,the ,mutual ,influence of ,christianity
 and the ,stoic ,school                 
,,the ,,mutual ,,influence ,,of         
,,christianity ,,and ,,the ,,stoic      
,,school4                               
,,by                            ,,james 
,,henry ,,bryant1 ,b4,d4                
,,st ,,john',s ,,college1 ,,cambridge1  
,,incumbent ,,of ,,astley1              
,,warwickshire4                         
'  4                             ,,soph4
 d4 ,col4 #ajhj4                        
,london and ,cambridge3                 
,,macmillan ,,and ,,co4                 
#ahff4                                  
,cambridge3                             
,,printed ,,by ,c4 ,j4 ,,clay ,m4,a4    
,,at ,,the ,,university ,,press4        
,,to ,,his ,,grace1                     
,,william1 ,,duke ,,of ,,devonshire1    
,k4,g41 ,,ll4,d4                        
,,chancellor ,,of ,,the ,,university    
,,of ,,cambridge1                       
,,the ,,following ,,essay1 ,,being      
,,the ,,hulsean ,,dissertation          

,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of            
,,cambridge1 ,,for ,,the ,,year #ahfe1  
,,is                        ,,by ,,his  
,,grace',s ,,kind ,,permission1         
,,respectfully ,,dedicated4             
,,contents4             ,introduction 4 
4 4      #a             ,,chapter ,i4   
,the ,stoic ,school of ,philosophy 4 4 4
     #ac             ,,chapter ,,ii4    
,stoicism in comparison with            
,christianity 4 4 4      #bg            
,,chapter ,,iii4         ,the ,influence
 of ,christianity on ,stoicism 4 4 4    
#dh             ,,chapter ,,iv4         
,the ,influence of ,stoicism on the     
,christian ,church 4 4 4     #gd        
,conclusion 4 4 4      #ia              
,,clauses directed by the ,,founder to  
be always prefixed to the ,,hulsean     
,,dissertation4          ,,clauses from 
the ,,will of the ,rev4 ,,john ,,hulse1 
late of ,elworth1 in      the ,county of
 ,chester1 clerk1 deceased3 dated the   
twenty-first day      of ,july1 in the  
year of our ,lord one thousand seven    

hundred and      seventy-seven2         
expressed in the words of the ,testator1
 as he1 in      order to prevent        
mistakes1 thought proper to draw and    
write the same      himself1 and        
directed that such clauses should every 
year be      printed1 to the intent that
 the several persons1 whom it might     
concern and be of service to1 might know
 that there were such      special      
donations or endowments left for the    
encouragement of ,piety      and        
,learning1 in an age so unfortunately   
addicted to ,infidelity and             
,luxury1 and that others might be       
invited to the like charitable1         
and1 as he humbly hoped1 seasonable and 
useful ,benefactions4    ,he directs    
that certain rents and profits 7now     
amounting to about a  hundred pounds    
yearly7 be paid to such learned and     
ingenious person1 in  the ,university of
 ,cambridge1 under the degree of ,master
 of ,arts1 as  shall compose1 for that  
year1 the best ,dissertation1 in the    

,english  language1 on the ,evidences in
 general1 or on the ,prophecies or      
,miracles  in particular1 or any other  
particular ,argument1 whether the same  
be  direct or collateral proofs of the  
,christian ,religion1 in order to       
evince its truth and excellence2 the    
subject of which ,dissertation shall  be
 given out by the ,vice-,chancellor1 and
 the ,masters of ,trinity and  ,saint   
,john's1 his ,trustees1 or by some of   
them1 on ,new ,year's ,day  annually2   
and that such ,dissertation as shall be 
by them#a1 or any two  of them1 on      
,christmas ,day annually1 the best      
approved1 be also printed1  and the     
expense defrayed out of the ,author's   
income under his ,will1 and  the        
remainder given to him on ,saint ,john  
the ,evangelist's ,day following2  and  
he who shall be so rewarded1 shall not  
be admitted at any future  time as a    
,candidate again in the same way1 to the
 intent that others may  be invited and 
encouraged to write on so sacred and    

sublime a subject4    ,he also desires1 
that immediately following the last of  
the clauses  relating to the prize      
,dissertation1 this invocation may be   
added3 8,may  the ,divine ,blessing for 
ever go along with all my benefactions2 
and may  the ,greatest and the ,best of 
,beings1 by his all-wise ,providence and
  gracious influence1 make the same     
effectual to ,his own glory1 and the    
good of my fellow-creatures60           
,subject proposed by the ,,trustees for 
the ,year #ahfe3        ,the mutual     
,influence of ,christianity and the     
,stoic ,school4    ,footnote #a3        
,by the new ,regulations1 the four      
,divinity ,professors were appointed as 
additional ,adjudicators4               
,,introduction4      ,it was at ,athens1
 8the school of the world10 that the    
first and only  contact of ,christianity
 with ,gentile ,philosophy1 recorded in 
the ,new  ,testament1 took place4 ,in   
8the learned city0 the mightiest efforts
 of  the human mind had been made to    

grasp eternal truth4 ,but the           
contradictions in the teachings of the  
master-minds of ,greece and the         
consequent doubt and unbelief so        
prevalent1 at the same time1 with the   
most abject superstition1 proved that   
the effort had been vain to arrive  at a
 full comprehension of the ,infinite    
from a consideration of the  finite--to 
rise from man to ,,god4 ,in this same   
city1 about half a century  after the   
birth of the ,redeemer1 there was       
unveiled to human souls which  had been 
longing for the knowledge of the unseen1
 8the mystery of  ,godliness10 that     
8,,god0 had been 8manifest in the       
flesh40 ,the eyes which  had been long  
looking for the day might now behold the
 day-star from on  high who had visited 
and blessed the world with light and    
salvation4 ,now  there could be found   
repose of soul and certainty of belief1 
because the  ,truth had come down from  
heaven1 from ,,god to man1 that ,he     
might raise  man to ,,god4 ,heavenly    

wisdom at length encountered human      
wisdom and pride  of intellect in their 
stronghold4    ,by this ,i do not mean  
that before ,st ,paul came to ,athens   
there had been  no contest of the       
religion of ,christ with mere human     
conceits4  ,philosophy is only the      
endeavor to reduce the thoughts of men  
to a  system1 to find a grammar for the 
language of the mind1 or rather1        
perhaps1 to find a language as well as a
 grammar4 ,wherever there is mind  there
 will be thought1 either with1 or       
without a system4 ,so that              
,christianity1 in winning its way1 had  
met with opposition of human  thought   
before the great ,apostle of ,jesus     
reached the metropolis of  thought4     
,indeed the very sects of philosophy1   
which sneered at the  revelation of     
heavenly truth on its introduction into 
,athens1 had their  counterparts in     
,juda1 and especially at ,jerusalem4 ,we
 have the  testimony of a ,pharisee1    
that the 8sect of the ,pharisees bore a 

strong  affinity to that called ,stoic  
among the ,greeks#b40 ,we are led to    
perceive1 also1 from the accounts we    
have of the free-living ,sadducees1  who
 claimed absolute freedom for the human 
will1 that the ,epicureans  were        
represented in some degree by them4     
,they were sceptics as to the           
providence of ,,god1 8believed in       
neither angel1 nor spirit#c20 8they     
took away all fate1 and would not allow 
it to be anything at all1 nor to  have  
any power over human affairs1 but put   
all things entirely into the  power of  
our own free will#d40 ,both ,pharisees  
and ,sadducees1 though  disagreeing in  
other respects1 yet were united in their
 efforts against  the spread of the     
truth4 ,from the earliest preaching of  
the doctrines of  the ,gospel1 the same 
spirit of self-seeking and pride of     
human nature  which animated the        
,epicureans and ,stoics1 showed         
themselves adverse to  the humbling     
views which ,jesus set forth4 ,and we   

cannot forget that ,st  ,paul1          
immediately after his conversion1 having
 been in great danger at  ,damascus and 
at ,jerusalem from the rage of the ,jews
 because of his  becoming a ,christian1 
dwelt some time in quiet at ,tarsus1 his
 native  city4 ,we have no record of how
 he spent his time there on that        
occasion4  ,but doubtless1 as at other  
places so there1 he would proclaim the  
conviction which he so strongly felt of 
the excellence and truth of the         
,gospel4 ,if so1 it is probable that he 
met with the same kind of coldness  and 
contempt for his message from the       
philosophers of ,tarsus1 as  afterwards 
from those of ,athens4 ,the native city 
of ,st ,paul was noted  for the         
eagerness for learning displayed by its 
people4 ,strabo tells us  8the men of   
this place are so zealous in the study  
of philosophy and all  other subjects of
 education that they surpass the        
inhabitants of ,athens  and ,alexandria1
 and every place that one could mention 

where schools of  philosophy are found4 
,the difference is in this respect4     
,here they are  all natives who are     
eager after learning1 and strangers do  
not choose a  residence here4 ,they     
themselves 7the ,tarsians7 do not stay1 
but finish  their course of training    
abroad4 ,few return home again4         
,whereas1 in the  other cities which ,i 
have named1 except ,alexandria1 there is
 a contrary  practice2 for many come to 
them and live willingly there3 but you  
will  see few of those born there either
 going to other places for the sake of  
philosophy1 or caring to study it at    
home4 ,the ,alexandrians combine both   
descriptions1 for they receive many     
strangers1 and send abroad not a few  of
 their own people40 ,we learn also from 
other sources that from  ,cilicia1 and  
especially from ,tarsus1 a great many of
 the most celebrated  ,stoics came1 and 
it appears therefore extremely probable 
that ,st ,paul  would meet with such in 
his visit to that city4 ,if he met with 

them1  they would hear the truth from   
his lips4 ,his heart would prompt him1  
as  it did afterwards at ,athens1 to    
proclaim glad tidings of salvation to   
all2 and to those who professed to seek 
the knowledge of deeper  mysteries than 
the ignorant mass cared to inquire      
about1 he would  declare 8the mystery   
which0 had 8been hid for ages10 but was 
now  8revealed to the sons of men by    
,jesus ,christ40    ,of these meetings  
between the ,apostle and the            
philosophers of his native  city1 if    
they took place1 we have no record4 ,the
 first account we have  of the contact  
of the religion of ,christ and the      
wisdom of men is given  us by the writer
 of the ,acts of the ,apostles1 in the  
seventeenth chapter  of the history4 ,we
 are told that1 while ,st ,paul waited  
at ,athens for  ,silas and ,timotheus1  
8his spirit was stirred within him when 
he saw the  city wholly given to        
idolatry4 ,therefore disputed he in the 
synagogue  with the ,jews and with the  

devout persons2 and in the market 7 7   
daily with them that met him4 ,then     
certain of the ,epicureans and of the   
,stoics encountered him4 ,and some said1
 #8,what will this babbler say8'  ,other
 some1 #8,he seemeth to be a setter     
forth of strange gods2' because  he     
preached unto them ,jesus and the       
resurrection40 ,it seems necessary in   
passing1 to notice here the two sects of
 philosophers who encountered  the      
,apostle4 ,they were then the two most  
prominent in ,greece2 one might  say    
they divided between them the adherence 
of all thoughtful minds4 ,the           
,epicureans were advocates of the       
doctrine of the absolute freedom of the 
human will to choose what is agreeable  
to it4 ,they denied the providence  of  
,,god1 or that he concerns himself at   
all about human affairs4  ,according to 
them1 the universe was neither formed1  
nor created1 by an  intelligent being2  
but was merely the fortuitous concourse 
of infinite  atoms4 ,they taught that   

happiness consisted in the pursuit of   
pleasure1  and1 as all wish to be happy1
 all should seek after the greatest     
amount  of pleasure to be obtained4     
,although ,epicurus was fiercely        
assailed by  the disciples of the       
opposite school1 and 8the garden10 where
 he taught1  was held to be a hot-bed of
 sensuality1 there was probably much    
exaggeration in the reports that were   
spread4 ,epicurus meant by his          
teaching1 perhaps1 not that men should  
seek after every momentary              
gratification1 but for the greatest     
enjoyment of a whole life4 ,yet as  this
 doctrine left man to be his own judge1 
it is not to be wondered at  if the     
moderation of the founder of the sect   
was little imitated by his  disciples4  
,men took pleasures as they came1 not   
knowing what pleasure  might be in the  
future1 and not caring for the morrow2  
so vice and  profligacy were the result1
 instead of virtue and contentment and  
true  enjoyment4    ,the ,stoics1 on the

 other hand1 were absolute fatalists1   
and taught that  virtue consists in     
following the decrees of nature and     
acting according  to the dictates which 
ruled all things4 ,we shall not now     
enter fully  into their doctrines1 as   
these will require careful attention and
 full  development in accordance with   
the purpose of this essay4 ,we shall    
see1  bye and bye1 that the principles  
of their school were of such a nature   
as to produce in some respects the      
strongest1 in others1 the weakest of    
men4 ,stoicism and ,epicureanism both   
left man practically to himself4  ,they 
agreed in looking at self-cultivation   
and self-interest as the  chief good4   
,the controversy between the two systems
 was what it has  continued to be since 
among ethical philosophers1 a           
controversy as to  the sources of moral 
rules4 ,epicurus was an advocate of what
 has been  called 8the selfish system of
 morals40 ,zeno and the ,stoics         
advocated the  contrary system4 ,it     

seems1 however1 that though the conflict
 between  them has been so long1 and    
often so fierce1 the two systems are not
  incompatible one with the other4      
,indeed in the word of ,,god both       
motives  are set before us to urge us to
 right conduct1 the loveliness of virtue
  in itself1 and the combined happiness 
and blessedness to be gained from  a    
certain course of life4 ,this view has  
been put in a few forcible words  by an 
eminent writer of the present day1 who  
says1 8,some moralists  employ          
themselves mainly in deducing the rules 
of action from  considering the         
tendencies of actions to produce        
pleasure or pain1 as  ,paley and        
,bentham4 ,others take pains to show    
that man has a faculty by  which he     
apprehends a higher ,rule of action than
 the mere tendency to  produce pleasure1
 as ,butler4 ,but though these two      
sources of morality  are thus separate1 
they are not really independent2 and it 
is1 as ,i  conceive1 important to       

present them in a mode which shows their
  connexion and relation#e40 ,one of    
these springs of action does not        
necessarily counteract the other4       
,doubtless1 there is in man an innate   
appreciation of the beauty of virtue4   
,though the temple of the human  soul   
has been laid in ruins by the touch of  
sin1 yet does it still  retain marks of 
its primeval glory4 ,it was not created 
for anything but  the abode of purity4  
,hence we perceive naturally the        
excellence of  virtue4 ,when ,i say     
naturally1 ,i mean as man is at all     
times enabled to  see by ,,god's help4  
,we must remember that1 by virtue of the
 ,redeemer's  merits1 all men are       
blessed with a certain degree of        
enlightenment4  ,speaking of the        
,eternal ,logos1 ,st ,john says#f1      
8,that was the true light  which        
lighteth every man that cometh into the 
world40 ,only because men  in their     
obstinacy close their eyes1 the light   
which is given them often  becomes      

darkness4 ,so ,st ,paul1 speaking of    
those without ,revelation1  says#g1     
8,they are a law to themselves1 which   
show the work of the law  written in    
their hearts1 their conscience also     
bearing witness1 and  their thoughts    
between themselves accusing1 or else    
excusing one  another40 ,in order to    
this they must appreciate the beauty and
  excellence of virtue4 ,so ,justin     
,martyr declares#h1 8,every race of men 
participated in the ,logos40 ,when we   
speak of man by nature then1 we mean    
man with the aid of this light given to 
him by ,christ4 ,and we must  perceive  
great force in the statement of         
,berkeley1 that 8,there is an  idea of  
beauty natural to the mind of man4 ,this
 all men desire4 ,this  they are pleased
 and delighted with for its own sake1   
purely from an  instinct of nature4 ,a  
man needs no argument to make him       
discern and  approve what is beautiful2 
it strikes at first sight and attracts  
without a reason4 ,and as this beauty is

 found in the shape and form of         
corporeal things1 so also is there      
analogous to it a beauty of another     
kind1 an order1 a symmetry and          
comeliness in the moral world4 ,and as  
the  eye perceives the one1 so the mind 
doth by a certain interior sense        
perceive the other3 which sense1 talent1
 or faculty1 is even quickest  and      
purest in the noblest minds4 ,thus1 as  
by sight ,i discern the beauty  of a    
plant1 or an animal1 even so the mind   
approves moral excellence1  the beauty  
and decorum of justice and temperance4  
,and as we readily  pronounce a dress   
becoming1 or an attitude graceful1 we   
can1 with the  same free1 untutored     
judgment1 at once declare whether this  
or that  conduct or action1 be comely or
 beautiful40    ,we cannot deny1 on the 
other hand1 that men act from a feeling 
of  self-interest4 ,to obtain pleasure  
or escape pain is motive enough to  make
 men pursue a certain course            
instinctively1 without weighing         

accurately1 or even caring at all for   
the motives which prompt them4  ,when   
men see that virtue brings in its train 
present blessing and  eternal hopes1    
shall we deny that this is a strong     
reason why they  should pursue it8      
,doubtless such a reason weighs with    
many and draws  them to a right course1 
without a question arising in their     
minds as to  the motives by which they  
are actuated4    ,then the enquiry      
naturally occurs1 since virtue commends 
itself to us as  both lovely and        
beneficial1 shall we reject the         
loveliness as a motive1  because our    
self-interest moves us also8 ,on the    
other hand1 shall we  reject hope of    
benefit1 because the innate loveliness  
of the object  commends itself to us8   
,may we not be moved by the double      
influence8  ,certainly the word of ,,god
 seems to sanction such a double motive 
to  religion and virtue4    ,yet here we
 are brought to the humbling conviction 
of the weakness of  man without         

,christianity4 ,men had this combined   
motive for ages4 ,what  was the result  
on the heart and the life8 ,what effect 
had even the  teaching of the wisest8   
,the masses were still sunk in          
superstition and  sin4 ,the farthest    
advanced were only looking at a height  
which they  could not hope to reach4    
,the most acute thinkers were often in  
doubt4 ,we  see the extremes meeting4   
,superstition1 in its most debased and  
enthralling forms1 stands boldly in the 
front of the most exalted  teachings of 
philosophy4 ,what could mere philosophy 
do8 ,she could  perhaps find employment 
for the minds of a few of the most      
gifted4 ,but  what had she to give as   
food for the hungry souls of the        
multitude8 ,the  starving spirits asked 
for bread1 and she gave them the stone  
of an  unattainable moral excellence4   
,they asked for fish1 and she gave them 
the stinging serpent of pleasure and    
self-enjoyment#i4 ,in ,athens the  human
 mind reached its zenith1 yet could not 

rise to happiness or peace4  ,how       
unspeakably was the world blessed1      
therefore1 when the cross of  ,christ   
was raised as the means whereby man     
might reach heaven4 ,never  before was  
such life-giving truth offered to the   
,athenians1 as the good  news which was 
now brought by the ,apostle who         
8preached unto them ,jesus  and the     
resurrection40 ,this was the subject of 
,st ,paul's daily  discourses in the    
,agora4 ,instead of blind theories and  
abstract ideas1  he placed before them a
 person2--a divine person1 who had left 
an example  of how to act and how to    
suffer2--a ,saviour1 who had died to    
open the way  to happiness for others2  
who had risen again to show that his    
sacrifice  was complete and sufficient4 
,the ,epicureans wondered and yet were  
unbelieving1 while they heard of one who
 was ,lord of all1 that he  thought of  
men's lives and cared for their needs4  
,it was strange and  unwelcome to them1 
who held that happiness was enjoyment   

and freedom  from pain1 to hear one     
proclaimed as worthy of their admiration
 and  trust1 who was 8a man of sorrows  
and acquainted with grief10 who even    
gloried in ,his sufferings and death2   
and who had bid those that would be  his
 disciples1 take up their cross and     
follow him1 by resisting and  subduing  
self and pride4 ,the ,stoics heard the  
tidings 7for 8the porch0  was in the    
,agora71 and they1 stern and            
self-reliant1 were surprised1 yet  not  
pleased1 to hear of one who led a life  
of self-sacrifice for others'  sake2 who
 was meek and lowly2 and who had sent   
his messenger to declare  to those very 
self-satisfied philosophers1 that the   
only way to real  virtue for them1 as   
for the rest of mankind1 was by trusting
 in the  merits of another1 and by a    
change of heart through ,his divine     
power4  8,the resurrection0 was also    
equally strange and equally contrary to 
the  ideas of the one sect1 who regarded
 death as annihilation2 and of the      

other1 who looked on it as the          
absorption of men into universal nature 
of which they were component parts4 ,to 
some the preacher seemed a mere         
babbler1 a picker up of trifles1 and    
therefore contemptible4 ,to others1  he 
was a setter forth of strange gods4 ,but
 because they are all desirous  of      
hearing anything newer than what they   
already are acquainted with1  they bring
 the ,apostle to ,mars' ,hill1 and      
desire him more fully to  expound to    
them the strange things which he had    
brought to their ears4  ,the locality   
chosen was more suitable than the busy  
market-place4 ,the  associations of the 
place were solemn and deeply            
interesting4 ,the  subject then brought 
before the people in the ,areopagus was 
worthy of  those associations1--far more
 important and of more momentous        
consequences than had ever been         
deliberated on there in times that were 
gone by4 ,the place1 the speaker1 the   
hearers1 the subject1 all appeal to  our

