,,yale ,,univ]sity ,,mrs4 ,,hepsa ,,ely ,,silliman ,,memorial ,,lectures ,9 ! ye> #ahhc a legacy ( eighty ?\s& doll>s 0 left to ! ,presid5t & ,fell[s ( ,yale ,college 9 ! city ( ,new ,hav51 to be held 9 tru/1 z a gift f h] *ildr51 9 memory ( _! belov$ & honor$ "m1 ,mrs4 ,hepsa ,ely ,silliman4 ,on ?is f\ndation ,yale ,college 0 reque/$ & direct$ to e/abli% an annual c\rse ( lectures design$ to illu/rate ! pres5ce & provid5ce1 ! wisdom & goodness ( ,god1 z manife/$ 9 ! natural & moral _w4 ,^! 7 to be designat$ z ! ,mrs4 ,hepsa ,ely ,silliman ,memorial ,lectures4 ,x 0 ! belief ( ! te/ator t any ord]ly pres5tation ( ! facts ( nature or hi/ory contribut$ to ! end ( ?is f\ndation m effectively ?an any attempt to emphasize ! elem5ts ( doctr9e or ( cre$2 & he !re=e provid$ t lectures on dogmatic or polemical !ology %\ld be exclud$ f ! scope ( ?is f\ndation1 & t ! subjects %\ld be select$ r f ! doma9s ( natural sci5ce & hi/ory1 giv+ special prom95ce to a/ronomy1 *emi/ry1 geology1 & anatomy4 ,x 0 fur!r direct$ t ea* annual c\rse %\ld be made ! basis ( a volume to =m "p ( a s]ies con/itut+ a memorial to ,mrs4 ,silliman4 ,! memorial fund came into ! possession ( ! ,corporation ( ,yale ,univ]sity 9 ! ye> #aija2 & ! pres5t volume con/itutes ! f\rte5? ( ! s]ies ( memorial lectures4 ,,silliman ,,memorial ,,lectures ,,publi%$ ,,by ,,yale ,,univ]sity ,,press ,,electricity ,,& ,,matt]4 ,by ,,joseph ,,john ,,?omson1 ,d4,s4,c41 ,l4,l4,d1 ,,ph4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,fell[ ( ,tr9ity ,college & ,cav5di% ,pr(essor ( ,exp]im5tal ,physics1 ,cambridge ,univ]sity4 7,f\r? pr9t+47 ,price #a4ej net4 ,,! ,,integrative ,,action ,,( ,,! ,,n]v\s ,,sy/em4 ,by ,,*>les ,s4 ,,%]r+ton1 ,d4,,sc41 ,m4,d41 ,,hon4 ,,ll4,d4 ,,tor41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,holt ,pr(essor ( ,physiology1 ,univ]sity ( ,liv]pool4 7,fif? ,pr9t+47 ,price #e4jj net4 ,,radioactive ,,trans=mations4 ,by ,,erne/ ,,ru!r=d1 ,d4,,sc1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,macdonald ,pr(essor ( ,physics1 ,mc,gill ,univ]sity4 ,price #e4jj net4 ,,exp]im5tal ,,& ,,!oretical ,,applications ,,( ,,!rmodynamics ,,to ,,*emi/ry4 ,by ,,dr4 ,,walt] ,,n]n/1 ,pr(essor & ,director ( ! ,in/itute ( ,physical ,*emi/ry 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,b]l94 ,price #a4ej net4 ,,problems ,,( ,,g5etics4 ,by ,,william ,,bateson1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,director ( ! ,john ,innes ,horticultural ,in/itution1 ,m]ton ,p>k1 ,surrey1 ,engl&4 7,second pr9t+47 ,price #e4jj net4 ,,/ell> ,,motions4 ,) ,special ,ref]5ce to ,motions ,det]m9$ by ,means ( ! ,spectrograph4 ,by ,,william ,,wallace ,,campbell1 ,,s4,d1 ,,ll4,d41 ,director ( ! ,lick ,obs]vatory1 ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia4 7,second pr9t+47 ,price #e4jj net4 ,,!ories ,,( ,,solutions4 ,by ,,svante ,,arrh5ius1 ,,ph4,d41 ,,sc4,d41 ,m4,d41 ,director ( ! ,physico-,*emical ,dep>tm5t ( ! ,nobel ,in/itute1 ,/ockholm1 ,sw$54 7,?ird pr9t+47 ,price #c4jj net4 ,,irritability4 ,a ,physiological ,analysis ( ! ,g5]al ,effect ( ,/imuli 9 ,liv+ ,sub/ances4 ,by ,,max ,,v]worn1 ,m4,d41 ,,ph4,d41 ,pr(essor at ,bonn ,physiological ,in/itute4 7,second pr9t+47 ,price #e4jj net4 ,,problems ,,( ,,am]ican ,,geology4 ,by ,,william ,,nor? ,,rice1 ,,frank ,d4 ,,adams1 ,,ar?ur ,p4 ,,coleman1 ,,*>les ,d4 ,,walcott1 ,,waldem> ,,l9dgr51 ,,fr$]ick ,,leslie ,,ransome1 ,,& ,,william ,d4 ,,mat!w4 7,second pr9t+47 ,price #e4jj net4 ,,! ,,problem ,,( ,,volcanism4 ,by ,,joseph ,,paxson ,,idd+s1 ,,ph4,d41 ,,sc4,d4 7,second pr9t+47 ,price #e4jj net4 ,,organism ,,& ,,environm5t ,,z ,,illu/rat$ ,,by ,,! ,,physiology ,,( ,,brea?+4 ,by ,,john ,,scott ,,haldane1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,fell[ ( ,new ,college1 ,ox=d ,univ]sity4 7,second pr9t+47 ,price #a4be net4 ,a ,,c5tury ,,( ,,sci5ce ,,9 ,,am]ica ,illu/ration3 ,b4 ,silliman ,a ,,c5tury ,,( ,,sci5ce ,,9 ,,am]ica ,,) ,,special ,,ref]5ce ,,to ,,! ,,am]ican ,,j\rnal ,,( ,,sci5ce #ahah-aiah ,,by ,,edw>d ,,salisbury ,,dana ,,*>les ,,s*u*]t ,,h]b]t ,e4 ,,gregory ,,joseph ,,b>rell ,,george ,,otis ,,smi? ,,ri*>d ,,swann ,,lull ,,l\is ,v4 ,,pirsson ,,william ,e4 ,,=d ,r4 ,b4 ,,sosman ,,horace ,l4 ,,wells ,,h>ry ,w4 ,,foote ,,leigh ,,page ,,wesley ,r4 ,,coe ,,& ,,george ,l4 ,,goodale ,illu/ration3 ,logo ,,new ,,hav5 ,,yale ,,univ]sity ,,press ,,london ,,humphrey ,,mil=d ,,ox=d ,,univ]sity ,,press ,,mdccccxviii ,,copyright1 #aiah1 ,,by ,,yale ,,univ]sity ,,press ,,prefatory ,,note ,! pres5t book commemorates ! "o-hundr$? anniv]s>y ( ! f\nd+ ( ! ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce by ,b5jam9 ,silliman 9 ,july1 #ahah4 ,! op5+ *apt] gives a some:at detail$ acc\nt ( ! e>ly days ( ! ,j\rnal1 ) a sket* ( its subsequ5t hi/ory4 ,! rema9+ *apt]s are devot$ to ! pr9cipal bran*es ( sci5ce :i* h be5 prom95t 9 ! pages ( ! ,j\rnal4 ,!y h be5 writt5 ) a view to %[+ 9 ea* case ! position ( ! sci5ce 9 #ahah & ! g5]al progress made dur+ ! c5tury2 special prom95ce is giv5 to ,am]ican sci5ce & p>ticul>ly to ! contributions to x to be f\nd 9 ! ,j\rnal's pages4 ,ref]5ces to specific pap]s 9 ! ,j\rnal are 9 mo/ cases includ$ 9 ! text & give simply volume1 page1 & date1 z 7#bd1 #aje1 #ahcc72 :5 ^! & o!r ref]5ces are 9 consid]able numb] !y h be5 br\ght toge!r z a ,bibliography at ! end ( ! *apt]4 ,! entire co/ ( ! pres5t book is defray$ f ! income ( ! ,mrs4 ,hepsa ,ely ,silliman ,memorial ,fund1 e/abli%$ "u ! w ( ,augu/us ,ely ,silliman1 a nephew ( ,b5jam9 ,silliman1 :o di$ 9 #ahhd4 ,c]ta9 ( ! *apt]s "h pr9t$ h be5 made ! basis ( a s]ies ( sev5 ,silliman ,lectures 9 accordance ) ! t]ms ( t gift4 ,! selection ( ^! lectures has be5 det]m9$ by ! conv5i5ce ( ! g5tlem5 conc]n$ & 9 "p also by ! nature ( ! subject4 ,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts ,page ,prefatory ,note vii ,i4 ,! ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce f #ahah to #aiah4 ,edw>d ,salisbury ,dana #ac ,,ii4 ,a ,c5tury ( ,geology3 ,! ,progress ( ,hi/orical ,geology 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,*>les ,s*u*]t #fj ,,iii4 ,a ,c5tury ( ,geology3 ,/eps ( ,progress 9 ! ,int]pretation ( ,l& ,=ms4 ,h]b]t ,e4 ,gregory #abb ,,iv4 ,a ,c5tury ( ,geology 7cont9u$73 ,! ,gr[? ( ,k ( ,e>? ,/ructure4 ,joseph ,b>rell #aec ,v4 ,a ,c5tury ( ,gov]nm5t ,geological ,surveys4 ,george ,otis ,smi? #aic ,,vi4 ,on ! ,developm5t ( ,v]tebrate ,paleontology4 ,ri*>d ,swann ,lull #bag ,,vii4 ,! ,rise ( ,petrology z a ,sci5ce4 ,l\is ,v4 ,pirsson #bdh ,,viii4 ,! ,gr[? ( ,m9]alogy f #ahah to #aiah4 ,william ,e4 ,=d #bfh ,,ix4 ,! ,"w ( ! ,geophysical ,laboratory ( ! ,c>negie ,in/itution ( ,wa%+ton4 ,r4 ,b4 ,sosman #bhd ,x4 ,! ,progress ( ,*emi/ry dur+ ! ,pa/ ,"o ,hundr$ ,ye>s4 ,horace ,l4 ,wells & ,h>ry ,w4 ,foote #bhh ,,xi4 ,a ,c5tury's ,progress 9 ,physics4 ,leigh ,page #cce ,,xii4 ,a ,c5tury ( ,zoology 9 ,am]ica4 ,wesley ,r4 ,coe #cia ,,xiii4 ,! ,developm5t ( ,botany s9ce #ahah4 ,george ,l4 ,goodale #dci ,,portraits ,b5jam9 ,silliman ,frontispiece ,f a pa9t+ by ,g4 ,s4 ,hubb>d1 ,esq41 9 possession ( ,miss ,h5rietta ,w4 ,hubb>d ,b5jam9 ,silliman1 ,jr4 opposite page #bh ,james ,d4 ,dana #cf ,edw>d ,s4 ,dana #dh ,wolcott ,gibbs #eb ,james ,hall #hd ,g4 ,k4 ,gilb]t #adj ,edw>d ,hit*cock #aef ,o4 ,c4 ,m>% #bcb ,f4 ,v4 ,hayd5 #aif ,j4 ,w4 ,p[ell #bjd ,cl>5ce ,k+ #bjh ,george ,j4 ,bru% #bgf ,j4 ,will>d ,gibbs #cbd ,h4 ,a4 ,newton #ccf ,james ,cl]k ,maxwell #cdh ,l\is ,agassiz #djd ,?omas ,h4 ,huxley #daj ,a4 ,e4 ,v]rill #dab ,asa ,gray #ddd ,*>les ,d>w9 #deb ,a ,,c5tury ,,( ,,sci5ce ,,9 ,,am]ica ,i ,,! ,,am]ican ,,j\rnal ,,( ,,sci5ce ,,f #ahah ,,to #aiah ,by ,,edw>d ,s4 ,,dana ,introduction4 ,9 ,july1 #ahah1 "o hundr$ ye>s ago1 ! fir/ numb] ( ! ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce & ,arts 0 giv5 to ! public4 ,?is is ! only sci5tific p]iodical 9 ?is c\ntry to ma9ta9 an un9t]rupt$ exi/5ce s9ce t e>ly date1 & ?is honor is %>$ ) h>dly m ?an half a doz5 o!r indep5d5t sci5tific p]iodicals 9 ! _w at l>ge4 ,simil> publications ( le>n$ societies = ! same p]iod are also v few 9 numb]4 ,x is int]e/+1 on ! occasion ( ?is c5t5>y1 to glance back at ! position ( sci5ce & sci5tific lit]ature 9 ! _w's intellectual life 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 & to consid] briefly ! m>vel\s record ( comb9$ sci5tific & indu/rial progress ( ! hundr$ ye>s foll[+--subjects to be h&l$ 9 detail 9 ! succe$+ *apt]s4 ,x is fitt+ also t we %\ld recall ! man :o f\nd$ ! ,j\rnal1 ! conditions "u :i* he work$1 & ! difficulties he enc\nt]$4 ,f9ally1 we mu/ review1 b m briefly1 ! subsequ5t hi/ory ( :at has s (t5 be5 call$ aft] its f\nd]1 8,silliman's ,j\rnal40 ,! n9ete5? c5tury1 & p>ticul>ly ! hundr$ ye>s 9 :i* we are n[ int]e/$1 mu/ always /& out 9 ! hi/ory ( ! _w z ! p]iod :i* has comb9$ ! greate/ developm5t 9 all dep>tm5ts ( sci5ce ) ! mo/ extraord9>y indu/rial progress4 ,x 0 n until ?is c5tury t sci5tific inve/igation us$ to _! full ext5t ! tw9 me?ods ( obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,9 cases too num]\s to m5tion !y h giv5 u fir/1 a t5tative hypo!sis2 !n1 ?r\gh ! te/+ & correct+ ( ! hypo!sis by newly acquir$ data1 an accept$ !ory has be5 arriv$ at2 f9ally1 by ! same means c>ri$ fur!r has be5 e/abli%$ "o ( nature's laws4 ,e>ly ,sci5ce4--,look+ f> back into ! pa/1 x seems surpris+ t sci5ce %\ld h _h s late a gr[?1 b ! wond]ful record ( man's g5ius 9 ! monum5ts he erect$ & 9 ar*itectural rema9s %[s t ! work+ ( ! human m9d f\nd expression fir/ 9 art & fur!r man also turn$ to lit]ature4 ,s f> z man's ?\ght 0 con/ructive1 ! e>ly results 7 sy/ems ( philosophy1 & explanations ( ! ord] ( ?+s z se5 f )91 n z %[n by nature h]self4 ,we date ! real beg9n+ ( sci5ce ) ! ,greeks1 b x 0 ! c5tury t prec$$ ,ari/otle t saw ! build+ ( ! ,p>!non & ! sculptures ( ,phidias4 ,ev5 ! great ,ari/otle himself 7#chd-cbb ,b4 ,c47 ?\gh he is sometimes call$ ! 8f\nd] ( natural hi/ory10 0 ju/ly accus$ by ,"l ,bacon _m c5turies lat] ( hav+ =m$ 8 !ories fir/ & !n to h =c$ ! facts to agree ) !m4 ,! br++ toge!r ( facts ?r\gh obs]vation alone began1 to be sure1 v e>ly1 = x 0 ! motion ( ! sun1 moon1 & />s & ! relation ( ! e>? to !m t fir/ excit$ int]e/1 &1 especially 9 ! c\ntries ( ! ,ea/1 l$ to ! accumulation ( data z to ! motion ( ! planets1 ( comets & ! occurr5ce ( eclipses4 ,b !re 0 no cord9ation ( ^! facts & !y 7 s involv$ 9 man's sup]/ition z to be ( little value4 ,9 pass+1 h[ev]1 x is wor?y ( m5tion t ! ,*9ese a/ronomical data accumulat$ m ?an two ?\s& ye>s be=e ! ,*ri/ian era h 9 tra9$ h&s yield$ results ( no small significance4 ,d\btless 7 full k available z to ! sci5ce exi/+ 9 ! e>ly civilizations1 we %\ld rate x high] ?an we c at pres5t1 b x w\ld probably prove ev5 !n to h be5 develop$ f )91 l ! philosophies ( ! ,greeks1 & ) b m9or influ5ce f nature h]self4 ,x is inde$ rem>kable t d[n to ! "t ) :i* we are imm$iately conc]n$1 x 0 ! bran*es ( ma!matics1 z ari?metic & geometry & lat] _! applications1 t 7 fir/ & mo/ fully develop$3 9 o!r words ^? l9es ( sci5ce lea/ closely connect$ ) nature4 ,( ! importance to sci5ce ( ! ,greek s*ool at ,alex&ria 9 ! second & ?ird c5turies ,b4 ,c41 !re c be no "q4 ,! geometry ( ,euclid 7ab\t #cjj ,b4 ,c47 0 m>vel\s 9 its complet5ess z 9 cle>ness ( logical me?od4 ,hipp>*us 7ab\t #afj-abe ,b4 ,c47 gave ! _w ! elem5ts ( trigonometry & develop$ a/ronomy s t ,ptolemy #bfj ye>s lat] 0 able to con/ruct a sy/em t 0 well develop$1 ?\gh 9 error 9 ! fundam5tal idea z to ! relative position ( ! e>?4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t ! ,almage/ ( ,ptolemy 0 ?\ght wor?y ( republication by ! ,c>negie ,in/itution only a ye> or two s9ce4 ,?is great a/ronomical "w1 by ! way1 _h no successor till t ( ! ,arab ,ulugh ,bey 9 ! fifte5? c5tury1 :i* )9 a few mon?s has also be5 made available by ! same ,in/itution4 ,to ! ,alex&rian s*ool also belongs ,ar*im$es 7#bhg-bab ,b4 ,c471 :o1 z e s*ool boy kn[s1 0 ! f\nd] ( me*anics & 9 fact almo/ a mod]n physical exp]im5t]4 ,he inv5t$ ! wat] screw = rais+ wat]2 he discov]$ ! pr9ciple ( ! lev]1 :i* appeal$ s ke5ly to 8 imag9ation t he call$ = a 1 or fulcrum1 on :i* to place x s z to move ! e>? itself4 ,he 0 /ill ne>] to mod]n physics 9 8 reput$ plan ( burn+ up a ho/ile fleet by conv]g+ ! sun's rays by a sy/em ( great mirrors4 ,to ! ,romans1 sci5ce owes little beyond :at is impli$ 9 _! va/ ar*itectural monum5ts1 build+s & aqu$ucts :i* 7 erect$ at home & 9 ! c\ntries ( _! conque/s4 ,! eld] ,pl9y 7#bc-gi ,a4 ,d47 mo/ ne>ly des]v$ to be call$ a man ( sci5ce1 b 8 "w on natural hi/ory1 compris$ 9 ?irty-sev5 volumes1 is h>dly m ?an a compilation ( fable1 fact1 & fancy1 & is sometimes t]m$ a collection ( anecdotes4 ,he lo/ 8 life 9 ! 8gr&e/ geological ev5t ( antiquity10 ! eruption ( ,vesuvius1 :i* is vividly describ$ by 8 nephew1 ! y\ng] ,pl9y1 9 8"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable lit]>y productions 9 ! doma9 ( geology0 7,zittel74 ,) ! fall ( ,rome & ! decl9e ( ,roman civilization came a p]iod ( intellectual d>kness1 f :i* ! _w did n em]ge until ! revival ( le>n+ 9 ! fifte5? & sixte5? c5turies4 ,!n ! ext5sion ( geographical k w5t h& 9 h& ) ! developm5t ( art1 lit]ature1 & ! bir? ( a new sci5ce4 ,cop]nicus 7#adgc-aedc7 gave ! _w at la/ a sun-controll$ sol> sy/em2 ,kepl] 7#aega-afcj7 =mulat$ ! laws gov]n+ ! motion ( ! planets2 ,galileo 7#aefd-afdb7 ) 8 telescope op5$ up new vi/as ( a/ronomical k & laid ! f\ndations ( me*anics2 :ile ,leon>do da ,v9ci 7#adeb-aeai71 pa9t]1 sculptor1 ar*itect1 eng9e]1 musician & true sci5ti/1 /udi$ ! laws ( fall+ bodies & solv$ ! riddle ( ! fossils 9 ! rocks4 ,/ill lat] ,newton 7#afdb-agbg7 e/abli%$ ! law ( gravitation1 develop$ ! calculus1 put me*anics ^u a solid basis & also work$ out ! prop]ties ( l5ses & prisms s t 8 ,optics 7#agjd7 w always h a prom95t place 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce4 ,f ! "t ( ! ,r5aissance on sci5ce grew /eadily1 b x 0 n till ! latt] half ( ! eighte5? c5tury t ! f\ndations 9 mo/ ( ! l9es recogniz$ to-day 7 fully laid4 ,mu* ( :at 0 accompli%$ !n is1 at lea/1 outl9$ 9 ! *apt]s foll[+4 ,our /&po9t 9 ! e>ly ye>s ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 j be=e ! ,am]ican ,j\rnal _h its beg9n+1 may be briefly summ>iz$ z foll[s3 ,a desire = k 0 almo/ univ]sal &1 !re=e1 also a g5]al int]e/ 9 ! developm5t ( sci5ce4 ,ma!matics 0 firmly e/abli%$ & ! ma!matical side ( a/ronomy & natural philosophy--z physics 0 !n call$--0 well develop$4 ,_m ( ! ph5om5a ( heat & _! applications1 z 9 ! /eam eng9e ( ,watt1 7 kn[n & ev5 ! true nature ( heat _h be5 almo/ e/abli%$ by our c\ntryman1 ,c\nt ,rum=d2 b ( electricity !re 7 only a few sp>ks ( k4 ,*emi/ry _h _h its f\ndation firmly laid by ,prie/ley1 ,lavoisi]1 & ,dalton1 :ile ,b]zelius 0 pu%+ rapidly =w>d4 ,geology _h also its roots d[n1 *iefly ?r\gh ! "w ( ,hutton & ,william ,smi?1 ?\gh ! e>? 0 z yet ess5tially an unexplor$ field4 ,sy/ematic zoology & botany _h be5 firmly gr\nd$ by ,buffon1 ,lam>ck & ,cuvi]1 on ! "o h&1 & ,l9nu on ! o!r2 b ( all t is embrac$ "u ! biology ( ! latt] half ( ! n9ete5? c5tury ! _w knew no?+4 ,! /atem5ts ( ,silliman 9 8 ,introductory ,rem>ks 9 ! fir/ numb]1 quot$ 9 "p on a foll[+ page1 put ! matt] /ill m fully1 b !y are influ5c$ by ! en?usiasm ( ! "t & he c\ld h _h little compreh5sion ( :at 0 to be ! record ( ! next "o hundr$ ye>s4 ,n[1 leav+ ?is ha/y & incomplete retrospect & com+ d[n to #aiah1 we f9d ! contra/ betwe5 to-day & #ahah p]haps mo/ /rik+ly br\ght out1 on ! mat]ial side1 if we consid] ! ability ( man1 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 to meet ! dem&s ^u him 9 ! matt] ( transportation ( himself & 8 prop]ty4 ,9 #ahjj1 he _h h>dly advanc$ beyond 8 ance/or ( ! e>lie/ civilization2 on ! contr>y1 he 0 /ill dep5d5t = transportation on l& ^u ! muscul> ef=ts ( himself & dome/icat$ animals1 :ile at sea he _h only ! use ( sails 9 addition4 ,! fir/ application ( ! /eam eng9e ) comm]cial success 0 made by ,fulton :51 9 #ahjg1 ! /eamboat 8,cl]mont0 made its fam\s trip on ! ,hudson ,riv]4 ,s9ce !n1 /ep by /ep1 transportation has be5 made m & m rapid1 economical & conv5i5t1 bo? on l& & wat]4 ,?is has come fir/ ?r\gh ! p]fection ( ! /eam eng9e2 lat] ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( electricity1 & /ill fur!r & m univ]sally by ! use ( gasol5e motors4 ,f9ally1 9 ^! e>ly ye>s ( ! tw5tie? c5tury1 :at seem$ once a wild dream ( ! imag9ation has be5 realiz$1 & man has ga9$ ! conque/ ( ! air2 :ile ! p]fection ( ! subm>9e is z wond]ful z its "w c be deadly4 ,h>dly less m>vel\s is ! practical annihilation ( space & "t 9 ! electric transmission ( human ?\ght & spee* by wire & by e!r waves4 ,:ile1 /ill fur!r1 ! same electrical curr5t n[ gives man 8 artificial illum9ation & s]ves him 9 a ?\s& ways besides4 ,b ! limitations ( space h also be5 conqu]$1 dur+ ! same p]iod1 by ! spectroscope :i* br+s a k ( ! mat]ial nature ( ! sun & ! fix$ />s & ( _! motion 9 ! l9e ( sight2 :ile spectrum analysis has reveal$ ! exi/5ce ( _m new elem5ts & op5$ up vi/as z to ! nature ( matt]4 ,! *emi/ & ! physici/1 (t5 work+ toge!r 9 ! inve/igation ( ! problems ly+ betwe5 _! two dep>tm5ts1 h accumulat$ a /agg]+ array ( new facts f :i* ! pr9ciples ( _! sci5ces h be5 d$uc$4 ,_m new elem5ts h be5 discov]$1 9 fact ne>ly all call$ = by ! p]iodic law2 ! s-call$ fix$ gases h be5 liquefi$1 & n[ air 9 liquid =m is almo/ a play?+2 ! absolute z]o has be5 ne>ly rea*$ 9 ! boil+ po9t ( helium2 physical measurem5ts 9 great precision h be5 c>ri$ out 9 bo? directions = temp]atures f> beyond any scale t 0 e>ly conceiv$ possible2 ! atom1 once suppos$ to be indivisible1 has be5 %[n to be made up ( ! mu* small] electrons1 :ile its dis9tegration 9 radium & its d]ivatives has be5 trac$ out & ) consequ5ces only z yet p>tly und]/ood b c]ta9ly hav+ f>-rea*+ consequ5ces2 at "o po9t we seem to be br\ght ne> to ! transmutation ( ! elem5ts :i* 0 s long ! dream ( ! al*emi/4 ,/ill aga9 photography has be5 discov]$ & p]fect$ & ) ! use ( ,x-rays x gives a picture ( ! /ructure ( bodies totally opaque to ! eye2 ! same ,x-rays seem likely to locate & det]m9e ! atoms 9 ! cry/al4 ,"h & at _m o!r po9ts we are rea*+ out to a k ( ! ultimate nature ( matt]4 ,9 geology1 va/ progress has be5 made 9 ! k ( ! e>?1 n only z to its features n[ exhibit$ at or ne> ! surface1 b also z to its hi/ory 9 pa/ ages1 ( ! developm5t ( its /ructure1 ! m9ute hi/ory ( its life1 ! ph5om5a ( its e>?quakes1 volcanoes1 etc4 ,geological surveys 9 all civiliz$ c\ntries h be5 c>ri$ to a high degree ( p]fection4 ,9 biology1 itself a ^w :i* ?\gh us$ by ,lam>ck did n come into use till tak5 up by ,huxley1 & !n by ,h]b]t ,sp5c] 9 ! middle ( ! c5tury1 ! progress is no less rem>kable z is well develop$ 9 a lat] *apt] ( ?is volume4 ,al?\gh n fall+ )9 our sph]e1 x w\ld be wrong1 too1 n to recognize also ! gr[? ( m$ic9e1 especially ?r\gh ! k ( bact]ia & _! functions1 & ( disease g]ms & ! me?ods ( combat+ !m4 ,! _w c nev] =get ! debt x owes to ,pa/eur & ,li/] & _m lat] inve/igators 9 ?is field4 ,to foll[ out ?is subject fur!r w\ld be to encroa* ^u ! field ( ! *apt]s foll[+1 b1 m important & fundam5tal /ill ?an all ! facts discov]$ & ! ph5om5a inve/igat$ has be5 ! e/abli%m5t ( c]ta9 broad sci5tific pr9ciples :i* h revolutioniz$ mod]n ?\ght & %[n ! relation betwe5 sci5ces seem+ly indep5d5t4 ,! law ( cons]vation ( en]gy 9 ! physical _w & ! pr9ciple ( mat]ial & organic evolution may well be said to be ! greate/ g5]alizations ( ! human m9d4 ,al?\gh sugge/ions 9 reg>d to !m1 p>ticul>ly ! latt]1 are to be f\nd 9 ! writ+s ( e>ly au?ors1 ! e/abli%m5t & g5]al acceptance ( ^! pr9ciples belong prop]ly to ! middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,!y /& z ! cr[n+ a*ievem5t ( ! sci5tific ?\ght ( ! p]iod 9 :i* we are int]e/$4 ,any m]e enum]ation ( ! va/ fund ( k accumulat$ by ! ef=ts ( man ?r\gh obs]vation & exp]im5t 9 ! p]iod 9 :i* we are int]e/$ w\ld be a dry summ>y1 & yet w\ld give "s measure ( :at ?is m>vel\s p]iod has accompli%$4 ,z 9 geography1 man's en]gy has 9 rec5t ye>s remov$ ! reproa* ( a 8,d>k ,cont95t10 ( 8unexplor$0 c5tral ,asia & ! once 8inaccessible pol> regions10 s 9 ! diff]5t dep>tm5ts ( sci5ce1 he has op5$ up _m unkn[n fields & accumulat$ va/ /ores ( k4 ,x might ev5 seem z if ! limit ( ! unkn[n 7 be+ approa*$4 ,!re rema9s1 h[ev]1 ?is diff]5ce 9 ! analogy1 t 9 sci5ce ! fundam5tal relations--z1 = example1 ! nature ( gravitation1 ( matt]1 ( en]gy1 ( electricity2 ! actual nature & s\rce ( life--! solution ( ^! & o!r simil> problems /ill lies 9 ! future4 ,:at ! result ( cont9u$ rese>* may be no "o c pr$ict1 b ev5 ) ^! possibilities be=e u1 x is h>dly ra% to say t s great a comb9$ progress ( pure & appli$ sci5ce z t ( ! pa/ hundr$ ye>s is n likely to be aga9 realiz$4 ,sci5tific ,p]iodical ,lit]ature 9 #ahah4 ,! contra/ 9 sci5tific activity betwe5 #ahah & #aiah is n[h]e m /rik+ly %[n ?an 9 ! am\nt ( sci5tific p]iodical lit]ature ( ! two p]iods4 ,( ! ?\s&s ( sci5tific j\rnals & regul> publications by sci5tific societies & academies to-day1 b a v small numb] h c>ri$ on a cont9u\s & practically unbrok5 exi/5ce s9ce #ahah4 ,?is small am\nt ( p]iodical sci5tific lit]ature 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! la/ c5tury is significant z giv+ a fair indication ( ! v limit$ ext5t to :i* sci5tific inve/igation appeal$ to ! intellectual life ( ! "t4 ,"s def9ite facts 9 reg>d to ! sci5tific publications ( ^? e>ly days seem to be call$ =4 ,le>n$ societies & academies1 devot$ to lit]ature & sci5ce1 7 =m$ v e>ly b at fir/ = occasional meet+s only & regul> publications 7 9 mo/ cases n begun till a v mu* lat] date4 ,"s ( ! e>lie/--n to g back ( ! ,r5aissance--are ! foll[+3 #aefj4 ,naples1 ,academia ,secretorum ,natur4 #afjc4 ,rome1 ,accademia dei ,l9cei4 #afea4 ,leipzig1 ,academia ,natur ,curiosum4 #afeg4 ,flor5ce1 ,accademia del ,cim5to4 #affb4 ,london1 ,royal ,society4 #afff4 ,p>is1 ,acadmie des ,sci5ces4 #afij4 ,bologna1 ,accademia delle ,sci5ze4 #agjj4 ,b]l91 ,societas ,regia ,sci5ti>um4 ,?is 0 ! =]unn] ( ! ,k4 preuss4 ,akad4 d4 ,wiss5s*aft54 ,! ,royal ,society ( ,london1 ^: exi/5ce dates f #afde1 ?\gh n def9itely *>t]$ until #affb1 began ! publication ( its 8,philosophical ,transactions0 9 #affe & has cont9u$ x practically unbrok5 to ! pres5t "t2 ?is is a unique record4 ,foll[+ ?is1 o!r e>ly--b 9 mo/ cases n cont9u\s--publications 7 ^? ( ,p>is 7#afii72 ,b]l9 7#agaj72 ,upsala 7#agbj72 ,petrograd1 #agbh2 ,/ockholm 7#agci72 & ,cop5hag5 7#agdc74 ,= ! latt] half ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 :5 ! f\ndations ( our mod]n sci5ce 7 be+ rapidly laid1 a consid]able li/ might be giv5 ( e>ly publications ( simil> sci5tific bodies4 ,"s ( ! prom95t ones are3 ,gtt+5 7#agej71 ,muni* 7#agei71 ,brussels 7#agfi71 ,prague 7#agge71 ,tur9 7#aghd71 ,dubl9 7#aghh71 etc4 ,! e>ly ye>s ( ! n9ete5? c5tury saw ! beg9n+s ( _m o!rs1 p>ticul>ly 9 nor!rn ,italy4 ,x is to be not$ t1 z /at$1 only r>ely 7 ! publications ( ^! le>n$ societies ev5 approximately cont9u\s4 ,9 ! majority ( cases ! issue ( transactions or proce$+s 0 highly irregul> & (t5 int]rupt$4 ,9 ?is c\ntry ! e>lie/ sci5tific bodies are ! foll[+3 ,philadelphia4 ,am]ican ,philosophical ,society1 f\nd$ 9 #agdc4 ,transactions 7 publi%$ #agga-ahji2 !n int]rupt$ until #ahah et seq4 ,bo/on4 ,am]ican ,academy ( ,arts & ,sci5ces1 f\nd$ 9 #aghj4 ,memoirs1 #aghe-ahba2 & !n #ahcc et seq4 ,new ,hav54 ,connecticut ,academy ( ,arts & ,sci5ces1 begun 9 #agii4 ,memoirs1 vol4 #a1 #ahaj-af2 ,transactions1 #ahff et seq4 ,philadelphia4 ,academy ( ,natural ,sci5ces1 begun 9 #ahab4 ,j\rnal1 #ahag-ahdb2 & f #ahdg et seq4 ,new ,york4 ,lyceum ( ,natural ,hi/ory1 #ahag2 lat] 7#ahgf7 became ! ,new ,york ,academy ( ,sci5ces4 ,annals f #ahbc2 ,proce$+s f #ahgj4 ,! situation is some:at simil> z to indep5d5t sci5tific j\rnals4 ,a li/ ( ! names ( ^? />t$ only to f9d an e>ly dea? w\ld be a v long "o1 b int]e/+ only hi/orically & z %[+ a spasmodic b unsu/a9$ /riv+ aft] sci5tific gr[?4 ,x seems wor? :ile1 h[ev]1 to give "h ! names ( ! p]iodicals embrac+ "o or m ( ! subjects ( ! ,am]ican ,j\rnal1 :i* began at a v e>ly date & mo/ ( :i* h ma9ta9$ an un9t]rupt$ exi/5ce d[n to #aiae4 ,x %\ld be add$ t c]ta9 m$ical j\rnals1 n li/$ "h1 h also _h a long & cont9u$ exi/5ce4#a ,e>ly ,sci5tific ,j\rnals4 #agga-ahbc4 ,j\rnal de ,physique1 ,p>is2 title *ang$ sev]al times4 #aghg-4 ,botanical ,magaz9e4 7,= a "t kn[n z ,curtis's ,j\rnal74 #aghi-ahaf4 ,annales de ,*imie1 ,p>is4 ,cont9u$ f #ahag on z ! ,annales de ,*imie et de ,physique4 #agij4 ,j\rnal d] ,physik1 ,halle 7by ,gr572 f #agii on became ! ,annal5 d] ,physik 7und ,*emie71 ,halle1 ,leipzig4 ,! title has be5 some:at *ang$ f "t to "t ?\gh publication has be5 cont9u\s4 ,(t5 ref]r$ to by ! "n ( ! editor-9-*ief1 z ,gr51 ,gilb]t1 ,pogg5dorff1 ,wi$emann1 etc4 #agie-ahae4 ,j\rnal des ,m9es1 ,p>is1 cont9u$ f #ahaf z ! ,annales des ,m9es4 #agif-ahae4 ,biblio?que ,britannique1 ,g5eva4 ,f #ahaf-ahdj1 ,biblio?que ,univ]selle1 etc4 #ahdf-aheg1 ,ar*ives des ,sci4 phys4 nat4 ,s9ce #aheh g5]ally kn[n z ! ,biblio?que ,univ]selle4 #agig4 ,j\rnal ( ,natural ,philosophy1 ,*emi/ry & ! ,arts 7,ni*olson's ,j\rnal7 ,london2 unit$ 9 #ahad ) ! ,philosophical ,magaz9e 7,tillo*'s ,j\rnal74 #agih-4 ,! ,philosophical ,magaz9e 7orig9ally by ,tillo*74 ,?is absorb$ ,ni*olson's ,j\rnal 7above7 9 #ahad2 also ! ,annals ( ,philosophy 7,?omson1 ,phillips7 9 #ahbg & ,brew/]s' ,ed9burgh ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce 9 #ahcb4 #agih-ahjc4 ,allgeme9es ,j\rnal d] ,*emie 7,s*]]'s ,j\rnal74 #ahjc-ahjf2 cont9u$ z ,neues ,allg4 ,j4 etc4 7,gehl5's ,j\rnal74 ,lat] title repeat$ly *ang$ & f9ally 7#ahcd et seq47 ,j\rnal fr praktis*e ,*emie4 #ahaf-ah4 ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce & ! ,arts1 ,london4 #ahaicj1 ,qu>t]ly ,j4 etc4 #ahcj-ca1 ,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,in/itution ( ,great ,brita94 #ahah4 ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce & ,arts until #ahhj1 :5 8! ,arts0 0 dropp$1 ,new ,hav51 ,conn4 ,fir/ ,s]ies1 #a-ej1 #ahah-ahde2 ,second ,s]ies1 #a-ej1 #ahdf-ahgj2 ,?ird ,s]ies1 #a-ej1 #ahga-ahie2 ,f\r? ,s]ies1 #a-de1 #ahif-;,june1 #aiah4 #ahah4 ,flora1 or ,allgeme9e botanis*e ,zeitung4 ,reg5sburg1 ,muni*4 #ahbj-ahfg4 ,london ,j\rnal ( ,arts & ,sci5ces 7aft] #ahee1 ,newton's ,j\rnal74 #ahbd-4 ,annales des sci5ces naturelles4 ,p>is4 #ahbf-4 ,l9na1 ,b]l91 ,halle2 f #ahhb unit$ ) ,jahrb4 d4 ,k4 botan4 ,g>t5s4 #ahbh-ahdj4 ,magaz9e ( ,natural ,hi/ory1 ,london2 unit$ #ahch ) ! ,annals ( ,natural ,hi/ory1 & kn[n s9ce #ahda z ! ,annals & ,magaz9e ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 #ahbh-4 ,j\rnal ( ! ,frankl9 ,in/itute1 ,philadelphia1 f #ahbf2 e>li] 7#ahbe7 ! ,am]ican ,me*anics ,magaz9e4 #ahcb-4 ,annal5 d] ,*emie 7und ,ph>macie7 (t5 kn[n z ,liebig's ,annal54 ,leipzig1 ,lemgo4 ,! ,f\nd] ( ! ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce4 ,! e/abli%m5t ( a sci5tific j\rnal 9 ?is c\ntry 9 #ahah 0 a pione] und]tak+1 requir+ ( its f\nd] a r>e degree ( en]gy1 c\rage1 & confid5ce 9 ! future4 ,x 0 necess>y1 n only to obta9 ! mat]ial to fill its pages & ! money to c>ry on ! ent]prise1 b1 be=e ! latt] end c\ld be accompli%$1 an audi5ce mu/ be f\nd among ^? :o _h hi!rto felt little or no int]e/ 9 ! sci5ces4 ,?is great "w 0 accompli%$ by ,b5jam9 ,silliman1 8! gu>dian ( ,am]ican ,sci5ce10 ^: influ5ce 0 second to none 9 ! e>ly developm5t ( sci5ce 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,be=e speak+ 9 "s detail ( ! e>ly ye>s ( ?is ,j\rnal & ( its subsequ5t hi/ory1 x is prop] t "s words %\ld be giv5 to its f\nd]4 ,b5jam9 ,silliman1 son ( a g5]al prom95t 9 ! ,revolution>y ,w>1 0 born 9 ,trumbull1 ,connecticut1 on ,augu/ #h1 #aggi4 ,he 0 a graduate ( ,yale ,college ( ! class ( #agif4 ,?\gh at fir/ a /ud5t ( law & accept$ = ! b> 9 ,connecticut1 he 0 call$ 9 #ahjb by ,presid5t ,timo?y ,dwight--a man ( r>e bread? ( m9d--to occupy ! newly made *air ( *emi/ry1 m9]alogy 7& lat] geology7 9 ,yale ,college at ,new ,hav54 ,to fit himself = ! "w be=e him he c>ri$ on ext5sive /udies at home & 9 ,philadelphia & sp5t ! ye> #ahje 9 travels & /udy at ,london & ,ed9burgh1 & also on ! ,cont95t4 ,8 active duties began 9 #ahjf & f ?is "t on he 0 9 ! s]vice ( ,yale ,college until 8 resignation 9 #ahec4 ,f ! fir/1 ,silliman met ) rem>kable success z a tea*] & public lectur] 9 ar\s+ an int]e/ 9 sci5ce4 ,8 bread? ( k1 8 en?usiasm = 8 *os5 subjects & p[] ( cle> pres5tation1 comb9$ ) 8 f9e pres5ce & attractive p]sonality1 made him a great lead] 9 ! sci5ce ( ! c\ntry & gave him a unique position 9 ! hi/ory ( its developm5t4 ,mu* might be said ( ! man & 8 "w1 b1 ! be/ tribute is t ( ,james ,dwight ,dana1 giv5 9 8 inaugural address ^u ! occasion ( 8 beg9n+ 8 duties z ,silliman pr(essor ( geology 9 ,yale ,college4 ,?is 0 deliv]$ on ,febru>y #ah1 #ahef1 9 :at 0 !n kn[n z ! 8,cab9et ,build+40 ,dana says 9 "p3 8,9 ent]+ ^u ! duties ( ?is place1 my ?\ghts turn r to ! pa/ ?an to ! subject ( ! pres5t h\r4 ,i feel t x is an honor$ place1 honor$ by ! labors ( "o :o has be5 ! gu>dian ( ,am]ican ,sci5ce f its *ildhood2 :o "h fir/ op5$ to ! c\ntry ! wond]ful records ( geology2 ^: words ( eloqu5ce & e>ne/ tru? 7 b ! ov]fl[ ( a s\l full ( noble s5tim5ts & w>m sympa?ies1 ! :ole ?r[+ a peculi> *>m ov] 8 le>n+1 & r5d]+ 8 "n belov$ z well z illu/ri\s4 ,j fifty ye>s s9ce1 ,pr(essor ,silliman took 8 /ation at ! head ( *emical & geological sci5ce 9 ?is college4 ,geology 0 !n h>dly kn[n by "n 9 ! l&1 out ( ^! walls4 ,two ye>s be=e1 previ\s to 8 t\r 9 ,europe1 ! :ole cab9et ( ,yale 0 a half-bu%el ( unlabell$ /ones4 ,on visit+ ,engl& he f\nd ev5 9 ,london no s*ool public or private1 = geological in/ruction1 & ! sci5ce 0 n nam$ 9 ! ,engli% univ]sities4 ,to ! m9es1 qu>ries1 & cliffs ( ,engl&1 ! crags ( ,scotl&1 & ! mead[s ( ,holl& he look$ = k1 & f ^! & ! tea*+s ( ,murray1 ,jameson1 ,hall1 ,hope1 & ,playfair1 at ,ed9burgh1 ,pr(essor ,silliman return$1 equipp$ = duty1--albeit a great duty1--t ( lay+ ! f\ndation1 & creat+ almo/ out ( no?+ a dep>tm5t n be=e recogniz$ 9 any in/itution 9 ,am]ica4 ,he began 8 "w 9 #ahjf4 ,! sci5ce 0 )\t books--&1 too1 )\t sy/em1 except su* z its few cultivators _h ea* = himself 9 8 conceptions4 ,x 0 ! age ( ! fir/ beg9n+s ( geology1 :5 ,w]n]ians & ,huttonians 7 array$ 9 a conte/4444 ,pr(essor ,silliman :5 at ,ed9burgh witness$ ! /rife1 & :ile1 z he says1 8 e>lie/ pr$ilections 7 = ! m peaceful mode ( rock-mak+1 ^! soon yield$ to ! accumulat+ evid5ce1 & bo? views became comb9$ 9 8 m9d 9 "o h>moni\s :ole4 ,! sci5ce1 ?us evolv$1 grew ) him & by him2 = 8 own labors contribut$ to its ext5sion4 ,e ye> 0 a ye> ( expansion & onw>d developm5t1 & ! gr&eur ( ! op5+ views f\nd 9 him a ready & appreciative response4444 ,& :ile ! sci5ces & tru? h ?us made progress "h1 ?r\gh ^! labors ( fifty ye>s1 ! means ( /udy 9 ! in/itution h no less increas$4 ,in/ead ( t half-bu%el ( /ones1 :i* once w5t to ,philadelphia = names1 9 a c&le-box1 y see above ! l>ge/ m9]al cab9et 9 ! c\ntry1 :i* b = ,pr(essor ,silliman1 8 attractions & 8 p]sonal ex]tions toge!r1 w\ld nev] h be5 "o ( ! glories ( old ,yale4444 ,moreov]1 ! ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce1--n[ 9 its ?irty-sev5? ye> & sev5tie? volume #ahef1--project$ & long-su/a9$ solely by ,pr(essor ,silliman1 :ile ev] di/ribut+ tru?1 has also be5 ev] ga!r+ honors1 & is "o ( ! laurels ( ,yale4 ,we rejoice t 9 lay+ aside 8 /udies1 aft] s _m ye>s ( labor1 !re is /ill no abat$ vigor4444 ,he retires z "o ^: "r x is to ?r[ ! burd5 on o!rs4 ,long may he be ) u1 to enjoy ! good he has done1 & *e] u by 8 noble & b5ign pres5ce40 ,9 addition to ^! words ( ,dana1 mu* ( vital int]e/ 9 reg>d to ,silliman & 8 "w w be ga!r$ f :at is giv5 9 ! pages imm$iately foll[+1 quot$ f 8 p]sonal /atem5ts 9 ! e>ly volumes ( ! ,j\rnal4 ,! ,e>ly ,ye>s ( ! ,j\rnal4 ,9 no direction did ,silliman's en?usia/ic activities 9 sci5ce produce a m endur+ result ?an 9 ! f\nd+ & c>ry+ on ( ! ,j\rnal4 ,! fir/ sugge/ion 9 reg>d to ! ent]prise 0 made to ,silliman by 8 fri5d1 ,colonel ,george ,gibbs1 f :om ! fam\s ,gibbs collection ( m9]als 0 b\ght by ,yale ,college 9 #ahbe4 ,silliman says 7#be1 #bae1 #ahcd73 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,am]ican ,,j\rnal ,,( ,,sci5ce1 ,,m ,,especially ,,( ,,m9]alogy1 ,,geology1 ,,& ,,! ,,o!r ,,bran*es ,,( ,,natural ,,hi/ory2 ,,includ+ ,,also ,,agriculture ,,& ,,! ,,ornam5tal ,,z ,,well ,,z ,,useful ,,arts4 ,,conduct$ ,,by ,,b5jam9 ,,silliman1 ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,*emi/ry1 ,,m9]alogy1 ,,etc4 ,,9 ,,yale ,,college1 ,,au?or ,,( ,,travels ,,9 ,,engl&1 ,,scotl&1 ,,& ,,holl&1 ,,etc4 ,,vol4 ,i4 444 ,,no4 ,i4 ,,engrav+ ,,9 ,,! ,,pres5t ,,no4 ,new app>atus = ! combu/ion ( ,,t>1 c4 by ! vap\r ( wat]4 ,new ,york3 ,,publi%$ ,,by ,j4 ,,ea/burn ,,& ,,co4 ,,lit]>y ,,rooms1 ,,broadway1 ,,& ,,by ,,h[e ,,& ,,spald+1 ,,new-,,hav5 ,abraham ,paul1 pr9t]4 #ahah4 8,col4 ,gibbs 0 ! p]son :o fir/ sugge/$ to ! ,editor ! project ( ?is ,j\rnal1 & he urg$ ! topic ) s mu* zeal & ) su* cog5t argum5ts1 z prevail$ to induce ! ef=t 9 a case !n view$ z ( v dubi\s success4 ,! subject 0 ?us />t$ 9 ,novemb]1 #ahag2 proposals = ! ,j\rnal 7 issu$ 9 ,janu>y1 #ahah1 & ! fir/ numb] appe>$ 9 ,july ( t ye>40 ,he adds fur!r 7#ej1 p4 iii1 #ahdg7 t ! conv]sation "h record$ took place 8on an accid5tal meet+ on bo>d ! /eamboat ,fulton 9 ,long ,isl& ,s\nd40 ,?is 0 "s t5 ye>s aft] ,rob]t ,fulton's /eamboat1 ! ,cl]mont1 made its pione] trip on ! ,hudson riv]1 already allud$ to4 ,! incid5t is n )\t significance 9 ?is connection4 ,! deck ( ! 8,fulton0 0 n an inappropriate place = ! inauguration ( an ent]prise also great 9 its results = ! c\ntry4 ,9 ! preface to ! conclud+ volume ( ! ,fir/ ,s]ies 7loc4 cit47 ,silliman adds ! foll[+ rem>ks :i* %[ 8 natural mode/y at ! ?\ght ( und]tak+ s s]i\s a "w4 ,he says3 ,al?\gh a diff]5t selection ( an editor w\ld h be5 mu* pref]r$1 & _m reasons1 public & p]sonal1 concurr$ to produce diffid5ce ( success1 ! argum5ts ( ,col4 ,gibbs1 ^: views on subjects ( sci5ce 7 entitl$ to ! mo/ respectful consid]ation1 & _h ju/ly great weight1 be+ press$ ) zeal & ability1 induc$ a reluctant ass5t2 & accord+ly1 aft] due consultation ) _m compet5t judges1 ! proposals 7 issu$ e>ly 9 #ahah1 embrac+ ! :ole range ( physical sci5ce & its applications4 ,! ,editor 9 ent]+ on ! duty1 reg>d$ x z an affair = life1 & ! ?irty ye>s ( exp]i5ce :i* he has n[ _h1 h prov$ t 8 views ( ! exig5cies ( ! s]vice 7 n errone\s4 ,! plan ) :i* ! editor began 8 "w & ! l9es laid d[n by him at ! outset c only be made cle> by quot+ entire ! 8,plan ( ! ,"w0 :i* op5s ! fir/ numb]4 ,x seems desirable also to give ?is 9 its orig9al =m z to p>agraphs & typography4 ,! fir/ page ( ! cov] ( ! op5+ numb] has also be5 reproduc$ "h4 ,x w be se5 t ! plan ( ! "y editor 0 z wide z ! entire range ( sci5ce & its applications & ext5d$ out to music & ! f9e arts4 ,?is seems /range to-day1 b x mu/ be rememb]$ h[ few 7 ! organs ( publication op5 to contributors at ! "t4 ,if ! plan 0 unreasonably ext5d$1 t fact is to be tak5 n only z an expression ( ! en?usiasm ( ! editor1 z yet inexp]i5c$ 9 8 "w1 b also ( ! "t :5 ! sci5ces 7 /ill 9 _! infancy4 ,he says 7#a1 pp4 v1 vi73 8,,plan ,,( ,,! ,,"w4 ,?is ,j\rnal is int5d$ to embrace ! circle ( ,,! ,,physical ,,sci5ces1 ) _! application to ,,! ,,arts1 & to e useful purpose4 ,x is design$ z a deposit = orig9al ,am]ican communications2 b w conta9 also occasional selections f ,=eign ,j\rnals1 & notices ( ! progress ( sci5ce 9 o!r c\ntries4 ,)9 its plan are embrac$ ,,natural ,,hi/ory1 9 its ?ree great dep>tm5ts ( ,,m9]alogy1 ,,botany1 & ,,zoology2 ,,*emi/ry & ,,natural ,,philosophy1 9 _! v>i\s bran*es3 & ,,ma!matics1 pure & mix$4 ,x w be a lead+ object to illu/rate ,,am]ican ,,natural ,,hi/ory1 & especially our ,,m9]alogy & ,,geology4 ,! ,,applications ( ^! sci5ces are obvi\sly z num]\s z physical arts1 & physical wants2 = no "o ( ^! arts or wants c be nam$ :i* is n connect$ ) !m4 ,:ile ,,sci5ce w be *]i%$ = its own sake1 & ) a due respect = its own inh]5t dignity2 x w also be employ$ z ! h&maid to ! ,arts4 ,its num]\s applications to ,,agriculture1 ! e>lie/ & mo/ important ( !m2 to our ,,manufactures1 bo? me*anical & *emical2 & to our ,,dome/ic ,,economy1 w be c>efully s\ght out1 & fai?fully made4 ,x is also )9 ! design ( ?is ,j\rnal to receive communications on ,,music1 ,,sculpture1 ,,engrav+1 ,,pa9t+1 & g5]ally on ! f9e & lib]al1 z well z useful arts2 ,on ,milit>y & ,civil ,eng9e]+1 & ! art ( ,navigation4 ,illu/ration3 ,v truly ,y\rs1 ,b4 ,silliman ,notices1 ,reviews1 & ,analyses ( new sci5tific works1 & ( new ,inv5tions1 & ,specifications ( ,pat5ts2 ,biographical & ,obitu>y ,notices ( sci5tific m52 essays on ,,comp>ative ,,anatomy & ,,physiology1 & g5]ally on su* o!r bran*es ( m$ic9e z dep5d on sci5tific pr9ciples2 ,meteorological ,regi/]s1 & ,reports ( ,agricultural ,exp]im5ts3 & we w\ld leave room also = int]e/+ miscellane\s ?+s1 n p]haps exactly includ$ "u ei!r ( ! above heads4 ,communications are respectfully solicit$ f m5 ( sci5ce1 & f m5 v]s$ 9 ! practical arts4 ,le>n$ ,societies are invit$ to make ?is ,j\rnal1 occasionally1 ! vehicle ( _! communications to ! ,public4 ,! editor w n hold himself responsible = ! s5tim5ts & op9ions advanc$ by 8 correspond5ts2 b he w consid] x z an all[$ lib]ty to make slight v]bal alt]ations1 :]e errors may be presum$ to h aris5 f inadv]t5cy40 ,9 ! 8,adv]tisem5t0 :i* prec$es ! above /atem5t 9 ! fir/ numb]1 ! editor rem>ks some:at navely t he 8does n pl$ge himself t all ! subjects %all be t\*$ ^u 9 e numb]4 ,?is is pla9ly impossible unless e article %\ld be v %ort & imp]fect44440 ,! :ole subject is discuss$ 9 all its relations 9 ! 8,introductory ,rem>ks0 :i* op5 ! fir/ volume4 ,no apology is ne$$ = quot+ at consid]able l5g?1 = only 9 ?is way c ! situation be made cle>1 z se5 by ! editor 9 #ahah4 ,fur!r we ga9 "h a picture ( ! intellectual life ( ! times &1 n less int]e/+1 ( ! m9d & p]sonality ( ! writ]4 ,) a frank k9dl9ess1 em95tly *>act]i/ic ( ! man1 z w be se51 he takes ! public fully into 8 confid5ce4 ,9 ! rem>ks made 9 subsequ5t volumes1--also ext5sively quot$--! vicissitudes 9 ! conduct ( ! ent]prise are br\ght out & :5 success 0 no long] d\btful1 !re is a tone ( quiet satisfaction :i* 0 also *>act]i/ic & :i* ! circum/ances fully ju/ifi$4 ,! ,,introductory ,,rem>ks beg9 z foll[s3 ,! age 9 :i* we live is n less di/+ui%$ by a vigor\s & successful cultivation ( physical sci5ce1 ?an by its num]\s & important applications to ! practical arts1 & to ! common purposes ( life4 ,9 e enlight5$ c\ntry1 m5 illu/ri\s = tal5t1 wor? & k1 are ard5tly engag$ 9 enl>g+ ! b\nd>ies ( natural sci5ce2 & ! hi/ory ( _! labors & discov]ies is communicat$ to ! _w *iefly ?r\gh ! m$ium ( sci5tific j\rnals4 ,! utility ( su* j\rnals has ?us become g5]ally evid5t2 !y are ! h]alds ( sci5ce2 !y proclaim its toils & its a*ievem5ts2 !y demon/rate its intimate connection z well ) ! com=t1 z ) ! intellectual & moral improvem5t ( our species2 & !y (t5 procure = x enviable honors & sub/antial rew>ds4 ,m5tion is !n made ( ! j\rnals exi/+ 9 ,engl& & ,france 9 #ahah 8:i* h long enjoy$ a high & des]v$ reputation40 ,he !n cont9ues3 ,f ^! s\rces our c\ntry reaps & w long cont9ue to reap1 an abundant h>ve/ ( in=mation3 & if ! light ( sci5ce1 z well z ( day1 spr+s f ! ,ea/1 we w welcome ! rays ( bo?2 nor %\ld national pride induce u to reject s ri* an (f]+4 ,b c we d no?+ 9 return8 ,9 a g5]al diffusion ( useful in=mation ?r\gh ! v>i\s classes ( society1 9 activity ( intellect & f]tility ( res\rce & inv5tion1 produc+ a highly intellig5t population1 we h no reason to %r9k f a comp>ison ) any c\ntry4 ,b ! devot$ cultivators ( sci5ce 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates are comp>atively few3 !y are1 h[ev]1 rapidly increas+ 9 numb]4 ,among !m are p]sons di/+ui%$ = _! capacity & atta9m5ts1 &1 not)/&+ ! local feel+s n\ri%$ by our /ate sov]eignties1 & ! rival claims ( sev]al ( our l>g] cities1 !re is evid5tly a pr$isposition t[>ds a conc5tration ( ef=t1 f :i* we may hope = ! happie/ results1 ) reg>d to ! advancem5t ( bo? ! sci5ce & reputation ( our c\ntry4 ,is x n1 !re=e1 desirable to furni% "s rally+ po9t1 "s object suffici5tly int]e/+ to be nurtur$ by common ef=ts1 & ?us to become ! basis ( an endur+1 common int]e/8 ,to produce ^! ef=ts1 & to excite ?is int]e/1 no?+1 p]haps1 bids fair] ?an a ,,sci5tific ,,j\rnal4 ,! valuable "w already accompli%$ by v>i\s m$ical j\rnals is !n spok5 ( & p>ticul>ly t ( ! fir/ sci5tific p]iodical 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,bruce's ,m9]alogical ,j\rnal4 ,?is1 z ,silliman says 7#a1 p4 #c1 #ahah71 al?\gh 8bo? 9 ?is c\ntry & 9 ,europe receiv$ 9 a v flatt]+ mann]10 did n survive ! dea? ( its f\nd]1 & only a s+le volume ( #bgj pages appe>$ 7#ahaj-ahac74 ,silliman cont9ues3 ,no "o1 x is presum$1 w d\bt t a j\rnal devot$ to sci5ce1 & embrac+ a sph]e suffici5tly ext5sive to allure to its support ! pr9cipal sci5tific m5 ( our c\ntry1 is greatly ne$$2 if cordially support$1 x w be successful1 & if successful1 x w be a great public b5efit4 ,ev5 a failure1 9 s good a cause1 7unless x %\ld arise f incapacity or unfai?fulness17 _c be reg>d$ z di%on\rable4 ,x may prove only t ! attempt 0 premature1 & t our c\ntry is n yet ripe = su* an und]tak+2 = )\t ! effici5t support ( tal5t1 k1 & money1 x _c long proce$4 ,no editor c hope to c>ry =w>d su* a "w )\t ! active aid ( sci5tific & practical m52 b1 at ! same "t1 ! public h a "r to expect t he w n be sp>+ ( 8 own lab\r1 & t 8 "w %all be g5]ally m>k$ by ! impress ( 8 own h&4 ,to ?is ext5t ! editor *e]fully ackn[l$ges 8 obligations to ! public2 & x w be 8 endeav\r fai?fully to r$eem 8 pl$ge4 ,mo/ ( ! p]iodical works ( our c\ntry h be5 %ort-liv$4 ,?is1 also1 may p]i% 9 its infancy2 & if any degree ( confid5ce is *]i%$ t x w atta9 a matur] age1 x is d]iv$ f ! obvi\s & intr9sic importance ( ! und]tak+2 f its be+ built ^u p]man5t & mom5t\s national int]e/s2 f ! evid5ce ( a decid$ approbation ( ! design1 on ! "p ( g5tlem5 ( ! fir/ em95ce1 obta9$ 9 ! progress ( an ext5sive correspond5ce2 f assurance ( support1 9 ! way ( contributions1 f m5 ( ability 9 _m sections ( ! union2 & f ! exi/5ce ( su* a crisis 9 ! affairs ( ?is c\ntry & ( ! _w1 z appe>s peculi>ly auspici\s to ! success ( e wise & good und]tak+4 ,an int]e/+ discussion foll[s 7pp4 #e-h7 z to ! claims ( ! diff]5t bran*es ( sci5ce1 & ! ext5t to :i* !y & _! applications _h be5 already develop$1 also ! sph]es /ill op5 to discov]y4 ,! ,introductory ,rem>ks close1 z foll[s3 ,9 a ^w1 ! :ole circle ( physical sci5ce is directly applicable to human wants & con/antly holds out a light to ! practical arts2 x ?us poli%es & b5efits society & ev]y:]e demon/rates bo? supreme intellig5ce & h>mony & b5efic5ce ( design 9 ! ,creator4 ,! sci5ce ( ma!matics1 bo? pure & mix$1 c nev] cease to be int]e/+ & important to man1 z long z ! relations ( quantity %all exi/1 z long z %ips %all trav]se ! ocean1 z long z man %all measure ! surface or heights ( ! e>? on :i* he lives1 or calculate ! di/ances & exam9e ! relations ( ! planets & />s2 & z long z ! iron reign ( w> %all dem& ! dis*>ge ( projectiles1 or ! con/ruction ( complicat$ def5ces4 ,! clos+ "p ( ! p>agraph %[s ! influ5ce ex]t$ ^u ! m9d ( ! editor by ! s]i\s w>s ( ! ye>s prec$+ #ahah1 a subject allud$ to aga9 at ! close ( ?is *apt]4 ,9 ,febru>y1 #ahbb1 ) ! completion ( ! f\r? volume1 ! editor reviews ! situation :i*1 ?\gh enc\rag+ is by no means fully assur+4 ,he says 7preface to vol4 #d1 dat$ ,feb4 #ae1 #ahbb73 ,two ye>s & a half h elaps$1 s9ce ! publication ( ! fir/ volume ( ?is ,j\rnal1 & "o ye> & t5 mon?s s9ce ! ,editor assum$ ! pecuni>y responsibility4444 ,! "w has n1 ev5 yet1 reimburs$ its exp5ses1 7we speak n ( editorial or ( bus9ess comp5sation17 we int5d1 t x has n paid = ! pap]1 pr9t+ & engrav+2 ! proprietors ( ! fir/ volume be+ 9 advance1 on ^? acc\nts1 & ! ,editor on ! same score1 ) respect to ! aggregate exp5se ( ! ?ree la/ volumes4 ,?is deficit is1 h[ev]1 no long] increas+1 z ! receipts1 at pres5t1 j ab\t cov] ! exp5se ( ! physical mat]ials1 & ( ! manual lab\r4 ,a reit]at$ disclosure ( ?is k9d is n grateful1 & w\ld sc>cely be manly1 7 x n t ! public1 :o alone h ! p[] to remove ! difficulty1 h a "r to a frank exposition ( ! /ate ( ! case4 ,z ! patronage is1 h[ev]1 gr[+ gradually m ext5sive1 x is believ$ t ! "w w be ev5tually su/a9$1 al?\gh x may be long be=e x w comm& any ?+ b gratuit\s intellectual lab\r4444 ,^! facts1 ) ! obvi\s "o1--t its pages are suppli$ ) contributions f all p>ts ( ! ,union1 & occasionally f ,europe1 ev9ce t ! "w is receiv$ z a national & n z a local und]tak+1 & t ! community consid] x z hav+ no sectional "*4 ,enc\rag$ by ?is view ( ! subject1 & by ! fav\r ( _m di/+ui%$ m51 bo? at home & abroad1 & support$ by able contributors1 to :om ! ,editor aga9 t5d]s 8 grateful ackn[l$gm5ts1 he w /ill p]sev]e1 9 ! hope ( contribut+ some?+ to ! advancem5t ( our sci5ce & arts1 & t[>ds ! elevation ( our national "*4 ,9 ! autumn ( ! same ye>1 ! editor closes ! fif? volume ) a m confid5t tone 7,sept4 #be1 #ahbb73 ,a trial ( f\r ye>s has decid$ ! po9t1 t ! ,am]ican ,public w support ?is ,j\rnal4 ,its pecuni>y patronage is n[ su*1 t al?\gh n a lucrative1 x is no long] a haz>d\s ent]prise4 ,x is n[ also decid$1 t ! intellectual res\rces ( ! c\ntry are suffici5t to af=d an unfail+ supply ( valuable orig9al communications & t no?+ b p]sev]ance & ef=t are necess>y to give p]petuity to ! und]tak+4 ,! decid$ & uni=m expression ( public fav\r :i* ! ,j\rnal has receiv$ bo? at home & abroad1 af=ds ! ,editor su* enc\ragem5t1 t he _c hesitate to p]sev]e--& he n[ r5ews ! expression ( 8 ?anks to ! fri5ds & correspond5ts ( ! "w1 bo? 9 ,europe & ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 reque/+ at ! same "t a cont9uance ( _! fri5dly influ5ce & ef=ts4 ,/ill aga9 9 ! preface to ! six? volume 7#ahbc7 he takes ! read] m fully into 8 confid5ce & %[s t he reg>ds ! ent]prise z no long] ( d\btful success4 ,he says3 ,! conclusion ( a new volume ( a "w1 involv+ s mu* c>e1 lab\r & responsibility1 z are necess>ily atta*$1 at ! pres5t day1 to a ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce & ! ,arts1 naturally produces 9 ! m9d1 a /ate ( n ungrateful calmness1 & a disposition1 p>tak+ ( social feel+1 to say some?+ to ^? :o hon\r su* a production1 by giv+ to x a small %>e ( _! money1 & ( _! "t4 ,! ,editor's fir/ impression 01 t ! six? volume %\ld be s5t into ! _w )\t an introductory note1 b he yields to ! impulse already express$1 & to ! e/abli%$ usages ( respectful c\rtesy to ! public1 :i* a %ort preface seems to imply4 ,he has n[ p]sev]$ almo/ five ye>s1 9 an und]tak+1 reg>d$ by _m ( ! fri5ds :om he orig9ally consult$1 z haz>d\s1 & to :i* n a few ( !m prophetically allot$ only an ephem]al exi/5ce4 ,x has be5 8 =tune to prosecute ?is "w )\t1 7till a v rec5t p]iod17 returns1 adequate to its indisp5sable responsibilities2--"u a heavy pressure ( pr(essional & private duty2 ) try+ fluctuations ( heal?1 & amid/ sev]e & reit]at$ dome/ic afflictions4 ,! _w are usually indulg5t to allusions ( ?is nature1 :5 !y h any relation to ! dis*>ge ( public duty2 & 9 ?is view1 x is ) satisfaction1 t ! ,editor adds1 t he has n[ to look on =midable difficulties1 only 9 retrospect1 & ) some?+ ( ! feel+ ( him1 :o sees a p[]ful & vanqui%$ foe1 sl[ly retir+1 & leav+ a field no long] conte/$4 ,?is ,j\rnal :i*1 f ! fir/1 0 fully suppli$ ) orig9al communications1 is n[ su/a9$ by actual paym5t1 to su* an ext5t1 t x may fairly be consid]$ z an e/abli%$ "w2 its patronage is regul>ly increas+1 & we tru/ x w no long] ju/ify su* rem>ks z "s ( ! foll[+1 f ! p5 ( "o ( ! mo/ em95t sci5tific m5 9 ,europe4 8,no?+ surprises me m1 ?an ! little enc\ragem5t :i* y\r ,j\rnal10 78:i* ,i always read ) v great int]e/1 & ( :i* ,i make great use107 8exp]i5ces 9 ,am]ica--?is mu/ surely arise f ! pres5t depress$ condition ( trade1 & _c long cont9ue40 ,six ye>s m ( un9t]rupt$ editorial "w pass$ by1 ! sixte5? volume 0 complet$1 & ! editor 0 n[ 9 a position to review ! :ole situation up to #ahbi4 ,?is preface 7dat$ ,july #a1 #ahbi71 :i* is quot$ ne>ly 9 full1 _c fail to be f\nd p>ticul>ly int]e/+ & f sev]al /&po9ts1 n ! lea/ = ! insight x gives into ! writ]'s m9d4 ,x is also notewor?y t at ?is e>ly date x 0 f\nd possible to pay = orig9al contributions1 a privilege f> beyond ! means ( ! editor ( to-day4 ,:5 ?is ,j\rnal 0 fir/ project$1 v few believ$ t x w\ld succe$4 ,among o!rs1 ,dr4 ,dorsey wrote to ! editor2 8,i pr$ict a %ort life = y1 al?\gh ,i wi%1 z ! ,spani>ds say1 t y may live a ?\s& ye>s40 ,! "w has n liv$ a ?\s& ye>s1 b z x has surviv$ m ?an ! hundr$? "p ( t p]iod1 no reason is app>5t :y x may n cont9ue to exi/4 ,to ! contributors1 dis9t]e/$ & ardu\s z h be5 _! ex]tions1 ! editor's w>me/ ?anks are due2 & !y are equally r5d]$ to num]\s p]sonal fri5ds = _! unwav]+ support3 nor ought ^? subscrib]s to be =gott5 :o1 occupi$ 9 ! common pursuits ( life1 h aid$1 by _! money1 9 su/a9+ ! haz>d\s novelty ( an ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce4 ,a g5]al approbation1 suffici5tly decid$ to enc\rage ef=t1 :]e !re 0 no o!r rew>d1 has support$ ! editor2 b he has n be5 inatt5tive to ! voice ( criticism1 :e!r x has rea*$ him 9 ! tones ( c&or & k9dness1 or 9 ^? ( sev]ity4 ,we mu/ n look to our fri5ds = ! full picture ( our faults4 ,he is unwise :o neglects ! maxim-- --fas e/ ab ho/e doc]i1 & we may be sure1 t ^? are q 9 e>ne/1 ^: pleasure x is1 to place faults 9 a /rong light & bold relief2 & to ?r[ excell5cies into ! %ad[ ( total eclipse4 ,m9ds at once enlight5$ & amiable1 view+ bo? 9 _! prop] proportions1 w h[ev] r5d] ! equitable v]dict2 ,non ego paucis (f5d> maculis1-- ,x is n pret5d$ t ?is ,j\rnal has be5 faultless2 !re may be communications 9 x :i* _h be5 bett] omitt$1 & x is n d\bt$ t ! p[] to comm& intellectual ef=t1 by suitable pecuni>y rew>d1 w\ld add to its purity1 z a record ( sci5ce1 & to its ri*ness1 z a repository ( discov]ies 9 ! arts4 ,b ! editor1 ev5 n[1 (f]s paym5t1 at ! rate adopt$ by ! lit]>y ,j\rnals1 = able orig9al communications1 conta9+ especially important facts1 inve/igations & discov]ies 9 sci5ce1 & practical inv5tions 9 ! useful & ornam5tal ,arts4 ,z h[ev] 8 means are insuffici5t to pay = all ! copy1 x is e>ne/ly reque/$1 t ^? g5tlem51 :o1 f o!r motives1 are /ill will+ to write = ?is ,j\rnal1 %\ld cont9ue to favor x ) _! communications4 ,t ! p]iod :5 satisfactory comp5sation c be made to all writ]s ^: pieces are ins]t$1 & to :om paym5t w be acceptable1 is n di/ant1 may p]haps be hop$1 f ! spontane\s expression ( ! foll[+ op9ion1 by ! di/+ui%$ editor ( "o ( our pr9cipal lit]>y j\rnals1 ^: lett] is n[ be=e me4 8,! "* ( ! ,am]ican ,j\rnal is /rictly national1 & x is ! only vehicle ( communication 9 :i* an inquir] may be sure to f9d :at is mo/ int]e/+ 9 ! wide range ( topics1 :i* its design embraces4 ,x has become 9 %ort1 n m id5tifi$ ) ! sci5ce ?an ! lit]ature ( ! c\ntry40 ,x is believ$ t a /rict exam9ation ( its cont5ts w prove t its "* has be5 decid$ly sci5tific2 & ! op9ion is (t5 express$ to ! editor1 t 9 common ) ! j\rnals ( our ,academies1 x is a "w ( ref]5ce1 indisp5sable to him :o w\ld exam9e ! progress ( ,am]ican sci5ce dur+ ! p]iod :i* x cov]s4 ,t x might n be too repulsive to ! g5]al read]1 "s miscellane\s pieces h occasionally occupi$ its pages2 b 9 small] proportion1 ?an is common ) sev]al ( ! mo/ di/+ui%$ ,briti% ,j\rnals ( ,sci5ce4 ,/ill1 ! editor has be5 frequ5tly solicit$1 bo? 9 public & private1 to make x m miscellane\s1 t x might be m acceptable to ! intellig5t & well educat$ man1 :o does n cultivate sci5ce2 b he has nev] lo/ sight ( 8 great object1 :i* 0 to produce & conc5trate orig9al ,am]ican ef=t 9 sci5ce1 & ?us he has =egone pecuni>y returns1 :i* by pursu+ ! o!r c\rse1 might h be5 r5d]$ important4 ,o!rs w\ld n h him admit any ?+ t is n /rictly & te*nically sci5tific2 & w\ld make ?is j\rnal = m]e pr(essors & amateurs2 especially 9 reg>d to ^? num]\s details 9 natural hi/ory1 :i* al?\gh important to be regi/]$1 7& :i*1 :5 pres5t$1 h always be5 record$ 9 ! ,am]ican ,j\rnal17 c nev] exclusively occupy ! pages ( any su* "w )\t repell+ ! majority ( read]s4 ,if ?is is true ev5 9 ,great ,brita9 x is /ill m s 9 ?is c\ntry2 & our savants1 unless !y w\ld be1 n only ! exclusive admir]s1 b ! sole pur*as]s ( _! own works1 mu/ p]mit a little ( ! graceful drap]y ( g5]al lit]ature to fl[ ar\nd ! cold /atues ( sci5ce4 ,! editor ( ?is ,j\rnal1 /rongly incl9$1 bo? f op9ion & habit1 to gratify ! cultivators ( sci5ce1 w /ill d ev]y?+ 9 8 p[] to promote its high int]e/s1 & z he hopes 9 a bett] mann] ?an h]et(ore2 b ^! respectable g5tlem5 w h ! c\rtesy1 to yield some?+ to ! read+ lit]>y1 z well z sci5tific public1 & w n1 we tru/1 be disgu/$1 if n[ & !n an ,oasis relieves ! eye1 & a liv+ /ream refre%es ! travell]4 ,n be+ incl9$ to r5ew ! abortive exp]im5t1 to please e body1 :i* has be5 s long r5[n$ 9 fable2 ! editor w endeavor to pursue1 ! ev5 t5or ( 8 way2 altog!r incl9$ to be c\rte\s & useful to 8 fell[ travell]s1 & hop+ = _! k9dness & s]vices 9 return4 ,! ,close ( ! ,fir/ ,s]ies4 ,! 8,fir/ ,s]ies10 z x 0 h5ce=? to be kn[n1 clos$ ) ! fiftie? volume 7#ahdg1 pp4 xx #cdg74 ,?is f9al volume is devot$ to an exhau/ive index to ! =ty-n9e volumes prec$+4 ,9 ! preface 7dat$ ,april #ai1 #ahdg7 ! eld] ,silliman1 n[ ! s5ior editor1 reviews ! "w t _h be5 accompli%$ ) a frank expression ( 8 feel+ ( satisfaction 9 ! victory won aga9/ great ob/acles2 ) ?is e read] mu/ sympa?ize4 ,he quotes "h at l5g? 7b 9 slightly alt]$ =m7 ! matt] f ! fir/ volume 7#ahah71 :i* has be5 already reproduc$ almo/ entire1 & !n goes on z foll[s 7pp4 xi et seq473 ,illu/ration3 ,james ,d4 ,dana ,su* 0 ! pl$ge :i*1 on ent]+ ^u our editorial labors 9 #ahah1 we gave to ! public1 & su* 7 ! views :i* we !n ent]ta9$1 reg>d+ sci5ce & ! arts z connect$ ) ! int]e/s & honor ( our c\ntry & ( mank9d4 ,9 ! retrospect1 we realize a sob] b grateful feel+ ( satisfaction1 9 hav+1 to ! ext5t ( our p[]1 dis*>g$ ^! self-impos$ obligations2 ?is feel+ is *a/5$ also by a deep s5se ( gratitude1 fir/ to ,god = life & p[] cont9u$ = s high a purpose2 & next1 to our noble b& ( contributors1 ^: labors are record$ 9 half a c5tury ( volumes1 & 9 m ?an a qu>t] ( a c5tury ( ye>s4 ,we ne$ n conceal our conviction1 t ! views express$ 9 ^! 8,introductory ,rem>ks10 h be5 fully su/a9$ by our fell[ labor]s4 ,%\ld we appe> to take high] gr\nd ?an becomes u1 we f9d our v9dication 9 ! fact1 t we h h]ald$ *iefly ! do+s & ! fame ( o!rs4 ,! "w has inde$ borne ?r\gh\t 8! impress0 ( editorial unity ( design1 & mu* t has fl[$ f "o p51 & n a little f ! p5s ( o!rs1 has be5 )\t a "n4 ,! mat]ials = ! pile1 h h[ev] be5 select$ & br\ght 91 *iefly by o!r h&s1 & if ! monum5t :i* has be5 re>$ %\ld prove to be 8a]e p]5nius10 ! honor is n ! sole prop]ty ( ! ar*itect2 ^? :o h qu>ri$1 hewn & poli%$ ! granite & ! m>ble1 are fully entitl$ to ! endur+ record ( _! names already deeply cut into ! massy blocks1 :i* !mselves h furni%$4 ,if a retrospective survey ( ! labors ( ?irty ye>s on ?is occasion has rek9dl$ a degree ( en?usiasm1 x is a natural result ( an exam9ation ( all our volumes f ! cont5ts ( :i* we h endeavor$ to make out a summ>y bo? ( ! labor]s & _! works4444 ,! s]ies ( volumes mu/ ev] =m a "w ( p]man5t int]e/ on acc\nt ( its exhibit+ ! progress ( ,am]ican sci5ce dur+ ! long p]iod :i* x cov]s4 ,comp>+ #ahag ) #ahdg1 we m>k on ?is subject a v gratify+ *ange4 ,! cultivators ( sci5ce 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7 !n few--n[ !y are num]\s4 ,societies & associations ( v>i\s names1 = ! cultivation ( natural hi/ory1 h be5 in/itut$ 9 v _m ( our cities & t[ns1 & sev]al ( !m h be5 active & effici5t 9 mak+ orig9al obs]vations & =m+ collections4 ,a summ>y foll[s pres5t+ "s facts z to ! gr[? ( sci5tific societies & sci5tific collections 9 ?is c\ntry dur+ ! p]iod involv$3 ,!n ! /rik+ contra/ betwe5 #ahah & #ahdg 9 ! matt] ( organiz$ ef=t t[>d sci5tific exploration is discuss$1 z foll[s 7pp4 xvi et seq473 ,:5 we began our ,j\rnal1 n "o ( ! ,/ates _h be5 survey$ 9 relation to its geology & natural hi/ory2 n[ ^? t h n be5 explor$ are few 9 numb]4 ,/ate collections & a ,unit$ ,/ates ,museum hold =? _m allurem5ts to ! "y naturali/1 z well z to ! ar*aeologi/ & ! /ud5t ( 8 own race4 ,! late ,explor+ ,exp$ition ,wilkes ) ! ,national ,in/itute1 has enri*$ ! capital ) treasures r>ely equall$ 9 any c\ntry1 & ! ,smi?sonian ,in/itution rec5tly organiz$ at ,wa%+ton1 is ab\t to beg9 its labors = ! increase & diffusion ( k among m54 ,x mu/ n be =gott5 t ! ,am]ican ,association ( ,geologi/s & ,naturali/s--compos$ ( individuals assembl$ f widely sep>ate portions ( ! ,union--by ! sev5 sessions :i* x has held1 & by its ri* volume ( reports1 has produc$ a conc5tration & h>mony ( ef=t :i* promise happy results1 especially z1 l ! ,briti% ,association1 x visits diff]5t t[ns & cities 9 its annual progress4 ,a/ronomy n[ lifts its explor+ tubes f ! obs]vatories ( _m ( our in/itutions4 ,ev5 ! ,ohio1 :i* )9 ! memory ( ! olde/ liv+ m51 roll$ along its d>k wat]s ?r\gh int]m9able =e/s1 or receiv$ ! /a9s ( blood f deadly ,indian w>f>e1 n[ beholds on "o ( its mo/ beautiful hills1 & ne> its spl5did city1 a p]man5t obs]vatory ) a noble telescope sweep+ ! heav5s1 by ! h& ( a zeal\s & gift$ obs]v]4 ,at ,wa%+ton also1 "u ! p[]ful patronage ( ! g5]al gov]nm5t1 an excell5t obs]vatory has be5 e/abli%$1 & is furni%$ ) sup]ior in/rum5ts1 "u ! direction ( a vigilant & well in/ruct$ a/ronom]--second$ by able & zeal\s assi/ants4 ,"h also 79 ,yale ,college7 successful obs]vations h be5 made ) good in/rum5ts1 al?\gh no p]man5t build+ has be5 erect$ = an ,obs]vatory4 ,we only give s+le examples by way ( illu/ration1 = ! hi/ory ( ! progress ( sci5ce 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ( in/itutions = its promotion1 dur+ ! pres5t g5]ation1 w\ld dem& a volume4 ,x is en\gh = our purpose t sci5ce is und]/ood & valu$1 & ! "r me?ods ( prosecut+ x are kn[n1 & ! "t is at h& :5 its moral & intellectual use w be z obvi\s z its physical applications4 ,nor is x to be =gott5 t we h awak5$ an ,european int]e/ 9 our rese>*es3 g5]al sci5ce has be5 illu/rat$ by treasures ( facts drawn f ?is c\ntry1 & our discov]ies are eag]ly s\ght = & publi%$ abroad4 ,:ile ) our co-work]s 9 _m p>ts ( our broad l&1 we rejoice 9 ?is auspici\s *ange1 we are f> f arrogat+ x to ourselves4 ,multipli$ labors ( _m h&s h produc$ ! great results4 ,9 ! place :i* we h occupi$1 we h p]sev]$ despite ( all disc\ragem5ts1 & may1 ) our num]\s coadjutors1 claim "s %>e 9 ! honors ( ! day4 ,we d n say t our "w might n h be5 bett] done--b we may decl>e ) tru? t we h done all 9 our p[]1 & x is some?+ to h excit$ _m o!rs to ef=t & to h *ronicl$ _! de$s 9 our annals4 ,let ^? t foll[ u labor ) l zeal & p]sev]ance1 & ! good cause w cont9ue to advance & prosp]4 ,x is ! cause ( tru?--sci5ce is only embodi$ & sympa?iz$ tru? & 9 ! beautiful conception ( our noble ,agassiz--8x tells ! ?\ght ( ,god40 ,! preface closes ) "s p]sonal rem>ks3 ,9 trac+ back ! associations ( _m gone-by ye>s1 a ho/ ( ?\ghts ru% 91 & p5sive remembrance ( ! dead :o h labor$ ) u ca/s deep %ad[s into ! vi/a ?r\gh :i* we view ! pa/4 ,anticipation ( ! h\r ( dis*>ge1 :5 our summons %all arrive1 gives sobriety to ?\ght & *ecks ! confid5ce :i* heal? & cont9u$ p[] to act might naturally inspire1 7 we n reprov$1 almo/ e day1 by ! dea? ( "s co-eval1 co-work]1 companion1 fri5d or patron4 ,?is v h\r is sadd5$ by su* an ev5t1--b we w cont9ue to labor on1 & /rive to be f\nd at our po/ ( duty1 until !re is no?+ m = u to d2 tru/+ our hopes = a future life 9 ! h&s ( ,him :o plac$ u 9 ! mid/ ( ! spl5did g>niture ( ?is l[] _w1 & :o has made n less ample provision = ano!r & a bett]4 ,editorial & f9ancial4--,! editorial labors on ! ,j\rnal 7 c>ri$ by ! eld] ,silliman alone = tw5ty ye>s f #ahah to #ahch4 ,z has be5 cle>ly %[n 9 8 /atem5ts1 already quot$1 he 01 aft] ! fir/ beg9n+1 p]sonally responsible also = ! f9ancial side ( ! ent]prise4 ,) volume #cd 7#ahch7 ! "n ( ,b5jam9 ,silliman1 ,jr41 is add$ z co-editor on ! title page4 ,he 0 graduat$ f ,yale ,college ! ye> prec$+ & at ?is date 0 only tw5ty-"o ye>s old4 ,8 aid 0 unque/ionably ( mu* s]vice f ! beg9n+ & increas$ rapidly ) ye>s & exp]i5ce4 ,! eld] ,silliman introduces him 9 ! preface to vol4 #cd 7#ahch7 & comes back to ! subject aga9 9 ! preface to vol4 #ej 7#ahdg74 ,! :ole editorial situation is "h pres5t$ z foll[s3 8,dur+ tw5ty ye>s f ! inception ( ?is ,j\rnal1 ! editor labor$ alone1 al?\gh ov]tures = editorial coop]ation _h be5 made to him by g5tlem5 comm&+ 8 confid5ce & e/eem1 & :o w\ld p]sonally h be5 v acceptable4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 8 op9ion t ! unity ( purpose & action s ess5tial to ! success ( su* a "w 7 be/ secur$ by individuality2 b he made e ef=t1 & n )\t success1 to conciliate ! good w & to secure ! assi/ance ( g5tlem5 em95t 9 p>ticul> dep>tm5ts ( k4 ,on ! title page ( ,no4 #a1 vol4 #cd1 publi%$ 9 ,july1 #ahch1 a new "n is introduc$3 ! individual to :om x belongs hav+ be5 = sev]al ye>s m or less conc]n$ 9 ! managem5t ( ! ,j\rnal1 & f 8 education1 position1 pursuits & ta/e1 z well z f aff9ity1 be+ almo/ id5tifi$ ) ! editor1 he seem$ to be q a natural ally1 & 8 adoption into ! editor%ip 0 sc>cely a violation ( individual unity4 ,8 assi/ance has prov$ to be v important3--8 ne> relation to ! s5ior editor prev5ts him f say+ m1 :ile ju/ice does n p]mit him to say less40 ,z is di/9ctly intimat$ 9 ! prec$+ p>agraph ! eld] ,silliman 0 =tunate 9 obta9+ ! assi/ance 9 8 editorial labors ( num]\s g5tlem5 int]e/$ 9 ! ent]prise4 ,_! coop]ation provid$ _m ( ! sci5tific notices1 book reviews & ! l conta9$ 9 ! ,miscellany ) :i* ea* numb] clos$4 ,x is impossible1 at ?is date1 to r5d] ! cr$it due to ,silliman's help]s or ev5 to m5tion !m by "n4 ,v e>ly ,asa ,gray 0 "o ( ^! z occasional notes are sign$ by 8 initials4 ,dr4 ,levi ,ives ( ,new ,hav5 0 ano!r4 ,pr(4 ,j4 ,griscom ( ,p>is also s5t num]\s contributions ev5 z e>ly z #ahbe 7see #i1 #aed1 #ahbe2 #bb1 #aib1 #ahcb2 #bd1 #cdb1 #ahcc1 & o!rs74 ,"s /atem5ts h already be5 quot$ f ! e>ly volumes z to ! bus9ess "p ( ,silliman's ent]prise4 ,! subject is tak5 up m fully 9 ! preface to volume #ej 7#ahdg74 ,no "o c fail to m>vel at ! en]gy & optimism requir$ to pu% ! ,j\rnal =w>d :5 conditions mu/ h be5 s difficult & enc\ragem5t s scanty4 ,he says 7pp4 iii1 iv73 ,?is ,j\rnal fir/ appe>$ 9 ,july1 #ahah1 & 9 ,june1 #ahai1 ! fir/ volume ( f\r numb]s & #ddh pages 0 complet$4 ,?is scale ( publication1 orig9ally deem$ suffici5t1 0 f\nd inadequate to receive all ! communications1 & z ! receipts prov$ insuffici5t to su/a9 ! exp5ses1 ! "w1 hav+ b ?ree hundr$ & fifty subscrib]s1 01 at ! end ( ! ye>1 ab&on$ by ! publi%]s4 ,an unpr(itable ent]prise n be+ attractive to ! trade1 t5 mon?s elaps$ be=e ano!r arrangem5t c\ld be c>ri$ into effect1 &1 !re=e1 ,no4 #a ( vol4 #b 0 n publi%$ until ,april1 #ahbj4 ,! new arrangem5t 0 "o ( mutual responsibility = ! exp5ses1 b ! ,editor 0 con/ra9$ nev]!less to pl$ge 8 own p]sonal cr$it to obta9 f a bank ! funds necess>y to beg9 aga91 & f ?is responsibility he 01 = a s]ies ( ye>s1 seldom releas$4 ,! s+le volume p] annum be+ f\nd insuffici5t = ! communications1 two volumes a ye> 7 aft]w>d publi%$1 comm5c+ ) ! second volume4 ,! publi%]s ^: names appe> on ! title page ( ! f\r numb]s ( ! fir/ volume are 8,j4 ,ea/burn ,co41 ,lit]>y ,rooms1 ,broadway1 ,new ,york0 & 8,h[e ,spald+1 ,new ,hav540 ,= ! second volume & ^? imm$iately foll[+ ! correspond+ /atem5t 8pr9t$ & publi%$ by ,s4 ,conv]se ,new ,hav5 = ! ,editor40 ,silliman adds 7p4 iv73 ,at ! conclusion ( vol4 #aj1 9 ,febru>y1 #ahbf1 ! "w 0 aga9 left ^u ! h&s ( its ,editor2 all its receipts _h be5 absorb$ by ! exp5ses1 & x became necess>y n[ to pay a heavy sum to ! retir+ publi%]1 z an equival5t = 8 copies ( previ\s volumes1 z x 0 deem$ necess>y ei!r to control ! "w entirely or to ab&on x4 ,! ,editor 0 n will+ to ?9k ( ! latt]1 especially z he 0 enc\rag$ by public approbation1 & 0 *e]$ onw>d 9 8 labors by em95t m5 bo? at home & abroad1 & he saw di/9ctly t ! ,j\rnal 0 r5d]+ s]vice n only to sci5ce & ! arts1 b to ! reputation ( 8 c\ntry4 ,he reflect$1 moreov]1 t 9 almo/ e valuable ent]prise p]sev]ance 9 ef=t is necess>y to success4 ,he be+ n[ sole proprietor1 a new arrangem5t 0 made = a s+le ye>1 ! publi%]s be+ at lib]ty1 at ! end ( t "t1 to retire1 & ! ,editor to resume ! ,j\rnal %\ld he pref] t c\rse4 ,! latt] alt]native he adopt$1 tak+ ^u himself ! entire conc]n1 includ+ bo? ! bus9ess & ! editorial duties1 & ( c\rse1 all ! correspond5ce & acc\nts4 ,f t "t ! "w has proce$$ )\t int]ruption1 two volumes p] annum hav+ be5 publi%$ = ! la/ tw5ty ye>s2 & its pecuni>y claims ceas$ to be on]\s1 al?\gh its means h nev] be5 l>ge4444 ,lat] 9 ! same preface he adds 7p4 xiv73 ,x may be int]e/+ to our read]s to "k some?+ ( ! patronage ( ! ,j\rnal4 ,x has nev] rea*$ "o ?\s& pay+ subscrib]s1 & has r>ely exce$$ sev5 or eight hundr$--= _m ye>s x fluctuat$ betwe5 six & sev5 hundr$4 ,x has be5 f> f pay+ a reasonable editorial comp5sation2 (t5 x has paid no?+1 & at pres5t x does little m ?an pay its bills4 ,! numb] ( engrav+s & ! extra labor 9 pr9t]'s composition1 cause x to be an exp5sive "w1 :ile its patronage is limit$4 ,x is difficult at ?is date to give any adequate /atem5t ( ! am\nt ( enc\ragem5t & active assi/ance giv5 to ,silliman by 8 sci5tific colleagues 9 ,new ,hav5 & else:]e--a subject e>li] allud$ to4 ,x is =tunately possible1 h[ev]1 to ackn[l$ge ! g5]\s aid receiv$ by ! ,j\rnal 9 ! e>ly days f a s\rce ne> at h&4 ,x has already be5 not$ 9 ano!r place t ! dawn+ activity ( sci5ce at ,new ,hav5 0 recogniz$ by ! f\nd+ ( ! 8,connecticut ,academy ( ,arts & ,sci5ces10 =mally e/abli%$ at ,new ,hav5 9 #agii & ! ?ird sci5tific body to be organiz$ 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,f ! beg9n+ ( ! ,j\rnal 9 #ahah1 ! ,connecticut ,academy freely gave its support bo? 9 pap]s = publication & at lea/ on "o occasion lat] x gave important f9ancial aid4 ,^u ! occasion ( ! celebration ( ! c5t5nial anniv]s>y ( ! ,academy on ,octob] #aa1 #ahii1 ,pr(essor1 lat] ,gov]nor1 ,baldw91 ! presid5t ( ! ,academy1 discusses ?is subject 9 "s detail4 ,he says 9 "p3 ,to support 8 ,silliman's und]tak+1 a vote _h be5 pass$ 9 ,febru>y #ahah1 8t ! ,committee ( ,publication may all[ su* ( ! ,academy's pap]s z !y ?9k prop]1 to be publi%$ 9 ,mr4 ,silliman's ,sci5tific ,j\rnal40 ,free use 0 made ( ?is au?ority1 & a l>ge "p ( ! cont5ts ( ! ,j\rnal 0 = _m ye>s drawn f ?is s\rce4 ,9 "s cases ?is fact 0 not$ 9 publication2#b b 9 mo/ x 0 n4444 ,9 #ahbf1 :5 ! ,j\rnal 0 9 great ne$ ( f9ancial support1 ! ,academy fur!r vot$ to pay = a ye> ! co/ ( pr9t+ su* ( its pap]s z might be publi%$ 9 x4 ,9 ,baldw9's ,annals ( ,yale ,college1 publi%$ 9 #ahca1 x is describ$ z a publication 8honorable to ! sci5ce ( our common c\ntry10 & hav+ 8an additional value z be+ adopt$ z ! ackn[l$g$ organ ( ! ,connecticut ,academy ( ,arts & ,sci5ces40 ,_m active campaigns 7 c>ri$ on ov] ! c\ntry ?r\gh paid ag5ts to obta9 new subscrib]s = ! ,j\rnal & x 0 d\btless due to ^! ef=ts t ! nom9al subscription li/ 01 at times1 z already not$1 relatively l>ge z comp>$ ) t ( a lat] date4 ,! new subscrib]s 9 _m cases1 h[ev]1 did n rema9 p]man5tly int]e/$1 (t5 fail$ to pay _! bills1 & ! unc]ta9 & v>y+ dem& ^u ! supply ( pr9t$ copies 0 d\btless "o reason :y _m s+le numb]s became e>ly out ( pr9t4 ,an int]e/+ sidelight is ?r[n ^u ! ef=ts ( ,silliman to int]e/ ! public 9 8 "w1 at its beg9n+1 by a lett] to ! editor f ,?omas ,jeff]son1 !n sev5ty-five ye>s ( age4 ,! writ] is indebt$ to ,mr4 ,rob]t ,b4 ,adam ( ,buffalo = a copy ( ?is lett] & its int]e/ ju/ifies its be+ reproduc$ "h entire4 ,! lett] is z foll[s3 ,monticello1 ,apr4 #aa4 '#ah4 ,sir ,! unlucky displacem5t ( y\r lett] ( ,m> #c has be5 ! cause ( delay 9 my answ]4 al?o' ,i h v g5]ally )drawn f subscrib+ to or read+ p]iodical publications f ! love ( re/ :i* age produces1 yet ,i will+ly subscribe to ! j\rnal y propose f a confid5ce t ! tal5t ) :i* x w be edit$ w entitle x to att5tion among ! ?+s ( select read+ = :i* alone ,i h "t n[ left4 be s good z to s5d x by mail1 & ! receipt ( ! #a/ numb] w be consid]$ z ann\nc+ t ! "w is comm5c$ & ! subscription money = a ye> %all be =w>d$4 ,accept ! assurance ( my great e/eem & respect4 ,?4 ,jeff]son ,pr(essor ,silliman4 ,contributors4--,an int]e/+ summ>y is also giv5 by ,silliman ( ! contributors to ! ,j\rnal & ! ext5t ( _! "w 7vol4 #ej1 pp4 xii1 xiii72 he says3 ,we f9d t !re h be5 ab\t #fjj contributors ( orig9al matt] to ! ,j\rnal1 & we h ! unexpect$ satisfaction ( believ+ t probably five-six?s ( !m are /ill liv+2 = we are n c]ta9 t m ?an fifty are among ! dead2 ( p]haps fifty m we are )\t in=mation1 & if t additional numb] is to be enroll$ among ! 8/ellig]i10 we h /ill #ejj rema9+4 ,among !m are n a few ( ! vet]ans ) :om we began our c>e]1 & sev]al ( ^! are /ill active contributors4 ,%all we !n conclude t ! peaceful pursuits ( k are favorable to long life8 ,?is we ?9k is1 ct]is p>ibus1 c]ta9ly true3 b 9 ! pres5t in/ance1 ano!r reason c be assign$ = ! l>ge am\nt ( survivor%ip4 ,z ! ,j\rnal has advanc$ & dea? has remov$ its sci5tific contributors1 y\ng] m5 & m5 /ill y\ng]1 h recruit$ ! ranks1 & volunte]s h enli/$ 9 numb]s con/antly increas+1 s t ! fl[] ( ! ho/ are n[ 9 ! morn+ & m]idian ( life4 ,we h be5 con/antly advanc+1 l a travell] f ! equ9octial t[>ds ! cold] zones1--z we h increas$ our latitude1 />s h set & new />s h ris51 :ile a few planet>y orbs visible 9 e zone1 h cont9u$ to *e] u on our c\rse4 ,! numb] ( articles1 almo/ exclusively orig9al1 conta9$ 9 ! ,j\rnal is ab\t #ahjj1 & ! ,index w %[ h[ _m h be5 contribut$ by ea* individual2 we h d\btless includ$ 9 ?is numb] "s few articles republi%$ f =eign ,j\rnals--b we ?9k !y are ev5 m ?an c\nt]balanc$ by orig9al communications )\t a "n & by editorial articles1 bo? ( :i* h be5 g5]ally omitt$ 9 ! enum]ation4 ,( small] articles & notices 9 ! ,miscellany1 we h n made any enum]ation1 b !y evid5tly are m num]\s ?an ! regul> articles1 & we presume t !y may am\nt to at lea/ #bejj4 ,( p>ty1 ei!r 9 politics or religion1 !re is no trace 9 our "w2 ( p]sonalities !re are none1 except ^? t relate to priority ( claims or o!r rights ( individuals4 ,( ^! v9dications ! numb] is n great1 & we c\ld he>tily h wi%$ t !re _h be5 no occasion = any4 ,g5]al ,scope ( ,articles4--,_m ref]5ces w be f\nd 9 ! *apt]s foll[+ :i* ?r[ light ^u ! "* & scope ( ! pap]s publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal1 p>ticul>ly 9 its e>ly ye>s2 a few additional /atem5ts "h may1 h[ev]1 prove ( int]e/4 ,"o feature t is especially noticeable is ! frequ5t publication ( articles plann$ to place be=e ! read]s ( ! ,j\rnal 9 full detail subjects to :i* !y might n o!rwise h access4 ,^! are sometimes translations2 sometimes republications ( articles t _h already appe>$ 9 ,engli% p]iodicals2 aga91 !y are exhau/ive & critical reviews ( important memoirs or books4 ,! value ( ?is feature 9 ! e>ly hi/ory ( ! ,j\rnal1 :5 ! di/ribution ( sci5tific lit]ature _h no?+ ( ! ?or\ghness *>act]i/ic ( rec5t ye>s1 is suffici5tly obvi\s4 ,x is also int]e/+ to note ! long articles ( geological description & o!rs giv+ li/s ( m9]al or botanical localities4 ,notewor?y1 too1 is ! attempt to keep abrea/ ( occurr+ ph5om5a z 9 ! _m notes on tornadoes & /orms by ,r$field1 ,loomis1 etc42 on auroras at diff]5t localities2 on %oot+ />s by ,h]rick1 ,olm/ead & o!rs4 ,! wide range ( topics treat$ ( is q 9 accordance ) ! plan ( ! editor z giv5 on an e>li] page4 ,"s notes1 tak5 m or less at r&om1 may s]ve to illu/rate ?is po9t4 ,an ext5d$ & q te*nical discussion ( 8,musical ,temp]am5t0 op5s ! fir/ numb] 7#a1 pp4 #i-ce7 & is conclud$ 9 ! same volume 7pp4 #agf-aii74 ,an article on 8,my/]y0 is giv5 by ,m>k ,hopk9s1 ,a4,m41 8late a tutor ( ,williams ,college0 7#ac1 #bag1 #ahbh74 ,!re is an essay on 8,gypsies0 by ,j4 ,griscom 7f ! ,revue ,encyclopdique7 9 volume #bd 7pp4 #cdb-cde1 #ahcc71 :ile "s notes on ,am]ican gypsies are add$ 9 vol4 #bf 7p4 #ahi1 #ahcd74 ,! 8div9+ rod0 is describ$ at l5g? 9 vol4 #aa 7pp4 #bja-bab1 #ahbf71 b )\t giv+ any com=t to ! cr$ul\s2 on ! contr>y ! la/ p>agraph /ates t 8! pret5sions ( div9]s are wor?less1 etc40 ,a long article by ,j4 ,f9* on ! =ts ( ,bo/on h>b\r appe>$ 9 #ahbd 7#h1 #cch-cdh72 ! conclud+ p>agraph seems wor?y ( quotation3 8,_m c5turies h5ce1 if despotism )\t1 or an>*y )91 %\ld cause ! republican in/itutions ( ,am]ica to fade1 !n ^! =tresses ought to be de/roy$1 because !y w\ld be a con/ant reproa* to ! p2 b until t p]iod1 !y %\ld be pres]v$ z ! noble/ monum5ts ( lib]ty40 ,! promise to include ! f9e arts is kept by ! publication ( v>i\s pap]s1 z ( ! ,trumbull pa9t+s 7#af1 #afc1 #ahbi72 also by a s]ies ( articles on 8ar*itecture 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates0 7#ag1 #ii1 #ahcj2 #ah1 #bah1 #bbj1 #ahcj7 & o!rs4 ,q 9 ano!r l9e is ! pap] by ,j4 ,w4 ,gibbs 7#cc1 #cbd1 #ahch7 on 8,arabic words 9 ,engli%40 ,a numb] ( relat$ l+ui/ic pap]s by ! same au?or are to be f\nd 9 o!r volumes4 ,pap]s 9 pure ma!matics are also n infrequ5t1 ?\gh n[ n consid]$ z fall+ )9 ! field ( ! ,j\rnal4 ,appli$ sci5ce takes a prom95t place ?r\gh all ! volume ( ! ,fir/ ,s]ies4 ,an int]e/+ pap] is t on ,eli ,:itney1 conta9+ an acc\nt ( ! cotton g92 ?is is accompani$ by an excell5t portrait 7#ba1 #bja-bfd1 #ahcb74 ,! /eam eng9e & its application are repeat$ly discuss$ & 9 ! e>ly volumes brief acc\nts are giv5 ( ! e>ly /eamboats 9 use2 = example1 betwe5 ,/ockholm & ,/4 ,pet]sburg 7#b1 #cdg1 #ahbj72 ,trie/e & ,v5ice 7#d1 #cgg1 #ahbb72 on ! ,swiss ,lakes 7#f1 #che1 #ahbc74 ,! voyage ( ! fir/ ,atlantic /eamboat1 ! 8,savannah10 :i* cross$ f ,savannah to ,liv]pool 9 #ahai1 is describ$ 7#ch1 #aee1 #ahdj72 m5tion is also made ( ! 8fir/ iron boat0 7#c1 #cga1 #ahba2 #e1 #cif1 #ahbb74 ,a numb] ( int]e/+ lett]s on 8,/eam ,navigation0 are giv5 9 vol4 #ce1 #afj1 #afb1 #ccb1 #ccc1 #ccf2 "s ( ! sugge/ions seem v qua9t1 view$ 9 ! light ( ! exp]i5ce ( to-day4 ,a v e>ly =m ( explosive eng9e is describ$ at l5g? by ,samuel ,morey 7#aa1 #ajd1 #ahbf72 ?is is an article t des]ves m5tion 9 ^! days ( gasol5e motors4 ,ev5 m int]e/+ is ! description by ,*>les ,griswold 7#b1 #id1 #ahbj7 ( ! fir/ subm>9e inv5t$ by ,david ,bu%nell & us$ 9 ! ,revolution>y ,w> 9 ,augu/1 #aggf4 ,an acc\nt is also giv5 ( a dirigible balloon t may be fairly reg>d$ z ! orig9al ance/or ( ! ,zeppel9 7see #aa1 #cdf1 #ahbf74 ,! :ole subject ( arial navigation is treat$ at l5g? by ,h4 ,/rait 7#be1 pp4 #be1 #bf1 #ahcd7 & ! expression ( 8 hopes = ! future des]ve quotation3 8,conveyance by air c be easily r5d]$ z safe z by wat] or l&1 & m *eap & spe$y1 :ile ! univ]sal & uni=m diffusion ( ! air ov] e portion ( ! e>?1 w r5d] arial navigation pref]able to any o!r4 ,to c>ry x into effect1 !re ne$s only an imm$iate appeal on a suffici5tly l>ge scale1 to exp]im5t2 reason has done h] "p1 :5 exp]im5t does h]s1 nature w n refuse to sanction ! :ole4 ,arial navigation w pres5t ! works ( nature 9 all _! *>ms2 to comm]ce & ! diffusion ( k1 x w br+ ! mo/ effici5t aid1 & x c ?us be r5d]$ s]viceable to ! :ole human family40 ,a subject ( q ano!r "* is ! fir/ discussion ( ! prop]ties ( *lor(orm 7*loric e!r7 & its use z an an/hetic 7,gu?rie1 #ba1 #fd1 #dje1 #ahcb2 #bb1 #aje1 #ahcb2 ,levi ,ives1 #ba1 #djf74 ,fur!r int]e/+ communications are giv5 ( ! fir/ analyses ( ! ga/ric juice & ! "p play$ by x 9 ! process ( dige/ion4 ,dr4 ,william ,beaumont ( ,/4 ,l\is took advantage ( a pati5t :o ?r\gh a gun-%ot w\nd 0 left ) a p]man5t op5+ into 8 /oma* ?r\gh :i* ! ga/ric juice c\ld be drawn (f4 ,! results ( ,dr4 ,beaumont & ( ,pr(essor ,robley ,dunglison1 to :om samples 7 submitt$1 are giv5 9 full 9 ! life ( ,beaumont by ,jesse ,s4 ,my] 7,/4 ,l\is1 #aiab74 ,! int]e/ ( ! matt]1 s f> z ! ,j\rnal is conc]n$1 is *iefly because ,dr4 ,beaumont select$ ,pr(essor ,silliman z a *emi/ to :om samples = exam9ation 7 also submitt$4 ,an acc\nt ( ,silliman's results is giv5 9 ! ,beaumont volume ref]r$ to 7see also #bf1 #aic1 #ahcd74 ,desir+ ! support ( a *emi/ ( wid] exp]i5ce 9 organic analysis1 he also s5t a sample ?r\gh ! ,sw$i% consul to ,b]zelius 9 ,/ockholm4 ,aft] "s mon?s ! sample 0 receiv$ & x is int]e/+ to note 9 a p]fectly fre% condition2 x is to be regrett$1 h[ev]1 t ! ,sw$i% *emi/ fail$ to add any?+ to ! results already obta9$ 9 ?is c\ntry 7#bg1 #dj;b1 #ahce74 ,! above li/1 :i* might be greatly ext5d$1 seems to leave little gr\nd = ! impli$ criticism repli$ to by ,silliman z foll[s 7#af1 p4 v1 #ahbi73 ,a celebrat$ s*ol>1 :ile himself an editor1 advis$ me1 9 a lett]1 to introduce into ?is ,j\rnal z mu* 8readable0 matt] z possible3 & !re 01 pretty e>ly1 an e>ne/ b respectful recomm5dation 9 a ,philadelphia pap]1 t ,lit]ature1 9 imitation ( ! ,london ,qu>t]ly ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce1 c4 %\ld be 9 =m1 inscrib$ among ! titles ( ! "w4 ,! ,second1 ,?ird & ,f\r? ,s]ies4 ,! ,,second ,,s]ies ( ! ,j\rnal1 z already /at$1 began ) ,janu>y1 #ahdf4 ,up to ?is "t ! publication _h be5 a qu>t]ly or two volumes annually ( two numb]s ea*4 ,f #ahdf until ! completion ( an additional fifty volumes 9 #ahga1 ! ,j\rnal 0 made a bimon?ly1 ea* ( ! two ye>ly volumes hav+ ?ree numb]s ea*4 ,fur!rmore1 a g5]al index 0 giv5 = ea* p]iod ( five ye>s1 t is = e t5 volumes4 ,illu/ration3 ,edw>d ,s4 ,dana ,mu* m important ?an ?is *ange 0 ! addition to ! editorial /aff ( ,james ,dwight ,dana1 ,silliman's son-9-law4 ,dana return$ f ! f\r-ye>s cruise ( ! ,wilkes ,explor+ ,exp$ition 9 #ahdb2 he settl$ 9 ,new ,hav51 0 m>ri$ 9 #ahdd1 & 9 #ahej 0 appo9t$ ,silliman pr(essor ( ,geology 9 ,yale ,college4 ,he 0 at ?is "t actively engag$ 9 writ+ 8 ?ree qu>to reports = ! ,exp$ition & h5ce did n beg9 8 active pr(essional duties 9 ,yale ,college until #ahef4 ,"p ( 8 inaugural address 0 quot$ on an e>li] page4 ,dana _h already p]=m$ ! sev]e labor ( prep>+ ! complete index to ! ,fir/ ,s]ies1 a volume ( ab\t #cej pages1 f9ally issu$ 9 #ahdg4 ,f ! beg9n+ ( ! ,second ,s]ies he 0 closely associat$ ) 8 bro!r-9-law1 ! y\ng] ,silliman4 ,lat] ! editorial labor devolv$ m & m ^u him & ! l>g] "p ( ?is he c>ri$ until ab\t #ahij4 ,8 "w1 01 h[ev]1 some:at int]rupt$ dur+ p]iods ( ill heal?4 ,?is 0 conspicu\sly true dur+ a ye>'s abs5ce 9 ,europe 9 #ahei-fj1 made necess>y 9 ! se>* = heal?2 dur+ ^! p]iods ! editorial responsibility re/$ entirely ^u ! y\ng] ,silliman4 ,( ,dana's contributions to sci5ce 9 g5]al ?is is n ! place to speak1 nor is ! pres5t writ] ! "o to dwell 9 detail ^u 8 "w = ! ,j\rnal4 ,?is subject is to su* an ext5t involv$ 9 ! hi/ory ( geology & zoology1 ! subjects ( sev]al succe$+ *apt]s1 t x is adequately pres5t$ 9 !m4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be wor? /at+ t 9 ! bibliography accompany+ ! obitu>y notice ( ,dana 7#di1 #cbi-cef1 #ahie7 "s #bej titles ( articles 9 ! ,j\rnal are enum]at$2 ^! aggregate approximately #bhjj pages4 ,! numb] ( critical notes1 ab/racts1 book reviews1 etc41 c\ld be also giv51 7 x wor? :ile1 b :at is mu* m significant 9 ?is connection1 ?an _! numb] or aggregate l5g?1 is ! fact t ^! notices are 9 a l>ge numb] ( cases--l ^? ( ,gray 9 botany--m9utely critical & orig9al 9 matt]4 ,!y ?us give ! writ]'s own op9ion on a multitude ( diff]5t subjects4 ,x 0 a great b5efit to ,dana1 z x 0 to sci5ce also1 t he _h ?is prompt means at h& ( putt+ be=e ! public ! results ( 8 active bra91 :i* cont9u$ to "w unceas+ly ev5 9 times ( heal? pro/ration4 ,?is may be ! mo/ conv5i5t place to add t z ,dana became gradually less able to c>ry ! burd5 ( ! details involv$ 9 edit+ ! ,j\rnal 9 addition to 8 m important sci5tific labors1 p>ticul>ly f #ahij on1 ?is "w devolv$ m & m ^u 8 son1 ! pres5t editor1 ^: "n 0 add$ to ! editorial /aff 9 #ahge1 ) volume #i1 ( ! ,?ird ,s]ies4 ,! latt] has s]v$ cont9u\sly until ! pres5t "t1 ) ! exception ( abs5ces1 due to ill heal?1 9 #ahic-id & 9 #aijc2 dur+ ! fir/ ( ^! ,pr(essor ,h5ry ,s4 ,williams & dur+ ! second ,pr(essor ,h4 ,e4 ,gregory occupi$ ! editorial *air4 ,! ,,?ird ,,s]ies began 9 #ahga1 aft] ! completion ( ! "o-hundr$? volume f ! beg9n+ 9 #ahah4 ,at ?is date ! ,j\rnal 0 made a mon?ly & z su* x rema9s to-day4 ,fifty volumes aga9 complet$ ?is s]ies1 :i* clos$ 9 #ahie4 ,! ,,f\r? ,,s]ies began ) ,janu>y1 #ahif1 & ! pres5t numb] = ,july1 #aiah1 is ! op5+ "o ( ! =ty-six? volume or1 9 o!r words1--! "o hundr$ & n9ety-six? volume ( ! entire issue s9ce #ahah4 ,! ,f\r? ,s]ies1 accord+ to ! prec$5t e/abli%$1 w end ) #aibj4 ,associate ,editors4--,9 #ahea ! new policy 0 introduc$ ( add+ 8,associate ,editors0 to ! /aff4 ,! fir/ ( ^! 0 ,dr4 ,wolcott ,gibbs ( ,cambridge4 ,he began 8 duties ) ! elev5? volume ( ! ,second ,s]ies 9 #ahea & cont9u$ !m ) unceas+ c>e & ?or\ghness = m ?an tw5ty ye>s4 ,9 a note dat$ ,jan4 #a1 #ahea 7#aa1 #aje71 he says3 ,x is my int5tion 9 future to prep>e = ! columns ( ?is ,j\rnal ab/racts ( ! m important physical & *emical memoirs conta9$ 9 =eign sci5tific j\rnals1 accompani$ by ref]5ces1 & by su* critical obs]vations z ! occasion may dem&4 ,contributions ( a simil> "* f o!rs w ( c\rse n be exclud$ by ?is arrangem5t1 b ,i %all hold myself responsible only = ^? notices :i* appe> ov] my initials4 ,! dep>tm5ts cov]$ by ,dr4 ,gibbs1 9 8 excell5t mon?ly contributions1 embrac$ *emi/ry & physics1 & ^! subjects 7 c>ri$ toge!r until #ahgc :5 !y 7 sep>at$ & ! physical notes 7 furni%$1 fir/ by ,alfr$ ,m4 ,may] & lat] successively by ,e4 ,c4 ,pick]+ 7f #ahgd71 ,j4 ,p4 ,cooke 7f #ahgg71 & ,john ,tr[bridge 7f #ahhj74 ,! fir/ in/alm5t ( ! long s]ies ( notes 9 *emi/ry & *emical physics by ,george ,f4 ,b>k] 0 pr9t$ 9 volume #ej1 #ahgj4 ,he came 9 at fir/ to occasionally relieve ,dr4 ,gibbs1 b soon took ! entire responsibility4 ,8 "n 0 plac$ among ! associate editors on ! cov] 9 #ahgg & two ye>s lat] ,dr4 ,gibbs =mally retir$4 ,x may be add$ t f ! beg9n+ 9 #ahea to ! pres5t "t1 ! notes 9 8,*emi/ry & ,physics0 h be5 cont9u$ almo/ )\t int]ruption4 ,! o!r dep>tm5ts ( sci5ce h be5 also fully repres5t$ 9 ! notes1 ab/racts ( pap]s publi%$1 book notices1 etc41 ( ! successive numb]s1 b z ) ! *emi/ry & physics ! subject ( botany 0 long treat$ 9 a simil> =mal mann]4 ,= ! notes 9 ?is dep>tm5t1 ! ,j\rnal 0 = _m ye>s indebt$ to ,dr4 ,asa ,gray1 :o became associate editor 9 #ahec1 two ye>s aft] ,gibbs1 al?\gh he _h be5 a n infrequ5t contributor = _m ye>s previ\sly4 ,gray's contributions 7 furni%$ ) great regul>ity & 7 always critical & orig9al 9 matt]4 ,!y =m$ inde$ "o ( ! mo/ valuable features ( ! ,j\rnal = _m ye>s2 z botani/s well appreciate1 &1 z ,pr(essor ,goodale has emphasiz$ 9 8 *apt] on botany1 ,gray's notes are ( vital importance 9 ! hi/ory ( ! developm5t ( 8 subject4 ,) ,gray's retirem5t f active duty1 8 colleague1 ,george ,w4 ,goodale1 took up ! "w 9 #ahhh & 9 #ahie ,william ,g4 ,f>l[1 also ( ,cambridge1 0 add$ z an associate editor 9 cryptogamic botany4 ,at ?is "t1 h[ev]1 & inde$ e>li]1 ! sph]e ( ! ,j\rnal _h unavoidably contract$ & botany p]=ce ceas$ to occupy ! prom95t place x _h long done 9 ! ,j\rnal pages4 ,?is is n ! place to pres5t an appreciation ( ! truly magnific5t "w ( ,asa ,gray4 ,x may n be out ( place1 h[ev]1 to call att5tion to ! notice ( ,gray writt5 = ! ,j\rnal by 8 life-long fri5d1 ,james ,d4 ,dana 7#ce1 #aha1 #ahhh74 ,! op5+ p>agraph is z foll[s3 8,our fri5d & associate1 ,asa ,gray1 ! em95t botani/ ( ,am]ica1 ! broad-m9d$ /ud5t ( nature1 end$ 8 life ( unceas+ & fruitful "w on ! #cj? ( ,janu>y la/4 ,= ?irty-five ye>s he has be5 "o ( ! editors ( ?is ,j\rnal1 & = m ?an fifty ye>s "o ( its contributors2 & ?r\gh all 8 communications !re is se5 ! pr(\nd & always delight$ /ud5t1 ! accompli%$ writ]1 ! j & g5ial critic1 & z ,d>w9 has well said1 #8,! lovable man4'0 ,! ?ird associate editor1 foll[+ ,gray1 0 ,l\is ,agassiz1 ^: "w = sci5ce1 p>ticul>ly 9 8 adopt$ home 9 ?is c\ntry1 calls = no praise "h4 ,8 t]m ( s]vice ext5d$ f #ahec to #ahff &1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! e>li] ye>s1 8 contributions 7 num]\s & important4 ,! next g5tleman 9 ! li/ 0 ,waldo ,i4 ,burnett1 ( ,bo/on1 :o s]v$ "o ye> only1 & !n foll[$ f\r ( ,dana's colleagues 9 ,new ,hav51 ( ^: g5]osity & able assi/ance x w\ld be impossible to say too mu*4 ,^! g5tlem5 7 ,bru% 9 m9]alogy2 ,johnson 9 *emi/ry1 p>ticul>ly on ! agricultural side2 ,newton 9 ma!matics & a/ronomy1 ^: contributions w be spok5 ( else:]e2 & ,v]rill--a /ud5t ( ,agassiz--9 zoology4 ,all ( ^! g5tlem51 besides _! frequ5t & important orig9al articles1 7 ev] ready n only to give ne$$ advice1 b also1 to furni% brief communications1 ab/racts ( pap]s & book reviews1 & o!rwise to aid 9 ! "w4 ,v]rill p>ticul>ly furni%$ ! ,j\rnal a long li/ ( orig9al & important pap]s1 *iefly 9 sy/ematic zoology1 ext5d+ f #ahfe almo/ d[n to ! pres5t ye>4 ,8 ab/racts & book notices also 7 num]\s & tr5*ant & x is n too mu* to say t )\t him ! ,j\rnal nev] c\ld h fill$ ! place 9 zoology :i* x s long held4 ,mu* lat] ! li/ ( ,new ,hav5 m5 0 increas$ by ! addition ( ,h5ry ,s4 ,williams 7#ahid71 & ,o4 ,c4 ,m>% 7#ahie74 ,illu/ration3 ,wolcott ,gibbs ,( ! valuable "w ( ^? m or less closely associat$ 9 ! conduct ( ! ,j\rnal at ! pres5t "t1 x w\ld n be appropriate to speak 9 detail4 ,x mu/ suffice to say t ! s]vices r5d]$ freely by !m h be5 invaluable1 & to _! aid is due a l>ge "p ( ! success ( ! ,j\rnal1 especially s9ce ! ,f\r? ,s]ies began 9 #ahif4 ,b ev5 ?is /atem5t is inadequate1 = ! editor-9-*ief has _h ! g5]\s assi/ance ( o!r g5tlem51 ^: names h n be5 plac$ on ! title page1 & :o h also play$ an important "p 9 ! conduct ( ! ,j\rnal4 ,?is policy1 inde$1 is n a matt] ( rec5t date4 ,v e>ly 9 ! ,fir/ ,s]ies1 ,pr(essor ,griscom ( ,p>is1 z already not$1 furni%$ notes ( int]e/+ sci5tific discov]ies abroad4 ,o!r g5tlem5 h f "t to "t act$ 9 ! same capacity4 ,! mo/ prom95t ( !m 0 ,pr(essor ,j]ome ,nickls ( ,nancy1 ,france1 :o regul>ly furni%$ a s]ies ( valuable notes on v>i$ subjects1 *iefly f =eign s\rces1 ext5d+ f #aheb to #ahfi4 ,on ! latt] date he met an untimely dea? 9 8 laboratory 9 connection ) exp]im5ts ^u hydr(luoric acid 7#dg1 #dcd1 #ahfi74 ,x may be add$1 fur!r1 t "o ( ! /rik+ features ab\t ! ,j\rnal1 especially 9 ! e>li] half c5tury ( its exi/5ce1 is ! p]sonal nature ( _m ( its contributions1 :i* 7 v frequ5tly 9 ! =m ( lett]s writt5 to ,b5jam9 ,silliman or ,j4 ,d4 ,dana4 ,?is is p]haps b ano!r reflection ( ! ext5t to :i* ! gr[? ( ! magaz9e c5t]$ ar\nd ^! two m51 ^: wide acqua9tance & broad sci5tific repute made ( ! ,j\rnal a natural place to record ! new & int]e/+ ?+s t 7 be+ discov]$ 9 sci5ce4 ,! foll[+ li/ gives ! names & dates ( s]vice1 z record$ on ! ,j\rnal title pages1 ( ! g5tlem5 =mally made ,associate ,editors3 ,wolcott ,gibbs 7#b7 #aa1 #ahea to 7#c7 #ah1 #ahgi ,asa ,gray #ae1 #ahec #cd1 #ahhg ,l\is ,agassiz #af1 #ahec 7#b7 #da1 #ahff ,waldo ,i4 ,burnett #af1 #ahec #ag1 #ahec ,george ,j4 ,bru% #ce1 #ahfc 7#c7 #ah1 #ahgi ,samuel ,w4 ,johnson #ce1 #ahfc #ah1 #ahgi ,hub]t ,a4 ,newton 7#b7 #ch1 #ahfd to 7#d7 #a1 #ahif ,addison ,e4 ,v]rill #dg1 #ahfi ,alfr$ ,m4 ,may] 7#c7 #e1 #ahgc to 7#c7 #f1 #ahgc ,edw>d ,c4 ,pick]+ #g1 #ahgd #ac1 #ahgg ,george ,f4 ,b>k] #ad1 #ahgg 7#d7 #bi1 #aiaj ,josiah ,p4 ,cooke #ad1 #ahgg 7#c7 #dg1 #ahid ,john ,tr[bridge 7#c7 #ai1 #ahhj ,george ,w4 ,goodale #ce1 #ahhh ,h5ry ,s4 ,williams #dg1 #ahid ,h5ry ,p4 ,b[dit* #di1 #ahie to 7#d7 #h1 #ahii ,william ,g4 ,f>l[ #di1 #ahie ,o?niel ,c4 ,m>% #di1 #ahie to 7#d7 #f1 #ahii ,h5ry ,a4 ,r[l& 7#d7 #a1 #ahif #aj1 #aijj ,joseph ,s4 ,dill] #a1 #ahif ,l\is ,v4 ,pirsson #g1 #ahii ,william ,m4 ,davis #i1 #aijj ,joseph ,s4 ,ames #ab1 #aija ,horace ,l4 ,wells #ah1 #aijd ,h]b]t ,e4 ,gregory #ah1 #aijd ,horace ,s4 ,uhl] #cc1 #aiab ,pres5t & ,future ,conditions4 ,! field to be occupi$ by ! 8,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce & ,arts10 z se5 by its f\nd] 9 #ahah & pres5t$ by him 9 ! fir/ numb]1 z quot$ entire on an e>li] page1 0 z broad z ! entire sph]e ( sci5ce itself4 ,x ?us includ$ all ! dep>tm5ts ( bo? pure & appli$ sci5ce & ext5d$ ev5 to music & f9e arts also4 ,z ! ye>s w5t by1 h[ev]1 & ! practical applications ( sci5ce greatly increas$1 te*nical j\rnals />t$ up1 & ! necessity ( cultivat+ ?is con/antly exp&+ field dim9i%$4 ,x 0 n1 h[ev]1 until ,janu>y1 #ahhj1 t 8! ,arts0 ceas$ to be a "p ( ! "n by :i* ! ,j\rnal 0 kn[n4 ,ab\t ! same date also--or bett] a little e>li]--began an increas+ developm5t ( sci5tific rese>*1 p>ticul>ly z fo/]$ by ! graduate s*ools ( our prom95t univ]sities4 ,! full pres5tation ( ?is subject w\ld require mu* space & is inde$ unnecess>y z ! ma9 facts mu/ be di/9ct 9 ! m9d ( ! read]4 ,x is only "r1 h[ev]1 t ! l>ge "p play$ 9 ?is movem5t by ! ,johns ,hopk9s ,univ]sity 7f\nd$ 9 #ahgf7 %\ld be m5tion$ "h4 ,z a result ( ?is movem5t1 :i* has be5 ( great b5efit 9 /imulat+ ! gr[? ( sci5ce 9 ! c\ntry1 _m new j\rnals ( specializ$ "* h come into exi/5ce f "t to "t4 ,fur!r localization & specialization ( sci5tific publication h result$ f ! increas$ activity ( sci5tific societies & academies at num]\s c5t]s & ! spr++ into exi/5ce !reby ( new organs ( publication ?r\gh !m1 z also ?r\gh c]ta9 ( ! ,gov]nm5t ,dep>tm5ts1 ! ,c>negie ,in/itution1 & c]ta9 univ]sities & museums4 ,z be>+ ^u ?is subject1 ! foll[+ li/ ( ! m prom95t sci5tific p]iodicals />t$ 9 ?is c\ntry s9ce #ahfg is n )\t int]e/3 #ahfg- 4 ,am]ican ,naturali/4 #ahge- 4 ,botanical ,bullet92 lat] ,botanical ,gazette4 #ahgi-aiac4 ,am]ican ,*emical ,j\rnal4 #ahhj-aiae4 ,s*ool ( ,m9es ,qu>t]ly4 #ahhc- 4 ,sci5ce4 #ahhe- 4 ,j\rnal ( ,h]$ity4 #ahhg- 4 ,j\rnal ( ,morphology4 #ahhg-aijh4 ,te*nology ,qu>t]ly4 #ahhh-aije4 ,am]ican ,geologi/4 #ahia- 4 ,j\rnal ( ,comp>ative ,neurology4 #ahic- 4 ,j\rnal ( ,geology4 #ahic- 4 ,physical ,review4 #ahie- 4 ,a/rophysical ,j\rnal4 #ahif- 4 ,j\rnal ( ,physical ,*emi/ry4 #ahif- 4 ,t]re/rial ,magnetism4 #ahig-ahii4 ,zoological ,bullet92 foll[$ by #aijj- 4 ,biological ,bullet94 #aija- 4 ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,anatomy4 #aijd- 4 ,j\rnal ( ,exp]im5tal ,zoology4 #aije- 4 ,economic ,geology4 #aijf- 4 ,anatomical ,record4 #aijg- 4 ,j\rnal ( ,economic ,entomology4 #aiaa- 4 ,j\rnal ( ,animal ,behavior4 #aiad- 4 ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,botany4 #aiaf- 4 ,g5etics4 #aiah- 4 ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,physical ,an?ropology4 ,! result ( ! :ole movem5t has be5 ( necessity to n>r[1 little by little1 ! sph]e ( a g5]al sci5tific p]iodical su* z ! ,j\rnal has be5 f ! beg9n+4 ,! exact *ange might be /udi$ 9 detail by tabulat+ z to subjects ! cont5ts ( successive volumes1 decade by decade1 f #ahgj d[n4 ,x is suffici5t1 "h1 h[ev]1 to recognize ! g5]al fact t :ile ! numb] ( orig9al pap]s publi%$ 9 ! p]iodicals ( ?is c\ntry1 9 #aiaj1 = example1 0 v _m times :at x 0 9 #ahbe1 a l>ge "p ( ^! h naturally f\nd _! home 9 p]iodicals devot$ to ! special subject dealt ) 9 ea* case4 ,t ?is movem5t w cont9ue1 ?\gh 9 less5$ degree n[ t ! imm$iate dem& is measurably satisfi$1 is to be expect$4 ,at ! same "t x has n seem$ wise1 at any "t 9 ! pa/1 to =mally re/rict ! pages ( ! ,j\rnal to any s+le gr\p ( subjects4 ,! future is be=e u & its problems w be met z !y arise4 ,at ! mom5t1 h[ev]1 !re seems to be /ill a place = a sci5tific mon?ly suffici5tly broad to include orig9al pap]s ( important g5]al be>+ ev5 if special 9 imm$iate subject4 ,9 ?is way x w\ld seem t 8,silliman's ,j\rnal0 c be/ cont9ue to meet ! ideals ( its honor$ f\nd]1 modifi$ z !y mu/ be to meet ! *ange ( conditions :i* a c5tury ( sci5tific inve/igation & gr[? h wr\ght4 ,incid5tally x is n out ( place to add t a self-support+1 non-subsidiz$ sci5tific p]iodical may hope to f9d a l>g] numb] ( subscrib]s f among ! work]s 9 sci5ce & ! libr>ies if x is n too re/rict$ 9 scope4 ,! la/ subject t\*$ ^u introduces ! ess5tial matt] ( f9ancial support )\t :i* no mon?ly publication c survive4 ,) respect to ! p]iodicals ( rec5t bir?1 li/$ above1 x is safe to say t "s =m ( sub/antial support or subsidy--(t5 v g5]\s--is ! rule1 p]haps ! univ]sal "o4 ,?is has nev] be5 ! case ) ! ,am]ican ,j\rnal4 ,! lib]ality & broad-m9d$ attitude ( ,yale ,college 9 ! e>ly days1 & ( ! ,yale ,univ]sity t has develop$ f x1 h nev] be5 que/ion$4 ,at ! same "t ! special conditions h be5 su* z to make x desirable t ! responsibility ( meet+ ! f9ancial requirem5ts %\ld be c>ri$ by ! editors-9-*ief4 ,at pres5t ! ,yale ,libr>y gives adequate paym5t = c]ta9 publications receiv$ by ! ,j\rnal 9 ex*ange1 ?\gh = _m ye>s !y 7 giv5 to x z a matt] ( c\rse1 free ( *>ge4 ,beyond ?is !re is no?+ approa*+ a subsidy4 ,! difficulties on ! f9ancial side met ) by ! eld] ,silliman h be5 sugge/$1 al?\gh n adequately pres5t$1 9 ! v>i\s /atem5ts quot$ f e>ly volumes4 ,! same problems 9 v>y+ degree h cont9u$ = ! pa/ sixty ye>s4 ,s9ce #aiad !y h be5 s]i\sly aggravat$ = reasons t ne$ n be enl>g$ ^u4 ,prior to t date ! subscription li/ _h1 = reasons *iefly involv$ 9 ! developm5t ( special j\rnals1 be5 mu* small] ?an ! numb] e/imat$ by ,silliman1 = example1 9 volume #ej 7p4 xiv71 al?\gh !re has be5 ?is p>tial comp5sation t ! consid]able numb] ( well-e/abli%$ libr>ies on ! subscription li/ has meant a great] degree ( /ability & a small] proportion ( bad acc\nts4 ,! pa/ f\r ye>s1 h[ev]1 ! ,j\rnal1 ) all simil> und]tak+s "h & else:]e1 has be5 compell$ to be> its %>e ( ! burd5 ( ! _w w> 9 dim9i%$ receipts & greatly increas$ exp5ses4 ,x is gratify+ to be able to ackn[l$ge "h ! g5]osity ( ! au?ors1 or ( ! laboratories ) :i* !y h be5 connect$1 9 _! will+ness n infrequ5tly to give assi/ance1 = example1 9 ! paym5t ( m or less ( ! co/ ( engrav+s1 or 9 a few special cases a l>ge portion ( ! total co/ ( publication4 ,9 ?is way ! problem ( ways & means1 con/antly be=e ! editor :o be>s ! sole responsibility1 has be5 simplifi$4 ,x %\ld also be /at$ t z ^? imm$iately int]e/$ h look$ =w>d to ! pres5t anniv]s>y1 x has be5 ) ! hope t ?is occasion might be an appropriate "o = ! e/abli%m5t ( a 8,silliman ,fund0 to commemorate ! life & "w ( ,b5jam9 ,silliman4 ,! income ( su* a fund w\ld lift f ! ,univ]sity ! burd5 t mu/ unavoidably fall ^u x :5 ! responsibility = ! conduct ( ! ,j\rnal c no long] be c>ri$ by memb]s ( ! family includ+ ! editor &--z 9 ye>s long pa/--a sil5t p>tn] ^: aid on ! bus9ess side has be5 ess5tial to ! effici5cy & economy ( ! ent]prise4 ,pres5t conditions are n favorable = su* a movem5t1 al?\gh some?+ has be5 already accompli%$ 9 ! desir$ direction4 ,at ! pres5t "t e patriotic citiz5 mu/ feel x 8 fir/ duty to give 8 sav+s z well z 8 sp>e income to ! support ( ! ,national ,gov]nm5t 9 ! _w /ruggle = fre$om 9 :i* x is tak+ "p4 ,b1 :atev] ! exact condition ( ! future may be1 x _c be que/ion$ t ! ,j\rnal f\nd$ by ,b5jam9 ,silliman 9 #ahah w survive & w cont9ue to play a vital "p 9 ! support & fur!r developm5t ( sci5ce4 ,! pres5t ye> ( #aiah f9ds ! _w at l>ge1 & ) x ! _w ( sci5ce1 pa9fully cru%$ b5ea? ! ov]:elm+ weight ( a _w w> ( unprec$5t$ sev]ity4 ,! f\r t]rible ye>s n[ ne>ly f9i%$ h se5 a fe>ful de/ruction ( life & prop]ty :i* mu/ h a sad influ5ce on ! progress ( sci5ce = _m ye>s to come4 ,only 9 c]ta9 re/rict$ l9es has !re be5 a p>tial comp5sation 9 ! /imulat+ influ5ce due to ! imm$iate necessities connect$ ) ! great conflict4 ,"o hundr$ ye>s ago 8! reign ( w>0 0 ke5ly 9 ! m9d ( ! editor 9 beg9n+ 8 "w1 b = him1 happily1 ! long p]iod ( ! ,napoleonic w>s 0 already 9 ! pa/1 z also ! brief conflict ( #ahab1 9 :i* ?is c\ntry 0 engag$ & 9 :i* ,silliman himself play$ a m9or "p4 ,we1 too1 mu/ believe1 no matt] h[ s]i\s ! outlook ( ! pres5t mom5t1 t a fundam5tal *ange w come 9 ! n di/ant future2 ! nations ( ! _w mu/ soon] or lat] turn once m to peaceful pursuits & ! sci5tific m5 ( diff]5t races mu/ become aga9 n enemies b bro!rs engag$ 9 ! common cause ( uplift+ human life4 ,! peace t we look =w>d to to-day is n = ?is c\ntry alone1 b a peace :i* %all be a p]man5t bless+ to ! entire _w = ages to come4 ,,note4--,! portrait :i* =ms ! frontispiece ( ?is volume has be5 reproduc$ f ! plate 9 volume #ej 7#ahdg74 ,! orig9al pa9t+ 0 made by ,h4 ,will>d 9 #ahce1 :5 ,silliman 0 9 ,bo/on engag$ 9 deliv]+ ! ,l[ell lectures2 he 0 !n ne>ly fifty-six ye>s ( age4 ,! engrav+1 z he /ates else:]e1 0 made f ?is pa9t+ = ! ,yale ,lit]>y ,magaz9e1 & 0 publi%$ 9 ! numb] = ,decemb]1 #ahci4 ,x is int]e/+ to quote ! rem>ks ) :i* ! editor introduces ! portrait 7#ej1 xviii1 #ahdg74 ,he says3 ,! portrait prefix$ to ?is volume 0 engrav$ = a v diff]5t purpose & = o!rs ?an ! patrons ( ?is ,j\rnal4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ by fri5ds1 ^: judgm5t we are accu/om$ to respect1 t x ought to f9d a place "h1 s9ce x is reg>d$ z an au!ntic1 al?\gh1 p]haps1 a r au/]e resemblance4 ,9 yield+ to ?is sugge/ion1 x may be suffici5t to quote ! s5tim5t ( ,c[p] on a simil> occasion1 :o rem>k$--8t aft] a man has1 = _m ye>s1 turn$ 8 m9d inside out be=e ! _w1 x is only affectation to attempt to hide 8 face40 ,notes4 ,footnote #a3 ,! /atem5ts giv5 are necess>ily mu* cond5s$1 )\t an attempt to foll[ all *anges ( title2 fur!rmore1 ! dates ( actual publication = ! academies giv5 above are (t5 some:at vaguely record$4 ,= full] in=mation see ,scudd]'s 8,catalogue ( ,sci5tific ,s]ials1 #afcc-ahgf10 ,cambridge1 #ahgf2 also ,h4 ,c>r+ton ,bolton's 8,catalogue ( ,sci5tific & ,te*nical ,p]iodicals1 #affe-ahhb0 7,smi?sonian ,in/itution1 #ahhe74 ,! writ] is mu* indebt$ to ,mr4 ,c4 ,j4 ,b>r1 ,assi/ant ,libr>ian ( ,yale ,univ]sity ,libr>y1 = 8 valuable assi/ance 9 ?is connection4 ,footnote #b3 ,! foll[+ footnote accompanies ! op5+ article ( ! fir/ volume ( ! ,j\rnal4 8,f ! ,,ms4 pap]s ( ! ,connecticut ,academy1 n[ publi%$ by p]mission40 ,simil> notes appe> else:]e4 ,ed4 ,,ii ,a ,,c5tury ,,( ,,geology4--,,! ,,progress ,,( ,,hi/orical ,,geology ,,9 ,,nor? ,,am]ica ,by ,,*>les ,,s*u*]t ,introduction4 ,! ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce1 8"o ( ! greate/ influ5ces 9 ,am]ican geology10 f\nd$ 9 #ahah1 has publi%$ a little m ?an #ib1jjj pages ( sci5tific matt]4 ,( geology1 includ+ m9]alogy1 !re appe> to be upw>d ( #bj1jjj pages4 ,:at a va/ treasure h\se ( geologic k is /or$ 9 ^! #aid volumes1 & h[ well ! editors h liv$ up to _! propos$ 8plan ( "w0 z /at$ 9 ! op5+ volume1 :]e ,silliman says3 8,x is design$ z a deposit = orig9al ,am]ican communications0 9 8! physical sci5ces 444 & especially our m9]alogy & geology0 7#a1 v1 #ahah76 ,n only is x ! olde/ cont9u\sly publi%$ sci5tific j\rnal ( ?is c\ntry1 b x has prov$ itself to be 8p]haps ! mo/ important geological p]iodical 9 ,am]ica0 7,m]rill74 ,x is impossible to adequately pres5t 9 ?is memorial volume ( ! ,j\rnal ! cont5ts ( ! articles on ! geological sci5ces4 ,editor ,silliman 0 n only ! f\nd] ( ! ,j\rnal1 b ! g5]at+ c5t] = ! mak+ ( geologi/s & promot+ geology dur+ ! rise ( ?is sci5ce 9 ,am]ica4 ,= ne>ly ?ree decades1 ! work]s came to him = c\nsel & help1 & he _h a k9d pat]nal ^w = !m all4 ,?is influ5ce is also %[n 9 ! _m lett]s :i* 7 address$ to him1 & :i* he publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal4 ,a simil> influ5ce1 pat]nal c>e1 & con/ructive criticism 7 cont9u$ by ,james ,d4 ,dana1 & especially 9 8 e>li] c>e] z editor4 ,n includ+ m9]alogy1 !re are 9 ! ,j\rnal upw>d ( #aejj di/9ct articles on geology4 ,( ^!1 ov] #djj are on v]tebrate paleontology1 ab\t #cbe on inv]tebrate paleontology1 & #ij on paleobotany4 ,( articles be>+ on hi/orical geology !re are ab\t #afj1 & on /ratigraphic geology m ?an #cfj4 ,9 addition to all ?is1 !re are m ?an #bjjj pages ( geologic matt] relat+ to books & ( lett]s communicat$ to ! editors ,silliman & ,dana4 ,we may summ>ize ) ,doctor ,m]rill's /atem5t 9 8 well-kn[n ,contributions to ! ,hi/ory ( ,am]ican ,geology3 8,f its e>lie/ inception geological notes & pap]s occupi$ a prom95t place 9 its pages1 & a p]usal ( ! numb]s f ! date ( issue d[n to ! pres5t "t w1 alone1 af=d a fair idea ( ! gradual progress ( ,am]ican geology40 ,be=e pres5t+ a synopsis ( ! m important /eps 9 ! progress ( hi/orical geology 9 ,am]ica1 x w be well to introduce a rapid survey ( ! rise ( geology 9 ,europe1 =1 aft] all1 ,am]ican geology grew out ( t ( ,engl&1 ,france & ,g]many4 ,?is dep5d5ce 0 conspicu\sly true dur+ ! fir/ f\r decades ( ! previ\s c5tury4 ,) ! rise ( ! fir/ ,new ,york ,/ate ,survey 7#ahcf-ahdc7 & t ( ,p5nsylvania 7#ahcf-ahdd1 #aheh71 ,am]ican geology became m or less indep5d5t ( ,europe4 ,f9ally1 ?is article w conclude ) a survey ( ! rise ( paleometeorology1 paleogeography1 evolution1 & inv]tebrate paleontology4 ,! ,rise ( ,geology 9 ,europe4 ,m9]al ,geology4--,! geological sci5ces _h _! rise 9 ! /udy ( m9]als z c>ri$ on by ! ,g]man *emi/ & physician ,george ,bau] 7#adid-aeee71 bett] kn[n z ,agricola4 ,bau] orig9at$ ! critical /udy ( m9]als1 b did n di/+ui% 8 8fossilia10 ! rema9s ( organisms1 f ! inorganic cry/al =ms4 ,m9]al geology endur$ until ! close ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,cosmogoni/s4--,!n came ! exp\nd]s ( ! e>?'s orig91 ! cosmogoni/s ( ! sixte5? to ! end ( ! eighte5? c5turies4 ,! fa%ion ( ?is "t 0 to write hi/ories ( ! e>? d]iv$ out ( ! imag9ation4 ,e>lie/ ,hi/orical ,geology4--,ev5 ?\gh ,giovanni ,ardu9o 7#agac-agie7 ( ,padua 0 n ! fir/ to classify ! rocks into ?ree s]ies accord+ to _! age1 he did ?is m cle>ly ?an any "o else be=e 8 "t4 ,! rocks ab\t ,v]ona he gr\p$ 9 #agei into ,prim>y1 ,second>y1 ,t]ti>y1 & ,volcanic4 ,?is ?ree-fold classification came into g5]al use1 ?\gh modifi$ ) "t4 ,e>ly 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury x _h become pla9 t =mations ( v v>y+ ages 7 includ$ 9 ea* "o ( ! ?ree s]ies4 ,?r\gh ! /udy ( ! fossils & ! recognition ( ! fact t m\nta9 ranges h be5 rais$ at v>i\s times1 caus+ y\ng] fossilif]\s /rata to take on ! *>act]s ( ! ,prim>y1 x 0 se5 t ^! t]ms ( ,ardu9o _h lo/ _! orig9al significance4 ,! fir/ "o to describe 9 detail a local /ratigraphic sequ5ce 0 ,johann ,gottlob ,lehmann 7di$ #agfg74 ,9 #agef he publi%$ 8"o ( ! classics ( geological lit]ature10 di/+ui%+ cle>ly ?irty successive s$im5t>y deposits1 "s ( :i* he said _h fossils1 b he did n use !m to di/+ui% ! /rata4 ,:at ,lehmann did = ! ,p]mian sy/em1 ,george ,*ri/ian ,f*sel 7#agbb-aggc7 did ev5 bett] = ! ,triassic ( ,?ur+ia1 9 #agfb & #aggc4 ,he po9t$ out n only ! sequ5ce1 b also h[ ! g5tly incl9$ /rata re/ ^u ! old] upturn$ masses ( ! m\nta9s2 also t "s =mations h only m>9e fossils1 :ile o!rs h only t]re/rial =ms & ?us indicate ! proximity ( l&4 ,! de=m$ /rata he ?\ght _h fall5 into ! holl[s )9 ! e>?1 great cav]ns t _h also consum$ mu* ( ! oceanic wat]s & _h 9 s do+ greatly l[]$ ! sea-level4 ,x 0 ,f*sel :o fir/ introduc$ ! !ory ( univ]sal =mations1 & :o def9$ ! t]m =mation1 us+ x z we n[ d1 sy/em or p]iod4 ,ev5 ?\gh ,lehmann & ,f*sel %[$ t !re 0 a def9ite ord] & process 9 ! =mation ( ! e>?'s cru/1 _! example 0 b>r5 ( foll[]s until ! beg9n+ ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,w]n]ian ,geology or ,geognosy4--,we come n[ to ! "t ( ,abraham ,gottlob ,w]n] 7#agdi-ahag71 :o f #agge to #ahag 0 pr(essor ( m9+ & m9]alogy 9 ! ,freib]g ,academy ( ,m9es4 ,geikie1 9 8 mo/ int]e/+ ,f\nd]s ( ,geology1 says t ,w]n] 8bulks f> m l>gely 9 ! hi/ory ( geology ?an any ( ^? ) :om up to ! pres5t we h be5 conc]n$--a man :o wield$ an enorm\s au?ority ov] ! m9]alogy & geology ( 8 day40 8,al?\gh he did great s]vice by ! precision ( 8 li?ological *>act]s & by 8 insi/5ce on ! doctr9e ( geological succession1 yet z reg>ds geological !ory1 :e!r directly by 8 own tea*+1 or indirectly by ! labors ( 8 pupils & foll[]s1 mu* ( 8 influ5ce 0 disa/r\s to ! high] int]e/s ( geology40 ,w]n] arrang$ ! cru/ ( ! e>? into a s]ies ( =mations1 z _h be5 done previ\sly by ,lehmann & ,f*sel1 & "o ( 8 fundam5tal po/ulates 0 t all rocks 7 *emically precipitat$ 9 ! ocean z 8univ]sal =mations40 ,= ?is reason ,w]n]'s s*ool 7 call$ ! ,neptuni/s4 ,n[h]e1 h[ev]1 did he expla9 h[ & :]e ! deep & primitive ocean _h disappe>$4 ,accord+ to ,w]n]1 ! fir/ =m$ or olde/ rocks 7 ! *emically deposit$ ,primitive /rata1 includ+ granite & o!r igne\s & metamorphic rocks4 ,on ^! foll[$ ! ,transition rocks1 ! e>lie/ s$im5ts ( me*anical orig91 & above !m ! ,floetz rocks1 a t]m = ! horizontal /ratifi$ rocks4 ,^! la/ he said 7 p>tly ( *emical b *iefly ( me*anical orig94 ,la/ ( all came ! ,alluvial s]ies4 ,! exi/5ce ( volcanoes _h be5 po9t$ out long be=e ,w]n]'s "t by ! ,italian s*ool ( geologi/s1 b z = 8! univ]sality & pot5cy ( :at is n[ t]m$ igne\s action10 all 0 8bru%$ aside by ! oracle ( ,freib]g40 ,reactions betwe5 ! int]ior & ext]ior ( our e>? 87 utt]ly antagoni/ic to ,w]n]'s conception ( ! /ructure & hi/ory ( ! e>?40 ,to him1 volcanoes 7 8burn+ m\nta9s0 t arose f ! combu/ion ( subt]ranean b$s ( coal1 spontane\sly ignit$4 ,! break+ d[n ( ! ,w]n]ian doctr9es began ) two ( ,w]n]'s mo/ di/+ui%$ pupils1 ,d',aubuisson de ,vois9s 7#agfi-ahai7 & ,von ,bu*4 ,! =m] 9 #ahjc _h accept$ ,w]n]'s aque\s orig9 ( basalt1 b aft] /udy+ ! celebrat$ & q rec5t volcanic area ( ,auv]gne he recant$ 9 #ahjd4 ,"h he saw ! basaltic rocks ly+ ^u & cutt+ ?r\gh granite1 & 9 places m ?an #abjj feet ?ick4 8,if ^! basaltic rocks 7 lavas10 says ,geikie1 8!y mu/1 accord+ to ! ,w]n]ian doctr9e1 h result$ f ! combu/ion ( b$s ( coal4 ,b h[ c\ld coal be suppos$ to exi/ "u granite1 :i* 0 ! fir/ *emical precipitate ( a primeval ocean80 ,leopold von ,bu* 7#aggd-ahec71 8! mo/ illu/ri\s geologi/ t ,g]many has produc$10 aft] two ye>s sp5t 9 ,norway 0 satisfi$ 8t ! rocks 9 ! ,*ri/iania di/rict c\ld n be arrang$ accord+ to ! ,w]n]ian plan1 :i* !re completely broke d[n4 ,von ,bu* f\nd a mass ( granite ly+ among fossilif]\s lime/ones :i* 7 manife/ly metamorphos$1 & 7 pi]c$ by ve9s ( granite1 porphyry1 & sy5ite40 ,ev5 s1 he 0 n ready to ab&on ! tea*+s ( 8 ma/]4 ,aft] a /udy ( ! m\nta9 sy/ems ( ,g]many1 h[ev]1 8he decl>$ t ! m elevat$ m\nta9s _h nev] be5 cov]$ by ! sea1 z ,w]n] _h taught1 b 7 produc$ by successive ruptures & uplifts ( ! t]re/rial cru/0 7,geikie74 ,rise ( ,geology & ,con=mism4--,mod]n geology has its rise 9 ,james ,hutton 7#agbf-agig7 ( ,ed9burgh1 ,scotl&4 ,9 #aghe & #agie1 ,hutton publi%$ 8 ,!ory ( ! ,e>?1 ) ,pro(s & ,illu/rations4 ,8 8immortal !ory0 is 8 only "w on geology4 8,=tunately = ,hutton's fame & = ! onw>d m>* ( geology1 ! philosoph] numb]$ among 8 fri5ds ! illu/ri\s ma!matician & natural philosoph]1 ,john ,playfair 7#agdh-ahai71 :o _h be5 closely associat$ ) him 9 8 lat] ye>s1 & 0 intimately conv]sant ) 8 geological op9ions40 ,9 #ahjb1 ,playfair publi%$ 8 ,illu/rations ( ! ,huttonian ,!ory ( ! ,e>?1 ( :i* ,geikie says1 8,( ?is great classic x is impossible to speak too highly10 z x is at ! basis ( all mod]n geology4 ,"o ( ,hutton's fundam5tal doctr9es is t ! e>? is int]nally hot & t 9 ! pa/ l>ge masses ( molt5 mat]ial1 ! granites1 h be5 intrud$ into ! cru/4 ,x 0 ^! igne\s views t l$ to 8 foll[]s be+ call$ ! ,plutoni/s4 ,ano!r ( 8 great doctr9es 0 t 8! ru9s ( an e>li] _w lie b5ea? ! second>y /rata10 & t !y are sep>at$ by :at is n[ kn[n z uncon=mity4 ,he cle>ly recogniz$ a lo/ int]val 9 ! brok5 relation ( ! /ructures1 & t ! ru9s1 ! detrital mat]ials1 ( "o _w aft] ano!r are sup]pos$ 9 ! /ructure ( ! e>?4 ,hutton also held t ! de=mation ( once horizontally deposit$ /rata 0 probably br\ght ab\t at diff]5t p]iods by great convulsions t %ook ! v f\ndations ( ! e>?4 ,aft] a convulsion1 !re 0 a long "t ( erosion1 repres5t$ by ! uncon=mity4 ,geikie says1 8,! :ole ( ! mod]n doctr9e ( e>? sculpture is to be f\nd 9 ! ,huttonian !ory40 ,! ,lyellian doctr9e ( metamorphism _h its orig9 9 ,hutton1 = he %[$ t invad+ igne\s granite _h alt]$1 ?r\gh its heat & exp&+ p[]1 ! orig9ally wat]laid s$im5ts1 & t ! s*i/s ( ! ,alps _h be5 born ( ! sea l o!r /ratifi$ rocks4 ,hutton is ! fa!r ( ! ,uni=mit>ian pr9ciple1 = he 8/>t$ ) ! gr& conception t ! pa/ hi/ory ( our globe mu/ be expla9$ by :at c be se5 to be happ5+ n[1 or to h happ5$ only rec5tly4 ,! dom9ant idea 9 8 philosophy is t ! pres5t is ! key to ! pa/40 ,?is pr9ciple has be5 impress$ on all lat] geologi/s by ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 & is ! *ief corn]/one ( mod]n geology4 ,! pr9ciple ( uni=mit>ianism has und]la9 geologic int]pretation s9ce ! days ( ,hutton1 ,playfair1 & ,lyell4 ,h[ev]1 x is (t5 appli$ too rigidly 9 int]pretations bas$ ^u ! pres5t conditions1 because 9 ! pa/ !re 7 long times :5 ! topographic features ( ! e>? 