes we find a chain of colossal peaks emerging from the heart of a plateau1 like ,thian-,shan and ,bogdo-,oola4 ,sometimes there are plateaus broken up into crags and patches of level ground1 like ,persia2 sometimes plateaus with deep valleys or river basins1 like the plateau of ,yoorkistan and ,gobi1 including the ,river ,tarim1 and reaching its greatest depression at ,lake ,lop1 or1 like the plateau of ,afghanistan1 including the ,river ,hirmend and ,lake ,zareh2 again1 we have plateaus traversed by water-courses which forced their way in times of flood1 and leave in the rainless seasons the traces of the former violence4 ,such are some of the less elevated plateaus of ,france and ,bavaria4 ,especially important are the combinations and groupings of plateaus1 as well as their relation to adjacent lowlands4 ,in ,africa the plateau form embraces the larger southern half of the continent4 ,low plains are1 on the contrary1 the prevailing form in the north1 broken1 however1 by the ,sahara1 and the high coast plateaus of the ,atlas range1 and of ,barca4 ,in ,asia there is a vast central plateau with gradual declivities toward the east1 toward ,yoorkistan and ,persia on the west1 and toward ,lakes ,baikal and ,zaisan on the north4 ,on the south the descent is abrupt to the ,indian lowlands4 ,in ,europe there are1 for the most part1 scattered and disconnected plateaus of small size and little elevation1 often passing by an imperceptible gradation to the other forms4 ,the ,spanish plateau is1 however1 a marked exception1 and has the sharply-defined character of the northern ,african plateaus4 ,in eastern ,europe the central situation of the isolated ,valdai plateau1 whose elevation is very moderate1 but #hdj to #ajhj feet1 is remarkable1 and is of very great influence in determining the hydrographical character of the great ,russian lowlands4 ,and in fact1 the hydrographical influence of both mountains and plateaus is so great1 that it is worthy of careful and special study4 ,the combinating and grouping of plateaus in different continents give rise to great contrasts1 observable most distinctly in ,asia and ,america4 ,asia1 with all its great internal depression from ,cashgar to ,lake ,lop1 yet displays such immense districts of plateaus1 all ranges of elevation1 low1 moderate1 and very great1 that the very grandeur and extent of its colossal mountain chains are subordinate in comparison4 ,asia is the land pre-eminently of plateaus4 ,america displays1 not in its central but on its western coast1 the greatest chain of mountains on the globe1 flanked by plateaus of great elevation1 but of superficial area quite out of proportion to the length of the mountain chain1 and to the extent of the lowlands of both the northern and the southern divisions4 ,and while in ,africa the regions of depression are in the north1 and in ,asia around the great central plateau system1 in the ,americas1 both ,north and ,south1 they are thrown into the eastern portion4 ,australia1 in perfect contrast again1 is1 with the exception of its southeastern corner1 a vast tract of unbroken lowland4 ,no diversity is possible there1 no change in the condition of life1 but a ceaseless uniformity of monotonous but prodigal gifts4 ,is not the imposing grandeur of these harmonious1 provisional arrangements for the use of man calculated to fill the soul with admiring wonder1 and to lead us to suspect1 above all this display of cause and effect1 above all this working out of a manifestly preconceived plan1 the existence of a great and active ,being1 who has planned and executed it all with higher ends and a loftier purpose than to satisfy the mere earthly life of man8 ,primeval ,formation of ,plateaus and ,mountains4 ,to enter upon a discussion of the manner in which plateaus and mountains were formed1 would make it necessary to resort to such judgments as we could draw from their external appearance and their internal structure4 ,the rapid progress of geology does indeed afford us many probabilities thoroughly grounded4 ,a few of these may have been briefly indicated in connection with some elevated regions1 where the massiveness is striking1 and where the axis of elevation is prolonged to a considerable extent4 ,in such cases the influence exerted on the world is more evident than it could be elsewhere4 ,origin of ,plateaus4 ,alexander von ,humboldt has employed the term ,intumescence1 to indicate the manner in which plateaus have been upheaved4 ,plateaus appear as long1 often wide1 mostly level1 sometimes rolling1 sometimes hilly elevations1 presenting an appearance as if the earth had swelled with confined gases1 and with depressions here and there as if1 in the casting of the molten mass within1 a natural external subsidence had followed4 ,they have1 therefore1 viewed in their internal structure1 an unbroken wholeness1 and are free from those vast fissures which characterize mountains1 rending the earth for hundreds of feet down4 ,the utmost want of uniformity is seen in the gradual depressions which often harbor the large internal lakes found in great plateaus4 ,varied as they are in configuration1 they always retain marks enough to indicate that they owe their upheaval to steady1 gentle1 and not tumultuous forces within1 exerted at the time of the primeval cooling of the earth's crust2 in contrast1 therefore1 with mountains1 which were thrust up from beneath1 through huge seams made by the bursting through of pent-up vapor and gases4 ,these elevations of the earth's crust1 whether in the form of mountain or plateau1 must correspond1 in order that the symmetry of the globe may be preserved1 to the depressions found in lowlands and beneath the water of oceans and seas4 ,it is observable that the great plateau upheaval of the ,old ,world has taken the shape of a belt1 which runs in a northeasterly direction along its whole southeastern shore1 crossing the equator at an angle of #de1 broken1 however1 at some places1 but never so much as to destroy the coherence of the belt4 ,the diagonal of the rhomboidal plateau of eastern ,asia1 passing due northeast through the table-land of ,thibet1 indicates the direction of the whole band of highlands4 ,this band drops toward the south in uniformly steep declivities2 while toward the north it falls away with gradual steps of transition1 reaching at length the regions of the greatest depression--,libya1 northern ,arabia1 the ,caspian1 ,siberia1 and1 at last1 the low regions around the north pole4 ,in this belt or chaplet of plateaus lie the high table-lands of ,south and ,northeast ,africa1 ,abyssinia1 ,south ,arabia1 ,persia1 ,beloochistan1 ,north ,deccan1 ,afghanistan1 ,thibet1 ,east ,tangut1 and eastern ,gobi1 in ,mantchooria4 ,correspondent with this immense plateau belt1 in the ,new ,world1 is the great ,american chain1 once a wholly volcanic1 and though differing so much in structure1 direction1 and hydrographical influence1 yet giving the globe a wholeness1 a unity in diversity1 which is strikingly apparent4 ,the ,origin of ,mountains4 ,the linear regions of elevations of the earth's surface1 as we may term them1 in contradistinction to the plateaus which are characterized by breadth rather than by length1 have been projected in the form of mountain chains1 as has been already hinted1 through huge fissures made by the rending of the earth's crust4 ,the upheaval to fill the seam has1 in some cases1 been all made at once2 in others1 in a succession of periods4 ,the uniform agreement of all the geological strata or their diversity decides this point4 ,sometimes the rocky strata are laid bare and easily investigated4 ,often1 however1 the observer is obliged to draw conclusions from a part to the whole4 ,yet in all cases the mountain1 in contradistinction to the adjacent plateau1 is the tract which has been thrust through the crust4 ,the frequent steep and lofty precipices show the immensity of the internal force required to lift the mountains from their places1 while the lines of stratification indicate the direction of upheaval4 ,the rifting of a seam in the earth's crust was the first step in the formation of mountains2 the filling up of the seam by liquid matter1 the second step4 ,the upheaval of ,asia1 from the ,persian plateau to ,gobi1 in a line #fj ,n4 ,e41 seems to be connected with the most ancient revolution which the earth's crust ever experienced4 ,the mountains there are1 therefore1 more modern in origin than the plateau on which they stand4 ,the direction of the chain1 in all cases1 seems to have been dependent on the direction of the fissure in the earth's crust1 which the mountain range afterward fills4 ,the breaking through the crust necessarily occurred when the pressure beneath the surface was very great1 or when a moderate pressure was exerted beneath a thin crust1 where the resistance was slight4 ,the latter case seems to have been prevalent in most plateau regions4 ,their own gradual upheaval probably thinned the surface1 and made it more liable to fracture4 ,this accounts for the fact that the greatest mountains of the globe are found contiguous to plateaus4 ,and the broader the original seam in the crust was1 the broader the mountain range which rose to fill it1 either at a single upheaval1 or in a series of convulsive throes projecting successive masses of molten matter from below4 ,in the latter cases the strata thus formed lie on each other like the leaves of a book1 their constitution changing according as the more advanced stages of melting in the vast internal caldron throw out more metamorphosed rocks4 ,these later layers rose to a greater or less height on the sides of the partially-formed mountain1 according to their specific gravity1 their more or less fluid state1 and their rapidity of cooling1 as we can now see by examining the layers in their present permanent condition4 ,thus far we can conjecture1 with great security1 taught by the manifestly wild and fierce convulsions which once threw up the mountains1 since in them distortion is the rule and regularity of structure the exception1 and also by the equally manifest quiet and sustained process of upheaval1 when the plateaus were formed2 their strata being in a state of regularity and unbroken repose4 ,when the great vents produced by the outward pressure of internal volcanic forces occurred beneath the sea1 they were filled up in the same manner as on the dry land1 excepting that the summits of the mountains emerge above the surface in the form of isolated islands1 or when there was a chain or group of mountains upheaved1 as an archipelago4 ,when there was no rifting of the surface1 and no forcing up of whole chains of peaks through a thinned crust1 the fierce action of the internal heat appears to have necessitated the upheaval of solitary volcanoes here and there1 in some cases even rows of them1 to give vent to the pent-up steam and gases1 and to convey away the molten tide within4 ,when such volcanic series rose in parallel ranges1 they lifted1 or may have lifted up the whole district between them1 as if upon their shoulders1 and so formed the ,american type of plateaus1 of less breadth and greater length than the ,asiatic1 and in height corresponding with the volcanic peaks which form their rim1 and to which they are probably indebted for the form of their structure4 ,it needs hardly to be added to what has been said above1 that the general direction of existing mountain chains depends upon the direction of the primitive seams made in the earth's surface by internal forces4 ,the ,ural ,mountains1 the ,scandinavian chain1 the ,alleghanies1 the ,ghauts1 run on meridian lines2 others more or less transversely4 ,the various kinds of rock which have been thrown up in mountains enlighten us as to the process and results of the internal heat of the earth2 the successive formations display not only the various eruptions of molten matter1 and its discharge in new layers above what had been thrown out before1 but reveal the relative age of the various formations4 ,we have in a single chain sometimes a whole volume of history1 marking off the epochs of upheaval with the most perfect legibility and exactness4 ,many crystallised rocks result evidently from the gradual process of cooling after the ancient exposure to the intense heat of the inner portions of the earth--granite1 porphyry1 gneiss1 slates1 and the so-called metamorphosed rocks4 ,these used to be considered the oldest formations1 but the upheaval theory treats them as the latest formed4 ,most mountain chains have been uplifted to their present height by a succession of upheavals4 ,to accomplish this has been labor of uncounted thousands of years4 ,only a very few--the main ,carpathian range1 for instance--seem to have been upheaved at a single convulsion1 and to have assumed their present appearance at once4 ,where there were incessant eruptions accompanied with flames1 and masses of molten matter 7lava7 have been ejected from the crest or from single summits1 these volcanoes and volcanic ranges have been the result4 ,elsewhere no such phenomena have been visible4 ,possibly1 in such cases1 the masses cooled so rapidly as to extinguish or fill up what may have been embryo craters1 and the plutonic acclivities may have been repressed1 leaving us the traces of primeval eruptions1 but no vestiges of any dangerous forces remaining till now4 ,of mountains formed in this manner1 may be mentioned the ,puys de ,dome1 the ,bohemian basaltic peaks1 trachyte ,transylvania ,alps1 the ,katak ,kaumene1 78,burnt ,tract107 of ,asia ,minor1 and ,hauran1 ,iceland1 parts of the great ,american chain1 parts of the ,sunda chain1 the ,south ,sea ,islands1 and ,bagdoola1 and its range of extinct volcanoes in the ,thian-,shan chain4 ,but other forces besides fire were competent to form mountains and plateaus1 to spread layers of clay and sand and various deposits at the bottom of the sea1 afterward to harden into strata of rock4 ,in contradistinction to plutonic formations1 these have been called neptunic1 because formed at the bottom of the sea4 ,the oldest of the neptunic or stratified rocks have been upheaved by the subterranean forces1 and now are found in the elevated plateaus or mountain ranges1 still having1 however1 their unbroken irregularity of structure4 ,also1 after the stratification has been complete1 and plutonic acclivities have opened the seams in the earth of which ,i have already spoken1 and molten masses have rushed up to fill them1 fragments of the primitive stratified rocks have been caught up and raised1 together with the molten masses1 to the very summits of lofty mountains2 so that the geologist finds fossils there more or less perfectly preserved1 the stratified rocks which contain them surrounded by the plutonic rock upheaved from below the surface4 ,chalk layers full of mollusca and infusoria have been found by ,humboldt and von ,buch on the very summits of the ,andes1 and corresponding with those which have been discovered by ,ehrenburg in the deposits at the bottom of the sea4 ,other older and more recent oceanic deposits are found in their primitive condition at the bottom of the sea1 or in very low places on the land4 ,in such localities the surface of the earth is composed of horizontal or slightly inclined layers or strata1 of secondary formation1 and whose origin in deposits from water cannot be denied4 ,these are the beds of chalk1 clay1 sand1 marl1 gypsum1 and other common substances2 and these strata again have been overlaid with more recent accumulations1 the result of diluvium or alluvium1 continuing even up to the present time4#e ,lowlands4 ,this variety of the earth's surface stands in the strongest contrast with mountain regions1 or1 in one word1 with the highland form in all its modifications4 ,the name lowland we apply to all those broad tracts which do not rise more than four hundred feet above the level of the sea4 ,the absolute elevation is determined from a section drawn vertically from the superior surface to the plane of the sea4 ,every comparison by numbers of one lowland plain with its more elevated surroundings gives only a relative result1 as for instance1 in comparing the valleys of one chain of mountains with those of a more lofty chain4 ,such relative lowlands may lie at a great elevation above the sea1 as the vale of ,chamouni1 for example1 at the north foot of ,mont ,blanc1 is #cjjj feet above the ocean level4 ,both conceptions of the word lowland1 which is common to elevated plains as well as those at the sea's margin1 are entirely different1 and should be kept distinct1 although they are very often confounded4 ,we are to deal here only with the absolute1 great1 and generally diffused lowlands1 in contrast with which the elevated valleys and plains just referred to may be considered as mountain table-lands and the rims of plateaus4 ,we assume1 as we did in judging of the two grades of plateaus1 an arbitrary standard of measurement1 and limit the rise of real lowlands to an altitude of #ejj feet above the level of the sea4 ,great tracts of running plain1 rising by so slight a grade as to be almost imperceptible1 can be regarded only relatively as lowland1 and1 in a strict sense1 belong to those regions of transition which fall more truly within the domain of highland or plateau4 ,the word plain indicates the opposite of hill or mountain1 but has nothing to do with the greater or less degree of absolute elevation1 although it is often used as if it had4 ,the lower limits of lowlands are sharply defined enough4 ,they are the margin of the sea1 toward which the slope usually becomes almost imperceptibly small4 ,often the expression is used1 yet not quite fitly1 that the lowland extends into the sea for some distance1 and is found beneath the surface4 ,strictly this is the bottom of the sea1 and does not fall under consideration in this connection4 ,many lowland plains rise so slightly above the sea level1 that they are not unfrequently submerged1 and1 in many cases1 owe their existence to repeated overflows4 ,they are the basins of old gulfs1 as in the very slightly elevated plains of ,caracas1 whose whole shore is open to the influences of the great ,atlantic current flowing from east to west2 or1 as in the great ,lombardy plain1 which slopes at the same almost imperceptible degree toward the ,adriatic4 ,there are also some lowlands found in the interior of continents1 and these1 too1 sinking below the level of the sea2 but they are altogether exceptional1 and only met with in two or three instances4 ,they are called1 by an accommodation of an algebraic term1 negative lowlands4 ,to them belong the region around the ,caspian and the ,aral ,seas1 and the much smaller tract comprising the ,dead ,sea1 and forming the ,jordan valley2 besides1 there is the ,suez steppe1 inclosing the bitter lakes between ,asia and ,africa2 and possibly the ,beled-el-,jereed1 in the western part of the ,sahara and the central part of ,australia4 ,to these it might not be incorrect to join those partial lowlands which have been rescued by human efforts from the sea2 the marshes1 for instance1 behind the dikes of ,holland1 ,sleswick1 ,east ,friesland1 and at the mouths of the ,vistula1 the ,weser1 the ,nile1 the ,ganges1 and other rivers4 ,the most extensive lowlands in the world are probably those which embrace ,siberia1 in ,asia1 and the ,canadian and polar region of ,north ,america4 ,many great tracts1 entirely inland1 are in those flat districts covered by sea-water which was once driven in by great storms1 and now lies stagnant1 resulting in inapproachable swamps and morasses4 ,yet1 under the equator1 there are immense lowlands1 as1 for instance1 in the eastern ,sahara1 although this region is broken by strips of plateau1 and is by no means that uniform lowland plain which it used to be regarded4 ,northern ,australia belongs to the same category1 and also those immense plains which reach from the ,atlantic so far into the interior of ,brazil1 along the lower ,amazon4 ,by the time1 however1 that they reach the middle course of that river1 they have acquired1 though in such imperceptible steps1 a considerable degree of elevation1 according to ,humboldt's barometrical observations1 and not reckoning certain limestone hills found there1 from #ajej to #abjj feet4 ,the plains of the middle ,maraon are1 therefore1 true plains1 but not absolute lowlands1 and not to be identified with the great flat region at the mouth of the river1 and in comparison with the real lowlands of ,venezuela1 which do not rise over #bjj feet above the sea1 and genuine plateau1 which1 level as it is and broad as it is1 is far more elevated than the ,valdai plateau1 in ,russia4 ,almost all great river mouths are true lowlands--the ,egyptian delta1 the delta of the ,ganges and the ,indus1 for instance1 7the two latter being separated by the very moderate plateau 7#ajj feet7 between ,delhi and ,mooltan27 to these we may add the delta of the ,euphrates1 the east shore of ,china1 between the ,blue and the ,yellow ,rivers1 and ,senegambia1 between the ,senegal and the ,gambia4 ,and in ,america1 the same thing occurs in the ,mississippi1 ,orinoco1 ,amazon1 and ,la ,plata1 where the immense mass of water which they send to the sea passes through lowlands of very great extent4 ,in the ,mississippi they extend from the mouth as far north as the confluence of the ,missouri and the ,mississippi1 where stands ,st4 ,louis1 not #ejj feet above the level of the sea4 ,the prairies west of the lower course of the river rise rapidly1 though imperceptibly to the eye1 to the high terraces of ,kansas1 at ,council ,grove1 varying from #aejj to #bjjj feet absolute elevation1 and then more rapidly toward the west1 to mountain plains or plateaus1 from #cjjj to #fjjj feet high4 ,these1 of course1 lose the distinctive character of lowland4 ,the mouth of the ,st4 ,lawrence is1 in some respects1 analogous4 ,lowlands accompany it for a great distance from the sea2 at ,lake ,ontario the elevation is only #bcb feet1 at ,lake ,erie only #efe feet4 ,yet the level tract is narrowed down to a mere border1 and does not widen into great lowland plains4 ,the contracted region of low country along the ,st4 ,lawrence is broken up1 too1 by rocky heights and rib-like ledges1 whose absolute height1 however1 is not to be confounded with the elevation of the plain which they traverse4 ,in entire contrast are the broad plains of ,south ,america1 which lie along the course of the ,orinoco1 ,la ,plata1 and ,amazon1 the so-called pampas and savannas1 which extend a great distance into the interior1 farther1 indeed1 than investigators have yet thoroughly prosecuted their researches4 ,in no continent are the distinctions between highland and lowland so sharply drawn as in ,america4 ,the lowland plains occupy four-fifths of all the country east of the ,andes1 in ,south ,america3 only one-fifth is highland2 for1 notwithstanding the extent of low plateaus and diminutive mountains scattered through these great plains1 yet their entire amount is inconsiderable1 compared with the immense lowland tracts of that continent4 ,america has fitly been called the region of the greatest depression on the globe1 because this is the prevailing characteristic of its whole eastern side1 lowlands forming two-thirds of all ,america1 and highlands only one-third4 ,in ,asia1 the later hypsometrical observations have shown that the lowlands are by no means so extensive as they were formerly supposed4 ,the highland extends1 according to von ,middendorf1 much farther northeast of the ,yenisei1 toward the northern limit of ,siberia and ,tschatschi1 than was formerly supposed2 and the ,siberian plain extending westward to the ,ural ,mountains is narrowed down from #d1jgi1igj to #b1bcc1hjj square miles4 ,yet this lowland comprises1 including central ,bokhara or ,toorkistan1 #a1jea1bjj square miles1 and other low ,asiatic plains #a1cad1jjj1 the enormous area of #d1eii1jjj1 or more than twice the extent of ,europe1 leaving #i1fcf1jjj square miles for the highlands4 ,in ,africa there are almost no lowlands to speak of1 excepting the districts around the mouths of the great rivers indicated a few pages back4 ,to all equatorial ,africa this physical feature is entirely wanting4 ,in the north1 where the whole ,sahara was formerly thought to be one vast low plain1 there are now known to be the moderate plateaus already indicated4 ,the area of true lowland is1 therefore1 sensibly diminished4 ,vogel's barometrical observations have already shown us that the country around ,lake ,tchad is about #abjj feet above the sea2 the surface of ,lake ,tchad is #hej feet above the ocean level1 and the lower limit of that region does not1 therefore1 come within the range already set as the point where lowlands become highlands4 ,in ,australia the lowland seems to be the prevailing physical form1 although here and there exceptions to it occur4 ,in ,europe there are three great lowland plains to be specially mentioned4 ,the greatest1 that of middle ,europe1 embraces the shores of the ,north ,sea and the ,baltic far inland1 and extend the farthest to the southeast4 ,a second1 hardly of less extensive proportions1 comprises all northern ,russia as far as the ,white ,sea and the ,arctic4 ,it embraces but one-third of the great polar plain1 and is really one with the region beyond the ,ural chain4 ,the third is the region around the ,black and ,caspian ,seas4 ,the ,middle ,european ,lowlands4 ,the ,germanic-,sarmatia-,russian plain extends1 without a break1 from the mouths of the ,rhine1 through all central ,europe1 to the middle ,volga and the ,ural4 ,it is pre-eminently a region of lowlands1 without any elevations of importance1 and having no change of level1 except very gently undulating swells1 and on the north and south margin plateaus which very seldom rise over #ejj feet4 ,it begins with the deltas of the ,rhine and the ,scheldt1 