,,a]oplane ,,con/ruction ,a ,h&book on ! v>i\s ,me?ods & ,details ( ,con/ruction employ$ 9 ! ,build+ ( ,a]oplanes ,,by ,,sydney ,,camm ,,associate ,,fell[ ,,royal ,,a]onautical ,,society ,illu/ration ,,london ,,crosby ,,lockwood ,,& ,,son #g1 ,,/ation]s' ,,hall ,,c\rt1 ,,ludgate ,,hill #aiai ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,,william ,,cl[es ,,& ,,sons1 ,,limit$1 ,,london ,,& ,,beccles4 ,,preface ,! articles embodi$ ) o!r matt] 9 ?is book1 7 int5d$ z a broad survey ( ! pr9ciples & details ( mod]n a]oplane con/ruction1 conc]n+ :i* !re is a noticeable deficit among/ exi/+ a]onautical lit]ature4 ,!y 7 writt5 at a "t :5 specific ref]5ces to mod]n ,briti% aircraft 7 =bidd51 & al?\gh f a comp>ative po9t ( view ?is is to be regrett$1 ! details & me?ods dealt ) are1 9 ! au?or's op9ion1 repres5tative ( ^? mo/ g5]ally us$ 9 ma*9es ( pres5t-day design4 ,x is hop$ t ! book w appeal n only to ^? engag$ on ! manufacture1 b also to ^? conc]n$ ) ! uses ( aircraft4 ,s4 ,c4 ,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,page ,,introduction #a ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,mat]ials #f ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,sp>s ,,& ,,/ruts #ah ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,plane ,,con/ruction #cj ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,details ,,( ,,plane ,,con/ruction #dj ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,int]plane ,,/rut ,,connections #ea ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,w+-,,truss+ ,,sy/ems #ei ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,fuselage ,,con/ruction #fg ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,fuselage ,,fitt+s #gg ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,und]c>riage ,,types #hf ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,und]c>riage ,,details #ic ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,control ,,sy/ems #aja ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,wires ,,& ,,connections #ajh ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,eng9e ,,m\nt+s #aaf ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,erection ,,& ,,alignm5t #abc ,,index #ace ,,a]oplane ,,con/ruction ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,introduction4 ,! purpose ( ?is book is to give "s indication ( ! pr9ciples & me?ods ( con/ruction ( mod]n a]oplanes1 z di/9ct f ^? consid]ations p]ta9+ purely to design1 al?\gh occasional ref]5ces to v>i\s elem5t>y pr9ciples ( a]odynamics h be5 f\nd necess>y to illu/rate ! :y & :]e=e ( c]ta9 con/ructional details4 ,to _m ! a]oplane is a /ructure ( appall+ flims9ess1 yet ! pr9ciple :i* x exemplifies1 t ( obta9+ ! maximum /r5g? = a m9imum ( weight1 con/itutes a problem ( :i* ! solv+ is n only an unceas+ lab\r1 b "o dem&+ ! obs]vance ( ! be/ eng9e]+ proc$ure4 ,! :ole future ( aviation1 comm]cially or o!rwise1 may be said to be indissolubly b\nd up ) ! developm5t ( effici5cy2 & :e!r ?is is to be atta9$ 9 improvem5ts 9 a]odynamical qualities1 by ! discov]y ( a mat]ial giv+ a greatly enhanc$ /r5g? to weight ratio1 or by progress 9 ! arrangem5t ( ! v>i\s memb]s ( ! complete /ructure ( ! a]oplane1 is a matt] ^u :i* "s div]sity ( op9ion exi/s4 ,h[ev]1 x is c]ta9 t ! v great developm5ts ( ! la/ few ye>s are due m to ref9em5ts 9 design r ?an con/ruction2 & x is que/ionable :e!r ! con/ructional "w ( ! mod]n a]oplane has develop$ equally ) design1 s t1 ev5 tak+ = grant$ ! (t-repeat$1 b v d\btful1 /atem5t t we are approa*+ ! limitations ( design1 !re is c]ta9ly pl5ty ( scope = exp]im5t & improvem5t 9 ! con/ructional pr9ciples ( ! mod]n a]oplane4 ,/&>dization ( ,details4 ,:atev] may be said = ! /&>dization ( a]oplane types1 a s*eme :i* %\ld effect a consid]able sav+ 9 lab\r & mat]ial1 & :i* (f]s *ances ( success1 w\ld consi/ 9 ! /&>dization ( metal fitt+s & wood compon5ts g5]ally1 = 9 ?is direction !re is c]ta9ly great ne$ = improvem5t4 ,tak+ z a hypo!sis ! v>i\s makes ( sc\t+ ma*9es1 we f9d h>dly any two details ! same4 ,?is means t if 9 ?is c\ntry !re are six firms produc+ ma*9es ( _! own design 7^! figures1 ( c\rse1 be+ purely supposition>y71 !re w be six sets ( detail draw+s1 six sets ( jigs1 templates1 & press tools1 & sundry special ma*9e tools4 ,!re seems no valid reason :y _m ( ! fitt+s = all ma*9es )9 c]ta9 dim5sions %\ld n be ( /&>d design1 & a brief review ( ! v>i\s details :i* c\ld be /&>diz$ )\t detract+ 9 ! lea/ f a]odynamical effici5cy w indicate ! ext5t to :i* ! cons]v+ ( lab\r c\ld be c>ri$4 ,9 ! con/ruction ( ! fuselage1 ! clips fa/5+ ! long]ons & cross /ruts c\ld easily be ( "o design1 :atev] ! make ( ! ma*9e4 ,at pres5t we f9d "s clips are b5t up f a /amp+ & atta*$ to ! long]on )\t ! drill+ ( ! latt]2 "s built up f v>i\s p>ts1 su* z wa%]-plates1 duralum9 press+s1 & bolt$ ?r\gh ! long]on2 :ile "s comb9e advantages & o!rs ! disadvantages ( bo?4 ,9 "s cases ! long]ons ( spruce are sp9dl$ out = light5+2 9 o!rs no sp9dl+ occurs2 :ile 9 a few in/ances hickory or a%1 ) or )\t *annell+1 is us$4 ,!re are ! int]plane /rut atta*m5ts1 /]n-po/ fitt+s1 control-surface h+es1 & und]c>riage atta*m5ts1 all %[+ great v>iations1 & 9 all ( :i* ! design c\ld be br\ght )9 reasonable limits4 ,z indicat+ h[ unnecess>y a good deal ( ! v>iation is1 "o may in/ance ! fact t = ! swag$ /reaml9e1 or ,r4,a4,f4 wires1 !re are at lea/ ?ree diff]5t t]m9als 9 use4 ,al?\gh m difficult ( a*ievem5t1 !re is scope = improvem5t 9 ! diff]5t arrangem5ts = ! fix$ gun m\nt+1 :ile a /&>d in/rum5t bo>d w\ld b5efit ! pilot4 ,me?ods ( ,manufacture4 ,x is fairly well kn[n t ! output ( "s firms is consid]ably bett] ?an o!rs1 al?\gh ! ma*9es are ( ! same design4 ,al?\gh a good _m factors may contribute to ?is result1 x seems fairly c]ta9 t 9 "s cases ! me?ods ( manufacture mu/ be sup]ior1 :i* calls = "s sy/em ( /&>diz+ ! broad pr9ciples p]ta9+ to manufactur+ proc$ure4 ,"u ?is arrangem5t a mu* bett] e/imate ( probable output c\ld be made4 ,x is also necess>y by ! fact t "s firms h be5 develop$ ?r\gh ! exig5cies ( w>1 & n z a result ( any great manufactur+ ability1 :]eas 9 peace "t ! spur ( competition w\ld =ce ! adoption ( ! mo/ rapid me?ods ( production4 ,! creation ( a c5tral or univ]sal (fice = ! design ( ! v>i\s jigs us$ 9 ! manufacture ( aircraft1 ) p[] to decide ! process ( manufacture1 al?\gh a some:at f>-rea*+ re=m1 w\ld c]ta9ly elim9ate a numb] ( useless exp]im5ts made by ! individual con/ructors1 & w\ld also greatly improve ! int]*angeability ( ! v>i\s compon5ts4 ,9 addition1 fre% firms to ! aviation indu/ry w\ld be at once acqua9t$ ) ! g5]al me?ods ( manufacture1 :i* %\ld be ( consid]able assi/ance 9 exp$it+ initial output4 ,( c\rse1 ?is sy/em w\ld t5d r to de/roy individual initiative1 9 t mu* t is n[ left to ! skill & exp]i5ce ( ! workman w\ld be pr$et]m9$1 al?\gh ?is w\ld be m ?an comp5sat$ = by ! increas$ b5efits accru+ to ! ,/ate4 ,jigs design$ to produce ! same "w 9 diff]5t works (t5 diff] 9 detail consid]ably1 & ?is1 ( c\rse1 (t5 influ5ces ! rate ( production4 ,z an in/ance1 9 "s works elaborate b5*es are consid]$ necess>y = ! erection ( fuselages1 :ile 9 o!rs a pair ( tre/les suffices4 ,) ?is sy/em ( unifi$ manufactur+ proc$ure extreme reg>d w\ld h to be paid1 9 ! design ( v>i\s jigs & fixtures1 to adaptability = modifications 9 design4 ,o!rwise ! v>i\s alt]ations :i* are b\nd to occur w\ld result 9 an unnecess>y exp5diture on fre% jigs4 ,x is some:at un=tunate t 9 ! g5]al design ( an a]oplane1 9 num]\s cases1 f> too little reg>d is paid to consid]ations ( ease ( manufacture1 & ?is is frequ5tly responsible = ! _m *anges 9 design aft] a contract has be5 />t$4 ,"u an ideal sy/em ( /&>dization1 ! requirem5ts ( manufacture w\ld necessitate consid]ation 9 ! design ( ! con/ructional details4 ,metal ,con/ruction4 ,! "q ( ! aircraft mat]ials ( ! future is n s mu* a problem z a matt] ( gradual evolution4 ,9 view ( ! dw9dl+ supplies ( suitable timb]1 x c]ta9ly seems m ?an probable t "s =m ( metal con/ruction w "o day con/itute ! /ructure ( ! a]oplane4 ,! manufacture ( ! v>i\s compon5ts 9 wood does n necessitate an ext5sive plant1 ! lab\r necess>y is comp>atively *eap & easily available1 & moreov] ! transitory nature ( ! :ole bus9ess1 & ! ease ) :i* ess5tial *anges 9 type c be made )\t ! :olesale scrapp+ ( ! exp5sive jigs associat$ ) ! use ( /eel1 all /r5g!n ! case 9 fav\r ( wood4 ,! conclusion ( ho/ilities w\ld introduce ano!r /ate ( affairs1 & x is conceivable t ! v>i\s types w !n be /&>diz$ = diff]5t purposes1 :i* may necessitate ! great] use ( /eel4 ,c]ta9ly ! advantage ( /eel w\ld be bett] realiz$ "u "s sy/em ( /&>diz$ design1 b ?is un=tunately is n possible :ile pres5t conditions obta94 ,! advantages ( metal z a mat]ial consid]$ briefly1 are t x p]mits ( design to close limits )\t ! all[ance ( s-call$ factors ( safety1 :i* are n[ necess>y ?r\gh ! great v>iation 9 ! /r5g?s ( wood1 manufactur+ proc$ure w\ld be exp$it$1 :ile "o c reasonably expect a great] degree ( precision 9 ! f9i%$ ma*9e1 due l>gely to ! increas$ facilities = accurate manufacture ( compon5ts :i* metal af=ds4 ,x is q possible1 ( c\rse1 giv5 a uni=m grade ( /eel1 to design to extremely close limits )\t fe> ( collapse2 b ! human factor 9 ! %ape ( fitt]1 weld]1 or op]ator introduces ! unkn[n elem5t1 & "o = :i* "s all[ance mu/ always be made4 ,"o _c ass]t t any v decid$ indication exi/s ( a tr5d 9 mod]n design t[>ds metal con/ruction1 & x is q possible t ?is w n arrive until x is r5d]$ imp]ative by reason ( ! sc>city ( timb]4 ,! precise composition ( ! metal is r a controv]sial matt]1 "s au?orities fav\r+ /eel1 & o!rs "s alloy ( alum9ium1 su* z1 = in/ance1 8duralum940 ,! production ( a suitable alloy con/itutes a real problem & "o ^u :i* ! ,advisory ,committee = ,a]onautics h already made inve/igations & exp]im5ts4 ,a disadvantage ) /eel is t1 al?\gh x is q possible to produce1 say1 a fuselage entirely ( ?is mat]ial to )/& easily ! greate/ /ress enc\nt]$ 9 fly+1 su* a /ructure1 ow+ to ! ?9 nature ( ! v>i\s compon5ts1 w\ld suff] damage ?r\gh %ocks induc$ by roll+ ov] r\gh gr\nd1 & also by h&l+4 ,9 addition ! effects ( cry/allization w\ld require "s consid]able /udy4 ,^! & o!r reasons indicate t an alloy ( alum9ium1 :i* = a giv5 weight w\ld be consid]ably m rigid ?an /eel1 (f]s possibilities z a mat]ial4 ,x might prove advantage\s to comb9e bo? metals1 us+ /eel = ! m highly /ress$ p>ts1 su* z1 = in/ance1 w+ sp> atta*m5ts1 int]plane brac+ lugs1 & inde$ any "p :]e ! load to be c>ri$ is "o induc$ by t5sion4 ,! =ego+ is indicative ( "s ( ! m important directions 9 :i* improvem5t & developm5t are possible1 & c]ta9ly ample scope yet exi/s = ! att5tion ( ! /ud5t1 or inde$ any "o int]e/$ 9 ! future ( ! aviation indu/ry4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,mat]ials4 ,see+ t wood con/itutes ! mat]ial = ! great] "p ( ! /ructure ( ! a]oplane1 t is ) v few exceptions1 "s notes on ! *>act]i/ics & qualities ( ^? woods mo/ commonly us$ may prove ( int]e/4 ,! *oice ( a suitable wood = aircraft con/ruction is a matt] ( "s difficulty1 eng5d]$ by ! v>iety ( consid]ations ( :i* at lea/ "s obs]vance is ess5tial4 ,! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( aircraft con/ruction1 t ( obta9+ ! maximum /r5g? = a m9imum ( weight1 af=ds "o /&po9t f :i* a p>ticul> wood may be reg>d$1 b ?is does n con/itute 9 itself a suffici5t reason = its *oice4 ,( almo/ equal importance are su* consid]ations z ! l5g? & size ( ! balks obta9able f ! log1 ! total /ock available1 ! relative /raightness ( gra9 & fre$om f knots z well z ! durability ( ! wood4 ,v>iable ,qualities ( ,wood4 ,! *oice is additionally complicat$ by ! v great v>iation f\nd 9 ! /r5g? & *>act]i/ics ( trees ( exactly ! same species1 & also ( diff]5t portions cut f ! same tree4 ,! nature ( ! site ^u :i* a tree is gr[n ex]cises a m>k$ influ5ce ^u its prop]ties1 :ile z a g5]al rule1 x may be tak5 t ! great] numb] ( annual gr[? r+s p] in*1 ! great] ! /r5g?4 ,x is also a g5]al rule t up to c]ta9 diamet]s1 ! timb] conta9$ 9 t "p ( ! tree ! greate/ di/ance f ! pi?1 or c5tre1 is ! /rong]4 ,! wood obta9$ f ! base ( a tree is heavi] ?an t at ! top1 & "o f9ds ! influ5ce ( ?is 9 ! necessity = balanc+ & alt]nat+ ! diff]5t lam9 ( air-screws be=e glu+4 ,%r9kage4 ,ano!r po9t1 & "o :i* is intimately conc]n$ ) ! prop] season+ ( timb]1 is ! am\nt ( moi/ure conta9$ 9 a specim51 & ?is latt] po9t is ( "s consid]able importance1 z n only is a l>ge am\nt ( moi/ure detrim5tal to ! /r5g? values ( ! timb]1 b x also r5d]s useless any attempt at precision ( workman%ip4 ,x is ?is v po9t ( %r9kage1 :i* con/itutes ! greate/ b> to ! a*ievem5t ( a measure ( compon5t /&>dization1 & x is also "o ( ! mo/ s]i\s disabilities ( wood z a mat]ial = aircraft con/ruction4 ,x is n[ necess>y 9 ! production ( f9i%$ p>ts to make "s all[ance = resultant %r9kage1 :i* is a matt] ( guesswork1 & only practicable :]e "s "t w elapse betwe5 ! f9i%+ ( ! "p & its erection 9 ! complete ma*9e4 ,"u pres5t conditions1 m (t5 ?an n ! p>ts are assembl$ almo/ imm$iately !y are made1 :i* means t no all[ance ov] ! actual size is possible1 ?is be+ due to ! v>i\s fitt+s :i* 9 ! majority ( ma*9es are ( set dim5sions & clip or surr\nd ! mat]ial4 ,z a natural sequ5ce %r9kage occurs subsequ5t to ! atta*m5t ( ! fitt+1 foll[$ by loos5ess & loss ( alignm5t 9 ! /ructure4 ,until ! prop] p]iod = season+ c elapse1 betwe5 ! cutt+ ( ! tree & its conv]sion into a]oplane p>ts1 x is difficult to see h[ ?is disability c be obviat$1 al?\gh latt]ly "s consid]able advances h be5 made ) artificial me?ods ( season+4 ,! prejudice aga9/ kiln dry+ is f\nd$ on ! belief t ! /r5g? ( ! timb] is r$uc$1 & t extrane\s defects are induc$4 ,a me?od :i* is a di/9ct improvem5t on ^? sy/ems1 us+ sup]heat$ /eam & hot air1 is n[ be+ us$ ) app>5tly good results4 ,9 ?is sy/em1 /eam "u v l[ compression is con/antly circulat$ ?r\gh ! timb]1 dry+ be+ effect$ by a gradual r$uction 9 ! humidity ( ! atmosph]e4 ,unreliability ( ,tabulat$ ,te/s4 ,! v>i\s tables :i* exi/ indicat+ ! /r5g?1 weight1 & *>act]i/ics ( v>i\s woods are ( v d\btful utility1 9 "s cases fallaci\s1 & 9 ne>ly all cases f> too specific4 ,! =ego+ enum]ation ( "s ( ! v>iations exi/+ ) wood w indicate ! enorm\s difficulty ( obta9+ ) any exactitude a result repres5tative ( ! species ( wood te/$1 & :i* c\ld be reg>d$ z reliable data = ! calculation ( /resses1 or = g5]al design4 ,! moi/ure cont5t ( timb]1 an extremely v>iable quantity1 greatly affects ! figures relat+ to ! /r5g? & weight ( timb]1 s t tables indicat+ ! prop]ties ( woods %\ld include ! p]c5tage ( moi/ure conta9$ 9 ! examples te/$4 ,aga91 c]ta9 woods possess+ relatively high /r5g? values1 are frequ5tly %ort-gra9$ & brittle1 & !re=e n s suitable z o!r woods ( l[] /r5g? values1 b ( great] ela/icity & resili5cy4 ,,woods ,,9 ,,use4 ,silv] ,spruce4 ,! wood mo/ ext5sively us$ = ! ma9 items ( con/ruction is silv] spruce1 or ,sitka spruce1 f\nd 9 great quantities 9 ,briti% ,columbia4 ,exp]i5ce has prov$ ?is wood pre-em95tly suitable = a]oplane con/ruction1 its /r5g?-weight ratio is p>ticul>ly good1 x c be 7at lea/ until rec5tly7 obta9$ 9 long l5g?s up to #cj ft41 &1 moreov]1 is p>ticul>ly /raight gra9$ & free f knots & o!r defects4 ,!re are o!r woods possess+ high] /r5g? qualities1 b 9 mo/ cases _! value is greatly dim9i%$ by reason ( ! great] weight1 & t only a limit$ portion /raight ( gra9 & free f knots is obta9able4 ,! weight ( ,sitka spruce v>ies f #bf to #cc lbs4 p] cubic foot1 & al?\gh x is difficult to give a precise figure1 a good av]age specim5 fairly dry w\ld weigh ab\t #bh lbs4 p] cubic foot4 ,"s impression ( ! ext5t to :i* x ent]s into ! con/ruction ( ! a]oplane w be ga!r$ if ! compon5ts usually ( spruce are detail$4 ,= ! ma9 sp>s ( ! planes spruce is almo/ univ]sally us$1 z "h great /r5g? = ! lea/ weight is ( extreme importance1 :ile a consid]ation almo/ z important is ! necessity ( a good av]age l5g?1 /raight gra9$ & free f defects4 ,x is also us$ = ! webs & flanges ( ! w+ ribs1 ! lead+ & trail+ edges & w+ /ructure g5]ally4 ,! long]ons or rails ( ! fuselage ( _m ma*9es are spruce1 al?\gh 9 ?is in/ance a% & hickory are us$ to a mod]ate ext5t4 ,! gr[+ practice is to make ! front portion ( ! fuselage ( a%1 z ?is is subject to ! great] /ress1 :ile ! tail portion is ( spruce2 b 9 a numb] ( cases ! latt] mat]ial is us$ ?r\gh\t4 ,! cross /ruts ( ! fuselage are inv>iably ( spruce1 z well z su* items z int]plane & und]c>riage /ruts & /reaml9e fair+s4 ,virg9ia ,spruce4 ,?is is ( a l[] weight p] cubic foot ?an ,sitka spruce1 b does n possess su* a good /r5g? value1 _c be obta9$ 9 su* l>ge pieces1 & is g5]ally subject to small knots1 :i* limit ! /raight-gra9$ l5g?s procurable4 ,x is di/+ui%able f ,sitka spruce by its :it5ess ( col\r & g5]al clos5ess ( gra94 ,norwegian ,spruce4 ,?is wood is also kn[n z spruce fir & :ite deal1 & is gr[n pr9cipally 9 ,nor? ,europe4 ,select$ balks c be obta9$ to weigh no m ?an #cj lbs4 p] cubic foot1 :i* comp>es v fav\rably ) silv] spruce4 ,x c be obta9$ 9 av]age l5g?s1 b x is subject to ! pres5ce ( small h>d knots & /reaks ( res91 al?\gh ! writ] has se5 consignm5ts ) v few knots4 ,a mat]ial kn[n z ,baltic yell[ deal & ,nor!rn p9e is procur$ f ! same s\rce1 & is m durable ?an ,norwegian spruce4 ,x is incl9$ to brittl5ess :5 dry1 & is heavi] ?an :ite deal1 weigh+ ab\t #cf lbs4 p] cubic foot4 ,! rec5t %ortage ( silv] spruce has l$ to ! employm5t ( ,norwegian spruce = items su* z fuselage /ruts1 holl[ fair+s to tubul> /ruts1 ! webs & flanges ( ! plane ribs1 & g5]ally = ^? compon5ts = :i* long /raight-gra9$ l5g?s are n absolutely ess5tial4 ,= fuselage /ruts1 :]e ! *ief consid]ation is /iffness1 to resi/ ! b5d+ /ra9 produc$ by inequalities ( wir+1 fitt+s1 etc41 x may actually give bett] results1 be+ slightly m rigid ?an silv] spruce--at lea/ t is ! writ]'s exp]i5ce ( x4 ,9 addition1 v little increase 9 weight w\ld result1 z ?is wood c be obta9$ ( almo/ ! same weight p] cubic foot z silv] spruce4 ,! defect usually met ) 9 ?is wood1 ( knots occurr+ at int]vals1 w\ld be ( no great detrim5t1 ! l5g?s ne$$ = ! fuselage /ruts be+ approximately #c feet & less1 & x w\ld !re=e be easily possible to procure wood ( ?is l5g? free f knots4 ,! o!r items enum]at$ are ( v>y+ l5g?s1 :i*1 ) c>e 9 selection & conv]sion1 c\ld be arrang$ =4 ,! practical application ( ?is w\ld be ! increas$ am\nt ( silv] spruce available = su* highly /ress$ items z w+ sp>s1 int]plane /ruts1 & long]ons4 ,a%4 ,?is wood is "o ( ! mo/ valuable ( ^? employ$1 be+ extremely t\gh & resili5t4 ,!re are two v>ieties 9 use1 ,engli% & ,am]ican1 ! =m] be+ consid]$ ! bett] mat]ial4 ,x is us$ ma9ly = long]ons1 und]c>riage /ruts1 & = all k9ds ( b5t "w4 ,x possesses ! quality ( be+ readily /eam$ to comp>atively %>p curves1 & w reta9 ! b5d = a consid]able p]iod4 ,! /r5g? & *>act]i/ics ( a% v>y greatly ) ! climate "u :i* x is gr[n1 & x is also mu* heavi] ?an spruce1 ! weight p] cubic foot rang+ betwe5 #dj & #ej lbs4 ,difficulty is also exp]i5c$ 9 obta9+ l5g?s great] ?an #bj ft41 & ev5 9 l5g?s up to t figure1 cont9uity ( gra9 is some:at r>e4 ,x is notable t on v>i\s ,g]man ma*9es1 a% 9 conjunction ) a species ( mahogany is us$ = ! lam9 ( ! air-screw4 ,hickory4 ,hickory1 a species ( walnut1 is import$ f ,new ,zeal& & ,am]ica1 & possesses *>act]i/ics simil> to ^? ( a%4 ,x is obta9able 9 ab\t ! same l5g?s z a%1 b 9 ! writ]'s exp]i5ce is ( great] weight4 ,its *ief prop]ty is extreme resili5cy1 :i* makes x especially suitable = skids1 & x has also be5 us$ to a limit$ ext5t = long]ons4 ,x is subject to excessive w>p+ 9 dry+1 is n s durable z a%1 & ! great difficulty exp]i5c$ 9 obta9+ /raight-gra9$ l5g?s is responsible = its wan+ popul>ity4 ,walnut4 ,?is wood is almo/ entirely devot$ to ! mak+ ( air-screws1 al?\gh ! dw9dl+ supplies & ! v %ort l5g?s obta9able has practically en=c$ ! employm5t ( o!r woods = ?is purpose4 ,mahogany4 ,! t]m 8mahogany0 cov]s an inf9ite v>iety ( woods1 possess+ widely diff]5t *>act]i/ics1 _m ( ! species be+ q unsuitable = ! requirem5ts ( aircraft "w4 ,t kn[n z ,honduras mahogany possesses ! be/ /r5g? values1 is ( m$ium weight1 ab\t #ce lbs4 p] cubic foot1 & is 9 g5]al use = airs-crews & seaplane floats4 ,x has be5 us$ on "s ,g]man ma*9es = su* p>ts z rib webs1 b is n really suitable = p>ts ( comp>atively small section1 su* z long]ons1 z x is incl9$ to brittl5ess4 ,x is ( p>ticul> value = seaplane floats & ! hulls ( ! fly+-boat type ( ma*9e1 z x is n affect$ by wat]4 ,a defect peculi> to ,honduras mahogany is ! occurr5ce ( irregul> fractures across ! gra9 kn[n z ?und] %akes4 ,al?\gh o!r s-call$ mahoganies are simil> 9 appe>ance to ! ,honduras v>iety1 a species q di/9ct 9 appe>ance is t kn[n z ,cuban or ,spani% mahogany1 :i* is ( d>k] col\r1 & mu* heavi] 9 weight1 av]ag+ ab\t #ej lbs4 p] cubic foot1 :i* latt] factor almo/ precludes its use = a]oplane con/ruction4 ,bir*4 ,"o f9ds v few in/ances ( ! use ( ?is wood = a]oplane details1 al?\gh x is us$ fairly ext5sively 9 ,am]ica = air-screw con/ruction1 = :i* x is only mod]ately suit$4 ,x possesses a high value ( compressive /r5g? across ! gra91 b is mu* affect$ by climatic *anges1 & does n take glue well4 ,x is useful = b5t "w1 & might conceivably be us$ in/ead ( a% = small b5t "w details4 ,its weight is ab\t #dd lbs4 p] cubic foot4 ,popl>4 ,"u ?is "n is includ$ su* woods z ,am]ican :itewood1 cotton wood1 bass wood1 etc4 ,! wood sold "u "o or o!r ( ^! names is g5]ally v s(t & brittle1 & al?\gh ( a light nature1 weigh+ ab\t #cj lbs4 p] cubic foot & less1 x is ( v little utility = ! "w "u discussion4 ,x has be5 us$ = m9or p>ts su* z rib webs1 & fair+s to tubul> /ruts4 ,oregon ,p9e4 ,! sc>city ( silv] spruce has l$ to ! adoption ( ! wood kn[n z ,oregon p9e = mo/ ( ! compon5ts = :i* ! =m] wood has hi!rto be5 us$4 ,! t]m 8,oregon p9e0 is appli$ to ! ,d\glas fir1 "o ( ! l>ge/ ( ! fir species1 a l5g? ( #bjj ft4 be+ an av]age4 ,x is altoge!r heavi] ?an silv] spruce1 weigh+ ab\t #cd lbs4 p] cubic foot1 & also diff]s greatly 9 appe>ance1 possess+ a r$di%-br[n gra91 ) v di/9ct annual r+s4 ,its /r5g? to weight ratios are practically equal to ^? ( silv] spruce1 al?\gh 9 ! writ]'s exp]i5ce x has a t5d5cy t[>ds brittl5ess1 & is n s suitable z ,sitka spruce = compon5ts ( small scantl+4 ,) "s specim5s ( ?is wood x is noticeable t ! effect ( dry+ on fre%ly sawn l5g?s = long]ons1 etc41 is ! appe>ance ( 8%akes0 or cracks1 n previ\sly disc]nible4 ,its appe>ance g5]ally is rem9isc5t ( pit* p9e1 = :i* wood x is sometimes sub/itut$ 9 connection ) build+4 ,o!r ,woods4 ,! =ego+ con/itute woods :i* are 9 fairly g5]al use = "o purpose or ano!r1 !re be+1 ( c\rse1 v _m o!r v>ieties1 "s ( :i* may be call$ into use ) ! progress ( ! indu/ry4 ,( ! conif] species1 silv] spruce is easily ! mo/ suitable timb] = a]oplane con/ruction1 & "o realizes ?is m z ! v>i\s sub/itutes are tri$4 ,z an in/ance1 cypress is /raight ( gra9 ) no v great increase ov] ! weight ( spruce1 be+ also well up ! table ( /r5g?s4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 mu* too brittle = ! v>i\s memb]s ( small section ( :i* an a]oplane is compos$1 & does n seem to h any ext5sive future = aircraft "w4 ,ano!r1 at "o "t mu*-adv]tis$ wood1 is ,p>ang1 a species ( mahogany4 ,x has be5 reput$ to b5d well1 b x c]ta9ly does n ent] into ! con/ruction ( mod]n a]oplanes4 ,a consignm5t h&l$ by ! writ] "s ye>s ago & int5d$ = b5d+1 0 f\nd to be exce$+ly brittle1 & al?