7 v diff]5t f ^? ( to-day4 ,?r\gh\t ! ,paleozoic1 &1 less m>k$ly1 ! ,mesozoic1 ! oceans flood$ ! l&s widely 7at times ov] #fj p] c5t ( ! total area71 highl&s 7 inconspicu\s1 s$im5ts f> sc>c]1 & climates w>m & equable ?r\gh\t ! _w4 ,highl& conditions1 & especially ! broadly em]g5t cont95ts ( ! pres5t1 7 only p]iodically pres5t 9 ! ,paleozoic & !n = comp>atively %ort int]vals betwe5 ! p]iods4 ,!re=e rates ( d5udation1 solution1 s$im5tation1 & evolution h v>i$ greatly ?r\gh\t ! geological ages4 ,^! diff]5ces1 h[ev]1 relate to degrees ( op]ation1 & n to k9ds ( processes2 b ! diff]5ces 9 degree ( op]ation react mightily on our views z to ! age ( ! e>?4 ,geologic "t _h1 = ,hutton1 no 8ve/ige ( a beg9n+1 no prospect ( an end40 ,9 o!r words1 geologic "t is inf9ite4 ,he did n1 h[ev]1 discov] a me?od by :i* ! *ronology ( ! e>? c\ld be det]m9$4 ,fir/ ,important ,text-books4--,9 #ahbb appe>$ ! able/ text-book s f> publi%$1 & ! patt]n = mo/ ( ! lat] ones1 ,outl9es ( ! ,geology ( ,engl& & ,wales1 by ,w4 ,d4 ,conybe>e 7#aghg-aheg7 & ,w4 ,phillips 7#agge-ahbh74 8,9 ?is excell5t volume all t 0 !n kn[n reg>d+ ! rocks ( ! c\ntry1 f ! y\nge/ =mations d[n to ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 0 summ>iz$ 9 s cle> & me?odical a mann] z to give a p[]ful impulse to ! cultivation ( geology 9 ,engl&0 7,geikie74 ,?is book is review$ at great l5g? by ,edw>d ,hit*cock 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#g1 #bjc1 #ahbd74 ,to indicate h[ f> hi/orical geology _h progress$ up to #ahbb 9 ,engl&1 a dige/ ( ! geological column z pres5t$ 9 ?is text-book is giv5 9 ! foll[+ table1 along ) o!r in=mation4 ,a text-book writ] ( yet great] influ5ce 0 ,*>les ,lyell 7#agig-ahge71 ^: ,pr9ciples ( ,geology appe>$ 9 ?ree volumes betwe5 #ahcj & #ahcc4 ,?is & 8 o!r books 7 kept up to date ?r\gh _m editions1 & 8 ,elem5ts ( ,geology is1 z ,geikie says1 8! h& book ( e ,engli% geologi/0 work+ ) ! fossilif]\s =mations4 ,! ,rise ( ,geology 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! ,g5]at+ ,c5t]s4--,9 ,am]ica1 geology _h its rise indep5d5tly 9 ?ree places3 9 ! two sci5tific societies ( ,bo/on & ,philadelphia1 & dom9antly 9 ,b5jam9 ,silliman ( ,yale ,college4 ,/at$ 9 ano!r way1 we may say t geology 9 ,am]ica _h its orig9 9 ! foll[+ pione]s & f\nd]s3 fir/1 9 ,william ,maclure at ,philadelphia1 & next 9 ,b5jam9 ,silliman at ,new ,hav54 ,?r\gh ! influ5ce ( ! latt]1 ,amos ,eaton1 ! botani/1 became a geologi/ & taught geology at ,williams ,college & lat] at ! ,r5ssela] ,s*ool 9 ,troy1 ,new ,york4 ,?r\gh ! same influ5ce ,rev4 ,edw>d ,hit*cock also became a geologi/ & taught ! subject aft] #ahbe at ,amh]/ ,college4 ,silliman 0 ! fir/ to take up actively ! tea*+ ( m9]alogy & geology bas$ on collections ( specim5s4 ,he spread ! k 9 popul> lectures ?r\gh\t ! ,ea/]n ,/ates1 graduat$ _m a /ud5t 9 ! sci5ces1 mak+ ( "s ( !m pr(essional tea*]s & geologi/s1 provid$ all ) a j\rnal :]e9 !y c\ld publi% _! rese>*1 organiz$ ! fir/ geological society & ?r\gh 8 /ud5ts ! fir/ (ficial geological surveys1 & by k9d words & acts /imulat$1 fo/]$1 & held toge!r ,am]ican sci5tific m5 = fifty ye>s4 ,( him x has be5 truly said t he 0 8! gu>dian ( ,am]ican sci5ce f its *ildhood40 ,! ,am]ican ,academy 9 ,bo/on4--,! second olde/ sci5tific society1 b ! fir/ "o to publi% on geological subjects1 0 ! ,am]ican ,academy ( ,arts & ,sci5ces ( ,bo/on1 in/itut$ & publi%+ s9ce #aghj4 ,up to ! "t ( ! f\nd+ ( ?is ,j\rnal1 !re _h appe>$ 9 ! publications ( ! ,am]ican ,academy ab\t a doz5 pap]s ( a geologic "*1 none ( :i* ne$ to be m5tion$ "h except+ "o by ,s4 ,l4 & ,j4 ,f4 ,dana1 entitl$ 8,outl9es ( ! ,m9]alogy & ,geology ( ,bo/on10 publi%$ 9 #ahah4 ,?is is an e>ly & important /ep 9 ! elucidation ( "o ( ! mo/ intricate geologic areas1 & is fur!r notewor?y = its geologic map1 ! ?ird "o to appe>1 ! old] ones be+ by ,maclure & ,hit*cock 7,m]rill74 ,,! ,,geological ,,column ,,9 #ahbb ,pres5t ,am]ican classification ,conybe>e & ,c4 ,p4 ,phillips #ahbb ord]s ,sup]ior ,psy*ozoic or ,rec5t ,alluvial ,ord] ,c5ozoic ,plei/oc5e ,diluvial ,upp] ,m>9e =mation 7,crag1 ,plioc5e ,neog5e ,bag%ot s&1 & ,isle ( ,wight7 ,mioc5e ,fre%-wat] =mations ,oligoc5e ,paleog5e ,london ,clay ,eoc5e ,pla/ic ,clay ,sup]m$ial ,mesozoic ,cretace\s ,*alk ,ord] ,b$s betwe5 ,*alk & ,oolite ,s]ies ,coman*ian #ahhg 7,*alk ,m>le1 ,gre5 ,s&1 ,weald ,clay1 ,iron ,s&7 ,upp] ,oolitic division 7,purbeck ,jurassic #ahbi b$s1 ,portl& ,oolite1 ,kimm]idge ,clay7 ,middle ,oolitic division 7,coral ,rag1 ,ox=d ,clay7 ,l[] ,oolitic division 7,cornbra% ,/onesfield ,slate1 ,=e/ ,m>ble1 ,great ,oolite1 ,full]s' ,e>?1 ,inf]ior ,oolite1 ,s& & ,m>le/one7 ,lias ,triassic #ahcd ,new ,r$ ,s&/one ,paleozoic ,p]mian #ahda ,magnesian ,lime/one ,m$ial or ,coal ,measures,c>bonif]\s ,ord] ,p5nsylvanian #ahia ,mill/one ,mississippian #ahfi ,grit & ,%ale ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ,devonian #ahci ,unresolv$ ,subm$ial ,silurian #ahce & ,inf]ior ,ord]s ,ordovician #ahgi 7,l[] ,silurian #ahce7 ,cambrian #ahcc ,prot]ozoic,kewe5awan ,huronian #aheb ,animikian ,huronian ,sudburian ,ar*eozoic ,keewat9 ,laur5tian #ahec ,c\t*i*+ ,pres5t ,am]ican classification ,w]n]ian ,o!r ord]s writ]s ,newe/ ,t]ti>y ,psy*ozoic or ,rec5t ,floetz ,class ,class ,c5ozoic ,plei/oc5e ,plioc5e ,neog5e ,mioc5e ,oligoc5e ,paleog5e ,eoc5e ,primitive ,primitive ,transition,int]m$iate ,mesozoic ,cretace\s & ,floetz & ,classes ,second>y classes ,coman*ian #ahhg ,jurassic #ahbi ,triassic #ahcd ,paleozoic ,p]mian #ahda ,p5nsylvanian #ahia ,mississippian #ahfi ,devonian #ahci ,silurian #ahce ,ordovician #ahgi 7,l[] ,silurian #ahce7 ,cambrian #ahcc ,prot]ozoic,kewe5awan ,huronian #aheb ,animikian ,huronian ,sudburian ,ar*eozoic ,keewat9 ,laur5tian #ahec ,c\t*i*+ ,e>ly ,geology 9 ,philadelphia4--,! olde/ sci5tific society is ! ,am]ican ,philosophical ,society ( ,philadelphia1 />t$ by ! _m-sid$ ,b5jam9 ,frankl9 9 #agfi1 & :i* has publi%$ s9ce #agga4 ,up to ! "t ( ! f\nd+ ( ! ,j\rnal 9 #ahah1 !re _h appe>$ 9 ! publications ( ?is society ?irte5 pap]s ( a geologic nature1 ne>ly all small build+ /ones 9 ! ris+ geologic /ory ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! only fundam5tal ones 7 ,maclure's ,obs]vations ( #ahji & #ahag4 ,lat]1 9 ?is same city1 !re 0 organiz$ ano!r sci5tific society t came to be = a long "t ! mo/ active "o 9 ,am]ica4 ,?is 0 ! ,academy ( ,natural ,sci5ces1 />t$ 9 #ahab ) sev5 memb]s1 b x 0 n until #ahag & ! election ( ,william ,maclure z its fir/ presid5t t ! "w ( ! ,academy 0 ( a f>-rea*+ "*4 ,"h 0 built up n only a society = ! advancem5t ( ! natural sci5ces & publications = ! dissem9ation ( su* k1 b1 :at is equally important1 ! fir/ l>ge libr>y & g5]al museum4 ,william ,maclure 7#agfc-ahdj71 correctly nam$ by ,silliman ! 8fa!r ( ,am]ican geology10 0 born & educat$ 9 ,scotl&1 & di$ ne> ,mexico ,city4 ,a m]*ant ( ,london until #agif1 :5 he _h already amass$ 8a consid]able =tune10 he made a fir/ %ort visit to ,new ,york ,city 9 #aghb4 ,9 #agif he aga9 came to ,am]ica1 ?is "t to become a citiz5 ( ?is c\ntry & a lib]al patron ( sci5ce4 ,ab\t #ahjc1 s+le-h&$ & unsu/a9$ by gov]nm5t patronage1 ,maclure int]e/$ himself mo/ zeal\sly & effici5tly 9 ,am]ican geology4 ,9 #ahji he publi%$ 8 ,obs]vations on ! ,geology ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,explanatory ( a ,geological ,map4 ,?is "w he revis$ 8on a yet m ext5d$ scale10 issu+ x 9 #ahag ) #acj pages ( text1 accompani$ by a l>ge color$ geological map4 ,silliman1 ! ,pione] ,promot] ( ,geology4--,9 #ahjf :5 ,b5jam9 ,silliman 7#aggi-ahfd7 began actively to tea* *emi/ry & m9]alogy1 all ! sci5ces 9 ,am]ica 7 9 a v backw>d /ate1 & ! e>? sci5ces 7 n recogniz$ z su* 9 ! curricula ( any ( our colleges4 ,silliman gave 8 fir/ lecture 9 *emi/ry on ,april #d1 #ahjd4 ,9 ! summ] ( t ye>1 ,yale ,college ask$ him to g to ,engl& to pur*ase mat]ial = ! ,college1 & great possibilities = broad5+ 8 k n[ loom$ be=e him4 ,z ,silliman himself 7#dc1 #bbe1 #ahdb7 has told ! int]e/+ /ory ( 8 soj\rn 9 ,engl& & ,scotl&1 x is wor? :ile to re/ate a "p ( x "h4 8,pass+ ov] to ,engl& 9 ! spr+ ( #ahje1 & fix+ my resid5ce = six mon?s 9 ,london1 ,i f\nd !re no s*ool1 public or private1 = geological in/ruction1 & no association = ! cultivation ( ! sci5ce1 :i* 0 n ev5 nam$ 9 ! ,engli% univ]sities40 ,9 geology 8,ed9burgh 0 !n f> 9 advance ( ,london4444 ,pr(4 ,jameson hav+ rec5tly return$ f ! s*ool ( ,w]n]1 fully in/ruct$ 9 ! doctr9es ( 8 illu/ri\s tea*]1 0 ard5tly engag$ to ma9ta9 !m1 & 8 eloqu5t & acute fri5d1 ! late ,dr4 ,john ,murray1 0 a p[]ful auxili>y 9 ! same cause2 bo? ( ^! philosoph]s /r5u\sly ma9ta9+ ! asc5dancy ( ! aque\s ov] ! igne\s ag5cies1 9 ! geological ph5om5a ( our planet4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! disciples & fri5ds ( ,dr4 ,hutton 7 n less active4 ,he di$ 9 #agig1 & 8 mantle fell ^u ,sir ,james ,hall1 :o1 ) ,pr(4 ,playfair & ,pr(4 ,?omas ,hope1 ma9ta9$ ) signal ability1 ! igne\s !ory ( ,hutton4 ,x did n become "o :o 0 /ill a y\? & a novice1 to ent] ! ar5a ( ! geological t\rnam5t :]e su* p[]ful *ampions wag$ w>2 b x 0 v int]e/+ to view ! combat1 well su/a9$ z x 0 on bo? sides1 & protract$1 )\t a decisive issue1 into a drawn battle4444 ,! conflicts ( ! rival s*ools ( ,ed9burgh--! ,neptuni/s & ! ,vulcani/s1 ! ,w]n]ians & ! ,huttonians1 7 su/a9$ ) great zeal1 en]gy1 tal5t1 & sci5ce2 !y 7 inde$ m>k$ too decid$ly by a p>tisan _s1 b ?is v _s excit$ untir+ activity 9 discov]+1 arrang+1 & criticis+ ! facts ( geology4 ,x 0 a transition p]iod betwe5 ! epo* ( geological hypo!ses & dreams1 :i* _h pass$ by1 & ! era ( /rict philosophical induction1 9 :i* ! geologi/s ( ! pres5t day are tra9$4444 ,i 0 a dilig5t & delight$ li/5] to ! discussions ( bo? s*ools4 ,/ill ! igne\s philosoph]s appe>$ to me to assume m ?an _h be5 prov$ reg>d+ int]nal heat4 ,9 imag9ation we 7 plung$ into a fi]y ,phlege?on1 & ,i 0 glad to f9d relief 9 ! cold ba? ( ! ,w]n]ian ocean1 :]e my pr$ilections incl9$ me to l+]40 ,silliman's ,/ud5ts & ,_! ,publications4--,silliman's fir/ /ud5t to take up geology z a pr(ession 0 ,d5ison ,olm/ead 7#agia-ahei71 educator1 *emi/1 & geologi/1 :o 0 graduat$ f ,yale 9 #ahac4 ,f\r ye>s lat] he 0 "u special prep>ation ) ,silliman 9 m9]alogy & geology1 & 9 t ye> 0 appo9t$ pr(essor ( *emi/ry 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,nor? ,c>ol9a4 ,9 #ahbd-ahbe ,olm/ead issu$ a ,report on ! ,geology ( ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 :i* is ! fir/ (ficial geological report issu$ by any /ate 9 ,am]ica1 8a conspicu\s & solit>y in/ance10 accord+ to ,hit*cock's review ( x 7#ad1 #bcj1 #ahbh71 89 :i* any ( our /ate gov]nm5ts h und]tak5 ?or\ghly to develop _! m9]al res\rces40 ,amos ,eaton 7#aggf-ahdb71 lawy]1 botani/1 surveyor1 & "o ( ! f\nd]s ( ,am]ican geology1 0 a graduate ( ,williams ,college 9 ! class ( #agii4 ,he /udi$ ) ,silliman 9 #ahae1 att5d+ 8 lectures on *emi/ry1 geology1 & m9]alogy4 ,he also enjoy$ access to ! libr>ies ( ,silliman & ( ! botani/1 ,levi ,ives1 9 :i* works on botany & mat]ia m$ica 7 prom95t1 & 0 a dilig5t /ud5t ( ! ,college cab9et ( m9]als4 ,he settl$ z a lawy] & l& ag5t 9 ,catskill1 ,new ,york1 & "h 9 #ahaj he gave a popul> c\rse ( lectures on botany1 believ$ to h be5 ! fir/ attempt$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 #ahah appe>$ ,eaton's fir/ notewor?y geological publication1 ! ,index to ! ,geology ( ! ,nor!rn ,/ates1 a text-book = ! classes 9 geology at ,william/[n4 ,! controll+ pr9ciple ( ?is book 0 ,w]n]ism1 a false doctr9e f :i* ,eaton 0 nev] able to free himself4 ,?is book 0 8writt5 ov] anew0 & publi%$ 9 #ahbj4 ,:ile at ,albany 9 #ahah1 ,gov]nor ,de ,witt ,cl9ton ask$ ,eaton to deliv] a c\rse ( lectures on *emi/ry & geology be=e ! memb]s ( ! legislature ( ,new ,york4 ,x is believ$ t ,eaton is ! only ,am]ican hav+ ?is di/9ction1 & because ( x he became acqua9t$ ) _m lead+ m5 ( ! /ate1 int]e/+ !m 9 geology & its application to agriculture by means ( surveys4 ,9 ?is way 0 s[n ! idea :i* ev5tually 0 to fructify 9 t great (ficial "w3 ,! ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,new ,york4 7,see #dc1 #bae1 #ahdb2 & ,y\mans' sket* ( ,eaton's life1 ,pop4 ,sci4 ,mon?ly1 ,nov4 #ahij47 ,edw>d ,hit*cock 7#agic-ahfd71 rev]5d1 /ate geologi/1 college presid5t1 & ano!r ( ! f\nd]s ( ,am]ican geology1 0 l>gely self-taught4 ,previ\s to #ahbe1 :5 he ent]$ ! !ological dep>tm5t ( ,yale ,college1 he _h met ,amos ,eaton1 :o int]e/$ him 9 botany & m9]alogy1 & betwe5 #ahae & #ahai he _h made li/s ( ! plants & m9]als f\nd ab\t 8 native t[n1 ,de]field1 ,massa*usetts4 ,!re=e1 :ile /udy+ !ology at ,yale x 0 natural = him also to take up m9]alogy & geology ) ,silliman1 ^: acqua9tance he _h made at lea/ z e>ly z #ahah4 ,hit*cock1 :o 0 de/9$ to be "o ( ! mo/ prom95t figures ( 8 "t1 0 appo9t$ 9 #ahbe to ! *air ( *emi/ry & natural hi/ory at ,amh]/ ,college4 ,8 fir/ geologic pap]1 "o ( five pages1 appe>$ 9 #ahae4 ,?ree ye>s lat] appe>$ 8 m important pap] on ! ,geology & ,m9]alogy ( a ,section ( ,massa*usetts1 ,new ,hamp%ire1 & ,v]mont 7#a1 #aje1 #dcf1 #ahah74 ,?is is also notewor?y = its geological map1 ! next "o to be publi%$ aft] ^? ( ,maclure ( #ahji & #ahag4 ,9 #ahbc came a /ill great] "w1 ,a ,sket* ( ! ,geology1 ,m9]alogy1 & ,sc5]y ( ! ,regions contigu\s to ! ,riv] ,connecticut 7#f1 #a1 #bjj1 #ahbc2 #g1 #a1 #ahbd74 ,"h ! map above ref]r$ to 0 greatly improv$1 & ! survey 0 "o ( ! mo/ important ( ! old] publications4 ,y\mans 9 8 acc\nt ( ,hit*cock 7,pop4 ,sci4 ,mon?ly1 ,sept4 #ahie7 says3 8,! ,/ate ( ,massa*usetts commission$ him to make a geological survey ( h] t]ritory 9 #ahcj4 ,?ree ye>s 7 sp5t 9 ! explorations1 & ! "w 0 ( su* a high "* t o!r ,/ates 7 induc$ to foll[ ! example ( ,massa*usetts4444 ,! ,/ate ( ,new ,york s\ght 8 advice 9 ! organization ( a survey1 & foll[$ 8 sugge/ions1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! division ( ! t]ritory into f\r p>ts1 & appo9t$ him z ! geologi/ ( ! fir/ di/rict4 ,he ent]$ ^u ! "w1 b aft] a few days ( labor he f\nd t he mu/ necess>ily be sep>at$ f 8 family1 mu* to 8 dis9cl9ation4 ,he also conceiv$ ! idea ( urg+ a m ?or\gh survey ( 8 own ,/ate2 h5ce he resign$ 8 commission & return$ home4 ,! ef=t = a resurvey ( ,massa*usetts 0 successful1 & he 0 recommission$ to d ! "w4 ,! results appe>$ 9 #ahda & #ahdd40 ,oliv] ,p4 ,hubb>d 0 assi/ant to ,silliman 9 #ahca-ahcf1 & !n up to #ahff taught *emi/ry1 m9]alogy1 & geology at ,d>tm\? ,college4 ,james ,g4 ,p]cival 0 graduat$ at ,yale 9 #ahae1 & 9 #ahce he & ,c4 ,u4 ,%ep>d ( ,amh]/ ,college 7 appo9t$ /ate geologi/s ( ,connecticut4 ,_! report 0 issu$ 9 #ahdb4 ,james ,dwight ,dana 7#ahac-ahie7 0 und\bt$ly ! able/ ( all ( ,silliman's /ud5ts4 ,graduat$ at ,yale 9 #ahcc1 he sp5t fifte5 mon?s 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,navy z in/ructor 9 ma!matics1 cruis+ (f ,france1 ,italy1 ,greece1 & ,turkey4 ,9 #ahcf he 0 assi/ant to ,silliman1 & 9 #ahcg1 at ! age ( tw5ty-f\r ye>s1 he publi%$ 8 widely us$ ,sy/em ( ,m9]alogy4 ,two ye>s lat] ,dana jo9$ ! ,wilkes ,explor+ ,exp$ition z m9]alogi/1 return+ to ,am]ica 9 #ahdb2 8 geological results ( ?is exp$ition 7 publi%$ 9 #ahdi4 ,9 #ahfc1 dur+ ! ,rebellion1 he publi%$ 8 ,manual ( ,geology1 & ?r\gh f\r editions x rema9$ = =ty ye>s ! /&>d text-book = ,am]ican geologi/s4 ,fir/ ,am]ican ,geological ,society4--,! f\nd+ 9 #ahjg ( ! ,geological ,society ( ,london1 ! p>5t ( geological societies1 und\bt$ly _h its /imulat+ effect on ,silliman1 & ) 8 m>k$ organiz+ ability he began to ?9k ( =m+ an ,am]ican society ( ! same k9d4 ,?is he br\ght ab\t ! ye> foll[+ ! appe>ance ( ! ,j\rnal1 t is1 9 #ahai4 ,! ,am]ican ,geological ,society1 begun 9 #ahai 7#a1 #ddb1 #ahai71 0 t]m9at$ 9 #ahcj 7#ag1 #bjb1 #ahcj74 ,! fir/ meet+ 7,septemb] #f1 #ahai7 & all ! subsequ5t ones 7 held 9 ! cab9et ( ,yale ,college4 ,! brief records ( ! do+s ( ?is society are pr9t$ 9 volumes #a1 #aj1 #ae1 & #ah ( ! ,j\rnal4 ,silliman 0 ! attraction at ! meet+s1 surr\nd$ by 8 m9]al cab9et1 & he gave 8! true sci5tific dress to all ! nak$ m9]alogical subjects0 discuss$4 ,w]n]ian ,geology 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! ,fa!r ( ,am]ican ,geology4--,hi/orical ,geology beg9s 9 ,am]ica ) ,william ,maclure's ,obs]vations on ! ,geology ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 issu$ 9 #ahji4 ,?is 0 ! fir/ important orig9al "w on ,nor? ,am]ican geology1 & its color$ geological map 0 ! fir/ "o ( ! area ea/ ( ! ,mississippi ,riv]4 ,! classification 0 ess5tially ! ,w]n]ian sy/em4 ,all ( ! /rata ( ! ,coa/al ,pla91 n[ kn[n to range f ! ,l[] ,cretace\s to ,rec5t1 7 ref]r$ to ! ,alluvial4 ,to ! we/1 ov] ! area ( ! ,pi$mont1 7 8 ,primitive rocks1 :ile ! old] ,paleozoic =mations ( ! ,appala*ian ranges 7 ref]r$ to ! ,transition4 ,we/ ( ! fold$ area1 all 0 ,floetz or ,second>y1 or :at we n[ "k z ,paleozoic s$im5t>ies4 ,! ,triassic ( ! ,pi$mont area & t ( ,connecticut he call$ ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 & ! coal =mations ( ! int]ior region he said re/$ ^u ! ,second>y4 ,! second edition ( ! "w 9 #ahag 0 mu* improv$1 along ) ! map1 :i* 0 also pr9t$ on a m correct geographic base4 7,= great] detail1 see ,m]rill1 ,contributions to ! ,hi/ory ( ,am]ican ,geology1 #aijf47 ,ev5 ?\gh ,maclure's geologic maps are mu* g5]aliz$1 & ! s*eme ( classification adopt$ a v broad "o1 !y are 9 ! ma9 correct1 ev5 if !y d emphasize unduly ! r simple geologic /ructure ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,?is fact is pat5t all ?r\gh ,maclure's description4 ,cleavel& also ref]s to x 9 8 treatise ( #ahaf1 & ,silliman 9 ! op5+ volume ( ! ,j\rnal 7#a1 #g1 #ahah7 says3 8,! outl9es ( ,am]ican geology appe> to be p>ticul>ly gr&1 simple1 & in/ructive40 ,!n1 all ! k9ds ( rocks 7 compreh5d$ "u f\r classes1 ,primitive1 ,transition1 ,alluvial1 & ,volcanic4 ,x is also int]e/+ to note "h t 9 #ahbb ,maclure _h lo/ fai? 9 ! aque\s orig9 ( ! igne\s rocks & writes ( ! ,w]n]ian sy/em z 8fa/ go+ out ( fa%ion0 7#e1 #aig1 #ahbb71 :ile ,hit*cock said ab\t ! same ?+ 9 #ahbe 7#i1 #adf74 ,! ,"w ( ,eaton4--,amos ,eaton1 aft] travel+ #aj1jjj miles & complet+ 8 ,erie ,canal ,report 9 #ahbd1 8review$ ! :ole l9e sev]al times10 & publi%$ 9 #ahbh 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#ad1 #ade7 a pap] on ,geological ,nom5clature1 ,classes ( ,rocks1 etc4 ,! broad] classification is ! ,w]n]ian "o ( ,primitive1 ,transition1 & ,second>y classes4 ,"u ! fir/ two he has fossilif]\s e>ly ,paleozoic =mations1 b does n "k x1 because he pays no att5tion any:]e to ! detail ( ! entomb$ fossils1 & all ( 8 ,second>y is :at we n[ call ,paleozoic4 ,! correlations ( ! latt] are faulty ?r\gh\t4 ,!n came 8 pap] ( #ahcj1 ,geological ,prodromus 7#ag1 #fc71 9 :i* he says3 8,i int5d to demon/rate 444 t all geological /rata are arrang$ 9 five analog\s s]ies2 & t ea* s]ies consi/s ( ?ree =mations2 viz41 ! ,c>bonif]\s mean+ mud-/ones1 ,qu>tzose1 & ,calc>e\s40 ,we seem to see "h express$ = ! fir/ "t ! idea ( 8cycles ( s$im5tation10 b ,eaton does n emphasize ?is idea1 & ! localities giv5 = ea* 8=mation0 ( 8analog\s s]ies0 demon/rate beyond a d\bt t he did n h a s$im5t>y sequ5ce4 ,! :ole is simply a jumble ( unrelat$ =mations t happ5 to agree m or less 9 _! physical *>act]s4 8,i int5d to demon/rate10 he says fur!r1 8t ! detritus ( ,new ,j]sey1 embrac+ ! m>le1 :i* conta9s ^? rem>kable fossil relics1 is ant$iluvial1 or ! g5u9e ,t]ti>y =mation40 ,?is correlation _h be5 cle>ly %[n by ,f9* 9 #ahbd 7#g1 #ca7 & yet bo? are 9 error 9 t !y d n di/+ui% ! includ$ ,cretace\s m>ls & gre5s&s z some?+ ap>t f ! ,t]ti>y4 ,"o gets impati5t ) ! lat] writ+s ( ,eaton1 because he does n become lib]aliz$ ) ! progressive ideas 9 /ratigraphic geology develop+ fir/ 9 ,europe & !n 9 ,am]ica1 especially among ! geologi/s ( ,philadelphia4 ,!re=e x is n pr(itable to foll[ 8 "w fur!r4 ,e>ly ,am]ican ,text-books ( ,geology4--,! fir/ ,am]ican text-book ( geology be>s ! date ( ,bo/on #ahaf & is entitl$ ,an ,elem5t>y ,treatise on ,m9]alogy & ,geology1 its au?or be+ ,p>k] ,cleavel& ( ,b[do9 ,college4 ,! second edition appe>$ 9 #ahbb4 ,x also _h a geologic map ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 practically a copy ( ,maclure's4 ,to m9]alogy 7 devot$ #ehe pages1 & to geology #ee1 ( :i* #cg describe rocks & #e ! geology ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! *ronology is ,w]n]ian4 ,( 8geological sy/ems0 !re are two1 8primitive & second>y rocks40 ,9 #ahah appe>$ ,amos ,eaton's ,index to ! ,geology ( ! ,nor!rn ,/ates1 hav+ #ed pages1 & 9 #ahbj came ! second edition1 8:olly writt5 ov] anew10 ) #bhf pages4 ,! !ory ( ! lat] edition is /ill t ( ,w]n]1 ) 8improvem5ts ( ,cuvi] & ,bakewell10 & yet "o sees n[-a-days b little 9 x ( ! f> bett] ,engli% text-book4 ,eaton did v little to advance philosophic geology 9 ,am]ica4 ,:at is ( mo/ value "h are 8 p]sonal obs]vations 9 reg>d to ! local geology ( we/]n ,massa*usetts1 ,connecticut1 s\?we/]n ,v]mont1 & ea/]n ,new ,york 7#a1 #fi1 #ahai2 also ,m]rill1 p4 #bcd74 ,we come n[ to ! mo/ compreh5sive & advanc$ ( ! e>ly text-books us$ 9 ,am]ica4 ,?is is ! ?ird ,engli% edition ( ,rob]t ,bakewell's ,introduction to ,geology 7#djj pages1 #ahbi71 & ! fir/ ,am]ican edition 8) an ,app5dix ,conta9+ an ,outl9e ( 8 ,c\rse ( ,lectures on ,geology at ,yale ,college1 by ,b5jam9 ,silliman0 7#abh pages74 ,bakewell's good book is 9 keep+ ) ! "t1 & :ile n s advanc$ z ,conybe>e & ,phillips's ,outl9es ( #ahbb1 yet is f> m s ?an ,silliman's app5dix4 ,! latt] is g5]al & n specific z to details2 x is /ill decid$ly ,w]n]ian1 ?\gh 9 a modifi$ =m4 ,silliman says he is 8nei!r ,w]n]ian nor ,huttonian10 & yet 8 summ>y on pages #abj to #abf %[s cle>ly t he 0 n only a ,w]n]ian b a pieti/ z well4 ,une>?+ ( ! ,c5ozoic & ,mesozoic 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! ,disc]n+ ( ! ,t]ti>y4--,! ,new ,engl& ,/ates1 ) _! ess5tially igne\s & metamorphic =mations1 c\ld n furni% ! prop] geologic environm5t = ! developm5t ( /ratigraph]s & paleontologi/s4 ,s 9 ,am]ica we see ! rise ( su* geologi/s fir/ 9 ,philadelphia1 :]e !y _h easy access to ! horizontal & highly fossilif]\s /rata ( ! coa/al pla94 ,! fir/ "o to attract att5tion 0 ,?omas ,say1 aft] him came ,john ,f9*1 foll[$ by ,l>dn] ,vanuxem1 ,isaac ,lea1 ,samuel ,g4 ,morton1 & ,t4 ,a4 ,conrad4 ,^! m5 n only work$ out ! succession ( ! ,c5ozoic & ! upp] "p ( ! ,mesozoic1 b blaz$ ! way among ! ,paleozoic /rata z well4 ,?omas ,say 7#aghg-ahcd71 9 #ahai1 0 ! fir/ ,am]ican to po9t out ! *ronog5etic value ( fossils 9 8 article1 ,obs]vations on "s ,species ( ,zoophytes1 ,%ells1 etc41 pr9cipally ,fossil 7#a1 #cha74 ,he correctly /ates t ! progress ( geology 8mu/ be 9 "p f\nd$ on a k ( ! diff]5t g5]a & species ( reliqui1 :i* ! v>i\s accessible /rata ( ! e>? pres5t40 ,say fully realizes ! difficulties 9 ! /udy ( fossils1 because ( _! fragm5tal "* & *ang$ nature1 & t _! correct int]pretation requires a k ( simil> liv+ organisms4 ,! application ( :at ,say po9t$ out came fir/ 9 ,john ,f9*'s ,geological ,essay on ! ,t]ti>y ,=mations 9 ,am]ica 7#g1 #ca1 #ahbd74 ,ev5 ?\gh ! pap] is /ill labor+ "u ! m9]al sy/em & does n disc]n ! pres5ce ( ,cretace\s /rata among 8 ,t]ti>y =mations1 yet ,f9* also sees t 8fossils con/itute ! m$als ( ! anci5t _w1 by :i* to asc]ta9 ! v>i\s p]iods40 ,f9* n[ objects to ! wide misuse 9 ,am]ica ( ! t]m alluvial & holds t x is appli$ to :at is else:]e kn[n z ,t]ti>y4 ,he says3 8,geology w a*ieve a triumph 9 ,am]ica1 :5 ! t]m alluvial %all be bani%$ f h] ,geological ,essays1 or conf9$ to its legitimate doma91 & !n h] t]ti>y =mations w be se5 to co9cide ) ^? ( ,europe1 & ! =mations ( ,london1 ,p>is1 & ! ,isle ( ,wight1 w f9d k9dr$ associations 9 ,virg9ia1 ! ,c>ol9as1 ,georgias1 ! ,floridas1 & ,l\isiana40 ,! =mations z he has !m f ! bottom upw>ds are3 7#a7 ,f]rug9\s s&1 7#b7 ,pla/ic clay1 7#c7 ,calcaire ,silicieuse ( ! ,p>is ,bas91 7#d7 ,london ,clay1 7#e7 ,calcaire ,o/re1 7#f7 ,upp] m>9e =mation1 7#g7 ,diluvial4 ,! gr&e/ ( ^! e>ly /ratigraphic pap]s1 h[ev]1 is t by ,l>dn] ,vanuxem 7#agib-ahdh71 ( only ?ree pages1 entitl$ 8,rem>ks on ! ,*>act]s & ,classification ( ,c]ta9 ,am]ican ,rock ,=mations0 7#af1 #bed1 #ahbi74 ,vanuxem1 a cauti\s man & a pr(\nd ?9k]1 _h be5 educat$ at ! ,p>is ,s*ool ( ,m9es4 ,james ,hall told ! writ] 9 a conv]sation t :ile ! fir/ ,new ,york ,/ate ,survey 0 9 op]ation1 all ( its memb]s look$ to ,vanuxem = advice4 ,9 ! pap] above ref]r$ to1 ,vanuxem po9ts out 9 a v concise mann] t3 8,! alluvial ( ,mr4 ,maclure 444 conta9s n only well *>act]iz$ alluvion1 b products ( ! t]ti>y & second>y classes4 ,littoral %ells1 simil> to ^? ( ! ,engli% & ,p>is bas9s1 & pelagic %ells1 simil> to ^? ( ! *alk deposition or late/ second>y1 ab\nd 9 x4 ,^! two k9ds ( %ells are n mix$ ) ea* o!r2 !y occur 9 diff]5t e>?y matt]1 &1 9 ! s\!rn /ates p>ticul>ly1 are at diff]5t levels4 ,! incoh]5cy or e>?9ess ( ! mass1 & our =m] ignorance ( ! true position ( ! %ells1 h be5 ! s\rces ( our errone\s views40 ,! second error ( ! old] geologi/s1 accord+ to ,vanuxem1 0 ! ext5sion ( ! second>y rocks ov] 8! we/]n c\ntry1 & ! back & upp] p>ts ( ,new ,york40 ,!y are n[ call$ ,paleozoic4 ,"s _h ev5 tri$ to %[ ! pres5ce ( ,jurassic "h because ( ! exi/5ce ( olite /rata4 8,x 0 tak5 = grant$1 t all horizontal rocks are second>y1 & z ! rocks ( ^! p>ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates are horizontal 9 _! position1 s !y 7 suppos$ to be second>y40 ,he !n %[s on ! basis ( simil> ,ordovician fossils t ! rocks ( ,tr5ton ,falls1 ,new ,york1 recur at ,frank=t 9 ,k5tucky1 & at ,na%ville 9 ,t5nessee4 8,x is also c]ta9 t an uplift+ or d[nfall+ =ce1 or bo?1 h exi/$1 b x is n c]ta9 t ei!r or bo? ^! =ces h act$ 9 a uni=m mann]4444 ,innum]able are ! facts1 :i* h fall5 "u my obs]vation1 :i* %[ ! fallacy ( adopt+ incl9ation = ! "* ( a class10 su* z ! ,transition class ( /rata4 ,he !n goes on to say t 9 ! int]ior ( our c\ntry ! s-call$ second>y rocks are horizontal & 9 ! m\nta9s to ! ea/ ! same /rata are highly incl9$4 8,! analogy1 or id5tity ( rocks1 ,i det]m9e by _! fossils 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 & _! position & m9]alogical *>act]s 9 ! second or la/ in/ance40 ,x appe>s t ,isaac ,lea 7#agib-ahhf7 9 8 ,contributions to ,geology1 #ahcc1 0 ! fir/ to transplant to ,am]ica ,lyell's t]ms1 ,plioc5e1 ,mioc5e1 & ,eoc5e1 propos$ ! previ\s ye>4 ,! celebrat$ ,claiborne locality 0 made kn[n to ,lea 9 #ahbi1 & 9 ! "w "h cit$ he describes f x #bej species1 ( :i* #bjj are new4 ,! horizon is correlat$ ) ! ,london ,clay & ) ! ,calcaire ,grossi] ( ,france1 bo? ( ,eoc5e "t 7#be1 #dac1 #ahcd74 ,timo?y ,a4 ,conrad began to write ab\t ! ,am]ican ,t]ti>y 9 #ahcj1 & 8 m important publications 7 issu$ at ,philadelphia4 ,8 pap]s 9 ! ,j\rnal beg9 ) #ahcc & ! la/ "o on ! ,t]ti>y is 9 #ahdf4 ,! ,t]ti>y faunas & /ratigraphy h be5 mod]niz$ by ,william ,h4 ,dall 9 8 monum5tal "w ( #afej pages & #fj plates entitl$ 8,contributions to ! ,t]ti>y ,fauna ( ,florida0 7#ahhe-aijc74 ,"h m ?an #cafj =ms ( ! ,atlantic & ,gulf deposits are describ$1 b 9 ord] to und]/& _! relations to ! fossil faunas else:]e & to ! liv+ _w1 ! au?or /udi$ ov] #aj1jjj species4 ,s9ce !n1 _m o!r work]s h int]e/$ !mselves 9 ! ,t]ti>y problems4 ,mu* good "w is also be+ done 9 ! ,pacific ,/ates :]e ! sequ5ce is be+ rapidly develop$4 ,! ,disc]n+ ( ! ,ea/]n ,cretace\s4--,! ,cretace\s sequ5ce 0 fir/ det]m9$ by t 8active & acute geologi/10 ,samuel ,g4 ,morton 7#agii-ahea71 b t ^! rocks might be pres5t along ! ,atlantic bord] _h be5 surmis$ z e>ly z #ahbd by ,edw>d ,hit*cock 7#g1 #baf74 ,vanuxem1 z above po9t$ out1 indicat$ ! pres5ce ( ! ,cretace\s 9 #ahbi4 ,9 ?is same ye> ,morton prov$ its pres5ce be=e ! ,philadelphia ,academy ( ,natural ,sci5ces4 ,betwe5 #ahcj & #ahce ,morton publi%$ a s]ies ( pap]s 9 ! ,j\rnal "u ! title 8,synopsis ( ! ,organic ,rema9s ( ! ,f]rug9\s ,s& ,=mation ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ) ,geological ,rem>ks0 7#ag1 #bgd1 et seq474 ,9 ^! he describes ! ,cretace\s fossils & demon/rates t ! 8,diluvial0 & ,t]ti>y /rata ( ! ,atlantic bord] also h a long sequ5ce ( ,cretace\s =mations4 ,9 ! op5+ pap] he writes3 8,i consid] ! m>l ( ,new ,j]sey z ref]able to ! great f]rug9\s s& s]ies1 :i* 9 ,pr(4 ,buckl&'s arrangem5t is designat$ by ! "n ( gre5 s&4444 ,on ! cont95t ?is s]ies is call$ ! anci5t *alk 444 l[] *alk10 etc4 ,aga91 ! m>ls ( ,new ,j]sey are 8geologically equival5t to ^? b$s :i* 9 ,europe are int]pos$ betwe5 ! :ite *alk & ! ,olites40 ,?is correlation is ) ! ,european ,l[] ,cretace\s1 b we n[ "k ! m>ls to be ( ,upp] ,cretace\s age4 ,al?\gh ,eaton object$ /r5u\sly to ,morton's correlation1 we f9d ,m4 ,dufresnoy ( ,france say+1 8,y\r lime/one above gre5 s& rem9ds me v mu* ( ! ,m/ri*t b$s10 a correlation :i* /&s to ?is day 7#bb1 #id1 #ahcb74 ,9 #ahcc ,morton ann\nces t ! ,cretace\s is kn[n all along ! ,atlantic & ,gulf bord]1 & 9 ! ,mississippi valley4 8,! same species ( fossils are f\nd ?r\gh\t10 & none ( !m are kn[n 9 ! ,t]ti>y4 ,he n[ arranges ! /rata ( ! =m] 8,alluvial0 z foll[s3 ,mod]n ,alluvial4 ,diluvial4 ,t]ti>y ,upp] ,t]ti>y 7,upp] ,m>9e74 ,middle ,t]ti>y 7,london ,clay74 ,l[] ,t]ti>y 7,pla/ic ,clay74 ,second>y,calc>e\s ,/rata,cretace\s gr\p1 or ,f]rug9\s ,s& s]ies 7#bd1 #abh74 ,f]rug9\s ,s& ,we/]n ,cretace\s4--,9 #ahda & #ahdc ,j4 ,n4 ,nicollet ann\nc$ ! discov]y ( ,cretace\s 9 ! ,rocky ,m\nta9 area4 ,( #bj species ( fossils collect$ by him1 #d 7 said to occur on ! ,atlantic bord]1 & ( ! #bjj =ms ( ! ,atlantic slope only #a 0 f\nd 9 ,europe4 ,"h we see po9t$ out a specific dissimil>ity betwe5 ! cont95ts1 & a simil>ity betwe5 ! ,am]ican areas ( ,cretace\s deposits 7#da1 #aha2 #de1 #aec74 ,! ,cretace\s ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s 0 cle>ly develop$ by ,f4 ,v4 ,hayd5 9 #ahee-ahhh & by ,f4 ,b4 ,meek 7#aheg-ahgf74 ,o!r work]s 9 ?is field 7 ,*>les ,a4 ,:ite 7#ahfi-ahia71 & ,r4 ,p4 ,:itfield 7#ahgg-ahhi74 ,s9ce #ahia ,t4 ,w4 ,/anton has be5 actively int]pret+ its /ratigraphy & faunas4 ,cretace\s & ,coman*e ( ,texas4--,! broad] outl9es ( ! ,cretace\s ( ,texas _h be5 describ$ by ,f]d9& ,roem] 9 #aheb 9 8 good "w1 ,kreidebildung5 von ,texas1 b x 0 n until #ahhg t ,rob]t ,t4 ,hill %[$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#cc1 #bia7 t x includ$ two great s]ies1 ! ,gulf s]ies1 or :at we n[ call ,upp] ,cretace\s1 & a new "o1 ! ,coman*e s]ies4 ,?is 0 a v important /ep 9 ! "r direction4 ,s9ce !n ! ,coman*e s]ies has be5 reg>d$ by "s /ratigraph]s z ( p]iod value1 :ile o!rs call x ,l[] ,cretace\s2 ! re/ ( ! ,texas ,cretace\s is divid$ by ,hill into ,middle & ,upp] ,cretace\s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,l[] ,cretace\s /rata _h be5 prov$ ev5 e>li] 9 ! /ate ( ,cali=nia1 = "h 9 #ahfi ,w4 ,m4 ,gabb 7#ahci-ahgh7 & ,j4 ,d4 ,:itney 7#ahai-ahif7 _h def9$ _! ,%a/a gr\p1 :i* 0 :olly di/9ct faunally f ! ,coman*e ( ,texas & ! s\!rn "p ( ! ,great ,pla9s c\ntry4 ,jurassic & ,triassic ( ! ,we/4--,9 #ahfd1 ! ,geological ,survey ( ,cali=nia prov$ ! pres5ce ( m>9e ,upp] ,triassic 9 t ,/ate1 & s9ce !n x has be5 %[n t n only is all ( ! ,triassic pres5t 9 ,idaho 7:]e x has be5 kn[n s9ce #ahgg71 ,oregon1 ,nevada1 & ,cali=nia1 b t ! ,upp] ,triassic is ( v wide di/ribution ?r\gh\t we/]n ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,jurassic /rata1 on ! o!r h&1 7 n %[n to be pres5t 9 ,cali=nia until #ahhe1 :ile 9 ! ,rocky ,m\nta9 area ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates !re 0 long kn[n an unresolv$ s]ies ( 8,r$ ,b$s0 situat$ betwe5 ! ,c>bonif]\s & ,cretace\s4 ,?is gave rise to ! 8,r$ ,b$ problem10 ! hi/ory ( :i* is giv5 by ,c4 ,a4 ,:ite 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#ag1 #bad1 #ahgi74 ,9 #ahfi1 ,f4 ,v4 ,hayd5 ann\nc$ ! discov]y ( m>9e ,jurassic fossils 9 ?is s]ies1 & s9ce !n !y h come to be kn[n z ! ,sundance fauna1 ext5d+ f s\!rn ,utah & ,colorado into ,alaska4 ,above lie ! d9osaur-be>+ fre%-wat] deposits1 s9ce #ahid kn[n z ! ,morrison b$s4 ,9 #ahif1 ,o4 ,c4 ,m>% 7#ahca-ahii7 ann\nc$ ! pres5ce ( ,jurassic fre%-wat] /rata along ! ,atlantic coa/ 7#b1 #dcc71 b to-day only a small "p ( !m are reg>d$ z ( ! age ( ! ,morrison1 :ile ! f> great] "p are ref]r$ to ! ,coman*e or ,l[] ,cretace\s4 ,! r$ b$s bel[ ! ,jurassic ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9 area h dur+ ! pa/ tw5ty ye>s be5 %[n to be 9 "p ( ,upp] ,triassic age & ( fre%-wat] orig91 :ile ! great] l[] "p is connect$ ) ! ,c>bonif]\s s]ies & is made up ( bracki%-- & fre%-wat] deposits ( probable ,p]mian "t4 ,triassic ( ,atlantic ,/ates4--,! fre%-wat] ,triassic ( ! ,atlantic bord] /ates 0 fir/ m5tion$ by ,maclure 7#ahag71 :o reg>d$ x z ! equival5t ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ( ,europe4 ,9 ?is he 0 foll[$ by ,hit*cock 9 #ahbc 7#f1 #ci71 ! latt] say+ t above x lies 8! coal =mation10 :i* is true = ,europe1 b 9 ,am]ica ! coal /rata are old] ?an ^! r$ b$s1 n[ kn[n to be ( ,triassic age4 ,! fir/ "o to "q ?is correlation 0 ,alex&re ,brongni>t1 :o _h receiv$ f ,hit*cock rock specim5s & a fossil fi% :i* he errone\sly id5tifi$ ) a ,p]mian species1 & accord+ly ref]r$ ! /rata to ! ,p]mian 7#c1 #bbj1 #ahba2 #f1 #gf1 pl4 #i1 figs4 #a1 #b1 #ahbc74 ,! disc]n+ ,pr(essor ,f9* 9 #ahbf rem>k$ t ! r$ b$s ( ,connecticut appe> to belong 8to ! new or v>iegat$ s&/one10 because ( eight diff]5t crit]ia t he m5tions4 ,( ^!1 b two are ( value 9 correlation1 _! 8geological position0 & ! pres5ce ( bones o!r ?an fi%es4 ,9 ! ,connecticut area1 h[ev]1 ! geological position _c be det]m9$ ev5 to-day1 & 9 ,f9*'s "t ! bones ( d9osaurs 7 unkn[n4 ,f9* !n goes on to po9t out ! occurr5ces ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one 9 ,p5nsylvania1 b all ( ! places he ref]s to are ei!r y\ng] or old] 9 "t4 ,"h we aga9 see ! fatality ( try+ to make positive correlations on ! basis ( li?ology & color 7#aj1 #bji1 #ahbf74 ,9 #ahce1 h[ev]1 ,hit*cock %[$ t ! bones t _h be5 f\nd 9 #ahbj 7 ^? ( a saurian1 & accord+ly ref]r$ ! /rata ( ! ,connecticut valley to ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one1 a t]m t !n cov]$ bo? ! ,p]mian & ! ,triassic4 ,9 #ahdb1 ,w4 ,b4 ,rog]s ref]r$ ! b$s to ! ,jurassic1 on ! basis ( plants f ,virg9ia4 ,9 #ahef1 ,w4 ,c4 ,r$field 7#aghi-aheg71 because ( ! fi%es1 advocat$ a ,lias1 or ,jurassic age1 & propos$ ! "n ,new>k gr\p = all ! ,triassic deposits ( ! ,atlantic bord]4 ,m rec5tly1 on ! basis ( ! plants /udi$ by ,newb]ry1 ,fonta9e1 ,/urr1 & ,w>d1 & ! v]tebrates describ$ by ,m>% & ,lull1 ! age has be5 def9itely fix$ z ,upp] ,triassic 7see ,dana's ,manual ( ,geology1 #gdj1 #ahie74 ,une>?+ ( ! ,paleozoic 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,p]mian ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4--,9 ,europe1 previ\s to #ahda1 ! =mations n[ class$ z ,p]mian 7 includ$ 9 ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one1 & ) ! ,c>bonif]\s 7 ref]r$ to ! ,second>y4 ,9 t ye> ,mur*ison propos$ ! p]iod t]m ,p]mian4 ,9 #ahde came ! classic ,geology ( ,russia 9 ,europe & ! ,ural ,m\nta9s1 by ,mur*ison1 ,keys]l+1 & ,de ,v]neuil4 ,9 ?is great "w ! au?ors sep>at$ out ( ! ,new ,r$ ! ,magnesian ,lime/one ( ,great ,brita9 & ! ,ro?lieg5de m>ls1 ,kupf]s*ief]1 & ,ze*/e9 ( ,g]many1 & ) o!r =mations ( ! ,urals 9 ,russia1 ref]r$ !m to ! ,p]mian sy/em4 ,?is /ep1 "o ( ! mo/ disc]n+ 9 hi/orical geology1 0 all ! m important because !y clos$ ! ,paleozoic era ) ! ,p]mian1 beg9n+ ! ,second>y1 or ,mesozoic1 ) ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one or ! ,triassic p]iod4 ,!re is a good review ( ?is "w by ,d4 ,d4 ,ow5 7#ahjg-ahfj7 9 ! ,j\rnal = #ahdg 7#c1 #aec74 ,ow51 ?\gh accept+ ! ,p]mian sy/em1 is n satisfi$ ) its ref]5ce to ! ,paleozoic1 & he sets ! matt] =? 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#c1 #cfe1 #ahdg74 ,he d\bts 8! propriety ( a classification :i* ?r[s ! ,p]mian & ,c>bonif]\s sy/ems into ! ,paleozoic p]iod40 ,?is is ma9ly because !re is no 8evid5ce ( di/urbance or uncon=mability0 betwe5 ! ,p]mian & ,triassic sy/ems4 ,r 8!re is s complete a bl5d+ ( adjac5t /rata0 t x is only 9 ,russia t ! ,p]mian has be5 di/+ui%$ f ! ,triassic4 ,?is view ( ,ow5's 0 n only correct = ,russia b ev5 m s = ! ,alps & = ,india1 & x has tak5 a great deal ( "w & discussion to fix ^u ! discon=mable contact t di/+ui%es ! ,paleozoic f ! ,mesozoic 9 ^! areas4 ,9 o!r words1 !re 0 "h at ?is "t no m\nta9 mak+4 ,!n ,ow5 goes on to /ate t because ! ,p]mian ( ,europe has reptiles1 he sees 9 !m decisive ,mesozoic evid5ce4 8,^! are c]ta9ly /rong argum5ts 9 favor ( plac+1 n only ! ,p]mian1 b also ! ,c>bonif]\s gr\p 9 ! ,mesozoic p]iod1 & t]m9at+ ! ,paleozoic division ) ! comm5cem5t ( ! coal measures40 ,to ?is h>k+ backw>d ! geologi/s ( ! _w h n agre$1 b h foll[$ ! bett] views ( ,mur*ison & 8 associates4 ,9 #ahee ,g4 ,g4 ,%um>d discov]$1 & 9 #ahfj 8 bro!r ,b4 ,f4 ,%um>d 7#ahbj-ahfi7 ann\nc$1 ! pres5ce ( ,p]mian /rata 9 ! ,guadalupe ,m\nta9s ( ,texas1 & 9 #aijb ,george ,h4 ,girty 7#ad1 #cfc7 confirm$ ?is4 ,girty reg>ds ! faunas z y\ng] ?an any o!r late ,paleozoic ones ( ,am]ica1 & says3 8,= ?is reason ,i propose to give !m a regional "n1 :i* %all be employ$ 9 a =ce simil> to ,mississippian & ,p5nsylvanian4444 ,! t]m ,guadalupian is sugge/$40 ,g4 ,c4 ,swall[ 7#ahag-ahii7 9 #aheh 0 ! fir/ to ann\nce ! pres5ce ( ,p]mian fossils 9 ,kansas1 & ?is l$ to a controv]sy betwe5 himself & ,f4 ,b4 ,meek1 bo? claim+ ! discov]y4 ,x is only 9 m rec5t ye>s t x has be5 g5]ally admitt$ t !re is ,p]mian 9 t /ate1 9 ,oklahoma1 & 9 ,texas4 ,?is admission came ! m readily ?r\gh ! discov]y ( _m reptiles 9 ! r$ b$s ( ,texas1 & ?r\gh ! "w ( ,c4 ,a4 ,:ite1 publi%$ 9 #ahia1 ,! ,texan ,p]mian & its ,mesozoic ,types ( ,fossils 7,bull4 ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey1 ,no4 #gg74 ,illu/ration3 ,james ,hall ,c>bonif]\s ,=mations4--,! coal =mations are not$ 9 a g5]al way ?r\gh\t ! e>lie/ volumes ( ! ,j\rnal4 ,! fir/ acc\nts ( ! pres5ce ( coal1 9 ,ohio1 are by ,caleb ,atwat] 7#a1 #bbg1 #bci1 #ahai71 & ,s4 ,p4 ,hildre? 7#ac1 #ch1 #dj1 #ahbh74 ,! fir/ coal plants to be describ$ & illu/rat$ 7 also f ,ohio1 9 an article by ,eb5ez] ,grang] 9 #ahba 7#c1 #e-g74 ,! an?racite field 0 fir/ describ$ 9 #ahbb by ,za*>iah ,ci/ 7#d1 #a7 & !n by ,b5jam9 ,silliman 7#aj1 #cca-cea1 #ahbf72 t ( we/]n ,p5nsylvania 0 describ$ by ,william ,meade 9 #ahbh 7#ac1 #cb74 ,! ,l[] ,c>bonif]\s 0 fir/ recogniz$ by ,w4 ,w4 ,ma!r 9 #ahch 7#cd1 #cef74 ,lat]1 ?r\gh ! "w ( ,alex&] ,w9*ell 7#ahbd-ahia71 beg9n+ 9 #ahfb 7#cc1 #ceb7 & cont9u+ until #ahga1 & ?r\gh ! surveys ( ,i[a 7#ahee-aheh71 ,ill9ois 7ess5tially ! "w ( ,a4 ,h4 ,wor!n1 #aheh-ahhh71 ,ohio 7#ahch1 ,ma!r1 etc471 & ,indiana 7,ow51 etc41 #ahch71 !re 0 ev5tually work$ out ! foll[+ succession3 ,p]mian p]iod4 ,upp] ,b>r5 s]ies4 ,dunk>d gr\p4 ,wa%+ton gr\p4 ,p5nsylvanian p]iod4 ,upp] ,productive ,coal s]ies4 ,monongahela s]ies4 ,l[] ,b>r5 ,coal ,measures4 ,conemaugh s]ies4 ,l[] ,productive ,coal ,measures4 ,allegh5y s]ies4 ,pottsville s]ies4 ,! ,new ,york ,sy/em4--,we n[ come to ! epo*al survey ( ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york1 "o t e/abli%$ ! pr9ciples (1 & put ord] into1 ,am]ican /ratigraphy f ! ,upp] ,cambrian to ! top ( ! ,devonian4 ,no bett] area c\ld h be5 select$ = ! e/abli%+ ( ?is sequ5ce4 ,?is survey also develop$ a /ratigraphic nom5clature bas$ on ,new ,york localities & rock exposures1 & made full use ( ! entomb$ fossils 9 correlation4 ,incid5tally x develop$ & br\ght into prom95ce ,james ,hall1 :o cont9u$ ! /ratigraphic "w s well begun & :o also laid ! f\ndation = paleontology 9 ,am]ica1 becom+ its lead+ inv]tebrate work]4 ,?is "w is review$ at great l5g? 9 ! ,j\rnal 9 ! volumes = #ahdd-ahdg by ,d4 ,d4 ,ow54 ,evid5tly x foll[$ too new a plan to receive fulsome praise f cons]vative ,ow51 z x %\ld h4 ,he rem>ks t ! volumes 8are n a little prolix1 are volum9\s & exp5sive1 & d n give z cle> & connect$ a view ( ! geological features ( ! /ate z c\ld be wi%$4444 ,we are ( ! op9ion t be=e ?is "w c become g5]ally useful & ext5sively circulat$1 x mu/ be cond5s$ & arrang$ into "o comp5di\s volume0 7#df1 #add1 #ahdd74 ,?is 0 nev] done & yet ! "w 0 ev]y:]e accept$ at once1 & to ?is end und\bt$ly ,ow5's detail$ review help$ mu*4 ,! ,natural ,hi/ory ,survey ( ,new ,york 0 organiz$ 9 #ahcf & complet$ 9 #ahdc4 ,! /ate 0 divid$ into f\r di/ricts1 & to ^! 7 f9ally assign$ ! foll[+ exp]i5c$ geologi/s4 ,! s\!a/]n "p 0 nam$ ! ,fir/ ,di/rict1 ) ,w4 ,w4 ,ma!r 7#ahjd-ahei7 z geologi/2 ! nor!a/]n qu>t] 0 ! ,second ,di/rict1 ) ,eb5ez] ,emmons 7#agii-ahfc7 9 *>ge2 ! c5tral portion 0 ! ,?ird ,di/rict1 "u ,l>dn] ,vanuxem 7#agib-ahdh72 :ile ! we/]n "p 0 ,james ,hall's 7#ahaa-ahih7 ,f\r? ,di/rict4 ,paleontology = a "t 0 9 *>ge ( ,t4 ,a4 ,conrad 7#ahcj-ahgg72 ! m9]alogical & *emical "w 0 9 ! h&s ( ,lewis ,c4 ,beck2 ! botani/ 0 ,john ,torrey2 & ! zoologi/ ,james ,de,kay4 ,! ,new ,york ,/ate ,survey publi%$ six annual reports ( #afge pages octavo1 & f\r f9al geological reports ) #bjgi pages qu>to4 ,f9ally 9 #ahdf ,emmons add$ ano!r volume on ! soils & rocks ( ! /ate1 9 :i* he also discuss$ ! ,taconic & ,new ,york sy/ems2 x has #cga pages4 ,) ! completion ( ! fir/ survey1 ,hall took up 8 life "w "u ! auspices ( ! /ate--8 monum5tal "w1 ,paleontology ( ,new ,york1 9 fifte5 qu>to volumes ( #deci pages & #ajha plates ( fossils4 ,9 addition to all ?is1 !re are 8 annual & o!r reports to ! ,reg5ts ( ! ,/ate1 s t x is safe to say t he publi%$ n less ?an #aj1jjj pages ( pr9t$ matt] on ! geology & paleontology ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,9 reg>d to ?is great s]ies ( works1 all t c be pres5t$ "h is a table ( =mations z develop$ by ! ,new ,york ,/ate ,survey4 ,practically all ( its results & =mation names h come into g5]al use1 ) ! exception ( ! ,taconic sy/em ( ,emmons & ! division t]ms ( ! ,new ,york sy/em4 7,see p4 #hh47 ,! ,new ,york ,/ate ,survey1 begun 9 #ahcf1 0 cont9u$ by ,james ,hall f #ahdc to #ahih4 ,dur+ ?is "t he 0 also /ate geologi/ ( ,i[a 7#ahee-aheh7 & ,mi*igan 7#ahfb74 ,s9ce #ahih1 ,john ,m4 ,cl>ke has ably cont9u$ ! ,geological ,survey ( ,new ,york1 ! /ate :i* cont9ues to be1 9 sci5ce & m especially 9 geology & paleontology1 ! =emo/ 9 ,am]ica4 ,we/]n ,ext5sion ( ! ,new ,york sy/em4--,be=e ,hall f9i%$ 8 f9al report1 we f9d him 9 #ahda on 8a t\r ( exploration ?r\gh ! /ates ( ,ohio1 ,indiana1 ,ill9ois1 a "p ( ,mi*igan1 ,k5tucky1 & ,miss\ri1 & ! t]ritories ( ,i[a & ,wiscons940 ,?is t\r is describ$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#db1 #ea1 #ahdb7 "u ! caption 8,notes ^u ! ,geology ( ! ,we/]n ,/ates40 ,8 object 0 to asc]ta9 h[ f> ! ,new ,york sy/em z ! /&>d ( ref]5ce 80 applicable 9 ! we/]n ext5sion ( ! s]ies40 ,9 a g5]al way he 0 v successful 9 ext5d+ ! sy/em to ! ,mississippi ,riv]1 & he cle>ly saw 8a great dim9ution1 fir/ ( s&y matt]1 & next ( %ale1 z we g we/w>d1 & 9 ! :ole1 a great increase ( calc>e\s matt] 9 ! same direction40 ,he also cle>ly not$ ! w>p$ nature ( ! /rata1 ! 8anticl9al axis10 s9ce kn[n z ! ,c9c9nati & ,waba% uplifts & ! ,oz>k dome4 ,hall1 h[ev]1 fell into a numb] ( flagrant errors because ( a too great reliance on li?ologic correlation & suppos$ly simil> sequ5ce4 ,= in/ance1 ! ,coal ,measures ( ,p5nsylvania 7 said to directly ov]lap ! ,*emung gr\p ( s\!rn ,new ,york1 & n[ he f9ds ! same condition 9 ,ohio1 ,indiana1 & ,ill9ois1 fail+ to see t 9 mo/ places betwe5 ! top ( ! ,new ,york sy/em & ! ,coal ,measures lay ! ext5sive ,mississippian s]ies1 "o t he g5]ally conf\nd$ ) ! ,*emung1 or includ$ 9 ! 8,c>bonif]\s gr\p40 ,he /ates t ! ,portage ( ,new ,york is ! same z ! ,wav]ly ( ,ohio1 & at ,l\isville ! ,middle ,devonian wat]lime is correlat$ ) ! simil> rock ( ! ,new ,york ,silurian4 ,hall 0 especially desir\s ( fix+ ! horizon ( ! ,middle ,ordovician lead-be>+ rocks ( ,ill9ois1 ,wiscons91 & ,i[a1 b un=tunately correlat$ !m ) ! ,niag>an1 :ile ! ,middle ,devonian ab\t ,columbus1 ,ohio1 & ,l\isville1 ,k5tucky1 he ref]r$ to ! same horizon4 ,! ,gal5a-,niag>an error 0 correct$ 9 #ahee1 b ! ,devonian & ,mississippian ones rema9$ unadju/$ = a long "t1 & 9 ,i[a until t[>d ! close ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,! ,geological ,column ( ! ,new ,york ,geologi/s ( #ahdb-ahdc1 accord+ to ,w4 ,w4 ,ma!r #ahdb4 ,quat]n>y sy/em ,alluvial division4 ,quat]n>y division4 ,drift division4 ,t]ti>y sy/em ,^! /rata are includ$ 9 ! next l[] division4 ,long ,isl& division4 ,equals,new ,r$ ! ,t]ti>y & sy/em ( ,upp] ,second>y sy/em ,cretace\s m>ls1 s&s1 ,emmons & & clays ( ! coa/al ,hall4 pla9 ( ,new ,j]sey4 ,trappean division4 ,! ,palisades ,r$ ,s&/one division4 ,coal sy/em ( ,ma!r1 & ,c>bonif]\s sy/em ( ,hall4 ,old ,r$ sy/em ( ,catskill ,m\nta9s ( ,emmons2 ,catskill division ( ,ma!r & ,hall2 & ,catskill gr\p ( ,vanuxem4 ,accord+ to ,hall #ahdc1 & ess5tially ,vanuxem #ahdb4 ,*emung1 ,portage or ,nunda 7divid$ into ,ca%aqua1 ,g>deau1 ,portage71 ,g5esee1 ,erie division ,devonian ,tully1 ,hamilton 7divid$ into ,ludl[ville2 ,encr9al1 ,mosc[71 & ,m>cellus4 ,cornif]\s1 ,onondaga1 ,s*oh>ie1 ,held]b]g s]ies ,cauda-alli1 ,oriskany1 ,upp] ,devonian-,silurian ,p5tam]us1 ,encr9al1 ,del?yris1 ,p5tam]us1 ,wat]lime1 ,onondaga salt gr\p4 ,ont>io division ,silurian ,niag>a1 ,cl9ton1 & ,m$9a4 ,oneida or ,%awangunk1 ,grey s&/one1 ,*ampla9 division ,hudson ,riv] gr\p1 ,utica1 ,tr5ton1 ,silurian-,ordovician-,upp] ,black ,riv] includ+ ,birdseye & ,cambrian ,*azy1 ,calcif]\s s&rock1 & ,potsdam4 ,accord+ to ,emmons #ahdb1 ,ma!r #ahdc1 ,vanuxem #ahdb1 ,hall #ahdc4 ,taconic ,sy/em ,ordovician ,granul> qu>tz1 ,/ockbridge lime/one1 & ,l[] ,cambrian ,magnesian slate1 & ,taconic slate4 ,prim>y or ,hypog5e sy/em ,metamorphic & ,prim>y rocks4 ,correlations ) ,europe4--,! fir/ ef=t t[>d correlat+ ! ,new ,york sy/em ) ^? ( ,europe 0 made by ,conrad 9 8 ,notes on ,am]ican ,geology 9 #ahci 7#ce1 #bdc74 ,"h he comp>es x on faunal gr\nds ) ! ,silurian sy/em4 ,a m su/a9$ ef=t 0 t ( ,hall 9 #ahdc 7#de1 #aeg71 :5 he said t ! ,silurian ( ,mur*ison 0 equal to ! ,new ,york sy/em & embrac$ ! ,cambrian1 ,silurian1 & ,devonian1 :i* he consid]$ z =m+ b "o sy/em4 ,hall 9 #ahdd & ,conrad e>li] 7 errone\sly reg>d+ ! ,middle ,devonian ( ,new ,york 7,hamilton7 z 8an equival5t ( ! ,ludl[ rocks ( ,mr4 ,mur*ison0 7#dg1 #aah1 #ahdd74 ,9 #ahdf ,e4 ,p4 ,de ,v]neuil sp5t ! summ] 9 ,am]ica ) a view to correlat+ ! =mations ( ! ,new ,york sy/em ) ^? ( ,europe4 ,at ?is "t he _h _h a wide field exp]i5ce 9 ,france1 ,g]many1 & ,russia1 0 presid5t ( ! ,geological ,society ( ,france1 & 8virtually ! repres5tative ( ,european geology0 7#b1 #aec1 #ahdf74 ,hall says1 8,no o!r p]son c\ld h pres5t$ s cle> & p]fect a c\p d'oeil40 ,de ,v]neuil's results 7 translat$ by ,hall & ) 8 own comm5ts 7 publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 9 #ahdh & #ahdi "u ! title 8,on ! ,p>allelism ( ! ,paleozoic ,deposits ( ,nor? ,am]ica ) ^? ( ,europe40 ,de ,v]neuil 0 especially /ruck ) ! complete developm5t ( ,am]ican ,paleozoic deposits & said x 0 ! be/ any:]e4 ,on ! o!r h&1 he did n agree ) ! detail$ arrangem5t ( ! =mations 9 ! v>i\s divisions ( ! ,new ,york sy/em1 & ,hall admitt$ altoge!r too readily t ! t]ms 7 propos$ 8z a matt] ( concession1 & x is to be regrett$ t su* an artificial classification 0 adopt$40 ,de ,v]neuil's correlations are z foll[s3 ,! ,l[] ,silurian sy/em beg9s ) ! ,potsdam1 ! analogue ( ! ,obolus s&/one ( ,russia & ,sw$54 ,! ,black ,riv] & ,tr5ton hold ! position ( ! ,or?oc]as lime/ones ( ,sw$5 & ,russia1 :ile ! ,utica & ,lorra9e are repres5t$ by ! ,graptolite b$s ( ! same c\ntries4 ,bo? correlations are 9 p>tial error4 ,he unites ! ,*azy1 ,birdseye1 & ,black ,riv] 9 "o s]ies1 & 9 ano!r ! ,tr5ton1 ,utica1 & ,lorra9e4 ,( species common to ,europe & ,am]ica he makes out sev5te54 ,9 ! ,upp] ,silurian sy/em1 ! ,oneida & ,%awangunk are tak5 out ( ! ,*ampla9 division1 &1 ) ! ,m$9a1 are ref]r$ to ! ,silurian1 along ) all ( ! ,ont>io division plus ! ,l[] ,held]b]g4 ,! ,cl9ton is reg>d$ z highe/ ,c>adoc or z hold+ a /age betwe5 t & ! ,w5lock4 ,! ,niag>a gr\p is held to be ! exact equival5t ( ! ,w5lock1 8:ile ! five inf]ior gr\ps ( ! ,held]b]g division repres5t ! rocks ( ,ludl[40 ,we n[ "k t ^! ,held]b]g =mations are ,l[] ,devonian 9 age4 ,de ,v]neuil unites 9 "o s]ies ! ,wat]lime1 ,p5tam]us1 ,del?yris1 ,encr9al1 & ,upp] ,p5tam]us4 ,( id5tical species !re are =ty common to ,europe & ,am]ica4 ,! ,devonian sy/em ,de ,v]neuil beg9s1 8aft] mu* hesitation10 ) ! ,oriskany & c]ta9ly ) ! five upp] memb]s ( ,hall's ,held]b]g division1 all ( ! ,erie & ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,he also adju/s ,hall's error by plac+ 9 ! ,devonian ! ,upp] ,cliff lime/one ( ,ohio & ,indiana1 reg>d$ by ! =m] z ,silurian4 ,! ,oriskany is correlat$ ) ! grauwackes ( ! ,rh9e1 & ! ,onondaga or ,cornif]\s ) ! l[] ,eifelian4 ,cauda-galli1 ,s*oh>ie1 & ,onondaga are unit$ 9 "o s]ies2 ,m>cellus1 ,hamilton1 ,tully1 & ,g5esee 9 ano!r2 & ,portage & ,*emung 9 a ?ird4 ,( species common to ,europe & ,am]ica !re are ?irty-n9e4 ,! ,wav]ly ( ,ohio & t ne> ,l\isville1 ,k5tucky1 :i* ,hall _h call$ ,*emung1 ,de ,v]neuil correctly ref]s to ! ,c>bonif]\s1 b to ?is ,hall does n cons5t4 ,de ,v]neuil po9ts out t !re are ?irty-"o species 9 common betwe5 ,europe & ,am]ica4 8,& z to plants1 ! imm5se quantity ( t]re/rial species id5tical on ! two sides ( ! ,atlantic1 proves t ! coal 0 =m$ 9 ! neighborhood ( l&s already em]g$1 & plac$ 9 simil> physical conditions40 ,an analysis ( ! ,paleozoic fossils ( ,europe & ,am]ica leads ,de ,v]neuil to 8! conviction t id5tical species h liv$ at ! same epo* 9 ,am]ica & 9 ,europe1 t !y h _h ne>ly ! same duration1 & t !y succe$$ ea* o!r 9 ! same ord]40 ,?is he /ates is indep5d5t ( ! dep? ( ! seas1 & ( 8! upheav+s :i* h affect$ ! surface ( ! globe40 ,! species ( a p]iod beg9 & drop out at diff]5t levels1 & t[>d ! top ( a sy/em ! :ole takes on ! "* ( ! next "o4 8,if x happ5s t 9 ! two c\ntries a c]ta9 numb] ( sy/ems1 *>act]iz$ by ! same fossils1 are sup]impos$ 9 ! same ord]1 :atev] may be1 o!rwise1 _! ?ickness & ! numb] ( physical gr\ps ( :i* !y are compos$1 x is philosophical to consid] ^! sy/ems z p>allel & syn*ron\s40 ,because ( ! dom9ance ( ! s&/ones & %ales 9 ea/]n ,new ,york1 ,de ,v]neuil holds t a l& lay to ! ea/4 ,! _m fucoids & ripple-m>ks f ! ,potsdam to ! ,portage indicat$ to him %all[ wat] & ne>ness to a %ore4 ,! ,olde/ ,geologic ,eras4--,we h se5 9 previ\s pages h[ ! ,primitive rocks ( ,ardu9o & ( ,w]n] _h be5 resolv$1 at lea/ 9 "p1 into ! sy/ems ( ! ,paleozoic1 b !re /ill rema9$ _m areas ( anci5t rocks t c\ld n be adju/$ into ! accept$ s*eme4 ,"o ( ! mo/ ext5sive ( ^! is 9 ,canada1 :]e ! really ,primitive =mations1 ( granites1 gneisses1 s*i/s1 & ev5 undet]m9$ s$im5ts1 ab\nd & are develop$ on a gr&] scale ?an else:]e1 cov]+ m ?an two million squ>e miles & ov]la9 uncon=mably by ! ,paleozoic & lat] rocks4 ,! fir/ to call att5tion to !m 0 ,j4 ,i4 ,bigsby1 a m$ical /aff (fic] ( ! ,briti% ,army1 9 #ahba 7#c1 #bed74 ,x 01 h[ev]1 ,william ,e4 ,logan 7#agih-ahge71 ! 8fa!r ( ,canadian geology10 :o fir/ unravell$ _! hi/orical sequ5ce4 ,at fir/ he also call$ !m ,prim>y1 b aft] mu* "w he p]ceiv$ 9 !m p>allel /ructures & metamorphos$ s$im5ts1 und]la9 by & associat$ ) p9k granites4 ,= ! olde/ masses1 ess5tially ! granites1 he propos$ ! t]m ,laur5tian sy/em 7#ahec1 #ahfc7 & = ! alt]$ & de=m$ /rata1 ! "n ,huronian s]ies 7#aheg1 #ahfc74 ,ov]ly+ ^! uncon=mably 0 a ?ird s]ies1 ! copp]-be>+ rocks4 ,s9ce 8 day a great ho/ ( ,canadian & ,am]ican geologi/s h labor$ ov] ?is1 ! mo/ intricate ( all geology1 & n[ we h ! foll[+ t5tative *ronology 7,s*u*]t & ,b>rell1 #ch1 #a1 #aiad73 ,late ,prot]ozoic era4 ,kewe5awan1 ,animikian & ,huronian p]iods4 ,e>ly ,prot]ozoic era4 ,sudburian p]iod or old] ,huronian4 ,ar*eozoic era4 ,gr5ville s]ies1 etc4 ,cosmic hi/ory4 ,! ,taconic ,sy/em ,resurrect$4 ,! ,taconic sy/em 0 fir/ ann\nc$ by ,eb5ez] ,emmons 9 #ahda1 & cle>ly def9$ 9 #ahdb4 ,x />t$ ! mo/ bitt] & mo/ protract$ discussion 9 ! annals ( ,am]ican geology4 ,aft] ,emmons's subsequ5t publications _h put ! ,taconic sy/em ?r\gh ?ree phases1 ,b>r&e ( ,bohemia 9 #ahfj-ahfc %$ a great deal ( new & correct light ^u x1 affirm+ 9 a s]ies ( lett]s to ,bill+s t ! ,taconic fossils are l ^? ( 8 ,primordial sy/em1 or :at we n[ call ! ,middle ,cambrian 7#ca1 #baj1 #ahfa1 et seq474 ,9 a s]ies ( articles publi%$ by ,s4 ,w4 ,=d 9 ! ,j\rnal betwe5 #ahga & #ahhf1 !re 0 develop$ ! fur!r new fact t 9 ,r5ssela] & ,columbia c\nties1 ,new ,york1 ! s-call$ ,hudson ,riv] gr\p ab\nds 9 8,primordial0 fossils :olly unlike ^? ( ! ,potsdam1 & :i* ,=d lat] on spoke ( z belong+ to 8,l[] ,potsdam0 "t4 ,james ,d4 ,dana ent]$ ! field ( ! ,taconic area 9 #ahga & demon/rat$ t ! sy/em also ab\nds 9 ,ordovician fossilif]\s =mations4 ,!n came ! f>-rea*+ "w ( ,*>les ,d4 ,walcott1 beg9n+ 9 #ahhf1 :i* %[$ t all ?r\gh ea/]n ,new ,york & into nor!rn ,v]mont ! ,hudson ,riv] gr\p & ! ,taconic sy/em ab\nd n only 9 ,ordovician b also 9 ,cambrian fossils4 ,f9ally 9 #ahhh ,dana pres5t$ a ,brief ,hi/ory ( ,taconic ,ideas1 & laid away ! sy/em ) ^! words 7#cf1 #bg73 8,x is almo/ fifty ye>s s9ce ! ,taconic sy/em made its abrupt entrance into geological sci5ce4 ,not)/&+ "s good po9ts1 x has be5 ?r\gh its great] errors1 long a h9drance to progress "h & abroad 444 ,b1 :e!r ! evil or ! good has pr$om9at$1 we may n[ hope1 :ile he>tily honor+ ,pr(essor ,emmons = 8 e>ne/ geological labors & 8 discov]ies1 t ,taconic ideas may be all[$ to be & rema9 "p ( ! pa/40 ,z an epitaph ,dana plac$ ov] ! rema9s ( ! ,taconic sy/em ! black-fac$ num]als #ahda-ahhh4 ,t ! rema9s ( ! sy/em1 h[ev]1 & ! t]m ,taconic are /ill alive & dem&+ a rehe>+ is app>5t to all int]e/$ /ratigraph]s4 ,?is is n ! place to set ! matt] "r1 & all t c be done at ! pres5t "t is to po9t out :at are ! ?+s t /ill keep alive ,emmons's sy/em4 ,9 ! typical area ( ! ,taconic sy/em1 i4 e41 9 ,r5ssela] ,c\nty1 ,emmons 9 #ahdd-ahdf produc$ ! fossils ,atops tril9eatus & ,elliptocephala asaphoides4 ,s4 ,w4 ,=d1 z /at$ above1 lat] produc$ f ! same g5]al area _m o!r fossils t he demon/rat$ to be old] ?an ! ,potsdam s&/one4 ,to ?is "t he gave ! "n ( ,l[] ,potsdam1 ?us prov+ on paleontological gr\nds t at lea/ "s "p ( ! ,taconic sy/em is old] ?an ! ,new ,york sy/em1 & !re=e old] ?an ! ,hudson ,riv] gr\p ( ,ordovician age4 ,9 #ahhh ,walcott pres5t$ 8 conclusions 9 reg>d to ! sequ5ce ( ! /rata 9 ! typical ,taconic area & to ! nor? & s\? ( x4 ,he collect$ ,l[] ,cambrian fossils at m ?an "o hundr$ localities 8)9 ! typical ,taconic area10 & said t ! ?ickness ( 8 8t]rane ,no4 #e0 or 8,cambrian 7,georgia710 n[ ref]able to ! ,l[] ,cambrian1 is 8#ad1jjj feet or m40 ,he demon/rat$ t ! ,l[] ,cambrian is infold$ ) ! ,l[] & ,middle ,ordovician1 & confirm$ ,emmons's /atem5t t ! =m] re/s ^u 8 ,prim>y or ,pre-,cambrian masses4 ,else:]e1 he writes3 8,to ! we/ ( ! ,taconic range ! section passes d[n ?r\gh ! lime/one 7#c7 ( ,l[] & ,middle ,ordovician age to ! hydromica s*i/s 7#b7 ^: age may also be ( e>ly ,ordovician1 & !nce to ! great developm5t ( slates & %ales ) _! int]b$d$ sp>ry lime/ones1 calcif]\s & ar5ace\s /rata1 all ( :i* conta9 m or less ( ! ,ol5ellus 444 fauna40 ,he !n knew ?irty-five species 9 ,wa%+ton ,c\nty1 ,new ,york 7#ce1 #dja1 #ahhh74 ,f9ally 9 #aiae ,walcott said t 9 ! ,cordill]an area ( ,am]ica !re 0 a movem5t t br\ght ab\t *anges 89 ! s$im5tation & succession ( ! faunas :i* s]ve to draw a b\nd>y l9e betwe5 ! ,l[] & ,middle ,cambrian s]ies4444 ,! l5g? ( ?is p]iod ( int]ruption mu/ h be5 consid]able 444 & :5 connection ) ! ,pacific 0 resum$ a new fauna t _h be5 develop+ 9 ! ,pacific 0 !n introduc$ into ! ,cordill]an sea & con/itut$ ! ,middle ,cambrian fauna4 ,! *ange 9 ! species f ! ,l[] to ! ,middle ,cambrian fauna is v great40 ,he !n goes on to %[ t 9 ! ,appala*ian geosyncl9e !re 0 ano!r movem5t t %ut out ! ,middle ,cambrian ,p>adoxides fauna ( ! ,atlantic realm f ?is tr\gh1 & all deposition z well4 ,conclusions4--,accord+ly x appe>s t ev]y:]e 9 ,am]ica ! ,l[] ,cambrian =mations are sep>at$ by a l& int]val ( long duration f ^? ( ,middle ,cambrian "t4 ,^! =mations !re=e unite into a natural sy/em ( rocks or a p]iod ( "t4 ,betwe5 ,middle & ,upp] ,cambrian "t1 h[ev]1 !re appe>s to be a complete transition 9 ! ,cordill]an tr\gh1 b9d+ ^! two s]ies ( deposits into "o natural or dia/rophic sy/em4 ,h5ce ! writ] proposes t ! ,l[] ,cambrian ( ,am]ica be kn[n z ! ,taconic sy/em4 ,! ,middle & ,upp] ,cambrian s]ies c be cont9u$ = ! pres5t "u ! t]m ,cambrian sy/em1 a t]m1 h[ev]1 t is by no means 9 good /&+ = ^! =mations1 z w be demon/rat$ "u ! discussion ( ! ,silurian controv]sy4 ,! ,silurian ,controv]sy4 ,j z 9 ,am]ica ! base ( ! ,paleozoic 0 involv$ 9 a protract$ controv]sy1 s 9 ,engl& ! ,cambrian-,silurian succession 0 a subject ( long debate betwe5 ,s$gwick & ,mur*ison1 & among ! succe$+ geologi/s ( ,europe4 ,! hi/ory ( ! solution is s well & ju/ly /at$ 9 ! ,j\rnal by ,james ,d4 ,dana "u ! title 8,s$gwick & ,mur*ison3 ,cambrian & ,silurian0 7#ci1 #afg1 #ahij71 & by ,sir ,ar*ibald ,geikie 9 8 ,text-book ( ,geology1 #aijc1 t all t is "h requir$ is to briefly re/ate x & to br+ ! solution up to date4 ,adam ,s$gwick 7#aghe-ahgc7 & ,r4 ,i4 ,mur*ison 7#agib-ahga7 ea* began to "w 9 ! areas ( ,cambria 7,wales7 & ,siluria 7,engl&7 9 #ahca1 b ! t]ms ,cambrian & ,silurian 7 n publi%$ until #ahce4 ,mur*ison 0 ! fir/ to satisfactorily "w out ! sequ5ce ( ! ,silurian sy/em because ( ! simpl] /ructural & m fossilif]\s condition ( 8 area4 ,s$gwick1 on ! o!r h&1 _h 8 academic duties to p]=m at ,cambridge ,univ]sity1 & be+ an old] & m cons]vative man1 delay$ publi%+ 8 f9al results1 because ( ! fur!r fact t 8 area 0 f> m de=m$ & less fossilif]\s4 ,9 #ahcd !y 7 work+ 9 conc]t 9 ! ,silurian area1 & ,s$gwick said3 8,i 0 s /ruck by ! cle>ness ( ! natural sections & ! p]fection ( 8 workman%ip t ,i receiv$1 ,i might say1 ) implicit fai? ev]y?+ :i* he !n taught me4444 ,! :ole #8,silurian sy/em' 0 by its au?or plac$ above ! great undulat+ slate-rocks ( ,s\? ,wales40 ,at t "t ,mur*ison told ,s$gwick t ! ,bala gr\p ( ! latt]1 n[ kn[n to be 9 ! middle ( ! ,l[] ,silurian1 c\ld n be br\ght )9 ! limits ( ! ,silurian sy/em1 & add$1 8,i believe x to plunge "u ! true ,ll&eilo-flags10 n[ plac$ next bel[ ! ,bala & above ! ,ar5ig1 :i* at ! pres5t is reg>d$ z at ! base ( ! ,ordovician4 ,! ,silurian sy/em 0 def9$ 9 pr9t by ,mur*ison 9 ,july1 #ahce1 ! ,upp] ,silurian embrac+ ! ,ludl[ & ,w5lock1 :ile ! ,l[] ,silurian 0 bas$ on ! ,c>adoc & ,ll&eilo4 ,mur*ison's monum5tal "w1 ,! ,silurian ,sy/em1 ( #ajj pages & _m plates ( fossils1 appe>$ 9 #ahch4 ,! ,cambrian sy/em 0 describ$ = ! fir/ "t by ,s$gwick 9 ,augu/1 #ahce1 b ! complet$ "w--a classic 9 geology--,synopsis ( ! ,classification ( ! ,briti% ,palozoic ,rocks1 along ) ,m',coy's ,descriptions ( ,briti% ,palozoic ,fossils1 did n appe> until #aheb-ahee4 ,s$gwick's orig9al ,upp] ,cambrian includ$ ! great] "p ( ! *a9 ( ! ,b]wyns1 :]e he said x 0 connect$ ) ! ,ll&eilo flags ( ! ,silurian4 ,! ,middle ,cambrian compris$ ! high] m\nta9s ( ,crn>von%ire & ,m]ione?%ire1 & ! ,l[] ,cambrian 0 said to occupy ! s\?we/ coa/ ( ,crn>von%ire1 & to consi/ ( *lorite & mica s*i/s1 & "s s]p5t9e & granul> lime/one4 ,9 #ahec x 0 se5 t ! fossilif]\s ,upp] ,cambrian includ$ ! ,ar5ig1 ,ll&eilo1 ,bala1 ,c>adoc1 ,coni/on1 ,hirnant1 & ,l[] ,ll&ov]y4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x 0 n until long aft] ,mur*ison & ,s$gwick pass$ away t ! ,middle & ,l[] ,cambrian 7 %[n to h fossils1 b few ( ^? t *>act]ize :at is n[ call$ ,l[]1 ,middle1 & ,upp] ,cambrian "t4 ,n until long aft] ! orig9al ann\ncem5t ( ! ,cambrian sy/em did ,s$gwick become aw>e 8( ! un=tunate mis*ief-involv+ fact0 t ! mo/ fossilif]\s portion ( ! ,cambrian--! ,upp] ,cambrian--& at t "t ! only "p yield+ det]m9able fossils1 :5 comp>$ ) ! ,l[] ,silurian 0 se5 to be an equival5t =mation b ) v diff]5t li?ologic conditions4 ,he began to see 9 #ahdb t 8 ,cambrian 0 9 conflict ) ! ,silurian sy/em1 & f\r ye>s lat] !re 7 s]i\s div]g5cies ( views betwe5 himself & ,mur*ison4 ,! climax ( ! controv]sy 0 atta9$ 9 #aheb1 :5 ,s$gwick 0 ext5d+ 8 ,cambrian sy/em upw>ds to include ! ,bala1 ,ll&eilo1 & ,c>adoc1 a proce$+ n unlike t ( ,mur*ison1 :o e>li] _h be5 ext5d+ 8 ,silurian d[nw>d ?r\gh all ( ! fossilif]\s ,cambrian to ! base ( ! ,l+ula flags4 ,dana 9 8 review ( ! ,silurian-,cambrian controv]sy /ates3 8,! claim ( a work] to affix a "n to a s]ies ( rocks fir/ /udi$ & def9$ by him _c be disput$40 ,we h se5 t ,mur*ison _h priority ( publication 9 8 t]m ,silurian ov] ,s$gwick's ,cambrian1 b t 9 a complete pres5tation1 bo? /ratigraphically & faunally1 ! =m] _h ye>s ( prior def9ition4 ,:at has ev5 m weight is t geologi/s ne>ly ev]y:]e _h accept$ ,mur*ison's ,silurian sy/em z f\nd$ ^u ! ,l[] & ,upp] ,silurian =mations4 ,a nom5clature once widely accept$ is almo/ impossible to dislodge4 ,h[ev]1 9 reg>d to ! controv]sy x %\ld n be =gott5 t x 0 only ,mur*ison's ,l[] ,silurian t 0 9 conflict ) ,s$gwick's ,upp] ,cambrian4 ,z = ! re/ ( ! ,cambrian1 t 0 n involv$ 9 ! controv]sy4 ,dana goes on to /ate t sci5ce may accept a "n1 or n1 accord+ z x is1 or is n1 ne$$4 ,9 ! progress ( geology1 he ?\ght t ! "t _h f9ally be5 rea*$ :5 ! "n ,cambrian 0 a necessity1 & he includ$ bo? ,cambrian & ,silurian 9 ! geological record4 ,! 8,silurian10 h[ev]1 includ$ ! ,l[] & ,upp] ,silurian--n "o sy/em ( rocks1 b two4 ,x is n[ tw5ty-sev5 ye>s s9ce ,dana came to ?is conclusion1 at a "t :5 x 0 believ$ t !re 0 m or less cont9u\s deposition n only betwe5 ! =mations ( a sy/em b betwe5 ! sy/ems !mselves z well4 ,to-day _m geologi/s hold t 9 ! c\rse ( "t ! oceans pulsate back & =? ov] ! cont95ts1 & accord+ly t ! sequ5ce ( m>9e s$im5tation 9 mo/ places mu/ be mu* brok51 & to-day we "k t ! breaks or l& int]vals 9 ! m>9e record are mo/ m>k$ betwe5 ! eras1 & %ort] betwe5 all or at lea/ mo/ ( ! p]iods4 ,fur!rmore1 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 we h le>n$ t ! breaks betwe5 ! sy/ems are mo/ m>k$ 9 ! int]ior ( ! cont95t & less s on or t[>d its m>g9s4 ,h>dly any "o n[ que/ions ! fact ( a long l& int]val betwe5 ! ,l[] ,silurian & ,upp] ,silurian 9 ,engl&1 & x is to ,s$gwick's cr$it t he 0 ! fir/ to po9t out ?is fact & also ! pres5ce ( an uncon=mity4 ,x !re=e foll[s t we _c cont9ue to use ,silurian sy/em 9 ! s5se propos$ by ,mur*ison1 s9ce x includes two di/9ct sy/ems or p]iods4 ,dana1 9 ! la/ edition ( 8 ,manual ( ,geology 7#ahie71 also recognizes two sy/ems1 b curi\sly he saw no?+ incongru\s 9 call+ !m 8,l[] ,silurian era0 & 8,upp] ,silurian era40 ,x c]ta9ly is n conducive to cle> ?9k+1 h[ev]1 to ref] to two sy/ems by ! "o "n ( ,silurian & to speak ( !m individually z ,l[] & ,upp] ,silurian1 ?us giv+ ! impression t ! two sy/ems are b p>ts ( "o--! ,silurian4 ,ea* "o ( ! p>ts has its indep5d5t faunal & physical *>act]s4 ,we mu/ digress a little "h & note ! "w ( ,joa*im ,b>r&e 7#agii-ahhc7 9 ,bohemia4 ,9 #ahdf he publi%$ a %ort acc\nt ( ! 8,silurian sy/em0 ( ,bohemia1 divid+ x into tages lett]$ ,c to ,h4 ,betwe5 #aheb & #ahhc he issu$ 8 8,sy/me ,siluri5 du ,c5tre de la ,bohme10 9 eighte5 qu>to volumes ) #eefh pages ( text & #gih plates ( fossils--a monum5tal "w unrivall$ 9 paleontology4 ,9 ! fir/ volume ! geology ( ,bohemia is set =?1 & "h we see t tages ,a & ,b are ,azoic or pre-,cambrian1 & ,c to ,h make up 8 ,silurian sy/em4 ,etage ,c has 8 8,primordial fauna10 n[ kn[n to be ( ,p>adoxides or ,middle ,cambrian "t1 :ile ,d is ,l[] ,silurian1 ,e is ,upp] ,silurian1 ,f is ,l[] ,devonian1 & ,g & ,h are ,middle ,devonian4 ,f ?is x appe>s t ,b>r&e's ,silurian sy/em is f> m ext5sive ?an t ( ,mur*ison1 embrac+ twice z _m p]iods z t ( ,engl& & ,wales4 ,ab\t #ahgi !re 0 9 ,engl& a ne>ly g5]al agreem5t t ,cambrian %\ld embrace ,b>r&e's ,primordial or ,p>adoxides faunas1 & 9 ! ,nor? ,wales area be cont9u$ up to ! top ( ! ,tremadoc slates4 ,to-day we w\ld include ,middle & ,upp] ,cambrian4 ,l[] ,cambrian 9 ! s5se ( conta9+ ! ,ol5ellus faunas 0 !n unkn[n 9 ,great ,brita94 ,lapwor?1 recogniz+ ! di/9ctness ( ! ,l[] ,silurian z a sy/em1 propos$ 9 #ahgi to recognize x z su*1 & nam$ x ,ordovician1 re/rict+ ,silurian to ,mur*ison's ,upp] ,silurian4 ,?is t]m has n be5 widely us$ ei!r 9 ,great ,brita9 or on ! ,cont95t1 b 9 ! la/ tw5ty ye>s has be5 accept$ m & m widely 9 ,am]ica4 ,ev5 "h1 h[ev]1 x is 9 direct conflict ) ! t]m ,*ampla91 propos$ by ! ,new ,york ,/ate ,geologi/ 9 #ahdb4 ,9 #ahig ! ,int]national ,geological ,congress publi%$ ,e4 ,r5evi]'s ,*ronographie ,gologique1 :]e9 we f9d ! foll[+3 ,upp] or ,silurian ,ludl[ian 7,mur*ison ,silurian ,p]iod4 7,mur*ison1 re/rict$1 #ahci74 #ahce74 ,w5lockian 7,mur*ison #ahci74 ,l&ov]ian 7,mur*ison74 ,middle or ,ordovician ,c>adocian 7,mur*ison 7,lapwor? #ahgi74 #ahci74 ,l&eilian 7,mur*ison #ahci74 ,ar5igian 7,s$gwick #ahdg74 ,l[] or ,cambrian 7,s$gwick1 re/rict$1 ,potsdamian 7,emmons #ahch74 #ahce74 ,m5evian 7,salt] & ,hicks #ahfe74 ,georgian 7,hit*cock #ahfa74 ,reg>d+ ?is p]iod1 :i*1 by ! way1 is n v unlike t ( ,b>r&e1 ,r5evi] rem>ks t x is 8z important z ! ,cretace\s or ! ,jurassic4 ,lapwor? ev5 gives x a value ( ! fir/ ord] equal to ! ,protozoic era40 ,9 ! above !re is an obvi\s objection 9 ! d\ble usage ( ! t]m ,silurian1 & ?is difficulty 0 met lat] on 9 ,lapp>5t's ,trait by ! proposal to sub/itute ,go?l&ian = ,silurian4 ,( ?is *ange ,geikie rem>ks3 8,su* an arrangem5t 444 might be adopt$ if x did n involve s s]i\s an alt]ation ( ! nom5clature 9 g5]al use40 ,on ! o!r h&1 if dia/rophism & breaks 9 ! /ratigraphic & faunal sequ5ce are to be ! basis = geologic "t divisions1 we _c accept ! above s*eme1 = x recognizes b "o p]iod :]e !re are at lea/ f\r 9 nature4 ,conclusions4--,we h arriv$ at a "t :5 our k ( ! /ratigraphic & faunal sequ5ce1 plus ! orog5ic record z recogniz$ 9 ! pr9ciple ( dia/rophism1 %\ld be reflect$ 9 ! t]m9ology ( ! geologic "t-table4 ,x w\ld be easy to (f] a satisfactory nom5clature if we 7 n b\nd by ! law ( priority 9 publication1 & if no "o _h ! geologic *ronology ( 8 own "t +ra9$ 9 8 memory4 ,9 addition1 ! endless lit]ature1 ) its accept$ nom5clature1 b>s our way4 ,!re=e ) a view ( creat+ ! lea/ *ange 9 geologic nom5clature1 & ( do+ ! greate/ ju/ice to our pr$ecessors t ! pres5t conditions ( our k w all[1 ! foll[+ s*eme is (f]$3 ,silurian p]iod4 ,ll&ov]y to top ( ,ludl[ 9 ,europe4 ,alex&rian-,cat>act-,m$9a to top ( ,manlius 9 ,am]ica4 ,*ampla9 7#ahdb7 or ,ordovician 7#ahgi7 p]iod4 ,ar5ig to top ( ,c>adoc 9 ,europe4 ,beekmant[n to top ( ,ri*mondian 9 ,am]ica4 ,cambrian p]iod4 ,9 ! ,atlantic realm1 beg9s ) ! ,p>adoxides1 & 9 ! ,pacific1 ) ! ,ba?yuriscus & ,ogygopsis faunas4 ,! close is involv$ 9 ,ulri*'s provisionally def9$ ,oz>kian sy/em4 ,:5 ! latt] is e/abli%$1 ! ,oz>kian p]iod w hold ! "t betwe5 ! ,ordovician & ! ,cambrian4 ,taconic p]iod4 ,= ! _w-wide ,ol5ellus or ,mesonacid faunas4 ,paleogeography4 ,:5 geologi/s began to p]ceive ! va/ significance ( ,hutton's doctr9e t 8! ru9s ( an e>li] _w lie b5ea? ! second>y /rata10 & t great masses ( b$d$ rocks are sep>at$ f "o ano!r by p]iods ( m\nta9 mak+ & by erosion int]vals1 x 0 natural = !m to look = ! l&s t _h furni%$ ! debris ( ! accumulat$ s$im5ts4 ,9 ?is way paleogeography _h its orig91 b x 0 at fir/ ( a descriptive & n ( a c>tographic nature4 ,! ^w paleogeography 0 propos$ by ,t4 ,/]ry ,hunt 9 #ahgb 9 a pap] entitl$ 8,! ,paleogeography ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,cont95t10 & publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,am]ican ,geographical ,society = t ye>4 ,x has to d1 he says1 ) ! 8geographical hi/ory ( ^! anci5t geological p]iods40 ,x 0 aga9 prom95tly us$ by ,rob]t ,e!ridge 9 8 presid5tial address be=e ! ,geological ,society ( ,london 9 #ahha4 ,s9ce ,canu's use ( ! t]m 9 #ahif1 x has be5 frequ5tly se5 9 pr9t1 & n[ is g5]ally adopt$ to signify ! geography ( geologic "t4 ,! ,fr5* 7 ! fir/ to make paleogeographic maps1 & ,jules ,m>c\ relates 9 #ahff t ,elie de ,beaumont1 z e>ly z ,m>*1 #ahca1 9 8 c\rse 9 ! ,college ( ,france & at ! ,p>is ,s*ool ( ,m9es1 us$ to outl9e ! relation ( ! l&s & ! seas 9 ! c5t] ( ,europe at ! diff]5t great geologic p]iods4 ,8 fir/ pr9t$ paleogeographic map appe>$ 9 #ahcc1 & 0 ( e>ly ,t]ti>y "t4 ,o!r maps by ,beaumont 7 publi%$ by ,beudant 9 #ahda-ahdb4 ,! ,sicilian geologi/ ,gemmell>o publi%$ six maps ( 8 c\ntry 9 #ahcd1 & ! ,engli%man ,de ,la ,be*e _h "o 9 ! same ye>4 ,9 ,am]ica ! fir/ to %[ su* maps 0 ,arnold ,guyot 9 8 ,l[ell lectures ( #ahdh4 ,james ,d4 ,dana publi%$ ?ree 9 ! #ahfc edition ( 8 ,manual ( ,geology4 ,( _w paleogeographic maps1 ,jules ,m>c\ produc$ ! fir/ ( ,jurassic "t1 publi%+ x 9 ,france 9 #ahff1 b ! mo/ celebrat$ ( ^! e>ly attempts 0 ! "o by ,neumayr publi%$ 9 #ahhc 9 connection ) 8 ,ueb] klimatis*e ,zon5 whr5d d] ,jura- und ,kreidezeit4 ,! fir/ geologi/ to produce a s]ies ( maps %[+ ! progressive geologic geography ( a giv5 area 0 ,jukes-,br[n1 :o 9 ! volume entitl$ 8,! ,build+ ( ! ,briti% ,isles10 #ahhh1 includ$ fifte5 su* maps4 ,k>p9sky publi%$ f\rte5 maps ( ,russia1 & 9 #ahif ,canu 9 8 ,essai de palogographie has fifty-sev5 ( ,france & ,belgium4 ,lapp>5t's ,trait ( #aijf is fam\s = paleogeographic maps1 = he has tw5ty-?ree ( ! _w1 ?irty-f\r ( ,europe1 tw5ty-five ( ,france1 & t5 tak5 f o!r au?ors4 ,s*u*]t 9 #aiaj publi%$ fifty-two to illu/rate ! paleogeography ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 & also gave an ext5d$ li/ ( su* publi%$ maps4 ,ano!r article on ! subject is by ,?4 ,arldt1 8,zur ,ges*i*te d] ,palogeographis*5 ,rekon/ruction510 publi%$ 9 #aiad4 ,edg> ,dacqu 9 #aiac also produc$ a li/ 9 8 ,palogeographis*5 ,k>t51 & two ye>s lat] appe>$ 8 book ( #ejj pages1 ,grundlag5 und ,me?od5 d] ,palogeographie1 :]e ! entire subject is tak5 up 9 detail4 ,conclusions4--,s9ce #ahcc !re h be5 publi%$ n less ?an #ejj diff]5t paleogeographic maps1 & ( ?is numb] ab\t #baj relate to ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,nev]!less paleogeography is /ill 9 its infancy1 & mo/ maps embrace too mu* geologic "t1 all ( !m t5s ( ?\s&s1 & "s ( !m millions ( ye>s4 ,! geographic maps ( ! pres5t %[ ! conditions ( ! /r&-l9es ( to-day1 & ^? made fifty ye>s ago h to be revis$ aga9 & aga9 if !y are to be ( value to ! m>9] & m]*ant4 ,!re=e 9 our future paleogeographic maps ! t5d5cy mu/ ev] be t[>d small] am\nts ( geologic "t1 if we are to %[ ! actual relation ( wat] to l& & ! movem5ts ( ! p]iodic flood+s4 ,moreov]1 ! anci5t %ore l9es are all m or less hypo!tic & are drawn 9 /raight or sweep+ curves1 unlike mod]n /r&s ) _! bays1 deltas1 & headl&s1 & ! anci5t l&s are featureless pla9s4 ,we mu/ also pay m att5tion to ! di/ribution ( bracki%- & fre%-wat] deposits4 ,! p]iodically ris+ m\nta9s w be ! fir/ topographic features to be %[n ^u ! anci5t l&s1 & !n m & m ( ! dra9age & ! g5]al climatic conditions mu/ be portray$4 ,9 ! seas1 dep?1 temp]ature1 & curr5ts are yet to be deciph]$4 ,f9ally1 o!r base maps ?an ^? ( ! geography ( to-day w h to be made1 all[+ = ! compression ( ! m\nta9\s areas1 if we are to %[ ! true geographic configurations ( ! l&s & seas ( any giv5 geologic "t4 ,paleometeorology4 ,9 accordance ) ! ,laplacian !ory1 ann\nc$ at ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 all ( ! old] geologi/s held t ! e>? began z a hot />1 & t 9 ! c\rse ( "t x sl[ly cool$ & f9ally atta9$ its pres5t zonal cold to tropical climatic conditions4 ,t ! e>? _h v rec5tly pass$ ?r\gh a mu* cold] climate1 a glacial "o1 came into g5]al acceptance only dur+ ! latt] half ( ! previ\s c5tury4 ,rise4--,our k ( glacial climates _h its orig9 9 ! ,alps1 t wond]l& ( m\nta9s & glaci]s4 ,! rise ( ?is k 9 ! ,alps is told 9 a *>m+ & detail$ mann] by t erratic ,fr5*-,am]ican geologi/1 ,jules ,m>c\ 7#ahbd-ahih71 9 8 ,life1 ,lett]s1 & ,works ( ,l\is ,agassiz1 #ahif4 ,he relates t ! ,alp9e *amois hunt] ,p]raud9 9 #ahae direct$ ! att5tion ( ! eng9e] ,de ,*>p5ti] to ! fact 8t ! l>ge b\ld]s p]*$ on ! sides ( ! ,alp9e valleys 7 c>ri$ & left !re by glaci]s40 ,= a long "t ! latt] ?\ght ! conclusion extravagant1 & 9 ! meantime ,p]raud9 told ! same ?+ to ano!r eng9e]1 ,v5etz4 ,he1 9 #ahbi1 conv9c$ ( ! correctness ( ! *amois hunt]'s views1 pres5t$ ! matt] be=e ! ,swiss naturali/s !n meet+ at ,/4 ,b]n>d's4 ,v5etz 8told ! ,society t 8 obs]vations l$ him to believe t ! :ole ,valais has be5 =m]ly cov]$ by an imm5se glaci] & t x ev5 ext5d$ outside ( ! canton1 cov]+ all ! ,canton de ,vaud1 z f> z ! ,jura ,m\nta9s1 c>ry+ ! b\ld]s & erratic mat]ials1 :i* are n[ scatt]$ all ov] ! l>ge ,swiss valley40 ,eight ye>s e>li]1 9 #ahba1 simil> views _h be5 pres5t$ by ! same mode/ naturali/ be=e ! ,helvetic ,society1 b x 0 n until #ahcc t ,de ,*>p5ti] f\nd ! manuscript & _h x publi%$4 ,v5etz's conclusions 7 t all ( ! glaci]s ( ! ,bagnes valley 8h v recognizable mora9es1 :i* are ab\t a league f ! pres5t ice40 8,! mora9es 444 date f an epo* :i* is lo/ 9 ! night ( "t40 ,!n 9 #ahcd ,de ,*>p5ti] read a pap] be=e ! same society1 meet+ at ,luc]ne4 8,seldom1 if ev]1 has su* a small memoir s deeply excit$ ! sci5tific _w4 ,x 0 receiv$ at fir/ ) incr$ulity & ev5 scorn & mock]y1 ,agassiz be+ among its oppon5ts40 ,! pap] 0 publi%$ 9 #ahce1 fir/ at ,p>is1 !n at ,g5eva1 & f9ally 9 ,g]many4 ,x 8attract$ mu* att5tion1 & ! smile ( incr$ulity ) :i* x 0 receiv$ :5 read at ,luc]ne soon *ang$ into a desire to "k m ab\t x40 ,l\is ,agassiz 7#ahjg-ahgc71 :o _h long be5 acqua9t$ ) 8 c\ntryman1 ,de ,*>p5ti]1 sp5t sev]al mon?s ) him 9 #ahcf1 & toge!r !y /udi$ ! glaci]s ( ! ,alps4 ,agassiz 0 at fir/ 8adv]se to ! hypo!sis1 & did n believe 9 ! great ext5sion ( glaci]s & _! transportation ( b\ld]s1 b on ! contr>y1 0 a p>tisan ( ,lyell's !ory ( transport by iceb]gs & ice-cakes 444 b f be+ an adv]s>y ( ! glacial !ory1 he return$ to ,neu*tel an en?usia/ic conv]t to ! views ( ,v5etz & ,de ,*>p5ti]4444 ,) 8 p[] ( quick p]ception1 8 unmat*$ memory1 8 p]spicacity & acut5ess1 8 way ( classify+1 judg+ & m>%all+ facts1 ,agassiz promptly le>n$ ! :ole mass ( irresi/ible argum5ts collect$ pati5tly dur+ sev5 ye>s by ,de ,*>p5ti] & ,v5etz1 & ) 8 insatiable appetite & t faculty ( assimilation :i* he possess$ 9 su* a wond]ful degree1 he dige/$ ! :ole doctr9e ( ! glaci]s 9 a few weeks40 ,9 ,july1 #ahcg1 ,agassiz pres5t$ z 8 presid5tial address be=e ! ,helvetic ,society 8 memorable 8,disc\rs de ,neu*tel10 :i* 0 8! />t+ po9t ( all t has be5 writt5 on ! ,ice-age10--a t]m co9$ at ! "t by 8 fri5d ,s*imp]1 a botani/4 ,! fir/ "p ( ?is address is repr9t$ 9 ,fr5* 9 ,m>c\'s book on ,agassiz4 ,! address 0 receiv$ ) a/oni%m5t1 mu* incr$ulity1 & indiff]5ce4 ,among ! li/5]s 0 ! great ,g]man geologi/ ,von ,bu*1 :o 80 horrifi$1 & ) 8 h&s rais$ t[>ds ! sky1 & 8 head b[$ to ! di/ant ,b]nese ,alps1 exclaim$3 #8,o ,sancte de ,saussure1 ora pro nobis6'0 ,ev5 ,de ,*>p5ti] 80 n gratifi$ to see 8 glacial !ory mix$ ) r uncall$ = biological problems1 ! connection ( :i* ) ! glacial age 0 m ?an problematic40 ,agassiz 0 !n a ,cuvi]ian cata/rophi/ & creationi/1 & advanc$ ! idea ( a s]ies ( glacial ages to expla9 ! de/ruction ( ! geologic succession ( faunas6 ,curi\sly1 ?is !ory 0 at once accept$ by ! ,am]ican paleontologi/ ,t4 ,a4 ,conrad 7#ce1 #bci1 #ahci74 ,! classics 9 glacial geology are ,agassiz's ,etudes sur les ,glaci]s1 #ahdj1 & ,de ,*>p5ti]'s ,essai sur les ,glaci]s1 #ahda4 ,( ! latt] book1 ,m>c\ /ates t x has be5 said3 8,x is impossible to be truly a geologi/ )\t hav+ read & /udi$ x40 ,9 ! ,engli% language !re is ,tyndall's ,glaci]s ( ! ,alps1 #ahfj4 ,! progress ( ! ideas 9 reg>d to ,plei/oc5e glaciation is pres5t$ 9 ! foll[+ *apt] by ,h4 ,e4 ,gregory4 ,old] ,glacial ,climates4--,h>dly _h ! ,plei/oc5e glacial climate be5 prov$1 :5 geologi/s began to po9t out ! possibility ( ev5 e>li] ones4 ,an en?usia/ic ,scot* writ]1 ,sir ,&rew ,ramsay1 9 #ahee describ$ c]ta9 late ,paleozoic conglom]ates ( middle ,engl&1 :i* he said 7 ( glacial orig91 b 8 evid5ce1 ?\gh nev] completely ga9said1 has n be5 g5]ally accept$4 ,9 ! foll[+ ye>1 an ,engli%man1 ,doctor ,w4 ,t4 ,blan=d1 said t ! ,tal*ir conglom]ates ( c5tral & s\!rn ,india 7 ( glacial orig91 & s9ce !n ! evid5ce = a ,p]mian glacial climate has be5 /eadily accumulat+4 ,africa is ! l& ( tillites1 & "h 9 #ahgj ,su!rl& po9t$ out t ! conglom]ates ( ! ,k>roo =mation 7 ( glacial orig94 ,au/ralia also has ,p]mian glacial deposits1 & !y are kn[n widely 9 ea/]n ,brazil1 ! ,falkl& ,isl&s1 ! vic9ity ( ,bo/on1 & else:]e4 ,s conv9c+ is ?is te/imony t all geologi/s are n[ ready to accept ! conclusion t a glacial climate 0 z wide-spread 9 e>ly ,p]mian "t z 0 t ( ! ,plei/oc5e4#c ,9 ,s\? ,africa1 b5ea? ! m>9e ,l[] ,devonian1 occurs ! ,table ,m\nta9 s]ies1 #ejjj feet ?ick4 ,! s]ies is ess5tially "o ( qu>tzites1 ) zones ( %ales or slates & ) /riat$ pebbles up to #ae in*es long4 ,! latt] occur 9 pockets & seem to be ( glacial orig94 ,!re are "h no typical tillites1 & no /riat$ und]gr\nds h s f> be5 f\nd4 ,:ile ! evid5ce ( ! deposits appe>s to favor ! conclusion t ! ,table ,m\nta9 /rata 7 laid d[n 9 cold wat]s ) float+ ice d]iv$ f glaci]s1 x is z yet impossible to assign ^! s$im5ts a def9ite geologic age4 ,!y are c]ta9ly n y\ng] ?an ! ,l[] ,devonian1 b x has n yet be5 e/abli%$ to :at p]iod ( ! e>ly ,paleozoic !y belong4 ,9 s\!a/]n ,au/ralia occur tillites ( wide di/ribution t lie con=mably b5ea?1 b %>ply sep>at$ f ! fossilif]\s m>9e ,l[] ,cambrian /rata4 ,david 7#aijg71 ,h[*9 7#aijh71 & o!r ,au/ralian geologi/s ?9k !y are ( ,cambrian "t1 b to ! writ] !y seem m probably late ,prot]ozoic 9 age4 ,9 arctic ,norway ,reus* discov]$ unmi/akable tillites 9 #ahia1 & ?is occurr5ce 0 confirm$ by ,/rahan 9 #ahig4 ,x is n yet c]ta9ly kn[n :at _! age is1 b x appe>s to be late ,prot]ozoic r ?an e>ly ,paleozoic4 ,o!r undat$ ,prot]ozoic tillites occur 9 ,*9a 7,willis & ,blackweld] #aijg71 ,africa 7,s*w>z #aijf71 ,india 7,vr$5burg #aijg71 ,canada 7,coleman #aijh71 & possibly 9 ,scotl&4 ,! olde/ kn[n tillites are describ$ by ,coleman 9 #aijg1 & occur at ! base ( ! ,l[] ,huronian or 9 e>ly ,prot]ozoic "t4 ,!y ext5d across nor!rn ,ont>io = #ajjj miles1 & f ! nor? %ore ( ,lake ,huron nor?w>d = #gej miles4 ,fossils z ,climatic ,indexes4--,paleontologi/s h long be5 aw>e t v>iations 9 ! climates ( ! pa/ are indicat$ by ! fossils1 & ,neumayr 9 #ahhc br\ght ! evid5ce toge!r 9 8 /udy ( climatic zones m5tion$ else:]e4 ,plants1 & corals1 cephalopods1 & =am9if]s among m>9e animals1 h long be5 recogniz$ z p>ticul>ly good 8life !rmomet]s40 ,9 fact1 all fossils are climatic indicators to "s ext5t1 & a good deal ( evid5ce conc]n+ paleometeorology has be5 disc]n$ 9 !m4 ,?is evid5ce is briefly /at$ 9 ! pap] by ,s*u*]t already allud$ to1 & 9 ,w4 ,d4 ,mat!w's ,climate & ,evolution1 #aiae4 ,s$im5ts z ,climatic ,indexes4--,johannes ,wal!r 9 ! ?ird "p ( 8 ,e9leitung--,li?og5esis d] ,geg5w>t1 #ahid--;is ! fir/ "o to decid$ly direct att5tion to ! fact t ! s$im5ts also h )9 !mselves a climatic record4 ,9 ,am]ica ,joseph ,b>rell has s9ce #aijg writt5 mu* on ! same subject4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! p]iodic flood+s ( ! cont95ts by ! oceans1 & ! mak+ ( m\nta9s1 due to ! p]iodic %r9kage ( ! e>?1 z express$ 9 ,t4 ,c4 ,*amb]l9's pr9ciple ( dia/rophism & 9 8 publications s9ce #ahig1 are o!r crit]ia = e/imat+ ! climates ( ! pa/4 ,conclusions4--,9 summation ( ?is subject ,s*u*]t says3 8,! m>9e #8life !rmomet]' indicates va/ /ret*es ( "t ( mild to w>m & equable temp]atures1 ) b slight zonal diff]5ces betwe5 ! equator & ! poles4 ,! great bulk ( m>9e fossils are ^? ( ! %all[ seas1 & ! evolution>y *anges record$ 9 ^! #8m$als ( creation' are slight ?r\gh\t va/ l5g?s ( "t t are punctuat$ by %ort b decisive p]iods ( cool$ wat]s & great mortality1 foll[$ by quick evolution1 & ! rise ( new /ocks4 ,! times ( less w>m? are ! mio!rm & ^? ( great] heat ! plio!rm p]iods ( ,ramsay4 ,on ! l& ! /ory ( ! climatic *anges is diff]5t1 b 9 g5]al ! equability ( ! temp]ature simulates t ( ! oceanic areas4 ,9 o!r words1 ! l&s also _h long-endur+ times ( mild to w>m climates4 ,into ! problem ( l& climates1 h[ev]1 ent] o!r factors t are abs5t 9 ! oceanic regions1 & ^! h great influ5ce ^u ! climates ( ! cont95ts4 ,mo/ important ( ^! is ! p]iodic w>m-wat] inundation ( ! cont95ts by ! oceans1 caus+ insul> climates t are mild] & moi/]4 ,) ! vani%+ ( ! floods some:at cool] & c]ta9ly dri] climates are produc$4 ,! effects ( ^! p]iodic floods mu/ n be und]e/imat$1 = ! ,nor? ,am]ican cont95t 0 v>iably subm]g$ at lea/ sev5te5 times1 & ov] an area ( f #aed1jjj to #d1jjj1jjj squ>e miles4 ,:5 to ^! factors is add$ ! effect ^u ! climate caus$ by ! p]iodic ris+ ( m\nta9 *a9s1 x is at once app>5t t ! l&s mu/ h _h con/antly v>y+ climates4 ,9 g5]al ! temp]ature fluctuations seem to h be5 slight1 b geographically ! climates v>i$ betwe5 mild to w>m pluvial1 & mild to cool arid4 ,! arid factor has be5 ( ! greate/ import to ! organic _w ( ! l&s4 ,fur!r1 :5 to all ( ^! causes is add$ ! fact t dur+ em]g5t p]iods ! =m]ly isolat$ l&s 7 connect$ by l& bridges1 p]mitt+ int]migration ( ! l& floras & faunas1 ) ! introduction ( _! p>asites & p>asitic diseases1 we le>n t :ile ! climatic environm5t is ( fundam5tal importance x is n ! only cause = ! m rapid evolution ( t]re/rial life4444 ,briefly1 !n1 we may conclude t ! m>k$ly v>y+ climates ( ! pa/ seem to be due prim>ily to p]iodic *anges 9 ! topographic =m ( ! e>?'s surface1 plus v>iations 9 ! am\nt ( heat /or$ by ! oceans4 ,! causation = ! w>m] int]glacial climates is ! mo/ difficult ( all to expla91 & x is "h t factors o!r ?an ^? m5tion$ may ent]4 ,grant+ all ?is1 !re /ill seems to lie back ( all ^! !ories a great] "q connect$ ) ! major *anges 9 paleometeorology4 ,?is is3 ,:at is x t =ces ! e>?'s topography to *ange ) v>y+ int5sity at irregul>ly rhy?mic int]vals8444 ,are we n =c$ to conclude t ! e>?'s %ape *anges p]iodically 9 response to gravitative =ces t alt] ! body-=m80 ,evolution4 ,mod]n evolution1 or ! !ory ( life cont9u\sly desc5d+ f life ) *ange1 may be said to h _h its fir/ m>k$ developm5t 9 ,comte de ,buffon 7#agjg-aghh71 a man ( weal? & /ation1 yet an indu/ri\s compil]1 a brilliant writ]1 & a popul>iz] ( sci5ce4 ,he 0 n1 h[ev]1 a true sci5tific inve/igator1 & 8 monum5t to fame is 8 ,hi/oire ,naturelle1 9 =ty-f\r volumes1 #agdi-ahjd4 ,a4 ,s4 ,pack>d 9 8 book on ,lam>ck1 8 ,life & ,"w1 #aija1 concludes 9 reg>d to ,buffon z foll[s3 8,! impression left on ! m9d1 aft] read+ ,buffon1 is t ev5 if he ?rew out ^! sugge/ions & !n retract$ !m1 f fe> ( annoyance or ev5 p]secution f ! bigots ( 8 "t1 he did n himself always take !m s]i\sly1 b r jott$ !m d[n z pass+ ?\ghts4444 ,!y appe>$ ?irty-f\r ye>s be=e ,lam>ck's !ory1 & ?\gh n epo*-mak+1 !y are su* z w r5d] ! "n ( ,buffon memorable = all "t40 ,*evali] de ,lam>ck 7#agdd-ahbi7 may ju/ly be reg>d$ z ! f\nd] ( ! doctr9e ( mod]n evolution4 ,previ\s to #agid he 0 a believ] 9 ! fixity ( species1 b by #ahjj he /ood def9itely 9 favor ( evolution4 ,locy 9 8 ,biology & its ,mak]s1 #aijh1 /ates 8 !ories 9 ! foll[+ simplifi$ =m3 8,v>iations ( organs1 accord+ to ,lam>ck1 arise 9 animals ma9ly ?r\gh use & disuse1 & new organs h _! orig9 9 a physiological ne$4 ,a new ne$ felt by ! animal due to new conditions 9 its life1 or ! environm5t expresses itself on ! organism1 /imulat+ gr[? & adaptations 9 a p>ticul> direction40 ,to ,lam>ck1 8inh]itance 0 a simple1 direct transmission ( ^? sup]ficial *anges t arise 9 organs )9 ! lifetime ( an individual ow+ to use & disuse40 ,?is "p ( 8 !ory has come to be kn[n z 8! inh]itance ( acquir$ *>act]s40 ,georges ,cuvi] 7#agfi-ahcb71 a pe] ( ,france1 0 a decid$ believ] 9 ! fixity ( species & 9 _! creation ?r\gh div9e acts4 ,9 #agif he began to see t among ! fossils s pl5tiful ab\t ,p>is _m 7 ( ext9ct =ms1 & lat] on t !re 0 a succession ( :olly ext9ct faunas4 ,?is at fir/ puzzl+ ph5om5on he f9ally came to expla9 by assum+ t ! e>? _h gone ?r\gh a s]ies ( cata/rophes1 ( :i* ! ,deluge 0 ! mo/ rec5t b possibly n ! la/4 ,) ea* cata/rophe all life 0 blott$ out1 & a new ?\gh improv$ set ( organisms 0 creat$ by div9e acts4 ,! ,cuvi]ian !ory ( cata/rophism 0 widely accept$ dur+ ! fir/ half ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 & 9 ,am]ica ,l\is ,agassiz 0 long its greate/ expon5t4 ,x 0 ?is !ory & ! dom9ance ( ! brilliant ,cuvi]1 n only 9 sci5ce b socially z well1 t blott$ out ! f> m correct views ( ! m philosophical ,lam>ck1 :o held t life ?r\gh\t ! ages _h be5 cont9u\s & t ?r\gh individual ef=t & ! inh]itance ( acquir$ *>act]s _h evolv$ ! wond]ful div]sity ( ! pres5t liv+ _w4 ,9 #ahcj !re 0 a public debate at ,p>is betwe5 ,cuvi] & ,ge(froy ,sa9t-,hilaire1 ! "o hold+ to ! views ( ! fixity ( species & creation1 ! o!r t life is cont9u\s & evolves into bett] adapt$ =ms4 ,cuvi]1 a gift$ speak] & ! greate/ debat] zoology ev] _h1 ) an extraord9>y memory t nev] fail$ him1 defeat$ ,sa9t-,hilaire 9 ea* day's debate1 al?\gh ! latt] 0 9 ! "r4 ,a book t did a great deal to prep>e ! ,engli%-speak+ p = ! com+ ( evolution 0 8,ve/iges ( ,creation10 publi%$ 9 #ahdd by an unkn[n au?or4 ,9 ,d>w9's op9ion1 8! "w1 f its p[]ful & brilliant /yle 444 has done excell5t s]vice 444 9 ?us prep>+ ! gr\nd = ! reception ( analog\s views40 ,?is book 0 recomm5d$ to ! read]s ( ! ,j\rnal 7#dh1 #cie1 #ahde7 ) ! editorial rem>k t 8we _c subscribe to all ( ! au?or's views40 ,we c probably be/ illu/rate ! op9ions ( ,am]icans on ! "q ( evolution j be=e ! appe>ance ( ,d>w9's great "w by direct+ att5tion to ,james ,d4 ,dana's ,?\ghts on ,species 7#bd1 #cje1 #aheg74 ,aft] read+ ?is article & o!rs ( a simil> nature by ,agassiz1 "o comes to ! op9ion t unconsci\sly bo? m5 are prov+ evolution1 b consci\sly !y are firm creationi/s4 ,x is a/oni%+ t ) _! ext5d$ & m9ute k ( liv+ organisms & _! philosophic type ( m9d nei!r c\ld see ! true significance ( ! imp]ceptible transitions betwe5 "s species1 :i* if !y d n actually pass into1 at lea/ %ade t[>ds1 "o ano!r4 ,dana speaks ( 8! endless div]sities 9 individuals0 t compose a species1 & !n /ates t a liv+ species1 l an inorganic "o1 8is bas$ on a specific am\nt or condition ( conc5t]$ =ce def9$ 9 ! act or law ( creation40 ,species1 he says1 are p]man5t1 & hybrids 8_c s]i\sly trifle ) ! true units ( nature1 & at ! be/1 c only make tempor>y v>iations40 8,we h !re=e reason to believe f man's f]tile int]mixture1 t he is "o 9 species3 & t all organic species are div9e appo9tm5ts :i* _c be oblit]at$1 unless by annihilat+ ! individuals repres5t+ ! species40 ,?r\gh ! activities ( ! ,fr5* ! _w 0 prep>$ = ! reception ( evolution1 & n[ x 0 already 9 ! m9ds ( _m advanc$ ?9k]s4 ,9 #ahfj ,asa ,gray s5t to ! editor ( ! ,j\rnal 7#bi1 #a7 an article by ! ,engli% botani/1 ,joseph ,d4 ,hook]1 entitl$ 8,on ! ,orig9ation & ,di/ribution ( ,species10 ) ^! significant rem>ks3 8,! essay _c fail to attract ! imm$iate & pr(\nd att5tion ( sci5tific m54444 ,x has = "s "t be5 manife/ t a re-/atem5t ( ! ,lam>ckian hypo!sis is at h&4 ,we h ?is1 9 an improv$ & truly sci5tific =m1 9 ! !ories :i*1 rec5tly prop\nd$ by ,mr4 ,d>w91 foll[$ by ,mr4 ,wallace1 are "h s ably & altoge!r indep5d5tly ma9ta9$4 ,:5 ^! views are fully laid be=e !m1 ! naturali/s ( ?is c\ntry w be able to take "p 9 ! int]e/+ discussion :i* !y w n fail to call =?40 ,hook] took up a /udy ( ! flora ( ,tasmania1 ( :i* ! above cit$ article is b a *apt]1 ) a view to try+ out ,d>w9's !ory1 & he n[ accepts x4 ,he says1 8,species are d]ivative & mutable40 8,! limits ( ! majority ( species are s undef9able t few naturali/s are agre$ ^u !m40 ,asa ,gray _h receiv$ f ,d>w9 an advance copy ( ! book t 0 to revolutionize ! ?\ght ( ! _w1 & at once wrote = ! ,j\rnal a ,review ( ,d>w9's ,!ory on ! ,orig9 ( ,species by means ( ,natural ,selection 7#bi1 #aec1 #ahfj74 ,?is is a spl5did1 critical b j1 sci5tific review ( ,d>w9's epo*-mak+ book4 ,evid5tly views simil> to ^?1 ( ! ,engli% sci5ti/ _h long be5 9 ! m9d ( ,gray1 = he easily & quickly ma/]$ ! "w4 ,he is easy on ,dana's ,?\ghts on ,species1 :i* 7 ideali/ic & n 9 h>mony ) ! naturali/ic views ( ,d>w94 ,on ! o!r h&1 he contra/s ,d>w9's views at l5g? ) ^? ( ! creationi/s z exemplifi$ by ,l\is ,agassiz1 & says 8,! wide/ div]g5ce appe>s40 ,gray says 9 "p3 8,! gi/ ( ,mr4 ,d>w9's "w is to %[ t su* v>ieties are gradually div]g$ into species & g5]a ?r\gh natural selection2 t natural selection is ! inevitable result ( ! /ruggle = exi/5ce :i* all liv+ ?+s are engag$ 92 & t ?is /ruggle is an unavoidable consequ5ce ( sev]al natural causes1 b ma9ly ( ! high rate at :i* all organic be+s t5d to increase4 ,d>w9 is confid5t t int]m$iate =ms mu/ h exi/$2 t 9 ! old5 times :5 ! g5]a1 ! families & ! ord]s div]g$ f _! p>5t /ocks1 gradations exi/$ z f9e z ^? :i* n[ connect closely relat$ species ) v>ieties4 ,b !y h pass$ & left no sign4 ,! geological record1 ev5 if all display$ to view1 is a book f :i* n only _m pages1 b ev5 :ole alt]nate *apt]s h be5 lo/ out1 or r :i* 7 nev] pr9t$ f ! autographs ( nature4 ,! record 0 actually made 9 fossil li?ography only at c]ta9 times & "u c]ta9 conditions 7i4e41 at p]iods ( sl[ subsid5ce & places ( abundant s$im5t72 & ( ^! records all b ! la/ volume is out ( pr9t2 & ( its pages only local glimpses h be5 obta9$4 ,geologi/s1 except ,lyell1 w object to ?is1--"s ( !m mod]ately1 o!rs ) vehem5ce4 ,mr4 ,d>w9 himself admits1 ) a c&or r>ely display$ on su* occasions1 t he %\ld h expect$ m geological evid5ce ( transition ?an he f9ds1 & t all ! mo/ em95t paleontologi/s ma9ta9 ! immutability ( species4 ,! g5]al fact1 h[ev]1 t ! fossil fauna ( ea* p]iod z a :ole is ne>ly int]m$iate 9 "* betwe5 ! prec$+ & ! succe$+ faunas1 is mu* reli$ on4 ,we are br\ght "o /ep ne>] to ! desir$ inf]5ce by ! simil> #8fact1' insi/$ on by all paleontologi/s1 t fossils f two consecutive =mations are f> m closely relat$ to ea* o!r1 ?an are ! fossils ( two remote =mations4 ,x is well said t all organic be+s h be5 =m$ on two great laws2 ,unity ( type1 & ,adaptation to ! conditions ( exi/5ce4444 ,mr4 ,d>w9 h>monizes & expla9s !m naturally4 ,adaptation to ! conditions ( exi/5ce is ! result ( ,natural ,selection2 ,unity ( type1 ( unity ( desc5t40 ,gray's article 0 soon foll[$ by ano!r "o f ,agassiz on ,individuality & ,specific ,diff]5ces among ,acalephs1 b ! runn+ title is 8,pr(4 ,agassiz on ! ,orig9 ( ,species0 7#cj1 #adb1 #ahfj74 ,agassiz /\tly ma9ta9s 8 well kn[n views1 & concludes z foll[s3 8,7 ! transmutation !ory true1 ! geological record %\ld exhibit an un9t]rupt$ succession ( types bl5d+ gradually into "o ano!r4 ,! fact is t ?r\gh\t all geological times ea* p]iod is *>act]iz$ by def9ite specific types1 belong+ to def9ite g5]a1 & ^! to def9ite families1 ref]able to def9ite ord]s1 con/itut+ def9ite classes & def9ite bran*es1 built ^u def9ite plans4 ,until ! facts ( ,nature are %[n to h be5 mi/ak5 by ^? :o h collect$ !m1 & t !y h a diff]5t mean+ f t n[ g5]ally assign$ to !m1 ,i %all !re=e consid] ! transmutation !ory z a sci5tific mi/ake1 untrue 9 its facts1 unsci5tific 9 its me?od1 & mis*iev\s 9 its t5d5cy40 ,dana1 9 review+ ,huxley's well kn[n book1 ,man's ,place 9 ,nature 7#ce1 #dea1 #ahfc71 holds t man is ap>t f brute nature because man exhibits 8extreme cephalization0 9 t he has arms t no long] are us$ 9 locomotion b g r ) ! head1 & because he has a f> high] m5tality & spee*4 ,z = ! ,d>w9ian !ory1 ! evid5ce1 he says1 8comes f l[] dep>tm5ts ( life1 & is ackn[l$g$ by its advocates to be exce$+ly scanty & imp]fect40 ,! gr[? ( evolution is set =? 9 ! ,j\rnal 9 ,asa ,gray's article on ,*>les ,d>w9 7#bd1 #dec1 #ahhb71 :i* speaks ( ! latt] z 8! mo/ celebrat$ man ( sci5ce ( ! n9ete5? c5tury10 &1 9 addition1 z 8"o ( ! mo/ k9dly & *>m+1 unaffect$1 simple-he>t$1 & lovable ( m540 ,9 reg>d to ! rise ( evolution 9 ,am]ica1 m c be _h f ,dana's pap] on ,asa ,gray 7#ce1 #aha1 #ahhh74 ,"h we read1 z a sequel to 8 ,?\ghts on ,species1 t ! 8pap] may be tak51 p]haps1 z a culm9ation ( ! pa/1 j z ! new future 0 to make its appe>ance40 ,f9ally1 9 ?is connection !re %\ld be m5tion$ ,o4 ,c4 ,m>%'s pap] on ,?omas ,h5ry ,huxley 7#ej1 #agg1 #ahie71 :]e9 is record$ ! latt]'s %>e 9 ! upbuild+ ( ! evolution>y !ory4 ,we h se5 t orig9ally ,dana 0 a creationi/1 b 9 ! c\rse ( 8 long & fruitful life he gradually became an evolutioni/1 & r a ,neo-,lam>ckian ?an a ,d>w9ian4 ,?is *ange may be trac$ 9 ! v>i\s editions ( 8 ,manual ( ,geology1 & 9 ! la/ edition ( #ahie he says 8 8speculative conclusions0 ( #aheb 9 reg>d to ! orig9 ( species are n 9 8accord ) ! au?or's pres5t judgm5t40 8,! evid5ce 9 favor ( evolution by v>iation is n[ reg>d$ z ess5tially complete40 ,on ! o!r h&1 :ile man is 8unque/ionably0 closely relat$ 9 /ructure to ! man-apes1 yet he is n l9k$ to !m b /&s ap>t1 ?r\gh 8! int]v5tion ( a ,p[] above ,nature4444 ,believ+ t ,nature exi/s ?r\gh ! w & ev]-act+ p[] ( ! ,div9e ,be+1 & 444 t ! :ole ,univ]se is n m]ely dep5d5t on1 b actually is1 ! ,w ( "o ,supreme ,intellig5ce1 ,nature1 ) ,man z its culm9ant species1 is no long] a my/]y40 ,9 ,am]ica mo/ ( ! paleontologi/s are ,neo-,lam>ckian1 a s*ool t 0 develop$ indep5d5tly by ,e4 ,d4 ,cope 7#ahdj-ahig7 ?r\gh ! v]tebrate evid5ce1 & by ,alpheus ,hyatt 7#ahch-aijb7 ma9ly on ! evid5ce ( ! ammonites4 ,!y hold t v>iations & acquir$ *>act]s arise ?r\gh ! effects ( ! environm5t1 ! me*anics ( ! organism result+ f ! use & disuse ( organs1 etc4 ,"o ( ! lead+ expon5ts ( ?is s*ool is ,a4 ,s4 ,pack>d1 ^: book on ,lam>ck1 ,8 ,life & ,"w1 #aija1 fully expla9s ! doctr9es ( ! ,neo-,lam>ckians4 ,! ,gr[? ( ,inv]tebrate ,paleontology4 ,h[ & by :om paleontology has be5 develop$ has be5 fully /at$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 9 a v cle> mann] by ,pr(essor ,m>% 9 8 memorable presid5tial address ( #ahgi1 ,hi/ory & ,me?ods ( ,palontological ,discov]y 7#ah1 #cbc1 #ahgi71 & by ,k>l von ,zittel 9 8 mo/ int]e/+ book1 ,hi/ory ( ,geology & ,palontology1 #aija4 ,9 ?is discussion we %all l>gely foll[ ,m>%4 ,! sci5ce ( paleontology has pass$ ?r\gh f\r p]iods1 ! fir/ ( !m ! long ,my/ic p]iod ext5d+ up to ! beg9n+ ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 :5 ! idea t fossils 7 once liv+ ?+s 0 only r>ely p]ceiv$4 ,! second p]iod 0 ! ,diluvial p]iod ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 :5 ne>ly ev]yone reg>d$ ! fossils z rema9s ( ! ,noa*ian deluge4 ,) ! beg9n+s ( ! n9ete5? c5tury !re arose 9 we/]n ,europe ! k t fossils are ! 8m$als ( creation0 & t !y h a *ronog5etic significance2 also t life _h be5 p]iodically de/roy$ ?r\gh _w-wide convulsions 9 nature4 ,f ab\t #ahjj to #ahfj 0 ! "t ( ! creationi/s & cata/rophi/s1 :i* may be kn[n z ! ,cata/rophic p]iod4 ,! f\r? p]iod began 9 #ahfj ) ,d>w9's ,orig9 ( ,species4 ,s9ce t "t ! !ory ( evolution has p]vad$ all "w 9 paleontology1 & accord+ly ?is "t may be kn[n z ! ,evolution>y p]iod4 ,my/ic ,p]iod4--,! ,my/ic p]iod 9 paleontology beg9s ) ! ,greeks1 five c5turies be=e ! pres5t era1 & cont9ues d[n to ! beg9n+ ( ! sev5te5? c5tury ( our "t4 ,"s correctly saw t ! fossils 7 once liv+ m>9e animals1 & t ! sea _h be5 :]e !y n[ occur4 ,o!rs int]pret$ fossil mammal bones z ^? ( human giants1 ! ,titans1 b ! ,ari/otelian view t !y 7 ( spontane\s g5]ation ?r\gh ! hidd5 =ces ( ! e>? dom9at$ all ?\ght = ab\t tw5ty c5turies4 ,9 ! sixte5? c5tury canals 7 be+ dug 9 ,nor!rn ,italy1 & ! _m fossils s reveal$ l$ to a fi]ce discussion z to _! actual nature4 ,leon>do da ,v9ci 7#adeb-aeai7 oppos$ ! commonly accept$ view ( _! spontane\s g5]ation & said t !y 7 ! rema9s ( once liv+ animals & t ! sea _h be5 :]e !y occur4 8,y tell me10 he said1 8t ,nature & ! influ5ce ( ! />s h =m$ ^! %ells 9 ! m\nta9s2 !n %[ me a place 9 ! m\nta9s :]e ! />s at ! pres5t day make %elly =ms ( diff]5t ages1 & ( diff]5t species 9 ! same place40 ,h[ev]1 no?+ came ( 8 tea*+s & ^? ( 8 c\ntryman ,fraca/orio 7#adhc-aeec71 :o fur!r ridicul$ ! idea t !y 7 ! rema9s ( ! deluge4 ,! fir/ m9]alogi/1 ,agricola1 describ$ !m z m9]als--fossilia--& said t !y arose 9 ! gr\nd f fatty matt] set 9 f]m5tation by heat4 ,o!rs said t !y 7 freaks ( nature4 ,m>t9 ,li/] 7#afch-agaa7 figur$ fossils side by side ) liv+ %ells to %[ t !y 7 ext9ct =ms ( life4 ,9 ! sev5te5? c5tury1 & especially 9 ,italy & ,g]many1 _m books 7 publi%$ on fossils1 "s ) illu/rations s accurate t ! species c be recogniz$ to-day4 ,f9ally1 t[>d ! close ( ?is c5tury ! influ5ce ( ,ari/otle & ! s*ola/ic t5d5cy to disputation came m or less to an end4 ,fossils 7 already to _m naturali/s once liv+ plants & animals4 ,m>% /ates3 8,! _m collections ( fossils t _h be5 br\ght toge!r1 & ! illu/rat$ works t _h be5 publi%$ ab\t !m1 7 a f\ndation = great] progress1 &1 ) ! eighte5? c5tury1 ! second p]iod 9 ! hi/ory ( paleontology began40 ,diluvial ,p]iod4--,dur+ ! eighte5? c5tury _m m books on fossils 7 publi%$ 9 we/]n ,europe1 & n[ ! preval5t explanation 0 t !y 7 ! rema9s ( ! ,noa*ian deluge4 ,= ne>ly a c5tury !ologians & laym5 alike took ?is view1 & "s ( ! books h become fam\s on ?is acc\nt1 b ! diluvial views s5sibly decl9$ ) ! close ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,! true nature ( fossils _h n[ be5 cle>ly det]m9$4 ,!y 7 ! rema9s ( plants & animals1 deposit$ long be=e ! deluge1 "p 9 fre% wat] & "p 9 ! sea4 8,"s indicat$ a mild climate1 & "s ! tropics4 ,t any ( ^! 7 ext9ct species1 0 z yet only suspect$40 ,yet be=e ! close ( ! c5tury !re 7 m5 9 ,engl& & ,france :o po9t$ out t diff]5t =mations _h diff]5t fossils & t "s ( !m 7 ext9ct4 ,^! views !n l$ to _m fanta/ic !ories z to h[ ! e>? 0 =m$--dreams1 mo/ ( !m h be5 call$4 ,m>% says3 8,! dom9ant idea ( ! fir/ sixte5 c5turies ( ! pres5t era 01 t ! univ]se 0 made = ,man4 ,?is 0 ! great ob/acle to ! correct det]m9ation ( ! position ( ! e>? 9 ! univ]se1 &1 lat]1 ( ! age ( ! e>?4444 ,9 a sup]/iti\s age1 :5 e natural ev5t is ref]r$ to a sup]natural cause1 sci5ce _c live4444 ,sc>cely less fatal to ! gr[? ( sci5ce is ! age ( ,au?ority1 z ! pa/ proves too well4 ,) fre$om ( ?\ght1 came def9ite k1 & c]ta9 progress2--b two ?\s& ye>s 0 long to wait40 ,"o ( ! mo/ significant publications ( ?is p]iod 0 ,l9nu's ,sy/ema ,natur1 :i* appe>$ 9 #agce4 ,9 ?is "w 0 introduc$ b9omial nom5clature1 or ! sy/em ( giv+ ea* plant & animal species a g5]ic & specific "n1 z ,felis leo = ! lion4 ,! sy/em 01 h[ev]1 n e/abli%$ until ! t5? edition ( ! "w 9 #ageh1 :i* became ! />t+ po9t ( zoological nom5clature4 ,s9ce !n !re has be5 add$ ano!r canon1 ! law ( priority1 :i* holds t ! fir/ "n appli$ to a giv5 =m %all /& aga9/ all lat] names giv5 to ! same organism4 ,cata/rophic ,p]iod4--,) ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury !re />t$ a new era 9 paleontology1 & ?is 0 ! "t :5 ! f\ndations ( ! sci5ce 7 laid4 ,! p]iod cont9u$ = six decades1 or until ! "t ( ! ,orig9 ( ,species4 ,m>% says t n[ 8me?od replac$ disord]1 & sy/ematic /udy sup]s$$ casual obs]vation40 ,fossils 7 accurately det]m9$1 comp>isons 7 made ) liv+ =ms1 & ! species nam$ accord+ to ! b9omial sy/em4 ,h[ev]1 e species1 rec5t & ext9ct1 0 reg>d$ z a sep>ate creation1 & because ( ! usually %>p sep>ation ( ! sup]pos$ fossil faunas & floras1 ^! 7 held to h be5 de/roy$ ?r\gh a s]ies ( p]iodic cata/rophes ( :i* ! ,noa*ian deluge 0 ! la/4 ,lam>ck betwe5 #ahjb & #ahjf describ$ ! ,t]ti>y %ells ( ! ,p>is bas94 ,comp>+ !m ) ! liv+ =ms1 he saw t mo/ ( ! fossils 7 ( ext9ct species1 & 9 ?is way he came to be ! f\nd] ( mod]n inv]tebrate paleontology4 ,he also ma9ta9$ aft] #ahja t life has be5 cont9u\s s9ce its orig9 & t nature has be5 uni=m 9 ! c\rse ( its developm5t4 ,m>% adds3 8,8 rese>*es on ! inv]tebrate fossils ( ! ,p>is ,bas91 al?\gh less /rik+1 7 n less important ?an ^? ( ,cuvi] on ! v]tebrates2 :ile ! conclusions he d]iv$ f !m =m ! basis ( mod]n biology40 8,lam>ck 0 ! prophetic g5ius1 half a c5tury 9 advance ( 8 "t40 ,cuvi] e/abli%$ comp>ative anatomy & v]tebrate paleontology1 & 0 "o ( ! fir/ to po9t out t fossil animals are ne>ly all ext9ct =ms4 ,he came to ! latt] conclusion 9 #agif ?r\gh a /udy ( fossil elephants f\nd 9 ,europe4 8,cuvi] enri*$ ! animal k+dom by ! introduction ( fossil =ms among ! liv+1 br++ all toge!r into "o compreh5sive sy/em40 ,?is op5$ to him entirely new views respect+ ! !ory ( ! e>?1 & he devot$ m ?an tw5ty-five ye>s to develop+ ! !ories ( special creation & cata/rophism1 describ$ 9 8 ,disc\rse on ! ,revolutions ( ! ,surface ( ! ,globe4 8,) all 8 k ( ! e>?1 he c\ld n free himself f tradition1 & believ$ 9 ! univ]sality & p[] ( ! ,mosaic deluge4 ,aga91 he refus$ to admit ! evid5ce br\ght =w>d by 8 di/+ui%$ colleagues aga9/ ! p]man5ce ( species1 & us$ all 8 great influ5ce to cru% out ! doctr9e ( evolution1 !n fir/ propos$0 7,m>%74 ,9 ,engl& x 0 ,william ,smi? 7#agfi-ahci7 :o indep5d5tly discov]$ ! *ronog5etic significance ( fossils1 & 9 _! /ratigraphic sup]position indicat$ ! way = ! /udy ( hi/orical geology4 ,he fir/ publi%$ on ?is matt] 9 #agii1 b 8 complet$ /atem5ts came 9 works entitl$ 8,/rata id5tifi$ by ,organiz$ ,fossils10 #ahaf-ahbj1 & 8,/ratigraphical ,sy/em ( ,organiz$ ,fossils10 #ahag4 ,inv]tebrate paleontology 9 ,am]ica dur+ ! ,cata/rophic p]iod _h its beg9n+ 9 ,lesueur1 :o 9 #ahah describ$ ! ,ordovician ga/ropod ,maclurites magna4 ,all ( ! paleontologi/s ( ?is "t 7 satisfi$ to describe species & g5]a & to asc]ta9 9 a broad way ! /ratigraphic significance ( ! fossil faunas & floras4 ,james ,hall 9 #ahed 7#ag1 #cab7 knew ( #aehh species1 describ$ & undescrib$1 9 ! ,new ,york sy/em1 :ile 9 ,engl& ,morris li/$ 9 t ye> #hcjj ,paleozoic =ms4 ,9 #ahef ,dana recites ! kn[n fossil species z foll[s 7#bb1 #ccc73 ,! :ole numb] ( kn[n ,am]ican species ( animals ( ! ,p]mian to ,rec5t is ab\t #bjjj2 :ile 9 ,brita9 & ,europe1 !re 7 ov] #bj1jjj species4 ,9 ! ,p]mian we h none1 :ile ,europe has ov] #bjj species4 ,9 ! ,triassic we h none1 ,europe #ajjj species2 ,jurassic #fj1 ,europe ov] #djjj2 ,cretace\s #cej to #djj1 ,europe ab\t #fjjj2 ,t]ti>y h>dly #aejj1 ,europe ab\t #hjjj4 ,s9ce t "t ne>ly all ( ! l>g] ,am]ican ,paleozoic faunas h be5 develop$1 b !re are ?\s&s ( species yet to be describ$4 ,:o ! m prom95t ,am]ican paleontologi/s ( ?is p]iod 7 has be5 told 9 ! section on ! developm5t ( ! geological column4 ,! gr&] paleontologic results ( ! ,cata/rophic p]iod h be5 s well /at$ by ,m>% t x is wor? our :ile to repeat !m "h3 8,x _h n[ be5 prov$ beyond "q t portions at lea/ ( ! e>?'s surface _h be5 cov]$ _m times by ! sea1 ) alt]nations ( fre% wat] & ( l&2 t ! /rata ?us deposit$ 7 =m$ 9 succession1 ! l[e/ ( ! s]ies be+ ! olde/2 t a di/9ct succession ( animals & plants _h inhabit$ ! e>? dur+ ! diff]5t geological p]iods2 & t ! ord] ( succession f\nd 9 "o "p ( ! e>? 0 ess5tially ! same 9 all4 ,m ?an #cj1jjj new species ( ext9ct animals & plants _h n[ be5 describ$4 ,x _h be5 f\nd1 too1 t f ! olde/ =mations to ! mo/ rec5t1 !re _h be5 an advance 9 ! grade ( life1 bo? animal & vegetable1 ! olde/ =ms be+ among ! simple/1 & ! high] =ms successively mak+ _! appe>ance4 ,x _h n[ become cle>ly evid5t1 moreov]1 t ! fossils f ! old] =mations 7 all ext9ct species1 & t only 9 ! mo/ rec5t deposits 7 !re rema9s ( =ms /ill liv+4444 ,ano!r important conclusion rea*$1 ma9ly ?r\gh ! labors ( ,lyell1 01 t ! e>? _h n be5 subject$ 9 ! pa/ to sudd5 & viol5t revolutions2 b ! great *anges wr\ght _h be5 gradual1 diff]+ 9 no ess5tial respect f ^? /ill 9 progress4 ,/rangely en\gh1 ! coroll>y to ?is proposition1 t life1 too1 _h be5 cont9u\s on ! e>?1 =m$ at t date no "p ( ! common /ock ( k4 ,9 ! physical _w1 ! great law ( #8correlation ( =ces' _h be5 ann\nc$1 & widely accept$2 b 9 ! organic _w1 ! dogma ( ! miracul\s creation ( ea* sep>ate species /ill held sway40 ,evolution>y ,p]iod4--,?is p]iod beg9s ) #ahfj & ! publication ( ,d>w9's ,orig9 ( ,species 7late 9 #ahei74 ,x is ! p]iod ( mod]n paleontology1 & is dom9at$ by ! belief t univ]sal laws p]vade n only inorganic matt]1 b all life z well4 ,l\is ,agassiz _h be5 9 ,am]ica f\rte5 ye>s :5 ,d>w9's book appe>$1 & 8 wond]ful influ5ce 9 br++ ! zoology ( our c\ntry to a high /& & ! fur!r influ5ce he ex]t$ ?r\gh 8 /ud5ts 0 b\nd to react b5eficially on inv]tebrate paleontology4 ,%ortly aft] ! beg9n+ ( ?is p]iod1 or 9 #ahfg1 ,alpheus ,hyatt1 "o ( ,agassiz's /ud5ts1 began to apply ! /udy ( embryology to fossil cephalopods1 %[+ cle>ly t ^! %ells reta9 a great deal ( _! gr[? /ages or ontog5y4 ,?is me?od ( /udy 0 !n foll[$ by ,r4 ,t4 ,jackson1 ,c4 ,e4 ,bee*]1 & ,j4 ,p4 ,smi?1 & has be5 productive ( natural classifications ( ! ,cephalopoda1 ,bra*iopoda1 ,trilobita1 & ,e*9oidea4 ,! dom9ant inv]tebrate paleontologi/ ( ?is p]iod 0 ( c\rse ,james ,hall1 :o describ$ ab\t #ejjj species ( ,am]ican ,paleozoic fossils4 ,he also built up ! ,new ,york ,/ate ,museum1 :ile ar\nd 8 private collections ( fossils h be5 develop$ ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory 9 ,new ,york ,city & ! ,walk] ,museum at ! ,univ]sity ( ,*icago4 ,9 8 mo/ important laboratory ( paleontology at ,albany1 !re h be5 tra9$ ei!r :olly or 9 "p ! foll[+ paleontologi/s3 ,f4 ,b4 ,meek1 ,c4 ,a4 ,:ite1 ,r4 ,p4 ,:itfield1 ,c4 ,d4 ,walcott1 ,c4 ,e4 ,bee*]1 ,john ,m4 ,cl>ke1 & ,*>les ,s*u*]t4 ,9 ,canada1 ?r\gh ! "w ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ! ,dom9ion1 came ! paleontologi/s ,elkanah ,bill+s &1 lat] on1 ,j4 ,f4 ,:iteaves4 ,! 8fa!r ( ,canadian paleontology10 ,sir ,william ,dawson1 :o develop$ indep5d5tly1 0 active 9 all bran*es ( ! sci5ce & did mu* to unravel ! geology ( ea/]n ,canada4 ,no organism has be5 m discuss$ & m (t5 reject$ & accept$ z a fossil ?an 8 8dawn animal ( ,canada10 ,eozoon canad5se1 fir/ describ$ 9 #ahfe4 ,8 son1 ,george ,m4 ,dawson1 0 "o ( ! directors ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ,canada4 ,f9ally ! ext5sive paleontology ( ! ,cambrian ( ,canada 0 work$ out by ano!r self-made paleontologi/1 ,g4 ,f4 ,mat!w4 ,paleobotany4--,am]ican paleobotany 0 develop$ dur+ ?is1 ! f\r? p]iod1 ?r\gh ! /ate & national surveys1 fir/ 9 ,leo ,lesqu]eux1 a ,swiss /ud5t induc$ by ,agassiz to come to ,am]ica1 & 9 ,j4 ,s4 ,newb]ry4 ,! second g5]ation ( paleobotani/s is repres5t$ by ,le/] ,f4 ,w>d & ,w4 ,n4 ,fonta9e1 & ! ?ird g5]ation1 ! pres5t work]s1 includes ,f4 ,h4 ,kn[lton1 ,david ,:ite1 ,ar?ur ,hollick1 & ,e4 ,w4 ,b]ry4 ,a new l9e ( paleobotanical "w1 ! hi/ology ( woody b pseudomorph\s rema9s1 has be5 develop$ by ,g4 ,r4 ,wiel&4 ,! gr&] results ( ! /udy ( paleontology dur+ ! evolution>y p]iod may be summ$ up ) ! conclusions ( ,m>%3 8,"o ( ! ma9 *>act]i/ics ( ?is epo* is ! belief t all life1 liv+ & ext9ct1 has be5 evolv$ f simple =ms4 ,ano!r prom95t feature is ! accept$ fact ( ! great antiquity ( ! human race4 ,^! are q suffici5t to di/+ui% ?is p]iod %>ply f ^? t prec$$ x40 ,*>les ,d>w9's "w at once ar\s$ att5tion1 & br\ght ab\t 9 sci5tific ?