in ,holland1 passes through ,lower ,westphalia1 ,lower ,saxony1 the ,marks1 ,lower ,silesia1 ,lower ,gallicia1 and ,poland1 as far as the upper ,dnieper and the middle ,volga4 ,it extends up the ,rhine as far as ,strasbourg1 #dgd feet above the sea1 up the ,weser as far as ,cassel1 #dhf feet1 and up the ,elbe as far as ,dresden1 #bhj feet4 ,the true ,rhine delta may be defined as lying between ,amsterdam1 on the sea1 and ,dusseldorf1 #ajg feet above the sea level4 ,then passing by the broken and romantic tract lying between ,dusseldorf or ,cologne and ,mayence1 we come to the true ,rhenish lowland1 #bdj feet above the sea4 ,munster is #djj feet above the ocean level4 ,east of the ,weser is the ,lneburg ,heath1 which advances in elevation1 as we go toward the ,elbe and the ,havel1 to #cjj or #djj feet4 ,brunswick lies at an altitude of #bjj feet2 ,magdeburg1 of #abh feet4 ,the height gradually increases2 at ,wittenburg it reaches #bjd feet2 at ,dresden #bhj feet1 where the ,elbe issues from the highlands2 and in ,lower ,silesia we find ,breslau1 #cge feet above the sea1 and its observatory1 standing on the hills around the city1 at a height of #dec feet1 which seems to be the highest point in the whole vast tract4 ,between the ,rhine delta and the now dry basin of ,paderborn1 from the ,ems to the ,weser1 ,aller1 and middle ,elbe1 is the mountain tract of the ,hartz1 7with the ,brocken at the north1 #cejj feet high17 running up as far as #eb ,n4 lat4 ,by this natural feature the breadth of the great plain is considerably curtailed4 ,as it is also more to the east of the ,leipsic basin1 from which the ,mulde1 ,elbe1 and ,elster flow1 by the hill country of ,lausatia and ,north ,silesia1 with the ,riesengeberge1 7,giant ,mountains17 #ejjj feet high1 which extends northward as far as #ea ,n4 lat4 ,a third basin is in the ,silesian1 from which the ,oder flows toward the northwest1 and enters the southern limits of the great plain near ,oppeln and ,brieg4 ,a third tract of hill country lies on the east bank of the ,oder1 and extends to the middle ,vistula1 the ,tarnowitz ,heights1 in ,upper ,silesia1 about #ajjj feet in altitude4 ,the plateau north of the ,carpathian range1 on which ,cracow lies1 is #ffi feet above the sea2 and the most northern hill group of ,kielce1 between the ,pilica and the ,vistula1 rises in the ,kreutzberg to a height of #aibj feet1 and in ,st4 ,catherine to #bjjj feet4 ,the great lowland advances eastward1 with always diminishing breadth from north to south1 over the extensive plains of the middle ,vistula1 at ,warsaw1 #ccj feet above the sea2 over the ,lithuanian morasses of the ,bug2 over the ,sarmatian district of ,minsk and ,pinsk as far as ,kiev1 on the middle ,dnieper1 at the southeast1 and as far as ,orsha and ,smolensk1 at the northeast4 ,pinsk1 in the middle of this tract1 lies about #djj feet above the sea4 ,the north side of the plain is bounded by the very moderate plateau south of the ,valdai hills1 at ,smolensk1 #gib feet high2 at ,osmana1 southeast of ,minsk1 #hhb feet4 ,on the south side it is bounded by the equally moderate plateau of ,wolhynia and ,podolia1 whose absolute altitude is yet undetermined1 but which1 at the source of the ,bug1 is about #ajjj feet4 ,this is the great ,lithuan-,sarmatian plain1 which1 east of the ,dnieper1 is transformed into the central ,russian lowland1 at whose middle point is ,moscow1 whose exact elevation above the sea is between #cjj and #djj feet2 at ,kazan1 on the ,volga1 the height above the ocean level is but #bgj feet1 measuring from the highest point on the banks4 ,southward1 the plain reaches to ,simbeersk1 #aha feet in altitude4 ,the maximum breadth of this whole vast lowland tract is about #ejj miles2 the distance between ,smolensk and ,kiev1 and the distance from the central point of the great ,russian section to any sea1 is between #ejj and #fjj miles4 ,the ,origin of the ,great ,central ,european ,plain4 ,the slight elevation of the lowland just described1 rising but very little above the sea level1 bears1 throughout the most of its extent between the dunes of the north and the hill chains of the south1 the character of a formation rescued from the domain of the sea within the very latest geological periods4 ,the almost unbroken uniformity of the surface from the ,scheldt to the ,volga1 about #bejj miles1 confirms the character which its geological structure indicates4 ,the deposition of disconnected1 superimposed layers1 running to a great depth1 is exactly similar to that which we know results from the action now going on at the bottom of shallow seas4 ,and in the great central ,european plain there is no sharply-defined geological limit met at the border of the ,north and the ,baltic ,seas4 ,the same features extend beneath the surface of both of those seas4 ,this whole lowland is1 therefore1 to be regarded as an immense basin1 now dry1 but once the bottom of a great sea1--an extension of the seas which now form a part of its northern border4 ,the old coasts are now seen far inland4 ,wherever this coast-line changed its course1 the whole landscape now alters its appearance2 and yet more striking than the external view is the internal constitution of the soil4 ,masses of stone1 standing out in full view1 reveal the inner structure of what lies concealed4 ,and these rocky projections are precisely analogous to the jagged outlines of our present bold sea-shores4 ,the land is not cut up by inlets hollowed out by the action of waves and currents to a considerable depth1 yet traces of such movements1 and of the physical formations effected by them1 are found4 ,promontories and islands are now found in plateaus1 and hills encompassing dry basins4 ,to the latter belong the intervale of the ,rhine1 and the basins of ,paderborn1 ,leipsic1 and ,silesia4 ,to the former belong the hills and plateaus of ,middle ,germany2 of the ,westphalian ,mark1 from ,elberfeld to ,dortmund1 or1 as might be said1 from the ,ruhr to the ,lippe2 the ,yeutoburg ,forest to the ,weser2 then the ,weser ,mountains1 and the ,hartz to the middle ,elbe2 the ,thuringian ,forest and the ,ertz ,mountains around the ,leipsic basin to the upper ,elbe2 the ,lausatian ,mountains and the ,riesengeberge to the ,glatz ,mountains1 on the upper ,oder2 the ,trebnitz ,heights of ,silesia1 and the lower plateaus of the ,fore ,carpathian range1 embracing ,cracow as far as the hills of ,kielce and the confluence of the ,sau with the ,vistula4 ,along the southern border of the ever-broadening plain are the plateaus of ,gallicia1 about #ajjj feet in height1 of ,wolhynia and ,podolia1 and then less elevated plateaus1 till we reach the ,dnieper4 ,the geological character of the border of the sea which once covered what is now central ,europe1 is full of interest1 because from it can be deduced all that we can know of the history of those great changes4#f ,but we must pass over this1 and only indicate the geographical configuration of the dry basin as it exists now1 and forms the great ,germanic-,sarmatia-,russian plain4 ,in the course of previous remarks on the lowest range of plateaus1 ,i have remarked1 that along the south coast of the ,baltic the moderately elevated hill chains of ,pomerania and of ,old ,prussia separated the true coast with its lowland from the great interior plain1 forming a barrier1 averaging about #cjj feet in height1 with here and there a form which runs hard upon the lower limit of plateaus of the second class2 at any rate1 a transition from between the lowland and the plateau4 ,it may here be remarked that the long1 low chains1 made up mainly of loose sand and other mixed and uncombined materials1 and running along the southern border of that long1 low band which skirts the ,baltic1 seem to be dunes once running along the shore of a sea which has now receded many miles to the north4 ,in the deep channels and old inlets now dry1 as for instance in the great break through which the ,vistula passes below ,thorn1 only loose breccia1 and no united layers of stone1 appear4 ,yet this does not seem to be the case everywhere1 although in the ,cis-,ural and ,baltic depressions dune-like ridges are to be found1 some of them rising to a height much greater than was formerly suspected4 ,these1 it is true1 are scattered1 and only partially prevalent1 but here and there they ascend to an altitude of nearly #ajjj feet4 ,at the eastern end of the great ,pomeranian sea-plain west of ,dantzic1 and between that city and ,btow1 where the sand ridge1 which formed the ancient shore-line1 runs very far to the north1 there are a number of villages #djj feet above the sea4 ,the ,lower ,mountain1 7,thurmberg17 #ed #ac #bi ,n4 lat41 rises to a height of #ajbd feet2 the hill near ,upper ,buschkau1 east of the ,thurmberg1 is #had feet high2 the hill near ,hulterfeld1 #hdf feet2 and the ,hckerberg1 near ,schnberg1 #ijb feet4 ,of the ,thurmberg1 ,humboldt remarks that it is the most remarkable elevation between the ,hartz and the ,ural ,mountains1 and that but a few points in the ,valdai range can be brought into comparison with it4 ,its position close by the sea is especially noteworthy4 ,it is very probable1 according to ,humboldt's opinion1 that those inequalities of surface1 formed of sand once partly or wholly submerged1--found in ,mecklenberg1 ,pomerania1 ,east ,prussia ,proper1--and now divided into flats and hill ranges1 do not belong to the dune system of the ancient shore-line1 but have the reason of their existence in ordinary upheaval2 in the formation of limestone1 and of the usual ,jurassic rocks1 which1 afterward1 have been covered with sand and other loose materials4 ,the peculiar accumulation of genuine marine fossils indicates the existence of upheaved rocks below the upper layer of sand4 ,it is these elevations which in the constantly advancing ridge or ridges run northeasterly1 and take the form of plateaus1 increasing in breadth from the water-shed north of ,smolensk1 and the source of the ,dnieper1 in the ,valdai ,forest1 and the western ,uwalli1 and which are found between the ,volga and the ,dwiner1 and thence run eastward as far as ,perm1 on the ,kama4 ,they form the line of demarkation between the great ,central ,european plain and the ,north ,russian lowland1 which extends as far up as the ,arctic4 ,this easterly chain1 so far as it has been measured1 seems to be less in altitude than the ,valdai hills1 which are about #ajjj feet high4 ,in ,east ,prussia ,proper and ,livonia there are elevations of more than #fjj feet2 about #ee miles south of ,dorpat ,munnamggi1 the point of culmination1 according to ,struve1 is #iif feet above the sea2 south of ,vilna the heights of ,puzewitch reach an elevation of #iij feet4 ,in the same direction1 still northeast1 runs the ,valdai1 forming the source of a number of large streams and the great water-shed of eastern ,europe4 ,on the road from ,st4 ,petersburg to ,moscow1 ,humboldt found the altitude at ,norwaja ,ijetza #ffj feet1 and the highest point at ,popowa ,gora #gib feet1 7according to ,pausner1 #hgf feet47 ,one point going south from the ,valdai1 at ,mosti ,derewna1 the latter naturalist has ascertained to be #ajcb feet above the sea2 and the highest point in the range is1 according to ,helmersen1 #ajih feet4 ,still further eastward1 between the ,valdai hills and the lake region between ,lake ,seligher and ,bielo ,ozero1 the range of uplands1 known as ,uwalli1 running northwesterly1 intersected by numerous canals1 and forming the water-shed of a number of rivers1 gradually diminishes in height1 but1 still advancing eastward1 it rises again1 in the neighborhood of ,perm and the ,kama1 to #ajad feet1--about the elevation of the ,valdai range4 ,uwalli is only the ,sclavic name of such hills as those whose absolute height is insignificant1 but which1 crossing as they do the great plains of ,poland1 ,lithuania1 and ,russia1 were formerly confounded with mountain ranges1 and were so represented on the maps4 ,they have1 of course1 great hydrographical value1 and play a leading part as the water-shed of eastern ,europe4 ,the ,ponto-,caspian ,plain1 the ,great ,depression of the ,old ,world4 ,this second vast lowland is the direct continuation of the central ,european lowland1 with a decided sinking toward the ,black and the ,caspian ,seas1 indicated by the course of the rivers of that region4 ,it extends from the month of the ,danube over the lower ,dniester1 ,bog1 ,dnieper1 ,don1 and ,volga1 as far eastward as the ,sea of ,aral4 ,to the last named the ,siberian plain gradually declines4 ,the southern plain of ,europe stands in unbroken connection1 so far as its formation is concerned1 with the ,west ,siberian plain1 7#b1bac1djj square miles in extent17 and is1 therefore1 one of the most extensive lowlands on the globe4 ,the ,baltic-,sarmatian plain is separated from the ,west ,siberian merely by the long ,ural chain1 7from #ej to #fg ,n4 lat417 whose elevation is only from #djjj to #ejjj feet1 and whose breadth is unimportant4 ,take away the ,ural1 and a continuous line could be drawn from ,breda1 near the confluence of the ,meuse1 ,rhine1 and ,scheldt1 across ,europe and ,asia1 following the line of #ej ,n4 lat as far as the ,chinese frontier1 passing over a continuous series of low1 insignificant hills1 heathlands1 and steppes1 and traversing a space estimated by ,humboldt to be three times the length of the ,amazon6 ,toward the south1 the ,cis-,ural1 ,european side of the ,ponto-,caspian lowland1 is separated from the ,black ,sea by a ridge of granite knolls1 which passes from ,volhynia and ,podolia eastward as far as the cataracts of the ,dnieper1 and thence southeast1 with diminished breadth1 reaching its limit at ,taganrog1 on the lower ,don1 and the ,sea of ,azof4 ,this ridge separates the narrow steppes of the northern shore of the ,black ,sea from the lowland of ,south ,russia1 the fruitful district of ,ukraine4 ,the height of these hills in the west1 where they appear to have the greatest elevation1 has been estimated to be about #ajjj feet above the sea4 ,toward the ,dnieper they have not yet been carefully measured2 but probably there they do not rise above #gjj feet4 ,the small sand steppe south of these granite hills runs from the ,crimea eastward as far as the ,north ,caucasian steppe1 between the ,don1 ,volga1 and the ,caspian1 and indeed may be traced to the northeast as far as the ,bashkiric-,ural chain4 ,lakes of marked saltness are found there3 ,elton1 for instance1 which lies #bd feet above the sea2 while farther eastward they are found1 as for example on the ,kamysh and at ,samara at a depression of--#ach feet1 #fj feet below the level of the ,caspian ,sea4 ,yet this lacks confirmation4 ,from this lowland1 only a few elevations arise1 and these of insignificant absolute height2 yet1 on account of the extreme uniformity of the whole country1 they are objects of amazement to the whole steppe world4 ,the ,little ,bogdo1 south of ,lake ,elton1 and yet farther south1 ,great ,bogdo1 #ejd feet above the sea1 according to ,humboldt1 and ,mount ,arsargar1 #cca feet in absolute height1 according to ,murchison1 are the only important hills4 ,the ,great ,bogdo is composed of calcareous limestone and of sandstone1 with rich deposits of salt4 ,the ,kirgheez steppe separates1 by a plain of very moderate elevation1 the north ,siberian lowland from the ,caspian-,ural depression4 ,it was formerly supposed1 and indeed represented on the map1 that a mountain range passes through this district from the ,ural chain to the ,altai4 ,the ,kirgheez steppe appears to range from #ghj to #ifj feet in elevation2 while the ,siberian plain is but #bhj feet above the sea at ,omsk1 #aib feet at ,tora1 and #ajh feet at ,tobolsk4 ,it has been considered by some that the ,kirgheez steppe1 as well as the granite hills of southern ,russia1 belong to an undeveloped system of mountains1 an early cooling having solidified them before reaching the elevation which they would have attained2 and that they partake of the direction which analogy would teach us such a chain would have1 from northeast to southwest1 parallel with the ,carpathian and the ,caucasus ranges4 ,the great depression of the ,old ,world begins with the deepening of the ,volga basin below ,simbeersk2 and at the place 7#ea ,n4 lat41 near ,orenboorg and ,saratov7 where it breaks through the last row of hills in the ,obstshei-,syrtis1 it commences a rapid descent toward the ,caspian and the ,aral ,seas4 ,this great concavity1 on the confines of ,europe and ,asia1 at the center of the greatest land-mass1 and far removed from any ocean1 is remarkable as having no parallel on the globe4 ,humboldt remarks that perhaps a similar phenomenon would be repeated at the interior of other continents1 if the tertiary formation and the parts found by marine deposit did not exist4 ,it would be profitable to follow out so weighty a thought1 with the surface as it now is4 ,the ,obstshei-,syrtis is the moderate range of hills which runs westward in two branches from the ,bashkiric-,ural1 at ,orenboorg1 the northern spur running by ,uralsk and the ,ural ,river2 the southern by ,samara1 rising on the east shore of the ,volga to a height of #fjj feet1 and ending at ,sarepta4 ,orenboorg1 on the ,obstshei-,syrtis1 where it leaves the ,ural chain1 is #bee feet above the sea4 ,uralsk lies somewhat lower1 being #bcd feet above the sea4 ,the surface of the ,volga1 where it breaks through the high banks of ,saratov1 is only #cf feet above the ocean level2 while the western shore1 above ,saratov1 is #efb feet in height4 ,farther down the river1 ,sarepta lies #cj feet below the sea level2 and there is1 therefore1 between ,saratov and ,sarepta1 a distance of about #ahj miles1 a fall of #ff feet4 ,west of the ,volga1 and following the river1 is the continuation of the ,obstshei-,syrtis1 ranging in elevation from #efb feet down to #afh feet4 ,at ,sarepta1 the low hills which thus far have skirted the ,volga turn to the southwest1 to the ,manitsh steppe1 sinking to an elevation of but #ge feet1 and extending as far as the ,sea of ,azof4 ,at ,sarepta1 too1 the ,volga turns from its normal southerly course1 and strikes southeasterly across the ,astracan steppe1 entering the ,caspian at the ,city of ,astracan1 #gb feet below the level of the sea4 ,the level of the sea is #d feet below the shore on which ,astracan is built4 ,the old statements that the level of the ,caspian is #cjj feet below the ocean1 rested solely on conjectures made by the naturalist ,pallas4 ,the influence of this great depression on the warmer climate of that region1 the peculiar vegetation of the salt steppes1 and the salt morasses which exist where the land is perfectly level1 as well as the great beds of oyster-shells and other crustaceous remains1 led him to the hypothesis that the whole neighboring district is the dry and deserted bed of a former sea1 now shrunk to the comparatively insignificant dimensions of the ,caspian4 ,the broken line of bold bluffs which bounds the ,obstshei-,syrtis on the south seemed to him to be the northern boundary of this inland sea1 into which the ,volga entered below the pass of ,kamyschin and ,saratov4 ,parrot and ,engelhardt supposed that their barometrical elevations in #ahaa confirmed ,pallas' theory1 that the ,caspian lies #cjj feet below the ocean4 ,many hypotheses were based upon their observations2 but the whole were at length brought into discredit by ,humboldt1 who distrusted the accuracy of instruments made at that time4 ,nothing but a trigonometrical survey from ,taganrog to ,astracan could give conclusive results1 and this was accomplished in #ahcg1 under the auspices of the ,russian government4 ,the result proved that1 so far from being #cjj or #cej feet below the ocean1 the ,caspian is not #ajj feet4 ,its depression1 as already stated1 is about #gf feet4 ,the level of the ,aral ,sea1 which is evidently closely linked to the ,caspian1 has not yet been determined with absolute certainty4 ,barometrical observations were instituted for this end by the expedition under ,general ,berg1 which explored that region in the winter of #ahbf1 but the cold was severe1 and the results are questionable4 ,the result of their investigations was1 however1 that the surface of the ,aral lies #aaj feet higher than that of the ,caspian4 ,this would make the ,aral to be #cd feet above the sea level4 ,more careful inquiries may1 however1 determine the level of the two seas to be the same2 but at present we have to be content with the results of the expedition referred to1 and accept its elevation as #cd feet above the level of the ocean4 ,without1 however1 going into details respecting the ,aral1 the region around the ,caspian and directly connected with it1 which is below the ocean level1 embraces an area of not less than #aca1djj square miles4 ,this survey extends from the ,volga to the ,ural ,river1 thence to the ,emba and the northernmost point of the ,sea of ,aral1 and thence to the salt lakes of ,aksakal-,barbi1 lying to the northeast of this sea4 ,the tracing of this line from the higher to the lower stages of depression gives clear indications1 in the nature of the soil1 of the existence of a great sea once occupying that whole tract4 ,thus much for the configuration of the ,caspian lowland4 ,if to these #aca1djj square miles be added the #aec1jjj1 or1 according to ,humboldt1 #afd1jjj square miles of the ,caspian itself1 the entire depression embraces almost #cah1jjj square miles1 and is greater than ,france1 greater than ,germany1 and only to be compared with the whole ,austrian empire6 ,if to this great region be added the district around the ,aral1 which sea alone covers nearly #be1jjj square miles1 and then to this the yet unmeasured surface covered by seas yet to the eastward1 the entire region of depression is immensely increased4 ,and then if to this be added the great ,siberian plain1 whose level is not greatly above the sea1 the combined district would be at least once and a half as great as all ,europe4 ,the ,origin of the ,ponto-,caspian ,depression4 ,thinking of the immense extent of this depressed region1 whose entire surface occupies no inconsiderable fraction of the interior of the ,old ,world1 and whose greatest depth at the bottom of the ,caspian is from #ejj to #fjj feet below the level of the ocean1 and looking at it as a phenomenon wholly unique1 the question arises3 ,how would such a condition be possible1 contradicting1 as it seems1 all analogies8 ,the answer1 could we reach it1 would not fail to illustrate many recondite geological questions1 and to be full of instruction4 ,yet the time has not come when a full answer can be given to this inquiry4 ,we have not yet learned the elementary conditions of this remarkable fact2 there are innumerable investigations yet to be made1 before we can feel perfectly certain that its reason is understood4 ,still1 there have been some preparatory inquiries entered upon1 and some preliminary steps taken toward reaching a conclusion1 or1 at least1 toward assuming a reasonable hypothesis4 ,we have already indicated our belief that this depression is connected with a ring of plateaus which have been upheaved around it1 and which now inclose it and isolate it from the ocean4 ,the hollow has its greatest depth near the southern extremity of the ,caspian1 where it rises abruptly to the ,persian plateau4 ,there pass1 in the form of a half circle1 the loftiest mountains and plateaus of central ,asia4 ,on the west side the ,caucasus rises1 with its giant peaks of ,kasbek and ,elbrooz1 #ae1jjj to #ag1jjj feet high1 bearing all the marks of volcanic origin1--avalanches of solidified lava on the sides1 a lake lying in the abyss of an extinct crater1 and the like4 ,at the southwest1 the ,armenian plateau follows the course of the ,aras from its mouth back to the huge dome of ,ararat1 #ad1fef feet high4 ,the entire geological appearance of that region--the old lava streams1 the trachyte rocks--indicate with equal clearness1 as in the ,caucasus1 the agency of volcanic forces in the upheaval of that district4 ,traces of this great power are also seen in the caldron-shaped hollows1 and in the narrow and deep defiles1 which are abundant in that region4 ,south of the ,caspian1 which in its southern part reaches a depth ranging as low as #dbj1 #dhj1 and #fjj feet1 and1 according to ,hanway1 even #bgjj feet1 rise sharply from the sea the ,persian ,coast ,mountains4 ,the plateau of ,teheran1 #cdjj feet in elevation1 is directly beyond1 from which rise the volcanic peaks of ,demavend1 #bj1jjj feet1 and ,euczan1 #ffjj feet high4 ,the ,coast chain embraces the ,elboorz ,mountains1 uniformly more than #ejjj feet high1 but which1 at ,schemrum1 northwest of ,teheran1 rise to a height of #hefj feet2 at ,churchurah1 southwest of ,demavend1 to #gfej feet2 at ,nevo1 southeast of ,demavend1 to #hedj feet2 at ,nejoster1 in the ,seriakush1 east of ,demavend1 to #gbjj feet2 and which1 above ,asterabad1 rise in the ,shahkush and the ,sundukkush to a height of #gbgj feet1 and almost everywhere display in their trachyte rocks the traces of ancient volcanic activity4 ,still farther to the east1 the chain which has girdled the ,caspian sinks from the lofty height of the ,northern ,taurus to #ahgb feet2 in ,meshed1 #bfbh feet2 in ,herat1 an average elevation of #cdjj to #djjj feet4 ,but east of ,herat it rises abruptly to the lofty plateaus of ,bamian and ,cabool1 #gjjj and #hjjj feet high1 and in the peaks of ,colubeba #af1hjj feet4 ,the ,hindoo ,koosh1 at ,dsellalabad1 rises to a height of #ah1ihd feet2 the table-lands of the ,bolor1 at the ,issikul1 are at an elevation of #ad1ffd feet2 while the gigantic ,pameer is not yet measured1 though its noted ,pass is estimated at #ah1jjj feet above the sea4 ,at this point we reach almost the #djth degree of ,n4 lat41 whence northward the mountain ranges gradually decline in height1 after