\gh /&+ a good load1 fractur$ almo/ squ>e across ! gra91 9 a mann] kn[n colloquially 9 ! work%op z 8c>rot-l40 ,! latt] t]m is indicative ( a *>act]i/ic :i* precludes ! use ( _m woods possess+ o!r physical prop]ties especially suitable = aircraft "w4 ,multi-ply ,wood4 ,?is t]m is appli$ to ! %eets ( wood compos$ ( a numb] ( ?9 lay]s glu$ toge!r ) ! gra9 rev]s$4 ,z ! lay]s are obta9$ by rotat+ ! tree aga9/ cutt]s 9 su* a mann] t a cont9u\s cut is tak5 f ! outside almo/ to ! c5tre1 x is possible to get v great wid?s1 :i* makes x p>ticul>ly suitable = aircraft "w4 ,x is made 9 v>y+ wid?s up to #d ft41 & 9 ?ickness f #a_/bj 94 up to 941 consi/+ ( ?ree1 five1 & sev5 lay]s1 al?\gh ! ?ree-ply v>iety 9 ?icknesses up to #c_/af 94 is m commonly us$4 ,x is made up 9 ne>ly all woods1 b ^? mo/ly utiliz$ 9 ! a]oplane indu/ry are bir*1 a%1 popl>1 & sat9-walnut1 bir* be+ sup]ior by reason ( its clos5ess ( gra94 ,a% ply-wood 9 "s in/ances t5ds t[>ds brittl5ess1 :ile popl>1 al?\gh exceptionally light1 is v s(t & only us$ = m9or p>ts4 ,sat9-walnut is v ev5 9 quality b is apt to w>p4 ,defects 9 ,timb]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,he>t %ake4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,/> %ake4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,cup %ake4 ,p]haps ! mo/ common & prolific defect enc\nt]$ ) ! use ( timb] is ! pres5ce ( cracks or %akes ( diff]5t "*1 :i* are due to diff]5t causes4 ,fig4 #a indicates a v common =m1 kn[n z a 8he>t %ake10 divid+ ! timb] at ! c5tre2 :ile ,fig4 #b1 a 8/> %ake10 is really a numb] ( he>t %akes div]g+ f ! c5tre4 ,! process ( season+ sometimes results 9 ! sep>ation ( ! annual r+s1 =m+ cup %akes1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #c4 ,x %\ld be und]/ood t ! pres5ce ( %akes may r5d] useless an o!rwise p]fect specim5 ( timb]1 z x frequ5tly happ5s t 9 ! conv]sion ( timb] s affect$ ! usable portions d n p]mit ( ! sizes necess>y = su* items z w+ sp>s & /ruts4 ,! ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,twi/$ gra94 defect ( twi/$ gra9 7,fig4 #d7 is (t5 f\nd 9 a%1 & is caus$ by ! action ( ! w9d :5 ! tree is gr[+1 & r5d]s su* wood ( limit$ utility4 ,%r9kage affects all timb] 9 v>y+ degrees1 & its effect on bo>ds due to _! position 9 ! log is %[n by ,fig4 #e1 :ile ,fig4 #f indicates ! effect ( dry+ on a squ>$-up section4 ,incid5tally "o may po9t out t ! annual r+s1 view$ f ! end ( ! section1 %\ld be z /raight z possible1 :i* w\ld obviate to an ext5t ! di/ortion due to dry+ 9 a compon5t subsequ5t to its f9i%+4 ,ano!r defect1 & "o some:at difficult to detect1 is ! pres5ce ( a br[ni% speckl$ t9t 9 ! gra94 ,any evid5ce ( ?is 9 a specim5 indicates ! beg9n+ ( decay1 & is caus$ by insuffici5t season+ & l5g?y exposure 9 a /agnant situation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,%r9kage ( bo>ds due to position 9 log4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,effect ( dry+ on a squ>$-up section4 ,/eel4 ,! great] proportion ( ! v>i\s fitt+s employ$ 9 ! con/ruction ( ! a]oplane are built up f %eet nickel /eel1 usually ( a l[ t5sile /r5g?1 to p]mit ( work+ 9 a cold /ate1 z1 ) a high] grade /eel1 ! process ( b5d+ to template by h&1 9 _m cases a none too c>eful proc$ure1 w\ld result 9 a consid]able weak5+ ( ! mat]ial at ! b5d4 ,9 addition1 ! op]ation ( weld+1 :i* n[ ent]s into ! con/ruction ( a numb] ( fitt+s1 also necessitates a mod]ate grade ( /eel4 ,a high] class ( %eet /eel1 f #ce to #ej tons t5sile1 is us$ = p>ts subject to /ress1 su* z int]plane /rut-fitt+s1 wir+-lugs1 etc4 ,z a high] grade ( /eel is bett] f a /r5g?-=-weight po9t ( view1 its employm5t = b5t-up clips is desirable1 al?\gh :]e su* a /eel is us$ x is almo/ necess>y1 if ! orig9al /r5g? ( ! mat]ial is to be reta9$ 9 ! f9i%$ fitt+1 to effect ! v>i\s b5ds 9 a ma*9e1 9 conjunction ) b5d+ jigs4 ,c>eful heat-treatm5t aft] b5d+ to %ape is an important factor 9 remov+ ! /resses set up by work+1 & 9 r5d]+ ! /ructure ( ! mat]ial m uni=m4 ,/eel ,tube4 ,/eel1 9 ! =m ( tub+ ( v>i\s sections1 ent]s l>gely into a]oplane con/ruction1 & may be said to contribute l>gely to ! effici5cy ( ! /ructure4 ,x is n[ be+ us$ = ! diff]5t items ( ! und]c>riage1 = /ruts 9 ! fuselage1 int]plane /ruts1 & 9 _m cases control surfaces1 su* z ! ail]ons1 elevators1 & rudd]1 are be+ built ( ?is mat]ial entirely4 ,9 ! e>ly days ( aviation /eel tub+ atta9$ "s consid]able popul>ity1 _m ma*9es be+ built almo/ entirely ( tub+2 b difficulties 9 its manipulation1 & ! fact t v (t5 ! me?ods ( atta*m5t r$uc$ its /r5g? consid]ably1 gradually l$ to ! g5]al employm5t ( wood4 ,! great advances lately made 9 ! production ( a high-grade nickel-*rome /eel1 ) a high ultimate t5sile /ress1 are responsible = its pres5t increas+ use4 ,alum9ium4 ,! pres5t use ( alum9ium is re/rict$ to ! c[l+ ( ! eng9e1 & occasionally z a body cov]+4 ,al?\gh x is light 9 weight1 its extremely l[ /r5g? values r5d] x ( v little use = o!r purposes4 ,x atta9$ "s measure ( popul>ity 9 ! e>ly days ( aviation1 p>ticul>ly = ! manufacture ( diff]5t /rut-sockets1 :i* 7 ca/ f alum9ium2 b ! g5]al bulk9ess ( ! fitt+s1 9 addition to ! fact t x 0 g5]ally necess>y to incorporate a /eel lug to =m ! wire an*orage1 caus$ x to gradually fall into disuse4 ,! t5d5cy ( alum9ium to flake & corrode1 :i* is int5sifi$ by ! action ( salt wat]1 also limits its use = seaplane con/ruction4 ,_m attempts h be5 made ?r\gh v>i\s alloys to imp>t great] /r5g? to ! mat]ial1 & al?\gh progress has result$1 ! *>act]i/ics ( mo/ ( ! products are unreliable4 ,duralum94 ,( ! diff]5t alloys1 duralum9 is probably ! be/1 al?\gh "o believes t its qualities are pr9cipally ! result ( special heat treatm5t4 ,its use is at pres5t re/rict$ to ^? p>ts n subject$ to any great t5sile /ra94 ,x is consid]ably less ?an half ! weight ( /eel1 bulk = bulk1 &1 prop]ly us$1 may effect a consid]able sav+ 9 weight4 ,! fact t x has n a*iev$ ! popul>ity x des]ves may be ascrib$ to ! difficulties exp]i5c$ 9 work+ x1 especially = su* p>ts z body clips1 :]e sev]al b5ds are necess>y1 & to ! r arbitr>y me?ods 9 use4 ,if prop]ly anneal$1 no difficulty %\ld occur 9 obta9+ a reasonably %>p b5d4 ,! process recomm5d$ by ! mak]s consi/s 9 heat+ ! metal 9 a muffl$ furnace to a temp]ature ( approximately #cej ,c41 & ! necess>y "w done z soon z possible aft] cool+4 ,! importance ( ?is is due to ! fact t ! process ( anneal+ imp>ts to ! metal a t5d5cy to become brittle ) "t4 ,! writ] has (t5 cont5d$ t1 :]e duralum9 is us$1 x %\ld be ) a real desire to r$uce weight4 ,too (t5 "o sees a fitt+ ( su* lavi% dim5sions z to entirely nullify ! advantage ( ! light] metal4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,sp>s ,,& ,,/ruts4 ,hav+ ?us consid]$ g5]ally ! *ief mat]ials ( aircraft con/ruction1 we w proce$ to exam9e ! v>i\s types ( sp>s & /ruts 9 pres5t use4 ,! ma9 sp>s ( ! w+s are by f> ! mo/ important items ( ! complete /ructure1 & v great c>e is always tak5 to ensure t only ! be/ ( mat]ials & workman%ip are conc]n$ ) _! manufacture4 ,look+ back at ! days "o usually associates ) ! a]o %[s at ,olympia1 multitud9\s me?ods ( build+ w+ sp>s c be recall$4 ,"s compos$ ( ?ree-ply & a%2 o!rs1 less common1 ( *annel /eel2 & a few ( /eel tub+1 ei!r pla9 or wood fill$4 ,v>i\s reasons & causes h comb9$ to elim9ate ^! me?ods ( con/ruction4 ,= in/ance1 ! sp> ( *annel /eel prov$ mu* too flexible1 al?\gh ?is *>act]i/ic 0 no great disadvantage 9 ^? ma*9es employ+ w+-w>p+ = lat]al control1 = ) ?is arrangem5t a c]ta9 am\nt ( flexibility 9 ! w+ /ructure is ess5tial4 ,:ile /eel tub+ is excell5t = _m details x c h>dly be said to be really suitable = w+ sp>s1 :i* are /ress$ ess5tially z beams4 ,n[1 ! /r5g? ( a beam v>ies z ! squ>e ( ! dep? ( ! beam1 & x is obvi\s t 9 ! case ( a circul> /eel tube ! mat]ial is ev5ly di/ribut$ ab\t ! neutral axis1 & !re=e its /r5g? 9 bo? horizontal & v]tical directions is equal2 al?\gh employ$ z a /rut1 ?is feature becomes ( real value4 ,"o1 h[ev]1 /ill enc\nt]s its use on mod]n ma*9es2 inde$1 x mu/ n be suppos$ t ! progress made 9 con/ruction g5]ally s9ce #aiad has t5d$ greatly t[>ds a r$uction 9 ! numb] ( diff]5t me?ods employ$1 & ?is w be realiz$ f a consid]ation ( ! accompany+ sp> sections :i* are 9 use to-day on "o make ( ma*9e or ano!r4 ,sp> ,sections4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,solid sp>4 ,! ,i section =m ( w+ sp>1 %[n by ,fig4 #g1 is 9 g5]al use1 be+ sp9dl$ f ! solid4 ,x is comp>atively easy to produce1 :i* 9 a measure expla9s its popul>ity1 & x also disposes ! mat]ial 9 probably ! be/ mann] = ! /resses involv$4 ,! lam9at$ sp>1 ,fig4 #h1 is an improvem5t on ! solid *annell$ sp>2 x is /rong]1 w )/& di/ortion to a great] degree )\t injury1 & ! /r5g? is also m uni=m ?an ) ! solid sp>4 ,an additional po9t 9 its fav\r is t x is mu* easi] to procure ?ree pieces ( small section timb] free f defects ?an "o l>ge piece1 :i*1 9 view ( ! increas+ sc>city ( p]fect timb]1 is an important consid]ation4 ,9 ord] to m9imize ! risk ( ! glue betwe5 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,lam9at$ sp>4 ! lam9ations fail+1 ! usual practice is to copp] rivet or bolt ! flange portion1 :ile bo? sp>s are left solid at ! po9t ( atta*m5t ( ! int]plane /rut fitt+s & wire an*orages4 ,! sp> %[n by ,fig4 #i is ( ! holl[ box v>iety1 *iefly us$ = ma*9es ( l>ge w+ surface1 :]e weight r$uction is an important factor4 ,! two halves ( *annel section are sp9dl$ f ! solid & glu$ toge!r4 ,! jo9t is /r5g!n$ by ! provision ( small ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,holl[ box-sp>4 fillets or tongues ( h>d wood1 & 9 "s in/ances ! complete sp> is b\nd ) glu$ fabric4 ,comp>+ ! holl[ sp> ) ! solid1 & neglect+ ! co/ factor1 ! writ] cont5ds t ! advantage is indisputably ) ! =m]4 ,! t5d5cy ( ! ,i-section sp> to buckle lat]ally is ( mu* less] mom5t 9 a holl[ sp> ( ! type %[n by ,fig4 #i1 :ile = a giv5 weight x %[s an increase 9 /r5g?1 & = equal /r5g? x is mu* light]4 ,a diff]5t v]sion ( ! holl[ sp> sy/em is t indicat$ by ,fig4 #aj1 consi/+ ( two *annell$ sections1 tongu$ toge!r at ! jo9t1 ! sides be+ /iff5$ ) ?ree-ply4 ,! disposition ( ! jo9t 9 a v]tical plane is a di/9ct improvem5t on ! holl[ sp> previ\sly consid]$1 ma9ly 9 t bett] resi/ance to a %e>+ /ress is af=d$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,holl[ sp> ) /iff5$ sides4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--;,holl[ sp> ) multi-ply sides4 ,! pr9ciple und]ly+ ! con/ruction ( ! sp> %[n by ,fig4 #aa1 is t 9 its manufacture ! l5g?s ( wood necess>y are ( small section4 ,! sides ( ?is sp> are built up ) a c5tre ( spruce ab\t 94 ?ick1 to ea* side ( :i* is glu$ ?9 ?ree-ply1 ^! be+ glu$1 screw$1 & bradd$ to ! flanges4 ,! w+ sp> %[n 9 section by ,fig4 #ab is unique 9 t x really con/itutes two sp>s plac$ clos$ toge!r1 ! connection be+ =m$ by ! top & bottom flanges ( ?ree-ply4 ,?is sp> 0 us$ 9 a ma*9e ) planes ( small *ord1 b ( v deep section1 & 9 :i* no int]plane wir+ occurr$1 ! w+s function+ z cantilev]s4 ,its *ief advantage is great rigidity = a l[ weight1 b su* a sp> necessitates a deep w+ section1 & is n 9 g5]al use4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,tw9 box sp>4 ,holl[ ,sp> ,con/ruction4 ,! advantages ( ! holl[ type ( sp> summ>iz$ are 7#a7 great] /r5g? = a giv5 weight2 7#b7 x c be produc$ f wood ( small section1 & is !re=e a bett] manufactur+ proposition4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! /r5g? ( a holl[ sp> is greatly & almo/ entirely dep5d5t on ! glue us$4 ,n[1 h[ev] well ! jo9t may be made1 ! glue is susceptible to a damp atmosph]e1 & if s affect$ is ( greatly r$uc$ /r5g?1 :ile possible depreciation 9 ! glue due to age r5d]s ! life ( ! sp> a problematic quantity4 ,:]e ! v>i\s fitt+s occur x is also necess>y to place blocks be=e ! sp> is glu$ up1 :i* is r an unme*anical job4 ,! practice ( =m+ v]tical sides ( a holl[ sp> f ?ree-ply is n to be comm5d$1 by reason ( ! d\btful "* ( ! glue us$ 9 its manufacture4 ,h[ev]1 9 spite ( ^! disabilities1 !re is a future = holl[ sp> con/ruction 9 ! manufacture ( ! big comm]cial ma*9es ( ! future1 = ) ^! ! "q ( maximum /r5g? = m9imum weight1 to p]mit ! c>ry+ ( ! greate/ possible useful load1 w be a prim>y consid]ation4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 assum+ t ! era ( ! all-/eel ma*9e has n arriv$4 ,/rut ,sections4 ,9 ! con/ruction ( ! int]plane & und]c>riage /ruts1 "o does n f9d a v decid$ pref]5ce = any "o p>ticul> me?od1 al?