\ght a revolution :i* 8has influ5c$ paleontology z ext5sively z any o!r dep>tm5t ( sci5ce4444 ,9 ! previ\s p]iod species 7 repres5t$ indep5d5tly by p>allel l9es2 9 ! pres5t p]iod1 !y are indicat$ by dep5d5t1 bran*+ l9es4 ,! =m] 0 ! analytic1 ! latt] is ! syn!tic p]iod40 ,syn!tic ,p]iod4--,:at is to be ! next tr5d 9 paleontology8 ,cle>ly x is to be ! ,syn!tic p]iod1 "o t ,m>% 9 #ahgi indicat$ 9 ^! words3 8,b if we are p]mitt$ to cont9ue 9 imag9ation ! rapidly conv]g+ l9es ( rese>* pursu$ to-day1 !y seem to meet at ! po9t :]e organic & inorganic nature become "o4 ,t ?is po9t w yet be rea*$1 ,i _c d\bt40 ,?is ,syn!tic p]iod1 =e%ad[$ also 9 ,h]b]t ,sp5c]'s ,syn!tic ,philosophy1 has n yet arriv$1 b be=e long ano!r great lead] w appe>4 ,we h ! prophecy ( 8 com+ 9 su* books z ,! ,fitness ( ! ,environm5t1 by ,lawr5ce ,j4 ,h5d]son1 #aiac2 ,! ,orig9 & ,nature ( ,life1 by ,b5jam9 ,moore1 #aiac2 ,! ,organism z a ,:ole1 by ,jacques ,loeb1 #aiaf2 & ,! ,orig9 & ,evolution ( ,life1 by ,h5ry ,f4 ,osborn1 #aiag4 ,9 all nature1 inorganic & organic1 !re is cont9uity & consi/5cy1 beauty & design4 ,we are beg9n+ to see t !re are et]nal laws1 ev] int]act+ & result+ 9 progressive & regressive evolutions4 ,! realization ( ^! sci5tific revelations k9dles 9 u a desire = m k1 & ! gr&e/ revelations are yet be=e u 9 ! syn!sis ( ! sci5ces4 ,notes4 ,footnote #c3 ,= m detail 9 reg>d to ^! tillites & ! old] ones see ,climates ( ,geologic ,"t1 by ,*>les ,s*u*]t1 be+ ,*apt] ,,xxi 9 ,hunt+ton's ,climatic ,factor z ,illu/rat$ 9 ,arid ,am]ica1 ,publication ,no4 #aib ( ! ,c>negie ,in/itution ( ,wa%+ton1 #aiad4 ,also ,ar?ur ,p4 ,coleman's presid5tial address be=e ! ,geological ,society ( ,am]ica 9 #aiae1 ,dry ,l& 9 ,geology1 publi%$ 9 ! ,society's ,bullet91 #bg1 #age1 #aiaf4 ,,iii ,a ,,c5tury ,,( ,,geology4--,,/eps ,,( ,,progress ,,9 ,,! ,,int]pretation ,,( ,,l& ,,=ms ,by ,,h]b]t ,e4 ,,gregory ,! ess5ce ( physiography is ! belief t l& =ms repres5t m]ely a /age 9 ! ord]ly developm5t ( ! e>?'s surface features2 t ! v>i\s dynamic ag5ts p]=m _! *>act]i/ic "w ?r\gh\t all geologic "t4 ,! =mulation ( pr9ciple & processes ( e>? sculpture 01 !re=e1 impossible on ! hypo!sis ( a ready-made e>? ^: features 7 sub/antially un*angeable1 except :5 modifi$ by cata/rophic processes4 ,9 #ahba1 ,j4 ,w4 ,wilson wrote 9 ! ,j\rnal3 8,is x n ! be/ !ory ( ! e>?1 t ! ,creator1 9 ! beg9n+1 at lea/ at ! g5]al deluge1 =m$ x ) all its pres5t gr& *>act]i/ic features80#d ,if s1 a se>* = causes is futile1 & ! /udy ( ! "w p]=m$ by /reams & glaci]s & w9d is unpr(itable4 ,! belief 9 ! ,deluge z ! "o great geological ev5t 9 ! hi/ory ( ! e>? has br\ght x ab\t t ! speculations ( ,ari/otle1 ,h]odotus1 ,/rabo1 & ,ovid1 & ! illu/ri\s ,arab1 ,avic5na 7#ihj-ajcg71 un*eck$ by appeal to facts b also unoppos$ by prie/hood or popul> prejudice1 are ne>] to ! tru? ?an ! intol]ant controv]sial writ+s ( ! intellectual lead]s ^: t\*/one 0 or?odoxy4 ,a few ?9k]s ( ! sixte5? c5tury revolt$ aga9/ ! int]m9able repetition ( error1 & ,pet] ,sev]9us 7#aega7 advis$ 8 /ud5ts3 8,burn up y\r books 444 buy y\rselves /\t %oes1 get away to ! m\nta9s1 se>* ! valleys1 ! des]ts1 ! %ores ( ! seas4444 ,9 ?is way & no o!r w y arrive at a k ( ?+s40 ,b ! ?or\ghgo+ 8diluviali/0 :o believ$ t a million species ( animals c\ld occupy a #dej-;foot ,ark1 b n t pebbles wea!r$ f rock or t riv]s erode1 _h no use = 8 p[]s ( obs]vation4 ,sporadic g]ms ( a sci5ce ( l& =ms scatt]$ ?r\gh ! lit]ature ( ! sev5te5? & eighte5? c5turies f\nd an unfavorable environm5t & produc$ inconspicu\s gr[?s4 ,ev5 _! sponsors did little to cultivate !m4 ,/5o 7#afca-afhg7 mildly sugge/$ t surface sculptur+1 p>ticul>ly on a small scale1 is l>gely ! "w ( runn+ wat]1 & ,guett>d 7#agae-aghf71 a truly great m9d1 grasp$ ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( d5udation & successfully entomb$ 8 views z well z 8 reputation 9 scores ( books & volumes ( cumbr\s diffuse writ+4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury a suffici5t body ( pr9ciples _h be5 e/abli%$ to ju/ify ! recognition ( an e>? sci5ce1 geology1 & ! #aie volumes ( ! ,j\rnal ?us f> publi%$ c>ry a l>ge "p ( ! mat]ial :i* has won approval = ! new sci5ce & giv5 prom95ce to ,am]ican ?\ght4 ,f ! pages 9 ! ,j\rnal1 ! progress ( geology may be illu/rat$ by trac+ ! fluctuation 9 ! developm5t ( fact & !ory z relates to valleys & glacial features1 ! subjects to :i* ?is *apt] is devot$4 ,! ,int]pretation ( ,valleys4 ,! ,pione]s4 ,desm>e/ 7#agbe-ahae7 might be /yl$ ! fa!r ( physiography4 ,by concrete examples & s\nd induction he e/abli%$ 7#aggd7 ! doctr9e t ! valleys ( c5tral ,france are =m$ by ! /reams :i* occupy !m4 ,he also made ! fir/ attempt to trace ! hi/ory ( a l&scape ?r\gh its successive /ages on ! basis ( kn[n causes4 ,8 me?ods & reason+ are practically id5tical ) ^? ( ,dutton work+ 9 ! anci5t lavas ( ,new ,mexico2 & ,:itney's description ( ! ,table ,m\nta9s ( ,cali=nia might well h appe>$ 9 ,desm>e/'s memoirs4#e ,! tea*+s ( ,desm>e/ 7 /r5g!n$ & exp&$ by ,de,saussure 7#agdj-agii71 ! sponsor = ! t]m1 8,geology10 7#aggi7 :o saw 9 ! intimate relation ( ,alp9e /reams & valleys ! evid5ce ( erosion by runn+ wat] 7#aghf74 ,! "w ( ^! ackn[l$g$ lead]s ( geological ?\ght attract$ s+ul>ly little att5tion on ! ,cont95t1 & ,lam>ck's volume on d5udation 7,hydrogologie71 :i* appe>$ 9 #ahjb1 al?\gh an important contribution1 sank out ( sight4 ,b ! se$ ( ! ,fr5* s*ool f\nd f]tile gr\nd 9 ,ed9burgh1 ! c5t] ( ! geological _w dur+ ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,hutton's 8,!ory ( ! ,e>?1 ) ,pro(s & ,illu/rations10 9 :i* ! guidance ( ,de,saussure & ,desm>e/ is gratefully ackn[l$g$1 appe>$ 9 #agie4 ,! orig9al publication ar\s$ only local int]e/1 b :5 plac$ 9 attractive =m by ,playfair's 8,illu/rations ( ! ,huttonian ,!ory0 7#ahjb71 ! problem ( ! orig9 & developm5t ( l& =ms assum$ a comm&+ position 9 geological ?\ght4 ,hutton 0 peculi>ly =tunate 9 8 environm5t4 ,he _h ! support & assi/ance ( a gr\p ( able sci5tific colleagues z well z ! bitt] opposition ( ,jameson & ( ! def5d]s ( or?odoxy4 ,8 views 7 discuss$ 9 sci5tific publications & f\nd _! way to lit]>y & !ological j\rnals4 ,hutton's conception ( ! processes ( l& sculpture--sl[ upheav+ & sl[ degradation ( m\nta9s1 diff]5tial wea!r+1 & ! c>v+ ( valleys by /reams--has a v mod]n aspect4 ,playfair's book w\ld sc>cely be out ( place 9 a tw5tie? c5tury class room4 ,! foll[+ p>agraphs are quot$ f x3#f 8444 ,a riv]1 ( :i* ! c\rse is bo? s]p5t9e & deeply excavat$ 9 ! rock1 is among ! ph5om5a1 by :i* ! sl[ wa/e ( ! l&1 & also ! cause ( t wa/e1 are mo/ directly po9t$ out4 ,! /ructure ( ! vallies among m\nta9s1 %ews cle>ly to :at cause _! exi/5ce is to be ascrib$4 ,"h we h fir/ a l>ge valley1 communicat+ directly ) ! pla91 & w9d+ betwe5 high ridges ( m\nta9s1 :ile ! riv] 9 ! bottom ( x desc5ds ov] a surface1 rem>kable1 9 su* a sc5e1 = its uni=m declivity4 ,into ?is1 op5 a multitude ( transv]se or second>y vallies1 int]sect+ ! ridges on ei!r side ( ! =m]1 ea* br++ a contribution to ! ma9 /ream1 proportion$ to its magnitude2 &1 except :]e a cat>act n[ & !n int]v5es1 all hav+ t nice adju/m5t 9 _! levels1 :i* is ! m wond]ful1 ! great] ! irregul>ity ( ! surface4 ,^! second>y vallies h o!rs ( a small] size op5+ into !m2 &1 among m\nta9s ( ! fir/ ord]1 :]e all is laid out on ! greate/ scale1 ^! ramifications are cont9u$ to a f\r?1 & ev5 a fif?1 ea* dim9i%+ 9 size z x increases 9 elevation1 & z its supply ( wat] is less4 ,?r\gh !m all1 ?is law is 9 g5]al obs]v$1 t :]e a high] valley jo9s a l[] "o1 ( ! two angles :i* x makes ) ! latt]1 t :i* is obtuse is always on ! desc5d+ side2 444 :at else b ! wat] itself1 work+ its way ?r\gh ob/acles ( unequal resi/ance1 c\ld h op5$ or kept up a communication betwe5 ! inequalities ( an irregul> & alp9e surface4444 444 ,! probability ( su* a con/itution arrangem5t ( valleys hav+ aris5 f ano!r cause1 is1 to ! probability ( its hav+ aris5 f ! runn+ ( wat]1 9 su* a proportion z unity be>s to a numb] inf9itely great4 444 ,) ,dr4 ,hutton1 we %all be dispos$ to consid] ^? great *a9s ( m\nta9s1 :i* trav]se ! surface ( ! globe1 z cut out ( masses va/ly great]1 & m l(ty ?an any ?+ t n[ rema9s4 ,f ?is gradual *ange ( lakes into riv]s1 x foll[s1 t a lake is b a tempor>y & accid5tal condition ( a riv]1 :i* is e day approa*+ to its t]m9ation2 & ! tru? ( ?is is atte/$1 n only by ! lakes t h exi/$1 b also by ^? t cont9ue to exi/40 ,/eps ,backw>d4 ,ev5 ,hutton's cle> reason+1 firmly buttress$ by concrete examples1 0 insuffici5t to ov]come ! belief 9 ready-made or viol5tly =m$ valleys & orig9al corrugations & irregul>ities ( m\nta9 surface4 ,! pages ( ! ,j\rnal %[ t ! pr9ciples laid d[n by ,playfair 7 too f> 9 advance ( ! times to secure g5]al acceptance4 ,9 ! fir/ volume ( ! ,j\rnal1 ! gorge ( ! ,fr5* ,broad ,riv] is assign$ by ,ka9 to 8"s dreadful commotion 9 nature :i* probably %ook ^! m\nta9s to _! bases10#g & ! gorge ( ! l[] ,connecticut is consid]$ by ,hit*cock 7#ahbd7h z a brea* :i* dra9$ a s]ies ( lakes 8n _m c5turies be=e ! settlem5t ( ?is c\ntry40 ,! prevail+ ,am]ican & ,engli% view = ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! n9ete5? c5tury is express$ 9 ! reviews 9 ?is ,j\rnal1 :]e ! well-kn[n conclusions ( ,conybe>e & ,phillips t /reams are incompet5t to excavate valleys are quot$ ) approval & admiration is express$ = ,buckl&'s fam\s 8,reliqui ,diluvian10 a #cjj-page qu>to volume devot$ to pro( ( a deluge4 ,! pr(essor at ,yale1 ,silliman1 & ! pr(essor at ,ox=d1 ,buckl&1 saw t an acceptance ( ,hutton's views involv$ a repudiation ( ! ,biblical flood1 & mu* space is devot$ to combat+ ^! 8errone\s0 & 8unsci5tific0 views4 ,= example1 ,buckl& says3#i 8444 ,! g5]al belief is1 t exi/+ /reams1 avalan*es & lakes1 bur/+ _! b>ri]s1 are suffici5t to acc\nt = all _! ph5om5a1 & n a few geologi/s1 especially ^? ( ! ,huttonian s*ool1 at ^: head is ,pr(essor ,playfair1 h till rec5tly be5 ( ?is op9ion4444 ,b x is n[ v cle> to almo/ e man1 :o imp>tially exam9es ! facts 9 reg>d to exi/+ vallies1 t ! causes n[ 9 action1 m5tion$ above1 are altoge!r inadequate to _! production2 nay1 t su* a supposition w\ld involve a physical impossibility4 ,we d n believe t "o-?\s&? "p ( our pres5t vallies 7 excavat$ by ! p[] ( exi/+ /reams4444 ,9 v _m cases ( l>ge riv]s1 x is f\nd1 t s f> f hav+ =m$ _! own b$s1 !y are actually 9 a gradual mann] fill+ !m up4 ,aga92 h[ happ5s x t ! s\rce ( a riv] is frequ5tly bel[ ! head ( a valley1 if ! riv] excavat$ t valley8 ,! mo/ p[]ful argum5t1 h[ev]1 9 our op9ion1 aga9/ ! supposition we are combat+1 is ! ph5om5a ( transv]se & longitud9al valleys2 bo? ( :i* c\ld n possibly h be5 =m$ by exi/+ /reams40 ,phillips writes 9 #ahbi3aj 8,! excavation ( valleys c be ascrib$ to no o!r cause ?an a great flood ( wat] :i* ov]topp$ ! hills1 ^: summits ^? vallies desc5d40 ,fai? 9 ,noah's flood z ! dom9ant ag5t ( erosion rapidly lo/ gr\nd ?r\gh ! tea*+ ( ,lyell aft] #ahcj1 b ! !ory ( sy/ematic developm5t ( l&scapes by riv]s ga9$ little4 ,9 fact1 ,scrope 9 #ahcj1aa 9 %[+ t ! entr5*$ me&]s ( ! ,moselle prove gradual progressive /ream "w1 0 9 advance ( 8 ,engli% contempor>y4 ,judg$ by contributions to ! ,j\rnal1 ,lyell's tea*+ s]v$ to /&>dize ,am]ican op9ion ( e>? sculpture some:at z foll[s3 ,! ocean is ! great valley mak]1 b riv]s also make !m2 ! position ( valleys is det]m9$ by orig9al or r5ew$ surface inequalities or by fault+2 exceptional occurr5ces--e>?quakes1 bur/+ ( lakes1 upheavals & depressions--h play$ an important "p4 ,hayes 7#ahci7ab ?\ght t ! surface ( ,new ,york 0 ess5tially an uprais$ sea-bottom modifi$ by erosion ( waves & ocean curr5ts4 ,s$gwick 7#ahch7ac consid]$ high-ly+ lake bas9s pro( ( valleys :i* 7 %ap$ "u ! sea4 ,_m ( ! valleys 9 ! ,*ilian ,cordill]a 7 ?\ght by ,d>w9 7#ahdd7 to h be5 ! "w ( waves & tides1 & wat] gaps are ascrib$ to curr5ts 8bur/+ ?r\gh ! range at ^? po9ts :]e ! /rata h be5 lea/ incl9$ & ! height consequ5tly is less40 ,speak+ ( ! magnific5t /ream-cut canyons ( ! ,blue ,m\nta9s ( ,new ,s\? ,wales1 gorges :i* lead to n>r[ exits ?r\gh monocl9es1 ,d>w9 says3 8,to attribute ^! holl[s to alluvial action w\ld be prepo/]\s40#ad ,! influ5ce ( /ructure 9 ! =mation ( valleys is emphasiz$ by _m contributors to ! ,j\rnal4 ,hildre? 9 #ahcf1 9 a valuable pap]1#ae :i* is p]haps ! fir/ detail$ topographic description ( dra9age 9 fold$ /rata1 expresses ! op9ion t ! ,we/ ,virg9ia ridges & valleys ant$at$ ! /reams & t wat] gaps ?\gh cut by riv]s involve pre-exi/+ lakes4 ,g$des 7#ahbf7af d5i$ t ,niag>a ,riv] cut its *annel & speaks ( valleys :i* 87 valleys e'er mov+ _s bade ! wat]s fl[40 ,conrad 7#ahci7ag discuss$ ! /ructural control ( ! ,mohawk1 ! ,ohio1 & ! ,mississippi1 & ,lieut5ant ,w>r5 7#ahei7ah conclud$ t ! ,niobr>a mu/ h orig9at$ 9 a fissure4 ,accord+ to ,lesley 7#ahfb7ai ! c\rse ( ! ,new ,riv] across ! ,great ,valley & into ! ,appala*ians 8/rik+ ! esc>pm5t 9 ! face0 is det]m9$ by ! junction ( anticl9al /ructures on ! nor? ) fault$ monocl9es t[>d ! s\?2 a conclusion 9 h>mony ) ! views ( ,edw>d ,hit*cock 7#ahda7ag t major valleys & m\nta9 passes are /ructural 9 orig9 & t ev5 subord9ate folds & faults may det]m9e m9or features4 8,is n ?is a beautiful example ( prospective b5evol5ce on ! "p ( ! ,deity1 ?us1 by means ( a viol5t fracture ( prim>y m\nta9s1 to provide = easy int]communication ?r\gh alp9e regions1 c\ntless ages aft]w>ds60 ,! ext5t ( ! w&]+ f ! guidance ( ,de,saussure & ,playfair aft] ! lapse ( #ej ye>s is %[n by /ud5ts ( ,switz]l&4 ,alp9e valleys to ,mur*ison 7#ahea7 7 bays ( an anci5t sea2 ,s*lag9weit 7#aheb7 f\nd regional & local complicat$ cru/al movem5ts a satisfactory cause1 & ,=bes 7#ahfc7 saw only glaci]s4 ,valleys ,=m$ by ,riv]s4 ,"o /rong voice be=e #ahfj appe>s to h call$ ,am]icans back to tru?s exp\nd$ by ,desm>e/ & ,hutton4 ,dana 9 #ahejbj amply demon/rat$ t valleys on ! ,pacific ,isl&s owe nei!r _! orig91 position or =m to ! sea or to /ructural factors4 ,!y are ! "w ( exi/+ /reams :i* h eat5 _! way headw>ds4 ,ev5 ! valleys ( ,au/ralia cit$ by ,d>w9 z type examples ( ocean "w are %[n to be products ( normal /ream "w4 ,dana w5t fur!r & gave a p]man5t place to ! ,huttonian idea t _m bays1 inlets1 & fiords are b ! dr[n$ m\?s ( /ream-made valleys4 ,9 ! same volume 9 :i* ^! conclusions appe>$1 ,hubb>d 7#ahej7ba ann\nc$ t 9 ,new ,hamp%ire ! 8deepe/ valleys are b valleys ( erosion40 ,! !ory t valleys are excavat$ by /reams :i* occupy !m 0 all b univ]sally accept$ aft] ,f4 ,v4 ,hayd5's description#bb ( ,rocky ,m\nta9 gorges 7#ahfb7 & ,newb]ry's int]pretation ( ! canyons ( ,arizona 7#ahfb72 b ! sci5tific _w 0 poorly prep>$ = ,newb]ry's /atem5t3#bc 8,l ! great canons ( ! ,colorado1 ! broad valleys b\nd$ by high & p]p5dicul> walls belong to a va/ sy/em ( erosion1 & are :olly due to ! action ( wat]4444 ,! fir/ & mo/ plausible explanation ( ! /rik+ surface features ( ?is region w be to ref] !m to t embodim5t ( resi/less p[]--! sword t cuts s _m geological knots--volcanic =ce4 ,! ,great ,canon ( ! ,colorado w\ld be consid]$ a va/ fissure or r5t 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 & ! abrupt t]m9ation ( ! /eps ( ! table l&s z m>k+ l9es ( displacem5t4 ,?is !ory ?\gh s plausible1 & s entirely adequate to expla9 all ! /rik+ ph5om5a1 lacks a s+le requisite to acceptance1 & t is tru?40 ,) su* /up5d\s examples 9 m9d1 ! dictum ( ,hutton seem$ reasonable3 8!re is no spot on :i* riv]s may n =m]ly h run40 ,d5udation by ,riv]s4 ,! g5]al recognition ( ! compet5cy ( /reams to =m valleys 0 a necess>y prelude to ! broad] view express$ by ,jukes 7#ahfb7bd 8,! surfaces ( our pres5t l&s are z mu* c>v$ & sculptur$ surfaces z ! m$allion c>v$ f ! slab1 or ! /atue sculptur$ f ! block4 ,!y h be5 gradually rea*$ by ! removal ( ! rock t once cov]$ !m1 & are !mselves b ( transi5t duration1 always sl[ly wa/+ f decay40 ,contributions to ! ,j\rnal betwe5 #ahej & #ahgj reveal a t5d5cy to accept great] degrees ( erosion by riv]s1 b ! necess>y end-product ( subarial erosion--a pla9--is fir/ cle>ly def9$ by ,p[ell 9 #ahge4be ,9 =mulat+ 8 ideas ,p[ell introduc$ ! t]m 8base-level10 :i* may be call$ ! g]m ^w out ( :i* has gr[n ! 8cycle ( erosion10 ! ma/] key ( mod]n physiograph]s4 ,! orig9al def9ition ( base-level foll[s3 8,we may consid] ! level ( ! sea to be a gr& base-level1 bel[ :i* ! dry l&s _c be erod$2 b we may also h1 = local & tempor>y purposes1 o!r base-levels ( erosion1 :i* are ! levels ( ! b$s ( ! pr9cipal /reams :i* c>ry away ! products ( erosion4 7,i take "s lib]ty 9 us+ ! t]m #8level' 9 ?is connection1 z ! action ( a runn+ /ream 9 we>+ its *annel ceases1 = all practical purposes1 be=e its b$ has q rea*$ ! level ( ! l[] end ( ! /ream4 ,:at ,i h call$ ! base-level w\ld1 9 fact1 be an imag9>y surface1 incl9+ slightly 9 all its p>ts t[>d ! l[] end ( ! pr9cipal /ream dra9+ ! area ?r\gh :i* ! level is suppos$ to ext5d1 or hav+ ! incl9ation ( its p>ts v>i$ 9 direction z det]m9$ by tribut>y /reams470 ,analysis ( ,p[ell's view has giv5 def9it5ess to ! di/9ction betwe5 8base-level10 an imag9>y plane1 & 8a ne>ly featureless pla910 ! actual l& surface produc$ 9 ! la/ /age ( subarial erosion4 ,foll[+ _! discov]y 9 ! ,colorado ,plateau ,prov9ce1 d5udation surfaces 7 recogniz$ on ! ,atlantic slope & discuss$ by ,mc,gee 7#ahhh71bf 9 a pap] notable = ! demon/ration ( ! use ( physiographic me?ods & crit]ia 9 ! solution ( /ratigraphic problems4 ,davis 7#ahhi7bg describ$ ! upl& ( s\!rn ,new ,engl& develop$ dur+ ,cretace\s "t1 introduc+ ! t]m 8p5epla910 8a ne>ly featureless pla940 ,! %ort-liv$ opposition to ! !ory ( p5eplanation indicates t 9 ,am]ica at lea/ ! idea ne$$ only =mulation to insure acceptance4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t surfaces n[ class$ z p5epla9s 7 fully describ$ by ,p]cival 7#ahdb71bh :o assign$ !m to /ructure1 & by ,k]r 7#ahhj71bi :o consid]$ glaci]s ! ag5t4 ,9 ,europe 8pla9s ( d5udation0 h be5 cle>ly recogniz$ by ,ramsay 7#ahdf71 ,jukes 7#ahfb71 ,a4 ,geikie 7#ahfe71 ,fo/] & ,topley 7#ahfe71 ,maw 7#ahff71 ,wynne 7#ahfg71 ,:itak] 7#ahfg71 ,mac9to% 7#ahfi71 ,gre5 7#ahhb71 ,ri*?(5 7#ahhb71 b all ( !m 7 look$ ^u z products ( m>9e "w1 & writ]s ( m rec5t date 9 ,engl& seem reluctant to give a subord9ate place to ! erosive p[] ( waves4 ,am]icans1 on ! o!r h&1 h be5 ?9k+ 9 t]ms ( riv]s1 & ! great contribution ( ! ,am]ican s*ool is n t p5epla9s exi/1 b t !y are ! result ( normal subarial erosion4 ,m precise field me?ods dur+ ! pa/ decade h reveal$ ! fact t no "o ag5t is responsible = ! l& =ms class$ z p5epla9s2 t n only riv]s & ocean1 b ice1 w9d1 /ructure1 & topographic position mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt4 ,! recognition ( riv]s z valley-mak]s & ( ! f9al result ( /ream "w necess>ily prec$$ an analysis ( ! process ( subarial erosion4 ,! fir/ & la/ t]ms 7 kn[n1 ! int]m$iate t]ms & ! sequ5ce rema9$ to be e/abli%$4 ,a significant contribution to ?is problem 0 made by ,jukes 7#ahfb74cd 8444 ,i believe t ! lat]al valleys are ^? :i* 7 fir/ =m$ by ! dra9age runn+ directly f ! cre/s ( ! *a9s1 ! longitud9al ones be+ subsequ5tly elaborat$ along ! /rike ( ! s(t] or m erodable b$s expos$ on ! flanks ( ^? *a9s40 ,p[ell's discussion ( antec$5t & consequ5t dra9age 7#ahge7 & ,gilb]t's *apt] on l& sculpture 9 ! ,h5ry ,m\nta9 report 7#ahhj7 are classics1 & ,mc,gee's contribution#cj conta9s significant sugge/ions1 b ! ma/] pap]s are by ,davis1#ca :o introduces an analysis ( l& =ms bas$ on /ructure & age by ! /atem5t3 8,be+ fully p]suad$ ( ! gradual & sy/ematic evolution ( topographical =ms x is n[ desir$ 444 to seek ! causes ( ! location ( /reams 9 _! pres5t c\rses2 to g back if possible to ! e>ly date :5 c5tral ,p5nsylvania 0 fir/ rais$ f ! sea1 & trace ! developm5t ( ! sev]al riv] sy/ems !n implant$ ^u x f _! anci5t beg9n+ to ! pres5t "t40 ,t su* a task c\ld h be5 und]tak5 a qu>t] ( a c5tury ago & to-day consid]$ a "p ( ev]yday field "w %[s h[ completely ! lo/ gr\nd ( a half c5tury has be5 rega9$ & h[ rapid ! advance 9 ! k ( l& sculpture s9ce ! canyons ( ! ,colorado ,plateau 7 int]pret$4 ,features ,result+ f ,glaciation4 ,! ,problem ,/at$4 ,e>ly 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury :5 speculation reg>d+ ! int]ior ( ! e>? gave place 9 "p to obs]vations ( ! surface ( ! e>?1 geologi/s 7 confront$ ) p]haps ! mo/ difficult problem 9 ! hi/ory ( ! sci5ce4 ,z /at$ by ! editor ( ! ,j\rnal 9 #ahba3cb 8,! almo/ univ]sal exi/5ce ( roll$ pebbles1 & b\ld]s ( rock1 n only on ! m>g9 ( ! oceans1 seas1 lakes1 & riv]s2 b _! exi/5ce1 (t5 9 enorm\s quantities1 9 situations q remov$ f l>ge wat]s2 inl&1--9 high banks1 emb$d$ 9 /rata1 or scatt]$1 occasionally1 9 pr(usion1 on ! face ( almo/ e region1 & sometimes on ! tops & declivities ( m\nta9s1 z well z 9 ! vallies betwe5 !m2 _! entire diff]5ce1 9 _m cases1 f ! rocks 9 ! c\ntry :]e !y lie--r\nd$ masses & pebbles ( primitive rocks be+ deposit$ 9 second>y & alluvial regions1 & vice v]sa2 ^! & a multitude ( simil> facts h ev] /ruck u z be+ among ! mo/ int]e/+ ( geological occurr5ces1 & z be+ v inadequately acc\nt$ = by exi/+ !ories40 ,! ph5om5a dem&+ explanation--jumbl$ masses ( 8diluvium10 poli%$ & /riat$ rock1 b[ld]s di/ribut$ ) app>5t disreg>d ( topography--7 inde$ />tl+4 ,ev5 ,lyell1 ! great expon5t ( uni=mit>ianism1 appe>s to h lo/ fai? 9 8 !ories :5 confront$ ) facts = :i* kn[n causes seem$ inadequate4 ,! int]e/ ar\s$ is atte/$ by #ca titles 9 ! ,j\rnal dur+ its fir/ two decades1 articles :i* include speculations unsupport$ by logic or fact1 field obs]vation unaccompani$ by explanation1 field obs]vation ) fanta/ic explanation1 ex-ca!dra pron\ncem5ts by prom95t m51 s\nd reason+ f insuffici5t data1 & uncl\d$ recognition ( cause & effect by bo? obscure & prom95t m54 ,) little k ( glaci]s1 areal geology1 or ( /ructure & composition ( drift1 all kn[n =ces 7 call$ 93 normal wea!r+1 cata/rophic floods1 ocean curr5ts1 waves1 iceb]gs1 glaci]s1 w9d1 & ev5 depositions f a primordial atmosph]e 7,*abi]1 #ahbc74 ,human ag5cies 7 n disc>d$4 ,speak+ ( a granite b[ld] at ,nor? ,salem1 ,new ,york1 describ$ by ,cornelius 7#ahbj7cc z re/+ on lime/one1 ,f9* 7#ahbd7cd says3 8x is a magnific5t cromle* & ! mo/ anci5t & v5]able monum5t :i* ,am]ica possesses40 ,9 ! abs5ce ( a kn[n cause1 cata/rophic ag5cies seem reasonable4 ,! ,deluge4 ,9 ! sev5? volume ( ! ,j\rnal 7#ahbd7ce we read3 8,aft] ! production ( ^! regul> /rata ( s&1 clay1 lime/one1 c4 came a t]rible irruption ( wat] f ! nor?1 or nor?we/1 :i* 9 _m places cov]$ ! prec$+ =mations ) diluvial gravel1 & c>ri$ along ) x ^? imm5se masses ( granite1 & ! old] rocks1 :i* atte/ to ! pres5t day ! de/ruction & ru9 ( a =m] _w40 ,ano!r au?or rem>ks3 8,we f9d a mantle z x 7 ( s& & gravel indiff]5tly cov]+ all ! solid /rata1 & evid5tly d]iv$ f "s convulsion :i* has lac]at$ & p>tly brok5 up ^? /rata44440 ,! cata/rophe favor$ by mo/ geologi/s 0 floods ( wat] viol5tly releas$--8we believe10 says ! editor1 8t all geologi/s agree 9 imput+ 444 ! diluvium to ! ag5cy ( a deluge at "o p]iod or ano!r40#cf ,su* conclusions re/$ 9 no small way ^u ,hayd5's well-kn[n treatise on surficial deposits 7#ahba71cg a volume :i* des]ves a prom95t place 9 ,am]ican geological lit]ature4 ,hayd5 cle>ly di/+ui%$ ! topographic & /ructural features ( ! drift b f\nd an adequate cause 9 g5]al wide-spread curr5ts :i* 8fl[$ impetu\sly across ! :ole cont95t 444 f nor? ea/ to s\? we/40 ,9 review+ ,hayd5's book ,silliman rem>ks3 8,! g5]al cause ( ^! curr5ts ,mr4 ,hayd5 concludes to be ! deluge ( ,noah4 ,:ile no "o w object to ! propriety ( ascrib+ v _m1 probably mo/ ( our alluvial features1 to t cata/rophe1 we conceive t nei!r ,mr4 ,hayd51 nor any o!r man1 is b\nd to prove ! imm$iate physical cause ( t v9dictive infliction4 ,we w\ld beg leave to sugge/ ! foll[+ z a cause :i* may h aid$ 9 delug+ ! e>?1 & :i*1 7 !re occasion1 might d x aga94 ,! exi/5ce ( enorm\s cav]ns 9 ! b[els ( ! e>?1 7s (t5 imag9$ by au?ors17 appe>s to be no v extravagant assumption4 ,x is true x _c be prov$1 b 9 a sph]e ( eight ?\s& miles 9 diamet]1 x w\ld appe> 9 no way extraord9>y1 t _m cavities might exi/1 :i* collectively1 or ev5 s+ly1 might well conta9 mu* m ?an all our oceans1 seas1 & o!r sup]ficial wat]s1 none ( :i* are probably m ?an a few miles 9 dep?4 ,if ^! cavities communicate 9 any mann] ) ! oceans1 & are 7z if !y exi/ at all1 !y probably are17 fill$ ) wat]1 !re exi/1 we conceive1 ag5ts v compet5t to expel ! wat] ( ^! cavities1 & ?us to deluge1 at any "t1 ! dry l&40 ,! tea*+s ( ,hayd5 7 favorably receiv$ by ,hit*cock1 ,/rud]1 & ,hubb>d1 & _m ,europeans4 ,!y f\nd a *ampion 9 ,jackson1 :o /ates 7#ahci73ch 8,f ! obs]vations made ^u ,m\nt ,ktaadn1 x is prov$1 t ! curr5t did ru% ov] ! summit ( t l(ty m\nta91 & consequ5tly ! diluvial wat]s rose to ! height ( m ?an #e1jjj feet4 ,h5ce we are enabl$ to prove1 t ! anci5t ocean1 :i* ru%$ ov] ! surface ( ! ,/ate1 0 at lea/ a mile 9 dep?1 & its transport+ p[] mu/ h be5 greatly increas$ by its enorm\s pressure40 ,gibson1 a /ud5t ( we/]n geology1 rea*es ! same conclusion 7#ahcf73ci 8,t a wide-spread curr5t1 al?\gh n1 z imag9$1 f$ f an inl& sea1 once swept ov] ! entire region betwe5 ! ,alleghany & ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s is e/abli%$ by pl5>y pro(40 ,pr(essor ,s$gwick 7#ahca7 ?\ght ! sudd5 upheaval ( m\nta9s suffici5t to h caus$ floods aga9 & aga94 ,! /r5g? ( ! belief 9 ! ,biblical flood1 dur+ ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! #ai? c5tury1 may be repres5t$ by ! foll[+ rem>ks ( ,phillips 7#ahcb73dj 8,( _m important facts :i* come "u ! consid]ation ( geologi/s1 ! #8,deluge' is1 p]haps1 ! mo/ rem>kable2 & x is e/abli%$ by su* cle> & positive argum5ts1 t if any "o po9t ( natural hi/ory may be consid]$ z prov$1 ! deluge mu/ be admitt$ to h happ5$1 because x has left full evid5ce 9 pla9 & *>act]i/ic effects ^u ! surface ( ! e>?40 ,h[ev]1 ! !ory ( deluges1 :e!r ( ocean or l& /reams1 did n hold ! field unoppos$4 ,9 #ahbc1 ,grang]1#da an obs]v] ^: contributions to sci5ce total only six pages1 speaks ( ! /ri on ! %ore ( ,lake ,erie z 8hav+ be5 =m$ by ! p[]ful & cont9u$ attrition ( "s h>d body4444 ,to me1 x does n seem possible t wat] "u any circum/ances1 c\ld h effect$ x4 ,! flut+s 9 wid?1 dep?1 & direction1 are z regul> z if !y _h be5 cut out by a groov+ plane4 ,?is1 runn+ wat] c\ld n effect1 nor c\ld its op]ation h produc$ t glassy smoo?ness1 :i*1 9 _m p>ts1 x /ill reta9s40 ,hayes & also ,conrad express$ simil> views 9 ! ,j\rnal #af ye>s lat]4 ,! idea t ice 0 9 "s way conc]n$ ) ! transportation ( drift has _h a curi\s hi/ory4 ,! fir/ unequivocal /atem5t1 bas$ on read+ & ke5 obs]vation1 0 made 9 ! ,j\rnal by ,dobson 9 #ahbf3db 8,i h _h occasion to dig up a great numb] ( b[ld]s1 ( r$ s&/one1 & ( ! conglom]ate k9d1 9 erect+ a cotton manufactory2 & x 0 n uncommon to f9d !m worn smoo? on ! "u side1 z if done by _! hav+ be5 dragg$ ov] rocks & gravelly e>?1 9 "o /eady position4 ,on exam9ation1 !y exhibit scrat*es & furr[s on ! abrad$ "p2 & if among ! m9]als compos+ ! rock1 !re happ5$ to be pebbles ( feldsp>1 or qu>tz1 7:i* 0 n uncommon17 !y usually appe>$ n to be worn s mu* z ! re/ ( ! /one1 pres]v+ _! m t5d] p>ts 9 a ridge1 ext5d+ "s in*es4 ,:5 sev]al ( ^! pebbles happ5 to be 9 "o block1 ! pres]v$ ridges 7 on ! same side ( ! pebbles1 s t x is easy to det]m9e :i* "p ( ! /one mov$ =w>d1 9 ! act ( we>+4 ,^! b[ld]s are f\nd1 n only on ! surface1 b ,i h discov]$ !m a numb] ( feet deep1 9 ! e>?1 9 ! h>d comp\nd ( clay1 s&1 & gravel4444 ,i ?9k we _c acc\nt = ^! appe>ances1 unless we call 9 ! aid ( ice along ) wat]1 & t !y h be5 worn by be+ susp5d$ & c>ri$ 9 ice1 ov] rocks & e>?1 "u wat]40 ,9 ,dobson's day ! hypo!sis ( 8gigantic floods10 8debacles10 8resi/less _w-wide curr5ts10 0 s firmly entr5*$ t ! voice ( ! obs]vant layman f\nd no he>]s1 & a lett] f ,dobson to ,hit*cock writt5 9 #ahcg & conta9+ additional evid5ce & argum5t rema9$ unpubli%$ until ,mur*ison1 9 #ahdb1dc paid 8 respects to ! rem>kable "w ( a rem>kable man4#dd 8,i take leave ( ! glacial !ory 9 congratulat+ ,am]ican sci5ce 9 hav+ possess$ ! orig9al au?or ( ! be/ glacial !ory1 ?\gh 8 "n _h escap$ notice2 & 9 recomm5d+ to y ! t]se argum5t ( ,pet] ,dobson1 a previ\s acqua9tance ) :i* might h sav$ volumes ( disputation on bo? sides ( ! ,atlantic40 ,glaci]s vs4 ,iceb]gs4 ,! glacial !ory makes its way into geological lit]ature ) ! developm5t ( ,agassiz 7#ahcg7 ( ! views ( ,v5etz 7#ahcc7 & ,*>p5ti] 7#ahcd71 t ! glaci]s ( ! ,alps once _h great] ext5t4 ,! bold assumption 0 made t ! surface ( ,europe z f> s\? z ! %ores ( ! ,m$it]ranean & ,caspian seas 0 cov]$ by ice dur+ a p]iod imm$iately prec$+ ! pres5t4 ,! k]nel ( ! pres5t glacial !ory is readily recognizable 9 ^! e>ly works1 b x is wrapp$ 9 a /range husk3 x 0 assum$ t ! ,alps 7 rais$ by a great convulsion "u ! ice & t ! erratics slid to _! places ov] ! newly made declivities4 ,! publication ( ! fam\s 8,etudes sur les ,glaci]s0 7#ahdj71 rem>kable alike = its cl>ity1 its s\nd inductions1 & weal? ( illu/rations1 br\ght ! ideas ( ,agassiz m into prom95ce & inaugurat$ a #cj-ye>s' w> ) ! propon5ts ( curr5ts & iceb]gs4 ,! out/&+ objections to ! !ory 7 ! requirem5t ( a frigid climate & ! dem& = glaci]s ( cont95tal dim5sions2 v /rong objections1 inde$1 = ! "t :5 fossil evid5ce 0 n available1 ! great pol> ice %eets 7 unexplor$1 & ! di/9ction betwe5 till & wat]laid drift _h n be5 e/abli%$4 ,! glacial !ory 0 cordially adopt$ by ,buckl& 7#ahda7de & 9 "p by ,lyell 9 ,engl& b view$ ) suspicion by ,s$gwick1 ,:ewell1 & ,mantell4 ,9 ,am]ica ! response to ! new idea 0 imm$iate4 ,hit*cock 7#ahda7df concludes an able discussion ) ! /atem5t3 8,s rem>kably does x solve mo/ ( ! ph5om5a ( diluvial action1 t ,i am con/ra9$ to believe its fundam5tal pr9ciples to be f\nd$ 9 tru?40 ,! !ory =m$ ! *ief topic ( discussion at ! ?ird & f\r? meet+s ( ! ,association ( ,am]ican ,geologi/s & ,naturali/s 7#ahdb1 #ahdc7 "u ! lead ( a committee on drift consi/+ ( ,emmons1 ,w4 ,b4 ,rog]s1 ,vanuxem1 ,nicollet1 ,jackson1 & ,j4 ,l4 ,hayes4 ,! result ( ^! discussions 0 a curi\s reaction4 ,hit*cock compla9$ t he 8_h be5 suppos$ to be an advocate = ! unmodifi$ glacial !ory1 b he _h nev] be5 a believ] 9 x10 & ,jackson spoke = a numb] ( m5 :5 he /at$3#dg 8,?is c\ntry exhibits no pro(s ( ! glacial !ory z taught by ,agassiz b on ! contr>y ! g5]al be>+ ( ! facts is aga9/ t !ory4444 ,_m em95t m5 incauti\sly embrac$ ! new !ory1 :i* )9 two or ?ree ye>s f its promulgation1 _h be5 f\nd utt]ly inadequate1 & is n[ ab&on$ by _m ( its =m] support]s40 ,out ( ?is symposium came also ! /range contribution ( ,h4 ,d4 ,rog]s 7#ahdd71dh :o ca/ aside ! tea*+s ( d$uction & obs]vation & return$ to ! views ( ! ,m$ievali/s4 8,if we w conceive1 !n1 a wide expanse ( wat]s1 less p]haps ?an "o ?\s& feet 9 dep?1 dislodg$ f "s high nor!rn or circumpol> bas91 by a g5]al lift+ ( t region ( p]haps a few hundr$ feet1 & an equal subsid5ce ( ! c\ntry s\?1 & imag9e ?is :ole mass conv]t$ by e>?quake pulsations ( ! bread? :i* su* undulations h1 into a s]ies ( /up5d\s & rapid-mov+ waves ( translation1 help$ on by ! /ill m rapid flexures ( ! floor ov] :i* !y move1 & !n adv]t to ! %att]+ & loos5+ p[] ( ! trem5d\s j> ( ! e>?quake1 we %all h an ag5t adequate 9 e way to produce ! results we see1 to float ! nor!rn ice f its moor+s1 to rip (f1 assi/$ ) its aid1 ! outcrops ( ! h>de/ /rata1 to gr9d up & /rew wide _! fragm5ts1 to sc\r d[n ! :ole rocky floor1 &1 ga!r+ en]gy ) resi/ance1 to sweep up ! slopes & ov] ! highe/ m\nta9s40 ,because ( ! prom95ce ( _! au?or1 ,rog]s's views ex]t$ "s influ5ce & seem+ly receiv$ support f ,engl& ?r\gh ! elaborate ma!matic discussions ( ,:ewell 7#ahdh71 :o consid]$ ! drift z 8irresi/ible pro( ( p>oxysmal action10 & ,hopk9s 7#aheb71 :o cont5d$ = 8curr5ts produc$ by repeat$ elevatory movem5ts40 ,aft] 8 arrival 9 ,am]ica 7#ahdf71 ,agassiz's influ5ce 0 felt1 & 8 pap] on ! erratic ph5om5a ab\t ,lake ,sup]ior 7#ahej71di 9 :i* he call$ ^u ! advocates ( wat]-borne ice to po9t out ! b>ri] :i* caus$ ! curr5t to subside1 produc$ a salut>y effect2 yet ,desor 7#aheb7ej /ates t 9 ! region describ$ by ,agassiz 8! assumption ( a g5]al ice cap is no long] admissible10 & t ! b[ld]s on ,long ,isl& 87 transport$ on ice rafts along ! sea %ore & /r&$ on ! ridges & em95ces :i* 7 !n %oals along ! coa/40 ,tw5ty ye>s ( discussion 7 insuffici5t to e/abli% ! glacial !ory ei!r 9 ,europe or ,am]ica4 ,! cons5sus ( op9ion among ! m advanc$ ?9k]s 9 #ahfj is express$ by ,dana3#ea 8,9 view ( ! :ole subject1 x appe>s reasonable to conclude t ! ,glaci] !ory af=ds ! be/ & fulle/ explanation ( ! ph5om5a ov] ! g5]al surface ( ! cont95ts1 & enc\nt]s ! fewe/ difficulties4 ,b iceb]gs h aid$ beyond d\bt 9 produc+ ! results along ! bord]s ( ! cont95ts1 across ocean-*annels l ! ,g]man ,ocean & ! ,baltic1 & possibly ov] great lakes l ^? ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,long ,isl& ,s\nd is s n>r[ t a glaci] may h /ret*$ across x40 ,pap]s 9 ! ,j\rnal ( #ahfj-gj %[ a prevail+ belief 9 iceb]gs1 b ! evid5ce = l& ice 0 accumulat+ z ! deposits became bett] kn[n1 & 9 #ahga field work]s speak 9 unmi/akable tones3#eb 8,x is /ill a moot$ "q 9 ,am]ican geology :e!r ! ev5ts ( ! ,glacial era 7 due to glaci]s or iceb]gs4444 ,am]ican geologi/s are /ill divid$ 9 op9ion1 & "s ( ! mo/ em95t h pron\nc$ 9 favor ( iceb]gs4 ,s9ce1 !n1 iceb]gs _c pick up masses tons 9 weight f ! bottom ( a sea1 or give a g5]al movem5t s\?w>d to ! loose mat]ial ( ! surface2 nei!r c produce ! abrasion obs]v$ ov] ! rocks "u its v>i\s conditions2 & inasmu* z all direct evid5ce ( ! subm]g5ce ( ! l& requir$ = an iceb]g sea ov] ,new ,engl& fails1 ! conclusion appe>s inevitable t iceb]gs _h no?+ to d ) ! drift ( ! ,new ,hav5 region1 9 ! ,connecticut valley2 &1 !re=e1 t ! ,glacial era 9 c5tral ,new ,engl& 0 a ,glaci] era40 ,mat!w 7#ahga7ec rea*$ ! same conclusion = ! ,l[] ,prov9ces ( ,canada4 ,9 spite ( ! increas+ cl>ity ( ! evid5ce1 ! battle = ! glacial !ory 0 n yet won4 ,! rema9+ oppon5ts ?\gh few 9 numb] 7 di/+ui%$ 9 atta9m5ts4 ,dawson clung to ! outworn doctr9e until 8 dea? 9 #ahii4 ,an int]e/+ feature ( ! hi/ory ( glacial !ories is ! calculation by ,macl>5 7#ahdb7ed t ! am\nt ( wat] ab/ract$ f ! seas to =m ! hypo!tical ice %eet w\ld l[] ! ocean level #cej feet--an e>ly =m ( ! glacial control hypo!sis 7see ,daly#ee74 ,ext5t ( ,glacial ,drift4 ,by ! middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 x 0 recogniz$ t ! 8drift10 :atev] its orig91 0 n ( _w-wide ext5t4 ,9 ,am]ica its *>act]i/ic features 7 f\nd be/ develop$ nor? ( latitude #dj degrees2 9 ,europe1 ! ,alps1 ! ,scotti% ,highl&s1 & ,sc&9avia 7 recogniz$ z type areas4 ,! limits 7 unassign$1 p>tly because ! field _h n be5 survey$1 b l>gely because crit]ia = ! recognition ( drift _h n be5 e/abli%$4 ,! well-kn[n hillocks & ridges ( 8diluvium0 & 8alluvium0 & 8drift0 ( ,new ,j]sey & ,ohio1 & ! m\nds ( ! ,miss\ri ,cot\ elaborately describ$ by ,catl9 7#ahdj7ef bore little resemblance to ! walls ( unsort$ rock :i* /& z mora9es bord]+ ,alp9e glaci]s4 ,! ,orange s& ( ,mississippi 0 includ$ 9 ! drift by ,hilg>d 7#ahff71eg & ! gravels at ,philadelphia by ,hall 7#ahgf74eh ,/ev5s 7#ahgc7ei describ$ tra9s ( glacial erratics at ,ri*mond1 ,virg9ia1 & ,william ,b4 ,rog]s 7#ahgf7fj acc\nts = c]ta9 deposits 9 ! ,potomac1 ,james1 & ,roanoke riv]s by ! pres5ce ( ,plei/oc5e ice tongues or swoll5 glacial riv]s1 & rem>ks3 8,x is highly probable t glacial action _h mu* to d ) ! orig9al accumulation ( ! rocky debris on ! flanks ( ! ,blue ,ridge1 & 9 ! ,appala*ian valleys beyond40 ,k]r 7#ahha7fa ref]r$ ! anci5t erosion surface ( ! ,pi$mont belt 9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a to glacial d5udation1 ,de la ,be*e comp>$ ! drift ( ,jamaica ) t ( ,new ,engl&1 & ,agassiz int]pret$ soils ( ,brazil z glacial4 ,! fir/ detail$ description & unequivocal int]pretation ( ei!r t]m9al or recessional mora9es is f ! p5 ( ,gilb]t 7#ahga71fb geologi/ ( ! ,ohio ,survey4 ,9 discuss+ ! =m] outlet ( ,lake ,erie ?r\gh ! ,=t ,wayne *annel1 ,gilb]t writes3 8,! page ( hi/ory record$ 9 ^! ph5om5a is by no means ambigu\s4 ,! ridges1 or1 m prop]ly1 ! ridge :i* det]m9es ! c\rses ( ! ,/4 ,joseph & ,/4 ,m>ys riv]s is a buri$ t]m9al mora9e ( ! glaci] t mov$ s\?we/w>d ?r\gh ! ,maumee valley4 ,! ov]ly+ ,erie ,clay cov]s x f sight1 b x is %ad[$ =? on ! surface ( t deposit1 z ! gr\nd is pictur$ ?r\gh a deep & ev5 canopy ( sn[4 ,its irregul>ly curv$ outl9e accords intimately ) ! configuration ( ! valley1 & ) ! direction ( ! ice m>k+s2 its concavity is turn$ t[>d ! s\rce ( motion2 its greate/ convexity is along ! l9e ( lea/ resi/ance4 ,s\? ( ! ,/4 ,m>ys riv] are o!r & num]\s mora9es accompani$ by glacial /ri4 ,_! "* & c\rses h n yet be5 /udi$2 b _! pres5ce c>ries ! m9d back to an epo* ( ! cold p]iod1 :5 ! m>g9 ( ! icefield 0 f>!r s\?1 & ! glaci] ( ! ,maumee valley 0 m]g$ 9 ! g5]al mass4 ,z ! mantle ( ice grew %ort]--&1 9 fact1 at e /age ( its exi/5ce--its m>g9 mu/ h be5 v>i\sly not*$ & lob$ 9 con=mity ) ! cont\r ( ! c\ntry1 ! high] l&s be+ fir/ laid b>e by ! encroa*+ secul> summ]4 ,e>ly 9 ! hi/ory ( ?is encroa*m5t ! glaci] ( ! ,maumee valley con/itut$ "o ( ^! lobes1 & has record$ its =m 9 ! two mora9es t ,i h describ$40 ,?ree ye>s aft] ! recognition ( mora9es 9 ! ,maumee valley1 ,*amb]l9 7#ahgd7fc %[$ t ! seem+ly disorganiz$ m\nds & bas9s & ridges kn[n z ! ,kettle range ( ,wiscons9 is ! t]m9al mora9e ( ! ,gre5 ,bay glaci]4 ,at an e>li] date 7#ahfd7 ,:ittlesey int]pret$ ! kettles ( ! ,wiscons9 mora9e z evid5ce ( ice blocks f a melt+ glaci] & pres5t$ a map %[+ ! 8s\!rn limit ( b\ld]s & co>se drift40 ,9 #ahgf att5tion 0 call$ to ! t]m9al mora9e ( ,new ,engl& by ,g4 ,fr$]ick ,wright1 :o assigns ! honor ( discov]y to ,cl>5ce ,k+4 ,illu/ration3 ,g ,k ,gilb]t ,) ! obs]vations ( ,gilb]t1 ,*amb]l91 & ,k+ 9 m9d1 ! t]m9al mora9e 0 trac$ by v>i\s work]s across ! ,unit$ ,/ates & into ,canada & ! ext5t ( glacial cov] reveal$4 ,foll[+ #ahge ! pages ( ! ,j\rnal conta9 _m contributions deal+ ) ! orig9 & /ructure ( mora9es1 esk]s1 kames1 & druml9s4 ,be=e #ahij tw5ty-eight pap]s on ! glacial ph5om5a ( ! ,erie & ,ohio bas9 alone _h appe>$4 ,by #aijj sub/antial agreem5t _h be5 rea*$ reg>d+ ! significant features ( ! drift1 ! outl9e hi/ory ( ! ,great ,lakes _h be5 writt51 & ! way _h be5 pav$ = /ratigraphic /udies ( ! ,plei/oc5e1 :i* bulk l>ge 9 ! pages ( ! ,j\rnal = ! la/ two decades4 ,epo*s ( ,glaciation4 ,= a decade foll[+ ! g5]al acceptance ( ! glacial orig9 ( 8diluvium10 ! deposits 7 embrac$ z 8drift0 & treat$ z ! products ( "o long p]iod ( glacial activity1 & ?r\gh\t ! controv]sy ( iceb]g & glaci] ! unity ( ! glacial p]iod 0 unque/ion$4 ,b$s ( peat & fossilif]\s lacu/r9e deposits 9 ,switz]l&1 ,engl&1 & 9 ,am]ica & ! recognition ( an 8upp]0 & a 8l[]0 diluvium by ,sc&9avian geologi/s sugge/$ two epo*s1 & z ! examples ( su* deposits increas$ 9 numb] & x became evid5t t ! plant fossils repres5t$ =ms dem&+ a g5ial climate & t ! ph5om5a 7 se5 9 _m c\ntries1 ! belief grew t m9or fluctuations or gradual recession ( an ice %eet 7 inadequate to acc\nt = ! ph5om5a obs]v$4 ,x is natural t ?is problem %\ld h f\nd its solution 9 ,am]ica1 :]e ! ,plei/oc5e is admirably display$1 & :]e ! ,/ate & ,f$]al surveys 7 actively engag$ 9 areal mapp+4 ,9 #ahhc ,*amb]l9#fd pres5t$ 8 views "u ! bold title1 8,prelim9>y ,pap] on ! ,t]m9al ,mora9e ( ! ,second ,glacial ,epo*10 & ! exi/5ce ( deposits ( two or m ice %eets & ! features ( int]glacial p]iods 7 sub/antially e/abli%$ by ! int]e/+ debate 9 ! ,j\rnal l$ by ,*amb]l91 ,wright1 ,upham & ,dana4#fe ,contributions s9ce #ahie h be5 conc]n$ ) ! degree r ?an ! fact ( complexity1 & cont9u$ /udy has result$ 9 ! g5]al recognition ( five glacial /ages 9 ,nor? ,am]ica & f\r 9 ,europe4 ,! ,loess z a ,glacial ,deposit4 ,a curi\s side-product ( ! /udy ( glaciation 9 ,nor? ,am]ica is ! controv]sy ov] ! orig9 ( loess4 ,! int]e/ ar\s$ is indicat$ by scores ( pap]s 9 ,am]ican p]iodicals & ,/ate reports ( ! la/ qu>t] ( ! #ai? c5tury--pap]s :i* be> ! names ( prom95t geologi/s4 ,! 8loess0 9 ! valley ( ! ,rh9e _h long be5 kn[n1 b ! subject assum$ prom95ce by ! publication 9 #ahff ( ,pumpelly's ,travels 9 ,*9a4#ff ,wide-spread deposits #bjj to #a1jjj feet ?ick 7 describ$ z v f9e-gra9$ yell[i% e>? ( di/9ctive /ructure )\t /ratification b p5etrat$ by innum]able tubes & conta9+ l& or fre%-wat] %ells4 ,pumpelly consid]$ ^! deposits lacu/r9e1 a view :i* f\nd g5]al acceptance ?\gh combat$ by ,k+smill 7#ahga71fg :o argu$ = m>9e deposition4 ,b>on ,von ,ri*?(5's classic on ,*9a1 :i* appe>$ 9 #ahgg1 amplifies ! obs]vations ( ,pumpelly & m>%als ! evid5ce to support ! hypo!sis t ! loess is w9d-laid bo? on dry l& & )9 anci5t salt lakes4 ,! conclusions ( ,von ,ri*?(5 7 adopt$ by ,pumpelly ^: k ( ! ,*9ese deposits1 supplem5t$ by /udies 9 ,miss\ri1 ( :i* ,/ate he 0 director ( ! ,geological ,survey 9 #ahgb-gc1 plac$ him 9 position to =m a correct judgm5t4 ,he says3#fh 8,recogniz+ f p]sonal obs]vation ! full id5tity ( "* ( ! loess ( nor!rn ,*9a1 ,europe & ! ,miss\ri ,valley1 ,i am oblig$ to reject my own explanation ( ! orig9 ( ! ,*9ese deposits1 & to believe ) ,ri*?(5 t ! true loess1 :]ev] x occurs1 is a sub-a]ial deposit1 =m$ 9 a dry c5tral region1 & t x owes its /ructure to ! =mative influ5ce ( a /eppe vegetation4 ,! "o weak po9t ( ,ri*?(5's !ory is 9 ! evid5t inadequacy ( ! curr5t dis9tegration z a s\rce ( mat]ial4 ,:5 we consid] ! imm5se area cov]$ by loess to dep?s v>y+ f #ej to #b1jjj feet1 & ! fact t ?is is only ! v f9e/ portion ( ! product ( rock-de/ruction1 & aga9 t ! accumulation repres5ts only a v %ort p]iod ( "t1 geologically speak+1 surely we mu/ seek a m f]tile s\rce ( supply ?an is furni%$ by ! curr5t decomposition ( rock surface4 ,x seems to me t !re are two important s\rces3 ,i4 ,! silt br\ght by riv]s1 _m ( !m f$ by ! products ( glacial attrition fl[+ f ! m\nta9s into ! c5tral region4 ,:]e ! /reams s9k away1 or :]e ! lakes :i* receive !m h dri$ up1 ! f9] products ( ! erosion ( a l>ge t]ritory are left to be remov$ 9 du/ /orms4 ,,ii4 ,! second 444 s\rce is ! residu>y products ( a secul> dis9tegration40 ,! evid5ce pres5t$ by ,pumpelly = ! eolian orig9 ( loess--/ructure1 texture1 composition1 fossil cont5t & topographic position--is complete1 & to him belongs ! cr$it = ! correct int]pretation ( ! ,mississippi valley deposits4 ,un=tunately 8 contribution came at a "t :5 ! geologi/s ( ! c5tral ,/ates 7 int5t on trac+ ! pa?s & expla9+ ! "w ( ,plei/oc5e glaci]s1 & ! belief 0 /rong t loess 0 "s phase ( glacial "w4 ,its position at ! bord] ( ! ,i[an drift s obvi\sly sugge/s a g5etic relation t ! fossil evid5ce ( /eppe climate sugge/$ by ,b9ney 9 #ahdhfi 0 m9imiz$4 ,/ud5ts ( ,plei/oc5e geology 9 ,m9nesota1 ,i[a1 ,nebraska1 ,miss\ri1 al?\gh less vigor\s 9 expression1 7 sub/antially 9 agreem5t ) ,hilg>d 7#ahgi74gj 8,! sum total ( anomal\s conditions requir$ to su/a9 ! eolian hypo!sis p>takes /rongly ( ! m>vell\s40 ,! la/ edition ( ,dana's ,manual1 #ahid1 & ( ,le,conte's ,geology1 #ahif1 ! two mo/ widely us$ text-books ( _! "t1 oppose ! eolian !ory1 & ,*amb]l91 9 #ahig1ga /ates3 8! aque\s hypo!sis seems be/ support$ s f> z conc]ns ! deposits ( ! ,mississippi ,valley & we/]n ,europe0 7p4 #gie74 ,%imek1 9 pap]s publi%$ s9ce #ahif has %[n t aquatic & glacial conditions c n acc\nt = ! loess fossils1 & ! return to ! views ( ,pumpelly t ! loess 0 deposit$ on l& by ! ag5cy ( w9d 9 a region ( /eppe vegetation is n[ all b univ]sal4 ,glacial ,sculpture4 ,)9 ! pres5t g5]ation sculpture by glaci]s has receiv$ mu* att5tion & has involv$ a reconsid]ation ( ! ability ( ice to erode :i* 9 turn involves a cry/allization ( views ( ! me*anics ( mov+ ice4 ,! evid5ce = glaci] erosion has rema9$ l>gely physiographic & re/s on a /udy ( l& =ms4 ,9 fact1 ! inadequacy ( /ructural features or ( riv] corrasion to acc\nt = flat-floor$1 /eep-wall$ gorges1 hang+ valleys1 & _m lake bas9s1 r ?an a k ( ! me*anics ( ice has l$ to ! pres5t fairly g5]al belief t glaci]s are p[]ful ag5ts ( rock sculpture4 ,! details ( ! process are n yet und]/ood4 ,erosion by glaci]s ent]s ! ar5a ( active discussion 9 #ahfb-fc4 ,! possibility _h be5 sugge/$ by ,esm>k 7#ahbg7 & by ,dana 7#ahdi7 9 ! description ( fiords & by ,h9d 7#ahee7 ) ref]5ce to ! orig9 ( ! ,great ,lakes4 ,x appe>s full-fl$g$ 9 ,ramsay's classic1 :i* 0 publi%$ simultane\sly 9 ,engl& & 9 ,am]ica4#gb ,! argum5t runs z foll[s3 ,!re is a close association ( anci5t glaci]s & lakes especially 9 m\nta9s2 glaci]s are amply able to erode2 evid5ces ( fault+1 special subsid5ce1 riv] erosion1 & m>9e erosion are abs5t f ! lake bas9s ( ,switz]l& & ,great ,brita94 ,to quote ,ramsay3 8,x requir$ a solid body gr9d+ /eadily & p[]fully 9 direct & heavy contact ) & across ! rocks to scoop out deep holl[s1 ! situations ( :i* might ei!r be det]m9$ by unequal h>dness ( ! rocks1 by extra weight ( ice 9 special places1 or by accid5tal circum/ances1 ! clue to :i* is lo/ f our inability p]fectly to recon/ruct ! orig9al =ms ( ! glaci]s40 8,i believe ) ! ,italian geologi/s1 t all t ! glaci]s z a :ole effect$ 0 only slightly to deep5 ^! valleys & mat]ially to modify _! g5]al outl9es1 &1 fur!r 7a !ory ,i am alone responsible =71 to deep5 !m 9 p>ts m consid]ably :51 f v>i\s causes1 ! gr9d+ p[] ( ! ice 0 unusually p[]ful1 especially :]e1 z 9 ! l[l&s ( ,switz]l&1 ! ,mioc5e /rata are comp>atively s(t40 ,:ittlesey 7#ahfd7gc consid]$ t ! rock-b\nd lakes & n>r[ bays ne> ,lake ,sup]ior 7 p>tly excavat$ by ice4 ,le,conte 7#ahge7gd records "s significant obs]vations 9 a pione] pap] on glaci] erosion :i* has n receiv$ adequate recognition4 ,he says3 8444 ,i am conv9c$ t a glaci]1 by its enorm\s pressure & resi/less onw>d movem5t1 is con/antly break+ (f l>ge blocks f its b$ & b\nd+ walls4 ,its erosion is n only a gr9d+ & scor+1 b also a cru%+ & break+4 ,x makes by its erosion n only rock-meal1 b also l>ge rock-*ips4444 ,its erosion is a con/ant process ( alt]nate r\gh hew+ & plan+4 ,if ,yosemite 7 unique1 we might suppose t x 0 =m$ by viol5t cataclysms2 b ,yosemite is n unique 9 =m & !re=e probably n 9 orig94 ,!re are _m ,yosemites4 ,x is m philosophical to acc\nt = !m by ! regul> op]ation ( kn[n causes4 ,i mu/ believe t all ^! deep p]p5dicul> slots h be5 sawn out by ! action ( glaci]s2 ! peculi> v]ticality ( ! walls hav+ be5 det]m9$ by ! p]p5dicul> cleavage /ructure40444 ,a lake 9 ,bloody ,canyon 8is a pure rock bas9 scoop$ out by ! glaci] at ?is place4444 ,^! ridges sep>at+ ,hope1 ,fai?1 & ,*>ity valleys are 9 fact ! lips ( consecutive lake bas9s scoop$ out by ice4 444 ,wat] t5ds to =m deep ,v-%ap$ canons1 :ile ice produces broad valleys ) lakes & mead[s4444 ,i "k n h[ g5]al ^! di/9ctions may be1 b c]ta9ly ! ,coa/ range ( ?is ,/ate is *>act]iz$ by r\nd$ summits & ridges1 & deep ,v-%ap$ canons1 :ile ! high ,si]ras are *>act]iz$ on ! contr>y by %>p1 spire-l1 comb-l summits1 & broad valleys2 & ?is diff]5ce ,i am conv9c$ is due 9 "p at lea/ to ! action ( wat] on ! "o h&1 & ( ice on ! o!r40 ,k+ 7#ahgh7ge assign$ to glacial erosion a comm&+ position 9 m\nta9 sculpture4 ,9 reg>d to ! ,u9tas1 he says3 8,glacial erosion has cut almo/ v]tically d[n ?r\gh ! b$s c>v+ imm5se amphi!atres ) bas9 bottoms conta9+ num]\s ,alp9e lakes4444 ,po/-glacial erosion has done an absolutely trivial "w4 ,!re is n a p>ticle ( direct evid5ce1 s f> z ,i c see1 to w>rant ! belief t ^! ,u-%ap$ canons 7 giv5 _! peculi> =m by o!r means ?an ! actual pl\gh+ erosion ( glaci]s44440 ,^! contributions f ! ,cordill]as corroborat+ ! conclusions ( ,ramsay 7#ahfb71 ,tyndall 7#ahfb71 ,jukes 7#ahfb71 ,hector 7#ahfc71 ,logan 7#ahfc71 ,close 7#ahgj71 & ,james ,geikie 7#ahge71 made little impression4 ,! views ( ,lyell 7#ahcc71 ,ball 7#ahfc71 ,j4 ,w4 ,dawson 7#ahfd71 ,falcon] 7#ahfd71 ,/ud] 7#ahfd71 ,mur*ison 7#ahfd1 #ahgj71 ,rusk9 7#ahfe71 ,rutimey] 7#ahfi71 ,:ymp] 7#ahga71 ,bonney 7#ahgc71 ,pfaff 7#ahgd71 ,gurlt 7#ahgd71 ,judd 7#ahgf71 prevail$1 & ! conclusions ( ,davis 9 #ahhbgf fairly express$ ! prevail+ belief 9 ,europe & 9 ,am]ica3 8,! am\nt ( glacial erosion 9 ! c5tral di/ricts has be5 v consid]able1 b n greatly 9 excess ( pre-glacial soils & old talus & alluvial deposits4 ,mo/ ( ! solid rock t 0 c>ri$ away came f l$ges r ?an f valleys2 & glaci]s _h 9 g5]al a smoo?+ r ?an a r\gh5+ effect4 ,9 ! out] areas on :i* ! ice advanc$ x only rubb$ d[n ! project+ po9ts2 "h x act$ m frequ5tly z a deposit+ ?an z an erod+ ag5t40 ,dur+ ! pa/ qu>t]-c5tury ! cleavage 9 ! ranks ( geologi/s1 br\ght ab\t by ,ramsay's classic pap]1 has rema9$4 ,fair*ild & o!rs 9 ,am]ica1 ,heim1 ,bonney1 & ,g>wood 9 ,europe argue = insignificant erosion by glaci]s2 & ,gannet1 ,davis1 ,gilb]t1 ,t>r 9 ,am]ica foll[$ by ,au/rian work]s pres5t evid5ce = erosion on a gigantic scale4 ,a p]usal ( ! volum9\s lit]ature 9 ! ,j\rnal & else:]e %[s t ! diff]5ce ( op9ion is 9 "p "o ( t]ms1 ! am\nt ( erosion r ?an ! fact ( erosion2 x also arises f failure to diff]5tiate ! "w ( m\nta9 glaci]s & cont95tal ice %eets1 ( ,plei/oc5e glaci]s & _! pres5t dim9i%$ repres5tatives4 ,! irrelevant contribution ( physici/s has also made = confusion4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t ! crit]ia = erosion ( valleys by glaci]s has long be5 e/abli%$ & by work]s 9 diff]5t c\ntries4 ,ramsay 7#ahfb7 9 ,engl& outl9$ ! problem & pres5t$ g5]aliz$ evid5ce4 ,hector 7#ahfc7 9 ,new ,zeal& po9t$ out ! significance ( discordant dra9age1 ! 8hang+ valleys0 ( ,gilb]t4 ,! ,u-=m1 ! broad lake-dott$ floor1 & ! pres5ce ( cirques & ! process ( pluck+ 7 probably fir/ describ$ by ,le,conte 7#ahgc7 9 ,am]ica4 ,! truncation ( valley spurs by glaci]s po9t$ out by ,/ud] 9 ! ,k]guel5 ,isl&s 7#ahgh7 0 us$ by ,*amb]l9 7#ahhc7 z evid5ce ( glacial sc\r+4 ,conclusion4 ,dur+ ! pa/ c5tury _m pr9ciples ( l& sculpture h em]g$ f ! fog ( intellectual speculation & unorganiz$ obs]vation & tak5 _! place among g5]ally accept$ tru?s4 ,_m ( !m are no long] subjects ( controv]sy4 ,erosion has f\nd its place z a major geologic ag5t & has giv5 a new conception ( natural sc5]y4 ,l(ty m\nta9s are no long] 8anci5t z ! sun10 !y are y\?ful features 9 process ( dissection2 valleys & canyons are ! "w ( /reams & glaci]s2 fiords are erosion =ms2 wat]falls & lakes are features 9 process ( elim9ation2 _m pla9s & plateaus owe _! =m & position to long-cont9u$ d5udation4 ,mod]n l&scapes are no long] view$ z orig9al features or ! product ( a s+le ag5t act+ at a p>ticul> "t1 b z ephem]al =ms :i* owe _! pres5t appe>ance to _! age & ! p>ticul> =ces at "w ^u !m z well z to _! orig9al /ructure4 ,x is int]e/+ to note ! halt+ /eps lead+ to ! pres5t viewpo9t1 to f9d t decades elaps$ betwe5 ! =mulation ( a !ory or ! record+ ( significant facts & _! f9al acceptance or rejection1 & to realize t ! organization ( pr9ciples & obs]vations into a sci5ce ( physiography has be5 ! "w ( ! pres5t g5]ation4 ,progress has be5 condition$ by a numb] ( factors besides ! intellectual ability ( individual work]s4 ,! influ5ce ( locality is pla9ly se54 ,conv9c+ evid5ce ( riv] erosion 0 obta9$ 9 c5tral ,france1 ! ,pacific ,isl&s1 & ! ,colorado ,plateau--regions 9 :i* o!r causes 7 easily elim9at$4 ,sculpture by glaci]s pass$ beyond ! !oretical /age :5 ! simple =ms ( ! ,si]ras & ,new ,zeal& ,alps 7 describ$4 ,! orig9 ( loess 0 fir/ disc]n$ 9 a region :]e glacial ph5om5a did n obscure ! vision4 ,! complexity ( ! ,glacial p]iod ass]t$ by geologi/s ( ! ,middle ,we/ 0 d5i$ by ea/]n /ud5ts4 ,! "w ( waves on ! ,engli% coa/ impress$ ,briti% geologi/s to su* an ext5t t pla9s ( d5udation & inl& valleys 7 ascrib$ to ocean "w4 ,9 ! e/abli%m5t ( pr9ciples1 ! fri5dly int]*ange ( ideas has yield$ l>ge returns4 ,_m ( ! fundam5tal conceptions ( e>? sculpture h come f gr\ps ( m5 s situat$ z to facilitate criticism4 ,x is impossible1 ev5 if desirable1 to aw>d individual cr$it to ,v5etz1 ,*>p5ti]1 & ,agassiz 9 ! =mulation ( ! glacial !ory2 & ! close association ( ,agassiz & ,dana 9 ,new ,engl& & ( ,*amb]l9 & ,irv+ 9 ,wiscons9 0 und\bt$ly helpful 9 e/abli%+ ! !ory ( cont95tal glaciation4 ,f ! intimate companion%ip 9 field & laboratory ( ,hutton1 ,playfair & ,hope1 arose ! pr(\nd influ5ce ( ! ,ed9burgh s*ool1 & ! sympa!tic coop]ation ( ,p[ell1 ,gilb]t1 & ,dutton has giv5 to ! _w its classics 9 ! g5etic /udy ( l& =ms4 ,! influ5ce ( ideas has be5 closely associat$ ) cl>ity1 concis5ess1 & attractiv5ess ( pres5tation4 ,hutton is kn[n ?r\gh ,playfair1 ,agassiz's contributions to glacial geology are kn[n to e /ud5t1 :ile ,v5etz1 ,*>p5ti]1 & ,hugi are only names4 ,cuvi]'s disc\rses on dynamical geology 7 repr9t$ & translat$ into ,engli% & ,g]man1 b ,lam>ck's 8,hydrogologie0 is kn[n only to book collectors4 ,! v]bose works ( ,guett>d1 al?\gh c>ry+ ! same message z ,playfair's 8,illu/rations0 & ,desm>e/'s 8,memoirs10 are practically unkn[n1 z is also ,horace ,h4 ,hayd5's treatise 7#ahba7 on ! drift ( ea/]n ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,x has be5 well said t ! _w-wide influ5ce ( ,am]ican physiographic tea*+ is due 9 no small "p to ! ma/]ly pres5tations ( ,gilb]t & ,davis4 ,x is surpris+ to note ! delays1 ! backw>d /eps1 & ! duplication ( ef=t result+ f lack ( famili>ity ) ! "w ( ! pione]s4 ,sab9e says 9 #ahfd3gg 8,x (t5 happ5s1 n unnaturally1 t ^? :o are mo/ occupi$ ) ! que/ions ( ! day 9 an advanc+ sci5ce reta9 b an imp]fect recollection ( ! obligations due to ^? :o laid ! fir/ f\ndations ( our subsequ5t k40 ,! product ( intellectual ef=t appe>s to be condition$ by "t ( plant+ & "* ( soil z well z by quantity ( se$4 ,= example3 ,erosion by riv]s 0 z cle>ly %[n by ,desm>e/ z by ,dana & ,newb]ry #ej ye>s lat]4 ,crit]ia = ! recognition ( anci5t fluviatile deposits 7 e/abli%$ by ,james ,deane 9 #ahdg 9 a /udy ( ! ,connecticut ,valley ,triassic4 ,agassiz's pro( t ice is an ess5tial factor 9 ! =mation ( till is sub/antially a duplication ( ,dobson's obs]vations 7#ahbf74 ,! volumes ( ! ,j\rnal ) _! v l>ge numb] ( articles & reviews deal+ ) geology %[ t ! int]pretation ( l& =ms z products ( subarial erosion began 9 ,france & ,fr5* ,switz]l& dur+ ! lat] "p ( ! eighte5? c5tury z a phase ( ! intellectual emancipation foll[+ ! ,revolution4 ,scotl& & ,engl& assum$ ! lead]%ip = ! fir/ half ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 & ! fir/ #ajj volumes ( ! ,j\rnal %[ ! pr(\nd influ5ce ( ,engli% & ,fr5* tea*+4 ,9 ,am]ica1 indep5d5t ?9k+1 e>ly ex]cis$ by ! few1 became g5]al ) ! e/abli%m5t ( ! ,f$]al survey1 ! increase 9 univ]sity dep>tm5ts1 geological societies & p]iodicals1 & has giv5 to ,am]icans ! responsibilities ( tea*]s4 ,bibliography4 7,9 ! foll[+ li/ 8?is ,j\rnal0 ref]s to ! ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce47 ,footnote #d3 ,wilson1 ,j4 ,w41 ,bur/+ ( lakes ?r\gh m\nta9s1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #c1 #bec1 #ahba4 ,footnote #e3 ,:itney1 ,j4 ,d41 ,progress ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ,cali=nia1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #ch1 #bfc-bfd1 #ahfd4 ,footnote #f3 ,playfair1 ,john1 ,illu/rations ( ! ,huttonian !ory ( ! e>?1 ,ed9burgh1 #ahjb4 ,footnote #g3 ,ka91 ,j4 ,h41 ,rem>ks on ! m9]alogy & geology ( nor?we/]n ,virg9ia & ea/]n ,t5nessee1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #a1 #fj-fg1 #ahai4 ,footnote #h3 ,hit*cock1 ,edw>d1 ,geology1 etc41 ( regions contigu\s to ! ,connecticut1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #g1 #a-cj1 #ahbd4 ,footnote #i3 ,buckl&1 ,wm41 ,reliqui diluvian1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #h1 #aej1 #cag1 #ahbd4 ,footnote #aj3 ,phillips1 ,john1 ,geology ( ,york%ire1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #ba1 #ag-bj1 #ahcb4 ,footnote #aa3 ,scrope1 ,g4 ,p41 ,excavation ( valleys1 ,geol4 ,soc41 ,london1 ,no4 #ad1 #ahcj4 ,footnote #ab3 ,hayes1 ,g4 ,e41 ,rem>ks on geology & topography ( we/]n ,new ,york1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #ce1 #hh-ia1 #ahci4 ,footnote #ac3 ,sev5? ,meet+ ( ! ,briti% ,association = ! ,advancem5t ( ,sci5ce1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #cc1 #bhh1 #ahch4 ,footnote #ad3 ,d>w91 ,*>les1 ,geological obs]vations on ! volcanic isl&s & p>ts ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 etc41 second "p ( ! ,voyage ( ! 8,beagle10 dur+ #ahcb-ahcf4 ,london1 #ahdd4 ,footnote #ae3 ,hildre?1 ,s4 ,p41 ,obs]vations1 etc41 valley ( ! ,ohio1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #bi1 #a-adh1 #ahcf4 ,footnote #af3 ,g$des1 ,james1 ,obs]vations on ! geological features ( ! s\? side ( ,ont>io valley1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #aa1 #bac-bah1 #ahbf4 ,footnote #ah3 ,w>r51 ,g4 ,k41 ,prelim9>y report ( explorations 9 ,nebraska & ,dakota1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #bg1 #chj1 #ahei4 ,footnote #ai3 ,lesley1 ,j4 ,p41 ,obs]vations on ! ,appala*ian region ( s\!rn ,virg9ia1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #cd1 review1 #dac-dae1 #ahfb4 ,footnote #ag3 ,conrad1 ,t4 ,a41 ,notes on ,am]ican geology1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #ce1 #bcg-bea1 #ahci4 ,footnote #bj3 ,dana1 ,j4 ,d41 ,on d5udation 9 ! ,pacific1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #i1 #dh-fb1 #ahej4 ----1 ,on ! degradation ( ! rocks ( ,new ,s\? ,wales & =mation ( valleys1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #i1 #bhi-bid1 #ahej4 ,footnote #ba3 ,hubb>d1 ,o4 ,p41 ,on ! condition ( trap dikes 9 ,new ,hamp%ire an evid5ce & measure ( erosion1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #i1 #aeh-aga1 #ahej4 ,footnote #bb3 ,hayd51 ,f4 ,v41 ,"s rem>ks 9 reg>d to ! p]iod ( elevation ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #cc1 #cje-cac1 #ahfb4 ,footnote #bc3 ,newb]ry1 ,j4 ,s41 ,colorado ,riv] ( ! ,we/1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #cc1 review1 #chg-djc1 #ahfb4 ,footnote #bd3 ,jukes1 ,j4 ,b41 ,address to ! ,geological ,section ( ! ,briti% ,association at ,cambridge1 ,qu>t4 ,j\r4 ,geol4 ,soc41 #ah1 #ahfb1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #cd1 #dci1 #ahfb4 ,footnote #be3 ,p[ell1 ,j4 ,w41 ,exploration ( ! ,colorado ,riv] ( ! ,we/1 #ahge4 ,= ,p[ell's prelim9>y article see ?is ,j\rnal1 #e1 #def-dfe1 #ahgc4 ,footnote #bf3 ,mc,gee1 ,w4 ,j41 ,?ree =mations ( ! ,middle ,atlantic slope1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #ce1 #abj1 #cbh1 #cfg1 #ddh1 #ahhh4 ,footnote #bg3 ,davis1 ,w4 ,m41 ,topographic developm5t ( ! ,triassic =mation ( ! ,connecticut ,valley1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #cg1 #dbc-dcd1 #ahhi4 ,footnote #bh3 ,p]cival1 ,j4 ,g41 ,geology ( ,connecticut1 #ahdb4 ,footnote #bi3 ,k]r1 ,w4 ,c41 ,orig9 ( "s new po9ts 9 ! topography ( ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #ba1 #baf-bai1 #ahha4 ,footnote #cj3 ,mc,gee1 ,w4 ,j41 ,! classification ( geographic =ms by g5esis1 ,nat4 ,geogr4 ,mag41 #a1 #bg-cf1 #ahhh4 ,footnote #ca3 ,davis1 ,w4 ,m41 ,! riv]s & valleys ( ,p5nsylvania1 ,nat4 ,geogr4 ,mag41 #a1 #ahc-bec1 #ahhi4 ----1 ,! riv]s ( nor!rn ,new ,j]sey ) notes on ! classification ( riv]s 9 g5]al1 ibid41 #b1 #ha-aaj1 #ahij4 ,footnote #cb3 ,silliman1 ,b5jam91 ,notice ( ,horace ,h4 ,hayd5's geological essays1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #c1 #di1 #ahba4 ,footnote #cc3 ,cornelius1 ,elias1 ,acc\nt ( a s+ul> position ( a granite rock1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #b1 #bjj-bja1 #ahbj4 ,footnote #cd3 ,f9*1 ,john1 ,on ! ,celtic antiquities ( ,am]ica1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #g1 #adi-afa1 #ahbd4 ,footnote #ce3 ,f9*1 ,john1 ,geological essay on ! ,t]ti>y =mations 9 ,am]ica1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #g1 #ca-dc1 #ahbd4 ,footnote #cf3 ,conybe>e & ,phillips1 ,outl9es ( ! geology ( ,engl& & ,wales1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #g1 #baj1 #baa1 #ahbd4 ,footnote #cg3 ,hayd51 ,horace ,h41 ,geological essays1 #a-dab1 #ahba1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #c1 #dg-eg1 #ahba4 ,footnote #ch3 ,jackson1 ,c4 ,t41 ,reports on ! geology ( ! ,/ate ( ,ma9e1 & on ! public l&s belong+ to ,ma9e & ,massa*usetts1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #cf1 #aec1 #ahci4 ,footnote #ci3 ,gibson1 ,j4 ,b41 ,rem>ks on ! geology ( ! lakes & ! valley ( ! ,mississippi1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #bi1 #bja-bac1 #ahcf4 ,footnote #dj3 ,phillips1 ,john1 ,geology ( ,york%ire1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #ba1 #ad-ae1 #ahcb4 ,footnote #da3 ,grang]1 ,eb5ez]1 ,notice ( a curi\s flut$ rock at ,s&usky ,bay1 ,ohio1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #f1 #ahj1 #ahbc4 ,footnote #db3 ,dobson1 ,pet]1 ,rem>ks on b[ld]s1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #aj1 #bag-bah1 #ahbf4 ,footnote #dc3 ,mur*ison1 ,r4 ,i41 ,address at anniv]s>y meet+ ( ! ,geological ,society ( ,london1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #dc1 #bjj-bja1 #ahdb4 ,footnote #dd3 ,pet] ,dobson 7#aghd-ahgh7 came to ?is c\ntry f ,pre/on1 ,engl&1 9 #ahji & e/abli%$ a cotton factory at ,v]non1 ,conn4 ,footnote #de3 ,buckl&1 ,w41 ,on ! evid5ce ( glaci]s 9 ,scotl& & ! nor? ( ,engl&1 ,proc4 ,london ,geol4 ,soc41 #c1 #ahda4 ,footnote #df3 ,hit*cock1 ,edw>d1 ,fir/ anniv]s>y address be=e ! ,association ( ,am]ican ,geologi/s1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #da1 #bcb-bge1 #ahda4 ,footnote #dg3 ,?ird annual meet+ ( ! ,association ( ,am]ican ,geologi/s & ,naturali/s1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #dc1 #aed1 #ahdb2 ,ab/ract ( proce$+s ( ! f\r? session ( ! ,association ( ,am]ican ,geologi/s & ,naturali/s1 ibid41 #de1 #cba1 #ahdc4 ,footnote #dh3 ,rog]s1 ,h4 ,d41 ,address deliv]$ be=e ,association ( ,am]ican ,geologi/s & ,naturali/s1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #dg1 #bge1 #ahdd4 ,footnote #di3 ,agassiz1 ,l\is1 ,! erratic ph5om5a ab\t ,lake ,sup]ior1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #aj1 #hc-aja1 #ahej4 ,footnote #ej3 ,desor1 ,e41 ,on ! drift ( ,lake ,sup]ior1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #ac1 #ic-aji1 #aheb2 ,po/-,plioc5e ( ! s\!rn ,/ates1 etc41 #ad1 #di-ei1 #aheb4 ,footnote #ea3 ,dana1 ,j4 ,d41 ,manual ( geology1 #edf1 ,philadelphia1 #ahfc4 ,footnote #eb3 ,dana1 ,j4 ,d41 on ! ,quat]n>y1 or po/-,t]ti>y ( ! ,new ,hav5 region1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #a1 #a-e1 #ahga4 ,footnote #ec3 ,mat!w1 ,g4 ,f41 ,surface geology ( ,new ,brunswick1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #b1 #cga-cgb1 #ahga4 ,footnote #ed3 ,macl>51 ,*>les1 ,! glacial !ory ( ,pr(4 ,agassiz1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #db1 #cfe1 #ahdb4 ,footnote #ee3 ,daly1 ,r4 ,a41 ,problems ( ! ,pacific ,isl&s1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #da1 #aec-ahf1 #aiaf4 ,footnote #ef3 ,catl91 ,george1 ,acc\nt ( a j\rney to ! ,cteau des ,prairies1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #ch1 #ach-adf1 #ahdj4 ,footnote #eg3 ,hilg>d1 ,e4 ,w41 ,rem>ks on ! drift ( ! we/]n & s\!rn ,/ates & its relation to ! glaci] & iceb]g !ories1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #db1 #cdc-cdg1 #ahff4 ,footnote #eh3 ,hall1 ,c4 ,e41 ,glacial ph5om5a along ! ,kittat9ny or ,blue ,m\nta91 ,p5nsylvania1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #aa1 review1 #bcc1 #ahgf4 ,footnote #ei3 ,/ev5s1 ,r4 ,p41 ,on glaci]s ( ! glacial era 9 ,virg9ia1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #f1 #cga-cgc1 #ahgc4 ,footnote #fj3 ,rog]s1 ,w4 ,b41 ,on ! gravel & cobble-/one deposits ( ,virg9ia & ! ,middle ,/ates1 ,proc4 ,bo/on ,soc4 ,nat4 ,hi/41 #ah1 #ahge2 ?is ,j\rnal1 #aa1 #fj-fa1 #ahgf4 ,footnote #fa3 ,k]r1 ,w4 ,c1 ,orig9 ( "s new po9ts 9 ! topography ( ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #ba1 #baf-bai1 #ahha4 ,footnote #fb3 ,gilb]t1 ,g4 ,k41 ,on c]ta9 glacial & po/-glacial ph5om5a ( ! ,maumee valley1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #a1 #cci-cde1 #ahga4 ,footnote #fc3 ,*amb]l91 ,t4 ,c41 ,on ! geology ( ea/]n ,wiscons91 ,geol4 ( ,wiscons91 #b1 #ahgg2 ?is ,j\rnal1 #ae1 #fa1 #djf1 #ahgh4 ,footnote #fd3 ,*amb]l91 ,t4 ,c1 ,prelim9>y pap] on ! t]m9al mora9e ( ! second glacial epo*1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 ,?ird ,ann4 ,rept41 #bia-djb1 #ahhc4 ,footnote #fe3 ,wright1 ,g4 ,f41 ,unity ( ! glacial epo*1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #dd1 #cea-cgc1 #ahib4 ,upham1 ,w>r51 ,! div]sity ( ! glacial drift along its b\nd>y1 ibid41 #dg1 #ceh-cfe1 #ahid4 ,wright1 ,g4 ,f41 ,!ory ( an int]glacial subm]g5ce 9 ,engl&1 ibid41 #dc1 #a-h1 #ahib4 ,*amb]l91 ,t4 ,c41 ,div]sity ( ! glacial p]iod1 ibid41 #de1 #aga-bjj1 #aihc ,dana1 ,j4 ,d41 ,on ,new ,engl& & ! upp] ,mississippi bas9 9 ! glacial p]iod1 ibid41 #df1 #cbg-ccj1 #ahic4 ,wright1 ,g4 ,f41 ,cont9uity ( ! glacial p]iod1 ibid41 #dg1 #afa-ahg1 #ahid4 ,*amb]l91 ,t4 ,c4 & ,lev]ett1 ,f41 ,fur!r /udies ( ! dra9age features ( ! upp] ,ohio bas91 ibid41 #dg1 #bdg-bhb1 #ahid4 ,footnote #ff3 ,pumpelly1 ,raphael1 ,geological rese>*es 9 ,*9a1 ,japan1 & ,mongolia1 ,smi?sonian ,contributions1 ,no4 #bjb1 #ahff4 ,footnote #fg3 ,k+smill1 ,t4 ,w41 ,! probable orig9 ( 8loess0 9 ,nor? ,*9a & ea/]n ,asia1 ,qu>t4 ,j\r4 ,geol4 ,soc41 #bg1 ,no4 #ajh1 #ahga4 ,footnote #fh3 ,pumpelly1 ,raphael1 ,! relation ( secul> rock-dis9tegration to loess1 glacial drift & rock bas9s1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #ag1 #ace1 #ahgi4 ,footnote #fi3 ,b9ney1 ,a41 ,"s geologic features at ,nat*ez on ! ,mississippi ,riv]1 ,proc4 ,bo/on ,soc4 ,nat4 ,hi/41 #b1 #abf-acj1 #ahdh4 ,footnote #gj3 ,hilg>d1 ,e4 ,w41 ,! loess ( ,mississippi ,valley1 & ! eolian hypo!sis1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #ah1 #ajf-aab1 #ahgi4 ,footnote #ga3 ,*amb]l91 ,t4 ,c1 ,supplem5t>y hypo!sis respect+ ! orig9 ( ! loess ( ! ,mississippi ,valley1 ,j\r4 ,geol41 #e1 #gie-hjb1 #ahig4 ,footnote #gb3 ,ramsay1 ,a4 ,c41 ,on ! glacial orig9 ( c]ta9 lakes 9 ,switz]l&1 ! ,black ,=e/1 ,great ,brita91 ,sw$51 ,nor? ,am]ica1 & else:]e1 ,qu>t4 ,j\r4 ,geol4 ,soc41 #ahfb2 ?is ,j\rnal1 #ce1 #cbd-cde1 #ahfc4 ,prelim9>y /atem5ts ( ?is !ory appe>$ 9 #ahei & #ahfj4 ,footnote #gc3 ,:ittlesey1 ,*>les1 ,smi?sonian ,contributions1 ,no4 #aig1 #ahfd4 ,footnote #gd3 ,le,conte1 ,joseph1 ,on "s ( ! anci5t glaci]s ( ! ,si]ras1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #e1 #cbe-cdb1 #ahgc1 #aj1 #abf-aci1 #ahge4 ,footnote #ge3 ,k+1 ,cl>5ce1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,expl4 #dj? ,p>41 #a1 #dei-ebi1 #ahgh4 ,footnote #gf3 ,davis1 ,w4 ,m41 ,glacial erosion1 ,proc4 ,bo/on ,soc4 ,nat4 ,hi/41 #bb1 #eh1 #ahhb4 ,footnote #gg3 ,sab9e1 ,sir ,edw>d1 ,address ( ! presid5t ( ! ,royal ,society1 ?is ,j\rnal1 #cg1 #ajh1 #ahfd4 ,,iv ,a ,,c5tury ,,( ,,geology4--,,! ,,gr[? ,,( ,,k ,,( ,,e>? ,,/ructure ,by ,,joseph ,,b>rell ,introduction ,! ,intellectual ,viewpo9t 9 #ahah4 ,9 #ahah1 ! ye> ( ! f\nd+ ( ! ,j\rnal1 ! natural sci5ces 7 /ill 9 _! infancy 9 ,europe4 ,geology 0 /ill subord9ate to m9]alogy1 0 h>dly recogniz$ z a di/9ct sci5ce1 & consi/$ 9 little m ?an a description ( ! "* & di/ribution ( m9]als & rocks4 ,am]ica 0 remote f ! ,old ,_w c5t]s ( le>n+4 ,! en]gy ( ! "y nation 0 absorb$ 9 its own expansion1 & b a few ( ^? :o by aptitude 7 fitt$ to increase sci5tific k 7 ev5 consci\s ( ! exi/5ce ( su* a field ( endeavor4 ,"u ^! circum/ances ! educative field op5 to a j\rnal ( sci5ce 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 0 an almo/ virg9 soil4 ,orig9al contributions c\ld mo/ readily be bas$ ^u ! natural hi/ory ( ! ,new ,_w1 & ! f\nd] ( ! ,j\rnal %[$ insight appreciative ( ! situation 9 /at+ 9 ! 8,plan ( ! ,"w0 9 ! introduction to ! fir/ volume t 8,x w be a lead+ object to illu/rate ,,am]ican ,,natural ,,hi/ory1 & especially our ,,m9]alogy & ,,geology40 ,at ?is "t educat$ p 7 /ill satisfi$ t ! :ole k ( ! orig9 & developm5t ( ! e>? s f> z man c\ld or %\ld "k x 0 embrac$ 9 ! ,book ( ,g5esis4 ,!y 7 incl9$ to look ) misgiv+ at attempts to directly int]rogate ! e>? z to its hi/ory4 ,philosoph]s su* z ,desc>tes & ,liebnitz1 ! cosmogoni/s de ,maillet & ,buffon _h be5 less in/rum5tal 9 develop+ sci5ce ?an 9 fitt+ a few facts & _m speculations to _! sy/ems ( philosophy4 ,by ! op5+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 h[ev]1 m5 ( le>n+ 7 com+ to appreciate t ! way to advance sci5ce 0 to exp]im5t & obs]ve1 to collect facts & disc\rage unf\nd$ speculation4 ,silliman's insight into ! ne$s ( geologic sci5ce is %[n 9 ! foll[+ quotation 7#a1 pp4 #f1 #g1 #ahah73 8,our geology1 also1 pres5ts a mo/ int]e/+ field ( inquiry4 ,a gr& outl9e has rec5tly be5 drawn by ,mr4 ,maclure1 ) a ma/]ly h&1 & ) a va/ ext5t ( p]sonal obs]vation & lab\r3 b to fill up ! detail1 bo? obs]vation & lab\r /ill m ext5sive are dem&$2 nor c ! object be effect$1 till m good geologi/s are =m$1 & di/ribut$ ov] our ext5sive t]ritory4 ,to acc\nt = ! =mation & *anges ( our globe1 by excursions ( ! imag9ation1 (t5 spl5did & impos+1 b usually vision>y1 & almo/ always baseless1 01 till )9 half a c5tury1 ! bus9ess ( geological speculations2 b ?is rese>* has n[ assum$ a m sob] "*2 ! sci5ce ( geology has be5 re>$ ^u num]\s & accurate obs]vations ( facts2 & /&+ ?us ^u ! basis ( induction1 x is entitl$ to a rank among ^? sci5ces :i* ,"l ,bacon's ,philosophy has contribut$ to create4 ,geological rese>*es are n[ prosecut$ by actually explor+ ! /ructure & arrangem5t ( di/ricts1 c\ntries1 & cont95ts4 ,! obliquity ( ! /rata ( mo/ rocks1 caus+ _! edges to project 9 _m places above ! surface2 _! exposure1 9 o!r in/ances on ! sides or tops ( hills & m\nta9s2 or1 9 consequ5ce ( ! int]section ( _! /rata1 by roads1 canals1 & riv]-c\rses1 or by ! we>+ ( ! ocean2 or _! direct p]=ation1 by ! %afts ( m9es2 all ^! causes1 & o!rs1 af=d ext5sive means ( read+ ! int]ior /ructure ( ! globe4 ,! outl9es ( ,am]ican geology appe> to be p>ticul>ly gr&1 simple1 & in/ructive2 & a k ( ! important facts1 & g5]al pr9ciples ( ?is sci5ce1 is ( va/ practical use1 z reg>ds ! int]e/s ( agriculture1 & ! rese>* = useful m9]als4 ,geological & m9]alogical descriptions1 & maps ( p>ticul> /ates & di/ricts1 are v mu* ne$$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & to excite a _s to furni% !m w =m "o lead+ object ( ?is ,j\rnal40 ,! ,prolong$ ,influ5ce ( ,outgr[n ,ideas4 ,^? int]e/$ 9 any bran* ( sci5ce %\ld1 z a matt] ( education1 read ! hi/ory ( t special subject4 ,a k ( ! /ages by :i* ! pres5t developm5t has be5 atta9$ is ess5tial to give a prop] p]spective to ! lit]ature ( ea* p]iod4 ,mu* ( ! exi/+ t]m9ology is an inh]itance f ! fir/ attempts at nom5clature1 or may re/ ^u !ories long disc>d$4 ,popul> notions at v>iance ) advanc$ tea*+ are (t5 ! =gott5 inh]itance ( a pa/ g5]ation4 ,gneiss1 trap1 & ,old ,r$ ,s&/one are names :i* we owe to ,w]n]4 ,! 8,t]ti>y p]iod0 & 8drift0 are relics ( an e>ly t]m9ology4 ,! geology ( t\ri/ circul>s /ill speaks ( canyons z made by 8convulsions ( nature40 ,popul> writ]s /ill attribute to geologi/s a belief 9 a molt5 e>? cov]$ by a ?9 cru/4 ,)9 ! pres5t c5tury ! eighte5? c5tury speculations ( ,w]n] & 8 pr$ecessors1 po/ulat+ a suppos$ capacity ( wat] to seep ?r\gh ! cru/ into ! int]ior ( ! e>?1 result+ 9 a hypo!tical progressive desiccation ( ! surface1 views long ab&on$ by mo/ mod]n geologi/s1 h be5 reviv$ by an a/ronom] into a !ory ( 8planetology40 ,a review ( ! lit]ature ( a c5tury br+s to light c]ta9 t5d5cies 9 ! gr[? ( sci5ce4 ,ea* decade has witness$ a l>g] accumulation ( obs]v$ facts & a full] classification ( ^! fundam5tal data1 b ! p5dulum ( int]pretative !ory sw+s away f ! pa? ( progress1 n[ to "o side1 n[ to ! o!r1 te/+ out ! prop] direction4 ,= decades ! und]/&+ ( c]ta9 classes ( facts may be actually retrogressive4 ,a retrospect %[s t c]ta9 m9ds1 ke5 & unfett]$ by a prevail+ !ory1 h 9 "s directions be5 9 advance ( _! g5]ation4 ,b ! judgm5t ( ! times _h n suffici5t basis 9 k = ! sep>ation & acceptance ( _! tru] views f ! contemporane\s tangle ( false int]pretations4 ,an int]e/+ illu/ration ( ^! /atem5ts reg>d+ ! sl[ settl+ ( op9ion may be cit$ 9 reg>d to ! significance ( ! dip ( ! ,triassic =mations ( ! ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! /rata ( ! ,massa*usetts-,connecticut bas9 possess a monocl9al ea/]ly dip :i* av]ages ab\t #bj degrees to ! ea/4 ,^? ( ! ,new ,j]sey-,p5nsylvania-,virg9ia bas9 possess a simil> dip to ! nor?we/4 ,bo? bas9s are cut by great faults & ! dip is n[ accept$ by practically all geologi/s z due to rotation ( ! cru/ blocks away f a geanticl9al axis betwe5 ! two bas9s4 ,edw>d ,hit*cock1 ^: "w f ! fir/ %[s an int]pretative quality 9 advance ( 8 "t1 /ates 9 #ahbc 7#f1gd7 reg>d+ ! dip ( ! ,connecticut valley rocks3 8,!re is reason to believe t ,m\nt ,toby1 ! /rata ( :i* are almo/ horizontal1 exhibits ! orig9al dip ( ^! rocks1 & t ^? cases 9 :i* !y are m highly incl9$ are ! result ( "s ,plutonian convulsion4 ,su* irregul>ity 9 ! dip ( coal fields is no uncommon occurr5ce40 ,9 ,hit*cock's ,geology ( ,massa*usetts1 publi%$ 9 #ahcc1 t5 ye>s lat]1 geological /ructure sections ( ! ,connecticut ,valley rocks are giv51 ! facts are discuss$ 9 detail & ! dip ascrib$ to ! elevatory =ces4 ,he says 7l4 c41 pp4 #bac1 #bbc73 8,if x 7 possible to d\bt t ! new r$ s&/one =mation 0 deposit$ f wat]1 ! surface ( "s ( ! lay]s ( ?is %ale w\ld settle ! "q demon/rably4 ,= x exhibits precisely ^? g5tle undulations1 :i* ! loamy bottom ( e riv] ) a mod]ate curr5t1 pres5ts4 7,no4 #aih47 ,b su* a surface c\ld nev] h be5 =m$ :ile ! lay]s _h t high incl9ation to ! horizon1 :i* _m ( !m n[ pres5t3 s t we h "h1 also1 decisive evid5ce t !y h be5 elevat$ subsequ5tly to _! deposition4444 ,! objection ( a writ] 9 ! ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce1 t su* a height ( wat]s z w\ld deposit ,m\nt ,toby1 mu/ h produc$ a lake ne>ly to ! upp] "p ( ,new ,hamp%ire1 9 ! ,connecticut ,valley1 & ?us h caus$ ! same s&/one to be produc$ high] up t valley ?an ,nor?field1 loses its =ce1 :5 x is recollect$ t ?is =mation 0 deposit$ be=e its /rata 7 elevat$4 ,= ! elevat+ =ce und\bt$ly *ang$ ! relative level ( diff]5t p>ts ( ! c\ntry4 ,9 ?is case1 ! di/urb+ =ce mu/ h act$ b5ea? ! prim>y rocks4 ,& besides1 we h good evid5ce :i* w be %[n by & by1 t our new r$ s&/one 0 =m$ b5ea? ! ocean4 ,we _c !n reason on ?is subject f pres5t levels40 ,illu/ration3 ,c\rtesy ( ,popul> ,sci5ce ,mon?ly4 ,9 #ahdj1 ,h4 ,d4 ,rog]s1 a geologi/ :o has acquir$ a m widely kn[n "n ?an ,hit*cock1 b :o 9 reality %[$ an inf]ior ability 9 int]pretation1 made ! foll[+ /atem5ts 9 explanation ( ! regional monocl9al dip ( ! ,new ,j]sey ,triassic rocks av]ag+ #ae to #bj degrees to ! nor?we/3#gh 8,_! mat]ials give evid5ce ( hav+ be5 swept into ?is e/u>y1 or great anci5t riv]1 f ! s\? & s\!a/1 by a curr5t produc+ an almo/ univ]sal dip ( ! b$s t[>ds ! nor?we/1 a feature cle>ly n caus$ by any uplift+ ag5cy1 b assum$ orig9ally at ! "t ( _! deposition1 9 consequ5ce ( ! sett+ ( ! curr5t f ! opposite or s\!a/]n %ore40 ,9 #ahdb1 at ! ?ird annual meet+ ( ! ,association ( ,am]ican ,geologi/s bo? ,h4 ,d4 & ,w4 ,b4 ,rog]s argu$ 7#dc1 #agj1 #ahdb7 aga9/ ,sir ,*>les ,lyell & ,e4 ,hit*cock t ! pres5t dip ( ! ,triassic 0 ! orig9al slope ( deposition1 /at+ among o!r reasons t ! footpr9ts impress$ ^u ! s$im5ts (t5 %[$ a slipp+ & a pu%+ ( ! s(t clay 9 ! direction ( ! d[nhill slope4 ,9 #aheh ,h4 ,d4 ,rog]s /ill held to ! same views ( orig9al dip1#gi not)/&+ t a mod]ate am\nt ( obs]vation on ! mud-crack$ & ra9-pitt$ lay]s w\ld h suppli$ ! pro( t su* mu/ h dri$ z horizontal surfaces4 ,! idea ( incl9$ deposition is n yet :olly dead z x has be5 sugge/$ m ?an once )9 ! pres5t g5]ation z a means ( escap+ f ! necessity ( accept+ ! v great ?icknesses ( ?is & simil> =mations4 ,?us1 z ,brgg] has rem>k$ 9 ano!r connection1--! gho/s ( ! old "t /& ev] ready to reappe>4 ,9 ! pres5t essay on ! rise ( /ructural geology z reflect$ ?r\gh a c5tury ( publication 9 ! ,j\rnal1 att5tion w be giv5 especially to two fields1 t ( /ructures connect$ ) igne\s rocks & t ( /ructures connect$ ) m\nta9 mak+1 & emphasis w be plac$ ^u ! gr[? ( und]/&+ r ?an ^u ! accumulat+ k ( details4 ,! gr[? 9 bo? ( ^! divisions ( /ructural geology is well illu/rat$ 9 ! volumes ( ! ,j\rnal4 ,/ructures & ,relation%ips ( ,igne\s ,rocks4 ,oppos$ ,int]pretations ( ,plutoni/s & ,neptuni/s4 ,dur+ ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! n9ete5? c5tury ! geologic controv]sy betwe5 ! ,plutoni/s & ,neptuni/s 0 at its height2 ! ,plutoni/s1 foll[+ ! ,scot*man1 ,hutton1 hold+ to ! igne\s orig9 ( basalt & granite1 ! ,neptuni/s1 aft] _! ,g]man ma/]1 ,w]n] ( ,freib]g1 ma9ta9+ t ^! rocks _h be5 precipitat$ f a primitive univ]sal ocean4 ,! ,plutoni/s1 al?\gh "t has %[n !m to h be5 correct 9 all ess5tial p>ticul>s1 7 = a g5]ation subm]g$ "u ! propag&a c>ri$ =w>d by ! disciples ( ,w]n]4 ,! 8,illu/rations ( ! ,huttonian ,!ory ( ! ,e>?10 a rem>kable classic1 wor?y ( be+ /udi$ to-day z well z a c5tury ago1 0 publi%$ 9 #ahjb by ,john ,playfair1 pr(essor ( ma!matics 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,ed9burgh & a fri5d ( ,hutton1 :o _h di$ five ye>s previ\sly4 ,?is volume 0 oppos$ by ,rob]t ,jameson1 pr(essor ( natural philosophy 9 ! same univ]sity1 :o _h absorb$ ! ideas ( ! ,g]man s*ool :ile at ,freib]g & publi%$ 9 #ahjh a volume on ! 8,elem5ts ( ,geognosy10 9 :i* ! philosophy ( ,w]n] is foll[$ ?r\gh\t & ev5 obsidian & pumice are argu$ to be aque\s precipitates4 ,! au?ority ( ! ,w]n]ian autocracy caus$ its nom5clature to be adopt$ 9 ! new _w1 b /rong evid5ce aga9/ its int]pretations 0 to be f\nd 9 ! actual /ructural relations display$ by ! igne\s rocks4 ,contributions on ,volcanic & ,intrusive ,rocks4 ,! accumulation & /udy ( facts con/itut$ ! be/ cure = an errone\s !ory4 ,! publications ( ! ,j\rnal contribut$ t[>d ?is end by articles along sev]al l9es4 ,! mo/ orig9al contributions 7 ^? :i* dealt ) ! areal & /ructural geology ( ea/]n ,nor? ,am]ica1 b equally valuable at t "t = ! broad5+ ( sci5tific int]e/ 7 ! /udies on ! volcanic activities ( ! ,hawaiian ,isl&s1 publi%$ ?r\gh _m ye>s4 ,p]haps mo/ valuable f ! educative /&po9t 7 ! ext5sive republications 9 ! ,j\rnal ( ! m important ,european rese>*es1 mak+ !m accessible to ,am]ican read]s4 ,9 volume #ac 7#ahbh71 = example1 a dige/ ( ,scrope's "w on volcanoes is giv51 cov]+ =ty pages2 & ( ,daub5y on active & ext9ct volcanoes1 runn+ ov] sev5ty-five pages & ext5d+ into vol4 #ad4 ,?r\gh ^! compreh5sive /udies ! nature ( volcanic action became g5]ally und]/ood dur+ ! fir/ half ( ! n9ete5? c5tury & ! orig9al publications 9 ! ,j\rnal 7 valuable 9 giv+ a k ( ! activities ( ! ,hawaiian volcanoes4 ,e>ly 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury ! :ole ( ,am]ica /ill rema9$ to be explor$ by ! geologi/4 ,! regions adjac5t to ! c5t]s ( le>n+ 7 among ! fir/ to receive att5tion & ! ,triassic bas9 ( ,connecticut & ,massa*usetts yield$ in=mation 9 reg>d to ! nature ( igne\s intrusion4 ,?is bas91 ( unmetamorphic %ales & s&/ones1 is occupi$ by ! ,connecticut ,riv] except at its s\!rn end4 ,! ,=mation conta9s )9 x sills1 dikes1 & outfl[s ( basaltic rocks :i* because ( _! sup]ior resi/ance to erosion con/itute prom95t hills1 9 places b\nd$ by cliffs4 ,silliman 9 #ahjfhj describ$ ,ea/ ,rock1 ,new ,hav51 ,connecticut1 z a :9/one1 trap1 or basalt1 & acc\nt$ = its pres5ce on ! supposition t x _h 8actually be5 melt$ 9 ! b[els ( ! e>? & eject$ among ! sup]ior /rata by ! =ce ( subt]rane\s fire1 b nev] erupt$ l lava1 cool+ "u ! pressure ( ! sup]9cumb5t /rata & !re=e compact or nonvesicul>1 its pres5t =m be+ due to erosion40 ,9 ^! conclusions ,silliman 0 correct4 ,) b a limit$ am\nt ( exp]i5ce he 0 able to discrim9ate betwe5 ! intrusive & effusive rocks & saw t ! prom95ce ( ?is hill 0 due to ! erosion ( ! s$im5ts :i* once surr\nd$ x4 ,an ext5sive pap] on ! geology ( ?is region 0 publi%$ by ,edw>d ,hit*cock 9 #ahbc1ha !n j ?irty ye>s ( age4 ,?is pap] %[s ! evid5ce ( ext5sive field obs]vations1 & 8 comm5ts 9 reg>d to ! trap & granite are ( int]e/4 ,hit*cock gives five pages to ! subject ( 8,gre5/one ,dykes 9 ,old ,r$ ,s&/one0 7#f1 #ef-fj1 #ahbc7 & makes ! foll[+ /atem5ts3 8,pr(essor ,silliman conduct$ me to an int]e/+ locality ( ^! 9 ,ea/-,hav54 ,!y occur on ! ma9 road f ,new-,hav5 to ,ea/-,hav51 less ?an half a mile f ,toml9son's bridge 444 7p4 #ef74 ,!y are an int]e/+ feature 9 our geology1 & des]ve m att5tion2 & x is peculi>ly =tunate t !y %\ld be situat$ s ne> a geological s*ool & ! fir/ m9]al cab9et 9 our c\ntry 444 7p4 #eh74 ,orig9 ( ,gre5/one4 ,does ! gre5/one ( ! ,connecticut af=d evid5ce 9 fav\r ( ! ,w]n]ian or ( ! ,huttonian !ory ( its orig98 ,av]se z ,i feel to tak+ a side 9 ?is controv]sy1 ,i _c b say1 t ! man :o ma9ta9s1 9 its l5g? & bread?1 ! orig9al hypo!sis ( ,w]n] 9 reg>d to ! aque\s deposition ( trap1 w f9d x = 8 int]e/1 if he wi%es to keep cle> ( d\bts1 n to foll[ ! example ( ,d',aubuisson1 by go+ =? to exam9e ! gre5/one ( ?is region1 le/1 l t geologi/1 he %\ld be compell$1 n only to ab&on 8 !ory1 b to write a book aga9/ x4 ,inde$1 :5 survey+ p>ticul> portions ( ?is rock1 ,i h sometimes ?\ght ,bakewell did n mu* exagg]ate :5 he said 9 reg>d to ,w]n]'s hypo!sis1 t1 #8x is h>dly possible = ! human m9d to inv5t a sy/em m repugnant to exi/+ facts4' ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ,huttonian w\ld d\btless h 8 he>t gladd5$1 & 8 fai? /r5g!n$ by a survey ( ! great] "p ( ?is rock4 ,z he look$ at ! dikes ( ! old r$ s&/one1 he w\ld almo/ see ! melt$ rock =c+ its way ?r\gh ! fissures2 & :5 he came to ! amygdaloidal1 especially to t v>iety :i* resembles lava1 he might ev5 be tempt$ to apply 8 !rmomet] to x1 9 ! suspicion t x 0 n yet q cool 444 7p4 #ei74 ,by treat+ ! subject 9 ?is mann] ,i mean no disrespect to any ( ! di/+ui%$ m5 :o h adopt$ ei!r side ( ?is "q4 ,to ,presid5t ,coop] especially1 :o reg>ds ! gre5/one ( ! ,connecticut z volcanic1 ,i feel mu* indebt$ = ! great mass ( facts he has collect$ on ! subject4 ,& 7 ,i to adopt any hypo!sis 9 reg>d to ! orig9 ( our gre5/one1 x w\ld be "o n mu* diff]5t f 80 7p4 #fj74 ,by #ahcc & m cle>ly 9 #ahda ,hit*cock _h come to recognize ! di/9ction betwe5 intrusive & extrusive basaltic %eets 9 ! ,connecticut valley4 ,dawson also came to reg>d ! ,acadian %eets z extrusive1 & ,em]son 9 #ahhb recall$ aga9 ! evid5ce = ,massa*usetts 7#bd1 #aie1 #ahhb74 ,davis1 h[ev]1 w5t a /ep fur!r & by apply+ di/9ctive crit]ia n only sep>at$ intrusive & extrusive %eets ?r\gh\t ! :ole ,triassic area1 b by us+ basalt fl[s z /ratigraphic horizons unravel$ = ! fir/ "t ! sy/em ( faults :i* cut ! ,triassic sy/em4 ,8 prelim9>y pap] 7#bd1 #cde1 #ahhb7 0 foll[$ by _m o!rs4 ,f #ahhj onw>d beg9s ! p]iod ( precise /ructural field "w4 ,! old] geologi/s mo/ly conceiv$ _! "w aft] reconnaissance me?ods4 ,f #ahgj to #ahhj a gr\p ( y\ng] m5 ent]$ geology :o paid close att5tion to ! solid geometry & me*anics ( e>? /ructures4 ,9 _! h&s physical & dynamical geology began to assume ! /&+ ( a precise & quantitative sci5ce4 ,9 ! field ( intrusive rocks ! op5+ classic 0 by ,gilb]t1 :o 9 8 volume on ! geology ( ! ,h5ry ,m\nta9s1 publi%$ 9 #ahhj1 made laccoli?s kn[n to ! _w4 ,) ! beg9n+ ( ?is new p]iod we may well leave ! subject ( intrusive rocks & turn to ! progress ( k 9 reg>d to ^? deep] & va/] bodies n[ kn[n z ba?oli?s4 ,^!1 s9ce erosion does n expose _! bottoms1 ,daly sep>ates f intrusives & classifies z subjac5t4 ,! ba?oli?s consi/ typically ( granite & granodiorite1 & introduce u to ! problem ( granite4 ,views on ! ,/ructural ,relations ( ,granite4 ,consci5ti\s field obs]vations 7 suffici5t to e/abli% ! true nature ( ! intrusive & extrusive rocks4 ,! case 0 v diff]5t1 h[ev]1 ) ! nature & relations ( ! great bodies ( granite1 :i* may be tak5 9 ! /ructural s5se z includ+ all ! visibly cry/all9e acidic & int]m$iate rocks1 kn[n m specifically z granite1 sy5ite1 & diorite4 ,! l>ge bodies ( granite1 /ructurally classifi$ z /ocks1 or ba?oli?s1 commonly %[ w$ges1 tongues1 or dike networks cutt+ into ! surr\nd+ rocks4 ,! relations1 h[ev]1 are n all s simple z ?is4 ,granites may cov] va/ areas1 !y are usually ! old] rocks1 !y are g5]ally associat$ ) regional metamorphism ( ! intrud$ =mations1 :i* metamorphism is n[ und]/ood to be due *iefly to ! heat & m9]aliz]s giv5 (f f ! granite magma1 associat$ ) ma%+ & %e>+ ( ! surr\nd+ rocks4 ,! granite 0 (t5 inject$ 9 successive /ages :i* alt]nat$ ) ! /ages ( regional ma%+4 ,a p>allel or gneissic /ructure is ?us develop$ :i* is 9 "p due to ma%+1 9 "p to igne\s injection4 ,:]e ! asc5t ( heat into ! cov] is excessive1 or :]e blocks are deta*$ & involv$ 9 ! magma1 ! latt] may dissolve "s ( ! old] cov] rocks1 ev5 :]e ^! 7 ( s$im5t>y orig94 ,?us betwe5 ma%+1 injection1 & assimilation ! g5etic relation%ips ( a ba?oli? to its surr\nd+s are 9 _m in/ances obscure4 ,nev]!less1 att5tion to ! l>g] relations %[s t ! molt5 magma orig9at$ at great dep?s 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 f> bel[ ! bottoms ( geosyncl9es1 & consi/s ( prim>y igne\s mat]ial1 n ( fus$ s$im5ts4 ,f ^? dep?s x has asc5d$ by v>i\s processes into ! out] cru/1 :]e x cry/alliz$ into granite masses1 to be lat] expos$ by erosion4 ,! am\nt ( mat]ial :i* c be dissolv$ & assimilat$ mu/ be small 9 comp>ison ) ! :ole body ( ! magma4 ,! orig9al composition ( ! magma 0 probably basic1 ne>] t ( a basalt ?an t ( a granite4 ,diff]5tiation ( ! molt5 mass is ?\ght to cause ! upp] & l[] p>ts ( ! *amb] to become unlike1 ! light] & m acidic portion giv+ rise to ! great bodies ( granite4 ,) ! exception ( c]ta9 bord] zones ! :ole1 h[ev]1 is reg>d$ z igne\s rock ris5 f ! dep?s4 ,! complex bord] relations1 b m p>ticul>ly c]ta9 academic hypo!ses1 l$ to a p]iod ( misund]/&+ & retrogression 9 reg>d to ! nature ( granites4 ,x con/itutes an int]e/+ illu/ration ( ! possibility ( a wrong !ory lead+ int]pretation a/ray1 *iefly ?r\gh ! magnification ( m9or into major factors4 ,?is hi/ory illu/rates ! dang]s ( qualitative sci5ce z comp>$ to quantitative1 ( a s+le hypo!sis z mat*$ aga9/ ! me?od ( multiple work+ hypo!sis4 ,?is flux ( op9ion 9 reg>d to ! nature ( granites may be trac$ ?r\gh ! volumes ( ! ,j\rnal4 ,e4 ,hit*cock 9 #ahbd 7#f1 #ab7 not$ t 9 places granite appe>$ b$d$1 b 9 o!r places exi/$ 9 ve9s :i* cut obliquely across ! /rata4 ,silliman1 al?\gh c>eful n to d5y ! aque\s orig9 ( "s basalts1 yet held t ! field evid5ce ( ,new ,engl& indicates = t region ! igne\s or ,huttonian orig9 ( trap & granite 7#g1 #bch1 #ahbd74 ,9 #ahcb ! foll[+ article by ,hit*cock appe>$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#bb1 #a1 #gj73 ,report on ! ,geology ( ,massa*usetts2 exam9$ "u ! direction ( ! ,gov]nm5t ( t ,/ate1 dur+ ! ye>s #ahcj & #ahca2 by ,edw>d ,hit*cock1 ,pr(4 ( ,*emi/ry & ,natural ,hi/ory 9 ,amh]/ ,college4 ,a footnote adds t ?is is 8publi%$ 9 ?is ,j\rnal by cons5t ( ! ,gov]nm5t ( ,massa*usetts1 & int5d$ to appe> also 9 a sep>ate =m1 & to be di/ribut$ among ! memb]s ( ! ,legislature ( ! same ,/ate1 ab\t ! "t ( its appe>ance 9 ?is "w4 ,x is1 we believe1 ! fir/ example 9 ?is c\ntry1 ( ! geological survey ( an entire ,/ate40 ,?is article includes a geological map ( ! /ate & cov]s ! subject ( economic geology4 ,! report br\ght =? ! foll[+ rem>ks f a ,fr5* review] 9 ! ,revue ,encyclopdique1 ,aug4 #ahcb1 quot$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#bc1 #chi1 #ahcc73 8,a s+le glance at ?is report1 is suffici5t to conv9ce any "o ( ! utility ( su* a "w1 to ! /ate :i* has und]tak5 x2 & to regret t !re is s v small a "p ( ! ,fr5* t]ritory1 ^: geological con/itution is z well kn[n to ! public1 z is n[ ! /ate ( ,massa*usetts4 ,france has ! great] cause to regret h] be+ di/anc$ 9 ?is race by ,am]ica1 f h] hav+ a corps ( m9+ eng9e]s1 :o if !y _h ! means1 w\ld1 9 a v %ort "t furni% a "w ( ! same k9d1 /ill m complete1 ( ea* ( ! dep>tm5ts40 ,! complete report publi%$ 9 #ahcc is a "w ( #gjj pages4 ,pages #dfe to #eag are devot$ to ! subject ( granite4 ,num]\s detail$ sket*es are giv5 %[+ contact relations4 ,n9e pages are giv5 to !oretical consid]ations & _m l9es ( pro( are giv5 t granite is an igne\s rock1 molt5 f ! int]nal heat ( ! e>?1 & intrud$ into ! s$im5t>y /rata4 ,8 /atem5t is ! cle>e/ publi%$ 9 ! _w1 s f> z ! writ] is aw>e1 up to t date1 & m>ks ,edw>d ,hit*cock z "o ( ! lead+ geologi/s ( 8 g5]ation 9 ,europe z well z ,am]ica4 ,un=tunately 8 views 7 l>gely lo/ to sight dur+ ! foll[+ g5]ation4 ,9 #ahdj ! fir/ ,am]ican edition ( ,mantell's ,wond]s ( ,geology gave curr5cy to ! idea t granite is prov$ to be ( all geological ages up to ! ,t]ti>y 7#ci1 #f1 #ahdj74 ,9 #ahdc ,j4 ,d4 ,dana po9t$ out 7#de1 #ajd7 t s*i/osity 0 no evid5ce ( s$im5t>y orig94 ,he reg>d$ mo/ granites z igne\s z %[n by _! /ructural relations1 b consid]s t "s may h _h a s$im5t>y orig94 ,rise & ,decl9e ( ! ,metamorphic ,!ory ( ,granite4 ,up to #ahfj granite 0 reg>d$ on ! basis ( ! facts ( ! field z ess5tially an intrusive rock1 b gneiss z a metamorphic product mo/ly ( s$im5t>y orig94 ,x seem$ z ?\gh s\nd me?ods ( rese>* & int]pretation 7 securely e/abli%$4 ,nev]!less1 a new era ( speculation & a modifi$ ,w]n]ism arose at t "t ) a pap] by ,t4 ,/]ry ,hunt1 m>k+ a retrogression 9 ! !ory ( granite :i* la/$ until 8 dea? 9 #ahib4 ,9 ,novemb]1 #ahei1 ,hunt read be=e ! ,geological ,society ( ,london a pap] on 8,"s ,po9ts 9 ,*emical ,geology0 9 :i* he ann\nc$ t igne\s rocks are 9 all cases simply fus$ & displac$ s$im5ts1 ! fusion tak+ place by ! rise ( ! e>?'s int]nal heat into deeply buri$ & wat]-soak$ masses ( s$im5ts 7see #cj1 #acc1 #ahfj74 ,! g]m ( ?is idea ( aqueo-igne\s fusion 0 f> old]1 due to ,babbage & ,john ,h]s*el1 nei!r ( !m geologi/s1 b su* sweep+ ext5sions ( x _h nev] be=e be5 publi%$4 ,hunt _h ! advantage ( a wide acqua9tance%ip ) geological lit]ature & *emi/ry4 ,he wrote plausibly on *emical & !oretical geology1 b 8 views 7 n controll$ by c>eful field obs]vations4 ,9 fact he wrote confid5tly on regions :i* app>5tly he _h nev] se5 & :]e a limit$ am\nt ( field "w w\ld h %[n him to h be5 fundam5tally 9 error4 ,a man ( egoti/ical temp]am5t1 he s\ght to e/abli% priority = himself 9 _m subjects & 9 ord] to cov] ! field made _m poorly f\nd$ ass]tions4 ,build+ on to ano!r ,w]n]ian idea1 he held t _m metamorphic m9]als _h a *ronologic value comp>able to fossils--/aurolite = example indicat+ a pre-,silurian age--& on ?is basis divid$ ! cry/all9e rocks into five s]ies4 ,al?\gh !re is mu* ( value buri$ 9 ,hunt's "w x is difficult to dis5tangle x1 ) ! result t 8 writ+s 7 a diss]vice to ! sci5ce ( geology4 ,al?\gh c>ry+ mu* weight 9 8 lifetime1 !y h pass$ ) 8 dea? ne>ly into oblivion4 ,m>c\1 ) a limit$ k ( ,am]ican geology1 & b little respect = ! op9ions ( o!rs1 _h publi%$ a geologic map ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates conta9+ gross errors4 ,9 support ( 8 views he read 9 ,novemb]1 #ahfa1 a pap] on ! ,taconic & ,l[] ,silurian ,rocks ( ,v]mont & ,canada4 ,9 ! foll[+ ye> he 0 sev]ely review$ by 8,t10 :o /ates positively 9 controv]t+ ,m>c\ 7#cc1 #bhb1 #bhc1 #ahfb7 t 8! granites 7( ! ,gre5 ,m\nta9s7 are evid5tly /rata alt]$ 9 place40 8,mr4 ,m>c\ %\ld fur!r be in=m$ t ! granites ( ! ,alp9e summits1 in/ead ( be+1 z 0 once suppos$1 eruptive rocks1 are n[ kn[n to be alt]$ /rata ( new] ,second>y & ,t]ti>y age4 ,a simple /ructure holds good 9 ! ,briti% ,isl&s1 :]e z ,sir ,rod]ick ,mur*ison has %[n 9 8 rec5t ,geological map ( ,scotl&1 ,b5 ,nevis & ,b5 ,law]s are f\nd to be compos$ ( high] /rata1 ly+ 9 syncl9als4 ,?is great law ( m\nta9 /ructure w\ld alone lead u to suppose t ! gneiss ( ! ,gre5 m\nta9s1 in/ead ( be+ at ! base1 is really at ! summit ( ! s]ies4444 ,we _c "h /op to discuss ,mr4 ,m>c\'s rem>k ab\t #8! un/ratifi$ & olde/ cry/all9e rocks ( ! ,:ite m\nta9s' :i* he places b5ea? ! l[] ,taconic s]ies4 ,mr4 ,lesley has %[n t ^! granites are /ratifi$1 & ) ,mr4 ,hunt1 reg>ds !m z ( ,devonian ,age4 7,?is ,j\rnal1 vol4 #ca1 p4 #djc47 ,mr4 ,m>c\ has come among u ) notions ( m\nta9s upheav$ by intrusive granites1 & simil> antiquat$ traditions1 n[1 happily = sci5ce1 well nigh =gott540 ,x is se5 t ,m>c\1 not)/&+ ! g5]al "* ( 8 "w1 happ5$ to be ne>] "r 9 "s matt]s ?an 7 8 critics1 & t 8,t0 _h adopt$ to ! limit ! views ( ,hunt4 ,! recov]y ( geology f ?is p]iod ( confusion 0 p>tly ow+ to ! sl[ accumulation ( oppos$ facts2 especially to a recognition ( ! fact t ! ov]plac$ relation ( ! granite gneisses 9 we/]n ,scotl& 0 due to great ov]?ru/s2 also to ! evid5ce ( ! cle>ly intrusive nature ( _m ( ! ,cordill]an granites4 ,! recov]y ( a s\nd] !ory 0 ha/5$1 h[ev]1 by ! application ( criticisms by ,j4 ,d4 ,dana 9 ! ,j\rnal4 ,9 #ahff 7#db1 #beb7 ,dana po9t$ out t s$im5t>y rocks 9 ,p5nsylvania1 9 ,nova ,scotia1 & o!r regions :i* _h be5 buri$ to a dep? ( at lea/ #af1jjj feet are n metamorphic4 ,m]e dep? ( burial ( s$im5ts 0 n suffici5t !re=e to produce metamorphism & aqueo-igne\s fusion4 ,! baseless & speculative "* ( ! use ( m9]als z an index ( age & ( ,hunt's int]pretation ( ,new ,engl& geology 9 g5]al 0 %[n by ,dana 9 #ahgb 7#c1 #ia74 ,! foll[+ ye> ,dana po9t$ out cle>ly t igne\s eruptions 9 g5]al h be5 d]iv$ f a deep-seat$ s\rce & did n come f ! aqueo-igne\s fusion ( s$im5ts4 ,z to gradations betwe5 true igne\s rocks & fus$ & displac$ s$im5ts he makes ! foll[+ /atem5ts 7#f1 #aad1 #ahgc73 8,aga91 ! pla/ic rock-mat]ial t may be d]iv$ f ! fusion or semifusion ( ! sup]cru/1 7t is1 ( rocks orig9ally ( s$im5t>y orig917 gives rise to 8igne\s0 rocks (t5 n di/+ui%able f o!r igne\s rocks1 :5 x is eject$ ?r\gh fissures f> f its place ( orig92 :ile cry/all9e rocks are simply metamorphic if !y rema9 9 _! orig9al relations to ! associat$ rocks1 or ne>ly s4 ,betwe5 ^! latt] igne\s rocks & ! metamorphic !re may be indef9ite gradations1 z claim$ by ,hunt4 ,b if our reason+s are "r1 ! great "p ( igne\s rocks c be prov$ to h _h no su* sup]cru/ orig94 ,! argum5t f ! pres5ce ( moi/ure or ( hydr\s m9]als 9 su* rocks 9 favor ( _! orig9 f ! fusion ( s$im5ts has be5 %[n to be invalid40 ,! inject$ m>g9al rocks & ! po/-intrusive metamorphism ( mo/ ( ! ,new ,engl& granites has1 h[ev]1 obscur$ m or less _! real igne\s nature s t ! gradation f metamorphic s$im5ts ?r\gh igne\s gneisses to granites c\ld be read 9 ei!r direction4 ,^! features misl$ ,dana :o accept$ ! prevail+ idea ( ! g5]al metamorphic orig9 ( granite4 ,dana makes ! foll[+ /atem5t 7#f1 #afd1 #ahgc73 8,b ,hunt is "r 9 hold+ t 9 g5]al granite & sy5ite 7! qu>tz-be>+ sy5ite7 are und\bt$ly metamorphic rocks :]e n ve9-=mations1 z ,i "k f ! /udy ( _m examples ( !m 9 ,new ,engl&2 & ! ve9s are results ( infiltration ?r\gh heat$ moi/ure f ! rocks adjo9+ "s "p ( ! op5$ fissures !y fill40 ,granite1 al?\gh reg>d$ at ?is "t z ! extreme ( ! metamorphic s]ies & orig9at+ f s$im5ts1 0 look$ ^u z typically ,ar*ean 9 age1 ?\gh 9 "s cases y\ng]4 ,su* a doctr9e p]mitt$ su* extreme mis9t]pretations z t ( ,cl>5ce ,k+ & ,s4 ,f4 ,emmons on ! nature ( ! intrusive granite ( ! ,little ,cottonwood canyon 9 ! ,wahsat* ,range4 ,?is body cuts across #cj1jjj feet ( ,paleozoic rocks & to ! c>eful obs]v]1 z lat] admitt$ by ,emmons1 %[s cle> evid5ce ( its transgressive nature4 ,b at t "t x 0 g5]ally consid]$ t granite m\nta9s 7 capable ( resi/+ ! erosion ( all geological "t4 ,consequ5tly x did n seem incr$ible to ,k+ & 8 associates t "h a great granite range ( ,ar*ean orig9 _h /ood up ?r\gh ,paleozoic "t until gradual subsid5ce _h p]mitt$ x to be buri$ b5ea? #cj1jjj feet ( s$im5ts4#hb ,x may seem to ! pres5t day read] t su* a mis9t]pretation1 do+ viol5ce to fundam5tal geologic k z n[ recogniz$1 0 inexcusable2 b 9 ! light ( ! hi/ory ( geology z "h detail$ x is se5 to h be5 ! int]pretation natural to t "t4 ,x is true t a c>eful exam9ation ( ! facts ( t v field w\ld h prov$ ! po/-,paleozoic & intrusive nature ( t great granite body n[ kn[n z ! ,little ,cottonwood ba?oli?1 b ,emmons has expla9$ ! rapid & p>tial nature ( ! obs]vations :i* !y 7 compell$ to make 9 ord] to keep up to _! s*$ule ( progress 7#af1 #aci1 #aijc74 ,:itney _h f\nd "s ye>s e>li] t ! granites ( ! ,si]ra ,nevada 7 igne\s rocks intrusive into ! ,triassic & ,jurassic /rata4 ,! ,lake ,sup]ior geologi/s began to %[ 9 ! eighties t granite 0 !re an intrusive igne\s rock4 ,r4 ,d4 ,irv+ & ,wadswor? not$ ^! relations4 ,lawson 9 #ahhg po9t$ out emphatically 7#cc1 #dgc7 t ! granites ( ! ,ra9y ,lake region1 al?\gh basal1 7 y\ng] ?an ! s*i/s :i* lay above !m4 ,! granite gneisses he held 7 ( cle>ly ! same igne\s orig9 z ! granites & nei!r gave any field evid5ce ( be+ fus$ & displac$ s$im5ts4 ,f ?is "t =w>d ! truly igne\s nature ( granite became increas+ly accept$ until n[ ! notion ( its be+ made ( s$im5t>y rocks s(t5$ & recry/alliz$ by ! rise ( ! isogeo!rms ?r\gh deep burial is z obsolete z ! /ill old] doctr9e ( ! ,neptuni/s t granite 0 laid d[n z a cry/all9e precipitate on ! floor ( ! primitive ocean4 ,! recognition ( ! truly igne\s nature ( granites has be5 foll[$ 9 ! pres5t g5]ation by a s]ies ( /udies on _! /ructural relations & mode ( g5esis4 ,a numb] ( important initial articles on v>i\s aspects ( /ructure & contact relations h appe>$ 9 ! ,j\rnal1 b ?is sket* ( ! hi/ory ( ! subject may well /op ) ! introduction to ?is mod]n p]iod4 ,orog5ic ,/ructures4 ,views ( ,plutoni/s & ,neptuni/s4 ,orog5ic /ructures are1 z ! "n implies1 ^? connect$ ) ! bir? ( m\nta9s4 ,ne>ly synonym\s t]ms are de=mative or second>y /ructures4 ,on a small scale ?is division embraces ! ph5om5a expos$ 9 ! rock l$ge or qu>ry face1 or 9 ! dips & dislocations v>y+ f "o exposure to ano!r4 ,^! /ructures include faults1 folds1 & foliation4 ,on a l>g] scale are includ$ ! relations ( ! diff]5t ranges ( a m\nta9 sy/em to ea* o!r1 relations to previ\s geologic hi/ory1 relations to ! e>? z a :ole1 & to ! =ces :i* h g5]at$ ! /ructures4 ,9 ord] to see ! /age ( developm5t ( ?is subject 9 #ahah & its progress z reflect$ ?r\gh ! publications ( a c5tury1 m p>ticul>ly 9 ! ,j\rnal1 x is desirable to turn aga9 to ^? two treatises emanat+ f ,ed9burgh at ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury & repres5t+ two opposite s*ools ( ?\ght1 ! ,plutoni/s & ,neptuni/s4 ,playfair1 9 #ahjb1 devotes n9ete5 pages to ! subject ( ! inflection & elevation ( /rata4#hc ,he places emphasis on ! *>act]i/ic p>allelism ( ! /rike ( ! folds ?r\gh\t a region1 z %[n ?r\gh ! int]section ( ! folds by a horizontal plane ( erosion4 ,he contra/s ?is ) ! ar*es %[n 9 a transv]se section & enl>ges on our ability to /udy ! deeply buri$ /rata ?r\gh ! d5udation ( ! fold$ /ructure4 ,he argues f ^! relations t ! /ructures c n be expla9$ by ! vague appeal ( ! ,neptuni/s to =ces ( cry/allization1 to slopes ( orig9al deposition1 or to s9k+ 9 ( ! ro(s ( cav]ns4 ,! causes he argues 7 heat comb9$ ) pressure4 ,z to ! directions 9 :i* ! pressure act$ he is n altoge!r cle>1 b app>5tly reg>ds ! pressure z act+ 9 upw>d ?ru/s aga9/ ! s$im5t>y planes1 ! latt] yield+ z w>p$ surfaces4 ,8 me?od ( pres5tation is t ( inductive reason+ f facts1 b he /opp$ %ort ( ! conception ( horizontal compression ?r\gh t]re/rial contraction4 ,jameson1 pr(essor ( natural hi/ory 9 ! same univ]sity1 9 #ahjh contemptu\sly ignores ! "w ( ,hutton & ,playfair 9 :at he calls ! 8mon/rosities kn[n "u ! "n ( ,!ories ( ! ,e>?40 ,9 a c\ple ( pages he confuses & dismisses ! :ole subject ( de=mation4 ,he /ates3#hd 8,x is !re=e a fact1 t all incl9$ /rata1 ) a v few exceptions1 h be5 =m$ s orig9ally1 & d n owe _! incl9ation to a subsequ5t *ange4 ,:5 we exam9e ! /ructure ( a m\nta91 we mu/ be c>eful t our obs]vations be n too micrological1 o!rwise we %all und\bt$ly fail 9 acquir+ a di/9ct conception ( x4 ,?is w appe> evid5t :5 we reflect t ! geogno/ic features ( ,nature are almo/ all on ! great scale4 ,9 no case is ?is rule to be m /rictly foll[$ ?an 9 ! exam9ation ( ! /ratifi$ /ructure4 ,by n att5d+ to ?is mode ( exam9ation1 geogno/s h fall5 into numb]less errors1 & h frequ5tly giv5 to ext5sive tracts ( c\ntry a mo/ irregul> & confus$ /ructure4 ,speculators build+ on ^! errors h repres5t$ ! :ole cru/ ( ! globe z an irregul> & unseemly mass4 ,x is inde$ surpris+1 t m5 possess$ ( any k ( ! beautiful h>mony t prevails 9 ! /ructure ( organic be+s c\ld = a mom5t believe x possible1 t ! great fabric ( ! globe itself1--t magnific5t display ( ,omnipot5ce1--%\ld be de/itute ( all regul>ity 9 its /ructure1 & be no?+ m ?an a heap ( ru9s40 ,?is 0 ! attitude ( a lead] ( ,briti% op9ion t[>d ! subject ( de=mational geology f :i* ! infant sci5ce _h to recov] be=e progress c\ld be made4 ,! e>ly maps 7 ess5tially m9]alogical & li?ological4 ,! ord] ( sup]position & ! consequ5t sequ5ce ( age 0 reg>d$ z settl$ by ,w]n] 9 ,g]many & n requir+ inve/igation 9 ,am]ica4 ,! e>ly examples ( /ructure 7 sections drawn ) exagg]at$ v]tical scales & ^? ( ,maclure d n %[ detail4 ,recognition ( ,appala*ian ,/ructures4 ,foll[+ ! f\nd+ ( ! ,j\rnal 9 #ahah !re is obs]vable a gr[? 9 ! quality & detail ( geological mapp+4 ,dr4 ,aik51 pr(essor ( natural philosophy & *emi/ry 9 ,mt4 ,/4 ,m>y's ,college1 publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 9 #ahcd 7#bf1 #bai7 a v]tical section ext5d+ betwe5 ,baltimore & ,:eel+1 a di/ance ( ne>ly #bej miles1 on a scale ( ab\t #g miles p] in*4 ,! succession ( rocks is c>efully %[n & ! direction ( dip1 b no attempt is made to %[ ! und]gr\nd relations1 ! /ratigraphic sequ5ce1 & ! fold$ /ructures :i* are s cle> 9 t ,appala*ian section4 ,! text also %[s t ! au?or _h n recogniz$ ! fold$ /ructure4 ,fur!rmore1 :]e ! folds cease at ! ,alleghany m\nta9 front1 ! flat /rata are %[n z re/+ uncon=mably on ! fold$ rocks to ! ea/4 ,r4 ,c4 ,taylor1 geologi/1 civil & m9+ eng9e]1 0 f #ahcj to #ahce ! lead+ /ud5t ( ,p5nsylvanian geology z %[n by ! publication 9 #ahce ( f\r pap]s aggregat+ ov] #hj pages 9 ! ,transactions ( ! ,geological ,society ( ,p5nsylvania4 ,8 "w is noticeable = accuracy 9 detail & no d\bt 0 influ5tial 9 sett+ a high /&>d = ! /ate geological survey :i* imm$iately foll[$4 ,h4 ,d4 & ,w4 ,b4 ,rog]s h be5 giv5 cr$it 9 ?is c\ntry1 & 9 ,europe also1 z be+ ! lead+ exp\nd]s ( ,appala*ian /ructure4 ,m]rill speaks ( ,h4 ,d4 ,rog]s z unque/ionably ! lead+ /ructural geologi/ ( 8 "t4#he ,to ! writ]1 ?is attribut$ position appe>s to be due to 8 opportunities r ?an to sci5tific acum54 ,! magnific5t b readily deciph]able fold$ /ructure ( ,p5nsylvania1 ! relation%ips ( coal & iron to ?is /ructure1 ! consid]able sums ( money appropriat$1 & ! "w ( a corps ( able assi/ants 7 factors :i* made x comp>atively easy to rea* important results4 ,9 ability to weigh facts & int]pret !m ,edw>d ,hit*cock %[$ mu* m insight ?an ,h4 ,d4 ,rog]s1 :ile 9 ! philosophic & compreh5sive aspects ( ! subject ,j4 ,d4 ,dana f> outranks him4 ,h4 ,d4 ,rog]s 9 8 fir/ report on ! geological survey ( ,new ,j]sey1 #ahcf1 recognizes t ! ,cambro-,silurian lime/ones 7l[] ,second>y lime/ones7 7 deposit$ z ne>ly horizontal b$s & ! ridges ( pre-,cambrian gneiss 7,prim>y7 _h be5 pu%$ up z anticl9al axes 7p4 #abh74 ,he also cle>ly recogniz$ ! di/9ction betwe5 slaty cleavage & true dip z %[n 9 ! ,ordovician slates 7p4 #ig74 ,betwe5 #ahcf & #ahdj he _h le>n$ a great deal on ! nature ( folds z is %[n 9 8 ,p5nsylvania report = #ahci & ! /ructure sections 9 8 ,new ,j]sey report = #ahdj4 ,r4 ,c4 ,taylor1 :o _h n[ become presid5t ( ! bo>d ( directors ( ! ,dauph9 & ,susquehanna ,coal ,company1 publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 9 #ahda 7#da1 #hj7 an important pap] entitl$ 8,notice ( a ,model ( ! ,we/]n portion ( ! ,s*uylkill or ,s\!rn ,coal ,field ( ,p5nsylvania1 9 illu/ration ( an ,address to ! ,association ( ,am]ican ,geologi/s1 on ! mo/ appropriate modes = repres5t+ ,geological ,ph5om5a40 ,9 ?is pap] he calls att5tion to ! value ( model+ z a means ( %[+ true relations 9 ?ree dim5sions4 ,he condemns ! cu/om preval5t among geologi/s ( %[+ /ructure sections ) an exagg]at$ v]tical scale ) its resultant topographic & /ructural di/ortions4 ,taylor 0 widely acqua9t$ ) ! /ructure ( ,p5nsylvania1 ,m>yl&1 & ,virg9ia4 ,nature ( ,=ces ,produc+ ,fold+4 ,9 #ahbe ,dr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,/eele s5t to ,pr(essor ,silliman two detail$ draw+s & description ( an ov]turn$ fold at ,s>atoga ,lake1 ,new ,york4 ,z to ! significance ( ?is feature ,/eele makes ! foll[+ /atem5t 7#i1 #c1 #ahbe73 8,x is impossible to exam9e ?is locality )\t be+ /rongly impress$ ) ! belief t ! position :i* ! /rata "h assume c\ld n h be5 effect$ 9 any o!r way ?an by a p[] op]at+ f b5ea? upw>ds & at ! same "t possess+ a progressive =ce2 some?+ analog\s to :at takes place 9 ! break+ up ( ! ice ( l>ge riv]s4 ,! cont9u$ swell+ ( ! /ream fir/ ov]comes ! resi/ance ( its froz5 surface & hav+ elevat$ x to a c]ta9 ext5t1 x is =c$ into a v]tical position1 or ?r[n ov] ^u ! unbrok5 /ratum beh9d1 by ! progressive p[] ( ! curr5t40 ,s f> z ! pres5t writ] is aw>e ?is is ! fir/ recognition 9 geological lit]ature ( ! evid5ce ( a horizontally compressive & ov]turn+ =ce z a cause ( fold+4 ,to ,e4 ,hit*cock belongs ! cr$it ( be+ ! fir/ to describe ov]turn+ & inv]sion ( /rata on a l>ge scale1 b )\t cle>ly recogniz+ x z su*4 ,9 we/]n ,massa*usetts metamorphism is extreme 9 ! l[] ,paleozoic rocks 9 ! vic9ity ( ! ov]?ru/ mass ( ,ar*ean granite-gneiss :i* con/itutes ! ,hoosic range4 ,! ,paleozoic rocks ( ! valley to ! we/ are ov]turn$ & appe> to dip b5ea? ! old] rocks4 ,f>!r we/ ! metamorphism fades out & ! s]ies assumes a normal position4 ,su* an inv]t$ relation1 up to t "t unkn[n1 is describ$ 9 #ahcc z foll[s by ,hit*cock 9 8 ,geology ( ,massa*usetts 7pp4 #big1 #bih73 8,b a s+ul> anomaly 9 ! sup]position ( ! s]ies ( rocks above describ$1 pres5ts a great difficulty 9 ?is case4 ,! /rata ( ^! rocks almo/ uni=mly dip to ! ea/3 t is1 ! new] rocks seem to crop out b5ea? ! old] ones2 s t ! sac*>9e lime/one1 associat$ ) gneiss 9 ! ea/]n "p ( ! range1 seems to occupy ! upp]mo/ place 9 ! s]ies4 ,n[ z sup]position is ( m value 9 det]m9+ ! relative ages ( rocks ?an _! m9]al *>act]s1 mu/ we n conclude t ! rocks1 z we g we/]ly f ,hoosac m\nta91 d 9 fact belong to old] gr\ps8 ,! petrifactions :i* "s ( !m conta91 & _! decid$ly fragm5t>y "*1 w n all[ su* a supposition to be indulg$ = a mom5t4 ,x is impossible = a geologi/ to mi/ake ! evid5ce1 :i* he sees at almo/ e /ep1 t he is pass+ f old] to new] =mations1 j z soon z he beg9s to cross ! valley ( ,b]k%ire t[>ds ! we/4 ,we are driv5 !n to ! alt]native ( suppos+1 ei!r t !re mu/ be a deception 9 ! app>5t outcrop ( ! new] rocks f b5ea? ! old]1 or t ! :ole s]ies ( /rata has be5 actually ?r[n ov]1 s z to br+ ! newe/ rocks at ! bottom4 ,! latt] supposition is s improbable t ,i _c at pres5t admit x40 ,hit*cock tri$ to reconcile ! evid5ce by a s]ies ( uncon=mities & incl9$ deposition1 b f9ds ! solution unsatisfactory4 ,9 ?is same ye>1 #ahcc1 ,elie de ,beaumont1 a di/+ui%$ ,fr5* geologi/1 publi%$ 8 !ory ( ! orig9 ( m\nta9s4 ,he advanc$ ! idea t s9ce ! globe 0 cool+ x 0 cond5s+1 & ! cru/1 already cool1 mu/ suff] compression 9 adju/+ itself to ! %r9k+ molt5 int]ior4 ,he conclud$ f ! evid5ce %[n 9 ,europe t ! collapse ( ! cru/ occurr$ viol5tly & rapidly at widely spac$ int]vals ( "t4 ,?is hypo!sis introduc$ ! idea ( m\nta9 fold+ by horizontal compressive =ces4 ,! !oretical pap] ( de ,beaumont1 toge!r ) fur!r obs]vations by ,hit*cock & o!rs1 l$ ! latt] 9 #ahda to a f9al belief 9 ! inv]sion ( /rata on a l>ge scale by horizontal compression4 ,8 conclusions are express$ 9 an important pap] publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#da1 #bfh1 #ahda7 & giv5 on ,april #h1 #ahda1 z ! ,fir/ ,anniv]s>y ,presid5tial ,address be=e ! ,association ( ,am]ican ,geologi/s4 ,?is compreh5sive summ>y ( ,am]ican geology occupies #dc pages4 ,?ree pages are giv5 to ! inv]t$ /ructure ( ! ,appala*ians f :i* ! foll[+ p>agraphs may be quot$3 8,we h all read ( ! enorm\s dislocations & inv]sions ( ! /rata ( ! ,alps2 & simil> ph5om5a are said to exi/ 9 ! ,&es4 ,w x be believ$1 t we h an example 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates on a /ill m magnific5t scale ?an any yet describ$8444 ,let u suppose ! /rata betwe5 ,hudson & ,connecticut riv]s1 :ile yet 9 ! pla/ic /ate1 7& ! supposition may be ext5d$ to any o!r section across ?is belt ( c\ntry f ,canada to ,alabama17 & :ile only slightly elevat$1 7 act$ ^u by a =ce at ! two riv]s1 ex]t$ 9 opposite directions4 ,if p[]ful en\gh1 x might cause !m to fold up into sev]al ridges2 & if m p[]ful along ! we/]n ?an ! ea/]n side1 !y might fall ov] s z to take an inv]t$ dip1 )\t produc+ any rem>kable dislocations1 :ile subsequ5t d5udation w\ld give to ! surface its pres5t outl9e4444 ,f\r?ly1 we %\ld readily admit t su* a plication & inv]sion ( ! /rata might take place on a small scale4 ,if = in/ance1 we 7 to press aga9/ ! extremities ( a s]ies ( pla/ic lay]s two feet long1 !y c\ld easily be made to assume ! position into :i* ! rocks "u consid]ation are ?r[n4 ,:y !n %\ld we n be equally ready to admit t ?is might z easily be done1 ov] a bread? ( fifty miles1 & a l5g? ( twelve hundr$1 provid$ we c f9d 9 nature1 =ces suffici5tly p[]ful8 ,f9ally1 su* =ces d exi/ 9 nature1 & h (t5 be5 9 op]ation40 ,! advanc$ nature ( ^! conceptions may be appreciat$ by contra/+ !m ) ^? put =? by ,h4 ,d4 & ,w4 ,b4 ,rog]s on ,april #bi1 #ahdb1 be=e ! ?ird annual meet+ ( ! same body 7#dc1 #agg1 #ahdb7 & repeat$ by !m be=e ! ,briti% ,association at ,man*e/] two mon?s lat]4 ,9 _! own words1 ! ,rog]s bro!rs f _! /udies on ! folds %[n 9 ,p5nsylvania & ,virg9ia1 conceiv$ m\nta9 folds 9 g5]al to be produc$ by mu* ela/ic vapor escap+ ?r\gh _m p>allel fissures =m$ 9 succession1 produc+ viol5t propulsive wave oscillations on ! surface ( ! fluid e>? b5ea? a ?9 cru/4 ,?us actual bill[s are assum$ to h roll$ along ?r\gh ! cru/4 ,!y did n ?9k tang5tial pressure alone c\ld produce folds4 ,su* pressures 7 reg>d$ z second>y1 produc$ by ! propagation ( ! waves & ! only expression ( tang5tial =ces :i* !y admitt$ 0 to fix ! folds & hold !m 9 position aft] ! viol5t oscillation _h subsid$ 7#dd1 #cfj1 #ahdc74 ,! lead+ ,briti% geologi/s ,de la ,be*e & ,s$gwick criticiz$ adv]sely ?is rem>kable !ory1 /at+ t !y c\ld see no su* analogy 9 m\nta9 folds to viol5t e>?quake waves & t 9 _! op9ion ! sl[ application ( tang5tial =ce 0 suffici5t to acc\nt = ! ph5om5a 7#dd1 #cfb-cfe1 #ahdc74 ,h4 ,d4 ,rog]s 9 ! prosecution ( ! geological survey ( ,p5nsylvania display$ notable organiz+ ability & p]si/5ce 9 accompli%m5t1 ev5 to advanc+ p]sonally consid]able sums ( money1 tru/+ to ! /ate legislature to lat] reimburse him4 ,f9ally1 aft] _m delays by ! /ate1 ! publication 0 plac$ directly 9 8 *>ge & he produc$ 9 #aheh a magnific5t qu>to "w ( ov] #a1fjj pages1 h&somely illu/rat$1 & accompani$ by an atlas4 ,x is excell5t f ! descriptive /&po9t1 /&+ 9 ! fir/ class4 ,measur$ z a contribution to ! !ory ( dynamical geology1 ! explanatory portions 71 h[ev]1 ?irty ye>s beh9d ! times4 ,! same hypo!ses are put =? 