throwing off eastward the great chain of ,thian-,shan4 ,from the sharp angle formed by the ,hindoo ,koosh and the ,bolor1 where the head-waters of the ,gihon rise1 that large but commercially unimportant river takes its way westward through the ,bokharan table-land1 falling so rapidly in its course to ,bokhara that at the city its surface is but #aaaf feet above the sea1 then striking northwesterly to the ,aral and ,caspian4 ,the course of that stream indicates1 therefore1 the direction and degree of the mountain slope toward the great depression east of the ,caucasus and ,armenia1 north of the ,persian highland1 and west of the ,hindoo ,koosh and the ,bolor systems4 ,the lower course of the ,gihon1 from ,bokhara downward1 is through masses of mud1 sand1 and gravel1 and can very easily be conceived to have changed its course in the lapse of centuries1 from the ,caspian to the ,aral1 as the course of the ,sihon seems also to have changed4 ,the great ,bokharan plain is covered in this part with a deposit of dried mud2 it is a steppe formed evidently from a now dry sea-basin1 which1 no less than the northern shores of the ,caspian and the ,aral1 displays the traces of the oceanic character of entire regions4 ,halley1 the astronomer1 made an attempt to solve the mysterious origin of this great sunken basin1 and attributed it to the stroke of a first-class comet6 ,arago1 instead of calling into the scene meteorological forces little known1 contented himself1 in his theory of its origin1 with the forces which we know are active even now on the earth1 the plutonic powers which are only half confined by the surface of the globe4 ,no one1 he says1 will hesitate now to accept the upheaval theory1 through which geology is able so clearly to indicate the forces and progress of structure of the soil and rocks4 ,the upheaval of great masses in one place predisposes the depression of districts in their neighborhood1 to make good the true relation of highland to lowland4 ,and in this case a compensation may be found1 according to ,arago1 for the great semicircle of mountains which passes around the southern margin of the ,caspian basin1 in the depression caused by the natural falling in of the adjacent region when the great mountains of western ,asia were upheaved4 ,in longitudinal mountain chains the parallel ranges of valleys have a similar origin2 in volcanic chains1 which have been thrown up in a circular form1 similar depressions have been found in the middle1 although1 it must be confessed1 on a much smaller scale of dimensions than in the ,caspian hollow4 ,the same feature is observable in the upheavals1 by ,von ,buch1 as observed in the ,island of ,palma1 one of the ,canaries1 or in the ,val di ,bove1 near ,etna4 ,such depressions would at once fill with water1 if connected with the sea1 as in the cup-shaped island ,santorini1 or remain land-locked1 if they occur in the interior1 as in the case of ,lake ,laach1 as the half-ring of mountains girding the lower portion of the ,caspian seems to consist mainly of trachyte thrown up by volcanic agency3 the analogy just drawn does not seem too remote4 ,yet the process of structure must have had other concomitant conditions to account for the vast reach northward of the ,caspian depression4 ,it is clear that any such volcanic convulsion as would throw up those vast mountain ranges at the south1 must have affected largely the geological condition of all the adjacent region2 the extent vertically of this effect would be best ascertained perhaps by deep boring4 ,unquestionably there was many a revolution in the upper portions of the earth's crust during the formation of the great ,caspian hollow1 before it assumed its present condition4 ,from the agencies at work in connection with a great internal ocean1 the upper soil1 as we have it to-day1 was formed4 ,the ,aral and the ,caspian ,seas remain as the lowest places of that great depression1 water being found in them1 while elsewhere it has entirely disappeared by evaporation3 leaving us broad1 low plains1 instead of that great ocean which once extended from ,persia over all ,siberia1 and west of the ,caspian to the ,sea of ,azof4 ,a more thorough account1 geographical as well as geological1 cannot be given till after much more extended investigations have been made into the physical characteristics of this region than as yet have been prosecuted4 ,it may be remarked here1 that the waters of the ,aral and ,caspian are bitter and salt1 but not so much as those of the ocean2 the bottom is covered with slime and sand4 ,the ,aral has a depth ranging from #ij to #bbb feet2 the ,caspian1 beginning with its extensive1 shallows at the north1 deepens toward the south1 till1 reaching the lower third1 its depth is over #fjj feet2 and thence southward it is no less deep1 till it reaches the bold shore of ,eusellis4 ,from this lowest point the upheaval begins1 which culminates in the great mountains on its southern border4 ,according to ,humboldt's view1 the great ,caspian hollow embraces not only the basin of the sea1 but a vast dry plain1 extending northward as far as ,saratov and the ,obstshei-,syrtis2 even ,uralsk lies lower than the level of the ,black ,sea4 ,the same physical feature1 though on a less extended scale than here1 is found in ,holland1 ,china1 ,lower ,egypt1 and ,palestine4 ,subsequently to the emergence of the continents1 long before the filling in of huge fissures by mountain chains1 and during the continuance of those great convulsions which reach back into the remotest geological periods1 the surface of the continents must have been subjected to frequent partial changes of level4 ,the surface undulated probably in that same wave movement which is now observable1 though in much less degree1 in those earthquakes and upheavals which the whole western part of ,south ,america is experiencing even now4 ,the depressions which have assumed a permanent form since the convulsions which formed them1 have gradually filled with deposited soil1 and1 were the naturalist able to lay bare the primitive rock1 he would discover that it exists in the shape of great concavities1 without a trace of that evenness which now characterizes the surface4 ,eichwald has made it probable1 by his personal observations1 that the upheaval of ,ararat and of the ,armenian plateau on which this trachyte mountain rests1 has driven the ,caspian ,sea back east of the flat steppe of ,karabagh and ,mogan1 on the lower ,aras1 to the neighborhood of ,bakoo4 ,the water of that sea formerly extended to the confluence of the ,bargashad1 7called also ,bergershat and ,bergernet17 with the ,aras1 below ,ireben4 ,the traces of volcanic action there are decisively evident3 the ,caspian reached1 before that action occurred1 up what is now the valley of the ,aras1 as far as ,ararat2 and in many places south of ,erivan--at ,saliyan1 in ,shirwan1 and elsewhere--salt beds of the most crystalline quality1 forming whole mountains and whole belts of salt lakes at the confluence of the ,aras and the ,koor1 demonstrate their formation in a former sea which once covered that region4 ,the very recent upheaval of the ,ural chain cannot fail also to have had an influence in contracting the dimensions of the ,caspian hollow4 ,only two kindred depressions to this remain to be spoken of1 which1 though of not so great superficial dimensions1 are of yet greater depth--the depression of the ,jordan ,valley and the bitter salt lakes on the ,isthmus of ,suez4 ,these we must consider before we pass from the contrasts between highlands and lowlands to the transitions between them4 ,the ,depression of the ,jordan ,valley and of the ,dead ,sea4 ,the nearest relationship to the ,caspian hollow1 displayed by any similar feature1 is found near the heart of the ,old ,world1 in the comparatively diminutive and isolated valley of the ,jordan1 including the ,dead ,sea1 whose absolute depth below the level of the ocean has been determined only within the most recent period4 ,many former travelers had noticed1 in the deep gulf which holds the ,dead ,sea1 and especially at its north end1 near ,jericho1 a much greater degree of heat than elsewhere in ,palestine1 and the existence of many plants and fruits which they had met in the hotter climates of ,arabia and ,india4 ,the tree which yields the ,mecca balsam flourishes in the oasis of ,jericho2 the product of the balsam of ,palestine supplied the pin-money of ,cleopatra4 ,a number of ,german and ,english observers endeavored to solve the question of the depth of the ,jordan basin--von ,schubert1 ,russeger1 von ,wildenbruch1 ,moore1 and ,bake1 later ,symonds1 and ,lynch2 de ,berton and ,russeger made the first barometrical observations at the ,dead ,sea1 but they did not attempt to give more definite limits to their results than to assert that its surface is somewhere between #ejj and #aajj feet beneath the ocean level4 ,von ,shubert's barometer did not suffice to determine this point1 but he ascertained the surface of ,lake ,tiberias to be #ece feet below the surface of the ,mediterranean4 ,all barometrical measurements were unreliable at that depth2 yet it could not be denied that the depression could not be an insignificant one4 ,a measurement with the level made by ,symonds1 an ,englishman1 from ,jaffa to the ,dead ,sea1 in #ahdc1 gave us our first sure results4 ,the surface of the lake lies #abca feet beneath the level of the ,mediterranean at ,jaffa4 ,the subsequent expedition of the ,americans--,lynch1 ,dale1 and ,anderson1 in #ahdh--;has given the following additional results3-- ,the surface of ,lake ,tiberias lies beneath the ocean level1 #fab ft4 0 0 the ,dead ,sea 0 0 0 #abce 0 ,soundings of the ,dead ,sea1 made with the greatest care1 determined the depth to be1 according to ,lynch1 #abbg feet2 according to ,symonds1 #aigj feet4 ,the entire depression below the ocean level would be1 then1 by ,lynch's measurement1 #abce #abbg #bdfb feet2 according to ,symonds'1 #abce #aigj #cbje feet4 ,this is the greatest known depression on the globe4 ,jerusalem lies #bddi feet above the ocean level4 ,from the roofs of the city to the surface of the ,dead ,sea is1 therefore1 #bddi #abce #cfhd feet2 and the entire descent from the capital to the bottom of the ,dead ,sea is #diaa feet1 if we adopt ,lynch's measurement1 and #efed1 if we follow ,symonds'4 ,the basin of the ,dead ,sea consists of two very different parts--the larger and deeper northern one1 the smaller and shallow southern one2 the two being separated by a sandy peninsula--el ,mesraa--and connected by a narrow channel of insignificant depth4 ,the northern basin seems to owe its present form to the unchanged primitive depression2 the southern one to a partial upheaval at some later epoch4 ,but in breadth they do not vary much one from the other2 both have their larger axis coincident with the ,jordan valley1 which here widens a little1 but which is still hemmed in here1 as farther north1 by the parallel ranges of mountains4 ,the chain east of the sea appears to rise a thousand feet higher than the one west of it4 ,the depths of the two basins are entirely unlike4 ,the southern is nowhere more than #ab feet deep1 and diminishes to #e feet and less than this near the shores1 so that the southern half of it is entirely unnavigable by craft of any size2 and those who wish to land have to wade for a long distance through mud as deep as their ankles4 ,the northern part1 on the contrary1 attains a uniform depth of more than #ajjj feet1 from the north to the south2 in the northern third it is even #abbg feet2 toward the west coast it shoals to between #fjj and #hjj feet1 but is #ejj feet deep hard-by the coast4 ,there is but a very narrow rim of shallow water on the western side1 and the navigation is1 therefore1 tolerably safe4 ,on the eastern shore the coast is even bolder1 and the descent to deep water immediate4 ,close by the romantic mouth of the ,arnon1 embouching through rocks1 the depth of the sea is about #ajeb feet4 ,so great a difference in the depth of the two basins seems to indicate a considerable diversity in the manner of their formation4 ,volcanic activities have been felt in the ,jordan valley up to the present time4 ,they manifest themselves in various forms--deposits of salt1 hot springs and naphtha springs1 asphaltum beds1 sulphur fumes1 currents of heated air1 clouds of smoke1 and rumblings beneath the surface4 ,the ,jordan valley remained1 from ,lake ,tiberias down1 unfilled1 as we should infer from analogy that it would be by the upheaval of a chain of volcanic mountains2 or by the expansion of an internal lake or sea1 the waters accumulating till at last they should acquire such volume as to break away and form new channels4 ,in case the obstructions were too great1 they would remain inland lakes4 ,and such is the ,dead ,sea1 its southern border being too high to allow it a free exit into the ,red ,sea4 ,many other fissures or hollows on the surface of the continents would be regarded as lowlands1 were they not filled with water4 ,the bottoms of such lakes often sink suddenly to a great depth1 while others are lagoon-like1 or shallow seas of an entirely different hydrographical character4 ,internal lakes1 regarded as isolated lowlands1 merely filled with water1 are an especially interesting theme of study2 yet much remains to be investigated regarding their structure and historical formation4 ,the ,dead ,sea has been regarded1 up to this time1 as the deepest of all such lakes4 ,the greatest depth of the ,caspian has not yet been fully ascertained2 but if ,hanway's soundings1 #bgjj feet1 are to be relied on1 it is very great4 ,lake ,baikal1 in its deepest part1 between the two steep walls of rock which rise high above the surface1 has not yet been carefully sounded2 but as its surface is #aejj feet above the sea1 its bottom does not probably fall below the ocean level4 ,the great chain of ,north ,american lakes1 whose area embraces about #aji1ejj square miles1 are surrounded by level country from #ejj to #fjj feet above the sea--a region which1 in part1 falls under the designation of plateaus of the lowest class1 and which1 in part1 comes under the name of lowland2 the surface of ,lake ,superior being #fbg feet above the sea1 ,lakes ,michigan and ,huron #egh feet each1 ,lake ,erie #efe feet1 and ,lake ,ontario #bcb feet4 ,the three first named1 having a depth of about #ijj feet1 have their beds about #cjj feet below the surface of the ocean2 ,lake ,ontario1 with a depth of #ejj feet1 reaches a point #bfh feet below the sea level4 ,the depth of the ,st4 ,lawrence river bed1 as related to the sea1 is not ascertained4 ,the most of the ,swiss lakes1 too1 having a depth often of more than #ajjj feet1 come under the same category with the lakes under consideration above1 waters from the mountains having gradually filled up chasms made at the time of the upheaval of the adjacent region4 ,some of these lake basins may be deep enough to lie below the level of the ocean4 ,the ,bitter ,lakes of the ,suez ,isthmus4 ,some bitter salt lakes on the ,isthmus of ,suez1 forming a chain from the ,red ,sea to the southeast corner of the ,mediterranean1 long claimed attention from their supposed singularity4 ,during the occupation of ,egypt by the ,french in #agii1 a survey of the district was made with the level1 in view of a prospective canal across the isthmus1 connecting the ,nile with the ,red ,sea4 ,an account of that survey was published by ,le ,pre1 in his great ,description de l',egypte4 ,the result of the survey was very surprising2 it assigned to the ,gulf of ,suez a height of #be feet at ebb tide and #cj feet at flood tide1 above the level of the ,mediterranean1 a result which seemed to agree with ,pliny's account 7vi4 #bc7 of the elevation of the ,red ,sea above the level of lower ,egypt4 ,the salt swamps lying between the two seas1 and known even to the ancients1 lie1 according to the same authority1 #bj feet below the surface of the ,mediterranean1 and #ej feet below that of the ,red ,sea4 ,these singular statements were not received without considerable doubt as to their correctness2 but during the military disturbances in that region1 no revision of the investigations could be made4 ,certain circumstances connected with an unusual inundation of the ,nile in #ahjj1 when its waters flowed as far as the transverse valley called the ,wady ,tumilet1 in which the salt lakes lie1 and where traces of the ancient canal1 built by the ,egyptians between the seas1 could be seen1 seemed to confirm the result of the survey of #agii4 ,the inference was a natural one--that the sandy ,isthmus of ,suez was an accumulation of dunes1 and of the deposits of inundations of both the ,mediterranean and ,red ,seas1 and that the salt morasses in the middle are but a trace of the primitive bottom4 ,there were not wanting defenders of the old measurement1 ,favier being the most prominent4 ,since #ahde five surveys have been made1 in reference to the projected canal4 ,these all contradict the results of #agii1 and show that there is but the difference of four-sevenths of a foot between the level of the two seas1 and that there is the same agreement there as in all other parts of the earth4 ,many hypotheses1 built on the old measurement1 have accordingly fallen to the ground4 ,the ,regions of ,transition between ,highlands and ,lowlands2 the ,river ,systems of the ,globe4 ,between the two great and most sharply-marked physical features--the high plateaus and mountains and the lands of very little elevation--there are regions of transition very numerous and exceedingly varied4 ,the conception of highlands and of lowlands having a certain1 constant1 and absolute value1 and it being immaterial whether the elevation be specially marked or not1 provided it be uniform1 the regions of transition find their most marked characteristics in their want of constancy1 in their very change1 and the rate at which the grade ascends from a low to a high elevation1 or falls from a high to a low one4 ,their real value lies in the mutual compensation of highlands and lowlands1 which is effected through the mediation of a third physical feature or system1 which has received the name ,lands of ,gradation1 or ,terrace ,lands1 and which1 by their gradual rise from the sea level1 serve as the means of transition from the lowest lowlands to the loftiest plateaus and mountains4 ,terrace ,lands and ,rivers in their ,general ,character4 ,districts sloping to the sea1 or lands of gradation1 as we have called them1 varying as they do in elevation and in relative situation to each other1 are the true mediators between the districts but little above the level of the sea and others much more lofty4 ,at the sources and the mouths of rivers they partake1 more or less fully1 in the characteristics of both highland and lowland4 ,the manner of their mediation1 as determined by the rate of the fall of water and by their direction1 gives to every one of these regions of transition its peculiar character1 determines its conformation and its relation to the globe4 ,and yet1 no more than in lowlands and highlands1 can we rid ourselves of some arbitrary data relating to the size of rivers1 when we discriminate between those which we call large and those which we call small4 ,as in all other geographical distinctions1 we must here be content with arbitrary approximation1 and with the ordinary usages of speech4 ,the comparison of streams1 in regard to their breadth and fullness1 determines their volume2 the comparison1 in respect of length and tributary waters1 determines the compass of the river system4 ,the entire characteristics1 breadth1 depth of channel1 length and extent of drainage1 determine the status of the river1 whether first1 second1 or third class1 in relation first to those of the same continent1 and then to those of the world4 ,the ,volga1 for instance1 is1 in relation to ,europe1 a first-class river1 but1 like the ,danube1 in relation to the entire globe1 is merely in the second or third rank4 ,not the length alone determines the importance of rivers4 ,the ,thames1 one of the smallest streams in ,europe1 is one of the most important4 ,and aside from commercial considerations1 a river of insignificant size can have great influence in consequence of its relation to the entire adjacent region4 ,the little ,bavarian ,isar1 a river which1 so far as the great world is concerned1 seems to have no importance1 receives on the left side the water of #hfj tributary brooks1 among which are #dd rivulets2 on the right bank the water of #dcc3 these #abic brooks and rivulets pour themselves into the ,isar through #ajc direct tributaries1 and not these alone1 but the waters of #acf lakes are embraced within the ,isar system6 ,yet the ,isar is only one of #cd branches of the ,danube1 and of the fourth rank even among them1 and the ,danube is by no means one of the great rivers of the globe4 ,a short but navigable stream can have great influence over a territory limited in extent1 and may make a long but shallow stream sink into insignificance in respect of comparative importance to the world4 ,there are some great streams which are of first magnitude in all their characteristics--rivers which drain millions of square miles in their course to the sea4 ,the number of such is small1 however2 there are scarcely fifty on the whole globe4 ,besides these1 there is a large number of rivers much shorter1 and of much less volume1 but not deficient in the attributes which give a stream value to man1 and which serve to mediate between highlands and lowlands1 to fulfill the needs of navigation and to drain regions of more or less magnitude4 ,these can be classed in four ranks3 in the first place absolutely1 and in the second place in relation to each continent4 ,yet1 in classing them1 it is necessary always to keep in mind that it is not size alone which gives a river its value1 but a combination of all its characteristics1 and its relative influence on the country through which it runs4 ,looking at the direction of streams1 we observe that there are some which flow northerly1 as for instance those of ,siberia1 the ,nile1 the ,rhine1 the ,elbe1 and the ,weser2 there are those which flow southward--the ,indus1 ,ganges1 ,euphrates1 ,la ,plata1 ,mississippi1 and ,volga1 for example2 there are those flowing eastward--,hoang-ho and ,yang-tse-,kiang1 the ,amazon1 the ,orinoco1 and the ,danube1 for instance2 and some westward1 instances of which may be found in the ,gihon and ,sihon1 the ,senegal1 ,gambia1 ,niger1 the ,colorado1 the ,seine1 ,loire1 ,garonne1 and the ,spanish rivers which enter the sea in ,portugal4 ,and this characteristic1 trite and unmeaning as it may at first seem1 establishes1 for the area which these rivers water1 very diverse conditions4 ,in like manner1 too1 their position1 in relation to the oceans into which they flow1 is very influential1 in consequence of the action of the tide upon the lower course4 ,the emergence of their head-waters at various altitudes1 whether on plateaus of the first or second class1 or on mountain tops covered with perpetual snow1 gives rise to a great diversity of relations1 that makes no one stream on the earth twin brother to any other4 ,rivers have an individuality which claims recognition1 although they are usually summed up in one category4 ,this diversity in rivers becomes more apparent from a study of the diversified form of the terraces1 or grades of transition1 through which they pass on their way to the sea4 ,the great basin of the ,nile is divided into three distinct parts or grades--,abyssinia1 ,nubia1 and ,egypt2 and each of them has long been studied historically and physically4 ,the great basin of the ,rhine is also naturally divided into three grades--the ,swiss highlands1 the ,german moderate plateau1 and the lowlands of ,holland4 ,in a similar manner there may almost always be traced in rivers three natural grades1 and where they do not have1 as in the cases just cited they do have1 a historical significance1 their physical influence is not hard to trace and to follow into all its analogies4 ,the word water-shed1 now a familiar one1 is applied to that point of division where contiguous springs pour their water in different directions4 ,it is not even in a mountainous country necessarily coincident with the highest points of the chain1 though it may be2 the valleys may slope in such a way as to have more influence in determining the direction of running water than the mountains hard by4 ,every stream has its own water-shed system1 and this system is the real boundary of its basin4 ,if we trace this basin to its very limits on the highlands1 we may find1 not a mile away1 the beginnings of another river1 which shall flow in just the contrary direction1 as for example in the case of the ,rhine and ,rhone1 the ,volga and the ,dwina4 ,the sources of the ,missouri and of the ,columbia lie close together1 not a quarter of an hour's walk apart2 yet the waters of one flow into the ,atlantic1 of the other into the ,pacific1 and their mouths are almost #bejj miles apart4 ,the ,mongolians hold the water-shed in such estimation that they throw up a heap of stones wherever one occurs1 establish it a shrine for prayer2 and the ,toongooses of ,siberia never pass by one without casting a cedar branch upon the stone heap1 that1 to use their expression1 8the holy mountain that parts the waters may not lessen1 but increase40 ,the main channel is the stream proper2 the others are tributaries4 ,the longest tributaries coming in from the region where the river proper rises1 can be grouped intimately with the source of the main current1 hardly distinguished from it in relative importance--the two1 for instance1 in the ,nile1 the five in the ,indus1 two in the ,ganges1 three in the ,amazon1 etc4 ,all form in their confluence the real channel of the river4 ,and the entire body