\gh ! int]plane /rut sp9dl$ f ! solid to a /reaml9e section is common to _m types ( mod]n aircraft4 ,! /rut %[n 9 section by ,fig4 #ac is 9 use = bo? int]plane & und]c>riage /ruts4 ,?is consi/s ( ord9>y r\nd section /eel tub+1 to :i* is atta*$ a tail piece or fair+ ( wood1 ?is be+ b\nd to ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,/eel tube /rut ) fair+ b\nd on4 ,illu/ration3 ,,figs4 #ad1 #ae4--;,int]plane /ruts sp9dl$ f ! solid4 ! tube by l95 tape or fabric1 dop$ & v>ni%$4 ,?is /rut is ( practically equal /r5g? 9 bo? lat]al & longitud9al directions1 & f ?is po9t ( view is sup]ior to ! solid sp9dl$ /rut1 :i* is usually ( great /r5g? 9 ! =e & aft direction1 b always possesses a t5d5cy to buckle lat]ally4 ,fig4 #ad indicates a holl[ plane /rut1 9 :i* ! sides ( spruce are sp9dl$ f ! solid1 & glu$ to a c5tral /iff5+ piece ( a%2 :ile ,fig4 #ae is arrang$ s t a /iff5+ web is =m$ 9 ! sp9dl+ process4 ,ow+ to ! r ext5sive nature ( ! latt] op]ation1 "o does n f9d _m in/ances ( its use4 ,:]e ! holl[ wood /ruts us$ are n completely b\nd ) tape or fabric1 !y %\ld at lea/ be b\nd at int]vals ) tape or f9e tw9e1 z !re is always ! possibility ( ! glu$ jo9t fail+ "u ! comb9$ att5tions ( ra9 & heat4 ,a type ( /rut :i* is n[ be+ widely us$ is t ( /reaml9e section /eel tub+1 drawn or roll$ f ! r\nd section4 ,x is employ$ = bo? ! int]plane & und]c>riage /ruts1 b = ! latt] has n giv5 entirely satisfactory results1 ow+ to ! t5d5cy to buckle "u extra heavy l&+ %ocks4 ,?is w\ld be m pron\nc$ ) a tube ( f9e section ?an ) "o possess+ a bluff cont\r2 b 9 any case1 a /rut ( p>allel section1 :atev] ! mat]ial1 is n well suit$ to )/& sudd5 %ocks4 ,?is po9t is ref]r$ to lat]4 ,see+ t progress is be+ made ) ! production ( a seamless /reaml9e tap]$ /rut ?is defect %\ld soon disappe>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4--;,int]plane support f body4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,section ( built-up /rut4 ,9 "s ma*9es ! top plane is support$ f ! fuselage by /ruts :i* are =m$ integrally ) a horizontal compression memb]1 z 9 ,fig4 #af2 ! section ( ! v]tical /ruts be+ %[n by ,fig4 #ag4 ,! ply-wood is cut to ! %ape ( ! complete compon5t1 & =ms a tie = ! spruce lay]s1 :i* are jo9t$ at ! junction ( ! v]tical & horizontal memb]s4 ,/rut ,mat]ials4 ,ref]r+ aga9 to ! mat]ial g5]ally employ$ = /ruts1 i4e4 silv] spruce1 x is p]haps necess>y to expla9 fur!r ! reasons = its pr$om9ance ov] a%1 z on a /r5g?-=-weight ratio ! latt] wood is slightly ! bett] mat]ial4 ,! po9ts already detail$1 indicate t an int]plane /rut is /ress$ ess5tially 9 compression1 & !re=e ! *ief *>act]i/ic ( a%1 great t5sile /r5g?1 is ( b second>y importance4 ,!re is also ! fact t1 = ! same weight1 spruce w\ld be ?ick]1 & correspond+ly m able to resi/ collapse4 ,h[ev]1 9 ma*9es ( ! fly+-boat class1 :]e ! eng9e is inv>iably m\nt$ betwe5 ! f\r c5tral plane /ruts1 & consequ5tly subject$ to an am\nt ( vibration v>y+ ) ! type ( eng9e us$1 a% =ms ! mat]ial4 ,tap]+ ( ,int]plane ,/ruts4 ,! correct %ap+ ( /ruts longitud9ally1 p>ticul>ly ^? = int]plane use1 is app>5tly a r controv]sial subject4 ,tak+ ! case ( an untap]$ /rut1 x is evid5t t ! greate/ /ress w be locat$ at or ne> ! c5tre1 s t if at ?is po9t ! section is /rong en\gh1 cle>ly !re mu/ be an am\nt ( sup]flu\s mat]ial at ! ends4 ,by suitably r$uc+ or tap]+ ! /rut f ! c5tre "o c obta9 ! same degree ( /r5g? = less weight4 ,conv]sely1 = ! same weight a mu* /rong] /rut is possible4 ,s x has always appe>$ to ! writ]4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 admitt$ly possible t unless c>efully done1 ! op]ation ( tap]+ a /rut may actually dim9i% ! /r5g?4 ,"o me?od ( tap]+1 t ( mak+ ! maximum cross-section at ! c5tre1 & f ?is po9t dim9i%+ 9 a /raight l9e to ! ends1 is und\bt$ly op5 to criticism1 & a way m ne>ly approximat+ to ! correct me?od ( %ap+ is to r$uce ! cross-section at v>i\s po9ts s t ! f9i%$ cont\r is curvil9e>1 z 9 ,fig4 #ah4 ,9 ?is connection x is p]t95t to emphasize ! importance ( ensur+ t all /rut ends are cut to ! correct bevels1 & ?is is p>ticul>ly applicable to ^? /ruts :i* seat directly 9 a socket4 ,! slighte/ irregul>ity w cause consid]able di/ortion :5 assembl$ "u ! t5sion ( ! brac+ wires1 & frequ5tly ! writ] has se5 an o/5sibly p]fect /rut assume ! mo/ hopeless l9es directly ! op]ation ( tru+ up is comm5c$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--,tap]+ ( int]plane /ruts4 ,design ( ,/rut ,sections4 ,al?\gh1 /rictly speak+1 ! design ( /rut %apes is outside ! scope ( ?is book1 a few rem>ks an5t ! developm5t ( /reaml9e may emphasize ! advances made1 & also ! ne$ = c>eful con/ruction4 ,! resi/ance ( a body is g5]ally consid]$ to increase z ! squ>e ( ! spe$1 i4e4 d\ble ! spe$ & head resi/ance is d\bl$1 & :ile ?is is true = a mod]ate range ( spe$s1 exp]im5t has prov$ t = high spe$s1 exce$+ say #ajj miles p] h\r1 resi/ance increases at r less ?an z ! squ>e ( ! spe$4 ,h[ev]1 x is c]ta9 t ! correct %ap+ or o!rwise ( ! /ruts & o!r expos$ memb]s1 affects g5]ally ! p]=mance 9 flight ( ! a]oplane4 ,! accept$ feature ( all /reaml9e =ms is an easy curve1 hav+ a fairly bluff entrance & gradually tap]+ to a f9e edge4 ,! ratio ( l5g? to diamet]1 call$ ! f95ess ratio1 v>ies 9 mod]n ma*9es1 be+ 9 "s in/ances #c to #a & 9 o!rs #e to #a1 a good av]age be+ #d to #a4 ,consid]+ only ! po9t ( head resi/ance1 x w\ld be bett] to *oose a section ( high f95ess ratio1 b con/ructionally su* a /rut w\ld buckle sideways "u a mod]ate load1 & !re=e ! cross section mu/ be suffici5t to resi/ ?is4 ,! /rut section us$ on ! e>lie/ a]oplanes1 su* z ! ,wright biplane1 %[n by ,fig4 #ai1 is ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,,figs4 #ai-bb4--,/rut sections4 no?+ m ?an a rectangle ) ! corn]s r\nd$ (f4 ,fig4 #bj %[s a developm5t ( ,fig4 #ai consi/+ ( a semi-circul> head ) a cone-%ap$ tail1 :i* by gradual evolution has result$ 9 ! section ,fig4 #ba4 ,"s exp]im5ts c>ri$ out a consid]able "t ago by ,lieut4-,col4 ,alec ,ogilvy1 reveal$ ! r int]e/+ po9t t a /rut %ap$ z 9 ,fig4 #bb gave ! same results z a simil> /rut tak5 to a f9e edge4 ,! reasons = ! non-suitability ( a %>p-po9t$ section are app>5t f a consid]ation ( ,fig4 #bc1 %[+ ! action ( a side w9d ) ! resultant dead air region4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--,%[+ ineffici5cy ( po9t$ section 9 a side w9d4 ,fuselage ,/ruts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--;,*annel-section fuselage /rut4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,t section fuselage /rut4 ,9 ! g5]al features ( ^? /ruts associat$ ) ! con/ruction ( ! fuselage & nacelle1 !re is v little div]sity ( practice1 ! majority ( con/ructors fav\r+ a squ>e spruce /rut1 ,fig4 #bd1 *annell$ out = lightness4 ,a defect ) ?is type ( /rut is ! t5d5cy1 eng5d]$ by irregul>ities 9 ! fitt+s & wir+1 to buckle lat]ally1 al?\gh ?is c be obviat$ by ! provision ( a /rut ( l>g] section at ! c5tre & dim9i%+ 9 wid? to ! ends4 ,a /rut n ne>ly s popul> b nev]!less 9 use is t indicat$ by ,fig4 #be1 consi/+ ( spruce sp9dl$ to a ,t section ! web be+ ( consid]able wid? at ! c5tre4 ,x w\ld seem t ! piece ( wood necess>y to obta9 su* a /rut is out ( proportion to its actual f9i%$ dim5sions1 & f ! /&po9t ( economy 9 bo? lab\r & mat]ial is n ju/ifi$4 ,! circul> turn$ & tap]$ /rut noticeable on a numb] ( ma*9es disposes ! mat]ial 9 probably ! be/ mann] = ! conditions applicable to ?is compon5t1 al?\gh x necessitates ! provision ( tubul> f]rules 9 ! fuselage clip4 ,on "o mod]n ma*9e ! fuselage /ruts are circul>1 b ( holl[ section1 built up ( two pieces glu$ toge!r4 ,an obsolesc5t me?od is t 9 :i* ! /rut is %ap$ to some?+ approa*+ a /reaml9e section1 z ! fact t all a]oplane bodies are n[ fabric cov]$ r5d]s x unnecess>y4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,plane ,,con/ruction4 ,( ! v>i\s compon5ts :i* comprise ! complete ma*9e1 ! w+s1 a](oils1 or planes1 z ^! items are v>i\sly designat$1 may be said to contribute ! great] "p ( ! ultimate success ( ! complete ma*9e4 ,! a]odynamical prop]ties ( a w+ are n[ fairly well det]m9$1 & h be5 ! subject ( a great numb] ( exp]im5ts1 result+ 9 ! cle>+ away ( _m hazy ideas & notions1 s t ! actual design ( ! w+ section = ma*9es ( giv5 purpose is almo/ /&>diz$4 ,f ?is x might be d$uc$ t ! me?ods ( con/ruction 7 equally well det]m9$1 & al?\gh absolute uni=mity ( practice does n exi/1 ! w+ con/ruction ( mo/ ma*9es is simil>1 z f> z ! ma9 assembly is conc]n$4 ,effects ( ,/&>dization4 ,incid5tally1 "o may po9t out ! detrim5tal effects ( undue /&>dization z appli$ to an indu/ry 9 its prelim9>y /ages4 ,^! effects are well exemplifi$ by c]ta9 ma*9es1 9 :i* /&>dization has be5 /udi$ to an almo/ meticul\s ext5t1 ) ! logical result t _! p]=mance is consid]ably inf]ior to t ( o!r ma*9es ( contempor>y design1 b 9 :i* desirable improvem5ts are incorporat$ z !y occur4 ,al?\gh at pres5t "o _c give actual figures1 ! av]age p]=mance ( mod]n ,briti% aircraft 9 range ( spe$s1 rate & ext5t ( climb is sup]ior to ! products ( any o!r c\ntry1 & "o c]ta9ly _c cite ! con/ruction ( ! av]age ,briti% ma*9e z an example ( /&>dization4 ,see+ t1 z a typical in/ance1 w+ sections are frequ5tly alt]$ 9 m9or detail1 ! impracticability ( /&>dization is app>5t1 = ?is w\ld entail1 to a firm wi%+ to keep pace ) developm5ts1 a consid]able loss1 ?r\gh scrapp+ ( jigs1 etc41 consequ5t ^u ! new design4 ,:5 ! pr9ciples ( a]oplane design are z well def9$ z ^? p]ta9+ to int]nal combu/ion eng9es1 "o may expect ! v>i\s manufactur]s to produce "o type ( ma*9e p] ye>1 & ! v>i\s improvem5ts adduc$ f ! ye>'s exp]i5ce w\ld be incorporat$ 9 ! type ( ! succe$+ ye>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,plan view ( w+ assembly4 ,h[ev]1 leav+ ! realms ( vatic9ation = ! m prosaic subject ( w+ con/ruction1 x w be realiz$ t ! process ( produc+ ! full-siz$ w+1 accurately con=m+ to ! measurem5ts1 etc41 d$uc$ f exp]im5t1 & s con/ruct$ t ! *ief *>act]i/ic ( ! section w p]man5tly rema91 is ( importance4 ,z "o or two ( ! sp> sections 9 use 7 dealt ) 9 ! fir/ *apt]1 x w be unnecess>y aga9 to consid] !m 9 detail4 ,fig4 #bf %[s diagrammatically ! plan view ( a w+ assembly typical ( mod]n practice1 s f> z ! disposition ( ! v>i\s compon5ts is conc]n$4 ,%ap+ ( ,ma9 ,sp>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,%ap+ ( ma9 sp>s4 ,tak+ 9 great] detail ! diff]5t p>ts1 x is app>5t t ! sp>s =m ! nucleus ( ! g5]al arrangem5t4 ,!re are two me?ods ( %ap+ ! sp> longitud9ally1 &1 z %[n by ,fig4 #bg1 ! "o consi/s ( leav+ x p>allel = ! great] "p ( its l5g?1 :ile ! end =m+ ! tip ( ! w+ is gradually tap]$ to a comp>atively f9e edge4 ,?is may be said to con/itute prevail+ practice4 ,! o!r me?od :i* is illu/rative ( monoplane practice is n us$ to any?