,,the ,,guide ,,for ,,the ,,perplexed ,,by ,,moses ,,maimonides ,,translated ,,from ,,the ,,original ,,arabic ,,text ,,by ,m4 ,,friedl,,nder1 ,ph4,d ,,second ,,edition1 ,,revised ,,throughout ,,london ,,george ,,routledge ,,sons ,,ltd ,new ,york3 ,e4 ,p4 ,,dutton ,,co #aiaj ,,preface ,the first ,edition of the ,english ,translation of ,maimonides' ,dalalt al-,hairin being exhausted without having fully supplied the demand1 ,i prepared a second1 revised edition of the ,translation4 ,in the new edition the three volumes of the first edition have been reduced to one volume by the elimination of the notes2 besides ,hebrew words and phrases have been eliminated or transliterated4 ,by these changes the translator sought to produce a cheap edition in order to bring the work of ,maimonides within the reach of all students of ,theology and ,jewish ,literature4 ,m4 ,,friedl,,nder4 ,jews' ,college1 ,july #aijd4 ,,preface ,,to ,,volume ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,edition ,in compliance with a desire repeatedly expressed by the ,committee of the ,hebrew ,literature ,society1 ,i have undertaken to translate ,maimonides' ,dalalt al-airin1 better known by the ,hebrew title ,moreh ,nebuchim1 and ,i offer the first instalment of my labours in the present volume4 ,this contains--7#a7 ,a short ,life of ,maimonides1 in which special attention is given to his alleged apostasy4 7#b7 ,an analysis of the whole of the ,moreh ,nebuchim4 7#c7 ,a translation of the ,first ,part of this work from the ,arabic1 with explanatory and critical notes4 ,parts of the ,translation have been contributed by ,mr4 ,joseph ,abrahams1 ,b4,a41 ,ph4,d41 and ,rev4 ,h4 ,gollancz--the ,introduction by the former1 and the first twenty-five chapters by the latter4 ,in conclusion ,i beg to tender my thanks to ,rev4 ,a4 ,loewy1 ,editor of the ,publications of the ,hebrew ,literature ,society1 for his careful revision of my manuscript and proofs1 and to ,mr4 ,a4 ,neubauer1 ,m4,a41 for his kindness in supplying me with such information as ,i required4 ,m4 ,,friedl,,nder4 ,jews' ,college1 ,june #ahha4 ,,contents ,,page ,life of ,maimonides xv ,moreh ,nebuchim ,literature4 ,analysis of the ,guide for the ,perplexed xxvii ,part ,i4 ,introduction-- ,dedicatory ,letter #a ,the ,object of the ,guide #b ,on ,similes #d ,directions for the ,study of this ,work #h ,introductory ,remarks #i ,,chapter4 ,i ,the homonymity of elem #ac ,,ii ,on ,genesis iii4 #e #ad ,,iii ,on tabnit and temunah #af ,,iv ,on raah1 hibbit and azah #ag ,v ,on ,exod4 xxiv4 #aj #ah ,,vi ,on ish and ishshah1 a and aot #ai ,,vii ,on yalad #ai ,,viii ,on maom #bj ,,ix ,on kisse #ba ,x ,on alah1 yarad #bb ,,xi ,on yashab #bc ,,xii ,on kam #bd ,,xiii ,on amad #be ,,xiv ,on adam #be ,,xv ,on naab1 yaab #be ,,xvi ,on ur #bf ,,xvii ,on ,mishnah agigah ii4 #a #bg ,,xviii ,on arab1 naga1 niggash #bg ,,xix ,on male #bh ,,xx ,on ram1 nissa #bi ,,xxi ,on abar #cj ,,xxii ,on ba #cb ,,xxiii ,on ,yaa1 shub #cb ,,xxiv ,on halak #cc ,,xxv ,on shaken #cd ,,xxvi ,on 8,the ,torah speaketh the language of man0 #cd ,,xxvii ,on ,targum of ,gen4 xlvi4 #d #ce ,,xxviii ,on regel #cg ,,xxix ,on aeb #ci ,,xxx ,on akal #ci ,,xxxi1 ,,xxxii ,on the ,limit of ,man's ,intellect #dj1 #db ,,xxxiii to ,,xxxvi ,on the ,study and the ,teaching of ,metaphysics #dc-eb ,,xxxvii ,on panim #eb ,,xxxviii ,on aor #ec ,,xxxix ,on leb #ed ,,xl ,on rua #ee ,,xli ,on nefesh #ef ,,xlii ,on ayyim-mavet #ef ,,xliii ,on kanaf #eg ,,xliv ,on ayin #eh ,,xlv ,on shama #eh ,,xlvi1 ,,xlvii ,on the ,attribution of ,senses and ,sensations to ,god #ei1 #fc ,,xlviii ,the ,targum of shama and raah #fd ,,xlix ,figurative ,expressions applied to ,angels #fe ,l ,on ,faith #fg ,,li-,,lx ,on ,attributes #fh-hi ,,li ,on the ,necessity of ,proving the ,inadmissibility of ,attributes in reference to ,god #fh ,,lii ,classification of ,attributes #fi ,,liii ,the ,arguments of the ,attributists #gb ,,liv ,on ,exod4 xxxiii4 #ac2 xxxiv4 #g #ge ,,lv ,on ,attributes implying ,corporeality1 ,emotion1 ,non-existence and ,comparison #gh ,,lvi ,on ,attributes denoting ,existence1 ,life1 ,power1 ,wisdom and ,will #gi ,,lvii ,on the ,identity of the ,essence of ,god and ,his ,attributes #hj ,,lviii ,on the ,negative ,sense of the ,true ,attributes of ,god #ha ,,lix ,on the ,character of the ,knowledge of ,god ,consisting of ,negations #hc ,,lx ,on the ,difference between ,positive and ,negative ,attributes #hg ,,lxi ,on the ,names of ,god #hi ,,lxii ,on the ,divine ,names composed of ,four1 ,twelve and ,forty-two ,letters #ia ,,lxiii ,on ,ehyeh1 ,yah and ,shaddai #ic ,,lxiv ,on 8,the ,name of the ,lord10 and 8,the ,glory of ,god0 #ie ,,lxv ,on the phrase 8,god spake0 #if ,,lxvi ,on ,exod4 xxxii4 #af #ih ,,lxvii ,on shabat and na #ii ,,lxviii ,on the ,terms3 ,the ,intellectus1 the ,intelligens and the ,intelligibile #ajj ,,lxix ,on the ,primal ,cause #ajb ,,lxx ,on the attribute rokeb baarabot #aje ,,lxxi ,the ,origin of the ,kalm #ajg ,,lxxii ,a ,parallel between the ,universe and ,man #aac ,,lxxiii ,twelve ,propositions of the ,kalm #abj ,,lxxiv ,proofs of the ,kalm for the creatio ex nihilo #acc ,,lxxv ,proofs of the ,kalm for the ,unity of ,god #ach ,,lxxvi ,proofs of the ,kalm for the ,incorporeality of ,god #ada ,part ,,ii4 ,the ,author's ,introduction4 ,the ,twenty-,six ,propositions employed by the ,philosophers to prove the ,existence of ,god #ade ,,chapter4 ,i ,philosophical proofs for the ,existence1 ,incorporeality1 and ,unity of the ,first ,cause #adi ,,ii ,on the ,existence of ,intelligences or purely ,spiritual ,beings #aed ,,iii ,the ,author adopts the ,theory of ,aristotle as least open to ,objections #aef ,,iv ,the ,spheres and the ,causes of their ,motion #aef ,v ,agreement of the ,aristotelian ,theory with the ,teaching of ,scripture #aei ,,vi ,what is meant by the ,scriptural ,term 8,angels0 #afj ,,vii ,the ,homonymity of the term 8,angel0 #afb ,,viii ,on the ,music of the ,spheres #afc ,,ix ,on the ,number of the ,heavenly ,spheres #afc ,x ,the ,influence of the ,spheres upon the ,earth manifests itself in four different ways #afd ,,xi ,the ,theory of ,eccentricity ,preferable to that of ,epicycles #aff ,,xii ,on the ,nature of the ,divine ,influence and that of the ,spheres #afh ,,xiii ,three ,different ,theories about the ,beginning of the ,universe #aga ,,xiv ,seven ,methods by which the ,philosophers sought to prove the ,eternity of the ,universe #agd ,,xv ,aristotle does not scientifically demonstrate his ,theory #agf ,,xvi ,the ,author refutes all ,objections to ,creatio ex nihilo #agh ,,xvii ,the ,laws of ,nature apply to ,things ,created1 but do not regulate the ,creative ,act which produces them #agh ,,xviii ,examinations of the ,proofs of ,philosophers for the ,eternity of the ,universe #aha ,,xix ,design in ,nature #ahd ,,xx ,the ,opinion of ,aristotle as regards ,design in ,nature #ahi ,,xxi ,explanation of the ,aristotelian ,theory that the ,universe is the necessary ,result of the ,first ,cause #aij ,,xxii ,objections to the ,theory of the ,eternity of the ,universe #aib ,,xxiii ,the ,theory of ,creatio ex nihilo is preferable to that of the ,eternity of the ,universe #aie ,,xxiv ,difficulty of ,comprehending the ,nature and the ,motion of the ,spheres according to the ,theory of ,aristotle #aif ,,xxv ,the ,theory of ,creation is adopted because of its own ,superiority1 the ,proofs based on ,scripture being ,inconclusive #aii ,,xxvi ,examination of a passage from ,pire di-,rabbi ,eliezer in reference to ,creation #bjj ,,xxvii ,the ,theory of a ,future ,destruction of the ,universe is not part of the ,religious ,belief taught in the ,bible #bja ,,xxviii ,scriptural ,teaching is in favour of the ,indestructibility of the ,universe #bjb ,,xxix ,explanation of ,scriptural ,phrases implying the ,destruction of ,heaven and ,earth #bjd ,,xxx ,philosophical ,interpretation of ,genesis i4-iv4 #bab ,,xxxi ,the ,institution of the ,sabbath serves 7#a7 to ,teach the ,theory of ,creation1 and 7#b7 to promote ,man's ,welfare #bah ,,xxxii ,three ,theories concerning ,prophecy #bai ,,xxxiii ,the ,difference between ,moses and the other ,israelites as regards the ,revelation on ,mount ,sinai #bba ,,xxxiv ,explanation of ,exodus xxiii4 #bj #bbc ,,xxxv ,the ,difference between ,moses and the other ,prophets as regards the ,miracles wrought by them #bbc ,,xxxvi ,on the ,mental1 ,physical and ,moral ,faculties of the ,prophets #bbe ,,xxxvii ,on the ,divine ,influence upon ,man's ,imaginative and ,mental ,faculties through the ,active ,intellect #bbg ,,xxxviii ,courage and ,intuition reach the highest degree of ,perfection in ,prophets #bbi ,,xxxix ,moses was the fittest ,prophet to ,receive and ,promulgate the ,immutable ,law1 which succeeding ,prophets merely ,taught and ,expounded #bca ,,xl ,the ,test of ,true ,prophecy #bcb ,,xli ,what is ,meant by 8,vision0 #bcd ,,xlii ,prophets ,received ,direct ,communication only in ,dreams or ,visions #bcf ,,xliii ,on the ,allegories of the ,prophets #bch ,,xliv ,on the ,different ,modes in which ,prophets ,receive ,divine ,messages #bdj ,,xlv ,the ,various ,classes of ,prophets #bda ,,xlvi ,the ,allegorical ,acts of ,prophets formed ,parts of ,prophetic ,visions #bde ,,xlvii ,on the ,figurative ,style of the ,prophetic ,writings #bdg ,,xlviii ,scripture ascribes ,phenomena directly produced by ,natural ,causes to ,god as the ,first ,cause of all things #bdi ,part ,,iii4 ,the ,author's ,introduction and ,apology for ,publishing1 contrary to the ,teaching of the ,mishnah1 an ,interpretation of ,ezek4 i4 #bea ,,chapter4 ,i ,the 8,four ,faces0 are ,human ,faces with four different peculiarities #beb ,,ii ,the ayyot and the ,ofannim #beb ,,iii ,further ,explanation of the ayyot and the ,ofannim derived from ,ezek4 x4 #bee ,,iv ,the rendering of ,ofan by ,gilgal in the ,targum of ,jonathan #bef ,v ,the ,vision of ,ezekiel is divided into three stages3 7#a7 ayyot 7the ,spheres72 7#b7 ,ofannim 7,earthly elements72 and 7#c7 the man above the ayyot 7,intelligences7 #beg ,,vi ,on the ,difference between the ,vision of ,ezekiel and that of ,isaiah 7vi47 #beh ,,vii ,the ,different ,ways in which the ,prophet perceived the ,three ,parts of the ,mercabah 7,chariot7 #bei ,,viii ,man has the ,power to ,control his ,bodily ,wants and ,earthly ,desires #bfa ,,ix ,the ,material ,element in ,man ,prevents him from ,attaining ,perfection #bfd ,x ,god is not the ,creator of ,evil #bfe ,,xi ,man is the ,cause of his own ,misfortunes #bfg ,,xii ,three ,kinds of ,evil3 7#a7 ,that caused by the ,nature of ,man2 7#b7 ,caused by ,man to ,man2 7#c7 ,caused by ,man to himself #bfg ,,xiii ,the ,universe has ,no other ,purpose than its own ,existence #bgb ,,xiv ,it is the ,will of the ,creator that the ,spheres regulate the ,affairs of ,mankind #bgg ,,xv ,impossible ,things are not ascribed to the ,creator1 but it is difficult to ,prove the ,impossibility in each ,individual ,case #bgi ,,xvi ,on ,god's ,omniscience #bhj ,,xvii ,five ,theories concerning ,providence #bhb ,,xviii ,every ,individual ,member of ,mankind enjoys the ,influence of ,divine ,providence in proportion to his ,intellectual ,perfection #bhi ,,xix ,it is an ancient ,error to ,assume that ,god takes no ,notice of ,man #bij ,,xx ,god's ,knowledge is ,different from ,man's ,knowledge #bib ,,xxi ,the ,creator's knowledge of ,his ,production is ,perfect #bie ,,xxii ,object of the ,book of ,job1 and ,explanation of the ,first ,two ,chapters #bif ,,xxiii ,job and his ,friends ,discuss the various ,theories concerning ,providence #bii ,,xxiv ,on ,trials and ,temptation #cjd ,,xxv ,the ,actions of ,god are ,not ,purposeless #cjg ,,xxvi ,the ,divine ,precepts ,serve a certain ,purpose #caj ,,xxvii ,the ,object of the ,divine ,precepts is to ,secure the ,well-being of ,man's ,soul and ,body #cab ,,xxviii ,this ,object is easily seen in some ,precepts1 whilst in others it is only known after due ,reflection #cac ,,xxix ,on the ,sabeans or ,star-worshippers #cae ,,xxx ,it is one of the ,objects of the ,law of ,moses to ,oppose ,idolatry #cbj ,,xxxi ,the ,law ,promotes the ,well-being of ,man by teaching ,truth1 ,morality and ,social ,conduct #cba ,,xxxii ,why did ,god give ,laws to ,oppose ,idolatry instead of ,uprooting it directly8 #cbb ,,xxxiii ,another chief ,object of the ,law is to ,train ,man in ,mastering his ,appetites and ,desires #cbg ,,xxxiv ,the ,law is based on the ordinary condition of man #cbh ,,xxxv ,division of the ,precepts into ,fourteen ,classes #cbi ,,xxxvi ,first ,class of ,precepts1 to ,know1 ,love and ,fear ,god #cca ,,xxxvii ,second ,class1 ,laws concerning ,idolatry #ccb ,,xxxviii ,third ,class1 ,moral ,precepts #cch ,,xxxix ,fourth ,class1 ,laws relating to ,charity #cci ,,xl ,fifth ,class1 ,compensation for ,injury and the ,duty of ,preventing ,sin #cdb ,,xli ,sixth ,class1 ,punishment of the ,sinner #cdd ,,xlii ,seventh ,class1 ,equity and ,honesty #cej ,,xliii ,eighth ,class1 ,sabbath and ,festival #ceb ,,xliv ,ninth ,class1 ,prayer1 ,tefillin1 iit and ,mezuzah #ced ,,xlv ,tenth ,class1 ,the ,temple1 its ,vessels and its ,ministers #cee ,,xlvi ,eleventh ,class1 ,sacrifices #cei ,,xlvii ,twelfth ,class1 ,distinction between ,clean and ,unclean2 and on ,purification #cff ,,xlviii ,thirteenth ,class1 ,dietary ,laws #cgj ,,xlix ,fourteenth ,class1 ,marriage ,laws #cgb ,l ,on ,scriptural ,passages with seemingly ,purposeless ,contents #chj ,,li ,how ,god is worshipped by a ,perfect ,man #chd ,,lii ,on the ,fear of ,god #cia ,,liii ,explanation of esed 7,love71 ,mishpat 7,judgment71 and edaah 7,righteousness7 #cib ,,liv ,on ,true ,wisdom #cic ,index of ,scriptural ,passages #cii ,index of ,quotations from the ,targumim #dji ,index of ,quotations from the ,midrashim #dji ,index of ,quotations from the ,talmud #daj ,index of ,references to ,other ,works of ,maimonides #daa ,index of ,references to ,works of ,science and ,philosophy #dab ,alphabetical ,index #dab ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,moses ,,maimonides 8,before the sun of ,eli had set the sun of ,samuel had risen40 ,before the voice of the prophets had ceased to guide the people1 the ,interpreters of the ,law1 the ,doctors of the ,talmud1 had commenced their labours1 and before the ,academies of ,sura and of ,pumbadita were closed1 centres of ,jewish thought and learning were already flourishing in the far ,west4 ,the circumstances which led to the transference of the head-quarters of ,jewish learning from the ,east to the ,west in the tenth century are thus narrated in the ,sefer ha-kabbalah of ,rabbi ,abraham ben ,david3 8,after the death of ,hezekiah1 the head of the ,academy and ,prince of the ,exile1 the academies were closed and no new ,geonim were appointed4 ,but long before that time ,heaven had willed that there should be a discontinuance of the pecuniary gifts which used to be sent from ,palestine1 ,north ,africa and ,europe4 ,heaven had also decreed that a ship sailing from ,bari should be captured by ,ibn ,romahis1 commander of the naval forces of ,abd-er-rahman al-nasr4 ,four distinguished ,rabbis were thus made prisoners--,rabbi ushiel1 father of ,rabbi ananel1 ,rabbi ,moses1 father of ,rabbi anok1 ,rabbi ,shemarjahu1 son of ,rabbi ,elanan1 and a fourth whose name has not been recorded4 ,they were engaged in a mission to collect subsidies in aid of the ,academy in ,sura4 ,the captor sold them as slaves2 ,rabbi ushiel was carried to ,kairuan1 ,r4 ,shemarjahu was left in ,alexandria1 and ,r4 ,moses was brought to ,cordova4 ,these slaves were ransomed by their brethren and were soon placed in important positions4 ,when ,rabbi ,moses was brought to ,cordova1 it was supposed that he was uneducated4 ,in that city there was a synagogue known at that time by the name of ,keneset ha-midrash1 and ,rabbi ,nathan1 renowned for his great piety1 was the head of the congregation4 ,the members of the community used to hold meetings at which the ,talmud was read and discussed4 ,one day when ,rabbi ,nathan was expounding the ,talmud and was unable to give a satisfactory explanation of the passage under discussion1 ,rabbi ,moses promptly removed the difficulty and at the same time answered several questions which were submitted to him4 ,thereupon ,r4 ,nathan thus addressed the assembly3--#8,i am no longer your leader2 that stranger in sackcloth shall henceforth be my teacher1 and you shall appoint him to be your chief4' ,the admiral1 on hearing of the high attainments of his prisoner1 desired to revoke the sale1 but the king would not permit this retraction1 being pleased to learn that his ,jewish subjects were no longer dependent for their religious instruction on the schools in the ,east40 ,henceforth the schools in the ,west asserted their independence1 and even surpassed the parent institutions4 ,the ,caliphs1 mostly opulent1 gave every encouragement to philosophy and poetry2 and1 being generally liberal in sentiment1 they entertained kindly feelings towards their ,jewish subjects4 ,these were allowed to compete for the acquisition of wealth and honour on equal terms with their ,mohammedan fellow-citizens4 ,philosophy and poetry were consequently cultivated by the ,jews with the same zest as by the ,arabs4 ,ibn ,gabirol1 ,ibn asdai1 ,judah ha-levi1 ananel1 ,alfasi1 the ,ibn ,ezras1 and others who flourished in that period were the ornament of their age1 and the pride of the ,jews at all times4 ,the same favourable condition was maintained during the reign of the ,omeyades2 but when the ,moravides and the ,almohades came into power1 the horizon darkened once more1 and misfortunes threatened to destroy the fruit of several centuries4 ,amidst this gloom there appeared a brilliant luminary which sent forth rays of light and comfort3 this was ,moses ,maimonides4 ,moses1 the son of ,maimon1 was born at ,cordova1 on the #adth of ,nisan1 #dhie 7,march #cj1 #aace74 ,although the date of his birth has been recorded with the utmost accuracy1 no trustworthy notice has been preserved concerning the early period of his life4 ,but his entire career is a proof that he did not pass his youth in idleness2 his education must have been in harmony with the hope of his parents1 that one day he would1 like his father and forefathers1 hold the honourable office of ,dayyan or ,rabbi1 and distinguish himself in theological learning4 ,it is probable that the ,bible and the ,talmud formed the chief subjects of his study2 but he unquestionably made the best use of the opportunities which ,mohammedan ,spain1 and especially ,cordova1 afforded him for the acquisition of general knowledge4 ,it is not mentioned in any of his writings who were his teachers2 his father1 as it seems1 was his principal guide and instructor in many branches of knowledge4 ,david ,conforte1 in his historical work1 ore ha-dorot1 states that ,maimonides was the pupil of two eminent men1 namely1 ,rabbi ,joseph ,ibn ,migash and ,ibn ,roshd 7,averroes72 that by the former he was instructed in the ,talmud1 and by the latter in philosophy4 ,this statement seems to be erroneous1 as ,maimonides was only a child at the time when ,rabbi ,joseph died1 and already far advanced in years when he became acquainted with the writings of ,ibn ,roshd4 ,the origin of this mistake1 as regards ,rabbi ,joseph1 can easily be traced4 ,maimonides in his ,mishneh ,tora1 employs1 in reference to ,r4 ,isaac ,alfasi and ,r4 ,joseph1 the expression 8my teachers0 7rabbotai71 and this expression1 by which he merely describes his indebtedness to their writings1 has been taken in its literal meaning4 ,whoever his teachers may have been1 it is evident that he was well prepared by them for his future mission4 ,at the age of twenty-three he entered upon his literary career with a treatise on the ,jewish ,calendar4 ,it is unknown where this work was composed1 whether in ,spain or in ,africa4 ,the author merely states that he wrote it at the request of a friend1 whom he1 however1 leaves unnamed4 ,the subject was generally considered to be very abstruse1 and to involve a thorough knowledge of mathematics4 ,maimonides must1 therefore1 even at this early period1 have been regarded as a profound scholar by those who knew him4 ,the treatise is of an elementary character4--,it was probably about the same time that he wrote1 in ,arabic1 an explanation of ,logical terms1 ,millot higgayon1 which ,moses ,ibn ,tibbon translated into ,hebrew4 ,the earlier period of his life does not seem to have been marked by any incident worth noticing4 ,it may1 however1 be easily conceived that the later period of his life1 which was replete with interesting incidents1 engaged the exclusive attention of his biographers4 ,so much is certain1 that his youth was beset with trouble and anxiety2 the peaceful development of science and philosophy was disturbed by wars raging between ,mohammedans and ,christians1 and also between the several ,mohammedan sects4 ,the ,moravides1 who had succeeded the ,omeyades1 were opposed to liberality and toleration2 but they were surpassed in cruelty and fanaticism by their successors4 ,cordova was taken by the ,almohades in the year #aadh1 when ,maimonides was about thirteen years old4 ,the victories of the ,almohades1 first under the leadership of the ,mahadi ,ibn ,tamurt1 and then under ,abd-al-mumen1 were1 according to all testimonies1 attended by acts of excessive intolerance4 ,abd-al-mumen would not suffer in his dominions any other faith but the one which he himself confessed4 ,jews and ,christians had the choice between ,islam and emigration or a martyr's death4 ,the ,sefer ha-abbalah contains the following description of one of the persecutions which then occurred3 8,after the death of ,r4 ,joseph ha-levi the study of the ,torah was interrupted1 although he left a son and a nephew1 both of whom had under his tuition become profound scholars4 #8,the righteous man 7,r4 ,joseph7 was taken away on account of the approaching evils4' ,after the death of ,r4 ,joseph there came for the ,jews a time of oppression and distress4 ,they quitted their homes1 #8,such as were for death1 to death1 and such as were for the sword1 to the sword2 and such as were for the famine1 to the famine1 and such as were for the captivity1 to the captivity'2 and--it might be added to the words of ,jeremiah 7xv4 #b7--#8such as were for apostasy1 to apostasy4' ,all this happened through the sword of ,ibn ,tamurt1 who1 in #dijb 7#aadb71 determined to blot out the name of ,israel1 and actually left no trace of the ,jews in any part of his empire40 ,ibn ,verga in his work on ,jewish martyrdom1 in ,shebe ,jehudah1 gives the following account of events then happening3--8,in the year #dijb the armies of ,ibn ,tamurt made their appearance4 ,a proclamation was issued that any one who refused to adopt ,islam would be put to death1 and his property would be confiscated4 ,thereupon the ,jews assembled at the gate of the royal palace and implored the king for mercy4 ,he answered--#8,it is because ,i have compassion on you1 that ,i command you to become ,muslemim2 for ,i desire to save you from eternal punishment4' ,the ,jews replied--#8,our salvation depends on our observance of the ,divine ,law2 you are the master of our bodies and of our property1 but our souls will be judged by the ,king who gave them to us1 and to whom they will return2 whatever be our future fate1 you1 ,o king1 will not be held responsible for it4' #8,i do not desire to argue with you1' said the king2 #8for ,i know you will argue according to your own religion4 ,it is my absolute will that you either adopt my religion or be put to death4' ,the ,jews then proposed to emigrate1 but the king would not allow his subjects to serve another king4 ,in vain did the ,jews implore the nobles to intercede in their behalf2 the king remained inexorable4 ,thus many congregations forsook their religion2 but within a month the king came to a sudden death2 the son1 believing that his father had met with an untimely end as a punishment for his cruelty to the ,jews1 assured the involuntary converts that it would be indifferent to him what religion they professed4 ,hence many ,jews returned at once to the religion of their fathers1 while others hesitated for some time1 from fear that the king meant to entrap the apparent converts40 ,from such records it appears that during these calamities some of the ,jews fled to foreign countries1 some died as martyrs1 and many others submitted for a time to outward conversion4 ,which course was followed by the family of ,maimon8 ,did they sacrifice personal comfort and safety to their religious conviction1 or did they1 on the contrary1 for the sake of mere worldly considerations dissemble their faith and pretend that they completely submitted to the dictates of the tyrant8 ,an answer to this question presents itself in the following note which ,maimonides has appended to his commentary on the ,mishnah3 8,i have now finished this work in accordance with my promise1 and ,i fervently beseech the ,almighty to save us from error4 ,if there be one who shall discover an inaccuracy in this ,commentary or shall have a better explanation to offer1 let my attention be directed unto it2 and let me be exonerated by the fact that ,i have worked with far greater application than any one who writes for the sake of pay and profit1 and that ,i have worked under the most trying circumstances4 ,for ,heaven had ordained that we be exiled1 and we were therefore driven about from place to place2 ,i was thus compelled to work at the ,commentary while travelling by land1 or crossing the sea4 ,it might have sufficed to mention that during that time ,i1 in addition1 was engaged in other studies1 but ,i preferred to give the above explanation in order to encourage those who wish to criticise or annotate the ,commentary1 and at the same time to account for the slow progress of this work4 ,i1 ,moses1 the son of ,maimon1 commenced it when ,i was twenty-three years old1 and finished it in ,egypt1 at the age of thirty-three years1 in the year #adgi ,sel4 7#aafh740 ,the ,sefer aredim of ,r4 ,eleazar ,askari of ,safed contains the following statement of ,maimonides3--8,on ,sabbath evening1 the #dth of ,iyyar1 #dibe 7#aafe71 ,i went on board2 on the following ,sabbath the waves threatened to destroy our lives4444 ,on the #crd of ,sivan1 ,i arrived safely at ,acco1 and was thus rescued from apostasy4444 ,on ,tuesday1 the #dth of ,mareshvan1 #dibf1 ,i left ,acco1 arrived at ,jerusalem after a journey beset with difficulties and with dangers1 and prayed on the spot of the great and holy house on the #dth1 #eth1 and #fth of ,mareshvan4 ,on ,sunday1 the #ith of that month1 ,i left ,jerusalem and visited the cave of ,machpelah1 in ,hebron40 ,from these two statements it may be inferred that in times of persecution ,maimonides and his family did not seek to protect their lives and property by dissimulation4 ,they submitted to the troubles of exile in order that they might remain faithful to their religion4 ,carmoly1 ,geiger1 ,munk1 and others are of opinion that the treatise of ,maimonides on involuntary apostasy1 as well as the accounts of some ,mohammedan authors1 contain strong evidence to show that there was a time when the family of ,maimon publicly professed their belief in ,mohammed4 ,a critical examination of these documents compels us to reject their evidence as inadmissible4--,after a long period of trouble and anxiety1 the family of ,maimon arrived at ,fostat1 in ,egypt1 and settled there4 ,david1 the brother of ,moses ,maimonides1 carried on a trade in precious stones1 while ,moses occupied himself with his studies and interested himself in the communal affairs of the ,jews4 ,it appears that for some time ,moses was supported by his brother1 and when this brother died1 he earned a living by practising as a physician2 but he never sought or derived any benefit from his services to his community1 or from his correspondence or from the works he wrote for the instruction of his brethren2 the satisfaction of being of service to his fellow-creatures was for him a sufficient reward4 ,the first public act in which ,maimonides appears to have taken a leading part was a decree promulgated by the ,rabbinical authorities in ,cairo in the year #aafg4 ,the decree begins as follows3--8,in times gone by1 when storms and tempests threatened us1 we used to wander about from place to place2 but by the mercy of the ,almighty we have now been enabled to find here a resting-place4 ,on our arrival1 we noticed to our great dismay that the learned were disunited2 that none of them turned his attention to the needs of the congregation4 ,we therefore felt it our duty to undertake the task of guiding the holy flock1 of inquiring into the condition of the community1 of 8reconciling the hearts of the fathers to their children10 and of correcting their corrupt ways4 ,the injuries are great1 but we may succeed in effecting a cure1 and--in accordance with the words of the prophet--#8,i will seek the lost one1 and that which has been cast out ,i will bring back1 and the broken one ,i will cure' 7,micah iv4 #f74 ,when we therefore resolved to take the management of the communal affairs into our hands1 we discovered the existence of a serious evil in the midst of the community10 etc4 ,it was probably about that time that ,maimon died4 ,letters of condolence were sent to his son ,moses from all sides1 both from ,mohammedan and from ,christian countries2 in some instances the letters were several months on their way before they reached their destination4 ,the interest which ,maimonides now took in communal affairs did not prevent him from completing the great and arduous work1 the ,commentary on the ,mishnah1 which he had begun in ,spain and continued during his wanderings in ,africa4 ,in this ,commentary he proposed to give the quintessence of the ,gemara1 to expound the meaning of each dictum in the ,mishnah1 and to state which of the several opinions had received the sanction of the ,talmudical authorities4 ,his object in writing this work was to enable those who are not disposed to study the ,gemara1 to understand the ,mishnah1 and to facilitate the study of the ,gemara for those who are willing to engage in it4 ,the commentator generally adheres to the explanations given in the ,gemara1 and it is only in cases where the halakah1 or practical law1 is not affected1 that he ventures to dissent4 ,he acknowledges the benefit he derived from such works of his predecessors as the ,halakot of ,alfasi1 and the writings of the ,geonim1 but afterwards he asserted that errors which were discovered in his works arose from his implicit reliance on those authorities4 ,his originality is conspicuous in the ,introduction and in the treatment of general principles1 which in some instances precedes the exposition of an entire section or chapter1 in others that of a single rule4 ,the commentator is generally concise1 except when occasion is afforded to treat of ethical and theological principles1 or of a scientific subject1 such as weights and measures1 or mathematical and astronomical problems4 ,although exhortations to virtue and warnings against vice are found in all parts of his work1 they are especially abundant in the ,commentary on ,abot1 which is prefaced by a separate psychological treatise1 called ,the ,eight ,chapters4 ,the dictum 8,he who speaketh much commits a sin10 elicited a lesson on the economy of speech2 the explanation of olam ha-ba in the treatise ,sanhedrin 7xi4 #a7 led him to discuss the principles of faith1 and to lay down the thirteen articles of the ,jewish creed4 ,the ,commentary was written in ,arabic1 and was subsequently translated into ,hebrew and into other languages4 ,the estimation in which the ,commentary was held may be inferred from the following fact3 ,when the ,jews in ,italy became acquainted with its method and spirit1 through a ,hebrew translation of one of its parts1 they sent to ,spain in search of a complete ,hebrew version of the ,commentary4 ,r4 ,simah1 who had been entrusted with the mission1 found no copy extant1 but he succeeded1 through the influence of ,rabbi ,shelomoh ben ,aderet1 in causing a ,hebrew translation of this important work to be prepared4--,in the ,introduction1 the author states that he has written a ,commentary on the ,babylonian ,talmud treatise ullin and on nearly three entire sections1 viz41 ,mod1 ,nashim1 and ,nezikin4 ,of all these ,commentaries only the one on ,rosh ha-shanah is known4 ,in the year #aagb ,maimonides wrote the ,iggeret ,teman1 or ,peta-tivah 78,letter to the ,jews in ,yemen10 or 8,opening of hope07 in response to a letter addressed to him by ,rabbi ,jacob al-,fayumi on the critical condition of the ,jews in ,yemen4 ,some of these ,jews had been forced into apostasy2 others were made to believe that certain passages in the ,bible alluded to the mission of ,mohammed2 others again had been misled by an impostor who pretended to be the ,messiah4 ,the character and style of ,maimonides' reply appear to have been adapted to the intellectual condition of the ,jews in ,yemen1 for whom it was written4 ,these probably read the ,bible with ,midrashic commentaries1 and preferred the easy and attractive ,agadah to the more earnest study of the ,halakah4 ,it is therefore not surprising that the letter contains remarks and interpretations which cannot be reconciled with the philosophical and logical method by which all the other works of ,maimonides are distinguished4 ,after a few complimentary words1 in which the author modestly disputes the justice of the praises lavished upon him1 he attempts to prove that the present sufferings of the ,jews1 together with the numerous instances of apostasy1 were foretold by the prophets1 especially by ,daniel1 and must not perplex the faithful4 ,it must be borne in mind1 he continues1 that the attempts made in past times to do away with the ,jewish religion1 had invariably failed2 the same would be the fate of the present attempts2 for 8religious persecutions are of but short duration40 ,the arguments which profess to demonstrate that in certain ,biblical passages allusion is made to ,mohammed1 are based on interpretations which are totally opposed to common sense4 ,he urges that the ,jews1 faithfully adhering to their religion1 should impress their children with the greatness of the ,revelation on ,mount ,sinai1 and of the miracles wrought through ,moses2 they also should remain firm in the belief that ,god will send the ,messiah to deliver their nation1 but they must abandon futile calculations of the ,messianic period1 and beware of impostors4 ,although there be signs which indicate the approach of the promised deliverance1 and the times seem to be the period of the last and most cruel persecution mentioned in the visions of ,daniel 7xi4 and xii471 the person in ,yemen who pretends to be the ,messiah is an impostor1 and if care be not taken1 he is sure to do mischief4 ,similar impostors in ,cordova1 ,france1 and ,africa1 have deceived the multitude and brought great troubles upon the ,jews4--,yet1 inconsistently with this sound advice the author gives a positive date of the ,messianic time1 on the basis of an old tradition2 the inconsistency is so obvious that it is impossible to attribute this passage to ,maimonides himself4 ,it is probably spurious1 and has1 perhaps1 been added by the translator4 ,with the exception of the rhymed introduction1 the letter was written in ,arabic1 8in order that all should be able to read and understand it02 for that purpose the author desires that copies should be made of it1 and circulated among the ,jews4 ,rabbi ,naum1 of the ,maghreb1 translated the letter into ,hebrew4 ,the success in the first great undertaking of explaining the ,mishnah encouraged ,maimonides to propose to himself another task of a still more ambitious character4 ,in the ,commentary on the ,mishnah1 it was his object that those who were unable to read the ,gemara should be made acquainted with the results obtained by the ,amoraim in the course of their discussions on the ,mishnah4 ,but the ,mishnah1 with the ,commentary1 was not such a code of laws as might easily be consulted in cases of emergency2 only the initiated would be able to find the section1 the chapter1 and the paragraph in which the desired information could be found4 ,the halakah had1 besides1 been further developed since the time when the ,talmud was compiled4 ,the changed state of things had suggested new questions2 these were discussed and settled by the ,geonim1 whose decisions1 being contained in special letters or treatises1 were not generally accessible4 ,maimonides therefore undertook to compile a complete code1 which would contain1 in the language and style of the ,mishnah1 and without discussion1 the whole of the ,written and the ,oral ,law1 all the precepts recorded in the ,talmud1 ,sifra1 ,sifre and ,tosefta1 and the decisions of the ,geonim4 ,according to the plan of the author1 this work was to present a solution of every question touching the religious1 moral1 or social duties of the ,jews4 ,it was not in any way his object to discourage the study of the ,talmud and the ,midrash2 he only sought to diffuse a knowledge of the ,law amongst those who1 through incapacity or other circumstances1 were precluded from that study4 ,in order to ensure the completeness of the code1 the author drew up a list of the six hundred and thirteen precepts of the ,pentateuch1 divided them into fourteen groups1 these again he subdivided1 and thus showed how many positive and negative precepts were contained in each section of the ,mishneh torah4 ,the principles by which he was guided in this arrangement were laid down in a separate treatise1 called ,sefer ha-mivot4 ,works of a similar kind1 written by his predecessors1 as the ,halakot gedolot of ,r4 ,shimon ,kahira1 and the several ,azharot were1 according to ,maimonides1 full of errors1 because their authors had not adopted any proper method4 ,but an examination of the rules laid down by ,maimonides and of their application leads to the conclusion that his results were not less arbitrary2 as has1 in fact1 been shown by the criticisms of ,namanides4 ,the ,sefer ha-mivot was written in ,arabic1 and thrice translated into ,hebrew1 namely1 by ,rabbi ,abraham ben isdai1 ,rabbi ,shelomoh ben ,joseph ben ,job1 and ,rabbi ,moses ,ibn ,tibbon4 ,maimonides himself desired to translate the book into ,hebrew1 but to his disappointment he found no time4 ,this ,sefer ha-mivot was executed as a preparation for his principal work1 the ,mishneh ,torah1 or ,yad ha-azakah1 which consists of an ,introduction and fourteen ,books4 ,in the ,introduction the author first describes the chain of tradition from ,moses to the close of the ,talmud1 and then he explains his method in compiling the work4 ,he distinguishes between the dicta found in the ,talmud1 ,sifre1 ,sifra1 or ,tosefta1 on the one hand1 and the dicta of the ,geonim on the other2 the former were binding on all ,jews1 the latter only as far as their necessity and their utility or the authority of their propounders was recognized4 ,having once for all stated the sources from which he compiled his work1 he did not deem it necessary to name in each case the authority for his opinion or the particular passage from which he derived his dictum4 ,any addition of references to each paragraph he probably considered useless to the uninformed and superfluous to the learned4 ,at a later time he discovered his error1 he being himself unable to find again the sources of some of his decisions4 ,rabbi ,joseph ,caro1 in his commentary on the ,mishneh ,torah1 termed ,keseph ,mishneh1 remedied this deficiency4 ,the ,introduction is followed by the enumeration of the six hundred and thirteen precepts and a description of the plan of the work1 its division into fourteen books1 and the division of the latter into sections1 chapters1 and paragraphs4 ,according to the author1 the ,mishneh ,torah is a mere compendium of the ,talmud2 but he found sufficient opportunities to display his real genius1 his philosophical mind1 and his ethical doctrines4 ,for in stating what the traditional ,law enjoined he had to exercise his own judgment1 and to decide whether a certain dictum was meant to be taken literally or figuratively2 whether it was the final decision of a majority or the rejected opinion of a minority2 whether it was part of the ,oral ,law or a precept founded on the scientific views of a particular author2 and whether it was of universal application or was only intended for a special period or a special locality4 ,the first ,book1 ,sefer ha-madda1 is the embodiment of his own ethical and theological theories1 although he frequently refers to the ,sayings of our ,sages1 and employs the phraseology of the ,talmud4 ,similarly1 the section on the ,jewish ,calendar1 ,hilkot ha-ibur1 may be considered as his original work4 ,in each group of the halakot1 its source1 a certain passage of the ,pentateuch1 is first quoted1 with its traditional interpretation1 and then the detailed rules follow in systematic order4 ,the ,mishneh ,torah was written by the author in pure ,hebrew2 when subsequently a friend asked him to translate it into ,arabic1 he said he would prefer to have his ,arabic writings translated into ,hebrew instead of the reverse4 ,the style is an imitation of the ,mishnah2 he did not choose1 the author says1 the philosophical style1 because that would be unintelligible to the common reader2 nor did he select the prophetic style1 because that would not harmonize with the subject4 ,ten years of hard work by day and by night were spent in the compilation of this code1 which had originally been undertaken for 8his own benefit1 to save him in his advanced age the trouble and the necessity of consulting the ,talmud on every occasion40 ,maimonides knew very well that his work would meet with the opposition of those whose ignorance it would expose1 also of those who were incapable of comprehending it1 and of those who were inclined to condemn every deviation from their own preconceived notions4 ,but he had the satisfaction to learn that it was well received in most of the congregations of ,israel1 and that there was a general desire to possess and study it4 ,this success confirmed him in his hope that at a later time1 when all cause for jealousy would have disappeared1 the ,mishneh ,torah would be received by all ,jews as an authoritative code4 ,this hope has not been realized4 ,the genius1 earnestness1 and zeal of ,maimonides are generally recognized2 but there is no absolute acceptance of his dicta4 ,the more he insisted on his infallibility1 the more did the ,rabbinical authorities examine his words and point out errors wherever they believed that they could discover any4 ,it was not always from base motives1 as contended by ,maimonides and his followers1 that his opinions were criticised and rejected4 ,the language used by ,rabbi ,abraham ben ,david in his notes 7hasagot7 on the ,mishneh ,torah appears harsh and disrespectful1 if read together with the text of the criticised passage1 but it seems tame and mild if compared with expressions used now and then by ,maimonides about men who happened to hold opinions differing from his own4 ,maimonides received many complimentary letters1 congratulating him upon his success2 but likewise letters with criticisms and questions respecting individual halakot4 ,in most cases he had no difficulty in defending his position4 ,from the replies it must1 however1 be inferred that ,maimonides made some corrections and additions1 which were subsequently embodied in his work4 ,the letters addressed to him on the ,mishneh ,torah and on other subjects were so numerous that he frequently complained of the time he had to spend in their perusal1 and of the annoyance they caused him2 but 8he bore all this patiently1 as he had learned in his youth to bear the yoke40 ,he was not surprised that many misunderstood his words1 for even the simple words of the ,pentateuch1 8the ,lord is one10 had met with the same fate4 ,some inferred from the fact that he treated fully of ,olam ha-ba1 8the future state of the soul10 and neglected to expatiate on the resurrection of the dead1 that he altogether rejected that principle of faith4 ,they therefore asked ,rabbi ,samuel ha-levi of ,bagdad to state his opinion2 the ,rabbi accordingly discussed the subject2 but1 according to ,maimonides1 he attempted to solve the problem in a very unsatisfactory manner4 ,the latter thereupon likewise wrote a treatise 8,on the ,resurrection of the ,dead10 in which he protested his adherence to this article of faith4 ,he repeated the opinion he had stated in the ,commentary on the ,mishnah and in the ,mishneh ,torah1 but 8in more words2 the same idea being reiterated in various forms1 as the treatise was only intended for women and for the common multitude40 ,these theological studies engrossed his attention to a great extent1 but it did not occupy him exclusively4 ,in a letter addressed to ,r4 ,jonathan1 of ,lunel1 he says3 8,although from my birth the ,torah was betrothed to me1 and continues to be loved by me as the wife of my youth1 in whose love ,i find a constant delight1 strange women whom ,i at first took into my house as her handmaids have become her rivals and absorb a portion of my time40 ,he devoted himself especially to the study of medicine1 in which he distinguished himself to such a degree1 according to ,alkifti1 that 8the ,king of the ,franks in ,ascalon wanted to appoint him as his physician40 ,maimonides declined the honour4 ,alfadhel1 the ,vizier of ,saladin king of ,egypt1 admired the genius of ,maimonides1 and bestowed upon him many distinctions4 ,the name of ,maimonides was entered on the roll of physicians1 he received a pension1 and was introduced to the court of ,saladin4 ,the method adopted in his professional practice he describes in a letter to his pupil1 ,ibn ,aknin1 as follows3 8,you know how difficult this profession is for a conscientious and exact person who only states what he can support by argument or authority40 ,this method is more fully described in a treatise on hygiene1 composed for ,alfadhel1 son of ,saladin1 who was suffering from a severe illness and had applied to ,maimonides for advice4 ,in a letter to ,rabbi ,samuel ,ibn ,tibbon he alludes to the amount of time spent in his medical practice1 and says3 8,i reside in ,egypt 7or ,fostat72 the king resides in ,cairo1 which lies about two ,sabbath-day journeys from the first-named place4 ,my duties to the king are very heavy4 ,i am obliged to visit him every day1 early in the morning2 and when he or any of his children or the inmates of his harem are indisposed1 ,i dare not quit ,cairo1 but must stay during the greater part of the day in the palace4 ,it also frequently happens that one or two of the royal officers fall sick1 and then ,i have to attend them4 ,as a rule1 ,i go to ,cairo very early in the day1 and even if nothing unusual happens ,i do not return before the afternoon1 when ,i am almost dying with hunger2 but ,i find the antechambers filled with ,jews and ,gentiles1 with nobles and common people1 awaiting my return10 etc4 ,notwithstanding these heavy professional duties of court physician1 ,maimonides continued his theological studies4 ,after having compiled a religious guide--,mishneh ,torah--based on ,revelation and ,tradition1 he found it necessary to prove that the principles there set forth were confirmed by philosophy4 ,this task he accomplished in his ,dalalt al-arin1 8,the ,guide for the ,perplexed10 of which an analysis will be given below4 ,it was composed in ,arabic1 and written in ,hebrew characters4 ,subsequently it was translated into ,hebrew by ,rabbi ,samuel ,ibn ,tibbon1 in the lifetime of ,maimonides1 who was consulted by the translator on all difficult passages4 ,the congregation in ,lunel1 ignorant of ,ibn ,tibbon's undertaking1 or desirous to possess the most correct translation of the ,guide1 addressed a very flattering letter to ,maimonides1 requesting him to translate the work into ,hebrew4 ,maimonides replied that he could not do so1 as he had not sufficient leisure for even more pressing work1 and that a translation was being prepared by the ablest and fittest man1 ,rabbi ,samuel ,ibn ,tibbon4 ,a second translation was made later on by ,jehudah ,alarizi4 ,the ,guide delighted many1 but it also met with much adverse criticism on account of the peculiar views held by ,maimonides concerning angels1 prophecy1 and miracles1 especially on account of his assertion that if the ,aristotelian proof for the ,eternity of the ,universe had satisfied him1 he would have found no difficulty in reconciling the ,biblical account of the ,creation with that doctrine4 ,the controversy on the ,guide continued long after the death of ,maimonides to divide the community1 and it is difficult to say how far the author's hope to effect a reconciliation between reason and revelation was realized4 ,his disciple1 ,joseph ,ibn ,aknin1 to whom the work was dedicated1 and who was expected to derive from it the greatest benefit1 appears to have been disappointed4 ,his inability to reconcile the two antagonistic elements of faith and science1 he describes allegorically in the form of a letter addressed to ,maimonides1 in which the following passage occurs3 8,speak1 for ,i desire that you be justified2 if you can1 answer me4 ,some time ago your beloved daughter1 the beautiful and charming ,kimah1 obtained grace and favour in my sight1 and ,i betrothed her unto me in faithfulness1 and married her in accordance with the ,law1 in the presence of two trustworthy witnesses1 viz41 our master1 ,abd-allah and ,ibn ,roshd4 ,but she soon became faithless to me2 she could not have found fault with me1 yet she left me and departed from my tent4 ,she does no longer let me behold her pleasant countenance or hear her melodious voice4 ,you have not rebuked or punished her1 and perhaps you are the cause of this misconduct4 ,now1 #8send the wife back to the man1 for he is'--or might become--#8a prophet2 he will pray for you that you may live1' and also for her that she may be firm and steadfast4 ,if1 however1 you do not send her back1 the ,lord will punish you4 ,therefore seek peace and pursue it2 listen to what our ,sages said3 #8,blessed be he who restores to the owner his lost property'2 for this blessing applies in a higher degree to him who restores to a man his virtuous wife1 the crown of her husband40 ,maimonides replied in the same strain1 and reproached his 8son-in-law0 that he falsely accused his wife of faithlessness after he had neglected her2 but he restored him his wife with the advice to be more cautious in future4 ,in another letter ,maimonides exhorts ,ibn ,aknin to study his works1 adding1 8apply yourself to the study of the ,law of ,moses2 do not neglect it1 but1 on the contrary1 devote to it the best and the most of your time1 and if you tell me that you do so1 ,i am satisfied that you are on the right way to eternal bliss40 ,of the letters written after the completion of the 8,guide10 the one addressed to the wise men of ,marseilles 7#aaid7 is especially noteworthy4 ,maimonides was asked to give his opinion on astrology4 ,he regretted in his reply that they were not yet in the possession of his ,mishneh ,torah2 they would have found in it the answer to their question4 ,according to his opinion1 man should only believe what he can grasp with his intellectual faculties1 or perceive by his senses1 or what he can accept on trustworthy authority4 ,beyond this nothing should be believed4 ,astrological statements1 not being founded on any of these three sources of knowledge1 must be rejected4 ,he had himself studied astrology1 and was convinced that it was no science at all4 ,if some dicta be found in the ,talmud which appear to represent astrology as a true source of knowledge1 these may either be referred to the rejected opinion of a small minority1 or may have an allegorical meaning1 but they are by no means forcible enough to set aside principles based on logical proof4 ,the debility of which ,maimonides so frequently complained in his correspondence1 gradually increased1 and he died1 in his seventieth year1 on the #bjth ,tebeth1 #dife 7#abjd74 ,his death was the cause of great mourning to all ,jews4 ,in ,fostat a mourning of three days was kept2 in ,jerusalem a fast was appointed2 a portion of the tochaah 7,lev4 xxvi4 or ,deut4 xxix47 was read1 and also the history of the capture of the ,ark by the ,philistines 7#a ,sam4 iv474 ,his remains were brought to ,tiberias4 ,the general regard in which ,maimonides was held1 both by his contemporaries and by succeeding generations1 has been expressed in the popular saying3 8,from ,moses to ,moses there was none like ,moses40 ,,the ,,moreh ,,nebuchim ,,literature ,i4 ,the ,arabic ,text4--,the editio princeps1 the only edition of the original text of the ,guide 7in ,arabic1 ,dlil1 or ,dalalat al-arin71 was undertaken and executed by the late ,s4 ,munk4 ,its title is3 ,le ,guide des gars1 trait de ,thologie et de ,philosophie par ,mose ben ,maimon1 publi pour la premire fois dans l'original ,arabe1 et accompagn d'une traduction ,franaise et de notes critiques1 littraires et explicatives1 par ,s4 ,munk 7,paris1 #ahej-ahff74 ,the plan was published1 #ahcc1 in ,reflexions sur le culte des anciens ,hbreux 7,la ,bible1 par ,s4 ,cahen1 vol4 iv471 with a specimen of two chapters of the ,third ,part4 ,the text adopted has been selected from the several ,,mss4 at his disposal with great care and judgment4 ,two ,leyden ,,mss4 7cod4 #ah and #bba71 various ,,mss4 of the ,bibliothque ,nationale 7,no4 #gfj1 very old2 #gfa and #geh1 written by ,r4 ,saadia ,ibn ,danan71 and some ,,mss4 of the ,bodleian ,library were consulted4 ,in the notes which accompany the ,french translation1 the various readings of the different ,,mss4 are fully discussed4 ,at the end of the third volume a list is added of 8,variantes des ,manuscrits ,arabes et des deux ,versions ,hbraques40 ,the library of the ,british ,museum possesses two copies of the ,arabic text2 the one ,or4 #adbc is complete1 beautifully written1 with explanatory notes in the margin and between the lines4 ,the name of the copyist is not mentioned1 nor the date when it has been written4 ,the volume has in the beginning an incomplete index to the ,scriptural passages referred to in the ,guide1 and at the end fragments of ,psalm cxli4 in ,arabic and of astronomical tables4 ,the second copy of the ,dalalat al-arin is contained in the ,,ms4 ,or4 #bdbc1 written in large ,yemen ,rabbinic characters4 ,it is very fragmentary4 ,the first fragment begins with the last paragraph of the introduction2 there are a few marginal notes in ,hebrew4 ,in the ,bodleian ,library there are the following copies of the ,dalalat al-arin according to the ,catal4 of ,hebr4 ,,mss4 by ,dr4 ,a4 ,neubauer3-- ,no4 #abcf4 ,the text is preceded by ,jehudah al-,charizi's index of the contents of the chapters1 and by an index of ,biblical quotations4 ,in the margin there are notes1 containing omissions1 by different hands1 two in ,arabic characters4 ,the volume was written #adgc4 ,no4 #abcg4 ,the ,arabic text1 with a few marginal notes containing various readings2 the text is preceded by three ,hebrew poems1 beginning1 ,de'i holek1 ,bi-sedeb tebunot2 and ,binu be-dat ,mosheh4 ,fol4 #bab contains a fragment of the book 7,,iii41 xxix474 ,no4 #abch4 ,text with a few marginal notes4 ,no4 #abci4 ,the end of the work is wanting in this copy4 ,the second part has forty-nine chapters1 as the introduction to ,part ,,ii4 is counted as chapter i42 ,part ,,iii4 has fifty-six chapters1 the introduction being counted as chapter i41 and chapter xxiv4 being divided into two chapters4 ,the index of passages from the ,pentateuch follows the ordinary mode of counting the chapters of the ,guide4 ,no4 #abdj4 ,arabic text transcribed in ,arabic characters by ,saadiah b4 ,levi ,azanko for ,prof4 ,golius in #afde4 ,no4 #abda4 ,first part of the ,dalalat al-arin1 written by ,saadiah b4 ,mordecai b4 ,mosheh in the year #adca4 ,no4 #abdb contains the same ,part1 but incomplete4 ,nos4 #abdc1 #abdd1 #abde1 and #abdf contain ,part ,,ii4 of the ,arabic text1 incomplete in ,nos4 #abde and #abdf4 ,nos4 #abdg1 #abdh1 and #abdi have ,part ,,iii42 it is incomplete in ,nos4 #abdh and #abdi4 ,no4 #abdi was written #abia1 and begins with ,,iii41 viii4 ,a fragment of the ,arabic text1 the end of ,part ,,iii41 is contained in ,no4 #djg1 #b4 ,no4 #bejh includes a fragment of the original 7,i4 ii4-xxxii471 with a ,hebrew interlineary translation of some words and a few marginal notes4 ,it is written in ,yemen square characters1 and is marked as 8holy property of the ,synagogue of ,alsiani40 ,a fragment 7,i4 i47 of a different recension from the printed is contained in #bdbb1 #af4 ,on the margin the ,commentaries of ,shem-ob and ,ephodi are added in ,arabic4 ,a copy of the ,dalalat is also contained in the ,berlin ,royal ,library ,,ms4 ,or4 ,qu41 #egi 7#aje ,cat4 ,steinschneider72 it is defective in the beginning and at the end4 ,the ,cairo ,genizah at ,cambridge contains two fragments3 7a7 ,i4 lxiv4 and beginning of lxv42 7b7 ,,ii4 end of xxxii4 and xxxiii4 ,according to ,dr4 ,h4 ,hirschfeld1 ,jewish ,quarterly ,review 7vol4 xv4 p4 #fgg71 they are in the handwriting of ,maimonides4 ,the valuable collection of ,,mss4 in the possession of ,dr4 ,m4 ,gaster includes a fragment of the ,dalalat-al-arin 7,codex #fje74 ,,ii4 xiii4-xv41 beginning and end defective4 ,,ii4 ,translations4 a4 ,hebrew4--,as soon as ,european ,jews heard of the existence of this work1 they procured its translation into ,hebrew4 ,two scholars1 independently of each other1 undertook the task3 ,samuel ,ibn ,tibbon and ,jehudah al-arizi4 ,there is1 besides1 in the ,moreh ha-moreh of ,shemob ,palquera an original translation of some portions of the ,moreh4 ,in the ,sifte yeshenim 7,no4 #aab7 a rhymed translation of the ,dalalat by ,rabbi ,mattityahu ,kartin is mentioned4 ,ibn ,tibbon's version is very accurate2 he sacrificed elegance of style to the desire of conscientiously reproducing the author's work1 and did not even neglect a particle1 however unimportant it may appear4 ,ibn ,tibbon went in his anxiety to retain peculiarities of the original so far as to imitate its ambiguities1 e4g41 meiut 7,i4 lviii47 is treated as a masculine noun1 only in order to leave it doubtful whether a pronoun which follows agrees with meiut1 8existence10 or with nima1 8existing being10 both occurring in the same sentence 7,br4 ,mus4 ,,ms4 ,harl4 #gehf1 marg4 note by ,ibn ,tibbon74 ,when he met with passages that offered any difficulty he consulted ,maimonides4 arizi1 on the other hand1 was less conscientious about words and particles1 but wrote in a superior style4 ,vox populi1 however1 decided in favour of the version of ,ibn ,tibbon1 the rival of which became almost forgotten4 ,also ,abraham1 the son of ,moses ,maimonides1 in ,milamoth ha-shem1 describes arizi's version as being inaccurate4 ,most of the modern translations were made from ,ibn ,tibbon's version4 ,there are1 therefore1 ,,mss4 of this version almost in every library containing collections of ,hebrew books and ,,mss4 ,it has the title ,moreh-nebuchim4 ,the ,british ,museum has the following eight copies of ,ibn ,tibbon's version3-- ,harl4 #gehf ,a4 ,this codex was written in the year #abhd1 for ,rabbi ,shabbatai ben ,rabbi ,mattityahu4 ,in the year #acdj it came into the possession of ,jacob b4 ,shelomoh2 his son ,menaem sold it in the year #acgh to ,r4 ,mattityahu1 son of ,r4 ,shabbatai1 for fifty gold florins4 ,it was again sold in the year #adfa by ,yeiel ben ,joab4 ,there is this peculiarity in the writing1 that long words at the end of a line are divided1 and written half on the one line1 half on the next2 in words which are vocalized1 pata is frequently found for ame4 ,there are numerous various readings in the margin4 ,the text is preceded by a poem1 written by ,joseph ,ibn ,aknin1 pupil of ,maimonides1 in praise of his master1 and beginning ,adon yiro4 ,this poem is attributed to ,r4 ,yehudah ha-,levi 7,luzzatto1 in his ,divan1 ,betulat-bat-,yehudah1 p4 #ajd74 ,at the end the copyist adds an epigram1 the translation of which is as follows3-- 8,the ,moreh is finished--,praise to ,him who formed and created everything--written for the instruction and benefit of the few whom the ,lord calleth4 ,those who oppose the ,moreh ought to be put to death2 but those who study and understand it deserve that ,divine ,glory rest upon them1 and inspire them with a spirit from above40 ,harl4 #gehf ,b4 ,this codex1 much damaged in the beginning and at the end1 contains the version of ,ibn ,tibbon1 with marginal notes1 consisting of words omitted in the text1 and other corrections4 ,the version is followed by the poems arob meod1 etc41 and ,de'i holek1 etc4 ,harl4 #eejg contains the ,hebrew version of ,ibn ,tibbon1 with the translator's preface and marginal notes1 consisting of various readings and omissions from the text4 ,the work of ,maimonides is followed by ,ibn ,tibbon's ,vocabulary 7millot-zarot71 ,mesharet-mosheh1 ,arugot ha-mezimmah1 ,millot higgayon1 ,rua-en1 ,alfarabi's ,hatalot1 a ,hebrew-,italian vocabulary of logical terms1 and an explanation of koeb4 ,the passage in ,part ,i41 chap4 lxxi41 which refers to ,christianity1 has been erased4 ,harl4 #eebe was the property of ,shimshon ,kohen ,modon4 ,the ,,ms4 begins with arizi's ,kavvanat ha-peraim2 then follows the text1 with a few marginal notes of a later hand1 mostly adverse criticisms and references to ,arama's ,aedah and the ,biblical commentaries of ,abarbanel4 ,there is also a note in ,latin4 ,the text is followed by ,ibn ,tibbon's ,vocabulary 7,millot-zarot7 and ,masoret ha-pesuim 7,index to the ,biblical quotations in the ,moreh74 ,in a poem1 beginning ,moreh asher mennu derakav gabehu1 the ,moreh is compared to a musical instrument1 which delights when played by one that understands music1 but is spoiled when touched by an ignorant person4 ,add4 #bgjfh 7,almanzi coll474 ,at the end the following remark is added3 ,i1 ,samuel ,ibn ,tibbon1 finished the translation of this work in the month of ,tebet #dife 7#abje74 ,the text is preceded by the well-known epigrams1 ,de'i holek and ,moreh-nebuchim sa shelomi2 the last page contains the epigram arob meod4 ,there are some notes in the margin1 mostly referring to various readings4 ,add4 #adgfc4 ,this codex1 written #abgc at ,viterbo1 contains the preface of arizi to his translation of the ,moreh and his index of contents1 ,ibn ,tibbon's version with a few marginal notes of different hands1 including some remarks of the translator1 and the contents of the chapters4 ,the codex contains besides the following treatises3 ,commentary of ,maimonides on ,abot2 ,comm4 of ,maim4 on ,mishnah ,sanhedrin x4 #a2 ,letter of ,maimonides on the ,resurrection of the ,dead2 ,vocabulary of difficult words by ,samuel ,ibn ,tibbon2 ,maimonides' ,letter to the wise men of ,marseilles2 his ,letter to ,rabbi ,jonathan2 ,keter-malkut1 ,mesharet-mosheh1 ,rua-en1 ,otot ha-shamayim1 translated from the ,arabic by ,samuel ,ibn ,tibbon2 ,hatalot ha-nimaot1 of ,alfarabi2 ,sefer ha-appua1 ,mishle amishim ha-talmidim2 on the seven zones of the earth2 a fragment of a chronicle from the exile of ,babylon down to the fourth year of the ,emperor ,nicepheros of ,constantinople1 and a poem1 which begins asher yishal1 and has the following sense3--8,if one asks the old and experienced for advice1 you may expect his success in all he undertakes2 but if one consults the young1 remember the fate of ,rehoboam1 son of ,solomon40 ,add4 #adgfd4 ,in addition to the ,hebrew version of ,ibn ,tibbon 7from end of ,i4 xxvii47 with a few marginal notes and index1 the codex contains at the end of ,part ,i4 an ,index of references made by the author to explanations given in preceding or succeeding chapters4 ,at the end of the text the statement is added1 that the translation was finished in the month of ,tebet #ifh 7#abjh74 ,the ,moreh is followed by ,rua-en1 and ,ibn ,tibbon's ,vocabulary of millot-zarot 7incomplete71 and is preceded by four poems in praise of the ,moreh1 beginning ,shim'u nebone leb1 ,moreh nebuchim sa shelomi1 ,de'i holek and ,nofet makim4 ,bibl4 ,reg4 #af ,a1 xi4 ,this codex1 written in ,prov4 curs4 characters in the year #acjh1 has in front a fragment of ,,iii4 i41 then follows the poem of ,meshullam1 beginning ,yehgu mezimmotai 7,grtz ,leket-shoshannim1 p4 #aea71 and other poems4 ,the following ,,ms4 copies of ,ibn ,tibbon's version are included in the ,oxford ,bodleian ,library2 the numbers refer to ,dr4 ,neubauer's catalogue of the ,,mss43-- #abej4 ,an index of the passages from the ,bible referred to in the work1 and an index of the contents precede the version4 ,the marginal notes contain chiefly omissions4 #abea4 ,this codex was written in #afge4 ,the marginal notes contain omissions and explanations4 #abeb4 ,the marginal notes contain the translator's remarks on ,i4 lxxiv4 #d1 and ,,iii4 xlvii4 ,the version is followed by ,ibn ,tibbon's vocabulary1 and his additional remarks on the reasons for the commandments4 ,the ,,ms4 was bought by ,samuel ben ,moses from a ,christian after the pillage of ,padua1 where it had belonged to a ,synagogue of foreigners 7lo'azim72 he gave it to a ,synagogue of the same character at ,mantua4 #abec4 ,the marginal notes include that of the translator on ,,iii4 xlvii4 #abed4 #a4 ,text with marginal notes containing omissions4 #abee4 ,the marginal notes include those of the translator on ,i4 xlvi4 and lxxiv4 #e4 #abef4 ,the marginal notes contain various readings1 notes relating to arizi's translation and the ,arabic text2 on fol4 #hj there is a note in ,latin4 ,there are in this codex six epigrams concerning the ,moreh4 #abeg4 ,text incomplete2 with marginal notes4 ,fragments of the ,version are contained in the following codices3 #bjdg1 #c1 p4 #fe2 #bbhc1 #h2 #bcji1 #b1 and #bccf4 ,among the ,,ms4 copies of the ,moreh in the ,bibl4 ,nat4 in ,paris1 there is one that has been the property of ,r4 ,eliah ,mizrai1 and another that had been in the hands of ,azariah de ,rossi 7,no4 #fhe and ,no4 #fia72 the ,gnzburg ,library 7,paris7 possesses a copy 7,no4 #gga71 that was written #adeb by ,samuel son of ,isaac for ,rabbi ,moses de ,leon1 and ,eliah del ,medigo's copy of the ,moreh is in the possession of ,dr4 ,ginsburg 7,london72 it contains six poems1 beginning ,moreh nebuchim sa2 ,emet moreh emet2 ,bi-leshon esh2 ,mah-baaru2 ,kamu more shav4 ,the editio princeps of this version has no statement as to where and when it was printed1 and is without pagination4 ,according to ,frst 7,bibliogr47 it is printed before #adhj4 ,the copy in the ,british ,museum has some ,,ms4 notes4 ,subsequent editions contain besides the ,hebrew text the ,commentaries of ,shem-ob and ,efodi1 and the index of contents by arizi 7,venice1 #aeea1 fol472 also the ,comm4 of ,crescas and ,vocabulary of ,ibn ,tibbon 7,sabionetta1 #aeec1 fol42 ,jessnitz1 #agdb1 fol4 etc472 the ,commentaries of ,narboni and ,s4 ,maimon 7,berlin1 #agia72 the commentaries of ,efodi1 ,shem-ob1 ,crescas and ,abarbanel 7,warsaw1 #ahgb1 #dto72 ,german translation and ,hebrew ,commentary 7,biur7 ,part ,i4 7,krotoschin1 #ahci1 #hvo72 ,german translation and notes1 ,part ,,ii4 7,wien1 #ahfd71 ,part ,,iii4 7,frankfort-a4-,m41 #ahch74 ,the ,hebrew version of ,ibn ,tibbon 7,part ,i4 to ch4 lxxii47 has been translated into ,mishnaic ,hebrew by ,m4 ,levin 7,zolkiew1 #ahbi1 #dto74 ,there is only one ,,ms4 known of arizi's version1 viz41 ,no4 #fhb of the ,bibliothque ,nationale at ,paris4 ,it has been edited by ,l4 ,schlosberg1 with notes4 ,london1 #ahea 7,part ,i471 #ahgf 7,,ii471 and #ahgi 7,,iii474 ,the notes on ,part ,i4 were supplied by ,s4 ,scheyer4 ,the first ,latin translation of the ,moreh has been discovered by ,dr4 ,j4 ,perles among the ,latin ,,mss4 of the ,munich ,library1 ,catal4 ,cod4 latinorum bibl4 regiae ,monacensis1 tom4 ,i1 pars iii4 pag4 #bjh 7,kaish4 #cf b71 #agjj 7#gicf b74 ,this version is almost identical with that edited by ,augustinus ,justinianus1 ,paris1 #aebj1 and is based on arizi's ,hebrew version of the ,moreh4 ,the name of the translator is not mentioned4 ,in the ,commentary of ,moses1 son of ,solomon1 of ,salerno1 on the ,moreh1 a ,latin translation is quoted1 and the quotations agree with this version4 ,it is called by this commentator ha ataat ha-norit 78the ,christian translation071 and its author1 ha-ma ati ha-noer 7lit4 8the ,christian translator074 ,dr4 ,perles is1 however1 of opinion that these terms do not necessarily imply that a ,christian has made this translation1 as the word noer may have been used here for 8,latin40 ,he thinks that it is the result of the combined efforts of ,jewish and ,christian scholars connected with the court of the ,german ,emperor ,frederic ,,ii41 especially as in the thirteenth century several ,jewish scholars distinguished themselves by translating ,oriental works into ,latin4 ,see ,grtz ,monatschrift1 #ahge1 ,jan4-,june1 8,die in einer ,mnchener ,handschrift aufgefundene erste lateinische ,uebersetzung10 etc41 von ,dr4 ,j4 ,perles4 ,the title has been variously rendered into ,latin3 ,director neutrorum1 directorium dubitantium1 director neutrorum1 nutantium or dubitantium2 doctor perplexorum4 ,gedaliah ibn ,yahyah1 in ,shalshelet ha-abbalah1 mentions a ,latin translation of the ,moreh by ,jacob ,monteno2 but nothing is known of it1 unless it be the anonymous translation of the ,munich ,,ms41 mentioned above4 ,augustinus ,justinianus edited this version 7,paris1 #aebj71 with slight alterations and a great number of mistakes4 ,joseph ,scaliger's opinion of this version is expressed in a letter to ,casaubonus1 as follows3 ,qui latine vertit1 ,hebraica1 non ,arabica1 convertit1 et quidem spe hallucinatur1 neque mentem ,authoris assequitur4 ,magna seges mendorum est in ,latino4 ,prter illa qu ab inertia ,interpretis peccata sunt accessit et inertia ,librariorum aut ,typographorum1 e4g41 propheti pro philosophi2 altitudo pro aptitudo2 bonitatem pro brevitatem4 7,buxtorf1 ,doctor ,perplexorum1 ,prf47 ,johannes ,buxtorfius1 ,fil41 translated the ,hebrew version of ,ibn ,tibbon into ,latin 7,basile1 #afbi1 #dto74 ,in the ,prfatio ad ,lectorem1 the translator discusses the life and the works of ,maimonides1 and dwells especially on the merits and the fate of the ,moreh-nebuchim4 ,the preface is followed by a ,hebrew poem of ,rabbi ,raphael ,joseph of ,trves1 in praise of an edition of the ,moreh containing the ,commentaries of ,efodi1 ,shem-tob1 and ,crescas4 ,italian was the first living language into which the ,moreh has been translated4 ,this translation was made by ,yedidyah ben ,moses 7,amadeo de ,mose di ,recanati71 and dedicated by him to 8divotissimo e divinissimo ,signor mio il ,signor ,immanuel da ,fano0 7i4e41 the ,kabbalist ,menaem ,azarriah74 ,the translator dictated it to his brother ,eliah1 who wrote it in ,hebrew characters2 it was finished the #hth of ,february1 #aehc4 ,the ,,ms4 copy is contained in the ,royal ,library at ,berlin1 ,,ms4 ,or4 ,qu4 #dhg 7,m4 ,steinschneider ,catal41 etc47--,the ,moreh has been translated into ,italian a second time1 and annotated by ,d4 ,j4 ,maroni3 ,guida degli ,smarriti1 ,firenze1 #ahgj1 fol4 ,the ,moreh has been translated into ,german by ,r4 ,frstenthal 7,part ,i41 ,krotoschin1 #ahci71 ,m4 ,stern 7,part ,,ii41 ,wien1 #ahfd71 and ,s4 ,scheyer 7,part ,,iii41 ,frankfort-a4-,m41 #ahch74 ,the translation is based on ,ibn ,tibbon's ,hebrew version4 ,the chapters on the ,divine ,attributes have been translated into ,german1 and fully discussed1 by ,dr4 ,kaufmann in his ,geschichte der ,attributenlehre 7,gotha1 #ahgg74 ,an excellent ,french translation1 based on the ,arabic original1 has been supplied by the regenerator of the ,guide1 ,s4 ,munk4 ,it was published together with the ,arabic text 7,paris1 #ahej-ahff74 ,the ,moreh has also been translated into the ,hungarian language by ,dr4 ,klein4 ,the translation is accompanied by notes 7,budapest1 #ahgh-hj74 ,the portion containing the reasons of the ,commandments 7,part ,,iii4 ch4 xxvi4-xlix47 has been translated into ,english by ,james ,townley 7,london1 #ahbg74 ,the translation is preceded by an account on the life and works of ,maimonides1 and dissertations on various subjects2 among others1 ,talmudical and ,rabbinical writings1 the ,originality of the ,institutions of ,moses1 and ,judicial astrology4 ,,iii4 ,commentaries4--,it is but natural that in a philosophical work like the ,moreh1 the reader will meet with passages that at first thought seem unintelligible1 and require further explanation1 and this want has been supplied by the numerous commentators that devoted their attention to the study of the ,moreh4 ,joseph ,solomon del ,medigo 7#aeia7 saw eighteen ,commentaries4 ,the four principal ones he characterizes thus 7in imitation of the ,hagadah for ,passover73 ,moses ,narboni is rasha1 has no piety1 and reveals all the secrets of the ,moreh4 ,shem-ob is akam1 8wise10 expounds and criticises2 ,crescas is tam1 8simple10 explains the book in the style of the ,rabbis2 ,epodi is she-eno yodea lishol1 8does not understand to ask10 he simply explains in short notes without criticism 7,miktab-auz2 ed4 ,a4 ,geiger1 ,berlin1 #ahdj1 p4 #ah74 ,the earliest annotations were made by the author himself on those passages1 which the first translator of the ,moreh was unable to comprehend4 ,they are contained in a letter addressed to ,samuel ,ibn ,tibbon1 beginning1 lefi siklo yehullal ish 7,bodl4 ,library1 ,no4 #bbah1 s42 comp4 ,the ,guide1 etc41 ,i4 #ba1 #cdc2 ,,ii4 #h1 #ii74 ,ibn ,tibbon1 the translator1 likewise added a few notes1 which are found in the margin of ,,mss4 of the ,hebrew version of the ,moreh 7on ,i4 xlv4 lxxiv42 ,,ii4 xxiv42 and ,,iii4 xlvii4--,,mss4 ,bodl4 #abeb1 #a2 #abec1 #abee1 #abeg2 ,brit4 ,mus4 ,add4 #ad1gfc and #bg1jfh74 ,both translators wrote explanations of the philosophical terms employed in the versions4 arizi wrote his vocabulary first1 and ,ibn ,tibbon1 in the introductory remarks1 to ,perush millot zarot 78,explanation of difficult words071 describes his rival's vocabulary as full of blunders4 ,ibn ,tibbon's ,perush is found almost in every copy of his version1 both ,,ms4 and print2 so also arizi's index of the contents of the chapters of the ,moreh 7,kavvanat ha-peraim74 ,the following is an alphabetical list of ,commentaries on the ,moreh3-- ,abarbanel 7,don ,isaak7 wrote a ,commentary on ,i4 i4-lv42 ,,ii4 xxxi4-xlv41 and a separate book ,shamayim-adashim1 8,new ,heavens10 on ,,ii4 xix41 in which he fully discusses the question concerning ,creatio ex nihilo4 ,the opinion of ,maimonides is not always accepted4 ,thus twenty-seven objections are raised against his interpretation of the first chapter of ,ezekiel4 ,these objections he wrote at ,molin1 in the house of ,r4 ,abraham ,treves arfati4 ,the ,commentary is followed by a short essay 7maamar7 on the plan of the ,moreh4 ,the method adopted by ,abarbanel in all his ,commentaries1 is also employed in this essay4 ,a series of questions is put forth on the subject1 and then the author sets about to answer them4 ,m4 ,j4 ,landau edited the ,commentary without text1 with a ,preface1 and with explanatory notes1 called ,moreh li-eddakah 7,prag4 #ahca2 ,,ms4 ,bodl4 #bche74 ,in addition to these the same author wrote ,teshubot 8,answers0 to several questions asked by ,rabbi ,shaul ha-,cohen on topics discussed in the ,moreh 7,venice1 #aged74 ,abraham ,abulafia wrote 8,sodot ha-moreh10 or ,sitre-torah1 a kabbalistic ,commentary on the ,moreh4 ,he gives the expression1 7,paradise71 for the number 7#agg7 of the chapters of the ,moreh4 ,,ms4 ,nat4 ,bibl4 #bbf1 #c4 ,leipsic ,libr4 #bcb1 #d4 ,,ms4 ,bodl4 #bcfj1 #e1 contains a portion of ,part ,,iii4 ,buchner ,a4 ,ha-moreh li-edaab 7,warsaw1 #ahch74 ,commentary on 8,the ,reasons of the ,laws10 ,moreh ,,iii4 xxix4-xlix4 ,the ,commentary is preceded by an account of the life of ,maimonides4 ,comtino1 ,mordecai b4 ,eliezer1 wrote a short commentary on the ,moreh 7,dr4 ,ginsburg's collection of ,,mss4 ,no4 #aj74 ,narboni1 who 8spread light on dark passages in the ,guide10 is frequently quoted4 ,reference is also made to his own commentary on ,ibn ,ezra's ,yesod-mora4 ,crescas 7,asher b4 ,abraham71 expresses in the ,preface to his ,commentary the conviction that he could not always comprehend the right sense of the words of ,maimonides1 for 8there is no searching to his understanding40 ,he nevertheless thinks that his explanations will help 8the young0 to study the ,moreh with profit4 ,a long poem in praise of ,maimonides and his work precedes the ,preface4 ,his notes are short and clear1 and in spite of his great respect of ,maimonides1 he now and then criticises and corrects him4 ,david ,yaya is named by ,joseph ,del ,medigo 7,miktab-auz ed4 ,a4 ,geiger1 ,berlin1 #ahdj2 p4 #ah1 and note #gf71 as having written a ,commentary on the ,moreh4 ,david ben ,yehudah ,leon ,rabbino wrote ,en ha-ore1 ,,ms4 ,bodl4 #abfc4 ,he quotes in his ,commentary among others ,arama's ,akedat yia4 ,the ,preface is written by ,immanuel ben ,raphael ,ibn ,meir1 after the death of the author4 ,efodi is the name of the ,commentary written by ,isaac ben ,moses1 who during the persecution of #acia had passed as ,christian under the name of ,profiat ,duran4 ,he returned to ,judaism1 and wrote against ,christianity the famous satire 8,al tehee ka-aboteka0 78,be not like your ,fathers071 which misled ,christians to cite it as written in favour of ,christianity4 ,it is addressed to the apostate ,en ,bonet ,bon ,giorno4 ,the same author also wrote a grammatical work1 ,maaseh-efod4 ,the name ,efod 771 is explained as composed of the initials ,amar ,profiat ,duran4 ,his ,commentary consists of short notes1 explanatory of the text4 ,the beginning of this ,commentary is contained in an ,arabic translation in ,,ms4 ,bodl4 #bdbb1 #af4 ,ephraim ,al-,naqavah in ,shaar ,kebod ha-shem 7,,ms4 ,bodl4 #ici1 #b and #abeh1 #b71 answers some questions addressed to him concerning the ,moreh4 ,he quotes isdai's ,or adonai4 ,frstenthal1 ,r41 translator and commentator of the ,mazor1 added a ,biur1 short explanatory notes1 to his ,german translation of ,part ,i4 of the ,moreh 7,krotoschin1 #ahci74 ,gershon1 ,moreh-derek1 ,commentary on ,part ,i4 of the ,moreh 7,,ms4 ,bodl4 #abfe74 ,hillel b4 ,samuel b4 ,elazar of ,verona explained the ,introduction to ,part ,,ii4 7the #be ,propos474 ,s4 ,h4 ,halberstam edited this ,commentary together with ,tagmule ha-nefesh of the same author1 for the ,society ,meie-nirdamim 7,lyck1 #ahgd74 ,joseph ben ,aba-mari b4 ,joseph1 of ,caspi 7,argentire71 wrote three ,commentaries on the ,moreh4 ,the first is contained in a ,munich ,,ms4 7,no4 #bfc72 and seems to have been recast by the author1 and divided into two separate ,commentaries3 ,ammude ,kesef1 and ,maskiyot ,kesef4 ,the former was to contain plain and ordinary explanation1 whilst profound and mysterious matter was reserved for the second 7,steinschn4 ,cat474 ,in ,,ii41 chap4 xlviii41 ,caspi finds fault with ,maimonides that he does not place the book of ,job among the highest class of inspired writings1 8its author being undoubtedly ,moses40 ,these ,commentaries have been edited by ,t4 ,werblumer 7,frankfort-a4-,m41 #ahdh74 ,r4 ,kirchheim added a ,hebrew introduction discussing the character of these commentaries1 and describing the manuscripts from which these were copied2 a ,biography of the author is added in ,german4 ,joseph ,giqatilia wrote notes on the ,moreh1 printed with 8,questions of ,shaul ha-kohen0 7,venice1 #aegd4 ,,ms4 ,bodl4 #aiaa1 #c74 ,joseph b4 ,isaac ha-,levi's ,gib'at ha-,moreh is a short ,commentary on portions of the ,moreh1 with notes by ,r4 ,yom-ob ,heller1 the author of ,tosafot ,yom-tob 7,prag41 #afab74 ,isaac ,satanov wrote a commentary on ,parts ,,ii4 and ,,iii4 of the ,moreh 7see ,maimon ,solomon p4 xxi474 ,isaac ben ,shem-ob ibn ,shem-ob wrote a lengthy ,commentary on the ,moreh1 ,part ,i4 7,,ms4 ,brit4 ,mus4 ,or4 #achh74 ,the object of the ,commentary is to show that there is no contradiction between ,maimonides and the ,divine ,law4 ,he praises ,maimonides as a true believer in ,creatio ex nihilo1 whilst ,ibn ,ezra and ,gersonides assumed a prima materia 7,yoer1 adosh74 ,nachmanides is called ha-asid ha-gadol1 but is nevertheless blamed1 together with ,narboni and ,zerayah ha-,levi1 for criticising ,maimonides1 instead of trying to explain startling utterances even in 8a forced way0 7bederek raok72 and ,narboni1 8in spite of his wisdom1 frequently misunderstood the ,moreh40 ,at the end of each chapter a rsum 7derush7 of the contents of the chapter is given1 and the lesson to be derived from it4 ,the ,,ms4 is incomplete1 chaps1 xlvi4-xlviii4 are missing4 ,kaufmann1 ,d41 in his ,geschichte der ,attributenlehre1 translated ,part ,i4 chap1 l4-lxiii4 into ,german1 and added critical and explanatory notes4 ,kalonymos wrote a kind of introduction to the ,moreh 7,mesharet ,mosheh71 in which he especially discusses the theory of ,maimonides on ,providence4 ,leibnitz made extracts from ,buxtorf's ,latin version of the ,moreh1 and added his own remarks4 ,observationes ad ,r4 ,mosen ,maimoniden 7,foucher de ,careil4 ,c4,a41 ,la ,philosophie ,juive1 #ahfa74 ,levin1 ,m41 wrote ,allon-moreh as a kind of introduction to his retranslation of ,tibbon's ,hebrew version into the language of the ,mishnah4 ,maimon1 ,solomon1 is the author of ,gib'at ha-moreh1 a lengthy commentary on ,book ,i4 7,berlin1 #agia74 ,the author is fond of expatiating on topics of modern philosophy4 ,in the introduction he gives a short history of philosophy4 ,the commentary on ,books ,,ii4 and ,,iii4 was written by ,isaac ,satanov4 ,meir ben ,jonah ha-mekunneh ,ben-shneor wrote a commentary on the ,moreh in ,fez #aefj 7,,ms4 ,bodl4 #abfb74 ,menaem ,kara expounded the twenty-five propositions enumerated in the ,introduction to ,part ,,ii4 of the ,moreh 7,,ms4 ,bodl4 #afdi1 #ac74 ,mordecai ,yaffe1 in his ,or ,yearot1 or ,pinnat ,yirat1 one of his ten ,lebushim1 comments upon the theories contained in the ,moreh4 ,moses1 son of ,abraham ,provenal1 explains the passage in ,part ,i4 chap1 lxxiii4 ,prop4 #c1 in which ,maimonides refers to the difference between commensurable and incommensurable lines 7,,ms4 ,bodl4 #bjcc1 #h74 ,moses1 son of ,jehudah ,nagari1 made an index of the subjects treated in the ,moreh1 indicating in each case the chapters in which allusion is made to the subject4 ,he did so1 8in obedience to the advice of ,maimonides1 to consider the chapters in connected order0 7,part ,i4 p4 #bj74 ,it has been printed together with the questions of ,shaul ha-kohen 7,venice1 #aegd74 ,moses1 son of ,solomon of ,salerno1 is one of the earliest expounders of the ,moreh4 ,he wrote his commentary on ,parts ,i4 and ,,ii41 perhaps together with a ,christian scholar4 ,he quotes the opinion of 8the ,christian scholar with whom he worked together40 ,thus he names ,petrus de ,bernia and ,nicolo di ,giovenazzo4 ,r4 ,jacob ,anatoli1 author of the ,malmed ha-talmidim1 is quoted as offering an explanation for the passage from ,pire di-rabbi ,eliezer1 which ,maimonides 7,,ii4 chap1 xxvi47 considers as strange and inexplicable 7,part ,i41 written #adci2 ,,ms4 of ,bet ha-midrash1 ,london2 ,parts ,i4-,,ii41 ,,ms4 ,bodl4 #abfa1 written1 #aedg2 ,,ms4 ,petersburg1 ,no4 #hb2 ,munich ,,ms4 #fj and #cgj74 ,moses ha-atan1 son of ,jehudah1 son of ,moses1 wrote ,to'aliyot pire ha-maamar 78,lessons taught in the chapters of this work074 ,it is an index to the ,moreh 7,,ms4 ,bodl4 #abfg74 ,moses ,leiden explained the #be ,prop4 of the ,introduction to ,part ,,ii4 7,,ms4 ,gnzburg1 ,paris74 ,moses ,narboni wrote a short commentary at ,soria1 #acfb4 ,he freely criticizes ,maimonides1 and uses expressions like the following3--8,he went too far1 may ,god pardon him0 7,,ii4 viii474 ,is4 ,euchel ed4 ,part ,i4 7,berlin1 #agia72 ,j4 ,goldenthal1 ,i4 to ,,iii4 7,wien1 #aheb74 ,the ,bodl4 ,libr4 possesses several ,,ms4 copies of this commentary 7,nos4 #abfj1 #abfd1 #b1 and #abff74 ,munk1 ,s41 added to his ,french translation of the ,moreh numerous critical and explanatory notes4 ,s4 ,sachs 7,ha-teiyah1 ,berlin1 #ahej1 p4 #h7 explains various passages of the ,moreh1 with a view of discovering the names of those who are attacked by ,maimonides without being named4 ,scheyer1 ,s41 added critical and explanatory notes to his ,german translation of the ,moreh1 ,part #c1 and to the ,hebrew version of arizi1 ,part #a4 ,he also wrote ,das ,psychologische ,system des ,maimonides1 an ,introduction to the ,moreh 7,frankf4-a4-,m41 #ahde74 ,shem ob ,ibn ,palquera's ,moreh ha-moreh consists of #c parts3 7#a7 a philosophical explanation of the ,moreh1 7#b7 a description of the contents of the chapters of the ,moreh1 ,part ,i1 i4-lvii4 7,presburg1 #ahbg72 7#c7 ,corrections of ,ibn ,tibbon's version4 ,he wrote the book for himself1 that in old age he might have a means of refreshing his memory4 ,the study of science and philosophy is to be recommended1 but only to those who have had a good training in 8the fear of sin40 ,ibn ,roshd 7,averroes7 is frequently quoted1 and referred to as he-akam ha-nizkar 7the philosopher mentioned above74 ,shem-ob ben ,joseph ben ,shem-ob had the commentary of ,efodi before him1 which he seems to have quoted frequently verbatim without naming him4 ,in the preface he dwells on the merits of the ,moreh as the just mediator between religion and philosophy4 ,the commentary of ,shem-ob is profuse1 and includes almost a paraphrase of the text4 ,he apologises in conclusion for having written many superfluous notes and added explanation where no explanation was required2 his excuse is that he did not only intend to write a commentary 7biur7 but also a work complete in itself 7ibbur74 ,he often calls the reader's attention to things which are plain and clear4 ,shem-ob4 ,ibn ,shem-ob1 in ,sefer ha-emunot 7,ferrara1 #aeef71 criticises some of the various theories discussed in the ,moreh1 and rejects them as heretic4 ,his objections were examined by ,moses ,al-ashkar1 and answered in ,hasagot al mah she-katab ,rabbi ,shem-ob neged ha-,rambam 7,ferrara1 #aeef74 ,solomon b4 ,jehudah ha-nasi wrote in ,germany ,sitre-torah1 a kabbalistic commentary on the ,moreh1 and dedicated it to his pupil ,jacob b4 ,samuel 7,,ms4 ,bet-ha-midrash1 ,london74 ,tabrizi4 ,the twenty-five ,propositions forming the introduction to ,part #b1 have been fully explained by ,mohammed ,abu-becr ben ,mohammed al-tabrizi4 ,his ,arabic explanations have been translated by ,isaac b4 ,nathan of ,majorca into ,hebrew 7,ferrara1 #aeef74 ,at the end the following eulogy is added3--,the author of these ,propositions is the chief whose sceptre is 8wisdom0 and whose throne is 8understanding10 the ,israelite prince1 that has benefited his nation and all those who love ,god1 etc43 ,moses b4 ,maimon b4 ,ebed-elohim1 the ,israelite4444 ,may ,god lead us to the truth4 ,amen6 ,tishbi4 ,in ,,ms4 ,bodl4 #bbgi1 #a1 there are some marginal notes on ,part ,,iii4 which are signed ,tishbi 7,neub4 ,cat474 ,yaya ,ibn ,suleiman wrote in ,arabic a ,commentary on the ,guide for the ,perplexed4 ,a fragment is contained in the ,berlin ,,ms4 ,or4 ,qu41 #eed1 #b 7,steinschneider1 ,cat4 ,no4 #ib74 ,zerayah b4 ,isaac ha-,levi4 ,commentary on the ,moreh1 ,i41 i4-lxxi41 and some other portions of the work4 7,see ,maskir1 #ahfa1 p4 #abe74 ,,ms4 ,bodl4 #bcfj1 #h1 contains a letter of ,jehudah b4 ,shelomoh on some passages of the ,moreh1 and ,zerayah's reply4 ,anonymous ,commentaries4--,the ,,ms4 ,brit4 ,mus4 #adbc contains marginal and interlineary notes in ,arabic4 ,no author or date is given1 nor is any other commentary referred to in the notes4 ,the explanations given are mostly preceded by a question1 and introduced by the phrase1 8the answer is10 in the same style as is employed in the ,hebrew-,arabic ,midrash1 ,,ms4 ,brit4 ,mus4 ,or4 #bbac4 ,the ,midrashic character is prominent in the notes4 ,thus the verse 8,open1 ye gates1 that the righteous nation which keepeth the truth may enter in10 is explained as meaning3 ,open1 ye gates of wisdom1 that human understanding that perceiveth truth may enter4 ,the notes are numerous1 especially in the first part1 explaining almost every word2 e4g41 on 8,rabbi03 ,why does ,maimonides employ this title before the name of his pupil8 ,the answer is3 either the word is not to be taken literally 78master071 but as a mere compliment1 or it has been added by later copyists4 ,of a similar style seem to be the ,arabic notes in the ,berlin ,,ms4 ,or4 ,oct4 #beh1 #b1 #h1 #aj4 7,cat4 ,steinschneider1 ,no4 #ajh47--;,anonymous marginal notes are met with almost in every ,,ms4 of the ,moreh2 e4g41 ,brit4 ,mus4 ,harl4 #eebe2 ,add4 #ad1gfc1 #ad1gfd2 ,bodl4 #abfd1 #a2 #bbhb1 #aj2 #bdbc1 #c2 ,munich ,,ms41 #bci1 #f4 ,the explanation of passages from the ,pentateuch contained in the ,moreh have been collected by ,d4 ,ottensosser1 and given as an appendix 7,moreh-derek7 to ,derek-selulah 7,pent4 with ,comm4 etc41 ,furth1 #ahbd74 ,,iv4 ,controversies4--,the seemingly new ideas put forth by ,maimonides in the ,moreh and in the first section of his ,mishneh-torah 7,sefer ha-madda7 soon produced a lively controversy as regards the merits of ,maimonides' theories4 ,it was most perplexing to pious ,talmudists to learn how ,maimonides explained the anthropomorphisms employed in the ,bible1 the ,midrashim and the ,talmud1 what he thought about the future state of our soul1 and that he considered the study of philosophy as the highest degree of ,divine worship1 surpassing even the study of the ,law and the practice of its precepts4 ,the objections and attacks of ,daniel of ,damascus were easily silenced by a erem 7excommunication7 pronounced against him by the ,rosh ha-golah ,rabbi ,david4 ,stronger was the opposition that had its centre in ,montpellier4 ,rabbi ,solomon ben ,abraham noticed with regret in his own community the fruit of the theories of ,maimonides in the neglect of the study of the ,law and of the practice of the ,divine precepts4 ,it happened to ,moses ,maimonides what in modern times happened to ,moses ,mendelssohn4 ,many so-called disciples and followers of the great master misunderstood or misinterpreted his teaching in support of their dereliction of ,jewish law and ,jewish practice1 and thus brought disrepute on him in the eyes of their opponents4 ,thus it came that ,rabbi ,solomon and his disciples turned their wrath against the writings of ,maimonides instead of combating the arguments of the pseudo-,maimonists4 ,the latter even accused ,solomon of having denounced the ,moreh and the ,sefer ha-madda to the ,dominicans1 who condemned these writings to the flames2 when subsequently copies of the ,talmud were burnt1 and some of the followers of the ,rabbi of ,montpellier were subjected to cruel tortures1 the ,maimonists saw in this event a just punishment for offending ,maimonides4 7,letters of ,hillel of ,verona1 emdah ,genuzah1 ed4 ,h4 ,edelmann1 p4 #ah sqq474 ,meir b4 ,todros ha-levi ,abulafia wrote already during the lifetime of ,maimonides to the wise men in ,lunel about the heretic doctrines he discovered in the works of ,maimonides4 ,ahron b4 ,meshullam and ,shesheth ,benvenisti defended ,maimonides4 ,about #abcb a correspondence opened between the ,maimonists and the ,anti-,maimonists 7,grtz1 ,gesch4 d4 ,j4 vii4 note ,i74 ,the ,grammarian ,david ,kimi wrote in defence of ,maimonides three letters to ,jehudah ,alfachar1 who answered each of them in the sense of ,rabbi ,solomon of ,montpellier4 ,abraham b4 isdai and ,samuel b4 ,abraham ,saportas on the side of the ,maimonists1 took part in the controversy4 ,meshullam b4 ,kalonymos b4 ,todros of ,narbonne begged ,alfachar to treat ,kimi with more consideration1 whereupon ,alfachar resolved to withdraw from the controversy4 ,namanides1 though more on the side of ,rabbi ,solomon1 wrote two letters of a conciliatory character1 advising moderation on both sides4 ,representatives of the congregations of ,saragossa1 ,huesca1 ,monzon1 ,kalatajud1 and ,lerida signed declarations against ,r4 ,solomon4 ,a erem was proclaimed from ,lunel and ,narbonne against the ,anti-,maimonists4 ,the son of ,maimonides1 ,abraham1 wrote a pamphlet ,milamot adonai1 in defence of the writings of his father4 ,the controversy raised about fifty years later by ,abba ,mari ,don ,astruc and ,r4 ,solomon ben-,aderet of ,barcelona1 concerned the ,moreh less directly4 ,the question was of a more general character3 ,is the study of philosophy dangerous to the religious belief of young students8 ,the letters written in this controversy are contained in ,minat-enaot by ,abba ,mari ,don ,astruc 7,presburg1 #ahch71 and ,kitab alrasail of ,meir ,abulafia ed4 ,j4 ,brill 7,paris1 #ahga74 ,yedaya ,bedrasi took part in this controversy1 and wrote ,ketab hitnalut in defence of the study of philosophy 7,teshubot ,rashba1 ,hanau1 #afaj1 p4 #aaa b474 ,the whole controversy ended in the victory of the ,moreh and the other writings of ,maimonides4 ,stray remarks are found in various works1 some in praise and some in condemnation of ,maimonides4 ,a few instances may suffice4 ,rabbi ,jacob ,emden in his ,mitpaat-sefarim 7,lemberg1 #ahgj1 p4 #ef7 believes that parts of the ,moreh are spurious2 he even doubts whether any portion of it is the work of 8,maimonides1 the author of the ,mishneh-torah1 who was not capable of writing such heretic doctrines40 ,s4 ,d4 ,luzzato regards ,maimonides with great reverence1 but this does not prevent him from severely criticising his philosophical theories 7,letters to ,s4 ,rappoport1 ,no4 #gi1 #hc1 #bff1 ,iggeroth ,shedal ed4 ,e4 ,graber1 ,przemys'l1 #ahhb71 and from expressing his conviction that the saying 8,from ,moses to ,moses none rose like ,moses10 was as untrue as that suggested by ,rappoport1 8,from ,abraham to ,abraham 7,ibn-,ezra7 none rose like ,abraham40 ,rabbi ,hirsch ,chayyuth in ,darke-,mosheh 7,zolkiew1 #ahdj7 examines the attacks made upon the writings of ,maimonides1 and tries to refute them1 and to show that they can be reconciled with the teaching of the ,talmud4 ,the ,bodl4 ,,ms4 #bbdj1 #c;a1 contains a document signed by ,josselman and other ,rabbis1 declaring that they accept the teaching of ,maimonides as correct1 with the exception of his theory about angels and sacrifices4 ,numerous poems were written1 both in admiration and in condemnation of the ,moreh4 ,most of them precede or follow the ,moreh in the printed editions and in the various ,,ms4 copies of the work4 ,a few have been edited in ,dibre-akamim1 pp4 #ge and #hf2 in the ,literaturblatt d4 ,or4 ,i4 #cgi1 ,,ii4 #bf-bg1 ,,iv4 #gdh1 and ,leket-shoshannim by ,dr4 ,grtz4 ,in the ,sammelband of the ,mekize ,nirdamim 7#ahhe7 a collection of #fi of these poems is contained1 edited and explained by ,prof4 ,dr4 ,a4 ,berliner4 ,in imitation of the ,moreh and with a view of displacing ,maimonides' work1 the ,karaite ,ahron ,,ii4 b4 ,eliah wrote a philosophical treatise1 ,e-ayyim 7,ed4 ,f4 ,delitzsch4 ,leipzig1 #ahda74 ,of the works that discuss the whole or part of the philosophical system of the ,moreh the following are noteworthy3-- ,bacher1 ,w4 ,die ,bibilexegese ,moses ,maimni's1 in the ,jahresbericht der ,landes ,rabbinerschule zu ,buda-,pest4 #ahif4 ,eisler1 ,m4 ,vorlesungen ber die jdischen ,philosophen des ,mittelalters4 ,abtheil4 ,,ii41 ,moses ,maimonides 7,wien1 #ahgj74 ,geiger1 ,a4 ,das ,judenthum u4 seine ,geschichte 7,breslau1 #ahfe71 ,zehnte ,vorlesung3 ,aben ,ezra u4 ,maimonides4 ,grtz1 ,h4 ,geschichte d4 ,juden1 ,,vi4 p4 #cfc sqq4 ,joel1 ,m4 ,religionsphilosophie des ,moses b4 ,maimon 7,breslau1 #ahei74 ,joel1 ,m4 ,albertus ,magnus u4 sein ,verhltniss zu ,maimonides 7,breslau1 #ahfc74 ,kaufmann1 ,d4 ,geschichte der ,attributenlehre1 ,,vii4 ,gotha1 #ahgd4 ,philippsohn1 ,l4 ,die ,philosophie des ,maimonides4 ,predigt und ,schul-,magazin1 ,i4 xviii4 7,magdeburg1 #ahcd47 ,rosin1 ,d4 ,die ,ethik d4 ,maimonides 7,breslau1 #ahgf74 ,rubin1 ,s4 ,spinoza u4 ,maimonides1 ein ,psychologisch-,philosophisches ,antitheton 7,wien1 #ahfh74 ,scheyer1 ,s4 ,das psychologische ,system des ,maimonides4 ,frankfort-a4-,m41 #ahde4 ,weiss1 ,t4 ,h4 ,beth-,talmud1 ,i4 x4 p4 #bhi4 ,david ,yellin and ,israel ,abrahams1 ,maimonides4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,the ,,guide ,,for ,,the ,,perplexed ,it is the object of this work 8to afford a guide for the perplexed10 i4e4 8to thinkers whose studies have brought them into collision with religion0 7p4 #i71 8who have studied philosophy and have acquired sound knowledge1 and who1 while firm in religious matters1 are perplexed and bewildered on account of the ambiguous and figurative expressions employed in the holy writings0 7p4 #e74 ,joseph1 the son of ,jehudah ,ibn ,aknin1 a disciple of ,maimonides1 is addressed by his teacher as an example of this kind of students4 ,it was 8for him and for those like him0 that the treatise was composed1 and to him this work is inscribed in the dedicatory letter with which the ,introduction begins4 ,maimonides1 having discovered that his disciple was sufficiently advanced for an exposition of the esoteric ideas in the books of the ,prophets1 commenced to give him such expositions 8by way of hints40 ,his disciple then begged him to give him further explanations1 to treat of metaphysical themes1 and to expound the system and the method of the ,kalm1 or ,mohammedan ,theology4 #a ,in compliance with this request1 ,maimonides composed the ,guide for the ,perplexed4 ,the reader has1 therefore1 to expect that the subjects mentioned in the disciple's request indicate the design and arrangement of the present work1 and that the ,guide consists of the following parts3--#a4 ,an exposition of the esoteric ideas 7sodot7 in the books of the ,prophets4 #b4 ,a treatment of certain metaphysical problems4 #c4 ,an examination of the system and method of the ,kalm4 ,this1 in fact1 is a correct account of the contents of the book2 but in the second part of the ,introduction1 in which the theme of this work is defined1 the author mentions only the first-named subject4 ,he observes3 8,my primary object is to explain certain terms occurring in the prophetic book4 ,of these some are homonymous1 some figurative1 and some hybrid terms40 8,this work has also a second object4 ,it is designed to explain certain obscure figures which occur in the ,prophets1 and are not distinctly characterised as being figures0 7p4 #b74 ,yet from this observation it must not be inferred that ,maimonides abandoned his original purpose2 for he examines the ,kalm in the last chapters of the ,first ,part 7ch4 lxx4-lxxvi471 and treats of certain metaphysical themes in the beginning of the ,second ,part 7,introd4 and ch4 i4-xxv474 ,but in the passage quoted above he confines himself to a delineation of the main object of this treatise1 and advisedly leaves unmentioned the other two subjects1 which1 however important they may be1 are here of subordinate interest4 ,nor did he consider it necessary to expatiate on these subjects2 he only wrote for the student1 for whom a mere reference to works on philosophy and science was sufficient4 ,we therefore meet now and then with such phrases as the following3 8,this is fully discussed in works on metaphysics40 ,by references of this kind the author may have intended to create a taste for the study of philosophical works4 ,but our observation only holds good with regard to the ,aristotelian philosophy4 ,the writings of the ,mutakallemim are never commended by him2 he states their opinions1 and tells his disciple that he would not find any additional argument1 even if he were to read all their voluminous works 7p4 #acc74 ,maimonides was a zealous disciple of ,aristotle1 although the theory of the ,kalm might seem to have been more congenial to ,jewish thought and belief4 ,the ,kalm upheld the theory of ,god's ,existence1 ,incorporeality1 and ,unity1 together with the creatio ex nihilo4 ,maimonides nevertheless opposed the ,kalm1 and1 anticipating the question1 why preference should be given to the system of ,aristotle1 which included the theory of the ,eternity of the ,universe1 a theory contrary to the fundamental teaching of the ,scriptures1 he exposed the weakness of the ,kalm and its fallacies4 ,the exposition of ,scriptural texts is divided by the author into two parts2 the first part treats of homonymous1 figurative1 and hybrid terms1 #b employed in reference to ,god2 the second part relates to ,biblical figures and allegories4 ,these two parts do not closely follow each other2 they are separated by the examination of the ,kalm1 and the discussion of metaphysical problems4 ,it seems that the author adopted this arrangement for the following reason3 first of all1 he intended to establish the fact that the ,biblical anthropomorphisms do not imply corporeality1 and that the ,divine ,being of whom the ,bible speaks could therefore be regarded as identical with the ,primal ,cause of the philosophers4 ,having established this principle1 he discusses from a purely metaphysical point of view the properties of the ,primal ,cause and its relation to the universe4 ,a solid foundation is thus established for the esoteric exposition of ,scriptural passages4 ,before discussing metaphysical problems1 which he treats in accordance with ,aristotelian philosophy1 he disposes of the ,kalm1 and demonstrates that its arguments are illogical and illusory4 ,the 8,guide for the ,perplexed0 contains1 therefore1 an ,introduction and the following four parts3--#a4 ,on homonymous1 figurative1 and hybrid terms4 #b4 ,on the ,supreme ,being and ,his relation to the universe1 according to the ,kalm4 #c4 ,on the ,primal ,cause and its relation to the universe1 according to the philosophers4 #d4 ,esoteric exposition of some portions of the ,bible 7sodot73 a1 ,maaseh bereshith1 or the history of the ,creation 7,genesis1 ch4 i4-iv472 b1 on ,prophecy2 c1 ,maaseh mercabhah1 or the description of the divine chariot 7,ezekiel1 ch4 i474 ,according to this plan1 the work ends with the seventh chapter of the ,third ,part4 ,the chapters which follow may be considered as an appendix2 they treat of the following theological themes3 the ,existence of ,evil1 ,omniscience and ,providence1 ,temptations1 ,design in ,nature1 in the ,law1 and in the ,biblical ,narratives1 and finally the true ,worship of ,god4 ,in the ,introduction to the 8,guide10 ,maimonides 7#a7 describes the object of the work and the method he has followed2 7#b7 treats of similes2 7#c7 gives 8directions for the study of the work02 and 7#d7 discusses the usual causes of inconsistencies in authors4 #a 7pp4 #b-c74 ,inquiring into the root of the evil which the ,guide was intended to remove1 viz41 the conflict between science and religion1 the author perceived that in most cases it originated in a misinterpretation of the anthropomorphisms in ,holy ,writ4 ,the main difficulty is found in the ambiguity of the words employed by the prophets when speaking of the ,divine ,being2 the question arises whether they are applied to the ,deity and to other things in one and the same sense or equivocally2 in the latter case the author distinguishes between homonyms pure and simple1 figures1 and hybrid terms4 ,in order to show that the ,biblical anthropomorphisms do not imply the corporeality of the ,deity1 he seeks in each instance to demonstrate that the expression under examination is a perfect homonym denoting things which are totally distinct from each other1 and whenever such a demonstration is impossible1 he assumes that the expression is a hybrid term1 that is1 being employed in one instance figuratively and in another homonymously4 ,his explanation of 8form0 7elem7 may serve as an illustration4 ,according to his opinion1 it invariably denotes 8form0 in the philosophical acceptation of the term1 viz41 the complex of the essential properties of a thing4 ,but to obviate objections he proposes an alternative view1 to take elem as a hybrid term that may be explained as a class noun denoting only things of the same class1 or as a homonym employed for totally different things1 viz41 8form0 in the philosophical sense1 and 8form0 in the ordinary meaning of the word4 ,maimonides seems to have refrained from explaining anthropomorphisms as figurative expressions1 lest by such interpretation he might implicitly admit the existence of a certain relation and comparison between the ,creator and ,his creatures4 ,jewish philosophers before ,maimonides enunciated and demonstrated the ,unity and the ,incorporeality of the ,divine ,being1 and interpreted ,scriptural metaphors on the principle that 8the ,law speaks in the language of man02 but our author adopted a new and altogether original method4 ,the ,commentators1 when treating of anthropomorphisms1 generally contented themselves with the statement that the term under consideration must not be taken in its literal sense1 or they paraphrased the passage in expressions which implied a lesser degree of corporeality4 ,the ,talmud1 the ,midrashim1 and the ,targumim abound in paraphrases of this kind4 ,saadiah in 8,emunot ve-deot10 ,bahya in his 8obot ha-lebabot10 and ,jehudah ha-levi in the 8,cusari10 insist on the necessity and the appropriateness of such interpretations4 ,saadiah enumerates ten terms which primarily denote organs of the human body1 and are figuratively applied to ,god4 ,to establish this point of view he cites numerous instances in which the terms in question are used in a figurative sense without being applied to ,god4 ,saadiah further shows that the ,divine attributes are either qualifications of such of ,god's actions as are perceived by man1 or they imply a negation4 ,the correctness of this method was held to be so obvious that some authors found it necessary to apologize to the reader for introducing such well-known topics4 ,from ,r4 ,abraham ben ,david's strictures on the ,yad haazaah it is1 however1 evident that in the days of ,maimonides persons were not wanting who defended the literal interpretation of certain anthropomorphisms4 ,maimonides1 therefore1 did not content himself with the vague and general rule1 8,the ,law speaks in the language of man10 but sought carefully to define the meaning of each term when applied to ,god1 and to identify it with some transcendental and metaphysical term4 ,in pursuing this course he is sometimes forced to venture upon an interpretation which is much too far-fetched to commend itself even to the supposed philosophical reader4 ,in such instances he generally adds a simple and plain explanation1 and leaves it to the option of the reader to choose the one which appears to him preferable4 ,the enumeration of the different meanings of a word is often1 from a philological point of view1 incomplete2 he introduces only such significations as serve his object4 ,when treating of an imperfect homonym1 the several significations of which are derived from one primary signification1 he apparently follows a certain system which he does not employ in the interpretation of perfect homonyms4 ,the homonymity of the term is not proved2 the author confines himself to the remark1 8,it is employed homonymously10 even when the various meanings of a word might easily be traced to a common source4 #b 7pag4 #d-h74 ,in addition to the explanation of homonyms ,maimonides undertakes to interpret similes and allegories4 ,at first it had been his intention to write two distinct works--,sefer ha-nebuah1 8,a ,book on ,prophecy10 and ,sefer ha-shevaah1 8,a ,book of ,reconciliation40 ,in the former work he had intended to explain difficult passages of the ,bible1 and in the latter to expound such passages in the ,midrash and the ,talmud as seemed to be in conflict with common sense4 ,with respect to the 8,book of ,reconciliation10 he abandoned his plan1 because he apprehended that neither the learned nor the unlearned would profit by it3 the one would find it superfluous1 the other tedious4 ,the subject of the 8,book on ,prophecy0 is treated in the present work1 and also strange passages that occasionally occur in the ,talmud and the ,midrash are explained4 ,the treatment of the simile must vary according as the simile is compound or simple4 ,in the first case1 each part represents a separate idea and demands a separate interpretation2 in the other case1 only one idea is represented1 and it is not necessary to assign to each part a separate metaphorical meaning4 ,this division the author illustrates by citing the dream of ,jacob 7,gen4 xxviii4 #ab sqq471 and the description of the adulteress 7,prov4 vii4 #f sqq474 ,he gives no rule by which it might be ascertained to which of the two categories a simile belongs1 and1 like other ,commentators1 he seems to treat as essential those details of a simile for which he can offer an adequate interpretation4 ,as a general principle1 he warns against the confusion and the errors which arise when an attempt is made to expound every single detail of a simile4 ,his own explanations are not intended to be exhaustive2 on the contrary1 they are to consist of brief allusions to the idea represented by the simile1 of mere suggestions1 which the reader is expected to develop and to complete4 ,the author thus aspires to follow in the wake of the ,creator1 whose works can only be understood after a long and persevering study4 ,yet it is possible that he derived his preference for a reserved and mysterious style from the example of ancient philosophers1 who discussed metaphysical problems in figurative and enigmatic language4 ,like ,ibn ,ezra1 who frequently concludes his exposition of a ,biblical passage with the phrase1 8,here a profound idea 7sod7 is hidden10 ,maimonides somewhat mysteriously remarks at the end of different chapters1 8,note this10 8,consider it well40 ,in such phrases some ,commentators fancied that they found references to metaphysical theories which the author was not willing fully to discuss4 ,whether this was the case or not1 in having recourse to that method he was not1 as some have suggested1 actuated by fear of being charged with heresy4 ,he expresses his opinion on the principal theological questions without reserve1 and does not dread the searching inquiries of opponents2 for he boldly announces that their displeasure would not deter him from teaching the truth and guiding those who are able and willing to follow him1 however few these might be4 ,when1 however1 we examine the work itself1 we are at a loss to discover to which parts the professed enigmatic method was applied4 ,his theories concerning the ,deity1 the ,divine attributes1 angels1 creatio ex nihilo1 prophecy1 and other subjects1 are treated as fully as might be expected4 ,it is true that a cloud of mysterious phrases enshrouds the interpretation of ,maaseh bereshit 7,gen4 i4-iii47 and ,maaseh mercabah 7,ez4 i474 ,but the significant words occurring in these portions are explained in the ,first ,part of this work1 and a full exposition is found in the ,second and ,third ,parts4 ,nevertheless the statement that the exposition was never intended to be explicit occurs over and over again4 ,the treatment of the first three chapters of ,genesis concludes thus3 8,these remarks1 together with what we have already observed on the subject1 and what we may have to add1 must suffice both for the object and for the reader we have in view0 7,,ii4 xxx474 ,in like manner1 he declares1 after the explanation of the first chapter of ,ezekiel3 8,i have given you here as many suggestions as may be of service to you1 if you will give them a further development4444 ,do not expect to hear from me anything more on this subject1 for ,i have1 though with some hesitation1 gone as far in my explanation as ,i possibly could go0 7,,iii4 vii474 #c 7pag4 #h-i74 ,in the next paragraph1 headed1 8,directions for the ,study of this ,work10 he implores the reader not to be hasty with his criticism1 and to bear in mind that every sentence1 indeed every word1 had been fully considered before it was written down4 ,yet it might easily happen that the reader could not reconcile his own view with that of the author1 and in such a case he is asked to ignore the disapproved chapter or section altogether4 ,such disapproval ,maimonides attributes to a mere misconception on the part of the reader1 a fate which awaits every work composed in a mystical style4 ,in adopting this peculiar style1 he intended to reduce to a minimum the violation of the rule laid down in the ,mishnah 7agigah ii4 #a71 that metaphysics should not be taught publicly4 ,the violation of this rule he justifies by citing the following two ,mishnaic maxims3 8,it is time to do something in honour of the ,lord0 7,berakot ix4 #e71 and 8,let all thy acts be guided by pure intentions0 7,abot ii4 #ag74 ,maimonides increased the mysteriousness of the treatise1 by expressing his wish that the reader should abstain from expounding the work1 lest he might spread in the name of the author opinions which the latter never held4 ,but it does not occur to him that the views he enunciates might in themselves be erroneous4 ,he is positive that his own theory is unexceptionally correct1 that his esoteric interpretations of ,scriptural texts are sound1 and that those who differed from him--viz41 the ,mutakallemim on the one hand1 and the unphilosophical ,rabbis on the other--are indefensibly wrong4 ,in this respect other ,jewish philosophers--e4g4 ,saadiah and ,baya--were far less positive2 they were conscious of their own fallibility1 and invited the reader to make such corrections as might appear needful4 ,owing to this strong self-reliance of ,maimonides1 it is not to be expected that opponents would receive a fair and impartial judgment at his hands4 #d 7pag4 #i-aa74 ,the same self-reliance is noticeable in the next and concluding paragraph of the ,introduction4 ,here he treats of the contradictions which are to be found in literary works1 and he divides them with regard to their origin into seven classes4 ,the first four classes comprise the apparent contradictions1 which can be traced back to the employment of elliptical speech2 the other three classes comprise the real contradictions1 and are due to carelessness and oversight1 or they are intended to serve some special purpose4 ,the ,scriptures1 the ,talmud1 and the ,midrash abound in instances of apparent contradictions2 later works contain real contradictions1 which escaped the notice of the writers4 ,in the present treatise1 however1 there occur only such contradictions as are the result of intention and design4 ,,part ,i4 ,the homonymous expressions which are discussed in the ,first ,part include--7#a7 nouns and verbs used in reference to ,god1 ch4 i4 to ch4 xlix42 7#b7 attributes of the ,deity1 ch4 l4 to lx42 7#c7 expressions commonly regarded as names of ,god1 ch4 lxi4 to lxx4 ,in the first section the following groups can be distinguished--7a7 expressions which denote form and figure1 ch4 i4 to ch4 vi42 7b7 space or relations of space1 ch4 viii4 to ch4 xxv42 7c7 parts of the animal body and their functions1 ch4 xxviii4 to ch4 xlix4 ,each of these groups includes chapters not connected with the main subject1 but which serve as a help for the better understanding of previous or succeeding interpretations4 ,every word selected for discussion bears upon some ,scriptural text which1 according to the opinion of the author1 has been misinterpreted4 ,but such phrases as 8the mouth of the ,lord10 and 8the hand of the ,lord10 are not introduced1 because their figurative meaning is too obvious to be misunderstood4 ,the lengthy digressions which are here and there interposed appear like outbursts of feeling and passion which the author could not repress4 ,yet they are 8words fitly spoken in the right place02 for they gradually unfold the author's theory1 and acquaint the reader with those general principles on which he founds the interpretations in the succeeding chapters4 ,moral reflections are of frequent occurrence1 and demonstrate the intimate connexion between a virtuous life and the attainment of higher knowledge1 in accordance with the maxim current long before ,maimonides1 and expressed in the ,biblical words1 8,the fear of the ,lord is the beginning of wisdom0 7,ps4 cxi4 #aj74 ,no opportunity is lost to inculcate this lesson1 be it in a passing remark or in an elaborate essay4 ,the discussion of the term 8elem0 7ch4 i47 afforded the first occasion for reflections of this kind4 ,man1 8the image of ,god10 is defined as a living and rational being1 as though the moral faculties of man were not an essential element of his existence1 and his power to discern between good and evil were the result of the first sin4 ,according to ,maimonides1 the moral faculty would1 in fact1 not have been required1 if man had remained a purely rational being4 ,it is only through the senses that 8the knowledge of good and evil0 has become indispensable4 ,the narrative of ,adam's fall is1 according to ,maimonides1 an allegory representing the relation which exists between sensation1 moral faculty1 and intellect4 ,in this early part 7ch4 ii471 however1 the author does not yet mention this theory2 on the contrary1 every allusion to it is for the present studiously avoided1 its full exposition being reserved for the ,second ,part4 ,the treatment of azah 8he beheld0 7ch4 vi471 is followed by the advice that the student should not approach metaphysics otherwise than after a sound and thorough preparation1 because a rash attempt to solve abstruse problems brings nothing but injury upon the inexperienced investigator4 ,the author points to the 8nobles of the children of ,israel0 7,exod4 xxiv4 #aa71 who1 according to his interpretation1 fell into this error1 and received their deserved punishment4 ,he gives additional force to these exhortations by citing a dictum of ,aristotle to the same effect4 ,in a like way he refers to the allegorical use of certain terms by ,plato 7ch4 xvii47 in support of his interpretation of 8ur0 7lit41 8rock07 as denoting 8,primal ,cause40 ,the theory that nothing but a sound moral and intellectual training would entitle a student to engage in metaphysical speculations is again discussed in the digression which precedes the third group of homonyms 7xxxi4-xxxvi474 ,man's intellectual faculties1 he argues1 have this in common with his physical forces1 that their sphere of action is limited1 and they become inefficient whenever they are overstrained4 ,this happens when a student approaches metaphysics without due preparation4 ,maimonides goes on to argue that the non-success of metaphysical studies is attributable to the following causes3 the transcendental character of this discipline1 the imperfect state of the student's knowledge1 the persistent efforts which have to be made even in the preliminary studies1 and finally the waste of energy and time owing to the physical demands of man4 ,for these reasons the majority of persons are debarred from pursuing the study of metaphysics4 ,nevertheless1 there are certain metaphysical truths which have to be communicated to all men1 e4g41 that ,god is ,one1 and that ,he is incorporeal2 for to assume that ,god is corporeal1 or that ,he has any properties1 or to ascribe to ,him any attributes1 is a sin bordering on idolatry4 ,another digression occurs as an appendix to the second group of homonyms 7ch4 xxvi4-xxvii474 ,maimonides found that only a limited number of terms are applied to ,god in a figurative sense2 and again1 that in the 8,targum0 of ,onkelos some of the figures are paraphrased1 while other figures received a literal rendering4 ,he therefore seeks to discover the principle which was applied both in the ,sacred ,text and in the translation1 and he found it in the ,talmudical dictum1 8,the ,law speaketh the language of man40 ,for this reason all figures are eschewed which1 in their literal sense1 would appear to the multitude as implying debasement or a blemish4 ,onkelos1 who rigorously guards himself against using any term that might suggest corporification1 gives a literal rendering of figurative terms when there is no cause for entertaining such an apprehension4 ,maimonides illustrates this rule by the mode in which ,onkelos renders 8yarad0 78he went down1071 when used in reference to ,god4 ,it is generally paraphrased1 but in one exceptional instance1 occurring in ,jacob's 8visions of the night0 7,gen4 xlvi4 #d71 it is translated literally2 in this instance the literal rendering does not lead to corporification2 because visions and dreams were generally regarded as mental operations1 devoid of objective reality4 ,simple and clear as this explanation may be1 we do not consider that it really explains the method of ,onkelos4 ,on the contrary1 the translator paraphrased anthropomorphic terms1 even when he found them in passages relating to dreams or visions2 and indeed it is doubtful whether ,maimonides could produce a single instance in favour of his view4 ,he was equally unsuccessful in his explanation of 8azah0 8he saw0 7ch4 xlviii474 ,he says that when the object of the vision was derogatory1 it was not brought into direct relation with the ,deity2 in such instances the verb is paraphrased1 while in other instances the rendering is literal4 ,although ,maimonides grants that the force of this observation is weakened by three exceptions1 he does not doubt its correctness4 ,the next ,section 7ch4 l4 to ch4 lix47 8,on the ,divine ,attributes0 begins with the explanation that 8faith0 consists in thought1 not in mere utterance2 in conviction1 not in mere profession4 ,this explanation forms the basis for the subsequent discussion4 ,the several arguments advanced by ,maimonides against the employment of attributes are intended to show that those who assume the real existence of ,divine attributes may possibly utter with their lips the creed of the ,unity and the ,incorporeality of ,god1 but they cannot truly believe it4 ,a demonstration of this fact would be needless1 if the ,attributists had not put forth their false theses and defended them with the utmost tenacity1 though with the most absurd arguments4 ,after this explanation the author proceeds to discuss the impropriety of assigning attributes to ,god4 ,the ,attributists admit that ,god is the ,primal ,cause1 ,one1 incorporeal1 free from emotion and privation1 and that ,he is not comparable to any of ,his creatures4 ,maimonides therefore contends that any attributes which1 either directly or indirectly1 are in contradiction to this creed1 should not be applied to ,god4 ,by this rule he rejects four classes of attributes3 viz41 those which include a definition1 a partial definition1 a quality1 or a relation4 ,the definition of a thing includes its efficient cause2 and since ,god is the ,primal ,cause1 ,he cannot be defined1 or described by a partial definition4 ,a quality1 whether psychical1 physical1 emotional1 or quantitative1 is always regarded as something distinct from its substratum2 a thing which possesses any quality1 consists1 therefore1 of that quality and a substratum1 and should not be called one4 ,all relations of time and space imply corporeality2 all relations between two objects are1 to a certain degree1 a comparison between these two objects4 ,to employ any of these attributes in reference to ,god would be as much as to declare that ,god is not the ,primal ,cause1 that ,he is not ,one1 that ,he is corporeal1 or that ,he is comparable to ,his creatures4 ,there is only one class of attributes to which ,maimonides makes no objection1 viz4 such as describe actions1 and to this class belong all the ,divine attributes which occur in the ,scriptures4 ,the 8,thirteen ,attributes0 7shelosh esreh middot1 ,exod4 xxxiv4 #f1 #g7 serve as an illustration4 ,they were communicated to ,moses when he1 as the chief of the ,israelites1 wished to know the way in which ,god governs the universe1 in order that he himself in ruling the nation might follow it1 and thereby promote their real well-being4 ,on the whole1 the opponents of ,maimonides admit the correctness of this theory4 ,only a small number of attributes are the subject of dispute4 ,the ,scriptures unquestionably ascribe to ,god ,existence1 ,life1 ,power1 ,wisdom1 ,unity1 ,eternity1 and ,will4 ,the ,attributists regard these as properties distinct from1 but co-existing with1 the ,essence of ,god4 ,with great acumen1 and with equally great acerbity1 ,maimonides shows that their theory is irreconcilable with their belief in the ,unity and the ,incorporeality of ,god4 ,he points out three different ways of interpreting these attributes3--#a4 ,they may be regarded as descriptive of the works of ,god1 and as declaring that these possess such properties as1 in works of man1 would appear to be the result of the will1 the power1 and the wisdom of a living being4 #b4 ,the terms 8existing10 8one10 8wise10 etc41 are applied to ,god and to ,his creatures homonymously2 as attributes of ,god they coincide with ,his ,essence2 as attributes of anything beside ,god they are distinct from the essence of the thing4 #c4 ,these terms do not describe a positive quality1 but express a negation of its opposite4 ,this third interpretation appears to have been preferred by the author2 he discusses it more fully than the two others4 ,he observes that the knowledge of the incomprehensible ,being is solely of a negative character1 and he shows by simple and appropriate examples that an approximate knowledge of a thing can be attained by mere negations1 that such knowledge increases with the number of these negations1 and that an error in positive assertions is more injurious than an error in negative assertions4 ,in describing the evils which arise from the application of positive attributes to ,god1 he unsparingly censures the hymnologists1 because he found them profuse in attributing positive epithets to the ,deity4 ,on the basis of his own theory he could easily have interpreted these epithets in the same way as he explains the ,scriptural attributes of ,god4 ,his severity may1 however1 be accounted for by the fact that the frequent recurrence of positive attributes in the literary composition of the ,jews was the cause that the ,mohammedans charged the ,jews with entertaining false notions of the ,deity4 ,the inquiry into the attributes is followed by a treatment of the names of ,god4 ,it seems to have been beyond the design of the author to elucidate the etymology of each name1 or to establish methodically its signification2 for he does not support his explanations by any proof4 ,his sole aim is to show that the ,scriptural names of ,god in their true meaning strictly harmonize with the philosophical conception of the ,primal ,cause4 ,there are two things which have to be distinguished in the treatment of the ,primal ,cause3 the ,primal ,cause per se1 and its relation to the ,universe4 ,the first is expressed by the tetragrammaton and its cognates1 the second by the several attributes1 especially by rokeb baarabot1 8,he who rideth on the arabot0 7,ps4 lxviii4 #d7 ,the tetragrammaton exclusively expresses the essence of ,god1 and therefore it is employed as a nomen proprium4 ,in the mystery of this name1 and others mentioned in the ,talmud1 as consisting of twelve and of forty-two letters1 ,maimonides finds no other secret than the solution of some metaphysical problems4 ,the subject of these problems is not actually known1 but the author supposes that it referred to the 8absolute existence of the ,deity40 ,he discovers the same idea in ehyeh 7,exod4 iii4 #ad71 in accordance with the explanation added in the ,sacred ,text3 asher ehyeh1 8that is1 ,i am40 ,in the course of this discussion he exposes the folly or sinfulness of those who pretend to work miracles by the aid of these and similar names4 ,with a view of preparing the way for his peculiar interpretation of rokeb baarabot1 he explains a variety of ,scriptural passages1 and treats of several philosophical terms relative to the ,supreme ,being4 ,such expressions as 8the word of ,god10 8the work of ,god10 8the work of ,his fingers10 8,he made10 8,he spake10 must be taken in a figurative sense2 they merely represent ,god as the cause that some work has been produced1 and that some person has acquired a certain knowledge4 ,the passage1 8,and ,he rested on the seventh day0 7,exod4 xx4 #aa7 is interpreted as follows3 ,on the seventh ,day the forces and laws were complete1 which during the previous six days were in the state of being established for the preservation of the ,universe4 ,they were not to be increased or modified4 ,it seems that ,maimonides introduced this figurative explanation with a view of showing that the ,scriptural 8,god0 does not differ from the 8,primal ,cause0 or 8,ever-active ,intellect0 of the philosophers4 ,on the other hand1 the latter do not reject the ,unity of ,god1 although they assume that the ,primal ,cause comprises the causa efficiens1 the agens1 and the causa finalis 7or1 the cause1 the means1 and the end72 and that the ,ever-active ,intellect comprises the intelligens1 the intellectus1 and the intellectum 7or1 the thinking subject1 the act of thought1 and the object thought of72 because in this case these apparently different elements are1 in fact1 identical4 ,the ,biblical term corresponding to 8,primal ,cause0 is rokeb baarabot1 8riding on arabot40 ,maimonides is at pains to prove that arabot denotes 8the highest sphere10 which causes the motion of all other spheres1 and which thus brings about the natural course of production and destruction4 ,by 8the highest sphere0 he does not understand a material sphere1 but the immaterial world of intelligences and angels1 8the seat of justice and judgment1 stores of life1 peace1 and blessings1 the seat of the souls of the righteous10 etc4 ,rokeb baarabot1 therefore1 means3 ,he presides over the immaterial beings1 ,he is the source of their powers1 by which they move the spheres and regulate the course of nature4 ,this theory is more fully developed in the ,second ,part4 ,the next section 7chap4 lxxi4-lxxvi47 treats of the ,kalm4 ,according to the author1 the method of the ,kalm is copied from the ,christian ,fathers1 who applied it in the defence of their religious doctrines4 ,the latter examined in their writings the views of the philosophers1 ostensibly in search of truth1 in reality1 however1 with the object of supporting their own dogmas4 ,subsequently ,mohammedan theologians found in these works arguments which seemed to confirm the truth of their own religion2 they blindly adopted these arguments1 and made no inquiry whence these had been derived4 ,maimonides rejects priori the theories of the ,mutakallemim1 because they explain the phenomena in the universe in conformity with preconceived notions1 instead of following the scientific method of the philosophers4 ,among the ,jews1 especially in the ,east and in ,africa1 there were also some who adopted the method of the ,kalm2 in doing so they followed the ,mutazilah 7dissenting ,mohammedans71 not because they found it more correct than the ,kalm of the ,ashariyah 7orthodox ,mohammedans71 but because at the time when the ,jews became acquainted with the ,kalm it was only cultivated by the ,mutazilah4 ,the ,jews in ,spain1 however1 remained faithful to the ,aristotelian philosophy4 ,the four principal dogmas upheld by the dominant religions were the creatio ex nihilo1 the ,existence of ,god1 ,his ,incorporeality1 and ,his ,unity4 ,by the philosophers the creatio ex nihilo was rejected1 but the ,mutakallemim defended it1 and founded upon it their proofs for the other three dogmas4 ,maimonides adopts the philosophical proofs for the ,existence1 ,incorporeality1 and ,unity of ,god1 because they must be admitted even by those who deny the creatio ex nihilo1 the proofs being independent of this dogma4 ,in order to show that the ,mutakallemim are mistaken in ignoring the organization of the existing order of things1 the author gives a minute description of the analogy between the ,universe1 or ,kosmos1 and man1 the mikrokosmos 7ch4 lxxii474 ,this analogy is merely asserted1 and the reader is advised either to find the proof by his own studies1 or to accept the fact on the authority of the learned4 ,the ,kalm does not admit the existence of law1 organization1 and unity in the universe4 ,its adherents have1 accordingly1 no trustworthy criterion to determine whether a thing is possible or impossible4 ,everything that is conceivable by imagination is by them held as possible4 ,the several parts of the universe are in no relation to each other2 they all consist of equal elements2 they are not composed of substance and properties1 but of atoms and accidents3 the law of causality is ignored2 man's actions are not the result of will and design1 but are mere accidents4 ,maimonides in enumerating and discussing the twelve fundamental propositions of the ,kalm 7ch4 lxiii471 which embody these theories1 had apparently no intention to give a complete and impartial account of the ,kalm2 he solely aimed at exposing the weakness of a system which he regarded as founded not on a sound basis of positive facts1 but on mere fiction2 not on the evidences of the senses and of reason1 but on the illusions of imagination4 ,after having shown that the twelve fundamental propositions of the ,kalm are utterly untenable1 ,maimonides finds no difficulty in demonstrating the insufficiency of the proofs advanced by the ,mutakallemim in support of the above-named dogmas4 ,seven arguments are cited which the ,mutakallemim employ in support of the creatio ex nihilo4 #c ,the first argument is based on the atomic theory1 viz41 that the universe consists of equal atoms without inherent properties3 all variety and change observed in nature must therefore be attributed to an external force4 ,three arguments are supplied by the proposition that finite things of an infinite number cannot exist 7,propos4 xi474 ,three other arguments derive their support from the following proposition 7x473 ,everything that can be imagined can have an actual existence4 ,the present order of things is only one out of the many forms which are possible1 and exist through the fiat of a determining power4 ,the ,unity of ,god is demonstrated by the ,mutakallemim as follows3 ,two ,gods would have been unable to produce the world2 one would have impeded the work of the other4 ,maimonides points out that this might have been avoided by a suitable division of labour4 ,another argument is as follows3 ,the two ,beings would have one element in common1 and would differ in another2 each would thus consist of two elements1 and would not be ,god4 ,maimonides might have suggested that the argument moves in a circle1 the unity of ,god being proved by assuming ,his unity4 ,the following argument is altogether unintelligible3 ,both ,gods are moved to action by will2 the will1 being without a substratum1 could not act simultaneously in two separate beings4 ,the fallacy of the following argument is clear3 ,the existence of one ,god is proved2 the existence of a second ,god is not proved1 it would be possible2 and as possibility is inapplicable to ,god1 there does not exist a second ,god4 ,the possibility of ascertaining the existence of ,god is here confounded with potentiality of existence4 ,again1 if one ,god suffices1 the second ,god is superfluous2 if one ,god is not sufficient1 he is not perfect1 and cannot be a deity4 ,maimonides objects that it would not be an imperfection in either deity to act exclusively within their respective provinces4 ,as in the criticism of the first argument1 ,maimonides seems here to forget that the existence of separate provinces would require a superior determining ,power1 and the two ,beings would not properly be called ,gods4 ,the weakest of all arguments are1 according to ,maimonides1 those by which the ,mutakallemim sought to support the doctrine of ,god's ,incorporeality4 ,if ,god were corporeal1 ,he would consist of atoms1 and would not be one2 or ,he would be comparable to other beings3 but a comparison implies the existence of similar and of dissimilar elements1 and ,god would thus not be one4 ,a corporeal ,god would be finite1 and an external power would be required to define those limits4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,the ,second ,part includes the following sections3--#a4 ,introduction2 #b4 ,philosophical ,proof of the ,existence of ,one ,incorporeal ,primal ,cause 7ch4 i472 #c4 ,on the ,spheres and the ,intelligences 7ii4-xii472 #d4 ,on the theory of the ,eternity of the ,universe 7xiii4-xxix472 #e4 ,exposition of ,gen4 i4-iv4 7xxx41 xxxi472 #f4 ,on ,prophecy 7xxxii4-xlviii474 ,the enumeration of twenty-six propositions1 by the aid of which the philosophers prove the ,existence1 the ,unity1 and the ,incorporeality of the ,primal ,cause1 forms the introduction to the ,second ,part of this work4 ,the propositions treat of the properties of the finite and the infinite 7i4-iii41 x4-xii41 xvi471 of change and motion 7iv4-ix41 xiii4-xviii471 and of the possible and the absolute or necessary 7xx4-xxv472 they are simply enumerated1 but are not demonstrated4 ,whatever the value of these ,propositions may be1 they were inadequate for their purpose1 and the author is compelled to introduce auxiliary propositions to prove the existence of an infinite1 incorporeal1 and uncompounded ,primal ,cause4 7,arguments ,i4 and ,,iii47 ,the first and the fourth arguments may be termed cosmological proofs4 ,they are based on the hypothesis that the series of causes for every change is finite1 and terminates in the ,primal ,cause4 ,there is no essential difference in the two arguments3 in the first are discussed the causes of the motion of a moving object2 the fourth treats of the causes which bring about the transition of a thing from potentiality to reality4 ,to prove that neither the spheres nor a force residing in them constitute the ,primal ,cause1 the philosophers employed two propositions1 of which the one asserts that the revolutions of the spheres are infinite1 and the other denies the possibility that an infinite force should reside in a finite object4 ,the distinction between the finite in space and the finite in time appears to have been ignored2 for it is not shown why a force infinite in time could not reside in a body finite in space4 ,moreover1 those who1 like ,maimonides1 reject the eternity of the universe1 necessarily reject this proof1 while those who hold that the universe is eternal do not admit that the spheres have ever been only potential1 and passed from potentiality to actuality4 ,the second argument is supported by the following supplementary proposition3 ,if two elements coexist in a state of combination1 and one of these elements is to be found at the same time separate1 in a free state1 it is certain that the second element is likewise to be found by itself4 ,now1 since things exist which combine in themselves motive power and mass moved by that power1 and since mass is found by itself1 motive power must also be found by itself independent of mass4 ,the third argument has a logical character3 ,the universe is either eternal or temporal1 or partly eternal and partly temporal4 ,it cannot be eternal in all its parts1 as many parts undergo destruction2 it is not altogether temporal1 because1 if so1 the universe could not be reproduced after being destroyed4 ,the continued existence of the universe leads1 therefore1 to the conclusion that there is an immortal force1 the ,primal ,cause1 besides the transient world4 ,these arguments have this in common1 that while proving the existence of a ,primal ,cause1 they at the same time demonstrate the ,unity1 the ,incorporeality1 and the ,eternity of that ,cause4 ,special proofs are nevertheless superadded for each of these postulates1 and on the whole they differ very little from those advanced by the ,mohammedan ,theologians4 ,this philosophical theory of the ,primal ,cause was adapted by ,jewish scholars to the ,biblical theory of the ,creator4 ,the universe is a living1 organized being1 of which the earth is the centre4 ,any changes on this earth are due to the revolutions of the spheres2 the lowest or innermost sphere1 viz41 the one nearest to the centre1 is the sphere of the moon2 the outermost or uppermost is 8the all-encompassing sphere40 ,numerous spheres are interposed2 but ,maimonides divides all the spheres into four groups1 corresponding to the moon1 the sun1 the planets1 and the fixed stars4 ,this division is claimed by the author as his own discovery2 he believes that it stands in relation to the four causes of their motions1 the four elements of the sublunary world1 and the four classes of beings1 viz41 the mineral1 the vegetable1 the animal1 and the rational4 ,the spheres have souls1 and are endowed with intellect2 their souls enable them to move freely1 and the impulse to the motion is given by the intellect in conceiving the idea of the ,absolute ,intellect4 ,each sphere has an intellect peculiar to itself2 the intellect attached to the sphere of the moon is called 8the active intellect0 7,sekel ha-pol74 ,in support of this theory numerous passages are cited both from ,holy ,writ and from post-,biblical ,jewish literature4 ,the angels 7elohim1 malakim7 mentioned in the ,bible are assumed to be identical with the intellects of the spheres2 they are free agents1 and their volition invariably tends to that which is good and noble2 they emanate from the ,primal ,cause1 and form a descending series of beings1 ending with the active intellect4 ,the transmission of power from one element to the other is called 8emanation0 7shefa74 ,this transmission is performed without the utterance of a sound2 if any voice is supposed to be heard1 it is only an illusion1 originating in the human imagination1 which is the source of all evils 7ch4 xii474 ,in accordance with this doctrine1 ,maimonides explains that the three men who appeared to ,abraham1 the angels whom ,jacob saw ascend and descend the ladder1 and all other angels seen by man1 are nothing but the intellects of the spheres1 four in number1 which emanate from the ,primal ,cause 7ch4 x474 ,in his description of the spheres he1 as usual1 follows ,aristotle4 ,the spheres do not contain any of the four elements of the sublunary world1 but consist of a quintessence1 an entirely different element4 ,whilst things on this earth are transient1 the beings which inhabit the spheres above are eternal4 ,according to ,aristotle1 these spheres1 as well as their intellects1 coexist with the ,primal ,cause4 ,maimonides1 faithful to the teaching of the ,scriptures1 here departs from his master1 and holds that the spheres and the intellects had a beginning1 and were brought into existence by the will of the ,creator4 ,he does not attempt to give a positive proof of his doctrine2 all he contends is that the theory of the creatio ex nihilo is1 from a philosophical point of view1 not inferior to the doctrine which asserts the eternity of the universe1 and that he can refute all objections advanced against his theory 7ch4 xiii4-xxviii474 ,he next enumerates and criticises the various theories respecting the origin of the ,universe1 viz43 ,a4 ,god created the ,universe out of nothing4 ,b4 ,god formed the ,universe from an eternal substance4 ,c4 ,the ,universe originating in the eternal ,primal ,cause is co-eternal4--,it is not held necessary by the author to discuss the view of those who do not assume a ,primal ,cause1 since the existence of such a cause has already been proved 7ch4 xiii474 ,the objections raised to a creatio ex nihilo by its opponents are founded partly on the properties of ,nature1 and partly on those of the ,primal ,cause4 ,they infer from the properties of ,nature the following arguments3 7#a7 ,the first moving force is eternal2 for if it had a beginning1 another motion must have produced it1 and then it would not be the ,first moving force4 7#b7 ,if the formless matter be not eternal1 it must have been produced out of another substance2 it would then have a certain form by which it might be distinguished from the primary substance1 and then it would not be formless4 7#c7 ,the circular motion of the spheres does not involve the necessity of termination2 and anything that is without an end1 must be without a beginning4 7#d7 ,anything brought to existence existed previously in potentia2 something must therefore have pre-existed of which potential existence could be predicated4 ,some support for the theory of the eternity of the heavens has been derived from the general belief in the eternity of the heavens4--,the properties of the ,primal ,cause furnished the following arguments3--,if it were assumed that the ,universe was created from nothing1 it would imply that the ,first ,cause had changed from the condition of a potential ,creator to that of an actual ,creator1 or that ,his will had undergone a change1 or that ,he must be imperfect1 because ,he produced a perishable work1 or that ,he had been inactive during a certain period4 ,all these contingencies would be contrary to a true conception of the ,first ,cause 7ch4 xiv474 ,maimonides is of opinion that the arguments based on the properties of things in ,nature are inadmissible1 because the laws by which the ,universe is regulated need not have been in force before the ,universe was in existence4 ,this refutation is styled by our author 8a strong wall built round the ,law1 able to resist all attacks0 7ch4 xvii474 ,in a similar manner the author proceeds against the objections founded on the properties of the ,first ,cause4 ,purely intellectual beings1 he says1 are not subject to the same laws as material bodies2 that which necessitates a change in the latter or in the will of man need not produce a change in immaterial beings4 ,as to the belief that the heavens are inhabited by angels and deities1 it has not its origin in the real existence of these supernatural beings2 it was suggested to man by meditation on the apparent grandeur of heavenly phenomena 7ch4 xviii474 ,maimonides next proceeds to explain how1 independently of the authority of ,scripture1 he has been led to adopt the belief in the creatio ex nihilo4 ,admitting that the great variety of the things in the sublunary world can be traced to those immutable laws which regulate the influence of the spheres on the beings below--the variety in the spheres can only be explained as the result of ,god's free will4 ,according to ,aristotle--the principal authority for the eternity of the ,universe--it is impossible that a simple being should1 according to the laws of nature1 be the cause of various and compound beings4 ,another reason for the rejection of the ,eternity of the ,universe may be found in the fact that the astronomer ,ptolemy has proved the incorrectness of the view which ,aristotle had of celestial spheres1 although the system of that astronomer is likewise far from being perfect and final 7ch4 xxiv474 ,it is impossible to obtain a correct notion of the properties of the heavenly spheres2 8the heaven1 even the heavens1 are the ,lord's1 but the earth hath ,he given to the children of man0 7,ps4 cxv4 #af74 ,the author1 observing that the arguments against the creatio ex nihilo are untenable1 adheres to his theory1 which was taught by such prophets as ,abraham and ,moses4 ,although each ,scriptural quotation could1 by a figurative interpretation1 be made to agree with the opposite theory1 ,maimonides declines to ignore the literal sense of a term1 unless it be in opposition to well-established truths1 as is the case with anthropomorphic expressions2 for the latter1 if taken literally1 would be contrary to the demonstrated truth of ,god's incorporeality 7ch4 xxv474 ,he is therefore surprised that the author of ,pirke-di ,rabbi ,eliezer ventured to assume the eternity of matter1 and he thinks it possible that ,rabbi ,eliezer carried the license of figurative speech too far4 7,ch4 xxvi474 ,the theory of the creatio ex nihilo does not involve the belief that the ,universe will at a future time be destroyed2 the ,bible distinctly teaches the creation1 but not the destruction of the world except in passages which are undoubtedly conceived in a metaphorical sense4 ,on the contrary1 respecting certain parts of the ,universe it is clearly stated 8,he established them for ever40 7,ps4 cxlviii4 #e47 ,the destruction of the ,universe would be1 as the creation has been1 a direct act of the ,divine will1 and not the result of those immutable laws which govern the ,universe4 ,the ,divine will would in that case set aside those laws1 both in the initial and the final stages of the ,universe4 ,within this interval1 however1 the laws remain undisturbed 7ch4 xxvii474 ,apparent exceptions1 the miracles1 originate in these laws1 although man is unable to perceive the causal relation4 ,the ,biblical account of the creation concludes with the statement that ,god rested on the seventh day1 that is to say1 ,he declared that the work was complete2 no new act of creation was to take place1 and no new law was to be introduced4 ,it is true that the second and the third chapters of ,genesis appear to describe a new creation1 that of ,eve1 and a new law1 viz41 that of man's mortality1 but these chapters are explained as containing an allegorical representation of man's psychical and intellectual faculties1 or a supplemental detail of the contents of the first chapter4 ,maimonides seems to prefer the allegorical explanation which1 as it seems1 he had in view without expressly stating it1 in his treatment of ,adam's sin and punishment4 7,part ,i4 ch4 ii47 ,it is certainly inconsistent on the one hand to admit that at the pleasure of the ,almighty the laws of nature may become inoperative1 and that the whole ,universe may become annihilated1 and on the other hand to deny1 that during the existence of the ,universe1 any of the natural laws ever have been or ever will be suspended4 ,it seems that ,maimonides could not conceive the idea that the work of the ,all-wise should be1 as the ,mutakallemim taught--without plan and system1 or that the laws once laid down should not be sufficient for all emergencies4 ,the account of the ,creation given in the book of ,genesis is explained by the author according to the following two rules3 ,first its language is allegorical2 and1 ,secondly1 the terms employed are homonyms4 ,the words erez1 mayim1 rua1 and oshek in the second verse 7ch4 i471 are homonyms and denote the four elements3 earth1 water1 air1 and fire2 in other instances erez is the terrestrial globe1 mayim is water or vapour1 rua denotes wind1 and oshek darkness3 ,according to ,maimonides1 a summary of the first chapter may be given thus2 ,god created the ,universe by producing first the reshit the 8beginning0 7,gen4 i4 #a71 or hatalah1 i4e41 the intellects which give to the spheres both existence and motion1 and thus become the source of the existence of the entire ,universe4 ,at first this ,universe consisted of a chaos of elements1 but its form was successively developed by the influence of the spheres1 and more directly by the action of light and darkness1 the properties of which were fixed on the first day of the ,creation4 ,in the subsequent five days minerals1 plants1 animals1 and the intellectual beings came into existence4 ,the seventh day1 on which the ,universe was for the first time ruled by the same natural laws which still continue in operation1 was distinguished as a day blessed and sanctified by the ,creator1 who designed it to proclaim the creatio ex nihilo 7,exod4 xx4 #aa74 ,the ,israelites were moreover commanded to keep this ,sabbath in commemoration of their departure from ,egypt 7,deut4 v4 #ae71 because during the period of the ,egyptian bondage1 they had not been permitted to rest on that day4 ,in the history of the first sin of man1 ,adam1 ,eve1 and the serpent represent the intellect1 the body1 and the imagination4 ,in order to complete the imagery1 ,samael or ,satan1 mentioned in the ,midrash in connexion with this account1 is added as representing man's appetitive faculties4 ,imagination1 the source of error1 is directly aided by the appetitive faculty1 and the two are intimately connected with the body1 to which man generally gives paramount attention1 and for the sake of which he indulges in sins2 in the end1 however1 they subdue the intellect and weaken its power4 ,instead of obtaining pure and real knowledge1 man forms false conceptions2 in consequence1 the body is subject to suffering1 whilst the imagination1 instead of being guided by the intellect and attaining a higher development becomes debased and depraved4 ,in the three sons of ,adam1 ,kain1 ,abel1 and ,seth1 ,maimonides finds an allusion to the three elements in man3 the vegetable1 the animal1 and the intellectual4 ,first1 the animal element 7,abel7 becomes extinct2 then the vegetable elements 7,kain7 are dissolved2 only the third element1 the intellect 7,seth71 survives1 and forms the basis of mankind 7ch4 xxx41 xxxi474 ,maimonides having so far stated his opinion in explicit terms1 it is difficult to understand what he had in view by the avowal that he could not disclose everything4 ,it is unquestionably no easy matter to adapt each verse in the first chapters of ,genesis to the foregoing allegory2 but such an adaptation is1 according to the author's own view 7,part ,i41 ,introd41 p4 #ai71 not only unnecessary1 but actually objectionable4 ,in the next section 7xxxii4-xlviii47 ,maimonides treats of ,prophecy4 ,he mentions the following three opinions3--#a4 ,any person1 irrespective of his physical or moral qualifications1 may be summoned by the ,almighty to the mission of a prophet4 #b4 ,prophecy is the highest degree of mental development1 and can only be attained by training and study4 #c4 ,the gift of prophecy depends on physical1 moral1 and mental training1 combined with inspiration4 ,the author adopts the last-mentioned opinion4 ,he defines prophecy as an emanation 7shefa71 which through the will of the ,almighty descends from the ,active ,intellect to the intellect and the imagination of thoroughly qualified persons4 ,the prophet is thus distinguished both from wise men whose intellect alone received the necessary impulse from the ,active ,intellect1 and from diviners or dreamers1 whose imagination alone has been influenced by the ,active ,intellect4 ,although it is assumed that the attainment of this prophetic faculty depends on ,god's will1 this dependence is nothing else but the relation which all things bear to the ,primal ,cause2 for the ,active ,intellect acts in conformity with the laws established by the will of ,god2 it gives an impulse to the intellect of man1 and1 bringing to light those mental powers which lay dormant1 it merely turns potential faculty into real action4 ,these faculties can be perfected to such a degree as to enable man to apprehend the highest truths intuitively1 without passing through all the stages of research required by ordinary persons4 ,the same fact is noticed with respect to imagination2 man sometimes forms faithful images of objects and events which cannot be traced to the ordinary channel of information1 viz41 impressions made on the senses4 ,since prophecy is the result of a natural process1 it may appear surprising that1 of the numerous men excelling in wisdom1 so few became prophets4 ,maimonides accounts for this fact by assuming that the moral faculties of such men had not been duly trained4 ,none of them had1 in the author's opinion1 gone through the moral discipline indispensable for the vocation of a prophet4 ,besides this1 everything which obstructs mental improvement1 misdirects the imagination or impairs the physical strength1 and precludes man from attaining to the rank of prophet4 ,hence no prophecy was vouchsafed to ,jacob during the period of his anxieties on account of his separation from ,joseph4 ,nor did ,moses receive a ,divine message during the years which the ,israelites1 under ,divine punishment1 spent in the desert4 ,on the other hand1 music and song awakened the prophetic power 7comp4 #b ,kings iii4 #ae71 and 8,the spirit of prophecy alights only on him who is wise1 strong1 and rich0 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,shabbat1 #ib;a74 ,although the preparation for a prophetic mission1 the pursuit of earnest and persevering study1 as also the execution of the ,divine dictates1 required physical strength1 yet in the moment when the prophecy was received the functions of the bodily organs were suspended4 ,the intellect then acquired true knowledge1 which presented itself to the prophet's imagination in forms peculiar to that faculty4 ,pure ideals are almost incomprehensible2 man must translate them into language which he is accustomed to use1 and he must adapt them to his own mode of thinking4 ,in receiving prophecies and communicating them to others the exercise of the prophet's imagination was therefore as essential as that of his intellect1 and ,maimonides seems to apply to this imagination the term 8angel10 which is so frequently mentioned in the ,bible as the medium of communication between the ,supreme ,being and the prophet4 ,only ,moses held his bodily functions under such control that even without their temporary suspension he was able to receive prophetic inspiration2 the interposition of the imagination was in his case not needed3 8,god spoke to him mouth to mouth0 7,num4 xii4 #h74 ,moses differed so completely from other prophets that the term 8prophet0 could only have been applied to him and other men by way of homonymy4 ,the impulses descending from the ,active ,intellect to man's intellect and to his imagination produce various effects1 according to his physical1 moral1 and intellectual condition4 ,some men are thus endowed with extraordinary courage and with an ambition to perform great deeds1 or they feel themselves impelled to appeal mightily to their fellowmen by means of exalted and pure language4 ,such men are filled with 8the spirit of the ,lord10 or1 8with the spirit of holiness40 ,to this distinguished class belonged ,jephthah1 ,samson1 ,david1 ,solomon1 and the authors of the ,hagiographa4 ,though above the standard of ordinary men1 they were not included in the rank of prophets4 ,maimonides divides the prophets into two groups1 viz41 those who receive inspiration in a dream and those who receive it in a vision4 ,the first group includes the following five classes3--#a4 ,those who see symbolic figures2 #b4 ,those who hear a voice addressing them without perceiving the speaker2 #c4 ,those who see a man and hear him addressing them2 #d4 ,those who see an angel addressing them2 #e4 ,those who see ,god and hear ,his voice4 ,the other group is divided in a similar manner1 but contains only the first four classes1 for ,maimonides considered it impossible that a prophet should see ,god in a vision4 ,this classification is based on the various expressions employed in the ,scriptures to describe the several prophecies4 ,when the ,israelites received the ,law at ,mount ,sinai1 they distinctly heard the first two commandments1 which include the doctrines of the ,existence and the ,unity of ,god2 of the other eight commandments1 which enunciate moral1 not metaphysical truths1 they heard the mere 8sound of words02 and it was through the mouth of ,moses that the ,divine instruction was revealed to them4 ,maimonides defends this opinion by quotations from the ,talmud and the ,midrashim4 ,the theory that imagination was an essential element in prophecy is supported by the fact that figurative speech predominates in the prophetical writings1 which abound in figures1 hyperbolical expressions and allegories4 ,the symbolical acts which are described in connexion with the visions of the prophets1 such as the translation of ,ezekiel from ,babylon to ,jerusalem 7,ez4 viii4 #c71 ,isaiah's walking about naked and barefoot 7,isa4 xx4 #b71 ,jacob's wrestling with the angel 7,gen4 xxxii4 #bg sqq471 and the speaking of ,balaam's ass 7,num4 xxii4 #bh71 had no positive reality4 ,the prophets1 employing an elliptical style1 frequently omitted to state that a certain event related by them was part of a vision or a dream4 ,in consequence of such elliptical speech events are described in the ,bible as coming directly from ,god1 although they simply are the effect of the ordinary laws of nature1 and as such depend on the will of ,god4 ,such passages cannot be misunderstood when it is borne in mind that every event and every natural phenomenon can for its origin be traced to the ,primal ,cause4 ,in this sense the prophets employ such phrases as the following3 8,and ,i will command the clouds that they rain no rain upon it0 7,isa4 v4 #f72 8,i have also called my mighty men0 7ibid4 xi4 #c74 ,,part ,,iii4 ,this part contains the following six sections3--#a4 ,exposition of the maaseh mercabah 7,ez4 i471 ch4 i4 vii42 #b4 ,on the nature and the origin of evil1 ch4 viii4 xii42 #c4 ,on the object of the creation1 ch4 xiii4-xv42 #d4 ,on ,providence and ,omniscience1 ch4 xvi4-xxv42 #e4 ,on the object of the ,divine precepts 7taame ha-mivot7 and the historical portions of the ,bible1 ch4 xxv4-xl42 #f4 ,a guide to the proper worship of ,god4 ,with great caution ,maimonides approaches the explanation of the maaseh mercabah1 the chariot which ,ezekiel beheld in a vision 7,ez4 i474 ,the mysteries included in the description of the ,divine chariot had been orally transmitted from generation to generation1 but in consequence of the dispersion of the ,jews the chain of tradition was broken1 and the knowledge of these mysteries had vanished4 ,whatever he knew of those mysteries he owed exclusively to his own intellectual faculties2 he therefore could not reconcile himself to the idea that his knowledge should die with him4 ,he committed his exposition of the maaseh mercabah and the maaseh bereshit to writing1 but did not divest it of its original mysterious character2 so that the explanation was fully intelligible to the initiated--that is to say1 to the philosopher--but to the ordinary reader it was a mere paraphrase of the ,biblical text4--7,introduction47 ,the first seven chapters are devoted to the exposition of the ,divine chariot4 ,according to ,maimonides three distinct parts are to be noticed1 each of which begins with the phrase1 8,and ,i saw40 ,these parts correspond to the three parts of the ,universe1 the sublunary world1 the spheres and the intelligences4 ,first of all the prophet is made to behold the material world which consists of the earth and the spheres1 and of these the spheres1 as the more important1 are noticed first4 ,in the ,second ,part1 in which the nature of the spheres is discussed1 the author dwells with pride on his discovery that they can be divided into four groups4 ,this discovery he now employs to show that the four 8hayyot0 7animals7 represent the four divisions of the spheres4 ,he points out that the terms which the prophet uses in the description of the hayyot are identical with terms applied to the properties of the spheres4 ,for the four hayyot or 8angels10 or cherubim1 7#a7 have human form2 7#b7 have human faces2 7#c7 possess characteristics of other animals2 7#d7 have human hands2 7#e7 their feet are straight and round 7cylindrical72 7#f7 their bodies are closely joined to each other2 7#g7 only their faces and their wings are separate2 7#h7 their substance is transparent and refulgent2 7#i7 they move uniformly2 7#aj7 each moves in its own direction2 7#aa7 they run2 7#ab7 swift as lightning they return towards their starting point2 and 7#ac7 they move in consequence of an extraneous impulse 7rua74 ,in a similar manner the spheres are described3--7#a7 they possess the characteristics of man1 viz41 life and intellect2 7#b7 they consist like man of body and soul2 7#c7 they are strong1 mighty and swift1 like the ox1 the lion1 and the eagle2 7#d7 they perform all manner of work as though they had hands2 7#e7 they are round1 and are not divided into parts2 7#f7 no vacuum intervenes between one sphere and the other2 7#g7 they may be considered as one being1 but in respect to the intellects1 which are the causes of their existence and motion1 they appear as four different beings2 7#h7 they are transparent and refulgent2 7#i7 each sphere moves uniformly1 7#aj7 and according to its special laws2 7#aa7 they revolve with great velocity2 7#ab7 each point returns again to its previous position2 7#ac7 they are self-moving1 yet the impulse emanates from an external power4 ,in the second part of the vision the prophet saw the ofannim4 ,these represent the four elements of the sublunary world4 ,for the ofannim 7#a7 are connected with the ayyot and with the earth2 7#b7 they have four faces1 and are four separate beings1 but interpenetrate each other 8as though it were a wheel in the midst of a wheel0 7,ez4 i4 #af72 7#c7 they are covered with eyes2 7#d7 they are not self-moving2 7#e7 they are set in motion by the ayyot2 7#f7 their motion is not circular but rectilinear4 ,the same may almost be said of the four elements3--7#a7 they are in close contact with the spheres1 being encompassed by the sphere of the moon2 earth occupies the centre1 water surrounds earth1 air has its position between water and fire2 7#b7 this order is not invariably maintained2 the respective portions change and they become intermixed and combined with each other2 7#c7 though they are only four elements they form an infinite number of things2 7#d7 not being animated they do not move of their own accord2 7#e7 they are set in motion by the action of the spheres2 7#f7 when a portion is displaced it returns in a straight line to its original position4 ,in the third vision ,ezekiel saw a human form above the ayyot4 ,the figure was divided in the middle2 in the upper portion the prophet only noticed that it was ashmal1 7mysterious72 from the loins downwards there was 8the vision of the likeness of the ,divine ,glory10 and 8the likeness of the throne40 ,the world of ,intelligences was represented by the figure2 these can only be perceived in as far as they influence the spheres1 but their relation to the ,creator is beyond human comprehension4 ,the ,creator himself is not represented in this vision4 ,the key to the whole vision ,maimonides finds in the introductory words1 8,and the heavens were opened10 and in the minute description of the place and the time of the revelation4 ,when pondering on the grandeur of the spheres and their influences1 which vary according to time and place1 man begins to think of the existence of the ,creator4 ,at the conclusion of this exposition ,maimonides declares that he will1 in the subsequent chapters1 refrain from giving further explanation of the maaseh mercabah4 ,the foregoing summary1 however1 shows that the opinion of the author on this subject is fully stated1 and it is indeed difficult to conceive what additional disclosures he could still have made4 ,the task which the author has proposed to himself in the ,preface he now regarded as accomplished4 ,he has discussed the method of the ,kalm1 the system of the philosophers1 and his own theory concerning the relation between the ,primal ,cause and the ,universe3 he has explained the ,biblical account of the creation1 the nature of prophecy1 and the mysteries in ,ezekiel's vision4 ,in the remaining portion of the work the author attempts to solve certain theological problems1 as though he wished to obviate the following objections1 which might be raised to his theory that there is a design throughout the creation1 and that the entire ,universe is subject to the law of causation3--,what is the purpose of the evils which attend human life8 ,for what purpose was the world created8 ,in how far does ,providence interfere with the natural course of events8 ,does ,god know and foresee man's actions8 ,to what end was the ,divine ,law revealed8 ,these problems are treated seriatim4 ,all evils1 ,maimonides holds1 originate in the material element of man's existence4 ,those who are able to emancipate themselves from the tyranny of the body1 and unconditionally to submit to the dictates of reason1 are protected from many evils4 ,man should disregard the cravings of the body1 avoid them as topics of conversation1 and keep his thoughts far away from them2 convivial and erotic songs debase man's noblest gifts--thought and speech4 ,matter is the partition separating man from the pure ,intellects2 it is 8the thickness of the cloud0 which true knowledge has to traverse before it reaches man4 ,in reality1 evil is the mere negative of good3 8,god saw all that ,he had made1 and behold it was very good0 7,gen4 i4 #ca74 ,evil does not exist at all4 ,when evils are mentioned in the ,scriptures as the work of ,god1 the ,scriptural expressions must not be taken in their literal sense4 ,there are three kinds of evils3--#a4 ,evils necessitated by those laws of production and destruction by which the species are perpetuated4 #b4 ,evils which men inflict on each other2 they are comparatively few1 especially among civilized men4 #c4 ,evils which man brings upon himself1 and which comprise the majority of existing evils4 ,the consideration of these three classes of evils leads to the conclusion that 8the ,lord is good to all1 and his tender mercies are over all his works0 7,ps4 cxlv4 #i74 ,the question1 ,what is the object of the creation8 must be left unanswered4 ,the creation is the result of the will of ,god4 ,also those who believe that the ,universe is eternal must admit that they are unable to discover the purpose of the ,universe4 ,it would1 however1 not be illogical to assume that the spheres have been created for the sake of man1 notwithstanding the great dimensions of the former and the smallness of the latter4 ,still it must be conceded that1 even if mankind were the main and central object of creation1 there is no absolute interdependence between them2 for it is a matter of course that1 under altered conditions1 man could exist without the spheres4 ,all teleological theories must therefore be confined within the limits of the ,universe as it now exists4 ,they are only admissible in the relation in which the several parts of the ,universe stand to each other2 but the purpose of the ,universe as a whole cannot be accounted for4 ,it is simply an emanation from the will of ,god4 ,regarding the belief in ,providence1 ,maimonides enumerates the following five opinions3--#a4 ,there is no ,providence2 everything is subject to chance2 #b4 ,only a part of the ,universe is governed by ,providence1 viz41 the spheres1 the species1 and such individual beings as possess the power of perpetuating their existence 7e4g41 the stars72 the rest--that is1 the sublunary world--is left to mere chance4 #c4 ,everything is predetermined2 according to this theory1 revealed ,law is inconceivable4 #d4 ,providence assigns its blessings to all creatures1 according to their merits2 accordingly1 all beings1 even the lowest animals1 if innocently injured or killed1 receive compensation in a future life4 #e4 ,according to the ,jewish belief1 all living beings are endowed with free-will2 ,god is just1 and the destiny of man depends on his merits4 ,maimonides denies the existence of trials inflicted by ,divine love1 i4e4 afflictions which befall man1 not as punishments of sin1 but as means to procure for him a reward in times to come4 ,maimonides also rejects the notion that ,god ordains special temptation4 ,the ,biblical account1 according to which ,god tempts men1 8to know what is in their hearts10 must not be taken in its literal sense2 it merely states that ,god made the virtues of certain people known to their fellowmen in order that their good example should be followed4 ,of all creatures man alone enjoys the especial care of ,providence2 because the acts of ,providence are identical with certain influences 7shefa7 which the ,active ,intellect brings to bear upon the human intellect2 their effect upon man varies according to his physical1 moral1 and intellectual condition2 irrational beings1 however1 cannot be affected by these influences4 ,if we cannot in each individual case see how these principles are applied1 it must be borne in mind that ,god's wisdom is far above that of man4 ,the author seems to have felt that his theory has its weak points1 for he introduces it as follows3--8,my theory is not established by demonstrative proof2 it is based on the authority of the ,bible1 and it is less subject to refutation than any of the theories previously mentioned40 ,providence implies ,omniscience1 and men who deny this1 eo ipso1 have no belief in ,providence4 ,some are unable to reconcile the fate of man with ,divine ,justice1 and are therefore of opinion that ,god takes no notice whatever of the events which occur on earth4 ,others believe that ,god1 being an absolute ,unity1 cannot possess a knowledge of a multitude of things1 or of things that do not yet exist1 or the number of which is infinite4 ,these objections1 which are based on the nature of man's perception1 are illogical2 for ,god's knowledge cannot be compared to that of man2 it is identical with ,his essence4 ,even the ,attributists1 who assume that ,god's knowledge is different from ,his essence1 hold that it is distinguished from man's knowledge in the following five points3--#a4 ,it is one1 although it embraces a plurality4 #b4 ,it includes even such things as do not yet exist4 #c4 ,it includes things which are infinite in number4 #d4 ,it does not change when new objects of perception present themselves4 #e4 ,it does not determine the course of events4--,however difficult this theory may appear to human comprehension1 it is in accordance with the words of ,isaiah 7lv4 #h73 8,your thoughts are not ,my thoughts1 and your ways are not ,my ways40 ,according to ,maimonides1 the difficulty is to be explained by the fact that ,god is the ,creator of all things1 and ,his knowledge of the things is not dependent on their existence2 while the knowledge of man is solely dependent on the objects which come under his cognition4 ,according to ,maimonides1 the book of ,job illustrates the several views which have been mentioned above4 ,satan1 that is1 the material element in human existence1 is described as the cause of ,job's sufferings4 ,job at first believed that man's happiness depends on riches1 health1 and children2 being deprived of these sources of happiness1 he conceived the notion that ,providence is indifferent to the fate of mortal beings4 ,after a careful study of natural phenomena1 he rejected this opinion4 ,eliphaz held that all misfortunes of man serve as punishments of past sins4 ,bildad1 the second friend of ,job1 admitted the existence of those afflictions which ,divine love decrees in order that the patient sufferer may be fitted to receive a bountiful reward4 ,zofar1 the third friend of ,job1 declared that the ways of ,god are beyond human comprehension2 there is but one explanation assignable to all ,divine acts1 namely3 ,such is ,his ,will4 ,elihu gives a fuller development to this idea2 he says that such evils as befell ,job may be remedied once or twice1 but the course of nature is not altogether reversed4 ,it is true that by prophecy a clearer insight into the ways of ,god can be obtained1 but there are only few who arrive at that exalted intellectual degree1 whilst the majority of men must content themselves with acquiring a knowledge of ,god through the study of nature4 ,such a study leads man to the conviction that his understanding cannot fathom the secrets of nature and the wisdom of ,divine ,providence4 ,the concluding section of the ,third ,part treats of the purpose of the ,divine precepts4 ,in the ,pentateuch they are described as the means of acquiring wisdom1 enduring happiness1 and also bodily comfort 7ch4 xxxi474 ,generally a distinction is made between 8uim0 78statutes07 and mishpaim 78judgments074 ,the object of the latter is1 on the whole1 known1 but the uim are considered as tests of man's obedience2 no reason is given why they have been enacted4 ,maimonides rejects this distinction2 he states that all precepts are the result of wisdom and design1 that all contribute to the welfare of mankind1 although with regard to the uim this is less obvious4 ,the author draws another line of distinction between the general principles and the details of rules4 ,for the selection and the introduction of the latter there is but one reason1 viz43 8,such is the will of ,god40 ,the laws are intended to promote man's perfection2 they improve both his mental and his physical condition2 the former in so far as they lead him to the acquisition of true knowledge1 the latter through the training of his moral and social faculties4 ,each law thus imparts knowledge1 improves the moral condition of man1 or conduces to the well-being of society4 ,many revealed laws help to enlighten man1 and to correct false opinions4 ,this object is not always clearly announced4 ,god in ,his wisdom sometimes withheld from the knowledge of man the purpose of commandments and actions4 ,there are other precepts which tend to restrain man's passions and desires4 ,if the same end is occasionally attainable by other means1 it must be remembered that the ,divine laws are adapted to the ordinary mental and emotional state of man1 and not to exceptional circumstances4 ,in this work1 as in the ,yad ha-azaah1 ,maimonides divides the laws of the ,pentateuch into fourteen groups1 and in each group he discusses the principal and the special object of the laws included in it4 ,in addition to the legislative contents1 the ,bible includes historical information2 and ,maimonides1 in briefly reviewing the ,biblical narratives1 shows that these are likewise intended to improve man's physical1 moral1 and intellectual condition4 8,it is not a vain thing for you0 7,deut4 xxxii4 #dg71 and when it proves vain to anyone1 it is his own fault4 ,in the final chapters the author describes the several degrees of human perfection1 from the sinners who have turned from the right path to the best of men1 who in all their thoughts and acts cling to the ,most ,perfect ,being1 who aspire after the greatest possible knowledge of ,god1 and strive to serve their ,maker in the practice of 8loving-kindness1 righteousness1 and justice40 ,this degree of human perfection can only be attained by those who never forget the presence of the ,almighty1 and remain firm in their fear and love of ,god4 ,these servants of the ,most ,high inherit the choicest of human blessings2 they are endowed with wisdom3 they are godlike beings4 ,,introduction ,letter of the ,author to his ,pupil1 ,r4 ,joseph ,ibn ,aknin4 ,in the name of ,god1 ,lord of the ,universe4 ,to ,r4 ,joseph 7may ,god protect him671 son of ,r4 ,jehudah 7may his repose be in ,paradise673-- 8,my dear pupil1 ever since you resolved to come to me1 from a distant country1 and to study under my direction1 ,i thought highly of your thirst for knowledge1 and your fondness for speculative pursuits1 which found expression in your poems4 ,i refer to the time when ,i received your writings in prose and verse from ,alexandria4 ,i was then not yet able to test your powers of apprehension1 and ,i thought that your desire might possibly exceed your capacity4 ,but when you had gone with me through a course of astronomy1 after having completed the other elementary studies which are indispensable for the understanding of that science1 ,i was still more gratified by the acuteness and the quickness of your apprehension4 ,observing your great fondness for mathematics1 ,i let you study them more deeply1 for ,i felt sure of your ultimate success4 ,afterwards1 when ,i took you through a course of logic1 ,i found that my great expectations of you were confirmed1 and ,i considered you fit to receive from me an exposition of the esoteric ideas contained in the prophetic books1 that you might understand them as they are understood by men of culture4 ,when ,i commenced by way of hints1 ,i noticed that you desired additional explanation1 urging me to expound some metaphysical problems2 to teach you the system of the ,mutakallemim2 to tell you whether their arguments were based on logical proof2 and if not1 what their method was4 ,i perceived that you had acquired some knowledge in those matters from others1 and that you were perplexed and bewildered2 yet you sought to find out a solution to your difficulty4 ,i urged you to desist from this pursuit1 and enjoined you to continue your studies systematically2 for my object was that the truth should present itself in connected order1 and that you should not hit upon it by mere chance4 ,whilst you studied with me ,i never refused to explain difficult verses in the ,bible or passages in rabbinical literature which we happened to meet4 ,when1 by the will of ,god1 we parted1 and you went your way1 our discussions aroused in me a resolution which had long been dormant4 ,your absence has prompted me to compose this treatise for you and for those who are like you1 however few they may be4 ,i have divided it into chapters1 each of which shall be sent to you as soon as it is completed4 ,farewell60 ,,prefatory ,,remarks4 8,cause me to know the way wherein ,i should walk1 for ,i lift up my soul unto ,thee40 7,psalm cxliii4 #h47 8,unto you1 ,o men1 ,i call1 and my voice is to the sons of men40 7,prov4 viii4 #d47 8,bow down thine ear and hear the words of the wise1 and apply thine heart unto my knowledge40 7,prov4 xxii4 #ag47 ,my primary object in this work is to explain certain words occurring in the prophetic books4 ,of these some are homonyms1 and of their several meanings the ignorant choose the wrong ones2 other terms which are employed in a figurative sense are erroneously taken by such persons in their primary signification4 ,there are also hybrid terms1 denoting things which are of the same class from one point of view and of a different class from another4 ,it is not here intended to explain all these expressions to the unlettered or to mere tyros1 a previous knowledge of ,logic and ,natural ,philosophy being indispensable1 or to those who confine their attention to the study of our holy ,law1 ,i mean the study of the canonical law alone2 for the true knowledge of the ,torah is the special aim of this and similar works4 ,the object of this treatise is to enlighten a religious man who has been trained to believe in the truth of our holy ,law1 who conscientiously fulfils his moral and religious duties1 and at the same time has been successful in his philosophical studies4 ,human reason has attracted him to abide within its sphere2 and he finds it difficult to accept as correct the teaching based on the literal interpretation of the ,law1 and especially that which he himself or others derived from those homonymous1 metaphorical1 or hybrid expressions4 ,hence he is lost in perplexity and anxiety4 ,if he be guided solely by reason1 and renounce his previous views which are based on those expressions1 he would consider that he had rejected the fundamental principles of the ,law2 and even if he retains the opinions which were derived from those expressions1 and if1 instead of following his reason1 he abandon its guidance altogether1 it would still appear that his religious convictions had suffered loss and injury4 ,for he would then be left with those errors which give rise to fear and anxiety1 constant grief and great perplexity4 ,this work has also a second object in view4 ,it seeks to explain certain obscure figures which occur in the ,prophets1 and are not distinctly characterized as being figures4 ,ignorant and superficial readers take them in a literal1 not in a figurative sense4 ,even well informed persons are bewildered if they understand these passages in their literal signification1 but they are entirely relieved of their perplexity when we explain the figure1 or merely suggest that the terms are figurative4 ,for this reason ,i have called this book ,guide for the ,perplexed4 ,i do not presume to think that this treatise settles every doubt in the minds of those who understand it1 but ,i maintain that it settles the greater part of their difficulties4 ,no intelligent man will require and expect that on introducing any subject ,i shall completely exhaust it2 or that on commencing the exposition of a figure ,i shall fully explain all its parts4 ,such a course could not be followed by a teacher in a viva voce exposition1 much less by an author in writing a book1 without becoming a target for every foolish conceited person to discharge the arrows of folly at him4 ,some general principles bearing upon this point have been fully discussed in our works on the ,talmud1 and we have there called the attention of the reader to many themes of this kind4 ,we also stated 7,mishneh torah1 ,i4 ii4 #ab1 and iv4 #aj7 that the expression ,maase ,bereshit 7,account of the ,creation7 signified 8,natural ,science10 and ,maaseh ,mercabah 78,description of the ,chariot07 ,metaphysics1 and we explained the force of the ,rabbinical dictum1 8,the ,maaseh ,mercabah must not be fully expounded even in the presence of a single student1 unless he be wise and able to reason for himself1 and even then you should merely acquaint him with the heads of the different sections of the subject40 7,babyl4 ,talm4 agigah1 fol4 #aa b74 ,you must1 therefore1 not expect from me more than such heads4 ,and even these have not been methodically and systematically arranged in this work1 but have been1 on the contrary1 scattered1 and are interspersed with other topics which we shall have occasion to explain4 ,my object in adopting this arrangement is that the truths should be at one time apparent1 and at another time concealed4 ,thus we shall not be in opposition to the ,divine ,will 7from which it is wrong to deviate7 which has withheld from the multitude the truths required for the knowledge of ,god1 according to the words1 8,the secret of the ,lord is with them that fear ,him0 7,ps4 xxv4 #ad74 ,know that also in ,natural ,science there are topics which are not to be fully explained4 ,our ,sages laid down the rule1 8,the ,maaseh ,bereshith must not be expounded in the presence of two40 ,if an author were to explain these principles in writing1 it would be equal to expounding them unto thousands of men4 ,for this reason the prophets treat these subjects in figures1 and our ,sages1 imitating the method of ,scripture1 speak of them in metaphors and allegories2 because there is a close affinity between these subjects and metaphysics1 and indeed they form part of its mysteries4 ,do not imagine that these most difficult problems can be thoroughly understood by any one of us4 ,this is not the case4 ,at times the truth shines so brilliantly that we perceive it as clear as day4 ,our nature and habit then draw a veil over our perception1 and we return to a darkness almost as dense as before4 ,we are like those who1 though beholding frequent flashes of lightning1 still find themselves in the thickest darkness of the night4 ,on some the lightning flashes in rapid succession1 and they seem to be in continuous light1 and their night is as clear as the day4 ,this was the degree of prophetic excellence attained by 7,moses7 the greatest of prophets1 to whom ,god said1 8,but as for thee1 stand thou here by ,me0 7,deut4 v4 #ca71 and of whom it is written 8the skin of his face shone10 etc4 7,exod4 xxxiv4 #bi74 ,some perceive the prophetic flash at long intervals2 this is the degree of most prophets4 ,by others only once during the whole night is a flash of lightning perceived4 ,this is the case with those of whom we are informed1 8,they prophesied1 and did not prophesy again0 7,num4 xi4 #be74 ,there are some to whom the flashes of lightning appear with varying intervals2 others are in the condition of men1 whose darkness is illumined not by lightning1 but by some kind of crystal or similar stone1 or other substances that possess the property of shining during the night2 and to them even this small amount of light is not continuous1 but now it shines and now it vanishes1 as if it were 8the flame of the rotating sword40 ,the degrees in the perfection of men vary according to these distinctions4 ,concerning those who never beheld the light even for one day1 but walk in continual darkness1 it is written1 8,they know not1 neither will they understand2 they walk on in darkness0 7,ps4 lxxxii4 #e74 ,truth1 in spite of all its powerful manifestations1 is completely withheld from them1 and the following words of ,scripture may be applied to them1 8,and now men see not the light which is bright in the skies0 7,job xxxvii4 #ba74 ,they are the multitude of ordinary men2 there is no need to notice them in this treatise4 ,you must know that if a person1 who has attained a certain degree of perfection1 wishes to impart to others1 either orally or in writing1 any portion of the knowledge which he has acquired of these subjects1 he is utterly unable to be as systematic and explicit as he could be in a science of which the method is well known4 ,the same difficulties which he encountered when investigating the subject for himself will attend him when endeavouring to instruct others2 viz41 at one time the explanation will appear lucid1 at another time1 obscure2 this property of the subject appears to remain the same both to the advanced scholar and to the beginner4 ,for this reason1 great theological scholars gave instruction in all such matters only by means of metaphors and allegories4 ,they frequently employed them in forms varying more or less essentially4 ,in most cases they placed the lesson to be illustrated at the beginning1 or in the middle1 or at the end of the simile4 ,when they could find no simile which from beginning to end corresponded to the idea which was to be illustrated1 they divided the subject of the lesson1 although in itself one whole1 into different parts1 and expressed each by a separate figure4 ,still more obscure are those instances in which one simile is employed to illustrate many subjects1 the beginning of the simile representing one thing1 the end another4 ,sometimes the whole metaphor may refer to two cognate subjects in the same branch of knowledge4 ,if we were to teach in these disciplines1 without the use of parables and figures1 we should be compelled to resort to expressions both profound and transcendental1 and by no means more intelligible than metaphors and similes2 as though the wise and learned were drawn into this course by the ,divine ,will1 in the same way as they are compelled to follow the laws of nature in matters relating to the body4 ,you are no doubt aware that the ,almighty1 desiring to lead us to perfection and to improve our state of society1 has revealed to us laws which are to regulate our actions4 ,these laws1 however1 presuppose an advanced state of intellectual culture4 ,we must first form a conception of the ,existence of the ,creator according to our capabilities2 that is1 we must have a knowledge of ,metaphysics4 ,but this discipline can only be approached after the study of ,physics2 for the science of ,physics borders on ,metaphysics1 and must even precede it in the course of our studies1 as is clear to all who are familiar with these questions4 ,therefore the ,almighty commenced ,holy ,writ with the description of the ,creation1 that is1 with ,physical ,science2 the subject being on the one hand most weighty and important1 and on the other hand our means of fully comprehending those great problems being limited4 ,he described those profound truths1 which ,his ,divine ,wisdom found it necessary to communicate to us1 in allegorical1 figurative1 and metaphorical language4 ,our ,sages have said 7,yemen ,midrash on ,gen4 i4 #a71 8,it is impossible to give a full account of the ,creation to man4 ,therefore ,scripture simply tells us1 ,in the beginning ,god created the heavens and the earth0 7,gen4 i4 #a74 ,thus they have suggested that this subject is a deep mystery1 and in the words of ,solomon1 8,far off and exceedingly deep1 who can find it out80 7,eccles4 vii4 #bd74 ,it has been treated in metaphors in order that the uneducated may comprehend it according to the measure of their faculties and the feebleness of their apprehension1 while educated persons may take it in a different sense4 ,in our commentary on the ,mishnah we stated our intention to explain difficult problems in the ,book on ,prophecy and in the ,book of ,harmony4 ,in the latter we intended to examine all the passages in the ,midrash which1 if taken literally1 appear to be inconsistent with truth and common sense1 and must therefore be taken figuratively4 ,many years have elapsed since ,i first commenced those works4 ,i had proceeded but a short way when ,i became dissatisfied with my original plan4 ,for ,i observed that by expounding these passages by means of allegorical and mystical terms1 we do not explain anything1 but merely substitute one thing for another of the same nature1 whilst in explaining them fully our efforts would displease most people2 and my sole object in planning to write those books was to make the contents of ,midrashim and the exoteric lessons of the prophecies intelligible to everybody4 ,we have further noticed that when an ill-informed ,theologian reads these ,midrashim1 he will find no difficulty2 for possessing no knowledge of the properties of things1 he will not reject statements which involve impossibilities4 ,when1 however1 a person who is both religious and well educated reads them1 he cannot escape the following dilemma3 either he takes them literally1 and questions the abilities of the author and the soundness of his mind--doing thereby nothing which is opposed to the principles of our faith1--or he will acquiesce in assuming that the passages in question have some secret meaning1 and he will continue to hold the author in high estimation whether he understood the allegory or not4 ,as regards prophecy in its various degrees and the different metaphors used in the prophetic books1 we shall give in the present work an explanation1 according to a different method4 ,guided by these considerations ,i have refrained from writing those two books as ,i had previously intended4 ,in my larger work1 the ,mishnah ,torah1 ,i have contented myself with briefly stating the principles of our faith and its fundamental truths1 together with such hints as approach a clear exposition4 ,in this work1 however1 ,i address those who have studied philosophy and have acquired sound knowledge1 and who while firm in religious matters are perplexed and bewildered on account of the ambiguous and figurative expressions employed in the holy writings4 ,some chapters may be found in this work which contain no reference whatever to homonyms4 ,such chapters will serve as an introduction to others2 they will contain some reference to the signification of a homonym which ,i do not wish to mention in that place1 or explain some figure2 point out that a certain expression is a figure2 treat of difficult passages generally misunderstood in consequence of the homonymy they include1 or because the simile they contain is taken in place of that which it represents1 and vice vers4 ,having spoken of similes1 ,i proceed to make the following remark3--,the key to the understanding and to the full comprehension of all that the ,prophets have said is found in the knowledge of the figures1 their general ideas1 and the meaning of each word they contain4 ,you know the verse3-- 8,i have also spoken in similes by the ,prophets0 7,hosea xii4 #aj72 and also the verse1 8,put forth a riddle and speak a parable0 7,ezek4 xvii4 #b74 ,and because the ,prophets continually employ figures1 ,ezekiel said1 8,does ,he not speak parables80 7xxi4 #e74 ,again1 ,solomon begins his book of ,proverbs with the words1 8,to understand a proverb and figurative speech1 the words of the wise and their dark sayings0 7,prov4 i4 #f72 and we read in ,midrash1 7,shir ha-shirim ,rabba1 i4 #a72 8,to what were the