of tributaries1 taken in conjunction with the river proper1 forms the river system1 and the district which they all drain is their true reciprocal4 ,the two1 in their mutual action and reaction1 form a whole1 and are always thought of together4 ,the source and the mouth are the beginning and the end of the whole system2 the main channel and the circuit of water-shed1 the center and the circumference of it4 ,all the tributaries in their union constitute what may be called the arterial system of the river basin2 the form of each and the characteristics of each are analogous to those of the whole1 only in reduced pattern4 ,the network which all the tributaries make is often surprisingly intricate4 ,the symmetry with which the main characteristics of a river system are carried into the details1 even of its smallest accessories1 can only be compared to that observable in the architectural regularity of a tree1 as it expands from the main trunk into the countless symmetrical branches4 ,there are some rivers which are entirely independent of tributaries--which pursue their way to the sea entirely alone4 ,such rivers1 however1 never belong to the first class2 they are always of subordinate magnitude1 and the humblest of them are mere coast torrents1 like those west of the ,andes4 ,others find their way to no ocean1 but lose themselves in an inland sea or lake1 as the ,volga does in the ,caspian2 as the ,gihon and the ,sihon do in the ,aral2 as the ,jordan does in the ,dead ,sea4 ,others disappear in sand wastes or in morasses2 such are the rivers of the ,african steppes4 ,others are blocked up1 as it were1 by the tidal wave of the ocean1 and are thus converted into estuary lakes4 ,there are some rivers1 also1 which remain equally or nearly equally full the whole year through2 there are others which have their seasons of overflow3 the ,nile1 for instance1 and many rivers whose basin lies within the region of tropical rains2 there are temporary rivers1 now full1 now empty1 which1 if they do not leave1 like the torrents of ,arabia1 a perfectly dry bed1 are traced in the dry season by a row of stagnant lakes1 such1 for example1 as are found in the swampy lands of ,australia4 ,rivers more closely considered4 ,what is peculiar to every river is determined by the abundance of its sources1 the forking of its tributaries1 the rate of its descent1 the distance from its most remote springs to its mouth1 the main direction of its course1 and the greater or less sinuosities of its channel1 as occasioned by the structure of the country which it traverses4 ,the abundance of its waters is conditioned by the greater or less amount of snow which finds the highest springs1 the heavy rains which it receives in tropical countries1 and the exceedingly varied influences which temperate climates may exert upon it4 ,the fall softens from the rush and plunge of the mountain district1 first to an arrowy swiftness1 then to a moderate course1 then to a beautiful gliding motion1 to end with an almost imperceptible flow just before entering the sea4 ,the direction of rivers is determined3-- #a4 ,by the structure of the region which they traverse1 the layers being in some places horizontal1 and in others tilted to a vertical position2 here grouped1 as in the granite ,carpathian chain1 in such a way that the river courses which begin there run in parallel lines1 radiating like the rays of a star from a central point2 then grouped in such a manner that a stream may receive tributaries from two nearly contiguous ranges1 as among the spurs of the ,ural ,mountains1 the ,rhone in ,valais1 receiving waters from the ,bernese ,alps at the north1 and ,pennine ,alps at the south2 the ,isre1 in like manner1 the ,upper ,rhine in ,grisons1 the whole ,upper ,inn in ,tyrol4 #b4 ,the direction is also determined by the mutual action of tributaries and the main stream at the point of confluence4 ,very often the union of two powerful currents gives rise to a third direction1 according to the law known as the parallelogram of the forces4 ,this generally occurs when no obstacle stands in the way of their taking a normal course1 and is exemplified in the cases of the ,kama and ,volga1 the ,theiss and ,danube1 the ,rhine and ,main1 the ,saone and ,rhone4 ,where an obstacle stands in the way1 their abnormal direction is manifested in the abrupt bendings of the river bed4 ,an instance is found in the bending of the ,rhone northward as it emerges from ,valais4 ,its lower course1 from ,lake ,geneva to ,lyons1 betrays the same angularities1 resulting from the obstacles which it meets and cannot remove4 ,the ,rhine1 breaking through the ,jura at ,basel1 is another instance2 the ,rhine1 between ,bingen and ,caub1 and the ,dal-,elf1 in ,sweden1 also exemplify the same4 ,in case that rivers meet in their course large masses of stratified rocks1 they force their way through them in a zigzag direction1 making sharp angles always1 and not unfrequently right angles1 even4 ,instances of this are found in the ,rhine1 between ,mayence and ,coblentz1 and in the ,moselle1 between ,treves and ,coblentz4 ,when the river passes beyond these rocky barriers1 and meets with obstructions of a more movable character1 it crowds them more gently and gracefully aside1 and leaves a path more sinuous and wave-like2 and yet more gentle are its curves1 as it opens a way through the plains where nothing obstructs its course4 ,the last is strikingly exemplified in the rivers of eastern ,europe1 especially in all those of middle and southern ,russia4 ,the practised eye can determine the structure of the soil with considerable certainty1 by merely tracing the course of rivers when represented on a faithful map4 ,for1 unless there be other reasons to prevent1 rivers always force their way where there is the least resistance to overcome4 ,in stratified rocks1 where the tilt is so great as to make the strata vertical1 the river beds usually run parallel with the lines of stratification4 ,instances are found among the ,alpine rocks1 in ,valais along the ,rhone1 in ,tyrol along the ,inn and ,adige1 in ,grisons1 and among the ,jura along the ,rhine4 ,where the lines of stratification are horizontal1 rivers usually take their course through the most marked ravines and fissures4 ,in most mountains1 however1 the lines of stratification are neither vertical nor horizontal1 but intermediate between them1 more or less sloping1 as in most marked ranges of central ,germany1 for example4 ,in such cases1 the process of excavating river beds has been determined by various circumstances and conditions1 and the direction of their channels does not alone depend upon the extent and tilt of the strata1 but also on other forces which have exercised a favoring or a retarding influence on their direct course4 ,the stratification has its influence1 indeed1 but it is general rather than specific4 ,still1 it is very largely felt when it happens to coincide in its main lines with the direction of the mountain range1 but is comparatively insignificant when it does not4 ,we have instances in the ,alps where the axis of stratification coincides with that of the main chain1 from south-southwest to north-northeast2 in the ,jura1 from southwest to northeast2 and in the ,scandinavian range1 from south to north4 ,the different geological formations found in mountain districts have a very important influence in determining the direction of rivers4 ,mountains do not generally consist of rocks of one kind of structure1 but of several4 ,what stratification is to mountains whose geological formation is the same throughout1 the superposition of different kinds of rocks is to those of composite materials4 ,the layers may be divided into superior1 inferior1 and adjacent4 ,these usually vary in respect to age1 and may be traced in a regular geological seniority1 as for example sandstone1 gypsum1 limestone1 gray-wacke1 and granite4 ,these formations are either closely contiguous1 or are separated merely by valleys1 as for instance in the ,carpathian chain1 where the central granite knot is separated by valley plains from the more southern limestone chain2 an example of contiguity is found on the west spur of the same ,carpathian range4 ,wherever mountain systems of varied geological structure approach each other very closely1 rivers seldom break their way through either one1 but find their way along the roots of the mountains1 till at last they come to a less confined place4 ,such river courses are often very large and deep2 for the mountain streams which meet and are hemmed in by the narrow pass between the two contiguous ranges sweep all loose obstructions before them1 and not only leave their path clear1 but continually deepen it4 ,we find this in the ,ural1 the ,isre1 the ,rhone1 ,aar1 ,inn1 in all the long and winding ,alpine valleys1 and in the ,ebro1 fed by the parallel ridges of the ,pyrenees4 ,the circle of rivers which girds the central ,carpathian knot is an illustration of what was said a moment since4 ,the ,poprad1 ,dunayic1 ,arva1 and ,waag are found where the true ,carpathian chain1 which is granitic1 is closely contiguous to subordinate ranges of limestone and gray-wacke4 ,in any accurate map1 the long1 winding course between these two chains may be easily traced4 ,looking at the point where the ,hartz ,mountains and the ,thuringian ridge touch at their roots1 the groups are seen to be insulated1 as it were1 by the rivers which gird their bases4 ,in the great streams of southern and southwestern ,asia1 too1 the line of the water-courses can be traced along the narrow valleys which separate main from subordinate mountain chains2 the ,terek1 ,kooban1 ,koor1 ,aras1 ,euphrates1 ,tigris1 ,indus1 ,ganges1 and probably the ,chinese rivers1 are all examples of this4 ,some streams seem to be entirely independent of all these laws in forming their channels1 and to have their direction assigned to them by the freaks of nature1 such1 for instance1 as fissures in mountain chains and clefts1 which remain to indicate ancient convulsions4 ,the entire course of a river is divided into three distinct and subordinate courses--the upper1 middle1 and lower4 ,to these and their respective tributaries correspond the three grades of transition found on the banks1 and which have already been alluded to4 ,not only the total amount of fall in the river bed1 but also the angle of inclination1 and the whole complex of phenomena in the basin1 are reciprocal to the threefold character of transition in almost every hydrographical system in the world4 ,still1 the variety of relations which arise from the combination of different elements is so variable1 that an almost infinite diversity arises in the characteristics of rivers1 and these characteristics always vary1 too1 according as found in the upper1 middle1 or lower course4 ,upper ,course of ,rivers4 ,this begins at the ridge of the water-shed1 and extends to the limits where the river emerges from the most rocky highlands4 ,it depends for its existence upon the greater fall in the river bed there than lower down4 ,at the upper course1 therefore1 rivers which may flow in exactly opposite directions are brought into direct neighborhood4 ,the farther they advance from the water-shed the more they recede from each other4 ,in the ,high ,forest south of the ,carpathian chain1 and in the ,bory ,morass north of it1 the waters which flow into the ,baltic and into the ,black ,seas spring from the ground side by side4 ,the name given to the districts where the head-waters of large and navigable rivers part is usually the ,french word portages1 the ,english word transports being little used in that connection1 although all1 the ,german ,trageplatze and the ,russian ,wolok1 involve the idea of carrying1 of porterage1 from the head-waters of one stream to those of another4 ,the lowest parts of a water-shed1 the passes of a high mountain range1 for example1 the intermediate vales of lower ones1 and the most elevated plains in flat districts1 are the most suitable for the purpose of canal building1 to serve as a connecting link between the sources of divergent streams2 as1 for instance1 the canal which is proposed to connect the ,baltic and the ,black ,seas by uniting the ,vistula and ,danube1 the tributaries1 the ,poprad1 ,hernad1 and ,theiss being the channel of communication up to the mountains where a canal is to pass over the water-shed formed by the valleys of the ,carpathian chain4 ,such a communication is the most available which can be made between the opposite sides of a mountain range4 ,the practicability of constructing such canals depends very largely upon the degree of fall in the upper course of the connected rivers1 as determined by the slope of the bed toward the horizon4 ,the grade of most mountains' sides1 which stand back to back1 is unlike on the two sides3 steep on the one1 slight on the other4 ,upon this depends the greater or less wildness of the streams flowing through their upper course4 ,in the ,ural chain the slope is steep on the eastern side1 gradual on the western2 in the ,caucasus1 steep on the north1 gradual on the south2 in the ,carpathian and the ,alps1 just the reverse--steep on the south1 gradual on the north4 ,the rate of fall varies2 but1 in general1 it lies between an angle of #b and an angle of #f1 taking the entire upper course into account4 ,on the very steep north side of the ,pyrenees1 the fall is between #c and #d2 on the south side of the ,alps1 from the summits of ,mont ,rosa and ,mont ,blanc to the plains of ,piedmont1 it is #c4 ,it is far less in more unimportant ranges4 ,and this angle1 it should be remarked1 is an average2 it is the resultant of a great number of special1 short slopes1 which vary from the perpendicularity of an occasional waterfall to the equally occasional tranquillity of a meadow-like flow4 ,the incidental slopes are1 of course1 much greater than the average of all4 ,a grade of #ae is very steep2 it is the maximum that can be ascended by a beast of burden4 ,a grade of #h is the maximum for wheeled vehicles2 all roads must be less sloping than this4 ,to accomplish the ascent of #ce1 a man on foot must have some assistance4 ,a grade of #dd in the high peaks of ,mexico and ,peru1 ,humboldt found inaccessible2 only where the growth of trees and shrubs gave him an opportunity of planting his feet1 could he climb where it was a little steeper than #dd4 ,the ,carpathians and the ,pyrenees1 on account of their steepness and their scanty verdure1 are very difficult to ascend4 ,the ,alps are much more easily climbed than the mountains just mentioned1 in consequence of their abundant growth of turf and undergrowth4 ,the richest ,alpine meadows of ,switzerland have an inclination not exceeding #bj2 at a greater slope the vegetation becomes more sparse4 ,the grade on which it is possible for earth to cling1 ,lehman fixes at #de1 and considers that the normal slope1 because at a greater angle1 rain glances or ricochets4 ,but ,lehman is not right in assigning this as the normal slope possible for earth to cling and vegetation to grow1 for on the ,alps soil adheres and plants get a footing at a much steeper angle than #de2 in fact1 the modifications in the appearance of the ,alps1 by the growth of trees clinging to steeper slopes than this1 are very marked4 ,from the highest possible grade where vegetation can get a footing1 we advance to the sheer perpendicular4 ,the upper course of rivers is characterized rather by plunges than by equable flowing1 and determines its way by a series of leaps through zigzag cuts and various ravines4 ,it traverses bowl-shaped hollows and narrow defiles1 and makes its way even through mountain lakes1 depositing in them its residuum of sand and gravel which it has caught up and swept along4 ,in its wild plunges it draws into its body considerable air1 which appears as bubbles1 and makes it a white mass of foam4 ,by-and-by it reaches more level ground1 becomes clear as crystal1 and assumes a rich emerald green1 or a deep blue4 ,it is unnavigable1 wild1 romantic1 and is always found in mountain districts4 ,the brawling brooks of ,salzburg1 of the ,pyrenees1 and of ,sweden and ,norway1 all partake of this character4 ,those of the ,pyrenees have a fall of an inch in every foot1 and in some places cataracts of two or three feet4 ,the same is observable in the ,alps1 where the continual stir of the water mixes in air enough to turn all into a mass of silvery-white foam4 ,the ,carpathian waters are the same before they reach the high plateaus lying at their feet4 ,the ,alpine lakes1 too1 which lie within the upper course of the rivers which feed them1 have a considerable fall2 ,lago ,maggiore1 for instance1 has a descent of #eb feet between ,magadino and ,arona4 ,in all the most marked mountain systems of ,europe1 the upper course of the rivers is especially prominent4 ,northern ,europe is characterized by the fact that its streams have1 throughout the most of their length1 the peculiarities of the upper course--whether observed in northern ,russia1 in all ,sweden1 ,norway1 and ,scotland4 ,with the exit of the river from the mountain district1 all these relations are changed1 and a new character begins4 ,the ,middle ,course4 ,far more moderate is the descent after the river emerges from the mountain region1 or where it has never experienced the wild turbulence of the upper course1 as is the case in most of the rivers of eastern ,europe4 ,in the middle course the angle of inclination is much modified4 ,the upper ,main has a fall of #cdb feet within three miles after leaving ,fichtel ,mountains4 ,the descent of most of the rivers of central ,germany is much less than this4 ,the ,neckar1 whose sources lie #bjhd feet above the sea1 in passing to ,heilbronn1 which is #dej feet above the sea1 falls at the rate of about an inch to every #cb feet4 ,the fall of the ,saale1 after leaving the ,fichtel range1 is about #bj feet to the mile2 that of ,naab1 about #ad2 that of the ,eger1 less2 and that of the upper ,oder1 in ,silesia1 still less4 ,more gradual yet is the slope of the ,volga bed1 which falls but #adjj in about #bjej miles1 considerably less than a foot to a mile2 and in its lower course its inclination must be still less4 ,the effects of the current must necessarily be very different from those observable under the influence of the dashing and wayward upper course4 ,the name ,river ,bed is given to the entire breadth of the hollow which holds the river1 and which varies in width according to the stage of the water1 especially in large streams like the great rivers of ,america4 ,the ,mississippi is a mile wide at ,natchez at low water1 at high water almost thirty4 ,the ,orinoco1 at ,st4 ,thomas1 is three miles wide at low water1 at high water it is over seventy4 ,in the ,volga and the ,danube the stage of water makes great differences in the width of the river bed4 ,in summer the depth and breadth are1 as a rule1 less than in winter4 ,the ,channel differs from the river bed2 it is the part of the river bed which gives life and motion to the whole current4 ,in the upper course the channel and the river bed generally coincide2 in the middle and lower courses1 on the contrary1 the channel occupies but a very small share of the whole bed1 but yet it determines the direction1 amount of fall1 and the rapidity of the stream4 ,it lies usually not in the middle of the river bed1 but on one side2 it passes1 however1 from bank to bank2 it is indicated by the movement of ships1 which always follow it1 and it lies uniformly adjacent to the boldest shore4 ,it widens the whole river bed toward one side1 and not toward both2 and so streams which traverse great plains1 like the great ,hungarian one1 for instance1 do not now run through the middle1 but course along at the base of the marginal bluffs4 ,in all such cases1 it will be found that the channel hugs the boldest side of the bed4 ,all the four ,carpathian rivers1 as they wind out between the main range and the subordinate ranges1 have their steepest shore1 not on the side of the loftiest1 but on the side of the boldest mountains1 and these are the ones of the subordinate range4 ,so1 in the plains which lie between the ,swiss ,alps and the ,jura1 the bold sides of the river bed lie on the side of the bolder though less important chain1 and not on the side of the ,alpine meadows4 ,the bold banks of the ,ebro are not on the side of the ,pyrenees and their plains1 but on the south side4 ,all the streams of ,south and ,middle ,russia have1 therefore1 on the east side1 their low banks1 on the west the bold ones2 and this1 because the most extensive plains lie on the eastern side4 ,in the more level tracts the windings of rivers are very much increased in magnitude4 ,these windings check the current4 ,the serpentine course is characteristic of rivers in their middle course1 and it is repeated1 though on a small scale1 in every meadow brook4 ,the serpentine course of rivers gives rise to countless islands and intervals3 as1 for example1 between ,ble and the ,rhinegau1 but1 with very few exceptions1 no lakes1 the characteristic feature of the upper course of rivers4 ,but the broad meadow lands of the middle course very often indicate in the clearest manner that they were once lakes of considerable magnitude1 which have subsided and left their basin a dry plain4 ,an example may be found in the meadow land of the ,rhine1 from ,ble to ,bastberg1 below ,strasbourg1 and again from ,ladenburg1 in the ,palatinate1 to ,bingen4 ,so on the ,danube1 from ,ulm to ,passau1 ,lintz1 and ,kloster ,newburg1 and again from ,pesth to ,beloro ,semlin1 as far1 in fact1 as the narrows at ,orsova4 ,the same feature is met in the middle course of the ,volga1 from ,tver eastward to the west ,ural1 and southward to ,saratov and ,kamishin1 where it breaks through the ,obstshei-,syrtis1 which was1 doubtless1 once the barrier of a great inland lake4 ,in these basins1 now dry1 there is a surprising uniformity of characteristics wherever on the globe they occur4 ,they differ but little1 whether found in the middle course of the ,ganges1 the ,indus1 the ,euphrates1 or the ,american rivers4 ,the still1 incomplete stream of the ,st4 ,lawrence shows us1 even in the present1 what the ancient conditions were before they solved the problem of their complete development4 ,there1 a row of such lakes as formerly existed in the now fruitful plains of the middle ,rhine1 the middle ,danube1 and central ,russia1 are the five great ,canadian lakes4 ,they still constitute the middle course of the river1 and one pours itself directly into another1 either over a gentle slope of land1 or in a great cataract and rapids1 such as we do not observe in the middle course of other streams1 which are not1 like the ,st4 ,lawrence1 incomplete4 ,only when waterfalls disappear can the inclination of rivers become a gradual one4 ,the uniformity of the grade of their channel is1 therefore1 a sign that they have attained to a complete development4 ,in such1 slight rapids remain1 instead of the ancient cataracts4 ,the existence of those primeval falls we find in all rivers1 even in the ,rhine and ,danube4 ,the rounded faces of the rocks which once were the barriers to the rivers' course1 and the debris once swept down from the mountains and deposited over the bottom of the ancient lakes1 show this4 ,the strongest instance of cataracts1 resembling the ancient ones which connected the lakes of nearly all the great rivers of the globe1 is seen in the fall of ,niagara4 ,that cataract is an epitome of the falls of all other streams4 ,the ,niagara ,river conducts the water of ,lake ,erie1 by a channel #cc miles long1 to ,lake ,ontario1 #cjj feet below it4 ,at the ,great ,fall the river plunges about #aej feet into a chasm which it has hollowed out from the soft stone between the two lakes4 ,the cataract was formerly seven miles below its present location1 and has been observed to be steadily working backward since its discovery4 ,in the distant future it will1 doubtless1 wholly disappear1 as all others have done4 ,for the ,niagara is merely a striking instance of a principle once universal1 but which merely worked itself out on a smaller scale4 ,the more fragments of rock and mountain debris were swept along1 the sooner were the primitive falls rent away by the wash and the percussion1 and the development of the middle course completed4 ,the places of transition which lie between the higher dry basins and the lower ones are still to be traced in almost all rivers2 not by great waterfalls1 which belong only to the upper course1 but by simple rapids4 ,they are more or less characterized by narrows1 with steep1 rocky banks1 where1 doubtless1 cataracts existed in the primitive times4 ,they are recognizable by this feature1 that they are uniformly alike1 and distribute their force equally on both sides of the river4 ,examples may be found on both sides of the ,rhine1 in the narrows between ,bingen and ,bacharach2 on the ,elbe1 from ,tetshen to ,shandau1 ,dresden1 and ,meissen4 ,in these places the rivers have a very tortuous course1 and there are whirls and rapids 7rapides1 sauts1 of the ,french2 saltos1 randales1 of the ,spanish2 schewerin of the ,russians7 which impede navigation4 ,in these localities the entire aspect of nature is changed1 and the landscape becomes exceedingly beautiful4 ,here we find ancient narrow roadways2 here are places of great historic interest1 and of great interest to the naturalist1 assuredly not of accidental origin1 but in close connection with the development of the river bed1 and in close analogy with all places of transition from highland to lowland4 ,we may1 perhaps1 mark these features in all the rivers of the earth4 ,a knowledge of them is essential to understand thoroughly the natural development of a river system in its true parts2 unfortunately1 they have as yet been too little observed and