 sympathies and interest us most deeply4
 ,the discourse of the ,apostle  was    
admirably suited to the place and the   
hearers4 ,he appealed to their  deepest 
convictions1 while at the same time the 
message which he brought  thwarted many 
of their cherished ideas1 ,st ,luke has 
given us a report of  this speech1 so   
eloquent1 so worthy of the admiration of
 all time1 so  well calculated to show  
how far ,christianity coincided with    
,gentile1 and  especially ,stoic1       
philosophy1 and how it excelled4 ,this  
was what ,st ,paul  said1 8,ye men of   
,athens1 ,i perceive that in all        
respects you are  extremely devout#aj4  
,for as ,i passed through your city and 
beheld the  objects of your worship1 ,i 
found among them an altar on which was  
this  inscription1 #8,to the unknown    
,,god4' ,him1 therefore1 whom you       
worship  though you know him not1 ,i set
 before you4 ,,god1 who made the world  
and  all things therein1 being ,lord of 
heaven and earth1 dwelleth not in       

temples made with hands2 neither is he  
served by men's hands as being in  need 
of any1 seeing he giveth to all life and
 breath and all things4 ,and  hath made 
of one blood every nation of men to     
dwell on the face of the  whole earth2  
having ordained 7to all7 their appointed
 seasons and the  bounds of their       
habitations1 that they might seek ,,god1
 if haply they  would feel after him and
 find him1 though he be not far from    
every one  of us4 ,for in ,him we live  
and move and have our being2 as certain 
also  of your own poets have said1      
#8,for we are also his offspring4' ,we1 
therefore1 being the offspring of ,,god1
 ought not to think the ,godhead to  be 
like gold1 or silver1 or stone graven by
 art or man's device4 ,howbeit  those   
7past7 times of ignorance ,,god hath    
overlooked2 but now he  commandeth all  
men everywhere to repent4 ,because he   
hath appointed a day  in which he will  
judge the world in righteousness by that
 man whom he  hath ordained1 whereof he 

hath given assurance unto all1 in that  
he  raised him from the dead#aa40       
,there is much1 in connexion with the   
purpose of our essay1 that requires     
careful consideration in this discourse4
 ,if we want to understand the          
influence which ,christianity and       
,stoicism exercised1 one on the other1  
and on the souls of men1 we must notice 
them side by side at this their  first  
public encounter4 ,when we have observed
 how far the ,christian  teacher agreed 
with the ,stoic philosopher1 and in what
 he differed and  excelled1 we shall    
have a fair starting-place for          
investigating the  mutual consequences  
which resulted4 ,in order properly to   
grasp our  subject1 it will be necessary
 to place before our minds what         
,stoicism  was as it came from its      
founder1 and how far it was modified at 
this  time4 ,i purpose therefore in     
another chapter to give a sketch of the 
life and teaching of ,zeno of ,cittium1 
and of the modifications of his  system 

by ,cleanthes and ,chrysippus4 ,the way 
will then be clear to  compare the      
,apostle's teaching with theirs1 and to 
appreciate the  peculiar excellence of  
the good news preached by ,st ,paul on  
,mars' ,hill4    ,footnote #b3          
'      vy4--,jos4 in vita su4           
,footnote #c3      ,acts xxiii4 #h4     
,footnote #d3       v  1    1  '        
1   '      4--,jos4 ,ant4 ,jud4 ,,xiii4 
#e4    ,footnote #e3      ,whewell's    
,elements of ,morality1 ,preface to the 
#dth ,edition4    ,footnote #f3         
,chap4 i4 #i4    ,footnote #g3          
,rom4 ii4 #ae4    ,footnote #h3         
,apol4 #a4 #df4    ,footnote #i3        
,see our ,lord's words1 ,matt4 vii4 #i1 
#aj4    ,footnote #aj3      ,there can  
be no doubt that   valde religiosos4    
,footnote #aa3      ,acts xvii4 #bb-ca4 
,,chapter ,i4                      ,,the
 ,,stoic ,,school ,,of ,,philosophy4    
1           1 1   444               1   
'  1   4        ,diog4 ,laert4 vit4     
,phil4 ,lib4 ,,vii4 #f1 #g4      ,zeno  

was born at ,cittium1 a small city in   
the island of ,cyprus1 founded  by      
,phnicians1 but inhabited by ,greeks4   
,his father1 who was a merchant1        
finding his son attracted to the study  
of philosophy1 allowed him to  follow   
his bent4 ,from ,athens1 whither he had 
often occasion to go for  commercial    
purposes1 the father frequently brought 
home for his son many  writings of the  
,socratic school of philosophers4 ,zeno 
read these with  great eagerness and was
 enchanted with the views which they    
unfolded4  ,when he was about thirty    
years of age he made a voyage1 probably 
of  business and pleasure combined1 to  
the city which was at once the home  of 
the philosophers who had so delighted   
him by their works1 and a great  centre 
of trade4 ,the story goes that he was   
shipwrecked on the coast and  lost a    
valuable cargo of ,phnician purple which
 he had brought with him4  ,others say  
he did not lose his property when he    
first came to ,athens1  but was1 on the 

contrary1 abounding with wealth4 ,the   
former version of  the story would      
account to those who questioned the     
disinterestedness of  his conduct1 for  
his having attached himself to a sect   
that professed to  despise riches4 ,on  
his first arrival1 having read1 at a    
bookseller's  stall1 a few pages of     
,xenophon's ,memorabilia1 he formed a   
high opinion  of the author of a work   
which so pleased him1 and asked the     
bookseller  where such men were to be   
found4 ,crates1 the ,cynic1 happened to 
pass at  the time1 and the bookseller   
replied1 8,follow that man40 ,zeno acted
 on  the advice1 placed himself under   
the ,cynic philosopher's instruction1   
and enrolled himself among his          
disciples2 but he did not long remain   
so4  ,he became disgusted with the      
manner of the sect1 which he found too  
gross and unrefined for his taste2      
though at the same time he highly       
admired their general principles and    
spirit4 ,besides1 the activity of  his  

mind forbad him to abstain from all     
scientific enquiry1 and  indifference to
 science was a marked characteristic of 
the ,cynics4 ,he  became a disciple of  
the ,megaric doctrine1 and thought to   
learn the  nature and causes of things4 
,he attended the school of ,stilpo1 the 
chief  teacher of practical philosophy  
among the ,megaric succession1 who      
declared that the sovereign good was    
impassivity 774 ,zeno was  pleased with 
the teaching of this school4 ,to        
,crates1 his former master1  who1 being 
angry at his desertion1 endeavoured to  
draw him by force from  his new teacher1
 he exclaimed1 8,you may seize my body1 
but ,stilpo has  laid hold of my soul40 
,becoming tired of this teacher after   
some years1  he turned to ,diodorus     
,cronus1 who taught him ,dialectics1 and
 to ,philo2  both of these being        
contemporary ,megarics with ,stilpo4 ,he
 also studied  under ,xenocrates and    
,polemo1 who were expositors of         
,platonic philosophy2  and from the     

,academics he learnt much1 for we can   
perceive a germ of  ,stoicism in the    
,platonic philosophy4 ,but he found much
 in their teaching  also contradictory  
to his own theories4 ,when he came to   
,polemo1 that  teacher1 with an insight 
into his disposition1 said to him1 8,i  
am no  stranger to your ,phnician arts1 
,zeno2 ,i see that you intend slily to  
creep into my garden and steal my       
fruit40    ,being now1 after twenty     
years' study1 well informed as to what  
others  could teach him1 as he was      
either dissatisfied with all1 or moved  
by  ambition1 he determined to found a  
new school4 ,the place chosen for his   
teaching was a public portico1 adorned  
with the paintings of ,polygnotus  and  
other masters4 ,hence it was called     
7the painted porch72  more commonly1 as 
it was the most famous in ,athens1 it   
was simply called  4 ,from this arose   
the name of the ,stoics4 ,as a teacher1 
,zeno was  celebrated for subtle        
reasoning and for enjoining strict      

morality of  conduct4 ,as a man1 his    
conduct corresponded with his teaching4 
,his  doctrines and manner of life teach
 us that he gathered much from various  
systems4 ,he gathered from ,pythagoras  
and ,plato and ,aristotle by the        
teaching of ,xenocrates and ,polemo1    
from the ,megaric school by the         
teaching of ,stilpo1 ,diodorus ,cronus1 
and ,philo4 ,cicero1 in his ,academic   
,questions1 tells us that the doctrines 
of the old ,academy were changed  by    
,zeno only in name4 ,he adhered too to  
the ,cynic doctrines1 slightly  tinged  
by subsequent training perhaps1         
especially by ,stilpo's teaching  that  
the perfection of wisdom consisted in   
impassivity4 ,but he did not  share in  
,cynic grossness1 insolence1 and        
affectation4 ,he obtained the  applause 
and love of numerous disciples1 among   
whom was ,antigonus  ,gonatas1 king of  
,macedon1 ,cleanthes1 and perhaps       
,chrysippus2 though the  last may have  
been the disciple of ,cleanthes only4   

,to these two we must  refer again4 ,the
 ,athenians are said so to have         
respected ,zeno that they  trusted to   
his keeping the keys of the citadel4    
,this may be questioned2  but there is  
no reason to doubt that they honoured   
him with a golden  crown1 that they gave
 him a public burial in the ,ceramicus  
when he died1  and erected to his memory
 a statue of brass4 ,by ,cyprians and   
,sidonians1  to whom he was allied by   
descent1 he was also held in reverence4 
,he is  described as having been a thin 
withered man1 of dark complexion1 and   
with his neck bent4 ,he preserved his   
health1 though naturally feeble1 by     
abstemious living4 ,his diet1 even when 
honoured by noble guests1 as he  often  
was1 consisted only of figs1 bread1 and 
honey4 ,his brow1 furrowed  with        
thought1 and his look stern and hard1   
showed his ,cynic education2  but1 in   
contrast to his first teachers1 he was  
neat and careful in his  dress and      
person4 ,frugal in his expenses1 he was 

without avarice4 ,he  conversed freely1 
with poor as with rich4 ,he had only one
 servant2  ,seneca says1 none at all4   
,though he was proverbially sober and   
chaste1 he was assailed by various      
enemies in his lifetime4 ,arcesilaus and
 ,carneades of the ,new ,academy1  and  
in his latter years1 ,epicurus1 who     
disliked the philosophy and pride  of   
,zeno1 were his powerful antagonists4   
,little credit is due1 however1  to the 
abuse which passed on both sides4 ,he   
lived to old age4 ,when he  died is     
matter of doubt4 ,he is said to have    
been alive in the #acjth  ,olympiad4 ,in
 his #ihth year1 as he was leaving his  
school1 he stumbled  and fell1 and broke
 one of his fingers in the fall4 ,pain  
so affected him  that he exclaimed1     
striking the earth1 1  ' 2 8,i come1    
why dost thou call me80 ,he went home   
and strangled himself1 about the  year  
,b4,c4 #bfj4    ,in trying1 at the      
present day1 to estimate the teaching of
 ,zeno1 it is  necessary for us to      

consider the circumstances of the age in
 which he  lived and taught1 and to     
remember also that it is difficult to   
find out  how much of the later ,stoic  
philosophy really came from him4 ,his   
writings were numerous#ab1 but they are 
lost4 ,his teaching seems to  have been 
modified1 and sometimes even changed    
altogether1 by  ,chrysippus4 ,indeed the
 later professed disciples of the school
 seldom  went back to the works of the  
first ,stoic4 ,let us1 as well as we    
can1  however1 lay hold of the          
circumstances in which he was placed as 
a  philosopher1 and the alterations he  
introduced4    ,he began his course at a
 time of decay in ,greece1 and when the 
mind of  men was become sceptical as to 
all things in heaven and earth4         
,philosophers had so quarrelled with one
 another's dogmas1 and proved one       
another wrong so often1 that men began  
to doubt if there were any  foundation  
on which to rest4 ,,god was educating   
the world for the  reception of the     

great truths of revelation4 ,he did this
 by showing men  how helpless they were 
in divine things by their own unaided   
nature1 how  contradictory their        
speculations1 how far short of the truth
 the highest  attainments of human      
intellects1 how uncertain it was which  
was truth of  the various theories      
proposed1 so that men doubted about all 
truth4 ,zeno  under these circumstances 
did a great work in educating the world 
still  further1 and preparing it for the
 great ,truth4 ,he was to the people of 
his day in some degree what ,socrates   
was to the men of his age4 ,he  brought 
back the influence of reason and common 
sense1 rescuing them  from the          
,pyrrhonists1 as ,socrates did from the 
,sophists4 ,like the son of             
,sophroniscus1 also1 the founder of the 
,stoics turned men from mere            
speculation to action4 ,socrates taught 
men to look within themselves1  and     
created a desire to live as became them4
 ,he was an ethical reformer1  and so   

turned men away from the guesses of a   
so-called philosophy1 and  from the     
scepticism consequent on failure4       
,victor ,cousin has well said1  8,la    
philosophie ,grecque avait t d'abord une
 philosophie de la nature2  arrive  sa  
maturit elle change de caractre et de   
direction et elle  devient une          
philosophie morale1 sociale1 humaine4   
,c'est ,socrate qui  ouvre cette        
nouvelle re et qui en reprsente le      
caractre en sa  personne40 ,plato       
followed him in this4 ,his fundamental  
problem was how  man might live like    
,,god4 ,aristotle turned men's thoughts 
back again to  physics and metaphysics2 
and then came a period of systematic    
scepticism1 by which the vanity of the  
guesses of philosophy was exposed  and  
derided4 ,zeno and ,epicurus1 so        
different in other respects1 yet both   
brought men back to a better mind by    
teaching them that philosophy was  the  
art of living aright rather than merely 
thinking aright2 the former1  because   

living aright was in accordance with    
nature1--the latter1 because  it made   
men happy1 and happiness was the great  
end to be sought by  all#ac4 ,zeno and  
,epicurus both had thus their share in  
training men to  receive the great      
,truth of ,,god2 for they both proved   
that man of himself  can do nothing but 
conceive of perfections that human      
nature alone  cannot reach3 while the   
believer in divine love and mercy learns
 to say  with ,st ,paul1 8,i can do all 
things through ,christ which            
strengtheneth  me40    ,i have before   
intimated that ,zeno has been said to   
have borrowed much of  his philosophy   
from former masters1 giving the truths  
new names4 ,the  various schools which  
at different times prevailed in ,greece1
 amidst  much contradiction1 yet        
contained some germs of truth1 and      
therefore so  far had some agreement one
 with the other4 ,but the truth was     
cumbered  with so much rubbish that it  
was overpowered and hidden4 ,these      

various  schools of thought endeavoured 
to grasp the same object from different 
standpoints1 and opposed all others4    
,the ,ionics looked around them1 and    
from external objects tried to make one 
natural law for all subjects and        
combinations4 ,they wished to reduce all
 things to accord with a settled        
physical law4 ,they aimed at discovering
 a principle1 a substance1 of  which    
every thing that exists is a            
combination4 ,the ,mathematical school  
reasoned from within themselves4 ,as    
,thales looked on the external  universe
 and thence turned within1 so           
,pythagoras reasoned on external        
objects from within himself1 from mental
 harmonies to physical4 ,then  came the 
,eleatics1 contradicting even reason    
itself4 ,zeno1 the ,eleatic1  argued    
against motion and sensible unity4      
,parmenides declared that  8thought and 
being are the same20 that 8thought and  
that for which  thought exists are one40
 ,indeed the great maxim of the school  

was    4 ,they taught that the sensible 
universe was purely phenomenal  and     
accidental3 that it was apparent1 not   
real4 ,the ,megaric school1  which ,zeno
 ,citticus attended soon after he came  
to ,athens1 taught  somewhat similar    
doctrines1 but in a dialectic form4     
,their tenets1 ,pliny  tells us1        
produced in daily life1 8rigorem quendam
 torvitatemque natur  duram et          
inflexibilem40 ,i have already said that
 ,stilpo placed the  height of wisdom in
 impassivity4 ,these doctrines1 so      
various1 so  contradictory to reason    
oftentimes1 made many men professedly   
sceptics4  ,pyrrho and his followers1   
having proved the impossibility of a    
science  superhuman in its height being 
reached by unaided man1 supposed they   
had  destroyed all knowledge and        
certainty whatever4 ,the state of       
,athens then  was particularly          
unsatisfactory4 ,old creeds were        
tottering4 ,the  spiritual life of      
,greece was decaying1 as was its        

national4 ,men wanted  some refuge from 
the distractions of their minds4 ,their 
spiritual  nature1 their soul1 began to 
exert its power1 to speak in tones that 
would be heard4 ,the mind had been      
trying to still its craving with the    
noble but unsatisfying theories of      
,plato1 or the subtleties of            
,aristotle4 ,but the soul1 the inner    
life1 had been uncared for4 ,now it     
claimed its share of attention and new  
schools arose to satisfy1 as far  as    
they could1 the newly felt longings4    
,at such a time1 ,zeno founded his      
system4 ,when ,greece was tottering and 
falling into ruin1 out of materials     
which ,i have shown to be so            
contradictory1 he built up a structure  
which outlasted ,greece1 and was        
removed 7altered a little1 but in the   
main the same71 to the new centre  of   
the civilization and power of the world4
 ,his system lasted from his  day to the
 time of ,marcus ,aurelius4 ,it was     
embraced by the ,romans with  eagerness1

 as being congenial with their nature1  
before they became  corrupted by their  
unrivalled prosperity4 ,when at length  
it had done its  destined work in the   
world1 it yielded to a mightier and     
holier  influence2 leaving1 however1 its
 impress on the souls of men1 even as1  
before its own decay1 it received some  
of the rays of divine light which  came 
from heaven with the ,son of ,,god1     
though it did not acknowledge the  boon4
    ,it would be beside the purpose of  
the present essay to enter into all  the
 specialities of the ,zenonic doctrines2
 or to enquire at large1 how  far ,zeno 
differed from ,plato1 or how nearly he  
agreed with ,aristotle1 in  defining the
 manner of perception by the mind4 ,we  
need not discuss    1 which ,sextus     
,empiricus alleges to have been held  by
 ,zeno and his successors as the one    
means of judging true from false2       
respecting which even ,cleanthes and    
,chrysippus differed#ad4 ,an outline  of
 the main features of the system will be

 sufficient4 ,as ,i have before  said1  
the first ,stoic fixed his thoughts     
chiefly on moral conduct4 ,his          
philosophy was eminently practical4 ,it 
referred to the daily life4 ,in  order  
to stem the torrent of scepticism and   
sensuality1 he taught men  the value1   
the absolute necessity1 of virtue4 ,they
 were to apply his  dogmas to their     
daily experience4 ,they were not to     
speculate1 but to  act2 not to doubt1   
but to dare4 ,he taught them also that  
what ,socrates  had said was true1 that 
the knowledge and practice of good was  
virtue  and wisdom1 that vice was       
therefore error in its worst form4 ,in  
order to  induce men to conform to this 
knowledge in their way of life1 he      
unfolded to them how they were related  
to the universe4    ,every rational     
theory respecting the universe admits of
 an ,absolute  ,being of some sort4 ,the
 difference begins1 when the relation of
 the  universe with the ,absolute       
,infinite is explained and unfolded4    