+ l ! same ext5t1 & diff]s 9 t x is con/antly tap]+ f root to tip4 ,! advantage ( ?is sp> con/ruction is ! improv$ di/ribution ( ! mat]ial = ! /resses involv$1 & also t a w+ built ) ?is sp> may possibly possess a great] degree ( lat]al /ability ow+ to ! weight ( ! complete w+ be+ locat$ ne>] ! c5tre ( gravity4 ,aga9/ ?is "o mu/ balance ! fact t ea* rib mu/ necess>ily be diff]5t 9 cont\r1 entail+ a great] numb] ( jigs1 an increase 9 ! "t tak5 9 build+1 ) a consequ5t increase 9 co/4 ,9 addition1 all /rut fitt+s w\ld diff] 9 size1 s t1 tak+ all ?+s into consid]ation1 ?is con/ruction is h>dly ju/ifi$4 ,x w be not$ t at ! po9t ( atta*m5t ( ! int]plane /rut fitt+s1 or1 9 ! case ( ! monoplane w+1 ! an*orage = ! wires1 ! sp> is left solid4 ,x is possible to *annel ! sp> "r ?r\gh1 f root to tip1 & to glue blocks :]e fitt+s occur2 & al?\gh !re is a possible sav+ ( lab\r !reby1 x h>dly con=ms to ! /&>ds ( mod]n work%op practice4 ,defects ( ,glue 9 ,w+ ,sp>s4 ,al?\gh glu+ is a mo/ necess>y op]ation 9 mod]n w+ con/ruction1 x is n :at "o w\ld call an eng9e]+ proposition4 ,x has a t5d5cy to det]iorate ) "t1 especially if expos$ to a humid atmosph]e4 ,a great deal dep5ds on ! me?od ( mak+ ! jo9t1 & an op]ation su* z glu+ a lam9at$ w+ sp> is usually c>ri$ out 9 a special room ( c]ta9 temp]ature4 ,su* sp>s are g5]ally additionally fix$ by rivets1 bolts1 or screws ?r\gh ! flanges4 ,! mat]ial %\ld always be dry1 & z /raight & close-gra9$ z c be procur$4 ,! /raightness & clos5ess ( gra9 affect ! /r5g? to a rem>kable degree2 & "h x may be rem>k$ t ! use ( ! be/ mat]ial is a mo/ important factor = ensur+ s\nd con/ruction1 & "o t 9 ! end pays4 ,if a sp> %\ld happ5 to be cut f a wet log1 x may 9 ! int]val betwe5 its f9i%+ z a "p & subsequ5t assembly 9 ! w+ ca/ or w>p1 :i* may cause tr\ble 9 assembl+1 & is m likely to result 9 ev5tually be+ sawn up z scrap4 ,! resultant section ( any w+ is really dep5d5t ^u ! sp> be+ ( correct section1 & %\ld ! sp> be out ( 8tru?10 ! section w v>y at diff]5t po9ts4 ,?is may n be eradicat$ ev5 9 ! erection ( ! ma*9e1 s t f9ally ! actual fly+ prop]ties ( ! ma*9e w be affect$--ano!r illu/ration ( ! importance ( ?or\gh con/ruction 9 ensur+ a good & la/+ p]=mance4 ,to secure uni=mity & int]*angeability ! w+ sp>s are set out = ! w+ positions1 & ! necess>y holes = ! fitt+s drill$ to jig1 be=e be+ h&$ ov] to ! w+ erectors4 ,arrangem5t ( ,planes4 ,! usual arrangem5t on ma*9es ( ! sc\t type is = ! l[] plane to butt aga9/ ! l[] memb]s ( ! fuselage1 & ! top planes be+ ! same span1 ! wid? ( ! body is made up by a c5tre plane4 ,ano!r me?od is to make ! top plane 9 two portions only1 ?us obviat+ ! c5tre plane2 & occasionally ! sp>s ( ! top plane run ?r\gh1 f w+-tip to w+-tip1 al?\gh ?is is only possible 9 ma*9es ( small span4 ,ap>t f ! fact t su* a w+ requires extra room1 x is difficult to procure timb] ( l5g? exce$+ #bj ft4 suffici5tly /raight 9 ! gra92 & a m9or detail w\ld be ! difficulty ( repair1 z a damag$ w+-tip w\ld practically entail a new sp>1 z splic+1 al?\gh p]missible 9 "s p>ts ( ! ma*9e1 %\ld n be tol]at$ z a means ( repair+ w+ sp>s4 ,! difficulty ( obta9+ timb] w necessitate ! w+s ( l>ge ma*9es be+ made 9 sections2 & !re are sev]al in/ances :]e ?is =m ( con/ruction has be5 adopt$1 9 "o case ! sections be+ only five feet 9 l5g?4 ,?is con/ruction seems em95tly suit$ to ! po/-w> sport+ ma*9e1 z *ance damage w\ld be conf9$ to a small] area1 transport simplifi$1 &1 provid+ ! jo9ts are well made1 no appreciable loss 9 effici5cy %\ld ensue4 ,types ( ,w+ ,ribs 9 ,use4 ,f a survey ( ! plane diagram1 ,fig4 #bf1 x w be notic$ t ! *ief compon5ts1 9 addition to ! ma9 sp>s1 are ! ribs1 box-ribs1 /r+]s1 & lead+ & trail+ edges4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--;,con/ruction ( ribs4 ,! ribs1 :i* is ! t]m appli$ to ! v light framework built ov] ! sp>s to ma9ta9 ! correct curvature1 are v>i\sly con/ruct$2 "o ( ! mo/ popul> me?ods 9 vogue is t %[n by ,fig4 #bh4 ,! c5tral portion1 or web1 :i* includes ! nose & trail+ edge =m]s1 may be cut f ei!r spruce1 :itewood1 cotton wood1 :i* c be b5t to a surpris+ degree )\t fracture1 & ?ree-ply4 ,?ree-ply1 :ile excell5t = "s items1 is h>dly suit$ = ?is purpose1 z ! lam9ations h a t5d5cy to come ap>t1 especially 9 ! l[] grades1 :i* is aggravat$ by ! screws or brads necess>y = ! atta*m5t ( ! flange4 ,a rib1 frett$ out z 9 ,fig4 #bh1 ) ! web ( cotton wood & a spruce flange1 c be made extremely light4 ,a rib = a *ord ( f #d ft4 #f 94 to #e ft4 w\ld weigh ab\t #e oz4 ,z x is v necess>y t e rib %\ld correspond1 ^! p>ts %\ld be made to a metal jig1 :i* is ab\t ! only way to ensure exactitude4 ,?is %\ld be made f mild %eet /eel1 ab\t #af ,b4,w4,g41 & ne$ only be %ap$ to ! out] curve1 z ! light5+ holes are ( b second>y importance1 ^! be+ usually m>k$ out 9 ! saw mill1 & cut to ! l9e ) a f9e jig saw4 ,= production 9 quantity a box jig1 betwe5 :i* a doz5 ribs might be clamp$ & %ap$1 is pref]able4 ,templates ( wood are ( d\btful accuracy1 = n only d corn]s we>1 b gradual %r9kage soon r5d]s !m useless4 ,! incorrect %ap+ ( ! mo/ insignificant piece ( wood may h f>-rea*+ effects :5 assembl$1 & any extra tr\ble tak5 9 ! prep>ation ( p>ts is m ?an repaid by ! subsequ5t ease & precision ( erection4 ,:ile ! me?od ( rib build+ previ\sly describ$ con/itutes g5]al practice1 !re are1 ( c\rse1 o!r arrangem5ts 9 vogue4 ,fig4 #bi illu/rates a sy/em 9 :i* ! front sp> =ms ! lead+ edge1 a proc$ure :i* is some:at r>e n[1 ow+ to ! features ( mod]n w+ sections1 b at "o "t q common4 ,9 ?is case ! web is ( ?ree-ply light5$ ) a s]ies ( graduat$ holes1 accord+ to ! wid? ( ! web1 & ! flanges ( spruce4 ,! rib assembly1 ,fig4 #cj1 is extremely simple & light1 z 9 ?is case ! web prop] is sup]s$$ by ?9 /rips ( ?ree-ply1 glu$ & bradd$ ea* side ( ! spruce flange4 ,! am\nt ( woodwork betwe5 ! sp>s is r$uc$ to a m9imum1 al?\gh "o c h>dly imag9e su* a sy/em answ]+ = a *ord ov] five feet4 ,ev5 !n ! w+ curvature w\ld require to be fairly simple1 z a pron\nc$ curve w\ld flatt5 out4 ,z a po9t ( fact1 ?is assembly is r>ely us$ = *ords exce$+ #d ft4 #f 94 ,9 ano!r arrangem5t z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ca1 ! connection betwe5 ! top & bottom flanges is =m$ by blocks1 a me?od :i* is c]ta9ly economical ( mat]ial4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,fig4 #cb4 ,,figs4 #bi-cb4--;,con/ruction ( ribs4 ,an int]e/+ =m ( rib design is t %[n by ,fig4 #cb1 & 9 ?is in/ance ! frett+ is specially design$ to prev5t any flatt5+ out ( ! camb]4 ,! rib section is %[n at ,a1 ,fig4 #cb1 & x w be notic$ t ! flange ( *amf]$ section is groov$ to take ! ?ree-ply web4 ,! v]tical p>ts ( ! web are /iff5$ by small semi-circul> fillets4 ,ribs "u ,compression4 ,= ^? ribs contigu\s to ! int]/rut jo9ts1 a diff]5t con/ruction is necess>y to )/& ! t5sion ( ! cross-brac+ ( ! planes &1 to a less] degree1 ! int]nal plane wir+1 s t at ?is po9t ! rib p]=ms two functions1 t ( ma9ta9+ ! w+ curve1 & also tak+ ! /ra9s due to compression4 ,:]e su* provision is n made1 ! t5sion ( ! wir+ w result 9 ei!r or possibly bo? ( ! foll[+3 7#a7 ! rib w buckle lat]ally2 7#b7 ! camb] w increase to an ext5t v>y+ ) ! pressure on ! wires1 bo? results be+ extremely detrim5tal to effici5cy4 ,9 ?is respect ! old box-kites ( v>y+ orig9 us$ to (f] "s int]e/+ /udies 9 v>iable camb]1 & :5 x is rememb]$ t ! w+ ribs 7 commonly compos$ ( a s+le a% la?1 /eam$ to %ape1 & ! fabric atta*$ on ! top side only1 ! wond] is t ext5d$ fly+ 0 possible at all4 ,= all t1 "s comp>atively classic cross-c\ntry flights 7 accompli%$4 ,"o popul> sy/em is to incorporate a box-rib at ^! po9ts1 sometimes made by plac+ two ord9>y ribs close toge!r & connect+ !m ) ?ree-ply or ?9 spruce1 s t1 al?\gh ! ov]all wid? ( ! f9i%$ box-rib w\ld be approximately #b 941 x is exceptionally rigid & )al light4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--;,compression rib4 ,ano!r solution is to use a solid web1 lightly *annell$ out1 z 9 ,fig4 #cc4 ,9 "s w+ /ructures ! ribs are uni=m ?r\gh\t1 a /rut ( ei!r /eel tube or wood be+ ins]t$ & to :i* ! int]nal wir+ is atta*$4 ,?is latt] me?od is possibly m desirable1 t is1 if ! jo9t betwe5 ! compression /rut & sp> c be comb9$ ) ! int]/rut fitt+4 ,?is may necessitate a little extra "w 9 ! latt]1 b ?is is pref]able to ! use ( a sep>ate fitt+1 involv+ additional pi]c+ ( ! sp>4 ,importance ( ,ev5 ,cont\r4 ,:il/ on ! subject ( rib build+1 "o _c ov] emphasize ! desirability ( ev5 cont\r1 & ! template1 illu/rat$ by ,fig4 #cd1 s]ves z an admirable *eck4 ,x is cut f v dry mat]ial to ! outside curve ( ! section1 & if ?is is tri$ on z ea* rib is fix$1 "o may be sure ( comp>ative uni=mity4 ,! root rib is g5]ally ( /\t] con/ruction1 & usually foll[s ! same l9es z ! compression ribs4 ,at ?is po9t ! pull ( ! fabric has to be cont5d$ )1 :i* is n infrequ5tly a consid]able /ra94 ,! same conditions prevail at ! w+ tip1 :i* is "o reason aga9/ excessive r$uction ( mat]ial at ?is po9t4 ,in/ances occur :]e ! t5sion ( ! fabric aft] dop+ has consid]ably de=m$ ! tip curve1 :i* is at lea/ unsightly1 & may entail recon/ruction4 ,illu/ration3 ,,%ap$ ,,to ,,"u ,,surface ,,fig4 #cd4--,template = te/+ rib cont\rs4 ,w+ ,tip ,details4 ,! actual %ape ( ! w+ tip v>ies ) ! make ( ma*9e1 & =ms "o ( ! di/9ctive features ( ! complete assembly4 ,!re is a g5]al t5d5cy to rake ! ends1 mak+ ! back sp> long] ?an ! front1 on ! score t increas$ effici5cy due to r$uction ( end losses is atta9$4 ,:ile ?is is some:at problematic1 see+ t sev]al notable ma*9es h squ>e tips1 & "s actually con/ruct$ ) ! longe/ edge lead+1 x und\bt$ly imp>ts a pleas+ & di/9ctive appe>ance4 ,! actual con/ruction is l>gely a matt] = individual pref]5ce1 z !re are sev]al ways ( =m+ x4 ,= in/ance1 a s+le piece ( a% may be b5t to %ape1 or x may be cut out 9 sections f spruce bo>ds & glu$ toge!r ) a long splice1 :ile 9 ano!r in/ance oval /eel tube is ! mat]ial4 ,?is small section /eel tub+ seems admirably suit$ = su* items z w+ tips1 trail+ edges1 & ! v>i\s compon5ts ( ! emp5nage1 su* z ! fix$ /abiliz]1 elevators1 f91 & rudd]4 ,ano!r me?od ( con/ruction us$ = ! w+ tips ( "s ma*9es consi/s ( a numb] ( /rips1 ab\t six = a w+ tip #a 94 wide by 94 ?ick1 ! jo9ts betwe5 :i* are dispos$ v]tically1 =m+ a lam9at$ w+ tip4 ,9 manufacture1 ea* piece is b5t r\nd b5d+ jigs or blocks ( ! requir$ %ape1 ! edges ( ! /rips hav+ previ\sly be5 glu$4 ,x is app>5t t ! small] ! section ( /rip us$1 ! easi] x c be b5t1 & ) ?is arrangem5t q %>p b5ds c be successfully =m$ 9 spruce4 ,! alt]native me?od ( /eam+ a solid piece is (t5 wa/eful1 ap>t f ! fact t x en=ces ! use ( a%4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,details ,,( ,,plane ,,con/ruction4 ,! t5d5cy to lose lift1 pron\nc$ 9 "s ma*9es1 h>dly noticeable 9 o!rs1 may be directly trac$ & attribut$ to ! mann] 9 :i* ! w+s are built1 :i* is l>gely dep5d5t ^u ! design4 ,9 ! prelim9>y /ages ( design x is usual to take z a basis ! figures = lift & drift ( a kn[n te/$ section1 t is if facilities are n available = te/+ an exact scale model ( ! section x is int5d$ to use4 ,anyway1 ! :ole design is dep5d5t ^u ^! figures1 9 respect ( bo? ! maximum & m9imum spe$s1 & also ! rate ( climb1 & ! ext5t to :i* ! actual p]=mance ( ! ma*9e complies ) ^! calculations is det]m9$ solely by ! exactitude & precision ) :i* ! full-size w+ con=ms to ! scale model4 ,by ?is means only is x possible to design ) any degree ( accuracy4 ,! ,sagg+ ( ,fabric4 ,! sagg+ ( ! fabric betwe5 ! ribs is "o ( ! pr9cipal reasons = ! failure ( ! f9i%$ ma*9e to satisfy expectation & also ( ! t5d5cy to lose lift4 ,"o or two causes contribute to ?is result4 ,"o is ! spac+ ( ! ribs1 :i* 9 "s cases is n ne>ly close en\gh4 ,a r\gh av]age spac+ is f #aj ins4 to #a ft41 b 9 mod]n high-spe$ ma*9es1 load$ to any?