described4 ,among ,european rivers they are found in the ,guadiana1 at the ,saltos de ,lobo2 in the ,douro1 at the rapids below ,torre de ,moncorvo2 in the ,ebro1 at ,sastago1 below ,saragossa2 in the ,rhone1 the rapids below ,lyons1 between the granite banks of ,pierre ,encise2 in ,loire1 by ,iguerando1 below ,roanne2 in the ,rhine1 below ,strasbourg1 and at the narrows at ,bingen1 near ,st4 ,goar and ,andernach2 in the ,weser1 at the ,porta ,westphalica2 in the ,danube1 at ,grein1 at ,kloster ,newburg1 and at ,yachtali1 ,drenir ,kapi1 7,iron ,gate17 and ,orsova2 and in the ,dnieper1 the thirteen waterfalls below ,yekaterinslav4 ,the same features are repeated in all the other streams of ,europe and the remaining continents4 ,more close investigation of them will lead to important results1 concerning the structure of the earth in the regions intermediate between plateaus and lowlands4 ,as a high grade1 great cataracts1 sharp and bold cliffs1 and mountain lakes characterize the upper course of streams1 so rapids1 dry lake basins1 and a meandering channel characterize their middle course4 ,below the lowest rapids are found the level plains or lowlands which give rivers their third characteristic4 ,lower ,course4 ,as soon as the rivers break through the lowest range of hills which once beset their course1 they deposit the debris which they bear with them1 and begin the formation of diluvial plains4 ,we find in the soil of all level places along the middle1 as well as the lower course of rivers1 traces of the same kinds of rock and minerals1 which characterize the mountains where they rise4 ,the rate of fall in the lower course of rivers is so slight as to be almost imperceptible4 ,relatively1 it is the greatest in the ,volga2 from ,kamishin to the ,caspian the descent is more than #aej feet1 although the distance is less than #ejj miles4 ,the ,senegal1 from ,podor to the sea1 a distance of about #bjj miles1 falls only about #b feet2 the ,amazon1 within about the same distance1 falls only #aj feet1 or about an inch to the mile4 ,in such rivers1 therefore1 the tide can flow a very long way inland4 ,this gives rise to a great conflict of forces--the pressure of the stream in its natural flow1 heightened at the appropriate season by the annual inundation1 and the backward pressure of the tidal wave4 ,before these forces come into equilibrium1 the river bed is constantly changing4 ,the river proper seeks this equilibrium by a parting of its channel1 dividing into two mouths1 as in the ,nile1 or into more than one1 as in the ,rhine and ,danube1 or several 7about #fe7 in the ,volga4 ,the momentum of the stream1 the resistance of the tide1 and the consequent slow speed of the current promote the fall of deposits along the lower course of rivers4 ,below the surface the result of these deposits is found in sand banks or bars2 above the surface1 as low1 marshy land1 the deltas1 subject to frequent inundation4 ,we see this in the ,rhine1 the ,nile1 the ,euphrates1 the ,indus1 the ,ganges1 the ,mississippi--in all1 about fourteen of the first-class rivers of the globe4 ,the contrary feature1 single1 broad mouths not yet filled up by alluvial deposits1 negative deltas1 or deep ocean inlets1 can be observed in nine others of the largest rivers--the ,obi1 ,yenisei1 ,st4 ,lawrence1 ,columbia1 ,la ,plata--mostly found1 however1 in the north of the earth1 where there is very little of the more loose and fruitful soil which more southern rivers bear onward from the mountains where they rise4 ,another peculiarity of the lower course is seen in the extraordinary changes in the river bed--the shifting of the channel from one side to the other4 ,this is the natural result of the very light and movable character of the deposits brought down from above1 and the strong pressure of the current1 which1 though slow1 has great momentum4 ,in the lower course of the ,ganges1 ,indus1 ,euphrates1 ,nile1 ,rhine1 and ,po1 these changes can be traced as a matter of history1 and1 in the lapse of centuries1 have had great influence on the formation of the great plains of those rivers' mouths and on the people living there4 ,with the lower course begins the regular yearly inundations1 which cover vast districts in tropical countries2 and to these inundations may be attributed the gradual raising of the level of the plains covered by them4 ,hence arose ,herodotus' descriptive phrase 1 7prolific rivers47 ,the great fruitfulness of these lowlands is well known4 ,the rich alluvial deposits have made ,bengal1 ,babylonia1 ,egypt1 ,lombardy1 ,holland1 and the ,netherlands the granaries of all neighboring countries4 ,in proportion as the mouth of great rivers resembles an inland sea1 having a strongly marked tidal flow in sympathy with the ocean1 does the whole nature of the lower course vary4 ,the rivers whose mouths are turned to the east and south are those which are exposed to the strongest and the highest ocean waves4 ,such are ,chinese1 ,indian1 and ,south ,american rivers1 which sometimes show the result of this1 #ejj miles inland4 ,the tide extending so far into the interior facilitates navigation very much1 and transforms the lowlands along their margin into districts1 which seem transitional between true continent and oceanic islands4 ,all the mouths of first-class rivers which open toward the north and west are less deeply affected by the entrance of the sea waves4 ,to these belong most of the ,european streams4 ,exceptional to both of these classes are the three rivers1 the ,nile1 ,danube1 and ,volga1 whose direction is not toward the ocean1 but toward the center of the ,old ,world4 ,they form a triad1 not of oceanic1 but of continental streams2 in them there is no ebb and flood4 ,their lower course and mouths must1 therefore1 display different relations from those of any other of the great rivers of the globe4 ,it was early remarked that not all streams1 when they reach the sea1 flow at once into it1 but come to a standstill4 ,it is so with the ,thames1 and with most of the ,north ,american rivers4 ,the ocean sometimes throws a tidal wave twenty to thirty feet high up their channel1 and dams their flow4 ,rivers vary exceedingly in their relations to this high barrier4 ,the ,chinese streams are sometimes raised forty feet by it above their normal level4 ,this gives rise to a salt oceanic river1 so to speak4 ,it is the same with the ,thames at ,london4 ,at high tide the surface is salt1 while the water at the bottom is fresh4 ,the struggle with the downward current and the upward current is very often visible4 ,it is so in the ,orinoco1 the ,ganges1 in the ,chinese rivers2 most of all1 in the ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,in all the continents there are many small rivers and rivulets which have no normal mouths2 which lose themselves in the earth before they reach the sea4 ,sometimes they pursue a subterranean course1 and emerge again1 though usually with a changed name4 ,among the best-known of such instances is the ,perte du ,rhone1 below ,geneva1 where the river flows for a little way directly beneath a spur of the ,jura ,mountains4 ,in like manner1 the ,meuse1 which loses itself in the earth at ,bazoilles1 in the ,vosges ,mountains1 west of ,nancy1 flows in a subterranean bed as far as ,noncourt1 nine miles distant1 and then emerges4 ,the phenomenon is common among the ,jura1 and in the limestone cliffs which feed the ,drave and ,save4 ,the tourist meets almost hourly there some brook or little river disappearing beneath the ground4 ,on the high ,asiatic plateau of ,gobi1 #fh rivers are known1 which disappear in a similar manner2 in the north of ,thibet there are #aae such4 ,they are common1 also1 in the ,chinese province of ,yun-nan1 on the ,persian highland1 and on the plateau of the ,bechuanas1 in ,south ,africa4 ,in ,south ,america1 between the ,andes and the ,la ,plata1 there are twelve lakes without effluents1 the greatest being ,lake ,titicaca4 ,in ,central ,america1 there is the ,lake of ,mexico4 ,the division of the whole length of a river into the three courses--the upper1 middle1 and lower--and the proportionate share which each of these bears to the whole1 depends upon the height at which the source stands above the mouth4 ,the greater or less extent of the transition grades1 and the greater or less extent of navigable waters1 also depend on the same4 ,the upper course has1 as a general rule1 too many hinderances to be very valuable for navigation2 it is1 at best1 adapted only to boats4 ,the more united and deeper middle course offers facilities for vessels of considerable draught2 yet the frequent sunken rocks and eddies and rapids are a great impediment to navigation4 ,we find it so in the ,rhine1 below the ,falls of ,schaffhausen1 as far as ,ble2 and in its middle course1 at ,bingen and ,st4 ,goar2 in the ,danube1 also1 at ,grein and ,orsova4 ,the lower course1 on the other hand1 opens like a broad fresh-water sea1 that sometimes allows large ships to sail #ej1 #bjj1 and even #ejj miles inland4 ,these maritime streams ought to be discriminated from others2 the ,chinese call them 8sons of the ocean40 ,the proportions in the length of the upper1 middle1 and lower course of rivers are exceedingly variable2 and equally variable of course are the transition lands apportioned to each1 and forming its natural supplement4 ,the upper course of the ,volga is very short1 the middle very long1 and the lower very short4 ,the same relative proportions1 though with very different dimensions1 are found in the ,vistula1 the ,ganges1 the ,euphrates1 and the ,mississippi4 ,the upper course of the ,rhine1 on the contrary1 is very long1 through all ,switzerland to ,ble2 the middle also very long1 to ,cologne2 the lower1 very short1 to ,rotterdam and the sea4 ,it is the same with the ,nile1 the ,danube1 and the ,indus4 ,in the ,maraon or ,amazon the upper course is very short1 the middle and lower very long4 ,in the ,chinese rivers ,hoang-ho and ,yang-tse-,kiang all the three courses are relatively long4 ,the length of the middle and lower courses1 although important conditions of navigation1 are not the only ones4 ,others are not to be overlooked1--the amount of water1 depth of channel1 and the like4 ,these1 however1 are not capable of being generalized under any law1 but depend upon the individual characteristics of each stream4 ,every river needs1 for an exhaustive account of its features1 its own monograph4 ,there remains but one important point to be considered--one which has exerted a very great influence on the diversity of structure in all river systems1 controlling the area of their drainage1 their volume of water1 their effect on human culture1 and on the ethnographic character of the people dwelling on their banks4 ,it is the distance from the source to the mouth in direct distance compared with that following the tortuous course of the stream4 ,the two lines almost never coincide2 they generally lie far apart4 ,and the less they approach to coincidence1 the greater becomes the area of the river basin2 the more numerous and valuable the tributaries to the main course1 the greater the volume of the stream and the more varied and extensive its influence4 ,one or two examples drawn from ,european rivers will more fully explain this point1 to which ,buache has already called attention in his 8,parallle des fleuves40 ,the mouth of the ,volga is #ihb miles distant from the source1 in an air-line4 ,the distance1 including all the curves of the stream1 is #bjab miles1 the bendings adding #ajbh miles to the direct course4 ,by this doubling of the shortest possible distance1 the area drained by it is swollen to the enormous size of #feg1jjj square miles4 ,the direct course lies in a diagonal direction from northwest to southeast2 but the real direction is a changing one4 ,first1 it flows a short distance from north to south1 then in its middle course it has a double direction2 first eastward1 toward the ,ural chain1 then to the south1 and lastly1 in its lower course1 to the southeast4 ,through this varied course it receives tributaries from very remote sources1 and waters a country altogether greater than would be possible if the ,volga's course were direct from the source to the mouth4 ,its basin becomes so large as to embrace a fifth of ,europe1 and the stream becomes one of the longest and most available for navigation in the continent4 ,the vastness of the volume of water and the wandering course have both contributed to the value of the ,volga lowlands4 ,the exact contrast to the ,volga is found in the ,dniester4 ,in the ,volga there is a maximum of windings2 in the ,dniester there is a minimum4 ,the air-line distance of the mouth of the ,dniester from the source is #djh miles2 the distance1 including all the bends1 is #dej miles2 the loss in winding is1 therefore1 but about #db miles4 ,the theoretical course of the ,dniester1 i4e4 measured by an air-line1 would coincide very nearly with its actual course4 ,there cannot be1 therefore1 any distant springs whose waters flow into its channel2 its basin is one of the most contracted in the world in consequence of its directness2 and a small belt1 embracing but #cb1hej square miles1 comprehends the entire district that it drains1 freed from all those tributaries which make the ,volga basin so important4 ,the ,dnieper1 its eastern neighbor1 is #fcj miles in direct distance from the source to the mouth1 but #ajjj with all its windings2 leaving #cgj miles as the extraneous shore1 which adds to the value of the basin1 and contributes to the #bai1jjj square miles which it drains4 ,the same contrast is seen elsewhere1 though not on so extended a scale4 ,it is to be found in the ,vistula1 ,oder1 ,elbe1 ,weser1 ,rhine1 and ,danube4 ,these rivers give shape to the transition terraces between broad eastern ,europe and the more contracted western portions of the continent2 their dimensions are1 therefore1 on a less extensive scale than in the great ,russian streams4 ,still1 the differences in them are worthy of notice4 ,in the ,vistula1 the direct distance from the source to the mouth is #cbi miles1 and the real distance is #faa miles2 the windings comprise1 therefore1 #bhj miles1 or about two-thirds of the air-line from extreme to extreme4 ,it becomes able to receive a large number of tributaries1 and its basin is enlarged to an area of #gh1djb square miles1 becoming one of the best-watered and most fruitful on the globe4 ,in the ,oder1 the direct distance from the source to the mouth is about the same as in the ,vistula4 ,but while the latter frequently changes its course1 running first northward1 then eastward to the ,sau1 then northward again to the ,bug1 then westward to the ,drewenz1 and lastly northward1 and so gains a very large basin of drainage1 the former is unvarying in its course from southeast to northwest2 so that the direct line drawn from extreme to extreme1 as the bird flies1 is nearly coincident with the actual course of the river4 ,the windings do not1 at most1 comprise one-third of the whole length of the stream1 and the basin drained by its tributaries is at least a third less than that of the ,vistula1 and is proportionately less valuable to the interests of the world4 ,in the ,elbe the air-line length is #cid miles1 greater therefore1 than that of the ,vistula or the ,oder2 its length1 including its windings1 is about the same as that of the ,vistula4 ,the area of its basin lies therefore between the two1 #fa1cbj square miles2 it is more valuable1 therefore1 than that of the ,oder1 and less valuable than that of the ,vistula4 ,still less striking in this respect are the ,weser and the ,ems2 but the ,rhine assumes a prominence1 in relation to the value of its basin1 greater than even the ,vistula4 ,the direct distance from the source of the ,rhine to its mouth is #dbc miles1 the actual distance #gje miles2 the windings comprise1 therefore1 more than two-thirds of the entire length of the stream4 ,the number of tributaries is uncommonly large1 the area drained is increased about #ihee miles beyond that of the ,vistula2 and the entire basin 7#hh1beg square miles7 is one which has been of the greatest import in the history of all central ,europe4 ,all the rivers and all the terrace lands of the globe exhibit the same relation which we have been briefly indicating in a few ,european ones2 in some of the great rivers of the world they are to be traced on a scale of grandeur of which in those which have been touched upon scarcely a suggestion is given4 ,but not in this feature1 added to what has been already said1 do we exhaust the fruitful subject of ,rivers1 and the terrace systems which accompany them from their source to the sea4 ,the diversity of phenomena traceable in them had hid their unity from geographers1 and prevented their tracing general principles in so manifold details4 ,the dry1 linear representations on most of our maps have blinded the eye to the living and organic relations which river systems enter into1 and through which they exert a great influence4 ,they must be examined singly2 they must be studied in their real character and individuality1 and each must have its own monograph1 before we can fully know the value of river systems to the world4 ,we have now to touch upon one or two points omitted1 thus far1 in our discussion of the hydrography of the continents4 ,the stream is a unit2 most streams have a single channel as the last goal of their descent4 ,others may have double channels1 which contend with each other for the superiority4 ,if they are double only for a part of the whole length of the river1 and in the upper or middle course flow together1 and form one main channel1 they can be called twin head-streams4 ,we have an example in the ,danube and ,inn1 which are equally long and equally large4 ,other instances are the ,rhone and the ,saone1 the ,volga and ,kama1 the ,missouri and ,mississippi1 the ,blue and ,white ,nile1 the ,ganga and ,jumna4 ,others have triple head-streams2 as1 for example1 the ,hither1 ,middle1 and ,farther ,rhine2 the ,ucayale1 ,huallaga1 and ,maraon1 which combine in the middle course to form the ,amazon4 ,there may be even five head-streams1 as in the ,indus4 ,often it is only through the usage of speech1 often through ancient and exploded errors1 that the name of one of the head-streams is given to the whole river4 ,if the double channels continue through the whole length of the river system1 they belong to a different category2 they become true double systems1 and have a double influence on the development of the whole range of terraces from source to base4 ,from their meeting in a common bay or gulf at the mouth1 they may be called sister-streams2 and1 from the territory which they inclose between them1 the ,mesopotamia1 they may be called ,mesopotamic streams4 ,between such double streams some of the greatest ,states of ,asia lie4 ,universally known1 on account of their influence on ,asiatic culture1 are the ,euphrates and ,tigris uniting in the ,persian ,gulf1 ,ganges and ,brahmapootra uniting in the ,bay of ,bengal1 ,gihon and ,sihon in the ,sea of ,aral1 ,hoang-ho and ,yang-tse-,kiang encompassing the ,central ,flowery ,country of the ,chinese ,empire1 and meeting in a common delta4 ,these double streams are mostly met in ,asia1 and they have exercised a great influence on the whole growth of oriental civilization4 ,in ,south ,america there is yet another and more complex form yet of river system4 ,the ,amazon is connected with the ,orinoco by means of the little cross-river ,cassiquiare4 ,by this connection the middle course of both rivers is made more available to navigation than it would otherwise have been4 ,such cross-streams may be found1 though on a smaller scale1 in other continents2 in ,africa1 for example1 between the ,senegal and the ,rio ,grande4 ,there a network is made between the parallel rivers1 but it is available for navigation only in the wet seasons4 ,in ,central ,africa there seems to be a similar phenomenon between the eastern tributaries of ,lake ,tchad and the western tributaries of the ,bahr el ,abiad or ,white ,nile1 though this rests on the authority of the ,arabs4 ,in ,india there appears to be a similar connection between the middle course of the ,indus and the ,jumna1 and so the ,ganges1 by the mediation of the ,sarasvati or ,histara and the ,gharghara4 ,there may have been the same in ,central ,china1 between the ,hoang-ho and the ,kiang1 where the ,imperial ,canal now runs2 and a similar feature may be found in the ,lithuanian marshes1 connecting the ,vistula and ,dnieper river systems1 through the mediation of the ,bug and the ,przypec4 ,the skill of man has1 in many places1 accomplished the same end by the construction of canals4 ,although all rivers1 in the course of their development1 follow the universal law which leads them from their source1 however high1 to the sea1 yet there is1 even in their descent1 scope for exceedingly varied phenomena4 ,it is not necessary that everywhere a strongly-marked line of water-shed should exist1 but often1 as in all the more level plateaus1 there are broad1 neutral plains which perform the function of water-sheds1 though possessing no decisive character4 ,it is so through a great part of ,central ,asia1 in the low plains of ,australia1 probably in a large part of ,africa1 and so markedly in ,america1 that all lines of water-shed wholly disappear1 and the rivers flow confusedly together1 without any system1 and in obedience to no law4 ,some rivers come down the sides of high mountains in torrents1 then course around in a long1 winding course1 turning out for all obstacles1 and at last find the sea4 ,others are entirely unlike them4 ,the ,ganges flows from the south side of the ,himalaya ,mountains1 and courses along their base1 following the direction of the chain in a southeasterly direction1 till it reaches the ,bay of ,bengal4 ,the ,indus springs from the north side of the ,himalaya1 flows northwest over the plateau of ,little ,thibet as far as ,iskardo1 then breaks through the whole chain to pour itself out upon the lowlands of ,india1 the ,punjaub1 and ,mooltan4 ,dashing its way through the most formidable barriers1 it is entirely unlike the gentle ,ganges1 which pursues its tranquil course through the plains1 meeting no barrier in its entire length4 ,the ,indus1 so long as it remains north of the ,himalaya1 traverses a plateau #aj1jjj feet above the sea2 while the ,ganges1 even at ,delhi1 is but #ajjj feet above the sea4 ,both rivers1 although represented in precisely the same way upon the maps1 have an entirely different physical character4 ,the same difference in structure occurs in the streams of other continents1 and even in those of ,central ,europe1 though on a less colossal scale4 ,there are1 therefore1 classes of rivers1 and they ought to be just as sharply discriminated as the classes in botany and zoology4 ,plateau streams1 such as the ,danube1 as far as the ,lower ,austrian and ,hungarian plains1 and the ,saone1 down to its confluence with the ,rhone1 pass through high1 uniform plains with little fall4 ,they are genuine mountain followers1 springing from the verge of the chain and crossing along its base1 the ,saone taking the west side of the ,alps1 as the ,danube does the northern1 and the ,po the southern4 ,the rivers which force their way through mountain ranges form a second class4 ,the ,rhine1 a free child of the ,alps1 from its source to the sea1 breaks through all the ranges up to the ,jura2 then it forces a path through all the mountains of ,central ,germany1 till it comes to its lower course4 ,it may1 therefore1 be classified with the ,indus4 ,it leaves the ,alps suddenly at ,ble1 and opens a new and romantic way through no insignificant obstacle1 and is everywhere a conqueror4 ,that is the peculiarity of the ,rhine4 ,two streams of analogous nature1 though less marked in their characteristics1 are the ,elbe and the ,weser4 ,but these both rise1 not among the ,alps1 but amid the ,german mountains4 ,they lack1 therefore1 the exceedingly romantic character of ,alpine rivers2 but they do not lack in picturesque scenery1 and this they owe to the obstacles which they pass4 ,the ,elbe has broken its way from the ,bohemian ridge through the so-called ,saxon-,switzerland1 as far as ,meissen1 and the ,weser from the fissures of the ,werra and the ,fulda to the ,porta ,westphalica4 ,the ,elbe and the ,weser make1 with the ,rhine1 the triad of ,central ,european rivers1 which have broken a pathway for themselves through mountains which impeded their course4 ,a third class of rivers are those which encounter no obstacles1 and flow in a placid stream from the source to the mouth4 ,they extend in ,europe from the ,vistula to the ,ems1 including the ,oder and excluding the ,weser and ,elbe1 and from the ,rhine along the whole ,atlantic coast of ,france1 embracing the ,seine1 ,loire1 ,garonne1 and the ,adour--all of these having1 in greater or less degree1 the same hydrographical character4 ,from these can be still further discriminated the subordinate coast rivers4 ,to a fourth class belong all those tributary streams1 of whatever size or length1 which agree in possessing no independent character1 and do not pour their waters into the sea through their own mouths4 ,the application of this system of classification can be applied to the streams and their accompanying terrace lands in the other continents4 ,but these observations may suffice to indicate the general principles which we would apply to the study of rivers1 and leave to the student their further application4 ,review4 ,the great typical forms already considered1 highland1 plateau1 mountain1 lowland1 terrace1 and river1 which all claim so large a share of attention in studying their physical characteristics1 are no less worthy of careful attention1 in consequence of their influence on human culture4 ,our account