,one  theory would distinguish the      
,infinite from the universe1 but make   
him  act from a kind of necessity4 ,a   
second theory would allow him to act    
with perfect freedom of will4 ,a third  
theory would make the universe  itself  
to be the ,absolute ,infinite2 and a    
fourth would insist that the  ,infinite 
,being is matter1 of which the universe 
is only a modification4  ,zeno seems to 
have taught the third of these theories2
 though in after  writers we see traces 
of the first4 ,according to him1 there  
existed from  all eternity a chaos1 a   
confused mass1  1 which contained the   
germ of all future things4 ,gradually1  
order supervened and creation  assumed  
forms of various kinds1 resulting in the
 universe as it is now4  ,the universe  
is one whole1 which comprises all       
things2 yet contains a  passive         
principle1 matter1  1 and an active     
principle1   1 which is reason1 or      
,,god4 ,the soul of man is part of this 
divine  nature1 and will be reabsorbed  

into it and lose its individual         
existence4 ,the ,deity in action1 if we 
may so speak1 is a certain active  ther1
 or fire1 possessed of intelligence4    
,this first gave form to the  original  
chaos1 and1 being an essential part of  
the universe1 sustains  it in order4    
,the overruling power1 which seems      
sometimes in idea to have  been         
separated from the ,absolute ,being1 was
 1 fate1 or absolute  necessity4 ,to    
this the universe is subject1 both in   
its material and  divine nature4 ,men   
return to life totally oblivious of the 
past1 and by  the decrees of fate are   
possessed of a renovated existence1 but 
still in  imperfection and subject to   
sorrow as before4 ,the tenets of the    
later  ,stoics may have been tinged with
 ,christian truth on this point1 as on  
others2 but they had none of the noble  
hope of the ,christian 4  ,indeed1      
respecting their dogma1 ,seneca said1   
8,this renewal of life many  would      
reject1 were it not that their restored 

existence is accompanied  with utter    
forgetfulness of the past40    ,on their
 physical principles1 the moral         
principles of the ,stoics  depended4    
,conceiving themselves to be part of    
universal nature1 that  their souls were
 part of the divinity which actuated    
matter1 they held  themselves in some   
measure to be gods4 ,in human life      
therefore they must  follow nature1 of  
which they formed part4 ,but then this  
nature was not  this or that man's      
natural leaning1 but the laws of fate   
and the  universal course of things1    
from which resulted the unsuitableness  
of  certain courses1 and the excellence 
of others4 ,to be conformed to the  laws
 of the universe1 of which they formed  
an essential part1 was the  ultimate end
 of life4 ,every man conforming to these
 laws is happy1  notwithstanding        
external evils4 ,every man's happiness1 
then1 is in his  own power2 he is a god 
to himself in some measure4 ,to live    
according to  his true nature is to live

 godly2 godly life is virtue4 ,this is  
itself  true happiness1 independently of
 pleasure in the common acceptation of  
the term2 because the supreme good is to
 follow what the law of nature  points  
out as being good4 ,virtue having its   
seat in the soul1 outward  circumstances
 cannot reach the good man4 ,as he can  
distinguish good from  evil1 he is wise2
 and this suffices for him4 ,external   
things1 forasmuch  as they cannot reach 
him1 can neither increase his happiness 
or cause  him misery4 ,even torture     
cannot move him1 because it cannot reach
 his  inner1 true nature4 ,there is no  
distinction between different virtues as
  to degree1 because they owe their     
existence to their accordance with      
nature4 ,all vices are equal in degree1 
because they run counter to the  one law
 of virtue4 ,these seem to have been the
 principal features of  ,zeno's         
teaching4 ,his morality partook of the  
evil of its origin4 ,it was  essentially
 artificial4 ,little regard was paid to 

real nature in the  pursuit of what was 
called natural law3 there was little    
common sense1  oftentimes1 in the ideas 
set forth under pretence of philosophy4 
,we cannot lose sight of the fact1      
however1 that ,stoicism1 as it came in  
contact with ,christianity1 was a system
 that owed much to ,cleanthes1 and      
still more to ,chrysippus4 ,indeed1     
regarding the latter1 we are told#ae    
that it was said1     1    4 ,the former
 was  the earnest ,stoic2 the latter the
 philosophical and dialectic setter     
forth of the system4 ,under his hands1  
in his various and most copious         
writings1 the system was probably not   
merely developed1 but materially        
modified in some respects1 and          
systematized4 ,cleanthes has left few   
records of his opinions behind him3 but 
his ,hymn to ,jupiter will ever  stand  
as a marvellous memorial of his worth   
and intellect4 ,it bears  strong        
evidence to the ,monotheism of the      
system which he espoused4 ,it  has been 

a matter of controversy whether the     
,stoics were monotheists1 or            
polytheists4 ,the hymn to which ,i have 
just referred1 and to which ,i  shall   
refer again in another chapter1 bears   
strong evidence1 on the face  of it1 to 
the belief in one absolute supreme      
being4 ,yet other passages  in many     
,stoic writers would seem to convey a   
different idea4 ,but it will  be well   
for us not to forget that the system was
 founded on a notion of  the divine     
nature totally different from our       
conception of a divine  being4 ,the     
monotheism of some of the ,stoic writers
 may have been the  result of previous  
education4 ,the fact may be that one1 or
 two1 rose to  higher conceptions of the
 ,eternal1 than others were privileged  
with4  ,this may have resulted from     
their having come of a different        
stock#af1  and having had a different   
early bent--a deeper intuition1 as it   
were1 by  nature--a purer speculation as
 to the unseen--than those with which   

others  of the sect were endowed4 ,those
 who were of a stock which deified      
almost  all things1 might carry their   
phantasies into the system itself4 ,and 
indeed it is possible that the same     
persons1 under different influences1    
may have had rather varied views of the 
hidden world4 ,the system was one  of   
ethics and not of speculative           
philosophy4 ,and if ,christianity1 with 
all its divine testimonials and         
influences1 does not bring all minds    
into one accord about all things--even  
those who are of one school of  theology
 varying in opinion on certain          
points--how very probable it is  that   
men of the same school of philosophy1   
with merely the authority of  one man1  
neither possessing1 nor claiming a      
divine mission as founder1  should have 
somewhat different shades of thought4   
,how possible it is  that they should1  
while viewing things from different     
points of view1 be  almost inconsistent 
with themselves4 ,this kind of          

inconsistency was  urged again and again
 against ,chrysippus1 the most          
voluminous writer and  chief            
dialectician of the ,stoics4 ,cleanthes 
has left few memorials  behind him1 but 
his earnest pursuit of knowledge1 his   
struggles to  obtain the time and means 
of study1 show the pre-eminent zeal of  
the  man4 ,this zeal was the great      
motive of his life4 ,possessed of a     
strong  frame1 of great powers of       
endurance1 we are told that he earned by
 night  what enabled him to live in     
study by day4 ,his determination was so 
strong that he even made use of         
potsherds and bones as his note-tablets4
  ,such a man would impress his         
earnestness on the system he espoused4  
,his  disciple1 ,chrysippus1 does not   
seem to have possessed his earnestness  
of  purpose to find out the truth1 so   
much as to establish the system and     
wage war in its favour against all      
adversaries4 ,we have remarked that     
some inconsistencies of doctrine were   

alleged against him4 ,these appear  to  
have been owing to his desire to        
reconcile irreconcilable things2 as1    
divine sovereignty with human freedom in
 any respect3--universal goodness  in   
the ordering of nature with the presence
 of moral evil in the world4  ,such     
subjects must always remain mysteries4  
,he who will explain them  will be      
inconsistent either with himself or with
 truth4    ,i shall proceed1 in another 
chapter1 to place the system of ,zeno1  
,cleanthes1 and ,chrysippus 7that is1   
,stoicism as it came1 in its  perfected 
condition1 into contact with divine     
truth7 side by side with  the doctrines 
and precepts taught us in the religion  
of ,christ4 ,we shall  see much to      
admire1 much to lament in the sect that 
wished to raise the  individual almost  
to the level of the deity1 and yet      
showed1 by the  suicides of the first   
two of its founders1 and by other proofs
 of human  error1 the fallacy on which  
the system was built1 that man himself  

is  part of the divinity1 and so has    
only to act on his own influence to     
rise to perfection4    ,footnote #ab3   
,diog4 ,laert4 enumerates and quotes    
many of his writings4    ,footnote #ac3 
8,le caractre commun de ,stocisme et de 
l',epicurisme est de rduire    presque  
entirement la philosophie  la           
morale40--,v4 ,,cousin4    ,footnote    
#ad3      ,cleanthes said that it was   
1 an impression made on the    soul1    
similar to that of a stamp on molten    
wax1   3    while ,chrysippus said it   
was a 1 or modification of the soul     
itself4    ,footnote #ae3      ,by      
,diog4 ,laert4 ,lib4 ,,vii4 c4 ,,vii4   
,v4    ,footnote #af3      ,i cannot    
refrain from quoting here the following 
excellent remarks on    the origin of   
many ,stoic philosophers who had great  
influence on the    system1 from the    
article1 8,the ,ancient ,stoics10 in the
 ,oxford ,essays    of #aheh1 by ,sir   
,alexander ,grant1 ,bart43 8,if we cast 
our eyes on a list    of the early      

,stoics and their native places1 we     
cannot avoid noticing    how many of    
this school appear to have come of an   
,eastern and often of    a ,semitic     
stock4 ,zeno1 their founder1 was from   
,cittium1 in ,cyprus1 by    all accounts
 of a ,phnician family4 ,of his         
disciples ,persus came also    from     
,cittium2 ,herillus was from ,carthage2 
,athenodorus from ,tarsus2    ,cleanthes
 from ,assos1 in the ,troad4 ,the chief 
disciples of ,cleanthes    were ,iphrus 
of the ,bosphorus1 and ,chrysippus from 
,soli in ,cilicia4    ,chrysippus was   
succeeded by ,zeno of ,sidon1 and       
,diogenes of ,babylon4    ,the latter   
taught ,antipater of ,tarsus2 who taught
 ,panlius of ,rhodus2    who taught     
,posidonius of ,apamea in ,syria4 ,there
 was another    ,athenodorus1 from      
,cana1 in ,cilicia2 and the early ,stoic
 ,archedemus is    mentioned by ,cicero 
as belonging to ,tarsus4 ,when we notice
 the    frequent connexion of ,cilicia  
with this list of names1 we may well be 

reminded of one who was born at ,tarsus1
 in ,cilicia1 a citizen of no    mean   
city2 and we may be led to ask1 is there
 not something in the    mental         
characteristics of the early ,stoics    
analogous to his80                      
,,chapter ,,ii4                         
,,stoicism ,,in ,,comparison ,,with     
,,christianity4              1         4
        #a ,ep4 ad ,cor4 #a4 #ba4       
,our way is now plain to compare this   
system of philosophy1 which has  thus   
been sketched1 with the teaching of     
,christianity4 ,we shall see1 if  we    
place the address of ,st ,paul on ,mars'
 ,hill as the foundation of our         
thought1 how much the ,christian        
,apostle had in common with the ,stoic  
teachers4 ,as we go further and ask     
ourselves the foundations on which  the 
tenets of the religion of ,jesus1 and   
those of the philosophy of  ,zeno1 rest1
 we shall see that herein they widely   
differ4 ,it will be our  work1 in order 
to distinguish the two things to be     

compared1 again to  refer to the address
 to the ,athenians3 and although an     
exhaustive  commentary on that address  
would be out of place here2 yet the     
subject  seems to claim that we refer to
 certain parts somewhat minutely4    ,we
 cannot fail to be struck with the fact 
that1 first of all1 the  ,apostle wished
 to draw the minds of his hearers1 from 
themselves and all  surrounding objects1
 to one great and supreme ,creator and  
,governor of  the world4 ,this infinite 
,being he shows to be a distinct        
personal  existence1 separate from and  
superior to all things2 yet one who     
concerns ,himself intimately with the   
affairs of men4 ,he is not a  something 
vivifying and permeating all things1 and
 forming part of the  essence of all    
things4 ,he is the great first cause of 
all1 and existed  before and            
independently of all4 ,the ,apostle     
implies that none of the  guesses of the
 wisest among his hearers had reached   
the truth4 ,yet they  had been feeling  

after ,him1 as men in the dark try to   
feel their way to  light4 ,they had     
shown their conviction that there was a 
great ,,god1 to  the knowledge of whom  
they were strangers4 ,to ,him they had  
erected an  altar calling him by his    
title of ,unknown4 ,thus ,st ,paul      
appeals to deep  convictions impressed  
on their minds4 ,at the same time1 he   
does not  shrink from showing that ,,god
 does not require men's help1 nor love  
the  worship of idolators2 though the   
announcement ran counter to strong      
prejudices1 deeply seated in the minds  
of his hearers4 ,men1 he told  them1 are
 the offspring of ,,god4 ,they should   
therefore render him the  intelligent   
and loving service due from children to 
a wise and  beneficent parent4 ,now in  
this great view of truth there was      
presented  to the ,stoic much that he   
could agree with1 and yet a great deal  
opposed  to1 or in advance of1 his      
preconceived notions4 ,the idea of the  
philosopher had been of a supreme power 

which was a principle rather  than a    
person4 ,looking at himself1 in         
connexion with the universe1 he  had not
 thought it impious to consider himself 
a very part of this  divine essence1    
rather than a creature made by the      
divine power4 ,hence  he had not a      
humbling sense of his nothingness in    
comparison with the  ,eternal4 ,his     
philosophy rather gave him a feeling of 
pride1 from the  conviction of his      
individual worth and greatness1 as an   
essential part  of the great supreme4   
,he did not see that there was a mighty 
,being1 a  self-existent ,person1       
infinitely removed in power and nature  
from all  that he has made2 and that by 
,him men are cared for and loved1 as the
  members of a vast family1 of which he 
is the ,creator and ,father4 ,and in    
saying this1 ,i do not lose sight of the
 fact that some of the ,stoics1 at      
times1 seem to have risen superior to   
their own doctrines1 and to have        
listened to the inner voice which       

whispered to them of the everlasting    
,father4 ,whether it was from ,aratus1  
or ,cleanthes1 that ,st ,paul quoted1   
in his address to the ,athenians1 yet we
 are forcibly reminded1 by his  words1  
of the noble hymn of the second in the  
,stoic succession1 a song  of praise    
almost unparalleled among the writings  
of heathen antiquity  for nobility of   
utterance and purity of thought4        
,addressing the chief of  the gods1 who1
 he says1 has many names and is the     
omnipotent prince of  nature1 he sings3 
8,we are ,thy offspring2 and of living  
things we alone have the gift of        
speech1 the image of reason4 ,therefore 
,i will for ever sing thee and          
celebrate thy power4 ,all this universe 
revolving round the earth obeys  thee1  
and willingly pursues its course at thy 
command4 ,in thine  unconquerable hands 
thou holdest such a minister as the     
two-edged1  flaming1 vivid thunderbolt4 
,o ,king1 most high1 nothing is done    
without  thee1 either in heaven1 or on  

the earth1 or in the sea1 except what   
the  wicked do in their foolishness4    
,thou makest order out of confusion1 and
  what is worthless becomes precious in 
thy sight2 for thou hast fitted         
together good and evil into one1 and    
hast set up one law that is             
everlasting4 ,but the wicked1 unhappy   
ones1 fly from thy law1 and though  they
 desire to possess what is good1 yet do 
they not see1 nor do they  hear the     
universal law of ,,god4 ,if they would  
follow it with  understanding they might
 have a good life4 ,but they go astray1 
each  after his own devices1 some vainly
 ambitious of fame1 others turning      
aside after gain avariciously1 others   
after riotous living and  wantonness4   
,nay1 but1 ,o ,zeus1 giver of all       
things1 who dwellest in dark  clouds and
 rulest over the thunder1 deliver men   
from their foolishness2  scatter it from
 their souls4 ,grant them also to obtain
 wisdom1 for by  wisdom thou dost       
rightly govern all things2 that being   

honoured we may  repay thee with honour1
 singing thy works without ceasing1 as  
is right  for us to do4 ,for there is no
 greater thing than this1 either for    
mortal  men1 or for the gods1 to sing   
aright the universal law40    ,one      
cannot fail to be struck with the       
marvellous insight into the  holiest    
truths revealed in these lines4 ,a      
candid mind must acknowledge  with      
thankfulness how graciously ,,god was   
training the mind of man for  the       
reception of the mystery of godliness   
unfolded in the ,gospel4 ,this  fact ,st
 ,paul acknowledged4 ,he told the       
,athenians that he was come to  bring   
them further intelligence of a ,being1  
whom they1 as the words of  some of     
their poets proved1 acknowledged as the 
,lord and ,father of all2  whom they    
were desirous of knowing more fully4    
,yet if we read the  writings of the    
,stoics we cannot but be saddened by the
 reflection that  such views of ,god    
were exceptional2 that such desires to  

know more of  him were evanescent1 if   
they existed at all in the minds of     
some4 ,these  feelings were the work of 
some inner power1 not the result of     
their  system of philosophy4 ,the theory
 of the universe which this system      
taught was one that did not bow down the
 human soul in humble obedience  and in 
abasement before the ,almighty2 but     
rather caused a sense of pride  and     
self-dependence at variance with this   
feeling4 ,hence we meet with  such      
expressions as we find urged against the
 sect by ,plutarch#ag1 who  informs us  
that ,chrysippus said that 8the sage is 
not less useful to  ,zeus than ,zeus is 
to the sage40 ,similarly1 how often are 
there recurring  in various forms such a
 sentiment as we find1 for instance1 in 
,marcus  ,antoninus#ah1     1   4 ,while
 this  was a cause of pride1 it was also
 one of sadness4 ,each man felt1 in a   
great measure1 left to himself4 ,he was 
an atom broken off from a vast  whole1  
and would1 bye and bye1 be restored to  

his former union4 ,but he  did not feel 
in this life that there was an intimate 
personal loving  union with a wise and  
holy being1 who was his personal friend 
and  father4    ,this brings us to      
another point in which ,christianity and
 ,stoicism were  a contrast1 yet at     
first sight not very far removed one    
from the other4  ,both allowed and      
taught an universal law1 by which all   
nature and all  events are regulated2   
but while the one teaches that this     
universal law  is the wisdom of an      
infallible ,lord constantly             
superintending and  ordering all things 
well1 the other held that all things    
were arranged  according to the decrees 
of a blind and unalterable fate4 ,the   
,apostle of  ,christ taught the         
,athenians that there was no truth in   
the wild  speculation of the ,epicurean1
 who held that all things happened by   
chance3 but he brought before them1 as a
 ruler1 a being full of  intelligence   
and constantly superintending the course

 of events2 not  some inexorable fate4  
,he told them of one who1 having created
 of one  blood all nations that dwell on
 the face of the earth1 arranged the    
period of their existence and fixed the 
bounds of their habitation4 ,and  ,he   
did this all in wisdom1 with the        
intention that all men might seek  ,him1
 and find their happiness in the        
knowledge of ,his goodness and by       
participating in ,his love4 ,contrasted 
with this was the doctrine of  fatalism 
which the ,stoics taught4 ,all things   
proceeded1 they said1 from  destiny1    
which was omnipotent4 ,to its decrees   
both gods and men must  bow4 ,from its  
power not the highest even were exempt4 
,this destiny was  8the law according to
 which what has been1 has been2 what is1
 is2 and  what shall be1 shall be#ai40  
,instead of an overruling ,providence   
constantly superintending the affairs of
 the universe1 there was a law  binding 
the highest ,god1 as well as the lowest 
in creation4 ,so we read  in ,seneca    

7,de ,providentia1 cap4 ,,vi473 8,eadem 
necessitas et ,deos  alligat4           
,irrevocabilis divina pariter atque     
humana cursus vehit4 ,ille  ipse omnium 
conditor ac rector scripsit quidem      
,fata1 sed sequitur4  ,semper paret1    
semel jussit40 ,the ,stoical doctrine   
then was that ,,god  himself is a       
servant to the necessity of the material
 scheme2 that ,he is  bound by eternal  
decrees2 that he could not have created 
an atom  different from what it is1 and 
cannot change anything merely according 
to what ,he may will in the future4 ,so 
,cicero quotes a ,greek poet1 and  puts 
these words as his meaning1 8,quod fore 
paratum est1 id summum  exuperat        
,jovem40 ,indeed the first ,stoics      
adopted this fatalism as their  belief1 
and seem to have held firmly as a truth1
 what ,herodotus states1    4 ,we shall 
see that this necessitarian scheme had  
an  influence1 of no small extent1 on   
certain parts of the ,church of ,christ 
in after ages4    ,i must proceed here1 

however1 to point out another aspect in 
which1  though they seem to have had the
 same end before them1 namely1 the      
raising man to moral excellence1 yet    
,christianity and ,stoicism differed    
entirely--the means whereby human       
perfection is to be attained4           
,christianity pointed men to the way of 
humility and self-renunciation4         
,stoicism pointed them to the           
perfectibility of man by his own        
exertion1  without trusting on divine   
aid4 ,st ,paul preached ,jesus to the   
enquiring  minds of ,greece2 ,jesus1 as 
a ,saviour--,jesus1 as an ,example to   
those who  would attain holiness of     
life--as a pattern of a perfect man4    
,now no  lesson is more plainly taught  
in the ,gospel of ,christ1 than the     
truth  that penitence and humility are  
the necessary precursors of holiness and
  true glory4 ,the ,stoic would look on 
repentance as a confession that he  had 
failed in his philosophy4 ,it was no    
part of his scheme to lower  himself in 

order to rise4 ,much less had he any    
idea of trusting in  another's merits1  
and in another's self-sacrifice1 in     
order to have any  chance at all of     
becoming perfect for ever4 ,but then1   
his idea of  perfection was perfection  
as a philosopher in this life4 ,the     
glorious  hope of an eternal future1 in 
which he would take part as a purified  
being1 freed from all sin and defilement
 by the power of the omnipotent         
,father1 and by the furnace through     
which he had to pass in struggling      
during a lifetime with temptation and   
with affliction1 was no part of  his    
creed4 ,like the ,christian1 he had a   
lofty purpose1 but his purpose  was     
confined to this life2 to be conformed  
to the course of nature2 to  rise by his
 philosophy to a region of indifference 
about outward things4  ,his end was     
attained1 he thought1 if he subdued his 
own nature2 if he  learnt to bear1      
without flinching1 whatever might cause 
him pain or  inconvenience2 if what men 

commonly call natural feelings and      
affections  were done violence to1      
without compunction1 that he might thus 
attain to  conformity with the rule of  
universal nature4 ,all this he did1 or  
professed to do1 of his own power4 ,he  
did not require a power from on  high1  
to forgive his errors1 and to give him  
strength to be virtuous4  ,rather1 he   
was to be virtuous as a means of making 
,,god propitious4 ,just  as ,seneca     
says#bj1 8,inter bonos viros ac ,deum   
amicitia est1 conciliante  virtute40 ,so
 that between this system and the       
,christian doctrine1 though  they both  
professedly inculcate a life of virtue  
and self-denial1 there  is an impassable
 gulph4 ,stoicism raised pride in human 
excellence into a  part of its teaching4
 ,indeed1 the ,stoic was1 as has been   
justly  observed1 a ,pharisee among     
heathens4 ,he prided himself upon being 
not as  others around him2 upon being   
better and more exalted in virtue than  
they2 and therefore upon being nearer   