9 #aheh z 9 #ahdb4 ,!re is no acceptance ( ! views ( ,lyell conc]n+ ! uni=mit>ian pr9ciples exp\nd$ by ?is ,briti% lead] 9 #ahcj1 or ( ! nature ( orog5ic =ces z publi%$ by ,elie de ,beaumont 9 #ahcc4 ,rog]s rejects ! view t cleavage is due to compression & sugge/s 8t bo? cleavage & foliation are due to ! p>allel transmission ( planes or waves ( heat1 awak5+ ! molecul> =ces1 & det]m9+ _! direction40#hf ,?us a m]e maze ( words takes ! place ( inductive demon/rations already publi%$4 ,9 foll[+ ! play ( ^! oppos+ curr5ts ( geologic ?\ght we rea* n[ ! po9t :]e a p]iod ( brilliant progress 9 ! k ( m\nta9s & ( cont95tal /ructures beg9s 9 ! "w ( ,j4 ,d4 ,dana4 ,9 #ahdb ,dana return$ f ! ,wilkes ,explor+ ,exp$ition & ! foll[+ ye> began ! publication ( ! s]ies ( pap]s :i* = ! next half c5tury m>k$ him z ! lead] 9 geologic !ory 9 ,am]ica4 ,8 "w is ( c\rse to be judg$ aga9/ ! backgr\nd ( 8 times4 ,8 pap]s m>k di/9ct advances 9 _m l9es & are *>act]iz$ ?r\gh\t by bread? ( conception & especially by cle> & logical ?9k+4 ,8 "w 0 publi%$ v l>gely 9 ! ,j\rnal1 ( :i* aft] a few ye>s he became *ief editor4 ,8 fir/ contribution on ! subject ( m\nta9 /ructures1 entitl$ 8,geological results ( ! e>?'s contraction 9 consequ5ce ( cool+10 0 publi%$ 9 #ahdg 7#c1 #agf74 ,! evid5ce ( horizontal pressure 0 fir/ p]ceiv$ 9 ,france z %[n by ! features ( ! ,alps4 ,elie de ,beaumont connect$ x1 by means ( ! !ory ( a cool+ & contract+ globe1 ) ! o!r l>ge fact ( ! increase ( temp]ature ) desc5t 9 ! cru/4 ,dana cr$its ! ,rog]s bro!rs ) fir/ mak+ kn[n ! fold$ /ructures ( ! ,appala*ians1 b objects to _! int]pretation ( orig94 ,he %[$ by means ( diagrams t ! folds are to be expla9$ by lat]al pressure1 ! direction ( ov]turn+ indicat+ ! direction f :i* ! driv+ =ce proce$$4 ,! ,rog]s bro!rs & especially ,james ,hall1 9 work+ out ! ,appala*ian /ratigraphy1 _h not$ t ! =mations1 al?\gh accumulat+ to a maximum ?ickness ( betwe5 #cj1jjj & #dj1jjj feet1 %[$ evid5ces t ! successive =mations 7 deposit$ 9 %all[ wat]4 ,x sugge/$ to !m t ! weight ( ! accumulat+ s$im5ts 0 ! cause ( subsid5ce1 ea* foot ( s$im5t caus+ a foot ( d[n s9k+4 ,?is idea has cont9u$ to run ?r\gh v>i\s text books 9 geology = half a c5tury1 yet ,dana e>ly saw ! fallacy & 9 #ahfc 9 ! fir/ edition ( 8 ,manual ( ,geology 7p4 #gag7 /ates 8:e!r ?is is an actual cause or n 9 geological dynamics is que/ionable40 ,9 #ahff 9 an important article on 8,obs]vations on ! orig9s ( "s ( ! e>?'s features10 ,dana deals m fully & f9ally ) ?is subject 7#db1 #bje1 #beb1 #ahff74 ,he %[s t su* an effect ( accumulat+ s$im5t po/ulates a delicate balance1 a v ?9 cru/ & no resi/ance bel[4 ,if su* a weakness 7 grant$ x w\ld be impossible = ! e>? to hold up m\nta9s4 ,fur!rmore su* subsid5ce 0 n regul> dur+ its progress & f9ally 9 ! long c\rse ( geologic "t gave place to a rev]se movem5t ( elevation4 ,hall _h po9t$ out ! fact t ! s$im5ts 7 ?icke/ on ! ea/ 9 ! region ( m\nta9 fold+ & ?9n$ out to a fraction ( ?is ?ickness 9 ! broad ,mississippi bas94 ,hall argu$ t ! m]e subsid5ce ( ! tr\gh w\ld produce ! obs]v$ fold+ & t ! fold+ 0 unrelat$ to m\nta9 mak+ or cru/al %ort5+4 ,9 suppos$ pro( he cit$ ! fact t ! ,catskills consi/ ( unfold$ rock1 are high] ?an ! fold$ region to ! s\?1 & ne>ly z high z ! highe/ metamorphic m\nta9s to ! ea/4#hg ,hall & all 8 contempor>ies 7 h&icapp$ 9 _! geological !ories by a complete inappreciation ( ! importance ( subarial d5udation4 ,= subscrib+ to ^! errors ( _! "t ev5 ! able/ m5 %\ld n be held responsible4 ,hall 0 ! mo/ =cible p]sonality 9 geology 9 8 g5]ation4 ,8 contributions to paleontology 7 sup]b4 ,8 p]ception ( ! relation exi/+ betwe5 tr\ghs ( ?ick s$im5ts & fold$ /ructures 0 a contribution ( ! fir/ importance2 yet 9 ! /ructural field 8 argum5t z to ! production ( ! ,appala*ian folds by m]e subsid5ce dur+ deposition indicates a rem>kable inability to apply ! logical consequ5ces ( 8 hypo!sis to ! nature ( ! folds z already made kn[n by ! ,rog]s4 ,dana po9t$ out 9 reply to ,hall t ! fold+ did n correspond to ! requirem5ts ( ,hall's hypo!sis1 especially z ! fold+ took place n dur+1 b aft] ! close ( ! va/ ,paleozoic deposition4 ,dana /ates 9 conclusion on ,hall's hypo!sis 7#db1 #bji1 #ahff7 t 8,x is a !ory ( ! orig9 ( m\nta9s ) ! orig9 ( m\nta9s left out40 ,! ,!ory ( ,geosyncl9es & ,geanticl9es4 ,! fact t sy/ems ( fold$ /rata lie along axes ( especially ?ick s$im5ts & t ?is impli$ subsid5ce dur+ deposition 0 ,hall's contribution to geologic !ory1 b curi\sly en\gh he fail$1 z %[n1 to connect x ) ! subsequ5t nature ( m\nta9 fold+4 ,he did n see :y su* tr\ghs %\ld be weak to resi/ horizontal compression4 ,! cle> recognition ( ?is relation%ip 0 ! contribution ( ,le ,conte1 :o 9 a pap] on 8,a !ory ( ! =mation ( ! great features ( ! e>?'s surface0 7#d1 #cde1 #dfj1 #ahgb71 rea*$ ! conclusion t 8m\nta9 *a9s are =m$ by ! ma%+ toge!r & ! up-swell+ ( sea bottoms :]e imm5se ?icknesses ( s$im5t h accumulat$40 ,z to ! cause :y ma%+ %\ld take place along tr\ghs ( ?ick s$im5ts ,le ,conte adopts ! hypo!sis ( aqueo-igne\s fusion propos$ indep5d5tly long be=e by ,babbage & ,h]s*el & elaborat$ into a !ory ( igne\s rocks by ,hunt4 ,"u ?is view1 z ! old] s$im5ts became deeply buri$1 ! heat ( ! e>?'s int]ior asc5d$ into !m1 & s9ce !y includ$ ! wat] ( s$im5tation a s(t5+ & metamorphism result$4 ,dana _h %[n1 h[ev]1 six ye>s previ\sly 7#db1 #beb1 #ahff71 z ! foll[+ quotation w indicate1 t metamorphism ( s$im5ts requir$ m ?an deep burial & t no su* weak5+ z 0 po/ulat$ by ,h]s*el _h occurr$3 8,! correctness ( ,h]s*el's pr9ciple _c be d\bt$4 ,b ! "q ( its actual ag5cy 9 ord9>y metamorphism mu/ be decid$ by an appeal to facts2 & on ?is po9t ,i w\ld "h pres5t a few facts = consid]ation4 ,! numb]s & boldness ( ! flexures 9 ! rocks ( mo/ metamorphic regions h always seem$ to me to be> aga9/ ! view t ! heat caus+ ! *ange _h asc5d$ by ! v quiet me?od recogniz$ 9 ?is !ory4444 ,b !re are o!r facts indicat+ a limit$ suffici5cy to ?is means ( metamorphism4 ,^! are af=d$ by ! great faults & sections ( /rata op5 to exam9ation4 ,9 ! ,appala*ian region1 bo? ( ,virg9ia & ,p5nsylvania1 faults occur1 z describ$ by ! ,pr(essors ,rog]s1 & by ,mr4 ,j4 ,p4 ,lesley1 :i* af=d u important data = conclusions4 ,mr4 ,lesley1 an excell5t geologi/ & geological obs]v]1 :o has explor$ p]sonally ! regions ref]r$ to1 /ates t at ! great fault ( ,juniata & ,blair ,cos41 ,p5nsylvania1 ! rocks ( ! ,tr5ton p]iod are br\ght up to a level ) ^? ( ! ,*emung1 mak+ a dislocation ( at lea/ #af1jjj1 & probably ( #bj1jjj1 feet4 ,& yet ! ,tr5ton lime/one & ,hudson ,riv] %ales are n metamorphic4 ,"s local cases ( alt]ation occur !re1 includ+ pat*es ( ro(+ slate2 b ! great] "p ( ! %ales are no h>d] ?an ! ord9>y %ales ( ! ,p5nsylvania ,coal =mation4 ,at a dep? ( #af1jjj feet ! temp]ature ( ! e>?'s cru/1 all[+ an increase ( #a ,f4 = #fj feet ( desc5t1 w\ld be ab\t #ccj ,f42 or ) #a ,f4 = #ej feet1 ab\t #chj ,f4--ei!r ( :i* temp]atures is f> above ! boil+ po9t ( wat]2 & ) ! ?9n] cru/ ( ,paleozoic "t ! temp]ature at ?is dep? %\ld h be5 /ill high]4 ,b1 not)/&+ ?is heat1 & also ! compression f s great an ov]ly+ mass1 ! lime/ones & %ales are n cry/all9e4 ,! *ange ( p>ts ( ! %ale to ro(+ slate is no evid5ce 9 favor ( ! effici5cy ( ! alleg$ cause2 = su* a cause %\ld act uni=mly ov] great areas40 ,! next contribution to ! !ory ( orog5y 0 a s]ies ( pap]s publi%$ 9 #ahgc by ,dana1 entitl$ 8,on "s results ( ! e>?'s contraction f cool+1 includ+ a discussion on ! orig9 ( m\nta9s & ! nature ( ! e>?'s int]ior40#hh ,?is contribution1 view$ z a :ole1 ranks among ! fir/ half doz5 pap]s on ! sci5ce ( m\nta9s4 ,! foll[+ quot$ p>agraphs give a view ( ! scope ( ?is article3 8,k9ds & ,/ructure ( ,m\nta9s40 8,:ile m\nta9s & m\nta9 *a9s all ov] ! _w1 & l[ l&s1 also1 h und]gone uplifts1 9 ! c\rse ( _! long hi/ory1 t are n expla9$ on ! idea t all m\nta9 elevat+ is simply :at may come f plication or cru%+1 ! compon5t p>ts ( m\nta9 *a9s1 or ^? simple m\nta9s or m\nta9 ranges t are ! product ( "o process ( mak+--may h receiv$1 at ! "t ( _! orig9al mak+1 no elevation beyond t result+ f plication4 ,?is leads u to a gr& di/9ction 9 orography1 hi!rto neglect$1 :i* is fundam5tal & ( ! highe/ int]e/ 9 dynamical geology2 a di/9ction betwe5-- #a4 ,a simple or individual m\nta9 mass or range1 :i* is ! result ( "o process ( mak+1 l an individual 9 any process ( evolution1 & :i* may be di/+ui%$ z a monog5etic range1 be+ "o 9 g5esis2 & #b4 ,a composite or polyg5etic range or *a91 made up ( two or m monog5etic ranges comb9$4 ,! ,appala*ian *a9--! m\nta9 region along ! ,atlantic bord] ( ,nor? ,am]ica--is a polyg5etic *a92 x consi/s1 l ! ,rocky & o!r m\nta9 *a9s1 ( sev]al monog5etic ranges1 ! m important ( :i* are3 #a4 ,! ,highl& range 7includ+ ! ,blue ,ridge or p>ts ( x1 & ! ,adirondacks also1 if ^! belong to ! same process ( mak+7 pre-,silurian 9 =mation2 #b4 ,! ,gre5 ,m\nta9 range1 9 we/]n ,new ,engl& & ea/]n ,new ,york1 complet$ ess5tially aft] ! ,l[] ,silurian era or dur+ its clos+ p]iod2 #c4 ,! ,alleghany range1 ext5d+ f s\!rn ,new ,york s\?we/w>d to ,alabama1 & complet$ imm$iately aft] ! ,c>bonif]\s age4 ,! mak+ ( ! ,alleghany range 0 c>ri$ =w>d at fir/ ?r\gh a long-cont9u$ subsid5ce--a geosyncl9al 7n a true syncl9al1 s9ce ! rocks ( ! b5d+ cru/ may h _h 9 !m _m true or simple syncl9als z well z anticl9als71 & a consequ5t accumulation ( s$im5ts1 :i* occupi$ ! :ole ( ,paleozoic "t2 & x 0 complet$1 f9ally1 9 great break+s1 fault+s & fold+s or plications ( ! /rata1 along ) o!r results ( di/urbance4 ,^! examples exhibit ! *>act]i/ics ( a l>ge class ( m\nta9 masses or ranges4 ,a geosyncl9al accompani$ by s$im5t>y depositions1 & end+ 9 a cata/rophe ( plications & solidification1 are ! ess5tial /eps1 :ile metamorphism & igne\s ejections are incid5tal results4 ,! process is "o t produces f9al /ability 9 ! mass & its annexation g5]ally to ! m /able "p ( ! cont95t1 ?\gh n /able aga9/ future oscillations ( level ( wid] range1 nor aga9/ d5udation4 ,x is app>5t t 9 su* a process ( =mation elevation by direct uplift ( ! und]ly+ cru/ has no necess>y place4 ,! att5d+ plications may make elevations on a va/ scale & s also may ! %oves upw>d along ! l9es ( fracture1 & cru%+ may sometimes add to ! effect2 b elevation f an upw>d movem5t ( ! d[nw>d b5t cru/ is only an incid5tal concomitant1 if x occur at all4 ,we p]ceive ?us :]e ! tru? lies 9 ,pr(essor ,le ,conte's important pr9ciple4 ,x %\ld h 9 view alone monog5etic m\nta9s & ^! only at ! "t ( _! mak+4 ,x w !n read1 plication & %ov+s along fractures be+ made m prom95t ?an cru%+3 ,plication1 %ov+ along fractures & cru%+ are ! true s\rces ( ! elevation t takes place dur+ ! mak+ ( geosyncl9al monog5etic m\nta9s4 ,& ! /atem5t ( ,pr(essor ,hall may be made "r if we recognize ! same di/9ction1 &1 also1 rev]se ! ord] & causal relation ( ! two ev5ts1 accumulation & subsid5ce2 & s make x read3 ,regions ( monog5etic m\nta9s 71 previ\s1 & prep>atory1 to ! mak+ ( ! m\nta9s1 areas ea* ( a sl[ly progress+ geosyncl9al1 &1 consequ5tly1 ( ?ick accumulations ( s$im5ts4 ,! prom95ce & importance 9 orography ( ! m\nta9 individualities describ$ above z orig9at+ ?r\gh a geosyncl9al make x desirable t !y %\ld h a di/9ctive "n2 & ,i !re=e propose to call a m\nta9 range ( ?is k9d a syncl9orium1 f syncl9al & ! ,greek 1 m\nta94 ,?is br+s u to ano!r important di/9ction 9 orographic geology--t ( a second k9d ( monog5etic m\nta94 ,! syncl9oria 7 made ?r\gh a progress+ geosyncl9al4 ,^? ( ! second k9d1 "h ref]r$ to1 7 produc$ by a progress+ geanticl9al4 ,!y are simply ! upw>d b5d+s 9 ! oscillations ( ! e>?'s cru/--! geanticl9al waves1 & h>dly require a special "n4 ,yet1 if "o is desir$1 ! t]m anticl9orium1 ! correlate ( syncl9orium1 w\ld be appropriate4 ,_m ( !m h disappe>$ 9 ! c\rse ( ! oscillations2 & yet1 "s may h be5 = a "t--p]haps millions ( ye>s--respectable m\nta9s4 ,! geosyncl9al ranges or syncl9oria h exp]i5c$ 9 almo/ all cases1 s9ce _! completion1 true elevation ?r\gh great geanticl9al movem5ts1 b movem5ts t embrac$ a wid] range ( cru/ ?an t conc]n$ 9 ! prec$+ geosyncl9al movem5ts1 inde$ a range ( cru/ t comes /rictly "u ! designation ( a polyg5etic mass40 8,! ,condition ( ! ,e>?'s ,int]ior40 8,! condition ( ! e>?'s int]ior is n among ! geological results ( contraction f cool+4 ,b ^! results (f] an argum5t ( great weight respect+ ! e>?'s int]ior condition1 & make x desirable t ! subject %\ld be discuss$ 9 ?is connection4 ,moreov]1 ! facts ?r[ additional light on ! prec$+ topic--! orig9 ( m\nta9s4 ,x seems n[ to be demon/rat$ by a/ronomical & physical argum5ts--argum5ts t are indep5d5t1 x %\ld be not$1 ( direct geological obs]vation--t ! int]ior ( our globe is ess5tially solid4 ,b ! great oscillations ( ! e>?'s surface1 :i* h seem$ to dem& = explanation a liquid int]ior1 /ill rema9 facts1 & pres5t app>5tly a great] difficulty ?an ev] to ! geologi/4 ,pr(essor ,le ,conte's views1 9 volume iv1 7 (f]$ by him z a me?od ( meet+ ?is difficulty2 yet1 z he admits 9 8 conclud+ rem>ks1 ! oscillations ov] ! int]ior ( a cont95t1 & ! fact ( ! great] movem5ts on ! bord]s ( ! l>g] ocean1 7 left by him unexpla9$4 ,yet ^! oscillations are n m real ?an ! *anges ( level or great] oscillations :i* occurr$ along ! sea bord]1 :]e m\nta9s 7 ! f9al result2 & ?is be+ a demon/rat$ tru?1 no less ?an ! g5]al solidity ( ! e>?'s int]ior1 ! "q comes up1 h[ are ! two tru?s compatible8 ,! geological argum5t on ! subject 7! only "o )9 our pres5t purpose7 has (t5 be5 pres5t$4 ,b x d]ives new =ce & gives cle>] revelations :5 ! facts are view$ 9 ! light ( ! pr9ciples t h be5 expla9$ 9 ! prec$+ "p ( ?is memoir4 ,! ,appala*ian subsid5ce 9 ! ,alleghany region ( #ce1jjj to #dj1jjj feet1 go+ on ?r\gh all ! ,paleozoic era1 0 due1 z has be5 %[n1 to an actual s9k+ ( ! e>?'s cru/ ?r\gh lat]al pressure1 & n to local contraction 9 ! /rata !mselves or ! t]ranes und]nea?4 ,b su* a subsid5ce is n possible1 unless sev5 miles--t is1 sev5 miles 9 maximum dep? & ov] a hundr$ 9 total bread?--unless sev5 miles ( some?+ 7 remov$1 9 its progress1 f ! region b5ea?4 ,if ! matt] b5ea? 0 n arial1 !n liquid or visc\s rock 0 pu%$ aside4 ,?is be+ a fact1 x w\ld foll[ t !re exi/$1 und]nea? a cru/ ( unasc]ta9$ ?ickness1 a sea or lake ( mobile 7visc\s or pla/ic7 rock1 z l>ge z ! s9k+ region2 & also t ?is great visc\s sea cont9u$ 9 exi/5ce ?r\gh ! :ole p]iod ( subsid5ce1 or1 9 ! case ( ! ,alleghany region1 ?r\gh all ,paleozoic "t--an era e/imat$ on a previ\s page to cov] at lea/ ?irty-five millions ( ye>s1 if "t s9ce ! ,silurian age began embrac$ fifty millions ( ye>s4 ,! facts ?us su/a9 ! /atem5t t lat]al pressure produc$ n only ! subsid5ce ( ! ,appala*ian region ?r\gh ! ,paleozoic1 b also1 cotemporane\sly1 & z its ess5tial pr]equisite1 ! ris+ ( a sea-bord] elevation1 or geanticl9al1 p>allel ) x2 & t bo? movem5ts dem&$ ! exi/5ce b5ea? ( a great sea ( mobile rock40 ,! recognition ( regional w>p+ z a major factor 9 ! l>g] /ructure ( m\nta9 sy/ems1 & ! expression ( t factor 9 ! t]ms geosyncl9e & geanticl9e =ms a notable advance 9 geologic ?\ght4 ,subsequ5t fold+ on a regional scale results 9 ! developm5t ( syncl9oria & anticl9oria4 ,van ,hise has giv5 ^! latt] t]ms wide curr5cy1 b app>5tly inadv]t5tly has us$ syncl9orium 9 a diff]5t s5se ?an t 9 :i* ,dana def9$ x4 ,dana gave ! ^w to a m\nta9 range made by ! ma%+ & uplift ( a geosyncl9e1 ,van ,hise def9es x z a d[nfold ( a l>ge ord] ( magnitude1 embrac+ anticl9es & syncl9es )9 x2 anticl9orium he uses = a correspond+ up fold4#hi ,rice has call$ att5tion to ?is *ange ( def9ition1#ij b ,van ,hise's usage is likely to prevail1 s9ce !y are ne$$ t]ms = ! l>g] m\nta9 /ructure & d n require a det]m9ation ( ! previ\s limits ( upw>p & d[nw>p1--( orig9al d5udation & deposition4 ,fur!rmore1 a geosyncl9e 9 m\nta9 fold+ may h "o side uplift$1 ! o!r side depress$ & !re are reasons = reg>d+ ! folds ( ,p5nsylvania1 ,dana's type syncl9orium1 z repres5t+ b ! we/]n & d[nfold$ side ( ! ,paleozoic geosyncl9e4 ,"u t view ! fold$ ,appala*ians ( ,p5nsylvania con/itute a syncl9orium 9 bo? ! s5se ( ,dana & ,van ,hise4 ,! ,ultimate ,cause ( ,cru/al ,compression4 ,! next important advance 9 ! !ory ( m\nta9s 0 made by ,c4 ,e4 ,dutton :o 9 #ahgd publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#h1 #aac-abc7 an article entitl$ 8,a criticism ^u ! contractional hypo!sis40 ,dutton gives reasons = hold+ t ! am\nt ( fold+ & %ort5+ exhibit$ 9 m\nta9 ranges1 especially ^? ( ,t]ti>y date1 is v mu* great] 9 magnitude & is diff]5t 9 nature & di/ribution f t :i* w\ld be giv5 by ! surficial cool+ ( ! globe4 ,! foll[+ quotations cov] ! pr9cipal po9ts 9 ! argum5t3 8,! argum5t = ! contractional hypo!sis presupposes t ! e>?-mass may be consid]$ z consi/+ ( two portions1 a cool$ ext]ior ( undet]m9$ 7?\gh probably comp>atively small7 dep?1 inclos+ a hot nucleus4444 ,! secul> loss ( heat1 x is assum$1 w\ld be great] f ! hot nucleus ?an f ! ext]ior1 & ! great] consequ5t contraction ( ! nucleus w\ld !re=e gradually )draw ! support ( ! ext]ior1 :i* w\ld collapse4 ,! result+ /ra9s ^u ! ext]ior w\ld be ma9ly tang5tial4 ,ow+ to consid]able inequalities 9 ! ability ( diff]5t portions to resi/ ! /ra9s ?us develop$1 ! yield+ w\ld take place at ! l9es1 or regions ( lea/ resi/ance1 & ! effects ( ! yield+ w\ld be manife/$ *iefly1 or :olly1 at ^? places1 9 ! =m ( m\nta9 *a9s1 or belts ( table l&s1 & 9 ! di/urbances ( /ratification4 ,! prim>y division ( ! surface into areas ( l& & wat] are attribut$ to ! assum$ small] conductivity ( mat]ials und]ly+ ! l&1 :i* h be5 left beh9d 9 ! g5]al conv]g5ce ( ! surface t[>d ! c5t]4 ,reg>d+ ^! z ! ma9 & und]ly+ premises ( ! contractional argum5t1 x is consid]$ unnecess>y to /ate ! v>i\s subsidi>y propositions :i* h be5 advanc$ to expla9 ! det]m9ation ( ?is action to p>ticul> ph5om5a1 s9ce ! ma9 proposition ^u :i* !y are bas$ is consid]$ unt5able4 ,!re c be no reasonable d\bt t ! e>?-mass consi/s ( a cool$ ext]ior inclos+ a hot nucleus1 & a necess>y coroll>y to ?is mu/ be secul> cool+1 probably accompani$ by contraction ( ! cool+ portions4 ,b :5 we apply ! kn[n laws ( !rmal physics to asc]ta9 ! rate ( ?is cool+1 & its di/ribution ?r\gh ! mass1 ! objectionable "* ( ! contractional hypo!sis becomes obvi\s4 ,t ,f\ri]'s !orem1 "u ! g5]al conditions giv51 expresses ! normal law ( cool+1 is admitt$ by all ma!maticians :o h exam9$ x4 ,! only gr\nd ( controv]sy mu/ be ^u ! values to be assign$ to ! con/ants4 ,b !re seem to be no values consi/5t ) probability :i* c be ( help to ! contractional hypo!sis4 ,! application ( ! !orem %[s t bel[ #bjj or #cjj miles ! cool+ has1 up to ! pres5t "t1 be5 extremely little4444 ,at pres5t1 h[ev]1 ! unavoidable d$uction f ?is !orem is t ! greate/ possible contraction due to secul> cool+ is insuffici5t 9 am\nt to acc\nt = ! ph5om5a attribut$ to x by ! contractional hypo!sis4 ,! det]m9ation ( plications to p>ticul> localities pres5ts difficulties 9 ! way ( ! contractional hypo!sis :i* h be5 und]rat$4 ,x has be5 assum$ t if a contraction ( ! int]ior 7 to occur1 ! yield+ ( ! out] cru/ w\ld take place at localities ( lea/ resi/ance4 ,b ?is c\ld be true only on ! assumption t ! cru/ c\ld h a horizontal movem5t 9 :i* ! nucleus does n necess>ily %>e4 ,a v]tical section ?r\gh ! ,appala*ian region & we/w>d to ! #ajj? m]idian %[s a surface highly di/urb$ = ab\t two hundr$ & fifty miles1 & comp>atively undi/urb$ = m ?an a ?\s&4 ,no "o w\ld s]i\sly argue t ! contraction ( ! nucleus _h be5 conf9$ to portions und]ly+ ! di/urb$ regions3 yet if ! contraction 0 g5]al1 !re mu/ h be5 a l>ge am\nt ( slip ( "s portion ( ! undi/urb$ segm5t ov] ! nucleus4 ,su* a proposition w\ld be v difficult to def5d1 ev5 if ! premises 7 grant$4 ,x seems z if ! friction & adhesion ( ! cru/ ^u ! nucleus _h be5 ov]look$4 ,nor c\ld ?is be small1 ev5 ?\gh ! cru/ re/$ ^u liquid lava4 ,! attempts :i* "s em95t geologi/s h rec5tly made to expla9 surface corrugation by ?is me?od cle>ly %[ a neglect on _! "p to analyze c>efully ! sy/em ( =ces :i* a contraction ( ! nucleus w\ld g5]ate 9 ! cru/4 ,_! discussions h be5 argum5tative & n analytical4 ,! latt] me?od ( exam9ation w\ld h %[n !m c]ta9 difficulties irreconcilable ) _! k ( facts4 ,adopt+ ! argum5tative mode1 & 9 con=mity ) _! view reg>d+ ! ext]ior z a %ell ( insuffici5t coh]5ce to su/a9 itself :5 its support is s5sibly dim9i%$1 ! t5d5cy ( corrugation to occur ma9ly along c]ta9 belts1 ) s]ies ( p>allel folds1 is n expla9$ by assum+ t ^! localities are regions ( weakness4 ,= a %r9kage ( ! nucleus w\ld ?r[ ea* elem5t>y portion ( ! cru/ into a /ate ( /ra9 by ! action ( =ces 9 all directions )9 its own tang5t plane4 ,a relief by a horizontal yield+ 9 "o direction w\ld by no means be a g5]al relief40 ,dutton's criticisms robb$ ! curr5t hypo!sis ( m\nta9-mak+ ( its conv5tional basis )\t provid+ a new f\ndation4 ,x 0 a qu>t] ( a c5tury 9 advance ( its "t1 has be5 seldom cit$1 & seems to h _h b little direct influ5ce 9 %ap+ subsequ5t ?\ght4 ,x1 h[ev]1 gave direction to ,dutton's views1 & 8 lat] pap]s 7 f>-rea*+ 9 _! influ5ce4 ,if contraction f ext]nal cool+ is n ! cause ( ! compressive =ces x is necess>y to seek ano!r cause4 ,two ye>s lat]1 9 #ahgf1 ,dutton attempt$ to provide an answ] to ?is op5 "q4#ia ,a review ( ?is pap]1 evid5tly by ,j4 ,d4 ,dana1 is giv5 9 ! ,j\rnal4 ,! foll[+ explanations ( ,dutton's !ory & ( ,dana's comm5ts ^u x are conta9$ 9 a few p>agraphs f ?is review 7#ab1 #adb1 #ahgf74 8,capta9 ,dutton pres5ts 9 ?is pap] ! views br\ght out 9 8 article 9 volume viii ( ?is ,j\rnal1 ) full] illu/rations1 & adds explanations ( 8 !ory ( ! orig9 ( m\nta9s4 ,! discussion %\ld be read by all desir+ to rea* "r conclusions1 x pres5t+ _m argum5ts f physical consid]ations aga9/ ! contraction-!ory1 or t ( ! uplift+ & fold+ ( /rata ?r\gh lat]al pressure4 ,!re is mu* to be le>n$ be=e any !ory ( m\nta9-mak+ %all h a suffici5t f\ndation 9 obs]v$ facts to dem& full confid5ce1 & ,capta9 ,dutton m]its ! ?anks ( geologi/s = ! aid he has giv5 !m t[>d rea*+ "r conclusions4 ,8 discussions are n free f misund]/&+s ( geological facts1 & if !y fail to be f9ally receiv$ x w be = ?is reason4 ,we "h give 9 a brief =m1 & ne>ly 9 8 own words1 ! pr9cipal po9ts 9 8 !ory ( m\nta9-mak+ z expla9$ 9 ! lat] "p ( 8 memoir4 ,accept+ ! proposition t !re is a pla/ic condition ( rock b5ea? ! e>?'s cru/ & t metamorphism is a #8hydro!rmal process1' & believ+ t #8! p5etration ( wat] to pr(\nd dep?s 9 ! e>?'s cru/ is a well su/a9$ !ory1' he says t great pressure & a temp]ature approa*+ r$ness are ess5tial conditions ( metamorphism4444 #8,! heavie/ portion w\ld s9k into ! light] colloid mass und]nea?1 protrud+ x lat]ally b5ea? ! light] portions :]e1 by its light] d5sity1 x t5ds to accumulate4' ,he adds3 #8,! result+ movem5ts w\ld be det]m9$1 fir/1 by ! am\nt ( diff]5ce 9 ! d5sities ( ! upp] & l[] masses1 &1 second1 by inequalities 9 ! ?ickness ( ! /rata3 ! =ces n[ become adequate to ! build+ ( m\nta9s & ! plication ( /rata1 & _! modes ( op]ation agree ) ! classes ( facts already set =? z ! concomitants ( ^? features4' ,! views are next appli$ to a sy/em ( plications4 #8,x has be5 indicat$ t plications occur :]e /rata h rapidly accumulat$ 9 great volume & 9 elongat$ n>r[ belts2 t ! axes ( plications are p>allel to ! axes ( maximum deposit2 & t ! movem5ts imm$iately foll[$ ! deposition'--! case ( ! ,appala*ians be+ an example 9 :i* ! accumulations av]ag$ #dj1jjj feet4 ,he obs]ves3 #8,:]ev] ! load ( s$im5ts becomes heavie/1 !re !y s9k deepe/1 protrud+ ! colloid magma b5ea? !m to ! adjo9+ areas1 :i* are less heavily weight$1 =m+ at once bo? syncl9als & anticl9als4' ,) reg>d to ?is new !ory1 we might reasonably "q ! exi/5ce ( ! colloid magma--a condition fundam5tal to ! !ory--& 8 evid5ce t wat] p5etrates to pr(\nd dep?s 9 ! e>?'s cru/ suffici5t to make hydr\s rocks4 ,we might ask = evid5ce t ! rocks b5ea? ! ,cretace\s & ,t]ti>y1 & o!r und]ly+ /rata ( ! ,u9tahs1 7 9 su* a colloid /ate1 & ?is s ne> ! surface1 t ! #8b$s subsid$ by _! gross weight z rapidly z !y grew4' ,aga91 he says t ! movem5ts ( m\nta9-mak+ #8imm$iately foll[$ ! deposition4' #8,imm$iately' s\nds quick to "o :o appreciates ! sl[ness ( geological *anges4 ,! ,c>bonif]\s age 0 v long2 & some:]e 9 t "p ( geological "t1 ei!r be=e ! age _h fully end$1 or "s "t aft] its close1 ! epo* ( cata/rophe began40 ,we see =e%ad[$ 9 ?is pap] ! !ory ( iso/asy1 or condition ( v]tical equilibrium 9 ! cru/ :i* ,dutton publi%$ 9 #ahhi4 ,?is !ory has borne rem>kable fruit1 b ,dutton attempt$ to l9k to x ! horizontally compressive =ces :i* h produc$ fold+ & ov]?ru/+4 ,willis 9 #aijgib & ,hay=d 9 #aiaa1 ov]look+ ,dana's objections1 h attempt$ to make a lat]al iso/atic und]t[ ! cause ( all horizontal movem5ts 9 ! cru/1 adopt+ ! me*anism ( ,dutton4 ,! pres5t writ]1 al?\gh accept+ ! pr9ciple ( iso/asy z an explanation ( broad v]tical movem5ts1 has publi%$ pap]s :i* g to %[ ! inadequacy ( ?is hypo!sis ( lat]al pressure2 inadequate 9 "t relation1 9 am\nt1 & 9 expression4#ic ,9 #aijc x 0 det]m9$ by sev]al physici/s t ! mat]ials ( ! e>?'s cru/ 7 radioactive & mu/ g5]ate ?r\gh\t geologic "t a quantity ( heat :i* p]haps equall$ t lo/ by radiation into space4 ,by #aijg ?is _h become demon/rat$4 ,! rem>kable conclusion _h be5 rea*$ t ! e>?1 al?\gh los+ heat1 is n a cool+ globe4 ,dutton's cont5tions aga9/ m\nta9 gr[? ?r\gh ext]nal cool+ & contraction 7 ?us unexpect$ly1 ?r\gh a :olly new bran* ( k1 demon/rat$ to be true4 ,nev]!less1 all /ud5ts ( orog5y are agre$ t pr(\nd compressive =ces h be5 ! *ief ag5ts 9 develop+ m\nta9 /ructures4 ,*amb]l9 0 ! fir/ to arrive at ! idea t ! %r9kage may orig9ate 9 ! deep] portions ( ! e>? "u ! urg5cy ( ! enorm\s pressures1 app>5tly by giv+ rise to sl[ recomb9ations ( matt] into d5s] =ms4#id ,! ,new ,era 9 ! ,int]pretation ( ,m\nta9 ,/ructures4 ,9 ! meantime1 betwe5 #ahgd & #aijd1 ano!r advance 9 ! k ( m\nta9 /ructures 0 tak+ place 9 ,europe4 ,suess /udi$ ! di/ribution ( m\nta9 arcs ov] ! e>? & dwelt ^u ! preval5ce ( ov]?ru/ /ructures2 ! backl& be+ ?ru/ t[>d & ov] ! =el&1 ! rise ( ! m\nta9 arc or geanticl9e depress+ ! =$eep or geosyncl9e4 ,b]tr& & ,lugeon f #ahhd to #aijj 7 re9t]pret+ ! ,alp9e /ructures on ?is basis4 ,!y %[$ t ! :ole m\nta9 sy/em _h be5 ov]turn$ & ov]?ru/ f ! s\? to an almo/ incr$ible degree4 ,enorm\s d5udation _h lat] dissev]$ ! nor!rn outly+ portions & giv5 rise to 8m\nta9s )\t roots10--isolat$ outli]s1 consi/+ ( ov]turn$ masses ( /rata :i* _h accumulat$ z s$im5ts f> to ! s\?w>d 9 ano!r portion ( ! anci5t geosyncl9e4 ,on a small] scale simil> ph5om5a are exhibit$ 9 ! ,appala*ians4 ,willis %[$ t ! deep subsid5ce ( ! c5t] ( ! geosyncl9e gave an initial dip :i* det]m9$ ! position ( yield+ "u compression4 ,laboratory exp]im5ts br\ght out ! weakness ( ! /ratigraphic /ructure to resi/ horizontal compression4 ,! nature ( ! /ratigraphic s]ies 0 %[n to det]m9e :e!r ! yield+ w\ld be by ma%+1 compet5t fold+1 or breakage & ov]?ru/4 ,! problem ( m\nta9 /ructures 0 ?us br\ght into ! realm ( me*anics4 ,^! results 7 publi%$ 9 ?ree s\rces 9 #ahic1--! ,transactions ( ! ,am]ican ,in/itute ( ,m9+ ,eng9e]s1 ! ?irte5? annual report ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey1 & ! ,j\rnal 7#df1 #beg1 #ahic74 ,f9ally %\ld be not$ ! contributions ( ! ,lake ,sup]ior s*ool ( geology1 9 :i* ! "w ( ,van ,hise /&s preem95t4 ,"u ! economic /imulus giv5 by ! discov]y & developm5t ( enorm\sly ri* bodies ( iron ore1 hidd5 "u ,plei/oc5e drift & involv$ 9 ! complex /ructures ( vani%$ m\nta9 sy/ems ( anci5t date1 /ructural geology & metamorphism h become exact sci5ces to be drawn ^u 9 ! se>* = m9]al weal? & yield+ also ri* returns 9 a full] k ( e>ly p]iods ( e>? hi/ory4 ,cru/ ,movem5ts z ,reveal$ by ,physiography4 ,dur+ ! la/ qu>t] ( ! n9ete5? c5tury ano!r division ( geology1 dom9antly ,am]ican1 0 tak+ =m & gr[?1--! sci5ce ( l& =ms1--physiography4 ,! hi/ory ( t developm5t is treat$ by ,gregory 9 ! prec$+ *apt] b "s ( its be>+s ^u !ory1 9 s f> z !y affect ! subject ( m\nta9 orig91 are necess>ily giv5 "h4 ,p[ell1 ,dutton1 & ,gilb]t 9 _! explorations ( ! ,we/ saw ! /up5d\s "w ( d5udation :i* _h be5 c>ri$ to completion aga9 & aga9 dur+ ! progress ( geologic "t4 ,! m\nta9 relief consequ5tly may be mu* y\ng] ?an ! fold+ ( ! rocks1 & may be l>gely or ev5 :olly due to recurr5t plateau movem5t1 a doctr9e to :i* ,dana _h previ\sly arriv$4 ,b ! introduction ( ! idea ( ! p5epla9 op5$ up a new field = exploration 9 ! nature & date ( cru/ movem5ts4 ,davis by ?is means began to /udy ! lat] *apt]s ( ,appala*ian hi/ory1 ! mo/ important e>ly pap] be+ publi%$ 9 #ahia4ie ,s9ce !n ,davis1 ,willis1 & _m o!rs h f\nd t1 girdl+ ! _w1 a l>ge "p ( ! m\nta9\s relief is due to v]tical elevatory =ces act+ ov] regions ( previ\s fold+ & ov]?ru/4 ,9 addition1 great plateau areas ( unfold$ rocks h be5 bodily lift$ "o to two miles1 or m1 above _! e>li] levels4 ,!y may be broad geanticl9al ar*es or b\nd$ by ! walls ( pr(\nd fractures4 ,! l9e> m\nta9 sy/ems made f deep tr\ghs ( s$im5ts h come !n to be recogniz$ z b "o ( sev]al classes ( m\nta9s4 ,?is class1 f its cle> developm5t 9 ! ,appala*ians1 & ! fact t _m ( ! laws ( m\nta9 /ructure p]ta9+ to x 7 fir/ work$ out !re1 has be5 call$ by ,p[ell ! ,appala*ian type 7#ab1 #dad1 #ahgf74 ,a classification ( m\nta9 sy/ems 0 propos$ by him 9 :i* m\nta9s are classifi$ into two major divisions1 ^? compos$ ( s$im5t>y /rata alt]$ or unalt]$1 & ^? compos$ 9 :ole or 9 "p ( extravasat$ mat]ial4 ,! fir/ class he subdivides into six sub-classes ( :i* ! fold$ ,appala*ians illu/rate "o4 ,x appe>s to ! writ] t ,p[ell's classification gives disproportionate importance to c]ta9 types :i* he describ$2 b nev]!less1 ! fact t su* a classification 0 made1 indicates ! gr[? ( a m compreh5sive k ( m\nta9s1--_! orig91 /ructure1 & hi/ory4 ,relations ( ,cru/ ,movem5ts to ,d5sity & ,equilibrium4 ,a rec5t important developm5t 9 ! fields ( geophysics & major cru/ movem5ts consi/s 9 ! incorporation into geology ( ! doctr9e ( iso/asy4 ,! evid5ce 0 develop$ 9 ! middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury by ! geodetic survey ( ,india :i* indicat$ t ! ,himalayas did n ex]t ! gravitative influ5ce t _! volume call$ =4 ,x 0 cle> t ! cru/ b5ea? t m\nta9 sy/em 0 less d5se ?an b5ea? ! pla9s ( ,india & /ill less d5se ?an ! cru/ b5ea? ! ,indian ,ocean4 ,?is relation betwe5 d5sity & elevation indicat$ "s approa* to flotational equilibrium 9 ! cru/1 comp>able 9 its nature ?\gh n 9 delicacy ( adju/m5t to ! elevation ( ! surface ( an iceb]g above ! ocean level ow+ to its dep? & its d5sity1 less ?an t ( ! surr\nd+ m$ium4 ,?is important geological conception 0 kept )9 ! conf9es ( a/ronomy & geodesy1 h[ev]1 until ,dutton 9 #ahgf1 b especially 9 #ahhi1 br\ght x into ! geologic field4 ,a te/ ( iso/asy 0 made = ! ,unit$ ,/ates by ,putnam & ,gilb]t 9 #ahie & mu* m elaborate inve/igations h s9ce be5 made by ,hay=d & ,b[ie4 ,^! inve/igations demon/rate ! importance & reality ( broad w>p+ =ces act+ v]tically & relat$ to ! regional v>iations ( d5sity 9 ! cru/4 ,!re are consequ5tly two major & unrelat$ classes ( =ces involv$ 9 ! mak+ ( m\nta9 /ructures1--! irresi/ible horizontal compressive =ces1 aris+ app>5tly f cond5sation deep )9 ! e>?1 & v]tical =ces orig9at+ 9 ! out] envelopes & t5d+ t[>d a hydro/atic equilibrium4 ,9 ?is latt] field ( inve/igation1 ,am]ica1 s9ce ! initial pap] by ,dutton1 has tak5 ! lead4 ,conclusion on ,contributions ( ,am]ica to ,!ories ( ,orog5y4 ,! sci5ces arose 9 ,europe1 b ^? :i* treat$ ( ! e>? 7 /ill 9 _! infancy :5 transplant$ to ,am]ica4 ,! fir/ compreh5sive ideas on ! nature ( m\nta9 /ructures arose 9 ,great ,brita9 & ,france4 ,^! ideas s]v$ z a guide & /imulus to obs]vation 9 ! recognition ( de=mations 9 ! /rata ( ! ,appala*ian sy/em4 ,s9ce #ahdj1 h[ev]1 ,am]ica has ceas$ to be a pupil 9 ?is field ( rese>* b has jo9$ z an equal ) ! two old] c\ntries4 ,new ideas h be5 contribut$1 new & /rik+ illu/rations cit$1 fir/ by ! sci5ti/s ( "o nation1 next by ^? ( ano!r4 ,! composite mass ( k has gr[n z a common possession4 ,nev]!less1 a review ( ! progress s9ce #ahdj z measur$ by ! contribution ( new ideas %[s on ! :ole ,am]ica at lea/ equal to its intellectual rivals1 & at c]ta9 times actually ! lead]4 ,?is is true ( ! sci5ce ( geology z a :ole & also ( ! subdivision ( orog5y4 ,?us f> no m5tion has be5 made ( ,g]man geologi/s1 ) ! exception ( ,suess1 an ,au/rian4 ,g]man geology is volum9\s & ! names ( _m well-kn[n geologi/s c\ld be cit$4 ,b ?is article has s\ght to trace ! orig9 & gr[? ( fundam5tal ideas4 ,! ,g]mans h be5 assidu\s obs]v]s ( detail2 preem95t z sy/ematiz]s & classifi]s1 seldom orig9ators4 ,ev5 petrology1 :i* might be reg>d$ z _! especial field1 0 transplant$ f ,great ,brita94 ,9 ! sci5ce ( m\nta9s !y h foll[$ 9 _! fundam5tal ideas especially ! ,fr5*4 ,turn+ to ! m$iums ( publication ?r\gh :i* ?is progress ( k 9 e>? /ructures has be5 record$1 ! ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce /&s =emo/ z ! only cont9u\s record = ! :ole c5tury 9 ,am]ican lit]ature1 fulfill+ = ?is c\ntry :at ! ,qu>t]ly ,j\rnal ( ! ,geological ,society has done = ,great ,brita9 s9ce #ahde1 & ! ,bullet9 de la ,socit ,gologique = ,france s9ce #ahcj4 ,notes4 ,footnote #gh3 ,h4 ,d4 ,rog]s1 ,geology ( ,new ,j]sey1 ,f9al ,report1 p4 #aae1 #ahdj4 ,footnote #gi3 ,h4 ,d4 ,rog]s1 ,geology ( ,p5nsylvania1 vol4 #b1 pt4 ,,ii1 pp4 #gfa1 #gfb1 #aheh4 ,footnote #hj3 ,connecticut ,academy ( ,arts & ,sci5ces1 #ahaj2 quot$ by ,g4 ,p4 ,m]rill 9 ,contributions to ! ,hi/ory ( ,nor? ,am]ican geology1 ,ann4 ,rpt4 ,smi?sonian ,in/itution = #aijd1 p4 #baf4 ,footnote #ha3 ,a ,sket* ( ! geology1 m9]alogy1 & sc5]y ( ! regions contigu\s to ! riv] ,connecticut2 ) a geological map & draw+s ( organic rema9s2 & occasional botanical notices1 ! ,j\rnal1 #f1 #a-hf1 #bja-bcf1 #ahbc2 #g1 #a-cj1 #ahbd4 ,footnote #hb3 ,cl>5ce ,k+1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,exploration ( ! ,=tie? ,p>allel1 vol4 #a1 pp4 #af1 #dd-dh1 #ahgh4 ,footnote #hc3 ,illu/rations ( ! ,huttonian ,!ory ( ! ,e>?1 pp4 #bai-bch1 #ahjb4 ,footnote #hd3 ,rob]t ,jameson1 ,elem5ts ( ,geognosy1 pp4 #ee-eg1 #ahjh4 ,footnote #he3 ,g4 ,p4 ,m]rill1 ,contributions to ! ,hi/ory ( ,am]ican ,geology4 ,report ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,national ,museum = #aijd1 p4 #cbh4 ,footnote #hf3 ,h4 ,d4 ,rog]s1 ,geology ( ,p5nsylvania1 vol4 #b1 p4 #iaf1 #aheh4 ,footnote #hg3 ,james ,hall1 ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,new ,york1 ,paleontology1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #ea-gc1 #ahei4 ,footnote #hh3 ,! ,j\rnal1 #e1 #dbc-ddc1 #dgd1 #dge2 #f1 #f-ad1 #ajd-aae1 #afa-agb1 #cjd1 #cha1 #chb1 #ahgc4 ,footnote #hi3 ,c4 ,r4 ,van ,hise1 ,pr9ciples ( ,nor? ,am]ican ,pre-,cambrian ,geology1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,surv41 #af? ,ann4 ,report1 pt4 ,i1 pp4 #fjg-fab1 #ahif4 ,footnote #ij3 ,w4 ,n4 ,rice1 ,on ! use ( ! words syncl9orium & anticl9orium1 ,sci5ce1 #bc1 #bhf1 #bhg1 #aijf4 ,footnote #ia3 ,c4 ,e4 ,dutton1 ,critical obs]vations on !ories ( ! e>?'s physical evolution1 ,! ,p5n ,mon?ly1 ,may & ,june1 #ahgf4 ,footnote #ib3 ,b4 ,willis1 ,rese>* 9 ,*9a1 vol4 #b1 #aijg4 ,footnote #ic3 ,joseph ,b>rell1 ,sci5ce1 #ci1 #bei1 #bfj1 #aiji2 ,j\r4 ,geol41 #bb1 #fgb-fhc1 #aiad4 ,footnote #id3 ,t4 ,c4 ,*amb]l91 ,geology1 vol4 #a1 pp4 #eda1 #edb1 #aijd4 ,footnote #ie3 ,w4 ,m4 ,davis1 ,! geological dates ( orig9 ( c]ta9 topographic =ms on ! ,atlantic slope ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,am4 ,bull41 #b1 #eda-edb1 #ede-ehf1 #ahia4 ,v ,a ,,c5tury ,,( ,,gov]nm5t ,,geological ,,surveys ,by ,,george ,,otis ,,smi? ,director ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey ,ev5 a ,f$]al ,bureau mu/ be consid]$ a product ( evolution3 ! pa/ ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey f> ant$ates ,m>* #c1 #ahgi4 ,! scope ( endeavor1 ! ref9em5t ( me?od1 & especially ! p]sonnel ( ! newly creat$ s]vice ( t day 7 l>gely inh]it$ f pione] organizations4 ,!re=e a review ( ! c\ntry's record ( surveys "u ,gov]nm5t auspices becomes m ?an a grateful ackn[l$gm5t by ! pres5t g5]ation ( geologi/s ( ! cr$it due to ^? :o blaz$ ! way2 x %[s ! sequ5ce & progress 9 ! contributions made by geologic sci5ce to indu/ry4 ,! e>li] /ages 9 indu/rial evolution m5tion$ by ,hess#if--;exploitation1 developm5t1 & maturity--det]m9e a some:at simil> progressive developm5t 9 geologic inve/igation1 s t geographic exploration & geologic reconnaissance ( ! broade/ type are ! normal contribution ( exact sci5ce :5ev] & :]ev] a nation is 9 ! /ate ( exploitation & initial developm5t ( its m9]al & agricultural res\rces4 ,! ref9em5ts ( detail$ surveys & quantitative exam9ations belong r to ! next /age ( int5sive utilization1 or1 inde$1 !y are ! ess5tials prelim9>y to full use4 ,?us regrets t ! results ( pres5t-day "w 7 n available fifty ye>s ago are l>gely va93 ! fa!rs may n h be5 )\t ! vision2 !y simply did ! "w z _! day & g5]ation ne$$ x done4 ,tw5ty ye>s ago ,s4 ,f4 ,emmons1 9 a presid5tial address be=e ! ,geological ,society ( ,wa%+ton1 divid$ ! hi/ory ( ,gov]nm5tal surveys 9 ?is c\ntry into two p]iods1 sep>at$ 9 a g5]al way by ! ,civil ,w>4 ,! fir/ ( ^! 0 ! p]iod ( geographic exploration1 ! second t ( geologic exploration4 ,mr4 ,emmons ( c\rse reg>d$ ?is subdivision z n h>d & fa/1 yet 8 divid+ l9e seems logical1 = n only did ! milit>y activities 9 ! ,ea/ necess>ily susp5d exploration 9 ! ,we/1 b aft] ! w> national1 political1 & economic consid]ations l$ naturally to ! dem& = a m exact k ( ! va/ national doma9 9 ! ,we/4 ,geography & geology are s closely relat$ t ,mr4 ,emmons's di/9ction ( ! two p]iods is useful only ) ! limitations inf]5tially set by himself--namely1 t :ile geologic inve/igation ent]$ into mo/ ( ! explorations ( ! e>li] p]iod1 ! geologi/ 0 reg>d$ z only an accessory 9 ^! explor+ exp$itions2 on ! o!r h&1 9 ! lat] surveys ! topographic "w 0 develop$ because x 0 ess5tial to ! geologic inve/igations4 ,! ye> #ahah 0 a notable "o 9 ,am]ican geology1 fir/ ( all 9 ! appe>ance ( ! ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce1 itself s p]fect a vehicle = geological ?\ght t1 z is s well /at$ by ,dr4 ,g4 ,p4 ,m]rill1 8a p]usal ( ! numb]s f ! date ( issue d[n to ! pres5t "t w alone af=d a fair idea ( ! gradual progress ( ,am]ican geology40 ,! beg9n+ ( publications on ,new ,engl& geology appe>$ t ye> 9 ,edw>d ,hit*cock's fir/ pap] on ! ,connecticut ,valley 7#a1 #aje1 #ahah7 & ! ,danas' 7,s4 ,l4 & ,j4 ,f47 detail$ geologic & m9]alogic description ( ,bo/on & vic9ity2 & ! 8,index0 ( ,amos ,eaton 7notic$ 9 ?is ,j\rnal1 #a1 #fi7 0 ! fir/ ( t long li/ ( notable contributions to ,am]ican /ratigraphy t are to be cr$it$ to ! ,new ,york geologi/s4 ,9 ! pres5t discussion1 too1 ! ye> #aiah c be reg>d$ z 9 a way ! c5t5nial ( ,gov]nm5t geologic surveys1 = x 0 9 #ahah t ,h5ry ,r4 ,s*oolcraft began 8 trip to ! ,mississippi ,valley--p]haps ! fir/ geologic reconnaissance into ! ,we/--& x 0 8 "w 9 ! lead region :i* s]v$ to make him a memb] ( ! ,cass exp$ition s5t out by ! ,secret>y ( ,w> 9 #ahbj to exam9e ! metallic weal? ( ! ,lake ,sup]ior region4 ,! e>li] ,gov]nm5t explorations ( ,lewis & ,cl>k1 9 #ahjc-g1 & ( ,pike1 9 #ahje-g1 7 s exclusively geographic t geologic "w "u ,f$]al auspices mu/ be reg>d$ z beg9n+ ) ,s*oolcraft & ) ,edw9 ,james1 ! geologi/ ( ! exp$ition ( ,major ,long 9 #ahai-bj to ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s4 ,bo? ^! obs]v]s publi%$ reports t are valuable z contributions to ! k ( littlekn[n regions4 ,any description ( geologic "w "u ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t t includ$ no ref]5ce to ! ,/ate surveys w\ld be inadequate1 = 9 bo? date ( execution & /age ( developm5t ! "w ( ! ,/ate geologi/s mu/ be giv5 prec$5ce4 ,9 ,m]rill's ,contributions to ! ,hi/ory ( ,am]ican ,geology1#ig ^: mode/ title fails ev5 to sugge/ t ?is "w n only furni%es ! mo/ useful *ronologic record ( ! progress ( ! sci5ce on ! ,am]ican cont95t b is 9 fact a v !saurus ( incid5ts t\*+ ! p]sonal side ( geology1 ! au?or by 8 division ( 8 subject %[s t f\r decades ( ! era ( ,/ate surveys elaps$ be=e ! era ( national surveys began4 ,?us ! geologic surveys ( "s ( ! ,ea/]n ,/ates ant$ate by sev]al decades any ,f$]al organization ( comp>able geologic scope1 & 9 inve/igations direct$ to local utilit>ian problems ^! pione] geologi/s work+ 9 ! old] settl$ ,/ates ( ! ,ea/ 7 9 fact already conduct+ "w z detail$ 9 type z mu* ( t attempt$ by ! ,f$]al geologi/s ( ! lat] p]iod4 ,ev5 to-day x is true 9 a g5]al way t ! ,/ate geologi/ c & %\ld attack _m ( 8 local problems ) int5sive me?ods & ) detail ( results t are nei!r practicable nor desirable = ! l>g] int]/ate inve/igations or = exam9ations 9 new] t]ritory4 ,all ?is relation ( ,/ate & ,f$]al "w mu/ be look$ ^u z normal evolution>y developm5t ( geologic sci5ce 9 ,am]ica4 ,"o :o reads ! names ( ! ,f$]al geologi/s ( ! e>ly days1 beg9n+ ) ,jackson & ,ow5 & foll[+ ) su* lead]s 9 ,f$]al "w z ,gilb]t1 ,*amb]l91 ,k+1 ,r4 ,d4 ,irv+1 ,pumpelly1 ,van ,hise1 & ,walcott1 may note t ^! 7 all connect$ 9 _! e>li] "w ) ,/ate surveys4 ,nor has ! relation be5 "o-sid$1 = among ! ,/ate geologi/s ,:itney1 ,blake1 ,ma!r1 ,newb]ry1 ,j4 ,g4 ,norwood1 ,purdue1 ,ba91 ,gregory1 ,a%ley1 ,kirk1 ,w4 ,h4 ,emmons1 ,de,wolf1 ,ma!ws1 ,br[n1 ,l&es1 ,moore1 & ,crid] receiv$ _! field tra9+ 9 "p or :olly z memb]s ( a ,f$]al ,survey4 ,moreov]1 "u ! pres5t plan ( effective coop]ation ( sev]al ( ! ,/ate surveys ) ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey1 x is (t5 difficult to diff]5tiate betwe5 ! two 9 ei!r p]sonnel or results1 = x ev5 happ5s t ! publi%+ organization may n h be5 ! major contributor4 ,! full record ( ,am]ican geology1 pa/ & pres5t1 c n be set =? 9 t]ms ( ,f$]al auspices alone4 ,! ?ree decades prec$+ ! ,civil ,w>1 !n1 con/itute ! era ( ,/ate surveys1 well describ$ by ,m]rill z at fir/ *>act]iz$ by a contagi\s en?usiasm = beg9n+ geologic "w1 lat] by a m normal condition 9 :i* e available geologi/ seems to h be5 quietly at "w1 & f9ally by r5ew$ activity 9 creat+ new organizations4 ,! net result 0 t ,l\isiana & ,oregon seem to h be5 ! only ,/ates n hav+ at lea/ "o geological survey4 ,illu/ration3 ,f 8,contributions to ! ,hi/ory ( ,am]ican ,geology0 by ,george ,p4 ,m]rills4 ,! fir/ specific appropriation by ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t = geologic inve/igation appe>s to h be5 made 9 #ahcd1 :5 a supplem5tal appropriation = surveys ( roads & canals "u ! ,w> ,dep>tm5t1 au?oriz$ 9 #ahbd1 conta9$ ! item 8( :i* sum five ?\s& doll>s %all be appropriat$ & appli$ to geological & m9]alogical survey & rese>*es40 ,9 ,july1 #ahcd1 ,mr4 ,g4 ,w4 ,fea!r/onhaugh 0 appo9t$ ,unit$ ,/ates geologi/ & employ$ "u ,colonel ,ab]t1 ,u4 ,s4 ,topographical ,eng9e]s1 to 8p]sonally inspect ! m9]al & geological "*0 ( ! public l&s ( ! ,oz>k ,m\nta9 region4 ,ov]look+ ! incid5tal fact t ?is ,engli%man--a man ( sci5tific atta9m5t & l>ge int]e/ 9 public affairs--0 nev] naturaliz$1#ih x mu/ be plac$ to ! cr$it ( ?is fir/ ( ,unit$ ,/ates geologi/s t )9 sev5 mon?s he complet$ 8 field "w & return$ to ,wa%+ton1 & on ,febru>y #ag1 #ahce1 8 report 0 transmitt$ to ,congress4 ,two ye>s e>li] ,fea!r/onhaugh _h memorializ$ ,congress = aid 9 ! prep>ation ( a geologic map ( ! :ole t]ritory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & 9 connection ) ?is project he sugge/$ t geology z an aid to milit>y eng9e]+ %\ld h a place 9 ! curriculum at ,we/ ,po9t4 ,?is fir/ ,unit$ ,/ates geologi/ also appe>s to h comb9$ an appreciation ( ! practical wor? ( 8! m9]al ri*es ( our c\ntry1 _! quality1 quantity1 & ! facility ( procur+ !m10 ) an int]e/ 9 ! m sci5tific side ( geology1 ?\gh 8 hypo!ses reg>d+ bo? economic geology & /ratigraphic & /ructural geology h n won ! endorsem5t ( all lat] work]s 9 ! same regions4 ,9 all ^! respects1 h[ev]1 ,fea!r/onhaugh may /& z a fairly good prototype4 ,8 contributions to int]national affairs subsequ5t to 8 sci5tific s]vice to ! ,unit$ ,/ates are ( int]e/2 he s]v$ z "o ( ,h] ,maje/y's commission]s 9 ! settlem5t ( ! ,canadian-,unit$ ,/ates b\nd>y "q 9 #ahci-dj & made an exam9ation ( ! disput$ area1 & aft] ! settlem5t ( ?is controv]sy he 0 appo9t$ ,briti% ,consul = ! ,dep>tm5t ( ! ,se9e1 ,france1 :]e 9 #ahdh he p]sonally eng9e]$ ! escape ( ,l\is ,philippe f ,havre4 ,! ,f$]al geologic "w ?us />t$ 0 soon cont9u$ 9 surveys ( wid] scope & m ?or\gh accompli%m5t4 ,! position ( ! ,gov]nm5t z ! proprietor ( m9]al l&s 9 ! ,upp] ,mississippi ,valley l$ to _! exam9ation4 ,^! ,gov]nm5t l&s conta9+ lead _h be5 res]v$ f sale = lease s9ce #ahjg1 al?\gh no leases 7 issu$ until #ahbb4 ,! am\nt ( illegal entry & consequ5t refusal ( smelt]s & m9]s to pay royalty aft] #ahcd =c$ ! issue ^u ! att5tion ( ,congress1 & 9 #ahci ,presid5t ,van ,bur5 0 reque/$ to pres5t to ,congress a plan = ! sale ( ! public m9]al l&s4 ,9 c>ry+ out ?is policy ,dr4 ,david ,dale ,ow5 0 select$ to make ! necess>y survey4 ,ow5 _h s]v$ z an assi/ant on ! ,/ate ,survey ( ,t5nessee & z ! fir/ ,/ate geologi/ ( ,indiana1 & he organiz$ ! new "w promptly & effectively4 ,al?\gh suff]+ f ! h&icap un=tunately kn[n by geologi/s ( ! pres5t day--! receipt late 9 ! season 7,augu/ #ag1 #ahci7 ( au?ority to beg9 "w--)9 exactly a mon? he _h 8 =ce ( #aci assi/ants organiz$ into #bd field p>ties1 in/ruct$ 9 8su* elem5t>y pr9ciples ( geology z 7 necess>y to _! p]=mance ( ! duties requir$ ( !m40 ,8 plan ( campaign provid$ = a nor?w>d drive at a pr$et]m9$ rate ( trav]se = ea* p>ty1 ) p]iodic reports to himself at appo9t$ /ations1 8to receive :i* reports & to exam9e ! c\ntry 9 p]son0 he cross$ ! area "u survey elev5 times4 ,! result ( su* ma/]ful lead]%ip 0 ! completion ( ! exploration ( all ! l&s compreh5d$ 9 8 ord]s 9 two mon?s & six days1 & 8 report on ?is great area--ab\t #aa1jjj squ>e miles--be>s date ( ,april #b1 #ahdj4 ,eight ye>s lat] ,doctor ,ow5 made a survey ( an ev5 l>g] area1 cont9u+ 8 exam9ation nor?w>d to ,lake ,sup]ior4 ,aga9 8 report 0 publi%$ promptly1 & he cont9u$ = sev]al ye>s 8 exam9ation ( ! ,nor?we/ ,t]ritory1 submitt+ 8 f9al report 9 #ahea4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t 9 8 e>li] report ,doctor ,ow5 subscrib$ himself z 8,pr9cipal ,ag5t to explore ! ,m9]al ,l&s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates10 b t 9 ! lat] report he 0 8,u4 ,s4 ,geologi/ = ,wiscons940 ,! two surveys toge!r cov]$ #eg1jjj squ>e miles4 ,dur+ ! same p]iod simil> surveys 7 be+ made 9 nor!rn ,mi*igan by ,dr4 ,*>les ,t4 ,jackson1 #ahdg-dh1 & ,fo/] & ,:itney1 #ahdi-ea4 ,^! surveys also _h be5 ha/5$ by ! 8copp] fev]0 ( #ahdd-df1 ) :olesale issue ( p]mits & leases1 ,congress 9 #ahdg au?oriz+ ! sale ( ! m9]al l&s & a geological survey ( ! ,lake ,sup]ior di/rict4 ,! execution ( ^! surveys "u ,jackson & "u ,fo/] & ,:itney & ! prompt publication 9 #ahea ( ! maps ( ! :ole region mat]ially help$ to e/abli% copp] m9+ on a m cons]vative basis4 & ! developm5t ( ! ,lake ,sup]ior region 0 rapid4#ii ,^! l&-classification surveys1 ) _! def9ite purpose1 repres5t ! be/ geologic "w ( ! "t4 ,! plan necessitat$ ?or\ghgo+ field "w ) consid]able detail & prompt publication ( sy/ematic reports1 & 9 ! work+ up ( ! results speciali/s l ,james ,hall & ,joseph ,leidy contribut$1 :ile ,f4 ,b4 ,meek 0 an assi/ant ( ,ow54 ,x is wor?y ( note t _h n ,doctor ,h\ghton1 ! ,/ate geologi/ ( ,mi*igan1 met an untimely dea? 9 #ahdg1 effective coop]ation ( ! ,/ate ,survey ) ! ,f$]al (ficials w\ld h comb9$ geologic inve/igation ) ! execution ( ! l9e> surveys4#ajj ,belong+ to ! same p]iod ( geologic exploration 0 ! s]vice ( ,j4 ,d4 ,dana1 z ,unit$ ,/ates ,geologi/ on ! ,wilkes ,explor+ ,exp$ition1 ! disa/] to :i* compell$ 8 return f ! ,pacific ,coa/ ov]l& & result$ 9 8 geologic obs]vations on ,oregon & nor!rn ,cali=nia4 ,! milit>y exp$itions dur+ ! decade #ahej-fj & ! e>li] exp$itions ( ,fremont add$ to ! geographic k ( ! ,we/]n c\ntry & also contribut$ to geologic sci5ce1 l>gely ?r\gh collections ( rocks & fossils1 usually report$ on by ! speciali/s ( ! day4 ,?us ! names ( ,hall1 ,conrad1 ,hit*cock1 & ,meek appe> 9 ! publi%$ reports on ^! explorations1 :ile ,m>c\1 ,blake1 ,newb]ry1 ,gibbs1 ,evans1 ,hayd51 ,p>ry1 ,%um>d1 ,s*iel1 ,antisell1 & ,engelmann 7 geologi/s atta*$ to ! field exp$itions4 ,9 #aheb geologic inve/igation 0 seem+ly s popul> z to necessitate ! /atutory prohibition 8!re %all be no fur!r geological survey by ! ,gov]nm5t unless h]eaft] au?oriz$ by law40 ,c]ta9 ( ^! explorations _h a specific purpose3 sev]al ( !m s\ght a practical r\te = a transcont95tal railroad2 ano!r a new wagon road across ,utah & ,nevada2 & "o "u ,colonel ,pope1 ) ,g4 ,g4 ,%um>d z geologi/1 0 s5t out 8= bor+ ,artesian ,wells along ! l9e ( ! #cb;d ,p>allel0 9 ,new ,mexico4 ,! publi%$ reports v>i$ greatly 9 sci5tific value & 9 c>efulness ( prep>ation1 :ile ! publication ( at lea/ two reports 0 delay$ until long aft] ! w>1 & ! manuscript ( ano!r 0 lo/4 ,! report ( ! exp$ition ( ,major ,emory conta9$ a color$ geologic map ( ! we/]n half ( ! c\ntry1 a pione] publication1 = ! map prep>$ by ,m>c\ ext5d$ only to ! #ajf? m]idian4 ,?us 9 ! fir/ p]iod ( ,gov]nm5t surveys1 cov]+ ab\t =ty ye>s1 ! great ,we/1 ) its weal? ( public l&s1 0 well trav]s$ by exploratory surveys1 :i* furni%$1 h[ev]1 only g5]al outl9es = a compreh5sion ( ! /ratigraphy & /ructure ( m\nta9 & valley1 pla9 & plateau4 ,to an ev5 less degree 0 !re any realization ( ! economic possibilities ( ! va/ t]ritory we/ ( ! ,mississippi4 ,presid5t ,jeff]son1 9 plann+ ! ,lewis & ,cl>k exp$ition1 _h /at$ 8 special int]e/ 9 ! m9]al res\rces ( ! region to be trav]s$4 ,ne>ly =ty ye>s lat] ,doctor ,ow5 0 /rongly impress$ ) ! comm]cial promise ( ! region he survey$4 ,8 reports conta9 analyses ( ores & /ati/ics ( production2 he comp>$ ! lead output ( ,wiscons91 ,i[a1 & ,ill9ois ) t ( ,europe & =etold ! value ( ! iron1 copp]1 & z9c deposits ( ! area2 he outl9$ ! ext5t ( ! ,ill9ois coal field2 & he laid equal emphasis ^u ! agricultural possibilities ( ! region4 ,inde$1 s optimi/ic 7 ,ow5's g5]al conclusions t he ref]r$ to 8 sep>ate t[n%ip plats1 ) _! detail$ descriptions1 z ! basis = 8 sangu9e op9ions1 realiz+ t 8! explor] is apt to become ! special plead]40 ,) equal bread? ( view & ?or\ghness ( execution ! surveys ( ,fo/] & ,:itney laid ! f\ndation = ! developm5t ( ! copp] & iron res\rces ( ! ,lake ,sup]ior region1 & al?\gh ^! areas 7 l>gely wild]ness & n adapt$ to rapid trav]se or easy obs]vation ! reports on _! explorations nev]!less comp>e mo/ favorably ) ! contributions ( geologi/s work+ 9 ! m hospitable regions 9 ! old] ,/ates4 ,! p]iod foll[+ ! ,civil ,w> naturally became "o ( national expansion1 ! faces ( _m 7 turn$ we/w>d1 & exploration ( ! national doma9 = its indu/rial possibilities took on fre% int]e/4 ,home-seek]s & m9]s l>gely made up ?is army ( peaceful invasion1 & ! w9n+ ( ! ,we/ began on a scale q diff]5t f t ( ! days ( ! milit>y pa?-f9d+ exp$itions ( ,fremont & o!r ,army (fic]s4 ,?us ! nation 0 ar\s$ to ! task ( inve/igat+ its public l&s & ,congress gave ! support ne$$ to make geologic exploration possible on a l>ge scale4 ,geologic surveys ( a high ord] 7 cont9u$ 9 ! old] ,/ates1 z %[n by ! contributions dur+ ?is p]iod ( ,j4 ,p4 ,lesley & ,g4 ,h4 ,cook 9 ! ,ea/1 ,w4 ,c4 ,k]r1 ,e4 ,w4 ,hilg>d1 & ,e4 ,a4 ,smi? 9 ! ,s\?1 & ,j4 ,s4 ,newb]ry1 ,c4 ,a4 ,:ite1 ,raphael ,pumpelly1 ,t4 ,c4 ,*amb]l91 ,alex&] ,w9*ell1 & ,t4 ,b4 ,brooks 9 ! ,c5tral ,/ates4 ,to ! nor? ! ,canadian ,survey1 organiz$ 9 #ahda "u ,logan1 _h cont9u$ "u ! same /urdy lead]%ip until #ahfi1 :5 ! exp]i5c$ & tal5t$ ,doctor ,selwyn became ,director4 ,z contra/$ ) ! %ort c>e]s ( mo/ ( ! ,/ate ,surveys & ) ! tempor>y "* ( all ( ! ,f$]al und]tak+s 9 geologic inve/igation1 ! cont9uance ( ! ,canadian ,geological ,survey = m ?an half a c5tury "u two directors gave opportunity = cont9uity ( ef=t 9 mak+ kn[n to ! p ( ! ,dom9ion its res\rces & at ! same "t contribut+ to ! _w mu* pure sci5ce4 ,pass+ ) simple m5tion ! two ,gov]nm5t exp$itions into ! ,black ,hills1 :i* af=d$ opportunity = geologic exploration by ,n4 ,h4 ,w9*ell 9 #ahgd & by ,j5ney & ,newton 9 #ahge1 ! record ( geologic "w "u ,gov]nm5t auspices 9 ! p]iod imm$iately foll[+ ! ,civil ,w> gr\ps itself ar\nd ! names ( f\r lead]s--,hayd51 ,k+1 ,p[ell1 & ,:eel]4 ,! f\r organizations1 di/+ui%$ commonly by ! names ( ^! f\r ma/]ful organiz]s1 occupi$ ! ,we/]n field m or less cont9u\sly f #ahfg to #ahgh1 & ! sum total ( _! contributions to geography & geology 0 l>ge inde$4 ,9 ! words ( ,cl>5ce ,k+1#aja 8,eighte5 hundr$ & sixty-sev51 !re=e1 m>ks1 9 ! hi/ory ( national geological "w1 a turn+ po9t1 :5 ! sci5ce ceas$ to be dragg$ 9 ! du/ ( rapid exploration & took a comm&+ position 9 ! pr(essional "w ( ! c\ntry40 ,toge!r ^! f\r exp$itions cov]$ half a million squ>e miles1 or m ?an a ?ird ( ! area ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates we/ ( ! "o-hundr$? m]idian1 & ! co/ ( all ?is "w 0 approximately two million doll>s1 :i* 0 a small fraction ( its value to ! nation c\nt+ only ! impetus giv5 to settlem5t & utilization4 ,z view$ f a di/ance ( ne>ly half a c5tury1 ^! f\r surveys diff]$ mu* 9 plan ( organization1 scope ( purpose1 & success ( execution1 s t comp>ison w\ld h little value except z possibly be>+ ^u ! "w ( ! l>g] organization :i* foll[$ !m & became ! heir n only to mu* t _h be5 atta9$ by ^! pione] surveys b also to ! great task uncomplet$ by !m4 ,s1 if 9 ! e>lie/ days ( ! pres5t ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey !re may h be5 a c]ta9 p>tisan%ip 9 trac+ d]iv$ *>act]s 9 ! new organization1 x is ev5 n[ wor? :ile to recognize ! real orig9 ( mu* t is cr$it$ to pres5t-day developm5t4 ,dr4 ,f4 ,v4 ,hayd5 0 ! fir/ ( ^! ,survey lead]s to engage 9 geological exploration4 ,he visit$ ! ,badl&s z e>ly z #ahec1 & 8 connection ) subsequ5t exp$itions 0 int]rupt$ only by 8 s]vice z a surgeon 9 ! ,f$]al ,army dur+ ! w>4 ,9 #ahfg1 h[ev]1 ,hayd5 resum$ 8 geologic "w z ,unit$ ,/ates ,geologi/ 9 ,nebraska1 op]at+ "u direction ( ! ,commission] ( ! ,g5]al ,l& ,(fice4 ,9 ! foll[+ elev5 ye>s ! activities ( ! ,hayd5 ,survey--! 8,geological & ,geographical ,survey ( ! ,t]ritories0--ext5d$ into ,wyom+1 ,colorado1 ,new ,mexico1 ,montana1 & ,idaho1 cov]+ ) areal surveys #ajg1jjj squ>e miles4 ,?is ,survey1 z might be expect$ f ! long exp]i5ce ( its lead]1 made l>ge contributions to /ratigraphy1 :i* involv$ notable paleontologic "w by ,cope1 ,meek1 & ,lesqu]eux4 ,next 9 importance 0 ! /ructural "w ( ,a4 ,c4 ,peale1 ,w4 ,h4 ,holmes1 ,capt4 ,c4 ,e4 ,dutton1 & ,dr4 ,hayd5 himself1 & ! influ5ce ( ^! exp$itions 9 popul>iz+ geology %\ld n be ov]look$4 ,! exp$ition ( #ahga into ! geys] region on ! upp] ,yell[/one result$ 9 ! creation ( ! fir/ ( ! national p>ks4 ,w4 ,h4 ,holmes began 8 arti/ic contributions to geology 9 #ahgb ) ?is ,survey4 ,topographic mapp+ 0 add$ to ! geologic exploration1 ,james ,t4 ,g>dn] & ,a4 ,d4 ,wilson jo9+ ! ,hayd5 ,survey aft] e>li] s]vice on ! ,k+ ,survey & ,h5ry ,gannett be+ a memb] ( p>ties1 fir/ z a/ronom] & lat] z topograph] 9 *>ge4 ,! accompli%m5t ( ! ,hayd5 ,survey itself & ! lat] "w ( _m ( its memb]s %[ t ?is organization possess$ a corps ( /rong m54 ,! ,k+ ,survey 0 a small] organization1 ) ,congressional au?orization ( def9ite scope & a sy/ematic plan ( op]ation4 ,! beg9n+ ( con/ruction ( ! ,union ,pacific t]m9at$ ! p]iod ( ! railroad surveys "u ! ,w> ,dep>tm5t & af=d$ opportunity = geologic "w t w\ld be m ?an exploratory3 ! op5+ up ( ! new c\ntry made inve/igation ( its res\rces logical4 ,?is fact 0 recogniz$ by ,cl>5ce ,k+1 :o _h trav]s$ ! same r\te z a memb] ( an emigrant tra9 ) 8 fri5d ,james ,t4 ,g>dn]4 ,8 plan to make a geological cross section ( ! ,cordill]as1 ) a /udy ( ! res\rces along ! r\te ( ! ,pacific railroads1 won ! support ( ,congress1 & ! 8,geological ,exploration ( ! ,=tie? ,p>allel0 0 au?oriz$ 9 #ahfg1 ) ,cl>5ce ,k+ z geologi/ 9 *>ge1 "u ! ,*ief ( ,eng9e]s ( ! ,army4 ,field "w 0 begun 9 ! summ] ( t ye>1 & x is int]e/+ to note t ,mr4 ,k+ & 8 small =ce ( geological assi/ants--! two ,hagues & ,s4 ,f4 ,emmons--began at ! we/]n end ( ?is cross section1 & 9 ?is & subsequ5t ye>s ext5d$ ! survey f ! ea/ front ( ! ,si]ra ,nevada to ,*ey5ne1 cov]+ a belt ( t]ritory ab\t #ajj miles 9 wid?4 ,?is compreh5sive plan 0 c>ri$ out 9 ! field op]ations1 & ! sci5tific & economic results 7 sy/ematically work$ up 9 ! reports1 :i* appe>$ 9 #ahgj-hj4 ,! only dep>ture f ?is plan 0 a /udy ( ! volcanic m\nta9s ,%a/a1 ,ra9i]1 & ,hood1 9 #ahgj1 occasion$ by an unexpect$ & unsolicit$ appropriation = field "w1 & t summ]'s "w result$ 9 ! discov]y ( active glaci]s1 ! fir/ kn[n )9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! ,=tie? ,p>allel ,survey is to be cr$it$ ) contributions to ! k ( ! /ratigraphy ( ! ,we/1 ! region trav]s$ be+ rem>kably repres5tative ( ! /ratigraphic column1 to :i* 0 add$ ! paleontologic "w ( ,m>%1 ,meek1 ,hall1 & ,:itfield1 :ile ! attempt 0 made to int]pret ! s$im5t>y record 9 t]ms ( ,paleozoic1 ,mesozoic1 & ,t]ti>y geography4 ,k+'s plan ( survey includ$ l>ge use ( topographic mapp+ ) a/ronomic base & triangulation control & cont\rs bas$ ^u b>ometric elevations4 ,! results 7 pron\nc$ by an unfri5dly critic#ajb z 8v valuable1 especially f a geological po9t ( view10 b un=tunate 9 be+ ! =]unn] ( "w 9 :i* ,gov]nm5t geologi/s 8h presum$ to arrogate ! control ( ! fundam5tal op]ations ( a topographic survey40 ,to ! ,k+ ,survey mu/ be cr$it$ ! introduction ( sy/ematic cont\r mapp+ & ! use ( cont\r maps = purposes ( geology4 ,9 two o!r respects ! ,k+ ,survey contribut$ l>gely to future ,gov]nm5t "w3 microscopical petrography 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates may be said to h begun ) ! visit ( ,pr(essor ,zirkel to ?is c\ntry z a memb] ( ?is ,survey 9 #ahge1 & ! report ( ,j4 ,d4 ,hague on 8,m9+ ,indu/ry0 0 ! fitt+ expression ( ! emphasis !n put on ! /udy ( ! m9]al res\rces ( ?is newly op5$ t]ritory1 a subject ( inve/igation t 0 9 l>ge "p ! true basis ( ,k+'s project r ?an simply 8! imm$iate excuse = ! ,survey40 ,an e>li] influ5ce 9 ! sci5tific /udy ( ore deposits _h come f ,von ,ri*?(5's inve/igation ( ! ,com/ock ,lode 9 #ahfe & 8 subsequ5t "w ) ,:itney 9 ,cali=nia4 ,! incid5t ( ,k+'s relation to ! diamond fraud 9 ,arizona 9 #ahgb furni%$ a prec$5t = public s]vants ( a lat] day2 he inve/igat$ ! report$ f9d f sci5tific int]e/ b expos$ x ) all ! zeal ( a publici/ & tru? lov]4 ,9 a ^w1 ! ,=tie? ,p>allel ,survey comm&s our admiration = its brilliant plan1 ?or\ghgo+ "w 9 field & (fice1 & high quality ( p]sonnel4 ,illu/ration3 ,j4 ,w4 ,p[ell ,major ,j4 ,w4 ,p[ell began 8 l>ge contribution to ,gov]nm5t surveys ) 8 exploration ( ! ,gr& ,canyon 9 #ahfi1 ! ,congressional recognition ( 8 exp$ition be+ limit$ to an au?orization = ! issue ( rations by ! ,w> ,dep>tm5t4 ,small appropriations 7 made 9 ! foll[+ ye>s1 & 9 #ahgd full au?orization 0 giv5 = ! cont9uance ( 8 survey 9 ,utah "u ! ,secret>y ( ! ,int]ior & 0 foll[$ by ! adoption ( ! "n 8,unit$ ,/ates ,geographical & ,geological ,survey ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9 ,region40 ,?is organization 0 ! lea/ pret5ti\s ( ! f\r op]at+ dur+ ?is p]iod--x cov]$ less area1 exp5d$ less public money1 & publi%$ mu* less--b its contribution to ,am]ican geology is n to be measur$ by miles or pages b by ideas4 ,its physical environm5t favor$ ?is survey1 & 9 ! "w ( ,p[ell1 ,dutton1 & ,gilb]t c be se5 ! beg9n+s ( physiography on ! h]oic scale exemplifi$ 9 ! ,gr& ,canyon & ! ,high ,plateaus4 ,! fir/ use ( t]ms l 8base-level ( erosion10 8consequ5t & antec$5t dra9age10 & 8laccoli?0 m>k$ ! introduction ( new ideas 9 ! int]pretation ( l& sculpture & geologic /ructure4 ,! d>+ boat trip ( ,p[ell 0 no less brilliant ?an 8 simple explanation ( ! ,gr& ,canyon itself4 8,! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geographical ,surveys ,we/ ( ! #ajj? ,m]idian0 0 ! title giv5 to ! explorations made "u ,lieut4 ,g4 ,m4 ,:eel]1 ( ! ,eng9e] ,corps1 :i* began ) topographic reconnaissances 9 ,nevada1 ,utah1 & ,arizona1 specifically au?oriz$ by ,congress 9 #ahgb4 ,f ! /&po9t ( ,am]ican geology ?is c\ld be bett] kn[n z ! ,gilb]t ,survey1 ,mr4 ,g4 ,k4 ,gilb]t s]v+ = ! ?ree ye>s #ahga-gc1 ! lat] "p ( ! "t ) ! title ( *ief geological assi/ant4 ,gilb]t's contributions includ$ 8 description ( ,bas9 ,range /ructure1 8 fir/ acc\nt ( old ,lake ,bonneville1 & 8 discussion ( ! erosion ph5om5a ( ! des]t c\ntry4 ,j4 ,j4 ,/ev5son also s]v$ lat] z a geologi/ ( ?is ,survey1 & ,a4 ,r4 ,m>v9e1 ,e4 ,e4 ,h[ell1 ,e4 ,d4 ,cope1 ,jules ,m>c\1 & ,i4 ,c4 ,russell 7 connect$ ) ! field p>ties4 ,capta9 ,:eel]'s own claim = ! "w ( 8 ,survey emphasiz$ its geographic side1 = he reg>d$ ! results z ! p>tial completion ( a sy/ematic topographic survey ( ! c\ntry4 ,by #ahgh1 :5 ! ,=tie? ,p>allel ,survey _h complet$ ! "w plann$ by its *ief1 ?ree ( ^! indep5d5t surveys /ill cont5d$ = ,f$]al support & = sci5tific occupation ( ! mo/ attractive portions ( ! ,we/]n c\ntry4 ,unre/ra9$ competition ( ?is k9d1 ev5 9 ! public s]vice1 proves z wa/eful z unregulat$ competition 9 private bus9ess1#ajc & ,congress appeal$ to ! ,national ,academy ( ,sci5ces = a plan = ,gov]nm5t surveys to 8secure ! be/ results at ! lea/ possible co/40 ,"u in/ructions by ,congress ! ,national ,academy consid]$ all ! "w relat+ to sci5tific surveys & report$ to ,congress a plan prep>$ by a special committee1 ^: memb]%ip includ$ ! illu/ri\s names ( ,m>%1 ,dana1 ,rog]s1 ,newb]ry1 ,tr[bridge1 ,newcomb1 & ,agassiz4 ,?is report1 :i* 0 adopt$ by ! ,academy ) only "o diss5t+ vote1 gr\p$ all surveys--geodetic1 topographic1 l& p>cel+1 & economic--"u two di/9ct heads1 surveys ( m5suration & surveys ( geology4 ,at t "t five indep5d5t organizations 9 ?ree diff]5t dep>tm5ts 7 c>ry+ on surveys ( m5suration1 & ! ,academy recomm5d$ t all su* "w be comb9$ "u ! ,coa/ & ,geodetic ,survey ) ! new "n ,coa/ & ,int]ior ,survey4 ,= ! inve/igation ( ! natural res\rces ( ! public doma9 & ! classification ( ! public l&s a new organization 0 propos$1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey4 ,! functions ( ^! two surveys & ( a ?ird coord9ate bureau 9 ! ,int]ior ,dep>tm5t1 ! ,l& ,(fice1 7 c>efully def9$ & _! int]relations fully recogniz$ & provid$ = 9 ! plan pres5t$ to ,congress4 ,view$ 9 ! light ( #ci ye>s ( exp]i5ce ! ,national ,academy plan w\ld be indors$ by mo/ ( u z em95tly practical1 & ! report /&s z a spl5did example ( public s]vice r5d]$ by ,am]ica's lead+ sci5ti/s4 ,! legislation :i* embodi$ ! entire plan1 h[ev]1 fail$ ( passage 9 ,congress4 ,! natural activity beh9d ! sc5es ( ! conflict+ int]e/s repres5t$ by ^? connect$ ) ! sev]al surveys may be se5 9 ! legislative hi/ory ( ! moves lead+ up to ! creation ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey4 ,9 ! la/ session ( ! #de? ,congress ! special legislation embody+ ! recomm5dations ( ! ,national ,academy 0 includ$ 9 ! ,legislative1 ,executive1 & ,judicial ,appropriation bill z x pass$ ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 :ile ! ,sundry ,civil ,appropriation bill c>ri$ an item simply mak+ effective ! long] section 9 ! o!r appropriation bill4 ,! item 9 ! ,legislative appropriation bill creat$ ! (fice ( ! ,director ( ! ,geological ,survey1 provid$ 8 sal>y1 & def9$ 8 duties1 z well z specifically t]m9at+ ! op]ations ( ! ?ree old] organizations4 ,! item 9 ! ,sundry ,civil bill z x pass$ ! ,h\se appropriat$ #ajj1jjj = ! new ,geological ,survey1 b :5 ?is appropriation bill 0 report$ to ! ,s5ate a committee am5dm5t add$ ! words 8( ! ,t]ritories10 & fur!r am5dm5ts (f]$ on ! floor *ang$ ! item s z to provide specifically & exclusively = ! cont9uation ( ! ,hayd5 ,survey4 ,o!r am5dm5ts provid$ small appropriations = ! completion ( ! reports ( ! ,p[ell & ,:eel] surveys1 & ! bill pass$ ! ,s5ate 9 ?is =m4 ,! ,legislative ,appropriation bill 0 simil>ly prun$1 :ile 9 ! ,s5ate1 ( all ref]5ce to ! propos$ new organization4 ,?is bill1 h[ev]1 di$ 9 conf]5ce1 b 9 ! la/ h\rs ( ! session ! conf]ees on ! ,sundry ,civil bill took unto !mselves legislative p[]s & transf]r$ f ! dead bill to ! p5d+ measure all ! language :i* con/itutes ! 8organic act0 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey4 ,?is action 0 d5\nc$ 9 ! ,s5ate z 8a wide dep>ture f ! au?ority t is possess$ by a conf]5ce committee10 & x 0 fur!r /at$ 9 debate t ! ins]t$ provision :i* creat$ a new (fice & discont9u$ ! exi/+ surveys 0 "o 8:i* nei!r ! ,committee ( ! ,s5ate nor ! ,s5ate itself ev] saw40 ,?is ass]tion 0 p]haps p>liam5t>ily s\nd 9 t ! language 0 new to ! ,sundry ,civil bill1 yet actually ! ,s5ate _h only two days be=e /rick5 ! same propos$ legislation f ! p5d+ ,legislative ,appropriation bill4 ,h[ev]1 ! ,h\se conf]ees--,repres5tatives ,atk9s ( ,t5nessee1 ,hewett ( ,new ,york1 & ,hale ( ,ma9e--_h realiz$ _! tactical advantage1 & ! ,s5ate1 aft] a brief debate1 vot$ on ,m>* #c to concur 9 ! report ( ! committee ( conf]5ce1 ?us rev]s+ all _! e>li] action1 9 :i* ! fri5ds ( ! ,hayd5 & ,:eel] organizations app>5tly _h comm&$ m votes ?an ! advocates ( ! ,national ,academy plan4 ,cl>5ce ,k+ 0 appo9t$ fir/ ,director ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey on ,april #c1 #ahgi1 & began ! "w ( organization4 ,) 8 prov5 g5ius = adm9i/ration1 ,k+ promptly resolv$ ! d\bt z to ! mean+ ( ! t]m 8national doma90 9 ! language def9+ ! duties ( ! ,director by tak+ ! cons]vative side & limit+ ! "w ( ! new organization to ! region we/ ( ! #ajb;d m]idian4 ,?is region 0 divid$ into f\r geological divisions1 & = economy ( "t & money field headqu>t]s 7 e/abli%$ = ^! divisions4 ,! ,division ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s 0 plac$ "u ,mr4 ,emmons z geologi/ 9 *>ge1 ! ,division ( ! ,colorado "u ,capta9 ,dutton1 ! ,division ( ! ,great ,bas9 "u ,mr4 ,gilb]t1 & ! ,division ( ! ,pacific "u ,arnold ,hague4 ,! ,division ( ! ,colorado 0 int5d$ z m]ely tempor>y = ! purpose ( br++ to completion ! sci5tific "w ( ! ,p[ell ,survey4 ,simil>ly ,dr4 ,hayd5 0 giv5 ! opportunity to prep>e a sy/ematic dige/ ( 8 sci5tific results4 ,?is organization ( ! "w & ! selection ( geologi/s 9 *>ge %[$ ! relation ( ! new & ! old1 & a glance at ! p]sonnel ( ! new ,survey indicates ! ext5t to :i* ! geologic inve/igation ( ! ,we/]n c\ntry 0 to cont9ue )\t int]ruption4 ,( ! tw5ty-f\r geologi/s & topograph]s li/$ 9 ! fir/ adm9i/rative report1 f\r _h be5 connect$ ) ! ,p[ell ,survey1 two ) ! ,hayd51 ?ree ) ! ,:eel]1 & five ) ! ,k+ ,survey4 ,illu/ration3 ,cl>5ce ,k+ ,9 plann+ ! initial "w ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey1 ! ,director speaks ( ! 8mo/ important geological subjects0 & 8m9+ indu/ries10 ( 8in/ructive geological /ructure0 & 8great bullion yield0 9 ! same s5t5ces1 s t ! int5t 0 pla9 to make ! geologic inve/igations bo? !oretical & practical4 ,x 0 expect$ t ! field ( op]ations ( ?is ,f$]al ,survey w\ld be at once ext5d$ by ,congress ov] ! :ole ,unit$ ,/ates1 b ! measure mak+ ?is ext5sion1 :i* w\ld simply c>ry out ! int5t ( ! fram]s ( ! legislation creat+ ! new bureau1 pass$ ! ,h\se alone1 & x 0 only by subsequ5t modification ( ! word+ ( appropriation items t ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey became national 9 scope z well z 9 "n4 ,! critical "q ( ! effective cord9ation ( ,/ate & ,f$]al geologic surveys 0 met by ,director ,k+1 :o correct$ an errone\s impression 8indu/ri\sly circulat$0 by /at+ 8 policy to be to urge ! inauguration & cont9uance ( ,/ate surveys4#ajd ,?is 0 ! initial /ep 9 ! coop]ation betwe5 ,/ate & ,f$]al surveys :i* became effective on a l>ge scale 9 subsequ5t ye>s4 ,?\gh ! ,geological ,survey has ext5d$ its op]ations ov] ! :ole ,unit$ ,/ates1 its l>ge/ activities h always be5 direct$ t[>d ! exploration & developm5t ( ! new] t]ritory 9 ! public-l& ,/ates4 ,all f\r ( its directors _h _! field tra9+ 9 ! ,we/3 ! "n ( ,major ,p[ell1 :o succe$$ ,k+ 9 #ahhj1 is insep>ably connect$ ) sci5tific exploration2 ,*>les ,d4 ,walcott1 :o 0 ,director f #ahid to #aijg1 ! p]iod ( ! ,survey's greate/ expansion1 made ! l>ge/ contribution to ! ,paleozoic /ratigraphy & paleontology ( ! ,we/2 & ! pres5t ,director sp5t sev5 field seasons 9 ! ,nor!rn ,cascades & "o 9 a m9+ di/rict 9 ,utah4 ,! scope ( ! activities bo? ,ea/ & ,we/ z develop$ dur+ ! #ci ye>s s9ce ! e/abli%m5t ( ! new bureau c be be/ describ$1 p]haps1 9 t]ms ( its pres5t functions z express$ 9 ! organization ( to-day4 ,! gr[? ( ! ,survey is measur$ 9 ! increase ( annual appropriation f #ajf1jjj 9 #ahgi-hj to ! am\nt available = ! curr5t ye>--#a1ibe1ebj1 n includ+ half a million doll>s f ,w> ,dep>tm5t appropriations be+ sp5t 9 ! topographic "w ( ! ,survey4 ,! correspond+ increase 9 p]sonnel has be5 f #ci1 li/$ 9 ! fir/ report1 to #iaa hold+ regul> appo9tm5ts at ! pres5t "t1 divid$ among ! diff]5t bran*es z foll[s3 ,a sci5tific =ce ( #agc 9 ! ,geologic ,bran*1 #afi 9 ! ,wat] ,res\rces ,bran*1 #ga 9 ! ,topographic ,bran*1 & #ae 9 ! ,l& ,classification ,bo>d1 ) a cl]ical =ce ( #afh divid$ among ! same bran*es1 & ! rema9d] ! te*nical & cl]ical employees ( ! publication & adm9i/rative bran*es4 ,^! p]sonnel /ati/ics are n expressive ( normal conditions1 s9ce a l>ge numb] ( ! topographic eng9e]s are commission$ (fic]s & ?us are n includ$ on ! civilian roll1 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 ! classification ( ! /ock-rais+ home/ead l&s makes ! te*nical =ce ( ! ,wat] ,res\rces ,bran* unusually l>ge ?is ye>4 ,! prim>y aim ( ! ,geological ,survey is geologic1 :e!r direct$ by au?ority ( law t[>d ! 8exam9ation ( ! geological /ructure1 m9]al res\rces1 & products ( ! national doma910 t[>d ! prep>ation ( ! au?oriz$ 8reports ^u g5]al & economic geology & paleontology10 ( ! 8geologic map ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates10 or ( ! 8report on ! m9]al res\rces ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates10 or t[>d ! 8cont9uation ( ! inve/igation ( ! m9]al res\rces ( ,alaska0 or 8*emical & physical rese>*es relat+ to ! geology ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates40 ,! _s & ! purpose ( ! ,survey's "w 9 all ^! fields are n believ$ to h mat]ially *ang$ f ^? ( ! f\nd]s ( ! sci5ce 9 ,am]ica4 ,f "t to "t too mu* emphasis may h appe>$ to be laid ^u appli$ geology z contra/$ ) pure sci5ce1 yet ! report ( ! ,national ,academy to ,congress 9 t]ms plac$ ! /ress ^u economic res\rces & ref]r$ to paleontology z 8necess>ily connect$0 ) g5]al & economic geology4 ,! practical purpose ( geologic rese>* "u ,gov]nm5t auspices mu/ be recogniz$ by ! adm9i/rator1 :e!r he be ! paleontologi/ l ,walcott1 ! philosoph] l ,p[ell1 or ! m9+ geologi/ l ,k+4 ,t ! task ( /e]+ ! true c\rse is no new problem c be se5 f ! /atem5t ( ,ow5#aje writt5 #gj ye>s ago1 & ^! words describe conditions ( ,gov]nm5t geological "w ev5 to-day3 ,sci5tific rese>*es1 :i* to "s may seem purely speculative & curi\s1 are ess5tial z prelim9>ies to ^! practical results4 ,fur!r ?an su* necessity dictates1 !y h n be5 pu%$1 except z subord9ate & incid5tal1 & *iefly at su* p]iods z1 "u ! ord9>y requirem5ts ( public s]vice1 might be reg>d$ z leisure mom5ts2 s t ! contributions to sci5ce ?us incid5tally af=d$1 & :i* a lib]al policy =bade to neglect1 may be consid]$1 9 a measure1 a volunt>y (f]+1 t5d]$ at little or no additional exp5se to ! dep>tm5t4 ,! increas$ att5tion giv5 to m9]al res\rces has be5 a matt] ( gradual gr[?4 ,mr4 ,k+ e>ly organiz$ a ,division ( ,m9+ ,geology ) ,messrs4 ,pumpelly1 ,emmons1 & ,beck] z geologi/s 9 *>ge1 to :om 7 assign$ ! collection ( m9]al /ati/ics = ! ,t5? ,c5sus4 ,^! ,survey geologi/s & ,director ,k+ himself held appo9tm5ts z special ag5ts ( ! ,c5sus ,bureau1 & on ! /aff select$ = ?is "w appe> ! names ( ,t4 ,b4 ,brooks1 ,edw>d ,orton1 ,t4 ,c4 ,*amb]l91 ,eug5e ,a4 ,smi?1 ,george ,little1 ,j4 ,r4 ,proctor1 ,r4 ,d4 ,irv+1 ,n4 ,s4 ,%al]1 ,john ,hays ,hammond1 ,bailey ,willis1 & ,g4 ,h4 ,eldridge1 indicat+ ! ext5t to :i* ! sup]vision ( ^! inquiries 0 plac$ 9 ! h&s ( economic geologi/s4 ,?is proc$ure 0 rev]t$ to by ,director ,walcott & 9 ! la/ t5 ye>s has become a well-e/abli%$ policy1 ! /ati/ics ( annual production ( all ! important m9]al products be+ "u ! *>ge ( geologi/s1 z be/ qualifi$ to compreh5d ! res\rces ( ! c\ntry4 ,ano!r ( ^! special assi/ants 9 #ahhj 0 ,alb]t ,williams1 ,jr41 :o became ! fir/ *ief ( ! ,division ( ,m9]al ,res\rces1 9 #ahhb4 ,! /udy ( ore deposits1 :i* may be said to h begun ) ! ,k+ ,survey1 0 inspir$ by ,k+'s own appreciation ( ! broad geologic relations ( ! di/ribution ( m9]al weal? & by ! detail$ /udies ( individual m9+ di/ricts by 8 associates1 8bas$ ^u facts accurately det]m9$ 9 ! light ( mod]n geology40 ,geological surveys h be5 prosecut$ 9 ,alaska s9ce #ahie1 & 9 ! la/ few ye>s ! annual appropriation = ! "w has be5 ! same z t made = ! exp5ses ( ! :ole ,survey 9 ! fir/ ye> ( its hi/ory4 ,! ,division ( ,alaskan ,m9]al ,res\rces is 9 fact a geological survey 9 itself1 except t x %>es 9 ! adm9i/rative ma*9]y ( ! l>g] organization & has ! advantage ( ! coop]ation ( ! sci5tific speciali/s ( ! ,survey z !y may be ne$$ to supplem5t its own =ce4 ,all ! inve/igations 9 ?is di/ant "p ( ! c\ntry repres5t ! ,geological ,survey at its be/1 = "h ! organization's long exp]i5ce 9 ! ,we/]n ,/ates c be appli$ to mo/ effective & helpful "w on ! fronti]1 :]e ! geologi/ & topograph] 9 _! exploration d n always foll[ ! prospector b (t5 prec$e him4 ,und\bt$ly no great] factor has contribut$ to ! developm5t ( ,alaskan res\rces ?an ?is pione] "w ( ! ,f$]al ,survey1 yet ! "w has also contribut$ notable additions to ! sci5ces ( geology & geography4 ,! fir/ duty laid ^u ! ,director ( ! ,geological ,survey 9 ! law ( #ahgi 0 8! classification ( ! public l&s10 & ?is phrase und\bt$ly express$ ! idea ( ! committee ( ! ,national ,academy4 ,! same legislation1 h[ev]1 conta9$ provision = ! fur!r consid]ation by a commission ( ! classification & valuation ( ! public l&s1 z also recomm5d$ by ! ,national ,academy4 ,?us ! decision ( ,director ,k+ t ! classification int5d$ by ,congress 0 sci5tific & 0 int5d$ = g5]al in=mation & n to aid ! ,l& ,(fice 9 ! disposition ( l& by sale or o!rwise 0 really bas$ ^u ! delib]ate op9ion ( ! ,public ,l&s ,commission1 ( :i* he 0 a memb]1 t classification w\ld s]i\sly imp$e rapid settlem5t ( ! unoccupi$ l&s4 ,ne>ly =ty ye>s lat] ^? :o are intru/$ ) ! l&-classification "w ( ! ,geological ,survey recognize ?is famili> argum5t1 :i* und\bt$ly _h mu* m =ce 9 t e>li] /age ( ! utilization ( ! ,nation's res\rces ( l&4#ajf ,! conception ( l& classification z a bus9ess policy on ! "p ( ! ,gov]nm5t z a l&$ proprietor belongs r to ?is day ( m int5sive developm5t4 ,at pres5t curr5t public-l& legislation calls = highe/ use1 & h5ce (ficial inve/igation ( natural values & possibilities mu/ prec$e disposition4 ,?is type ( m9]al & hydrographic classification ( public l&s has be5 9 progress 9 increas+ am\nt s9ce #aijf1 s t n[ ! ,geological ,survey is ! k9d ( sci5tific advis] to ! ,secret>y ( ! ,int]ior & ,commission] ( ! ,g5]al ,l& ,(fice t may h be5 contemplat$ by ! ,national ,academy ( ,sci5ces 9 #ahgh4 ,x is pla91 h[ev]1 to ev]yone at all conv]sant ) ,we/]n conditions t ! rec5t l&-classification surveys 9 ,wyom+1 = in/ance--detail$ geologic surveys :i* =m ! basis = ! valuation ( public coal l&s 9 #dj-;acre units--w\ld h possess$ no utility 9 #ahga1 :5 ! coal-l& law 0 pass$ b :5 ! dem& = railroad fuel _h j begun4 ,! l&-classification idea is ( c\rse ! basis ( ! ,national =e/ & irrigation movem5ts4 ,! laws ( #ahhh & #ahif1 :i* m>k ! beg9n+ ( active endorsem5t by ,congress ( ^! cons]vation movem5ts1 plac$ ^u ! ,survey ! duties ( exam9+ res]voir sites & =e/ res]ves respectively4 ,! e>li] ( ^! laws began ! inve/igation ( ! wat] res\rces ( ! c\ntry1 :i* is /ill an important phase ( ! ,survey's activity1 & l$ to ! creation ( an indep5d5t organization--! ,reclamation ,s]vice4 ,x is easy to trace ! beg9n+s ( ,f$]al reclamation ( arid l&s 9 ! pione] "w ( ,p[ell1 ^: report 9 #ahgh on ! arid region ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 0 ! fir/ adequate /atem5t ( ! problem ( l>ge/ use ( ^! l&s 9 t]ms broad] ?an ^? ( individuali/ic endeavor4 ,= ye>s1 h[ev]1 ,p[ell's appeal = ,congressional consid]ation ( ?is ,national task 0 l ! 8voice ( "o cry+ 9 ! wild]ness40 ,9 a some:at simil> way ! =e/ry surveys "u ! ,geological ,survey help$ 9 ! organization ( a sep>ate bureau--n[ ! ,=e/ ,s]vice4 ,! o!r important ,f$]al bureau trac+ direct relation%ip to ! ,survey is ! ,bureau ( ,m9es1 e/abli%$ 9 #aiaj1 :i* cont9u$ ! inve/igations 9 m9+ te*nology specifically provid$ = by ,congress = six ye>s "u ! ,geological ,survey b 9 "s degree begun 9 ! e>ly days ( ! ,survey "u ,directors ,k+ & ,p[ell4 ,ano!r equally important organization ( a public nature1 ?\gh n a ,f$]al bureau1 traces its beg9n+s to ! ,geological ,survey3 ! ,geophysical ,laboratory ( ! ,c>negie ,in/itution1 :i* n[ ex]cises s pot5t an influ5ce ov] geologic inve/igation1 _h its orig9 9 ! (ficial "w ( ! ,geological ,survey's ,division ( ,*emical & ,physical ,rese>*1 & its p]sonnel 0 at fir/ l>gely recruit$ f ! ,survey4 ,! highly orig9al exp]im5tal "w ( ?is laboratory has ext5d$ f> beyond ! scope ( ! ,survey's "w--at lea/ f> beyond ! scope possible ) ! ,f$]al funds available--yet mo/ ( ! results ( ^! inve/igations may ev5tually come "u ev5 a /rict con/ruction ( ! language us$ 9 ! ,survey's appropriation 8= *emical & physical rese>*es relat+ to ! geology ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates40 ,! topographic "w ( ! pres5t ,survey cont9ues ) con/ant ref9em5t ( /&>ds & economy ( me?ods ! "w ( ! e>li] organizations4 ,! prim>y purpose ( ^! topographic surveys is to provide ! bases = geologic maps1 yet ^! topographic maps1 :i* cov] #dj p] c5t ( ! area ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 are us$ 9 e type ( civil eng9e]+ z well z by ! public g5]ally4 ,! annual di/ribution by sale ( half a million ( ^! maps is an index ( _! value to ! p4 ,! hot discussion t 0 wag$ = ye>s on ! "q ( milit>y v]sus sci5tific adm9i/ration ( topographic surveys is 9 /rik+ contra/ ) ! pres5t conc5tration ( all ! topographic mapp+ "u ! ,geological ,survey 9 ^? areas :]e x may be/ s]ve ! ne$s ( ! ,army4 ,9 #aiaf ,congress specifically recogniz$ ! possibility ( great] coop]ation ( ?is k9d1 bo? 9 ! appropriation made to ! ,geological ,survey & 9 a special appropriation made to ! ,w> ,dep>tm5t4 ,= a numb] ( ye>s inde$ special milit>y in=mation _h be5 contribut$ to ! ,army by ! ,survey topograph]s1 b s9ce ,m>* #bf1 #aiag1 e ,geological ,survey topograph] has work$ exclusively on ! program ( milit>y surveys laid d[n by ! ,g5]al ,/aff ( ! ,army1 & ! places ( "s ( ! #dd ,survey topograph]s n[ 9 ,france z eng9e] (fic]s are fill$ by #cd o!r res]ve eng9e] (fic]s detail$ by ord] ( ! ,secret>y ( ,w> to ! ,director ( ! ,geological ,survey to assi/ 9 ?is milit>y mapp+ & to receive in/ruction fitt+ !m 9 turn = topographic s]vice 9 ,france4 ,! contribution ( ?is civilian s]vice to ! milit>y op]ations 9 ! pres5t em]g5cy =ms a fitt+ conclusion to ?is review ( a c5tury ( ,gov]nm5t surveys4 ,at pres5t #bae memb]s ( ! ,geological ,survey are 9 uni=m1 #ajg z eng9e] (fic]s1 two ( :om are on ! /aff ( ! ,am]ican ,comm&+ ,g5]al 9 ,france4 ,9 ! w> "w c>ri$ on 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! ,survey's contribution is by no means limit$ to milit>y mapp+3 ! geologi/s are also mobiliz$ = meet+ w> ne$s1 assi/+ 9 develop+ new s\rces ( ! ess5tial w> m9]als1 9 spe$+ up production ( m9]al products1 9 collect+ in=mation = ! pur*as+ (fic]s bo? ( our own & ( ! ,alli$ gov]nm5ts1 9 cop]at+ ) ! con/ruct+ qu>t]-ma/]s 9 ! location ( gravel & s& = /ructural use & 9 bo? g5]al & special exam9ations ( und]gr\nd wat] supply & ( dra9age possibilities at cantonm5t sites1 & 9 supply+ ! ,navy ,dep>tm5t ) simil> te*nical data4 ,a special contribution has be5 ! application to arial surveys ( photogrammetric me?ods develop$ 9 ! ,alaskan topographic "w & ! p]fection ( a cam]a specially adapt$ to airplane use4 ,! utilization ( ! ,survey's map engrav+ & pr9t+ plant = confid5tial & urg5t "w = bo? ! ,army & ,navy has necessitat$ po/ponem5t ( curr5t "w = ! ,geological ,survey itself4 ,?r\gh\t ! organization ! records1 ! me?ods1 & ! p]sonnel :i* repres5t ! product ( _m ye>s ( sci5tific activity are all be+ utiliz$2 ?us is ! exp]i5ce ( ! pa/ translat$ into special s]vice 9 ! pres5t crisis4 ,notes4 ,footnote #if3 ,hess1 ,r4 ,h41 ,f\ndations ( ,national ,prosp]ity1 p4 #ajj4 ,footnote #ig3 ,report ,nat'l ,museum1 #aijd1 pp4 #ahi-gcc4 ,footnote #ih3 ,fea!r/onhaugh1 ,j4 ,d41 ,am4 ,geol41 #c1 #bbj1 #ahhi4 ,footnote #ii3 ,:itney1 ,m9]al ,weal? ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #bdh-bej4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,fo/] & ,:itney1 #ca/ ,cong41 #a/ session1 ,h\se ,doc4 #fi1 pp4 #ac-ad1 #ahej4 ,footnote #aja3 ,fir/ ,annual ,rept4 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 p4 #d4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,:eel]1 ,report #c;d ,int]nat'l ,geog4 ,cong41 p4 #dib1 #ahhe4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,! views ( ! writ] on 8natural monopolies0 9 ! ,gov]nm5t s]vice are set =? 9 an address deliv]$ at ! c5t5nial celebration ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,coa/ & ,geodetic ,survey1 ,april #e1 #aiaf4 7,see ,sci5ce1 vol4 #dc1 pp4 #fei-ffe1 ,may #ab1 #aiaf47 ,footnote #ajd3 ,= correspond5ce on ?is subject1 see ,m9nesota ,geol4 ,survey1 ,eigh? ,ann4 ,rept41 #ahhj1 p4 #agc4 ,footnote #aje3 ,ow51 ,d4 ,d41 #cj? ,cong41 #a/ sess41 ,s5ate ,doc4 ,no4 #eg1 p4 #g1 #ahdh4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,?is ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 pres5t-day requirem5ts & ! ne$s ( e>li] g5]ations has be5 discuss$ by ,w4 ,c4 ,m5d5hall1 ! geologi/ 9 *>ge ( ! ,l& ,classification ,bo>d ( ! ,geological ,survey3 ,proce$+s #b;d ,pan-,am]ican ,sci4 ,cong41 #aiae-af1 #c1 #gfa4 ,,vi ,,on ,,! ,,developm5t ,,( ,,v]tebrate ,,paleontology ,by ,,ri*>d ,,swann ,,lull ,introduction4 ,unlike its si/] sci5ce ( ,inv]tebrate ,paleontology1 :i* has be5 approa*$ s l>gely f ! viewpo9t ( /ratigraphic geology1 t ( ! v]tebrates is ess5tially a biologic sci5ce1 hav+ its inception 9 ! ma/]ly "w ( ,cuvi]1 :o is also to be reg>d$ z ! f\nd] ( comp>ative anatomy4 ,= long decades1 v]tebrate paleontology 0 simply a bran* ( comp>ative anatomy or morphology 9 t x dealt almo/ exclusively ) ! =m & o!r peculi>ities ( fossil bones & tee?1 (t5 9 a m or less fragm5t>y condition1 v little or no att5tion be+ paid to any o!r sy/em ( ! creature's anatomy4 ,di/ribution bo? 9 space & 9 "t 0 record$1 b ! value ( v]tebrates 9 /ratigraphy 0 /ill to be appreciat$ & has h>dly yet come into its own4 ,x is readily se51 !re=e1 t ! two dep>tm5ts ( paleontology did n enli/ ! same work]s or ev5 ! same type ( inve/igators1 = :ile ! two sci5ces h mu* 9 common & %\ld h m1 ! v]tebrati/ mu/1 above all else1 be a morphologi/1 ) a ke5 appreciation ( =m1 & a m9d capable ( reta9+ endless /ructural details & ( visualiz+ z a :ole :at may be kn[n only 9 "p4 ,! initial "w ( ! brilliant ,cuvi] set s high a /&>d ( prep>$ness & m5tal equipm5t t z a consequ5ce1 ! numb] ( ^? engag$ 9 v]tebrate rese>* has nev] be5 l>ge z comp>$ ) ! work]s 9 "s o!r bran*es ( sci5ce1 b ! results a*iev$ by ! few :o h consecrat$ _! rese>* to ! fossil v]tebrates has be5 9 ! ma9 ( a high ord]4 ,at fir/1 z has be5 emphasiz$1 ?is "w 0 l>gely morphological1 deal+ bo? ) ! individual skeletal elem5ts & lat] ) ! bony framework z a :ole4 ,!n came ! endeavor to clo! ! bones ) s9ews & ) fle%--to imag9e1 9 o!r words1 ! life-appe>ance ( ! ages-dep>t$ =m--) su* ( its habits z c\ld be d$uc$ f /ructure ( body1 too?1 & limb4 ,next came ! work+ out ( sy/ematic s]ies ( v]tebrates & _! m>%all+ into species1 g5]a1 & l>g] gr\ps1 & mu* "t 0 ?us sp5t1 especially :5 rapid discov]y br\ght a cont9ual /ream ( new =ms be=e ! sy/emati/1 & h5ce "s appreciation ( ! c\ntless ho/s ( bygone creatures :i* peopl$ ! _w 9 ! geologic pa/4 ,?is sy/ematic "w1 h[ev]1 0 bas$ ^u ! mo/ pa9/ak+ morphologic comp>isons & s ! sci5ce 0 /ill )9 ! scope ( comp>ative anatomy4 ,9 connection ) taxonomic rese>* came increas+ly tangible evid5ce 9 favor ( ! law ( evolution2 inve/igators turn$ to ! work+ out ( phyletic s]ies %[+ ! actual record ( ! successive evolution>y *anges t ! v>i\s races _h und]gone4 ,c\pl$ ) ?is evolution>y evid5ce came an increas$ att5tion to ! sequ5tial occurr5ce 9 successive geologic /rata1 & ! /ratigraphic di/ribution ( v]tebrates became kn[n ) great] & great] detail4 ,!n foll[$ ! assemblage ( faunas1 :i* br\ght ! /udy ( ! fossil =ms )9 ! realm ( hi/orical geology1 r ?an be+ ! m]e phylog5y ( a s+le race1 & ! value ( v]tebrate fossils z horizon m>k]s became m & m appreciat$ by ! /ratigraph]4 ,!y s]ve to supplem5t ! k ga9$ f ! inv]tebrates1 & 9 ?is connection are especially valuable 9 t !y (t5 give data conc]n+ cont95tal =mations ab\t :i* inv]tebrate paleontology is l>gely sil5t4 ,rise ( ,v]tebrate ,paleontology 9 ,europe4 ,to ^? :o _h be5 nurtur$ 9 ! belief 9 a relatively rec5t creation cov]+ 9 its entirety a p]iod ( b six days1 & occurr+ b f\r mill5niums be=e ! "t ( ,*ri/1 ! appe>ance ( ! rema9s ( creatures 9 ! rocks1 ! l ( :i* no man ev] saw alive1 mu/ h giv5 scope to ! wilde/ imag9+s conc]n+ _! orig9 & significance2 = _m believ$ t n only _h no new =ms be5 add$ to ! _w's fauna s9ce ! creation1 except possibly by hybridiz+1 b t none _h become ext9ct save a v few ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( human int]f]5ce4 ,! supposition 01 !re=e1 t su* creatures z 7 ?us discov]$ 7 /ill extant 9 "s m remote fa/nesses ( ! _w4 ,?us1 our second presid5t1 ,?omas ,jeff]son1 :o wrote "o ( ! fir/ pap]s on ,am]ican fossil v]tebrates1 publi%$ 9 #agih1 discuss$ !re9 ! rema9s ( a huge gr\nd-slo? :i* has s9ce borne ! "n ,megalonyx jeff]soni4 ,jeff]son1 h[ev]1 describ$ ! great claws z p]ta9+ to a huge leon9e animal :i* he firmly believ$ 0 yet liv+ among ! m\nta9s ( ,virg9ia4 ,cuvi] 7#agfi-ahcb7 has be5 spok5 ( z ! f\nd] ( our sci5ce4 ,8 opportunity lay 9 ! pr(usion ( bones buri$ 9 ! gypsum deposits ( ,montm>tre )9 ! environs ( ! city ( ,p>is4 ,cuvi]'s /udies ( ^! rema9s1 done 9 ! light ( 8 v broad anatomical k1 enabl$ him to prep>e ! fir/ recon/ructions ( fossil v]tebrates ev] attempt$ & to br+ be=e ! eyes ( 8 contempor>ies a _w peopl$ ) =ms :i* 7 utt]ly ext9ct4 ,t ^! creatures 7 no long] liv+1 none 0 a bett] judge ?an ,cuvi]1 = 8 prom95ce 0 su* t mat]ial 0 s5t him f all p>ts ( ! _w1 to :i* mu/ be add$ t :i* he saw 9 8 visits to ! v>i\s museums ( ,europe4 ,he felt x safe1 !re=e1 to affirm ! unlikelihood ( any fur!r discov]y ( unkn[n =ms among ! great mammals ( ! pres5t fauna ( our globe1 & few inde$ h be5 ! additions s9ce 8 day4 ,to ,cuvi] is due n alone ! ma/]ly contribution to ! si/] sci5ces ( comp>ative anatomy & v]tebrate paleontology--! ,ossem5ts ,fossiles 7#ahab7--;b he also ann\nc$ ! pres5ce 9 cont95tal /rata ( a s]ies ( faunas :i* %[$ a gradual organic improvem5t f ! e>lie/ su* assemblage to ! mo/ mod]n1 an idea ( ! mo/ fundam5tal importance & "o ) :i* he is r>ely cr$it$4 ,he believ$ 9 ! sudd5 & complete ext9ction ( faunas1 & ! facts !n kn[n 7 9 accord ) ?is idea1 z no common g5]a nor transitional =ms connect$ ! creatures ( ! ,p>is gypsum ) ! ma/odons1 elephants1 & hippopotami :i* ! lat] /rata disclos$4 ,x is n rem>kable1 !re=e1 t ,cuvi] advanc$ 8 !ory ( cata/rophism to acc\nt = ^! ext9ctions4 ,he %\ld n1 h[ev]1 accord+ to ,depret1 be cr$it$ ) ! idea ( successive re-creations1 su* z t held by ,d',orbigny & o!rs1 b ( repopulation by immigration f "s area :i* ! cata/rophe1 be x flood or o!r de/ructive ag5cy1 fail$ to rea*4 ,cuvi] 0 foll[$ 9 ,europe by a numb] ( illu/ri\s m51 none ( :om1 h[ev]1 ) ! exception ( ,sir ,ri*>d ,ow51 possess$ 8 bread? ( k ( comp>ative anatomy ^u :i* to base _! rese>*es among ! prehi/oric4 ,! m notable ( !m may be enum]at$ be=e go+ on to a discussion ( ! ,am]ican contributions to ! sci5ce4 ,!y 71 fir/1 ,l\is ,agassiz1 a pupil ( ,cuvi] & lat] a resid5t ( ,am]ica1 ^: rese>*es on ! fossil fi%es ( ,europe are a monum5tal "w1 ! result ( t5 ye>s ( inve/igation 9 all ( ! l>g] museums ( t cont95t1 & :i* appe>$ 9 #ahcc-dc1 :ile he 0 yet a "y man4 ,! fi%es 7 practically ! only fossil v]tebrates to come )9 ! scope ( 8 inve/igations1 = 8 lat] "t 0 consum$ 9 ! /udy ( glaci]s & ( rec5t m>9e zoology4 ,ano!r /ud5t ( ^! mo/ primitive v]tebrates :o left an endur+ monum5t 0 ,johannes ,mll]4 ,huxley1 ,traquair1 & ,jaekel also did ma/]ly "w ^u ?is gr\p1 :ile ,smi? ,woodw>d ( ! ,briti% ,museum is consid]$ ! highe/ liv+ au?ority ^u fossil fi%es4 ,( ! ,amphibia1 ! mo/ fam\s =eign /ud5ts 7 ,brongni>t1 ,jaeg]1 ,burmei/]1 ,von ,mey]1 & ,ow51 al?\gh ,ow5's claim to em95ce lies r 9 ! inve/igations ( fossil reptiles :i* he began 9 #ahci & cont9u$ ov] a p]iod ( fifty ye>s ( rem>kable a*ievem5t4 ,n only did he describe ! d9osaurs ( ,great ,brita9 9 a s]ies ( spl5didly illu/rat$ monographs1 b ext5d$ 8 rese>*es to ! curi\s reptilian =ms f ! ,k>roo =mation ( ,s\? ,africa4 ,x 0 to him1 moreov]1 t ! e/abli%m5t ( ! true position ( ! fam\s ,ar*opt]yx z ! e>lie/ kn[n bird & n a reptile is due4 ,von ,mey] also enri*$ ! lit]ature ( fossil reptiles1 discuss+ exhau/ively ^? occurr+ 9 ,g]many1 :ile ,huxley's classic "w on ! crocodiles z well z on d9osaurs1 & ! labors ( ,buckl&1 ,fraas1 ,kok51 ,von ,hu5e1 ,gaudry1 ,hulke1 ,seeley1 & ,lydekk] h add$ imm5sely to our k ( ! gr\p4 ,( ! birds1 :i* at be/ are r>e z fossils1 our k1 especially ( ! huge flightless moas1 is due l>gely aga9 to ,ow51 & 8 realization ( ! sy/ematic position ( ,ar*opt]yx has already be5 m5tion$4 ,! mammals 71 p]haps1 ! mo/ prolific s\rce ( paleontological rese>* dur+ ! n9ete5? c5tury1 =1 z ,zittel has said1 ,cuvi]'s fam\s inve/igations on ! fossil bones1 m5tion$ above1 n only conta9 ! pr9ciples ( comp>ative o/eology1 b also %[ 9 a mann] :i* has nev] be5 surpass$ h[ fossil v]tebrates ought to be /udi$1 & :at are ! broad inductions :i* may be drawn f a s]ies ( me?odical obs]vations4 ,su* 0 ,cuvi]'s influ5ce t until ,d>w9 began to int]e/ himself 9 mammalian paleontology ! /udy ( ^! =ms 0 conduct$ entirely along ! l9es indicat$ by ! ,fr5* savant4 ,?is 0 se5 9 a l>ge "w1 ,o/eology ( ,rec5t & ,fossil ,mammalia1 by ,de ,bla9ville1 :i*1 al?\gh n up to ! /&>d set by ! ma/]1 is nev]!less a notable contribution1 z 0 also ! ,o/eology prep>$ by ,p&] & ,d',alton4 ,a summ>y ( ! k ( ! fossil ,mammalia up to ! ye> #ahdg is conta9$ 9 ,giebel's ,fauna d] ,vorwelt1 & ,lydekk] has done = ! mammals 9 ! ,briti% ,museum :at ,smi? ,woodw>d did = ! fi%es1 produc+ va/ly m ?an ! m]e catalogue :i* ! title implies4 ,! fir/ "w :]e9 ! fossil mammals 7 treat$ g5ealogically 0 ,gaudry's ,en*anem5ts du ,monde ,animal1 writt5 9 #ahgh4 ,o!r "w on ! fossil ,mammalia 0 done by ,kaup1 :o describ$ ^? f ! ,ma9z bas9 & f ,epple%eim ne> ,worms :5ce came "o ( ! mo/ fam\s ( prehi/oric horses1 ! ,hipp>ion2 ?is horse1 toge!r ) ! rem>kable proboscidean ,d9o!rium1 0 describ$ by ,von ,mey]4 ,"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable discov]ies1 rank+ 9 importance1 p]haps1 next to ,montm>tre1 0 t ( ! ,plioc5e fauna ( ,pik]mi ne> ,a!ns1 ,greece1 fir/ made kn[n ?r\gh ! publications ( ,a4 ,wagn] ( ,muni* & lat]1 & mu* m ext5sively1 ?r\gh t ( ,gaudry 7#ahfb-ahfg74 ,h4 von ,mey] 0 ,g]many's be/ au?ority on fossil ,mammalia4 ,aft] 8 dea? ! "w 0 c>ri$ on by ,qu5/$t1 ,osc> ,fraas1 ,s*loss]1 ,kok51 & ,pohlig1 among o!rs4 ,9 ,france1 ri* deposits ( fossil mammals 7 discov]$ 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,puy-de-,dme1 ! ,rhone bas91 ,sansan1 ,qu]cy1 & ne> ,rheims4 ,^! 7 describ$ by a numb] ( writ]s1 notably ,croizet & ,job]t1 ,pomel1 ,l>tet1 ,filhol1 & ,lemo9e4 ,rtimey] ( ,ble 0 "o ( ! mo/ fam\s ,european writ]s on mammalian paleontology1 & 8 rese>*es 7 bo? compreh5sive & clo!d 9 su* =m z to give !m a high place 9 paleontological lit]ature4 ,he /udi$ comp>atively ! tee? ( ungulates1 discuss$ ! g5ealogy ( mammals1 & ! relation%ips ( ^? ( ! ,old & ,new ,worlds4 ,he 0 an expon5t ( ! law ( evolution z set =? by ,d>w91 & 8 8g5ealogical trees ( ! ,mammalia %[ a complete k ( all ! data conc]n+ ! diff]5t memb]s 9 ! succession1 & are among/ ! f9e/ results hi!rto obta9$ by means ( /rict sci5tific me?ods ( inve/igation0 7,zittel1 ,hi/ory ( ,geology & ,palontology1 #aija74 ,! mammals ( ! ,swiss ,eoc5e h be5 /udi$ 9 mu* detail by ,/ehl94 ,= ,great ,brita91 ! mo/ notable contributors 7 ,buckl& 9 8 ,reliqui ,diluvian2 ,falcon]1 co-au?or ) ,cautley on ! ,t]ti>y mammals ( ,india2 ,*>les ,mur*ison1 :o wrote on rh9oc]oses & proboscideans2 & m rec5tly ,bu%1 ,fl[]1 ,lydekk]1 ,boyd ,dawk9s1 ,l4 ,adams1 & ,c4 ,w4 ,&rews4 ,b by f> ! mo/ comm&+ figure ( all 0 ,sir ,ri*>d ,ow51 :o = half a c5tury /ood )\t a pe] z ! greate/ ( au?orities on fossil mammals4 ,x 0 ! ,natural ,hi/ory ( ! ,briti% ,fossil ,mammals & ,birds1 publi%$ 9 #ahdf1 t e/abli%$ ,sir ,ri*>d's reputation4 ,russia has produc$ mu* mammalian mat]ial1 especially f ! ,t]ti>y ( ,odessa & ,bess>abia1 & f ! ,quat]n>y ( nor!rn ,russia & ,sib]ia4 ,^! h be5 describ$ ma9ly by ,j4 ,f4 ,br&t1 ,a4 von ,nordmann1 b especially by ,mme4 ,m4 ,pavl[ ( ,mosc[4 ,=sy?-,major discov]$ 9 #ahhg a fauna contemporane\s ) t ( ,pik]mi 9 ! ,isl& ( ,samos 9 ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable rec5t discov]ies ( fossil localities 0 t ann\nc$ 9 #aija by ,mr4 ,hugh ,j4 ,l4 ,beadnell ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ,egypt & ,doctor ,c4 ,w4 ,&rews ( ! ,briti% ,museum ( ,london1 ( num]\s l& & sea mammals ( ,upp] ,eoc5e & ,l[] ,oligoc5e age 9 nor!rn ,egypt4 ,! exposures lay ab\t #hj miles s\?we/ ( ,cairo 9 ! ,faym di/rict & are ! s$im5ts ( an anci5t ,t]ti>y lake1 a relic ( :i*1 ,birket-el-,qurun1 yet rema9s4 ,^! b$s conta9$ anci5t ,hyracoidea1 ,sir5ia1 & ,zeuglodontia1 b above all1 ance/ral ,proboscidea :i*1 toge!r ) ^? kn[n else:]e1 enabl$ ,&rews to demon/rate ! orig9 & evolution>y features ( ?is mo/ rem>kable gr\p ( bea/s4 ,?is discov]y 9 ! ,faym l5ds color to ! belief t ,africa may h be5 ! ance/ral home ( at lea/ five ( ! mammalian ord]s1 ^? m5tion$ above1 toge!r ) ! ,embri?opoda1 a gr\p unkn[n else:]e4 ,?is !ory _h be5 advanc$ indep5d5tly by ,tullb]g1 ,/ehl91 & ,osborn1 be=e ! discov]y 9 ,egypt4 ,ano!r ,european work] ( pre-em95ce :o wrote m broadly ?an ! faunal /udies m5tion$ above 0 ,w4 ,k[alewsky4 ,he discuss$ especially ! evolution>y *anges ( feet & tee? 9 ungulates1 a l9e ( rese>* aft]w>d develop$ 9 great] detail by ! ,am]icans1 ,cope & ,osborn4 ,s\? ,am]ica has yield$ s]ies ( ri* faunas :i* h be5 exploit$ by ! great ,arg5t9ian1 ,flor5t9o ,amegh9o1 & by ! ,europeans1 ,ow51 ,g]vais1 ,huxley1 ,von ,mey]1 & m rec5tly by ,burmei/] & ,lydekk]4 ,lat] exploration & rese>* by ,hat*] & ,scott ( ,nor? ,am]ica w be discuss$ fur!r on 9 ?is pap]4 ,v]tebrate ,paleontology 9 ,am]ica4 ,e>ly ,writ]s4--,hav+ ?us summ>iz$ paleontological progress 9 ! ,old ,_w1 we c turn to a consid]ation ( ! "w done 9 ! ,new1 especially 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 because :ile ! ,old ,_w inve/igation has be5 invaluable1 a sci5ce ( v]tebrate paleontology1 v complete bo? z to its zoological & geological scope & 9 ! ext5t & value ( publi%$ results1 c\ld be built exclusively ^u ! discov]ies & rese>*es made by ,am]icans4 ,! sci5ce ( v]tebrate paleontology may be said to h _h its beg9n+s 9 ,nor? ,am]ica ) ! activities ( ,?omas ,jeff]son1 :o1 l ,frankl91 felt s /rong an int]e/ 9 sci5tific pursuits t ev5 ! grav] duties ( ! highe/ (fice 9 ! gift ( ! ,am]ican p c\ld n det] him f !m4 ,:5 9 #agig ,jeff]son came to be inaugurat$ z vice-presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 he br\ght ) him to ,philadelphia n only 8 manuscript b ! actual fossil bones ^u :i* x 0 bas$4 ,aga9 9 #ahja he 0 greatly int]e/$ 9 ! ,%awangunk ma/odon1 despite heavy c>es ( /ate1 & 9 #ahjh made "p ( ! executive mansion 9 ,wa%+ton s]ve z a paleontological laboratory1 display+ !re9 = /udy ! bones ( proboscideans & _! contempor>ies :i* ! ,big ,bone ,lick ( ,k5tucky _h produc$4 ,jeff]son's "w w\ld n1 p]haps1 h be5 epo*-mak+ 7 x n = its unique *ronological position 9 ! annals ( ! sci5ce4 ,jeff]son 0 foll[$ by ano!r man--?is "t "o ^: div]g+ l9es ( int]e/ l$ him n into ! realm ( political s]vice1 b ( art1 = ,rembr&t ,peale possess$ an enviable reputation among ! e>ly pa9t]s ( ,am]ica4 ,peale publi%$ 9 #ahjb an acc\nt ( ! skeleton ( ! 8mammo?10 really ! ma/odon1 ,m4 am]icanus1 speak+ ( x z a nondescript c>nivor\s animal ( imm5se size f\nd 9 ,am]ica4 ,x 0 because ( ! =m ( ! mol> tee? t ,peale said ( x3 8,if ?is animal 0 inde$ c>nivor\s1 :i* ,i believe _c be d\bt$1 ?\gh we may z philosoph]s regret x1 z m5 we _c b ?ank ,heav5 t its :ole g5]ation is probably ext9ct40 ,) ! "w ( ^! m5 z a beg9n+1 x is n /range t ! m conspicu\s ,plei/oc5e fossils ( ! ,ea/ %\ld h attract$ ! att5tion ( _m subsequ5t writ]s 9 ! fir/ "p ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 nor t ! e>ly pap]s to appe> 9 ! ,j\rnal %\ld p]ta9 to proboscideans or to ! huge ed5tate gr\nd-slo?s & ! ab]rant zeuglodons ^: bones frequ5tly came to light4 ,!re=e a numb] ( m5 su* z ,ko*1 bo? ,sillimans1 ,j4 ,c4 ,w>r51 & o!rs made ^! =ms _! *ief conc]n4 ,fossil ,footpr9ts4--,among ! e>ly writ]s :o conc]n$ !mselves ) ^! great] fossils 0 ,edw>d ,hit*cock1 sometime presid5t ( ,amh]/ ,college1 & a geologi/ ( high repute among 8 contempor>ies4 ,hit*cock is1 h[ev]1 bett] & m widely kn[n z ! pione] work] on a s]ies ( ph5om5a display$ z 9 no o!r place 9 ! region 9 :i* he made 8 home4 ,^! are fossil footpr9ts impress$ ^u ! ,triassic rocks ( ! ,connecticut valley4 ,x 0 9 ! ,j\rnal = ! ye> #ahcf 7#bi1 #cjg-cdj7 t ,hit*cock fir/ call$ att5tion to ! footm>ks1 al?\gh !y _h be5 kn[n & discuss$ popul>ly = a numb] ( ye>s previ\s4 ,james ,deane1 ( ,gre5field1 0 p]haps ! fir/ to appreciate ! sci5tific int]e/ ( ^! ph5om5a1 b deem+ 8 own qualifications insuffici5t prop]ly to describe !m1 he br\ght !m to ! att5tion ( ,hit*cock1 & ! int]e/ ( ! latt] nev] wan$ until 8 dea? 9 #ahfd4 ,hit*cock wrote pap] aft] pap]1 publi%+ _m ( !m 9 ! ,j\rnal1 aga9 9 8 ,f9al ,report on ! ,geology ( ,massa*usetts 7#ahda71 & lat] 9 qu>to works1 "o 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,am]ican ,academy ( ,arts & ,sci5ces & ! two o!rs "u ! au?ority ( ! ,commonweal?1 ! ,i*nology 9 #aheh1 & ! ,supplem5t 9 #ahfe1 ! la/ be+ a po/hum\s "w edit$ by 8 son1 ,*>les ,h4 ,hit*cock4 ,hit*cock's conception ( ! track-mak]s 0 m or less imp]fect because ( ! fact t = a long "t b a few fragm5t>y osse\s rema9s 7 kn[n1 ei!r directly or indirectly associat$ ) ! tracks1 :ile on ! o!r h& ! bird-l "* ( _m ( ! latt] & ! discov]y ( huge flightless birds else:]e on ! globe sugge/$ a v close analogy if n a direct relation%ip4 ,h5ce 8bird tracks0 !y 7 /raightway call$1 a designation :i* x has be5 difficult to remove1 ev5 ?\gh 9 #ahdc ,ow5 call$ att5tion to ! ne$ ( caution 9 assum+ ! exi/5ce ( s highly organiz$ birds at s e>ly a p]iod1 especially :5 l>ge reptiles 7 kn[n :i* might readily =m v simil> tracks4 ,! footpr9ts are n[ believ$ to be v l>gely ( d9osaurian orig91 & d9osaurs ^: feet correspond$ 9 e detail ) ! footpr9ts h actually come to light )9 ! same geologic & geographic limitations4 ,?is ( c\rse ref]s to ! bip$al1 functionally ?ree-to$ tracks4 ,( ! mak]s ( c]ta9 ( ! obscur] ( ! quadrup$al trails we are z mu* 9 ! d>k to-day z 7 ! fir/ discov]]s ( a c5tury ago1 s f> z demon/rable pro( is conc]n$4 ,we assume1 h[ev]1 t !y 7 ! tracks ( amphibia & reptiles1 beyond :i* we may n g ) c]ta9ty4 ,agassiz1 writ+ 9 #ahfe 7,geological ,sket*es71 says3 8,to sum up my op9ion respect+ ^! footm>ks1 ,i believe t !y 7 made by animals ( a prophetic type1 belong+ to ! class ( reptiles1 & exhibit+ _m syn!tic *>act]s4 ,! m closely we /udy pa/ creations1 ! m impressive & significant d ! syn!tic types1 pres5t+ features ( ! high] classes "u ! guise ( ! l[] ones1 become4 ,!y hold ! promise ( ! future4 ,z ! op5+ ov]ture ( an op]a conta9s all ! musical elem5ts to be !re9 develop$1 s ?is liv+ prelude ( ! creative "w comprises all ! organic elem5ts to be successively develop$ 9 ! c\rse ( "t40 ,( ^? ^: "w 0 contemporane\s ) t ( ,hit*cock1 b "o1 ,w4 ,c4 ,r$field1 wrote on ,triassic ph5om5a1 & he conc]n$ himself ma9ly ) ! fossil fi%es ( t "t1 8 fir/ pap] on ?is subject appe>+ 9 #ahcg 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#cd1 #bja71 & ! la/ tw5ty ye>s lat]4 ,paleozoic ,v]tebrates4--,lat] ! v]tebrates ( ! ,paleozoic began to attract att5tion1 footpr9ts f ,p5nsylvania be+ describ$ by ,isaac ,lea1 beg9n+ 9 #ahdi1 a notice ( 8 fir/ pap] appe>+ 9 ! ,j\rnal = t ye> 7#i1 #abd74 ,sev]al pap]s foll[$ on ! reptile ,clepsysaurus4 ,alfr$ ,k+ also wrote on ! ,c>bonif]\s i*nites1 8 "w slightly ant$at+ t ( ,lea1 b be+ less au?oritative4 ,b by f> ! mo/ illum9at+ ( ! mid-c5tury writ]s on ,paleozoic v]tebrates 0 ,sir ,william ,dawson1 a v l>ge proportion ( ^: num]\s pap]s relate to ! ,coal ,measures ( ,nova ,scotia & _! conta9$ plant & animal rema9s4 ,9 #ahec appe>$ ,dawson's fir/ ann\ncem5t1 writt5 9 collaboration ) ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 ( ! f9d+ ( ! bones ( v]tebrates )9 ! base ( an upright fossil tree trunk at ,s\? ,jogg9s4 ,^! bones 7 id5tifi$ by ,ow5 & ,wyman z p]ta9+ to a reptilian or amphibian to :i* ! "n ,d5dr]peton acadianum 0 giv54 ,foll[+ ?is 7 sev]al pap]s publi%$ 9 ! ,qu>t]ly ,j\rnal ( ! ,geological ,society1 ,london1 describ+ m v]tebrates & associat$ t]re/rial molluscs4 ,9 #ahfc ,dawson summ>iz$ 8 discov]ies 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#cf1 #dcj-dcb7 "u ! title ( 8,air-brea!rs ( ! ,coal ,p]iod10 a pap] :i* 0 exp&$ & publi%$ "u ! same title 9 ! ,canadian ,naturali/ & ,geologi/ = ! same ye>4 ,dawson also pr9t$ 9 ! same volume ! fir/ acc\nt ( reptilian787 footpr9ts f ! coal4 ,?us f "t to "t !re emanat$ f 8 prolific p5 ! acc\nt ( fur!r discov]ies1 bo? 9 bones & footpr9ts1 8 f9al synopsis ( ! air-brea?+ animals ( ! ,paleozoic ( ,canada appe>+ 9 #ahie4 ,! only o!r gr\p ( v]tebrates :i* claim$ 8 att5tion 7 c]ta9 :ales1 on :i* he occasionally wrote4 ,fi%es4--,! fossil fi%es f ! ,devonian ( ,ohio f\nd _! fir/ expon5t 9 ,j4 ,s4 ,newb]ry1 appo9t$ *ief geologi/ ( ! second geological survey ( ,ohio1 :i* 0 e/abli%$ 9 #ahfi4 ,^! fi%es f ! ,devonian %ales belong$ = ! great] "p to ! curi\s gr\p ( armor$ placod]ms1 ! rema9s ( :i* consi/ v l>gely ( armor plates ) little or no traces ( int]nal skeleton4 ,!re 0 also f\nd 9 association a %>k1 ,cladosela*e1 ( su* m>vel\s pres]vation t f "s ( ! ,newb]ry specim5s n[ 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory1 ,new ,york1 ,ba%=d ,dean has demon/rat$ ! hi/ology ( muscle & visc]al organs1 9 addition to ! v complete skeletal rema9s4 ,newb]ry's "w on ^! =ms1 begun 9 #ahfh1 has be5 c>ri$ to fur!r completion by ,ba%=d ,dean & 8 pupil ,l4 ,hussak(1 z well z by ,c4 ,r4 ,ea/man4 ,newb]ry's o!r paleontological "w 0 ) ! ,c>bonif]\s fi%es ( ,ohio1 ! ,c>bonif]\s & ,triassic fi%es ( ! region f ,sante ,f to ! ,gr& & ,gre5 riv]s1 ,colorado1 & on ! fi%es & plants ( ! ,new>k sy/em ( ! ,connecticut valley & ,new ,j]sey4 ,he also discuss$ c]ta9 ma/odon & mammo? rema9s1 & ^? ( ! pecc>y ( ,ohio1 ,dicotyles4 ,joseph ,leidy 7#ahbc-ahia74 ,we n[ come to a consid]ation ( ! "w ( ,joseph ,leidy1 "o ( ! ?ree great pione]s 9 ,am]ican v]tebrate paleontology1 = if we disreg>d ! "w ( ,hit*cock & o!rs on ! fossil footpr9ts1 few ( ! results ?us f> obta9$ 7 bas$ ^u ! fruits ( organiz$ rese>*4 ,leidy began 8 publication 9 #ahdg & cont9u$ to issue pap]s & books f "t to "t until ! ye> #ahib1 hav+ publi%$ no few] ?an #bai paleontological titles1 & #eec all told4 ,8 e>li] paleontological rese>*es 7 exclusively on ! ,mammalia1 :i* 7 !n com+ 9 f ! newly discov]$ fossil localities ( ! ,we/4 ,! discov]y ( ^! =ms1 "o ( ! mo/ notable ev5ts 9 ! hi/ory ( our sci5ce1 w be> re-tell+4 ,! fir/ ann\ncem5t 0 made 9 #ahdg1 :5 ,hiram ,a4 ,pr\t ( ,/4 ,l\is publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#c1 #bdh-bej7 ! description ( ! maxill>y bone ( 8,palo!rium0 7 ,titano!rium pr\tii7f ne> ,:ite ,riv]1 ,nebraska4 ,?is at once drew ! att5tion ( geologi/s & paleontologi/s to ! ,bad ,l&s1 or ,mauvaises ,t]res1 :i* 7 to prove s highly productive ( fossil =ms4 ,ab\t ! same "t ,s4 ,d4 ,culb]tson ( ,*amb]sburg1 ,p5nsylvania1 submitt$ to ! ,academy ( ,natural ,sci5ces at ,philadelphia "s fossils s5t to him f ,nebraska by ,alex&] ,culb]tson4 ,^! 