+ f #e lbs4 to #h lbs4 p] squ>e foot1 ! spac+ %\ld be mu* clos]4 ,9 addition1 ! ribs ne> ! w+ root %\ld be clos] ?an ^? at ! tip1 = at ?is po9t ! /resses are great]1 a c]ta9 am\nt ( vibration f ! eng9e hav+ to be cont5d$ )1 9 addition to ! effects ( ! slip-/ream ( ! air-screw4 ,p>ticul>ly noticeable is ! t5d5cy = ! fabric to sag d[n on ! top surface ( ! lead+ edge1 a feature :i* imp>ts to ! ma*9e1 especially :5 view$ f ! front1 a n unpleas+ corrugat$ appe>ance4 ,at ?is "p ( ! section ! curve is some:at %>p1 & naturally ! fabric t5ds to con=m to ! def9ition ( ! %orte/ di/ance betwe5 two po9ts1 a /raight l9e4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 is aggravat$ 9 flight1 :5 ! planes are "u load1 & by f> ! greate/ am\nt ( pressure is locat$ at ! front portion1 or lead+ edge1 ( ! w+4 ,false ,ribs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,false ,,ribs ,,fig4 #ce4--;,arrangem5t ( ribs at lead+ edge4 ,9 "s w+ con/ructions ! =ces are m9imiz$ by ! provision ( subsidi>y or false nose-ribs1 ,fig4 #ce1 :i* ext5d usually f ! lead+ edge z f> back z ! front sp> & occasionally to ! longitud9al /r+]4 ,:ile ?is prev5ts1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 ! sagg+ 9 ( ! fabric1 x does n entirely eradicate x4 ,! only successful way 9 :i* ! *>act]i/ics ( ! w+ cont\r may be pres]v$ is by cov]+ ! lead+ edge ) ?9 v5e]1 spruce1 or1 /ill bett]1 ?ree-ply1 z ,fig4 #cf4 ,despite ! great advantages att5d+ ?is con/ructional feature1 its use _c be said to be really ext5d$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--,?ree-ply cov]+ = lead+ edge4 ,pressure at ,lead+ ,edge4 ,! pressure at ! lead+ edge produc$ by ! enorm\s spe$ at :i* ! mod]n ma*9es fly 7& ! maximum div+ spe$ ( :i*1 ow+ to ! r$uction ( resi/ance1 is correspond+ly increas$7 mu/ be abnormal1 & calls = diff]5t me?ods ( con/ruction f ^? :i* at pres5t obta94 ,!re is at lea/ "o case on record :]e ! fabric has bur/ at ?is po9t ) fatal results4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t 9 ! report ( ! ,n4,p4,l4 = ! ye> #aiaf-ag m5tion is made ( ! de=mation ( ! w+ =m1 due to ! sagg+ ( ! fabric1 :i* has be5 reproduc$ 9 model =m1 s t ! all[ances to be made & ! resultant effects h be5 det]m9$4 ,effect ( ,lat]al ,control4 ,! sy/em adopt$ = ! lat]al control is a decisive factor 9 decid+ ! g5]al l9es ( con/ruction4 ,! arrangem5t ( plane w>p+1 :]eby ! w+ 0 twi/$ or w>p$ f root to tip1 or ! out] section only1 has giv5 place to ! almo/ univ]sal use ( ail]on control4 ,) ! old w>p+ sy/em ! ribs1 sp>s1 & ! :ole w+ collectively 0 subject$ to a torsional /ra91 :i* c\ld only h _h a delet]i\s effect ^u x4 ,?is fact 0 almo/ entirely responsible = ! practice ( us+ /eel tube = w+ sp>s1 = by its use x 0 a fairly easy matt] to arrange ! ribs to slide or h+e ^u ! tube1 :i*1 at lea/1 reliev$ "s ( ! torsional /ress4 ,lead+ & ,trail+ ,edges4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--,lead+ edges4 ,! av]age practice conc]n+ ! =mation ( ! lead+ & trail+ edges is %[n by ,figs4 #cg & #ch4 ,:]e ! section 9 use requires a bluff entry ! sp9dl$-out nose-piece is applicable1 :ile = a %>p entry a fillet let into ! nose-=m]s suffices4 ,z previ\sly m5tion$1 /eel tub+ makes a satisfactory trail+ edge1 al?\gh some:at heavi] ?an ! spruce /rip1 :ile an extremely f9e lead+ edge c be =m$ by /eel wire4 ,! edge1 "u pressure ( ! fabric1 assumes a v>iegat$ %ape1 a di/9ctive feature ( "s types1 b1 nev]!less1 a wire trail+ edge is some:at flabby & undulat+1 & z a me?od is obsolesc5t4 ,longitud9al /r+]s are employ$ to pres]ve ! w+ cont\r & also = a /iff5+ m$ium = ! ribs 9 a lat]al direction4 ,ab\t ! only v>iation ( ! small spruce /rip = ! purpose is l95 tape1 cross$ alt]nately4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--,trail+ edges4 ,effici5cy ( ! ,rak$ ,w+ ,tip4 ,9 ! previ\s *apt] m5tion 0 made ( ! probable ga9 9 effici5cy result+ f ! rak$ w+ tip1 & t ?is has "s f\ndation 9 fact w be app>5t f a consid]ation ( ,fig4 #ci1 :i* illu/rates ! fl[ ( air across a plane1 z g5]ally accept$4 ,:]e ! plane surface is cont9u\s f w+ tip to w+ tip1 ! provision ( ! %ap$ tip w\ld appe> to comp5sate = any slight loss1 b !re are in/ances :]e ! ext5t ( ! pilot's range ( view is ( ! utmo/ importance1 & ?is may necessitate ! cutt+ away ( a portion ( ! c5tre section 7:i* sometimes af=ds ! only means ( +ress & egress71 or ! root ( ! l[] plane1 z 9 ,fig4 #dj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--;,diagram %[+ fl[ ( air across plane4 ,illu/ration3 ,,c5tre ,,section ,,cut ,,away ,,sp> ,,roots ,,cut ,,away ,,fig4 #dj4 ,w+ ,baffles4 ,an attempt to prev5t air leakage caus$ by ?is is occasionally obs]v$ 9 ! employm5t ( v]tical vanes1 or w+ baffles4 ,9 ! case ( a ma*9e ) ! l[] plane abutt+ aga9/ ! side ( ! fuselage1 ^! w\ld n be necess>y1 ! fuselage act+ 9 ! same mann]4 ,! baffles are usually ( ?ree-ply or spruce1 & %ap$ to project above ! top & bottom surfaces1 ?is projection r>ely exce$+ six in*es4 ,a typical arrangem5t is illu/rat$ by ,fig4 #da1 :i* also %[s ! expos$ sp>s /reaml9$ ) a fair+ ( ?ree-ply4 ,x is typical ( ! v>i$ op9ions :i* /ill exi/1 t on "s ma*9es ! w+ roots are m]ely wa%$ out some:at abruptly4 ,if ?is air leakage is ( any mom5t1 x is app>5t t x mu/ detrim5tally affect ! lift-drift ratio4 ,z a pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( pressure at ! op5+s 9 ! w+1 ! writ] rememb]s ! case ( a well-kn[n seaplane1 :]e ! w+ baffles on ! c5tre section 7 made ( some:at ?9 ?ree-ply4 ,9 flight x 0 notic$ by ! pilot t ^! 7 be+ =c$ away f ! w+1 & subsequ5tly ^! 7 replac$ by baffles ( /\t] con/ruction4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,w+ baffle4 ,metal ,w+ ,con/ruction4 ,( two ma*9es1 equal 9 air p]=mance1 ! "o :i* c be mo/ easily produc$ has an obvi\s &1 especially at ! pres5t "t1 a v important sup]iority4 ,rapidity ( production is a mo/ cog5t argum5t 9 fav\r ( metal con/ruction1 = once ! necess>y ma*9es are set up1 & ! jigs & dies made1 & giv5 a con/ant supply ( mat]ial1 output is only limit$ by ! spe$ ( ! ma*9e4 ,9 addition1 !re are ! v exact+ dem&s ( int]*angeability4 ,n[1 x is inf9itely m easy to obta9 exactitude 9 metal ?an 9 wood1 &1 moreov]1 assum+ t x is possible to produce woodwork to ! ne>e/ #ja ( an in*1 :at prev5tive is !re aga9/ %r9kage1 :i* occurs ev5 :5 us+ ! drye/ ( timb]4 ,by ! m ext5sive use ( metal !re %\ld be a consid]ably r$uc$ proportion ( scrapp$ p>ts1 & erection w\ld be accel]at$4 ,x is significant t ! planes ( "s ( ! mo/ rec5t ,g]man ma*9es are con/ruct$ l>gely ( /eel tub+1 :i* is at pres5t ! mo/ practicable =m 9 :i* /eel c be us$4 ,( c\rse1 /eel tube sp>s are q an old detail1 al?\gh ! m g5]al ,engli% practice is to core !m ) spruce or a%1 z 9 ,fig4 #db4 ,"o rememb]s a ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #db4--,/eel tube sp> ) wood fill+4 monoplane1 built "s "t be=e ! w>1 9 :i* ! sp>s & ribs 7 ( /eel & ! cov]+ ( ?9 alum9ium %eet4 ,9 flight ?is ma*9e 0 p>ticul>ly fa/1 :i* may be acc\nt$ = by ! r$uction ( sk9 friction1 :i* a smoo? surface su* z alum9ium w\ld af=d4 ,9 addition1 ! t5d5cy ( a fabric cov]+ to sag 0 also obviat$4 ,ano!r example ( metal con/ruction is af=d$ by ! ,clem5t-,bay>d monoplane1 exhibit$ at ,olympia 9 #aiad4 ,! plane con/ruction ( ?is ma*9e1 z %[n by ,fig4 #dc1 consi/$ ( *annel /eel sp>s1 /eel lead+ & trail+ edges1 & ?9 /eel /rips replac+ ! usual wood5 /r+]s4 ,h[ev]1 /eel con/ruction 9 mod]n ,engli% ma*9es is re/rict$ to ! v>i\s organs ( ! emp5nage1 & occasionally "o f9ds ail]ons s built4 ,!re seems no valid reason = ! cont9u$ use ( wood z ! mat]ial = ! con/ruction ( su* items z ! f91 rudd]1 & elevators1 z a consid]able sav+ ( lab\r & "t c be effect$ by us+ ! v>i\s =ms ( /eel tub+2 moreov]1 ! t5d5cy :i* mo/ controll+ organs built ( wood h to w>p & twi/ ) v>iations 9 temp]ature is prev5t$ by ! /eel frame4 ,"o frequ5tly sees su* items z ! ail]ons & elevators di/ort$1 :i* mu/ result 9 excessive drift1 if n erratic fly+4 ,at ! pres5t "t x is difficult to obta9 alum9ium alloy 9 any l>ge quantity1 & ?is1 9 conjunction ) ! pres5t high prices1 precludes its ext5sive use4 ,:5 ?is mat]ial is procurable 9 quantity1 & :5 design is reasonably /&>diz$1 roll$ or lattice sp>s & /amp$ ribs may come into vogue4 ,illu/ration3 ,,/eel ,,sp>s ,,fig4 #dc4--,rib con/ruction ) metal sp>s4 ,fabric ,atta*m5t4 ,fabric & its atta*m5t is a matt] requir+ consid]able att5tion1 ) ! great pressure to :i* mod]n w+s are subject$4 ,9 ! old days any fabric :i* 0 light ) a mod]ate degree ( /r5g? 0 utiliz$4 ,n[adays1 x is requir$ to /& a c]ta9 /ra9 9 w>p & weft1 & rightly s1 s9ce ! bur/+ ( fabric 9 flight c only h "o result4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t ! fabric us$ on ! ,dep]duss9 hydro-monoplane 0 specially wov5 ) ?reads runn+ at "r angles1 =m+ innum]able squ>es4 ,! purpose ( ?is 0 t1 %\ld a bullet or any object pi]ce any "o ( ! squ>es1 damage w\ld be conf9$ to t squ>e1 & !reby prev5t$ f develop+2 b ! writ] _c recall any in/ance ( its use to-day4 ,9 cov]+1 ! fabric %\ld be tightly & ev5ly /ret*$ f end to end ( ! w+1 & only comp>atively lightly pull$ f lead+ to trail+ edge4 ,if too mu* /ra9 is appli$ to ! fabric crosswise x w result 9 undulations betwe5 ea* rib4 ,! t5d5cy ( fabric to sag betwe5 ! ribs is acc5tuat$ by ?is1 &1 ( c\rse1 matt]s are n improv$ ^u ! application ( ! dope4 ,x %\ld be rememb]$ t ! effici5cy ( any ma*9e is greatly dep5d5t ^u ! tautness ( ! fabric4 ,x %\ld n be /ret*$ too tightly1 z ! application ( ! specifi$ coats ( dope may result 9 ! fibres or ?reads ( ! mat]ial be+ ov]/ra9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,cane ,,/rips ,,screw$ ,,to ,,ribs ,,fig4 #dd4--;,atta*m5t ( fabric to ribs by cane /rips4 ,) reg>d to ! actual atta*m5t ( ! cov]+ to ! w+ framework mod]n practice is re/rict$ to two me?ods4 ,! old] me?od is illu/rat$ by ,fig4 #dd1 & consi/s ( /rips ( spruce1 or m usually cane1 tack$ or screw$ to ! ribs4 ,x is usual1 & c]ta9ly pref]able1 to affix ?is bead+ to e rib ( ^? sections ( ! planes adjac5t to ! fuselage1 z ! fabric on ^! portions is subject$ to ! slip /ream ( ! propell]1 :i* meets x 9 a succession ( small bl[s4 ,! fabric 9 ! out] sections ne$ only be affix$ to alt]nate ribs4 ,! alt]nate me?od is %[n by ,fig4 #de4 ,9 ?is case ! fabric is sewn to ! ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #de4--;,fabric sewn to ribs4 ribs ) tw9e or cord1 ! /it*es occurr+ ab\t e ?ree in*es4 ,x w be not$ t e loop or /it* is lock$ ) a species ( half-hit* knot4 ,?is /it*+ is !n cov]$ ) b&s ( fabric1 ! edges be+ fray$ to ensure p]fect adhesion & dop$ to ! ma9 cov]4 ,x is l>gely a matt] ( op9ion :i* sy/em ensures ! mo/ ev5 w+ cont\r1 al?