words of the ,law to be compared before the time of ,solomon8 ,to a well the waters of which are at a great depth1 and though cool and fresh1 yet no man could drink of them4 ,a clever man joined cord with cord1 and rope with rope1 and drew up and drank4 ,so ,solomon went from figure to figure1 and from subject to subject1 till he obtained the true sense of the ,law40 ,so far go the words of our ,sages4 ,i do not believe that any intelligent man thinks that 8the words of the ,law0 mentioned here as requiring the application of figures in order to be understood1 can refer to the rules for building tabernacles1 for preparing the lulab1 or for the four kinds of trustees4 ,what is really meant is the apprehension of profound and difficult subjects1 concerning which our ,sages said1 8,if a man loses in his house a sela1 or a pearl1 he can find it by lighting a taper worth only one issar4 ,thus the parables in themselves are of no great value1 but through them the words of the holy ,law are rendered intelligible40 ,these likewise are the words of our ,sages2 consider well their statement1 that the deeper sense of the words of the holy ,law are pearls1 and the literal acceptation of a figure is of no value in itself4 ,they compare the hidden meaning included in the literal sense of the simile to a pearl lost in a dark room1 which is full of furniture4 ,it is certain that the pearl is in the room1 but the man can neither see it nor know where it lies4 ,it is just as if the pearl were no longer in his possession1 for1 as has been stated1 it affords him no benefit whatever until he kindles a light4 ,the same is the case with the comprehension of that which the simile represents4 ,the wise king said1 8,a word fitly spoken is like apples of gold in vessels of silver0 7,prov4 xxv4 #aa74 ,hear the explanation of what he said3--,the word maskiyoth1 the ,hebrew equivalent for 8vessels10 denotes 8filigree network0--i4e41 things in which there are very small apertures1 such as are frequently wrought by silversmiths4 ,they are called in ,hebrew maskiyyoth 7lit4 8transpicuous10 from the verb sakah1 8he saw10 a root which occurs also in the ,targum of ,onkelos1 ,gen4 xxvi4 #h71 because the eye penetrates through them4 ,thus ,solomon meant to say1 8,just as apples of gold in silver filigree with small apertures1 so is a word fitly spoken40 ,see how beautifully the conditions of a good simile are described in this figure6 ,it shows that in every word which has a double sense1 a literal one and a figurative one1 the plain meaning must be as valuable as silver1 and the hidden meaning still more precious2 so that the figurative meaning bears the same relation to the literal one as gold to silver4 ,it is further necessary that the plain sense of the phrase shall give to those who consider it some notion of that which the figure represents4 ,just as a golden apple overlaid with a network of silver1 when seen at a distance1 or looked at superficially1 is mistaken for a silver apple1 but when a keen-sighted person looks at the object well1 he will find what is within1 and see that the apple is gold4 ,the same is the case with the figures employed by prophets4 ,taken literally1 such expressions contain wisdom useful for many purposes1 among others1 for the amelioration of the condition of society2 e4g41 the ,proverbs 7of ,solomon71 and similar sayings in their literal sense4 ,their hidden meaning1 however1 is profound wisdom1 conducive to the recognition of real truth4 ,know that the figures employed by prophets are of two kinds3 first1 where every word which occurs in the simile represents a certain idea2 and secondly1 where the simile1 as a whole1 represents a general idea1 but has a great many points which have no reference whatever to that idea2 they are simply required to give to the simile its proper form and order1 or better to conceal the idea2 the simile is therefore continued as far as necessary1 according to its literal sense4 ,consider this well4 ,an example of the first class of prophetic figures is to be found in ,genesis3--8,and1 behold1 a ladder set up on the earth1 and the top of it reached to heaven2 and1 behold1 the angels of ,god ascending and descending on it0 7,gen4 xxviii4 #ab74 ,the word 8ladder0 refers to one idea2 8set up on the earth0 to another2 8and the top of it reached to heaven0 to a third2 8angels of ,god0 to a fourth2 8ascending0 to a fifth2 8descending0 to a sixth2 8the ,lord stood above it0 7ver4 #ac7 to a seventh4 ,every word in this figure introduces a fresh element into the idea represented by the figure4 ,an example of the second class of prophetic figures is found in ,proverbs 7vii4 #f-bf73--8;,for at the window of my house ,i looked through my casement1 and beheld among the simple ones2 ,i discerned among the youths a young man void of understanding1 passing through the street near her corner3 and he went the way to her house1 in the twilight1 in the evening1 in the black and dark night3 and1 behold1 there met him a woman with the attire of a harlot1 and subtil of heart4 7,she is loud and stubborn2 her feet abide not in her house3 now she is without1 now in the streets1 and lieth in wait in every corner47 ,so she caught him1 and kissed him1 and with an impudent face said unto him1 ,i have peace offerings with me2 this day have ,i paid my vows4 ,therefore came ,i forth to meet thee1 diligently to seek thy face1 and ,i have found thee4 ,i have decked my bed with coverings of tapestry1 with striped cloths of the yarn of ,egypt4 ,i have perfumed my bed with myrrh1 aloes1 and cinnamon4 ,come1 let us take our fill of love until the morning3 let us solace ourselves with loves4 ,for the goodman is not at home1 he is gone a long journey3 he hath taken a bag of money with him1 and will come home at the day appointed4 ,with her much fair speech she caused him to yield1 with the flattering of her lips she forced him4 ,he goeth after her straightway1 as an ox goeth to the slaughter1 or as fetters to the correction of a fool3 till a dart strike through his liver2 as a bird hasteth to the snare1 and knoweth not that it is for his life4 ,hearken unto me now therefore1 ,o ye children1 and attend to the words of my mouth4 ,let not thine heart decline to her ways1 go not astray in her paths4 ,for she hath cast down many wounded3 yea1 many strong men have been slain by her40 ,the general principle expounded in all these verses is to abstain from excessive indulgence in bodily pleasures4 ,the author compares the body1 which is the source of all sensual pleasures1 to a married woman who at the same time is a harlot4 ,and this figure he has taken as the basis of his entire book4 ,we shall hereafter show the wisdom of ,solomon in comparing sensual pleasures to an adulterous harlot4 ,we shall explain how aptly he concludes that work with the praises of a faithful wife who devotes herself to the welfare of her husband and of her household4 ,all obstacles which prevent man from attaining his highest aim in life1 all the deficiencies in the character of man1 all his evil propensities1 are to be traced to the body alone4 ,this will be explained later on4 ,the predominant idea running throughout the figure is that man shall not be entirely guided by his animal1 or material nature2 for the material substance of man is identical with that of the brute creation4 ,an adequate explanation of the figure having been given1 and its meaning having been shown1 do not imagine that you will find in its application a corresponding element for each part of the figure2 you must not ask what is meant by 8,i have peace offerings with me0 7ver4 #ad72 by 8,i have decked my bed with coverings of tapestry0 7ver4 #af72 or what is added to the force of the figure by the observation 8for the goodman is not at home0 7ver4 #ai71 and so on to the end of the chapter4 ,for all this is merely to complete the illustration of the metaphor in its literal meaning4 ,the circumstances described here are such as are common to adulterers4 ,such conversations take place between all adulterous persons4 ,you must well understand what ,i have said1 for it is a principle of the utmost importance with respect to those things which ,i intend to expound4 ,if you observe in one of the chapters that ,i explained the meaning of a certain figure1 and pointed out to you its general scope1 do not trouble yourself further in order to find an interpretation of each separate portion1 for that would lead you to one of the two following erroneous courses2 either you will miss the sense included in the metaphor1 or you will be induced to explain certain things which require no explanation1 and which are not introduced for that purpose4 ,through this unnecessary trouble you may fall into the great error which besets most modern sects in their foolish writings and discussions2 they all endeavour to find some hidden meaning in expressions which were never uttered by the author in that sense4 ,your object should be to discover in most of the figures the general idea which the author wishes to express4 ,in some instances it will be sufficient if you understand from my remarks that a certain expression contains a figure1 although ,i may offer no further comment4 ,for when you know that it is not to be taken literally1 you will understand at once to what subject it refers4 ,my statement that it is a figurative expression will1 as it were1 remove the screen from between the object and the observer4 ,,directions ,,for ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,this ,,work4 ,if you desire to grasp all that is contained in this book so that nothing shall escape your notice1 consider the chapters in connected order4 ,in studying each chapter1 do not content yourself with comprehending its principal subject1 but attend to every term mentioned therein1 although it may seem to have no connection with the principal subject4 ,for what ,i have written in this work was not the suggestion of the moment2 it is the result of deep study and great application4 ,care has been taken that nothing that appeared doubtful should be left unexplained4 ,nothing of what is mentioned is out of place1 every remark will be found to illustrate the subject-matter of the respective chapter4 ,do not read superficially1 lest you do me an injury1 and derive no benefit for yourself4 ,you must study thoroughly and read continually2 for you will then find the solution of those important problems of religion1 which are a source of anxiety to all intelligent men4 ,i adjure any reader of my book1 in the name of the ,most ,high1 not to add any explanation even to a single word2 nor to explain to another any portion of it except such passages as have been fully treated of by previous theological authorities2 he must not teach others anything that he has learnt from my work alone1 and that has not been hitherto discussed by any of our authorities4 ,the reader must1 moreover1 beware of raising objections to any of my statements1 because it is very probable that he may understand my words to mean the exact opposite to what ,i intended to say4 ,he will injure me1 while ,i endeavoured to benefit him4 8,he will requite me evil for good40 ,let the reader make a careful study of this work2 and if his doubt be removed on even one point1 let him praise his ,maker and rest contented with the knowledge he has acquired4 ,but if he derive from it no benefit whatever1 he may consider the book as if it had never been written4 ,should he notice any opinions with which he does not agree1 let him endeavour to find a suitable explanation1 even if it seem far-fetched1 in order that he may judge me charitably4 ,such a duty we owe to every one4 ,we owe it especially to our scholars and theologians1 who endeavour to teach us what is the truth according to the best of their ability4 ,i feel assured that those of my readers who have not studied philosophy1 will still derive profit from many a chapter4 ,but the thinker whose studies have brought him into collision with religion1 will1 as ,i have already mentioned1 derive much benefit from every chapter4 ,how greatly will he rejoice6 ,how agreeably will my words strike his ears6 ,those1 however1 whose minds are confused with false notions and perverse methods1 who regard their misleading studies as sciences1 and imagine themselves philosophers1 though they have no knowledge that could truly be termed science1 will object to many chapters1 and will find in them many insuperable difficulties1 because they do not understand their meaning1 and because ,i expose therein the absurdity of their perverse notions1 which constitute their riches and peculiar treasure1 8stored up for their ruin40 ,god knows that ,i hesitated very much before writing on the subjects contained in this work1 since they are profound mysteries2 they are topics which1 since the time of our captivity have not been treated by any of our scholars as far as we possess their writings2 how then shall ,i now make a beginning and discuss them8 ,but ,i rely on two precedents3 first1 to similar cases our ,sages applied the verse1 8,it is time to do something in honour of the ,lord3 for they have made void thy law0 7,ps4 cxix4 #abf74 ,secondly1 they have said1 8,let all thy acts be guided by pure intentions40 ,on these two principles ,i relied while composing some parts of this work4 ,lastly1 when ,i have a difficult subject before me--when ,i find the road narrow1 and can see no other way of teaching a well established truth except by pleasing one intelligent man and displeasing ten thousand fools--,i prefer to address myself to the one man1 and to take no notice whatever of the condemnation of the multitude2 ,i prefer to extricate that intelligent man from his embarrassment and show him the cause of his perplexity1 so that he may attain perfection and be at peace4 ,,introductory ,,remarks4 ,on ,method4 ,there are seven causes of inconsistencies and contradictions to be met with in a literary work4 ,the first cause arises from the fact that the author collects the opinions of various men1 each differing from the other1 but neglects to mention the name of the author of any particular opinion4 ,in such a work contradictions or inconsistencies must occur1 since any two statements may belong to two different authors4 ,second cause3 ,the author holds at first one opinion which he subsequently rejects2 in his work1 however1 both his original and altered views are retained4 ,third cause3 ,the passages in question are not all to be taken literally2 some only are to be understood in their literal sense1 while in others figurative language is employed1 which includes another meaning besides the literal one3 or1 in the apparently inconsistent passages1 figurative language is employed which1 if taken literally1 would seem to be contradictories or contraries4 ,fourth cause3 ,the premises are not identical in both statements1 but for certain reasons they are not fully stated in these passages2 or two propositions with different subjects which are expressed by the same term without having the difference in meaning pointed out1 occur in two passages4 ,the contradiction is therefore only apparent1 but there is no contradiction in reality4 ,the fifth cause is traceable to the use of a certain method adopted in teaching and expounding profound problems4 ,namely1 a difficult and obscure theorem must sometimes be mentioned and assumed as known1 for the illustration of some elementary and intelligible subject which must be taught beforehand1 the commencement being always made with the easier thing4 ,the teacher must therefore facilitate1 in any manner which he can devise1 the explanation of those theorems1 which have to be assumed as known1 and he must content himself with giving a general though somewhat inaccurate notion on the subject4 ,it is1 for the present1 explained according to the capacity of the students1 that they may comprehend it as far as they are required to understand the subject4 ,later on1 the same subject is thoroughly treated and fully developed in its right place4 ,sixth cause3 ,the contradiction is not apparent1 and only becomes evident through a series of premises4 ,the larger the number of premises necessary to prove the contradiction between the two conclusions1 the greater is the chance that it will escape detection1 and that the author will not perceive his own inconsistency4 ,only when from each conclusion1 by means of suitable premises1 an inference is made1 and from the enunciation thus inferred1 by means of proper arguments1 other conclusions are formed1 and after that process has been repeated many times1 then it becomes clear that the original conclusions are contradictories or contraries4 ,even able writers are liable to overlook such inconsistencies4 ,if1 however1 the contradiction between the original statements can at once be discovered1 and the author1 while writing the second1 does not think of the first1 he evinces a greater deficiency1 and his words deserve no notice whatever4 ,seventh cause3 ,it is sometimes necessary to introduce such metaphysical matter as may partly be disclosed1 but must partly be concealed2 while1 therefore1 on one occasion the object which the author has in view may demand that the metaphysical problem be treated as solved in one way1 it may be convenient on another occasion to treat it as solved in the opposite way4 ,the author must endeavour1 by concealing the fact as much as possible1 to prevent the uneducated reader from perceiving the contradiction4 ,inconsistencies occurring in the ,mishnah and ,boraitot are traceable to the first cause4 ,you meet frequently in the ,gemara with passages like the following3--8,does not the beginning of the passage contradict the end8 ,no2 the beginning is the dictum of a certain ,rabbi2 the end that of another02 or 8,rabbi 7,jehudah ha-,nasi7 approved of the opinion of a certain rabbi in one case and gave it therefore anonymously1 and having accepted that of another rabbi in the other case he introduced that view without naming the authority02 or 8,who is the author of this anonymous dictum8 ,rabbi ,a40 8,who is the author of that paragraph in the ,mishnah8 ,rabbi ,b40 ,instances of this kind are innumerable4 ,apparent contradictions or differences occurring in the ,gemara may be traced to the first cause and to the second1 as e4g41 8,in this particular case he agrees with this rabbi02 or 8,he agrees with him in one point1 but differs from him in another02 or 8,these two dicta are the opinions of two ,amoraim1 who differ as regards the statement made by a certain rabbi40 ,these are examples of contradictions traceable to the first cause4 ,the following are instances which may be traced to the second cause4 8,rabba altered his opinion on that point02 it then becomes necessary to consider which of the two opinions came second4 ,again1 8,in the first recension of the ,talmud by ,rabbi ,ashi1 he made one assertion1 and in the second a different one40 ,the inconsistencies and contradictions met with in some passages of the prophetic books1 if taken literally1 are all traceable to the third or fourth cause1 and it is exclusively in reference to this subject that ,i wrote the present ,introduction4 ,you know that the following expression frequently occurs1 8,one verse says this1 another that10 showing the contradiction1 and explaining that either some premise is wanting or the subject is altered4 ,comp4 8,solomon1 it is not sufficient that thy words contradict thy father2 they are themselves inconsistent1 etc40 ,many similar instances occur in the writings of our ,sages4 ,the passages in the prophetical books which our ,sages have explained1 mostly refer to religious or moral precepts4 ,our desire1 however1 is to discuss such passages as contain apparent contradictions in regard to the principles of our faith4 ,i shall explain some of them in various chapters of the present work2 for this subject also belongs to the secrets of the ,torah4 ,contradictions traceable to the seventh cause occurring in the prophetical works require special investigation2 and no one should express his opinion on that matter by reasoning and arguing without weighing the matter well in his mind4 ,inconsistencies in the writings of true philosophers are traceable to the fifth cause4 ,contradictions occurring in the writings of most authors and commentators1 such as are not included in the above-mentioned works1 are due to the sixth cause4 ,many examples of this class of contradictions are found in the ,midrash and the ,agada2 hence the saying1 8,we must not raise questions concerning the contradictions met with in the ,agada40 ,you may also notice in them contradictions due to the seventh cause4 ,any inconsistency discovered in the present work will be found to arise in consequence of the fifth cause or the seventh4 ,notice this1 consider its truth1 and remember it well1 lest you misunderstand some of the chapters in this book4 ,having concluded these introductory remarks ,i proceed to examine those expressions1 to the true meaning of which1 as apparent from the context1 it is necessary to direct your attention4 ,this book will then be a key admitting to places the gates of which would otherwise be closed4 ,when the gates are opened and men enter1 their souls will enjoy repose1 their eyes will be gratified1 and even their bodies1 after all toil and labour1 will be refreshed4 ,,part ,i 8,open ye the gates1 that the righteous nation which keepeth the truth may enter in40--7,isa4 xxvi4 #b47 ,,chapter ,i ,some have been of opinion that by the ,hebrew elem1 the shape and figure of a thing is to be understood1 and this explanation led men to believe in the corporeality of the ,divine ,being3 for they thought that the words 8,let us make man in our elem0 7,gen4 i4 #bf71 implied that ,god had the form of a human being1 i4e41 that ,he had figure and shape1 and that1 consequently1 ,he was corporeal4 ,they adhered faithfully to this view1 and thought that if they were to relinquish it they would eo ipso reject the truth of the ,bible3 and further1 if they did not conceive ,god as having a body possessed of face and limbs1 similar to their own in appearance1 they would have to deny even the existence of ,god4 ,the sole difference which they admitted1 was that ,he excelled in greatness and splendour1 and that ,his substance was not flesh and blood4 ,thus far went their conception of the greatness and glory of ,god4 ,the incorporeality of the ,divine ,being1 and ,his unity1 in the true sense of the word--for there is no real unity without incorporeality--will be fully proved in the course of the present treatise4 7,part ,,ii41 ch4 i47 ,in this chapter it is our sole intention to explain the meaning of the words elem and demut4 ,i hold that the ,hebrew equivalent of 8form0 in the ordinary acceptation of the word1 viz41 the figure and shape of a thing1 is tor4 ,thus we find 8,and ,joseph was beautiful in tor 7#8form'71 and beautiful in appearance0 7,gen4 xxxix4 #f73 8,what form 7tor7 is he of80 7#a ,sam4 xxviii4 #ad73 8,as the form 7tor7 of the children of a king0 7,judges viii4 #ah74 ,it is also applied to form produced by human labour1 as 8,he marketh its form 7tor7 with a line10 8and he marketh its form 7tor7 with the compass0 7,isa4 xliv4 #ac74 ,this term is not at all applicable to ,god4 ,the term elem1 on the other hand1 signifies the specific form1 viz41 that which constitutes the essence of a thing1 whereby the thing is what it is2 the reality of a thing in so far as it is that particular being4 ,in man the 8form0 is that constituent which gives him human perception3 and on account of this intellectual perception the term elem is employed in the sentences 8,in the elem of ,god he created him0 7,gen4 i4 #bg74 ,it is therefore rightly said1 8,thou despisest their elem0 7,ps4 lxiii4 #bj72 the 8contempt0 can only concern the soul--the specific form of man1 not the properties and shape of his body4 ,i am also of opinion that the reason why this term is used for 8idols0 may be found in the circumstance that they are worshipped on account of some idea represented by them1 not on account of their figure and shape4 ,for the same reason the term is used in the expression1 8the forms 7alme7 of your emerods0 7#a ,sam4 vi4 #e71 for the chief object was the removal of the injury caused by the emerods1 not a change of their shape4 ,as1 however1 it must be admitted that the term elem is employed in these two cases1 viz4 8the images of the emerods0 and 8the idols0 on account of the external shape1 the term elem is either a homonym or a hybrid term1 and would denote both the specific form and the outward shape1 and similar properties relating to the dimensions and the shape of material bodies2 and in the phrase 8,let us make man in our elem0 7,gen4 i4 #bf71 the term signifies 8the specific form0 of man1 viz41 his intellectual perception1 and does not refer to his 8figure0 or 8shape40 ,thus we have shown the difference between elem and tor1 and explained the meaning of elem4 ,demut is derived from the verb damah1 8he is like40 ,this term likewise denotes agreement with regard to some abstract relation3 comp4 8,i am like a pelican of the wilderness0 7,ps4 cii4 #g72 the author does not compare himself to the pelican in point of wings and feathers1 but in point of sadness4 8,nor any tree in the garden of ,god was like unto him in beauty0 7,ezek4 xxxi4 #h72 the comparison refers to the idea of beauty4 8,their poison is like the poison of a serpent0 7,ps4 lviii4 #e72 8,he is like unto a lion0 7,ps4 xvii4 #ab72 the resemblance indicated in these passages does not refer to the figure and shape1 but to some abstract idea4 ,in the same manner is used 8the likeness of the throne0 7,ezek4 i4 #bf72 the comparison is made with regard to greatness and glory1 not1 as many believe1 with regard to its square form1 its breadth1 or the length of its legs3 this explanation applies also to the phrase 8the likeness of the ayyot0 78living creatures10 ,ezek4 i4 #ac74 ,as man's distinction consists in a property which no other creature on earth possesses1 viz41 intellectual perception1 in the exercise of which he does not employ his senses1 nor move his hand or his foot1 this perception has been compared--though only apparently1 not in truth--to the ,divine perception1 which requires no corporeal organ4 ,on this account1 i4e41 on account of the ,divine intellect with which man has been endowed1 he is said to have been made in the form and likeness of the ,almighty1 but far from it be the notion that the ,supreme ,being is corporeal1 having a material form4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,some years ago a learned man asked me a question of great importance2 the problem and the solution which we gave in our reply deserve the closest attention4 ,before1 however1 entering upon this problem and its solution ,i must premise that every ,hebrew knows that the term ,elohim is a homonym1 and denotes ,god1 angels1 judges1 and the rulers of countries1 and that ,onkelos the proselyte explained it in the true and correct manner by taking ,elohim in the sentence1 8and ye shall be like ,elohim0 7,gen4 iii4 #e7 in the last-mentioned meaning1 and rendering the sentence 8and ye shall be like princes40 ,having pointed out the homonymity of the term 8,elohim0 we return to the question under consideration4 8,it would at first sight10 said the objector1 8appear from ,scripture that man was originally intended to be perfectly equal to the rest of the animal creation1 which is not endowed with intellect1 reason1 or power of distinguishing between good and evil3 but that ,adam's disobedience to the command of ,god procured him that great perfection which is the peculiarity of man1 viz41 the power of distinguishing between good and evil--the noblest of all the faculties of our nature1 the essential characteristic of the human race4 ,it thus appears strange that the punishment for rebelliousness should be the means of elevating man to a pinnacle of perfection to which he had not attained previously4 ,this is equivalent to saying that a certain man was rebellious and extremely wicked1 wherefore his nature was changed for the better1 and he was made to shine as a star in the heavens40 ,such was the purport and subject of the question1 though not in the exact words of the inquirer4 ,now mark our reply1 which was as follows3--8,you appear to have studied the matter superficially1 and nevertheless you imagine that you can understand a book which has been the guide of past and present generations1 when you for a moment withdraw from your lusts and appetites1 and glance over its contents as if you were reading a historical work or some poetical composition4 ,collect your thoughts and examine the matter carefully1 for it is not to be understood as you at first sight think1 but as you will find after due deliberation2 namely1 the intellect which was granted to man as the highest endowment1 was bestowed on him before his disobedience4 ,with reference to this gift the ,bible states that 8man was created in the form and likeness of ,god40 ,on account of this gift of intellect man was addressed by ,god1 and received ,his commandments1 as it is said3 8,and the ,lord ,god commanded ,adam0 7,gen4 ii4 #af7--;for no commandments are given to the brute creation or to those who are devoid of understanding4 ,through the intellect man distinguishes between the true and the false4 ,this faculty ,adam possessed perfectly and completely4 ,the right and the wrong are terms employed in the science of apparent truths 7morals71 not in that of necessary truths1 as1 e4g41 it is not correct to say1 in reference to the proposition 8the heavens are spherical10 it is 8good0 or to declare the assertion that 8the earth is flat0 to be 8bad02 but we say of the one it is true1 of the other it is false4 ,similarly our language expresses the idea of true and false by the terms emet and sheker1 of the morally right and the morally wrong1 by tob and ra'4 ,thus it is the function of the intellect to discriminate between the true and the false--a distinction which is applicable to all objects of intellectual perception4 ,when ,adam was yet in a state of innocence1 and was guided solely by reflection and reason--on account of which it is said3 8,thou hast made him 7man7 little lower than the angels0 7,ps4 viii4 #f7--;he was not at all able to follow or to understand the principles of apparent truths2 the most manifest impropriety1 viz41 to appear in a state of nudity1 was nothing unbecoming according to his idea3 he could not comprehend why it should be so4 ,after man's disobedience1 however1 when he began to give way to desires which had their source in his imagination and to the gratification of his bodily appetites1 as it is said1 8,and the wife saw that the tree was good for food and delightful to the eyes0 7,gen4 iii4 #f71 he was punished by the loss of part of that intellectual faculty which he had previously possessed4 ,he therefore transgressed a command with which he had been charged on the score of his reason2 and having obtained a knowledge of the apparent truths1 he was wholly absorbed in the study of what is proper and what improper4 ,then he fully understood the magnitude of the loss he had sustained1 what he had forfeited1 and in what situation he was thereby placed4 ,hence we read1 8,and ye shall be like elohim1 knowing good and evil10 and not 8knowing0 or 8discerning the true and the false03 while in necessary truths we can only apply the words 8true and false10 not 8good and evil40 ,further observe the passage1 8,and the eyes of both were opened1 and they knew they were naked0 7,gen4 iii4 #g73 it is not said1 8,and the eyes of both were opened1 and they saw02 for what the man had seen previously and what he saw after this circumstance was precisely the same2 there had been no blindness which was now removed1 but he received a new faculty whereby he found things wrong which previously he had not regarded as wrong4 ,besides1 you must know that the ,hebrew word paka used in this passage is exclusively employed in the figurative sense of receiving new sources of knowledge1 not in that of regaining the sense of sight4 ,comp41 8,god opened her eyes0 7,gen4 xxi4 #ai74 8,then shall the eyes of the blind be opened0 7,isaiah xxxviii4 #h74 8,open ears1 he heareth not0 7ibid4 xlii4 #bj71 similar in sense to the verse1 8,which have eyes to see1 and see not0 7,ezek4 xii4 #b74 ,when1 however1 ,scripture says of ,adam1 8,he changed his face 7panav7 and thou sentest him forth0 7,job xiv4 #bj71 it must be understood in the following way3 ,on account of the change of his original aim he was sent away4 ,for panim1 the ,hebrew equivalent of face1 is derived from the verb panah1 8he turned10 and signifies also 8aim10 because man generally turns his face towards the thing he desires4 ,in accordance with this interpretation1 our text suggests that ,adam1 as he altered his intention and directed his thoughts to the acquisition of what he was forbidden1 he was banished from ,paradise3 this was his punishment2 it was measure for measure4 ,at first he had the privilege of tasting pleasure and happiness1 and of enjoying repose and security2 but as his appetites grew stronger1 and he followed his desires and impulses1 7as we have already stated above71 and partook of the food he was forbidden to taste1 he was deprived of everything1 was doomed to subsist on the meanest kind of food1 such as he never tasted before1 and this even only after exertion and labour1 as it is said1 8,thorns and thistles shall grow up for thee0 7,gen4 iii4 #ah71 8,by the sweat of thy brow10 etc41 and in explanation of this the text continues1 8,and the ,lord ,god drove him from the ,garden of ,eden1 to till the ground whence he was taken40 ,he was now with respect to food and many other requirements brought to the level of the lower animals2 comp41 8,thou shalt eat the grass of the field0 7,gen4 iii4 #ah74 ,reflecting on his condition1 the ,psalmist says1 8,adam unable to dwell in dignity1 was brought to the level of the dumb beast0 7,ps4 xlix4 #ac74 8,may the ,almighty be praised1 whose design and wisdom cannot be fathomed40 ,,chapter ,,iii ,it might be thought that the ,hebrew words temunah and tabnit have one and the same meaning1 but this is not the case4 ,tabnit1 derived from the verb banah 7he built71 signifies the build and construction of a thing--that is to say1 its figure1 whether square1 round1 triangular1 or of any other shape4 ,comp4 8the pattern 7tabnit7 of the ,tabernacle and the pattern 7tabnit7 of all its vessels0 7,exod4 xxv4 #i72 8according to the pattern 7tabnit7 which thou wast shown upon the mount0 7,exod4 xxv4 #dj72 8the form of any bird0 7,deut4 iv4 #ag72 8the form 7tabnit7 of a hand0 7,ezek4 viii4 #c72 8the pattern 7tabnit7 of the porch0 7#a ,chron4 xxviii4 #aa74 ,in all these quotations it is the shape which is referred to4 ,therefore the ,hebrew language never employs the word tabnit in speaking of the qualities of ,god ,almighty4 ,the term temunah1 on the other hand1 is used in the ,bible in three different senses4 ,it signifies1 first1 the outlines of things which are perceived by our bodily senses1 i4e41 their shape and form2 as1 e4g41 8,and ye make an image the form 7temunat7 of some likeness0 7,deut4 iv4 #af72 8for ye saw no likeness0 7temunah7 7,deut4 iv4 #ae74 ,secondly1 the forms of our imagination1 i4e41 the impressions retained in imagination when the objects have ceased to affect our senses4 ,in this sense it is used in the passage which begins 8,in thoughts from the visions of the night0 7,job iv4 #ac71 and which concludes 8it remained but ,i could not recognize its sight1 only an image--temunah--was before my eyes10 i4e41 an image which presented itself to my sight during sleep4 ,thirdly1 the true form of an object1 which is perceived only by the intellect3 and it is in this third signification that the term is applied to ,god4 ,the words 8,and the similitude of the ,lord shall he behold0 7,num4 xii4 #h7 therefore mean 8he shall comprehend the true essence of the ,lord40 ,,chapter ,,iv ,the three verbs raah1 hibbit1 and azah1 which denote 8he perceived with the eye10 are also used figuratively in the sense of intellectual perception4 ,as regards the first of these verbs this is well known1 e4g41 8,and he looked 7va-yar7 and behold a well in the field0 7,gen4 xxix4 #b73 here it signifies ocular perception2 8yea1 my heart has seen 7raah7 much of wisdom and of knowledge0 7,eccles4 i4 #af72 in this passage it refers to the intellectual perception4 ,in this figurative sense the verb is to be understood1 when applied to ,god2 e4g41 8,i saw 7rati7 the ,lord0 7#a ,kings xxii4 #ai72 8,and the ,lord appeared 7va-yera7 unto him0 7,gen4 xviii4 #a72 8,and ,god saw 7va-yar7 that it was good0 7,gen4 i4 #aj72 8,i beseech thee1 show me 7hareni7 thy glory0 7,exod4 xxxiii4 #ah72 8,and they saw 7va-yir7 the ,god of ,israel0 7,exod4 xxiv4 #aj74 ,all these instances refer to intellectual perception1 and by no means to perception with the eye as in its literal meaning3 for1 on the one hand1 the eye can only perceive a corporeal object1 and in connection with it certain accidents1 as colour1 shape1 etc42 and1 on the other hand1 ,god does not perceive by means of a corporeal organ1 as will be explained4 ,in the same manner the ,hebrew hibbit signifies 8he viewed0 with the eye2 comp4 8,look 7tabbit7 not behind thee0 7,gen4 xix4 #ag72 8,but his wife looked 7va-tabbet7 back from him0 7,gen4 xix4 #bf72 8,and if one look 7ve-nibbat7 unto the land0 7,isa4 v4 #cj72 and figuratively1 8to view and observe0 with the intellect1 8to contemplate0 a thing till it be understood4 ,in this sense the verb is used in passages like the following3 8,he hath not beheld 7hibbit7 iniquity in ,jacob0 7,num4 xxiii4 #ba72 for 8iniquity0 cannot be seen with the eye4 ,the words1 8,and they looked 7ve-hibbitu7 after ,moses0 7,exod4 xxxiii4 #h7--;in addition to the literal understanding of the phrase--were explained by our ,sages in a figurative sense4 ,according to them1 these words mean that the ,israelites examined and criticised the actions and sayings of ,moses4 ,compare also 8,contemplate 7habbet71 ,i pray thee1 the heaven0 7,gen4 xv4 #e72 for this took place in a prophetic vision4 ,this verb1 when applied to ,god1 is employed in this figurative sense2 e4g41 8to look 7me-habbit7 upon ,god0 7,exod4 iii4 #f72 8,and the similitude of the ,lord shall he behold0 7yabbit7 7,num4 xii4 #h72 8,and thou canst not look 7habbet7 on iniquity0 7,hab4 i4 #ac74 ,the same explanation applies to azah4 ,it denotes to view with the eye1 as3 8,and let our eye look 7ve-taaz7 upon ,zion0 7,mic4 iv4 #aa72 and also figuratively1 to perceive mentally3 8which he saw 7azah7 concerning ,judah and ,jerusalem0 7,isa4 i4 #a72 8,the word of the ,lord came unto ,abraham in a vision0 7maazeh7 7,gen4 xv4 #a73 in this sense azah is used in the phrase1 8,also they saw 7va-yeezu7 ,god0 7,exod4 xxiv4 #aa74 ,note this well4 ,,chapter ,v ,when the chief of philosophers ,aristotle was about to inquire into some very profound subjects1 and to establish his theory by proofs1 he commenced his treatise with an apology1 and requested the reader to attribute the author's inquiries not to presumption1 vanity1 egotism1 or arrogance1 as though he were interfering with things of which he had no knowledge1 but rather to his zeal and his desire to discover and establish true doctrines1 as far as lay in human power4 ,we take the same position1 and think that a man1 when he commences to speculate1 ought not to embark at once on a subject so vast and important2 he should previously adapt himself to the study of the several branches of science and knowledge1 should most thoroughly refine his moral character and subdue his passions and desires1 the offspring of his imagination2 when1 in addition1 he has obtained a knowledge of the true fundamental propositions1 a comprehension of the several methods of inference and proof1 and the capacity of guarding against fallacies1 then he may approach the investigation of this subject4 ,he must1 however1 not decide any question by the first idea that suggests itself to his mind1 or at once direct his thoughts and force them to obtain a knowledge of the ,creator1 but he must wait modestly and patiently1 and advance step by step4 ,in this sense we must understand the words 8,and ,moses hid his face1 for he was afraid to look upon ,god0 7,exod4 iii4 #f71 though retaining also the literal meaning of the passage1 that ,moses was afraid to gaze at the light which appeared to his eye2 but it must on no account be assumed that the ,being which is exalted far above every imperfection can be perceived by the eye4 ,this act of ,moses was highly commended by ,god1 who bestowed on him a well deserved portion of ,his goodness1 as it is said3 8,and the similitude of the ,lord shall he behold0 7,num4 xii4 #h74 ,this1 say our ,sages1 was the reward for having previously hidden his face1 lest he should gaze at the ,eternal4 7,talm4 ,b4 ,berakot ,fa47 ,but 8the nobles of the ,children of ,israel0 were impetuous1 and allowed their thoughts to go unrestrained3 what they perceived was but imperfect4 ,therefore it is said of them1 8,and they saw the ,god of ,israel1 and there was under his feet10 etc4 7,exod4 xxiv4 #aj72 and not merely1 8and they saw the ,god of ,israel02 the purpose of the whole passage is to criticize their act of seeing and not to describe it4 ,they are blamed for the nature of their perception1 which was to a certain extent corporeal--a result which necessarily followed1 from the fact that they ventured too far before being perfectly prepared4 ,they deserved to perish1 but at the intercession of ,moses this fate was averted by ,god for the time4 ,they were afterwards burnt at ,taberah1 except ,nadab and ,abihu1 who were burnt in the ,tabernacle of the congregation1 according to what is stated by authentic tradition4 7,midr4 ,rabba ad locum47 ,if such was the case with them1 how much more is it incumbent on us who are inferior1 and on those who are below us1 to persevere in perfecting our knowledge of the elements1 and in rightly understanding the preliminaries which purify the mind from the defilement of error2 then we may enter the holy and divine camp in order to gaze3 as the ,bible says1 8,and let the priests also1 which come near to the ,lord1 sanctify themselves1 lest the ,lord break forth upon them0 7,exod4 xix4 #bb74 ,solomon1 also1 has cautioned all who endeavour to attain this high degree of knowledge in the following figurative terms1 8,keep thy foot when thou goest to the house of ,god0 7,eccles4 iv4 #ag74 ,i will now return to complete what ,i commenced to explain4 ,the nobles of the ,children of ,israel1 besides erring in their perception1 were1 through this cause1 also misled in their actions2 for in consequence of their confused perception1 they gave way to bodily cravings4 ,this is meant by the words1 8,also they saw ,god and did eat and drink0 7,exod4 xxiv4 #aa74 ,the principal part of that passage1 viz41 8,and there was under his feet as it were a paved work of a sapphire stone0 7,exod4 xxiv4 #aj71 will be further explained in the course of the present treatise 7ch4 xxviii474 ,all we here intend to say is1 that wherever in a similar connection any one of the three verbs mentioned above occurs1 it has reference to intellectual perception1 not to the sensation of sight by the eye2 for ,god is not a being to be perceived by the eye4 ,it will do no harm1 however1 if those who are unable to comprehend what we here endeavour to explain should refer all the words in question to sensuous perception1 to seeing lights created for the purpose1 angels1 or similar beings4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,the two ,hebrew nouns ish and ishshah were originally employed to designate the 8male and female0 of human beings1 but were afterwards applied to the 8male and female0 of the other species of the animal creation4 ,for instance1 we read1 8,of every clean beast thou shalt take to thee by sevens10 ish ve-ishto 7,gen4 vii4 #b71 in the same sense as ish ve-ishshah1 8male and female40 ,the term zakar u-nekebah was afterwards applied to anything designed and prepared for union with another object4 ,thus we read1 8,the five curtains shall be coupled together1 one 7ishshah7 to the other0 7aotah7 7,exod4 xxvi4 #c74 ,it will easily be seen that the ,hebrew equivalents for 8brother and sister0 are likewise treated as homonyms1 and used1 in a figurative sense1 like ish and ishshah4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,it is well known that the verb yalad means 8to bear10 8they have born 7ve-yaledu7 him children0 7,deut4 xxi4 #ae74 ,the word was next used in a figurative sense with reference to various objects in nature1 meaning1 8to create10 e4g4 8before the mountains were created0 7yulladu7 7,ps4 xc4 #b72 also1 8to produce10 in reference to that which the earth causes to come forth as if by birth1 e4g41 8,he will cause her to bear 7holidah7 and bring forth0 7,isa4 lv4 #aj74 ,the verb further denotes1 8to bring forth10 said of changes in the process of time1 as though they were things which were born1 e4g41 8for thou knowest not what a day may bring forth0 7yeled7 7,prov4 xxvii4 #a74 ,another figurative use of the word is its application to the formation of thoughts and ideas1 or of opinions resulting from them2 comp4 8and brought forth 7ve-yalad7 falsehood0 7,ps4 vii4 #ad72 also1 8and they please themselves in the children 7yalde7 of strangers0 7,isa4 ii4 #f71 i4e41 8they delight in the opinions of strangers40 ,jonathan the son of ,uzziel paraphrases this passage1 8they walk in the customs of other nations40 ,a man who has instructed another in any subject1 and has improved his knowledge1 may in like manner be regarded as the parent of the person taught1 because he is the author of that knowledge2 and thus the pupils of the prophets are called 8sons of the prophets10 as ,i shall explain when treating of the homonymity of ben 7son74 ,in this figurative sense1 the verb yalad 7to bear7 is employed when it is said of ,adam1 8,and ,adam lived an hundred and thirty years1 and begat 7va-yoled7 a son in his own likeness1 in his form0 7,gen4 v4 #c74 ,as regards the words1 8the form of ,adam1 and his likeness10 we have already stated 7ch4 i47 their meaning4 ,those sons of ,adam who were born before that time were not human in the true sense of the word1 they had not 8the form of man40 ,with reference to ,seth who had been instructed1 enlightened and brought to human perfection1 it could rightly be said1 8he 7,adam7 begat a son in his likeness1 in his form40 ,it is acknowledged that a man who does not possess this 8form0 7the nature of which has just been explained7 is not human1 but a mere animal in human shape and form4 ,yet such a creature has the power of causing harm and injury3 a power which does not belong to other creatures4 ,for those gifts of intelligence and judgment with which he has been endowed for the purpose of acquiring perfection1 but which he has failed to apply to their proper aim1 are used by him for wicked and mischievous ends2 he begets evil things1 as though he merely resembled man1 or simulated his outward appearance4 ,such was the condition of those sons of ,adam who preceded ,seth4 ,in reference to this subject the ,midrash says3 8,during the #acj years when ,adam was under rebuke he begat spirits10 i4e41 demons2 when1 however1 he was again restored to divine favour 8he begat in his likeness1 in his form40 ,this is the sense of the passage1 8,adam lived one hundred and thirty years1 and he begat in his likeness1 in his form0 7,gen4 v4 #c74 ,,chapter ,,viii ,originally the ,hebrew term makom 7place7 applied both to a particular spot and to space in general2 subsequently it received a wider signification and denoted 8position10 or 8degree10 as regards the perfection of man in certain things4 ,we say1 e4g41 this man occupies a certain place in such and such a subject4 ,in this sense this term1 as is well known1 is frequently used by authors1 e4g41 8,he fills his ancestors' place 7makom7 in point of wisdom and piety02 8the dispute still remains in its place0 7makom71 i4e41 in statu quo ante4 ,in the verse1 8,blessed be the glory of the ,lord from ,his place0 7mekomo7 7,ezek4 iii4 #ab71 makom has this figurative meaning1 and the verse may be paraphrased 8,blessed be the ,lord according to the exalted nature of ,his existence10 and wherever makom is applied to ,god1 it expresses the same idea1 namely1 the distinguished position of ,his existence1 to which nothing is equal or comparable1 as will be shown below 7chap4 lvi474 ,it should be observed that when we treat in this work of any homonym1 we do not desire you to confine yourself to that which is stated in that particular chapter2 but we open for you a portal and direct your attention to those significations of the word which are suited to our purpose1 though they may not be complete from a philological point of view4 ,you should examine the prophetical books and other works composed by men of science1 notice the meaning of every word which occurs in them1 and take homonyms in that sense which is in harmony with the context4 ,what ,i say in a particular passage is a key for the comprehension of all similar passages4 ,for example1 we have explained here makom in the sentence 8,blessed be the glory of the ,lord from ,his place0 7mekomo72 but you must understand that the word makom has the same signification in the passage 8,behold1 a place 7makom7 is with me0 7,exod4 xxxiii4 #bf71 viz41 a certain degree of contemplation and intellectual intuition 7not of ocular inspection71 in addition to its literal meaning 8a place10 viz41 the mountain which was pointed out to ,moses for seclusion and for the attainment of perfection4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,the original meaning of the word kisse1 8throne10 requires no comment4 ,since men of greatness and authority1 as1 e4g41 kings1 use the throne as a seat1 and 8the throne0 thus indicates the rank1 dignity1 and position of the person for whom it is made1 the ,sanctuary has been styled 8the throne10 inasmuch as it likewise indicates the superiority of ,him who manifests ,himself1 and causes ,his light and glory to dwell therein4 ,comp4 8,a glorious throne on high from the beginning is the place of our sanctuary0 7,jer4 xvii4 #ab74 ,for the same reason the heavens are called 8throne10 for to the mind of him who observes them with intelligence they suggest the ,omnipotence of the ,being which has called them into existence1 regulates their motions1 and governs the sublunary world by their beneficial influence3 as we read1 8,thus saith the ,lord1 ,the heavens are my throne and the earth my footstool0 7,isa4 lxvi4 #a72 i4e41 they testify to my ,existence1 my ,essence1 and my ,omnipotence1 as the throne testifies to the greatness of him who is worthy to occupy it4 ,this is the idea which true believers should entertain2 not1 however1 that the ,omnipotent1 ,supreme ,god is supported by any material object2 for ,god is incorporeal1 as we shall prove further on2 how1 then1 can ,he be said to occupy any space1 or rest on a body8 ,the fact which ,i wish to point out is this3 every place distinguished by the ,almighty1 and chosen to receive ,his light and splendour1 as1 for instance1 the ,sanctuary or the ,heavens1 is termed 8throne02 and1 taken in a wider sense1 as in the passage 8,for my hand is upon the throne of ,god0 7,exod4 xvii4 #af71 8the throne0 denotes here the ,essence and ,greatness of ,god4 ,these1 however 7the ,essence and ,greatness of ,god7 need not be considered as something separate from the ,god ,himself or as part of the ,creation1 so that ,god would appear to have existed both without the throne1 and with the throne2 such a belief would be undoubtedly heretical4 ,it is distinctly stated1 8,thou1 ,o ,lord1 remainest for ever2 ,thy throne from generation to generation0 7,lam4 v4 #ai74 ,by 8,thy throne0 we must1 therefore1 understand something inseparable from ,god4 ,on that account1 both here and in all similar passages1 the word 8throne0 denotes ,god's ,greatness and ,essence1 which are inseparable from ,his ,being4 ,our opinion will be further elucidated in the course of this ,treatise4 ,,chapter ,x ,we have already remarked that when we treat in this work of homonyms1 we have not the intention to exhaust the meanings of a word 7for this is not a philological treatise72 we shall mention no other significations but those which bear on our subject4 ,we shall thus proceed in our treatment of the terms alah and yarad4 ,these two words1 alah1 8he went up10 and yarad1 8he went down10 are ,hebrew terms used in the sense of ascending and descending4 ,when a body moves from a higher to a lower place1 the verb yarad1 8to go down10 is used2 when it moves from a lower to a higher place1 alah1 8to go up10 is applied4 ,these two verbs were afterwards employed with regard to greatness and power4 ,when a man falls from his high position1 we say 8he has come down10 and when he rises in station 8he has gone up40 ,thus the ,almighty says1 8,the stranger that is within thee shall get up above thee very high1 and thou shalt come down very low0 7,deut4 xxviii4 #dc74 ,again1 8,the ,lord thy ,god will set thee on high 7elyon7 above all nations of the earth0 7,deut4 xxviii4 #a73 8,and the ,lord magnified ,solomon exceedingly0 7lemaalah7 7#a ,chron4 xxix4 #be74 ,the ,sages often employ these expressions1 as3 8,in holy matters men must ascend 7maalin7 and not descend 7moridin740 ,the two words are also applied to intellectual processes1 namely1 when we reflect on something beneath ourselves we are said to go down1 and when our attention is raised to a subject above us we are said to rise4 ,now1 we occupy a lowly position1 both in space and rank in comparison with the heavenly sphere1 and the ,almighty is ,most ,high not in space1 but with respect to absolute existence1 greatness and power4 ,when it pleased the ,almighty to grant to a human being a certain degree of wisdom or prophetic inspiration1 the divine communication thus made to the prophet and the entrance of the ,divine ,presence into a certain place is termed yeridah1 8descending10 while the termination of the prophetic communication or the departure of the divine glory from a place is called aliyah1 8ascending40 ,the expressions 8to go up0 and 8to go down10 when used in reference to ,god1 must be interpreted in this sense4 ,again1 when1 in accordance with the divine will1 some misfortune befalls a nation or a region of the earth1 and when the biblical account of that misfortune is preceded by the statement that the ,almighty visited the actions of the people1 and that ,he punished them accordingly1 then the prophetic author employs the term 8to descend03 for man is so low and insignificant that his actions would not be visited and would not bring punishment on him1 were it not for the divine will3 as is clearly stated in the ,bible1 with regard to this idea1 8,what is man that thou shouldst remember him1 and the son of man that thou shouldst visit him0 7,ps4 viii4 #e74 ,the design of the ,deity to punish man is1 therefore1 introduced by the verb 8to descend02 comp4 8,go to1 let us go down and there confound their language0 7,gen4 xi4 #g72 8,and the ,lord came down to see0 7,gen4 xi4 #e72 8,i will go down now and see0 7,gen4 xviii4 #ba74 ,all these instances convey the idea that man here below is going to be punished4 ,more numerous1 however1 are the instances of the first case1 viz41 in which these verbs are used in connection with the revelation of the word and of the glory of ,god1 e4g41 8,and ,i will come down and talk with thee there0 7,num4 xi4 #ag72 8,and the ,lord came down upon ,mount ,sinai0 7,exod4 xix4 #bj72 8,the ,lord will come down in the sight of all the people0 7,exod4 xix4 #aa72 8,and ,god went up from him0 7,gen4 xxxv4 #ac72 8,and ,god went up from ,abraham0 7,gen4 xvii4 #bb74 ,when1 on the other hand1 it says1 8,and ,moses went up unto ,god0 7,exod4 xix4 #c71 it must be taken in the third signification of these verbs1 in addition to its literal meaning that ,moses also ascended to the top of the mount1 upon which a certain material light 7the manifestation of ,god's glory7 was visible2 but we must not imagine that the ,supreme ,being occupies a place to which we can ascend1 or from which we can descend4 ,he is far from what the ignorant imagine4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,the primary meaning of the ,hebrew yashab is 8he was seated10 as 8,now ,eli the priest sat 7yashab7 upon a seat0 7#a ,sam4 i4 #i72 but1 since a person can best remain motionless and at rest when sitting1 the term was applied to everything that is permanent and unchanging2 thus1 in the promise that ,jerusalem should remain constantly and permanently in an exalted condition1 it is stated1 8,she will rise and sit in her place0 7,zech4 xiv4 #aj72 further1 8,he maketh the woman who was childless to sit as a joyful mother of children0 7,ps4 cxiii4 #i72 i4e41 ,he makes her happy condition to be permanent and enduring4 ,when applied to ,god1 the verb is to be taken in that latter sense3 8,thou1 ,o ,lord1 remainest 7tesheb7 for ever0 7,lam4 v4 #ai72 8,o thou who sittest 7ha-yoshebi7 in the heavens0 7,ps4 cxxiii4 #a72 8,he who sitteth in the heavens0 7ii4 #d71 i4e41 ,he who is everlasting1 constant1 and in no way subject to change2 immutable in ,his ,essence1 and as ,he consists of nought but ,his ,essence1 ,he is mutable in no way whatever2 not mutable in ,his relation to other things2 for there is no relation whatever existing between ,him and any other being1 as will be explained below1 and therefore no change as regards such relations can take place in ,him4 ,hence ,he is immutable in every respect1 as ,he expressly declares1 8,i1 the ,lord1 do not change0 7,mal4 iii4 #f72 i4e41 in ,me there is not any change whatever4 ,this idea is expressed by the term yashab when referring to ,god4 ,the verb1 when employed of ,god1 is frequently complemented by 8the ,heavens10 inasmuch as the heavens are without change or mutation1 that is to say1 they do not individually change1 as the individual beings on earth1 by transition from existence into non-existence4 ,the verb is also employed in descriptions of ,god's relation 7the term 8relation0 is here used as a homonym7 to existing species of evanescent things2 for those species are as constant1 well organized1 and unvarying as the individuals of the heavenly hosts4 ,thus we find1 8,who sitteth over the circle of the earth0 7,isa4 xl4 #bb71 ,who remains constantly and unremittingly over the sphere of the earth2 that is to say1 over the things that come into existence within that sphere4 ,again1 8,the ,lord sitteth upon the flood0 7,ps4 xxix4 #aj71 i4e41 despite the change and variation of earthly objects1 no change takes place with respect to ,god's relation 7to the earth73 ,his relation to each of the things which come into existence and perish again is stable and constant1 for it concerns only the existing species and not the individuals4 ,it should therefore be borne in mind1 that whenever the term 8sitting0 is applied to ,god1 it is used in this sense4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,the term kam 7he rose7 is a homonym4 ,in one of its significations it is the opposite of 8to sit10 as 8,he did not rise 7kam7 nor move for him0 7,esth4 v4 #i74 ,it further denotes the confirmation and verification of a thing1 e4g43 8,the ,lord will verify 7yakem7 ,his promise0 7#a ,sam4 i4 #bc72 8,the field of ,ephron was made sure 7va-yakom7 as the property of ,abraham0 7,gen4 xxiii4 #ag74 8,the house that is in the walled city shall be established 7ve-kam70 7,lev4 xxv4 #cj72 8,and the kingdom of ,israel shall be firmly established 7ve-kamah7 in thy hand0 7#a ,sam4 xxiv4 #bj74 ,it is always in this sense that the verb is employed with reference to the ,almighty2 as 8,now shall ,i rise 7akum71 saith the ,lord0 7,ps4 xii4 #g71 which is the same as saying1 8,now shall ,i verify my word and my dispensation for good or evil40 8,thou shalt arise 7takum7 and have mercy upon ,zion0 7,ps4 cii4 #ac71 which means3 ,thou wilt establish what thou hast promised1 viz41 that thou wouldst pity ,zion4 ,generally a person who resolves to set about a matter1 accompanies his resolve by rising1 hence the verb is employed to express 8to resolve0 to do a certain thing2 as1 8,that my son hath stirred up my servant against me0 7#a ,sam4 xxii4 #h74 ,the word is figuratively used to signify the execution of a divine decree against a people sentenced to extermination1 as 8,and ,i will rise against the house of ,jeroboam0 7,amos vii4 #i72 8but he will arise against the house of the evildoers0 7,isa4 xxxi4 #b74 ,possibly in ,psalm xii4 #g the verb has this latter sense1 as also in ,psalm cii4 #ac1 namely3 ,thou wilt rise up against her enemies4 ,there are many passages to be interpreted in this manner1 but in no way should it be understood that ,he rises or sits--far be such a notion6 ,our ,sages expressed this idea in the formula1 8,in the world above there is neither sitting nor standing 7amidah702 for the two verbs amad and kam are synonyms and what is said about the former is also applicable to the latter4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,the term amad 7he stood7 is a homonym signifying in the first instance 8to stand upright10 as 8,when he stood 7be-omdo7 before ,pharaoh0 7,gen4 xli4 #df72 8,though ,moses and ,samuel stood 7yaamod70 7,jer4 xv4 #a72 8,he stood by them0 7,gen4 xviii4 #h74 ,it further denotes 8cessation and interruption10 as 8but they stood still 7amedu7 and answered no more0 7,job xxxii4 #af72 8and she ceased 7va-taamod7 to bear0 7,gen4 xxix4 #ce74 ,next it signifies 8to be enduring and lasting10 as1 8that they may continue 7yo-amedu7 many days0 7,jer4 xxxii4 #ad72 8,then shalt thou be able to endure 7amod70 7,exod4 xviii4 #bc72 8,his taste remained 7amad7 in him0 7,jer4 xlviii4 #aa71 i4e41 it has continued and remained in existence without any change2 8,his righteousness standeth for ever0 7,ps4 cxi4 #c71 i4e41 it is permanent and everlasting4 ,the verb applied to ,god must be understood in this latter sense1 as in ,zechariah xiv4 #d1 8,and his feet shall stand 7ve-amedu7 in that day upon the ,mount of ,olives0 7,zech4 xiv4 #d71 8,his causes1 i4e41 the events of which ,he is the cause1 will remain efficient10 etc4 ,this will be further elucidated when we speak of the meaning of regel 7foot74 7,vide infra1 chap1 xxviii47 ,in the same sense is this verb employed in ,deuteronomy v4 #bh1 8,but as for thee1 stand thou here by me10 and ,deuteronomy v4 #e1 8,i stood between the ,lord and you40 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,the homonymous term adam is in the first place the name of the first man1 being1 as ,scripture indicates1 derived from adamah1 8earth40 ,next1 it means 8mankind10 as 8,my spirit shall not strive with man 7adam70 7,gen4 vi4 #c74 ,again 8,who knoweth the spirit of the children of man 7adam70 7,eccles4 iii4 #ba72 8so that a man 7adam7 has no pre-eminence above a beast0 7,eccles4 iii4 #ai74 ,adam signifies also 8the multitude10 8the lower classes0 as opposed to those distinguished from the rest1 as 8,both low 7bene adam7 and high 7bene ish70 7,ps4 xlix4 #c74 ,it is in this third signification that it occurs in the verses1 8,the sons of the higher order 7,elohim7 saw the daughters of the lower order 7adam70 7,gen4 vi4 #b72 and 8,forsooth6 as the humble man 7adam7 you shall die0 7,ps4 lxxxii4 #g74 ,,chapter ,,xv ,although the two roots naab and yaab are distinct1 yet their meaning is1 as you know1 identical in all their various forms4 ,the verb has several meanings3 in some instances it signifies 8to stand0 or 8to place oneself10 as 8,and his sister stood 7va-tetaab7 afar off0 7,exod4 ii4 #d72 8,the kings of the earth set themselves0 7yityaebu7 7,ps4 ii4 #b72 8,they came out and stood0 7niabim7 7,num4 xvi4 #bg74 ,in other instances it denotes continuance and permanence1 as1 8,thy word is established 7niab7 in ,heaven0 7,ps4 cxix4 #hi71 i4e41 it remains for ever4 ,whenever this term is applied to ,god it must be understood in the latter sense1 as1 8,and1 behold1 the ,lord stood 7niab7 upon it0 7,gen4 xxviii4 #ac71 i4e41 appeared as eternal and everlasting 8upon it10 namely1 upon the ladder1 the upper end of which reached to heaven1 while the lower end touched the earth4 ,this ladder all may climb up who wish to do so1 and they must ultimately attain to a knowledge of ,him who is above the summit of the ladder1 because ,he remains upon it permanently4 ,it must be well understood that the term 8upon it0 is employed by me in harmony with this metaphor4 8,angels of ,god0 who were going up represent the prophets4 ,that the term 8angel0 was applied to prophets may clearly be seen in the following passages3 8,he sent an angel0 7,num4 xx4 #af72 8,and an angel of the ,lord came up from ,gilgal to ,bochim0 7,judges ii4 #a74 ,how suggestive1 too1 is the expression 8ascending and descending on it06 ,the ascent is mentioned before the descent1 inasmuch as the 8ascending0 and arriving at a certain height of the ladder precedes the 8descending10 i4e41 the application of the knowledge acquired in the ascent for the training and instruction of mankind4 ,this application is termed 8descent10 in accordance with our explanation of the term yarad 7chapter x474 ,to return to our subject4 ,the phrase 8stood upon it0 indicates the permanence and constancy of ,god1 and does not imply the idea of physical position4 ,this is also the sense of the phrase 8,thou shalt stand upon the rock0 7,exod4 xxxiii4 #ba74 ,it is therefore clear that niab and amad are identical in this figurative signification4 ,comp4 8,behold1 ,i will stand 7omed7 before thee there upon the rock in ,horeb0 7,exod4 xvii4 #f74 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,the word ur 7rock7 is a homonym4 ,first1 it denotes 8rock10 as 8,and thou shalt smite the rock0 7ur7 7,exod4 xvii4 #f74 ,then1 8hard stone10 like the flint1 e4g41 8,knives of stone0 7urim7 7,josh4 v4 #b74 ,it is next employed to signify the quarry from which the stones are hewn2 comp4 8,look unto the rock 7ur7 whence ye are hewn0 7,isa4 li4 #a74 ,from this latter meaning of the term another figurative notion was subsequently derived1 viz41 8the root and origin0 of all things4 ,it is on this account that after the words 8,look to the rock whence ye are hewn10 the ,prophet continues1 8,look unto ,abraham your father10 from which we evidently may infer that the words 8,abraham your father0 serve to explain 8the rock whence ye are hewn02 and that the ,prophet meant to say1 8,walk in his ways1 put faith in his instruction1 and conduct yourselves according to the rule of his life6 for the properties contained in the quarry should be found again in those things which are formed and hewn out of it40 ,it is in the latter sense that the ,almighty is called 8rock10 ,he being the origin and the causa efficiens of all things besides ,himself4 ,thus we read1 8,he is the ,rock1 ,his work is perfect0 7,deut4 xxxii4 #d72 8,of the ,rock that begat thee thou art unmindful0 7,deut4 xxxii4 #ah72 8,their ,rock had sold them0 7xxxi4 #cj72 8,there is no rock like our ,god0 7#a ,sam4 ii4 #b73 8,the ,rock of ,eternity0 7,isa4 xxvi4 #d74 ,again1 8,and thou shalt stand upon the ,rock0 7,exod4 xxxiii4 #ba71 i4e41 ,be firm and steadfast in the conviction that ,god is the source of all things1 for this will lead you towards the knowledge of the ,divine ,being4 ,we have shown 7chap4 viii47 that the words 8,behold1 a place is with me0 7,exod4 xxxiii4 #ba7 contain the same idea4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,do not imagine that only ,metaphysics should be taught with reserve to the common people and to the uninitiated2 for the same is also the case with the greater part of ,natural ,science4 ,in this sense we have repeatedly made use of the expression of the ,sages1 8,do not expound the chapter on the ,creation in the presence of two0 vide ,introd4 page #b4 ,this principle was not peculiar to our ,sages2 ancient philosophers and scholars of other nations were likewise wont to treat of the principia rerum obscurely1 and to use figurative language in discussing such subjects4 ,thus ,plato and his predecessors called ,substance the female1 and ,form the male4 7,you are aware that the principia of all existing transient things are three1 viz41 ,substance1 ,form1 and ,absence of a particular form2 the last-named principle is always inherent in the substance1 for otherwise the substance would be incapable of receiving a new form2 and it is from this point of view that absence of a particular form is included among the principia4 ,as soon1 then1 as a substance has received a certain form1 the privation of that form1 namely1 of that which has just been received1 has ceased1 and is replaced by the privation of another form1 and so on with all possible forms1 as is explained in treatises on natural philosophy47--,now1 if those philosophers who have nothing to fear from a lucid explanation of these metaphysical subjects still were in the habit of discussing them in figures and metaphors1 how much more should we1 having the interest of religion at heart1 refrain from elucidating to the mass any subject that is beyond their comprehension1 or that might be taken in a sense directly opposite to the one intended4 ,this also deserves attention4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,the three words karab1 8to come near10 naga1 8to touch10 and nagash1 8to approach10 sometimes signify 8contact0 or 8nearness in space10 sometimes the approach of man's knowledge to an object1 as if it resembled the physical approach of one body to another4 ,as to the use of karab in the first meaning1 viz41 to draw near a certain spot1 comp4 8,as he drew near 7karab7 the camp0 7,exod4 xxxii4 #ai72 8,and ,pharaoh drew near 7hikrib70 7,exod4 xiv4 #aj74 ,naga1 in the first sense1 viz41 expressing the contact of two bodies1 occurs in 8,and she cast it 7va-tagga7 at his feet0 7,exod4 iv4 #be72 8,he caused it to touch 7va-yagga7 my mouth0 7,isa4 vi4 #g74 ,and nagash in the first sense1 viz41 to approach or move towards another person1 is found1 e4g41 in 8,and ,judah drew near 7va-yiggash7 unto him0 7,gen4 xliv4 #a74 ,the second meaning of these three words is 8approach by means of knowledge10 or 8contact by comprehension10 not in reference to space4 ,as to naga in this second sense1 comp4 8for her judgment reacheth 7naga7 unto heaven0 7,jer4 li4 #i74 ,an instance of karab being used in this meaning is contained in the following passage1 8,and the cause that is too hard for you1 bring 7takribun7 it unto me0 7,deut4 i4 #ag72 this is equivalent to saying1 8,ye shall make it known unto me40 ,the verb karab 7in the ,hiphil7 is thus employed in the sense of giving information concerning a thing4 ,the verb nagash is used figuratively in the phrase1 8,and ,abraham drew near 7va-yiggash71 and said0 7,gen4 xviii4 #bc72 this took place in a prophetic vision and in a trance1 as will be explained 7,part ,i4 chap1 xxi41 and ,part ,,ii4 chap1 xli472 also in 8,forasmuch as this people draw near 7niggash7 me with their mouths and with their lips0 7,isa4 xxix4 #ac74 ,wherever a word denoting approach or contact is employed in the prophetic writings to describe a certain relation between the ,almighty and any created being1 it has to be understood in this latter sense viz41 to approach mentally4 ,for1 as will be proved in this treatise 7,,ii4 chap1 iv471 the ,supreme is incorporeal1 and consequently ,he does not approach or draw near a thing1 nor can aught approach or touch ,him2 for when a being is without corporeality1 it cannot occupy space1 and all idea of approach1 contact1 distance1 conjunction1 separation1 touch1 or proximity is inapplicable to such a being4 ,there can be no doubt respecting the verses 8,the ,lord is nigh 7karob7 unto all them that call upon him0 7,ps4 cxlv4 #ah72 8,they take delight in approaching 7kirbat7 to ,god0 7,isa4 lviii4 #b72 8,the nearness 7kirbat7 of ,god is pleasant to me0 7,ps4 lxxiii4 #bh72 all such phrases intimate a spiritual approach1 i4e41 the attainment of some knowledge1 not1 however1 approach in space4 ,thus also 8who hath ,god so nigh 7kerobim7 unto him0 7,deut4 iv4 #g72 8,draw thou near 7kerab7 and hear0 7,deut4 v4 #bg72 8,and ,moses alone shall draw near 7ve-niggash7 the ,lord2 but they shall not come nigh 7yiggashu70 7,exod4 xxiv4 #b74 ,if1 however1 you wish to take the words 8,and ,moses shall draw near0 to mean that he shall draw near a certain place in the mountain1 whereon the ,divine ,light shone1 or1 in the words of the ,bible1 8where the glory of the ,lord abode10 you may do so1 provided you do not lose sight of the truth that there is no difference whether a person stand at the centre of the earth or at the highest point of the ninth sphere1 if this were possible2 he is no further away from ,god in the one case1 or nearer to ,him in the other2 those only approach ,him who obtain a knowledge of ,him2 while those who remain ignorant of ,him recede from ,him4 ,in this approach towards1 or recession from ,god there are numerous grades one above the other1 and ,i shall further elucidate1 in one of the subsequent chapters of the ,treatise 7,i4 chap1 lx41 and ,,ii4 chap1 xxxvi47 what constitutes the difference in our perception of ,god4 ,in the passage1 8,touch 7ga7 the mountains1 and they shall smoke0 7,ps4 cxliv4 #e71 the verb 8touch0 is used in a figurative sense1 viz41 8,let thy word touch them40 ,so also the words1 8,touch thou him himself0 7,job ii4 #e71 have the same meaning as 8,bring thy infliction upon him40 ,in a similar manner must this verb1 in whatever form it may be employed1 be interpreted in each place1 according to the context2 for in some cases it denotes contact of two material objects1 in others knowledge and comprehension of a thing1 as if he who now comprehends anything which he had not comprehended previously had thereby approached a subject which had been distant from him4 ,this point is of considerable importance4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,the term male is a homonym which denotes that one substance enters another1 and fills it1 as 8,and she filled 7va-temalle7 her pitcher0 7,gen4 xxiv4 #af72 8,an omer-full 7melo7 for each0 7,exod4 xvi4 #cb71 and many other instances4 ,next1 it signifies the expiration or completion of a fixed period of time1 as 8,and when her days to be delivered were fulfilled 7va-yimle70 7,gen4 xxv4 #bd72 8,and forty days were completed 7va-yimle7 for him0 7,gen4 l4 #c74 ,it further denotes attainment of the highest degree of excellency1 as 8,full 7male7 with the blessing of the ,lord0 7,deut4 xxxiii4 #bc72 8,them hath he filled 7mille7 with wisdom of heart0 7,exod4 xxxv4 #ce72 8,he was filled 7va-yimmale7 with wisdom1 and understanding1 and cunning0 7#a ,kings vii4 #ad74 ,in this sense it is said 8,the whole earth is full 7melo7 of his glory0 7,isa4 vi4 #d71 8,all the earth gives evidence of his perfection10 i4e4 leads to a knowledge of it4 ,thus also 8,the glory of the ,lord filled 7male7 the tabernacle0 7,exod4 xl4 #cd72 and1 in fact1 every application of the word to ,god must be interpreted in this manner2 and not that ,he has a body occupying space4 ,if1 on the other hand1 you prefer to think that in this passage by 8the glory of the ,lord10 a certain light created for the purpose is to be understood1 that such light is always termed 8glory10 and that such light 8filled the tabernacle10 we have no objection4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,the word ram 7high7 is a homonym1 denoting elevation in space1 and elevation in dignity1 i4e41 greatness1 honour1 and power4 ,it has the first meaning in 8,and the ark was lifted up 7va-tarom7 above the earth0 7,gen4 vii4 #ag72 and the latter meaning in 8,i have exalted 7harimoti7 one chosen out of the people0 7,ps4 lxxxix4 #bj72 8,forasmuch as ,i have exalted 7harimoti7 thee from amongst the dust0 7#a ,kings xvi4 #b72 8,forasmuch as ,i exalted 7harimoti7 thee from among the people0 7#a ,kings xiv4 #g74 ,whenever this term is employed in reference to ,god1 it must be taken in the second sense3 8,be thou exalted 7rumah71 ,o ,god1 above the heavens0 7,ps4 lvii4 #ab74 ,in the same manner does the root nasa 7to lift up7 denote both elevation in space and elevation in rank and dignity4 ,in the former sense it occurs in 8,and they lifted up 7va-yisse7 their corn upon their asses0 7,gen4 xlii4 #bf72 and there are many instances like this in which this verb has the meaning 8to carry10 8to move0 from place to place2 for this implies elevation in space4 ,in the second sense we have 8,and his kingdom shall be exalted0 7ve-tinnase7 7,num4 xxiv4 #g72 8,and he bare them1 and carried them0 7va-yenassem7 7,isa4 lxiii4 #i72 8,wherefore do ye exalt yourselves0 7titnasse7 7,num4 xvi4 #c74 ,every form of this verb when applied to ,god has this latter sense--e4g41 8,lift up thyself 7hinnase71 thou judge of the earth0 7,ps4 xciv4 #b72 8,thus saith the ,high 7ram7 and ,exalted 7nissa7 ,one0 7,isa4 lvii4 #ae7--;denoting elevation in rank1 quality1 and power1 and not elevation in space4 ,you may be surprised that ,i employ the expression1 8elevation in rank1 quality1 and power10 and you may say1 8,how can you assert that several distinct expressions denote the same thing80 ,it will be explained later on 7chap4 l4 seqq47 that those who possess a true knowledge of ,god do not consider that ,he possesses many attributes1 but believe that these various attributes which describe ,his ,might1 ,greatness1 ,power1 ,perfection1 ,goodness1 etc41 are identical1 denoting ,his ,essence1 and not anything extraneous to ,his ,essence4 ,i shall devote special chapters to the ,names and ,attributes of ,god2 our intention here is solely to show that 8high and exalted0 in the passage quoted denote elevation in rank1 not in space4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,in its primary signification the ,hebrew abar1 8to pass10 refers to the motion of a body in space1 and is chiefly applied to living creatures moving at some distance in a straight line1 e4g41 8,and ,he passed over 7abar7 before them0 7,gen4 xxxiii4 #c72 8,pass 7abor7 before the people0 7,exod4 xvii4 #e74 ,instances of this kind are numerous4 ,the verb was next applied to the passage of sound through air1 as 8,and they caused a sound to pass 7va-yaabiru7 throughout the camp0 7,exod4 xxxvi4 #f72 8,that ,i hear the ,lord's people spreading the report0 7maabirim7 7#a ,sam4 ii4 #bd74 ,figuratively it denoted the appearance of the ,light and the ,divine ,presence 7,shechinah7 which the prophets perceived in their prophetic visions1 as it is said1 8,and behold a smoking furnace1 and a burning lamp that passed 7abar7 between those pieces0 7,gen4 xv4 #ag74 ,this took place in a prophetic vision1 for the narrative commences1 8,and a deep sleep fell upon ,abram40 ,the verb has this latter meaning in ,exodus xii4 #ab1 8,and ,i shall pass 7ve-abarti7 through the land of ,egypt0 7denoting 8,i shall reveal myself10 etc471 and in all similar phrases4 ,the verb is next employed to express that a person has gone too far1 and transgressed the usual limit1 in the performance of some act1 as 8,and as a man who is drinking wine has passed 7abarv7 the proper limit0 7,jer4 xxiii4 #i74 ,it is also used figuratively to denote3 to abandon one aim1 and turn to a different aim and object1 e4g41 8,he shot an arrow1 causing it to miss the aim 7lehaabiro70 7#a ,sam4 xx4 #cf74 ,this is the sense1 it appears to me1 of this verb in 8,and the ,lord passed by 7va-yaabor7 before his face0 7,exod4 xxxiv4 #f74 ,i take 8his face0 to mean 8the face of ,god02 our ,teachers likewise interpreted 8his face0 as being identical with 8the face of ,god40 ,and1 although this is found in the midst of ,agadic interpretations which would be out of place in this our work1 yet it is some support of our view1 that the pronoun 8his0 is employed in this passage as a substitute for 8,god's0--and the whole passage could in my opinion be explained as follows3 ,moses sought to attain to a certain perception which is called 8the perception of the ,divine face10 a term occurring in the phrase 8,my face cannot be seen02 but ,god vouchsafed to him a perception of a lower degree1 viz41 the one called1 8the seeing of the back10 in the words1 8,and thou shalt see my back0 7,exod4 xxxiii4 #bc74 ,we have mentioned this subject in our work ,mishneh ,torah4 ,accordingly1 it is stated in the above-mentioned passage that the ,lord withheld from ,moses that perception which is termed 8the seeing of the ,divine face10 and substituted for it another gift1 viz41 the knowledge of the acts attributed to ,god1 which1 as ,i shall explain 7chap4 liv47 are considered to be different and separate attributes of the ,supreme4 ,in asserting that ,god withheld from ,moses 7the higher knowledge7 ,i mean to say that this knowledge was unattainable1 that by its nature it was inaccessible to ,moses2 for man1 whilst able to gain perfection by applying his reasoning faculties to the attainment of what is within the reach of his intellect1 either weakens his reason or loses it altogether as soon as he ventures to seek a higher degree of knowledge--as ,i shall elucidate in one of the chapters of this work--unless he be granted a special aid from heaven1 as is described in the words1 8,and ,i will cover thee with my hand until ,i pass by0 7,exod4 xxxiii4 #bc74 ,onkelos1 in translating this verse1 adopts the same method which he applies to the explanation of similar passages1 viz41 every expression implying corporeality or corporal properties1 when referring to ,god1 he explains by assuming an ellipsis of a nomen regens before 8,god10 thus connecting the expression 7of corporeality7 with another word which is supplied1 and which governs the genitive 8,god02 e4g41 8,and behold the ,lord stood upon it0 7,gen4 xxviii4 #ac71 he explains1 8,the glory of the ,lord stood arrayed above it40 ,again1 8,the ,lord watch between me and thee0 7,gen4 xxxi4 #di71 he paraphrases1 8,the word of the ,lord shall watch40 ,this is his ordinary method in explaining ,scripture4 ,he applies it also to ,exod4 xxxiv4 #f1 which he paraphrases1 8,the ,lord caused his ,presence to pass before his face and called40 ,according to this rendering the thing which passed was unquestionably some physical object1 the pronoun 8his0 refers to ,moses1 and the phrase al panav is identical with lefanav1 8before him40 ,comp4 8,so went the present over before him0 7al panav7 7,gen4 xxxii1 #bb74 ,this is likewise an appropriate and satisfactory explanation2 and ,i can adduce still further support for the opinion of ,onkelos from the words 8while my glory passeth by0 7ba-abor7 7,exod4 xxxiii4 #bb71 which expressly state that the passing object was something ascribed to ,god1 not ,god ,himself2 and of this ,divine glory it is also said1 8until ,i pass by10 and 8,and the ,lord passed by before him40 ,should it1 however1 be considered necessary to assume here an ellipsis1 according to the method of ,onkelos1 who supplies in some instances the term 8the ,glory10 in others 8the ,word10 and in others 8the ,divine ,presence10 as the context may require in each particular case1 we may also supply here the word 8voice10 and explain the passage1 8,and a voice from the ,lord passed before him and called40 ,we have already shown that the verb abar1 8he passed10 can be applied to the voice1 as in 8,and they caused a voice to pass through the camp0 7,exod4 xxxvi4 #f74 ,according to this explanation1 it was the voice which called4 ,no objection can be raised to applying the verb kara 7he called7 to kol 7voice71 for a similar phrase occurs in the ,bible in reference to ,god's commands to ,moses1 8,he heard the voice speaking unto him02 and1 in the same manner as it can be said 8the voice spoke10 we may also say 8the voice called02 indeed1 we can even support this application of the verbs 8to say10 and 8to call10 to 8the voice10 by parallel passages1 as 8,a voice saith #8,cry1' and it says #8,what shall ,i cry8'0 7,isa4 xl4 #f74 ,according to this view1 the meaning of the passage under discussion would be3 8,a voice of ,god passed before him and called1 #8,eternal1 ,eternal1 ,all-powerful1 ,all-merciful1 and ,all-gracious6'0 7,the word ,eternal is repeated2 it is in the vocative1 for the ,eternal is the one who is called4 ,comp4 ,moses1 ,moses6 ,abraham1 ,abraham67 ,this1 again1 is a very appropriate explanation of the text4 ,you will surely not find it strange that this subject1 so profound and difficult1 should bear various interpretations2 for it will not impair the force of the argument with which we are here concerned4 ,either explanation may be adopted2 you may take that grand scene altogether as a prophetic vision1 and the whole occurrence as a mental operation1 and consider that what ,moses sought1 what was withheld from him1 and what he attained1 were things perceived by the intellect without the use of the senses 7as we have explained above73 or you may assume that in addition there was a certain ocular perception of a material object1 the sight of which would assist intellectual perception4 ,the latter is the view of ,onkelos1 unless he assumes that in this instance the ocular perception was likewise a prophetic vision1 as was the case with 8a smoking furnace and a burning lamp that passed between those pieces0 7,gen4 xv4 #ag71 mentioned in the history of ,abraham4 ,you may also assume that in addition there was a perception of sound1 and that there was a voice which passed before him1 and was undoubtedly something material4 ,you may choose either of these opinions1 for our sole intention and purpose is to guard you against the belief that the phrase 8and the ,lord passed10 is analogous to 8pass before the people0 7,exod4 xvii4 #e71 for ,god1 being incorporeal1 cannot be said to move1 and consequently the verb 8to pass0 cannot with propriety be applied to ,him in its primary signification4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,in ,hebrew1 the verb bo signifies 8to come0 as applied to a living being1 i4e41 its arrival at a certain place1 or approach to a certain person1 as 8,thy brother came 7ba7 with subtilty0 7,gen4 xxvii4 #ce74 ,it next denotes 7with regard to a living being7 8to enter0 a certain place1 e4g41 8,and when ,joseph came 7va-yabo7 into the house0 7,gen4 xliii4 #bf72 8,when ye come 7ta-bo7 into the land0 7,exod4 xii4 #be74 ,the term was also employed metaphorically in the sense of 8to come0 applied to a certain event1 that is1 to something incorporeal1 as 8,when thy sayings come to pass 7yabo70 7,judg4 xiii4 #ag72 8,of that which will come 7yabo7 over thee0 7,isa4 xlvii4 #ac74 ,nay1 it is even applied to privatives1 e4g41 8,yet evil came 7va-yabo70 7,job iii4 #bf72 8,and darkness came 7va-yabo70 ,now1 since the word has been applied to incorporeal things1 it has also been used in reference to ,god--to the fulfilment of ,his word1 or to the manifestation of ,his ,presence 7the ,shechinah74 ,in this figurative sense it is said1 8,lo1 ,i come 7ba7 unto thee in a thick cloud0 7,exod4 xix4 #i72 8,for the ,lord the ,god of ,israel cometh 7ba7 through it0 7,ezek4 xliv4 #b74 ,in these and all similar passages1 the coming of the ,shechinah is meant1 but the words1 8,and the ,lord my ,god shall come 7u-ba70 7,zech4 xiv4 #e7 are identical with 8,his word will come10 that is to say1 the promises which ,he made through the ,prophets will be fulfilled2 therefore ,scripture adds 8all the holy ones that are with thee10 that is to say1 8,the word of the ,lord my ,god will be performed1 which has been spoken by all the holy ones who are with thee1 who address the ,israelites40 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,yaa 78he came out07 is the opposite of ba 78he came in074 ,the term yaa is applied to the motion of a body from a place in which it had previously rested1 to another place 7whether the body be a living being or not71 e4g41 8,and when they were gone out 7yae7 of the city0 7,gen4 xliv4 #d72 8,if fire break out 7tee70 7,exod4 xxii4 #e74 ,it was then figuratively employed to denote the appearance of something incorporeal1 as1 8,the word went out 7yaa7 of the king's mouth0 7,esth4 vii4 #h72 8,when this deed of the queen shall come abroad 7yee7 unto all women0 7,esth4 i4 #ag71 that is to say1 8the report will spread40 ,again1 8,for out of ,zion shall go forth 7tee7 the ,law0 7,isa4 ii4 #c72 further1 8,the sun had risen 7yaa7 upon the earth0 7,gen4 xix4 #bc71 i4e41 its light became visible4 ,in this figurative sense we must take every expression of coming out when applied to the ,almighty1 e4g41 8,behold1 the ,lord cometh out 7yoe7 of his place0 7,isa4 xxvi4 #ba71 i4e41 8,the word of ,god1 which until now has been in secret1 cometh out1 and will become manifest10 i4e41 something will come into being which had not existed before2 for everything new emanating from ,god is ascribed to ,his word4 ,comp4 8,by the word of the ,lord were the heavens made1 and all the host of them by the breath of his mouth0 7,ps4 xxxiii4 #f74 ,this is a simile taken from the conduct of kings1 who employ the word as the means of carrying their will into effect4 ,god1 however1 requires no instrument wherewith to operate in order to perform anything2 the effect is produced solely by ,his will alone4 ,he does not employ any kind of speech1 as will be explained further on 7chap4 lv474 ,the verb 8to come out0 is thus employed to designate the manifestation of a certain work of ,god1 as we noticed in our interpretation of the phrase1 8,behold1 the ,lord cometh out of his place40 ,in a similar manner the term shub1 8to return10 has been figuratively employed to denote the discontinuance of a certain act according to the will of ,god1 as in 8,i will go and return to my place0 7,hosea v4 #ae72 that is to say1 the ,divine presence 7,shechinah7 which had been in our midst departed from us1 the consequence of which has been the absence of ,divine protection from amongst us4 ,thus the ,prophet foretelling misfortune says1 8,and ,i will hide my face from them1 and they shall be devoured0 7,deut4 xxxi4 #ag72 for1 when man is deprived of ,divine protection he is exposed to all dangers1 and becomes the butt of all fortuitous circumstances2 his fortune and misfortune then depend on chance4 ,alas6 how terrible a threat6--,this is the idea contained in the words1 8,i will go and return to my place0 7,hos4 v4 #ae74 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,the term halak is likewise one of the words which denote movements performed by living beings1 as in 8,and ,jacob went 7halak7 on his way0 7,gen4 xxxii4 #a71 and in many other instances4 ,the verb 8to go0 was next employed in describing movements of objects less solid than the bodies of living beings1 comp4 8,and the waters were going on 7halok7 decreasing0 7,gen4 viii4 #e72 8,and the fire went along 7va-tihalak7 upon the ground0 7,exod4 ix4 #bc74 ,then it was employed to express the spreading and manifestation of something incorporeal1 comp4 8,the voice thereof shall go like a serpent0 7,jer4 xlvi4 #bb72 again1 8,the voice of the ,lord ,god walking in the garden0 7,gen4 iii4 #h74 ,it is 8the voice0 that is qualified by 8walking40 ,whenever the word 8to go0 is used in reference to ,god1 it must be taken in this figurative sense1 i4e41 it applies to incorporeal things1 and signifies either the manifestation of something incorporeal1 or the withdrawal of the ,divine protection1 an act corresponding in lifeless beings to the removal of a thing1 in living beings to the departure of a living being1 8walking40 ,the withdrawal of ,god's protection is called in the ,bible 8the hiding of ,god's countenance10 as in ,deuteronomy xxxi4 #ah1 8,as for me1 ,i will hide my countenance40 ,on the same ground it has been designated 8going away10 or moving away from a thing1 comp4 8,i will depart and return to my place0 7,hos4 v4 #ae74 ,but in the passage1 8,and the anger of the ,lord was kindled against them1 and he went0 7,num4 xii4 #i71 the two meanings of the verb are combined1 viz41 the withdrawal of the ,divine protection1 expressed by 8and he went10 and the revelation1 manifestation1 and appearance of something namely1 of the anger which went forth and reached them1 in consequence of which ,miriam became 8leprous1 white as snow40 ,the expression 8to walk0 was further applied to conduct1 which concerns only the inner life1 and which requires no bodily motion1 as in the following passages1 8,and thou shalt walk in his ways0 7,deut4 xxviii4 #i72 8,ye shall walk after the ,lord your ,god0 7,deut4 xiii4 #e72 8,come ye1 and let us walk in the light of the ,lord40 7,isa4 ii4 #e74 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,the ,hebrew shakan1 as is well known1 signifies 8to dwell10 as1 8,and he was dwelling 7shoken7 in the plains of ,mamre0 7,gen4 xiv4 #ac72 8,and it came to pass1 when ,israel dwelt 7bishekon70 7,gen4 xxxv4 #bb74 ,this is the most common meaning of the word4 ,but 8dwelling in a place0 consists in the continued stay in a place1 general or special2 when a living being dwells long in a place1 we say that it stays in that place1 although it unquestionably moves about in it1 comp4 8,and he was staying in the plains of ,mamre0 7,gen4 xiv4 #ac71 and1 8,and it came to pass1 when ,israel stayed0 7,gen4 xxxv4 #bb74 ,the term was next applied metaphorically to inanimate objects1 i4e41 to everything which has settled and remains fixed on one object1 although the object on which the thing remains is not a place1 and the thing itself is not a living being2 for instance1 8,let a cloud dwell upon it the day0 7,job iii4 #e72 there is no doubt that the cloud is not a living being1 and that the day is not a corporeal thing1 but a division of time4 ,in this sense the term is employed in reference to ,god1 that is to say1 to denote the continuance of ,his ,divine ,presence 7,shechinah7 or of ,his ,providence in some place where the ,divine ,presence manifested itself constantly1 or in some object which was constantly protected by ,providence4 ,comp4 8,and the glory of the ,lord abode0 7,exod4 xxiv4 #af72 8,and ,i will dwell among the children of ,israel0 7,exod4 xxix4 #de72 8,and for the goodwill of him that dwelt in the bush0 7,deut4 xxxiii4 #af74 ,whenever the term is applied to the ,almighty1 it must be taken consistently with the context in the sense either as referring to the ,presence of ,his ,shechinah 7i4e41 of ,his light that was created for the purpose7 in a certain place1 or of the continuance of ,his ,providence protecting a certain object4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,you1 no doubt1 know the ,talmudical saying1 which includes in itself all the various kinds of interpretation connected with our subject4 ,it runs thus3 8,the ,torah speaks according to the language of man10 that is to say1 expressions1 which can easily be comprehended and understood by all1 are applied to the ,creator4 ,hence the description of ,god by attributes implying corporeality1 in order to express ,his existence2 because the multitude of people do not easily conceive existence unless in connection with a body1 and that which is not a body nor connected with a body has for them no existence4 ,whatever we regard as a state of perfection1 is likewise attributed to ,god1 as expressing that ,he is perfect in every respect1 and that no imperfection or deficiency whatever is found in ,him4 ,but there is not attributed to ,god anything which the multitude consider a defect or want2 thus ,he is never represented as eating1 drinking1 sleeping1 being ill1 using violence1 and the like4 ,whatever1 on the other hand1 is commonly regarded as a state of perfection is attributed to ,him1 although it is only a state of perfection in relation to ourselves2 for in relation to ,god1 what we consider to be a state of perfection1 is in truth the highest degree of imperfection4 ,if1 however1 men were to think that those human perfections were absent in ,god1 they would consider ,him as imperfect4 ,you are aware that locomotion is one of the distinguishing characteristics of living beings1 and is indispensable for them in their progress towards perfection4 ,as they require food and drink to supply animal waste1 so they require locomotion1 in order to approach that which is good for them and in harmony with their nature1 and to escape from what is injurious and contrary to their nature4 ,it makes1 in fact1 no difference whether we ascribe to ,god eating and drinking or locomotion2 but according to human modes of expression1 that is to say1 according to common notions1 eating and drinking would be an imperfection in ,god1 while motion would not1 in spite of the fact that the necessity of locomotion is the result of some want4 ,furthermore1 it has been clearly proved1 that everything which moves is corporeal and divisible2 it will be shown below that ,god is incorporeal and that ,he can have no locomotion2 nor can rest be ascribed to ,him2 for rest can only be applied to that which also moves4 ,all expressions1 however1 which imply the various modes of movement in living beings1 are employed with regard to ,god in the manner we have described and in the same way as life is ascribed to ,him2 although motion is an accident pertaining to living beings1 and there is no doubt that1 without corporeality1 expressions like the following could not be imagined3 8to descend1 to ascend1 to walk1 to place1 to stand1 to surround1 to sit1 to dwell1 to depart1 to enter1 to pass1 etc40 ,it would have been superfluous thus to dilate on this subject1 were it not for the mass of the people1 who are accustomed to such ideas4 ,it has been necessary to expatiate on the subject1 as we have attempted1 for the benefit of those who are anxious to acquire perfection1 to remove from them such notions as have grown up with them from the days of youth4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,onkelos the ,proselyte1 who was thoroughly acquainted with the ,hebrew and ,chaldaic languages1 made it his task to oppose the belief in ,god's corporeality4 ,accordingly1 any expression employed in the ,pentateuch in reference to ,god1 and in any way implying corporeality1 he paraphrases in consonance with the context4 ,all expressions denoting any mode of motion1 are explained by him to mean the appearance or manifestation of a certain light that had been created for the occasion1 i4e41 the ,shekhinah 7,divine ,presence71 or ,providence4 ,thus he paraphrases 8the ,lord will come down0 7,exod4 xix4 #aa71 8,the ,lord will manifest ,himself02 8,and ,god came down0 7xvi4 #bj71 8,and ,god manifested ,himself02 and does not say 8,and ,god came down02 8,i will go down now and see0 7,gen4 xviii4 #ba71 he paraphrases1 8,i will manifest myself now and see40 ,this is his rendering of the verb yarad1 8he went down10 when used in reference to ,god throughout his version1 with the exception of the following passage1 8,i will go down 7ered7 with thee into ,egypt0 7,gen4 xlvi4 #d71 which he renders literally4 ,a remarkable proof of this great man's talents1 the excellence of his version1 and the correctness of his interpretation6 ,by this version he discloses to us an important principle as regards prophecy4 ,this narrative begins3 8,and ,god spake unto ,israel in the visions of the night1 and said1 ,jacob1 ,jacob1 etc4 ,and ,he said1 ,i am ,god1 etc41 ,i will go down with thee into ,egypt0 7,gen4 xlvi4 #b1 #c74 ,seeing that the whole narrative is introduced as a vision of the night1 ,onkelos did not hesitate to translate literally the words addressed to ,jacob in the nocturnal vision1 and thus gave a faithful account of the occurrence4 ,for the passage in question contains a statement of what ,jacob was told1 not what actually took place1 as is the case in the words1 8,and the ,lord came down upon ,mount ,sinai0 7,exod4 xix4 #bj74 ,here we have an account of what actually occurred in the physical world2 the verb yarad is therefore paraphrased 8,he manifested ,himself10 and entirely detached from the idea of motion4 ,accounts of what happened in the imagination of man1 ,i mean of what he was told1 are not altered4 ,a most remarkable distinction6 ,hence you may infer that there is a great difference between a communication1 designated as having been made in a dream1 or a vision of the night1 and a vision or a manifestation simply introduced with phrases like 8,and the word of the ,lord came unto me1 saying02 8,and the ,lord spake unto me1 saying40 ,according to my opinion1 it is also possible that ,onkelos understood ,elohim in the above passage to signify 8angel10 and that for this reason he did not hesitate to translate literally1 8,i will go down with thee to ,egypt40 ,do not think it strange that ,onkelos should have believed the ,elohim1 who said to ,jacob1 8,i am ,god1 the ,god of thy father0 7ib4 #c71 to be an angel1 for this sentence can1 in the same form1 also have been spoken by an angel4 ,thus ,jacob says1 8,and the angel of ,god spake unto me in a dream1 saying1 ,jacob4 ,and ,i said1 ,here am ,i10 etc4 7,gen4 xxxi4 #aa72 and concludes the report of the angel's words to him in the following way1 8,i am the ,god of ,bethel1 where thou anointedst the pillar1 and where thou vowedst a vow unto me0 7ib4 #ac71 although there is no doubt that ,jacob vowed to ,god1 not to the angel4 ,it is the usual practice of prophets to relate words addressed to them by an angel in the name of ,god1 as though ,god ,himself had spoken to them4 ,such passages are all to be explained by supplying the nomen regens1 and by considering them as identical with 8,i am the messenger of the ,god of thy father10 8,i am the messenger of ,god who appeared to thee in ,bethel10 and the like4 ,prophecy with its various degrees1 and the nature of angels1 will be fully discussed in the sequel1 in accordance with the object of this treatise 7,,ii4 chap4 xiv474 ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,the term regel is homonymous1 signifying1 in the first place1 the foot of a living being2 comp4 8,foot for foot0 7,exod4 xxi4 #bd74 ,next it denotes an object which follows another2 comp4 8,and all the people that follow thee0 7lit4 that are at thy feet7 7ib4 xi4 #ah74 ,another signification of the word is 8cause02 comp4 8,and the ,lord hath blessed thee1 ,i being the cause0 7leragli7 7,gen4 xxx4 #cj71 i4e41 for my sake2 for that which exists for the sake of another thing has the latter for its final cause4 ,examples of the term used in this sense are numerous4 ,it has that meaning in ,genesis xxxiii4 #ad1 8,because 7leregel7 of the cattle that goeth before me1 and because 7leregel7 of the children40 ,consequently1 the ,hebrew text1 of which the literal rendering is3 8,and his feet shall stand in that day upon the ,mount of ,olives0 7,zech4 xiv4 #d7 can be explained in the following way3 8,and the things caused by him 7raglav7 on that day upon the ,mount of ,olives1 that is to say1 the wonders which will then be seen1 and of which ,god will be the ,cause or the ,maker1 will remain permanently40 ,to this explanation does ,jonathan son of ,uzziel incline in paraphrasing the passage1 8,and he will appear in his might on that day upon the ,mount of ,olives40 ,he generally expresses terms denoting those parts of the body by which contact and motion are effected1 by 8his might0 when referring to ,god1 because all such expressions denote acts done by ,his ,will4 ,in the passage 7,exod4 xxiv4 #aj1 lit41 8,and there was under his feet1 like the action of the whiteness of a sapphire stone071 ,onkelos1 as you know1 in his version1 considers the word 7raglav7 8his feet0 as a figurative expression and a substitute for 8throne02 the words 8under his feet0 he therefore paraphrases1 8,and under the throne of his glory40 ,consider this well1 and you will observe with wonder how ,onkelos keeps free from the idea of the corporeality of ,god1 and from everything that leads thereto1 even in the remotest degree4 ,for he does not say1 8and under ,his throne02 the direct relation of the throne to ,god1 implied in the literal sense of the phrase 8,his throne10 would necessarily suggest the idea that ,god is supported by a material object1 and thus lead directly to the corporeality of ,god2 he therefore refers the throne to ,his glory1 i4e41 to the ,shekhinah1 which is a light created for the purpose4 ,similarly he paraphrases the words1 8,for my hand ,i lift up to the throne of ,god0 7,exod4 xvii4 #af71 8,an oath has been uttered by ,god1 whose ,shekhinah is upon the throne of his glory40 ,this principle found also expression in the popular phrase1 8the ,throne of the ,glory40 ,we have already gone too far away from the subject of this chapter1 and touched upon things which will be discussed in other chapters2 we will now return to our present theme4 ,you are acquainted with the version of ,onkelos of the passage quoted4 ,he contents himself with excluding from his version all expressions of corporeality in reference to ,god1 and does not show us what they 7the nobles of the children of ,israel1 ,exod4 xxiv4 #aj7 perceived1 or what is meant by that figure4 ,in all similar instances ,onkelos also abstains from entering into such questions1 and only endeavours to exclude every expression implying corporeality2 for the incorporeality of ,god is a demonstrative truth and an indispensable element in our faith2 he could decidedly state all that was necessary in that respect4 ,the interpretation of a simile is a doubtful thing2 it may possibly have that meaning1 but it may also refer to something else4 ,it contains besides very profound matter1 the understanding of which is not a fundamental element in our faith1 and the comprehension of which is not easy for the common people4 ,onkelos1 therefore1 did not enter at all into this subject4 ,we1 however1 remaining faithful to our task in this treatise1 find ourselves compelled to give our explanation4 ,according to our opinion 8under his feet0 7raglav7 denotes 8under that of which ,he is the cause10 8that which exists through ,him10 as we have already stated4 ,they 7the nobles of the children of ,israel7 therefore comprehended the real nature of the materia prima1 which emanated from ,him1 and of whose existence ,he is the only cause4 ,consider well the phrase1 8like the action of the whiteness of the sapphire stone40 ,if the colour were the point of comparison1 the words1 8as the whiteness of the sapphire stone0 would have sufficed2 but the addition of 8like the action0 was necessary1 because matter1 as such1 is1 as you are well aware1 always receptive and passive1 active only by some accident4 ,on the other hand1 form1 as such1 is always active1 and only passive by some accident1 as is explained in works on ,physics4 ,this explains the addition of 8like the action0 in reference to the materia prima4 ,the expression 8the whiteness of the sapphire0 refers to the transparency1 not to the white colour2 for 8the whiteness0 of the sapphire is not a white colour1 but the property of being transparent4 ,things1 however1 which are transparent1 have no colour of their own1 as is proved in works on ,physics2 for if they had a colour they would not permit all the colours to pass through them nor would they receive colours2 it is only when the transparent object is totally colourless1 that it is able to receive successively all the colours4 ,in this respect it 7the whiteness of the sapphire7 is like the materia prima1 which as such is entirely formless1 and thus receives all the forms one after the other4 ,what they 7the nobles of the children of ,israel7 perceived was therefore the materia prima1 whose relation to ,god is distinctly mentioned1 because it is the source of those of his creatures which are subject to genesis and destruction1 and has been created by him4 ,this subject also will be treated later on more fully4 ,observe that you must have recourse to an explanation of this kind1 even when adopting the rendering of ,onkelos1 8,and under the throne of ,his glory02 for in fact the materia prima is also under the heavens1 which are called 8throne of ,god10 as we have remarked above4 ,i should not have thought of this unusual interpretation1 or hit on this argument were it not for an utterance of ,r4 ,eliezer ben ,hyrcanus1 which will be discussed in one of the parts of this treatise 7,,ii4 chap4 xxvi474 ,the primary object of every intelligent person must be to deny the corporeality of ,god1 and to believe that all those perceptions 7described in the above passage7 were of a spiritual not of a material character4 ,note this and consider it well4 ,,chapter ,,xxix ,the term eeb is homonymous1 denoting1 in the first place1 pain and trembling2 comp4 8,in sorrow 7be-eeb7 thou shalt bring forth children0 7,gen4 iii4 #af74 ,next it denotes anger2 comp4 8,and his father had not made him angry 7aabo7 at any time0 7#a ,kings i4 #f72 8for he was angry 7neeab7 for the sake of ,david0 7#a ,sam4 xx4 #cd74 ,the term signifies also provocation2 comp4 8,they rebelled1 and vexed 7iebu7 his holy spirit0 7,isa4 lxiii4 #aj72 8and provoked 7yaaibahu7 him in the desert0 7,ps4 lxxviii4 #dj72 8,if there be any way of provocation 7oeb7 in me0 7ib4 cxxxix4 #bd72 8,every day they rebel 7yeaebu7 against my words0 7ib4 lvi4 #f74 ,in ,genesis vi4 #f the word has either the second or the third signification4 ,in the first case1 the sense of the ,hebrew va-yitaeb el libbo is 8,god was angry with them on account of the wickedness of their deeds02 as to the words 8to his heart0 used here1 and also in the history of ,noah 7ib4 viii4 #ba7 ,i will here explain what they mean4 ,with regard to man1 we use the expression 8he said to himself10 or 8he said in his heart10 in reference to a subject which he did not utter or communicate to any other person4 ,similarly the phrase 8,and ,god said in his heart10 is used in reference to an act which ,god decreed without mentioning it to any prophet at the time the event took place according to the will of ,god4 ,and a figure of this kind is admissible1 since 8the ,torah speaketh in accordance with the language of man0 7supra c4 xxvi474 ,this is plain and clear4 ,in the ,pentateuch no distinct mention is made of a message sent to the wicked generation of the flood1 cautioning or threatening them with death2 therefore1 it is said concerning them1 that ,god was angry with them in ,his heart2 likewise when ,he decreed that no flood should happen again1 ,he did not tell a prophet to communicate it to others1 and for that reason the words 8in his heart0 are added4 ,taking the verb in the third signification1 we explain the passage thus3 8,and man rebelled against ,god's will concerning him02 for leb 7heart7 also signifies 8will10 as we shall explain when treating of the homonymity of leb 7heart74 ,,chapter ,,xxx ,in its primary meaning akal 7to eat7 is used in the sense of taking food by animals2 this needs no illustration4 ,it was afterwards observed that eating includes two processes--7#a7 the loss of the food1 i4e41 the destruction of its form1 which first takes place2 7#b7 the growth of animals1 the preservation of their strength and their existence1 and the support of all the forces of their body1 caused by the food they take4 ,the consideration of the first process led to the figurative use of the verb1 in the sense of 8consuming10 8destroying02 hence it includes all modes of depriving a thing of its form2 comp4 8,and the land of your enemies shall destroy 7lit4 eat7 you0 7,lev4 xxvi4 #ch72 8,a land that destroyeth 7lit4 eateth7 the inhabitants thereof0 7,num4 xiii4 #cb72 8,ye shall be destroyed 7lit4 eaten7 with the sword0 7,isa4 i4 #f72 8,shall the sword destroy 7lit4 eat70 7#b ,sam4 ii4 #bf72 8,and the fire of the ,lord burnt among them1 and destroyed 7lit4 ate7 them that were in the uttermost parts of the camp0 7,num4 xi4 #a72 87,god7 is a destroying 7lit4 eating7 fire0 7,deut4 iv4 #bd71 that is1 ,he destroys those who rebel against ,him1 as the fire destroys everything that comes within its reach4 ,instances of this kind are very frequent4 ,with reference to the second effect of the act of eating1 the verb 8to eat0 is figuratively used in the sense of 8acquiring wisdom10 8learning02 in short1 for all intellectual perceptions4 ,these preserve the human form 7intellect7 constantly in the most perfect manner1 in the same way as food preserves the body in its best condition4 ,comp4 8,come ye1 buy and eat0 7,isa4 lv4 #a72 8,hearken diligently unto me1 and eat ye that which is good0 7ib4 #b72 8,it is not good to eat much honey0 7,prov4 xxv4 #bg72 8,my son1 eat thou honey1 because it is good1 and the honeycomb1 which is sweet to thy taste2 so shall the knowledge of wisdom be unto thy soul0 7ib4 xxiv4 #ac1 #ad74 ,this figurative use of the verb 8to eat0 in the sense of 8acquiring wisdom0 is frequently met with in the ,talmud1 e4g41 8,come1 eat fat meat at ,raba's0 7,baba ,bathra #bb;a72 comp4 8,all expressions of #8eating' and #8drinking' found in this book 7of ,proverbs7 refer to wisdom10 or1 according to another reading1 8to the ,law0 7,koh4 rabba on ,eccl4 iii4 #ac74 ,wisdom has also been frequently called 8water10 e4g41 8,ho1 every one that thirsteth1 come ye to the waters0 7,isa4 lv4 #a74 ,the figurative meaning of these expressions has been so general and common1 that it was almost considered as its primitive signification1 and led to the employment 8of hunger0 and 8thirst0 in the sense of 8absence of wisdom and intelligence02 comp4 8,i will send a famine in the land1 not a famine of bread1 nor a thirst for water1 but of hearing the words of the ,lord02 8,my soul thirsteth for ,god1 for the living ,god0 7,ps4 xlii4 #c74 ,instances of this kind occur frequently4 ,the words1 8,with joy shall ye draw water out of the wells of salvation0 7,isa4 xii4 #c71 are paraphrased by ,jonathan son of ,uzziel thus3 8,you will joyfully receive new instruction from the chosen of the righteous40 ,consider how he explains 8water0 to indicate 8the wisdom which will then spread10 and 8the wells0 7maayene7 as being identical with 8the eyes of the congregation0 7,num4 xv4 #bd71 in the sense of 8the chiefs10 or 8the wise40 ,by the phrase1 8from the chosen of the righteous10 he expresses his belief that righteousness is true salvation4 ,you now see how he gives to every word in this verse some signification referring to wisdom and study4 ,this should be well considered4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi ,know that for the human mind there are certain objects of perception which are within the scope of its nature and capacity2 on the other hand1 there are1 amongst things which actually exist1 certain objects which the mind can in no way and by no means grasp3 the gates of perception are closed against it4 ,further1 there are things of which the mind understands one part1 but remains ignorant of the other2 and when man is able to comprehend certain things1 it does not follow that he must be able to comprehend everything4 ,this also applies to the senses3 they are able to perceive things1 but not at every distance2 and all other powers of the body are limited in a similar way4 ,a man can1 e4g41 carry two kikkar1 but he cannot carry ten kikkar4 ,how individuals of the same species surpass each other in these sensations and in other bodily faculties is universally known1 but there is a limit to them1 and their power cannot extend to every distance or to every degree4 ,all this is applicable to the intellectual faculties of man4 ,there is a considerable difference between one person and another as regards these faculties1 as is well known to philosophers4 ,while one man can discover a certain thing by himself1 another is never able to understand it1 even if taught by means of all possible expressions and metaphors1 and during a long period2 his mind can in no way grasp it1 his capacity is insufficient for it4 ,this distinction is not unlimited4 ,a boundary is undoubtedly set to the human mind which it cannot pass4 ,there are things 7beyond that boundary7 which are acknowledged to be inaccessible to human understanding1 and man does not show any desire to comprehend them1 being aware that such knowledge is impossible1 and that there are no means of overcoming the difficulty2 e4g41 we do not know the number of stars in heaven1 whether the number is even or odd2 we do not know the number of animals1 minerals1 or plants1 and the like4 ,there are other things1 however1 which man very much desires to know1 and strenuous efforts to examine and to investigate them have been made by thinkers of all classes1 and at all times4 ,they differ and disagree1 and constantly raise new doubts with regard to them1 because their minds are bent on comprehending such things1 that is to say1 they are moved by desire2 and every one of them believes that he has discovered the way leading to a true knowledge of the thing1 although human reason is entirely unable to demonstrate the fact by convincing evidence4--,for a proposition which can be proved by evidence is not subject to dispute1 denial1 or rejection2 none but the ignorant would contradict it1 and such contradiction is called 8denial of a demonstrated proof40 ,thus you find men who deny the spherical form of the earth1 or the circular form of the line in which the stars move1 and the like2 such men are not considered in this treatise4 ,this confusion prevails mostly in metaphysical subjects1 less in problems relating to physics1 and is entirely absent from the exact sciences4 ,alexander ,aphrodisius said that there are three causes which prevent men from discovering the exact truth3 first1 arrogance and vainglory2 secondly1 the subtlety1 depth1 and difficulty of any subject which is being examined2 thirdly1 ignorance and want of capacity to comprehend what might be comprehended4 ,these causes are enumerated by ,alexander4 ,at the present time there is a fourth cause not mentioned by him1 because it did not then prevail1 namely1 habit and training4 ,we naturally like what we have been accustomed to1 and are attracted towards it4 ,this may be observed amongst villagers2 though they rarely enjoy the benefit of a douche or bath1 and have few enjoyments1 and pass a life of privation1 they dislike town life and do not desire its pleasures1 preferring the inferior things to which they are accustomed1 to the better things to which they are strangers2 it would give them no satisfaction to live in palaces1 to be clothed in silk1 and to indulge in baths1 ointments1 and perfumes4 ,the same is the case with those opinions of man to which he has been accustomed from his youth2 he likes them1 defends them1 and shuns the opposite views4 ,this is likewise one of the causes which prevent men from finding truth1 and which make them cling to their habitual opinions4 ,such is1 e4g41 the case with the vulgar notions with respect to the corporeality of ,god1 and many other metaphysical questions1 as we shall explain4 ,it is the result of long familiarity with passages of the ,bible1 which they are accustomed to respect and to receive as true1 and the literal sense of which implies the corporeality of ,god and other false notions2 in truth1 however1 these words were employed as figures and metaphors for reasons to be mentioned below4 ,do not imagine that what we have said of the insufficiency of our understanding and of its limited extent is an assertion founded only on the ,bible2 for philosophers likewise assert the same1 and perfectly understand it1 without having regard to any religion or opinion4 ,it is a fact which is only doubted by those who ignore things fully proved4 ,this chapter is intended as an introduction to the next4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii ,you must consider1 when reading this treatise1 that mental perception1 because connected with matter1 is subject to conditions similar to those to which physical perception is subject4 ,that is to say1 if your eye looks around1 you can perceive all that is within the range of your vision2 if1 however1 you overstrain your eye1 exerting it too much by attempting to see an object which is too distant for your eye1 or to examine writings or engravings too small for your sight1 and forcing it to obtain a correct perception of them1 you will not only weaken your sight with regard to that special object1 but also for those things which you otherwise are able to perceive3 your eye will have become too weak to perceive what you were able to see before you exerted yourself and exceeded the limits of your vision4 ,the same is the case with the speculative faculties of one who devotes himself to the study of any science4 ,if a person studies too much and exhausts his reflective powers1 he will be confused1 and will not be able to apprehend even that which had been within the power of his apprehension4 ,for the powers of the body are all alike in this respect4 ,the mental perceptions are not exempt from a similar condition4 ,if you admit the doubt1 and do not persuade yourself to believe that there is a proof for things which cannot be demonstrated1 or to try at once to reject and positively to deny an assertion the opposite of which has never been proved1 or attempt to perceive things which are beyond your perception1 then you have attained the highest degree of human perfection1 then you are like ,r4 ,akibha1 who 8in peace entered the study of these theological problems1 and came out in peace40 ,if1 on the other hand1 you attempt to exceed the limit of your intellectual power1 or at once to reject things as impossible which have never been proved to be impossible1 or which are in fact possible1 though their possibility be very remote1 then you will be like ,elisha ,aer2 you will not only fail to become perfect1 but you will become exceedingly imperfect4 ,ideas founded on mere imagination will prevail over you1 you will incline toward defects1 and toward base and degraded habits1 on account of the confusion which troubles the mind1 and of the dimness of its light1 just as weakness of sight causes invalids to see many kinds of unreal images1 especially when they have looked for a long time at dazzling or at very minute objects4 ,respecting this it has been said1 8,hast thou found honey8 eat so much as is sufficient for thee1 lest thou be filled therewith1 and vomit it0 7,prov4 xxv4 #af74 ,our ,sages also applied this verse to ,elisha ,aer4 ,how excellent is this simile6 ,in comparing knowledge to food 7as we observed in chap4 xxx471 the author of ,proverbs mentions the sweetest food1 namely1 honey1 which has the further property of irritating the stomach1 and of causing sickness4 ,he thus fully describes the nature of knowledge4 ,though great1 excellent1 noble and perfect1 it is injurious if not kept within bounds or not guarded properly2 it is like honey which gives nourishment and is pleasant1 when eaten in moderation1 but is totally thrown away when eaten immoderately4 ,therefore1 it is not said 8lest thou be filled and loathe it10 but 8lest thou vomit it40 ,the same idea is expressed in the words1 8,it is not good to eat much honey0 7,prov4 xxv4 #bg72 and in the words1 8,neither make thyself over-wise2 why shouldst thou destroy thyself80 7,eccles4 vii4 #af72 comp4 8,keep thy foot when thou goest to the house of ,god0 7ibid4 v4 #a74 ,the same subject is alluded to in the words of ,david1 8,neither do ,i exercise myself in great matters1 or in things too high for me0 7,ps4 cxxxi4 #b71 and in the sayings of our ,sages3 8,do not inquire into things which are too difficult for thee1 do not search what is hidden from thee2 study what you are allowed to study1 and do not occupy thyself with mysteries40 ,they meant to say1 ,let thy mind only attempt things which are within human perception2 for the study of things which lie beyond man's comprehension is extremely injurious1 as has been already stated4 ,this lesson is also contained in the ,talmudical passage1 which begins1 8,he who considers four things10 etc41 and concludes1 8,he who does not regard the honour of his ,creator02 here also is given the advice which we have already mentioned1 viz41 that man should not rashly engage in speculation with false conceptions1 and when he is in doubt about anything1 or unable to find a proof for the object of his inquiry1 he must not at once abandon1 reject and deny it2 he must modestly keep back1 and from regard to the honour of his ,creator1 hesitate from uttering an opinion and pause4 ,this has already been explained4 ,it was not the object of the ,prophets and our ,sages in these utterances to close the gate of investigation entirely1 and to prevent the mind from comprehending what is within its reach1 as is imagined by simple and idle people1 whom it suits better to put forth their ignorance and incapacity as wisdom and perfection1 and to regard the distinction and wisdom of others as irreligion and imperfection1 thus taking darkness for light and light for darkness4 ,the whole object of the ,prophets and the ,sages was to declare that a limit is set to human reason where it must halt4 ,do not criticise the words used in this chapter and in others in reference to the mind1 for we only intended to give some idea of the subject in view1 not to describe the essence of the intellect2 for other chapters have been dedicated to this subject4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii ,you must know that it is very injurious to begin with this branch of philosophy1 viz41 ,metaphysics2 or to explain at first the sense of the similes occurring in prophecies1 and interpret the metaphors which are employed in historical accounts and which abound in the writings of the ,prophets4 ,on the contrary1 it is necessary to initiate the young and to instruct the less intelligent according to their comprehension2 those who appear to be talented and to have capacity for the higher method of study1 i4e41 that based on proof and on true logical argument1 should be gradually advanced towards perfection1 either by tuition or by self-instruction4 ,he1 however1 who begins with ,metaphysics1 will not only become confused in matters of religion1 but will fall into complete infidelity4 ,i compare such a person to an infant fed with wheaten bread1 meat and wine2 it will undoubtedly die1 not because such food is naturally unfit for the human body1 but because of the weakness of the child1 who is unable to digest the food1 and cannot derive benefit from it4 ,the same is the case with the true principles of science4 ,they were presented in enigmas1 clad in riddles1 and taught by all wise men in the most mysterious way that could be devised1 not because they contain some secret evil1 or are contrary to the fundamental principles of the ,law 7as fools think who are only philosophers in their own eyes71 but because of the incapacity of man to comprehend them at the beginning of his studies3 only slight allusions have been made to them to serve for the guidance of those who are capable of understanding them4 ,these sciences were1 therefore1 called ,mysteries 7sodoth71 and ,secrets of the ,law 7sitre torah71 as we shall explain4 ,this also is the reason why 8the ,torah speaks the language of man10 as we have explained1 for it is the object of the ,torah to serve as a guide for the instruction of the young1 of women1 and of the common people2 and as all of them are incapable to comprehend the true sense of the words1 tradition was considered sufficient to convey all truths which were to be established2 and as regards ideals1 only such remarks were made as would lead towards a knowledge of their existence1 though not to a comprehension of their true essence4 ,when a man attains to perfection1 and arrives at a knowledge of the 8,secrets of the ,law10 either through the assistance of a teacher or by self-instruction1 being led by the understanding of one part to the study of the other1 he will belong to those who faithfully believe in the true principles1 either because of conclusive proof1 where proof is possible1 or by forcible arguments1 where argument is admissible2 he will have a true notion of those things which he previously received in similes and metaphors1 and he will fully understand their sense4 ,we have frequently mentioned in this treatise the principle of our ,sages 8not to discuss the ,maaseh ,mercabah even in the presence of one pupil1 except he be wise and intelligent2 and then only the headings of the chapters are to be given to him40 ,we must1 therefore1 begin with teaching these subjects according to the capacity of the pupil1 and on two conditions1 first1 that he be wise1 i4e41 that he should have successfully gone through the preliminary studies1 and secondly that he be intelligent1 talented1 clear-headed1 and of quick perception1 that is1 8have a mind of his own0 7mebin middaato71 as our ,sages termed it4 ,i will now proceed to explain the reasons why we should not instruct the multitude in pure metaphysics1 or begin with describing to them the true essence of things1 or with showing them that a thing must be as it is1 and cannot be otherwise4 ,this will form the subject of the next chapter2 and ,i proceed to say-- ,,chapter ,,xxxiv ,there are five reasons why instruction should not begin with ,metaphysics1 but should at first be restricted to pointing out what is fitted for notice and what may be made manifest to the multitude4 ,first ,reason4--,the subject itself is difficult1 subtle and profound1 8,far off and exceeding deep1 who can find it out80 7,eccles4 vii4 #bd74 ,the following words of ,job may be applied to it3 8,whence then cometh wisdom8 and where is the place of understanding80 7,job xxviii4 #bj74 ,instruction should not begin with abstruse and difficult subjects4 ,in one of the similes contained in the ,bible1 wisdom is compared to water1 and amongst other interpretations given by our ,sages of this simile1 occurs the following3 ,he who can swim may bring up pearls from the depth of the sea1 he who is unable to swim will be drowned1 therefore only such persons as have had proper instruction should expose themselves to the risk4 ,second ,reason4--,the intelligence of man is at first insufficient2 for he is not endowed with perfection at the beginning1 but at first possesses perfection only in potenti1 not in fact4 ,thus it is said1 8,and man is born a wild ass0 7,job xi4 #ab74 ,if a man possesses a certain faculty in potenti1 it does not follow that it must become in him a reality4 ,he may possibly remain deficient either on account of some obstacle1 or from want of training in practices which would turn the possibility into a reality4 ,thus it is distinctly stated in the ,bible1 8,not many are wise0 7ib41 xxxii4 #i72 also our ,sages say1 8,i noticed how few were those who attained to a higher degree of perfection0 7,b4 ,t4 ,succah #de;a74 ,there are many things which obstruct the path to perfection1 and which keep man away from it4 ,where can he find sufficient preparation and leisure to learn all that is necessary in order to develop that perfection which he has in potenti8 ,third ,reason4--,the preparatory studies are of long duration1 and man1 in his natural desire to reach the goal1 finds them frequently too wearisome1 and does not wish to be troubled by them4 ,be convinced that1 if man were able to reach the end without preparatory studies1 such studies would not be preparatory but tiresome and utterly superfluous4 ,suppose you awaken any person1 even the most simple1 as if from sleep1 and you say to him1 ,do you not desire to know what the heavens are1 what is their number and their form2 what beings are contained in them2 what the angels are2 how the creation of the whole world took place2 what is its purpose1 and what is the relation of its various parts to each other2 what is the nature of the soul2 how it enters the body2 whether it has an independent existence1 and if so1 how it can exist independently of the body2 by what means and to what purpose1 and similar problems4 ,he would undoubtedly say 8,yes10 and show a natural desire for the true knowledge of these things2 but he will wish to satisfy that desire and to attain to that knowledge by listening to a few words from you4 ,ask him to interrupt his usual pursuits for a week1 till he learn all this1 he would not do it1 and would be satisfied and contented with imaginary and misleading notions2 he would refuse to believe that there is anything which requires preparatory studies and persevering research4 ,you1 however1 know how all these subjects are connected together2 for there is nothing else in existence but ,god and ,his works1 the latter including all existing things besides ,him2 we can only obtain a knowledge of ,him through ,his works2 ,his works give evidence of ,his existence1 and show what must be assumed concerning ,him1 that is to say1 what must be attributed to ,him either affirmatively or negatively4 ,it is thus necessary to examine all things according to their essence1 to infer from every species such true and well established propositions as may assist us in the solution of metaphysical problems4 ,again1 many propositions based on the nature of numbers and the properties of geometrical figures1 are useful in examining things which must be negatived in reference to ,god1 and these negations will lead us to further inferences4 ,you will certainly not doubt the necessity of studying astronomy and physics1 if you are desirous of comprehending the relation between the world and ,providence as it is in reality1 and not according to imagination4 ,there are also many subjects of speculation1 which1 though not preparing the way for metaphysics1 help to train the reasoning power1 enabling it to understand the nature of a proof1 and to test truth by characteristics essential to it4 ,they remove the confusion arising in the minds of most thinkers1 who confound accidental with essential properties1 and likewise the wrong opinions resulting therefrom4 ,we may add1 that although they do not form the basis for metaphysical research1 they assist in forming a correct notion of these things1 and are certainly useful in many other things connected with that discipline4 ,consequently he who wishes to attain to human perfection1 must therefore first study ,logic1 next the various branches of ,mathematics in their proper order1 then ,physics1 and lastly ,metaphysics4 ,we find that many who have advanced to a certain point in the study of these disciplines become weary1 and stop2 that others1 who are endowed with sufficient capacity1 are interrupted in their studies by death1 which surprises them while still engaged with the preliminary course4 ,now1 if no knowledge whatever had been given to us by means of tradition1 and if we had not been brought to the belief in a thing through the medium of similes1 we would have been bound to form a perfect notion of things with their essential characteristics1 and to believe only what we could prove3 a goal which could only be attained by long preparation4 ,in such a case most people would die1 without having known whether there was a ,god or not1 much less that certain things must be asserted about ,him1 and other things denied as defects4 ,from such a fate not even 8one of a city or two of a family0 7,jer4 iii4 #ad7 would have escaped4 ,as regards the privileged few1 8the remnant whom the ,lord calls0 7,joel iii4 #e71 they only attain the perfection at which they aim after due preparatory labour4 ,the necessity of such a preparation and the need of such a training for the acquisition of real knowledge1 has been plainly stated by ,king ,solomon in the following words3 8,if the iron be blunt1 and he do not whet the edge1 then must he put to more strength2 and it is profitable to prepare for wisdom0 7,eccles4 x4 #aj72 8,hear counsel1 and receive instruction1 that thou mayest be wise in thy latter end0 7,prov4 xix4 #bj74 ,there is still another urgent reason why the preliminary disciplines should be studied and understood4 ,during the study many doubts present themselves1 and the difficulties1 or the objections raised against certain assertions1 are soon understood1 just as the demolition of a building is easier than its erection2 while1 on the other hand1 it is impossible to prove an assertion1 or to remove any doubts1 without having recourse to several propositions taken from these preliminary studies4 ,he who approaches metaphysical problems without proper preparation is like a person who journeys towards a certain place1 and on the road falls into a deep pit1 out of which he cannot rise1 and he must perish there2 if he had not gone forth1 but had remained at home1 it would have been better for him4 ,solomon has expatiated in the book of ,proverbs on sluggards and their indolence1 by which he figuratively refers to indolence in the search after wisdom4 ,he thus speaks of a man who desires to know the final results1 but does not exert himself to understand the preliminary disciplines which lead to them1 doing nothing else but desire4 8,the desire of the slothful killeth him2 for his hands refuse to labour4 ,he coveteth greedily all the day long2 but the righteous giveth1 and spareth not0 7,prov4 xxi4 #be1 #bf72 that is to say1 if the desire killeth the slothful1 it is because he neglects to seek the thing which might satisfy his desire1 he does nothing but desire1 and hopes to obtain a thing without using the means to reach it4 ,it would be better for him were he without that desire4 ,observe how the end of the simile throws light on its beginning4 ,it concludes with the words 8but the righteous giveth1 and spareth not02 the antithesis of 8righteous0 and 8slothful0 can only be justified on the basis of our interpretation4 ,solomon thus indicates that only such a man is righteous who gives to everything its due portion2 that is to say1 who gives to the study of a thing the whole time required for it1 and does not devote any part of that time to another purpose4 ,the passage may therefore be paraphrased thus3 8,and the righteous man devotes his ways to wisdom1 and does not withhold any of them40 ,comp4 8,give not thy strength unto women0 7,prov4 xxxi4 #c74 ,the majority of scholars1 that is to say1 the most famous in science1 are afflicted with this failing1 viz41 that of hurrying at once to the final results1 and of speaking about them1 without treating of the preliminary disciplines4 ,led by folly or ambition to disregard those preparatory studies1 for the attainment of which they are either incapable or too idle1 some scholars endeavour to prove that these are injurious or superfluous4 ,on reflection the truth will become obvious4 ,the ,fourth ,reason is taken from the physical constitution of man4 ,it has been proved that moral conduct is a preparation for intellectual progress1 and that only a man whose character is pure1 calm and steadfast1 can attain to intellectual perfection2 that is1 acquire correct conceptions4 ,many men are naturally so constituted that all perfection is impossible2 e4g41 he whose heart is very warm and is himself very powerful1 is sure to be passionate1 though he tries to counteract that disposition by training2 he whose testicles are warm1 humid1 and vigorous1 and the organs connected therewith are surcharged1 will not easily refrain from sin1 even if he makes great efforts to restrain himself4 ,you also find persons of great levity and rashness1 whose excited manners and wild gestures prove that their constitution is in disorder1 and their temperament so bad that it cannot be cured4 ,such persons can never attain to perfection2 it is utterly useless to occupy oneself with them on such a subject as ,metaphysics4 ,for this science is1 as you know1 different from the science of ,medicine and of ,geometry1 and1 from the reason already mentioned1 it is not every person who is capable of approaching it4 ,it is impossible for a man to study it successfully without moral preparation2 he must acquire the highest degree of uprightness and integrity1 8for the froward is an abomination to the ,lord1 but ,his secret is with the righteous0 7,prov4 iii4 #cb74 ,therefore it was considered inadvisable to teach it to young men2 nay1 it is impossible for them to comprehend it1 on account of the heat of their blood and the flame of youth1 which confuses their minds2 that heat1 which causes all the disorder1 must first disappear2 they must have become moderate and settled1 humble in their hearts1 and subdued in their temperament2 only then will they be able to arrive at the highest degree of the perception of ,god1 i4e41 the study of ,metaphysics1 which is called ,maaseh ,mercabah ,comp4 8,the ,lord is nigh unto them that are of a broken heart0 7,ps4 xxxiv4 #ah72 8,i dwell in the high and lofty place1 with him also that is of a contrite and humble spirit2 to revive the spirit of the humble1 and to revive the heart of the contrite ones0 7,isa4 lvii4 #ae74 ,therefore the rule1 8the headings of the sections may be confided to him10 is further restricted in the ,talmud1 in the following way3 ,the headings of the sections must only be handed down to an ,ab-bet-din 7,president of the ,court71 whose heart is full of care1 i4e41 in whom wisdom is united with humility1 meekness1 and a great dread of sin4 ,it is further stated there3 8,the secrets of the ,law can only be communicated to a counsellor1 scholar1 and good orator40 ,these qualities can only be acquired if the physical constitution of the student favour their development4 ,you certainly know that some persons1 though exceedingly able1 are very weak in giving counsel1 while others are ready with proper counsel and good advice in social and political matters4 ,a person so endowed is called 8counsellor0 and may be unable to comprehend purely abstract notions1 even such as are similar to common sense4 ,he is unacquainted with them1 and has no talent whatever for them2 we apply to him the words3 8,wherefore is there a price in the hand of a fool to get wisdom1 seeing he hath no heart to it80 7,prov4 xvii4 #af74 ,others are intelligent and naturally clear-sighted1 able to convey complicated ideas in concise and well chosen language1--such a person is called 8a good orator10 but he has not been engaged in the pursuit of science1 or has not acquired any knowledge of it4 ,those who have actually acquired a knowledge of the sciences1 are called 8wise in arts0 7or 8scholars072 the ,hebrew term for 8wise in arts0--akam arashim--has been explained in the ,talmud as implying1 that when such a man speaks1 all become1 as it were1 speechless4 ,now1 consider how1 in the writings of the ,rabbis1 the admission of a person into discourses on metaphysics is made dependent on distinction in social qualities1 and study of philosophy1 as well as on the possession of clear-sightedness1 intelligence1 eloquence1 and ability to communicate things by slight allusions4 ,if a person satisfies these requirements1 the secrets of the ,law are confided to him4 ,in the same place we also read the following passage3--,r4 ,jochanan said to ,r4 ,elasar1 8,come1 ,i will teach you ,maaseh ,mercabah40 ,the reply was1 8,i am not yet old10 or in other words1 ,i have not yet become old1 ,i still perceive in myself the hot blood and the rashness of youth4 ,you learn from this that1 in addition to the above-named good qualities1 a certain age is also required4 ,how1 then1 could any person speak on these metaphysical themes in the presence of ordinary people1 of children1 and of women6 ,fifth ,reason4--,man is disturbed in his intellectual occupation by the necessity of looking after the material wants of the body1 especially if the necessity of providing for wife and children be superadded2 much more so if he seeks superfluities in addition to his ordinary wants1 for by custom and bad habits these become a powerful motive4 ,even the perfect man to whom we have referred1 if too busy with these necessary things1 much more so if busy with unnecessary things1 and filled with a great desire for them--must weaken or altogether lose his desire for study1 to which he will apply himself with interruption1 lassitude1 and want of attention4 ,he will not attain to that for which he is fitted by his abilities1 or he will acquire imperfect knowledge1 a confused mass of true and false ideas4 ,for these reasons it was proper that the study of ,metaphysics should have been exclusively cultivated by privileged persons1 and not entrusted to the common people4 ,it is not for the beginner1 and he should abstain from it1 as the little child has to abstain from taking solid food and from carrying heavy weights4 ,,chapter ,,xxxv ,do not think that what we have laid down in the preceding chapters on the importance1 obscurity1 and difficulty of the subject1 and its unsuitableness for communication to ordinary persons1 includes the doctrine of ,god's incorporeality and ,his exemption from all affections 774 ,this is not the case4 ,for in the same way as all people must be informed1 and even children must be trained in the belief that ,god is ,one1 and that none besides ,him is to be worshipped1 so must all be taught by simple authority that ,god is incorporeal2 that there is no similarity in any way whatsoever between ,him and ,his creatures2 that ,his existence is not like the existence of ,his creatures1 ,his life not like that of any living being1 ,his wisdom not like the wisdom of the wisest of men2 and that the difference between ,him and ,his creatures is not merely quantitative1 but absolute as between two individuals of two different classes2 ,i mean to say that all must understand that our wisdom and ,his1 or our power and ,his do not differ quantitatively or qualitatively1 or in a similar manner2 for two things1 of which the one is strong and the other weak1 are necessarily similar1 belong to the same class1 and can be included in one definition4 ,the same is the case with all other comparisons2 they can only be made between two things belonging to the same class1 as has been shown in works on ,natural ,science4 ,anything predicated of ,god is totally different from our attributes2 no definition can comprehend both2 therefore ,his existence and that of any other being totally differ from each other1 and the term existence is applied to both homonymously1 as ,i shall explain4 ,this suffices for the guidance of children and of ordinary persons who must believe that there is a ,being existing1 perfect1 incorporeal1 not inherent in a body as a force in it--,god1 who is above all kinds of deficiency1 above all affections4 ,but the question concerning the attributes of ,god1 their inadmissibility1 and the meaning of those attributes which are ascribed to ,him2 concerning the ,creation1 ,his ,providence1 in providing for everything2 concerning ,his will1 ,his perception1 ,his knowledge of everything2 concerning prophecy and its various degrees2 concerning the meaning of ,his names which imply the idea of unity1 though they are more than one2 all these things are very difficult problems1 the true 8,secrets of the ,law0 the 8secrets0 mentioned so frequently in the books of the ,prophets1 and in the words of our ,teachers1 the subjects of which we should only mention the headings of the chapters1 as we have already stated1 and only in the presence of a person satisfying the above-named conditions4 ,that ,god is incorporeal1 that ,he cannot be compared with ,his creatures1 that ,he is not subject to external influence2 these are things which must be explained to every one according to his capacity1 and they must be taught by way of tradition to children and women1 to the stupid and ignorant1 as they are taught that ,god is ,one1 that ,he is eternal1 and that ,he alone is to be worshipped4 ,without incorporeality there is no unity1 for a corporeal thing is in the first case not simple1 but composed of matter and form which are two separate things by definition1 and secondly1 as it has extension it is also divisible4 ,when persons have received this doctrine1 and have been trained in this belief1 and are in consequence at a loss to reconcile it with the writings of the ,prophets1 the meaning of the latter must be made clear and explained to them by pointing out the homonymity and the figurative application of certain terms discussed in this part of the work4 ,their belief in the unity of ,god and in the words of the ,prophets will then be a true and perfect belief4 ,those who are not sufficiently intelligent to comprehend the true interpretation of these passages in the ,bible1 or to understand that the same term admits of two different interpretations1 may simply be told that the scriptural passage is clearly understood by the wise1 but that they should content themselves with knowing that ,god is incorporeal1 that ,he is never subject to external influence1 as passivity implies a change1 while ,god is entirely free from all change1 that ,he cannot be compared to anything besides ,himself1 that no definition includes ,him together with any other being1 that the words of the ,prophets are true1 and that difficulties met with may be explained on this principle4 ,this may suffice for that class of persons1 and it is not proper to leave them in the belief that ,god is corporeal1 or that ,he has any of the properties of material objects1 just as there is no need to leave them in the belief that ,god does not exist1 that there are more ,gods than one1 or that any other being may be worshipped4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvi ,i shall explain to you1 when speaking on the attributes of ,god1 in what sense we can say that a particular thing pleases ,him1 or excites ,his anger and ,his wrath1 and in reference to certain persons that ,god was pleased with them1 was angry with them1 or was in wrath against them4 ,this is not the subject of the present chapter2 ,i intend to explain in it what ,i am now going to say4 ,you must know1 that in examining the ,law and the books of the ,prophets1 you will not find the expressions 8burning anger10 8provocation10 or 8jealousy0 applied to ,god except in reference to idolatry2 and that none but the idolater called 8enemy10 8adversary10 or 8hater of the ,lord40 ,comp4 8,and ye serve other gods1 444 and then the ,lord's wrath will be kindled against you0 7,deut4 xi4 #af1 #ag72 8,lest the anger of the ,lord thy ,god be kindled against thee40 etc4 7ib4 vi4 #ae72 8,to provoke him to anger through the work of your hands0 7ib4 xxxi4 #bi72 8,they have moved me to jealousy with that which is not ,god2 they have provoked me to anger with their vanities0 7ib4 xxxii4 #ba72 8,for the ,lord thy ,god is a jealous ,god0 7ib4 vi4 #ae72 8,why have they provoked me to anger with their graven images1 and with strange vanities80 7,jer4 viii4 #ai72 8,because of the provoking of his sons and of his daughters0 7,deut4 xxxii4 #ai72 8,for a fire is kindled in mine anger0 7ib4 #bb72 8,the ,lord will take vengeance on ,his adversaries1 and he reserveth wrath for his enemies0 7,nah4 i4 #b72 8,and repayeth them that hate ,him0 7,deut4 vii4 #aj72 8,until ,he hath driven out ,his enemies from before ,him0 7,num4 xxxii4 #ba72 8,which the ,lord thy ,god hateth0 7,deut4 xvi4 #bb72 8,for every abomination to the ,lord1 which ,he hateth1 have they done unto their gods0 7ib4 xii4 #ca74 ,instances like these are innumerable2 and if you examine all the examples met with in the holy writings1 you will find that they confirm our view4 ,the ,prophets in their writings laid special stress on this1 because it concerns errors in reference to ,god1 i4e41 it concerns idolatry4 ,for if any one believes that1 e4g41 ,zaid is standing1 while in fact he is sitting1 he does not deviate from truth so much as one who believes that fire is under the air1 or that water is under the earth1 or that the earth is a plane1 or things similar to these4 ,the latter does not deviate so much from truth as one who believes that the sun consists of fire1 or that the heavens form a hemisphere1 and similar things2 in the third instance the deviation from truth is less than the deviation of a man who believes that angels eat and drink1 and the like4 ,the latter again deviates less from truth than one who believes that something besides ,god is to be worshipped2 for ignorance and error concerning a great thing1 i4e41 a thing which has a high position in the universe1 are of greater importance than those which refer to a thing which occupies a lower place2--by 8error0 ,i mean the belief that a thing is different from what it really is2 by 8ignorance10 the want of knowledge respecting things the knowledge of which can be obtained4 ,if a person does not know the measure of the cone1 or the sphericity of the sun1 it is not so important as not to know whether ,god exists1 or whether the world exists without a ,god2 and if a man assumes that the cone is half 7of the cylinder71 or that the sun is a circle1 it is not so injurious as to believe that ,god is more than ,one4 ,you must know that idolaters when worshipping idols do not believe that there is no ,god besides them2 and no idolater ever did assume that any image made of metal1 stone1 or wood has created the heavens and the earth1 and still governs them4 ,idolatry is founded on the idea that a particular form represents the agent between ,god and ,his creatures4 ,this is plainly said in passages like the following3 8,who would not fear thee1 ,o king of nations80 7,jer4 x4 #g72 8,and in every place incense is offered unto my name0 7,mal4 i4 #aa72 by 8my name0 allusion is made to the ,being which is called by them i4e41 the idolaters 8the ,first ,cause40 ,we have already explained this in our larger work 7,mishneh ,torah1 ,i4 ,on ,idolatry1 chap4 i471 and none of our co-religionists can doubt it4 ,the infidels1 however1 though believing in the existence of the ,creator1 attack the exclusive prerogative of ,god1 namely1 the service and worship which was commanded1 in order that the belief of the people in ,his existence should be firmly established1 in the words1 8,and you shall serve the ,lord10 etc4 7,exod4 xxiii4 #be74 ,by transferring that prerogative to other beings1 they cause the people1 who only notice the rites1 without comprehending their meaning or the true character of the being which is worshipped1 to renounce their belief in the existence of ,god4 ,they were therefore punished with death2 comp4 8,thou shalt save alive nothing that breatheth0 7,deut4 xx4 #af74 ,the object of this commandment1 as is distinctly stated1 is to extirpate that false opinion1 in order that other men should not be corrupted by it any more2 in the words of the ,bible 8that they teach you not10 etc4 7ib4 #ah74 ,they are called 8enemies10 8foes10 8adversaries02 by worshipping idols they are said to provoke ,god to jealousy1 anger1 and wrath4 ,how great1 then1 must be the offence of him who has a wrong opinion of ,god ,himself1 and believes ,him to be different from what ,he truly is1 i4e41 assumes that ,he does not exist1 that ,he consists of two elements1 that ,he is corporeal1 that ,he is subject to external influence1 or ascribes to ,him any defect whatever4 ,such a person is undoubtedly worse than he who worships idols in the belief that they1 as agents1 can do good or evil4 ,therefore bear in mind that by the belief in the corporeality or in anything connected with corporeality1 you would provoke ,god to jealousy and wrath1 kindle ,his fire and anger1 become ,his foe1 ,his enemy1 and ,his adversary in a higher degree than by the worship of idols4 ,if you think that there is an excuse for those who believe in the corporeality of ,god on the ground of their training1 their ignorance or their defective comprehension1 you must make the same concession to the worshippers of idols2 their worship is due to ignorance1 or to early training1 8they continue in the custom of their fathers40 7,t4 ,b4 ,hullin1 #ac;a7 ,you will perhaps say that the literal interpretation of the ,bible causes men to fall into that doubt1 but you must know that idolaters were likewise brought to their belief by false imaginations and ideas4 ,there is no excuse whatever for those who1 being unable to think for themselves1 do not accept the doctrine of the incorporeality of ,god from the true philosophers4 ,i do not consider those men as infidels who are unable to prove the incorporeality1 but ,i hold those to be so who do not believe it1 especially when they see that ,onkelos and ,jonathan avoid in reference to ,god expressions implying corporeality as much as possible4 ,this is all ,i intended to say in this chapter4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvii ,the ,hebrew term panim 7face7 is homonymous2 most of its various meanings have a figurative character4 ,it denotes in the first place the face of a living being2 comp4 8,and all faces are turned into paleness0 7,jer4 xxx4 #f72 8,wherefore are your faces so sad80 7,gen4 xl4 #g74 ,in this sense the term occurs frequently4 ,the next meaning of the word is 8anger02 comp4 8,and her anger 7paneha7 was gone0 7#a ,sam4 i4 #ah74 ,accordingly1 the term is frequently used in reference to ,god in the sense of anger and wrath2 comp4 8,the anger 7pene7 of the ,lord hath divided them0 7,lam4 iv4 #af72 8,the anger 7pene7 of the ,lord is against them that do evil0 7,ps4 xxxiv4 #ag72 8,mine anger 7panai7 shall go and ,i will give thee rest0 7,exod4 xxxiii4 #ad72 8,then will ,i set mine anger0 7panai7 7,lev4 xx4 #c72 there are many other instances4 ,another meaning of the word is 8the presence and existence of a person02 comp4 8,he died in the presence 7pene7 i4e41 in the lifetime of all his brethren0 7,gen4 xxv4 #ah72 8,and in the presence 7pene7 of all the people ,i will be glorified0 7,lev4 x4 #c72 8,he will surely curse thee in thy very presence0 7paneka7 7,job i4 #aa74 ,in the same sense the word is used in the following passage1 8,and the ,lord spake unto ,moses face to face10 i4e41 both being present1 without any intervening medium between them4 ,comp4 8,come1 let us look one another in the face0 7#b ,kings xiv4 #h72 and also 8,the ,lord talked with you face to face0 7,deut4 v4 #d72 instead of which we read more plainly in another place1 8,ye heard the voice of the words1 but saw no similitude2 only ye heard a voice0 7ib4 iv4 #ab74 ,the hearing of the voice without seeing any similitude is termed 8face to face40 ,similarly do the words1 8,and the ,lord spake unto ,moses face to face0 correspond to 8,there he heard the voice of one speaking unto him0 7,num4 vii4 #hi71 in the description of ,god's speaking to ,moses4 ,thus it will be clear to you that the perception of the ,divine voice without the intervention of an angel is expressed by 8face to face40 ,in the same sense the word panim must be understood in 8,and my face 7panai7 shall not be seen0 7,exod4 xxxiii4 #bc72 i4e41 my true existence1 as it is1 cannot be comprehended4 ,the word panim is also used in ,hebrew as an adverb of place1 in the sense of 8before10 or 8between the hands40 ,in this sense it is frequently employed in reference to ,god2 so also in the passage1 8,and my face 7panai7 shall not be seen10 according to ,onkelos1 who renders it1 8,and those before me shall not be seen40 ,he finds here an allusion to the fact1 that there are also higher created beings of such superiority that their true nature cannot be perceived by man2 viz41 the ideals1 separate intellects1 which in their relation to ,god are described as being constantly before ,him1 or between ,his hands1 i4e41 as enjoying uninterruptedly the closest attention of ,divine ,providence4 ,he1 i4e41 ,onkelos1 considers that the things which are described as completely perceptible are those beings which1 as regards existence1 are inferior to the ideals1 viz41 substance and form2 in reference to which we are told1 8,and thou shalt see that which is behind me0 7ibid471 i4e41 beings1 from which1 as it were1 ,i turn away1 and which ,i leave behind me4 ,this figure is to represent the utter remoteness of such beings from the ,deity4 ,you shall later on 7chap4 liv47 hear my explanation of what ,moses1 our teacher1 asked for4 ,the word is also used as an adverb of time1 meaning 8before40 ,comp4 8,in former time 7le-phanim7 in ,israel0 7,ruth iv4 #g72 8,of old 7le-phanim7 hast ,thou laid the foundation of the earth0 7,ps4 cii4 #be74 ,another signification of the word is 8attention and regard40 ,comp4 8,thou shalt not have regard 7pene7 to the poor0 7,lev4 xx4 #ae72 8,and a person receiving attention 7panim70 7,isa4 iii4 #c72 8,who does not show regard 7panim710 etc4 7,deut4 x4 #ag1 etc474 ,the word panim 7face7 has a similar signification in the blessing1 8,the ,lord turn his face to thee0 7i4e41 ,the ,lord let his providence accompany thee71 8and give thee peace40 ,,chapter ,,xxxviii ,the ,hebrew term aor is a homonym4 ,it is a noun1 signifying 8back40 ,comp4 8,behind 7aare7 the tabernacle0 7,exod4 xxvi4 #ab72 8,the spear came out behind him 7aarav70 7#b ,sam4 ii4 #bc74 ,it is next used in reference to time1 signifying 8after02 8neither after him 7aarav7 arose there any like him0 7#b ,kings xxiii4 #be72 8,after 7aar7 these things0 7,gen4 xv4 #a74 ,in this sense the word occurs frequently4 ,the term includes also the idea of following a thing and of conforming with the moral principles of some other being4 ,comp4 8,ye shall walk after 7aare7 the ,lord1 your ,god0 7,deut4 xiii4 #e72 8,they shall walk after 7aare7 the ,lord0 7,hos4 xi4 #aj71 i4e41 follow ,his will1 walk in the way of ,his actions1 and imitate ,his virtues2 8,he walked after 7aare7 the commandment0 7ib4 v4 #aa74 ,in this sense the word occurs in ,exodus xxxiii4 #bj1 8,and thou shalt see my back0 7aorai72 thou shalt perceive that which follows me1 is similar to me1 and is the result of my will1 i4e41 all things created by me1 as will be explained in the course of this treatise4 ,,chapter ,,xxxix ,the ,hebrew leb 7heart7 is a homonymous noun1 signifying that organ which is the source of life to all beings possessing a heart4 ,comp4 8,and thrust them through the heart of ,absalom0 7#a ,sam4 xviii4 #ad74 ,this organ being in the middle of the body1 the word has been figuratively applied to express 8the middle part of a thing40 ,comp4 8unto the midst 7leb7 of heaven0 7,deut4 iv4 #aa72 8the midst 7labbath7 of fire0 7,exod4 iii4 #b74 ,it further denotes 8thought40 ,comp4 8,went not mine heart with thee80 7#b ,kings v4 #bf71 i4e41 ,i was with thee in my thought when a certain event happened4 ,similarly must be explained1 8,and that ye seek not after your own heart0 7,num4 xv4 #ci71 i4e41 after your own thoughts2 8,whose heart 7i4e41 whose thought71 turneth away this day0 7,deut4 xxix4 #ah74 ,the word further signifies 8counsel40 ,comp4 8,all the rest of ,israel were of one heart 7i4e41 had one plan7 to make ,david king0 7#a ,chron4 xii4 #ch72 8but fools die for want of heart10 i4e41 of counsel2 8,my heart 7i4e41 my counsel7 shall not turn away from this so long as ,i live0 7,job xxvii4 #f72 for this sentence is preceded by the words1 8,my righteousness ,i hold fast1 and will not let it go02 and then follows1 8my heart shall never turn away from this40--,as regards the expression yeeraf1 ,i think that it may be compared with the same verb in the form nerefet1 8a handmaid betrothed 7nerefet7 to a man0 7,lev4 xix4 #bj71 where nerefet is similar in meaning to the ,arabic munarifat1 8turning away10 and signifies 8turning from the state of slavery to that of marriage40 ,leb 7heart7 denotes also 8will02 comp4 8,and ,i shall give you pastors according to my will 7libbi70 7,jer4 iii4 #ae71 8,is thine heart right as my heart is80 7#b ,kings x4 #ae71 i4e41 is thy will right as my will is8 ,in this sense the word has been figuratively applied to ,god4 ,comp4 8,that shall do according to that which is in mine heart and in my soul0 7#a ,sam4 ii4 #ce71 i4e41 according to ,my will2 8,and mine eyes and mine heart 7i4e41 ,my providence and ,my will7 shall be there perpetually0 7#a ,kings ix4 #c74 ,the word is also used in the sense of 8understanding40 ,comp4 8,for vain man will be endowed with a heart0 7,job xi4 #ab71 i4e41 will be wise2 8,a wise man's heart is at his right hand0 7,eccles4 x4 #b71 i4e41 his understanding is engaged in perfect thoughts1 the highest problems4 ,instances of this kind are numerous4 ,it is in this sense1 namely1 that of understanding1 that the word is used whenever figuratively applied to ,god2 but exceptionally it is also used in the sense of 8will40 ,it must1 in each passage1 be explained in accordance with the context4 ,also1 in the following and similar passages1 it signifies 8understanding02 8,consider it in thine heart0 7,deut4 iv4 #ci72 8,and none considereth in his heart0 7,isa4 xliv4 #ai74 ,thus1 also1 8,yet the ,lord hath not given you an heart to perceive10 is identical in its meaning with 8,unto thee it was shown that thou mightest know0 7,deut4 iv4 #ce74 ,as to the passage1 8,and thou shalt love the ,lord thy ,god with all thine heart0 7,ib4 vi4 #e71 ,i explain 8with all thine heart0 to mean 8with all the powers of thine heart10 that is1 with all the powers of the body1 for they all have their origin in the heart2 and the sense of the entire passage is3 make the knowledge of ,god the aim of all thy actions1 as we have stated in our ,commentary on the ,mishnah 7,aboth1 ,eight ,chapters1 v471 and in our ,mishneh ,torah1 yesode hatorah1 chap4 ii4 #b4 ,,chapter ,,xl ,rua is a homonym1 signifying 8air10 that is1 one of the four elements4 ,comp4 8,and the air of ,god moved0 7,gen4 i4 #b74 ,it denotes also1 8wind40 ,comp4 8,and the east wind 7rua7 brought the locusts0 7,exod4 x4 #ac72 8west wind0 7rua7 7ib4 #ai74 ,in this sense the word occurs frequently4 ,next1 it signifies 8breath40 ,comp4 8,a breath 7rua7 that passeth away1 and does not come again0 7,ps4 lxxviii4 #ci72 8wherein is the breath 7rua7 of life0 7,gen4 vii4 #ae74 ,it signifies also that which remains of man after his death1 and is not subject to destruction4 ,comp4 8,and the spirit 7rua7 shall return unto ,god who gave it0 7,eccles4 xii4 #g74 ,another signification of this word is 8the divine inspiration of the prophets whereby they prophesy0--as we shall explain1 when speaking on prophecy1 as far as it is opportune to discuss this subject in a treatise like this4--,comp4 8,and ,i will take of the spirit 7rua7 which is upon thee1 and will put it upon them0 7,num4 xi4 #ag72 8,and it came to pass1 when the spirit 7rua7 rested upon them0 7ib4 #be72 8,the spirit 7rua7 of the ,lord spake by me0 7#b ,sam4 xxiii4 #b74 ,the term is frequently used in this sense4 ,the meaning of 8intention10 8will10 is likewise contained in the word rua4 ,comp4 8,a fool uttereth all his spirit0 7rua7 7,prov4 xxix4 #aa71 i4e41 his intention and will2 8,and the spirit 7rua7 of ,egypt shall fail in the midst thereof1 and ,i will destroy the counsel thereof0 7,isa4 xix4 #c71 i4e41 her intentions will be frustrated1 and her plans will be obscured2 8,who has comprehended the spirit 7rua7 of the ,lord1 or who is familiar with his counsel that he may tell us80 7,isa4 xl4 #ac71 i4e41 ,who knows the order fixed by ,his will1 or perceives the system of ,his ,providence in the existing world1 that he may tell us8 as we shall explain in the chapters in which we shall speak on ,providence4 ,thus the ,hebrew rua1 when used in reference to ,god1 has generally the fifth signification2 sometimes1 however1 as explained above1 the last signification1 viz41 8will40 ,the meaning of the word in each individual case is therefore to be determined by the context4 ,,chapter ,,xli ,the ,hebrew nefesh 7soul7 is a homonymous noun1 signifying the vitality which is common to all living1 sentient beings4 ,e4g4 8wherein there is a living soul0 7nefesh7 7,gen4 i4 #cj74 ,it denotes also blood1 as in 8,thou shalt not eat the blood 7nefesh7 with the meat0 7,deut4 xii4 #bc74 ,another signification of the term is 8reason10 that is1 the distinguishing characteristic of man1 as in 8,as the ,lord liveth that made us this soul0 7,jer4 xxxviii4 #af74 ,it denotes also the part of man that remains after his death 7nefesh1 soul72 comp4 8,but the soul 7nefesh7 of my lord shall be bound in the bundle of life0 7#a ,sam4 xxv4 #bi74 ,lastly1 it denotes 8will02 comp4 8,to bind his princes at his will0 7be-nafsho7 7,ps4 cv4 #bb72 8,thou wilt not deliver me unto the will 7be-nefesh7 of my enemies0 7,ps4 xli4 #c72 and according to my opinion1 it has this meaning also in the following passages1 8,if it be your will 7nafshekem7 that ,i should bury my dead0 7,gen4 xxiii4 #h72 8,though ,moses and ,samuel stood before me1 yet my will 7nafshi7 could not be toward this people0 7,jer4 xv4 #a71 that is1 ,i had no pleasure in them1 ,i did not wish to preserve them4 ,when nefesh is used in reference to ,god1 it has the meaning 8will10 as we have already explained with reference to the passage1 8,that shall do according to that which is in my will 7bi-lebabi7 and in mine intention 7be-nafshi70 7#a ,sam4 ii4 #ce74 ,similarly we explain the phrase1 8,and his will 7nafsho7 to trouble ,israel ceased0 7,judg4 x4 #af74 ,jonathan1 the son of ,uzziel in the ,targum of the ,prophets1 did not translate this passage1 because he understood nafshi to have the first signification1 and finding1 therefore1 in these words sensation ascribed to ,god1 he omitted them from his translation4 ,if1 however1 nefesh be here taken in the last signification1 the sentence can well be explained4 ,for in the passage which precedes1 it is stated that ,providence abandoned the ,israelites1 and left them on the brink of death2 then they cried and prayed for help1 but in vain4 ,when1 however1 they had thoroughly repented1 when their misery had increased1 and their enemy had had power over them1 ,he showed mercy to them1 and ,his will to continue their trouble and misery ceased4 ,note it well1 for it is remarkable4 ,the preposition ba in this passage has the force of the preposition min 78from0 or 8of072 and baamal is identical with meamal4 ,grammarians give many instances of this use of the preposition ba3 8,and that which remaineth of 7ba7 the flesh and of 7ba7 the bread0 7,lev4 viii4 #cb72 8,if there remains but few of 7ba7 the years0 7ib4 xxv4 #eb72 8,of 7ba7 the strangers and of 7ba7 those born in the land0 7,exod4 xii4 #ai74 ,,chapter ,,xlii ai 78living07 signifies a sentient organism 7lit4 8growing0 and 8having sensation071 comp4 8,every moving thing that liveth0 7,gen4 ix4 #c72 it also denotes recovery from a severe illness3 8,and was recovered 7va-yei7 of his sickness0 7,isa4 xxxviii4 #i72 8,in the camp till they recovered0 7ayotam7 7,josh4 v4 #h72 8quick1 raw 7ai7 flesh0 7,lev4 xiii4 #aj74 ,mavet signifies 8death0 and 8severe illness10 as in 8,his heart died 7va-yamot7 within him1 and he became as a stone0 7#a ,sam4 xxv4 #cg71 that is1 his illness was severe4 ,for this reason it is stated concerning the son of the woman of ,zarephath1 8,and his sickness was so sore1 that there was no breath left in him0 7#a ,kings xvii4 #ag74 ,the simple expression va-yamoth would have given the idea that he was very ill1 near death1 like ,nabal when he heard what had taken place4 ,some of the ,andalusian authors say that his breath was suspended1 so that no breathing could be perceived at all1 as sometimes an invalid is seized with a fainting fit or an attack of asphyxia1 and it cannot be discovered whether he is alive or dead2 in this condition the patient may remain a day or two4 ,the term ai has also been employed in reference to the acquisition of wisdom4 ,comp4 8,so shall they be life 7ayyim7 unto thy soul0 7,prov4 iii4 #bb72 8,for whoso findeth me findeth life0 7ib4 viii4 #ce72 8,for they are life 7ayyim7 to those that find them0 7ib4 iv4 #bb74 ,such instances are numerous4 ,in accordance with this metaphor1 true principles are called life1 and corrupt principles death4 ,thus the ,almighty says1 8,see1 ,i have set before thee this day life and good and death and evil0 7,deut4 xxx4 #ae71 showing that 8life0 and 8good10 8death0 and 8evil10 are identical1 and then ,he explains these terms4 ,in the same way ,i understand ,his words1 8,that ye may live0 7ib4 v4 #cc71 in accordance with the traditional interpretation of 8,that it may be well with thee0 scil4 in the life to come 7ib4 xxii4 #g74 ,in consequence of the frequent use of this figure in our language our ,sages said1 8,the righteous even in death are called living1 while the wicked even in life are called dead40 7,talm4 ,b4 ,berakhoth1 p4 #gh74 ,note this well4 ,,chapter ,,xliii ,the ,hebrew kanaf is a homonym2 most of its meanings are metaphorical4 ,its primary signification is 8wing of a flying creature10 e4g41 8,any winged 7kanaf7 fowl that flieth in the air0 7,deut4 iv4 #ag74 ,the term was next applied figuratively to the wings or corners of garments2 comp4 8upon the four corners 7kanfoth7 of thy vesture0 7ib4 xxii4 #ab74 ,it was also used to denote the ends of the inhabited part of the earth1 and the corners that are most distant from our habitation4 ,comp4 8,that it might take hold of the ends 7kanfoth7 of the earth0 7,job xxxviii4 #ac72 8,from the uttermost part 7kenaf7 of the earth have we heard songs0 7,isa4 xxiv4 #af74 ,ibn ,gana 7in his ,book of ,hebrew ,roots7 says that kenaf is used in the sense of 8concealing10 in analogy with the ,arabic kanaftu alshaian1 8,i have hidden something10 and accordingly explains1 ,isaiah xxx4 #bj1 8,and thy teacher will no longer be hidden or concealed40 ,it is a good explanation1 and ,i think that kenaf has the same meaning in ,deuteronomy xxiii4 #a1 8,he shall not take away the cover 7kenaf7 of his father02 also in1 8,spread1 therefore1 thy cover 7kenafeka7 over thine handmaid0 7,ruth iii4 #i74 ,in this sense1 ,i think1 the word is figuratively applied to ,god and to angels 7for angels are not corporeal1 according to my opinion1 as ,i shall explain74 ,ruth ii4 #ab must therefore be translated 8,under whose protection 7kenafav7 thou art come to trust02 and wherever the word occurs in reference to angels1 it means concealment4 ,you have surely noticed the words of ,isaiah 7,isa4 vi4 #b71 8,with twain he covered his face1 and with twain he covered his feet40 ,their meaning is this3 ,the cause of his 7the angel's7 existence is hidden and concealed2 this is meant by the covering of the face4 ,the things of which he 7the angel7 is the cause1 and which are called 8his feet0 7as ,i stated in speaking of the homonym regel71 are likewise concealed2 for the actions of the intelligences are not seen1 and their ways are1 except after long study1 not understood1 on account of two reasons--the one of which is contained in their own properties1 the other in ourselves2 that is to say1 because our perception is imperfect and the ideals are difficult to be fully comprehended4 ,as regards the phrase 8and with twain he flieth10 ,i shall explain in a special chapter 7xlix47 why flight has been attributed to angels4 ,,chapter ,,xliv ,the ,hebrew ayin is a homonym1 signifying 8fountain02 e4g41 8,by a fountain 7en7 of water0 7,gen4 xvi4 #g74 ,it next denotes 8eye02 comp4 7ayin7 8,eye for eye0 7,exod4 xxi4 #bd74 ,another meaning of the word is 8providence10 as it is said concerning ,jeremiah1 8,take him and direct thine attention 7eneka7 to him0 7,jer4 xxxix4 #ab74 ,in this figurative sense it is to be understood when used in reference to ,god2 e4g41 8,and my providence and my pleasure shall be there perpetually0 7#a ,kings ix4 #c71 as we have already explained 7page #adj72 8,the eyes 7ene71 i4e41 the ,providence of the ,lord thy ,god1 are always upon it0 7,deut4 xi4 #ab72 8,they are the eyes 7ene7 of the ,lord1 which run to and fro through the whole earth0 7,zech4 iv4 #aj71 i4e41 ,his providence is extended over everything that is on earth1 as will be explained in the chapters in which we shall treat of ,providence4 ,when1 however1 the word 8eye0 is connected with the verb 8to see10 7raah or azah7 as in 8,open thine eyes1 and see0 7#a ,kings xix4 #af72 8,his eyes behold0 7,ps4 xi4 #d71 the phrase denotes perception of the mind1 not that of the senses2 for every sensation is a passive state1 as is well known to you1 and ,god is active1 never passive1 as will be explained by me4 ,,chapter ,,xlv ,shama is used homonymously4 ,it signifies 8to hear10 and also 8to obey40 ,as regards the first signification1 comp4 8,neither let it be heard out of thy mouth0 7,exod4 xxiii4 #ac72 8,and the fame thereof was heard in ,pharaoh's house0 7,gen4 xlv4 #af74 ,instances of this kind are numerous4 ,equally frequent are the instances of this verb being used in the sense of 8to obey03 8,and they hearkened 7shame7 not unto ,moses0 7,exod4 vi4 #i74 8,if they obey 7yishme7 and serve him0 7,job xxxvi4 #aa72 8,shall we then hearken 7nishma7 unto you0 7,neh4 xiii4 #bg72 8,whosoever will not hearken 7yishma7 unto thy words0 7,josh4 i4 #ah74 ,the verb also signifies 8to know0 78to understand071 comp4 8,a nation whose tongue1 i4e41 its language1 thou shalt not understand0 7tishma7 7,deut4 xxviii4 #di74 ,the verb shama1 used in reference to ,god1 must be taken in the sense of perceiving1 which is part of the third signification1 whenever1 according to the literal interpretation of the passage1 it appears to have the first meaning3 comp4 8,and the ,lord heard it0 7,num4 xi4 #a72 8,for that ,he heareth your murmurings0 7,exod4 xvi4 #g74 ,in all such passages mental perception is meant4 ,when1 however1 according to the literal interpretation the verb appears to have the second signification1 it implies that ,god responded to the prayer of man and fulfilled his wish1 or did not respond and did not fulfil his wish3 8,i will surely hear his cry0 7,exod4 xxii4 #bc72 8,i will hear1 for ,i am gracious0 7ib4 #bg72 8,bow down thine ear1 and hear0 7#b ,kings xix4 #af72 8,but the ,lord would not hearken to your voice1 nor give ear unto you0 7,deut4 i4 #de72 8,yea1 when ye make many prayers1 ,i will not hear0 7,isa4 i4 #ae72 8,for ,i will not hear thee0 7,jer4 vii4 #af74 ,there are many instances in which shama has this sense4 ,remarks will now be presented to you on these metaphors and similes1 which will quench your thirst1 and explain to you all their meanings without leaving a doubt4 ,,chapter ,,xlvi ,we have already stated1 in one of the chapters of this treatise1 that there is a great difference between bringing to view the existence of a thing and demonstrating its true essence4 ,we can lead others to notice the existence of an object by pointing to its accidents1 actions1 or even most remote relations to other objects3 e4g41 if you wish to describe the king of a country to one of his subjects who does not know him1 you can give a description and an account of his existence in many ways4 ,you will either say to him1 the tall man with a fair complexion and grey hair is the king1 thus describing him by his accidents2 or you will say1 the king is the person round whom are seen a great multitude of men on horse and on foot1 and soldiers with drawn swords1 over whose head banners are waving1 and before whom trumpets are sounded2 or it is the person living in the palace in a particular region of a certain country2 or it is the person who ordered the building of that wall1 or the construction of that bridge2 or by some other similar acts and things relating to him4 ,his existence can be demonstrated in a still more indirect way1 e4g41 if you are asked whether this land has a king1 you will undoubtedly answer in the affirmative4 8,what proof have you80 8,the fact that this banker here1 a weak and little person1 stands before this large mass of gold pieces1 and that poor man1 tall and strong1 who stands before him asking in vain for alms of the weight of a carob-grain1 is rebuked and is compelled to go away by the mere force of words2 for had he not feared the king1 he would1 without hesitation1 have killed the banker1 or pushed him away and taken as much of the money as he could40 ,consequently1 this is a proof that this country has a ruler and his existence is proved by the well-regulated affairs of the country1 on account of which the king is respected and the punishments decreed by him are feared4 ,in this whole example nothing is mentioned that indicated his characteristics1 and his essential properties1 by virtue of which he is king4 ,the same is the case with the information concerning the ,creator given to the ordinary classes of men in all prophetical books and in the ,law4 ,for it was found necessary to teach all of them that ,god exists1 and that ,he is in every respect the most perfect ,being1 that is to say1 ,he exists not only in the sense in which the earth and the heavens exist1 but ,he exists and possesses life1 wisdom1 power1 activity1 and all other properties which our belief in ,his existence must include1 as will be shown below4 ,that ,god exists was therefore shown to ordinary men by means of similes taken from physical bodies2 that ,he is living1 by a simile taken from motion1 because ordinary men consider only the body as fully1 truly1 and undoubtedly existing2 that which is connected with a body but is itself not a body1 although believed to exist1 has a lower degree of existence on account of its dependence on the body for existence4 ,that1 however1 which is neither itself a body1 nor a force within a body1 is not existent according to man's first notions1 and is above all excluded from the range of imagination4 ,in the same manner motion is considered by the ordinary man as identical with life2 what cannot move voluntarily from place to place has no life1 although motion is not part of the definition of life1 but an accident connected with it4 ,the perception by the senses1 especially by hearing and seeing1 is best known to us2 we have no idea or notion of any other mode of communication between the soul of one person and that of another than by means of speaking1 i4e41 by the sound produced by lips1 tongue1 and the other organs of speech4 ,when1 therefore1 we are to be informed that ,god has a knowledge of things1 and that communication is made by ,him to the ,prophets who convey it to us1 they represent ,him to us as seeing and hearing1 i4e41 as perceiving and knowing those things which can be seen and heard4 ,they represent ,him to us as speaking1 i4e41 that communications from ,him reach the ,prophets2 that is to be understood by the term 8prophecy10 as will be fully explained4 ,god is described as working1 because we do not know any other mode of producing a thing except by direct touch4 ,he is said to have a soul in the sense that ,he is living1 because all living beings are generally supposed to have a soul2 although the term soul is1 as has been shown1 a homonym4 ,again1 since we perform all these actions only by means of corporeal organs1 we figuratively ascribe to ,god the organs of locomotion1 as feet1 and their soles2 organs of hearing1 seeing1 and smelling1 as ear1 eye1 and nose2 organs and substance of speech1 as mouth1 tongue1 and sound2 organs for the performance of work1 as hand1 its fingers1 its palm1 and the arm4 ,in short1 these organs of the body are figuratively ascribed to ,god1 who is above all imperfection1 to express that ,he performs certain acts2 and these acts are figuratively ascribed to ,him to express that ,he possesses certain perfections different from those acts themselves4 ,e4g41 we say that ,he has eyes1 ears1 hands1 a mouth1 a tongue1 to express that ,he sees1 hears1 acts1 and speaks2 but seeing and hearing are attributed to ,him to indicate simply that ,he perceives4 ,you thus find in ,hebrew instances in which the perception of the one sense is named instead of the other2 thus1 8,see the word of the ,lord0 7,jer4 ii4 #ca71 in the same meaning as 8,hear the word of the ,lord10 for the sense of the phrase is1 8,perceive what ,he says02 similarly the phrase1 8,see the smell of my son0 7,gen4 xxvii4 #bg7 has the same meaning as 8,smell the smell of my son10 for it relates to the perception of the smell4 ,in the same way are used the words1 8,and all the people saw the thunders and the lightnings0 7,exod4 xx4 #ae71 although the passage also contains the description of a prophetical vision1 as is well known and understood among our people4 ,action and speech are likewise figuratively applied to ,god1 to express that a certain influence has emanated from ,him1 as will be explained 7chap4 lxv4 and chap4 lxvi474 ,the physical organs which are attributed to ,god in the writings of the ,prophets are either organs of locomotion1 indicating life2 organs of sensation1 indicating perception2 organs of touch1 indicating action2 or organs of speech1 indicating the divine inspiration of the ,prophets1 as will be explained4 ,the object of all these indications is to establish in our minds the notion of the existence of a living being1 the ,maker of everything1 who also possesses a knowledge of the things which ,he has made4 ,we shall explain1 when we come to speak of the inadmissibility of ,divine attributes1 that all these various attributes convey but one notion1 viz41 that of the essence of ,god4 ,the sole object of this chapter is to explain in what sense physical organs are ascribed to the ,most ,perfect ,being1 namely1 that they are mere indications of the actions generally performed by means of these organs4 ,such actions being perfections respecting ourselves1 are predicated of ,god1 because we wish to express that ,he is most perfect in every respect1 as we remarked above in explaining the ,rabbinical phrase1 8,the language of the ,torah is like the language of man40 ,instances of organs of locomotion being applied to the ,creator occur as follows3--8,my footstool0 7,isa4 lxvi4 #a72 8the place of the soles of my feet0 7,ezek4 xliii4 #g74 ,for examples of organs of touch applied to ,god1 comp4 8the hand of the ,lord0 7,exod4 ix4 #c72 8with the finger of ,god0 7ib4 xxxi4 #ah72 8the work of thy fingers0 7,ps4 viii4 #d71 8,and thou hast laid thine hand upon me0 7ib4 cxxxix4 #e72 8,the arm of the ,lord0 7,isa4 liii4 #a72 8,thy right hand1 ,o ,lord0 7,exod4 xv4 #f74 ,in instances like the following1 organs of speech are attributed to ,god3 8,the mouth of the ,lord has spoken0 7,isa4 i4 #bj72 8,and ,he would open ,his lips against thee0 7,job xi4 #e72 8,the voice of the ,lord is powerful0 7,ps4 xxix4 #d72 8,and his tongue as a devouring fire0 7,isa4 xxx4 #bg74 ,organs of sensation are attributed to ,god in instances like the following3 8,his eyes behold1 ,his eyelids try0 7,ps4 xi4 #d72 8,the eyes of the ,lord which run to and fro0 7,zech4 iv4 #aj72 8,bow down thine ear unto me1 and hear0 7#b ,kings xix4 #af72 8,you have kindled a fire in my nostril0 7,jer4 xvii4 #e74 ,of the inner parts of the human body only the heart is figuratively applied to ,god1 because 8heart0 is a homonym1 and denotes also 8intellect02 it is besides the source of animal life4 ,in phrases like 8my bowels are troubled for him0 7,jer4 xxxi4 #bj72 8,the sounding of thy bowels0 7,isa4 lxiii4 #ae71 the term 8bowels0 is used in the sense of 8heart02 for the term 8bowels0 is used both in a general and in a specific meaning2 it denotes specifically 8bowels10 but more generally it can be used as the name of any inner organ1 including 8heart40 ,the correctness of this argument can be proved by the phrase 8,and thy law is within my bowels0 7,ps4 xl4 #i71 which is identical with 8,and thy law is within my heart40 ,for that reason the prophet employed in this verse the phrase 8my bowels are troubled0 7and 8the sounding of thy bowels072 the verb hamah is in fact used more frequently in connection with 8heart10 than with any other organ2 comp4 8,my heart maketh a noise 7homeh7 in me0 7,jer4 iv4 #ai74 ,similarly1 the shoulder is never used as a figure in reference to ,god1 because it is known as a mere instrument of transport1 and also comes into close contact with the thing which it carries4 ,with far greater reason the organs of nutrition are never attributed to ,god2 they are at once recognized as signs of imperfection4 ,in fact all organs1 both the external and the internal1 are employed in the various actions of the soul2 some1 as e4g41 all inner organs1 are the means of preserving the individual for a certain time2 others1 as the organs of generation1 are the means of preserving the species2 others are the means of improving the condition of man and bringing his actions to perfection1 as the hands1 the feet1 and the eyes1 all of which tend to render motion1 action1 and perception more perfect4 ,animate beings require motion in order to be able to approach that which is conducive to their welfare1 and to move away from the opposite2 they require the senses in order to be able to discern what is injurious to them and what is beneficial4 ,in addition1 man requires various kinds of handiwork1 to prepare his food1 clothing1 and dwelling2 and he is compelled by his physical constitution to perform such work1 namely1 to prepare what is good for him4 ,some kinds of work also occur among certain animals1 as far as such work is required by those animals4 ,i do not believe that any man can doubt the correctness of the assertion that the ,creator is not in need of anything for the continuance of ,his existence1 or for the improvement of ,his condition4 ,therefore1 ,god has no organs1 or1 what is the same1 ,he is not corporeal2 ,his actions are accomplished by ,his ,essence1 not by any organ1 and as undoubtedly physical forces are connected with the organs1 ,he does not possess any such forces1 that is to say1 ,he has1 besides ,his ,essence1 nothing that could be the cause of ,his action1 ,his knowledge1 or ,his will1 for attributes are nothing but forces under a different name4 ,it is not my intention to discuss the question in this chapter4 ,our ,sages laid down a general principle1 by which the literal sense of the physical attributes of ,god mentioned by the prophets is rejected2 a principle which evidently shows that our ,sages were far from the belief in the corporeality of ,god1 and that they did not think any person capable of misunderstanding it1 or entertaining any doubt about it4 ,for that reason they employ in the ,talmud and the ,midrashim phrases similar to those contained in the prophecies1 without any circumlocution2 they knew that there could not be any doubt about their metaphorical character1 or any danger whatever of their being misunderstood2 and that all such expressions would be understood as figurative language1 employed to communicate to the intellect the notion of ,his existence4 ,now1 it was well known that in figurative language ,god is compared to a king who commands1 cautions1 punishes1 and rewards1 his subjects1 and whose servants and attendants publish his orders1 so that they might be acted upon1 and they also execute whatever he wishes4 ,thus the ,sages adopted that figure1 used it frequently1 and introduced such speech1 consent1 and refusal of a king1 and other usual acts of kings1 as became necessary by that figure4 ,in all these instances they were sure that no doubt or confusion would arise from it4 ,the general principle alluded to above is contained in the following saying of our ,sages1 mentioned in ,bereshith ,rabba 7c4 xxvii471 8,great was the power of the ,prophets2 they compared the creature to its ,creator2 comp4 #8,and over the resemblance of the throne was a resemblance like the appearance of man'0 7,ezek4 i4 #bf74 ,they have thus plainly stated that all those images which the ,prophets perceived1 i4e4 in prophetic visions1 are images created by ,god4 ,this is perfectly correct2 for every image in our imagination has been created4 ,how pregnant is the expression1 8,great is their boldness60 ,they indicated by it1 that they themselves found it very remarkable2 for whenever they perceived a word or act difficult to explain1 or apparently objectionable1 they used that phrase2 e4g41 a certain ,rabbi has performed the act 7of 8aliah07 with a slipper1 alone and by night4 ,another ,rabbi1 thereupon exclaimed 8,how great is his boldness to have followed the opinion of the minority40 ,the ,chaldee phrase rab gubreh in the original of the latter quotation1 and the ,hebrew gadol koo in that of the former quotation1 have the same meaning1 viz41 ,great is the power of 7or the boldness of74 ,hence1 in the preceding quotation1 the sense is1 ,how remarkable is the language which the ,prophets were obliged to use when they speak of ,god the ,creator in terms signifying properties of beings created by ,him4 ,this deserves attention4 ,our ,sages have thus stated in distinct and plain terms that they are far from believing in the corporeality of ,god2 and in the figures and forms seen in a prophetical vision1 though belonging to created beings1 the ,prophets1 to use the words of our ,sages1 8compared the creature to its ,creator40 ,if1 however1 after these explanations1 any one wishes out of malice to cavil at them1 and to find fault with them1 though their method is neither comprehended nor understood by him1 the ,sages o4b4m4 will sustain no injury by it4 ,,chapter ,,xlvii ,we have already stated several times that the prophetic books never attribute to ,god anything which ordinary men consider a defect1 or which they cannot in their imagination combine with the idea of the ,almighty1 although such terms may not otherwise be different from those which were employed as metaphors in relation to ,god4 ,indeed all things which are attributed to ,god are considered in some way to be perfection1 or can at least be imagined as appertaining to ,him4 ,we must now show why1 according to this principle1 the senses of hearing1 sight and smell1 are attributed to ,god1 but not those of taste and touch4 ,he is equally elevated above the use of all the five senses2 they are all defective as regards perception1 even for those who have no other source of knowledge2 because they are passive1 receive impressions from without1 and are subject to interruptions and sufferings1 as much as the other organs of the body4 ,by saying that ,god sees1 we mean to state that ,he perceives visible things2 8,he hears0 is identical with saying 8,he perceives audible things02 in the same way we might say1 8,he tastes and ,he touches10 in the sense of 8,he perceives objects which man perceives by means of taste and touch40 ,for1 as regards perception1 the senses are identical2 if we deny the existence of one sensation in ,god1 we must deny that of all other sensations1 i4e41 the perceptions of the five senses2 and if we attribute the existence of one sensation to ,him1 i4e41 the perception appertaining to one of the senses1 we must attribute all the five sensations4 ,nevertheless1 we find in ,holy ,writ1 8,and ,god saw0 7,gen4 vi4 #e72 8,and ,god heard0 7,num4 xi4 #a72 8,and ,god smelt0 7,gen4 viii4 #ba72 but we do not meet with the expressions1 8,and ,god tasted10 8,and ,god touched40 ,according to our opinion the reason of this is to be found in the idea1 which has a firm hold in the minds of all men1 that ,god does not come into contact with a body in the same manner as one body comes into contact with another1 since ,he is not even seen by the eye4 ,while these two senses1 namely1 taste and touch1 only act when in close contact with the object1 by sight1 hearing1 and smell1 even distant objects are perceived4 ,these1 therefore1 were considered by the multitude appropriate expressions to be figuratively applied to ,god4 ,besides1 the object in figuratively applying the sensations to ,him1 could only have been to express that ,he perceives our actions2 but hearing and sight are sufficient for that1 namely1 for the perception of what a man does or says4 ,thus our ,sages1 among other admonitions1 gave the following advice and warning3 8,know what is above thee1 a seeing eye1 and a hearing ear40 7,mishnah ,abot1 ii4 #a47 ,you1 however1 know that1 strictly speaking1 the condition of all the sensations is the