7 aft]w>d describ$ by ,leidy 9 ! ,proce$+s ( ! ,academy1 toge!r ) ! paleo!roid jaw1 9 addition to :i* ?ree o!r collections :i* _h be5 made 7 also plac$ at 8 disposal = /udy4 ,?is ar\s$ ! int]e/ ( ,doctor ,sp5c] ,f4 ,baird ( ! ,smi?sonian ,in/itution1 :o s5t ,t4 ,a4 ,culb]tson to ! ,bad ,l&s to make fur!r collections4 ,! latt] 0 successful 9 secur+ a valuable s]ies ( mammalian & *elonian rema9s4 ,^!1 toge!r ) o!r specim5s f ! same locality1 7 s5t to ,leidy1 =1 z ,baird rem>k$1 ,leidy1 al?\gh only ?irty ye>s ( age1 0 ! only anatomi/ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates qualifi$ to det]m9e _! nature4 ,! outcome ( ,leidy's /udy ( ?is mat]ial 0 8,! ,anci5t ,fauna ( ,nebraska10 publi%$ 9 #ahec1 & con/itut+ ! mo/ brilliant "w :i* up to t "t ,am]ican paleontology _h produc$4 ,leidy's det]m9ations1 :i* are 9 ! ma9 correct1 are ! m rem>kable :5 x is realiz$ t he _h little rec5t o/eological mat]ial = comp>ative /udy4 ,! =ms ?us describ$ by him 7 new to sci5ce1 ( a m g5]aliz$ "* ?an ^? n[ liv+1 & yet _! di/+ui%$ describ] recogniz$1 ei!r at t "t or a little lat]1 _! true relation%ip to ! mod]n types4 ,! ext5t ( ,leidy's anatomical k 0 almo/ ,cuvi]ian1 & ,cuvi]-l he e/abli%$ ! fact ( ! pres5ce ( ! rh9oc]oses1 !n unhe>d ( 9 ! ,am]ican fauna1 f a few small fragm5ts ( mol> tee?1 an op9ion %ortly to be fully su/a9$ ?r\gh ! f9d+ ( complete mol>s & ! entire skull ( ! same individual animal4 ,leidy next turn$ 8 att5tion to ! huge ed5tates1 :i* he /udi$ exhau/ively1 publi%+ 8 results 9 ! =m ( a memoir 9 #ahee1 two ye>s aft] ! appe>ance ( ! 8,anci5t ,fauna40 ,ext9ct fi%es ( ! ,devonian ( ,ill9ois & ,miss\ri & ! ,devonian & ,c>bonif]\s ( ,p5nsylvania 7 made ! subjects ( 8 next rese>*es1 aft] :i* he describ$ ! pecc>ies ( ,ohio1 & lat]1 9 a mu* l>g] & mo/ important "w1 ! ,cretace\s reptiles ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7#ahfe74 ,mo/ ( ! fossils discuss$ 9 ?is la/ "w are f ! ,new ,j]sey ,cretace\s m>ls & ( !m ! mo/ notable 0 ! h]bivor\s d9osaur ,hadrosaurus1 ! /ructure & habits ( :i*1 toge!r ) its aff9ities ) ! ,old ,_w iguanodons1 ,leidy describ$ 9 detail4 ,f ,leidy's descriptions & ) 8 aid1 ,wat]h\se ,hawk9s 0 enabl$ to re/ore a replica ( ! skeleton 9 a rem>kably effici5t way4 ,?is re/oration = a long "t grac$ ! museum ( ! ,philadelphia ,academy ( ,natural ,sci5ces & !re 0 a pla/] replica ( x 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,national ,museum4 ,^!1 toge!r ) pla/] replicas ( ,iguanodon f ! ,royal ,college ( ,surgeons 9 ,london1 gave to ,am]icans _! fir/ real conceptions ( memb]s ( ?is mo/ rem>kable gr\p4 ,! associat$ fossils f ! ,new ,j]sey m>ls 7 *iefly crocodiles & turtles4 ,f #ahec to #ahff ,f4 ,v4 ,hayd5 0 c>ry+ on a s]ies ( mo/ en]getic explorations 9 ! ,we/1 especially 9 ,nebraska & ,dakota z !n delimit$1 return+ f ea* trip lad5 ) fossils :i* 7 giv5 to ,leidy = det]m9ation4 ,! results appe>$ 9 #ahfi 9 ,leidy's ,ext9ct ,mammalian ,fauna ( ,dakota & ,nebraska1 publi%$ z volume #g ( ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,philadelphia ,academy4 ,9 ?is l>ge volume no few] ?an sev5ty g5]a & num]\s species ( =ms1 _m ( !m new to sci5ce1 7 describ$1 repres5t+ _m ( ! pr9cipal mammalian ord]s2 horses 71 h[ev]1 especially conspicu\s4 ,?is la/ gr\p l$ ,leidy to ! conclusion1 aft]w>d emphasiz$ by ,huxley1 t ,nor? ,am]ica 0 ! home ( ! horse 9 geologic "t1 !re be+ "h a great] repres5tation ( diff]5t species ?an 9 any rec5t fauna ( ! _w4 ,leidy's int]e/ 9 ! horses1 = ! =w>d+ ( :i* he made a l>ge collection ( rec5t mat]ial1 ext5d$ ov] _m ye>s1 z 8 fir/ pap] on ! subject be>s ! date ( #ahdg1 ! la/ t ( #ahij4 ,next came ! discov]y ( ,eoc5e mat]ial f ! vic9ity ( ,=t ,bridg]1 ,wyom+1 geologically old] ?an ! ,nebraska & ,dakota =mations4 ,?is1 toge!r ) specim5s f ! ,gre5 ,riv] & ,sweetwat] ,riv] deposits ( ,wyom+ & ! ,john ,day ,riv] 7,oligoc5e7 ( ,oregon1 0 also ref]r$ to ,leidy1 & add$ yet m to ! li/ ( newly discov]$ species ) :i* he _h already become famili> 9 8 e>li] rese>*es4 ,! results ( ?is /udy 7 publi%$ by ! ,hayd5 ,survey 9 #ahgc1 "u ! title 8,contributions to ! ,ext9ct ,v]tebrate ,fauna ( ! ,we/]n ,t]ritories40 ,?is 0 ! la/ ( ,leidy's major works1 b he cont9u$ up to ! "t ( 8 dea? to report to ! ,academy conc]n+ ! v>i\s fossil =ms t 7 submitt$ to him = id5tification4 ,( su* reports ! mo/ important 0 "o on ! fossils ( ! phosphate b$s ( ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,academy 9 #ahhg4 ,z a paleontologi/1 ,leidy ranks ) ,cope & ,m>% high among ^? :o enri*$ ! ,am]ican lit]ature ( ! subject1 b x mu/ be rememb]$ t ?is 0 b a s+le aspect ( 8 _m-sid$ sci5tific c>e]1 = he made _m contributions ( high ord] to botany1 zoology1 & g5]al & comp>ative anatomy z well1 nor did 8 k & usefulness z an in/ructor ( 8 fell[ m5 keep )9 ! limitations ( ^! subjects4 ,o?niel ,*>les ,m>% 7#ahca-ahii74 ,! six? decade ( ! n9ete5? c5tury saw ! beg9n+ ( ! labors ( sev]al paleontologi/s :o1 l ,leidy1 7 de/9$ to raise ! sci5ce ( fossil v]tebrates 9 ,am]ica to ! level ( atta9m5t ( ! ,old ,_w4 ,!y 71 among o!rs1 ,o?niel ,*>les ,m>% & ,edw>d ,dr9k] ,cope4 ,( ^! ! names ( ,m>% & ,cope are l9k$ toge!r by ! brilliance ( _! atta9m5ts1 _! contemporaneity1 & ! rivalry :i* ! simil>ity ( _! pursuits un=tunately eng5d]$4 ,m>% produc$ 8 fir/ paleontological pap] 9 #ahfb 7#cc1 #bgh71 ,cope 9 #ahfd1 b ! latt] di$ fir/1 s t 8 life ( rese>* 0 %ort]4 ,illu/ration3 ,o4 ,c4 ,m>% ,to ,pr(essor ,m>% %\ld be giv5 cr$it = ! fir/ organiz$ exp$ition design$ exclusively = ! collection ( v]tebrate rema9s1 ! results ( :i* conta9 s mu* mat]ial t x has n yet entirely se5 ! light ( sci5tific exposition4 ,m>%'s fir/ trip to ! ,we/ 0 9 #ahfh1 ! fir/ =mal exp$ition be+ organiz$ two ye>s lat]4 ,^! exp$itions1 ( :i* !re 7 f\r1 7 privately f9anc$ except = ! mat]ial & milit>y escort furni%$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,gov]nm5t1 & consi/$ ( a p]sonnel drawn entirely f ! graduate or und]graduate body ( ,yale ,univ]sity4 ,^! p>ties explor$ ,kansas1 ,nebraska1 ,wyom+1 ,utah1 & ,oregon1 & return$ lad5 ) mat]ial f ! ,cretace\s & ,t]ti>y =mations ( ! ,we/4 ,"s ( ?is is ( necessity some:at fragm5t>y1 b type aft] type 0 secur$ :i*1 ) 8 exhau/ive k ( comp>ative anatomy1 enabl$ ,m>% to ann\nce discov]y aft] discov]y ( species1 g5]a1 families1 & ev5 ord]s ( mammals1 birds1 & reptiles :i* 7 unkn[n to sci5ce4 ,! ye> #ahgc saw ! la/ ( ! /ud5t exp$itions1 & !reaft] until ! close ( 8 life ! "w ( collect+ 0 done "u ,m>%'s sup]vision1 b by paid explor]s1 _m ( :om _h be5 8 sc\ts & guides 9 ! =mal exp$itions or _h be5 especially tra9$ by him 9 ! ,ea/4 ,9 #ahhb1 aft] f\rte5 ye>s ( ! exp]i5ce ?us ga9$1 ,m>% 0 appo9t$ v]tebrate paleontologi/ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey1 :i* reliev$ him 9 "p ( ! p]sonal exp5se connect$ ) ! collect+1 al?\gh up to )9 a %ort "t ( 8 dea? 8 own =tune 0 v l>gely sp5t 9 enl>g+ 8 collections4 ,aft] 8 connection ) ! ,survey 0 e/abli%$1 ,m>% _h two ma9 purposes 9 view 9 mak+ ! collections3 7#a7 to det]m9e ! geological horizon ( ea* locality :]e a l>ge s]ies ( v]tebrate fossils 0 f\nd1 & 7#b7 to secure f ^! localities l>ge collections ( ! m important =ms suffici5tly ext5sive to reveal1 if possible1 ! life hi/ories ( ea*4 ,m>% believ$ t ! mat]ial ?us secur$ w\ld s]ve z key or diagno/ic fossils to all horizons ( our we/]n geology above ! ,paleozoic1 a belief 9 :i* he 0 9 advance ( 8 "t1 = few ( 8 contempor>ies appreciat$ ! value ( v]tebrates z horizon m>k]s4 ,! result ( ! fulfilm5t ( 8 second purpose saw ! accumulation ( huge collections f all horizons above ! ,triassic & "s ,paleozoic & ,triassic z well4 ,^! conta9$ "s v rem>kable s]ies1 ea* ( :i* ,m>% hop$ to make ! basis ( an elaborate monograph to be publi%$ "u ! auspices ( ! ,survey4 ,"o c visualize ! scope ( 8 ambitions by ! fact t no few] ?an tw5ty-sev5 project$ qu>to volumes1 to conta9 at lea/ #hej li?ographic plates1 7 li/$ by him 9 #ahgg4 ,^! cov]$1 among o!r gr\ps1 ! too!d birds 7,odontorni!s71 ,d9oc]ata1 horses1 bronto!res1 pt]odactyls1 mosasaurs & plesiosaurs1 monkeys1 c>nivores1 p]issodactyls & artiodactyls1 crocodiles1 liz>ds1 d9osaurs1 v>i\s birds1 proboscideans1 ed5tates & m>supials1 bra9 evolution1 & ! ,connecticut ,valley footpr9ts4 ,mu* 0 done t[>ds ! prep>ation ( ^! memoirs1 z evid5c$ by ! long li/ ( prelim9>y pap]s1 admirably illu/rat$ by woodcuts :i* 7 to =m ! text figures ( ! memoirs1 :i* appe>$ ) great regul>ity 9 ! pages ( ! ,j\rnal = a p]iod ( ?irty ye>s4 ,( ! actual memoirs1 h[ev]1 b two _h be5 publi%$ at ! "t ( ,m>%'s dea? 9 #ahii--! ,odontorni!s 9 #ahhj & ! ,d9oc]ata 9 #ahhd4 ,"o mu/ n ov]look1 h[ev]1 ! epo*-mak+ ,d9osaurs ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 :i* 0 publi%$ by ! ,survey 9 #ahif1 al?\gh x 0 n 9 ! =m nor _h x ! scope ( ! propos$ monographs4 ,?is 0 n due to lack ( application1 = ,pr(essor ,m>% 0 an indefatigable work]1 b r to ! fact t ! program 0 ( su* magnitude z to necessitate a patri>*al life span = its consummation4 ,z x is1 ,pr(essor ,m>%'s fame re/s fir/ ^u 8 ability & intrepidity z a collector1 ready himself to brave ! v c]ta9 h>d%ips & dang]s :i* beset ! field paleontologi/ 9 ! pione] days1 & also by 8 judgm5t & comm& ( m5 to secure ! v adequate s]vices ( o!rs & s to direct _! endeavors t ! results 7 ( ! highe/ value4 ,! mat]ial witness to ,m>%'s skill z a collector lies 9 ! collections ( ! ,peabody ,museum at ,yale & 9 ! ,m>% collection at ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,national ,museum1 ! latt] secur$ ?r\gh ! funds ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey4 ,toge!r !y con/itute :at is possibly ! greate/ collection ( fossil v]tebrates 9 ,am]ica1 if n 9 ! _w2 individually1 !y are second only to t ( ! ,am]ican ,museum 9 ,new ,york ,city1 ! result ( ! comb9$ labors ( ,osborn & ,cope & _! v able corps ( assi/ants4 ,z a sci5ti/ ,m>% possess$ 9 l>ge measure t wide k ( comp>ative anatomy s necess>y to ! v]tebrate paleontologi/1 & z a consequ5ce 0 n only able to recognize aff9ities & classify un]r+ly1 b also to recognize ! sali5t diagno/ic features ( ! =m be=e him & 9 few words s to describe !m z to r5d] ! recognition ( ! species by ano!r work] relatively easy4 ,! publication ( hundr$s ( ^! specific diagnoses 9 ! ,j\rnal con/itutes a v l>ge & valuable "p ( t p]iodical's contribution to ! advancem5t ( our sci5ce4 ,m>%'s me?od ( indicat+ =ms by s brief a /atem5t leaves mu* to be done1 h[ev]1 9 ! way ( fur!r description ( 8 types1 :i* 9 _m in/ances 7 b p>tially prep>$4 ,yet ano!r important s]vice :i* ,m>% r5d]$ to sci5ce 0 ! re/oration ( ! creatures z a :ole1 made ) ! mo/ pa9/ak+ c>e & precision ?r\gh assembl+ ! draw+s ( ! individual bones4 ,^! re/orations h become classic1 embrac+ z !y did a score or m ( =ms1 ( bea/1 bird1 & reptile4 ,!y also 7 publi%$ fir/ 9 ! ,j\rnal1 al?\gh !y h subsequ5tly be5 reproduc$ 9 text-books & o!r works ! _w ov]4 ,"p ( ,m>%'s popul> reputation1 at lea/1 :i* 0 second to t ( no o!r ,am]ican 9 8 l9e1 0 due to 8 skill 9 atta9+ publicity1 = 8 pap]s1 ( :atev] ext5t1 7 c>efully & me?odically s5t to correspond5ts 9 ! utt]mo/ p>ts ( ! e>?1 & ?us ! ,m>% collection has reflect$ ! fame ( its mak]4 ,edw>d ,dr9k] ,cope 7#ahdj-ahig74 ,! ?ird great "n 9 ,am]ican v]tebrate paleontology1 t ( ,edw>d ,dr9k] ,cope1 /&s out 9 %>p contra/ ) ! o!r two1 al?\gh 9 ! range ( 8 int]e/s he 0 probably m ne>ly comp>able ) ,leidy ?an ) ,m>%4 ,! beg9n+ ( ,cope's sci5tific labors dates f #ahei1 ! ye> made fam\s 9 ! annals ( sci5ce by ! appe>ance ( ,d>w9's ,orig9 ( ,species4 ,x is n surpris+1 !re=e1 t matt]s evolutional %\ld h int]e/$ him to ! v end ( 8 c>e]4 ,cope 0 n m]ely a paleontologi/1 b 0 int]e/$ 9 rec5t =ms1 especially ! ?ree l[] classes ( v]tebrates1 to su* an ext5t t 8 "w !re) is highly au?oritative & 9 "s respects epo*-mak+4 ,?irty-eight ye>s ( almo/ cont9ual toil 7 81 & ! m]e mass ( 8 lit]>y productions is prodigi\s1 especially :5 "o realizes t1 unlike ^? ( a writ] ( fiction1 !y 7 bas$ on pa9/ak+ rese>* & philosophical ?\ght4 ,! great] "p ( ,cope's life 0 sp5t 9 or ne> ,philadelphia except = 8 we/]n explorations1 & he is be/ kn[n z pr(essor ( geology & paleontology 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,p5nsylvania1 al?\gh he s]v$ o!r in/itutions z well4 ,cope's e>ly "w 0 among ! amphibia & reptiles1 8 fir/ paleontological pap]1 ! description ( ,amphibamus gr&iceps1 appe>+ 9 #ahfe4 ,?is ye> he also began 8 /udies ( ! mammals1 especially ! ,cetacea1 bo? liv+ & ext9ct1 f ! ,atlantic seabo>d4 ,! next ye> saw ! beg9n+ ( 8 "w on ! mat]ial f ! ,cretace\s m>ls ( ,new ,j]sey1 describ+ !refrom "o ( ! fir/ c>nivor\s d9osaurs1 ,llaps1 to be discov]$ 9 ,am]ica4 ,9 #ahfh ,cope began to describe ! v]tebrates f ! ,kansas *alk & ?ree ye>s lat] made 8 fir/ exploration ( ^! b$s4 ,?is l$ to 8 connection ) ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey ( ! ,t]ritories "u ,hayd51 & to cont9u$ exploration ( ,wyom+ & ,colorado 9 #ahgb & #ahgc4 ,! mat]ial ?us ga9$1 consi/+ ( fi%es1 mosasaurs1 d9osaurs1 & o!r reptiles1 0 describ$ 9 ! ,transactions ( ! ,am]ican ,philosophical ,society z well z 9 ! ,survey ,bullet9s4 ,9 #ahge ^! results 7 summ>iz$ 9 a l>ge qu>to volume entitl$ 8,v]tebrata ( ! ,cretace\s =mations ( ! ,we/40 ,subsequ5t summ]s 7 sp5t 9 fur!r exploration ( ! ,bridg]1 ,wa%akie1 & ,wasat* =mations ( ,wyom+1 ! ,pu]co & ,torrejon ( ,new ,mexico1 & ! ,judi? ,riv] ( ,montana4 ,! mat]ial ga!r$ 9 ,new ,mexico prov$ p>ticul>ly valuable1 & l$ to ! publication 9 #ahgg ( ano!r notable volume entitl$ 8,report ^u ! ,ext9ct ,v]tebrata obta9$ 9 ,new ,mexico by ,p>ties ( ! ,exp$ition ( #ahgd40 ,mat]ial 0 n[ accumulat+ s fa/ z to necessitate ! conc5tration ( ,cope's own "t on rese>*1 s t1 :ile he cont9u$ to make brief j\rneys to ! ,we/1 ! real "w ( exploration 0 delegat$ to ,*>les ,h4 ,/]nb]g & ,j4 ,l4 ,wortman1 bo? ( :om became subsequ5tly v well kn[n1 ! =m] z a collector ^: active s]vice has n yet ceas$1 ! latt] z an explor] & lat] an inve/igator ( extremely high promise4 ,z e>ly z #ahfe1 ,cope began no few] ?an five sep>ate l9es ( rese>* :i* he pursu$ concurr5tly = ! rema9d] ( 8 c>e]4 ,on ! fi%es1 he became a high au?ority 9 ! l>g] classification1 ow+ to 8 rese>*es into _! phylog5y1 = :i* a k ( ext9ct =ms is imp]ative4 ,on amphibia1 he wrote m volum9\sly ?an any o!r naturali/1 discuss+ n only ! morphology b ! paleontology & taxonomy z well4 ,9 ?is connection mu/ be m5tion$ n only ,cope's exploration & collections 9 ! ,p]mian ( ,ohio & ,ill9ois1 b especially ! rema9s f ! ,texas ,p]mian1 fir/ receiv$ 9 #ahgg1 ^u :i* "s ( 8 mo/ brilliant results 7 bas$2 ^! ( c\rse includ$ reptilian z well z amphibian mat]ial4 ,8 ?ird l9e ( rese>*1 ! ,reptilia1 is 9 "p includ$ 9 ! =ego+1 b also embrac$ ! reptiles ( ! ,bridg] & o!r ,t]ti>y deposits1 ^? ( ! ,kansas ,cretace\s1 & ! ,cretace\s d9osaurs4 ,up to #ahfh ,leidy alone 0 engag$ 9 rese>* 9 ! ,we/1 b t ye> saw ! simultane\s entrance ( ,m>% & ,cope into ?is new field ( rese>*1 & _! exploration & descriptions ( simil> regions & =ms soon l$ to a rivalry :i* 9 turn develop$ into a mo/ un=tunate s]ies ( controv]sies1 ma9ly ov] ! subject ( priority4 ,?is result$ 9 a p]man5t rupture ( fri5d%ip & ! division ( ,am]ican work]s into two oppos+ camps to ! detrim5t ( ! progress ( our sci5ce4 ,?is brea* has n[ be5 happily heal$1 & = a numb] ( ye>s ! degree ( mutual good w & aid on ! "p ( our work]s has be5 ( ! highe/ sort4 ,! ext5t ( ! we/]n fossil area1 & p>ticul>ly ! explorations ( ?ree ( ,cope's aids1 ,wortman 9 ! ,big ,horn & ,wasat* bas9s1 ,baldw9 9 ! ,pu]co ( ,new ,mexico1 & ,cumm9s 9 ! ,p]mian ( ,texas1 gave him s fruitful a field ( endeavor t ! occasion = jeal\s rivalry 0 l>gely remov$4 ,! mo/ manife/ result ( ,cope's we/]n "w 0 ! publication 9 #ahhc ( 8 ,v]tebrata ( ! ,t]ti>y ,=mations ( ! ,we/1 :i* =m$ volume #c ( ! qu>to publications ( ! ,hayd5 ,survey4 ,?is huge book conta9s m ?an #ajjj pages & #hj plates & has be5 faceti\sly call$ 8,cope's ,bible40 ,cope's philosophical contributions1 :i* cov]$ ! doma9s ( evolution1 psy*ology1 e?ics1 & metaphysics1 began 9 #ahfh ) 8 pap] on ,! ,orig9 ( ,g5]a4 ,9 evolution he 0 a foll[] ( ,lam>ck1 & z su*1 ) ,hyatt1 ,ryd]1 & ,pack>d1 0 "o ( ! f\nd]s ( ! s-call$ ,neo-,lam>ckian ,s*ool 9 ,am]ica4 ,cope's pr9cipal contribution1 set =? 9 8 ,factors ( ,organic ,evolution1 is ! idea ( k9etog5esis or me*anical g5esis1 ! pr9ciple t all /ructures are ! direct outcome ( ! /resses & /ra9s to :i* ! organism is subject$4 ,weismann's =cible attack on ! transmission !ory did n %ake ,cope's fai? 9 ^! doctr9es1 = he claim$ t ! paleontological evid5ce = ! inh]itance ( su* *>act]s z are app>5tly ! result ( individual modification 0 too /rong to be refut$4 ,cope 0 m l ,lam>ck ?an any o!r naturali/ 9 8 m5tal make-up z well z 8 ideas4 ,he 0 also1 l ,haeckel1 giv5 to work+ out ! phylog5y ( :atev] type lay be=e him1 & 9 _m in/ances arriv$ m>vell\sly ne> ! tru? z we n[ see x4 ,associat$ = a :ile ) ,a4 ,s4 ,pack>d1 ,cope soon became *ief editor & proprietor ( ! ,am]ican ,naturali/1 :i* 0 = _m ye>s 8 ma9 means ( publication & ?us s]v$ our sci5ce 9 a way comp>able to ! ,j\rnal4 ,z ,osborn says by way ( summation3 8,cope is n to be ?\ght ( m]ely z a speciali/ 9 ,paleontology4 ,aft] ,huxley he 0 ! la/ repres5tative ( ! old broad-gauge s*ool ( anatomi/s & is only to be comp>$ ) memb]s ( t s*ool4 ,8 life "w be>s m>ks ( great g5ius1 ( solid & accurate obs]vation1 & at times ( inaccuracy due to bad logic or ha/e & ov]pressure ( "w4444 ,z a comp>ative anatomi/ he ranks bo? 9 ! range & effectiv5ess ( 8 k & 8 ideas ) ,cuvi] & ,ow54444 ,z a natural philosoph]1 :ile f> less logical ?an ,huxley1 he 0 m creative & con/ructive1 8 metaphysics end+ 9 !ism r ?an agno/icism40 #ahgj-ahhj4 ,! sev5? decade 0 productive ( comp>atively few great names 9 ! hi/ory ( our sci5ce1 b two1 ,j4 ,a4 ,ryd] & ,samuel ,w4 ,willi/on1 be+ notable contributors4 ,! =m] produc$ b few pap]s & ^? betwe5 #ahgg & #ahib1 yet !y 7 ( note & su* 0 _! influ5ce t he is nam$ ) ,hyatt1 ,pack>d1 & ,cope z "o ( ! f\nd]s ( ! ,neo-,lam>ckian ,s*ool ( evolutioni/s 9 ,am]ica4 ,ryd] 0 a p>ticul> fri5d & a colleague ( ,cope1 z !y 7 bo? conc]n$ ) ! back-bon$ animals1 :ile ! o!r two 7 inv]tebrati/s4 ,ryd] wrote on me*anical g5esis ( too? =ms & on scales ( fi%es1 also on ! morphology & evolution ( ! tails ( fi%es1 cetaceans1 & sir5ians1 & ( ! o!r f9s ( aquatic types4 ,he did1 on ! o!r h&1 practically no sy/ematic or descriptive "w4 ,willi/on1 on ! contr>y1 has _h a long & v>i$ c>e] z an inve/igator & z an educator4 ,tra9$ at ,yale1 he prep>$ = m$ic9e1 & mu* ( 8 tea*+ has be5 ( human anatomy1 bo? at ,yale & at ! ,univ]sity ( ,kansas :]e he s]v$ = a numb] ( ye>s z dean ( ! ,m$ical ,s*ool4 ,he is also a /ud5t ( flies1 & z su* n only ! =emo/ b inde$ almo/ ! only dipt]ologi/ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,b x is ) 8 "w z a v]tebrate paleontologi/ t we are *iefly conc]n$1 & "h aga9 he /&s among ! =emo/4 ,8 initial "w & tra9+ 9 ?is dep>tm5t ( sci5ce 7 ) ,m>%1 = :om he sp5t _m mon?s 9 field "w1 collect+ l>gely 9 ! ,niobr>a ,cretace\s ( ,kansas4 ,he did1 h[ev]1 no rese>* :ile ) ,m>%1 ow+ to ! latt]'s dis9cl9ation to fo/] su* "w on ! "p ( 8 associates4 ,willi/on began 8 publications 9 #ahgh & has cont9u$ !m until ! pres5t1 work+ ma9ly ) ,cretace\s mosasaurs1 plesiosaurs1 & pt]odactyls4 ,( late1 s9ce 8 transf]5ce to ! ,univ]sity ( ,*icago1 :]e z pr(essor ( paleontology & director ( ! ,walk] ,museum he has s]v$ s9ce #aijb1 8 int]e/ has la9 ma9ly among ! ,paleozoic reptiles & amphibia4 ,willi/on's m notable works are ,am]ican ,p]mian ,v]tebrates & ,wat] ,reptiles ( ! ,pa/ & ,pres5t1 :]e9 he sets =? 8 views ( ! phylog5esis & taxonomy ( ! reptilian class4 ,he is at pres5t at "w on ! evolution ( ! reptiles1 a volume :i* is eag]ly await$ by 8 colleagues4 ,x is 9 morphology t ,willi/on's greate/ /r5g? lies & "s ( 8 mo/ effective "w on ! mosasaurs has appe>$ 9 ! ,j\rnal4 #ahhj-aijj4 ,! next decade1 t ( #ahhj-ahij1 saw a numb] ( notable additions to ! work]s 9 v]tebrate paleontology3 ,h5ry ,f4 ,osborn1 ,w4 ,b4 ,scott1 ,r4 ,w4 ,%ufeldt1 ,j4 ,l4 ,wortman1 ,george ,baur1 ,f4 ,a4 ,lucas1 & ,f4 ,w4 ,true4 ,%ufeldt is our highe/ au?ority on ! o/eology ( birds1 bo? rec5t & ext9ct1 hav+ rec5tly describ$ all ( ! ext9ct =ms conta9$ 9 ! ,m>% collection2 ,true wrote ( ,cetacea2 ,lucas ( m>9e & ,plei/oc5e mammals & birds1 & has also writt5 popul> books on prehi/oric life4 ,lucas's greate/ s]vice1 h[ev]1 lies 9 ! museums1 :]e he has manife/$ a g5ius second to none 9 ! in/allation ( mute evid5ces ( liv+ & pa/ organisms4 ,wortman 0 = a "t associat$ ) ,cope1 lat] ) ,osborn 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum1 aga9 at ! ,c>negie ,museum at ,pittsburgh1 & f9ally at ,yale 9 rese>* on ! ,bridg] ,eoc5e portion ( ! ,m>% collection4 ,8 "w has be5 *iefly ! p]fection ( field me?ods 9 v]tebrate paleontology1 & z a special inve/igator ( ,t]ti>y ,mammalia1 treat+ ! latt] l>gely f ! morphologic & taxonomic /&po9ts4 ,wortman's ,yale results on ! c>nivores & primates ( ! ,eoc5e1 z yet unf9i%$1 7 publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 9 #aija-aijd4 ,william ,b4 ,scott is a graduate ( ,pr9ceton1 & has sp5t ?irty-f\r ye>s 9 h] s]vice z ,blair ,pr(essor ( ,geology & ,paleontology4 ,8 fir/ publication1 9 #ahgh1 issu$ 9 conjunction ) ,osborn & ,speir1 describ$ mat]ial collect$ by !m 9 ! ,eoc5e =mations ( ! ,we/1 & s9ce t "t ,scott's rese>* has be5 entirely ) ! mammals1 on :i* he is "o ( our highe/ au?orities4 ,8 mo/ notable works h be5 a ,hi/ory ( ,l& ,mammals ( ! ,we/]n ,hemisph]e1 #aiac1 & ! results ( ! ,patagonian exp$itions by ,hat*]1 :i* are publi%$ 9 a qu>to s]ies 9 conjunction ) ,w4 ,j4 ,s9clair1 al?\gh !y are ! au?ors ( sep>ate volumes1 ,scott's "w be+ ma9ly on ! c>nivores & ed5tates ( ! ,santa ,cruz =mation4 ,x is z a sy/emati/ 9 rese>* & z an educator t ,scott has atta9$ 8 highe/ usefulness4 ,! man :o1 next to ! ?ree pione]s1 has atta9$ ! highe/ reputation 9 v]tebrate paleontologic rese>*1 is ,h5ry ,fairfield ,osborn4 ,graduate ( ,pr9ceton 9 ! same class t produc$ ,scott1 ,osborn s]v$ = a "t z pr(essor ( comp>ative anatomy 9 t in/itution1 & 9 #ahia 0 call$ to ,new ,york to organize ! dep>tm5t ( zoology 9 ,columbia ,univ]sity & t ( v]tebrate paleontology 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,he _h1 e>ly 9 8 c>e]1 gone we/ 9 company ) ,pr(essor ,scott1 & _h collect$ mat]ial f ! ,eoc5e =mation ( ,wyom+1 ^u :i* !y bas$ _! fir/ jo9t pap] 9 #ahgh1 ,osborn's fir/ indep5d5t production1 a memoir on two g5]a ( ,d9oc]ata1 appe>+ 9 #ahha4 ,a numb] ( pap]s foll[$1 on ! ,mesozoic ,mammalia1 on ,cope's tritub]cul> !ory1 & on c]ta9 app>5t evid5ces = ! transmission ( acquir$ *>act]s4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 ) 8 acceptance ( ! ,new ,york responsibilities1 especially at ! ,am]ican ,museum1 t ,osborn's mo/ significant "w began4 ,aid$ fir/ by ,wortman & ,e>le1 lat] by ,w4 ,d4 ,mat!w & o!rs1 he has built up ! greate/ & mo/ complete collection ( fossil v]tebrates extant2 its value1 h[ev]1 0 l>gely enhanc$ ?r\gh ! pur*ase ( ! private collection ( ,pr(essor ,cope1 :i* ( c\rse includ$ a l>ge numb] ( types4 ,! ,am]ican ,museum collection ?us conta9s n only a va/ s]ies ( repres5tative specim5s f e class & ord] ( v]tebrates1 secur$ by pur*ase or exp$ition f ne>ly all ! great localities ( ! _w1 b an exhibition s]ies ( skulls & p>tial & entire skeletons & re/orations :i* no o!r in/itution c hope to equal4 ,bas$ ^u ?is wond]ful mat]ial is a l>ge am\nt ( rese>*1 fill+ _m volumes1 publi%$ = ! great] "p 9 ! bullet9 & memoirs ( ! ,museum4 ,?is rese>* is n only ! product ( ! /aff1 includ+ ,walt] ,grang]1 ,b>num ,br[n1 ,w4 ,d4 ,mat!w1 & ,w4 ,k4 ,gregory1 b also ( a numb] ( o!r ,am]ican & "s =eign paleontologi/s z well4 ,pr(essor ,osborn's own "w has be5 volum9\s1 8 bibliography f #ahgg to #aiaf conta9+ no few] ?an #dda titles1 rang+ ov] ! fields ( paleontology1--:i* ( c\rse includes ! great] numb]--geology1 correlation & paleogeography1 evolution>y pr9ciples exemplifi$ 9 ! ,mammalia1 man1 neurology & embryology1 biographies1 & ! !ory ( education4 ,9 paleontology1 ,osborn's rese>*es h be5 l>gely ) ! ,reptilia & ,mammalia1 p>tly morphological1 b also taxonomic & evolutional4 ,fauni/ic /udies h also be5 made ( ! mammals4 ,( 8 publi%$ volumes ! mo/ important are1 fir/1 ! ,age ( ,mammals 7#aiaj71 9 :i* he treats n ( evolution>y s]ies ( phylog5ies1 b ( faunas & _! orig91 migrations1 & ext9ctions1 & ( ! correlation ( ,old & ,new ,_w ,t]ti>y deposits & _! cont5ts4 ,m5 ( ! ,old ,/one ,age 7#aiaf7 is an exhau/ive treatise & is ! fir/ full & au?oritative ,am]ican pres5tation ( :at has be5 discov]$ up to ! pres5t "t ?r\gh\t ! _w 9 reg>d to human prehi/ory4 ,9 8 late/ volume1 ,! ,orig9 & ,evolution ( ,life 7#aiag71 ,osborn pres5ts a new en]gy conception ( evolution & h]$ity z aga9/ ! prevail+ matt] & =m conceptions4 ,9 ?is volume !re is summ$ up ! :ole /ory ( ! orig9 & evolution ( life on e>? up to ! appe>ance ( man4 ,?is la/ book is novel 9 its conceptions1 b x is too e>ly z yet to judge ( ! acceptance ( ,osborn's !ses by 8 fell[ work]s 9 sci5ce4 ,s9ce ! dea? ( ,pr(essor ,m>%1 ,osborn has s]v$ z v]tebrate paleontologi/ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey1 & has 9 *>ge ! c>ry+ ?r\gh to completion ( ! _m monographs propos$ by 8 di/+ui%$ pr$ecessor4 ,"o ( ^!1 t on ! horn$ d9osaurs1 has be5 complet$ by ,hat*] & ,lull 7#aijg71 ano!r on ! /egosaurian d9osaurs has be5 c>ri$ =w>d by ,c4 ,w4 ,gilmore ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,national ,museum1 :ile "u ,osborn's own h& are ! memoirs on ! titano!res 7aid$ by ,w4 ,k4 ,gregory71 ! horses1 & ! sauropod d9osaurs4 ,( ^!1 ! fir/1 :5 x %all h be5 complet$1 promises to be ! mo/ monum5tal & exhau/ive /udy ( a gr\p ( fossil organisms ev] und]tak54 ,z a lead] 9 sci5ce1 a tea*] & adm9i/rator1 ,pr(essor ,osborn's rank is high among ! lead+ v]tebrati/s4 ,he is rem>kably successful 9 8 *oice ( assi/ants & 9 /imulat+ !m 9 _! productiv5ess s t _! comb9$ results =m a v consid]able %>e ( ! lat] lit]ature 9 ,am]ica4 ,! n9? decade u%]$ 9 ! "w ( a valuable gr\p ( /ud5ts1 ( :om ,john ,bell ,hat*] %\ld be m5tion$ 9 p>ticul>1 z 8 "w is done4 ,graduate ( ,yale 9 #ahhd1 he sp5t a numb] ( ye>s assi/+ 8 tea*]1 ,pr(essor ,m>%1 ma9ly 9 ! field1 collect+ dur+ t "t1 ei!r = ,yale or = ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey1 an enorm\s am\nt ( v f9e mat]ial1 especially f ! ,we/1 al?\gh he also collect$ 9 ! old] ,t]ti>y & ,potomac b$s ne> ,wa%+ton4 ,9 ! ,we/ he secur$ no few] ?an #aje titano!re skulls1 explor$ ! ,t]ti>y1 ,judi? ,riv]1 & ,lance =mations1 collect$ & 9 fact virtually discov]$ ! rema9s ( ! ,cretace\s mammals & ( ! horn$ d9osaurs :i* he 0 lat] privileg$ to describe4 ,he !n 7#ahic7 w5t to ,pr9ceton1 :i* he s]v$ = sev5 ye>s1 8 pr9cipal "w be+ explorations 9 ,patagonia = ! ,e4 & ,m4 ,museum1 "o direct result ( :i* 0 ! publication ( a l>ge qu>to on ! n>rative ( ! exp$ition & ! geography & e?nography ( ! region4 ,go+ to ! ,c>negie ,museum 9 ,pittsburgh 9 #aijj1 ,hat*] c>ri$ =w>d ! "w ( exploration & collect+ begun = t in/itution by ,wortman1 & z a p>tial result prep>$ _m pap]s1 ! pr9cipal ones be+ memoirs on ! d9osaurs ,haplocan?osaurus & ,diplodocus4 ,9 #aijc1 ) ,t4 ,w4 ,/anton ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey1 ,hat*] explor$ ! ,judi? ,riv] b$s & toge!r !y settl$ ! vexati\s problem ( _! age1 ! publi%$ results appe>+ 9 #aije1 aft] ,hat*]'s dea?4 ,8 la/ piece ( rese>*1 begun 9 #aijb & cont9u$ until 8 dea? 9 #aijd1 0 an elaborate monograph on ! ,c]atopsia1 "o ( ! _m project$ by ,m>%4 ,( ?is memoir ,hat*] _h complet$ "s #aej pr9t$ qu>to pages1 giv+ a r>e insight into ! anatomy ( ^! /range =ms4 ,! f9al *apt]s1 h[ev]1 :i* 7 bas$ v l>gely ^u ,hat*]'s own op9ions1 _h to be prep>$ by ano!r h&4 ,despite 8 e>ly dea?1 !re=e1 ,hat*] r5d]$ a v signal s]vice to ,am]ican paleontology--9 exploration1 /ratigraphy1 morphology1 & sy/ematic revision--& 8 activity 9 plann+ new fields ( rese>*1 su*1 = in/ance1 z ! exploration ( ! ,ant>ctic cont95t1 gave promise ( fur!r high atta9m5t1 :5 8 h& 0 arre/$ by dea?4 ,summ>y4 ,x is n surpris+ t ,am]ican v]tebrate paleontology has aris5 to s high a plane1 :5 "o consid]s ! mat]ial at its disposal4 ,hav+ a va/ & virg9 field = exploration1 a suffici5t numb] ( collectors1 "s ( :om h devot$ mu* ( _! lives to ! "w1 & a ref9em5t ( te*nique t p]mitt$ ! pres]vation ( ! fragm5tal & ill cons]v$ z well z ! f9] specim5s1 ! results c\ld h>dly h be5 o!rwise4 ,?us x has be5 possible to secure mat]ial almo/ unique ?r\gh\t ! _w = ext5t1 = complet5ess1 & = v>iety4 ,to ?is mu/ be add$ a c]ta9 ,am]ican d>+ 9 ! matt] ( ! re/oration ( miss+ portions1 bo? ( ! individual bones & ( ! skeleton z a :ole1 su* z ,european cons]vatism w n z a rule p]mit4 ,?is "w has = ! mo/ "p be5 done aft] ! mo/ pa9/ak+ comp>ison & rese>* & is highly ju/ifi$ 9 ! accuracy ( ! results1 :i* r5d] ! fabric ( ! skeleton mu* m intelligible1 bo? to ! sci5ti/ & to ! layman4 ,mat]ial once secur$ & prep>$ is !n m\nt$1 & "h aga9 ,am]ican +5uity has accompli%$ "s rem>kable results4 ,"s ( ! specim5s ?us m\nt$ are s small & delicate z to require hold+ devices comp>able to ^? = ! display ( jewels2 yet o!rs--huge d9osaurs ! bones ( :i* are enorm\sly heavy1 b s brittle t !y w n be> ev5 ! weight ( a process unsupport$--require a c>efully design$ & skilfully work$ out s]ies ( supports ( /eel or iron :i* mu/ be p]fectly secure & at ! same "t z inconspicu\s z possible4 ,& ( late ! lifelike pose ( ! individual skeleton has be5 augm5t$ by ! prep>ation ( gr\ps ( sev]al animals :i* collectively exhibit sex1 size1 or o!r individual v>iations & ! full me*anics ( ! skeleton "u ! v>y+ poses assum$ by ! creature dur+ life4 ,! "w ( fur!r re/oration has be5 r5d]$ possible ?r\gh comp>ative anatomical /udy1 enabl+ u to essay re/orations 9 entirety by means ( models & draw+s1 clo?+ ! bones ) s9ews & ) fle% & ! fle% ) sk9 & hair1 if su* ! creature bore2 :ile ! laws ( faunal coloration h p]mitt$ ! color+ ( ! re/oration 9 a way :i* if n ! actual hue ( life is a v reasonable possibility4 ,?us ! ,am]ican paleontologi/s h blaz$ a trail :i* has be5 foll[$ to good effect by c]ta9 ( _! ,old ,_w colleagues4 ,) su* means & me?ods & su* mat]ial available1 x is aga9 n surpris+ t ,am]ican paleontology has furni%$ m & m ( ! evid5ces ( evolution1 & disclos$ to ! eyes ( sci5ti/s animal relation%ips :i* 7 undream$ ( by ! sy/emati/ ^: rese>* dealt only ) ! exi/+4 ,x has also expla9$ "s vexati\s problems ( animal di/ribution & ( ext9ction1 & has connect$ up cause & effect 9 ! great evolution>y movem5ts :i* are record$4 ,! results ( sy/ematic rese>* h add$ ho/s ( new g5]a & species & ( families1 b ( ord]s !re are relatively few4 ,nev]!less a numb]1 especially among reptiles & mammals1 h come to light z ! fruits ( ,am]ican discov]y4 ,b aside f ! dry catalogu+ ( su* gr\ps1 ! ,am]ican sy/emati/s h work$ out "s v rem>kable phylog5ies & h ?us cl>ifi$ our vision ( animal relation%ips 9 a way :i* ! rec5t zoologi/ c\ld nev] h done4 ,9 ?is connection1 ! ,p]mian v]tebrates1 :i* h be5 collect$ & /udi$ ) amaz+ success1 pr9cipally by ,willi/on & ,case1 %\ld be m5tion$1 al?\gh ! "w is yet incomplete4 ,"s ( ^! =ms are amphibian1 o!rs reptilian1 yet o!rs ( su* "* z to l9k ! two classes z transitional =ms4 ,( ! ,mesozoic reptiles1 a v rem>kable assemblage has come to light1 9 a degree ( p]fection unkn[n else:]e4 ,^! are d9osaurs1 ( :i* sev]al phyla are n[ kn[n2 c>nivores bo? great & small1 "s ( ! latt] be+ actually too?less2 ,sauropoda1 ^: p]fection & dim5sions are incomp>able except = ^? f\nd 9 ,ea/ ,africa2 & pr$5tates1 armor$1 un>mor$1 & horn$1 ! la/ exclusively ,am]ican4 ,! un>mor$ tra*odonts are n[ kn[n 9 _! entirety1 = n only has our ,we/ produc$ articulat$ skeletons b mummifi$ c>casses ^: sk9 & o!r portions ( _! s(t anatomy are repres5t$1 & :i* are ?us f> )\t a p>allel else:]e 9 ! _w4 ,o!r reptilian gr\ps are well kn[n1 notably ! ,triassic i*?yosaurs1 & ! mosasaurs & plesiosaurs ( ! ,kansas *alk4 ,! la/ =mation has also produc$ too!d birds1 ,hesp]ornis & ,i*?yornis1 :i* aga9 are absolutely unique4 ,b x is 9 ! mammalian class t ! phylog5ies become s highly complete & ( su* great importance z evolution>y evid5ces1 = n[h]e else ?an 9 our own ,we/ h su* s]ies be5 f\nd z ! ,d9oc]ata & creodonts among ar*aic =ms1 ! primitive primates f ! ,eoc5e1 ! c>nivores su* z ! dogs & cats & mu/ellids1 b especially ! ho($ ord]s su* z ! horses4 ,( ^! ho($ ord]s1 ! classic ,am]ican s]ies ( horses is complete1 t ( ! camels probably no less s1 :ile mu* is kn[n ( ! de] & oreodonts1 ! la/ %[+ sev]al p>allel phyla1 & ( ! proboscideans1 :i* :ile hav+ _! pri/9e home 9 ! ,old ,_w nev]!less soon s\ght ! new :]e _! rema9s are f\nd f ! ,mioc5e until _! f9al & app>5tly v rec5t ext9ction4 ,^! creatures %[ increase ( bulk1 p]fection ( feet & tee?1 developm5t ( v>i\s weapons1 horns & antl]s1 :i* may be /udi$ 9 _! relation%ip ) ! o!r organs to make ! evolv+ :ole1 or _! evolution may be trac$ z individual /ructures :i* h _! rise1 culm9ation1 & sometimes _! s5ile atrophy 9 a way comp>able to t ( ! repres5tatives ( ! ord] z a :ole4 ,?us1 = example1 ,osborn has trac$ ! evolution ( ! mol> tee?1 & ,cope ( ! feet1 :ile ,m>% has %[n t bra9 developm5t runs a simil> c\rse & t its degree ( p]fection )9 a gr\p is a pot5t factor = survival4 ,z a /ud5t ( evolution1 ! paleontologi/ sees ?+s 9 a v diff]5t light f ! zoologi/4 ,! latt] is conc]n$ l>gely ) matt]s ( detail--) ! inh]itance ( color or ( ! m9or & m sup]ficial *>act]i/ics ( animals--& ! p]iod ( obs]vation ( su* ph5om5a is ( necessity brief because ( ! mortality ( ! obs]v]4 ,:]eas ! paleontologi/ has a p]spective :i* ! o!r lacks1 s9ce = him "t means little 9 ! t]ms ( 8 own life1 & he c look into ! pa/ & see ! great & fundam5tal *anges :i* evolution has wr\ght1 ! rise ( phyla1 ( classes1 ( ord]s1 & he alone c see ! ord]l9ess ( ! process & s5se ! maje/y ( ! laws :i* gov]n x4 ,influ5ce ( ! ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce4 ,! influ5ce ( ! ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce z a m$ium = ! dissem9ation ( ! results ( v]tebrate rese>* has be5 9 evid5ce ?r\gh\t ?is discussion1 b x 7 well1 p]haps1 to emphasize t s]vice m fully4 ,! ,j\rnal 01 z we h se51 ! *ief outlet = ,pr(essor ,m>%'s rese>*1 = !re 7 publi%$ 9 x dur+ 8 lifetime no few] ?an #age pap]s descriptive ( ! =ms :i* he /udi$1 z well z a great "p ( ! mat]ial 9 ! publi%$ monographs4 ,z ,m>% left v few manuscript notes1 ! importance ( ^! frequ5t publications 9 ?us sett+ =? mu* t he ?\ght & le>n$ conc]n+ ! mat]ial is v great inde$4 ,! comb9$ titles ( all o!r au?ors 9 ! ,j\rnal 9 ?is l9e ( rese>* = ! c5tury ( its life fall f> %ort ( ! numb] produc$ by ,m>% alone1 z !y include #acf all told1 b ! range ( subjects is highly repres5tative ( ! entire field ( v]tebrate rese>*4 ,x %\ld be borne 9 m9d1 moreov]1 t ,leidy1 ,cope1 & ,osborn ea* _h ano!r m$ium ( publication1 :i* ( c\rse is true ( o!r work]s 9 ! great museums su* z ! ,am]ican1 ,national1 & ,c>negie1 all ( :i* issue bullet9s & qu>to publications = ! purpose ( dissem9at+ ! "w ( _! /aff4 ,_m ( ! e>li] ann\ncem5ts ( ! discov]y ( v]tebrate relics appe>$ 9 ! ,j\rnal1 z did practically all ! lit]ature ( ! sci5ce ( fossil footpr9ts 7i*nology71 except ( c\rse ! l>g] qu>tos ( ,hit*cock & ,deane4 ,( ! footpr9t pap]s by ,hit*cock1 ,deane1 & o!rs1 !re 7 no few] ?an ?irty-two1 ) a numb] ( additional communications on att5dant ph5om5a bones & plants4 ,up to #ahdg1 except = a few =eign ann\ncem5ts1 ! ,j\rnal publi%$ almo/ exclusively on ea/]n ,am]ican paleontology1 ! only exception be+ a notice ( bones f ,oregon by ,p]k9s 9 #ahdb4 ,9 #ahdg came ! ann\ncem5t ( a we/]n 8,palo!re0 by ,pr\t1 :i* m>k$ ! beg9n+ ( ! rese>*es ( ,leidy & o!rs 9 ! ,bad ,l&s ( ! great ,nebraska pla9s4 ,! ,j\rnal !nce=? publi%$ pap] aft] pap] on =ms f all ov] ,nor? ,am]ica1 & on all aspects ( our sci5ce3 discov]y1 sy/ematic description1 faunal relation%ips1 evolution>y evid5ces--?us %[+ t bread? & ca?olicity :i* has made x s great a p[] 9 ! advancem5t ( sci5ce4 ,,vii ,,! ,,rise ,,( ,,petrology ,,z ,a ,,sci5ce ,by ,,l\is ,v4 ,,pirsson ,?is *apt] is int5d$ to pres5t a brief sket* ( ! progress ( ! sci5ce ( petrology f its e>ly beg9n+s d[n to ! pres5t "t4 ,! field to be cov]$ is s l>ge t ?is c be done only 9 broade/ outl9e1 & x has !re=e be5 re/rict$ *iefly to :at has be5 accompli%$ 9 ,am]ica4 ,al?\gh ! p]iod cov]$ by ! life ( ! ,j\rnal ext5ds backw>d = a c5tury x is1 h[ev]1 practically only )9 ! la/ fifty ye>s t ! rocks ( ! e>?'s cru/ h be5 made ! subject ( su* sy/ematic inve/igation by m9ute & delicately accurate me?ods ( rese>* z to give rise to a di/9ct bran* ( geologic sci5ce4 ,x is n int5d$ ( c\rse to affirm by ?is /atem5t t ! broad] features ( ! rocks1 especially ^? :i* may be obs]v$ 9 ! field & :i* conc]n _! relations z geologic masses1 _h n be5 made ! object ( inquiry be=e ?is "t1 s9ce ?is is ! v f\ndation ( geology itself4 ,moreov]1 a c]ta9 am\nt ( inve/igation ( rocks1 z to ! m9]als ( :i* !y 7 compos$1 ! significance ( _! textures1 & _! *emical composition1 _h be5 c>ri$ out1 concomitant ) ! gr[? f e>ly times ( geology & m9]alogy4 ,?us1 9 #ahae1 ,cordi] by a process ( wa%+ sep>at$ ! compon5ts ( a basalt & by *emical te/s det]m9$ ! con/itu5t m9]als4 ,at ! "t ! ,j\rnal 0 f\nd$1 & = _m ye>s foll[+1 ! g5esis ( rocks1 especially ( igne\s rocks1 0 a subject ( inquiry & ( prolong$ discussion4 ,! aid ( ! rapidly gr[+ sci5ce ( *emi/ry 0 invok$ by ! geologi/s & analyses ( rocks 7 made 9 ! attempt to ?r[ light on important que/ions4 ,x is rem>kable1 also1 h[ ke5 7 ! obs]vations t ! geologi/s ( ^? days made ^u ! rocks1 z to _! compon5t m9]als & /ructures1 aid$ only by ! pocket l5s4 ,_m ideas 7 put =w>d1 ! ess5tials ( :i* h p]si/$ to ! pres5t day & h become int]wov5 into ! sci5ce1 :]eas o!rs gave rise to cont5tions :i* h n yet be5 settl$ to ! satisfaction ( all4 ,at times 9 ^! e>li] days ! microscope 0 call$ into use to help 9 solv+ que/ions reg>d+ ! f9] gra9$ rocks1 b ?is employm5t1 z ,zirkel has %[n1 0 m]ely incid5tal1 & no def9ite te*nique or purpose = ! in/rum5t 0 e/abli%$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! fact t up to ! middle ( ! la/ c5tury a l>ge /ore ( in=mation relat+ to ! occurr5ce ( rocks1 & to ! m9]al composition ( ^? ( co>s] gra91 & some:at 9 respect to _! /ructure1 _h be5 accumulat$1 caus$ attempts 9 "o way or ano!r to f9d means ( cord9at+ ^! data & to produce classifications1 su* z ^? ( ,von ,cotta & ,cordi]4 ,! hi/ory ( ^! attempts at classification1 be=e ! revelations made by ! use ( ! microscope _h become g5]al1 has be5 admirably review$ by ,:itman ,cross#ajg & ne$ n be fur!r enl>g$ ^u "h4 ,t a consid]able am\nt ( "w 0 done along *emical l9es also is te/ifi$ to by ! publication ( ,ro?'s ,tabell5 9 #ahfa1 9 :i* all publi%$ analyses ( rocks up to t date 7 collect$4 ,:at 0 accompli%$ dur+ ?is p]iod 0 done *iefly on ! cont95t ( ,europe1 & little att5tion _h be5 paid to ! subject ( rocks ei!r 9 ,am]ica or 9 ,great ,brita9--ev5 s late z #ahgj ,geikie rem>ks1 z ref]r$ to by ,cross1#ajh t !re 0 no good ,engli% treatise on petrography1 or ! classification & description ( rocks4 ,9 ?is c\ntry /ill less _h be5 accompli%$1 int]e/ be+ almo/ :olly conf9$ to ! vigor\s & gr[+ sci5ces ( geology & m9]alogy4 ,?is 0 natural1 = m9]alogy is ! *ief buttress on :i* ! /ructure ( petrology re/s & mu/ naturally develop fir/1 especially 9 a relatively new & unexplor$ region1 ^: m9]al res\rces fir/ attract att5tion4 ,! geologi/s 9 c>ry+ out _! /udies also obs]v$ ! rocks z !y saw !m 9 ! field & made incid5tal ref]5ce to !m1 b inve/igations ( ! rocks !mselves 0 v little attempt$4 ,an inspection ( ! fir/ two s]ies ( ! ,j\rnal %[s relatively little ( importance 9 petrology publi%$ 9 ?is c\ntry2 a few analyses ( rocks1 occasional m5tion ( m9]al composition1 ( wea!r+ prop]ties1 & notices ( me?ods ( classification propos$ by ,fr5* & ,g]man geologi/s ne>ly exhau/ ! li/4 ,introduction ( ! ,microscope4 ,! beg9n+s ( a p>ticul> bran* ( sci5ce are g5]ally obscure & root$ s imp]ceptibly 9 ! f\ndations on :i* x re/s t x is difficult to po9t to any p>ticul> place 9 its developm5t & say t ?is is ! />t4 ,!re are exceptions ( c\rse1 l ! rem>kable "w ( ,will>d ,gibbs 9 physical *emi/ry1 & x may *ance t ! happy inspiration ( a s+le work] may give su* direction to me?ods ( inve/igation z to op5 ! gates into a :ole new realm ( rese>*1 & to ?us create a sep>ate sci5tific field1 z happ5$ 9 ,radio*emi/ry4 ,?is is :at occurr$ 9 petrology :5 ,sorby 9 ,engl&1 9 #aheh1aji po9t$ out ! value ( ! microscope z an in/rum5t ( rese>* 9 geologic inve/igations1 & demon/rat$ t its employm5t 9 ! /udy ( ?9 sections ( rocks w\ld yield in=mation ( ! highe/ value4 ,o!rs beside ,sorby _h made use ( ! microscope1 z po9t$ out by ,zirkel1#aaj b1 z he indicates1 no "o be=e him _h recogniz$ its value4 ,dur+ ! next t5 ye>s or s1 h[ev]1 its recognition 0 v sl[ & ! pap]s publi%$ by ,sorby himself 7 ma9ly conc]n$ 9 settl+ v special matt]s4 ,z ,williams#aaa has sugge/$1 ! greate/ s]vice ( ,sorby 01 p]haps1 8 in/ruct+ ,zirkel 9 8 ideas & me?ods1 = ! latt] ?rew himself :ole-he>t$ly into ! /udy ( rocks by ! aid ( ! microscope & 8 discov]ies /imulat$ o!r work]s 9 ?is field 9 ,g]many1 8 native c\ntry1 until ! dawn+ sci5ce ( petrology began to assume =m4 ,a fur!r /ep =w>d 0 tak5 9 #ahgc 9 ! appe>ance ( ! text-books ( ,zirkel#aab & ,ros5bus*#aac :i* collat$ ! k :i* _h be5 ga9$ & furni%$ ! inve/igator m precise me?ods ( "w4 ,x is difficult = ! /ud5t ( to-day to realize h[ mu* _h be5 le>n$ 9 ! int]val &1 = t matt]1 h[ mu* has be5 ga9$ s9ce #ahgc1 )\t an inspection ( ^! n[ obsolete texts4 ,9 #ahfc1 ,zirkel1 :o 0 !n at ! beg9n+ ( 8 "w1 said 9 8 fir/ pap] pres5t$ to ! ,vi5na ,academy ( ,sci5ces#aad t if he conf9$ himself *iefly to ! /ructure ( ! rocks inve/igat$ & ( _! compon5t m9]als1 & /at$ little z to :at ^! m9]als 71 ! reason = t 0 because 8al?\gh ! microscope s]ves spl5didly = ! inve/igation ( ! =m] relations1 x promises v little help = ! latt]4 ,labradorite1 oligoclase & or?oclase1 augite & hornbl5de1 m9]als ^: recognition (f]s ! mo/ important problems 9 petrography1 9 mo/ cases _c be di/+ui%$ f "o ano!r "u ! microscope40 ,h[ little c\ld ,zirkel h =ese51 at ?is "t1 less ?an =ty ye>s lat]1 t n only c\ld labradorite be accurately det]m9$ 9 a rock-section1 b t 9 a few m9utes by ! mak+ ( two or ?ree measurem5ts on a prop]ly select$ section1 its *emical composition & ! cry/allographic ori5tation ( ! section itself c\ld be det]m9$6 ,! ,?9 ,section4 ,be=e go+ fur!r we may pause "h a mom5t to consid] ! orig9 & developm5t ( ! ?9 section1 )\t :i* no progress c\ld h be5 made 9 ?is field ( rese>*4 ,:5 we reflect ^u ! matt]1 x seems a m>vel\s ?+ inde$ t ! d5se/1 blacke/ rock c be made to yield a section ( ! ( an in* 9 ?ickness1 s ?9 & transp>5t t f9e pr9t+ c be easily read ?r\gh x1 & transmitt+ light s cle>ly t ! mo/ high-p[]$ objectives ( ! microscope c be us$ to disc]n & /udy ! m9ute/ /ructures x pres5ts ) ! same capacity t !y c be employ$ ^u sections ( organic mat]ial prep>$ by ! microtome4 ,?is is no small a*ievem5t4 ,! fir/ ?9 sections appe> to h be5 prep>$ 9 #ahbh by ,william ,nicol ( ,ed9burgh1 to :om we owe ! prism :i* c>ries 8 "n4 ,he und]took ! mak+ ( sections f fossil wood = ! purpose ( /udy+ its /ructure4 ,! me?od he develop$ 0 9 pr9ciple ! same z t employ$ to-day1 :]e ma*9]y is n us$2 t is1 he gr\nd a flat smoo? surface ^u "o side ( a *ip ( 8 petrifi$ wood1 !n cem5t$ ?is to a bit ( glass plate ) ,canada balsam1 & gr\nd d[n ! o!r side until ! section 0 suffici5tly ?94 ,?is me?od 0 us$ by o!rs = ! /udy ( fossil woods1 coal1 etc41 b x 0 n appli$ to rocks until #ahej1 :5 ,sorby us$ x = inve/igat+ a calc>e\s grit4 ,os*atz1 9 ,g]many1 also ab\t ?is "t indep5d5tly discov]$ ! same me?od4 ,a fur!r advance 0 made 9 melt+ ! cem5t1 float+ (f ! slice1 & transf]r+ x to a suitable object-glass ) cov]1 a process /ill employ$ by _m2 ?\gh mo/ op]ators n[ cem5t ! fir/ prep>$ surface ( ! rock *ip directly to ! object-glass1 & m\nt ! section )\t transf]r+ x4 ,next came ! use ( ma*9]y to save labor 9 gr9d+1 & ano!r /ep 0 made 9 ! introduction ( ! saw1 a circul> disk ( %eet iron ^: edge 0 furni%$ ) emb$d$ diamond du/4 ,?is makes x possible to cut relatively ?9 slices ) comp>ative rapidity1 b ! f9al gr9d+ :i* requires exp]i5ce & skill mu/ /ill be done by h&4 ,c>borundum has also l>gely replac$ em]y4 ,! skill & te*nique ( prep>]s has rea*$ a po9t :]e sections ( rocks ( ! desir$ ?9ness 7#jjja in*71 & f\r or five in*es squ>e h be5 exhibit$4 ,! ,era ( ,petrography4 ,9 ^! e>li] days ( ! sci5ce1 z not$ above1 great difficulty 0 at fir/ exp]i5c$ 9 ! recognition ( ! m9]als z !y 7 enc\nt]$ 9 ! /udy ( rocks "u ! microscope4 ,at t "t ! *emical composition & outw>d cry/al =m ( m9]als 7 relatively mu* bett] kn[n ?an _! physical &1 especially1 _! optical prop]ties & con/ants4 ,"s beg9n+s 9 ?is _h be5 made by ,brew/]1 ,nicol1 & o!r physici/s1 & ! m9]alogi/s _h comm5c$ to /udy m9]als f ?is viewpo9t4 ,especially ,des ,cloiseaux _h devot$ himself to det]m9+ ! optical prop]ties ( _m m9]als1 & ! writ]1 :5 a /ud5t 9 ! laboratory ( ,ros5bus* 9 #ahij1 well recalls ! tribute t he paid to ! "w ( ,des ,cloiseaux = ! aid :i* x _h af=d$ him 9 8 e>li] rese>*es 9 petrography4 ,! tw5ty ye>s foll[+ ! publication ( ! texts ( ,ros5bus* & ,zirkel may be *>act]iz$ z ! era ( microscopical petrography4 ,a di/9ction is drawn "h betwe5 ! latt] ^w & petrology1 a di/9ction (t5 ov]look$1 = petrography means lit]ally ! description ( rocks1 :]eas petrology d5otes ! sci5ce ( rocks4 ,z "t pass$ ! broad] & m fundam5tal features ( rocks1 especially ( igne\s & metamorphic rocks1 9 addition to _! m9]al con/itution1 7 m /udi$ & ga9$ great] recognition1 petrography gradually became a dep>tm5t ( ! l>g] field ( petrology--! sci5ce ( to-day4 ,! use ( ! microscope1 z soon z ! me?od became m g5]ally und]/ood1 op5$ up s va/ a field = inve/igation t at fir/ ! /udy & description ( ! rocks seem$ ( prime importance4 ,?is 0 natural1 = hi!rto ! f9] gra9$ rocks _h = ! mo/ "p defi$ any adequate elucidation & "h 0 a key :i* enabl$ "o to read ! ciph]4 ,a flood ( lit]ature ^u ! composition1 /ructure1 & o!r *>act]s ( rocks f all p>ts ( ! _w began to appe> 9 ev] increas+ volume4 ,! dem&s ( ! petrograph]s = a great] & m accurate k ( ! physical & optical con/ants ( m9]als /imulat$ ?is side ( m9]alogy1 & increas+ att5tion 0 giv5 to inve/igations 9 ?is direction4 ,no def9ite l9e betwe5 ! two closely relat$ sci5ces c\ld be drawn1 & a l>ge "p ( ! "w publi%$ "u ! head+ ( petrography c\ld p]haps be z well1 or bett]1 describ$ "u ! title ( micro-m9]alogy4 ,to "s1 9 tru?1 ! rocks pres5t$ !mselves simply z aggregates ( m9]als1 occurr+ 9 f9e gra9s4 ,! "w ( ! ,g]man petrograph]s attract$ att5tion & drew /ud5ts f all p>ts ( ! _w to _! laboratories1 especially to ^? ( ,zirkel & ,ros5bus*4 ,! great opportunities1 facilities1 & fre$om = "w :i* ! ,g]man univ]sities _h long (f]$ to =eign /ud5ts ( sci5ce naturally enc\rag$ ?is4 ,9 ,france a brilliant s*ool ( petrologi/s1 "u ! able lead]%ip ( ,mi*el-,lvy & ,f\qu1 _h aris5 ^: "w has be5 cont9u$ by ,b>rois1 ,lacroix & o!rs1 b ! rigid /ructure ( ! ,fr5* univ]sities at t p]iod did n p]mit ( ! (f]+ ( great inducem5ts = ! att5dance ( =eign /ud5ts4 ,! "w ( ! ,fr5* petrograph]s w be notic$ 9 ano!r connection4 ,9 ,great ,brita91 ! home ( ,sorby1 ! new sci5ce progress$ at fir/ sl[ly1 until x 0 tak5 up by ,allport1 ,bonney1 ,judd1 ,rutley1 & o!rs4 ,9 #ahhe ! evid5ce ( ! advance t _h be5 made & ( ! firm basis on :i* ! new sci5ce 0 n[ plac$ appe>$ 9 ,teall's great "w1 8,briti% ,petrography10 :i* m>k$ an epo* 9 t c\ntry 9 petrographic publication4 ,?is "w 0 ( importance also 9 ano!r direction ?an t ( descriptive petrography1 9 t x conta9s valuable sugge/ions = ! application ( ! pr9ciples ( mod]n physical *emi/ry 9 solv+ ! problems ( ! orig9 ( igne\s rocks4 ,9 x1 z 9 ! publications ( ,lagorio1 we see ! passage ( ! petrographic into ! petrologic phase ( ! sci5ce4 ,! e>lie/ publication 9 ,am]ica ( ! results ( microscopic inve/igation ( rocks t ! writ] has be5 able to f9d is by ,a4 ,a4 ,juli5 & ,c4 ,e4 ,wright1 *iefly on gre5/ones & *loritic s*i/s f ! iron-be>+ regions ( upp] ,mi*igan4#aae ,naturally1 x 0 ( a brief & elem5t>y "*4 ,9 #ahgd ,e4 ,s4 ,dana read a pap] be=e ! ,am]ican ,association = ! ,advancem5t ( ,sci5ce on ! result ( 8 /udies on ! 8,trap-rocks ( ! ,connecticut valley10 an ab/ract ( :i* 0 publi%$ 9 ?is ,j\rnal4#aaf ,mean:ile ,cl>5ce ,k+1 9 *>ge ( ! #dj? ,p>allel survey1 feel+ ! ne$ ( a sy/ematic /udy ( ! cry/all9e rocks :i* _h be5 enc\nt]$1 & f9d+ no "o 9 ?is c\ntry prep>$ to und]take x1 _h induc$ ,zirkel to give 8 att5tion to ?is task4 ,! result ( ?is labor appe>$ 9 #ahgf 9 a f9e volume#aag :i* attract$ great att5tion4 ,9 ! same ye> appe>$ also petrographical pap]s by ,j4 ,h4 ,caswell1#aah ,e4 ,s4 ,dana#aai & ,g4 ,w4 ,hawes4#abj ,! latt] devot$ himself almo/ entirely to ?is field ( rese>* & may ?us1 p]haps1 be t]m$ ! e>lie/ ( ! petrograph]s 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,8 "w1 8,! ,m9]alogy & ,li?ology ( ,new ,hamp%ire10 issu$ 9 #ahgh z "o ( ! reports ( ! ,/ate ,survey "u ,pr(4 ,c4 ,h4 ,hit*cock1 0 ! fir/ consid]able memoir by an ,am]ican4 ,?is 0 foll[$ by v>i\s pap]s1 "o on ! 8,albany ,granite & its contact ph5om5a10#aba be+ ( especial int]e/ z "o ( ! e>lie/ /udies ( a contact zone1 & 9 ! fullness ( me?ods employ$ 9 attack+ ! problem =eca/+ ! *ange to ! petrology era4 ,dur+ ! t5 ye>s foll[+1 or f #ahhj to #ahij1 ! new sci5ce ( petrography fl\ri%$ & grew exce$+ly4 ,_m "y geologi/s abroad devot$ !mselves to ?is field ( rese>* & ! /ore ( accumulat$ k conc]n+ rocks f all p>ts ( ! _w1 & _! relations grew apace4 ,! "w ( ,teall has be5 notic$ & among o!rs might be m5tion$ ! "n ( ,brgg]1 ^: fir/ contribution#abb 9 ?is field gave evid5ce t 8 publications w\ld become classics 9 ! sci5ce4 ,9 ,am]ica !re appe>$ 9 ?is p]iod a numb] ( eag] work]s1 tra9$ 9 "p 9 ! laboratories ( ,ros5bus* & ,zirkel1 ^: rese>*es 7 de/9$ to place ! sci5ce on ! secure foot+ 9 ?is c\ntry :i* x occupies to-day4 ,among ! e>li] ( ^! may be m5tion$ ,:itman ,cross1 ,r4 ,d4 ,irv+1 ,j4 ,p4 ,idd+s1 ,g4 ,h4 ,williams1 ,j4 ,f4 ,kemp1 ,j4 ,s4 ,dill]1 ,b4 ,k4 ,em]son1 ,m4 ,e4 ,wadswor?1 ,g4 ,p4 ,m]rill1 ,n4 ,h4 ,w9*ell1 & ,f4 ,d4 ,adams 9 ,canada4 ,o!rs 7 add$ ye>ly to ?is gr\p4 ,z a result ( _! "w a con/antly gr[+ volume ( in=mation ab\t ! rocks ( ,am]ica became available1 & "o has only to exam9e ! files ( ! ,j\rnal & o!r p]iodicals & ! li/$ publications ( ! ,national & ,/ate ,surveys to appreciate ?is4 ,9 ! ,j\rnal1 = example1 we may ref] to pap]s#abc by ,em]son on ! ,de]field dike & its m9]als1 & on ! occurr5ce ( nephelite sy5ite at ,beem]sville1 ,n4 ,j42 to v>i\s int]e/+ articles by ,cross on lavas f ,colorado & ! pneumatolytic & o!r m9]als associat$ ) !m2 to important pap]s by ,idd+s on ! rocks ( ! volcanoes ( ! ,nor?we/1 & ^? ( ! ,great ,bas91 to prim>y qu>tz 9 basalt1 & ! orig9 ( li?ophys2 to ! results ( rese>*es by ,g4 ,h4 ,williams on ! rocks ( ! ,cortl&t s]ies1 & on p]idotite ne> ,syracuse1 ,n4 ,y42 to pap]s by ,dill] on ! p]idotites ( ,k5tucky1 & rec5t volcanic eruptions 9 ,cali=nia2 to articles by ,r4 ,d4 ,irv+ on ! copp]-be>+ & o!r rocks ( ! ,lake ,sup]ior region1 & to ,kemp on dikes & o!r eruptives 9 s\!rn ,new ,york & nor!rn ,new ,j]sey4 ,o!r publications w\ld greatly ext5d ?is li/4 ,! ,petrologic ,era4 ,z ! *ief facts reg>d+ rocks1 especially igne\s rocks1 z to _! m9]al & *emical composition1 _! /ructure & texture & ! limits )9 :i* ^! are enclos$1 became bett] kn[n2 & ! relations1 :i* ^! be> to ! associations ( rocks & _! modes ( occurr5ce1 began to be p]ceiv$1 ! sci5ce assum$ a broad] aspect4 ,! p]ception t rocks 7 no long] to be reg>d$ m]ely z int]e/+ assemblages ( m9]als1 b z entities ^: *>act]s & associations _h a mean+1 increas$4 ,m & bett] rock analyses /imulat$ int]e/ on ! *emical side & ?is & ! g5esis ( _! m9]als l$ to a consid]ation ( ! magmas & _! functions 9 rock-mak+4 ,! fact t ! diff]5t k9ds ( rocks 7 n scatt]$ indiscrim9ately1 b t diff]5t regions exhibit$ c]ta9 gr\p+s ) common *>act]s1 0 notic$4 ,^! features l$ to attempts to classify igne\s rocks on diff]5t l9es f ^? hi!rto employ$1 & to acc\nt = _! orig9 on broad pr9ciples4 ,9 o!r words1 ! descriptive sci5ce ( petrography m]g$ into ! broad] "o ( petrology4 ,no exact "t c be set :i* m>ks ?is passage1 s9ce ! evolution 0 gradual4 ,yet = ?is c\ntry1 9 review+ ! lit]ature1 = :i* ! successive issues ( ! 8,bibliography ( ,nor? ,am]ican ,geology0 publi%$ by ! ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey has be5 ( ! greate/ value2 ! writ] has be5 /ruck by ! fact t 9 ! fir/ volume conta9+ ! index ( pap]s d[n to & includ+ #ahia1 ! articles on subjects ( ?is nature are li/$ "u ! head+ ( petrography1 :]eas 9 ! second volume 7#ahib-aijj7 !y are gr\p$ "u petrology & ! =m] head+ is omitt$4 ,a ju/ification = ?is is f\nd 9 exam9+ ! li/ ( publications & not+ _! "*4 ,) "s reason1 !re=e1 ! beg9n+ ( ?is p]iod may be plac$ z 9 ! e>ly ye>s ( ?is decade4 ,fur!rmore1 x 0 at ?is "t t ! great "w ( ,zirkel#abd began to appe>1 :i* sums up s completely ! results ( ! petrographic era4 ,ros5bus*#abe 0 =mulat+ m def9itely 8 views on ! division ( rocks into magmatic gr\ps1 z display$ by _! associations 9 ! field1 & us+ ?is 9 classification2 an idea :i*1 appe>+ fir/ 9 ! second edition ( 8 8,physiographie d] massig5 ,ge/e9e10 f9ds full] developm5t 9 ! ?ird & la/ editions ( ?is "w4 ,9 ?is c\ntry ,idd+s#abf publi%$ an important pap]1 9 :i* ! family relation%ips ( igne\s rocks & ! d]ivation ( div]se gr\ps f a common magma by diff]5tiation are cle>ly br\ght out4 ,! fundam5tal problems und]ly+ ! g5esis ( igne\s rocks _h n[ be5 cle>ly recogniz$1 & ) ?is recognition ! sci5ce pass$ into ! petrologic phase4 ,brgg]#abg also _h ascrib$ to ! alkalic rocks ( ,s\? ,norway a common p>5tage & _h po9t$ out _! regional peculi>ities4 ,f ?is "t =w>d an attempt may be not$ to f9d an analogy betwe5 rocks & ! =ms ( organic life & to apply ^? pr9ciples ( evolution & desc5t1 :i* h prov$ s fruitful 9 ! advancem5t ( ! biological sci5ces1 to ! g5esis & classification ( igne\s rocks4 ,?is1 p]haps1 has on ! :ole be5 m app>5t ?an real1 9 ! con/ant borr[+ ( t]ms f ^? sci5ces to express c]ta9 features & relation%ips obs]v$1 or imag9$1 to obta9 among rocks4 ,nev]!less1 ! p]ception ( c]ta9 relations :i* we owe s l>gely to ,ros5bus* & to ,brgg]#abh has prov$ ( und\bt$ value 9 furni%+ a /imulus = ! inve/igation ( new regions1 & 9 af=d+ indications ( :at ! petrologi/ %\ld anticipate 9 8 "w4 ,?us1 ! labors ( ! m5 previ\sly m5tion$1 ) ^? ( ,bayley1 ,bascom1 ,cu%+1 ,daly1 ,lane1 ,lawson1 ,l9dgr51 ,pirsson1 ,j4 ,f4 ,williams1 ,wa%+ton1 & o!rs1 h ?r[n a flood ( light ^u ! igne\s rocks ( ?is cont95t1 & has made x possible to draw _m broad g5]alizations conc]n+ _! orig9 & di/ribution4 ,?us1 ! diff]5tiat$ laccoli?s ( ,montana#abi h be5 ( s]vice 9 af=d+ cle> examples ( ! process ( local diff]5tiation4 ,_m pap]s publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal dur+ ! la/ tw5ty ye>s %[ ?is evolution & gr[? ( petrological ideas4 ,! contributions f ,am]ican s\rces dur+ ?is lat] p]iod1 & ( :i* ^? 9 ! ,j\rnal =m a consid]able fraction1 h inde$ be5 ( great weight 9 %ap+ ! developm5t & future ( ! sci5ce4 ,by ref]r+ to ! files ( ! ,j\rnal1 x w be se5 t !y cov] a cont9ually wid5+ range ( subjects conc]n+ rocks1 & articles ( !oretical int]e/ are m & m 9 evid5ce1 along ) ^? ( a purely descriptive "*4#acj ,?us we f9d discussions by ,beck] on ! physical con/ants ( rocks1 on fractional cry/allization1 & on diff]5tiation2 by ,cross on classification2 by ,adams on ! physical prop]ties ( rocks2 by ,daly on ! me?ods ( igne\s intrusion2 by ,wright on s*i/osity2 by ,f5n] on ! cry/allization ( basaltic magma2 by ,b[5 on diff]5tiation by cry/allization2 by ! writ] on complem5t>y rocks & on ! orig9 ( ph5ocry/s2 by ,smy? on ! orig9 ( alkalic rocks2 by ,murgoci on ! g5esis ( riebeckite rocks2 & by ,b>rell on contact-metamorphism4 ,^! may s]ve z examples1 select$ almo/ at r&om1 f ! files ( ! ,j\rnal1 & we f9d ) !m articles descriptive ( ! petrology ( _m p>ticul> regions1 :i* (t5 conta9 also matt] ( g5]al int]e/ & importance1 su* z pap]s by ,l9dgr5 on ! granodiorite & relat$ rocks ( ! ,si]ra ,nevada2 by ,ransome on latite2 by ,cross on ! ,leucite ,hills2 by ,hague on ! lavas ( ! ,yell[/one ,p>k2 by ,pogue on anci5t volcanic rocks f ,nor? ,c>ol9a2 by ,w>r5 on p]idotites f ,cumb]l&1 ,r4 ,i42 on s&/one f ,texas by ,goldman2 & on ! petrology ( v>i\s localities 9 c5tral ,new ,hamp%ire by ,wa%+ton & ! writ]4 ,su* a li/ c\ld ( c\rse be mu* ext5d$ & o!r pap]s ( importance be cit$1 b en\gh has be5 said to indicate h[ important a repository ( ! results ( petrologic rese>* ! ,j\rnal has be5 & cont9ues to be4 ,9 ?us look+ backw>d ov] ! li/ ( active work]s we are involunt>ily l$ to pause & reflect h[ great a loss ,am]ican petrology has su/a9$ 9 ! premature dea? ( "s ( its mo/ brilliant & promis+ expon5ts2 x is only necess>y to recall ! names ( ,r4 ,d4 ,irv+1 ,g4 ,h4 ,williams1 ,g4 ,w4 ,hawes1 ,j4 ,f4 ,williams & ,c>ville ,lewis1 to appreciate ?is4 ,! /ore ( mat]ial ga!r$ dur+ ^! ye>s has l$ to ! publication ( ext5sive memoirs1 9 :i* ! sci5ce is treat$ n f ! old] descriptive side1 b f ! !oretical /&po9t & ( classification4#aca ,9 ^! works /rong div]g5cies ( views & op9ions are obs]v$1 :i* is a heal?y sign 9 a develop+ sci5ce4 ,x %\ld be also not$ t along ) ?is evolution on ! !oretical side !re has be5 a con/ant improvem5t 9 ! te*nique ( inve/igat+ rocks4 ,x is only necess>y to comp>e ! old] h&books ( ,zirkel & ,ros5bus* ) ! _m mod]n treatises on petrographic me?ods to be assur$ ( ?is4#acb ,x is due on ! "o h& to ! va/ am\nt ( c>eful "w :i* has be5 done 9 accurately det]m9+ ! physical con/ants ( rock-m9]als#acc & 9 arrang+ ^! = _! det]m9ation microscopically1 z 9 ! rem>kable /udies on ! feldsp>s by ,mi*el-,lvy1 & on ! o!r 9 rese>*es on ! app>atus employ$1 & 9 consequ5t improvem5ts 9 !m & 9 ways ( us+ !m1 z exemplifi$ 9 ! delicately accurate me?ods introduc$ by ,wright4#acd ,! developm5t ( ! microscope itself z an in/rum5t ( rese>* 9 ?is field & 9 m9]alogy des]ves a fur!r ^w 9 ?is connection4 ,! fir/ /ep t[>d mak+ ! ord9>y microscope ( special use 9 ?is way 0 tak5 by ,h5ry ,fox ,talbot ( ,engl&1 :5 he introduc$ 9 #ahcd ! employm5t ( ! rec5tly inv5t$ nicol prisms = te/+ objects 9 pol>iz$ light4 ,! mod]n in/rum5t may be said to date f ! design (f]$ by ,ros5bus* 9 #ahgf4 ,s9ce t "t !re h be5 con/ant improvem5ts1 almo/ ye> by ye>1 until ! in/rum5t has become "o ( great precision & conv5i5ce1 rem>kably well adapt$ = ! "w x is call$ ^u to p]=m1 ) special designs = v>i\s k9ds ( use1 & an almo/ endless numb] ( accessory appliances = rese>* 9 diff]5t bran*es ( m9]alogy & cry/allography1 z well z 9 petrography prop]4#ace ,?is also calls to m9d ! fact t = ! conv5i5ce ( ^? :o are n able to use ! microscope special manuals ( petrology h be5 prep>$ 9 :i* rocks are treat$ f ! megascopic /&po9t4#acf ,metamorphic ,rocks4 ,9 ?is connection ! metamorphic rocks %\ld n be =gott54 ,!y af=d inde$ ! mo/ difficult problems ) :i* ! geologi/ has to deal2 e bran* ( geological sci5ce may 9 turn be call$ ^u to furni% its quota = help 9 solv+ !m4 ,"u ! attack ( c>eful1 accurate & p]si/5t "w 9 ! field1 "u ! microscope & 9 ! *emical laboratory1 ) ! aid ( ! g>n]$ k 9 petrology1 /ratigraphy1 physiography1 & o!r fields ( geologic sci5ce1 _! my/]y has 9 l>ge "p giv5 way4 ,! inaugural "w ( ,lehmann1 ,loss51 ,b>rois1 ,bonney1 ,teall1 & o!r ,european geologi/s1 0 p>allel$ 9 ,am]ica by t ( ,r4 ,d4 ,irv+1 ow+ to ^: ef=ts ! ,lake ,sup]ior region became ! *ief place ( /udy ( ! metamorphic rocks 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,irv+ soon obta9$ ! assi/ance ( ,g4 ,h4 ,williams1 :o _h be5 engag$ 9 ! /udy ( su* rocks1 & ! latt] publi%$ a memoir on ! gre5/one s*i/ areas ( ,m5om9ee & ,m>quette 9 ,mi*igan#acg :i* w always rema9 "o ( ! classics 9 ! lit]ature ( metamorphic rocks4 ,irv+'s own contributions to petrology1 ?\gh valuable1 7 cut %ort by 8 untimely dea?1 b ! /udy ( ?is region "u ! direction ( 8 associate & successor1 ,c4 ,r4 ,van ,hise1 ) 8 co-labor]s1 has yield$ a mass ( in=mation ( fundam5tal importance 9 our und]/&+ ( metamorphism & ! cry/all9e s*i/s4 ,its fruitage appe>s 9 ! memoir by ,van ,hise#ach :i* is ! au?oritative "w ( ref]5ce on metamorphism1 & 9 v>i\s publications by him & 8 assi/ants1 ,bayley1 ,clem5ts1 ,lei?1 & o!rs4 ,! "w ( ! ,canadian geologi/s1 & ( ,kemp1 ,cu%+1 ,smy? & ,mill] 9 ! ,adirondack region1 %\ld also be m5tion$ 9 connection ) ?is field ( petrology4 ,*emical ,analyses ( ,rocks4 ,x has be5 previ\sly po9t$ out t1 z ! sci5ce ( petrology grew1 *emical inve/igations ( rocks 9 bulk 7 und]tak54 ,! object ( su* analyses 0 to obta9 on ! "o h& a bett] control ov] ! m9]al composition & on ! o!r to ga9 an idea ( ! nature ( ! magmas f :i* igne\s rocks _h =m$4 ,! e>lie/ analysis ( an ,am]ican rock ( :i* ,i c f9d record is ( a 8wacke0 by ,j4 ,w4 ,web/] giv5 9 ! fir/ volume ( ! ,j\rnal1 page #bif1 #ahah4 ,dur+ ! next #dj ye>s a few occasional analyses 7 und]tak5 by ,am]ican *emi/s1 by ,c4 ,t4 ,jackson1 ,t4 ,/]ry ,hunt1 & o!rs4 ,9 #ahfa1 ,ju/us ,ro? publi%$ ! fir/ edition ( 8 ,tabell51 9 :i* he includ$ all analyses :i* _h be5 made to t date & :i* he consid]$ 7 wor?y ( pres]vation4 ,al?\gh1 naturally1 f ! /atus ( analytical *emi/ry up to t "t1 mo/ ( ^! w\ld n[ be consid]$ r crude1 ! publication ( ! "w 0 ( great s]vice & m>k$ an epo* 9 geo*emi/ry4 ,9 ^! tables ,ro? li/s f\r analyses ( ,am]ican igne\s rocks1 two f ! ,lake ,sup]ior region by ,jackson & ,j4 ,d4 ,:itney & two by ,european *emi/s1 "o ( :om 0 ,buns54 ,! mat]ial ( ! la/ two 0 a 8dol]ite0 & ! same locality is giv5 = ea*--8,si]ra ,nevada betwe5 #ch & #da0 :i* 0 probably consid]$ q precise = we/]n ,am]ica 9 ^? days4 ,f ^! feeble beg9n+s ! =w>d progress ( petrology on ! *emical side 9 ?is c\ntry has be5 a /eady "o until its developm5t has rea*$ ! po9t :i* w be indicat$ 9 :at foll[s4 ,! collection ( mat]ial by ! v>i\s ,/ate surveys & by ^? initiat$ by ! ,national ,gov]nm5t l$ to an increas+ numb] ( rocks be+ analyz$ dur+ ! petrographic p]iod4 ,^! became also increas+ly good 9 quality1 l ^? publi%$ by ,g4 ,w4 ,hawes 9 8 pap]s4 ,:51 h[ev]1 *emi/s 7 appo9t$ to def9ite positions on ! /affs ( ! ,gov]nm5t surveys & especially :51 aft] ! organization ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey 9 #ahgi1 a g5]al c5tral laboratory 0 f\nd$ 9 #ahhc ) ,f4 ,w4 ,cl>ke 9 *>ge1 !n a new era 9 ! *emical inve/igation ( rocks may be said to h />t$4 ,9 ?is connection %\ld be m5tion$ ! "w ( ,w4 ,f4 ,hillebr&1 :o set a /&>d ( accuracy & detail 9 rock analysis :i* _h n hi!rto be5 attempt$4 ,z a consequ5ce ( 8 accurate & ?or\gh me?ods & results ! mass ( analyses p]=m$ by him & 8 fell[ *emi/s 9 ?is laboratory af=ds u ! greate/ s+le contribution to *emical petrology :i* has be5 made4 ,up to ,janu>y1 #aiad1 ! report ( ,cl>ke#aci li/s "s #hjjj analyses ( v>i\s k9ds made 9 ?is laboratory = geologic purposes4 ,ne>ly ev]y:]e also a great improvem5t 9 ! quality ( rock-analyses is to be not$1 & 9 ! manuals ( ,hillebr&#adj & ,wa%+ton#ada ! rock analy/ has n[ at 8 comm& ! me?ods ( a greatly p]fect$ te*nique :i* %\ld insure him ! be/ results4 ,ro?'s ,tabell5 h be5 previ\sly m5tion$2 sev]al supplem5ts 7 publi%$1 b aft] 8 dea? a long int]val elaps$ be=e ?is conv5i5t & useful "w 0 aga9 tak5 up by ,wa%+ton#adb & ,osann4#adc ,a new edition ( ,wa%+ton's ,tables has rec5tly be5 publi%$1 li/+ "s #hfjj analyses ( igne\s rocks made up to ! close ( #aiac4add ,on ! !oretical side also1 :]e petrology passes into geology1 ! inve/igator ( to-day w f9d a mass ( mo/ useful & accurate data well discuss$ 9 ! mod]n repres5tative ( ,bis*('s ,*emical ,geology--,cl>ke's ,data ( ,geo*emi/ry4#ade ,! advance on ! *emical side1 !re=e1 has be5 q comm5surate ) t 9 ! microscope z an in/rum5t1 & 9 ! results obta9$ by x4 ,physico-,*emical ,"w4 ,! /udy ( geological results by exp]im5tal me?ods1 :i* %\ld ga9 in=mation conc]n+ ! processes by :i* ^? results are caus$1 & ! conditions "u :i* !y op]ate1 has be5 f ! e>lie/ days ( ! develop+ sci5ce recogniz$ z mo/ important1 & ! record ( ! lit]ature %[s consid]able 0 done 9 ?is direction4 ,exp]im5tal "w 9 mod]n petrology may1 h[ev]1 be consid]$ to date f #ahhb :5 ,f\qu & ,mi*el-,lvy#adf publi%$ ! results ( _! ext5sive rese>*es on ! syn!sis ( m9]als & rocks by pyrog5\s me?ods4 ,! brilliant exp]im5ts ( ! ,fr5* petrologi/s at once attract$ att5tion1 & s9ce t "t a consid]able volume ( valuable "w has be5 done 9 ?is field by a numb] ( m51 among :om may be m5tion$ ,morozewicz1#adg ,doelt]1#adh ,tamman1#adi & ,meuni]4#aej ,z ?is "w cont9u$ ! results ( ! rapid advances made 9 physical *emi/ry began to be appli$ 9 ?is field ) increas+ value4 ,to ,j4 ,h4 ,l4 ,vogt we owe a valuable s]ies ( pap]s1#aea 9 :i* ! =mation ( m9]als & rocks f magmas is treat$ f ?is /&po9t4 ,mo/ important ( all = ! future ( petrology has be5 ! f\nd+ 9 ,wa%+ton ( ! spl5did rese>* in/itution1 ! ,c>negie ,geophysical ,laboratory1 "u ! lead]%ip ( ,dr4 ,a4 ,l4 ,day ) its corps ( tra9$ physici/s1 *emi/s & petrologi/s1 devot$ to ! solv+ ( ! problems :i* ! progress ( geological sci5ce raises4 ,! publications ( ?is in/itution 7_m ( !m publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal7 are too num]\s to be m5tion$ "h2 _m ( !m treat successfully ( matt]s ( ! greate/ importance 9 petrology4 ,?is is an e>ne/ ( :at we may hope 9 ! future4 ,! accumulation ( ! exact physical & *emical data1 :i* is its aim1 w s]ve z a necess>y *eck to hypo!tical speculation & br+ petrology1 & especially petrog5esis1 9 l9e ) ! o!r m exact sci5ces by furni%+ quantitative f\ndations = its /ructure ( !ory to re/ ^u4 ,:ile ! a*ievem5ts ( ?is great organization seem to m9imize ! "w ( ! individual inve/igator 9 ?is field1 he may take he>t by obs]v+ ! important results on ! /r5g? ( rocks "u v>i\s conditions :i* h be5 obta9$ by ,adams 9 rec5t ye>s1 data ( wide application 9 !oretical geology4 ,9 ?is field also a special text has appe>$ 9 :i* ! pr9ciples & acquir$ data are giv54#aeb ,summ>y4 ,9 ?is brief retrospect1 giv+ only ! b>e/ outl9es & omitt+ f necessity mu* ( importance1 we h se5 petrology gr[ f occasional crude exp]im5ts into a fully organiz$ sci5ce 9 ! la/ half c5tury4 ,x has to-day a well-p]fect$ te*nique1 a l>ge volume ( lit]ature1 texts treat+ ( g5]al pr9ciples1 ( me?ods ( "w1 descriptive h&books on ! morphological side1 & has atta9$ g5]al recognition z a field1 :i*1 ?\gh n l>ge1 is wor?y ( ! conc5tration ( intellectual endeavor4 ,l o!r heal?y gr[+ organisms x has giv5 rise to (f%oots1 & ! sci5ces ( metallography & ( ! micro-/udy ( ore deposits1 :i* are rapidly assum+ =m1 h bran*$ f x4 ,:at ( ! future8 ,! old days ( mo/ly descriptive "w1 & ( !oriz+ purely f obs]v$ results1 h pass$4 ,! sci5ce has ent]$ ^u ! /age :]e "w & !ory mu/ be cont9ually br\ght into agreem5t ) *emical1 physical & ma!matical laws & data1 & 9 ! application ( ^! new problems pres5t !mselves4 ,z we climb1 9 fact1 new horizons op5 to our view indicat+ fre% regions = exploration1 = acquir+ human k & = our satisfaction4 ,bibliography4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,w4 ,cross1 ,j\r4 ,geology1 #aj1 #dea1 #aijb4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,ibid41 p4 #de4 ,footnote #aji3 ,sorby1 ,qu>t4 ,j\r4 ,geol4 ,soc41 #ad1 #dec1 #aheh4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,zirkel1 ,e9fhrung des ,mikroskops 9 das m9]alogis*-geologis*e ,/udium1 #ahha4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,williams1 ,g4 ,h41 ,mod]n ,petrography1 #ahhf4 ,footnote #aab3 ,zirkel1 ,mikroskopis*e ,bes*aff5heit d] ,m9]ali5 und ,ge/e9e4 ,footnote #aac3 ,ros5bus*1 ,mikroskopis*e ,physiographie d] petrographis* wi*tig5 ,m9]ali54 ,footnote #aad3 ,zirkel1 ,mikroskopis*e ,ge/e9/udi51 ,sitzung vom #ab ,mrz1 #ahfc4 ,footnote #aae3 ,juli5 & ,wright1 ,geol4 ,surv4 ( ,mi*igan1 #b1 #ahgc4 ,app5dices ,a & ,c4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,dana1 ,e4 ,s41 ! ,j\rnal1 #h1 #cij-cib1 #ahgd4 ,footnote #aag3 ,zirkel1 ,geological ,exploration ( ! #dj? ,p>allel2 vol4 ,,vi1 ,microscopical ,petrography4 ,footnote #aah3 ,caswell1 ,microscopical ,petrography ( ! ,black ,hills4 ,u4 ,s4 ,geog4 & ,geol4 ,surv4 ,rocky ,mts4 ,rep4 on ,black ,hills ( ,dakota1 #dfi-ebg4 ,! sep>ate copies issu$ be> ! impr9t #ahgf2 ! complete report #ahhj4 ,footnote #aai3 ,dana1 ,e4 ,s41 ,igne\s ,rocks 9 ! ,judi? ,mts4 ,rep4 ( ,reconnaissance ,c>roll1 ,mont41 to ,yell[/one ,p>k 9 #ahge4 ,col4 ,wm4 ,ludl[1 ,w> ,dept41 ,wa%+ton1 #aje-ajf4 ,footnote #abj3 ,hawes1 ,g4 ,w41 ,rocks ( ! ,*lorite ,=mation1 etc41 ! ,j\rnal1 #aa1 #abb-abf1 #ahgf4 ,gre5/ones ( ,new ,hamp%ire1 etc1 ibid41 #ab1 #abi-acg1 #ahgf4 ,footnote #aba3 ,hawes1 ,g4 ,w41 ! ,j\rnal1 #ba1 #ba-cb1 #ahha4 ,footnote #abb3 ,brgg]1 ,die siluris*5 ,etag5 #b und #c1 ,kri/iania1 #ahhb4 ,footnote #abc3 ,! ref]5ces = ! pap]s allud$ to1 all ( !m 9 ! ,j\rnal1 are z foll[s3 ,em]son1 #bd1 #aie-bjb1 #bgj-bgh1 #cdi-cei1 #ahhb2 ----1 #bc1 #cjb-cjh1 #ahhb4 ,cross1 #bg1 #id-if1 #ahhd2 #ca1 #dcb-dch1 #ahhf2 #ci1 #cei-cgj1 #ahij2 #da1 #dff-dge1 #ahia2 #bc1 #deb-deh1 #ahhb4 ,idd+s1 #bf1 #bbb-bce1 #ahhc2 ----1 #bg1 #dec-dfc1 #ahhd2 ----1 #cf1 #bjh-bba1 #ahhh2 ----1 #cc1 #cf-de1 #ahhg4 ,williams1 #ca1 #bf-da1 #ahhf2 #cc1 #ace-add1 #aia-aii1 #ahhg2 #ce1 #dcc-ddh1 #ahhh2 #cf1 #bed-bei1 #ahhh4 ----1 #cd1 #acg-ade1 #ahhg4 ,dill]1 #cb1 #aba-abe1 #ahhf2 #cg1 #bai-bbj1 #ahhi2 ----1 #cc1 #de-ej1 #ahhg4 ,irv+ 7#bf1 #bg-cb1 #cba-cbb1 #bg1 #acj-acd1 #ahhc2 #bi1 #ceh-cei1 #ahhe74 ,kemp 7#ce1 #cca-ccb1 #ahhh2 #cf1 #bdg-bec1 #ahhh2 #ch1 #acj-acd1 #ahhi74 ,footnote #abd3 ,zirkel1 ,lehrbu* d] ,petrographie1 #b;d ed41 #ahic4 ,footnote #abe3 ,hunt] & ,ros5bus*1 ,ueb] ,mon*iquit1 etc41 ,m94 petr4 ,mit?41 #aa1 #dde1 #ahij4 ,ros5bus*1 ,ueb] ,/ructur und ,class4 d] ,eruptivge/e9e1 ibid41 #ab1 #cea1 #ahia4 ,footnote #abf3 ,idd+s1 ,orig9 ( ,igne\s ,rocks1 ,bull4 ,phil1 ,soc4 ,wa%+ton1 #ab1 #hi-bac1 #ahib4 ,footnote #abg3 ,brgg]1 ,m9]ali5 d] ,sy5it-pegmatit-gnge1 etc41 ,zs4 ,kry/41 #af1 #ahij4 ,footnote #abh3 ----1 ,basic ,eruptive ,rocks ( ,gran1 ,qu>t4 ,j\r4 ,geol4 ,soc41 #ej1 #ae1 #ahid2 ,grorudit-,t+uait-,s]ie1 ,vid5sk4 ,skrift4 #a ,ma?4 nat4 ,kl41 ,no4 #d1 #ahid4 ,footnote #abi3 ,we$ & ,pirsson1 e4 g4 ,%onk9 ,sag1 ! ,j\rnal1 #ab1 #a-ag1 #aija4 ,footnote #acj3 ,! ref]5ces = ! articles m5tion$ 7all 9 ! ,j\rnal7 are z foll[s3 ,beck]1 #df1 #ahic2 #d1 #beg1 #ahig2 #c1 #ba-dj1 #ahig4 ,cross1 #ci1 #feg-ffa1 #aiae4 ,adams1 #bb1 #ie-abc1 #aijf2 #bi1 #dfe-dhg1 #aiaj4 ,daly1 #bb1 #aie-baf1 #aijf2 #bf1 #ag-ej1 #aijh4 ,wright1 #bb1 #bbd-bcj1 #aijf4 ,f5n]1 #bi1 #bag-bcd1 #aiaj4 ,b[51 #ci1 #age-aia2 #dj1 #afa-ahe1 #aiae4 ,pirsson1 #ej1 #aaf-aba1 #ahie2 #g1 #bga-bhj1 #ahii4 ,smy?1 #cf1 #cc-df1 #aiac4 ,murgoci1 #bj1 #acc-ade1 #aije4 ,b>rell1 #ac1 #bgi-bif1 #aijb4 ,l9dgr51 #c1 #cja-cad1 #ahig2 #i1 #bfi-bhb1 #aijj4 ,ransome1 #e1 #cee-cge1 #ahih4 ,cross1 #d1 #aae-ada1 #ahig4 ,hague1 #a1 #dde-deg1 #ahif4 ,pogue1 #bh1 #bah-bch1 #aiji4 ,w>r51 #be1 #ab-cf1 #aijh4 ,goldman1 #ci1 #bfa-bhh1 #aiae4 ,wa%+ton & ,pirsson1 ,belknap ,mts41 #bj1 #cdd-cec1 #aije2 #bb1 #dci-deg1 #dic-eae1 #aijf4 ----1 ,r$ ,hill1 #bc1 #beg-bgf1 #dcc-ddg1 #aijg4 ----1 ,tripyramid ,mt41 #ca1 #dje-dca1 #aiaa4 ,footnote #aca3 ,quantitative ,classification ( ,igne\s ,rocks1 ,cross1 ,idd+s1 ,pirsson & ,wa%+ton1 ,*icago1 #aijc4 ,petrog5esis1 ,c4 ,doelt]1 ,brauns*weig1 #aijf4 ,igne\s ,rocks1 vols4 #a & #b1 ,j4 ,p4 ,idd+s1 ,new ,york1 #aiji & #aiac4 ,problem ( ,volcanism1 ,idd+s1 ,new ,hav51 #aiad4 ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,igne\s ,rocks1 ,alfr$ ,h>k]1 ,london1 #aiji4 ,igne\s ,rocks & _! ,orig91 ,r4 ,a4 ,daly1 ,new ,york1 #aiad4 ,footnote #acb3 ,among ^! may be m5tion$3 ,ros5bus* u4 ,wlf+1 ,physiog4 d] petrog4 wi*t4 ,m941 ,/uttg>t1 #aije4 ,idd+s1 ,j4 ,p41 ,rock-,m9]als1 #a/ ed41 ,new ,york1 #aijf4 ,johanns51 ,a41 ,manual ( ,petrographic ,me?ods1 ,new ,york1 #aiad4 ,w9*ell1 ,n4 ,h4 & ,a4 ,n41 ,elem5ts ( ,optical ,m9]alogy1 ,new ,york1 #aiji4 ,footnote #acc3 ,we may m5tion "h1 = example1 ! "w 9 m9]alogy ( ,p5field1 notic$ 9 ! accompany+ *apt] on m9]alogy4 ,9 addition to ! accurate det]m9ation ( ! composition & con/ants ( _m m9]als1 "s ( :i* h importance f ! petrographic /&po9t1 we owe to him m ?an anyone ! recognition ( fluor9e & hydroxyl 9 a v>iety ( species1 & !reby ! p]ception ( _! pneumatolytic orig94 ,8 pap]s h be5 publi%$ almo/ entirely 9 ! ,j\rnal4 ,footnote #acd3 ,wright1 ,me?ods ( ,petrographic-,microscopic ,rese>*1 ,c>negie ,in/41 ,wa%+ton1 #aiaa1 & v>i\s pap]s2 _m 9 ! ,j\rnal4 ,footnote #ace3 ,conf4 ,wright's "w quot$ above & ! v>i\s manuals previ\sly m5tion$4 ,footnote #acf3 ,kemp1 ,h&-book ( ,rocks1 #c;d ed41 ,new ,york1 #aijd4 ,pirsson1 ,rocks & ,rock-,m9]als1 ,new ,york1 #aiaj4 ,footnote #acg3 ,williams1 ,g4 ,h41 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,surv41 ,bull4 #fb1 ,wa%+ton1 #ahij4 ,footnote #ach3 ,van ,hise1 ,treatise on ,metamorphism1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,surv41 ,monograph #ag4 ,footnote #aci3 ,f4 ,w4 ,cl>ke1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,surv41 ,bull4 #eia1 #aiae4 ,footnote #adj3 ,hillebr&1 ,analysis ( ,silicate & ,c>bonate ,rocks1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,surv41 ,bull4 #dbb1 #aiaj4 ,footnote #ada3 ,wa%+ton1 ,*emical ,analysis ( ,rocks1 pp4 #bjj1 ,new ,york1 #aiaj4 ,footnote #adb3 ,id41 ,*emical ,analyses ( ,igne\s ,rocks 7#ahhd-aijj71 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,surv41 ,pr(4 ,pap]1 ,no4 #ad1 #aijc4 ,footnote #adc3 ,osann1 ,beitr4 zu *em4 ,petrogr41 ,,ii ,teil4 ,anal4 d4 ,eruptivge/41 #ahhd-aijj1 ,/uttg>t1 #aije4 ,footnote #add3 ,wa%+ton1 ibid41 #b;d ed41 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,surv41 ,pr(4 ,pap] #ii1 pp4 #abaf1 #aiag4 ,footnote #ade3 ,cl>ke1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,surv41 ,bull4 #faf1 #aiaf4 ,footnote #adf3 ,f\qu & ,mi*el-,lvy1 ,syn!se des ,m9]aux et des ,ro*es1 ,p>is1 #ahhb4 ,footnote #adg3 ,morozewicz1 ,exp]4 ,unt]su*4 u4 ,bildung d] ,m94 im ,magma1 ,m94 petr4 ,mitt41 #ah1 #ahih4 ,footnote #adh3 ,doelt]1 ,syn!tis*e ,/udi51 ,n4 ,jahrb4 ,m94 #ahig1 #a1 #a-bf4 ,allg4 *em4 ,m9]alogie1 etc4 ,footnote #adi3 ,tamman1 ,kry/allisi]5 und ,s*melz51 #aijc4 ,footnote #aej3 ,/4 ,meuni]1 ,les ,m?odes de ,syn?se en ,m9ralogie1 ,p>is1 #ahia4 ,footnote #aea3 ,vogt1 ,m9]albildung 9 ,smelzmass51 ,*ri/iania1 #ahib2 ,silikats*melzlsung51 #a & #b1 #aijc1 #aijd1 & v>i\s o!r pap]s1 esp4 9 ,m94 petr4 ,mitt41 vols4 #bd & #be1 #aijf4 ,footnote #aeb3 ,h4 ,e4 ,boeke1 ,grundlag5 d] physikalis*-*emis*5 ,petrographie1 ,b]l91 #aiae4 ,,viii ,,! ,,gr[? ,,( ,,m9]alogy ,,f #ahah ,,to #aiah ,by ,,william ,e4 ,,=d ,m9]alogy to-day w\ld c]ta9ly be g5]ally consid]$ "o ( ! m9or memb]s ( ! gr\p ( ! ,geological ,sci5ces4 ,we commonly look ^u x 9 ! light ( an useful h&maid51 ^: *ief function is to s]ve ! o!r bran*es1 & we are incl9$ to =get t1 9 reality1 m9]alogy 0 ! fir/ to be recogniz$ &1 ) consid]able tru?1 might be claim$ z ! "m ( all ! o!rs4 ,m9]als1 because ( _! frequ5t beauty ( color & =m1 & _! uses z gems & z ornam5tal /ones1 7 ! fir/ inorganic objects to excite wond] & comm5t & we f9d _m ( !m nam$ & describ$ 9 v e>ly writ+s4 ,!ophra/us 7#cfh-bhd ,b4 ,c471 a fam\s pupil ( ,ari/otle1 wrote a treatise 8,on ,/ones0 9 :i* he collect$ a l>ge am\nt ( in=mation ab\t m9]als & fossils4 ,! eld] ,pl9y 7#bc-gi ,a4 ,d471 m ?an ?ree c5turies lat]1 9 8 ,natural ,hi/ory1 describ$ & nam$ _m ( ! common] m9]als4 ,at ?is "t x 0 natural t no cle> di/9ction %\ld be drawn betwe5 m9]als & rocks1 or ev5 betwe5 m9]als & fossils4 ,z long z all /udy ( ! mat]ials ( ! e>?'s cru/ 0 conc]n$ ) _! sup]ficial *>act]s1 x 0 logical to include ev]y?+ "u ! s+le head4 ,!re 7 "s writ]s 9 ! e>ly c5turies ( ! ,*ri/ian era1 h[ev]1 :o believ$ t fossils _h be5 d]iv$ f liv+ animals b ! majority consid]$ !m to be only /range & unusual =ms ( m9]als4 ,dur+ _m succe$+ c5turies little 0 add$ to ! g5]al /ore ( geological k & x 0 n until ! beg9n+ ( ! sixte5? c5tury1 t any fur!r notable progress 0 made4 ,agricola 7#adid-aeee7 0 a physician1 :o1 = a "t1 liv$ 9 ! m9+ di/rict ( ,joa*im/al4 ,he /udi$ & describ$ ! m9]als t he collect$ !re4 ,he 0 ! fir/ to give c>eful & critical descriptions ( m9]als1 ( _! cry/als & g5]al physical prop]ties4 ,un=tunately1 he also did n realize ! fundam5tal di/9ction betwe5 fossils & m9]als1 & probably because ( 8 influ5ce ?is error p]si/$1 ev5 until ! middle ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,b1 naturally1 z ! numb] ( sci5tific /ud5ts increas$1 ! numb] ( ^? :o reject$ ?is conclusion grew1 until at la/1 ! true "* ( fossils 0 e/abli%$4 ,! ke5 int]e/ 9 m9]als & fossils :i* 0 ar\s$ by ?is controv]sy1 toge!r ) ! rapid ext5sion ( m9+ op]ations1 drew ! att5tion ( sci5tific m5 to o!r features ( ! e>?'s surface & l$ to a m ext5d$ inve/igation ( its *>act]s & ?us to ! developm5t ( geology prop]4 ,x is int]e/+ to note also t m9]alogy 0 ! fir/ ( ! ,geological ,sci5ces to be (ficially recogniz$ & taught by ! univ]sities4 ,al?\gh1 z has be5 %[n1 ! beg9n+s ( m9]alogy lie 9 ! remote pa/1 ! sci5ce1 z we "k x to-day1 c be said to h _h practically its :ole gr[? dur+ ! la/ "o hundr$ ye>s4 ,( ! m ?an "o ?\s& m9]al species t may n[ be consid]$ z def9itely e/abli%$ h>dly m ?an two hundr$ 7 kn[n 9 ! ye> #ahjj & ^! 7 only p>tially describ$ or und]/ood4 ,x is true t ,hay1 ! 8fa!r ( cry/allography10 _h be=e ?is date discov]$ & =mulat$ ! laws ( cry/al symmetry1 & _h %[n t rational relations exi/$ betwe5 ! int]cepts ^u ! axes ( ! diff]5t faces ( a cry/al4 ,x 0 n until #ahji1 h[ev]1 t ,wolla/on describ$ ! fir/ =m ( a reflect+ goniomet]1 & ?us made possible ! beg9n+ ( exact inve/igation ( cry/als4 ,! di/9ctions betwe5 ! diff]5t cry/al gr\ps 7 develop$ by ,b]nh>di1 ,weiss & ,mohs betwe5 ! ye>s #ahjg & #ahbj1 :ile ! ,naumann sy/em ( cry/al symbols 0 n propos$ until #ahbf4 ,! fact t d\bly refract+ m9]als also pol>ize light 0 discov]$ by ,malus 9 #ahjh1 & 9 #ahac ,brew/] fir/ recogniz$ ! optical diff]5ces betwe5 uniaxial & biaxial m9]als4 ,! mod]n sci5ce ( *emi/ry 0 also j beg9n+ to develop at ?is p]iod1 enabl+ m9]alogi/s to make analyses m & m accurately & ?us by *emical means to e/abli% ! true "* ( m9]als1 & to prop]ly classify !m4 ,franz von ,kobell1 on page #cgb ( 8 8,ges*i*te d] ,m9]alogie10 some:at poetically describes ! condition ( ! sci5ce at ?is p]iod z foll[s3 8,) ! end ( ! eighte5? & ! comm5cem5t ( ! n9ete5? c5turies exact inve/igations 9 m9]alogy fir/ began4 ,! m9]alogi/ 0 no long] cont5t ) approximate descriptions ( m9]als1 b /rove r to sep>ate ! ess5tial facts f ^? t 7 accid5tal1 to discov] def9ite laws1 & to le>n ! relations betwe5 ! physical & *emical *>act]s ( a m9]al4 ,! use ( ma!matics gave a new aspect to cry/allography1 & ! developm5t ( ! optical relation%ips op5$ a magnific5t field ( wond]ful ph5om5a :i* c be describ$ z a g>d5 gay ) fl[]s ( light1 *>m+ 9 !mselves & int]e/+ 9 _! relations to ! =ces :i* guide & gov]n ! regul> /ructure ( matt]40 ,9 ! ,m$ical ,repository 7vol4 #b1 p4 #aad1 ,new ,york1 #agii71 !re occurs ! foll[+ notice3 8,s9ce ! publication ( ! la/ numb] ( ! ,repository an ,association has be5 =m$ 9 ! city ( ,new ,york #8= ! inve/igation ( ! ,m9]al & ,fossil bodies :i* compose ! fabric ( ! ,globe2 &1 m especially1 = ! ,natural & ,*emical ,hi/ory ( ! ,m9]als & ,fossils ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1' by ! "n & /yle ( ,! ,am]ican ,m9]alogical ,society40 ,) ?is ann\ncem5t is giv5 an adv]tisem5t 9 :i* ! society 8e>ne/ly solicits ! citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates to communicate to !m1 on all m9]alogical subjects1 b especially on ! foll[+3 #a1 conc]n+ /ones suitable = gun fl9ts2 #b1 conc]n+ native brim/one or sulphur2 #c1 conc]n+ salt-petre2 #d1 conc]n+ m9es & ores ( lead40 ,fur!r ! society asks 8t specim5s ( all k9ds be s5t to x = exam9ation & det]m9ation40 ,?is m>ks app>5tly ! beg9n+ ( ! s]i\s /udy ( ! sci5ce ( m9]alogy 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,f ?is "t on1 articles on m9]alogical topics appe>$ ) increas+ frequ5cy 9 ! ,m$ical ,repository4 ,mo/ ( ^! 7 brief & 7 l>gely conc]n$ ) ! description ( ! g5]al *>act]s & modes ( occurr5ce ( v>i\s m9]als4 ,no?+ ( mu* mom5t f ! sci5tific po9t ( view appe>$ until _m ye>s lat]1 b ! gr[+ int]e/ 9 ?+s m9]alogical 0 cle>ly manife/4 ,an important /imulus to ?is increas+ k & discussion 0 furni%$ by ,col4 ,george ,gibbs :o1 ab\t ! ye> #ahjh1 br\ght to ?is c\ntry a l>ge & notable m9]al collection4 ,9 ! ,m$ical ,repository 7vol4 #aa1 p4 #bac1 #ahjh71 is f\nd a notice ( ?is collection1 a portion ( :i* is reproduc$ bel[3 8,gibbs' gr& ,collection ( ,m9]als4 ,"o ( ! mo/ zeal\s cultivators ( m9]alogy 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is ,col4 ,g4 ,gibbs ( ,rhode ,isl& & 8 ta/e & 8 =tune h concurr$ 9 mak+ him ! proprietor ( ! mo/ ext5sive & valuable assortm5t ( m9]als t probably exi/s 9 ,am]ica4 ,?is ri* collection consi/s ( ! cab9ets possess$ by ! late ,mons4 ,gigot ,d',orcy ( ,p>is & ! ,c\nt ,gregoire de ,rozamonsky1 a ,russian nobleman1 long resid5t 9 ,switz]l&4 ,to :i* ! pres5t proprietor has add$ a numb]1 ei!r ga!r$ by himself on ! spot1 or pur*as$ 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ,europe4444 ,! :ole consi/s ( ab\t tw5ty ?\s& specim5s4 ,a small "p ( ?is collection 0 op5$ to amateurs at ,rhode ,isl&1 ! la/ summ]1 & ! next1 if circum/ances p]mit1 ! rema9d] w be expos$40 ,9 #ahjb ,b5jam9 ,silliman 0 appo9t$ pr(essor ( *emi/ry & m9]alogy 9 ,yale ,college4 ,aft] ! ,gibbs ,collection 0 br\ght to ,am]ica he sp5t mu* "t ) ! own] 9 /udy+ x &1 z a result1 ,col4 ,gibbs (f]$ to place ! collection on exhibition 9 ,new ,hav5 if suitable qu>t]s w\ld be furni%$ by ! college4 ,?is 0 quickly accompli%$ & 9 #ahaj1 #ahaa & #ahab ! collection 0 transf]r$ to ,new ,hav5 & arrang$ = exhibition by ,col4 ,gibbs4 ,lat]1 9 #ahbe1 x 0 pur*as$ by ,yale & s]v$ z ! nucleus ab\t :i* ! pres5t ,museum collection ( ! ,univ]sity has be5 =m$4 ,!re is no d\bt b t ! pres5ce at ?is e>ly date ( ?is l>ge & unusual m9]al collection _h a great influ5ce ^u ! developm5t ( m9]alogical sci5ce at ,yale1 & 9 ! c\ntry at l>ge4 ,9 ! ye> #ahaj ,dr4 ,ar*ibald ,bruce />t$ ! 8,am]ican ,m9]alogical ,j\rnal10 ! title page ( :i* reads 9 "p z foll[s3 8,! ,am]ican ,m9]alogical ,j\rnal1 be+ a ,collection ( ,facts & ,obs]vations t5d+ to elucidate ! ,m9]alogy & ,geology ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica1 toge!r ) o!r ,in=mation relat+ to ,m9]alogy1 ,geology & ,*emi/ry1 d]iv$ f ,sci5tific ,s\rces40 ,un=tunately ! heal? ( ,dr4 ,bruce fail$1 & ! j\rnal la/$ only ?r\gh its fir/ volume4 ,x _h1 h[ev]1 8be5 mo/ favorably receiv$10 z ,silliman rem>ks1 & x 0 felt t ano!r j\rnal ( a simil> type %\ld be in/itut$4 ,su* a sugge/ion 0 made by ,col4 ,gibbs to ,pr(essor ,silliman 9 #ahag & ?is l$ directly to ! f\nd+ ( ! ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce 9 #ahah "u ! latt]'s editor%ip4 ,al?\gh ! field ( ! ,j\rnal at ! v beg9n+ 0 made broad & inclusive x has always publi%$ _m articles on m9]alogical subjects4 ,?ree ( its editors-9-*ief h be5 em95t m9]alogi/s1 & )\t "q x has be5 ! mo/ important s+le =ce 9 ! developm5t ( ?is sci5ce 9 ! c\ntry4 ,m ?an #hjj well-e/abli%$ m9]al species h be5 describ$ s9ce ! ye> #ahjj1 ( :i* approximately #aej h be5 f ,am]ican s\rces4 ,m ?an two-?irds ( ! articles describ+ ^! new ,am]ican m9]als h fir/ appe>$ 9 ! pages ( ! ,j\rnal4 ,:ile ! description ( new species is n always ! mo/ important "p ( m9]alogical inve/igation1 /ill ^! figures s]ve to %[ ! l>ge "p t ! ,j\rnal has play$ 9 ! gr[? ( ,am]ican m9]alogy4 ,x is conv5i5t to review ! progress 9 ,m9]alogy accord+ to ! divisions =m$ by ! diff]5t s]ies1 consi/+ ( fifty volumes ea*1 9 :i* ! ,j\rnal has be5 publi%$4 ,^! divisions curi\sly en\gh w be f\nd to correspond closely to f\r q def9ite phases ?r\gh :i* m9]alogical inve/igation 9 ,am]ica has pass$4 ,! fir/ s]ies cov]$ ! ye>s f #ahag to #ahde4 ,9 look+ ?r\gh ^! volumes "o f9ds a l>ge numb] ( m9]alogical articles1 ! "w ( _m contributors4 ,! great majority ( ^! pap]s are purely descriptive 9 "*1 frequ5tly giv+ only g5]al acc\nts ( ! m9]al occurr5ces ( p>ticul> regions4 ,h[ev]1 a numb] ( articles deal+ ) m detail$ physical & *emical descriptions ( r>e or new species also belong 9 ?is p]iod4 ,among ! m9]alogi/s engag$ at ?is "t 9 ! description ( individual species1 none 0 m indefatigable ?an ,*>les ,u4 ,%ep>d4 ,he 0 graduat$ f ,amh]/ ,college 9 #ahbd1 at ! age ( tw5ty4 ,9 #ahbg he became assi/ant to ,pr(essor ,silliman 9 ,new ,hav51 cont9u+ 9 ?is position = f\r ye>s4 ,lat] he 0 a lectur] 9 natural hi/ory at ,yale1 & 0 at v>i\s times connect$ ) ,amh]/ ,college & ! ,s\? ,c>ol9a ,m$ical ,college at ,*>le/on4 ,8 articles on m9]alogy 7 v num]\s4 ,he assign$ a l>ge numb] ( new names to m9]als1 al?\gh ) ! exception ( "s half doz5 cases1 ^! h lat] be5 %[n to be v>ieties ( m9]als already kn[n & describ$1 r ?an new species4 ,9 spite1 h[ev]1 ( 8 frequ5t ha/y & inaccurate decision z to ! "* ( a m9]al1 8 influ5ce on ! progress ( m9]alogy 0 m>k$4 ,8 great en?usiasm & ceaseless indu/ry ?r\gh\t a long life c\ld n help b make a def9ite contribution to ! sci5ce4 ,8 8,treatise on ,m9]alogy0 w be spok5 ( 9 a lat] p>agraph4 ,he di$ 9 ,may1 #ahhf1 hav+ publi%$ 8 la/ pap] 9 ! ,j\rnal 9 ! previ\s ,septemb]4 ,! fir/ book on m9]alogy publi%$ 9 ,am]ica 0 t by ,p>k] ,cleavel&1 pr(essor ( ma!matics1 natural philosophy1 *emi/ry & m9]alogy 9 ,b[do9 ,college4 ,! fir/ edition 0 pr9t$ 9 #ahaf & an exhau/ive notice is giv5 9 ! fir/ volume ( ! ,j\rnal 7#a1 #ce1 #cjh1 #ahah72 a second edition foll[$ 9 #ahbb4 ,9 8 preface ,cleavel& gives an int]e/+ discussion conc]n+ ! two oppos+ ,european me?ods ( classify+ m9]als4 ,! ,g]man s*ool1 l$ by ,w]n]1 classifi$ m9]als accord+ to _! ext]nal *>act]s :ile ! ,fr5* s*ool1 foll[+ ,hay1 put ! emphasis on ! 8true composition40 ,cleavel& rem>ks t 8! ,g]man s*ool seems to be mo/ di/+ui%$ by a te*nical & m9utely descriptive language2 & ! ,fr5*1 by ! use ( accurate & sci5tific pr9ciples 9 ! classification or arrangem5t ( m9]als40 ,he1 himself1 tri$ to comb9e 9 a measure ! two me?ods1 bas+ ! fundam5tal divisions ^u ! *emical composition & us+ ! accurate description ( ! physical prop]ties to di/+ui% simil> species & v>ieties f ea* o!r4 ,cleavel&'s m9]alogy 0 foll[$ ne>ly tw5ty ye>s lat] by ! ,treatise on ,m9]alogy by ,*>les ,u4 ,%ep>d already m5tion$4 ,! fir/ "p ( ?is book 0 publi%$ 9 #ahcb4 ,?is conta9$ *iefly an acc\nt ( ! natural hi/ory classification ( m9]als accord+ to ! g5]al plan adopt$ by ,mohs1 ! ,au/rian m9]alogi/4 ,! second "p ( ! book1 :i* appe>$ 9 #ahce1 gave ! description ( individual species1 ! arrangem5t "h be+ an alphabetical "o ?r\gh\t4 ,subsequ5t editions appe>$ 9 #ahdd1 #aheb & #aheg4 ,james ,dwight ,dana 0 graduat$ f ,yale ,college 9 #ahcc at ! age ( tw5ty4 ,f\r ye>s lat] 7#ahcg7 he publi%$ 8,! ,sy/em ( ,m9]alogy10 a volume ( #ehj pages4 ,! appe>ance ( ?is book 0 an ev5t ( surpass+ importance 9 ! developm5t ( ! sci5ce4 ,! book1 ( c\rse1 dep5d$ l>gely ^u ! previ\s works ( ,hay1 ,mohs1 ,naumann & o!r ,european m9]alogi/s1 b 0 9 no s5se m]ely a compilation f !m4 ,dana1 p>ticul>ly 9 8 discussion ( ma!matical cry/allography1 %[$ mu* orig9al ?\ght4 ,he also prov$ 8 orig9ality by propos+ & us+ an elaborate sy/em ( classification patt]n$ aft] ^? already 9 use 9 ! sci5ces ( botany & zoology4 ,he lat] became conv9c$ ( ! undesirability ( ?is me?od ( classification & ab&on$ x entirely 9 ! f\r? edition ( ! ,sy/em1 publi%$ 9 #ahed1 sub/itut+ = x ! *emical classification :i*1 9 its ess5tial features1 is 9 g5]al use to-day4 ,! ,sy/em ( ,m9]alogy />t$ 9 ?is way 9 #ahcg1 has cont9u$ by means ( successive editions to be ! /&>d ref]5ce book 9 ! subject4 ,! v>i\s editions appe>$ z foll[s3 ,i1 #ahcg2 ,,ii1 #ahdd2 ,,iii1 #ahej2 ,,iv1 #ahed2 ,v1 #ahfh2 ,,vi1 #ahib 7by ,edw>d ,s4 ,dana74 ,j4 ,d4 ,dana also contribut$ num]\s m9]alogical articles to ! fir/ s]ies ( volumes ( ! ,j\rnal4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t !y are *iefly conc]n$ ) ! m !oretical aspects ( ! subject1 9 fact !y con/itute practically ! only articles ( su* a "* t appe>$ dur+ ?is p]iod4 ,among ! subjects treat$ 7 cry/allographic symbols1 =mation ( tw9 cry/als2 pseudomorphism1 orig9 ( m9]als 9 metamorphos$ lime/ones1 orig9 ( s]p5t9e1 classification ( m9]als1 etc4 ,! volumes ( ! ,second ,s]ies ( ! ,j\rnal cov]$ ! ye>s f #ahdf ?r\gh #ahgj4 ,?is p]iod 0 *>act]iz$ by great activity 9 ! /udy ( ! *emical composition ( m9]als4 ,a numb] ( skill$ *emi/s1 notably ,j4 ,lawr5ce ,smi?1 ,george ,j4 ,bru% & ,fr$]ick ,a4 ,g5?1 began ab\t #ahej a long s]ies ( *emical inve/igations ( ,am]ican m9]als4 ,v few articles dur+ ?is "t paid mu* att5tion to ! physical prop]ties ( ! m9]als "u discussion1 practically no description ( optical *>act]s 0 attempt$1 & only occasionally 7 ! cry/als ( a m9]al m5tion$4 ,j4 ,d4 ,dana 0 almo/ ! only writ] :o con/antly endeavor$ to discov] ! fundam5tal *>act]s & relation%ips 9 m9]als4 ,he publi%$ _m articles 9 ^! ye>s :i* 7 conc]n$ *iefly ) ! classification & gr\p+ ( m9]als1 ) simil>ities 9 ! cry/al =ms ( diff]5t species1 ) relations betwe5 *emical composition & cry/al =m1 *emical =mulas1 m9]al nom5clature1 etc4 ,! foll[+ titles give an idea ( ! "* ( ! m important s]ies ( articles by him :i* belong to ?is category3 ,on ! isomorphism & atomic volume ( "s m9]als 7#i1 #bbj1 #ahej72 v>i\s notes & articles on homomorphism ( m9]als 7#ag1 #he1 #hf1 #baj1 #dcj2 #ah1 #ce1 #aca1 #ahed72 on a connection betwe5 cry/all9e =m & *emical con/itution1 ) "s inf]5ces !refrom 7#dd1 #hi1 #beb1 #cih1 #ahfg74 ,a great _m new m9]al names 7 propos$ betwe5 #ahej & #ahgj1 a l>ge numb] ( :i* h cont9u$ to be well-recogniz$ species4 ,b !re 0 also a t5d5cy1 :i* has n :olly disappe>$ ev5 n[1 to base a m9]al det]m9ation ^u insuffici5t evid5ce1 & to propose a new species ) b little ju/ification = x4 ,9 ?is connection a quotation f ! introduction by ,j4 ,d4 ,dana to ! #crd ,supplem5t to ! ,sy/em ( ,m9]alogy 7#d? edition7 publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#bb1 page #bdf1 #ahef71 w be ( int]e/4 ,he says3 8,x is a matt] ( regret1 t m9]al species are s (t5 br\ght out1 especially 9 ?is c\ntry1 )\t suffici5t inve/igation & full description4 ,x is n meet+ ! j dem&s ( ! sci5ce ( m9]alogy to say t a m9]al has probably c]ta9 con/itu5ts1 or to /ate ! composition 9 a g5]al way )\t a complete & detail$ analysis1 especially :5 !re are no cry/allographic *>act]s to af=d ! species a good f\ndation4 ,we h a "r to dem& t ^? :o "n species1 %\ld use all ! means ! sci5ce ( ! age admits (1 to prove t ! species is "o t nature w own1 = only su* belong to sci5ce1 & if en\gh ( ! mat]ial has n be5 f\nd = a good description !re is n en\gh to au?orize ! introduction ( a new "n 9 ! sci5ce4 ,! publication ( factiti\s species1 9 :atev] dep>tm5t ( sci5ce1 is progress n t[>ds tru?1 b into regions ( error2 & (t5 mu* & long labor is requir$ be=e ! sci5ce recov]s f ^! backw>d /eps40 ,j4 ,lawr5ce ,smi? 0 born 9 #ahah & di$ 9 #ahhc4 ,he 0 a graduate ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,virg9ia & ( ! ,m$ical ,college ( ,*>le/on & lat] sp5t ?ree ye>s /udy+ 9 ,p>is4 ,%ortly aft] ! completion ( 8 /udies he w5t to ,turkey z an advisor to ! gov]nm5t ( t c\ntry 9 connection ) ! gr[+ ( cotton !re4 ,dur+ ?is "t he inve/igat$ ! em]y m9es ( ,asia ,m9or1 & wrote a memoir ^u !m :i* 0 lat] publi%$ by ! ,fr5* ,academy4 ,he s]v$ z pr(essor ( *emi/ry 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,virg9ia & lat] held ! same *air 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,ill9ois4 ,he publi%$ a long s]ies ( pap]s on ! *emical composition ( m9]als & meteorites1 z well z on pure *emical subjects4 ,among ! m notable ( 8 contributions are ! 8,memoir on ,em]y0 7#ahej71 a s]ies ( pap]s on ! 8,rexam9ation ( ,am]ican ,m9]als0 7#ahec7 writt5 ) ! collaboration ( ,george ,j4 ,bru%1 & 8 8,memoir on ,meteorites0 7#ahee74 ,illu/ration3 ,ge4 ,j4 ,bru% ,george ,j4 ,bru% ent]$ on 8 sci5tific c>e] at ! mom5t :5 sci5ce & sci5tific me?ods ( rese>* 7 j beg9n+ to be appreciat$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 & he soon became "o ( ! lead+ pione]s 9 ! movem5t4 ,:ile 8 half c5tury ( active s]vice 0 l>gely occupi$ by adm9i/rative duties 9 connection ) ! ,%effield ,sci5tific ,s*ool1 8 int]e/ 9 m9]alogy nev] flagg$4 ,8 pap]s on m9]alogical subjects numb] ab\t ?irty1 all ( :i* 7 publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal4 ,^! began 9 #ahdi1 ev5 be=e 8 graduation f college1 & cont9u$ until 8 la/ pap] 79 collaboration ) ,s4 ,l4 ,p5field7 appe>$ 9 #ahhc4 ,?ree ( ! e>ly pap]s 7 writt5 ) ,j4 ,lawr5ce ,smi? z not$ above4 ,^! pap]s fir/ set 9 ?is c\ntry ! /&>d = ?or\gh & accurate sci5tific m9]al inve/igation4 ,lat] 9 life he 0 active 9 ! developm5t ( ! rem>kable m9]al locality at ,bran*ville1 ,conn41 &1 ) ! collaboration ( ,e4 ,s4 ,dana1 publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#ahgh-ij7 five important articles on its m9]als4 ,?is locality1 ) ! exception ( ! z9c deposits at ,frankl9 ,furnace1 ,n4 ,j41 0 ! mo/ rem>kable yet discov]$ 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,ne>ly =ty diff]5t m9]al species 7 f\nd !re1 ( :i* n9e 7mo/ly phosphates7 7 new to sci5ce4 ,!re has c]ta9ly be5 no o!r s]ies ( descriptive pap]s on a m9]alogical locality ( equal importance publi%$ 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,9 addition to publi%+ orig9al pap]s1 ,bru% did consid]able editorial "w 9 connection ) ! f\r? 7#ahed7 & fif? 7#ahfh7 editions ( ! ,sy/em ( ,m9]alogy & ! ,app5dices to !m4 ,8 ,manual ( ,det]m9ative ,m9]alogy1 ) a s]ies ( det]m9ative tables adapt$ f simil> ones by von ,kobell1 0 fir/ publi%$ 9 #ahgd4 ,x 0 revis$ 9 #ahgh & lat] rewritt5 by ,s4 ,l4 ,p5field4 ,?is book did mu* to make possible ! rapid & accurate det]m9ation ( m9]al species4 ,?r\gh\t 8 life1 ,bru% 0 an en?usia/ic collector ( m9]als1 build+ up ! notable collection t n[ be>s 8 "n4 ,p]haps1 h[ev]1 8 mo/ important contribution to ! developm5t ( m9]alogy 9 ,am]ica lay r 9 8 influ5ce ^u 8 _m /ud5ts4 ,) 8 en?usiasm = accurate & pa9/ak+ inve/igation he 0 an inspiration to all :o came 9 contact ) him & 8 own field & sci5ce 9 g5]al owes mu* to t influ5ce4 ,among ! e>ly m9]alogi/s 9 ?is c\ntry1 :o 7 conc]n$ 9 ! *emical analyses ( m9]als1 none accompli%$ m or bett] "w ?an ,fr$]ick ,a4 ,g5?4 ,he 0 born 9 ,g]many 9 #ahbj & liv$ 9 t c\ntry until #ahdh1 :5 he came to ! ,unit$ ,/ates & settl$ 9 ,philadelphia4 ,he _h /udi$ 9 v>i\s ,g]man univ]sities & work$ "u "s ( ! mo/ fam\s *emi/s ( t "t4 ,8 pap]s 9 m9]alogy numb] m ?an sev5ty-five1 9 ! great majority ( :i* *emical analyses are giv54 ,he publi%$ fifty-f\r successive articles1 ! great] "p ( :i* appe>$ 9 ! ,j\rnal1 :i* 7 entitl$ ,contributions to ,m9]alogy4 ,9 ^! he gave descriptions ( m ?an two hundr$ diff]5t m9]als1 mo/ ( :i* 7 accompani$ by analyses4 ,he describ$ m ?an a doz5 new & well-e/abli%$ m9]al species4 ,he 0 especially int]e/$ 9 ! r>] elem5ts & _m ( 8 analyses 7 ( m9]als conta9+ !m4 ,especially int]e/+ 0 8 "w ) ! tellurides1 ! species coloradoite1 melonite & calav]ite be+ fir/ describ$ by him4 ,a long & important inve/igation 0 record$ on ,corundum1 8,its ,alt]ations & ,associate ,m9]als10 publi%$ 9 ! ,proce$+s ( ! ,am]ican ,philosophical ,society 9 #ahgc 7#ac1 #cfa74 ,dr4 ,g5? di$ 9 #ahic4 ,! p]iod f #ahfj until #ahge 0 n v productive 9 m9]alogical inve/igations4 ,! fir/ t5 volumes ( ! ,?ird ,s]ies ( ! ,j\rnal1 cov]+ ! ye>s #ahga-ahgf1 conta9$ m9]alogical articles by only "s fifte5 diff]5t au?ors4 ,b f t "t on1 ! am\nt ( "w done & ! numb] ( inve/igators grew rapidly4 ,) ?is increase 9 activity came also a decid$ *ange 9 ! "* ( ! "w4 ,! p]iod betwe5 #ahga & #ahie c be *>act]iz$ z "o 9 :i* all ! v>i\s aspects ( m9]al inve/igation receiv$ m ne>ly equal prom95ce4 ,:ile ! *emical composition ( m9]als /ill held rightly its prom95t place1 ! inve/igation ( ! cry/allographic & optical *>act]s & ! relation%ips exi/+ betwe5 all ?ree 7 ( mu* m frequ5t occurr5ce4 ,edw>d ,s4 ,dana comm5c$ 8 sci5tific "w by publi%+ 9 #ahgb an article on ! cry/als ( datolite :i* 0 probably ! fir/ ,am]ican article conc]n$ :olly ) ! description ( ! cry/allography ( a m9]al4 ,samuel ,l4 ,p5field began 8 important inve/igations 9 #ahgg & ! fir/ articles by ,frank ,w4 ,cl>ke appe>$ dur+ ?is p]iod4 ,! fir/ edition ( ! ,text ,book ( ,m9]alogy by ,edw>d ,s4 ,dana ) its important *apt]s on ,cry/allography & ,optical ,m9]alogy 0 publi%$ 9 #ahgg & 8 revision ( ! ,sy/em ( ,m9]alogy 7six? edition7 appe>$ 9 #ahib4 ,unque/ionably ! =emo/ figure 9 ,am]ican m9]alogy dur+ ?is p]iod 0 t ( ,samuel ,l4 ,p5field4 ,he embodi$ 9 an unusual degree ! *>act]s mak+ = success 9 ?is sci5ce1 = few inve/igators 9 m9]alogy h %[n1 z he did1 equal facility 9 all bran*es ( descriptive m9]alogy4 ,he 0 a skill$ *emi/ & possess$ 9 a high degree t +5uity 9 manipulation s necess>y to a great analy/4 ,he 0 also an accurate & res\rceful cry/allograph] & optical m9]alogi/4 ,8 contributions to ! sci5ce ( m9]alogy c be p>tially judg$ by ! foll[+ brief summ>y ( 8 "w4 ,he publi%$ ov] eighty m9]alogical pap]s1 practically all ( :i* 7 pr9t$ 9 ! ,j\rnal4 ,^! includ$ ! descriptions ( f\rte5 new m9]al species1 ! e/abli%m5t ( ! *emical composition ( m ?an tw5ty o!rs1 & ! cry/allization ( ab\t a doz5 m4 ,by a s]ies ( brilliant inve/igations he e/abli%$ ! isomorphism betwe5 fluor9e & ! hydroxyl radical4 ,he fir/ enunciat$ ! !ory t ! cry/all9e =m ( a m9]al 0 due to ! mass effect ( ! acid pres5t r ?an t ( ! bases4 ,he contribut$ also a numb] ( articles on ! /]eographic projection & its use 9 cry/allographic inve/igations1 devis+ a s]ies ( protractors & scales to make possible ! rapid & accurate use ( ?is projection 9 solv+ problems 9 cry/allography4 ,p5field 0 born 9 #ahef1 0 graduat$ f ! ,%effield ,sci5tific ,s*ool 9 #ahgg & imm$iately became an assi/ant 9 ! *emical laboratory ( t in/itution4 ,at ?is "t he1 toge!r ) 8 colleague ,horace ,l4 ,wells1 made ! analyses ( ! m9]als f ! newly discov]$ ,bran*ville locality4 ,he sp5t ! ye>s #ahhj & #ahha 9 /udy+ *emi/ry 9 ,g]many1 return+ to ,yale z an in/ructor 9 m9]alogy 9 ! fall ( #ahha4 ,except = ano!r seme/] 9 ,europe at ,heidelb]g he cont9u$ z in/ructor & pr(essor ( m9]alogy 9 ! ,%effield ,sci5tific ,s*ool until 8 e>ly dea? 9 #aijf4 ,x is difficult to *oose = m5tion ! names ( o!r inve/igators 9 ,m9]alogy dur+ ?is p]iod4 ,t[>d its end a great _m writ]s contribut$ to ! pages ( ! ,j\rnal1 m ?an fifty diff]5t names be+ c\nt$ = ! volumes #da to #ej ( ! ,?ird ,s]ies4 ,_m ( ^! are /ill liv+ & /ill active 9 sci5tific rese>*4 ,m5tion %\ld be made ( ,frank ,w4 ,cl>ke1 :o contribut$ _m important articles conc]n+ ! *emical con/itution ( ! silicates4 ,8 "w on ! mica & zeolite gr\ps is especially notewor?y4 ,! "w ( ,w4 ,h4 ,hillebr&1 p>ticul>ly 9 reg>d to 8 analytical inve/igations ( ! m9]als conta9+ ! r>] elem5ts1 0 ( great importance4 ,! "n ( ,w4 ,e4 ,hidd5 %\ld be rememb]$1 because1 ) 8 ke5 & discrim9at+ eye & active se>* = new m9]al localities1 he 0 able to make _m additions to ! sci5ce4 ,9 glanc+ ov] ! indices to ! ,j\rnal ! close int]relation ( m9]alogy to ! o!r sci5ces is /rik+ly %[n by ! fact t s _m sci5ti/s ^: p>ticul> fields are along o!r l9es h publi%$ occasional m9]alogical pap]s4 ,frequ5tly a "y man has comm5c$ ) m9]alogical inve/igations & !n lat] be5 drawn def9itely into "o ( ^! alli$ subjects4 ,m51 :o h won _! reputation 9 *emi/ry1 physics1 & all ! v>i\s divisions ( geology1 ev5 t ( palaeontology1 h all contribut$ articles di/9ctly m9]alogical 9 "*4 ,= ?is reason ! numb] ( ,am]ican writ]s :o h publi%$ :at may be call$ casual pap]s on m9]alogy is v great 9 comp>ison to ! numb] ( ^? :o cont9ue su* publications ov] a s]ies ( ye>s4 ,t ! subject ( meteorites is "o :i* has be5 con/antly /udi$ by ,am]ican m9]alogi/s & petrograph]s is %[n by ! long li/ ( pap]s conc]n+ x t h be5 publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal2 x %\ld1 !re=e1 be consid]$ briefly "h4 ,_m ( ^! pap]s are %ort & ( a g5]al descriptive nature b o!rs :i* give m fully ! *emical1 m9]alogical & physical details are num]\s4 ,among ! e>li] writ]s on ?is subject ,b5jam9 ,silliman1 ,jr41 & ,c4 ,u4 ,%ep>d %\ld be m5tion$4 ,! latt] 0 ! fir/ to recognize a new m9]al 9 ! ,bi%opville meteorite :i* he call$ *ladnite4 ,! same sub/ance 0 aft]w>ds f\nd 9 a t]re/ial occurr5ce & 0 m accurately describ$ by ,k5ngott "u ! "n ( en/atite4 ,j4 ,lawr5ce ,smi? lat] %[$ t ^! two sub/ances 7 id5tical4 ,smi? did a l>ge am\nt ( important *emical "w on meteorites4 ,he 0 ! fir/ to note ! pres5ce ( f]r\s *loride 9 meteoric iron1 ! m9]al be+ aft]w>ds nam$ lawr5cite 9 8 honor4 ,! iron-*ronium sulphide1 daubreelite1 0 also fir/ describ$ by him4 ,o!r names t %\ld be m5tion$ 9 ?is connection are ^? ( ,a4 ,w4 ,wright :o /udi$ ! gase\s con/itu5ts ( meteorites1 ,g4 ,f4 ,kunz1 ,w4 ,e4 ,hidd51 ,a4 ,e4 ,foote & ,h4 ,a4 ,w>d1 all ( :om publi%$ num]\s descriptions ( ^! bodies4 ,among ! m rec5t work]s 9 ?is field ! names ( ,g4 ,p4 ,m]rill & ,o4 ,c4 ,f>r+ton des]ve especial m5tion4 ,! publication ( ! ,f\r? ,s]ies ( ! ,j\rnal began 9 #ahif4 ,al?\gh ! ye>s s9ce !n h se5 a great am\nt ( v important "w accompli%$1 ! hi/ory ( ! p]iod is fre% 9 ! m9ds ( all & z ! majority ( ! active work]s are /ill liv+ & productive x seems h>dly necess>y to g into great detail conc]n+ x4 ,tw5ty ye>s ago x seem$ to "s m9]alogi/s t ! sci5ce c\ld almo/ be consid]$ complete4 ,all ! common] m9]als _h c]ta9ly be5 discov]$ & exhau/ively /udi$4 ,little app>5tly 0 left t c\ld be add$ to our k ( !m4 ,new occurr5ces w\ld /ill be record$1 new cry/al habits w\ld be obs]v$1 & an occasional new & small cry/al face might be li/$1 b few facts ( great importance seem$ undiscov]$4 ,?is view 0 n :olly ju/ifi$ because new facts ( int]e/ & importance h cont9u\sly be5 br\ght =w>d1 & ! f9d+ ( new m9]als does n appe> to dim9i% 9 am\nt ) ! ye>s4 ,! "w ( ! inve/igators on ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey along ^! l9es is especially notewor?y4 ,?is la/ ( our p]iods1 h[ev]1 is *iefly signaliz$ by a practically new developm5t along ! l9es t might be *>act]iz$ z exp]im5tal m9]alogy4 ,new ways h be5 discov]$ 9 :i* to /udy m9]als4 ,! important b hi!rto baffl+ problems ( _! g5esis1 toge!r ) _! relations to _! surr\nd+s1 & to associat$ m9]als1 h be5 attack$ by novel me?ods4 ,9 ?is pione] "w t ( ! ,geophysical ,laboratory ( ! ,c>negie ,in/itution ( ,wa%+ton has be5 ( ! greate/ importance4 ,?is laboratory 0 e/abli%$ 9 #aije &1 "u ! director%ip ( ,ar?ur ,l4 ,day1 a notable corps ( inve/igators has be5 assembl$ & rem>kable "w already accompli%$4 ,:ile ! field ( inve/igation ( ! laboratory is broad] ?an t ( m9]alogy1 includ+ mu* t belongs to petrography1 vulcanology1 etc41 /ill ! great] "p ( ! "w done c be prop]ly class$ z m9]alogical 9 "* & %\ld be consid]$ "h4 ,because ( its great value1 h[ev]1 x 0 felt t an au?oritative1 al?\gh necess>ily1 "u exi/+ conditions1 a brief1 acc\nt ( x %\ld be giv54 ,a concise summ>y ( ! objects1 me?ods & results ( ! inve/igations ( ! laboratory has be5 k9dly prep>$ by a memb] ( its /aff1 ,dr4 ,r4 ,b4 ,sosman1 & is giv5 lat]4 ,dur+ ! la/ few ye>s ano!r l9e ( inve/igation has be5 op5$ by ! discov]y ( ! effect ( cry/all9e /ructure ^u ,x-rays4 ,?r\gh ! refraction or reflection ( ! ,x-ray by means ( ! ord]$ arrangem5t ( ! p>ticles =m+ ! cry/all9e network1 we are app>5tly go+ to be able to discov] mu* conc]n+ ! int]nal /ructure ( cry/als4 ,&1 p>tly ?r\gh ^! discov]ies1 is likely to come 9 turn ! solution ( ! hi!rto insolvable my/]y ( ! con/itution ( matt]4 ,)\t d\bt ! multitud9\s facts ( m9]alogy assembl$ dur+ ! pa/ c5tury by ! pa9/ak+ inve/igation ( a l>ge numb] ( sci5ti/s are de/9$ to play a l>ge "p 9 ! solution ( ?is problem4 ,fur!r1 x does n seem too bold a prophecy to sugge/1 t ! "t w come :5 x w be possible to assemble all ^! unorganiz$ facts t we "k ab\t m9]als into a h>moni\s :ole & t we %all be !n able to =mulate ! und]ly+ & fundam5tal pr9ciples ^u :i* !y all dep5d4 ,^! are ! great problems = ! future ( m9]alogical inve/igation4 ,,ix ,,! ,,"w ,,( ,,! ,,geophysical ,,laboratory ,,( ,,! ,,c>negie ,,in/itution ,,( ,,wa%+ton ,by ,r4 ,b4 ,,sosman ,!re are ?ree me?ods ( approa* to ! great problem ( rock =mation4 ,! fir/ und]takes to reproduce by suitable laboratory exp]im5ts "s ( ! obs]v$ *anges 9 natural rocks4 ,! second seeks to apply ! pr9ciples ( physical *emi/ry to a great body ( c>efully ga!r$ /ati/ics4 ,! ?ird me?od ( attack is l ! fir/ 9 be+ a laboratory me?od1 & l ! second 9 seek+ to apply exi/+ k to ! association ( m9]als z f\nd 9 rocks1 b 9 its proc$ure diff]s widely f bo?4 ,x consi/s ( br++ toge!r pure mat]ials "u measurable conditions1 & ?us 9 e/abli%+ by /rictly quantitative me?ods ! relations 9 :i* m9]als c exi/ toge!r "u ! conditions ( temp]ature & pressure t h ! p[] to affect su* relations4 ,x is to ?is ?ird me?od ( inve/igation ( ! problems ( ! rocks t ! ,geophysical ,laboratory has be5 devot$ s9ce its e/abli%m5t 9 #aije4 ,x has prov$ entirely practicable to make quantitative /udies ( ! relations among ! pr9cipal e>?-=m+ oxides 7silica1 alum9a1 magnesia1 lime1 soda1 pota%1 & ! oxides ( iron7 ov] a v wide range ( temp]atures4 ,! res\rces ( physics h prov$ adequate to e/abli% temp]ature ) a high degree ( precision & to measure ! quantity ( en]gy involv$ 9 ! v>i\s reactions4 ,! *emi/ has be5 able to obta9 mat]ials 9 a high degree ( purity1 & to foll[ out 9 detail ! *emical relation%ips t exi/ among ! e>?-=m+ oxides4 ,! petrographic laboratory has be5 available = ! comp>ison ( syn!tic laboratory products ) ! correspond+ natural m9]als4 ,x has also prov$ entirely practicable to ext5d ! same me?ods ( rese>* to "s ( ! pr9cipal ore m9]als su* z ! sulphides ( copp]4 ,o!r in=mation :i* is c]ta9 to be ( ultimate economic value has also come out ( ! ?or\gh /udy ( ! silicates1 :i* are basic mat]ials = ! va/ v>iety ( indu/ries :i* are class$ "u ! "n ( c]amic indu/ries4 ,! be/ example ( ?is is ! facility ) :i* ! exp]i5ce & ! p]sonnel ( ! laboratory has be5 adapt$ to ! v important problem ( manufactur+ an adequate supply ( optical glass = ! ne$s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 ! pres5t w>4 ,x has fur!r be5 possible to %[ )9 ! la/ two ye>s t rock =mation 9 :i* volatile +r$i5ts play a necess>y & det]m9+ "p c be completely /udi$ 9 ! laboratory ) z mu* precision z ?