would not be complete without devoting a few pages to the consideration of the manner in which nature and history have reacted on each other4 ,the most elevated highlands1 the loftiest plateaus1 uniform in their aspect1 immense in their extent1 isolated1 without trees1 having the thin soil characteristic of steppes1 and useful only for grazing1 are the home of the primitive nomadic races4 ,without forests and without shelter1 without valleys and without water-courses1 with sandy and rocky soil1 covered with a scanty vegetation1 they serve only to supply food for the gregarious animals which follow man1 and to furnish a home to wandering tribes of herdsmen4 ,instances are found in ,central ,asia1 in ,toorkistan and ,persia1 in ,central ,africa1 including the ,galla tribes and the ,abyssinians4 ,so1 too1 among the high plateaus of ,america1 the home of the primitive ,aztecs4 ,from such places came the first movements of emigration2 from the high plateaus of ,central ,asia came the wandering ,persians1 ,huns1 ,mongolians1 and ,turks2 and the same course of emigration was witnessed among the negro tribes of ,central ,africa1 proceeding from the ,galla tribes4 ,the lower highlands1 less colossal in size1 of more moderate height1 and of more genial temperature1 have at all times reached a certain low stage of culture1 after giving a home to the nomads from the higher plateau2 but have never developed that culture to any considerable extent4 ,we find examples of this in the high terraces of ,bootan1 the ,deccan1 and ,persia2 in ,africa1 among the ,atlas mountains2 in ,abyssinia1 in the ancient ,greek ,arcadia1 in ,castile1 in ,arvernia1 7,auvergne17 in ,gallia1 in ,hesse1 in the ,eifel1 and on the ,valdai hills4 ,in the exceedingly complex1 subdivided1 and romantic mountain districts of the globe1 the races have attained1 by virtue of the variety of their resources and the energy of their stock1 to the highest results of civilization1 and have manifested the most independent and progressive spirit4 ,in such regions1 hunting1 working in wood1 the settled life of shepherds1 working in metals1 agriculture on such terrace lands as those of ,nepaul1 ,cashmere1 ,palestine1 the ,lebanon1 ,apennine1 and other ranges1 fruit culture1 tilling vineyards1 the cultivation of all kinds of industry1 as in ,central ,germany and in most regions of the temperate zone1 develop most thoroughly and speedily the culture of a people4 ,in such occupations men learn to lean more on each other1 and grow into that diversity of occupation and division of labor1 which are the latest results of civilization4 ,the ,zend1 the ,sanscrit1 and the ,persian nations which people the fertile tracts at the base of the ,himalaya ,mountains1 from ,maghada1 ,lahore1 ,nepaul1 and ,cashmere1 as far as ,persepolis and ,hamadan1 ,susa and ,shiraz1 the inhabitants of the hill country of ,palestine and ,syria1 those of the ,tehama range of mountains in ,arabia1 those in the moderately elevated meadows of ,gondar1 as well as those in all the ,european ,alpine lands1 ,switzerland1 ,tyrol1 ,styria1 as well as the inhabitants of the mountain region of ,peru and ,mexico1 all attain to an early and considerably advanced state of civilization4 ,other nations have found in mountains asylums in time of danger--the ,tsherkeses and ,ossetes among the ,caucasus1 for instance1 the ,basques among the ,pyrenees1 and the ,gorals among the ,carpathians4 ,the lowlands1 as soon as the water had left them enough to make them habitable1 have become1 from the first1 the abodes of a teeming population2 and there has been the same blending of races in the most ancient as in the most recently settled1 in ,china as in ,texas1 and1 in truth1 all ,north ,america4 ,often these inroads of population have been a source of injury1 as has been the case in the northern ,siberian plains1 where the ,finnish tribes have made their homes1 and in the waste of ,sahara1 where the ,barbary tribes1 the ,bedouins1 the ,tibboos1 and the ,tuaricks have made their retreat4 ,on the fruitful terraces1 along the middle course of rivers1 the earliest fixed habitations and ripened culture have been attained4 ,through the traditional handing down of past results1 and by the habits of peace1 their inhabitants have more thoroughly subjected nature and advanced to a higher state of civilization than the dwellers in the interior1 away from the rivers4 ,it has been the same1 in a great measure1 with the lower course1 as1 for instance1 in ,egypt1 ,mesopotamia1 ,china1 and ,bengal2 and in ,europe1 in ,lombardy1 ,holland1 and the ,netherlands1 where1 to the efforts to recover land from the sea1 have been added fishing and commerce4 ,on such fruitful tracts as the mouths and middle courses of rivers water1 nations could find a permanent home1 and pass quickly to all liberal and refining arts and occupations4 ,this is clear1 from the instances of the eminent monarchies of the ,east1 ,meroe1 ,thebes1 ,memphis1 ,babylon1 ,nineveh1 ,bagdad1 and ,mosul4 ,so1 too1 on the ,indus and ,ganges1 in the domains of ,taxila1 ,maghada1 ,benares2 and later in the great empire1 whose centers were ,agra and ,delhi4 ,china has arrived at its highest civilization in the fertile district between its two greatest rivers4 ,greece and ,rome are marked exceptions4 ,their progress they owe1 not to great river basins1 but to their peninsular form in the middle of the coast of a delightful sea1 full of islands and surrounded by lands in a greater or less advanced state of civilization4 ,england's peculiar maritime position has given it its wonderful vantage-ground for progress in all human culture4 ,in the east of ,europe1 the basins of rivers have exercised the same influence1 to a certain extent1 that has been hinted at above2 and ,moscow1 ,kiev1 ,cracow1 and ,warsaw remain the seats of a civilization which1 rude as it was1 owed its existence to the physical conditions of the great ,sarmatian river systems4 ,in western ,europe1 the less marked features of the country have contributed to the peculiar historical development of the continent4 ,the rich deltas have become the granaries for a large part of the population1 allowing industry to flow into other channels besides agriculture4 ,the sea-faring habits of the people along the coast have broken up and done away with what is special and provincial1 and have conferred a cosmopolitan manner of living upon the entire population4 ,it was the same with the ,phenicians in ancient times1 with the ,portuguese in the middle ages1 as it has been with the ,english1 ,spanish1 and ,dutch in modern days4 ,fishing1 navigation1 and trade have become permanent necessities of civilization4 ,in the heart of continental ,europe1 the rivers have had a great influence on the progress of nations2 the ,north ,german streams have extended their effect from the abode of the ancient ,saxons along the ,baltic as far as the home of the ,salic ,franks on the ,scheldt1 ,seine1 and ,loire2 the ,danube1 with its complex and important system of terraces and lowlands1 has opened communication between ,south ,germany and ,hungary1 ,wallachia1 and the ,east4 ,the ,vistula1 ,oder1 ,elbe1 and ,weser have connected the homes of the old ,sclavic population with the ,scandinavian coasts and the land of the ,angles and ,saxons at the neck of ,denmark1 to the equal advantage of both4 ,the great terrace system of the ,rhine1 embracing the ,odenwald1 ,hardt1 ,spessart1 ,taunus1 ,hundsrck1 ,eifel1 and the ,siebengebirg1 has thrown into the most active industrial and commercial relations the whole district which it waters4 ,it opened a way to the ,romans in their conquering advances before it did to the tribes of ,helvetia1 ,gallia1 ,germania1 or the ,lowlands3 it sundered those tribes1 and kept them from preying upon each other2 but1 in the advance of civilization1 it has become one of the strongest bands to knit together the central countries of ,europe4 ,the ,danube1 with its extensive terrace lands1 faces the east1 and has1 therefore1 very different relations to ,european history from the ,rhine4 ,it is a double-headed river1 and one of its head-streams1 the one which bears the name of the river proper1 extends almost to the ,rhine basin2 while the other1 the ,jura1 has its source in ,grisons1 and hard by the head-waters of the ,rhine4 ,as the ,danube connects the ,caspian and ,black ,sea basin with western ,europe1 and the largest part of the ,asiatic immigrations have followed its course1 the ,danube has become the great avenue between ,europe and ,asia4 ,celts1 ,teutons1 and ,romans were mingled even before ,christ1 in ,noricum1 ,vindelecia1 ,bavaria1 and ,suabia4 ,how many tribes may have been crowded westward by these1 is unknown to us4 ,the same fate has happened to the people who settled there before ,christ1 and the inroads of the ,huns1 ,goths1 and other tribes of similar origin1 scattered the older inhabitants over all ,central ,germany4 ,we know1 too1 that ,sclavic1 ,hungarian1 and ,turkish incursions followed1 each one dispossessing wholly or in part the one which preceded it4 ,all great rivers and river systems have had a similar influence on the course of civilization4 ,there is not a single type feature in the world which has not contributed its part to the advance of the human race2 no one is without its place and its function4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,the ,configuration of the ,continents4 ,all the divisions of the earth1 taken together in their internal and external connections1 in their mutual action and reaction1 constitute the unity of the globe1 and make apparent that it is a simple organism1 designed and created by divine skill1 and intended to be the home of a race whose culture should1 in the course of centuries1 unfold from the most simple beginnings to the most complex and elaborate perfection4 ,we have already seen that the surface of the earth is naturally divided into three typical features--highland1 lowland1 and the transition terraces between them4 ,from the vertical and horizontal combination of these result the most of the geographical forms which are the subject of our study4 ,they form what we may1 for convenience1 call the bas-relief of the globe4 ,at the creation of the earth every great continental division received 7as every other organism has1 regarded by itself1 and not in relation to the greater whole of which it forms a part7 its own special form4 ,each continent is like itself alone2 its characteristics are not shared by any other4 ,each one was so planned and so formed as to have its own special function in the progress of human culture4 ,this may be seen by reviewing the history of the past2 this may fairly be suspected yet to be in the future4 ,the individuality of each continent raises it to a place where its characteristics give it an independent character1 and a capacity of development of itself1 up to a certain point1 but never beyond it4 ,the continents are never to be regarded as high1 dead masses of land1 but as vital and effective instruments1 working upon each other ceaselessly1 and helping each other to attain the consummation intended in the counsels of the ,divine ,mind4 ,the unity of the earth1 the unity of the continents1 the unity of every physical feature of the continents1 and the building all up together in a perfect symmetry and mutual adaptation of parts1 is the crowning thought of ,geographical ,science4 ,the study of first causes has no less clear illustrations in the course of our investigations than elsewhere4 ,it is the task of science to show the nature and mutual relations of all the subjects which fall within the scope of ,natural ,history4 ,the nature of the parts is only understood from a comprehension of the whole2 not the reverse1 however4 ,that is a most just saying of ,plato4 ,the knowledge of the universal cannot proceed from a knowledge of the special4 ,as the part is formed only in view of and on account of the whole1 in its study1 dissociated from the whole1 it becomes a mere unit and independent existence4 ,from understanding the solar system1 we might arrive at a knowledge of the motion of the earth2 and so1 from a knowledge of the earth1 we may advance to its continents1 their relations1 the characteristics of the different natural divisions1 their subdivisions1 their phenomena1 and their living organization1 embracing man1 animals1 and plants4 ,the external formation of the globe1 or what we may call the configuration of the continents1 rests upon two characteristics--the horizontal and vertical dimensions4 #a4 ,the horizontal dimensions are designated by the sea-line boundary--the geographical limitation4 #b4 ,the vertical dimensions--the physical limitation--are defined by the elevation of terraces and highlands1 and they exhibit the greatest diversity of phenomena4 ,the horizontal dimensions supply most of the material for our elementary compends for political geography1 which seldom make much account of vertical dimensions1 and which1 by no means1 penetrate to their real value4 ,they are commonly held to be a side-matter1 to be touched lightly upon1 or wholly cast aside4 ,but both must be thoroughly studied2 for they are mutually dependent1 and are never found divorced in nature4 ,in order to understand them in their true relations1 we will look at them in their general aspect1 discussing first the horizontal extent of the continents1 then their vertical elevation1 so far as that has not already been treated4 ,after this twofold investigation1 the character of each continent and its subdivisions will appear in its true light4 ,on account of the importance of thoroughly understanding the articulation of great districts1 in contradistinction to a mere division1 which implies no organic and living correlation of parts1 and which gives over to mathematics1 political history1 and fortuitous circumstances the duty of explaining geographical phenomena1 it is instructive to trace the footsteps of our science back to some of the earlier conceptions4 ,eratosthenes and ,polybius were aware that the south of ,europe was a series of peninsulas1 the first of the two speaking of the great peninsulas of ,spain1 ,italy1 and the ,peloponnesus1 the latter adding allusions to the smaller ,grecian peninsula of ,sunium1 the ,thracian on the ,bosporus1 and the ,tauric ,chersonesus1 now known as the ,crimea4 ,strabo got a clearer insight into the significance of these forms1 7whose meaning ,hipparchus had already tried to explain17 by discussing them according to the sea basins which they separate4 ,thus the ,spanish peninsula separates the ,gulf of ,cadiz1 at the ,pillars of ,hercules1 from the ,tyrrhene ,sea2 ,italy separates the ,sicilian ,sea from the ,adriatic2 the ,peloponnesus separates the ,adriatic and the ,euxine4 ,this view1 though apparently simple1 was really profound2 for it hinted at the great significance of the maritime coast in developing the civilization of those countries4 ,and ,strabo goes on to add that ,italy1 with its southeastern and southwestern extremities1 becomes too pointed1 717 and that the eastern peninsulas of ,europe are much more jagged and articulated 7 7 than ,polybius had conceived them to be4 ,he entered1 therefore1 upon a more minute subdivision4 ,strabo had already 7ii4 #ib7 called the ,peloponnesus 8many-parted10 7 17 as the ,laconian peninsula 7,tnarum7 is separated from ,malea1 the ,attic from ,sunium1 and all southern ,europe cannot1 therefore1 be laid out in six parts4 ,of the north of ,europe1 ,strabo was not in a position to gain any accurate conception4 ,toward the end of his second book1 where he gives his reason for beginning his description at the ,west1 he uses the awkward but significant phrase 8polymorphous formation10 to indicate the superiority which ,europe enjoys in its complex articulation over the other continents4 ,the passage in ,strabo runs thus3 8,we begin with ,europe1 because it is so intricately organized1 and is the most favorable for human culture1 and has conferred upon the other continents the most of the advantages which its position has secured for itself4 ,it is habitable almost everywhere2 there is but a little portion of its territory too cold to be the home of man1 etc4 ,it enjoys an admirable physical conformation1 for it is so perfectly harmonized in the mingling of plains and mountains1 7 17 that the city and the country are brought together1 and the people educated by equally favorable conditions to habits of great bravery4 ,europe is1 therefore1 complete in herself1 7 470 ,by this ,strabo indicates the independent character of ,europe1 and its equality with the other continents1 despite its smaller size4 ,yet for long centuries this insight of that keen observer into one of the most weighty of all the physical conditions of the globe was almost wholly overlooked4 ,at length1 however1 ,humboldt brought it out into new life in its climatological relations1 and showed that it is one of the most important considerations to base a study of the distribution of plants and animals upon1 as well as for the study of almost all kinds of physical phenomena4 ,in his very instructive paper on the most prominent reasons for the variation in temperature on the globe1 published in #ahbg1 he uses the significant expression3 8,our ,europe is indebted for its mild climate1 to its position1 and its articulated form40 ,we have adhered to the same view1 and have expanded it in a paper#g called ,the ,geographical ,position and ,horizontal ,extension of the ,continents1 as well as in all my lectures4 ,the ,superficial ,dimensions and ,articulation of the ,continents4 ,we proceed from the more simple to the more complex forms1 and begin1 therefore1 with ,africa1 which has the most uniform contour of all the continents4 ,africa1 the true ,south of the earth1 is distinguished from all the other great divisions of the earth by its almost insular form and its unbroken outline4 ,it is separated from ,asia merely by the ,isthmus of ,suez1 scarcely #gj miles wide4 ,but it is of altogether more virgin a nature than ,asia1 and has been encroached upon by scarcely any foreign influence4 ,africa is a unit in itself2 the most exclusive of continents1 its periphery is almost a perfect ellipse4 ,with the exception of the single ,gulf of ,guinea on the west side1 the continent is a true oval4 ,its linear dimensions are almost equal in length and breadth4 ,it extends about #ce on each side of the equator1 and is about #gj of longitude in width4 ,the length and breadth are both about #ejjj miles4 ,the periphery of its coast is the most simple and unbroken in the world4 ,a single glance at the map is sufficient to show this4 ,nowhere are there the deep arms of the sea and the sinuous shores of other continents4 ,the ,gulf of ,guinea is all4 ,the entire length of its coast-line is but #af1jjj or #ag1jjj miles1 not much more than the circumference of a circle whose diameter is #ejjj miles4 ,its coast-line1 proportioned to its area1 being the shortest on the globe1 gives ,africa the least contact with the ocean of all the continents1 and subjects it to the least amount of oceanic influences4 ,thus all individualization of the various phases of life--vegetable1 animal1 and human--is denied to this continent1 whose extremities1 on account of the equality of its dimensions1 lie equally far removed from the central point4 ,the similar size and configuration of the two lobes north and south of the equator create no strong contrasts1 and give rise merely to tropical and sub-tropical conditions4 ,all the phenomena of this great division1 the real ,south of the earth1 in which all the culminations of the tropical world are found1 are therefore more uniform than in any other part of the world4 ,the characteristics of race remain in their primitive condition1 and have made no progress with the lapse of time3 this region seems to be kept as the refuge of a yet undeveloped future4 ,only general1 never individual and special development in the world of plants1 animals1 nor man1 appear upon this stationary soil2 the palm1 the camel1 and their natural companions appear in equal numbers in the northern1 southern1 eastern1 and western extremities2 the negro is almost exclusively the only inhabitant of the continent4 ,there is no striking individuality apparent in the culture1 stature1 organization1 nor popular characteristics of its various parts4 ,even a common foundation language gives rise to mere dialectical differences4 ,a mere sporadic coast-culture gives rise to mere exceptions here and there1 and these are generally the result1 not of inward progress1 but of imported foreign conditions4 ,asia1 the ,orient1 is wholly unlike ,africa4 ,on three sides it is entirely sea-girt--the south1 the east1 and the north2 on the west only partly1 about #adjj miles4 ,on the west1 too1 it is connected with ,africa1 but not in a way to insure any necessary relations between the two continents4 ,but with ,europe it stands in the most intimate connection1 forming a single body with it1 of which ,europe is really but a great western peninsula4 ,europe1 the ,occident of the ,old ,world1 is therefore for less widely severed from its ,orient than from its real ,south or ,africa4 ,the history of ,asia and that of ,europe are woven with a twisted strand2 they form a single thread1 and their populations are far more closely connected in physical and spiritual organizations than are the people of ,asia and ,africa4 ,asia1 instead of being a simple oval1 approaches the trapezoidal form1 and consequently enters into a new set of relations resulting from its configuration4 ,with the deeply-penetrating gulfs and bays and seas which sink into its trunk1 the prominent peninsulas are in direct correspondence1 marking in an especial manner the eastern and southern coast1 but not lacking on the northern and western4 ,these peninsulas are to be regarded as the limbs of a great central continental trunk4 ,the eastern ones are the ,tchooktchee foreland1 the peninsulas of ,kamtchatka and ,corea1 and the ,chinese foreland4 ,the southern ones are the peninsula of ,farther ,india1 including ,tonquin1 ,siam1 ,malacca1 and ,birmah2 the peninsulas of ,hindostan1 or ,deccan and ,arabia4 ,the western limb is the peninsula of ,asia ,minor or ,australia4 ,the northeast of ,asia is less articulated2 still it has a number of arms pointing southward--the ,sea of ,kara1 the ,gulf of ,obi and ,yenisei1 for example4 ,the whole ,siberian coast even is far more serrated than that of ,africa1 where it is an almost unbroken line4 ,still1 there remains in the interior of ,asia a broad and long mass of the continent1 which is penetrated by no seas4 ,it is to be regarded as the real trunk1 and preponderates immensely over the area of all the confined projections4 ,asia is1 therefore1 a trunk with profuse richness of articulation4 ,africa is a trunk without articulation3 a mere compact continental mass4 ,the immense influence which so complex a coast form has upon all physical phenomena and on all organic life is evident4 ,far greater results must come from the mutual influence of sea and land than from unbroken land2 far more numerous influences upon the climate1 and upon plants1 animals1 and man4 ,even the changing geological structure of the coast-line must have an effect1 when blending with all these other influences1 greater than it would have in the interior4 ,every part of the coast has become different from every other part1 with a different hydrographic and climatic character2 and the great increase of races of men1 and species of plants and animals1 was a natural result4 ,while ,africa remained limited in all its relations1 and destitute of any richness of variety1 ,asia has always enjoyed an amazing fertility of resources4 ,instead of the three races or species of man found in ,africa--,negro1 ,berber1 and ,caffre--many are met in ,asia1 all different1 ,tchooktchees1 ,kamtchadales1 ,coreans1 ,chinese1 ,malays1 ,bermese1 ,hindoos1 ,afghans1 ,persians1 ,arabs1 and ,armenians4 ,and these belong merely to the coast-line4 ,but the contrast of the great central region to the broken coast is so great and complete1 that the advanced culture along the sea-line has not penetrated far into the interior1 nor changed the habits of the nomadic tribes which fill ,central ,asia1 and whose representatives we have in the ,mongolians1 ,toorkomans1 ,kirgheez1 ,bukharians1 ,calmucks1 etc4 ,still less could it reach the distant north1 to which1 with all the splendor which we associate with everything oriental1 the civilization of the southern coasts is utterly wanting4 ,to this element of superficial size1 the immense and almost insuperable obstacles which ,nature has placed so thickly in ,asia may be added1 and also the immense variety of natural productions which climates so different as those of the different parts of the continent exhibit4 ,extending from the equator to the north frigid zone1 ,asia affords a home for the most diversified kinds of plants and animals1 and shows1 too1 hardly less variety in its eastern and western extremes than in its northern and southern4 ,the characteristics of the ,chinese flora and fauna are very widely different from those of ,hither ,asia4 ,in the east1 we have the sago-tree and the tiger2 in the west1 the date-palm and the lion4 ,the north gives us moss1 the conifer1 and the reindeer1 in contrast with the bread-fruit tree1 the sugar-cane1 the broad-leaved banana1 the elephant1 rhinoceros1 tapir1 and monkey of the south4 ,the inexhaustibleness of the ,asiatic continent is not more visible in all this wealth of productivity than in the abundance as well as the variety of human life4 ,though ,asia has been the mother of the world1 and has sent out so many and so eminent races1 it has not been to the depletion of the parent country4 ,in race1 figure1 color1 manner of life1 nationality1 