same1 that the same argument which is employed against the existence of touch and taste in ,god1 may be used against sight1 hearing1 and smell2 for they all are material perceptions and impressions which are subject to change4 ,there is only this difference1 that the former1 touch and taste1 are at once recognized as deficiencies1 while the others are considered as perfections4 ,in a similar manner the defect of the imagination is easily seen1 less easily that of thinking and reasoning4 ,imagination 7raayon7 therefore1 was never employed as a figure in speaking of ,god1 while thought and reason are figuratively ascribed to ,him4 ,comp4 8,the thoughts which the ,lord thought0 7,jer4 xlix4 #bj72 8,and with his understanding he stretched out the heavens0 7ib4 x4 #ab74 ,the inner senses were thus treated in the same way as the external2 some are figuratively applied to ,god1 some not4 ,all this is according to the language of man2 he ascribes to ,god what he considers a perfection1 and does not ascribe to ,him what he considers a defect4 ,in truth1 however1 no real attribute1 implying an addition to ,his essence1 can be applied to ,him1 as will be proved4 ,,chapter ,,xlviii ,whenever in the ,pentateuch the term 8to hear0 is applied to ,god1 ,onkelos1 the ,proselyte1 does not translate it literally1 but paraphrases it1 merely expressing that a certain speech reached ,him1 i4e41 ,he perceived it1 or that ,he accepted it or did not accept1 when it refers to supplication and prayer as its object4 ,the words 8,god heard0 are therefore paraphrased by him regularly either1 8,it was heard before the ,lord10 or 8,he accepted0 when employed in reference to supplication and prayer2 e4g4 8,i will surely accept10 lit4 8,i will surely hear0 7,exod4 xxii4 #bb74 ,this principle is followed by ,onkelos in his translation of the ,pentateuch without any exception4 ,but as regards the verb 8to see10 7raah71 his renderings vary in a remarkable manner1 and ,i was unable to discern his principle or method4 ,in some instances he translates literally1 8and ,god saw02 in others he paraphrases 8it was revealed before the ,lord40 ,the use of the phrase va-aza adonai by ,onkelos is sufficient evidence that the term aza in ,chaldee is homonymous1 and that it denotes mental perception as well as the sensation of sight4 ,this being the case1 ,i am surprised that1 in some instances avoiding the literal rendering1 he substituted for it 8,and it was revealed before the ,lord40 ,when ,i1 however1 examined the various readings in the version of ,onkelos1 which ,i either saw myself or heard from others during the time of my studies1 ,i found that the term 8to see0 when connected with wrong1 injury1 or violence1 was paraphrased1 8,it was manifest before the ,lord40 ,there is no doubt that the term aza in ,chaldee denotes complete apprehension and reception of the object in the state in which it has been perceived4 ,when ,onkelos1 therefore1 found the verb 8to see0 connected with the object 8wrong10 he did not render it literally1 but paraphrased it1 8,it was revealed before the ,lord40 ,now1 ,i noticed that in all instances of the ,pentateuch where seeing is ascribed to ,god1 he translated it literally1 except those instances which ,i will mention to you3 8,for my affliction was revealed before the ,lord0 7,gen4 xxix4 #cb72 8,for all that ,laban doeth unto thee is revealed before me0 7ib4 xxxi4 #ab72--;although the first person in the sentence refers to the angel and not to ,god1 ,onkelos does not ascribe to him that perception which implies complete comprehension of the object1 because the object is 8iniquity0--8,the oppression of the children of ,israel was known to the ,lord0 7,exod4 ii4 #be72 8,the oppression of my people was surely known to me0 7ib4 iii4 #g72 8,the affliction is known to me0 7ib4 #i72 8,their oppression is known to me0 7ib4 iv4 #ca72 8,this people is known to me0 7ib4 xxxii4 #i71 i4e41 their rebellion is known to me--comp4 the ,targum of the passage1 8,and ,god saw the children of ,israel0 7ib4 ii4 #be71 which is equal to 8,he saw their affliction and their trouble0--8,and it was known to the ,lord1 and he abhorred them0 7,deut4 xxxii4 #ai72 8,it was known to him that their power was gone0 7ib4 #cf72 in this instance the object of the perception is likewise the wrong done to the ,israelites1 and the increasing power of the enemy4 ,in all these examples ,onkelos is consistent1 following the maxim expressed in the words1 8,thou canst not look on iniquity0 7,hab4 i4 #ac72 wherefore he renders the verb 8to see10 when referring to oppression or rebellion1 ,it is revealed before him1 etc4 ,this appropriate and satisfactory explanation1 the correctness of which ,i do not doubt1 is weakened by three passages1 in which1 according to this view1 ,i expected to find the verb 8to see0 paraphrased 8to be revealed before him10 but found instead the literal rendering 8to see0 in the various copies of the ,targum4 ,the following are the three passages3 8,and ,god saw that the wickedness of man was great upon the earth0 7,gen4 vi4 #f72 8,and the ,lord saw the earth1 and behold it was corrupt0 7ib4 vi4 #ab72 8and ,god saw that ,leah was hated0 7ib4 xxx4 #ca74 ,it appears to me that in these passages there is a mistake1 which has crept into the copies of the ,targum1 since we do not possess the ,targum in the original manuscript of ,onkelos1 for in that case we should have assumed that he had a satisfactory explanation of it4 ,in rendering ,genesis xxii4 #h1 8the lamb is known to the ,lord10 he either wished to indicate that the ,lord was not expected to seek and to bring it1 or he considered it inappropriate1 in ,chaldee to connect the divine perception with one of the lower animals4 ,however1 the various copies of the ,targum must be carefully examined with regard to this point1 and if you still find those passages the same as ,i quoted them1 ,i cannot explain what he meant4 ,,chapter ,,xlix ,the angels are likewise incorporeal2 they are intelligences without matter1 but they are nevertheless created beings1 and ,god created them1 as will be explained below4 ,in ,bereshith ,rabbah 7on ,gen4 iii4 #bd7 we read the following remark of our ,sages3 8,the angel is called #8the flame of the sword which turned every way' 7,gen4 iii4 #bd71 in accordance with the words1 #8,his ministers a flaming fire' 7,ps4 civ4 #d72 the attribute1 #8which turned every way' is added1 because angels are changeable in form2 they appear at one time as males1 at another as females2 now as spirits2 now as angels40 ,by this remark they clearly stated that angels are incorporeal1 and have no permanent bodily form independent of the mind of him who perceives them1 they exist entirely in prophetic vision1 and depend on the action of the imaginative power1 as will be explained when speaking on the true meaning of prophecy4 ,as to the words 8at another time as females10 which imply that the ,prophets in prophetical vision perceived angels also in the form of women1 they refer to the vision of ,zechariah 7v4 #i71 8,and1 behold1 there came out two women1 and the wind was in their wings40 ,you know very well how difficult it is for men to form a notion of anything immaterial1 and entirely devoid of corporeality1 except after considerable training3 it is especially difficult for those who do not distinguish between objects of the intellect and objects of the imagination1 and depend mostly on the mere imaginative power4 ,they believe that all imagined things exist or at least have the possibility of existing2 but that which cannot be imagined does not exist1 and cannot exist4 ,for persons of this class--and the majority of thinkers belong to it--cannot arrive at the true solution of any question1 or at the explanation of anything doubtful4 ,on account of this difficulty the prophetic books contain expressions which1 taken literally1 imply that angels are corporeal1 moving about1 endowed with human form1 receiving commands of ,god1 obeying ,his word and performing whatever ,he wishes1 according to ,his command4 ,all this only serves to lead to the belief that angels exist1 and are alive and perfect1 in the same way as we have explained in reference to ,god4 ,if the figurative representation of angels were limited to this1 their true essence would be believed to be the same as the essence of ,god1 since1 in reference to the ,creator expressions are likewise employed1 which literally imply that ,he is corporeal1 living1 moving and endowed with human form4 ,in order1 therefore1 to give to the mind of men the idea that the existence of angels is lower than the existence of ,god1 certain forms of lower animals were introduced in the description of angels4 ,it was thereby shown1 that the existence of ,god is more perfect than that of angels1 as much as man is more perfect than the lower animals4 ,nevertheless no organ of the brute creation was attributed to the angels except wings4 ,without wings the act of flying appears as impossible as that of walking without legs2 for these two modes of motion can only be imagined in connection with these organs4 ,the motion of flying has been chosen as a symbol to represent that angels possess life1 because it is the most perfect and most sublime movement of the brute creation4 ,men consider this motion a perfection to such an extent that they themselves wish to be able to fly1 in order to escape easily what is injurious1 and to obtain quickly what is useful1 though it be at a distance4 ,for this reason this motion has been attributed to the angels4 ,there is besides another reason4 ,the bird in its flight is sometimes visible1 sometimes withdrawn from our sight2 one moment near to us1 and in the next far off2 and these are exactly the circumstances which we must associate with the idea of angels1 as will be explained below4 ,this imaginary perfection1 the motion of flight1 being the exclusive property of the brute creation1 has never been attributed to ,god4 ,you must not be misled by the passage1 8,and he rode upon a cherub1 and he did fly0 7,ps4 xviii4 #aj71 for it is the cherub that did fly1 and the simile only serves to denote the rapid arrival of that which is referred to in that passage4 ,comp43 8,behold1 the ,lord rideth upon a swift cloud1 and shall come into ,egypt0 7,isa4 xix4 #a72 that is1 the punishment alluded to will come down quickly upon ,egypt4 ,nor should expressions like 8the face of an ox10 8the face of a lion10 8the face of an eagle10 8the sole of the foot of a calf10 found in the prophecies of ,ezekiel 7i4 #aj and #g7 mislead you2 for all these are explained in a different manner1 as you will learn later1 and besides1 the prophet only describes the animals 7ayyot74 ,the subject will be explained 7,,iii4 i471 though by mere hints1 as far as necessary1 for directing your attention to the true interpretation4 ,the motion of flying1 frequently mentioned in the ,bible1 necessitates1 according to our imagination1 the existence of wings2 wings are therefore given to the angels as symbols expressive of their existence1 not of their true essence4 ,you must also bear in mind that whenever a thing moves very quickly1 it is said to fly1 as that term implies great velocity of motion4 ,comp4 8,as the eagle flieth0 7,deut4 xxviii4 #di74 ,the eagle flies and moves with greater velocity than any other bird1 and therefore it is introduced in this simile4 ,furthermore1 the wings are the organs lit4 causes of flight2 hence the number of the wings of angels in the prophetic vision corresponds to the number of the causes which set a thing in motion1 but this does not belong to the theme of this chapter4 7,comp4 ,,ii4 iv4 and x47 ,,chapter ,l ,when reading my present treatise1 bear in mind that by 8faith0 we do not understand merely that which is uttered with the lips1 but also that which is apprehended by the soul1 the conviction that the object of belief is exactly as it is apprehended4 ,if1 as regards real or supposed truths1 you content yourself with giving utterance to them in words1 without apprehending them or believing in them1 especially if you do not seek real truth1 you have a very easy task as1 in fact1 you will find many ignorant people professing articles of faith without connecting any idea with them4 ,if1 however1 you have a desire to rise to a higher state1 viz41 that of reflection1 and truly to hold the conviction that ,god is ,one and possesses true unity1 without admitting plurality or divisibility in any sense whatever1 you must understand that ,god has no essential attribute in any form or in any sense whatever1 and that the rejection of corporeality implies the rejection of essential attributes4 ,those who believe that ,god is ,one1 and that ,he has many attributes1 declare the unity with their lips1 and assume plurality in their thoughts4 ,this is like the doctrine of the ,christians1 who say that ,he is one and ,he is three1 and that the three are one4 ,of the same character is the doctrine of those who say that ,god is ,one1 but that ,he has many attributes2 and that ,he with ,his attributes is ,one1 although they deny corporeality and affirm ,his most absolute freedom from matter2 as if our object were to seek forms of expression1 not subjects of belief4 ,for belief is only possible after the apprehension of a thing2 it consists in the conviction that the thing apprehended has its existence beyond the mind in reality exactly as it is conceived in the mind4 ,if in addition to this we are convinced that the thing cannot be different in any way from what we believe it to be1 and that no reasonable argument can be found for the rejection of the belief or for the admission of any deviation from it1 then the belief is true4 ,renounce desires and habits1 follow your reason1 and study what ,i am going to say in the chapters which follow on the rejection of the attributes2 you will then be fully convinced of what we have said2 you will be of those who truly conceive the ,unity of ,god1 not of those who utter it with their lips without thought1 like men of whom it has been said1 8,thou art near in their mouth1 and far from their reins0 7,jer4 xii4 #b74 ,it is right that a man should belong to that class of men who have a conception of truth and understand it1 though they do not speak of it4 ,thus the pious are advised and addressed1 8,commune with your own heart upon your bed and be still4 ,selah40 7,ps4 iv4 #e47 ,,chapter ,,li ,there are many things whose existence is manifest and obvious2 some of these are innate notions or objects of sensation1 others are nearly so2 and in fact they would require no proof if man had been left in his primitive state4 ,such are the existence of motion1 of man's free will1 of phases of production and destruction1 and of the natural properties perceived by the senses1 e4g41 the heat of fire1 the coldness of water1 and many other similar things4 ,false notions1 however1 may be spread either by a person labouring under error1 or by one who has some particular end in view1 and who establishes theories contrary to the real nature of things1 by denying the existence of things perceived by the senses1 or by affirming the existence of what does not exist4 ,philosophers are thus required to establish by proof things which are self-evident1 and to disprove the existence of things which only exist in man's imagination4 ,thus ,aristotle gives a proof for the existence of motion1 because it had been denied2 he disproves the reality of atoms1 because it had been asserted4 ,to the same class belongs the rejection of essential attributes in reference to ,god4 ,for it is a self-evident truth that the attribute is not inherent in the object to which it is ascribed1 but it is superadded to its essence1 and is consequently an accident2 if the attribute denoted the essence of the object1 it would be either mere tautology1 as if1 e4g41 one would say 8man is man10 or the explanation of a name1 as1 e4g41 8man is a speaking animal02 for the words 8speaking animal0 include the true essence of man1 and there is no third element besides life and speech in the definition of man2 when he1 therefore1 is described by the attributes of life and speech1 these are nothing but an explanation of the name 8man10 that is to say1 that the thing which is called man1 consists of life and speech4 ,it will now be clear that the attribute must be one of two things1 either the essence of the object described--in that case it is a mere explanation of a name1 and on that account we might admit the attribute in reference to ,god1 but we reject it from another cause as will be shown--or the attribute is something different from the object described1 some extraneous superadded element2 in that case the attribute would be an accident1 and he who merely rejects the appellation 8accidents0 in reference to the attributes of ,god1 does not thereby alter their character2 for everything superadded to the essence of an object joins it without forming part of its essential properties1 and that constitutes an accident4 ,add to this the logical consequence of admitting many attributes1 viz41 the existence of many eternal beings4 ,there cannot be any belief in the unity of ,god except by admitting that ,he is one simple substance1 without any composition or plurality of elements2 one from whatever side you view it1 and by whatever test you examine it2 not divisible into two parts in any way and by any cause1 nor capable of any form of plurality either objectively or subjectively1 as will be proved in this treatise4 ,some thinkers have gone so far as to say that the attributes of ,god are neither ,his essence nor anything extraneous to ,his essence4 ,this is like the assertion of some theorists1 that the ideals1 i4e41 the universalia1 are neither existing nor non-existent1 and like the views of others1 that the atom does not fill a definite place1 but keeps an atom of space occupied2 that man has no freedom of action at all1 but has acquirement4 ,such things are only said2 they exist only in words1 not in thought1 much less in reality4 ,but as you know1 and as all know who do not delude themselves1 these theories are preserved by a multitude of words1 by misleading similes sustained by declamation and invective1 and by numerous methods borrowed both from dialectics and sophistry4 ,if after uttering them and supporting them by such words1 a man were to examine for himself his own belief on this subject1 he would see nothing but confusion and stupidity in an endeavour to prove the existence of things which do not exist1 or to find a mean between two opposites that have no mean4 ,or is there a mean between existence and non-existence1 or between the identity and non-identity of two things8 ,but1 as we said1 to such absurdities men were forced by the great licence given to the imagination1 and by the fact that every existing material thing is necessarily imagined as a certain substance possessing several attributes2 for nothing has ever been found that consists of one simple substance without any attribute4 ,guided by such imaginations1 men thought that ,god was also composed of many different elements1 viz41 of ,his essence and of the attributes superadded to ,his essence4 ,following up this comparison1 some believed that ,god was corporeal1 and that ,he possessed attributes2 others1 abandoning this theory1 denied the corporeality1 but retained the attributes4 ,the adherence to the literal sense of the text of ,holy ,writ is the source of all this error1 as ,i shall show in some of the chapters devoted to this theme4 ,,chapter ,,lii ,every description of an object by an affirmative attribute1 which includes the assertion that an object is of a certain kind1 must be made in one of the following five ways3-- ,first4 ,the object is described by its definition1 as e4g41 man is described as a being that lives and has reason2 such a description1 containing the true essence of the object1 is1 as we have already shown1 nothing else but the explanation of a name4 ,all agree that this kind of description cannot be given of ,god2 for there are no previous causes to ,his existence1 by which ,he could be defined3 and on that account it is a well-known principle1 received by all the philosophers1 who are precise in their statements1 that no definition can be given of ,god4 ,secondly4 ,an object is described by part of its definition1 as when1 e4g41 man is described as a living being or as a rational being4 ,this kind of description includes the necessary connection of the two ideas2 for when we say that every man is rational we mean by it that every being which has the characteristics of man must also have reason4 ,all agree that this kind of description is inappropriate in reference to ,god2 for if we were to speak of a portion of ,his essence1 we should consider ,his essence to be a compound4 ,the inappropriateness of this kind of description in reference to ,god is the same as that of the preceding kind4 ,thirdly4 ,an object is described by something different from its true essence1 by something that does not complement or establish the essence of the object4 ,the description1 therefore1 relates to a quality2 but quality1 in its most general sense1 is an accident4 ,if ,god could be described in this way1 ,he would be the substratum of accidents3 a sufficient reason for rejecting the idea that ,he possesses quality1 since it diverges from the true conception of ,his essence4 ,it is surprising how those who admit the application of attributes to ,god can reject1 in reference to ,him1 comparison and qualification4 ,for when they say 8,he cannot be qualified10 they can only mean that ,he possesses no quality2 and yet every positive essential attribute of an object either constitutes its essence1--and in that case it is identical with the essence1--or it contains a quality of the object4 ,there are1 as you know1 four kinds of quality2 ,i will give you instances of attributes of each kind1 in order to show you that this class of attributes cannot possibly be applied to ,god4 7a7 ,a man is described by any of his intellectual or moral qualities1 or by any of the dispositions appertaining to him as an animate being1 when1 e4g41 we speak of a person who is a carpenter1 or who shrinks from sin1 or who is ill4 ,it makes no difference whether we say1 a carpenter1 or a sage1 or a physician2 by all these we represent certain physical dispositions2 nor does it make any difference whether we say 8sin-fearing0 or 8merciful40 ,every trade1 every profession1 and every settled habit of man are certain physical dispositions4 ,all this is clear to those who have occupied themselves with the study of ,logic4 7b7 ,a thing is described by some physical quality it possesses1 or by the absence of the same1 e4g41 as being soft or hard4 ,it makes no difference whether we say 8soft or hard10 or 8strong or weak02 in both cases we speak of physical conditions4 7c7 ,a man is described by his passive qualities1 or by his emotions2 we speak1 e4g41 of a person who is passionate1 irritable1 timid1 merciful1 without implying that these conditions have become permanent4 ,the description of a thing by its colour1 taste1 heat1 cold1 dryness1 and moisture1 belongs also to this class of attributes4 7d7 ,a thing is described by any of its qualities resulting from quantity as such2 we speak1 e4g41 of a thing which is long1 short1 curved1 straight1 etc4 ,consider all these and similar attributes1 and you will find that they cannot be employed in reference to ,god4 ,he is not a magnitude that any quality resulting from quantity as such could be possessed by ,him2 ,he is not affected by external influences1 and therefore does not possess any quality resulting from emotion4 ,he is not subject to physical conditions1 and therefore does not possess strength or similar qualities2 ,he is not an animate being1 that ,he should have a certain disposition of the soul1 or acquire certain properties1 as meekness1 modesty1 etc41 or be in a state to which animate beings as such are subject1 as1 e4g41 in that of health or of illness4 ,hence it follows that no attribute coming under the head of quality in its widest sense1 can be predicated of ,god4 ,consequently1 these three classes of attributes1 describing the essence of a thing1 or part of the essence1 or a quality of it1 are clearly inadmissible in reference to ,god1 for they imply composition1 which1 as we shall prove1 is out of question as regards the ,creator4 ,we say1 with regard to this latter point1 that ,he is absolutely ,one4 ,fourthly4 ,a thing is described by its relation to another thing1 e4g41 to time1 to space1 or to a different individual2 thus we say1 ,zaid1 the father of ,a1 or the partner of ,b1 or who dwells at a certain place1 or who lived at a stated time4 ,this kind of attribute does not necessarily imply plurality or change in the essence of the object described2 for the same ,zaid1 to whom reference is made1 is the partner of ,amru1 the father of ,becr1 the master of ,khalid1 the friend of ,zaid1 dwells in a certain house1 and was born in a certain year4 ,such relations are not the essence of a thing1 nor are they so intimately connected with it as qualities4 ,at first thought1 it would seem that they may be employed in reference to ,god1 but after careful and thorough consideration we are convinced of their inadmissibility4 ,it is quite clear that there is no relation between ,god and time or space4 ,for time is an accident connected with motion1 in so far as the latter includes the relation of anteriority and posteriority1 and is expressed by number1 as is explained in books devoted to this subject2 and since motion is one of the conditions to which only material bodies are subject1 and ,god is immaterial1 there can be no relation between ,him and time4 ,similarly there is no relation between ,him and space4 ,but what we have to investigate and to examine is this3 whether some real relation exists between ,god and any of the substances created by ,him1 by which ,he could be described8 ,that there is no correlation between ,him and any of ,his creatures can easily be seen2 for the characteristic of two objects correlative to each other is the equality of their reciprocal relation4 ,now1 as ,god has absolute existence1 while all other beings have only possible existence1 as we shall show1 there consequently cannot be any correlation between ,god and ,his creatures4 ,that a certain kind of relation does exist between them is by some considered possible1 but wrongly4 ,it is impossible to imagine a relation between intellect and sight1 although1 as we believe1 the same kind of existence is common to both2 how1 then1 could a relation be imagined between any creature and ,god1 who has nothing in common with any other being2 for even the term existence is applied to ,him and other things1 according to our opinion1 only by way of pure homonymity4 ,consequently there is no relation whatever between ,him and any other being4 ,for whenever we speak of a relation between two things1 these belong to the same kind2 but when two things belong to different kinds though of the same class1 there is no relation between them4 ,we therefore do not say1 this red compared with that green1 is more1 or less1 or equally intense1 although both belong to the same class--colour2 when they belong to two different classes1 there does not appear to exist any relation between them1 not even to a man of ordinary intellect1 although the two things belong to the same category2 e4g41 between a hundred cubits and the heat of pepper there is no relation1 the one being a quality1 the other a quantity2 or between wisdom and sweetness1 between meekness and bitterness1 although all these come under the head of quality in its more general signification4 ,how1 then1 could there be any relation between ,god and ,his creatures1 considering the important difference between them in respect to true existence1 the greatest of all differences4 ,besides1 if any relation existed between them1 ,god would be subject to the accident of relation2 and although that would not be an accident to the essence of ,god1 it would still be1 to some extent1 a kind of accident4 ,you would1 therefore1 be wrong if you applied affirmative attributes in their literal sense to ,god1 though they contained only relations2 these1 however1 are the most appropriate of all attributes1 to be employed1 in a less strict sense1 in reference to ,god1 because they do not imply that a plurality of eternal things exists1 or that any change takes place in the essence of ,god1 when those things change to which ,god is in relation4 ,fifthly4 ,a thing is described by its actions2 ,i do not mean by 8its actions0 the inherent capacity for a certain work1 as is expressed in 8carpenter10 8painter10 or 8smith0--for these belong to the class of qualities which have been mentioned above--but ,i mean the action the latter has performed--we speak1 e4g41 of ,zaid1 who made this door1 built that wall1 wove that garment4 ,this kind of attributes is separate from the essences of the thing described1 and1 therefore1 appropriate to be employed in describing the ,creator1 especially since we know that these different actions do not imply that different elements must be contained in the substance of the agent1 by which the different actions are produced1 as will be explained4 ,on the contrary1 all the actions of ,god emanate from ,his essence1 not from any extraneous thing superadded to ,his essence1 as we have shown4 ,what we have explained in the present chapter is this3 that ,god is one in every respect1 containing no plurality or any element superadded to ,his essence3 and that the many attributes of different significations applied in ,scripture to ,god1 originate in the multitude of ,his actions1 not in a plurality existing in ,his essence1 and are partly employed with the object of conveying to us some notion of ,his perfection1 in accordance with what we consider perfection1 as has been explained by us4 ,the possibility of one simple substance excluding plurality1 though accomplishing different actions1 will be illustrated by examples in the next chapter4 ,,chapter ,,liii ,the circumstance which caused men to believe in the existence of divine attributes is similar to that which caused others to believe in the corporeality of ,god4 ,the latter have not arrived at that belief by speculation1 but by following the literal sense of certain passages in the ,bible4 ,the same is the case with the attributes2 when in the books of the ,prophets and of the ,law1 ,god is described by attributes1 such passages are taken in their literal sense1 and it is then believed that ,god possesses attributes2 as if ,he were to be exalted above corporeality1 and not above things connected with corporeality1 i4e41 the accidents1 ,i mean psychical dispositions1 all of which are qualities and connected with corporeality4 ,every attribute which the followers of this doctrine assume to be essential to the ,creator1 you will find to express1 although they do not distinctly say so1 a quality similar to those which they are accustomed to notice in the bodies of all living beings4 ,we apply to all such passages the principle1 8,the ,torah speaketh in the language of man10 and say that the object of all these terms is to describe ,god as the most perfect being1 not as possessing those qualities which are only perfections in relation to created living beings4 ,many of the attributes express different acts of ,god1 but that difference does not necessitate any difference as regards ,him from whom the acts proceed4 ,this fact1 viz41 that from one agency different effects may result1 although that agency has not free will1 and much more so if it has free will1 ,i will illustrate by an instance taken from our own sphere4 ,fire melts certain things and makes others hard1 it boils and burns1 it bleaches and blackens4 ,if we described the fire as bleaching1 blackening1 burning1 boiling1 hardening and melting1 we should be correct1 and yet he who does not know the nature of fire1 would think that it included six different elements1 one by which it blackens1 another by which it bleaches1 a third by which it boils1 a fourth by which it consumes1 a fifth by which it melts1 a sixth by which it hardens things--actions which are opposed to one another1 and of which each has its peculiar property4 ,he1 however1 who knows the nature of fire1 will know that by virtue of one quality in action1 namely1 by heat1 it produces all these effects4 ,if this is the case with that which is done by nature1 how much more is it the case with regard to beings that act by free will1 and still more with regard to ,god1 who is above all description4 ,if we1 therefore1 perceive in ,god certain relations of various kinds--for wisdom in us is different from power1 and power from will--it does by no means follow that different elements are really contained in ,him1 that ,he contains one element by which ,he knows1 another by which ,he wills1 and another by which ,he exercises power1 as is1 in fact1 the signification of the attributes of ,god according to the ,attributists4 ,some of them express it plainly1 and enumerate the attributes as elements added to the essence4 ,others1 however1 are more reserved with regard to this matter1 but indicate their opinion1 though they do not express it in distinct and intelligible words4 ,thus1 e4g41 some of them say3 8,god is omnipotent by ,his essence1 wise by ,his essence1 living by ,his essence1 and endowed with a will by ,his essence40 7,i will mention to you1 as an instance1 man's reason1 which being one faculty and implying no plurality1 enables him to know many arts and sciences2 by the same faculty man is able to sow1 to do carpenter's work1 to weave1 to build1 to study1 to acquire a knowledge of geometry1 and to govern a state4 ,these various acts resulting from one simple faculty1 which involves no plurality1 are very numerous2 their number1 that is1 the number of the actions originating in man's reason1 is almost infinite4 ,it is therefore intelligible how in reference to ,god1 those different actions can be caused by one simple substance1 that does not include any plurality or any additional element4 ,the attributes found in ,holy ,scripture are either qualifications of ,his actions1 without any reference to ,his essence1 or indicate absolute perfection1 but do not imply that the essence of ,god is a compound of various elements47 ,for in not admitting the term 8compound10 they do not reject the idea of a compound when they admit a substance with attributes4 ,there still remains one difficulty which led them to that error1 and which ,i am now going to mention4 ,those who assert the existence of the attributes do not found their opinion on the variety of ,god's actions2 they say it is true that one substance can be the source of various effects1 but ,his essential attributes cannot be qualifications of ,his actions1 because it is impossible to imagine that the ,creator created ,himself4 ,they vary with regard to the so-called essential attributes--,i mean as regards their number--according to the text of the ,scripture which each of them follows4 ,i will enumerate those on which all agree1 and the knowledge of which they believe that they have derived from reasoning1 not from some words of the ,prophets1 namely1 the following four3--life1 power1 wisdom1 and will4 ,they believe that these are four different things1 and such perfections as cannot possibly be absent from the ,creator1 and that these cannot be qualifications of ,his actions4 ,this is their opinion4 ,but you must know that wisdom and life in reference to ,god are not different from each other2 for in every being that is conscious of itself1 life and wisdom are the same thing1 that is to say1 if by wisdom we understand the consciousness of self4 ,besides1 the subject and the object of that consciousness are undoubtedly identical as regards ,god2 for according to our opinion1 ,he is not composed of an element that apprehends1 and another that does not apprehend2 ,he is not like man1 who is a combination of a conscious soul and an unconscious body4 ,if1 therefore1 by 8wisdom0 we mean the faculty of self-consciousness1 wisdom and life are one and the same thing4 ,they1 however1 do not speak of wisdom in this sense1 but of ,his power to apprehend ,his creatures4 ,there is also no doubt that power and will do not exist in ,god in reference to ,himself2 for ,he cannot have power or will as regards ,himself2 we cannot imagine such a thing4 ,they take these attributes as different relations between ,god and ,his creatures1 signifying that ,he has power in creating things1 will in giving to things existence as ,he desires1 and wisdom in knowing what ,he created4 ,consequently1 these attributes do not refer to the essence of ,god1 but express relations between ,him and ,his creatures4 ,therefore we1 who truly believe in the ,unity of ,god1 declare1 that as we do not believe that some element is included in ,his essence by which ,he created the heavens1 another by which ,he created the four elements1 a third by which ,he created the ideals1 in the same way we reject the idea that ,his essence contains an element by which ,he has power1 another element by which ,he has will1 and a third by which ,he has a knowledge of ,his creatures4 ,on the contrary1 ,he is a simple essence1 without any additional element whatever2 ,he created the universe1 and knows it1 but not by any extraneous force4 ,there is no difference whether these various attributes refer to ,his actions or to relations between ,him and ,his works2 in fact1 these relations1 as we have also shown1 exist only in the thoughts of men4 ,this is what we must believe concerning the attributes occurring in the books of the ,prophets2 some may also be taken as expressive of the perfection of ,god by way of comparison with what we consider as perfections in us1 as we shall explain4 ,,chapter ,,liv ,the wisest man1 our ,teacher ,moses1 asked two things of ,god1 and received a reply respecting both4 ,the one thing he asked was1 that ,god should let him know ,his true essence2 the other1 which in fact he asked first1 that ,god should let him know ,his attributes4 ,in answer to both these petitions ,god promised that ,he would let him know all ,his attributes1 and that these were nothing but ,his actions4 ,he also told him that ,his true essence could not be perceived1 and pointed out a method by which he could obtain the utmost knowledge of ,god possible for man to acquire4 ,the knowledge obtained by ,moses has not been possessed by any human being before him or after him4 ,his petition to know the attributes of ,god is contained in the following words3 8,show me now thy way1 that ,i may know thee1 that ,i may find grace in thy sight0 7,exod4 xxxiii4 #ac74 ,consider how many excellent ideas found expression in the words1 8,show me thy way1 that ,i may know thee40 ,we learn from them that ,god is known by ,his attributes1 for ,moses believed that he knew ,him1 when he was shown the way of ,god4 ,the words 8,that ,i may find grace in thy sight10 imply that he who knows ,god finds grace in ,his eyes4 ,not only is he acceptable and welcome to ,god who fasts and prays1 but everyone who knows ,him4 ,he who has no knowledge of ,god is the object of ,his wrath and displeasure4 ,the pleasure and the displeasure of ,god1 the approach to ,him and the withdrawal from ,him are proportional to the amount of man's knowledge or ignorance concerning the ,creator4 ,we have already gone too far away from our subject1 let us now return to it4 ,moses prayed to ,god to grant him knowledge of ,his attributes1 and also pardon for ,his people2 when the latter had been granted1 he continued to pray for the knowledge of ,god's essence in the words1 8,show me thy glory0 7ib4 #ah71 and then received1 respecting his first request1 8,show me thy way10 the following favourable reply1 8,i will make all my goodness to pass before thee0 7ib4 #ai72 as regards the second request1 however1 he was told1 8,thou canst not see my face0 7ib4 #bj74 ,the words 8all my goodness0 imply that ,god promised to show him the whole creation1 concerning which it has been stated1 8,and ,god saw everything that he had made1 and1 behold1 it was very good0 7,gen4 i4 #ca72 when ,i say 8to show him the whole creation10 ,i mean to imply that ,god promised to make him comprehend the nature of all things1 their relation to each other1 and the way they are governed by ,god both in reference to the universe as a whole and to each creature in particular4 ,this knowledge is referred to when we are told of ,moses1 8he is firmly established in all mine house0 7,num4 xii4 #g72 that is1 8his knowledge of all the creatures in ,my universe is correct and firmly established02 for false opinions are not firmly established4 ,consequently the knowledge of the works of ,god is the knowledge of ,his attributes1 by which ,he can be known4 ,the fact that ,god promised ,moses to give him a knowledge of ,his works1 may be inferred from the circumstance that ,god taught him such attributes as refer exclusively to ,his works1 viz41 8merciful and gracious1 long-suffering and abundant in goodness10 etc41 7,exod4 xxxiv4 #f74 ,it is therefore clear that the ways which ,moses wished to know1 and which ,god taught him1 are the actions emanating from ,god4 ,our ,sages call them middot 7qualities71 and speak of the thirteen middoth of ,god 7,talm4 ,b4 ,rosh ha-shanah1 p4 #ag;b72 they used the term also in reference to man2 comp4 8there are four different middoth 7characters7 among those who go to the house of learning02 8,there are four different middoth 7characters7 among those who give charity0 7,mishnah ,abot1 v4 #ac1 #ad74 ,they do not mean to say that ,god really possesses middot 7qualities71 but that ,he performs actions similar to such of our actions as originate in certain qualities1 i4e41 in certain psychical dispositions2 not that ,god has really such dispositions4 ,although ,moses was shown 8all ,his goodness10 i4e41 all ,his works1 only the thirteen middot are mentioned1 because they include those acts of ,god which refer to the creation and the government of mankind1 and to know these acts was the principal object of the prayer of ,moses4 ,this is shown by the conclusion of his prayer1 8that ,i may know thee1 that ,i may find grace in thy sight1 and consider that this nation is thy people0 7,exod4 xxxiii4 #af71 that is to say1 the people whom ,i have to rule by certain acts in the performance of which ,i must be guided by ,thy own acts in governing them4 ,we have thus shown that 8the ways0 used in the ,bible1 and 8middot0 used in the ,mishnah1 are identical1 denoting the acts emanating from ,god in reference to the universe4 ,whenever any one of ,his actions is perceived by us1 we ascribe to ,god that emotion which is the source of the act when performed by ourselves1 and call ,him by an epithet which is formed from the verb expressing that emotion4 ,we see1 e4g41 how well ,he provides for the life of the embryo of living beings2 how ,he endows with certain faculties both the embryo itself and those who have to rear it after its birth1 in order that it may be protected from death and destruction1 guarded against all harm1 and assisted in the performance of all that is required for its development4 ,similar acts1 when performed by us1 are due to a certain emotion and tenderness called mercy and pity4 ,god is1 therefore1 said to be merciful2 e4g41 8,like as a father is merciful to his children1 so the ,lord is merciful to them that fear ,him0 7,ps4 ciii4 #ac72 8,and ,i will spare them1 as a man spareth 7yaamol7 his own son that serveth him0 7,mal4 iii4 #ag74 ,such instances do not imply that ,god is influenced by a feeling of mercy1 but that acts similar to those which a father performs for his son1 out of pity1 mercy and real affection1 emanate from ,god solely for the benefit of ,his pious men1 and are by no means the result of any impression or change--produced in ,god4--,when we give something to a person who has no claim upon us1 we perform an act of grace2 e4g41 8,grant them graciously unto us0 7,judges xxi4 #bb74 ,the same term is used in reference to ,god1 e4g4 8which ,god hath graciously given0 7,gen4 xxxiii4 #e72 8,because ,god hath dealt graciously with me0 7ib4 #aa74 ,instances of this kind are numerous4 ,god creates and guides beings who have no claim upon ,him to be created and guided by ,him2 ,he is therefore called gracious 7annun74--,his actions towards mankind also include great calamities1 which overtake individuals and bring death to them1 or affect whole families and even entire regions1 spread death1 destroy generation after generation1 and spare nothing whatsoever4 ,hence there occur inundations1 earthquakes1 destructive storms1 expeditions of one nation against the other for the sake of destroying it with the sword and blotting out its memory1 and many other evils of the same kind4 ,whenever such evils are caused by us to any person1 they originate in great anger1 violent jealousy1 or a desire for revenge4 ,god is therefore called1 because of these acts1 8jealous10 8revengeful10 8wrathful10 and 8keeping anger0 7,nah4 i4 #b72 that is to say1 ,he performs acts similar to those which1 when performed by us1 originate in certain psychical dispositions1 in jealousy1 desire for retaliation1 revenge1 or anger2 they are in accordance with the guilt of those who are to be punished1 and not the result of any emotion2 for ,he is above all defect6 ,the same is the case with all divine acts2 though resembling those acts which emanate from our passions and psychical dispositions1 they are not due to anything superadded to ,his essence4--,the governor of a country1 if he is a prophet1 should conform to these attributes4 ,acts of punishment must be performed by him moderately and in accordance with justice1 not merely as an outlet of his passion4 ,he must not let loose his anger1 nor allow his passion to overcome him2 for all passions are bad1 and they must be guarded against as far as it lies in man's power4 ,at times and towards some persons he must be merciful and gracious1 not only from motives of mercy and compassion1 but according to their merits2 at other times and towards other persons he must evince anger1 revenge1 and wrath in proportion to their guilt1 but not from motives of passion4 ,he must be able to condemn a person to death by fire without anger1 passion1 or loathing against him1 and must exclusively be guided by what he perceives of the guilt of the person1 and by a sense of the great benefit which a large number will derive from such a sentence4 ,you have1 no doubt1 noticed in the ,torah how the commandment to annihilate the seven nations1 and 8to save alive nothing that breatheth0 7,deut4 xx4 #af7 is followed immediately by the words1 8,that they teach you not to do after all their abominations1 which they have done unto their gods2 so should you sin against the ,lord your ,god0 7ib4 #ah72 that is to say1 you shall not think that this commandment implies an act of cruelty or of retaliation2 it is an act demanded by the tendency of man to remove everything that might turn him away from the right path1 and to clear away all obstacles in the road to perfection1 that is1 to the knowledge of ,god4 ,nevertheless1 acts of mercy1 pardon1 pity1 and grace should more frequently be performed by the governor of a country than acts of punishment2 seeing that all the thirteen middoth of ,god are attributes of mercy with only one exception1 namely1 8visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children0 7,exod4 xxxiv4 #g72 for the meaning of the preceding attribute 7in the original ve-nakkeh lo yenakkeh7 is 8and he will not utterly destroy02 7and not 8,he will by no means clear the guilty072 comp4 8,and she will be utterly destroyed 7ve-nikketah71 she shall sit upon the ground0 7,isa4 iii4 #bf74 ,when it is said that ,god is visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children1 this refers exclusively to the sin of idolatry1 and to no other sin4 ,that this is the case may be inferred from what is said in the ten commandments1 8upon the third and fourth generation of my enemies0 7,exod4 xx4 #e71 none except idolaters being called 8enemy02 comp4 also 8every abomination to the ,lord1 which he hateth0 7,deut4 xii4 #ca74 ,it was1 however1 considered sufficient to extend the punishment to the fourth generation1 because the fourth generation is the utmost a man can see of his posterity2 and when1 therefore1 the idolaters of a place are destroyed1 the old man worshipping idols is killed1 his son1 his grandson1 and his great-grandson1 that is1 the fourth generation4 ,by the mention of this attribute we are1 as it were1 told that ,his commandments1 undoubtedly in harmony with ,his acts1 include the death even of the little children of idolaters because of the sin of their fathers and grandfathers4 ,this principle we find frequently applied in the ,law1 as1 e4g41 we read concerning the city that has been led astray to idolatry1 8destroy it utterly1 and all that is therein0 7,deut4 xiii4 #ae74 ,all this has been ordained in order that every vestige of that which would lead to great injury should be blotted out1 as we have explained4 ,we have gone too far away from the subject of this chapter1 but we have shown why it has been considered sufficient to mention only these 7thirteen7 out of all ,his acts2 namely1 because they are required for the good government of a country2 for the chief aim of man should be to make himself1 as far as possible1 similar to ,god3 that is to say1 to make his acts similar to the acts of ,god1 or as our ,sages expressed it in explaining the verse1 8,ye shall be holy0 7,lev4 xxi4 #b73 8,he is gracious1 so be you also gracious2 ,he is merciful1 so be you also merciful40 ,the principal object of this chapter was to show that all attributes ascribed to ,god are attributes of ,his acts1 and do not imply that ,god has any qualities4 ,,chapter ,,lv ,we have already1 on several occasions1 shown in this treatise that everything that implies corporeality or passiveness1 is to be negatived in reference to ,god1 for all passiveness implies change2 and the agent producing that state is undoubtedly different from the object affected by it2 and if ,god could be affected in any way whatever1 another being beside ,him would act on ,him and cause change in ,him4 ,all kinds of non-existence must likewise be negatived in reference to ,him2 no perfection whatever can therefore be imagined to be at one time absent from ,him1 and at another present in ,him3 for if this were the case1 ,he would at a certain time only be potentially perfect4 ,potentiality always implies non-existence1 and when anything has to pass from potentiality into reality1 another thing that exists in reality is required to effect that transition4 ,hence it follows that all perfections must really exist in ,god1 and none of them must in any way be a mere potentiality4 ,another thing likewise to be denied in reference to ,god1 is similarity to any existing being4 ,this has been generally accepted1 and is also mentioned in the books of the ,prophets2 e4g41 8,to whom1 then1 will you liken me80 7,isa4 xl4 #be72 8,to whom1 then1 will you liken ,god80 7ib4 #ah72 8,there is none like unto ,thee0 7,jer4 x4 #f74 ,instances of this kind are frequent4 ,in short1 it is necessary to demonstrate by proof that nothing can be predicated of ,god that implies any of the following four things3 corporeality1 emotion or change1 non-existence1--e4g41 that something would be potential at one time and real at another--and similarity with any of ,his creatures4 ,in this respect our knowledge of ,god is aided by the study of ,natural ,science4 ,for he who is ignorant of the latter cannot understand the defect implied in emotions1 the difference between potentiality and reality1 the non-existence implied in all potentiality1 the inferiority of a thing that exists in potenti to that which moves in order to cause its transition from potentiality into reality1 and the inferiority of that which moves for this purpose compared with its condition when the transition has been effected4 ,he who knows these things1 but without their proofs1 does not know the details which logically result from these general propositions2 and therefore he cannot prove that ,god exists1 or that the four things mentioned above are inadmissible in reference to ,god4 ,having premised these remarks1 ,i shall explain in the next chapter the error of those who believe that ,god has essential attributes2 those who have some knowledge of ,logic and ,natural ,science will understand it4 ,,chapter ,,lvi ,similarity is based on a certain relation between two things2 if between two things no relation can be found1 there can be no similarity between them1 and there is no relation between two things that have no similarity to each other2 e4g41 we do not say this heat is similar to that colour1 or this voice is similar to that sweetness4 ,this is self-evident4 ,since the existence of a relation between ,god and man1 or between ,him and other beings has been denied1 similarity must likewise be denied4 ,you must know that two things of the same kind--i4e41 whose essential properties are the same1 and which are distinguished from each other by greatness and smallness1 strength and weakness1 etc4--are necessarily similar1 though different in this one way2 e4g41 a grain of mustard and the sphere of the fixed stars are similar as regards the three dimensions1 although the one is exceedingly great1 the other exceedingly small1 the property of having three dimensions is the same in both2 or the heat of wax melted by the sun and the heat of the element of fire1 are similar as regards heat2 although the heat is exceedingly great in the one case1 and exceedingly small in the other1 the existence of that quality 7heat7 is the same in both4 ,thus those who believe in the presence of essential attributes in ,god1 viz41 ,existence1 ,life1 ,power1 ,wisdom1 and ,will1 should know that these attributes1 when applied to ,god1 have not the same meaning as when applied to us1 and that the difference does not only consist in magnitude1 or in the degree of perfection1 stability1 and durability4 ,it cannot be said1 as they practically believe1 that ,his existence is only more stable1 ,his life more permanent1 ,his power greater1 ,his wisdom more perfect1 and ,his will more general than ours1 and that the same definition applies to both4 ,this is in no way admissible1 for the expression 8more than0 is used in comparing two things as regards a certain attribute predicated of both of them in exactly the same sense1 and consequently implies similarity between ,god and ,his creatures4 ,when they ascribe to ,god essential attributes1 these so-called essential attributes should not have any similarity to the attributes of other things1 and should according to their own opinion not be included in one of the same definition1 just as there is no similarity between the essence of ,god and that of other beings4 ,they do not follow this principle1 for they hold that one definition may include them1 and that1 nevertheless1 there is no similarity between them4 ,those who are familiar with the meaning of similarity will certainly understand that the term existence1 when applied to ,god and to other beings1 is perfectly homonymous4 ,in like manner1 the terms ,wisdom1 ,power1 ,will1 and ,life are applied to ,god and to other beings by way of perfect homonymity1 admitting of no comparison whatever4 ,nor must you think that these attributes are employed as hybrid terms2 for hybrid terms are such as are applied to two things which have a similarity to each other in respect to a certain property which is in both of them an accident1 not an essential1 constituent element4 ,the attributes of ,god1 however1 are not considered as accidental by any intelligent person1 while all attributes applied to man are accidents1 according to the ,mutakallemim4 ,i am therefore at a loss to see how they can find any similarity between the attributes of ,god and those of man2 how their definitions can be identical1 and their significations the same6 ,this is a decisive proof that there is1 in no way or sense1 anything common to the attributes predicated of ,god1 and those used in reference to ourselves2 they have only the same names1 and nothing else is common to them4 ,such being the case1 it is not proper to believe1 on account of the use of the same attributes1 that there is in ,god something additional to ,his essence1 in the same way as attributes are joined to our essence4 ,this is most important for those who understand it4 ,keep it in memory1 and study it thoroughly1 in order to be well prepared for that which ,i am going to explain to you4 ,,chapter ,,lvii ,on attributes2 remarks more recondite than the preceding4 ,it is known that existence is an accident appertaining to all things1 and therefore an element superadded to their essence4 ,this must evidently be the case as regards everything the existence of which is due to some cause2 its existence is an element superadded to its essence4 ,but as regards a being whose existence is not due to any cause--,god alone is that being1 for ,his existence1 as we have said1 is absolute--existence and essence are perfectly identical2 ,he is not a substance to which existence is joined as an accident1 as an additional element4 ,his existence is always absolute1 and has never been a new element or an accident in ,him4 ,consequently ,god exists without possessing the attribute of existence4 ,similarly ,he lives1 without possessing the attribute of life2 knows1 without possessing the attribute of knowledge2 is omnipotent without possessing the attribute of omnipotence2 is wise1 without possessing the attribute of wisdom2 all this reduces itself to one and the same entity2 there is no plurality in ,him1 as will be shown4 ,it is further necessary to consider that unity and plurality are accidents supervening to an object according as it consists of many elements or of one4 ,this is fully explained in the book called ,metaphysics4 ,in the same way as number is not the substance of the things numbered1 so is unity not the substance of the thing which has the attribute of unity1 for unity and plurality are accidents belonging to the category of discrete quantity1 and supervening to such objects as are capable of receiving them4 ,to that being1 however1 which has truly simple1 absolute existence1 and in which composition is inconceivable1 the accident of unity is as inadmissible as the accident of plurality2 that is to say1 ,god's unity is not an element superadded1 but ,he is ,one without possessing the attribute of unity4 ,the investigation of this subject1 which is almost too subtle for our understanding1 must not be based on current expressions employed in describing it1 for these are the great source of error4 ,it would be extremely difficult for us to find1 in any language whatsoever1 words adequate to this subject1 and we can only employ inadequate language4 ,in our endeavour to show that ,god does not include a plurality1 we can only say 8,he is one10 although 8one0 and 8many0 are both terms which serve to distinguish quantity4 ,we therefore make the subject clearer1 and show to the understanding the way of truth by saying ,he is one but does not possess the attribute of unity4 ,the same is the case when we say ,god is the ,first 7,kadmon71 to express that ,he has not been created2 the term 8,first0 is decidedly inaccurate1 for it can in its true sense only be applied to a being that is subject to the relation of time2 the latter1 however1 is an accident to motion which again is connected with a body4 ,besides the attribute 8first0 is a relative term1 being in regard to time the same as the terms 8long0 and 8short0 are in regard to a line4 ,both expressions1 8first0 and 8created10 are equally inadmissible in reference to any being to which the attribute of time is not applicable1 just as we do not say 8crooked0 or 8straight0 in reference to taste1 8salted0 or 8insipid0 in reference to the voice4 ,these subjects are not unknown to those who have accustomed themselves to seek a true understanding of the things1 and to establish their properties in accordance with the abstract notions which the mind has formed of them1 and who are not misled by the inaccuracy of the words employed4 ,all attributes1 such as 8the ,first10 8the ,last10 occurring in the ,scriptures in reference to ,god1 are as metaphorical as the expressions 8ear0 and 8eye40 ,they simply signify that ,god is not subject to any change or innovation whatever2 they do not imply that ,god can be described by time1 or that there is any comparison between ,him and any other being as regards time1 and that ,he is called on that account 8the first0 and 8the last40 ,in short1 all similar expressions are borrowed from the language commonly used among the people4 ,in the same way we use 8,one0 in reference to ,god1 to express that there is nothing similar to ,him1 but we do not mean to say that an attribute of unity is added to ,his essence4 ,,chapter ,,lviii ,this chapter is even more recondite than the preceding4 ,know that the negative attributes of ,god are the true attributes3 they do not include any incorrect notions or any deficiency whatever in reference to ,god1 while positive attributes imply polytheism1 and are inadequate1 as we have already shown4 ,it is now necessary to explain how negative expressions can in a certain sense be employed as attributes1 and how they are distinguished from positive attributes4 ,then ,i shall show that we cannot describe the ,creator by any means except by negative attributes4 ,an attribute does not exclusively belong to the one object to which it is related2 while qualifying one thing1 it can also be employed to qualify other things1 and is in that case not peculiar to that one thing4 ,e4g41 if you see an object from a distance1 and on enquiring what it is1 are told that it is a living being1 you have certainly learnt an attribute of the object seen1 and although that attribute does not exclusively belong to the object perceived1 it expresses that the object is not a plant or a mineral4 ,again1 if a man is in a certain house1 and you know that something is in the house1 but not exactly what1 you ask what is in that house1 and you are told1 not a plant nor a mineral4 ,you have thereby obtained some special knowledge of the thing2 you have learnt that it is a living being1 although you do not yet know what kind of a living being it is4 ,the negative attributes have this in common with the positive1 that they necessarily circumscribe the object to some extent1 although such circumscription consists only in the exclusion of what otherwise would not be excluded4 ,in the following point1 however1 the negative attributes are distinguished from the positive4 ,the positive attributes1 although not peculiar to one thing1 describe a portion of what we desire to know1 either some part of its essence or some of its accidents2 the negative attributes1 on the other hand1 do not1 as regards the essence of the thing which we desire to know1 in any way tell us what it is1 except it be indirectly1 as has been shown in the instance given by us4 ,after this introduction1 ,i would observe that1--as has already been shown--,god's existence is absolute1 that it includes no composition1 as will be proved1 and that we comprehend only the fact that ,he exists1 not ,his essence4 ,consequently it is a false assumption to hold that ,he has any positive attribute2 for ,he does not possess existence in addition to ,his essence2 it therefore cannot be said that the one may be described as an attribute of the other2 much less has ,he in addition to ,his existence a compound essence1 consisting of two constituent elements to which the attribute could refer2 still less has ,he accidents1 which could be described by an attribute4 ,hence it is clear that ,he has no positive attribute whatever4 ,the negative attributes1 however1 are those which are necessary to direct the mind to the truths which we must believe concerning ,god2 for1 on the one hand1 they do not imply any plurality1 and1 on the other1 they convey to man the highest possible knowledge of ,god2 e4g41 it has been established by proof that some being must exist besides those things which can be perceived by the senses1 or apprehended by the mind2 when we say of this being1 that it exists1 we mean that its non-existence is impossible4 ,we then perceive that such a being is not1 for instance1 like the four elements1 which are inanimate1 and we therefore say that it is living1 expressing thereby that it is not dead4 ,we call such a being incorporeal1 because we notice that it is unlike the heavens1 which are living1 but material4 ,seeing that it is also different from the intellect1 which1 though incorporeal and living1 owes its existence to some cause1 we say it is the first1 expressing thereby that its existence is not due to any cause4 ,we further notice1 that the existence1 that is the essence1 of this being is not limited to its own existence2 many existences emanate from it1 and its influence is not like that of the fire in producing heat1 or that of the sun in sending forth light1 but consists in constantly giving them stability and order by well-established rule1 as we shall show3 we say1 on that account1 it has power1 wisdom1 and will1 i4e41 it is not feeble or ignorant1 or hasty1 and does not abandon its creatures2 when we say that it is not feeble1 we mean that its existence is capable of producing the existence of many other things2 by saying that it is not ignorant1 we mean 8it perceives0 or 8it lives10--for everything that perceives is living--by saying 8it is not hasty1 and does not abandon its creatures10 we mean that all these creatures preserve a certain order and arrangement2 they are not left to themselves2 they are not produced aimlessly1 but whatever condition they receive from that being is given with design and intention4 ,we thus learn that there is no other being like unto ,god1 and we say that ,he is ,one1 i4e41 there are not more ,gods than one4 ,it has thus been shown that every attribute predicated of ,god either denotes the quality of an action1 or--when the attribute is intended to convey some idea of the ,divine ,being itself1 and not of ,his actions--the negation of the opposite4 ,even these negative attributes must not be formed and applied to ,god1 except in the way in which1 as you know1 sometimes an attribute is negatived in reference to a thing1 although that attribute can naturally never be applied to it in the same sense1 as1 e4g41 we say1 8,this wall does not see40 ,those who read the present work are aware that1 notwithstanding all the efforts of the mind1 we can obtain no knowledge of the essence of the heavens--a revolving substance which has been measured by us in spans and cubits1 and examined even as regards the proportions of the several spheres to each other and respecting most of their motions--although we know that they must consist of matter and form2 but the matter not being the same as sublunary matter1 we can only describe the heavens in terms expressing negative properties1 but not in terms denoting positive qualities4 ,thus we say that the heavens are not light1 not heavy1 not passive and therefore not subject to impressions1 and that they do not possess the sensations of taste and smell2 or we use similar negative attributes4 ,all this we do1 because we do not know their substance4 ,what1 then1 can be the result of our efforts1 when we try to obtain a knowledge of a ,being that is free from substance1 that is most simple1 whose existence is absolute1 and not due to any cause1 to whose perfect essence nothing can be superadded1 and whose perfection consists1 as we have shown1 in the absence of all defects4 ,all we understand is the fact that ,he exists1 that ,he is a ,being to whom none of ,his creatures is similar1 who has nothing in common with them1 who does not include plurality1 who is never too feeble to produce other beings1 and whose relation to the universe is that of a steersman to a boat2 and even this is not a real relation1 a real simile1 but serves only to convey to us the idea that ,god rules the universe2 that is1 that ,he gives it duration1 and preserves its necessary arrangement4 ,this subject will be treated more fully4 ,praised be ,he6 ,in the contemplation of ,his essence1 our comprehension and knowledge prove insufficient2 in the examination of ,his works1 how they necessarily result from ,his will1 our knowledge proves to be ignorance1 and in the endeavour to extol ,him in words1 all our efforts in speech are mere weakness and failure6 ,,chapter ,,lix ,the following question might perhaps be asked3 ,since there is no possibility of obtaining a knowledge of the true essence of ,god1 and since it has also been proved that the only thing that man can apprehend of ,him is the fact that ,he exists1 and that all positive attributes are inadmissible1 as has been shown2 what is the difference among those who have obtained a knowledge of ,god8 ,must not the knowledge obtained by our teacher ,moses1 and by ,solomon1 be the same as that obtained by any one of the lowest class of philosophers1 since there can be no addition to this knowledge8 ,but1 on the other hand1 it is generally accepted among theologians and also among philosophers1 that there can be a great difference between two persons as regards the knowledge of ,god obtained by them4 ,know that this is really the case1 that those who have obtained a knowledge of ,god differ greatly from each other2 for in the same way as by each additional attribute an object is more specified1 and is brought nearer to the true apprehension of the observer1 so by each additional negative attribute you advance toward the knowledge of ,god1 and you are nearer to it than he who does not negative1 in reference to ,god1 those qualities which you are convinced by proof must be negatived4 ,there may thus be a man who after having earnestly devoted many years to the pursuit of one science1 and to the true understanding of its principles1 till he is fully convinced of its truths1 has obtained as the sole result of this study the conviction that a certain quality must be negatived in reference to ,god1 and the capacity of demonstrating that it is impossible to apply it to ,him4 ,superficial thinkers will have no proof for this1 will doubtfully ask1 ,is that thing existing in the ,creator1 or not8 ,and those who are deprived of sight will positively ascribe it to ,god1 although it has been clearly shown that ,he does not possess it4 ,e4g41 while ,i show that ,god is incorporeal1 another doubts and is not certain whether ,he is corporeal or incorporeal2 others even positively declare that ,he is corporeal1 and appear before the ,lord with that belief4 ,now see how great the difference is between these three men2 the first is undoubtedly nearest to the ,almighty2 the second is remote1 and the third still more distant from ,him4 ,if there be a fourth person who holds himself convinced by proof that emotions are impossible in ,god1 while the first who rejects the corporeality1 is not convinced of that impossibility1 that fourth person is undoubtedly nearer the knowledge of ,god than the first1 and so on1 so that a person who1 convinced by proof1 negatives a number of things in reference to ,god1 which according to our belief may possibly be in ,him or emanate from ,him1 is undoubtedly a more perfect man than we are1 and would surpass us still more if we positively believed these things to be properties of ,god4 ,it will now be clear to you1 that every time you establish by proof the negation of a thing in reference to ,god1 you become more perfect1 while with every additional positive assertion you follow your imagination and recede from the true knowledge of ,god4 ,only by such ways must we approach the knowledge of ,god1 and by such researches and studies as would show us the inapplicability of what is inadmissible as regards the ,creator1 not by such methods as would prove the necessity of ascribing to ,him anything extraneous to ,his essence1 or asserting that ,he has a certain perfection1 when we find it to be a perfection in relation to us4 ,the perfections are all to some extent acquired properties1 and a property which must be acquired does not exist in everything capable of making such acquisition4 ,you must bear in mind1 that by affirming anything of ,god1 you are removed from ,him in two respects2 first1 whatever you affirm1 is only a perfection in relation to us2 secondly1 ,he does not possess anything superadded to this essence2 ,his essence includes all ,his perfections1 as we have shown4 ,since it is a well-known fact that even that knowledge of ,god which is accessible to man cannot be attained except by negations1 and that negations do not convey a true idea of the being to which they refer1 all people1 both of past and present generations1 declared that ,god cannot be the object of human comprehension1 that none but ,himself comprehends what ,he is1 and that our knowledge consists in knowing that we are unable truly to comprehend ,him4 ,all philosophers say1 8,he has overpowered us by ,his grace1 and is invisible to us through the intensity of ,his light10 like the sun which cannot be perceived by eyes which are too weak to bear its rays4 ,much more has been said on this topic1 but it is useless to repeat it here4 ,the idea is best expressed in the book of ,psalms1 8,silence is praise to ,thee0 7lxv4 #b74 ,it is a very expressive remark on this subject2 for whatever we utter with the intention of extolling and of praising ,him1 contains something that cannot be applied to ,god1 and includes derogatory expressions2 it is therefore more becoming to be silent1 and to be content with intellectual reflection1 as has been recommended by men of the highest culture1 in the words 8,commune with your own heart upon your bed1 and be still0 7,ps4 iv4 #d74 ,you must surely know the following celebrated passage in the ,talmud--would that all passages in the ,talmud were like that6--although it is known to you1 ,i quote it literally1 as ,i wish to point out to you the ideas contained in it3 8,a certain person1 reading prayers in the presence of ,rabbi aninah1 said1 #8,god1 the great1 the valiant and the tremendous1 the powerful1 the strong1 and the mighty4'--,the rabbi said to him1 ,have you finished all the praises of your ,master8 ,the three epithets1 #8,god1 the great1 the valiant and the tremendous1' we should not have applied to ,god1 had ,moses not mentioned them in the ,law1 and had not the men of the ,great ,synagogue come forward subsequently and established their use in the prayer2 and you say all this6 ,let this be illustrated by a parable4 ,there was once an earthly king1 possessing millions of gold coin2 he was praised for owning millions of silver coin2 was this not really dispraise to him80 ,thus far the opinion of the pious rabbi4 ,consider1 first1 how repulsive and annoying the accumulation of all these positive attributes was to him2 next1 how he showed that1 if we had only to follow our reason1 we should never have composed these prayers1 and we should not have uttered any of them4 ,it has1 however1 become necessary to address men in words that should leave some idea in their minds1 and1 in accordance with the saying of our ,sages1 8,the ,torah speaks in the language of men10 the ,creator has been described to us in terms of our own perfections2 but we should not on that account have uttered any other than the three above-mentioned attributes1 and we should not have used them as names of ,god except when meeting with them in reading the ,law4 ,subsequently1 the men of the ,great ,synagogue1 who were prophets1 introduced these expressions also into the prayer1 but we should not on that account use in our prayers any other attributes of ,god4 ,the principal lesson to be derived from this passage is that there are two reasons for our employing those phrases in our prayers3 first1 they occur in the ,pentateuch2 secondly1 the ,prophets introduced them into the prayer4 ,were it not for the first reason1 we should never have uttered them2 and were it not for the second reason1 we should not have copied them from the ,pentateuch to recite them in our prayers2 how then could we approve of the use of those numerous attributes6 ,you also learn from this that we ought not to mention and employ in our prayers all the attributes we find applied to ,god in the books of the ,prophets2 for he does not say1 8,were it not that ,moses1 our ,teacher1 said them1 we should not have been able to use them02 but he adds another condition--8and had not the men of the ,great ,synagogue come forward and established their use in the prayer10 because only for that reason are we allowed to use them in our prayers4 ,we cannot approve of what those foolish persons do who are extravagant in praise1 fluent and prolix in the prayers they compose1 and in the hymns they make in the desire to approach the ,creator4 ,they describe ,god in attributes which would be an offence if applied to a human being2 for those persons have no knowledge of these great and important principles1 which are not accessible to the ordinary intelligence of man4 ,treating the ,creator as a familiar object1 they describe ,him and speak of ,him in any expressions they think proper2 they eloquently continue to praise ,him in that manner1 and believe that they can thereby influence ,him and produce an effect on ,him4 ,if they find some phrase suited to their object in the words of the ,prophets they are still more inclined to consider that they are free to make use of such texts--which should at least be explained--to employ them in their literal sense1 to derive new expressions from them1 to form from them numerous variations1 and to found whole compositions on them4 ,this license is frequently met with in the compositions of the singers1 preachers1 and others who imagine themselves to be able to compose a poem4 ,such authors write things which partly are real heresy1 partly contain such folly and absurdity that they naturally cause those who hear them to laugh1 but also to feel grieved at the thought that such things can be uttered in reference to ,god4 ,were it not that ,i pitied the authors for their defects1 and did not wish to injure them1 ,i should have cited some passages to show you their mistakes2 besides1 the fault of their compositions is obvious to all intelligent persons4 ,you must consider it1 and think thus3 ,if slander and libel is a great sin1 how much greater is the sin of those who speak with looseness of tongue in reference to ,god1 and describe ,him by attributes which are far below ,him2 and ,i declare that they not only commit an ordinary sin1 but unconsciously at least incur the guilt of profanity and blasphemy4 ,this applies both to the multitude that listens to such prayers1 and to the foolish man that recites them4 ,men1 however1 who understand the fault of such compositions1 and1 nevertheless1 recite them1 may be classed1 according to my opinion1 among those to whom the following words are applied3 8,and the children of ,israel used words that were not right against the ,lord their ,god0 7#b ,kings xvii4 #i72 and 8utter error against the ,lord0 7,isa4 xxxii4 #f74 ,if you are of those who regard the honour of their ,creator1 do not listen in any way to them1 much less utter what they say1 and still less compose such prayers1 knowing how great is the offence of one who hurls aspersions against the ,supreme ,being4 ,there is no necessity at all for you to use positive attributes of ,god with the view of magnifying ,him in your thoughts1 or to go beyond the limits which the men of the ,great ,synagogue have introduced in the prayers and in the blessings1 for this is sufficient for all purposes1 and even more than sufficient1 as ,rabbi aninah said4 ,other attributes1 such as occur in the books of the ,prophets1 may be uttered when we meet with them in reading those books2 but we must bear in mind what has already been explained1 that they are either attributes of ,god's actions1 or expressions implying the negation of the opposite4 ,this likewise should not be divulged to the multitude2 but a reflection of this kind is fitted for the few only who believe that the glorification of ,god does not consist in uttering that which is not to be uttered1 but in reflecting on that on which man should reflect4 ,we will now conclude our exposition of the wise words of ,r4 aninah4 ,he does not employ any such simile as3 8,a king who possesses millions of gold denarii1 and is praised as having hundreds02 for this would imply that ,god's perfections1 although more perfect than those ascribed to man are still of the same kind2 but this is not the case1 as has been proved4 ,the excellence of the simile consists in the words3 8who possesses golden denarii1 and is praised as having silver denarii02 this implies that these attributes1 though perfections as regards ourselves1 are not such as regards ,god2 in reference to ,him they would all be defects1 as is distinctly suggested in the remark1 8,is this not an offence to ,him80 ,i have already told you that all these attributes1 whatever perfection they may denote according to your idea1 imply defects in reference to ,god1 if applied to ,him in the same sense as they are used in reference to ourselves4 ,solomon has already given us sufficient instruction on this subject by saying1 8,for ,god is in heaven1 and thou upon earth2 therefore let thy words be few0 7,eccles4 v4 #b74 ,,chapter ,,lx ,i will give you in this chapter some illustrations1 in order that you may better understand the propriety of forming as many negative attributes as possible1 and the impropriety of ascribing to ,god any positive attributes4 ,a person may know for certain that a 8ship0 is in existence1 but he may not know to what object that name is applied1 whether to a substance or to an accident2 a second person then learns that the ship is not an accident2 a third1 that it is not a mineral2 a fourth1 that it is not a plant growing in the earth2 a fifth1 that it is not a body whose parts are joined together by nature2 a sixth1 that it is not a flat object like boards or doors2 a seventh1 that it is not a sphere2 an eighth1 that it is not pointed2 a ninth1 that it is not round-shaped2 nor equilateral2 a tenth1 that it is not solid4 ,it is clear that this tenth person has almost arrived at the correct notion of a 8ship0 by the foregoing negative attributes1 as if he had exactly the same notion as those have who imagine it to be a wooden substance which is hollow1 long1 and composed of many pieces of wood1 that is to say1 who know it by positive attributes4 ,of the other persons in our illustration1 each one is more remote from the correct notion of a ship than the next mentioned1 so that the first knows nothing about it but the name4 ,in the same manner you will come nearer to the knowledge and comprehension of ,god by the negative attributes4 ,but you must be careful1 in what you negative1 to negative by proof1 not by mere words1 for each time you ascertain by proof that a certain thing1 believed to exist in the ,creator1 must be negatived1 you have undoubtedly come one step nearer to the knowledge of ,god4 ,it is in this sense that some men come very near to ,god1 and others remain exceedingly remote from ,him1 not in the sense of those who are deprived of vision1 and believe that ,god occupies a place1 which man can physically approach or from which he can recede4 ,examine this well1 know it1 and be content with it4 ,the way which will bring you nearer to ,god has been clearly shown to you2 walk in it1 if you have the desire4 ,on the other hand1 there is a great danger in applying positive attributes to ,god4 ,for it has been shown that every perfection we could imagine1 even if existing in ,god in accordance with the opinion of those who assert the existence of attributes1 would in reality not be of the same kind as that imagined by us1 but would only be called by the same name1 according to our explanation2 it would in fact amount to a negation4 ,suppose1 e4g41 you say ,he has knowledge1 and that knowledge1 which admits of no change and of no plurality1 embraces many changeable things2 ,his knowledge remains unaltered1 while new things are constantly formed1 and ,his knowledge of a thing before it exists1 while it exists1 and when it has ceased to exist1 is the same without the least change3 you would thereby declare that ,his knowledge is not like ours2 and similarly that ,his existence is not like ours4 ,you thus necessarily arrive at some negation1 without obtaining a true conception of an essential attribute2 on the contrary1 you are led to assume that there is a plurality in ,god1 and to believe that ,he1 though one essence1 has several unknown attributes4 ,for if you intend to affirm them1 you cannot compare them with those attributes known by us1 and they are consequently not of the same kind4 ,you are1 as it were1 brought by the belief in the reality of the attributes1 to say that ,god is one subject of which several things are predicated2 though the subject is not like ordinary subjects1 and the predicates are not like ordinary predicates4 ,this belief would ultimately lead us to associate other things with ,god1 and not to believe that ,he is ,one4 ,for of every subject certain things can undoubtedly be predicated1 and although in reality subject and predicate are combined in one thing1 by the actual definition they consist of two elements1 the notion contained in the subject not being the same as that contained in the predicate4 ,in the course of this treatise it will be proved to you that ,god cannot be a compound1 and that ,he is simple in the strictest sense of the word4 ,i do not merely declare that he who affirms attributes of ,god has not sufficient knowledge concerning the ,creator1 admits some association with ,god1 or conceives ,him to be different from what ,he is2 but ,i say that he unconsciously loses his belief in ,god4 ,for he whose knowledge concerning a thing is insufficient1 understands one part of it while he is ignorant of the other1 as1 e4g41 a person who knows that man possesses life1 but does not know that man possesses understanding2 but in reference to ,god1 in whose real existence there is no plurality1 it is impossible that one thing should be known1 and another unknown4 ,similarly he who associates an object with the properties of another object1 conceives a true and correct notion of the one object1 and applies that notion also to the other2 while those who admit the attributes of ,god1 do not consider them as identical with ,his essence1 but as extraneous elements4 ,again1 he who conceives an incorrect notion of an object1 must necessarily have a correct idea of the object to some extent2 he1 however1 who says that taste belongs to the category of quantity has not1 according to my opinion1 an incorrect notion of taste1 but is entirely ignorant of its nature1 for he does not know to what object the term 8taste0 is to be applied4--,this is a very difficult subject2 consider it well4 ,according to this explanation you will understand1 that those who do not recognize1 in reference to ,god1 the negation of things1 which others negative by clear proof1 are deficient in the knowledge of ,god1 and are remote from comprehending ,him4 ,consequently1 the smaller the number of things is which a person can negative in relation to ,god1 the less he knows of ,him1 as has been explained in the beginning of this chapter2 but the man who affirms an attribute of ,god1 knows nothing but the same2 for the object to which1 in his imagination1 he applies that name1 does not exist2 it is a mere fiction and invention1 as if he applied that name to a non-existing being1 for there is1 in reality1 no such object4 ,e4g41 some one has heard of the elephant1 and knows that it is an animal1 and wishes to know its form and nature4 ,a person1 who is either misled or misleading1 tells him it is an animal with one leg1 three wings1 lives in the depth of the sea1 has a transparent body2 its face is wide like that of a man1 has the same form and shape1 speaks like a man1 flies sometimes in the air1 and sometimes swims like a fish4 ,i should not say1 that he described the elephant incorrectly1 or that he has an insufficient knowledge of the elephant1 but ,i would say that the thing thus described is an invention and fiction1 and that in reality there exists nothing like it2 it is a non-existing being1 called by the name of a really existing being1 and like the griffin1 the centaur1 and similar imaginary combinations for which simple and compound names have been borrowed from real things4 ,the present case is analogous2 namely1 ,god1 praised be ,his name1 exists1 and ,his existence has been proved to be absolute and perfectly simple1 as ,i shall explain4 ,if such a simple1 absolutely existing essence were said to have attributes1 as has been contended1 and were combined with extraneous elements1 it would in no way be an existing thing1 as has been proved by us2 and when we say that that essence1 which is called 8,god10 is a substance with many properties by which it can be described1 we apply that name to an object which does not at all exist4 ,consider1 therefore1 what are the consequences of affirming attributes to ,god6 ,as to those attributes of ,god which occur in the ,pentateuch1 or in the books of the ,prophets1 we must assume that they are exclusively employed1 as has been stated by us1 to convey to us some notion of the perfections of the ,creator1 or to express qualities of actions emanating from ,him4 ,,chapter ,,lxi ,it is well known that all the names of ,god occurring in ,scripture are derived from ,his actions1 except one1 namely1 the ,tetragrammaton1 which consists of the letters yod1 h1 vau and h4 ,this name is applied exclusively to ,god1 and is on that account called ,shem ha-meforash1 8,the nomen proprium40 ,it is the distinct and exclusive designation of the ,divine ,being2 whilst ,his other names are common nouns1 and are derived from actions1 to which some of our own are similar1 as we have already explained4 ,even the name ,adonay1 8,lord10 which has been substituted for the ,tetragrammaton1 is derived from the appellative 8lord02 comp4 8,the man who is the lord 7adone7 of the land spake roughly to us0 7,gen4 xliii4 #cj74 ,the difference between ,adoni1 8my lord10 7with irek under the nun71 or ,adonay 7with kame7 is similar to the difference between ,sari1 8my prince10 and ,sara1 ,abraham's wife 7ib4 xvi4 #a71 the latter form denoting majesty and distinction4 ,an angel is also addressed as 8,adonay02 e4g41 8,adonay 7,my lord71 pass not away1 ,i pray thee0 7ib4 xviii4 #c74 ,i have restricted my explanation to the term ,adonay1 the substitute for the ,tetragrammaton1 because it is more commonly applied to ,god than any of the other names which are in frequent use1 like dayyan1 8judge10 shadday1 8almighty10 addik1 8righteous10 annun1 8gracious10 raum 8merciful10 and elohim 8chief02 all these terms are unquestionably appellations and derivatives4 ,the derivation of the name1 consisting of yod1 h1 vau1 and h1 is not positively known1 the word having no additional signification4 ,this sacred name1 which1 as you know1 was not pronounced except in the sanctuary by the appointed priests1 when they gave the sacerdotal blessing1 and by the high priest on the ,day of ,atonement1 undoubtedly denotes something which is peculiar to ,god1 and is not found in any other being4 ,it is possible that in the ,hebrew language1 of which we have now but a slight knowledge1 the ,tetragrammaton1 in the way it was pronounced1 conveyed the meaning of 8absolute existence40 ,in short1 the majesty of the name and the great dread of uttering it1 are connected with the fact that it denotes ,god ,himself1 without including in its meaning any names of the things created by ,him4 ,thus our ,sages say3 8#8,my name' 7,num4 vi4 #bg7 means the name which is peculiar to ,me40 ,all other names of ,god have reference to qualities1 and do not signify a simple substance1 but a substance with attributes1 they being derivatives4 ,on that account it is believed that they imply the presence of a plurality in ,god1 ,i mean to say1 the presence of attributes1 that is1 of some extraneous element superadded to ,his essence4 ,such is the meaning of all derivative names2 they imply the presence of some attribute and its substratum1 though this be not distinctly named4 ,as1 however1 it has been proved1 that ,god is not a substratum capable of attributes1 we are convinced that those appellatives when employed as names of ,god1 only indicate the relation of certain actions to ,him1 or they convey to us some notion of ,his perfection4 ,hence ,r4 aninah would have objected to the expression 8the great1 the mighty1 and the tremendous10 had it not been for the two reasons mentioned by him2 because such expressions lead men to think that the attributes are essential1 i4e41 they are perfections actually present in ,god4 ,the frequent use of names of ,god derived from actions1 led to the belief that ,he had as many essential attributes as there were actions from which the names were derived4 ,the following promise was therefore made1 implying that mankind will at a certain future time understand this subject1 and be free from the error it involves3 8,in that day will the ,lord be ,one1 and ,his name ,one0 7,zech4 xiv4 #i74 ,the meaning of this prophecy is this3 ,he being ,one1 will then be called by one name1 which will indicate the essence of ,god2 but it does not mean that ,his sole name will be a derivative viz41 8,one04 ,in the ,pirke ,rabbi ,eliezer 7chap4 iii47 occurs the following passage3 8,before the universe was created1 there was only the ,almighty and ,his name40 ,observe how clearly the author states that all these appellatives employed as names of ,god came into existence after the ,creation4 ,this is true2 for they all refer to actions manifested in the ,universe4 ,if1 however1 you consider ,his essence as separate and as abstracted from all actions1 you will not describe it by an appellative1 but by a proper noun1 which exclusively indicates that essence4 ,every other name of ,god is a derivative1 only the ,tetragrammaton is a real nomen proprium1 and must not be considered from any other point of view4 ,you must beware of sharing the error of those who write amulets 7kameot74 ,whatever you hear from them1 or read in their works1 especially in reference to the names which they form by combination1 is utterly senseless2 they call these combinations shemot 7names7 and believe that their pronunciation demands sanctification and purification1 and that by using them they are enabled to work miracles4 ,rational persons ought not to listen to such men1 nor in any way believe their assertions4 ,no other name is called shem ha-meforash except this ,tetragrammaton1 which is written1 but is not pronounced according to its letters4 ,the words1 8,thus shall ye bless the children of ,israel0 7,num4 vi4 #bc7 are interpreted in ,siphri as follows3 8#8,thus1' in the holy language2 again #8thus1' with the ,shem ha-meforash40 ,the following remark is also found there3 8,in the sanctuary the name of ,god is pronounced as it is spelt1 but elsewhere by its substitutes40 ,in the ,talmud1 the following passage occurs3 8#8,thus1' i4e41 with the shem ha-meforash4--,you say that the priests1 when blessing the people1 had to pronounce the shem ha-meforash2 this was perhaps not the case1 and they may have used other names instead4--,we infer it from the words3 #8,and they shall put ,my name' 7,num4 vi4 #bg71 i4e41 ,my name1 which is peculiar to ,me40 ,it has thus been shown that the shem ha-meforash 7the proper name of ,god7 is the ,tetragrammaton1 and that this is the only name which indicates nothing but ,his essence1 and therefore our ,sages in referring to this sacred term said 8#8,my name' means the one which is peculiar to ,me alone40 ,in the next chapter ,i will explain the circumstances which brought men to a belief in the power of ,shemot 7names of ,god72 ,i will point out the main subject of discussion1 and lay open to you its mystery1 and then not any doubt will be left in your mind1 unless you prefer to be misguided4 ,,chapter ,,lxii ,we were commanded that1 in the sacerdotal blessing1 the name of the ,lord should be pronounced as it is written in the form of the ,tetragrammaton1 the shem ha-meforash4 ,it was not known to every one how the name was to be pronounced1 what vowels were to be given to each consonant1 and whether some of the letters capable of reduplication should receive a dagesh4 ,wise men successively transmitted the pronunciation of the name2 it occurred only once in seven years that the pronunciation was communicated to a distinguished disciple4 ,i must1 however1 add that the statement1 8,the wise men communicated the ,tetragrammaton to their children and their disciples once in seven years10 does not only refer to the pronunciation but also to its meaning1 because of which the ,tetragrammaton was made a nomen proprium of ,god1 and which includes certain metaphysical principles4 ,our ,sages knew in addition a name of ,god which consisted of twelve letters1 inferior in sanctity to the ,tetragrammaton4 ,i believe that this was not a single noun1 but consisted of two or three words1 the sum of their letters being twelve1 and that these words were used by our ,sages as a substitute for the ,tetragrammaton1 whenever they met with it in the course of their reading the ,scriptures1 in the same manner as we at present substitute for it aleph1 daleth1 etc4 i4e41 ,adonay1 8the ,lord04 ,there is no doubt that this name also1 consisting of twelve letters1 was in this sense more distinctive than the name ,adonay3 it was never withheld from any of the students2 whoever wished to learn it1 had the opportunity given to him without any reserve3 not so the ,tetragrammaton2 those who knew it did not communicate it except to a son or a disciple1 once in seven years4 ,when1 however1 unprincipled men had become acquainted with that name which consists of twelve letters and in consequence had become corrupt in faith--as is sometimes the case when persons with imperfect knowledge become aware that a thing is not such as they had imagined--the ,sages concealed also that name1 and only communicated it to the worthiest among the priests1 that they should pronounce it when they blessed the people in the ,temple2 for the ,tetragrammaton was then no longer uttered in the sanctuary on account of the corruption of the people4 ,there is a tradition1 that with the death of ,simeon the ,just1 his brother priests discontinued the pronunciation of the ,tetragrammaton in the blessing2 they used1 instead1 this name of twelve letters4 ,it is further stated1 that at first the name of twelve letters was communicated to every man2 but when the number of impious men increased it was only entrusted to the worthiest among the priests1 whose voice1 in pronouncing it1 was drowned amid the singing of their brother priests4 ,rabbi ,tarphon said1 8,once ,i followed my grandfather to the das where the blessing was pronounced2 ,i inclined my ear to listen to a priest who pronounced the name1 and noticed that his voice was drowned amid the singing of his brother priests40 ,there was also a name of forty-two letters known among them4 ,every intelligent person knows that one word of forty-two letters is impossible4 ,but it was a phrase of several words which had together forty-two letters4 ,there is no doubt that the words had such a meaning as to convey a correct notion of the essence of ,god1 in the way we have stated4 ,this phrase of so many letters is called a name because1 like other proper nouns1 they represent one single object1 and several words have been employed in order to explain more clearly the idea which the name represents2 for an idea can more easily be comprehended if expressed in many words4 ,mark this and observe now that the instruction in regard to the names of ,god extended to the signification of each of those names1 and did not confine itself to the pronunciation of the single letters which1 in themselves1 are destitute of an idea4 ,shem ha-meforash applied neither to the name of forty-two letters nor to that of twelve1 but only to the ,tetragrammaton1 the proper name of ,god1 as we have explained4 ,those two names must have included some metaphysical ideas4 ,it can be proved that one of them conveyed profound knowledge1 from the following rule laid down by our ,sages3 8,the name of forty-two letters is exceedingly holy2 it can only be entrusted to him who is modest1 in the midway of life1 not easily provoked to anger1 temperate1 gentle1 and who speaks kindly to his fellow men4 ,he who understands it1 is cautious with it1 and keeps it in purity1 is loved above and is liked here below2 he is respected by his fellow men2 his learning remaineth with him1 and he enjoys both this world and the world to come40 ,so far in the ,talmud4 ,how grievously has this passage been misunderstood6 ,many believe that the forty-two letters are merely to be pronounced mechanically2 that by knowledge of these1 without any further interpretation1 they can attain to these exalted ends1 although it is stated that he who desires to obtain a knowledge of that name must be trained in the virtues named before1 and go through all the great preparations which are mentioned in that passage4 ,on the contrary1 it is evident that all this preparation aims at a knowledge of ,metaphysics1 and includes ideas which constitute the 8secrets of the ,law10 as we have explained 7chap4 xxxv474 ,in works on ,metaphysics it has been shown that such knowledge1 i4e41 the perception of the active intellect1 can never be forgotten2 and this is meant by the phrase 8his learning remaineth with him40 ,when bad and foolish men were reading such passages1 they considered them to be a support of their false pretensions and of their assertion that they could1 by means of an arbitrary combination of letters1 form a shem 78a name07 which would act and operate miraculously when written or spoken in a certain particular way4 ,such fictions1 originally invented by foolish men1 were in the course of time committed to writing1 and came into the hands of good but weak-minded and ignorant persons who were unable to discriminate between truth and falsehood1 and made a secret of these shemot 7names74 ,when after the death of such persons those writings were discovered among their papers1 it was believed that they contained truths2 for1 8the simple believeth every word0 7,prov4 xiv4 #ae74 ,we have already gone too far away from our interesting subject and recondite inquiry1 endeavouring to refute a perverse notion1 the absurdity of which every one must perceive who gives a thought to the subject4 ,we have1 however1 been compelled to mention it1 in treating of the divine names1 their meanings1 and the opinions commonly held concerning them4 ,we shall now return to our theme4 ,having shown that all names of ,god1 with the exception of the ,tetragrammaton 7,shem ha-meforash71 are appellatives1 we must now1 in a separate chapter1 speak on the phrase ,ehyeh asher ,ehyeh1 7,exod4 iii4 #ad71 because it is connected with the difficult subject under discussion1 namely1 the inadmissibility of divine attributes4 ,,chapter ,,lxiii ,before approaching the subject of this chapter1 we will first consider the words of ,moses1 8,and they shall say unto me1 ,what is ,his name8 what shall ,i say unto them80 7,exod4 iii4 #ac74 ,how far was this question1 anticipated by ,moses1 appropriate1 and how far was he justified in seeking to be prepared with the answer8 ,moses was correct in declaring1 8,but1 behold1 they will not believe me1 for they will say1 ,the ,lord hath not appeared unto thee0 7ib4 iv4 #a72 for any man claiming the authority of a prophet must expect to meet with such an objection so long as he has not given a proof of his mission4 ,again1 if the question1 as appears at first sight1 referred only to the name1 as a mere utterance of the lips1 the following dilemma would present itself3 either the ,israelites knew the name1 or they had never heard it2 if the name was known to them1 they would perceive in it no argument in favour of the mission of ,moses1 his knowledge and their knowledge of the divine name being the same4 ,if1 on the other hand1 they had never heard it mentioned1 and if the knowledge of it was to prove the mission of ,moses1 what evidence would they have that this was really the name of ,god8 ,moreover1 after ,god had made known that name to ,moses1 and had told him1 8,go and gather the elders of ,israel1 444 and they shall hearken to thy voice0 7ib4 xvi4 #ah71 he replied1 8,behold1 they will not believe me nor hearken unto my voice10 although ,god had told him1 8,and they will hearken to thy voice02 whereupon ,god answered1 8,what is that in thine hand80 and he said1 8,a rod0 7ib4 iv4 #b74 ,in order to obviate this dilemma1 you must understand what ,i am about to tell you4 ,you know how widespread were in those days the opinions of the ,sabeans2 all men1 except a few individuals1 were idolaters1 that is to say1 they believed in spirits1 in man's power to direct the influences of the heavenly bodies1 and in the effect of talismans4 ,any one who in those days laid claim to authority1 based it either1 like ,abraham1 on the fact that1 by reasoning and by proof he had been convinced of the existence of a ,being who rules the whole ,universe1 or that some spiritual power was conferred upon him by a star1 by an angel1 or by a similar agency2 but no one could establish his claim on prophecy1 that is to say1 on the fact that ,god had spoken to him1 or had entrusted a mission to him2 before the days of ,moses no such assertion had ever been made4 ,you must not be misled by the statements that ,god spoke to the ,patriarchs1 or that ,he had appeared to them4 ,for you do not find any mention of a prophecy which appealed to others1 or which directed them4 ,abraham1 ,isaac1 or ,jacob1 or any other person before them did not tell the people1 8,god said unto me1 you shall do this thing1 or you shall not do that thing10 or 8,god has sent me to you40 ,far from it6 for ,god spoke to them on nothing but of what especially concerned them1 i4e41 ,he communicated to them things relating to their perfection1 directed them in what they should do1 and foretold them what the condition of their descendants would be2 nothing beyond this4 ,they guided their fellow-men by means of argument and instruction1 as is implied1 according to the interpretation generally received amongst us1 in the words 8and the souls that they had gotten in ,haran0 7,gen4 xii4 #e74 ,when ,god appeared to our ,teacher ,moses1 and commanded him to address the people and to bring them the message1 ,moses replied that he might first be asked to prove the existence of ,god in the ,universe1 and that only after doing so he would be able to announce to them that ,god had sent him4 ,for all men1 with few exceptions1 were ignorant of the existence of ,god2 their highest thoughts did not extend beyond the heavenly sphere1 its forms or its influences4 ,they could not yet emancipate themselves from sensation1 and had not yet attained to any intellectual perfection4 ,then ,god taught ,moses how to teach them1 and how to establish amongst them the belief in the existence of ,himself1 namely1 by saying ,ehyeh asher ,ehyeh1 a name derived from the verb hayah in the sense of 8existing10 for the verb hayah denotes 8to be10 and in ,hebrew no difference is made between the verbs 8to be0 and 8to exist40 ,the principal point in this phrase is that the same word which denotes 8existence10 is repeated as an attribute4 ,the word asher1 8that10 corresponds to the ,arabic illadi and illati1 and is an incomplete noun that must be completed by another noun2 it may be considered as the subject of the predicate which follows4 ,the first noun which is to be described is ehyeh2 the second1 by which the first is described1 is likewise ehyeh1 the identical word1 as if to show that the object which is to be described and the attribute by which it is described are in this case necessarily identical4 ,this is1 therefore1 the expression of the idea that ,god exists1 but not in the ordinary sense of the term2 or1 in other words1 ,he is 8the existing ,being which is the existing ,being10 that is to say1 the ,being whose existence is absolute4 ,the proof which he was to give consisted in demonstrating that there is a ,being of absolute existence1 that has never been and never will be without existence4 ,this ,i will clearly prove 7,,ii4 ,introd4 ,prop4 #bj and chap4 i474 ,god thus showed ,moses the proofs by which ,his existence would be firmly established among the wise men of ,his people4 ,therefore the explanation of the name is followed by the words1 8,go1 gather the elders of ,israel10 and by the assurance that the elders would understand what ,god had shown to him1 and would accept it1 as is stated in the words1 8,and they will hearken to thy voice40 ,then ,moses replied as follows3 ,they will accept the doctrine that ,god exists convinced by these intelligible proofs4 ,but1 said ,moses1 by what means shall ,i be able to show that this existing ,god has sent me8 ,thereupon ,god gave him the sign4 ,we have thus shown that the question1 8,what is ,his name80 means 8,who is that ,being1 which according to thy belief has sent thee80 ,the sentence1 8,what is his name0 7instead of1 ,who is ,he71 has here been used as a tribute of praise and homage1 as though it had been said1 ,nobody can be ignorant of ,thy essence and of ,thy real existence2 if1 nevertheless1 ,i ask what is ,thy name1 ,i mean1 ,what idea is to be expressed by the name8 7,moses considered it inappropriate to say to ,god that any person was ignorant of ,god's existence1 and therefore described the ,israelites as ignorant of ,god's name1 not as ignorant of ,him who was called by that name47--,the name ,jah likewise implies eternal existence4 ,shadday1 however1 is derived from day1 8enough02 comp4 8for the stuff they had was sufficient0 7dayyam1 ,exod4 xxxvi4 #g72 the shin is equal to asher1 8which10 as in she-kebar1 8which already0 7,eccles4 ii4 #af74 ,the name ,shadday1 therefore1 signifies 8he who is sufficient02 that is to say1 ,he does not require any other being for effecting the existence of what ,he created1 or its conservation3 ,his existence is sufficient for that4 ,in a similar manner the name asin implies 8strength02 comp4 8he was strong 7ason7 as the oaks0 7,amos ii4 #i74 ,the same is the case with 8rock10 which is a homonym1 as we have explained 7chap4 xvi474 ,it is1 therefore1 clear that all these names of ,god are appellatives1 or are applied to ,god by way of homonymy1 like ur and others1 the only exception being the tetragrammaton1 the ,shem ha-meforash 7the nomen proprium of ,god71 which is not an appellative2 it does not denote any attribute of ,god1 nor does it imply anything except ,his existence4 ,absolute existence includes the idea of eternity1 i4e41 the necessity of existence4 ,note well the result at which we have arrived in this chapter4 ,,chapter ,,lxiv ,know that in some instances by the phrase 8the name of the ,lord10 nothing but the name alone is to be understood2 comp4 8,thou shalt not take the name of the ,lord thy ,god in vain0 7,exod4 xx4 #g72 8,and he that blasphemeth the name of the ,lord0 7,lev4 xxiv4 #af74 ,this occurs in numerous other passages4 ,in other instances it means the essence and reality of ,god ,himself1 as in the phrase 8,they shall say to me1 ,what is his name80 ,sometimes it stands for 8the word of ,god10 so that 8the name of ,god10 8the word of ,god10 and 8the command of ,god10 are identical phrases2 comp4 8for my name is in him0 7,exod4 xxiii4 #ba71 that is1 ,my word or ,my command is in him2 i4e41 he is the instrument of ,my desire and will4 ,i shall explain this fully in treating of the homonymity of the term 8angel0 7,,ii4 chap4 vi4 and xxxiv474--,the same is the case with 8,the glory of the ,lord40 ,the phrase sometimes signifies 8the material light10 which ,god caused to rest on a certain place in order to show the distinction of that place1 e4g41 8,and the glory of the ,lord 7kebod adonay7 abode upon ,mount ,sinai and the cloud covered it0 7,exod4 xxiv4 #af73 8,and the glory of the ,lord filled the tabernacle0 7ib4 xl4 #ce74 ,sometimes the essence1 the reality of ,god is meant by that expression1 as in the words of ,moses1 8,show me thy glory0 7ib4 xxxiii4 #ah71 to which the reply was given1 8,for no man shall see me and live0 7ib4 xx474 ,this shows that the glory of the ,lord in this instance is the same as ,he ,himself1 and that 8,thy glory0 has been substituted for 8,thyself10 as a tribute of homage2 an explanation which we also gave of the words1 8,and they shall say unto me1 ,what is his name80 ,sometimes the term 8glory0 denotes the glorification of the ,lord by man or by any other being4 ,for the true glorification of the ,lord consists in the comprehension of ,his greatness1 and all who comprehend ,his greatness and perfection1 glorify ,him according to their capacity1 with this difference1 that man alone magnifies ,god in words1 expressive of what he has received in his mind1 and what he desires to communicate to others4 ,things not endowed with comprehension1 as e4g41 minerals1 may also be considered as glorifying the ,lord1 for by their natural properties they testify to the omnipotence and wisdom of their ,creator1 and cause him who examines them to praise ,god1 by means of speech or without the use of words1 if the power of speech be wanting4 ,in ,hebrew this licence has been extended still further1 and the use of the verb 8to speak0 has been admitted as applicable in such a case2 things which have no comprehension are therefore said to give utterance to praise1 e4g41 8,all my bones shall say1 ,lord1 who is like unto thee80 7,ps4 xxxv4 #aj74 ,because a consideration of the properties of the bones leads to the discovery of that truth1 and it is through them that it became known1 they are represented as having uttered the divine praise2 and since this cause of ,god's praise is itself called 8praise10 it has been said 8the fulness of the whole earth is his praise0 7,isa4 vi4 #c71 in the same sense as 8the earth is full of his praise0 7,hab4 iii4 #c74 ,as to kabod being employed in the sense of praise1 comp4 8,give praise 7kabod7 to the ,lord your ,god0 7,jer4 xiii4 #af72 also 8and in his temple does every one speak of his praise 7kabod70 7,ps4 xxix4 #i71 etc4 ,consider well the homonymity of this term1 and explain it in each instance in accordance with the context2 you will thus escape great embarrassment4 ,,chapter ,,lxv ,after you have advanced thus far1 and truly comprehended that ,god exists without having the attribute of existence1 and that ,he is ,one1 without having the attribute of unity1 ,i do not think that ,i need explain to you the inadmissibility of the attribute of speech in reference to ,god1 especially since our people generally believe that the ,law1 i4e41 the word ascribed to ,him1 was created4 ,speech is attributed to ,him1 in so far as the word which ,moses heard1 was produced and brought to existence by ,god in the same manner as ,he produced all ,his other works and creations4 ,as we shall have to speak more fully on prophecy1 we shall here merely show that speech is attributed to ,god in the same way as all other actions1 which are similar to our own4 ,when we are told that ,god addressed the ,prophets and spoke to them1 our minds are merely to receive a notion that there is a ,divine knowledge to which the ,prophets attain2 we are to be impressed with the idea that the things which the ,prophets communicate to us come from the ,lord1 and are not altogether the products of their own conceptions and ideas4 ,this subject1 which we have already mentioned above1 will receive further explanation4 ,it is the object of this chapter to show that the words 8speaking0 and 8saying0 are synonymous terms denoting 7a7 8,speech02 as1 e4g41 8,moses shall speak 7yedabber70 7,exod4 xix4 #ai72 8,and ,pharaoh said 7va-yomer70 7ib4 v4 #e72 7b7 8,thought0 as formed in the mind without being expressed in words2 e4g41 8,and ,i thought 7ve-amarti7 in my heart0 7,eccles4 ii4 #ae72 8,and ,i thought 7vedibbarti7 in my heart0 7ib472 8,and thy heart will imagine 7yedabber70 7,prov4 xxiii4 #cc72 8,concerning ,thee my heart thought 7amar70 7,ps4 xxvii4 #h72 8,and ,esau thought 7va-yomer7 in his heart0 7,gen4 xxvii4 #da72 examples of this kind are numerous2 7c7 ,will2 e4g41 8,and he said 7va-yomer7 to slay ,david0 7#b ,sam4 xxi4 #af71 that is to say1 he wished or he intended to slay him2 8,dost thou desire 7omer7 to slay me0 7,exod4 ii4 #ad72 8,and the whole congregation intended 7va-yomeru7 to stone them0 7,num4 xiv4 #aj74 ,instances of this kind are likewise numerous4 ,the two terms1 when applied to ,god1 can only have one of the two last-mentioned significations1 viz41 he wills and he desires1 or he thinks1 and there is no difference whether the divine thought became known to man by means of an actual voice1 or by one of those kinds of inspiration which ,i shall explain further on 7,,ii4 chap1 xxxviii474 ,we must not suppose that in speaking ,god employed voice or sound1 or that ,he has a soul in which the thoughts reside1 and that these thoughts are things superadded to ,his essence2 but we ascribe and attribute to ,him thoughts in the same manner as we ascribe to ,him any other attributes4 ,the use of these words in the sense of will and desire1 is based1 as ,i have explained1 on the homonymity of these terms4 ,in addition they are figures borrowed from our common practices1 as has been already pointed out4 ,for we cannot1 at a first glance1 see how anything can be produced by a mere desire2 we think that he who wishes to produce a thing1 must perform a certain act1 or command some one else to perform it4 ,therefore the command is figuratively ascribed to ,god when that takes place which ,he wishes1 and we then say that ,he commanded that a certain thing should be accomplished4 ,all this has its origin in our comparing the acts of ,god to our own acts1 and also in the use of the term amar in the sense of 8,he desired10 as we have already explained4 ,the words 8,and ,he said10 occurring in the account of the creation1 signify 8,he wished10 or 8,he desired40 ,this has already been stated by other authors1 and is well known4 ,a proof for this1 namely that the phrase 8,god said10 in the first chapter of ,genesis1 must be taken in a figurative sense 8,he willed10 and not in its literal meaning1 is found in the circumstance that a command can only be given to a being which exists and is capable of receiving the command4 ,comp4 8,by the word of the ,lord were the heavens made1 and all the host of them by the breath of his mouth0 7,ps4 xxxiii4 #f74 8,his mouth10 and 8the breath of his mouth10 are undoubtedly figurative expressions1 and the same is the case with 8,his word0 and 8,his speech40 ,the meaning of the verse is therefore that they the heavens and all their host exist through ,his will and desire4 ,all our eminent authorities are cognisant of this2 and1 ,i need not explain that in ,hebrew amar and dibber have the same meaning1 as is proved by the passage1 8,for it has heard all the words 7imre7 of the ,lord which he spake 7dibber7 unto us0 7,josh4 xxiv4 #bg74 ,,chapter ,,lxvi 8,and the tables were the work of ,god0 7,exod4 xxxii4 #af71 that is to say1 they were the product of nature1 not of art2 for all natural things are called 8the work of the ,lord10 e4g41 8,these see the works of the ,lord0 7,ps4 cvii4 #bd72 and the description of the several things in nature1 as plants1 animals1 winds1 rain1 etc41 is followed by the exclamation1 8,o ,lord1 how manifold are thy works60 7,ps4 civ4 #bd74 ,still more striking is the relation between ,god and ,his creatures1 as expressed in the phrase1 8,the cedars of ,lebanon1 which he hath planted0 7ib4 #af72 the cedars being the product of nature1 and not of art1 are described as having been planted by the ,lord4 ,similarly we explain1 8,and the writing was the writing of ,god0 7,exod4 xxxii4 #af72 the relation in which the writing stood to ,god has already been defined in the words 8written with the finger of ,god0 7ib4 xxxi4 #ah71 and the meaning of this phrase is the same as that of 8the work of thy fingers0 7,ps4 viii4 #d71 this being said of the heavens2 of the latter it has been stated distinctly that they were made by a word2 comp4 8,by the word of the ,lord were the heavens made0 7ib4 xxxiii4 #f74 ,hence you learn that in the ,bible1 the creation of a thing is figuratively expressed by terms denoting 8word0 and 8speech40 ,the same thing which according to one passage has been made by the word1 is represented in another passage as made by the 8finger of ,god40 ,the phrase 8written by the finger of ,god0 is therefore identical with 8written by the word of ,god02 and if the latter phrase had been used1 it would have been equal to 8written by the will and desire of ,god40 ,onkelos adopted in this place a strange explanation1 and rendered the words literally 8written by the finger of the ,lord02 he thought that 8the finger0 was a certain thing ascribed to ,god2 so that 8the finger of the ,lord0 is to be interpreted in the same way as 8the mountain of ,god0 7,exod4 iii4 #a71 8the rod of ,god0 7ib4 iv4 #bj71 that is1 as being an instrument created by ,him1 which by ,his will engraved the writing on the tables4 ,i cannot see why ,onkelos preferred this explanation4 ,it would have been more reasonable to say 8written by the word of the ,lord10 in imitation of the verse 8,by the word of the ,lord the heavens were made40 ,or was the creation of the writing on the tables more difficult than the creation of the stars in the spheres8 ,as the latter were made by the direct will of ,god1 not by means of an instrument1 the writing may also have been produced by ,his direct will1 not by means of an instrument4 ,you know what the ,mishnah says1 8,ten things were created on ,friday in the twilight of the evening10 and 8the writing0 is one of the ten things4 ,this shows how generally it was assumed by our forefathers that the writing of the tables was produced in the same manner as the rest of the creation1 as we have shown in our ,commentary on the ,mishnah 7,aboth1 v4 #f74 ,,chapter ,,lxvii ,since the verb 8to say0 has been figuratively used to express the will of the ,creator1 and the phrase 8,and he said0 has repeatedly been employed in the account of all the things created in 8the six days of the beginning10 the expression 8to rest0 has likewise been figuratively applied to ,god in reference to the ,sabbath-day1 on which there was no creation2 it is therefore said1 8,and he rested 7va-yishbot7 on the seventh day0 7,gen4 ii4 #b74 ,for 8to leave off speaking0 is1 in ,hebrew1 likewise expressed by the same verb1 as1 e4g41 8,so these three men ceased 7va-yishbetu7 to answer ,job0 7,job xxxii4 #a72 also by nua1 as1 in 8,they spake to ,nabal according to all those words in the name of ,david1 and ceased 7va-yanuu70 7#a ,sam4 xxv4 #i74 ,in my opinion1 7va-yanuu7 means 8they ceased to speak10 and waited for the answer2 for no allusion to exertion whatever having previously been mentioned1 the words1 8and they rested10 in its primary signification1 would have been entirely out of place in that narrative1 even if the young men who spoke had really used some exertion4 ,the author relates that having delivered that whole speech1 which1 as you find1 consisted of gentle expressions1 they were silent1 that is to say1 they did not add any word or act by which the reply of ,nabal could be justified2 it being the object of the entire passage to represent ,nabal's conduct as extremely reprehensible4 ,in that sense viz41 8to cease10 or 8to leave off0 the verb nua is used in the phrase 8,and he left off 7va-yana7 on the seventh day40 ,our ,sages1 and some of the ,commentators1 took1 however1 nua in its primary sense 8to rest10 but as a transitive form 7hiphil71 explaining the phrase thus3 8and he gave rest to the world on the seventh day10 i4e41 no further act of creation took place on that day4 ,it is possible that the word va-yana is derived either from yana1 a verb of the class pe-yod1 or naah1 a verb of the class lamed-he1 and has this meaning3 8he established0 or 8he governed0 the ,universe in accordance with the properties it possessed on the seventh day2 that is to say1 while on each of the six days events took place contrary to the natural laws now in operation throughout the ,universe1 on the seventh day the ,universe was merely upheld and left in the condition in which it continues to exist4 ,our explanation is not impaired by the fact that the form of the word deviates from the rules of verbs of these two classes2 for there are frequent exceptions to the rules of conjugations1 and especially of the weak verbs2 and any interpretation which removes such a source of error must not be abandoned because of certain grammatical rules4 ,we know that we are ignorant of the sacred language1 and that grammatical rules only apply to the majority of cases4--,the same root is also found as a verb ayin-vav in the sense 8to place0 and 8to set10 as e4g41 8and it shall be established and she shall be placed 7ve-hunniah7 there upon her own base0 7,zech4 v4 #aa71 and 8she suffered neither the birds of the air to settle 7la-nua7 on them0 7#b ,sam4 xxi4 #aj74 ,according to my opinion1 the verb has the same signification in ,hab4 iii4 #af1 8that ,i might remain firm 7anua7 in the day of trouble40 ,the word 7va-yinnafash7 is a verb derived from nefesh1 the homonymity of which we have already explained 7chap4 xli471 namely1 that it has the signification of intention or will2 7va-yinnafash7 accordingly means3 8that which he desired was accomplished1 and what he wished had come into existence40 ,,chapter ,,lxviii ,you are acquainted with the well-known principle of the philosophers that ,god is the intellectus1 the ens intelligens1 and the ens intelligibile4 ,these three things are in ,god one and the same1 and do not in any way constitute a plurality4 ,we have also mentioned it in our larger work1 8,mishneh ,torah10 and we have explained there that it is a fundamental principle of our religion1 namely1 that ,he is absolutely one1 that nothing combines with ,him2 that is to say1 there is no ,eternal thing besides ,him4 ,on that account we say ai adonay1 8the ,lord liveth0 7,ruth iii4 #ac71 and not e adonay1 8the life of the ,lord10 for ,his life is not a thing distinct from ,his essence1 as we have explained in treating of the inadmissibility of the attributes4 ,there is no doubt that he who has not studied any works on mental philosophy1 who has not comprehended the nature of the mind1 who has no knowledge of its essence1 and considers it in no other way than he would consider the nature of whiteness and of blackness1 will find this subject extremely difficult1 and to him our principle that the intellectus1 the intelligens1 and the intelligibile1 are in ,god one and the same thing1 will appear as unintelligible as if we said that the whiteness1 the whitening substance1 and the material which is whitened are one and the same thing4 ,and1 indeed1 many ignorant people refute at once our principle by using such comparisons4 ,even amongst those who imagine that they are wise1 many find this subject difficult1 and are of opinion that it is impossible for the mind to grasp the truth of this proposition1 although it is a demonstrated truth1 as has been shown by ,metaphysicians4 ,i will tell you now what has been proved4 ,man1 before comprehending a thing1 comprehends it in potentia 772 when1 however1 he comprehends a thing1 e4g41 the form of a certain tree which is pointed out to him1 when he abstracts its form from its substance1 and reproduces the abstract form1 an act performed by the intellect1 he comprehends in reality 771 and the intellect which he has acquired in actuality1 is the abstract form of the tree in man's mind4 ,for in such a case the intellect is not a thing distinct from the thing comprehended4 ,it is therefore clear to you that the thing comprehended is the abstract form of the tree1 and at the same time it is the intellect in action2 and that the intellect and the abstract form of the tree are not two different things1 for the intellect in action is nothing but the thing comprehended1 and that agent by which the form of the tree has been turned into an intellectual and abstract object1 namely1 that which comprehends1 is undoubtedly the intellect in action4 ,all intellect is identical with its action2 the intellect in action is not a thing different from its action1 for the true nature and essence of the intellect is comprehension1 and you must not think that the intellect in action is a thing existing by itself1 separate from comprehension1 and that comprehension is a different thing connected with it2 for the very essence of the intellect is comprehension4 ,in assuming an intellect in action you assume the comprehension of the thing comprehended4 ,this is quite clear to all who have made themselves familiar with the figurative language common to this discipline4 ,you therefore accept it as proved that the intellect consists in its action1 which is its true nature and essence4 ,consequently the very thing by which the form of that tree has been made abstract and intelligible1 viz41 the intellect1 is at the same time the intelligens1 for the intellect is itself the agens which abstracts the form and comprehends it1 and that is the action1 on account of which it is called the intelligens2 but itself and its action are identical2 and that which is called intellect in action consists in the above-mentioned instance of nothing else but of the form of the tree4 ,it must now be obvious to you that whenever the intellect is found in action1 the intellect and the thing comprehended are one and the same thing2 and also that the function of all intellect1 namely1 the act of comprehending1 is its essence4 ,the intellect1 that which comprehends and that which is comprehended1 are therefore the same1 whenever a real comprehension takes place4 ,but1 when we speak of the power of comprehension1 we necessarily distinguish two things3 the power itself1 and the thing which can be comprehended2 e4g41 that hylic intellect of ,zaid is the power of comprehension1 and this tree is1 in like manner1 a thing which is capable of being comprehended2 these1 undoubtedly1 are two different things4 ,when1 however1 the potential is replaced by the actual1 and when the form of the tree has really been comprehended1 the form comprehended is the intellect1 and it is by that same intellect1 by the intellect in action1 that the tree has been converted into an abstract idea1 and has been comprehended4 ,for everything in which a real action takes place exists in reality4 ,on the other hand1 the power of comprehension1 and the object capable of comprehension are two things2 but that which is only potential cannot be imagined otherwise than in connexion with an object possessing that capacity1 as1 e4g41 man1 and thus we have three things3 the man who possesses the power1 and is capable of comprehending2 that power itself1 namely1 the power of comprehension1 and the object which presents itself as an object of comprehension1 and is capable of being comprehended2 to use the foregoing example1 the man1 the hylic intellect1 and the abstract form of the tree1 are three different things4 ,they become one and the same thing when the intellect is in action1 and you will never find the intellect different from the comprehensible object1 unless the power of comprehending and the power of being comprehended be referred to4 ,now1 it has been proved1 that ,god is an intellect which always is in action1 and that--as has been stated1 and as will be proved hereafter--there is in ,him at no time a mere potentiality1 that ,he does not comprehend at one time1 and is without comprehension at another time1 but ,he comprehends constantly2 consequently1 ,he and the things comprehended are one and the same thing1 that is to say1 ,his essence2 and the act of comprehending because of which it is said that ,he comprehends1 is the intellect itself1 which is likewise ,his essence1 ,god is therefore always the intellectus1 the intelligens1 and the intelligibile4 ,we have thus shown that the identity of the intellect1 the intelligens and the intelligibile1 is not only a fact as regards the ,creator1 but as regards all intellect1 when in action4 ,there is1 however1 this difference1 that from time to time our intellect passes over from mere potentiality to reality1 and that the pure intellect1 i4e41 the active intellect1 finds sometimes obstacles1 though not in itself1 but accidentally in some external cause4 ,it is not our present intention to explain this subject1 but we will merely show that ,god alone1 and none besides ,him1 is an intellect constantly in action1 and there is1 neither in ,himself nor in anything beside ,him1 any obstacle whereby ,his comprehension would be hindered4 ,therefore ,he always includes the intelligens1 the intellectus1 and the intelligibile1 and ,his essence is at the same time the intelligens1 the intelligibile1 and the intellectus1 as is necessarily the case with all intellect in action4 ,we have reiterated this idea in the present chapter because it is exceedingly abstruse1 and ,i do not apprehend that the reader will confound intellectual comprehension with the representative faculty--with the reproduction of the material image in our imagination1 since this work is designed only for those who have studied philosophy1 and who know what has already been said on the soul and its faculties4 ,,chapter ,,lxix ,the philosophers1 as you know1 call ,god the ,first ,cause 7in ,hebrew illah and sibbah73 but those who are known by the name of ,mutakallemim are very much opposed to the use of that name1 and call ,him ,agens1 believing that there is a great difference whether we say that ,god is the ,cause or that ,he is the ,agens4 ,they argue thus3 ,if we say that ,god is the ,cause1 the coexistence of the ,cause with that which was produced by that ,cause would necessarily be implied2 this again would involve the belief that the ,universe was eternal1 and that it was inseparable from ,god4 ,when1 however1 we say that ,god is the ,agens1 the co-existence of the ,agens with its product is not implied2 for the agens can exist anterior to its product2 we cannot even imagine how an agens can be in action unless it existed before its own production4 ,this is an argument advanced by persons who do not distinguish between the potential and the actual4 ,you1 however1 should know that in this case there is no difference whether you employ the term 8cause0 or 8agens02 for if you take the term 8cause0 in the sense of a mere potentiality1 it precedes its effect2 but if you mean the cause in action1 then the effect must necessarily co-exist with the cause in action4 ,the same is the case with the agens2 take it as an agens in reality1 the work must necessarily co-exist with its agens4 ,for the builder1 before he builds the house1 is not in reality a builder1 but has the faculty for building a house--in the same way as the materials for the house before it is being built are merely in potenti--but when the house has been built1 he is the builder in reality1 and his product must likewise be in actual existence4 ,nothing is therefore gained by choosing the term 8agens0 and rejecting the term 8cause40 ,my object here is to show that these two terms are equal1 and in the same manner as we call ,god an ,agens1 although the work does not yet exist1 only because there is no hindrance or obstacle which might prevent ,him from doing it whenever ,he pleases1 we may also call ,him the ,cause1 although the effect may not yet be in existence4 ,the reason why the philosophers called ,god the ,cause1 and did not call ,him the ,agens1 is not to be sought in their belief that the universe is eternal1 but in other motives1 which ,i will briefly describe to you4 ,it has been shown in the science of ,physics that everything1 except the ,primal ,cause1 owes its origin to the following four causes3--the substance1 the form1 the agens1 the final cause4 ,these are sometimes direct1 sometimes indirect causes2 but each by itself is called 8a cause40 ,they also believe--and ,i do not differ from their opinion--that ,god ,himself is the agens1 the form1 and the end2 therefore they call ,god 8the ,cause10 in order to express that ,he unites in ,himself these three causes1 viz41 that ,he is the agens1 the form1 and the final cause of the universe4 ,in the present chapter ,i only wish to show you in what sense it may be said of ,god that ,he is the agens1 the form1 and also the final cause of the universe4 ,you need not trouble yourself now with the question whether the universe has been created by ,god1 or whether1 as the philosophers have assumed1 it is eternal1 co-existing with ,him4 ,you will find in the pages of this treatise full and instructive information on the subject4 ,here ,i wish to show that ,god is the 8cause0 of every event that takes place in the world1 just as ,he is the ,creator of the whole universe as it now exists4 ,it has already been explained in the science of ,physics1 that a cause must again be sought for each of the four divisions of causes4 ,when we have found for any existing thing those four causes which are in immediate connexion with it1 we find for these again causes1 and for these again other causes1 and so on until we arrive at the first causes4 ,e4g41 a certain production has its agens1 this agens again has its agens1 and so on and on until at last we arrive at a first agens1 which is the true agens throughout all the intervening links4 ,if the letter aleph be moved by bet1 bet by gimel1 gimel by dalet1 and dalet by h--and as the series does not extend to infinity1 let us stop at h--there is no doubt that the h moves the letters aleph1 bet1 gimel1 and dalet1 and we say correctly that the aleph is moved by h4 ,in that sense everything occurring in the universe1 although directly produced by certain nearer causes1 is ascribed to the ,creator1 as we shall explain4 ,he is the ,agens1 and ,he is therefore the ultimate cause4 ,we shall also find1 after careful examination1 that every physical and transient form must be preceded by another such form1 by which the substance has been fitted to receive the next form2 the previous form again has been preceded by another1 and we arrive at length at that form which is necessary for the existence of all intermediate forms1 which are the causes of the present form4 ,that form to which the forms of all existing things are traced is ,god4 ,you must not imagine that when we say that ,god is the first form of all forms existing in the ,universe1 we refer to that first form which ,aristotle1 in the ,book of ,metaphysics1 describes as being without beginning and without end1 for he treats of a form which is a physical1 and not a purely intellectual one4 ,when we call ,god the ultimate form of the universe1 we do not use this term in the sense of form connected with substance1 namely1 as the form of that substance1 as though ,god were the form of a material being4 ,it is not in this sense that we use it1 but in the following3 ,everything existing and endowed with a form1 is whatever it is through its form1 and when that form is destroyed its whole existence terminates and is obliterated4 ,the same is the case as regards the relation between ,god and all distant causes of existing beings2 it is through the existence of ,god that all things exist1 and it is ,he who maintains their existence by that process which is called emanation 7in ,hebrew shepha'71 as will be explained in one of the chapters of the present work4 ,if ,god did not exist1 suppose this were possible1 the universe would not exist1 and there would be an end to the existence of the distant causes1 the final effects1 and the intermediate causes4 ,consequently ,god maintains the same relation to the world as the form has to a thing endowed with a form2 through the form it is what it is1 and on it the reality and essence of the thing depends4 ,in this sense we may say that ,god is the ultimate form1 that ,he is the form of all forms2 that is to say1 the existence and continuance of all forms in the last instance depend on ,him1 the forms are maintained by ,him1 in the same way as all things endowed with forms retain their existence through their forms4 ,on that account ,god is called1 in the sacred language1 e ha-olamim1 8the life of the ,universe10 as will be explained 7chap4 lxxii474 ,the same argument holds good in reference to all final causes4 ,if you assign to a thing a certain purpose1 you can find for that purpose another purpose4 ,we mention1 e4g41 a 7wooden7 chair2 its substance is wood1 the joiner is its agens1 the square its form1 and its purpose is that one should sit upon it4 ,you may then ask1 ,for what purpose does one sit upon it8 ,the answer will be that he who is sitting upon it desires to be high above the ground4 ,if again you ask1 ,for what purpose does he desire to be high above the ground1 you will receive the answer that he wishes to appear high in the eyes of those who see him4 ,for what purpose does he wish to appear higher in the eyes of those who see him8 ,that the people may respect and fear him4 ,what is the good of his being feared8 ,his commands will be respected4 ,for what purpose are his commands to be respected8 ,that people shall refrain from injuring each other4 ,what is the object of this precaution8 ,to maintain order amongst the people4 ,in this way one purpose necessitates the pre-existence of another1 except the final purpose1 which is the execution of the will of ,god1 according to one of the opinions which have been propounded1 as will be explained 7,,iii4 xiii4 and xvii471 and the final answer will be1 8,it is the will of ,god40 ,according to the view of others1 which will likewise be explained1 the final purpose is the execution of the decree of ,his wisdom1 and the final answer will be1 8,it has been decreed by ,his wisdom40 ,according to either opinion1 the series of the successive purposes terminates1 as has been shown1 in ,god's will or wisdom1 which1 in our opinion1 are identical with ,his essence1 and are not any thing separate from ,himself or different from ,his essence4 ,consequently1 ,god is the final purpose of everything4 ,again1 it is the aim of everything to become1 according to its faculties1 similar to ,god in perfection2 this is meant by the expression1 8,his will1 which is identical with ,his essence10 as will be shown below 7ibid474 ,in this sense ,god is called the ,end of all ends4 ,i have thus explained to you in what sense ,god is said to be the ,agens1 the ,form1 and the ,end4 ,this is the reason why the philosophers not only call ,him 8the ,maker0 but also the 8,cause40 ,some of the scholars belonging to the ,mutakallemim 7,mohammedan theologians71 went so far in their folly and in their vainglory as to say that the non-existence of the ,creator1 if that were possible1 would not necessarily imply the non-existence of the things created by ,him1 i4e41 the ,universe3 for a production need not necessarily cease to exist when the producer1 after having produced it1 has ceased to exist4 ,they would be right1 if ,god were only the maker of the ,universe1 and if its permanent existence were not dependent on ,him4 ,the storehouse does not cease to exist at the death of the builder2 for he does not give permanent existence to the building4 ,god1 however1 is ,himself the form of the ,universe1 as we have already shown1 and it is ,he who causes its continuance and permanency4 ,it is therefore wrong to say that a thing can remain durable and permanent1 after the being that makes it durable and permanent has ceased to exist1 since that thing can possess no more durability and permanency than it has received from that being4 ,now you understand the greatness of the error into which they have fallen through their assumption that ,god is only the ,agens1 and not the ,end or the ,form4 ,,chapter ,,lxx ,the term rakab1 8to ride10 is a synonym4 ,in its primary signification it is applied to man's riding on an animal1 in the usual way2 e4g41 8,now he was riding 7rokeb7 upon his ass0 7,num4 xxii4 #bb74 ,it has then been figuratively used to denote 8dominion over a thing02 because the rider governs and rules the animal he rides upon2 e4g41 8,he made him ride 7yarkibehu7 on the high places of the earth0 7,deut4 xxxii4 #ac72 8and ,i will cause thee to ride 7ve-hirkabtika7 upon the high places of the earth0 7,isa4 lviii4 #ad71 that is1 you shall have dominion over the highest 7people7 on earth2 8,i will make ,ephraim to ride 7arkib70 7,hos4 x4 #aa71 i4e41 ,i shall give him rule and dominion4 ,in this same sense it is said of ,god1 8who rideth 7rokeb7 upon the heaven in thy help0 7,deut4 xxxiii4 #bf71 that is1 who rules the heaven2 and 8,him that rideth 7la-rokeb7 upon the arabot0 7,ps4 lxviii4 #d71 i4e41 who rules the arabot1 the uppermost1 all-encompassing sphere4 ,it has also been repeatedly stated by our ,sages that there are seven rekiim 7firmaments1 heavens71 and that the uppermost of them1 the all-surrounding1 is called arabot4 ,do not object to the number seven given by them1 although there are more rekiim1 for there are spheres which contain several circles 7gilgallim71 and are counted as one2 this is clear to those who have studied that subject1 and ,i shall also explain it2 here ,i wish merely to point out that our ,sages always assumed that arabot is the uppermost sphere4 ,the arabot is also referred to in the words1 8who rideth upon the heaven in thy help40 ,thus we read in ,talm4 ,b4 agigah1 p4 #ab1 8,the high and exalted dwelleth on arabot1 as it is said1 #8,extol ,him that rideth upon arabot'0 7,ps4 lxviii4 #d74 ,how is it proved that 8heaven0 and 8arabot0 are identical8 ,the one passage has 8who rideth on arabot10 the other 8who rideth upon the heaven40 ,hence it is clear that in all these passages reference is made to the same all-surrounding sphere1 concerning which you will hereafter 7,,ii4 xxiv47 receive more information4 ,consider well that the expression 8dwelling over it10 is used by them1 and not 8dwelling in it40 ,the latter expression would have implied that ,god occupies a place or is a power in the sphere1 as was in fact believed by the ,sabeans1 who held that ,god was the soul of the sphere4 ,by saying 8dwelling over it10 they indicated that ,god was separate from the sphere1 and was not a power in it4 ,know also that the term 8riding upon the heavens10 has figuratively been applied to ,god in order to show the following excellent comparison4 ,the rider is better than the animal upon which he rides--the comparative is only used for the sake of convenience1 for the rider is not of the same class as the animal upon which he rides--furthermore1 the rider moves the animal and leads it as he likes2 it is as it were his instrument1 which he uses according to his will2 he is separate from it1 apart from it1 not connected with it4 ,in like manner the uppermost sphere1 by the rotation of which everything moveable is set in motion1 is moved by ,god1 who is separate from the sphere1 and is not a power in it4 ,in ,bereshit ,rabba we read that in commenting on the ,divine words1 8,the eternal ,god is a refuge0 7lit41 a dwelling1 ,deut4 xxxiii4 #bg71 our ,sages said1 8,he is the dwelling of ,his world1 the world is not ,his dwelling40 ,this explanation is then followed by the remark1 8,the horse is secondary to the rider1 the rider is not subservient to the horse2 this is meant by #8,thou wilt ride upon thy horses'0 7,hab4 iii4 #h74 ,consider and learn how they described the relation of ,god to the sphere1 asserting that the latter is ,his instrument1 by means of which ,he rules the universe4 ,for whenever you find our ,sages saying that in a certain heaven are certain things1 they do not mean to say that in the heavens there are any extraneous things1 but that from a certain heaven the force emanates which is required for the production of certain things1 and for their continuing in proper order4 ,the proof for my statement you may find in the following sayings of our ,sages--8,the arabot1 in which there are justice1 charity1 right1 treasures of life and peace1 treasures of blessing1 of the souls of the righteous1 of the souls and the spirits of those to be born1 and of the dew by which ,god will at some future time revive the dead1 etc40 ,it is clear that the things enumerated here are not material1 and do not occupy a place--for 8dew0 is not to be taken in its literal sense4--,consider also that here the phrase 8in which10 meaning 8in the arabot10 is used1 and not 8over which10 as if to say that all the things existing in the universe derive their existence from powers emanating from the arabot1 which ,god made to be the origin and the place of these powers4 ,they are said to include 8the treasures of life02 a perfectly true and correct assertion6 ,for all existing life originates in that treasure of life1 as will be mentioned below 7chap4 lxii41 and ,,ii4 chap4 x474 ,reflect on the fact that the souls of the righteous as well as the souls and the spirits of those to be born are mentioned here6 ,how sublime is this idea to him who understands it6 for the soul that remains after the death of man1 is not the soul that lives in a man when he is born2 the latter is a mere faculty1 while that which has a separate existence after death1 is a reality2 again1 the soul and the spirit of man during his life are two different things2 therefore the souls and the spirits are both named as existing in man2 but separate from the body only one of them exists4 ,we have already explained the homonymity of rua 7spirit7 in this work1 and also at the end of ,sefer ha madda 7,mishneh torah ,hil4 teshubah1 viii4 #c-d7 we treated of the homonymity of these expressions4 ,consider how these excellent and true ideas1 comprehended only by the greatest philosophers1 are found scattered in the ,midrashim4 ,when a student who disavows truth reads them1 he will at first sight deride them1 as being contrary to the real state of things4 ,the cause of this is the circumstance1 that our ,sages spoke of these subjects in metaphors2 they are too difficult for the common understanding of the people1 as has been noticed by us several times4 ,i will now return to the subject which ,i commenced to explain1 in order to bring it to a conclusion4 ,our ,sages commenced to adduce proofs from ,scripture for their assertion that the things enumerated above are contained in the arabot4 ,as to justice and right they quote 8,justice and judgment are the habitation of thy throne0 7,ps4 lxxxix4 #ah74 ,in the same way they prove their assertion concerning all things enumerated by them1 by showing that they are described as being related to ,god1 as being near ,him4 ,note this4 ,in the ,pirke ,rabbi ,eliezer it is said3 ,god created seven rekiim 7heavens71 and out of all of them ,he selected the araboth for ,his royal throne2 comp4 8,exalt him who rideth upon the arabot0 7,ps4 lxviii4 #d74 ,these are his 7,rabbi ,eliezer's7 words4 ,note them likewise4 ,you must know that in ,hebrew the collective noun denoting animals used for riding is 8mercabah40 ,instances of this noun are not rare4 8,and ,joseph made ready his chariot0 7merkabto7 7,gen4 xlvi4 #bi72 8in the second chariot0 7be-mirkebet7 7ib4 xli4 #dc72 8,pharaoh's chariots0 7markebot7 7,exod4 xv4 #d74 ,the following passage especially proves that the ,hebrew merkabah denotes a collection of animals3 8,and a merkabah came up and went out of ,egypt for six hundred shekels of silver1 and a horse for an hundred and fifty0 7#a ,kings x4 #ba74 ,hence we may learn that mercabah denotes here four horses4 ,therefore ,i think that when it was stated1 according to the literal sense of the words1 that four ayyot 7beasts7 carry the ,throne of ,glory1 our ,sages called this 8mercabah0 on account of its similarity with the mercabah consisting of four single animals4 ,so far has the theme of this chapter carried us1 and we shall be compelled to make many further remarks on this subject4 ,here1 however1 it is our object1 and the aim of all we have said1 to show that 8who rideth upon heaven0 7,deut4 xxxiii4 #bf7 means 8who sets the all-surrounding sphere in motion1 and turns it by ,his power and will40 ,the same sense is contained in the conclusion of that verse3 8and in his excellency the spheres10 i4e41 who in ,his excellency moves the spheres 7sheakim74 ,in reference to the first sphere1 the arabot1 the verb 8to ride0 is used1 in reference to the rest1 the noun 8excellency10 because through the motion of the uppermost sphere in its daily circuit1 all the spheres move1 participating as parts in the motion of the whole2 and this being that great power that sets everything in motion1 it is called 8excellency40 ,let this subject constantly remain in your memory when you study what ,i am going to say2 for it--i4e41 the motion of the uppermost sphere--is the greatest proof for the existence of ,god1 as ,i shall demonstrate4 ,note this4 ,,chapter ,,lxxi ,know that many branches of science relating to the correct solution of these problems1 were once cultivated by our forefathers1 but were in the course of time neglected1 especially in consequence of the tyranny which barbarous nations exercised over us4 ,besides1 speculative studies were not open to all men1 as we have already stated 7,introd4 p4 #b1 and ,i4 chap1 xxxi471 only the subjects taught in the ,scriptures were accessible to all4 ,even the traditional ,law1 as you are well aware1 was not originally committed to writing1 in conformity with the rule to which our nation generally adhered1 8,things which ,i have communicated to you orally1 you must not communicate to others in writing40 ,with reference to the ,law1 this rule was very opportune2 for while it remained in force it averted the evils which happened subsequently1 viz41 great diversity of opinion1 doubts as to the meaning of written words1 slips of the pen1 dissensions among the people1 formation of new sects1 and confused notions about practical subjects4 ,the traditional teaching was in fact1 according to the words of the ,law1 entrusted to the ,great ,tribunal1 as we have already stated in our works on the ,talmud4 7,introd4 to ,mishneh ,torah and ,introd4 to ,commen4 on the ,mishnah74 ,care having been taken1 for the sake of obviating injurious influences1 that the ,oral ,law should not be recorded in a form accessible to all1 it was but natural that no portion of 8the secrets of the ,law0 7i4e41 metaphysical problems7 would be permitted to be written down or divulged for the use of all men4 ,these secrets1 as has been explained1 were orally communicated by a few able men to others who were equally distinguished4 ,hence the principle applied by our teachers1 8,the secrets of the ,law can only be entrusted to him who is a councillor1 a cunning artificer1 etc40 ,the natural effect of this practice was that our nation lost the knowledge of those important disciplines4 ,nothing but a few remarks and allusions are to be found in the ,talmud and the ,midrashim1 like a few kernels enveloped in such a quantity of husk1 that the reader is generally occupied with the husk1 and forgets that it encloses a kernel4 ,in addition you will find that in the few works composed by the ,geonim and the ,karaites on the unity of ,god and on such matter as is connected with this doctrine1 they followed the lead of the ,mohammedan ,mutakallemim1 and what they wrote is insignificant in comparison with the kindred works of the ,mohammedans4 ,it also happened1 that at the time when the ,mohammedans adopted this method of the ,kalam1 there arose among them a certain sect1 called ,mutazilah1 i4e41 ,separatists4 ,in certain things our scholars followed the theory and the method of these ,mutazilah4 ,although another sect1 the ,asha'ariyah1 with their own peculiar views1 was subsequently established amongst the ,mohammedans1 you will not find any of these views in the writings of our authors2 not because these authors preferred the opinions of the first-named sect to those of the latter1 but because they chanced first to become acquainted with the theory of the ,mutazilah1 which they adopted and treated as demonstrated truth4 ,on the other hand our ,andalusian scholars followed the teachings of the philosophers1 from whom they accepted those opinions which were not opposed to our own religious principles4 ,you will find that they did not adopt any of the methods of the ,mutakallemim2 in many respects they approached the view expressed in the present treatise1 as may be noticed in the few works which were recently written by authors of that school4 ,you should also know that whatever the ,mohammedans1 that is1 the ,mutazilah and the ,asha'ariyah1 said on those subjects1 consists in nothing but theories founded on propositions which are taken from the works of those ,greek and ,syrian scholars who attempted to oppose the system of the philosophers1 and to refute their arguments4 ,the following was the cause of that opposition3 ,at the time when the ,christian ,church brought the ,greeks and ,syrians into its fold1 and promulgated its well-known dogmas1 the opinions of the philosophers were current amongst those nations2 and whilst philosophy flourished1 kings became defenders of the ,christian faith4 ,the learned ,greek and ,syrian ,christians of the age1 seeing that their dogmas were unquestionably exposed to severe attacks from the existing philosophical systems1 laid the foundation for this science of ,dogmatics2 they commenced by putting forth such propositions as would support their doctrines1 and be useful for the refutation of opinions opposed to the fundamental principles of the ,christian religion4 ,when the ,mohammedans caused ,arabic translations of the writings of the ,philosophers to be made1 those criticisms were likewise translated4 ,when the opinions of ,john the ,grammarian1 of ,ibn ,adi1 and of kindred authors on those subjects were made accessible to them1 they adopted them1 and imagined that they had arrived at the solution of important problems4 ,moreover1 they selected from the opinions of the ancient philosophers whatever seemed serviceable to their purposes1 although later critics had proved that those theories were false2 as1 e4g41 the theories of atoms and of a vacuum4 ,they believed that the discussions of those authors were of a general character1 and contained propositions useful for the defence of positive religion4 ,at a subsequent period the same theories were more fully developed1 and presented an aspect unknown to those ,theologians of the ,greeks and other nations who were the immediate successors of the ,philosophers4 ,at a later time1 when the ,mohammedans adopted certain peculiar theological theories they were naturally obliged to defend them2 and when their new theories1 again became the subject of controversy among them1 each party laid down such propositions as suited their special doctrine4 ,their arguments undoubtedly involved certain principles which concerned the three communities--,jews1 ,christians1 and ,mohammedans1 such as the creatio ex nihilo1 which afforded support to the belief in miracles and to various other doctrines4 ,there are1 however1 other subjects of belief which the ,christians and ,mohammedans have undertaken to defend1 such as the doctrine of the ,trinity in the theological works of the former1 and 8the ,word0 in the works of some ,mohammedan sects2 in order to prove the dogmas which they thus desired to establish1 they were compelled to resort to certain hypotheses4 ,it is not our object to criticize things which are peculiar to either creed1 or books which were written exclusively in the interest of the one community or the other4 ,we merely maintain that the earlier ,theologians1 both of the ,greek ,christians and of the ,mohammedans1 when they laid down their propositions1 did not investigate the real properties of things2 first of all they considered what must be the properties of the things which should yield proof for or against a certain creed2 and when this was found they asserted that the thing must be endowed with those properties2 then they employed the same assertion as a proof for the identical arguments which had led to the assertion1 and by which they either supported or refuted a certain opinion4 ,this course was followed by able men who originated this method1 and adopted it in their writings4 ,they professed to be free from preconceived opinions1 and to have been led to a stated result by actual research4 ,therefore when philosophers of a subsequent date studied the same writings they did not perceive the true character of the arguments2 on the contrary1 they found in the ancient works strong proofs and a valuable support for the acceptance or the rejection of certain opinions1 and thus thought that1 so far as religious principles were concerned1 there was no necessity whatever to prove or refute any of their propositions1 and that the first ,mutakallemim had discussed those subjects with the sole object of defeating certain views of the philosophers1 and demonstrating the insufficiency of their proofs4 ,persons who hold this opinion1 do not suspect how much they are mistaken2 for the first ,mutakallemim tried to prove a proposition when it was expedient to demonstrate its truth2 and to disprove it1 when its rejection was desirable1 and when it was contrary to the opinion which they wished to uphold1 although the contradiction might only become obvious after the application of a hundred successive propositions4 ,in this manner the earlier ,mutakallemim effected a radical cure of the malady6 ,i tell you1 however1 as a general rule1 that ,themistius was right in saying that the properties of things cannot adapt themselves to our opinions1 but our opinions must be adapted to the existing properties4 ,having studied the works of these ,mutakallemim1 as far as ,i had an opportunity1 just as ,i had studied the writings of the philosophers according to the best of my ability1 ,i found that the method of all ,mutakallemim was the same in its general characteristics1 namely1 they assume that the really existing form of things proves nothing at all1 because it is merely one of the various phases of the things1 the opposite of which is equally admissible to our minds4 ,in many instances these ,theologians were guided by their imagination1 and thought that they were following the dictates of the intellect4 ,they set forth the propositions which ,i shall describe to you1 and demonstrated by their peculiar mode of arguing that the ,universe had a beginning4 ,the theory of the creatio ex nihilo being thus established1 they asserted1 as a logical consequence1 that undoubtedly there must be a ,maker who created the ,universe4 ,next they showed that this ,maker is ,one1 and from the ,unity of the ,creator they deduced ,his ,incorporeality4 ,this method was adopted by every ,mohammedan ,mutakallem in the discussion of this subject1 and by those of our co-religionists who imitated them and walked in their footsteps4 ,although the ,mutakallemim disagree in the methods of their proofs1 and employ different propositions in demonstrating the act of creation or in rejecting the eternity of the ,universe1 they invariably begin with proving the creatio ex nihilo1 and establish on that proof the existence of ,god4 ,i have examined this method1 and find it most objectionable4 ,it must be rejected1 because all the proofs for the creation have weak points1 and cannot be considered as convincing except by those who do not know the difference between a proof1 a dialectical argument1 and a sophism4 ,those who understand the force of the different methods will clearly see that all the proofs for the creation are questionable1 because propositions have been employed which have never been proved4 ,i think that the utmost that can be effected by believers in the truth of ,revelation is to expose the shortcomings in the proofs of philosophers who hold that the ,universe is eternal1 and if forsooth a man has effected this1 he has accomplished a great deed6 ,for it is well known to all clear and correct thinkers who do not wish to deceive themselves1 that this question1 namely1 whether the ,universe has been created or is eternal1 cannot be answered with mathematical certainty2 here human intellect must pause4 ,we shall have occasion to speak more fully on this subject1 but for the present it may suffice to state that the philosophers have for the last three thousand years been continually divided on that subject1 as far as we can learn from their works and the record of their opinions4 ,such being the nature of this theory1 how can we employ it as an axiom and establish on it the existence of the ,creator8 ,in that case the existence of ,god would be uncertain2 if the universe had a beginning1 ,god does exist2 if it be eternal1 ,god does not exist2 the existence of ,god would therefore remain either an open question1 or we should have to declare that the creation had been proved1 and compel others by mere force to accept this doctrine1 in order thus to be enabled to declare that we have proved the existence of ,god4 ,such a process is utterly inadmissible4 ,the true method1 which is based on a logical and indubitable proof1 consists1 according to my opinion1 in demonstrating the existence of ,god1 ,his unity1 and ,his incorporeality by such philosophical arguments as are founded on the theory of the eternity of the ,universe4 ,i do not propose this method as though ,i believed in the eternity of the ,universe1 for ,i do not follow the philosophers on this point1 but because by the aid of this method these three principles1 viz41 the existence of ,god1 ,his unity and ,his incorporeality can be fully proved and verified1 irrespectively of the question whether the universe has had a beginning or not4 ,after firmly establishing these three principles by an exact proof1 we shall treat of the problem of creation and discuss it as fully as possible4 ,you are at liberty to content yourself with the declaration of the ,mutakallemim1 and to believe that the act of creation has been demonstrated by proof2 nor can there be any harm if you consider it unproven that the universe had a beginning1 and accept this theory as supported by the authority of the ,prophets4 ,before you learn our opinion on prophecy1 which will be given in the present work1 do not ask1 how could the belief in prophecy be justified1 if it were assumed that the universe was eternal4 ,we will not now expatiate on that subject4 ,you should1 however1 know that some of the propositions1 started and proved by the ,radicals1 i4e41 the ,mutakallemim1 in order to prove the act of creation1 imply an order of things contrary to that which really exists1 and involve a complete change in the laws of nature2 this fact will be pointed out to you1 for it will be necessary to mention their propositions and their argumentation4 ,my method1 as far as ,i now can explain it in general terms1 is as follows4 ,the universe is either eternal or has had a beginning2 if it had a beginning1 there must necessarily exist a being which caused the beginning2 this is clear to common sense2 for a thing that has had a beginning1 cannot be the cause of its own beginning1 another must have caused it4 ,the universe was1 therefore1 created by ,god4 ,if on the other hand the universe were eternal1 it could in various ways be proved that apart from the things which constitute the universe1 there exists a being which is neither body nor a force in a body1 and which is one1 eternal1 not preceded by any cause1 and immutable4 ,that being is ,god4 ,you see that the proofs for the ,existence1 the ,unity and the ,incorporeality of ,god must vary according to the propositions admitted by us4 ,only in this way can we succeed in obtaining a perfect proof1 whether we assume the eternity or the creation of the universe4 ,for this reason you will find in my works on the ,talmud1 whenever ,i have to speak of the fundamental principles of our religion1 or to prove the existence of ,god1 that ,i employ arguments which imply the eternity of the universe4 ,i do not believe in that eternity1 but ,i wish to establish the principle of the existence of ,god by an indisputable proof1 and should not like to see this most important principle founded on a basis which every one could shake or attempt to demolish1 and which others might consider as not being established at all2 especially when ,i see that the proofs of the philosophers are based on those visible properties of things1 which can only be ignored by persons possessing certain preconceived notions1 while the ,mutakallemim establish their arguments on propositions which are to such an extent contrary to the actual state of things as to compel these arguers to deny altogether the existence of the laws of nature4 ,when ,i shall have to treat of the creation1 ,i shall in a special chapter prove my opinion to some extent1 and shall attain the same end which every one of the ,mutakallemim had in view1 yet ,i shall not contradict the laws of nature1 or reject any such part of the ,aristotelean theory as has been proved to be correct4 ,even the most cogent of the proofs offered by the ,mutakallemim respecting the act of creation1 has only been obtained by reversing the whole order of things and by rejecting everything fully demonstrated by the philosophers4 ,i1 however1 shall be able to give a similar proof without ignoring the laws of nature and without being forced to contradict facts which have been clearly perceived4 ,i find it necessary to mention to you the general propositions of the ,mutakallemim1 by which they prove the act of creation1 the ,existence of ,god1 ,his ,unity and ,his ,incorporeality4 ,i intend to explain their method1 and also to point out the inferences which are to be drawn from each proposition4 ,after this1 ,i shall describe those theories of the philosophers which are closely connected with our subject1 and ,i shall then explain their method4 ,do not ask me to prove in this work the propositions of the philosophers1 which ,i shall briefly mention to you2 they form the principal part of ,physics and ,metaphysics4 ,nor must you expect that ,i should repeat the arguments of the ,mutakallemim in support of their propositions1 with which they wasted their time1 with which the time of future generations will likewise be wasted1 and on which numerous books have been written4 ,their propositions1 with few exceptions1 are contradicted by the visible properties of things1 and beset with numerous objections4 ,for this reason they were obliged to write many books and controversial works in defence of their theories1 for the refutation of objections1 and for the reconciliation of all apparent contradictions1 although in reality this object cannot be attained by any sophistical contrivance4 ,as to the propositions of the philosophers which ,i shall briefly explain1 and which are indispensable for the demonstration of the three principles--the ,existence1 the ,unity1 and the ,incorporeality of ,god1 they will for the greater part be admitted by you as soon as you shall hear them and understand their meaning2 whilst in the discussion of other parts reference must be made for their proofs to works on ,physics and ,metaphysics1 and if you direct your attention to such passages as will be pointed out to you1 you will find everything verified that requires verification4 ,i have already told you that nothing exists except ,god and this universe1 and that there is no other evidence for ,his ,existence but this universe in its entirety and in its several parts4 ,consequently the universe must be examined as it is2 the propositions must be derived from those properties of the universe which are clearly perceived1 and hence you must know its visible form and its nature4 ,then only will you find in the universe evidence for the existence of a being not included therein4 ,i have considered it1 therefore1 necessary to discuss first in a merely colloquial manner1 in the next chapter1 the totality of existing things1 and to confine our remarks to such as have been fully proved and established beyond all doubt4 ,in subsequent chapters ,i shall treat of the propositions of the ,mutakallemim1 and describe the method by which they explain the four fundamental principles4 ,in the chapters which will follow1 ,i propose to expound the propositions of the philosophers and the methods applied by them in verifying those principles4 ,in the last place1 ,i shall explain to you the method applied by me in proving those four principles1 as ,i have stated to you4 ,,chapter ,,lxxii ,know that this ,universe1 in its entirety1 is nothing else but one individual being2 that is to say1 the outermost heavenly sphere1 together with all included therein1 is as regards individuality beyond all question a single being like ,said and ,omar4 ,the variety of its substances--,i mean the substances of that sphere and all its component parts--is like the variety of the substances of a human being3 just as1 e4g41 ,said is one individual1 consisting of various solid substances1 such as flesh1 bones1 sinews1 of various humours1 and of various spiritual elements2 in like manner this sphere in its totality is composed of the celestial orbs1 the four elements and their combinations2 there is no vacuum whatever therein1 but the whole space is filled up with matter4 ,its centre is occupied by the earth1 earth is surrounded by water1 air encompasses the water1 fire envelopes the air1 and this again is enveloped by the fifth substance 7quintessence74 ,these substances form numerous spheres1 one being enclosed within another so that no intermediate empty space1 no vacuum1 is left4 ,one sphere surrounds and closely joins the other4 ,all the spheres revolve with constant uniformity1 without acceleration or retardation2 that is to say1 each sphere retains its individual nature as regards its velocity and the peculiarity of its motion2 it does not move at one time quicker1 at another slower4 ,compared with each other1 however1 some of the spheres move with less1 others with greater velocity4 ,the outermost1 all-encompassing sphere1 revolves with the greatest speed2 it completes its revolution in one day1 and causes everything to participate in its motion1 just as every particle of a thing moves when the entire body is in motion2 for existing beings stand in the same relation to that sphere as a part of a thing stands to the whole4 ,these spheres have not a common centre2 the centres of some of them are identical with the centre of the ,universe1 while those of the rest are different from it4 ,some of the spheres have a motion independent of that of the whole ,universe1 constantly revolving from ,east to ,west1 while other spheres move from ,west to ,east4 ,the stars contained in those spheres are part of their respective orbits2 they are fixed in them1 and have no motion of their own1 but participating in the motion of the sphere of which they are a part1 they appear themselves to move4 ,the entire substance of this revolving fifth element is unlike the substance of those bodies which consist of the other four elements1 and are enclosed by the fifth element4 ,the number of these spheres encompassing the ,universe cannot possibly be less than eighteen2 it may even be larger2 but this is a matter for further investigation4 ,it also remains an open question whether there are spheres which1 without moving round the centre of the ,universe1 have nevertheless a circular motion4 ,within that sphere which is nearest to us1 a substance is contained which is different from the substance of the fifth element2 it first received four primary forms1 and then became in these four forms1 four kinds of matter3 earth1 water1 air1 fire4 ,each of the four elements occupies a certain position of its own assigned to it by nature2 it is not found in another place1 so long as no other but its own natural force acts upon it2 it is a dead body2 it has no life1 no perception1 no spontaneous motion1 and remains at rest in its natural place4 ,when moved from its place by some external force1 it returns towards its natural place as soon as that force ceases to operate4 ,for the elements have the property of moving back to their place in a straight line1 but they have no properties which would cause them to remain where they are1 or to move otherwise than in a straight line4 ,the rectilinear motions of these four elements when returning to their original place are of two kinds1 either centrifugal1 viz41 the motion of the air and the fire2 or centripetal1 viz41 the motion of the earth1 and the water2 and when the elements have reached their original place1 they remain at rest4 ,the spherical bodies1 on the other hand1 have life1 possess a soul by which they move spontaneously2 they have no properties by which they could at any time come to a state of rest2 in their perpetual rotations they are not subject to any change1 except that of position4 ,the question whether they are endowed with an intellect1 enabling them to comprehend1 cannot be solved without deep research4 ,through the constant revolution of the fifth element1 with all contained therein1 the four elements are forced to move and to change their respective positions1 so that fire and air are driven into the water1 and again these three elements enter the depth of the earth4 ,thus are the elements mixed together2 and when they return to their respective places1 parts of the earth1 in quitting their places1 move together with the water1 the air and the fire4 ,in this whole process the elements act and react upon each other4 ,the elements intermixed1 are then combined1 and form at first various kinds of vapours2 afterwards the several kinds of minerals1 every species of plants1 and many species of living beings1 according to the relative proportion of the constituent parts4 ,all transient beings have their origin in the elements1 into which again they resolve when their existence comes to an end4 ,the elements themselves are subject to being transformed from one into another2 for although one substance is common to all1 substance without form is in reality impossible1 just as the physical form of these transient beings cannot exist without substance4 ,the formation and the dissolution of the elements1 together with the things composed of them1 and resolving into them1 follow each other in rotation4 ,the changes of the finite substance1 in successively receiving one form after the other1 may therefore be compared to the revolution of the sphere in space1 when each part of the sphere periodically reappears in the same position4 ,as the human body consists both of principal organs and of other members which depend on them and cannot exist without the control of those organs1 so does the universe consist both of principal parts1 viz41 the quintessence1 which encompasses the four elements and of other parts which are subordinated and require a leader1 viz41 the four elements and the things composed of them4 ,again1 the principal part in the human body1 namely1 the heart1 is in constant motion1 and is the source of every motion noticed in the body2 it rules over the other members1 and communicates to them through its own pulsations the force required for their functions4 ,the outermost sphere by its motion rules in a similar way over all other parts of the universe1 and supplies all things with their special properties4 ,every motion in the universe has thus its origin in the motion of that sphere2 and the soul of every animated being derives its origin from the soul of that same sphere4 ,the forces which according to this explanation are communicated by the spheres to this sublunary world are four in number1 viz41 7a7 the force which effects the mixture and the composition of the elements1 and which undoubtedly suffices to form the minerals2 7b7 the force which supplies every growing thing with its vegetative functions2 7c7 the force which gives to each living being its vitality1 and 7d7 the force which endows rational beings with intellect4 ,all this is effected through the action of light and darkness1 which are regulated by the position and the motion of the spheres round the earth4 ,when for one instant the beating of the heart is interrupted1 man dies1 and all his motions and powers come to an end4 ,in a like manner would the whole universe perish1 and everything therein cease to exist if the spheres were to come to a standstill4 ,the living being as such is one through the action of its heart1 although some parts of the body are devoid of motion and sensation1 as1 e4g41 the bones1 the cartilage1 and similar parts4 ,the same is the case with the entire universe2 although it includes many beings without motion and without life1 it is a single being living through the motion of the sphere1 which may be compared to the heart of an animated being4 ,you must therefore consider the entire globe as one individual being which is endowed with life1 motion1 and a soul4 ,this mode of considering the universe is1 as will be explained1 indispensable1 that is to say1 it is very useful for demonstrating the unity of ,god2 it also helps to elucidate the principle that ,he who is ,one has created only one being4 ,again1 it is impossible that any of the members of a human body should exist by themselves1 not connected with the body1 and at the same time should actually be organic parts of that body1 that is to say1 that the liver should exist by itself1 the heart by itself1 or the flesh by itself4 ,in like manner1 it is impossible that one part of the ,universe should exist independently of the other parts in the existing order of things as here considered1 viz41 that the fire should exist without the co-existence of the earth1 or the earth without the heaven1 or the heaven without the earth4 ,in man there is a certain force which unites the members of the body1 controls them1 and gives to each of them what it requires for the conservation of its condition1 and for the repulsion of injury--the physicians distinctly call it the leading force in the body of the living being2 sometimes they call it 8nature40 ,the ,universe likewise possesses a force which unites the several parts with each other1 protects the species from destruction1 maintains the individuals of each species as long as possible1 and endows some individual beings with permanent existence4 ,whether this force operates through the medium of the sphere or otherwise remains an open question4 ,again1 in the body of each individual there are parts which are intended for a certain purpose1 as the organs of nutrition for the preservation of the individual1 the organs of generation for the preservation of the species1 the hands and eyes for administering to certain wants1 as to food1 etc42 there are also parts which1 in themselves1 are not intended for any purpose1 but are mere accessories and adjuncts to the constitution of the other parts4 ,the peculiar constitution of the organs1 indispensable for the conservation of their particular forms and for the performance of their primary functions1 produces1 whilst it serves its special purpose1 according to the nature of the substance1 other things1 such as the hair and the complexion of the body4 ,being mere accessories1 they are not formed according to a fixed rule2 some are altogether absent in many individuals2 and vary considerably in others4 ,this is not the case with the organs of the body4 ,you never find that the liver of one person is ten times larger than that of another person1 but you may find a person without a beard1 or without hair on certain parts of his body1 or with a beard ten times longer than that of another man4 ,instances of this phenomenon1 viz41 great variation as regards hair and colour1 are not rare4 ,the same differences occur in the constitution of the ,universe4 ,some species exist as an integral part of the whole system2 these are constant and follow a fixed law2 though they vary as far as their nature permits1 this variation is insignificant in quantity and quality4 ,other species do not serve any purpose2 they are the mere result of the general nature of transient things1 as1 e4g41 the various insects which are generated in dunghills1 the animals generated in rotten fruit1 or in fetid liquids1 and worms generated in the intestines1 etc4 ,in short1 everything devoid of the power of generation belongs to this class4 ,you will1 therefore1 find that these things do not follow a fixed law1 although their entire absence is just as impossible as the absence of different complexions and of different kinds of hair amongst human beings4 ,in man there are substances the individual existence of which is permanent1 and there are other substances which are only constant in the species not in the individuals1 as1 e4g41 the four humours4 ,the same is the case in the ,universe2 there are substances which are constant in individuals1 such as the fifth element1 which is constant in all its formations1 and other substances which are constant in the species1 as1 e4g41 the four elements and all that is composed of them4 ,the same forces which operate in the birth and the temporal existence of the human being operate also in his destruction and death4 ,this truth holds good with regard to this whole transient world4 ,the causes of production are at the same time the causes of destruction4 ,this may be illustrated by the following example4 ,if the four forces which are present in every being sustained by food1 viz41 attraction1 retention1 digestion1 and secretion1 were1 like intelligent forces1 able to confine themselves to what is necessary1 and to act at the proper time and within the proper limits1 man would be exempt from those great sufferings and the numerous diseases to which he is exposed4 ,since1 however1 such is not the case1 and since the forces perform their natural functions without thought and intelligence1 without any consciousness of their action1 they necessarily cause dangerous maladies and great pains1 although they are the direct cause of the birth and the temporal existence of the human being4 ,this fact is to be explained as follows3 if the attractive force would absorb nothing but that which is absolutely beneficial1 and nothing but the quantity which is required1 man would be free from many such sufferings and disorders4 ,but such is not the case2 the attractive force absorbs any humour that comes within the range of its action1 although such humour be ill-adapted in quality or in quantity4 ,it is1 therefore1 natural that sometimes a humour is absorbed which is too warm1 too cold1 too thick1 or too thin1 or that too much humour is absorbed1 and thus the veins are choked1 obstruction and decay ensue1 the quality of the humour is deteriorated1 its quantities altered1 diseases are originated1 such as scurvy1 leprosy1 abscess1 or a dangerous illness1 such as cancer1 elephantiasis1 gangrene1 and at last the organ or organs are destroyed4 ,the same is the case with every one of the four forces1 and with all existing beings4 ,the same force that originates all things1 and causes them to exist for a certain time1 namely1 the combination of the elements which are moved and penetrated by the forces of the heavenly spheres1 that same cause becomes throughout the world a source of calamities1 such as devastating rain1 showers1 snow-storms1 hail1 hurricanes1 thunder1 lightning1 malaria1 or other terrible catastrophes by which a place or many places or an entire country may be laid waste1 such as landslips1 earthquakes1 meteoric showers and floods issuing forth from the seas and from the interior of the earth4 ,bear in mind1 however1 that in all that we have noticed about the similarity between the ,universe and the human being1 nothing would warrant us to assert that man is a microcosm2 for although the comparison in all its parts applies to the ,universe and any living being in its normal state1 we never heard that any ancient author called the ass or the horse a microcosm4 ,this attribute has been given to man alone on account of his peculiar faculty of thinking1 ,i mean the intellect1 viz41 the hylic intellect which appertains to no other living being4 ,this may be explained as follows4 ,an animal does not require for its sustenance any plan1 thought or scheme2 each animal moves and acts by its nature1 eats as much as it can find of suitable things1 it makes its resting-place wherever it happens to be1 cohabits with any mate it meets while in heat in the periods of its sexual excitement4 ,in this manner does each individual conserve itself for a certain time1 and perpetuates the existence of its species without requiring for its maintenance the assistance or support of any of its fellow creatures2 for all the things to which it has to attend it performs by itself4 ,with man it is different2 if an individual had a solitary existence1 and were1 like an animal1 left without guidance1 he would soon perish1 he would not endure even one day1 unless it were by mere chance1 unless he happened to find something upon which he might feed4 ,for the food which man requires for his subsistence demands much work and preparation1 which can only be accomplished by reflection and by plan2 many vessels must be used1 and many individuals1 each in his peculiar work1 must be employed4 ,it is therefore necessary that one person should organize the work and direct men in such a manner that they should properly co-operate1 and that they should assist each other4 ,the protection from heat in summer and from cold in winter1 and shelter from rain1 snow1 and wind1 require in the same manner the preparation of many things1 none of which can properly be done without design and thought4 ,for this reason man has been endowed with intellectual faculties1 which enable him to think1 consider1 and act1 and by various labours to prepare and procure for himself food1 dwelling and clothing1 and to control every organ of his body1 causing both the principal and the secondary organs to perform their respective functions4 ,consequently1 if a man1 being deprived of his intellectual faculties1 only possessed vitality1 he would in a short time be lost4 ,the intellect is the highest of all faculties of living creatures2 it is very difficult to comprehend1 and its true character cannot be understood as easily as man's other faculties4 ,there also exists in the ,universe a certain force which controls the whole1 which sets in motion the chief and principal parts1 and gives them the motive power for governing the rest4 ,without that force1 the existence of this sphere1 with its principal and secondary parts1 would be impossible4 ,it is the source of the existence of the ,universe in all its parts4 ,that force is ,god2 blessed be ,his name6 ,it is on account of this force that man is called microcosm2 for he likewise possesses a certain principle which governs all the forces of the body1 and on account of this comparison ,god is called 8the life of the ,universe02 comp4 8and he swore by the life of the ,universe0 7,dan4 xii4 #g74 ,you must understand that in the parallel which we have drawn between the whole universe1 on the one hand1 and the individual man1 on the other1 there is a complete harmony in all the points which we mentioned above2 only in the following three points a discrepancy may be noticed4 ,first1 the principal organ of any living being which has a heart1 derives a benefit from the organs under the control of the heart1 and the benefits of the organs thus become the benefits of the heart4 ,this is not the case in the constitution of the universe4 ,that part which bestows authority or distributes power1 does not receive in return any benefit from the things under its control2 whatever it grants1 is granted in the manner of a generous benefactor1 not from any selfish motive1 but from a natural generosity and kindliness2 only for the sake of imitating the ways of the ,most ,high4 ,secondly1 living creatures endowed with a heart have it within the body and in the midst thereof2 there it is surrounded by organs which it governs4 ,thus it derives a benefit from them1 for they guard and protect it1 and they do not allow that any injury from without should approach it4 ,the reverse occurs in the case of the ,universe4 ,the superior part encompasses the inferior parts1 it being certain that it cannot be affected by the action of any other being2 and even if it could be affected1 there is nobody without it that could affect it4 ,while it influences all that is contained within1 it is not influenced by any act or force of any material being4 ,there is1 however1 some similarity between the universe and man in this point4 ,in the body of animals1 the organs more distant from the principal organ are of less importance than those nearer to it4 ,also in the universe1 the nearer the parts are to the centre1 the greater is their turbidness1 their solidity1 their inertness1 their dimness and darkness1 because they are further away from the loftiest element1 from the source of light and brightness1 which moves by itself and the substance of which is the most rarefied and simplest3 from the outermost sphere4 ,at the same ratio at which a body is nearer this sphere1 it derives properties from it1 and rises above the spheres below it4 ,thirdly4 ,the faculty of thinking is a force inherent in the body1 and is not separated from it1 but ,god is not a force inherent in the body of the universe1 but is separate from all its parts4 ,how ,god rules the universe and provides for it is a complete mystery2 man is unable to solve it4 ,for1 on the one hand1 it can be proved that ,god is separate from the universe1 and in no contact whatever with it2 but1 on the other hand1 ,his rule and providence can be proved to exist in all parts of the universe1 even in the smallest4 ,praised be ,he whose perfection is above our comprehension4 ,it is true1 we might have compared the relation between ,god and the universe1 to the relation between the absolute acquired intellect and man2 it is not a power inherent in the body1 but a power which is absolutely separate from the body1 and is from without brought into contact with the body4 ,the rational faculty of man may be further compared to the intelligence of the spheres1 which are1 as it were1 material bodies4 ,but the intelligence of the spheres1 purely spiritual beings1 as well as man's absolute and acquired intellect1 are subjects of deep study and research2 the proof of their existence1 though correct1 is abstruse1 and includes arguments which present doubts1 are exposed to criticism1 and can be easily attacked by objectors4 ,we have1 therefore1 preferred to illustrate the relation of ,god to the universe by a simile which is clear1 and which will not be contradicted in any of the points which have been laid down by us without any qualification4 ,the opposition can only emanate either from an ignorant man1 who contradicts truths even if they are perfectly obvious1 just as a person unacquainted with geometry rejects elementary propositions which have been clearly