,,god1 and more worthy of the love  of  
the ,most ,high4 ,now ,christianity goes
 on exactly the opposite  principle to  
this4 ,she teaches men that they must   
obtain the divine  favour and aid1 not  
by means of their innate superiority1   
but as the  means of rising to holiness 
and virtue4 ,we cannot take any steps at
 all  in true moral excellence1 till we 
are possessed of the love of ,,god4     
,this  is the foundation of ,christian  
truth4 ,the divine life must have its   
beginning in repentance and renunciation
 of self1 in deep humility and          
consequent trust in divine aid1 given to
 all who ask it for ,christ's  sake2    
because ,,god is love4 ,we shall see1   
nevertheless1 that the views of  many   
,christians have been tinged with the   
,stoic belief1 that by                  
self-mortification1 and even by trying  
to uproot natural affections and        
feelings1 planted in man by ,,god       
himself for wise ends1 the human soul   
renders herself worthier of the         

friendship of heaven4 ,we hear ,st      
,paul1  however1 setting before the     
,athenians this great duty1 first of    
all1  that they feel and acknowledge    
themselves in error1 in order to        
amendment of life2 and that they trust  
in the merits of another1 in  order to  
atone for their own demerits4 8,he      
commandeth all men everywhere  to       
repent40 ,this was the testimony of the 
messenger of the true ,,god4  ,from the 
mention of the resurrection of ,jesus1  
immediately after this1  and the manner 
in which that resurrection is spoken of1
 it would seem  that ,st ,paul gave the 
,athenians some particulars of the      
,redeemer's life  and death either on   
,mars' ,hill or in the ,agora4 ,now the 
life of ,christ  would teach the ,stoic1
 that true philosophy is not trying to  
eradicate  human feelings and instincts1
 but controlling them4 ,nothing is so   
striking and so lovely in the divine    
life of the ,son of ,,god1 as its       
humanity4 ,he is a 8man with men10 in   

every sense of the word4 ,he is  not    
ashamed to show ordinary human feelings4
 ,he was truly noble1 yet not  the less 
meek and lowly4 ,he was truly brave1 yet
 did not think it  unworthy of himself  
to show how intensely he suffered4 ,he  
was truly  resigned to the will of      
,heaven1 yet thought it not contrary to 
right to  express his sorrow when he was
 bereaved4 ,he dignified human sympathy 
by  even weeping with those that wept4  
,how incomparably does this true        
nobility rise above the ,stoic apathy1  
which condemned such feelings1 and  led 
,seneca1 in an ,epistle to ,lucilius1 to
 deprecate the indulgence of  grief for 
a friend's loss4 8,i myself10 says he1  
8wept so immoderately  for ,annus       
,serenus1 444 that ,i must1 against my  
will1 be reckoned among  the examples of
 those whom grief has overcome4         
,nevertheless1 to-day ,i  condemn my    
error#ba40 ,the last days of our        
,saviour's life gave the  world a       
perfect example of true dignity2 yet1 we

 can see1 he counted it  only fit1 as a 
man1 to show that he felt keenly        
reproach and pain4 ,but  it was the     
,saviour's death1 and the reason for    
which his death was  deemed necessary by
 eternal justice1 that took away for    
ever any  foundation for ,stoic pride   
and self-dependence4 ,nothing less than 
this  was sufficient to atone for human 
error1 and make it possible for man to  
obtain pardon1 and be restored to the   
divine image which he had lost4 ,it  is 
thus he can become truly wise and lead a
 life worthy of himself as a  man4 ,and 
by the divine aid he will be able to    
rise to greater heights of              
self-control1 than any to which pride of
 philosophy could raise him4 ,the       
,stoics claimed for the wise man that he
 is infallible and impassive1  that he  
is unmoved by outward events1 with his  
mind ever in an even  state#bb4 ,that   
which the ,stoic dreamed of1 the        
,christian may become1  but in a        
spiritual and far higher sense4 ,there  

were those in the early  ,church1 and   
there have been many since1 who showed  
themselves  philosophers indeed1 8in    
honour and dishonour1 in evil report and
 good  report3 as deceivers1 and yet    
true2 as unknown1 and yet well known2 as
  dying1 and1 behold1 they lived2 as    
sorrowful1 yet always rejoicing2 as     
poor1 yet making many rich2 as having   
nothing1 and yet possessing all         
things#bc40 ,the great ,christian       
,apostle was able to say1 8,i have      
learned1 in whatever state ,i am1       
therewith to be content4 ,i know both   
how to be abased1 and ,i know how to    
abound3 every where and in all  things1 
,i am instructed both to be full and to 
be hungry1 both to abound  and to suffer
 need4 ,i can do all things through     
,christ which  strengtheneth me#bd40 ,in
 this last sentence is the real secret  
of all  true heroism4 ,christ is the    
source of true philosophy4 ,he alone    
gives  true strength of mind3 ,he can   
render the believer omnipotent for good4

  8,i can do all things10 says the      
,apostle2 the power is from above1      
however4 ,without ,,god1 the strongest  
becomes a child4 ,this fact1 that ,,god 
prepares the heart for virtue1 and gives
 us strength to resist evil and  do     
good1 takes away all cause for boasting 
from even the most advanced  in moral   
excellence4 ,whereas1 the ,stoic system1
 beginning and ending in  self1 with    
nothing else to trust to1 caused man to 
become proud of his  supposed advances4 
,he thought even to become equal to the 
,most ,high4  ,indeed1 so far was this  
feeling carried1 that we have from a    
disciple of  the system1 such a boastful
 and 7to our feeling7 profane assertion 
as  the following4 ,seneca1 writing to  
,lucilius1 after persuading him to      
diligently cultivate philosophy1 says1  
then 8,thou wilt excel all men1  nor    
will the gods much excel thee4444 ,to   
the wise man his own age lies  open1 as 
much as every age to ,,god4 ,there is   
one respect in which the  wise man may  

be said to excel ,,god2 the latter is   
fearless by the gift of  nature1 the    
wise man by his own merits#be40    ,we  
have one other point that requires      
attention in connexion with ,st  ,paul's
 speech1 and that is the future state4  
,he laid before the ,stoics1  who heard 
him1 the great fact of the existence of 
men1 as individuals1  after death2 and  
not merely their existence1 but their   
having to appear  at the judgment seat  
of ,christ1 after being raised from the 
dead4 ,the  whole of this was foreign to
 the ,stoic system4 ,they had nothing1  
in  their wisest speculations1          
approaching to these grand ideas1 which 
the  ,apostle unfolded to them as divine
 mysteries4 ,the early ,stoics held that
  they would1 after death1 return to    
union with the universe4 ,their plan    
for getting rid of evil and regenerating
 all things1 was one of  periodical     
conflagrations4 ,the ,christian         
anastasis was something which  unaided  
human intellects could not reach4       

,moreover1 the future judgment  of men1 
if it could have been received by the   
,stoics1 would have  modified their     
system in many respects4 ,they would    
have had different  views of the deity1 
if they had felt that1 after all1 they  
were to stand  at his bar1 to give an   
account of their words and works4 ,they 
would have  had a different view of life
 and of death1 if they had known that   
when  they ceased to live on earth1 they
 would begin a new existence1 in which  
they would be happy1 or miserable1      
according as they submitted to1 or      
rejected the will of ,,god here4 ,for   
the want of this great truth1 their     
system was shortsighted and1 in some    
respects1 evil4 ,if death were the  end 
of man1 as a separate person1 why should
 it not be also held to be  under the   
control of each8 ,in fact the great     
lesson to learn was to  become master in
 the last act1 as well as in others4    
,the system was not  a training for     
immortality4 ,this life was the scene of

 battle and of  victory1 to the ,stoic4 
,to the ,christian1 this life is the    
battle-field4  ,he is contented to wait 
till another state of existence1 for    
victory and  peace4 ,he can understand  
the meaning of the words of ,st ,paul1  
8,if in  this life only we have hope in 
,christ1 we are of all men most         
miserable#bf40 ,with the hope of the    
future before him1 however1 he is       
content to suffer4 ,he can bear         
suffering with fortitude1 and can even  
triumph over it4 ,for him1 8this light  
affliction1 which is but for a  moment1 
worketh out a far more exceeding and    
eternal weight of glory1  while he looks
 not at the things which are seen1 but  
at the things which  are not seen40 ,the
 restoration of the body and soul to a  
state of  perfection opens before the   
mind a treasure in future1 for which    
present  poverty is lightly borne4 ,but 
to this glorious hope the ,stoic was a  
stranger4 ,he lived for this world4 ,his
 sufferings1 his trials1 must all  be   

borne unflinchingly1 because only here  
would he bear them2 only here  would he1
 an offshoot of the deity1 dwell as     
such4 ,therefore it was  beneath him to 
say he suffered4 ,he lived for himself1 
to raise himself  above others4 ,he must
 despise what lowered his existence4 ,he
 must  trample on pain4 ,when the       
conflict was too severe1 then the end   
also was  at his command1 and he might  
leave a scene which he could adorn no   
longer4 ,then there was an end to the   
whole matter#bg4 ,the sublime  doctrines
 of the ,gospel1 however1 which open a  
splendid future to the  virtuous soul1  
teach men a far different lesson4       
,moreover1 the certainty  of a just     
judgment leads them to be careful1 how  
they pass through a  scene1 which is to 
them the only state of probation4 ,they 
know that the  future will be pregnant  
with evil to them1 if they neglect1 or  
abuse the  time given to them for       
preparation4 ,they look forward with no 
less  certainty to a reward for well    

doing4 ,they are sure there will be no  
mistake in the final adjudication4 ,all 
these thoughts tend one way2 to  the    
promotion of holiness of life1 and to   
those acts of kindness and  charity1    
which are evidences of the love of ,,god
 in the heart4 ,these acts  the great   
,judge has promised to reward1 as though
 they were done to  ,himself4 ,he says  
that1 in that day1 he will declare      
respecting each of  these deeds of love1
 8,inasmuch as ye have done it unto one 
of the least  of these my brethren1 ye  
have done it unto me#bh40    ,i have    
thus endeavoured to point out the       
distinctive features of the two         
systems1 where they came in contact4 ,in
 the ,christian religion1 there is      
presented to the mind a ,god of holiness
 and purity and almighty power1 a  being
 who rules over all and works in man's  
heart4 ,in the ,stoic  philosophy1 the  
,supreme ,being is rather an idea than a
 person2 a part of  the universe1 just  
as the soul is part of man4 ,in the     

,christian system1  the ,lord of all is 
represented as constantly exercising a  
wise and  judicious superintendence over
 all creation1 blessing ,his works1 and 
with unerring foresight1 arranging all  
things by ,his providence4 ,in the      
,stoic system1 all things in heaven and 
earth were the subjects of an           
unalterable fate4 ,christianity teaches 
men that moral excellence is to  be     
attained only by divine aid1 and this   
aid is given to those who are  penitent 
and humble2 who seek ,,god first1 and   
show their love to ,him in  their lives4
 ,stoicism taught that moral excellence 
was attainable by man  alone1 and that  
he might1 unaided1 raise himself to     
perfection1 and make  himself worthy of 
,,god4 ,in the religion of ,jesus1 men  
are furnished with  glorious views of a 
future life4 ,the world to come is      
presented to the  faithful1 as a reward 
for virtue and piety4 ,the resurrection 
of man1 and  the final setting in order 
of the universe at the great day of     

regeneration1 when just judgment will be
 passed on good and evil angels  and    
men1 are held out as the great facts of 
future ages4 ,in the ,stoic  philosophy1
 there is no future personal existence  
promised2 and the  regeneration is to be
 by fire consuming1 at certain cycles1  
the works of  the universe4             
,christianity had an influence on the   
later ,stoics4  ,where-ever we see1 in  
the works of these philosophers1 clearer
 views of  ,,god1 ,his providence1 ,his 
work in the spirit2 wherever we see     
clearer  perceptions of human depravity 
and need for divine aid2 where we       
perceive dawnings of hope of a future   
life for the soul2 there we see1  if not
 the direct influence1 yet at least the 
spirit of ,christianity  making itself  
felt4 ,on the other hand1 if1 in the    
,christian church1 we  see the          
necessitarian theory taking possession  
of men's belief2 if we  perceive human  
pride asserting itself in raising moral 
virtues1 or works  of self-denial1 or   

self-imposed austerities1 into the place
 of ,christ's  sacrifice1 as the means  
of obtaining the divine favour2 we shall
 not be  mistaken1 if we say that1 in   
these respects1 the ,church has borrowed
  from the ,porch1 and departed from the
 simplicity of the ,gospel4    ,before  
,i proceed to investigate the influence 
which the two systems have  exerted one 
on the other1 ,i purpose to devote a few
 pages to the  consideration of the     
relative influence they have exerted on 
the world  at large4 ,let us compare    
what ,stoic philosophy did for those    
nations  among whom it exerted an       
influence1 with the effect which        
,christianity  has wrought on those who 
have embraced its tenets and            
acknowledged its  power4 ,if we look at 
,athens1 and ask ourselves what result  
the doctrines  of the ,stoic school had 
there1 we shall find that1 after        
centuries of  effort1 very little was   
effected for the benefit of our race4   
,doubtless  a strong impression was made

 on certain minds2 but1 as far as the   
masses  were concerned1 the influence of
 the sect seems to have been small1 and 
the beneficial result very insignificant
 indeed4 ,with regard to the  adherents 
of the system1 we have little           
trustworthy information as to  whether1 
in private life1 their practice         
corresponded with their public          
professions4 ,one is almost led1 from   
their declarations that their           
philosophy raised them above the law of 
conduct binding the common herd1  to    
suppose that1 for some1 the profession  
of being a ,stoic was only a  cloak4    
,there seem to have been among them1 men
 of similar feelings to  the            
,antinomians of the ,christian church4  
,if a man were a philosopher1 he  was   
out of the ordinary pale1 and might be  
almost what else he liked4  ,the early  
,stoics were doubtless men of purer life
 than the masses around  them1 yet1 from
 the remarks of those who have written  
very favourably of  them1 one is led to 

perceive that they were looked on more  
as professors  of a system of excellent 
ethical philosophy1 than as strict      
adherents to  its precepts4 ,their      
principles were considered rather as    
intellectual1  than heartfelt4 ,as an   
instance1 we may notice what ,diogenes  
,laertes  reports concerning ,zeno4 ,he 
says#bi1 8   1       1     40 ,now one  
must see that1 if the record be true1   
then the purity of the ,stoic was  not  
thorough1 though he was better than     
others perhaps4 ,if the report be  a    
myth1 we perceive that in the writer's  
opinion1 gathered probably from         
observation1 the precepts of philosophy 
were not so very binding1 but  that a   
professor of it might be none the less  
esteemed as a philosopher1  for acting1 
now and then1 as an ordinary man4 ,he   
evidently thought that  ,zeno was not to
 be blamed1 but rather commended1 for   
showing1  occasionally1 that he did not 
wish to be thought too austere4 ,the    
dogmas  of this philosophy were public  

professions1 but did not alter the      
heart1  and control the whole life4 ,it 
was powerless1 as a moral lever1 to     
raise  the people4 ,the masses remained 
idolatrous and deeply superstitious4    
,indeed the philosophers themselves     
conformed to the prevailing worship1    
and were not free from the prevailing   
superstitions4 ,as ethical  reformers1  
they seemed to have despaired of raising
 men1 except in small  numbers1 to a    
better state4 ,we look in vain for      
evidences of a  wide-spread             
philanthropy4 ,in fact1 the system was  
one of egosm2 and  beginning in self1   
inculcating trust on self1 it had no    
wide grasp of  the duty and love1 which 
men owe one to another1 as children of a
 common  ,father4    ,if from ,athens we
 go to ,rome1 and notice the effect     
produced when ,stoic  influence was at  
its highest point and most wide-spread1 
we are saddened  by a similar absence of
 evidence that it effected any great    
amelioration4 ,we are led to see the    

truth of ,niebuhr's remarks#cj          
respecting the state of the community1  
upon which ,stoicism had exerted  all   
its power4 8,viewed as a national1 or   
political history1 the history  of the  
,roman ,empire is sad and discouraging  
in the last degree4 ,we see  that things
 had come to a point1 at which no       
earthly power could afford  any help3 we
 now have the development of dead powers
 instead of that of  a vital energy40   
,the age of the greatest fame of ,rome1 
when ,augustus  ruled her destinies1 and
 her power and wealth and wide-spread   
influence  were so vast1 was not a happy
 one for the people4 ,there was no      
fellowship between men1 uniting them in 
feeling and for mutual benefit4         
,perhaps half the people were slaves and
 degraded1 in the midst of  surrounding 
splendour4 ,arnold#ca has well described
 the moral  deficiency2 8,there were no 
public hospitals1 no institutions for   
the  relief of the infirm and poor1 no  
societies for the improvement of the    

condition of mankind1 from motives of   
charity4 ,nothing was done to  promote  
the instruction of the lower classes1   
nothing to mitigate the  evils of       
domestic slavery4 ,charity and general  
philanthropy were so  little regarded as
 duties1 that it requires a very        
extensive  acquaintance with the        
literature of the time to find any      
allusion to  them40 ,as long as it had  
an influence1 ,stoicism taught men      
rather to  bear the evils of life with  
indifference1 than to get rid of the    
evils  that were in the world1 by       
schemes for the social happiness and    
moral  elevation of the people4 ,so that
 superstition and grossest idolatry were
  rampant1 and vices of the most        
lamentable kind were indulged in1 almost
  without producing any shame4    ,in   
proportion as ,christianity won its way1
 these things disappeared2 and  in      
proportion to the purity of the         
,christian religion1 and its freedom    
from admixture of extraneous principles 

and influences1 has been its  success in
 raising a fallen world4 ,whatever power
 ,stoicism possessed for  good1 the     
religion of ,jesus also possessed1 and  
in a higher degree4 ,in  addition1 it   
brought into play enormous and          
superhuman resources2 high  and holy    
motives2 and doctrines which originated 
in heaven1 and partook  of the purity of
 their origin4 ,the consequence has been
 marvellous4 ,the  progress of this     
religion in face of opposition was such 
as to afford  ample proof of its        
divinity4 ,and as it progressed1 it     
proved its mission  by raising the      
fallen1 blessing the wretched1 despising
 not even the  most lowly1 seeking the  
most sinful2 that by miracles wrought in
 the  souls of men1 it might show that  
it was fitted for the high mission      
which it claimed4 ,men were no longer   
left to grovel in idolatry1 and         
consequent imitation in their lives of  
the conduct of the unholy beings  whom  
they worshipped4 ,like ,st ,paul on     

,mars' ,hill1 every true herald of  the 
cross has set before men a holy ,,god1  
as the sole object of the  reverence and
 obedience of their hearts4 ,they have  
been taught love to  ,,god1 as the      
highest duty of the creature2 and as a  
consequence1 love to  their fellow-men4 
,mutual kindness and charity have done  
marvels1 in  removing the various       
calamities of this life2 and where these
 have been  irremoveable1 the efforts of
 the disciples of the ,crucified ,one   
have  been put forth1 to make them weigh
 less heavily on the sons of            
affliction4 ,the poor have been cared   
and provided for4 ,to them the  gospel  
of mercy has been preached1 and they    
have been taught to have  faith in a    
future life1 in which the wrongs of this
 will be set right4  ,christianity has  
brought civilization in its train4 ,the 
marvellous  progress of men in these    
latter days may be traced to the        
exalting  influence of this noble creed1
 which builds again the ruins of the    

human  soul2 and has nothing less for   
its object than man's restoration to the
  image of ,,god4 ,no one that reflects 
on the wonders it has produced2 on  the 
efforts it has put forth for the        
regeneration of our race2 on the  energy
 it still displays1 in trying to give   
blessing and help to those  who sit in  
darkness1 and are in need2 on the       
success that has crowned  the efforts of
 the past1 inciting to fresh ones for   
the future2 can fail  to see the finger 
of ,,god4 ,we gratefully acknowledge    
that all praise is  due to ,him for the 
gift of such grand means for raising a  
fallen world2  for a system1 which 8has 
the promise of the life which now is1 as
 well  as of that which is to come40    
,by these remarks1 ,i am far from       
wishing to imply that there is not much 
to lament in ,christian countries1 or   
that since ,christianity has been       
acknowledged and professed by a great   
part of the world1 she has  succeeded in
 making even the noblest of her sons    

faultless and sinless4  ,only one such  
man has ever trod our earth1 and ,he was
 more than man1 and  shewed ,his        
divinity in the midst of human weakness 
and pain4 ,all others  are liable to    
error4 ,and we must confess that1 when  
we see the evils  still remaining in    
,christendom1 there is room for sadness2
 but there is  none for despair4        
,moreover1 no one would depreciate the  
,stoic system1 because its  disciples   
did not act up to its precepts1 in every
 respect4 ,epictetus  declared#cb1 there
 were many who were philosophers in     
name1 far from  being so in deed2 and   
,seneca assures us#cc1 that ,stoic      
philosophers  8did not say how they     
themselves lived1 but how men ought to  
live40 ,yet  ,i quite agree with        
,gataker#cd1 that there were            
well-attested instances1  in almost     
every age1 of adherents to the system1  
who1 by their faithful  observance of   
their principles in the conduct of their
 lives1 might put  to shame many        

professors of ,christianity1 and cause  
them to blush4    ,but ,i have been     
speaking of the effect of each system1  
as a whole1 on  nations and masses of   
men1 and on individuals4 ,and we see    
that ,stoicism1  after centuries of     
effort1 proved itself unequal to the    
regeneration of  men1 and as completely 
failed as any other merely human scheme1
 in this  respect4 ,we should keep in   
mind1 that systems are not relatively   
superior in proportion to the adherence 
of their disciples4 ,unwavering         
obedience1 on the part of certain of its
 followers1 does not necessarily  imply 
the excellence of a system2 it simply   
proves that some of its  disciples are  
faithful4 ,on the contrary1 the         
excellence of a system is  seen1 when it
 does a great work and raises a fallen  
world1 in spite of  the apparent        
inadequacy of its means2 in spite of the
 luke-warm  attachment and want of      
consistency1 often displayed by its     
followers4 ,in  this way1 the more than 