religion1 political and social bonds of union1 forms of government1 culture1 language1 it is so richly diversified1 that no continent1 viewed historically1 can be compared to it4 ,asia seems to have been created to send forth its fruitful scions of life to all the other great divisions of the earth4 ,europe1 the ,occident4 ,the smallest of the three continents of the ,old ,world1 its superficial contents are the largest in proportion to the amount of coast-line4 ,only on the east side has it a land frontier2 and there it has its widest extent from north to south4 ,like ,asia1 it is bordered on three sides by the ocean4 ,asia seems like a mighty trunk1 at whose western extremity the broken and serrated ,occident is found1 advancing in breadth from north to south1 but articulating into arms of various size from east to west1 till it loses itself in the peninsulas of the ,atlantic coast4 ,the nearer to ,asia1 the broader is ,europe1 and the more akin to the ,asiatic character2 the farther from it1 the more minute become its subdivisions1 and the more varied its character4 ,taken in a general way1 the proportion of the truly continental part of ,europe to the maritime districts is much less than is the case in ,asia4 ,its contrast with ,africa is1 of course1 yet more striking4 ,europe begins at the east1 at the foot of the ,ural and ,caucasus1 and at the steppes of ,west ,asia4 ,it does not take1 as ,asia and ,africa do1 7which are alike in this17 a trapezoidal or oval form1 but in its linear dimensions there is a great difference between its length and breadth4 ,by the diminution of its width1 as we go westward1 and by the increase of its articulation1 the number of its internal relations increases toward the ,atlantic4 ,a great falling off in the oriental character which has largely encroached upon ,russia1 and a constant increase of an independent spirit1 is the sure result of natural conditions1 and is experienced in all life and in things material as well as intellectual and moral4 ,the configuration here wins a palpable victory over mere quantity1 and the exceedingly varied coast gives to all ,european institutions their distinctive character4 ,beginning with a breadth of about #adjj miles at the east1 the continent gradually diminishes in width to #ajjj1 #ejj1 and even to #bej miles4 ,its first narrowing is visible between the ,gulf of ,riga and the ,bay of ,odessa2 the next is between the ,baltic and the ,gulf of ,trieste2 the next1 between the ,zuider-,zee and the ,gulf of ,genoa2 the next1 between the ,english ,channel at ,calais and the ,gulf of ,lyons2 and the last1 between ,bayonne and ,perpignan4 ,with almost three times as great a length as breadth1 ,europe extends for a distance of over #cjj miles from the southern part of the ,ural chain and from the ,caucasus to the extremities of the bold coast of ,spain and ,portugal1 ,capes ,finistre and ,st4 ,vincent4 ,in this way the continent assumes very nearly the form of a right-angled triangle1 the right angle lying at the ,caspian1 the base extending westward to ,cape ,finistre1 the perpendicular running northward along the ,ural ,mountains to the ,vaigats ,straits1 and the hypothenuse connecting the two extremities4 ,the area embraced within this triangle would be not far from #b1bjj1jjj square miles4 ,such a triangle1 however1 is not exact1--it is but an approximation to mathematical precision2 but it is clearly enough marked to be traced upon our map1 or1 as a spherical triangle1 upon our globes4 ,all geographical forms have only a more or less remote approach to mathematical exactness1 but enough to aid us very much in representing them and showing their relations4 ,almost all the greater and really important extremities of the continent lie outside of the triangle above indicated2 and this method of treatment only serves to call attention to the great central mass1 which would otherwise be in danger of being overlooked1 in view of the immense value and influence of the countries on the coast and beyond the triangular line of demarkation4 ,it needs but a glance to see how the projecting shores have marred all the theoretical precision of such a line4 ,the coast-line shows itself directly subject to almost boundless diversity4 ,toward the west the independence of each peninsula increases1 the more evidently and prominently according to its distance from ,asia4 ,not articulated on two sides alone1 like ,asia1 the east and south1 but on all three of its sides exposed to the ocean1 the broken coast-line is universal in ,europe1--even toward the colder north1 where its peninsulas and adjacent islands almost inclose two seas1 the ,north and the ,baltic4 ,the advantage which this gives to ,europe over ,asia in respect to the development of its more northern regions1 is very great and evident4 ,we will enumerate the leading peninsulas of ,europe3 ,kola1 on the ,white ,sea1 between ,lake ,enara1 the ,varanger ,fiord1 and the ,bay of ,kandalaska1 pointing westward4 ,scandinavia1 embracing ,norway and ,sweden1 with an area of more than #cej1jjj square miles1 a tenth of all ,europe1 connected with the main land by the isthmus of ,finland1 but otherwise girded in a great bow by the ,atlantic1 the ,north ,sea1 the ,baltic1 and the ,gulf of ,bothnia1 and pointing southward4 ,jutland or ,denmark1 beginning at the ,elbe and the ,trave and running north1 embracing about of ,europe1 between the ,north ,sea and the ,baltic1 low and flat4 ,the subdivided peninsula of ,holland1 between the ,rhine and the ,ems1 a flat plain1 looking to the north4 ,the peninsula of ,normandy and ,brittany1 between the ,seine and the ,loire1 a rocky granite formation1 jutting out into the ,atlantic and faced by bold precipices4 ,spain and ,portugal1 embracing about #bbj1jjj square miles1 about of ,europe1 rhomboidal in shape1 almost insular in position1 turned southwesterly1 its surface a series of constantly rising terraces4 ,italy1 embracing of ,europe1 between the ,alps and ,sicily1 and traversed by a mountain range4 ,turkey and ,greece1 or summing it more strictly under one word1 the ,grecian peninsula1 between the ,danube and the ,morea1 a most minutely divided region of plateaus and mountain chains2 in truth1 the most articulated peninsula in the world1 and embracing of ,europe4 ,the ,crimea1 a rhomboidal peninsula1 turned to the south--its northern half a flat steppe1 its southern a high plateau--the only peninsula of southeastern ,europe projecting into the ,black ,sea4 ,every one of these peninsulas differs from every other in shape2 every one has a distinct individuality imposed upon it4 ,within the smallest compass on earth1 relatively speaking1 there is found around ,europe the very largest variety in its articulations4 ,the ,grecian peninsula finds its only superior on the northwest of ,europe1 in the coast of insulated ,england4 ,by means of this characteristic separation of so many more or less individualized parts of the continent through the agency of arms of the sea1 the coast-line of ,europe has been prolonged to an extraordinary length4 ,the areas of the three continents of the ,old ,world are as follows in round numbers3 ,europe1 #c1ejj1jjj square miles2 ,africa1 #aa1hjj1jjj square miles2 and ,asia1 #ai1cjj1jjj square miles4 ,although the superficial contents of ,africa are three times that of ,europe1 the length of the coast-line is so far from being equal1 that that of ,europe is much the greater1 being #be1djj miles4 ,the ,asiatic coast-line is about one-third longer still1 #cb1ijj miles2 but1 as the area of ,asia is more than five times that of ,europe1 a great part of the ,asiatic coast-line1 that on the north1 from ,nova ,zembla to ,kamtchatka1 must be considered as unimportant in relation to the development of the resources of ,asia4 ,europe is1 therefore1 that continent of the ,old ,world which has relatively1 and ,i might almost say absolutely1 received the largest coast-line of any1 encompassing a distance of #be1djj miles4 ,that is to say1 the coast-line of ,europe1 extended in a straight line1 would pass around the globe and coincide with the equator4 ,to this admirable feature may be added its favorable relation in situation to the various oceanic and wind currents1 and its magnificent supply of harbors1 the result of its articulated coast1 all of which have made ,europe the mistress of the seas4 ,within modern times1 the island group of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 the richest in harbors1 is to the continent what1 in ancient times1 the ,greek peninsula was1 with its wealth of inlets1 which gave it the command of the ,mediterranean4 ,a rich gift this has been to the smallest of the continents of the ,old ,world1 to equalize its condition with others4 ,the providential wisdom which 8sets one thing over against another10 is clearly manifest in this4 ,europe1 though in the center of the great continental land-mass1 becomes the most maritime of all1 the most approachable of all2 or1 in other words1 its countries and its peoples are the most closely connected with the sea of all in the ,old ,world1 because they stand in the most unbroken contact with it4 ,thus we discover the characteristic type which was impressed on ,europe from the very first4 ,its relation to the world could not be understood by the ancients1 as to them half of the earth lay in unbroken darkness4 ,only by experience1 only by the advance of civilization1 and by comparison with all the other continents1 could this insight be gained4 ,doubtless many similar relations yet remain unknown and unsuspected1 which will some day come to the light4 ,the earth1 as a planet1 is only a grain of seed-corn sown by the ,creator1 enriched with powers of unfolding to infinite perfection in the unexplored future4 ,what we now perceive are only the elementary principles--our knowledge only a motley2 but even this is not without its uses1 and is worthy of patient mastery4 ,europe1 so broken in its coast1 and rifted far toward its center by arms of the sea1 has been affected in all its civil and social history to a very great extent4 ,this is the first natural condition of its progress1 the true physical basis of the fact that1 upon the most limited of the continents1 the greatest historical diversity has sprung up4 ,it is not absolute size1 but relative1 which gives the pre-eminence2 not the raw material1 the mere mass1 but its articulation1 its form1 which here1 as everywhere1 gives mind the mastery over matter4 ,as in the animal and vegetable world there is1 amid all the diversity of forms1 a constant advance from a lower to a higher plane1 manifesting itself in the complexity of the organs2 so1 in the so-called unorganized side of nature1 we see the same characteristic as soon as we have grasped the whole mutual system of adaptations4 ,the most general study of the differences between the continents exhibits an analogous harmony and correlation4 ,as the simple1 broad-leaved1 solid cactus1 or bunch-trunked euphorbia1 7peculiar to the dry sand steppes of ,america and ,africa17 appear branchless and without foliage1--the lower and undeveloped forms of vegetation1--so1 too1 the regions to which they are indigenous are the unbroken plains of ,north ,america1 or the plateaus of still less broken ,africa4 ,the broken coast-line of ,asia and ,europe is analogous to that higher development which we find in the palm and in the full1 round crown of the ,european fruit-tree1 which bears blossoms and fruit as far as the very extremities of the branches4 ,in the animal organization1 the articulation of ,europe is to be compared with the complex hand of man1 so far superior to the prehensile organs of lower creatures1 that ,buffon saw in that feature alone the manifestation of man's place among the animal kingdom4 ,if we look out over the earth1 we see that the limbs of the continents1 so to speak1 the coasts1 the peninsulas1 and the adjacent islands1 are the most favored places of all for civilization to find its true home upon4 ,with the degree of diversity in the structure of a country1 the value of its organisms advances4 ,in this respect1 ,europe may be considered as the branches and foliage of a great tree1 whose trunk and root are to be traced to ,central ,asia1 ,africa being a stunted side-shoot4 ,or1 to compare the continents to a still higher class of forms1 ,europe may be called the ,face of the ,old ,world1 out of which the soul of humanity could look more clearly into the great and promising future4 ,we repeat it--it is not absolute size1 it is not the mass nor the weight of the material1 it is the form1 in its greater complexity1 which determines the fate of nations and decrees the advancement of man4 ,this gift1 in its full measure1 has been conferred on ,europe4 ,in its complex articulation lies still another characteristic of ,europe in contradistinction to the other continents4 ,if in ,africa the coast offers no contrast to the interior1 and both remain on the same low plane of development1 ,asia1 on the contrary1 displays a perfect antagonism between its central regions and its sea-board4 ,the territory of the ,mongolians1 the ,tartars1 and ,toorkomans has always remained at the very lowest stage of civilization4 ,the sea-board1 on the other hand1 has witnessed the growth of a number of isolated nations1 who1 without the help of mutual dependence1 have arrived at a considerably high degree of culture--the ,chinese1 ,malays1 ,hindoos1 ,persians1 ,arabians1 ,syrians1 and ,armenians4 ,but their influence could not penetrate to the compact interior1 to transform its nature1 nor modify its nationalities4 ,individual progress in nations1 however high it may be carried1 can never contribute much toward any real penetration of the interior of so vast a region as ,central ,asia4 ,europe shows in its construction and the relations to which it gives rise characteristics exactly opposite4 ,being far less massive1 the proportion of its extremities to the undeveloped interior is much less great than in ,asia4 ,from this1 it results that the central part does not prove a hinderance to civilization1 viewed physically1 hydrographically1 or historically2 it nowhere serves as a barrier1 but rather as a mediator1 and a means of communication between the extremities4 ,this has given ,europe a character exactly opposite to that of ,asia3 its ,north and its ,south are united1 its ,east and its ,west2 they are not like antagonistic poles1 but extend to each other friendly hands4 ,in ,africa1 the greater part of the interior lies absolutely without contact with and relations to the coast4 ,in ,asia1 there is a much larger portion of the interior equally without connection with the sea-board1 and remaining up to this day in its primitive barbarism4 ,symmetry of form gains in ,europe a clear advantage over mere mass4 ,europe1 the smallest of the continents1 was destined to gain precedence over all the rest1 ,asia included4 ,as ,asia1 lying within all the zones1 colossal in size1 and most plentifully enriched with the gifts of nature1 was fitted to be the nursery of supply for all other parts of the world without impoverishing itself2 so ,europe1 limited in size and confined to the temperate zone1 but most complex in its subdivision1 having a great diversity in its ocean inlets1 as well as in its hills1 valleys1 plateaus1 and mountains1 yet1 without great extremes1 has been especially fitted for the reception of stranger races1 and for the development of their energies and the advance of their culture4 ,the symmetry and harmony of ,europe have constituted the true home of all varieties of national character1 and have adapted it to their mutual action1 and to the transfer of their distinctive character to one another4 ,throughout the entire center of ,europe there is an intimate connection with the sea-coast and with the extremities1 with the least possible disadvantages4 ,this is accomplished by those sinuous river-courses whose analogies are to be found nowhere in the adjacent continents4 ,the very broadest part of ,russia even is intersected with large navigable rivers2 and the west and center of ,europe are not less richly supplied with these lines of communication1 whose starting-points lie often close together1 as in the case of the ,danube1 the ,rhine1 the ,po1 and the ,rhone4 ,how different is this from the hydrographical system of ,central ,asia1 where the sources of the eastern rivers lie thousands of miles removed from those of the western rivers1 and where the rivers of the north are separated by almost as great distances from those of the south6 ,to what nature has given to ,europe man has largely added1 seeking by means of canals and railways to make the whole continent subject to him and auxiliary to his needs4 ,in this way the interior districts have appropriated to themselves the advantages of the sea-coast1 and the distance which it has placed between itself and ,asia and ,africa has only been increased4 ,nature first gave ,europe its vantage-ground1 and man has gone on from that point and doubled the gifts of nature4 ,great peninsulas stretch away into both the great inland seas of ,europe--that of the ,north and that of the ,south2 the ,danish and ,scandinavian peninsulas into the complex1 and yet1 physically speaking1 single body of water1 embracing the ,north ,sea1 ,baltic1 and ,gulf of ,bothnia2 ,spain1 ,italy1 and the ,grecian peninsula extending southward into the ,mediterranean4 ,in the latter there is the greatest contrast between the deeply-indented northern shore and the bare1 sandy coast of the ,african side4 ,in just as great contrast is the uniformly unbroken sea-line of northern ,siberia1 compared with the articulated shore of northern ,russia4 ,how entirely different would the development of northern ,asia have been1 if a ,siberian inland sea had penetrated to the very foot of the ,altai1 as the seas of northern ,europe have pierced to the center of the continent6 ,and had the shallow ,syrtis cleft northern ,africa as far as ,lake ,tchad1 as the ,adriatic has done on the opposite coast1 ,central ,africa would not now be a terra incognita4 ,the northern as well as the southern extremities of ,europe1 so far as they are projected into inland seas1 have received an equal size and equal natural advantages1 each of its own kind1 so that1 conditioned by its own peculiarities1 its population have helped it to attain its rightful place1 and an individuality independent of continental influences4 ,the abundant resources which each of these extremities enjoys have insured it1 in a physical as well as historical view1 an independence which has reacted favorably upon the whole continent4 ,what a debt does not ,europe owe to the ,greeks1 ,italians1 ,spaniards1 ,dutch1 ,danes1 ,scandinavians6 ,how entirely different would the whole development of the shores of ,europe have been1 had they been bold1 inaccessible rocks1 an unbroken line of coast1 like ,uralaska1 or the smaller ,asiatic peninsulas of ,kamtchatka and ,malacca6 ,and where would the accomplished ,european stand to-day1 in comparison with his black neighbor on the south1 were it not for the articulated coast-line of the continent which gives him his home8 ,and still there remains1 out of the inexhaustible richness of nature1 one leading feature to be taken into account4 ,to estimate it properly1 we must pay attention briefly to the islands of the three continents of the ,old ,world4 ,islands4 ,europe1 as a continent1 is distinguished by its adjacent islands4 ,following the irregular coast-line of its many extremities1 they lie along1 in greater or less number1 the satellites1 so to speak1 of the main land4 ,they are scattered almost everywhere1 yet not distant from the coast1 like ,iceland1 but within sight of the shore4 ,in character they resemble the adjacent coast1 and form a true part of the main land1 except in the one fact of separation4 ,strabo even called ,sicily an insular continuation of ,italy1 and discriminated between islands found in mid-ocean and those found near the coast1 calling the former pelagic and the latter littoral islands4 ,these he regarded as having been at some previous period rent from the main land4 ,the coast islands are by no means1 like many of the pelagic islands1 mere rocky groups1 thrown up by volcanic convulsions1 or small1 desolate1 barren ledges4 ,they are very diverse in character3 some are fertile single islands1 like ,sicily1 ,candia1 ,bornholm1 ,rugen1 ,negropont2 some are double islands1 like ,britain and ,ireland1 ,zealand and ,funen1 ,corsica and ,sardinia2 some are island groups1 like the #c ,balearic islands1 the #c ,maltese islands1 the #bj ,ionian islands1 the #fg ,orkneys1 the #ij ,shetlands1 the still more numerous ,hebrides1 the ,aland group1 and that of the ,grecian archipelago4 ,they are generally of very large size1 in comparison with the continent to which they are adjacent2 a characteristic not only very rare in islands1 but which must exert great influence4 ,they are to be viewed1 therefore1 as continuations of ,europe1 not as lands sundered from the main land2 they are to be considered as its sea-ports1 and the mediators between ,europe and the other continents4 ,in round numbers1 the islands of ,europe embrace about #age1jjj square miles--a twentieth of the continent4 ,this amount of insular territory has given ,europe a great diversity of relations1 and has contributed much to its ethnographical character4 ,imagine only ,england and her whole group struck out of existence4 ,what impoverishment it would bring6 ,the ,danish peninsula1 without the adjacent islands of ,funen and ,zealand1 were a mere tongue of sand4 ,without ,sicily to furnish grain1 ,rome's history had been entirely different from what it was4 ,what a change it would have made in the development of ,italy and ,greece1 had the ,cyclades and ,crete not served as a bridge1 over which the civilization of ,hither ,asia might pass6 ,yet these islands1 with their inhabitants1 do not stand in necessary dependence on the contiguous main land2 they have often in themselves the conditions of independent growth and prosperity4 ,and yet the geological qualities and general features of islands may agree very closely with those of the land hard by2 as is the case with the ,british1 ,danish1 ,italian1 and ,grecian groups4 ,southern ,england is a continuation of northern ,france1 ,picardy1 and the ,netherlands1 as the geology of these districts shows4 ,sicily is a continuation of the volcanic soil of ,calabria1 and ,candia of the ,morea4 ,hence the possibility1 despite the separation of islands from the main land1 of a close connection in the habits1 manners1 and culture of the people1 thus separated1 depending as they do on a common soil1 and having the same industries in common4 ,it would be entirely different in ,great ,britain1 for example1 if the south end of ,england were geologically formed like the north end of ,scotland4 ,instead of harmony there would be repulsion1 and that mutual interchange of relations would not exist which has so powerful an influence on the whole course of ,european history4 ,the remarkable number of islands on the coast of ,europe1 and their significance and value1 formerly escaped attention2 or rather their influence on the development of that continent1 in comparison with others1 was not made a matter of study4 ,africa has never enlarged its domain through the aid of adjacent islands4 ,poor as it is in all coast indentations1 it is just as poor in islands4 ,only a few insignificant ones1 which have no close geological connection with the shore1 are found here4 ,the sporadic groups found in the ,atlantic and ,indian ,oceans are almost exclusively the product of subterranean forces1 and are entirely unlike the stratified lime and sandstone formations of the coast4 ,there is1 therefore1 no close connection between the inanimate nature of continent and islands and their respective populations2 no physical conditions have imposed upon them a common historical development4 ,only the ,canary ,islands1 southwest of the ,atlas ,mountain range1 and ,madagascar1 could be regarded as at all exceptional to this4 ,but the nine ,canaries are relatively extremely small1 embracing but about #cjjj square miles in all2 much too small to exercise any important influence1 or to harbor a large population4 ,besides1 they are separated from the main land by marine currents1 which would prevent any very important reaction1 however large the islands in themselves might be4 ,the ,cape ,verd islands1 embracing only about #agej square miles1 stand in yet more unfavorable relations to the main land4 ,so1 too1 the solitary islands of ,st4 ,helena and ,ascension1 and in the ,indian ,ocean the scattered groups of the ,camara1 ,amirante1 and ,seychelle islands1 embracing all together but #ccjj square miles1 and ,socotra1 about #agej square miles4 ,only ,madagascar would be large enough to enrich the continent essentially1 if it were nearer to the main land4 ,but it is separated from it by the broad and dangerous ,mozambique ,channel2 both1 therefore1 have remained without mutual relations2 their populations are entirely unlike1 and there has been no exchange of productions between them4 ,madagascar is1 therefore1 only apparently1 and by the apparent contiguity of the mass1 a neighbor of ,africa2 but1 in reality1 i4e4 as it relates to the organic unity of all the various parts of the globe1 it is far more intimately connected by the system of marine currents to the ,malayan ,archipelago1 southeast of ,asia1 than to ,africa4 ,entirely different is it with the island system of ,asia4 ,the eastern and southern sides are remarkably characterized by the profuse numbers of islands found there4 ,it might be said1 that what ,africa lacks in this regard1 ,asia more than supplies4 ,on the ,asiatic coast they appear in such vast numbers that they have been called1 in