demonstrated1 or from the prejudiced man who deceives himself4 ,those1 however1 who wish to study the subject must persevere in their studies until they are convinced that all our observations are true1 and until they understand that our account of this universe unquestionably agrees with the existing order of things4 ,if a man is willing to accept this theory from one who understands how to prove things which can be proved1 let him accept it1 and let him establish on it his arguments and proofs4 ,if1 on the other hand1 he refuses to accept without proof even the foregoing principles1 let him inquire for himself1 and ultimately he will find that they are correct4 8,lo this1 we have searched it1 so it is2 hear it1 and know thou it for thy good0 7,job v4 #bg74 ,after these preliminary remarks1 we will treat of the subject which we promised to introduce and to explain4 ,,chapter ,,lxxiii ,there are twelve propositions common to all ,mutakallemim1 however different their individual opinions and methods may be2 the ,mutakallemim require them in order to establish their views on the four principles4 ,i shall first enumerate these propositions1 and then discuss each separately1 together with the inferences which may be drawn from it4 ,proposition ,i4 ,all things are composed of atoms4 ,proposition ,,ii4 ,there is a vacuum4 ,proposition ,,iii4 ,time is composed of time-atoms4 ,proposition ,,iv4 ,substance cannot exist without numerous accidents4 ,proposition ,v4 ,each atom is completely furnished with the accidents 7which ,i will describe71 and cannot exist without them4 ,proposition ,,vi4 ,accidents do not continue in existence during two time-atoms4 ,proposition ,,vii4 ,both positive and negative properties have a real existence1 and are accidents which owe their existence to some causa efficiens4 ,proposition ,,viii4 ,all existing things1 i4e41 all creatures1 consist of substance and of accidents1 and the physical form of a thing is likewise an accident4 ,proposition ,,ix4 ,no accident can form the substratum for another accident4 ,proposition ,x4 ,the test for the possibility of an imagined object does not consist in its conformity with the existing laws of nature4 ,proposition ,,xi4 ,the idea of the infinite is equally inadmissible1 whether the infinite be actual1 potential1 or accidental1 i4e41 there is no difference whether the infinite be formed by a number of co-existing things1 or by a series of things1 of which one part comes into existence when another has ceased to exist1 in which case it is called accidental infinite2 in both cases the infinite is rejected by the ,mutakallemim as fallacious4 ,proposition ,,xii4 ,the senses mislead1 and are in many cases inefficient2 their perceptions1 therefore1 cannot form the basis of any law1 or yield data for any proof4 ,first ,proposition4 8,the ,universe1 that is1 everything contained in it1 is composed of very small parts atoms which are indivisible on account of their smallness2 such an atom has no magnitude2 but when several atoms combine1 the sum has a magnitude1 and thus forms a body40 ,if1 therefore1 two atoms were joined together1 each atom would become a body1 and they would thus form two bodies1 a theory which in fact has been proposed by some ,mutakallemim4 ,all these atoms are perfectly alike2 they do not differ from each other in any point4 ,the ,mutakallemim further assert1 that it is impossible to find a body that is not composed of such equal atoms which are placed side by side4 ,according to this view genesis and composition are identical2 destruction is the same as decomposition4 ,they do not use the term 8destruction10 for they hold that 8genesis0 implies composition and decomposition1 motion and rest4 ,these atoms1 they believe1 are not1 as was supposed by ,epicurus and other ,atomists numerically constant2 but are created anew whenever it pleases the ,creator2 their annihilation is therefore not impossible4 ,now ,i will explain to you their opinion concerning the vacuum4 ,second ,proposition4 ,on the vacuum4 ,the original ,mutakallemim also believe that there is a vacuum1 i4e41 one space1 or several spaces which contain nothing1 which are not occupied by anything whatsoever1 and which are devoid of all substance4 ,this proposition is to them an indispensable sequel to the first4 ,for1 if the ,universe were full of such atoms1 how could any of them move8 ,for it is impossible to conceive that one atom should move into another4 ,and yet the composition1 as well as the decomposition of things1 can only be effected by the motion of atoms6 ,thus the ,mutakallemim are compelled to assume a vacuum1 in order that the atoms may combine1 separate1 and move in that vacuum which does not contain any thing or any atom4 ,third ,proposition4 8,time is composed of time-atoms10 i4e41 of many parts1 which on account of their short duration cannot be divided4 ,this proposition also is a logical consequence of the first4 ,the ,mutakallemim undoubtedly saw how ,aristotle proved that time1 space1 and locomotion are of the same nature1 that is to say1 they can be divided into parts which stand in the same proportion to each other3 if one of them is divided1 the other is divided in the same proportion4 ,they1 therefore1 knew that if time were continuous and divisible ad infinitum1 their assumed atom of space would of necessity likewise be divisible4 ,similarly1 if it were supposed that space is continuous1 it would necessarily follow1 that the time-element1 which they considered to be indivisible1 could also be divided4 ,this has been shown by ,aristotle in the treatise called ,acroasis4 ,hence they concluded that space was not continuous1 but was composed of elements that could not be divided2 and that time could likewise be reduced to time-elements1 which were indivisible4 ,an hour is1 e4g41 divided into sixty minutes1 the minute into sixty seconds1 the second into sixty parts1 and so on2 at last after ten or more successive divisions by sixty1 time-elements are obtained1 which are not subjected to division1 and in fact are indivisible1 just as is the case with space4 ,time would thus be an object of position and order4 ,the ,mutakallemim did not at all understand the nature of time4 ,this is a matter of course2 for if the greatest philosophers became embarrassed when they investigated the nature of time1 if some of them were altogether unable to comprehend what time really was1 and if even ,galenus declared time to be something divine and incomprehensible1 what can be expected of those who do not regard the nature of things8 ,now1 mark what conclusions were drawn from these three propositions1 and were accepted by the ,mutakallemim as true4 ,they held that locomotion consisted in the translation of each atom of a body from one point to the next one2 accordingly the velocity of one body in motion cannot be greater than that of another body4 ,when1 nevertheless1 two bodies are observed to move during the same time through different spaces1 the cause of this difference is not attributed by them to the fact that the body which has moved through a larger distance had a greater velocity1 but to the circumstance that motion which in ordinary language is called slow1 has been interrupted by more moments of rest1 while the motion which ordinarily is called quick has been interrupted by fewer moments of rest4 ,when it is shown that the motion of an arrow1 which is shot from a powerful bow1 is in contradiction to their theory1 they declare that in this case too the motion is interrupted by moments of rest4 ,they believe that it is the fault of man's senses if he believes that the arrow moves continuously1 for there are many things which cannot be perceived by the senses1 as they assert in the twelfth proposition4 ,but we ask them3 8,have you observed a complete revolution of a millstone8 ,each point in the extreme circumference of the stone describes a large circle in the very same time in which a point nearer the centre describes a small circle2 the velocity of the outer circle is therefore greater than that of the inner circle4 ,you cannot say that the motion of the latter was interrupted by more moments of rest2 for the whole moving body1 i4e41 the millstone1 is one coherent body40 ,they reply1 8,during the circular motion1 the parts of the millstone separate from each other1 and the moments of rest interrupting the motion of the portions nearer the centre are more than those which interrupt the motion of the outer portions40 ,we ask again1 8,how is it that the millstone1 which we perceive as one body1 and which cannot be easily broken1 even with a hammer1 resolves into its atoms when it moves1 and becomes again one coherent body1 returning to its previous state as soon as it comes to rest1 while no one is able to notice the breaking up of the stone80 ,again their reply is based on the twelfth proposition1 which is to the effect that the perception of the senses cannot be trusted1 and thus only the evidence of the intellect is admissible4 ,do not imagine that you have seen in the foregoing example the most absurd of the inferences which may be drawn from these three propositions3 the proposition relating to the existence of a vacuum leads to more preposterous and extravagant conclusions4 ,nor must you suppose that the aforegoing theory concerning motion is less irrational than the proposition resulting from this theory1 that the diagonal of a square is equal to one of its sides1 and some of the ,mutakallemim go so far as to declare that the square is not a thing of real existence4 ,in short1 the adoption of the first proposition would be tantamount to the rejection of all that has been proved in ,geometry4 ,the propositions in ,geometry would1 in this respect1 be divided into two classes3 some would be absolutely rejected2 e4g41 those which relate to properties of the incommensurability and the commensurability of lines and planes1 to rational and irrational lines1 and all other propositions contained in the tenth book of ,euclid1 and in similar works4 ,other propositions would appear to be only partially correct2 e4g41 the solution of the problem to divide a line into two equal parts1 if the line consists of an odd number of atoms2 according to the theory of the ,mutakallemim such a line cannot be bisected4 ,furthermore1 in the well-known book of problems by the sons of ,shakir are contained more than a hundred problems1 all solved and practically demonstrated2 but if there really were a vacuum1 not one of these problems could be solved1 and many of the waterworks described in that book could not have been constructed4 ,the refutation of such propositions is a mere waste of time4 ,i will now proceed to treat of the other propositions mentioned above4 ,fourth ,proposition4 8,the accidents of things have real existence2 they are elements superadded to the substance itself1 and no material thing can be without them40 ,had this proposition been left by the ,mutakallemim in this form it would have been correct1 simple1 dear1 and indisputable4 ,they have1 however1 gone further1 asserting that a substance which has not the attribute of life1 must necessarily have that of death2 for it must always have one of two contrasting properties4 ,according to their opinion1 colour1 taste1 motion or rest1 combination or separation1 etc41 can be predicated of all substances1 and1 if a substance have the attribute of life1 it must at the same time possess such other kinds of accidents1 as wisdom or folly1 freewill or the reverse1 power or weakness1 perception or any of its opposites1 and1 in short1 the substance must have the one or the other of all correlative accidents appertaining to a living being4 ,fifth ,proposition4 8,the atom is fully provided with all these foregoing accidents1 and cannot exist if any be wanting40 ,the meaning of the proposition is this3 ,the ,mutakallemim say that each of the atoms created by ,god must have accidents1 such as colour1 smell1 motion1 or rest1 except the accident of quantity3 for according to their opinion an atom has no magnitude2 and they do not designate quantity as an accident1 nor do they apply to it the laws of accidents4 ,in accordance with this proposition1 they do not say1 when an accident is noticed in a body1 that it is peculiar to the body as such1 but that it exists in each of the atoms which form the constituent elements of that body4 ,e4g41 take a heap of snow2 the whiteness does not exist in that heap as a whole1 but each atom of the snow is white1 and therefore the aggregate of these atoms is likewise white4 ,similarly they say that when a body moves each atom of it moves1 and thus the whole body is in motion4 ,life likewise exists1 according to their view1 in each atom of a living body4 ,the same is the case according to their opinion with the senses2 in each atom of the aggregate they notice the faculty of perception4 ,life1 sensation1 intellect and wisdom are considered by them as accidents1 like blackness and whiteness1 as will be shown in the further discussion of their theory4 ,concerning the soul1 they do not agree4 ,the view most predominant among them is the following3--,the soul is an accident existing in one of the atoms of which1 e4g41 man is composed2 the aggregate is called a being endowed with a soul1 in so far as it includes that atom4 ,others are of opinion that the soul is composed of ethereal atoms1 which have a peculiar faculty by virtue of which they constitute the soul1 and that these atoms are mixed with the atoms of the body4 ,consequently they maintain that the soul is an accident4 ,as to the intellect1 ,i found that all of them agreed in considering it to be an accident joined to one of the atoms which constitute the whole of the intelligent being4 ,but there is a confusion among them about knowledge2 they are uncertain whether it is an accident to each of the atoms which form the knowing aggregate1 or whether it belongs only to one atom4 ,both views can be disproved by a reductio ad absurdum1 when the following facts are pointed out to them4 ,generally metals and stones have a peculiar colour1 which is strongly pronounced1 but disappears when they are pulverised4 ,vitriol1 which is intensely green1 becomes white dust when pounded2 this shows that that accident exists only in the aggregate1 not in the atoms4 ,this fact is more striking in the following instance3 when parts of a living being are cut off they cease to live1 a proof that the accident of life belongs to the aggregate of the living being1 not to each atom4 ,in order to meet this objection they say that the accident is of no duration1 but is constantly renewed4 ,in discussing the next proposition ,i shall explain their view on this subject4 ,sixth ,proposition4 8,the accidents do not exist during two time-atoms40--,the sense of the proposition is this3 ,they believe that ,god creates a substance1 and simultaneously its accidents2 that the ,creator is incapable of creating a substance devoid of an accident1 for that is impossible2 that the essential characteristic of an accident is its incapability of enduring for two periods1 for two time-atoms2 that immediately after its creation it is utterly destroyed1 and another accident of the same kind is created2 this again is destroyed and a third accident of the same kind is created1 and so on1 so long as ,god is pleased to preserve in that substance this kind of accident2 but ,he can at ,his will create in the same substance an accident of a different kind1 and if ,he were to discontinue the creation and not produce a new accident1 that substance would at once cease to exist4 ,this is one of the opinions held by the ,mutakallemim2 it has been accepted by most of them1 and it is the so-called 8theory of the creation of the accidents40 ,some of them1 however1 and they belong to the sect of the ,mutazilah1 say that there are accidents which endure for a certain period1 and other accidents which do not endure for two atoms of time2 they do not follow a fixed principle in deciding what class of accidents has and what class has not a certain duration4 ,the object of this proposition is to oppose the theory that there exists a natural force from which each body derives its peculiar properties4 ,they prefer to assume that ,god himself creates these properties without the intervention of a natural force or of any other agency3 a theory which implies that no accident can have any duration4 ,for suppose that certain accidents could endure for a certain period and then cease to exist1 the question would naturally be asked1 ,what is the cause of that non-existence8 ,they would not be satisfied with the reply that ,god by ,his will brought about this non-existence1 and non-existence does not at all require any agens whatever2 for as soon as the agens leaves off acting1 the product of the agens ceases likewise to exist4 ,this is true to some extent4 ,having thus chosen to establish the theory that there does not exist any natural force upon which the existence or non-existence of a thing depends1 they were compelled to assume that the properties of things were successively renewed4 ,when ,god desires to deprive a thing of its existence1 ,he1 according to some of the ,mutakallemim1 discontinues the creation of its accidents1 and eo ipso the body ceases to exist4 ,others1 however1 say that if it pleased the ,almighty to destroy the world1 ,he would create the accident of destruction1 which would be without any substratum4 ,the destruction of the ,universe would be the correlative accident to that of existence4--,in accordance with this sixth proposition they say1 that the cloth which according to our belief we dyed red1 has not been dyed by us at all1 but ,god created that colour in the cloth when it came into contact with the red pigment2 we believe that colour to have penetrated into the cloth1 but they assert that this is not the case4 ,they say that ,god generally acts in such a way1 that1 e4g41 the black colour is not created unless the cloth is brought into contact with indigo2 but this blackness1 which ,god creates in the instant when the cloth touches the black pigment is of no duration1 and another creation of blackness then takes place2 they further say that after the blackness is gone1 ,he does not create a red or green colour1 but again a black colour4 ,according to this principle1 the knowledge which we have of certain things to-day1 is not the same which we had of them yesterday2 that knowledge is gone1 and another like it has been created4 ,they positively believe that this does take place1 knowledge being an accident4 ,in like manner it would follow that the soul1 according to those who believe that it is an accident1 is renewed each moment in every animated being1 say a hundred thousand times2 for1 as you know1 time is composed of time-atoms4 ,in accordance with this principle they assert that when man is perceived to move a pen1 it is not he who has really moved it2 the motion produced in the pen is an accident which ,god has created in the pen2 the apparent motion of the hand which moves the pen is likewise an accident which ,god has created in the moving hand2 but the creative act of ,god is performed in such a manner that the motion of the hand and the motion of the pen follow each other closely2 but the hand does not act1 and is not the cause of the pen's motion2 for1 as they say1 an accident cannot pass from one thing to another4 ,some of the ,mutakallemim accordingly contend that this white cloth1 which is coloured when put into the vessel filled with indigo1 has not been blackened by the indigo2 for blackness being an attribute of indigo1 does not pass from one object to another4 ,there does not exist any thing to which an action could be ascribed2 the real agens is ,god1 and ,he has in the foregoing instance created the blackness in the substance of the cloth when it came into contact with the indigo1 for this is the method adopted by ,him4 ,in short1 most of the ,mutakallemim believe that it must never be said that one thing is the cause of another2 some of them who assumed causality were blamed for doing so4 ,as regards1 however1 the acts of man their opinions are divided4 ,most of them1 especially the sect of the ,asha'ariyah1 assume that when the pen is set in motion ,god has created four accidents1 none of which is the cause of any of the rest1 they are only related to each other as regards the time of their co-existence1 and have no other relation to each other4 ,the first accident is man's will to move the pen1 the second is man's power to do so1 the third is the bodily motion itself1 i4e41 the motion of the hand1 and the fourth is the motion of the pen4 ,they believe that when a man has the will to do a thing and1 as he believes1 does it1 the will has been created for him1 then the power to conform to the will1 and lastly the act itself4 ,the act is not accomplished by the power created in man2 for1 in reality1 no act can be ascribed to that power4 ,the ,mutazilah contend that man acts by virtue of the power which has been created in him4 ,some of the ,asha'ariyah assert that the power created in man participates in the act1 and is connected with it1 an opinion which has been rejected by the majority of them4 ,the will and the power created in man1 according to the concurrent belief of the ,mutakallemim1 together with the act created in him1 according to some of them1 are accidents without duration4 ,in the instance of the pen1 ,god continually creates one motion after the other so long as the pen is in motion2 it only then ceases to move when ,god has created in it the accident of rest2 and so long as the pen is at rest1 ,god continually renews in it that accident4 ,consequently in every one of these moments1 i4e41 of the time-atoms1 ,god creates some accident in every existing individual1 e4g41 in the angels1 in the spheres and in other things2 this creation takes place continually and without interruption4 ,such is1 according to their opinion1 the right interpretation of the creed that ,god is the causa efficiens4 ,but ,i1 together with all rational persons1 apply to those theories the words1 8,will you mock at ,him1 as you mock at man80 for their words are indeed nothing but mockery4 ,seventh ,proposition4 8,the absence of a property is itself a property that exists in the body1 a something superadded to its substance1 an actual accident1 which is constantly renewed2 as soon as it is destroyed it is reproduced40 ,the reason why they hold this opinion is this3 they do not understand that rest is the absence of motion2 death the absence of life2 that blindness is the absence of sight1 and that all similar negative properties are the absence of the positive correlatives4 ,the relation between motion and rest is1 according to their theory1 the same as the relation between heat and cold1 namely1 as heat and cold are two accidents found in two objects which have the properties of heat and cold1 so motion is an accident created in the thing which moves1 and rest an accident created in the thing which rests2 it does not remain in existence during two consecutive time-atoms1 as we have stated in treating of the previous proposition4 ,accordingly1 when a body is at rest1 ,god has created the rest in each atom of that body1 and so long as the body remains at rest ,god continually renews that property4 ,the same1 they believe1 is the case with a man's wisdom and ignorance2 the latter is considered by them as an actual accident1 which is subject to the constant changes of destruction and creation1 so long as there remains a thing of which such a man is ignorant4 ,death and life are likewise accidents1 and as the ,mutakallemim distinctly state1 life is constantly destroyed and renewed during the whole existence of a living being2 when ,god decrees its death1 ,he creates in it the accident of death after the accident of life1 which does not continue during two time-atoms1 has ceased to exist4 ,all this they state clearly4 ,the logical consequence of this proposition is that the accident of death created by ,god instantly ceases to exist1 and is replaced by another death which again is created by ,god2 otherwise death could not continue4 ,death is thus continually created in the same manner as life is renewed every moment4 ,but ,i should wish to know how long ,god continues to create death in a dead body4 ,does ,he do so whilst the form remains1 or whilst one of the atoms exists8 ,for in each of the atoms of the body the accident of death which ,god creates is produced1 and there are to be found teeth of persons who died thousands of years ago2 we see that those teeth have not been deprived of existence1 and therefore the accident of death has during all these thousands of years been renewed1 and according to the opinion prevailing amongst those theorists1 death was continually replaced by death4 ,some of the ,mutazilah hold that there are cases in which the absence of a physical property is not a real property1 that weariness is the absence of strength1 and ignorance the absence of knowledge2 but this cannot be said in every case of negative properties3 it cannot be said that darkness is the mere absence of light1 or that rest is the absence of motion4 ,some negative properties are thus considered by them as having a real existence1 while other negative properties are considered as non-existing1 just as suits their belief4 ,here they proceed in the same manner as they proceed respecting the duration of accidents1 and they contend that some accidents exist a long time1 and other accidents do not last two time-atoms4 ,their sole object is to fashion the ,universe according to their peculiar opinions and beliefs4 ,eighth ,proposition4 8,there exists nothing but substance and accident1 and the physical form of things belong to the class of accidents40 ,it is the object of this proposition to show that all bodies are composed of similar atoms1 as we have pointed out in explaining the first proposition4 ,the difference of bodies from each other is caused by the accidents1 and by nothing else4 ,animality1 humanity1 sensibility1 and speech1 are denoted as accidents like blackness1 whiteness1 bitterness1 and sweetness1 and the difference between two individuals of two classes is the same as the difference of two individuals of the same class4 ,also the body of the heaven1 the body of the angels1 the body of the ,divine ,throne--such as it is assumed to be--the body of anything creeping on the earth1 and the body of any plant1 have one and the same substance2 they only differ in the peculiarity of the accidents1 and in nothing else2 the substance of all things is made up of equal atoms4 ,ninth ,proposition4 8,none of the accidents form the substratum of another accident2 it cannot be said1 ,this is an accident to a thing which is itself an accident to a substance4 ,all accidents are directly connected with the substance40 ,the ,mutakallemim deny the indirect relation of the accident to the substance1 because if such a relation were assumed it would follow that the second accident could only exist in the substance after another accident had preceded it1 a conclusion to which they would object even with regard to some special accidents2 they prefer to show that these accidents can exist in every possible substance1 although such substance is not determined by any other accident2 for they hold that all the accidents collectively determine the thing4 ,they advance also another proof in support of this proposition1 namely3 ,the substratum which is the bearer of certain attributes must continue to exist for a certain time2 how1 then1 could the accident2 which--according to their opinion--does not remain in existence for two moments1 become the substratum of something else8 ,tenth ,proposition4 ,this proposition concerns the theory of 8admissibility10 which is mentioned by the ,mutakallemim1 and forms the principal support of their doctrine4 ,mark its purport3 they observe that everything conceived by the imagination is admitted by the intellect as possible2 e4g41 that the terrestrial globe should become the all-encompassing sphere1 or that this sphere should become the terrestrial globe2 reason does not find here an impossibility2 or that the sphere of fire should move towards the centre1 and the sphere of earth towards the circumference4 ,human intellect does not perceive any reason why a body should be in a certain place instead of being in another4 ,in the same manner they say that reason admits the possibility that an existing being should be larger or smaller than it really is1 or that it should be different in form and position from what it really is2 e4g41 a man might have the height of a mountain1 might have several heads1 and fly in the air2 or an elephant might be as small as an insect1 or an insect as huge as an elephant4 ,this method of admitting possibilities is applied to the whole ,universe4 ,whenever they affirm that a thing belongs to this class of admitted possibilities1 they say that it can have this form1 and that it is also possible that it be found differently1 and that the one form is not more possible than the other2 but they do not ask whether the reality confirms their assumption4 ,they say that the thing which exists with certain constant and permanent forms1 dimensions1 and properties1 only follows the direction of habit1 just as the king generally rides on horseback through the streets of the city1 and is never found departing from this habit2 but reason does not find it impossible that he should walk on foot through the place2 there is no doubt that he may do so1 and this possibility is fully admitted by the intellect4 ,similarly1 earth moves towards the centre1 fire turns away from the centre2 fire causes heat1 water causes cold1 in accordance with a certain habit2 but it is logically not impossible that a deviation from this habit should occur1 namely1 that fire should cause cold1 move downward1 and still be fire2 that the water should cause heat1 move upward1 and still be water4 ,on this foundation their whole fabric is constructed4 ,they admit1 however1 the impossibility of two opposite properties coexisting at the same time in one substance4 ,this is impossible2 reason would not admit this possibility4 ,again1 reason does not admit the possibility of a substance existing without an accident1 or an accident existing without a substance1 a possibility admitted by some of the ,mutakallemim4 ,it is also impossible that a substance should become an accident1 that an accident should become a substance1 or that one substance should penetrate another4 ,they admit that reason rejects all these things as impossible4 ,it is perfectly true that no notion whatever can be formed of those things which they describe as impossible2 whilst a notion can be formed of those things which they consider as possible4 ,the philosophers object to this method1 and say1 ,you call a thing impossible because it cannot be imagined1 or possible because it can be imagined2 and thus you consider as possible that which is found possible by imagination1 not by the intellect1 consequently you determine that a thing is necessary1 possible1 or impossible in some instances1 by the aid of the imagination--not by the intellect--and in other instances by the ordinary common sense1 as ,abu ,nasr says in speaking of that which the ,mutakallemim call intellect4 ,it is clear that they describe as possible that which can be imagined1 whether the reality correspond to it or not1 and as impossible that which cannot be imagined4 ,this proposition can only be established by the nine aforementioned propositions1 and no doubt these were exclusively required for the support of this proposition4 ,this you will see clearly when ,i shall show and explain to you some important parts of this theory1 which ,i shall now introduce in the form of a discussion supposed to have taken place between a ,mutakallem and a philosopher4 ,the ,mutakallem said to the philosopher3 ,what is the reason that we find the substance of iron extremely hard and strong1 with a dark colour2 the substance of cream1 on the other hand1 extremely soft and white8 ,the philosopher replied as follows3 ,all physical bodies have two kinds of accidents3 those which concern their substance1 as1 e4g41 the health and the illness of a man2 and those which concern their form1 as1 e4g41 the astonishment and laughter of a man4 ,the substances of compound bodies differ very much in their ultimate form1 according to the difference of the forms peculiar to each component substance4 ,hence the substance of iron has become in its properties the opposite of the substance of cream1 and this difference is attended by the difference of accidents4 ,you notice1 therefore1 hardness in the one1 and softness in the other3 two accidents1 whose difference results from the difference which exists in the forms of the substances2 while the darkness and the whiteness are accidents whose divergence corresponds to that of the two substances in their ultimate condition4 ,the ,mutakallem refuted this reply by means of his propositions1 as ,i am now going to state3--,there does not exist a form which1 as you believe1 modifies the substance1 and thus causes substances to be different from each other2 this difference is exclusively effected by the accidents--according to the theory of the ,kalm1 which we mentioned in explaining the eighth proposition4 ,he then continued thus3 ,there is no difference between the substance of iron and that of cream2 all things are composed of the same kind of atoms4--,we explained the view of the ,mutakallemim on this point in treating of the first proposition1 the logical consequences of which are1 as we have shown1 the second and the third propositions2 they further require the twelfth proposition1 in order to establish the theory of atoms4 ,nor do they admit that any accidents determine the nature of a substance1 or predispose it to receive certain other accidents2 for1 according to their opinion1 an accident cannot be the substratum of another accident1 as we have shown in explaining the ninth proposition2 nor can it have any duration1 according to the sixth proposition4 ,when the ,mutakallemim have established all that they wish to infer from these propositions1 they arrive at the conclusion that the component atoms of cream and of iron are alike4--,the relation of each atom to each of the accidents is the same2 one atom is not more adapted than another to receive a certain accident2 and as a certain atom is not more fitted to move than to rest1 so one atom is not more apt than another to receive the accident of life1 of reason1 of sensation4 ,it is here of no moment whether a thing contains a larger or smaller quantity of atoms1 for1 according to the view of the ,mutakallemim1 which we explained in treating of the fifth proposition1 every accident of a thing exists in each of its atoms4 ,all these propositions lead to the conclusion that a human being is not better constituted to become wise than the bat1 and establish the theory of admissibility expressed in this tenth proposition4 ,every effort was made to demonstrate this proposition1 because it is the best means for proving anything they like1 as will be explained4 ,note4--,mark1 ,o reader1 that if you know the nature of the soul and its properties1 and if you have a correct notion of everything which concerns the soul1 you will observe that most animals possess imagination4 ,as to the higher class of animals1 that is1 those which have a heart1 it is obvious that they have imagination4 ,man's distinction does not consist in the possession of imagination1 and the action of imagination is not the same as the action of the intellect1 but the reverse of it4 ,for the intellect analyses and divides the component parts of things1 it forms abstract ideas of them1 represents them in their true form as well as in their causal relations1 derives from one object a great many facts1 which--for the intellect--totally differ from each other1 just as two human individuals appear different to the imagination2 it distinguishes that which is the property of the genus from that which is peculiar to the individual1--and no proof is correct1 unless founded on the former2 the intellect further determines whether certain qualities of a thing are essential or non-essential4 ,imagination has none of these functions4 ,it only perceives the individual1 the compound in that aggregate condition in which it presents itself to the senses2 or it combines things which exist separately1 joins some of them together1 and represents them all as one body or as a force of the body4 ,hence it is that some imagine a man with a horse's head1 with wings1 etc4 ,this is called a fiction1 a phantasm2 it is a thing to which nothing in the actual world corresponds4 ,nor can imagination in any way obtain a purely immaterial image of an object1 however abstract the form of the image may be4 ,imagination yields therefore no test for the reality of a thing4 ,hear what profit we derive from the preliminary disciplines1 and how excellent the propositions are which we learn through them4 ,know that there are certain things1 which would appear impossible1 if tested by man's imagination1 being as inconceivable as the co-existence of two opposite properties in one object2 yet the existence of those same things1 which cannot be represented by imagination1 is nevertheless established by proof1 and attested by their reality4 ,e4g41 ,imagine a large globe1 of any magnitude you like1 even as large as the all-encompassing sphere2 further an axis passing through the centre1 and two persons standing on the two extremities of the axis in such a manner that their feet are in the same straight line with the axis1 which may be either in the plane of the horizon or not2 in the first case both persons would fall1 in the second case one1 namely the one who stands on the lower extremity would fall1 the other would remain standing1 as far as our imagination can perceive4 ,it has however1 already been proved that the earth has the form of a globe1 that it is inhabited on both extremities of a certain diameter1 that both the inhabitants have their heads towards the heaven1 and their legs towards each other1 and yet neither can possibly fall1 nor can it be imagined2 for it is incorrect to say that the one extremity is above1 the other below2 but the term 8above0 and 8below0 apply to both of them as regards their relative position to each other4 ,similarly it has been proved in the second chapter of the book on ,conic ,sections1 that two lines1 which at first are at a certain distance from each other1 may approach each other in the same proportion as they are produced further1 and yet would never meet1 even if they were produced to infinity1 although they are observed to be constantly converging4 ,this is a fact which cannot easily be conceived1 and which does not come within the scope of imagination4 ,of these two lines the one is straight1 the other curved1 as stated in the aforementioned book4 ,it has consequently been proved that things which cannot be perceived or imagined1 and which would be found impossible if tested solely by imagination1 are nevertheless in real existence4 ,the non-existence of things which are represented by imagination as possible has likewise been established by proof1 e4g41 the corporeality of ,god1 and ,his existence as a force residing in a body4 ,imagination perceives nothing except bodies1 or properties inherent in bodies4 ,it has thus been clearly shown that in man exists a certain faculty which is entirely distinct from imagination1 and by which the necessary1 the possible1 and the impossible can be distinguished from each other4 ,this inquiry is most useful4 ,it is of the greatest profit to him who desires to guard himself against the errors of men guided by imagination6 ,do not think that the ,mutakallemim ignore this altogether2 to some extent they do take it into consideration2 they know it1 and call that which can be imagined without having reality--as1 e4g41 the corporeality of ,god--a phantom and a fancy2 they state frequently that such phantoms are not real4 ,it is for this reason that they advance the first nine propositions and establish on them the proof of the tenth1 according to which all those imaginable things which they wish to admit as possible are really possible1 because of the similarity of all atoms and the equality of all accidents as regards their accidentality1 as we have explained4 ,consider1 ,o reader1 and bear in mind that this requires deep research4 ,for there are certain notions which some believe to be founded on reason1 while others regard them as mere fictions4 ,in such cases it would be necessary to find something that could show the difference between conceptions of the intellect and mere imaginary fancies4 ,when the philosopher1 in his way of expressing himself1 contends1 8,reality is my evidence2 by its guidance ,i examine whether a thing is necessary1 possible1 or impossible10 the religionist replies1 8,this is exactly the difference between us2 that which actually exists1 has1 according to my view1 been produced by the will of the ,creator1 not by necessity2 just as it has been created with that special property1 it might have been created with any other property1 unless the impossibility which you postulate be proved by a logical demonstration40 ,about this admissibility 7of imaginable things7 ,i shall have to say more1 and ,i shall return to it in various parts of this treatise2 for it is not a subject which should be rejected in haste and on the spur of the moment4 ,eleventh ,proposition4 8,the existence of the infinite is in every respect impossible40 ,the following is an explanation of this proposition4 ,the impossibility of the existence of an infinite body has been clearly demonstrated2 the same can be said of an infinite number of bodies1 though each of them be finite1 if these beings1 infinite in number1 exist at the same time2 equally impossible is the existence of an infinite series of causes1 namely1 that a certain thing should be the cause of another thing1 but itself the effect of another cause1 which again is the result of another cause1 and so on to infinity1 or that things in an infinite series1 either bodies or ideals1 should be in actual existence1 and in causal relation to each other4 ,this causal relation is the essential order of nature1 in which1 as has been fully proved1 the infinite is impossible4 ,as regards the virtual and the accidental existence of the infinite1 it has been established in some cases2 it has been proved1 e4g41 that a body can virtually be divided ad infinitum1 also that time can be divided ad infinitum2 in other cases it is still an open question1 as1 e4g41 the existence of the infinite in succession1 which is called the accidental infinite1 i4e41 a series of things in which one thing comes forth when the other is gone1 and this again in its turn succeeded a thing which had ceased to exist1 and so on ad infinitum4 ,this subject requires deep research4 ,those who boast that they have proved the eternity of the ,universe say that time is infinite2 an assertion which is not necessarily erroneous2 for only when one atom has ceased to exist1 the other follows4 ,nor is it absolutely wrong1 when they assert1 that the accidents of the substance succeed each other in an infinite series1 for these accidents do not co-exist1 but come in succession one after the other1 and the impossibility of the infinite in that case has not been proved4 ,the ,mutakallemim1 however1 make no difference between the existence of an infinite body and the divisibility of a body or of time ad infinitum1 between the co-existence of an infinite number of things1 as e4g41 the individual human beings who exist at present1 and the infinite number of beings successively existing1 as1 e4g41 ,reuben the son of ,jacob1 and ,jacob the son of ,isaac1 and ,isaac the son of ,abraham1 and so on to infinity4 ,this is according to their opinion as inadmissible as the first case2 they believe these four forms of the infinite to be quite equal4 ,some of the ,mutakallemim endeavour to establish their proposition concerning the last named form of the infinite1 and to demonstrate its impossibility by a method which ,i shall explain in this treatise2 others say that this impossibility is a self-evident axiom and requires no further proof4 ,but if it were undoubtedly wrong to assume that an infinite number of things can exist in succession1 although that link of the series which exists at present is finite1 the inadmissibility of the eternity of the ,universe would be equally self-evident1 and would not require for its proof any other proposition4 ,this1 however1 is not the place for investigating the subject4 ,twelfth ,proposition4 8,the senses are not always to be trusted40 ,for two reasons the ,mutakallemim find fault with the perception of the senses4 ,first1 the senses are precluded from perceiving many objects1 either on account of the smallness of the objects--this is the case with the atoms1 as we have already stated--or on account of the remoteness of the objects from the person who desires to perceive them2 e4g41 we cannot see1 hear1 or smell at a distance of many miles2 nor do we perceive the motion of the heavens4 ,secondly1 the senses misapprehend the objects of their perception3 a large object appears small from a distance2 a small object immersed in water appears larger2 a crooked thing appears straight when partly placed in water1 and partly out of it2 things appear yellow to a person suffering from jaundice2 sweet things are bitter to him whose tongue has imbibed red gall2 and they mention many other things of this kind4 ,therefore they say1 we cannot trust our senses so far as to establish any proof on their perceptions4 ,you must not believe that the ,mutakallemim had no purpose in agreeing upon this proposition1 or as most of the later adherents of that school affirm1 that the first ,mutakallemim had no ulterior object in endeavouring to prove the existence of atoms4 ,on the contrary1 every proposition here mentioned is indispensable2 if one of these be rejected1 the whole theory falls to the ground4 ,the last-mentioned proposition is of particular importance2 for when our senses perceive things by which any of the foregoing propositions are confuted1 the ,mutakallemim say that no notice should be taken of the perception of the senses so long as the proposition is supported by the testimony of the intellect1 and established 7as they believe7 by proof4 ,thus they say that the continuous motion is interrupted by moments of rest2 that the millstone in its motion is broken into atoms2 that the white colour of a garment ceases to exist1 and another whiteness comes in its stead4 ,all these theories are contrary to what the eye perceives1 and many inferences are drawn from the assumed existence of a vacuum1 all of which are contradicted by the senses4 ,the ,mutakallemim1 however1 meet these objections by saying1 whenever they can do so1 that the perception of these things is withheld from the senses2 in other instances they maintain that the contradiction has its source in the deceptive character of the senses4 ,you know that this theory is very ancient1 and was the pride of the sophists1 who asserted that they themselves were its authors2 this is stated by ,galenus in his treatise on natural forces2 and you know well what he says of those who will not admit the evidence of the senses4 ,having discussed these propositions1 ,i now proceed to explain the theory of the ,mutakallemim concerning the above-mentioned four problems4 ,,chapter ,,lxxiv ,in this chapter will be given an outline of the proofs by which the ,mutakallemim attempt to demonstrate that the universe is not eternal4 ,you must of course not expect that ,i shall quote their lengthy arguments verbatim2 ,i only intend to give an abstract of each proof1 to show in what way it helps to establish the theory of the creatio ex nihilo or to confute the eternity of the universe1 and briefly to notice the propositions they employed in support of their theory4 ,if you were to read their well-known and voluminous writings1 you would not discover any arguments with which they support their view left unnoticed in the present outline1 but you might find there greater copiousness of words combined with more grace and elegance of style2 frequently they employ rhyme1 rhythm1 and poetical diction1 and sometimes mysterious phrases which perhaps are intended to startle persons listening to their discourses1 and to deter those who might otherwise criticize them4 ,you would also find many repetitions2 questions propounded and1 as they believe1 answered1 and frequent attacks on those who differ from their opinions4 ,the ,first ,argument4 ,some of the ,mutakallemim thought that by proving the creation of one thing1 they demonstrated the creatio ex nihilo in reference to the entire universe4 ,e4g41 ,zaid1 who from a small molecule had gradually been brought to a state of perfection1 has undoubtedly not effected this change and development by his own efforts1 but owes it to an external agency4 ,it is therefore clear that an agent is required for such organization and successive transmutation4 ,a palm-tree or any other object might equally be selected to illustrate this idea4 ,the whole universe1 they argue1 is analogous to these instances4 ,thus you see how they believe that a law discovered in one thing may equally be applied to everything4 ,the ,second ,argument4 ,this argument is likewise based on the belief that the proof by which the creation of one thing is demonstrated1 holds good for the creatio ex nihilo in reference to the whole universe4 ,e4g41 a certain individual1 called ,zaid1 who one time was not yet in existence1 subsequently came into existence2 and if it be assumed that ,amr1 his father1 was the cause of his existence1 ,amr himself must likewise have passed from non-existence into existence2 suppose then that ,zaid's father unquestionably owed his origin to ,khaled1 ,zaid's grandfather1 it would be found that ,khaled himself did not exist from eternity1 and the series of causes could thus be carried back to infinity4 ,but such an infinite series of beings is inadmissible according to the theory of the ,mutakallemim1 as we have shown in our discussion of the eleventh proposition4 ,in continuing this species of reasoning1 you come to a first man1 who had no parent1 viz4 ,adam4 ,then you will of course ask1 whence came this first man8 ,if1 e4g41 the reply be given that he was made out of earth1 you will again inquire1 8,whence came that earth80 8,out of water40 8,whence came the water80 ,the inquiry would be carried on1 either ad infinitum1 which is absurd1 or until you meet with a something that came into existence from absolute non-existence2 in this latter case you would arrive at the real truth2 here the series of inquiries ends4 ,this result of the question proves1 according to the opinion of the ,mutakallemim1 that the whole universe came into existence from absolute non-existence4 ,the ,third ,argument4 ,the atoms of things are necessarily either joined together or separate1 and even the same atoms may at one time be united at another disunited4 ,it is therefore evident that the nature of the atoms does not necessitate either their combination or their separation2 for if they were separate by virtue of their nature they would never join1 and if they were joined by virtue of their nature1 they could never again be separated4 ,thus there is no reason why atoms should rather be combined than separate1 or vice vers1 why rather in a state of separation than of combination4 ,seeing that some atoms are joined1 others separate1 and again others subject to change1 they being combined at one time and separated at another1 the fact may therefore be taken as a proof that the atoms cannot combine or separate without an agent4 ,this argument1 according to the opinion of the ,mutakallemim1 establishes the theory that the universe has been created from nothing4 ,you have already been told1 that those who employ this argument rely on the first proposition of the ,mutakallemim with its corollaries4 ,the ,fourth ,argument4 ,the whole ,universe is composed of substance and accidents2 every substance must possess one accident or more1 and since the accidents are not eternal1 the substance1 the substratum of the accidents1 cannot be eternal2 for that which is joined to transient things and cannot exist without them is itself transient4 ,therefore the whole ,universe has had a beginning4 ,to the objection1 that the substance may possibly be eternal while the accidents1 though in themselves transient1 succeed each other in an infinite series1 they reply that1 in this case1 an infinite number of transient things would be in existence1 an eventuality which1 according to their theory1 is impossible4 ,this argument is considered by them the best and safest1 and has been accepted by many of them as a strict proof4 ,its acceptance implies the admission of the following three propositions1 the object of which is well understood by philosophers4 7#a7 ,an infinite series of things1 of which the one succeeds when the other has ceased to exist1 is impossible4 7#b7 ,all accidents have a beginning4--,our opponent1 who defends the theory of the eternity of the universe1 can refute this proposition by pointing to one particular accident1 namely to the circular motion of the sphere2 for it is held by ,aristotle that this circular motion is eternal1 and1 therefore1 the spheres which perform this motion are1 according to his opinion1 likewise eternal4 ,it is of no use to prove that all other accidents have a beginning2 for our opponent does not deny this2 he says that accidents may supervene an object which has existed from eternity1 and may follow each other in rotation4 ,he contents himself with maintaining that this particular accident1 viz41 circular motion1 the motion of the heavenly sphere1 is eternal1 and does not belong to the class of transient accidents4 ,it is therefore necessary to examine this accident by itself1 and to prove that it is not eternal4 7#c7 ,the next proposition which the author of this argument accepts is as follows3 ,every material object consists of substance and accidents1 that is to say1 of atoms and accidents in the sense in which the ,mutakallemim use the term4 ,but if a material object were held to be a combination of matter and form1 as has been proved by our opponent1 it would be necessary to demonstrate that the primal matter and the primal form are transient1 and only then the proof of the creatio ex nihilo would be complete4 ,the ,fifth ,argument4 ,this argument is based on the theory of ,determination1 and is made much of by the ,mutakallemim4 ,it is the same as the theory which ,i explained in discussing the tenth proposition4 ,namely1 when they treat either of the ,universe in general1 or of any of its parts1 they assume that it can have such properties and such dimensions as it actually has2 that it may receive such accidents as in reality are noticed in it1 and that it may exist in such a place and at such a time as in fact is the case2 but it may be larger or smaller1 may receive other properties and accidents1 and come to existence at an earlier or a later period1 or in a different place4 ,consequently1 the fact that a thing has been determined in its composition1 size1 place1 accident and time--a variation in all these points being possible--is a proof that a being exists which freely chooses and determines these divers relations2 and the circumstance that the ,universe or a part of it requires a being able to make this selection1 proves that the ,universe has been created ex nihilo4 ,for there is no difference which of the following expressions is used3 to determine1 to make1 to create1 to produce1 to originate1 or to intend2 these verbs have all one and the same meaning4 ,the ,mutakallemim give a great many examples1 both of a general and a special character4 ,they say it is not more natural for earth to be under water than to be above water2 who then determined its actual position8 ,or1 is it more natural that the sun is round than that it should be square or triangular2 for all qualities have the same relation to a body capable of possessing them4 ,who then determined one particular quality8 ,in a similar way they treat of every individual being2 when1 e4g41 they notice flowers of different colours1 they are unable to explain the phenomenon1 and they take it as a strong proof in favour of their theory2 they say1 8,behold1 the earth is everywhere alike1 the water is alike2 why then is this flower red and that one yellow80 ,some being must have determined the colour of each1 and that being is ,god4 ,a being must therefore exist which determines everything1 both as regards the ,universe generally1 and each of its parts individually4 ,all this is the logical consequence of the tenth proposition4 ,the theory of determination is moreover adopted by some of those who assume the eternity of the ,universe1 as will be explained below4 ,in conclusion1 ,i consider this to be the best argument2 and in another part ,i shall more fully acquaint you with the opinion ,i have formed concerning the theory of ,determination4 ,the ,sixth ,argument4 ,one of the modern ,mutakallemim thought that he had found a very good argument1 much better than any advanced hitherto1 namely1 the argument based on the triumph of existence over non-existence4 ,he says that1 according to the common belief1 the existence of the ,universe is merely possible2 for if it were necessary1 the ,universe would be ,god--but he seems to forget that we are at issue with those who1 whilst they believe in the existence of ,god1 admit at the same time the eternity of the ,universe4--,the expression 8,a thing is possible0 denotes that the thing may either be in existence or not in existence1 and that there is not more reason why it should exist than why it should not exist4 ,the fact that a thing1 the existence of which is possible1 actually does exist--although it bears the same relation to the state of existence as to that of non-existence--proves that there is a ,being which gave the preference to existence over non-existence4 ,this argument is very forcible2 it is a modified form of the foregoing argument which is based on the theory of determination4 ,he only chose the term 8preference0 instead of 8determination10 and instead of applying it to the properties of the existing being he applies it to 8the existence of the being itself40 ,he either had the intention to mislead1 or he misunderstood the proposition1 that the existence of the ,universe is possible4 ,our opponent who assumes the eternity of the ,universe1 employs the term 8possible10 and says1 8the existence of the ,universe is possible0 in a sense different from that in which the ,mutakallem applies it1 as will be explained below4 ,moreover it may be doubted whether the conclusion1 that the ,universe owes its origin to a being which is able to give preference to existence over non-existence1 is correct4 ,for we may apply the terms 8preference0 and 8determination0 to anything capable of receiving either of two properties which are contrary or opposed to each other2 and when we find that the thing actually possesses one property and not the other1 we are convinced that there exists a determining agent4 ,e4g41 you say that a piece of copper could just as well be formed into a kettle as into a lamp2 when we find that it is a lamp or a kettle1 we have no doubt that a deciding and determining agent had advisedly chosen one of the two possible forms2 for it is clear that the substance of copper existed1 and that before the determination took place it had neither of the two possible forms which have just been mentioned4 ,when1 however1 it is the question whether a certain existing object is eternal1 or whether it has passed from non-existence into existence1 this argument is inadmissible2 for it cannot be asked who decided in favour of the existence of a thing1 and rejected its non-existence1 except when it has been admitted that it has passed from non-existence into existence2 in the present case this is just the point under discussion4 ,if we were to take the existence and the non-existence of a thing as mere objects of imagination1 we should have to apply the tenth proposition which gives prominence to imagination and fiction1 and ignores the things which exist in reality1 or are conceived by the intellect4 ,our opponent1 however1 who believes in the eternity of the ,universe1 will show that we can imagine the non-existence of the universe as well as we can imagine any other impossibility4 ,it is not my intention to refute their doctrine of the creatio ex nihilo3 ,i only wish to show the incorrectness of their belief that this argument differs from the one which precedes2 since in fact the two arguments are identical1 and are founded on the well-known principle of determination4 ,the ,seventh ,argument4 ,one of the modern ,mutakallemim says that he is able to prove the creation of the ,universe from the theory put forth by the philosophers concerning the immortality of the soul4 ,he argues thus3 ,if the world were eternal the number of the dead would necessarily be infinite1 and consequently an infinite number of souls would coexist1 but it has long since been shown that the coexistence of an infinite number of things is positively impossible4 ,this is indeed a strange argument6 ,one difficulty is explained by another which is still greater6 ,here the saying1 well known among the ,arameans1 may be applied3 8,your guarantee wants himself a guarantee40 ,he rests his argument on the immortality of the soul1 as though he understood this immortality1 in what respect the soul is immortal1 or what the thing is which is immortal6 ,if1 however1 he only meant to controvert the opinion of his opponent1 who believed in the eternity of the ,universe1 and also in the immortality of the soul1 he accomplished his task1 provided the opponent admitted the correctness of the idea which that ,mutakallem formed of the philosopher's view on the immortality of the soul4 ,some of the later philosophers explained this difficulty as follows3 the immortal souls are not substances which occupy a locality or a space1 and their existence in an infinite number is therefore not impossible4 ,you must bear in mind that those abstract beings which are neither bodies nor forces dwelling in bodies1 and which in fact are ideals--are altogether incapable of being represented as a plurality unless some ideals be the cause of the existence of others1 and can be distinguished from each other by the specific difference that some are the efficient cause and others the effect2 but that which remains of ,zaid after his death is neither the cause nor the effect of that which is left of ,amr1 and therefore the souls of all the departed form only one being as has been explained by ,ibn ,bekr ,ibn ,al-zaig1 and others who ventured to speak on these profound subjects4 ,in short1 such intricate disciplines1 which our mind can scarcely comprehend1 cannot furnish any principles for the explanation of other subjects4--,it should be noted that whoever endeavours to prove or to disprove the eternity of the ,universe by these arguments of the ,mutakallemim1 must necessarily rely on one of the two following propositions1 or on both of them2 namely on the tenth proposition1 according to which the actual form of a thing is merely one of many equally possible forms1 and which implies that there must be a being capable of making the special selection2 or on the eleventh proposition which rejects the existence of an infinite series of things coming successively into existence4 ,the last-named proposition is demonstrated in various ways1 e4g41 they advert to a class of transient individuals1 and to a certain particular date4 ,from the theory which asserts the eternity of the ,universe1 it would follow that the individuals of that class up to that particular date are infinite in number2 a thousand years later the individuals of that class are likewise infinite in number2 the last number must exceed the previous one by the number of the individuals born in those thousand years1 and consequently one infinite number would be larger than another4 ,the same argument is applied to the revolutions of the heavenly sphere1 and in like manner it is shown that one infinite number of revolutions would be larger than another2 the same result is obtained when revolutions of one sphere are compared with those of another moving more slowly2 the revolutions of both spheres though unequal would be infinite in number4 ,similarly they proceed with all those accidents which are subject to destruction and production2 the individual accidents that have passed into non-existence are counted and represented as though they were still in existence1 and as though they were things with a definite beginning2 this imaginary number is then either increased or reduced4 ,yet all these things have no reality and are mere fictions4 ,abunazar ,alfarabi in criticizing this proposition1 has exposed all its weak points1 as you will clearly perceive1 when you study his book on the changeable beings earnestly and dispassionately4 ,these are the principal arguments of the ,mutakallemim in seeking to establish the creatio ex nihilo4 ,having thus proved that the ,universe is not eternal1 they necessarily infer that there is an ,agens who created it in accordance with ,his intention1 desire and will4 ,they then proceed to prove the unity of that ,agens as ,i am going to point out in the next chapter4 ,,chapter ,,lxxv ,in this chapter ,i shall explain to you how the ,mutakallemim prove the ,unity of ,god4 ,they contend that the ,maker and ,creator of the ,universe1 the existence of whom is testified by all nature1 is ,one4 ,two propositions are employed by them in demonstrating the ,unity of ,god1 viz41 two deities or more would neutralize each other1 and if several deities existed they would be distinguished from each other by a specific difference4 ,first ,argument4 ,the first argument is that of mutual neutralization1 and is employed by the majority of the ,mutakallemim4 ,it is to the following effect3--,if the ,universe had two ,gods1 it would necessarily occur that the atom--subject to a combination with one or two opposite qualities--either remained without either of them1 and that is impossible1 or1 though being only one atom1 included both qualities at the same time1 and that is likewise impossible4 ,e4g41 whilst one of the two deities determined that one atom or more should be warm1 the other deity might determine that the same should be cold2 the consequence of the mutual neutralization of the two divine beings would thus be that the atoms would be neither warm nor cold--a contingency which is impossible1 because all bodies must combine with one of two opposites2 or they would be at the same time both warm and cold4 ,similarly1 it might occur that whilst one of the deities desired that a body be in motion1 the other might desire that it be at rest2 the body would then be either without motion and rest1 or would both move and rest at the same time4 ,proofs of this kind are founded on the atomic theory contained in the first proposition of the ,mutakallemim1 on the proposition which refers to the creation of the accidents1 and on the proposition that negatives are properties of actual existence and require for their production an agens4 ,for if it were assumed that the substance of this world which1 according to the philosophers is subject to successive production and destruction1 is different from the substance of the world above1 viz41 from the substance of the spheres--a fact established by proof--and that as the ,dualists assert1 there are two divine beings1 one of whom rules this world without influencing the spheres1 whilst the other governs the world above without interfering with this world--such theory would not involve the mutual neutralization of the two deities4 ,if it were then objected1 that the existence of two deities would necessitate an imperfection in both of them1 in so far as one deity would be unable to influence the province of the other1 the objection would be met by the reply that this inability need not be considered a defect in either of them2 for that which is not included within the sphere of action of a being can of course not be performed by that being1 and an agens is not deficient in power1 if it is unable to perform what is intrinsically impossible4 ,thus we1 ,monotheists1 do not consider it a defect in ,god1 that ,he does not combine two opposites in one object1 nor do we test ,his omnipotence by the accomplishment of any similar impossibility4 ,when the ,mutakallemim noticed the weakness of their argument1 for which they had some apparent support1 they had recourse to another argument4 ,second ,argument4 ,if there were two ,gods1 there would necessarily be some element common to both1 whilst some element present in the one would be absent in the other1 and constitute the specific difference between them4 ,this is a philosophic and sound argument for those who are able to examine it1 and to obtain a clear insight into its premises1 which will be further explained1 in our exposition of the view of the philosophers on this point4 ,but it cannot be accepted by those who admit the existence of divine attributes4 ,for according to their opinion1 the ,primal ,cause includes many different elements4 ,they represent its wisdom and its omnipotence as two different things1 and again the omnipotence as different from the will4 ,consequently it would not be impossible that either of the two divine beings possessed several properties1 some of which would be common to both1 and some peculiar to only one of them4 ,third ,argument4 ,this argument is likewise based on one of the ,propositions of the ,kalm4 ,for some of the ,mutakallemim belonging to the old school assume1 that when the ,creator wills a thing1 the will is not an element superadded to the essence of ,god3 it is a will without a substratum4 ,in accordance with the propositions which we have mentioned1 and of which1 as you will see1 it is difficult to form a true conception1 they say that one will1 which is independent of any substratum1 cannot be ascribed to two beings2 for1 as they assert1 one cause cannot be the source of two laws for two essences4 ,this is1 as ,i told you1 the method of explaining one difficulty by means of another and still greater difficulty4 ,for as they define the ,will1 it is inconceivable1 and some have1 therefore1 considered it to be a mere non-entity2 others who admit its existence1 meet with many insuperable difficulties4 ,the ,mutakallemim1 nevertheless1 establish on its existence one of the proofs for the unity of ,god4 ,fourth ,argument4 ,the existence of an action is necessarily positive evidence of the existence of an agens1 but does not prove the existence of more than one agens4 ,there is no difference whether the existence of one ,god be assumed or the existence of two1 or three1 or twenty1 or any number4 ,this is plain and clear4 ,but the argument does not seem to prove the non-existence of a multitude of deities2 it only shows that their number is unknown2 the deity may be one sole being1 but may also include several divine beings4 ,the following supplemental argument has therefore been advanced3 possibility is inapplicable to the existence of ,god1 which is absolute2 the possibility of the existence of more than one ,god must therefore be denied4 ,this is the whole essence of the proof1 and its fallacy is self-evident2 for although the notion of possibility cannot be applied to the existence of ,god1 it can be applied to our knowledge of ,god3 for an alternative in our knowledge of a thing does not involve an alternative in the actual existence of the thing1 and perhaps there is neither a tripartite deity as the ,christians believe1 nor an undivided ,unity as we believe4 ,this is clear to those who have been taught to notice the conclusions implied in given premises4 ,fifth ,argument4 ,one of the modern ,mutakallemim thought that he found a proof of the ,unity of ,god in the idea of requisiteness4 ,suppose there were two divine beings2 if one of them were able to create the universe1 the second ,god would be superfluous1 and there would be no need for his existence4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the entire universe could not be created or governed except by both of them1 each of them would be imperfect in so far as he would require the co-operation of another being1 and would thus be limited in power4 ,this argument is1 in fact1 only a variation of 8the mutual neutralization of two deities40 ,there is this difficulty in such proofs1 that a certain degree of imperfection is ascribed to a ,being which does not accomplish tasks beyond its sphere4 ,we do not call a person weak because he cannot move a thousand hundredweights1 and we do not say that ,god is imperfect because ,he cannot transform ,himself into a body1 or cannot create another being like ,himself1 or make a square whose diagonal should be equal to one of its sides4 ,in the same manner we should not consider it an imperfection in ,god1 if ,he were not the only ,creator1 and if it were absolutely necessary that there should be two ,creators2 not because the one ,god required the assistance of the other1 but because the existence of both of them was equally necessary1 and because it was impossible that it should be otherwise4 ,further we do not say that the ,almighty is imperfect1 because ,he does not1 according to the opinion of the ,mutakallemim1 produce a body otherwise than by the creation of atoms1 and by their combination with accidents created in them4 ,that inability is not called want or imperfection1 since another process is impossible4 ,in like manner the ,dualist might say1 that it is impossible for one ,being to act alone1 and that this circumstance constitutes no imperfection in either of the ,deities1 because the absolute existence of one ,deity necessitates the co-existence of the other4 ,some of the ,mutakallemim1 weary of these arguments1 declared that the ,unity of ,god is a doctrine which must be received as a matter of faith1 but most of them rejected this theory1 and reviled its authors4 ,i1 however1 hold1 that those who accept this theory are right-minded1 and shrink from admitting an erroneous opinion2 when they do not perceive any cogency in the arguments1 and find that the proofs advanced in favour of the doctrine are inconclusive1 they prefer to assume that it could only be received as a matter of faith4 ,for the ,mutakallemim do not hold that the ,universe has any defined properties on which a true proof could be founded1 or that man's intellect is endowed with any such faculty as would enable him to form correct conclusions4 ,it is1 however1 not without a motive that they defend this theory2 they wish to assume such a form of the ,universe1 as could be employed to support a doctrine for which otherwise no proof could be found1 and would lead us to neglect the investigation of that which in fact can be proved4 ,we can only appeal to the ,almighty and to those intelligent persons who confess their error when they discover it4 ,,chapter ,,lxxvi ,the reasonings and arguments of the ,mutakallemim to demonstrate the ,incorporeality of ,god are very weak1 and indeed inferior to their arguments for the ,unity of ,god4 ,they treat the doctrine of the ,incorporeality of ,god as if it were the logical sequence of the theory of ,his ,unity1 and they say that the attribute 8one0 cannot be applied to a corporeal object4 ,those who maintain that ,god is incorporeal because a corporeal object consists of substance and form--a combination known to be impossible in the ,divine ,being1 are not in my opinion ,mutakallemim1 and such an argument is not founded on the propositions of the ,kalm2 on the contrary1 it is a logical proof based on the theory of substance and form1 and on a right conception of their properties4 ,it has the character of a philosophical argument1 and ,i shall fully explain it when treating of the arguments of the philosophers4 ,here we only propose to discuss the arguments by which the ,mutakallemim desire to prove the ,incorporeality of ,god in accordance with their propositions and the method of their reasoning4 ,first ,argument4 ,if ,god were corporeal1 ,his true essence would necessarily either exist entirely in every part of the body1 that is to say1 in each of its atoms1 or would be confined to one of the atoms4 ,in the latter alternative the other atoms would be superfluous1 and the existence of the corporeal being with the exception of the one atom would be of no purpose4 ,if1 on the other hand1 each atom fully represented the ,divine ,being1 the whole body would not be one deity1 but a complex of deities1 and this would be contrary to the doctrine adopted by the ,kalm that ,god is one4 ,an examination of this argument shows that it is based on the first and fifth propositions4 ,but there is room for the following objection3 8,god does not consist of atoms1 that is to say1 ,he is not1 as you assert1 composed of a number of elements created by ,himself1 but is one continuous body1 and indivisible except in man's imagination1 which affords no test2 for in man's imagination the substance of the heavens may be torn or rent asunder4 ,the philosopher holds that such a possibility results from assuming a similarity and an analogy between the visible1 i4e41 the bodies which exist among us1 and the invisible40 ,second ,argument4 ,this argument1 they believe1 is of great importance4 ,its main support is the impossibility of comparison1 i4e41 the belief that ,god cannot be compared to any of ,his creatures2 and that ,he would be comparable to other corporeal objects if ,he were corporeal4 ,they put great stress on this argument1 and say as follows3 8,if it were asserted that ,god is corporeal1 but that ,his substance is not like that of other corporeal beings1 it would be self-contradictory2 for all bodies are alike as regards their substance1 and are distinguished from each other by other things1 viz41 the accidents40 ,they also argue that if ,god were corporeal it would follow that ,he has created another being like ,himself4 ,this argument is refuted in two ways4 ,first1 the objector does not admit the impossibility of comparison2 he asks how it could be proved that ,god cannot be compared to any of ,his creatures4 ,no doubt that1 in support of their view1 that a comparison between the ,almighty and any other being is inadmissible1 they would have to cite the words of the ,prophets1 and thus accept this doctrine by the authority of tradition1 not by the authority of reason4 ,the argument that ,god1 if comparable to any of ,his creatures1 would be found to have created beings like ,himself1 is refuted by the objector in the following way3 8,the created things are not like ,him in every respect2 for ,i do not deny that ,god has many properties and peculiarities40 ,for he who admits the corporeality of ,god does not deny the existence of properties in the divine ,being4 ,another and more forcible argument is this3 ,all who have studied philosophy1 and have made themselves thoroughly acquainted with philosophical theories1 assume as demonstrated facts1 first that the term substance1 when applied to the spheres above and to1 the corporeal objects here on earth is a perfect homonym1 for the substance of the one is not the substance of the other2 and secondly that the forms of the things on this earth are different from the forms of the spheres2 the terms substance and form when applied both to things below and to the spheres above are homonyms2 although there is no doubt that the spheres have like the things below1 three dimensions1 they are corporeal because they consist of substance and form1 not because they have dimensions4 ,if this explanation is admitted with reference to the spheres1 how much more is he who believes that ,god is corporeal justified in saying that ,god is a corporeal being which has dimensions1 but which in its substance1 its true nature and properties is very different from all created bodies1 and that the term 8substance0 is applied to ,him and to ,his creatures homonymously1 in the same manner as the true believers1 who have a correct conception of the divine idea1 apply the term 8existence0 homonymously to ,him and to ,his creatures4 ,the ,corporealists do not admit that all bodies consist of similar atoms2 they believe that ,god created all things1 and that these differ from each other both in their substances and in their constituent properties2 and just as the substance of dung differs from the substance of the sun1 so does1 according to this theory1 the substance of the spheres and the stars differ from the substance of the created light1 i4e41 the ,divine ,glory 7,shechinah71 and again the substance of the ,divine ,glory1 or the pillar of cloud created for the purpose1 differ from the substance of the ,most ,high2 for the substance of the latter is sublime1 perfect1 simple1 constant and immutable4 ,his absolute existence remains always the same1 and ,he creates all things according to ,his will and desire4 ,how could this argument1 though it be weak1 be refuted by these strange methods of the ,mutakallemim1 which ,i pointed out to you8 ,third ,argument4 ,if ,god were corporeal1 ,he would be finite1 and so far this argument is correct2 if ,he were finite1 ,he would have certain dimensions and a certain form2 this is also a correct conclusion4 ,but they continue thus3 ,attribute to ,god any magnitude or form whatever3 ,he might be either larger or smaller1 and might also have a different form4 ,the fact that ,he has one special magnitude and one special form presupposes the existence of a determining agens4 ,i have heard that they attach great importance to this argument1 but in truth it is the weakest of all the arguments mentioned above4 ,it is founded on the tenth proposition1 the feebleness of which in ignoring the actual properties of things1 we have clearly shown in regard to ordinary beings and must be much more evident in regard to the ,creator4 ,there is no difference between this argument and their assertion that the fact of the existence of the ,universe having been preferred to its non-existence proves the existence of an agens that preferred the existence of the ,universe to its non-existence at a time when both were equally possible4 ,if it were asked why this argument should not be applied to ,god--viz41 that ,his mere existence proved the existence of an agens which determined ,his existence and rejected ,his non-existence--they would undoubtedly answer that this admission would only lead to a repetition of the same argument until at length a being be found whose existence is not merely potential but necessary1 and which does not require a causa efficiens4 ,but this same answer can also be applied to dimensions and to form4 ,it can only be said in reference to all other forms and magnitudes1 the existence of which is possible1 that is to say which came into existence after a state of non-existence1 that they might have been larger or smaller than they actually are1 or that they might have had a form different from that which they actually possess1 and require for this reason some determining agens4 ,but the forms and dimensions of ,god 7who is above all imperfection and similitude76 did not come into existence according to the opinion of the ,corporealist after a state of non-existence1 and therefore no determining agens was necessary2 ,his substance with its dimensions and forms has a necessary existence2 no agens was required to decide upon ,his existence1 and to reject ,his non-existence1 since non-existence is altogether inadmissible in ,god4 ,in like manner there was no force required to determine ,his magnitude and form1 they were absolutely inseparable from ,his existence4 ,if you wish to go in search of truth1 to cast aside your passions1 your tradition1 and your fondness of things you have been accustomed to cherish1 if you wish to guard yourself against error3 then consider the fate of these speculators and the result of their labours2 observe how they rushed1 as it were1 from the ashes into the fire4 ,they denied the nature of the existing things1 misrepresented the properties of heaven and earth1 and thought that they were able1 by their propositions1 to prove the creation of the world1 but in fact they were far from proving the creatio ex nihilo1 and have weakened the arguments for the existence1 the unity1 and the incorporeality of ,god4 ,the proofs of all these doctrines must be based on the well-known nature of the existing things1 as perceived by the senses and the intellect4 ,having thus discussed the arguments of the ,mutakallemim1 we shall now proceed to consider the propositions of the philosophers and their arguments for the existence of ,god1 ,his ,unity and ,his ,incorporeality1 and we shall for the present assume the ,eternity of the ,universe without finally accepting it4 ,next to this we shall develop our own method1 which is the result of deep study1 in demonstrating these three principles1 and we shall then examine the theory of the ,eternity of the ,universe as assumed by the philosophers4 ,,part ,,ii ,,introduction ,twenty-five of the propositions which are employed in the proof for the existence of ,god1 or in the arguments demonstrating that ,god is neither corporeal nor a force connected with a material being1 or that ,he is ,one1 have been fully established1 and their correctness is beyond doubt4 ,aristotle and the ,peripatetics who followed him have proved each of these propositions4 ,there is1 however1 one proposition which we do not accept--namely1 the proposition which affirms the ,eternity of the ,universe1 but we will admit it for the present1 because by doing so we shall be enabled dearly to demonstrate our own theory4 ,proposition ,i4 ,the existence of an infinite magnitude is impossible4 ,proposition ,,ii4 ,the co-existence of an infinite number of finite magnitudes is impossible4 ,proposition ,,iii4 ,the existence of an infinite number of causes and effects is impossible1 even if these were not magnitudes2 if1 e4g41 one ,intelligence were the cause of a second1 the second the cause of a third1 the third the cause of a fourth1 and so on1 the series could not be continued ad infinitum4 ,proposition ,,iv4 ,four categories are subject to change3-- 7a47 ,substance4--,changes which affect the substance of a thing are called genesis and destruction4 7b47 ,quantity4--,changes in reference to quantity are increase and decrease4 7c47 ,quality4--,changes in the qualities of things are transformations4 7d47 ,place4--,change of place is called motion4 ,the term 8motion0 is properly applied to change of place1 but is also used in a general sense of all kinds of changes4 ,proposition ,v4 ,motion implies change and transition from potentiality to actuality4 ,proposition ,,vi4 ,the motion of a thing is either essential or accidental2 or it is due to an external force1 or to the participation of the thing in the motion of another thing4 ,this latter kind of motion is similar to the accidental one4 ,an instance of essential motion may be found in the translation of a thing from one place to another4 ,the accident of a thing1 as1 e4g41 its black colour1 is said to move when the thing itself changes its place4 ,the upward motion of a stone1 owing to a force applied to it in that direction1 is an instance of a motion due to an external force4 ,the motion of a nail in a boat may serve to illustrate motion due to the participation of a thing in the motion of another thing2 for when the boat moves1 the nail is said to move likewise4 ,the same is the case with everything composed of several parts3 when the thing itself moves1 every part of it is likewise said to move4 ,proposition ,,vii4 ,things which are changeable are1 at the same time1 divisible4 ,hence everything that moves is divisible1 and consequently corporeal2 but that which is indivisible cannot move1 and cannot therefore be corporeal4 ,proposition ,,viii4 ,a thing that moves accidentally must come to rest1 because it does not move of its own accord2 hence accidental motion cannot continue for ever4 ,proposition ,,ix4 ,a corporeal thing that sets another corporeal thing in motion can only effect this by setting itself in motion at the time it causes the other thing to move4 ,proposition ,x4 ,a thing which is said to be contained in a corporeal object must satisfy either of the two following conditions3 it either exists through that object1 as is the case with accidents1 or it is the cause of the existence of that object2 such is1 e4g41 its essential property4 ,in both cases it is a force existing in a corporeal object4 ,proposition ,,xi4 ,among the things which exist through a material object1 there are some which participate in the division of that object1 and are therefore accidentally divisible1 as1 e4g41 its colour1 and all other qualities that spread throughout its parts4 ,on the other hand1 among the things which form the essential elements of an object1 there are some which cannot be divided in any way1 as1 e4g41 the soul and the intellect4 ,proposition ,,xii4 ,a force which occupies all parts of a corporeal object is finite1 that object itself being finite4 ,proposition ,,xiii4 ,none of the several kinds of change can be continuous1 except motion from place to place1 provided it be circular4 ,proposition ,,xiv4 ,locomotion is in the natural order of the several kinds of motion the first and foremost4 ,for genesis and corruption are preceded by transformation1 which1 in its turn1 is preceded by the approach of the transforming agent to the object which is to be transformed4 ,also1 increase and decrease are impossible without previous genesis and corruption4 ,proposition ,,xv4 ,time is an accident that is related and joined to motion in such a manner that the one is never found without the other4 ,motion is only possible in time1 and the idea of time cannot be conceived otherwise than in connexion with motion2 things which do not move have no relation to time4 ,proposition ,,xvi4 ,incorporeal bodies can only be numbered when they are forces situated in a body2 the several forces must then be counted together with substances or objects in which they exist4 ,hence purely spiritual beings1 which are neither corporeal nor forces situated in corporeal objects1 cannot be counted1 except when considered as causes and effects4 ,proposition ,,xvii4 ,when an object moves1 there must be some agent that moves it1 from without1 as1 e4g41 in the case of a stone set in motion by the hand2 or from within1 e4g41 when the body of a living being moves4 ,living beings include in themselves1 at the same time1 the moving agent and the thing moved2 when1 therefore1 a living being dies1 and the moving agent1 the soul1 has left the body1 i4e41 the thing moved1 the body remains for some time in the same condition as before1 and yet cannot move in the manner it has moved previously4 ,the moving agent1 when included in the thing moved1 is hidden from1 and imperceptible to1 the senses4 ,this circumstance gave rise to the belief that the body of an animal moves without the aid of a moving agent4 ,when we therefore affirm1 concerning a thing in motion1 that it is its own moving agent1 or1 as is generally said1 that it moves of its own accord1 we mean to say that the force which really sets the body in motion exists in that body itself4 ,proposition ,,xviii4 ,everything that passes over from a state of potentiality to that of actuality1 is caused to do so by some external agent2 because if that agent existed in the thing itself1 and no obstacle prevented the transition1 the thing would never be in a state of potentiality1 but always in that of actuality4 ,if1 on the other hand1 while the thing itself contained that agent1 some obstacle existed1 and at a certain time that obstacle was removed1 the same cause which removed the obstacle would undoubtedly be described as the cause of the transition from potentiality to actuality1 and not the force situated within the body4 ,note this4 ,proposition ,,xix4 ,a thing which owes its existence to certain causes has in itself merely the possibility of existence2 for only if these causes exist1 the thing likewise exists4 ,it does not exist if the causes do not exist at all1 or if they have ceased to exist1 or if there has been a change in the relation which implies the existence of that thing as a necessary consequence of those causes4 ,proposition ,,xx4 ,a thing which has in itself the necessity of existence cannot have for its existence any cause whatever4 ,proposition ,,xxi4 ,a thing composed of two elements has necessarily their composition as the cause of its present existence4 ,its existence is therefore not necessitated by its own essence2 it depends on the existence of its two component parts and their combination4 ,proposition ,,xxii4 ,material objects are always composed of two elements at least1 and are without exception subject to accidents4 ,the two component elements of all bodies are substance and form4 ,the accidents attributed to material objects are quantity1 geometrical form1 and position4 ,proposition ,,xxiii4 ,everything that exists potentially1 and whose essence includes a certain state of possibility1 may at some time be without actual existence4 ,proposition ,,xxiv4 ,that which is potentially a certain thing is necessarily material1 for the state of possibility is always connected with matter4 ,proposition ,,xxv4 ,each compound substance consists of matter and form1 and requires an agent for its existence1 viz41 a force which sets the substance in motion1 and thereby enables it to receive a certain form4 ,the force which thus prepares the substance of a certain individual being1 is called the immediate motor4 ,here the necessity arises of investigating into the properties of motion1 the moving agent and the thing moved4 ,but this has already been explained sufficiently2 and the opinion of ,aristotle may be expressed in the following proposition3 ,matter does not move of its own accord--an important proposition that led to the investigation of the ,prime ,motor 7the first moving agent74 ,of these foregoing twenty-five propositions some may be verified by means of a little reflection and the application of a few propositions capable of proof1 or of axioms or theorems of almost the same force1 such as have been explained by me4 ,others require many arguments and propositions1 all of which1 however1 have been established by conclusive proofs partly in the ,physics and its commentaries1 and partly in the ,metaphysics and its commentary4 ,i have already stated that in this work it is not my intention to copy the books of the philosophers or to explain difficult problems1 but simply to mention those propositions which are closely connected with our subject1 and which we want for our purpose4 ,to the above propositions one must be added which enunciates that the universe is eternal1 and which is held by ,aristotle to be true1 and even more acceptable than any other theory4 ,for the present we admit it1 as a hypothesis1 only for the purpose of demonstrating our theory4 ,it is the following proposition3-- ,proposition ,,xxvi4 ,time and motion are eternal1 constant1 and in actual existence4 ,in accordance with this proposition1 ,aristotle is compelled to assume that there exists actually a body with constant motion1 viz41 the fifth element4 ,he therefore says that the heavens are not subject to genesis or destruction1 because motion cannot be generated nor destroyed4 ,he also holds that every motion must necessarily be preceded by another motion1 either of the same or of a different kind4 ,the belief that the locomotion of an animal is not preceded by another motion1 is not true2 for the animal is caused to move1 after it had been in rest1 by the intention to obtain those very things which bring about that locomotion4 ,a change in its state of health1 or some image1 or some new idea can produce a desire to seek that which is conducive to its welfare and to avoid that which is contrary4 ,each of these three causes sets the living being in motion1 and each of them is produced by various kinds of motion4 ,aristotle likewise asserts that everything which is created must1 before its actual creation1 have existed in potenti4 ,by inferences drawn from this assertion he seeks to establish his proposition1 viz41 ,the thing that moves is finite1 and its path finite2 but it repeats the motion in its path an infinite number of times4 ,this can only take place when the motion is circular1 as has been stated in ,proposition ,,xiii4 ,hence follows also the existence of an infinite number of things which do not co-exist but follow one after the other4 ,aristotle frequently attempts to establish this proposition2 but ,i believe that he did not consider his proofs to be conclusive4 ,it appeared to him to be the most probable and acceptable proposition4 ,his followers1 however1 and the commentators of his books1 contend that it contains not only a probable but a demonstrative proof1 and that it has1 in fact1 been fully established4 ,on the other hand1 the ,mutakallemim try to prove that the proposition cannot be true1 as1 according to their opinion1 it is impossible to conceive how an infinite number of things could even come into existence successively4 ,they assume this impossibility as an axiom4 ,i1 however1 think that this proposition is admissible1 but neither demonstrative1 as the commentators of ,aristotle assert1 nor1 on the other hand1 impossible1 as the ,mutakallemim say4 ,we have no intention to explain here the proofs given by ,aristotle1 or to show our doubts concerning them1 or to set forth our opinions on the creation of the universe4 ,i here simply desire to mention those propositions which we shall require for the proof of the three principles stated above4 ,having thus quoted and admitted these propositions1 ,i will now proceed to explain what may be inferred from them4 ,,chapter ,i ,according to ,proposition ,,xxv41 a moving agent must exist which has moved the substance of all existing transient things and enabled it to receive ,form4 ,the cause of the motion of that agent is found in the existence of another motor of the same or of a different class1 the term 8motion10 in a general sense1 being common to four categories 7,prop4 ,,iv474 ,this series of motions is not infinite 7,prop4 ,,iii472 we find that it can only be continued till the motion of the fifth element is arrived at1 and then it ends4 ,the motion of the fifth element is the source of every force that moves and prepares any substance on earth for its combination with a certain form1 and is connected with that force by a chain of intermediate motions4 ,the celestial sphere or the fifth element performs the act of locomotion which is the first of the several kinds of motion 7,prop4 ,,xiv471 and all locomotion is found to be the indirect effect of the motion of this sphere2 e4g41 a stone is set in motion by a stick1 the stick by a man's hand1 the hand by the sinews1 the sinews by the muscles1 the muscles by the nerves1 the nerves by the natural heat of the body1 and the heat of the body by its form4 ,this is undoubtedly the immediate motive cause1 but the action of this immediate cause is due to a certain design1 e4g41 to bring a stone into a hole by striking against it with a stick in order to prevent the draught from coming through the crevice4 ,the motion of the air that causes the draught is the effect of the motion of the celestial sphere4 ,similarly it may be shown that the ultimate cause of all genesis and destruction can be traced to the motion of the sphere4 ,but the motion of the sphere must likewise have been effected by an agent 7,prop4 ,,xvii47 residing either without the sphere or within it2 a third case being impossible4 ,in the first case1 if the motor is without the sphere1 it must either be corporeal or incorporeal2 if incorporeal1 it cannot be said that the agent is without the sphere2 it can only be described as separate from it2 because an incorporeal object can only be said metaphorically to reside without a certain corporeal object4 ,in the second case1 if the agent resides within the sphere1 it must be either a force distributed throughout the whole sphere so that each part of the sphere includes a part of the force1 as is the case with the heat of fire2 or it is an indivisible force1 e4g41 the soul and the intellect 7,props4 ,x4 and ,,xi474 ,the agent which sets the sphere in motion must consequently be one of the following four things3 a corporeal object without the sphere2 an incorporeal object separate from it2 a force spread throughout the whole of the sphere2 or an indivisible force within the sphere4 ,the first case1 viz41 that the moving agent of the sphere is a corporeal object without the sphere1 is impossible1 as will be explained4 ,since the moving agent is corporeal1 it must itself move while setting another object in motion 7,prop4 ,,ix471 and as the sixth element would likewise move when imparting motion to another body1 it would be set in motion by a seventh element1 which must also move4 ,an infinite number of bodies would thus be required before the sphere could be set in motion4 ,this is contrary to ,proposition ,,ii4 ,the third case1 viz41 that the moving object be a force distributed throughout the whole body1 is likewise impossible4 ,for the sphere is corporeal1 and must therefore be finite 7,prop4 ,i472 also the force it contains must be finite 7,prop4 ,,xii471 since each part of the sphere contains part of the force 7,prop4 ,,xi473 the latter can consequently not produce an infinite motion1 such as we assumed according to ,proposition ,,xxvi41 which we admitted for the present4 ,the fourth case is likewise impossible1 viz41 that the sphere is set in motion by an indivisible force residing in the sphere in the same manner as the soul resides in the body of man4 ,for this force1 though indivisible1 could not be the cause of infinite motion by itself alone2 because if that were the case the prime motor would have an accidental motion 7,prop4 ,,vi474 ,but things that move accidentally must come to rest 7,prop4 ,,viii471 and then the thing comes also to rest which is set in motion4 7,the following may serve as a further illustration of the nature of accidental motion4 ,when man is moved by the soul1 i4e41 by his form1 to go from the basement of the house to the upper storey1 his body moves directly1 while the soul1 the really efficient cause of that motion1 participates in it accidentally4 ,for through the translation of the body from the basement to the upper storey1 the soul has likewise changed its place1 and when no fresh impulse for the motion of the body is given by the soul1 the body which has been set in motion by such impulse comes to rest1 and the accidental motion of the soul is discontinued74 ,consequently the motion of that supposed first motor must be due to some cause which does not form part of things composed of two elements1 viz41 a moving agent and an object moved2 if such a cause is present the motor in that compound sets the other element in motion2 in the absence of such a cause no motion takes place4 ,living beings do therefore not move continually1 although each of them possesses an indivisible motive element2 because this element is not constantly in motion1 as it would be if it produced motion of its own accord4 ,on the contrary1 the things to which the action is due are separate from the motor4 ,the action is caused either by desire for that which is agreeable1 or by aversion from that which is disagreeable1 or by some image1 or by some ideal when the moving being has the capacity of conceiving it4 ,when any of these causes are present then the motor acts2 its motion is accidental1 and must therefore come to an end 7,prop4 ,,viii474 ,if the motor of the sphere were of this kind the sphere could not move ad infinitum4 ,our opponent1 however1 holds that the spheres move continually ad infinitum2 if this were the case1 and it is in fact possible 7,prop4 ,,xiii471 the efficient cause of the motion of the sphere must1 according to the above division1 be of the second kind1 viz41 something incorporeal and separate from the sphere4 ,it may thus be considered as proved that the efficient cause of the motion of the sphere1 if that motion be eternal1 is neither itself corporeal nor does it reside in a corporeal object2 it must move neither of its own accord nor accidentally2 it must be indivisible and unchangeable 7,prop4 ,,vii4 and ,prop4 ,v474 ,this ,prime ,motor of the sphere is ,god1 praised be ,his name6 ,the hypothesis that there exist two ,gods is inadmissible1 because absolutely incorporeal beings cannot be counted 7,prop4 ,,xvi471 except as cause and effect2 the relation of time is not applicable to ,god 7,prop4 ,,xv471 because motion cannot be predicated of ,him4 ,the result of the above argument is consequently this3 the sphere cannot move ad infinitum of its own accord2 the ,prime ,motor is not corporeal1 nor a force residing within a body2 it is ,one1 unchangeable1 and in its existence independent of time4 ,three of our postulates are thus proved by the principal philosophers4 ,the philosophers employ besides another argument1 based on the following proposition of ,aristotle4 ,if there be a thing composed of two elements1 and the one of them is known to exist also by itself1 apart from that thing1 then the other element is likewise found in existence by itself separate from that compound4 ,for if the nature of the two elements were such that they could only exist together--as1 e4g41 matter and form--then neither of them could in any way exist separate from the other4 ,the fact that the one component is found also in a separate existence proves that the two elements are not indissolubly connected1 and that the same must therefore be the case with the other component4 ,thus we infer from the existence of honey-vinegar and of honey by itself1 that there exists also vinegar by itself4 ,after having explained this ,proposition ,aristotle continues thus3 ,we notice many objects consisting of a motor and a motum1 i4e41 objects which set other things in motion1 and whilst doing so are themselves set in motion by other things2 such is clearly the case as regards all the middle members of a series of things in motion4 ,we also see a thing that is moved1 but does not itself move anything1 viz41 the last member of the series2 consequently a motor must exist without being at the same time a motum1 and that is the ,prime ,motor1 which1 not being subject to motion1 is indivisible1 incorporeal1 and independent of time1 as has been shown in the preceding argument4 ,third ,philosophical ,argument4--,this is taken from the words of ,aristotle1 though he gives it in a different form4 ,it runs as follows3 ,there is no doubt that many things actually exist1 as1 e4g41 things perceived with the senses4 ,now there are only three cases conceivable1 viz41 either all these things are without beginning and without end1 or all of them have beginning and end1 or some are with and some without beginning and end4 ,the first of these three cases is altogether inadmissible1 since we clearly perceive objects which come into existence and are subsequently destroyed4 ,the second case is likewise inadmissible1 for if everything had but a temporary existence all things might be destroyed1 and that which is enunciated of a whole class of things as possible is necessarily actual4 ,all things must therefore come to an end1 and then nothing would ever be in existence1 for there would not exist any being to produce anything4 ,consequently nothing whatever would exist if all things were transient2 but as we see things existing1 and find ourselves in existence we conclude as follows3--,since there are undoubtedly beings of a temporary existence1 there must also be an eternal being that is not subject to destruction1 and whose existence is real1 not merely possible4 ,it has been further argued that the existence of this being is necessary1 either on account of itself alone or on account of some external force4 ,in the latter case its existence and non-existence would be equally possible1 because of its own properties1 but its existence would be necessary on account of the external force4 ,that force would then be the being that possesses absolute existence 7,prop4 ,,xix474 ,it is therefore certain that there must be a being which has absolutely independent existence1 and is the source of the existence of all things1 whether transient or permanent1 if1 as ,aristotle assumes1 there is in existence such a thing1 which is the effect of an eternal cause1 and must therefore itself be eternal4 ,this is a proof the correctness of which is not doubted1 disputed1 or rejected1 except by those who have no knowledge of the method of proof4 ,we further say that the existence of anything that has independent existence is not due to any cause 7,prop4 ,x471 and that such a being does not include any plurality whatever 7,prop4 ,,xxi472 consequently it cannot be a body1 nor a force residing in a body 7,prop4 ,,xxii474 ,it is now clear that there must be a being with absolutely independent existence1 a being whose existence cannot be attributed to any external cause1 and which does not include different elements2 it cannot therefore be corporeal1 or a force residing in a corporeal object2 this being is ,god4 ,it can easily be proved that absolutely independent existence cannot be attributed to two beings4 ,for1 if that were the case1 absolutely independent existence would be a property added to the substance of both2 neither of them would be absolutely independent on account of their essence1 but only through a certain property1 viz41 that of this independent existence1 which is common to both4 ,it can besides be shown in many ways that independent existence cannot be reconciled with the principle of dualism by any means4 ,it would make no difference1 whether we imagine two beings of similar or of different properties4 ,the reason for all this is to be sought in the absolute simplicity and in the utmost perfection of the essence of this being1 which is the only member of its species1 and does not depend on any cause whatever2 this being has therefore nothing in common with other beings4 ,fourth ,argument4--,this is likewise a well-known philosophical argument4 ,we constantly see things passing from a state of potentiality to that of actuality1 but in every such case there is for that transition of a thing an agent separate from it 7,prop4 ,,xviii474 ,it is likewise clear that the agent has also passed from potentiality to actuality4 ,it has at first been potential1 because it could not be actual1 owing to some obstacle contained in itself1 or on account of the absence of a certain relation between itself and the object of its action2 it became an actual agent as soon as that relation was present4 ,whichever cause be assumed1 an agent is again necessary to remove the obstacle or to create the relation4 ,the same can be argued respecting this last-mentioned agent that creates the relation or removes the obstacle4 ,this series of causes cannot go on ad infinitum2 we must at last arrive at a cause of the transition of an object from the state of potentiality to that of actuality1 which is constant1 and admits of no potentiality whatever4 ,in the essence of this cause nothing exists potentially1 for if its essence included any possibility of existence it would not exist at all 7,prop4 ,,xxiii472 it cannot be corporeal1 but it must be spiritual 7,prop4 ,,xxiv472 and the immaterial being that includes no possibility whatever1 but exists actually by its own essence1 is ,god4 ,since ,he is incorporeal1 as has been demonstrated1 it follows that ,he is ,one 7,prop4 ,,xvi474 ,even if we were to admit the ,eternity of the ,universe1 we could by any of these methods prove the existence of ,god2 that ,he is ,one and incorporeal1 and that ,he does not reside as a force in a corporeal object4 ,the following is likewise a correct method to prove the ,incorporeality and the ,unity of ,god3 ,if there were two ,gods1 they would necessarily have one element in common by virtue of which they were ,gods1 and another element by which they were distinguished from each other and existed as two ,gods2 the distinguishing element would either be in both different from the property common to both--in that case both of them would consist of different elements1 and neither of them would be the ,first ,cause1 or have absolutely independent existence2 but their existence would depend on certain causes 7,prop4 ,,xix47--or the distinguishing element would only in one of them be different from the element common to both3 then that being could not have absolute independence4 ,another proof of the ,unity of ,god4--,it has been demonstrated by proof that the whole existing world is one organic body1 all parts of which are connected together2 also1 that the influences of the spheres above pervade the earthly substance and prepare it for its forms4 ,hence it is impossible to assume that one deity be engaged in forming one part1 and another deity in forming another part of that organic body of which all parts are closely connected together4 ,a duality could only be imagined in this way1 either that at one time the one deity is active1 the other at another time1 or that both act simultaneously1 nothing being done except by both together4 ,the first alternative is certainly absurd for many reasons2 if at the time the one deity be active the other could also be active1 there is no reason why the one deity should then act and the other not2 if1 on the other hand1 it be impossible for the one deity to act when the other is at work1 there must be some other cause besides these deities which at a certain time enables the one to act and disables the other4 ,such difference would not be caused by time1 since time is without change1 and the object of the action likewise remains one and the same organic whole4 ,besides1 if two deities existed in this way1 both would be subject to the relations of time1 since their actions would depend on time2 they would also in the moment of acting pass from potentiality to actuality1 and require an agent for such transition2 their essence would besides include possibility of existence4 ,it is equally absurd to assume that both together produce everything in existence1 and that neither of them does anything alone2 for when a number of forces must be united for a certain result1 none of these forces acts of its own accord1 and none is by itself the immediate cause of that result1 but their union is the immediate cause4 ,it has1 furthermore1 been proved that the action of the absolute cannot be due to an external cause4 ,the union is also an act which presupposes a cause effecting that union1 and if that cause be one1 it is undoubtedly ,god2 but if it also consists of a number of separate forces1 a cause is required for the combination of these forces1 as in the first case4 ,finally1 one simple being must be arrived at1 that is the cause of the existence of the ,universe1 which is one whole2 it would make no difference whether we assumed that the ,first ,cause had produced the ,universe by creatio ex nihilo1 or whether the ,universe co-existed with the ,first ,cause4 ,it is thus clear how we can prove the ,unity of ,god from the fact that this ,universe is one whole4 ,another argument concerning the ,incorporeality of ,god4--,every corporeal object is composed of matter and form 7,prop4 ,,xxii472 every compound of these two elements requires an agent for effecting their combination4 ,besides1 it is evident that a body is divisible and has dimensions2 a body is thus undoubtedly subject to accidents4 ,consequently nothing corporeal can be a unity1 either because everything corporeal is divisible or because it is a compound2 that is to say1 it can logically be analysed into two elements2 because a body can only be said to be a certain body when the distinguishing element is added to the corporeal substratum1 and must therefore include two elements2 but it has been proved that the ,absolute admits of no dualism whatever4 ,now that we have discussed these proofs1 we will expound our own method in accordance with our promise4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,the fifth essence1 i4e41 the heavenly spheres1 must either be transient1 and in this case motion would likewise be temporary1 or1 as our opponent assumes1 it must be eternal4 ,if the spheres are transient1 then ,god is their ,creator2 for if anything comes into existence after a period of non-existence1 it is self-evident that an agent exists which has effected this result4 ,it would be absurd to contend that the thing itself effected it4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the heavenly spheres be eternal1 with a regular perpetual motion1 the cause of this perpetual motion1 according to the ,propositions enumerated in the ,introduction1 must be something that is neither a body1 nor a force residing in a body1 and that is ,god1 praised be ,his name6 ,we have thus shown that whether we believe in the ,creatio ex ,nihilo1 or in the ,eternity of the ,universe1 we can prove by demonstrative arguments the existence of ,god1 i4e41 an absolute ,being1 whose existence cannot be attributed to any cause1 or admit in itself any potentiality4 ,the theory that ,god is ,one and ,incorporeal has likewise been established by proof without any reference to the theory of the ,creation or the ,eternity of the ,universe4 ,this has been explained by us in the third philosophical argument in support of the ,existence of ,god1 and also in our subsequent description of the methods of the philosophers in proving the ,incorporeality and the ,unity of ,god4 ,we deem it now convenient to continue with the theory of the philosophers1 and to give their proofs for the existence of ,intelligences4 ,we will then show that their theory in this regard is in harmony with the teaching of ,scripture concerning the existence of angels4 ,after the full treatment of this subject we shall return to our task and discuss the theory of creatio ex nihilo4 ,for the best arguments in favour of this theory cannot be fully comprehended unless the theory of the existence of ,intelligences be well understood1 and also the method which ,i adopt in proving their existence4 ,we must1 however1 first give the following note1 which will introduce you into the secrets of this whole subject1 both of that which we have already given and of what will yet be given4 ,note4--,it was not my intention when writing this treatise to expound natural science or discuss metaphysical systems2 it was not my object to prove truths which have already been demonstrated1 or describe the number and the properties of the spheres3 for the books written on these subjects serve their purpose1 and if in some points they are not satisfactory1 ,i do not think that what ,i could say would be better than what has already been explained by others4 ,but my intention was1 as has been stated in the ,introduction1 to expound ,biblical passages which have been impugned1 and to elucidate their hidden and true sense1 which is above the comprehension of the multitude4 ,when you therefore notice that ,i prove the existence and number of ,intelligences or the number of the spheres1 with the causes of their motion1 or discuss the true relation of matter and form1 the meaning of ,divine manifestation1 or similar subjects1 you must not think that ,i intend merely to establish a certain philosophical proposition2 for these subjects have been discussed in many books1 and most of them have been demonstrated by proof4 ,i only desire to mention that which might1 when well understood1 serve as a means of removing some of the doubts concerning anything taught in ,scripture2 and indeed many difficulties will disappear when that which ,i am about to explain is taken into consideration4 ,from the ,introduction to this treatise you may learn that its principal object is to expound1 as far as can be done1 the account of the ,creation 7,gen4 i4-iii471 and of the ,divine ,chariot 7,ezek4 i471 and to answer questions raised in respect to ,prophecy and to the knowledge of ,god4 ,you will sometimes notice that ,i am rather explicit on truths already ascertained2 some of them ,natural ,philosophy has established as facts2 others ,metaphysics has either fully demonstrated1 or at least shown to be worthy of belief2 others ,mathematics have made plain4 ,but you will invariably find that my exposition includes the key for the understanding of some allegorical passage of ,holy ,writ and its esoteric interpretation1 and that ,i have mentioned1 explained1 and demonstrated the subject only because it furthers the knowledge of the 8,divine ,chariot10 or 8the ,creation10 or explains some principle with respect to ,prophecy1 or to the belief in any of the truths taught in ,scripture4 ,now1 having made this statement1 we return to the subject of which we began to treat4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,the theory of ,aristotle in respect to the causes of the motion of the spheres led him to assume the existence of ,intelligences4 ,although this theory consists of assertions which cannot be proved1 yet it is the least open to doubt1 and is more systematic than any other1 as has been stated by ,alexander in the book called ,the ,origin of the ,universe4 ,it includes maxims which are identical with those taught in ,scripture1 and it is to a still greater extent in harmony with doctrines contained in well-known genuine ,midrashim1 as will be explained by me4 ,for this reason ,i will cite his views and his proofs1 and collect from them what coincides with the teachings of ,scripture1 and agrees with the doctrine held by our ,sages4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,the enunciation that the heavenly sphere is endowed with a soul will appear reasonable to all who sufficiently reflect on it2 but at first thought they may find it unintelligible or even objectionable2 because they wrongly assume that when we ascribe a soul to the heavenly spheres we mean something like the soul of man1 or that of an ass1 or ox4 ,we merely intend to say that the locomotion of the sphere undoubtedly leads us to assume some inherent principle by which it moves2 and this principle is certainly a soul4 ,for it would be absurd to assume that the principle of the circular motion of the spheres was like that of the rectilinear motion of a stone downward or of fire upwards1 for the cause of the latter motion is a natural property and not a soul2 a thing set in motion by a natural property moves only as long as it is away from the proper place of its element1 but when it has again arrived there1 it comes to rest2 whilst the sphere continues its circular motion in its own place4 ,it is1 however1 not because the sphere has a soul1 that it moves in this manner2 for animate beings move either by instinct or by reason4 ,by 8instinct0 ,i mean the intention of an animal to approach something agreeable1 or to retreat from something disagreeable2 e4g41 to approach the water it seeks because of thirst1 or to retreat from the sun because of its heat4 ,it makes no difference whether that thing really exists or is merely imaginary1 since the imagination of something agreeable or of something disagreeable likewise causes the animal to move4 ,the heavenly sphere does not move for the purpose of withdrawing from what is bad or approaching what is good4 ,for in the first instance it moves toward the same point from which it has moved away1 and vice vers it moves away from the same point towards which it has moved4 ,secondly1 if this were the object of the motion1 we should expect that the sphere would move towards a certain point1 and would then rest2 for if it moved for the purpose of avoiding something1 and never obtained that object1 the motion would be in vain4 ,the circular motion of the sphere is consequently due to the action of some idea which produces this particular kind of motion2 but as ideas are only possible in intellectual beings1 the heavenly sphere is an intellectual being4 ,but even a being that is endowed with the faculty of forming an idea1 and possesses a soul with the faculty of moving1 does not change its place on each occasion that it forms an idea2 for an idea alone does not produce motion1 as has been explained in ,aristotle's ,metaphysics4 ,we can easily understand this1 when we consider how often we form ideas of certain things1 yet do not move towards them1 though we are able to do so2 it is only when a desire arises for the thing imagined1 that we move in order to obtain it4 ,we have thus shown that both the soul1 the principle of motion1 and the intellect1 the source of the ideas1 would not produce motion without the existence of a desire for the object of which an idea has been formed4 ,it follows that the heavenly sphere must have a desire for the ideal which it has comprehended1 and that ideal1 for which it has a desire1 is ,god1 exalted be ,his name6 ,when we say that ,god moves the spheres1 we mean it in the following sense3 the spheres have a desire to become similar to the ideal comprehended by them4 ,this ideal1 however1 is simple in the strictest sense of the word1 and not subject to any change or alteration1 but constant in producing everything good1 whilst the spheres are corporeal2 the latter can therefore not be like this ideal in any other way1 except in the production of circular motion2 for this is the only action of corporeal beings that can be perpetual2 it is the most simple motion of a body2 there is no change in the essence of the sphere1 nor in the beneficial results of its motion4 ,when ,aristotle had arrived at this result1 he further investigated the subject1 and found1 by proof1 that there were many spheres1 and that all moved in circles1 but each with its peculiar motion as regards velocity and direction4 ,he naturally argued that the ideal comprehended by the one sphere1 which completes its circuit in one day1 is different from that of another sphere which completes its circuit in thirty years2 he thus arrived at the conclusion that there were as many ideals as there were spheres2 each sphere has a desire for that ideal which is the source of its existence1 and that desire is the cause of its individual motion1 so that in fact the ideal sets the sphere in motion4 ,aristotle does not say1 nor does any other authority1 that there are ten or a hundred ideals2 he simply states that their number agrees with that of the spheres4 ,when1 therefore1 some of his contemporaries held that the number of spheres was fifty1 he said1 if that was true1 the number of ideals must likewise be fifty4 ,for the scholars in his time were few and possessed but imperfect learning2 they thought that there must be a separate sphere for each movement1 because they did not know that what appear to be several distinct movements can be explained as resulting from the inclination of one sphere as is1 e4g41 the case with the change in the longitude of a star1 its declination and the places of its rising and setting noticed in the circle of the horizon4 ,this point1 however1 does not concern us at present2 let us therefore return to our subject4 ,the later philosophers assumed ten ,intelligences1 because they counted the spheres containing stars and the all-encompassing sphere1 although some of the spheres included several distinct orbits4 ,there are altogether nine spheres1 viz41 the all-encompassing sphere1 that of the fixed stars1 and those of the seven planets2 nine ,intelligences correspond to the nine spheres2 the tenth ,intelligence is the ,active ,intellect4 ,the existence of the latter is proved by the transition of our intellect from a state of potentiality to that of actuality1 and by the same transition in the case of the forms of all transient beings4 ,for whatever passes from potentiality into actuality1 requires for that transition an external agent of the same kind as itself4 ,thus the builder does not build the storehouse in his capacity of workman1 but in that of a person that has the form of the storehouse in his mind2 and that form of the building which exists in the mind of the builder caused the transition of the potential form of the storehouse into actuality1 and impressed it on the material of the building4 ,as that which gives form to matter must itself be pure form1 so the source of intellect must itself be pure intellect1 and this source is the ,active ,intellect4 ,the relation of the latter to the elements and their compounds is the same as that of the ,intelligences to their respective spheres2 and our intellect in action1 which originates in the ,active ,intellect1 and enables us to comprehend that intellect1 finds a parallel in the intellect of each of the spheres which originates in the ,intelligence corresponding to that sphere1 and enables the sphere to comprehend that ,intelligence1 to form an idea of it1 and to move in seeking to become similar to it4 ,aristotle further infers1 what has already been explained1 that ,god does not act by means of direct contact4 ,when1 e4g41 ,he destroys anything with fire1 the fire is set in motion through the movement of the spheres1 and the spheres by the ,intelligences2 the latter1 which are identical with 8the angels10 and act by direct influence1 are consequently1 each in its turn1 the cause of the motion of the spheres2 as however1 purely spiritual beings do not differ in their essence1 and are by no means discrete quantities1 he 7,aristotle7 came to the following conclusion3 ,god created the first ,intelligence1 the motive agent of the first sphere2 the ,intelligence which causes the second sphere to move has its source and origin in the first ,intelligence1 and so on2 the ,intelligence which sets the sphere nearest to the earth in motion is the source and origin of the ,active ,intellect1 the last in the series of purely spiritual beings4 ,the series of material bodies similarly begins with the uppermost sphere1 and ends with the elements and their compounds4 ,the ,intelligence which moves the uppermost sphere cannot be the ,absolute ,being1 for there is an element common to all ,intelligences1 namely1 the property of being the motive agent of a sphere1 and there is another element by which each of them is distinguished from the rest2 each of the ten ,intelligences includes1 therefore1 two elements1 and consequently another being must be the ,first ,cause4 ,this is the theory and opinion of ,aristotle on these questions1 and his proofs1 where proof is possible1 are given in various works of the ,aristotelian school4 ,in short1 he believes that the spheres are animated and intellectual beings1 capable of fully comprehending the principia of their existence2 that there exist purely spiritual beings 7,intelligences71 which do not reside in corporeal objects1 and which derive existence from ,god2 and that these form the intermediate element between ,god and this material world4 ,in the chapters which follow ,i will show how far the teaching of ,scripture is in harmony with these views1 and how far it differs from them4 ,,chapter ,v ,scripture supports the theory that the spheres are animate and intellectual1 i4e41 capable of comprehending things2 that they are not1 as ignorant persons believe1 inanimate masses like fire and earth1 but are1 as the philosophers assert1 endowed with life1 and serve their ,lord1 whom they mightily praise and glorify2 comp4 8,the heavens declare the glory of ,god10 etc4 7,ps4 xix4 #b74 ,it is a great error to think that this is a mere figure of speech2 for the verbs 8to declare0 and 8to relate10 when joined together1 are1 in ,hebrew1 only used of intellectual beings4 ,that the ,psalmist really means to describe the heavens' own doing1 in other words1 what the spheres actually do1 and not what man thinks of them1 may be best inferred from the words1 8,there is no speech1 nor language1 their voice is not heard0 7ver4 #d74 ,here he clearly shows that he describes the heavens themselves as in reality praising ,god1 and declaring ,his wonders without words of lip and tongue4 ,when man praises ,god in words actually uttered1 he only relates the ideas which he has conceived1 but these ideas form the real praise4 ,the reason why he gives expression to these ideas is to be found in his desire to communicate them to others1 or to make himself sure that he has truly conceived them4 ,therefore it is said1 8,commune with your own heart upon your bed1 and be still0 7,ps4 iv4 #e74 ,only ignorant or obstinate persons would refuse to admit this proof taken from ,scripture4 ,as to the opinion of our ,sages1 ,i do not see any necessity for expounding or demonstrating it4 ,consider only the form they gave to the blessing recited on seeing the new moon1 the ideas repeatedly occurring in the prayers and the remarks in the ,midrash on the following and similar passages3--8,and the host of heaven worshippeth thee0 7,neh4 ix4 #f72 8,when the morning stars sang together1 and all the sons of ,god shouted for joy0 7,job xxxviii4 #g74 ,in ,bereshit ,rabba1 on the passage--8,and the earth was empty and formless0 7,gen4 i4 #b71 our ,sages remark as follows3 8,the words tohu and bohu mean mourning and crying2 the earth mourned and cried on account of her evil lot1 saying1 #8,i and the heavens were created together1 and yet the beings above live for ever1 and we are mortal4'0 ,our ,sages1 by this remark1 indicate their belief that the spheres are animated beings1 and not inanimate matter like the elements4 ,the opinion of ,aristotle1 that the spheres are capable of comprehension and conception1 is in accordance with the words of our prophets and our theologians or ,sages4 ,the philosophers further agree that this world below is governed by influences emanating from the spheres1 and that the latter comprehend and have knowledge of the things which they influence4 ,this theory is also met with in ,scripture2 comp4 the stars and all the host of heaven 8which the ,lord thy ,god hath divided unto all nations0 7,deut4 iv4 #ai71 that is to say1 the stars1 which ,god appointed to be the means of governing ,his creatures1 and not the objects of man's worship4 ,it has therefore been stated clearly3 8,and to rule over the day and over the night0 7,gen4 i4 #ah74 ,the term 8ruling0 here refers to the power which the spheres possess of governing the earth1 in addition to the property of giving light and darkness4 ,the latter property is the direct cause of genesis and destruction2 it is described in the words1 8,and to divide the light from the darkness0 7ibid474 ,it is impossible to assume that those who rule a thing are ignorant of that very thing which they rule1 if we take 8to rule0 in its proper sense4 ,we will add another chapter on this subject4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,as for the existence of angels1 there is no necessity to cite any proof from ,scripture1 where the fact is frequently mentioned4 ,the term elohim signifies 8judges02 comp4 8,the cause of both parties shall come before the #8judges'0 7ha-elohim2 ,exod4 xxii4 #h74 ,it has been figuratively applied to angels1 and to the ,creator as being ,judge over the angels4 ,when ,god says1 8,i am the ,lord your ,god10 the pronoun 8your0 refers to all mankind2 but in the phrase elohe ha-elohim1 ,he is described as the ,god of the angels1 and in adone ha-adonim1 as the ,lord of the spheres and the stars1 which are the masters of the rest of the corporeal creation4 ,the nouns elohim and adonim in these phrases do not refer to human judges or masters1 because these are in rank inferior to the heavenly bodies2 much less do they refer to mankind in general1 including masters and servants1 or to objects of stone and wood worshipped by some as gods2 for it is no honour or greatness to ,god to be superior to stone1 wood1 or a piece of metal4 ,the phrases therefore admit of no other meaning than this3 ,god is the ,judge over the judges2 i4e41 over the angels1 and the ,lord over the spheres4 ,we have already stated above that the angels are incorporeal4 ,this agrees with the opinion of ,aristotle3 there is only this difference in the names employed--he uses the term 8,intelligences10 and we say instead 8angels40 ,his theory is that the ,intelligences are intermediate beings between the ,prime ,cause and existing things1 and that they effect the motion of the spheres1 on which motion the existence of all things depends4 ,this is also the view we meet with in all parts of ,scripture2 every act of ,god is described as being performed by angels4 ,but 8angel0 means 8messenger02 hence every one that is intrusted with a certain mission is an angel4 ,even the movements of the brute creation are sometimes due to the action of an angel1 when such movements serve the purpose of the ,creator1 who endowed it with the power of performing that movement2 e4g41 8,god hath sent ,his angel1 and hath shut the lions' mouths that they have not hurt me0 7,dan4 vi4 #bb74 ,another instance may be seen in the movements of ,balaam's ass1 described as caused by an angel4 ,the elements are also called angels4 ,comp4 8,who maketh winds ,his angels1 flaming fire ,his ministers0 7,ps4 civ4 #d74 ,there is no doubt that the word 8angel0 is used of a messenger sent by man2 e4g41 8,and ,jacob sent angels0 7,gen4 xxxii4 #d72 of a prophet1 e4g41 8,and an angel of the ,lord came up from ,gilgal to ,bochim0 7,judges ii4 #a72 8,and ,he sent an angel1 and hath brought us forth out of ,egypt0 7,num4 xx4 #af74 ,it is also used of ideals1 perceived by prophets in prophetic visions1 and of man's animal powers1 as will be explained in another place4 ,when we assert that ,scripture teaches that ,god rules this world through angels1 we mean such angels as are identical with the ,intelligences4 ,in some passages the plural is used of ,god1 e4g41 8,let us make man in our image0 7,gen4 i4 #bf72 8,go to1 let us go down1 and there confound their language0 7ibid4 xi4 #g74 ,our ,sages explain this in the following manner3 ,god1 as it were1 does nothing without contemplating the host above4 ,i wonder at the expression 8contemplating10 which is the very expression used by ,plato3 ,god1 as it were1 8contemplates the world of ideals1 and thus produces the existing beings40 ,in other passages our ,sages expressed it more decidedly3 8,god does nothing without consulting the host above0 7the word familia1 used in the original1 is a ,greek noun1 and signifies 8host074 ,on the words1 8what they have already made0 7,eccles4 ii4 #ab71 the following remark is made in ,bereshit ,rabba and in ,midrash ,koheleth3 8,it is not said #8what ,he has made1' but #8what they have made'2 hence we infer that ,he1 as it were1 with ,his court1 have agreed upon the form of each of the limbs of man before placing it in its position1 as it is said1 #8,he hath made thee and established thee'0 7,deut4 xxxii4 #f74 ,in ,bereshit ,rabba 7chap4 li47 it is also stated1 that wherever the term 8and the ,lord0 occurred in ,scripture1 the ,lord with ,his court is to be understood4 ,these passages do not convey the idea that ,god spoke1 thought1 reflected1 or that ,he consulted and employed the opinion of other beings1 as ignorant persons have believed4 ,how could the ,creator be assisted by those whom ,he created6 ,they only show that all parts of the ,universe1 even the limbs of animals in their actual form1 are produced through angels2 for natural forces and angels are identical4 ,how bad and injurious is the blindness of ignorance6 ,say to a person who is believed to belong to the wise men of ,israel that the ,almighty sends ,his angel to enter the womb of a woman and to form there the ftus1 he will be satisfied with the account2 he will believe it1 and even find in it a description of the greatness of ,god's might and wisdom2 although he believes that the angel consists of burning fire1 and is as big as a third part of the ,universe1 yet he considers it possible as a divine miracle4 ,but tell him that ,god gave the seed a formative power which produces and shapes the limbs1 and that this power is called 8angel10 or that all forms are the result of the influence of the ,active ,intellect1 and that the latter is the angel1 the ,prince of the world1 frequently mentioned by our ,sages1 and he will turn away2 because he cannot comprehend the true greatness and power of creating forces that act in a body without being perceived by our senses4 ,our ,sages have already stated--for him who has understanding--that all forces that reside in a body are angels1 much more the forces that are active in the ,universe4 ,the theory that each force acts only in one particular way1 is expressed in ,bereshit ,rabba 7chap4 l47 as follows3 8,one angel does not perform two things1 and two angels do not perform one thing02 this is exactly the property of all forces4 ,we may find a confirmation of the opinion that the natural and psychical forces of an individual are called angels in a statement of our ,sages which is frequently quoted1 and occurs originally in ,bereshit ,rabba 7chap4 lxxviii473 8,every day ,god creates a legion of angels2 they sing before ,him1 and disappear40 ,when1 in opposition to this statement1 other statements were quoted to the effect that angels are eternal--and1 in fact1 it has repeatedly been shown that they live permanently--the reply has been given that some angels live permanently1 others perish2 and this is really the case2 for individual forces are transient1 whilst the genera are permanent and imperishable4 ,again1 we read 7in ,bereshit ,rabba1 chap4 lxxxv471 in reference to the relation between ,judah and ,tamar3 8,r4 ,jochanan said that ,judah was about to pass by without noticing ,tamar1 but ,god caused the angel of lust1 i4e41 the libidinous disposition1 to present himself to him40 ,man's disposition is here called an angel4 ,likewise we frequently meet with the phrase 8the angel set over a certain thing40 ,in ,midrash-,koheleth 7on ,eccles4 x4 #g7 the following passage occurs3 8,when man sleeps1 his soul speaks to the angel1 the angel to the cherub40 ,the intelligent reader will find here a clear statement that man's imaginative faculty is also called 8angel10 and that 8cherub0 is used for man's intellectual faculty4 ,how beautiful must this appear to him who understands it2 how absurd to the ignorant6 ,we have already stated that the forms in which angels appear form part of the prophetic vision4 ,some prophets see angels in the form of man1 e4g41 8,and behold three men stood by him0 7,gen4 xviii4 #b72 others perceive an angel as a fearful and terrible being1 e4g41 8,and his countenance was as the countenance of an angel of ,god1 very terrible0 7,judges xiii4 #f72 others see them as fire1 e4g41 8,and the angel of the ,lord appeared to him in a flame of fire0 7,exod4 iii4 #b74 ,in ,bereshit ,rabba 7chap4 #a47 the following remark occurs3 8,to ,abraham1 whose prophetic power was great1 the angels appeared in the form of men2 to ,lot1 whose power was weak1 they appeared as angels40 ,this is an important principle as regards ,prophecy2 it will be fully discussed when we treat of that subject 7chap4 xxxii4 sqq474 ,another passage in ,bereshit ,rabba 7ibid47 runs thus3 8,before the angels have accomplished their task they are called men1 when they have accomplished it they are angels40 ,consider how clearly they say that the term 8angel0 signifies nothing but a certain action1 and that every appearance of an angel is part of a prophetic vision1 depending on the capacity of the person that perceives it4 ,there is nothing in the opinion of ,aristotle on this subject contrary to the teaching of ,scripture4 ,the whole difference between him and ourselves is this3 he believes all these beings to be eternal1 co-existing with the ,first ,cause as its necessary effect2 but we believe that they have had a beginning1 that ,god created the ,intelligences1 and gave the spheres the capacity of seeking to become like them2 that in creating the ,intelligences and the spheres1 ,he endowed them with their governing powers4 ,in this point we differ from him4 ,in the course of this treatise we shall give his theory as well as the theory of ,creatio ex nihilo taught in ,scripture4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,we have already explained that the term 8angel0 is a homonym1 and is used of the intellectual beings1 the spheres1 and the elements2 for all these are engaged in performing a divine command4 ,but do not imagine that the ,intelligences and the spheres are like other forces which reside in bodies and act by the laws of nature without being conscious of what they do4 ,the spheres and the ,intelligences are conscious of their actions1 and select by their own free will the objects of their influence1 although not in the same manner as we exercise free will and rule over other things1 which only concern temporary beings4 ,i have been led to adopt this theory by certain passages in ,scripture2 e4g41 an angel says to ,lot3 8,for ,i cannot do anything10 etc4 7,gen4 xix4 #ba72 and telling him to deliver himself1 the angel says3 8,behold ,i have accepted thee concerning this thing0 7ver4 #ba74 ,again3 8,take heed before him1 and listen to his voice10 etc4 7,exod4 xxiii4 #ba74 ,these passages show that angels are conscious of what they do1 and have free will in the sphere of action intrusted to them1 just as we have free will within our province1 and in accordance with the power given to us with our very existence4 ,the difference is that what we do is the lowest stage of excellence1 and that our influence and actions are preceded by non-action2 whilst the ,intelligences and the spheres always perform that which is good1 they contain nothing except what is good and perfect1 as will be shown further on1 and they have continually been active from the beginning4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,it is one of the ancient beliefs1 both among the philosophers and other people1 that the motions of the spheres produced mighty and fearful sounds4 ,they observed how little objects produced by rapid motion a loud1 shrilling1 and terrifying noise1 and concluded that this must to a far higher degree be the case with the bodies of the sun1 the moon and the stars1 considering their greatness and their velocity4 ,the ,pythagoreans believed that the sounds were pleasant1 and1 though loud1 had the same proportions to each other as the musical notes4 ,they also explained why these mighty and tremendous sounds are not heard by us4 ,this belief is also widespread in our nation4 ,thus our ,sages describe the greatness of the sound produced by the sun in the daily circuit in its orbit4 ,the same description could be given of all heavenly bodies4 ,aristotle1 however1 rejects this1 and holds that they produce no sounds4 ,you will find his opinion in the book ,the ,heavens and the ,world 7,de ,clo74 ,you must not find it strange that ,aristotle differs here from the opinion of our ,sages4 ,the theory of the music of the spheres is connected with the theory of the motion of the stars in a fixed sphere1 and our ,sages have1 in this astronomical question1 abandoned their own theory in favour of the theory of others4 ,thus1 it is distinctly stated1 8,the wise men of other nations have defeated the wise men of ,israel40 ,it is quite right that our ,sages have abandoned their own theory2 for speculative matters every one treats according to the results of his own study1 and every one accepts that which appears to him established by proof4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,we have stated above that in the age of ,aristotle the number of spheres was not accurately known2 and that those who at present count nine spheres consider a sphere containing several rotating circles as one1 a fact well known to all who have a knowledge of astronomy4 ,we need1 therefore1 not reject the opinion of those who assume two spheres in accordance with the words of ,scripture3 8,behold the heaven and the heaven of heavens are the ,lord's0 7,deut4 x4 #ad74 ,they reckon all the spheres with stars1 i4e41 with all the circles in which the stars move1 as one2 the all-encompassing sphere in which there are no stars1 is regarded by them as the second2 hence they maintain that there are two spheres4 ,i will here introduce an explanation which is necessary for the understanding of our view on the present subject4 ,there is a difference among ancient astronomers whether the spheres of ,mercury and ,venus are above or below the sun1 because no proof can be given for the position of these two spheres4 ,at first it was generally assumed that they were above the sun--note this well2 later on ,ptolemy maintained that they were below the sun2 because he believed that in this manner the whole arrangement of the spheres would be most reasonable2 the sun would be in the middle1 having three stars below and three above itself4 ,more recently some ,andalusian scholars concluded1 from certain principles laid down by ,ptolemy1 that ,venus and ,mercury were above the sun4 ,ibn ,afla of ,seville1 with whose son ,i was acquainted1 has written a famous book on the subject2 also the excellent philosopher ,abu-,bekr ibn-,alaig1 one of whose pupils was my fellow-student1 has treated of this subject and offered certain proofs--which we have copied--of the improbability of ,venus and ,mercury being above the sun4 ,the proofs given by ,abu-,bekr show only the improbability1 not the impossibility4 ,in short1 whether it be so or not1 the ancients placed ,venus and ,mercury above the sun1 and had1 therefore1 the following five spheres3 that of the moon1 which is undoubtedly the nearest to us2 that of the sun1 which is1 of course1 above the former2 then that of the five planets1 the sphere of the fixed stars1 and the outermost sphere1 which does not contain any star4 ,consequently there are four spheres containing figures1 i4e41 stars1 which were called figures by the ancients in their well-known works--viz41 the spheres of the fixed stars1 of the five planets1 of the sun1 and of the moon2 above these there is one sphere which is empty1 without any star4 ,this number is for me of great importance in respect to an idea which none of the philosophers clearly stated1 though ,i was led to it by various utterances of the philosophers and of our ,sages4 ,i will now state the idea and expound it4 ,,chapter ,x ,it is a well-known fact that the philosophers1 when they discuss in their works the order of the ,universe1 assume that the existing order of things in this sublunary world of transient beings depends on forces which emanate from the spheres4 ,we have mentioned this several times4 ,in like manner our ,sages say1 8,there is no single herb below without its corresponding star above1 that beats upon it and commands it to grow40 ,comp4 8,knowest thou the ordinances of heaven8 ,canst thou set the dominion thereof in the earth80 7,job xxxviii4 #cc74 ,the term mazzal1 literally meaning a constellation in the ,zodiac1 is also used of every star1 as may be inferred from the following passage in the beginning of ,bereshit ,rabba 7chap4 x473 8,while one star 7mazzal7 completes its circuit in thirty days1 another completes it in thirty years40 ,they have thus clearly expressed it1 that even each individual being in this world has its corresponding star4 ,although the influences of the spheres extend over all beings1 there is besides the influence of a particular star directed to each particular species2 a fact noticed also in reference to the several forces in one organic body2 for the whole ,universe is like one organic body1 as we have stated above4 ,thus the philosophers speak of the peculiar influence of the moon on the particular element water4 ,that this is the case is proved by the increase and decrease of the water in the seas and rivers according to the increase and decrease of the moon2 also by the rising and the falling of the seas according to the advance or return of the moon1 i4e41 her ascending and her descending in the several quarters of her course4 ,this is dear to every one who has directed his attention to these phenomena4 ,the influence of the sun's rays upon fire may easily be noticed in the increase of heat or cold on earth1 according as the sun approaches the earth or recedes or is concealed from it4 ,all this is so clear that ,i need not explain it further4 ,now it occurred to my mind that the four spheres which contain stars exercise influence upon all beings on earth that come into existence1 and1 in fact1 are the cause of their existence2 but each of the four spheres is the exclusive source of the properties of one only of the four elements1 and becomes by its own motion the cause of the motion and changes of that element4 ,thus water is set in motion by the moon-sphere1 fire by the sun-sphere1 air by the other planets1 which move in many and different courses with retrogressions1 progressions1 and stations1 and therefore produce the various forms of the air with its frequent changes1 contractions1 and expansions2 the sphere of the other stars1 namely1 the fixed stars1 sets earth in motion2 and it may be that on this account1 viz41 on account of the slow motion of the fixed stars1 earth is but slowly set in motion to change and to combine with other elements4 ,the particular influence which the fixed stars exercise upon earth is implied in the saying of our ,sages1 that the number of the species of plants is the same as that of the individuals included in the general term 8stars40 ,the arrangement of the ,universe may therefore be assumed to be as follows3 there are four spheres1 four elements set in motion by them1 and also four principal properties which earthly beings derive from them1 as has been stated above4 ,furthermore1 there are four causes of the motion of every sphere1 namely1 the following four essential elements in the sphere2 its spherical shape1 its soul1 its intellect1 by which the sphere is capable of forming ideas1 and the ,intelligence1 which the sphere desires to imitate4 ,note this well4 ,the explanation of what ,i said is this3 the sphere could not have been continuously in motion1 had it not this peculiar form2 continuity of motion is only possible when the motion is circular4 ,rectilinear motion1 even if frequently repeated in the same moment1 cannot be continuous2 for when a body moves successively in two opposite directions1 it must pass through a moment of rest1 as has been demonstrated in its proper place4 ,the necessity of a continuous motion constantly repeated in the same path implies the necessity of a circular form4 ,the spheres must have a soul2 for only animate beings can move freely4 ,there must be some cause for the motion1 and as it does not consist in the fear of that which is injurious1 or the desire of that which is profitable1 it must be found in the notion which the spheres form of a certain being1 and in the desire to approach that being4 ,this formation of a notion demands1 in the first place1 that the spheres possess intellect2 it demands further that something exists which corresponds to that notion1 and which the spheres desire to approach4 ,these are the four causes of the motion of the spheres4 ,the following are the four principal forces directly derived from the spheres3 the nature of minerals1 the properties peculiar to plants1 the animal faculties1 and the intellect4 ,an examination of these forces shows that they have two functions1 namely1 to produce things and to perpetuate them2 that is to say1 to preserve the species perpetually1 and the individuals in each species for a certain time4 ,these are also the functions ascribed to ,nature1 which is said to be wise1 to govern the ,universe1 to provide1 as it were1 by plan for the production of living beings1 and to provide also for their preservation and perpetuation4 ,nature creates formative faculties1 which are the cause of the production of living beings1 and nutritive faculties as the source of their temporal existence and preservation4 ,it may be that by ,nature the ,divine ,will is meant1 which is the origin of these two kinds of faculties through the medium of the spheres4 ,as to the number four1 it is strange1 and demands our attention4 ,in ,midrash ,tanuma the following passage occurs3 8,how many steps were in ,jacob's ladder8--,four40 ,the question refers to the verse1 8,and behold a ladder set upon the earth10 etc4 7,gen4 xxviii4 #ab74 ,in all the ,midrashim it is stated that there were four hosts of angels2 this statement is frequently repeated4 ,some read in the above passage3 8,how many steps were in the ladder8--,seven40 ,but all readings and all ,midrashim unanimously express that the angels whom ,jacob saw ascending the ladder1 and descending1 were only four2 two of whom were going up and two coming down4 ,these four angels1 the two that went up and the two that came down1 occupied one step of the ladder1 standing in one line4 ,hence it has been inferred that the breadth of the ladder in this vision was four-thirds of the world4 ,for the breadth of an angel in a prophetic vision is equal to one-third of the world2 comp4 8,and his body was like tarshish 7two-sixths70 7,dan4 x4 #f72 the four angels therefore occupied four-thirds of the world4--,zechariah1 in describing the allegorical vision of 8the four chariots that came out from between two mountains1 which mountains were mountains of brass0 7,zech4 vi4 #a71 adds the explanation1 8,these are the four spirits of the heavens which go forth from standing before the ,lord of all the earth0 7ibid4 ver4 #e74 ,by these four spirits the causes are meant which produce all changes in the ,universe4 ,the term 8brass0 7neoshet71 employed here1 and the phrase 8burnished brass0 7neoshet kalal71 used by ,ezekiel 7i4 #g71 are to some extent homonymous1 and will be discussed further on4 ,the saying of our ,sages1 that the angel is as broad as the third part of the ,universe1 or1 in the words of ,bereshit ,rabba 7chap4 x471 that the angel is the third part of the world1 is quite clear2 we have already explained it in our large work on the ,holy ,law4 ,the whole creation consists of three parts1 7#a7 the pure intelligences1 or angels2 7#b7 the bodies of the spheres2 and 7#c7 the materia prima1 or the bodies which are below the spheres1 and are subject to constant change4 ,in this manner may those understand the dark sayings of the prophets who desire to understand them1 who awake from the sleep of forgetfulness1 deliver themselves from the sea of ignorance1 and raise themselves upward nearer the higher beings4 ,but those who prefer to swim in the waters of their ignorance1 and to 8go down very low10 need not exert the body or heart2 they need only cease to move1 and they will go down by the law of nature4 ,note and consider well all we have said4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,when a simple mathematician reads and studies these astronomical discussions1 he believes that the form and the number of the spheres are facts established by proof4 ,but this is not the case2 for the science of astronomy does not aim at demonstrating them1 although it includes subjects that can be proved2 e4g41 it has been proved that the path of the sun is inclined against the equator2 this cannot be doubted4 ,but it has not yet been decided whether the sphere of the sun is excentric or contains a revolving epicycle1 and the astronomer does not take notice of this uncertainty1 for his object is simply to find an hypothesis that would lead to a uniform and circular motion of the stars without acceleration1 retardation1 or change1 and which is in its effects in accordance with observation4 ,he will1 besides1 endeavour to find such an hypothesis which would require the least complicated motion and the least number of spheres2 he will therefore prefer an hypothesis which would explain all the phenomena of the stars by means of three spheres to an hypothesis which would require four spheres4 ,from this reason we adopt1 in reference to the circuit of the sun1 the theory of excentricity1 and reject the epicyclic revolution assumed by ,ptolemy4 ,when we therefore perceive that all fixed stars move in the same way uniformly1 without the least difference1 we conclude that they are all in one sphere4 ,it is1 however1 not impossible that the stars should have each its own sphere1 with a separate centre1 and yet move in the same way4 ,if this theory be accepted1 a number of ,intelligences must be assumed1 equal to that of the stars1 and therefore ,scripture says in reference to them1 8,is there any number of his armies80 7,job xxv4 #c72 for the ,intelligences1 the heavenly bodies1 and the natural forces1 are called the armies of ,god4 ,nevertheless the species of the stars can be numbered1 and therefore we would still be justified in counting the spheres of the fixed stars collectively as one1 just as the five spheres of the planets1 together with the numerous spheres they contain1 are regarded by us as one4 ,our object in adopting this number is1 as you have noticed1 to divide the influences which we can trace in the ,universe according to their general character1 without desiring to fix the number of the ,intelligences and the spheres4 ,all we wish to point out is this3 in the first place1 that the whole ,creation is divided into three parts1 viz4 7#a7 the pure ,intelligences2 7#b7 the bodies of the spheres endowed with permanent forms--7the forms of these bodies do not pass from one substratum to another1 nor do their substrata undergo any change whatever72 and 7#c7 the transient earthly beings1 all of which consist of the same substance4 ,furthermore1 we desire to show that the ruling power emanates from the ,creator1 and is received by the ,intelligences according to their order2 from the ,intelligences part of the good and the light bestowed upon them is communicated to the spheres1 and the latter1 being in possession of the abundance obtained of the ,intelligences1 transmit forces and properties unto the beings of this transient world4 ,we must1 however1 add that the part which benefits the part below it in the order described does not exist for the sole purpose of producing that benefit4 ,for if this were the case it would lead to the paradox that the higher1 better1 and nobler beings existed for the sake of beings lower in rank1 whilst in reality the object should be of greater importance than the means applied for attaining it4 ,no intelligent person will admit that this is possible4 ,the nature of the influence which one part of the ,creation exercises upon another must be explained as follows3 ,a thing perfect in a certain way is either perfect only in itself1 without being able to communicate that perfection to another being1 or it is so perfect that it is capable of imparting perfection to another being4 ,a person may possess wealth sufficient for his own wants without being able to spare anything for another1 or he may have wealth enough to benefit also other people1 or even to enrich them to such an extent as would enable them to give part of their property to others4 ,in the same manner the creative act of the ,almighty in giving existence to pure ,intelligences endows the first of them with the power of giving existence to another1 and so on1 down to the ,active ,intellect1 the lowest of the purely spiritual beings4 ,besides producing other ,intelligences1 each ,intelligence gives existence to one of the spheres1 from the highest down to the lowest1 which is the sphere of the moon4 ,after the latter follows this transient world1 i4e41 the materia prima1 and all that has been formed of it4 ,in this manner the elements receive certain properties from each sphere1 and a succession of genesis and destruction is produced4 ,we have already mentioned that these theories are not opposed to anything taught by our ,prophets or by our ,sages4 ,our nation is wise and perfect1 as has been declared by the ,most ,high1 through ,moses1 who made us perfect3 8,surely this great nation is a wise and understanding people0 7,deut4 iv4 #f74 ,but when wicked barbarians have deprived us of our possessions1 put an end to our science and literature1 and killed our wise men1 we have become ignorant2 this has been foretold by the prophets1 when they pronounced the punishment for our sins3 8,the wisdom of their wise men shall perish1 and the understanding of their prudent men shall be hid0 7,isa4 xxix4 #ad74 ,we are mixed up with other nations2 we have learnt their opinions1 and followed their ways and acts4 ,the ,psalmist1 deploring this imitation of the actions of other nations1 says1 8,they were mingled among the nations1 and learned their works0 7,ps4 cvi4 #ce74 ,isaiah likewise complains that the ,israelites adopted the opinions of their neighbours1 and says1 8,and they please themselves in the children of strangers0 7,isa4 ii4 #f72 or1 according to the ,aramaic version of ,jonathan1 son of ,uzziel1 8,and they walk in the ways of the nations40 ,having been brought up among persons untrained in philosophy1 we are inclined to consider these philosophical opinions as foreign to our religion1 just as uneducated persons find them foreign to their own notions4 ,but1 in fact1 it is not so4 ,since we have repeatedly spoken of the influence emanating from ,god and the ,intelligences1 we will now proceed to explain what is the true meaning of this influence1 and after that ,i will discuss the theory of the ,creation4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,it is clear that whenever a thing is produced1 an efficient cause must exist for the production of the thing that has not existed previously4 ,this immediate efficient cause is either corporeal or incorporeal2 if corporeal1 it is not the efficient cause on account of its corporeality1 but on account of its being an individual corporeal object1 and therefore by means of its form4 ,i will speak of this subject later on4 ,the immediate efficient cause of a thing may again be the effect of some cause1 and so on1 but not ad infinitum4 ,the series of causes for a certain product must necessarily conclude with a ,first ,cause1 which is the true cause of that product1 and whose existence is not due to another cause4 ,the question remains1 ,why has this thing been produced now and not long before1 since the cause has always been in existence8 ,the answer is1 that a certain relation between cause and product has been absent1 if the cause be corporeal2 or1 that the substance has not been sufficiently prepared1 if the cause be incorporeal4 ,all this is in accordance with the teachings of natural science4 ,we ignore for the present the question whether to assume the ,eternity of the ,universe1 or the ,creatio ex nihilo4 ,we do not intend to discuss the question here4 ,in ,physics it has been shown that a body in acting upon another body must either directly be in contact with it1 or indirectly through the medium of other bodies4 ,e4g41 a body that has been heated has been in contact with fire1 or the air that surrounds the body has been heated by the fire1 and has communicated the heat to the body2 the immediate cause of the heat in this body is the corporeal substance of the heated air4 ,the magnet attracts iron from a distance through a certain force communicated to the air round the iron4 ,the magnet does therefore not act at all distances1 just as fire does not act at every distance1 but only as long as the air between the fire and the object is affected by the fire4 ,when the air is no longer affected by the fire which is under a piece of wax1 the latter does not melt4 ,the same is the case with magnetism4 ,when an object that has previously not been warm has now become warm1 the cause of its heat must now have been created2 either some fire has been produced1 or the distance of the fire from the object has been changed1 and the altered relation between the fire and the object is the cause now created4 ,in a similar manner we find the causes of all changes in the ,universe to be changes in the combination of the elements that act upon each other when one body approaches another or separates from it4 ,there are1 however1 changes which are not connected with the combination of the elements1 but concern only the forms of the things2 they require likewise an efficient cause2 there must exist a force that produces the various forms4 ,this cause is incorporeal1 for that which produces form must itself be abstract form1 as has been shown in its proper place4 ,i have also indicated the proof of this theorem in previous chapters4 ,the following may1 in addition1 serve to illustrate it3 ,all combinations of the elements are subject to increase and decrease1 and this change takes place gradually4 ,it is different with forms2 they do not change gradually1 and are therefore without motion2 they appear and disappear instantaneously1 and are consequently not the result of the combination of corporeal elements4 ,this combination merely prepares matter for receiving a certain form4 ,the efficient cause which produces the form is indivisible1 because it is of the same kind as the thing produced4 ,hence it may be concluded that the agent that has produced a certain form1 or given it to a certain substance1 must itself be an abstract form4 ,the action of this incorporeal agent cannot depend on a certain relation to the corporeal product2 being incorporeal1 it cannot approach a body1 or recede from it2 nor can a body approach the incorporeal agent1 or recede from it1 because there is no relation of distance between corporeal and incorporeal beings4 ,the reason why the action has not taken place before must be sought in the circumstance that the substance has not been prepared for the action of the abstract form4 ,it is now clear that the action of bodies upon each other1 according to their forms1 prepares the substance for receiving the action of an incorporeal being1 or ,form4 ,the existence of actions of purely incorporeal beings1 in every case of change that does not originate in the mere combination of elements1 is now firmly established4 ,these actions do not depend on impact1 or on a certain distance4 ,they are termed 8influence0 7or 8emanation071 on account of their similarity to a water-spring4 ,the latter sends forth water in all directions1 has no peculiar side for receiving or spending its contents2 it springs forth on all sides1 and continually waters both neighbouring and distant places4 ,in a similar manner incorporeal beings1 in receiving power and imparting it to others1 are not limited to a particular side1 distance1 or time4 ,they act continually2 and whenever an object is sufficiently prepared1 it receives the effect of that continuous action1 called 8influence0 7or 8emanation074 ,god being incorporeal1 and everything being the work of ,him as the efficient cause1 we say that the ,universe has been created by the ,divine influence1 and that all changes in the ,universe emanate from ,him4 ,in the same sense we say that ,he caused wisdom to emanate from ,him and to come upon the prophets4 ,in all such cases we merely wish to express that an incorporeal ,being1 whose action we call 8influence10 has produced a certain effect4 ,the term 8influence0 has been considered applicable to the ,creator on account of the similarity between ,his actions and those of a spring4 ,there is no better way of describing the action of an incorporeal being than by this analogy2 and no term can be found that would accurately describe it4 ,for it is as difficult to form an idea of that action as to form an idea of the incorporeal being itself4 ,as we imagine only bodies or forces residing in bodies1 so we only imagine actions possible when the agent is near1 at a certain distance1 and on a particular side4 ,there are therefore persons who1 on learning that ,god is incorporeal1 or that ,he does not approach the object of ,his action1 believe that ,he gives commands to angels1 and that the latter carry them out by approach or direct contact1 as is the case when we produce something4 ,these persons thus imagine also the angels as bodies4 ,some of them1 further1 believe that ,god commands an action in words consisting1 like ours1 of letters and sound1 and that thereby the action is done4 ,all this is the work of the imagination1 which is1 in fact1 identical with 8evil inclination40 ,for all our defects in speech or in character are either the direct or the indirect work of imagination4 ,this is not the subject of the present chapter1 in which we only intended to explain the term 8influence0 in so far as it is applied to incorporeal beings1 namely1 to ,god and to the ,intelligences or angels4 ,but the term is also applied to the forces of the spheres in their effects upon the earth2 and we speak of the 8influence0 of the spheres1 although the spheres are corporeal1 and the stars1 being corporeal1 only act at certain distances1 i4e41 at a smaller or a greater distance from the centre1 or at a definite distance from each other1 a circumstance which led to ,astrology4 ,as to our assertion that ,scripture applies the notion of 8influence0 to ,god1 compare 8,they have forsaken me1 the fountain of living waters0 7,jer4 ii4 #ac71 i4e41 the ,divine influence that gives life or existence1 for the two are undoubtedly identical4 ,further1 8,for with ,thee is the fountain of life0 7,ps4 xxxvi4 #aj71 i4e41 the ,divine influence that gives existence4 ,the concluding words of this verse1 8in ,thy light we see light10 express exactly what we said1 namely1 that by the influence of the intellect which emanates from ,god we become wise1 by it we are guided and enabled to comprehend the ,active ,intellect4 ,note this4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,among those who believe in the existence of ,god1 there are found three different theories as regards the question whether the ,universe is eternal or not4 ,first ,theory4--,those who follow the ,law of ,moses1 our ,teacher1 hold that the whole ,universe1 i4e41 everything except ,god1 has been brought by ,him into existence out of non-existence4 ,in the beginning ,god alone existed1 and nothing else2 neither angels1 nor spheres1 nor the things that are contained within the spheres existed4 ,he then produced from nothing all existing things such as they are1 by ,his will and desire4 ,even time itself is among the things created2 for time depends on motion1 i4e41 on an accident in things which move1 and the things upon whose motion time depends are themselves created beings1 which have passed from non-existence into existence4 ,we say that ,god existed before the creation of the ,universe1 although the verb existed appears to imply the notion of time2 we also believe that ,he existed an infinite space of time before the ,universe was created2 but in these cases we do not mean time in its true sense4 ,we only use the term to signify something analogous or similar to time4 ,for time is undoubtedly an accident1 and1 according to our opinion1 one of the created accidents1 like blackness and whiteness2 it is not a quality1 but an accident connected with motion4 ,this must be clear to all who understand what ,aristotle has said on time and its real existence4 ,the following remark does not form an essential part of our present research2 it will nevertheless be found useful in the course of this discussion4 ,many scholars do not know what time really is1 and men like ,galen were so perplexed about it that they asked whether time has a real existence or not2 the reason for this uncertainty is to be found in the circumstance that time is an accident of an accident4 ,accidents which are directly connected with material bodies1 e4g41 colour and taste1 are easily understood1 and correct notions are formed of them4 ,there are1 however1 accidents which are connected with other accidents1 e4g41 the splendour of colour1 or the inclination and the curvature of a line2 of these it is very difficult to form a correct notion1 especially when the accident which forms the substratum for the other accident is not constant but variable4 ,both difficulties are present in the notion of time3 it is an accident of motion1 which is itself an accident of a moving object2 besides1 it is not a fixed property2 on the contrary1 its true and essential condition is1 not to remain in the same state for two consecutive moments4 ,this is the source of ignorance about the nature of time4 ,we consider time a thing created2 it comes into existence in the same manner as other accidents1 and the substances which form the substratum for the accidents4 ,for this reason1 viz41 because time belongs to the things created1 it cannot be said that ,god produced the ,universe in the beginning4 ,consider this well2 for he who does not understand it is unable to refute forcible objections raised against the theory of ,creatio ex nihilo4 ,if you admit the existence of time before the ,creation1 you will be compelled to accept the theory of the ,eternity of the ,universe4 ,for time is an accident and requires a substratum4 ,you will therefore have to assume that something beside ,god existed before this ,universe was created1 an assumption which it is our duty to oppose4 ,this is the first theory1 and it is undoubtedly a fundamental principle of the ,law of our teacher ,moses2 it is next in importance to the principle of ,god's unity4 ,do not follow any other theory4 ,abraham1 our father1 was the first that taught it1 after he had established it by philosophical research4 ,he proclaimed1 therefore1 8the name of the ,lord the ,god of the ,universe0 7,gen4 xxi4 #cc72 and he had previously expressed this theory in the words1 8,the ,possessor of heaven and earth0 7ibid4 xiv4 #bb74 ,second ,theory4--,the theory of all philosophers whose opinions and works are known to us is this3 ,it is impossible to assume that ,god produced anything from nothing1 or that ,he reduces anything to nothing2 that is to say1 it is impossible that an object consisting of matter and form should be produced when that matter is absolutely absent1 or that it should be destroyed in such a manner that that matter be absolutely no longer in existence4 ,to say of ,god that ,he can produce a thing from nothing or reduce a thing to nothing is1 according to the opinion of these philosophers1 the same as if we were to say that ,he could cause one substance to have at the same time two opposite properties1 or produce another being like ,himself1 or change ,himself into a body1 or produce a square the diagonal of which be equal to its side1 or similar impossibilities4 ,the philosophers thus believe that it is no defect in the ,supreme ,being that ,he does not produce impossibilities1 for the nature of that which is impossible is constant--it does not depend on the action of an agent1 and for this reason it cannot be changed4 ,similarly there is1 according to them1 no defect in the greatness of ,god1 when ,he is unable to produce a thing from nothing1 because they consider this as one of the impossibilities4 ,they therefore assume that a certain substance has co-existed with ,god from eternity in such a manner that neither ,god existed without that substance nor the latter without ,god4 ,but they do not hold that the existence of that substance equals in rank that of ,god2 for ,god is the cause of that existence1 and the substance is in the same relation to ,god as the clay is to the potter1 or the iron to the smith2 ,god can do with it what ,he pleases2 at one time ,he forms of it heaven and earth1 at another time ,he forms some other thing4 ,those who hold this view also assume that the heavens are transient1 that they came into existence1 though not from nothing1 and may cease to exist1 although they cannot be reduced to nothing4 ,they are transient in the same manner as the individuals among living beings which are produced from some existing substance1 and are again reduced to some substance that remains in existence4 ,the process of genesis and destruction is1 in the case of the heavens1 the same as in that of earthly beings4 ,the followers of this theory are divided into different schools1 whose opinions and principles it is useless to discuss here2 but what ,i have mentioned is common to all of them4 ,plato holds the same opinion4 ,aristotle says in his ,physics1 that according to ,plato the heavens are transient4 ,this view is also stated in ,plato's ,timus4 ,his opinion1 however1 does not agree with our belief2 only superficial and careless persons wrongly assume that ,plato has the same belief as we have4 ,for whilst we hold that the heavens have been created from absolutely nothing1 ,plato believes that they have been formed out of something4--,this is the second theory4 ,third ,theory4--viz41 that of ,aristotle1 his followers1 and commentators4 ,aristotle maintains1 like the adherents of the second theory1 that a corporeal object cannot be produced without a corporeal substance4 ,he goes1 however1 farther1 and contends that the heavens are indestructible4 ,for he holds that the ,universe in its totality has never been different1 nor will it ever change3 the heavens1 which form the permanent element in the ,universe1 and are not subject to genesis and destruction1 have always been so2 time and motion are eternal1 permanent1 and have neither beginning nor end2 the sublunary world1 which includes the transient elements1 has always been the same1 because the materia prima is itself eternal1 and merely combines successively with different forms2 when one form is removed1 another is assumed4 ,this whole arrangement1 therefore1 both above and here below1 is never disturbed or interrupted1 and nothing is produced contrary to the laws or the ordinary course of ,nature4 ,he further says--though not in the same terms--that he considers it impossible for ,god to change ,his will or conceive a new desire2 that ,god produced this ,universe in its totality by ,his will1 but not from nothing4 ,aristotle finds it as impossible to assume that ,god changes ,his will or conceives a new desire1 as to believe that ,he is non-existing1 or that ,his essence is changeable4 ,hence it follows that this ,universe has always been the same in the past1 and will be the same eternally4 ,this is a full account of the opinions of those who consider that the existence of ,god1 the ,first ,cause of the ,universe1 has been established by proof4 ,but it would be quite useless to mention the opinions of those who do not recognize the existence of ,god1 but believe that the existing state of things is the result of accidental combination and separation of the elements1 and that the ,universe has no ,ruler or ,governor4 ,such is the theory of ,epicurus and his school1 and similar philosophers1 as stated by ,alexander ,aphrodisiensis2 it would be superfluous to repeat their views1 since the existence of ,god has been demonstrated whilst their theory is built upon a basis proved to be untenable4 ,it is likewise useless to prove the correctness of the followers of the second theory in asserting that the heavens are transient1 because they at the same time believe in the ,eternity of the ,universe1 and so long as this theory is adopted1 it makes no difference to us whether it is believed that the heavens are transient1 and that only their substance is eternal1 or the heavens are held to be indestructible1 in accordance with the view of ,aristotle4 ,all who follow the ,law of ,moses1 our ,teacher1 and ,abraham1 our ,father1 and all who adopt similar theories1 assume that nothing is eternal except ,god1 and that the theory of ,creatio ex nihilo includes nothing that is impossible1 whilst some thinkers even regard it as an established truth4 ,after having described the different theories1 ,i will now proceed to show how ,aristotle proved his theory1 and what induced him to adopt it4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,it is not necessary to repeat in every chapter that ,i write this treatise with the full knowledge of what you have studied2 that ,i therefore need not quote the exact words of the philosophers2 it will suffice to give an abstract of their views4 ,i will1 however1 point out the methods which they employ1 in the same manner as ,i have done when ,i discussed the theories of the ,mutakallemim4 ,no notice will be taken of the opinion of any philosopher but that of ,aristotle2 his opinions alone deserve to be criticized1 and if our objections or doubts with regard to any of these be well founded1 this must be the case in a far higher degree in respect to all other opponents of our fundamental principles4 ,i now proceed to describe the methods of the philosophers4 ,first ,method4--,according to ,aristotle1 motion1 that is to say1 motion par excellence1 is eternal4 ,for if the motion had a beginning1 there must already have been some motion when it came into existence1 for transition from potentiality into actuality1 and from non-existence into existence1 always implies motion2 then that previous motion1 the cause of the motion which follows1 must be eternal1 or else the series would have to be carried back ad infinitum4 ,on the same principle he maintains that time is eternal1 for time is related to and connected with motion3 there is no motion except in time1 and time can only be perceived by motion1 as has been demonstrated by proof4 ,by this argument ,aristotle proves the eternity of the ,universe4 ,second ,method4--,the ,first ,substance common to the four elements is eternal4 ,for if it had a beginning it would have come into existence from another substance2 it would further be endowed with a form1 as coming into existence is nothing but receiving ,form4 ,but we mean by 8,first ,substance0 a formless substance2 it can therefore not have come into existence from another substance1 and must be without beginning and without end2 hence it is concluded that the ,universe is eternal4 ,third ,method4--,the substance of the spheres contains no opposite elements2 for circular motion includes no such opposite directions as are found in rectilinear motion4 ,whatever is destroyed1 owes its destruction to the opposite elements it contains4 ,the spheres contain no opposite elements2 they are therefore indestructible1 and because they are indestructible they are also without beginning4 ,aristotle thus assumes the axiom that everything that has had a beginning is destructible1 and that everything destructible has had a beginning2 that things without beginning are indestructible1 and indestructible things are without beginning4 ,hence follows the ,eternity of the ,universe4 ,fourth ,method4--,the actual production of a thing is preceded in time by its possibility4 ,the actual change of a thing is likewise preceded in time by its possibility4 ,from this proposition ,aristotle derives the eternity of the circular motion of the spheres4 ,the ,aristotelians in more recent time employ this proposition in demonstrating the ,eternity of the ,universe4 ,they argue thus3 ,when the ,universe did not yet exist1 its existence was either possible or necessary1 or impossible4 ,if it was necessary1 the ,universe could never have been non-existing2 if impossible1 the ,universe could never have been in existence2 if possible1 the question arises1 ,what was the substratum of that possibility8 for there must be in existence something of which that possibility can be predicated4 ,this is a forcible argument in favour of the ,eternity of the ,universe4 ,some of the later schools of the ,mutakallemim imagined that they could confute this argument by objecting that the possibility rests with the agent1 and not with the production4 ,but this objection is of no force whatever2 for there are two distinct possibilities1 viz41 the thing produced has had the possibility of being produced before this actually took place2 and the agent has had the possibility of producing it before he actually did so4 ,there are1 therefore1 undoubtedly two possibilities--that of the substance to receive a certain form1 and that of the agent to perform a certain act4 ,these are the principal methods1 based on the properties of the ,universe1 by which ,aristotle proves the ,eternity of the ,universe4 ,there are1 however1 other methods of proving the ,eternity of the ,universe4 ,they are based on the notions formed of ,god1 and philosophers after ,aristotle derived them from his philosophy4 ,some of them employed the following argument3-- ,fifth ,method4--,if ,god produced the ,universe from nothing1 ,he must have been a potential agent before ,he was an actual one1 and must have passed from a state of potentiality into that of actuality--a process that is merely possible1 and requires an agent for effecting it4 ,this argument is likewise a source of great doubts1 and every intelligent person must examine it in order to refute it and to expose its character4 ,sixth ,method4--,an agent is active at one time and inactive at another1 according as favourable or unfavourable circumstances arise4 ,the unfavourable circumstances cause the abandonment of an intended action4 ,the favourable ones1 on the other hand1 even produce a desire for an action for which there has not been a desire previously4 ,as1 however1 ,god is not subject to accidents which could bring about a change in ,his will1 and is not affected by obstacles and hindrances that might appear or disappear1 it is impossible1 they argue1 to imagine that ,god is active at one time and inactive at another4 ,he is1 on the contrary1 always active in the same manner as ,he is always in actual existence4 ,seventh ,method4--,the actions of ,god are perfect2 they are in no way defective1 nor do they contain anything useless or superfluous4 ,in similar terms ,aristotle frequently praises ,him1 when he says that ,nature is wise and does nothing in vain1 but makes everything as perfect as possible4 ,the philosophers therefore contend that this existing ,universe is so perfect that it cannot be improved1 and must be permanent2 for it is the result of ,god's wisdom1 which is not only always present in ,his essence1 but is identical with it4 ,all arguments in favour of the ,eternity of the ,universe are based on the above methods1 and can be traced to one or other of them4 ,the following objection is also raised against ,creatio ex nihilo3 ,how could ,god ever have been inactive without producing or creating anything in the infinite past8 ,how could ,he have passed the long infinite period which preceded the ,creation without producing anything1 so as to commence1 as it were1 only yesterday1 the ,creation of the ,universe8 ,for even if you said1 e4g41 that ,god created previously as many successive worlds as the outermost sphere could contain grains of mustard1 and that each of these worlds existed as many years3 considering the infinite existence of ,god1 it would be the same as if ,he had only yesterday commenced the ,creation4 ,for when we once admit the beginning of the existence of things after their non-existence1 it makes no difference whether thousands of centuries have passed since the beginning1 or only a short time4 ,those who defend the ,eternity of the ,universe find both assumptions equally improbable4 ,eighth ,method4--,the following method is based on the circumstance that the theory implies a belief which is so common to all peoples and ages1 and so universal1 that it appears to express a real fact and not merely an hypothesis4 ,aristotle says that all people have evidently believed in the permanency and stability of the heavens2 and thinking that these were eternal1 they declared them to be the habitation of ,god and of the spiritual beings or angels4 ,by thus attributing the heavens to ,god1 they expressed their belief that the heavens are indestructible4 ,several other arguments of the same kind are employed by ,aristotle in treating of this subject in order to support the results of his philosophical speculation by common sense4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,in this chapter ,i intend to show that ,aristotle was well aware that he had not proved the ,eternity of the ,universe4 ,he was not mistaken in this respect4 ,he knew that he could not prove his theory1 and that his arguments and proofs were only apparent and plausible4 ,they are the least objectionable1 according to ,alexander2 but1 according to the same authority1 ,aristotle could not have considered them conclusive1 after having himself taught us the rules of logic1 and the means by which arguments can be refuted or confirmed4 ,the reason why ,i have introduced this subject is this3 ,later philosophers1 disciples of ,aristotle1 assume that he has proved the ,eternity of the ,universe1 and most of those who believe that they are philosophers blindly follow him in this point1 and accept all his arguments as conclusive and absolute proofs4 ,they consider it wrong to differ from ,aristotle1 or to think that he was ignorant or mistaken in anything4 ,for this reason1 taking their standpoint1 ,i show that ,aristotle himself did not claim to have proved the ,eternity of the ,universe4 ,he says in his book ,physics 7viii41 chap4 i47 as follows3 8,all the ,physicists before us believed that motion is eternal1 except ,plato1 who holds that motion is transient2 according to his opinion the heavens are likewise transient40 ,now if ,aristotle had conclusive proofs for his theory1 he would not have considered it necessary to support it by citing the opinions of preceding ,physicists1 nor would he have found it necessary to point out the folly and absurdity of his opponents4 ,for a truth1 once established by proof1 does neither gain force nor certainty by the consent of all scholars1 nor lose by the general dissent4 ,we further find that ,aristotle1 in the book ,the ,heavens and the ,world1 introduces his theory of the ,eternity of the ,universe in the following manner3 8,let us inquire into the nature of the heavens1 and see whether they are the product of something or not1 destructible or not40 ,after this statement of the problem1 he proceeds to cite the views of those who hold that the heavens have had a beginning1 and continues thus3 8,by doing this1 our theory will be most plausible and acceptable in the opinion of profound thinkers2 and it will be the more so1 when1 as we propose1 the arguments of our opponents are first heard4 ,for if we were to state our opinion and our arguments without mentioning those of our opponents1 our words would be received less favourably4 ,he who desires to be just must not show himself hostile to his opponent2 he must have sympathy with him1 and readily acknowledge any truth contained in his words2 he must admit the correctness of such of his opponent's arguments as he would admit if they were in his own favour40 ,this is the contents of the words of ,aristotle4 ,now1 ,i ask you1 men of intelligence1 can we have any complaint against him after this frank statement8 ,or can any one now imagine that a real proof has been given for the ,eternity of the ,universe8 ,or can ,aristotle1 or any one else1 believe that a theorem1 though fully proved1 would not be acceptable unless the arguments of the opponents were fully refuted8 ,we must also take into consideration that ,aristotle describes this theory as his opinion1 and his proofs as arguments4 ,is ,aristotle ignorant of the difference between argument and proof8 between