human perfection of ,christianity has   
been shown4  ,if her children had been  
as faithful to her1 as many of the      
,stoics were  to their school1 she had1 
ere this1 made our earth a paradise4    
,even as  things are1 notwithstanding   
the introduction1 into her midst1 of    
doctrines and practices1 foreign to her 
in origin1 and opposed to her           
principles2 notwithstanding the many    
shortcomings of her friends1 and  the   
unceasing opposition of her foes1 and   
the resistance ever offered by  the     
pride of man's heart to her humbling    
doctrines2 she carries on her  glorious 
work successfully1 and proves herself   
equal to her destined  purpose4         
,footnote #ag3      ,adversus ,stoicos1 
#cc4    ,footnote #ah3      ,lib4 ,,xii4
 ,cap4 #bf1 collat4 quoq4 v4 #aj4       
,footnote #ai3      ,plutarch1 ,de      
,placitis ,philosophorum1 ,i4 #bh4      
,footnote #bj3      ,de ,providentia1   
,cap4 #a4    ,footnote #ba3      8,hc   
tibi scribo1 is qui ,annum ,serenum1    

carissimum mihi1 tam immodice    flevi1 
ut quod minime velim1 inter exempla sim 
eorum quos dolor vicit3    hodie tamen  
factum meum damno10 c4--,ep4 ,,lxiii4   
#ab4    ,footnote #bb3            1     
444--,diog4 ,laert4 ,,vi4 #a4 #fd4      
,footnote #bc3      #b ,cor4 vi4 #h-aj4 
,footnote #bd3      ,phil4 iv4 #aa-ac4  
,footnote #be3      8,omnes mortales    
multo antecedes1 non multo te dii       
antecedent4444    ,tantum sapienti sua1 
quantum ,deo1 omnis tas patet4 ,est     
aliquid1 quo    sapiens antecedat ,deum3
 ille natur beneficio non timet1 suo    
sapiens40--,ep4 ,,liii4    ,footnote    
#bf3      #a ,cor4 xv4 #ai4    ,footnote
 #bg3      ,on this part the following  
words of ,cousin are worthy of          
attention3    8,le ,stocisme est        
essentiellement solitaire3 c'est le soin
 exclusif de    son me1 sans regard     
celles des autres2 et comme la seule    
chose    importante est la puret de     
l'me1 quand cette puret est trop en     
pril1 quand on dsespre d'tre victorieux 

dans la lutte1 on peut la    terminer1  
comme l'a termine ,caton4 ,ainsi la     
philosophie n'est plus    qu'un         
apprentissage de la mort1 et non de la  
vie2 elle tend  la mort    par son      
image1 l'apathie et l'ataraxie1 et se   
rsout dfinitivement en    son egosme    
sublime40    ,footnote #bh3      ,st    
,matt4 xxv4 #dj4    ,footnote #bi3      
,lib4 ,,vii4 c4 #a4 4 ,,xiii4           
,footnote #cj3      ,lect4 v4 #aid4     
,footnote #ca3      ,later ,roman       
,commonwealth1 ,,ii4 #cih4    ,footnote 
#cb3        1   4 ,quoted by ,gataker   
from ,gellius1    ,noct4 ,attic4 #ag1   
#ai4    ,footnote #cc3      8,non       
dicebant1 quemadmodum ipsi viverent1 sed
 quemadmodum vivendum                   
esset40--,seneca1 de ,vit4 ,beat4 c4    
#ah4    ,footnote #cd3      ,the words  
of ,gataker1 in the ,preface to his     
,marc4 ,anton41 are3    8,veruntamen ex 
eis qui sect hujus in disciplinam serio 
seduloque sese    dederunt1 per singulas
 quasque fere tates reperti sunt1 qui   

fide    dignorum scriptorum suffragiis  
consensu consono attestantibus1 ita     
dogmata sua factis consentaneis         
consignata1 decretaque vit instituto    
quabili fere comprobata exhibuerint1 ut 
nominis etiam ,christiani               
professoribus plerisque pudorem         
incutere1 ruborem suffundere merito     
queant40                                
,,chapter ,,iii4                 ,,the  
,,influence ,,of ,,christianity ,,on    
,,stoicism4          8,victi victoribus 
leges dederunt40        ,,sen4 quoted by
 ,st ,aug4 in ,civ4 ,dei4      ,there is
 nothing unreasonable in the            
supposition1 that when two systems  such
 as ,christianity and ,stoicism came    
into contact1 they would  naturally     
exert considerable influence1 one on the
 other4 ,we perceive1  if we trace the  
history of the religion of ,christ1 that
 it felt the  effect of the philosophy  
of the ,gentile world1 and especially of
 the  ,greeks1 in various ways4         
,platonism proved itself so powerful as 

to cause  the rise of the ,alexandrian  
school1 with its vast influences4 ,in   
other  cases1 we see ,christianity so   
strongly impregnated with notions drawn 
from heathenism1 that various baneful   
heresies arose1 which sometimes         
threatened the very existence of the    
truth4 ,tertullian#ce complains  that   
8philosophy furnished the arms and the  
subjects of heresy40 ,during  the middle
 of the life of ,christianity in the    
world1 so evil were the  results1 to the
 ,church1 of principles external to it  
in origin1 and  antagonistic to purity1 
that we look back on those centuries    
with deep  sorrow1 and call them 8the   
dark ages40    ,among other systems of  
philosophy ,stoicism made itself felt by
 the  ,church of ,christ4 ,in allusion  
to this ,tertullian says1 8,our training
 is  from the porch of ,solomon40 ,again
 he says1 8,let those take care who help
  forward a ,stoic1 a ,platonic1 a      
dialectic ,christianity4 ,we have no    
need  of curious enquiries about the    

coming of ,jesus ,christ1 nor of        
investigation after the gospel40 ,but   
though ,stoic philosophy made itself    
felt1 yet1 being practical rather than  
speculative1 it did not produce a       
distinct school1 such as resulted from  
the ,academic system4 ,still it  left   
its impress on after times1 as ,i shall 
endeavour to point out in  future pages4
    ,christianity also made a great     
impression on ,stoicism1 while the      
latter  continued to exist as a system  
of philosophy4 ,we do not find its power
  and principles acknowledged in the    
writings of any of the school4 ,yet1    
from certain expressions in ,epictetus  
and ,m4 ,antoninus1 we perceive they    
were fully aware how nearly allied      
,christian virtue was to their high     
aspirations2 how closely those who were 
disciples of ,christ approached  to     
their own standard4 ,but they were      
displeased at the principles from  which
 the ,christian excellence proceeded2   
and probably also at the  living protest

 which these men afforded against the   
philosophy which  could not produce     
results such as their religion produced 
among the  people4 ,so ,epictetus#cf in 
,b4 ,,iv4 ,ch4 #g1 speaking of          
fearlessness1  allows by implication    
that it was possessed by the ,galileans1
 but puts  down their fortitude to      
habit1 and commends much more that      
coming from  reason4 ,so ,antoninus#cg  
allows that ,christians are ready to    
die1 but  says that1 whereas this       
readiness should proceed from personal  
judgment1  resulting from due           
calculation1 the readiness of the       
,christians to die  came of mere        
obstinacy4 ,in other words1 they had so 
strong a faith in  the gospel that they 
would rather die than give it up4 ,such 
passing  notices as these show          
decisively that the religion of ,jesus  
was doing a  great work of which        
philosophers became jealous4 ,this work 
was of the  same kind as that which the 
,stoics professed to have as their      

object2  yet what they failed in        
achieving was wrought out successfully  
on  principles which they despised4     
,they were vexed and annoyed1 and would 
naturally ignore any influence which the
 ,christian doctrines might have  in    
modifying their opinions4 ,i shall      
proceed to point out in this  chapter   
that this influence was nevertheless    
remarkable4 ,what changes  occurred in  
the views of the sect at ,athens we do  
not know3 there are no  records of the  
,stoics at ,athens at that time4 ,the   
only writers to whom  we can refer1 in  
order to come to any correct estimate as
 to the  development of thought among   
the sect1 of a nature to show ,christian
  influence1 were ,romans4 ,they are    
only three in number--,seneca1          
,epictetus1  and the ,emperor ,marcus   
,aurelius ,antoninus4 ,i shall refer to 
the writings  of each in this1 their    
proper order4    ,when ,i speak of      
,seneca as a ,roman1 ,i do not forget   
that he was born in  ,spain2 but being a

 ,roman in thought and feeling1 as well 
as by residence  and by birth-right1 he 
is rightly reckoned among ,roman        
philosophers4 ,it  is not my business1  
however1 to give even a sketch of his   
life2 nor  shall ,i refer to his        
voluminous writings1 except as they show
 the  influence which ,christianity     
seems to have exerted on the ,stoic sect
 in  his day4 ,he lived at the same time
 that ,st ,paul laboured for the truth1 
and there have been traditions of his   
having been taught the precepts of  the 
,gospel by the great ,apostle himself4  
,these are probably without  foundation1
 but their being so does not prove that 
,christianity had no  influence on his  
speculations4 ,their very existence     
serves to show how  apparent that       
influence was to various readers1 so as 
at least to make  the intercourse       
between the ,apostle and the philosopher
 seem to them not  an improbable thing4 
,we must remember that ,judaism was the 
pioneer of  ,christianity at ,rome1 as  

well as elsewhere4 ,possessed of much   
divine  truth1 it necessarily exerted   
considerable influence there on the     
world  of thought2 and so prepared the  
way for the fuller light which the      
gospel furnished4 ,christianity also had
 now a firm hold on many4 ,its          
influence1 as we learn from different   
sources1 was beginning to be felt  in   
various ways1 and even in the imperial  
court were found some who  acknowledged 
its power4 ,it is likely therefore that 
,seneca would study  its teaching1 or at
 least would be moved by its presence in
 the very  centre of the world1 to      
listen1 even though without conscious   
sympathy1  perhaps with contempt1 to    
what was told him respecting its tenets4
 ,we  see in his writings that he had   
many clearer views of truth than the    
,stoics who preceded him#ch4 ,for       
instance1 with reference to the ,deity1 
his providential care avowed as being   
exercised over men not merely           
collectively but individually2 his      

sovereignty1 his power and glory1 not   
as a mere part of universal nature1 but 
as a being1 fully set forth2 his  work  
in the human soul recognized as a truth 
and a necessity for man's  well-doing2  
these and various other enlarged views  
of the ,lord of all  show a vast advance
 on past ,stoicism in the direction of  
,christian  doctrine4 ,then again1 with 
regard to man1 we perceive how clearly  
he saw  that necessary and primary      
truth1 that man is by nature depraved   
and can  only lead a holy life by divine
 aid4 ,we notice also how he inculcates 
the duty of love to ,god and to man1 of 
forgiveness of injuries and of  the     
cultivation of other graces1 which have 
a ,christian likeness1 if not  a        
,christian parentage4 ,it is doubtless  
true that these doctrines were  the     
strong and approved opinions of one who 
was1 as ,gataker calls him1  8home      
exterior1 nec nomini ,christiano        
favens30 but when we read1 8cum  nec    
mysterii nostri gnarus esset1 nec fidei 

rationes assequeretur10 the  words must 
be taken in a qualified sense4          
,experimentally1 he was  ignorant of the
 glorious mystery of redemption2 but of 
the religion of  ,jesus1 and of ,judaism
 which prepared the ,roman mind for     
,christianity1 he  was at least         
informed1 if only by rumour4 ,and we    
see1 from the effect of  the religion of
 the cross at the present time1 that its
 doctrines of  purity and mercy may     
mightily influence even those nations   
and  individuals who do not acknowledge 
its authority4    ,let us look at some  
of the passages in the writings of      
,seneca1 which  serve to bear out the   
views above expressed2 and first1 with  
regard to  the divine being and his care
 of man1 we find such expressions as the
  following3 8,,god comes to men1 yea1  
what is nearer still1 he comes into     
men#ci4 ,no mind is good without ,,god4 
,seeds 7of good7 are sown in human      
bodies4 ,and if a good husbandman       
receives them1 there are produced       

fruits like the original and equal to   
those from which they sprung3 but  if a 
bad husbandman receives them1 the       
ground1 not being otherwise than  barren
 and marshy1 kills them and thence      
creates rubbish instead of  fruit40 ,one
 cannot fail to be struck with the      
likeness this passage  bears to our     
,lord's words recorded by ,st ,matt4    
xiii4 #ah-bc4 ,again1 in  the #dast     
,epistle1 we read1 8,god is near thee1  
is with thee1 is within4  ,so ,i say1   
,lucilius1 the holy spirit has his seat 
within us1 the observer  and guard of   
the evil and the good of our lives3 as  
he is treated by us1  so he treats us40 
,intimately connected with this view of 
an indwelling  ,god1 was the theory     
which ,seneca held1 that man could not  
be good and  perfect without ,his help4 
,the view which he had of human weakness
 by  nature and of the depravity of the 
human heart was a great advance in  the 
direction of ,christian truth1 from     
,stoic principles1 which held so  much  

to the idea of man's unaided progress to
 perfection4 ,yet the views  which      
,seneca entertained were not unmixed    
with the old speculations4  ,indeed his 
mind was evidently struggling to        
reconcile old doctrines with  some new  
light which was dawning on his mind4    
,hence he is often  apparently          
contradictory1 as men are when in a     
transition state1 or  rather when they  
are endeavouring to graft doctrines of a
 totally  different type on the old     
stock4 ,we see1 in the passage first    
quoted  above1 how plainly he says that 
no mind is good without ,,god1 who sows 
the seeds of all virtues in the soul1   
and by his blessing enables a  willing  
heart to bring forth fruit4 ,again1 in  
the #dast ,epistle1 he  writes1 8,there 
is no good man without ,,god4 ,can any  
one rise above  fortune1 unless aided by
 ,him8 ,he inspires grand and upright   
designs4 ,in  every good man he dwells40
 ,but he adds1 as if to show the        
struggle going  on within1 that ,he whom

 he had in the former part of the letter
 called  the holy spirit was to him1 as 
to the ,athenians1 an 8unknown ,,god40  
8,quis  deus incertum est10 he says of  
the deity who dwells in every good man4 
,with regard to man's moral nature      
requiring the aid of one who is strong  
enough to purify it1 he speaks very     
clearly4 ,he sees the need of a  change 
from evil to good in order to become    
what man should be4 ,yet he  does not   
mention the need of pardon for sin that 
is past4 ,in ,de  ,clementia1 ,i4 #f1   
this passage occurs3 8,reflect1 in this 
city1 in which  a crowd pours through   
the widest street without intermission1 
and like a  rapid stream dashes against 
any obstacle that impedes its course2   
where  accommodation is required in     
three theatres at the same time2 where  
is  consumed whatever grain is produced 
in all lands2 what a solitude and       
desolation were the result1 if nothing  
were left but what a severe judge  would
 pronounce free from fault40 ,a little  

further on he adds1 8,we have  all      
sinned#dj2 some deeply1 others more     
lightly2 some from design1  others      
driven by chance impulses1 or borne away
 by wickedness not their  own2 others of
 us have shown little steadfastness in  
sticking to our  good resolutions1 and1 
against our will and in spite of our    
endeavours1  have lost our innocence4   
,nor is it only that we have erred1 but 
to the  end of time we shall err#da4    
,even if any one has so purified his    
mind  that nothing can shake1 or seduce 
him any more1 yet he has arrived at     
innocence through sin40 ,these are      
remarkable expressions1 and show how    
much advanced the views of the          
philosopher were in the direction of the
  truth1 even though it was by the path 
of self-humiliation4 ,the writer of  the
 article on 8,the ,ancient ,stoics0 in  
the ,oxford ,essays1 remarks3  8,those  
who have been anxious to obtain the     
authority of ,aristotle for  the        
doctrine of human corruption1 will find 

on consideration that this  idea1 which 
was historically impossible for a ,greek
 of the fourth  century ,b4,c41 came    
with sufficient vividness into the      
consciousness of  persons in the        
position of ,seneca2 but not till much  
later than  ,aristotle1 probably not    
before the beginning of our era4 ,on the
 other  hand1 we are not to fancy that  
the thoughts of ,seneca received any    
influence from ,christianity40 ,with    
this last sentence ,i do not agree4 ,it 
seems scarcely reasonable to ignore the 
power of a system which we know  was    
already exercising attention at ,rome2 a
 system of high and holy  principles1   
presenting much for the ,stoic mind to  
admire4 ,that similar  thoughts struck  
,paul the ,apostle1 and ,seneca the     
philosopher1 at the  same era1 is       
certain4 ,it was a remarkable           
coincidence1 but it was  something more4
 ,we know that those thoughts in the    
mind of the converted  ,jew were the    
result1 not of self-reflection1 nor of  

communing with his  own heart1 merely1  
but of a power outside of himself1 more 
mighty and  convincing than any inner   
influence2 but still1 acting on a strong
 mind1  already trained in many uncommon
 and elevating doctrines by ,judaism2   
which had also been training the ,roman 
world to look for something purer  and  
higher than the superstition and vain   
guesses at truth1 which were  so        
prevalent heretofore4 ,when             
,christianity supplied all the demands  
of  the soul1 and gave to the ,roman    
world a divine system of doctrine and   
morals1 it soon commanded the attention 
which it deserved#db4 ,this  being so1  
there would seem to be no reason for    
saying that it had no  influence direct 
or indirect on the mind of the ,stoic   
philosopher3  especially when1 on the   
very face of it1 the inconsistency of   
his  writings shows that he owed his    
conclusions to two distinct sources2    
one1 the old ,stoic system--the other1 a
 new class of thoughts which might  at  

least be supposed to have a ,christian  
origin4 ,there is no doubt that1  among 
the ,romans at the time of ,seneca1     
,christianity was not  distinguished    
from ,judaism1 but reckoned a part of   
that system4 ,we see1  in the #ieth     
letter of the philosopher1 plain        
reference to ,jewish forms  and         
prohibitions4 ,the word sabbath#dc is   
used2 and the whole of the  expressions 
show how conversant the writer must have
 been with the  tenets of the people    
brought from ,palestine4 ,we are struck 
too with the  lessons of piety and      
charity which he deduces from his       
reflections4 ,he  sets forth the        
necessity of having1 as the end of our  
endeavours1 the  attainment of the      
highest good2 and to this we should have
 respect in  every act and word1 8as    
sailors direct their course to some     
star40 ,when  we read the words1 8non   
qurit ministros ,deus3 quidni8 ,ipse    
humano  generi ministrat3 ubique et     
omnibus prsto est30 how naturally our   

minds  recal the words of ,st ,paul to  
the ,athenians3 8neither is ,he served  
by  men's hands1 as being in need of    
any2 seeing ,he giveth to all life1 and 
breath1 and all things#dd40 ,we see too 
that ,seneca had clearer notions  than  
his predecessors of the personal        
existence of the deity and of his       
intimate care of each individual1 as    
well as of the whole race of men4  ,he  
perceived the need of knowing and       
believing ,,god and of offering him     
spiritual worship2 that mere sacrifice  
and outward homage were vain4 ,in  the  
following passages from the same letter 
these views are clearly  expressed2 as  
is also the great truth which the       
,saviour taught1 that to  love ,,god    
with all our heart and mind and soul and
 strength1 and our  neighbour as        
ourselves1 is the essence of religion   
and virtue3 that it  is indeed 8more    
than all whole burnt offerings and      
sacrifices#de40 ,he  writes1 8,he who   
knows ,,god1 worships ,him4444 ,a man   

should learn how to  conduct himself in 
offering sacrifices1 to recoil very far 
from disquiet  of mind and superstitious
 observances3 never will he be advanced 
enough  unless he conceive in his mind  
what kind of a being ,,god must be1     
possessing all things1 bestowing all    
things1 freely giving ,his  benefits4444
 ,the beginning of the worship of the   
gods1 is to believe the  gods#df2 then1 
to ascribe to them their majesty2 to    
ascribe to them  their goodness1 without
 which there is no majesty2 to know that
 they who  rule the world1 who control  
the universe1 who are guardians of the  
human  race1 are also at the same time  
full of care for each man4444 ,look at  
another question1 our proper conduct    
towards men4 ,how do we deal with  this 
matter8 ,what instructions do we give8  
,that there be a sparing of  human life8
 ,how small a matter it is not to hurt  
him to whom you owe  benefits4 ,truly it
 is great praise if man is gentle to    
man4 ,shall we  teach that he stretch   

out his hand to the shipwrecked1 that he
 show the  right way to the erring1 that
 he divide his loaf with the hungry8    
,when  shall ,i declare all things which
 are to be performed1 or avoided1 since 
,i can furnish in few words this formula
 of human duty8 ,all this that you  see1
 in which divine and human affairs are  
included1 is comprised in one  fact1 as 
a foundation for our rule of action--we 
are members of one great  body4 ,nature 
has made us all akin1 since she begat us
 from the same  originals and for the   
same destinies4 ,she has indued us with 
mutual  love1 and made us companionable3
 she has arranged what is equitable and 
just3 by her institution1 it is more    
wretched to hurt1 than to suffer        
injury3 and by her command1 the hands   
are ready for the assistance of  others4
 ,that verse should be in the breast1 as
 well as in the mouth4        #8,homo   
sum1 humani nihil a me alienum puto4'   
,we should hold it as a common bond1    
that we have been born4 ,our  fellowship

 is most like an arch of stones2 which  
will fall1 if each in  turn do not      
afford support1 one sustaining the      
other#dg40 ,in the #dgth  letter 7to    
,lucilius71 he speaks of the value of   
kindness even to slaves3  8,i have      
gladly learnt from those who have come  
from you1 that you live  familiarly with
 your slaves4 ,this is worthy of your   
wisdom and of your  learning4 ,are they 
slaves8 ,yes1 but they are also men4    
,are they slaves8  ,yes1 but they are   
also comrades4 ,are they slaves8 ,yes1  
but they are also  humble friends40     
,he also shows how advanced his feelings
 were by depicting the wickedness  and  
debasing nature of revenge and cruelty4 
,he paints in beautiful  language the   
opposite virtue4 ,yet1 lest he should   
seem to forget his  ,stoicism           
altogether1 he draws a nice distinction 
between clemency  7clementia7 and       
compassion 7misericordia74 ,he ascribes 
to the former1  however1 nearly all that
 we ascribe to the latter1 except the   