contrast with the ,old and ,new ,worlds1 the ,island ,world1 or ,polynesia4 ,they appear under the most varied conditions--in long rows1 in massive groups1 and here and there singly4 ,they begin with the ,north ,polar islands1 and pass southward in unbroken succession past the equator as far as the tropic of ,capricorn4 ,the ,aliaska chain connects the northwest coast of ,america with ,kamtchatka2 it comprises over #ajj islands1 and embraces about #gffj square miles4 ,the ,koorile island extends to the south as far as ,saghalien and ,yesso4 ,the ,japanese chain runs southward as far as ,cape ,corea1 and includes the great island of ,niphon with numerous smaller ones1 embracing an area of #afd1jjj square miles4 ,then follow3-- ,the ,loo-,choo islands as far as ,formosa4 ,the single island of ,formosa1 #ac1jjj square miles4 ,the coast island of ,hainan1 #af1dej square miles4 ,the numerous group of the ,philippines1 with the adjacent islands1 #aba1jjj square miles4 ,the greater ,sunda group1 with its adjoining archipelago1 #fhi1ejj square miles4 ,of these1 ,borneo embraces #bie1fjj square miles2 ,sumatra1 #afg1gjj square miles2 ,java1 #ed1fjj square miles2 and ,celebes1 #gb1fjj square miles4 ,the smaller ,sunda group1 #bi1bjj square miles4 ,the scattered group of the ,moluccas1 with the ,banda and ,ternate islands1 #giej square miles4 ,the great island of ,new ,guinea1 #bfb1hjj square miles1 which forms the transition of the ,australian group4 ,on the south coast of ,deccan1 the great island of ,ceylon1 #be1hfj square miles4 ,these rows and groups of islands1 embracing an aggregate of #a1jie1jjj square miles1 form a kind of insular isthmus from the southeastern extremity of ,asia to the northwest of ,australia1 though broken by unnumbered straits4 ,if lines be drawn from ,sumatra and from ,hainan to ,cape ,york1 on the north coast of ,australia1 an ideal isthmus would be formed not unlike that which connects ,north and ,south ,america4 ,if this insular isthmus be further conceived to have been thrown up by volcanic forces1 as that of ,panama seems to have been1 an addition of #a1jie1jjj square miles has been made in this way to the most productive portions of the world4 ,so great is the accession of territory that it has become the abode of a distinct race--the ,malay--which hardly finds a home at all on the ,asiatic shore4 ,asia has received very little advantage from this vast archipelago4 ,only the southeast coast has been affected by it2 the continent1 as a whole1 has not been reached by its influence4 ,on the contrary1 ,australia has been largely affected by it in its productive and ethnographical character4 ,not only was it first discovered through the agency of these islands1 but it probably derives its population from them2 it has received many of its animals and plants from them--the sugar-cane1 the sago palm1 the bread-fruit tree1 the dog1 and the swine4 ,in ,polynesia1 which1 in point of size1 far surpasses the ,antilles group north of ,south ,america1 we have the most dismembered region on the surface of the globe4 ,it is the highest degree of insulation1 of individualization1 and results from the extreme carrying out of dispersing causes4 ,the space occupied by the greater ,sunda group1 with its five seas--the ,china1 ,java1 ,molucca1 ,celebes1 and ,mindoro--together with the islands adjacent1 the whole lying between longitude #aaj and #afj east and latitude #aj south and #bj north1 a tract #cebe miles long and #baae miles wide may worthily be compared with the area of ,europe4 ,such a mass of island groups and single isles1 belonging not to ,asia with any strict right1 but in truth a maritime world of itself1 having but the slightest connections with the adjacent continent1 is not to be compared with the island system of ,europe1 which is bound to the main land by the closest ties4 ,were a similar insular dismemberment the universal principle on which the world is constructed1 and were there no continents whatever1 there would be an entire want of direct dependence in nations upon each other1 and a degree of independence which would be fatal to the best interests of man4 ,europe would be broken up into a number of great islands1 like ,borneo1 and into countless islets4 ,in the conformation of ,europe1 however1 there is the happiest system of compensations1 and the most harmonious play of contrasts to be found in the world4 ,the disadvantages of a too great dividing up into islands1 as in ,polynesia1 and of too compact and unrifted a central mass1 as in ,africa1 are alike shunned4 ,both extremes could not fail to be injurious to the best interests of the population4 ,the fullness and richness of nature might1 perhaps1 be increased2 but the effects on human life could not fail to be bad4 ,man's highest development does not consist with any extreme in the natural world3 it is linked to the action and reaction of contrasts4 ,in ,polynesia1 the district of extreme dismemberment1 the ,malays are the least homogeneous of any race on the earth4 ,malays1 ,battahs1 ,dakkas1 ,horasuras1 and ,papuas are all engaged in destructive war on each other1 and are among the most degraded peoples on the globe4 ,in this region there is the greatest diversity in physical nature1 but not in the essential characteristics of man4 ,one point of accord ought not to be passed by3 there1 where the forces of nature1 maritime and volcanic1 are on the greatest scale known1 the warlike passions of man are on a not less consuming scale4 ,in ,polynesia there are the rankest vegetation1 the most fervid heat1 the most costly spices1 animals very large and rare2 but man attains to no such superiority1--he degenerates in worth and takes a low place4 ,where the three natural kingdoms attain their perfection1 man seems to linger in the rear4 ,in ,africa1 where there is perfect uniformity in nature1 there is uniformity in man2 and the negro stock1 though prolific1 gives no race of high development to the world4 ,both extremes are equally unfavorable to the advance of man2 he must have1 in order to expand and take the place to which his possibilities lead him1 a sphere of mutual conditions1 to which a compact continent like ,africa and ,central ,asia can lay no claim1 and at the same time be free from that extreme individualization characteristic of the islands of ,polynesia4 ,europe lies between these extremes4 ,limited in area1 diversified in surface1 and deeply indented in its coast-line1 it has experienced all the advantages which a continent needs for its development1 and for that historical greatness which ,europe has won for itself4 ,less striking in natural scenery and comparatively poor in resources1 its contrasts in respect mainly to the action of its inland seas and rivers over the main land have conduced to the happiest results4 ,it has become the school for the ,old and the ,new ,world1 taking the vitality and the crude gifts of ,asia and turning them into channels where they could issue in new forms for the advancement and the humanizing of the race4 ,the ,results of the above ,considerations briefly stated4 ,it will be seen1 from what has now been said1 that1 with an area three times less than that of ,africa1 ,europe 7including its adjacent islands7 has a coast-line twice as extended4 ,without the islands1 it is #be1chj miles in length1 or the circumference of the earth4 ,the coast-line of ,africa extends #ag1hfj miles2 that of ,asia #cb1ijj4 ,the exceedingly varying areas of the continents may now be passed in very speedy review4 ,europe is but a fifth as large as ,asia4 ,it is somewhat more than a quarter as large as ,africa2 it is almost of the same size with ,australia4 ,in relation to ,america1 it stands between ,asia and ,africa2 it makes about of all the continents1 and about of all the land surface of the globe2 but it is not absolute size1 but relative1 which determines the importance of a continent2 and this twentieth part of all the land on the globe has had paramount influence over all the rest within the past few centuries4 ,the ethnographical character of its population has had great weight in securing this result1 and other reasons will doubtless be more apparent in the future4 ,one of the most important features in the study of the relative importance of the continents is the comparative relation of the main trunk1 articulation1 and island system to each other4 ,the following table presents this relation as it exists in the ,old ,world3-- ,africa3 trunk #a1 extremities #j1 islands ,asia3 0 #d1 0 #a1 0 ,europe3 0 #b1 0 #a1 0 ,these are but approximations to the exact mathematical statement2 but they serve to indicate comprehensively this important fact4 ,no exact canon now exists for the perfect expression of the relations of the continents to each other1 and their physical superiority and inferiority1 and its lack is no less felt than it has been in art to express the comparative importance of the organs of the human body in giving a representation of man4 ,the ,new ,world4 ,america is broken by the ,caribbean ,sea into a double continent1 both parts being of colossal magnitude1 although the southern portion is about #b1jjj1jjj square miles less in area than the northern4 ,north ,america contains #i1jee1adf square miles4 ,south ,america contains #g1jgc1hge square miles2 and both contain #af1abi1jba4 ,the connecting link is found in the tapering isthmus of ,central ,america1 with its #cjb1ddc square miles of surface4 ,but closely connected as is the northern part of the continent with the southern1 in a physical sense1 in real connection1 so far as man is concerned1 they are widely separated4 ,during the three centuries which have elapsed since the discovery of ,america1 the ,spanish and the ,americans have thought of breaking the connection--of sundering the isthmus4 ,all communication between ,north and ,south ,america takes place by water1 absolutely none by land4 ,even before the navigation of the historical period1 there seems to have been no land road opened along the isthmus4 ,the old race of the ,caribs passed in boats from the ,appalachian mountain land of ,north ,america to ,south ,america and the ,west ,indies4 ,the ,toltecs and ,aztecs--the oldest tribes which wandered southward--seemed to have ended their march on the high plateau of ,mexico and the vale of ,anahuac4 ,the legends of the ,incas give us no tidings of their traversing the isthmus and reaching ,peru on foot1 and it is probable that they reached that land otherwise4 ,the isthmus seems never to have been a bridge1 but always a barrier4 ,the great ,antilles group of islands appears to have served far more as a means of communication between ,north and ,south ,america4 ,in respect of contour1 both divisions have an unmistakable analogy1 which appears at first view4 ,both exhibit a triangular form1 with the base at the north and the apex at the south4 ,toward the south1 too1 rather than toward the west1 speaking in general terms1 the gradual conquests of man advance1 and therefore there cannot be in the ,new ,world1 as in the ,old1 a striking contrast between the ,orient and the ,occident4 ,east and west1 in the ,new ,world1 are less dependent on each other2 they have more individuality1 but with a great preponderance of importance in the east over the west side1 by reason of the more favorable situation in relation to the sea1 less sharpness and boldness of physical features1 and a more scanty population4 ,the west side of ,america has by no means kept up with the advance of its eastern side4 ,nor could the more southern shores of ,america compete with those on the northeast1 and supply an analogy to the occident of the ,old ,world2 for ,north ,america stands related to ,europe by ties of the closest nature1 by wind systems1 currents1 a not dissimilar climate1 and is far more nearly connected with it than with ,south ,america3 nor could the latter derive any real advantage from its opposite neighbor1 rude and undeveloped ,africa2 nor has the ,caribbean ,sea performed any such service for ,america as the ,mediterranean has for ,europe1 being twice as large in area and far more unfavorably situated to advance the interests of civilization4 ,it is only within a recent period that the ,caribbean has become a valuable auxiliary to the culture of the world4 ,south ,america is only a colossal right-angled triangle of land1 with very little articulation in its shores4 ,the northwest and the eastern angles are sharply defined1 and the southern one is very acute1 the continent running out in the shape of a thin wedge4 ,with some modifications1 it has the same form with its neighbor ,africa1 and is just as unvarying in its want of a serrated coast1 its sea-line being but #af1jjj miles in length1 almost the same as that of ,africa4 ,like ,africa1 too1 ,south ,america is destitute of peninsulas and adjacent islands2 its coast is as unindented as that of ,africa and ,australia1 all three of these continents of the southern hemisphere being in strict conformity4 ,yet ,south ,america is capable of great progress3 its conditions are very plastic2 it is characterized by the size and number of the great rivers which pass through its very center2 its flora and fauna are extremely rich4 ,in the fruitfulness of its soil1 its division by mountains1 and its water system1 it holds great pre-eminence over ,africa4 ,an effort to connect its great rivers1 and thus to make its immense natural advantages of mutual service1 seems to promise a far more prosperous future for ,south ,america than can be predicted for ,central ,africa2 yet the native population of the country stand on a very low plane of manhood4 ,the wedge-shaped plateau of ,patagonia is not at all benefited1 as previous analysis would lead us to expect1 by its long coast and by the nearness of the islands of ,terra del ,fuego4 ,the fruitful island of ,tasmania is far more valuable to ,australia than is this island to ,patagonia1 and even ,iceland is a more productive neighbor to ,norway4 ,the ,terra del ,fuego group1 embracing a territory of #bi1jjj square miles1 although hard by the ,south ,american coast1 only injures it instead of blessing it1 for it imperils shipping and harbors a population so degraded that they have no wants which can stimulate the rudest civilization4 ,with a precipitous1 craggy coast1 without trees and without grass1 covered only with moss1 and belonging strictly to the polar world1 it must give a habitation to the very lowest and most degraded of the human race1 isolated from the world1 and only casually visited when winds and storms throw mariners upon its shores4 ,not every island is to be considered1 therefore1 as a gain to the adjacent main land4 ,if ,terra del ,fuego lay at the mouth of the ,la ,plata ,river1 it would have become a valuable auxiliary to ,brazil4 ,the worth of an island is relative1 not absolute4 ,the ,antilles group is the great insular formation contiguous to ,central ,america4 ,its area1 though comprising #id1gjj square miles1 is not one-tenth as great as that of the great ,sunda group4 ,by situation and physical conditions1 it is much more closely connected with ,north than with ,south ,america4 ,the ,caribbean ,sea is twice as large as the ,mediterranean1 the one having #hja1hjj square miles1 and the other #a1fge1hjj square miles4 ,it has been1 therefore1 more difficult to make the larger tributary to the advance of civilization than the smaller4 ,north ,america has entirely taken the palm from ,south ,america in the progress of its culture1 just as has uniformly been the case with all the continents of the northern hemisphere compared with the southern2 and yet the tropical southern continent is far more profusely endowed with the gifts of nature than the temperate northern one4 ,the northern half1 on the other hand1 enjoys a far greater advantage in its broken coast-line1 numerous bays1 gulfs1 islands1 peninsulas1 harbors1 as well as by reason of its greater want of conformity to a rigid triangular form4 ,enlarging1 as it does1 toward its southern extremity1 ,north ,america approaches a trapezoidal shape1 like ,asia1 and1 as in ,asia also1 the size of the main body preponderates greatly over that of the extremities4 ,several of these extremities1 too1 extend toward the east and south1 and only a few toward the west4 ,to the ,north ,american peninsulas and islands belong the northeasterly island group of ,greenland1 7which for centuries was considered to be a peninsula1 but which1 since ,parry's discoveries in #ahbj1 has been known to be a group of independent islands17 ,bank's ,land1 ,boothia ,felix1 ,cockburn1 ,melville's ,peninsula1 ,labrador1 ,new ,brunswick1 ,nova ,scotia1 and ,florida1 the latter #ei1jjj square miles in area4 ,the northeast of ,north ,america is everywhere much cut up by inlets of the ocean1 larger bays1 gulfs1 and sounds4 ,this is the main characteristic of the shore of the northern ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,as all these open toward ,europe1 the situation of this whole region has been especially adapted to the most speedy advance in civilization4 ,the pride of the ,american can no more plume itself on an independent progress than can that of the ,european2 to the former1 ,europe is the ,orient from which he receives1 in an already advanced stage1 what the ,european receives from ,asia1 his own ,orient4 ,the less important peninsulas of ,north ,america1 and the side most destitute of them1 are turned toward the northern ,pacific4 ,to this region belong the ,russian possessions1 the desolate wastes of ,aliaska1 and1 farther to the south1 the peninsula of ,old ,california1 which has begun1 within the last ten years1 to play an active part in the world's affairs4 ,but all three of these are capable at present of little independent advance4 ,they must wait till they feel the impulse of the civilization of the older ,american ,states1 before they take that place to which the newly-organized commercial relations with ,china and ,japan seem to be leading the way4 ,north ,america enjoys a great advantage over ,europe in the possession of large inland lakes or seas4 ,the prevalence of articulation and of the adjacent islands is not toward the south1 but toward the polar and sub-polar regions1 7from #dj to #ej ,n4 lat417 as in ,europe4 ,and although many of these islands and peninsulas are as yet but little known1 still the progress of discovery has been so rapid within the past few years1 that it would seem1 by ,european analogies1 that an important history is yet in store for them4 ,for there is a great kinship between these northern regions of ,america and the ,scandinavian and ,north ,russian domains of ,europe4 ,and we know well that no degree of cold has ever intimidated civilization from penetrating in the latter to the very confines of the polar world4 ,as the ,white ,sea1 7#dh1ejj square miles in area17 the ,baltic1 7#afg1jjj square miles17 and the yet greater ,north ,sea1 have broken through the northern regions of ,europe1 so on a far more gigantic scale have the inroads of the ocean rifted and sundered ,north ,america4 ,this we have learned in our recent frequent voyages to the ,esquimaux regions4 ,baffin's ,bay1 ,lancaster ,sound1 ,smith's ,sound1 ,jones' ,sound1 ,barrow ,strait1 ,fox's ,channel with its uncounted islands1 ,hudson's ,bay with its #dii1jjj square miles of surface1 ,boothia ,gulf1 ,victoria and ,georgia ,seas1 ,wellington's ,channel1 ,melville ,sound1 ,prince of ,wales ,straits1 and very many other water passages and basins divide those northern districts into a vast mesh of islands and peninsulas4 ,the superficial area of all these tracts is on a colossal scale2 even the ,greenland group is estimated to include #gff1ejj square miles4 ,within the past few years this whole ,arctic ,sea has been the scene of numerous expeditions of discovery1 some of them on a princely scale4 ,all this shows that ,north ,america is fashioned much more after the analogy of ,europe than of ,south ,america4 ,the analogy would be much more close1 if ,north ,america were as favorably affected by climatic conditions as ,europe4 ,both continents are washed at the south as well as at the north by great inland seas1 and divided up by them in a manner peculiar to them among all the continents4 ,of this articulation1 ,america1 less favored by climate1 has much the larger share4 ,by its admirable harbors1 and by the action of the ,gulf ,stream crossing the ,atlantic in two directions1 ,america has been specially fitted to receive the population and civilization of the ,old ,world1 and to stand in the closest relations with it4 ,in this1 united with the arrangement of its mountain chains and the happy characteristics of its river systems1 ,america bears the palm completely away from ,asia4 ,in that continent the colossal rivers of the north have no connection at their sources with the head-waters of the great ,chinese1 ,indian1 and ,west ,asiatic rivers4 ,it is entirely different in ,north ,america1 where the ,st4 ,lawrence1 ,mackenzie1 ,columbia1 ,colorado1 ,mississippi1 and ,missouri flow from the same region1 as from a common center1 not separated at their sources by an immense plateau1 but forming a single river system1 from the mouth of one to that of another1 flowing in just the contrary direction4 ,we find1 therefore1 that there1 as in ,north ,europe1 civilization has followed the water-courses1 and has planted colonies as far north as #gj on the coast of ,greenland2 while in ,asia human habitations cease with #fe ,n4 lat4 ,america seems to be appointed1 by its physical conditions1 to plant the banner of human progress at the most northern parts of the globe1 and to do for the northern hemisphere what ,great ,britain1 through her colonies in ,tasmania and ,south ,australia1 with their admirable harbors1 is doing for the southern4 ,northern ,asia seems to have no future indicated for her beyond the sources and upper courses of her great rivers2 she seems to depend upon ,central ,asia and upon ,russian ,europe for all the scanty culture which she may possess4 ,in its south and east it seems to have within its ,chinese and ,indian populations the seeds of an independent development1 whose results1 like those of ,arabia1 have been transferred to ,europe to become improved there1 and then to be given to the world4 ,the form of the three great peninsulas1 which were the home of ,asiatic culture1 has been repeated in ,europe1--but with how great a difference6 ,the three ,european peninsulas are not in the tropical zone and near the equator1 but are #adjj miles farther north4 ,the two groups--the eastern one in ,south ,asia1 the western one in ,south ,europe--each consisting of three peninsulas1 are the most valuable auxiliaries the world's civilization ever had4 ,through their agency ,asia in the torrid zone and ,europe in the temperate have become what ,america and ,australia are yet to be to the extreme north and the extreme south4 ,the former were for the past1 the latter for the present and the future4 ,south ,america1 and yet much more ,africa and ,australia1 seem to be held in reserve for the need of a home where the civilization of centuries yet to come shall expand into perfection4 ,they now are in their infancy2 the day only begins to break in them4 ,furnished as they have been with the most liberal gifts of nature1 they must receive a culture of which we as yet have little conception4 ,in what way this can be done1 the history of the past reveals4 ,the art of navigation has1 within the past three centuries1 given to islands and to continents a new life1 and developed relations unknown till then4 ,the very touch of ,european civilization has already wakened the world to new life2 and the oceans1 which were once the most impassable of barriers1 have become the closest of bonds to draw the earth together1 and to further its progress toward the consummation of all history4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,footnotes #a ,prof4 ,d4 ,c4 ,gilman1 of ,yale ,college4 #b ,meteors1 which are nightly visible1 are different from the periodic phenomena1 seen in ,august and ,november1 in different localities over the earth1 and called falling stars4 ,these exist outside of our atmosphere1 and belong not to the earth1 but rather to the great solar system4 #c ,the ,english does not convey adequately1 certainly as idiomatic ,english1 the fullness of the ,german classes1 ,berge1 ,vorberge1 ,hochgeberge1 ,alpen1 and ,riesenberge4 #d ,not inappropriately has geology been called the ,anatomy of mountain ranges4 ,the more mountains are studied geologically1 the more safe become the conclusions that are drawn from them4 ,the smaller and more scattered ridges of central ,europe have become the chief quarries for geological discovery1 because of the rich variety which they afford to the student1 and also because of their accessibility4 #e ,in exact correspondence with the historic progress of upheaval is the internal and external aspect of the result4 ,in direct connection with the extent1 course1 grandeur1 succession of oceanic and volcanic forces1 and in constructing new geological formations1 is the inexhaustible variety of structure1 in respect to continuity1 degrees of fracture1 as well as the more or less rich prodigality of mineral treasure brought to light4 ,the later formations--the masses injected to fill up huge chasms opened by volcanic pressure from below--are easily distinguished from the primitive formation4 ,these courses are usually the depositories of minerals1 which the great internal heat has apparently sublimated and crystallised1 giving us our gold-sand1 rock-salt1 and the precious metals4 #f ,see ,fr4 ,hoffman's ,uebersicht der orographischen und geognostischen ,verhltnisse des nordwestlichen ,deutschland4 ,introduction4 #g ,this paper may be found in my earlier translation from ,ritter4 ,geographical ,studies1 page #agg4--;,,ed4