opinions1 which may be received more or less favourably1 and truths capable of demonstration8 or would rhetorical appeal to the impartiality of opponents have been required for the support of his theory if a real proof had been given8 ,certainly not4 ,aristotle only desires to show that his theory is better than those of his opponents1 who hold that philosophical speculation leads to the conviction that the heavens are transient1 but have never been entirely without existence2 or that the heavens have had a beginning1 but are indestructible2 or to defend any of the other views mentioned by him4 ,in this he is undoubtedly right2 for his opinion is nearer the truth than theirs1 so far as a proof can be taken from the nature of existing things2 we differ from him1 as will be explained4 ,passion1 that exercises great influence in most of the different sects1 must have influenced even the philosophers who wished to affirm that ,aristotle demonstrated his theory by proof4 ,perhaps they really believe it1 and assume that ,aristotle himself was not aware of it1 as it was only discovered after his death6 ,my conviction is1 that what ,aristotle says on the ,eternity of the ,universe1 the cause of the variety in the motion of the spheres and the order of the ,intelligences1 cannot be proved1 and that ,aristotle never intended to prove these things4 ,i agree with him that the ways of proving this theory have their gates closed before us1 there being no foundation on which to build up the proof4 ,his words on this subject are well known4 ,he says1 8,there are things concerning which we are unable to reason1 or which we find too high for us2 to say why these things have a certain property is as difficult as to decide whether the ,universe is eternal or not40 ,so far ,aristotle4 ,the interpretation which ,abu-nasr offers of this parallel is well known4 ,he denies that ,aristotle had any doubt about the ,eternity of the ,universe1 and is very severe upon ,galen1 who maintains that this theory is still doubtful1 and that no proof has been offered4 ,according to ,abu-nasr1 it is clear and demonstrable by proof that the heavens are eternal1 but all that is enclosed within the heavens is transient4 ,we hold1 that by none of the methods mentioned in this chapter can a theory be established1 refuted1 or shaken4 ,we have mentioned these things only because we know that the majority of those who consider themselves wise1 although they know nothing of science1 accept the theory of the ,eternity of the ,universe on the authority of famous scholars4 ,they reject the words of the prophets1 because the latter do not employ any scientific method by which only a few persons would be instructed who are intellectually well prepared1 but simply communicate the truth as received by ,divine inspiration4 ,in the chapters which follow we will expound the theory of the ,creation in accordance with the teaching of ,scripture4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,in this chapter ,i will first expound my view on this question1 and then support it by argument--not by such arguments as those of the ,mutakallemim1 who believe that they have proved the ,creatio ex nihilo4 ,i will not deceive myself1 and consider dialectical methods as proofs2 and the fact that a certain proposition has been proved by a dialectical argument will never induce me to accept that proposition1 but1 on the contrary1 will weaken my faith in it1 and cause me to doubt it4 ,for when we understand the fallacy of a proof1 our faith in the proposition itself is shaken4 ,it is therefore better that a proposition which cannot be demonstrated be received as an axiom1 or that one of the two opposite solutions of the problem be accepted on authority4 ,the methods by which the ,mutakallemim proved the ,creatio ex nihilo have already been described by me1 and ,i have exposed their weak points4 ,as to the proofs of ,aristotle and his followers for the ,eternity of the ,universe1 they are1 according to my opinion1 not conclusive2 they are open to strong objections1 as will be explained4 ,i intend to show that the theory of the ,creation1 as taught in ,scripture1 contains nothing that is impossible2 and that all those philosophical arguments which seem to disprove our view contain weak points which make them inconclusive1 and render the attacks on our view untenable4 ,since ,i am convinced of the correctness of my method1 and consider either of the two theories--viz41 the ,eternity of the ,universe1 and the ,creation--as admissible1 ,i accept the latter on the authority of ,prophecy1 which can teach things beyond the reach of philosophical speculation4 ,for the belief in prophecy is1 as will be shown in the course of this treatise1 consistent even with the belief in the ,eternity of the ,universe4 ,when ,i have established the admissibility of our theory1 ,i will1 by philosophical reasoning1 show that our theory of the ,creation is more acceptable than that of the ,eternity of the ,universe2 and although our theory includes points open to criticism1 ,i will show that there are much stronger reasons for the rejection of the theory of our opponents4 ,i will now proceed to expound the method by which the proofs given for the ,eternity of the ,universe can be refuted4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,everything produced comes into existence from non-existence2 even when the substance of a thing has been in existence1 and has only changed its form1 the thing itself1 which has gone through the process of genesis and development1 and has arrived at its final state1 has now different properties from those which it possessed at the commencement of the transition from potentiality to reality1 or before that time4 ,take1 e4g41 the human ovum as contained in the female's blood when still included in its vessels2 its nature is different from what it was in the moment of conception1 when it is met by the semen of the male and begins to develop2 the properties of the semen in that moment are different from the properties of the living being after its birth when fully developed4 ,it is therefore quite impossible to infer from the nature which a thing possesses after having passed through all stages of its development1 what the condition of the thing has been in the moment when this process commenced2 nor does the condition of a thing in this moment show what its previous condition has been4 ,if you make this mistake1 and attempt to prove the nature of a thing in potential existence by its properties when actually existing1 you will fall into great confusion2 you will reject evident truths and admit false opinions4 ,let us assume1 in our above instance1 that a man born without defect had after his birth been nursed by his mother only a few months2 the mother then died1 and the father alone brought him up in a lonely island1 till he grew up1 became wise1 and acquired knowledge4 ,suppose this man has never seen a woman or any female being2 he asks some person how man has come into existence1 and how he has developed1 and receives the following answer3 8,man begins his existence in the womb of an individual of his own class1 namely1 in the womb of a female1 which has a certain form4 ,while in the womb he is very small2 yet he has life1 moves1 receives nourishment1 and gradually grows1 till he arrives at a certain stage of development4 ,he then leaves the womb and continues to grow till he is in the condition in which you see him40 ,the orphan will naturally ask3 8,did this person1 when he lived1 moved1 and grew in the womb1 eat and drink1 and breathe with his mouth and his nostrils8 ,did he excrete any substance80 ,the answer will be1 8,no40 ,undoubtedly he will then attempt to refute the statements of that person1 and to prove their impossibility1 by referring to the properties of a fully developed person1 in the following manner3 8,when any one of us is deprived of breath for a short time he dies1 and cannot move any longer3 how then can we imagine that any one of us has been inclosed in a bag in the midst of a body for several months and remained alive1 able to move8 ,if any one of us would swallow a living bird1 the bird would die immediately when it reached the stomach1 much more so when it came to the lower part of the belly2 if we should not take food or drink with our mouth1 in a few days we should undoubtedly be dead3 how then can man remain alive for months without taking food8 ,if any person would take food and would not be able to excrete it1 great pains and death would follow in a short time1 and yet ,i am to believe that man has lived for months without that function6 ,suppose by accident a hole were formed in the belly of a person1 it would prove fatal1 and yet we are to believe that the navel of the ftus has been open6 ,why should the ftus not open the eyes1 spread forth the hands and stretch out the legs1 if1 as you think1 the limbs are all whole and perfect40 ,this mode of reasoning would lead to the conclusion that man cannot come into existence and develop in the manner described4 ,if philosophers would consider this example well and reflect on it1 they would find that it represents exactly the dispute between ,aristotle and ourselves4 ,we1 the followers of ,moses1 our ,teacher1 and of ,abraham1 our ,father1 believe that the ,universe has been produced and has developed in a certain manner1 and that it has been created in a certain order4 ,the ,aristotelians oppose us1 and found their objections on the properties which the things in the ,universe possess when in actual existence and fully developed4 ,we admit the existence of these properties1 but hold that they are by no means the same as those which the things possessed in the moment of their production2 and we hold that these properties themselves have come into existence from absolute non-existence4 ,their arguments are therefore no objection whatever to our theory2 they have demonstrative force only against those who hold that the nature of things as at present in existence proves the ,creation4 ,but this is not my opinion4 ,i will now return to our theme1 viz41 to the description of the principal proofs of ,aristotle1 and show that they prove nothing whatever against us1 since we hold that ,god brought the entire ,universe into existence from absolute non-existence1 and that ,he caused it to develop into the present state4 ,aristotle says that the materia prima is eternal1 and by referring to the properties of transient beings he attempts to prove this statement1 and to show that the materia prima could not possibly have been produced4 ,he is right2 we do not maintain that the materia prima has been produced in the same manner as man is produced from the ovum1 and that it can be destroyed in the same manner as man is reduced to dust4 ,but we believe that ,god created it from nothing1 and that since its creation it has its own properties1 viz41 that all things are produced of it and again reduced to it1 when they cease to exist2 that it does not exist without ,form2 and that it is the source of all genesis and destruction4 ,its genesis is not like that of the things produced from it1 nor its destruction like theirs2 for it has been created from nothing1 and if it should please the ,creator1 ,he might reduce it to absolutely nothing4 ,the same applies to motion4 ,aristotle founds some of his proofs on the fact that motion is not subject to genesis or destruction4 ,this is correct2 if we consider motion as it exists at present1 we cannot imagine that in its totality it should be subject1 like individual motions1 to genesis and destruction4 ,in like manner ,aristotle is correct in saying that circular motion is without beginning1 in so far as seeing the rotating spherical body in actual existence1 we cannot conceive the idea that that rotation has ever been absent4 ,the same argument we employ as regards the law that a state of potentiality precedes all actual genesis4 ,this law applies to the ,universe as it exists at present1 when everything produced originates in another thing2 but nothing perceived with our senses or comprehended in our mind can prove that a thing created from nothing must have been previously in a state of potentiality4 ,again1 as regards the theory that the heavens contain no opposites and are therefore indestructible1 we admit its correctness2 but we do not maintain that the production of the heavens has taken place in the same way as that of a horse or ass1 and we do not say that they are like plants and animals1 which are destructible on account of the opposite elements they contain4 ,in short1 the properties of things when fully developed contain no clue as to what have been the properties of the things before their perfection4 ,we therefore do not reject as impossible the opinion of those who say that the heavens were produced before the earth1 or the reverse1 or that the heavens have existed without stars1 or that certain species of animals have been in existence1 and others not4 ,for the state of the whole ,universe when it came into existence may be compared with that of animals when their existence begins2 the heart evidently precedes the testicles1 the veins are in existence before the bones2 although1 when the animal is fully developed1 none of the parts is missing which is essential to its existence4 ,this remark is not superfluous1 if the ,scriptural account of the ,creation be taken literally2 in reality1 it cannot be taken literally1 as will be shown when we shall treat of this subject4 ,the principle laid down in the foregoing must be well understood2 it is a high rampart erected round the ,law1 and able to resist all missiles directed against it4 ,aristotle1 or rather his followers1 may perhaps ask us how we know that the ,universe has been created2 and that other forces than those it has at present were acting in its ,creation1 since we hold that the properties of the ,universe1 as it exists at present1 prove nothing as regards its creation8 ,we reply1 there is no necessity for this according to our plan2 for we do not desire to prove the ,creation1 but only its possibility2 and this possibility is not refuted by arguments based on the nature of the present ,universe1 which we do not dispute4 ,when we have established the admissibility of our theory1 we shall then show its superiority4 ,in attempting to prove the inadmissibility of ,creatio ex nihilo1 the ,aristotelians can therefore not derive any support from the nature of the ,universe2 they must resort to the notion our mind has formed of ,god4 ,their proofs include the three methods which ,i have mentioned above1 and which are based on the notion conceived of ,god4 ,in the next chapter ,i will expose the weak points of these arguments1 and show that they really prove nothing4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,the first method employed by the philosophers is this3 they assume that a transition from potentiality to actuality would take place in the ,deity itself1 if ,he produced a thing only at a certain fixed time4 ,the refutation of this argument is very easy4 ,the argument applies only to bodies composed of substance--the element that possesses the possibility of change--and form2 for when such a body does not act for some time1 and then acts by virtue of its form1 it must undoubtedly have possessed something in potentia that hath now become actual1 and the transition can only have been effected by some external agent4 ,as far as corporeal bodies are concerned1 this has been fully proved4 ,but that which is incorporeal and without substance does not include anything merely possible2 everything it contains is always in existence4 ,the above argument does not apply to it1 and it is not impossible that such a being acts at one time and does not act at another4 ,this does not imply a change in the incorporeal being itself nor a transition from potentiality to actuality4 ,the ,active ,intellect may be taken as an illustration4 ,according to ,aristotle and his school1 the ,active ,intellect1 an incorporeal being1 acts at one time and does not act at another1 as has been shown by ,abu-nasr in his treatise on the ,intellect4 ,he says there quite correctly as follows3 8,it is an evident fact that the ,active ,intellect does not act continually1 but only at times40 ,and yet he does not say that the ,active ,intellect is changeable1 or passes from a state of potentiality to that of actuality1 although it produces at one time something which it has not produced before4 ,for there is no relation or comparison whatever between corporeal and incorporeal beings1 neither in the moment of action nor in that of inaction4 ,it is only by homonymity that the term 8action0 is used in reference to the forms residing in bodies1 and also in reference to absolutely spiritual beings4 ,the circumstance that a purely spiritual being does not effect at one time that which it effects at another1 does not necessitate a transition from potentiality to actuality2 such a transition is necessary in the case of forces connected with bodies4 ,it might1 perhaps1 be objected that our argument is1 to some extent1 a fallacy2 since it is not due to anything contained in the ,active ,intellect itself1 but to the absence of substances sufficiently prepared for its action1 that at times it does not act2 it does act always when substances sufficiently prepared are present1 and1 when the action does not continue1 it is owing to the absence of substance sufficiently prepared1 and not to any change in the ,intellect4 ,i answer that it is not our intention to state the reason why ,god created at one time and not at another2 and1 in referring to the ,active ,intellect as a parallel1 we do not mean to assert that ,god acts at one time and not at another1 in the same manner as the ,active ,intellect1 an absolutely spiritual being1 acts intermittently4 ,we do not make this assertion1 and1 if we did1 the conclusion would be fallacious4 ,what we infer1 and what we are justified in inferring1 is this3 the ,active ,intellect is neither a corporeal object nor a force residing in a body2 it acts intermittently1 and yet whatever the cause may be why it does not always act1 we do not say that the ,active ,intellect has passed from a state of potentiality to that of actuality2 or that it implies the possibility of change1 or that an agent must exist that causes the transition from potentiality to actuality4 ,we have thus refuted the strong objection raised by those who believe in the ,eternity of the ,universe2 since we believe that ,god is neither a corporeal body nor a force residing in a body1 we need not assume that the ,creation1 after a period of inaction1 is due to a change in the ,creator ,himself4 ,the second method employed in proving the ,eternity of the ,universe is based on the theory that all wants1 changes1 and obstacles are absent from the ,essence of ,god4 ,our refutation of this proof1 which is both difficult and profound1 is this4 ,every being that is endowed with free will and performs certain acts in reference to another being1 necessarily interrupts those acts at one time or another1 in consequence of some obstacles or changes4 ,e4g41 a person desires to have a house1 but he does not build one1 because he meets with some obstacles3 he has not the material1 or he has the material1 but it is not prepared for the purpose on account of the absence of proper instruments2 or he has material and instruments1 and yet does not build a house1 because he does not desire to build it2 since he feels no want for a refuge4 ,when changed circumstances1 as heat or cold1 impel him to seek a refuge1 then he desires to build a house4 ,thus changed circumstances change his will1 and the will1 when it meets with obstacles1 is not carried into effect4 ,this1 however1 is only the case when the causes of the actions are external2 but when the action has no other purpose whatever than to fulfil the will1 then the will does not depend on the existence of favourable circumstances4 ,the being endowed with this will need not act continually even in the absence of all obstacles1 because there does not exist anything for the sake of which it acts1 and which1 in the absence of all obstacles1 would necessitate the action3 the act simply follows the will4 ,but1 some might ask1 even if we admit the correctness of all this1 is not change imputed in the fact that the will of the being exists at one time and not at another8 ,i reply thus3 ,the true essence of the will of a being is simply the faculty of conceiving a desire at one time and not conceiving it at another4 ,in the case of corporeal beings1 the will which aims at a certain external object changes according to obstacles and circumstances4 ,but the will of an absolutely spiritual being which does not depend on external causes is unchangeable1 and the fact that the being desires one thing one day and another thing another day1 does not imply a change in the essence of that being1 or necessitate the existence of an external cause for this change in the desire4 ,similarly it has been shown by us that if a being acted at one time and did not act at another1 this would not involve a change in the being itself4 ,it is now clear that the term 8will0 is homonymously used of man's will and of the will of ,god1 there being no comparison whatever between ,god's will and that of man4 ,the objection is refuted1 and our theory is not shaken by it4 ,this is all we desire to establish4 ,the third method employed in proving the ,eternity of the ,universe is this3 whatever the wisdom of ,god finds necessary to produce is produced eo ipso2 but this wisdom1 being ,his ,essence1 is eternal1 and that which results from ,his wisdom must be eternal4 ,this is a very weak argument4 ,as we do not understand why the wisdom of ,god produced nine spheres1 neither more nor less1 or why ,he fixed the number and size of the stars exactly as they are2 so we cannot understand why ,his wisdom at a certain time caused the ,universe to exist1 whilst a short time before it had not been in existence4 ,all things owe their existence to ,his eternal and constant wisdom1 but we are utterly ignorant of the ways and methods of that wisdom1 since1 according to our opinion that ,god has no attributes1 ,his will is identical with ,his wisdom1 and all ,his attributes are one and the same thing1 namely1 ,his ,essence or ,wisdom4 ,more will be said on this question in the section on ,providence4 ,thus this objection to our theory falls likewise to the ground4 ,there is no evidence for the theory of the ,eternity of the ,universe1 neither in the fact cited by ,aristotle of the general consent of the ancient peoples when they describe the heavens as the habitation of the angels and of ,god1 nor in the apparent concurrence of ,scriptural texts with this belief4 ,these facts merely prove that the heavens lead us to believe in the existence of the ,intelligences1 i4e41 ideals and angels1 and that these lead us to believe in the existence of ,god2 for ,he sets them in motion1 and rules them4 ,we will explain and show that there is no better evidence for the existence of a ,creator1 as we believe1 than that furnished by the heavens2 but also according to the opinion of the philosophers1 as has been mentioned by us1 they give evidence that a being exists that sets them in motion1 and that this being is neither a corporeal body nor a force residing in a body4 ,having proved that our theory is admissible1 and not impossible1 as those who defend the ,eternity of the ,universe assert1 ,i will1 in the chapters which follow1 show that our theory is preferable from a philosophical point of view1 and expose the absurdities implied in the theory of ,aristotle4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,it has been shown that according to ,aristotle1 and according to all that defend his theory1 the ,universe is inseparable from ,god2 ,he is the cause1 and the ,universe the effect2 and this effect is a necessary one2 and as it cannot be explained why or how ,god exists in this particular manner1 namely1 being ,one and incorporeal1 so it cannot be asked concerning the whole ,universe why or how it exists in this particular way4 ,for it is necessary that the whole1 the cause as well as the effect1 exist in this particular manner1 it is impossible for them not to exist1 or to be different from what they actually are4 ,this leads to the conclusion that the nature of everything remains constant1 that nothing changes its nature in any way1 and that such a change is impossible in any existing thing4 ,it would also follow that the ,universe is not the result of design1 choice1 and desire2 for if this were the case1 they would have been non-existing before the design had been conceived4 ,we1 however1 hold that all things in the ,universe are the result of design1 and not merely of necessity2 ,he who designed them may change them when ,he changes ,his design4 ,but not every design is subject to change2 for there are things which are impossible1 and their nature cannot be altered1 as will be explained4 ,here1 in this chapter1 ,i merely wish to show by arguments almost as forcible as real proofs1 that the ,universe gives evidence of design2 but ,i will not fall into the error in which the ,mutakallemim have so much distinguished themselves1 namely1 of ignoring the existing nature of things or assuming the existence of atoms1 or the successive creation of accidents1 or any of their propositions which ,i have tried to explain1 and which are intended to establish the principle of ,divine selection4 ,you must not1 however1 think that they understood the principle in the same sense as we do1 although they undoubtedly aimed at the same thing1 and mentioned the same things which we also will mention1 when they treated of ,divine ,selection4 ,for they do not distinguish between selection in the case of a plant to make it red and not white1 or sweet and not bitter1 and determination in the case of the heavens which gave them their peculiar geometrical form and did not give them a triangular or quadrilateral shape4 ,the ,mutakallemim established the principle of determination by means of their propositions1 which have been enumerated above 7,part ,i41 chap4 lxxiii474 ,i will establish this principle only as far as necessary1 and only by philosophical propositions based on the nature of things4 ,but before ,i begin my argument1 ,i will state the following facts3 ,matter is common to things different from each other2 there must be either one external cause which endows this matter partly with one property1 partly with another1 or there must be as many different causes as there are different forms of the matter common to all things4 ,this is admitted by those who assume the ,eternity of the ,universe4 ,after having premised this proposition1 ,i will proceed with the discussion of our theme from an ,aristotelian point of view1 in form of a dialogue4 ,we4--,you have proved that all things in the sublunary world have one common substance2 why then do the species of things vary8 why are the individuals in each species different from each other8 ,aristotelian4--,because the composition of the things formed of that substance varies4 ,for the common substance at first received four different forms1 and each form was endowed with two qualities1 and through these four qualities the substance was turned into the elements of which all things are formed4 ,the composition of the elements takes place in the following manner3--,first they are mixed in consequence of the motion of the spheres1 and then they combine together2 a cause for variation arises then in the variation of the degree of heat1 cold1 moisture1 and dryness of the elements which form the constituent parts of the things4 ,by these different combinations things are variously predisposed to receive different forms2 and these in their turn are again prepared to receive other forms1 and so on4 ,each generic form finds a wide sphere in its substance both as regards quality and quantity2 and the individuals of the classes vary accordingly4 ,this is fully explained in ,natural ,science4 ,it is quite correct and clear to every one that readily acknowledges the truth1 and does not wish to deceive himself4 ,we4--,since the combination of the elements prepares substances and enables them to receive different forms1 what has prepared the first substance and caused one part of it to receive the form of fire1 another part the form of earth1 and the parts between these two the forms of water and of air1 since one substance is common to all8 ,through what has the substance of earth become more fit for the form of earth1 and the substance of fire more fit for that of fire8 ,ar4--,the difference of the elements was caused by their different position2 for the different places prepared the same substance differently1 in the following way3 the portion nearest the surrounding sphere became more rarified and swifter in motion1 and thus approaching the nature of that sphere1 it received by this preparation the form of fire4 ,the farther the substance is away from the surrounding sphere towards the centre1 the denser1 the more solid1 and the less luminous it is2 it becomes earth2 the same is the cause of the formation of water and air4 ,this is necessarily so2 for it would be absurd to deny that each part of the substance is in a certain place2 or to assume that the surface is identical with the centre1 or the centre with the surface4 ,this difference in place determined the different forms1 i4e41 predisposed the substance to receive different forms4 ,we4--,is the substance of the surrounding sphere1 i4e41 the heavens1 the same as that of the elements8 ,ar4--,no2 the substance is different1 and the forms are different4 ,the term 8body0 is homonymously used of these bodies below and of the heavens1 as has been shown by modern philosophers4 ,all this has been demonstrated by proof4 ,but let now the reader of this treatise hear what ,i have to say4 ,aristotle has proved that the difference of forms becomes evident by the difference of actions4 ,since1 therefore1 the motion of the elements is rectilinear1 and that of the spheres circular1 we infer that the substances are different4 ,this inference is supported by ,natural ,science4 ,when we further notice that substances with rectilinear motion differ in their directions1 that some move upward1 some downward1 and that substances which move in the same direction have different velocities1 we infer that their forms must be different4 ,thus we learn that there are four elements4 ,in the same way we come to the conclusion that the substance of all the spheres is the same1 since they all have circular motion4 ,their forms1 however1 are different1 since one sphere moves from east to west1 and another from west to east2 and their motions have also different velocities4 ,we can now put the following question to ,aristotle3 ,there is one substance common to all spheres2 each one has its own peculiar form4 ,who thus determined and predisposed these spheres to receive different forms8 ,is there above the spheres any being capable of determining this except ,god8 ,i will show the profundity and the extraordinary acumen which ,aristotle displayed when this question troubled him4 ,he strove very hard to meet this objection with arguments1 which1 however1 were not borne out by facts4 ,although he does not mention this objection1 it is clear from his words that he endeavours to show the nature of the spheres1 as he has shown that of the things in the sublunary world4 ,everything is1 according to him1 the result of a law of ,nature1 and not the result of the design of a being that designs as it likes1 or the determination of a being that determines as it pleases4 ,he has not carried out the idea consistently1 and it will never be done4 ,he tries indeed to find the cause why the sphere moves from east and not from west2 why some spheres move with greater velocity1 others with less velocity1 and he finds the cause of these differences in their different positions in reference to the uppermost sphere4 ,he further attempts to show why there are several spheres for each of the seven planets1 while there is only one sphere for the large number of fixed stars4 ,for all this he endeavours to state the reason1 so as to show that the whole order is the necessary result of the laws of ,nature4 ,he has not attained his object4 ,for as regards the things in the sublunary world1 his explanations are in accordance with facts1 and the relation between cause and effect is clearly shown4 ,it can therefore be assumed that everything is the necessary result of the motions and influences of the spheres4 ,but when he treats of the properties of the spheres1 he does not clearly show the causal relation1 nor does he explain the phenomena in that systematic way which the hypothesis of natural laws would demand4 ,for let us consider the spheres3 in one case a sphere with greater velocity is above a sphere with less velocity1 in another case we notice the reverse2 in a third case there are two spheres with equal velocities1 one above the other4 ,there are1 besides1 other phenomena which speak strongly against the hypothesis that all is regulated by the laws of ,nature1 and ,i will devote a special chapter to the discussion of these phenomena4 ,in short1 there is no doubt that ,aristotle knew the weakness of his arguments in tracing and describing the cause of all these things1 and therefore he prefaces his researches on these things as follows3--8,we will now thoroughly investigate two problems1 which it is our proper duty to investigate and to discuss according to our capacity1 wisdom1 and opinion4 ,this our attempt must not be attributed to presumption and pride1 but to our extraordinary zeal in the study of philosophy2 when we attempt the highest and grandest problems1 and endeavour to offer some proper solution1 every one that hears it should rejoice and be pleased40 ,so far ,aristotle4 ,this shows that he undoubtedly knew the weakness of his theory4 ,how much weaker must it appear when we bear in mind that the science of ,astronomy was not yet fully developed1 and that in the days of ,aristotle the motions of the spheres were not known so well as they are at present4 ,i think that it was the object of ,aristotle in attributing in his ,metaphysics one ,intelligence to every sphere1 to assume the existence of something capable of determining the peculiar course of each sphere4 ,later on ,i will show that he has not gained anything thereby2 but now ,i will explain the words1 8according to our capacity1 wisdom1 and opinion10 occurring in the passage which we quoted4 ,i have not noticed that any of the commentators explain them4 ,the term 8our opinion0 refers to the principle that everything is the result of natural laws1 or to the theory of the ,eternity of the ,universe4 ,by 8our wisdom0 he meant the knowledge of that which is clear and generally accepted1 viz41 that the existence of every one of these things is due to a certain cause1 and not to chance4 ,by 8our capacity0 he meant the insufficiency of our intellect to find the causes of all these things4 ,he only intended to trace the causes for a few of them2 and so he did4 ,for he gives an excellent reason why the sphere of the fixed stars moves slowly1 while the other spheres move with greater velocity1 namely1 because its motion is in a different direction from the uppermost sphere4 ,he further says that the more distant a sphere is from the eighth sphere the greater is its velocity4 ,but this rule does not hold good in all cases1 as ,i have already explained 7p4 #agd74 ,more forcible still is the following objection3 ,there are spheres below the eighth that move from east to west4 ,of these each upper one1 according to this rule1 would have a greater velocity than the lower one2 and the velocity of these spheres would almost equal that of the ninth sphere4 ,but ,astronomy had1 in the days of ,aristotle1 not yet developed to the height it has reached at present4 ,according to our theory of the ,creation1 all this can easily be explained2 for we say that there is a being that determines the direction and the velocity of the motion of each sphere2 but we do not know the reason why the wisdom of that being gave to each sphere its peculiar property4 ,if ,aristotle had been able to state the cause of the difference in the motion of the spheres1 and show that it corresponded as he thought to their relative positions1 this would have been excellent1 and the variety in their motions would be explained in the same way as the variety of the elements1 by their relative position between the centre and the surface2 but this is not the case1 as ,i said before4 ,there is a phenomenon in the spheres which more clearly shows the existence of voluntary determination2 it cannot be explained otherwise than by assuming that some being designed it3 this phenomenon is the existence of the stars4 ,the fact that the sphere is constantly in motion1 while the stars remain stationary1 indicates that the substance of the stars is different from that of the spheres4 ,abu-nasr has already mentioned the fact in his additions to the ,physics of ,aristotle4 ,he says3 8,there is a difference between the stars and the spheres2 for the spheres are transparent1 the stars are opaque2 and the cause of this is that there is a difference1 however small it may be1 between their substances and forms40 ,so far ,abu-nasr4 ,but ,i do not say that there is a small difference1 but a very great difference2 because ,i do not infer it from the transparency of the spheres1 but from their motions4 ,i am convinced that there are three different kinds of substance1 with three different forms1 namely3--7#a7 ,bodies which never move of their own accord2 such are the bodies of the stars2 7#b7 bodies which always move1 such are the bodies of the spheres2 7#c7 bodies which both move and rest1 such are the elements4 ,now1 ,i ask1 what has united these two bodies1 which1 according to my opinion1 differ very much from each other1 though1 according to ,abu-nasr1 only a little8 ,who has prepared the bodies for this union8 ,in short1 it would be strange that1 without the existence of design1 one of two different bodies should be joined to the other in such a manner that it is fixed to it in a certain place but does not combine with it4 ,it is still more difficult to explain the existence of the numerous stars in the eighth sphere2 they are all spherical2 some of them are large1 some small2 here we notice two stars apparently distant from each other one cubit2 there a group of ten close together2 whilst in another place there is a large space without any star4 ,what determined that the one small part should have ten stars1 and the other portion should be without any star8 and the whole body of the sphere being uniform throughout1 why should a particular star occupy the one place and not another8 ,the answer to these and similar questions is very difficult1 and almost impossible1 if we assume that all emanates from ,god as the necessary result of certain permanent laws1 as ,aristotle holds4 ,but if we assume that all this is the result of design1 there is nothing strange or improbable2 and the only question to be asked is this3 ,what is the cause of this design8 ,the answer to this question is that all this has been made for a certain purpose1 though we do not know it2 there is nothing that is done in vain1 or by chance4 ,it is well known that the veins and nerves of an individual dog or ass are not the result of chance2 their magnitude is not determined by chance2 nor is it by chance1 but for a certain purpose1 that one vein is thick1 another thin2 that one nerve has many branches1 another has none2 that one goes down straight1 whilst another is bent2 it is well known that all this must be just as it is4 ,how1 then1 can any reasonable person imagine that the position1 magnitude1 and number of the stars1 or the various courses of their spheres1 are purposeless1 or the result of chance8 ,there is no doubt that every one of these things is necessary and in accordance with a certain design2 and it is extremely improbable that these things should be the necessary result of natural laws1 and not that of design4 ,the best proof for design in the ,universe ,i find in the different motions of the spheres1 and in the fixed position of the stars in the spheres4 ,for this reason you find all the prophets point to the spheres and stars when they want to prove that there must exist a ,divine ,being4 ,thus ,abraham reflected on the stars1 as is well known2 ,isaiah 7xl4 #bf7 exhorts to learn from them the existence of ,god1 and says1 8,lift up your eyes on high1 and behold who hath created these things80 ,jeremiah calls ,god 8,the ,maker of the heavens02 ,abraham calls ,him 8,the ,god of the heavens0 7,gen4 xxiv4 #g72 ,moses1 the chief of the ,prophets1 uses the phrase explained by us 7,part ,i41 chap1 lxx471 8,he who rideth on the heavens0 7,deut4 xxxiii4 #bf74 ,the proof taken from the heavens is convincing2 for the variety of things in the sublunary world1 though their substance is one and the same1 can be explained as the work of the influences of the spheres1 or the result of the variety in the position of the substance in relation to the spheres1 as has been shown by ,aristotle4 ,but who has determined the variety in the spheres and the stars1 if not the ,will of ,god8 ,to say that the ,intelligences have determined it is of no use whatever2 for the ,intelligences are not corporeal1 and have no local relation to the spheres4 ,why then should the one sphere in its desire to approach the ,intelligence1 move eastward1 and another westward8 ,is the one ,intelligence in the east1 the other in the west8 or why does one move with great velocity1 another slowly8 ,this difference is not in accordance with their distances from each other1 as is well known4 ,we must then say that the nature and essence of each sphere necessitated its motion in a certain direction1 and in a certain manner1 as the consequence of its desire to approach its ,intelligence4 ,aristotle clearly expresses this opinion4 ,we thus have returned to the part from which we started2 and we ask1 ,since the substance of all things is the same1 what made the nature of one portion different from another8 ,why has this sphere a desire which produces a motion different from that which the desire of another sphere produces8 ,this must have been done by an agent capable of determining4 ,we have thus been brought to examine two questions3--7#a7 ,is it necessary to assume that the variety of the things in the ,universe is the result of ,design1 and not of fixed laws of ,nature1 or is it not necessary8 7#b7 ,assuming that all this is the result of ,design1 does it follow that it has been created after not having existed1 or does ,creatio ex nihilo not follow1 and has the ,being which has determined all this done always so8 ,some of those who believe in the ,eternity of the ,universe hold the last opinion4 ,i will now begin the examination of these two questions1 and explain them as much as necessary in the following chapters4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,according to ,aristotle1 none of the products of ,nature are due to chance4 ,his proof is this3 ,that which is due to chance does not reappear constantly nor frequently1 but all products of ,nature reappear either constantly or at least frequently4 ,the heavens1 with all that they contain1 are constant2 they never change1 as has been explained1 neither as regards their essence nor as regards their place4 ,but in the sublunary world we find both things which are constant and things which reappear frequently though not constantly4 ,thus1 e4g41 the heat of fire and the downward tendency of a stone are constant properties1 whilst the form and life of the individuals in each species are the same in most cases4 ,all this is clear4 ,if the parts of the ,universe are not accidental1 how can the whole ,universe be considered as the result of chance8 ,therefore the existence of the ,universe is not due to chance4 ,the following is1 in short1 the objection which ,aristotle raises against one of the earlier philosophers who assumed that the ,universe is the result of chance1 and that it came into existence by itself1 without any cause4 ,some assume that the heavens and the whole ,universe came into existence spontaneously1 as well as the rotation and motion of the spheres1 which has produced the variety of things and established their present order4 ,this opinion implies a great absurdity4 ,they admit that animals and plants do not owe their existence or production to chance1 but to a certain cause1 be that cause ,nature1 or reason1 or the like2 e4g41 they do not assume that everything might be formed by chance of a certain seed or semen1 but that of a certain seed only an olive-tree is produced1 and of a certain semen only a human being is developed4 ,and yet they think that the heavens1 and those bodies which appear divine among the rest of bodies1 came into existence spontaneously1 without the action of any such cause as produces plants and animals4 ,having thus examined this theory1 ,aristotle then proceeds to refute it at greater length4 ,it is therefore clear that ,aristotle believes and proves that things in real existence are not accidental2 they cannot be accidental1 because they are essential1 i4e41 there is a cause which necessitates that they should be in their actual condition1 and on account of that cause they are just as they in reality are4 ,this has been proved1 and it is the opinion of ,aristotle4 ,but ,i do not think that1 according to ,aristotle1 the rejection of the spontaneous origin of things implies the admission of ,design and ,will4 ,for as it is impossible to reconcile two opposites1 so it is impossible to reconcile the two theories1 that of necessary existence by causality1 and that of ,creation by the desire and will of a ,creator4 ,for the necessary existence assumed by ,aristotle must be understood in this sense1 that for everything that is not the product of work there must be a certain cause that produces it with its properties2 for this cause there is another cause1 and for the second a third1 and so on4 ,the series of causes ends with the ,prime ,cause1 from which everything derives existence1 since it is impossible that the series should continue ad infinitum4 ,he nevertheless does not mean to say that the existence of the ,universe is the necessary product of the ,creator1 i4e41 the ,prime ,cause1 in the same manner as the shadow is caused by a body1 or heat by fire1 or light by the sun4 ,only those who do not comprehend his words attribute such ideas to him4 ,he uses here the term necessary in the same sense as we use the term when we say that the existence of the intellectus necessarily implies that of the intellectum1 for the former is the efficient cause of the latter in so far as intellectum4 ,even ,aristotle holds that the ,prime ,cause is the highest and most perfect ,intellect2 he therefore says that the ,first ,cause is pleased1 satisfied1 and delighted with that which necessarily derives existence from ,him1 and it is impossible that ,he should wish it to be different4 ,but we do not call this 8design10 and it has nothing in common with design4 ,e4g41 man is pleased1 satisfied1 and delighted that he is endowed with eyes and hands1 and it is impossible that he should desire it to be otherwise1 and yet the eyes and hands which a man has are not the result of his design1 and it is not by his own determination that he has certain properties and is able to perform certain actions4 ,the notion of design and determination applies only to things not yet in existence1 when there is still the possibility of their being in accordance with the design or not4 ,i do not know whether the modern ,aristotelians understood his words to imply that the existence of the ,universe presupposes some cause in the sense of design and determination1 or whether1 in opposition to him1 they assumed design and determination1 in the belief that this does not conflict with the theory of the ,eternity of the ,universe4 ,having explained this1 ,i will now proceed to examine the opinions of the modern philosophers4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,some of the recent philosophers who adhere to the theory of the ,eternity of the ,universe hold that ,god produces the ,universe1 that ,he by ,his will designs and determines its existence and form2 they reject1 however1 the theory that this act took place at one certain time1 and assume that this always has been the case1 and will always be so4 ,the circumstance that we cannot imagine an agent otherwise than preceding the result of its action1 they explain by the fact that this is invariably the case in all that we produce2 because for agents of the same kind as we are1 there are some moments in which they are not active1 and are only agents in potentia2 they become agents when they act4 ,but as regards ,god there are no moments of non-action1 or of potentiality in any respect2 ,he is not before ,his work1 ,he is always an actual agent4 ,and as there is a great difference between ,his essence and ours1 so is also a great difference between the relation of ,his work to ,him and the relation of our work to us4 ,they apply the same argument to will and determination2 for there is no difference in this respect whether we say ,he acts1 wills1 designs1 or determines4 ,they further assume that change in ,his action or will is inadmissible4 ,it is therefore clear that these philosophers abandoned the term 8necessary result10 but retained the theory of it2 they perhaps sought to use a better expression1 or to remove an objectionable term4 ,for it is the same thing1 whether we say in accordance with the view of ,aristotle that the ,universe is the result of the ,prime ,cause1 and must be eternal as that ,cause is eternal1 or in accordance with these philosophers that the ,universe is the result of the act1 design1 will1 selection1 and determination of ,god1 but it has always been so1 and will always be so2 in the same manner as the rising of the sun undoubtedly produces the day1 and yet it does not precede it4 ,but when we speak of design we do not mean it in this sense2 we mean to express by it that the ,universe is not the 8necessary result0 of ,god's existence1 as the effect is the necessary result of the efficient cause2 in the latter case the effect cannot be separated from the cause2 it cannot change unless the cause changes entirely1 or at least in some respect4 ,if we accept this explanation we easily see how absurd it is to say that the ,universe is in the same relation to ,god as the effect is to the efficient cause1 and to assume at the same time that the ,universe is the result of the action and determination of ,god4 ,having fully explained this subject1 we come to the question whether the cause1 which must be assumed for the variety of properties noticed in the heavenly beings1 is merely an efficient cause1 that must necessarily produce that variety as its effect1 or whether that variety is due to a determining agent1 such as we believe1 in accordance with the theory of ,moses our ,teacher4 ,before ,i discuss this question ,i will first explain fully what ,aristotle means by 8necessary result02 after that ,i will show by such philosophical arguments as are free from every fallacy why ,i prefer the theory of ,creatio ex nihilo4 ,it is clear that when he says that the first ,intelligence is the necessary result of the existence of ,god1 the second ,intelligence the result of the existence of the first1 the third of the second and so on1 and that the spheres are the necessary result of the existence of the ,intelligences1 and so forth1 in the well-known order which you learnt from passages dealing with it1 and of which we have given a rsum in this part 7ch4 iv47--he does not mean that the one thing was first in existence1 and then the second came as the necessary result of the first2 he denies that any one of these beings has had a beginning4 ,by 8necessary result0 he merely refers to the causal relation2 he means to say that the first ,intelligence is the cause of the existence of the second2 the second of the third1 and so on to the last of the ,intelligences2 and the same is also the case as regards the spheres and the materia prima2 none of these preceded another1 or has been in existence without the existence of that other4 ,we say1 e4g41 that the necessary result of the primary qualities are roughness and smoothness1 hardness and softness1 porosity and solidity2 and no person doubts that heat1 cold1 moisture1 and dryness are the causes of smoothness and roughness1 of hardness and softness1 porosity and solidity1 and similar qualities1 and that the latter are the necessary result of those four primary qualities4 ,and yet it is impossible that a body should exist with the primary qualities without the secondary ones2 for the relation between the two sets of qualities is that of causality1 not that of agent and its product4 ,just in the same way the term 8necessary result0 is used by ,aristotle in reference to the whole ,universe1 when he says that one portion is the result of the other1 and continues the series up to the ,first ,cause as he calls it1 or first ,intellect1 if you prefer this term4 ,for we all mean the same1 only with this difference1 that according to ,aristotle everything besides that ,being is the necessary result of the latter1 as ,i have already mentioned2 whilst1 according to our opinion1 that ,being created the whole ,universe with design and will1 so that the ,universe which had not been in existence before1 has by ,his will come into existence4 ,i will now begin in the following chapters my proofs for the superiority of our theory1 that of ,creatio ex nihilo4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,aristotle and all philosophers assume as an axiom that a simple element can only produce one simple thing1 whilst a compound can produce as many things as it contains simple elements2 e4g41 fire combines in itself two properties1 heat and dryness2 it gives heat by the one property1 and produces dryness by the other3 an object composed of matter and form produces certain things on account of its matter1 and others on account of its form1 if both matter and form consist of several elements4 ,in accordance with this axiom1 ,aristotle holds that the direct emanation from ,god must be one simple ,intelligence1 and nothing else4 ,a second axiom assumed by him is this3 ,things are not produced by other things at random2 there must be some relation between cause and effect4 ,thus accidents are not produced by accidents promiscuously2 quality cannot be the origin of quantity1 nor quantity that of quality2 a form cannot emanate from matter1 nor matter from form4 ,a third axiom is this3 ,a single agent that acts with design and will1 and not merely by the force of the laws of ,nature1 can produce different objects4 ,a fourth axiom is as follows3 ,an object1 whose several elements are only connected by juxtaposition1 is more properly a compound than an object whose different elements have entirely combined2 e4g41 bone1 flesh1 veins1 or nerves1 are more simple than the hand or the foot1 that are a combination of bone1 flesh1 veins1 and nerves4 ,this is very clear1 and requires no further explanation4 ,having premised these axioms1 ,i ask the following question3 ,aristotle holds that the first ,intelligence is the cause of the second1 the second of the third1 and so on1 till the thousandth1 if we assume a series of that number4 ,now the first ,intellect is undoubtedly simple4 ,how then can the compound form of existing things come from such an ,intellect by fixed laws of ,nature1 as ,aristotle assumes8 ,we admit all he said concerning the ,intelligences1 that the further they are away from the first1 the greater is the variety of their compounds1 in consequence of the larger number of the objects comprehensible by the ,intelligences2 but even after admitting this1 the question remains1 ,by what law of ,nature did the spheres emanate from the ,intelligences8 ,what relation is there between material and immaterial beings8 ,suppose we admit that each sphere emanates from an ,intelligence of the form mentioned2 that the ,intelligence1 including1 as it were1 two elements1 in so far as it comprehends itself and another thing1 produces the next ,intelligence by the one element1 and a sphere by the other2 but the question would then be1 how the one simple element could produce the sphere1 that contains two substances and two forms1 namely1 the substance and the form of the sphere1 and also the substance and the form of the star fixed in that sphere4 ,for1 according to the laws of ,nature1 the compound can only emanate from a compound4 ,there must therefore be one element1 from which the body of the sphere emanates1 and another element1 from which the body of the star emanates4 ,this would be necessary even if the substance of all stars were the same2 but it is possible that the luminous stars have not the same substance as the non-luminous stars2 it is besides well known that each body has its own matter and its own form4 ,it must now be clear that this emanation could not have taken place by the force of the laws of ,nature1 as ,aristotle contends4 ,nor does the difference of the motions of the spheres follow the order of their positions2 and therefore it cannot be said that this difference is the result of certain laws of ,nature4 ,we have already mentioned this 7ch4 xix474 ,there is in the properties of the spheres another circumstance that is opposed to the assumed laws of ,nature2 namely1 if the substance of all spheres is the same1 why does it not occur that the form of one sphere combines with the substance of another sphere1 as is the case with things on earth1 simply because their substance is fit for such changes8 ,if the substance of all spheres is the same1 if it is not assumed that each of them has a peculiar substance1 and if1 contrary to all principles1 the peculiar motion of each sphere is no evidence for the special character of its substance1 why then should a certain form constantly remain united with a certain substance8 ,again1 if the stars have all one substance1 by what are they distinguished from each other8 is it by forms8 or by accidents8 ,whichever be the case1 the forms or the accidents would interchange1 so that they would successively unite with every one of the stars1 so long as their substance being the same admits the combinations with every one of the forms or the accidents4 ,this shows that the term substance1 when used of the spheres or the stars1 does not mean the same as it signifies when used of the substance of earthly things1 but is applied to the two synonymously4 ,it further shows that every one of the bodies of the spheres has its own peculiar form of existence different from that of all other beings4 ,why then is circular motion common to all spheres1 and why is the fixed position of the stars in their respective spheres common to all stars8 ,if we1 however1 assume design and determination of a ,creator1 in accordance with ,his incomprehensible wisdom1 all these difficulties disappear4 ,they must arise when we consider the whole ,universe1 not as the result of free will1 but as the result of fixed laws of ,nature3 a theory which1 on the one hand1 is not in harmony with the existing order of things1 and does not offer for it a sufficient reason or argument2 and1 on the other hand1 implies many and great improbabilities4 ,for1 according to this theory1 ,god1 whose perfection in every respect is recognised by all thinking persons1 is in such a relation to the ,universe that ,he cannot change anything2 if ,he wished to make the wing of a fly longer1 or to reduce the number of the legs of a worm by one1 ,he could not accomplish it4 ,according to ,aristotle1 ,he does not try such a thing1 and it is wholly impossible for ,him to desire any change in the existing order of things2 if ,he could1 it would not increase ,his perfection2 it might1 on the contrary1 from some point of view1 diminish it4 ,although ,i know that many partial critics will ascribe my opinion concerning the theory of ,aristotle to insufficient understanding1 or to intentional opposition1 ,i will not refrain from stating in short the results of my researches1 however poor my capacities may be4 ,i hold that the theory of ,aristotle is undoubtedly correct as far as the things are concerned which exist between the sphere of the moon and the centre of the earth4 ,only an ignorant person rejects it1 or a person with preconceived opinions of his own1 which he desires to maintain and to defend1 and which lead him to ignore clear facts4 ,but what ,aristotle says concerning things above the sphere of the moon is1 with few exceptions1 mere imagination and opinion2 to a still greater extent this applies to his system of ,intelligences1 and to some of his metaphysical views2 they include great improbabilities1 promote ideas which all nations consider as evidently corrupt1 and cause views to spread which cannot be proved4 ,it may perhaps be asked why ,i have enumerated the doubts which can be raised against the theory of ,aristotle2 whether by mere doubts a theory can be overthrown1 or its opposite established8 ,this is certainly not the case4 ,but we treat this philosopher exactly as his followers tell us to do4 ,for ,alexander stated that when a theory cannot be established by proof1 the two most opposite views should be compared as to the doubts entertained concerning each of them1 and that view which admits of fewer doubts should be accepted4 ,alexander further says that this rule applies to all those opinions of ,aristotle in ,metaphysics for which he offered no proof4 ,for those that followed ,aristotle believed that his opinions are far less subject to doubt than any other opinion4 ,we follow the same rule4 ,being convinced that the question whether the heavens are eternal or not cannot be decided by proof1 neither in the affirmative nor in the negative1 we have enumerated the objections raised to either view1 and shown how the theory of the ,eternity of the ,universe is subject to stronger objections1 and is more apt to corrupt the notions concerning ,god than the other4 ,another argument can be drawn from the fact that the theory of the ,creation was held by our ,father ,abraham1 and by our ,teacher ,moses4 ,having mentioned the method of testing the two theories by the objections raised against them1 ,i find it necessary to give some further explanation of the subject4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,in comparing the objections raised against one theory with those raised against the opposite theory1 in order to decide in favour of the least objectionable1 we must not consider the number of the objections1 but the degree of improbability and of deviation from real facts pointed out by the objections2 for one objection may sometimes have more weight than a thousand others4 ,but the comparison cannot be trustworthy unless the two theories be considered with the same interest1 and if you are predisposed in favour of one of them1 be it on account of your training or because of some advantage1 you are too blind to see the truth4 ,for that which can be demonstrated you cannot reject1 however much you may be inclined against it2 but in questions like those under consideration you are apt to dispute in consequence of your inclination4 ,you will1 however1 be able to decide the question1 as far as necessary1 if you free yourself from passions1 ignore customs1 and follow only your reason4 ,but many are the conditions which must be fulfilled4 ,first you must know your mental capacities and your natural talents2 you will find this out when you study all mathematical sciences1 and are well acquainted with ,logic4 ,secondly1 you must have a thorough knowledge of ,natural ,science1 that you may be able to understand the nature of the objections4 ,thirdly1 you must be morally good4 ,for if a person is voluptuous or passionate1 and1 loosening the reins1 allows his anger to pass the just limits1 it makes no difference whether he is so from nature or from habit1 he will blunder and stumble in his way1 he will seek the theory which is in accordance with his inclinations4 ,i mention this lest you be deceived2 for a person might some day1 by some objection which he raises1 shake your belief in the theory of the ,creation1 and then easily mislead you2 you would then adopt the theory of the ,eternity of the ,universe which is contrary to the fundamental principles of our religion1 and leads to 8speaking words that turn away from ,god40 ,you must rather have suspicion against your own reason1 and accept the theory taught by two prophets who have bid the foundation for the existing order in the religious and social relations of mankind4 ,only demonstrative proof should be able to make you abandon the theory of the ,creation2 but such a proof does not exist in ,nature4 ,you will not find it strange that ,i introduce into this discussion historical matter in support of the theory of the ,creation1 seeing that ,aristotle1 the greatest philosopher1 in his principal works1 introduces histories in support of the theory of the ,eternity of the ,universe4 ,in this regard we may justly quote the saying3 8,should not our perfect ,law be as good as their gossip80 7,b4 ,t4 ,baba batra1 #aae b74 ,when he supports his view by quoting ,sabean stories1 why should we not support our view by that which ,moses and ,abraham said1 and that which follows from their words8 ,i have before promised to describe in a separate chapter the strong objections which must occur to him who thinks that human wisdom comprehends fully the nature of the spheres and their motions2 that these are subject to fixed laws1 and capable of being comprehended as regards order and relation4 ,i will now explain this4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,you know of ,astronomy as much as you have studied with me1 and learnt from the book ,almagest2 we had not sufficient time to go beyond this4 ,the theory that the spheres move regularly1 and that the assumed courses of the stars are in harmony with observation1 depends1 as you are aware1 on two hypotheses3 we must assume either epicycles1 or excentric spheres1 or a combination of both4 ,now ,i will show that each of these two hypotheses is irregular1 and totally contrary to the results of ,natural ,science4 ,let us first consider an epicycle1 such as has been assumed in the spheres of the moon and the five planets1 rotating on a sphere1 but not round the centre of the sphere that carries it4 ,this arrangement would necessarily produce a revolving motion2 the epicycle would then revolve1 and entirely change its place2 but that anything in the spheres should change its place is exactly what ,aristotle considers impossible4 ,for that reason ,abu-bekr ibn-,alzaig1 in an astronomical treatise which he wrote1 rejects the existence of epicycles4 ,besides this impossibility1 he mentions others1 showing that the theory of epicycles implies other absurd notions4 ,i will here explain them3--7#a7 ,it is absurd to assume that the revolution of a cycle has not the centre of the ,universe for its centre2 for it is a fundamental principle in the order of the ,universe that there are only three kinds of motion--from the centre1 towards the centre1 and round the centre2 but an epicycle does not move away from the centre1 nor towards it1 nor round it4 7#b7 ,again1 according to what ,aristotle explains in ,natural ,science1 there must be something fixed round which the motion takes place2 this is the reason why the earth remains stationary4 ,but the epicycle would move round a centre which is not stationary4 ,i have heard that ,abu-bekr discovered a system in which no epicycles occur2 but excentric spheres are not excluded by him4 ,i have not heard it from his pupils2 and even if it be correct that he discovered such a system1 he has not gained much by it2 for excentricity is likewise as contrary as possible to the principles laid down by ,aristotle4 ,for it seems to me that an excentric sphere does not move round the centre of the ,universe1 but round an imaginary point distant from the centre1 and therefore round a point which is not fixed4 ,a person ignorant of astronomy might think that the motion of the excentric spheres may still be considered as taking place round something fixed1 since their centre is apparently within the sphere of the moon4 ,i would admit this if the centre were situated in the region of fire or air1 although the spheres would not move round a stable point4 ,but ,i will show that the amount of excentricity has1 in a certain way1 been described in the ,almagest2 and later scholars have calculated the exact amount of excentricity in terms of radii of the earth1 and have proved the result4 ,the same measure has been used in astronomy in describing all distances and magnitudes4 ,it has thus been shown that the point round which the sun moves lies undoubtedly beyond the sphere of the moon1 and below the superficies of the sphere of ,mercury4 ,the centre for the circuit of ,mars1 that is1 the centre of the excentric sphere of ,mars1 is beyond the sphere of ,mercury1 and below the sphere of ,venus4 ,the centre of ,jupiter has the same distance2 it lies between the sphere of ,venus and that of ,mercury1 whilst the centre of ,saturn lies between the spheres of ,mars and ,jupiter4 ,now1 consider how improbable all this appears according to the laws of ,natural ,science4 ,you will find it out when you consider the known distances and magnitudes of each sphere and each star1 all expressed in terms of the radii of the earth4 ,there is a uniform measure for all1 and the excentricity of each sphere is not determined by units proportionate to its own magnitude4 ,it is still more improbable and more objectionable to assume that there are two spheres1 the one within the other2 that these are closely joined from all sides1 and have1 nevertheless1 different centres4 ,for in this case the smaller sphere might move whilst the larger be at rest2 but the smaller cannot be at rest when the larger moves1 and must move with the larger when the latter rotates round any other axis than that which passes through the two centres4 ,now we have this proposition which can be proved2 and1 further1 the established theory that there is no vacuum1 and also the assumed excentricity of the spheres2 from all this it follows that in every two spheres the motion of the upper one should cause the lower sphere to move in the same way1 and round the same centre4 ,but this is not the case2 the outer and the inner spheres do not move in the same way1 and not round the same centre or the same axis2 each of them has its peculiar motion4 ,for this reason it has been assumed that between every two spheres there are substances different from those of the spheres4 ,it may be very much doubted whether this is the case2 for where should the centres of these intermediate substances be placed8 have these substances likewise their own peculiar motion8 ,thabith has explained the above-mentioned theory in one of his treatises1 and proved that we must assume a substance of a spherical form intermediate between one sphere and the other4 ,all this is part of that which ,i have not explained to you when you studied with me1 for ,i was afraid you might become confused and would not understand even those things which ,i wished to show you4 ,but as to the inclination and the deviation assumed in respect to the latitude of the paths of ,venus and ,mercury1 ,i have already clearly shown you viv voce that it is impossible to imagine material beings under such conditions4 ,you have seen that ,ptolemy has already pointed out this difficulty4 ,he says as follows3 8,let no one think that these and similar principles are improbable4 ,if any one considers what we have here expounded in the same light as he considers things produced by skill and subtle work1 he will find it improbable2 but it is not right to compare human things to divine things40 ,this is1 as you know1 what ,ptolemy says1 and ,i have already pointed out to you the passages by which you can verify all ,i said1 except what ,i stated about the position of the centres of the excentric spheres2 for ,i have not heard that any one has paid attention to this question4 ,but you will understand it when you know the length of the diameter of each sphere1 and the extent of its excentricity in terms of radii of the earth1 according to the facts which ,kabici has established in his treatise on the distances4 ,when you notice these distances you will confirm my words4 ,consider1 therefore1 how many difficulties arise if we accept the theory which ,aristotle expounds in ,physics4 ,for1 according to that theory1 there are no epicycles1 and no excentric spheres1 but all spheres rotate round the centre of the earth6 ,how then can the different courses of the stars be explained8 how is it possible to assume a uniform perfect rotation with the phenomena which we perceive1 except by admitting one of the two hypotheses or both of them8 ,the difficulty is still more apparent when we find that admitting what ,ptolemy said as regards the epicycle of the moon1 and its inclination towards a point different both from the centre of the ,universe and from its own centre1 the calculations according to these hypotheses are perfectly correct1 within one minute2 that their correctness is confirmed by the most accurate calculation of the time1 duration1 and extent of the eclipses1 which is always based on these hypotheses4 ,furthermore1 how can we reconcile1 without assuming the existence of epicycles1 the apparent retrogression of a star with its other motions8 ,how can rotation or motion take place round a point which is not fixed8 ,these are real difficulties4 ,i have explained to you already viv voce1 that these difficulties do not concern the astronomer2 for he does not profess to tell us the existing properties of the spheres1 but to suggest1 whether correctly or not1 a theory in which the motion of the stars is circular and uniform1 and yet in agreement with our observation4 ,you know that ,abu-bekr al-,zaig1 in his treatise on ,physics1 expresses a doubt whether ,aristotle knew the excentricity of the sun but ignored it1 and only discussed the effect of the inclination1 because he saw that the effect of the excentricity was identical with that of the inclination2 or whether he did not perceive it4 ,the truth is that he did not notice it or hear of it2 the science was not perfect in his age4 ,if he had heard of it1 he would have strongly opposed it2 if he had been convinced of its correctness1 he would have been greatly embarrassed as regards all that he said on the question4 ,what ,i said before 7ch4 xxii47 ,i will repeat now1 namely1 that the theory of ,aristotle1 in explaining the phenomena in the sublunary world1 is in accordance with logical inference2 here we know the causal relation between one phenomenon and another2 we see how far science can investigate them1 and the management of nature is clear and intelligible4 ,but of the things in the heavens man knows nothing except a few mathematical calculations1 and you see how far these go4 ,i say in the words of the poet1 8,the heavens are the ,lord's1 but the earth ,he hath given to the sons of man0 7,ps4 cxv4 #af72 that is to say1 ,god alone has a perfect and true knowledge of the heavens1 their nature1 their essence1 their form1 their motions1 and their causes2 but ,he gave man power to know the things which are under the heavens2 here is man's world1 here is his home1 into which he has been placed1 and of which he is himself a portion4 ,this is in reality the truth4 ,for the facts which we require in proving the existence of heavenly beings are withheld from us2 the heavens are too far from us1 and too exalted in place and rank4 ,man's faculties are too deficient to comprehend even the general proof the heavens contain for the existence of ,him who sets them in motion4 ,it is in fact ignorance or a kind of madness to weary our minds with finding out things which are beyond our reach1 without having the means of approaching them4 ,we must content ourselves with that which is within our reach1 and that which cannot be approached by logical inference let us leave to him who has been endowed with that great and divine influence1 expressed in the words3 8,mouth to mouth do ,i speak with ,him0 7,num4 xii4 #h74 ,this is all ,i can say on this question2 another person may perhaps be able to establish by proof what appears doubtful to me4 ,it is on account of my great love of truth that ,i have shown my embarrassment in these matters1 and ,i have not heard1 nor do ,i know that any of these theories have been established by proof4 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,we do not reject the ,eternity of the ,universe1 because certain passages in ,scripture confirm the ,creation2 for such passages are not more numerous than those in which ,god is represented as a corporeal being2 nor is it impossible or difficult to find for them a suitable interpretation4 ,we might have explained them in the same manner as we did in respect to the ,incorporeality of ,god4 ,we should perhaps have had an easier task in showing that the ,scriptural passages referred to are in harmony with the theory of the ,eternity of the ,universe if we accepted the latter1 than we had in explaining the anthropomorphisms in the ,bible when we rejected the idea that ,god is corporeal4 ,for two reasons1 however1 we have not done so1 and have not accepted the ,eternity of the ,universe4 ,first1 the ,incorporeality of ,god has been demonstrated by proof2 those passages in the ,bible1 which in their literal sense contain statements that can be refuted by proof1 must and can be interpreted otherwise4 ,but the ,eternity of the ,universe has not been proved2 a mere argument in favour of a certain theory is not sufficient reason for rejecting the literal meaning of a ,biblical text1 and explaining it figuratively1 when the opposite theory can be supported by an equally good argument4 ,secondly1 our belief in the ,incorporeality of ,god is not contrary to any of the fundamental principles of our religion2 it is not contrary to the words of any prophet4 ,only ignorant people believe that it is contrary to the teaching of ,scripture2 but we have shown that this is not the case2 on the contrary1 ,scripture teaches the ,incorporeality of ,god4 ,if we were to accept the ,eternity of the ,universe as taught by ,aristotle1 that everything in the ,universe is the result of fixed laws1 that ,nature does not change1 and that there is nothing supernatural1 we should necessarily be in opposition to the foundation of our religion1 we should disbelieve all miracles and signs1 and certainly reject all hopes and fears derived from ,scripture1 unless the miracles are also explained figuratively4 ,the ,allegorists amongst the ,mohammedans have done this1 and have thereby arrived at absurd conclusions4 ,if1 however1 we accepted the ,eternity of the ,universe in accordance with the second of the theories which we have expounded above 7ch4 xxiii471 and assumed1 with ,plato1 that the heavens are likewise transient1 we should not be in opposition to the fundamental principles of our religion2 this theory would not imply the rejection of miracles1 but1 on the contrary1 would admit them as possible4 ,the ,scriptural text might have been explained accordingly1 and many expressions might have been found in the ,bible and in other writings that would confirm and support this theory4 ,but there is no necessity for this expedient1 so long as the theory has not been proved4 ,as there is no proof sufficient to convince us1 this theory need not be taken into consideration1 nor the other one2 we take the text of the ,bible literally1 and say that it teaches us a truth which we cannot prove2 and the miracles are evidence for the correctness of our view4 ,accepting the ,creation1 we find that miracles are possible1 that ,revelation is possible1 and that every difficulty in this question is removed4 ,we might be asked1 ,why has ,god inspired a certain person and not another8 why has ,he revealed the ,law to one particular nation1 and at one particular time8 why has ,he commanded this1 and forbidden that8 why has ,he shown through a prophet certain particular miracles8 what is the object of these laws8 and why has ,he not made the commandments and the prohibitions part of our nature1 if it was ,his object that we should live in accordance with them8 ,we answer to all these questions3 ,he willed it so2 or1 ,his wisdom decided so4 ,just as ,he created the world according to ,his will1 at a certain time1 in a certain form1 and as we do not understand why ,his will or ,his wisdom decided upon that peculiar form1 and upon that peculiar time1 so we do not know why ,his will or wisdom determined any of the things mentioned in the preceding questions4 ,but if we assume that the ,universe has the present form as the result of fixed laws1 there is occasion for the above questions2 and these could only be answered in an objectionable way1 implying denial and rejection of the ,biblical texts1 the correctness of which no intelligent person doubts4 ,owing to the absence of all proof1 we reject the theory of the ,eternity of the ,universe2 and it is for this very reason that the noblest minds spent and will spend their days in research4 ,for if the ,creation had been demonstrated by proof1 even if only according to the ,platonic hypothesis1 all arguments of the philosophers against us would be of no avail4 ,if1 on the other hand1 ,aristotle had a proof for his theory1 the whole teaching of ,scripture would be rejected1 and we should be forced to other opinions4 ,i have thus shown that all depends on this question4 ,note it4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,in the famous chapters known as the ,chapters of ,rabbi ,eliezer1 ,i find ,r4 ,eliezer the ,great saying something more extraordinary than ,i have ever seen in the utterances of any believer in the ,law of ,moses4 ,i mean the following passage3 8,whence were the heavens created8 ,he took part of the light of ,his garment1 stretched it like a cloth1 and thus the heavens were extending continually1 as it is said3 ,he covereth ,himself with light as with a garment1 ,he stretcheth the heavens like a curtain0 7,ps4 civ4 #b74 8,whence was the earth created8 ,he took of the snow under the throne of glory1 and threw it2 according to the words3 ,he saith to the snow1 ,be thou earth0 7,job xxxvii4 #f74 ,these are the words given there2 and ,i1 in my surprise1 ask1 ,what was the belief of this sage8 did he think that nothing can be produced from nothing1 and that a substance must have existed of which the things were formed8 and did he for this reason ask whence were the heavens and the earth created8 ,what has he gained by the answer8 ,we might ask him1 ,whence was the light of ,his garment created8 or the snow under the throne of ,his glory8 or the throne of glory itself8 ,if the terms 8the light of ,his garment0 and 8the throne of glory0 mean something eternal1 they must be rejected2 the words would imply an admission of the ,eternity of the ,universe1 though only in the form taught by ,plato4 ,the creation of the throne of glory is mentioned by our ,sages1 though in a strange way2 for they say that it has been created before the creation of the ,universe4 ,scripture1 however1 does not mention the creation of the throne1 except in the words of ,david1 8,the ,lord hath established his throne in the heavens0 7,ps4 ciii4 #ai71 which words admit of figurative interpretation2 but the eternity of the throne is distinctly described1 8,thou1 ,o ,lord1 dwellest for ever1 thy throne for ever and ever0 7,lam4 v4 #ai74 ,now1 if ,r4 ,eliezer had believed that the throne was eternal1 so that the word 8throne0 expressed an attribute of ,god1 and not something created1 how could anything be produced of a mere attribute8 ,stranger still is his expression 8of the light of ,his garment40 ,in short1 it is a passage that greatly confuses the notions of all intelligent and religious persons4 ,i am unable to explain it sufficiently4 ,i quoted it in order that you may not be misled by it4 ,one important thing ,r4 ,eliezer taught us here1 that the substance of the heavens is different from that of the earth2 that there are two different substances3 the one is described as belonging to ,god1 being the light of ,his garment1 on account of its superiority2 and the other1 the earthly substance1 which is distant from ,his splendour and light1 as being the snow under the throne of ,his glory4 ,this led me to explain the words1 8,and under his feet as the work of the whiteness of the sapphire0 7,exod4 xxiv4 #aj71 as expressing that the nobles of the children of ,israel comprehended in a prophetical vision the nature of the earthly materia prima4 ,for1 according to ,onkelos1 the pronoun in the phrase1 8,his feet0 refers to 8throne10 as ,i have shown2 this indicates that the whiteness under the throne signifies the earthly substance4 ,r4 ,eliezer has thus repeated the same idea1 and told us that there are two substances--a higher one1 and a lower one2 and that there is not one substance common to all things4 ,this is an important subject1 and we must not think light of the opinion which the wisest men in ,israel have held on this point4 ,it concerns an important point in explaining the existence of the ,universe1 and one of the mysteries of the ,law4 ,in ,bereshit ,rabba 7chap4 xii47 the following passage occurs3 8,r4 ,eliezer says1 ,the things in the heavens have been created of the heavens1 the things on earth of the earth40 ,consider how ingeniously this sage stated that all things on earth have one common substance2 the heavens and the things in them have one substance1 different from the first4 ,he also explains in the ,chapters of ,r4 ,eliezer1 in addition to the preceding things1 the superiority of the heavenly substance1 and its proximity to ,god2 and1 on the other hand1 the inferiority of the earthly substance and its position4 ,note it4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,we have already stated that the belief in the ,creation is a fundamental principle of our religion2 but we do not consider it a principle of our faith that the ,universe will again be reduced to nothing4 ,it is not contrary to the tenets of our religion to assume that the ,universe will continue to exist for ever4 ,it might be objected that everything produced is subject to destruction1 as has been shown2 consequently the ,universe1 having had a beginning1 must come to an end4 ,this axiom cannot be applied according to our views4 ,we do not hold that the ,universe came into existence1 like all things in ,nature1 as the result of the laws of ,nature4 ,for whatever owes its existence to the action of physical laws is1 according to the same laws1 subject to destruction3 the same law which caused the existence of a thing after a period of non-existence1 is also the cause that the thing is not permanent2 since the previous non-existence proves that the nature of that thing does not necessitate its permanent existence4 ,according to our theory1 taught in ,scripture1 the existence or non-existence of things depends solely on the will of ,god and not on fixed laws1 and1 therefore1 it does not follow that ,god must destroy the ,universe after having created it from nothing4 ,it depends on ,his will4 ,he may1 according to ,his desire1 or according to the decree of ,his wisdom1 either destroy it1 or allow it to exist1 and it is therefore possible that ,he will preserve the ,universe for ever1 and let it exist permanently as ,he ,himself exists4 ,it is well known that our ,sages never said that the throne of glory will perish1 although they assumed that it has been created4 ,no prophet or sage ever maintained that the throne of glory will be destroyed or annihilated2 but1 on the contrary1 the ,scriptural passages speak of its permanent existence4 ,we are of opinion that the souls of the pious have been created1 and at the same time we believe that they are immortal4 ,some hold1 in accordance with the literal meaning of the ,midrashim1 that the bodies of the pious will also enjoy everlasting happiness4 ,their notion is like the well-known belief of certain people1 that there are bodily enjoyments in ,paradise4 ,in short1 reasoning leads to the conclusion that the destruction of the ,universe is not a certain fact4 ,there remains only the question as to what the prophets and our ,sages say on this point2 whether they affirm that the world will certainly come to an end1 or not4 ,most people amongst us believe that such statements have been made1 and that the world will at one time be destroyed4 ,i will show you that this is not the case2 and that1 on the contrary1 many passages in the ,bible speak of the permanent existence of the ,universe4 ,those passages which1 in the literal sense1 would indicate the destruction of the ,universe1 are undoubtedly to be understood in a figurative sense1 as will be shown4 ,if1 however1 those who follow the literal sense of the ,scriptural texts reject our view1 and assume that the ultimate certain destruction of the ,universe is part of their faith1 they are at liberty to do so4 ,but we must tell them that the belief in the destruction is not necessarily implied in the belief in the ,creation2 they believe it because they trust the writer1 who used a figurative expression1 which they take literally4 ,their faith1 however1 does not suffer by it4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,many of our coreligionists thought that ,king ,solomon believed in the ,eternity of the ,universe4 ,this is very strange4 ,how can we suppose that any one that adheres to the ,law of ,moses1 our ,teacher1 should accept that theory8 if we were to assume that ,solomon has on this point1 ,god forbid1 deviated from the ,law of ,moses1 the question would be asked1 ,why did most of the ,prophets and of the ,sages accept it of him8 ,why have they not opposed him1 or blamed him for holding that opinion1 as he has been blamed for having married strange women1 and for other things8 ,the reason why this has been imputed to him is to be found in the following passage3 8,they desired to suppress the book ,koheleth1 because its words incline towards scepticism40 ,it is undoubtedly true that certain passages in this book include1 when taken literally1 opinions different from those taught in the ,law1 and they must therefore be explained figuratively4 ,but the theory of the ,eternity of the ,universe is not among those opinions1 the book does not even contain any passage that implies this theory2 much less a passage in which it is clearly set forth4 ,there are1 however1 in the book1 some passages which imply the indestructibility of the ,universe1 a doctrine that is true2 and from the fact that the indestructibility of the ,universe is taught in this book1 some persons wrongly inferred that the author believed in the ,eternity of the ,universe4 ,the following are the words that refer to the indestructibility of the ,universe3 8,and the earth remaineth for ever40 ,and those who do not agree with me as regards the above distinction between the indestructibility and the ,eternity of the ,universe1 are compelled to explain the term le-olam 7lit41 8for ever071 to mean 8the time fixed for the existence of the earth40 ,similarly they explain the words of ,god1 8,yet all the days of the earth0 7,gen4 viii4 #bb7 to signify the days fixed for its existence4 ,but ,i wonder how they would explain the words of ,david3 8,he laid the foundations of the earth1 that it should not be moved for ever0 7,ps4 civ4 #e74 ,if they maintain here also that the term le-olam va-ed 7lit4 8for ever07 does not imply perpetuity1 they must come to the conclusion that ,god exists only for a fixed period1 since the same term is employed in describing the perpetuity of ,god1 8,the ,lord will reign 7le-olam7 for ever0 7,exod4 xv4 #ah1 or ,ps4 x4 #af74 ,we must1 however1 bear in mind that olam only signifies perpetuity when it is combined with ad2 it makes no difference whether ad follows1 as in olam va-ed1 or whether it precedes1 as in ad olam4 ,the words of ,solomon which only contain the word le-olam1 have therefore less force than the words of ,david1 who uses the term olam va-ed4 ,david has also in other passages clearly spoken of the incorruptibility of the heavens1 the perpetuity and immutability of their laws1 and of all the heavenly beings4 ,he says1 8,praise ye the ,lord from the heavens1 etc4 ,for ,he commanded1 and they were created4 ,he hath also stablished them for ever and ever2 he hath made a decree which shall not pass0 7,ps4 cxlviii4 #a-f72 that is to say1 there will never be a change in the decrees which ,god made1 or in the sources of the properties of the heavens and the earth1 which the ,psalmist has mentioned before4 ,but he distinctly states that they have been created4 ,for he says1 8,he hath commanded1 and they were created40 ,jeremiah 7xxxi4 #ce7 likewise says1 8,he giveth the sun for a light by day1 and the ordinances of the moon and of the stars for a light by night10 etc4 8,if these ordinances depart from before me1 saith the ,lord1 then the seed of ,israel also shall cease from being a nation before me for ever40 ,he thus declares1 that these decrees will never be removed1 although they had a beginning4 ,we therefore find this idea1 when we search for it1 expressed not only by ,solomon but also by others4 ,solomon himself has stated that these works of ,god1 the ,universe1 and all that is contained in it1 remain with their properties for ever1 although they have been created4 ,for he says1 8,whatsoever ,god doeth1 it shall be for ever2 nothing can be put to it1 nor anything taken away from it0 7,eccles4 iii4 #ad74 ,he declares in these words that the world has been created by ,god and remains for ever4 ,he adds the reason for it by saying1 8,nothing can be put to it1 nor anything taken from it20 for this is the reason for the perpetuity1 as if he meant to say that things are changed in order to supply that which is wanting1 or in order to take away what is superfluous4 ,the works of ,god being most perfect1 admitting no addition or deduction1 must remain the same for ever4 ,it is impossible that anything should exist that could cause a change in them4 ,in the conclusion of the verse1 ,solomon1 as it were describes the purpose of exceptions from the laws of ,nature1 or an excuse for changes in them1 when he says1 8,and ,god doeth it 7viz41 ,he performs miracles7 that men should fear before him40 ,the words which follow1 8,that which hath been is now2 and that which is to be hath already been1 and ,god seeketh that which is pursued10 contain the idea that ,god desires the perpetuity and continuity of the ,universe4 ,the fact that the works of ,god are perfect1 admitting of no addition or diminution1 has already been mentioned by ,moses1 the wisest of all men1 in the words3 8,the rock1 ,his work is perfect0 7,deut4 xxxii4 #ad74 ,all ,his works or creations are most perfect1 containing no defect whatever1 nothing superfluous1 nor anything unnecessary4 ,also whatever ,god decrees for those created things1 and whatever ,he effects through them1 is perfectly just1 and is the result of ,his wisdom1 as will be explained in some chapters of this treatise4 ,,chapter ,,xxix ,if we hear a person speaking whose language we do not understand1 we undoubtedly know that he speaks1 but do not know what his words mean2 it may even happen that we hear some words which mean one thing in the tongue of the speaker1 and exactly the reverse in our language1 and taking the words in the sense which they have in our language1 we imagine that the speaker employed them in that sense4 ,suppose1 e4g41 an ,arab hears of a ,hebrew the word abah1 he thinks that the ,hebrew relates how a man despised and refused a certain thing1 whilst the ,hebrew in reality says that the man was pleased and satisfied with it4 ,the very same thing happens to the ordinary reader of the ,prophets2 some of their words he does not understand at all1 like those to whom the prophet says 7,isa4 xxix4 #aa71 8the vision of all is become unto you as the words of a book that is sealed02 in other passages he finds the opposite or the reverse of what the prophet meant2 to this case reference is made in the words1 8,ye have perverted the words of the living ,god0 7,jer4 xxiii4 #cf74 ,besides1 it must be borne in mind that every prophet has his own peculiar diction1 which is1 as it were1 his language1 and it is in that language that the prophecy addressed to him is communicated to those who understand it4 ,after this preliminary remark you will understand the metaphor frequently employed by ,isaiah1 and less frequently by other prophets1 when they describe the ruin of a kingdom or the destruction of a great nation in phrases like the following3--8,the stars have fallen10 8,the heavens are overthrown10 8,the sun is darkened10 8,the earth is waste1 and trembles10 and similar metaphors4 ,the ,arabs likewise say of a person who has met with a serious accident1 8,his heavens1 together with his earth1 have been covered02 and when they speak of the approach of a nation's prosperity1 they say1 8,the light of the sun and moon has increased10 8,a new heaven and a new earth has been created10 or they use similar phrases4 ,so also the prophets1 in referring to the ruin of a person1 of a nation1 or of a country1 describe it as the result of ,god's great anger and wrath1 whilst the prosperity of a nation is the result of ,god's pleasure and satisfaction4 ,in the former case the prophets employ such phrases as 8,he came forth10 8came down10 8roared10 8thundered10 or 8caused his voice to be heard02 also 8,he commanded10 8said10 8did10 8made10 and the like1 as will be shown4 ,sometimes the prophets use the term 8mankind0 instead of 8the people of a certain place10 whose destruction they predict2 e4g41 ,isaiah speaking of the destruction of ,israel says1 8,and the ,lord will remove man far away0 7,isa4 vi4 #ab74 ,so also ,zephaniah 7i4 #c1 #d71 8,and ,i will cut off man from off the earth4 ,i will also stretch out mine hand upon ,judah40 ,note this likewise4 ,having spoken of the language of the prophets in general1 ,i will now verify and prove my statement4 ,when ,isaiah received the divine mission to prophesy the destruction of the ,babylonian empire1 the death of ,sennacherib and that of ,nebuchadnezzar1 who rose after the overthrow of ,sennacherib1 he commences in the following manner to describe their fall and the end of their dominion1 their defeat1 and such evils as are endured by all who are vanquished and compelled to flee before the victorious sword of the enemy3 8,for the stars of heaven1 and the constellations thereof1 shall not give their light3 the sun is darkened in his going forth1 and the moon shall not cause her light to shine0 7xiii4 #aj72 again1 8,therefore ,i will shake the heavens1 and the earth shall remove out of her place1 in the wrath of the ,lord of hosts1 and in the day of his fierce anger0 7xiii4 #ac74 ,i do not think that any person is so foolish and blind1 and so much in favour of the literal sense of figurative and oratorical phrases1 as to assume that at the fall of the ,babylonian kingdom a change took place in the nature of the stars of heaven1 or in the light of the sun and moon1 or that the earth moved away from its centre4 ,for all this is merely the description of a country that has been defeated2 the inhabitants undoubtedly find all light dark1 and all sweet things bitter3 the whole earth appears too narrow for them1 and the heavens are changed in their eyes4 ,he speaks in a similar manner when he describes the poverty and humiliation of the people of ,israel1 their captivity and their defeat1 the continuous misfortunes caused by the wicked ,sennacherib when he ruled over all the fortified places of ,judah1 or the loss of the entire land of ,israel when it came into the possession of ,sennacherib4 ,he says 7xxiv4 #ag73 8,fear1 and the pit1 and the snare1 are upon thee1 ,o inhabitant of the earth4 ,and it shall come to pass1 that he who fleeth from the noise of the fear shall fall into the pit2 and he that cometh out of the midst of the pit shall be taken in the snare3 for the windows from on high are open1 and the foundations of the earth do shake4 ,the earth is utterly broken down1 the earth is clean dissolved1 the earth is moved exceedingly4 ,the earth shall reel to and fro like a drunkard40 ,at the end of the same prophecy1 when ,isaiah describes how ,god will punish ,sennacherib1 destroy his mighty empire1 and reduce him to disgrace1 he uses the following figure 7xxiv4 #bc73 8,then the moon shall be confounded1 and the sun ashamed1 when the ,lord of hosts shall reign10 etc4 ,this verse is beautifully explained by ,jonathan1 the son of ,uzziel2 he says that when ,sennacherib will meet with his fate because of ,jerusalem1 the idolaters will understand that this is the work of ,god2 they will faint and be confounded4 ,he therefore translates the verse thus3 8,those who worship the moon will be ashamed1 and those who bow down to the sun will be humbled1 when the kingdom of ,god shall reveal itself10 etc4 ,the prophet then pictures the peace of the children of ,israel after the death of ,sennacherib1 the fertility and the cultivation of their land1 and the increasing power of their kingdom through ,hezekiah4 ,he employs here the figure of the increase of the light of the sun and moon4 ,when speaking of the defeated1 he says that for them the light of the sun and moon will be diminished and darkened2 in the same sense their light is said to increase for the victorious4 ,we can frequently notice the correctness of this figure of speech4 ,when great troubles befall us1 our eyes become dim1 and we cannot see clearly because the spiritus visus is made turbid by the prevailing vapours1 and is weakened and diminished by great anxiety and straits of the soul2 whilst in a state of gladness and comfort of the soul the spiritus visus becomes clear1 and man feels as if the light had increased4 ,thus the good tidings that the people shall dwell in ,zion1 and in ,jerusalem1 and shall weep no more1 etc41 conclude in the following manner3 8,moreover1 the light of the moon shall be as the light of the sun1 and the light of the sun shall be sevenfold1 as the light of seven days1 in the day that the ,lord bindeth up the breaches of his people1 and healeth the stroke of their wound0 7,isa4 xxx4 #ai1 #bf72 that is to say1 when ,god will raise them up again after they had fallen through the wicked ,sennacherib4 ,the phrase 8as the light of seven days0 signifies1 according to the commentators1 8very great light03 for in this same sense the number 8seven0 is frequently used in ,hebrew4 ,i think that reference is made by this phrase to the seven days of the dedication of the temple in the reign of ,solomon2 for there was never a nation so great1 prosperous1 and happy in every respect1 as ,israel was at that time1 and therefore the prophet says1 that ,israel's greatness and happiness will be the same as it was in those seven days4 ,speaking of wicked ,edom1 ,israel's oppressor1 ,isaiah says3 8,their slain also shall be cast out1 and their stink shall come up out of their carcases1 and the mountains shall be melted with their blood4 ,and all the host of heaven shall be dissolved1 and the heavens shall be rolled together as a scroll3 and all their host shall fall down1 as a leaf falleth off from the vine1 and as a fig falleth from the fig-tree4 ,for my sword shall be bathed in heaven2 behold1 ,i shall come down upon ,idumea1 and upon the people of my curse1 to judgment10 etc4 7,isa4 xxxiv4 #c-e74 ,will any person who has eyes to see find in these verses any expression that is obscure1 or that might lead him to think that they contain an account of what will befall the heavens8 or anything but a figurative description of the ruin of the ,edomites1 the withdrawal of ,god's protection from them1 their decline1 and the sudden and rapid fall of their nobles8 ,the prophet means to say that the individuals1 who were like stars as regards their permanent1 high1 and undisturbed position1 will quickly come down1 as a leaf falleth from the vine1 and as a fig falling from the fig-tree4 ,this is self-evident2 and there would be no need to mention it1 much less to speak on it at length1 had it not become necessary1 owing to the fact that the common people1 and even persons who are considered as distinguished scholars1 quote this passage without regarding its context or its purpose1 in support of their view of the future destruction of the heavens4 ,they believe that ,scripture describes here what will1 in future1 happen to the heavens1 in the same manner as it informs us how the heavens have come into existence4 ,again1 when ,isaiah told the ,israelites--what afterwards became a well-known fact--that ,sennacherib1 with his allied nations and kings1 would perish1 and that the ,israelites would be helped by ,god alone1 he employed figurative language1 and said3 8,see how the heavens decay and the earth withers away1 and all beings on the earth die1 and you are saved02 that is to say1 those who have filled the earth1 and have been considered1 to use an hyperbole1 as permanent and stable as the heavens1 will quickly perish and disappear like smoke2 and their famous power1 that has been as stable as the earth1 will be destroyed like a garment4 ,the passage to which ,i refer begins3 8,for the ,lord hath comforted ,zion2 ,he hath comforted all her waste places10 etc4 8,hearken unto me1 my people10 etc4 8,my righteousness is near3 my salvation is gone forth10 etc4 ,it continues thus3 8,lift up your eyes to the heavens1 and look upon the earth beneath2 for the heavens shall vanish like smoke1 and the earth shall wax old like a garment1 and they that dwell therein shall die in like manner2 for my salvation shall be for ever1 and my righteousness shall not be abolished0 7,isa4 li4 #c-f74 ,the restoration of the kingdom of ,israel1 its stability and permanence1 is described as a creation of heaven and earth4 ,for ,isaiah frequently speaks of the land of a king as if it were the whole ,universe1 as if heaven and earth belonged to him4 ,he therefore comforts ,israel and says3 8,i1 even ,i1 am he that comforteth you10 etc4 8,and ,i have put my words in thy mouth1 and ,i have covered thee in the shadow of mine hand1 that ,i may plant the heavens1 and lay the foundations of the earth1 and say unto ,zion1 ,thou art my people0 7li4 #ab-af74 ,in the following verses1 ,isaiah declares that the dominion of ,israel will continue1 whilst that of the renowned and mighty people will cease3 8,for the mountains shall depart10 etc4 7liv4 #aj74 ,in order to express that the kingdom of the ,messiah will be permanent1 and that the kingdom of ,israel will not be destroyed any more1 he says1 8,thy sun shall no more go down10 etc4 7lx4 #bj74 ,in metaphors like these1 which are intelligible to those who understand the context1 ,isaiah continues to describe the details of the exile1 the restoration1 and the removal of all sorrow1 and says figuratively as follows3 8,i will create new heavens and a new earth2 for the first shall be forgotten1 and their memory shall be blotted out40 ,he explains this in the course of the speech1 by pointing out that by the phrase1 8,i will create10 he means that ,god will give them perpetual gladness and joy in place of the previous grief and mourning1 which shall no longer be remembered4 ,i will now describe the sequence of the ideas1 and the order of the verses in which these ideas are contained4 ,the prophet begins as follows3 8,i will mention the loving-kindnesses of the ,lord10 etc4 7lxiii4 #g74 ,he then gives 7#a7 an account of ,god's past kindness to us1 concluding with the words1 8,and he bare them and carried them all the days of old0 7ver4 #i74 7#b7 ,next follows our rebellion3 8,but they rebelled1 and vexed his holy spirit10 etc4 7ver4 #aj72 7#c7 the dominion of our enemies over us3 8,our adversaries have trodden down thy sanctuary2 we are like those over whom thou hast never ruled10 etc4 7vers4 #ah1 #ai72 7#d7 and the prophet's prayer on our account3 8,be not wroth very sore10 etc4 7lxiv4 #i74 7#e7 ,the prophet then describes how we deserved these punishments1 and how we were called to the truth but did not respond3 8,i offered myself to be sought of them that asked not for me10 etc4 7lxv4 #a72 7#f7 promises mercy and pardon3 8,thus saith the ,lord1 ,as the new wine is found in the cluster10 etc4 7ver4 #h72 7#g7 predicts evil for our oppressors3 8,behold1 my servant shall eat1 but ye shall be hungry10 etc4 7ver4 #ac72 7#h7 and moral improvement of our nation to such a degree that we shall be a blessing on the earth1 and the previous troubles will be forgotten3 8,and he shall call his servants by another name3 that he who blesseth himself in the earth1 shall bless himself in the ,god of truth2 and he that sweareth in the earth1 shall swear by the ,god of truth2 because the former troubles are forgotten1 and because they are hid from mine eyes4 ,for1 behold1 ,i create new heavens1 and a new earth3 and the former shall not be remembered1 nor come into mind4 ,but be ye glad and rejoice for ever in that which ,i create3 for1 behold1 ,i create ,jerusalem a rejoicing1 and her people a joy4 ,and ,i will rejoice in ,jerusalem1 and joy in my people10 etc4 7lxv4 #ae-ai74 ,the whole subject must now be clear and evident2 for the words1 8,i create new heavens1 and a new earth10 etc41 are followed by the explanation1 8,i create ,jerusalem a rejoicing1 and her people a joy10 etc4 ,the prophet then adds that the seed and name of ,israel will be as permanent as their faith and as the rejoicing in it1 which ,god promised to create and to spread over the whole earth3 for faith in ,god and rejoicing in it are two possessions which1 once obtained1 are never lost or changed4 ,this is expressed in the words3 8,for as the new heavens and the new earth1 which ,i will make1 remain before me1 saith the ,lord1 so shall your seed and your name remain0 7lxvi4 #bb74 ,but of other nations1 in some instances1 the seed remains1 whilst the name has perished2 so1 e4g41 many people are of the seed of the ,persians or ,greeks1 without being known by that special name2 they bear the names of other nations1 of which they form part4 ,according to my opinion1 we have here a prophecy that our religion1 which gives us our special name1 will remain permanently4 ,as these figures are frequent in ,isaiah1 ,i explained all of them4 ,but we meet with them also in the words of other prophets4 ,jeremiah1 in describing the destruction of ,jerusalem in consequence of our sins1 says 7iv4 #bc73 8,i beheld the earth1 and1 lo1 it was without form1 and void10 etc4 ,ezekiel 7xxxii4 #g1 #h7 foretells the destruction of the kingdom of ,egypt1 and the death of ,pharaoh1 through ,nebuchadnezzar1 in the following words3 8,and when ,i shall put thee out1 ,i will cover the heaven1 and make the stars thereof dark2 ,i will cover the sun with a cloud1 and the moon shall not give her light4 ,all the bright lights of heaven will ,i make dark over thee1 and set darkness upon thy land1 saith the ,lord40 ,joel1 the son of ,pethuel 7ii4 #aj71 describes the multitude of locusts that came in his days as follows3 8,the earth shall quake before them3 the heavens shall tremble3 the sun and the moon shall be dark1 and the stars shall withdraw their shining40 ,amos 7viii4 #i1 #aj71 speaking of the destruction of ,samaria1 says3 8,i will cause the sun to go down at noon1 and ,i will darken the earth in the clear day2 and ,i will turn your feasts10 etc4 ,micah 7i4 #c1 #d71 in relating the fall of ,samaria1 uses the following well-known rhetorical figures3 8,for1 behold1 the ,lord cometh forth out of his place1 and will come down1 and tread upon the high places of the earth4 ,and the mountains shall be molten10 etc4 ,similarly ,haggai 7ii4 #f1 #g71 in describing the destruction of the kingdom of the ,medes and ,persians3 8,i will shake the heavens and the earth1 and the sea1 and the dry land2 and ,i will shake all nations10 etc4 ,when ,david 7,ps4 lx4 #d7 describes how1 during the expedition of ,joab against the ,edomites1 the nation was low and weak1 and how he prayed to ,god for ,his assistance1 he says3 8,thou hast made the earth to tremble2 thou hast broken it3 heal the breaches thereof2 for it shaketh40 ,in another instance he expresses the idea that we need not fear when we see other nations die and perish1 because we rely on ,god's support1 and not on our sword and strength1 in accordance with the words3 8,a people saved by the ,lord1 the shield of thy help0 7,deut4 xxxiii4 #bi72 he says 7,ps4 xlvi4 #b73 8,therefore will we not fear1 though the earth be removed1 and though the mountains be shaken in the midst of the sea40 ,the following figurative language is employed in ,scripture in referring to the death of the ,egyptians in the ,red ,sea3 8,the waters saw thee2 they were afraid3 the depths also were troubled1 etc4 ,the voice of thy thunder was in the heaven3 the lightnings lightened the world2 the earth trembled and shook0 7,ps4 lxxvii4 #ag-ai74 8,was the ,lord displeased against the rivers80 etc4 7,hab4 iii4 #h74 8,there went up a smoke out of his nostrils10 etc4 7,ps4 xviii4 #i74 8,the earth trembled10 etc4 7,judges v4 #d1 in the ,song of ,deborah74 ,there are many other instances2 but those which ,i have not quoted can be explained in accordance with those which ,i have cited4 ,let us now consider the words of ,joel 7iii4 #c-e73 8,and ,i will show wonders in the heavens and in the earth1 blood and fire1 and pillars of smoke4 ,the sun shall be turned into darkness1 and the moon into blood1 before the great and terrible day of the ,lord come4 ,and it shall come to pass1 that whosoever shall call on the name of the ,lord shall be delivered1 for in ,mount ,zion and in ,jerusalem shall be deliverance10 etc4 ,i refer them to the defeat of ,sennacherib near ,jerusalem2 but they may be taken as an account of the defeat of ,gog and ,magog near ,jerusalem in the days of the ,messiah1 if this appears preferable1 although nothing is mentioned in this passage but great slaughter1 destruction1 fire1 and the diminution of the light of the two luminaries4 ,you may perhaps object3 ,how can the day of the fall of ,sennacherib1 according to our explanation1 be called 8the great and the terrible day of the ,lord80 ,but you must know that a day of great salvation or of great distress is called 8the great and terrible day of the ,lord40 ,thus ,joel 7ii4 #aa7 says of the day on which the locusts came over the land1 8,for the day of the ,lord is great and terrible1 and who can abide it80 ,our opinion1 in support of which we have quoted these passages1 is clearly established1 namely1 that no prophet or sage has ever announced the destruction of the ,universe1 or a change of its present condition1 or a permanent change of any of its properties4 ,when our ,sages say1 8,the world remains six thousand years1 and one thousand years it will be waste10 they do not mean a complete cessation of existing things2 the phrase 8one thousand years it will be waste0 distinctly shows that time will continue2 besides1 this is the individual opinion of one ,rabbi1 and in accordance with one particular theory4 ,but on the other hand the words1 8,there is nothing new under the sun0 7,eccles4 i4 #i71 in the sense that no new creation takes place in any way and under any circumstances1 express the general opinion of our ,sages1 and include a principle which every one of the doctors of the ,mishnah and the ,talmud recognises and makes use of in his arguments4 ,even those who understand the words 8new heavens and a new earth0 in their literal sense hold that the heavens1 which will in future be formed1 have already been created and are in existence1 and that for this reason the present tense 8remain0 is used1 and not the future 8will remain40 ,they support their view by citing the text1 8,there is nothing new under the sun40 ,do not imagine that this is opposed to our opinion4 ,they mean1 perhaps1 to say that the natural laws1 by which the promised future condition of ,israel will be effected1 have been in existence since the days of the ,creation1 and in that they are perfectly correct4 ,when ,i1 however1 said that no prophet ever announced 8a permanent change of any of its properties10 ,i intended to except miracles4 ,for although the rod was turned into a serpent1 the water into blood1 the pure and noble hand into a leprous one1 without the existence of any natural cause that could effect these or similar phenomena1 these changes were not permanent1 they have not become a physical property4 ,on the contrary1 the ,universe since continues its regular course4 ,this is my opinion2 this should be our belief4 ,our ,sages1 however1 said very strange things as regards miracles2 they are found in ,bereshit ,rabba1 and in ,midrash ,koheleth1 namely1 that the miracles are to some extent also natural2 for they say1 when ,god created the ,universe with its present physical properties1 ,he made it part of these properties1 that they should produce certain miracles at certain times1 and the sign of a prophet consisted in the fact that ,god told him to declare when a certain thing will take place1 but the thing itself was effected according to the fixed laws of ,nature4 ,if this is really the meaning of the passage referred to1 it testifies to the greatness of the author1 and shows that he held it to be impossible that there should be a change in the laws of ,nature1 or a change in the will of ,god as regards the physical properties of things after they have once been established4 ,he therefore assumes1 e4g41 that ,god gave the waters the property of joining together1 and of flowing in a downward direction1 and of separating only at the time when the ,egyptians were drowned1 and only in a particular place4 ,i have already pointed out to you the source of this passage1 and it only tends to oppose the hypothesis of a new creation4 ,it is said there3 ,r4 ,jonathan said1 ,god made an agreement with the sea that it should divide before the ,israelites2 thus it is said1 8,and the sea returned to its strength when the morning appeared0 7,exod4 xiv4 #bg74 ,r4 ,jeremiah1 son of ,elazar1 said3 ,not only with the sea1 but with all that has been created in the six days of the beginning was the agreement made2 this is referred to in the words1 8,i1 even my hands have stretched out the heavens1 and all their host have ,i commanded0 7,isa4 xlv4 #ab72 i4e41 ,i have commanded the sea to divide1 the fire not to hurt ,hananiah1 ,mishael1 and ,azariah1 the lions not to harm ,daniel1 and the fish to spit out ,jonah4 ,the same is the case with the rest of the miracles4 ,we have thus clearly stated and explained our opinion1 that we agree with ,aristotle in one half of his theory4 ,for we believe that this ,universe remains perpetually with the same properties with which the ,creator has endowed it1 and that none of these will ever be changed except by way of miracle in some individual instances1 although the ,creator has the power to change the whole ,universe1 to annihilate it1 or to remove any of its properties4 ,the ,universe1 had1 however1 a beginning and commencement1 for when nothing was as yet in existence except ,god1 ,his wisdom decreed that the ,universe be brought into existence at a certain time1 that it should not be annihilated or changed as regards any of its properties1 except in some instances2 some of these are known to us1 whilst others belong to the future1 and are therefore unknown to us4 ,this is our opinion and the basis of our religion4 ,the opinion of ,aristotle is that the ,universe1 being permanent and indestructible1 is also eternal and without beginning4 ,we have already shown that this theory is based on the hypothesis that the ,universe is the necessary result of causal relation1 and that this hypothesis includes a certain amount of blasphemy4 ,having come thus far we will make in the next chapter a few remarks on passages in the first chapters of ,genesis4 ,for the primary object in this treatise has been to expound as much as possible of the ,scriptural account of the ,creation 7maaseh bereshit71 and the description of the heavenly chariot 7maaseh mercabah74 ,but let us premise two general observations4 ,first1 the account given in ,scripture of the ,creation is not1 as is generally believed1 intended to be in all its parts literal4 ,for if this were the case1 wise men would not have kept its explanation secret1 and our ,sages would not have employed figurative speech in treating of the ,creation in order to hide its true meaning1 nor would they have objected to discuss it in the presence of the common people4 ,the literal meaning of the words might lead us to conceive corrupt ideas and to form false opinions about ,god1 or even entirely to abandon and reject the principles of our ,faith4 ,it is therefore right to abstain and refrain from examining this subject superficially and unscientifically4 ,we must blame the practice of some ignorant preachers and expounders of the ,bible1 who think that wisdom consists in knowing the explanation of words1 and that greater perfection is attained by employing more words and longer speech4 ,it is1 however1 right that we should examine the ,scriptural texts by the intellect1 after having acquired a knowledge of demonstrative science1 and of the true hidden meaning of prophecies4 ,but if one has obtained some knowledge in this matter he must not preach on it1 as ,i stated in my ,commentary on the ,mishnah 7agigah1 ii4 #g71 and our ,sages said distinctly3 ,from the beginning of the book to this place--after the account of the sixth day of the ,creation--it is 8the glory of ,god to conceal a thing0 7,prov4 xxv4 #b74 ,we have thus clearly stated our opinion4 ,it is1 however1 part of the ,divine plan that every one who has obtained some perfection transmit it to some other persons1 as will be shown in the chapter on ,prophecy4 ,it is1 therefore1 impossible for a scholar to possess knowledge of these problems1 whether it be through his own researches or through his master's teaching1 without communicating part of that knowledge to others2 it cannot be done in clear words2 it must be done sparingly by way of hints4 ,we find in the words of some of our ,sages numerous hints and notes of this kind1 but mixed up with the words of others and with other subjects4 ,in treating of these mysteries1 as a rule1 ,i quote as much as contains the principal idea1 and leave the rest for those who are worthy of it4 ,secondly1 the prophets employ homonymous terms and use words which are not meant to be understood in their ordinary signification1 but are only used because of some other meaning which they admit1 e4g41 8a rod of an almond-tree 7shaked710 because of the words which follow1 8for ,i will hasten 7shaked70 7,jer4 i4 #aa1 #ab71 as will be shown in the chapter on ,prophecy4 ,according to the same principle ,ezekiel in the account of the ,divine ,chariot employs1 as we have stated the term ashmal 7,ezek4 i4 #d72 also regel egel 7v4 #g71 neoshet kalal 7v4 #g71 and similar terms2 ,zechariah 7vi4 #a7 likewise adopts this method1 and says3 8,and the mountains were mountains of neoshet 7brass710 and the like4 ,after these two remarks ,i will proceed to the chapter which ,i have promised4 ,,chapter ,,xxx ,there is a difference between first and beginning 7or principle74 ,the latter exists in the thing of which it is the beginning1 or co-exists with it2 it need not precede it2 e4g41 the heart is the beginning of the living being2 the element is the beginning of that of which it is the basis4 ,the term 8first0 is likewise applied to things of this kind2 but is also employed in cases where precedence in time alone is to be expressed1 and the thing which precedes is not the beginning 7or the cause7 of the thing that follows4 ,e4g41 we say ,a4 was the first inhabitant of this house1 after him came ,b2 this does not imply that ,a is the cause of ,b inhabiting the house4 ,in ,hebrew1 teillah is used in the sense of 8first02 e4g41 when ,god first 7teillat7 spake to ,hosea 7,hos4 i4 #a71 and the 8beginning0 is expressed by reshith1 derived from rosh1 8head10 the principal part of the living being as regards position4 ,the ,universe has not been created out of an element that preceded it in time1 since time itself formed part of the ,creation4 ,for this reason ,scripture employs the term 8bereshit0 7in a principle71 in which the beth is a preposition denoting 8in40 ,the true explanation of the first verse of ,genesis is as follows3 8,in creating a principle ,god created the beings above and the things below40 ,this explanation is in accordance with the theory of the ,creation4 ,we find that some of our ,sages are reported to have held the opinion that time existed before the ,creation4 ,but this report is very doubtful1 because the theory that time cannot be imagined with a beginning1 has been taught by ,aristotle1 as ,i showed you1 and is objectionable4 ,those who have made this assertion have been led to it by a saying of one of our ,sages in reference to the terms 8one day10 8a second day40 ,taking these terms literally1 the author of that saying asked1 ,what determined 8the first day10 since there was no rotating sphere1 and no sun8 and continues as follows3 ,scripture uses the term 8one day02 ,r4 ,jehudah1 son of ,r4 ,simon1 said3 8,hence we learn that the divisions of time have existed previously40 ,r4 ,abahu said1 8,hence we learn that ,god built worlds and again destroyed them40 ,this latter exposition is still worse than the former4 ,consider the difficulty which these two ,rabbis found in the statement that time existed before the creation of the sun4 ,we shall undoubtedly soon remove this difficulty1 unless these two ,rabbis intended to infer from the ,scriptural text that the divisions of time must have existed before the ,creation1 and thus adopted the theory of the ,eternity of the ,universe4 ,but every religious man rejects this4 ,the above saying is1 in my opinion1 certainly of the same character as that of ,r4 ,eliezer1 8,whence were the heavens created10 etc41 7chap4 xxvi474 ,in short1 in these questions1 do not take notice of the utterances of any person4 ,i told you that the foundation of our faith is the belief that ,god created the ,universe from nothing2 that time did not exist previously1 but was created2 for it depends on the motion of the sphere1 and the sphere has been created4 ,you must know that the particle et in the phrase et ha-shamayim ve-et ha-are 78the heavens and the earth07 signifies 8together with02 our ,sages have explained the word in the same sense in many instances4 ,accordingly they assume that ,god created with the heavens everything that the heavens contain1 and with the earth everything the earth includes4 ,they further say that the simultaneous ,creation of the heavens and the earth is implied in the words1 8,i call unto them1 they stand up together0 7,ps4 xlviii474 ,consequently1 all things were created together1 but were separated from each other successively4 ,our ,sages illustrated this by the following simile3 ,we sow various seeds at the same time2 some spring forth after one day1 some after two1 and some after three days1 although all have been sown at the same time4 ,according to this interpretation1 which is undoubtedly correct1 the difficulty is removed1 which led ,r4 ,jehudah1 son of ,r4 ,simon1 to utter the above saying1 and consisted in the doubt as to the thing by which the first day1 the second1 and the third were determined4 ,in ,bereshit ,rabba1 our ,sages1 speaking of the light created on the first day according to the ,scriptural account1 say as follows3 these lights of the luminaries mentioned in the ,creation of the fourth day are the same that were created on the first day1 but were only fixed in their places on the fourth day4 ,the meaning of the first verse has thus been clearly stated4 ,we must further consider that the term ere is a homonym1 and is used in a general and a particular sense4 ,it has a more general signification when used of everything within the sphere of the moon1 i4e41 of all the four elements2 and is used in particular of one of them1 of the lowest1 viz41 earth4 ,this is evident from the passage3 8,and the earth was without form and void1 and darkness was on the surface of the deep4 ,and the wind of ,god moved upon the face of the waters40 ,the term 8earth0 mentioned here1 and in the first verse includes all the four elements1 whilst further on it is said1 8,and ,god called the dry land ,earth0 7,gen4 i4 #aj74 ,it is also important to notice that the words1 8,and ,god called a certain thing a certain name10 are invariably intended to distinguish one thing from others which are called by the same common noun4 ,i explain1 therefore1 the first verse in ,genesis thus3 ,in creating the principle ,god created the things above and those below4 ,ere in this verse denotes 8the things below10 or 8the four elements10 and in the verse1 8,and ,god called the dry land ,earth0 7ere71 it signifies the element earth4 ,this subject is now made clear4 ,the four elements indicated1 according to our explanation1 in the term ere 8earth10 in the first verse1 are mentioned first after the heavens2 for there are named ere 7earth71 rua 7air71 mayim 7water71 and oshek 7fire74 ,by oshek the element fire is meant1 nothing else2 comp4 8,and thou heardest his words out of the midst of the fire0 7,deut4 iv4 #cf72 and1 8,when ye heard the voice out of the midst of the oshek0 7darkness7 7ibid4 v4 #b72 again1 8,all oshek 7darkness7 shall be hid in his secret places3 a fire not blown shall consume him0 7,job xx4 #bf74 ,the element fire is called oshek because it is not luminous1 it is only transparent2 for if it were luminous we should see at night the whole atmosphere in flames4 ,the order of the four elements1 according to the natural position is here described2 namely1 first earth1 above it water1 air close to water1 and fire above air2 for by placing air over water1 oshek 7fire71 which is 8upon the face of the deep10 is undoubtedly above air4 ,it was here necessary to use the term rua elohim1 because air is described here as in motion 7meraefet71 and the motion of the air is1 as a rule1 ascribed to ,god2 comp4 8,and there went forth a wind from the ,lord0 7,num4 xi4 #ca72 8,thou didst blow with thy wind0 7,exod4 xv4 #aj72 8,and the ,lord turned a mighty strong west wind0 7ibid4 x4 #ai71 and the like4 ,as the first oshek1 which denotes the element fire1 is different from the oshek mentioned further on in the sense of 8darkness10 the latter is explained and distinguished from the former1 according to our explanation1 in the words1 8,and darkness he called ,night40 ,this is now clear4 ,the phrase1 8,and he divided between the waters10 etc41 does not describe a division in space1 as if the one part were merely above the other1 whilst the nature of both remained the same1 but a distinction as regards their nature or form4 ,one portion of that which was first called water was made one thing by certain properties it received1 and another portion received a different form1 and this latter portion is that which is commonly called water and of this it is said1 8,and the gathering of the waters he called ,seas40 ,scripture even indicates that the first mayim 78water07 in the phrase1 8,on the face of the waters10 does not refer to the waters which form the seas2 and that part of the element 8water10 having received a particular form1 and being above the air1 is distinguished from the other part which has received the form of ordinary water4 ,for the words1 8,and he divided between the waters which are beneath the firmament and the waters which are above the firmament10 are similar in meaning to the phrase1 8,and ,god divided between the light and the darkness10 and refer to a distinction by a separate form4 ,the firmament itself was formed of water2 and in the words of our ,sages 7,bereshit ,rabba2 cap4 iv471 8,the middle drop congealed and formed the heavens40 ,here likewise ,scripture says1 in accordance with what ,i said above1 8,and ,god called the firmament ,heaven0 7,gen4 i4 #h71 in order to explain the homonymity of the term shamayim 7heaven71 and to show that shamayim in the first verse is not the firmament which is also called shamayim 7heaven74 ,the difference is more clearly expressed in the words1 8,in the open firmament of heaven0 7ibid4 i4 #bj72 here it is shown that 8firmament0 7rakia71 and 8heaven0 7shamayim71 are two different things4 ,in consequence of this homonymity of the term shamayim the term rakia 7firmament7 is also used of the true heaven1 just as the real firmament is sometimes called shamayim 7heaven72 comp4 8,and ,god set them in the rakia 7firmament7 of the heaven0 7ibid4 i4 #ag74 ,this verse shows clearly that the stars1 the sun1 and the moon are not1 as people believe1 on the surface of the spheres1 but they are fixed in the spheres1 and this has been proved satisfactorily1 there being no vacuum in the ,universe2 for it is said1 8in the firmament of the heaven10 and not 8upon the firmament of the heaven40 ,it is therefore clear that there has been one common element called water1 which has been afterwards distinguished by three different forms2 one part forms the seas1 another the firmament1 and a third part is over the firmament1 and all this is separate from the earth4 ,the ,scriptural text follows here a peculiar method in order to indicate some extraordinary mysteries4 ,it has also been declared by our ,sages that the portion above the firmament is only water by name1 not in reality1 for they say 7,babyl4 ,talmud1 agigah #ad;b7 8,four entered the paradise10 etc4 ,r4 ,akiba said to them1 8,when you come to the stores of pure marble1 do not say1 ,water1 water1 for it is written1 #8,he that telleth lies shall not tarry in my sight'0 7,ps4 ci4 #g74 ,consider1 if you belong to the class of thinking men1 how clearly and distinctly this passage explains the subject for those who reflect on it6 ,understand that which has been proved by ,aristotle in his book ,on ,meteorology1 and note whatever men of science have said on meteorological matters4 ,it is necessary to inquire into the reason why the declaration 8that it was good0 is not found in the account of the second day of the ,creation4 ,the various ,midrashic sayings of our ,sages on this point are well known2 the best of them is the explanation that the creation of the water was not completed on that day4 ,according to my opinion the reason is likewise clear1 and is as follows3 ,when the creation of any part of the ,universe is described that is permanent1 regular1 and in a settled order1 the phrase 8that it is good0 is used4 ,but the account of the firmament1 with that which is above it and is called water1 is1 as you see1 of a very mysterious character4 ,for if taken literally the firmament would appear at first thought to be merely an imaginary thing1 as there is no other substance but the elements between us and the lowest of the heavenly spheres1 and there is no water above the air2 and if the firmament1 with that which is over it1 be supposed to be above the heavens1 it would a fortiori seem to be unreal and uncomprehensible4 ,but if the account be understood in a figurative sense and according to its true meaning1 it is still more mysterious1 since it was considered necessary to make this one of the most hidden secrets1 in order to prevent the multitude from knowing it4 ,this being the case1 how could it be said of the creation of the second day 8that it was good08 ,this phrase would tell us that it is perfectly clear what share the thing to which it refers takes in the permanent existence of the ,universe4 ,but what good can people find in a thing whose real nature is hidden1 and whose apparent nature is not real8 ,why1 therefore1 should it be said in reference to it1 8that it was good08 ,i must1 however1 give the following additional explanation4 ,although the result of the second day's creation forms an important element among the existing things1 the firmament was not its primary object in the organization of the ,universe1 and therefore it could not be said 8that it was good02 it was only the means for the uncovering of the earth4 ,note this4 ,our ,sages have already explained that the herbs and trees1 which ,god caused to spring forth from the ground1 were caused by ,god to grow1 after ,he had sent down rain upon them2 and the passage beginning1 8,and there went up a mist from the earth0 7ii4 #f71 refers to that which took place before the creative act1 related in the words1 8,let the earth bring forth grass10 etc4 7i4 ii474 ,therefore ,onkelos translates it3 8,and there had gone up a mist from the earth40 ,it is also evident from the text itself1 where it is distinctly said1 8,and every plant in the field before it was in the earth10 etc4 7ii4 #e74 ,this question is now explained4 ,it is well known to every philosopher that the principal causes of production and destruction1 after the influence of the spheres1 are light and darkness1 in so far as these are accompanied by heat and cold4 ,for by the motion of the spheres the elements intermix1 and by light and darkness their constitution changes4 ,the first change consists in the formation of two kinds of mist2 these are the first causes of meteorological phenomena1 such as rain2 they also caused the formation of minerals1 of plants1 of animals1 and at last of man4 ,it is likewise known that darkness is the natural property of all things on earth2 in them light is accidental1 coming from an external cause1 and therefore everything remains in a state of rest in the absence of light4 ,the ,scriptural account of the ,creation follows in every respect exactly the same order1 without any deviation4 ,note also the saying of our ,sages3 8,when the ,universe was created1 all things were created with size1 intellect1 and beauty fully developed1 i4e41 everything was created perfect in magnitude and form1 and endowed with the most suitable properties2 the word ibyonam 7their beauty7 used here has the same meaning as ebi1 #8glory'0 7,ezek4 xx4 #f74 ,note this likewise1 for it includes a principle fully established4 ,the following point now claims our attention4 ,the account of the six days of creation contains1 in reference to the creation of man1 the statement3 8,male and female created he them0 7i4 #bg71 and concludes with the words3 8,thus the heavens and the earth were finished1 and all the host of them0 7ii4 #a71 and yet the portion which follows describes the creation of ,eve from ,adam1 the tree of life1 and the tree of knowledge1 the history of the serpent and the events connected therewith1 and all this as having taken place after ,adam had been placed in the ,garden of ,eden4 ,all our ,sages agree that this took place on the sixth day1 and that nothing new was created after the close of the six days4 ,none of the things mentioned above is therefore impossible1 because the laws of ,nature were then not yet permanently fixed4 ,there are1 however1 some utterances of our ,sages on this subject which apparently imply a different view4 ,i will gather them from their different sources and place them before you1 and ,i will refer also to certain things by mere hints1 just as has been done by the ,sages4 ,you must know that their words1 which ,i am about to quote1 are most perfect1 most accurate1 and clear to those for whom they were said4 ,i will therefore not add long explanations1 lest ,i make their statements plain1 and ,i might thus become 8a revealer of secrets10 but ,i will give them in a certain order1 accompanied with a few remarks1 which will suffice for readers like you4 ,one of these utterances is this3 8,adam and ,eve were at first created as one being1 having their backs united2 they were then separated1 and one half was removed and brought before ,adam as ,eve40 ,the term mi-alotav 7lit4 8of his ribs07 signifies 8of his sides40 ,the meaning of the word is proved by referring to ela1 8the side0 of the tabernacle 7,exod4 xxvi4 #bj71 which ,onkelos renders setar 78side071 and so also mi-alotav is rendered by him 8mi-sitrohi0 7of his sides74 ,note also how clearly it has been stated that ,adam and ,eve were two in some respects1 and yet they remained one1 according to the words1 8,bone of my bones1 and flesh of my flesh0 7,gen4 ii4 #bc74 ,the unity of the two is proved by the fact that both have the same name1 for she is called ishshah 7woman71 because she was taken out of ish 7man71 also by the words1 8,and shall cleave unto his wife1 and they shall be one flesh0 7ii4 #bd74 ,how great is the ignorance of those who do not see that all this necessarily includes some other idea besides the literal meaning of the words4 ,this is now clear4 ,another noteworthy ,midrashic remark of our ,sages is the following3 8,the serpent had a rider1 the rider was as big as a camel1 and it was the rider that enticed ,eve2 this rider was ,samal40 ,samal is the name generally applied by our ,sages to ,satan4 ,thus they say in several places that ,satan desired to entice ,abraham to sin1 and to abstain from binding ,isaac1 and he desired also to persuade ,isaac not to obey his father4 ,at the same time they also say1 in reference to the same subject1 viz41 the ,akedah 78the binding of ,isaac071 that ,samal came to ,abraham and said to him1 8,what6 hast thou1 being an old man1 lost thy senses80 etc4 ,this shows that ,samal and ,satan are identical4 ,there is a meaning in this name ,samal1 as there is also in the name naash 78serpent074 ,in describing how the serpent came to entice ,eve1 our ,sages say3 8,samal was riding on it1 and ,god was laughing at both the camel and its rider40 ,it is especially of importance to notice that the serpent did not approach or address ,adam1 but all his attempts were directed against ,eve1 and it was through her that the serpent caused injury and death to ,adam4 ,the greatest hatred exists between the serpent and ,eve1 and between his seed and her seed2 her seed being undoubtedly also the seed of man4 ,more remarkable still is the way in which the serpent is joined to ,eve1 or rather his seed to her seed2 the head of the one touches the heel of the other4 ,eve defeats the serpent by crushing its head1 whilst the serpent defeats her by wounding her heel4 ,this is likewise clear4 ,the following is also a remarkable passage1 most absurd in its literal sense2 but as an allegory it contains wonderful wisdom1 and fully agrees with real facts1 as will be found by those who understand all the chapters of this treatise4 ,when the serpent came to ,eve he infected her with poison2 the ,israelites1 who stood at ,mount ,sinai1 removed that poison2 idolaters1 who did not stand at ,mount ,sinai1 have not got rid of it4 ,note this likewise4 ,again they said3 8,the tree of life extends over an area of five hundred years' journey1 and it is from beneath it that all the waters of the creation sprang forth02 and they added the explanation that this measure referred to the thickness of its body1 and not to the extent of its branches1 for they continue thus3 8,not the extent of the branches thereof1 but the stem thereof korato1 lit41 #8its beam1' signifying here #8its stem' has a thickness of five hundred years' journey40 ,this is now sufficiently clear4 ,again3 8,god has never shown the tree of knowledge of good and evil to man1 nor will ,he ever show it40 ,this is correct1 for it must be so according to the nature of the ,universe4 ,another noteworthy saying is this3 8,and the ,lord ,god took the man1 i4e41 raised him1 and placed him in the ,garden of ,eden10 i4e41 ,he gave him rest4 ,the words 8,he took him10 8,he gave him10 have no reference to position in space1 but they indicate his position in rank among transient beings1 and the prominent character of his existence4 ,remarkable and noteworthy is the great wisdom contained in the names of ,adam1 ,cain1 and ,abel1 and in the fact that it was ,cain who slew ,abel in the field1 that both of them perished1 although the murderer had some respite1 and that the existence of mankind is due to ,seth alone4 ,comp4 8,for ,god has appointed me another seed0 7iv4 #be74 ,this has proved true4 ,it is also necessary to understand and consider the words1 8,and ,adam gave names0 7ii4 #bj72 here it is indicated that languages are conventional1 and that they are not natural1 as has been assumed by some4 ,we must also consider the four different terms employed in expressing the relations of the heavens to ,god1 bore 7,creator71 oseh 7,maker71 koneh 7,possessor71 and el 7,god74 ,comp4 8,god created the heaven and the earth0 7i4 #a72 8,in the day that ,god made the earth and the heavens0 7ii4 #d72 8,possessor of heaven and earth0 7xiv4 #ai72 8,god of the ,universe0 7xxi4 #ca72 8,the ,god of heaven and the ,god of the earth0 7xxiv4 #c74 ,as to the verbs1 konen1 8he established10 tafa1 8he spanned10 and natah1 8he stretched out10 occurring in the following passages1 8,which thou hast established0 7,ps4 viii4 #d71 8,my right hand hath spanned the heavens0 7,isa4 xviii4 #ac71 8,who stretchest out the heavens0 7,ps4 civ4 #b71 they are included in the term asah 78he made072 the verb yaar1 8he formed10 does not occur in reference to the heavens4 ,according to my opinion the verb yaar denotes to make a form1 a shape1 or any other accident 7for form and shape are likewise accidents74 ,it is therefore said1 yoer or1 8,who formeth the light0 7,isa4 xiv4 #g71 light being an accident2 yoer harim1 8,that formeth the mountains0 7,amos iv4 #ac71 i4e41 that gave them their shape4 ,in the same sense the verb is used in the passage1 8,and the ,lord ,god formed 7va-yier7 all the beasts10 etc4 7,gen4 ii4 #g74 ,but in reference to the ,universe1 viz41 the heavens and the earth1 which comprises the totality of the ,creation1 ,scripture employs the verb bara1 which we explain as denoting he produced something from nothing2 also asah 78he made071 on account of the general forms or natural properties of the things which were given to them2 kanah1 8he possessed10 because ,god rules over them like a master over his servants4 ,for this reason ,he is also called1 8,the ,lord of the whole earth0 7,jos4 iii4 #aa-ac72 ha-adon1 8the ,lord0 7,exod4 xx41 iii4 #ag74 ,but although none can be a master unless there exists something that is in his possession1 this attribute cannot be considered to imply the belief in the eternal existence of a materia prima1 since the verbs bara1 8he created10 and asah1 8he made10 are also employed in reference to the heavens4 ,the ,creator is called the ,god of the heavens and the ,god of the ,universe1 on account of the relations between ,him and the heavens2 ,he governs1 and they are governed2 the word elohim does not signify 8master0 in the sense of 8owner02 it expresses the relation between ,his position in the totality of existing beings1 and the position of the heavens or the ,universe2 ,he is ,god1 not they1 i4e41 not the heavens4 ,note this4 ,this1 together with those explanations which we have given1 and which we intend to give1 in reference to this subject1 may suffice1 considering the object of this treatise and the capacity of the reader4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi ,it is perhaps clear why the laws concerning ,sabbath are so severe1 that their transgression is visited with death by stoning1 and that the greatest of the prophets put a person to death for breaking the ,sabbath4 ,the commandment of the ,sabbath is the third from the commandment concerning the existence and the unity of ,god4 ,for the commandment not to worship any other being is merely an explanation of the first4 ,you know already from what ,i have said1 that no opinions retain their vitality except those which are confirmed1 published1 and by certain actions constantly revived among the people4 ,therefore we are told in the ,law to honour this day2 in order to confirm thereby the principle of ,creation which will spread in the world1 when all peoples keep ,sabbath on the same day4 ,for when the question is asked1 why this is done1 the answer is given3 8,for in six days the ,lord hath made10 etc4 7,exod4 xx4 #aa74 ,two different reasons are given for this commandment1 because of two different objects4 ,in the ,decalogue in ,exodus1 the following reason is given for distinguishing the ,sabbath3 8,for in six days10 etc4 ,but in ,deuteronomy 7chap4 v4 #ae7 the reason is given3 8,and thou shalt remember that thou hast been a slave in the land of ,egypt1 etc41 therefore the ,lord thy ,god commanded thee10 etc4 ,this difference can easily be explained4 ,in the former1 the cause of the honour and distinction of the day is given2 comp4 8,therefore the ,lord hath blessed the day of the ,sabbath and sanctified it0 7,exod4 xx4 #aj71 and the cause for this is1 8,for in six days10 etc4 ,but the fact that ,god has given us the law of the ,sabbath and commanded us to keep it1 is the consequence of our having been slaves2 for then our work did not depend on our will1 nor could we choose the time for it2 and we could not rest4 ,thus ,god commanded us to abstain from work on the ,sabbath1 and to rest1 for two purposes2 namely1 7#a7 ,that we might confirm the true theory1 that of the ,creation1 which at once and clearly leads to the theory of the existence of ,god4 7#b7 ,that we might remember how kind ,god has been in freeing us from the burden of the ,egyptians4--,the ,sabbath is therefore a double blessing3 it gives us correct notions1 and also promotes the well-being of our bodies4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii ,there are as many different opinions concerning ,prophecy as concerning the ,eternity or ,non-,eternity of the ,universe4 ,for we have shown that those who assume the existence of ,god as proved may be divided into three classes1 according to the view they take of the question1 whether the ,universe is eternal or not4 ,similarly there are three different opinions on ,prophecy4 ,i will not notice the view of the ,atheist2 he does not believe in the ,existence of ,god1 much less in ,prophecy2 but ,i will content myself with discussing the various opinions on ,prophecy held by those who believe in ,god4 #a4 ,among those who believe in ,prophecy1 and even among our coreligionists1 there are some ignorant people who think as follows3 ,god selects any person ,he pleases1 inspires him with the spirit of ,prophecy1 and entrusts him with a mission4 ,it makes no difference whether that person be wise or stupid1 old or young2 provided he be1 to some extent1 morally good4 ,for these people have not yet gone so far as to maintain that ,god might also inspire a wicked person with ,his spirit4 ,they admit that this is impossible1 unless ,god has previously caused him to improve his ways4 #b4 ,the philosophers hold that prophecy is a certain faculty of man in a state of perfection1 which can only be obtained by study4 ,although the faculty is common to the whole race1 yet it is not fully developed in each individual1 either on account of the individual's defective constitution1 or on account of some other external cause4 ,this is the case with every faculty common to a class4 ,it is only brought to a state of perfection in some individuals1 and not in all2 but it is impossible that it should not be perfect in some individual of the class2 and if the perfection is of such a nature that it can only be produced by an agent1 such an agent must exist4 ,accordingly1 it is impossible that an ignorant person should be a prophet2 or that a person being no prophet in the evening1 should1 unexpectedly on the following morning1 find himself a prophet1 as if prophecy were a thing that could be found unintentionally4 ,but if a person1 perfect in his intellectual and moral faculties1 and also perfect1 as far as possible1 in his imaginative faculty1 prepares himself in the manner which will be described1 he must become a prophet2 for prophecy is a natural faculty of man4 ,it is impossible that a man who has the capacity for prophecy should prepare himself for it without attaining it1 just as it is impossible that a person with a healthy constitution should be fed well1 and yet not properly assimilate his food2 and the like4 #c4 ,the third view is that which is taught in ,scripture1 and which forms one of the principles of our religion4 ,it coincides with the opinion of the philosophers in all points except one4 ,for we believe that1 even if one has the capacity for prophecy1 and has duly prepared himself1 it may yet happen that he does not actually prophesy4 ,it is in that case the will of ,god that withholds from him the use of the faculty4 ,according to my opinion1 this fact is as exceptional as any other miracle1 and acts in the same way4 ,for the laws of ,nature demand that every one should be a prophet1 who has a proper physical constitution1 and has been duly prepared as regards education and training4 ,if such a person is not a prophet1 he is in the same position as a person who1 like ,jeroboam 7#a ,kings xiii4 #d71 is deprived of the use of his hand1 or of his eyes1 as was the case with the army of ,syria1 in the history of ,elisha 7#b ,kings vi4 #ah74 ,as for the principle which ,i laid down1 that preparation and perfection of moral and rational faculties are the sine qu non1 our ,sages say exactly the same3 8,the spirit of prophecy only rests upon persons who are wise1 strong1 and rich40 ,we have explained these words in our ,commentary on the ,mishnah1 and in our large work4 ,we stated there that the ,sons of the ,prophets were constantly engaged in preparation4 ,that those who have prepared themselves may still be prevented from being prophets1 may be inferred from the history of ,baruch1 the son of ,nerijah2 for he followed ,jeremiah1 who prepared and instructed him2 and yet he hoped in vain for prophecy2 comp41 8,i am weary with my sighing1 and rest have ,i not found40 ,he was then told through ,jeremiah1 8,thus saith the ,lord1 ,thus shalt thou say to him1 ,thou seekest for thee great things1 do not seek0 7,jer4 xlv4 #e74 ,it may perhaps be assumed that prophecy is here described as a thing 8too great0 for ,baruch4 ,so also the fact that 8her prophets did not find visions from the ,lord0 7,lam4 ii4 #d71 may be considered as the result of the exile of her prophets1 as will be explained 7chap4 xxxvi474 ,there are1 however1 numerous passages in ,scripture as well as in the writings of our ,sages1 which support the principle that it depends chiefly on the will of ,god who is to prophesy1 and at what time2 and that ,he only selects the best and the wisest4 ,we hold that fools and ignorant people are unfit for this distinction4 ,it is as impossible for any one of these to prophesy as it is for an ass or a frog2 for prophecy is impossible without study and training2 when these have created the possibility1 then it depends on the will of ,god whether the possibility is to be turned into reality4 ,we must not be misled by the words of ,jeremiah 7i4 #e71 8,before ,i formed thee in the womb ,i knew thee1 and before thou camest forth from the womb ,i have sanctified thee02 for this is the case with all prophets2 there must be a physical preparation from the beginning of their existence1 as will be explained4 ,as to the words1 8,for ,i am young0 7ibid4 ver4 #f71 it is well known that the pious ,joseph1 when he was thirty years old1 is called by the ,hebrew 8young0 7naar72 also ,joshua1 when he was nearly sixty years old4 ,for the statement1 8and his minister ,joshua1 the son of ,nun1 was young10 occurs in the account of the ,golden ,calf 7,exod4 xxxiii4 #aa74 ,moses was then eighty-one years old1 he lived one hundred and twenty years2 ,joshua1 who survived him fourteen years1 lived one hundred and ten years and must consequently have been at least fifty-seven years old at the time when the ,golden ,calf was made1 and yet he is called naar1 8young40 ,nor must we be misled by prophecies like the following3 8,i will pour out my spirit over all flesh1 and your sons and your daughters shall prophesy02 since it is distinctly stated what is meant by 8prophesy0 in this place1 viz41 8,your old men will dream dreams1 your young men shall see visions40 ,for we call also prophets all those who reveal something unknown by surmises1 or conjectures1 or correct inferences4 ,thus 8prophets of ,baal0 and 8of ,asherah0 are mentioned in ,scripture4 ,and ,god says1 8,if there arise among you a prophet or a dreamer of dreams10 etc4 7,deut4 xiii4 #a74 ,as to the revelation on ,mount ,sinai1 all saw the great fire1 and heard the fearful thunderings1 that caused such an extraordinary terror2 but only those of them who were duly qualified were prophetically inspired1 each one according to his capacities4 ,therefore it is said1 8,come up unto the ,lord1 thou and ,aaron1 ,nadab and ,abihu40 ,moses rose to the highest degree of prophecy1 according to the words1 8,and ,moses alone shall come near the ,lord40 ,aaron was below him1 ,nadab and ,abihu below ,aaron1 and the seventy elders below ,nadab and ,abihu1 and the rest below the latter1 each one according to his degree of perfection4 ,similarly our ,sages wrote3 ,moses had his own place and ,aaron his own4 ,since we have touched upon the revelation on ,mount ,sinai1 we will point out in a separate chapter what may be inferred as regards the nature of that event1 both from the ,scriptural text1 in accordance with reasonable interpretation1 and from the words of our ,sages4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii ,it is clear to me that what ,moses experienced at the revelation on ,mount ,sinai was different from that which was experienced by all the other ,israelites1 for ,moses alone was addressed by ,god1 and for this reason the second person singular is used in the ,ten ,commandments2 ,moses then went down to the foot of the mount and told his fellow-men what he had heard4 ,comp41 8,i stood between the ,lord and you at that time to tell you the word of the ,lord0 7,deut4 v4 #e74 ,again1 8,moses spake1 and ,god answered him with a loud voice0 7,exod4 xix4 #ai74 ,in the ,mechilta our ,sages say distinctly that he brought to them every word as he had heard it4 ,furthermore1 the words1 8,in order that the people hear when ,i speak with thee0 7,exod4 xix4 #i71 show that ,god spoke to ,moses1 and the people only heard the mighty sound1 not distinct words4 ,it is to the perception of this mighty sound that ,scripture refers in the passage1 8,when ye hear the sound0 7,deut4 v4 #bj72 again it is stated1 8,you heard a sound of words0 7ibid4 iv4 #ab71 and it is not said 8,you heard words02 and even where the hearing of the words is mentioned1 only the perception of the sound is meant4 ,it was only ,moses that heard the words1 and he reported them to the people4 ,this is apparent from ,scripture1 and from the utterances of our ,sages in general4 ,there is1 however1 an opinion of our ,sages frequently expressed in the ,midrashim1 and found also in the ,talmud1 to this effect3 ,the ,israelites heard the first and the second commandments from ,god1 i4e41 they learnt the truth of the principles contained in these two commandments in the same manner as ,moses1 and not through ,moses4 ,for these two principles1 the existence of ,god and ,his ,unity1 can be arrived at by means of reasoning1 and whatever can be established by proof is known by the prophet in the same way as by any other person2 he has no advantage in this respect4 ,these two principles were not known through prophecy alone4 ,comp41 8,thou hast been shown to know that10 etc4 7,deut4 iv4 #cd74 ,but the rest of the commandments are of an ethical and authoritative character1 and do not contain truths perceived by the intellect4 ,notwithstanding all that has been said by our ,sages on this subject1 we infer from ,scripture as well as from the words of our ,sages1 that the ,israelites heard on that occasion a certain sound which ,moses understood to proclaim the first two commandments1 and through ,moses all other ,israelites learnt them when he in intelligible sounds repeated them to the people4 ,our ,sages mention this view1 and support it by the verse1 8,god hath spoken once2 twice have ,i heard this0 7,ps4 lxii4 #aa74 ,they state distinctly1 in the beginning of ,midrash azita1 that the ,israelites did not hear any other command directly from ,god2 comp4 8,a loud voice1 and it was not heard again0 7,deut4 v4 #ai74 ,it was after this first sound was heard that the people were seized with the fear and terror described in ,scripture1 and that they said1 8,behold the ,lord our ,god has shown us1 etc41 and now why shall we die1 etc4 ,come thou near10 etc4 ,then ,moses1 the most distinguished of all mankind1 came the second time1 received successively the other commandments1 and came down to the foot of the mountain to proclaim them to the people1 whilst the mighty phenomena continued2 they saw the fire1 they heard the sounds1 which were those of thunder and lightning during a storm1 and the loud sound of the shofar2 and all that is said of the many sounds heard at that time1 e4g41 in the verse1 8and all the people perceived the sounds10 etc41 refers to the sound of the shofar1 thunder1 and similar sounds4 ,but the voice of the ,lord1 that is1 the voice created for that purpose1 which was understood to include the diverse commandments1 was only heard once1 as is declared in the ,law1 and has been clearly stated by our ,sages in the places which ,i have indicated to you4 ,when the people heard this voice their soul left them2 and in this voice they perceived the first two commandments4 ,it must1 however1 be noticed that the people did not understand the voice in the same degree as ,moses did4 ,i will point out to you this important fact1 and show you that it was a matter of tradition with the nation1 and well known by our ,sages4 ,for1 as a rule1 ,onkelos renders the word va-yedabber by u-mallel 78and ,god spake072 this is also the case with this word in the beginning of the twentieth chapter of ,exodus1 but the words ve-al yedabber immanu elohim1 8let not ,god speak to us0 7,exod4 xx4 #ai71 addressed by the people to ,moses1 is rendered vela yitmallel immanu min kodam adonai 78,let not aught be spoken to us by the ,lord074 ,onkelos makes thus the same distinction which we made4 ,you know that according to the ,talmud ,onkelos received all these excellent interpretations directly from ,r4 ,eliezer and ,r4 ,joshua1 the wisest men in ,israel4 ,note it1 and remember it1 for it is impossible for any person to expound the revelation on ,mount ,sinai more fully than our ,sages have done1 since it is one of the secrets of the ,law4 ,it is very difficult to have a true conception of the events1 for there has never been before1 nor will there ever be again1 anything like it4 ,note it4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv ,the meaning of the ,scriptural passage1 8,behold ,i will send an angel before thee10 etc4 7,exod4 xxiii4 #bj71 is identical with the parallel passage in ,deuteronomy which ,god is represented to have addressed to ,moses at the revelation on ,mount ,sinai1 namely1 8,i will raise them up a prophet from among their brethren10 etc4 7,deut4 xviii4 #ah74 ,the words1 8,beware of him1 and obey his voice10 etc41 said in reference to the angel1 prove that this passage speaks of a prophet4 ,for there is no doubt that the commandment is given to the ordinary people1 to whom angels do not appear with commandments and exhortations1 and it is therefore unnecessary to tell them not to disobey him4 ,the meaning of the passage quoted above is this3 ,god informs the ,israelites that ,he will raise up for them a prophet1 to whom an angel will appear in order to speak to him1 to command him1 and to exhort him2 he therefore cautions them not to rebel against this angel1 whose word the prophet will communicate to them4 ,therefore it is expressly said in ,deuteronomy1 8,unto him ye shall hearken0 7,deut4 xviii4 #ae72 8,and it shall come to pass that whosoever shall not hearken unto my words which he shall speak in my name10 etc4 7ibid4 #ai74 ,this is the explanation of the words1 8for my name is in him0 7,exod4 xxiv4 #ba74 ,the object of all this is to say to the ,israelites1 ,this great sight witnessed by you1 the revelation on ,mount ,sinai1 will not continue for ever1 nor will it ever be repeated4 ,fire and cloud will not continually rest over the tabernacle1 as they are resting now on it2 but the towns will be conquered for you1 peace will be secured for you in the land1 and you will be informed of what you have to do1 by an angel whom ,i will send to your prophets2 he will thus teach you what to do1 and what not to do4 ,here a principle is laid down which ,i have constantly expounded1 viz41 that all prophets except ,moses receive the prophecy through an angel4 ,note it4 ,,chapter ,,xxxv ,i have already described the four points in which the prophecy of ,moses our ,teacher was distinguished from that of other prophets1 in books accessible to every one1 in the ,commentary on the ,mishnah 7,sanhedrin x4 #a7 and in ,mishneh-torah 7,s4 ,madda ,i4 vii4 #f72 ,i have also adduced evidence for my explanation1 and shown the correctness thereof4 ,i need not repeat the subject here1 nor is it included in the theme of this work4 ,for ,i must tell you that whatever ,i say here of prophecy refers exclusively to the form of the prophecy of all prophets before and after ,moses4 ,but as to the prophecy of ,moses ,i will not discuss it in this work with one single word1 whether directly or indirectly1 because1 in my opinion1 the term prophet is applied to ,moses and other men homonymously4 ,a similar distinction1 ,i think1 must be made between the miracles wrought by ,moses and those wrought by other prophets1 for his signs are not of the same class as the miracles of other prophets4 ,that his prophecy was distinguished from that of all his predecessors is proved by the passage1 8,and ,i appeared to ,abraham1 etc41 but by my name1 the ,lord1 ,i was not known unto them0 7,exod4 vi4 #c74 ,we thus learn that his prophetic perception was different from that of the ,patriarchs1 and excelled it2 a fortiori it must have excelled that of other prophets before ,moses4 ,as to the distinction of ,moses' prophecy from that of succeeding prophets1 it is stated as a fact1 8,and there arose not a prophet since in ,israel like unto ,moses1 whom the ,lord knew face to face0 7,deut4 xxxiv4 #aj74 ,it is thus clear that his prophetic perception was above that of later prophets in ,israel1 who are 8a kingdom of priests and a holy nation10 and 8in whose midst is the ,lord02 much more is it above that of prophets among other nations4 ,the general distinction between the wonders of ,moses and those of other prophets is this3 ,the wonders wrought by prophets1 or for them1 are witnessed by a few individuals1 e4g41 the wonders wrought by ,elijah and ,elisha2 the king of ,israel is therefore surprised1 and asked ,gehazi to describe to him the miracles wrought by ,elisha3 8,tell me1 ,i pray thee1 all the great things that ,elisha hath done4 ,and it came to pass as he was telling1 etc4 ,and ,gehazi said3 #8,my lord1 ,o king1 this is the woman1 and this is her son1 whom ,elisha restored to life'0 7#b ,kings viii4 #d1 #e74 ,the same is the case with the signs of every other prophet1 except ,moses our ,teacher4 ,scripture1 therefore declares that no prophet will ever1 like ,moses1 do signs publicly in the presence of friend and enemy1 of his followers and his opponents2 this is the meaning of the words3 8,and there arose not a prophet since in ,israel like unto ,moses1 etc41 in all the signs and the wonders1 etc41 in the sight of all ,israel40 ,two things are here mentioned together2 namely1 that there will not arise a prophet that will perceive as ,moses perceived1 or a prophet that will do as he did2 then it is pointed out that the signs were made in the presence of ,pharaoh1 all his servants and all his land1 the opponents of ,moses1 and also in the presence of all the ,israelites1 his followers4 ,comp4 8,in the sight of all ,israel40 ,this is a distinction not possessed by any prophet before ,moses2 nor1 as is correctly foretold1 will it ever be possessed by another prophet4 ,we must not be misled by the account that the light of the sun stood still certain hours for ,joshua1 when 8he said in the sight of ,israel10 etc4 7,josh4 x4 #ab72 for it is not said there 8in the sight of all ,israel10 as is said in reference to ,moses4 ,so also the miracle of ,elijah1 at ,mount ,carmel1 was witnessed only by a few people4 ,when ,i said above that the sun stood still certain hours1 ,i explain the words 8ka-jom tamim0 to mean 8the longest possible day10 because tamim means 8perfect10 and indicates that that day appeared to the people at ,gibeon as their longest day in the summer4 ,your mind must comprehend the distinction of the prophecy and the wonders of ,moses1 and understand that his greatness in prophetic perception was the same as his power of producing miracles4 ,if you further assume that we are unable fully to comprehend the nature of this greatness1 you will understand that when ,i speak1 in the chapters which follow this1 on prophecy and the different classes of prophets1 ,i only refer to the prophets which have not attained the high degree that ,moses attained4 ,this is what ,i desired to explain in this chapter4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvi ,prophecy is1 in truth and reality1 an emanation sent forth by the ,divine ,being through the medium of the ,active ,intellect1 in the first instance to man's rational faculty1 and then to his imaginative faculty2 it is the highest degree and greatest perfection man can attain2 it consists in the most perfect development of the imaginative faculty4 ,prophecy is a faculty that cannot in any way be found in a person1 or acquired by man1 through a culture of his mental and moral faculties2 for even if these latter were as good and perfect as possible1 they would be of no avail1 unless they were combined with the highest natural excellence of the imaginative faculty4 ,you know that the full development of any faculty of the body1 such as the imagination1 depends on the condition of the organ1 by means of which the faculty acts4 ,this must be the best possible as regards its temperament and its size1 and also as regards the purity of its substance4 ,any defect in this respect cannot in any way be supplied or remedied by training4 ,for when any organ is defective in its temperament1 proper training can in the best case restore a healthy condition to some extent1 but cannot make such an organ perfect4 ,but if the organ is defective as regards size1 position1 or as regards the substance and the matter of which the organ is formed1 there is no remedy4 ,you know all this1 and ,i need not explain it to you at length4 ,part of the functions of the imaginative faculty is1 as you well know1 to retain impressions by the senses1 to combine them1 and chiefly to form images4 ,the principal and highest function is performed when the senses are at rest and pause in their action1 for then it receives1 to some extent1 divine inspiration in the measure as it is predisposed for this influence4 ,this is the nature of those dreams which prove true1 and also of prophecy1 the difference being one of quantity1 not of quality4 ,thus our ,sages say1 that dream is the sixtieth part of prophecy2 and no such comparison could be made between two things of different kinds1 for we cannot say the perfection of man is so many times the perfection of a horse4 ,in ,bereshit ,rabba 7sect4 xvii47 the following saying of our ,sages occurs1 8,dream is the nobelet 7the unripe fruit7 of prophecy40 ,this is an excellent comparison1 for the unripe fruit 7nobelet7 is really the fruit to some extent1 only it has fallen from the tree before it was fully developed and ripe4 ,in a similar manner the action of the imaginative faculty during sleep is the same as at the time when it receives a prophecy1 only in the first case it is not fully developed1 and has not yet reached its highest degree4 ,but why need ,i quote the words of our ,sages1 when ,i can refer to the following passage of ,scripture3 8,if there be among you a prophet1 ,i1 the ,lord1 will make myself known unto him in a vision1 in a dream will ,i speak to him0 7,num4 xii4 #f74 ,here the ,lord tells us what the real essence of prophecy is1 that it is a perfection acquired in a dream or in a vision 7the original mareh is a noun derived from the verb raah72 the imaginative faculty acquires such an efficiency in its action that it sees the thing as if it came from without1 and perceives it as if through the medium of bodily senses4 ,these two modes of prophecy1 vision and dream1 include all its different degrees4 ,it is a well-known fact that the thing which engages greatly and earnestly man's attention whilst he is awake and in the full possession of his senses forms during his sleep the object of the action of his imaginative faculty4 ,imagination is then only influenced by the intellect in so far as it is predisposed for such influence4 ,it would be quite useless to illustrate this by a simile1 or to explain it fully1 as it is clear1 and every one knows it4 ,it is like the action of the senses1 the existence of which no person with common sense would ever deny4 ,after these introductory remarks you will understand that a person must satisfy the following conditions before he can become a prophet3 ,the substance of the brain must from the very beginning be in the most perfect condition as regards purity of matter1 composition of its different parts1 size and position2 no part of his body must suffer from ill-health2 he must in addition have studied and acquired wisdom1 so that his rational faculty passes from a state of potentiality to that of actuality2 his intellect must be as developed and perfect as human intellect can be2 his passions pure and equally balanced2 all his desires must aim at obtaining a knowledge of the hidden laws and causes that are in force in the ,universe2 his thoughts must be engaged in lofty matters2 his attention directed to the knowledge of ,god1 the consideration of ,his works1 and of that which he must believe in this respect4 ,there must be an absence of the lower desires and appetites1 of the seeking after pleasure in eating1 drinking1 and cohabitation2 and1 in short1 every pleasure connected with the sense of touch4 7,aristotle correctly says that this sense is a disgrace to us1 since we possess it only in virtue of our being animals2 and it does not include any specifically human element1 whilst enjoyments connected with other senses1 as smell1 hearing1 and sight1 though likewise of a material nature1 may sometimes include intellectual pleasure1 appealing to man as man1 according to ,aristotle4 ,this remark1 although forming no part of our subject1 is not superfluous1 for the thoughts of the most renowned wise men are to a great extent affected by the pleasures of this sense1 and filled with a desire for them4 ,and yet people are surprised that these scholars do not prophesy1 if prophesying be nothing but a certain degree in the natural development of man47 ,it is further necessary to suppress every thought or desire for unreal power and dominion2 that is to say1 for victory1 increase of followers1 acquisition of honour1 and service from the people without any ulterior object4 ,on the contrary1 the multitude must be considered according to their true worth2 some of them are undoubtedly like domesticated cattle1 and others like wild beasts1 and these only engage the mind of the perfect and distinguished man in so far as he desires to guard himself from injury1 in case of contact with them1 and to derive some benefit from them when necessary4 ,a man who satisfies these conditions1 whilst his fully developed imagination is in action1 influenced by the ,active ,intellect according to his mental training1--such a person will undoubtedly perceive nothing but things very extraordinary and divine1 and see nothing but ,god and ,his angels4 ,his knowledge will only include that which is real knowledge1 and his thought will only be directed to such general principles as would tend to improve the social relations between man and man4 ,we have thus described three kinds of perfection3 mental perfection acquired by training1 perfection of the natural constitution of the imaginative faculty1 and moral perfection produced by the suppression of every thought of bodily pleasures1 and of every kind of foolish or evil ambition4 ,these qualities are1 as is well known1 possessed by the wise men in different degrees1 and the degrees of prophetic faculty vary in accordance with this difference4 ,faculties of the body are1 as you know1 at one time weak1 wearied1 and corrupted1 at others in a healthy state4 ,imagination is certainly one of the faculties of the body4 ,you find1 therefore1 that prophets are deprived of the faculty of prophesying when they mourn1 are angry1 or are similarly affected4 ,our ,sages say1 ,inspiration does not come upon a prophet when he is sad or languid4 ,this is the reason why ,jacob did not receive any revelation during the period of his mourning1 when his imagination was engaged with the loss of ,joseph4 ,the same was the case with ,moses1 when he was in a state of depression through the multitude of his troubles1 which lasted from the murmurings of the ,israelites in consequence of the evil report of the spies1 till the death of the warriors of that generation4 ,he received no message of ,god1 as he used to do1 even though he did not receive prophetic inspiration through the medium of the imaginative faculty1 but directly through the intellect4 ,we have mentioned it several times that ,moses did not1 like other prophets1 speak in similes4 ,this will be further explained 7chap4 xlv471 but it is not the subject of the present chapter4 ,there were also persons who prophesied for a certain time and then left off altogether1 something occurring that caused them to discontinue prophesying4 ,the same circumstance1 prevalence of sadness and dulness1 was undoubtedly the direct cause of the interruption of prophecy during the exile2 for can there be any greater misfortune for man than this3 to be a slave bought for money in the service of ignorant and voluptuous masters1 and powerless against them as they unite in themselves the absence of true knowledge and the force of all animal desires8 ,such an evil state has been prophesied to us in the words1 8,they shall run to and fro to seek the word of ,god1 but shall not find it0 7,amos viii4 #ab72 8,her king and her princes are among the nations1 the law is no more1 her prophets also find no vision from the ,lord0 7,lam4 ii4 #i74 ,this is a real fact1 and the cause is evident2 the pre-requisites of prophecy have been lost4 ,in the ,messianic period--may it soon commence--prophecy will therefore again be in our midst1 as has been promised by ,god4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvii ,it is necessary to consider the nature of the divine influence1 which enables us to think1 and gives us the various degrees of intelligence4 ,for this influence may reach a person only in a small measure1 and in exactly the same proportion would then be his intellectual condition1 whilst it may reach another person in such a measure that1 in addition to his own perfection1 he can be the means of perfection for others4 ,the same relation may be observed throughout the whole ,universe4 ,there are some beings so perfect that they can govern other beings1 but there are also beings that are only perfect in so far as they can govern themselves and cannot influence other beings4 ,in some cases the influence of the ,active ,intellect reaches only the logical and not the imaginative faculty2 either on account of the insufficiency of that influence1 or on account of a defect in the constitution of the imaginative faculty1 and the consequent inability of the latter to receive that influence3 this is the condition of wise men or philosophers4 ,if1 however1 the imaginative faculty is naturally in the most perfect condition1 this influence may1 as has been explained by us and by other philosophers1 reach both his logical and his imaginative faculties3 this is the case with prophets4 ,but it happens sometimes that the influence only reaches the imaginative faculty on account of the insufficiency of the logical faculty1 arising either from a natural defect1 or from a neglect in training4 ,this is the case with statesmen1 lawgivers1 diviners1 charmers1 and men that have true dreams1 or do wonderful things by strange means and secret arts1 though they are not wise men2 all these belong to the third class4 ,it is further necessary to understand that some persons belonging to the third class perceive scenes1 dreams1 and confused images1 when awake1 in the form of a prophetic vision4 ,they then believe that they are prophets2 they wonder that they perceive visions1 and think that they have acquired wisdom without training4 ,they fall into grave errors as regards important philosophical principles1 and see a strange mixture of true and imaginary things4 ,all this is the consequence of the strength of their imaginative faculty1 and the weakness of their logical faculty1 which has not developed1 and has not passed from potentiality to actuality4 ,it is well known that the members of each class differ greatly from each other4 ,each of the first two classes is again subdivided1 and contains two sections1 namely1 those who receive the influence only as far as is necessary for their own perfection1 and those who receive it in so great a measure that it suffices for their own perfection and that of others4 ,a member of the first class1 the wise men1 may have his mind influenced either only so far1 that he is enabled to search1 to understand1 to know1 and to discern1 without attempting to be a teacher or an author1 having neither the desire nor the capacity2 but he may also be influenced to such a degree that he becomes a teacher and an author4 ,the same is the case with the second class4 ,a person may receive a prophecy enabling him to perfect himself but not others2 but he may also receive such a prophecy as would compel him to address his fellow-men1 teach them1 and benefit them through his perfection4 ,it is clear that1 without this second degree of perfection1 no books would have been written1 nor would any prophets have persuaded others to know the truth4 ,for a scholar does not write a book with the object to teach himself what he already knows4 ,but the characteristic of the intellect is this3 what the intellect of one receives is transmitted to another1 and so on1 till a person is reached that can only himself be perfected by such an influence1 but is unable to communicate it to others1 as has been explained in some chapters of this treatise 7chap4 xi474 ,it is further the nature of this element in man that he who possesses an additional degree of that influence is compelled to address his fellow-men1 under all circumstances1 whether he is listened to or not1 even if he injures himself thereby4 ,thus we find prophets that did not leave off speaking to the people until they were slain2 it is this divine influence that moves them1 that does not allow them to rest in any way1 though they might bring upon themselves great evils by their action4 ,e4g41 when ,jeremiah was despised1 like other teachers and scholars of his age1 he could not1 though he desired it1 withhold his prophecy1 or cease from reminding the people of the truths which they rejected4 ,comp4 8,for the ,word of the ,lord was unto me a reproach and a mocking all day1 and ,i said1 ,i will not mention it1 nor will ,i again speak in ,his name2 but it was in mine heart as a burning fire1 enclosed in my bones1 and ,i was wearied to keep it1 and did not prevail0 7,jer4 xx4 #h1 #i74 ,this is also the meaning of the words of another prophet1 8,the ,lord ,god hath spoken1 who shall not prophesy80 7,amos iii4 #h7 ,note it4 ,,chapter ,,xxxviii ,every man possesses a certain amount of courage1 otherwise he would not stir to remove anything that might injure him4 ,this psychical force seems to me analogous to the physical force of repulsion4 ,energy varies like all other forces1 being great in one case and small in another4 ,there are1 therefore1 people who attack a lion1 whilst others run away at the sight of a mouse4 ,one attacks a whole army and fights1 another is frightened and terrified by the threat of a woman4 ,this courage requires that there be in a man's constitution a certain disposition for it4 ,if man1 in accordance with a certain view1 employs it more frequently1 it develops and increases1 but1 on the other hand1 if it is employed1 in accordance with the opposite view1 more rarely1 it will diminish4 ,from our own youth we remember that there are different degrees of energy among boys4 ,the same is the case with the intuitive faculty2 all possess it1 but in different degrees4 ,man's intuitive power is especially strong in things which he has well comprehended1 and in which his mind is much engaged4 ,thus you may yourself guess correctly that a certain person said or did a certain thing in a certain matter4 ,some persons are so strong and sound in their imagination and intuitive faculty that1 when they assume a thing to be in existence1 the reality either entirely or partly confirms their assumption4 ,although the causes of this assumption are numerous1 and include many preceding1 succeeding1 and present circumstances1 by means of the intuitive faculty the intellect can pass over all these causes1 and draw inferences from them very quickly1 almost instantaneously4 ,this same faculty enables some persons to foretell important coming events4 ,the prophets must have had these two forces1 courage and intuition1 highly developed1 and these were still more strengthened when they were under the influence of the ,active ,intellect4 ,their courage was so great that1 e4g41 ,moses1 with only a staff in his hand1 dared to address a great king in his desire to deliver a nation from his service4 ,he was not frightened or terrified1 because he had been told1 8,i will be with thee0 7,exod4 iii4 #ab74 ,the prophets have not all the same degree of courage1 but none of them have been entirely without it4 ,thus ,jeremiah is told3 8,be not afraid of them10 etc4 7,jer4 i4 #h71 and ,ezekiel is exhorted1 8,do not fear them or their word0 7,ezek4 ii4 #f74 ,in the same manner1 you find that all prophets possessed great courage4 ,again1 through the excellence of their intuitive faculty1 they could quickly foretell the future1 but this excellence1 as is well known1 likewise admits of different degrees4 ,the true prophets undoubtedly conceive ideas that result from premisses which human reason could not comprehend by itself2 thus they tell things which men could not tell by reason and ordinary imagination alone2 for the action of the prophets' mental capacities is influenced by the same agent that causes the perfection of the imaginative faculty1 and that enables the prophet thereby to foretell a future event with such clearness as if it was a thing already perceived with the senses1 and only through them conveyed to his imagination4 ,this agent perfects the prophet's mind1 and influences it in such a manner that he conceives ideas which are confirmed by reality1 and are so clear to him as if he deduced them by means of syllogisms4 ,this should be the belief of all who choose to accept the truth4 ,for all things are in a certain relation to each other1 and what is noticed in one thing may be used as evidence for the existence of certain properties in another1 and the knowledge of one thing leads us to the knowledge of other things4 ,but what we said of the extraordinary powers of our imaginative faculty applies with special force to our intellect1 which is directly influenced by the ,active ,intellect1 and caused by it to pass from potentiality to actuality4 ,it is through the intellect that the influence reaches the imaginative faculty4 ,how then could the latter be so perfect as to be able to represent things not previously perceived by the senses1 if the same degree of perfection were withheld from the intellect1 and the latter could not comprehend things otherwise than in the usual manner1 namely1 by means of premiss1 conclusion1 and inference8 ,this is the true characteristic of prophecy1 and of the disciplines to which the preparation for prophecy must exclusively be devoted4 ,i spoke here of true prophets in order to exclude the third class1 namely1 those persons whose logical faculties are not fully developed1 and who do not possess any wisdom1 but are only endowed with imaginative and inventive powers4 ,it may be that things perceived by these persons are nothing but ideas which they had before1 and of which impressions were left in their imaginations together with those of other things2 but whilst the impressions of other images are effaced and have disappeared1 certain images alone remain1 are seen and considered as new and objective1 coming from without4 ,the process is analogous to the following case3 ,a person has with him in the house a thousand living individuals2 all except one of them leave the house3 when the person finds himself alone with that individual1 he imagines that the latter has entered the house now1 contrary to the fact that he has only not left the house4 ,this is one of the many phenomena open to gross misinterpretations and dangerous errors1 and many of those who believed that they were wise perished thereby4 ,there were1 therefore1 men who supported their opinion by a dream which they had1 thinking that the vision during sleep was independent of what they had previously believed or heard when awake4 ,persons whose mental capacities are not fully developed1 and who have not attained intellectual perfection1 must not take any notice of these dreams4 ,those who reach that perfection may1 through the influence of the divine intellect1 obtain knowledge independent of that possessed by them when awake4 ,they are true prophets1 as is distinctly stated in ,scripture1 ve-nabi lebab okmah 7,ps4 xc4 #ab71 8,and the true prophet possesseth a heart of wisdom40 ,this must likewise be noticed4 ,,chapter ,,xxxix ,we have given the definition of prophecy1 stated its true characteristics1 and shown that the prophecy of ,moses our ,teacher was distinguished from that of other prophets2 we will now explain that this distinction alone qualified him for the office of proclaiming the ,law1 a mission without a parallel in the history from ,adam to ,moses1 or among the prophets who came after him2 it is a principle in our faith that there will never be revealed another ,law4 ,consequently we hold that there has never been1 nor will there ever be1 any other divine ,law but that of ,moses our ,teacher4 ,according to what is written in ,scripture and handed down by tradition1 the fact may be explained in the following way3 ,there were prophets before ,moses1 as the patriarchs ,shem1 ,eber1 ,noah1 ,methushelah1 and ,enoch1 but of these none said to any portion of mankind that ,god sent him to them and commanded him to convey to them a certain message or to prohibit or to command a certain thing4 ,such a thing is not related in ,scripture1 or in authentic tradition4 ,divine prophecy reached them as we have explained4 ,men like ,abraham1 who received a large measure of prophetic inspiration1 called their fellow-men together and led them by training and instruction to the truth which they had perceived4 ,thus ,abraham taught1 and showed by philosophical arguments that there is one ,god1 that ,he has created everything that exists beside ,him1 and that neither the constellations nor anything in the air ought to be worshipped2 he trained his fellow-men in this belief1 and won their attention by pleasant words as well as by acts of kindness4 ,abraham did not tell the people that ,god had sent him to them with the command concerning certain things which should or should not be done4 ,even when it was commanded that he1 his sons1 and his servants should be circumcised1 he fulfilled that commandment1 but he did not address his fellow-men prophetically on this subject4 ,that ,abraham induced his fellow-men to do what is right1 telling them only his own will and not that of ,god1 may be learnt from the following passage of ,scripture3 8,for ,i know him1 because he commands his sons and his house after him1 to practise righteousness and judgment0 7,gen4 xix4 #ai74 ,also ,isaac1 ,jacob1 ,levi1 ,kohath1 and ,amram influenced their fellow-men in the same way4 ,our ,sages1 when speaking of prophets before ,moses1 used expressions like the following3 ,the bet-din 7court of justice7 of ,eber1 the bet-din of ,methushelah1 and in the college of ,methushelah2 although all these were prophets1 yet they taught their fellow-men in the manner of preachers1 teachers1 and pedagogues1 but did not use such phrases as the following3 8,and ,god said to me1 ,speak to certain people so and so40 ,this was the state of prophecy before ,moses4 ,but as regards ,moses1 you know what ,god said to him1 what he said to the people1 and the words addressed to him by the whole nation3 8,this day we have seen that ,god doth talk with man1 and that he liveth0 7,deut4 v4 #ba74 ,the history of all our prophets that lived after ,moses is well known to you2 they performed1 as it were1 the function of warning the people and exhorting them to keep the ,law of ,moses1 threatening evil to those who would neglect it1 and announcing blessings to those who would submit to its guidance4 ,this we believe will always be the case4 ,comp4 8,it is not in the heavens that one might say10 etc4 7ibid4 xxx4 #ab72 8,for us and for our children for ever0 7ibid4 xxix4 #bh74 ,it is but natural that it should be so4 ,for if one individual of a class has reached the highest perfection possible in that class1 every other individual must necessarily be less perfect1 and deviate from the perfect measure either by surplus or deficiency4 ,take1 e4g41 the normal constitution of a being1 it is the most proper composition possible in that class2 any constitution that deviates from that norm contains something too much or too little4 ,the same is the case with the ,law4 ,it is clear that the ,law is normal in this sense2 for it contains 8,just statutes and judgments0 7,deut4 iv4 #h72 but 8just0 is here identical with 8equibalanced40 ,the statutes of the ,law do not impose burdens or excesses as are implied in the service of a hermit or pilgrim1 and the like2 but1 on the other hand1 they are not so deficient as to lead to gluttony or lewdness1 or to prevent1 as the religious laws of the heathen nations do1 the development of man's moral and intellectual faculties4 ,we intend to discuss in this treatise the reasons of the commandments1 and we shall then show1 as far as necessary1 the justice and wisdom of the ,law1 on account of which it is said3 8,the ,law of ,god is perfect1 refreshing the heart0 7,ps4 xix4 #h74 ,there are persons who believe that the ,law commands much exertion and great pain1 but due consideration will show them their