outward  manifestation of sympathy4     
,there must be an apparent ,stoicism    
veiling  real humanity4 ,he calls       
cruelty proceeding from revenge 8,an    
evil in no  degree human1 and unworthy  
therefore of a gentle mind4 ,it is a    
madness  like that of wild beasts1 to   
delight in blood and wounds1 and1       
manhood  being laid aside1 to change    
into a brute40 7,de ,clem4 ,i4 #bd47    
8,as he is  not the large minded man1   
who is liberal of another's property2   
but he  who deprives himself of what he 
gives to another3 so ,i will call him   
clement1 not who is easy under another  
person's wrong1 but who does not  break 
out1 when spurred on by his personal    
feelings2 who understands  that it is   
the attribute of a great mind to suffer 
injuries though  possessed of the       
fullest power to avenge them40 7,de     
,clem4 ,i4 #bj47 8,i  know that the     
,stoic sect are in bad repute among the 
inexperienced1 as  being too harsh1 and 
inclined to give advice which is far    

from good to  princes and kings4 ,it is 
objected against the sect that it says  
the wise  man should not be             
compassionate1 should not forgive4      
,these1 if taken by  themselves1 are    
hateful doctrines2 for they seem to     
leave no hope to  human errors1 but to  
bring every fault to punishment4 ,but if
 this be a  true report1 what is this   
system of knowledge but one which       
commands us  to unlearn humanity1 and   
shuts a most certain door against mutual
 help  in misfortune8 ,yet there is no  
sect kinder or more gentle1 none more   
loving of men1 and more attentive to the
 common good3 as it is a  principle with
 us to provide for being of use1 or to  
afford help1 not  only where self is    
concerned1 but to all and to each4      
,compassion  7misericordia7 is an       
unquiet of the mind 7gritudo animi7 from
 the sight  of others' miseries2 or a   
sadness contracted from the misfortunes 
of  others1 which one believes to have  
fallen on those who did not deserve     

them4 ,now unquiet does not come to the 
wise man2 his mind is calm1 nor  can    
anything happen to overthrow it3 and    
nothing but magnanimity becomes  him4   
,but the same man cannot be magnanimous 
whom fear and sorrow assail1  whose mind
 these feelings overthrow and contract4 
,to the wise man this  does not happen  
even in his own calamities2 but he will1
 on the  contrary1 beat back all the    
anger of fortune and break it before    
him4 ,he  will always preserve the same 
countenance1 calm and undisturbed2 which
  he could not do1 if he gave way to    
sadness4 ,therefore he is not           
compassionate1 because this cannot be   
without misery3 all other things  which 
those do who are compassionate1 he does 
willingly and in another  frame of mind4
 ,he will succour the tears of others2  
he will not give way  to them4 ,he will 
give a helping hand to the shipwrecked1 
shelter to the  exile1 alms to the      
needy2 he does not do this disdainfully1
 like the  greater part of those who    

wish to seem compassionate1 who disdain 
those  whom they help and fear to be    
touched by them3 but he will give as an 
equal1 a man to a man4 ,he will give the
 son to his mother's tears1 and  will   
command the fetters to be loosened2 he  
will redeem from the arena  the man     
condemned to fight1 and he will even    
bury the noxious dead body4  ,but he    
will do this with a peaceful mind and a 
countenance worthy of  himself4         
,therefore the wise man will not pity1  
but he will help2 he will  benefit1 as  
one born for mutual help and the public 
good2 from which he  will give each his 
share2 even to the troublesome1 in due  
proportion--to  those who are to be     
disapproved of and reformed1 he shows   
kindness4 ,but  he much more willingly  
comes to the help of the afflicted1 and 
heavily  laden40 7,de ,clem4 ,,ii4 #e1  
#f47    ,with regard to the life of the 
soul in a future world as a separate    
being1 ,seneca's mind seems1 from his   
different writings1 to have been in  an 

undecided state4 ,sometimes1 however1 he
 rises superior to his doubts  and to   
his ,stoic bias1 and rejoices in the    
hope of real immortality4 ,we  see the  
uncertainty under which he laboured in  
his book written to  console ,polybius  
for the loss of his brother4 ,he tells  
him that1 if he  lamented1 it was either
 on his own account1 or on account of   
the  departed4 ,if on his own account1  
then he was not wisely submissive to    
the wisdom which ruled all things4 ,if  
he lamented for his brother's  sake1    
then he should reflect that one of two  
events must have occurred2  either that 
his brother by death had lost           
consciousness and  individuality2 or1 he
 was still sensible and conscious4 ,in  
either case  ,polybius should reason    
himself out of grief4 ,he should reflect
 in this  way3 8,if there remain no     
sense to the departed1 then he has      
escaped all  the inconveniences of life1
 and is restored to that place where he 
was  before he was born3 and1 free from 

all evil1 fears nothing1 desires        
nothing1 suffers nothing4 ,what madness 
is it then for me not to cease  grieving
 for him1 who never will grieve any     
more80 ,in this hypothesis1  we see a   
reference to the ancient ,stoic belief  
respecting the dead4 ,but  ,seneca      
proceeds to point out to ,polybius a    
nobler reason for ceasing to  mourn4 ,he
 bids him think1 8,if there be any      
consciousness in the dead2  now the mind
 of my brother1 as though released from 
a long imprisonment1  at length acts    
according to its own reason and will2   
and enjoys the  spectacle of the        
universe1 and from a higher place looks 
down on all  human affairs2 yet has a   
nearer insight into those divine        
mysteries1 the  design of which he had  
so long sought in vain to understand40  
,he adds1  8,do not then grieve for your
 brother2 he is at rest4 ,at length he  
is  free1 at length he is safe1 at      
length he is immortal4 ,now he enjoys an
  open and free heaven2 he has ascended 

from a low and sunken place to  that1   
whatever it be1 which receives those    
souls that are released from  their     
fetters into its happy bosom3 and now he
 wanders freely1 and  beholds with      
highest delight all the treasures of the
 universe4 ,you are  wrong2 your brother
 has not lost his life2 but has attained
 to one more  secure4 ,he has not left  
us1 but has gone before40 7,ch4 #bh47   
,to this idea  of a happy future        
existence for the soul1 he sometimes    
recurs in other  parts of his writings4 
,in his #ajbnd letter he complains of   
having been  disturbed by a letter from 
,lucilius1 in his happy thoughts of this
  nature4 8,just as he is a troublesome 
fellow who wakes one that has a         
pleasant dream1 so did your letter      
injure me4 ,it called me back when      
indulging in suitable thought and about 
to venture further1 if one  might4 ,i   
was delighting myself with enquiring    
respecting the immortality  of souls1   
yes and more than that1 with believing  

in it4 ,i gave my belief  readily to the
 opinions of great men1 who rather      
promised this most  welcome thing1 than 
proved it4 ,i gave myself up to so great
 a hope4  ,already ,i was disdainful of 
my present self1 already ,i despised the
  fragments of my broken existence1     
about to pass1 as ,i was1 into that     
immense duration and into the possession
 of eternity3 when suddenly ,i  was     
awakened by the receipt of your letter1 
and lost my beautiful dream4  ,but ,i   
will seek it again1 when ,i have sent   
you away1 and try to get it  back40 ,in 
the latter part of the same letter he   
compares our present  life to the period
 of gestation4 ,when we cast off our    
skin and bones and  sinews at death1 we 
shall be like infants escaping from what
 has  enfolded them previously to their 
birth4 ,when we die1 then we shall be   
born to a nobler life4 ,we need not     
mourn over our dying bodies4 8,the      
coverings always perish of those who are
 born4 ,therefore look hence to         

something more lofty and sublime4       
,hereafter the mysteries of the         
universe shall be revealed to you1 the  
darkness shall be dispelled1 and  clear 
light shall break upon you from every   
side4 ,imagine within  yourself how     
great will be that brightness1 so many  
stars commingling  their light4 ,no     
cloud will disturb the peaceful scene4  
,the whole expanse  of heaven will shine
 with equal splendour4 ,then you will   
say you have  lived in darkness1 when   
you shall have full vision of that      
perfect  light4 ,this thought allows    
nothing filthy1 nothing low1 nothing    
cruel to  find place in the mind2 and he
 who has embraced this doctrine1 dreads 
no  hosts1 trembles not at the trumpet's
 blast1 fears no threats40    ,no one   
would pretend to say that there are     
definite traces of ,christian  influence
 in these lofty thoughts4 ,indeed one's 
mind naturally turns  from them to      
similar musings in the ,somnium         
,scipionis of ,cicero1 and  elsewhere4  

,we remember too the noble surmises of  
,plato respecting the  soul's           
immortality2 and how ,cato1 the ,stoic1 
improved on his ,stoicism1  by indulging
 in lofty views of a future life1 drawn 
from this source1  before his suicide4  
,yet one cannot but feel that ,seneca1  
at times1  nearly reached the truth1 and
 owed to the influence of the religion  
of  ,jesus on the age in which he lived1
 much of the peculiar excellence of  his
 philosophy4    ,if from him we turn to 
,epictetus1 we see one still more       
steadily  approaching the light4 ,he    
seems almost more than a pagan          
philosopher1  but less than a ,christian
 disciple4 ,his discourses preserved to 
us by  the care of ,arrian1 who wrote in
 ,greek what he heard as the disciple of
  the philosopher1 show a pious spirit  
and a disrelish for the harsher         
doctrines of the ,stoic system4 ,they   
bear in some parts a striking  likeness 
to the teachings of the ,gospel4 ,just  
as our ,saviour taught that  he who     

humbleth himself shall be exalted1 and  
that the soul needed ,his  care1 as a   
sick man needs a physician3 so we read  
in ,epictetus1 8,the  beginning of      
philosophy is1 according to those who   
enter1 even as they  ought1 through this
 gate to her1 a perception of their     
weakness and  powerlessness in necessary
 matters 444 ,does the philosopher      
beseech men  to listen to him8 ,what    
doctor asks that any one should suffer  
himself to  be healed by him8 ,although 
,i hear that at ,rome now1 doctors call 
patients to them1 yet in my time1 they  
were called to their patients4 ,i       
invite you to come and hear that you are
 ill2 that you take care of  anything   
rather than what is worthy of care2 that
 you are ignorant of  good and evil2    
that you are unhappy and wretched4 ,the 
school of the  philosopher is a doctor's
 shop1 from which one should go away1   
not  joyful1 but suffering3 for you did 
not come to it whole1 but sick1 one     
with a dislocated shoulder1 another     

afflicted with a tumour1 another  with  
an ulcer1 and another with headache#dh40
 ,we find also how clearly  he saw the  
necessity for divine aid in doing right1
 and the need for  submission to the    
divine will1 self-will being cast aside4
 ,he says1  8,call to mind1 man1 what is
 said about tranquillity1 liberty1      
magnanimity4 ,lift up your head now1    
like one freed from slavery4 ,dare at   
length1 with eyes raised to ,,god1 to   
say1 #8,henceforth deal with me as  thou
 wilt3 ,thy thought is my thought2 ,thy 
will the same as mine2 ,i  refuse       
nothing that seemeth good to ,thee4     
,lead me whither ,thou wilt4  ,clothe me
 as ,thou wilt4 ,dost ,thou wish me to  
lead a public life1 to live  in private1
 to remain1 to flee1 to be in need1 to  
abound with wealth8 ,i  will defend     
,thee as to all these dispensations of  
thy providence before  men3 ,i will show
 what is the nature of each4 ,cleanse   
,thou ,thine own4 ,of  ,thine own will  
cast out thence grief1 and fear1 and    

avarice1 and envy1  and ill-will1 and   
covetousness1 and effeminacy1 and       
intemperance4' ,these  things cannot be 
cast out except you look to ,,god alone1
 and cleave to  him alone1 and sacrifice
 yourself to his commands#di40 ,at      
another  place1 we find ,epictetus      
acknowledging that the change of his    
life from  sin to virtue was due to     
divine mercy1 and called for grateful   
acknowledgement4 8,i observe what men   
say and by what they are  influenced2   
and ,i do this not malevolently1 nor    
that ,i may find  something to blame1 or
 ridicule1 but ,i turn it to myself1    
lest ,i also  sin in the same way4 ,how 
then shall ,i cease from sin8 ,once ,i  
also  sinned1 but now do so no longer1  
thanks be to ,,god#ej40 ,of the         
providence of ,,god1 some of the most   
elevated1 reverent1 and grateful        
records are contained in the            
,dissertations4 ,for instance1 we have  
the  following noble passage in ,b4 ,i4 
c4 #af3 8,what language will be         

sufficient to praise and set forth these
 works of ,providence towards us4  ,for1
 if we are mindful1 what else does it   
behove us to do1 both in  public and    
private1 than to praise and bless the   
,deity1 and to utter  thanksgivings8    
,ought we not both while we dig1 and    
while we plough1 and  while we eat1 to  
sing this hymn to ,,god8 #8,great is    
,,god who hath provided  such implements
 for us1 by which we work the ground3   
great is ,,god1 who  hath given us      
hands2 and the power of swallowing our  
food1 as well as a  place for its       
digestion2 who hath caused us to grow   
without our own  care1 and to breathe   
even while we sleep4' ,these things     
should be sung1  one by one2 even the   
grandest and holiest hymn should be     
sung1 because  ,he has given us a power 
of attending to these things and making 
use of  them by a proper method#ea4     
,what then8 ,since ye1 the multitude1   
are  blinded to this1 ought not one to  
be found to fulfil this part and sing1  

in place of all1 the hymn to ,,god8 ,for
 what other duty can ,i1 a lame old     
man1 discharge1 except sing the praises 
of ,,god8 ,if ,i were a nightingale1  ,i
 would fulfil my part like the          
nightingale2 if a swan1 like the swan4  
,but now1 since ,i am possessed of      
reason1 ,i ought to sing the praises of 
,,god4 ,this is my work1 ,i do it3 nor  
will ,i leave this post1 so long as     
power is given me to hold it1 and ,i    
exhort you to join in the singing of    
this same song#eb40 ,he speaks also of  
the freedom of the human will to        
perform certain acts1 and dwells on the 
acts that are within the power  of the  
will4 ,he shows the folly of valuing too
 highly what is beyond our  power1 and  
the necessity of submitting our will to 
the divine will4 ,but  though he speaks 
of the freedom of the human will1 he is 
a firm believer  in fatalism2 so that   
his idea of the true freedom of man was 
limited4 8,i  have one whom it behoves  
me to please1 to whom ,i must submit1   

whom ,i  ought to obey--,,god1 and those
 who hold a place near him4 ,he has     
committed  me to myself and placed my   
free will in subjection to myself alone1
  giving me rules for its right use3 and
 when ,i follow these in my  reasonings1
 ,i do not care what else any one       
says#ec40 8,remember this1  that if you 
esteem every thing that is beyond your  
choice1 you lose the  power of          
choosing#ed40 ,he tells us we are the   
children of ,,god1 and that  this       
relationship should lead us to act      
worthily of ,him4 8,if any one  will    
embrace this truth as he ought1 that we 
are especially the children  of ,,god1  
and that ,,god is the ,father1 as well  
of men1 as of the gods1 ,i  think he    
will allow no ignoble or low thoughts   
about himself4444 ,on  account of this  
relationship1 those of us who fall away 
become1 some  like wolves1 faithless1   
and cunning1 and baneful2 others1 like  
lions1  fierce1 savage1 and uncivilized2
 more of us still become foxes and      

whatever else among beasts are          
monstrous4 ,for what else is an         
evil-tongued and depraved man than a    
wolf1 or whatever besides is more       
wretched and debased8 ,see1 then1 and   
take care lest you fall away into  one  
of these monsters#ee40 ,nothing is more 
remarkable in ,epictetus than  his      
earnest piety4 8,i esteem what ,,god    
wills as better than what ,i will4  ,i  
cleave to him as a servant and follower2
 with him1 ,i go eagerly  forward2 with 
him1 ,i stretch myself out3 in short1   
what he wishes1 ,i  wish#ef40 ,but we   
find that he does not rise to any       
glorious hopes of a  future separate    
existence for the soul4 ,instead of     
this1 he cleaves to  the ,stoic idea1 of
 the distribution of man1 at death1 into
 his component  parts4 8,what was fire  
in thee10 he says1 8will return to fire2
 what was  earthy1 to earth2 what       
belonged to the wind will return to the 
wind2  what was watery1 to water#eg40   
,he was not1 however1 without some      

knowledge of the power of ,christianity1
 on those who embraced it1 to  make them
 brave all things for the gospel's sake4
 ,he speaks of the  8,galileans braving 
the tyrant1 his satellites1 and their   
swords1 from  madness and custom40 ,he  
says he prefers reason to this influence
 which  sustained them4 ,yet1 though he 
remains without the personal knowledge  
of  the power of ,christ1 what ,i have  
produced from his works serves to show  
that there was a work going on in the   
world1 by means of the gospel1  which   
extended further than the ,church1 and  
gave to the ,stoic purer and  holier    
views of the truth4 ,he felt himself an 
erring being in need of  divine aid4 ,he
 felt that he was under the care of a   
loving ,father1 to  whom he turned for  
aid4 ,and he strongly brings before us  
the need all  men have by self-abasement
 to seek the love of the supreme being1 
and to  rise by his help to perfection4 
,this was a great advance on old ,stoic 
pride and self-dependence4 ,moreover1   

others began to have a share of         
attention4 ,all mankind were recognized 
as justly entitled to the love  and     
support of each other4 ,indeed1         
,stoicism came down from the height of  
its self-sufficiency4 ,its disciples    
learnt to mistrust themselves and to    
trust in ,,god4 ,they were making       
progress in true wisdom4 ,plutarch had  
urged against the sect their belief1    
that 8,,god does not give men virtue2   
but that goodness is in their own power3
 that ,he gives riches and  health1     
without virtue2 and does not afford     
assistance for their  benefit#eh40 ,they
 had to learn the lesson1 that man is   
incapable of  goodness without divine   
aid2 and1 as we have seen1 ,epictetus   
did learn  it in some degree4 ,yet we   
shall perceive1 from what ,marcus       
,aurelius  wrote1 that the old leaven   
remained mightily at work1 and the      
advance  was not thorough4 ,in          
proportion as the sect felt their need  
of divine  aid1 they came also to give  

up some of their selfishness and        
exclusiveness4 ,epictetus urges the     
propriety of mingling with men and      
helping them4 ,he would do them good1   
teach them their need of humility1  and 
of a cure for their mental maladies4    
8,will you not10 he says1 8do as  sick  
people do1 call the physician8 #8,lord1 
,i am sick1 help me2 see what  ,i ought 
to do2 it is for me to obey thee4' ,so  
also again1 #8,what to do ,i  know not2 
,i have come to thee to learn4'0 7,diss4
 ,b4 ,,ii4 #ae47 ,he wished  to benefit 
the multitude1 and had imbibed some of  
the spirit of that  lesson so full of   
truth1 that 8he who loves ,,god will    
love his brother  also40    ,these      
remarks will be applicable1 but not in  
so high a degree1 to ,marcus  ,aurelius 
,antoninus1 the ,emperor4 ,he was the   
last of the ,stoics who has  left a     
memorial behind4 ,with him the sect     
ceased as a sect of  philosophy4 ,if we 
read his meditations we perceive that   
while much of  their doctrines remained 

unchanged1 many were considerably       
modified4 ,the  modification was in a   
direction similar to that noticed in the
 previous  pages1 which we should expect
 to find1 if ,christianity exercised a  
collateral influence4 ,antoninus claims 
the care of the supreme being for  men1 
and shows the duty of men to believe in 
the goodness of the gods4  8,it behoves 
thee so to do and think about every     
thing1 as to be able to  depart out of  
life now4 ,but to depart from among men 
is nothing  dreadful1 if there be gods1 
for they will lay no evil on thee4 ,if1 
on  the other hand1 there be no gods1 or
 if they do not concern themselves      
about human affairs1 what good is it to 
me to live in a world without  gods1 and
 without a ,providence8 ,but there are  
gods1 and they concern  themselves about
 human affairs40 7,b4 ,,ii4 ch4 #aa74   
8,the soul1 when it  must depart from   
the body1 should be ready to be         
extinguished1 to be  dispersed1 or to   
subsist a while longer with the body40  