\gh all ! compon5ts 7 solids or liquids4 ,along ) ! laboratory "w on ! =mation ( m9]als & rocks has gone an increas+ am\nt ( field "w on ! activities ( accessible volcanoes1 su* z ,kilauea & ,vesuvius1 :]e ! fusion & recry/allization ( rocks on a l>ge scale c be obs]v$ & /udi$4 ,!re 0 once a "t :5 ! confid5ce ( ! laboratory 9 ! capacity ( physics & *emi/ry to solve geological problems 0 n %>$ by all geologi/s4 ,!re 7 "s :o 7 incl9$ to view ) consid]able appreh5sion ! va/ ramifications & complications ( natural rock =mation z a problem impossible ( adequate solution 9 ! laboratory4 ,x is1 !re=e1 a matt] ( satisfaction to all ^? :o h p>ticipat$ 9 ^! ef=ts to see ! evid5ces ( ?is appreh5sion disappe>+ gradually z ! "w has progress$4 ,a c>eful appraisem5t ( ! situation to-day1 aft] t5 ye>s ( activity1 reveals ! fact t ! tangible gr\nds = anxiety ab\t ! accessibility ( ! problems :i* 7 confront$ at fir/ are n[ = ! mo/ "p dissipat$4 ,x w n be possible to review 9 detail ! l9es ( "w sket*$ above4 ,an outl9e ( ! syn!tic "w on sy/ems ( ! m9]al oxides & a p>agraph on ! volcano rese>*es w p]haps suffice to indicate ! g5]al plan & purpose ( ! laboratory's "w4 ,x %\ld be add$ t ! results ( _m ( ! rese>*es ( ! laboratory1 detail$ bel[1 h be5 publi%$ 9 ! pages ( ! ,j\rnal 7see #ba1 #hi1 #aijf1 & lat] volumes74 ,m9]al ,rese>*es4--,! m9]al /udies include3 ,i4 ,"o-compon5t sy/ems3 silica1 ) its num]\s polymorphic =ms & _! relations to temp]ature & ! conditions ( rock =mation2 alum9a2 magnesia2 & lime4 ,,ii4 ,two-compon5t sy/ems3 silica-alum9a1 includ+ sillimanite & relat$ m9]als2 silica-magnesia1 includ+ ! tetramorphic metasilicate ,mg,si,o#c2 silica-lime1 includ+ wolla/onite2 ! alkali silicates1 p>ticul>ly ) ref]5ce to _! equilibria ) c>bon dioxide & ) wat]2 f]ric oxide-lime2 alum9a-lime2 alum9a-magnesia1 includ+ sp9el2 & hematite-magnetite1 a solid-solution s]ies ( an unusual type4 ,,iii4 ,?ree-compon5t sy/ems3 silica-alum9a-magnesia1 complet$ b n yet publi%$2 silica-alum9a-lime1 complete1 includ+ ! comp\nds t ent] into ! composition ( portl& cem5t2 silica-magnesia-lime1 complet$ b n yet publi%$1 includ+1 h[ev]1 publi%$ "w on ! diopside-=/]ite-silica sy/em1 & on ! ,ca,si,o#c-,mg,si,o#c s]ies2 & alum9a-magnesia-lime4 ,,iv4 ,f\r compon5ts3 ,si,o#b-;,al#b,o#c-,mg,o-,ca,o3 ! incomplete sy/em anor?ite-=/]ite-silica2 ,si,o#b-;,al#b,o#c-;,ca,o-,na#b,o3 ! s]ies ( lime-soda feldsp>s 7albite-anor?ite71 & ! s]ies nephelite 7c>negieite7-anor?ite2 ,si,o#b-;,al#b,o#c-,na#b,o-,k#b,o3 ! sodium-potassium nephelites4 ,v4 ,five compon5ts3 ,si,o#b-;,al#b,o#c-,mg,o-,ca,o-,na#b,o3 ! t]n>y sy/em diopside-anor?ite-albite 7haplo-basaltic & haplo-dioritic magmas74 ,fairly complete /udies h also be5 made ( ! m9]al sulphides ( iron1 copp]1 z9c1 cadmium1 & m]cury1 & ! conditions controll+ ! second>y enri*m5t ( copp] sulphide ores are n[ be+ inve/igat$4 ,9 connection ) ! sulphide inve/igations1 ! hydrat$ oxides ( iron h be5 /udi$ *emically & microscopically & ! results w soon be ready = publication4 ,?r\gh\t ! "w ! m]e accumulation ( bodies ( facts has be5 held to be second>y 9 importance to ! developm5t ( new me?ods ( attack & ! evaluation ( new g5]al pr9ciples1 & ! specific problems /udi$ h be5 select$ f ?is po9t ( view4 ,volcano ,rese>*es4--,a bran* ( ! laboratory's "w t is ( g5]al z well z petrological int]e/ is ! /udy ( active volcanoes4 ,obs]vations & collections h be5 made at ,kilauea1 ,vesuvius1 ,etna1 ,/romboli1 ,vulcano1 & 7?r\gh ! c\rtesy ( ! directors ( ! ,national ,geographic ,society7 ,katmai 9 ,alaska4 ,! great importance ( gases 9 volcanicity is emphasiz$ by all ! /udies4 ,! active gases include hydrog5 & wat] vapor1 c>bon monoxide & c>bon dioxide1 & sulphur & its oxides1 z well z a v>iety ( o!r comp\nds ( less] importance4 ,! crat] ( ,kilauea proves to be an active natural gas-furnace1 9 :i* reactions are cont9u\sly occurr+ among ! gases1 (t5 result+ 9 mak+ ! lava bas9 hott] at ! surface ?an x is at "s dep?4 ,^! reactions are be+ /udi$ 9 ! laboratory on mixtures ( ! pure con/itu5t gases 9 kn[n proportions1 9 ord] to lay ! f\ndation = accurate int]pretation & pr$iction conc]n+ ! gases z actually collect$ f ! volcanoes !mselves4 ,x ,,! ,,progress ,,( ,,*emi/ry ,,dur+ ,,! ,,pa/ ,,"o ,,hundr$ ,,ye>s ,by ,,horace ,l4 ,,wells & ,,h>ry ,w4 ,,foote ,introduction4 ,z we look back to ! "t ( ! f\nd+ ( ! ,j\rnal 9 #ahah1 we see t ! sci5ce ( *emi/ry _h rec5tly made & 0 !n mak+ great advances4 ,t ! sci5tific m5 ( ^? days 7 mu* impress$ ) :at 0 be+ accompli%$ is well %[n by ! foll[+ /atem5t made 9 an e>ly numb] ( ! ,j\rnal 7#c1 #ccj1 #ahba7 by its f\nd] 9 review+ ,gorham's ,elem5ts ( ,*emical ,sci5ce4 ,he says3 8,! pres5t p]iod is di/+ui%$ by wond]ful m5tal activity2 x might inde$ be d5om9at$ z ! intellectual age ( ! _w4 ,at no =m] p]iod has ! m9d ( man be5 direct$ at "o "t to s _m & s useful rese>*es40 ,a v rem>kable revolution 9 *emical ideas _h rec5tly tak5 place4 ,soon aft] ! discov]y ( oxyg5 by ,prie/ley 9 #aggd1 & ! subsequ5t discov]y by ,cav5di% t wat] 0 =m$ by ! combu/ion ( hydrog5 & oxyg51 ,lavoisi] _h expla9$ combu/ion 9 g5]al z oxidation1 ?us ov]?r[+ ! curi\s old phlogi/on !ory :i* _h prevail$ z ! basis ( *emical philosophy = ne>ly a c5tury4 ,! era ( mod]n *emi/ry _h ?us begun1 & ! additional views t matt] 0 inde/ructible & t *emical comp\nds 7 ( con/ant composition _h be5 g5]ally accept$ at ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,dalton _h ann\nc$ 8 atomic !ory 9 #ahjb1 hav+ bas$ x l>gely ^u ! law ( multiple proportions :i* he _h previ\sly discov]$1 & he _h begun to express ! =mulas = comp\nds 9 t]ms ( atomic symbols4 ,9 #ahjh ,gay-,lussac _h discov]$ 8 law ( gas comb9ation 9 simple proportions1#aec a law ( supreme importance 9 connection ) ! atomic !ory1 b nei!r he nor ,dalton _h se5 ?is !oretical connection4 ,avogadro _h und]/ood x1 h[ev]1 & 9 #ahaa _h rea*$ ! mom5t\s conclusion t all gases & vapors h equal numb]s ( molecules 9 equal volumes at ! same temp]ature & pressure4 ,davy 9 #ahjg _h isolat$ ! alkali-metals1 sodium & potassium1 by means ( electrolysis1 ?us practically dispell+ ! view t c]ta9 e>?y sub/ances might be elem5t>y2 & ab\t f\r ye>s lat] he _h demon/rat$ t *lor9e 0 an elem5t1 n an oxide z _h be5 suppos$ previ\sly1 ?us ov]?r[+ ,lavoisi]'s view t oxyg5 0 ! *>act]i/ic con/itu5t ( all acids4 ,at ! "t t our p]iod ( hi/ory beg9s1 ! atomic !ory _h be5 accept$ g5]ally1 b 9 a some:at indef9ite =m1 s9ce little att5tion _h be5 paid to ,avogadro's pr9ciple1 & s9ce ,dalton _h us$ only ! pr9ciple ( greate/ simplicity 9 writ+ ! =mulas ( comp\nds1 consid]+ wat] z ,,ho & ammonia ,,nh1 = example4 ,at ?is "t1 h[ev]1 ,b]zelius = t5 or fifte5 ye>s _h be5 devot+ trem5d\s en]gy to ! task ( det]m9+ ! atomic weights ( ne>ly all ( ! elem5ts !n kn[n by analyz+ _! comp\nds4 ,he _h confirm$ ! law ( multiple proportions1 accept$ ! atomic !ory1 & utiliz$ ,avogadro's pr9ciple1 & x is an int]e/+ co9cid5ce t 8 fir/ table ( atomic weights 0 publi%$ 9 ! ye> #ahah4 ,an int]e/+ acc\nt ( ! views on *emi/ry held at ab\t t "t 0 publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal by ,d5ison ,olm/$ 7#aa1 #cdi1 #ahbf2 #ab1 #a1 #ahbg71 :o _h rec5tly become pr(essor ( natural philosophy 9 ,yale ,college4 ,! mo/ illu/ri\s ,european *emi/s ( t "t 7 ,b]zelius ( ,sw$51 ,davy ( ,engl&1 & ,gay-,lussac ( ,france1 & ! curi\s circum/ance may be m5tion$ t all ?ree ( !m & also ,b5jam9 ,silliman1 ! f\nd] ( ! ,j\rnal1 7 born )9 a p]iod ( eight mon?s 9 #aggh-aggi4 ,9 ?is c\ntry ,rob]t ,h>e ( ,philadelphia & ,b5jam9 ,silliman 7 und\bt$ly ! mo/ prom95t *emi/s ( ^? days4 ,h>e is be/ kn[n = 8 inv5tion ( ! comp\nd bl[pipe1 b 8 contributions to ! ,j\rnal 7 v num]\s1 beg9n+ almo/ ) ! fir/ volume & cont9u+ = ov] ?irty ye>s4 ,among ! fir/ ( ^! contributions 0 a mo/ vigor\s b well-m]it$ attack ^u a ,doctor ,cl>k ( ,cambridge1 ,engl&1 :o _h copi$ 8 inv5tion )\t giv+ him prop] cr$it4 ,he beg9s 7#b1 #bha1 #ahbj7 by say+3 8,dr4 ,cl>k has publi%$ a book on ! gas bl[pipe 9 :i* he pr(esses a s9c]e desire to r5d] ev]yone 8 due4 ,t x w\ld be difficult = ! conduct ( any au?or to be m discordant ) ^! pr(essions1 ,i pl$ge myself to prove 9 ! foll[+ pages40 ,h>e also inv5t$ a galvanic batt]y :i* he call$ a 8deflagrator10 consi/+ ( a l>ge numb] ( s+le cells 9 s]ies4 ,) ?is1 us+ c>bon electrodes1 he 0 able to obta9 a high] temp]ature ?an ) 8 oxy-hydrog5 bl[pipe4 ,he 0 ! fir/ to apply galvanic ignition to bla/+ 7#ba1 #aci1 #ahcb71 & he fir/ c>ri$ out electrolyses ) ! use ( m]cury z ! ca?ode 7#cg1 #bfg1 #ahci74 ,9 ?is way he prep>$ metallic calcium & o!r metals f solutions ( _! *lorides1 :ile ! pr9ciple employ$ by him has 9 rec5t times be5 us$ z ! basis ( a v important process = manufactur+ cau/ic pota% & soda4 ,silliman1 :o _h become an intimate fri5d ( ,h>e dur+ two p]iods ( *emical /udy "u ,woodh\se 9 ,philadelphia 9 #ahjb-ahjd1 & :o soon aft]w>ds sp5t f\rte5 mon?s z a /ud5t abroad1 *iefly 9 ,engl& & ,scotl&1 took a broad int]e/ 9 sci5ce & gave mu* att5tion to geology z well z to *emi/ry4 ,9 spite ( ?is divid$ int]e/ & 8 "w z a tea*]1 popul> sci5tific lectur]1 & editor1 he f\nd "t = a surpris+ am\nt ( orig9al *emical "w4 ,= in/ance1 us+ ,h>e's deflagrator1 he %[$ t c>bon 0 volatiliz$ 9 ! electric arc 7#e1 #ajh1 #ahbb72 he 0 ! fir/ 9 ?is c\ntry to prep>e hydr(luoric acid 7#f1 #ced1 #ahbc71 & he fir/ detect$ brom9e 9 "o ( our natural br9es 7#ah1 #adb1 #ahcj74 ,atomic ,weights4 ,z soon z ! atomic !ory 0 accept$1 ! relative weights ( ! atoms became a matt] ( vital importance 9 connection ) =mulas & *emical calculations4 ,9 advanc+ 8 !ory1 ,dalton _h made "s v r\gh atomic weight det]m9ations1 & x has be5 m5tion$ already t ,b]zelius1 at ! "t t our hi/orical p]iod beg9s1 0 engag$ 9 ! prodigi\s task ( accurately det]m9+ ^! con/ants = ne>ly all ! kn[n elem5ts4 ,x is record$ t he analyz$ quantitatively no less ?an two ?\s& comp\nds 9 connection ) ?is "w dur+ 8 c>e]4 ,8 table ( #ahah has prov$ to be rem>kably accurate = t pione] p]iod1 & x indicates 8 rem>kable skill z an analy/4 ,x is to be obs]v$ t ,b]zelius 9 ?is e>ly table made use ( ,avogadro's pr9ciple 9 connection ) elem5ts =m+ gase\s comp\nds1 & ?us obta9$ correct =mulas & atomic weights 9 su* cases1 b t 9 _m in/ances 8 atomic weights & ^? n[ accept$ be> ! relation ( simple multiples to "o ano!r1 because he _h !n no means ( decid+ ^u ! =mulas ( _m comp\nds except ! rule ( assum$ simplicity4 ,= example1 ! two oxides ( iron n[ consid]$ to be ,fe,o & ,fe#b,o#c he reg>d$ z ,fe,o#b & ,fe,o#c1 kn[+ z he did t ! ratio ( oxyg5 9 !m 0 #b to #c1 & believ+ t a s+le atom ( iron 9 ea* 0 ! simple/ view ( ! case1 s t z ! consequ5ce ( ^! =mulas ! atomic weight ( iron 0 !n consid]$ to be practically twice z great 9 its relation to oxyg5 z at pres5t4 ,^! old atomic weights ( ,b]zelius1 us$ ) ! correspond+ =mulas1 7 j z s]viceable = calculat+ compositions & analytical factors z ?\gh ! correct multiples _h be5 select$4 ,z "t w5t on1 ! true multiples 7 gradually f\nd f consid]ations ( atomic heats1 isomorphism1 vapor d5sities1 ! p]iodic law1 & s on1 & suitable *anges 7 made 9 ! *emical =mulas4 ,b]zelius us$ #ajj p>ts ( oxyg5 z ! basis ( 8 atomic weights1 a practice :i* 0 g5]ally foll[$ = sev]al decades4 ,dalton1 h[ev]1 _h orig9ally us$ hydrog5 z unity z ! basis1 & ?is plan f9ally came into use ev]y:]e1 z x seem$ to be m logical & conv5i5t1 because hydrog5 has ! smalle/ atomic weight1 & also because ! atomic weights ( a numb] ( common elem5ts appe>$ to be exact multiples ( t ( hydrog51 ?us giv+ simpl] numb]s = use 9 calculations4 ,)9 a few ye>s a slight *ange has be5 made by ! adoption ( oxyg5 z exactly #af z ! basis1 :i* gives hydrog5 ! value ( #ajjh4 ,z e>ly z #ahae1 ,pr\t1 an ,engli% physician1 _h advanc$ ! view t hydrog5 is ! primordial sub/ance ( all ! elem5ts1 & consequ5tly t ! atomic weights are all exact multiples ( t ( hydrog54 ,?is hypo!sis has be5 "o ( ! inc5tives to inve/igations ^u atomic weights1 = x has be5 f\nd t ^! con/ants 9 ! cases ( a consid]able numb] ( ! elem5ts are v close to :ole numb]s :5 bas$ ^u hydrog5 z unity1 or ev5 /ill clos] :5 bas$ ^u oxyg5 z #af4 ,) our pres5t k ,pr\t's hypo!sis may be reg>d$ z disprov$ = ne>ly all ! elem5ts ^: atomic weights h be5 accurately det]m9$1 b ! close or ev5 exact agreem5t ) x 9 a few cases is /ill wor?y ( consid]ation4 ,!re is an int]e/+ lett] f ,b]zelius to ,b4 ,silliman1 ,jr41 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#dh1 #cfi1 #ahde7 9 :i* ,b]zelius consid]s ! !ory entirely disprov$4 ,= a long "t entire reliance 0 plac$ ^u ! atomic weights obta9$ by ,b]zelius1 b x came to be obs]v$ t ! calculation ( c>bon f c>bon dioxide appe>$ to give high results 9 c]ta9 cases1 s t d\bt arose z to ! accuracy ( ,b]zelius's "w4 ,consequ5tly 9 #ahdj ,dumas1 assi/$ by 8 pupil ,/as1 made a new det]m9ation ( ! atomic weight ( c>bon1 & f\nd t ! numb] obta9$ by ,b]zelius1 #abab1 0 slightly too l>ge4 ,subsequ5tly ,dumas det]m9$ m ?an tw5ty o!r atomic weights1 b ?is great am\nt ( "w did n br+ ab\t any consid]able improvem5t1 = x appe>s t ,dumas did n greatly excel ,b]zelius 9 accuracy1 & t ! latt] _h made "o ( 8 mo/ noticeable errors 9 connection ) c>bon4 ,soon aft] assi/+ ,dumas 9 ! "w ^u c>bon1 ,/as began 8 v ext5sive & accurate1 indep5d5t det]m9ations1 lead+ to ! publication ( a book 9 #ahfg describ+ 8 "w4 ,/as made _m improvem5ts 9 me?ods by ! use ( great c>e 9 purify+ ! sub/ances employ$1 & especially by us+ l>ge quantities ( mat]ial 9 8 det]m9ations1 ?us dim9i%+ ! proportional errors 9 weigh+4 ,8 results1 :i* dealt ) mo/ ( ! common elem5ts1 7 accept$ ) mu* confid5ce by *emi/s ev]y:]e4 ,/as rea*$ ! conclusion t !re c\ld be no real f\ndation = ,pr\t's hypo!sis1 s9ce s _m ( 8 atomic weights v>i$ f :ole numb]s1 & ?is op9ion has be5 g5]ally accept$4 ,! fir/ accurate atomic weight det]m9ation publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 0 t by ,mallett on li?ium 7#bb1 #cdi1 #ahef2 #bh1 #cdi1 #ahei71 %[+ a result almo/ id5tical ) t accept$ at ! pres5t "t4 ,johnson & ,all5's det]m9ation 7#ce1 #id1 #ahfc7 on ! r>e elem5t csium 0 c>ri$ out ) extraord9>y accuracy4 ,lee1 work+ ) ,wolcott ,gibbs1 made good det]m9ations on nickel & cobalt 7#b1 #dd1 #ahga74 ,! "w ( ,cooke on antimony 7#ae1 #da1 #ajg1 #ahgh7 0 excell5t4 ,conc]n+ ! m rec5t "w publi%$ else:]e ?an 9 ! ,j\rnal1 att5tion %\ld be call$ p>ticul>ly to ! inve/igations t h be5 c>ri$ on = ! pa/ tw5ty-five ye>s by ,ri*>ds & 8 associates at ,h>v>d ,univ]sity4 ,ri*>ds has %[n ma/]ly ability 9 ! selection ( me?ods & 9 avoid+ errors4 ,8 results h display$ su* m>vel\s agreem5ts among repeat$ det]m9ations by ! same & by diff]5t processes z to inspire ! greate/ confid5ce4 ,8 "w has be5 v ext5sive1 & x is a great cr$it to our c\ntry t ?is atomic weight "w1 s sup]ior to all t has be5 previ\sly done1 is be+ c>ri$ out "h4 ,x may be m5tion$ t = a numb] ( ye>s ! decision 9 reg>d to ! atomic weights to be accept$ has be5 9 ! h&s ( an ,int]national ,committee ( :i* our fell[ c\ntryman ,f4 ,w4 ,cl>ke has be5 *airman4 ,9 connection ) ?is position & previ\sly1 ,cl>ke has done valuable s]vice 9 re-calculat+ & summ>iz+ atomic weight det]m9ations4 ,analytical ,*emi/ry4 ,analysis is ( su* fundam5tal importance 9 ne>ly e o!r bran* ( *emical inve/igation t its developm5t has be5 ( ! utmo/ importance 9 connection ) ! advancem5t ( ! sci5ce4 ,x atta9$1 !re=e1 a comp>atively e>ly developm5t1 & "o hundr$ ye>s ago x 0 9 a fl\ri%+ condition1 p>ticul>ly z f> z inorganic qualitative & gravimetric analysis 7 conc]n$4 ,!re is no d\bt t ,b]zelius1 ^: atomic weight det]m9ations h already be5 m5tion$1 surpass$ all o!r analy/s ( t "t 9 ! am\nt1 v>iety1 & accuracy ( 8 gravimetric "w4 ,he liv$ ?r\gh ?ree decades ( our p]iod1 until #ahdh4 ,dur+ ! pa/ c5tury !re has be5 con/ant progress 9 inorganic analysis1 due to improv$ me?ods1 bett] app>atus & accumulat$ exp]i5ce4 ,an excell5t "w on ?is subject 0 publi%$ by ,h4 ,rose1 a pupil ( ,b]zelius1 & ! me?ods ( ! latt]1 ) _m improvem5ts & additions by ! au?or & o!rs1 7 ?us made accessible4 ,fres5ius1 :o 0 born 9 #ahah1 did mu* s]vice 9 e/abli%+ a laboratory 9 :i* ! tea*+ ( analytical *emi/ry 0 made a specialty1 9 writ+ text-books on ! subject & 9 e/abli%+ 9 #ahfb ! 8,zeits*rift fr analytis*e ,*emie10 :i* has cont9u$ up to ! pres5t "t4 ,besides ,b]zelius1 :o 0 ! fir/ to %[ t m9]als 7 def9ite *emical comp\nds1 !re h be5 _m prom95t m9]al analy/s 9 ,europe1 among :om ,rammelsb]g & ,buns5 may be m5tion$1 b !re came a "t t[>ds ! end ( ! n9ete5? c5tury :5 ! att5tion ( *emi/s1 p>ticul>ly 9 ,g]many1 0 s mu* absorb$ by organic *emi/ry t m9]al analysis came ne> becom+ a lo/ art !re4 ,x 0 dur+ t p]iod t an ,engli% m9]alogi/1 visit+ ,new ,hav5 & prais+ ! m9]al analyses t 7 be+ c>ri$ out at ,yale1 express$ regret t !re appe>$ to be no "o 9 ,engl&1 or 9 ,g]many ei!r1 :o c\ld analyze m9]als4 ,! be/ analytical "w done 9 ?is c\ntry 9 ! e>ly "p ( our p]iod 0 *iefly 9 connection ) m9]al analysis1 & a l>ge %>e ( x 0 publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal4 ,h5ry ,seyb]t1 ( ,philadelphia1 9 p>ticul>1 %[$ rem>kable skill 9 ?is direction1 & publi%$ num]\s analyses ( silicates & o!r m9]als1 beg9n+ 9 #ahbb4 ,x 0 he :o fir/ detect$ boric acid 9 t\rmal9e 7#f1 #aee1 #ahbb71 & b]yllium 9 *rysob]yl 7#h1 #aje1 #ahbd74 ,8 me?ods = silicate analyses 7 v simil> to ^? us$ at ! pres5t "t4 ,j4 ,lawr5ce ,smi? 9 #ahec describ$ 8 me?od = det]m9+ alkalies 9 m9]als 7#af1 #ec71 a me?od :i* 9 its f9al =m 7#a1 #bfi1 #ahga7 is ! be/ ev] devis$ = ! purpose4 ,he also describ$ 7#ae1 #id1 #ahec7 a v useful me?od1 /ill l>gely us$ 9 analytical "w1 = de/roy+ ammonium salts by means ( aqua regia4 ,c>ey ,lea 7#db1 #aji1 #ahff7 describ$ ! well-kn[n te/ = iodides by means ( potassium di*romate4 ,f4 ,w4 ,cl>ke 7#di1 #dh1 #ahgj7 %[$ t antimony & ars5ic c\ld be quantitatively sep>at$ f t9 by ! precipitation ( ! sulphides 9 ! pres5ce ( oxalic acid4 ,9 #ahfd ,wolcott ,gibbs 7#cg1 #cdf7 began an important s]ies ( analytical notes f ! ,lawr5ce ,sci5tific ,s*ool1 & he work$ out lat] _m difficult analytical problems1 p>ticul>ly 9 connection ) 8 ext5sive rese>*es ^u ! complex inorganic acids4 ,f #ahej on1 ,bru% & 8 /ud5ts made _m important inve/igations ^u m9]als1 & f #ahgg ,p5field 7#ac1 #dbe71 beg9n+ ) an analysis ( a new m9]al f ,bran*ville1 ,connecticut1 describ$ by ,bru% & ,e4 ,s4 ,dana1 display$ rem>kable skill & indu/ry 9 ?is k9d ( "w4 ,bo? ( ! writ]s ( ?is article 7 =tunate 9 be+ associat$ ) ,p5field 9 "s ( 8 rese>*es ^u m9]als & "o ( u began z he did ) ! ,bran*ville "w4 ,x is probably fair to say t ,p5field did ! mo/ accurate "w 9 m9]al analysis t has ev] be5 accompli%$1 & t he 0 simil>ly successful 9 cry/allography & o!r physical bran*es ( m9]alogy4 ,! ,am]ican analytical inve/igations t h be5 m5tion$ 7 all publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal1 ) ! exception ( a "p ( ,gibbs's "w4 ,_m o!r ,am]ican work]s at m9]al analysis might be allud$ to "h1 b only ! excell5t "w ( a numb] ( *emi/s 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey w be m5tion$4 ,among ^! ,hillebr& des]ves p>ticul> praise = ! ext5t ( 8 inve/igations & = 8 c>eful rese>*es 9 improv+ ! me?ods ( rock analysis4 ,to our own ,pr(essor ,goo* especial praise mu/ be accord$ = ! v l>ge numb] ( analytical me?ods t h be5 devis$1 or critically /udi$1 by him & 8 /ud5ts1 & = ! excell5t quality ( ?is "w4 ,! publications 9 ! ,j\rnal f 8 laboratory began 9 #ahij 7#ci1 #ahh71 & ! extraord9>y ext5t ( ?is "w is %[n by ! fact t ! ?ree hundr$? pap] f ! ,k5t ,laboratory appe>$ 9 ,may1 #aiah4 ,^! v num]\s & important inve/igations h be5 ( great sci5tific & practical value1 & !y h =m$ a /rik+ feature ( ! ,j\rnal = ne>ly #cj ye>s4 ,9 #aiab ,goo* publi%$ 8 8,me?ods 9 ,*emical ,analysis10 a book ( ov] #ejj pages1 9 :i* ! "w 9 ! ,k5t ,*emical ,laboratory up to t "t 0 concisely pres5t$4 ,among ! _m work]s :o h assi/$ 9 ^! inve/igations1 ,p4 ,e4 ,br[n+1 ,w4 ,a4 ,dru%el1 ,f4 ,s4 ,hav5s1 ,d4 ,a4 ,kreid]1 ,c4 ,a4 ,pet]s1 ,i4 ,k4 ,phelps & ,r4 ,g4 ,van ,"n are p>ticul>ly prom95t4 ,besides _m o!r useful pieces ( app>atus1 ! p]=at$ filt]+ crucible 0 devis$ by ,goo*1 & ?is has br\ght 8 "n into ev]yday use 9 all *emical laboratories4 ,volumetric analysis 0 orig9at$ by ,gay-,lussac1 :o describ$ a me?od = *lorimetry 9 #ahbd1 = alkalimetry 9 #ahbh1 & = ! det]m9ation ( silv] & *lorides 9 #ahcb4 ,m>gu]itte devis$ titrations ) potassium p]manganate 9 #ahdf1 :ile ,buns51 n f> f ! same "t1 introduc$ ! use ( iod9e & sulphur dioxide solutions = ! purpose ( det]m9+ _m oxidations & r$uctions4 ,we owe to ,mohr "s improvem5ts 9 app>atus & a ,g]man text-book on ! subject1 :ile ,sutton wrote an excell5t ,engli% "w on volumetric analysis1 ( :i* _m editions h appe>$4 ,:ile volumetric analysis began to be us$ less ?an "o hundr$ ye>s ago1 its applications h be5 gradually ext5d$ to a v great degree1 & x is n only exce$+ly important 9 inve/igations 9 pure *emi/ry1 b its use is especially ext5sive 9 te*nical laboratories :]e l>ge numb]s ( rapid analyses are requir$4 ,n a few volumetric me?ods h be5 devis$ or improv$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 b m5tion w be made "h only ( ,cooke's important me?od = ! det]m9ation ( f]r\s iron 9 insoluble silicates1 publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#dd1 #cdg1 #ahfg72 to ,p5field's me?od = ! det]m9ation ( fluor9e 9 #ahgh2 & to ! m rec5t g5]al me?od ( titration ) an iodate 9 /rong hydro*loric acid solutions1 due to ,l4 ,w4 ,&rews1 a numb] ( applications ( :i* h be5 work$ out 9 ! ,%effield ,laboratory4 ,a consid]able am\nt ( "w ) gases _h be5 done by ,prie/ley1 ,s*eele1 ,cav5di%1 ,lavoisi]1 ,dalton1 ,gay-,lussac1 & o!rs be=e our hundr$-ye> p]iod began4 ,cav5di%1 ab\t #aghj1 _h analyz$ atmosph]ic air ) rem>kable accuracy1 & _h ev5 sep>at$ ! argon f x & wond]$ :at x 01 & lat] ,gay-,lussac _h %[n great skill 9 ! /udy ( gas reactions4 ,dur+ our p]iod gas analysis has be5 fur!r develop$ by _m *emi/s4 ,buns51 9 p>ticul>1 br\ght ! art to a high degree ( p]fection 9 ! c\rse ( a long p]iod beg9n+ ab\t #ahch1 ! la/ edition ( 8 8,me?ods ( ,gas ,analysis0 hav+ be5 publi%$ 9 #ahgg4 ,important devices = ! simplification ( gas analysis 9 ord] t x might be us$ m conv5i5tly = te*nical purposes h be5 introduc$ by ,orsat 9 ,france & by ,w9kl]1 ,hempel & ,bunte 9 ,g]many4 ,x appe>s t our c\ntryman ,morley has surpass$ all o!rs 9 accurate "w ) gases 9 connection ) 8 det]m9ations ( ! comb9+ weights & volumes ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 ab\t ! ye> #ahia4 ,"s ( 8 publications h appe>$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#cj1 #adj1 #ahhe2 #da1 #bbj1 #ahia2 & o!rs74 ,electrolytic analysis1 involv+ ! deposition ( metals1 or sometimes ( oxides1 usually ^u a plat9um electrode1 0 br\ght into use 9 #ahfe by ,wolcott ,gibbs ?r\gh an article publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#ci1 #eh1 #ahfe74 ,he !re describ$ ! electrolytic precipitation ( copp] & ( nickel by ! me?ods /ill 9 use4 ,! application ( ! process has be5 ext5d$ to a numb] ( o!r metals1 & x has be5 l>gely employ$1 p>ticul>ly 9 te*nical analyses4 ,important inve/igations & excell5t books on ?is subject h be5 ! contributions ( ,edg> ,f4 ,smi? ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,p5nsylvania1 & ! useful improvem5t1 ! rotat+ ca?ode1 0 devis$ by ,goo* & describ$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#ae1 #cbj1 #aijc74 ,g5]al ,inorganic ,*emi/ry4 ,! ,*emical ,symbols4--,x is to ,b]zelius t we owe our symbols = ! atoms1 d]iv$ usually f _! ,lat9 names1 su* z ,c = c>bon1 ,na = sodium1 ,cl = *lor9e1 ,fe = iron1 ,ag = silv]1 & ,au = gold4 ,we owe to him also ! use ( small figures to %[ ! numb] ( atoms 9 a =mula1 z 9 ,n#b,o#e4 ,?is 0 a m>k$ improvem5t ov] ! hi]oglyphic symbols propos$ by ,dalton1 :i* 7 set d[n z _m times z ! atoms 7 suppos$ to occur 9 =mulas1 =m+ gr\ps ( curi\s appe>ance1 b 9 "s respects n unlike "s ( our mod]n develop$ =mulas4 ,! advantages ( ,b]zelius's symbols 7 _! simplicity1 legibility1 & ! fact t !y c\ld be pr9t$ )\t ! ne$ ( special type4 ,x is true t at a lat] p]iod ,b]zelius us$ c]ta9 symbols ) horizontal l9es cross+ !m to repres5t d\ble atoms1 & t ^! made "s difficulty 9 pr9t+4 ,x %\ld be m5tion$ also t ,b]zelius at "o "t made an ef=t to simplify =mulas by plac+ dots ov] o!r symbols to repres5t oxyg51 & commas to repres5t sulphur atoms4 ,examples ( ^! are3 a,s1 calcium sulphate2 ,fe1 iron disulphide ,?is =m ( notation 0 q ext5sively employ$ = a "t1 especially by m9]alogi/s1 b x 0 entirely ab&on$ lat]4 ,x is int]e/+ to notice t ,dalton1 :o liv$ until #ahdd1 to rea* ! age ( #gh1 diff]$ f o!r *emi/s 9 refus+ to accept ! lett]-symbols ( ,b]zelius4 ,9 a lett] writt5 to ,graham 9 #ahcg he said3 8,b]zelius's symbols are horrify+4 ,a "y /ud5t 9 *emi/ry might z soon le>n ,hebrew z to make himself acqua9t$ ) !m4 ,!y appe> l a *aos ( atoms 444 & to equally p]plex ! adepts ( sci5ce1 to disc\rage ! le>n]1 z well z to cl\d ! beauty & simplicity ( ! atomic !ory40 ,?is =cibly express$ op9ion 0 app>5tly t+$ ) self-e/eem1 b !re is no d\bt t ,dalton 0 s9c]e 9 believ+ t ! atoms 7 be/ repres5t$ by 8 circul> symbols1 because1 z is well kn[n1 he ?\ght t all ! atoms 7 sph]ical 9 =m1 & x is evid5t t circles give ! prop] picture ( sph]ical objects4 ,at ! pres5t "t "s insight z to ! /ructure ( atoms is be+ ga9$1 & x appe>s possible t ! "t may come :5 pictures ( _! ext]nal appe>ance t are n :olly imag9>y may be made4 ,*anges 9 ,=mulas4--,ev5 be=e ! ye> #ahbf1 ,b]zelius display$ great skill 9 arriv+ at _m =mulas t agree ) our pres5t ones1 = example1 ,h#b,o = wat]1 ,zn,cl#b = z9c *loride1 ,n#b,o#e = nitric acid 7anhydride71 ,ca,o = calcium oxide1 ,,co & ,,co#b = ! oxides ( c>bon1 & _m o!rs4 ,b at ! same p]iod o!r au?orities1 especially ,gay-,lussac 9 ,france & ,gmel9 9 ,g]many1 on acc\nt ( a lack ( appreciation = ,avogadro's pr9ciple & = o!r reasons1 su* z ! use ( symbols to repres5t comb9+ weights r ?an atoms1 7 us+ diff]5t =mulas = "s ( ^! comp\nds1 su* z ,,ho1 ,zn,cl & ,,no#e1 s t _! =mulas = _m ( ! comp\nds ( hydrog51 *lor9e1 nitrog5 & sev]al o!r elem5ts diff]$ f ^? ( ,b]zelius4 ,! employm5t ( diff]5t =mulas involv$ ! use ( diff]5t atomic or comb9+ weights4 ,= example1 ) ! =mula ,h#b,o = wat] ! composition by weight requires ! ratio #a to #af = ! weights ( ! hydrog5 & oxyg5 atoms1 :ile ) ,,ho ! ratio is #a to #h4 ,b]zelius attempt$ to br+ ab\t great] uni=mity 9 =mulas & atomic weights by mak+ *anges 9 8 table ( atomic weights publi%$ 9 #ahbf4 ,he practically d\bl$ ! relative atomic weights ( hydrog51 *lor9e1 nitrog51 & ( ! o!r elem5ts t gave twice z _m atoms 9 8 =mulas z 9 ^? ( o!rs1 & at ! same "t he wrote ! symbols ( ^! elem5ts ) a b> across !m to indicate t !y repres5t$ d\ble atoms4 ,= example1 he wrote3 ,h,o ,zn,cl ,n,o#e1 in/ead ( ,h#b,o1 ,zn,cl#b ,n#b,o#e ,?is appe>s to h be5 an un=tunate concession to ! views ( o!rs on ! "p ( ,b]zelius1 = ! b>r$ symbols 7 n g5]ally adopt$1 p>tly on acc\nt ( difficulties 9 pr9t+1 & ! great a*ievem5t 9 !ory made by him 0 lo/ sight ( = a long p]iod ( "t4 ,! ,law ( ,atomic ,heats4--,9 #ahai1 ,dulong & ,petit ( ,france1 f exp]im5ts ^u ! specific heats ( a numb] ( solid elem5t>y sub/ances1 came to ! conclusion t ! atoms ( simple sub/ances h equal capacities = heat1 or 9 o!r words1 t ! specific heats ( elem5ts multipli$ by _! atomic weights give a con/ant call$ ! atomic heat4 ,= in/ance1 ! specific heats ( sulphur1 iron1 & gold h be5 giv5 z #jbjbf1 #jaaj1 & #jjcbd1 :ile _! atomic weights are ab\t #cb1 #ef1 & #aig1 respectively2 h5ce ! atomic heats obta9$ by multiplication are #fdhc1 #faaf1 & #fchc4 ,fur!r inve/igations %[$ t ! atomic heats display a consid]able v>iation4 ,^? ( c>bon1 boron1 b]yllium1 & silicon are v l[ at ord9>y temp]atures1 al?\gh !y increase & approa* ! usual values at high] temp]atures4 ,m rec5t "w has %[n1 h[ev]1 t ! specific heats ( o!r elem5ts v>y greatly ) ! temp]ature1 almo/ disappe>+ at ! temp]ature ( liquid hydrog51 & h5ce possibly disappe>+ entirely at ! absolute z]o1 :]e ! electrical resi/ance ( ! metals appe>s to vani% likewise4 ,x has be5 f\nd t mo/ ( ! solid elem5ts ne> ord9>y temp]atures give atomic heats t are approximately #fd4 ,b]zelius appli$ ! law 9 fix+ a numb] ( atomic weights1 & its importance = ?is purpose is /ill recogniz$4 ,x may be m5tion$ "h t two well-kn[n ,yale m51 ,w4 ,o4 ,mixt] & ,e4 ,s4 ,dana1 :ile /ud5ts 9 ,buns5's laboratory at ,heidelb]g 9 #ahgc1 made det]m9ations ( ! specific heats ( boron1 silicon1 & zirconium4 ,?is 0 ! fir/ det]m9ation ( ?is con/ant = zirconium1 & x 0 consequ5tly important 9 e/abli%+ ! atomic weight ( t elem5t4 ,isomorphism & ,polymorphism4--,mits*]li* obs]v$ 9 #ahah t c]ta9 phosphates & ars5ates h ! same cry/all9e =m1 & aft]w>ds he rea*$ ! conclusion t id5tity 9 =m indicates simil>ity 9 composition 9 connection ) ! numb] ( atoms & _! arrangem5t4 ,?is law ( isomorphism 0 ( mu* assi/ance 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( correct =mulas & consequ5tly ( atomic weights4 ,= in/ance1 s9ce ! c>bonates ( b>ium1 /rontium1 & lead cry/allize 9 ! same =m1 ! oxides ( ^! metals mu/ h analog\s =mulas4 ,f su* consid]ations ,b]zelius 0 able to make sev]al improvem5ts 9 8 atomic weight table ( #ahbf4 ,mits*]li* 0 ! fir/ to obs]ve two =ms ( sulphur cry/als1 & f ?is & o!r cases ( dimorphism or ( polymorphism x became evid5t t analog\s comp\nds 7 n necess>ily always isomorph\s1 a circum/ance :i* has re/rict$ ! application ( ! law to "s ext5t4 ,besides its application 9 fix+ analog\s =mulas1 ! law ( isomorphism has come to be ( mu* practical use 9 ! und]/&+ & simplification ( ! =mulas = m9]als1 = ^! natural cry/als v (t5 conta9 sev]al isomorph\s comp\nds 9 v>y+ proportions1 & an und]/&+ ( ?is 8isomorph\s replacem5t10 z x is call$1 makes x possible to d$uce simple g5]al =mulas = !m4 ,9 "s cases isomorphism takes place to a great] or less ext5t betwe5 sub/ances :i* are n *emically simil>1 & ?is br+s ab\t a v>iation 9 composition :i* at times has caus$ confusion4 ,= in/ance1 ! m9]al pyrrhotite has a composition :i* usually v>ies betwe5 ,fe#g,s#h & ,fe#aa,s#ab1 & bo? ^! =mulas h be5 assign$ to x4 ,x 0 rec5tly %[n by ,all51 ,cr5%aw & ,john/on 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#cc1 #afi1 #aiab7 t ?is is a case :]e ! comp\nd ,fe,s is capable ( tak+ up v>i\s am\nts ( sulphur isomorph\sly4 ,! idea ( solid solution 0 advanc$ by van't ,h(f to expla9 ! cry/allization ( mixtures1 includ+ cases ( evid5t isomorphism4 ,?is view has be5 widely accept$1 & x has be5 p>ticul>ly useful 9 cases :]e isomorphism is n evid5t4 ,solid solution betwe5 metals has be5 f\nd to be exce$+ly common1 _m alloys be+ ( ?is "*4 ,a case ( ?is k9d 0 obs]v$ by ,cooke & describ$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#bj1 #bbb1 #ahee74 ,he prep>$ two well-cry/alliz$ comp\nds ( z9c & antimony to :i* he gave ! =mulas ,zn#c,sb & ,zn#b,sb1 b he obs]v$ t excell5t cry/als ( ea* c\ld be obta9$ :i* v>i$ l>gely 9 composition f ^! =mulas4 ,z ! two comp\nds 7 dissimil> 9 _! =mulas & cry/all9e =ms1 ,cooke assum$ t isomorphism 0 impossible & conclud$ 8t x is due to an actual p]turbation ( ! law ( def9ite proportions1 produc$ by ! influ5ce ( mass40 ,we %\ld n[ reg>d ?is z a case ( solid solution4 ,a ,lack ( ,confid5ce 9 ,avogadro's ,pr9ciple4--,"o reason :y *emi/s 7 s sl[ 9 arriv+ at ! correct atomic weights & =mulas 0 a p>tial loss ( confid5ce 9 ,avogadro's pr9ciple4 ,ab\t #ahbf ! "y ,fr5* *emi/ ,dumas devis$ an excell5t me?od = ! det]m9ation ( vapor d5sities at high temp]atures1 & 8 results & ^? ( o!rs %[$ "s discrepancies 9 ! expect$ d5sities4 ,= example1 ! vapor d5sity ( sulphur 0 f\nd to be ab\t ?ree times too great1 t ( phosphorus twice too great1 t ( m]cury vapor & t ( ammonium *loride only ab\t half l>ge en\gh to correspond to ! values expect$ f analogy & o!r consid]ations4 ,?us1 "o volume ( oxyg5 ) two volumes ( hydrog5 make two volumes ( /eam1 b only "o ?ird ( a volume ( sulphur vapor 0 f\nd to unite ) two volumes ( hydrog5 to make two volumes ( hydrog5 sulphide4 ,b]zelius saw cle>ly t ! results po9t$ to ! exi/5ce ( su* molecules z ,s#f1 ,p#d1 & ,hg#a1 b x 0 n g5]ally realiz$ 9 ^? days t ,avogadro's rule is fundam5tally reliable1 & ,b]zelius himself appe>s to h lo/ confid5ce 9 x on acc\nt ( ^! complications1 = he did n apply ,avogadro's pr9ciple to decisions ab\t atomic weights1 except 9 ! cases ( sub/ances gase\s at ord9>y temp]atures4 ,electro-*emical ,!ories4--,! obs]vation 0 made by ,ni*olson & ,c>lisle 9 #ahjj t wat] 0 decompos$ into its con/itu5t gases by ! electric curr5t4 ,!n 9 #ahjc ,b]zelius & ,his+] f\nd t salts 7 decompos$ into _! bases & acids by ! same ag5cy1 & 9 #ahjg ,davy isolat$ potassium1 sodium1 & o!r metals aft]w>ds1 by a simil> decomposition4 ,s9ce ^? e>ly times a va/ am\nt ( att5tion has be5 paid to ! relation ( electricity to *emical *anges1 a relation t is evid5tly ( great importance f ! fact t :ile electric curr5ts decompose *emical comp\nds1 ^! curr5ts1 on ! o!r h&1 are produc$ by *emical reactions4 ,b]zelius 0 p>ticul>ly prom95t 9 ?is direction1 & 9 #ahai he publi%$ an elaborate electro-*emical !ory4 ,he believ$ t atoms 7 electrically pol>iz$1 & t ?is 0 ! cause ( _! comb9ation ) "o ano!r4 ,he ext5d$ ?is idea to gr\ps ( atoms1 p>ticul>ly to oxides1 & reg>d$ ^! gr\ps z positive or negative1 accord+ to ! excess ( positive or negative electricity d]iv$ f _! con/itu5t atoms & rema9+ free4 ,he ?us arriv$ at 8 duali/ic !ory ( *emical comp\nds1 :i* atta9$ great prom95ce & prevail$ = a long "t 9 *emical !ory4 ,accord+ to ?is idea1 ea* comp\nd 0 suppos$ to be made up ( a positive & a negative atom or gr\p ( atoms4 ,= example1 ! =mulas = potassium nitrate1 calcium c>bonate1 & sulphuric acid correspond$ to ,k#b,o4,n#b,o#e1 ,ca,o4,,co#b & ,h#b,o4,,s#c :]e we n[ write ,,kno#c1 ,ca,c,o#c & ,h#b,,s#d1 & ! !ory 0 ext5d$ to embrace organic comp\nds also4 ,! em95t ,engli% *emi/ & physici/ ,f>aday ann\nc$ ! important law ( electro-*emical equival5ts 9 #ahcd4 ,?is law %[s t ! quantities ( elem5ts set free by ! passage ( a giv5 quantity ( electricity ?r\gh _! solutions correspond to ! *emical equival5ts ( ^? elem5ts4 ,f>aday made a table ( ! equival5ts ( a numb] ( elem5ts1 reg>d+ !m important 9 connection ) atomic weights1 b at t "t no %>p di/9ction 0 usually made betwe5 equival5ts & atomic weights1 & x 0 n fully realiz$ t "o atom ( a giv5 elem5t may be ! electrical equival5t ( sev]al atoms ( ano!r4 ,f>aday's law1 :i* is /ill reg>d$ z fundam5tally exact1 has be5 ( mu* practical use 9 ! measurem5t ( electric curr5ts & 9 calculations connect$ ) electro-*emical processes4 ,9 discuss+ 8 exp]im5ts1 ,f>aday made use ( sev]al new t]ms1 su* z 8electrolyte0 = a sub/ance :i* conducts electricity :5 9 solution1 & is ?us 8electrolyz$10 8electrode10 8anode10 & 8ca?ode10 t]ms t h come into g5]al use1 & f9ally 8ions0 = ! p>ticles t 7 suppos$ to 8w&]0 t[>ds ! electrodes to be set free !re4 ,?is t]m 8ion0 rema9$ 9 comp>ative obscurity = m ?an half a c5tury1 :5 x 0 br\ght into great prom95ce among *emi/s by ,arrh5ius 9 connection ) ! ionic !ory4 ,cannizz>o's ,ideas4--,up to ab\t #ahfi *aos reign$ among ! =mulas us$ by diff]5t *emi/s4 ,v>i\s comp\nd radicals & num]\s type-=mulas 7 employ$1 duali/ic & unit>y =mulas ( sev]al k9ds 7 9 use1 b ! wor/ feature ( ! situation 0 ! fact t m ?an "o sy/em ( atomic weights 0 9 vogue1 s t wat] might be writt5 ,,ho1 ,h,o1 or ,h#bj & simil> discrepancies might appe> 9 ne>ly all =mulas conta9+ elem5ts ( diff]5t val5cies4 ,9 #aheh1 h[ev]1 an article by ! ,italian *emi/ ,cannizz>o appe>$ 9 :i* ! outl9es ( a c\rse 9 *emical philosophy 7 pres5t$4 ,?is acquir$ wide circulation 9 ! =m ( a pamphlet at a *emical conv5tion some:at lat]1 & x dealt s cle>ly & ably ) ,avogadro's pr9ciple1 ,dulong & ,petit's law1 & o!r po9ts 9 connection ) =mulas t x l$ to a rapid & almo/ univ]sal re=m among ^? :o 7 us+ unsatisfactory =mulas4 ,at ab\t ?is "t also ! duali/ic =mulas ( ,b]zelius 7 g5]ally ab&on$1 & hydrog5 came to be reg>d$ z ! *>act]i/ic elem5t ( all acids4 ,= in/ance1 ,ca,o4,,s#c1 call$ 8sulphate ( lime10 came to be writt5 ,ca,s,o#d & 0 call$ 8calcium sulphate10 & :ile x _h be5 %[n z e>ly z #ahae by ,davy t 8iodic acid10 ,i#b,o#e1 %[$ no acid reaction until x 0 comb9$ ) wat]1 ! accumulation ( simil> facts l$ to ! =mulation ( sulphuric acid z ,h#b,,s#d in/ead ( ,,s#c or ,h#b,o4,,s#c1 & t ( o!r 8oxyg5 acids0 9 a simil> way4 ,z a necess>y consequ5ce ( ?is view ( acids1 ! bases came to be reg>d$ z comp\nds ( ! 8hydroxyl0 gr\p1 ,,oh4 ,!re=e ! =mula = cau/ic soda came to be writt5 ,na,o,h in/ead ( ,na#b,o4,h#b,o1 & s on4 ,! ,p]iodic ,sy/em ( ! ,elem5ts4--,! p]iodicity ( ! elem5ts 9 connection ) _! atomic weights 0 r\ghly grasp$ by ,newl&s 9 ,engl&1 :o ann\nc$ 8 8law ( octaves0 9 #ahfc4 ,?is 0 at ! "t :5 ! atomic weights 7 be+ modifi$ & _! num]ical relations prop]ly %[n4 ,! subject 0 work$ out m fully by ,l4 ,mey] 9 ,g]many a little lat]1 b x 0 mo/ cle>ly & elaborately pres5t$ by ! ,russian *emi/ ,m5deleff 9 #ahfi4 ,9 ord] t ?is subject may be expla9$ to "s ext5t ,m5deleff's table is giv5 "h1 ) ! addition ( ! rec5tly discov]$ elem5ts & "s o!r modifications4 ,gr\ps ,i ,,ii ,,iii ,a ,b ,a ,b ,a ,b ,typical ,r#b,o ,,ro ,r#b,o#c ,comp\nds ,r,cl ,r,cl#b ,r,cl#c ,,rh -- 7,,rh#b7 -- -- 7,,rh#c7 ,s]ies #a #b ,li?ium ,b]yllium ,boron #fid #ia #aaj #c ,sodium ,magnesium ,alum9ium #bcjj #bdcb #bga #d ,potassium ,calcium ,sc&ium #ciaj #djjg #dda #e ,copp] ,z9c ,gallium #eceg #fecg #fii #f ,rubidium ,/rontium ,yttrium #hedc #hgfc #hij #g ,silv] ,cadmium ,indium #ajghh #aabdj #aadh ,lan?anum #h ,csium ,b>ium #acij to99 #acbha #acghg ,lutecium #agd4j #i ,gold ,m]cury ,?allium #aigb #bjjf #bjdj #aj ---- ,radium ---- #bbfd ,gr\ps ,,iv ,v ,a ,b ,a ,b ,typical ,,ro#b ,r#b,o#e ,comp\nds ,r,cl#d ,r,cl#c -- 7,,rh#d7 -- ,,rh#c ,s]ies #a #b ,c>bon ,,nitrog5 #abjj #adja #c ,silicon ,phosphorus #bhc #cajd #d ,titanium ,vanadium #dha #eaj #e ,g]manium ,ars5ic #gbe #gdif #f ,zirconium ,niobium #ijf #ice #g ,t9 #aaij ,antimony #abjb 7,c]ium7 #h #adjbe ,tantalum 7,lutecium7 #ahae #agd4j #i ,lead ,bismu? #bjgaj #bjhj #aj ,?orium ---- #bibd ,gr\ps ,,vi ,,vii ,,viii ,a ,b ,a ,b ,a ,b ,typical ,,ro#c ,r#b,o#g 7,,ro#d7 -- ,comp\nds ,r,cl#b -- ,r,cl -- ,r -- ,,rh#b -- ,,rh -- ,r ,s]ies #a ,,hydrog5 ,,helium #ajjh #cii #b ,,oxyg5 ,,fluor9e ,,neon #afjj #aij #bjb #c ,sulphur ,,*lor9e ,,argon #cbjg #cedf #cihh #d ,*romium ,manganese ,iron #ebj #edic #eehd ,cobalt #ehig ,nickel #ehfh #e ,sel5ium ,brom9e ,,krypton #gib #giib #hbib #f ,molybd5um ---- #ajj ,ru!nium #ifj #ajag ,rhodium #ajbi ,palladium #ajfg #g ,tellurium ,iod9e ,,x5on #abge #abfib #acjb #h ,tung/5 ---- #ahh ,osmium #ahdj #aiji ,iridium #aica ,plat9um #aieb #i ---- ---- ,,niton #bbbd #aj ,uranium #bche 99 ,lan?anum1 ,c]ium1 ,praseodymium1 ,neodymium1 ----1 ,r>e,e>? #acij #adjbe #adjf #addc ,metals3 ,gadol9ium1 ,t]bium1 ,dysprosium1 ,holmium1 ,erbium1 #aegc #aeib #afbe #afce #afgg 99 ,sam>ium1 ,europeum1 ----1 ,r>e,e>? #aejd #aebj ,metals3 ,?ulium1 ,ytt]bium1 ,lutecium1 #afhe #agbj #agdj ,,note4--,di/9ctions 9 pr9t+3 ,,gase\s ,,elem5ts4 ,o!r non-metallic elem5ts1 metallic elem5ts4 ,! heavy l9e encloses approximately ! acid-=m+ elem5ts4 ,9 ?is table ! elem5ts arrang$ 9 ! ord] ( _! atomic weights fall into eight gr\ps :]e ! kn[n oxides progress regul>ly1 ) ! exception ( two or ?ree elem5ts1 f ,r#b,o 9 ,gr\p ,i to ,r#b,o#g 9 ,gr\p ,,vii1 :ile 9 ,gr\p ,,viii two oxides 7( ru!nium & osmium7 are kn[n :i* c>ry ! progression to ,,ro#d4 ,x 0 po9t$ out by ,m5deleff t1 ) ! exception ( s]ies #a & #b at ! top ( ! table1 ! alt]nate memb]s ( ! gr\ps %[ p>ticul>ly close relation%ips4 ,^! subord9ate gr\ps1 m>k$ ,a & ,b1 9 mo/ cases %[ rem>kable analogies & gradations 9 _! prop]ties1 = example1 9 ! alkali-metals f li?ium to csium1 & 9 ! halog5s f fluor9e to iod9e4 ,! two divisions ( a gr\p d n usually %[ v close relations to ea* o!r1 except 9 _! val5cy1 & !y ev5 display1 9 sev]al in/ances1 opposite gradations 9 *emical activity 9 ! ord] ( _! atomic weights4 ,= in/ance1 csium /&s at ! electro-positive end1 :ile gold /&s at ! electro-negative end ( its subord9ate gr\p4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! two divisions is v great 9 ,gr\ps ,,vi & ,,vii1 b x is extreme 9 ,gr\p ,,viii1 :]e heavy metals are on "o side & inactive gases on ! o!r4 ,_m au?orities sep>ate ^! gases into a 8,gr\p ,o0 by !mselves at ! left-h& side ( ! table1 b ?is does n *ange _! relative positions1 & ! plan may be object$ to on ! gr\nd t _m vacant places are ?us left 9 ! gr\ps ,,viii & ,o4 ,! p]iodic law has be5 useful 9 rectify+ c]ta9 atomic weights4 ,at ! outset ,m5deleff 0 oblig$ to *ange b]yllium f #ade 7assum+ ,be#b,o#c7 to #i 7assum+ ,be,o71 & lat] ! atomic weights ( indium & uranium 7 *ang$ to make !m fit ! sy/em4 ,all ( ^! *anges h be5 confirm$ by physical means4 ,m5deleff f\nd a numb] ( vacant places 9 8 table1 & 0 ?us able to r5d] fur!r s]vice to *emical sci5ce by pr$ict+ ! prop]ties ( undiscov]$ elem5ts1 & 8 pr$ictions 7 v closely confirm$ by ! lat] discov]y ( sc&ium1 gallium1 & g]manium4 ,! table indicates t !re are /ill two undiscov]$ elem5ts bel[ manganese & probably two m among ! r>e-e>? metals4 ,! int]e/+ obs]vation has j rec5tly be5 made by ,soddy t ! products ( radioactive dis9tegration appe> to pass 9 a symmetrical way ?r\gh positions 9 ! p]iodic sy/em1 giv+ (f a helium molecule at alt]nate trans=mations until ! place ( lead is rea*$4 ,x appe>s1 !re=e1 t ! five vacant places 9 ! table above bismu? are probably occupi$ by ^! evanesc5t elem5ts1 & x is to be notic$ t all ( ! elem5ts t h be5 plac$ 9 ?is region ( high atomic weights are radioactive4 ,!re are "s inconsi/5cies 9 ! p]iodic sy/em4 ,! increm5ts 9 ! atomic weights are irregul>1 & !re are ?ree cases1 argon & potassium1 cobalt & nickel1 & tellurium & iod9e1 :]e a high] atomic weight is plac$ be=e a l[] "o 9 ord] to br+ ^! elem5ts into _! und\bt$ly prop] places4 ,!re is a peculi>ity also 9 ! heavy-metal division ( ,gr\p ,,viii1 :]e ?ree simil> elem5ts occur 9 ea* ( ?ree places1 & :]e ! usual p]iodicity appe>s to be susp5d$1 or ne>ly s1 9 comp>ison ) mo/ ( ! o!r elem5ts4 ,h[ev]1 !re seems to be a /ill m rem>kable case ( ?is k9d 9 ,gr\p ,,iii1 :]e f\rte5 metals ( ! r>e e>?s h be5 plac$4 ,!y are a/oni%+ly simil> 9 _! *emical prop]ties1 h5ce x seems necess>y to assume t p]iodicity is susp5d$ "h ?r\gh\t ! wide range ( atomic weights f #aci to #agd1 :]e no elem5ts save ^! h be5 f\nd4 ,sev]al o!r int]e/+ features ( ! table may be po9t$ out4 ,! *lorides & hydrides1 z indicat$ by ! 8typical comp\nds10 %[ a regul> progression 9 bo? directions t[>ds ,gr\p ,,iv4 7,:]e ! type-=mulas d n apply1 z f> z is kn[n1 to m ?an "o or two elem5ts1 !y h be5 plac$ 9 p>5!ses 9 ! table giv5 "h47 ,x is a /rik+ fact t ! acid-=m+ elem5ts occur toge!r 9 a def9ite "p ( ! table1 & t ! gases & o!r non-metallic elem5ts1 except ! inactive gases ( ,gr\p ,,viii1 occur 9 ! same region4 ,atomic ,numb]s4--,z ! result ( a spectroscopic /udy ( ! wave l5g?s or frequ5cies ( ! ,x-rays produc$ :5 ca?ode rays /rike ^u antica?odes compos$ ( diff]5t elem5ts1 ,moseley 9 #aiad discov]$ t :ole numb]s 9 a simple s]ies c be attribut$ to ! atoms4 ,^! atomic numb]s are3 #a = hydrog51 #b = helium1 #c = li?ium1 #d = b]yllium1 & s on1 9 ! ord] 9 :i* ! elem5ts occur 9 ,m5deleff's p]iodic table1 & 9 ! cases ( argon & potassium1 cobalt & nickel1 & tellurium & iod9e1 !y foll[ ! correct *emical ord]1 :ile ! atomic weights d n4 ,!y appe> to indicate1 !re=e1 an ev5 m fundam5tal relation betwe5 ! atoms ?an t %[n by ! atomic weights4 ,^! numb]s are n[ available = e elem5t up to lead1 & !y are p>ticul>ly int]e/+ 9 indicat+1 on acc\nt ( miss+ numb]s1 ! exi/5ce ( two undiscov]$ elem5ts 9 ! manganese gr\p1 & two m among ! r>e-e>? metals1 9 confirmation ( ! vacant places bel[ lead 9 ,m5deleff's table4 ,! ,isolation ( ,elem5ts4--,9 ! ye> #ahah ab\t #ec elem5ts 7 recogniz$1 & s9ce t "t ab\t #cj m h be5 discov]$1 b ! elem5ts already kn[n compris$ ! m common ones1 & ne>ly all ( ^? :i* h be5 comm]cially important4 ,a few ( !m1 includ+ b]yllium1 alum9ium1 silicon1 magnesium1 & fluor9e1 7 !n kn[n only 9 _! comp\nds1 z !y _h n yet be5 isolat$ 9 ! free condition4 ,b]zelius 9 #ahbc prep>$ silicon1 a non-metallic elem5t resembl+ c>bon 9 _m respects4 ,?is elem5t has rec5tly be5 prep>$ on a r l>ge scale 9 electric furnaces at ,niag>a ,falls1 & has be5 us$ = c]ta9 purposes 9 ! =m ( ca/+s4 ,whl] creat$ mu* s5sation 9 #ahbg by isolat+ alum9ium & f9d+ x to be a v light1 /rong & malleable metal1 /able 9 ! air1 & ( a silv]-:ite color4 ,= a long "t ?is metal 0 a comp>ative r>ity1 be+ prep>$ by ! r$uction ( alum9ium *loride ) metallic sodium2 b ab\t #be ye>s ago ,hall1 an ,am]ican1 devis$ a me?od ( prep>+ x by electrolyz+ alum9ium oxide dissolv$ 9 fus$ cryolite4 ,?is process r$uc$ ! co/ ( alum9ium to su* an ext5t t x has n[ come into common use4 ,whl] & ,bussy prep>$ b]yllium 9 #ahbh1 & ,liebig & ,bussy did ! same s]vice = magnesium 9 #ahcj4 ,! latt] metal has come to be ( mu* practical importance1 bo? z a v p[]ful r$uc+ ag5t 9 *emical op]ations1 & z an +r$i5t ( fla%-light p[d]s & ( mixtures us$ = fireworks4 ,x is also us$ 9 mak+ c]ta9 light alloys4 ,aft] almo/ innum]able attempts to isolate fluor9e1 dur+ a p]iod ( ne>ly a c5tury1 ?is 0 f9ally accompli%$ 9 #ahhf by ,moissan 9 ,france by ! electrolysis ( anhydr\s hydrog5 fluoride4 ,! free fluor9e prov$ to be a gas ( extraord9>y *emical activity1 decompos+ wat] at once ) ! =mation ( hydrog5 fluoride & ozoniz$ oxyg54 ,?is fact expla9s ! failure ( _m previ\s attempts to prep>e x 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]4 ,e>ly ,discov]ies ( ,new ,elem5ts4--,! rem>kable activity ( *emical rese>* at ! beg9n+ ( our p]iod is illu/rat$ by ! fact t ?ree new elem5ts 7 discov]$ 9 #ahag4 ,9 t ye> ,b]zelius _h discov]$ sel5ium1 ,arfv$son1 work+ 9 ,b]zelius's laboratory _h discov]$ ! important alkali-metal li?ium1 & ,/romey] _h discov]$ cadmium4 ,9 #ahbf ,ball>d 9 ,france discov]$ brom9e 9 ! "m-liquor f ! cry/allization ( common salt f sea wat]4 ,brom9e prov$ to be an unusually int]e/+ elem5t1 be+ ! only non-metallic "o t is liquid at ord9>y temp]atures1 & be+ /rik+ly int]m$iate 9 its prop]ties betwe5 *lor9e & iod9e4 ,x has be5 obta9$ 9 l>ge quantities f br9es1 & is produc$ ext5sively 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! elem5t>y sub/ance & its comp\nds h f\nd important applications 9 *emical op]ations1 :ile ! bromides h be5 f\nd valuable 9 m$ic9e & silv] bromide is v ext5sively us$ 9 photography4 ,9 #ahbh ,b]zelius discov]$ ?orium4 ,! oxide ( ?is metal has rec5tly be5 employ$ ext5sively z ! pr9cipal con/itu5t ( inc&esc5t gas-mantles1 & ! elem5t has acquir$ p>ticul> importance f ! fact t1 l uranium1 x is radioactive1 decompos+ spontane\sly into o!r elem5ts4 ,vanadium _h be5 enc\nt]$ z e>ly z #ahja by ,del ,rio1 :o nam$ x 8ery?ronium10 b a little lat] x 0 ?\ght to be id5tical ) *romium & 0 lo/ sight ( = a :ile4 ,9 #ahcj1 h[ev]1 x 0 re-discov]$ by1 & receiv$ its pres5t "n f ,sef/rm 9 ,sw$54 ,b]zelius imm$iately made an ext5sive /udy ( vanadium comp\nds1 b he gave !m incorrect =mulas & d]iv$ an incorrect atomic weight = ! elem5t1 because he mi/ook a l[] oxide = ! elem5t itself4 ,roscoe 9 ,engl& 9 #ahfg isolat$ vanadium = ! fir/ "t1 f\nd ! "r atomic weight1 & gave correct =mulas to its comp\nds4 ,vanadium is p>ticul>ly int]e/+ f ! fact t x displays sev]al val5cies 9 its comp\nds1 _m ( :i* are highly color$4 ,x has f\nd important use z an +r$i5t 9 v small proportions 9 c]ta9 8special /eels0 to :i* x imp>ts a high degree ( resi/ance to rupture by repeat$ %ocks4 ,columbium 0 discov]$ e>ly 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury 9 ! m9]al columbite f ,connecticut by ,hat*ett1 an ,engli%man1 :o did n1 h[ev]1 obta9 ! pure oxide4 ,x 0 aft]w>ds obta9$ by ,rose :o nam$ x niobium4 ,bo? names = ! elem5t are 9 use1 b ! =m] has priority4 ,att5tion 0 call$ to ?is fact by an article 9 ! ,j\rnal by ,connell1 an ,engli%man 7#ah1 #cib1 #ahed74 ,! ,plat9um ,gr\p ( ,metals4--,9 #ahed a new memb] ( ! plat9um gr\p ( metals1 ru!nium1 0 discov]$ by ,claus4 ,plat9um _h be5 discov]$ ab\t ! middle ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 :ile its o!r r>] associates1 iridium1 osmium1 palladium1 & rhodium1 _h be5 recogniz$ 9 ! v e>ly ye>s ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,x 0 dur+ ! latt] p]iod t plat9um w>e began to be employ$ to a consid]able ext5t 9 *emical op]ations1 & ?is use 0 greatly ext5d$ z "t w5t on4 ,! discov]y 0 made by ,phillips 9 #ahca t f9ely divid$ plat9um by contact w\ld br+ ab\t ! comb9ation ( sulphur dioxide ) atmosph]ic oxyg51 & ?is application dur+ ! pa/ #bj ye>s has become enorm\sly important 9 ! sulphuric acid indu/ry1 :ile o!r important applications ( plat9um z a 8catalytic ag5t0 h also be5 made4 ,wolcott ,gibbs & ,c>ey ,lea h contribut$ p]haps m ?an any o!r rec5t *emi/s to a k ( ! plat9um metals4 ,c>ey ,lea 7#ch1 #ha1 #bdh1 #ahfd7 dealt *iefly ) ! sep>ation ( ! metals f ea* o!r1 :ile ,gibbs's "w 7#ca1 #fc1 #ahfa2 #cd1 #cda1 #ahfb7 includ$ inve/igations ( _m ( ! comp\nds4 ,x may be m5tion$ t :ile plat9um & its associates 7 =m]ly kn[n only 9 ! uncomb9$ condition 9 nature1 ! ars5ide sp]rylite1 ,pt,as#b1 0 describ$ by ! late ,s4 ,l4 ,p5field1 & ! s5ior writ] ( ?is *apt]1 9 articles publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#cg1 #fg1 #ga1 #ahhi74 ,applications ( ! ,spectroscope4--,! discov]y 9 c]ta9 m9]al wat]s ( ! r>e alkali-metals rubidium & csium by ,buns5 & ,kir*(f 9 #ahfa 0 9 consequ5ce ( ! application ( spectroscopy by ^! same sci5ti/s a %ort "t previ\sly to ! id5tification ( elem5ts imp>t+ colors to ! flame4 ,s9ce t "t ! employm5t ( ! spectroscope = *emical purposes has be5 mu* ext5d$1 z x has be5 us$ 9 ! exam9ation ( light f electric sp>ks & arcs1 z well z f ,geissl] tube dis*>ges & f color$ solutions4 ,! metals rubidium & csium are int]e/+ 9 be+ closely analog\s to potassium & 9 /&+ at ! extreme electro-positive end ( ! s]ies ( kn[n metals4 ,x %\ld be notic$ "h t ,johnson & ,all5 ( our ,%effield ,laboratory1 hav+ obta9$ a good supply ( rubidium & csium mat]ial f ! lepidolite ( ,hebron1 ,ma9e1 made "s important rese>*es ^u ^! elem5ts1 acc\nts ( :i* 7 publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#cd1 #cfg1 #ahfb2 #ce1 #id1 #ahfc74 ,!y e/abli%$ ! atomic weight ( csium1 ?us correct+ ,buns5's det]m9ation :i* 0 unsatisfactory on acc\nt ( ! small quantity & impurity ( 8 mat]ial4 ,pollucite1 a m9]al ri* 9 csium1 :i* _h be5 f\nd 9 v small am\nt on ! ,isl& ( ,elba1 has m rec5tly be5 obta9$ 9 l>ge quantities--hundr$s ( p\nds--at ,p>is1 ,ma9e1 & its vic9ity4 ,?is ,am]ican pollucite 0 fir/ analyz$ & id5tifi$ by ! s5ior writ] ( ?is article 7#da1 #bac1 #ahia71 & lat] 7#dc1 #ag1 #ahib et seq47 ! results ( _m inve/igations on csium & rubidium comp\nds1 9 :i* ! junior writ] play$ an important "p1 c>ri$ out 9 ,%effield ,laboratory1 7 publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal4 ,! application ( ! spectroscope l$ to ! discov]y ( ?allium 9 #ahfa by ,crookes ( ,engl&1 & to t ( indium 9 #ahfc by ,rei* & ,ri*t] 9 ,g]many4 ,bo? ( ^! metals are extremely r>e1 b !y are ( consid]able !oretical int]e/4 ,?allium is p>ticul>ly rem>kable 9 %[+ resemblances 9 its diff]5t comp\nds to sev]al gr\ps ( metals4 ,! spectroscope 0 employ$ aga9 9 connection ) ! discov]y ( gallium 9 #ahge by ,boisbaudran4 ,x is 9 ! same p]iodic gr\p z ?allium & indium1 & x has a rem>kably l[ melt+ po9t1 j above ord9>y room-temp]ature4 ,x has be5 among ! r>e/ ( ! r>e elem5ts1 b )9 two or ?ree ye>s a s\rce ( x has be5 f\nd 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 c]ta9 residues f ! ref9+ ( comm]cial z9c4 ,! rec5t issues ( ! ,j\rnal 7#da1 #cea1 #aiaf2 #db1 #chi1 #aiaf7 %[ t ,br[n+ & ,uhl] ( ,yale h avail$ !mselves ( ?is new mat]ial 9 ord] to make important *emical & physical rese>*es ^u ?is metal4 ,g]manium4--,! discov]y ( g]manium 9 ! m9]al argyrodite 9 #ahhf by ,w9kl] reveal$ a curi\s metal :i* gives a :ite sulphide t may be easily mi/ak5 = sulphur & :i* is volatiliz$ completely :5 its hydro*loric acid solution is evaporat$1 s t x is evasive 9 analytical op]ations4 ,?is elem5t _h be5 pr$ict$ ) mu* accuracy by ,m5deleff1 & x is r closely relat$ to t94 ,a few ye>s aft] ! discov]y ( g]manium1 ,p5field publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#df1 #ajg1 #ahic2 #dg1 #dea1 #ahid7 "s analyses ( argyrodite1 correct+ ! =mula giv5 by ,w9kl] to ! m9]al2 also he describ$ canfieldite1 an analog\s m9]al f ,bolivia1 9 :i* a l>ge "p ( ! g]manium 0 replac$ by t94 ,! ,r>e ,e>?s4--,be=e ! ye> #ahah two r>e e>?s1 ! oxides ( yttrium & c]ium1 7 kn[n 9 an impure condition4 ,s9ce t "t ab\t f\rte5 o!rs h be5 discov]$ z associates ( ! fir/ two4 ,! r>e e>?s are peculi> f ! fact t _m ( !m are always f\nd mix$ toge!r 9 ! m9]als conta9+ !m1 & also f ! circum/ance t mo/ ( !m are rem>kably simil> 9 _! *emical reactions & consequ5tly exce$+ly difficult to sep>ate f ea* o!r4 ,9 _m cases multitudes ( fractional precipitations or cry/allizations are ne$$ to obta9 pure salts ( a numb] ( ^! metals4 ,! solutions ( ! salts ( sev]al ( ^! elem5ts give *>act]i/ic absorption b&s :5 exam9$ spectroscopically by ! use ( transmitt$ light4 ,no important practical application has be5 f\nd = any ( ^! e>?y oxides1 except t ab\t "o p] c5t ( c]ium oxide is mix$ ) ?orium oxide 9 inc&esc5t gas-mantles 9 ord] to obta9 greatly increas$ lum9osity4 ,! ,inactive ,gases4--,z long ago z #aghe1 ,cav5di%1 t rem>kable ,engli%man :o fir/ weigh$ ! _w & fir/ discov]$ ! composition ( wat]1 actually obta9$ a little argon 9 a pure condition by sp>k+ atmosph]ic nitrog5 ) oxyg5 conv]t+ x into nitric acid 7ano!r discov]y ( 87 & absorb+ ! excess ( oxyg54 ,! volume ( ?is residual gas z e/imat$ by him corresponds v closely to ! volume ( argon 9 ! atmosph]e1 z n[ kn[n4 ,x 0 m ?an a c5tury lat]1 9 #ahid1 t ,rayleigh & ,ramsay discov]$ argon 9 ! air4 ,"l ,rayleigh _h f\nd t atmosph]ic nitrog5 0 ab\t "o-half p] c5t heavi] ?an *emical nitrog51 a fact :i* l$ to ! inve/igation4 ,x 0 only necess>y to repeat ,cav5di%'s exp]im5t on a l>ge scale1 or to absorb oxyg5 ) hot copp] & nitrog5 ) hot magnesium1 9 ord] to obta9 argon4 ,! gas attract$ mu* att5tion1 bo? on acc\nt ( hav+ b a s+le atom 9 its molecule1 & p>ticul>ly because x fail$ to ent] into *emical comb9ation ( any k9d4 ,?is gas has be5 us$ ( late = fill+ ! bulbs ( inc&esc5t electric lamps 9 cases :]e a gas pressure )\t *emical action is desir$4 ,9 #ahij & #ahia1 ,hillebr& publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#dj1 #chd1 #ahij3 #db1 #cij1 #ahia7 a s]ies ( analyses ( ! m9]al uran9ite & report$ 9 "s samples ( ! m9]al z mu* z #be p] c5t ( an inactive gas4 ,hillebr& exam9$ ! gas spectroscopically b1 j miss+ an important discov]y1 he detect$ only ! spectrum l9es ( nitrog54 ,ramsay1 9 se>*+ = argon 9 "s sort ( natural comb9ation1 & d\btless rememb]+ ,hillebr&'s "w1 heat$ "s cleveite1 a v>iety ( uran9ite1 & obta9$1 n argon1 b a new gas4 ,?is gave a yell[ spectrum-l9e correspond+ to a l9e previ\sly obs]v$ 9 ! light ( ! sun's corona & attribut$ to an elem5t 9 ! sun call$ helium4 ,helium1 !re=e1 9 #ahie _h be5 f\nd on ! e>?4 ,?is gas is a con/ant con/itu5t ( uranium m9]als1 z x is produc$ by ! break+ d[n ( radioactive elem5ts4 ,x has be5 f\nd 9 v small quantity 9 ! atmosph]e1 & is ! mo/ difficult ( all kn[n gases to liquefy1 z its boil+ po9t1 z %[n by ,onnes 9 #aijh1 is only #d above ! absolute z]o4 ,x has n yet be5 solidifi$4 ,9 #ahih ,ramsay & ,trav]s1 by ! use ( +5i\s me?ods ( fractional di/illation & absorption by *>coal1 obta9$ ?ree o!r mu* r>] inactive gases f ! atmosph]e :i* !y call$ neon1 krypton & x5on4 ,! inactive gases are all colorless1 & z !y =m no *emical comp\nds !y are *>act]iz$ by _! d5sities1 :i* give _! atomic weights1 by _! boil+ po9ts1 & by _! *>act]i/ic ,geissl]-tube spectra4 ,! gase\s radium emanation1 or niton1 belongs also to ! inactive gr\p1 & x 0 also collect$ & /udi$ by ,ramsay :o 0 compell$ to "w ) only #jjjja cc4 ( x1 z ! volume obta9$ by heat+ radium salts is v small4 ,x is an evanesc5t elem5t1 disappe>+ )9 a few days on acc\nt ( radioactive dis9tegration4 ,mean:ile x gl[s brilliantly :5 liquefi$ & cool$ to ! temp]ature ( liquid air4 ,x has an atomic weight ( #bbb1 f\r units bel[ t ( radium1 & ! diff]5ce is consid]$ z due to ! loss by radium ( an atom ( helium 9 pass+ into ! emanation4 ,! ,radioactive ,elem5ts4--,! discov]y ( radium 9 #ahih by ,madame ,curie1 & ! /udy ( t & o!r radioactive elem5ts has produc$ a pr(\nd effect ^u *emical !ory4 ,x 0 f\nd t ! two elem5ts ( ! highe/ atomic weights1 uranium & ?orium1 are always spontane\sly decompos+ into o!r elem5ts at a fix$ rate ( spe$ :i* c be controll$ by no artificial means1 & t ! elem5ts result+ f ^! decompositions likewise und]go spontane\s *anges into /ill o!r elem5ts at greatly v>y+ rates ( spe$1 =m+ 9 ea* case a rem>kable s]ies ( tempor>y elem5ts4 ,^! trans=mations are accompani$ by ! emission at enorm\s velocities ( ?ree k9ds ( rays1 "o v>iety ( :i* has be5 %[n to consi/ ( helium atoms4 ,! great] numb] ( ! elem5ts =m$ 9 ^! trans=mations h n z yet be5 obta9$ 9 a pure condition1 & !y are kn[n only 9 connection ) _! radioactivity1 volatility1 etc42 b radium & niton1 two ( ^! products1 h be5 obta9$ 9 a pure condition1 s t _! atomic weights & _! places 9 ! p]iodic sy/em h be5 fix$4 ,we owe mu* ( our k ( ! radioactive trans=mations to ! rese>*es ( ,ru!r=d & ( ,soddy1 & ( _! co-work]s1 b "o ( ! important products ( ! trans=mation ( uranium1 an elem5t :i* he call$ ionium1 0 *>act]iz$ by ,boltwood ( ,yale 7#be1 #cfe1 #aijh74 ,radium & niton1 ap>t f _! radioactive prop]ties1 resemble b>ium & ! in]t gases ( ! atmosph]e1 respectively4 ,! rates at :i* _! prog5itors produce !m1 & ! rates at :i* !y !mselves decompose1 br+ ab\t a /ate ( equilibrium aft] a "t4 ,!re=e a giv5 am\nt ( uranium1 :i* decomposes exce$+ly sl[ly1 c yield ev5 aft] ?\s&s ( ye>s only a v small proportional quantity ( undecompos$ radium1 "o-half ( :i* disappe>s 9 ab\t #bejj ye>s1 because ! am\nt decompos$ mu/ ev5tually be equal to ! am\nt produc$4 ,! fir/ conclusive evid5ce t radium is a product ( ! decomposition ( uranium 0 giv5 by ,boltwood 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#ah1 #ig1 #aijd74 ,he f\nd t all uranium m9]als conta9 radium2 & ! am\nt ( radium pres5t is always proportional to ! am\nt ( uranium1 :i* %[s ! g5etic relation betwe5 ! two4 ,9 ! case ( niton1 :i* is produc$ by radium1 & is call$ also ! radium emanation1 ! rate ( decay is rapid1 s t if ! gas is expell$ f radium by heat+1 equilibrium is rea*$ aft] a few days1 ) ! accumulation ( ! l>ge/ possible am\nt ( niton4 ,! conclusion has be5 rea*$ by ,ru!r=d & o!rs t ! f9al product besides helium1 9 ! radioactive trans=mations1 is lead1 or at lea/ an elem5t or elem5ts resembl+ lead to su* a degree t no sep>ation ( !m by *emical means is possible4 ,atomic weight det]m9ations by ,ri*>ds & o!rs h %[n t specim5s ( lead f\nd 9 radioactive m9]als give di/9ctly diff]5t atomic weights f t ( ord9>y lead4 ,?is fact has l$ to ! view t possibly ! atoms ( ! elem5ts are n all ( ! same weight1 b v>y )9 c]ta9 limits--a view t is contr>y to previ\s conclusions d]iv$ f ! uni=mity 9 atomic weights obta9$ ) mat]ial f _m diff]5t s\rces4 ,! results ( ! inve/igations ^u radioactivity h l$ to modifi$ views 9 reg>d to ! /ability ( ! elem5ts 9 g5]al4 ,!re has be5 little or no pro( obta9$ t any artificial transmutation ( ! elem5ts is possible1 b ! spontane\s trans=mation ( ! radioactive elem5ts br+s =w>d ! possibility t o!r elem5ts are *ang+ imp]ceptibly1 & t a /ate ( evolution exi/s among !m4 ,all ( ! radioactive *anges t we "k proce$ f high] to l[] atomic weights1 & we are entirely ignorant ( ! process by :i* uranium & ?orium mu/ h be5 produc$ orig9ally4 ,s9ce radioactive *anges h be5 f\nd to be accompani$ by ! release ( va/ am\nts ( en]gy1 comp>$ ) :i* ! en]gy ( *emical reactions is trivial1 a new aspect 9 reg>d to ! /ructure ( atoms has aris51--!y mu/ be complex 9 /ructure1 ! seats ( enorm\s en]gy4 ,! det]m9ation ( ! am\nt ( radium 9 ! e>?'s cru/ has indicat$ t ! heat produc$ by x is amply suffici5t to supply ! loss ( heat due to radiation1 & ?is s\rce ( heat is reg>d$ by _m z ! cause ( volcanic action4 ,! sun's radiant heat also has be5 suppos$ to be suppli$ by radioactive action1 s t ! old] views reg>d+ ! limitation ( ! age ( ! e>? & ! sol> sy/em on acc\nt ( loss ( heat h be5 consid]ably modifi$ by our k ( radioactivity4 ,physical ,*emi/ry4 ,! application ( physical me?ods z aids to *emical sci5ce began 9 e>ly times1 & "s ( ^!1 su* z ! det]m9ations ( gas & vapor d5sities1 specific heats1 & cry/all9e =ms h be5 m5tion$ already 9 ?is article4 ,)9 rec5t times physical *emi/ry has greatly develop$ & a few ( its important a*ievem5ts w n[ be describ$4 ,molecul> ,weight ,det]m9ations4--,gas & vapor d5sities 9 connection ) ,avogadro's pr9ciple1 =m$ ! only basis = molecul> weight det]m9ations until comp>atively rec5t times4 ,! e>ly me?ods ( ,gay-,lussac & ,dumas = vapor d5sity 7 supplem5t$ 9 #ahfh by ! me?od ( ,h(mann1 :]eby vapors 7 measur$ "u dim9i%$ pressure ov] m]cury4 ,9 #ahgh ,victor ,mey] introduc$ a simpl] me?od dep5d+ ^u ! displacem5t ( air or o!r gas by ! vapor 9 a heat$ tube4 ,z refractory tubes1 su* z ^? ( porcela9 or ev5 iridium1 c\ld be us$ 9 ?is me?od1 molecul> weights at extremely high temp]atures 7 det]m9$ ) int]e/+ results4 ,= in/ance1 x 0 f\nd t iod9e vapor1 :i* %[s ! molecule ,i#b at l[] temp]atures1 gradually becomes monatomic ) rise 9 temp]ature1 t sulphur vapor dissociates f ,s#h to ,s#b "u simil> conditions1 & t mo/ ( ! metals1 includ+ silv]1 h monatomic vapors4 ,9 #ahhc & lat] x 0 po9t$ out by ,ra\lt t ! molecul> weights ( sub/ances c\ld be f\nd f ! freez+ po9ts ( _! solutions1 b ?is me?od 0 complicat$ f ! fact t salts1 /rong acids & /rong bases behav$ q diff]5tly f o!r sub/ances 9 ?is respect1 & all[ances _h to be made = ! types ( sub/ances us$4 ,! complication 0 aft]w>ds expla9$ by ! ionization !ory ( ,arrh5ius4 ,bett] app>atus = ?is me?od 0 soon devis$ by ,beckmann1 :o introduc$ also a me?od dep5d+ ^u ! boil+ po9ts ( solutions1 & ^! two me?ods are /ill ! /&>d ones = det]m9+ molecul> weights 9 solution4 ,!y are v ext5sively employ$ by organic *emi/s4 ,x has be5 f\nd t ! majority ( sub/ances :5 dissolv$ h ! same molecul> weight z 9 ! gase\s condition1 provid$ t !y c be volatiliz$ at comp>able temp]atures4 ,= in/ance1 sulphur 9 solution has ! =mula ,s#h1 iod9e is ,i#b & ! metals are monatomic4 ,van't ,h(f's ,law & ,arrh5ius's ,!ory ( ,ions4--,mod]n views on solutions date l>gely f #ahhf1 :5 van't ,h(f call$ att5tion to ! relations exi/+ betwe5 ! osmotic pressure ex]t$ by dissolv$ sub/ances & gas pressure4 ,pfeff]1 a botani/1 0 ! fir/ to measure osmotic pressure 7#ahgg74 ,bas+ 8 conclusions *iefly ^u ,pfeff]'s det]m9ations1 van't ,h(f =mulat$ a new & highly important law1 :i* may be /at$ z foll[s3 ,! osmotic pressure ex]t$ by a sub/ance 9 solution is equal to ! gas pressure t ! sub/ance w\ld ex]t if x 7 a gas at ! same temp]ature & ! same volume4 ,fur!r inve/igations h fully e/abli%$ ! fact t molecules 9 dilute solution obey ! simple laws ( gases4 ,x 0 po9t$ out by van't ,h(f t salts1 /rong acids & /rong bases %[$ m>k$ exceptions to 8 law 9 ex]t+ mu* great] osmotic pressures ?an ^? calculat$ = !m4 ,! next ye> 9 #ahhg1 ,arrh5ius expla9$ ?is abnormal behavior ( salts1 /rong acids & /rong bases by assum+ t !y dissociate spontane\sly into ions :5 !y dissolve1 & t ^! m num]\s p>ticles act l molecules 9 produc+ osmotic pressure4 ,he %[$ t ^! exceptional sub/ances all conduct electricity 9 solution1 :ile ^? con=m+ ) van't ,h(f's law d n1 & accord+ to 8 !ory ! ions become positively or negatively *>g$ :5 !y are =m$1 & ^! *>g$ ions conduct ! curr5t4 ,= example a molecule ( sodium *loride 0 suppos$ to give ! two ions ,na & ,cl-1 ?us ex]t+ twice z mu* osmotic pressure z a s+le molecule4 ,det]m9ations ( osmotic pressure or relat$ values1 su* z depression ( ! freez+ po9t & ( electric conductivity1 indicat$ t ionization c\ld n be reg>d$ z complete 9 any case except 9 exce$+ly dilute solutions1 & t ! ext5t ( ionization v>i$ ) diff]5t sub/ances4 ,! fact t osmotic pressures & electric conductivities gave closely agree+ results 9 reg>d to ! ext5t ( ionization 9 v>i\s cases1 is ! /ronge/ evid5ce 9 support ( ! !ory4 ,x 0 difficult at fir/ = _m *emi/s to believe t atoms1 su* z ^? ( sodium & *lor9e1 & gr\ps su* z ,,nh#d & ,,s#d c\ld exi/ indep5d5tly 9 solution1 ev5 ?\gh electrically *>g$4 ,h[ev]1 ! !ory rapidly ga9$ gr\nd & is n[ accept$ by ne>ly e *emi/ z a satisfactory explanation ( _m facts4 ,dur+ rec5t ye>s1 _m inve/igations relat+ to osmotic pressure & ionization h be5 c>ri$ out 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 b only ! "w ( ,morse1 ,a4 ,a4 ,noyes1 & ! late ,h4 ,c4 ,jones c be m]ely allud$ to "h4 ,x %\ld be m5tion$ t ! em95t au?or ( ! ionic hypo!sis gave ! ,silliman ,memorial c\rse ( lectures at ,yale 9 #aiaa on ,!ories ( ,solution4 ,colloidal ,solutions4--,graham1 an ,engli% *emi/1 9 #ahfa 0 ! fir/ to make a di/9ction betwe5 sub/ances =m+ true solutions1 :i* he call$ cry/alloids1 & ^? ( a gummy nature resembl+ glue1 :i* 9 solution d n diffuse readily ?r\gh p>*m5t membranes1 z cry/alloids d1 & :i* he call$ colloids4 ,! sep>ation ( colloids by means ( p>*m5t 0 call$ dialysis1 & ?is process has come into ext5sive use 9 prep>+ pure colloidal solutions4 ,sl[ diffusion is n[ reg>d$ z *>act]i/ic ( colloids r ?an _! gummy condition4 ,colloidal solutions occupy an int]m$iate position betwe5 true solutions & susp5sions1 resembl+ "o or ! o!r accord+ to ! k9d ( colloid & ! f95ess ( division4 ,by prep>+ filt]s ) pores ( v>y+ degrees ( f95ess1 ,be*old has be5 able to sep>ate colloids f ea* o!r 9 accordance ) ! size ( _! p>ticles4 ,x has also be5 possible to prep>e diff]5t solutions ( a colloid v>y+ gradually f "o 9 :i* ! p>ticles 7 und\bt$ly 9 susp5sion to "o :i* _h _m ( ! prop]ties ( a true solution4 ,beg9n+ 9 #ahhi1 ,c>ey ,lea describ$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#cg1 #dgf1 #ahhi et seq47 a v>iety ( me?ods = prep>+ colloidal solutions ( ! metals1 consi/+ 9 g5]al ( treat+ solutions ( metallic salts ) mild r$uc+ ag5ts4 ,8 "w on colloidal silv] 0 p>ticul>ly ext5sive & int]e/+4 ,solutions ( ?is k9d h rec5tly yield$ "s extremely int]e/+ results by means ( ! ultra-microscope1 an app>atus devis$ by ,zsigmondy & ,si$5topf4 ,a v int5se beam ( light is pass$ ?r\gh ! solution & obs]v$ at "r angles ) a p[]ful microscope4 ,"u ^! conditions1 p>ticles mu* too small to be se5 by o!r means1 reveal _! pres5ce by reflect$ light4 ,x has be5 possible 9 a v dilute solution ( kn[n /r5g? to c\nt ! p>ticles & ?us to calculate _! size4 ,! smalle/ colloidal p>ticles measur$ 9 ?is way 7 ( gold & 7 %[n to h approximately t5 times ! diamet]1 or #ajjj times ! volume1 attribut$ to ord9>y molecules4 ,x is ( int]e/ t ! p>ticles appe> 9 rapid motion correspond+ to ! well-kn[n ,br[nian movem5t4 ,! *emi/ry ( colloids has n[ assum$ su* importance t x may be consid]$ z a sep>ate bran* ( ! sci5ce4 ,x has its own te*nical j\rnal & deals l>gely ) ! *emi/ry ( organic products4 ,all liv+ matt] is built up ( colloids1 & hmoglob91 />*1 prote9s1 rubb] & milk are examples ( colloidal sub/ances or solutions4 ,among inorganic sub/ances1 _m sulphides1 silicic acid1 & ! amorph\s hydroxides1 l f]ric hydroxide1 frequ5tly act z colloids4 ,law ( ,mass ,action4--,b]?ollet ab\t ! beg9n+ ( ! la/ c5tury 0 ! fir/ *emi/ to /udy ! effect ( mass1 or m correctly1 ! conc5tration ( sub/ances on *emical action4 ,8 views summ>iz$ by himself are z foll[s3 8,! *emical activity ( a sub/ance dep5ds ^u ! =ce ( its aff9ity & ^u ! mass :i* is pres5t 9 a giv5 volume40 ,! developm5t ( ?is idea1 :i* is fundam5tally correct1 0 greatly h9d]$ by ! fact t ,b]?ollet drew ! incorrect conclusion t ! composition ( *emical comp\nds dep5d$ ^u ! masses ( ! sub/ances comb9+ to produce !m1 a conclusion 9 direct contradiction to ! law ( def9ite proportions1 & s9ce ?is view 0 soon disprov$ by ,pr\/ & o!rs1 ,b]?ollet's law 9 its o!r applications receiv$ no imm$iate att5tion4 ,mit*ell1 h[ev]1 po9t$ out 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#af1 #bcd1 #ahbi7 ! importance ( ,b]?ollet's "w1 & ,he9ri* ,rose 9 #ahdb aga9 call$ att5tion to ! effect ( mass1 m5tion+ z "o illu/ration ! effect ( wat] & c>bonic acid 9 decompos+ ! v /able natural silicates4 ,some:at lat] sev]al o!r *emi/s made important contributions to ! "q ( ! influ5ce ( conc5tration ^u *emical action1 b x 0 ! ,norwegians1 ,guldb]g & ,waage1 :o fir/ =mulat$ ! law ( mass action 9 #ahfg4 ,?is law has be5 ( enorm\s importance 9 *emical !ory1 s9ce x expla9s a great _m facts ^u a ma!matical basis4 ,x applies p>ticul>ly to equilibrium 9 rev]sible reactions1 :]e x /ates t ! product ( ! conc5trations on ! "o side ( a simple rev]sible equation be>s a con/ant relation to ! products ( ! conc5trations on ! o!r side1 provid$ t ! temp]ature rema9s con/ant4 ,9 cases ( ?is k9d :]e two gases or vapors react ) two solids1 ! latt] if always 9 excess may be reg>d$ z con/ant 9 conc5tration1 & ! law takes on a simpl] aspect 9 apply+ only to ! conc5trations ( ! gase\s sub/ances4 ,= example1 9 ! rev]sible reaction #c;,fe #d;,h#b,o ,fe#c,o#d #d;,h#b1 :i* takes place at r high temp]atures1 a def9ite mixture ( /eam & hydrog5 at a def9ite temp]ature w cause ! reaction to proce$ ) equal rapidity 9 bo? directions1 ?us ma9ta9+ a /ate ( equilibrium1 provid$ t bo? iron & ! oxide are pres5t 9 excess4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! relative conc5trations ( ! hydrog5 & /eam are *ang$1 or ev5 if ! temp]ature is *ang$1 ! reaction w proce$ fa/] 9 "o direction ?an 9 ! o!r until equilibrium is aga9 atta9$4 ,! pr9ciple ( mass action also expla9s :y x is sometimes possible = a rev]sible reaction to become complete 9 ei!r direction4 ,= in/ance1 9 connection ) ! reaction t has j be5 consid]$1 if /eam is pass$ ov] heat$ iron & if hydrog5 is pass$ ov] ! heat$ oxide1 ! gase\s product 9 ea* case is gradually c>ri$ away1 & ! reaction cont9ually proce$s fa/] 9 "o direction ?an 9 ! o!r until x is complete1 accord+ to ! equations #c;,fe #d;,h#b,o #c;,fe#c,o#d #d;,h#b1 & ,fe#c,o#d #d;,h#b #c;,fe #d;,h#b,o4 ,_m o!r well-kn[n & important facts1 bo? *emical & physical1 dep5d ^u ?is law4 ,x expla9s ! circum/ance t a vapor-pressure is n dep5d5t ^u ! am\nt ( ! liquid t is pres5t2 x also expla9s ! con/ant dissociation pressure ( calcium c>bonate at a giv5 temp]ature1 irrespective ( ! am\nts ( c>bonate & oxide pres5t2 9 connection ) ! ionic !ory1 x furni%es ! reason = ! v>iable solubility ( salts due to ! pres5ce ( electrolytes conta9+ ions 9 common2 & x elucidates ,h5ry's law :i* /ates t ! solubilities ( gases are proportional to _! pressures4 ,o/wald1 m ?an any o!r *emi/1 has be5 in/rum5tal 9 mak+ g5]al applications ( ?is law1 & he made p>ticul>ly ext5sive use ( x 9 connection ) analytical *emi/ry 9 a book ^u ?is subject :i* he publi%$4 ,! ,phase ,rule4--,9 #ahgf ,will>d ,gibbs ( ,yale publi%$ a pap] 9 ! ,proce$+s ( ! ,connecticut ,academy ( ,sci5ce on ! 8,equilibrium ( ,het]og5e\s ,sub/ances10 & two ye>s lat] he publi%$ an ab/ract ( ! article 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#af1 #dda1 #ahgh74 ,he _h discov]$ a new law ( nature ( mom5t\s importance & wide application :i* is call$ ! 8,phase-,rule0 & is express$ by a v simple =mula4 ,! application ( ?is great discov]y to *emical !ory 0 delay$ = t5 ye>s1 p>tly1 p]haps1 because x 0 n suffici5tly br\ght to ! att5tion ( *emi/s1 b l>gely x appe>s because x 0 n at fir/ und]/ood1 s9ce its pres5tation 0 entirely ma!matical4 ,x 0 ,rooseboom1 a ,dut* *emi/1 :o fir/ appli$ ! phase-rule4 ,x soon attract$ pr(\nd att5tion1 & ! "n ( ,will>d ,gibbs atta9$ _w-wide fame among *emi/s4 ,:5 ,n]n/1 :o is p]haps ! mo/ em95t physical *emi/ ( ! pres5t "t1 0 deliv]+ ! ,silliman ,memorial ,lectures at ,yale a few ye>s ago1 he took occasion to place a wrea? on ! grave ( ,will>d ,gibbs 9 recognition ( 8 a*ievem5ts4 ,to und]/& ! rule1 x is necess>y to def9e ! ?ree t]ms1 introduc$ by ,gibbs1 phase1 degrees ( fre$om & compon5t4 ,by ! fir/ t]m1 is meant ! p>ts ( any sy/em ( sub/ances :i* are me*anically sep>able4 ,= in/ance1 wat] 9 contact ) its vapor has two phases1 :ile a solution ( salt & wat] is compos$ ( b "o4 ,! degrees ( fre$om are ! numb] ( physical conditions1 includ+ pressure1 temp]ature & conc5tration1 :i* c be v>i$ indep5d5tly 9 a sy/em )\t de/roy+ a phase4 ,! exact def9ition ( a compon5t is n s simple1 b 9 g5]al1 ! compon5ts ( a sy/em are ! integral p>ts ( :i* x is compos$4 ,any sy/em made up ( ! comp\nd ,h#b,o1 = in/ance1 :e!r z ice1 wat] or vapor1 conta9s b "o compon5t1 :ile a solution ( salt & wat] conta9s two4 ,lett+ ,p1 ,f1 & ,c /& = ! ?ree t]ms1 ! phase-rule is simply ,f ,c #b ,p t is1 ! numb] ( degrees ( fre$om 9 a sy/em 9 equilibrium equals ! numb] ( compon5ts1 plus two1 m9us ! numb] ( phases4 ,! rule c be easily und]/ood by means ( a simple illu/ration4 ,9 a sy/em compos$ ( ice1 wat] & wat] vapor1 !re are ?ree phases & "o compon5t & !re=e ,f #a #b #c #j ,su* a sy/em has no degrees ( fre$om4 ,?is means t no physical condition1 pressure or temp]ature c be v>i$ )\t de/roy+ a phase1 s t su* a sy/em c only exi/ 9 equilibrium at "o fix$ temp]ature1 ) a fix$ value = its vapor-pressure4 ,illu/ration3 ,j4 ,william ,gibbs ,= in/ance1 if ! sy/em is heat$ above ! fix$ temp]ature1 ice disappe>s & if ! pressure is rais$1 vapor is cond5s$4 ,if ?is same sy/em ( wat] alone conta9s b two phases1 = in/ance1 liquid & vapor1 ,f #a #b #b #a1 or !re is "o degree ( fre$om4 ,9 su* a sy/em1 "o physical condition su* z temp]ature c be v>i$ indep5d5tly1 b only "o1 )\t de/roy+ a phase4 ,= in/ance1 ! temp]ature may be rais$ or l[]$1 b = e value ( temp]ature !re is a correspond+ value = ! vapor-pressure4 ,"o is a function ( ! o!r4 ,if bo? values are v>i$ indep5d5tly1 "o phase w disappe>1 ei!r vapor cond5s+ entirely to wat] or ! rev]se4 ,f9ally if ! sy/em consi/s ( "o phase only1 z wat] vapor1 ,f #b1 or ! sy/em is div>iant1 :i* means t at any giv5 temp]ature x is possible = vapor to exi/ at v>y+ pressures4 ,! illu/ration :i* has be5 giv5 relates to physical equilibrium1 b ! rule is applicable to cases involv+ *emical *anges z well4 ,9 comp>+ ! phase-rule ) ! law ( mass action1 x w be notic$ t bo? h to d ) equilibrium4 ,! great advantage ( ! =m] is t x is entirely indep5d5t ( ! molecul> condition ( ! sub/ances 9 ! diff]5t phases4 ,= in/ance1 x makes no diff]5ce s f> z ! application ( ! rule is conc]n$1 :e!r a sub/ance 9 solution is dissociat$1 undissociat$ or comb9$ ) ! solv5t4 ,9 any case1 ! solution con/itutes "o phase4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! rule is purely qualitative1 giv+ in=mation only z to :e!r a giv5 *ange 9 conditions is possible4 ,! law ( mass action is a quantitative expression s t :5 ! value ( ! con/ant is once kn[n1 ! *ange c be calculat$ :i* takes place 9 ! entire sy/em if ! conc5tration ( "o sub/ance is v>i$4 ,! law1 h[ev]1 requires a k ( ! molecul> condition ( ! react+ sub/ances1 :i* may be unc]ta9 or unkn[n1 & *iefly on ?is acc\nt x has1 l ! phase-rule1 (t5 only a qualitative significance4 ,! phase rule has s]v$ z a mo/ valuable means ( classify+ sy/ems 9 equilibrium & z a guide 9 det]m9+ ! possible conditions "u :i* su* sy/ems c exi/4 ,z illu/rations ( its practical application1 van't ,h(f us$ x z an und]ly+ pr9ciple 9 8 inve/igations on ! conditions "u :i* salt deposits h be5 =m$ 9 nature1 & ,rooseboom 0 able by its means to expla9 ! v complicat$ relations exi/+ 9 ! alloys ( iron & c>bon :i* =m ! v>i\s grades ( wr\ght iron1 /eel & ca/ iron4 ,!rmo*emi/ry4--,?is bran* ( *emi/ry has to d ) heat evolv$ or absorb$ 9 *emical reactions4 ,x is important *iefly because 9 _m cases x furni%es ! only measure we h ( ! en]gy *anges involv$ 9 reactions4 ,to a great ext5t1 x dates f ! discov]y by ,hess 9 #ahdj ( a fundam5tal law :i* /ates t ! heat evolv$ 9 a reaction is ! same :e!r x takes place 9 "o or 9 sev]al /ages4 ,?is law has made x possible to calculate ! heat values ( a l>ge numb] ( reactions :i* _c be det]m9$ by direct exp]im5t4 ,!rmo*emi/ry has be5 develop$ by a comp>atively few m5 :o h contribut$ a surpris+ly l>ge numb] ( results4 ,favre & ,silb]mann1 beg9n+ %ortly aft] #ahej1 improv$ ! app>atus = calorimetric det]m9ations1 :i* is call$ ! calorimet]1 & publi%$ _m results4 ,at ab\t ! same "t ,julius ,?oms51 & 9 #ahgc ,b]!lot1 began _! rem>kable s]ies ( publications :i* cont9u$ until rec5tly4 ,?oms5's inve/igations 7 publi%$ 9 #ahhb 9 #d volumes4 ,x is probably safe to say t ! great] "p ( ! data ( !rmo*emi/ry 0 obta9$ by ^! two inve/igators4 ,! bomb calorimet]1 an app>atus = det]m9+ heat values by direct combu/ion1 0 develop$ by ,b]!lot4 ,! rec5t "w ( ,mixt] at ,yale1 publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal1 & ( ,ri*>ds at ,h>v>d %\ld be m5tion$ p>ticul>ly4 ,mixt]'s "w 9 ?is field began 9 #aija 7#ab1 #cdg74 ,us+ an improv$ bomb calorimet]1 he has develop$ a me?od ( det]m9+ ! heats ( =mation ( oxides by combu/ion ) sodium p]oxide4 ,by ?is same me?od z well z by direct combu/ion 9 oxyg51 he has obta9$ results :i* appe> to equal or excel 9 accuracy any :i* h ev] be5 obta9$ 9 8 field ( "w4 ,ri*>ds's "w has consi/$ l>gely ( improvem5ts 9 app>atus4 ,he develop$ ! s-call$ adiabatic calorimet] :i* practically elim9ates "o ( ! *ief errors 9 !rmal "w caus$ by ! heat+ or cool+ effect ( ! surr\nd+s4 ,?is modification is be+ g5]ally adopt$ :]e extremely accurate "w is requir$4 ,organic ,*emi/ry4 ,"o hundr$ ye>s ago qualitative te/s = a few organic comp\nds 7 kn[n1 ! elem5ts usually occurr+ 9 !m 7 recogniz$1 & "s ( !m _h be5 analyz$ quantitatively1 b organic *emi/ry 0 f> less advanc$ ?an inorganic1 & almo/ ! :ole ( its enorm\s developm5t has tak5 place dur+ our p]iod4 ,b]zelius made a great advance 9 ! subject by e/abli%+ ! fact1 :i* _h be5 d\bt$ previ\sly1 t ! elem5ts 9 organic comp\nds are comb9$ 9 con/ant1 def9ite proportions4 ,9 #ahbc ,liebig br\ght to light ! exce$+ly important fact ( isom]ism by %[+ t silv] fulm9ate _h ! same p]c5tage composition z silv] cyanate1 a comp\nd ( v diff]5t prop]ties4 ,isom]ic comp\nds ) id5tical molecul> weight z well z ! same composition h s9ce be5 f\nd 9 v _m cases1 & !y h play$ a mo/ important "p 9 det]m9+ ! arrangem5ts ( atoms 9 molecules4 ,!y h be5 f\nd to be v num]\s 9 _m cases4 ,= in/ance1 ?ree p5tanes ) ! =mula ,c#e;,h#ab;are kn[n1 all t are possible accord+ to !ory1 & 9 ea* case ! /ructure ( ! molecule has be5 e/abli%$4 ,on !oretical gr\nds x has be5 calculat$ t #hjb isom]ic comp\nds ) ! =mula ,c#ac;,h#bh are possible1 :ile ) m complex =mulas ! numb]s ( isom]s may be v mu* great]4 ,a p>ticul>ly int]e/+ case ( isom]ism 0 obs]v$ by ,whl] 9 #ahbh1 :5 he f\nd t ammonium cyanate *anges spontane\sly into urea 7,,nh#d;,,cno ,n#b;,h#d;,,co74 ,?is 0 ! fir/ syn!sis ( an organic comp\nd f inorganic mat]ial1 & x ov]?rew ! prevail+ view t vital =ces 7 ess5tial 9 ! =mation ( organic sub/ances4 ,a great _m natural organic comp\nds h be5 made artificially s9ce t "t1 & "s ( !m1 su* z artificial aliz>91 indigo1 oil ( w9t]gre51 & vanill91 h m or less fully replac$ ! natural products4 ,! prep>ation ( a va/ numb] ( comp\nds n kn[n 9 nature1 _m ( :i* are ( practical importance z m$ic9es1 dyes1 explosives1 etc41 has be5 ano!r great a*ievem5t ( organic *emi/ry4 ,! developm5t ( our pres5t =mulas = organic comp\nds1 by means ( :i* 9 _m cases ! relative positions ( ! atoms c be %[n ) ! greate/ confid5ce1 has be5 gradual4 ,=mulas bas$ on ! duali/ic idea ( ,b]zelius 7 us$ = "s "t1 type-=mulas1 ) ! employm5t ( comp\nd radicals1 came lat]1 ! sub/itution ( atoms or gr\ps ( atoms = o!rs 9 *emical reactions came to be recogniz$1 b "o ( ! mo/ important /eps 0 ! recognition ( ! quadrival5ce ( c>bon & ! g5]al application ( val5cy to atoms by ,kekul ab\t #aheh4 ,?is l$ directly to ! use ( mod]n /ructural =mulas :i* h be5 ( ! greate/ value 9 ! !oretical int]pretation ( organic reactions4 ,x 0 ,kekul also :o propos$ ! hexagonal r+-=mula = b5z5e1 ,c#f;,h#f1 :i* l$ to exce$+ly important !oretical & practical developm5ts4 ,! details ( ! =mulas = _m o!r r+s & complex /ructures h be5 e/abli%$ s9ce t "t1 & !re is no d\bt t ! rem>kable a*ievem5ts 9 organic *emi/ry dur+ ! pa/ sixty ye>s h be5 mu* facilitat$ by ! use ( ^! =mulas4 ,_m important rese>*es 9 organic *emi/ry h be5 c>ri$ out 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ! activity 9 ?is direction has greatly increas$ 9 rec5t ye>s4 ,9 ?is connection ! l>ge am\nt ( "w ( ?is k9d accompli%$ 9 ! ,%effield ,laboratory1 at pres5t "u ! guidance ( ,pr(essor ,t4 ,b4 ,johnson1 %\ld be m5tion$4 ,x has happ5$ t comp>atively few publications on organic *emi/ry h appe>$ 9 ! ,j\rnal1 b x may be /at$ t ! prep>ation ( *lor(orm & its physiological effects 7 describ$ by ,gu?rie 7#ba1 #fd1 #ahcb74 ,unkn[n to him1 x _h be5 prep>$ by ,s\b]a91 a ,fr5* *emi/1 ! previ\s ye>1 b ! =m] 0 ! fir/ to describe its physiological action4 ,silliman gave a sample to ,doctor ,eli ,ives ( ! ,yale ,m$ical ,s*ool1 :o us$ x to relieve a case ( a/hma4 ,?is 0 ! fir/ use ( *lor(orm 9 m$ical practice 7#ba1 #dje1 #ahcb74 ,gu?rie also describ$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#ba1 #bhd1 #ahcb7 8 new process = conv]t+ potato />* into glucose1 a me?od :i* is ess5tially ! same z t us$ to-day 9 conv]t+ corn/>* into glucose4 ,lawr5ce ,smi? 7#dc1 #cja1 #ahdb et seq471 ,hors=d 7#c1 #cfi1 #ahdg et seq471 ,/]ry ,hunt 7#g1 #cii1 #ahdi71 ,c>ey ,lea 7#bf1 #cgi1 #aheh et seq471 ,rems5 7#e1 #agi1 #ahgc et seq471 & o!rs h contribut$ articles on organic *emi/ry4 ,agricultural ,*emi/ry4 ,until ne> ! middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 x 0 believ$ t plants1 l animals1 us$ organic matt] = food1 & dep5d$ *iefly ^u ! humus ( ! soil = _! gr[?4 ,?is view 0 held ev5 long aft] x 0 kn[n t plant leaves absorb c>bon dioxide & give (f oxyg51 & aft] ! a%es ( plants _h be5 accurately analyz$4 ,?is incorrect view 0 ov]?r[n by ! celebrat$ ,g]man *emi/1 ,liebig1 :o made _m inve/igations ^u ! subject1 &1 prop]ly int]pret+ previ\s k1 publi%$ a book 9 #ahdj ^u ! application ( *emi/ry to agriculture & physiology 9 :i* he ma9ta9$ t ! nutritive mat]ials ( all gre5 plants are inorganic sub/ances1 namely1 c>bon dioxide1 wat]1 ammonia 7nitrates71 sulphates1 phosphates1 silica1 lime1 magnesia1 pota%1 iron1 & sometimes common salt4 ,he drew ! va/ly important conclusion t ! effective f]tilization ( soils dep5ds ^u repl5i%+ ! inorganic sub/ances t h be5 exhau/$ by ! crops4 ,! fundam5tal pr9ciples set =? by ,liebig h be5 confirm$1 & x has be5 f\nd t ! f]tiliz+ con/itu5ts mo/ commonly lack+ 9 soils are nitrog5 comp\nds1 phosphates1 & potassium salts1 s t ^! h =m$ ! important con/itu5ts ( artificial f]tiliz]s4 ,liebig himself f\nd t humus is valuable 9 soils1 because x absorbs & reta9s ! soluble salts4 ,! f\ndation e/abli%$ by ,liebig 9 reg>d to artificial f]tiliz]s has l$ to an enorm\s application ( ^! mat]ials1 mu* to ! advantage ( ! _w's food supply4 ,x 0 ,liebig's belief1 9 accordance ) ! prevail+ views1 t decay & putrefaction z well z alcoholic & o!r f]m5tations 7 spontane\s processes1 & :5 ! em95t ,fr5* *emi/1 ,pa/eur1 9 #aheg1 expla9$ f]m5tation z directly caus$ by yea/1 an epo*-mak+ discov]y :i* l$ to ! explanation ( decay & putrefaction by bact]ial action & to ! g]m-!ory ( disease1 ! explanation 0 viol5tly oppos$ by ,liebig & o!r ,g]man *emi/s4 ,pa/eur's view prevail$1 h[ev]1 & s9ce t "t x has be5 f\nd t v>i\s k9ds ( bact]ia are responsible = ! =mation ( ammonia f nitrog5\s organic matt] & also = ! *ange ( ammonia into ! nitrates t are available z plant-food4 ,! long-debat$ "q z to ! availability ( atmosph]ic nitrog5 = plant-food 0 settl$ 9 #ahhf by ! discov]y ( ,hellriegel t bact]ia conta9$ 9 nodules on ! roots1 especially ( legum9\s plants1 are capable ( br++ nitrog5 into comb9ation & furni%+ x to ! plants4 ,no m ?an an allusion c be made to agricultural exp]im5t /ations :]e soils1 f]tiliz]s1 foods & o!r products are exam9$1 & :]e o!r problems connect$ ) agriculture are /udi$4 ,! late ,s4 ,w4 ,johnson ( ,yale /udi$ ) ,liebig & subsequ5tly did mu* s]vice = agricultural *emi/ry 9 ?is c\ntry1 by 8 inve/igations1 8 tea*+1 & 8 writ+s4 ,8 book1 8,h[ ,crops ,gr[10 publi%$ 9 #ahfh1 gave an excell5t acc\nt ( ! pr9ciples ( agricultural *emi/ry4 ,he did mu* to br+ ab\t ! e/abli%m5t ( agricultural exp]im5t /ations 9 ?is c\ntry1 & = a long "t he 0 ! director ( ! ,connecticut ,/ation4 ,9 ! ,j\rnal1 z e>ly z #ahbg1 ,amos ,eaton 7#ab1 #cgj7 publi%$ a simple me?od = ! me*anical analysis ( soils to det]m9e _! suitability = :eat-culture1 & ,hilg>d1 betwe5 #ahgb & #ahgd1 describ$ an elaborate /udy ( soil-analysis4 ,j4 ,p4 ,norton1 a ,yale pr(essor1 9 #ahdg 7#c1 #cbb7 publi%$ an inve/igation on ! analysis ( ! oat1 :i* 0 aw>d$ a prize ( fifty sov]eigns by a ,scot* agricultural society1 :ile ,johnson1 ,atwat]1 & o!rs h contribut$ articles on ! analysis ( v>i\s f>m products4 ,indu/rial ,acids & ,alkalies4 ,"o hundr$ ye>s ago sulphuric acid 0 manufactur$ on a comp>atively v small scale 9 lead *amb]s4 ,9 #ahah1 an ,engli% manufactur] ( ! acid introduc$ ! mod]n feature ( us+ pyrites 9 ! place ( brim/one1 :ile ! ,gay-,lussac t[] 9 #ahbg & ! ,glov] t[] 9 #ahei began to be appli$ z great improvem5ts 9 ! *amb] process4 ,)9 ab\t tw5ty ye>s ! contact process1 employ+ plat9iz$ asbe/os1 has replac$ ! old *amb] process to a l>ge ext5t4 ,x has ! advantage ( produc+ ! conc5trat$ acid1 or ! fum+ acid1 directly4 ,dur+ our p]iod ! manufacture ( sulphuric acid has increas$ enorm\sly4 ,v l>ge quantities ( x h be5 us$ 9 connection ) ! ,leblanc soda process 9 its rapid developm5t4 ,x came to be employ$ ext5sively = absorb+ ammonia 9 ! illum9at+-gas indu/ry1 :i* 0 9 its infancy "o hundr$ ye>s ago4 ,new indu/ries su* z ! manufacture ( 8sup]phosphates0 z artificial f]tiliz]s1 ! ref9+ ( petroleum1 ! manufacture ( artificial dye/uffs & _m o!r mod]n *emical products h greatly increas$ ! dem& = x1 :ile its employm5t 9 ! production ( nitric & o!r acids1 & = _m o!r purposes n already m5tion$1 has be5 v great4 ,! manufacture ( nitric acid has be5 greatly ext5d$ dur+ our p]iod on acc\nt ( its employm5t = produc+ explosives1 artificial dye/uffs1 & = _m o!r purposes4 ,*ile saltpet] became available = mak+ x ab\t #aheb4 ,?is acid has be5 manufactur$ rec5tly f atmosph]ic nitrog5 & oxyg5 by comb9+ !m by ! aid ( p[]ful electric dis*>ges4 ,?is process has be5 us$ *iefly 9 ,norway :]e wat]-p[] is abundant1 z x requires a l>ge exp5diture ( en]gy4 ,a /ill m rec5t me?od = ! production ( nitric acid dep5ds ^u ! oxidation ( ammonia by air ) ! aid ( a contact sub/ance1 su* z plat9iz$ asbe/os4 ,! production ( ammonia1 :i* 0 v small a hundr$ ye>s ago1 has be5 va/ly increas$ 9 connection ) ! developm5t ( ! illum9at+-gas indu/ry & ! employm5t ( by-product coke ov5s4 ,?is sub/ance is v ext5sively us$ 9 refrig]at+ ma*9es & also 9 a great _m *emical op]ations1 includ+ ! ,solvay soda process4 ,ammonium salts are ( great importance also z f]tiliz]s 9 agriculture4 ,! conv]sion ( atmosph]ic nitrog5 into ammonia on a comm]cial scale is a rec5t a*ievem5t4 ,x has be5 accompli%$ by heat+ calcium c>bide1 an electric-furnace product made f lime & coke1 ) nitrog5 gas1 ?us produc+ calcium cyanamide1 & !n treat+ ?is cyanamide ) wat] "u prop] conditions4 ,ano!r me?od devis$ by ,hab] consi/s 9 directly comb9+ nitrog5 & hydrog5 gases "u high pressure ) ! aid ( a contact sub/ance4 ,leblanc's me?od = obta9+ sodium c>bonate f sodium *loride by fir/ conv]t+ ! latt] into ! sulphate by means ( sulphuric acid & !n heat+ ! sulphate ) lime & coal 9 a furnace 0 inv5t$ z e>ly z #agia1 b x 0 n rapidly develop$ & did n ga9 a foo?old 9 ,engl& until #ahbf on acc\nt ( a high duty on salt up to t "t4 ,aft]w>ds ! process fl\ri%$ greatly 9 connection ) ! sulphuric acid indu/ry ^u :i* x dep5d$1 & ) ! blea*+-p[d] indu/ry :i* utiliz$ ! hydro*loric acid incid5tally produc$ by x1 &1 ( c\rse1 9 connection ) soap manufacture & _m o!r indu/ries 9 :i* ! soda itself 0 employ$4 ,ab\t #ahff ! ,solvay process appe>$ z a rival to ! ,leblanc process4 ,?is dep5ds ^u ! precipitation ( sodium bic>bonate f salt solutions by means ( c>bon dioxide & ammonia1 ) ! subsequ5t recov]y ( ! ammonia4 ,x has displac$ ! old] process to a l>ge ext5t1 & x is c>ri$ on ext5sively 9 ?is c\ntry1 = in/ance1 at ,syracuse1 ,new ,york4 ,o!r processes = soda dep5d ^u ! electrolysis ( sodium *loride solutions4 ,9 ?is case cau/ic soda & *lor9e are ! direct products1 & ! *lor9e ?us produc$ & liquefi$ by pressure 9 /eel cyl9d]s1 has become an important comm]cial article4 ,9 e>li] times wood-a%es 7 ! s\rce ( pota% & potassium salts4 ,wurtz 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#aj1 #cbf1 #ahej7 sugge/$ ! availability ( ,new ,j]sey gre5s& z a s\rce ( pota% & %[$ h[ ?is m9]al c\ld be decompos$1 b x does n appe> t ?is m9]al has ev] be5 utiliz$ = ! purpose4 ,ab\t #ahfa ! ,g]man pota%-salt deposits began to be develop$1 & ^! h s9ce become ! *ief s\rce ( ?is mat]ial4 ,at pres5t _m ef=ts are be+ made to obta9 potassium comp\nds f o!r s\rces1 su* z br9es1 cem5t-kiln du/1 & feldsp> & o!r m9]als b ?us f> ! results h n satisfi$ ! dem&4 ,conclusion4 ,?is acc\nt ( *emical progress has giv5 only a limit$ view ( small portions ( ! subject1 because ! am\nt ( available mat]ial is s va/ 9 comp>ison ) ! space all[$ = its pres5tation4 ,s9ce ! ,j\rnal has publi%$ comp>atively little organic *emi/ry1 x 0 decid$ to make room = a bett] pres5tation ( o!r ?+s by giv+ only a brief discussion ( ?is exce$+ly active & important bran* ( ! sci5ce4 ,= simil> reasons indu/rial & metallurgical *emi/ry1 & o!r bran*es besides1 9 spite ( _! great gr[? & importance1 h be5 neglect$1 except = "s incid5tal ref]5ces to !m1 & "s acc\nt ( a few ( ! m important indu/rial *emicals4 ,x appe>s t we h mu* reason to be pr\d ( ! advances 9 *emi/ry t h be5 made dur+ ! ,j\rnal's p]iod1 & ( ! "p t ! ,j\rnal has tak5 9 connection ) !m1 & !re seems to be no d\bt t ?is progress has n dim9i%$ dur+ m rec5t times4 ,! pres5t t5d5cy ( *emical rese>* is evid5tly t[>ds a /ill great] developm5t ( organic *emi/ry1 & an increas$ application ( physics & ma!matics to *emical !ory & practice4 ,! v great improvem5ts t h be5 made 9 *emical education1 bo? 9 ! numb] ( /ud5ts & ! quality ( in/ruction1 dur+ ! p]iod "u discussion1 & p>ticul>ly 9 r rec5t times1 gives promise = excell5t future progress4 ,note4 ,footnote #aec3 ,x appe>s t ! mo/ accurate exp]im5tal demon/ration ev] made ( ?is law 0 t ( ,e4 ,w4 ,morley1 publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#da1 #bbj1 #bgf1 #ahia74 ,he %[$ t #bjjjb volumes ( hydrog5 comb9e ) "o volume ( oxyg54 ,,xi ,a ,,c5tury',s ,,progress ,,9 ,,physics ,by ,,leigh ,,page ,dynamics4--,at ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury me*anics 0 ! only major bran* ( physical sci5ce :i* _h atta9$ any consid]able degree ( developm5t4 ,two c5turies e>li]1 ,galileo's exp]im5ts on ! rate ( fall ( iron balls dropp$ f ! top ( ! ,lean+ ,t[] ( ,pisa1 _h m>k$ ! orig9 ( dynamics4 ,he _h easily disprov$ ! preval5t idea t ev5 "u conditions :]e air resi/ance is negligible heavy bodies w\ld fall m rapidly ?an light ones1 & fur!r exp]im5ts _h l$ him to conclude t ! increase 9 velocity is proportional to ! "t elaps$1 & n to ! di/ance trav]s$1 z he _h at fir/ suppos$4 ,less ?an a c5tury lat] ,newton _h =mulat$ ! laws ( motion 9 ! same words 9 :i* !y are giv5 to-day4 ,^! laws ( motion1 c\pl$ ) 8 discov]y ( ! law ( univ]sal gravitation1 _h enabl$ him to correlate at once ! planet>y notions :i* _h prov$ s puzzl+ to 8 pr$ecessors4 ,8 success gave a trem5d\s /imulus to ! developm5t & ext5sion ( ! fundam5tal dynamical pr9ciples t he _h br\ght to light1 :i* culm9at$ 9 ! "w ( ! great ,fr5* ma!maticians1 ,lagrange & ,laplace1 a little ov] a hundr$ ye>s ago4 ,newton's laws ( motion1 x mu/ be rememb]$1 apply only to a p>ticle1 or to ^? bodies :i* c be treat$ z p>ticles 9 ! problem "u consid]ation4 ,9 8 8,mcanique ,analytique0 ,lagrange ext5d$ ^! pr9ciples s z to make x possible to treat ! motion ( a connect$ sy/em by a me?od almo/ z simple z t conta9$ 9 ! second law ( motion4 ,in/ead ( ?ree scal> equations = ea* ( ! innum]ably l>ge numb] ( p>ticles involv$1 he %[$ h[ to r$uce ! ord9>y dynamical equations to a numb] equal to t ( ! degrees ( fre$om ( ! sy/em4 ,?is is made possible by a comb9ation ( d',alemb]t's pr9ciple1 :i* elim9ates ! =ces due to ! connections betwe5 ! p>ticles1 & ! pr9ciple ( virtual "w1 :i* conf9es ! numb] ( equations to ! numb] ( possible indep5d5t displacem5ts4 ,! aim ( ,lagrange 0 to make dynamics into a bran* ( analysis1 & 8 success may be inf]r$ f ! fact t n a s+le diagram or geometrical figure is to be f\nd 9 8 great "w4 ,cele/ial ,me*anics4--,almo/ simultane\sly ) ! publication ( ! 8,mcanique ,analytique0 appe>$ ,laplace's 8,mcanique ,cele/e40 ,laplace's av[$ aim 0 to (f] a complete solution ( ! great dynamical problem involv$ 9 ! sol> sy/em1 tak+ into acc\nt1 9 addition to ! effect ( ! sun's gravitational field1 ^? p]turbations 9 ! motion ( ea* planet caus$ by ! approa* & recession ( its neighbors4 ,s successful 0 8 analysis ( planet>y motions t 8 contempor>ies believ$ t !y 7 n f> f a complete explanation ( ! _w on me*anical pr9ciples4 ,laplace himself 0 und\bt$ly conv9c$ t no?+ 0 ne$$ beyond a k ( ! masses1 positions1 & initial velocities ( e mat]ial p>ticle 9 ! univ]se 9 ord] to completely pr$et]m9e all subsequ5t motion4 ,! greate/ triumph ( ^! dynamical me?ods 0 to come half a c5tury lat]4 ,! planet ,uranus1 discov]$ 9 #agha by ! eld] ,h]s*el1 0 at t "t ! f>!/ kn[n planet f ! sun4 ,b ! orbit ( ,uranus 0 subject to "s puzzl+ v>iations4 ,aft] sift+ all ! kn[n causes ( ^! di/urbances1 ,lev]ri] 9 ,france & ,adams 9 ,engl& indep5d5tly rea*$ ! conclusion t ano!r planet /ill m remote f ! sun mu/ be responsible1 & comput$ its orbit4 ,lev]ri] communicat$ to ,galle ( ,b]l9 ! results ( 8 calculations1 & dur+ ! next few days ! ,g]man a/ronom] discov]$ ,neptune )9 "o degree ( its pr$ict$ position6 ,illu/ration3 ,h4 ,a4 ,newton ,we %all m5tion b "o o!r a*ievem5t ( ! me?ods ( cele/ial me*anics4 ,^? visitors ( ! skies1 ! comets1 :i* become s prom95t only to fade away & vani% p]haps =ev]1 _h int]e/$ a/ronom]s f ! e>lie/ times4 ,soon aft] ! discov]y ( ! law ( gravitation1 ,newton _h work$ out a me?od by :i* ! elem5ts ( a comet's orbit c be comput$ f obs]vations ( its position4 ,x 0 f\nd t ! great majority ( ^! bodies move 9 ne>ly p>abolic pa?s & only a few 9 ellipses4 ,( ! latt] ! mo/ prom95t is ! brilliant comet fir/ obs]v$ by ,halley 9 #afha4 ,x has reappe>$ regul>ly at int]vals ( sev5ty-six ye>s2 ! la/ appe>ance 9 ! spr+ ( #aiaj is no d\bt well rememb]$ by ! read]4 ,kant _h consid]$ comets to be =m$ by cond5s+ sol> nebul1 :]eas ,laplace _h ma9ta9$ t !y orig9ate 9 matt] :i* is scatt]$ ?r\gh\t /ell> space & has no connection ) ! sol> sy/em4 ,a /udy ( ! di/ribution ( incl9ations ( comet orbits by ,h4 ,a4 ,newton 7#af1 #afe1 #ahgh7 ( ,new ,hav5 sub/antiat$ ,laplace's hypo!sis1 & l$ to ! conclusion t ! p]iodic comets h be5 captur$ by ! attraction ( ^? planets ne> to :i* !y h pass$4 ,( ^! comets a numb] h comp>atively %ort p]iods1 & are f\nd to h orbits :i* are 9 g5]al only slightly incl9$ to ^? ( ! planets1 & are trav]s$ 9 ! same direction4 ,moreov]1 ! fact t ! orbit ( ea* ( ^! comets comes v close to t ( ,jupit] made x seem probable t !y h be5 atta*$ to ! sol> sy/em by ! attraction ( ?is planet4 ,fur!r confirmation ( ?is hypo!sis 0 furni%$ by ,h4 ,a4 ,newton's 7#db1 #ahc & #dhb1 #ahia7 explanation ( ! small incl9ation ( _! orbits & ! sc>city ( retrograde motions among !m4 ,9 #ahcc occurr$ "o ( ! greate/ meteoric %[]s ( hi/ory4 ,olm/ead 7#bf1 #acb1 #ahcd7 & ,tw9+ 7#bf1 #cbj1 #ahcd7 ( ,new ,hav5 notic$ t ^! %oot+ />s trav]se p>allel pa?s1 & 7 ! fir/ to sugge/ t !y mu/ be mov+ 9 sw>ms 9 a p]man5t orbit4 ,f an exam9ation ( all accessible records1 ,h4 ,a4 ,newton 7#cg1 #cgg1 #ahfd2 #ch1 #ec1 #ahfd7 0 able to %[ t meteoric %[]s are common 9 ,novemb]1 & ( p>ticul> int5sity at int]vals ( #cc or #cd ye>s4 ,he confid5tly pr$ict$ a great %[] = ,nov4 #ac?1 #ahff1 :i* n only actually occurr$ b 0 foll[$ by ano!r a ye> lat]1 %[+ t ! meteoric sw>m ext5d$ s f> z to require two ye>s to cross ! e>?'s orbit4 ,h4 ,a4 ,newton 7#cf1 #a1 #ahhh7 9 ,am]ica & ,adams 9 ,engl& took up ! /udy ( meteoric orbits ) great int]e/1 & ! =m] conclud$ t ^! orbits are 9 e s5se simil> to ^? ( ! p]iodic comets1 imply+ t a sw>m ( meteors orig9ates 9 ! dis9tegration ( a comet4 ,9 fact ,s*iap>elli actually id5tifi$ ! orbit ( ! ,p]seids1 or ,augu/ meteors1 ) ,tuttle's comet ( #ahfb1 & %ortly aft] ! orbit ( ! ,leonids1 or ,novemb] meteors1 0 f\nd to be ! same z t ( ,tempel's comet4 ,electromagnetism4--,dur+ ! eighte5? c5tury mu* int]e/ _h be5 manife/$ 9 ! /udy ( electro/atics & magnetism4 ,du ,fay1 ,cav5di%1 ,mi*ell & ,c\lomb abroad & ,frankl9 9 ,am]ica _h subject$ to exp]im5tal inve/igation _m ( ! ph5om5a ( "o or bo? ( ^! sci5ces1 & 9 ! e>ly ye>s ( ! n9ete5? c5tury ,poisson develop$ to a rem>kable ext5t ! analytical consequ5ces ( ! law ( =ce :i* exp]im5t _h reveal$4 ,bo? ,laplace & he made mu* use ( ! function to :i* ,gre5 gave ! "n 8pot5tial0 9 #ahbh1 & :i* is su* a p[]ful aid 9 solv+ problems involv+ magnetism or electricity at re/4 ,meantime electric curr5ts _h be5 br\ght "u ! h& ( ! exp]im5t] by ! discov]ies ( ,galvani & ,volta4 ,l>ge numb]s ( cells 7 connect$ 9 s]ies1 & int]e/ seem$ to lie l>gely 9 produc+ brilliant sp>ks or fus+ metals by means ( a heavy curr5t4 ,h>e 7#c1 #aje1 #ahba7 ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,p5nsylvania con/ruct$ a batt]y consi/+ ( two tr\ghs ( =ty cells ea*1 s arrang$ t ! copp]s & z9cs c be l[]$ simultane\sly into ! acid & l>ge curr5ts obta9$ be=e pol>ization has a *ance to int]f]e4 ,?is 8deflagrator0 0 us$ to ignite *>coal 9 ! circuit1 or melt f9e wires1 & 0 = "s "t ! mo/ p[]ful arrangem5t ( its k9d4 ,t 8galvanism0 is some?+ q diff]5t f /atic electricity 0 ! op9ion ( _m inve/igators2 ,h>e consid]$ ! heat develop$ to be ! di/+ui%+ m>k ( ! electric curr5t4 ,he says3 8,x is admitt$ t ! action ( ! galvanic fluid is ^u or betwe5 atoms2 :ile me*anical electricity :5 unco]c$1 acts only ^u masses4 ,?is diff]5ce has n be5 expla9$ unless by my hypo!sis1 9 :i* caloric1 ( :i* ! influ5ce is only ex]t$ betwe5 atoms1 is suppos$ to be a pr9cipal ag5t 9 galvanism40 ,que/ion+ m9ds 7 beg9n+ to suspect t !re mu/ be "s connection betwe5 electricity & magnetism4 ,= lightn+ _h be5 kn[n to make magnets ( /eel knives & =ks1 & ,frankl9 _h magnetiz$ a sew+ ne$le by ! dis*>ge f a ,leyd5 j>4 ,f9ally ,o]/$ ( ,cop5hag5 und]took sy/ematic inve/igation ( ! effect ( electricity on ! magnetic ne$le4 ,8 rese>*es 7 )\t result until dur+ ! c\rse ( a s]ies ( lectures on 8,electricity1 ,galvanism1 & ,magnetism0 deliv]$ dur+ ! w9t] ( #ahai-bj x occurr$ to him to inve/igate ! action ( an electric curr5t on a magnetic ne$le4 ,at fir/ he plac$ ! wire be>+ ! curr5t at "r angles to ! ne$le1 )1 ( c\rse1 no result2 !n x occurr$ to him to place x p>allel4 ,a deflection 0 obs]v$1 = to 8 surprise ! ne$le insi/$ on turn+ until p]p5dicul> to ! wire4 ,o]/$'s discov]y t an electric curr5t ex]ts a c\ple on a magnetic ne$le 0 foll[$ a few mon?s lat] by ,ampre's demon/ration be=e ! ,fr5* ,academy t two curr5ts fl[+ 9 ! same direction attract ea* o!r1 :ile two 9 opposite directions repel4 ,! /ory goes t a critic attempt$ to belittle ?is discov]y by rem>k+ t z x 0 kn[n t two curr5ts act on "o & ! same magnet1 x 0 obvi\s t !y w\ld act ^u ea* o!r4 ,:]eupon ,arago arose to def5d 8 fri5d4 ,draw+ two keys out ( 8 pocket he said1 8,ea* ( ^! keys attracts a magnet2 d y believe t !y !re=e attract ea* o!r80 ,a few ye>s lat] ,ampre %[$ h[ to express quantitatively ! =ce betwe5 curr5t elem5ts1 & inde$ develop$ to a consid]able degree ! equival5ce betwe5 a clos$ circuit c>ry+ a curr5t & a magnetic %ell4 ,s conv9c+ 0 8 analysis & s ?or\gh 8 discussion ( ! subject1 t ,maxwell said ( ?is memoir half a c5tury lat]1 8,! :ole1 !ory & exp]im5t1 seems z if x _h leap$1 full gr[n & full arm$1 f ! bra9 ( ! #8,newton ( electricity4' ,x is p]fect 9 =m & unassailable 9 accuracy2 & x is summ$ up 9 a =mula f :i* all ! ph5om5a may be d$uc$1 & :i* mu/ always rema9 ! c>d9al =mula ( electrodynamics40 ,%ortly aft]w>ds ! dep5d5ce ( a curr5t on ! conductivity ( ! wire us$ & ! gr\p+ ( cells employ$1 0 made cle> by ! "w ( ,ohm4 ,_m ( 8 results 7 obta9$ indep5d5tly by ,joseph ,h5ry 7#ai1 #djj1 #ahca7 ( ! ,albany ,academy1 :o describ$ 9 #ahca a p[]ful electromagnet 9 :i* a great _m coils ( wire insulat$ ) silk 7 w\nd ar\nd an iron core & connect$ 9 p>allel ) a s+le cell4 ,he rem>ks 9 ?is pap] t ) long wires1 z 9 ! telegraph1 _m cells arrang$ 9 s]ies %\ld be us$1 :]eas = sev]al %ort wires connect$ 9 p>allel a s+le cell ) l>ge plates is m effici5t4 ,curr5t ,induction4--,impress$ by ! fact t electric *>ges h ! p[] ( induc+ o!r *>ges on neighbor+ conductors )\t com+ into contact ) !m1 ,f>aday 0 engag$ 9 inve/igat+ ! possibility ( an analog\s ph5om5on 9 ! case ( electric curr5ts4 ,8 idea at fir/ seems to h be5 t a curr5t %\ld induce ano!r curr5t 9 any clos$ conduct+ circuit :i* happ5s to be 9 its vic9ity4 ,exp]im5t readily %[$ ! falsity ( ?is conception1 b a brief deflection ( ! galvanomet] 9 ! second>y circuit 0 notic$ at ! in/ant ( mak+ & break+ ! curr5t 9 ! prim>y4 ,fur!r exp]im5ts %[$ t ?ru/+ a p]man5t /eel magnet into a coil connect$ to a galvanomet] caus$ ! ne$le to deflect4 ,9 fact ,f>aday's report to ! ,royal ,society on ,novemb] #bd?1 #ahca1 conta9s a complete acc\nt ( all exp]im5tal me?ods available = induc+ a curr5t 9 a clos$ circuit4 ,:ile ,f>aday is entitl$ to cr$it = ! discov]y ( curr5t induction by virtue ( ! priority ( 8 publication1 x mu/ n pass unnotic$ t ,h5ry obta9$ _m ( ! same exp]im5tal results indep5d5tly & "s ev5 e>li]4 ,h5ry 0 at ?is "t in/ructor 9 ma!matics at ! ,albany ,academy1 & sev5 h\rs ( tea*+ a day made x well nigh impossible to c>ry on orig9al rese>* except dur+ ! vacation mon? ( ,augu/4 ,z e>ly z ! summ] ( #ahcj he _h w\nd #cj feet ( copp] wire ar\nd ! armature ( a horse%oe electromagnet & connect$ x to a galvanomet]4 ,:5 ! magnet 0 excit$1 a mom5t>y deflection 0 obs]v$4 8,i 01 h[ev]1 mu* surpris$10 he says1 8to see ! ne$le sudd5ly deflect$ f a /ate ( re/ to ab\t #bj to ! ea/1 or 9 a contr>y direction1 :5 ! batt]y 0 )drawn f ! acid1 & aga9 deflect$ to ! we/ :5 x 0 re-imm]s$40 ,9 addition a deflection 0 obta9$ by deta*+ ! armature f ! magnet1 or by br++ x aga9 into contact4 ,_h ! results ( ^! exp]im5ts be5 publi%$ promptly1 ,am]ica w\ld h be5 entitl$ to cr$it = ! mo/ important discov]y ( ! greate/ ( ,engl&'s _m great exp]im5t]s4 ,b ,h5ry desir$ fir/ to repeat 8 exp]im5ts on a l>g] scale1 & :ile new magnets 7 be+ con/ruct$1 ! news ( ,f>aday's discov]y arriv$4 ,?is occasion$ ha/y publication ( ! "w already done 9 an app5dix to volume #bb1 #ahcb1 ( ! ,j\rnal4 ,at almo/ ! same "t ,h5ry made ano!r important discov]y & ?is "t he 0 anticipat$ by no o!r inve/igator 9 mak+ public 8 results4 ,9 ! pap] already ref]r$ to be describes ! ph5om5on kn[n to-day z self-induction4 8,:5 a small batt]y is mod]ately excit$ by dilut$ acid & its poles1 :i* mu/ be t]m9at$ by cups ( m]cury1 are connect$ by a copp] wire n m ?an a foot 9 l5g?1 no sp>k is p]ceiv$ :5 ! connection is ei!r =m$ or brok52 b if a wire ?irty or =ty feet long be us$1 in/ead ( ! %ort wire1 ?\gh no sp>k w be p]ceptible :5 ! connection is made1 yet :5 x is brok5 by draw+ "o end ( ! wire f its cup ( m]cury a vivid sp>k is produc$4444 ,! effect appe>s some:at increas$ by coil+ ! wire into a helix2 x seems to dep5d 9 "s measure on ! l5g? & ?ickness ( ! wire2 ,i c acc\nt = ^! ph5om5a only by suppos+ ! long wire to become *>g$ ) electricity :i* by its reaction on itself projects a sp>k :5 ! connection is brok540 ,soon aft]1 ,h5ry w5t to ,pr9ceton & !re cont9u$ 8 exp]im5ts 9 electromagnetism4 ,no difficulty 0 exp]i5c$ 9 induc+ curr5ts ( ! ?ird1 f\r? & fif? ord]s by us+ ! fir/ second>y z prim>y = yet ano!r second>y circuit1 & s on 7#ch1 #bji1 #ahdj74 ,! directions ( ^! curr5ts ( high] ord]s :5 ! prim>y is made or brok5 prov$ puzzl+ at fir/1 b 7 satisfactorily expla9$ a ye> lat] 7#da1 #aag1 #ahda74 ,9 addition induc$ curr5ts 7 obta9$ f a ,leyd5 j> dis*>ge4 ,f>aday fail$ to f9d any scre5+ effect ( a conduct+ cyl9d] plac$ ar\nd ! prim>y & inside ! second>y4 ,h5ry exam9$ ! matt]1 & f\nd t ! scre5+ effect exi/s only :5 ! induc$ curr5t is due to a make or break ( ! prim>y circuit1 & n :5 x is caus$ by motion ( ! prim>y4 ,h5ry's "w 0 ma9ly descriptive2 x rema9$ = ,f>aday to develop a !ory to acc\nt = ! ph5om5a discov]$ & to prep>e ! way = quantitative =mulation ( ! laws ( curr5t induction4 ,?is he did 9 8 repres5tation ( a magnetic field by means ( l9es ( =ce2 a conception :i* he f\nd aft]w>ds to be equally valuable :5 appli$ to electro/atic problems4 ,e magnet & e curr5t gives rise to ^! clos$ curves2 9 ! case ( a magnet !y ?read x f s\? pole to nor?1 :ile a /raight wire be>+ a curr5t is surr\nd$ by conc5tric r+s4 ,! connection betwe5 l9es ( =ce & ! induction ( curr5ts is conta9$ 9 ! rule t a curr5t is induc$ 9 a clos$ circuit only :5 a *ange takes place 9 ! numb] ( l9es ( =ce pass+ ?r\gh x4 ,fur!rmore ! dep5d5ce ( ! curr5t /r5g? on ! conductivity ( ! wire employ$ has l$ to recognition ( ! fact t x is ! electromotive =ce & n ! curr5t itself :i* is condition$ by ! *ange 9 magnetic flux4 ,great int]e/ 0 atta*$ to ! utilization ( ! newly discov]$ =ces ( electromagnetism4 ,9 #ahca ,h5ry 7#bj1 #cdj1 #ahca7 describ$ a reciprocat+ eng9e dep5d+ on magnetic attraction & repulsion1 & ,c4 ,g4 ,page 7#cc1 #aah1 #ahch2 #di1 #aca1 #ahde7 devis$ _m o!rs4 ,! latt]'s mo/ important "w1 h[ev]1 0 ! inv5tion ( ! ,ruhmkorff coil4 ,9 #ahcf 7#ca1 #acg1 #ahcg7 he f\nd ! /ronge/ %ocks to be obta9$1 f a second>y coil ( _m w9d+s =m+ a cont9uation ( a prim>y ( half ! numb] ( turns4 ,8 p]fection ( ! self-act+ circuit break] 7#ce1 #beb1 #ahci7 wid5$ ! usefulness ( ! induction coil1 & 8 sub/itution ( a bundle ( iron wires = a solid iron core 7#cd1 #afc1 #ahch7 greatly increas$ its effici5cy4 ,cons]vation ( ,en]gy4--,p]haps ! mo/ important advance ( ! n9ete5? c5tury has be5 ! e/abli%m5t ( ! pr9ciple ( cons]vation ( en]gy4 ,despite ! fact t ! 8pr9cipe de la cons]vation des =ce vives0 _h be5 recogniz$ by ! ,fr5* ma!maticians ( ! e>ly "p ( ! c5tury1 ! application ( ?is pr9ciple ev5 to purely me*anical problems 0 conte/$ by "s sci5ti/s4 ,?r\gh ! e>ly numb]s ( ! ,j\rnal runs a lively controv]sy z to :e!r !re is n a loss ( p[] involv$ 9 imp>t+ mom5tum to ! reciprocat+ p>ts ( a /eam eng9e only to *eck ! motion lat] on 9 ! /roke4 ,f9ally ,isaac ,doolittle 7#ad1 #fj1 #ahbh71 ( ! ,b5n+ton ,iron ,works1 ends ! discussion by ! p]t95t rem>k3 8,if !re be1 z is cont5d$ by "o ( y\r correspond5ts1 a loss ( m ?an "o ?ird ( ! p[]1 9 trans=m+ an alt]nat+ rectil9e> movem5t into a cont9u\s circul> "o by means ( a crank1 ,i %\ld l to be in=m$ :at w\ld be ! effect if ! proposition 7 rev]s$1 z 9 ! case ( ! common saw mill1 & 9 _m o!r in/ances 9 practical me*anics40 ,a realization ( ! equival5ce ( heat & me*anical "w did n come until ! middle ( ! c5tury1 9 spite ( ! conclusive exp]im5ts ( ! ,am]ican ,c\nt ,rum=d & ! ,engli% ,davy be=e ! ye> #ahjj4 ,s firmly en?ron$ 0 ! caloric !ory1 accord+ to :i* heat is an inde/ructible fluid1 t evid5ce aga9/ x 0 giv5 scant consid]ation4 ,9 fact ! success ( ! analytical me?od introduc$ by ,f\ri] 9 #ahbb = ! solution ( problems 9 conduction ( heat only add$ to ! difficulties ( ! adh]5ts ( ! k9etic !ory4 ,b recognition ( heat z a =m ( en]gy 0 on ! way1 & :5 x came x made its appe>ance almo/ simultane\sly 9 half a doz5 diff]5t places4 ,p]haps ,rob]t ,may] ( ,heilbronn 0 ! fir/ to /ate explicitly ! new pr9ciple4 ,8 pap] 8,on ! ,=ces ( ,inorganic ,nature0 0 refus$ publication 9 ,pogg5dorff's ,annal51 b f>$ bett] at ! h&s ( ano!r editor4 ,dur+ ! next few ye>s ,j\le det]m9$ ! me*anical equival5t ( heat exp]im5tally by a numb] ( diff]5t me?ods1 "s ( :i* _h already be5 devis$ by ,c>not4 ,( ^? he us$1 ! mo/ famili> consi/s 9 *urn+ up a measur$ mass ( wat] by means ( paddles actuat$ by fall+ weights & calculat+ ! heat develop$ f ! rise 9 temp]ature4 ,h[ev]1 ! "w ( ! "y ,man*e/] brew] receiv$ little att5tion f ! memb]s ( ! ,briti% ,association be=e :om x 0 report$ until ,kelv9 %[$ !m its significance & attract$ _! int]e/ to x4 ,mean:ile ,helmholtz _h complet$ a v ?or\gh disquisition on ! cons]vation ( en]gy n only 9 dynamics & heat b 9 o!r dep>tm5ts ( physics z well4 ,8 pap] on 8,die ,erhaltung d] ,kraft0 0 fr[n$ ^u by ! memb]s ( ! ,physical ,society ( ,b]l9 be=e :om he read x1 & receiv$ ! same treatm5t z ,may]'s f ! editor ( ,pogg5dorff's ,annal54 ,helmholtz's 8,kraft10 l ! 