error4 ,later on ,i will show how easy it is for the perfect to obey the ,law4 ,comp4 8,what does the ,lord thy ,god ask of thee80 etc4 7,deut4 x4 #ab72 8,have ,i been a wilderness to ,israel80 7,jer4 ii4 #ca74 ,but this applies only to the noble ones2 whilst wicked1 violent1 and pugnacious persons find it most injurious and hard that there should be any divine authority tending to subdue their passion4 ,to low-minded1 wanton1 and passionate persons it appears most cruel that there should be an obstacle in their way to satisfy their carnal appetite1 or that a punishment should be inflicted for their doings4 ,similarly every godless person imagines that it is too hard to abstain from the evil he has chosen in accordance with his inclination4 ,we must not consider the ,law easy or hard according as it appears to any wicked1 low-minded1 and immoral person1 but as it appears to the judgment of the most perfect1 who1 according to the ,law1 are fit to be the example for all mankind4 ,this ,law alone is called divine2 other laws1 such as the political legislations among the ,greeks1 or the follies of the ,sabeans1 are the works of human leaders1 but not of prophets1 as ,i have explained several times4 ,,chapter ,,xl ,it has already been fully explained that man is naturally a social being1 that by virtue of his nature he seeks to form communities2 man is therefore different from other living beings that are not compelled to combine into communities4 ,he is1 as you know1 the highest form in the creation1 and he therefore includes the largest number of constituent elements2 this is the reason why the human race contains such a great variety of individuals1 that we cannot discover two persons exactly alike in any moral quality1 or in external appearance4 ,the cause of this is the variety in man's temperament1 and in accidents dependent on his form2 for with every physical form there are connected certain special accidents different from those which are connected with the substance4 ,such a variety among the individuals of a class does not exist in any other class of living beings2 for the variety in any other species is limited2 only man forms an exception2 two persons may be so different from each other in every respect that they appear to belong to two different classes4 ,whilst one person is so cruel that he kills his youngest child in his anger1 another is too delicate and faint-hearted to kill even a fly or worm4 ,the same is the case with most of the accidents4 ,this great variety and the necessity of social life are essential elements in man's nature4 ,but the well-being of society demands that there should be a leader able to regulate the actions of man2 he must complete every shortcoming1 remove every excess1 and prescribe for the conduct of all1 so that the natural variety should be counterbalanced by the uniformity of legislation1 and the order of society be well established4 ,i therefore maintain that the ,law1 though not a product of ,nature1 is nevertheless not entirely foreign to ,nature4 ,it being the will of ,god that our race should exist and be permanently established1 ,he in ,his wisdom gave it such properties that men can acquire the capacity of ruling others4 ,some persons are therefore inspired with theories of legislation1 such as prophets and lawgivers2 others possess the power of enforcing the dictates of the former1 and of compelling people to obey them1 and to act accordingly4 ,such are kings1 who accept the code of lawgivers1 and rulers who pretend to be prophets1 and accept1 either entirely or partly1 the teaching of the prophets4 ,they accept one part while rejecting another part1 either because this course appears to them more convenient1 or out of ambition1 because it might lead people to believe that the rulers themselves had been prophetically inspired with these laws1 and did not copy them from others4 ,for when we like a certain perfection1 find pleasure in it1 and wish to possess it1 we sometimes desire to make others believe that we possess that virtue1 although we are fully aware that we do not possess it4 ,thus people1 e4g41 adorn themselves with the poems of others1 and publish them as their own productions4 ,it also occurs in the works of wise men on the various branches of ,science1 that an ambitious1 lazy person sees an opinion expressed by another person1 appropriates it1 and boasts that he himself originated it4 ,the same ambition occurs also with regard to the faculty of prophecy4 ,there were men who1 like ,zedekiah1 the son of ,chenaanah 7#a ,kings xxii4 #aa1 #bd7 boasted that they received a prophecy1 and declared things which have never been prophesied4 ,others1 like ,hananiah1 son of ,azzur 7,jer4 xxviii4 #a-e71 claim the capacity of prophecy1 and proclaim things which1 no doubt1 have been said by ,god1 that is to say1 that have been the subject of a divine inspiration1 but not to them4 ,they nevertheless say that they are prophets1 and adorn themselves with the prophecies of others4 ,all this can easily be ascertained and recognized4 ,i will1 however1 fully explain this to you1 so that no doubt be left to you on this question1 and that you may have a test by which you may distinguish between the guidance of human legislation1 of the divine law1 and of teachings stolen from prophets4 ,as regards those who declare that the laws proclaimed by them are their own ideas1 no further test is required2 the confession of the defendant makes the evidence of the witness superfluous4 ,i only wish to instruct you about laws which are proclaimed as prophetic4 ,some of these are truly prophetic1 originating in divine inspiration1 some are of non-prophetic character1 and some1 though prophetic originally1 are the result of plagiarism4 ,you will find that the sole object of certain laws1 in accordance with the intention of their author1 who well considered their effect1 is to establish the good order of the state and its affairs1 to free it from all mischief and wrong2 these laws do not deal with philosophic problems1 contain no teaching for the perfecting of our logical faculties1 and are not concerned about the existence of sound or unsound opinions4 ,their sole object is to arrange1 under all circumstances1 the relations of men to each other1 and to secure their well-being1 in accordance with the view of the author of these laws4 ,these laws are political1 and their author belongs1 as has been stated above1 to the third class1 viz41 to those who only distinguish themselves by the perfection of their imaginative faculties4 ,you will also find laws which1 in all their rules1 aim1 as the law just mentioned1 at the improvement of the material interests of the people2 but1 besides1 tend to improve the state of the faith of man1 to create first correct notions of ,god1 and of angels1 and to lead then the people1 by instruction and education1 to an accurate knowledge of the ,universe3 this education comes from ,god2 these laws are divine4 ,the question which now remains to be settled is this3 ,is the person who proclaimed these laws the same perfect man that received them by prophetic inspiration1 or a plagiarist1 who has stolen these ideas from a true prophet8 ,in order to be enabled to answer this question1 we must examine the merits of the person1 obtain an accurate account of his actions1 and consider his character4 ,the best test is the rejection1 abstention1 and contempt of bodily pleasures2 for this is the first condition of men1 and a fortiori of prophets2 they must especially disregard pleasures of the sense of touch1 which1 according to ,aristotle1 is a disgrace to us2 and1 above all1 restrain from the pollution of sensual intercourse4 ,thus ,god exposes thereby false prophets to public shame1 in order that those who really seek the truth may find it1 and not err or go astray2 e4g41 ,zedekiah1 son of ,maasiah1 and ,ahab1 son of ,kolaiah1 boasted that they had received a prophecy4 ,they persuaded the people to follow them1 by proclaiming utterances of other prophets2 but all the time they continued to seek the low pleasures of sensual intercourse1 committing even adultery with the wives of their companions and followers4 ,god exposed their falsehood as ,he has exposed that of other false prophets4 ,the king of ,babylon burnt them1 as ,jeremiah distinctly states3 8,and of them shall be taken up a curse by all the captivity of ,judah1 which are in ,babylon1 saying1 ,the ,lord make thee like ,zedekiah1 and like ,ahab1 whom the king of ,babylon roasted in the fire4 ,because they have committed villainy in ,israel1 and have committed adultery with their neighbours' wives1 and have spoken lying words in my name1 which ,i have not commanded them0 7,jer4 xxix4 #bb1 #bc74 ,note what is meant by these words4 ,,chapter ,,xli ,i need not explain what a dream is1 but ,i will explain the meaning of the term mareh1 8vision10 which occurs in the passage3 8,in a vision 7be-mareh7 do ,i make myself known unto him0 7,num4 xii4 #f74 ,the term signifies that which is also called mareh ha-nebuah1 8prophetic vision10 yad ha-shem1 8the hand of ,god10 and maazeh1 8a vision40 ,it is something terrible and fearful which the prophet feels while awake1 as is distinctly stated by ,daniel3 8,and ,i saw this great vision1 and there remained no strength in me1 for my comeliness was turned in me into corruption1 and ,i retained no strength0 7,dan4 x4 #h74 ,he afterwards continues1 8,thus was ,i in deep sleep on my face1 and my face toward the ground0 7ibid4 ver4 #i74 ,but it was in a prophetic vision that the angel spoke to him and 8set him upon his knees40 ,under such circumstances the senses cease to act1 and the ,active ,intellect influences the rational faculties1 and through them the imaginative faculties1 which become perfect and active4 ,sometimes the prophecy begins with a prophetic vision1 the prophet greatly trembles1 and is much affected in consequence of the perfect action of the imaginative faculty1 and after that the prophecy follows4 ,this was the case with ,abraham4 ,the commencement of the prophecy is1 8,the word of the ,lord came to ,abraham in a vision0 7,gen4 xv4 #a72 after this1 8a deep sleep fell upon ,abraham02 and at last1 8he said unto ,abraham10 etc4 ,when prophets speak of the fact that they received a prophecy1 they say that they received it from an angel1 or from ,god2 but even in the latter case it was likewise received through an angel4 ,our ,sages1 therefore1 explain the words1 8,and the ,lord said unto her0 that ,he spake through an angel4 ,you must know that whenever ,scripture relates that the ,lord or an angel spoke to a person1 this took place in a dream or in a prophetic vision4 ,there are four different ways in which ,scripture relates the fact that a divine communication was made to the prophet4 7#a7 ,the prophet relates that he heard the words of an angel in a dream or vision2 7#b7 ,he reports the words of the angel without mentioning that they were perceived in a dream or vision1 assuming that it is well known that prophecy can only originate in one of the two ways1 8,in a vision ,i will make myself known unto him1 in a dream ,i will speak unto him0 7,num4 xii4 #f74 7#c7 ,the prophet does not mention the angel at all2 he says that ,god spoke to him1 but he states that he received the message in a dream or a vision4 7#d7 ,he introduces his prophecy by stating that ,god spoke to him1 or told him to do a certain thing1 or speak certain words1 but he does not explain that he received the message in a dream or vision1 because he assumes that it is well known1 and has been established as a principle that no prophecy or revelation originates otherwise than in a dream or vision1 and through an angel4 ,instances of the first form are the following3--8,and the angel of the ,lord said unto me in a dream1 ,jacob0 7,gen4 xxxi4 #aa72 8,and an angel said unto ,israel in a vision of night0 7ibid4 xlvi4 #b72 8,and an angel came to ,balaam by night02 8,and an angel said unto ,balaam0 7,num4 xxii4 #bj-bb74 ,instances of the second form are these3 8,and ,elohim 7an angel71 said unto ,jacob1 ,rise1 go up to ,bethel0 7,gen4 xxxv4 #a72 8,and ,elohim said unto him1 ,thy name is ,jacob10 etc4 7ibid4 xxxv4 #aj72 8,and an angel of the ,lord called unto ,abraham out of heaven the second time0 7ibid4 xxii4 #ae72 8,and ,elohim said unto ,noah0 7ibid4 vi4 #ac74 ,the following is an instance of the third form3 8,the word of the ,lord came unto ,abraham in a vision0 7ibid4 xv4 #a74 ,instances of the fourth form are3 8,and the ,lord said unto ,abraham0 7ibid4 xviii4 #ac72 8,and the ,lord said unto ,jacob1 ,return10 etc4 7ibid4 xxxi4 #c72 8,and the ,lord said unto ,joshua0 7,josh4 v4 #i72 8,and the ,lord said unto ,gideon0 7,judges vii4 #b74 ,most of the prophets speak in a similar manner3 8,and the ,lord said unto me0 7,deut4 ii4 #b72 8,and the word of the ,lord came unto me0 7,ezek4 xxx4 #a72 8,and the word of the ,lord came0 7#b ,sam4 xxiv4 #aa72 8,and behold1 the word of the ,lord came unto him0 7#a ,kings xix4 #i72 8,and the word of the ,lord came expressly0 7,ezek4 i4 #c72 8,the beginning of the word of the ,lord by ,hosea0 7,hos4 i4 #b72 8,the hand of the ,lord was upon me0 7,ezek4 xxxvii4 #a74 ,there are a great many instances of this class4 ,every passage in ,scripture introduced by any of these four forms is a prophecy proclaimed by a prophet2 but the phrase1 8,and ,elohim 7an angel7 came to a certain person in the dream of night10 does not indicate a prophecy1 and the person mentioned in that phrase is not a prophet2 the phrase only informs us that the attention of the person was called by ,god to a certain thing1 and at the same time that this happened at night4 ,for just as ,god may cause a person to move in order to save or kill another person1 so ,he may cause1 according to ,his will1 certain things to rise in man's mind in a dream by night4 ,we have no doubt that the ,syrian ,laban was a perfectly wicked man1 and an idolater2 likewise ,abimelech1 though a good man among his people1 is told by ,abraham concerning his land ,gerar and his kingdom1 8,surely there is no fear of ,god in this place0 7,gen4 xx4 #aa74 ,and yet concerning both of them1 viz41 ,laban and ,abimelech1 it is said that an angel appeared to them in a dream4 ,comp4 8,and ,elohim 7an angel7 came to ,abimelech in a dream by night0 7ibid4 ver4 #c72 and also1 8,and ,elohim came to the ,syrian ,laban in the dream of the night0 7ibid4 xxxi4 #bd74 ,note and consider the distinction between the phrases1 8,and ,elohim came10 and 8,elohim said10 between 8in a dream by night10 and 8in a vision by night40 ,in reference to ,jacob it is said1 8,and an angel said to ,israel in the visions by night0 7,gen4 xlvi4 #b71 but in reference to ,laban and ,abimelech1 8,and ,elohim came10 etc4 ,onkelos makes the distinction clear2 he translates1 in the last two instances1 ata memar min kodam adonai1 8a word came from the ,lord10 and not ve-itgeli1 8and the ,lord appeared40 ,the phrase1 8,and the ,lord said to a certain person10 is employed even when this person was not really addressed by the ,lord1 and did not receive any prophecy1 but was informed of a certain thing through a prophet4 ,e4g41 8,and she went to inquire of the ,lord0 7,gen4 xxv4 #bb72 that is1 according to the explanation of our ,sages1 she went to the college of ,eber1 and the latter gave her the answer2 and this is expressed by the words1 8,and the ,lord said unto her0 7ibid4 ver4 #bc74 ,these words have also been explained thus1 ,god spoke to her through an angel2 and by 8angel0 ,eber is meant here1 for a prophet is sometimes called 8angel10 as will be explained2 or the angel that appeared to ,eber in this vision is referred to1 or the object of the ,midrash explanation is merely to express that wherever ,god is introduced as directly speaking to a person1 i4e41 to any of the ordinary prophets1 ,he speaks through an angel1 as has been set forth by us 7chap4 xxxiv474 ,,chapter ,,xlii ,we have already shown that the appearance or speech of an angel mentioned in ,scripture took place in a vision or dream2 it makes no difference whether this is expressly stated or not1 as we have explained above4 ,this is a point of considerable importance4 ,in some cases the account begins by stating that the prophet saw an angel2 in others1 the account apparently introduces a human being1 who ultimately is shown to be an angel2 but it makes no difference1 for if the fact that an angel has been heard is only mentioned at the end1 you may rest satisfied that the whole account from the beginning describes a prophetic vision4 ,in such visions1 a prophet either sees ,god who speaks to him1 as will be explained by us1 or he sees an angel who speaks to him1 or he hears some one speaking to him without seeing the speaker1 or he sees a man who speaks to him1 and learns afterwards that the speaker was an angel4 ,in this latter kind of prophecies1 the prophet relates that he saw a man who was doing or saying something1 and that he learnt afterwards that it was an angel4 ,this important principle was adopted by one of our ,sages1 one of the most distinguished among them1 ,r4 iya the ,great 7,bereshit ,rabba1 xlviii471 in the exposition of the ,scriptural passage commencing1 8,and the ,lord appeared unto him in the plain of ,mamre0 7,gen4 xviii474 ,the general statement that the ,lord appeared to ,abraham is followed by the description in what manner that appearance of the ,lord took place2 namely1 ,abraham saw first three men2 he ran and spoke to them4 ,r4 iya1 the author of the explanation1 holds that the words of ,abraham1 8,my ,lord1 if now ,i have found grace in thy sight1 do not1 ,i pray thee1 pass from thy servant10 were spoken by him in a prophetic vision to one of the men2 for he says that ,abraham addressed these words to the chief of these men4 ,note this well1 for it is one of the great mysteries of the ,law4 ,the same1 ,i hold1 is the case when it is said in reference to ,jacob1 8,and a man wrestled with him0 7,gen4 xxxii4 #be72 this took place in a prophetic vision1 since it is expressly stated in the end 7ver4 #ca7 that it was an angel4 ,the circumstances are here exactly the same as those in the vision of ,abraham1 where the general statement1 8,and the ,lord appeared to him10 etc41 is followed by a detailed description4 ,similarly the account of the vision of ,jacob begins1 8,and the angels of ,god met him0 7,gen4 xxxii4 #b72 then follows a detailed description how it came to pass that they met him2 namely1 ,jacob sent messengers1 and after having prepared and done certain things1 8he was left alone10 etc41 8and a man wrestled with him0 7ibid4 ver4 #bd74 ,by this term 8man0 one of the angels of ,god is meant1 mentioned in the phrase1 8,and angels of ,god met him02 the wrestling and speaking was entirely a prophetic vision4 ,that which happened to ,balaam on the way1 and the speaking of the ass1 took place in a prophetic vision1 since further on1 in the same account1 an angel of ,god is introduced as speaking to ,balaam4 ,i also think that what ,joshua perceived1 when 8he lifted up his eyes and saw1 and behold a man stood before him0 7,josh4 v4 #ac7 was a prophetic vision1 since it is stated afterwards 7ver4 #ad7 that it was 8the prince of the host of the ,lord40 ,but in the passages1 8,and an angel of the ,lord came up from ,gilgal0 7,judges ii4 #a72 8,and it came to pass that the angel of the ,lord spake these words to all ,israel0 7ibid4 ver4 #b72 the 8angel0 is1 according to the explanation of our ,sages1 ,phineas4 ,they say1 ,the angel is ,phineas1 for1 when the ,divine ,glory rested upon him1 he was 8like an angel40 ,we have already shown 7chap4 vi47 that the term 8angel0 is homonymous1 and denotes also 8prophet10 as is the case in the following passages3--8,and ,he sent an angel1 and ,he hath brought us up out of ,egypt0 7,num4 xx4 #af72 8,then spake ,haggai1 the angel of the ,lord1 in the ,lord's message0 7,hagg4 i4 #ac72 8,but they mocked the angels of ,god0 7#b ,chron4 xxxvi4 #af74--;,comp4 also the words of ,daniel1 8,and the man ,gabriel1 whom ,i had seen in the vision at the beginning1 being caused to fly swiftly1 touched me about the time of the evening oblation0 7,dan4 ix4 #aa74 ,all this passed in a prophetic vision4 ,do not imagine that an angel is seen or his word heard otherwise than in a prophetic vision or prophetic dream1 according to the principle laid down3--8,i make myself known unto him in a vision1 and speak unto him in a dream0 7,num4 xii4 #f74 ,the instances quoted may serve as an illustration of those passages which ,i do not mention4 ,from the rule laid down by us that prophecy requires preparation1 and from our interpretation of the homonym 8angel10 you will infer that ,hagar1 the ,egyptian woman1 was not a prophetess2 also ,manoah and his wife were no prophets2 for the speech they heard1 or imagined they heard1 was like the bat-kol 7prophetic echo71 which is so frequently mentioned by our ,sages1 and is something that may be experienced by men not prepared for prophecy4 ,the homonymity of the word 8angel0 misleads in this matter4 ,this is the principal method by which most of the difficult passages in the ,bible can be explained4 ,consider the words1 8,and an angel of the ,lord found her by the well of water0 7,gen4 xvi4 #g71 which are similar to the words referring to ,joseph--8,and a man found him1 and behold1 he was erring in the field0 7ibid4 xxxvii4 #ae74 ,all the ,midrashim assume that by man in this passage an angel is meant4 ,,chapter ,,xliii ,we have already shown in our work that the prophets sometimes prophesy in allegories2 they use a term allegorically1 and in the same prophecy the meaning of the allegory is given4 ,in our dreams1 we sometimes believe that we are awake1 and relate a dream to another person1 who explains the meaning1 and all this goes on while we dream4 ,our ,sages call this 8a dream interpreted in a dream40 ,in other cases we learn the meaning of the dream after waking from sleep4 ,the same is the case with prophetic allegories4 ,some are interpreted in the prophetic vision4 ,thus it is related in ,zechariah1 after the description of the allegorical vision--8,and the angel that talked with me came again and waked me as a man that is awakened from his sleep4 ,and he said unto me1 #8,what dost thou see8'0 etc4 7,zech4 iv4 #a-b71 and then the allegory is explained 7ver4 #f1 sqq474 ,another instance we find in ,daniel4 ,it is first stated there3 8,daniel had a dream and visions of his head upon his bed0 7,dan4 vii4 #a74 ,the whole allegory is then given1 and ,daniel is described as sighing that he did not know its interpretation4 ,he asks the angel for an explanation1 and he received it in a prophetic vision4 ,he relates as follows3 8,i came near unto one of those that stood by1 and asked him the truth of all this4 ,so he told me1 and made me know the interpretation of the things0 7ibid4 ver4 #af74 ,the whole scene is called azon 7vision71 although it was stated that ,daniel had a dream1 because an angel explained the dream to him in the same manner as is mentioned in reference to a prophetic dream4 ,i refer to the verse3 8,a vision appeared to me ,daniel1 after that which appeared to me at the first0 7ibid4 viii4 #a74 ,this is clear1 for azon 7vision7 is derived from aza1 8to see10 and mareh1 8vision10 from raah1 8to see02 and aza and raah are synonymous4 ,there is therefore no difference whether we use mareh1 or maazeh1 or azon1 there is no other mode of revelation but the two mentioned in ,scripture3 8,in a vision ,i make myself known to him1 in a dream ,i will speak unto him0 7,num4 xii4 #f74 ,there are1 however1 different degrees of prophetic proficiency1 as will be shown 7chap4 xlv474 ,there are other prophetic allegories whose meaning is not given in a prophetic vision4 ,the prophet learns it when he awakes from his sleep4 ,take1 e4g41 the staves which ,zechariah took in a prophetic vision4 ,you must further know that the prophets see things shown to them allegorically1 such as the candlesticks1 horses1 and mountains of ,zechariah 7,zech4 iv4 #b2 vi4 #a-g71 the scroll of ,ezekiel 7,ezek4 ii4 #i71 the wall made by a plumb-line 7,amos vii4 #g71 which ,amos saw1 the animals of ,daniel 7,dan4 vii4 and viii471 the seething pot of ,jeremiah 7,jer4 i4 #ac71 and similar allegorical objects shown to represent certain ideas4 ,the prophets1 however1 are also shown things which do not illustrate the object of the vision1 but indicate it by their name through its etymology or homonymity4 ,thus the imaginative faculty forms the image of a thing1 the name of which has two meanings1 one of which denotes something different from the image4 ,this is likewise a kind of allegory4 ,comp4 ,makkal shaked1 8almond staff10 of ,jeremiah 7i4 #aa-ab74 ,it was intended to indicate by the second meaning of shaked the prophecy1 8,for ,i will watch0 7shoked71 etc41 which has no relation whatever to the staff or to almonds4 ,the same is the case with the kelub ayi1 8a basket of summer fruit10 seen by ,amos1 by which the completion of a certain period was indicated1 8the end 7ha-e7 having come0 7,amos viii4 #b74 ,still more strange is the following manner of calling the prophet's attention to a certain object4 ,he is shown a different object1 the name of which has neither etymologically nor homonymously any relation to the first object1 but the names of both contain the same letters1 though in a different order4 ,take1 e4g41 the allegories of ,zechariah 7chap4 xi4 #g1 sqq474 ,he takes in a prophetic vision staves to lead the flock2 he calls the one ,noam 7pleasure71 the other obelim4 ,he indicates thereby that the nation was at first in favour with ,god1 who was their leader and guide4 ,they rejoiced in the service of ,god1 and found happiness in it1 while ,god was pleased with them1 and loved them1 as it is said1 8,thou hast avouched the ,lord thy ,god10 etc41 and 8the ,lord hath avouched thee10 etc4 7,deut4 xxvi4 #ag1 #ah74 ,they were guided and directed by ,moses and the prophets that followed him4 ,but later a change took place4 ,they rejected the love of ,god1 and ,god rejected them1 appointing destroyers like ,jeroboam and ,manasse as their rulers4 ,accordingly1 the word obelim has the same meaning viz41 destroying as the root abal has in ,meabbelim keramim1 8destroying vineyards0 7,song of ,sol4 ii4 #ae74 ,but the prophet found also in this name obelim the indication that the people despised ,god1 and that ,god despised them4 ,this is1 however1 not expressed by the word abal1 but by a transposition of the letters et1 ,bet1 and ,lamed1 the meaning of despising and rejecting is obtained4 ,comp4 8,my soul loathed them1 and their soul also abhorred me0 baalah 7,zech4 xi4 #h74 ,the prophet had therefore to change the order of the letters in abal into that of ,baal4 ,in this way we find very strange things and also mysteries 7,sodot7 in the words neoshet1 ,kalal1 regel1 egel1 and ashmal of the ,mercabah1 and in other terms in other passages4 ,after the above explanation you will see the mysteries in the meaning of these expressions if you examine them thoroughly4 ,,chapter ,,xliv ,prophecy is given either in a vision or in a dream1 as we have said so many times1 and we will not constantly repeat it4 ,we say now that when a prophet is inspired with a prophecy he may see an allegory1 as we have shown frequently1 or he may in a prophetic vision perceive that ,god speaks to him1 as is said in ,isaiah 7vi4 #h71 8,and ,i heard the voice of the ,lord saying1 ,whom shall ,i send1 and who will go for us80 or he hears an angel addressing him1 and sees him also4 ,this is very frequent1 e4g41 8,and the angel of ,god spake unto me10 etc4 7,gen4 xxxi4 #aa72 8,and the angel that talked with me answered and said unto me1 ,dost thou not know what these are0 7,zech4 iv4 #e72 8,and ,i heard one holy speaking0 7,dan4 viii4 #ac74 ,instances of this are innumerable4 ,the prophet sometimes sees a man that speaks to him4 ,comp41 8,and behold there was a man1 whose appearance was like the appearance of brass1 and the man said to me10 etc4 7,ezek4 xl4 #c1 #d71 although the passage begins1 8,the hand of the ,lord was upon me0 7ibid4 ver4 #a74 ,in some cases the prophet sees no figure at all1 only hears in the prophetic vision the words addressed to him2 e4g41 8,and ,i heard the voice of a man between the banks of ,ulai0 7,dan4 viii4 #af72 8,there was silence1 and ,i heard a voice0 7in the speech of ,eliphaz1 ,job iv4 #af72 8,and ,i heard a voice of one that spake to me0 7,ezek4 i4 #bh74 ,the being which ,ezekiel perceived in the prophetic vision was not the same that addressed him2 for at the conclusion of the strange and extraordinary scene which ,ezekiel describes expressly as having been perceived by him1 the object and form of the prophecy is introduced by the words1 8,and ,i heard a voice of a man that spake to me40 ,after this remark on the different kinds of prophecy1 as suggested by ,scripture1 ,i say that the prophet may perceive that which he hears with the greatest possible intensity1 just as a person may hear thunder in his dream1 or perceive a storm or an earthquake2 such dreams are frequent4 ,the prophet may also hear the prophecy in ordinary common speech1 without anything unusual4 ,take1 e4g41 the account of the prophet ,samuel4 ,when he was called in a prophetic vision1 he believed that the priest ,eli called him2 and this happened three times consecutively4 ,the text then explains the cause of it1 saying that ,samuel naturally believed that ,eli had called him1 because at that time he did not yet know that ,god addressed the prophet in this form1 nor had that secret as yet been revealed to him4 ,comp41 8,and ,samuel did not yet know the ,lord1 and the word of the ,lord was not yet revealed to him10 i4e41 he did not yet know1 and it had not yet been revealed to him1 that the word of ,god is communicated in this way4 ,the words1 8,he did not yet know the ,lord10 may perhaps mean that ,samuel had not yet received any prophecy2 for in reference to a prophet's receiving divine communication it is said1 8,i make myself known to him in a vision1 ,i speak to him in a dream0 7,num4 xii4 #f74 ,the meaning of the verse accordingly is this1 ,samuel had not yet received any prophecy1 and therefore did not know that this was the form of prophecy4 ,note it4 ,,chapter ,,xlv ,after having explained prophecy in accordance with reason and ,scripture1 ,i must now describe the different degrees of prophecy from these two points of view4 ,not all the degrees of prophecy which ,i will enumerate qualify a person for the office of a prophet4 ,the first and the second degrees are only steps leading to prophecy1 and a person possessing either of these two degrees does not belong to the class of prophets whose merits we have been discussing4 ,when such a person is occasionally called prophet1 the term is used in a wider sense1 and is applied to him because he is almost a prophet4 ,you must not be misled by the fact that according to the books of the ,prophets1 a certain prophet1 after having been inspired with one kind of prophecy1 is reported to have received prophecy in another form4 ,for it is possible for a prophet to prophesy at one time in the form of one of the degrees which ,i am about to enumerate1 and at another time in another form4 ,in the same manner1 as the prophet does not prophesy continuously1 but is inspired at one time and not at another1 so he may at one time prophesy in the form of a higher degree1 and at another time in that of a lower degree2 it may happen that the highest degree is reached by a prophet only once in his lifetime1 and afterwards remains inaccessible to him1 or that a prophet remains below the highest degree until he entirely loses the faculty2 for ordinary prophets must cease to prophesy a shorter or longer period before their death4 ,comp4 8,and the word of the ,lord ceased from ,jeremiah0 7,ezra i4 #a72 8,and these are the last words of ,david0 7#b ,sam4 xxiii4 #a74 ,from these instances it can be inferred that the same is the case with all prophets4 ,after this introduction and explanation1 ,i will begin to enumerate the degrees of prophecy to which ,i have referred above4 7#a7 ,the first degree of prophecy consists in the divine assistance which is given to a person1 and induces and encourages him to do something good and grand1 e4g41 to deliver a congregation of good men from the hands of evildoers2 to save one noble person1 or to bring happiness to a large number of people2 he finds in himself the cause that moves and urges him to this deed4 ,this degree of divine influence is called 8the spirit of the ,lord02 and of the person who is under that influence we say that the spirit of the ,lord came upon him1 clothed him1 or rested upon him1 or the ,lord was with him1 and the like4 ,all the judges of ,israel possessed this degree1 for the following general statement is made concerning them3--8,the ,lord raised up judges for them2 and the ,lord was with the judge1 and he saved them0 7,judges ii4 #ah74 ,also all the noble chiefs of ,israel belonged to this class4 ,the same is distinctly stated concerning some of the judges and the kings3--8,the spirit of the ,lord came upon ,jephthah0 7ibid4 xi4 #bi72 of ,samson it is said1 8,the spirit of the ,lord came upon him0 7ibid4 xiv4 #ai72 8,and the spirit of the ,lord came upon ,saul when he heard those words0 7#a ,sam4 xi4 #f74 ,when ,amasa was moved by the holy spirit to assist ,david1 8,a spirit clothed ,amasa1 who was chief of the captains1 and he said1 ,thine are we1 ,david10 etc4 7#a ,chron4 xii4 #ah74 ,this faculty was always possessed by ,moses from the time he had attained the age of manhood2 it moved him to slay the ,egyptian1 and to prevent evil from the two men that quarrelled2 it was so strong that1 after he had fled from ,egypt out of fear1 and arrived in ,midian1 a trembling stranger1 he could not restrain himself from interfering when he saw wrong being done2 he could not bear it4 ,comp4 8,and ,moses rose and saved them0 7,exod4 ii4 #ag74 ,david likewise was filled with this spirit1 when he was anointed with the oil of anointing4 ,comp4 8,and the spirit of ,god came upon ,david from that day and upward0 7#a ,sam4 xvi4 #ac74 ,he thus conquered the lion and the bear and the ,philistine1 and accomplished similar tasks1 by this very spirit4 ,this faculty did not cause any of the above-named persons to speak on a certain subject1 for it only aims at encouraging the person who possesses it to action2 it does not encourage him to do everything1 but only to help either a distinguished man or a whole congregation when oppressed1 or to do something that leads to that end4 ,just as not all who have a true dream are prophets1 so it cannot be said of every one who is assisted in a certain undertaking1 as in the acquisition of property1 or of some other personal advantage1 that the spirit of the ,lord came upon him1 or that the ,lord was with him1 or that he performed his actions by the holy spirit4 ,we only apply such phrases to those who have accomplished something very good and grand1 or something that leads to that end2 e4g41 the success of ,joseph in the house of the ,egyptian1 which was the first cause leading evidently to great events that occurred subsequently4 7#b7 ,the second degree is this3 ,a person feels as if something came upon him1 and as if he had received a new power that encourages him to speak4 ,he treats of science1 or composes hymns1 exhorts his fellow-men1 discusses political and theological problems2 all this he does while awake1 and in the full possession of his senses4 ,such a person is said to speak by the holy spirit4 ,david composed the ,psalms1 and ,solomon the ,book of ,proverbs1 ,ecclesiastes1 and the ,song of ,solomon by this spirit2 also ,daniel1 ,job1 ,chronicles1 and the rest of the ,hagiographa were written in this holy spirit2 therefore they are called ketubim 7,writings1 or ,written71 i4e41 written by men inspired by the holy spirit4 ,our ,sages mention this expressly concerning the ,book of ,esther4 ,in reference to such holy spirit1 ,david says3 8,the spirit of the ,lord spoke in me1 and his word is on my tongue0 7#b ,sam4 xxiii4 #b72 i4e41 the spirit of the ,lord caused him to utter these words4 ,this class includes the seventy elders of whom it is said1 8,and it came to pass when the spirit rested upon them1 that they prophesied1 and did not cease0 7,num4 xi4 #be72 also ,eldad and ,medad 7ibid4 ver4 #bf72 furthermore1 every high priest that inquired of ,god by the ,urim and ,tummim2 on whom1 as our ,sages say1 the divine glory rested1 and who spoke by the holy spirit2 ,yahaziel1 son of ,zechariah1 belongs likewise to this class4 ,comp4 8,the spirit of the ,lord came upon him in the midst of the assembly1 and he said1 ,listen1 all ,judah and inhabitants of ,jerusalem1 thus saith the ,lord unto you10 etc4 7#b ,chron4 xx4 #ad1 #ae72 also ,zechariah1 son of ,jehoiada the priest4 ,comp4 8,and he stood above the people and said unto them1 ,thus saith ,god0 7ibid4 xxiv4 #bj72 furthermore1 ,azariah1 son of ,oded2 comp4 8,and ,azariah1 son of ,oded1 when the spirit of the ,lord came upon him1 went forth before ,asa10 etc4 7ibid4 xv4 #a1 #b72 and all who acted under similar circumstances4 ,you must know that ,balaam likewise belonged to this class1 when he was good2 this is indicated by the words1 8,and ,god put a word in the mouth of ,balaam0 7,num4 xxiii4 #e71 i4e41 ,balaam spoke by divine inspiration2 he therefore says of himself1 8,who heareth the words of ,god10 etc4 7ibid4 xxiv4 #d74 ,we must especially point out that ,david1 ,solomon1 and ,daniel belonged to this class1 and not to the class of ,isaiah1 ,jeremiah1 ,nathan the prophet1 ,ahijah the ,shilonite1 and those like them4 ,for ,david1 ,solomon1 and ,daniel spoke and wrote inspired by the holy spirit1 and when ,david says1 8,the ,god of ,israel spoke and said unto me1 the rock of ,israel0 7#b ,sam4 xxiii4 #c71 he meant to say that ,god promised him happiness through a prophet1 through ,nathan or another prophet4 ,the phrase must here be interpreted in the same manner as in the following passages1 8,and ,god said to her0 7,gen4 xxv4 #bf72 8,and ,god said unto ,solomon1 ,because this hath been in thy heart1 and thou hast not kept my covenant10 etc4 7#a ,kings xi4 #aa74 ,the latter passage undoubtedly contains a prophecy of ,ahijah the ,shilonite1 or another prophet1 who foretold ,solomon that evil would befall him4 ,the passage1 8,god appeared to ,solomon at ,gibeon in a dream by night1 and ,god said0 7ibid4 iii4 #e71 does not contain a real prophecy1 such as is introduced by the words3 8,the word of the ,lord came to ,abram in a vision1 saying0 7,gen4 xv4 #a72 or1 8,and ,god said to ,israel in the visions of the night0 7ibid4 xlvi4 #b71 or such as the prophecies of ,isaiah and ,jeremiah contain2 in all these cases the prophets1 though receiving the prophecy in a prophetic dream1 are told that it is a prophecy1 and that they have received prophetic inspiration4 ,but in the case of ,solomon1 the account concludes1 8,and ,solomon awoke1 and behold it was a dream0 7#a ,kings iii4 #ae72 and in the account of the second divine appearance1 it is said1 8,and ,god appeared to ,solomon a second time1 as he appeared to him at ,gibeon0 7ibid4 ix4 #b72 it was evidently a dream4 ,this kind of prophecy is a degree below that of which ,scripture says1 8,in a dream ,i will speak to him0 7,num4 xii4 #f74 ,when prophets are inspired in a dream1 they by no means call this a dream1 although the prophecy reached them in a dream1 but declare it decidedly to be a prophecy4 ,thus ,jacob1 our father1 when awaking from a prophetic dream1 did not say it was a dream1 but declared1 8,surely there is the ,lord in this place10 etc4 7,gen4 xxviii4 #af72 8,god the ,almighty appeared to me in ,luz1 in the land of ,canaan0 7ibid4 xlviii4 #c71 expressing thereby that it was a prophecy4 ,but in reference to ,solomon we read3--8,and ,solomon awoke1 and behold it was a dream0 7#a ,kings iii4 #ae74 ,similarly ,daniel declares that he had a dream2 although he sees an angel and hears his word1 he speaks of the event as of a dream2 even when he had received the information concerning the dreams of ,nebukadnezzar1 he speaks of it in the following manner--8,then was the secret revealed to ,daniel in a night vision0 7,dan4 ii4 #ai74 ,on other occasions it is said1 8,he wrote down the dream02 8,i saw in the visions by night10 etc42 8,and the visions of my head confused me0 7,dan4 vii4 #a1 #b1 #ae72 8,i was surprised at the vision1 and none noticed it0 7ibid4 viii4 #bg74 ,there is no doubt that this is one degree below that form of prophecy to which the words1 8,in a dream ,i will speak to him10 are applied4 ,for this reason the nation desired to place the book of ,daniel among the ,hagiographa1 and not among the ,prophets4 ,i have1 therefore1 pointed out to you1 that the prophecy revealed to ,daniel and ,solomon1 although they saw an angel in the dream1 was not considered by them as a perfect prophecy1 but as a dream containing correct information4 ,they belonged to the class of men that spoke1 inspired by the rua ha-kodesh1 8the holy spirit40 ,also in the order of the holy writings1 no distinction is made between the books of ,proverbs1 ,ecclesiastes1 ,daniel1 ,psalms1 ,ruth1 and ,esther2 they are all written by divine inspiration4 ,the authors of all these books are called prophets in the more general sense of the term4 7#c7 ,the third class is the lowest class of actual prophets1 i4e4 of those who introduce their speech by the phrase1 8,and the word of the ,lord came unto me10 or a similar phrase4 ,the prophet sees an allegory in a dream--under those conditions which we have mentioned when speaking of real prophecy--and in the prophetic dream itself the allegory is interpreted4 ,such are most of the allegories of ,zechariah4 7#d7 ,the prophet hears in a prophetic dream something clearly and distinctly1 but does not see the speaker4 ,this was the case with ,samuel in the beginning of his prophetic mission1 as has been explained 7chap4 xliv474 7#e7 ,a person addresses the prophet in a dream1 as was the case in some of the prophecies of ,ezekiel4 ,comp4 8,and the man spake unto me1 ,son of man10 etc4 7,ezek4 xl4 #d74 7#f7 ,an angel speaks to him in a dream2 this applies to most of the prophets2 e4g41 8,and an angel of ,god said to me in a dream of night0 7,gen4 xxxi4 #aa74 7#g7 ,in a prophetic dream it appears to the prophet as if ,god spoke to him4 ,thus ,isaiah says1 8,and ,i saw the ,lord1 and ,i heard the voice of the ,lord saying1 ,whom shall ,i send1 and who will go for us80 7,isa4 vi4 #a1 #h74 ,micaiah1 son of ,imla1 said likewise1 8,i saw the ,lord0 7#a ,kings xxii4 #ai74 7#h7 ,something presents itself to the prophet in a prophetic vision2 he sees allegorical figures1 such as were seen by ,abraham in the vision 8between the pieces0 7,gen4 xv4 #i1 #aj72 for it was in a vision by daytime1 as is distinctly stated4 7#i7 ,the prophet hears words in a prophetic vision2 as1 e4g41 is said in reference to ,abraham1 8,and behold1 the word came to him1 saying1 ,this shall not be thine heir0 7ibid4 xv4 #d74 7#aj7 ,the prophet sees a man that speaks to him in a prophetic vision2 e4g41 ,abraham in the plain of ,mamre 7ibid4 xviii4 #a71 and ,joshua in ,jericho 7,josh4 v4 #ac74 7#aa7 ,he sees an angel that speaks to him in the vision1 as was the case when ,abraham was addressed by an angel at the sacrifice of ,isaac 7,gen4 xxii4 #ae74 ,this ,i hold to be--if we except ,moses--the highest degree a prophet can attain according to ,scripture1 provided he has1 as reason demands1 his rational faculties fully developed4 ,but it appears to me improbable that a prophet should be able to perceive in a prophetic vision ,god speaking to him2 the action of the imaginative faculty does not go so far1 and therefore we do not notice this in the case of the ordinary prophets2 ,scripture says expressly1 8,in a vision ,i will make myself known1 in a dream ,i will speak to him02 the speaking is here connected with dream1 the influence and the action of the intellect is connected with vision2 comp4 8,in a vision ,i will make myself known to him0 7etvadda1 hitpael of yada1 8to know071 but it is not said here that in a vision anything is heard from ,god4 ,when ,i1 therefore1 met with statements in ,scripture that a prophet heard words spoken to him1 and that this took place in a vision1 it occurred to me that the case in which ,god appears to address the prophet seems to be the only difference between a vision and a dream1 according to the literal sense of the ,scriptural text4 ,but it is possible to explain the passages in which a prophet is reported to have heard in the course of a vision words spoken to him1 in the following manner3 at first he has had a vision1 but subsequently he fell into a deep sleep1 and the vision was changed into a dream4 ,thus we explained the words1 8,and a deep sleep fell upon ,abram0 7,gen4 xv4 #ab72 and our ,sages remark thereon1 8,this was a deep sleep of prophecy40 ,according to this explanation1 it is only in a dream that the prophet can hear words addressed to him2 it makes no difference in what manner words are spoken4 ,scripture supports this theory1 8,in a dream ,i will speak to him40 ,but in a prophetic vision only allegories are perceived1 or rational truths are obtained1 that lead to some knowledge in science1 such as can be arrived at by reasoning4 ,this is the meaning of the words1 8,in a vision ,i will make myself known unto him40 ,according to this second explanation1 the degrees of prophecy are reduced to eight1 the highest of them being the prophetic vision1 including all kinds of vision1 even the case in which a man appears to address the prophet1 as has been mentioned4 ,you will perhaps ask this question3 among the different degrees of prophecy there is one in which prophets1 e4g41 ,isaiah1 ,micaiah1 appear to hear ,god addressing them2 how can this be reconciled with the principle that all prophets are prophetically addressed through an angel1 except ,moses our ,teacher1 in reference to whom ,scripture says1 8,mouth to mouth ,i speak to him0 7,num4 xii4 #h78 ,i answer1 this is really the case1 the medium here being the imaginative faculty that hears in a prophetic dream ,god speaking2 but ,moses heard the voice addressing him 8from above the covering of the ark from between the two cherubim0 7,exod4 xxv4 #bb7 without the medium of the imaginative faculty4 ,in ,mishne-torah we have given the characteristics of this kind of prophecy1 and explained the meaning of the phrases1 8,mouth to mouth ,i speak to him02 8,as man speaketh to his neighbour0 7,exod4 xxxiii4 #aa71 and the like4 ,study it there1 and ,i need not repeat what has already been said4 ,,chapter ,,xlvi ,one individual may be taken as an illustration of the individuals of the whole species4 ,from its properties we learn those of each individual of the species4 ,i mean to say that the form of one account of a prophecy illustrates all accounts of the same class4 ,after this remark you will understand that a person may sometimes dream that he has gone to a certain country1 married there1 stayed there for some time1 and had a son1 whom he gave a certain name1 and who was in a certain condition though nothing of all this has really taken place2 so also in prophetic allegories certain objects are seen1 acts performed--if the style of the allegory demands it--things are done by the prophet1 the intervals between one act and another determined1 and journeys undertaken from one place to another2 but all these things are only processes of a prophetic vision1 and not real things that could be perceived by the senses of the body4 ,some of the accounts simply relate these incidents without premising that they are part of a vision1 because it is a well-known fact that all these accounts refer to prophetic visions1 and it was not necessary to repeat in each case a statement to this effect4 ,thus the prophet relates3 8,and the ,lord said unto me10 and need not add the explanation that it was in a dream4 ,the ordinary reader believes that the acts1 journeys1 questions1 and answers of the prophets really took place1 and were perceived by the senses1 and did not merely form part of a prophetic vision4 ,i will mention here an instance concerning which no person will entertain the least doubt4 ,i will add a few more of the same kind1 and these will show you how those passages must be understood which ,i do not cite4 ,the following passage in ,ezekiel 7viii4 #a1 #c7 is clear1 and admits of no doubt3 8,i sat in mine house1 and the elders of ,judah sat before me1 etc41 and a spirit lifted me up between the earth and the heaven1 and brought me in the visions of ,god to ,jerusalem10 etc42 also the passage1 8,thus ,i arose and went into the plain0 7iii4 #b1 #c71 refers to a prophetic vision2 just as the words1 8,and he brought him forth abroad1 and said1 ,look now toward heaven and tell the stars1 if thou be able to number them0 7,gen4 xv4 #e7 describe a vision4 ,the same is the case with the words of ,ezekiel 7xxxvii4 #a71 8,and set me down in the midst of the valley40 ,in the description of the vision in which ,ezekiel is brought to ,jerusalem1 we read as follows3 8,and when ,i looked1 behold a hole in the wall4 ,then said he unto me1 ,son of man1 dig now in the wall2 and when ,i had digged in the wall1 behold a door0 7ibid4 viii4 #g-h71 etc4 ,it was thus in a vision that he was commanded to dig in the wall1 to enter and to see what people were doing there1 and it was in the same vision that he digged1 entered through the hole1 and saw certain things1 as is related4 ,just as all this forms part of a vision1 the same may be said of the following passages3 8,and thou take unto thee a tile10 etc41 8and lie thou also on thy left side10 etc42 8,take thou also wheat and barley10 etc41 8and cause it to pass over thine head and upon thy beard0 7chaps1 iv4 and v47 ,it was in a prophetic vision that he saw that he did all these actions which he was commanded to do4 ,god forbid to assume that ,god would make his prophets appear an object of ridicule and sport in the eyes of the ignorant1 and order them to perform foolish acts4 ,we must also bear in mind that the command given to ,ezekiel implied disobedience to the ,law1 for he1 being a priest1 would1 in causing the razor to pass over every corner of the beard and of the head1 have been guilty of transgressing two prohibitions in each case4 ,but it was only done in a prophetic vision4 ,again1 when it is said1 8,as my servant ,isaiah went naked and barefoot0 7,isa4 xx4 #c71 the prophet did so in a prophetic vision4 ,weak-minded persons believe that the prophet relates here what he was commanded to do1 and what he actually did1 and that he describes how he was commanded to dig in a wall on the ,temple mount although he was in ,babylon1 and relates how he obeyed the command1 for he says1 8,and ,i digged in the wall40 ,but it is distinctly stated that all this took place in a vision4 ,it is analogous to the description of the vision of ,abraham which begins1 8,the word of the ,lord came to ,abram in a vision1 saying0 7,gen4 xv4 #a72 and contains at the same time the passage1 8,he brought him forth abroad1 and said1 ,look now to the heaven and count the stars0 7ibid4 ver4 #f74 ,it is evident that it was in a vision that ,abraham saw himself brought forth from his place looking towards the heavens and being told to count the stars4 ,this is related without repeating the statement that it was in a vision4 ,the same ,i say in reference to the command given to ,jeremiah1 to conceal the girdle in the ,euphrates1 and the statement that he concealed it1 examined it after a long time1 and found it rotten and spoiled 7,jer4 xiii4 #d-g74 ,all this was allegorically shown in a vision2 ,jeremiah did not go from ,palestine to ,babylon1 and did not see the ,euphrates4 ,the same applies to the account of the commandment given to ,hosea 7i4-iii473 8,take unto thee a wife of whoredom1 and children of whoredom10 to the birth of the children and to the giving of names to them4 ,all this passed in a prophetic vision4 ,when once stated that these are allegories1 there is left no doubt that the events related had no real existence1 except in the minds of those of whom the prophet says3 8,and the vision of every one was unto them like the words of a sealed book0 7,isa4 xxix4 #aa74 ,i believe that the trial of ,gideon 7,judges vi4 #ba1 #bg7 with the fleece and other things was a vision4 ,i do not call it a prophetic vision1 as ,gideon had not reached the degree of prophets1 much less that height which would enable him to do wonders4 ,he only rose to the height of the ,judges of ,israel1 and he has even been counted by our ,sages among persons of little importance1 as has been pointed out by us4 ,the same can be said of the passage in ,zechariah 7xi4 #g71 8,and ,i fed the flock of slaughter10 and all the incidents that are subsequently described2 the graceful asking for wages1 the acceptance of the wages1 the wanting of the money1 and the casting of the same into the house of the treasure2 all these incidents form part of the vision4 ,he received the commandment and carried it out in a prophetic vision or dream4 ,the correctness of this theory cannot be doubted1 and only those do not comprehend it who do not know to distinguish between that which is possible1 and that which is impossible4 ,the instances quoted may serve as an illustration of other similar ,scriptural passages not quoted by me4 ,they are all of the same kind1 and in the same style4 ,whatever is said in the account of a vision1 that the prophet heard1 went forth1 came out1 said1 was told1 stood1 sat1 went up1 went down1 journeyed1 asked1 or was asked1 all is part of the prophetic vision2 even when there is a lengthened account1 the details of which are well connected as regards the time1 the persons referred to1 and the place4 ,after it has once been stated that the event described is to be understood figuratively1 it must be assumed for certain that the whole is a prophetic vision4 ,,chapter ,,xlvii ,it is undoubtedly clear and evident that most prophecies are given in images1 for this is the characteristic of the imaginative faculty1 the organ of prophecy4 ,we find it also necessary to say a few words on the figures1 hyperboles1 and exaggerations that occur in ,scripture4 ,they would create strange ideas if we were to take them literally without noticing the exaggeration which they contain1 or if we were to understand them in accordance with the original meaning of the terms1 ignoring the fact that these are used figuratively4 ,our ,sages say distinctly ,scripture uses hyperbolic or exaggerated language2 and quote as an instance1 8cities walled and fortified1 rising up to heaven0 7,deut4 i4 #bh74 ,as a hyperbole our ,sages quote1 8,for the bird of heaven carries the voice0 7,eccles4 x4 #bj72 in the same sense it is said1 8,whose height is like that of cedar trees0 7,amos ii4 #i74 ,instances of this kind are frequent in the language of all prophets2 what they say is frequently hyperbolic or exaggerated1 and not precise or exact4 ,what ,scripture says about ,og1 8,behold1 his bedstead was an iron bedstead1 nine cubits its length10 etc4 7,deut471 does not belong to this class of figures1 for the bedstead 7eres1 comp4 arsenu1 ,song of ,sol4 i4 #af7 is never exactly of the same dimensions as the person using it2 it is not like a dress that fits round the body2 it is always greater than the person that sleeps therein2 as a rule1 it is by a third longer4 ,if1 therefore1 the bed of ,og was nine cubits in length1 he must1 according to this proportion1 have been six cubits high1 or a little more4 ,the words1 8by the cubit of a man10 mean1 by the measure of an ordinary man1 and not by the measure of ,og2 for men have the limbs in a certain proportion4 ,scripture thus tells us that ,og was double as long as an ordinary person1 or a little less4 ,this is undoubtedly an exceptional height among men1 but not quite impossible4 ,as regards the ,scriptural statement about the length of man's life in those days1 ,i say that only the persons named lived so long1 whilst other people enjoyed the ordinary length of life4 ,the men named were exceptions1 either in consequence of different causes1 as e4g41 their food or mode of living1 or by way of miracle1 which admits of no analogy4 ,we must further discuss the figurative language employed in ,scripture4 ,in some cases this is clear and evident1 and doubted by no person2 e4g41 8,the mountains and hills shall break forth in song before you1 and all the trees of the wood clap their hands0 7,isa4 lv4 #ab72 this is evidently figurative language2 also the following passage--8,the fir-trees rejoice at thee10 etc4 7ibid4 xiv4 #h71 which is rendered by ,jonathan1 son of ,uzziel1 8,the rulers rejoice at thee1 who are rich in possessions40 ,this figure is similar to that used in the phrase1 8,butter of kine and milk of sheep10 etc4 7,deut4 xxxii4 #ad74 ,and these figures are very frequent in the books of the prophets4 ,some are easily recognised by the ordinary reader as figures1 others with some difficulty4 ,thus nobody doubts that the blessing1 8,may the ,lord open to thee his good treasure1 the heavens10 must be taken figuratively2 for ,god has no treasure in which ,he keeps the rain4 ,the same is the case with the following passage--8,he opened the doors of heaven1 he rained upon them manna to eat0 7,ps4 lxxviii4 #bc1 #bd74 ,no person assumes that there is a door or gate in heaven1 but every one understands that this is a simile and a figurative expression4 ,in the same way must be understood the following passages--8,the heavens were opened0 7,ezek4 i4 #a72 8,if not1 blot me out from thy book which thou hast written0 7,exod4 xxxii4 #cb72 8,i will blot him out from the book of life0 7ibid4 ver4 #cc74 ,all these phrases are figurative2 and we must not assume that ,god has a book in which ,he writes1 or from which ,he blots out1 as those generally believe that do not find figurative speech in these passages4 ,they are all of the same kind4 ,you must explain passages not quoted by me by those which ,i have quoted in this chapter4 ,employ your reason1 and you will be able to discern what is said allegorically1 figuratively1 or hyperbolically1 and what is meant literally1 exactly according to the original meaning of the words4 ,you will then understand all prophecies1 learn and retain rational principles of faith1 pleasing in the eyes of ,god who is most pleased with truth1 and most displeased with falsehood2 your mind and heart will not be so perplexed as to believe or accept as law what is untrue or improbable1 whilst the ,law is perfectly true when properly understood4 ,thus ,scripture says1 8,thy testimonies are righteousness for ever0 7,ps4 cxix4 #add72 and 8,i the ,lord speak righteousness0 7,isa4 xlv4 #ai74 ,if you adopt this method1 you will not imagine the existence of things which ,god has not created1 or accept principles which might partly lead to atheism1 or to a corruption of your notions of ,god so as to ascribe to ,him corporeality1 attributes1 or emotions1 as has been shown by us1 nor will you believe that the words of the prophets are false2 for the cause of this disease is ignorance of what we have explained4 ,these things belong likewise to the mysteries of the ,law2 and although we have treated them in a general manner1 they can easily be understood in all their details in accordance with the above remarks4 ,,chapter ,,xlviii ,it is clear that everything produced must have an immediate cause which produced it2 that cause again a cause1 and so on1 till the ,first ,cause1 viz41 the will and decree of ,god is reached4 ,the prophets therefore omit sometimes the intermediate causes1 and ascribe the production of an individual thing directly to ,god1 saying that ,god has made it4 ,this method is well known1 and we1 as well as others of those who seek the truth1 have explained it2 it is the belief of our co-religionists4 ,after having heard this remark1 listen to what ,i will explain in this chapter2 direct your special attention to it more than you have done to the other chapters of this part4 ,it is this3 ,as regards the immediate causes of things produced1 it makes no difference whether these causes consist in substances1 physical properties1 freewill1 or chance--by freewill ,i mean that of man--or even in the will of another living being4 ,the prophets omit them and ascribe the production directly to ,god and use such phrases as1 ,god has done it1 commanded it1 or said it2 in all such cases the verbs 8to say10 8to speak10 8to command10 8to call10 and 8to send0 are employed4 ,what ,i desired to state in this chapter is this3 ,according to the hypothesis and theory accepted1 it is ,god that gave will to dumb animals1 freewill to the human being1 and natural properties to everything2 and as accidents originate in the redundancy of some natural force1 as has been explained by ,aristotle1 and are mostly the result of the combined action of nature1 desire1 and freewill3 it can consequently be said of everything which is produced by any of these causes1 that ,god commanded that it should be made1 or said that it should be so4 ,i will give you instances1 and they will guide you in the interpretation of passages which ,i do not mention4 ,as regards phenomena produced regularly by natural causes1 such as the melting of the snow when the atmosphere becomes warm1 the roaring of the sea when a storm rages ,i quote the following passages1 8,he sendeth his word and melteth them0 7,ps4 cxlvii4 #ah72 8,and he saith1 and a storm-wind riseth1 and lifteth up its waves0 7ibid4 cvii4 #be74 ,in reference to the rain we read3 8,i will command the clouds that they shall not rain10 etc4 7,isa4 v4 #f74 ,events caused by man's freewill1 such as war1 the dominion of one nation over another1 the attempt of one person to hurt another1 or to insult him1 are ascribed to ,god1 as e4g41 in reference to the dominion of ,nebuchadnezzar and his host1 8,i have commended my holy ones1 also ,i have called my heroes for my anger0 7,isa4 xiii4 #c72 and 8,i will send him against a hypocrite nation0 7ibid4 x4 #f72 in reference to ,shimei1 son of ,gera1 8,for ,god said to him1 ,curse ,david0 7#b ,sam4 xvi4 #aj72 in reference to the deliverance of ,joseph1 the righteous1 from prison1 8,he sent an angel and loosed him0 7,ps4 cv4 #bj72 in reference to the victory of the ,persians over the ,chaldees1 8,i will send to ,babylon scatterers1 and they shall scatter it0 7,jer4 li4 #b72 in reference to the providing of food to ,eliah1 8,i have commanded there a woman1 a widow1 to maintain thee0 7#a ,kings xvii4 #i72 and ,joseph1 the righteous1 says3 8,not ye have sent me hither10 etc4 7,gen4 xlv4 #h74 ,the case that the will of an animal or its desire for some of its natural wants is the cause of some event1 may be illustrated by the following instance3 8,and ,god spake unto the fish1 and it vomited out ,jonah0 7ii4 #aa74 ,the act is ascribed to ,god1 because ,he gave the fish the will1 and not because ,he made it a prophet or endowed it with a prophetical spirit4 ,similarly it is said of the locusts that appeared in the days of ,joel1 son of ,pethuel1 8,mighty is he that accomplishes his word0 7,joel ii4 #aa72 or of the beasts that took possession of the land of ,edom when destroyed in the days of ,sennacherib1 8,he cast lot for them1 and his hand divided it unto them by a line0 7,isa4 xxxiv4 #ag74 ,although here the verbs 8to say10 8to command10 8to send10 are not used1 the meaning is evidently the same1 and you must explain all passages that are analogous to it in a similar manner4 ,events evidently due to chance are ascribed to ,god2 e4g41 in reference to ,rebecca1 8,let her be a wife to the son of thy master1 as the ,lord spake0 7,gen4 xxiv4 #ea72 in reference to ,david and ,jonathan1 8,go1 for the ,lord has sent thee40 7#a ,sam4 xx4 #bb72 in reference to ,joseph1 8,god sent me before you0 7,gen4 xlv4 #g74 ,you see clearly that the providing of a cause1 in whatever manner this may take place1 by substance1 accident1 freewill1 or will1 is always expressed by one of the five terms1 commanding1 saying1 speaking1 sending1 or calling4 ,note this1 and apply it everywhere according to the context4 ,many difficulties will thereby be removed1 and passages apparently containing things far from truth will prove to be true4 ,this is the conclusion of the treatise on ,prophecy1 its allegories and language4 ,it is all ,i intend to say on this subject in this treatise4 ,we will now commence to treat of other subjects1 with the help of the ,most ,high4 ,,part ,,iii ,,introduction ,we have stated several times that it is our primary object in this treatise to expound1 as far as possible1 the ,biblical account of the ,creation 7,maaseh bereshit7 and the description of the ,divine ,chariot 7,maaseh mercabah7 in a manner adapted to the training of those for whom this work is written4 ,we have also stated that these subjects belong to the mysteries of the ,law4 ,you are well aware how our ,sages blame those who reveal these mysteries1 and praise the merits of those who keep them secret1 although they are perfectly clear to the philosopher4 ,in this sense they explain the passage1 8,her merchandise shall be for them that dwell before the ,lord1 to eat sufficiently0 7,isa4 xxiii4 #ah71 which concludes in the original with the words ve-li-me-kasseh atik1 i4e41 that these blessings are promised to him who hides things which the ,eternal has revealed to him1 viz41 the mysteries of the ,law 7,babyl4 ,talmud1 ,pesaim #aai;a74 ,if you have understanding you will comprehend that which our ,sages pointed out4 ,they have clearly stated that the ,divine ,chariot includes matters too deep and too profound for the ordinary intellect4 ,it has been shown that a person favoured by ,providence with reason to understand these mysteries is forbidden by the ,law to teach them except viv voce1 and on condition that the pupil possess certain qualifications1 and even then only the heads of the sections may be communicated4 ,this has been the cause why the knowledge of this mystery has entirely disappeared from our nation1 and nothing has remained of it4 ,this was unavoidable1 for the explanation of these mysteries was always communicated viv voce1 it was never committed to writing4 ,such being the case1 how can ,i venture to call your attention to such portions of it as may be known1 intelligible1 and perfectly clear to me8 ,but if1 on the other hand1 ,i were to abstain from writing on this subject1 according to my knowledge of it1 when ,i die1 as ,i shall inevitably do1 that knowledge would die with me1 and ,i would thus inflict great injury on you and all those who are perplexed by these theological problems1 ,i would then be guilty of withholding the truth from those to whom it ought to be communicated1 and of jealously depriving the heir of his inheritance4 ,i should in either case be guilty of gross misconduct4 ,to give a full explanation of the mystic passages of the ,bible is contrary to the ,law and to reason2 besides1 my knowledge of them is based on reasoning1 not on divine inspiration and is therefore not infallible4 ,i have not received my belief in this respect from any teacher1 but it has been formed by what ,i learnt from ,scripture and the utterances of our ,sages1 and by the philosophical principles which ,i have adopted4 ,it is therefore possible that my view is wrong1 and that ,i misunderstood the passages referred to4 ,correct thought and divine help have suggested to me the proper method1 viz41 to explain the words of the prophet ,ezekiel in such a manner that those who will read my interpretation will believe that ,i have not added anything to the contents of the text1 but only1 as it were1 translated from one language into another1 or given a short exposition of plain things4 ,those1 however1 for whom this treatise has been composed1 will1 on reflecting on it and thoroughly examining each chapter1 obtain a perfect and clear insight into all that has been clear and intelligible to me4 ,this is the utmost that can be done in treating this subject so as to be useful to all without fully explaining it4 ,after this introductory remark ,i ask you to study attentively the chapters which follow on this sublime1 important1 and grand subject1 which is the pin upon which everything hangs1 and the pillar upon which everything rests4 ,,chapter ,i ,it is well known that there are men whose face is like that of other animals2 thus the face of some person is like that of a lion1 that of another person like that of an ox1 and so on2 and man's face is described according as the form of his face resembles the form of the face of other animals4 ,by the expressions1 8the face of an ox10 8the face of a lion10 8the face of an eagle0 7,ezek1 i4 #aj71 the prophet describes a human face inclining towards the forms of these various species4 ,this interpretation can be supported by two proofs4 ,first1 the prophet says of the ayyot in general that 8their appearance is this1 they have the form of man0 7ver4 #e71 and then in describing each of the ayyot he attributes to them the face of a man1 that of an ox1 that of a lion1 and that of an eagle4 ,secondly1 in the second description of the ,chariot1 which is intended as a supplement to the first1 the prophet says1 ,each hath four faces2 the one is the face of a cherub1 the second a man's face1 the third a lion's face1 and the fourth that of an eagle 7ibid4 x4 #ad74 ,he thus clearly indicates that the terms 8the face of an ox0 and 8the face of a cherub0 are identical4 ,but cherub designates 8a youth40 ,by analogy we explain the two other terms--8the face of a lion0 and 8the face of an eagle0 in the same manner4 8,the face of the ox0 has been singled out on account of the etymology of the ,hebrew term shor 7ox71 as has been indicated by me4 ,it is impossible to assume that this second description refers to the perception of another prophetic vision1 because it concludes thus3 8,this is the ayyah which ,i saw at the river ,chebar0 7ibid4 ver4 #ae74 ,what we intended to explain is now clear4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,the prophet says that he saw four ayyot2 each of them had four faces1 four wings1 and two hands1 but on the whole their form was human4 ,comp4 8,they had the likeness of a man0 7,ezek4 i4 #e74 ,the hands are also described as human hands1 because these have undoubtedly1 as is well known1 such a form as enables them to perform all manner of cunning work4 ,their feet are straight2 that is to say1 they are without joints4 ,this is the meaning of the phrase 8a straight foot10 taken literally4 ,similarly our ,sages say1 the words1 8,and their feet were straight feet0 7ibid4 i4 #g71 show that the beings above do not sit4 ,note this likewise4 ,the soles of the feet of the ayyot1 the organs of walking1 are described as different from the feet of man1 but the hands are like human hands4 ,the feet are round1 for the prophet says1 8like the sole of a round foot40 ,the four ayyot are closely joined together1 there is no space or vacuum left between them4 ,comp4 8,they were joined one to another0 7ibid4 i4 #i74 8,but although they were thus joined together1 their faces and their wings were separated above0 7ibid4 ver4 #aa74 ,consider the expression 8above0 employed here1 although the bodies were closely joined1 their faces and their wings were separated1 but only above4 ,the prophet then states that they are transparent2 they are 8like burnished brass0 7ibid4 ver4 #g74 ,he also adds that they are luminous4 ,comp4 8,their appearance was like burning coals of fire0 7ibid4 ver4 #ac74 ,this is all that has been said as regards the form1 shape1 face1 figure1 wings1 hands1 and feet of the ayyot4 ,the prophet then begins to describe the motions of these ayyot1 namely1 that they have a uniform motion1 without any curvature1 deviation1 or deflexion3 8,they turned not when they went0 7ver4 #ag74 ,each of the ayyot moves in the direction of its face4 ,comp4 8,they went every one in the direction of his face0 7ver4 #i74 ,now1 it is here clearly stated that each ayyah went in the direction of its face1 but since each ayyah has several faces1 ,i ask1 in the direction of which face8 ,in short1 the four ayyot do not move in the same direction2 for1 if this were the case1 a special motion would not have been ascribed to each of them2 it would not have been said1 8,they went each one towards the side of his face40 ,the motion of these ayyot is further described as a running1 so also their returning is described as a running4 ,comp4 8,and the ayyot ran1 and returned as the appearance of a flash of lightning0 7ver4 #ad71 raoh being the infinitive of ru1 8to run10 and shob the infinitive instead of shub1 8to return40 ,the ordinary words1 haloch and bo1 8to go0 and 8to come10 are not used1 but such words as indicate running to and fro2 and these are further explained by the phrase1 8,as the appearance of a flash of lightning0 7bazak1 used by the prophet1 is identical with barak71 for the lightning appears to move very quickly2 it seems to hasten and to run from a certain place1 and then to turn back and to come again to the place from which it had started4 ,this is repeated several times with the same velocity4 ,jonathan1 the son of ,uzziel1 renders the phrase rao vashob thus3 ,they move round the world and return at once1 and are as swift as the appearance of lightning4 ,this quick movement and return the ayyah does not perform of its own accord1 but through something outside of it1 viz41 the ,divine ,will2 for 8to whichever side it is the ,divine ,will that the ayyah should move1 thither the ayyah moves10 in that quick manner which is expressed by 8running and returning40 ,this is implied in the words1 8,whithersoever the spirit was to go they went0 7ver4 #bj72 8,they turned not when they went0 7ver4 #ag74 ,by 8the spirit0 7rua71 the prophet does not mean 8the wind10 but 8the intention10 as we have explained when discussing the homonym rua 7spirit74 ,the meaning of the phrase is1 that whithersoever it is the ,divine ,will that the ayyah shall go1 thither it runs4 ,jonathan1 the son of ,uzziel1 gives a similar explanation3 ,towards the place whither it is the will to go1 they go2 they do not turn when they go4 ,the employment of the future tense of the verbs yihyeh and yeleku in this passage seems to imply that sometimes it will be the will of ,god that the ayyah should move in one direction1 in which it will in fact move1 and at other times it will be ,his will that the ayyah should move in the opposite direction1 in which it will then move4 ,an explanation is1 however1 added1 which is contrary to this conclusion1 and shows that the future form 7yihyeh7 of the verb has here the meaning of the preterite1 as is frequently the case in ,hebrew4 ,the direction in which ,god desires the ayyah to move has already been determined and fixed1 and the ayyah moves in that direction which ,his will has determined long ago1 without having ever changed4 ,the prophet1 therefore1 in explaining1 and at the same time concluding this description of the ayyot1 says1 8,whithersoever the spirit was to go they go1 thither was the spirit to go0 7ver4 #bj74 ,note this wonderful interpretation4 ,this passage forms likewise part of the account of the motion of the four ayyot which follows the description of their form4 ,next comes the description of another part2 for the prophet relates that he saw a body beneath the ayyot1 but closely joining them4 ,this body1 which is connected with the earth1 consists likewise of four bodies1 and has also four faces4 ,but no distinct form is ascribed to it2 neither that of man nor that of any other living being4 ,the four bodies are described as great1 tremendous1 and terrible2 no form is given to them1 except that they are covered with eyes4 ,these are the bodies called ,ofannim 7lit4 wheels74 ,the prophet therefore says3 8,now1 as ,i beheld the ayyot1 behold one wheel upon the earth beside the living creatures1 with his four faces0 7ver4 #ae74 ,he thus distinctly states that the ,ofannim form a body1 of which the one part touches the ayyot1 and the other part the earth2 and that the ,ofan has four faces4 ,but he continues--8,the appearance of the ,ofannim 7wheels7 and their work was like unto the colour of a beryl3 and they four had one likeness0 7ver4 #af74 ,by speaking of four ,ofannim1 after having mentioned only one ,ofan1 the prophet indicates that the 8four faces0 and the 8four ,ofannim0 are identical4 ,these four ,ofannim have the same form2 comp41 8,and they four had one likeness40 ,the ,ofannim are then described as partly inter-joined2 for 8their appearance and their work was as it were a wheel in the middle of a wheel0 7ver4 #af74 ,in the description of the ayyot such a phrase1 with the term 8in the middle of0 7tok7 is not employed4 ,the ayyot are partly joined1 according to the words1 8they were joined one to another0 7ver4 #aa72 whilst in reference to the ,ofannim it is stated that they are partly intermixed1 8as it were a wheel in the middle of a wheel40 ,the body of the ,ofannim is described as being covered with eyes2 it is possible that a body covered with real eyes is here meant1 or a body with different colours ayin denoting 8eye10 also 8colour01 as in the phrase 8the colour thereof eno as the colour 7keen7 of bdellium0 7,num4 xi4 #g72 or a body filled with likenesses of things4 ,in this latter sense the term ayin is used by our ,sages in phrases like the following3--,like that keen which he has stolen1 like that keen which he has robbed2 or different properties and qualities are meant1 according to the meaning of the word ayin in the passage1 8,it may be that the ,lord will look 7beenai7 on my condition0 7#b ,sam4 xvi4 #ab74 ,so much for the form of the ,ofannim4 ,their motion is described as being without curvature and deviation2 as being straight1 without any change4 ,this is expressed in the words1 8,when they went1 they went upon their four sides3 and they turned not when they went0 7,e42 ver4 #ag74 ,the four ,ofannim do not move of their own accord1 as the ayyot1 and have no motion whatever of their own2 they are set in motion by other beings1 as is emphatically stated twice4 ,the ayyot are the moving agents of the ,ofannim4 ,the relation between the ,ofan and the ayyah may be compared to the relation between a lifeless body tied to the hand or the leg of a living animal2 whithersoever the latter moves1 thither moves also the piece of wood1 or the stone1 which is tied to the named limb of the animal4 ,this is expressed in the following words3--8,and when the ayyot went1 the ,ofannim went by them2 and when the living creatures were lifted up from the earth1 the ,ofannim were lifted up0 7ver4 #ai72 8and the ,ofannim were lifted up over against them0 7ver4 #bj74 ,and the cause of this is explained thus3--8,the spirit of the ayyah was in the ,ofannim0 7ibid474 ,for the sake of emphasis and further explanation the prophet adds1 8,when those went1 these went2 and when those stood1 these stood2 and when those were lifted up from the earth1 the ,ofannim were lifted up over against them2 for the spirit of the ayyah was in the ,ofannim0 7ver4 #ba74 ,the order of these movements is therefore as follows3--,whithersoever it is the will of ,god that the ayyot should move1 thither they move of their own accord4 ,when the ayyot move the ,ofannim necessarily follow them1 because they are tied to them1 and not because they move of their own accord in the direction in which the ayyot move4 ,this order is expressed in the words1 8,whithersoever the spirit was to go1 they went1 thither was the spirit to go2 and the ,ofannim were lifted up over against them2 for the spirit of the ayyah was in the ,ofannim0 7ver4 #bj74 ,i have told you that ,jonathan1 the son of ,uzziel1 translates the verse thus1 8to the place whither it was the will that the ayyot should go10 etc4 ,after having completed the account of the ayyot1 with their form and motion1 and of the ,ofannim1 which are beneath the ayyot1 connected with them and forced to move when the ayyot move1 the prophet begins to describe a third object which he perceived prophetically1 and gives the account of a new thing1 viz41 of that which is above the ayyot4 ,he says that the firmament is above the four ayyot1 above the firmament is the likeness of a throne1 and over the throne the likeness of the appearance of man4 ,this is the whole account of what the prophet perceived at first at the river ,chebar4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,when ,ezekiel recalled to memory the form of the ,chariot1 which he described in the beginning of the book1 the same vision presented itself to him a second time2 in this vision he was borne to ,jerusalem4 ,he explains in describing it things which have not been made clear at first1 e4g41 he substitutes the term 8cherubim0 for ayyot1 whereby he expresses that the ayyot of the first vision are likewise angels like the cherubim4 ,he says1 therefore3 8,where the cherubims went1 the ,ofannim went by them3 and when the cherubims lifted up their wings to mount up from the earth1 the same ,ofannim also turned not from beside them0 7x4 #af74 ,by these words he shows how closely connected the two motions are viz41 that of the ayyot and that of the ,ofannim4 ,the prophet adds1 8,this is the ayyah that ,i saw under the ,god of ,israel by the river of ,chebar2 and ,i knew that they were cherubims0 7ver4 #bj74 ,he thus describes the same forms and the same motions1 and states that the ayyot and the cherubim are identical4 ,a second point is then made clear in this second description1 namely1 that the ,ofannim are spherical2 for the prophet says1 8,as for the ,ofannim1 it was cried unto them in my hearing1 ,o sphere0 7ver4 #ac74 ,a third point concerning the ,ofannim is illustrated here in the following words3 8,to the place whither the head looked they followed it3 they turned not as they went0 7ver4 #aa74 ,the motion of the ,ofannim is thus described as involuntary1 and directed 8to the place whither the head looketh02 and of this it is stated that it moves 8whither the spirit is to go0 7i4 #bj74 ,a fourth point is added concerning the ,ofannim1 namely1 8,and the ,ofannim were full of eyes round about1 even the ,ofannim that they four had0 7x4 #ab74 ,this has not been mentioned before4 ,in this second description there are further mentioned 8their flesh1 and their backs1 and their hands1 and their wings0 7ibid471 whilst in the first account none of these is mentioned2 and it is only stated that they are bodies4 ,though they are endowed in the second account with flesh1 hands1 and wings1 no form is given to them4 ,in the second account each ofan is attributed to a cherub1 8one ofan by one cherub1 and another ofan by another cherub40 ,the four ayyot are then described as one ayyah on account of their interjoining3 8,this is the ayyah that ,i saw under the ,god of ,israel by the river of ,chebar0 7ver4 #bj74 ,also the ,ofannim1 though being four in number1 as has been mentioned1 are called 8one ofan upon the earth0 7ver4 #ae71 because they interjoin1 and 8they four have one likeness0 7ver4 #af74 ,this is the additional explanation which the second vision gives of the form of the ayyot and the ,ofannim4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,it is necessary to call your attention to an idea expressed by ,jonathan1 the son of ,uzziel4 ,when he saw that the prophet says in reference to the ,ofannim1 8,it was cried unto them in my hearing1 ,o gilgal0 78sphere07 7x4 #ac71 he assumed that by ,ofannim the heavens are meant1 and rendered ofan by gilgal1 8sphere10 and ofannim by gilgelaya1 8spheres40 ,i have no doubt that he found a confirmation of his opinion in the words of the prophet that the ,ofannim were like unto the colour of tarshish 7ver4 #af71 a colour ascribed to the heavens1 as is well known4 ,when he1 therefore1 noticed the passage1 8,now as ,i beheld the ayyot1 behold one ,ofan upon the earth0 7i4 #ae71 which clearly shows that the ,ofannim were upon the earth1 he had a difficulty in explaining it in accordance with his opinion4 ,following1 however1 his interpretation1 he explains the terms ere1 employed here as denoting the inner surface of the heavenly sphere1 which may be considered as ere 78earth0 or 8below071 in relation to all that is above that surface4 ,he therefore translates the words ofan ead ba-are as follows3 8,one ofan was below the height of the heavens40 ,consider what his explanation of the passage must be4 ,i think that he gave this explanation because he thought that gilgal denotes in its original meaning 8heaven40 ,my opinion is that gilgal means originally 8anything rolling02 comp4 8,and ,i will roll thee 7ve-gilgaltika7 down from the rocks0 7,jer4 li4 #be72 8and rolled 7va-yagel7 the stone0 7,gen4 xxix4 #aj72 the same meaning the word has in the phrase3 8,like a rolling thing 7gilgal7 before the whirlwind0 7,isa4 xvii4 #ac74 ,the poll of the head1 being round1 is therefore called gulgolet2 and because everything round rolls easily1 every spherical thing is called gilgal2 also the heavens are called gilgallim on account of their spherical form4 ,thus our ,sages use the phrase1 8,it is a wheel 7gilgal7 that moves round the world02 and a wooden ball1 whether small or large1 is called gilgal4 ,if so1 the prophet merely intended by the words1 8,as for the ,ofannim1 it is cried to them in my hearing1 ,o sphere0 7gilgal71 to indicate the shape of the ,ofannim1 as nothing has been mentioned before respecting their form and shape2 but he did not mean to say that the ,ofannim are the same as the heavens4 ,the term 8like tarshish0 is explained in the second account1 in which it is said of the ,ofannim3 8,and the appearance of the ofannim was like the colour of tarshish40 ,this latter passage is translated by ,jonathan1 the son of ,uzziel1 8like the colour of a precious stone10 exactly in the same manner as ,onkelos translates the phrase ke-maase libnat ha-sappir1 8like the work of the whiteness of sapphire0 7,exod4 xxix4 #aj74 ,note this4 ,you will not find it strange that ,i mention the explanation of ,jonathan1 son of ,uzziel1 whilst ,i gave a different explanation myself2 for you will find many of the wise men and the commentators differ sometimes from him in the interpretation of words and in many things respecting the prophets4 ,why should it be otherwise in these profound matters8 ,besides1 ,i do not decide in favour of my interpretation4 ,it is for you to learn both--the whole of his explanation1 from what ,i have pointed out to you1 and also my own opinion4 ,god knoweth which of the two explanations is in accordance with that which the prophet intended to say4 ,,chapter ,v ,it is necessary to notice that the plural marot elohim1 8visions of ,god10 is here used1 and not the singular mareh1 8vision10 for there were several things1 of different kinds1 that were perceived by the prophet4 ,the following three things were perceived by him3 the ,ofannim1 the ayyot1 and the man above the ayyot4 ,the description of each of these visions is introduced by the word va-ereh1 8and ,i beheld40 ,for the account of the ayyot1 begins1 8,and ,i looked 7va-ereh71 and behold a whirlwind10 etc4 7,ezek4 i4 #d74 ,the account of the ,ofannim begins3 8,now as ,i beheld 7va-ereh7 the ayyot1 behold one ,ofan upon the earth0 7ver4 #ae74 ,the vision of that which is above the ayyot in order and rank begins3 8,and ,i saw 7va-ereh7 as the colour of the amber1 etc41 from the appearance of his loins even upward0 7ver4 #bg74 ,the word va-ereh1 8and ,i beheld10 only occurs these three times in the description of the ,mercabah4 ,the doctors of the ,mishnah have already explained this fact1 and my attention was called to it by their remarks4 ,for they said that only the two first visions1 namely1 that of the ayyot and the ,ofannim1 might be interpreted to others2 but of the third vision1 viz41 that of the ashmal and all that is connected with it1 only the heads of the sections may be taught4 ,rabbi ,jehudah1 the ,holy1 is of opinion that all the three visions are called maaseh mercabah1 and nothing but the heads of the sections could be communicated to others4 ,the exact words of the discussion are as follows3--,where does maaseh mercabhah end8 ,rabbi says1 with the last va-ereh2 ,rabbi ,yiak says it ends at the word ashmal 7ver4 #bg74 ,the portion from va-ereh to ashmal may be fully taught2 of that which follows1 only the heads of the sections2 according to some it is the passage from va-ereh to ashmal1 of which the heads of the sections may be taught1 but that which follows may only be studied by those who possess the capacity1 whilst those that cannot study it by themselves must leave it4--,it is clear from the words of our ,sages that different visions are described1 as may also be inferred from the repetition of the word va-ereh1 and that these visions are different from each other in degree2 the last and highest of them is the vision commencing1 8,and ,i saw as the colour of ashmal02 that is to say1 the divided figure of the man1 described as 8the appearance of fire1 etc41 from the appearance of his loins even upward1 and from the appearance of his loins even downward10 etc4 ,there is a difference of opinion among our ,sages whether it is permitted to give by way of hints an exposition of any part of this third vision1 or whether it is prohibited even to teach of it the heads of the sections1 so that only the wise can arrive at understanding it by their own studies4 ,you will also notice a difference of opinion among our ,sages in reference to the two first visions1 viz41 that of the ayyot and that of the ,ofannim whether these may be taught explicitly or only by way of hints1 dark sayings1 and heads of sections4 ,you must also notice the order of these three visions4 ,first comes the vision of the ayyot1 because they are first in rank and in the causal relation1 as it is said1 8,for the spirit of the ayyah was in the ,ofannim0 and also for other reasons4 ,the vision of the ,ofannim comes next1 and is followed by one which is higher than the ayyot1 as has been shown4 ,the cause of this arrangement is1 that in study the first two must necessarily precede the third1 and in fact they lead to it4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,the sublime and great subject which ,ezekiel by prophetic impulse began to teach us in the description of the ,mercabah1 is exactly the same which ,isaiah taught us in general outlines1 because he did not require all the detail4 ,isaiah says1 8,i saw the ,lord sitting upon a throne1 high and lifted up1 and his train filled the temple4 ,above it stood seraphims10 etc4 7,isa4 vi4 #a seq474 ,our ,sages have already stated all this clearly1 and called our attention to it4 ,for they say that the vision of ,ezekiel is the same as that of ,isaiah1 and illustrate their view by the following simile3--,two men saw the king riding1 the one a townsman1 the other a countryman4 ,the former1 seeing that his neighbours know well how the king rides1 simply tells them that he saw the king2 but the villager1 wishing to tell his friends things which they do not know1 relates in detail how the king was riding1 describes his followers1 and the officers who execute his order and command4 ,this remark is a most useful hint2 it is contained in the following passage 7agigah1 #ac b73 8,isaiah saw all that has been seen by ,ezekiel2 ,isaiah is like a townsman that sees the king1 ,ezekiel like a countryman that sees the king40 ,these words can be explained in the manner which ,i have just mentioned1 viz41 the generation of ,isaiah did not require the detailed description2 his account1 8,i saw the ,lord10 etc41 sufficed4 ,the generation of the ,babylonian exile wanted to learn all the details4 ,it is1 however1 possible that the author of this saying held ,isaiah as more perfect than ,ezekiel1 so that the vision might have overawed ,ezekiel and appeared fearful to him2 but ,isaiah was so familiar with it that he did not consider it necessary to communicate it to others as a new thing1 especially as it was well known to the intelligent4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,one of the points that require investigation is the connexion between the vision of the mercabah and the year1 month1 and day1 and also the place of the vision4 ,a reason must be found for this connexion1 and we must not think that it is an indifferent element in the vision4 ,we must consider the words1 8the heavens were opened0 7,ezek4 i4 #a72 they give the key to the understanding of the whole4 ,the figure of opening1 also that of opening the gates1 occurs frequently in the books of the prophets2 e4g41 8,open ye the gates that the righteous nation may enter in0 7,isa4 xxvi4 #b72 8,he opened the doors of heaven0 7,ps4 lxxviii4 #bc72 8,lift them up1 ye everlasting doors0 7ibid4 xxiv4 #i72 8,open to me the gates of righteousness1 ,i will go into them1 and ,i will praise the ,lord0 7ibid4 cxviii4 #ai74 ,there are many other instances of this kind4 ,you must further notice that the whole description refers undoubtedly to a prophetic vision1 as it is said1 8,and the hand of the ,lord was there upon him0 7,ezek4 i4 #c72 and yet there is a very great difference between the various parts of the description1 for in the account of the ayyot the prophet does not say four ayyot1 but 8the likeness of the four ayyot0 7ibid4 ver4 #e72 similarly he says1 8,and the likeness of a firmament was over the heads of the ayyot0 7ver4 #bb72 8as the appearance of a sapphire stone1 the likeness of a throne10 and 8the likeness of the appearance of man above it0 7ver4 #bf74 ,in all these instances the word 8likeness0 is used1 whilst in the account of the ,ofannim the phrases1 8the likeness of ,ofannim10 the 8likeness of an ,ofan10 are not employed1 but they are described in a positive manner as beings in actual existence1 with their real properties4 ,the sentence 8they four had one likeness0 must not mislead you1 for here the word 8likeness0 is not used in the same connexion or in the same sense as indicated above4 ,in the description of the last vision the prophet confirms and explains this view4 ,when he commences to describe the firmament in detail1 he says1 8the firmament10 without adding the words 8the likeness of10 for he says1 8,and ,i looked1 and behold1 in the firmament that was above the head of the cherubims there appeared over them as it were a sapphire stone1 as the appearance of the likeness of a throne0 7x4 #a74 ,here the prophet speaks of 8the firmament0 and not of 8the likeness of the firmament10 as he does when he connects the firmament with the heads of the likeness of the ayyot 7i4 #bb74 ,but1 as regards the throne1 he says1 8the likeness of a throne appeared over them10 in order to indicate that the firmament was first perceived and then the likeness of the throne was seen over it4 ,consider this well4 ,you must further notice that in the description of the first vision the ayyot have wings and at the same time human hands1 whilst in the second vision1 in which the term cherubim is substituted for ayyot1 at first only wings were perceived1 and later on human hands were seen4 ,comp4 8,and there appeared in the cherubims the form of a man's hand under their wings0 7x4 #h74 ,here 8form0 7tabnit7 is used instead of 8likeness0 7demut72 and the hands are placed under the wings4 ,note this4 ,consider that in reference to the ofannim1 the prophet says1 le-ummatam1 8over against them10 although he does not ascribe to them any form4 ,he further says1 8,as the appearance of the bow that is in the cloud in the day of rain1 so was the appearance of the brightness round about4 ,this was the appearance of the likeness of the glory10 etc4 7i4 #bh74 ,the substance and true essence of the bow described here is well known4 ,the simile and comparison is in this case very extraordinary1 and is undoubtedly part of the prophecy2 and note it well4 ,it is also noteworthy that the likeness of man above the throne is divided1 the upper part being like the colour of ashmal1 the lower part like the appearance of fire4 ,as regards the word ashmal1 it has been explained to be a compound of two words ash and mal1 including two different notions1 viz41 ash signifying 8swiftness10 and mal denoting 8pause40 ,the two different notions are here joined in one word in order to indicate figuratively the two different parts1--the upper part and the lower4 ,we have already given a second explanation1 namely1 that ashmal includes the two notions of speech and silence2 in accordance with the saying of our ,sages1 8,at times they are silent1 at times they speak10 thus deriving hash of the same root as heeshethi1 8,i have been silent0 7,isa4 xlii4 #ad72 the word ashmal thus includes two notions1 and indicates 8speech without sound40 ,there is no doubt that the words1 8at times they are silent1 at times they speak10 refer to a created object4 ,now consider how they clearly stated that the divided likeness of man over the throne does not represent ,god1 who is above the whole chariot1 but represents a part of the creation4 ,the prophet likewise says 8that is the likeness of the glory of the ,lord02 but 8the glory of the ,lord0 is different from 8the ,lord0 ,himself1 as has been shown by us several times4 ,all the figures in this vision refer to the glory of the ,lord1 to the chariot1 and not to ,him who rides upon the chariot2 for ,god cannot be compared to anything4 ,note this4 ,i have thus given you also in this chapter as much of the heads of the sections as will be useful to you for the comprehension of this subject1 if you fill out the sections of these heads4 ,if you consider all that has been said in this part up to this chapter1 the greater part of this subject or the whole of it will be clear to you1 except a few points and some repetitions the meaning of which is unknown4 ,perhaps further study will help to reveal even these things so that nothing will remain unintelligible4 ,do not expect or hope to hear from me after this chapter a word on this subject1 either explicitly or implicitly1 for all that could be said on it has been said1 though with great difficulty and struggle4 ,i will now begin to treat of some of the other subjects which ,i hope to elucidate in this treatise4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,transient bodies are only subject to destruction through their substance and not through their form1 nor can the essence of their form be destroyed2 in this respect they are permanent4 ,the generic forms1 as you know1 are all permanent and stable4 ,form can only be destroyed accidentally1 i4e41 on account of its connexion with substance1 the true nature of which consists in the property of never being without a disposition to receive form4 ,this is the reason why no form remains permanently in a substance2 a constant change takes place1 one form is taken off and another is put on4 ,how wonderfully wise is the simile of ,king ,solomon1 in which he compares matter to a faithless wife2 for matter is never found without form1 and is therefore always like such a wife who is never without a husband1 never single2 and yet1 though being wedded1 constantly seeks another man in the place of her husband2 she entices and attracts him in every possible manner till he obtains from her what her husband has obtained4 ,the same is the case with matter4 ,whatever form it has1 it is disposed to receive another form2 it never leaves off moving and casting off the form which it has in order to receive another4 ,the same takes place when this second form is received4 ,it is therefore clear that all corruption1 destruction1 or defect comes from matter4 ,take1 e4g41 man2 his deformities and unnatural shape of limbs2 all weakness1 interruption1 or disorder of his actions1 whether innate or not1 originate in the transient substance1 not in the form4 ,all other living beings likewise die or become ill through the substance of the body and not through its form4 ,man's shortcomings and sins are all due to the substance of the body and not to its form2 while all his merits are exclusively due to his form4 ,thus the knowledge of ,god1 the formation of ideas1 the mastery of desire and passion1 the distinction between that which is to be chosen and that which is to be rejected1 all these man owes to his form2 but eating1 drinking1 sexual intercourse1 excessive lust1 passion1 and all vices1 have their origin in the substance of his body4 ,now it was clear that this was the case1--it was impossible1 according to the wisdom of ,god1 that substance should exist without form1 or any of the forms of the bodies without substance1 and it was necessary that the very noble form of man1 which is the image and likeness of ,god1 as has been shown by us1 should be joined to the substance of dust and darkness1 the source of all defect and loss4 ,for these reasons the ,creator gave to the form of man power1 rule1 and dominion over the substance2--the form can subdue the substance1 refuse the fulfilment of its desires1 and reduce them1 as far as possible1 to a just and proper measure4 ,the station of man varies according to the exercise of this power4 ,some persons constantly strive to choose that which is noble1 and to seek perpetuation in accordance with the direction of their nobler part1--their form2 their thoughts are engaged in the formation of ideas1 the acquisition of true knowledge about everything1 and the union with the divine intellect which flows down upon them1 and which is the source of man's form4 ,whenever they are led by the wants of the body to that which is low and avowedly disgraceful1 they are grieved at their position1 they feel ashamed and confounded at their situation4 ,they try with all their might to diminish this disgrace1 and to guard against it in every possible way4 ,they feel like a person whom the king in his anger ordered to remove refuse from one place to another in order to put him to shame2 that person tries as much as possible to hide himself during the time of his disgrace2 he perhaps removes a small quantity a short distance in such a manner that his hands and garments remain clean1 and he himself be unnoticed by his fellow-men4 ,such would be the conduct of a free man1 whilst a slave would find pleasure in such work2--he would not consider it a great burden1 but throw himself into the refuse1 smear his face and his hands1 carry the refuse openly1 laughing and singing4 ,this is exactly the difference in the conduct of different men4 ,some consider1 as we just said1 all wants of the body as shame1 disgrace1 and defect to which they are compelled to attend2 this is chiefly the case with the sense of touch1 which is a disgrace to us according to ,aristotle1 and which is the cause of our desire for eating1 drinking1 and sensuality4 ,intelligent persons must1 as much as possible1 reduce these wants1 guard against them1 feel grieved when satisfying them1 abstain from speaking of them1 discussing them1 and attending to them in company with others4 ,man must have control over all these desires1 reduce them as much as possible1 and only retain of them as much as is indispensable4 ,his aim must be the aim of man as man1 viz41 the formation of ideas1 and nothing else4 ,the best and sublimest among them is the idea which man forms of ,god1 angels1 and the rest of the creation according to his capacity4 ,such men are always with ,god1 and of them it is said1 8,ye are princes1 and all of you are children of the ,most ,high0 7,ps4 lxxxii4 #f74 ,this is man's task and purpose4 ,others1 however1 that are separated from ,god form the multitude of fools1 and do just the opposite4 ,they neglect all thought and all reflection on ideas1 and consider as their task the cultivation of the sense of touch1--that sense which is the greatest disgrace2 they only think and reason about eating and love4 ,thus it is said of the wicked who are drowned in eating1 drinking1 and love1 8,they also have erred through wine1 and through strong drink are out of the way10 etc4 7,isa4 xxviii4 #g71 8for all tables are full of vomit and filthiness1 so that there is no place clean0 7ver4 #h72 again1 8,and women rule over them0 7ibid4 iii4 #b71--the opposite of that which man was told in the beginning of the creation1 8,and for thy husband shall thy desire be1 and he shall rule over thee0 7,gen4 iii4 #af74 ,the intensity of their lust is then described thus1 8,every one neighed after his neighbour's wife10 etc4 7,jer4 v4 #h72 8they are all adulterers1 an assembly of treacherous men0 7ibid4 ix4 #b74 ,the whole book of the ,proverbs of ,solomon treats of this subject1 and exhorts to abstain from lust and intemperance4 ,these two vices ruin those that hate ,god and keep far from ,him2 to them the following passages may be applied1 8,they are not the ,lord's0 7ibid4 v4 #aj72 8,cast them out of my sight1 and let them go forth0 7ibid4 xv4 #a74 ,as regards the portion beginning1 8,who can find a virtuous woman80 it is clear what is meant by the figurative expression1 8a virtuous woman40 ,when man possesses a good sound body that does not overpower him nor disturb the equilibrium in him1 he possesses a divine gift4 ,in short1 a good constitution facilitates the rule of the soul over the body1 but it is not impossible to conquer a bad constitution by training4 ,for this reason ,king ,solomon and others wrote the moral lessons2 also all the commandments and exhortations in the ,pentateuch aim at conquering the desires of the body4 ,those who desire to be men in truth1 and not brutes1 having only the appearance and shape of men1 must constantly endeavour to reduce the wants of the body1 such as eating1 love1 drinking1 anger1 and all vices originating in lust and passion2 they must feel ashamed of them and set limits to them for themselves4 ,as for eating and drinking in so far as it is indispensable1 they will eat and drink only as much as is useful and necessary as food1 and not for the purpose of pleasure4 ,they will also speak little of these things1 and rarely congregate for such purposes4 ,thus our ,sages1 as is well known1 kept aloof from a banquet that was not part of a religious act1 and pious men followed the example of ,r4 ,phineas1 son of ,jair1 who never dined with other persons1 and even refused to accept an invitation of ,r4 ,jehudah1 the ,holy4 ,wine may be treated as food1 if taken as such1 but to form parties for the purpose of drinking wine together must be considered more disgraceful than the unrestrained conduct of persons who in daylight meet in the same house undressed and naked4 ,for the natural action of the digestive organ is indispensable to man1 he cannot do without it2 whilst drunkenness depends on the free will of an evil man4 ,to appear naked in the presence of other people is misconduct only according to public opinion1 not according to the dictates of reason1 whilst drunkenness1 which ruins the mind and the body of man1 reason stamps as a vice4 ,you1 therefore1 who desire to act as human beings must keep away from it1 and even from speaking of it4 ,on sexual intercourse1 ,i need not add anything after ,i have pointed out in the commentary on ,abot 7i4 #ag7 how it is treated by our ,law1 which is the teaching of pure wisdom--no excuse whatever should induce us to mention it or to speak of it4 ,thus our ,sages said1 that ,elisha the prophet is called holy1 because he did not think of it1 and consequently never found himself polluted with semen4 ,in a similar manner they say that ,jacob had the first issue of semen for the conception of ,reuben4 ,all these traditional stories have the object of teaching the nation humane conduct4 ,there is a well-known saying of our ,sages1 8,the thoughts about the sin are more dangerous than the sin itself40 ,i can offer a good explanation of this saying3 ,when a person is disobedient1 this is due to certain accidents connected with the corporeal element in his constitution2 for man sins only by his animal nature1 whereas thinking is a faculty of man connected with his form1--a person who thinks sinfully sins therefore by means of the nobler portion of his self2 and he who wrongly causes a foolish slave to work does not sin as much as he who wrongly causes a noble and free man to do the work of a slave4 ,for this specifically human element1 with all its properties and powers1 should only be employed in suitable work1 in attempts to join higher beings1 and not in attempts to go down and reach the lower creatures4 ,you know how we condemn lowness of speech1 and justly so1 for speech is likewise peculiar to man and a boon which ,god granted to him that he may be distinguished from the rest of living creatures4 ,thus ,god says1 8,who gave a mouth to man80 7,exod4 iv4 #aa72 and the prophet declares1 8,the ,lord ,god hath given me a learned tongue0 7,isa4 l4 #d74 ,this gift1 therefore1 which ,god gave us in order to enable us to perfect ourselves1 to learn and to teach1 must not be employed in doing that which is for us most degrading and perfectly disgraceful2 we must not imitate the songs and tales of ignorant and lascivious people4 ,it may be suitable to them1 but is not fit for those who are told1 8,and ye shall be unto me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation0 7,exod4 xix4 #f74 ,those who employ the faculty of thinking and speaking in the service of that sense which is no honour to us1 who think more than necessary of drink and love1 or even sing of these things2 they employ and use the divine gift in acts of rebellion against the ,giver1 and in the transgression of ,his commandments4 ,to them the following words may be applied3 8,and ,i multiplied her silver and gold1 which they prepared for ,baal0 7,hos4 ii4 #aj74 ,i have also a reason and cause for calling our language the holy language--do not think it is exaggeration or error on my part1 it is perfectly correct--the ,hebrew language has no special name for the organ of generation in females or in males1 nor for the act of generation itself1 nor for semen1 nor for secretion4 ,the ,hebrew has no original expressions for these things1 and only describes them in figurative language and by way of hints1 as if to indicate thereby that these things should not be mentioned1 and should therefore have no names2 we ought to be silent about them1 and when we are compelled to mention them1 we must manage to employ for that purpose some suitable expressions1 although these are generally used in a different sense4 ,thus the organ of generation in males is called in ,hebrew gid1 which is a figurative term1 reminding of the words1 8,and thy neck is an iron sinew0 7gid7 7,isa4 xlviii4 #d74 ,it is also called shupka1 8pouring out0 7,deut4 xxiii4 #b71 on account of its function4 ,the female organ is called kobah 7,num4 xxv4 #h71 from kebah 7,deut4 xviii4 #c71 which denotes 8stomach02 reem1 8womb10 is the inner organ in which the ftus develops2 oah 7,isa4 xxviii4 #h71 8refuse10 is derived from the verb yaa1 8he went out02 for 8urine0 the phrase meme raglayim1 8the water of the feet0 7#b ,kings4 xviii4 #ag71 is used2 semen is expressed by shikbat zera1 8a layer of seed40 ,for the act of generation there is no expression whatever in ,hebrew2 it is described by the following words only3 baal1 8he was master02 shakab1 8he lay02 laa1 8he took02 gillah ervah1 8he uncovered the nakedness40 ,be not misled by the word yishgalennah 7,deut4 xxviii4 #cj71 to take it as denoting that act2 this is not the case1 for shegal denotes a female ready for cohabitation4 ,comp4 8,upon thy right hand did stand the maiden0 7shegal7 8in gold of ,ophir0 7,ps4 xlv4 #aj74 ,yishgalennah1 according to the ,kethib1 denotes therefore 8he will take the female for the purpose of cohabitation40 ,we have made in the greater part of this chapter a digression from the theme of this treatise1 and introduced some moral and religious matter1 although they do not entirely belong to the subject of this treatise1 but the course of the discussion has led to it4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,the corporeal element in man is a large screen and partition that prevents him from perfectly perceiving abstract ideals2 this would be the case even if the corporeal element were as pure and superior as the substance of the spheres2 how much more must this be the case with our dark and opaque body4 ,however great the exertion of our mind may be to comprehend the ,divine ,being or any of the ideals1 we find a screen and partition between ,him and ourselves4 ,thus the prophets frequently hint at the existence of a partition between ,god and us4 ,they say ,he is concealed from us in vapours1 in darkness1 in mist1 or in a thick cloud2 or use similar figures to express that on account of our bodies we are unable to comprehend ,his essence4 ,this is the meaning of the words1 8,clouds and darkness are round about ,him0 7,ps4 xcvii4 #b74 ,the prophets tell us that the difficulty consists in the grossness of our substance2 they do not imply1 as might be gathered from the literal meaning of their words1 that ,god is corporeal1 and is invisible because ,he is surrounded by thick clouds1 vapours1 darkness1 or mist4 ,this figure is also expressed in the passage1 8,he made darkness ,his secret place0 7,ps4 xviii4 #ab74 ,the object of ,god revealing ,himself in thick clouds1 darkness1 vapours1 and mist was to teach this lesson2 for every prophetic vision contains some lesson by means of allegory2 that mighty vision1 therefore1 though the greatest of all visions1 and above all comparison1 viz41 ,his revelation in a thick cloud1 did not take place without any purpose1 it was intended to indicate that we cannot comprehend ,him on account of the dark body that surrounds us4 ,it does not surround ,god1 because ,he is incorporeal4 ,a tradition is current among our people that the day of the revelation on ,mount ,sinai was misty1 cloudy1 and a little rainy4 ,comp4 8,lord1 when thou wentest forth from ,seir1 when thou marchedst out of the field of ,edom1 the earth trembled1 and the heavens dropped water0 7,judges v4 #d74 ,the same idea is expressed by the words 8darkness1 clouds1 and thick darkness0 7,deut4 iv4 #aa74 ,the phrase does not denote that darkness surrounds ,god1 for with ,him there is no darkness1 but the great1 strong1 and permanent light1 which1 emanating from ,him1 illuminates all darkness1 as is expressed by the prophetic simile1 8,and the earth shined with ,his glory0 7,ezek4 xliii4 #b74 ,,chapter ,x ,the ,mutakallemim1 as ,i have already told you1 apply the term non-existence only to absolute non-existence1 and not to the absence of properties4 ,a property and the absence of that property are considered by them as two opposites1 they treat1 e4g41 blindness and sight1 death and life1 in the same way as heat and cold4 ,therefore they say1 without any qualification1 non-existence does not require any agent1 an agent is required when something is produced4 ,from a certain point of view this is correct4 ,although they hold that non-existence does not require an agent1 they say in accordance with their principle that ,god causes blindness and deafness1 and gives rest to anything that moves1 for they consider these negative conditions as positive properties4 ,we must now state our opinion in accordance with the results of philosophical research4 ,you know that he who removes the obstacle of motion is to some extent the cause of the motion1 e4g41 if one removes the pillar which supports the beam he causes the beam to move1 as has been stated by ,aristotle in his ,physics 7,,viii41 chap4 iv472 in this sense we say of him who removed a certain property that he produced the absence of that property1 although absence of a property is nothing positive4 ,just as we say of him who puts out the light at night that he has produced darkness1 so we say of him who destroyed the sight of any being that he produced blindness1 although darkness and blindness are negative properties1 and require no agent4 ,in accordance with this view we explain the following passage of ,isaiah3 8,i form the light and create 7bore7 darkness3 ,i make peace1 and create 7bore7 evil0 7,isa4 xlv4 #g71 for darkness and evil are non-existing things4 ,consider that the prophet does not say1 ,i make 7oseh7 darkness1 ,i make 7oseh7 evil1 because darkness and evil are not things in positive existence to which the verb 8to make0 would apply2 the verb bara 8he created0 is used1 because in ,hebrew this verb is applied to non-existing things1 e4g41 8,in the beginning ,god created0 7bara71 etc42 here the creation took place from nothing4 ,only in this sense can non-existence be said to be produced by a certain action of an agent4 ,in the same way we must explain the following passage3 8,who hath made man's mouth8 or who maketh the dumb1 or the deaf1 or the seeing10 etc4 7,exod4 iv4 #aa74 ,the passage can also be explained as follows3 ,who has made man able to speak8 or can create him without the capacity of speaking1 i4e41 create a substance that is incapable of acquiring this property8 for he who produces a substance that cannot acquire a certain property may be called the producer of that privation4 ,thus we say1 if any one abstains from delivering a fellow-man from death1 although he is able to do so1 that he killed him4 ,it is now clear that according to all these different views the action of an agent cannot be directly connected with a thing that does not exist2 only indirectly is non-existence described as the result of the action of an agent1 whilst in a direct manner an action can only influence a thing really in existence2 accordingly1 whoever the agent may be1 he can only act upon an existing thing4 ,after this explanation you must recall to memory that1 as has been proved1 the so-called evils are evils only in relation to a certain thing1 and that which is evil in reference to a certain existing thing1 either includes the non-existence of that thing or the non-existence of some of its good conditions4 ,the proposition has therefore been laid down in the most general terms1 8,all evils are negations40 ,thus for man death is evil2 death is his non-existence4 ,illness1 poverty1 and ignorance are evils for man2 all these are privations of properties4 ,if you examine all single cases to which this general proposition applies1 you will find that there is not one case in which the proposition is wrong except in the opinion of those who do not make any distinction between negative and positive properties1 or between two opposites1 or do not know the nature of things1--who1 e4g41 do not know that health in general denotes a certain equilibrium1 and is a relative term4 ,the absence of that relation is illness in general1 and death is the absence of life in the case of any animal4 ,the destruction of other things is likewise nothing but the absence of their form4 ,after these propositions1 it must be admitted as a fact that it cannot be said of ,god that ,he directly creates evil1 or ,he has the direct intention to produce evil2 this is impossible4 ,his works are all perfectly good4 ,he only produces existence1 and all existence is good2 whilst evils are of a negative character1 and cannot be acted upon4 ,evil can only be attributed to ,him in the way we have mentioned4 ,he creates evil only in so far as ,he produces the corporeal element such as it actually is2 it is always connected with negatives1 and is on that account the source of all destruction and all evil4 ,those beings that do not possess this corporeal element are not subject to destruction or evil2 consequently the true work of ,god is all good1 since it is existence4 ,the book which enlightened the darkness of the world says therefore1 8,and ,god saw everything that ,he had made1 and1 behold1 it was very good0 7,gen4 i4 #ca74 ,even the existence of this corporeal element1 low as it in reality is1 because it is the source of death and all evils1 is likewise good for the permanence of the ,universe and the continuation of the order of things1 so that one thing departs and the other succeeds4 ,rabbi ,meir therefore explains the words 8and behold it was very good0 7tob me'od72 that even death was good in accordance with what we have observed in this chapter4 ,remember what ,i said in this chapter1 consider it1 and you will understand all that the prophets and our ,sages remarked about the perfect goodness of all the direct works of ,god4 ,in ,bereshit ,rabba 7chap4 i47 the same idea is expressed thus3 8,no evil comes down from above40 ,,chapter ,,xi ,all the great evils which men cause to each other because of certain intentions1 desires1 opinions1 or religious principles1 are likewise due to non-existence1 because they originate in ignorance1 which is absence of wisdom4 ,a blind man1 for example1 who has no guide1 stumbles constantly1 because he cannot see1 and causes injury and harm to himself and others4 ,in the same manner various classes of men1 each man in proportion to his ignorance1 bring great evils upon themselves and upon other individual members of the species4 ,if men possessed wisdom1 which stands in the same relation to the form of man as the sight to the eye1 they would not cause any injury to themselves or to others2 for the knowledge of truth removes hatred and quarrels1 and prevents mutual injuries4 ,this state of society is promised to us by the prophet in the words3 8,and the wolf shall dwell with the lamb10 etc42 8and the cow and the bear shall feed together10 etc42 and 8the sucking child shall play on the hole of the asp10 etc4 7,isa4 xi4 #f seq474 ,the prophet also points out what will be the cause of this change2 for he says that hatred1 quarrel1 and fighting will come to an end1 because men will then have a true knowledge of ,god4 8,they shall not hurt nor destroy in all my holy mountain3 for the earth shall be full of the knowledge of the ,lord1 as the waters cover the sea0 7ibid4 ver4 #i74 ,note it4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,men frequently think that the evils in the world are more numerous than the good things2 many savings and songs of the nations dwell on this idea4 ,they say that a good thing is found only exceptionally1 whilst evil things are numerous and lasting4 ,not only common people make this mistake1 but even many who believe that they are wise4 ,al-,razi wrote a well-known book ,on ,metaphysics or ,theology4 ,among other mad and foolish things1 it contains also the idea1 discovered by him1 that there exists more evil than good4 ,for if the happiness of man and his pleasure in the times of prosperity be compared with the mishaps that befall him1--such as grief1 acute pain1 defects1 paralysis of the limbs1 fears1 anxieties1 and troubles1--it would seem as if the existence of man is a punishment and a great evil for him4 ,this author commenced to verify his opinion by counting all the evils one by one2 by this means he opposed those who hold the correct view of the benefits bestowed by ,god and ,his evident kindness1 viz41 that ,god is perfect goodness1 and that all that comes from ,him is absolutely good4 ,the origin of the error is to be found in the circumstance that this ignorant man1 and his party among the common people1 judge the whole universe by examining one single person4 ,for an ignorant man believes that the whole universe only exists for him2 as if nothing else required any consideration4 ,if1 therefore1 anything happens to him contrary to his expectation1 he at once concludes that the whole universe is evil4 ,if1 however1 he would take into consideration the whole universe1 form an idea of it1 and comprehend what a small portion he is of the ,universe1 he will find the truth4 ,for it is clear that persons who have fallen into this widespread error as regards the multitude of evils in the world1 do not find the evils among the angels1 the spheres and stars1 the elements1 and that which is formed of them1 viz41 minerals and plants1 or in the various species of living beings1 but only in some individual instances of mankind4 ,they wonder that a person1 who became leprous in consequence of bad food1 should be afflicted with so great an illness and suffer such a misfortune2 or that he who indulges so much in sensuality as to weaken his sight1 should be struck with blindness6 and the like4 ,what we have1 in truth1 to consider is this3--,the whole mankind at present in existence1 and a fortiori1 every other species of animals1 form an infinitesimal portion of the permanent universe4 ,comp4 8,man is like to vanity0 7,ps4 cxliv4 #d72 8,how much less man1 that is a worm2 and the son of man1 which is a worm0 7,job xxv4 #f72 8,how much less in them who dwell in houses of clay0 7ibid4 iv4 #ai72 8,behold1 the nations are as a drop of the bucket0 7,isa4 xl4 #ae74 ,there are many other passages in the books of the prophets expressing the same idea4 ,it is of great advantage that man should know his station1 and not erroneously imagine that the whole universe exists only for him4 ,we hold that the universe exists because the ,creator wills it so2 that mankind is low in rank as compared with the uppermost portion of the universe1 viz41 with the spheres and the stars2 but1 as regards the angels1 there cannot be any real comparison between man and angels1 although man is the highest of all beings on earth2 i4e41 of all beings formed of the four elements4 ,man's existence is nevertheless a great boon to him1 and his distinction and perfection is a divine gift4 ,the numerous evils to which individual persons are exposed are due to the defects existing in the persons themselves4 ,we complain and seek relief from our own faults2 we suffer from the evils which we1 by our own free will1 inflict on ourselves and ascribe them to ,god1 who is far from being connected with them6 ,comp4 8,is destruction his work8 ,no4 ,ye who call yourselves wrongly his sons1 you who are a perverse and crooked generation0 7,deut4 xxxii4 #e74 ,this is explained by ,solomon1 who says1 8,the foolishness of man perverteth his way1 and his heart fretteth against the ,lord0 7,prov4 xix4 #c74 ,i explain this theory in the following manner4 ,the evils that befall man are of three kinds3-- 7#a7 ,the first kind of evil is that which is caused to man by the circumstance that he is subject to genesis and destruction1 or that he possesses a body4 ,it is on account of the body that some persons happen to have great deformities or paralysis of some of the organs4 ,this evil may be part of the natural constitution of these persons1 or may have developed subsequently in consequence of changes in the elements1 e4g41 through bad air1 or thunderstorms1 or landslips4 ,we have already shown that1 in accordance with the divine wisdom1 genesis can only take place through destruction1 and without the destruction of the individual members of the species the species themselves would not exist permanently4 ,thus the true kindness1 and beneficence1 and goodness of ,god is clear4 ,he who thinks that he can have flesh and bones without being subject to any external influence1 or any of the accidents of matter1 unconsciously wishes to reconcile two opposites1 viz41 to be at the same time subject and not subject to change4 ,if man were never subject to change there could be no generation2 there would be one single being1 but no individuals forming a species4 ,galen1 in the third section of his book1 ,the ,use of the ,limbs1 says correctly that it would be in vain to expect to see living beings formed of the blood of menstruous women and the semen virile1 who will not die1 will never feel pain1 or will move perpetually1 or will shine like the sun4 ,this dictum of ,galen is part of the following more general proposition3--,whatever is formed of any matter receives the most perfect form possible in that species of matter2 in each individual case the defects are in accordance with the defects of that individual matter4 ,the best and most perfect being that can be formed of the blood and the semen is the species of man1 for as far as man's nature is known1 he is living1 reasonable1 and mortal4 ,it is therefore impossible that man should be free from this species of evil4 ,you will1 nevertheless1 find that the evils of the above kind which befall man are very few and rare2 for you find countries that have not been flooded or burned for thousands of years2 there are thousands of men in perfect health1 deformed individuals are a strange and exceptional occurrence1 or say few in number if you object to the term exceptional1--they are not one-hundredth1 not even one-thousandth part of those that are perfectly normal4 7#b7 ,the second class of evils comprises such evils as people cause to each other1 when1 e4g41 some of them use their strength against others4 ,these evils are more numerous than those of the first kind2 their causes are numerous and known2 they likewise originate in ourselves1 though the sufferer himself cannot avert them4 ,this kind of evil is nevertheless not widespread in any country of the whole world4 ,it is of rare occurrence that a man plans to kill his neighbour or to rob him of his property by night4 ,many persons are1 however1 afflicted with this kind of evil in great wars2 but these are not frequent1 if the whole inhabited part of the earth is taken into consideration4 7#c7 ,the third class of evils comprises those which every one causes to himself by his own action4 ,this is the largest class1 and is far more numerous than the second class4 ,it is especially of these evils that all men complain1--only few men are found that do not sin against themselves by this kind of evil4 ,those that are afflicted with it are therefore justly blamed in the words of the prophet1 8,this hath been by your means0 7,mal4 i4 #i72 the same is expressed in the following passage1 8,he that doeth it destroyeth his own soul0 7,prov4 vi4 #cb74 ,in reference to this kind of evil1 ,solomon says1 8,the foolishness of man perverteth his way0 7ibid4 xix4 #c74 ,in the following passage he explains also that this kind of evil is man's own work1 8,lo1 this only have ,i found1 that ,god hath made man upright1 but they have thought out many inventions0 7,eccles4 vii4 #bi71 and these inventions bring the evils upon him4 ,the same subject is referred to in ,job 7v4 #f71 8,for affliction cometh not forth of the dust1 neither doth trouble spring out of the ground40 ,these words are immediately followed by the explanation that man himself is the author of this class of evils1 8,but man is born unto trouble40 ,this class of evils originates in man's vices1 such as excessive desire for eating1 drinking1 and love2 indulgence in these things in undue measure1 or in improper manner1 or partaking of bad food4 ,this course brings diseases and afflictions upon body and soul alike4 ,the sufferings of the body in consequence of these evils are well known2 those of the soul are twofold3--,first1 such evils of the soul as are the necessary consequence of changes in the body1 in so far as the soul is a force residing in the body2 it has therefore been said that the properties of the soul depend on the condition of the body4 ,secondly1 the soul1 when accustomed to superfluous things1 acquires a strong habit of desiring things which are neither necessary for the preservation of the individual nor for that of the species4 ,this desire is without a limit1 whilst things which are necessary are few in number and restricted within certain limits2 but what is superfluous is without end--e4g41 you desire to have your vessels of silver1 but golden vessels are still better3 others have even vessels of sapphire1 or perhaps they can be made of emerald or rubies1 or any other substance that could be suggested4 ,those who are ignorant and perverse in their thought are constantly in trouble and pain1 because they cannot get as much of superfluous things as a certain other person possesses4 ,they as a rule expose themselves to great dangers1 e4g41 by sea-voyage1 or service of kings1 and all this for the purpose of obtaining that which is superfluous and not necessary4 ,when they thus meet with the consequences of the course which they adopt1 they complain of the decrees and judgments of ,god2 they begin to blame the time1 and wonder at the want of justice in its changes2 that it has not enabled them to acquire great riches1 with which they could buy large quantities of wine for the purpose of making themselves drunk1 and numerous concubines adorned with various kind of ornaments of gold1 embroidery1 and jewels1 for the purpose of driving themselves to voluptuousness beyond their capacities1 as if the whole ,universe existed exclusively for the purpose of giving pleasure to these low people4 ,the error of the ignorant goes so far as to say that ,god's power is insufficient1 because ,he has given to this ,universe the properties which they imagine cause these great evils1 and which do not help all evil-disposed persons to obtain the evil which they seek1 and to bring their evil souls to the aim of their desires1 though these1 as we have shown1 are really without limit4 ,the virtuous and wise1 however1 see and comprehend the wisdom of ,god displayed in the ,universe4 ,thus ,david says1 8,all the paths of the ,lord are mercy and truth unto such as keep ,his covenant and ,his testimonies0 7,ps4 xxv4 #aj74 ,for those who observe the nature of the ,universe and the commandments of the ,law1 and know their purpose1 see clearly ,god's mercy and truth in everything2 they seek1 therefore1 that which the ,creator intended to be the aim of man1 viz41 comprehension4 ,forced by the claims of the body1 they seek also that which is necessary for the preservation of the body1 8bread to eat and garment to clothe10 and this is very little2 but they seek nothing superfluous2 with very slight exertion man can obtain it1 so long as he is contented with that which is indispensable4 ,all the difficulties and troubles we meet in this respect are due to the desire for superfluous things2 when we seek unnecessary things1 we have difficulty even in finding that which is indispensable4 ,for the more we desire to have that which is superfluous1 the more we meet with difficulties2 our strength and possessions are spent in unnecessary things1 and are wanting when required for that which is necessary4 ,observe how ,nature proves the correctness of this assertion4 ,the more necessary a thing is for living beings1 the more easily it is found and the cheaper it is2 the less necessary it is1 the rarer and dearer it is4 ,e4g41 air1 water1 and food are indispensable to man3 air is most necessary1 for if man is without air a short time he dies2 whilst he can be without water a day or two4 ,air is also undoubtedly found more easily and cheaper than water4 ,water is more necessary than food2 for some people can be four or five days without food1 provided they have water2 water also exists in every country in larger quantities than food1 and is also cheaper4 ,the same proportion can be noticed in the different kinds of food2 that which is more necessary in a certain place exists there in larger quantities and is cheaper than that which is less necessary4 ,no intelligent person1 ,i think1 considers musk1 amber1 rubies1 and emerald as very necessary for man except as medicines2 and they1 as well as other like substances1 can be replaced for this purpose by herbs and minerals4 ,this shows the kindness of ,god to ,his creatures1 even to us weak beings4 ,his righteousness and justice as regards all animals are well known2 for in the transient world there is among the various kinds of animals no individual being distinguished from the rest of the same species by a peculiar property or an additional limb4 ,on the contrary1 all physical1 psychical1 and vital forces and organs that are possessed by one individual are found also in the other individuals4 ,if any one is somehow different it is by accident1 in consequence of some exception1 and not by a natural property2 it is also a rare occurrence4 ,there is no difference between individuals of a species in the due course of ,nature2 the difference originates in the various dispositions of their substances4 ,this is the necessary consequence of the nature of the substance of that species2 the nature of the species is not more favourable to one individual than to the other4 ,it is no wrong or injustice that one has many bags of finest myrrh and garments embroidered with gold1 while another has not those things1 which are not necessary for our maintenance2 he who has them has not thereby obtained control over anything that could be an essential addition to his nature1 but has only obtained something illusory or deceptive4 ,the other1 who does not possess that which is not wanted for his maintenance1 does not miss anything indispensable3 8,he that gathered much had nothing over1 and he that gathered little had no lack3 they gathered every man according to his eating0 7,exod4 xvi4 #ah74 ,this is the rule at all times and in all places2 no notice should be taken of exceptional cases1 as we have explained4 ,in these two ways you will see the mercy of ,god toward ,his creatures1 how ,he has provided that which is required1 in proper proportions1 and treated all individual beings of the same species with perfect equality4 ,in accordance with this correct reflection the chief of the wise men says1 8,all his ways are judgment0 7,deut4 xxxii4 #d72 ,david likewise says3 8,all the paths of the ,lord are mercy and truth0 7,ps4 xxv4 #aj72 he also says expressly1 8,the ,lord is good to all2 and his tender mercies are over all his works0 7ibid4 cxlv4 #i72 for it is an act of great and perfect goodness that ,he gave us existence2 and the creation of the controlling faculty in animals is a proof of ,his mercy towards them1 as has been shown by us4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,intelligent persons are much perplexed when they inquire into the purpose of the ,creation4 ,i will now show how absurd this question is1 according to each one of the different theories above-mentioned4 ,an agent that acts with intention must have a certain ulterior object in that which he performs4 ,this is evident1 and no philosophical proof is required4 ,it is likewise evident that that which is produced with intention has passed over from non-existence to existence4 ,it is further evident1 and generally agreed upon1 that the being which has absolute existence1 which has never been and will never be without existence1 is not in need of an agent4 ,we have explained this before4 ,the question1 8,what is the purpose thereof80 cannot be asked about anything which is not the product of an agent2 therefore we cannot ask what is the purpose of the existence of ,god4 ,he has not been created4 ,according to these propositions it is clear that the purpose is sought for everything produced intentionally by an intelligent cause2 that is to say1 a final cause must exist for everything that owes its existence to an intelligent being3 but for that which is without a beginning1 a final cause need not be sought1 as has been stated by us4 ,after this explanation you will understand that there is no occasion to seek the final cause of the whole ,universe1 neither according to our theory of the ,creation1 nor according to the theory of ,aristotle1 who assumes the ,eternity of the ,universe4 ,for according to ,aristotle1 who holds that the ,universe has not had a beginning1 an ultimate final cause cannot be sought even for the various parts of the ,universe4 ,thus it cannot be asked1 according to his opinion1 ,what is the final cause of the existence of the heavens8 ,why are they limited by this measure or by that number8 ,why is matter of this description8 ,what is the purpose of the existence of this species of animals or plants8 ,aristotle considers all this as the result of a permanent order of things4 ,natural ,philosophy investigates into the object of everything in ,nature1 but it does not treat of the ultimate final cause1 of which we speak in this chapter4 ,it is a recognized fact in ,natural ,philosophy that everything in ,nature has its object1 or its final cause1 which is the most important of the four causes1 though it is not easily recognized in most species4 ,aristotle repeatedly says that ,nature produces nothing in vain1 for every natural action has a certain object4 ,thus1 ,aristotle says that plants exist for animals2 and similarly he shows of other parts of the ,universe for what purpose they exist4 ,this is still more obvious in the case of the organs of animals4 ,the existence of such a final cause in the various parts of ,nature has compelled philosophers to assume the existence of a primal cause apart from ,nature2 it is called by ,aristotle the intellectual or divine cause1 and this cause creates one thing for the purpose of another4 ,those who acknowledge the truth will accept as the best proof for the ,creation the fact that everything in ,nature serves a certain purpose1 so that one thing exists for the benefit of another2 this fact is supported by numerous instances1 and shows that there is design in ,nature2 but the existence of design in ,nature cannot be imagined unless it be assumed that ,nature has been produced4 ,i will now return to the subject of this chapter1 viz41 the final cause4 ,aristotle has already explained that in ,nature the efficient cause of a thing1 its form1 and its final cause are identical2 that is to say1 they are one thing in relation to the whole species4 ,e4g41 the form of ,zeid produces the form of his son ,amr2 its action consists in imparting the form of the whole species of man to the substance of ,amr1 and the final cause is ,amr's possession of human form4 ,the same argument is applied by ,aristotle to every individual member of a class of natural objects which is brought to existence by another individual member4 ,the three causes coincide in all such cases4 ,all this refers only to the immediate purpose of a thing2 but the existence of an ultimate purpose in every species1 which is considered as absolutely necessary by every one who investigates into the nature of things1 is very difficult to discover3 and still more difficult is it to find the purpose of the whole ,universe4 ,i infer from the words of ,aristotle that according to his opinion the ultimate purpose of the genera is the preservation of the course of genesis and destruction2 and this course is absolutely necessary in the first instance for the successive formation of material objects1 because individual beings formed of matter are not permanent2 secondly1 for the production of the best and the most perfect beings that can be formed of matter1 because the ultimate purpose in these productions is to arrive at perfection4 ,now it is clear that man is the most perfect being formed of matter2 he is the last and most perfect of earthly beings1 and in this respect it can truly be said that all earthly things exist for man1 i4e41 that the changes which things undergo serve to produce the most perfect being that can be produced4 ,aristotle1 who assumes the ,eternity of the ,universe1 need therefore not ask to what purpose does man exist1 for the immediate purpose of each individual being is1 according to his opinion1 the perfection of its specific form4 ,every individual thing arrives at its perfection fully and completely when the actions that produce its form are complete4 ,the ultimate purpose of the species is the perpetuation of this form by the repeated succession of genesis and destruction1 so that there might always be a being capable of the greatest possible perfection4 ,it seems therefore clear that1 according to ,aristotle1 who assumes the ,eternity of the ,universe1 there is no occasion for the question what is the object of the existence of the ,universe4 ,but of those who accept our theory that the whole ,universe has been created from nothing1 some hold that the inquiry after the purpose of the ,creation is necessary1 and assume that the ,universe was only created for the sake of man's existence1 that he might serve ,god4 ,everything that is done they believe is done for man's sake2 even the spheres move only for his benefit1 in order that his wants might be supplied4 ,the literal meaning of some passages in the books of the prophets greatly support this idea4 ,comp4 8,he formed it 7viz41 the earth7 to be inhabited0 7,isa4 xlv4 #ah72 8,if my covenant of day and night were not10 etc4 7,jer4 xxxiii4 #be72 8,and spreadeth them out as a tent to dwell in0 7,isa4 xl4 #bb74 ,if the sphere existed for the sake of man1 how much more must this be the case with all other living beings and the plants4 ,on examining this opinion as intelligent persons ought to examine all different opinions1 we shall discover the errors it includes4 ,those who hold this view1 namely1 that the existence of man is the object of the whole creation1 may be asked whether ,god could have created man without those previous creations1 or whether man could only have come into existence after the creation of all other things4 ,if they answer in the affirmative1 that man could have been created even if1 e4g41 the heavens did not exist1 they will be asked what is the object of all these things1 since they do not exist for their own sake but for the sake of something that could exist without them8 ,even if the ,universe existed for man's sake and man existed for the purpose of serving ,god1 as has been mentioned1 the question remains1 ,what is the end of serving ,god8 ,he does not become more perfect if all ,his creatures serve ,him and comprehend ,him as far as possible2 nor would ,he lose anything if nothing existed beside ,him4 ,it might perhaps be replied that the service of ,god is not intended for ,god's perfection2 it is intended for our own perfection1--it is good for us1 it makes us perfect4 ,but then the question might be repeated1 ,what is the object of our being perfect8 ,we must in continuing the inquiry as to the purpose of the creation at last arrive at the answer1 ,it was the ,will of ,god1 or ,his ,wisdom decreed it2 and this is the correct answer4 ,the wise men in ,israel have1 therefore1 introduced in our prayers 7for ,neilah of the ,day of ,atonement7 the following passage3--8,thou hast distinguished man from the beginning1 and chosen him to stand before ,thee2 who can say unto ,thee1 ,what dost ,thou8 ,and if he be righteous1 what does he give ,thee80 ,they have thus clearly stated that it was not a final cause that determined the existence of all things1 but only ,his will4 ,this being the case1 we who believe in the ,creation must admit that ,god could have created the ,universe in a different manner as regards the causes and effects contained in it1 and this would lead to the absurd conclusion that everything except man existed without any purpose1 as the principal object1 man1 could have been brought into existence without the rest of the creation4 ,i consider therefore the following opinion as most correct according to the teaching of the ,bible1 and best in accordance with the results of philosophy2 namely1 that the ,universe does not exist for man's sake1 but that each being exists for its own sake1 and not because of some other thing4 ,thus we believe in the ,creation1 and yet need not inquire what purpose is served by each species of the existing things1 because we assume that ,god created all parts of the ,universe by ,his will2 some for their own sake1 and some for the sake of other beings1 that include their own purpose in themselves4 ,in the same manner as it was the will of ,god that man should exist1 so it was ,his will that the heavens with their stars should exist1 that there should be angels1 and each of these beings is itself the purpose of its own existence4 ,when anything can only exist provided some other thing has previously existed1 ,god has caused the latter to precede it2 as1 e4g41 sensation precedes comprehension4 ,we meet also with this view in ,scripture3 8,the ,lord hath made everything 7la-maanehu7 for its purpose0 7,prov4 xvi4 #d74 ,it is possible that the pronoun in la-maanehu refers to the object2 but it can also be considered as agreeing with the subject2 in which case the meaning of the word is1 for the sake of ,himself1 or ,his will which is identical with ,his self or essence1 as has been shown in this treatise4 ,we have also pointed out that ,his essence is also called ,his glory4 ,the words1 8,the ,lord hath made everything for ,himself10 express therefore the same idea as the following verse1 8,everything that is called by my name3 ,i have created it for my glory1 ,i have formed it2 yea1 ,i have made it0 7,isa4 xliii4 #g72 that is to say1 everything that is described as ,my work has been made by ,me for the sake of ,my will and for no other purpose4 ,the words1 8,i have formed it10 8,i have made it10 express exactly what ,i pointed out to you1 that there are things whose existence is only possible after certain other things have come into existence4 ,to these reference is made in the text1 as if to say1 ,i have formed the first thing which must have preceded the other things1 e4g41 matter has been formed before the production of material beings2 ,i have then made out of that previous creation1 or after it1 what ,i intended to produce1 and there was nothing but ,my will4 ,study the book which leads all who want to be led to the truth1 and is therefore called ,torah 7,law or ,instruction71 from the beginning of the account of the ,creation to its end1 and you will comprehend the opinion which we attempt to expound4 ,for no part of the creation is described as being in existence for the sake of another part1 but each part is declared to be the product of ,god's will1 and to satisfy by its existence the intention of the ,creator4 ,this is expressed by the phrase1 8,and ,god saw that it was good0 7,gen4 i4 #d1 etc474 ,you know our interpretation of the saying of our ,sages1 8,scripture speaks the same language as is spoken by man40 ,but we call 8good0 that which is in accordance with the object we seek4 ,when therefore ,scripture relates in reference to the whole creation 7,gen4 i4 #ca71 8,and ,god saw all that ,he had made1 and behold it was exceedingly good10 it declares thereby that everything created was well fitted for its object1 and would never cease to act1 and never be annihilated4 ,this is especially pointed out by the word 8exceedingly02 for sometimes a thing is temporarily good2 it serves its purpose1 and then it fails and ceases to act4 ,but as regards the ,creation it is said that everything was fit for its purpose1 and able continually to act accordingly4 ,you must not be misled by what is stated of the stars that ,god put them in the firmament of the heavens to give light upon the earth1 and to rule by day and by night4 ,you might perhaps think that here the purpose of their creation is described4 ,this is not the case2 we are only informed of the nature of the stars1 which ,god desired to create with such properties that they should be able to give light and to rule4 ,in a similar manner we must understand the passage1 8,and have dominion over the fish of the sea0 7ibid4 i4 #bh74 ,here it is not meant to say that man was created for this purpose1 but only that this was the nature which ,god gave man4 ,but as to the statement in ,scripture that ,god gave the plants to man and other living beings1 it agrees with the opinion of ,aristotle and other philosophers4 ,it is also reasonable to assume that the plants exist only for the benefit of the animals1 since the latter cannot live without food4 ,it is different with the stars1 they do not exist only for our sake1 that we should enjoy their good influence2 for the expressions 8to give light0 and 8to rule0 merely describe1 as we have stated above1 the benefit which the creatures on earth derive from them4 ,i have already explained to you the character of that influence that causes continually the good to descend from one being to another4 ,to those who receive the good flowing down upon them1 it may appear as if the being existed for them alone that sends forth its goodness and kindness unto them4 ,thus some citizen may imagine that it was for the purpose of protecting his house by night from thieves that the king was chosen4 ,to some extent this is correct2 for when his house is protected1 and he has derived this benefit through the king whom the country had chosen1 it appears as if it were the object of the king to protect the house of that man4 ,in this manner we must explain every verse1 the literal meaning of which would imply that something superior was created for the sake of something inferior1 viz41 that it is part of the nature of the superior thing to influence the inferior in a certain manner4 ,we remain firm in our belief that the whole ,universe was created in accordance with the will of ,god1 and we do not inquire for any other cause or object4 ,just as we do not ask what is the purpose of ,god's existence1 so we do not ask what was the object of ,his will1 which is the cause of the existence of all things with their present properties1 both those that have been created and those that will be created4 ,you must not be mistaken and think that the spheres and the angels were created for our sake4 ,our position has already been pointed out to us1 8,behold1 the nations are as a drop of a bucket0 7,isa4 xl4 #ae74 ,now compare your own essence with that of the spheres1 the stars1 and the ,intelligences1 and you will comprehend the truth1 and understand that man is superior to everything formed of earthly matter1 but not to other beings2 he is found exceedingly inferior when his existence is compared with that of the spheres1 and a fortiori when compared with that of the ,intelligences4 ,comp4 8,behold1 he putteth no trust in his servants3 and his messengers he charged with folly3 how much less in them that dwell in houses of clay1 whose foundation is in the dust1 which are crushed before the moth80 7,job iv4 #ah1 #ai74 ,the expression 8his servants10 occurring in this passage1 does not denote human beings2 this may be inferred from the words1 8,how much less in them that dwell in houses of clay80 ,the 8servants0 referred to in this place are the angels2 whilst by the term 8his messengers0 the spheres are undoubtedly meant4 ,eliphas himself1 who uttered the above words1 explains this in the second speech when he refers to it in one of his replies in other words1 saying1 8,behold1 he putteth no trust in his holy ones2 yea1 the heavens are not clean in his sight1 how much more abominable and filthy is man1 who drinketh iniquity like water0 7ibid4 xv4 #ae1 #af74 ,he thus shows that 8his servants0 and 8his holy ones0 are identical1 and that they are not human beings2 also that 8his messengers10 mentioned in the first passage1 are the same as 8the heavens40 ,the term 8folly0 is explained by the phrase 8they are not clean in his sight10 i4e41 they are material2 although their substance is the purest and the most luminous1 compared with the ,intelligences it appears dark1 turbid1 and impure4 ,the phrase1 8,behold1 he putteth no trust in his servants10 is employed in reference to the angels1 indicating that these do not possess perpetual existence1 since1 as we believe1 they have had a beginning2 and even according to those who assume the ,eternity of the ,universe1 the existence of the angels is at all events dependent on and therefore inferior to1 the absolute existence of ,god4 ,the words1 8,how much more abominable and filthy is man10 in the one passage1 correspond to the phrase 8,how much less in those who dwell in houses of clay0 in the other passage4 ,their meaning is this3 ,how much less in man who is abominable and filthy1 in whose person crookedness or corporeality is mixed up and spread through all his parts4 8,iniquity0 7avlah7 is identical with 8crookedness10 as may be inferred from the passage1 8,in the land of uprightness he will act with iniquity0 7,isa4 xxvi4 #aj71 and ish1 8man10 is here used in the same sense as adam1 8human being02 for 8man0 in a general sense is sometimes expressed in ,scripture by ish4 ,comp4 8,he who smiteth a man 7ish7 and he die0 7,exod4 xxi4 #ab74 ,this must be our belief when we have a correct knowledge of our own self1 and comprehend the true nature of everything2 we must be content1 and not trouble our mind with seeking a certain final cause for things that have none1 or have no other final cause but their own existence1 which depends on the ,will of ,god1 or1 if you prefer1 on the ,divine ,wisdom4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,in order to obtain a correct estimate of ourselves1 we must reflect on the results of the investigations which have been made into the dimensions and the distances of the spheres and the stars4 ,the distances are clearly stated in radii of the earth1 and are well known1 since the circumference and the radius of the earth are known4 ,it has been proved that the distance between the centre of the earth and the outer surface of the sphere of ,saturn is a journey of nearly eight thousand seven hundred solar years4 ,suppose a day's journey to be forty legal miles of two thousand ordinary cubits1 and consider the great and enormous distance6 or in the words of ,scripture1 8,is not ,god in the height of heaven8 and behold the height of the stars1 how high they are60 7,job xxii4 #ab72 that is to say1 learn from the height of the heavens how far we are from comprehending ,god1 for there is an enormous distance between ourselves and these corporeal objects1 and the latter are greatly distinguished from us by their position1 and hidden from us as regards their essence and most of their actions4 ,how much more incomprehensible therefore is their ,maker1 who is incorporeal6 ,the great distance which has been proved is1 in fact1 the least that can be assumed4 ,the distance between the centre of the earth and the surface of the sphere of the fixed stars can by no means be less1 but it may possibly be many times as great2 for the measure of the thickness of the body of the spheres has not been proved1 and the least possible has been assumed1 as appears from the treatises ,on the ,distances4 ,the same is the case with the substances which are between every two spheres4 ,according to logical inference1 as has been mentioned by ,thabit1 the thickness of these substances cannot be accurately stated1 since they do not contain any star1 which might serve as a means of obtaining it4 ,as to the thickness of the sphere of the fixed stars1 it is at least four years' journey1 as may be inferred from the measure of the stars contained in the sphere4 ,the body of each of these stars is more than ninety times as big as the globe of the earth1 and it is possible that the thickness of the sphere is still greater4 ,of the ninth sphere1 that causes the daily revolution of the whole system of spheres1 we do not know the dimensions2 it contains no stars1 and therefore we have no means of finding out its magnitude4 ,now consider the enormous dimensions and the large number of these material beings4 ,if the whole earth is infinitely small in comparison with the sphere of the stars1 what is man compared with all these created beings6 ,how1 then1 could any one of us imagine that these things exist for his sake and benefit1 and that they are his tools6 ,this is the result of an examination of the corporeal beings3 how much more so will this be the result of an examination into the nature of the ,intelligences6 ,the following question may be asked against the opinion of philosophers on this subject3 ,there is no doubt that from a philosophical point of view it would be a mistake to assume that the spheres exist for the purpose of regulating the fate of one individual person or community2 but it is not absurd to think that they serve to regulate the affairs of mankind1 since these mighty individual beings would serve to give existence to the individual members of the species1 the number of which1 according to the philosophers1 will never come to an end4 ,we can best illustrate this by the following simile3 ,an artisan makes iron tools of a hundred-weight for the purpose of making a small needle of the weight of a grain4 ,if only one needle had to be produced1 we admit that it would certainly be bad management1 though it would not be entirely a failure2 but if with those enormous tools needle after needle is produced1 even many hundred-weights of needles1 the preparation of those tools would be a wise act and excellent management4 ,in a similar manner the object of the spheres may be the continuance of successive genesis and destruction2 and the succession of genesis and destruction serves1 as has already been said1 to give existence to mankind4 ,this idea is supported by ,biblical texts and sayings of our ,sages4 ,the philosopher replies thus3 ,if the difference between the heavenly bodies and the transient individual members of the species consisted in their different sizes1 this opinion could be maintained2 but as the difference consists in their essence1 it remains improbable that the superior beings should be the means of giving existence to the lower ones4 ,in short1 this question supports our belief in the ,creation2 and this is the principal object of this chapter4 ,it serves besides a second purpose4 ,i frequently hear from those who know something about astronomy1 that our ,sages exaggerated the distances of the heavenly bodies when they said that the thickness of each sphere is five hundred years' journey2 the distance of the seven spheres from each other five hundred years' journey1 so that the distance of the outer surface of the seventh sphere from the centre of the earth is seven thousand years' journey4 ,those who hear such statements consider them at first thought as exaggeration1 and believe that the distance is not so great4 ,but you may ascertain from the data proved in scientific treatises on the distances1 that the centre of the earth is distant from the inner surface of the seventh sphere1 that of ,saturn1 nearly seven thousand and twenty-four years' journey4 ,the number eight thousand and seven hundred given by us1 refers to the distance of the centre of the earth from the inner surface of the eighth sphere4 ,the distance of the spheres from each other1 mentioned by astronomers1 is identical with the thickness of the substance that intervenes between one sphere and the other1 and does not imply that there is a vacuum4 ,you must1 however1 not expect that everything our ,sages say respecting astronomical matters should agree with observation1 for mathematics were not fully developed in those days2 and their statements were not based on the authority of the ,prophets1 but on the knowledge which they either themselves possessed or derived from contemporary men of science4 ,but ,i will not on that account denounce what they say correctly in accordance with real fact1 as untrue or accidentally true4 ,on the contrary1 whenever the words of a person can be interpreted in such a manner that they agree with fully established facts1 it is the duty of every educated and honest man to do so4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,that which is impossible has a permanent and constant property1 which is not the result of some agent1 and cannot in any way change1 and consequently we do not ascribe to ,god the power of doing what is impossible4 ,no thinking man denies the truth of this maxim2 none ignore it1 but such as have no idea of ,logic4 ,there is1 however1 a difference of opinion among philosophers with reference to the existence of any particular thing4 ,some of them consider its existence to be impossible1 and hold that ,god cannot produce the thing in question1 whilst others think that it is possible1 and that ,god can create it if ,he pleases to do so4 ,e4g41 all philosophers consider that it is impossible for one substratum to have at the same moment two opposite properties1 or for the elementary components of a thing1 substance and accident1 to interchange1 so that the substance becomes accident1 and the accident becomes substance1 or for a material substance to be without accident4 ,likewise it is impossible that ,god should produce a being like ,himself1 or annihilate1 corporify1 or change ,himself4 ,the power of ,god is not assumed to extend to any of these impossibilities4 ,but the existence of accidents independent of substance is possible according to one class of philosophers1 the ,mutazilah1 whilst according to others it is impossible2 it must1 however1 be added that those who admit the existence of an accident independent of substance1 have not arrived at this conclusion by philosophical research alone2 but it was mainly by the desire to defend certain religious principles1 which speculation had greatly shaken1 that they had recourse to this theory4 ,in a similar manner the creation of corporeal things1 otherwise than from a substance1 is possible according to our view1 whilst the philosophers say that it is impossible4 ,again1 whilst philosophers say that it is impossible to produce a square with a diagonal equal to one of the sides1 or a solid angle that includes four right angles1 or similar things1 it is thought possible by some persons who are ignorant of mathematics1 and who only know the words of these propositions1 but have no idea of that which is expressed by them4 ,i wonder whether this gate of research is open1 so that all may freely enter1 and whilst one imagines a thing and considers it possible1 another is at liberty to assert that such a thing is impossible by its very nature2 or whether the gate is closed and guarded by certain rules1 so that we are able to decide with certainty whether a thing is physically impossible4 ,i should also like to know1 in the latter case1 whether imagination or reason has to examine and test objects as to their being possible or not2 likewise how things imagined1 and things conceived intellectually1 are to be distinguished from each other4 ,for it occurs that we consider a thing as physically possible1 and then some one objects1 or we ourselves fear that our opinion is only the result of imagination1 and not that of reason4 ,in such a case it would be desirable to ascertain whether there exists some faculty to distinguish between imagination and intellect1 and if so1 whether this faculty is different from both1 or whether it is part of the intellect itself to distinguish between intellectual and imaginary objects4 ,all this requires investigation1 but it does not belong to the theme of this chapter4 ,we have thus shown that according to each one of the different theories there are things which are impossible1 whose existence cannot be admitted1 and whose creation is excluded from the power of ,god1 and the assumption that ,god does not change their nature does not imply weakness in ,god1 or a limit to ,his power4 ,consequently things impossible remain impossible1 and do not depend on the action of an agent4 ,it is now clear that a difference of opinion exists only as to the question to which of the two classes a thing belongs2 whether to the class of the impossible1 or to that of the possible4 ,note it4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,the philosophers have uttered very perverse ideas as regards ,god's ,omniscience of everything beside ,himself2 they have stumbled in such a manner that they cannot rise again1 nor can those who adopt their views4 ,i will further on tell you the doubts that led them to these perverse utterances on this question2 and ,i will also tell you the opinion which is taught by our religion1 and which differs from the evil and wrong principles of the philosophers as regards ,god's ,omniscience4 ,the principal reason that first induced the philosophers to adopt their theory is this3 at first thought we notice an absence of system in human affairs4 ,some pious men live a miserable and painful life1 whilst some wicked people enjoy a happy and pleasant life4 ,on this account the philosophers assumed as possible the cases which you will now hear4 ,they said that only one of two things is possible1 either ,god is ignorant of the individual or particular things on earth1 and does not perceive them1 or ,he perceives and knows them4 ,these are all the cases possible4 ,they then continued thus3 ,if ,he perceives and knows all individual things1 one of the following three cases must take place3 7#a7 ,god arranges and manages human affairs well1 perfectly and faultlessly2 7#b7 ,he is overcome by obstacles1 and is too weak and powerless to manage human affairs2 7#c7 ,he knows all things and can arrange and manage them1 but leaves and abandons them1 as too base1 low1 and vile1 or from jealousy2 as we may also notice among ourselves some who are able to make another person happy1 well knowing what he wants for his happiness1 and still in consequence of their evil disposition1 their wickedness and jealousy against him1 they do not help him to his happiness4--,this is likewise a complete enumeration of all possible cases4 ,for those who have a knowledge of a certain thing necessarily either 7#a7 take care of the thing which they know1 and manage it1 or 7#b7 neglect it 7as we1 e4g41 neglect and forget the cats in our house1 or things of less importance72 or 7#c7 while taking care of it1 have not sufficient power and strength for its management1 although they have the will to do so4 ,having enumerated these different cases1 the philosophers emphatically decided that of the three cases possible as regards the management of a thing by one who knows that thing1 two are inadmissible in reference to ,god--viz41 want of power1 or absence of will2 because they imply either evil disposition or weakness1 neither of which can by any means be attributed to ,him4 ,consequently there remains only the alternative that ,god is altogether ignorant of human affairs1 or that ,he knows them and manages them well4 ,since we1 however1 notice that events do not follow a certain order1 that they cannot be determined by analogy1 and are not in accordance with what is wanted1 we conclude that ,god has no knowledge of them in any way or for any reason4 ,this is the argument which led the philosophers to speak such blasphemous words4 ,in the treatise ,on ,providence1 by ,alexander ,aphrodisiensis1 you will find the same as ,i have said about the different views of the philosophers1 and as ,i have stated as to the source of their error4 ,you must notice with surprise that the evil into which these philosophers have fallen is greater than that from which they sought to escape1 and that they ignore the very thing which they constantly pointed out and explained to us4 ,they have fallen into a greater evil than that from which they sought to escape1 because they refuse to say that ,god neglects or forgets a thing1 and yet they maintain that ,his knowledge is imperfect1 that ,he is ignorant of what is going on here on earth1 that ,he does not perceive it4 ,they also ignore1 what they constantly point out to us1 in as much as they judge the whole universe by that which befalls individual men1 although1 according to their own view1 frequently stated and explained1 the evils of man originate in himself1 or form part of his material nature4 ,we have already discussed this sufficiently4 ,after having laid this foundation1 which is the ruin of all good principles1 and destroys the majesty of all true knowledge1 they sought to remove the opprobrium by declaring that for many reasons it is impossible that ,god should have a knowledge of earthly things1 for the individual members of a species can only be perceived by the senses1 and not by reason2 but ,god does not perceive by means of any of the senses4 ,again1 the individuals are infinite1 but knowledge comprehends and circumscribes the object of its action1 and the infinite cannot be comprehended or circumscribed2 furthermore1 knowledge of individual beings1 that are subject to change1 necessitates some change in him who possesses it1 because this knowledge itself changes constantly4 ,they have also raised the following two objections against those who hold1 in accordance with the teaching of ,scripture1 that ,god knows things before they come into existence4 ,first1 this theory implies that there can be knowledge of a thing that does not exist at all2 secondly1 it leads to the conclusion that the knowledge of an object in potentia is identical with the knowledge of that same object in reality4 ,they have indeed come to very evil conclusions1 and some of them assumed that ,god only knows the species1 not the individual beings1 whilst others went as far as to contend that ,god knows nothing beside ,himself1 because they believe that ,god cannot have more than one knowledge4 ,some of the great philosophers who lived before ,aristotle agree with us1 that ,god knows everything1 and that nothing is hidden from ,him4 ,alexander also refers to them in the above-mentioned treatise2 he differs from them1 and says that the principal objection against this theory is based on the fact that we clearly see evils befalling good men1 and wicked men enjoying happiness4 ,in short1 you see that if these philosophers would find human affairs managed according to rules laid down by the common people1 they would not venture or presume to speak on this subject4 ,they are only led to this speculation because they examine the affairs of the good and the wicked1 and consider them as being contrary to all rule1 and say in the words of the foolish in our nation1 8,the way of the ,lord is not right0 7,ezek4 xxxiii4 #ag74 ,after having shown that knowledge and ,providence are connected with each other1 ,i will now proceed to expound the opinions of thinkers on ,providence1 and then ,i shall attempt to remove their doubts as to ,god's knowledge of individual beings4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,there are four different theories concerning ,divine ,providence2 they are all ancient1 known since the time of the ,prophets1 when the true ,law was revealed to enlighten these dark regions4 ,first ,theory4--,there is no ,providence at all for anything in the ,universe2 all parts of the ,universe1 the heavens and what they contain1 owe their origin to accident and chance2 there exists no being that rules and governs them or provides for them4 ,this is the theory of ,epicurus1 who assumes also that the ,universe consists of atoms1 that these have combined by chance1 and have received their various forms by mere accident4 ,there have been atheists among the ,israelites who have expressed the same view2 it is reported of them3 8,they have denied the ,lord1 and said he is not0 7,jer4 v4 #ab74 ,aristotle has proved the absurdity of the theory1 that the whole ,universe could have originated by chance2 he has shown that1 on the contrary1 there is a being that rules and governs the ,universe4 ,we have already touched upon this subject in the present treatise4 ,second ,theory4--,whilst one part of the ,universe owes its existence to ,providence1 and is under the control of a ruler and governor1 another part is abandoned and left to chance4 ,this is the view of ,aristotle about ,providence1 and ,i will now explain to you his theory4 ,he holds that ,god controls the spheres and what they contain3 therefore the individual beings in the spheres remain permanently in the same form4 ,alexander has also expressed it in his writings that ,divine ,providence extends down to1 and ends with1 the sphere of the moon4 ,this view results from his theory of the ,eternity of the ,universe2 he believes that ,providence is in accordance with the nature of the ,universe3 consequently in the case of the spheres with their contents1 where each individual being has a permanent existence1 ,providence gives permanency and constancy4 ,from the existence of the spheres other beings derive existence1 which are constant in their species but not in their individuals3 in the same manner it is said that ,providence sends forth from the spheres to the earth sufficient influence to secure the immortality and constancy of the species1 without securing at the same time permanence for the individual beings of the species4 ,but the individual beings in each species have not been entirely abandoned1 that portion of the materia prima which has been purified and refined1 and has received the faculty of growth1 is endowed with properties that enable it to exist a certain time1 to attract what is useful and to repel what is useless4 ,that portion of the materia prima which has been subject to a further development1 and has received the faculty of sensation1 is endowed with other properties for its protection and preservation2 it has a new faculty of moving freely toward that which is conducive to1 and away from that which is contrary to its well-being4 ,each individual being received besides such properties as are required for the preservation of the species to which it belongs4 ,the portion of the materia prima which is still more refined1 and is endowed with the intellectual faculty1 possesses a special property by which each individual1 according to the degree of his perfection1 is enabled to manage1 to calculate1 and to discover what is conducive both to the temporary existence of the individual and to the preservation of the species4 ,all other movements1 however1 which are made by the individual members of each species are due to accident2 they are not1 according to ,aristotle1 the result of rule and management2 e4g41 when a storm or gale blows1 it causes undoubtedly some leaves of a tree to drop1 breaks off some branches of another tree1 tears away a stone from a heap of stones1 raises dust over herbs and spoils them1 and stirs up the sea so that a ship goes down with the whole or part of her contents4 ,aristotle sees no difference between the falling of a leaf or a stone and the death of the good and noble people in the ship2 nor does he distinguish between the destruction of a multitude of ants caused by an ox depositing on them his excrement and the death of worshippers killed by the fall of the house when its foundations give way2 nor does he discriminate between the case of a cat killing a mouse that happens to come in her way1 or that of a spider catching a fly1 and that of a hungry lion meeting a prophet and tearing him4 ,in short1 the opinion of ,aristotle is this3 ,everything is the result of management which is constant1 which does not come to an end and does not change any of its properties1 as e4g41 the heavenly beings1 and everything which continues according to a certain rule1 and deviates from it only rarely and exceptionally1 as is the case in objects of ,nature4 ,all these are the result of management1 i4e41 in a close relation to ,divine ,providence4 ,but that which is not constant1 and does not follow a certain rule1 as e4g41 incidents in the existence of the individual beings in each species of plants or animals1 whether rational or irrational1 is due to chance and not to management2 it is in no relation to ,divine ,providence4 ,aristotle holds that it is even impossible to ascribe to ,providence the management of these things4 ,this view is closely connected with his theory of the ,eternity of the ,universe1 and with his opinion that everything different from the existing order of things in ,nature is impossible4 ,it is the belief of those who turned away from our ,law1 and said3 8,god hath forsaken the earth0 7,ezek4 ix4 #i74 ,third ,theory4--,this theory is the reverse of the second4 ,according to this theory1 there is nothing in the whole ,universe1 neither a class nor an individual being1 that is due to chance2 everything is the result of will1 intention1 and rule4 ,it is a matter of course that he who rules must know that which is under his control4 ,the ,mohammedan ,ashariyah adhere to this theory1 notwithstanding evident absurdities implied in it2 for they admit that ,aristotle is correct in assuming one and the same cause viz41 the wind for the fall of leaves from the tree and for the death of a man drowned in the sea4 ,but they hold at the same time that the wind did not blow by chance2 it is ,god that caused it to move2 it is not therefore the wind that caused the leaves to fall2 each leaf falls according to the ,divine decree2 it is ,god who caused it to fall at a certain time and in a certain place2 it could not have fallen before or after that time or in another place1 as this has previously been decreed4 ,the ,ashariyah were therefore compelled to assume that motion and rest of living beings are predestined1 and that it is not in the power of man to do a certain thing or to leave it undone4 ,the theory further implies a denial of possibility in these things2 they can only be either necessary or impossible4 ,the followers of this theory accepted also the last-mentioned proposition1 and say1 that we call certain things possible1 as e4g41 the facts that ,zeid stands1 and that ,amr is coming2 but they are only possible for us1 whilst in their relation to ,god they cannot be called possible2 they are either necessary or impossible4 ,it follows also from this theory1 that precepts are perfectly useless1 since the people to whom any law is given are unable to do anything3 they can neither do what they are commanded nor abstain from what they are forbidden4 ,the supporters of this theory hold that it was the will of ,god to send prophets1 to command1 to forbid1 to promise1 and to threaten1 although we have no power over our actions4 ,a duty would thus be imposed upon us which is impossible for us to carry out1 and it is even possible that we may suffer punishment when obeying the command and receive reward when disobeying it4 ,according to this theory1 it must also be assumed that the actions of ,god have no final cause4 ,all these absurdities are admitted by the ,ashariyah for the purpose of saving this theory4 ,when we see a person born blind or leprous1 who could not have merited a punishment for previous sins1 they say1 ,it is the will of ,god2 when a pious worshipper is tortured and slain1 it is likewise the will of ,god2 and no injustice can be asserted to ,him for that1 for according to their opinion it is proper that ,god should afflict the innocent and do good to the sinner4 ,their views on these matters are well known4 ,fourth ,theory4--,man has free will2 it is therefore intelligible that the ,law contains commands and prohibitions1 with announcements of reward and punishment4 ,all acts of ,god are due to wisdom2 no injustice is found in ,him1 and ,he does not afflict the good4 ,the ,mu'tazila profess this theory1 although they do not believe in man's absolute free will4 ,they hold also that ,god takes notice of the falling of the leaf and the destruction of the ant1 and that ,his ,providence extends over all things4 ,this theory likewise implies contradictions and absurdities4 ,the absurdities are these3 ,the fact that some persons are born with defects1 although they have not sinned previously1 is ascribed to the wisdom of ,god1 it being better for those persons to be in such a condition than to be in a normal state1 though we do not see why it is better2 and they do not suffer thereby any punishment at all1 but1 on the contrary1 enjoy ,god's goodness4 ,in a similar manner the slaughter of the pious is explained as being for them the source of an increase of reward in future life4 ,they go even further in their absurdities4 ,we ask them why is ,god only just to man and not to other beings1 and how has the irrational animal sinned1 that it is condemned to be slaughtered8 and they reply it is good for the animal1 for it will receive reward for it in the world to come2 also the flea and the louse will there receive compensation for their untimely death3 the same reasoning they apply to the mouse torn by a cat or vulture2 the wisdom of ,god decreed this for the mouse1 in order to reward it after death for the mishap4 ,i do not consider it proper to blame the followers of any of the last named three theories on ,providence1 for they have been driven to accept them by weighty considerations4 ,aristotle was guided by that which appears to be the nature of things4 ,the ,ashariyah refused to ascribe to ,god ignorance about anything1 and to say that ,god whilst knowing one individual being or one portion of the ,universe is ignorant of another portion2 they preferred to admit the above-mentioned absurdities4 ,the ,mu'tazilites refused to assume that ,god does what is wrong and unjust2 on the other hand1 they would not contradict common sense and say that it was not wrong to inflict pain on the guiltless1 or that the mission of the ,prophets and the giving of the ,law had no intelligible reason4 ,they likewise preferred to admit the above-named absurdities4 ,but they even contradicted themselves1 because they believe on the one hand that ,god knows everything1 and on the other that man has free will4 ,by a little consideration we discover the contradiction4 ,fifth ,theory4--,this is our theory1 or that of our ,law4 ,i will show you first the view expressed on this subject in our prophetical books1 and generally accepted by our ,sages4 ,i will then give the opinion of some later authors among us1 and lastly1 ,i will explain my own belief4 ,the theory of man's perfectly free will is one of the fundamental principles of the ,law of our ,teacher ,moses1 and of those who follow the ,law4 ,according to this principle man does what is in his power to do1 by his nature1 his choice1 and his will2 and his action is not due to any faculty created for the purpose4 ,all species of irrational animals likewise move by their own free will4 ,this is the ,will of ,god2 that is to say1 it is due to the eternal divine will that all living beings should move freely1 and that man should have power to act according to his will or choice within the limits of his capacity4 ,against this principle we hear1 thank ,god1 no opposition on the part of our nation4 ,another fundamental principle taught by the ,law of ,moses is this3 ,wrong cannot be ascribed to ,god in any way whatever2 all evils and afflictions as well as all kinds of happiness of man1 whether they concern one individual person or a community1 are distributed according to justice2 they are the result of strict judgment that admits no wrong whatever4 ,even when a person suffers pain in consequence of a thorn having entered into his hand1 although it is at once drawn out1 it is a punishment that has been inflicted on him for sin1 and the least pleasure he enjoys is a reward for some good action2 all this is meted out by strict justice2 as is said in ,scripture1 8all his ways are judgment0 7,deut4 xxxii4 #d72 we are only ignorant of the working of that judgment4 ,the different theories are now fully explained to you2 everything in the varying human affairs is due to chance1 according to ,aristotle1 to the ,divine ,will alone according to the ,ashariyah1 to ,divine ,wisdom according to the ,mu'tazilites1 to the merits of man according to our opinion4 ,it is therefore possible1 according to the ,ashariyah1 that ,god inflicts pain on a good and pious man in this world1 and keeps him for ever in fire1 which is assumed to rage in the world to come2 they simply say it is the ,will of ,god4 ,the ,mu'tazilites would consider this as injustice1 and therefore assume that every being1 even an ant1 that is stricken with pain in this world1 has compensation for it1 as has been mentioned above2 and it is due to ,god's ,wisdom that a being is struck and afflicted in order to receive compensation4 ,we1 however1 believe that all these human affairs are managed with justice2 far be it from ,god to do wrong1 to punish any one unless the punishment is necessary and merited4 ,it is distinctly stated in the ,law1 that all is done in accordance with justice2 and the words of our ,sages generally express the same idea4 ,they clearly say3 8,there is no death without sin1 no sufferings without transgression40 7,b4 ,t4 ,shabbath1 #ee;a47 ,again1 8,the deserts of man are meted out to him in the same measure which he himself employs40 7,mish4 ,sotah1 i4 #g47 ,these are the words of the ,mishnah4 ,our ,sages declare it wherever opportunity is given1 that the idea of ,god necessarily implies justice2 that ,he will reward the most pious for all their pure and upright actions1 although no direct commandment was given them through a prophet2 and that ,he will punish all the evil deeds of men1 although they have not been prohibited by a prophet1 if common sense warns against them1 as e4g41 injustice and violence4 ,thus our ,sages say3 8,god does not deprive any being of the full reward of its good deed0 7,b4 ,t4 ,pes4 #aah;a7 again1 8,he who says that ,god remits part of a punishment1 will be punished severely2 ,he is long-suffering1 but is sure to exact payment40 7,b4 ,t4 ,baba ,k4 #ej;a47 ,another saying is this3 8,he who has received a commandment and acts accordingly is not like him who acts in the same manner without being commanded to do so0 7,b4 ,t4 ,kidd4 #ca;a72 and it is distinctly added that he who does a good thing without being commanded1 receives nevertheless his reward4 ,the same principle is expressed in all sayings of our ,sages4 ,but they contain an additional doctrine which is not found in the ,law2 viz41 the doctrine of 8afflictions of love10 as taught by some of our ,sages4 ,according to this doctrine it is possible that a person be afflicted without having previously committed any sin1 in order that his future reward may be increased2 a view which is held by the ,mu'tazilites1 but is not supported by any ,scriptural text4 ,be not misled by the accounts of trials1 such as 8,god tried ,abraham0 7,gen4 xxii4 #a72 8,he afflicted thee and made thee hungry10 etc4 7,deut4 viii4 #c72 for you will hear more on this subject later on 7chap4 xxiv474 ,our ,law is only concerned with the relations of men2 but the idea that irrational living beings should receive a reward1 has never before been heard of in our nation2 the wise men mentioned in the ,talmud do not notice it2 only some of the later ,geonim were pleased with it when they heard it from the sect of the ,mu'tazilites1 and accepted it4 ,my opinion on this principle of ,divine ,providence ,i will now explain to you4 ,in the principle which ,i now proceed to expound ,i do not rely on demonstrative proof1 but on my conception of the spirit of the ,divine ,law1 and the writings of the ,prophets4 ,the principle which ,i accept is far less open to objections1 and is more reasonable than the opinions mentioned before4 ,it is this3 ,in the lower or sublunary portion of the ,universe ,divine ,providence does not extend to the individual members of species except in the case of mankind4 ,it is only in this species that the incidents in the existence of the individual beings1 their good and evil fortunes1 are the result of justice1 in accordance with the words1 8,for all ,his ways are judgment40 ,but ,i agree with ,aristotle as regards all other living beings1 and fortiori as regards plants and all the rest of earthly creatures4 ,for ,i do not believe that it is through the interference of ,divine ,providence that a certain leaf drops from a tree1 nor do ,i hold that when a certain spider catches a certain fly1 that this is the direct result of a special decree and will of ,god in that moment2 it is not by a particular ,divine decree that the spittle of a certain person moved1 fell on a certain gnat in a certain place1 and killed it2 nor is it by the direct will of ,god that a certain fish catches and swallows a certain worm on the surface of the water4 ,in all these cases the action is1 according to my opinion1 entirely due to chance1 as taught by ,aristotle4 ,divine ,providence is connected with ,divine intellectual influence1 and the same beings which are benefited by the latter so as to become intellectual1 and to comprehend things comprehensible to rational beings1 are also under the control of ,divine ,providence1 which examines all their deeds in order to reward or punish them4 ,it may be by mere chance that a ship goes down with all her contents1 as in the above-mentioned instance1 or the roof of a house falls upon those within2 but it is not due to chance1 according to our view1 that in the one instance the men went into the ship1 or remained in the house in the other instance2 it is due to the will of ,god1 and is in accordance with the justice of ,his judgments1 the method of which our mind is incapable of understanding4 ,i have been induced to accept this theory by the circumstance that ,i have not met in any of the prophetical books with a description of ,god's ,providence otherwise than in relation to human beings4 ,the prophets even express their surprise that ,god should take notice of man1 who is too little and too unimportant to be worthy of the attention of the ,creator2 how1 then1 should other living creatures be considered as proper objects for ,divine ,providence6 ,comp4 8,what is man1 that thou takest knowledge of him80 7,ps4 cxliv4 #c72 8,what is man1 that thou art mindful of him80 7ibid4 viii4 #h74 ,it is clearly expressed in many ,scriptural passages that ,god provides for all men1 and controls all their deeds--e4g41 8,he fashioneth their hearts alike1 he considereth all their works0 7ibid4 xxxiii4 #ae72 8,for thine eyes are open upon all the ways of the sons of men1 to give every one according to his ways0 7,jer4 xxxii4 #ai74 ,again3 8,for his eyes are upon the ways of man1 and he seeth all his goings0 7,job xxxii4 #ba74 ,in the ,law there occur instances of the fact that men are governed by ,god1 and that their actions are examined by him4 ,comp4 8,in the day when ,i visit ,i will visit their sin upon them0 7,exod4 xxxii4 #cd72 8,i will even appoint over you terror0 7,lev4 xxvi4 #af72 8,whosoever hath sinned against me1 him will ,i blot out of my book0 7,exod4 xxxii4 #cc72 8,the same soul will ,i destroy0 7,lev4 xxiii4 #cj72 8,i will even set my face against that soul0 7ibid4 xx4 #f74 ,there are many instances of this kind4 ,all that is mentioned of the history of ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob is a perfect proof that ,divine ,providence extends to every man individually4 ,but the condition of the individual beings of other living creatures is undoubtedly the same as has been stated by ,aristotle4 ,on that account it is allowed1 even commanded1 to kill animals2 we are permitted to use them according to our pleasure4 ,the view that other living beings are only governed by ,divine ,providence in the way described by ,aristotle1 is supported by the words of the ,prophet ,habakkuk4 ,when he perceived the victories of ,nebuchadnezzar1 and saw the multitude of those slain by him1 he said1 8,o ,god1 it is as if men were abandoned1 neglected1 and unprotected like fish and like worms of the earth40 ,he thus shows that these classes are abandoned4 ,this is expressed in the following passage3 8,and makest men as the fishes of the sea1 as the creeping things1 that have no ruler over them4 ,they take up all of them with the angle10 etc4 7,hab4 i4 #ad1 #ae74 ,the prophet then declares that such is not the case2 for the events referred to are not the result of abandonment1 forsaking1 and absence of ,providence1 but are intended as a punishment for the people1 who well deserved all that befell them4 ,he therefore says3 8,o ,lord1 ,thou hast ordained them for judgment1 and ,o mighty ,god1 ,thou hast established them for correction0 7ibid4 ver4 #ab74 ,our opinion is not contradicted by ,scriptural passages like the following3 8,he giveth to the beast his food0 7,ps4 cxlvii4 #i72 8,the young lions roar after their prey1 and seek their meat from ,god0 7ibid4 civ4 #ba72 8,thou openest thine hand1 and satisfiest the desire of every living thing0 7ibid4 cxlv4 #af72 or by the saying of our ,sages3 8,he sitteth and feedeth all1 from the horns of the unicorns even unto the eggs of insects40 ,there are many similar sayings extant in the writings of our ,sages1 but they imply nothing that is contrary to my view4 ,all these passages refer to ,providence in relation to species1 and not to ,providence in relation to individual animals4 ,the acts of ,god are as it were enumerated2 how ,he provides for every species the necessary food and the means of subsistence4 ,this is clear and plain4 ,aristotle likewise holds that this kind of ,providence is necessary1 and is in actual existence4 ,alexander also notices this fact in the name of ,aristotle1 viz41 that every species has its nourishment prepared for its individual members2 otherwise the species would undoubtedly have perished4 ,it does not require much consideration to understand this4 ,there is a rule laid down by our ,sages that it is directly prohibited in the ,law to cause pain to an animal1 and is based on the words3 8,wherefore hast thou smitten thine ass80 etc4 7,num4 xxii4 #cb74 ,but the object of this rule is to make us perfect2 that we should not assume cruel habits2 and that we should not uselessly cause pain to others2 that1 on the contrary1 we should be prepared to show pity and mercy to all living creatures1 except when necessity demands the contrary3 8,when thy soul longeth to eat flesh10 etc4 7,deut4 xii4 #bj74 ,we should not kill animals for the purpose of practising cruelty1 or for the purpose of play4 ,it cannot be objected to this theory1 ,why should ,god select mankind as the object of ,his special ,providence1 and not other living beings8 ,for he who asks this question must also inquire1 ,why has man alone1 of all species of animals1 been endowed with intellect8 ,the answer to this second question must be1 according to the three afore-mentioned theories3 ,it was the ,will of ,god1 it is the decree of ,his ,wisdom1 or it is in accordance with the laws of ,nature4 ,the same answers apply to the first question4 ,understand thoroughly my theory1 that ,i do not ascribe to ,god ignorance of anything or any kind of weakness2 ,i hold that ,divine ,providence is related and closely connected with the intellect1 because ,providence can only proceed from an intelligent being1 from a being that is itself the most perfect ,intellect4 ,those creatures1 therefore1 which receive part of that intellectual influence1 will become subject to the action of ,providence in the same proportion as they are acted upon by the ,intellect4 ,this theory is in accordance with reason and with the teaching of ,scripture1 whilst the other theories previously mentioned either exaggerate ,divine ,providence or detract from it4 ,in the former case they lead to confusion and entire nonsense1 and cause us to deny reason and to contradict that which is perceived with the senses4 ,the latter case1 viz41 the theory that ,divine ,providence does not extend to man1 and that there is no difference between man and other animals1 implies very bad notions about ,god2 it disturbs all social order1 removes and destroys all the moral and intellectual virtues of man4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,having shown in the preceding chapter that of all living beings mankind alone is directly under the control of ,divine ,providence1 ,i will now add the following remarks3 ,it is an established fact that species have no existence except in our own minds4 ,species and other classes are merely ideas formed in our minds1 whilst everything in real existence is an individual object1 or an aggregate of individual objects4 ,this being granted1 it must further be admitted that the result of the existing ,divine influence1 that reaches mankind through the human intellect1 is identical with individual intellects really in existence1 with which1 e4g41 ,zeid1 ,amr1 ,kaled and ,bekr1 are endowed4 ,hence it follows1 in accordance with what ,i have mentioned in the preceding chapter1 that the greater the share is which a person has obtained of this ,divine influence1 on account of both his physical predisposition and his training1 the greater must also be the effect of ,divine ,providence upon him1 for the action of ,divine ,providence is proportional to the endowment of intellect1 as has been mentioned above4 ,the relation of ,divine ,providence is therefore not the same to all men2 the greater the human perfection a person has attained1 the greater the benefit he derives from ,divine ,providence4 ,this benefit is very great in the case of prophets1 and varies according to the degree of their prophetic faculty2 as it varies in the case of pious and good men according to their piety and uprightness4 ,for it is the intensity of the ,divine intellectual influence that has inspired the prophets1 guided the good in their actions1 and perfected the wisdom of the pious4 ,in the same proportion as ignorant and disobedient persons are deficient in that ,divine influence1 their condition is inferior1 and their rank equal to that of irrational beings2 and they are 8like unto the beasts0 7,ps4 xlix4 #ba74 ,for this reason it was not only considered a light thing to slay them1 but it was even directly commanded for the benefit of mankind4 ,this belief that ,god provides for every individual human being in accordance with his merits is one of the fundamental principles on which the ,law is founded4 ,consider how the action of ,divine ,providence is described in reference to every incident in the lives of the patriarchs1 to their occupations1 and even to their passions1 and how ,god promised to direct ,his attention to them4 ,thus ,god said to ,abraham1 8,i am thy shield0 7,gen4 xv4 #a72 to ,isaac1 8,i will be with thee1 and ,i will bless thee0 7ibid4 xxvi4 #c72 to ,jacob1 8,i am with thee1 and will keep thee0 7ibid4 xxviii4 #ae72 to ,moses the chief of the ,prophets1 8,certainly ,i will be with thee1 and this shall be a token unto thee0 7,exod4 iii4 #ab72 to ,joshua1 8,as ,i was with ,moses1 so ,i shall be with thee0 7,josh4 i4 #e74 ,it is clear that in all these cases the action of ,providence has been proportional to man's perfection4 ,the following verse describes how ,providence protects good and pious men1 and abandons fools2 8,he will keep the feet of his saints1 and the wicked shall be silent in darkness2 for by strength shall no man prevail0 7#a ,sam4 ii4 #i74 ,when we see that some men escape plagues and mishaps1 whilst others perish by them1 we must not attribute this to a difference in the properties of their bodies1 or in their physical constitution1 8for by strength shall no man prevail02 but it must be attributed to their different degrees of perfection1 some approaching ,god1 whilst others moving away from ,him4 ,those who approach ,him are best protected1 and 8,he will keep the feet of his saints02 but those who keep far away from ,him are left exposed to what may befall them2 there is nothing that could protect them from what might happen2 they are like those who walk in darkness1 and are certain to stumble4 ,the protection of the pious by ,providence is also expressed in the following passages3--8,he keepeth all his bones10 etc4 7,ps4 xxxiv4 #ba72 8,the eyes of the ,lord are upon the righteous0 7ibid4 ver4 #af72 8,he shall call upon me and ,i shall answer him0 7ibid4 xci4 #ae74 ,there are in ,scripture many more passages expressing the principle that men enjoy ,divine protection in proportion to their perfection and piety4 ,the philosophers have likewise discussed this subject4 ,abu-nasr1 in the ,introduction to his ,commentary on ,aristotle's ,nikomachean ,ethics1 says as follows3--,those who possess the faculty of raising their souls from virtue to virtue obtain1 according to ,plato1 ,divine protection to a higher degree4 ,now consider how by this method of reasoning we have arrived at the truth taught by the ,prophets1 that every person has his individual share of ,divine ,providence in proportion to his perfection4 ,for philosophical research leads to this conclusion1 if we assume1 as has been mentioned above1 that ,divine ,providence is in each case proportional to the person's intellectual development4 ,it is wrong to say that ,divine ,providence extends only to the species1 and not to individual beings1 as some of the philosophers teach4 ,for only individual beings have real existence1 and individual beings are endowed with ,divine ,intellect2 ,divine ,providence acts1 therefore1 upon these individual beings4 ,study this chapter as it ought to be studied2 you will find in it all the fundamental principles of the ,law2 you will see that these are in conformity with philosophical speculation1 and all difficulties will be removed2 you will have a clear idea of ,divine ,providence4 ,after having described the various philosophical opinions on ,providence1 and on the manner how ,god governs the ,universe1 ,i will briefly state the opinion of our co-religionists on the ,omniscience of ,god1 and what ,i have to remark on this subject4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,it is undoubtedly an innate idea that ,god must be perfect in every respect and cannot be deficient in anything4 ,it is almost an innate idea that ignorance in anything is a deficiency1 and that ,god can therefore not be ignorant of anything4 ,but some thinkers assume1 as ,i said before1 haughtily and exultingly1 that ,god knows certain things and is ignorant of certain other things4 ,they did so because they imagined that they discovered a certain absence of order in man's affairs1 most of which are not only the result of physical properties1 but also of those faculties which he possesses as a being endowed with free will and reason4 ,the ,prophets have already stated the proof which ignorant persons offer for their belief that ,god does not know our actions2 viz41 the fact that wicked people are seen in happiness1 ease1 and peace4 ,this fact leads also righteous and pious persons to think that it is of no use for them to aim at that which is good and to suffer for it through the opposition of other people4 ,but the ,prophets at the same time relate how their own thoughts were engaged on this question1 and how they were at last convinced that in the instances to which these arguments refer1 only the end and not the beginning ought to be taken into account4 ,the following is a description of these reflections 7,ps4 lxxiii4 #aa1 seq473 8,and they say1 ,how does ,god know8 and is there knowledge in the ,most ,high8 ,behold1 these are the ungodly who prosper in the world2 they increase in riches4 ,verily ,i have cleansed my heart in vain1 and washed my hands in innocency40 ,he then continues1 8,when ,i thought to know this1 it was too painful for me1 until ,i went into the sanctuary of ,god2 then understood ,i their end4 ,surely thou didst set them in slippery places2 thou castedst them down into destruction4 ,how are they brought into desolation1 as in a moment6 ,they are utterly consumed with terrors40 ,the very same ideas have also been expressed by the prophet ,malachi1 for he says thus 7,mal4 iii4 #ac-ah73 8,your words have been stout against me1 saith the ,lord4 ,as you have said1 ,it is vain to serve ,god2 and what profit is it that we have kept his ordinance1 and that we have walked mournfully before the ,lord of hosts8 ,and now we call the proud happy2 yea1 they that work wickedness are set up2 yea1 they that tempt ,god are even delivered4 ,then they that feared the ,lord spake often one to another1 etc4 ,then shall ye return and discern between the righteous and the wicked1 between him that serveth ,god and him that serveth him not40 ,david likewise shows how general this view was in his time1 and how it led and caused people to sin and to oppress one another4 ,at first he argues against this theory1 and then he declares that ,god is omniscient4 ,he says as follows3--8,they slay the widow and the stranger1 and murder the fatherless4 ,yet they say1 ,the ,lord shall not see1 neither shall the ,god of ,jacob regard it4 ,understand1 ye brutish among the people1 and ye fools1 when will you be wise8 ,he that planted the ear1 shall he not hear8 ,he that formed the eye1 shall he not see8 ,he that chastiseth nations1 shall not he correct8 or he that teacheth man knowledge80 ,i will now show you the meaning of these arguments1 but first ,i will point out how the opponents to the words of the ,prophets misunderstood this passage4 ,many years ago some intelligent co-religionists--they were physicians--told me that they were surprised at the words of ,david2 for it would follow from his arguments that the ,creator of the mouth must eat and the ,creator of the lungs must cry2 the same applies to all other organs of our body4 ,you who study this treatise of mine1 consider how grossly they misunderstood ,david's arguments4 ,hear now what its true meaning is3 ,he who produces a vessel must have had in his mind an idea of the use of that instrument1 otherwise he could not have produced it4 ,if1 e4g41 the smith had not formed an idea of sewing and possessed a knowledge of it1 the needle would not have had the form so indispensable for sewing4 ,the same is the case with all instruments4 ,when some philosopher thought that ,god1 whose perception is purely intellectual1 has no knowledge of individual things1 which are perceivable only by the senses1 ,david takes his argument from the existence of the senses1 and argues thus3--,if the sense of sight had been utterly unknown to ,god1 how could ,he have produced that organ of the sense of sight8 ,do you think that it was by chance that a transparent humour was formed1 and then another humour with certain similar properties1 and besides a membrane which by accident had a hole covered with a hardened transparent substance8 in short1 considering the humour of the eye1 in membranes and nerves1 with their well-known functions1 and their adaptation to the purpose of sight1 can any intelligent person imagine that all this is due to chance8 ,certainly not2 we see here necessarily design in nature1 as has been shown by all physicians and philosophers2 but as nature is not an intellectual being1 and is not capable of governing the universe1 as has been accepted by all philosophers1 the government of the universe1 which shows signs of design1 originates1 according to the philosophers1 in an intellectual cause1 but is according to our view the result of the action of an intellectual being1 that endows everything with its natural properties4 ,if this intellect were incapable of perceiving or knowing any of the actions of earthly beings1 how could ,he have created1 or1 according to the other theory1 caused to emanate from ,himself1 properties that bring about those actions of which ,he is supposed to have no knowledge8 ,david correctly calls those who believe in this theory brutes and fools4 ,he then proceeds to explain that the error is due to our defective understanding2 that ,god endowed us with the intellect which is the means of our comprehension1 and which on account of its insufficiency to form a true idea of ,god has become the source of great doubts2 that ,he therefore knows what our defects are1 and how worthless the doubts are which originate in our faulty reasoning4 ,the ,psalmist therefore says3 8,he who teaches man knowledge1 the ,lord1 knoweth the thoughts of man that they are vanity0 7ibid4 xciv4 #aj-aa74 ,my object in this chapter was to show how the belief of the ignorant1 that ,god does not notice the affairs of man because they are uncertain and unsystematic1 is very ancient4 ,comp4 8,and the ,israelites uttered things that were not right against the ,lord0 7#b ,kings xvii4 #i74 ,in reference to this passage the ,midrash says3 8,what have they uttered8 ,this ,pillar i4e41 ,god does not see1 nor hear1 nor speak02 i4e41 they imagine that ,god takes no notice of earthly affairs1 that the ,prophets received of ,god neither affirmative nor negative precepts2 they imagine so1 simply because human affairs are not arranged as every person would think it desirable4 ,seeing that these are not in accordance with their wish1 they say1 8,the ,lord does not see us0 7,ezek4 viii4 #ab74 ,zephaniah 7i4 #ab7 also describes those ignorant persons 8who say in their heart the ,lord will not do good1 neither will he do evil40 ,i will tell you my own opinion as regards the theory that ,god knows all things on earth1 but ,i will before state some propositions which are generally adopted1 and the correctness of which no intelligent person can dispute4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,it is generally agreed upon that ,god cannot at a certain time acquire knowledge which ,he did not possess previously2 it is further impossible that ,his knowledge should include any plurality1 even according to those who admit the ,divine attributes4 ,as these things have been fully proved1 we1 who assert the teaching of the ,law1 believe that ,god's knowledge of many things does not imply any plurality2 ,his knowledge does not change like ours when the objects of ,his knowledge change4 ,similarly we say that the various events are known to ,him before they take place2 ,he constantly knows them1 and therefore no fresh knowledge is acquired by ,him4 ,e4g41 ,he knows that a certain person is non-existent at present1 will come to existence at a certain time1 will continue to exist for some time1 and will then cease to exist4 ,when this person1 in accordance with ,god's foreknowledge concerning him1 comes into existence1 ,god's knowledge is not increased2 it contains nothing that it did not contain before1 but something has taken place that was known previously exactly as it has taken place4 ,this theory implies that ,god's knowledge extends to things not in existence1 and includes also the infinite4 ,we nevertheless accept it1 and contend that we may attribute to ,god the knowledge of a thing which does not yet exist1 but the existence of which ,god foresees and is able to effect4 ,but that which never exists cannot be an object of ,his knowledge2 just as our knowledge does not comprise things which we consider as non-existing4 ,a doubt has been raised1 however1 whether ,his knowledge includes the infinite4 ,some thinkers assume that knowledge has the species for its object1 and therefore extends at the same time to all individual members of the species4 ,this view is taken by every man who adheres to a revealed religion and follows the dictates of reason4 ,philosophers1 however1 have decided that the object of knowledge cannot be a non-existing thing1 and that it cannot comprise that which is infinite4 ,since1 therefore1 ,god's knowledge does not admit of any increase1 it is impossible that ,he should know any transient thing4 ,he only knows that which is constant and unchangeable4 ,other philosophers raised the following objection3 ,god does not know even things that remain constant2 for ,his knowledge would then include a plurality according to the number of objects known2 the knowledge of every thing being distinguished by a certain peculiarity of the thing4 ,god therefore only knows ,his own essence4 ,my opinion is this3 the cause of the error of all these schools is their belief that ,god's knowledge is like ours2 each school points to something withheld from our knowledge1 and either assumes that the same must be the case in ,god's knowledge1 or at least finds some difficulty how to explain it4 ,we must blame the philosophers in this respect more than any other persons1 because they demonstrated that there is no plurality in ,god1 and that ,he has no attribute that is not identical with ,his essence2 ,his knowledge and ,his essence are one and the same thing2 they likewise demonstrated1 as we have shown1 that our intellect and our knowledge are insufficient to comprehend the true idea of ,his essence4 ,how then can they imagine that they comprehend ,his knowledge1 which is identical with ,his essence2 seeing that our incapacity to comprehend ,his essence prevents us from understanding the way how ,he knows objects8 for ,his knowledge is not of the same kind as ours1 but totally different from it and admitting of no analogy4 ,and as there is an ,essence of independent existence1 which is1 as the philosophers call it1 the ,cause of the existence of all things1 or1 as we say1 the ,creator of everything that exists beside ,him1 so we also assume that this ,essence knows everything1 that nothing whatever of all that exists is hidden from it1 and that the knowledge attributed to this essence has nothing in common with our knowledge1 just as that essence is in no way like our essence4 ,the homonymity of the term 8knowledge0 misled people2 they forgot that only the words are the same1 but the things designated by them are different2 and therefore they came to the absurd conclusion that that which is required for our knowledge is also required for ,god's knowledge4 ,besides1 ,i find it expressed in various passages of ,scripture that the fact that ,god knows things while in a state of possibility1 when their existence belongs to the future1 does not change the nature of the possible in any way2 that nature remains unchanged2 and the knowledge of the realization of one of several possibilities does not yet effect that realization4 ,this is likewise one of the fundamental principles of the ,law of ,moses1 concerning which there is no doubt nor any dispute4 ,otherwise it would not have been said1 8,and thou shalt make a battlement for thy roof10 etc4 7,deut4 xxii4 #h71 or 8,lest he die in the battle1 and another man take her0 7ibid4 xx4 #g74 ,the fact that laws were given to man1 both affirmative and negative1 supports the principle1 that ,god's knowledge of future and possible events does not change their character4 ,the great doubt that presents itself to our mind is the result of the insufficiency of our intellect4 ,consider in how many ways ,his knowledge is distinguished from ours according to all the teaching of every revealed religion4 ,first1 ,his knowledge is one1 and yet embraces many different kinds of objects4 ,secondly1 it is applied to things not in existence4 ,thirdly1 it comprehends the infinite4 ,fourthly1 it remains unchanged1 though it comprises the knowledge of changeable things2 whilst it seems in reference to ourselves that the knowledge of a thing that is to come into existence is different from the knowledge of the thing when it has come into existence2 because there is the additional knowledge of its transition from a state of potentiality into that of reality4 ,fifthly1 according to the teaching of our ,law1 ,god's knowledge of one of two eventualities does not determine it1 however certain that knowledge may be concerning the future occurrence of the one eventuality4--,now ,i wonder what our knowledge has in common with ,god's knowledge1 according to those who treat ,god's knowledge as an attribute4 ,is there anything else common to both besides the mere name8 ,according to our theory that ,god's knowledge is not different from ,his essence1 there is an essential distinction between ,his knowledge and ours1 like the distinction between the substance of the heavens and that of the earth4 ,the ,prophets have clearly expressed this4 ,comp4 8,for my thoughts are not your thoughts1 neither are your ways my ways1 saith the ,lord4 ,for as the heavens are higher than the earth1 so are my ways higher than your ways0 7,isa4 lv4 #h-i74 ,in short1 as we cannot accurately comprehend ,his essence1 and yet we know that ,his existence is most perfect1 free from all admixture of deficiency1 change1 or passiveness1 so we have no correct notion of ,his knowledge1 because it is nothing but ,his essence1 and yet we are convinced that ,he does not at one time obtain knowledge which ,he had not before2 i4e41 ,he obtains no new knowledge1 ,he does not increase it1 and it is not finite2 nothing of all existing things escapes ,his knowledge1 but their nature is not changed thereby2 that which is possible remains possible4 ,every argument that seems to contradict any of these statements is founded on the nature of our knowledge1 that has only the name in common with ,god's knowledge4 ,the same applies to the term intention2 it is homonymously employed to designate our intention towards a certain thing1 and the intention of ,god4 ,the term 8management0 7,providence7 is likewise homonymously used of our management of a certain thing1 and of ,god's management4 ,in fact management1 knowledge1 and intention are not the same when ascribed to us and when ascribed to ,god4 ,when these three terms are taken in both cases in the same sense1 great difficulties must arise2 but when it is noticed that there is a great difference whether a thing it predicated of ,god or of us1 the truth will become clear4 ,the difference between that which is ascribed to ,god and that which is ascribed to man is expressed in the words above mentioned1 8,and your ways are not my ways40 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,there is a great difference between the knowledge which the producer of a thing possesses concerning it1 and the knowledge which other persons possess concerning the same thing4 ,suppose a thing is produced in accordance with the knowledge of the producer1 the producer was then guided by his knowledge in the act of producing the thing4 ,other people1 however1 who examine this work and acquire a knowledge of the whole of it1 depend for that knowledge on the work itself4 ,e4g41 ,an artisan makes a box in which weights move with the running of the water1 and thus indicate how many hours have passed of the day and of the night4 ,the whole quantity of the water that is to run out1 the different ways in which it runs1 every thread that is drawn1 and every little ball that descends--all this is fully perceived by him who makes the clock2 and his knowledge is not the result of observing the movements as they are actually going on2 but1 on the contrary1 the movements are produced in accordance with his knowledge4 ,but another person who looks at that instrument will receive fresh knowledge at every movement he perceives2 the longer he looks on1 the more knowledge does he acquire2 he will gradually increase his knowledge till he fully understands the machinery4 ,if an infinite number of movements were assumed for this instrument1 he would never be able to complete his knowledge4 ,besides1 he cannot know any of the movements before they take place1 since he only knows them from their actual occurrence4 ,the same is the case with every object1 and its relation to our knowledge and ,god's knowledge of it4 ,whatever we know of the things is derived from observation2 on that account it is impossible for us to know that which will take place in future1 or that which is infinite4 ,our knowledge is acquired and increased in proportion to the things known by us4 ,this is not the case with ,god4 ,his knowledge of things is not derived from the things themselves2 if this were the case1 there would be change and plurality in ,his knowledge2 on the contrary1 the things are in accordance with ,his eternal knowledge1 which has established their actual properties1 and made part of them purely spiritual1 another part material and constant as regards its individual members1 a third part material and changeable as regards the individual beings according to eternal and constant laws4 ,plurality1 acquisition1 and change in ,his knowledge is therefore impossible4 ,he fully knows ,his unchangeable essence1 and has thus a knowledge of all that results from any of ,his acts4 ,if we were to try to understand in what manner this is done1 it would be the same as if we tried to be the same as ,god1 and to make our knowledge identical with ,his knowledge4 ,those who seek the truth1 and admit what is true1 must believe that nothing is hidden from ,god2 that everything is revealed to ,his knowledge1 which is identical with ,his essence2 that this kind of knowledge cannot be comprehended by us2 for if we knew its method1 we would possess that intellect by which such knowledge could be acquired4 ,such intellect does not exist except in ,god1 and is at the same time ,his essence4 ,note this well1 for ,i think that this is an excellent idea1 and leads to correct views2 no error will be found in it2 no dialectical argument2 it does not lead to any absurd conclusion1 nor to ascribing any defect to ,god4 ,these sublime and profound themes admit of no proof whatever1 neither according to our opinion who believe in the teaching of ,scripture1 nor according to the philosophers who disagree and are much divided on this question4 ,in all questions that cannot be demonstrated1 we must adopt the method which we have adopted in this question about ,god's ,omniscience4 ,note it4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,the strange and wonderful ,book of ,job treats of the same subject as we are discussing2 its basis is a fiction1 conceived for the purpose of explaining the different opinions which people hold on ,divine ,providence4 ,you know that some of our ,sages clearly stated ,job has never existed1 and has never been created1 and that he is a poetic fiction4 ,those who assume that he has existed1 and that the book is historical1 are unable to determine when and where ,job lived4 ,some of our ,sages say that he lived in the days of the ,patriarchs2 others hold that he was a contemporary of ,moses2 others place him in the days of ,david1 and again others believe that he was one of those who returned from the ,babylonian exile4 ,this difference of opinion supports the assumption that he has never existed in reality4 ,but whether he has existed or not1 that which is related of him is an experience of frequent occurrence1 is a source of perplexity to all thinkers1 and has suggested the above-mentioned opinions on ,god's ,omniscience and ,providence4 ,this perplexity is caused by the account that a simple and perfect person1 who is upright in his actions1 and very anxious to abstain from sin1 is afflicted by successive misfortunes1 namely1 by loss of property1 by the death of his children1 and by bodily disease1 though he has not committed any sin4 ,according to both theories1 viz41 the theory that ,job did exist1 and the theory that he did not exist1 the introduction to the book is certainly a fiction2 ,i mean the portion which relates to the words of the adversary1 the words of ,god to the former1 and the handing over of ,job to him4 ,this fiction1 however1 is in so far different from other fictions that it includes profound ideas and great mysteries1 removes great doubts1 and reveals the most important truths4 ,i will discuss it as fully as possible2 and ,i will also tell you the words of our ,sages that suggested to me the explanation of this great poem4 ,first1 consider the words3 8,there was a man in the land ,u40 ,the term ,u has different meanings2 it is used as a proper noun4 ,comp4 8,u1 his first-born0 7,gen4 xxii4 #ba72 it is also imperative of the verb ,u1 8to take advice40 ,comp4 uu1 8take counsel0 7,isa4 viii4 #aj74 ,the name ,u therefore expresses the exhortation to consider well this lesson1 study it1 grasp its ideas1 and comprehend them1 in order to see which is the right view4 8,the sons of ,god then came to present themselves before the ,lord1 and the adversary came also among them and in their number0 7chap4 i4 #f1 ii4 #a74 ,it is not said3 8,and the sons of ,god and the adversary came to present themselves before the ,lord02 this sentence would have implied that the existence of all that came was of the same kind and rank4 ,the words used are these3 8,and the sons of ,god came to present themselves before the ,lord1 and the adversary came also among them40 ,such a phrase is only used in reference to one that comes without being expected or invited2 he only comes among others whose coming has been sought4 ,the adversary is then described as going to and fro on the earth1 and walking up and down thereon4 ,he is in no relation to the beings above1 and has no place among them4 ,for this reason it is said1 8from going to and fro on the earth1 and walking up and down on it10 for his 8going0 and 8walking0 can only take place on the earth4 ,job1 the simple and righteous man1 is given and handed over to the adversary2 whatever evils and misfortunes befell ,job as regards his property1 children1 and health1 were all caused by this adversary4 ,when this idea is sufficiently indicated1 the author begins to reflect on it2 one opinion ,job is represented to hold1 whilst other opinions are defended by his friends4 ,i will further on expound these opinions which formed the substance of the discussion on the misfortunes of ,job1 caused by the adversary alone4 ,job1 as well as his friends1 were of opinion that ,god ,himself was the direct agent of what happened1 and that the adversary was not the intermediate cause4 ,it is remarkable in this account that wisdom is not ascribed to ,job4 ,the text does not say he was an intelligent1 wise1 or clever man2 but virtues and uprightness1 especially in actions1 are ascribed to him4 ,if he were wise he would not have any doubt about the cause of his suffering1 as will be shown later on4 ,besides1 his misfortunes are enumerated in the same order as they rank in man's estimation4 ,there are some who are not perplexed or discouraged by loss of property1 thinking little of it2 but are terrified when they are threatened with the death of their children and are killed by their anxiety4 ,there are others who bear without shock or fainting even the loss of their children1 but no one endowed with sensation is able to bear bodily pain4 ,we generally extol ,god in words1 and praise ,him as righteous and benevolent1 when we prosper and are happy1 or when the grief we have to bear is moderate4 ,but it is otherwise when such troubles as are described in ,job come over us4 ,some of us deny ,god1 and believe that there is no rule in the ,universe1 even if only their property is lost4 ,others retain their faith in the existence of justice and order1 even when suffering from loss of property1 whereas loss of children is too much affliction for them4 ,others remain firm in their faith1 even with the loss of their children2 but there is no one who can patiently bear the pain that reaches his own person2 he then murmurs and complains of injustice either in his heart or with his tongue4 ,now consider that the phrase1 8to present themselves before the ,lord10 is used in reference to the sons of ,god1 both the first and the second times1 but in reference to the adversary1 who appeared on either occasion among them and in their number1 this phrase is not used the first time1 whilst in his second appearance 8the adversary also came among them to present himself before the ,lord40 ,consider this1 and see how very extraordinary it is6--,these ideas presented themselves like an inspiration to me4--,the phrase1 8to present themselves before the ,lord10 implies that they are beings who are forced by ,god's command to do what ,he desires4 ,this may be inferred from the words of the prophet ,zechariah concerning the four chariots that came forth4 ,he says3 8,and the angel answered and said to me1 ,these four winds of the heavens come forth from presenting themselves before the ,lord of the whole earth0 7,zech4 vi4 #e74 ,it is clear that the relation of the sons of ,god to the ,universe is not the same as that of the adversary4 ,the relation of the sons of ,god is more constant and more permanent4 ,the adversary has also some relation to the ,universe1 but it is inferior to that of the sons of ,god4 ,it is also remarkable in this account that in the description of the adversary's wandering about on the earth1 and his performing certain actions1 it is distinctly stated that he has no power over the soul2 whilst power has been given to him over all earthly affairs1 there is a partition between him and the soul2 he has not received power over the soul4 ,this is expressed in the words1 8,but keep away from his soul0 7,job4 ii4 #f74 ,i have already shown you the homonymous use of the term 8soul0 7nefesh7 in ,hebrew 7,part ,i41 chap4 xli474 ,it designates that element in man that survives him2 it is this portion over which the adversary has no power4--,after these remarks of mine listen to the following useful instruction given by our ,sages1 who in truth deserve the title of 8wise men02 it makes clear that which appears doubtful1 and reveals that which has been hidden1 and discloses most of the mysteries of the ,law4 ,they said in the ,talmud as follows3 ,r4 ,simeon1 son of ,lakish1 says3 8,the adversary 7satan71 evil inclination 7yeer ha-ra'71 and the angel of death1 are one and the same being40 ,here we find all that has been mentioned by us in such a clear manner that no intelligent person will be in doubt about it4 ,it has thus been shown to you that one and the same thing is designated by these three different terms1 and that actions ascribed to these three are in reality the actions of one and the same agent4 ,again1 the ancient doctors of the ,talmud said3 8,the adversary goes about and misleads1 then he goes up and accuses1 obtains permission1 and takes the soul40 ,you have already been told that when ,david at the time of the plague was shown the angel 8with the sword drawn in his hand stretched out over ,jerusalem0 7#b ,sam4 xxiv4 #ag71 it was done for the purpose of conveying a certain idea to him4 ,the same idea was also expressed in the vision concerning the sins of the sons of ,joshua1 the high priest1 by the words1 8,and the adversary stood on his right hand to accuse him0 7,zech4 iii4 #a74 ,the vision then reveals that the adversary is far from ,god1 and continues thus3 8,the ,lord will rebuke thee1 ,o adversary1 the ,lord who hath chosen ,jerusalem will rebuke thee0 7ibid4 ver4 #b74 ,balaam saw prophetically the same vision in his journey1 addressing him with the words1 8,behold ,i have come forth to be a hindrance to thee0 7,num4 xxii4 #cb74 ,the ,hebrew1 satan1 is derived from the same root as steh1 8turn away0 7,prov4 iv4 #ae72 it implies the notion of turning and moving away from a thing2 he undoubtedly turns us away from the way of truth1 and leads us astray in the way of error4 ,the same idea is contained in the passage1 8,and the imagination of the heart of man is evil from his youth0 7,gen4 viii4 #ba74 ,the theory of the good and the evil inclinations 7yeer ha-tob1 ve-yeer ha-ra'7 is frequently referred to in our religion4 ,our ,sages also say1 8,serve ,god with your good and your evil inclinations40 7,b4 ,t4 ,ber4 #eg;a47 ,they also say that the evil inclination we receive at our birth2 for 8at the door sin croucheth0 7,gen4 iv4 #g71 as is distinctly said in the ,law1 8,and the imagination of the heart of man is evil from his youth0 7ibid4 viii4 #ba74 ,the good inclination1 however1 comes when the mind is developed4 ,in explaining the allegory representing the body of man and his different faculties1 our ,sages 7,b4 ,t4 ,ned4 #cb;b7 said3 8,the evil inclination is called a great king1 whilst the good inclination is a child1 poor1 though wise0 7,eccles4 ix4 #ad74 ,all these sayings of our ,sages are contained in their writings1 and are well known4 ,according to our ,sages the evil inclination1 the adversary 7satan71 and the angel of death1 are undoubtedly identical2 and the adversary being called 8angel10 because he is among the sons of ,god1 and the good inclination being in reality an angel1 it is to the good and the evil inclinations that they refer in their well-known words1 8,every person is accompanied by two angels1 one being on his right side1 one on his left40 ,in the ,babylonian ,gemara 7,shabbath #aai;b71 they say distinctly of the two angels that one is good and one bad4 ,see what extraordinary ideas this passage discloses1 and how many false ideas it removes4 ,i believe that ,i have fully explained the idea contained in the account of ,job2 but ,i will now show the character of the opinion attributed to ,job1 and of the opinions attributed to his friends1 and support my statement by proofs gathered from the words of each of them4 ,we need not take notice of the remaining passages which are only required for the context1 as has been explained to you in the beginning of this treatise4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,assuming the first part of the history of ,job as having actually taken place1 the five1 viz41 ,job and his friends1 agreed that the misfortune of ,job was known to ,god1 and that it was ,god that caused ,job's suffering4 ,they further agree that ,god does no wrong1 and that no injustice can be ascribed to ,him4 ,you will find these ideas frequently repeated in the words of ,job4 ,when you consider the words of the five who take part in the discussion1 you will easily notice that things said by one of them are also uttered by the rest4 ,the arguments are repeated1 mixed up1 and interrupted by ,job's description of his acute pain and troubles1 which had come upon him in spite of his strict righteousness1 and by an account of his charity1 humane disposition1 and good acts4 ,the replies of the friends to ,job are likewise interrupted by exhortations to patience1 by words of comfort1 and other speeches tending to make him forget his grief4 ,he is told by them to be silent2 that he ought not to let loose the bridle of his tongue1 as if he were in dispute with another man2 that he ought silently to submit to the judgments of ,god4 ,job replies that the intensity of his pains did not permit him to bear patiently1 to collect his thoughts and to say what he ought to say4 ,the friends1 on the other hand1 contend that those who act well receive reward1 and those who act wickedly are punished4 ,when a wicked and rebellious person is seen in prosperity1 it may be assumed for certain that a change will take place2 he will die1 or troubles will afflict him and his house4 ,when we find a worshipper of ,god in misfortune1 we may be certain that ,god will heal the stroke of his wound4 ,this idea is frequently repeated in the words of the three friends1 ,eliphaz1 ,bildad1 and ,zofar1 who agree in this opinion4 ,it is1 however1 not the object of this chapter to describe in what they agree1 but to define the distinguishing characteristic of each of them1 and to elucidate the opinion of each as regards the question why the most simple and upright man is afflicted with the greatest and acutest pain4 ,job found in this fact a proof that the righteous and the wicked are equal before ,god1 who holds all mankind in contempt4 ,job therefore says 7ix4 #bb1 #bc73 8,this is one thing1 therefore ,i said it1 ,he destroyeth the perfect and the wicked4 ,if the scourge slay suddenly1 he will laugh at the trial of the innocent40 ,he thus declares that when a scourge comes suddenly1 killing and destroying all it meets1 ,god laughs at the trial of the innocent4 ,he further confirms this view in the following passage3 8,one dieth in his full strength1 being wholly at ease and quiet4 ,his vessels are full of milk1 etc4 ,and another dieth in the bitterness of his soul1 and never eateth with pleasure4 ,they shall lie down alike in the dust1 and the worms shall cover them0 7ibid4 xxi4 #bc-bf74 ,in a similar manner he shows the good condition and prosperity of wicked people2 and is even very explicit on this point4 ,he speaks thus3 8,even when ,i remember ,i am afraid1 and trembling taketh hold on my flesh4 ,wherefore do the wicked live1 become old1 yea1 are mighty in power8 ,their seed is established in their sight with them10 etc4 7ibid4 #f-h74 ,having thus described their prosperity1 he addresses his opponents1 and says to them3 8,granted that as you think1 the children of this prosperous atheist will perish after his death1 and their memory will be blotted out1 what harm will the fate of his family cause him after his death8 ,for what pleasure hath he in his house after him1 when the number of his months is cut off in the midst80 7ibid4 #ba74 ,job then explains that there is no hope after death1 so that the cause of the misfortune of the righteous man is nothing else but entire neglect on the part of ,god4 ,he is therefore surprised that ,god has not abandoned the creation of man altogether2 and that after having created him1 ,he does not take any notice of him4 ,he says in his surprise3 8,hast thou not poured me out as milk1 and curdled me like cheese80 etc4 7ibid4 x4 #aj1 seq474 ,this is one of the different views held by some thinkers on ,providence4 ,our ,sages 7,b4 ,t4 ,baba ,b4 #af;a7 condemned this view of ,job as mischievous1 and expressed their feeling in words like the following3 8dust should have filled the mouth of ,job02 8,job wished to upset the dish02 8,job denied the resurrection of the dead02 8,he commenced to blaspheme40 ,when1 however1 ,god said to ,eliphaz and his colleagues1 8,you have not spoken of me the thing that is right1 as my servant ,job hath0 7xlii4 #g71 our ,sages assume as the cause of this rebuke1 the maxim 8,man is not punished for that which he utters in his pain02 and that ,god ignored the sin of ,job in his utterances1 because of the acuteness of his suffering4 ,but this explanation does not agree with the object of the whole allegory4 ,the words of ,god are justified1 as ,i will show1 by the fact that ,job abandoned his first very erroneous opinion1 and himself proved that it was an error4 ,it is the opinion which suggests itself as plausible at first thought1 especially in the minds of those who meet with mishaps1 well knowing that they have not merited them through sins4 ,this is admitted by all1 and therefore this opinion was assigned to ,job4 ,but he is represented to hold this view only so long as he was without wisdom1 and knew ,god only by tradition1 in the same manner as religious people generally know ,him4 ,as soon as he had acquired a true knowledge of ,god1 he confessed that there is undoubtedly true felicity in the knowledge of ,god2 it is attained by all who acquire that knowledge1 and no earthly trouble can disturb it4 ,so long as ,job's knowledge of ,god was based on tradition and communication1 and not on research1 he believed that such imaginary good as is possessed in health1 riches1 and children1 was the utmost that men can attain2 this was the reason why he was in perplexity1 and why he uttered the above-mentioned opinions1 and this is also the meaning of his words3 8,i have heard of thee by the hearing of the ear2 but now mine eye seeth thee4 ,wherefore ,i abhor myself1 and repent because of dust and ashes0 7xlii4 #e1 #f72 that is to say1 he abhorred all that he had desired before1 and that he was sorry that he had been in dust and ashes2 comp4 8and he sat down among the ashes0 7ii4 #h74 ,on account of this last utterance1 which implies true perception1 it is said afterwards in reference to him1 8for you have not spoken of me the thing that is right1 as my servant ,job hath40 ,the opinion set forth by ,eliphaz in reference to ,job's suffering is likewise one of the current views on ,providence4 ,he holds that the fate of ,job was in accordance with strict justice4 ,job was guilty of sins for which he deserved his fate4 ,eliphaz therefore says to ,job3 8,is not thy wickedness great1 and thine iniquities infinite80 7xxii4 #e74 ,he then points out to him that his upright actions and his good ways1 on which he relies1 need not be so perfect in the eyes of ,god that no punishment should be inflicted on him4 8,behold1 he putteth no trust in his servants2 and his angels he chargeth with folly3 how much less in them that dwell in houses of clay10 etc4 7iv4 #ag-ah74 ,eliphaz never abandoned his belief that the fate of man is the result of justice1 that we do not know all our shortcomings for which we are punished1 nor the way how we incur the punishment through them4 ,bildad the ,shuhite defends in this question the theory of reward and compensation4 ,he therefore tells ,job that if he is innocent and without sin1 his terrible misfortunes will be the source of great reward1 will be followed by the best compensation1 and will prove a boon to him as the cause of great bliss in the future world4 ,this idea is expressed in the words3 8,if thou be pure and upright1 surely now he will awake for thee1 and make the habitation of thy righteousness prosperous4 ,though thy beginning was small1 yet thy latter end will greatly increase0 7viii4 #f-h74 ,this opinion concerning ,providence is widespread1 and we have already explained it4 ,zofar the ,naamathite holds that the ,divine ,will is the source of everything that happens2 no further cause can be sought for ,his actions1 and it cannot be asked why ,he has done this and why ,he has not done that4 ,that which ,god does can therefore not be explained by the way of justice or the result of wisdom4 ,his true ,essence demands that ,he does what ,he wills2 we are unable to fathom the depth of ,his wisdom1 and it is the law and rule of this wisdom that whatever ,he does is done because it is ,his will and for no other cause4 ,zofar therefore says to ,job3 8,but oh that ,god would speak1 and open his lips against thee2 and that he would show thee the secrets of wisdom1 for wisdom hath two portions6 ,know1 therefore1 that ,god exacteth of thee less than thine iniquity deserveth4 ,canst thou by searching find out ,god8 canst thou find out the ,almighty unto perfection80 7xi4 #f-g74 ,in this manner consider well how the ,book of ,job discusses the problem1 which has perplexed many people1 and led them to adopt in reference to ,divine ,providence some one of the theories which ,i have explained above2 all possible different theories are mentioned therein4 ,the problem is described either by way of fiction or in accordance with real fact1 as having manifested itself in a man famous for his excellency and wisdom4 ,the view ascribed to ,job is the theory of ,aristotle4 ,eliphaz holds the opinion taught in ,scripture1 ,bildad's opinion is identical with that of the ,mutazilah1 whilst ,zofar defends the theory of the ,asha'riyah4 ,these were the ancient views on ,providence2 later on a new theory was set forth1 namely1 that ascribed to ,elihu4 ,for this reason he is placed above the others1 and described as younger in years but greater in wisdom4 ,he censures ,job for his foolishly exalting himself1 expressing surprise at such great troubles befalling a good man1 and dwelling on the praises of his own deeds4 ,he also tells the three friends that their minds have been weakened by great age4 ,a profound and wonderful discourse then follows4 ,reflecting on his words we may at first thought be surprised to find that he does not add anything to the words of ,eliphaz1 ,bildad1 and ,zofar2 and that he only repeats their ideas in other terms and more explicitly4 ,for he likewise censures and rebukes ,job1 attributes justice to ,god1 relates ,his wonders in nature1 and holds that ,god is not affected by the service of the worshipper1 nor by the disobedience of the rebellious4 ,all this has already been said by ,his colleagues4 ,but after due consideration we see clearly the new idea introduced by ,elihu1 which is the principal object of his speech1 an idea which has not been uttered by those who spoke before him4 ,in addition to this he mentions also other things set forth by the previous speakers1 in the same manner as each of the rest1 viz41 ,job and his three friends1 repeat what the others have said4 ,the purpose of this repetition is to conceal the opinion peculiar to each speaker1 and to make all appear in the eyes of the ordinary reader to utter one and the same view1 although in reality this is not the case4 ,the new idea1 which is peculiar to ,elihu and has not been mentioned by the others1 is contained in his metaphor of the angel's intercession4 ,it is a frequent occurrence1 he says1 that a man becomes ill1 approaches the gates of death1 and is already given up by his neighbours4 ,if then an angel1 of any kind whatever1 intercedes on his behalf and prays for him1 the intercession and prayers are accepted2 the patient rises from his illness1 is saved1 and returns to good health4 ,this result is not always obtained2 intercession and deliverance do not always follow each other2 it happens only twice1 or three times4 ,elihu therefore says3 8,if there be an angel with him1 an interpreter1 one among a thousand1 to show unto man his uprightness10 etc4 7xxxiii4 #bi74 ,he then describes man's condition when convalescent and the rejoicing at his recovery1 and continues thus3 8,lo1 all these things worketh ,god twice1 three times with man0 7ibid4 #bi74 ,this idea occurs only in the words of ,elihu4 ,his description of the method of prophecy in preceding verses is likewise new4 ,he says3 8,surely ,god speaketh in one way1 yea in two ways1 yet man perceiveth it not4 ,in a dream1 in a vision of the night1 when deep sleep falleth upon man1 in slumberings upon the bed0 7ibid4 #ad1 #ae74 ,he afterwards supports and illustrates his theory by a description of many natural phenomena1 such as thunder1 lightning1 rain1 and winds2 with these are mixed up accounts of various incidents of life1 e4g41 an account of pestilence contained in the following passage3 8,in a moment they die1 and at midnight2 the people become tumultuous and pass away0 7xxxiv4 #bj74 ,great wars are described in the following verse3 8,he breaketh in pieces mighty men without number1 and setteth others in their stead0 7ibid4 #bd74 ,there are many more passages of this kind4 ,in a similar manner the ,revelation that reached ,job 7chap4 xxxviii41 chap4 xli471 and explained to him the error of his whole belief1 constantly describes natural objects1 and nothing else2 it describes the elements1 meteorological phenomena1 and peculiarities of various kinds of living beings4 ,the sky1 the heavens1 ,orion and ,pleiades are only mentioned in reference to their influence upon our atmosphere1 so that ,job's attention is in this prophecy only called to things below the lunar sphere4 ,elihu likewise derives instruction from the nature of various kinds of animals4 ,thus he says3 8,he teacheth us through the beasts of the earth1 and maketh us wise through the fowls of heaven0 7xxxv4 #aa74 ,he dwells longest on the nature of the ,leviathan1 which possesses a combination of bodily peculiarities found separate in different animals1 in those that walk1 those that swim1 and those that fly4 ,the description of all these things serves to impress on our minds that we are unable to comprehend how these transient creatures come into existence1 or to imagine how their natural properties commenced to exist1 and that these are not like the things which we are able to produce4 ,much less can we compare the manner in which ,god rules and manages ,his creatures with the manner in which we rule and manage certain beings4 ,we must content ourselves with this1 and believe that nothing is hidden from ,god1 as ,elihu says3 8,for his eyes are upon the ways of man1 and he seeth all his goings4 ,there is no darkness nor shadow of death1 where the workers of iniquity may hide themselves0 7xxxiv4 #ba1 #bb74 ,but the term management1 when applied to ,god1 has not the same meaning which it has when applied to us2 and when we say that ,he rules ,his creatures we do not mean that ,he does the same as we do when we rule over other beings4 ,the term 8rule0 has not the same definition in both cases2 it signifies two different notions1 which have nothing in common but the name4 ,in the same manner1 as there is a difference between works of nature and productions of human handicraft1 so there is a difference between ,god's rule1 providence1 and intention in reference to all natural forces1 and our rule1 providence1 and intention in reference to things which are the objects of our rule1 providence1 and intention4 ,this lesson is the principal object of the whole ,book of ,job2 it lays down this principle of faith1 and recommends us to derive a proof from nature1 that we should not fall into the error of imagining ,his knowledge to be similar to ours1 or ,his intention1 providence1 and rule similar to ours4 ,when we know this we shall find everything that may befall us easy to bear2 mishap will create no doubts in our hearts concerning ,god1 whether ,he knows our affairs or not1 whether ,he provides for us or abandons us4 ,on the contrary1 our fate will increase our love of ,god2 as is said in the end of this prophecy3 8,therefore ,i abhor myself and repent concerning the dust and ashes0 7xlii4 #f72 and as our ,sages say3 8,the pious do everything out of love1 and rejoice in their own afflictions40 7,b4 ,t4 ,shabb4 #hh;b47 ,if you pay to my words the attention which this treatise demands1 and examine all that is said in the ,book of ,job1 all will be clear to you1 and you will find that ,i have grasped and taken hold of the whole subject2 nothing has been left unnoticed1 except such portions as are only introduced because of the context and the whole plan of the allegory4 ,i have explained this method several times in the course of this treatise4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,the doctrine of trials is open to great objections2 it is in fact more exposed to objections than any other thing taught in ,scripture4 ,it is mentioned in ,scripture six times1 as ,i will show in this chapter4 ,people have generally the notion that trials consist in afflictions and mishaps sent by ,god to man1 not as punishments for past sins1 but as giving opportunity for great reward4 ,this principle is not mentioned in ,scripture in plain language1 and it is only in one of the six places referred to that the literal meaning conveys this notion4 ,i will explain the meaning of that passage later on4 ,the principle taught in ,scripture is exactly the reverse2 for it is said3 8,he is a ,god of faithfulness1 and there is no iniquity in him0 7,deut4 xxxii4 #d74 ,the teaching of our ,sages1 although some of them approve this general belief concerning trials1 is on the whole against it4 ,for they say1 8,there is no death without sin1 and no affliction without transgression40 7,see p4 #bhe47 ,every intelligent religious person should have this faith1 and should not ascribe any wrong to ,god1 who is far from it2 he must not assume that a person is innocent and perfect and does not deserve what has befallen him4 ,the trials mentioned in ,scripture in the six passages1 seem to have been tests and experiments by which ,god desired to learn the intensity of the faith and the devotion of a man or a nation4 ,if this were the case it would be very difficult to comprehend the object of the trials1 and yet the sacrifice of ,isaac seems to be a case of this kind1 as none witnessed it1 but ,god and the two concerned ,abraham and ,isaac4 ,thus ,god says to ,abraham1 8,for now ,i know that thou fearest ,god10 etc4 7,gen4 xxii4 #ab74 ,in another passage it is said3 8,for the ,lord your ,god proveth you to know whether ye love10 etc4 7,deut4 xiii4 #d74 ,again1 8,and to prove thee to know what was in thine heart10 etc4 7ibid4 viii4 #b74 ,i will now remove all the difficulties4 ,the sole object of all the trials mentioned in ,scripture is to teach man what he ought to do or believe2 so that the event which forms the actual trial is not the end desired2 it is but an example for our instruction and guidance4 ,hence the words 8to know 7la-daat7 whether ye love10 etc41 do not mean that ,god desires to know whether they loved ,god2 for ,he already knows it2 but la-daat1 8to know10 has here the same meaning as in the phrase 8to know 7la-daat7 that ,i am the ,lord that sanctifieth you0 7,exod4 xxxi4 #ac71 i4e41 that all nations shall know that ,i am the ,lord who sanctifieth you4 ,in a similar manner ,scripture says3--,if a man should rise1 pretend to be a prophet1 and show you his signs by which he desired to convince you that his words are true1 know that ,god intends thereby to prove to the nations how firmly you believe in the truth of ,god's word1 and how well you have comprehended the true ,essence of ,god2 that you cannot be misled by any tempter to corrupt your faith in ,god4 ,your religion will then afford a guidance to all who seek the truth1 and of all religions man will choose that which is so firmly established that it is not shaken by the performance of a miracle4 ,for a miracle cannot prove that which is impossible2 it is useful only as a confirmation of that which is possible1 as we have explained in our ,mishneh-torah4 7,yesode ha-torah vii4 f4 viii4 #c47 ,having shown that the term 8to know0 means 8that all people may know10 we apply this interpretation to the following words said in reference to the manna3 8,to humble thee1 and to prove thee1 to know what was in thine heart1 whether thou wouldst keep his commandments1 or not0 7,deut4 viii4 #b74 ,all nations shall know1 it shall be published throughout the world1 that those who devote themselves to the service of ,god are supported beyond their expectation4 ,in the same sense it was said when the manna commenced to come down1 8that ,i may prove them whether they will walk in my law or no0 7,exod4 xvi4 #d72 i4e41 let every one who desires try and see whether it is useful and sufficient to devote himself to the service of ,god4 ,it is1 however1 said a third time in reference to the manna3 8,who fed thee in the wilderness with manna1 which thy fathers knew not1 that he might humble thee1 and that he might prove thee1 to do thee good at thy latter end0 7,deut4 viii4 #af74 ,this might induce us to think that ,god sometimes afflicts man for the purpose of increasing his reward4 ,but in truth this is not the case4 ,we may rather assume one of the two following explanations2 either this passage expresses the same idea as is expressed in the first and second passages1 viz41 to show to all people whether faith in ,god is sufficient to secure man's maintenance and his relief from care and trouble1 or not4 ,or the ,hebrew term le-nassoteka means 8to accustom thee02 the word is used in this sense in the following passage3 8,she has not accustomed 7nisseta7 the sole of her foot to set it upon the ground0 7ibid4 xxviii4 #ef74 ,the meaning of the above passage would then be3 8,god has first trained you in the hardships of the wilderness1 in order to increase your welfare when you enter the land of ,canaan40 ,it is indeed a fact that the transition from trouble to ease gives more pleasure than continual ease4 ,it is also known that the ,israelites would not have been able to conquer the land and fight with its inhabitants1 if they had not previously undergone the trouble and hardship of the wilderness4 ,scripture says in reference to this3 8,for ,god said1 ,lest peradventure the people repent when they see war1 and they return to ,egypt4 ,but ,god led the people about1 through the way of the wilderness of the ,red ,sea2 and the children of ,israel went up harnessed out of the land of ,egypt0 7,exod4 xiii4 #ag1 #ah74 ,ease destroys bravery1 whilst trouble and care for food create strength2 and this was also for the ,israelites the good that ultimately came out of their wanderings in the wilderness4 ,the passage1 8,for ,god is come to prove you1 and that his fear may be before your faces1 that ye sin not0 7ibid4 xx4 #bj71 expresses the same idea as is expressed in ,deuteronomy 7xiii4 #d7 in reference to a person who prophesies in the name of idols1 namely in the words3 8,for the ,lord your ,god proveth you to know whether ye love the ,lord40 ,we have already explained the meaning of the latter passage4 ,in the same sense ,moses said to the ,israelites when they stood round ,mount ,sinai3 8,do not fear2 the object of this great sight which you perceived is that you should see the truth with your own eyes4 ,when the ,lord your ,god1 in order to show your faithfulness to ,him1 will prove you by a false prophet1 who will tell you the reverse of what you have heard1 you will remain firm and your steps will not slide4 ,if ,i had come as a messenger as you desired1 and had told you that which had been said unto me and which you had not heard1 you would perhaps consider as true what another might tell you in opposition to that which you heard from me4 ,but it is different now1 as you have heard it in the midst of the great sight40 ,the account of ,abraham our father binding his son1 includes two great ideas or principles of our faith4 ,first1 it shows us the extent and limit of the fear of ,god4 ,abraham is commanded to perform a certain act1 which is not equalled by any surrender of property or by any sacrifice of life1 for it surpasses everything that can be done1 and belongs to the class of actions which are believed to be contrary to human feelings4 ,he had been without child1 and had been longing for a child2 he had great riches1 and was expecting that a nation should spring from his seed4 ,after all hope of a son had already been given up1 a son was born unto him4 ,how great must have been his delight in the child6 how intensely must he have loved him6 ,and yet because he feared ,god1 and loved to do what ,god commanded1 he thought little of that beloved child1 and set aside all his hopes concerning him1 and consented to kill him after a journey of three days4 ,if the act by which he showed his readiness to kill his son had taken place immediately when he received the commandment1 it might have been the result of confusion and not of consideration4 ,but the fact that he performed it three days after he had received the commandment1 proves the presence of thought1 proper consideration1 and careful examination of what is due to the ,divine command and what is in accordance with the love and fear of ,god4 ,there is no necessity to look for the presence of any other idea or of anything that might have affected his emotions4 ,for ,abraham did not hasten to kill ,isaac out of fear that ,god might slay him or make him poor1 but solely because it is man's duty to love and to fear ,god1 even without hope of reward or fear of punishment4 ,we have repeatedly explained this4 ,the angel1 therefore1 says to him1 8,for now ,i know10 etc4 7ibid4 ver4 #ab71 that is1 from this action1 for which you deserve to be truly called a ,god-fearing man1 all people shall learn how far we must go in the fear of ,god4 ,this idea is confirmed in ,scripture2 it is distinctly stated that one sole thing1 fear of ,god1 is the object of the whole ,law with its affirmative and negative precepts1 its promises and its historical examples1 for it is said1 8,if thou wilt not observe to do all the words of this ,law that are written in this book1 that thou mayest fear this glorious and fearful name1 the ,lord thy ,god10 etc4 7,deut4 xxviii4 #eh74 ,this is one of the two purposes of the akedah 7sacrifice or binding of ,isaac74 ,the second purpose is to show how the prophets believed in the truth of that which came to them from ,god by way of inspiration4 ,we shall not think that what the prophets heard or saw in allegorical figures may at times have included incorrect or doubtful elements1 since the ,divine communication was made to them1 as we have shown1 in a dream or a vision and through the imaginative faculty4 ,scripture thus tells us that whatever the ,prophet perceives in a prophetic vision1 he considers as true and correct and not open to any doubt2 it is in his eyes like all other things perceived by the senses or by the intellect4 ,this is proved by the consent of ,abraham to slay 8his only son whom he loved10 as he was commanded1 although the commandment was received in a dream or a vision4 ,if the ,prophets had any doubt or suspicion as regards the truth of what they saw in a prophetic dream or perceived in a prophetic vision1 they would not have consented to do what is unnatural1 and ,abraham would not have found in his soul strength enough to perform that act1 if he had any doubt as regards the truth of the commandment4 ,it was just the right thing that this lesson derived from the akedah 78sacrifice07 should be taught through ,abraham and a man like ,isaac4 ,for ,abraham was the first to teach the ,unity of ,god1 to establish the faith in ,him1 to cause it to remain among coming generations1 and to win his fellow-men for his doctrine2 as ,scripture says of him3 8,i know him1 that he will command10 etc4 7,gen4 viii4 #ai74 ,in the same manner as he was followed by others in his true and valuable opinions when they were heard from him1 so also the principles should be accepted that may be learnt from his actions2 especially from the act by which he confirmed the principle of the truth of prophecy1 and showed how far we must go in the fear and the love of ,god4 ,this is the way how we have to understand the accounts of trials2 we must not think that ,god desires to examine us and to try us in order to know what ,he did not know before4 ,far is this from ,him2 ,he is far above that which ignorant and foolish people imagine concerning ,him1 in the evil of their thoughts4 ,note this4 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,man's actions are divided as regards their object into four classes2 they are either purposeless1 unimportant1 in vain1 or good4 ,an action is in vain if the object which is sought by it is not obtained on account of some obstacles4 ,thus people frequently use the phrase 8thou hast worked in vain0 in reference to a person who looks out for some one and cannot find him2 or who undertakes the troubles of a journey for his business without profit4 ,our endeavours and exertions are in vain as regards a patient that is not cured4 ,this applies to all actions which are intended for certain purposes that are not realized4 ,purposeless are such actions1 which serve no purpose at all4 ,some persons1 e4g41 do something with their hands whilst thinking of something else4 ,the actions of the insane and confused are of this kind4 ,unimportant are such actions by which a trivial object is sought1 an object that is not necessary and is not of great use4 ,this is the case when a person dances without seeking to benefit his digestion by that exercise1 or performs certain actions for the purpose of causing laughter4 ,such actions are certainly mere pastimes4 ,whether an action belongs to this class or not depends on the intention of those who perform it1 and on the degree of their perfection4 ,for many things are necessary or very useful in the opinion of one person and superfluous in the opinion of another4 ,e4g41 bodily exercise1 in its different kinds1 is necessary for the proper preservation of health in the opinion of him who understands the science of medicine2 writing is considered as very useful by scholars4 ,when people take exercise by playing with the ball1 wrestling1 stretching out the hands or keeping back the breathing1 or do certain things as preparation for writing1 shape the pen and get the paper ready1 such actions are mere pastimes in the eyes of the ignorant1 but the wise do not consider them as unimportant4 ,useful are such actions as serve a proper purpose2 being either necessary or useful for the purpose which is to be attained4 ,this division of man's actions is1 as ,i believe1 not open to any objection4 ,for every action is either intended for a certain purpose or is not intended2 and if intended for a certain purpose1 that purpose may be important or unimportant1 is sometimes attained and sometimes missed4 ,this division is therefore complete4 ,after having explained this division1 ,i contend that no intelligent person can assume that any of the actions of ,god can be in vain1 purposeless1 or unimportant4 ,according to our view and the view of all that follow the ,law of ,moses1 all actions of ,god are 8exceedingly good40 ,thus ,scripture says1 8,and ,god saw everything that he had made1 and behold1 it was very good0 7,gen4 i4 #ca74 ,and that which ,god made for a certain thing is necessary or at least very useful for the existence of that thing4 ,thus food is necessary for the existence of living beings2 the possession of eyes is very useful to man during his life1 although food only serves to sustain living beings a certain time1 and the senses are only intended to procure to animals the advantages of sensation4 ,the philosophers likewise assume that in ,nature there is nothing in vain1 so that everything that is not the product of human industry serves a certain purpose1 which may be known or unknown to us4 ,there are thinkers that assume that ,god does not create one thing for the sake of another1 that existing things are not to each other in the relation of cause and effect2 that they are all the direct result of the ,will of ,god1 and do not serve any purpose4 ,according to this opinion we cannot ask why has ,he made this and not that2 for ,he does what pleases ,him1 without following a fixed system4 ,those who defend this theory must consider the actions of ,god as purposeless1 and even as inferior to purposeless actions2 for when we perform purposeless actions1 our attention is engaged by other things and we do not know what we are doing2 but ,god1 according to these theorists1 knows what ,he is doing1 and knowingly does it for no purpose or use whatever4 ,the absurdity of assuming that some of ,god's actions are trivial1 is apparent even at first sight1 and no notice need be taken of the nonsensical idea that monkeys were created for our pastime4 ,such opinions originate only in man's ignorance of the nature of transient beings1 and in his overlooking the principle that it was intended by the ,creator to produce in its present form everything whose existence is possible2 a different form was not decreed by the ,divine ,wisdom1 and the existence of objects of a different form is therefore impossible1 because the existence of all things depends on the decree of ,god's wisdom4 ,those who hold that ,god's works serve no purpose whatever believe that an examination of the totality of existing things compels them to adopt this theory4 ,they ask what is the purpose of the whole ,universe8 they necessarily answer1 like all those who believe in the ,creation1 that it was created because ,god willed it so1 and for no other purpose4 ,the same answer they apply to all parts of the ,universe1 and do not admit that the hole in the uvea and the transparency of the cornea are intended for the purpose of allowing the spiritus visus to pass and to perceive certain objects2 they do not assume that these circumstances are causes for the sight2 the hole in the uvea and the transparent matter over it are not there because of the sight1 but because of the ,will of ,god1 although the sense of sight could have been created in a different form4 ,there are passages in the ,bible which at first sight we might understand to imply this theory4 ,e4g41 8,the ,lord hath done whatever he pleased0 7,ps4 cxxxv4 #f72 8,his soul desired it and he made it0 7,job xxiii4 #ac72 8,who will say unto thee1 ,what doest thou80 7,eccles4 viii4 #d74 ,the meaning of these and similar verses is this3 whatever ,god desires to do is necessarily done2 there is nothing that could prevent the realization of ,his will4 ,the object of ,his will is only that which is possible1 and of the things possible only such as ,his wisdom decrees upon4 ,when ,god desires to produce the best work1 no obstacle or hindrance intervenes between ,him and that work4 ,this is the opinion held by all religious people1 also by the philosophers2 it is also our opinion4 ,for although we believe that ,god created the ,universe from nothing1 most of our wise and learned men believe that the ,creation was not the exclusive result of ,his will2 but ,his wisdom1 which we are unable to comprehend1 made the actual existence of the ,universe necessary4 ,the same unchangeable wisdom found it as necessary that non-existence should precede the existence of the ,universe4 ,our ,sages frequently express this idea in the explanation of the words1 8,he hath made everything beautiful in his time0 7,eccles4 iii4 #aa71 only in order to avoid that which is objectionable1 viz41 the opinion that ,god does things without any purpose whatever4 ,this is the belief of most of our ,theologians2 and in a similar manner have the ,prophets expressed the idea that all parts of natural products are well arranged1 in good order1 connected with each other1 and stand to each other in the relation of cause and effect2 nothing of them is purposeless1 trivial1 or in vain2 they are all the result of great wisdom4 ,comp4 8,o ,lord1 how manifold are thy works6 in wisdom hast thou made them all3 the earth is full of thy riches0 7,ps4 civ4 #bd72 8,and all his works are done in truth0 7ibid4 xxxiii4 #d72 8,the ,lord by wisdom hath founded the earth0 7,prov4 iii4 #ai74 ,this idea occurs frequently2 there is no necessity to believe otherwise2 philosophic speculation leads to the same result2 viz41 that in the whole of ,nature there is nothing purposeless1 trivial1 or unnecessary1 especially in the ,nature of the spheres1 which are in the best condition and order1 in accordance with their superior substance4 ,know that the difficulties which lead to confusion in the question what is the purpose of the ,universe or of any of its parts1 arise from two causes3 first1 man has an erroneous idea of himself1 and believes that the whole world exists only for his sake2 secondly1 he is ignorant both about the nature of the sublunary world1 and about the ,creator's intention to give existence to all beings whose existence is possible1 because existence is undoubtedly good4 ,the consequences of that error and of the ignorance about the two things named1 are doubts and confusion1 which lead many to imagine that some of ,god's works are trivial1 others purposeless1 and others in vain4 ,those who adopt this absurd idea that ,god's actions are utterly purposeless1 and refuse to consider them as the result of ,his wisdom1 are afraid they might otherwise be compelled to admit the theory of the ,eternity of the ,universe1 and guard themselves against it by the above theory4 ,i have already told you the view which is set forth in ,scripture on this question1 and which it is proper to accept4 ,it is this3 it is not unreasonable to assume that the works of ,god1 their existence and preceding non-existence1 are the result of ,his wisdom1 but we are unable to understand many of the ways of ,his wisdom in ,his works4 ,on this principle the whole ,law of ,moses is based2 it begins with this principle3 8,and ,god saw all that ,he had made1 and1 behold1 it was very good0 7,gen4 i4 #ca72 and it ends with this principle3 8,the ,rock1 perfect is ,his work0 7,deut4 xxxii4 #d74 ,note it4 ,when you examine this view and that of the philosophers1 taking into consideration all preceding chapters which are connected with this subject1 you will find that there is no other difference of opinion as regards any portions of the ,universe1 except that the philosophers believe in the ,eternity of the ,universe and we believe in the ,creation4 ,note this4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,as ,theologians are divided on the question whether the actions of ,god are the result of ,his wisdom1 or only of ,his will without being intended for any purpose whatever1 so they are also divided as regards the object of the commandments which ,god gave us4 ,some of them hold that the commandments have no object at all2 and are only dictated by the will of ,god4 ,others are of opinion that all commandments and prohibitions are dictated by ,his wisdom and serve a certain aim2 consequently there is a reason for each one of the precepts2 they are enjoined because they are useful4 ,all of us1 the common people as well as the scholars1 believe that there is a reason for every precept1 although there are commandments the reason of which is unknown to us1 and in which the ways of ,god's wisdom are incomprehensible4 ,this view is distinctly expressed in ,scripture2 comp4 8righteous statutes and judgments0 7,deut4 iv4 #h72 8the judgments of the ,lord are true1 and righteous altogether0 7,ps4 xix4 #aj74 ,there are commandments which are called uim1 8ordinances10 like the prohibition of wearing garments of wool and linen 7shaatnez71 boiling meat and milk together1 and the sending of the goat into the wilderness on the ,day of ,atonement4 ,our ,sages use in reference to them phrases like the following3 8,these are things which ,i have fully ordained for thee2 and you dare not criticize them02 8,your evil inclination is turned against them02 and 8non-,jews find them strange40 ,but our ,sages generally do not think that such precepts have no cause whatever1 and serve no purpose2 for this would lead us to assume that ,god's actions are purposeless4 ,on the contrary1 they hold that even these ordinances have a cause1 and are certainly intended for some use1 although it is not known to us2 owing either to the deficiency of our knowledge or the weakness of our intellect4 ,consequently there is a cause for every commandment2 every positive or negative precept serves a useful object2 in some cases the usefulness is evident1 e4g41 the prohibition of murder and theft2 in others the usefulness is not so evident1 e4g41 the prohibition of enjoying the fruit of a tree in the first three years 7,lev4 xix4 #bc71 or of a vineyard in which other seeds have been growing 7,deut4 xxii4 #i74 ,those commandments1 whose object is generally evident1 are called 8judgments0 7mishpatim72 those whose object is not generally clear are called 8ordinances0 7uim74 ,thus they say in reference to the words of ,moses3 ,ki lo dabar rek hu mi-kem 7lit4 8for it is not a vain thing for you10 ,deut4 xxxii4 #gd72 8,it is not in vain1 and if it is in vain1 it is only so through you40 ,that is to say1 the giving of these commandments is not a vain thing and without any useful object2 and if it appears so to you in any commandment1 it is owing to the deficiency in your comprehension4 ,you certainly know the famous saying that ,solomon knew the reason for all commandments except that of the 8red heifer40 ,our ,sages also said that ,god concealed the causes of commandments1 lest people should despise them1 as ,solomon did in respect to three commandments1 the reason for which is clearly stated4 ,in this sense they always speak2 and ,scriptural texts support the idea4 ,i have1 however1 found one utterance made by them in ,bereshit-rabba 7sect4 xliv471 which might at first sight appear to imply that some commandments have no other reason but the fact that they are commanded1 that no other object is intended by them1 and that they do not serve any useful object4 ,i mean the following passage3 ,what difference does it make to ,god whether a beast is killed by cutting the neck in front or in the back8 ,surely the commandments are only intended as a means of trying man2 in accordance with the verse1 8,the word of ,god is a test0 7lit4 tried7 7,ps4 xviii4 #ca74 ,although this passage is very strange1 and has no parallel in the writings of our ,sages1 ,i explain it1 as you shall soon hear1 in such a manner that ,i remain in accord with the meaning of their words and do not depart from the principle which we agreed upon1 that the commandments serve a useful object2 8for it is not a vain thing for you02 8,i have not said to the seed of ,jacob1 seek me in vain4 ,i the ,lord speak righteousness1 declare that which is right0 7,isa4 xlv4 #ai74 ,i will now tell you what intelligent persons ought to believe in this respect2 namely1 that each commandment has necessarily a cause1 as far as its general character is concerned1 and serves a certain object2 but as regards its details we hold that it has no ulterior object4 ,thus killing animals for the purpose of obtaining good food is certainly useful1 as we intend to show 7below1 ch4 xlviii472 that1 however1 the killing should not be performed by neirah 7poleaxing the animal71 but by sheitah 7cutting the neck71 and by dividing the sophagus and the windpipe in a certain place2 these regulations and the like are nothing but tests for man's obedience4 ,in this sense you will understand the example quoted by our ,sages that there is no difference between killing the animal by cutting its neck in front and cutting it in the back4 ,i give this instance only because it has been mentioned by our ,sages2 but in reality there is some reason for these regulations4 ,for as it has become necessary to eat the flesh of animals1 it was intended by the above regulations to ensure an easy death and to effect it by suitable means2 whilst decapitation requires a sword or a similar instrument1 the sheitah can be performed with any instrument2 and in order to ensure an easy death our ,sages insisted that the knife should be well sharpened4 ,a more suitable instance can be cited from the detailed commandments concerning sacrifices4 ,the law that sacrifices should be brought is evidently of great use1 as will be shown by us 7infra1 chap4 xlvi472 but we cannot say why one offering should be a lamb1 whilst another is a ram2 and why a fixed number of them should be brought4 ,those who trouble themselves to find a cause for any of these detailed rules1 are in my eyes void of sense2 they do not remove any difficulties1 but rather increase them4 ,those who believe that these detailed rules originate in a certain cause1 are as far from the truth as those who assume that the whole law is useless4 ,you must know that ,divine ,wisdom demanded it--or1 if you prefer1 say that circumstances made it necessary--that there should be parts of ,his work which have no certain object2 and as regards the ,law1 it appears to be impossible that it should not include some matter of this kind4 ,that it cannot be avoided may be seen from the following instance4 ,you ask why must a lamb be sacrificed and not a ram8 but the same question would be asked1 why a ram had been commanded instead of a lamb1 so long as one particular kind is required4 ,the same is to be said as to the question why were seven lambs sacrificed and not eight2 the same question might have been asked if there were eight1 ten1 or twenty lambs1 so long as some definite number of lambs were sacrificed4 ,it is almost similar to the nature of a thing which can receive different forms1 but actually receives one of them4 ,we must not ask why it has this form and not another which is likewise possible1 because we should have to ask the same question if instead of its actual form the thing had any of the other possible forms4 ,note this1 and understand it4 ,the repeated assertion of our ,sages that there are reasons for all commandments1 and the tradition that ,solomon knew them1 refer to the general purpose of the commandments1 and not to the object of every detail4 ,this being the case1 ,i find it convenient to divide the six hundred and thirteen precepts into classes2 each class will include many precepts of the same kind1 or related to each other by their character4 ,i will first explain the reason of each class1 and show its undoubted and undisputed object1 and then ,i shall discuss each commandment in the class1 and expound its reason4 ,only very few will be left unexplained1 the reason for which ,i have been unable to trace unto this day4 ,i have also been able to comprehend in some cases even the object of many of the conditions and details as far as these can be discovered4 ,you will hear all this later on4 ,but in order to fully explain these reasons ,i must premise several chapters2 in these ,i will discuss principles which form the basis of my theory4 ,i will now begin these chapters4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,the general object of the ,law is twofold3 the well-being of the soul1 and the well-being of the body4 ,the well-being of the soul is promoted by correct opinions communicated to the people according to their capacity4 ,some of these opinions are therefore imparted in a plain form1 others allegorically2 because certain opinions are in their plain form too strong for the capacity of the common people4 ,the well-being of the body is established by a proper management of the relations in which we live one to another4 ,this we can attain in two ways3 first by removing all violence from our midst2 that is to say1 that we do not do every one as he pleases1 desires1 and is able to do2 but every one of us does that which contributes towards the common welfare4 ,secondly1 by teaching every one of us such good morals as must produce a good social state4 ,of these two objects1 the one1 the well-being of the soul1 or the communication of correct opinions1 comes undoubtedly first in rank1 but the other1 the well-being of the body1 the government of the state1 and the establishment of the best possible relations among men1 is anterior in nature and time4 ,the latter object is required first2 it is also treated in the ,law most carefully and most minutely1 because the well-being of the soul can only be obtained after that of the body has been secured4 ,for it has already been found that man has a double perfection3 the first perfection is that of the body1 and the second perfection is that of the soul4 ,the first consists in the most healthy condition of his material relations1 and this is only possible when man has all his wants supplied1 as they arise2 if he has his food1 and other things needful for his body1 e4g41 shelter1 bath1 and the like4 ,but one man alone cannot procure all this2 it is impossible for a single man to obtain this comfort2 it is only possible in society1 since man1 as is well known1 is by nature social4 ,the second perfection of man consists in his becoming an actually intelligent being2 i4e41 he knows about the things in existence all that a person perfectly developed is capable of knowing4 ,this second perfection certainly does not include any action or good conduct1 but only knowledge1 which is arrived at by speculation1 or established by research4 ,it is clear that the second and superior kind of perfection can only be attained when the first perfection has been acquired2 for a person that is suffering from great hunger1 thirst1 heat1 or cold1 cannot grasp an idea even if communicated by others1 much less can he arrive at it by his own reasoning4 ,but when a person is in possession of the first perfection1 then he may possibly acquire the second perfection1 which is undoubtedly of a superior kind1 and is alone the source of eternal life4 ,the true ,law1 which as we said is one1 and beside which there is no other ,law1 viz41 the ,law of our teacher ,moses1 has for its purpose to give us the twofold perfection4 ,it aims first at the establishment of good mutual relations among men by removing injustice and creating the noblest feelings4 ,in this way the people in every land are enabled to stay and continue in one condition1 and every one can acquire his first perfection4 ,secondly1 it seeks to train us in faith1 and to impart correct and true opinions when the intellect is sufficiently developed4 ,scripture clearly mentions the twofold perfection1 and tells us that its acquisition is the object of all the divine commandments4 ,comp4 8,and the ,lord commanded us to do all these statutes1 to fear the ,lord our ,god1 for our good always1 that he might preserve us alive as it is this day0 7,deut4 vi4 #bd74 ,here the second perfection is first mentioned because it is of greater importance1 being1 as we have shown1 the ultimate aim of man's existence4 ,this perfection is expressed in the phrase1 8for our good always40 ,you know the interpretation of our ,sages1 8#8that it may be well with thee' 7ibid4 xxii4 #g71 namely1 in the world that is all good1 #8and that thou mayest prolong thy days' 7ibid471 i4e41 in the world that is all eternal40 ,in the same sense ,i explain the words1 8for our good always10 to mean that we may come into the world that is all good and eternal1 where we may live permanently2 and the words1 8that he might preserve us alive as it is this day10 ,i explain as referring to our first and temporal existence1 to that of our body1 which cannot be in a perfect and good condition except by the co-operation of society1 as has been shown by us4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,it is necessary to bear in mind that ,scripture only teaches the chief points of those true principles which lead to the true perfection of man1 and only demands in general terms faith in them4 ,thus ,scripture teaches the ,existence1 the ,unity1 the ,omniscience1 the ,omnipotence1 the ,will1 and the ,eternity of ,god4 ,all this is given in the form of final results1 but they cannot be understood fully and accurately except after the acquisition of many kinds of knowledge4 ,scripture further demands belief in certain truths1 the belief in which is indispensable in regulating our social relations2 such is the belief that ,god is angry with those who disobey ,him1 for it leads us to the fear and dread of disobedience to the will of ,god4 ,there are other truths in reference to the whole of the ,universe which form the substance of the various and many kinds of speculative sciences1 and afford the means of verifying the above-mentioned principles as their final result4 ,but ,scripture does not so distinctly prescribe the belief in them as it does in the first case2 it is implied in the commandment1 8to love the ,lord0 7,deut4 xi4 #ac74 ,it may be inferred from the words1 8,and thou shalt love the ,lord thy ,god with all thy heart1 and with all thy soul1 and with all thy might0 7ibid4 vi4 #e71 what stress is laid on this commandment to love ,god4 ,we have already shown in the ,mishneh-torah 7,yes4 ha-torah ii4 #b7 that this love is only possible when we comprehend the real nature of things1 and understand the divine wisdom displayed therein4 ,we have likewise mentioned there what our ,sages remark on this subject4 ,the result of all these preliminary remarks is this3 ,the reason of a commandment1 whether positive or negative1 is clear1 and its usefulness evident1 if it directly tends to remove injustice1 or to teach good conduct that furthers the well-being of society1 or to impart a truth which ought to be believed either on its own merit or as being indispensable for facilitating the removal of injustice or the teaching of good morals4 ,there is no occasion to ask for the object of such commandments2 for no one can1 e4g41 be in doubt as to the reason why we have been commanded to believe that ,god is one2 why we are forbidden to murder1 to steal1 and to take vengeance1 or to retaliate1 or why we are commanded to love one another4 ,but there are precepts concerning which people are in doubt1 and of divided opinions1 some believing that they are mere commands1 and serve no purpose whatever1 whilst others believe that they serve a certain purpose1 which1 however1 is unknown to man4 ,such are those precepts which in their literal meaning do not seem to further any of the three above-named results3 to impart some truth1 to teach some moral1 or to remove injustice4 ,they do not seem to have any influence upon the well-being of the soul by imparting any truth1 or upon the well-being of the body by suggesting such ways and rules as are useful in the government of a state1 or in the management of a household4 ,such are the prohibitions of wearing garments containing wool and linen2 of sowing divers seeds1 or of boiling meat and milk together2 the commandment of covering the blood of slaughtered beasts and birds1 the ceremony of breaking the neck of a calf in case of a person being found slain1 and the murderer being unknown2 the law concerning the first-born of an ass1 and the like4 ,i am prepared to tell you my explanation of all these commandments1 and to assign for them a true reason supported by proof1 with the exception of some minor rules1 and of a few commandments1 as ,i have mentioned above4 ,i will show that all these and similar laws must have some bearing upon one of the following three things1 viz41 the regulation of our opinions1 or the improvement of our social relations1 which implies two things1 the removal of injustice1 and the teaching of good morals4 ,consider what we said of the opinions implied in the laws2 in some cases the law contains a truth which is itself the only object of that law1 as e4g41 the truth of the ,unity1 ,eternity1 and ,incorporeality of ,god2 in other cases1 that truth is only the means of securing the removal of injustice1 or the acquisition of good morals2 such is the belief that ,god is angry with those who oppress their fellow-men1 as it is said1 8,mine anger will be kindled1 and ,i will slay10 etc4 7,exod4 xxii4 #bc72 or the belief that ,god hears the crying of the oppressed and vexed1 to deliver them out of the hands of the oppressor and tyrant1 as it is written1 8,and it shall come to pass1 when he will cry unto me1 that ,i will hear1 for ,i am gracious0 7,exod4 xxii4 #be74 ,,chapter ,,xxix ,it is well known that the ,patriarch ,abraham was brought up in the religion and the opinion of the ,sabeans1 that there is no divine being except the stars4 ,i will tell you in this chapter their works which are at present extant in ,arabic translations1 and also in their ancient chronicles2 and ,i will show you their opinion and their practice according to these books4 ,you will then see clearly that they consider the stars as deities1 and the sun as the chief deity4 ,they believe that all the seven stars are gods1 but the two luminaries are greater than all the rest4 ,they say distinctly that the sun governs the world1 both that which is above and that which is below2 these are exactly their expressions4 ,in these books1 and in their chronicles1 the history of ,abraham our father is given in the following manner4 ,abraham was brought up in ,kutha2 when he differed from the people and declared that there is a ,maker besides the sun1 they raised certain objections1 and mentioned in their arguments the evident and manifest action of the sun in the ,universe4 8,you are right10 said ,abraham2 8the sun acts in the same manner as #8the axe in the hand of him that hews with it4'0 ,then some of his arguments against his opponents are mentioned4 ,in short1 the king put him in prison2 but he continued many days1 while in prison1 to argue against them4 ,at last the king was afraid that ,abraham might corrupt the kingdom1 and turn the people away from their religion2 he therefore expelled ,abraham into ,syria1 after having deprived him of all his property4 ,this is their account which you find clearly stated in the book called ,the ,nabatean ,agriculture4 ,nothing is said there of the account given in our trustworthy books1 nor do they mention what he learnt by way of prophecy2 for they refused to believe him1 because he attacked their evil doctrine4 ,i do not doubt that when he attacked the doctrine of all his fellow-men1 he was cursed1 despised1 and scorned by these people who adhered to their erroneous opinions4 ,when he submitted to this treatment for the sake of ,god1 as ought to be done for the sake of ,his glory1 ,god said to him1 8,and ,i will bless them that bless thee1 and curse them that curse thee0 7,gen4 xii4 #c74 ,the result of the course which ,abraham took1 is the fact that most people1 as we see at present1 agree in praising him1 and being proud of him2 so that even those who are not his descendants call themselves by his name4 ,no one opposes him1 and no one ignores his merits1 except some ignoble remnants of the nations left in the remote corners of the earth1 like the savage ,turks in the extreme ,north1 and the ,indians in the extreme ,south4 ,these are remnants of the ,sabeans1 who once filled the earth4 ,those who were able to think1 and were philosophers in those days1 could only raise themselves to the idea that ,god is the spirit of the spheres2 the spheres with their stars being the body1 and ,god the spirit4 ,abu-becr al-,zaig mentions this in his ,commentary on the book of ,physics4 ,all the ,sabeans thus believed in the eternity of the ,universe1 the heavens being in their opinion ,god4 ,adam was in their belief a human being born from male and female1 like the rest of mankind2 he was only distinguished from his fellow-men by being a prophet sent by the moon2 he accordingly called men to the worship of the moon1 and he wrote several works on agriculture4 ,the ,sabeans further relate that ,noah was an agriculturist1 and that he was not pleased with the worship of idols2 they blame him for that1 and say that he did not worship any image4 ,in their writings we meet even with the statement that ,noah was rebuked and imprisoned because he worshipped ,god1 and with many other accounts about him4 ,the ,sabeans contend that ,seth differed from his father ,adam1 as regards the worship of the moon4 ,they manufactured ridiculous stories1 which prove that their authors were very deficient in knowledge1 that they were by no means philosophers1 but on the contrary were extremely ignorant persons4 ,adam1 they say1 left the torrid zone near ,india and entered the region of ,babylon1 bringing with him wonderful things1 such as a golden tree1 that was growing1 and had leaves and branches2 a stone tree of the same kind1 and a fresh leaf of a tree proof against fire4 ,he related that there was a tree which could shelter ten thousand men1 although it had only the height of a man2 two leaves he brought with him1 each of which was sufficient to cover two men4 ,of these stories the ,sabeans have a wonderful abundance4 ,i am surprised that persons who think that the ,universe is eternal1 can yet believe in these things which nature cannot produce1 as is known to every student of ,natural ,science4 ,they only mention ,adam1 and relate the above stories about him1 in order to support their theory of the ,eternity of the ,universe2 from this theory they then derive the doctrine that the stars and the spheres are deities4 ,when ,abraham the 8,pillar of the ,world0 appeared1 he became convinced that there is a spiritual ,divine ,being1 which is not a body1 nor a force residing in a body1 but is the author of the spheres and the stars2 and he saw the absurdity of the tales in which he had been brought up4 ,he therefore began to attack the belief of the ,sabeans1 to expose the falsehood of their opinions1 and to proclaim publicly in opposition to them1 8the name of the ,lord1 the ,god of the ,universe0 7,gen4 xxi4 #cc71 which proclamation included at the same time the ,existence of ,god1 and the ,creation of the ,universe by ,god4 ,in accordance with the ,sabean theories images were erected to the stars1 golden images to the sun1 images of silver to the moon1 and they attributed the metals and the climates to the influence of the planets1 saying that a certain planet is the god of a certain zone4 ,they built temples1 placed in them images1 and assumed that the stars sent forth their influence upon these images1 which are thereby enabled 7to speak7 to understand1 to comprehend1 to inspire human beings1 and to tell them what is useful to them4 ,they apply the same to trees which fall to the lot of these stars4 ,when1 namely1 a certain tree1 which is peculiar to a certain star1 is dedicated to the name of this star1 and certain things are done for the tree and to the tree1 the spiritual force of that star which influences that tree1 inspires men1 and speaks to them when they are asleep4 ,all this is written in their works1 to which ,i will call your attention4 ,it applies to the 8prophets of ,baal10 and the 8prophets of ,asherah10 mentioned in ,scripture1 in whose hearts the ,sabean theories had taken root1 who forsook ,god1 and called1 8,baal1 hear us0 7#a ,kings xviii4 #bf72 because these theories were then general1 ignorance had spread1 and the madness with which people adhered to this kind of imaginations had increased in the world4 ,when such opinions were adopted among the ,israelites1 they had observers of clouds1 enchanters1 witches1 charmers1 consulters with familiar spirits1 wizards1 and necromancers4 ,we have shown in our large work1 ,mishneh-torah 7,hilkot1 ,abodah-zarah i4 #c71 that ,abraham was the first that opposed these theories by argument and by soft and persuasive speech4 ,he induced these people1 by showing kindness to them1 to serve ,god4 ,afterwards came the chief of the prophets and completed the work by the commandment to slay those unbelievers1 to blot out their name1 and to uproot them from the land of the living4 ,comp4 8,ye shall destroy their altars10 etc4 7,exod4 xxxiv4 #ac74 ,he forbade us to follow their ways2 he said1 8,ye shall not walk in the manners of the heathen10 etc4 7,lev4 xx4 #bc74 ,you know from the repeated declarations in the ,law that the principal purpose of the whole ,law was the removal and utter destruction of idolatry1 and all that is connected therewith1 even its name1 and everything that might lead to any such practices1 e4g41 acting as a consulter with familiar spirits1 or as a wizard1 passing children through the fire1 divining1 observing the clouds1 enchanting1 charming1 or inquiring of the dead4 ,the law prohibits us to imitate the heathen in any of these deeds1 and a fortiori to adopt them entirely4 ,it is distinctly said in the ,law that everything which idolaters consider as service to their gods1 and a means of approaching them1 is rejected and despised by ,god2 comp4 8for every abomination to the ,lord1 which he hateth1 have they done unto their gods0 7,deut4 xii4 #ca74 ,in the books which ,i shall name to you later on1 it is stated that on certain occasions they offered to the sun1 their greatest god1 seven beetles1 and seven mice1 and seven bats4 ,this alone suffices to show how disgusting their practice must be to human nature4 ,thus all precepts cautioning against idolatry1 or against that which is connected therewith1 leads to it1 or is related to it1 are evidently useful4 ,they all tend to save us from the evil doctrines that deprive us of everything useful for the acquisition of the twofold perfection of man1 by leading to those absurd practices in which our fathers and ancestors have been brought up4 ,comp4 8,and ,joshua said unto all the people1 ,thus saith the ,lord ,god of ,israel1 your fathers dwelt on the other side of the river in old time1 even ,terah1 the father of ,abraham1 and the father of ,nahor1 and they served other gods0 7,josh4 xxiv4 #b74 ,it is in reference to these idolatrous ideas that the true prophets exclaim1 8,they walked after vain things1 which do not profit40 ,how great is the usefulness of every precept that delivers us from this great error1 and leads us back to the true faith3 that ,god1 the ,creator of all things1 rules the ,universe2 that ,he must be served1 loved1 and feared1 and not those imaginary deities4 ,according to this faith we approach the true ,god1 and obtain ,his favour without having recourse to burdensome means2 for nothing else is required but to love and fear ,him2 this is the aim in serving ,god1 as will be shown4 ,comp4 8,and now1 ,israel1 what doth the ,lord thy ,god require of thee but to fear the ,lord08 etc4 7,deut4 x4 #ab74 ,i shall complete this subject later on2 now let us return to the theme of this chapter4 ,i say that my knowledge of the belief1 practice1 and worship of the ,sabeans has given me an insight into many of the divine precepts1 and has led me to know their reason4 ,you will confirm it when ,i shall give the reason of commandments which are seemingly purposeless4 ,i will mention to you the works from which you may learn all that ,i know of the religion and the opinions of the ,sabeans2 you will thereby obtain a true knowledge of my theory as regards the purpose of the divine precepts4 ,the great book on this subject is the book ,on the ,nabatean ,agriculture1 translated by ,ibn ,wahshiya4 ,in a succeeding chapter ,i shall explain why the ,sabeans had their religious doctrines written in a work on agriculture4 ,the book is full of the absurdities of idolatrous people1 and with those things to which the minds of the multitude easily turn and adhere perseveringly2 it speaks of talismans1 the means of directing the influence of the stars2 witchcraft1 spirits1 and demons that dwell in the wilderness4 ,there occur also in this book great absurdities1 which are ridiculous in the eyes of intelligent people4 ,they were intended as a criticism and an attack on the evident miracles by which all people learnt that there exists a ,god who is judge over all people4 ,comp4 8,that thou mayest know how that the earth is the ,lord's0 7,exod4 ix4 #bi71 8,that ,i am the ,lord in the midst of the earth0 7ibid4 viii4 #ah74 ,the book describes things as having been mentioned by ,adam in his book2 a tree which is found in ,india1 and has the peculiarity that any branch taken from it and thrown to the ground creeps along and moves like serpents2 it also mentions a tree which in its root resembles a human being1 utters a loud sound1 and speaks a word or words2 a plant is mentioned which has this peculiarity1 that a leaf of it put on the neck of a person conceals that person from the sight of men1 and enables him to enter or leave a place without being seen1 and if any part of it is burnt in open air a noise and terrible sounds are heard whilst the smoke ascends4 ,numerous fables of this kind are introduced in the description of the wonders of plants and the properties of agriculture4 ,this leads the author to argue against the true miracles1 and to say that they were the result of artifice4 ,among other fables we read there that the plant althea1 one of the ,asherot1 which they made1 as ,i told you1 stood in ,nineveh twelve thousand years4 ,this tree had once a quarrel with the mandragora1 which wanted to take the place of the former4 ,the person who had been inspired by this tree ceased to receive inspiration2 when after some time the prophetical power had returned to him1 he was told by the althea that the latter had been engaged in a dispute with the mandragora4 ,he was then commanded to write to the magicians that they should decide whether the althea or the mandragora was better and more effective in witchcraft4 ,it is a long story1 and you may learn from it1 when you read it1 the opinions and the wisdom of the men of that time4 ,such were in those days of darkness the wise men of ,babel1 to whom reference is made in ,scripture1 and such were the beliefs in which they were trained4 ,and were it not that the theory of the ,existence of ,god is at present generally accepted1 our days would now have been darker than those days1 though in other respects4 ,i return now to my subject4 ,in that book the following story is also related3 ,one of the idolatrous prophets1 named ,tammuz1 called upon the king to worship the seven planets and the twelve constellations of the ,zodiac2 whereupon the king killed him in a dreadful manner4 ,the night of his death the images from all parts of the land came together in the temple of ,babylon which was devoted to the image of the ,sun1 the great golden image4 ,this image1 which was suspended between heaven and earth1 came down into the midst of the temple1 and surrounded by all other images commenced to mourn for ,tammuz1 and to relate what had befallen him4 ,all other images cried and mourned the whole night2 at dawn they flew away and returned to their temples in every corner of the earth4 ,hence the regular custom arose for the women to weep1 lament1 mourn1 and cry for ,tammuz on the first day of the month of ,tammuz4 ,consider what opinions people had in these days4 ,the legend of ,tammuz is very old among the ,sabeans4 ,this book will disclose to you most of the perverse ideas and practices of the ,sabeans1 including their feasts4 ,but you must be careful and must not be misled to think that we have real incidents in the life of ,adam1 or of any other person1 or any real fact in the stories which they relate about ,adam1 the serpent1 the tree of knowledge of good and evil1 and the allusion to the garment of ,adam which he had not been accustomed to wear4 ,a little consideration will lay open the falsehood of all these accounts2 it will show that they have been invented in imitation of the ,pentateuch when it became known among the nations4 ,the account of the ,creation was heard1 and it was taken entirely in its literal sense4 ,they have done this in order that the ignorant may hear it1 and be persuaded to assume the ,eternity of the ,universe1 and to believe that the ,scriptural account contained facts which happened in the manner as has been assumed by the ,sabeans4 ,it is by no means necessary to point this out to men like you4 ,you have acquired sufficient knowledge to keep your mind free from the absurdities of the ,kasdim1 ,chaldeans1 and ,sabeans1 who are bare of every true science4 ,but ,i wish to exhort you that you should caution others1 for ordinary people are very much inclined to believe these fables4 ,to the same class of books we count the book ,istimachis1 attributed to ,aristotle1 who can by no means have been its author2 also the books on ,talismans1 such as the book of ,tomtom2 the book al-,sarb2 the book on the degrees of the sphere and the constellations rising with each degree2 a book on ,talismans attributed to ,aristotle1 a book ascribed to ,hermes1 a book of the ,sabean ,isak in defence of the ,sabean religion1 and his large work on ,sabean customs1 details of their religion1 ceremonies1 festivals1 offerings1 prayers and other things relating to their faith4 ,all these books which ,i have mentioned are works on idolatry translated into ,arabic2 there is no doubt that they form a very small portion in comparison to that which has not been translated1 and that which is no longer extant1 but has been lost in the course of time4 ,but those works which are at present extant1 include most of the opinions of the ,sabeans and their practices1 which are to some degree still in vogue in the world4 ,they describe how temples are built and images of metal and stone placed in them1 altars erected and sacrifices and various kinds of food are offered thereon1 festivals celebrated1 meetings held in the temples for prayer and other kinds of service2 how they select certain very distinguished places and call them temples of ,intellectual ,images 7or ,forms72 how they make images 8on the high mountains0 7,deut4 xii4 #b71 rear asherot1 erect pillars1 and do many other things which you can learn from the books mentioned by us4 ,the knowledge of these theories and practices is of great importance in explaining the reasons of the precepts4 ,for it is the principal object of the ,law and the axis round which it turns1 to blot out these opinions from man's heart and make the existence of idolatry impossible4 ,as regards the former ,scripture says3 8,lest your heart be persuaded10 etc4 7,deut4 xi4 #af71 8whose heart turneth away to-day10 etc4 7ibid4 xxix4 #ag74 ,the actual abolition of idolatry is expressed in the following passage3 8,ye shall destroy their altars1 and burn their groves in fire0 7,deut4 vii4 #e71 8and ye shall destroy their name10 etc4 7xii4 #c74 ,these two things are frequently repeated2 they form the principal and first object of the whole ,law1 as our ,sages distinctly told us in their traditional explanation of the words 8all that ,god commanded you by the hand of ,moses0 7,num4 xv4 #bc72 for they say1 8,hence we learn that those who follow idolatry deny as it were their adhesion to the whole ,law1 and those who reject idolatry follow as it were the whole ,law40 7,b4 ,t4 ,kidd1 #dj;a47 ,note it4 ,,chapter ,,xxx ,on examining these old and foolish doctrines we find that it was most generally believed by the people that by the worship of stars the earth will become inhabited1 and the ground fertilized4 ,the wise1 pious1 and sin-fearing men among them reproved the people and taught them that agriculture1 on which the preservation of mankind depended1 would become perfect and satisfy man's wishes1 when he worshipped the sun and the stars4 ,if man provoked these beings by his rebelliousness1 the towns would become empty and waste4 ,in the above-named books it is stated that ,mars was angry with lands1 that form now deserts and wastes1 and in consequence of that anger they were deprived of water and trees1 and have become the habitation of demons4 ,tillers of the ground and husbandmen are praised in those books1 because they are engaged with the cultivation of the land in accordance with the will and desire of the stars4 ,the idolaters also held cattle in esteem on account of their use in agriculture1 and went even so far as to say1 that it is not allowed to slay them1 because they combine in themselves strength and willingness to do the work of man in tilling the ground4 ,the oxen1 notwithstanding their great strength1 do this1 and submit to man1 because it is the will of ,god that they should be employed in agriculture4 ,when these views became generally known1 idolatry was connected with agriculture1 because the latter is indispensable for the maintenance of man1 and of most animals4 ,the idolatrous priests then preached to the people who met in the temples1 and taught them that by certain religious acts1 rain would come down1 the trees of the field would yield their fruit1 and the land would be fertile and inhabited4 ,see what is said in the ,nabatean ,agriculture in the chapter on vineyards4 ,the following words of the ,sabeans are quoted there3 8,all ancient wise men advised1 and prophets likewise commanded and enjoined to play before the images on certain instruments during the festivals4 ,they also said--and what they said is true--that the deities are pleased with it1 and reward those who do it4 ,they promise1 indeed1 very great reward for these things2 e4g41 length of life1 protection from illness1 exemption from great bodily deformities1 plenty of the produce of the earth1 and of the fruits of the trees40 ,these are the words of the ,sabeans4 ,when these ideas spread1 and were considered as true1 ,god1 in ,his great mercy for us1 intended to remove this error from our minds1 and to protect our bodies from trouble2 and therefore desired us to discontinue the practice of these useless actions4 ,he gave us ,his ,law through ,moses1 our teacher1 who told us in the name of ,god1 that the worship of stars and other corporeal beings would effect that rain would cease1 the land be waste1 and would not produce anything1 and the fruit of the trees would wither2 calamities would befall the people1 their bodies would be deformed1 and life would be shortened4 ,these are the contents of 8the words of the covenant which ,god made0 7,deut4 xxviii4 #f-i74 ,it is frequently expressed in all parts of ,scripture1 that the worship of the stars would be followed by absence of rain1 devastation of the land1 bad times1 diseases1 and shortness of life4 ,but abandonment of that worship1 and the return to the service of ,god1 would be the cause of the presence of rain1 fertility of the ground1 good times1 health and length of life4 ,thus ,scripture teaches1 in order that man should abandon idolatry1 the reverse of that which idolatrous priests preached to the people1 for1 as has been shown by us1 the principal object of the ,law is to remove this doctrine1 and to destroy its traces4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi ,there are persons who find it difficult to give a reason for any of the commandments1 and consider it right to assume that the commandments and prohibitions have no rational basis whatever4 ,they are led to adopt this theory by a certain disease in their soul1 the existence of which they perceive1 but which they are unable to discuss or to describe4 ,for they imagine that these precepts1 if they were useful in any respect1 and were commanded because of their usefulness1 would seem to originate in the thought and reason of some intelligent being4 ,but as things which are not objects of reason and serve no purpose1 they would undoubtedly be attributed to ,god1 because no thought of man could have produced them4 ,according to the theory of those weak-minded persons1 man is more perfect than his ,creator4 ,for what man says or does has a certain object1 whilst the actions of ,god are different2 ,he commands us to do what is of no use to us1 and forbids us to do what is harmless4 ,far be this6 ,on the contrary1 the sole object of the ,law is to benefit us4 ,thus we explained the ,scriptural passage1 8for our good always1 that ,he might preserve us alive1 as it is this day0 7,deut4 vi4 #bd74 ,again1 8which shall hear all those statutes 7uim71 and say1 surely this great nation is a wise and understanding people0 7ibid4 iv4 #f74 ,he thus says that even every one of these 8statutes0 convinces all nations of the wisdom and understanding it includes4 ,but if no reason could be found for these statutes1 if they produced no advantage and removed no evil1 why then should he who believes in them and follows them be wise1 reasonable1 and so excellent as to raise the admiration of all nations8 ,but the truth is undoubtedly as we have said1 that every one of the six hundred and thirteen precepts serves to inculcate some truth1 to remove some erroneous opinion1 to establish proper relations in society1 to diminish evil1 to train in good manners1 or to warn against bad habits4 ,all this depends on three things3 opinions1 morals1 and social conduct4 ,we do not count words1 because precepts1 whether positive or negative1 if they relate to speech1 belong to those precepts which regulate our social conduct1 or to those which spread truth1 or to those which teach morals4 ,thus these three principles suffice for assigning a reason for every one of the ,divine commandments4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii ,on considering the ,divine acts1 or the processes of ,nature1 we get an insight into the prudence and wisdom of ,god as displayed in the creation of animals1 with the gradual development of the movements of their limbs and the relative positions of the latter1 and we perceive also ,his wisdom and plan in the successive and gradual development of the whole condition of each individual4 ,the gradual development of the animals' movements and the relative position of the limbs may be illustrated by the brain4 ,the front part is very soft1 the back part is a little hard1 the spinal marrow is still harder1 and the farther it extends the harder it becomes4 ,the nerves are the organs of sensation and motion4 ,some nerves are only required for sensation1 or for slight movements1 as1 e4g41 the movement of the eyelids or of the jaws2 these nerves originate in the brain4 ,the nerves which are required for the movements of the limbs come from the spinal marrow4 ,but nerves1 even those that come directly from the spinal cord1 are too soft to set the joints in motion2 therefore ,god made the following arrangement3 the nerves branch out into fibres which are covered with flesh1 and become muscles2 the nerves that come forth at the extremities of the muscles and have already commenced to harden1 and to combine with hard pieces of ligaments1 are the sinews which are joined and attached to the limbs4 ,by this gradual development the nerves are enabled to set the limbs in motion4 ,i quote this one instance because it is the most evident of the wonders described in the book ,on the use of the limbs2 but the use of the limbs is clearly perceived by all who examine them with a sharp eye4 ,in a similar manner did ,god provide for each individual animal of the class of mammalia4 ,when such an animal is born it is extremely tender1 and cannot be fed with dry food4 ,therefore breasts were provided which yield milk1 and the young can be fed with moist food which corresponds to the condition of the limbs of the animal1 until the latter have gradually become dry and hard4 ,many precepts in our ,law are the result of a similar course adopted by the same ,supreme ,being4 ,it is1 namely1 impossible to go suddenly from one extreme to the other2 it is therefore according to the nature of man impossible for him suddenly to discontinue everything to which he has been accustomed4 ,now ,god sent ,moses to make the ,israelites a kingdom of priests and a holy nation 7,exod4 xix4 #f7 by means of the knowledge of ,god4 ,comp4 8,unto thee it was showed that thou mightest know that the ,lord is ,god0 7,deut4 iv4 #ce72 8,know therefore this day1 and consider it in thine heart1 that the ,lord is ,god0 7ibid4 v4 #ci74 ,the ,israelites were commanded to devote themselves to ,his service2 comp4 8and to serve him with all your heart0 7ibid4 xi4 #ac72 8and you shall serve the ,lord your ,god0 7,exod4 xxiii4 #be72 8and ye shall serve him0 7,deut4 xiii4 #e74 ,but the custom which was in those days general among all men1 and the general mode of worship in which the ,israelites were brought up1 consisted in sacrificing animals in those temples which contained certain images1 to bow down to those images1 and to burn incense before them2 religious and ascetic persons were in those days the persons that were devoted to the service in the temples erected to the stars1 as has been explained by us4 ,it was in accordance with the wisdom and plan of ,god1 as displayed in the whole ,creation1 that ,he did not command us to give up and to discontinue all these manners of service2 for to obey such a commandment it would have been contrary to the nature of man1 who generally cleaves to that to which he is used2 it would in those days have made the same impression as a prophet would make at present if he called us to the service of ,god and told us in ,his name1 that we should not pray to ,him1 not fast1 not seek ,his help in time of trouble2 that we should serve ,him in thought1 and not by any action4 ,for this reason ,god allowed these kinds of service to continue2 ,he transferred to ,his service that which had formerly served as a worship of created beings1 and of things imaginary and unreal1 and commanded us to serve ,him in the same manner2 viz41 to build unto ,him a temple2 comp4 8,and they shall make unto me a sanctuary0 7,exod4 xxv4 #h72 to have the altar erected to ,his name2 comp4 8,an altar of earth thou shalt make unto me0 7ibid4 xx4 #ba72 to offer the sacrifices to ,him2 comp4 8,if any man of you bring an offering unto the ,lord0 7,lev4 i4 #b71 to bow down to ,him and to burn incense before ,him4 ,he has forbidden to do any of these things to any other being2 comp4 8,he who sacrificeth unto any ,god1 save the ,lord only1 he shall be utterly destroyed0 7,exod4 xxii4 #ai72 8,for thou shalt bow down to no other ,god0 7ibid4 xxxiv4 #ad74 ,he selected priests for the service in the temple2 comp4 8,and they shall minister unto me in the priest's office0 7ibid4 xxviii4 #da74 ,he made it obligatory that certain gifts1 called the gifts of the ,levites and the priests1 should be assigned to them for their maintenance while they are engaged in the service of the temple and its sacrifices4 ,by this ,divine plan it was effected that the traces of idolatry were blotted out1 and the truly great principle of our faith1 the ,existence and ,unity of ,god1 was firmly established2 this result was thus obtained without deterring or confusing the minds of the people by the abolition of the service to which they were accustomed and which alone was familiar to them4 ,i know that you will at first thought reject this idea and find it strange2 you will put the following question to me in your heart3 ,how can we suppose that ,divine commandments1 prohibitions1 and important acts1 which are fully explained1 and for which certain seasons are fixed1 should not have been commanded for their own sake1 but only for the sake of some other thing2 as if they were only the means which ,he employed for ,his primary object8 ,what prevented ,him from making ,his primary object a direct commandment to us1 and to give us the capacity of obeying it8 ,those precepts which in your opinion are only the means and not the object would then have been unnecessary4 ,hear my answer1 which will cure your heart of this disease and will show you the truth of that which ,i have pointed out to you4 ,there occurs in the ,law a passage which contains exactly the same idea2 it is the following3 8,god led them not through the way of the land of the ,philistines1 although that was near2 for ,god said1 ,lest peradventure the people repent when they see war1 and they return to ,egypt2 but ,god led the people about1 through the way of the wilderness of the ,red ,sea10 etc4 7,exod4 xiii4 #ag74 ,here ,god led the people about1 away from the direct road which ,he originally intended1 because ,he feared they might meet on that way with hardships too great for their ordinary strength2 ,he took them by another road in order to obtain thereby ,his original object4 ,in the same manner ,god refrained from prescribing what the people by their natural disposition would be incapable of obeying1 and gave the above-mentioned commandments as a means of securing ,his chief object1 viz41 to spread a knowledge of ,him among the people1 and to cause them to reject idolatry4 ,it is contrary to man's nature that he should suddenly abandon all the different kinds of ,divine service and the different customs in which he has been brought up1 and which have been so general1 that they were considered as a matter of course2 it would be just as if a person trained to work as a slave with mortar and bricks1 or similar things1 should interrupt his work1 clean his hands1 and at once fight with real giants4 ,it was the result of ,god's wisdom that the ,israelites were led about in the wilderness till they acquired courage4 ,for it is a well-known fact that travelling in the wilderness1 and privation of bodily enjoyments1 such as bathing1 produce courage1 whilst the reverse is the source of faint-heartedness2 besides1 another generation rose during the wanderings that had not been accustomed to degradation and slavery4 ,all the travelling in the wilderness was regulated by ,divine commands through ,moses2 comp4 8,at the commandment of the ,lord they rested1 and at the commandment of the ,lord they journeyed2 they kept the charge of the ,lord and the commandment of the ,lord by the hand of ,moses0 7,num4 ix4 #bc74 ,in the same way the portion of the ,law under discussion is the result of divine wisdom1 according to which people are allowed to continue the kind of worship to which they have been accustomed1 in order that they might acquire the true faith1 which is the chief object of ,god's commandments4 ,you ask1 ,what could have prevented ,god from commanding us directly1 that which is the chief object1 and from giving us the capacity of obeying it8 ,this would lead to a second question1 ,what prevented ,god from leading the ,israelites through the way of the land of the ,philistines1 and endowing them with strength for fighting8 ,the leading about by a pillar of cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night would then not have been necessary4 ,a third question would then be asked in reference to the good promised as reward for the keeping of the commandments1 and the evil foretold as a punishment for sins4 ,it is the following question3 ,as it is the chief object and purpose of ,god that we should believe in the ,law1 and act according to that which is written therein1 why has ,he not given us the capacity of continually believing in it1 and following its guidance1 instead of holding out to us reward for obedience1 and punishment for disobedience1 or of actually giving all the predicted reward and punishment8 ,for the promises and the threats are but the means of leading to this chief object4 ,what prevented ,him from giving us1 as part of our nature1 the will to do that which ,he desires us to do1 and to abandon the kind of worship which ,he rejects8 ,there is one general answer to these three questions1 and to all questions of the same character2 it is this3 ,although in every one of the signs related in ,scripture the natural property of some individual being is changed1 the nature of man is never changed by ,god by way of miracle4 ,it is in accordance with this important principle that ,god said1 8,o that there were such an heart in them1 that they would fear me10 etc4 7,deut4 v4 #bf74 ,it is also for this reason that ,he distinctly stated the commandments and the prohibitions1 the reward and the punishment4 ,this principle as regards miracles has been frequently explained by us in our works2 ,i do not say this because ,i believe that it is difficult for ,god to change the nature of every individual person2 on the contrary1 it is possible1 and it is in ,his power1 according to the principles taught in ,scripture2 but it has never been ,his will to do it1 and it never will be4 ,if it were part of ,his will to change at ,his desire the nature of any person1 the mission of prophets and the giving of the ,law would have been altogether superfluous4 ,i now return to my theme4 ,as the sacrificial service is not the primary object of the commandments about sacrifice1 whilst supplications1 prayers1 and similar kinds of worship are nearer to the primary object1 and indispensable for obtaining it1 a great difference was made in the ,law between these two kinds of service4 ,the one kind1 which consists in offering sacrifices1 although the sacrifices are offered to the name of ,god1 has not been made obligatory for us to the same extent as it had been before4 ,we were not commanded to sacrifice in every place1 and in every time1 or to build a temple in every place1 or to permit any one who desires to become priest and to sacrifice4 ,on the contrary1 all this is prohibited unto us4 ,only one temple has been appointed1 8in the place which the ,lord shall choose0 7,deut4 xii4 #bf72 in no other place is it allowed to sacrifice2 comp4 8,take heed to thyself1 that thou offer not thy burnt-offerings in every place that thou seest0 7ibid4 v4 #ac72 and only the members of a particular family were allowed to officiate as priests4 ,all these restrictions served to limit this kind of worship1 and keep it within those bounds within which ,god did not think it necessary to abolish sacrificial service altogether4 ,but prayer and supplication can be offered everywhere and by every person4 ,the same is the case with the commandment of iit 7,num4 xv4 #ch72 mezuzah 7,deut4 vi4 #i2 xi4 #bj72 tefillin 7,exod4 xiii4 #i1 #af72 and similar kinds of divine service4 ,because of this principle which ,i explained to you1 the ,prophets in their books are frequently found to rebuke their fellow-men for being over-zealous and exerting themselves too much in bringing sacrifices2 the prophets thus distinctly declared that the object of the sacrifices is not very essential1 and that ,god does not require them4 ,samuel therefore said1 8,hath the ,lord as great delight in burnt-offerings and sacrifices as in obeying the voice of the ,lord0 7#a ,sam4 xv4 #bb78 ,isaiah exclaimed1 8,to what purpose is the multitude of your sacrifices unto me8 saith the ,lord0 7,isa4 i4 #aa72 ,jeremiah declared3 8,for ,i spake not unto your fathers1 nor commanded them in the day that ,i brought them out of the land of ,egypt1 concerning burnt-offerings or sacrifices4 ,but this thing commanded ,i them1 saying1 ,obey my voice1 and ,i will be your ,god1 and ye shall be my people0 7,jer4 vii4 #bb1 #bc74 ,this passage has been found difficult in the opinion of all those whose words ,i read or heard2 they ask1 ,how can ,jeremiah say that ,god did not command us about burnt-offering and sacrifice1 seeing so many precepts refer to sacrifice8 ,the sense of the passage agrees with what ,i explained to you4 ,jeremiah says in the name of ,god the primary object of the precepts is this1 ,know me1 and serve no other being2 8,i will be your ,god1 and ye shall be my people0 7,lev4 xxvi4 #ab74 ,but the commandment that sacrifices shall be brought and that the temple shall be visited has for its object the success of that principle among you2 and for its sake ,i have transferred these modes of worship to my name2 idolatry shall thereby be utterly destroyed1 and ,jewish faith firmly established4 ,you1 however1 have ignored this object1 and taken hold of that which is only the means of obtaining it2 you have doubted my existence1 8ye have denied the ,lord1 and said he is not0 7,jer4 v4 #ab72 ye served idols2 8burnt incense unto ,baal1 and walked after other gods whom ye know not4 ,and come and stand before me in this house0 7ibid4 vii4 #i-aj72 i4e41 you do not go beyond attending the temple of the ,lord1 and offering sacrifices2 but this is not the chief object4--,i have another way of explaining this passage with exactly the same result4 ,for it is distinctly stated in ,scripture1 and handed down by tradition1 that the first commandments communicated to us did not include any law at all about burnt-offering and sacrifice4 ,you must not see any difficulty in the ,passover which was commanded in ,egypt2 there was a particular and evident reason for that1 as will be explained by me 7chap4 xlvi474 ,besides it was revealed in the land of ,egypt2 whilst the laws to which ,jeremiah alludes in the above passage are those which were revealed after the departure from ,egypt4 ,for this reason it is distinctly added1 8in the day that ,i brought them out from the land of ,egypt40 ,the first commandment after the departure from ,egypt was given at ,marah1 in the following words1 8,if thou wilt diligently hearken to the voice of the ,lord thy ,god1 and wilt do that which is right in ,his sight1 and wilt give ear to ,his commandments0 7,exod4 xv4 #bf74 8,there he made for them a statute and an ordinance1 and there he proved them0 7ibid4 ver4 #be74 ,according to the true traditional explanation1 ,sabbath and civil laws were revealed at ,marah2 8statute0 alludes to ,sabbath1 and 8ordinance0 to civil laws1 which are the means of removing injustice4 ,the chief object of the ,law1 as has been shown by us1 is the teaching of truths2 to which the truth of the creatio ex nihilo belongs4 ,it is known that the object of the law of ,sabbath is to confirm and to establish this principle1 as we have shown in this treatise 7,part ,,ii4 chap4 xxxi474 ,in addition to the teaching of truths the ,law aims at the removal of injustice from mankind4 ,we have thus proved that the first laws do not refer to burnt-offering and sacrifice1 which are of secondary importance4 ,the same idea which is contained in the above passage from ,jeremiah is also expressed in the ,psalms1 where the people are rebuked that they ignore the chief object1 and make no distinction between chief and subsidiary lessons4 ,the ,psalmist says3 8,hear1 ,o my people1 and ,i will speak2 ,o ,israel1 and ,i will testify against thee3 ,i am ,god1 even thy ,god4 ,i will not reprove thee for thy sacrifices or thy burnt-offerings1 they have been continually before me4 ,i will take no bullock out of thy house1 nor he-goats out of thy folds0 7,ps4 l4 #bi74--,wherever this subject is mentioned1 this is its meaning4 ,consider it well1 and reflect on it4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii ,it is also the object of the perfect ,law to make man reject1 despise1 and reduce his desires as much as is in his power4 ,he should only give way to them when absolutely necessary4 ,it is well known that it is intemperance in eating1 drinking1 and sexual intercourse that people mostly rave and indulge in2 and these very things counteract the ulterior perfection of man1 impede at the same time the development of his first perfection1 and generally disturb the social order of the country and the economy of the family4 ,for by following entirely the guidance of lust1 in the manner of fools1 man loses his intellectual energy1 injures his body1 and perishes before his natural time2 sighs and cares multiply2 there is an increase of envy1 hatred1 and warfare for the purpose of taking what another possesses4 ,the cause of all this is the circumstance that the ignorant considers physical enjoyment as an object to be sought for its own sake4 ,god in ,his wisdom has therefore given us such commandments as would counteract that object1 and prevent us altogether from directing our attention to it1 and has debarred us from everything that leads only to excessive desire and lust4 ,this is an important thing included in the objects of our ,law4 ,see how the ,law commanded to slay a person from whose conduct it is evident that he will go too far in seeking the enjoyment of eating and drinking4 ,i mean 8the rebellious and stubborn son02 he is described as 8a glutton and a drunkard0 7,deut4 xxi4 #bj74 ,the ,law commands to stone him and to remove him from society lest he grow up in this character1 and kill many1 and injure the condition of good men by his great lust4 ,politeness is another virtue promoted by the ,law4 ,man shall listen to the words of his neighbour2 he shall not be obstinate1 but shall yield to the wish of his fellow-men1 respond to their appeal1 act according to their desire1 and do what they like4 ,thus the ,law commands1 8,circumcise therefore the foreskin of your heart1 and be no more stiff-necked0 7,deut4 x4 #af72 8,take heed and hearken0 7ibid4 xxvii4 #i74 8,if you be willing and obedient0 7,isa4 i4 #ai74 ,those who listen to the words of others and accept as much as is right are represented as saying1 8,we will hear and do0 7,deut4 v4 #bd71 or in a figurative style1 8,draw me1 we will run after thee0 7,song i4 #d74 ,the ,law is also intended to give its followers purity and holiness2 by teaching them to suppress sensuality1 to guard against it and to reduce it to a minimum1 as will be explained by us4 ,for when ,god commanded ,moses to sanctify the people for the receiving of the ,law1 and said1 8,sanctify them to-day and to-morrow0 7,exod4 xix4 #aj71 ,moses in obedience to this command said to the people1 8,come not at your wives0 7ibid4 ver4 #ae74 ,here it is clearly stated that sanctification consists in absence of sensuality4 ,but abstinence from drinking wine is also called holiness2 in reference to the ,nazarite it is therefore said1 8,he shall be holy0 7,num4 vi4 #e74 ,according to ,siphra the words1 8sanctify yourselves and be ye holy0 7,lev4 xx4 #g71 refer to the sanctification effected by performing the divine commands4 ,as the obedience to such precepts as have been mentioned above is called by the ,law sanctification and purification1 so is defilement applied to the transgression of these precepts and the performance of disgraceful acts1 as will be shown4 ,cleanliness in dress and body by washing and removing sweat and dirt is included among the various objects of the ,law1 but only if connected with purity of action1 and with a heart free from low principles and bad habits4 ,it would be extremely bad for man to content himself with a purity obtained by washing and cleanliness in dress1 and to be at the same time voluptuous and unrestrained in food and lust4 ,these are described by ,isaiah as follows3 8,they that sanctify themselves and purify themselves in the gardens1 but continue their sinful life1 when they are in the innermost of their houses1 eating swine's flesh1 and the abomination1 and the mouse0 7,isa4 lxvi4 #ag73 that is to say1 they purify and sanctify themselves outwardly as much as is exposed to the sight of the people1 and when they are alone in their chambers and the inner parts of their houses1 they continue their rebelliousness and disobedience1 and indulge in partaking of forbidden food1 such as the flesh of swine1 worms1 and mice4 ,the prophet alludes perhaps in the phrase 8behind one tree in the midst0 to indulgence in forbidden lust4 ,the sense of the passage is therefore this3 ,they appear outwardly clean1 but their heart is bent upon their desires and bodily enjoyments1 and this is contrary to the spirit of the ,law4 ,for the chief object of the ,law is to teach man to diminish his desires1 and to cleanse his outer appearance after he has purified his heart4 ,those who wash their body and cleanse their garments whilst they remain dirty by bad actions and principles1 are described by ,solomon as 8a generation that are pure in their own eyes1 and yet are not washed from their filthiness2 a generation1 oh how lofty are their eyes60 etc4 7,prov4 xxx4 #ab-ac74 ,consider well the principles which we mentioned in this chapter as the final causes of the ,law2 for there are many precepts1 for which you will be unable to give a reason unless you possess a knowledge of these principles1 as will be explained further on4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv ,it is also important to note that the ,law does not take into account exceptional circumstances2 it is not based on conditions which rarely occur4 ,whatever the ,law teaches1 whether it be of an intellectual1 a moral1 or a practical character1 is founded on that which is the rule and not on that which is the exception2 it ignores the injury that might be caused to a single person through a certain maxim or a certain divine precept4 ,for the ,law is a divine institution1 and in order to understand its operation we must consider how in ,nature the various forces produce benefits which are general1 but in some solitary cases they cause also injury4 ,this is clear from what has been said by ourselves as well as by others4 ,we must consequently not be surprised when we find that the object of the ,law does not fully appear in every individual2 there must naturally be people who are not perfected by the instruction of the ,law1 just as there are beings which do not receive from the specific forms in ,nature all that they require4 ,for all this comes from one ,god1 is the result of one act2 8they are all given from one shepherd0 7,eccles4 xii4 #aa74 ,it is impossible to be otherwise2 and we have already explained 7chap4 xv47 that that which is impossible always remains impossible and never changes4 ,from this consideration it also follows that the laws cannot like medicine vary according to the different conditions of persons and times2 whilst the cure of a person depends on his particular constitution at the particular time1 the divine guidance contained in the ,law must be certain and general1 although it may be effective in some cases and ineffective in others4 ,if the ,law depended on the varying conditions of man1 it would be imperfect in its totality1 each precept being left indefinite4 ,for this reason it would not be right to make the fundamental principles of the ,law dependent on a certain time or a certain place2 on the contrary1 the statutes and the judgments must be definite1 unconditional1 and general1 in accordance with the divine words3 8,as for the congregation1 one ordinance shall be for you and for the stranger0 7,num4 xv4 #ae72 they are intended1 as has been stated before1 for all persons and for all times4 ,after having premised these introductory remarks ,i will now proceed to the exposition of that which ,i intended to explain4 ,,chapter ,,xxxv ,in accordance with this intention ,i find it convenient to divide all precepts into fourteen classes4 ,the first class comprises those precepts which form fundamental principles1 such as we have enumerated in ,hilkot yesode ha-torah4 ,repentance and fasts belong also to this class1 as will be shown4 ,the second class comprises the precepts which are connected with the prohibition of idolatry1 and which have been described by us in ,hilkot abodah-zarah4 ,the laws concerning garments of linen and wool1 concerning the fruit of trees in the first three years after they have been planted1 and concerning divers seeds in a vineyard1 are likewise contained in this class4 ,the object of these precepts is to establish certain true principles and to perpetuate them among the people4 ,the third class is formed by commandments which are connected with the improvement of the moral condition of mankind2 these are mentioned in ,hilkot deot4 ,it is known that by a good moral state those social relations1 which are indispensable for the well-being of mankind1 are brought to perfection4 ,the fourth class includes precepts relating to charity1 loans1 gifts1 and the like1 e4g41 the rules respecting 8valuations10 7scil41 of things devoted to sacred purposes1 ,lev4 xxvii4 #a-bg72 8things devoted0 7ibid4 ver4 #bh72 laws concerning loans and servants1 and all the laws enumerated in the section ,zeraim1 except the rules of 8mixtures0 and 8the fruit of trees in the first three years40 ,the object of these precepts is clear2 their benefit concerns all people by turns2 for he who is rich to-day may one day be poor--either he himself or his descendants2 and he who is now poor1 he himself or his son may be rich to-morrow4 ,the fifth class contains those precepts which relate to the prevention of wrong and violence2 they are included in our book in the section ,neziin4 ,their beneficial character is evident4 ,the sixth class is formed of precepts respecting fines1 e4g41 the laws on theft and robbery1 on false witnesses1 and most of the laws contained in the section ,shofetim belong to this class4 ,their benefit is apparent2 for if sinners and robbers were not punished1 injury would not be prevented at all3 and persons scheming evil would not become rarer4 ,they are wrong who suppose that it would be an act of mercy to abandon the laws of compensation for injuries2 on the contrary1 it would be perfect cruelty and injury to the social state of the country4 ,it is an act of mercy that ,god commanded 8judges and officers thou shalt appoint to thee in all thy gates0 7,deut4 xvi4 #ah74 ,the seventh class comprises those laws which regulate the business transactions of men with each other2 e4g41 laws about loans1 hire1 trust1 buying1 selling1 and the like2 the rules about inheritance belong to this class4 ,we have described these precepts in the sections inyan and ,mishpatim4 ,the object of these precepts is evident1 for monetary transactions are necessary for the peoples of all countries1 and it is impossible to have these transactions without a proper standard of equity and without useful regulations4 ,the eighth class includes those precepts which relate to certain days1 as ,sabbaths and holydays2 they are enumerated in the section ,zemannim4 ,the ,law states clearly the reason and object of each of these precepts2 they are to serve as a means for establishing a certain principle among us1 or securing bodily recreation1 or effecting both things at the same time1 as will be shown by me4 ,the ninth class comprises the general laws concerning religious rites and ceremonies1 e4g41 laws concerning prayers1 the reading of ,shema'1 and the other rules given in the section ,ahabah1 with the exception of the law concerning circumcision4 ,the object of these laws is apparent2 they all prescribe actions which firmly establish the love of ,god in our minds1 as also the right belief concerning ,him and ,his attributes4 ,the tenth class is formed of precepts which relate to the ,sanctuary1 its vessels1 and its ministers2 they are contained in the section ,abodah4 ,the object of these precepts has already been mentioned by us 7supra1 chap4 xxxii474 ,the eleventh class includes those precepts which relate to ,sacrifices4 ,most of these laws we have mentioned in the sections ,abodah and orbanot4 ,we have already shown the general use of the sacrificial laws1 and their necessity in ancient time4 ,the twelfth class comprises the laws concerning things unclean and clean4 ,the general object of these laws is1 as will be explained by me1 to discourage people from frequently entering the ,sanctuary2 in order that their minds be impressed with the greatness of the ,sanctuary1 and approach it with respect and reverence4 ,the thirteenth class includes the precepts concerning forbidden food and the like2 we have given them in ,hilkot maakalot asurot2 the laws about vows and temperance belong also to this class4 ,the object of all these laws is to restrain the growth of desire1 the indulgence in seeking that which is pleasant1 and the disposition to consider the appetite for eating and drinking as the end of man's existence4 ,we have explained this in our ,commentary on the ,mishnah1 in the ,introduction 7chap1 iv47 to ,the ,sayings of the ,fathers4 ,the fourteenth class comprises the precepts concerning forbidden sexual intercourse2 they are given in the section ,nashim and ,hilkot issure-biah4 ,the laws concerning the intermixture of cattle belong to this class4 ,the object of these precepts is likewise to diminish sexual intercourse1 to restrain as much as possible indulgence in lust1 and to teach that this enjoyment is not1 as foolish people think1 the final cause of man's existence4 ,we have explained this in our ,commentary on ,the ,sayings of the ,fathers 7,introd4 chap4 viii474 ,the laws about circumcision belong to this class4 ,as is well known1 the precepts are also divided into two classes1 viz41 precepts concerning the relation between man and ,god1 and precepts concerning the relation between man and man4 ,of the classes into which we divide the precepts and which we have enumerated1 the fifth1 sixth1 and seventh1 and part of the third1 include laws concerning the relation of man to man4 ,the other classes contain the laws about the relation of man to ,god1 i4e41 positive or negative precepts1 which tend to improve the moral or intellectual condition of mankind1 or to regulate such of each man's actions which directly only concern him and lead him to perfection4 ,for these are called laws concerning man's relation to ,god1 although in reality they lead to results which concern also his fellow-men2 because these results become only apparent after a long series of intermediate links1 and from a general point of view2 whilst directly these laws are not intended to prevent man from injuring his fellow-man4 ,note this4 ,having described the laws of these classes1 ,i will now again consider the precepts of each class1 and explain the reason and use of those which are believed to be useless or unreasonable1 with the exception of a few1 the object of which ,i have not yet comprehended4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvi ,the reason of all precepts of the first class1 viz41 of the principles enumerated by us in the ,hilkot yesode ha-torah1 is obvious4 ,consider them one by one1 and you will find that the lesson which every one of them contains is correct and demonstrable4 ,it is also evident that the precepts which exhort and command us to learn and to teach are useful2 for without wisdom there cannot be any good act or any true knowledge4 ,the law which prescribes to honour the teachers of the ,law is likewise useful2 for if they were not considered by the people as great and honourable men1 they would not be followed as guides in their principles and actions4 ,the ,law demands also that we be humble and modest in their presence4 8,thou shalt rise up before the hoary head0 7,lev4 xix4 #cb74 ,this class includes also the commandment to swear by the name of ,god and the prohibition of swearing falsely or in vain4 ,the reason for all these precepts is evident2 they aim at the glorification of ,god2 they prescribe acts which lead to the belief in ,god's greatness4 ,likewise the commandment to cry to ,god in time of trouble1 8to blow an alarm with the trumpets0 7,num4 x4 #i71 belongs to this class4 ,we are told to offer up prayers to ,god1 in order to establish firmly the true principle that ,god takes notice of our ways1 that ,he can make them successful if we worship ,him1 or disastrous if we disobey ,him1 that success and failure are not the result of chance or accident4 ,in this sense we must understand the passage1 8,if ye walk with me by chance0 7beeri4 xxvi4 #ba72 i4e41 if ,i bring troubles upon you for punishment1 and you consider them as mere accidents1 ,i will again send you some of these accidents as you call them1 but of a more serious and troublesome character4 ,this is expressed in the words3 8,if ye walk with me by chance3 then ,i will walk with you also in the fury of chance0 7ibid4 vers4 #bg1 #bh74 ,for the belief of the people that their troubles are mere accidents causes them to continue in their evil principles and their wrong actions1 and prevents them from abandoning their evil ways4 ,comp4 8,thou hast stricken them1 but they have not grieved0 7,jer4 v4 #c74 ,for this reason ,god commanded us to pray to ,him1 to entreat ,him1 and to cry before ,him in time of trouble4 ,it is clear that repentance is likewise included in this class2 that is to say1 it is one of those principles which are an indispensable element in the creed of the followers of the ,law4 ,for it is impossible for man to be entirely free from error and sin2 he either does not know the opinion which he has to choose1 or he adopts a principle1 not for its own merits1 but in order to gratify his desire or passion4 ,if we were convinced that we could never make our crooked ways straight1 we should for ever continue in our errors1 and perhaps add other sins to them since we did not see that any remedy was left to us4 ,but the belief in the effect of repentance causes us to improve1 to return to the best of the ways1 and to become more perfect than we were before we sinned4 ,for this reason many things are prescribed for the promotion of this very useful principle2 e4g41 confessions and sacrifices for sins committed unknowingly1 and in some cases even for sins committed intentionally1 and fasts1 and that which is common to all cases of repentance from sin1 the resolve to discontinue sinning4 ,for that is the aim of this principle4 ,of all these precepts the use is obvious4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvii ,the precepts of the second class are those which we have enumerated in the section 8,on idolatry40 ,it is doubtless that they all tend to save man from the error of idolatry and the evil practices connected with it2 e4g41 observing the times1 enchantment1 witchcraft1 incantation1 consulting with familiar spirits1 and the like4 ,when you read the books which ,i mentioned to you1 you will find that witchcraft1 which will be described to you1 is part of the customs of the ,sabeans1 ,kasdim1 ,chaldeans1 and to a higher degree of the ,egyptians and ,canaanites4 ,they caused others to believe1 or they themselves believed1 that by means of these arts they would perform wonderful things in reference to an individual person1 or to the inhabitants of a whole country1 although no analogy and no reasoning can discover any relation between these performances of the witches and the promised result4 ,thus they are careful to collect certain plants at a particular time1 and to take a definite number of certain objects4 ,there are many things comprised by witchcraft2 they may be divided into three classes3 first1 witchcraft connected with objects in ,nature1 viz41 plants1 animals1 or minerals4 ,secondly1 witchcraft dependent for its performance on a certain time2 and thirdly1 witchcraft dependent on the performance of certain acts of man1 such as dancing1 clapping1 laughing1 jumping with one leg1 lying on the ground with the face upward1 burning a thing1 fumigating with a certain material1 or speaking intelligible or unintelligible words4 ,these are the various kinds of witchcraft4 ,in some cases all these various performances are required4 ,thus the witches sometimes order3 take a leaf of a certain plant1 when the moon is seen in a certain degree of the ,zodiac in the east point or in one of the other cardinal points of the horizon1 also a certain quantity of the horn1 the sweat1 the hair and the blood of a certain animal when the sun is1 e4g41 in the middle of the sky1 or in some other definite place2 and a portion of a certain mineral or minerals1 melted at a certain conjunction of sun and moon1 and at a definite position of the stars2 speak then1 and say certain words1 and fumigate with those leaves or similar ones to that molten image1 and such and such a thing will happen4 ,in other instances of witchcraft it is assumed that one of the above performances suffices4 ,in most cases the condition is added that women must perform these actions4 ,thus it is stated in reference to the means of obtaining rain1 that ten virgins dressed with diadems and red garments should dance1 push each other1 moving backwards and forwards1 and make signs to the sun3 the result of this long process was believed by the idolaters to be a downpour of rain4 ,it is further stated that if four women lay on their back1 with their feet spread and lifted up1 said certain words and did certain things whilst in this disgraceful position1 hail would discontinue coming down in that place4 ,the number of these stupid and mad things is great2 in all of them without exception women are required to be the agent4 ,witchcraft is intimately connected with astrology2 those that practise it assign each plant1 animal1 or mineral to a certain star1 and believe that the above processes of witchcraft are different forms of worship offered to that star1 which is pleased with that act1 word1 or offering of incense1 and fulfils their wishes4 ,after this remark1 which you will understand when you have read such of their works as are at present extant1 and have been mentioned by me1 hear what ,i will tell you4 ,it is the object and centre of the whole ,law to abolish idolatry and utterly uproot it1 and to overthrow the opinion that any of the stars could interfere for good or evil in human matters1 because it leads to the worship of stars4 ,it was therefore necessary to slay all witches as being undoubtedly idolaters1 because every witch is an idolater2 they only have their own strange ways of worship1 which are different from the common mode of worship offered to those deities4 ,but in all performances of witchcraft it is laid down as a rule that women should be employed in the chief operation2 and therefore the ,law says1 8,thou shalt not suffer a witch to live0 7,exod4 xxii4 #ag74 ,another reason is the natural reluctance of people to slay women4 ,this is also the cause why in the law of idolatry it is said 8man or woman0 7,deut4 xvii4 #b71 and again repeated a second time1 8the man or the woman0 7ibid4 ver4 #e7--;a phrase which does not occur in the law about the breaking of ,sabbath1 or in any other law2 for great sympathy is naturally shown to women4 ,now the witches believed that they produced a certain result by their witchcraft2 that they were able through the above-mentioned actions to drive such dangerous animals as lions1 serpents1 and the like out of the cities1 and to remove various kinds of damage from the products of the earth4 ,thus they imagine that they are able by certain acts to prevent hail from coming down1 and by certain other acts to kill the worms in the vineyards1 whereby the latter are protected from injury2 in fact1 the killing of the worms in vineyards1 and other superstitions mentioned in the ,nabatean ,agriculture1 are fully described by the ,sabeans4 ,they likewise imagine that they know certain acts by which they can prevent the dropping of leaves from the trees and the untimely falling of their fruit4 ,on account of these ideas1 which were general in those days1 the ,law declares in 8the words of the covenant0 as follows3 ,the same idolatry and superstitious performances which1 in your belief1 keep certain misfortunes far from you1 will cause those very misfortunes to befall you4 8,i will also send wild beasts among you0 7,lev4 xxvi4 #bb72 8,i will also send the teeth of wild beasts upon them1 with the poison of those that creep in dust0 7,deut4 xxxii4 #bd74 8,the fruit of thy land1 and all thy labours1 shall a nation1 which thou knowest not1 eat up0 7ibid4 xxviii4 #cc74 8,thou shalt plant vineyards and dress them1 but shalt neither drink of the wine nor gather the grapes1 etc4 ,thou shalt have olive trees throughout all thy coasts1 but thou shalt not anoint thyself with the oil0 7,deut4 xxviii4 #ci1 #dj74 ,in short1 in spite of the schemes of idolaters to support and firmly establish their doctrine1 and to make people believe that by idolatry certain misfortunes could be averted and certain benefits gained1 worship of idols will1 on the contrary1 as is stated in 8the words of the covenant10 prevent the advantages and bring the troubles4 ,the reader will now understand why1 of all kinds of curses and blessings1 those mentioned in 8the words of the covenant0 have been selected by the ,law1 and particularly pointed out4 ,note also the greatness of the benefit of these laws4 ,in order that we may keep far from all kinds of witchcraft1 we are warned not to adopt any of the practices of the idolaters1 even such as are connected with agriculture1 the keeping of cattle1 and similar work4 ,the ,law prohibits everything that the idolaters1 according to their doctrine1 and contrary to reason1 consider as being useful and acting in the manner of certain mysterious forces4 ,comp4 8,neither shall ye walk in their ordinances0 7,lev4 xviii4 #c74 8,and ye shall not walk in the manners of the nation which ,i cast out before you0 7ibid4 xx4 #bc74 ,our ,sages call such acts 8the ways of the ,amorite02 they are kinds of witchcraft1 because they are not arrived at by reason1 but are similar to the performances of witchcraft1 which is necessarily connected with the influences of the stars2 thus 8the manners of the nations0 lead people to extol1 worship1 and praise the stars4 ,our ,sages say distinctly1 8whatever is used as medicine0 does not come under the law of 8the ways of the ,amorite02 for they hold that only such cures as are recommended by reason are permitted1 and other cures are prohibited4 ,when1 therefore1 the dictum was quoted3 a tree that casts off its fruit may be laden with stone or dyed with red colour1 the following objection was raised3 ,the loading of the tree with stones may be justified on the plea that it serves to weaken the strength of the tree1 but why should it be permitted to dye the tree with red colour8 ,this question shows that the dyeing of the tree with red colour1 and all similar things which are not explained by analogy from nature1 are prohibited as 8ways of the ,amorite40 ,for the same reason our ,sages said1 8,the uterus of animals which have been selected for the ,sanctuary must be buried2 it must not be suspended from a tree1 and not buried in the cross-road1 because this is one of #8the ways of the ,amorite4'0 ,hence you may learn how to treat similar cases4 ,it is not inconsistent that a nail of the gallows and the tooth of a fox have been permitted to be used as cures2 for these things have been considered in those days as facts established by experiment4 ,they served as cures1 in the same manner as the hanging of the peony over a person subject to epileptic fits1 or the application of a dog's refuse to the swellings of the throat1 and of the vapours of vinegar and marcasite to the swelling of hard tumours4 ,for the ,law permits as medicine everything that has been verified by experiment1 although it cannot be explained by analogy4 ,the above-named cures are permitted in the same way as the application of purgatives4 ,learn1 reader1 these noteworthy lessons from this my work1 and keep them2 8for they are a diadem of grace for thy head0 7,prov4 iv474 ,we have explained in our large work that it is prohibited to round the corners of the head1 and to mar the corners of the beard1 because it was the custom of idolatrous priests4 ,for the same reason1 the wearing of garments made of linen and wool is prohibited2 the heathen priests adorned themselves with garments containing vegetable and animal material1 whilst they held in their hand a seal made of a mineral4 ,this you find written in their books4 ,the same is also the reason of the precept1 8,the woman shall not wear that which pertaineth unto a man0 7,deut4 xxii4 #e74 ,you find it in the book ,tomtom1 that a male person should wear coloured woman's dress when he stands before ,venus1 and a female1 when standing before ,mars1 should wear a buckler and other armour4 ,i think that this precept has also another reason2 namely1 that the interchange of dress creates lust and leads to immorality4 ,it is easily understood why it is prohibited to derive any benefit whatever from an idol4 ,for sometimes a person buys it with the intention to break it1 but keeps it1 and it becomes a snare to him4 ,even if he broke it1 recast it1 and sold it to a heathen1 he must not use the money which he received in exchange for the idol2 because people frequently mistake accidental circumstances for essential causes2 thus most people say of a certain person that he has become rich and wealthy after having dwelt in a certain house1 or bought a certain animal or vessel2 and that these things were a blessing to him4 ,in the same way a person may be successful and make a good profit on the business in which he employed the money received for the idol2 he might then think that the idol was the cause of his success1 and that the blessing of the money received for it brought him the profit2 he would then believe in the idol2 a belief which is just the reverse of the chief object of the ,law1 as is clearly seen in every word of it4 ,for this same reason1 we are forbidden to turn to our use the covering of the idol1 its offerings and vessels4 ,we are thus guarded against the idea of ascribing our success to idols4 ,in those days the belief in the stars was very strong2 it was generally assumed that life and death1 good and evil1 depended on the stars4 ,the ,law employed therefore strong means1 as covenant1 witnesses1 great oaths1 and the above-mentioned blessings and curses1 in order to overthrow that belief4 ,we are thus commanded to abstain from taking any portion of the idol1 and deriving any benefit from it2 and ,god tells us that if money received for idols be mixed with any person's property1 it will bring loss and ruin to that property4 ,this warning is contained in the words3 8,neither shalt thou bring an abomination into thine house1 lest thou be a cursed thing like it0 7,deut4 vii4 #bf74 ,how much more wrong must it be to believe that there is a blessing in idols4 ,when you examine all the precepts that relate to idolatry1 you will find that their reason is obvious1 and that they serve to make us abandon this evil belief1 and keep at the greatest possible distance from it4 ,we must also point out that originators of false1 baseless1 and useless principles scheme and plan for the firm establishment of their faith2 and tell their fellow-men that a certain plague will befall those who will not perform the act by which that faith is supported and confirmed for ever2 this plague may one day accidentally befall a person1 who will then direct his attention to the performance of that act1 and adopt idolatry4 ,it being well known that people are naturally most in fear and dread of the loss of their property and their children1 the worshippers of fire spread the tale1 that if any one did not pass his son and daughter through the fire1 he will lose his children by death4 ,there is no doubt that on account of this absurd menace every one at once obeyed1 out of pity and sympathy for the child2 especially as it was a trifling and a light thing that was demanded1 in passing the child over the fire4 ,we must further take into account that the care of young children is intrusted to women1 who are generally weak-minded1 and ready to believe everything1 as is well known4 ,the ,law makes1 therefore1 an earnest stand against this practice1 and uses in reference to it stronger terms than in any other kind of idolatry2 namely1 8he defileth my sanctuary1 and profaneth my holy name0 7,lev4 xx4 #c74 ,the true prophet then declares in the name of ,god that the very act which is performed for the purpose of keeping the child alive1 will bring death upon him who performs it1 and destruction upon his seed4 ,comp4 8,and ,i will set my face against that man and against his family10 etc4 7ibid4 xx4 #e74 ,know that traces of this practice have survived even to the present day1 because it was widespread in the world4 ,you can see how midwives take a young child wrapped in its swaddling-clothes1 and after having placed incense of a disagreeable smell on the fire1 swing the child in the smoke over that fire4 ,this is certainly a kind of passing children through the fire1 and we must not do it4 ,reflect on the evil cunning of the author of this doctrine2 how people continued to adhere to this doctrine1 and how1 in spite of the opposition of the ,law during thousands of years1 its name is not blotted out1 and its traces are still in existence4 ,idolaters have acted similarly in reference to property4 ,they made it a law that a certain tree1 the asherah1 should be worshipped1 and that of its fruit one part should be offered1 and the rest consumed in the temple of the idol2 this is stated in the regulations concerning the asherah4 ,in the same manner1 they made it a rule1 that the first-fruit of every fruit-tree should be partly offered as a sacrifice and partly consumed in the idol's temple4 ,it was also a widespread belief that if the first-fruit of any tree was not treated in this manner1 the tree would dry up1 its fruit would be cast off1 its increase would be diminished1 or some disease would come over it2 just as they spread the belief that every child1 that was not passed through the fire1 must die4 ,people in their anxiety for their property obeyed also this precept unhesitatingly4 ,the ,law1 in opposition to this doctrine1 commanded us to burn the produce of fruit-trees the first three years2 for some trees bear fruit after one year1 whilst some begin to yield fruit after two1 and others after three years4 ,the law is based upon the nature of trees grown in an ordinary way1 namely1 in one of the three well-known methods3 planting1 propagation1 and inoculation 7netiah1 habrakah1 and harcabah74 ,the ,law does not take notice of the case that a kernel or stone is sown2 for the ordinances of the ,law are based on the usual condition of things1 and as a rule a young tree in ,palestine bears fruit for the first time not later than the third year after it has been planted4 ,according to the divine promise1 the waste and destruction of this first-fruit of the tree will be followed by years of plenty of fruit2 for it is said1 8that it may increase unto you the fruit thereof0 7,lev4 xix4 #be74 ,the fruit of the fourth year we are commanded to eat before ,god1 instead of the heathen custom of eating orlah1 8the fruit of the preceding years10 in the temples of the idols1 as has been described by us4 ,it is further mentioned in the ,nabatean ,agriculture that the ancient idolaters caused certain things named in that work to rot1 waited till the sun stood in a certain degree of the ecliptic1 and then they performed many acts of witchcraft4 ,they believed that that substance should be kept ready by every one1 and when a fruit-tree is planted1 a portion of that rotten substance should be scattered round the tree or under it2 the tree would then grow quicker and produce more fruit than is generally the case4 ,they say that this process is very extraordinary2 it acts like a talisman1 and is more efficient than any kind of witchcraft in accelerating the productiveness of fruit-trees4 ,i have already shown and explained to you how the ,law opposes all kinds of witchcraft4 ,the ,law1 therefore1 prohibits us to use the fruit yielded by a tree in the first three years after it has been planted1 so that there should be no opportunity for accelerating1 according to their imagination1 the productiveness of any tree4 ,after three years most fruit-trees in ,palestine yield fruit by the ordinary course of nature1 without the application of those magical performances which were very general in those days4 ,note this remarkable fact4 ,another belief which was very common in those days1 and survived the ,sabeans1 is this3 ,when a tree is grafted into another in the time of a certain conjunction of sun and moon1 and is fumigated with certain substances whilst a formula is uttered1 that tree will produce a thing that will be found exceedingly useful4 ,more general than anything mentioned by the heathen writers was the ceremony of grafting an olive branch upon a citron tree1 as described in the beginning of the ,nabatean ,agriculture4 ,i am of opinion that the book of medicines which ,hezekiah put away 7,b4 ,t4 ,pes4 #ef;a7 was undoubtedly of this kind4 ,they also said that when one species is grafted upon another1 the branch which is to be grafted must be in the hand of a beautiful damsel1 whilst a male person has disgraceful and unnatural sexual intercourse with her2 during that intercourse the woman grafts the branch into the tree4 ,there is no doubt that this ceremony was general1 and that nobody refused to perform it1 especially as the pleasure of love was added to the 7supposed7 future results of the grafting4 ,the ,law1 therefore1 prohibits us to mix different species together1 i4e41 to graft one tree into another1 because we must keep away from the opinions of idolaters and the abominations of their unnatural sexual intercourse4 ,in order to guard against the grafting of trees1 we are forbidden to sow any two kinds of seed together or near each other4 ,when you study the traditional explanation of this precept1 you will find that the prohibition of grafting1 the principal element in this commandment1 holds good for all countries1 and is punishable by forty stripes2 but the sowing of seeds one near the other is only prohibited in ,palestine4 ,in the ,nabatean ,agriculture it is further distinctly stated that it was the custom of the people in those days to sow barley and stones of grapes together1 in the belief that the vineyard could only prosper in this way4 ,therefore the ,law prohibits us to use seed that has grown in a vineyard1 and commands us to burn both the barley and the produce of the vineyard4 ,for the practices of the heathen1 which they considered as of a magic and talismanic character1 even if not containing any idolatrous element1 are prohibited1 as we have stated above 7p4 #ccd7 in reference to the dictum of our ,sages1 8,we must not hang upon a tree the ftus of an animal belonging to the ,sanctuary40 ,the ,law prohibits all heathen customs1 called by our ,sages 8the ways of the ,amorite10 because they are connected with idolatry4 ,on considering the customs of the heathen in their worship1 you will find that in certain kinds of worship they turn toward stars1 in others to the two great luminaries2 frequently they choose the rise of signs in the ,zodiac for sowing and fumigating2 and as to the circuits made by those who plant or sow1 some complete five circles1 corresponding to the five planets1 with the exclusion of the two luminaries2 others go seven times round1 according to the number of the planets1 when including sun and moon4 ,they believe that all these practices are magic charms of great efficiency in agriculture4 ,thus those practices lead to the worship of stars2 and therefore all practices of those nations have been prohibited1 in the words1 8,ye shall not walk in the manners of the nation which ,i cast out before you0 7,lev4 xx4 #bc74 ,those practices which were more general and common1 or were distinctly connected with idolatry1 are particularly pointed out as prohibited2 e4g41 eating the fruit of a tree during the first three years1 intermixing of species and the mixed species sown in a vineyard4 ,i am surprised at the dictum of ,rabbi ,joshiyah1 which has been adopted as legally binding1 in reference to the mixed seed in a vineyard1 viz41 that the law is only transgressed when wheat1 barley1 and the stone of a grape are sown simultaneously4 ,he must undoubtedly have seen the source of that kind of the ways of the ,amorite4 ,it must now be clear to you1 and no room can be left for any doubt1 that the prohibition of wearing garments of wool and linen1 of using the fruit of a tree in the first three years1 and of mixing divers species1 are directed against idolatry1 and that the prohibition against adopting heathen manners serves to remove anything which leads to idolatry1 as has been shown by us4 ,,chapter ,,xxxviii ,the precepts of the third class are identical with those which we have enumerated in ,hilkot deot4 ,their use is evident2 they are rules concerning moral conduct by which the social relations of men are regulated4 ,this is sufficiently clear1 and ,i need not dwell long on it4 ,know that some precepts prescribe certain acts which are considered as arbitrary decrees without any purpose1 but are nevertheless the means of acquiring some moral principle4 ,we shall explain every one of them in its proper place4 ,but of all those precepts which are mentioned in ,hilkot deot1 it is distinctly stated that their object is to inculcate good moral principles4 ,,chapter ,,xxxix ,the precepts in the fourth class include the laws which in our work are contained in the section ,zeraim1 excepting the laws on the mixture of species2 the rules about things to be 8valued0 and things 8devoted0 7,hilkot erekin va-aramim71 and those concerning lender and borrower 7,hilkot malveh ve-loveh7 and slaves 7,hilkot abadim74 ,when you examine these precepts you will clearly see the use of every one of them3 they teach us to have sympathy with the poor and infirm1 to assist the needy in various ways2 not to hurt the feelings of those who are in want1 and not to vex those who are in a helpless condition viz41 the widow1 the orphan1 and the like4 ,the purpose of the laws concerning the portions which are to be given to the poor is likewise obvious2 the reason of the laws concerning the heave-offerings and the tithe is distinctly stated3 8for he hath no portion and inheritance with thee0 7,deut4 xiv4 #bi74 ,you certainly know that the ,levites had no portion1 because their whole tribe was to be exclusively engaged in the service of ,god and the study of the ,law4 ,they shall not plow or cut the corn1 but shall only minister to ,god4 8,they shall teach ,jacob thy judgments and ,israel thy law3 they shall put incense before thee0 7,deut4 xxxiii4 #aj74 ,in the ,law we meet frequently with the phrase1 8the ,levite1 the stranger1 and the orphan and the widow02 for the ,levite is reckoned among the poor because he had no property4 ,the second tithe was commanded to be spent on food in ,jerusalem2 in this way the owner was compelled to give part of it away as charity4 ,as he was not able to use it otherwise than by way of eating and drinking1 he must have easily been induced to give it gradually away4 ,this rule brought multitudes together in one place1 and strengthened the bond of love and brotherhood among the children of men4 ,the law concerning the fruit of a tree in its fourth year has some relation to idolatrous customs1 as has been stated by us 7chap4 xxxvii471 and is connected with the law concerning the fruit of a tree in its first three years4 ,but it has in addition the same object as the law concerning the heave-offering 7,deut4 xviii4 #d71 the dough-offering 7allah7 7,num4 xv4 #bj71 the first-fruit 7,exod4 xxiii4 #ai71 and the first of the shearing 7,deut4 xviii4 #d74 ,for the first of everything is to be devoted to the ,lord2 and by doing so man accustoms himself to be liberal1 and to limit his appetite for eating and his desire for property4 ,the same is the reason why the priest took the shoulder1 the two cheeks1 and the maw 7,deut4 xviii4 #c72 the cheek being the first part of the body of animals1 the right shoulder the first of the extremities of the body1 and the maw the first of all inwards4 ,the reciting of a certain portion of the ,law when the first-fruits are brought to the temple1 tends also to create humility4 ,for he who brings the first-fruits takes the basket upon his shoulders and proclaims the kindness and goodness of ,god4 ,this ceremony teaches man that it is essential in the service of ,god to remember the times of trouble and the history of past distress1 in days of comfort4 ,the ,law lays stress on this duty in several places2 comp4 8,and thou shalt remember that thou hast been a slave10 etc4 7,deut4 v4 #ae74 ,for it is to be feared that those who become great in riches and comfort might1 as is generally the case1 fall into the vices of insolence and haughtiness1 and abandon all good principles4 ,comp4 8,lest thou eat and be full1 etc41 and thine heart be lifted up and thou forget the ,lord0 7ibid4 viii4 #ab-ad72 8,and ,jeshurun waxed fat and kicked0 7ibid4 xxx4 #ae74 ,on account of this fear the ,law commanded us to read each year a certain portion before the ,lord and ,his glory1 when we offer the first-fruit4 ,you know how much the ,law insists that we shall always remember the plagues that have befallen the ,egyptians2 comp4 8,that thou mayest remember the day when thou camest forth out of the land of ,egypt all the days of thy life0 7ibid4 xvi4 #c72 8,that thou mayest tell in the ears of thy son what things ,i have wrought in ,egypt0 7,exod4 x4 #b74 ,such a law was necessary in order to perpetuate the memory of the departure from ,egypt2 because such events verify prophecy and the doctrine of reward and punishment4 ,the benefit of every commandment that serves to keep certain miracles in remembrance1 or to perpetuate true faith1 is therefore obvious4 ,in reference to the law concerning the first-born of man and cattle it is distinctly said1 8,and it came to pass1 when ,pharaoh would hardly let us go1 that the ,lord slew all the first-born in the land of ,egypt1 etc41 therefore ,i sacrifice to the ,lord10 etc4 7,exod4 xiii4 #ae74 ,but it can easily be explained why only cattle1 sheep1 and asses are mentioned in this law2 these are kept as domestic animals1 and are found in most places1 especially in ,palestine1 where the ,israelites were shepherds1 they1 their fathers1 and forefathers2 comp4 8,thy servants are shepherds1 both we and also our fathers0 7,gen4 xlvii4 #c74 ,horses and camels1 however1 are not wanted by shepherds1 and are not found in all places2 thus in the booty of ,midian 7,num4 xxxi47 no other animals are mentioned but oxen1 sheep1 and asses4 ,but asses alone are indispensable to all people1 especially to those who are engaged in the field or in the forest4 ,thus ,jacob says1 8,i have oxen and asses0 7,gen4 xxxii4 #e74 ,camels and horses are not possessed by many people1 but only by a few1 and are only found in a few places4 ,the law that the first-born of an ass was to have its neck broken in case it is not redeemed1 will only ensure the redemption of the ass4 ,it has1 therefore1 been said that the act of redeeming the ass is to be preferred to that of breaking its neck4 ,as to the precepts enumerated in the laws concerning the year of release and the jubilee 7,hilkot shemittah ve-yobel7 some of them imply sympathy with our fellow-men1 and promote the well-being of mankind2 for in reference to these precepts it is stated in the ,law1 8,that the poor of thy people may eat0 7,exod4 xxiii4 #aa72 and besides1 the land will also increase its produce and improve when it remains fallow for some time4 ,other precepts of this class prescribe kindness to servants and to the poor1 by renouncing all claims to debts in the year of release1 and relieving the slaves of their bondage in the seventh year4 ,there are some precepts in this class that serve to secure for the people a permanent source of maintenance and support by providing that the land should remain the permanent property of its owners1 and that it could not be sold4 8,and the land shall not be sold for ever0 7,lev4 xxv4 #bc74 ,in this way the property of a person remains intact for him and his heirs1 and he can only enjoy the produce thereof4 ,i have thus explained the reason of all precepts contained in our work in the ,section ,zeraiim1 with the exception of the laws concerning the intermixture of different species of beasts the reason of which will be given 7chap4 xlix474 ,in the same manner we find that all the precepts comprised in 8the laws on valuations10 and on 8things devoted0 are based on the principle of charity2 some of them prescribe what should be given to the priests2 others tell us what must be devoted to the repairs of the temple4 ,the practice of all these things accustoms man to act liberally and to spend money unhesitatingly to the glory of ,god4 ,for it is in the nature of man to strive to gain money and to increase it2 and his great desire to add to his wealth and honour is the chief source of misery for man4 ,also the precepts contained in 8the laws concerning the relation between lender and borrower0 7,hilkot malveh veloveh7 will be found1 on being carefully examined1 to be nothing but commands to be lenient1 merciful and kind to the needy1 not to deprive them of the use of anything indispensable in the preparation of food4 8,no man shall take the nether or the upper millstone to pledge3 for he taketh a man's life to pledge0 7,deut4 xxiv4 #f74 ,the precepts contained in 8the laws concerning slaves0 7,hilkot abadim71 likewise prescribe only acts of pity1 mercy and kindness to the poor4 ,it is an act of mercy to give liberty to a ,canaanite servant for the loss of one of his limbs 7,exod4 xxi4 #bf1 #bg71 in order that he should not suffer from slavery and illness at the same time4 ,the law applies even to the case that a tooth of a slave has been knocked out1 much more to the mutilation of other limbs4 ,he could only be corrected with a rod or reed or the like1 as we have stated in ,mishneh-torah4 ,besides1 if the master strikes the slave too hard and kills him1 he is punished with death as for ordinary murder4 ,mercy is also the object of the law1 8,thou shalt not deliver unto his master the servant that is escaped from his master0 7,deut4 xxiii4 #ae72 but it teaches besides a very useful lesson1 namely1 that we must always practise this virtue1 help and protect those who seek our help1 and not deliver them unto those from whom they flee2 and it is not sufficient to give assistance to those who are in need of our help2 we must look after their interests1 be kind to them1 and not hurt their feeling by words4 ,thus the ,law says3 8,he shall dwell with thee1 even among you1 in that place which he shall choose in one of thy gates1 where it liketh him best3 thou shalt not vex him0 7ibid4 ver4 #af74 ,this we owe to the lowest among men1 to the slave2 how much more must we do our duty to the freeborn1 when they seek our assistance8 ,but1 on the other hand1 when sinners and evildoers seek our help1 it must not be granted2 no mercy must be shown to them1 and the course of justice must not be interfered with1 even if they claim the protection of that which is noblest and highest2 for 8,thou shalt take him from mine altar that he may die0 7,exod4 xxi4 #ad74 ,here a person comes to seek the help of ,god1 and claims the protection of that which is devoted to his name2 ,god1 however1 does not help him1 and commands that he be delivered up to the prosecutor1 from whom he fled4 ,much less need any one of us help or pity his fellow-men under such circumstances2 because mercy on sinners is cruelty to all creatures4 ,these are undoubtedly the right ways designated 8righteous statutes and judgments0 7,deut4 iv4 #h71 and different from the ways of the fools1 who consider a person praiseworthy when he helps and protects his fellow-men1 without discriminating between the oppressor and the oppressed4 ,this is well known from their words and songs4 ,the reason and usefulness of every precept of this class has thus been clearly demonstrated4 ,,chapter ,,xl ,the precepts of the fifth class1 enumerated in the ,section 8,on ,damages0 7,sepher neziin71 aim at the removal of wrong and the prevention of injury4 ,as we are strongly recommended to prevent damage1 we are responsible for every damage caused by our property or through our work in so far as it is in our power to take care and to guard it from becoming injurious4 ,we are1 therefore1 responsible for all damage caused by our cattle2 we must guard them4 ,the same is the case with fire and pits2 they are made by man1 and he can be careful that they do not cause damage4 ,i will point out the equity of the various laws in this respect4 ,no compensation is enforced for damage caused by the mouth or the foot of an animal in a public thoroughfare2 because this cannot be guarded against1 and the damage caused there is not very large4 ,those who place their things in a public place are themselves guilty of neglect1 and expose their property to injury4 ,but compensation is given for damage caused to the property of a person in his own field by the tooth or the foot of an animal4 ,it is different in the case of damage caused by the horn of animals or the like4 ,the animal can be guarded everywhere and prevented from causing injury1 whilst those who pass public thoroughfares cannot sufficiently take care against accidents of this kind4 ,in this case the law is the same for all places2 but there is a difference whether the owner of the animal has been warned concerning it or not 7muad or tam74 ,if the animal has not been in the habit of causing damage1 the owner need only pay half the damage2 but damage caused by an animal which has been in the habit of doing so1 and has been known as savage1 must be paid in full4 ,the compensation for a slave is uniformly estimated at half the value fixed for a free man4 ,for in the law concerning the valuation of man you find the highest valuation at sixty shekels1 whilst the money to be paid for a slave is fixed at thirty shekels silver4 ,the killing of an animal that has killed a human being 7,exod4 xxi4 #bh1 #bi7 is not a punishment to the animal1 as the dissenters insinuate against us1 but it is a fine imposed on the owner of that animal4 ,for the same reason the use of its flesh is prohibited4 ,the owner of an animal will1 therefore1 take the greatest possible care in guarding it2 he will know that if any person is killed by the animal1 whether that person be grown up or young1 free or in bondage1 he forfeits at least the animal2 and in case he has already received a warning concerning it1 he will have to pay a ransom in addition to the loss of the animal4 ,this is also the reason why a beast is killed that has been used by a human being for an immoral purpose 7,lev4 xx4 #ae1 #af72 its owner will be more careful as regards his beast1 will guard it1 and never lose sight of it1 just as he watches his household3 for people fear the loss of their property as much as that of their own life2 some even more1 but most people hold both in the same estimation4 ,comp4 8and to take us for bondmen1 and our asses0 7,gen4 xliii4 #ah74 ,this class includes also the duty of killing him who pursues another person2 that is to say1 if a person is about to commit a crime we may prevent it by killing him4 ,only in two cases is this permitted2 viz41 when a person runs after another in order to murder him1 or in order to commit fornication2 because in these two cases the crime1 once committed2 cannot be remedied4 ,in the case of other sins1 punished with death by the court of law1 such as idolatry and profanation of the ,sabbath1 by which the sinner does no harm to another person1 and which concern only his own principles1 no person may be killed for the mere intention1 if he has not carried it out4 ,it is known that desire is denounced because it leads to coveting1 and the latter is prohibited because it leads to robbery1 as has been said by our ,sages4 ,the object of the law of restoring lost property to its owner 7,deut4 xxii4 #a-c7 is obvious4 ,in the first instance1 it is in itself a good feature in man's character4 ,secondly1 its benefit is mutual2 for if a person does not return the lost property of his fellow-man1 nobody will restore to him what he may lose1 just as those who do not honour their parents cannot expect to be honoured by their children4 ,a person who killed another person