\gh x w\ld seem t ! drift or resi/ance is slightly less5$ by ! sew+ me?od4 ,an obsolete me?od is t 9 :i* ! fabric 0 tack$ to ! ribs ) brass p9s & tap$ ) l95 tape4 ,all sewn jo9ts 9 w+ cov]s %\ld be1 & g5]ally are1 ( ! d\ble lapp$ v>iety 7,fig4 #df71 & arrang$ to run diagonally across ! w+4 ,a m9or & some:at insignificant detail ( w+ ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #df4--;,d\ble-lapp$ jo9t 9 fabric4 cov]+ is ! provision ( small eyelet holes 9 ! "u surface ( ! trail+ edge1 all[+ wat] accumulat$ ?r\gh cond5sation to dra9 away1 & al?\gh n g5]al practice1 w\ld appe> to be necess>y4 ,a ref9em5t :i* may be necess>y on ! po/-w> sport+ ma*9e is ! atta*m5t ( small blocks1 or 8domes ( sil5ce10 to ! lead+ edge1 z a protection = ! fabric aga9/ we>4 ,:5 planes are dissembl$ m (t5 ?an n !y are /ack$ lead+ edge d[nw>ds on a concrete floor1 & any movem5t or friction is likely to result 9 ! rubb+ away ( ! fabric1 :i*1 if unnotic$1 may result 9 ! bur/+ ( ! cov]+4 ,su* fitm5ts w\ld h>dly con/itute an innovation1 z ! writ] has di/9ct recollections ( see+ su* fitt+s on ! ,d4,f4,w4 biplane at ,brookl&s j prior to ! outbreak ( w>4 ,^! consi/$ ( brass balls1 free to rotate 9 a socket1 screw$ to ! lead+ edge4 ,a n>r[ /rip ( alum9ium screw$ along ! ent]+ edge w\ld be q suffici5t1 & w\ld n add appreciably to ! weight4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,int]plane ,,/rut ,,connections4 ,x may be tak5 z fairly conclusive t = w> purposes ! biplane has prov$ its sup]iority1 & x appe>s also t = ! comm]cial requirem5ts ( ! future x is suit$ /ill bett]1 & !re=e1 9 view ( ! huge possibilities ?us op5$ up1 is likely to ma9ta9 ?is pr$om9ance4 ,z ! arrangem5t ( planes 9 a biplane =ms ! extremely simple yet enorm\sly effici5t box-gird]1 x is g5]ally consid]$ sup]ior 9 /r5g? to weight requirem5ts1 al?\gh = monoplanes ( small span x is d\btful if ?is is s1 :i* af=ds "s indication ( ! possibilities ( ! small monoplane z ! sport+ ma*9e ( ! days to come4 ,see+ t ! pr9cipal diff]5ce betwe5 ! biplane & monoplane consi/s ess5tially 9 ! type ( truss employ$1 ! arrangem5t & atta*m5t ( ! v>i\s memb]s peculi> to ! biplane truss becomes ( int]e/1 c]ta9ly ( importance4 ,x is int5d$ to deal ) ! v>i\s trusses 9 a lat] *apt]1 conf9+ ! pres5t rem>ks to ! int]plane /rut fitt+s 9 use1 & comm5c+ by detail+ ! *ief requirem5ts & desirable features4 ,! mo/ desirable requirem5t is t ! atta*m5t ( ! fitt+ to ! w+ sp>s does n involve ! drill+ ( ! sp>4 ,9 practice ?is is mo/ difficult ( accompli%m5t1 = :ile no great tr\ble w\ld be exp]i5c$ 9 mak+ a fitt+ fulfill+ ?is requirem5t1 x w\ld be q ano!r matt] to keep x 9 place "u ! t5sion ( ! brac+ wires1 & 9 ! case ( ! out] /rut fitt+1 to :i* any /ra9 is ultimately transmitt$1 practically impossible4 ,9 spite ( ?is1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! ma*9e may occasionally1 :5 l&+ or gett+ (f1 pit* ov] on to ! w+-tip skid1 & if sev]e1 ! %ock transmitt$ to ! sp> may cause a fracture to develop :i*1 />t+ at ! hole due to ! /rut fitt+1 & ow+ to ! fabric cov]+1 w\ld be difficult to detect4 ,"o or two simil> mi%aps1 ) a consequ5t increase 9 ! ext5t ( ! fracture1 give di/9ct possibilities ( collapse 9 ! air4 ,al?\gh "o _c give specific in/ances1 x is a feasible cont+5cy1 & "o t %\ld be elim9at$ f ! region ( possibility4 ,additional important features are ! provision = rapid assembly & deta*m5t1 ease ( manufacture1 & ! abs5ce ( braz+1 weld+ & sold]+ z m$iums = =m+ connections1 at lea/ = ^? p>ts subject to any /ress4 ,! qualities ( /rong con/ruction & good design are p>am\nt consid]ations 9 ! manufacture ( ^! fitt+s1 z ! purpose ( an int]/rut jo9t is n m]ely to =m a connection betwe5 ! upp] & l[] planes1 b also to di/ribute ! intricate /resses enc\nt]$ 9 flight4 ,braz+ & ,weld+4 ,x is some:at amaz+ t braz+ z an ess5tial op]ation 9 ! mak+ ( a jo9t %\ld /ill be employ$1 z x is difficult to imag9e any?+ less suit$ to ! conditions "u :i* aircraft op]ate4 ,! advantages ( a uni=m high-grade /eel possess+ a high ultimate t5sile /r5g? are dissipat$ by ! int5se heat necess>y = ! action ( braz+1 result+ 9 ! /r5g? ( ! f9i%$ jo9t becom+ an extremely problematic quantity1 inde$ ?is is r5d]$ ! m s by ! individuality ( ! workm54 ,weld+ prop]ly p]=m$ is less objectionable1 inde$1 its use may be said to be con/antly increas+1 al?\gh x is well to recognize its limitations4 ,x %\ld n be us$ = p>ts subject to any great t5sile /ress1 su* z ! fitt+s =m+ ! subject ( ?is *apt]4 ,! effici5cy ( any weld$ jo9t is h>d to det]m9e1 z app>5t s\ndness on ! surface is no indication ( ! int]nal nature ( ! weld4 ,reg>d$ f ! aphori/ic 8maximum /r5g? = m9imum weight0 view po9t1 & tak+ into acc\nt ! advantages 9 ?is direction :i* c be obta9$ by ! use ( a high-grade /eel1 braz+ & weld+ are n to be comm5d$4 ,! op]ation ( s(t sold]+1 requir+ only a mod]ate heat1 does n weak5 ! mat]ial to any great ext5t1 & = "s items a prop]ly pegg$ & sold]$ jo9t is sup]ior to ! two me?ods ( jo9t+ previ\sly describ$4 ,connections 9 ,use4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--;,int]plane /rut atta*m5t4 ,! illu/rations giv5 indicate ! v>y+ degrees ( practice1 tak+ z ! /&>d = comp>ison ! e>ly ,wright socket1 ,fig4 #dg4 ,al?\gh some:at crude x 0 q suitable = ! purpose1 especially z ! w+ w>p+ sy/em 9 ! ,wright ma*9es necessitat$ a fair am\nt ( flexibility 9 ! jo9ts4 ,x s]ves also to illu/rate t "s advancem5t has be5 made 9 con/ructional "w4 ,! advantages ( rapid erection & dismantl+ h be5 realiz$ & provid$ = 9 mo/ ma*9es s9ce ! e>ly days ( ! indu/ry1 & x is n surpris+1 !re=e1 t ! sali5t *>act]i/ic ( ! jo9t 7,fig4 #dh7 us$ by ,s4 ,f4 ,cody on 8 fam\s biplane 0 portability4 ,! int]/rut t]m9ates 9 a k9d ( =k1 :i* 9 turn is p9n$ to ! head ( a special bolt slott$ to receive x4 ,! fact t ! wir+ lugs 7 improvis$ f *a9 l9ks is int]e/+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--;,int]plane /rut atta*m5t4 ,! me?od ( pack+ ! w+s = transport consi/$ 9 deta*+ ! two out] cellules f ! c5tral /ructure1 :5 ! removal ( "o set ( wires enabl$ ! planes to be fold$ "o aga9/ ! o!r4 ,x is possibly ( int]e/ to record ! fact t 9 ! milit>y trials ( #aiab ?is ma*9e 0 tak5 d[n & re-erect$ 9 #ea m9utes1 q a good p]=mance tak+ into acc\nt its l>ge dim5sions4 ,al?\gh ?is attribute is sc>cely necess>y at ! pres5t "t1 x w be und\bt$ly requir$ by ! sport+ own] ( ! future ) limit$ /orage facilities4 ,! fitt+ %[n by ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #di4--;,int]plane /rut atta*m5t4 ,fig4 #di is only suitable = ma*9es ) light w+ load+4 ,! plate =m+ ! an*orage = ! wires is press$ out1 ! lugs b5t to ! diff]5t angles1 & !n atta*$ to ! sp> by an eyebolt1 to :i* is fix$ ! plane /rut1 ! ends ( ! latt] be+ capp$ ) /eel tube ( /reaml9e section4 ,a simil> arrangem5t is t %[n by ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--;,int]plane /rut atta*m5t4 ,fig4 #ej1 ! lug plate be+ press$ out & b5t1 b 9 ?is example ! /rut t]m9ates 9 a socket ( oval /eel tube weld$ to ! plate4 ,x is connect$ to ! sp> by a bolt pass+ ?r\gh ! c5tre ( ! socket1 ! /rut end fitt+ ov] ?is4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--;,int]plane /rut atta*m5t4 ,! practice ( an*or+ wires to eyebolts1 z 9 ,fig4 #ea1 =ms ! nucleus ( _m /rut connections1 b z a me?od _c be recomm5d$4 ,cont9ual /ra9 on ! wire has a resultant 9 ! b5d+ ov] ( ! head ( ! eyebolt z 9 ,fig4 #eb4 ,z a po9t ( fact ! use ( ! eyebolt is di/9ctly elem5t>y1 & gives ! impression ( a make%ift4 ,! fitt+ illu/rat$ by ,fig4 #ec con/itutes an advance on ! previ\s arrangem5ts dealt )1 & is also indicative ( mod]n practice4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--;,int]plane /rut atta*m5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--;,int]plane /rut atta*m5t4 ,! ma9 body ( ?is clip is a /amp+ f heavy %eet-/eel1 b5t up to ! section ( ! sp>1 ! bolts1 x w be notic$1 pass+ horizontally ?r\gh x4 ,! an*orage = ! wires is =m$ by lugs1 :i* h a direct pull on ! bolts1 & is s arrang$ t a slight cle>ance exi/s betwe5 lug & sp>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--,plane /rut atta*m5t4 ,! plane-/rut is %od ) /eel tub+1 & connect$ to ! fitt+ by a bolt1 z %[n4 ,( ! /rut connections describ$ s f>1 h>dly "o c be said to con=m to ! lead+ pr9ciple ( ! ideal fitt+1 i4e4 ! secure atta*m5t to ! sp> )\t pi]c+ ! latt] = bolts4 ,fig4 #ed gives a fitt+ :i* is z good a solution ( ! problem z is con/ructionally possible4 ,! basis ( ?is connection is ! lug-plate1 to :i* is weld$ ! /rut-socket1 ! :ole be+ fa/5$ to ! sp> by f\r bolts1 :i* are let 9 ! flange ( ! sp> j half _! diamet]1 & tight5 on a wa%]-plate on ! opposite side4 ,lat]al movem5t along ! sp>s is ?us adequately prev5t$1 al?\gh ! out] /rut-socket might conv5i5tly be bolt$ "r ?r\gh ! sp>1 )\t mat]ially r$uc+ ! /r5g? !re(4 ,?is is made possible by ! fact t ! w+ sp>s1 disreg>d+ ! small wa%-out at ! extreme tip1 are g5]ally p>allel 9 dep? f root to tip1 ! am\nt ( mat]ial at ! po9t ( int]section ( ! plane-/rut be+ 9 excess ( t necess>y = ! /resses conc]n$4 ,ano!r atta*m5t a*iev+ simil> results is %[n 9 ! diagram 7,fig4 #ee71 =m+ an example ( ! fitt+ employ$ on ! pre-w> ,avro biplane4 ,x w be notic$ t 9 ?is case two bolts only are us$ = ! connection1 ! pull ( ! fly+ or lift-wires be+ c\nt]act$ by ! duplicat$ wires tak5 f ! wa%]-plate to a fitt+ locat$ on ! s+le c5tral skid ( ! und]c>riage4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--;,int]plane /rut atta*m5t4 ,head ,resi/ance ( ,/rut ,sockets4 ,a po9t call+ = comm5t is ! app>5t ov]sight or neglect ( ! am\nt ( head resi/ance (f]$ by ! av]age /rut fitt+1 al?\gh great c>e is tak5 to ensure ! /rut & w+ sections be+ ( correct =m4 ,x seems probable t "s diff]5ce mu/ occur1 especially at ! high spe$s n[ preval5t1 betwe5 ! air fl[ across ! plane & t :i* meets ! /rut t]m9al4 ,anyway1 "s discont9uity ( fl[ exi/s1 & :e!r or no ! aggregate resi/ance ( all ! fitt+s is ( any great mom5t provides matt] = discussion4 ,x is q possible to fair (f any irregul>ities 9 air-fl[ due to ! /rut connections by ! atta*m5t ( %eet-alum9ium fair+s1 :i* c\ld be beat51 press$1 or spun ) little difficulty4 ,al?\gh examples ( ?is practice are v little 9 evid5ce1 ! writ] incl9es to ! belief t ! additional weight w\ld be negligible comp>$ ) ! ensu+ r$uction 9 head resi/ance4 ,! =ego+ examples _c be said to con/itute ! late/ practice1 nor is x possible "u pres5t conditions to give su* details1 b suffici5t has be5 said to indicate ! progress & tr5d ( design4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,w+-,,truss+ ,,sy/ems4 ,al?