7,b4 ,,xi4 #c74 ,yet  he would have this
 readiness to proceed from similar      
feelings to his  own4 ,he knew the      
bravery and resignation of ,christians4 
,alas6 he had not  large-heartedness    
enough to tolerate what seemed an       
opposing influence  to his favourite    
philosophy1 and tried by persecution to 
extirpate the  faith of the cross4 ,the 
faith1 however1 proved itself stronger  
than  philosophy2 ,christ crucified was 
to the ,greek foolishness1 but was      
mightier than the wisdom of men1 and    
8the weakness of ,,god was stronger     
than men40 ,antoninus could not but see 
the inability of persecution to  check  
the religion of ,jesus2 yet he put down 
the earnest faith and  determination of 
its disciples to obstinacy4 ,so after   
the words just  quoted from his work1 on
 the propriety of being ready for       
whatever may  come1 he adds1 8,but this 
readiness must proceed from the soul's  
own  judgment1 and not from mere        
obstinacy1 as with the ,christians2 it  

must  be arrived at with reflection and 
dignity1 so that you could even         
convince another without declamation40  
,there is a resemblance in the          
description of the nature of man given  
by  this ,stoic1 to that given by the   
,apostle ,paul4 ,this is noticed in the 
,essay by ,sir ,a4 ,grant1 to which     
reference has already been made4 ,he    
says1 8we find in him 7,antoninus7 the  
same psychological division of man  into
 body1 soul1 and spirit1 as was employed
 by ,st ,paul40 ,a similar  observation 
was made by ,gataker in a note which ,i 
shall presently quote4  ,antoninus      
writes in this way 7,b4 ,,ii4 c4 #b71   
8,what ,i am1 consists  entirely of the 
fleshly 77 and spiritual 771 and the    
chief part 7 74 ,but now1 as being about
 to die1 despise thou  thy fleshly      
parts2 gore1 and bones1 and a network   
woven of nerves1  veins1 and arteries4  
,look also at thy spiritual part of what
 nature it  is2 a breath of air which is
 never the same1 but continually        

breathed  out and drawn in again4 ,the  
third remaining is the principal part4  
,thou  art old1 no longer shouldst thou 
suffer this to be enslaved40 ,again1 in 
,b4 ,,iii4 #af1 his words are1 8,body   
771 soul 771 mind 774 ,to  thy body     
belong senses2 to thy soul1 affections2 
to thy mind1 opinions40  ,again1 7,,xii4
 #c71 8,there are three things of which 
thou art composed1  body 771 spirit 771 
mind 7v74 ,of these the first  two are  
thine1 so far as the care of them is    
concerned4 ,but the third  alone is     
really thy own40 ,on the first of these 
quotations1 ,gataker has  the following 
note#ei4 8,almost the same thing1 in    
other words1 the  ,apostle writes to the
 ,thessalonians in the first ,epistle1  
ch4 #e1 v4 #bc1  where he says1 #8 1    
3' in which place    is what ,marcus    
here calls 2   is here 2 and    is here 
40 ,we may notice1 in addition1 that    
this  last is called  in ,b4 ,,iii4 #af1
 and ,b4 ,,xii4 #c4 ,we read in         
,epictetus1  ,b4 ,,iii4 #g1 8,that three

 things belong to man no one will       
deny--soul  771 and body 771 and things 
without0 7 74 ,the 8 0  here include the
 8 0 of ,antoninus1 which he says is 810
  and is 8breathed out and drawn in     
continuously40    ,with regard to a     
future existence for the soul1 freed    
from sin and pain  at death1 though     
,aurelius denies the hope in some       
places1 yet in others  the light of the 
truth seems to stagger him4 ,so when he 
says1 ,b4 ,,xii4 #a1  8,how comes it to 
pass1 that the gods1 who order all      
things well and  lovingly for the human 
race1 have overlooked this alone1       
namely1 that  men innately good1 and who
 have had1 as it were1 frequent         
communions  with the deity1 and by holy 
deeds and sacred services have become   
friends of the deity1 when once they    
die1 no longer have any being1 but  go  
away to be absorbed in the universe80   
,he shows his doubts by adding1  8if    
this be the fact10 concerning them2 and1
 further on1 8if the fact be            

otherwise40 ,evidently he wavered in his
 belief4    ,antoninus was ascetic in   
his views4 ,he was fond of retirement   
and  seclusion1 thinking his mental     
progress furthered thereby4 ,he does not
  seem so intensely earnest1 nor so     
pious and nobly gifted as ,epictetus3   
yet his aspirations were noble4 8,oh1 my
 soul60 we hear him saying#fj1  8wilt   
thou ever be good1 and simple1 and one1 
and naked1 and more  transparent than   
the body which clothes thee80 ,though   
philosophy with  him was all in all1 yet
 the cause of truth was advancing2 the  
light from  heaven was beginning to     
penetrate the darkness4 ,one cannot put 
down his  record of self-communings     
without feeling sad1 and wishing he had 
opened  his eyes to the perfection of   
that gospel which he professedly        
rejected  and despised4    ,footnote    
#ce3      ,prs4 ,hr4 #g4    ,footnote   
#cf3                          1 444     
,footnote #cg3         1     1       1  
1  1 444--,com4 ,,xi4 #c4    ,footnote  

#ch3      ,the remarks of ,gataker with 
reference to ,seneca are so apposite    
that ,i    quote them here3 8,certe     
qucunque ,dominus ipse ,christus in     
concionibus    collationibusque suis    
,histori ,evangelic insertis1           
intextisque2 de    mali cogitatione     
etiam abstinenda2 de affectibus vitiosis
    supprimendis2 de sermone otioso non 
insuper habendo2 de animo    cumprimis  
excolendo1 et ad imaginem divinam       
effingendo2 de    beneficenti           
simplicissime exhibend2 de injuriis     
quanimiter    ferendis2 de admonitione  
et increpatione cum moderatione         
cautioneque    accurat exercendis2 de   
rebus quibuslibet1 adeoque vit ips1 ubi 
res    ratioque poscit1 nihili habendis2
 de aliis denique plerisque pietatis1   
caritatis1 quitatis1 humanitatis        
officiis quam exquisitissime    obeundis
 exequendisque1 prcepta dedit2 apud     
nostrum hunc eadem1    perinde ac si    
illa lectitsset ipse1 in dissertationum 
commentationumque congerie inspersa     

passim1 nec sine vehementia et          
vivacitate insigni1 qu in prcordia ipsa 
penits penetret1 atque in    animo      
infixos altius relinquat aculeos        
inculcata subinde1 ,lector    quivis    
sedulus advertet1 ingenuus              
agnoscet40--,proel4 ,marc4 ,ant4 ,com4  
,footnote #ci3      8,deus ad homines   
venit1 immo1 quod proprius est1 in      
homines venit10    c4--,sen4 ,ep4 #gc4  
,i do not think it necessary to give the
 original of these passages1    except  
in special cases4    ,footnote #dj3     
8,peccavimus omnes1 alii graviora1 alii 
leviora10 c4    ,footnote #da3          
8,nec delinquimus tantum sed usque ad   
extremum vi delinquemus40    ,footnote  
#db3      ,we find from ,seneca's       
observation respecting the ,jews1 which 
,st    ,augustin quotes1 8victi         
victoribus leges dederunt10 how strongly
 he    was impressed with the power the 
,jews exercised spiritually4 ,the       
,satires of ,juvenal and the complaints 
of ,tacitus present us with    similar  

views on their part4 ,that ,christianity
 was supposed to be a    part of        
,judaism is seen from the words of      
,suetonius 7,vit4 ,claud473    8,judos1 
impulsore ,chresto1 assidue tumultuantes
 ,rom expulit40    ,footnote #dc3       
8,accendere aliquem lucernam sabbathis  
prohibeamus10 c4    ,footnote #dd3      
,acts xvii4 #be4    ,footnote #de3      
,mark xii4 #cc4    ,footnote #df3       
,compare this with the passage in the   
,epistle to the ,hebrews1 xi4 #f3       
8,he that cometh unto ,,god must believe
 that ,he is40    ,footnote #dg3        
,sen4 ,ep4 #ie4    ,footnote #dh3       
,diss4 ,,iii4 #bc4 ,compare our ,lord's 
words1 ,matt4 ix4 #ab4 8,they that be   
whole need not a physician1 but they    
that are sick4 ,i am not come to    call
 the righteous1 but sinners to          
repentance40    ,footnote #di3          
,diss4 ,,ii4 #af4    ,footnote #ej3     
,diss4 4 ,,iii4 c4 #d4      ' 1      4  
,footnote #ea3      ,gataker has the    
following apposite and judicious remark 

on this    passage1 8,et qu sequuntur   
his gemina1 homine ,christiano quovis   
non    indigna1 ,christum modo donatum  
nobis adjecisset40--,prloq4 ,m4 ,ant4   
,com4    ,footnote #eb3      ,diss4 ,b4 
,,ii4 c4 #af4    ,footnote #ec3         
,diss4 ,b4 ,,iv4 c4 #ab4    ,footnote   
#ed3      ,diss4 ,b4 ,,iv4 c4 #d4       
,footnote #ee3      ,diss4 ,b4 ,i4 c4   
#c4    ,footnote #ef3      ,diss4 ,b4   
,,iv4 c4 #f4    ,footnote #eg3          
,diss4 ,b4 ,,iii4 c4 #ac4    ,footnote  
#eh3      ,e                        4   
,plut4    de ,stoic4 cont4 c4 #bg4      
,footnote #ei3      8,idem fere1 aliis  
verbis1 ,apostolus ad ,thessal4 p4 ,i4  
c4 #e4 v4 #bc10    c4--,gat4 not4 in ,m4
 ,ant4 ,b4 ,,ii4 c4 #b4    ,footnote    
#fj3      ,m4 ,aur4 ,com4 x4 #a4        
,,chapter ,,iv4             ,,the       
,,influence ,,of ,,stoicism ,,on ,,the  
,,christian ,,church4                   
4                              ,soph4   
,antig4 #abfa1 #b4      ,having in the  
previous chapter described the influence

 which  ,christianity had in modifying  
the tenets of the ,stoic school1 we come
  now to the consideration of the       
influence which the latter exercised on 
the ,christian ,church4 ,beyond the     
bounds of the sect a widespread         
impression was made by the force of     
,stoic principles3 and by these         
,christianity became affected in no     
small degree4 ,there was so much about  
them which was real1 and they appealed  
so strongly to the sympathies and  pride
 of human nature1 that even where their 
influence was unperceived  and          
unacknowledged1 it was nevertheless deep
 and lasting4 ,the ,stoic  spirit       
gradually spread within the ,church1 and
 found there a new home  for itself     
after the destruction of the school of  
philosophy to which it  had given life4 
,even to the present day it has         
continued to exist1 and  still manifests
 undiminished energy4    ,the early     
,fathers1 who came into contact with the
 ,stoic system in its  strength1 saw its

 many excellences as well as its many   
defects4 ,being a  wonderful advance on 
merely speculative philosophy1 drawing  
men to the  cultivation of the moral    
sense instead of indulging in wild      
dreams1  there was much for the         
,christian to admire in its purpose4    
,still he  would naturally be           
discontented with a great deal that it  
contained1 as  well as disappointed at  
the absence of much that it omitted4    
,there was  something to commend the    
system to many minds1 in the fact that  
it  taught the duty of cultivating the  
nobler part1 of self-denial1 of         
bringing the appetites into subjection  
to the will4 ,there was a great  deal of
 pretension also in the outward         
appearance of the philosophers  and of  
their disciples1 and this had an        
influence on many ,christians1  which   
became stronger as time wore on4    ,in 
endeavouring to decide how the ,church  
was affected by this spirit1 we         
perceive that there were two principal  

dangers to which the religion of  ,jesus
 was liable from ,stoicism4 ,these      
dangers were lest the purity of  the    
,gospel should be overridden by the     
asceticism born of the ,stoic  spirit2  
and lest the foreknowledge and          
providential care of the great  ,father 
should be confounded with the fatalism  
which was so marked a  feature of the   
,stoic belief4 ,these dangers include   
others which will be  noticed as we     
proceed4    ,there is a great proneness 
in many minds to look on self-imposed   
austerities as in themselves a mark of  
virtue4 ,hence men who have been        
discontented with the ordinary duties of
 life and attempted to find  higher     
walks of excellence1 have been looked on
 as superior to others4  ,this spirit   
has shown itself in all countries and   
systems4 ,those who  have yielded to it 
have generally affected a superiority   
over the rest  of the world1 and a      
peculiarity in their garb and manners4  
,the ,stoics  were greatly influenced in

 this way4 ,we read of their long robes1
 just  as we read of the long robes of  
the ,pharisees4 ,horace and ,persius1 in
  their ,satires1 bring before us the   
assumption of superiority by 8the  wise 
man40    ,this spirit of asceticism     
found its way into the ,christian       
,church4  ,perhaps jealousy lest the    
,stoic philosophy1 or ,jewish           
,pharisaism1 should  seem to have a more
 marked influence than ,christianity1   
produced a  desire to make a display of 
asceticism4 ,or it might be that a      
persuasion  of the excellence of this1  
for its own sake1 led ,christian men to 
adhere  to it4 ,whatever the motive1    
there was soon manifested1 in the       
,church1 an  exaggeration of            
self-restraint4 ,men began to withdraw  
from the ordinary  walks of ,christian  
life4 ,they began to despise the        
performance of merely  common duties2   
and to sketch out new ways to           
perfection1 which they  thought better  
than those taught by the ,saviour4 ,they

 began to do  violence to their natures4
 ,in fact they became ,stoical1 as if   
they  thought the being so was an       
advance on being ,christian4            
,christianity is a religion eminently   
suited for the daily life of men4  ,it  
teaches us to do our duty in the world4 
,we are taught that the  highest degree 
of piety is consistent with1 and indeed 
implies1 the  performance of one's      
proper part1 as belonging to a great    
family1 which  has a right to the energy
 and service of each of its members4 ,to
 do our  duty amongst men1 wisely and   
bravely1 is taught us too by the example
 of  the divine founder of our religion4
 ,a man's interests and desires may     
often lie in the direction of his       
ordinary duties4 ,there can be no true  
piety in relinquishing the post ,,god   
has given him merely because his        
interest would induce him to retain it4 
,on the other hand1 our duties  may     
often be difficult and distracting4 ,in 
that case1 we have no right  to leave   

them4 ,there is often greater victory in
 doing our work in the  world than in   
fleeing into solitude for the exercises 
of devotion4 ,he  who makes his religion
 to consist of care for self only1 who  
for selfish  ends neglects the duties   
which every man owes to his fellow-men1 
has a  very unsatisfactory sense of the 
doctrines of the ,gospel4 ,yet we find  
early mention in the records of the     
,church1 of men who cut themselves  off 
from intercourse with their             
fellow-,christians1 leaving their place 
in the human family vacant1 their work  
undone4 ,they assumed the air of        
peculiar sanctity1 clad themselves in   
coarse garments1 slept on the  hardest  
of couches1 often on the ground1 covered
 only by a sheepskin1 or  some similar  
coverlet1 lived on the humblest fare1   
and many of them  thought it a peculiar 
virtue to forego the joys of the        
marriage-life4  ,when we look at this   
state of things with the eye of reason1 
we see that  it has really no claim on  

the veneration of mankind4 ,if it was   
good for  one1 why not for another8 ,if 
certain persons1 by means of their      
seclusion and mortification of the      
flesh1 as they termed it1 made          
themselves peculiarly the loved of      
,,god1 then might all men do so2 for we 
are told1 8there is no respect of       
persons with0 ,him#fa4 ,but1 if all     
were to adopt this system of living1    
what would become of human society8     
,the earth would soon cease to be the   
scene of busy industry1 commerce  would 
die1 and religion would be a bane       
instead of a blessing4 ,if one  man     
makes himself peculiarly the favourite  
of heaven by forswearing  marriage1 then
 of course all men might make themselves
 so by the same  means4 ,but if celibacy
 were universal1 what would become of   
the human  race8 ,yet it is the duty of 
every man to make himself as much like  
what  ,god would approve as he can4 ,and
 if celibacy is peculiarly acceptable to
  heaven1 all should be celibates4      

,this1 however1 would make it to be     
agreeable to the wishes of the ,most    
,high1 that the race of man should  come
 to an end4 ,as this cannot be ,,god',s 
will1 so neither can celibacy be  the   
state in which a man must be holiest and
 most approved by his maker4  ,the fact 
is that ,christianity does not teach any
 such an idea as this  mistaken one1 to 
which ,i have referred4 ,this has its   
origin in the  spirit to which ,stoicism
 gave birth4 ,the religion of ,jesus is 
one of  faith in another's merits1 as   
the first step of all2 and then1 from   
the  loyalty to ,,god which this        
produces1 the believer is anxious to do 
the  utmost he can to show his          
gratitude4 ,he tries his best to please 
his  ,king and ,lord1 by whatever means4
 ,he counts no sacrifice too great if   
called on to make it4 ,but he is not to 
mark out a way different from the  rule 
of the ,gospel4 ,he must be content to  
do ,,god',s work in the place and  by   
the means which ,his providence may     

point out4 ,since the ,most ,high has   
implanted certain feelings and          
affections in all our natures1 though it
  may be ,stoical1 it is hardly         
,christian to try to uproot them4 ,the  
,gospel  does not teach us to destroy   
natural affections1 but to control them4
 ,it  is true our appetites are not to  
be our masters2 yet they are not evils2 
they are sent to be our servants1 and   
are good gifts of heaven1 if used       
aright4 ,we are nowhere taught by ,,god1
 that1 to be ,his peculiar people1  we  
must go out of the world1 and live      
selfish and unsocial lives4 ,the  word  
of ,,god lays it down as a mark of evil 
to be 8without natural  affections40    
,our blessed ,lord1 in ,his prayer for  
,his disciples and the  future ,church  
of all ages1 said#fb1 8,i pray not that 
,thou wouldest take  them out of the    
world1 but that ,thou wouldest keep them
 from the evil40  ,the noble duty laid  
upon us is to show in our daily life the
 excellence  and power of virtue4       

,yet we find that very early in the     
history of the ,church there were  great
 numbers of persons leading lives of    
selfish seclusion1 and  claiming        
peculiar sanctity because of this4      
,their solitude1 and the  lonely places 
in which they chose to live1 gave rise  
to the name of  ,monk1 ,hermit1 and     
,anchorite4 ,very soon these men        
occupied the same  position in the      
religious world that the ,stoics held in
 the heathen4 ,and  because             
,christianity gave woman her proper     
place1 as an heir of  immortality1 and  
did not neglect her as philosophy had   
done1 the same  rules of living became  
also common with that part of the       
,christian women  which aimed at        
superiority1 as prevailed with regard to
 the men4 ,they  separated themselves1  
were placed under peculiar discipline1  
and bound  by special vows4    ,it is   
surprising to observe how soon the      
notion became widespread1 that  these   
men and women were worthy of more       

reverence than others4 ,religion  became
 divorced1 in thought at least1 from the
 daily life1 and began to  be considered
 as a system apart2 as if it inculcated 
the excellence of  certain courses1     
which were impracticable to ordinary    
men4 ,this divorce  of ,christianity    
from its duty of raising the world by   
permeating all  classes1 and imparting  
to all its life-giving influence1 had a 
most  disastrous result on the souls of 
men4 ,they who were obliged by the      
necessity of things to devote themselves
 to the affairs of time1 almost  ceased 
to care about being religious1 since    
they thought religion to be  the        
peculiar possession of others1 who      
performed certain acts and  submitted to
 austerities1 to which they could not   
devote their time4  ,those who neglected
 their worldly duties1 at the same time 
that they  forewent certain advantages1 
arrogated to themselves the name of     
piety1  and monopolised the right to the
 title of religious4 ,so1 pure1 vigorous

  ,christianity decayed before a hybrid 
system born of superstition and         
asceticism4 ,those who devoted          
themselves to the monastic life became  
so  much esteemed because of their      
pretensions1 that they acquired more    
influence than the ministers of ,,god',s
 holy word and sacraments4 ,the         
unscriptural merit attached to celibacy 
caused people to reckon those  who      
embraced it as better than those who did
 not4 ,hence the clergy1 to  retain     
their influence1 gave in to the idea4   
,as early as the ,council of  ,nice1 we 
find that it was the custom for those   
who were unmarried when  they were      
ordained1 to continue single4 ,not only 
so1 but an attempt was  made1 at that   
,council1 to order all married clergy to
 separate from  their wives3 and this   
decree would probably have been carried1
 but for  ,paphnutius1 an ,african      
,bishop1 who was himself1 however1 a    
celibate4    ,we are reminded by the    
hermits of the ,christian ,church of    

those ,stoic  anchorites from whom they 
differed but little4 ,we see in the     
work1 which  ,m4 ,aurelius has left as  
the record of his self-communings1 the  
following  observation on the fondness  
for seclusion among his                 
fellow-philosophers4  8,they seek places
 of retreat for themselves1 lone        
dwellings in the  country1 and the      
sea-shore1 and the mountains40 ,then he 
goes on to say  to himself1 8,and thou  
thyself art wont most earnestly to long 
for such  retreats#fc40 ,this spirit of 
abstraction found1 in the ,church of    
,christ1 more and more adherents as time
 wore on1 and exacted a more  absolute  
attention4 ,we find from the writings of
 ,,ss4 ,chrysostom1  ,cyprian1 ,jerome1 
,pachomius and ,basil1 how fast a hold  
it obtained of the  minds of men4 ,basil
 was a student at ,athens from ,a4,d4   
#cea to ,a4,d4 #cee1  with ,gregory     
,nazianzene and at the same time as the 
,emperor ,julian4  ,philosophy doubtless
 still flourished there4 ,we find       