unknowingly must go into exile 7,exod4 xxi4 #ac2 ,num4 xxxv4 #aa-bh72 because the anger of 8the avenger of the blood0 7,num4 xxxv4 #ai7 cools down while the cause of the mischief is out of sight4 ,the chance of returning from the exile depends on the death of the high-priest1 the most honoured of men1 and the friend of all ,israel4 ,by his death the relative of the slain person becomes reconciled 7ibid4 ver4 #be72 for it is a natural phenomenon that we find consolation in our misfortune when the same misfortune or a greater one has befallen another person4 ,amongst us no death causes more grief than that of the high-priest4 ,the beneficial character of the law concerning 8the breaking of the neck of a heifer0 7,deut4 xxi4 #a-h7 is evident4 ,for it is the city that is nearest to the slain person that brings the heifer1 and in most cases the murderer comes from that place4 ,the elders of the place call upon ,god as their witness1 according to the interpretation of our ,sages1 that they have always kept the roads in good condition1 have protected them1 and have directed every one that asked his way2 that the person has not been killed because they were careless in these general provisions1 and they do not know who has slain him4 ,as a rule the investigation1 the procession of the elders1 the measuring1 and the taking of the heifer1 make people talk about it1 and by making the event public1 the murderer may be found out1 and he who knows of him1 or has heard of him1 or has discovered him by any due1 will now name the person that is the murderer1 and as soon as a man1 or even a woman or handmaid1 rises up and names a certain person as having committed the murder1 the heifer is not killed4 ,it is well known that it is considered great wickedness and guilt on the part of a person who knows the murderer1 and is silent about him whilst the elders call upon ,god as witness that they know nothing about the murderer4 ,even a woman will1 therefore1 communicate whatever knowledge she has of him4 ,when the murderer is discovered1 the benefit of the law is apparent4 ,if the court of justice cannot sentence him to death1 the king may find him guilty1 who has the power to sentence to death on circumstantial evidence2 and if the king does not put him to death1 the avenger of blood may scheme and plan his death1 and at last kill him4 ,we have thus shown the use of the law concerning the breaking of the neck of the heifer in discovering the murderer4 ,force is added to the law by the rule that the place in which the neck of the heifer is broken should never be cultivated or sown4 ,the owner of the land will therefore use all means in his power to search and to find the murderer1 in order that the heifer be not killed and his land be not made useless to him4 ,,chapter ,,xli ,the precepts of the sixth class comprise the different ways of punishing the sinner4 ,their general usefulness is known and has also been mentioned by us4 ,i will here describe them one by one and point out their nature in detail4 ,the punishment of him who sins against his neighbour consists in the general rule that there shall be done unto him exactly as he has done3 if he injured any one personally1 he must suffer personally2 if he damaged the property of his neighbour1 he shall be punished by loss of property4 ,but the person whose property has been damaged should be ready to resign his claim totally or partly4 ,only to the murderer we must not be lenient because of the greatness of his crime2 and no ransom must be accepted of him4 8,and the land cannot be cleansed of the blood that is shed therein but by the blood of him that shed it0 7,num4 xxxi4 #cc74 ,hence even if the murdered person continued to live after the attack for an hour or for days1 was able to speak and possessed complete consciousness1 and if he himself said1 8,pardon my murderer1 ,i have pardoned and forgiven him10 he must not be obeyed4 ,we must take life for life1 and estimate equally the life of a child and that of a grown-up person1 of a slave and of a freeman1 of a wise man and of a fool4 ,for there is no greater sin than this4 ,and he who mutilated a limb of his neighbour1 must himself lose a limb4 8,as he hath caused a blemish in a man1 so shall it be done to him again0 7,lev4 xxiv4 #bj74 ,you must not raise an objection from our practice of imposing a fine in such cases4 ,for we have proposed to ourselves to give here the reason for the precepts mentioned in the ,law1 and not for that which is stated in the ,talmud4 ,i have1 however1 an explanation for the interpretation given in the ,talmud1 but it will be communicated viv voce4 ,injuries that cannot be reproduced exactly in another person1 are compensated for by payment2 8only he shall pay for the loss of his time1 and shall cause him to be thoroughly healed0 7,exod4 xxi4 #ai74 ,if any one damaged the property of another1 he must lose exactly as much of his own property3 8whom the judges shall condemn he shall pay double unto his neighbour0 7,exod4 xxii4 #h72 namely1 he restores that which he has taken1 and adds just as much to it of his own property4 ,it is right that the more frequent transgressions and sins are1 and the greater the probability of their being committed1 the more severe must their punishment be1 in order to deter people from committing them2 but sins which are of rare occurrence require a less severe punishment4 ,for this reason one who stole a sheep had to pay twice as much as for other goods1 i4e41 four times the value of the stolen object2 but this is only the case when he has disposed of it by sale or slaughter 7,exod4 xxi4 #cg74 ,as a rule1 the sheep remained always in the fields1 and could therefore not be watched so carefully as things kept in town4 ,the thief of a sheep used therefore to sell it quickly before the theft became known1 or to slaughter it and thereby change its appearance4 ,as such theft happened frequently1 the punishment was severe4 ,the compensation for a stolen ox is still greater by one-fourth1 because the theft is easily carried out4 ,the sheep keep together when they feed1 and can be watched by the shepherd1 so that theft when it is committed can only take place by night4 ,but oxen when feeding are very widely scattered1 as is also mentioned in the ,nabatean ,agriculture1 and a shepherd cannot watch them properly2 theft of oxen is therefore a more frequent occurrence4 ,the law concerning false witnesses 7,deut4 xix4 #ai7 prescribes that they shall suffer exactly the same loss which they intended to inflict upon another4 ,if they intended to bring a sentence of death against a person1 they are killed2 if they aimed at the punishment of stripes1 they receive stripes2 and if they desire to make a person pay money1 they are sentenced to pay exactly the same sum4 ,the object of all these laws is to make the punishment equal to the crime2 and it is also on this account that the judgments are 8righteous0 7,deut4 iv4 #h74 ,a robber with violence is not ordered to pay anything as fine 7,lev4 v4 #bd72 the additional fifth part of the value of the robbed goods is only an atonement-offering for his perjury4 ,the reason of this rule is to be found in the rare occurrence of robbery2 theft is committed more frequently than robbery1 for theft can be committed everywhere2 robbery is not possible in towns1 except with difficulty2 besides1 the thief takes things exposed as well as things hidden away2 robbery applies only to things exposed2 against robbery we can guard and defend ourselves2 we cannot do so against theft2 again1 the robber is known1 can be sought1 and forced to return that which he has robbed1 whilst the thief is not known4 ,on account of all these circumstances the law fines the thief and not the robber4 ,preliminary ,remark4--,whether the punishment is great or small1 the pain inflicted intense or less intense1 depends on the following four conditions4 #a4 ,the greatness of the sin4 ,actions that cause great harm are punished severely1 whilst actions that cause little harm are punished less severely4 #b4 ,the frequency of the crime4 ,a crime that is frequently committed must be put down by severe punishment2 crimes of rare occurrence may be suppressed by a lenient punishment considering that they are rarely committed4 #c4 ,the amount of temptation4 ,only fear of a severe punishment remains us from actions for which there exists a great temptation1 either because we have a great desire for these actions1 or are accustomed to them1 or feel unhappy without them4 #d4 ,the facility of doing the thing secretly1 and unseen and unnoticed4 ,from such acts we are deterred only by the fear of a great and terrible punishment4 ,after this preliminary remark1 ,i say that the precepts of the ,law may be divided into the following four classes with respect to the punishment for their transgression3--7#a7 ,precepts whose transgression is followed by sentence of death pronounced by a court of law4 7#b7 ,precepts whose transgression is punished with excision1 such transgression being held to be a very great sin4 7#c7 ,in some cases the transgression is punished by stripes administered with a strap 7such transgression not being considered a grievous sin1 as it concerns only a simple prohibition72 or by 8death by ,heaven40 7#d7 ,precepts the transgression of which is not punished even by stripes4 ,prohibitions of this kind are all those that involve no act4 ,but there are the following exceptions3 ,first1 ,swearing falsely1 because it is gross neglect of man's duty1 who ought to bear constantly in mind the greatness of ,god4 ,secondly1 ,changing an animal devoted to the sanctuary for another 7,lev4 xxvii4 #aj71 because this change leads to contemning sacrifices devoted to the name of ,god4 ,thirdly1 ,cursing a person by the name of ,god 7ibid4 xix4 #ad72 because many dread the effect of a curse more than bodily harm4 ,the transgression of other negative commandments that involve no act causes little harm1 and cannot always be avoided1 as it consists in mere words2 moreover1 man's back would be inflicted with stripes all the year round if he were to be punished with stripes for each transgression of this kind4 ,besides1 previous warning is impossible in this case4 ,there is also wisdom in the number of stripes2 for although the number of their maximum is given1 there is no fixed number how many are to be applied to each person2 each man receives only as many stripes as he can bear1 but not more than forty 7,deut4 xxv4 #c71 even if he be strong enough for a hundred4 ,the 8death by the court of law0 is not inflicted for the transgression of any of the dietary laws2 because in such a case no great harm is done1 and the temptation of man to transgress these laws is not so great as the temptation to the enjoyment of sexual intercourse4 ,in some of the dietary laws the punishment is excision4 ,this is the case with the prohibition of eating blood 7,lev4 xvii4 #bf74 ,for in ancient days people were very eager and anxious to eat blood as a kind of idolatrous ceremony1 as is explained in the book ,tomtom1 and therefore the prohibition of eating blood is made very stringent4 ,excision is also the punishment for eating fat2 because people enjoy it1 and because it was distinguished and sanctified by its use in the offerings4 ,the eating of leavened bread on ,passover 7,exod4 xii4 #ae71 and breaking the fast on the ,day of ,atonement 7,lev4 xxiii4 #bi71 are likewise punished with excision3 first on account of the great discomfort which the obedience to the law causes in these cases2 secondly on account of the principles of faith which the laws of ,passover and of the ,day of ,atonement inculcate3 they confirm fundamental principles of the ,law1 viz41 the belief in the wonderful departure of ,israel from ,egypt1 and in the effect of repentance1 according to the words1 8,for on this day will he forgive you0 7,lev4 xvi4 #ca74 ,just as in the case of eating fat1 so is excision also announced as a punishment when a person eats that which is left of a sacrifice beyond its limited time1 or partakes of a sacrifice which has been made abominable2 or when an unclean person eats of holy things 7ibid4 vii4 #af-ba74 ,the object of this severity is to increase the estimation of the offering in the eyes of the people1 as has been shown4 ,death by the court of law is decreed in important cases3 when faith is undermined1 or a great crime is committed1 viz41 idolatry1 incest1 murder1 or actions that lead to these crimes4 ,it is further decreed for breaking the ,sabbath 7,exod4 xxxi4 #ae72 because the keeping of ,sabbath is a confirmation of our belief in the ,creation2 a false prophet and a rebellious elder are put to death on account of the mischief which they cause2 he who strikes his father or his mother is killed on account of his great audacity1 and because he undermines the constitution of the family1 which is the foundation of the state4 ,a rebellious and disobedient son is put to death 7,deut4 xxi4 #ah seq47 on account of what he might become1 because he will likely be a murderer2 he who steals a human being is killed1 because he is also prepared to kill him whom he steals 7,exod4 xxi4 #af74 ,likewise he who is found breaking into a house is prepared for murder 7ibid4 xxii4 #a71 as our ,sages stated4 ,these three1 the rebellious and disobedient son1 he who steals and sells a human being1 and he who breaks into a house1 become murderers in the course of time1 as is well known4 ,capital punishment is only decreed for these serious crimes1 and in no other case4 ,not all forbidden sexual intercourse is visited with the penalty of death1 but only in those cases in which the criminal act can easily be done1 is of frequent occurrence1 is base and disgraceful1 and of a tempting character2 otherwise excision is the punishment4 ,likewise not all kinds of idolatry are capital crimes1 but only the principal acts of idolatry1 such as praying to an idol1 prophesying in its name1 passing a child through the fire1 consulting with familiar spirits1 and acting as a wizard or witch4 ,as punishments and judgments are evidently indispensable1 it was necessary to appoint judges throughout the country in every town2 witnesses must be heard2 and a king is required whom all fear and respect1 who is able to restrain the people by various means1 and who can strengthen and support the authority of the judges4 ,although ,i have shown the reason of all the laws contained in 8the ,section of ,judges0 7,sefer ,shofetim71 ,i find it necessary1 in accordance with the object of this treatise1 to explain a few of these laws1 e4g41 the laws concerning a rebellious elder4 ,god knew that the judgments of the ,law will always require an extension in some cases and curtailment in others1 according to the variety of places1 events1 and circumstances4 ,he therefore cautioned against such increase and diminution1 and commanded1 8,thou shalt not add thereto nor diminish from it0 7,deut4 xiii4 #a72 for constant changes would tend to disturb the whole system of the ,law1 and would lead people to believe that the ,law is not of ,divine origin4 ,but permission is at the same time given to the wise men1 i4e41 the great court 7,synhedrion7 of every generation to make fences round the judgments of the ,law for their protection1 and to introduce bye-laws 7fences7 in order to ensure the keeping of the ,law4 ,such fences once erected remain in force for ever4 ,the ,mishnah therefore teaches3 8,and make a fence round the ,law0 7,abot i4 #a74 ,in the same manner they have the power temporarily to dispense with some religious act prescribed in the ,law1 or to allow that which is forbidden1 if exceptional circumstances and events require it2 but none of the laws can be abrogated permanently1 as has been explained by us in the ,introduction to the ,commentary on the ,mishnah in treating of temporary legislation4 ,by this method the ,law will remain perpetually the same1 and will yet admit at all times and under all circumstances such temporary modifications as are indispensable4 ,if every scholar had the power to make such modifications1 the multitude of disputes and differences of opinion would have produced an injurious effect4 ,therefore it was commanded that of the ,sages only the great ,synhedrion1 and none else1 should have this power2 and whoever would oppose their decision should be killed4 ,for if any critic were allowed to dispute the decision of the ,synhedrion1 the object of this law would not be attained2 it would be useless4 ,transgressions may be divided into four classes1 viz4--7#a7 involuntary transgressions1 7#b7 sins committed in ignorance1 7#c7 sins done knowingly1 and 7#d7 sins done spitefully4 ,he who sins involuntarily is1 according to the distinct declaration of the ,law1 exempt from punishment1 and free from all blame2 comp4 8,unto the damsel thou shalt do nothing2 there is in the damsel no sin worthy of death0 7,deut4 xxii4 #bf74 ,if a person sins in ignorance1 he is blamable2 for if he had been more considerate and careful1 he would not have erred4 ,although he is not punished1 his sin must be atoned for1 and for this reason he brings a sin-offering4 ,the ,law distinguishes in this respect between a private person and a king1 a high-priest or ,teacher of ,halakah4 ,hence we conclude that a person who acts wrongly1 or who teaches wrongly1 guided by his own reasoning--except in the case of the great ,synhedrion or the high-priest--is treated as mezid 7as one who sins knowingly71 and does not belong to the category of shogegim 7of those who sin by error74 ,a rebellious elder is therefore put to death1 although he acted and taught according to his view4 ,but the great ,synhedrion must teach according to its opinion1 and if the opinion is wrong1 the sin is considered as due to error4 ,in reference to such a case the ,law says1 8,and if the whole congregation of ,israel err10 etc4 7,lev4 iv4 #ac74 ,it is on this principle that our ,sages say1 8,the error in learning amounts to intentional sin0 7,abot iv4 #ac72 he who has studied insufficiently1 and teaches and acts according to his defective knowledge1 is to be considered as if he sinned knowingly4 ,for if a person eats of the fat of the kidneys in the belief that it is the fat of the rump1 his error is not so grave as the error of him who1 eating of the fat of the kidneys1 knows that it is that fat1 but is ignorant of the fact that it is prohibited4 ,the latter brings a sin-offering although he is almost an intentional transgressor4 ,but this is only the case as far as he acts according to his knowledge2 but if he decides a religious question wrongly1 he is undoubtedly an intentional sinner4 ,the ,law admits the plea of error in a religious decision only in the case of the great ,synhedrion4 ,he who has sinned knowingly must pay the penalty prescribed in the ,law2 he is put to death or receives stripes1 or--for transgression of prohibitions not punishable by stripes--other corporal punishment1 or pays a fine4 ,there are some sins for which the punishment is the same1 whether they have been committed knowingly or unknowingly2 because they are frequent1 and are easily done1 consisting only in the utterance of words1 and involving no action besides2 e4g41 false swearing by witnesses1 or by trustees4 ,intercourse with a betrothed handmaid is likewise easy and frequent2 she is exposed unprotected1 being in reality neither handmaid nor a free person1 nor a married woman1 according to the traditional interpretation of this precept4 ,if a person sins presumptuously1 so that in sinning he shows impudence and seeks publicity1 if he does not sin only to satisfy his appetite1 if he does what is prohibited by the ,law1 not only because of his evil inclinations1 but in order to oppose and resist the ,law1 he 8reproacheth the ,lord0 7,num4 xv4 #cj71 and must undoubtedly be put to death4 ,none will act in such a manner but such as have conceived the idea to act contrary to the ,law4 ,according to the traditional interpretation1 therefore1 the above passage speaks of an idolater who opposes the fundamental principles of the ,law2 for no one worships a star unless he believes --contrary to the teachings of ,scripture-- that the star is eternal1 as we have frequently stated in our work4 ,i think that the same punishment viz41 sentence of death applies to every sin which involves the rejection of the ,law1 or opposition to it4 ,even if an ,israelite eats meat boiled in milk1 or wears garments of wool and linen1 or rounds the corners of his head1 out of spite against the ,law1 in order to show clearly that he does not believe in its truth1 ,i apply to him the words1 8he reproacheth the ,lord10 and ,i am of opinion that he must suffer death as an unbeliever1 though not for a punishment1 but in the same manner as the inhabitants of a 8city misled to idolatry0 are slain for their unbelief1 and not by way of punishment for crime2 wherefore their property is destroyed by fire1 and is not given to their heirs1 as is the case with the property of other criminals condemned to death4 ,according to my opinion1 all the members of an ,israelitish community which has insolently and presumptuously transgressed any of the divine precepts1 must be put to death4 ,this is proved by the history of 8the sons of ,reuben and the sons of ,gad0 7,josh4 xxii471 against whom the whole congregation of ,israel decided to make war4 ,when warning was given to the supposed offenders1 it was explained to them that they had relinquished their faith1 because by agreeing to transgress one particular law they rejected the truth of the whole ,law4 ,for they were addressed as follows3 8,what trespass is this that ye have committed against the ,god of ,israel1 to turn away this day from following the ,lord80 7,josh4 xxii4 #af72 and they replied3 8,the ,lord knoweth1 etc41 if it be in rebellion1 or if in transgression against the ,lord10 etc4 7ibid4 #bb74 ,take well notice of these principles in respect to punishments4 ,the ,section on ,judges includes also the commandment to blot out the memory of ,amalek 7,deut4 xxv4 #ag-ai74 ,in the same way as one individual person is punished1 so must also a whole family or a whole nation be punished1 in order that other families shall hear it and be afraid1 and not accustom themselves to practise mischief4 ,for they will say1 we may suffer in the same way as those people have suffered2 and if there be found among them a wicked1 mischievous man1 who cares neither for the evil he brings upon himself nor for that which he causes to others1 he will not find in his family any one ready to help him in his evil designs4 ,as ,amalek was the first to attack ,israel with the sword 7,exod4 xvii4 #h-af71 it was commanded to blot out his name by means of the sword2 whilst ,ammon and ,moab1 who have not been friendly simply from meanness1 and have caused them injury by cunning1 were only punished by exclusion from intermarriage with the ,israelites1 and from their friendship4 ,all these things which ,god has commanded as a punishment are not excessive nor inadequate1 but1 as is distinctly stated1 8according to the fault0 7,deut4 xxv4 #b74 ,this section contains also the law concerning preparing 8a place without the camp10 and 8having a paddle upon the weapon0 7,deut4 xxiii4 #ab1 #ac74 ,as ,i have told you1 it is one of the objects of the ,law to train ,israel to cleanliness2 that they should keep free from dirt and filth1 and that men should not be degraded to the condition of cattle4 ,another object of this law is to confirm by these preparations the belief of the warriors that ,god dwells in their midst4 ,the reason of the law is therefore stated thus3 8,for the ,lord thy ,god walketh in the midst of the camp0 7ibid4 ver4 #ad74 ,the mention of this reason gave occasion to add another lesson3 8,that he see no unclean thing in thee and turn away from thee0 7ibid474 ,these words warn and caution us against the usual inclination of soldiers to fornication1 when they are away from their homes a long time4 ,god therefore commanded us to do certain things which remind us that ,he is in our midst2 we will thereby be saved from those evil practices2 as it is said1 8and thy camp shall be holy1 that he see no unclean thing in thee0 7ibid474 ,even those who are unclean by pollution were compelled to stop outside the camp till the evening1 and 8then he shall come into the camp again40 ,it will thus be confirmed in the heart of every one of the ,israelites that their camp must be like a sanctuary of the ,lord1 and it must not be like the camps of the heathen1 whose sole object is corruption and sin2 who only seek to cause injury to others and to take their property2 whilst our object is to lead mankind to the service of ,god1 and to a good social order4 ,i have told you already that ,i only propose to give here such reasons as are apparent from the text of the ,law4 ,to the same class belongs also the law concerning 8the marriage of a captive woman0 7,deut4 xxi4 #aj seq474 ,there is a well-known saying of our ,sages3 8,this law is only a concession to human weakness40 ,this law contains1 nevertheless1 even for the nobler class of people1 some moral lessons to which ,i will call your attention4 ,for although the soldier may be overcome by his desire which he is unable to suppress or to restrain1 he must take the object of his lust to a private place1 8into the inner of his house0 7,deut4 xxi4 #ab71 and he is not permitted to force her in the camp4 ,similarly our ,sages say1 that he may not cohabit with her a second time before she leaves off her mourning1 and is at ease about her troubles4 ,she must not be prevented from mourning and crying1 and she must be permitted to abstain from bathing1 in accordance with the words1 8and she shall weep for her father and for her mother0 7ibid472 for mourners find comfort in crying and in excitement till the body has not sufficient strength to bear the inner emotions2 in the same manner as happy persons find rest in various kinds of play4 ,thus the ,lord is merciful to her and gives her permission to continue her mourning and weeping till she is worn out4 ,you know certainly that he married her as a heathen1 and that during the thirty days she openly keeps her religion and even continues her idolatrous practices2 no interference with her faith was allowed during that time2 and after all that she could not be sold1 nor treated as a handmaid1 if she could not be induced to accept the statutes of the ,law4 ,thus the ,law does not ignore the cohabitation of the ,israelite with the captive woman1 although it involved disobedience to ,god to some extent1 having taken place when she was still a heathen4 ,the ,law prescribes3 8,thou shalt not make merchandise of her1 because thou hast humbled her0 7ibid4 #ad74 ,we have thus shown the moral lessons contained in these laws1 and we have explained the reason of every precept of this section4 ,,chapter ,,xlii ,the precepts of the seventh class are the civil laws enumerated in the ,section on ,judgments1 and part of the ,section on ,property4 ,the object of these precepts is obvious4 ,they define the ways of equity in the various transactions which must take place between man and man4 ,those that are engaged in such transactions must mutually promote each other's interests2 neither of the parties must strive to increase only his own profit1 and that he alone should enjoy the whole benefit of the transaction4 ,in the first place1 no overcharge is permitted2 only the ordinary and known rate of profit may be taken4 ,the law fixes the limits of profits within which the transaction is valid4 ,even imposition in mere words where no material harm is inflicted is forbidden1 as is well known4 ,next comes the law of the four kind of bailees2 the fairness of the law is evident4 ,if one keeps the property of his neighbour for nothing1 without deriving therefrom any benefit for himself1 and is only obliging his neighbour1 he is free from all responsibility1 and if any injury is done to the property1 the owner alone must bear the loss4 ,he who borrows a thing keeps it only for his own advantage1 whilst the owner lends it to him to oblige him2 he is therefore responsible for everything2 any loss in the property must be borne by the borrower4 ,if one takes wages for keeping the property or pays for using it1 he as well as the owner profit thereby2 the losses must therefore be divided between them4 ,it is done in this manner2 the bailee pays for any loss caused through want of care1 namely1 when the property is stolen or lost2 for this happens only when the bailee does not take sufficient precaution4 ,the owner1 on the other hand1 bears such losses as cannot be prevented2 namely1 if by accident the animal falls and breaks its limbs1 or is carried away by armed men as booty1 or if it dies4 ,the ,law further ordains merciful conduct towards hired workmen because of their poverty4 ,their wages should be paid without delay1 and they must not be wronged in any of their rights2 they must receive their pay according to their work4 ,another instance of kindness to workmen is this3 according to the regulations of this law1 workmen1 and even animals1 must be permitted to partake of the food in the preparation of which they have been engaged4 ,the laws which relate to property include laws concerning inheritance4 ,they are based on the sound principle that man must not 8withhold good from those to whom it is due0 7,prov4 iii4 #bg71 and when he is about to die1 he must not conceive ill-will against his heirs1 by squandering his property1 but leave it to the one who has the greatest claim on it1 that is1 to him who is his nearest relation1 8unto his kinsman that is next to him of his family0 7,num4 xxvii4 #aa74 ,it is clearly stated that the son has the first claim1 then comes the daughter1 then the brother1 and then the father's brothers1 as is well known4 ,the father must leave the right of the first-born to his eldest son1 because his love for this son came first2 he must not be guided by his inclination4 ,he may not make the son of the beloved first-born before the son of the hated 7,deut4 xxi4 #af74 ,thus our highly equitable ,law preserves and strengthens the virtue of respecting all kinsmen1 and doing well unto them1 as the prophet says3 8,he that is cruel troubleth his own flesh0 7,prov4 xi4 #ag74 ,the ,law correctly says1 8,thou shalt open thine hand wide unto thy brother1 unto thy poor0 7,deut4 xv4 #aa74 ,our ,sages bestow much praise upon him who is kind to his relatives1 and him who marries the daughter of his sister4 ,the ,law has taught us how far we have to extend this principle of favouring those who are near to us1 and of treating kindly every one with whom we have some relationship1 even if he offended or wronged us2 even if he is very bad1 we must have some consideration for him4 ,thus the ,law says3 8,thou shalt not abhor an ,edomite1 for he is thy brother0 7ibid4 xxiii4 #g74 ,again1 if we find a person in trouble1 whose assistance we have once enjoyed1 or of whom we have received some benefit1 even if that person has subsequently done evil to us1 we must bear in mind his previous good conduct4 ,thus the ,law tells us3 8,thou shalt not abhor an ,egyptian1 because thou wast a stranger in his land0 7ibid471 although the ,egyptians have subsequently oppressed us very much1 as is well-known4 ,see how many moral lessons we have derived from these precepts4 ,the last two precepts do not belong to the seventh class2 but the discussion of the preference due to relatives as regards inheritance led us to speak of the ,egyptians and the ,edomites4 ,,chapter ,,xliii ,the precepts of the eighth class are enumerated in 8the ,section on ,seasons0 7,sefer zemannim74 ,with a few exceptions1 the reasons for all of them are stated in the ,law4 ,the object of ,sabbath is obvious1 and requires no explanation4 ,the rest it affords to man is known2 one-seventh of the life of every man1 whether small or great1 passes thus in comfort1 and in rest from trouble and exertion4 ,this the ,sabbath effects in addition to the perpetuation and confirmation of the grand doctrine of the ,creation4 ,the object of the ,fast of ,atonement is evident4 ,the ,fast creates the sense of repentance2 it is the same day on which the chief of all prophets came down from ,mount ,sinai with the second tables1 and announced to the people the divine pardon of their great sin2 the day was therefore appointed for ever as a day devoted to repentance and true worship of ,god4 ,for this reason all material enjoyment1 all trouble and care for the body1 are interdicted1 no work may be done2 the day must be spent in confession2 every one shall confess his sins and abandon them4 ,other holy days are appointed for rejoicing and for such pleasant gathering as people generally need4 ,they also promote the good feeling that men should have to each other in their social and political relations4 ,the appointment of the special days for such purposes has its cause4 ,the reason for the ,passover is well known4 ,it is kept seven days1 because the period of seven days is the unit of time intermediate between a day and a month4 ,it is also known how great is the importance of this period in ,nature1 and in many religious duties4 ,for the ,law always follows ,nature1 and in some respects brings it to perfection2 for ,nature is not capable of designing and thinking1 whilst the ,law is the result of the wisdom and guidance of ,god1 who is the author of the intellect of all rational beings4 ,this1 however1 is not the theme of the present chapter2 let us return to our subject4 ,the ,feast of ,weeks is the anniversary of the ,revelation on ,mount ,sinai4 ,in order to raise the importance of this day1 we count the days that pass since the preceding festival1 just as one who expects his most intimate friend on a certain day counts the days and even the hours4 ,this is the reason why we count the days that pass since the offering of the ,omer1 between the anniversary of our departure from ,egypt and the anniversary of the ,lawgiving4 ,the latter was the aim and object of the exodus from ,egypt1 and thus ,god said1 8,i brought you unto myself0 7,exod4 xix4 #d74 ,as that great revelation took place only on one day1 so we keep its anniversary only one day2 but if the eating of unleavened bread on ,passover were only commanded for one day1 we should not have noticed it1 and its object would not have been manifest4 ,for it frequently happens that we take the same kind of food for two or three days4 ,but by our continuing for a whole period of seven days to eat unleavened bread1 its object becomes clear and evident4 ,new-,year is likewise kept for one day2 for it is a day of repentance on which we are stirred up from our forgetfulness4 ,for this reason the shofar is blown on this day1 as we have shown in ,mishneh-torah4 ,the day is1 as it were1 a preparation for and an introduction to the day of the ,fast1 as is obvious from the national tradition about the days between ,new-,year and the ,day of ,atonement4 ,the ,feast of ,tabernacles1 which is a feast of rejoicing and gladness1 is kept seven days1 in order that the idea of the festival may be more noticeable4 ,the reason why it is kept in the autumn is stated in the ,law1 8,when thou hast gathered in thy labours out of the field0 7,exod4 xxiii4 #af72 that is to say1 when you rest and are free from pressing labours4 ,aristotle1 in the ninth book of his ,ethics1 mentions this as a general custom among the nations4 ,he says3 8,in ancient times the sacrifices and assemblies of the people took place after the ingathering of the corn and the fruit1 as if the sacrifices were offered on account of the harvest40 ,another reason is this--in this season it is possible to dwell in tabernacles1 as there is neither great heat nor troublesome rain4 ,the two festivals1 ,passover and the ,feast of ,tabernacles1 imply also the teaching of certain truths and certain moral lessons4 ,passover teaches us to remember the miracles which ,god wrought in ,egypt1 and to perpetuate their memory2 the ,feast of ,tabernacles reminds us of the miracles wrought in the wilderness4 ,the moral lessons derived from these feasts is this3 man ought to remember his evil days in his days of prosperity4 ,he will thereby be induced to thank ,god repeatedly1 to lead a modest and humble life4 ,we eat1 therefore1 unleavened bread and bitter herbs on ,passover in memory of what has happened unto us1 and leave on ,succoth our houses in order to dwell in tabernacles1 as inhabitants of deserts do that are in want of comfort4 ,we shall thereby remember that this has once been our condition2 comp4 8,i made the children of ,israel to dwell in booths0 7,lev4 xxiii4 #dc72 although we dwell now in elegant houses1 in the best and most fertile land1 by the kindness of ,god1 and because of ,his promises to our forefathers1 ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob1 who were perfect in their opinions and in their conduct4 ,this idea is likewise an important element in our religion2 that whatever good we have received and ever will receive of ,god1 is owing to the merits of the ,patriarchs1 who 8kept the way of the ,lord to do justice and judgment0 7,gen4 xviii4 #ai74 ,we join to the ,feast of ,tabernacles the ,feast of the ,eighth ,day1 in order to complete our rejoicings1 which cannot be perfect in booths1 but in comfortable and well-built houses4 ,as regards the four species the branches of the palm tree1 the citron1 the myrtle1 and the willows of the brook our ,sages gave a reason for their use by way of ,agadic interpretation1 the method of which is well known to those who are acquainted with the style of our ,sages4 ,they use the text of the ,bible only as a kind of poetical language for their own ideas1 and do not intend thereby to give an interpretation of the text4 ,as to the value of these ,midrashic interpretations1 we meet with two different opinions4 ,for some think that the ,midrash contains the real explanation of the text1 whilst others1 finding that it cannot be reconciled with the words quoted1 reject and ridicule it4 ,the former struggle and fight to prove and to confirm such interpretations according to their opinion1 and to keep them as the real meaning of the text2 they consider them in the same light as traditional laws4 ,neither of the two classes understood it1 that our ,sages employ biblical texts merely as poetical expressions1 the meaning of which is dear to every reasonable reader4 ,this style was general in ancient days2 all adopted it in the same way as poets adopt a certain style4 ,our ,sages say1 in reference to the words1 8and a paddle 7yated7 thou shalt have upon thy weapon0 azeneka1 ,deut4 xxiii4 #ad3 ,do not read azeneka1 8thy weapon10 but ozneka1 8thy ear40 ,you are thus told1 that if you hear a person uttering something disgraceful1 put your fingers into your ears4 ,now1 ,i wonder whether those ignorant persons who take the ,midrashic interpretations literally believe that the author of this saying gave it as the true interpretation of the text quoted1 and as the meaning of this precept2 that in truth yated1 8the paddle10 is used for 8the finger10 and azeneka denotes 8thy ear40 ,i cannot think that any person whose intellect is sound can admit this4 ,the author employed the text as a beautiful poetical phrase1 in teaching an excellent moral lesson1 namely this3 ,it is as bad to listen to bad language as it is to use it4 ,this lesson is poetically connected with the above text4 ,in the same sense you must understand the phrase1 8,do not read so1 but so10 wherever it occurs in the ,midrash4 ,i have departed from my subject1 but it was for the purpose of making a remark useful to every intellectual member of the ,rabbanites4 ,i now return to our theme4 ,i believe that the four species are a symbolical expression of our rejoicing that the ,israelites changed the wilderness1 8no place of seed1 or of figs1 or of vines1 or of pomegranates1 or of water to drink0 7,num4 xx4 #e71 with a country full of fruit-trees and rivers4 ,in order to remember this we take the fruit which is the most pleasant of the fruit of the land1 branches which smell best1 most beautiful leaves1 and also the best of herbs1 i4e41 the willows of the brook4 ,these four kinds have also those three purposes3 ,first1 they were plentiful in those days in ,palestine1 so that every one could easily get them4 ,secondly1 they have a good appearance1 they are green2 some of them1 viz41 the citron and the myrtle1 are also excellent as regards their smell1 the branches of the palm-tree and the willow having neither good nor bad smell4 ,thirdly1 they keep fresh and green for seven days1 which is not the case with peaches1 pomegranates1 asparagus1 nuts1 and the like4 ,,chapter ,,xliv ,the precepts of the ninth class are those enumerated in the ,section on ,love4 ,their reason is obvious4 ,the actions prescribed by them serve to remind us continually of ,god1 and of our duty to fear and to love ,him1 to keep all ,his commandments1 and to believe concerning ,god that which every religious person must believe4 ,this class includes the laws of ,prayer1 ,reading of ,shema1 ,grace1 and duties connected with these1 ,blessing of the priests1 ,tefillin1 ,mezuzah1 iit1 acquiring a scroll of the ,law1 and reading in it at certain times4 ,the performance of all these precepts inculcates into our heart useful lessons4 ,all this is clear1 and a further explanation is superfluous1 as being a mere repetition and nothing else4 ,,chapter ,,xlv ,the precepts of the tenth class are those enumerated in the laws on the ,temple 7,hilkot bet ha-beirah71 the laws on the vessels of the temple and on the ministers in the temple ,hilkot kele ha-midash veha-obedim bo4 ,the use of these precepts we have stated in general terms4 ,it is known that idolaters selected the highest possible places on high mountains where to build their temples and to place their images4 ,therefore ,abraham1 our father1 chose ,mount ,moriah1 being the highest mount in that country1 and proclaimed there the ,unity of ,god4 ,he selected the west of the mount as the place toward which he turned during his prayers1 because he thought that the most holy place was in the ,west2 this is the meaning of the saying of our ,sages1 8,the ,shekinah 7the ,glory of ,god7 is in the ,west0 7,b4 ,t4 ,baba ,b #be;a72 and it is distinctly stated in the ,talmud ,yoma that our father ,abraham chose the west side1 the place where the ,most ,holy was built4 ,i believe that he did so because it was then a general rite to worship the sun as a deity4 ,undoubtedly all people turned then to the ,east worshipping the ,sun4 ,abraham turned therefore on ,mount ,moriah to the ,west1 that is1 the site of the ,sanctuary1 and turned his back toward the sun2 and the ,israelites1 when they abandoned their ,god and returned to the early bad principles1 stood 8with their backs toward the ,temple of the ,lord and their faces toward the ,east1 and they worshipped the sun toward the ,east0 7,ezek4 viii4 #af74 ,note this strange fact4 ,i do not doubt that the spot which ,abraham chose in his prophetical spirit1 was known to ,moses our ,teacher1 and to others2 for ,abraham commanded his children that on this place a house of worship should be built4 ,thus the ,targum says distinctly1 8,and ,abraham worshipped and prayed there in that place1 and said before ,god1 #8,here shall coming generations worship the ,lord'0 7,gen4 xxii4 #ad74 ,for three practical reasons the name of the place is not distinctly stated in the ,law1 but indicated in the phrase 8,to the place which the ,lord will choose0 7,deut4 xii4 #aa1 etc474 ,first1 if the nations had learnt that this place was to be the centre of the highest religious truths1 they would occupy it1 or fight about it most perseveringly4 ,secondly1 those who were then in possession of it might destroy and ruin the place with all their might4 ,thirdly1 and chiefly1 every one of the twelve tribes would desire to have this place in its borders and under its control2 this would lead to divisions and discord1 such as were caused by the desire for the priesthood4 ,therefore it was commanded that the ,temple should not be built before the election of a king who would order its erection1 and thus remove the cause of discord4 ,we have explained this in the ,section on ,judges 7ch4 xli474 ,it is known that the heathen in those days built temples to stars1 and set up in those temples the image which they agreed upon to worship2 because it was in some relation to a certain star or to a portion of one of the spheres4 ,we were1 therefore1 commanded to build a temple to the name of ,god1 and to place therein the ark with two tables of stone1 on which there were written the commandments 8,i am the ,lord10 etc41 and 8,thou shalt have no other ,god before me10 etc4 ,naturally the fundamental belief in prophecy precedes the belief in the ,law1 for without the belief in prophecy there can be no belief in the ,law4 ,but a prophet only receives divine inspiration through the agency of an angel4 ,comp4 8,the angel of the ,lord called0 7,gen4 xxii4 #ae72 8,the angel of the ,lord said unto her0 7ibid4 xvi4 #aa72 and other innumerable instances4 ,even ,moses our ,teacher received his first prophecy through an angel4 8,and an angel of the ,lord appeared to him in the flame of fire0 7,exod4 iii474 ,it is therefore clear that the belief in the existence of angels precedes the belief in prophecy1 and the latter precedes the belief in the ,law4 ,the ,sabeans1 in their ignorance of the existence of ,god1 believed that the spheres with their stars were beings without beginning and without end1 that the images and certain trees1 the ,asherot1 derived certain powers from the spheres1 that they inspired the prophets1 spoke to them in visions1 and told them what was good and what bad4 ,i have explained their theory when speaking of the prophets of the ,ashera4 ,but when the wise men discovered and proved that there was a ,being1 neither itself corporeal nor residing as a force in a corporeal body1 viz41 the true1 one ,god1 and that there existed besides other purely incorporeal beings which ,god endowed with ,his goodness and ,his light1 namely1 the angels1 and that these beings are not included in the sphere and its stars1 it became evident that it was these angels and not the images or ,asherot that charged the prophets4 ,from the preceding remarks it is clear that the belief in the existence of angels is connected with the belief in the ,existence of ,god2 and the belief in ,god and angels leads to the belief in ,prophecy and in the truth of the ,law4 ,in order to firmly establish this creed1 ,god commanded the ,israelites to make over the ark the form of two angels4 ,the belief in the existence of angels is thus inculcated into the minds of the people1 and this belief is in importance next to the belief in ,god's ,existence2 it leads us to believe in ,prophecy and in the ,law1 and opposes idolatry4 ,if there had only been one figure of a cherub1 the people would have been misled and would have mistaken it for ,god's image which was to be worshipped1 in the fashion of the heathen2 or they might have assumed that the angel represented by the figure was also a deity1 and would thus have adopted a ,dualism4 ,by making two cherubim and distinctly declaring 8the ,lord is our ,god1 the ,lord is ,one10 ,moses clearly proclaimed the theory of the existence of a number of angels2 he left no room for the error of considering those figures as deities1 since he declared that ,god is one1 and that ,he is the ,creator of the angels1 who are more than one4 ,a candlestick was then put in front of the curtain1 as a sign of honour and distinction for the ,temple4 ,for a chamber in which a continual light burns1 hidden behind a curtain1 makes a great impression on man1 and the ,law lays great stress on our holding the ,sanctuary in great estimation and regard1 and that at the sight of it we should be filled with humility1 mercy1 and soft-heartedness4 ,this is expressed in the words1 8,and ye shall reverence my sanctuary0 7,lev4 xix4 #cj71 and in order to give these words more weight1 they are closely joined to the command to keep the ,sabbath4 ,the use of the altar for incense and the altar for burnt-offering and their vessels is obvious2 but ,i do not know the object of the table with the bread upon it continually1 and up to this day ,i have not been able to assign any reason to this commandment4 ,the commandment that the stones of the altar shall not be hewn and that no iron tool shall be lifted up upon them 7,deut4 xxvii4 #e71 has been explained by our ,sages as follows3 ,it is not right that the tool that shortens man's life should be lifted up upon that which gives length of life4 ,as an ,agadic explanation this is good2 but the real reason is this3 the heathen used to build their altars with hewn stones2 we ought not to imitate them4 ,for this reason we have to make an altar of earth3 8,thou shalt make unto me an altar of earth0 7,exod4 xx4 #bd72 if it should be impossible to dispense altogether with stones1 they must not be hewn1 but employed in their natural state4 ,thus the ,law also prohibits from worshipping over painted stones 7,lev4 xxvi4 #a71 or from planting any tree near the altar of the ,lord 7,deut4 xvi4 #ba74 ,the object of all these commandments is the same1 namely1 that we shall not employ in the worship of ,god anything which the heathen employed in the worship of their idols4 ,in general terms this is repeated in the following passage3 8,take heed1 that thou inquire not after their gods1 saying1 ,how did these nations serve their gods8 even so will ,i do likewise0 7,deut4 xii4 #cj72 the ,israelites shall not do this1 because--as is expressly added--8every abomination unto the ,lord1 which he hateth1 have they done unto their gods40 ,the mode of worshipping ,peor1 then very general among the heathen1 consisted in uncovering the nakedness4 ,the priests were therefore commanded to make breeches for themselves to cover their nakedness during the service1 and1 besides1 no steps were to lead up to the altar1 8that thy nakedness be not discovered thereon0 7,exod4 xx4 #bc74 ,the ,sanctuary was constantly guarded and surrounded by ,levites as a mark of respect and honour2 and at the same time the layman1 the unclean1 and mourners1 were prevented from entering the ,sanctuary1 as will be explained4 ,among other things that tend to display the greatness and the glory of the ,temple and to inspire us with awe1 is the rule that none shall approach it in a state of drunkenness or uncleanness1 or in a disorderly state1 i4e41 the hair undressed and the garments rent2 and that every one who officiated as priest should first wash his hands and his feet4 ,in order to raise the estimation of the ,temple1 those who ministered therein received great honour2 and the priests and ,levites were therefore distinguished from the rest4 ,it was commanded that the priests should be clothed properly with beautiful and good garments1 8holy garments for glory and for beauty0 7,exod4 xxviii4 #b74 ,a priest that had a blemish was not allowed to officiate2 and not only those that had a blemish were excluded from the service1 but also--according to the ,talmudic interpretation of this precept--those that had an abnormal appearance2 for the multitude does not estimate man by his true form but by the perfection of his bodily limbs and the beauty of his garments1 and the ,temple was to be held in great reverence by all4 ,the ,levites did not sacrifice2 they were not considered as being agents in the atonement of sins1 for it was only the priest who was commanded 8to make atonement for him0 7,lev4 iv4 #bf7 and 8to make atonement for her0 7,lev4 xii4 #h74 ,the duty of the ,levites was the performance of vocal music2 and a ,levite became therefore disabled for service when he lost his voice4 ,the object of the singing is to produce certain emotions2 this object can only be attained by pleasing sounds and melodies accompanied by music1 as was always the case in the ,temple4 ,again1 the priests1 even when fit for service1 and actually officiating in the ,temple1 were not allowed to sit down1 or enter it whenever they liked2 the ,most ,holy was only entered by the high-priest four times on the ,day of ,atonement1 and on no other occasion4 ,the object of all these rules was to raise the estimation of the ,sanctuary in the eyes of the people4 ,since many beasts were daily slaughtered in the holy place1 the flesh cut in pieces and the entrails and the legs burnt and washed1 the smell of the place would undoubtedly have been like the smell of slaughter-houses1 if nothing had been done to counteract it4 ,they were therefore commanded to burn incense there twice every day1 in the morning and in the evening 7,exod4 xxx4 #g1 #h71 in order to give the place and the garments of those who officiated there a pleasant odour4 ,there is a well-known saying of our ,sages1 8,in ,jericho they could smell the incense0 burnt in the ,temple4 ,this provision likewise tended to support the dignity of the ,temple4 ,if there had not been a good smell1 let alone if there had been a stench1 it would have produced in the minds of the people the reverse of respect2 for our heart generally feels elevated in the presence of good odour1 and is attracted by it1 but it abhors and avoids bad smell4 ,the anointing oil 7,exod4 xxx4 #bb-cc7 served a double purpose3 to give the anointed object a good odour1 and to produce the impression that it was something great1 holy1 and distinguished1 and better than other objects of the same species2 it made no difference whether that object was a human being1 a garment1 or a vessel4 ,all this aimed at producing due respect towards the ,sanctuary1 and indirectly fear of ,god4 ,when a person enters the ,temple1 certain emotions are produced in him2 and obstinate hearts are softened and humbled4 ,these plans and indirect means were devised by the ,law1 to soften and humble man's heart at entering the holy place1 in order that he might entrust himself to the sure guidance of ,god's commandments4 ,this is distinctly said in the ,law3 8,and thou shalt eat before the ,lord thy ,god1 in the place which he shall choose to place his name there1 the tithe of thy corn1 of thy wine1 and of thine oil1 and the firstlings of thy herds and of thy flocks2 that thou mayest learn to fear the ,lord thy ,god always0 7,deut4 xiv4 #bc74 ,the object of all these ceremonies is now clear4 ,the reason why we are not allowed to prepare for common use the anointing oil and the incense 7ibid4 ver4 #cb1 #ch7 is obvious2 for when the odour of the oil and incense is perceived only in the ,sanctuary1 the desired effect is great2 besides if it were allowed for every one to prepare the anointing oil1 people might anoint themselves therewith and imagine themselves distinguished2 much disorder and dissension would then follow4 ,it is clear that when the ark was carried on the shoulder1 and was not put on a waggon1 it was done out of respect towards it1 and also to prevent its being damaged in its form and shape2 even the staves were not moved out of the rings1 for this reason4 ,in order that the form of the ephod and the breastplate should not be spoiled1 they were never separated4 ,the garments were also entirely woven and not cut1 in order not to spoil the work of the weaving4 ,those that ministered in the ,temple were strictly prohibited to interfere with each other's work2 for if in public duties and offices1 each one would not have assigned to him his particular task1 general carelessness and neglect would soon be noticed4 ,it is evident that the object of giving different degrees of sanctity to the different places1 to the ,temple mount1 the place between the two walls1 to the ,hall of women1 to the ,hall1 and so on up to the ,most ,holy1 was to raise the respect and reverence of the ,temple in the heart of every one that approached it4 ,we have thus described the reason of all precepts of this class4 ,,chapter ,,xlvi ,the precepts of the eleventh class are enumerated in the ,section on ,divine ,service 7,sefer abodah7 and the ,section on ,sacrifices 7,sefer ha-orbanot74 ,we have described their use in general terms 7chap4 xxxii474 ,i will now proceed to give the reason of each precept separately4 ,scripture tells us1 according to the ,version of ,onkelos1 that the ,egyptians worshipped ,aries1 and therefore abstained from killing sheep1 and held shepherds in contempt4 ,comp4 8,behold we shall sacrifice the abomination of the ,egyptians10 etc4 7,exod4 viii4 #bf72 8,for every shepherd is an abomination to the ,egyptians0 7,gen4 xlvi4 #cd74 ,some sects among the ,sabeans worshipped demons1 and imagined that these assumed the form of goats1 and called them therefore 8goats0 seirim4 ,this worship was widespread4 ,comp4 8,and they shall no more offer their sacrifices unto demons1 after whom they have gone a whoring0 7,lev4 xvii4 #g74 ,for this reason those sects abstained from eating goats' flesh4 ,most idolaters objected to killing cattle1 holding this species of animals in great estimation4 ,therefore the people of ,hodu ,indians up to this day do not slaughter cattle even in those countries where other animals are slaughtered4 ,in order to eradicate these false principles1 the ,law commands us to offer sacrifices only of these three kinds3 8,ye shall bring your offering of the cattle viz41 of the herd and of the flock0 7,lev4 i4 #b74 ,thus the very act which is considered by the heathen as the greatest crime1 is the means of approaching ,god1 and obtaining ,his pardon for our sins4 ,in this manner1 evil principles1 the diseases of the human soul1 are cured by other principles which are diametrically opposite4 ,this is also the reason why we were commanded to kill a lamb on ,passover1 and to sprinkle the blood thereof outside on the gates4 ,we had to free ourselves of evil doctrines and to proclaim the opposite1 viz41 that the very act which was then considered as being the cause of death would be the cause of deliverance from death4 ,comp4 8,and the ,lord will pass over the door1 and will not suffer the destroyer to come unto your houses to smite you0 7,exod4 xii4 #bc74 ,thus they were rewarded for performing openly a service every part of which was objected to by the idolaters4 ,to the above reason for the exclusive selection of the three kinds of animals for sacrifices1 we may add the following1 namely1 that these species are animals which can be got very easily1 contrary to the practice of idolaters that sacrifice lions1 bears1 and wild beasts1 as is stated in the book ,tomtom4 ,as1 however1 many could not afford to offer a beast1 the ,law commanded that birds also should be sacrificed1 but only of those species which are found abundantly in ,palestine1 are suitable1 and can easily be obtained1 namely1 turtle-doves and pigeons4 ,those who are too poor to offer a bird1 may bring bread of any of the kinds then in use3 baked in the oven1 baked in a pan1 or in a frying-pan4 ,if the baking of the bread is too much trouble for a person1 he may bring flour4 ,all this concerns only those who desire to sacrifice2 for we are distinctly told that the omission of the sacrificial service on our part will not be reckoned to us a sin3 8,if thou shalt forbear to vow1 it shall be no sin in thee0 7,deut4 xxiii4 #bb74 ,the idolaters did not offer any other bread but leavened1 and chose sweet things for their sacrifices1 which they seasoned with honey1 as is fully described in the books which ,i named before2 but salt is not mentioned in any of their sacrifices4 ,our ,law therefore forbade us to offer leaven or honey1 and commanded us to have salt in every sacrifice3 8,with all thine offerings thou shalt offer salt0 7,lev4 ii4 #ac74 ,it is further ordained that the offerings must all be perfect and in the best condition1 in order that no one should slight the offering or treat with contempt that which is offered to ,god's name3 8,offer it now unto thy governor2 will he be pleased with thee80 7,mal4 i4 #h74 ,this is the reason why no animal could be brought that was not yet seven days old 7,lev4 xxii4 #bf72 it is imperfect and contemptible1 like an untimely birth4 ,because of their degraded character it was prohibited to bring 8the hire of a harlot and the price of a dog0 7,deut4 xxiii4 #ah7 into the ,sanctuary4 ,in order to bring the offering in the best condition1 we choose the old of the turtle-doves and the young of the pigeons1 the old pigeons being less agreeable4 ,the oblation must likewise be mingled with oil1 and must be of fine flour 7,lev4 ii4 #a71 for in this condition it is good and pleasant4 ,frankincense is prescribed 7ibid47 because its fumes are good in places filled with the odour of burnt flesh4 ,the burnt-offering was flayed 7,lev4 i4 #af71 and its inwards and legs1 although they were entirely burnt1 had to be previously washed 7ibid4 ver4 #i71 in order that due respect should be shown to the sacrifice1 and it should not appear despicable and contemptible4 ,this object is constantly kept in view1 and is often taught1 8,ye say1 ,the table of the ,lord is polluted2 and the fruit thereof1 even his meat1 is contemptible0 7,mal4 i4 #ab74 ,for the same reason no body uncircumcised1 or unclean 7,lev4 xxii4 #d71 was allowed to partake of any offering2 nor could any offering be eaten that had become unclean 7,lev4 vii4 #ai71 or was left till after a certain time 7ibid4 vii4 #ae-ag71 or concerning which an illegal intention had been conceived2 and it had also to be consumed in a particular place4 ,of the burnt-offering1 which is entirely devoted to ,god1 nothing at all was eaten4 ,those sacrifices which are brought for a sin1 viz41 sin-offering and guilt-offering1 must be eaten within the court of the ,sanctuary 7azarah71 and only on the day of their slaughtering and the night following1 whilst peace-offerings1 which are next in sanctity1 being sacrifices of the second degree1 may be eaten in the whole of ,jerusalem1 on the day they have been offered and on the following day1 but not later4 ,after that time the sacrifices would become spoiled1 and be unfit for food4 ,in order that we may respect the sacrifices and all that is devoted to the name of ,god1 we are told that whosoever takes part of a holy thing for common use has committed a trespass1 must bring a sin-offering1 and restore what he has taken with an addition of the fifth part of its value1 although he may have committed the trespass in ignorance4 ,for the same reason animals reserved for holy purposes must not be employed in work2 nor is the shearing of such animals permitted 7,deut4 xv4 #ai74 ,the law concerning the change of a sacrifice must be considered as a preventive2 for if it were permitted to substitute a good animal for a bad one1 people would substitute a bad animal for a good one1 and say that it was better than the original2 it was therefore the rule that1 if any such change had taken place1 both the 8original sacrifice and the exchange thereof should be holy0 7,lev4 xxvii4 #i74 ,when a person redeems a thing devoted by him to the ,sanctuary1 he must likewise add one-fifth 7,lev4 xxvii4 #ac1 #ae72 the reason for this is plain4 ,man is usually selfish1 and is naturally inclined to keep and save his property4 ,he would therefore not take the necessary trouble in the interest of the ,sanctuary2 he would not expose his property sufficiently to the sight of the valuer1 and its true value would not be fixed4 ,therefore the owner had to add one-fifth1 whilst a stranger paid only the exact value4 ,these rules were laid down in order that people should not despise that with which the name of ,god is connected1 and which serves as a means of approaching ,god4 ,the oblation of the priest was entirely burnt 7,lev4 vi4 #af71 because the priest offered up his oblation by himself1 and if he were to offer it1 and at the same time to eat it1 it would appear as if he had not performed any service4 ,for nothing was offered upon the altar of the ordinary oblations of any person except the frankincense and a handful of the flour or cake2 and if1 in addition to the fact that the offering was small1 he who offered it were himself to eat it1 nothing of a sacrificial service would be noticed4 ,it is therefore entirely burnt 7,lev4 vi4 #af74 ,the reason of the particular laws concerning the ,passover lamb is clear4 ,it was eaten roasted by fire 7,exod4 xii4 #h-i7 in one house1 and without breaking the bones thereof 7ibid4 ver4 #df74 ,in the same way as the ,israelites were commanded to eat unleavened bread1 because they could prepare it hastily1 so they were commanded1 for the sake of haste1 to roast the lamb1 because there was not sufficient time to boil it1 or to prepare other food2 even the delay caused by breaking the bones and to extract their marrow was prohibited2 the one principle is laid down for all these rules1 8,ye shall eat it in haste0 7,exod4 xii4 #aa74 ,but when haste is necessary the bones cannot be broken1 nor parts of it sent from house to house2 for the company could not wait with their meal till he returned4 ,such things would lead to laxity and delay1 whilst the object of these rules was to make a show of the hurry and haste1 in order that none should be too late to leave ,egypt with the main body of the people1 and be thus exposed to the attacks and the evil designs of the enemy4 ,these temporary commandments were then made permanent1 in order that we may remember what was done in those days4 8,and thou shalt keep this ordinance in his season from year to year0 7,exod4 xiii4 #aj74 ,each ,passover lamb was only eaten by those who had previously agreed to consume it together1 in order that people should be anxious to procure it1 and should not rely on friends1 relations1 or on chance1 without themselves taking any trouble about it before ,passover4 ,the reason of the prohibition that the uncircumcised should not eat of it 7,exod4 xii4 #dh7 is explained by our ,sages as follows3--,the ,israelites neglected circumcision during their long stay in ,egypt1 in order to make themselves appear like the ,egyptians4 ,when ,god gave them the commandment of the ,passover1 and ordered that no one should kill the ,passover lamb unless he1 his sons1 and all the male persons in his household were circumcised1 that only 8then he could come near and keep it0 7ibid4 xii4 #dh71 all performed this commandment1 and the number of the circumcised being large the blood of the ,passover and that of the circumcision flowed together4 ,the ,prophet ,ezekiel 7xvi4 #f71 referring to this event1 says1 8,when ,i saw thee sprinkled with thine own blood ,i said unto thee1 ,live because of thy two kinds of blood10 i4e41 because of the blood of the ,passover and that of the circumcision4 ,although blood was very unclean in the eyes of the ,sabeans1 they nevertheless partook of it1 because they thought it was the food of the spirits2 by eating it man has something in common with the spirits1 which join him and tell him future events1 according to the notion which people generally have of spirits4 ,there were1 however1 people who objected to eating blood1 as a thing naturally disliked by man2 they killed a beast1 received the blood in a vessel or in a pot1 and ate of the flesh of that beast1 whilst sitting round the blood4 ,they imagined that in this manner the spirits would come to partake of the blood which was their food1 whilst the idolaters were eating the flesh2 that love1 brotherhood1 and friendship with the spirits were established1 because they dined with the latter at one place and at the same time2 that the spirits would appear to them in dreams1 inform them of coming events1 and be favourable to them4 ,such ideas people liked and accepted in those days2 they were general1 and their correctness was not doubted by any one of the common people4 ,the ,law1 which is perfect in the eyes of those who know it1 and seeks to cure mankind of these lasting diseases1 forbade the eating of blood1 and emphasized the prohibition exactly in the same terms as it emphasizes idolatry3 8,i will set my face against that soul that eateth blood0 7,lev4 xvii4 #aj74 ,the same language is employed in reference to him 8who giveth of his seed unto ,molech02 8then ,i will set my face against that man0 7ibid4 xx4 #e74 ,there is1 besides idolatry and eating blood1 no other sin in reference to which these words are used4 ,for the eating of blood leads to a kind of idolatry1 to the worship of spirits4 ,our ,law declared the blood as pure1 and made it the means of purifying other objects by its touch4 8,and thou shalt take of the blood 444 and sprinkle it upon ,aaron1 and upon his garments1 and upon his sons1 and upon the garments of his sons with him4 ,and he shall be hallowed1 and his garments1 and his sons10 etc4 7,exod4 xxix4 #ba74 ,furthermore1 the blood was sprinkled upon the altar1 and in the whole service it was insisted upon pouring it out1 and not upon collecting it4 ,comp4 8,and he shall pour out all the blood at the bottom of the altar0 7,lev4 iv4 #ah72 8,and the blood of thy sacrifices shall be poured out upon the altar of the ,lord thy ,god0 7,deut4 xii4 #bg74 ,also the blood of those beasts that were killed for common use1 and not for sacrifices1 must be poured out1 8,thou shalt pour it upon the earth as water0 7ibid4 ver4 #bd74 ,we are not allowed to gather and have a meal round the blood1 8,you shall not eat round the blood0 7,lev4 xix4 #bf74 ,as the ,israelites were inclined to continue their rebellious conduct1 to follow the doctrines in which they had been brought up1 and which were then general1 and to assemble round the blood in order to eat there and to meet the spirits1 ,god forbade the ,israelites to eat ordinary meat during their stay in the wilderness2 they could only partake of the meat of peace-offerings4 ,the reason of this precept is distinctly stated1 viz41 that the blood shall be poured out upon the altar1 and the people do not assemble round about4 ,comp4 8,to the end that the children of ,israel may bring their sacrifices1 which they offer in the open field1 even that they may bring them unto the ,lord4444 ,and the priest shall sprinkle the blood upon the altar1 444 and they shall no more offer their sacrifices unto the spirits0 7,lev4 xvii4 #e-g74 ,now there remained to provide for the slaughtering of the beasts of the field and birds1 because those beasts were never sacrificed1 and birds did never serve as peace-offerings 7,lev4 iii474 ,the commandment was therefore given that whenever a beast or a bird that may be eaten is killed1 the blood thereof must be covered with earth 7,lev4 xvii4 #ac71 in order that the people should not assemble round the blood for the purpose of eating there4 ,the object was thus fully gained to break the connexion between these fools and their spirits4 ,this belief flourished about the time of our ,teacher ,moses4 ,people were attracted and misled by it4 ,we find it in the ,song of ,moses 7,deut4 xxxii473 8,they sacrificed unto spirits1 not to ,god0 7ibid4 #ag74 ,according to the explanation of our ,sages1 the words lo eloha imply the following idea3 ,they have not only not left off worshipping things in existence2 they even worship imaginary things4 ,this is expressed in ,sifri as follows3 8,it is not enough for them to worship the sun1 the moon1 the stars2 they even worship their babuah40 ,the word babuah signifies 8shadow40 ,let us now return to our subject4 ,the prohibition of slaughtering cattle for common use applied only to the wilderness1 because as regards the 8spirits0 it was then the general belief that they dwelt in deserts1 that there they spoke and were visible1 whilst in towns and in cultivated land they did not appear4 ,in accordance with this belief those inhabitants of a town who wanted to perform any of those stupid practices1 left the town and went to woods and waste places4 ,the use of cattle for common food was therefore allowed when the ,israelites entered ,palestine4 ,besides1 there were great hopes that the disease would become weakened1 and the followers of the doctrines would decrease4 ,furthermore1 it was almost impossible that every one who wanted to eat meat should come to ,jerusalem4 ,for these reasons the above restriction was limited to the stay of the ,israelites in the wilderness4 ,the greater the sin which a person had committed1 the lower was the species from which the sin-offering was brought4 ,the offering for worshipping idols in ignorance was only a she-goat1 whilst for other sins an ordinary person brought either a ewe-lamb or a she-goat 7,lev4 iv4 #bg-ce71 the females bring1 as a rule1 in every species1 inferior to the males4 ,there is no greater sin than idolatry1 and also no inferior species than a she-goat4 ,the offering of a king for sins committed ignorantly was a he-goat 7ibid4 vers4 #bb-bf71 as a mark of distinction4 ,the high priest and the ,synhedrion1 who only gave a wrong decision in ignorance1 but have not actually committed a sin1 brought a bull for their sin-offering 7ibid4 ver4 #c-ba71 or a he-goat1 when the decision referred to idolatry 7,num4 xv4 #bb-bf74 ,the sins for which guilt-offerings were brought were not as bad as transgressions that required a sin-offering4 ,the guilt-offering was therefore a ram1 or a lamb1 so that the species as well as the sex were superior in this latter case1 for the guilt-offering was a male sheep4 ,for the same reason we see the burnt-offering1 which was entirely burnt upon the altar1 was selected from the superior sex2 for only male animals were admitted as burnt-offerings4 ,it is in accordance with the same principle that luxury and incense were absent from the oblations of a sinner 7,lev4 v4 #aa71 and of a sotah1 i4e41 a woman suspected of adultery 7,num4 v4 #ae74 ,in these cases the oil and the frankincense were not added2 this luxury was absent1 because the persons that brought the oblation were not good and proper in their deeds1 and they are1 as it were1 to be reminded by their offerings that they ought to repent2 as if they were told1 8,your offering is without any ornamental addition on account of the wickedness of your deeds40 ,as the sotah acted more disgracefully than any person who sins in ignorance1 her offering consisted of the lowest kind1 viz41 of barley flour 7ibid474 ,thus the reasons of all these particular laws are well connected1 and show that the precepts are wonderful in their significance4 ,our ,sages say that the offering for the eighth day of dedication was 8a calf1 a young bullock1 for a sin-offering0 7,lev4 xi4 #b71 in order to atone for the sin of the ,israelites in making a golden calf4 ,the sin-offering1 which was brought on the ,day of ,atonement 7ibid4 xvi4 #c71 was likewise explained as being an atonement for that sin4 ,from this argument of our ,sages ,i deduce that he-goats were always brought as sin-offerings1 by individual persons and also by the whole congregation1 viz41 on the ,festivals1 ,new-moon1 ,day of ,atonement1 and for idolatry1 because most of the transgressions and sins of the ,israelites were sacrifices to spirits 7seirim1 lit41 goats71 as is clearly stated1 8,they shall no more offer their sacrifices unto spirits0 7,lev4 xvii4 #g74 ,our ,sages1 however1 explained the fact that goats were always the sin-offerings of the congregation1 as an allusion to the sin of the whole congregation of ,israel2 for in the account of the selling of the pious ,joseph we read1 8,and they killed a kid of the goats0 7,gen4 xxxvii4 #ca74 ,do not consider this as a weak argument2 for it is the object of all these ceremonies to impress on the mind of every sinner and transgressor the necessity of continually remembering and mentioning his sins4 ,thus the ,psalmist says1 8,and my sin is ever before me0 7,ps4 li4 #c74 ,the above-mentioned sin-offerings further show us that when we commit a sin1 we1 our children1 and the children of our children1 require atonement for that sin by some kind of service analogous to the sin committed4 ,if a person has sinned in respect to property he must liberally spend his property in the service of ,god2 if he indulged in sinful bodily enjoyments he must weary his body and trouble it by a service of privation and fasting1 and rising early before daybreak4 ,if he went astray in respect to his moral conduct he must oppose his failings by keeping to the opposite extreme1 as we have pointed out in ,mishneh-torah ,hilkot ,deot 7chap4 ii47 et passim4 ,if his intellectual faculties have been concerned in the sin1 if he has believed something false on account of the insufficiency of his intellect1 and his neglect of research and proper study1 he must remedy his fault by turning his thoughts entirely away from worldly affairs1 and directing them exclusively to intellectual exercise1 and by carefully reflecting on that which ought to form the subject of his belief4 ,comp4 8,and my heart hath been secretly enticed1 but my hand touched my mouth0 7,job xxxi4 #bg74 ,these words express figuratively the lesson that we should pause and stop at that which appears doubtful1 as has been pointed out by us in the beginning of this treatise4 ,the same we notice in the case of ,aaron4 ,he had his share in the sin of the golden calf1 and therefore a bullock and a calf were brought by him and his successors as an offering4 ,similarly1 the sin connected with a kid of goats was atoned for by a kid of goats4 ,when this theory has been well established in the minds of the people1 they must certainly be led by it to consider disobedience to ,god as a disgraceful thing4 ,every one will then be careful that he should not sin1 and require a protracted and burdensome atonement2 he will be afraid he might not be able to complete it1 and will therefore altogether abstain from sinning1 and avoid it4 ,this object of the laws under discussion is very clear1 and note it likewise4 ,i will here call your attention to a very remarkable thing1 although it does not seem at first thought to belong to our subject4 ,it is only the goat brought on ,new-moon as a sin-offering that the law calls 8a sin-offering unto the ,lord0 7,num4 xxviii4 #ae74 ,the sin-offerings brought on the three festivals 7ibid4 vers4 #bb1 #cj2 xxix4 #e1 #aa1 etc47 are not called so1 nor are any other sin-offerings4 ,the reason thereof is1 according to my opinion1 undoubtedly this3 ,the additional offerings brought by the congregation at certain periods were all burnt-offerings2 only 8one kid of goats to make an atonement0 was offered on every one of these exceptional days4 ,the latter was eaten by the priests1 whilst the burnt-offerings were entirely consumed by fire1 and are called 8an offering made by fire unto the ,lord40 ,the phrases 8a sin-offering unto the ,lord0 and 8a peace-offering unto the ,lord0 do not occur in the law1 because these were eaten by man2 but even those sin-offerings that were entirely burnt 7,lev4 iv4 #ab1 #ba7 cannot be called 8an offering made by fire unto the ,lord10 as will be explained in the course of this chapter4 ,it is therefore impossible that the goats which are eaten by the priests1 and are not entirely burnt1 should be called 8sin-offerings unto the ,lord40 ,but as it was found that the kid offered on ,new-moon might be mistaken as an offering brought to the moon1 in the manner of the ,egyptians1 who sacrificed to the moon on the days of ,new-moon1 it was distinctly stated that this goat is offered in obedience to ,god's command1 and not in honour of the moon4 ,this fear did not apply to the sin-offerings on the ,festivals1 nor to any other sin-offering1 because they were not offered on the days of ,new-moon1 or on any other day marked out by ,nature1 but on such days as were selected by the ,divine ,will4 ,not so the days of ,new-moon2 they are not fixed by the ,law but by ,nature4 ,on the ,new-moon the idolaters sacrificed to the moon1 in the same manner as they sacrificed to the sun when it rose and set in certain particular degrees4 ,this is described in the works mentioned above4 ,on this account the extraordinary phrase 8,a sin-offering unto the ,lord0 is exceptionally introduced in reference to the goat brought on ,new-moon1 in order to remove the idolatrous ideas that were still lingering in the sorely diseased hearts4 ,note this exception likewise4 ,a sin-offering which is brought in the hope to atone for one or more great sins1 as1 e4g41 the sin-offering of the ,synhedrion or the high-priest for a sin committed in ignorance1 and the like1 are not burnt upon the altar1 but without the camp2 upon the altar only the burnt-offering1 and the like1 are burnt1 wherefore it was called the altar of the burnt-offering4 ,the burning of the holocaust1 and of every 8memorial10 is called 8a sweet savour unto the ,lord02 and so it undoubtedly is1 since it serves to remove idolatrous doctrines from our hearts1 as we have shown4 ,but the burning of these sin-offerings is a symbol that the sin for which the offering it brought is utterly removed and destroyed1 like the body that is being burnt2 of the sinful seed no trace shall remain1 as no trace is left of the sin-offering1 which is entirely destroyed by fire2 the smoke thereof is not 8a sweet savour unto the ,lord10 but1 on the contrary1 a smoke despised and abhorred4 ,for this reason the burning took place without the camp4 ,similarly we notice that the oblations of a sotah is called 8an offering of memorial1 bringing iniquity to remembrance0 7,num4 v4 #ae72 it is not a pleasing thing to the ,lord4 ,the goat of the ,day of ,atonement that was sent into the wilderness 7,lev4 xvi4 #bj1 seq47 served as an atonement for all serious transgressions more than any other sin-offering of the congregation4 ,as it thus seemed to carry off all sins1 it was not accepted as an ordinary sacrifice to be slaughtered1 burnt1 or even brought near the ,sanctuary2 it was removed as far as possible1 and sent forth into a waste1 uncultivated1 uninhabited land4 ,there is no doubt that sins cannot be carried like a burden1 and taken off the shoulder of one being to be laid on that of another being4 ,but these ceremonies are of a symbolic character1 and serve to impress men with a certain idea1 and to induce them to repent2 as if to say1 we have freed ourselves of our previous deeds1 have cast them behind our backs1 and removed them from us as far as possible4 ,as regards the offering of wine 7,num4 xv4 #e1 seq471 ,i am at a loss to find a reason why ,god commanded it1 since idolaters brought wine as an offering4 ,but though ,i am unable to give a reason1 another person suggested the following one3 ,meat is the best nourishment for the appetitive faculty1 the source of which is the liver2 wine supports best the vital faculty1 whose centre is the heart2 music is most agreeable to the psychic faculty1 the source of which is in the brain4 ,each one of our faculties approaches ,god with that which it likes best4 ,thus the sacrifice consists of meat1 wine1 and music4 ,the use of keeping festivals is plain4 ,man derives benefit from such assemblies3 the emotions produced renew the attachment to religion2 they lead to friendly and social intercourse among the people4 ,this is especially the object of the commandment to gather the people together on the ,feast of ,tabernacles1 as is plainly stated3 8that they may hear1 and that they may learn and fear the ,lord0 7,deut4 xxxi4 #ab74 ,the same is the object of the rule that the money for the second tithe must be spent by all in one place 7ibid4 xiv4 #bb-bf71 as we have explained 7chap4 xxxix4 p4 #ahd74 ,the fruit of trees in their fourth year1 and the tithe of the cattle1 had to be brought to ,jerusalem4 ,there would therefore be in ,jerusalem the meat of the tithes1 the wine of the fruit of the fourth year1 and the money of the second tithe4 ,plenty of food would always be found there4 ,nothing of the above things could be sold2 nothing could be set aside for another year2 the ,law orders that they should be brought 8year by year0 7,deut4 xiv4 #bb72 the owner was thus compelled to spend part of them in charity4 ,as regards the ,festivals it is especially enjoined3 8,and thou shalt rejoice in thy feast1 thou1 and thy son1 and thy daughter1 and thy man-servant1 and thy maid-servant1 and the ,levite1 the stranger1 and the fatherless1 and the widow0 7ibid4 xvi4 #ad74 ,we have thus explained the reason of every law belonging to this class1 and even many details of the laws4 ,,chapter ,,xlvii ,the precepts of the twelfth class are those which we have enumerated in the section on 8,purity0 7,sefer tohorah74 ,although we have mentioned their use in general1 we will here offer an additional explanation1 and first fully discuss the object of the whole class1 and then show the reason of each single commandment1 as far as we have been able to discover it4 ,i maintain that the ,law which was revealed to ,moses1 our ,teacher1 and which is called by his name1 aims at facilitating the service and lessening the burden1 and if a person complains that certain precepts cause him pain and great trouble1 he cannot have thought of the habits and doctrines that were general in those days4 ,let him consider the difference between a man burning his own son in serving his god1 and our burning a pigeon to the service of our ,god4 ,scripture relates1 8for even their sons and their daughters they burn in the fire to their gods0 7,deut4 xii4 #ca74 ,this was the way in which the heathen worshipped their gods1 and instead of such a sacrifice we have the burning of a pigeon or a handful of flour in our worship4 ,in accordance with this fact1 the ,israelites1 when disobedient1 were rebuked by ,god as follows3 8,o ,my people1 what have ,i done unto thee8 and wherein have ,i wearied thee8 ,testify against me0 7,mic4 vi4 #c74 ,again1 8,have ,i been a wilderness unto ,israel8 a land of darkness8 ,wherefore say my people1 ,we are miserable2 we will come no more unto thee0 7,jer4 ii4 #ca72 that is to say1 ,through which of the commandments has the ,law become burdensome to the ,israelites1 that they renounce it8 ,in the same manner ,god asks the people1 8,what iniquity have your fathers found in me1 that they are gone far from me80 etc4 7ibid4 ii4 #e74 ,all these passages express one and the same idea4 ,this is the great principle which you must never lose sight of4 ,after having stated this principle1 ,i repeat that the object of the ,sanctuary was to create in the hearts of those who enter it certain feelings of awe and reverence1 in accordance with the command1 8,you shall reverence my sanctuary0 7,lev4 xix4 #cj74 ,but when we continually see an object1 however sublime it may be1 our regard for that object will be lessened1 and the impression we have received of it will be weakened4 ,our ,sages1 considering this fact1 said that we should not enter the ,temple whenever we liked1 and pointed to the words3 8,make thy foot rare in the house of thy friend0 7,prov4 xxv4 #ag74 ,for this reason the unclean were not allowed to enter the ,sanctuary1 although there are so many kinds of uncleanliness1 that at a time only a few people are clean4 ,for even if a person does not touch a beast that died of its own accord 7,lev4 xi4 #bg71 he can scarcely avoid touching one of the eight kinds of creeping animals 7ibid4 #bi1 seq471 the dead bodies of which we find at all times in houses1 in food and drink1 and upon which we frequently tread wherever we walk2 and1 if he avoids touching these1 he may touch a woman in her separation 7ibid4 xv4 #ah71 or a male or female that have a running issue 7ibid4 ver4 #a1 seq4 and #be1 seq471 or a leper 7ibid4 xiii4 #df71 or their bed 7ibid4 xv4 #e74 ,escaping these1 he may become unclean by cohabitation with his wife1 or by pollution 7ibid4 #ae71 and even when he has cleansed himself from any of these kinds of uncleanliness1 he cannot enter the ,sanctuary till after sunset2 but not being enabled to enter the ,sanctuary at night time1 although he is clean after sunset1 as may be inferred from ,middot and ,tamid1 he is again1 during the night1 subject to becoming unclean either by cohabiting with his wife or by some other source of uncleanliness1 and may rise in the morning in the same condition as the day before4 ,all this serves to keep people away from the ,sanctuary and to prevent them from entering it whenever they liked4 ,our ,sages1 as is well known1 said1 8,even a clean person may not enter the ,sanctuary for the purpose of performing divine service1 unless he takes previously a bath40 ,by such acts the reverence for the ,sanctuary will continue1 the right impression will be produced which leads man1 as is intended1 to humility4 ,the easier the diffusion of uncleanliness is1 the more difficult and the more retarded is its purification4 ,most easily is uncleanliness communicated by the dead body to those who are under the same roof1 especially to relatives4 ,the purification can only be completed by means of the ashes of the red heifer1 however scarce it may be1 and only in seven days 7,num4 xix4 #aa74 ,the uncleanness caused by a woman having running issue or during her separation is more frequent than that caused by contact with unclean objects2 seven days are therefore required for their purification 7,lev4 xv4 #ai1 #bh71 whilst those that touch them are only unclean one day 7ibid4 vii4 #ah74 ,males or females that are unclean through running issue1 and a woman after childbirth1 must in addition bring a sacrifice1 because their uncleanness occurs less frequently than that of women in their separation4 ,all these cases of uncleanliness1 viz41 running issue of males or females1 menstruations1 leprosy1 dead bodies of human beings1 carcases of beasts and creeping things1 and issue of semen1 are sources of dirt and filth4 ,we have thus shown that the above precepts are very useful in many respects4 ,first1 they keep us at a distance from dirty and filthy objects2 secondly1 they guard the ,sanctuary2 thirdly1 they pay regard to an established custom 7for the ,sabeans submitted to very troublesome restrictions when unclean1 as you will soon hear72 fourthly1 they lightened that burden for us2 for we are not impeded through these laws in our ordinary occupations by the distinction the ,law makes between that which is unclean and that which is clean4 ,for this distinction applies only in reference to the ,sanctuary and the holy objects connected with it2 it does not apply to other cases4 8,she shall touch no hallowed thing1 nor come into the ,sanctuary0 7,lev4 xii4 #d74 ,other persons that do not intend to enter the ,sanctuary or touch any holy thing1 are not guilty of any sin if they remain unclean as long as they like1 and eat1 according to their pleasure1 ordinary food that has been in contact with unclean things4 ,but the practice of the ,sabeans1 even at present general in the ,east1 among the few still left of the ,magi1 was to keep a menstruous woman in a house by herself1 to burn that upon which she treads1 and to consider as unclean every one that speaks with her2 even if a wind passed over her and a clean person1 the latter was unclean in the eyes of the ,sabeans4 ,see the difference between this practice and our rule1 that 8whatever services a wife generally does to her husband1 she may do to him in her separation02 only cohabitation is prohibited during the days of her uncleanness4 ,another custom among the ,sabeans1 which is still widespread1 is this3 whatever is separated from the body1 as hair1 nail1 or blood1 is unclean2 every barber is therefore unclean in their estimation1 because he touches blood and hair2 whenever a person passes a razor over his skin he must take a bath in running water4 ,such burdensome practices were numerous among the ,sabeans1 whilst we apply the laws that distinguish between the unclean and the clean only with regard to hallowed things and to the ,sanctuary4 ,the divine words1 8,and ye shall sanctify yourselves1 and ye shall be holy0 7,lev4 xi4 #dd71 do not refer to these laws at all4 ,according to ,sifra1 they refer to sanctity by obedience to ,god's commandments4 ,the same interpretation is given in ,sifra of the words1 8,ye shall be holy10 i4e4 obedient to ,his commandments 7xix4 #b74 ,hence the transgression of commandments is also called uncleanliness or defilement4 ,this term is especially used of the chief and principal crimes1 which are idolatry1 adultery1 and murder4 ,in reference to idolatry it is said1 8,he hath given of his seed unto ,molech to defile my sanctuary1 and to profane my holy name0 7ibid4 xx4 #c74 ,in reference to adultery we read1 8,defile not ye yourselves in any of these things0 7ibid4 xviii4 #bd71 and 8,defile not the land0 7,num4 xxxv4 #cd7 in reference to murder4 ,it it therefore clear that the term 8defilement0 or uncleanliness is used homonymously of three things3 #a4 ,of man's violation and transgression of that which he is commanded as regards his actions and his opinions4 #b4 ,of dirt and filth2 comp4 8,her filthiness in her skirts0 7,lam4 i4 #i74 #c4 ,of the above-named imaginary defilement such as touching and carrying certain objects1 or being with them under the same roof4 ,in reference to the third kind1 our ,sages said1 ,the words of the ,law are not subject to becoming unclean 7,b4 ,t4 ,ber4 #bb;a74 ,in the same manner the term 8holiness0 is used homonymously of three things corresponding to the three kinds of uncleanness4 ,as uncleanness caused by a dead body could only be removed after seven days1 by means of the ashes of the red heifer1 and the priests had constantly occasion to enter the ,sanctuary1 the ,law exceptionally forbids them to defile themselves by a dead body 7,lev4 xxi4 #a71 except in cases where defilement is necessary1 and the contrary would be unnatural4 ,for it would be unnatural to abstain from approaching the dead body of a parent1 child1 or brother4 ,as it was very necessary that the high-priest should always be in the ,sanctuary1 in accordance with the ,divine command1 8,and it shall always be on his forehead0 7,exod4 xxviii4 #ch71 he was not permitted to defile himself by any dead body whatever1 even of the above-named relatives 7,lev4 xxi4 #aj-ab74 ,women were not engaged in sacrificial service2 the above law consequently does not apply to women2 it is addressed to 8the sons of ,aaron10 and not to 8the daughters of ,aaron40 ,it was1 however1 impossible to assume that none of the ,israelites made a mistake1 by entering the ,sanctuary1 or eating hallowed things in a state of uncleanliness4 ,it was even possible that there were persons who did this knowingly1 since there are wicked people who commit knowingly even the greatest crimes2 for this reason certain sacrifices were commanded as an atonement for the defilement of the ,sanctuary and its hallowed things4 ,they were of different kinds2 some of them atoned for defilement caused ignorantly1 others for defilement caused knowingly4 ,for this purpose were brought the goats on the ,festivals and the ,new-moon days 7,num4 xxviii4 #ae1 #bb1 etc471 and the goat sent away on the ,day of ,atonement 7,lev4 xvi4 #af71 as is explained in its place 7,mishnah ,shebnot1 i4 #d74 ,these sacrifices serve to prevent those who defiled the ,sanctuary of the ,lord knowingly from thinking that they had not done a great wrong2 they should know that they obtained atonement by the sacrifice of the goat1 as the ,law says1 8,that they die not in their uncleanness0 7,lev4 xv4 #ca72 8,that ,aaron may bear the iniquity of the holy things0 7,exod4 xxviii4 #ch74 ,this idea is frequently repeated4 ,the uncleanness through leprosy we have already explained4 ,our ,sages have also clearly stated the meaning thereof4 ,all agree that leprosy is a punishment for slander4 ,the disease begins in the walls of the houses 7,lev4 xiv4 #cc1 seq474 ,if the sinner repents1 the object is attained2 if he remains in his disobedience1 the disease affects his bed and house furniture2 if he still continues to sin1 the leprosy attacks his own garments1 and then his body4 ,this is a miracle received in our nation by tradition1 in the same manner as the effect of the trial of a faithless wife 7,num4 v4 #aa1 seq474 ,the good effect of this belief is evident4 ,leprosy is besides a contagious disease1 and people almost naturally abhor it1 and keep away from it4 ,the purification was effected by cedar-wood1 hyssop1 scarlet thread1 and two birds 7,lev4 xiv4 #d72 their reason is stated in various ,midrashic sayings1 but the explanation does not agree with our theory4 ,i do not know at present the reason of any of these things2 nor why cedar-wood1 hyssop1 and scarlet were used in the sacrifice of the red heifer 7,num4 xix4 #f72 nor why a bundle of hyssop was commanded for the sprinkling of the blood of the ,passover-lamb 7,exod4 xii4 #bb74 ,i cannot find any principle upon which to found an explanation why these particular things have been chosen4 ,the red heifer is called a sin-offering1 because it effects the purification of persons that have become unclean through the dead body of a human being1 and enables them to enter the ,sanctuary and to eat of hallowed things4 ,the idea taught by this law is this3 ,those who have defiled themselves would never be allowed to enter the ,sanctuary1 or to partake of holy things1 were it not for the sacrifice of the red heifer1 by which this sin is removed2 in the same manner as the plate which the high-priest wears on his forehead atones for uncleanness1 and as a similar object is attained by the goats that are burnt4 ,for this reason those were unclean who were engaged in the sacrifice of the heifer or the goats which were burnt1 and even their garments were unclean4 ,the same was the law in the case of the goat that was sent away on the ,day of ,atonement2 for it was believed that it made unclean those who touched it1 because it carried off so many sins4 ,we have now mentioned the reasons for those commandments of this class1 for which we were able to give a satisfactory reason according to our view4 ,,chapter ,,xlviii ,the precepts of the thirteenth class are those which we have enumerated in the 8,laws concerning forbidden food0 7,hilkot maakalot asurot71 8,laws concerning killing animals for food0 7,hilkot sheitah71 and 8,laws concerning vows and ,nazaritism0 7,hilkot nedarim u-nezirot74 ,we have fully and very explicitly discussed the object of this class in this treatise1 and in our ,commentary on the ,sayings of the ,fathers4 ,we will here add a few remarks in reviewing the single commandments which are mentioned there4 ,i maintain that the food which is forbidden by the ,law is unwholesome4 ,there is nothing among the forbidden kinds of food whose injurious character is doubted1 except pork 7,lev4 xi4 #g71 and fat 7ibid4 vii4 #bc74 ,but also in these cases the doubt is not justified4 ,for pork contains more moisture than necessary for human food1 and too much of superfluous matter4 ,the principal reason why the ,law forbids swine's flesh is to be found in the circumstance that its habits and its food are very dirty and loathsome4 ,it has already been pointed out how emphatically the ,law enjoins the removal of the sight of loathsome objects1 even in the field and in the camp2 how much more objectionable is such a sight in towns4 ,but if it were allowed to eat swine's flesh1 the streets and houses would be more dirty than any cesspool1 as may be seen at present in the country of the ,franks4 ,a saying of our ,sages declares3 8,the mouth of a swine is as dirty as dung itself0 7,b4 ,t4 ,ber4 #be;a7 ,the fat of the intestines makes us full1 interrupts our digestion1 and produces cold and thick blood2 it is more fit for fuel than for human food4 ,blood 7,lev4 xvii4 #ab71 and nebelah1 i4e41 the flesh of an animal that died of itself 7,deut4 xiv4 #ba71 are indigestible1 and injurious as food2 ,trefah1 an animal in a diseased state 7,exod4 xxii4 #cj71 is on the way of becoming a nebelah4 ,the characteristics given in the ,law 7,lev4 xi41 and ,deut4 xiv47 of the permitted animals1 viz41 chewing the cud and divided hoofs for cattle1 and fins and scales for fish1 are in themselves neither the cause of the permission when they are present1 nor of the prohibition when they are absent2 but merely signs by which the recommended species of animals can be discerned from those that are forbidden4 ,the reason why the sinew that shrank is prohibited is stated in the ,law 7,gen4 xxxii4 #cc74 ,it is prohibited to cut off a limb of a living animal and eat it1 because such act would produce cruelty1 and develop it2 besides1 the heathen kings used to do it2 it was also a kind of idolatrous worship to cut off a certain limb of a living animal and to eat it4 ,meat boiled in milk is undoubtedly gross food1 and makes overfull2 but ,i think that most probably it is also prohibited because it is somehow connected with idolatry1 forming perhaps part of the service1 or being used on some festival of the heathen4 ,i find a support for this view in the circumstance that the ,law mentions the prohibition twice after the commandment given concerning the festivals 8,three times in the year all thy males shall appear before the ,lord ,god0 7,exod4 xxiii4 #ag1 and xxxiv4 #bc71 as if to say1 8,when you come before me on your festivals1 do not seethe your food in the manner as the heathen used to do40 ,this ,i consider as the best reason for the prohibition2 but as far as ,i have seen the books on ,sabean rites1 nothing is mentioned of this custom4 ,the commandment concerning the killing of animals is necessary1 because the natural food of man consists of vegetables and of the flesh of animals2 the best meat is that of animals permitted to be used as food4 ,no doctor has any doubts about this4 ,since1 therefore1 the desire of procuring good food necessitates the slaying of animals1 the ,law enjoins that the death of the animal should be the easiest4 ,it is not allowed to torment the animal by cutting the throat in a clumsy manner1 by poleaxing1 or by cutting off a limb whilst the animal is alive4 ,it is also prohibited to kill an animal with its young on the same day 7,lev4 xxii4 #bh71 in order that people should be restrained and prevented from killing the two together in such a manner that the young is slain in the sight of the mother2 for the pain of the animals under such circumstances it very great4 ,there is no difference in this case between the pain of man and the pain of other living beings1 since the love and tenderness of the mother for her young ones is not produced by reasoning1 but by imagination1 and this faculty exists not only in man but in most living beings4 ,this law applies only to ox and lamb1 because of the domestic animals used as food these alone are permitted to us1 and in these cases the mother recognises her young4 ,the same reason applies to the law which enjoins that we should let the mother fly away when we take the young4 ,the eggs over which the bird sits1 and the young that are in need of their mother1 are generally unfit for food1 and when the mother is sent away she does not see the taking of her young ones1 and does not feel any pain4 ,in most cases1 however1 this commandment will cause man to leave the whole nest untouched1 because the young or the eggs1 which he is allowed to take1 are1 as a rule1 unfit for food4 ,if the ,law provides that such grief should not be caused to cattle or birds1 how much more careful must we be that we should not cause grief to our fellow-men4 ,when in the ,talmud 7,ber4 p4 #cc;b7 those are blamed who use in their prayer the phrase1 8,thy mercy extendeth to young birds10 it is the expression of the one of the two opinions mentioned by us1 namely1 that the precepts of the ,law have no other reason but the ,divine will4 ,we follow the other opinion4 ,the reason why we cover the blood when we kill animals1 and why we do it only when we kill clean beasts and clean birds1 has already been explained by us 7supra1 chap4 xlvi41 p4 #cfb74 ,in addition to the things prohibited by the ,law1 we are also commanded to observe the prohibitions enjoined by our own vows 7,num4 xxx474 ,if we say1 ,this bread or this meat is forbidden for us1 we are not allowed to partake of that food4 ,the object of that precept is to train us in temperance1 that we should be able to control our appetites for eating and drinking4 ,our ,sages say accordingly1 8,vows are a fence for abstinence40 ,as women are easily provoked to anger1 owing to their greater excitability and the weakness of their mind1 their oaths1 if entirely under their own control1 would cause great grief1 quarrel1 and disorder in the family2 one kind of food would be allowed for the husband1 and forbidden for the wife2 another kind forbidden for the daughter1 and allowed for the mother4 ,therefore the ,law gives the father of the family control over the vows of those dependent on him4 ,a woman that is independent1 and not under the authority of a chief of the family1 is1 as regards vows1 subject to the same laws as men2 ,i mean a woman that has no husband1 or that has no father1 or that is of age1 i4e41 twelve years and six months4 ,the object of ,nazaritism 7,num4 vi47 is obvious4 ,it keeps away from wine that has ruined people in ancient and modern times4 8,many strong men have been slain by it0 7,prov4 xxvii4 #bf74 8,but they also have erred through wine1 444 the priest and the prophet0 7,isa4 xxviii4 #g74 ,in the law about the ,nazarite we notice even the prohibition1 8he shall eat nothing that is made of the vine tree0 7,num4 vi4 #d71 as an additional precaution1 implying the lesson that man must take of wine1 only as much as is absolutely necessary4 ,for he who abstains from drinking it is called 8holy02 his sanctity is made equal to that of the high-priest1 in not being allowed to defile himself even to his father1 to his mother1 and the like4 ,this honour is given him because he abstains from wine4 ,,chapter ,,xlix ,the precepts of the fourteenth class are those which we enumerated in the ,section on ,women1 the ,laws concerning forbidden sexual intercourse1 and cross-breeding of cattle 7,sefer nashim1 ,hilkot issure biah ve-kalee behemah74 ,the law concerning circumcision belongs also to this class4 ,the general purpose of these precepts has already been described by us4 ,we will now proceed to explain them singly4 ,it is well known that man requires friends all his lifetime4 ,aristotle explains this in the ninth book of his ,nikomachean ,ethics4 ,when man is in good health and prosperous1 he enjoys the company of his friends2 in time of trouble he is in need of them2 in old age1 when his body is weak1 he is assisted by them4 ,this love is more frequent and more intense between parents and children1 and among other relations4 ,perfect love1 brotherhood1 and mutual assistance is only found among those near to each other by relationship4 ,the members of a family united by common descent from the same grandfather1 or even from some more distant ancestor1 have towards each other a certain feeling of love1 help each other1 and sympathize with each other4 ,to effect this is one of the chief purposes of the ,law4 ,professional harlots were therefore not tolerated in ,israel 7,deut4 xxiii4 #ah71 because their existence would disturb the above relationship between man and man4 ,their children are strangers to everybody2 no one knows to what family they belong2 nor does any person recognize them as relatives4 ,and this is the greatest misfortune that can befall any child or father4 ,another important object in prohibiting prostitution is to restrain excessive and continual lust2 for lust increases with the variety of its objects4 ,the sight of that to which a person has been accustomed for a long time does not produce such an ardent desire for its enjoyment as is produced by objects new in form and character4 ,another effect of this prohibition is the removal of a cause for strife2 for if the prohibition did not exist1 several persons might by chance come to one woman1 and would naturally quarrel with each other2 they would in many cases kill one another1 or they would kill the woman4 ,this is known to have occurred in days of old1 8,and they assembled themselves by troops in a harlot's house0 7,jer4 v4 #g74 ,in order to prevent these great evils1 and to effect the great boon that all men should know their relationship to each other1 prostitutes 7,deut4 xxiii4 #ag7 were not tolerated1 and sexual intercourse was only permitted when man has chosen a certain female1 and married her openly2 for if it sufficed merely to choose her1 many a person would bring a prostitute into his house at a certain time agreed upon between them1 and say that she was his wife4 ,therefore it is commanded to perform the act of engagement by which he declares that he has chosen her to take her for his wife1 and then to go through the public ceremony of marriage4 ,comp4 8,and ,boaz took ten men10 etc4 7,ruth iv4 #b74 ,it may happen that husband and wife do not agree1 live without love and peace1 and do not enjoy the benefit of a home2 in that case he is permitted to send her away4 ,if he had been allowed to divorce her by a mere word1 or by turning her out of his house1 the wife would wait for some negligence on the part of the husband1 and then come out and say that she was divorced2 or having committed adultery1 she and the adulterer would contend that she had then been divorced4 ,therefore the law is that divorce can only take place by means of a document which can serve as evidence1 8,he shall write her a bill of divorcement0 7,deut4 xxiv4 #a74 ,there are frequently occasions for suspicion of adultery and doubts concerning the conduct of the wife4 ,laws concerning a wife suspected of adultery 7sotah7 are therefore prescribed 7,num4 v472 the effect of which is that the wife1 out of fear of the 8bitter waters10 is most careful to prevent any ill-feeling on the part of her husband against her4 ,even of those that felt quite innocent and safe most were rather willing to lose all their property than to submit to the prescribed treatment2 even death was preferred to the public disgrace of uncovering the head1 undoing the hair1 rending the garments and exposing the heart1 and being led round through the ,sanctuary in the presence of all1 of women and men1 and also in the presence of the members of the ,synhedrion4 ,the fear of this trial keeps away great diseases that ruin the home comfort4 ,as every maiden expects to be married1 her seducer therefore is only ordered to marry her2 for he is undoubtedly the fittest husband for her4 ,he will better heal her wound and redeem her character than any other husband4 ,if1 however1 he is rejected by her or her father1 he must give the dowry 7,exod4 xxii4 #ae74 ,if he uses violence he has to submit to the additional punishment1 8he may not put her away all his days0 7,deut4 xxii4 #bi74 ,the reason of the law concerning marrying the deceased brother's wife is stated in the ,bible 7,deut4 xxv4 #e74 ,it was a custom in force before the ,law was given1 and the ,law perpetuated it4 ,the ceremony of aliah 7ibid4 #f1 seq471 8taking off the shoe10 has been introduced1 because in those days it was considered disgraceful to go through that ceremony1 and in order to avoid the disgrace1 a person might perhaps be induced to marry his deceased brother's wife4 ,this is evident from the words of the ,law3 8,so shall it be done unto that man that will not build up his brother's house4 ,and his name shall be called in ,israel1 ,the house of him that hath his shoe loosed0 7,deut4 xxv4 #i74 ,in the action of ,judah we may perhaps notice an example of a noble conduct1 and uprightness in judgment4 ,he said3 8,let her take it to her1 lest we be shamed2 behold1 ,i sent this kid1 and thou hast not found her0 7,gen4 xxxviii4 #bc74 ,for before the ,lawgiving1 the intercourse with a harlot was as lawful as cohabitation of husband and wife since the ,lawgiving2 it was perfectly permitted1 nobody considered it wrong4 ,the hire which was in those days paid to the harlot in accordance with a previous agreement1 corresponds to the ketubah which in our days the husband pays to his wife when he divorces her4 ,it is a just claim on the part of the wife1 and the husband is bound to pay it4 ,the words of ,judah1 8,let her take it to her1 lest we be shamed10 etc41 show that conversation about sexual intercourse1 even of that which is permitted1 brings shame upon us2 it is proper to be silent about it1 to keep it secret1 even if the silence would lead to loss of money4 ,in this sense ,judah said3 ,it is better for us to lose property1 and to let her keep what she has1 than to make our affair public by inquiring after her1 and bring still more shame upon us4 ,this is the lesson1 as regards conduct1 to be derived from this incident4 ,as to the uprightness to be learned therefrom1 it is contained in the words of ,judah when he wanted to show that he had not robbed her1 that he has not in the least departed from his agreement with her4 ,for he said1 8,behold1 ,i sent this kid1 and thou hast not found her40 ,the kid was probably very good1 therefore he points to it1 saying1 8this kid40 ,this is the uprightness which he had inherited from ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob3 that man must not depart from his given word1 nor deviate from what he agreed upon2 but he must give to others all that is due to them4 ,it makes no difference whether he holds a portion of his neighbour's property as a loan or a trust1 or whether he is in any other way his neighbour's debtor1 owing him wages or the like4 ,the sum which the husband settles upon his wife 7ketubah7 is to be treated in the same way as the wages of a hired servant4 ,there is no difference whether a master withholds the wages of a hired servant1 or deprives his wife of that which is due to her2 whether a master wrongs a hired servant1 and brings charges against him with the intention to send him away without payment1 or a husband treats his wife in a manner that would enable him to send her away without the payment of the promised sum4 ,the equity of the statutes and judgments of the ,law in this regard may be noticed in the treatment of a person accused of spreading an evil report about his wife 7,deut4 xxii4 #ac1 seq474 ,there is no doubt that the man that did this is bad1 does not love his wife1 and is not pleased with her4 ,if he desired to divorce her in a regular manner1 there is nothing to prevent him1 but he would be bound to give her what is due unto her2 but instead of this1 8he gives occasion of speech against her0 7ibid4 xxii4 #ad71 in order to get rid of his wife without paying anything2 he slanders her1 and utters falsehood in order to keep in his possession the fifty shekels of silver1 the dowry fixed in the ,law for maidens1 which he is obliged to pay unto her4 ,he is therefore sentenced to pay one hundred shekels of silver1 in accordance with the principle1 8,whom the judges shall condemn1 he shall pay double unto his neighbour0 7,exod4 xxii4 #i74 ,the ,law is also analogous to that about false witnesses1 which we have explained above 7chap4 xli4 p4 #aie74 ,for he intended to cheat her of her fifty shekels of silver1 he must therefore add fifty1 and pay her a hundred shekels4 ,this is his punishment for withholding from her her due1 and endeavouring to keep it4 ,but in so far as he degraded her1 and spread the rumour that she was guilty of misconduct1 he was also degraded1 and received stripes1 as is implied in the words1 8and they shall chastise him0 7,deut4 xxii4 #ah74 ,but he sinned besides in clinging to lust1 and seeking only that which gave pleasure to him2 he was therefore punished by being compelled to keep his wife always1 8he may not put her away all his days0 7ibid4 #ai72 for he has been brought to all this only because he may have found her ugly4 ,thus are these bad habits cured when they are treated according to the divine ,law2 the ways of equity are never lost sight of2 they are obvious and discernible in every precept of the ,law by those who consider it well4 ,see how1 according to the ,law1 the slanderer of his wife1 who only intended to withhold from her what he is bound to give her1 is treated in the same manner as a thief who has stolen the property of his neighbour2 and the false witness 7,deut4 xix4 #af1 seq47 who schemes to injure1 although the injury was in reality not inflicted1 is punished like those who have actually caused injury and wrong1 viz41 like the thief and the slanderer4 ,the three kinds of sinners are tried and judged by one and the same law4 ,see how wonderful are the divine laws1 and admire ,his wonderful deeds4 ,scripture says3 8,the ,rock1 ,his work is perfect2 for all ,his ways are judgment0 7,deut4 xxxii4 #d71 i4e41 as ,his works are most perfect1 so are ,his laws most equitable2 but our mind is too limited to comprehend the perfection of all ,his works1 or the equity of all ,his laws2 and as we are able to comprehend some of ,his wonderful works in the organs of living beings and the motions of the spheres1 so we understand also the equity of some of ,his laws2 that which is unknown to us of both of them is far more than that which is known to us4 ,i will now return to the theme of the present chapter4 ,the law about forbidden sexual intercourse seeks in all its parts to inculcate the lesson that we ought to limit sexual intercourse altogether1 hold it in contempt1 and only desire it very rarely4 ,the prohibition of pederasty 7,lev4 xviii4 #bb7 and carnal intercourse with beasts 7ibid4 #bc7 is very clear4 ,if in the natural way the act is too base to be performed except when needed1 how much more base is it if performed in an unnatural manner1 and only for the sake of pleasure4 ,the female relatives whom a man may not marry are alike in this respect--that as a rule they are constantly together with him in his house2 they would easily listen to him1 and do what he desires2 they are near at hand1 and he would have no difficulty in procuring them4 ,no judge could blame him if found in their company4 ,if to these relatives the same law applied as to all other unmarried women1 if we were allowed to marry any of them1 and were only precluded from sexual intercourse with them without marriage1 most people would constantly have become guilty of misconduct with them4 ,but as they are entirely forbidden to us1 and sexual intercourse with them is most emphatically denounced unto us as a capital crime1 or a sin punishable with extinction 7karet71 and as there is no means of ever legalizing such intercourse1 there is reason to expect that people will not seek it1 and will not think of it4 ,that the persons included in that prohibition are1 as we have stated1 at hand and easily accessible1 is evident4 ,for as a rule1 the mother of the wife1 the grandmother1 the daughter1 the granddaughter1 and the sister-in-law1 are mostly with her2 the husband meets them always when he goes out1 when he comes in1 and when he is at his work4 ,the wife stays also frequently in the house of her husband's brother1 father1 or son4 ,it is also well known that we are often in the company of our sisters1 our aunts1 and the wife of our uncle1 and are frequently brought up together with them4 ,these are all the relatives which we must not marry4 ,this is one of the reasons why intermarriage with a near relative is forbidden4 ,but according to my opinion the prohibition serves another object1 namely1 to inculcate chastity into our hearts4 ,licence between the root and the branch1 between a man and his mother1 or his daughter1 is outrageous4 ,the intercourse between root and branch is forbidden1 and it makes no difference whether the male element is the root or the branch1 or both root and branch combine in the intercourse with a third person1 so that the same individual cohabits with the root and with the branch4 ,on this account it is prohibited to marry a woman and her mother1 the wife of the father or of the son2 for in all these cases there is the intercourse between one and the same person on the one side and root and branch on the other4 ,the law concerning brothers is like the law concerning root and branch4 ,the sister is forbidden1 and so is also the sister of the wife and the wife of the brother2 because in the latter cases two persons who are considered like root and branch1 cohabit with the same person4 ,but in these prohibitions brothers and sisters are partly considered as root and branch and partly as one body2 the sister of the mother is therefore like the mother1 and the sister of the father like the father1 and both are prohibited2 and since the daughter of the parent's brother or sister is not included in the number of prohibited relatives1 so may we also marry the daughter of the brother or the sister4 ,the apparent anomaly1 that the brother of the father may marry a woman that has been the wife of his brother's son1 whilst the nephew must not marry a woman that has been the wife of his father's brother1 can be explained according to the above-mentioned first reason4 ,for the nephew is frequently in the house of his uncle1 and his conduct towards the wife of his uncle is the same as that towards his brother's wife4 ,the uncle1 however1 is not so frequent in the house of his nephew1 and he is consequently less intimate with the wife of his nephew2 whilst in the case of father and son1 the familiarity of the father with his daughter-in-law is the same at that of the son with the wife of his father1 and therefore the law and punishment is the same for both father and son4 ,the reason why it is prohibited to cohabit with a menstruous woman 7,lev4 xviii4 #ai7 or with another man's wife 7ibid4 #bj71 is obvious1 and requires no further explanation4 ,it is well known that we must not indulge in any sensual enjoyment whatever with the persons included in the above prohibitions2 we must not even look at them if we intend to derive pleasure therefrom4 ,we have explained this in 8the laws about forbidden sexual intercourse0 7,hilkot issure bah1 xxi4 #a-b71 and shown that according to the ,law we must not even engage our thoughts with the act of cohabitation 7ibid4 #ai7 or irritate the organ of generation2 and when we find ourselves unintentionally in a state of irritation1 we must turn our mind to other thoughts1 and reflect on some other thing till we are relieved4 ,our ,sages 7,b4,t4 ,kidd #cj;b71 in their moral lessons1 which give perfection to the virtuous1 say as follows3 8,my son1 if that monster meets you1 drag it to the house of study4 ,it will melt if it is of iron2 it will break in pieces if it is of stone3 as is said in ,scripture1 #8,is not my word like a fire8 saith the ,lord1 and like a hammer that breaketh the rock in pieces8'0 7,jer4 xxiii4 #bi74 ,the author of this saying thus exhorts his son to go to the house of study when he finds his organ of generation in an irritated state4 ,by reading1 disputing1 asking1 and listening to questions1 the irritation will certainly cease4 ,see how properly the term monster is employed1 for that irritation is indeed like a monster4 ,not only religion teaches this lesson1 the philosophers teach the same4 ,i have already quoted verbatim the words of ,aristotle4 ,he says3 8,the sense of touch which is a disgrace to us1 leads us to indulge in eating and sensuality10 etc4 ,he calls people degraded who seek carnal pleasures and devote themselves to gastronomy2 he denounces in extenso their low and objectionable conduct1 and ridicules them4 ,this passage occurs in his ,ethics and in his ,rhetoric4 ,in accordance with this excellent principle1 which we ought strictly to follow1 our ,sages teach us that we ought not to look at beasts or birds in the moment of their copulation4 ,according to my opinion1 this is the reason why the cross-breeding of cattle is prohibited 7,lev4 xix4 #ai74 ,it is a fact that animals of different species do not copulate together1 unless by force4 ,it is well known that the low class of breeders of mules are regularly engaged in this work4 ,our ,law objected to it that any ,israelite should degrade himself by doing these things1 which require so much vulgarity and indecency1 and doing that which religion forbids us even to mention1 how much more to witness or to practise1 except when necessary4 ,cross-breeding1 however1 is not necessary4 ,i think that the prohibition to bring together two species in any kind of work1 as included in the words1 8,thou shalt not plow with an ox and an ass together0 7,deut4 xxii4 #aj71 is only a preventive against the intercourse of two species4 ,for if it were allowed to join such together in any work1 we might sometimes also cause their intercourse4 ,that this is the reason of the commandment is proved by the fact that it applies to other animals besides ox and ass2 it is prohibited to plow not only with ox and ass together1 but with any two kinds4 ,but ,scripture mentions as an instance that which is of regular occurrence4 ,as regards circumcision1 ,i think that one of its objects is to limit sexual intercourse1 and to weaken the organ of generation as far as possible1 and thus cause man to be moderate4 ,some people believe that circumcision is to remove a defect in man's formation2 but every one can easily reply3 ,how can products of nature be deficient so as to require external completion1 especially as the use of the fore-skin to that organ is evident4 ,this commandment has not been enjoined as a complement to a deficient physical creation1 but as a means for perfecting man's moral shortcomings4 ,the bodily injury caused to that organ is exactly that which is desired2 it does not interrupt any vital function1 nor does it destroy the power of generation4 ,circumcision simply counteracts excessive lust2 for there is no doubt that circumcision weakens the power of sexual excitement1 and sometimes lessens the natural enjoyment2 the organ necessarily becomes weak when it loses blood and is deprived of its covering from the beginning4 ,our ,sages 7,beresh4 ,rabba1 c4 #hj7 say distinctly3 ,it is hard for a woman1 with whom an uncircumcised had sexual intercourse1 to separate from him4 ,this is1 as ,i believe1 the best reason for the commandment concerning circumcision4 ,and who was the first to perform this commandment8 ,abraham1 our father6 of whom it is well known how he feared sin2 it is described by our ,sages in reference to the words1 8,behold1 now ,i know that thou art a fair woman to look upon0 7,gen4 xii4 #aa74 ,there is1 however1 another important object in this commandment4 ,it gives to all members of the same faith1 i4e41 to all believers in the ,unity of ,god1 a common bodily sign1 so that it is impossible for any one that is a stranger1 to say that he belongs to them4 ,for sometimes people say so for the purpose of obtaining some advantage1 or in order to make some attack upon the ,jews4 ,no one1 however1 should circumcise himself or his son for any other reason but pure faith2 for circumcision is not like an incision on the leg1 or a burning in the arm1 but a very difficult operation4 ,it is also a fact that there is much mutual love and assistance among people that are united by the same sign when they consider it as the symbol of a covenant4 ,circumcision is likewise the symbol of the covenant which ,abraham made in connexion with the belief in ,god's ,unity4 ,so also every one that is circumcised enters the covenant of ,abraham to believe in the unity of ,god1 in accordance with the words of the ,law1 8,to be a ,god unto thee1 and to thy seed after thee0 7,gen4 xvii4 #g74 ,this purpose of the circumcision is as important as the first1 and perhaps more important4 ,this law can only be kept and perpetuated in its perfection1 if circumcision is performed when the child is very young1 and this for three good reasons4 ,first1 if the operation were postponed till the boy had grown up1 he would perhaps not submit to it4 ,secondly1 the young child has not much pain1 because the skin is tender1 and the imagination weak2 for grown-up persons are in dread and fear of things which they imagine as coming1 some time before these actually occur4 ,thirdly1 when a child is very young1 the parents do not think much of him2 because the image of the child1 that leads the parents to love him1 has not yet taken a firm root in their minds4 ,that image becomes stronger by the continual sight2 it grows with the development of the child1 and later on the image begins again to decrease and to vanish4 ,the parents' love for a new-born child is not so great as it is when the child is one year old2 and when one year old1 it is less loved by them than when six years old4 ,the feeling and love of the father for the child would have led him to neglect the law if he were allowed to wait two or three years1 whilst shortly after birth the image is very weak in the mind of the parent1 especially of the father who is responsible for the execution of this commandment4 ,the circumcision must take place on the eighth day 7,lev4 xii4 #c71 because all living beings are after birth1 within the first seven days1 very weak and exceedingly tender1 as if they were still in the womb of their mother2 not until the eighth day can they be counted among those that enjoy the light of the world4 ,that this is also the case with beasts may be inferred from the words of ,scripture3 8,seven days shall it be under the dam0 7,lev4 xxii4 #bg71 as if it had no vitality before the end of that period4 ,in the same manner man is circumcised after the completion of seven days4 ,the period has been fixed1 and has not been left to everybody's judgment4 ,the precepts of this class include also the lesson that we must not injure in any way the organs of generation in living beings 7ibid4 xxii4 #bd74 ,the lesson is based on the principle of 8righteous statutes and judgment0 7,deut4 iv4 #h72 we must keep in everything the golden mean2 we must not be excessive in love1 but must not suppress it entirely2 for the ,law commands1 8,be fruitful1 and multiply0 7,gen4 i4 #bb74 ,the organ is weakened by circumcision1 but not destroyed by the operation4 ,the natural faculty is left in full force1 but is guarded against excess4 ,it it prohibited for an ,israelite 8that is wounded in the stones1 or hath his privy member cut off0 7,deut4 xxiii4 #b71 to marry an ,israelitish woman2 because the sexual intercourse is of no use and of no purpose2 and that marriage would be a source of ruin to her1 and to him who would claim her4 ,this is very clear4 ,in order to create a horror of illicit marriages1 a bastard was not allowed to marry an ,israelitish woman 7ibid4 xxiii4 #c72 the adulterer and the adulteress were thus taught that by their act they bring upon their seed irreparable injury4 ,in every language and in every nation the issue of licentious conduct has a bad name2 the ,law therefore raises the name of the ,israelites by keeping them free from the admixture of bastards4 ,the priests1 who have a higher sanctity1 are not allowed to marry a harlot1 or a woman that is divorced from her husband1 or that is profane 7,lev4 xii4 #g72 the high-priest1 the noblest of the priests1 must not marry even a widow1 or a woman that has had sexual intercourse of any kind 7ibid4 xii4 #ad74 ,of all these laws the reason is obvious4 ,if bastards were prohibited to marry any member of the congregation of the ,lord1 how much more rigidly had slaves and handmaids to be excluded4 ,the reason of the prohibition of intermarriage with other nations is stated in the ,law3 8,and thou take of their daughters unto thy sons1 and their daughters go a whoring after their gods1 and make thy sons go a whoring after their gods0 7,exod4 xxxiv4 #af74 ,most of the 8statutes0 7ukkim71 the reason of which is unknown to us1 serve as a fence against idolatry4 ,that ,i cannot explain some details of the above laws or show their use is owing to the fact that what we hear from others is not so clear as that which we see with our own eyes4 ,thus my knowledge of the ,sabean doctrines1 which ,i derived from books1 is not as complete as the knowledge of those who have witnessed the public practice of those idolatrous customs1 especially as they have been out of practice and entirely extinct since two thousand years4 ,if we knew all the particulars of the ,sabean worship1 and were informed of all the details of those doctrines1 we would clearly see the reason and wisdom of every detail in the sacrificial service1 in the laws concerning things that are unclean1 and in other laws1 the object of which ,i am unable to state4 ,i have no doubt that all these laws served to blot out wrong principles from man's heart1 and to exterminate the practices which are useless1 and merely a waste of time in vain and purposeless things4 ,those principles have turned the mind of the people away from intellectual research and useful actions4 ,our prophets therefore describe the ways of the idolaters as follows3 87,they go7 after vain things which cannot profit nor deliver2 for they are vain0 7#a ,sam4 xii4 #ba72 8,surely our fathers have inherited lies1 vanity and things wherein there is no profit0 7,jer4 xvi4 #ai74 ,consider how great the evil consequences of idolatry are1 and say whether we ought with all our power to oppose it or not6 ,most of the precepts serve1 as has been stated by us1 as a mere fence against those doctrines of idolatry1 and relieve man from the great and heavy burdens1 from the pains and inflictions which formed part of the worship of idols4 ,every positive or negative precept1 the reason of which is unknown to thee1 take as a remedy against some of those diseases with which we are unacquainted at present1 thank ,god4 ,this should be the belief of educated men who know the true meaning of the following divine dictum3 8,i said not unto the seed of ,jacob1 ,seek me in vain0 7,isa4 xlv4 #ai74 ,i have now mentioned all the commandments of these fourteen classes one by one1 and pointed out the reason of each of them1 with the exception of a few for which ,i was unable to give the reason1 and of some details of less importance2 but implicitly we have given the reason even of these1 and every intelligent reader will easily find it4 ,the reasons of the ,precepts are now complete4 ,,chapter ,l ,there are in the ,law portions which include deep wisdom1 but have been misunderstood by many persons2 they require1 therefore1 an explanation4 ,i mean the narratives contained in the ,law which many consider as being of no use whatever2 e4g41 the list of the various families descended from ,noah1 with their names and their territories 7,gen4 x472 the sons of ,seir the ,horite 7ibid4 xxxvi4 #bj-cj72 the kings that reigned in ,edom 7ibid4 #ca1 seq472 and the like4 ,there is a saying of our ,sages 7,b4,t4 ,sanh4 #ii;b7 that the wicked king ,manasse frequently held disgraceful meetings for the sole purpose of criticising such passages of the ,law4 8,he held meetings and made blasphemous observations on ,scripture1 saying1 ,had ,moses nothing else to write than1 ,and the sister of ,lotan was ,timna0 7,gen4 xxxvi4 #bb78 ,with reference to such passages1 ,i will first give a general principle1 and then discuss them seriatim1 as ,i have done in the exposition of the reasons of the precepts4 ,every narrative in the ,law serves a certain purpose in connexion with religious teaching4 ,it either helps to establish a principle of faith1 or to regulate our actions1 and to prevent wrong and injustice among men2 and ,i will show this in each case4 ,it is one of the fundamental principles of the ,law that the ,universe has been created ex nihilo1 and that of the human race1 one individual being1 ,adam1 was created4 ,as the time which elapsed from ,adam to ,moses was not more than about two thousand five hundred years1 people would have doubted the truth of that statement if no other information had been added1 seeing that the human race was spread over all parts of the earth in different families and with different languages1 very unlike the one to the other4 ,in order to remove this doubt the ,law gives the genealogy of the nations 7,gen4 v4 and x471 and the manner how they branched off from a common root4 ,it names those of them who were well known1 and tells who their fathers were1 how long and where they lived4 ,it describes also the cause that led to the dispersion of men over all parts of the earth1 and to the formation of their different languages1 after they had lived for a long time in one place1 and spoken one language 7ibid4 xi471 as would be natural for descendants of one person4 ,the accounts of the flood 7ibid4 vi4-viii47 and of the destruction of ,sodom and ,gomorrah 7ibid4 xix471 serve as an illustration of the doctrine that 8,verily there is a reward for the righteous2 verily ,he is a ,god that judgeth in the earth0 7,ps4 lviii4 #ab74 ,the narration of the war among the nine kings 7ibid4 xiv47 shows how1 by means of a miracle1 ,abraham1 with a few undisciplined men1 defeated four mighty kings4 ,it illustrates at the same time how ,abraham sympathized with his relative1 who had been brought up in the same faith1 and how he exposed himself to the dangers of warfare in order to save him4 ,we further learn from this narrative how contented and satisfied ,abraham was1 thinking little of property1 and very much of good deeds2 he said1 8,i will not take from a thread even to a shoe-latchet0 7,gen4 xiv4 #bc74 ,the list of the families of ,seir and their genealogy is given in the ,law 7ibid4 xxxvi4 #bj-cj71 because of one particular commandment4 ,for ,god distinctly commanded the ,israelites concerning ,amalek to blot out his name 7,deut4 xxv4 #ag-ai74 ,amalek was the son of ,eliphas and ,timna1 the sister of ,lotan 7ibid4 xxxvi4 #ab74 ,the other sons of ,esau were not included in this commandment4 ,but ,esau was by marriage connected with the ,seirites1 as is distinctly stated in ,scripture2 and ,seirites were therefore his children2 he reigned over them2 his seed was mixed with the seed of ,seir1 and ultimately all the countries and families of ,seir were called after the sons of ,esau who were the predominant family1 and they assumed more particularly the name ,amalekites1 because these were the strongest in that family4 ,if the genealogy of these families of ,seir had not been described in full they would all have been killed1 contrary to the plain words of the commandment4 ,for this reason the ,seirite families are fully described1 as if to say1 the people that live in ,seir and in the kingdom of ,amalek are not all ,amalekites2 they are the descendants of some other man1 and are called ,amalekites because the mother of ,amalek was of their tribe4 ,the justice of ,god thus prevented the destruction of an innocent people that lived in the midst of another people doomed to extirpation2 for the decree was only pronounced against the seed of ,amalek4 ,the reason of this decree has already been stated by us 7p4 #bje74 ,the kings that have reigned in the land of ,edom are enumerated 7,gen xxxvi4 #ca1 seq47 on account of the law1 8,thou mayst not set a stranger over thee1 which is not thy brother0 7,deut4 xvii4 #ae74 ,for of these kings none was an ,edomite2 wherefore each king is described by his native land2 one king from this place1 another king from that place4 ,now ,i think that it was then well known how these kings that reigned in ,edom conducted themselves1 what they did1 and how they humiliated and oppressed the sons of ,esau4 ,thus ,god reminded the ,israelites of the fate of the ,edomites1 as if saying unto them1 ,look unto your brothers1 the sons of ,esau1 whose kings were so and so1 and whose deeds are well known4 ,learn therefrom that no nation ever chose a foreigner as king without inflicting thereby some great or small injury upon the country4 ,in short1 what ,i remarked in reference to our ignorance of the ,sabean worship1 applies also to the history of those days4 ,if the religious rules of the ,sabeans and the events of those days were known to us1 we should be able to see plainly the reason for most of the things mentioned in the ,pentateuch4 ,it is also necessary to note the following observations4 ,the view we take of things described by others is different from the view we take of things seen by us as eye-witnesses4 ,for that which we see contains many details which are essential1 and must be fully described4 ,the reader of the description believes that it contains superfluous matter1 or useless repetition1 but if he had witnessed the event of which he reads1 he would see the necessity of every part of the description4 ,when we therefore notice narratives in the ,torah1 which are in no connexion with any of the commandments1 we are inclined to think that they are entirely superfluous1 or too lengthy1 or contain repetitions2 but this is only because we do not see the particular incidents which make those narratives noteworthy4 ,of this kind is the enumeration of the stations of the ,israelites in the wilderness 7,num4 xxxiii474 ,at first sight it appears to be entirely useless2 but in order to obviate such a notion ,scripture says1 8,and ,moses wrote their goings out according to their journeys by the commandment of the ,lord0 7ibid4 ver4 #b74 ,it was indeed most necessary that these should be written4 ,for miracles are only convincing to those who witnessed them2 whilst coming generations1 who know them only from the account given by others1 may consider them as untrue4 ,but miracles cannot continue and last for all generations2 it is even inconceivable that they should be permanent4 ,now the greatest of the miracles described in the ,law is the stay of the ,israelites in the wilderness for forty years1 with a daily supply of manna4 ,this wilderness1 as described in ,scripture1 consisted of places 8wherein were fiery serpents and scorpions1 and drought1 where there was no water0 7,deut4 viii4 #ae72 places very remote from cultivated land1 and naturally not adapted for the habitation of man1 8,it is no place of seed1 or of figs1 or of vines1 or of pomegranates1 neither is there any water to drink0 7,num4 xx4 #e72 8,a land that no man passed through1 and where no man dwelt0 7,jer4 ii4 #f74 ,in reference to the stay of the ,israelites in the wilderness1 ,scripture relates1 8,ye have not eaten bread1 neither have ye drunk wine or strong drink0 7,deut4 xix4 #e74 ,all these miracles were wonderful1 public1 and witnessed by the people4 ,but ,god knew that in future people might doubt the correctness of the account of these miracles1 in the same manner as they doubt the accuracy of other narratives2 they might think that the ,israelites stayed in the wilderness in a place not far from inhabited land1 where it was possible for man to live in the ordinary way2 that it was like those deserts in which ,arabs live at present2 or that they dwelt in such places in which they could plow1 sow1 and reap1 or live on some vegetable that was growing there2 or that manna came always down in those places as an ordinary natural product2 or that there were wells of water in those places4 ,in order to remove all these doubts and to firmly establish the accuracy of the account of these miracles1 ,scripture enumerates all the stations1 so that coming generations may see them1 and learn the greatness of the miracle which enabled human beings to live in those places forty years4 ,for this very reason ,joshua cursed him who would ever build up ,jericho 7,josh4 vi4 #bf72 the effect of the miracle was to remain for ever1 so that any one who would see the wall sunk in the ground would understand that it was not in the condition of a building pulled down by human hands1 but sunk through a miracle4 ,in a similar manner the words1 8,at the commandment of the ,lord the children of ,israel journeyed1 and at the commandment of the ,lord they pitched0 7,num4 ix4 #ah71 would suffice as a simple statement of facts2 and the reader might at first sight consider as unnecessary additions all the details which follow1 viz41 8,and when the cloud tarried long4444 ,and so it was when the cloud was a few days4444 ,or whether it were two days10 etc4 7ibid4 ix4 #ai-bb74 ,but ,i will show you the reason why all these details are added4 ,for they serve to confirm the account1 and to contradict the opinion of the nations1 both of ancient and modern times1 that the ,israelites lost their way1 and did not know where to go2 that 8they were entangled in the land0 7,exod4 xiv4 #c72 wherefore the ,arabs unto this day call that desert ,al-tih1 8the desert of going astray10 imagining that the ,israelites erred about1 and did not know the way4 ,scripture1 therefore1 clearly states and emphatically declares that it was by ,god's command that the journeyings were irregular1 that the ,israelites returned to the same places several times1 and that the duration of the stay was different in each station2 whilst the stay in one place continued for eighteen years1 in another place it lasted one day1 and in another one night4 ,there was no going astray1 but the journey was regulated by 8the rising of the pillar of cloud0 7,num4 ix4 #ag74 ,therefore all these details are given4 ,scripture clearly states that the way was near1 known1 and in good condition2 ,i mean the way from ,horeb1 whither they came intentionally1 according to the command of ,god1 8,ye shall serve ,god upon this mountain0 7,exod4 ii4 #ab71 to ,kadesh-barnea1 the beginning of inhabited land1 as ,scripture says1 8,behold1 we are now in ,kadesh1 a city in the uttermost of thy border0 7,num4 xx4 #af74 ,that way was a journey of eleven days2 comp4 8,eleven days' journey from ,horeb1 by the way of mount ,seir1 unto ,kadesh-barnea0 7,deut4 i4 #c74 ,in such a journey it is impossible to err about for forty years2 but ,scripture states the cause of the delay4 ,in like manner there is a good reason for every passage the object of which we cannot see4 ,we must always apply the words of our ,sages3 8,it is not a vain thing for you0 7,deut4 xxxii4 #dg71 and if it seems vain1 it seems your fault4 ,,chapter ,,li ,the present chapter does not contain any additional matter that has not been treated in the previous chapters of this treatise4 ,it is a kind of conclusion1 and at the same time it will explain in what manner those worship ,god who have obtained a true knowledge concerning ,god2 it will direct them how to come to that worship1 which is the highest aim man can attain1 and show how ,god protects them in this world till they are removed to eternal life4 ,i will begin the subject of this chapter with a simile4 ,a king is in his palace1 and all his subjects are partly in the country1 and partly abroad4 ,of the former1 some have their backs turned towards the king's palace1 and their faces in another direction2 and some are desirous and zealous to go to the palace1 seeking 8to inquire in his temple10 and to minister before him1 but have not yet seen even the face of the wall of the house4 ,of those that desire to go to the palace1 some reach it1 and go round about in search of the entrance gate2 others have passed through the gate1 and walk about in the ante-chamber2 and others have succeeded in entering into the inner part of the palace1 and being in the same room with the king in the royal palace4 ,but even the latter do not immediately on entering the palace see the king1 or speak to him2 for1 after having entered the inner part of the palace1 another effort is required before they can stand before the king--at a distance1 or close by--hear his words1 or speak to him4 ,i will now explain the simile which ,i have made4 ,the people who are abroad are all those that have no religion1 neither one based on speculation nor one received by tradition4 ,such are the extreme ,turks that wander about in the north1 the ,kushites who live in the south1 and those in our country who are like these4 ,i consider these as irrational beings1 and not as human beings2 they are below mankind1 but above monkeys1 since they have the form and shape of man1 and a mental faculty above that of the monkey4 ,those who are in the country1 but have their backs turned towards the king's palace1 are those who possess religion1 belief1 and thought1 but happen to hold false doctrines1 which they either adopted in consequence of great mistakes made in their own speculations1 or received from others who misled them4 ,because of these doctrines they recede more and more from the royal palace the more they seem to proceed4 ,these are worse than the first class1 and under certain circumstances it may become necessary to slay them1 and to extirpate their doctrines1 in order that others should not be misled4 ,those who desire to arrive at the palace1 and to enter it1 but have never yet seen it1 are the mass of religious people2 the multitude that observe the divine commandments1 but are ignorant4 ,those who arrive at the palace1 but go round about it1 are those who devote themselves exclusively to the study of the practical law2 they believe traditionally in true principles of faith1 and learn the practical worship of ,god1 but are not trained in philosophical treatment of the principles of the ,law1 and do not endeavour to establish the truth of their faith by proof4 ,those who undertake to investigate the principles of religion1 have come into the ante-chamber2 and there is no doubt that these can also be divided into different grades4 ,but those who have succeeded in finding a proof for everything that can be proved1 who have a true knowledge of ,god1 so far as a true knowledge can be attained1 and are near the truth1 wherever an approach to the truth is possible1 they have reached the goal1 and are in the palace in which the king lives4 ,my son1 so long as you are engaged in studying the ,mathematical ,sciences and ,logic1 you belong to those who go round about the palace in search of the gate4 ,thus our ,sages figuratively use the phrase3 8,ben-zoma is still outside40 ,when you understand ,physics1 you have entered the hall2 and when1 after completing the study of ,natural ,philosophy1 you master ,metaphysics1 you have entered the innermost court1 and are with the king in the same palace4 ,you have attained the degree of the wise men1 who include men of different grades of perfection4 ,there are some who direct all their mind toward the attainment of perfection in ,metaphysics1 devote themselves entirely to ,god1 exclude from their thought every other thing1 and employ all their intellectual faculties in the study of the ,universe1 in order to derive therefrom a proof for the existence of ,god1 and to learn in every possible way how ,god rules all things2 they form the class of those who have entered the palace1 namely1 the class of prophets4 ,one of these has attained so much knowledge1 and has concentrated his thoughts to such an extent in the idea of ,god1 that it could be said of him1 8,and he was with the ,lord forty days10 etc4 7,exod4 xxxiv4 #bh72 during that holy communion he could ask ,him1 answer ,him1 speak to ,him1 and be addressed by ,him1 enjoying beatitude in that which he had obtained to such a degree that 8he did neither eat bread nor drink water0 7ibid472 his intellectual energy was so predominant that all coarser functions of the body1 especially those connected with the sense of touch1 were in abeyance4 ,some prophets are only able to see1 and of these some approach near and see1 whilst others see from a distance3 comp4 8,the ,lord hath appeared from far unto me0 7,jer4 xxxi4 #c74 ,we have already spoken of the various degrees of prophets2 we will therefore return to the subject of this chapter1 and exhort those who have attained a knowledge of ,god1 to concentrate all their thoughts in ,god4 ,this is the worship peculiar to those who have acquired a knowledge of the highest truths2 and the more they reflect on ,him1 and think of ,him1 the more are they engaged in ,his worship4 ,those1 however1 who think of ,god1 and frequently mention ,his name1 without any correct notion of ,him1 but merely following some imagination1 or some theory received from another person1 are1 in my opinion1 like those who remain outside the palace and distant from it4 ,they do not mention the name of ,god in truth1 nor do they reflect on it4 ,that which they imagine and mention does not correspond to any being in existence2 it is a thing invented by their imagination1 as has been shown by us in our discussion on the ,divine ,attributes 7,part ,i4 chap4 #a474 ,the true worship of ,god is only possible when correct notions of ,him have previously been conceived4 ,when you have arrived by way of intellectual research at a knowledge of ,god and ,his works1 then commence to devote yourselves to ,him1 try to approach ,him and strengthen the intellect1 which is the link that joins you to ,him4 ,thus ,scripture says1 8,unto thee it was showed1 that thou mightest know that the ,lord ,he is ,god0 7,deut4 iv4 #ce72 8,know therefore this day1 and consider it in thine heart1 that the ,lord ,he is ,god0 7ibid4 #cf72 8,know ye that the ,lord is ,god0 7,ps4 c4 #c74 ,thus the ,law distinctly states that the highest kind of worship to which we refer in this chapter1 is only possible after the acquisition of the knowledge of ,god4 ,for it is said1 8,to love the ,lord your ,god1 and to serve ,him with all your heart and with all your soul0 7,deut4 xi4 #ac71 and1 as we have shown several times1 man's love of ,god is identical with ,his knowledge of ,him4 ,the ,divine service enjoined in these words must1 accordingly1 be preceded by the love of ,god4 ,our ,sages have pointed out to us that it is a service in the heart1 which explanation ,i understand to mean this3 man concentrates all his thoughts on the ,first ,intellect1 and is absorbed in these thoughts as much as possible4 ,david therefore commands his son ,solomon these two things1 and exhorts him earnestly to do them3 to acquire a true knowledge of ,god1 and to be earnest in ,his service after that knowledge has been acquired4 ,for he says1 8,and thou1 ,solomon my son1 know thou the ,god of thy father1 and serve him with a perfect heart 444 if thou seek him1 he will be found of thee2 but if thou forsake him1 he will cast thee off for ever0 7#a ,chron4 xxviii4 #i74 ,the exhortation refers to the intellectual conceptions1 not to the imaginations2 for the latter are not called 8knowledge10 but 8that which cometh into your mind0 7,ezek4 xx4 #cb74 ,it has thus been shown that it must be man's aim1 after having acquired the knowledge of ,god1 to deliver himself up to ,him1 and to have his heart constantly filled with longing after ,him4 ,he accomplishes this generally by seclusion and retirement4 ,every pious man should therefore seek retirement and seclusion1 and should only in case of necessity associate with others4 ,note4--,i have shown you that the intellect which emanates from ,god unto us is the link that joins us to ,god4 ,you have it in your power to strengthen that bond1 if you choose to do so1 or to weaken it gradually till it breaks1 if you prefer this4 ,it will only become strong when you employ it in the love of ,god1 and seek that love2 it will be weakened when you direct your thoughts to other things4 ,you must know that even if you were the wisest man in respect to the true knowledge of ,god1 you break the bond between you and ,god whenever you turn entirely your thoughts to the necessary food or any necessary business2 you are then not with ,god1 and ,he is not with you2 for that relation between you and ,him is actually interrupted in those moments4 ,the pious were therefore particular to restrict the time in which they could not meditate upon the name of ,god1 and cautioned others about it1 saying1 8,let not your minds be vacant from reflections upon ,god40 ,in the same sense did ,david say1 8,i have set the ,lord always before me2 because he is at my right hand1 ,i shall not be moved0 7,ps4 xvi4 #h72 i4e41 ,i do not turn my thoughts away from ,god2 ,he is like my right hand1 which ,i do not forget even for a moment on account of the ease of its motions1 and therefore ,i shall not be moved1 ,i shall not fall4 ,we must bear in mind that all such religious acts as reading the ,law1 praying1 and the performance of other precepts1 serve exclusively as the means of causing us to occupy and fill our mind with the precepts of ,god1 and free it from worldly business2 for we are thus1 as it were1 in communication with ,god1 and undisturbed by any other thing4 ,if we1 however1 pray with the motion of our lips1 and our face toward the wall1 but at the same time think of our business2 if we read the ,law with our tongue1 whilst our heart is occupied with the building of our house1 and we do not think of what we are reading2 if we perform the commandments only with our limbs1 we are like those who are engaged in digging in the ground1 or hewing wood in the forest1 without reflecting on the nature of those acts1 or by whom they are commanded1 or what is their object4 ,we must not imagine that in this way we attain the highest perfection2 on the contrary1 we are then like those in reference to whom ,scripture says1 8,thou art near in their mouth1 and far from their reins0 7,jer4 xii4 #b74 ,i will now commence to show you the way how to educate and train yourselves in order to attain that great perfection4 ,the first thing you must do is this3 ,turn your thoughts away from everything while you read ,shema or during the ,tefillah1 and do not content yourself with being devout when you read the first verse of ,shema1 or the first paragraph of the prayer4 ,when you have successfully practised this for many years1 try in reading the ,law or listening to it1 to have all your heart and all your thought occupied with understanding what you read or hear4 ,after some time when you have mastered this1 accustom yourself to have your mind free from all other thoughts when you read any portion of the other books of the prophets1 or when you say any blessing2 and to have your attention directed exclusively to the perception and the understanding of what you utter4 ,when you have succeeded in properly performing these acts of divine service1 and you have your thought1 during their performance1 entirely abstracted from worldly affairs1 take then care that your thought be not disturbed by thinking of your wants or of superfluous things4 ,in short1 think of worldly matters when you eat1 drink1 bathe1 talk with your wife and little children1 or when you converse with other people4 ,these times1 which are frequent and long1 ,i think1 must suffice to you for reflecting on everything that is necessary as regards business1 household1 and health4 ,but when you are engaged in the performance of religious duties1 have your mind exclusively directed to what you are doing4 ,when you are alone by yourself1 when you are awake on your couch1 be careful to meditate in such precious moments on nothing but the intellectual worship of ,god1 viz41 to approach ,him and to minister before ,him in the true manner which ,i have described to you--not in hollow emotions4 ,this ,i consider as the highest perfection wise men can attain by the above training4 ,when we have acquired a true knowledge of ,god1 and rejoice in that knowledge in such a manner1 that whilst speaking with others1 or attending to our bodily wants1 our mind is all that time with ,god2 when we are with our heart constantly near ,god1 even whilst our body is in the society of men2 when we are in that state which the ,song on the relation between ,god and man poetically describes in the following words3 8,i sleep1 but my heart waketh2 it is the voice of my beloved knocketh0 7,song v4 #b73--then we have attained not only the height of ordinary prophets1 but of ,moses1 our ,teacher1 of whom ,scripture relates3 8,and ,moses alone shall come near before the ,lord0 7ibid4 xxxiv4 #bh72 8,but as for thee1 stand thou here by me0 7,deut4 v4 #bh74 ,the meaning of these verses has been explained by us4 ,the ,patriarchs likewise attained this degree of perfection2 they approached ,god in such a manner that with them the name of ,god became known in the world4 ,thus we read in ,scripture3 8,the ,god of ,abraham1 the ,god of ,isaac1 and the ,god of ,jacob4444 ,this is ,my name for ever0 7,exod4 iii4 #ae74 ,their mind was so identified with the knowledge of ,god1 that ,he made a lasting covenant with each of them3 8,then will ,i remember my covenant with ,jacob10 etc4 7,lev4 xxvi4 #db74 ,for it is known from statements made in ,scripture that these four1 viz41 the ,patriarchs and ,moses1 had their minds exclusively filled with the name of ,god1 that is1 with ,his knowledge and love2 and that in the same measure was ,divine ,providence attached to them and their descendants4 ,when we therefore find them also1 engaged in ruling others1 in increasing their property1 and endeavouring to obtain possession of wealth and honour1 we see in this fact a proof that when they were occupied in these things1 only their bodily limbs were at work1 whilst their heart and mind never moved away from the name of ,god4 ,i think these four reached that high degree of perfection in their relation to ,god1 and enjoyed the continual presence of ,divine ,providence1 even in their endeavours to increase their property1 feeding the flock1 toiling in the field1 or managing the house1 only because in all these things their end and aim was to approach ,god as much as possible4 ,it was the chief aim of their whole life to create a people that should know and worship ,god4 ,comp4 8,for ,i know him1 that he will command his children and his household after him0 7,gen4 xviii4 #ai74 ,the object of all their labours was to publish the ,unity of ,god in the world1 and to induce people to love ,him2 and it was on this account that they succeeded in reaching that high degree2 for even those worldly affairs were for them a perfect worship of ,god4 ,but a person like myself must not imagine that he is able to lead men up to this degree of perfection4 ,it is only the next degree to it that can be attained by means of the above-mentioned training4 ,and let us pray to ,god and beseech ,him that ,he clear and remove from our way everything that forms an obstruction and a partition between us and ,him1 although most of these obstacles are our own creation1 as has several times been shown in this treatise4 ,comp4 8,your iniquities have separated between you and your ,god0 7,isa4 lix4 #b74 ,an excellent idea presents itself here to me1 which may serve to remove many doubts1 and may help to solve many difficult problems in metaphysics4 ,we have already stated in the chapters which treat of ,divine ,providence1 that ,providence watches over every rational being according to the amount of intellect which that being possesses4 ,those who are perfect in their perception of ,god1 whose mind is never separated from ,him1 enjoy always the influence of ,providence4 ,but those who1 perfect in their knowledge of ,god1 turn their mind sometimes away from ,god1 enjoy the presence of ,divine ,providence only when they meditate on ,god2 when their thoughts are engaged in other matters1 divine ,providence departs from them4 ,the absence of ,providence in this case is not like its absence in the case of those who do not reflect on ,god at all2 it is in this case less intense1 because when a person perfect in his knowledge of ,god is busy with worldly matters1 he has not knowledge in actuality1 but only knowledge in potentiality though ready to become actual4 ,this person is then like a trained scribe when he is not writing4 ,those who have no knowledge of ,god are like those who are in constant darkness and have never seen light4 ,we have explained in this sense the words3 8,the wicked shall be silent in darkness0 7#a ,sam4 ii4 #i7 whilst those who possess the knowledge of ,god1 and have their thoughts entirely directed to that knowledge1 are1 as it were1 always in bright sunshine2 and those who have the knowledge1 but are at times engaged in other themes1 have then as it were a cloudy day3 the sun does not shine for them on account of the cloud that intervenes between them and ,god4 ,hence it appears to me that it is only in times of such neglect that some of the ordinary evils befall a prophet or a perfect and pious man2 and the intensity of the evil is proportional to the duration of those moments1 or to the character of the things that thus occupy their mind4 ,such being the case1 the great difficulty is removed that led philosophers to assert that ,providence does not extend to every individual1 and that man is like any other living being in this respect1 viz41 the argument based on the fact that good and pious men are afflicted with great evils4 ,we have thus explained this difficult question even in accordance with the philosophers' own principles4 ,divine ,providence is constantly watching over those who have obtained that blessing which is prepared for those who endeavour to obtain it4 ,if man frees his thoughts from worldly matters1 obtains a knowledge of ,god in the right way1 and rejoices in that knowledge1 it is impossible that any kind of evil should befall him while he is with ,god1 and ,god with him4 ,when he does not meditate on ,god1 when he is separated from ,god1 then ,god is also separated from him2 then he is exposed to any evil that might befall him2 for it is only that intellectual link with ,god that secures the presence of ,providence and protection from evil accidents4 ,hence it may occur that the perfect man is at times not happy1 whilst no evil befalls those who are imperfect2 in these cases what happens to them is due to chance4 ,this principle ,i find also expressed in the ,law4 ,comp4 8,and ,i will hide my face from them1 and they shall be devoured1 and many evils and troubles shall befall them2 so that they will say in that day1 ,are not these evils come upon us1 because our ,god is not among us80 7,deut4 xxxi4 #ag74 ,it is clear that we ourselves are the cause of this hiding of the face1 and that the screen that separates us from ,god is of our own creation4 ,this is the meaning of the words3 8,and ,i will surely hide my face in that day1 for all the evils which they shall have wrought0 7ibid4 ver4 #ah74 ,there is undoubtedly no difference in this regard between one single person and a whole community4 ,it is now clearly established that the cause of our being exposed to chance1 and abandoned to destruction like cattle1 is to be found in our separation from ,god4 ,those who have their ,god dwelling in their hearts1 are not touched by any evil whatever4 ,for ,god says3 8,fear thou not1 for ,i am with thee2 be not dismayed1 for ,i am thy ,god0 7,isa4 xli4 #aj74 8,when thou passest through the waters1 ,i will be with thee2 and through the rivers1 they shall not overflow thee0 7ibid4 xliii4 #b74 ,for if we prepare ourselves1 and attain the influence of the ,divine ,intellect1 ,providence is joined to us1 and we are guarded against all evils4 ,comp4 8,the ,lord is on my side2 ,i will not fear2 what can man do unto me80 7,ps4 cxviii4 #f74 8,acquaint now thyself with him1 and be at peace0 7,job xxii4 #ba72 i4e41 turn unto ,him1 and you will be safe from all evil4 ,consider the ,psalm on mishaps1 and see how the author describes that great ,providence1 the protection and defence from all mishaps that concern the body1 both from those that are common to all people1 and those that concern only one certain individual2 from those that are due to the laws of ,nature1 and those that are caused by our fellow-men4 ,the ,psalmist says3 8,surely he will deliver thee from the snare of the fowler1 and from the noisome pestilence4 ,he shall cover thee with his feathers1 and under his wings shalt thou trust3 ,his truth shall be thy shield and buckler4 ,thou shalt not be afraid for the terror by night2 nor for the arrow that flieth by day0 7,ps4 xci4 #c-e74 ,the author then relates how ,god protects us from the troubles caused by men1 saying1 ,if you happen to meet on your way with an army fighting with drawn swords1 killing thousands at your left hand and myriads at your right hand1 you will not suffer any harm2 you will behold and see how ,god judges and punishes the wicked that are being slain1 whilst you remain unhurt4 8,a thousand shall fall at thy side1 and ten thousand at thy right hand2 but it shall not come nigh thee4 ,only with thine eyes shalt thou behold and see the reward of the wicked0 7ibid4 vers4 #g1 #h74 ,the author then continues his description of the divine defence and shelter1 and shows the cause of this great protection1 saying that such a man is well guarded 8,because he hath set his love upon me1 therefore will ,i deliver him3 ,i will set him on high1 because he hath known my name0 7ibid4 ver4 #ad74 ,we have shown in previous chapters that by the 8knowledge of ,god's name10 the knowledge of ,god is meant4 ,the above passage may therefore be paraphrased as follows3 8,this man is well guarded1 because he hath known me1 and then 7bi chashak7 loved me40 ,you know the difference between the two ,hebrew terms that signify 8to love10 ahab and ashak4 ,when a man's love is so intense that his thought is exclusively engaged with the object of his love1 it is expressed in ,hebrew by the term ashak4 ,the philosophers have already explained how the bodily forces of man in his youth prevent the development of moral principles4 ,in a greater measure this is the case as regards the purity of thought which man attains through the perfection of those ideas that lead him to an intense love of ,god4 ,man can by no means attain this so long as his bodily humours are hot4 ,the more the forces of his body are weakened1 and the fire of passion quenched1 in the same measure does man's intellect increase in strength and light2 his knowledge becomes purer1 and he is happy with his knowledge4 ,when this perfect man is stricken in age and is near death1 his knowledge mightily increases1 his joy in that knowledge grows greater1 and his love for the object of his knowledge more intense1 and it is in this great delight that the soul separates from the body4 ,to this state our ,sages referred1 when in reference to the death of ,moses1 ,aaron1 and ,miriam1 they said that death was in these three cases nothing but a kiss4 ,they say thus3 ,we learn from the words1 8,and ,moses the servant of the ,lord died there in the land of ,moab by the mouth of the ,lord0 7,deut4 xxxiv4 #e71 that his death was a kiss4 ,the same expression is used of ,aaron3 8,and ,aaron the priest went up into ,mount ,hor 444 by the mouth of the ,lord1 and died there0 7,num4 xxxiii4 #ch74 ,our ,sages said that the same was the case with ,miriam2 but the phrase 8by the mouth of the ,lord0 is not employed1 because it was not considered appropriate to use these words in the description of her death as she was a female4 ,the meaning of this saying is that these three died in the midst of the pleasure derived from the knowledge of ,god and their great love for ,him4 ,when our ,sages figuratively call the knowledge of ,god united with intense love for ,him a kiss1 they follow the well-known poetical diction 8,let him kiss me with the kisses of his mouth0 7,song i4 #b74 ,this kind of death1 which in truth is deliverance from death1 has been ascribed by our ,sages to none but to ,moses1 ,aaron1 and ,miriam4 ,the other prophets and pious men are beneath that degree2 but their knowledge of ,god is strengthened when death approaches4 ,of them ,scripture says1 8,thy righteousness shall go before thee2 the glory of the ,lord shall be thy rereward0 7,isa4 lviii4 #h74 ,the intellect of these men remains then constantly in the same condition1 since the obstacle is removed that at times has intervened between the intellect and the object of its action2 it continues for ever in that great delight1 which is not like bodily pleasure4 ,we have explained this in our work1 and others have explained it before us4 ,try to understand this chapter1 endeavour with all your might to spend more and more time in communion with ,god1 or in the attempt to approach ,him2 and to reduce the hours which you spend in other occupations1 and during which you are not striving to come nearer unto ,him4 ,this instruction suffices for the object of this treatise4 ,,chapter ,,lii ,we do not sit1 move1 and occupy ourselves when we are alone and at home in the same manner as we do in the presence of a great king2 we speak and open our mouth as we please when we are with the people of our own household and with our relatives1 but not so when we are in a royal assembly4 ,if we therefore desire to attain human perfection1 and to be truly men of ,god1 we must awake from our sleep1 and bear in mind that the great king that is over us1 and is always joined to us1 is greater than any earthly king1 greater than ,david and ,solomon4 ,the king that cleaves to us and embraces us is the ,intellect that influences us1 and forms the link between us and ,god4 ,we perceive ,god by means of that light that ,he sends down unto us1 wherefore the ,psalmist says1 8,in ,thy light shall we see light0 7,ps4 xxxvi4 #i73 so ,god looks down upon us through that same light1 and is always with us beholding and watching us on account of this light4 8,can any hide himself in secret places that ,i shall not see him80 7,jer4 xxiii4 #bd74 ,note this particularly4 ,when the perfect bear this in mind1 they will be filled with fear of ,god1 humility1 and piety1 with true1 not apparent1 reverence and respect of ,god1 in such a manner that their conduct1 even when alone with their wives or in the bath1 will be as modest as they are in public intercourse with other people4 ,thus it is related of our renowned ,sages that even in their sexual intercourse with their wives they behaved with great modesty4 ,they also said1 8,who is modest8 ,he whose conduct in the dark night is the same as in the day40 ,you know also how much they warned us not to walk proudly1 since 8the fulness of the whole earth is ,his glory0 7,isa4 vi4 #c74 ,they thought that by these rules the above-mentioned idea will be firmly established in the hearts of men1 viz41 that we are always before ,god1 and it is in the presence of ,his glory that we go to and fro4 ,the great men among our ,sages would not uncover their heads because they believed that ,god's glory was round them and over them2 for the same reason they spoke little4 ,in our ,commentary on the ,sayings of the ,fathers 7chap4 i4 #ag7 we have fully explained how we have to restrict our speech4 ,comp4 8,for ,god is in heaven and thou upon earth1 therefore let thy words be few0 7,eccles4 v4 #a74 ,what ,i have here pointed out to you is the object of all our religious acts4 ,for by carrying out all the details of the prescribed practices1 and repeating them continually1 some few pious men may attain human perfection4 ,they will be filled with respect and reverence towards ,god2 and bearing in mind who is with them1 they will perform their duty4 ,god declares in plain words that it is the object of all religious acts to produce in man fear of ,god and obedience to ,his word--the state of mind which we have demonstrated in this chapter for those who desire to know the truth1 as being our duty to seek4 ,comp4 8,if thou wilt not observe to do all the words of this law that are written in this book1 that thou mayest fear this glorious and fearful name1 the ,lord thy ,god0 7,deut4 xxviii4 #eh74 ,consider how clearly it is stated here that the only object and aim of 8all the words of this law0 is to make man fear 8the glorious and fearful name40 ,that this end is attained by certain acts we learn likewise from the phrase employed in this verse3 8,if thou wilt not observe to do 444 that thou mayest fear40 ,for this phrase clearly shows that fear of ,god is inculcated into our hearts when we act in accordance with the positive and the negative precepts4 ,but the truths which the ,law teaches us--the knowledge of ,god's ,existence and ,unity--create in us love of ,god1 as we have shown repeatedly4 ,you know how frequently the ,law exhorts us to love ,god4 ,comp4 8,and thou shalt love the ,lord thy ,god with all thine heart1 and with all thy soul1 and with all thy might0 7,deut4 vi4 #e74 ,the two objects1 love and fear of ,god1 are acquired by two different means4 ,the love is the result of the truths taught in the ,law1 including the true knowledge of the ,existence of ,god2 whilst fear of ,god is produced by the practices prescribed in the ,law4 ,note this explanation4 ,,chapter ,,liii ,this chapter treats of the meaning of three terms which we find necessary to explain1 viz41 esed 78loving-kindness071 mishpat 78judgment071 and edakah 78righteousness074 ,in our ,commentary on the ,sayings of the ,fathers 7chap4 v4 #g7 we have explained the expression esed as denoting an excess in some moral quality4 ,it is especially used of extraordinary kindness4 ,loving-kindness is practised in two ways3 first1 we show kindness to those who have no claim whatever upon us2 secondly1 we are kind to those to whom it is due1 in a greater measure than is due to them4 ,in the inspired writings the term esed occurs mostly in the sense of showing kindness to those who have no claim to it whatever4 ,for this reason the term esed is employed to express the good bestowed upon us by ,god3 8,i will mention the loving-kindness of the ,lord0 7,isa4 lxiii4 #g74 ,on this account1 the very act of the creation is an act of ,god's loving-kindness4 8,i have said1 ,the ,universe is built up in loving-kindness0 7,ps4 lxxxix4 #c72 i4e41 the building up of the ,universe is an act of loving-kindness4 ,also1 in the enumeration of ,god's attributes1 ,scripture says3 8,and abundant in loving-kindness0 7,exod4 xxxiv4 #f74 ,the term edakah is derived from edek1 8righteousness02 it denotes the act of giving every one his due1 and of showing kindness to every being according as it deserves4 ,in ,scripture1 however1 the expression edakah is not used in the first sense1 and does not apply to the payment of what we owe to others4 ,when we therefore give the hired labourer his wages1 or pay a debt1 we do not perform an act of edakah4 ,but we do perform an act of edakah when we fulfil those duties towards our fellow-men which our moral conscience imposes upon us2 e4g41 when we heal the wound of the sufferer4 ,thus ,scripture says1 in reference to the returning of the pledge to the poor debtor3 8,and it shall be edakah 7righteousness7 unto thee0 7,deut4 xxiv4 #aa74 ,when we walk in the way of virtue we act righteously towards our intellectual faculty1 and pay what is due unto it2 and because every virtue is thus edakah1 ,scripture applies the term to the virtue of faith in ,god4 ,comp4 8,and he believed in the ,lord1 and he accounted it to him as righteousness0 7,gen4 xv4 #f72 8,and it shall be our righteousness0 7,deut4 vi4 #be74 ,the noun mishpat1 8judgment10 denotes the act of deciding upon a certain action in accordance with justice which may demand either mercy or punishment4 ,we have thus shown that esed denotes pure charity2 edakah kindness1 prompted by a certain moral conscience in man1 and being a means of attaining perfection for his soul1 whilst mishpat may in some cases find expression in revenge1 in other cases in mercy4 ,in discussing the impropriety of admitting attributes of ,god 7,part ,i41 chap4 liii41 seq471 we stated that the divine attributes which occur in ,scripture are attributes of ,his actions2 thus ,he is called asid1 8kind10 because ,he created the ,universe2 addik1 8righteous10 on account of ,his mercy with the weak1 in providing for every living being according to its powers2 and shofet1 8judge10 on account of the relative good and the great relative evils that are decreed by ,god's justice as directed by ,his wisdom4 ,these three names occur in the ,pentateuch3 8,shall not the ,judge 7shofet7 of all the earth10 etc4 7,gen4 xviii4 #be72 8,righteous 7addik7 and upright is he0 7,deut4 xxxii4 #d72 8,abundant in loving-kindness0 7esed1 ,exod4 xxxiv4 #f74 ,we intended in explaining these three terms to prepare the reader for the next chapter4 ,,chapter ,,liv ,the term okmah 78wisdom07 in ,hebrew is used of four different things3 7#a7 ,it denotes the knowledge of those truths which lead to the knowledge of ,god4 ,comp4 8,but where shall wisdom be found80 7,job xxviii4 #ab72 8,if thou seekest her like silver0 7,prov4 ii4 #d74 ,the word occurs frequently in this sense4 7#b7 ,the expression okmah denotes also knowledge of any workmanship4 ,comp4 8,and every wise-hearted among you shall come and make all that the ,lord hath commanded0 7,exod4 xxxv4 #aj72 8,and all the women that were wise-hearted did spin0 7ibid4 ver4 #be74 7#c7 ,it is also used of the acquisition of moral principles4 ,comp4 8,and teach his senators wisdom0 7,ps4 cv4 #bb72 8,with the ancient is wisdom0 7,job xii4 #ab73 for it is chiefly the disposition for acquiring moral principles that is developed by old age alone4 7#d7 ,it implies1 lastly1 the notion of cunning and subtlety2 comp4 8,come on1 let us deal wisely with them0 7,exod4 i4 #aj74 ,in the same sense the term is used in the following passages3 8,and fetched thence a wise woman0 7#b ,sam4 xiv4 #b72 8,they are wise to do evil0 7,jer4 iv4 #bb74 ,it is possible that the ,hebrew okmah 78wisdom07 expresses the idea of cunning and planning1 which may serve in one case as a means of acquiring intellectual perfection1 or good moral principles2 but may in another case produce skill in workmanship1 or even be employed in establishing bad opinions and principles4 ,the attribute akam 78wise07 is therefore given to a person that possesses great intellectual faculties1 or good moral principles1 or skill in art2 but also to persons cunning in evil deeds and principles4 ,according to this explanation1 a person that has a true knowledge of the whole ,law is called wise in a double sense2 he is wise because the ,law instructs him in the highest truths1 and secondly1 because it teaches him good morals4 ,but as the truths contained in the ,law are taught by way of tradition1 not by a philosophical method1 the knowledge of the ,law1 and the acquisition of true wisdom1 are treated in the books of the ,prophets and in the words of our ,sages as two different things2 real wisdom demonstrates by proof those truths which ,scripture teaches us by way of tradition4 ,it is to this kind of wisdom1 which proves the truth of the ,law1 that ,scripture refers when it extols wisdom1 and speaks of the high value of this perfection1 and of the consequent paucity of men capable of acquiring it1 in sayings like these3 8,not many are wise0 7,job xxxii4 #i72 8,but where shall wisdom be found0 7ibid4 xxviii4 #ab78 ,in the writings of our ,sages we notice likewise many passages in which distinction is made between knowledge of the ,law and wisdom4 ,they say of ,moses1 our ,teacher1 that he was ,father in the knowledge of the ,law1 in wisdom and in prophecy4 ,when ,scripture says of ,solomon1 8,and he was wiser than all men0 7#a ,kings v4 #aa71 our ,sages add1 8but not greater than ,moses02 and the phrase1 8than all men10 is explained to mean1 8than all men of his generation02 for this reason only 8,heman1 ,chalcol1 and ,darda1 the sons of ,mahol10 the renowned wise men of that time1 are named4 ,our ,sages further say1 that man has first to render account concerning his knowledge of the ,law1 then concerning the acquisition of wisdom1 and at last concerning the lessons derived by logical conclusions from the ,law1 i4e41 the lessons concerning his actions4 ,this is also the right order3 we must first learn the truths by tradition1 after this we must be taught how to prove them1 and then investigate the actions that help to improve man's ways4 ,the idea that man will have to render account concerning these three things in the order described1 is expressed by our ,sages in the following passage3 8,when man comes to the trial1 he is first asked1 #8,hast thou fixed certain seasons for the study of the ,law8 ,hast thou been engaged in the acquisition of wisdom8 ,hast thou derived from one thing another thing8'0 ,this proves that our ,sages distinguished between the knowledge of the ,law on the one hand1 and wisdom on the other1 as the means of proving the lessons taught in the ,law by correct reasoning4 ,hear now what ,i have to say after having given the above explanation4 ,the ancient and the modern philosophers have shown that man can acquire four kinds of perfection4 ,the first kind1 the lowest1 in the acquisition of which people spend their days1 is perfection as regards property2 the possession of money1 garments1 furniture1 servants1 land1 and the like2 the possession of the title of a great king belongs to this class4 ,there is no close connexion between this possession and its possessor2 it is a perfectly imaginary relation when on account of the great advantage a person derives from these possessions1 he says1 ,this is my house1 this is my servant1 this is my money1 and these are my hosts and armies4 ,for when he examines himself he will find that all these things are external1 and their qualities are entirely independent of the possessor4 ,when1 therefore1 that relation ceases1 he that has been a great king may one morning find that there is no difference between him and the lowest person1 and yet no change has taken place in the things which were ascribed to him4 ,the philosophers have shown that he whose sole aim in all his exertions and endeavours is the possession of this kind of perfection1 only seeks perfectly imaginary and transient things2 and even if these remain his property all his lifetime1 they do not give him any perfection4 ,the second kind is more closely related to man's body than the first4 ,it includes the perfection of the shape1 constitution1 and form of man's body2 the utmost evenness of temperaments1 and the proper order and strength of his limbs4 ,this kind of perfection must likewise be excluded from forming our chief aim2 because it is a perfection of the body1 and man does not possess it as man1 but as a living being2 he has this property besides in common with the lowest animal2 and even if a person possesses the greatest possible strength1 he could not be as strong as a mule1 much less can he be as strong as a lion or an elephant2 he1 therefore1 can at the utmost have strength that might enable him to carry a heavy burden1 or break a thick substance1 or do similar things1 in which there is no great profit for the body4 ,the soul derives no profit whatever from this kind of perfection4 ,the third kind of perfection is more closely connected with man himself than the second perfection4 ,it includes moral perfection1 the highest degree of excellency in man's character4 ,most of the precepts aim at producing this perfection2 but even this kind is only a preparation for another perfection1 and is not sought for its own sake4 ,for all moral principles concern the relation of man to his neighbour2 the perfection of man's moral principles is1 as it were1 given to man for the benefit of mankind4 ,imagine a person being alone1 and having no connexion whatever with any other person1 all his good moral principles are at rest1 they are not required1 and give man no perfection whatever4 ,these principles are only necessary and useful when man comes in contact with others4 ,the fourth kind of perfection is the true perfection of man2 the possession of the highest intellectual faculties2 the possession of such notions which lead to true metaphysical opinions as regards ,god4 ,with this perfection man has obtained his final object2 it gives him true human perfection2 it remains to him alone2 it gives him immortality1 and on its account he is called man4 ,examine the first three lands of perfection1 you will find that1 if you possess them1 they are not your property1 but the property of others2 according to the ordinary view1 however1 they belong to you and to others4 ,but the last kind of perfection is exclusively yours2 no one else owns any part of it1 8,they shall be only thine own1 and not strangers' with thee0 7,prov4 v4 #ag74 ,your aim must therefore be to attain this fourth perfection that is exclusively yours1 and you ought not to continue to work and weary yourself for that which belongs to others1 whilst neglecting your soul till it has lost entirely its original purity through the dominion of the bodily powers over it4 ,the same idea is expressed in the beginning of those poems1 which allegorically represent the state of our soul4 8,my mother's children were angry with me2 they made me the keeper of the vineyards2 but mine own vineyard have ,i not kept0 7,song i4 #f74 ,also the following passage refers to the same subject1 8,lest thou give thine honour unto others1 and thy years unto the cruel0 7,prov4 v4 #i74 ,the prophets have likewise explained unto us these things1 and have expressed the same opinion on them as the philosophers4 ,they say distinctly that perfection in property1 in health1 or in character1 is not a perfection worthy to be sought as a cause of pride and glory for us2 that the knowledge of ,god1 i4e41 true wisdom1 is the only perfection which we should seek1 and in which we should glorify ourselves4 ,jeremiah1 referring to these four kinds of perfection1 says3 8,thus saith the ,lord1 ,let not the wise man glory in his wisdom1 neither let the mighty man glory in his might1 let not the rich man glory in his riches2 but let him that glorieth glory in this1 that he understandeth and knoweth me0 7,jer4 ix4 #bb1 #bc74 ,see how the prophet arranged them according to their estimation in the eyes of the multitude4 ,the rich man occupies the first rank2 next is the mighty man2 and then the wise man2 that is1 the man of good moral principles3 for in the eyes of the multitude1 who are addressed in these words1 he is likewise a great man4 ,this is the reason why the three classes are enumerated in this order4 ,our ,sages have likewise derived from this passage the above-mentioned lessons1 and stated the same theory that has been explained in this chapter1 viz41 that the simple term okmah1 as a rule1 denotes the highest aim of man1 the knowledge of ,god2 that those properties which man acquires1 makes his peculiar treasure1 and considers as his perfection1 in reality do not include any perfection2 and that the religious acts prescribed in the ,law1 viz41 the various kinds of worship and the moral principles which benefit all people in their social intercourse with each other1 do not constitute the ultimate aim of man1 nor can they be compared to it1 for they are but preparations leading to it4 ,hear the opinion of our ,sages on this subject in their own words4 ,the passage occurs in ,bereshit ,rabba1 and runs thus1 8,in one place ,scripture says1 #8,and all things that are desirable 7afaim7 are not to be compared to her' 7,prov4 viii4 #aa72 and in another place1 #8,and all things that thou desirest 7afaea7 are not to be compared unto her'0 7ibid4 iii4 #ae74 ,by 8things that are desirable0 the performance of ,divine precepts and good deeds is to be understood1 whilst 8things that thou desirest0 refer to precious stones and pearls4 ,both--things that are desirable1 and things that thou desirest--cannot be compared to wisdom1 but 8in this let him that glorieth glory1 that he understandeth and knoweth me40 ,consider how concise this saying is1 and how perfect its author2 how nothing is here omitted of all that we have put forth after lengthy explanations and preliminary remarks4 ,having stated the sublime ideas contained in that ,scriptural passage1 and quoted the explanation of our ,sages1 we will now complete what the remainder of that passage teaches us4 ,the prophet does not content himself with explaining that the knowledge of ,god is the highest kind of perfection2 for if this only had been his intention1 he would have said1 8,but in this let him who glorieth glory1 that he understandeth and knoweth me10 and would have stopped there2 or he would have said1 8that he understandeth and knoweth me that ,i am ,one10 or1 8that ,i have not any likeness10 or1 8that there is none like me10 or a similar phrase4 ,he says1 however1 that man can only glory in the knowledge of ,god and in the knowledge of ,his ways and attributes1 which are ,his actions1 as we have shown 7,part ,i4 liv47 in expounding the passage1 8,show me now thy ways0 7,exod4 xxxviii4 #ac74 ,we are thus told in this passage that the ,divine acts which ought to be known1 and ought to serve as a guide for our actions1 are1 esed1 8loving-kindness10 mishpat1 8judgment10 and edakah1 8righteousness40 ,another very important lesson is taught by the additional phrase1 8in the earth40 ,it implies a fundamental principle of the ,law2 it rejects the theory of those who boldly assert that ,god's providence does not extend below the sphere of the moon1 and that the earth with its contents is abandoned1 that 8the ,lord hath forsaken the earth0 7,ez4 viii4 #ab74 ,it teaches1 as has been taught by the greatest of all wise men in the words1 8,the earth is the ,lord's0 7,exod4 ix4 #bi71 that ,his providence extends to the earth in accordance with its nature1 in the same manner as it controls the heavens in accordance with their nature4 ,this is expressed in the words1 8,that ,i am the ,lord which exercise loving-kindness1 judgment1 and righteousness in the earth40 ,the prophet thus1 in conclusion1 says1 8,for in these things ,i delight1 saith the ,lord10 i4e41 ,my object in saying this is that you shall practise loving-kindness1 judgment1 and righteousness in the earth4 ,in a similar manner we have shown 7,part ,i4 liv47 that the object of the enumeration of ,god's thirteen attributes is the lesson that we should acquire similar attributes and act accordingly4 ,the object of the above passage is therefore to declare1 that the perfection1 in which man can truly glory1 is attained by him when he has acquired--as far as this is possible for man--the knowledge of ,god1 the knowledge of ,his ,providence1 and of the manner in which it influences ,his creatures in their production and continued existence4 ,having acquired this knowledge he will then be determined always to seek loving-kindness1 judgment1 and righteousness1 and thus to imitate the ways of ,god4 ,we have explained this many times in this treatise4 ,this is all that ,i thought proper to discuss in this treatise1 and which ,i considered useful for men like you4 ,i hope that1 by the help of ,god1 you will1 after due reflection1 comprehend all the things which ,i have treated here4 ,may ,he grant us and all ,israel with us to attain what ,he promised us1 8,then the eyes of the blind shall be opened1 and the ears of the deaf shall be unstopped0 7,isa4 xxxv4 #e72 8,the people that walked in darkness have seen a great light2 they that dwell in the shadow of death upon them hath the light shined0 7ibid4 ix4 #a74 ,god is near to all who call ,him1 if they call ,him in truth1 and turn to ,him4 ,he is found by every one who seeks ,him1 if he always goes toward ,him1 and never goes astray4 ,amen4 ,,notes #a ,see infra1 page #d1 note #a4 #b ,see infra1 page #e1 note #d4 #c ,saadiah proves the existence of the ,creator in the following way3--#a4 ,the ,universe is limited1 and therefore cannot possess an unlimited force4 #b4 ,all things are compounds2 the composition must be owing to some external cause4 #c4 ,changes observed in all beings are effected by some external cause4 #d4 ,if time were infinite1 it would be impossible to conceive the progress of time from the present moment to the future1 or from the past to the present moment4 7,emunot vedeot1 ch4 i474--,baya founds his arguments on three propositions3--#a4 ,a thing cannot be its own maker4 #b4 ,the series of successive causes is finite4 #c4 ,compounds owe their existence to an external force4 ,his arguments are3--#a4 ,the ,universe1 even the elements1 are compounds consisting of substance and form4 #b4 ,in the ,universe plan and unity is discernible4 7obot ha-lebabot1 ch4 i47