8vis viva0 ( o!r writ]s1 is ! quantity :i* ,"y _h already *ri/5$ en]gy4 ,n _m ye>s elaps$1 h[ev]1 until ! convictions ( ,may]1 ,j\le1 ,kelv9 & ,helmholtz became ! mo/ cle>ly recogniz$ ( all physical pr9ciples4 ,z e>ly z #ahej ,j]emiah ,day 7#aj1 #agd1 #ahej71 late presid5t ( ,yale ,college1 admitt$ ! improbability ( con/ruct+ a ma*9e capable ( p]petual motion1 ev5 ?\gh ! 8impond]able ag5ts0 ( electricity1 galvanism & magnetism be utiliz$4 ,!rmodynamics4--,! importance ( ! pr9ciple ( cons]vation ( en]gy lies 9 ! fact t x unites "u "o rule su* div]se ph5om5a z gravitation1 electromagnetism1 heat & *emical action4 ,ano!r pr9ciple z univ]sal 9 its scope1 al?\gh dep5d+ ^u ! co>s5ess ( human obs]vations = its validity r ?an ^u ! immutable laws ( nature1 0 =e%ad[$ ev5 be=e ! fir/ law ( !rmodynamics1 or pr9ciple ( cons]vation ( en]gy1 0 cle>ly recogniz$4 ,?is second law 0 ! consequ5ce ( ef=ts to improve ! effici5cy ( heat eng9es4 ,9 #ahbd ,c>not introduc$ ! conception ( cyclic op]ations into ! !ory ( su* eng9es4 ,assum+ ! impossibility ( p]petual motion1 he %[$ t no eng9e c h an effici5cy great] ?an t ( a rev]sible eng9e4 ,f9ally ,clausius express$ concisely ! pr9ciple t[>d :i* ,c>not's "w _h be5 lead+1 :5 he ass]t$ t 8x is impossible = a self-act+ ma*9e1 unaid$ by any ext]nal ag5cy1 to convey heat f "o body to ano!r at a high] temp]ature40 ,kelv9's =mulation ( ! same law /ates t 8x is impossible1 by means ( inanimate mat]ial ag5cy1 to d]ive me*anical effect f any portion ( matt] by cool+ x bel[ ! temp]ature ( ! colde/ ( ! surr\nd+ objects40 ,! consequ5ces ( ! second law 7 rapidly develop$ by ,kelv91 ,clausius1 ,rank9e1 ,b>n>d 7#af1 #bah1 #ahec1 et seq47 & o!rs4 ,kelv9 introduc$ ! !rmodynamic scale ( temp]ature1 :i* he %[$ to be indep5d5t ( su* prop]ties ( matt] z condition ! size ( ! degree indicat$ by ! m]cury !rmomet]4 ,?is scale1 :i* is equival5t to t ( ! ideal gas !rmomet]1 0 us$ subsequ5tly by ,r[l& 9 8 exhau/ive det]m9ation ( ! me*anical equival5t ( heat by an improv$ =m ( ,j\le's me?od4 ,he f\nd diff]5t values = diff]5t ranges 9 temp]ature1 %[+ t ! specific heat ( wat] is by no means con/ant4 ,s9ce !n electrical me?ods ( measur+ ?is important quantity h be5 us$ to confirm ! results ( purely me*anical det]m9ations4 ,! def9ition ( a new quantity1 entropy1 0 f\nd necess>y = a ma!matical =mulation ( ! second law ( !rmodynamics4 ,?is quantity1 :i* acts z a measure ( ! unavailability ( heat en]gy1 0 giv5 a new significance :5 ,boltzmann %[$ its connection ) ! probability ( ! !rmodynamic /ate ( ! sub/ance "u consid]ation4 ,if two bodies h widely diff]5t temp]atures1 a l>ge am\nt ( ! heat en]gy ( ! sy/em is available = conv]sion into me*anical "w4 ,f ! macroscopic po9t ( view ?is is express$ by say+ t ! entropy is small1 or if ! motions ( ! individual molecules are tak5 into acc\nt1 ! probability ( ! /ate is l[4 ,! int]pretation ( entropy z ! log>i?m ( ! !rmodynamic probability has ?r[n mu* light on ! mean+ ( ?is r ab/ruse quantity4 ,gibbs's 8,elem5t>y ,pr9ciples 9 ,/ati/ical ,me*anics0 treats 9 detail ! fundam5tal assumptions involv$ 9 ?is po9t ( view1 its limitations & its consequ5ces4 ,9 8 8,equilibrium ( ,het]og5e\s ,sub/ances0#aed he _h already ext5d$ ! pr9ciple ( !rmal equilibrium to include sub/ances :i* are no long] homog5e\s4 ,! value ( ! *emical pot5tial he introduc$ det]m9es :e!r "o phase is to ga9 at ! exp5se ( ano!r or lose to x4 ,x is un=tunate t ! analytical rigor & au/]ity ( 8 reason+ comb9$ ) lack ( ma!matical tra9+ on ! "p ( ! av]age *emi/1 delay$ true appreciation ( 8 "w & full utilization ( ! new field :i* he op5$ up4 ,liquefaction ( ,gases4--,mean:ile ! problem ( liquefy+ gases 0 attract+ mu* att5tion on ! "p ( exp]im5tal physici/s4 ,f>aday _h succe$$ 9 mak+ liquid a numb] ( sub/ances :i* _h hi!rto be5 kn[n only 9 ! gase\s /ate4 ,8 me?od consi/s 9 evolv+ ! gas f *emicals plac$ 9 "o end ( a b5t tube1 ! o!r end ( :i* is imm]s$ 9 a freez+ mixture4 ,! high pressure caus$ by ! production ( ! gas comb9$ ) ! l[ temp]ature is suffici5t to br+ ab\t liquefaction 9 _m cases4 ,failure ) o!r m p]man5t gases 0 unexpla9$ until ! rese>*es ( ,&rews 9 #ahfc %[$ t no am\nt ( pressure w produce liquefaction unless ! temp]ature is bel[ a c]ta9 critical value4 ,! me?od ( r$uc+ ! temp]ature 9 use to-day dep5ds on a fact discov]$ by ,kelv9 & ,j\le 9 connection ) ! free expansion ( a gas4 ,^! inve/igators all[$ ! gas to escape ?r\gh a por\s plug f a *amb] 9 :i* ! pressure 0 relatively high4 ,) ! s+le exception ( hydrog51 ! effect ( ! sudd5 expansion is to cool ! gas1 & ev5 ) x cool+ is f\nd to take place aft] ! temp]ature has be5 made suffici5tly l[4 ,by ?is me?od all kn[n gases h be5 liquefi$4 ,helium1 ) a boil+ po9t ( -#bfi;,c1 or only #d;,c4 above ! absolute z]o1 0 ! la/ to be made a liquid1 f9ally yield+ to ! ef=ts ( ,kamm]l+h ,onnes 9 #aijg4 ,?is inve/igator#aee f9ds t at temp]atures ne> ! absolute z]o ! electrical conductivity ( c]ta9 sub/ances und]goes a pr(\nd modification4 ,= example1 a coil ( lead %[s a sup]conductivity s great t a curr5t once />t$ 9 x p]si/s = days aft] ! electromotive =ce has ceas$ to act4 ,electrodynamics4--,f>aday's repres5tation ( electric & magnetic fields by l9es ( =ce _h be5 ( great value 9 pr$ict+ ! results ( exp]im5ts 9 electromagnetism4 ,b a m ma!matical =mulation ( ! laws gov]n+ ^! ph5om5a 0 ne$$ 9 ord] to make possible quantitative developm5t ( ! !ory4 ,?is 0 suppli$ by ,maxwell 9 8 epo*-mak+ treatise on 8,electricity & ,magnetism40 ,/>t+ ) electro/atics & magnetism1 he gives a complete acc\nt ( ! ma!matical me?ods :i* _h be5 devis$ = ! solution ( problems 9 ^! bran*es ( ! subject1 & !n turn+ to ,ampre's "w he %[s h[ ! ,lagrangian equations ( motion lead to ,f>aday's law if ! s+le assumption is made t ! magnetic en]gy ( ! field is k9etic4 ,9 ! treatm5t ( op5 circuits ,maxwell's intuition l$ to a great advance1 ! introduction ( ! displacem5t curr5t4 ,consid] a *>g$ cond5s]1 ! plates ( :i* are sudd5ly connect$ by a wire4 ,a curr5t w fl[ ?r\gh ! wire f ! positively *>g$ plate to ! negative1 b 9 ! gap betwe5 ! two plates ! conduction curr5t is miss+4 ,s conv9c$ 0 ,maxwell t curr5ts mu/ always fl[ 9 clos$ circuits1 t he po/ulat$ an electrical displacem5t 9 ! m$ium betwe5 ! plates ( a *>g$ cond5s]1 :i* disappe>s :5 ! cond5s] is %ort-circuit$4 ,?us ev5 9 ! s-call$ op5 circuit ! curr5t fl[s along a clos$ pa?4 ,maxwell's !ory ( ! electromagnetic field is bas$ ess5tially on ,f>aday's repres5tation by l9es ( =ce ( ! /ra9s & /resses ( a univ]sal m$ium4 ,s x is n surpris+ t he 0 l$ to a consid]ation ( ! propagation ( waves ?r\gh ?is m$ium4 ,! introduction ( ! displacem5t curr5t made ! =m ( ! electrodynamic equations su* z to yield a typical wave equation = space free f electrical *>ges & curr5ts4 ,moreov]1 ! di/urbance 0 f\nd to be transv]se1 & its velocity turn$ out to be id5tical ) t ( light4 ,! conclusion 0 irresi/ible4 ,t light c\ld consi/ ( any?+ b electromagnetic waves ( extremely %ort l5g? 0 inconceivable4 ,9 fact s c]ta9 0 ,maxwell ( ?is d$uction f !ory t he felt x altoge!r unnecess>y to resort to ! te/ ( exp]im5t4 ,= ! electromagnetic !ory expla9$ s _m ( ! details :i* _h be5 reveal$ by exp]im5ts 9 light1 t no d\bt ( its validity c\ld be ent]ta9$4 ,ev5 disp]sion receiv$ ready elucidation on ! assumption t ! disp]s+ m$ium is made up ( vibrators hav+ a natural p]iod comp>able ) t ( ! light pass+ ?r\gh x4 ,illu/ration3 ,james ,cl]k ,maxwell ,maxwell's book 0 publi%$ 9 #ahgc4 ,fifte5 ye>s lat]1 ,h]tz1#aef at ! in/igation ( ,helmholtz1 succe$$ 9 detect+ exp]im5tally ! electromagnetic waves pr$ict$ by ,maxwell's !ory4 ,8 oscillator consi/$ ( two %eets ( metal 9 ! same plane1 to ea* ( :i* 0 atta*$ a %ort wire t]m9at+ 9 a knob4 ,! knobs 7 plac$ )9 a %ort di/ance ( ea* o!r1 & connect$ to ! t]m9als ( an induction coil4 ,by reflection /&+ waves 7 =m$1 & ! positions ( nodes & loops det]m9$ by a detector compos$ ( a movable loop ( wire conta9+ an air gap4 ,?us ! wave l5g? 0 measur$4 ,h]tz calculat$ ! frequ5cy ( 8 radiator f its dim5sions1 & !n comput$ ! velocity ( ! di/urbance4 ,9 spite ( an error 9 8 calculations1 lat] po9t$ out by ,po9c>1 he obta9$ v ne>ly ! velocity ( light = waves travel+ ?r\gh air1 b a velocity consid]ably small] = ^? propagat$ along wires4 ,subsequ5t "w by ,le*]1 ,s>as9 & de la ,rive1 & ,tr[bridge & ,duane 7#di1 #big1 #ahie2 #ej1 #ajd1 #ahie7 cle>$ up ?is discrepancy1 & %[$ ! velocity to be 9 bo? cases id5tical ) t ( light4 ,! la/-nam$ inve/igators increas$ ! size ( ! oscillator until x 0 possible to measure ! frequ5cy by photograph+ ! sp>k 9 ! second>y ) a rotat+ mirror4 ,! positions ( nodes & loops 7 obta9$ by means ( a bolomet] aft] ! second>y _h be5 tun$ to resonance ) ! vibrator4 ,! velocity ?us f\nd = electromagnetic waves along wires is )9 "o-t5? ( "o p]c5t ( ! accept$ value ( ! velocity ( light4 ,h]tz's lat] exp]im5ts %[$ t waves 9 air suff] refraction & diffraction1 & he succe$$ 9 pol>iz+ ! radiation by pass+ x ?r\gh a grat+ con/ruct$ ( p>allel metallic wires4 ,9 ord] to satisfy ! law ( action & reaction1 x is f\nd necess>y to attribute a quasi-mom5tum to electromagnetic waves4 ,:5 a tra9 ( su* waves is absorb$1 _! mom5tum is transf]r$ to ! absorb+ body1 :ile if !y are reflect$ an impulse twice z great is imp>t$4 ,?is consequ5ce ( !ory1 =ese5 by ,maxwell & develop$ 9 detail by ,poynt+1 ,abraham & ,l>mor1 has be5 v]ifi$ by ! exp]im5ts ( ,leb$ew1 & ,ni*ols & ,hull4#aeg ,! latt] us$ a delicate torsion balance f :i* 0 susp5d$ a c\ple ( silv]$ glass vanes4 ,9 ord] to elim9ate ! effect ( impulses imp>t$ by ! molecules ( ! residual gas1 su* z ,crookes _h obs]v$ 9 8 radiomet]1 read+s 7 made at _m diff]5t pressures & ! balli/ic r ?an ! /atic deflection record$4 ,aft] ! pressure produc$ by light f a c>bon arc _h be5 measur$1 ! int5sity ( ! radiation 0 det]m9$ ) a bolomet]4 ,prelim9>y exp]im5ts indicat$ ! exi/5ce ( a pressure ( ! ord] expect$1 & lat] m c>eful measurem5ts %[$ good quantitative agreem5t ) !ory4 ,?is pressure _h already f\nd an important application 9 ,leb$ew's explanation ( ! sol> repulsion ( comet's tails4 ,^! tails are made up ( enorm\s sw>ms ( v m9ute p>ticles1 & z ! comet sw+s ar\nd ! sun !y suff] a repulsion due to ! pressure ( ! int5se sol> radiation :i* c\nt]acts ! sun's gravitational attraction4 ,h5ce ! tail1 in/ead ( foll[+ aft] ! comet 9 its orbit1 po9ts 9 a direction away f ! sun4 ,"s unc]ta9ty exi/$ z to :e!r a convection curr5t produces a magnetic field4 ,a compass ne$le is deflect$ by a curr5t f a ,daniell cell2 is ! same effect obta9$ :5 a conductor is *>g$ electro/atically & !n :irl$ ar\nd ! ne$le by means ( an insulat+ h&le8 ,! exp]im5tal difficulties involv$ 9 settl+ ?is "q are realiz$ :5 ! enorm\s diff]5ce betwe5 ! electro/atic & electromagnetic units ( curr5t is tak5 into consid]ation4 ,= a sph]e "o c5timet] 9 radius1 *>g$ to a pot5tial ( #bj1jjj volts1 & revolv+ 9 a circle sixty times a second1 con/itutes a curr5t ( little ov] a million? ( an amp]e4 ,?is problem 0 und]tak5 by ,r[l& 7#ae1 #cj1 #ahgh7 9 ,helmholtz's laboratory at ,b]l9 9 #ahgf4 ,a h>d rubb] disk coat$ on bo? sides ) gold 0 *>g$ & rotat$ ab\t a v]tical axis at a rate ( sixty revolutions a second4 ,on rev]s+ ! sign ( ! electrification on ! disk1 ! a/atic ne$le hung above its c5t] %[$ a deflection ( ov] five millimet]s4 ,! curr5t 0 calculat$ 9 electro/atic units f ! *>ge on ! disk & its rate ( motion1 & 9 electromagnetic units f ! magnetic deflection4 ,! ratio ( ^! two quantities gave fair agreem5t ) its !oretical value1 ! velocity ( light4 ,al?\gh ! result ( ?is exp]im5t 0 confirm$ by ,r[l& & ,hut*9son 9 #ahhi1 ,crmieu 0 conv9c$ by an inve/igation c>ri$ out at ,p>is 9 #aijj t ! ,r[l& effect did n exi/4 ,consequ5tly fur!r repetition ( ! exp]im5t 0 desirable4 ,s ! foll[+ ye> ,adams 7#ab1 #aee1 #aija7 arrang$ two r+s ( eight sph]es ea* s t !y c\ld be rotat$ ab\t _! common axis f fifty to sixty times a second4 ,"o set ( sph]es 0 connect$ by bru%es to ! positive pole ( a batt]y ( #bj1jjj volts1 ! o!r to ! negative pole4 ,! deflection ( a ne>by magnetomet] ne$le 0 obs]v$ :5 ! electrification ( ! two r+s 0 rev]s$1 & f ! read+ s obta9$ ! ratio ( ! electromagnetic to ! electro/atic unit ( curr5t comput$4 ,?is quantity 0 f\nd to diff] f ! velocity ( light by only a few p]c5t4 ,?is exp]im5t & ! ev5 m exhau/ive inve/igations c>ri$ out by ,p5d]1 bo? indep5d5tly & 9 collaboration ) ,crmieu1 f9ally conv9c$ ! sci5tific _w t a convection curr5t produces ! same magnetic field z a conduction curr5t ( ! same magnitude4 ,9 discuss+ ! pond]omotive =ce exp]i5c$ 9 a magnetic field by a conductor ?r\gh :i* a curr5t is pass+1 ,maxwell _h said1 8,x mu/ be c>efully rememb]$1 t ! me*anical =ce :i* urges a conductor c>ry+ a curr5t across ! l9es ( magnetic =ce1 acts1 n on ! electric curr5t1 b on ! conductor :i* c>ries x40 ,hall 7#ai1 #bjj1 #ahhj71 "o ( ,r[l&'s /ud5ts1 que/ion$ ?is /atem5t1 & det]m9$ to put x to ! te/ ( exp]im5t4 ,ef=ts to f9d an increase 9 ! resi/ance ( a wire plac$ at "r angles to ! l9es ( magnetic =ce 7 unsuccessful4 ,s ! curr5t 0 pass$ ?r\gh a mod]ately broad /rip ( gold leaf & ! effect ( ! magnetic field on ! equipot5tial l9es inve/igat$4 ,! results obta9$ confirm$ ,hall's belief t ! =ce ex]t$ by ! field acts on ! curr5t itself1 & is transmitt$ ?r\gh x to ! conductor4 ,fur!r inve/igation 7#bj1 #afa1 #ahhj7 reveal$ ! same deflection ( equipot5tial l9es 9 ?9 /rips ( o!r metals1 al?\gh ! effect 0 f\nd to be rev]s$ 9 iron4 ,dur+ ! clos+ ye>s ( ! n9ete5? c5tury occurr$ ?ree ev5ts ( f> rea*+ importance4 ,! electron 0 isolat$1 & its *>ge & mass measur$ by ,j4 ,j4 ,?omson 9 ,engl&2 ,x-rays 7 discov]$ by ,rntg5 9 ,g]many2 & ! fir/ indications ( radioactivity 7 f\nd by ,becqu]el 9 ,france4 ,! fir/ two are c]ta9ly to be attribut$ l>gely to ! great advances :i* _h be5 made 9 obta9+ high vacua1 & ! la/ two might n h occurr$ s soon _h x n be5 = ! photographic plate4 ,! ,electron4--,! atomic !ory ( electricity dates f ! "t ( ,f>aday4 ,8 exp]im5ts on electrolysis %[$ t ea* monoval5t atom or radical1 :atev] its nature1 c>ries ! same *>ge1 ea* bival5t ion a *>ge twice z great4 ,only a lack ( k ( ! numb] ( atoms 9 a gram ( ! dissociat$ salt prev5t$ him f calculat+ ! value ( ! elem5t>y *>ge4 ,z ! dis*>ge ( electricity ?r\gh gases at l[ pressures became a subject = exp]im5tal inve/igation1 ano!r l9e ( approa* to ! /udy ( ! atom ( electricity 0 op5$ up4 ,z e>ly z ! sev5ties ,hittorf & ,gold/e9 _h obs]v$ t a %ad[ is ca/ by a scre5 plac$ 9 front ( ! ca?ode ( a ,crookes tube4 ,v>ley sugge/$ t ! ca?ode rays produc+ ! %ad[ consi/ ( 8att5uat$ p>ticles ( matt]1 project$ f ! negative pole by electricity40 ,! discov]y t ^! rays are deflect$ by a magnetic field l$ ,engli% physici/s to ! conclusion t !y mu/ be compos$ ( *>g$ p>ticles1 & ! direction ( ! deflection 0 su* z to require ! *>ge to be negative4 ,h]tz conte/$ ?is view on ! gr\nd t 8 exp]im5ts %[$ ! rays to be unaffect$ by an electro/atic field1 & sugge/$ t !y consi/ ( e!rial di/urbances4 ,f9ally ,p]r9 succe$$ 9 pass+ ! rays into a metal cyl9d] :i* receiv$ f !m a negative *>ge1 & ,l5>d %[$ h[ excessively m9ute ^! negatively *>g$ p>ticles mu/ be by actually pass+ !m ?r\gh a ?9 %eet ( alum9ium 9 ! wall ( a vacuum tube1 & detect+ _! pres5ce 9 ! air outside4 ,conclusive in=mation z to ! nature ( ! electron1 z x 0 nam$ by ,john/one ,/oney1 0 suppli$ by ! classic exp]im5ts ( ,j4 ,j4 ,?omson4#aeh ,fir/ he %[$ t ,h]tz's failure to f9d a deflection :5 a /ream ( electrons passes betwe5 ! plates ( a *>g$ cond5s] 0 due to ! scre5+ effect ( ! gase\s ions produc$ by ! dis*>ge4 ,) a mu* m highly evacuat$ tube he f\nd no difficulty 9 obta9+ a deflection 9 an electro/atic field4 ,by us+ cross$ electric & magnetic fields ! deflection produc$ by "o 0 j balanc$ by t caus$ by ! o!r1 & f ! field /r5g?s employ$ bo? ! velocity ( ! p>ticles & ! ratio 7e7_/7m7 ( *>ge to mass 0 calculat$4 ,! =m] 0 f\nd to be ab\t "o-t5? ! velocity ( light1 b ! mo/ />tl+ result ( ! exp]im5t 0 t ! same value ( 7e7_/7m7 0 obta9$ no matt] :at residual gas 0 conta9$ 9 ! tube or ( :at metal ! ca?ode 0 made4 ,to calculate e & !n m o!r me?ods are necess>y4 ,c4 ,t4 ,r4 ,wilson has %[n t 9 sup]saturat$ air1 wat] drops =m easily on *>g$ molecules1 & t negative ions are m effective 9 caus+ cond5sation ?an positive ones4 ,by mak+ use ( ! results ( ?is rese>* ,?omson has be5 able to measure ! elem5t>y *>ge4 ,= suppose a /ream ( negative ions to pass ?r\gh sup]saturat$ air4 ,a little drop =ms on ea* *>g$ p>ticle1 & ! cl\d ( cond5s$ vapor settles to ! bottom ( ! vessel4 ,! *>ge c>ri$ & ! mass ( wat] deposit$ c be measur$ directly4 ,/okes' law = ! rate ( fall ( a m9ute p>ticle ?r\gh a gase\s m$ium enables ! av]age size ( ! drops to be comput$ f ! obs]v$ rate ( desc5t ( ! cl\d4 ,h5ce ! numb] ( drops =m$ & ! *>ge c>ri$ by ea* foll[s at once4 ,h4 ,a4 ,wilson improv$ ! me?od by not+ ! effect ( an electric field ^u ! rate ( fall ( ! *>g$ drops1 & subsequ5t exp]im5ts und]tak5 by ,millikan#aei h be5 ( su* a "* z to enable him to foll[ ! motion ( a s+le drop4 ,in/ead ( wat]1 ! latt] uses oil drops less ?an "o t5-?\s&? ( a c5timet] 9 diamet]4 ,a drop1 aft] "o or m electrons h atta*$ !mselves to x1 is actually weigh$ 9 t]ms ( ! *>ge on its surface by apply+ an upw>d electric =ce j suffici5t to balance ! =ce ( gravity4 ,!n its weight is indep5d5tly obta9$ f ! d5sity ( ! oil & ! radius ( ! drop z det]m9$ by ! rate ( fall :5 ! electric field is abs5t4 ,comp>ison ( ^! two expressions gives #dggd7aj7-aj electro/atic units = ! elem5t>y *>ge4 ,comb9+ ?is result ) ! value ( 7e7_/7m7 f\nd by ,?omson1 ! mass ( ! electron comes out to be ab\t "o eighte5-hundr$? t ( an atom ( ! lighte/ kn[n elem5t1 hydrog54 ,t ! electron is a fundam5tal con/itu5t ( all matt] is atte/$ by ! fact t *>ge & mass are ! same reg>dless ( ! s\rce or mann] ( production4 ,:e!r emitt$ by a heat$ metal1 "u ! action ( ultra-violet light1 f a radioactive sub/ance1 by a body expos$ to ,x-rays1 z a result ( friction1 x is ! same negatively *>g$ p>ticle t con/itutes ! ca?ode ray ( ! dis*>ge tube4 ,moreov]1 x makes its effect felt indirectly 9 _m o!r ph5om5a1 & f an inve/igation ( "s ( ^! ! ratio ( *>ge to mass c be det]m9$ indep5d5tly4 ,( su* p]haps ! mo/ int]e/+ is ! ,zeeman effect4 ,spectroscopy4--,e>ly 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury ,fraunh(] _h obs]v$ t ! sol> spectrum is cross$ by a l>ge numb] ( d>k l9es4 ,_! pres5ce 0 unexpla9$ until 9 #ahei ,kir*h(f & ,buns5 %[$ 8t a color$ flame1 ! spectrum ( :i* conta9s bright %>p l9es1 s weak5s rays ( ! color ( ^! l9es :5 !y pass ?r\gh x1 t d>k l9es appe> 9 place ( bright l9es z soon z !re is plac$ beh9d ! flame a light ( suffici5t int5sity1 9 :i* ! l9es are o!rwise abs5t40 ,= intra-atomic oscillators mu/ h ! natural frequ5cy ( ! radiation :i* !y emit1 & consequ5tly resonance w take place :5 !y are expos$ to rays ( ?is frequ5cy com+ f an outside s\rce1 & selective absorption ensue4 ,by comp>+ ! bright l9es 9 ! spectra ( metallic vapors made lum9\s by a gas flame ) ! d>k l9es 9 ! sun's spectrum ^! inve/igators %[$ t _m ( ! common t]re/rial elem5ts exi/ 9 ! sun4 ,! int]e/ 9 spectroscopy grew rapidly4 ,! excell5t diffraction grat+s made by ,ru!rfurd 7 succe$$ by ! sup]ior concave grat+s ( ,r[l&4 ,9 #ahgg ,drap] 7#ad1 #hi1 #ahgg7 ann\nc$ ! discov]y ( ! bright l9es ( oxyg5 9 ! sol> spectrum1 b 8 int]pretation ( 8 photographs has n be5 corroborat$ by ! "w ( lat] inve/igators4 ,langley 7#aa1 #dja1 #aija71 by ! aid ( 8 newly inv5t$ bolomet]1 succe$$ 9 detect+ ! emission ( en]gy f ! sun 9 ! infra-r$ 9 am\nts f> exce$+ t conta9$ 9 ! visible spectrum4 ,9 #ahdb ,doppl] drew att5tion to ! fact t motion ( ! s\rce %\ld cause a displacem5t ( ! spectral l9es1 ! %ift be+ to ! blue if ! light is approa*+ & to ! r$ if x is rec$+1 & a few ye>s lat] ,fizeau sugge/$ ! application ( ,doppl]'s pr9ciple to ! measurem5t ( ! velocity ( a /> mov+ 9 ! l9e ( sight4 ,?us ! spectroscope has be5 able to supply "o ( ! defici5cies ( ! telescope1 & ! two toge!r are suffici5t to reveal all compon5ts ( /ell> motion4 ,:5 spectra =m$ by light f ! sun's limb & f its c5t] are comp>$1 ! same effect reveals ! rotation ( ! sun ab\t its axis4 7,c4 ,s4 ,ha/+s1 #e1 #cfi1 #ahgc2 ,c4 ,a4 ,"y1 #ab1 #cba1 #ahgf47 ,fur!r ,evid5ce ( ! ,electron4--,9 #ahde ,f>aday discov]$ a rotation ( ! plane ( pol>ization :5 light passes 9 ! direction ( ! l9es ( =ce ?r\gh a piece ( glass plac$ betwe5 ! poles ( an electromagnet4 ,exam9ation ( ! spectrum f a gl[+ vapor situat$ betwe5 ! poles ( a magnet1 h[ev]1 fail$ to reveal any effect ( ! field4 ,! latt] problem 0 attack$ anew by ,zeeman#afj 9 #ahif1 & ) ! aid ( ! improv$ appliances ( mod]n sci5ce he succe$$ 9 detect+ a broad5+ ( ! l9es4 ,lat] exp]im5ts ) m p[]ful app>atus resolv$ ^! broad5+ l9es into sev]al compon5ts4 ,lor5tz#afa %[$ at once h[ ! electron !ory furni%es an explanation ( ! ,zeeman effect4 ,he f\nd t :5 ! s\rce is view$ at "r angles to ! l9es ( magnetic =ce1 a spectral l9e %\ld be split into ?ree compon5ts4 ,( ^! he pr$ict$ t ! middle1 or undisplac$ compon5t1 w\ld be f\nd to be pol>iz$ at "r angles to ! direction ( ! field1 & ! o!r compon5ts p>allel to ! field4 ,:5 ! light proce$s f ! s\rce 9 a direction p>allel to ! magnetic l9es ( =ce1 two compon5ts only %\ld be =m$1 & ^! %\ld be circul>ly pol>iz$ 9 opposite s5ses4 ,moreov]1 f ! sep>ation ( ! compon5ts c be calculat$ ! ratio ( *>ge to mass ( ! electronic vibrator :i* is responsible = ! emission ( radiant en]gy4 ,zeeman's exp]im5ts confirm$ ,lor5tz's !ory 9 e detail1 & yield$ a value ( 7e7_/7m7 9 sub/antial agreem5t ) t obta9$ = ca?ode rays4 ,subsequ5t rese>*1 h[ev]1 has %[n t 9 _m cases m compon5ts are f\nd ?an ! elem5t>y !ory calls =4 ,hale has detect$ ! ,zeeman effect 9 light f sun spots1 prov+ t ^! blemi%es on ! sun's face are vortices caus$ by :irl+ sw>ms ( electrifi$ p>ticles4 ,rec5tly ,/>k & ,lo ,surdo h f\nd a simil> splitt+ up ( l9es 9 ! spectrum =m$ by light f canal rays 7rays ( positively *>g$ p>ticles7 pass+ ?r\gh an int5se electric field4 ,?is ph5om5on has z yet receiv$ no adequate explanation4 ,on discov]+ t an electric curr5t is capable ( produc+ a magnetic field1 ,ampre _h sugge/$ t ! magnetic prop]ties ( su* sub/ances z iron might be expla9$ on ! assumption ( molecul> curr5ts4 ,! electron !ory consid]s ^! curr5ts to be due to ! revolution1 inside ! atom1 ( negatively *>g$ p>ticles ab\t an attract+ nucleus4 ,x occurr$ to ,ri*>dson t ?is motion %\ld give ! atom ! prop]ties ( a gyro/at4 ,h5ce if an iron b> be rotat$ ab\t its axis1 ! atoms %\ld ori5t !mselves s z to make _! axes m ne>ly p>allel to ! axis ( rotation4 ,?us its rotation %\ld cause ! b> to become a magnet4 ,b>nett#afb has te/$ ?is hypo!sis1 & has f\nd ! effect ,ri*>dson _h pr$ict$4 ,f ! /r5g? ( ! magnetization produc$1 ! value ( 7e7_/7m7 c be comput$4 ,b>nett f9ds a value some:at small] ?an t = ca?ode rays1 b ( ! "r ord] ( magnitude & sign4 ,e9/e9 & ,de ,haas h detect$ ! inv]se ( ?is effect1 i4 e41 ! rotation ( an iron rod :5 x is sudd5ly magnetiz$4 ,x-,rays4--,9 #ahie1 on develop+ a plate :i* _h be5 ly+ ne> a vacuum tube1 ,rntg5#afc 0 surpris$ to f9d di/9ct m>k+s on x4 ,z ! plate _h nev] be5 expos$ to light1 x 0 necess>y to suppose ! effect to be due to "s new & unkn[n type ( radiation4 ,fur!r inve/igation %[$ t ?is radiation orig9ates at ! po9ts :]e ca?ode rays imp+e on ! glass walls ( ! tube4 ,besides be+ able to pass ) ease ?r\gh all b ! mo/ d5se mat]ial objects ,x-rays 7 f\nd to h ! p[] ( ioniz+ gases ?r\gh :i* !y pass & eject+ electrons f metal surfaces aga9/ :i* !y /rike4 ,! po9ts at :i* ^! electrons are produc$ are 9 turn ! s\rces ( second>y ,x-rays ^: prop]ties are *>act]i/ic ( ! metal f :i* !y come4 ,rntg5's discov]y excit$ int5se int]e/ among laym5 z well z 9 sci5tific circles4 ,( ! _m ,x-ray photographs tak51 ^? ( ,wright 7#a1 #bce1 #ahif7 ( ,yale 7 ! fir/ to be produc$ 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,8 exp]im5ts 7 made imm$iately on receipt ( ! news ( ,rntg5's rese>*1 & result$ 9 ! publication ( a numb] ( photographs %[+ ! transluc5cy = ^! rays ( pap]1 wood1 & ev5 alum9ium4 ,z ,x-rays are undeviat$ by electric or magnetic fields1 ,s*u/]1 & lat] ,wie*]t & ,/okes1 sugge/$ t !y might be electromagnetic waves ( ! same nature z light1 b mu* %ort] & less regul>4 ,! great objection to ?is hypo!sis 0 ! failure ei!r to refract or diffract ^! rays4 ,9 fact ,bragg cont5d$ t !y 7 n e!rial di/urbances at all1 b consi/$ ( neutral p>ticles mov+ ) v high velocities4 ,f9ally ,laue#afd demon/rat$ _! undulatory nature by %[+ t diffraction took place "u prop] conditions4 ,j z ! di/ance betwe5 adjac5t l9es ( a grat+ mu/ be comp>able to ! wave l5g? ( light = a spectrum to be =m$1 a p]iodic /ructure ) a grat+ space ( _! v mu* %ort] wave l5g? is necess>y to diffract ,x-rays4 ,su* a /ructure is altoge!r too f9e to be made by human tools4 ,nature1 h[ev]1 has already prep>$ x = man's use4 ,! di/ance betwe5 ! atoms ( a cry/al is j "r to make x an excell5t ,x-ray grat+1 & ,laue _h no difficulty 9 obta9+ diffraction patt]ns :5 ,rntg5 rays 7 pass$ ?r\gh a block ( z9cbl5de4 ,! di/ance betwe5 adjac5t atoms ( ?is cubic cry/al c be comput$ at once f its d5sity & molecul> weight1 & !n ! wave l5g? ( ! radiation calculat$ f ! deviation suff]$4 ,9 ?is way ,x-rays are f\nd to h a l5g? less ?an "o ?\s&? z great z visible light4 ,fur!r /udy ( ?is ph5om5on1 p>ticul>ly by ! two ,braggs1 fa!r & son1 has reveal$ _m ( ! /ructural details ( m complicat$ cry/als4 ,! mo/ significant inve/igation 9 ! field op5$ up by ,laue's discov]y is t und]tak5 by ,moseley#afe only a c\ple ( ye>s be=e he lo/ 8 life 9 ! tr5*es at ,gallipoli4 ,us+ _m diff]5t metals z antica?odes 9 a vacuum tube1 he measur$ ! frequ5cies ( ! *>act]i/ic rays emitt$4 ,he f\nd t if ! elem5ts are arrang$ 9 ord] ( increas+ atomic weight1 ! squ>e roots ( ! *>act]i/ic frequ5cies =m an ari?metical progression4 ,if to ea* elem5t is assign$ an integ]1 beg9n+ ) "o = hydrog51 two = helium1 & s on1 ! squ>e root ( ! frequ5cy ( ! *>act]i/ic radiation is f\nd to be proportional to ?is atomic numb]4 ,ev5 ?\gh ,uhl] has %[n rec5tly t ov] wide ranges ,moseley's law does n hold )9 ! limits ( exp]im5tal error1 !re is und\bt$ly mu* significance to be atta*$ to ?is simple relation4 ,radioactivity4--,! ye> foll[+ ! discov]y ( ,x-rays1 ,becqu]el f\nd t a photographic plate is simil>ly affect$ by radiations f uranium salts4 ,two ye>s lat] ! ,curies sep>at$ f pit*bl5de ! v active elem5ts polonium & radium4 ,passage ( ! rays f ^! sub/ances ?r\gh electric & magnetic fields reveal$ ! exi/5ce ( ?ree types4 ,! alpha rays h be5 %[n by ,ru!r=d & 8 co-work]s to be positively *>g$ helium atoms2 ! beta rays are v rapidly mov+ electrons2 & ! gamma rays are electromagnetic pulses ( ! same nature z ,x-rays b some:at %ort]4 ,9 #aijb ,ru!r=d & ,soddy advanc$ ! !ory ( atomic dis9tegration1 accord+ to :i* ! emission ( a ray is an indication ( ! break+ d[n ( ! atom to a simpl] =m4 ,?us 9 ! radioactive sub/ances !re is go+ on be=e our eyes a cont9ual trans=mation ( "o elem5t into ano!r1 a *ange1 by ! way1 :i* appe>s to be 9 no slighte/ degree ei!r ha/5$ or delay$ by *anges 9 temp]ature 7,h4 ,l4 ,bronson1 #bj1 #fj1 #aije7 or ext]nal electrical condition ( ! radioactive elem5t4 ,uranium is ! prog5itor ( a long l9e ( desc5dants1 ( :i* radium 0 suppos$ = "s "t to be ! fir/ memb]4 ,boltwood 7#be1 #cfe1 #aijh7 ( ,yale1 h[ev]1 %[$ t ! sl[ gr[? ( radium 9 uranium solutions is incompatible ) ?is assumption1 & soon isolat$ an int]m$iate product :i* he nam$ ionium4 ,radium itself dis9tegrates into a gas kn[n z radium emanation1 :i* 9 turn gives rise to a succession ( o!r products4 ,analyses by ,boltwood 7#bc1 #gg1 #aijg7 ( radioactive m9]als f ! same locality %[ su* a con/ant ratio betwe5 ! am\nts ( uranium & lead pres5t t x is natural to conclude t lead is ! end product ( ! s]ies4 ,?is hypo!sis is confirm$ by ! fact t ! olde/ rocks %[ relatively ! greate/ am\nts ( ?is elem5t4 ,9 addition to ! ,ionium-,radium s]ies two o!rs h be5 discov]$4 ,( ^! ,boltwood's 7#be1 #bfi1 #aijh7 inve/igations seem to indicate t ! "o :i* />ts ) act9ium is a collat]al bran* ( ! radium s]ies & comes f ! same p>5t uranium4 ,! o!r beg9s ) ?orium & comprises t5 memb]s4 ,z yet ! end products ( ! act9ium & ?orium s]ies h n be5 id5tifi$1 al?\gh !re is "s reason = believ+ t an isotope ( lead may be ! f9al memb] ( ! latt]4 ,z ! am\nt ( a radioactive elem5t :i* dis9tegrates 9 a giv5 "t is proportional to ! total mass pres5t1 an inf9ite "t w\ld be requir$ = ! sub/ance to be completely trans=m$4 ,h5ce ! life ( su* an elem5t is measur$ by ! half value p]iod1 or "t tak5 = half ! initial mass to dis9tegrate4 ,?is "t v>ies widely = diff]5t radioactive sub/ances1 rang+ f a small fraction ( a second = act9ium ,a to five billion ye>s = uranium4 ,boltwood's 7#be1 #dic1 #aijh7 orig9al det]m9ation ( ! life ( radium f ! rate ( its gr[? 9 a solution conta9+ ionium gave #bjjj ye>s z its result1 al?\gh rec5t measurem5ts by ,miss ,gl$its* 7#da1 #aab1 #aiaf7 agree m closely ) ! value #agfj ye>s obta9$ by ,ru!r=d & ,geig] f ! numb] ( alpha p>ticles emitt$4 ,"u ! action ( ,x-rays or ! radiations f radioactive sub/ances1 gases acquire a conductivity :i* has be5 attribut$ by ,?omson & ,ru!r=d to ! =mation ( ions4 ,zel5y has f\nd t ions ( opposite sign h some:at diff]5t mobilities 9 an electric field1 & exp]im5ts ( ,wellis* 7#ci1 #ehc1 #aiae7 %[ t at l[ pressures "s ( ! negative ions are electrons4 ,t4 ,s4 ,taylor 7#bf1 #afi1 #aijh et seq47 & ,duane 7#bf1 #dfd1 #aijh7 h inve/igat$ ! ionization produc$ by alpha p>ticles1 & ,bum/ead 7#cb1 #djc1 #aiaa et seq47 has /udi$ ! emission ( electrons f metals :i* are bomb>d$ by ^! rays4 ,! inve/igations ( ,franck & ,h]tz1 & ,mc,lennan & ,h5d]son1 %[ a significant relation betwe5 ! ioniz+ pot5tial 7en]gy :i* mu/ be possess$ by an electron 9 ord] to produce an ion on collid+ ) an atom7 & a quantity1 to be consid]$ lat] 9 m detail1 :i* has be5 introduc$ by ,planck into ! !ory ( radiation4 ,me?ods ( ,sci5ce4--,sci5tific progress seems to foll[ a m or less cle>ly def9$ pa?4 ,exp]im5tation br+s to light ! hidd5 processes ( nature1 & hypo!ses are advanc$ to correlate ! facts discov]$4 ,z m & m ph5om5a are f\nd to fit into ! same s*eme1 ! hypo!ses at fir/ propos$ t5tatively1 al?\gh (t5 only aft] ext5sive alt]ations1 become firmly e/abli%$ z !ories4 ,f9ally !re may appe> a fundam5tal cla% betwe5 two !ories1 ea* ( :i* 9 its respective doma9 seems to repres5t ! only possible mann] 9 :i* a l>ge gr\p ( ph5om5a c be correlat$4 ,! maze becomes m p]plex+ at e /ep4 ,at la/ a g5ius appe>s on ! sc5e1 approa*es ! problem f a new & unsuspect$ po9t ( view1 & ! p>adox vani%es4 ,su* *anges 9 po9t ( view are ! mile/ones :i* m>k ! progress ( sci5ce4 ,t sci5ce is /agnant ^: only function is to collect1 classify & correlate va/ /ores ( exp]im5tal data4 ,! sign ( vitality is ! exi/5ce ( cle>ly def9$ & fundam5tal problems any possible solution ( :i* seems irreconcilable ) ! mo/ basic tru?s ( ! sci5ce 9 "q4 ,! great] ! p>adox gr[s1 ! m c]ta9 ! adv5t ( a new po9t ( view :i* w br+ "o /ep ne>] ! compreh5sive picture ( nature :i* is ! goal ( natural philosophy4 ,! ,e!r4--,f ! e>lie/ times philosoph]s h be5 attract$ by ! possibility ( expla9+ physical ph5om5a 9 t]ms ( an all-p]vad+ m$ium4 ,s /rong _h ?is t5d5cy become by ! middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury t ! ,engli% s*ool ( physici/s 7 attribut+ rigidity1 d5sity & ne>ly all ! prop]ties ( mat]ial m$ia to ! e!r4 ,9 fact mo/ physici/s seem$ to h =gott5 t no exp]im5t _h ev] giv5 direct evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( su* a m$ium4 ,n until ! fir/ decade ( ! tw5tie? c5tury 0 x realiz$ t ! exp]im5tal evid5ce actually po9t$ 9 q ! opposite direction1 & t a new po9t ( view 0 ne$$ 9 deal+ ) ^? ph5om5a ( light & electromagnetism :i* _h be5 previ\sly describ$ 9 t]ms ( a univ]sal m$ium4 ,"s acc\nt ( ! developm5t ( ! e!r !ory & ( ! orig9 & gr[? ( ! po9t ( view :i* has its pr9cipal exemplification 9 ! pr9ciple ( relativity is ess5tial = an und]/&+ ( pres5t t5d5cies 9 =mulat+ a philosophic basis = sci5tific ?\ght4 ,9 ! "t ( ,newton & = a c5tury aft] !re 0 mu* controv]sy betwe5 ! adh]5ts ( two irreconcilable !ories ( light4 ,hooke _h sugge/$ t light is a wave motion travel+ ?r\gh a homog5e\s m$ium :i* fills all space1 & ,huyg5s _h %[n t ! law ( refraction c be d$uc$ at once f ?is hypo!sis if x is assum$ t ! velocity ( light 9 a transp>5t body is less ?an t 9 free e!r4 ,h[ev]1 ,newton1 impress$ by ! fact t a ray obta9$ by d\ble refraction 9 ,icel& sp> diff]s f a ray ( ord9>y light j z a rod ( rectangul> cross section diff]s f "o ( circul> cross section1 & see+ no way ( expla9+ ?is dissymmetry 9 t]ms ( a wave motion analog\s to longitud9al s\nd waves1 adh]$ to ! view t light consi/s ( inf9itesimal p>ticles %ot out f ! lum9\s body ) enorm\s velocities4 ,s great 0 8 reputation on acc\nt ( 8 discov]ies 9 o!r fields t ?is !ory ( light held sway among 8 contempor>ies & successors until ! labors ( ,"y & ,fresnel at ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury def9itely e/abli%$ ! undulatory !ory4 ,h[ev]1 9 spite ( ! fact t a corpuscul> !ory ( light made ! assumption ( an e!r unnecess>y 9 s f> z ! simpl] ( ! obs]v$ ph5om5a are conc]n$1 ev5 ,newton po/ulat$ ! exi/5ce ( su* a m$ium1 p>tly 9 ord] to expla9 ! m complicat$ results ( exp]im5ts 9 light1 & p>tly 9 ord] to provide a vehicle = ! propagation ( gravitational =ces4 ,n[ an e!r1 if x is to expla9 any?+ at all1 mu/ h at lea/ "s ( ! simpl] prop]ties ( mat]ial m$ia4 ,! mo/ fundam5tal ( ^!1 p]haps1 is position 9 space4 ,z a fir/ approximation 9 expla9+ optical ph5om5a on ! e>?'s surface1 ! e>? might be suppos$ to be at re/ relative to ! e!r4 ,b ! e/abli%m5t ( ! ,cop]nican sy/em made ! sun ! c5t] ( ! sol> sy/em & gave ! e>? an orbital spe$ ( eighte5 miles a second4 ,x may be rem>k$ p>5!tically t ! spe$ ( a po9t on ! equator due to ! e>?'s diurnal rotation is q insignificant comp>$ to its orbital velocity4 ,h5ce z a second approximation ! sun might be consid]$ at re/ relative to ! e!r & ! e>? z mov+ ?r\gh ?is unresi/+ m$ium4 ,! fir/ indication ( ?is motion lay 9 ! discov]y ( ab]ration by ! ,briti% a/ronom] ,bradley 9 #agbh4 ,bradley notic$ t />s ne> ! pole ( ! ecliptic describe small circles dur+ ! c\rse ( a ye>1 :ile ^? 9 ! plane ( ! ecliptic vibrate back & =? 9 /raight l9es1 />s 9 int]m$iate positions describ+ ellipses4 ,! surpris+ ?+1 h[ev]1 0 t ! "t tak5 to complete "o ( ^! small orbits is 9 all cases exactly a ye>4 ,bradley conclud$ t ! ph5om5on is 9 "s way dep5d5t on ! e>?'s motion ar\nd ! sun1 & he 0 n long 9 rea*+ ! correct explanation4 ,= suppose ! e>? to be at re/4 ,!n 9 obs]v+ a /> at ! pole ( ! ecliptic x w\ld be necess>y to keep ! axis ( ! telescope exactly at "r angles to ! plane ( ! e>?'s orbit4 ,h[ev]1 z ! e>? is 9 motion1 ! telescope mu/ be po9t$ a little =w>d1 j z 9 walk+ rapidly ?r\gh ! ra9 an umbrella mu/ be incl9$ =w>d s z to int]cept ! ra9drops :i* w\ld o!rwise fall on ! spot to be occupi$ at ! end ( ! next /ep4 ,! angle ?r\gh :i* ! telescope has to be tilt$ is kn[n z ! angle ( ab]ration1 & ! tang5t ( ?is angle may easily be %[n to be equal to ! ratio ( ! velocity ( ! e>? to ! velocity ( light4 ,kn[+ ! velocity ( ! e>?1 ! velocity ( light c !n be calculat$4 ,?is me?od 0 "o ( ! fir/ ( obta9+ ! value ( ?is important quantity4 ,m rec5tly1 t]re/rial me?ods ( great precision h be5 devis$ = measur+ ! velocity ( light4 ,! mo/ accurate ( ^! is t employ$ by ! ,fr5* physici/ ,f\cault 9 #ahfb4 ,a ray ( light is reflect$ by a rotat+ mirror to a fix$ mirror plac$ at "s di/ance1 :i* 9 turn reflects ! ray back to ! mov+ mirror4 ,! latt]1 h[ev]1 has turn$ ?r\gh a small angle dur+ ! "t elaps$ s9ce ! fir/ reflection1 & consequ5tly ! direction ( ! ray on return+ to ! s\rce is n q opposite to t 9 :i* x _h />t$ out4 ,?is deviation 9 direction is det]m9$ f ! displacem5t ( ! image =m$ by ! return+ light1 & f x ! velocity ( light is calculat$4 ,9 ord] to make ! deflection appreciable ! di/ance betwe5 ! two mirrors %\ld be v great4 ,z orig9ally arrang$ by ,f\cault1 x 0 f\nd impractical to make ?is di/ance great] ?an tw5ty met]s1 & consequ5tly ! displacem5t ( ! image 0 less ?an a millimet]4 ,su* a small deflection limit$ ! accuracy ( ! exp]im5t to "o p]c5t4 ,9 #ahgi1 h[ev]1 ,mi*elson 7#ah1 #cij1 #ahgi71 !n a ma/] 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,navy1 improv$ ,f\cault's optical arrangem5ts to su* an ext5t t he 0 able to use a di/ance ( ne>ly sev5 hundr$ met]s betwe5 ! two mirrors4 ,) a rate ( two hundr$ & fifty-sev5 revolutions a second = ! rotat+ mirror1 ! displacem5t obta9$ 0 ov] ?irte5 c5timet]s4 ,?is exp]im5t gave #bii1iaj kilomet]s a second = ! velocity ( light1 ) a probable error ( "o "p 9 t5 ?\s&4 ,lat] inve/igations by ,newcomb & ,mi*elson 7#ca1 #fb1 #ahhf7 gave sub/antially ! same result4 ,s great has be5 ! accuracy ( ^! t]re/rial det]m9ations t rec5t practice has be5 to calculate f !m & ! angle ( ab]ration ! e>?'s orbital velocity1 & h5ce ! di/ance ( ! e>? f ! sun4 ,?is indirect me?od ( measur+ ! a/ronomical unit has a probable error no great] ?an ! be/ p>allax me?ods ( ! a/ronom]4 7,j4 ,lov]+1 #cf1 #afa1 #ahfc47 ,ab]ration is a fir/ ord] effect1 i4 e41 x dep5ds ^u ! fir/ p[] ( ! ratio ( ! velocity ( ! e>? to ! velocity ( light1 & at fir/ sight x seem$ to prove conclusively t ! e>? mu/ be 9 motion relative to ! lum9if]\s m$ium4 ,o!r que/ions _h to be settl$1 h[ev]1 & "o ( ^! 0 :e!r or n light com+ f a /> w\ld be refract$ diff]5tly :5 pass+ ?r\gh optical in/rum5ts f light :i* _h a t]re/ial orig94 ,arago subject$ ! matt] to exp]im5t1 & conclud$ t 9 e respect ! light f a /> behav$ z if ! e>? 7 at re/ & ! /> actually occupi$ ! position :i* x appe>s to occupy on acc\nt ( ab]ration4 ,f9ally optical exp]im5ts ) t]re/rial s\rces seem$ to be 9 no way affect$ by ! motion ( ! e>? ?r\gh ! e!r4 ,9 ord] to acc\nt = ^! facts ,fresnel advanc$ ! foll[+ !ory4 ,to expla9 ! refraction t takes place :5 light ent]s a transp>5t body1 x is necess>y to assume t light waves travel m sl[ly ?r\gh matt] ?an 9 free e!r4 ,n[ ! velocity ( s\nd is kn[n to v>y inv]sely ) ! squ>e root ( ! d5sity ( ! mat]ial m$ium ?r\gh :i* x passes4 ,h5ce x is natural to assume t e!r is cond5s$ inside mat]ial objects to su* an ext5t t ?is same relation connects its d5sity ) ! velocity ( light travel+ ?r\gh x4 ,b :5 a l5s or prism is set 9 motion1 ,fresnel suppos$ x to c>ry along only ! excess e!r :i* x conta9s1 e!r ( ! normal d5sity rema9+ beh9d4 ,?is assumption suffices to expla9 ,arago's results1 & yet fits 9 ) ! ph5om5on ( ab]ration4 ,x gives = light travel+ 9 ! direction ( motion ?r\gh a mov+ mat]ial m$ium ( index ( refraction n an absolute velocity great] ?an t :5 ! m$ium is at re/ by an am\nt 7#a 7#a_/n#b77v1 :i* is only a fraction ( ! velocity v :i* w\ld h to be add$ if convect$ matt] c>ri$ along all ! e!r :i* resides )9 x4 ,?is expression 0 te/$ directly1 fir/ by ,fizeau 9 #ahea1 & lat] by ,mi*elson & ,morley 7#ca1 #cgg1 #ahhf7 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,! exp]im5t consi/s 9 bifurcat+ a beam ( light1 pass+ "o-half 9 "o direction & ! o!r 9 ! opposite direction ?r\gh a /ream ( runn+ wat]4 ,on reunit+ ! two rays ! usual int]f]5ce fr+es are produc$4 ,rev]s+ ! direction ( motion ( ! wat] causes ! fr+es to %ift1 & f ! am\nt ( ?is %ift ! velocity imp>t$ to ! light by ! motion ( ! /ream is comput$4 ,! div]g5ce betwe5 ! exp]im5tal value ( ?is quantity & t calculat$ f ,fresnel's coeffici5t ( entra9m5t 0 f\nd by ,mi*elson & ,morley to be less ?an "o p]c5t1 :i* 0 ab\t _! exp]im5tal error4 ,?us ,fresnel's expression = ! velocity ( light 9 a mov+ m$ium is entirely confirm$ by exp]im5t4 ,! d]ivation ( x accept$ to-day1 h[ev]1 is v diff]5t f 8 orig9al d$uction4 ,x has be5 not$ t ! ph5om5a ( pol>ization l$ ,newton to reject ! wave !ory ( light4 ,! only type ( wave kn[n to him 0 ! longitud9al wave1 9 :i* ! vibrations ( ! p>ticles ( ! m$ium are 9 ! same direction z t ( propagation ( ! wave1 & x 0 impossible to suppose t su* a wave c\ld h diff]5t prop]ties 9 diff]5t directions at "r angles to ! l9e 9 :i* x is advanc+4 ,b 9 #ahag ,"y sugge/$ t ?is inconsi/5cy betwe5 ! wave !ory & ! facts ( pol>ization c\ld be remov$ by suppos+ ! vibrations con/itut+ light to be execut$ at "r angles to ! direction ( propagation4 ,?us 9 ord9>y light ! vibrations are to be conceiv$ z tak+ place haphaz>d 9 all directions 9 ! plane p]p5dicul> to ! ray1 :ile 9 plane pol>iz$ light ^! vibrations are conf9$ to a s+le direction4 ,?is supposition expla9$ s _m ( ! puzzl+ results ( exp]im5t1 t x 0 accept$ at once & l$ to ! complete v9dication ( ! undulatory !ory4 ,ela/ic ,solid ,!ory4--,%ortly aft]w>ds ,poisson succe$$ 9 solv+ ! diff]5tial equation :i* det]m9es ! motion ( a wave ?r\gh an ela/ic m$ium4 ,8 solution %[s t su* a m$ium is capable ( transmitt+ two types ( wave--"o longitud9al1 ! o!r transv]se4 ,if d5otes ! volume ela/icity1 ! rigidity & ! d5sity ( ! m$ium1 ! velocities ( ! two waves are respectively 77 777_/7 & 7_/7 ,n[ a solid has bo? compressibility & rigidity1 & transmits 9 g5]al bo? types ( wave4 ,a fluid1 on ! o!r h&1 on acc\nt ( its lack ( rigidity1 _c support a transv]se vibration4 ,h5ce x 0 natural t ,gre51 9 se>*+ = a dynamical explanation ( ! e!r1 %\ld h propos$ 9 a pap] read be=e ! ,cambridge ,philosophical ,society 9 #ahcg t ! e!r has ! ela/ic prop]ties ( a solid4 ,"o great difficulty pres5t$ itself2 di/urbances inside an ela/ic solid mu/ give rise to compressional z well z to transv]se waves4 ,b no su* ?+ z a compressional wave _h be5 f\nd 9 ! exp]im5tal /udy ( light4 ,gre5 attempt$ to ov]come ?is difficulty by attribut+ an inf9ite volume ela/icity to ! e!r4 ,! expression above %[s t longitud9al waves orig9at+ 9 su* an incompressible m$ium w\ld be c>ri$ away ) an inf9ite velocity1 & x may be %[n t ! en]gy associat$ ) !m w\ld be inf9itesimal 9 am\nt4 ,! next /ep 0 to calculate ! coeffici5ts ( transmission & reflection = light pass+ f "o mat]ial m$ium to ano!r4 ,"h ! ela/ic solid !ory is n altoge!r successful4 ,if ! e!r is suppos$ to h diff]5t d5sities 9 ! two m$ia1 z 9 ,fresnel's !ory1 b ! same rigidity1 c]ta9 ( ^! coeffici5ts fail to give ! values dem&$ by exp]im5t1 :ile if ! d5sities are assum$ ! same b ! rigidities diff]5t1 o!r ( ! coeffici5ts h discordant values4 ,9 connection ) ! ph5om5a ( d\ble refraction ev5 m s]i\s difficulties are enc\nt]$4 ,electromagnetic ,!ory4--,x 0 beg9n+ to be felt t an e!r mu/ expla9 m ?an ! ph5om5a ( light1 = ,f>aday's conception ( electromagnetic action z c>ri$ on ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( a m$ium _h add$ greatly to its functions4 ,f9ally ,maxwell's demon/ration t electromagnetic waves are propagat$ ) ! velocity ( light made ! !ory ( light into a subdivision ( electrodynamics4 ,maxwell himself did n apply electromagnetic !ory to ! explanation ( reflection & refraction4 ,?is defici5cy1 h[ev]1 0 rem$i$ by ,lor5tz 9 #ahge4 ,! results obta9$1 z well z ^? = d\ble refraction 7,j4 ,w4 ,gibbs1 #bc1 #bfb1 #ahhb et seq471 & metallic reflection 7,l4 ,p4 ,:eel]1 #cb1 #he1 #aiaa71 provid$ a complete v9dication ( ! electromagnetic !ory ( light4 ,?is is all ! m significant :5 ! extreme precision obta9able 9 optical exp]im5ts is tak5 into acc\nt4 ,= in/ance1 ,ha/+s 7#ce1 #fj1 #ahhh7 has te/$ ,huyg5s' con/ruction = d\ble refraction 9 ,icel& sp> & f\nd t 8! diff]5ce betwe5 a measur$ index ( refraction 444 at an angle ( #cj ) ! cry/all9e axis1 & ! index calculat$ f ,huyg5s' law & ! measur$ pr9cipal indices ( refraction0 is a matt] ( only #d-e units 9 ! six? decimal place4 ,s9ce ,maxwell's "t ! gamut ( electromagnetic waves has be5 /eadily ext5d$4 ,! %orte/ ,h]tzian waves m]ge almo/ imp]ceptibly into ! longe/ heat waves ( ! infra-r$1 & f !re ! kn[n spectrum runs cont9u\sly ?r\gh ! visible region to ! %ort waves ( ! extreme ultra-violet rec5tly disclos$ by ,lyman4 ,"h !re is a %ort gap until s(t ,x-rays are rea*$1 & f9ally ! doma9 ( radiation comes to an end ) gamma rays a billion? ( a c5timet] 9 l5g?4 ,maxwell's e!r 0 n a dynamical e!r 9 ! s5se ( ,gre5's ela/ic solid m$ium4 ,9 spite ( ! fact t ,maxwell 0 always active 9 devis+ me*anical analogues to illu/rate ! ph5om5a ( electromagnetism1 he 0 nev] en?usia/ic ov] ! speculations ( ! advocates ( a dynamical e!r4 ,! electrodynamic equations provid$ an accurate repres5tation ( ! electric & magnetic fields1 & beyond t he felt x 0 ne$less to g4 ,t ,gibbs 7#bc1 #dge1 #ahhb7 held ! same view is made evid5t by ! clos+ p>agraphs ( a pap] 9 :i* he %[s t ! electromagnetic !ory ( light acc\nts 9 m9ute/ detail = ! intricate ph5om5a accompany+ ! passage ( light ?r\gh circul>ly pol>iz+ m$ia4 ,he says3 8,! laws ( ! propagation ( light 9 plane waves1 :i* h ?us be5 d]iv$ f ! s+le hypo!sis t ! di/urbance by :i* light is transmitt$ consi/s ( sol5oidal electrical fluxes1 444 are ess5tially ^? :i* are receiv$ z embody+ ! results ( exp]im5t4 ,9 no p>ticul>1 s f> z ! writ] is aw>e1 d !y conflict ) ! results ( exp]im5t1 or require ! aid ( auxili>y & =c$ hypo!ses to br+ !m into h>mony !re)4 ,9 ?is respect ! electromagnetic !ory ( light /&s 9 m>k$ contra/ ) t !ory 9 :i* ! prop]ties ( an ela/ic solid are attribut$ to ! e!r1--a contra/ :i* 0 v di/9ct 9 ,maxwell's d]ivation ( ,fresnel's laws f electrical pr9ciples1 b becomes m /rik+ z we foll[ ! subject f>!r into its details1 & take acc\nt ( ! want ( absolute homog5eity 9 ! m$ium1 s z to embrace ! ph5om5a ( ! disp]sion ( colors & circul> & elliptical pol>ization40 ,fur!r ,dynamical ,!ories4--,kelv91 h[ev]1 0 n satisfi$ ) ?is type ( e!r4 ,to him dynamics 0 ! f\ndation ( all physical ph5om5a1 & no?+ c\ld be said to be expla9$ until a me*anical model 0 provid$4 ,s he return$ to ! ela/ic solid !ory1 & develop$ ! consequ5ces ( ! assumption1 already made use ( by ,cau*y1 t ! e!r has a negative volume ela/icity ( su* a value z to make ! velocity ( ! compressional wave z]o4 ,9 ord] to prev5t su* an e!r f collaps+ x is necess>y to assume t x is rigidly atta*$ at its b\nd>ies & t cavities _c be =m$ at any po9t 9 its int]ior4 ,n[ ,gibbs 7#cg1 #abi1 #ahhi7 has po9t$ out ! rem>kable fact t ! equations describ+ ! motion ( ,kelv9's quasi-labile e!r are ( exactly ! same =m z ! electromagnetic equations4 ,electric displacem5t is repres5t$ by an actual displacem5t ( ! e!r1 magnetic int5sity by a rotation4 ,h5ce ev]y?+ :i* c be expla9$ by ! electrodynamic equations f9ds an analogue 9 t]ms ( ,kelv9's e!r4 ,/ill ano!r type ( dynamic e!r :i* fits ! kn[n facts 0 propos$ by ,mc,cullagh & p]fect$ by ,l>mor4 ,9 ?is e!r a rotational ela/icity is premis$1 su* z w\ld exi/ if ea* p>ticle ( ! m$ium consi/$ ( ?ree rigidly connect$ gyro/ats ) mutually p]p5dicul> axes4 ,9 ?is e!r electrical displacem5ts correspond to rotations1 & magnetic /ra9s to e!rial displacem5t4 ,a ,new ,po9t ( ,view4--,:ile ! dynamical s*ool 0 /ill dom9ant 9 ,engl&1 ano!r po9t ( view 0 develop+ on ! cont95t4 ,kir*h(f d5i$ t x 0 ! prov9ce ( sci5ce to provide me*anical explanations ( ! e!r & electrodynamic ph5om5a su* z ,kelv9 conceiv$ to be necess>y 9 ord] to make ^! ph5om5a intelligible4 ,kir*h(f's cont5tion 0 t ! object ( sci5ce is purely descriptive1--ph5om5a mu/ be obs]v$1 classifi$1 & mutual connections describ$ by ! fewe/ numb] ( diff]5tial equations possible4 ,ma* express$ ! same idea some:at m concisely :5 he ass]t$ t ! aim ( sci5ce is 8economy ( ?\ght40 ,= in/ance1 9 ! "t ( ,newton1 planet>y motions c\ld be describ$ q satisfactorily by means ( ! ?ree laws ( ,kepl]4 ,! motion ( fall+ bodies on ! e>?'s surface _h be5 describ$ ) a fair degree ( accuracy by ,galileo4 ,! value ( ,newton's law ( gravitation1 h[ev]1 lay 9 ! fact t ?is great g5]alization made x possible to describe ^! & _m o!r types ( motion by a s+le simple =mula1 in/ead ( leav+ ea* to be gov]n$ by a numb] ( sep>ate & app>5tly unrelat$ laws4 ,! importance ( su* a g5]alization is measur$ by ! economy ( ?\ght :i* x introduces4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,fig4 #c4 ,electron ,!ory4--,! electron !ory 0 lead+ to a rev]sal ( ,kelv9's idea t dynamical pr9ciples mu/ und]lie electrodynamics4 ,lor5tz _h %[n t a rigor\s solution ( ! electrodynamic equations did away entirely ) ,maxwell's displacem5t curr5t1 b made ! electromagnetic field at a po9t 9 space dep5d n ^u ! di/ribution ( *>ges & curr5ts at ! same in/ant1 b at a "t e>li] suffici5t to all[ ! effect to travel ) ! velocity ( light f ! *>ges & curr5ts produc+ ! field to ! po9t at :i* ! electric & magnetic int5sities are to be f\nd4 ,! position ( a *>ge or curr5t elem5t at ?is e>li] "t he d5ot$ its 8effective position40 ,! effective di/ribution1 !n1 is t actually se5 by an obs]v] /ation$ at ! po9t "u consid]ation at ! in/ant = :i* ! int5sity ( ! electromagnetic field is to be det]m9$4 ,?is solution ( ! electrodynamic equations l$ 9 turn to rigor\s expressions = ! electric & magnetic int5sities produc$ by a v small *>g$ p>ticle1 su* z an electron4 ,fig4 #a %[s ! electro/atic field produc$ by a *>g$ p>ticle at re/4 ,! l9es ( =ce spread out radially & uni=mly 9 all directions4 ,9 fig4 #b ! electron is suppos$ to h a velocity v horizontally to ! "r ( an am\nt small] ?an1 ?\gh comp>able )1 ! velocity ( light c4 ,x is se5 t ! l9es ( electric =ce /ill div]ge radially f ! *>ge1 b are cr[d$ 9 ! equatorial plane & spread ap>t 9 ! pol> regions4 ,! dissymmetry gr[s z ! velocity increases until if ! velocity ( light %\ld be rea*$ ! field w\ld be entirely conc5trat$ 9 a plane at "r angles to ! direction ( motion4 ,n[ x may be %[n t fig4 #b is obta9able f fig4 #a by r$uc+ dim5sions 9 ! direction ( motion 9 ! ratio ( 7#a #b7 3 #a1 :]e v_/c4 ,= a uni=mly convect$ electric field diff]s f an electro/atic field only 9 t ! dim5sions 9 ! direction ( motion are contract$ 9 ?is p>ticul> ratio4 ,fig4 #c repres5ts ! electric field ( a *>g$ p>ticle :i* has a uni=m accel]ation to ! "r4 ,consid] ,f>aday's analogy betwe5 l9es ( =ce & /ret*$ ela/ic b&s4 ,! symmetry ( ! fir/ two figures %[s t 9 nei!r ( ^! cases w\ld !re be a resultant =ce on ! *>g$ p>ticle4 ,b 9 ! ?ird figure x is obvi\s t a =ce to ! left is ex]t$ on ! *>ge by its own field4 ,calculation %[s ?is =ce to be proportional 9 magnitude to ! accel]ation4 ,let x be po/ulat$ t ! resultant =ce on a *>g$ p>ticle is always z]o4 ,!n if ,f is ! appli$ =ce1 ! =ce on ! p>ticle due to ! reaction ( its field w be -- m f1 :]e f /&s = ! accel]ation & m is a positive con/ant1 & we h ! fundam5tal equation ( dynamics ,f m f #j ,h5ce1 in/ead ( admitt+ ,kelv9's cont5tion t all physical ph5om5a mu/ be giv5 a me*anical explanation1 x w\ld seem m logical to ass]t t electrodynamics actually und]lies me*anics4 ,calculation %[s ! electromagnetic mass m to v>y inv]sely ) ! radius ( ! *>g$ p>ticle4 ,n[ ,?omson's exp]im5ts made x possible to calculate ! mass ( an electron4 ,h5ce its radius c be comput$1 & is f\nd to be ab\t #b7aj7-ac "p ( a c5timet]1 or "o fifty-?\s&? "p ( ! radius ( ! atom4 ,s9ce numb]s s small convey little mean+1 consid] ! foll[+ illu/ration1 due1 9 "p1 to ,kelv94 ,imag9e a s+le drop ( wat] to be magnifi$ until x is z l>ge z ! e>?4 ,! individual atoms w\ld !n h ! size ( baseballs4 ,n[ magnify "o ( ^! atoms until x is comp>able 9 size ) ,/4 ,pet]'s ca!dral at ,rome4 ,! electrons )9 ! atom w\ld appe> z a few gra9s ( s& scatt]$ ab\t ! nave4 ,?is sep>ation betwe5 ! con/itu5t electrons ( ! atom1--s great 9 comp>ison ) _! dim5sions1--expla9s h[ alpha p>ticles c be %ot by ! billion ?r\gh ?9-wall$ glass tub+ )\t leav+ any holes beh9d or impair+ 9 ! slighte/ degree ! high vacuum )9 ! tube4 ,! mu* small] high spe$ beta p>ticles pass ?r\gh an av]age ( t5 ?\s& atoms )\t ev5 com+ ne> en\gh to "o ( ! compon5t electrons to deta* x & =m an ion4 ,mi*elson-,morley ,exp]im5t4--,9 #ahha ,mi*elson 7#bb1 #abj1 #ahha7 conceiv$ an +5i\s & bold me?od ( measur+ ! orbital motion ( ! e>? ?r\gh ! lum9if]\s e!r4 ,z ! exp]im5t 0 "o involv+ consid]able exp5se1 ,bell1 ! inv5tor ( ! telephone receiv]1 0 appeal$ to successfully = ! funds necess>y to c>ry x ?r\gh4 ,mi*elson's exp]im5tal plan 0 z foll[s3 ,a beam ( light travel+ 9 ! direction ( ! e>?'s motion /rikes an unsilv]$ mirror m at an angle ( #de4 ,"p ( ! light passes ?r\gh1 ! re/ be+ reflect$ at "r angles to its orig9al direction4 ,ea* ray is return$ by a mirror at a di/ance l f m4 ,on meet+ aga91 ! ray ^: pa? has be5 at "r angles to ! direction ( ! e>?'s motion passes on ?r\gh ! mirror1 :ile ! o!r ray is reflect$ s z to br+ ! two 9 l9e & =m int]f]5ce fr+es4 ,n[ consid] ! effect ( ! e>?'s motion on ! pa?s ( ! two rays4 ,9 fig4 #d ! e>? is suppos$ to be mov+ to ! "r4 ,! unsilv]$ mirror m bifurcates a beam ( light com+ f a s\rce a4 ,by ! "t ! ray reflect$ f m has travel$ to ! mirror b & back1 m w h mov$ =w>d to m'2 a di/ance #bl1 :]e ! small quantity is ! ratio ( ! e>?'s velocity to ! velocity ( light4 ,h5ce ! l5g? ( ! pa? trav]s$ by ?is ray is approximately #bl7#a #b74 ,! o!r ray w rea* ! mirror c aft] ! latt] has mov$ =w>d a di/ance l_/7#a #b7 & on return+ f9d m at m'4 ,h5ce its pa? has a l5g? ( r\ghly #bl7#a #b74 ,! diff]5ce 9 pa? ( ! two rays is #bl & consequ5tly !y %\ld be a little out ( phase on meet+ at d4 ,by rotat+ ! app>atus clockwise ?r\gh #ij ! directions ( ! two rays relative to ! e>?'s motion are int]*ang$1 & ! int]f]5ce fr+es w\ld be expect$ to %ift an am\nt correspond+ to a diff]5ce 9 pa? ( #bbl4 ,?is quantity is ( c\rse small1--#b is ab\t "o "o hundr$ million?1--b s s5sitive are ! me?ods ( int]f]ometry t ,mi*elson felt confid5t t he w\ld be able to detect ! e>?'s motion ?r\gh ! e!r4 ,! app>atus consi/$ ( a table :i* c\ld be rotat$ ab\t a v]tical axis 9 mu* ! same way z a spectromet] table1 & provid$ ) arms a met] long to c>ry ! mirrors b & c4 ,) ?is l5g? ( arm ! int]f]5ce fr+es f sodium light %\ld %ift by an am\nt correspond+ to f\r hundr$?s ( a wave l5g? :5 ! table is rotat$ ?r\gh a "r angle4 ,:5 ! exp]im5t 0 fir/ p]=m$ ! app>atus 0 plac$ on a /one pi] 9 ! ,physical ,in/itute at ,b]l94 ,s s5sitive 0 ! in/rum5t to outside vibrations t ev5 aft] midnight x 0 f\nd impossible to get consi/5t read+s4 ,f9ally a satisfactory f\ndation 0 con/ruct$ 9 ! cell> ( ! ,a/rophysical obs]vatory at ,potsdam4 ,b :at 0 ! a/oni%m5t ( ! exp]im5t]s to f9d t ! expect$ %ift ( ! int]f]5ce fr+es did n exi/6 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,! extreme delicacy ( ! exp]im5t made x desirable to confirm ! result by repeat+ x4 ,?is 0 done by ,mi*elson & ,morley 7#cd1 #ccc1 #ahhg7 9 #ahhg4 ,9 place ( a revolv+ table a massive slab ( /one float+ on m]cury 0 us$ to c>ry ! app>atus4 ,?is slab 0 kept 9 con/ant rotation1 ! obs]v] foll[+ x ar\nd4 ,moreov]1 ! precision ( ! exp]im5t 0 greatly increas$ by reflect+ ea* ray back & =? across ! slab a numb] ( times betwe5 leav+ & return+ to ! mirror m4 ,! accuracy atta9$ 0 su* z to ju/ify ,mi*elson 9 decl>+ t if ! effect s\ght actually exi/$ x c\ld n be s great z "o-tw5tie? ( its calculat$ value4 ,9 #aije ,morley & ,mill]#aff repeat$ ! exp]im5t = ! second "t & succe$$ 9 increas+ ! s5sitiv5ess ( ! app>atus to a po9t su* t a motion ?r\gh ! e!r ( "o-t5? ( ! e>?'s orbital velocity c\ld h be5 detect$4 ,! displacem5t look$ = 9 ! ,mi*elson-,morley exp]im5t is kn[n z a second-ord] effect 9 t x dep5ds ^u ! squ>e ( ! ratio ( ! velocity ( ! e>? to t ( light4 ,mi*elson at fir/ consid]$ t ! negative result obta9$ confirm$ a !ory propos$ by ,/okes 9 :i* x 0 assum$ t ! e!r inside & ne> its surface p>takes ( ! motion ( ! e>?1 :ile t at a di/ance is practically quiesc5t4 ,b !re are _m objections to ,/okes' !ory1 "o ( :i* 0 br\ght out by an exp]im5t ( ,mi*elson's 7#c1 #dge1 #ahig7 9 :i* he attempt$ by an int]f]5ce me?od to detect a diff]5ce 9 ! velocity ( light at diff]5t levels above ! e>?'s surface4 ,! negative result obta9$ l$ him to conclude t if ,/okes' !ory 7 true ! e>?'s influ5ce on ! e!r w\ld h to ext5d to a di/ance above its surface comp>able ) its diamet]4 ,mean:ile a m satisfactory explanation 0 =?com+4 ,x has be5 po9t$ out t a uni=mly convect$ electric field is d]ivable f an electro/atic field by contract+ dim5sions 9 ! direction ( motion 9 ! ratio 7#a #b7 3 #a4 ,fitzg]ald & ,lor5tz %[$ indep5d5tly t if mov+ matt] is di/ort$ 9 ?is same way ! result obta9$ by ,mi*elson w\ld be j t to be expect$4 ,= !n ! di/ance ( ! mirror c f m w\ld be l7#a #b7 in/ead ( l1 & ! pa? ( ! ray mov+ p>allel to ! e>?'s orbit #bl7#a #b71 :i* is j t ( ! o!r ray4 ,( c\rse :5 ! app>atus is rotat$ ?r\gh #ij1 ! di/ance ( ?is mirror f m assumes its normal value aga91 & ! di/ance ( ! o!r mirror becomes %ort5$4 ,z all measurem5t consi/s 9 comp>+ ! object to be measur$ ) a /&>d ?is contraction c\ld nev] be detect$ by exp]im5tal me?ods1 = ! measur+ rod w\ld contract 9 exactly ! same ratio z ! body to be measur$4 ,9 comput+ its electromagnetic mass ,abraham _h assum$ ! electron to be a uni=mly *>g$ rigid sph]e :i* keeps its sph]ical =m no matt] h[ great a velocity x may be giv54 ,he f\nd t ! mass increases ) ! spe$ at v high velocities1 becom+ inf9ite z ! velocity ( light is approa*$1 & t its value dep5ds ^u ! direction ( ! appli$ =ce4 ,aft] ! ,fitzg]ald-,lor5tz contraction 0 se5 to be necess>y 9 ord] to expla9 ,mi*elson's result1 ,lor5tz calculat$ ! electromagnetic mass ( a *>g$ sph]e :i* is de=m$ into an oblate sph]oid :5 set 9 motion4 ,= ?is type ( electron too1 ! mass approa*es inf9ity = velocities z great z t ( light1 & is diff]5t = diff]5t directions4 ,if a =ce is appli$ 9 ! direction ( motion ! in]tia to be ov]come is a little great] ?an :5 ! =ce is appli$ at "r angles to ?is direction4 ,?us we h to di/+ui% betwe5 longitud9al & transv]se masses4 ,b ! masses ( ,lor5tz's electron are n ! same functions ( its velocity z ^? ( ,abraham's4 ,kaufmann & aft] him ,bu*]] te/$ exp]im5tally ! relation betwe5 transv]se mass & velocity by obs]v+ ! deflections produc$ by electric & magnetic fields 9 ! pa?s ( high spe$ beta p>ticles4 ,! latt]'s "w 0 su* an ample confirmation ( ,lor5tz's =mula t x may be consid]$ z prov5 t a mov+ electron at lea/ suff]s contraction 9 ! direction ( motion 9 ! ratio 7#a #b7 3 #a4 ,! electromagnetic !ory ( light _h prov$ s successful :5 appli$ to bodies at re/ t ,lor5tz 0 anxi\s to ext5d ?is !ory to ! optics ( mov+ m$ia4 ,8 problem 0 to f9d a gr\p ( homog5e\s l9e> trans=mations t w\ld leave ! =m ( ! electrodynamic equations un*ang$4 ,! ,mi*elson-,morley exp]im5t _h %[n t dim5sions 9 ! direction ( motion mu/ be contract$ 9 ! mov+ sy/em1 ^? at "r angles rema9+ unalt]$4 ,b ,lor5tz soon f\nd t x 0 also necess>y to use a new unit ( "t 9 ! mov+ sy/em1 & z ?is "t 0 f\nd to dep5d ^u ! position ( ! po9t at :i* x is to be det]m9$1 he call$ x ! local "t4 ,lor5tz's trans=mation is j t ( ! pr9ciple ( relativity1 b he did n succe$ 9 express+ ! electrodynamic equations 9 t]ms ( ! new cord9ates & "t 9 exactly ! same =m z = a sy/em at re/1 = ! reason t he fail$ to end[ ^! new units ) suffici5t reality to ju/ify him 9 us+ !m :5 x came to trans=m+ ! velocity t]m involv$ 9 an electric curr5t4 ,pr9ciple ( ,relativity4--,9 #aije appe>$ 9 ! ,annal5 d] ,physik#afg a pap] de/9$ to alt] entirely ! po9t ( view f :i* problems 9 light & electromagnetic !ory are to be approa*$4 ,! au?or 0 ,alb]t ,e9/e91 ( ,b]ne1 ,switz]l&1 a "y man ( tw5ty-six :o _h already made a numb] ( notable contributions to !oretical physics4 ,! pr9ciple ( relativity propos$ by ,e9/e9 0 by no means new to /ud5ts ( dynamics4 ,newton's fir/ two laws ( motion express v cle>ly ! fact t 9 me*anics all motion is relative4 ,=ce is proportional to accel]ation1 & ! relation betwe5 ! two is ! same :e!r ! motion "u consid]ation is ref]r$ to fix$ axes or to axes mov+ ) a con/ant velocity4 ,b 9 connection ) ! ph5om5a ( light & electromagnetism ! case seem$ to be q diff]5t4 ,!re ev]y?+ 0 ref]r$ to a fix$ e!r1 & ev5 ?\gh ,lor5tz _h f\nd a set ( trans=mations :i* left ! electrodymanic equations practically un*ang$1 he cont9u$ to ?9k 9 t]ms ( an e!r4 ,s physici/s 7 n a little />tl$ :5 ,e9/e9 po/ulat$ t no exp]im5t1 practical or ideal1 c\ld ev] di/+ui% betwe5 two sy/ems 9 su* a mann] z to w>rant ! ass]tion t "o ( !m is at re/ & ! o!r 9 motion4 ,all motion is relative1 & ! laws gov]n+ physical1 *emical & biological ph5om5a are ! same 9 t]ms ( ! units ( "o sy/em z 9 t]ms ( ^? ( any o!r4 ,e9/e9 next consid]s "s v fundam5tal que/ions4 ,:at d we mean :5 we say t two ev5ts1 "o at ,a & ! o!r at a po9t ,b f> f ,a1 occur at ! same "t8 ,obvi\sly ! expression has no significance unless syn*ron\s clocks are /ation$ at ! two po9ts4 ,b h[ is x to be det]m9$ :e!r or n ^! two clocks are syn*ron\s8 ,if in/antane\s communication c\ld be e/abli%$ betwe5 ,a & ,b ! matt] w\ld be simple en\gh4 ,s9ce no inf9ite velocity ( transmission is available1 h[ev]1 let a light wave be s5t f ,a to ,b & return$ to ,a imm$iately ^u its arrival4 ,if ! "t indicat$ by ! clock at ,b :5 ! signal is receiv$ is half way betwe5 t at :i* x left ,a & ! "t at :i* x arrives on its return1 !n ! two clocks may be consid]$ syn*ron\s4 ,n[ if x desir$ to measure ! l5g? ( a b> :i* is mov+ p>allel to ! scale ) :i* ! measurem5t is to be made1 x is necess>y to note ! positions ( ! two ends ( ! b> at ! same in/ant4 ,s ev5 ! measurem5t ( ! l5g? ( a mov+ body dep5ds ^u ! condition ( syn*ronism at diff]5t po9ts 9 space4 ,! pr9ciple ( relativity requires t ! velocity ( light %all be ! same 9 "o sy/em z 9 ano!r relative to :i* ! fir/ is 9 motion4 ,h5ce ! def9ition ( syn*ronism makes x possible to obta9 a set ( trans=mations connect+ space & "t measurem5t on "o sy/em ) ^? on ano!r4 ,?is gr\p ( trans=mations is exactly t :i* ,lor5tz _h f\nd w\ld trans=m ! electrodynamic equations into !mselves4 ,b ,e9/e9's po9t ( view br\ght out a rem>kable reciprocity :i* ,lor5tz _h miss$4 ,if two p>allel rods ,,mn & ,,op are 9 motion relative to ea* o!r 9 ! direction ( _! l5g?s1 n only does ,,op appe> %ort5$ to an obs]v] at re/ ) respect to ,,mn1 b ,,mn appe>s %ort] ?an normal 9 ! same ratio to an obs]v] :o is mov+ along ) ! rod ,,op4 ,e9/e9's !ory makes ! velocity ( light ! maximum spe$ ) :i* a signal c be transmitt$4 ,?is leads to 8 celebrat$ addition !orem4 ,consid] ?ree obs]v]s ,a1 ,b & ,c4 ,let ,b be mov+ relative to ,a ) a velocity ( n9e-t5?s ! velocity ( light1 & ,c 9 ! same direction ) an equal velocity relative to ,b4 ,9 t]ms ( old-fa%ion$ notions ( "t & space1 ! velocity ( ,c relative to ,a w\ld be comput$ z "o & eight-t5?s ! velocity ( light4 ,b ! relativity !ory gives x z n9ety-n9e hundr$?s ! velocity ( light4 ,= ! velocity ( light c nev] be surpass$ by t ( any mat]ial object4 ,?is d$uction f !ory is mo/ /rik+ly confirm$ by ! fact t al?\gh beta p>ticles h be5 obs]v$ ) velocities z high z n9ety-n9e hundr$?s t ( light1 ! velocity ( light is nev] q equall$4 ,x may be rem>k$ 9 pass+ t ! pr9ciple ( relativity requires t ! masses ( all mat]ial bodies %all v>y ) ! velocity 9 ! same mann] z ,lor5tz f\nd to be ! case = ! electromagnetic mass ( ! de=mable electron4 ,9 ?is connection ,bum/ead 7#bf1 #dih1 #aijh7 has devis$ an elegant me?od ( d$uc+ ! ratio ( longitud9al to transv]se mass4 ,! close connection betwe5 electrodynamics & ! pr9ciple ( relativity is obvi\s f ! fact t bo? lead to ! same "t & space trans=mations4 ,fur!rmore ,l4 ,page 7#cg1 #afi1 #aiad7 has %[n t ! electrodynamic equations c be d]iv$ exactly & 9 _! entirety f no?+ m ?an ! k9ematics ( relativity & ! assumption t e elem5t ( *>ge is a c5t] ( uni=mly div]g+ l9es ( =ce4 ,h5ce x may safely be ass]t$ t no purely electromagnetic ph5om5on c ev] come into contradiction ) ?is pr9ciple4 ,! simplicity ?us introduc$ into ! solution ( a c]ta9 class ( problems is enorm\s4 ,z an example consid] ! "q z to :e!r a mov+ /> is ret>d$ by ! reaction ( its own radiation4 ,?is purely electrodynamical problem is ( su* complexity t attempts to solve x h l$ to "s controv]sy among ma!matical physici/s4 ,! pr9ciple ( relativity tells u )\t rec\rse to analysis t no ret>dation c exi/4 ,?r\gh\t ! n9ete5? c5tury ! e!r has play$ a fundam5tal "p 9 all important physical !ories ( light & electromagnetism4 ,b if x is n possible = exp]im5t to detect ev5 ! /ate ( motion ( ! e!r1 :y po/ulate ! exi/5ce ( su* a m$ium8 ,if x does n possess ! mo/ fundam5tal *>act]i/ic ( matt]1 h[ c x possess su* d]iv$ prop]ties z d5sity & ela/icity1--prop]ties :i* any conceivable me*anical m$ium mu/ h 9 ord] to transmit transv]se vibrations8 ,! relativi/ does n d5y ! exi/5ce ( an e!r4 ,to him ! "q has no m mean+ ?an if he 7 ask$ to express an op9ion z to ! reality ( p>allels ( latitude on ! e>?'s surface4 ,z a conv5i5t m$ium ( expression 9 describ+ c]ta9 ph5om5a ! e!r has ju/ifi$ mu* ( ! use :i* has be5 made ( x4 ,b to attribute to x a degree ( sub/antiality = :i* !re is no w>rant 9 exp]im5t1 is to *ange x f an aid into an ob/acle to ! progress ( sci5ce4 ,f ! relativi/ po9t ( view ! di/9ction is v %>p betwe5 ^? motions ( *>g$ p>ticles :i* are exp]im5tally obs]vable1 & su* geometrical conv5tions z electromagnetic fields1 or analytical symbols z electric & magnetic int5sities4 ,^! modes ( repres5tation h be5 & /ill are ( ! greate/ use & importance1 b _! value 9 sci5tific description mu/ n lead to lack ( appreciation ( _! purely speculative "*4 ,f9ally att5tion mu/ be drawn to ! fact t ! discov]ies ( inductive sci5ce1 embodi$ 9 ! great g5]alization we h j be5 discuss+1 h l$ to a m intimate k ( ! nature ( "t & space ?an tw5ty c5turies ( introspection on ! "p ( pr(essional philosoph]s4 ,m9sk[ski1 ^: promise ( great] a*ievem5t 0 cut (f by an untimely dea?1 has %[n t f\r dim5sional geometry makes possible ! repres5tation ) beautiful simplicity ( ! "t & space relation%ips ( ?is !ory4 ,! "o "t & ?ree space dim5sions m]ge 9 su* a mann] z to =m a s+le :ole ) n a ve/ige ( diff]5tiation betwe5 ^! fundam5tal quantities4 ,wilson & ,lewis#afh h made ?is repres5tation famili> to ,am]ican read]s ?r\gh _! admirable translation ( ,m9sk[ski's "w into ! notation ( ,gibbs's vector analysis4 ,ab]ration1 ! ,doppl] effect1 anomal\s disp]sion1 --inde$ all kn[n ph5om5a1--are f\nd to be 9 accord ) ! pr9ciple ( relativity4 ,x mu/ be borne 9 m9d1 h[ev]1 t ?is pr9ciple applies only to sy/ems mov+ relative to "o ano!r 9 /raight l9es ) con/ant velocities4 ,t !re is some?+ absolute ab\t rotation has be5 recogniz$ s9ce ,f\cault p]=m$ 8 fam\s p5dulum exp]im5t 9 #ahea4 ,?is exp]im5t 7,c4 ,s4 ,lyman1 #ab1 #bea & #cih1 #ahea7 consi/$ 9 sett+ a p5dulum compos$ ( a heavy-brass ball susp5d$ by a long wire into oscillation 9 su* a way z to avoid appreciable ellipticity 9 its motion4 ,obs]vation ( ! rate at :i* ! gr\nd rotates relative to ! plane ( vibration ( ! p5dulum furni%$ a me?od ( measur+ ! rotation ( ! e>? ab\t its axis )\t ref]5ce to cele/ial bodies4 ,! gyroscopic compass 9 use to-day provides yet ano!r t]re/rial me?od ( detect+ ?is rotation4 ,! ,future ( ,physics4--,at times dur+ ! hi/ory ( physics x has seem$ z if ! fundam5tal laws ( ?is sci5ce _h be5 s completely =mulat$ t no?+ rema9$ to future g5]ations beyond ! r\t9e ( d$uc+ to ! full ! consequ5ces ( ^! laws1 & increas+ ! precision ( ! me?ods us$ to measure ! con/ants appe>+ 9 !m4 ,t ,laplace held ?is view has already be5 po9t$ out1 & ,maxwell1 9 8 introductory lecture at ! op5+ ( ! ,cav5di% laboratory 9 #ahga1 said1 8,?is *>act]i/ic ( mod]n exp]im5ts--t !y consi/ pr9cipally ( measurem5ts--is s prom95t1 t ! op9ion seems to h gott5 abroad t 9 a few ye>s all ! great physical con/ants w h be5 approximately e/imat$1 & t ! only occupation :i* w !n be left to m5 ( sci5ce w be to c>ry on ^! measurem5ts to ano!r place ( decimals40 ,t he himself did n ent]ta9 ?is view is made evid5t by a succe$+ p>agraph4 8,b we h no "r to ?9k ?us ( ! unse>*able ri*es ( creation1 or ( ! untri$ f]tility ( ^? fre% m9ds into :i* ^! ri*es w cont9ue to be p\r$4 ,x may possibly be true t1 9 "s ( ^? fields ( discov]y :i* lie op5 to su* r\gh obs]vations z c be made )\t artificial me?ods1 ! great explor]s ( =m] times h appropriat$ mo/ ( :at is valuable1 & t ! glean+s :i* rema9 are s\ght aft] r = _! ab/rus5ess ?an = _! intr9sic wor?4 ,b ! hi/ory ( sci5ce %[s t ev5 dur+ t phase ( h] progress 9 :i* %e devotes h]self to improv+ ! accuracy ( ! num]ical measurem5t ( quantities ) :i* %e has long be5 famili>1 %e is prep>+ ! mat]ials = ! subjugation ( new regions1 :i* w\ld h rema9$ unkn[n if %e _h be5 cont5t$ ) ! r\gh me?ods ( h] e>ly pione]s44440 ,t ,maxwell's =eca/ ( ! prospects ( 8 sci5ce 0 no ov]e/imate w be grant$ by ^? :o h foll[$ ! progress ( physics dur+ ! la/ tw5ty ye>s4 ,yet ! "w accompli%$ 9 ! pa/ appe>s small comp>$ to t :i* is left to ! future4 ,_m ( ! unsolv$ problems are matt]s ( fitt+ toge!r puzzl+ details1 b !re is at lea/ "o ^: solution appe>s to dem& a radical modification 9 our fundam5tal physical conceptions4 ,?is is ! =mulation ( ! laws :i* gov]n ! motions ( electrons & positively *>g$ p>ticles inside ! atom4 ,black ,radiation4--,! significance ( ! problem 0 fir/ br\ght to light ?r\gh ! /udy ( black radiation4 ,by a black body is meant "o ^: di/+ui%+ *>act]i/ic is t x emits & absorbs radiation ( all frequ5cies1 & black radiation is t :i* w exi/ 9 !rmal equilibrium ) su* a body4 ,! int]e/ ( ?is type ( radiation lies 9 ! fact1 demon/rat$ by ,kir*h(f1 t its nature dep5ds only ^u ! temp]ature ( ! black body ) :i* x is 9 equilibrium1 & on none ( ?is body's physical or *emical *>act]i/ics4 ,?us we may speak ( ! 8temp]ature0 ( ! radiation itself1 mean+ by ?is ! temp]ature ( ! mat]ial body ) :i* x w\ld be 9 equilibrium4 ,! problem ( black radiation is to f9d ! di/ribution ( en]gy among ! waves ( diff]5t frequ5cies at any giv5 temp]ature4 ,! fir/ /ep t[>d a solution 0 made :5 ,/efan %[$ exp]im5tally1 & ,boltzmann z a d$uction f !rmodynamics & electrodynamics1 t ! total en]gy d5sity summ$ up ov] all wave l5g?s v>ies ) ! f\r? p[] ( ! absolute temp]ature4 ,if ! en]gy d5sity is plott$ z ord9ate aga9/ ! wave l5g? z abscissa1 ! exp]im5tal curve = any "o temp]ature rises f ! axis ( abscissas at ! orig91 rea*es a maximum1 & falls to z]o aga9 z ! wave l5g? becomes inf9itely great4 ,n[ ,wi5's displacem5t law1 ! second important /ep t[>d ! det]m9ation ( ! =m ( ?is curve1 %[s t z ! temp]ature is rais$ ! wave l5g? to :i* its highe/ po9t corresponds becomes %ort]1--9 fact ?is p>ticul> wave l5g? v>ies inv]sely ) ! absolute temp]ature4 ,?is !oretical conclusion is entirely confirm$ by exp]im5t4 7,j4 ,w4 ,drap]1 #d1 #chh1 #ahdg47 ,f>!r ?an ?is g5]al !rmodynamical pr9ciples are unable to g4 ,/ati/ical me*anics1 h[ev]1 ass]ts t :5 a l>ge numb] ( l elem5ts are 9 !rmal equilibrium1 ! av]age k9etic en]gy associat$ ) ea* degree ( fre$om is equal to a univ]sal con/ant multipli$ by ! absolute temp]ature4 ,?is 8pr9ciple ( equi-p>tition ( en]gy0 has be5 appli$ 9 v>i\s ways to obta9 a radiation law4 ,! mo/ /raight=w>d me?od is bas$ on ! equilibrium :i* mu/ ensue betwe5 radiation field & mat]ial oscillators :5 ! latt] emit1 on ! av]age1 z mu* en]gy z !y absorb4 ,f :atev] aspect ! problem is treat$1 h[ev]1 ! radiation law obta9$ f ! application ( ! equi-p>tition pr9ciple is ! same4 ,& :ile ?is law agrees well ) ! exp]im5tal curve = long wave l5g?s1 x %[s an en]gy d5sity t becomes indef9itely great = extremely %ort waves1 :i* is n only at v>iance ) ! facts1 b actually leads to an inf9ite value ( ?is quantity :5 integrat$ ov] ! entire spectrum4 ,! ,en]gy ,quantum4--,n[ ! pr9ciple ( equi-p>tition ( en]gy re/s securely on mo/ g5]al dynamical pr9ciples4 ,t ^! dynamical laws are inexact to any su* ext5t z ! div]g5ce betwe5 !ory & exp]im5t w\ld indicate1 is inconceivable2 t !y are insuffici5t :5 appli$ to motions ( electrons 9 su* int5se fields z occur )9 ! atom seems no long] op5 to d\bt4 ,9 ord] to obta9 a radiation =mula 9 accord ) exp]im5t ,planck has f\nd x necess>y to ext5d ! atomic idea to en]gy1 :i* he conceives to exi/ 9 multiples ( a fundam5tal quantum h1 be+ ! frequ5cy & h ,planck's con/ant4 ,t "s su* hypo!sis ( discont9uity is ess5tial 9 ord] to obta9 any law t w ev5 approximately fit ! exp]im5tal facts has be5 prov$ by ,po9c>4 ,b ! precise spot at :i* ! quantum is introduc$ diff]s = e new d]ivation ( ,planck's law4 ,z d$uc$ mo/ rec5tly by ,planck himself1 ! quantum %[s itself 9 connection ) ! emission ( en]gy by ! mat]ial oscillators ) :i* ! radiation field is 9 equilibrium4 ,^! oscillators are suppos$ to act q normally 9 e respect except emission2 "h ! radiation dem&$ by ! electrodynamic equations is ca/ aside1 & an oscillator is suppos$ to emit at once all its en]gy aft] x has accumulat$ an am\nt equal to "s integral multiple ( h4 ,a =m ( ! !ory :i* does n conta9 ?is improbable contradiction ( ! firmly e/abli%$ facts ( electrodynamics introduces ! quantum into ! specification ( ! en]gy ( vibration :i* is p]mitt$ to ea* oscillator4 ,"h bo? emission & absorption foll[ ! classical !ory1 b ! motion ( an emitt+ & absorb+ l9e> oscillator ( frequ5cy is suppos$ to be /able only = ^? amplitudes = :i* ! en]gy ( its oscillations is an integral multiple ( h4 ,9 ord] to ma9ta9 ! en]gy at ^! p>ticul> values1 ! oscillator may draw en]gy f1 or deposit surplus en]gy )1 o!r degrees ( fre$om :i* p>take nei!r 9 emission nor absorption1 b act m]ely z /oreh\ses4 ,photoelectric ,effect4--,:5 inve/igat+ ! production ( electromagnetic waves1 ,h]tz _h notic$ t a sp>k pass$ m readily betwe5 ! t]m9als ( 8 oscillator :5 ! negative electrode 0 illum9at$ by light f ano!r sp>k4 ,fur!r inve/igation by ,hallwa*s1 ,el/] & ,geitel1 & o!rs %[$ t ?is effect 0 due to ! emission ( electrons by a metal expos$ to ! influ5ce ( ultra-violet light4 ,l5>d discov]$ t ! en]gy ) :i* a negatively *>g$ p>ticle is eject$ is entirely indep5d5t ( ! int5sity ( ! light1 & fur!r inve/igation %[$ x to dep5d only on ! frequ5cy4 ,e9/e9 sugge/$ t ! electrons appe>+ 9 ?is s-call$ photo-electric effect />t f )9 ! metal ) an initial en]gy h4 ,9 pass+ ?r\gh ! surface a resi/ance is enc\nt]$1 h[ev]1 s he conclud$ t ! en]gy ) :i* ! fa/e/ mov+ electrons appe> outside ! metal %\ld be equal to h less ! "w done 9 ov]com+ ?is resi/ance4 ,rec5t exp]im5ts n only confirm ?is relation1 b provide a mo/ satisfactory me?od ( det]m9+ ! value ( h4 ,millikan#afi f9ds x to be #feg7aj7-bg ergs sec41 :i* gives ! quantum = yell[ light a value sixty times z great z ! heat en]gy ( a monatomic gas molecule at ,o,c4 ,t ?is l>ge am\nt ( en]gy c be transf]r$ f ! incid5t light to ! eject$ electron is q out ( ! "q2 x mu/ come f )9 ! atom4 ,9 ?is way "s indication is obta9$ ( h[ va/ intra-atomic en]gies mu/ be4 ,/ructure ( ! ,atom4--,! g5]ally accept$ model ( ! atom is t due *iefly to ,ru!r=d4#agj ,he consid]s x to be con/itut$ ( electrons revolv+ ab\t a positive nucleus ei!r s+ly or gr\p$ 9 conc5tric r+s1 9 mu* ! same mann] z ! planets revolve ar\nd ! sun4 ,exp]im5ts on ! scatt]+ ( alpha rays1 h[ev]1 %[ t ! nucleus1 :ile x mu/ h a positive *>ge suffici5t to neutralize ! *>ges ( all ! electrons mov+ ar\nd x1 _c h a volume ( an ord] ( magnitude great] ?an t ( ! electron4 ,! numb] ( unit *>ges resid+ on x1 except 9 ! case ( hydrog51 :i* is suppos$ to consi/ ( a s+ly *>g$ nucleus & only "o electron1 is f\nd to be approximately half ! atomic weight4 ,?us helium1 ) an atomic weight ( ab\t f\r1 has a d\bly *>g$ nucleus ) two electrons revolv+ ab\t x1 & li?ium a triply *>g$ nucleus & ?ree electrons4 ,! numb] ( unit *>ges on ! nucleus is suppos$ to correspond ) ! atomic numb] us$ by ,moseley 9 int]pret+ ! results ( 8 exp]im5t on ! ,x-ray spectra ( ! elem5ts4 ,n[ ! electron :i* is revolv+ ar\nd ! positive nucleus ( a hydrog5 atom1 mu/1 accord+ to electrodynamic laws1 radiate en]gy4 ,?is radiation w act z a resi/ance to its motion1 caus+ its orbit to become small] & its frequ5cy to increase4 ,h5ce lum9\s hydrog5 w\ld be expect$ to give (f a cont9u\s spectrum4 ,! v f9e l9es actually f\nd seem inexplicable on ! classical dynamical & electrodynamical !ories4 ,^! l9es1 & ^? ( _m o!r spectra1 may ev5 be gr\p$ into s]ies1 & ! relations betwe5 !m express$ 9 ma!matical =m4 ,=mul h be5 propos$ by ,balm]1 ,rydb]g1 ,ritz & o!rs1 all ( :i* conta9 a univ]sal con/ant ,n z well z c]ta9 p>amet]s :i* mu/ be v>i$ by unity 9 pass+ f "o l9e ( a s]ies to ! next4 ,9 #aiac ,bohr#aga propos$ anatomic !ory :i* br+s to light a rem>kable num]ical relation%ip betwe5 ?is quantity ,n & ,planck's con/ant h4 ,he po/ulat$ t ! electron 9 ! hydrog5 atom1 = in/ance1 _c revolve 9 a circle ( any arbitr>y radius1 b is conf9$ to ^? orbits = :i* its k9etic en]gy is an integral multiple ( hn1 n be+ its orbital frequ5cy4 ,n[ at times ?is electron is suppos$ to jump f an out] to an inn] orbit1 :5 ! excess en]gy ( ! fir/ orbit ov] ! second is radiat$ away4 ,b ! en]gy emitt$ is also tak5 to be equal to h1 :]e is ! frequ5cy ( ! radiation4 ,h5ce c be det]m9$1 & ! expression obta9$ = x is exactly t giv5 long be=e by ,balm] z an empirical law4 ,! mo/ rem>kable ?+ ab\t x1 h[ev]1 is t ,bohr's result conta9s a con/ant involv+ h & ! electronic *>ge & mass :i* has precisely ! value ( ! univ]sal con/ant ,n ( ,balm]'s & ,rydb]g's =mul4 ,9 all1 ! !ory acc\nts = ?ree s]ies ( hydrog51 & yields satisfactory results = helium atoms :i* h lo/ an electron1 or li?ium atoms :i* h a d\ble positive *>ge4 ,b = atoms :i* reta9 m ?an a s+le electron x seems no long] to hold4 ,! ?ree m5tion$ are only ! mo/ cle>ly def9$ ( a gr[+ gr\p ( ph5om5a 9 :i* ! quantum manife/s itself4 ,its significance & ! alt]ation 9 our fundam5tal conceptions to :i* x seems to be lead+ is = ! future to make cle>4 ,t x pres5ts ! mo/ important & int]e/+ problem z yet unsolv$ few physici/s w\ld d5y4 ,am]ican ,physici/s4--,9 attempt+ to cov] ! progress ( physics dur+ ! la/ hundr$ ye>s 9 ! space ( a few pages1 _m important developm5ts ( ! subject h ( necessity rema9$ unt\*$1 & ! treatm5t ( _m o!rs has be5 entirely inadequate4 ,among ^? appe>+ 9 ! ,j\rnal ( :i* no m5tion has be5 made are ,le,conte's 7#be1 #fb1 #aheh7 discov]y ( ! s5sitive flame & ,rood's 7#df1 #agc1 #ahic7 inv5tion ( ! flick] photomet]4 ,h[ev]1 en\gh has be5 rec\nt$ to indicate ! preem95t position 9 ! hi/ory ( physics 9 ,am]ica occupi$ by f\r m53 ,joseph ,h5ry1 ( ! ,albany ,academy1 ,pr9ceton1 & ! ,smi?sonian ,in/itution2 ,h5ry ,augu/us ,r[l&1 ( ,johns ,hopk9s ,univ]sity2 ,josiah ,will>d ,gibbs1 ( ,yale2 & ,alb]t ,abraham ,mi*elson1 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,naval ,academy1 ,case ,s*ool ( ,appli$ ,sci5ce1 ,cl>k ,univ]sity1 & ! ,univ]sity ( ,*icago4 ,( ^!1 ! la/ nam$ has ! di/9ction ( be+ ! only ,am]ican physici/ to h receiv$ ! ,nobel prize1 ?\gh !re is little d\bt t ! o!r ?ree w\ld h be5 simil>ly honor$ _h n _! important "w be5 publi%$ prior to ! in/itution ( ?is aw>d4 ,all f\r occupy high places 9 ! ranks ( ! _w's great m5 ( sci5ce1 & ! inve/igations c>ri$ out by !m & _! fell[ work]s 9 ,am]ica h giv5 to _! c\ntry a position 9 ! annals ( physics :i* is by no means insignificant4 ,! ,j\rnal's ,"p 9 ,meteorology4 ,! meteorological inve/igations publi%$ 9 ! e>ly numb]s ( ! ,j\rnal h play$ an important role 9 e/abli%+ a correct !ory ( /orms4 ,be=e ! orig9 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,signal ,s]vice 9 #ahga no sy/ematic wea!r reports 7 issu$ by any gov]nm5tal ag5cy 9 ?is c\ntry1 & consequ5tly ! "w ( collect+ z well z int]pret+ meteorological data re/$ entirely 9 ! h&s ( int]e/$ individuals & in/itutions4 ,! e>lie/ important /udies ( /orms to appe> 9 ! ,j\rnal 7 contribut$ by ,r$field ( ,new ,york1 ^: fir/ pap] 7#bj1 #ag1 #ahca7 treat$ 9 consid]able detail a viol5t /orm :i* pass$ ov] ,long ,isl&1 ,connecticut & ,massa*usetts 9 #ahba4 ,he conclud$ t 8! direction ( ! w9d at a p>ticul> place1 =ms no "p ( ! ess5tial "* ( a /orm1 b is only incid5tal to t p>ticul> portion 444 ( ! track ( ! /orm :i* may *ance to become ! po9t ( obs]vation1 444 ! direction ( ! w9d be+1 9 all cases1 comp\nd$ ( bo? ! rotative & progressive velocities ( ! /orm40 ,a few ye>s lat]1 analyses ( twelve 8gales & hurricanes ( ! ,we/]n ,atlantic0 7#ca1 #aae1 #ahcg7 l$ to ! /atem5t t ! ph5om5a involv$ 8are to be ascrib$ ma9ly to ! me*anical gravitation ( ! atmosph]e1 z connect$ ) ! rotative & orbital movem5ts ( ! e>?'s surface40 ,9 ?is pap] is emphasiz$ ! fact t ! w9d may bl[ 9 diametrically opposite directions at po9ts ne> ! /orm c5t]4 8,:ile "o vessel has be5 ly+-to 9 a heavy gale ( w9d1 ano!r1 n m ?an ?irty leagues di/ant1 has at ! v same "t be5 9 ano!r gale equally heavy1 & ly+-to ) ! w9d 9 q an opposite direction40 ,f an accompany+ sket* %[+ w9d directions1 ! read] w\ld inf] t1 at ?is "t1 ,r$field believ$ ! motion ( ! air to be v ne>ly 9 circles ab\t ! /orm c5t]4 ,! same idea is convey$ by a lat] pap] 7#db1 #aab1 #ahdb74 ,espy 7#ci1 #abj1 #ahdj7 ( ,philadelphia1 h[ev]1 claim$ t obs]vation %[$ r t ! w9d blew inw>ds t[>d a c5tral po9t1 if ! /orm 7 r\nd 9 %ape1 or t[>d a c5tral l9e1 if x 7 oblong4 ,?is view ,r$field 7#db1 #aab1 #ahdb7 conte/$1 & br\ght =? mu* evid5ce to prove its falsity4 ,a lat] /atem5t 7#a1 #a1 #ahdf7 ( 8 own !ory is z foll[s3 8,i h nev] be5 able to conceive1 t ! w9d 9 viol5t /orms moves only 9 circles4 ,on ! contr>y1 a vortical movem5t 444 appe>s to be an ess5tial elem5t ( _! viol5t & long-cont9u$ action1 ( _! increas$ en]gy t[>ds ! c5t] or axis1 & ( ! accompany+ ra94444 ,! degree ( vorticul> incl9ation 9 viol5t /orms mu/ be subject1 locally1 to great v>iations2 b x is n probable t1 on an av]age ( ! diff]5t sides1 x ev] comes ne> to =ty-five degrees f ! tang5t ( a circle1--& t su* av]age incl9ation ev] exce$s two po9ts ( ! compass1 may well be d\bt$40 ,a qualitative explanation ( ! effect ( ! e>?'s rotation on ! direction ( ! w9d ne> ! /orm c5t] _h already be5 giv5 by ,tracy 7#de1 #fe1 #ahdc71 & ?is 0 foll[$ "s ye>s lat] by ,f]rel's 7#ca1 #bg1 #ahfa7 v ?or\gh quantitative inve/igation ( ! dynamics ( ! atmosph]e4 ,a numb] ( individuals kept sy/ematic records ( meteorological obs]vations1 among :om 0 ,loomis1 ^: /orm analyses did mu* to settle ! m]its ( ! rival !ories ( ,r$field & ,espy4 ,9 /udy+ ! /orm ( #ahcf 7#dj1 #cd1 #ahda7 he _h drawn on ! map l9es ?r\gh ^? po9ts 9 ! track ( ! /orm :]e ! b>omet]1 at any giv5 h\r1 is l[e/4 ,:ile ?is me?od reveal$ ! g5]al direction 9 :i* ! /orm 0 progress+1 x fail$ to give mu* indication ( its size or %ape4 ,9 discuss+ ! two tornadoes ( ,febru>y1 #ahdb1 "o ( :i* _h already be5 describ$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#dc1 #bgh1 #ahdb71 he adopt$ a new & m illum9at+ graphical me?od4 ,in/ead ( connect+ po9ts ( l[e/ pressure1 he drew a curve ?r\gh all po9ts :]e ! b>omet] /ood at its normal level1 !n "o ?r\gh ^? po9ts at :i* ! pressure 0 ( an in* bel[ normal1 & s on4 ,temp]ature he treat$ 9 mu* ! same way1 & ! /r5g? & direction ( ! w9d 7 indicat$ by arr[s4 ,?is innovation gave to 8 /orm analyses a significance :i* _h be5 entirely lack+ 9 ^? ( 8 pr$ecessors1 & l$ to ! famili> sy/ems ( isob>s & iso!rms 9 use on ! daily *>ts issu$ by ! ,wea!r ,bureau at ! pres5t "t4 ,loomis advocat$ c>eful obs]vations = "o ye> at /ations #ej miles ap>t all ov] ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 s t suffici5t data might be obta9$ to settle once = all ! law ( /orms4 ,8 ef=ts1 second$ by ^? ( ,h5ry1 ,ba*e1 ,pi]ce1 ,abbe1 & ,lapham1 l$ ev5tually to ! e/abli%m5t ( ! ,signal ,s]vice1 & ! publication ( daily wea!r maps accord+ to ! plan advocat$ ?irty ye>s be=e4 ,^! maps af=d$ a basis = fur!r analyses ( /orms1 :i* he publi%$ 9 num]\s 8,contributions to ,meteorology0 7#h1 #a1 #ahgd1 et seq47 betwe5 #ahgd & 8 dea? 9 #ahij4 ,9 addition to 8 "w on /orms1 ,loomis made a c>eful /udy ( ! e>?'s magnetism 7#cd1 #bij1 #ahch et seq471 & ( ! aurora borealis 7#bh1 #che1 #ahei et seq474 ,t a connection exi/$ betwe5 sunspots1 aurora1 & t]re/rial magnetism 0 already recogniz$4 ,loomis 7#ej1 #aec1 #ahgj et seq471 h[ev]1 %[$ t ! p]iodicity ( ! aurora borealis1 z well z ( excessive di/urbances 9 ! e>?'s magnetic field1 corresponds v closely ) t ( sunspots4 ,notes4 ,footnote #aed3 ,j4 ,w4 ,gibbs1 ,trans4 ,conn4 ,acad4 ,arts & ,sci41 #c1 #ajh & #cdc4 ,ab/ract by ! au?or1 ! ,j\rnal1 #af1 #dda1 #ahgh4 ,footnote #aee3 ,h4 ,k4 ,onnes1 ,nature1 #ic1 #dha1 #aiad4 ,footnote #aef3 ,h4 ,h]tz1 ,wi$4 ,ann41 #cd1 #eea1 #ahhh et seq4 ,footnote #aeg3 ,e4 ,f4 ,ni*ols & ,g4 ,f4 ,hull1 ,phys4 ,rev41 #ac1 #cjg1 #aija et seq4 ,footnote #aeh3 ,j4 ,j4 ,?omson1 ,phil4 ,mag41 #dd1 #bic1 #ahig4 ,footnote #aei3 ,r4 ,a4 ,millikan1 ,phys4 ,rev41 #b1 #aji1 #aiac4 ,footnote #afj3 ,p4 ,zeeman1 ,phil4 ,mag41 #dc1 #bbf1 #ahig4 ,footnote #afa3 ,h4 ,a4 ,lor5tz1 ,phil4 ,mag41 #dc1 #bcb1 #ahig4 ,footnote #afb3 ,s4 ,j4 ,b>nett1 ,phys4 ,rev41 #f1 #bci1 #aiae1 & #aj1 #g1 #aiag4 ,footnote #afc3 ,w4 ,c4 ,rntg51 ,wi$4 ,ann41 #fd1 #a1 #ahih et seq4 ,footnote #afd3 ,w4 ,fri$ri*1 ,p4 ,knipp+1 & ,m4 ,laue1 ,ann4 d4 ,phys41 #da1 #iga1 #aiac4 ,footnote #afe3 ,h4 ,g4 ,j4 ,moseley1 ,phil4 ,mag41 #bf1 #ajbd1 #aiac1 & #bg1 #gjc1 #aiad4 ,footnote #aff3 ,e4 ,w4 ,morley & ,d4 ,c4 ,mill]1 ,phil4 ,mag41 #i1 #fhj1 #aije4 ,footnote #afg3 #ag1 #hia1 #aije4 ,footnote #afh3 ,e4 ,b4 ,wilson & ,g4 ,n4 ,lewis1 ,proc4 ,am4 ,acad41 ( ,arts & ,sci41 #dh1 #chi1 #aiab4 ,footnote #afi3 ,r4 ,a4 ,millikan1 ,phys4 ,rev41 #g1 #cee1 #aiaf4 ,footnote #agj3 ,e4 ,ru!r=d1 ,phil4 ,mag41 #ba1 #ffi1 #aiaa4 ,footnote #aga3 ,n4 ,bohr1 ,phil4 ,mag41 #bf1 #a1 #aiac et seq4 ,,xii ,a ,,c5tury ,,( ,,zoology ,,9 ,,am]ica ,by ,,wesley ,k4 ,,coe ,?is article is int5d$ z a brief survey ( ! developm5t ( zoology 9 ,am]ica1 & no attempt is made to give a g5]al hi/ory ( ! sci5ce4 ,!re are num]\s acc\nts 9 sev]al languages ( zoological hi/ory 9 g5]al1 among !m be+ ,w4 ,a4 ,locy's 8,biology & its ,mak]s40 ,brief outl9es ( ! hi/ory ( zoology may be f\nd 9 _m zoological & biological text-books4 ,= ! hi/ory ( ,am]ican zoology ! read] is ref]r$ to ,pack>d's report on 8,a ,c5tury's ,progress 9 ,am]ican ,zoology10 publi%$ 9 ! ,am]ican ,naturali/1 7#aj1 #eia1 #ahgf71 to ,pack>d's 8,hi/ory ( ,zoology10 publi%$ 9 volume #a ( ! ,/&>d ,natural ,hi/ory 7pp4 lxii to lxxii1 #ahhe72 to ,g4 ,b4 ,goode's 8,beg9n+s ( ,natural ,hi/ory 9 ,am]ica10#agb & 8,beg9n+s ( ,am]ican ,sci5ce10#agc & to ,h4 ,s4 ,pratt's ,manual ( ! ,common ,inv]tebrate ,animals 7pp4 #a-i71 #aiaf4 ,9 ,b9ney's 8,t]re/rial ,air-brea?+ ,mollusks ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates0 7#ahea7 is a *apt] on ! rise ( sci5tific zoology 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates :i* well describes ! zoological conditions 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! c5tury1 :ile num]\s monographs & pap]s give ! hi/ory ( ! inve/igations on ! v>i\s gr\ps ( animals or on special fields ( /udy4 ,brief biographical sket*es ( ! mo/ di/+ui%$ ( our old] ,naturali/s--,wilson1 ,audubon1 ,agassiz1 ,wyman1 ,gray1 ,dana1 ,baird1 ,m>%1 ,cope1 ,goode & ,brooks are giv5 9 8,lead+ ,am]ican ,m5 ( ,sci5ce10 edit$ by ,david ,/>r ,jordan1 #aiaj4 ,m ext5sive biographies h be5 publi%$ sep>ately1 & ! activities ( a numb] ( ! m prom95t ,am]ican zoologi/s h be5 record$ 9 ! ,biographical ,memoirs ( ! ,national ,academy ( ,sci5ces4 ,! developm5tal hi/ory ( zoology 9 ,am]ica falls naturally into f\r fairly well m>k$ p]iods1 namely3--#a1 ,p]iod ( descriptive natural hi/ory1 previ\s to #ahdg1 embrac+ ! e>ly /udies on ! classification & habits ( animals1 *>act]i/ic ( ! zoological "w previ\s to ! arrival ( ,l\is ,agassiz 9 ,am]ica4 #b1 ,p]iod ( morphology & embryology1 #ahdg-ahgj1 dur+ :i* ! influ5ce ( ,agassiz direct$ ! zoological /udies t[>d problems conc]n+ ! relation%ips ( animals z indicat$ by _! /ructure & developm5tal hi/ory4 #c1 ,p]iod ( evolution1 #ahgj-ahij1 :5 ! pr9ciple ( natural selection receiv$ g5]al recognition & ! zoological /udies 7 l>gely devot$ to ! applications ( ! !ory to all gr\ps ( animals4 #d1 ,p]iod ( exp]im5tal biology1 s9ce #ahij1 dur+ :i* "t h occurr$ ! rem>kable advances 9 our k ( ! nature ( organisms ?r\gh ! application ( exp]im5tal me?ods 9 ! v>i\s bran*es ( ! mod]n sci5ce ( biology4 ,am]ican ,zoology 9 #ahah4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! c5tury :i* ?is volume commemorates1 ! accumulat$ biological k ( ! _w consi/$ ma9ly ( :at is to-day call$ descriptive natural hi/ory4 ,! zoological treatises ( ! "t 7 devot$ to ! names1 di/+ui%+ *>act]s & habits ( ! species ( animals & plants kn[n to ! naturali/s ( ,europe ei!r z native species or z ! results ( explorations 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w4 ,?is requir$ little m ?an a sup]ficial k ( _! g5]al anatomical /ructures4 ,! naturali/s ( ^? days _h no conception ( ! life )9 ! cell :i* we n[ "k to =m ! basis ( all ! activities ( animals & plants1 nor _h !y ev5 ! necess>y means ( /udy+ su* life4 ,! comp\nd microscope1 s necess>y = ! /udy ( ev5 ! l>ge/ ( ! cells ( ! body1 0 n adapt$ to su* use until #ahce1 al?\gh ! in/rum5t 0 inv5t$ 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,) ! p]fection ( ! microscope came a p]iod ( en?usia/ic /udy ( microscopic organisms & microscopic /ructures ( high] animals & plants4 ,x 0 n until tw5ty ye>s aft] ! f\nd+ ( ! ,j\rnal t ! cell !ory ( /ructure & function 9 all organisms 0 e/abli%$ by ! discov]ies ( ,s*leid5 & ,s*wann4 ,! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury saw great zoological activity 9 ,europe1 & p>ticul>ly 9 ,france4 ,buffon's great "w on ! ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,animals _h rec5tly be5 complet$1 ,cuvi] _h only "o ye> be=e publi%$ 8 classic "w 9 comp>ative anatomy1 8,le ,regne ,animal10 & ,lam>ck's 8,philosophie ,zoologique0 _h !n ar\s$ a new int]e/ 9 classification & comp>ative anatomy f an evolution>y /&po9t4 ,e4 ,ge(froy ,/4-,hilaire 0 at ! same "t support+ an evolution>y !ory bas$ on embryonic influ5ces result+ 9 sudd5 modifications ( adult /ructure4 ,^! epo*-mak+ discov]ies & !ories ga9$ a consid]able foll[+ 9 ,france1 ,g]many & ,engl&1 b seem to h _h little influ5ce on ! zoological "w ( ! foll[+ half c5tury 9 ,am]ica4 ,! sci5ce ( zoology z und]/ood to-day is commonly said to h be5 f\nd$ by ,l9nu by ! publication ( ! mod]n sy/em ( classification 9 ! t5? edition ( 8 8,sy/ema ,natur0 9 #ageh4 ,! influ5ce ( ,l9nu ar\s$ an int]e/ 9 biological /udies ?r\gh\t ,europe & /imulat$ new inve/igations 9 all gr\ps ( organisms4 ,su* /udies z relat$ to animals naturally foll[$ fir/ ! classification & relation%ip ( species1 t is1 sy/ematic zoology1 & !n l$ gradually into ! developm5t ( ! diff]5t bran*es ( ! subject1 z morphology1 comp>ative anatomy1 physiology1 & embryology1 :i* ev5tually 7 recogniz$ z almo/ indep5d5t sci5ces4 ,( ^! sci5ces sy/ematic zoology1 :i* has come to mean ! classification1 /ructure1 relation%ip1 di/ribution & habits1 or natural hi/ory1 is ! pione] 9 any region4 ,?us we f9d 9 our new c\ntry at ! "t ( ! f\nd+ ( ! ,j\rnal 9 #ahah1 only sixty ye>s aft] ! publication ( ,l9nu' great "w1 ! beg9n+ ( ,am]ican zoology tak+ ! =m ( ! collection & description ( our native animals4 ,x is true t _m ( our m conspicu\s & easily collect$ animals 7 describ$ long be=e ! op5+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 b ?is is to be cr$it$ ma9ly to ! "w ( ,european naturali/s :o _h made exp$itions to ?is c\ntry = ! purpose ( /udy+ & collect+4 ,^! collections 7 !n tak5 to ,europe & ! results publi%$ !re4 ,we ?us f9d 9 ! #ab? edition ( ,l9nu descriptions ( ov] #ejj ,am]ican species1 ab\t half ( :i* 7 birds4 ,z an illu/ration ( ! ext5t to :i* "s ( ^! works cov]$ ! field ev5 9 ^? e>ly days may be m5tion$ a monograph 9 two qu>to volumes ) _m beautifully color$ plates on ! 8,natural ,hi/ory ( ! r>] ,lepidopt]\s ,insects ( ,georgia40 ,?is 0 publi%$ 9 ,london 9 #agig by ,j4 ,e4 ,smi? f ! notes & draw+s ( ,john ,abbot1 "o ( ! ke5e/ naturali/s ( any p]iod4 ,dur+ ! e>ly ye>s ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 h[ev]1 economic conditions 9 our c\ntry became su* z to give opportunity = sci5tific ?\ght4 ,educat$ m5 !n =m$ !mselves into societies = ! discussion ( sci5tific matt]s4 ,?is naturally l$ to ! e/abli%m5t ( publications :]eby ! pap]s pres5t$ to ! societies c\ld be publi%$ & made available to ! advancem5t ( sci5ce g5]ally4 ,! mo/ influ5tial ( ^! 0 ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,philadelphia ,academy ( ,natural ,sci5ce1 :i* 0 e/abli%$ 9 #ahag1 & 0 devot$ l>gely to zoological pap]s4 ,! ,annals ( ! ,new ,york ,lyceum ( ,natural ,hi/ory date f #ahbc1 & ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,bo/on ,society ( ,natural ,hi/ory f #ahcd4 ,! ,transactions ( ! ,am]ican ,philosophical ,society 9 ,philadelphia & ! ,memoirs ( ! ,am]ican ,academy ( ,arts & ,sci5ces 9 ,bo/on also publi%$ _m zoological articles4 ,9 ^! publications & 9 ! ,j\rnal1 :i* 0 f\nd$ 9 #ahah1 appe> ! descriptions ( newly discov]$ animal species1 ) obs]vations on _! habits4 ,! numb] ( inve/igators 9 ?is field 9 ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! n9ete5? c5tury 0 b few1 & mo/ ( ^! 7 compell$ to take = ! "w su* "t z !y c\ld sp>e f _! v>i\s occupations4 ,gradually ! work]s became m num]\s until ab\t ! middle ( ! c5tury zoology 0 taught 9 all ! l>g] colleges4 ,! sci5ce !reby develop$ into a pr(ession4 ,= "s ye>s ! /udies rema9$ l>gely ( a sy/ematic nature1 & embrac$ all gr\ps ( animals1 b long be=e ! close ( ! c5tury ! att5tion ( ! majority ( ! ev] increas+ gr\p ( zoologi/s 0 direct$ into m promis+ *annels = rese>* & !re came ! developm5t ( ! sci5ces ( comp>ative anatomy1 physiology1 embryology1 exp]im5tal zoology1 cytology1 g5etics1 & ! l1 :ile ! sy/emati/s became speciali/s 9 ! v>i\s animal gr\ps4 ,b ! "w 9 sy/ematic zoology rema9s incomplete & _m native species are /ill undescrib$ or imp]fectly classifi$4 ,x is p]haps =tunate t a few fai?ful sy/emati/s rema9 at _! tasks & t5d to keep ! exp]im5tali/s f ! disa/] :i* might o!rwise result f ! confusion ( ! species "u inve/igation4 ,p]iod ( ,descriptive ,natural ,hi/ory4--,previ\s to #ahdg4 ,( ! few ,am]ican naturali/s ^: writ+s 7 publi%$ t[>d ! end ( ! eighte5? c5tury & at ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? ! names ( ,william ,b>tram 7#agci-ahbc71 ,b5jam9 ,b>ton 7#agff-ahae71 ,samuel ,mit*ill 7#agfd-ahca71 ,william ,peck 7#agfc-ahbb71 & ,?omas ,jeff]son 7#agdc-ahbf71 require special m5tion4 ,b>tram's ent]ta9+ volume describ+ 8 travels ?r\gh ! ,c>ol9as1 ,georgia & ,florida1 publi%$ 9 #agic1 conta9s a mo/ int]e/+ acc\nt ( ! birds & o!r animals :i* he f\nd4 ,b>ton wrote _m *>m+ essays on ! natural hi/ory ( animals1 b 0 m p>ticul>ly int]e/$ 9 botany4 ,mit*ill's mo/ important works include a hi/ory ( ! fi%es ( ,new ,york 7#ahad71 & additions to an edition ( ,bewick's ,g5]al ,hi/ory ( ,quadrup$s4 ,! latt]1 publi%$ 9 #ahjd1 conta9s descriptions & figures ( "s ,am]ican species & is ! fir/ ,am]ican "w on mammals4 ,peck has ! di/9ction ( writ+ ! fir/ pap] on sy/ematic zoology publi%$ 9 ,am]ica4 ,?is 0 a description ( new species ( fi%es & 0 pr9t$ 9 #agid4 ,he is also well kn[n = 8 "w on insects & fungi4 ,jeff]son 9 #agha publi%$ an int]e/+ book describ+ ! natural hi/ory ( ,virg9ia1 & dur+ 8 presid5cy 0 ( ine/imable s]vice to zoology ?r\gh 8 support ( sci5tific exp$itions to ! we/]n portions ( ! c\ntry4 ,previ\s to ,agassiz's introduction ( laboratory me?ods ( /udy 9 comp>ative anatomy & embryology 9 #ahdg1 ,am]ican naturali/s g5]ally conf9$ _! att5tion to ! /udy ( ! classification & habits ( ! multitude ( undescrib$ animals & plants ( ! region4 ,su* /udies 7 naturally begun on ! l>g] & m g5]ally int]e/+ animals su* z ! birds & mammals1 & al?\gh _m ( ^! 7 fairly well describ$ z to species be=e ! op5+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 little 0 kn[n ( _! habits4 ,! natural hi/ory ( our ea/]n birds fir/ became well kn[n ?r\gh ! accurate illu/rations & exquisitely writt5 descriptions ( ,alex&] ,wilson 79 #ahjh-ahac74 ,bonap>te's cont9uation ( ,wilson's "w 0 publi%$ 9 f\r folio volumes beg9n+ 9 #ahbf4 ,9 #ahbh appe>$ ! fir/ ( ,audubon's magnific5t folio illu/rations ( our birds4 ,^! 7 publi%$ 9 ,engl&1 ) lat] editions ( small] plates 9 ,am]ica4 ,nuttall's ,manual ( ! ,orni?ology ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates appe>$ 9 #ahcb-ahcd4 ,! second "w on ,am]ican mammals appe>$ 9 ! second ,am]ican edition ( ,gu?rie's ,geography1 publi%$ 9 #ahae4 ,! au?or is suppos$ to h be5 ,george ,ord1 al?\gh 8 "n does n appe>4 ,9 #ahbe ,h>lan publi%$ 8 8,fauna ,am]icana3 ,descriptions ( ! ,mammif]\s ,animals inhabit+ ,nor? ,am]ica40 ,?is 0 l>gely a compilation f ,european writ]s1 p>ticul>ly f ,dem>e/'s ,mammalogie1 & _h little value4 ,9 #ahbf ,amos ,eaton publi%$ a small 8,zoological ,text-book compris+ ,cuvi]'s f\r gr& divisions ( ,animals3 also ,%aw's improv$ ,l9nean g5]a1 arrang$ accord+ to ! classes & ord]s ( ,cuvi] & ,latreille4 ,%ort descriptions ( "s ( ! mo/ common species are giv5 = /ud5ts' ex]cises4 ,prep>$ = ,r5ssela] s*ool & ! popul> class room40 8,f\r hundr$ & sixty-"o g5]a are describ$ 9 ?is text-book4 ,!y embrace e kn[n species ( ! ,animal ,k+dom40 ,?is is a compilation f ,european s\rces ) a few ,am]ican species ( v>i\s gr\ps includ$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,godman's ,natural ,hi/ory1 9 ?ree volumes 7#ahbf-ahbh71 0 an illu/rat$ & cr$itable "w4 ,su* 0 also ! case ) ,sir ,john ,ri*>dson's ,fauna ,boreali ,am]icana ( :i* ! volume on quadrup$s 0 publi%$ 9 ,engl& 9 #ahbi4 ,! o!r volumes on birds1 fi%es & insects appe>$ betwe5 #ahbg & #ahcf4 ,audubon & ,ba*man's beautifully illu/rat$ 8,quadrup$s ( ,nor? ,am]ica0 0 issu$ betwe5 #ahda & #ahej4 ,ab\t #ahdj sev]al ( ! /ates inaugurat$ natural hi/ory surveys & publi%$ catalogues ( ! local faunas4 ,! reports on ! animals ( ,massa*usetts & ,new ,york are ! mo/ complete zoological monographs publi%$ 9 ,am]ica up to t "t4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly true ( ,de,kay's ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,new ,york publi%$ betwe5 #ahdb & #ahdd 9 beautifully illu/rat$ qu>to volumes4 ,! lead] 9 ! sy/ematic /udies 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! c5tury 0 ,?omas ,say1 :o publi%$ descriptions ( a l>ge numb] ( new species ( animals1 p>ticul>ly reptiles1 mollusks1 cru/acea & insects4 ,say's con*ology1 pr9t$ 9 #ahaf 9 ,ni*olson's ,cyclop$ia1 is ! fir/ ,am]ican "w ( its k9d4 ,?is 0 repr9t$ 9 #ahai "u ! title 8,l& & ,fre%-wat] ,%ells ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates40 ,9 #ahbd-ahbh appe>$ ! ?ree volumes ( ,say's ,am]ican ,entomology4 ,! prom95t position held by ,say 9 ! zoological "w ( ?is p]iod is illu/rat$ by ! foll[+ p>agraph f ,eaton's ,zoological ,text-book 7#ahbf1 p4 #acc73 8,at pres5t b a small proportion ( ,am]ican ,animals1 except+ ^? ( l>ge size1 h be5 s\ght out 444 ,& ?\gh ,mr4 ,say is do+ mu*2 )\t assi/ance1 8 life mu/ be protract$ to a v advanc$ p]iod to af=d him "t to complete ! "w4 ,b if e /ud5t w contribute 8 mite1 by s5d+ ,mr4 ,say duplicates ( all undescrib$ species1 we %all probably be 9 possession ( a sy/em1 v ne>ly complete1 9 a few ye>s40 ,h[ diff]5t is ! attitude ( ! zoologi/ ( to-day :o sees ! goal mu* fur!r away aft] a c5tury's progress ?r\gh ! indu/ry ( hundr$s ( inve/igators4 ,dur+ ! p]iod ( ,say's mo/ active "w he is report$ to h 8slept 9 ! hall ( ! ,philadelphia ,academy ( ,natural ,sci5ces1 :]e he made 8 b$ b5ea? ! skeleton ( a horse & f$ himself on bread & milk40 ,next to ,say1 ! mo/ active zoologi/ ( ! e>ly "p ( ! c5tury 0 ,*>les ,alex&] ,lesueur1 :o describ$ & beautifully illu/rat$ _m new species ( fi%es1 reptiles1 & m>9e inv]tebrates4 ,a memoir by ,george ,ord1 publi%$ 9 ?is ,j\rnal 7#h1 #ahi1 #ahdi71 gives a full li/ ( ,lesueur's pap]s4 ,"o ( ! mo/ prolific writ]s ( ! p]iod 0 ,con/ant9e ,raf9esque1 a man ( great brilliancy b "o ^: imag9ation s (t5 dom9at$ 8 obs]vations t _m ( 8 descriptions ( plants & animals are :olly unreliable4 ,unit$ ,/ates ,explor+ ,exp$ition4--,9 #ahch a =tunate circum/ance occurr$ :i* ev5tually br\ght ,am]ican sy/ematic zoology into ! front ranks ( ! sci5ce4 ,?is opportunity 0 (f]$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,explor+ ,exp$ition "u ! comm& ( ,admiral ,wilkes4 ,) ,james ,d4 ,dana z naturali/1 ! exp$ition visit$ ,madeira1 ,cape ,v]de ,isl&s1 ea/]n & we/]n coa/s ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 ,polynesia1 ,samoa1 ,au/ralia1 ,new ,zeal&1 ,fiji1 ,hawaiian ,isl&s1 we/ coa/ ( ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,philipp9es1 ,s+apore1 ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 etc4 ,( ! ext5sive collections made on ?is f\r-ye>s' cruise1 ,dana _h devot$ p>ticul> att5tion to ! /udy ( ! corals & alli$ animals 7,zoophytes7 & to ! cru/acea4 ,9 #ahdf ! report on ! ,zoophytes 0 publi%$ 9 elegant folio =m ) color$ plates4 ,six ye>s lat] ! fir/ volume ( ! report on ,cru/acea appe>$1 ) a second volume aft] two additional ye>s 7#ahed74 ,^! reports describe & beautifully illu/rate hundr$s ( new species1 & include ! fir/ compreh5sive /udies ( ! animals =m+ well-kn[n corals4 ,!y rema9 z ! mo/ conspicu\s monum5ts 9 ,am]ican inv]tebrate zoology4 ,un=tunately ! v limit$ edition makes !m accessible 9 only a few l>ge libr>ies4 ,! o!r1 equally magnific5t1 volumes include3 ,mollusca & ,%ells1 by ,a4 ,a4 ,g\ld1 #ahef2 ,h]petology1 by ,*>les ,gir>d1 #aheh2 ,mammalogy & ,orni?ology1 by ,john ,cass91 #aheh4 ,pr9cipal inve/igators4--,( ! _m writ]s on animals at ?is p]iod ( descriptive natural hi/ory1 ! foll[+ 7 prom95t 9 _! special fields ( /udy3 ,ayres1 ,lesueur1 ,mit*ill1 ,/or]1 ,l9sley1 ,wyman1 ,de,kay1 ,smi?1 ,kirtl&1 ,raf9esque & ,haldeman describ$ ! fi%es4 ,gre51 ,b>ton1 ,h>lan1 ,le ,conte1 ,say1 & especially ,holbrook1 /udi$ ! reptiles & amphibia4 ,holbrook's great monograph ( ! reptiles 7,nor? ,am]ican ,h]petology7 0 publi%$ betwe5 #ahcd & #ahde4 ,wilson1 ,audubon1 ,nuttall1 ,coop]1 ,de,kay1 ,brew]1 ,ord1 ,baird1 ,g\ld1 ,ba*man1 ,l9sley & ,fox 7 among ! num]\s writ]s on birds4 ,godman1 ,ord1 ,ri*>dson1 ,audubon1 ,ba*man1 ,de,kay1 ,l9sley & ,h>lan publi%$ acc\nts ( mammals4 ,on ! inv]tebrates an important g5]al "w entitl$ 8,inv]tebrata ( ,massa*usetts2 ,mollusca1 ,cru/acea1 ,annelida & ,radiata0 0 publi%$ by ,a4 ,a4 ,g\ld 9 #ahda1 :i* conta9s all ! ,new ,engl& species ( ^! gr\ps kn[n to t date4 ,lea1 ,tott51 ,adams1 ,b>nes1 ,g\ld1 ,b9ney1 ,conrad1 ,hildre?1 ,haldeman1 7 ! pr9cipal writ]s on mollusks4 ,! cru/acea 7 /udi$ by ,say1 ,g\ld1 ,haldeman1 ,dana2 ! insects by ,say1 ,mel%eim]1 ,peck1 ,h>ris1 ,kirby1 ,h]rick2 ! spid]s by ,h5tz2 ! worms by ,lee2 ! coel5t]ates & e*9od]ms by ,say1 ,mantell & o!rs4 ,! hi/ory ( entomology 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates previ\s to #ahdf is giv5 by ,john ,g4 ,morris 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#a1 #ag1 #ahdf74 ,9 ?is article ,f4 ,v4 ,mel%eim] is /at$ to be ! fa!r ( ,am]ican ,entomology1 :ile ,say 0 ! mo/ prolific writ]4 ,say's entomological pap]s1 edit$ by ,j4 ,l4 ,le ,conte1 7 completely repr9t$ ) _! color$ illu/rations 9 #ahei4 ,! fir/ economic treatise is t by ,h>ris on ,insects ,injuri\s to ,vegetation2 pr9t$ 9 #ahda4 ,?is has _h _m editions4 ,zoology 9 ! ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce1 #ahah-ahdf4 ,! e/abli%m5t ( ! ,j\rnal gave a fur!r impetus to ! sci5tific activities ( ,am]icans 9 furni%+ a conv5i5t means = publi%+ ! results ( _! "w4 ,9 ! fir/ volume ( ! ,j\rnal1 = example1 are two zoological articles by ,say & a doz5 %ort articles on v>i\s topics by ,raf9esque1 ! latt] be+ curi\s comb9ations ( facts & fancy4 ,mo/ ( ! zoological pap]s appe>+ 9 its fir/ s]ies ( #ej volumes are *>act]i/ic ( an undevelop$ sci5ce 9 an undevelop$ c\ntry4 ,!y deal1 naturally1 ) obs]vational /udies on ! /ructure & classification ( species discov]$ 9 a virg9 field1 ) notes on habits & life hi/ories4 ,_m ( ! pap]s are purely sy/ematic & include ! fir/ descriptions ( num]\s species ( our mollusks1 cru/acea1 insects1 v]tebrates & o!r gr\ps4 ,( ^!1 ! writ+s ( ,c4 ,b4 ,adams1 ,b>nes1 ,a4 ,a4 ,g\ld & ,tott5 on mollusks1 ( ,j4 ,d4 ,dana on corals & cru/acea1 ( ,h>ris on insects1 ( ,h>lan on reptiles1 & ( ,jeffries ,wyman & ,d4 ,humphreys ,/or] on fi%es are repres5tative & important4 ,! progress ( zoology 9 ,am]ica dur+ ! fir/ tw5ty-eight ye>s ( ! ,j\rnal's exi/5ce1 t is1 up to ! ye> #ahdf1 is ?us summ>iz$ by ,pr(essor ,silliman 9 ! preface to vol4 #ej 7page ix71 #ahdg3 8,our zoology has be5 m fully inve/igat$ ?an our m9]alogy & botany2 b nei!r dep>tm5t is 9 dang] ( be+ exhau/$4 ,! int]e/+ travels ( ,lewis & ,cl>k h rec5tly br\ght to our k sev]al plants & animals be=e unkn[n4 ,=eign naturali/s are frequ5tly visit+ our t]ritory2 &1 = ! mo/ "p1 convey to ,europe ! fruits ( _! rese>*es1 :ile b a small "p ( our own is exam9$ & describ$ by ,am]icans3 c]ta9ly ?is is little to our cr$it & /ill less to our advantage4 ,honorable exceptions to ! tru? ( ?is rem>k are furni%$ by ! ex]tions ( "s g5tlem5 9 our pr9cipal cities1 & 9 v>i\s o!r p>ts ( ! ,union40 ,dur+ ^! #bh ye>s ! ,j\rnal _h be5 ( great s]vice to zoology n only 9 ! publication ( ! results ( inve/igations b also 9 ! review ( important zoological publications 9 ,europe z well z 9 ,am]ica4 ,!re 7 also ! reports ( meet+s ( sci5tific societies4 ,9 fact all matt]s ( zoological int]e/ 7 br\ght to ! att5tion ( ! ,j\rnal's read]s4 ,! ,influ5ce ( ,l\is ,agassiz4 ,at ! "t ( ! f\nd+ ( ! ,j\rnal & = ne>ly ?irty ye>s !reaft] descriptive natural hi/ory con/itut$ practically ! entire "w ( ,am]ican zoologi/s4 ,9 ?is respect ,am]ican sci5ce 0 f> beh9d t 9 ,europe & p>ticul>ly 9 ,france4 ,x 0 n until ! =tunate circum/ances :i* br\ght ! ,swiss naturali/1 ,l\is ,agassiz1 to our c\ntry 9 #ahdf t ! mod]n conceptions ( biological sci5ce 7 e/abli%$ 9 ,am]ica4 ,agassiz 0 !n #ci ye>s ( age & _h already absorb$ ! _s ( g5]alization 9 comp>ative anatomy :i* dom9at$ ! "w ( ! great lead]s 9 ,europe1 & p>ticul>ly 9 ,p>is4 ,! influ5ce ( ,leuck>t1 ,ti$emann1 ,braun1 ,cuvi] & ,von ,humboldt direct$ ,agassiz's great ability to simil> inve/igations1 & he 0 rapidly com+ into prom95ce 9 ! /udy ( mod]n & fossil fi%es :5 ! opportunity to cont9ue 8 rese>* 9 ,am]ica 0 pres5t$4 ,on arriv+ on our %ores ! "y zoologi/ 0 s inspir$ ) ! opportunities = 8 /udies 9 ! new c\ntry t he decid$ to rema94 ,br++ ) him ! broad conceptions ( 8 di/+ui%$ ,european ma/]s1 he naturally f\nd$ a simil> s*ool ( zoology 9 ,am]ica4 ,x is f ?is beg9n+ t ! pres5t sci5ce ( zoology ) its _m bran*es has develop$4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ 9 ?is connection t ! great s]vice :i* ,agassiz r5d]$ to ,am]ican zoology consi/$ ma9ly 9 mak+ available to /ud5ts 9 ,am]ica ! ideals & me?ods ( ,european zoologi/s4 ,?is he 0 em95tly fitt$ to d bo? because ( 8 ,european tra9+ & because ( 8 natural ability z an inspir+ lead]4 ,! times 9 ,am]ica1 moreov]1 7 fully ripe = ! adv5t ( ,european culture4 ,!re 7 already 9 exi/5ce natural hi/ory societies 9 _m ( our cities & college communities4 ,^! societies n only held meet+s = ! discussion ( biological topics1 b e/abli%$ museums op5 to ! public1 & to :i* ! public 0 invit$ to contribute bo? funds & specim5s4 ,?is l$ to a wide popul> int]e/ 9 natural hi/ory4 ,x 0 !re=e comp>atively easy = su* a man z ,agassiz to develop ?is favorable public attitude into g5u9e en?usiasm4 ,! ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce ann\nces ! expect$ visit ( ,agassiz z a mo/ promis+ ev5t = ,am]ican ,zoology 7#a1 #dea1 #ahdf73 8,8 devotion1 ability1 & zeal--8 high & des]v$ reputation & 444 8 amiable & conciliat+ "*1 w1 )\t d\bt1 secure = him ! cordial coop]ation ( our naturali/s 444 nor d we ent]ta9 a d\bt t we %all be lib]ally repaid by 8 able review & exploration ( our c\ntry40 ,we ( to-day c realize h[ abundantly ?is prophecy 0 fulfill$4 ,9 ! succe$+ volume 7#b1 #ddj1 #ahdf7 occurs ! record ( ,agassiz's arrival4 8,we le>n ) pleasure t he w sp5d sev]al ye>s among u1 9 ord] ?or\ghly to und]/& our natural hi/ory40 ,imm$iately on rea*+ ,bo/on1 ,agassiz began ! publication ( articles on our fauna1 & ! foll[+ ye> he 0 appo9t$ to a pr(essor%ip at ,h>v>d4 ,! ,j\rnal says 7#d1 #ddi1 #ahdg73 8,e sci5tific man 9 ,am]ica w be rejoic$ to he> s unexpect$ a piece ( good news40 ,! next ye> ! ,j\rnal 7#e1 #aci1 #ahdh7 records ,agassiz's lecture c\rses at ,new ,york & ,*>le/on1 8 popul>ity ) all classes ( ! p & ! gift ( a silv] case conta9+ #bej 9 half eagles f ! /ud5ts ( ! ,college ( ,physicians & ,surgeons4 ,! s]vice ( ,agassiz to ,am]ican zoology1 !re=e1 consi/$ n only 9 ! publication ( ! results ( 8 rese>*es & 8 philosophical consid]ations !refrom1 b also1 & p]haps 9 ev5 great] degree1 9 ! popul>ization ( sci5ce4 ,9 ! latt] direction 7 8 inspir+ lectures be=e popul> audi5ces & ! e>ly publication ( a zoological text-book4 ,?is book1 publi%$ 9 #ahdh1 0 entitl$ 8,pr9ciples ( ,zoology1 t\*+ ! ,/ructure1 ,developm5t1 ,di/ribution & ,natural arrangem5t ( ! races ( ,animals1 liv+ & ext9ct1 ) num]\s illu/rations40 ,x 0 writt5 ) ! coop]ation ( ,augu/us ,a4 ,g\ld4 ,! review ( ?is book 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#f1 #aea1 #ahdh7 indicates cle>ly ! broad mod]n pr9ciples und]ly+ ! new era :i* 0 beg9n+ = ,am]ican zoology4 8,a "w emanat+ f s high a s\rce z ! ,pr9ciples ( ,zoology1 h>dly requires comm5dation to give x curr5cy4 ,! public h become acqua9t$ ) ! em95t abilities ( ,pr(4 ,agassiz ?r\gh 8 lectures1 & are aw>e ( 8 va/ le>n+1 wide rea* ( m9d1 & popul> mode ( illu/rat+ sci5tific subjects 444 ,! volume is prep>$ = ! /ud5t 9 zoological sci5ce2 x is simple & elem5t>y 9 /yle1 full 9 its illu/rations1 compreh5sive 9 its range1 yet well consid]$ & br\ght into ! n>r[ compass requisite = ! purpose int5d$40 ,! titles ( its *apt]s w %[ h[ little x diff]s 9 g5]al subject matt] f ! mo/ rec5t text-book 9 biology4 ,*apt] ,i1 ,! ,sph]e & fundam5tal pr9ciples ( ,zoology2 ,,ii1 ,g5]al ,prop]ties ( ,organiz$ ,bodies2 ,,iii1 ,organs & ,functions ( ,animal ,life2 ,,iv1 ,( ,intellig5ce & ,in/9ct2 ,v1 ,( ,motion 7app>atus & modes72 ,,vi1 ,( ,nutrition2 ,,vii1 ,( ! ,blood & ,circulation2 ,,viii1 ,( ,respiration2 ,,ix1 ,( ! ,secretions2 ,x1 ,embryology 7,egg & its ,developm5t72 ,,xi1 ,peculi> ,modes ( ,reproduction2 ,,xii1 ,metamorphoses ( ,animals2 ,,xiii1 ,geographical ,di/ribution ( ,animals2 ,,xiv1 ,geological ,succession ( ,animals1 or _! ,di/ribution 9 ,"t4 ,a mom5t's consid]ation ( ! fact t all ^! topics are excell5tly treat$ w %[ h[ great _h be5 ! progress ( zoology 9 ! fir/ half ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,! sixty ye>s t h elaps$ s9ce ! publication ( ?is book h s]v$ pr9cipally to develop ^! sep>ate l9es ( biology into special fields ( sci5ce )\t reorganization ( ! ess5tial pr9ciples "h recogniz$4 ,?is rema9$ = _m ye>s ! /&>d zoological & physiological text-book1 & 0 republi%$ 9 sev]al editions "h & 9 ,engl&4 ,ano!r popul> book is entitl$ 8,me?ods ( ,/udy 9 ,natural ,hi/ory0 7#ahfd74 ,m ?an #djj books & pap]s 7 writt5 by ,agassiz1 ov] a ?ird ( :i* 7 publi%$ be=e he came to ,am]ica4 ,!y cov] bo? zoological & geological topics1 includ+ sy/ematic pap]s on liv+ & fossil gr\ps ( animals1 b mo/ important ( all are 8 philosophical essays on ! g5]al pr9ciples ( biology4 ,"o ( ,agassiz's greate/ s]vices to zoology 0 ! publication ( 8 8,bibliographia ,zoologi et ,geologi0 by ! ,ray ,society1 beg9n+ ) #ahdh4 ,! publication ( ! ,l[ell lectures 9 ,comp>ative ,embryology 9 #ahdi gave wide audi5ce to ! g5]al pr9ciples n[ recogniz$ 9 ! biog5etic law ( ance/ral rem9isc5ce4 ,z /at$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#h1 #aeg1 #ahdi71 ! 8object ( ! ,lectures is to demon/rate t a natural me?od ( classify+ ! animal k+dom may be atta9$ by a comp>ison ( ! *anges :i* are pass$ ?r\gh by diff]5t animals 9 ! c\rse ( _! developm5t f ! egg to ! p]fect /ate2 ! *ange !y und]go be+ consid]$ z a scale to appreciate ! relative position ( ! species40 ,^! 8pr9ciples ( classification0 are fully elucidat$ 9 a sep>ate pamphlet1 & are discuss$ at l5g? 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#aa1 #abb1 #ahea74 ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ ( ,agassiz's num]\s philosophical essays1 orig9ally contribut$ to ! ,j\rnal 7#i1 #cfi1 #ahej71 discusses ! 8,natural ,relations betwe5 ,animals & ! elem5ts 9 :i* !y live40 ,ano!r philosophical pap] contribut$ to ! ,j\rnal discusses ! 8,primitive div]sity & numb] ( ,animals 9 ,geological times0 7#ag1 #cji1 #ahed74 ,( 8 sy/ematic pap]s1 ^? on ! fi%es ( ! ,t5nessee riv]1 describ+ _m new species1 7 publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#ag1 #big1 #cec1 #ahed74 ,illu/ration3 ,ls ,agassiz ,agassiz's beautifully illu/rat$ 8,contributions to ! ,natural ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates0 cov] _m subjects 9 morphology & embryology1 :i* are treat$ ) su* ?or\ghness & bread? ( view z to give !m a place among ! zoological classics4 ,! ,essay on ,classification1 ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,te/ud9ata1 ! ,embryology ( ! turtle1 & ! ,acalephs are ! special topics4 ,^! are summ>iz$ & discuss$ at l5g? 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#be1 #abf1 #bjb1 #cba1 #cdb1 #aheh2 #cj1 #adb1 #ahfj2 #ca1 #bie1 #ahfa74 ,! volume on ! 8,j\rney 9 ,brazil0 7#ahfh7 9 jo9t au?or%ip ) ,mrs4 ,agassiz is a fasc9at+ n>rative ( exploration4 ,! conceptions :i* ,agassiz held z to ! mo/ ess5tial aim ( zoological /udy are well illu/rat$ 9 8 autobiographical sket*1 :]e he writes3#agd 8,i did n !n "k h[ mu* m important x is to ! naturali/ to und]/& ! /ructure ( a few animals1 ?an to comm& ! :ole field ( sci5tific nom5clature4 ,s9ce ,i h become a tea*]1 & h wat*$ ! progress ( /ud5ts1 ,i h se5 t !y all beg9 9 ! same way2 b h[ _m h gr[n old 9 ! pursuit1 )\t ev] ris+ to any high] conception ( ! /udy ( nature1 sp5d+ _! life 9 ! det]m9ation ( species1 & 9 ext5d+ sci5tific t]m9ology60 ,x is n surpris+1 !n1 t "u su* influ5ce ! old] sy/ematic /udies %\ld be replac$ 9 l>ge measure by ^? ( a morphological & embryological nature4 ,! p]sonal influ5ce ( ,agassiz is /ill felt 9 ! lives ( ev5 ! y\ng] zoologi/s ( ! pres5t day4 ,= ! inve/igators ( ! pres5t g5]ation are = ! mo/ "p indebt$ to "o or ano!r ( ,agassiz's pupils = _! guidance 9 zoological /udies4 ,^! pupils include 8 son ,alex&] ,agassiz1 ,all51 ,brooks1 ,cl>ke1 ,fewkes1 ,goode1 ,hyatt1 ,jordan1 ,lyman1 ,morse1 ,pack>d1 ,scudd]1 ,v]rill1 ,wild]1 & o!rs--lead]s 9 zoological "w dur+ ! la/ ?ird ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,?r\gh su* m5 z ^! ! inspiration ( ,agassiz has be5 h&$ on 9 turn to _! pupils & f !m to ! y\ng] g5]ation ( zoologi/s4 ,! ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 ! "w ( ,agassiz & t ( ! ,am]ican zoologi/s :o prec$$ him 0 9 8 p[] ( broad g5]alizations4 ,to him ! organism meant a liv+ witness ( "s great natural law1 9 ! int]pretation ( :i* zoology 0 engag$4 ,! organism 9 its /ructure1 9 its developm5t1 9 its habits furni%$ l9ks 9 ! *a9 ( evid5ce :i*1 :5 complet$1 w\ld reveal ! mean+ ( nature4 ,( all ,agassiz's pupils1 probably ,william ,k4 ,brooks mo/ fitt+ly p]petuat$ 8 ma/]'s ideals4 ,p]iod ( ,morphology & ,embryology1 #ahdg-ahgj4 ,! new aspect ( zoology :i* came z a result ( ! influ5ce ( ,agassiz *>act]iz$ ! zoological "w ( ! fifties & sixties1 t is1 until ! significance ( ! natural selection !ory ( ,d>w9 & ,wallace became g5]ally appreciat$4 ,! "w 9 ^! ye>s & well into ! sev5ties 0 l>gely influ5c$ by ! morphological1 embryological & sy/ematic /udies ( ,l\is ,agassiz & 8 s*ool4 ,! /ructure1 developm5t1 & homologies ( animals z indicat+ _! relation%ip & position 9 ! s*eme ( classification 0 prom95t 9 ! "w ( ?is p]iod4 ,! adaptations ( animals to _! environm5t & ! application ( ! biog5etic law to ! v>i\s gr\ps ( animals 7 also favorite subjects ( /udy4 ,! mo/ successful inve/igators 9 ?is p]iod on ! diff]5t gr\ps ( animals include3--,l\is ,agassiz on ! natural hi/ory & embryology ( coel5t]ates & turtles2 ,a4 ,agassiz1 embryology ( e*9od]ms & worms2 ,h4 ,j4 ,cl>k1 embryology ( turtles & sy/ematic pap]s on sponges & coel5t]ates2 ,e4 ,desor1 e*9od]ms & embryology ( worms2 ,c4 ,gir>d1 embryology1 worms1 & reptiles2 ,j4 ,leidy1 protozoa1 coel5t]ates1 worms1 anatomy ( mollusks2 ,w4 ,o4 ,ayres & ,t4 ,lyman1 natural hi/ory ( e*9od]ms2 ,mc,crady1 developm5t ( acalephs2 ,w4 ,/impson1 m>9e inv]tebrates2 ,a4 ,e4 ,v]rill1 coel5t]ates1 e*9od]ms1 worms2 ,a4 ,hyatt1 evolution>y !ories1 bryozoa & mollusks2 ,p\rtales1 deep sea fauna2 ,c4 ,b4 ,adams1 ,a4 & ,w4 ,g4 ,b9ney1 ,brooks1 ,c>p5t]1 ,conrad1 ,dall1 ,jay1 ,lea1 ,s4 ,smi?1 ,tryon1 mollusks2 ,e4 ,s4 ,morse1 bra*iopods1 mollusks2 ,j4 ,d4 ,dana1 coel5t]ates & ,cru/acea2 ,kirtl&1 ,loew1 ,edw>ds1 ,hag51 ,mel%eim]1 ,pack>d1 ,riley1 ,scudd]1 ,wal%1 insects2 ,gill1 ,holbrook1 ,/or]1 fi%es2 ,cope1 evolution>y !ories1 fi%es & amphibia2 ,baird1 reptiles & birds2 ,j4 ,a4 ,all51 amphibia1 reptiles & birds2 ,brew]1 ,cass91 ,c\es1 ,lawr5ce1 birds2 ,audubon1 ,ba*man1 ,baird1 ,cope1 ,wild]1 mammals4 ,! progress ( orni?ology 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates previ\s to #ahgf is well describ$ 9 a pap] by ,j4 ,a4 ,all5 9 ! ,am]ican ,naturali/ 7#aj1 #ecf1 #ahgf74 ,a sket* ( ! e>ly hi/ory ( con*ology is giv5 by ,a4 ,w4 ,tryon 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#cc1 #ac1 #ahfb74 ,jeffries ,wyman 0 ! mo/ prom95t comp>ative anatomi/ ( ?is p]iod4 ,8 "w includes classic pap]s on ! anatomy & embryology ( fi%es1 amphibia1 & reptiles4 ,zoology 9 ! ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce1 #ahdf-ahgj4 ,! fifty volumes ( ! second s]ies ( ! ,j\rnal1 includ+ ! ye>s #ahdf to #ahgj1 cov] approximately ?is p]iod ( morphology & embryology4 ,dur+ ?is p]iod ! ,j\rnal occupi$ a v important place 9 zoological circles1 = ,j4 ,d4 ,dana 0 = mo/ ( ?is p]iod ! editor-9-*ief1 :ile ,l\is ,agassiz & ,asa ,gray 7 connect$ ) x z associate editors4 ,moreov]1 9 #ahfd "o ( ! mo/ promis+ ( ,agassiz's pupils1 ,addison ,e4 ,v]rill1 0 call$ to ,yale z pr(essor ( zoology & 0 made an associate editor 9 #ahfi4 ,9 ! ,j\rnal1 !re=e1 may be f\nd1 9 its orig9al articles1 toge!r ) its reports ( meet+s & addresses & its reviews ( lit]ature1 a fairly complete acc\nt ( ! zoological activity ( ! p]iod4 ,! mo/ important zoological rese>*es1 bo? 9 ,europe & ,am]ica1 7 review$ 9 ! bibliographic notices4 ,! mo/ important s]ies ( zoological articles are by ,dana himself4 ,z 8 "w on ! zoophytes & cru/acea ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,explor+ ,exp$ition cont9u$1 he publi%$ f "t to "t g5]al summ>ies ( 8 conclusions reg>d+ ! relation%ips ( ! v>i\s gr\ps4 ,includ$ among ^! pap]s are philosophical essays on g5]al biological pr9ciples :i* mu/ h _h mu* influ5ce on ! biological /udies ( ! "t1 & :i* =m a basis = _m ( our pres5t concepts4 ,! importance ( ^! pap]s w>rants ! li/ be+ giv5 9 full4 ,! titles are "h 9 _m cases abbreviat$ & ! subjects consolidat$4 ,g5]al views on ,classification1 #a1 #bhf1 #ahdf4 ,zoophytes1 #b1 #fd1 #ahg1 #ahdf2 #c1 #a1 #afj1 #ccg1 #ahdg4 ,g5us ,a/raea1 #i1 #bie1 #ahej4 ,conspectus cru/aceorum1 #h1 #bgf1 #dbd1 #ahdi2 #i1 #abi1 #ahej2 #aa1 #bfh1 #ahea4 ,g5]a ( ,gamm>acea1 #h1 #ace1 #ahdi2 ( ,cyclopacea1 #a1 #bbe1 #ahdf4 ,m>k+s ( ,c>apax ( ,crabs1 #aa1 #ie1 #ahea4 ,classification ( ,cru/acea1 #aa1 #bbc1 #dbe2 #ab1 #aba1 #bch1 #ahea2 #ac1 #aai2 #ad1 #big1 #aheb2 #bb1 #ad1 #ahef4 ,geographical di/ribution ( ,cru/acea1 #ah1 #cad1 #ahed2 #ai1 #f2 #bj1 #afh1 #cdi1 #ahee4 ,alt]nation ( ,g5]ations 9 ,plants & ,radiata1 #aj1 #cda1 #ahej4 ,p>!nog5esis1 #bd1 #cii1 #aheg4 ,on ,species1 #bd1 #cje1 #aheg4 ,classification ( ,mammals1 #ce1 #fe1 #ahfc2 #cg1 #aeg1 #ahfd4 ,cephalization1 #bb1 #ad1 #ahef2 #cf1 #a1 #cba1 #ddj1 #ahfc2 #cg1 #aj1 #aeg1 #ahd1 #ahfd2 #da1 #afc1 #ahff2 #ab1 #bde1 #ahgf4 ,homologies ( insectean & cru/acean types1 #cf1 #bcc1 #ahfc2 #dg1 #cbe1 #ahid4 ,orig9 ( life1 #da1 #chi1 #ahff4 ,relations ( dea? to life 9 nature1 #cd1 #caf1 #ahfb4 ,( ! above1 ! articles on cephalization z a fundam5tal pr9ciple 9 ! developm5t ( ! sy/em ( animal life h attract$ mu* att5tion4 ,! evid5ce f comp>ative anatomy1 paleontology1 & embryology alike supports ! view t advance 9 ! ontog5etic z well z 9 ! phylog5etic /ages is correlat$ ) ! unequal gr[? ( ! cephalic region z comp>$ ) ! re/ ( ! body4 ,dana %[s t ?is pr9ciple holds good = all gr\ps ( animals4 ,8 homologies ( ! limbs ( ar?ropods & v]tebrates1 h[ev]1 d n accord ) m mod]n views4 ,o!r pap]s on ! same & alli$ topics 7 publi%$ by ,dana 9 o!r p]iodicals4 ,8 mo/ conspicu\s zoological works1 h[ev]1 are 8 reports on ! ,zoophytes & ,cru/acea ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,explor+ ,exp$ition1 #ahcg-ahdb4 ,! =m] consi/s ( #gda qu>to pages & #fa folio plates1 describ+ ov] #bjj new species1 :ile ! ,cru/acea report1 9 two volumes1 has #afbj pages & #if folio plates1 ) descriptions ( ab\t #ejj new species4 ,ea* ( ^! rema9s to-day z ! mo/ important contribution to ! classification ( ! respective gr\ps4 ,! relation%ips ( ! species1 g5]a & families 7 recogniz$ ) su* rem>kable judgm5t t ,dana's admirable sy/em ( classification has rema9$ ! basis = all subsequ5t "w4 ,dana's critical reviews 7#be1 #bjb1 #cba1 #aheh7 ( ,agassiz's 8,contribution to ! ,natural ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates0 are among ! mo/ int]e/+ ( 8 philosophical discussions conc]n+ ! relation%ips ( animals z reveal$ by _! /ructure1 _! embryology1 & _! geological hi/ory4 ,! rema9+ zoological articles 9 ?is s]ies cov] ne>ly ! :ole range ( sy/ematic zoology4 ,especially important are ! articles by ,v]rill on coel5t]ates1 e*9od]ms1 worms & o!r inv]tebrates4 ,9 ! ye>s foll[+ ! publication ( ,d>w9's ,orig9 ( ,species 9 #ahei occur _m articles on ! !ory ( natural selection4 ,"s ( ! writ]s attack ! !ory1 :ile o!rs give x m or less en?usia/ic support4 ,exp]im5tal me?ods 9 solv+ biological problems 7 little us$ at ?is "t1 al?\gh a few articles ( ?is nature appe> 9 ! ,j\rnal4 ,( ^!1 a pap] by ,w4 ,c4 ,m9or 7#ce1 #ce1 #ahfc7 on natural & artificial fission 9 "s annelids has consid]able int]e/ to-day4 ,explor+ ,exp$itions4 ,( ! important zoological exp$itions ! foll[+ may be select$ z %[+ _! influ5ce on ,am]ican ,zoology3 ,! ,nor? ,pacific ,exp$ition1 ) ,william ,/impson z zoologi/1 return$ 9 #ahef ) mu* new in=mation conc]n+ ! m>9e life ( ! coa/s ( ,alaska & ,japan & _m new species ( inv]tebrates4 ,9 #ahfg-ahfi ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,coa/ ,survey ext5d$ its explorations to include ! deep sea m>9e life (f ! s\!a/]n coa/s & ,gulf ( ,mexico "u ! lead]%ip ( ,p\rtales & ,agassiz4 ,! ,*all5g] explorations 7#ahgb-ahgf7 add$ greatly to ! k ( m>9e life (f ! ,am]ican coa/ z well z 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w4 ,! explorations ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,fi% ,commission succe$$ ^? ( ! ,coa/ ,survey 9 ! collection ( m>9e life (f our coa/s & 9 our fre% wat]s4 ,^! h cont9u$ s9ce #ahgb & h yield$ mo/ important results f bo? ! sci5tific & economic /&po9ts4 ,"u ! *>ge ( ,alex&] ,agassiz ! ,coa/ ,survey ,/eam] 8,blake10 9 #ahgg to #ahhj1 0 engag$ 9 dr$g+ op]ations 9 ?ree cruises to v>i\s p>ts ( ! ,atlantic4 ,! ,u4 ,s4 ,fi% ,commission ,/eam] 8,albatross10 also 9 *>ge ( ,agassiz1 made ?ree exp$itions 9 ! tropical & o!r p>ts ( ! ,pacific 9 ! ye>s f #ahia to #aije4 ,! /udy ( ^! collections has add$ greatly to our k ( sy/ematic zoology & geographical di/ribution4 ,! reports on "s ( ! gr\ps are /ill 9 c\rse ( prep>ation4 ,p]iod ( ,evolution1 #ahgj-ahij4 ,! "t f #ahgj to #ahij may be appropriately call$ ! p]iod ( evolution1 = al?\gh x comm5ces elev5 ye>s aft] ! publication ( ! ,orig9 ( ,species1 ! importance ( ! natural selection !ory 0 b sl[ly receiv+ g5]al recognition4 ,! hesitation 9 accept+ ?is !ory 0 due 9 no small degree to ! opposition ( ,l\is ,agassiz4 ,aft] ! acceptance ( evolution1 al?\gh morphological & embryological /udies cont9u$ z be=e1 !y 7 prosecut$ ) ref]5ce to _! be>+ on evolution>y problems4 ,foll[+ closely ! me?ods :i* _h produc$ s mu* progress dur+ ! life ( ,agassiz1 ! field ( zoology 0 n[ occupi$ by a new g5]ation1 among :om ! pupils ( ,agassiz 7 ! mo/ prom95t4 ,illu/ration3 ,?omas ,h4 ,huxley ,! tea*+ ( biology at ?is "t 0 also /rongly influ5c$ by ,huxley1 ^: me?ods ( conduct+ laboratory classes = elem5t>y /ud5ts 7 adopt$ 9 mo/ ( our l>ge s*ools & colleges4 ,?is plac$ biology on ! same plane ) *emi/ry z a means = tra9+ 9 laboratory me?ods & discipl9e1 ) ! add$ advantage t ! subject ( biology is mu* m intimately connect$ ) ! /ud5t's ev]yday life & affairs4 ,?is increas+ dem& = in/ruction 9 biology & ! consequ5t necessity = m tea*]s br\ght an increas+ numb] ( inve/igators into ?is field4 ,conspicu\s 9 ?is p]iod 0 ! "w ( ,e4 ,d4 ,cope1 be/ kn[n z a paleontologi/1 b ^: "w on ! classification ( ! v>i\s gr\ps ( v]tebrates /&s preem95t1 & ^: philosophical essays on evolution _h mu* influ5ce on ! evolution>y ?\ght ( ! "t4 ,he 0 a /aun* support] ( ! ,lam>ckian doctr9e4 ,alpheus ,hyatt also ma9ta9$ ?is !ory1 & br\ght toge!r a great accumulation ( facts 9 its support4 ,he !reby contribut$ l>gely to our k ( comp>ative anatomy & embryology4 ,a4 ,s4 ,pack>d1 ^: publications cov] a wide range ( topics1 0 be/ kn[n = 8 text-books ( zoology & 8 manuals on insects4 ,w4 ,k4 ,brooks 0 a lead+ morphologi/ & embryologi/4 ,s4 ,f4 ,baird1 = _m ye>s ! head ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,fi% ,commission1 0 ! =emo/ au?ority on fi% & fi%]ies & is also not$ = 8 "w on reptiles1 birds & mammals4 ,! man ( greate/ influ5ce1 al?\gh by no means ! greate/ inve/igator1 0 ,c4 ,o4 ,:itman4 ,x is to him t we owe ! inception ( ! ,m>9e ,biological ,laboratory1 ! mo/ pot5t influ5ce 9 ,am]ican zoology to-day2 ! organization ( ! ,am]ican ,morphological ,society1 ! =]unn] ( ! pres5t ,am]ican ,society ( ,zoologi/s2 & ! e/abli%m5t ( ! ,j\rnal ( ,morphology4 ,g4 ,b4 ,goode 0 di/+ui%$ = 8 "w on fi%es & = 8 writ+s on ! hi/ory ( sci5ce4 ,e4 ,l4 ,m>k1 ,c4 ,s4 ,m9ot1 & ,alex&] ,agassiz 7 ackn[l$g$ lead]s 9 _! special fields ( rese>*--,m>k 9 inv]tebrate morphology & embryology1 & ,m9ot 9 v]tebrate embryology1 :ile ,alex&] ,agassiz made _m important discov]ies 9 ! sy/ematic zoology & embryology ( m>9e animals1 & to him we owe 9 l>ge measure our k ( ! life 9 ! oceans ( ne>ly all p>ts ( ! _w4 ,! k ( ! repres5tatives ( ! diff]5t divisions ( ! ,am]ican fauna _h n[ become suffici5t to all[ ! publication ( monographs on ! v>i\s classes1 ord]s & families4 ,at ?is "t also p>ticul> att5tion 0 giv5 to ! m>9e inv]tebrates ( all gr\ps4 ,( ! _m inve/igators work+ on ! v>i\s gr\ps ( animals at ?is "t only a few may be m5tion$4 ,! protozoa 7 /udi$ by ,leidy1 ,cl>k1 ,ryd]1 ,/okes2 ! sponges by ,cl>k1 ,hyatt2 ! coel5t]ates by ,a4 ,agassiz1 ,s4 ,f4 ,cl>ke1 ,v]rill2 ! e*9od]ms by ,a4 ,agassiz1 ,brooks1 ,k+sley1 ,fewkes1 ,lyman1 ,v]rill2 ! v>i\s gr\ps ( worms by ,b5$ict1 ,eis51 ,silliman1 ,v]rill1 ,web/]1 ,:itman2 ! mollusks by ,a4 & ,w4 ,g4 ,b9ney1 ,tryon1 ,conrad1 ,dall1 ,s&]son ,smi?1 ,/e>ns1 ,v]rill2 ! ,bra*iopods by ,dall & ,morse2 ! ,bryozoa by ,hyatt2 ! cru/acea by ,s4 ,i4 ,smi?1 ,h>g]1 ,hag51 ,pack>d1 ,k+sley1 ,faxon1 ,h]rick2 ! insects by ,pack>d1 ,horn1 ,scudd]1 ,c4 ,h4 ,f]nald1 ,willi/on1 ,norton1 ,wal%1 ,fit*1 ,j4 ,b4 ,smi?1 ,com/ock1 ,h[>d1 ,riley & _m o!rs2 spid]s by ,em]ton1 ,m>x1 ,mc,cook2 tunicates by ,pack>d & ,v]rill2 fi%es by ,baird1 ,bean1 ,cope1 ,gilb]t1 ,gill1 ,goode1 ,jordan1 ,putnam2 amphibians & reptiles by ,cope2 birds by ,baird1 ,brew]1 ,c\es1 ,elliott1 ,h5%aw1 ,all51 ,m]riam1 ,brew/]1 ,ridgway2 & ! mammals by ,all51 ,baird1 ,cope1 ,c\es1 ,elliott1 ,m]riam1 ,wild]4 ,int]e/ 9 ! evolution>y !ory cont9u$ to increase & ev5tually develop$ into ! morphological & embryological /udies :i* rea*$ _! culm9ation betwe5 #ahhe & #ahij "u ! guidance ( ,:itman1 ,m>k1 ,m9ot1 ,brooks1 ,k+sley1 ,e4 ,b4 ,wilson & o!r fam\s zoologi/s ( ! "t4 ,9 ^! ye>s ! ,j\rnal ( ,morphology 0 e/abli%$ & ! ,am]ican ,morphological ,society 0 =m$4 ,! morphological1 embryological & paleontological evid5ces ( evolution z indicat$ by homologies1 developm5tal /ages & adaptations 7 ! mo/ absorb+ subjects ( zoological rese>* & discussion4 ,illu/ration3 ,a4 ,e4 ,v]rill ,m>* #aijd ,zoology 9 ! ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce1 #ahgj-aiah4 ,! ?ird s]ies ( ! ,j\rnal 7#ahgj-ahie71 likewise includ+ fifty volumes1 embraces ?is p]iod ( zoological activity 9 morphological & embryological /udies1 culm9at+ ) ! inception ( ! mod]n exp]im5tal me?ods4 ,9 ?is p]iod also occurr$ ! greate/ progress 9 m>9e sy/ematic zoology1 due to ! explorations ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,fi% ,commission (f ! ,atlantic ,coa/4 ,! ,j\rnal _h an important %>e 9 ! zoological developm5t ( ?is p]iod also1 = ,a4 ,e4 ,v]rill1 :o 0 n[ an associate editor1 0 9 *>ge ( ! collections ( m>9e inv]tebrates4 ,consequ5tly mo/ ( ! discov]ies 9 ?is field 7 publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 9 num]\s orig9al contributions by ,v]rill & 8 associates4 ,! explorations ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,fi% ,commission ,/eam] 8,albatross0 are describ$ f ye> to ye> by ,v]rill1 ) descriptions ( ! new species ( inv]tebrates discov]$4 ,! num]\s orig9al contributions by ,v]rill on subjects ( g5]al zoological int]e/ z well z on ^? ( a sy/ematic nature give ?is ?ird s]ies ( ! ,j\rnal mu* zoological importance4 ,v]rill's pap]s cov] almo/ ! :ole field ( descriptive zoology1 b are ma9ly devot$ to m>9e inv]tebrates4 ,^? :i* 7 orig9ally contribut$ to ! ,j\rnal or summ>iz$ by him 9 8 lit]ature reviews include ! foll[+ topics3 ,sponges1 #af1 #djf1 #ahgh4 ,coel5t]ates1 #cg1 #dej1 #ahfd2 #dd1 #abe1 #ahfg2 #de1 #daa1 #ahf2 #df1 #adc1 #ahfh2 #dg1 #bhb1 #ahfi2 #dh1 #aaf1 #dai1 #ahfi2 #di1 #cgj1 #ahgj2 #c1 #ahg1 #dcb1 #ahgb2 #f1 #fh1 #ahgc2 #ba1 #ejh1 #ahha2 #f1 #dic1 #ahih2 #g1 #da1 #adc1 #bje1 #cge1 #ahii2 #ac1 #ge1 #aijb4 ,e*9od]ms1 #dd1 #abe1 #ahfg2 #de1 #dag1 #ahfh2 #di1 #ic1 #aja1 #ahgj2 #b1 #dcj1 #ahga2 #aa1 #daf1 #ahgf2 #di1 #abg1 #aii1 #ahie2 #bh1 #ei1 #aiji2 #ce1 #dgg1 #aiac2 #cg1 #dhc1 #aiad2 #ch1 #ajg1 #aiad2 #ci1 #fhd1 #aiae4 ,worms1 #ej1 #bbc1 #ahgj2 #c1 #abf1 #ahgb4 ,mollusks1 #di1 #bag1 #ahgj2 #ej1 #dje1 #ahgj2 #c1 #bji1 #bha1 #ahgb2 #e1 #dfe1 #ahgc2 #g1 #acf1 #aeh1 #ahgd2 #i1 #abc1 #agg1 #ahge2 #aj1 #bac1 #ahge2 #ab1 #bcf1 #ahgf2 #ad1 #dbe1 #ahgg2 #ai1 #bhd1 #ahhj2 #bj1 #bej1 #bea1 #ahhj2 #b1 #gd1 #ia1 #ahif2 #c1 #ea1 #gi1 #afb1 #cee1 #ahig4 ,cru/acea1 #dd1 #abf1 #ahfg2 #dh1 #bdd1 #dcj1 #ahfi2 #be1 #aai1 #ecd1 #aijh4 ,ascidians1 #a1 #ed1 #ic1 #baa1 #bhh1 #ddc1 #ahga2 #bj1 #bea1 #ahhj4 ,dr$g+ op]ations & m>9e fauna1 #di1 #abi1 #ahgj2 #b1 #ceg1 #ahga2 #e1 #a1 #ih1 #ahgc2 #f1 #dce1 #ahgc2 #g1 #ch1 #aca1 #dje1 #dji1 #dih1 #fjh1 #ahgd2 #i1 #daa1 #ahge2 #aj1 #cf1 #aif1 #ahge2 #af1 #bjg1 #cga1 #ahgh2 #ag1 #bci1 #beh1 #cji1 #dgb1 #ahgi2 #ah1 #eb1 #dfh1 #ahgi2 #ai1 #acg1 #ahg2 #bj1 #cij1 #ahhj2 #bb1 #bib1 #ahha2 #bc1 #ace1 #baf1 #cji1 #djf1 #ahhb2 #bd1 #cfj1 #dgg1 #ahhb2 #bh1 #bac1 #cgh1 #ahhd2 #bi1 #adi1 #ahhe4 ,miscellane\s1 #ci1 #bba1 #ahfe2 #da1 #bdi1 #bfh1 #ahff2 #dd1 #abf1 #ahfg2 #dh1 #ib1 #ahfi2 #c1 #chf1 #ahgb2 #g1 #acd1 #ahdg2 #aj1 #cfd1 #ahge2 #af1 #cbc1 #ahgh2 #bj1 #bea1 #ahhj2 #c1 #acb1 #ace1 #ahig2 #i1 #cac1 #aijj2 #ab1 #hh1 #aija2 #ac1 #cbg1 #aijb2 #ad1 #gb1 #aijb2 #ae1 #ccb1 #aijc2 #bd1 #agi1 #aijg2 #bi1 #efa1 #aiaj4 ,s4 ,i4 ,smi? describes ! metamorphosis ( ! ,cru/acea 7#c1 #dja1 #ahgb2 #f1 #fg1 #ahgc71 species ( cru/acea 7#c1 #cgc1 #ahgb2 #g1 #fja1 #ahgd2 #i1 #dgf1 #ahge71 & dr$g+ op]ations 9 ,lake ,sup]ior 7#b1 #cgc1 #ddh1 #ahga74 ,9 ?is s]ies occurs also a s]ies ( pap]s on comp>ative anatomy & embryology f ! ,*esapeake ,zoological ,laboratory 9 *>ge ( ,w4 ,k4 ,brooks4 ,9 ! #ci? & #dj? volumes ( ! ?ird s]ies 7#ahij7 occur sev]al pap]s on evolution>y topics by ,john ,t4 ,gulick 7#ci1 #ba2 #dj1 #a1 #dcg7 :i* h attract$ mu* att5tion4 ,be=e ! end ( ?is p]iod1 h[ev]1 ! ,j\rnal 0 reliev$ f ! necessity ( publi%+ zoological articles by ! e/abli%m5t ( sev]al p]iodicals devot$ especially to ! v>i\s fields ( zoology4 ,we f9d1 !re=e1 b few exclusively zoological pap]s aft] #ahhe1 al?\gh articles ( a g5]al biological int]e/ & ! reviews ( zoological books cont9ue4 ,9 ! f\r? s]ies ( ! ,j\rnal1 beg9n+ 9 #ahif1 occur also a numb] ( articles on sy/ematic zoology by ,v]rill & o!rs & sev]al pap]s hav+ a g5]al biological int]e/4 ,brief reviews ( a small numb] ( zoological books are /ill cont9u$1 b at ! pres5t day ! ,j\rnal1 :i* play$ s important a "p 9 ! e>ly developm5t ( ,am]ican zoology1 has be5 giv5 ov] to ! geological & physical sci5ces 9 h>mony ) ! mod]n dem& = specialization4 ,p]iod ( ,exp]im5tal ,biology1 s9ce #ahij4 ,zoological /udies rema9$ 9 l>ge measure obs]vational & comp>ative until ab\t #ahij :5 ! exp]im5tal me?ods ( ,r\x1 ,dries* & o!rs came into prom95ce4 ,int]e/ !n turn$ f ! accumulation ( facts to an analysis ( ! und]ly+ pr9ciples ( biological ph5om5a4 ,! "q n[ 0 n s mu* :at ! organism does z h[ x does :at is obs]v$1 & ?is "q c\ld be answ]$ only by ! exp]im5tal control ( ! conditions4 ,^! exp]im5tal /udies met ) su* rem>kable success t 9 a few ye>s ! old] morphological /udies 7 l>gely ab&on$1 ! ,morphological ,society *ang$ its "n to ! ,society ( ,zoologi/s1 & 9 #aijd ! ,j\rnal ( ,exp]im5tal ,zoology 0 e/abli%$4 ,! exp]im5tal me?ods 7 appli$ to all bran*es ( biological sci5ce1 & :ile x mu/ be freely admitt$ t little progress has be5 made t[>d an und]/&+ ( ! ultimate causes :i* und]lie biological ph5om5a1 a great advance has be5 made 9 ! elucidation ( ! g5]al pr9ciples involv$4 ,exp]im5tal embryology1 hi/ology1 reg5]ation1 comp>ative physiology1 neurology1 cytology1 & h]$ity h 9 rec5t ye>s successfully adopt$ an exp]im5tal aspect & h made significant progress !reby4 ,biology has n[ tak5 its place beside *emi/ry & physics z an exp]im5tal sci5ce4 ,! late/ great advance 9 biology has be5 9 ! field ( h]$ity4 ,! r$iscov]y ( ! ,m5delian pr9ciples ( h]$ity 9 #aijj br\ght to light ! mo/ important g5]alization 9 biology 9 rec5t times4 ,! new sci5ce ( g5etics is ess5tially ! exp]im5tal /udy ( h]$ity4 ,we are at ! mom5t 9 ! mid/ ( an ef=t to e/abli% 9 biology a few relatively simple laws by us+ = ! purpose ! va/ accumulations ( obs]vational data ga!r$ 9 pa/ ye>s1 supplem5t$ by su* exp]im5tal data z h be5 provid$ by ^! m rec5t inve/igations4 ,su* hypo!ses z h be5 =mulat$ are = ! mo/ "p only t5tatively held1 = _! validity is g5]ally incapable ( a critical te/4 ,b :]ev] su* te/s h be5 possible1 ! laws ( ma!matics1 physics & *emi/ry are f\nd applicable to biological ph5om5a4 ,! numb] ( inve/igators has n[ become s great & _! activities s prolific t ! li/ & synopses ( ! zoological publications ea* ye> cov] upw>ds ( #ajjj to #aejj pages 9 ! ,int]national ,catalogue ( ,sci5tific ,lit]ature4 ,am]ican ,lead]%ip4--,dur+ ! fir/ half ( ! c5tury ! progress ( zoology 9 ,am]ica rema9$ di/9ctly beh9d t ( ,europe4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! c5tury ! sci5ce 0 f>!/ develop$ by ! ,fr5* & ,engli%1 al?\gh ,l9nu 0 a ,sw$e & took 8 degree 9 ,holl&4 ,"u ! influ5ce ( ,von ,ba] & 8 monum5tal treatise on embryology 7,ueb] ,entwicklungsges*i*te d] ,?i]e1 #ahbh71 & support$ lat] by ! great physiologi/1 ,johannes ,mll]1 ^: 8,physiologie des ,m5s*50 7#ahdf7 =ms ! basis ( mod]n physiology1 ! ,g]man s*ool =g$ rapidly ahead & ev5tually assum$ ! lead]%ip 9 zoology1 z 9 sev]al o!r bran*es ( sci5ce4 ,9 ! latt] half ( ! c5tury ! influ5ce ( ! ,g]man univ]sities dom9at$ 9 a l>ge measure ! zoological inve/igations 9 ,am]ica4 ,! reason = ?is is p>tly due to ! fact t _m ( our "y zoologi/s1 aft] f9i%+ _! college c\rse1 complet$ _! prep>ation = rese>* by a ye> or m at a ,g]man univ]sity4 ,! m mature zoologi/s1 too1 look$ =w>d ) ke5 anticipation to sp5d+ _! summ] vacations & sabbatical ye>s 9 rese>* 9 a ,g]man laboratory or at ! fam\s ,naples /ation 9 :i* ! ,g]man influ5ce 0 dom9ant4 ,) ! rise ( exp]im5tal biology s9ce #ahij1 h[ev]1 ! ,am]ican zoologi/s h %[n s high a degree ( orig9ality 9 devis+ exp]im5ts1 s mu* skill 9 p]=m+ !m1 & su* ke5ness 9 analyz+ ! results1 t !y h assum$ ! _w lead]%ip 9 sev]al ( ! special fields into :i* ! sci5ce ( zoology is n[ divid$4 ,biological ,p]iodicals4 ,p]haps 9 no bett] way c ! progress ( biology 9 ,am]ica be illu/rat$ ?an by a brief survey ( ! orig9 & developm5t ( ! m important biological j\rnals4 ,= x w be se5 t ^! publications h become m num]\s & m specializ$ z ! sci5ce has advanc$ 9 specialization4 ,! e>ly publications--:i* z is well kn[n1 treat$ ma9ly ( ! birds1 mammals & o!r v]tebrates1 & ( insects1 cru/acea & %ells--consi/$ ma9ly ( sep>ate books or pamphlets1 publi%$ by private subscription4 ,aft] ! e/abli%m5t ( ! s-call$ ,academies ( ,sci5ce1 or ( ,arts & ,sci5ces1 t[>d ! end ( ! eighte5? & 9 ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 ! reports ( ! meet+s began to be publi%$ z p]iodical ,j\rnals1 support$ by ! academies4 ,9 ^! publications1 & 9 ! ,j\rnal :i* 0 f\nd$ at ! same "t1 appe> pap]s on all bran*es ( sci5ce1 includ+ zoology4 ,z soon z zoology 9 ,am]ica assum$ its mod]n aspects ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( ,l\is ,agassiz & 8 foll[]s ! e>lie/ /rictly zoological j\rnals 7 e/abli%$4 ,x %\ld be not$1 h[ev]1 t ! j\rnals ( ! sci5tific & natural hi/ory societies 7 m or less fully devot$ to zoological topics accord+ to ! nature ( ! activities ( ! memb]s & correspond5ts4 ,aft] ! e/abli%m5t ( ! ,museum ( ,comp>ative ,zoology by ,l\is ,agassiz came ! f\nd+ 9 #ahfc ( its ,bullet9 & lat] its ,memoirs4 ,^! publications h cont9u$ to ! pres5t day z a /&>d ( excell5ce = ! reports ( zoological inve/igations4 ,9 connection ) ! sy/ematic "w on mollusks1 ! ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,con*ology 0 e/abli%$ 9 #ahfe4 ,! ,am]ican ,naturali/ 0 f\nd$ 9 #ahfg by f\r ( ,l\is ,agassiz's pupils1 ,hyatt1 ,morse1 ,pack>d & ,putnam4 ,x 0 lat] edit$ by ,cope z a lead+ p]iodical = ! publication ( biological pap]s1 p>ticul>ly ^? relat+ to evolution1 & is at pres5t devot$ to evolution>y topics4 ,x is n[ 9 ! #eb;d volume ( its new s]ies4 ,) ! awak5$ int]e/ 9 comp>ative anatomy & embryology came ! ne$ = an ,am]ican j\rnal :i* %\ld supply a means ( publication = ! reports ( rese>*es accompli%$ by ! increas+ numb] ( work]s 9 ^! fields4 ,?is ne$ 0 fully met by ! e/abli%m5t ( ! ,j\rnal ( ,morphology 9 #ahhg4 ,?is publication1 n[ 9 its #cj? volume1 has equall$ ! be/ ,european j\rnals 9 ! "* ( its pap]s4 ,a few ye>s lat] 7#ahia7 came ! ,j\rnal ( ,comp>ative ,neurology = ! publication ( inve/igations relat+ to ! morphology & physiology ( ! n]v\s sy/em & to n]v\s & alli$ ph5om5a 9 all gr\ps ( organisms4 ,tw5ty-eight volumes ( ?is j\rnal h be5 complet$4 ,! ,zoological ,bullet9 0 />t$ "u ! auspices ( ! ,m>9e ,biological ,laboratory 9 #ahig = ! publication ( pap]s ( a less ext5sive nature & :i* c\ld be m promptly issu$ ?an ^? 9 ! ,j\rnal ( ,morphology :]e elaborate plates 7 requir$4 ,aft] two ye>s ! scope ( ! ,bullet9 0 enl>g$ to include botanical & physiological subjects4 ,! "n 0 correspond+ly *ang$ to ! ,biological ,bullet94 ,( ?is important p]iodical #cc volumes h be5 issu$4 ,= ! publication ( pap]s on human & comp>ative anatomy & embryology1 ! ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,anatomy 0 e/abli%$ 9 #aija1 & is n[ 9 its tw5ty-?ird volume4 ,mean:ile ! tr5d ( zoological int]e/ 0 t[>d topics connect$ ) ! ultimate nature ( biological ph5om5a4 ,! mean+ ( ^! ph5om5a c\ld be det]m9$ only by ! exp]im5tal me?od4 ,rese>*es 9 ?is field became m prom95t & ! adequate publication ( ! num]\s pap]s requir$ ! e/abli%m5t ( a new j\rnal 9 #aijd4 ,?is 0 nam$ ! ,j\rnal ( ,exp]im5tal ,zoology4 ,x imm$iately took its place 9 ! front rank ( ,am]ican zoological p]iodicals4 ,tw5ty-f\r volumes h be5 publi%$4 ,9 spite ( ! con/antly increas+ numb] ( j\rnals1 ! sci5ce grew fa/] ?an ! means ( publication4 ,s cr[d$ did ! ,am]ican j\rnals become t long delays (t5 result$ be=e ! results ( an inve/igation c\ld be issu$4 ,?is condition 0 met 9 "p by ! s5d+ ( _m pap]s to be publi%$ 9 ,european j\rnals 7a necessity mo/ discr$itable to ,am]ican zoology7 & 9 "p by ! e/abli%m5t ( additional means ( publication4 ,( ! latt] ! ,anatomical ,record1 n[ 9 its f\rte5? volume1 0 begun 9 #aijf = ! prompt publication ( brief] pap]s on v]tebrate anatomy1 embryology & hi/ology & = prelim9>y reports & notes on te*nique4 ,dur+ ! pa/ few ye>s has come a great advance 9 ! exp]im5tal bre$+ ( plants & animals4 ,problems 9 h]$ity & evolution h tak5 on a new int]e/ s9ce ! importance & validity ( ,m5del's discov]y h be5 recogniz$4 ,to meet ?is developm5t ( biology ! j\rnal ,g5etics 0 begun 9 #aiaf = ! publication ( te*nical pap]s1 :ile ! ,j\rnal ( ,h]$ity1 modifi$ f ! ,am]ican ,bre$]s ,magaz9e1 is devot$ to popul> articles on animal & plant bre$+1 & ,eug5ics4 ,on ! :ole1 ! sci5ce ( zoology is n[ assum+ a clos] relation to practical affairs4 ,entomology1 = example1 is n[ repres5t$ by ! ,j\rnal ( ,economic ,entomology1 ( :i* #aj volumes h be5 issu$ s9ce #aijg4 ,! ,j\rnal ( ,animal ,behavior cov]s ano!r practical field ( rese>*4 ,! ,proce$+s ( ! ,society = ,exp]im5tal ,biology & ,m$ic9e1 />t+ 9 #aijc1 ! ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,physiology1 & sev]al o!r publications cov] ! physiological field4 ,! ,j\rnal ( ,p>asitology1 e/abli%$ #aiad1 n[ 9 its f\r? volume1 is devot$ to ! int]e/s ( m$ical zoology4 ,! ,auk1 n[ 9 ! #cd? volume ( its new s]ies 7#db;d ( old s]ies71 is ! (ficial organ ( ! ,am]ican ,orni?ologi/s ,union & is devot$ to ! dissem9ation ( k conc]n+ bird life4 ,! ,annals ( ! ,entomological ,society ( ,am]ica1 e/abli%$ 9 #aijh1 & n[ 9 its #aj? volume1 is "o ( sev]al important entomological j\rnals4 ,! ,nautilus1 ( :i* #bh volumes h be5 issu$1 is "o ( ! m successful j\rnals devot$ to con*ology4 ,?is li/ might be ext5d$ to include num]\s o!r p]iodicals ( importance1 bo? te*nical & popul>1 :i* h be5 ( great s]vice 9 ! v>i\s fields ( biology4 ,9 addition to ^! are ! _m volumes ( sy/ematic pap]s 9 ! ,proce$+s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,national ,museum1 ! practical reports 9 ! ,bullet9 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,fi% ,commission1 ! va/ lit]ature issu$ ye>ly by ! v>i\s divisions ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 ,public ,heal? ,s]vice & o!r ,gov]nm5tal dep>tm5ts1 :ile ! li/ ( publications by sci5tific societies1 museums1 & o!r in/itutes is con/antly increas+ & cov]s all fields ( biological rese>*4 ,at ! pres5t "t facilities = ! publication ( rese>* on any bran* ( zoology are z a rule entirely adequate4 ,= ?is highly satisfactory condition ! sci5ce is indebt$ to ! support giv5 five ( its mo/ important j\rnals by ! ,wi/> ,in/itute ( ,anatomy & ,biology4 ,biological ,associations4 ,an important light on ! hi/ory ( biology 9 ,am]ica c be ?r[n by a glance at ! rise & developm5t ( societies or associations = ! report & discussion ( pap]s relat+ to t bran* ( sci5ce4 ,9 ! fir/ half ( ! n9ete5? c5tury natural hi/ory societies 7 =m$ 9 mo/ cities & c5t]s ( le>n+4 ,^! 7 v important factors 9 ! promotion ( sci5tific rese>* z well z 9 ! diffusion ( popul> k ( liv+ ?+s4 ,! aims & activities ( tw5ty-n9e su* sci5tific societies1 _m ( :i* 7 devot$ especially to natural hi/ory1 are describ$ 9 "o ( ! e>ly volumes ( ! ,j\rnal 7#aj1 #cfi1 #ahbf74 ,! ,connecticut ,academy ( ,arts & ,sci5ces1 dat+ f #agii1 ! ,philadelphia ,academy ( ,natural ,sci5ces f #ahab1 & ! ,new ,york ,lyceum ( ,natural ,hi/ory 79 #ahgf "n *ang$ to ,new ,york ,academy ( ,sci5ces7 f #ahag are among ! olde/ ( ^? :i* /ill exi/4 ,( national in/itutions ! ,am]ican ,philosophical ,society 0 f\nd$ 9 #agdc1 ! ,am]ican ,academy ( ,arts & ,sci5ces 9 #aghj1 & ! ,national ,academy ( ,sci5ces 9 #ahfc4 ,! ,am]ican ,association = ! ,advancem5t ( ,sci5ce1 ) its ?\s&s ( memb]s1 n[ has sep>ate sections = ea* ( ! special bran*es ( sci5ce4 ,?is great association 0 organiz$ 9 #ahdh1 z ! successor ( ! ,association ( ,am]ican ,geologi/s & ,naturali/s4 ,?is 0 itself a revival ( ! ,am]ican ,geological ,society :i* fir/ met at ,yale 9 #ahai4 ,its meet+s h giv5 a great support to ! sci5tific "w ( ! c\ntry4 ,! ,am]ican ,society ( ,naturali/s 0 f\nd$ 9 #ahhc4 ,! orig9al plan ( ! society 0 = ! discussion ( me?ods ( inve/igation1 adm9i/ration & in/ruction 9 ! natural sci5ces1 b its program is n[ entirely devot$ to discussions & pap]s ( a broad biological int]e/4 ,x also arranges = an annual d9n] ( ! sev]al biological societies & an address on "s g5]al biological topic4 ,9 #ahij1 t[>d ! end ( ! p]iod 9 :i* morphological /udies 7 be+ emphasiz$1 ! pr(essional zoologi/s ( ! ea/]n /ates f\nd$ ! ,am]ican ,morphological ,society4 ,?is association held annual meet+s dur+ ! ,*ri/mas holidays = ! pres5tation ( zoological pap]s4 ,?is "n became less appropriate aft] a few ye>s because ( ! gradual decrease 9 ! proportion ( morphological inve/igations ow+ to ! great] att5tion be+ direct$ to problems 9 exp]im5tal zoology & physiology4 ,consequ5tly ! "n 0 *ang$ to ! ,am]ican ,society ( ,zoologi/s4 ,to be eligible = memb]%ip 9 ?is society a p]son mu/ be an active inve/igator 9 "s bran* ( zoology1 z indicat$ by ! publi%$ results4 ,! ,am]ican ,association ( ,anatomi/s includes 9 its memb]%ip inve/igators & tea*]s 9 comp>ative anatomy1 embryology1 & hi/ology z well z 9 human anatomy4 ,_m pr(essional zoologi/s & exp]im5tal biologi/s pres5t _! pap]s be=e ?is society1 or at ! meet+s ( ! ,am]ican ,physiological ,society4 ,! ,entomological ,society ( ,am]ica & ! ,am]ican ,association ( ,economic ,entomologi/s are l>ge & active societies4 ,^! national societies h be5 ( great s]vice 9 fo/]+ a high /&>d ( zoological rese>*4 ,a /ill m important s]vice1 ?\gh g5]ally less conspicu\s1 is r5d]$ by ! j\rnal clubs 9 connection ) all ! l>g] zoological laboratories1 & by local sci5tific societies :i* are n[ ma9ta9$ 9 all ! l>g] c5t]s ( le>n+ ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry4 ,!re are also specific societies = "s ( ! diff]5t fields ( biological "w4 ,biological ,/ations4 ,no insignificant factor 9 ! developm5t ( biological sci5ce has be5 ! e/abli%m5t ( biological /ations :]e inve/igators1 tea*]s & /ud5ts meet 9 ! ,summ] vacation = special /udies1 discussions & rese>*4 ,! mo/ successful ( ^! laboratories h be5 locat$ on ! sea%ore & "h ! /udy ( m>9e life 9 ,summ] supplem5ts ! "w ( ! s*ool or univ]sity biological c\rses4 ,! fam\s ,naples ,/ation 0 f\nd$ 9 #ahgj1 & 0 %ortly aft] foll[$ by sev]al o!rs4 ,simil> biological /ations are n[ support$ on almo/ e coa/ 9 ,europe & 9 sev]al inl& localities4 ,! fir/ su* ,am]ican s*ool 0 e/abli%$ by ,l\is ,agassiz at ! isl& ( ,p5ikese on ! coa/ ( ,massa*usetts 9 #ahgc1 succe$+ 8 private laboratory at ,nahant4 ,dur+ t ,summ] m ?an =ty /ud5ts ga9$ en?usiasm = ! "w ( future ye>s4 ,un=tunately ! laboratory s auspici\sly />t$ 0 ( brief duration1 = ! dea? ( ,agassiz occurr$ 9 ,decemb] ( ! same ye>1 & ! laboratory 0 discont9u$ at ! end ( ! foll[+ ,summ]4 ,%ortly aft]w>d ,alex&] ,agassiz equipp$ a small private laboratory at ,newport1 ,rhode ,isl&1 & ,w4 ,k4 ,brooks e/abli%$ ! ,*esapeake ,bay ,zoological ,laboratory4 ,at ?is "t ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,fi% ,commission 0 engag$ "u ! direction ( ,sp5c] ,f4 ,baird 9 a survey ( ! m>9e life ( ! wat]s (f ! ,ea/]n ,coa/4 ,betwe5 #ahha & #ahhf ! ,commission e/abli%$ ! spl5didly equipp$ biological /ation at ,woods ,hole1 ,massa*usetts4 ,bo? "h & at ! ,fi% ,commission ,laboratory at ,beau=t1 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 mu* "w 9 g5]al zoology z well z 9 economic problems is accompli%$4 ,^! laboratories are design$ p>ticul>ly = speciali/s engag$ 9 rese>*es connect$ ) ! "w ( ! ,fi% ,commission4 ,a ne$ 0 soon felt = a m>9e laboratory along broad] l9es1 & "o available to ! /ud5ts & tea*]s ( ! s*ools & colleges4 ,to meet ^! requirem5ts ! ,woods ,hole ,m>9e ,biological ,laboratory 0 />t$ 9 #ahhg1 z ! successor to an e>li] laboratory at ,annisquam1 & has s9ce become a great ,summ] congress = biologi/s f all p>ts ( ! c\ntry4 ,x is safe to say t no o!r in/itution has be5 ( equal s]vice 9 secur+ = biology ! high plane x n[ occupies 9 ,am]ican sci5ce4 ,! lead+ _s 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( ?is laboratory & its director = _m ye>s 0 ,*>les ,o4 ,:itman4 ,successful m>9e laboratories are locat$ also at ,cold ,spr+ ,h>bor1 ,long ,isl&2 at ,h>pswell1 ,ma9e2 & at ,b]muda4 ,! ,c>negie ,in/itution ma9ta9s a laboratory at ,tortugas ,isl&1 ,florida1 = ! inve/igation ( tropical m>9e life4 ,on ! ,pacific ,coa/ m>9e laboratories are locat$ at ,pacific ,grove & at ,la ,jolla1 ,cali=nia1 & at ,friday ,h>bor1 ,wa%+ton4 ,sev]al o!r biological laboratories are op5 ea* ,summ] on our coa/s1 z well z a numb] ( fre%-wat] laboratories on ! int]ior lakes4 ,!re are also sev]al m\nta9 laboratories4 ,! influ5ce ( ^! laboratories on ,am]ican biology is immeasurable4 ,natural ,hi/ory ,museums4 ,museums ( ,natural ,hi/ory or 8,cab9ets ( ,natural ,curios0 z !y 7 sometimes call$1 7 e/abli%$ 9 ! fir/ half ( ! n9ete5? c5tury 9 connection ) ! v>i\s natural hi/ory societies4 ,^! 7 ( mu* s]vice 9 /imulat+ ! collection ( zoological 8specim5s0 & 9 ar\s+ a popul> int]e/ 9 natural hi/ory4 ,! zoological museum ( e>li] days consi/$ ( r[s on r[s ( sy/ematically arrang$ specim5s1 ea* c>efully labell$ ) sci5tific "n1 locality1 date ( collection & donor--mu* l ! pages ( a catalogue4 ,all ?is has n[ be5 *ang$2 ! bottles ( specim5s h be5 relegat$ to ! /or]oom1 & ! great plate glass cases ( ! mod]n museum repres5t individual /udies 9 ! v>i\s fields ( mod]n zoological rese>*1 or individual *apt]s 9 ! late/ biological text-books4 ,(t5 ! tal5t ( ! arti/ & ! skill ( ! taxid]mi/ are cunn+ly comb9$ to produce mo/ reali/ic bits ( nature4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ,national ,museum1 ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory1 ! ,field ,columbian ,museum & ! ,museum ( ,comp>ative ,zoology are among ! f9e/ museums ( ! _w1 :ile _m ( ! /ates1 cities1 & univ]sities ma9ta9 public museums z a "p ( _! educational sy/ems4 ,sy/ematic ,zoology & ,taxonomy4 ,! "w 9 sy/ematic zoology is n[ ma9ly c>ri$ on by speciali/s 9 relatively small gr\ps ( animals4 ,?is is necessitat$ bo? by ! increas+ly l>ge numb] ( species kn[n to sci5ce & by ! complet5ess & exactness ) :i* species mu/ n[ be def9$4 ,! majority ( sy/ematic work]s are n[ connect$ ) museums :]e ! l>ge collections furni% mat]ial = comp>ative /udies4 ,prom95t 9 ?is field is ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,national ,museum1 ! publications ( :i* are ma9ly taxonomic & zoogeographic1 & cov] e gr\p ( organism4 ,! adequacy ( ?is great museum = su* /udies may be illu/rat$ by ! collection ( mammals4 ,?is museum has ! types ( #aace ( ! #bach =ms 7includ+ species & subspecies7 ( ,nor? ,am]ican mammals recogniz$ 9 ,mill]'s li/1#age & less ?an #bjj =ms lack repres5tatives among ! #abj1jjj specim5s ( mammals4 ,sy/ematic monographs ( sev]al ( ! ord]s ( mammals h be5 publi%$4 ,sy/ematic /udy ( ! birds has br\ght ! numb] ( species & subspecies kn[n to inhabit ,nor? & ,middle ,am]ica to above #cjjj4 ,! mo/ compreh5sive sy/ematic treatise is ! /ill incomplete report ( ,ridgeway#agf ( :i* sev5 l>ge volumes h already be5 issu$4 ,on ! reptiles1 ! mo/ complete monograph is t by ,cope#agg entitl$ 8,! ,crocodilians1 ,liz>ds & ,snakes ( ,nor? ,am]ica40 ,! ,amphibia h also be5 /udi$ by ,cope1 ^: report on ! ,batra*ia ( ,nor? ,am]ica#agh is ! /&>d taxonomic "w4 ,! mo/ compreh5sive sy/ematic "w on fi%es is ! 8,descriptive ,catalogue ( ! ,fi%es ( ,nor? & ,middle ,am]ica0 by ,jordan & ,ev]mann4#agi ,! inv]tebrate gr\ps h be5 9 "p simil>ly monograph$ by ! memb]s ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,national ,museum /aff & o!rs1 & fur!r /udies are 9 progress4 ,o!r taxonomic monographs publi%$ by ?is museum include ! v>i\s gr\ps ( animals f _m diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w4 ,a numb] ( ! l>g] ,/ate1 municipal1 & univ]sity museums publi% bullet9s on special gr\ps repres5t$ 9 _! collections z well z articles ( g5]al zoological int]e/4 ,exp$itions1 subsidiz$ by museum & private funds1 are f "t to "t s5t to v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w & _! results are (t5 publi%$ 9 sumptu\s mann]4 ,! total numb] ( liv+ species ( animals is unkn[n1 b consid]+ t ab\t a qu>t] ( a million new species h be5 describ$ dur+ ! pa/ ?irty ye>s1 x is probable t sev]al million species are 9 exi/5ce to-day4 ,m ?an half a million h be5 describ$4 ,^! are probably b a small fraction ( ! numb] t h exi/$ 9 pa/ geological ages4 ,?us1 9 spite ( all ! "w t has be5 done 9 sy/ematic zoology & z ! numb] ( kn[n species cont9ues to increase1 !re /ill rema9 _m gr\ps ( animals1 "s ( :i* are by no means r>e or m9ute1 9 :i* probably only a small proportion ( ! species are z yet capable ( id5tification4 ,x is only s9ce ! publication ( ,w>d & ,:ipple's 8,fre%-wat] ,biology0 )9 ! pa/ ye> t ! amateur zoologi/ c\ld hope to f9d ev5 ! names ( all ! organisms :i* may be collect$ f a s+le pool ( wat]4 ,& 9 _m cases he w /ill meet ) disappo9tm5t1 = _m ( our protozoa & o!r fre%-wat] organisms h n yet be5 describ$ z species4 ,dur+ ! pa/ few ye>s !re has be5 a t5d5cy on ! "p ( "s ( our biologi/s engag$ 9 exp]im5tal "w to disp>age ! /udies ( ! sy/emati/s4 ,x mu/ be grant$1 h[ev]1 t bo? l9es ( "w are ess5tial to ! s\nd developm5t ( zoological sci5ce1 = exp]im5tal inve/igations 9 :i* ! accurate diagnosis ( species is ignor$ always result 9 confusion4 ,ecology4--,! m>vel\s modifications 9 /ructure & in/9cts by :i* ! v>i\s animals are adapt$ to _! surr\nd+s n[ =ms a special topic 9 biological rese>* & "o ( ! mo/ fasc9at+4 ,! adaptations 9 habitat1 "t1 behavior1 appe>ance & ev5 9 /ructure are f\nd capable ( a c]ta9 individual modification :5 /udi$ exp]im5tally4 ,zoogeography4--,closely associat$ ) sy/ematic zoology1 & inde$ a "p ( ! subject 9 its broad] s5se1 is ! /udy ( ! geographical di/ribution ( animal species & l>g] gr\ps4 ,paleontology4--,! geological succession ( organisms embraces a field :]e zoologi/ & geologi/ meet4 ,! wond]ful progress made by ,am]ican inve/igators is well describ$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s on ,hi/orical ,geology & ,v]tebrate ,paleontology4 ,biometry4 ,s9ce ,d>w9's !ory ( evolution po/ulat$ ! orig9 ( new species by means ( natural selection1 x 0 obvi\sly necess>y 9 ord] to apply a critical te/ to det]m9e ! precise limits ( a species4 ,x 01 !re=e1 propos$ to subject a giv5 species to a /rict exam9ation by ! application ( /ati/ical me?ods to det]m9e ! range ( v>iation ( its memb]s & ! ext5t to :i* ! species int]grades ) o!rs4 ,o!r problems1 p>ticul>ly ^? conc]n+ h]$ity1 7 treat$ 9 simil> mann]4 ,?is bran* ( biological sci5ce 0 p>ticul>ly develop$ by ! ,engli% ,s*ool1 l$ by ,sir ,francis ,galton1 foll[$ by ,k>l ,pe>son & ,william ,bateson4 ,9 ,am]ica ! me?ods ( biometry h be5 utiliz$ ext5sively by ,*>les ,b4 ,dav5port1 ,raymond ,pe>l1 ,h4 ,s4 ,j5n+s & o!rs 9 ! solution ( problems 9 g5etics & evolution4 ,_! "w %[s ! great value ( critical /ati/ical analysis 9 ! int]pretation ( biological data4 ,a ?or\gh tra9+ 9 ma!matics is n[ f\nd to be h>dly less important = ! biologi/ ?an is a k ( physics & *emi/ry1 = ! sci5ce ( biometry has become "o ( ! mo/ important adjuncts to ! /udy ( g5etics4 ,comp>ative ,anatomy & ,embryology4 ,comp>ative ,anatomy4--,^u ! f\ndations laid d[n by ,cuvi] a c5tury ago ! pres5t elaborate /ructure ( comp>ative anatomy ( animals1 bo? v]tebrate & inv]tebrate1 has be5 develop$4 ,va/ z is ! pres5t accumulation ( facts & !ories _m important problems /ill await _! solution4 ,jeffries ,wyman 0 long a lead] 9 ?is field1 :]e _m work]s are n[ engag$4 ,embryology4--,! embryological /udies1 s brilliantly begun by ,von ,ba] e>ly 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury1 are /ill 9 progress4 ,!y h n[ be5 ext5d$ to ! gr\ps m difficult ( inve/igation & into ! e>lie/ /ages ( f]tilization & implantation 9 ! mammals4 ,artificial cultural me?ods h yield$ important results4 ,l\is & ,alex&] ,agassiz1 ,m>k1 ,m9ot1 ,brooks1 ,:itman1 ,conkl9 & ,e4 ,b4 ,wilson h tak5 prom95t p>ts 9 ?is "w4 ,9 ! e>ly n9eties embryological /udies 7 direct$ to ! arrangem5t ( cells 9 ! divid+ egg1 & !re 0 mu* discussion ( 8cell l9eage0 9 developm5t4 ,valuable z 7 ^! /udies !y ?rew comp>atively little light on ! g5]al problems ( evolution4 ,exp]im5tal ,embryology4--,a m f]tile field1 develop$ at ! same p]iod & a little lat]1 0 f\nd 9 exp]im5tal embryology4 ,! discov]ies made by ,dries* & o!rs 9 %ak+ ap>t ! cells ( ! divid+ egg or by de/roy+ "o or m ( ^! cells gave a new insight into ! pot5cy ( cells = comp5satory & reg5]ative processes4 ,^! /udies attract$ _m able inve/igators1 :o made /ill fur!r advance by subject+ ! g]m cells1 develop+ eggs1 embryos1 & develop+ organs to a great v>iety ( artificial conditions4 ,artificial ,p>!nog5esis4--,ano!r "q conc]ns ! nature ( ! process ( f]tilization & ! ag5cies :i* cause ! f]tiliz$ egg to develop into an embryo4 ,9 #ahii ,jacques ,loeb succe$$ 9 caus+ developm5t 9 unf]tiliz$ sea-ur*9 eggs by subject+ !m to conc5trat$ sea wat] = a p]iod & !n return+ !m to _! normal environm5t4 ,to ?is promis+ field ( exp]im5tal "w came _m ( ! =emo/ biologi/s bo? 9 ,am]ica & ,europe4 ,x 0 soon f\nd t ! eggs ( mo/ gr\ps ( animals except ! high] v]tebrates c\ld be made to develop into m or less p]fect embryos & l>val =ms by treatm5t ) a great v>iety ( *emical sub/ances1 by increas$ temp]ature1 by me*anical /imuli & by o!r means4 ,?is artificial p>!nog5esis1 z x is call$1 has also be5 successful 9 plants 7,fucus71 & rec5tly ,loeb has re>$ sev]al frogs to sexual maturity by m]ely punctur+ ) a %>p ne$le ! eggs f :i* !y 7 d]iv$4 ,loeb1 !n1 ma9ta9s t 8! egg is ! future embryo & animal2 & t ! sp]matozoon1 aside f its activat+ effect1 only transmits ,m5delian *>act]s to ! egg40#ahj ,fur!r exp]im5tal analyses ( ! nature ( ! f]tilization me*anism h rec5tly be5 made by ,morgan1 ,conkl91 ,f4 ,r4 ,lillie1 & o!rs4 ,g]m9al ,localization4--,! "q z to :e!r ! egg conta9s localiz$ organ-=m+ sub/ances has be5 /udi$ exp]im5tally p>ticul>ly by means ( ! c5trifuge4 ,! results indicate t nei!r ( ! old] oppos+ !ories ( 8p]=mation0 or 8epig5esis0 is applicable to all eggs1 b t 9 c]ta9 organisms ! eggs possess a well m>k$ diff]5tiation :ile 9 o!rs ea* "p ( ! egg is ess5tially1 al?\gh probably n absolutely1 equipot5tial4 ,! ,g]mplasm ,cycle4--,s9ce ,weismann's po/ulation ( ! indep5d5ce ( soma & g]mplasm 9 #ahhe _m attempts h be5 made to trace ! pa? ( ! h]$it>y sub/ance f "o g5]ation to ! next4 ,a rec5t book by ,hegn]#aha summ>izes ! success atta9$ 9 v>i\s gr\ps ( animals4 ,cytology4 ,ano!r important field ( inve/igation :i* has attract$ _m work]s is t :i* p]ta9s to ! life ( ! cell--! sci5ce ( cytology4 ,al?\gh ! cell!ory 0 e/abli%$ z e>ly z #ahci1 little advance 0 made 9 ?is subject 9 ,am]ica be=e #ahhj4 ,s9ce t "t1 h[ev]1 ,am]icans h be5 s successful 9 cytological discov]ies t !y are n[ among ! _w's lead]s 9 ?is field4 ,^! /udies h be5 foll[$ along bo? descriptive & exp]im5tal l9es4 ,! mo/ prom95t ( ! e>ly work]s 9 ?is field are ,e4 ,l4 ,m>k & ,e4 ,b4 ,wilson4 ,m>k's description ( ! maturation1 fecundation1 & segm5tation ( ! egg is ! mo/ accurate & complete ( ! e>ly cytological /udies4 ,wilson's discov]ies conc]n+ ! details ( f]tilization & 8 8,atlas ( ,f]tilization & ,k>yok9esis10 publi%$ 9 #ahie1 h n[ become classic4 ,wilson1 too1 has publi%$ ! only ,am]ican text-book on cytology1#ahb & has m rec5tly tak5 ! lead 9 /udies conc]n+ ! relation betwe5 ! *romosomes & sex4 ,besides ,wilson1 ,montgom]y1 ,m>k1 ,mc,clung1 ,morgan1 ,miss ,/ev5s1 ,conkl9 & _! associates & /ud5ts h n[ furni%$ conclusive evid5ce t ! sex ( an organism is det]m9$ by1 or associat$ )1 ! nucle> con/itution ( ! f]tiliz$ egg4 ,?is con/itution is moreov] %[n to be dep5d5t ^u ! *romosomes receiv$ f ! g]m cells4 ,?is explanation is 9 /rict accordance ) ! results ( exp]im5tal bre$+4 ,x is also q 9 h>mony ) ! ,m5delian law ( inh]itance1 & 9 fact =ms "o ( ! /ronge/ supports = ! view t all ,m5delian factors are resid5t 9 ! *romosomes4 ,rec5t "w has also discov]$ ! me*anism :i* gov]ns ! complicat$ conditions ( sex :i* occur 9 ^? animals :i* exhibit alt]nat+ sexual & p>!nog5etic g5]ations4 ,^! rem>kable processes are 9 all cases f\nd to dep5d ^u a def9ite di/ribution ( ! *romosomes4 ,o!r rec5t exp]im5tal "w has %[n t :ile ! sex is ?us normally det]m9$ 9 ! f]tiliz$ egg1 x is 9 "s animals n irrevocably fix$1 & ! normal effect ( ! sex *romosomes may be inhibit$ by abnormal conditions 9 ! develop+ embryo1 z is demon/rat$ by ! rec5t "w ( ,lillie & o!rs4 ,! cytological basis = ,m5delian inh]itance has be5 v ext5sively /udi$ by ,morgan & 8 pupils 9 connection ) _! "w on inh]itance 9 ! common fruit fly ,drosophila4 ,! evid5ce supports ,weismann's e>li] hypo!sis t ! *romosomes are ! be>]s ( ! h]itable factors1 & t ^! are arrang$ 9 a s]ies 9 ! diff]5t *romosomes4 ,?is !ory is %[n to be 9 su* /rict accord ) bo? ! cytological /udies & ! results ( exp]im5tal bre$+ t ,morgan has v5tur$ to indicate def9ite po9ts 9 p>ticul> *romosomes z ! loci ( def9ite h]itable factors1 or g5es4 ,confirmation ( ?is view is furni%$ by ! behavior ( ! s-call$ sex-l9k$ *>act]s1 ! g5es = :i* are situat$ 9 ! same *romosome z t :i* c>ries ! sex factor4 ,_m +5i\s bre$+ exp]im5ts indicate fur!r t all ! h]$it>y *>act]s 9 ,drosophila are borne 9 f\r great l9kage gr\ps correspond+ ) ! f\r pairs ( *romosomes :i* ! cells ( ?is fly possess4 ,comp>ative ,physiology4 ,none ( ! exp]im5tal fields has be5 ( great] importance 9 zoological progress ?an t :i* conc]ns ! functions ( ! v>i\s organs4 ,)\t ?is companion sci5ce morphology & comp>ative anatomy w\ld h become un9telligible4 ,am]ican inve/igators1 among :om ,g4 ,h4 ,p>k] /&s prom95t1 h tak5 a lead+ "p 9 ?is field also4 ,neurology4--,! physiological analysis ( ! compon5ts ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 bo? 9 v]tebrates & inv]tebrates1 is ano!r important bran* ( exp]im5tal biology4 ,! #bh volumes ( ! ,j\rnal ( ,comp>ative ,neurology atte/ ! l>ge influ5ce t ,am]ican inve/igators h _h 9 ! developm5t ( ?is sci5ce4 ,reg5]ation4--,exp]im5tal /udies on ! p[]s ( reg5]ation 9 plants & animals h be5 made f ! e>lie/ times4 ,dur+ ! pa/ few ye>s1 h[ev]1 !re has be5 made a conc]t$ attempt to analyze ! factors :i* det]m9e ! am\nt & rate ( reg5]ation4 ,mu* progress has be5 made t[>d ! po/ulation ( def9ite laws applicable to ! reg5]ative processes ( ! p>ts ( ea* organism4 ,! critical analyses ( ,morgan1 ,loeb & ,*ild h be5 p>ticul>ly /imulat+4 ,tissue ,culture4--,ano!r l9e ( exp]im5tal "w :i* has be5 develop$ )9 ! pa/ few ye>s by ,h>rison1 ,c>rell1 & o!rs is ! culture ( body tissues 9 artificial m$ia4 ,^! exp]im5ts h includ$ ! cultivation 9 tubes or on glass slides ( ! v>i\s tissues ( num]\s species ( animals4 ,!y h yield$ mu* in=mation reg>d+ ! /ructure1 gr[? & multiplication ( cells1 ! =mation ( tissues1 & ! heal+ ( w\nds4 ,transplantation & ,graft+4--,closely associat$ exp]im5ts consi/ 9 ! transplantation ( organs or o!r portions ( ! body to abnormal positions1 to ! bodies ( o!r animals ( ! same species or ( o!r species4 ,9 ?is way mu* has be5 le>n$ ab\t ! pot5tiality ( organs = self-diff]5tiation1 = regulation1 = reg5]ation & = comp5satory adaptations4 ,! exp]im5ts h %[n1 fur!r1 ! indep5d5ce ( soma & g]mplasm & h reveal$ ! nature ( c]ta9 organs ^: functions 7 previ\sly obscure4 ,tropisms & ,in/9cts4--,ano!r field ( exp]im5tal biology conc]ns ! analysis ( behavior ( organisms 9 response to v>i\s =ms ( /imuli4 ,^! /udies are be+ prosecut$ on all gr\ps ( organisms1 includ+ ! l>val /ages ( _m animals1 & are yield+ mo/ rem>kable results4 ,! success 9 ?is field ( rese>* is l>gely due to /imulat+ influ5ce ( ,jacques ,loeb1 ,p>k]1 ,j5n+s1 & _! co-work]s4 ,biological ,*emi/ry4--,/ill ano!r exp]im5tal field :i* has develop$ into "o ( ! mo/ important ( ! biological sci5ces relates to ! fundam5tal *emical & physical *anges :i* und]lie all organic ph5om5a4 ,a k ( bo? physiological & physical *emi/ry is to-day ess5tial = all advanc$ biological "w4 ,! peculi> nature ( life itself1 ( gr[?1 disease1 old-age1 deg5]ation1 dea? & dissolution are presumably only manife/ations ( *emical & physical laws4 ,! ultimate goal ( all exp]im5tal biology1 !re=e1 w be rea*$ only :5 ! basic physico-*emical prop]ties ( life are und]/ood4 ,at t "t only w ! p]5nial controv]sy betwe5 vitalism & me*anism be end$4 ,economic ,zoology4 ,a mom5t's reflection w %[ t economic biology is ! mo/ ess5tial ( all sci5ces to ! human welf>e & progress4 ,= man's relation to 8 environm5t is su* t ! p5alty = ignorance or neglect ( ! biological pr9ciples involv$ 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce quickly ov]:elms him ) a horde ( p>asites or o!r enemies4 ,x is only by ! intellig5t application ( biological k t our food supplies1 our =e/s1 our dome/icat$ animals & our bodies c be protect$ f ! ev] rav5\s organisms :i* surr\nd u4 ,! losses to food supplies & o!r products by insects alone am\nts to #ajj millions ( doll>s a mon? 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,& ! p>asites cause losses 9 sickness & premature dea?s ea* ye> ( _m millions m4 ,!n !re are ! de/ructive rod5ts & o!r animals :i* add l>gely to our burd5s ( support4 ,^! enemies next to w>s & fungi are ! mo/ de/ructive ag5cies on e>?4 ,c\ld !y b be elim9at$ man's /ruggle aga9/ oppos+ =ces w\ld be 9 l>ge measure ov]come4 ,! results ( rec5t "w 9 economic zoology1 bo? 9 reg>d to ! de/ruction ( enemies & protection ( useful mammals1 birds & fi%es1 furni% a bright outlook = ! future4 ,protozoology4--,p>tly z an exp]im5tal field = ! solution ( g5]al biological problems & p>tly because ( its practical applications ! /udy ( protozoa has n[ develop$ into a special sci5ce4 ,! results ( ! inve/igations ( ,calk9s1 ,woodruff1 ,j5n+s & o!rs h greatly supplem5t$ our und]/&+ ( ! signification ( su* important biological ph5om5a z reproduction1 sexual diff]5tiation1 conjugation1 tropisms1 & metabolism4 ,f an economic /&po9t ! protozoa h rec5tly be5 %[n to be ( ! greate/ importance because ( ! human & animal diseases = :i* !y are responsible4 ,p>asitology4--,! animal p>asites ( man1 dome/icat$ animals & plants include num]\s species ( protozoa1 worms1 & insects4 ,toge!r ) ! bact]ia & a few high] fungi !y cause all communicable diseases4 ,:5 we consid] t n only our heal? b also our entire food supply is dep5d5t ^u ! elim9ation ( ^! organisms we mu/ admit t p>asitology is ! mo/ important economically ( all ! sci5ces4 ,! reports ( ! inve/igations ( ,/iles & 8 associates 9 ! ,hygi5ic ,laboratory & ( ,ransom & 8 /aff 9 ! ,bureau ( ,animal ,indu/ry are widely di/ribut$ by ! f$]al gov]nm5t4 ,! sy/ematic /udies s ably begun by ,joseph ,leidy 9 ! middle ( ! la/ c5tury h be5 cont9u$ by ,w>d1 ,l9ton1 ,pratt1 ,curtis & o!rs on ! p>asites ( _m gr\ps ( animals4 ,economic ,entomology4--,ano!r extremely important biological sci5ce1 ! practical applications ( :i* are second only to ^? ( p>asitology 9 importance1 is entomology4 ,9 ! la/ few ye>s economic entomology has exce$$ any ( ! o!r bran*es ( biology 9 ! numb] ( its inve/igators4 ,! ,am]ican ,association ( ,economic ,entomologi/s has a memb]%ip ( ab\t five hundr$4 ,! "w ( mo/ ( ^! is support$ by appropriations f ! ,/ate & f$]al gov]nm5ts1 & ! results ( _! inve/igations are widely publi%$4 ,x is n[ well kn[n t "s ( ! protozoon p>asites are convey$ f man to man only ?r\gh ! bites ( insects4 ,! local eradication ( sev]al ( our mo/ fatal diseases has rec5tly be5 br\ght ab\t by ! application ( measures to de/roy su* insects4 ,?is is ! greate/ triumph ( economic zoology4 ,economic ,i*?yology4--,! ,u4 ,s4 ,fi% ,commission has = _m ye>s be5 actively engag$ 9 inve/igations on ! food fi%es1 includ+ me?ods = increas+ ! food supply by suitable protection & artificial propagation4 ,! "w includes also edible & o!rwise useful mollusks & cru/acea4 ,_! m>9e & fre%-wat] laboratories h also be5 ( great s]vice to g5]al biological sci5ce4 ,economic ,orni?ology & ,mammalogy4--,9 addition to ! local bird clubs & ! ,am]ican ,orni?ologi/s ,union = ! /udy & pres]vation ( bird & mammal life1 ! ,bureau ( ,biological ,survey has = "s ye>s conduct$ inve/igations on ! economic importance ( ! v>i\s species4 ,! publications ( ?is ,bureau are ( great value bo? 9 det]m9+ ! economic /atus ( our birds & mammals1 & also 9 recomm5d+ means = ! protection ( ! b5eficial species & ! de/ruction ( ! injuri\s4 ,sev]al ( ! ,/ates issue simil> publications4 ,g5etics4 ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ *apt]s 9 biology relates to ! developm5t ( ! mod]n sci5ce ( h]$ity1 or g5etics4 ,previ\s to ! ye> #aijj1 :5 ! ,m5delian pr9ciple ( inh]itance 0 re-discov]$1 ! relative importance ( h]$ity & ( environm5t 9 ! developm5t ( an organism 0 little und]/ood4 ,x is true t ,weismann _h insi/$ on ! indep5d5ce ( soma & g]mplasm "s ye>s e>li] 7#ahhc71 b ! body ( ! individual 0 /ill g5]ally consid]$ ! key to its inh]itance4 ,! recognition ( ! g5]al application ( ,m5del's discov]y gave a great impetus to exp]im5tal bre$+ bo? 9 plants & animals4 ,:ile h]et(ore x _h be5 necess>y to dep5d ^u ! somatic *>act]s z evid5ce ( ! h]$it>y con/itution ( an individual1 x n[ became possible1 kn[+ ! h]$it>y con/itution ( ! p>5ts ( any pair ( individuals1 to pr$ict ) almo/ ma!matical c]ta9ty ! *>act]s ( _! possible (fspr+4 ,9 g5]al1 ! laws ( possible *ance comb9ations ( any gr\p ( *>act]s det]m9e ! probability ( any p>ticul> (fspr+ possess+ "o or _m ( ^? *>act]s4 ,! physical basis = su* ,m5delian inh]itance is evid5tly ! *ance comb9ations ( *romosomes :i* result f ! processes ( maturation & union ( ! g]m cells4 ,c]ta9 limitations to ! law are met ) because ! relatively small numb] ( *romosomes involves l9kage ( g5es1 because ( ! occasional int]*ange ( gr\ps ( g5es betwe5 homolog\s *romosomes1 & because ! relative activity or pot5cy ( any p>ticul> g5e may diff] 9 diff]5t races1 &1 f9ally1 because ! normal activity ( any giv5 g5e may be modifi$ or inhibit$ by ! action ( o!r g5es4 ,x is by no means c]ta91 h[ev]1 t all inh]itance is ,m5delian1 = !re /ill rema9s mu* evid5ce t ! h]$it>y basis ( c]ta9 *>act]s may be resid5t 9 ! cytoplasm1 r ?an 9 ! *romosomes4 ,a rec5t book by ,morgan1 ,/urtevant1 ,mll] & ,bridges 7#aiae71 entitl$ 8! me*anism ( ,m5delian h]$ity0 gives ! cytological explanation ( ,m5delian inh]itance4 ,am]icans h f ! fir/ tak5 a lead+ "p 9 ?is field ( rese>* & h be5 quick to recognize its practical applications to ! improvem5t ( bre$s 9 bo? animals & plants4 ,?is prom95t position is l>gely due to ! exp]im5tal "w ( ,ca/le1 ,dav5port1 ,morgan1 ,j5n+s1 ,pe>l1 & _! co-work]s on animals & t ( ,ea/1 ,em]son1 ,davis1 ,hayes & ,%ull on plants4 ,! g5etici/ n[ realizes t ! appe>ance ( ! body 7ph5otype7 gives b little clue to ! inh]itance 7g5otype74 ,t two :ite fl[]s produce only purple (fspr+1 or two :ite f[ls only deeply color$ *ick5s1 or t a pair ( gu9ea pigs1 "o ( :i* is black & ! o!r :ite1 h only gray ag\ti (fspr+1 :ile o!r app>5tly simil> :ite fl[]s or :ite animals produce (fspr+ l !mselves1 is n[ readily compreh5sible & ma!matically pr$ictable4 ,! mo/ important application ( our newly acquir$ k ( inh]itance is 9 ! improvem5t ( ! human race4 ,! wond]ful opportunity 9 ?is direction mu/ be app>5t to all4 ,! welf>e ( humanity dep5ds ^u ! imm$iate adoption ( eug5ic pr9ciples4 ,! ,eug5ics ,record ,(fice has secur$ _m ( ! ess5tial data4 ,) ! de/ruction ( ! _w's be/ g]m plasm at a rate nev] equall$ be=e1 ! outlook = ! future race w\ld be appall+ 7 x n = ! hope t ) ! adv5t ( a righte\s peace w come a realization ( ! necessity ( apply+ ^! new biological discov]ies to improv+ ! races ( m54 ,t ! discov]ies h be5 made too late 9 ! _w's hi/ory to be ( su* use to humanity mu/ n be ?\ght possible4 ,evolution4 ,previ\s to ! publication ( ,d>w9's 8,orig9 ( ,species0 9 #ahei1 ,am]ican zoologi/s 7 g5]ally incl9$ t[>d special creation1 9 spite ( ! evid5ces = evolution :i* _h be5 pres5t$ by ,erasmus ,d>w91 ,buffon1 ,lam>ck1 & ,ge(froy ,/4-,hilaire4 ,?is attitude ( m9d cont9u$ = "s ye>s aft] ! publication ( ! natural selection !ory ( ,d>w9 & ,wallace4 ,?is 0 9 "p due to ! p[]ful influ5ce ( ,l\is ,agassiz & o!rs :o bitt]ly oppos$ ! ,d>w9ian !ory4 ,! influ5ce ( ,asa ,gray 9 ga9+ a g5]al acceptance = ?is !ory is expla9$ 9 ! foll[+ *apt]4 ,a modifi$ ,lam>ckian doctr9e 0 widely accept$ 9 ! la/ qu>t] ( ! c5tury1 due l>gely to ! influ5ce ( ,cope1 ,hyatt & ,pack>d4 ,! inh]itance ( 8acquir$ *>act]s0 dem&$ by ?is !ory seems incompatible ) ! discov]ies ( rec5t times1 s t 8to-day ! !ory has few foll[]s among/ tra9$ inve/igators1 b x /ill has a popul> vogue t is wide-spread & vocif]\s40#ahc ,! orig9 ( new v>ieties & species by accid5tal & =tuit\s modifications 7mutations7 ( ! g]mplasm is n[ ! mo/ widely accept$ !ory ( evolution4 ,"s ( ! mo/ important discov]ies reg>d+ ! orig9 ( new =ms h be5 rec5tly made by ,morgan & 8 pupils4 ,f a /ock ( ! common fruit fly 7,drosophila ampelophila7 m ?an #abe new types h aris5 )9 six ye>s4 ,ea* ( ^! types bre$s true4 8,ea* has aris5 indep5d5tly & sudd5ly4 ,e "p ( ! body has be5 affect$ by "o or ano!r ( ^! mutations40 ,to arrange ^! mutations arbitr>ily into grad$ s]ies w\ld give ! impression ( an evolution>y s]ies1 b ?is is directly contr>y to ! kn[n facts conc]n+ _! orig91 = ea* mutation 8orig9at$ indep5d5tly f ! wild type40 8,evolution has tak5 place by ! incorporation into ! race ( ^? mutations t are b5eficial to ! life & reproduction ( ! individual40 ,?is evolution>y process is usually accompani$ by ! elim9ation ( ^? =ms :i* h rema9$ /able or :i* h develop$ adv]se mutations4 ,a "q t is be+ vigor\sly debat$ at ?is "t conc]ns ! possible effects ( selection on ! h]$it>y factors4 ,are ! g5es fix$ bo? qualitatively & quantitatively or does a giv5 g5e v>y 9 pot5cy "u diff]5t conditions & 9 diff]5t individuals8 ,9 ! =m] case selection c only sep>ate ! exi/+ g5es into sep>ate pure /ra9s4 ,b if ! g5e be quantitatively v>iable1 !n selection w result 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( new types4 ,ca/le has long /\tly ma9ta9$ ! effect ( su* selection1 & 8 =ces h rec5tly be5 augm5t$ by ,j5n+s4 ,! exp]im5tal "w n[ 9 process w d\btless yield a decisive answ]4 ,conclusion4 ,a comp>ison ( ! simple descriptive natural hi/ory ( a c5tury ago ) ! =ego+ manifold developm5ts ( mod]n biology w indicate ! wond]ful progress :i* has occurr$ dur+ ?is p]iod4 ,! pa? has l$ f ! crude me?ods ( ! almo/ unaid$ eye & h& to ! applications ( ! mo/ delicate exp]im5tal app>atus4 ,= ! m>vel\s success :i* zoology has atta9$ has be5 possible only by ! skillful use ( scalpel1 microscope1 microtome & o!r me*anical devices & by ! ref9$ me?ods ( ! *emi/ & physici/4 ,! c5tral tru? to :i* all ^! discov]ies consi/5tly po9t is ! unity & h>mony ( all biological ph5om5a1 & inde$ ( all nature4 ,no long] does ! zoologi/ f9d any dem>cat$ l9e sep>at+ 8 field ( rese>* f t ( ! botani/ or ! *emi/ or ev5 ( ! physici/1 = all ! natural sci5ces obvi\sly deal ) closely associat$ ph5om5a4 ,! aim ( ! future w be bo? to complete fields ( /udy already m>k$ out & to d]ive a compreh5sive explanation ( ! g5]al pr9ciples involv$4 ,notes4 ,footnote #agb3 ,proc4 ,biol4 ,soc4 ,wa%+ton1 #c1 #ce1 #ahhf4 ,footnote #agc3 ,ibid41 #d1 #i1 #ahhh4 ,bo? ( ^! pap]s are repr9t$ 9 ,ann4 ,rept4 ,smi?sonian ,in/41 #ahig1 ,u4 ,s4 ,nat4 ,mus41 ,pt4 #b1 pp4 #ceg-dff1 #aija4 ,footnote #agd3 ,l\is ,agassiz3 8 ,life & ,correspond5ce1 by ,elizabe? ,c>ey ,agassiz1 p4 #ade1 #ahhe4 ,footnote #age3 ,li/ ( ,nor? ,am]ican ,l& ,mammals 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,national ,museum1 #aiaa4 ,bull4 #gi1 ,u4 ,s4 ,nat4 ,mus41 #aiab4 ,footnote #agf3 ,birds ( ,nor? & ,middle ,am]ica1 ,bull4 #ej1 p>ts ,i-,,vii1 ,u4 ,s4 ,nat4 ,mus41 #aija-aiaf4 ,footnote #agg3 ,report ,u4 ,s4 ,nat4 ,mus4 = #ahih1 pp4 #aec-abgj1 #aijj4 ,footnote #agh3 ,bull4 #cd1 ,u4 ,s4 ,nat4 ,mus41 #ahhi4 ,footnote #agi3 ,bull4 #dg1 p>ts ,i-,,iv1 ,u4 ,s4 ,nat4 ,mus41 #ahif-aijj4 ,footnote #ahj3 ,j4 ,loeb1 ,! ,organism z a ,:ole1 p4 #abf1 #aiaf4 ,footnote #aha3 ,! ,g]m-cell ,cycle 9 ,animals1 #aiad4 ,footnote #ahb3 ,! ,cell 9 ,developm5t & ,inh]itance1 #ahif2 second edition1 #aijj4 ,footnote #ahc3 ,morgan1 ,t4 ,h4 ,a critique ( ! !ory ( evolution1 p4 #cb1 #aiaf4 ,,xiii ,,! ,,developm5t ,,( ,,botany ,,s9ce #ahah ,by ,,george ,l4 ,,goodale 8,our ,botany1 x is true1 has be5 ext5sively & successfully inve/igat$1 b ?is field is /ill ri*1 & rew>ds e new rese>* ) "s int]e/+ discov]y40 ,su* are ! words ) :i* ! sagaci\s & f>-sight$ f\nd] ( ! ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce & ,arts1 9 8 g5]al introduction to ! fir/ volume1 alludes to ! /udy ( plants4 ,x is pla9 t ! editor1 emb>k+ on ?is new ent]prise1 appreciat$ ! attractions ( ?is invit+ field & sympa!tically recogniz$ ! good "w :i* 0 be+ done 9 x4 ,x is n surpris+1 !re=e1 to f9d t he welcom$ to ! pages ( 8 initial numb] contributions to botany4 ,e>ly ,botanical ,works4--,! collections ( dri$ & liv+ ,nor? ,am]ican plants1 :i* _h be5 c>ri$ f "t to "t to botani/s 9 ,europe1 _h be5 eag]ly /udi$1 & ! results _h be5 publi%$ 9 accessible treatises4 ,besides ^! g5]al treatises1 !re _h be5 issu$ c]ta9 works1 :olly devot$ to ! ,am]ican ,flora4 ,among ^! latt] may be m5tion$ ,pur%'s 8,flora0 7#ahad7 & ,nuttall's 8,g5]a0 7#ahah74 ,!re 7 also a few works :i* 7 r popul> 9 _! "*1 su* z ,amos ,eaton's 8,manual ( ,botany = ,nor? ,am]ica0 7#ahag71 & ,bigel['s 8,collection ( ! ,plants ( ,bo/on & environs0 7#ahad74 ,^! h&books 7 conv5i5t1 & possess$ ! *>m ( n be+ exhau/ive2 consequ5tly a botani/1 :e!r pr(essional or amateur1 0 /imulat$ to feel t he _h a good *ance ( enri*+ ! li/ ( species & add+ to ! next edition4 ,! ,e>ly ,ye>s ( ,botany 9 ! ,j\rnal4 ,at t "t1 ! botani/s _h no j\rnal 9 ?is c\ntry devot$ to _! sci5ce4 ,"h & !re !y f\nd opportunity = publi%+ _! discov]ies 9 "s m$ical p]iodical or 9 a local newspap]4 ,h5ce ,am]ican botani/s avail$ !mselves ( ! welcome ext5d$ by ,silliman to botanical contributors to place _! results on record 9 a magaz9e devot$ to sci5ce 9 its wide s5se4 ,specialization & subdivision ( sci5ce _h n !n begun to dissociate alli$ subjects1 &1 consequ5tly1 botani/s felt t !y w\ld be at home 9 ?is j\rnal conduct$ by a *emi/4 ,botani/s respond$ promptly to ?is invitation ) int]e/+ contributions4 ,x is well to rememb] t ! appliances at ! comm& ( naturali/s at ! date :5 ! ,j\rnal began its s]vice1 7 imp]fect & inadequate4 ,! botani/ did n possess a conv5i5t a*romatic microscope1 & he 0 n 9 possession ( ! *emical aids n[ deem$ necess>y 9 ev5 ! simple/ rese>*4 ,h5ce1 att5tion 0 giv5 almo/ :olly to su* matt]s z ! =ms ( plants & ! m obvi\s ph5om5a ( plant-life4 ,9 view ( ! pov]ty ( in/rum5tal aids 9 rese>*1 ! results atta9$ mu/ be reg>d$ z surpris+4 ,9 ! v fir/ volume ( ! ,j\rnal1 be>+ ! date ( #ahah1 !re are descriptions ( f\r new g5]a & ( f\r new species ( plants2 c]ta9ly a l>ge %>e to give to sy/ematic botany4 ,besides ^! articles1 !re are "s in/ructive notes conc]n+ a few plants1 :i* up to t "t _h be5 imp]fectly und]/ood4 ,!re are f\r ,floral ,cal5d>s :i* give details 9 reg>d to ! blossom+ & ! fruit+ ( plants 9 limit$ di/ricts1 a botanical subject ( "s importance b likely to become t$i\s 9 ! long run4 ,j "h1 ! skill ( ! editor 9 limit+ undesirable contributions is %[n by 8 tactful rem>k design$ to soo! ! feel+s ( a prolix writ] ^: too long li/ ( plants 9 a floral cal5d> he _h editorially cut d[n to reasonable limits4 ,! editor rem>ks1 8su* ext5d$ obs]vations are desirable1 b x may n always be conv5i5t to ins]t v volum9\s details ( daily floral occurr5ce40 ,x is conv5i5t to consid] by !mselves "s ( ! botanical contributions publi%$ 9 ! fir/ s]ies ( volumes ( ! ,j\rnal dur+ a p]iod ( tw5ty ye>s1 ! p]iod be=e ,asa ,gray became actively & con/antly associat$ ) ! ,j\rnal4 ,9 sy/ematic & geographical botany "o f9ds communications f ,d\glass & ,torrey 7#d1 #ef1 #ahbb7 on ! plants ( :at 0 !n ! ,nor?we/2 ,lewis ,c4 ,beck 7#aj1 #beg1 #ahbf2 #aa1 #afg1 #ahbf2 #ad1 #aab1 #ahbh7 contribut$ valuable pap]s on ! botany ( ,ill9ois & ,miss\ri2 !re is a lit]al translation by ,dr4 ,rus*5b]g] 7#ai1 #fc1 #bii1 #ahca2 #bj1 #bdh1 #ahca2 #bc1 #gh1 #bej1 #ahcc7 ( a v long li/ ( ! plants ( ,*ili2 ,wolle & ,hueb5] 7#cg1 #caj1 #ahci7 gave an annotat$ catalogue ( botanical specim5s collect$ 9 ,p5nsylvania2 ,tuck]man 7#de1 #bg1 #ahdc7 pres5t$ communications 9 reg>d to num]\s species :i* he _h exam9$ critically2 ,d>l+ton 7#da1 #cfe1 #ahda7 publi%$ 8 lecture on grasses2 ,asa ,gray 7#dj1 #a1 #ahda7 gave an in/ructive acc\nt ( ,european h]b>ia visit$ by him1 & he contribut$ also a *>m+ acc\nt 7#db1 #a1 #ahdb7 ( a botanical j\rney to ! m\nta9s ( ,nor? ,c>ol9a4 ,! mo/ ext5sive s]ies ( botanical communication at ?is "t 0 ! ,c>icography by ,pr(essor ,dewey ( ,williams ,college1 pres5t$ 9 _m numb]s ( ! ,j\rnal2 ! fir/ ( ^! 9 #g1 pp4 #bfd-bgh1 #ahbd4 ,!re 7 also descriptions ( c]ta9 new g5]a1 & species1 & critical /udies 9 synonyms4 ,cryptogamic botany is repres5t$ 9 ! fir/ s]ies ( volumes ( ! ,j\rnal by ,l4 ,c4 ,beck's 7#ae1 #bhg1 #ahbi7 /udy ( f]ns & mosses1 by ,bailey's 7#ce1 #aac1 #ahci7 hi/ology ( ! vascul> sy/em ( f]ns1 by ,fries' ,sy/ema mycologicum 7#ab1 #bce1 #ahbi71 & by ,de ,s*we9itz 7#i1 #cig1 #ahbe7 & ,halsey1 :o _h 9 h& a cryptogamic manual4 ,!re are two important pap]s by ,alex&] ,braun1 translat$ by ,dr4 ,george ,engelmann1 "o on ! ,equisetace ( ,nor? ,am]ica 7#df1 #ha1 #ahdd7 & ! o!r on ! ,*>ace 7#df1 #ib1 #ahdd74 ,vegetable paleontology _h begun to attract att5tion 9 _m places 9 ?is c\ntry1 & !re=e ! translat$ contributions by ,brongni>t on fossil plants 7 giv5 space 9 ! ,j\rnal4 ,plant-physiology receiv$ a good %>e ( att5tion ei!r 9 %ort notices or 9 long] articles4 ,su* titles appe> z1 ! respiration ( plants1 ! circulation ( sap1 ! excrem5titi\s matt] ?r[n (f by plants1 ! effects ( c]ta9 gases & poisons on plants1 & ! relations ( plants to diff]5t color$ light4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important ( ! notes is t 9 :i* is describ$ ! discov]y by ,rob]t ,br[n 7#ai1 #cic1 #ahca7 ( ! con/ant movem5t ( m9ute p>ticles susp5d$ 9 a liquid1 fir/ detect$ by him 9 ! fovilla ( poll5 gra9s1 & n[ kn[n z ! ,br[nian 7or ,brunonian7 movem5t4 ,! head+ "u :i* ?is note appe>s is ( int]e/1 8,! motion ( liv+ p>ticles 9 all k9ds ( matt]40 ,"o side ( botany t\*es agriculture & economics4 ,t side 0 repres5t$ ev5 9 ! fir/ volume ( ! ,j\rnal by a /udy ( 8! comp>ative quantity ( nutriti\s matt] :i* may be obta9$ f an acre ( l& :5 cultivat$ ) potatoes or :eat40 ,succe$+ volumes 9 ?is s]ies likewise pres5t phases :i* are ( special int]e/ reg>d$ f ! po9t ( view ( economics2 = example1 ^? :i* treat ( rotation ( crops & ( enri*+ ! soil4 ,probably ! economic pap] :i* may be reg>d$ z ! mo/ important1 9 fact epo*-mak+1 is ! full acc\nt ( ! inv5tion by ,app]t ( a me?od = pres]v+ food indef9itely 7#ac1 #afc1 #ahbh74 ,we all "k t ,app]t's process has revolutioniz$ ! pres]vation ( foods1 & 9 its mod]n modification und]lies ! va/ indu/ry ( cann$ fruits1 vegetables & s on4 ,!re are sugge/ions1 also1 z to ! utilization ( new foods1 or ( old foods 9 a new way1 :i* resemble ! sugge/ions made 9 ^! days ( food cons]vation4 ,= example1 x is %[n t fl\r c be made f legum9\s se$s by /eam+ & subsequ5t dry+1 & pulv]iz+4 ,!re are excell5t h9ts z to ! be/ ways ( prep>+ & us+ potatoes1 & also = pres]v+ !m und]gr\nd1 :]e !y w rema9 good = a ye> or two4 ,x is %[n t potato fl\r c be made into excell5t bread4 ,ano!r me?od ( mak+ bread1 namely f wood1 is describ$1 b x does n seem q s practicable4 ,!re are int]e/+ notes on ! sug>-beet z a s\rce ( sug>1 & "h appe>s "o ( ! e>lie/ acc\nts ( ! ,assam tea-plant1 :i* 0 de/9$ to revolutionize ! tea indu/ry ?r\gh\t ! _w4 ,cordage & textile fib]s ( b>k & ( wood %\ld be utiliz$ 9 ! manufacture ( pap]4 ,9 fact "o comes ^u _m su* surprises 9 economic botany z ! e>li] volumes ( ! ,j\rnal are c>efully exam9$4 ,e>ly numb]s ( ! ,j\rnal pres5t ) suffici5t fullness acc\nts ( ! rem>kable discov]y by ,dagu]re & o!rs ( a process = tak+ pictures by light1 on a silv] plate or ^u pap] 7#cg1 #cgd1 #ahci2 #ch1 #ig1 #ahdj1 etc474 ,be=e _m ye>s pass$1 ! ,j\rnal _h occasion to %[ t ^! novel photographic del9eations c\ld be made useful 9 ! inve/igation ( problems 9 botany4 ,9 ! pages ( ! ,j\rnal x w\ld be easily possible to trace ! developm5t ( ?is art 9 its relations to natural hi/ory4 ,silliman possess$ great sagacity 9 select+ = 8 ent]prise all ! novelties :i* promis$ to be ( s]vice 9 ! advancem5t ( sci5ce4 ,9 #ahbe 7#i1 #bfc7 ! ,j\rnal republi%$ f ! ,ed9burgh ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce an essay by ,dr4 7aft]w>ds ,sir7 ,william ,jackson ,hook]1 on ,am]ican ,botany4 ,9 ?is essay ! au?or /ates t 8! v>i\s sci5tific ,j\rnals0 :i* 8are publi%$ 9 ,am]ica1 conta9 _m memoirs ^u ! indig5\s plants4 ,among ! fir/ ( ^! 9 po9t ( value1 & we ?9k also ! fir/ ) reg>d to "t1 we mu/ "n ,silliman's ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce40 ,! au?or enum]ates "s ( ! contributors to ! ,j\rnal & ! titles ( _! pap]s4 ,x has be5 a useful practice ( ! ,j\rnal1 almo/ f ! fir/1 to transf] to its pages memoirs :i* w\ld o!rwise be likely to escape ! notice ( ! majority ( ,am]ican botani/s4 ,! book notices & ! long] book reviews cov]$ s wide a field t !y plac$ ! read]s ( ! ,j\rnal 9 t\* ) ne>ly all ( ! curr5t botanical lit]ature bo? "h & abroad4 ,^! critical notices did mu* t[>ds ! symmetrical developm5t ( botany 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,& z we %all n[ see1 ! ,j\rnal notices & reviews 9 ! h&s ( ,asa ,gray cont9u$ to be "o ( ! mo/ important factors 9 ! advancem5t ( ,am]ican botany4 ,asa ,gray & ! ,j\rnal4 ,9 #ahcd !re appe>s 9 ! ,j\rnal 7#be1 #cdf7 a 8,sket* ( ! ,m9]alogy ( a portion ( ,jeff]son & ,/4 ,lawr5ce ,c\nties1 ,new ,york1 by ,j4 ,b4 ,crawe ( ,wat]t[n & ,a4 ,gray ( ,utica1 ,new ,york40 ,?is appe>s to be ! fir/ m5tion 9 ! ,j\rnal ( ! "n ( ,dr4 ,asa ,gray1 :o1 %ortly aft] t date1 became ?or\ghly id5tifi$ ) its botanical int]e/s4 ,9 ! e>ly "p ( 8 c>e] bo? be=e & imm$iately aft] graduat+ 9 m$ic9e1 ,gray gave mu* att5tion to ! diff]5t bran*es ( natural hi/ory 9 its wide s5se4 ,he n only /udi$ b taught 8*emi/ry1 geology1 m9]alogy1 & botany10 ! latt] bran* be+ ! "o to :i* he devot$ mo/ ( 8 att5tion4 ,among 8 e>ly guides 9 ! pursuit ( botany may be m5tion$ ,dr4 ,hadley1 8:o _h le>n$ "s botany f ,dr4 ,ives ( ,new ,hav510 & ,dr4 ,lewis ,c4 ,beck ( ,albany1 au?or ( ,botany ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,nor? ( ,virg9ia4 ,at t p]iod he made ! acqua9tance ( ,dr4 ,john ,torrey ( ,new ,york1 ) :om he lat] became associat$ 9 mo/ important descriptive "w4 ,dur+ ! ye>s betwe5 8 graduation 9 m$ic9e & #ahdb1 ! ye> :5 he came to ,h>v>d ,college1 8 activities 7 div]se & int5se2 s t 8 prep>ation = 8 di/+ui%$ c>e] 0 v broad & ?or\gh4 ,8 fir/ visit to ,europe1 9 #ahch1 br\ght him into p]sonal relations ) a l>ge numb] ( ! botani/s ( ,great ,brita9 & ! ,cont95t4 ,?is ext5sive acqua9tance1 add$ to 8 broad tra9+1 enabl$ him ev5 f ! outset to ex]t a pr(\nd influ5ce ^u ! progress ( 8 favorite sci5ce4 ,he made ! ,j\rnal tribut>y to ?is developm5t4 ,8 "n fir/ appe>s z associate editor 9 #ahec1 b !re are articles 9 ! ,j\rnal f 8 p5 :i* be> an e>li] date4 ,! fir/ ( ^! e>ly botanical pap]s is ! foll[+3 8,a ,translation ( a memoir entitl$ #8,beitrge zur ,lehre von d] ,befru*tung d] ,pflanz51' 7contributions to ! doctr9e ( ! impregnation ( plants1 by ,a4 ,j4 ,c4 ,corda37 ) prefatory rem>ks on ! progress ( discov]y relative to vegetable fecundation2 by ,asa ,gray1 ,m4 ,d40 7#ca1 #cjh1 #ahcg74 ,dr4 ,gray says t he made ! translation f ! ,g]man = 8 own private use1 b ?9k+ t x might be int]e/+ to ! ,lyceum1 he br\ght x be=e ! ,society1 ) 8a cursory acc\nt ( ! progress ( discov]y respect+ ! fecundation ( fl[]+ plants1 = ! purpose ( r5d]+ ! memoir m g5]ally intelligible to ^? :o are n p>ticul>ly conv]sant ) ! pres5t /ate ( botanical sci5ce40 ,! translation occupies six pages ( ! ,j\rnal1 :ile ! prefatory rem>ks fill n9e pages4 ,! prefatory rem>ks con/itute an exhau/ive essay on ! subject1 embodi$ 9 attractive & p]fectly cle> language4 ,! translator %[s complete famili>ity ) ! matt] 9 h& & gives an adequate acc\nt ( all ! "w done on ! subject up to ! date ( ,m4 ,corda's pap]4 ,a second important pap] by him ne> ?is p]iod is 8 review ( 8,a ,natural ,sy/em ( ,botany3 or a sy/ematic view ( ! ,organization1 ,natural ,aff9ities1 & ,geographical ,di/ribution ( ! :ole ,vegetable ,k+dom2 toge!r ) ! use ( ! m important species 9 ,m$ic9e1 ! ,arts1 & rural & dome/ic economy1 by ,john ,l9dley4 ,second edition1 ) num]\s additions & corrections1 & a complete li/ ( g5]a & _! synonyms4 ,london3 #ahcf0 7#cb1 #bib1 #ahcg74 ,a v brief notice ( ?is "w 9 ! fir/ "p ( ! volume = #ahcg closes ) ! words1 8,a m ext5d$ notice ( ! "w may be expect$ 9 ! ensu+ numb] ( ! ,j\rnal40 ,! ext5d$ notice prov$ to be a critical /udy ( ! "w1 sign$ by ! initials ,a4 ,g4 :i* lat] became s famili> to read]s ( ! ,j\rnal4 ,citation ( a few ( its s5t5ces w indicate ! /rong & quiet mann] 9 :i* ,dr4 ,gray1 ev5 at ! outset1 wrote 8 notices ( books4 ,9 speak+ ( ! second edition ( ,pr(essor ,l9dley's "w1 he says3 ,illu/ration3 ,s9c]ely y\rs ,asa ,gray 8,x is n necess>y to /ate t a treatise ( ?is k9d 0 greatly ne$$1 or to allude to ! peculi> qualifications ( ! le>n$ & indu/ri\s au?or = ! accompli%m5t ( ! task1 or ! high e/imation 9 :i* ! "w is held 9 ,europe4 ,b we may prop]ly (f] our te/imony respect+ ! great & favorable influ5ce :i* x has ex]t$ ^u ! progress ( botanical sci5ce 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,great z ! m]its ( ! "w und\bt$ly are1 we mu/ nev]!less be excus$ f adopt+ ! t]ms ( extravagant & sometimes equivocal eulogy employ$ by a popul> au?or1 :o gravely in=ms 8 read]s t no book1 s9ce pr9t$ ,bibles 7 fir/ sold 9 ,p>is by ,dr4 ,fau/us1 ev] excit$ s mu* surprise & wond] z did ,dr4 ,torrey's edition ( ,l9dley's ,introduction to ! ,natural ,sy/em ( ,botany4 ,n[ we c h>dly believe t ei!r ! au?or or ! ,am]ican editor ( ! "w ref]r$ to 0 ev] 9 dang]1 z 0 hone/ ,dr4 ,fau/us1 ( be+ burn$ = wit*craft1 nei!r d we f9d any?+ 9 its pages calculat$ to produce su* a/oni%+ effects1 except1 p]haps1 ^u ! m9ds ( ^? botani/s1 if su* !y may be call$1 :o _h nev] dream$ ( any important *anges 9 ! sci5ce s9ce ! appe>ance ( good ,dr4 ,turton's translation ( ! ,species ,plant>um1 & :o speak ( ,jussieu z a writ] :o has greatly improv$ ! natural ord]s ( ,l9nu40 ,9 ! ,j\rnal = #ahdj !re is a l>ge gr\p ( unsign$ book reviews "u ! head+1 8,brief notices ( rec5t ,botanical works1 especially ^? mo/ int]e/+ to ! /ud5t ( ,nor? ,am]ican ,botany40 ,! fir/ ( ^! %ort reviews deals ) ! second section ( ,"p ,,vii ( ,de ,c&olle's 8,prodromus40 ,9 #ahdg ! consid]ation ( ! 8,prodromus0 is resum$ by ! same au?or & ! initials ( ,a4 ,g4 are app5d$4 ,?is indicates t ,dr4 ,gray 0 probably ! writ] ( "s ( ! unsign$ book reviews :i* _h appe>$ 9 ! ,j\rnal betwe5 #ahcg & #ahdj4 ,d\btless ,silliman avail$ himself ( ! assi/ance ( 8 associates1 ,eli ,ives & o!rs1 9 ,new ,hav51 9 ! exam9ation ( curr5t botanical lit]ature1 & x is extremely probable t he e>ly secur$ help f "y ,dr4 ,gray1 :o _h %[n himself to be a ke5 critic z well z a pleas+ writ]4 ,! notices ( botanical works f #ahdj be> m>ks ( hav+ be5 f ! same h&4 ,!y cov] an extremely wide range ( subjects4 ,:ile !y are good-temp]$ !y are critical1 & !y _h mu* to d ) ! developm5t ( botany1 9 ?is c\ntry1 along safe l9es4 ,gray z ,editor4--,gray's "n z associate editor ( ! ,j\rnal appe>s 9 #ahec4 ,he _h be5 a welcome contributor1 z we h se51 = _m ye>s4 ,8 influ5ce ^u ! progress ( botany 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 0 l>gely due to 8 connection ) ! ,j\rnal4 ,8 reviews ext5d$ ov] a v wide range1 & supplem5t$ to a rem>kable degree 8 o!r educational "w4 ,x mu/ be p]mitt$ to allude "h to 8 sagacity z a writ] ( educational treatises4 ,9 8 fir/ elem5t>y text-book1 publi%$ 9 #ahcf1 he express$ :olly orig9al views 9 reg>d to c]ta9 phases ( /ructure & function 9 plants1 :i* became g5]ally adopt$ at a lat] date4 ,8 ,manual ( ,botany 0 con/ruct$1 & subsequ5t editions 7 kept1 on a plan :i* made no appeal to ^? :o want$ to "w on l9es ( lea/ resi/ance2 9 fact he _h no pati5ce ) ^? :o desir$ m]ely to asc]ta9 ! "n ( a plant4 ,9 ! ,j\rnal he emphasizes ! desirability ( le>n+ all ! aff9ities ( ! plant "u consid]ation4 ,at a lat] p]iod1 :5 entirely new *apt]s _h be5 op5$ 9 ! life ( plants1 he s\ght by 8 contributions 9 ! ,j\rnal to int]e/ /ud5ts 9 ?is wid] outlook4 ,pr(essor ,c4 ,s4 ,s>g5t has select$ ) good judgm5t "s ( ! m important sci5tific pap]s by ,pr(essor ,gray & has republi%$ !m 9 a conv5i5t =m4#ahd ,_m ( ^! pap]s 7 contribut$ to ! ,j\rnal 9 ! =m ( reviews4 ,^! reviews t\* ne>ly e bran* ( ! sci5ce ( botany4 ,z ,s>g5t ju/ly says1 8,_m ( ! reviews are fill$ ) orig9al & sugge/ive obs]vations1 & tak5 toge!r1 furni% ! be/ acc\nt ( ! developm5t ( botanical lit]ature dur+ ! la/ fifty ye>s t has yet be5 writt540 ,9 ^! long] reviews 9 ! ,j\rnal1 ,gray 0 wont to take a book "u review z af=d+ an opportunity to illu/rate "s important subject1 & _m ( ! reviews are cr[d$ ) 8 expositions4 ,= example1 9 8 exam9ation ( von,mohl's 8,vegetable ,cell0 7#ae1 #dea1 #ahec7 he takes up ! :ole subject ( microscopic /ructure1 s f> z x 0 !n und]/ood1 & he po9ts out ! probable errors ( "s ( ,mohl's contempor>ies1 %[+ :at & h[ great 7 ,mohl's own contributions to hi/ology4 ,su* a review is a l&m>k 9 ! sci5ce4 ,! physiology ( ! cell & ! nutrition ( ! plant 7 favorite topics ) ,pr(essor ,gray1 & he br\ght mu* ( 8 k 9 reg>d to !m into su* a review z t ( ,b\ss+ault 7#be1 #abj1 #aheh7 on ! 8,influ5ce ( nitrates on ! production ( vegetable matt]40 ,z a sy/ematic botani/1 ,gray 0 naturally mu* int]e/$ 9 ! vex$ "q ( nom5clature ( plants4 ,"o ( 8 mo/ important communications to ! ,j\rnal is 8 review1 9 ! volume = #ahhc 7#bf1 #dag71 ( ,de,candolle's "w on ! subject4 ,he deals ) ?is /rictly te*nical matt] mu* z he did 9 a contribution to ! ,j\rnal :i* he made 9 #ahfh 7#df1 #fc74 ,9 bo? ( ^! pap]s he /ates ) cle>ness ! g5]al features ( ! code ( nom5clature4 ,he says explicitly t ! code does n make1 b r decl>es1 ! common law ( botani/s4 ,! treatm5t ( ! subject at 8 h&s w\ld rightly impress a g5]al read] z %[+ a /rong desire to h common s5se appli$ to d\btful cases1 in/ead ( insi/+ on inflexible rules4 ,= ?is reason1 8 rule ( practice 0 n always acceptable to ^? :o 7 anxi\s to secure con=mity to arbitr>y rules at :atev] co/4 ,z he said 9 a pap] publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal 9 #ahdg 7#c1 #cjb71 8,! difficulty ( a re=m increases ) its necessity4 ,x is mu* easi] to /ate ! evils ?an to relieve !m2 & ! well-meant endeavors t h rec5tly be5 made to ?is end1 are1 "s ( !m1 likely1 if adopt$1 to make confusion worse conf\nd$40 ,?is feel+ l$ him to be v cons]vative 9 ! matt] ( re=m 9 nom5clature4 ,?is subject ( botanical nom5clature illu/rates a me?od frequ5tly employ$ by ,pr(essor ,gray to elucidate a difficult matt]4 ,he w\ld f9d 9 ! treatise "u review a text1 or texts1 on :i* he w\ld build a treatise ( 8 own1 & 9 ?is way he made cle> 8 own views relative to mo/ ( ! important phases ( botany4 ,:5 he fac$ controv]t$ matt]s1 8 attitude /ill rema9$ judicial4 ,:ile he 0 tol]ant ( op9ions :i* cla%$ ) 8 own1 he 0 always sev]e ^u *>latanism & impati5t ( inaccuracy4 ,! pages ( ! ,j\rnal conta9 _m sev]e criticisms at 8 h&s1 b an unprejudic$ p]son w\ld say t ! sev]ity is m]it$4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 in/ead ( review+ a book or an address1 he w\ld foll[ ! cu/om inaugurat$ e>ly 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,j\rnal1 ( mak+ copi\s extracts1 & ?us give to its read]s an opportunity ( exam9+ mat]ials :i* o!rwise might n fall 9 _! way4 ,gray's contributions to ! ,j\rnal comprise m ?an "o ?\s& titles1 )\t c\nt+ ! memorial notices & ! %ort] obitu>y notes4 ,9 ^! notices he sums up 9 a few well-*os5 words ! contributions made to botany by 8 contempor>ies4 ,ev5 9 ! few in/ances 9 :i* he felt oblig$ to note ) disapproval "s ( ! "w1 he express$ himself ) p]sonal fri5dl9ess4 ,! necrology1 z x appe>$ f mon? to mon?1 0 a labor ( love4 ,all ( ! long] memorial notices are :at x is ! fa%ion n[-a-days to call appreciations1 & ^! are s happily phras$ t x w\ld seem z if ! writ] 9 _m a case ask$ himself1 8,w\ld my fri5d1 ab\t :om ,i am n[ writ+1 make any *ange 9 ?is sket*80 ,gray on ,d>w9ism4--,9 ,octob]1 #ahei1 ,d>w9's epo*-mak+ "w1 8,! ,orig9 ( ,species10 0 publi%$4 ,an e>ly copy 0 s5t to ! editor ( ! ,j\rnal1 ,pr(essor ,james ,d4 ,dana4 ,?is arriv$ 9 ,new ,hav5 on ,decemb] #ba1 b x 0 prec$$ by a p]sonal lett] :i* is ( s mu* int]e/ t x is "h transcrib$ 9 full4 ,x %\ld be add$ t ,dana 0 at ?is "t 9 ,europe :]e he 0 sp5d+ a ye> 9 ! se>* = heal? aft] a s]i\s n]v\s breakd[n4 ,9 8 abs5ce ! book 0 notic$ by ,gray z /at$ bel[4 ,! lett] is1 z foll[s3 ,d[n1 ,bromley1 ,k5t4 ,nov4 #aa?1 #ahei4 ,my de> ,sir1 ,i h s5t y a copy ( my ,book 7z yet only an ab/ract7 on ! ,orig9 ( ,species4 ,i "k too well t ! conclusion1 at :i* ,i h arriv$1 w horrify y1 b y w1 ,i believe & hope1 give me cr$it = at lea/ an hone/ se>* aft] ! tru?4 ,i hope t y w read my ,book1 /raight ?r\gh2 o!rwise f ! great cond5sation x w be un9telligible4 ,d n1 ,i pray1 ?9k me s presumptu\s z to hope to conv]t y2 b if y c sp>e "t to read x ) c>e1 & w !n d :at is f> m important1 keep ! subject "u my po9t ( view = "s little "t occasionally be=e y\r m9d1 ,i h hopes t y w agree t m c be said 9 fav\r ( ! mutability ( species1 ?an is at fir/ app>5t4 ,x took me _m long ye>s be=e ,i :olly gave up ! common view ( ! sep>ate creation ( ea* species4 ,believe me1 ) s9c]e respect & ) cordial ?anks = ! _m acts ( sci5tific k9dness :i* ,i h receiv$ f y1 ,my de> ,sir1 ,y\rs v s9c]ely1 ,,*>les ,,d>w94 ,9 ,m>*1 #ahfj 7#bi1 #aec71 ,gray publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal an elaborate & cauti\s review ( ,d>w9's "w4 ,he allud$ to ! abs5ce ( ! *ief editor ( ! ,j\rnal 9 ! foll[+ words3 8,! duty ( review+ ?is volume 9 ! ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce w\ld naturally devolve ^u ! pr9cipal editor ^: wide obs]vation & pr(\nd k ( v>i\s dep>tm5ts ( natural hi/ory1 z well z ( geology1 p>ticul>ly qualify him = ! task4 ,b he has be5 oblig$ to lay aside 8 p5 to seek 9 di/ant l&s ! entire repose f sci5tific labor s ess5tial to ! re/oration ( 8 heal?1 a consummation dev\tly to be wi%$ & confid5tly to be expect$4 ,int]e/$ z ,mr4 ,dana w\ld be 9 ?is volume1 he c\ld n be expect$ to accept its doctr9e4 ,views s ideali/ic z ^? ^u :i* 8 #8,?\ghts ^u ,species' are gr\nd$1 w n h>monize readily ) a doctr9e s ?or\ghly naturali/ic z t ( ,mr4 ,d>w94444 ,betwe5 ! doctr9es ( ?is volume & ^? ( ! great naturali/ ^: "n adorns ! title page ( ?is ,j\rnal ,mr4 ,agassiz ! wide/ div]g5ce appe>s40 ,gray !n proce$s to contra/ ! two views ( ,d>w9 & ,agassiz1 8= ?is contra/ br+s out mo/ prom95tly & sets 9 /ronge/ light & %ade ! ma9 features ( ! !ory ( ! orig9ation ( species by means ( ,natural ,selection40 ,he !n /ates bo? sides ) great fairness1 & proce$s3 8,:o %all decide betwe5 su* extreme views s ably ma9ta9$ on ei!r h&1 & say h[ mu* tru? !re may be 9 ea*4 ,! pres5t review] has n ! presumption to und]take su* a task4 ,hav+ no prepossession 9 favor ( naturali/ic !ories1 b /ruck ) ! em95t ability ( ,mr4 ,d>w9's "w1 & *>m$ ) its fairness1 our humbl] duty w be p]=m$ if1 lay+ aside prejudice z mu* z we c1 we %all succe$ 9 giv+ a fair acc\nt ( its me?od & argum5t1 (f]+ by ! way a few sugge/ions su* z might occur to any naturali/ ( an inquir+ m9d4 ,an editorial "* = ?is article mu/ 9 ju/ice be disclaim$4 ,! plural pron\n is employ$ n to give editorial weight1 b to avoid ev5 ! appe>ance ( egotism & also ! circumlocution :i* att5ds a rigor\s adh]5ce to ! imp]sonal /yle40 ,9 ?is review he moves sl[ly & ?\ghtfully1 b n timidly1 ov] ! new pa?s4 ,!re is no cle> indication 9 ! review t he has yet made up 8 m9d z to ! validity ( ,d>w9's hypo!sis4 ,b1 9 a second article appe>+ 9 ! ,j\rnal = ,septemb] ( ! same ye> 7#cj1 #bbf71 "u ! title 8,discussion betwe5 two read]s ( ,d>w9's treatise on ! orig9 ( species ^u its natural !ology0 ,gray pla9ly beg9s to incl9e to take a v favorable view ( ! ,d>w9ian !ory1 & makes use ( ! foll[+ +5i\s illu/ration to %[ t x is n inconsi/5t ) !i/ic design4 ,a few p>agraphs "h quot$ %[ ! felicity ( 8 /yle 9 a controv]t$ matt]3 8,recall a woman ( a pa/ g5]ation & %[ h] a web ( clo?2 ask h] h[ x 0 made1 & %e w say t ! wool or cotton 0 c>d$1 spun1 & wov5 by h&4 ,:5 y tell h] x 0 n made by manual labor1 t probably no h&s h t\*$ ! mat]ials ?r\gh\t ! process1 x is possible t %e might at fir/ reg>d y\r /atem5t z tantam\nt to ! ass]tion t ! clo? 0 made )\t design4 ,if %e did1 %e w\ld n cr$it y\r /atem5t4 ,if y pati5tly expla9$ to h] ! !ory ( c>d+-ma*9es1 sp9n+-j5nies1 & p[]-looms1 w\ld h] reception ( y\r explanation weak5 h] conviction t ! clo? 0 ! result ( design8 ,x is c]ta9 t %e w\ld believe 9 design z firmly z be=e1 & t ?is belief w\ld be att5d$ by a high] conception & rev]5t admiration ( a wisdom1 skill1 & p[] greatly beyond any?+ %e _h previ\sly conceiv$ possible40 ,by ?is review ,gray dis>m$ ho/ility to su* an ext5t t "s p]sons :o _h be5 antagoni/ic to ,d>w9ism accept$ x ) only slight res]vation4 ,x may be fairly claim$ t ! ,j\rnal bore a lead+ "p 9 influ5c+ ! views ( naturali/s 9 ,am]ica 9 reg>d to ! ,d>w9ian !ory4 ,dr4 ,gray soon put ! ,d>w9ian hypo!sis to a sev]e te/4 ,9 ! ,j\rnal = #ahdj he _h call$ att5tion to ! rem>kable simil>ity :i* exi/s betwe5 ! flora ( ,japan & a "p ( ! temp]ate portion ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! fir/ notice ( ?is subject by him occurs 9 a %ort review ( ,dr4 ,zucc>9i's 8,flora ,japonica10 a "w bas$ on mat]ial furni%$ by ,dr4 ,siebold1 :o _h long liv$ 9 ,japan4 ,9 ?is review 7#ci1 #age1 #ahdj71 he enum]ates c]ta9 plants common to ! two regions1 & says1 8,x is int]e/+ to rem>k h[ _m ( our *>act]i/ic g5]a are reproduc$ 9 ,japan1 n to speak ( /rik+ analog\s =ms40 ,9 a subsequ5t pap] 7#bh1 #ahg1 #ahei71 he recurs to ?is subject1 &1 aft] allud+ to geological data furni%$ by ,j4 ,d4 ,dana1 he says3 8,i _c resi/ ! conclusion t ! extant vegetable k+dom has a long & ev5tful hi/ory1 & t ! explanation ( app>5t anomalies 9 ! geographical di/ribution ( species may be f\nd 9 ! v>i\s & prolong$ climatic or o!r vicissitudes to :i* !y h be5 subject 9 e>li] times2 t ! occurr5ce ( c]ta9 species1 =m]ly suppos$ to be peculi> to ,nor? ,am]ica1 9 a remote or antipodal region1 af=ds 9 itself no presumption t !y 7 orig9at$ !re1 & t int]*ange ( plants betwe5 ea/]n ,nor? ,am]ica & ea/]n ,asia is explicable ^u ! mo/ natural & g5]ally receiv$ hypo!sis 7or at lea/ (f]s no great] difficulty ?an does ! arctic flora1 ! g5]al homog5e\sness ( :i* r\nd ! _w has always be5 ?\ght compatible ) local orig9 ( ! species7 & is p]haps n m ext5sive ?an might be expect$ "u ! circum/ances4 ,t ! int]*ange has ma9ly tak5 place 9 high nor!rn latitudes1 & t ! iso!rmal l9es h 9 e>li] times turn$ nor?w>d on our ea/]n & s\?w>d on our nor?we/ coa/1 z !y d n[1 are po9ts :i* g f> t[>ds expla9+ :y ea/]n ,nor? ,am]ica1 r ?an ,oregon & ,cali=nia1 has be5 ma9ly conc]n$ 9 ?is int]*ange1 & :y ! temp]ate int]*ange1 ev5 ) ,europe1 has pr9cipally tak5 place ?r\gh ,asia40 ,illu/ration3 ,f 8,life & ,lett]s ( ,*>les ,d>w90 by ,francis ,d>w94 ,?is pap] 0 communicat$ 9 #ahei1 on ! eve ( ! publication ( ,d>w9's 8,orig9 ( ,species40 ,at a lat] date he appli$ ! ,d>w9ian !ory to ! possible solution ( ! problem1 & came to ! conclusion t ! two floras _h a common orig9 9 ! ,arctic zone1 dur+ ! ,t]ti>y p]iod1 or ! ,cretace\s :i* prec$$ x1 & ! desc5dants _h made _! way d[n diff]5t l9es t[>d ! s\?1 ! species v>y+ "u diff]5t climatic conditions1 & ?us exhibit+ simil>ity b n absolute id5tity ( =m4 ,be=e ! ,am]ican ,association = ! ,advancem5t ( ,sci5ce1 9 8 ,presid5tial address1 9 #ahgb1 he us$ ! foll[+ language3 8,accord+ to ^! views1 z reg>ds plants at lea/1 ! adaptation to successive times & *ang$ conditions has be5 ma9ta9$1 n by absolute r5ewals1 b by gradual modifications4 ,i1 = "o1 _c d\bt t ! pres5t exi/+ species are ! l9eal successors ( ^? t g>ni%$ ! e>? 9 ! old "t be=e !m1 & t !y 7 z well adapt$ to _! surr\nd+s !n1 z ^? :i* fl\ri% & bloom ar\nd u are to _! conditions n[4 ,ord] & exquisite adaptation did n wait = man's com+1 nor 7 !y ev] /]eotyp$4 ,organic ,nature--by :i* ,i mean ! sy/em & totality ( liv+ ?+s1 & _! adaptation to ea* o!r & to ! _w--) all its app>5t & inde$ real /ability1 %\ld be lik5$1 n to ! ocean1 :i* v>ies only by tidal oscillations f a fix$ level to :i* x is always return+1 b r to a riv]1 s va/ t we c nei!r disc]n its %ores nor rea* its s\rces1 ^: onw>d fl[ is n less actual because too sl[ to be obs]v$ by ! ephem] :i* hov] ov] its surface1 or are borne ^u its bosom40 ,gray's active int]e/ 9 ! ,j\rnal cont9u$ until ! v end ( 8 life4 ,!re 7 _m critical notices f 8 p5 9 #ahhg4 ,8 la/ contribution to its pages 0 ! botanical necrology1 :i* appe>$ po/hum\sly 9 volume #ce1 ( ! ?ird s]ies 7#ahhh74 ,8 connection ) ! ,j\rnal cov]$1 !re=e1 a p]iod ( m ?an a half a c5tury ( its life4#ahe ,! *anges t 7 wr\ght 9 botany by ! application ( ,d>w9ism 7 f> rea*+4 ,attempts 7 promptly made to recon/ruct ! sy/em ( botanical classification on ! basis ( desc5t4 ,! m successful ( ^! endeavors met ) welcome1 & n[ =m ! gr\ndwork ( arrangem5t ( families1 g5]a1 & species1 9 ! ,h]b>ia 9 ?is c\ntry1 9 ! manuals ( descriptive botany1 & 9 ! text-books ( high] grade4 ,?is ov]turn did n take place until aft] ,gray's dea?1 al?\gh he =esaw t ! revolution 0 imp5d+4 ,"o ( ! mo/ obvi\s *anges 0 t :i* gave a high degree ( prom95ce 9 ,am]ican s*ool treatises to ! /udy ( ! l[] in/ead ( ! high] or fl[]+ plants1 ^! latt] be+ treat$ m]ely z memb]s 9 a long s]ies1 & ) scant consid]ation4 ,b ( late ye>s1 !re has be5 a r5ew$ popul> int]e/ 9 ! phnogamia1 lead+ to a m ?or\gh inve/igation ( local floras1 & also to ! exam9ation ( ! relations ( plants to _! surr\nd+s4 ,! results ( a l>ge "p ( ?is te*nical "w are publi%$ 9 /rictly botanical p]iodicals & n[-a-days seldom f9d a place 9 ! pages ( a g5]al j\rnal ( sci5ce4 ,cryptogamic ,botany 9 ! ,j\rnal s9ce #ahdf4 ,9 glanc+ rapidly at ! ,fir/ ,s]ies x has be5 se5 t a fair %>e ( att5tion 0 e>ly paid by ! ,j\rnal to ! fl[]less plants4 ,s f> z ! means & me?ods ( ! "t p]mitt$1 ! f]ns1 mosses1 li*5s1 & ! l>g] alg & fungi ( ,am]ica 7 /udi$ assidu\sly & important results 7 publi%$1 *iefly on ! side ( sy/ematic botany4 ,! ,second ,s]ies comprises ! ye>s betwe5 #ahdf & #ahga4 ,9 ?is s]ies "o f9ds t ! range ( cryptogamic botany is mu* wid5$4 ,besides int]e/+ book notices relative to ^! plants1 !re are a good _m pap]s on ! l>g] fungi1 on ! alg1 & mosses4 ,"h are contributions by ,curtis1 by ,rav5el1 by ,bailey1 & by ,sullivant4 ,! li*5s are treat$ ( 9 detail by ,tuck]man1 & !re are "s excell5t translations by ,dr4 ,engelmann ( pap]s by ,alex&] ,braun4 ,"s ( ! de/ructive fungi are consid]$1 z might well be ! case 9 ! p]iod ( ! potato fam9e4 ,x is 9 ^! ye>s t "o fir/ f9ds ! "n ( ,daniel ,cady ,eaton1 :o lat] _h s mu* to d ) develop+ an int]e/ 9 ! subject ( f]ns 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,he 0 a frequ5t contributor ( critical notices4 ,cryptogamic ,botany1 z x is n[ und]/ood1 is a comp>atively mod]n bran* ( sci5ce4 ,! appliances & ! me?ods = inve/igat+ ! m obscure gr\ps1 & especially = reveal+ ! successive /ages ( _! developm5t1 7 unsatisfactory until ! latt] half ( ! la/ c5tury4 ,gray recogniz$ ?is condition ( affairs1 & appreciat$ ! importance ( ! new me?ods & ! bett] appliances4 ,!re=e he view$ ) satisfaction ! pursuit ( ^! /udies abroad by "o ( 8 /ud5ts & assi/ants1 ,william ,g4 ,f>l[4 ,dr4 ,f>l[ c>ri$ to 8 /udies "u ,de,bary & o!rs unusual p[]s ( obs]vation & great indu/ry4 ,he spe$ily became an accompli%$ inve/igator 9 cryptogamic botany & enri*$ ! sci5ce by notable discov]ies1 "o ( :i* to-day be>s 8 "n 9 botanical lit]ature4 ,on 8 return to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,f>l[ ent]$ at once ^u a successful c>e] z an inspir+ tea*] & a fruitful inve/igator4 ,he became a frequ5t contributor to ! ,j\rnal1 keep+ its read]s 9 t\* ) ! m important additions to cryptogamic botany4 ,he _h wisely *os5 to deal ) ! :ole field1 & consequ5tly he has be5 able to pres]ve a bett] p]spective ?an is kept by ! extreme speciali/4 ,! great] numb] ( cryptogamic botani/s 9 ?is c\ntry h be5 "u ,pr(essor ,f>l['s in/ruction4 ,sy/ematic & ,geographical ,botany ( ,late ,ye>s4 ,! usefulness ( ! ,j\rnal 9 descriptive sy/ematic botany ( phan]ogams is %[n n only by its acceptance ( ! lead+ features ( ,de,candolle's ,phytography1 :]e v exact me?ods are inculcat$1 b by ! v num]\s contributions by ,s]5o ,watson & o!rs at ! ,h>v>d ,univ]sity ,h]b>ium1 z well z f private sy/emati/s4 ,x is 9 ! pages ( ! ,j\rnal t "o f9ds ! record ( mu* ( ! critical "w ( ,tuck]man & ( ,engelmann1 9 int]e/+ ,phan]ogamia4 ,( late ye>s ! ,j\rnal has _h ! privilege1 ( publi%+ a good deal ( ! c>eful "w ( ,!o ,holm1 9 ! difficult gr\ps ( ,cyp]ace1 & also 8 admirable /udies 9 ! morphology & ! anatomy ( c]ta9 int]e/+ plants ( high] ord]s4 ,att5tion 0 call$1 9 pass+1 to ,gray's deep int]e/ 9 geographical botany4 ,9 ?is important bran*1 besides 8 contributions1 "o f9ds1 among _m o!rs1 su* pap]s z ,le,conte's 8,flora ( ! ,coa/ ,isl&s ( ,cali=nia 9 ,relation to ,rec5t ,*anges ( ,physical ,geography0 7#cd1 #deg1 #ahhg71 & ,s>g5t's 8,=e/s ( ,c5tral ,nevada0 7#ag1 #dag1 #ahgi74 ,exam9ation reveals a surpris+ numb] ( communications :i* be> indirectly ^u ?is subject4 ,paleontological ,botany4 ,:5 ! ,j\rnal began its c>e]1 ! subject ( fossil plants 0 v obscure4 ,brongni>t's pap]s1 especially ! ,j\rnal translations1 enabl$ ! /ud5ts 9 ,am]ica to und]take ! inve/igation ( su* fossils & ! results 7 to a consid]able ext5t publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal4 ,s9ce ! subject belongs z mu* to geology z to botany1 x f9ds its appropriate home 9 ! pages ( ! ,j\rnal4 ,! rec5t pap]s on ?is topic %[ h[ great has be5 ! advance 9 me?ods & results s9ce ! e>ly days ( ! ,j\rnal's c5tury4 ,"u ! c>e ( ,george ,e4 ,wiel&1 ! communications & ! bibliographical notices ( paleontological treatises %[ ! progress :i* he & o!rs are mak+ 9 ?is attractive field4 ,economic ,botany1 ,plant ,physiology1 etc4 ,at ! outset1 ! ,j\rnal1 z we h se51 devot$ mu* att5tion to c]ta9 phases ( economic botany1 &1 ev5 d[n to ! pres5t1 x has ma9ta9$ its hold ^u ! subject4 ,! correspond5ce ( ,j]ome ,nickls f #ahec to #ahfg br\ght be=e its read]s a va/ numb] ( valuable items :i* w\ld n 9 any o!r way h be5 kn[n to !m4 ,& ! ,j\rnal dealt wisely ) ! sci5tific side ( agriculture1 "u ! h&s ( ,s4 ,w4 ,johnson & ,j4 ,h4 ,gilb]t1 & o!rs1 plac+ x on its prop] basis4 ,?is "w 0 supplem5t$ by ,norton's rem>kable "w 9 ! *emi/ry ( c]ta9 plants1 ! oat1 = example1 & c]ta9 plant-products4 ,9 fact x might be possible to con/ruct f ! pages ( ! ,j\rnal a fair synopsis ( ! important pr9ciples ( agronomy4 ,physiology has be5 repres5t$ n only by ! /udies :i* _h be5 inaugurat$ & /imulat$ by ! ,d>w9ian !ory1 su* z ! cross-f]tilization & ! close-f]tilization ( plants1 plant-movem5ts1 & ! l1 b !re h be5 a good _m special communications1 su* z ,d&5o on toxicity1 ,pl[man on electrical relations1 & ionization1 & ,w4 ,p4 ,wilson on respiration4 ,!re are _m broad philosophical que/ions :i* h f\nd an appropriate home 9 ! ,j\rnal1 su* z 8,! ,plant-individual 9 its relation to ! species0 7,alex&] ,braun1 #ai1 #big1 #ahee2 #bj1 #aha1 #ahee71 & 8,! analogy betwe5 ! mode ( reproduction 9 plants & ! alt]nation ( g5]ations obs]v$ 9 "s radiata0 7,j4 ,d4 ,dana1 #aj1 #cda1 #ahej74 ,ak9 to ^! are _m ( ! reflections :i* "o f9ds scatt]$ ?r\gh\t ! pages ( ! ,j\rnal1 frequ5tly 9 m9or book notices4 ,z might be expect$1 "s att5tion has be5 paid to ! v special bran* ( botany :i* is /rictly call$ m$ical4 ,= example1 e>ly 9 its hi/ory1 ! ,j\rnal publi%$ a long treatise by ,dr4 ,william ,tully 7#b1 #de1 #ahbj71 on ! ergot ( rye4 ,?is is consid]$ f a /ructural z well z f a m$ical po9t ( view & is decid$ly ahead ( ! "t 9 :i* x 0 writt54 ,!re are a few ref]5ces to vegetable poisons1 & !re is a fasc9at+ acc\nt ( ! effect ( ! common :ite a% on ! activities ( ! rattlesnake4 ,9 %ort x may be said t ! editor did mu* t[>ds mak+ ! ,j\rnal readable z well z /rictly sci5tific4 ,! li/ ( review]s :o h be5 p]mitt$ to use ! pages ( ! ,j\rnal = notices ( botanical & alli$ books 9 rec5t ye>s is pretty long4 ,"o f9ds ! initials ( ,wesley ,r4 ,coe1 ,george ,p4 ,cl9ton1 ,ar?ur ,l4 ,dean1 ,alex&] ,w4 ,evans1 ,william ,g4 ,f>l[1 ,george ,l4 ,goodale1 ,ar?ur ,h4 ,graves1 ,h]b]t ,e4 ,gregory1 ,lafayette ,b4 ,m5del1 ,leo ,f4 ,rettg]1 ,b5jam9 ,l4 ,rob9son1 ,george ,r4 ,wiel&1 & o!rs4 ,at ! pres5t "t1 9 ! biological sci5ces1 z 9 e dep>tm5t ( ?\ght1 !re is great specialization1 & ea* specialty dem&s its own private organ ( publication4 ,naturally ?is has l$ to a fall+ (f 9 ! botanical communications to ! ,j\rnal1 b x _c be =gott5 t ! hi/ory ( ,nor? ,am]ican ,botany has be5 l>gely record$ 9 its pages4 ,notes4 ,footnote #ahd3 ,sci5tific ,pap]s ( ,asa ,gray4 ,select$ by ,*>les ,sprague ,s>g5t4 ,two volumes1 ,bo/on1 #ahhi 7see notice 9 vol4 #ch1 #dai1 #ahhi74 ,footnote #ahe3 ,a notice ( ,gray's life & works is giv5 by 8 life-long fri5d1 ,j4 ,d4 ,dana1 9 ! ,j\rnal 9 #ahhh 7#ce1 #aha-bjc74 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,transcrib]',s ,,notes #a4 ,typos fix$2 non-/&>d spell+ & dialect reta9$4 #b4 ,us$ numb]s = footnotes4 #c4 ,enclos$ italics font 9 und]scores4 #d4 ,enclos$ bold or blacklett] font 9 equals4 #e4 ,! c>et 77 s]ves z a sup]script indicator1 applicable to individual *>act]s 7l #b;d7 & ev5 entire phrases 7l #a/74 #f4 ,subscripts are %[n us+ an und]score 77 ) curly braces 1 z 9 ,h#b,o4