,julian renouncing  ,christ altogether1 
for its sake4 ,basil1 probably from the 
education  which he received at the old 
home of ,stoicism1 was peculiarly in    
love  with asceticism4 ,he places before
 us the secluded life in its best       
light4 ,we see how his ideas of piety   
were warped1 however1 by this  spirit of
 asceticism4 ,we hear him saying to a   
young monk1 his disciple1  8,hast thou  
left thy cell8 ,thou hast left there thy
 virtue40 8,shun the  society of those  
of thine own age2 yea1 flee from it as  
from a burning  flame40 8,it is the     
devil's craft10 he says 7,mon4 ,con4    
,cap4 ,,xx471 8to  keep alive in the    
mind of the monk a recollection of his  
parents and  natural relatives1 so that 
under colour of rendering them some aid1
 he  may be drawn aside from his        
heavenly course40 ,he tells us that some
  objected to this1 because the ,apostle
 declared1 8,if a man provide not  for  
his own1 and specially for those of his 
own kindred1 he hath denied  the faith1 

and is worse than an infidel40 ,but he  
gives the ,antinomian  reply that a     
monk1 being one of a peculiar class1 was
 virtually dead to  the world and to his
 duty in it2 8,as dead thou art free    
from all  contributions for the benefit 
of thy natural relatives1 and1 as       
utterly  a pauper1 thou hast nothing    
which thou canst bestow40    ,this same 
spirit has continued to animate many    
parts of the ,christian  ,church to this
 day4 ,it has given rise to a vast      
variety of bodies1 bound  together by   
various rules1 all more or less austere 
and unnatural4 ,among  the ,roman       
,catholics it has developed itself in   
the ,trappists1 the  ,jesuits1 and other
 societies2 and even in the ,english    
,church we have  seen movements which   
tend to show that this spirit is        
confined within no  certain limits1 but 
exists in all quarters4    ,it is not my
 purpose to pursue the subject further  
in this direction4  ,but there is one   
view of it to which ,i shall slightly   

allude4 ,i would  gladly pass over this1
 only it serves to show the influence   
exerted by  the ascetic spirit on       
certain members of the ,church1 and     
therefore seems  to claim a passing     
notice1 ,i allude to the practical      
,antinomianism of  the ancient ascetics4
 ,respecting those who have followed in 
their steps1  in more recent ages1 ,i   
will be silent4 ,when we turn to the    
writings of  the ancient ,fathers1      
however1 we are struck with the         
testimony they bear  to the fact that   
just as among the ,stoics the long robe 
covered very  often gross               
licentiousness2 just as the             
sanctimonious look and the  formality   
and pretension were thought enough by   
some#fd to take away  the sinfulness of 
sin2 so it was too much the case also   
with the  ,christian anchorites4 ,they  
fell into grievous sins which were a    
disgrace  to their natures4 ,epiphanius 
informs us that when ,nicolaus affected 
to  live a celibate life1 he did not1   

either from want of power or will1      
restrain his lusts1 but rushed into     
promiscuous intercourse1 urging  others 
to follow his example4 ,the descriptions
 which this writer1 and  ,irenus1 and   
others have given of the failings of    
those who professed  extraordinary      
sanctity among the early heretics is    
such as forbid their  being produced for
 public perusal4 ,the ,christian        
,fathers complained of  similar conduct 
among the professed ascetics of the     
orthodox ,church in  the first ages4 ,st
 ,cyprian describes the iniquity of     
their conduct in  his reply to          
,pomponius3 among men and women who had 
devoted themselves  to the monastic life
 great disorders prevailed4 ,there can  
be no mistake1  as he enters into minute
 particulars4 ,allusions were made to   
these by  writers before his time4      
,monks had professed virgin sisters of  
the  ,church1 under vows of perpetual   
chastity1 living with them4 ,these were 
called  by the ,greeks1 mulieres        

subintroduct by the  ,latins4 ,with     
these the single men lived1 lodging in  
the same cell by  day1 and even sleeping
 on the same couch by night4 ,but they  
called their  marriage that of the soul 
and not of the body4 ,they pretended to 
have  reached such a height of          
excellence and self-control1 as to be   
able to  despise temptation1 and to     
brave moral dangers with impunity4 ,st  
,chrysostom1 who was a great admirer of 
the ascetic life1 thus bewails  the evil
 result#fe4 8,alas1 my soul6 ,well may  
,i exclaim1 and repeat the  lamentable  
cry with the ,prophet1 ,alas1 my soul6  
,our virginity is fallen  into contempt2
 the veil that parted it off from       
matrimony is rent by  impudent hands3   
the holy of holies is trodden under     
foot1 and its  weighty and awful        
sanctities have been profaned and thrown
 open to all2  and that which was once  
held in reverence1 as far more excellent
 than  matrimony1 is now sunk so low1 as
 that one should call the married       

blessed1 rather than those who profess  
celibacy4 ,nor is it the enemy  that has
 effected all this1 but the virgins     
themselves40 ,st ,basil's  works show   
even more plainly the evils resulting   
from the system4 ,st  ,jerome also      
intimates the same facts4 ,there is     
indeed nothing wonderful  in all this4  
,men and women were fighting against    
human nature1 common  sense1 yea1 even  
against ,christianity itself1 possessed 
by an evil  spirit2 which was of ,stoic 
birth1 but assumed the garb of          
preeminent  sanctity4    ,other vices1  
besides those hinted at above1 were the 
necessary offspring  of the system4 ,st 
,jerome tells us that men who wore the  
garb of poverty  and wished to excite   
admiration as avowedly poor1 were       
gathering wealth  within their ragged   
sleeves4 ,but ,i need go no further in  
this  disagreeable direction1 and shall 
content myself with having said what    
the subject seemed to demand4           
,another phase of the same ascetic bias 

in the human mind is what we  understand
 by ,puritanism4 ,this turn of religious
 sentiment led men1 and  leads men      
still1 to forego pleasures and to look  
with suspicion on  enjoyments1 however  
innocent in themselves4 ,it is a        
persuasion of the  same kind as that    
which led the ,stoic to exclaim#ff1     
8,thou wilt despise  the pleasant song1 
the dance1 the #8pancratium1' if thou   
dividest the  harmonious strain into    
each of its notes1 and askest thyself am
 ,i  overcome by that8 ,for thou wouldst
 blush to confess as much4 ,having done 
the like with regard to dancing1 and    
considered each separate motion and     
action1 thou wouldst come to the same   
conclusion1 with respect to it3  and the
 same also about the #8pancratium4' ,in 
short1 except virtue and  the things    
relating to virtue1 remember in all     
things to consider the  parts of which  
they consist1 one by one1 that by their 
dissection thou  mayest learn to despise
 them40 ,the closely cut hair1 which    

,persius gives  us#fg as a              
characteristic of the ,stoic youth1 has 
had its counterpart  among those whom   
the ,cavaliers for this cause called    
,roundheads4 ,and we  find that these   
men were animated by a zeal for what    
they considered the  cause of ,,god1    
which led them to defy danger1 and      
apparently to court  difficulties4 ,yet 
there was often an exaggeration of      
feeling and  sentiment in many1 similar 
to that which led to the asceticism of  
the  first ages of the ,church2 and     
which leads men still to seek the       
monastic  life4 ,among the ,puritans1   
though distinguished from them in       
history1 in  name1 and in many          
peculiarities1 we see the ,quakers      
standing prominently  forth4 ,in fact1  
they were more puritanic than the       
,puritans1 and seem the  personification
 of ,stoicism among ,christian people4  
,another feature of ,stoicism which has 
exerted great influence on the  ,church 
of ,christ is its fatalism4 ,this has   

been developed into a system  of        
,christian doctrine1 which we shall     
designate sufficiently1 when we  call it
 ,calvinism2 though it existed1 in a    
considerable degree1 before  ,calvin2   
and though1 in the system1 the          
necessitarian element is a  variable    
quantity4 ,the ,supralapsarians carry   
their belief so far as to  hold that    
,,god decreed man's fall into sin1 with 
all the dreadful  consequences4 ,others1
 with less of this fatalism in their    
faith1  restrict the decrees of the     
,almighty to the disposal of man after  
the  fall4 ,st ,augustin was            
considerably influenced by doctrines    
bearing a  resemblance to certain phases
 of ,calvinism3 but he argued stoutly   
for  man's freedom of will4 ,he was     
essentially a ,latin in his scholarship1
  and did not draw his information from 
the ,hebrew and ,greek4 ,his views  were
 tinged with the fatalism of the        
,stoical philosophy which had widely    
influenced those with whom he came in   

contact in early life4 ,with these      
views he came to the perusal of the     
,epistle to the ,romans1 and thought  he
 read there a confirmation of them4     
,respecting the #ith chapter of that    
,epistle1 ,dodwell says#fh1 8,st ,paul1 
being bred a ,pharisee1 spake there  and
 is to be interpreted according to the  
doctrine of the ,pharisees#fi           
concerning fate1 which they had borrowed
 from the ,stoics40 ,st ,augustin  and  
,prosper and ,fulgentius understood ,st 
,paul to mean almost the same           
predestination that the ,stoic belief   
would imply4 ,yet they did not          
contradict and explain away other parts 
of ,scripture1 nor utterly ignore       
reason and common sense4 ,the same      
difficulty met them that had occurred   
to the ,stoic ,chrysippus4 ,how was this
 absolute predestination to be          
reconciled with human freedom8 ,cicero  
tells us 7,de ,fato1 ,,vii4 #aa7 that   
,chrysippus laboured painfully to show  
how all things were ordered by  fate1   

and yet that there was something in     
ourselves2 and tried to  reconcile the  
inconsistencies of the system by saying 
that while fate  predisposed1 the human 
will determined4 ,so1 naturally the     
reasoning  would occur that1 if ,,god   
has predestined us to be saved1 there is
 no  need for striving2 if he has not1  
there is no use in any effort we can    
make4 ,st ,augustin1 however1 does not  
seem to set before men such  absolute   
fatalism as this2 at least1 he strongly 
impresses on us the  fact1 that ,,god is
 willing to receive every sinner coming 
to ,him2 and  gives us our choice of    
good and evil4 ,the ,jansenists adopted 
and upheld  similar views to these on   
predestination4 ,so did ,luther and     
,beza4 ,calvin  advanced more decidedly 
necessitarian views1 and many of his    
followers  to the present day have set  
out with eternal fate as the foundation 
of  their creed1 and have interpreted   
all other doctrines so as to harmonize  
with this4 ,the essential tenet of      

,calvin was that ,,god1 from no other   
motive than ,his good pleasure and      
freewill1 has predestinated from all    
eternity certain members of the human   
family to everlasting happiness1  and   
the rest to endless misery4 ,calvin     
says#gj1 8,many indeed1 as if  they     
wished to avert odium from ,,god1 admit 
election in such a way as to  deny that 
any one is reprobated4 ,but this is     
puerile and absurd1 because  election   
itself could not exist1 without being   
opposed to reprobation4  ,whom ,,god    
passes by therefore he reprobates1 and  
from no other cause than  his           
determination to exclude them from the  
inheritance which he  predestines for   
,his children40 ,such a doctrine as this
 requires that  other doctrines1 such as
 8,the ,lord is not willing that any    
should  perish2 but that all should come
 to repentance#ga10 be taken in a       
qualified sense4 ,moreover1 since       
salvation is entirely independent of    
the individual1 there can be no danger  

to one predestinated1 whatever he  may  
do or neglect4 ,he cannot fall and be   
lost4 ,again1 as ,christ would  not die 
for men whom he reprobated1 his death   
was not for the sins of  the whole      
world1 but for the elect only4 ,the     
first five of 8the ,lambeth  ,articles0 
thus set forth that part of the         
,calvinistic doctrine which is          
necessary for our present purpose4 #a4  
8,,god hath from eternity  predestinated
 some persons to life2 others he hath   
reprobated to death4  #b4 ,this         
predestination to life proceeds not from
 the faith1  perseverance1 good works1  
or any other quality in the             
predestinated1 but  from the sole will  
or pleasure of ,,god4 #c4 ,the number   
predestinated is  limited before1 and   
cannot be increased1 nor lessened4 #d   
,those not  predestinated to life will  
of necessity be damned4 #e4 ,true faith 
and  sanctification in the elect never  
fails either in part1 or totally40 ,the 
ninth ,article stated1 8,it is not in   

every one's will1 or power1 to be       
saved40 ,the ,synod of ,dort1 ,a4,d4    
#afah1 reduced the system under five    
heads1 which it is not necessary to     
produce here1 as they are a  reiteration
 of what ,i have adduced above4 ,the    
,puritans were firm  adherents to the   
doctrines of ,calvinism1 and rejoiced in
 the belief that  they were the peculiar
 people of ,,god2 so that in their      
doctrine1 as well  as discipline1 they  
partook of the spirit which animated1   
though in a  different manner1 the      
,stoic sect4 ,of the ,church party1 at  
the same time1  many held a mitigated   
form of ,calvinistic doctrine1 though   
others  rejected it altogether4    ,from
 ,calvinism1 carried to its extreme     
limits1 resulted violent                
,antinomianism4 ,in this also ,stoicism 
repeated itself4 ,just as the ,stoics   
declared that nothing could be a crime  
which the wise man did2 so the          
believers in ,antinomian doctrines      
declare there can be no sin in those    

who are the elect2 that ,christ obeyed  
the law and fulfilled all  righteousness
 in their stead1 and that his           
righteousness being imputed  to them1   
whatever their conduct may be1 they are 
righteous still4 ,hence  they call      
observance of the will of ,,god1 and a  
sense of the duty of  obeying his law1  
8the bondage of legality404 ,they cry   
down morality1 as  a worthless thing in 
the sight of ,,god4 ,the ,stoics divided
 the world into  the wise and fools4    
,these two classes included all mankind4
 ,they called  ordinary men1 who did not
 come up to their standard1 fools and   
mad4 8,the  school and sect of          
,chrysippus10 says ,horace#gb1 8deem    
every man mad1  whom vicious folly1 or  
the ignorance of any truth1 drives      
blindly  forward4 ,this definition takes
 in whole nations1 yea1 even great kings
  themselves1 the wise man alone being  
excepted40 ,when once a man was a       
8wise0 man1 however1 they held that all 
things1 even the most revolting  crimes1

 were indifferent to him4 ,so1 if       
mankind be divided into two  classes1   
the elect and the reprobate1 not one of 
whom can ever change  from either class 
to the other1 8then10 some men argue1   
8do what ,i will  it does not matter40  
,the ,antinomian claims to be free from 
the law of  ,,god1 and believes that    
whatever he does1 he cannot bring       
himself under  the condemnation which it
 denounces against the transgressor4    
,hence have  resulted fatal mistakes4   
,we see how evil was the result in the  
case of  the ,anabaptists in ,germany4  
,they were men who called themselves1   
and  perhaps believed themselves1 the   
elect of ,,god2 and1 as such1 despised  
all law1 human and divine4 ,the excesses
 which they committed1 their  crimes and
 subsequent misfortunes1 have left a    
fearful record behind  them of the      
height to which this spirit may be      
carried1 and how it may  bereave men of 
their reason and virtue4 ,the sixth of  
the ,lambeth  ,articles declares1 that  

8an assurance of having justifying faith
 is  certain of remission of sins1 and  
of eternal salvation through ,christ40  
,one cannot but see how possible it is  
that men may be deceived in such a      
matter as this1 and how fatal such      
self-deception may be in its            
consequences4 ,indeed1 it may lead a man
 on in false security and  unfounded    
presumption till he is undone4          
,,conclusion4      ,we have now examined
 the several parts of the subject which 
claimed our  consideration4 ,in the     
course of our investigation we have seen
 that1  while ,christianity and         
,stoicism have many things in common1   
all that  which is excellent in the     
,stoic system is contained in the       
,christian4  ,there is in philosophy    
this irremediable defect1 that though it
 may  point out man's duty1 it does not 
give him power to fulfil it4 ,it shows  
him a height of excellence which he     
cannot reach4 ,christianity also  points
 man to noble and exalted paths4 ,she   

gives him lessons of the  highest       
wisdom1 and furnishes him with an       
example of a perfect life4 ,she  does   
more4 ,she furnishes him with the power 
to obtain what she pictures  to him of  
excellence4 ,stoicism is like the dry   
bones which ,ezekiel saw  in his vision1
 the frames of men without the life4    
,christianity is like  those bodies     
after they had been endowed with beauty1
 and strength1 and  vital energy1 by    
,his power1 to whom alone it belongs to 
pronounce the  decree1 8,come from the  
four winds1 ,o breath1 and breathe upon 
these  slain1 that they may live#gc40   
,nothing is more marked in our holy     
religion than its reality4 ,it enters   
into the every-day life of men1         
preparing them for their duty1 and      
helping them to perform it4 ,it would   
extend its blessed influence to  all4   
,not like philosophy1 which separated a 
distinct class from their  fellow-men1  
and considered the mass of mankind as   
far removed from any  hope of their     

becoming wise2 this divine system seeks 
the lost1 and the  lowly1 and the       
foolish of this world1 and raises them  
so that in their  several spheres they  
may be holy and happy4 ,we are warned in
 strong  language against allowing our  
souls to be surfeited with the cares and
  pleasures of this world4 ,we are to be
 spiritual1 thoughtful1 and earnest  in 
our purely religious exercises4 ,yet we 
must guard against the mistake  that    
religion is merely an abstract thing4   
,it does not end when our  ordinary     
duties begin3 but follows us from the   
mercy-seat1 when we have  finished our  
communions with ,,god and go about those
 duties which his  ,providence has laid 
upon us4 ,it does not deny us innocent  
pleasure1  though we are forbidden to   
waste time in pursuit of even harmless  
amusement4 ,the sentiment which would   
divorce religion from the burdens  and  
joys of ordinary men1 is more of ,stoic1
 than of ,christian birth4 ,if  we read 
the history of the ,saviour1 we see him 

presenting a marked  contrast to ,john  
the ,baptist1 the ascetic and solitary4 
8,the ,son of man  came eating and      
drinking10 and mingling as a man with   
men so freely as  to scandalize the     
,pharisees1 the ,stoics of the ,jewish  
,church4 ,our place  also is in the     
world1 doing the will of ,,god4 ,not    
choosing our own path1  or our own will1
 we are to resist the temptation to     
separation and  spiritual pride which   
sometimes assails us4 ,,god has given us
 life1  spiritual as well as bodily     
life1 that it may be used in his        
service2  not to serve our own selves4  
,yet many a man has served self and has 
followed a false light1 that has        
deceived him and led him into bye-ways2 
while the deceived one thought he was   
doing ,,god service1 and practising     
self-denial4 ,we want no special        
circumstances made for us1 no           
extraordinary opportunities granted3 for
 each man has by infinite wisdom  been  
placed in his position1 whatever it may 

be2 and has1 every day and  all day     
long1 opportunity for honouring ,,god1  
and helping on ,his designs  in the     
world4 ,this ,st ,paul felt when1       
writing to the ,corinthians1 he  says   
7#b ,ep4 v4 #ad71 8,the love of ,christ 
constraineth us2 because we thus  judge1
 that if one died for all1 then were all
 dead3 and that he died  for all1 that  
they who live should not henceforth live
 unto themselves1  but unto ,him who    
died for them1 and rose again40 ,the    
great lesson to  learn is real          
self-sacrifice4 ,we shall not fail in   
learning this lesson  if1 depending on  
divine aid1 we study to conform         
ourselves to ,his  example1 whose life  
was summed up in a few words by the     
,apostle ,peter1  when he described ,him
 as 8,jesus of ,nazareth1 who went about
 doing good40      ,,the ,,end4         
,,cambridge3 ,,printed ,,at ,,the       
,,university ,,press4    ,footnote #fa3 
,rom4 ii4 #aa4    ,footnote #fb3        
,st ,john1 xvii4 #ae4    ,footnote #fc3 

,m4 ,aurelius uses the very word from   
which the anchorite took his name1      
1 444--,b4 ,,iv4 c4 #c4    ,footnote    
#fd3      ,juvenal1 in reference to this
 says1 ,sat4 ,,ii4 #h3                  
8,frontis nulla fides1 quis enim non    
vicus abundat                ,tristibus 
obscnis80      ,so ,sat4 ,,iii4 #aje1 he
 has the following3                     
8,audi facinus majoris aboll4           
,stocus occidit ,baream1 delator amicum1
                 ,discipulumque senex40 
,respecting this man 7,p4 ,egnatius71   
,tacitus says 7,ann4 ,,xvi4 #cb73       
8,cliens hic ,sorani1 et tunc emptus ad 
opprimendum amicum1 auctoritatem        
,stoic sect prferebat1 habitu et ore ad 
exprimendam imaginem honesti            
exercitus1 ceterum animo perfidiosus1   
subdolus1 avaritiam ac libidinem        
occultans40 ,he goes on to say we should
 be on our guard against those          
8specie bonarum artium falsos40         
,footnote #fe3      ,chrysostomi1       
,opera1 ,tom4 ,i4 p4 #cji4 ,ed4 ,ben4   

#hvo4 ,paris1 #ahcd4    ,footnote #ff3  
1     1 444 ,m4    ,aurelii ,ant4 ,com4 
,,xi4 #b4    ,footnote #fg3             
,haud tibi inexpertum curvos deprendere 
mores                 ,quque docet      
sapiens braccatis illita ,medis         
,porticus1 insomnis quibus et detonsa   
juventus                 ,invigilat1 c4 
,sat4 ,,iii4 #eb-d4    ,footnote #fh3   
,proleg4 ad ,j4 ,stearn1 de ,obstin4    
,sect4 #da1 p4 #adg4    ,footnote #fi3  
8,ex mente ,pharisorum40    ,footnote   
#gj3      ,calv4 ,inst4 ,,iii4 #be4 #a4 
,footnote #ga3      #b ,peter iii4 #i4  
,footnote #gb3                   ,quem  
mala stultitia1 et qucunque inscitia    
veri                 ,ccum agit1 insanum
 ,chrysippi porticus et grex            
,autumat4 ,hc populos1 hc magnos formula
 reges1                 ,excepto        
sapiente1 tenet4                   ,hor4
 ,sat4 ,,ii4 #c4    ,footnote #gc3      
,ezekiel xxxvii4 #i4                    
,transcriber's ,notes3       ,text that 
was in italics is enclosed by           

underscores 7italics74       ,footnotes 
have been moved to follow the sections  
in which they are        referenced4