\gh ! truss+ ( a]oplanes is c>ri$ out along c]ta9 well-def9$ l9es1 !re are occasional div]g5ces f ! or?odox4 ,! diff]5ces n[ exi/+ are n ne>ly s great z ^? ( =m] days1 ?is be+ expla9$ by ! fact t ! progress ( any sci5ce or indu/ry t5ds t[>ds uni=mity ( me?od1 :ile practical exp]i5ce elim9ates ! undesirable sy/ems4 ,?is does n necess>ily mean t ! pres5t me?ods 9 vogue are incapable ( improvem5t1 b m]ely d5otes _! suitability = pres5t requirem5ts4 ,! ,pratt ,truss4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--,! ,pratt truss4 ,! basis ( all mod]n truss+ sy/ems1 ) modifications1 is ! ,pratt truss 7,fig4 #ef71 famili> 9 bridge-build+ circles1 ! basic pr9ciple ( :i* is t ! compression memb]s are dispos$ v]tically1 & :ile ( m9imum l5g? are mo/ fav\rably plac$ = obta9+ ! maximum effici5cy4 ,!re are o!r types ( trusses us$ 9 /ructural eng9e]+1 z1 = in/ance1 ! ,h[e truss1 9 :i* ! compression memb]s are arrang$ diagonally1 & ! ,w>r5 lattice-type gird]2 b = v>i\s reasons ^! are n applicable to ! ne$s ( a]onautical eng9e]+4 ,b a brief consid]ation ( ! *ief features ( ! ,pratt or box-gird] sy/em ( truss+ w suffice to illu/rate its great advantages = aircraft "w1 p>ticul>ly = ma*9es exce$+ a c]ta9 span2 & x is ?is limit+ span to :i* a monoplane c safely & effici5tly be built :i* is l>gely responsible = its pres5t spell ( unpopul>ity4 ,monoplane ,truss+4 ,f ! /&po9t ( simplicity1 ! monoplane equals ! biplane4 ,z ea* w+ ( ! =m] may be consid]$ z a cantilev]1 x is ! difficulty ( adequately /ay+ ! w+s above a c]ta9 span :i* =ms ! det]r5t feature1 = x is obvi\s t1 z ! span increases1 9 ord] to obta9 a reasonable angle = ! wires1 ! k+ po/1 or cabane1 mu/ be increas$ 9 height4 ,?is w\ld necessitate an unga9ly und]c>riage1 less able to )/& r\gh l&+s1 ) a consequ5t increase 9 bo? weight & head resi/ance4 ,h[ev]1 x seems t ! monoplane w h a future = sport+ purposes1 :]e ! span w n exce$ #cj ft41 & w probably be ne>] #bj ft4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--,monoplane w+ brac+4 ,v>i\s attempts h be5 made to obviate ?is inh]5t defect ( ! monoplane sy/em ( truss+1 ! fir/ & mo/ popul> be+ ! k+-po/ sy/em 7,fig4 #eg71 9 :i* %ort ma/s are incorporat$ 9 ! w+ /ructure & wire-brac$ to ! sp>s4 ,f ! po9ts =m$ by ! cross+ ( ! ma/ & sp> ! ma9 brac+-wires are tak54 ,t ?is sy/em is ( real use is demon/rat$ by ! fact t1 among/ o!rs1 ! ,anto9ette1 ,fl&]s1 & ,m>t9syde monoplanes incorporat$ ?is sy/em4 ,x is wor?y ( note t ?is sy/em also *>act]iz$ ! huge ,m>t9syde trans-,atlantic 'bus1 ! w+-spread be+ 9 ! neighb\rhood ( #gj ft4 ,ano!r orig9al attempt at improvem5t1 ! w+-brac+ ( ! ,dep]duss9 hydro-monoplane1 is ( int]e/ 7,fig4 #eh74 ,z reg>ds ! brac+1 ! ma*9e 0 virtually a biplane1 ! w+s be+ /ay$ by a /eel tube runn+ p>allel ) ! w+s1 & connect$ to x at int]vals by /eel tubul> /ruts1 ) cross-brac+ betwe51 z 9 a biplane4 ,! abolition ( ! top wires r5d]$ ! ma*9e ( great] value = w> purposes ?an o!r tractor ma*9es ( t p]iod4 ,! logical conclusion ( ?is sy/em is exemplifi$ by ! ,nieuport sc\t+ biplane1 ! l[] plane ( :i* corresponds to ! /reaml9$ /eel boom ( ! ,dep4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--;,dep]duss9 monoplane brac+4 ,wireless ,w+ ,/ructure4 ,sup]ficially1 x w\ld appe> t ! abolition ( ext]nal truss+ & wir+ w\ld make = great] a]odynamical effici5cy2 &1 con/ructionally1 x w\ld be q possible to build w+s devoid ( ext]nal /ay+1 & at ! same "t ( suffici5t /r5g?4 ,b :5 x is consid]$ t ?is w\ld entail an excessive dep? ( sp> at ! root ( ! w+1 ) a resultant increase ( head resi/ance1 x is d\btful :e!r any appreciable advantage w\ld accrue4 ,9 ! ev5t ( ! w+ becom+ de=m$ or out ( alignm5t1 re-tru+ up w\ld be almo/ impossible1 & w\ld c]ta9ly require ! uncov]+ ( ! w+ & p>tial recon/ruction4 ,contra/ ?is ) ! or?odox wire brac+4 ,x is simple ( atta*m5t1 ( relatively l[ co/1 & (f]s ! utmo/ facility = tru+ up4 ,a monoplane ( note1 built )\t ext]nal truss+1 0 ! special ,anto9ette1 produc$ = ! ,fr5* milit>y trials ( #aiaa4 ,?is _h a span ( approximately #df ft41 & ! dep? ( sp> at ! root 0 ab\t #b ft4 #c ins41 & at ! tip #i ins41 ! consequ5t weight alone be+ abnormal4 ,an*orage ( ,lift ,wires4 ,! "o-"t practice ( an*or+ lift wires to v>i\s p>ts ( ! und]c>riage is bad 9 pr9ciple1 z !re is a di/9ct possibility t a r\gh l&+ may damage ! wire or its atta*m5t1 & ultimately cause failure 9 flight4 ,?is practice und\bt$ly arose f a desire to obta9 a good angle = ! lift wires1 a subsequ5t improvem5t be+ ! addition ( a sep>ate pylon or cabane4 ,biplane ,truss+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--;,biplane ,truss4 ,! mo/ common =m ( biplane truss is %[n by ! diagram 7,fig4 #ei71 sometimes1 z 9 ! case ( v>i\s pu%] types1 or ^? = long-di/ance "w :]e a l>ge w+ area is necess>y1 ext5d$ to ?ree bays ea* side1 :i* probably expla9s ! p>tiality ( ,g]man design]s = multiplicity ( int]plane /ruts1 z1 prior to ! outbreak ( ! w>1 ! majority ( ,g]man ma*9es 7 design$ & built entirely = long di/ance & duration fly+4 ,by ?is means light w+ load+1 :i* entails l>ge w+ area1 0 possible )\t prohibitive weight1 = by ! addition ( a pair ( /ruts to ! two-bay type1 a light] w+ sp> = ! same /r5g? is possible4 ,9 ?is type ( truss ! bays adjac5t to ! fuselage are v>i$ 9 wid?1 9 ord] m easily to apportion ! /resses1 :i* are great] at ! c5tre ( ! w+ /ructure4 ,a modification ( ,fig4 #ei is indicat$ by ,fig4 #fj1 :i* illu/rates diagrammatically ! arrangem5t ( ! ,maurice ,f>man biplane1 ! improvem5t consi/+ ( ! me?od ( /r5g!n+ ! int]plane /ruts4 ,! out] /rut is brac$ ) a small k+-po/1 & f ?is a wire is tak5 ?r\gh ea* side ( ! /rut4 ,on ?is ma*9e ! /ruts are ( ! light1 holl[-sp> type1 & ?is arrangem5t mu/ !re=e mat]ially r$uce _! t5d5cy to buckl+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--;,f>man w+ /ructure4 ,ano!r v]sion ( ?is sy/em is t 9 :i* ! top plane is ( great] span ?an ! bottom1 ! ext5sion ?us =m$ be+ /ay$ ) lift & c\nt]-lift wir+1 or by means ( a /rut act+ 9 t5sion & compression4 ,s+le ,/rut ,sy/ems4 ,! almo/ univ]sal arrangem5t = ! small s+le-seat] sc\t is ! s+le bay1 & f ?is me?od ! progress ( design has incl9$ t[>ds ! elim9ation ( z _m /ruts & wires z possible1 :i* has its culm9ant 9 ! type ( truss embody+ "o /rut & "o pair ( wires1 lift & c\nt]-lift1 ea* side ( ! body4 ,q a numb] ( ma*9es h incorporat$ ! s+le /rut assembly1 ! e>lie/ p]haps be+ ! ,brequet1 & "o also rememb]s a small ,avro sc\t1 ! /rut 9 ?is case be+ built up ) sp>s & /r+]s1 cov]$ ) fabric4 ,! s+le-lift truss is p>ticul>ly suit$ to multiplane con/ruction1 :]e ! *ord ( ! w+s is n>r[1 & ! b5d+ mom5t1 due to ! movem5t ( ! c5tre ( pressure1 is correspond+ly r$uc$4 ,a disadvantage exi/s ) ?is =m ( truss simil> to t exp]i5c$ ) ! wireless monoplane truss1 i4e4 ! difficulty ( ma9ta9+ ! correct incid5ce f root to tip4 ,h[ev]1 "s extraord9>y ma*9es ( rec5t con/ruction embody+ ?is feature1 /& up to active s]vice dem&s1 s t ?is defect c be ( no great mom5t4 ,a m9or detail consi/s 9 ! circum/ance (1 = example1 a lift wire com+ adrift or p]haps be+ %ot away4 ,) ! s+le-lift truss total collapse w\ld ensue1 b x is conceivable t ! ord9>y d\ble-lift truss (f]s m *ances ( escape4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--,wireless w+ /ructure4 ,ano!r sy/em :i* obviates ! ne$ = wires is illu/rat$ by ,fig4 #fa1 :i* 0 ! p>ticul> sy/em us$ on ! ,albatross 8,arr[ biplane0 ( #aiab4 ,a drawback is ! difficulty ( readju/m5t1 :i* is ! probable explanation ( its failure to come into ext5sive use4 ,! direct anti!sis ( ?is arrangem5t1 ! elim9ation ( /ruts1 is indicat$ by ,fig4 #fb2 b z ?is embodies all ! defects ( ! monoplane sy/em ( truss+1 ev5 ( ! atta*m5t ( wires to ! und]c>riage1 x mu/ be consid]$ ( no practical utility4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--;,biplane truss )\t int]plane /ruts4 #a ,/rut ,ma*9es4 ,! arrangem5t %[n by ,fig4 #fc is responsible = ! designation ( ma*9es s built z 8#a /rutt]s40 ,a lat] developm5t ( ?is sy/em consi/s ( b f\r c5tre plane /ruts1 ! two /ruts =m+ an inv]t$ ,v betwe5 ! fuselage long]ons & c5tre be+ disp5s$ )4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--a /rut w+ /ructure4 ,! sy/em 7,fig4 #fd7 is illu/rative ( ! =m ( /ay+ 9 use on a mod]n high-spe$ sc\t1 & 9 respect ( :i* a pat5t is held4 ,z ?is ma*9e is design$ ) a v small gap1 ! lift wires are consequ5tly at a some:at flat angle4 ,! /rut1 ab\t halfway along ea* w+1 is h+$ at ! po9t ( int]section ( ! wires1 :i*1 incid5tally1 d n run ?r\gh f corn] to corn]1 b are atta*$ 9 ! c5tre to a fitt+ :i* also =ms ! an*orage = ! /ruts4 ,by ?is me?od !re is an app>5t r$uction 9 ! t5d5cy ( ! w+ sp>s to buckle "u load betwe5 ! po9ts ( support4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--;,a pat5t$ w+ brac+4 ,drift ,brac+4 ,s f> ! me?ods dealt ) d5ote ! me?ods ( /ay+ 9 a v]tical dim5sion1 & x rema9s to consid] ! provision = truss+ 9 ! =e-&-aft direction4 ,!re are two me?ods 9 use1 "o be+ to brace ! w+s int]nally1 :i* is ! m g5]al practice1 z by ?is arrangem5t ! resi/ance ( expos$ wir+ is obviat$1 :ile ! alt]native me?od consi/s 9 tak+ wires f v>i\s po9ts along ! w+ to ! nose & re> "p ( ! fuselage4 ,prop]ties ( ! ,v>i\s ,types4 ,! necessity = increas$ size1 ) its inevitable sequ5ce1 increas$ weight1 mu/ be realiz$ )\t a v great addition to ! l&+ spe$1 ! figure = ! latt] /&+ at approximately #de-ej m4p4h4 ,?is factor greatly influ5ces ! maximum w+ load+ possible1 )\t detrim5tally affect+ ?is1 s t 9 ! design ( ! l>ge ma*9e a consid]able increase 9 w+ area is unavoidable4 ,?is fact practically rules out ! monoplane sy/em = ! l>ge a]oplane1 z1 al?\gh ?is arrangem5t possesses a sup]ior ratio ( lift to drag to t ( ! biplane or multiplane1 ! great span necess>y to obta9 ! w+ area is impracticable4 ,x is q obvi\s t to brace adequately a monoplane /ructure ( #ajj ft4 span or s1 a v complex sy/em w\ld be requir$1 9 addition to :i* ! sp>s w\ld ess5tially be ( l>g] & heavi] section4 ,! biplane arrangem5t c be us$ successfully = spans up to #ajj ft41 &1 assum+ t ! future comm]cial ma*9e w necessitate /ill great] w+ area1 x is a feasible supposition t ! triplane1 or ev5 quadruplane sy/ems w be us$4 ,c]ta9 mod]n triplanes h a reput$ excell5t p]=mance1 ! c>ry+ capacity & eng9e p[] be+ colossal4 ,aga9/ ?is we h ! fact t ! advantage ( ! triplane sy/em is purely /ructural1 z a]odynamically x is n ne>ly s effici5t z ! biplane1 & x is at ?is /age t ! "q ( ! limit+ size ( a]oplanes is enc\nt]$4 ,v>i\s te/s1 bo? 9 model =m & full size1 h %[n t ! lift ( ! middle plane ( ! triplane sy/em is greatly inf]ior to t ( ! top or bottom planes1 ?is be+ due to ! int]f]5ce ( ! free air fl[ by ! upp] & l[] planes4 ,?is circum/ance is an indication t ! biplane arrangem5t1 view$ f ! /&po9ts ( mod]n design1 is ! mo/ economical =m = future comm]cial use4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,fuselage ,,con/ruction4 ,! body1 or fuselage z x is g5]ally describ$1 con/itutes ! nucleus ( ! complet$ ma*9e1 & at ! same "t (f]s ! mo/ int]e/+ examples ( con/ructional detail4 ,x may be z well to po9t out t ! t]m 8fuselage0 is ord9>ily applicable to a body ( a ma*9e ( ! tractor type2 ! %ort body ( ! av]age 8pu%]0 or propell] a]oplane is t]m$ ! 8nacelle40 ,! mat]ial *iefly us$ 9 ! con/ruction ( ?is compon5t is wood1 & !re are b v few in/ances :]e metal is us$4 ,fuselage ,types4 ,! diff]5t types or me?ods ( con/ruction may be classifi$ 9 ! foll[+ ord]3-- #a4 ,box-gird] ( f\r long]ons or rails1 ) cross-/ruts & wire brac+ 7,fig4 #fe74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--;,arrangem5t ( fuselage memb]s4 #b4 ,tail portion ( long]ons1 /ruts & wir+2 9 ! front portion ! wire brac+ is disp5s$ )1 be+ replac$ by diagonal wood brac+1 to :i* is screw$ ei!r ?ree-ply or %eet alum9ium alloy 7,fig4 #ff74 #c4 ,9 ?is case wire brac+ is entirely disp5s$ )1 ! f\r1 & occasionally six1 longitud9als be+ connect$ toge!r by cross /ruts or =m]s cut to ! requir$ %ape1 ! :ole body be+ cov]$ ) ?ree-ply4 #d4 ,lam9at$ or monocoque type1 =m$ by lay]s ( wood & fabric1 cross$ alt]nately & glu$ toge!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--;,arrangem5t ( fuselage memb]s4 ,box-,gird] ,type4 ,deal+ ) ea* type 9 great] detail1 & 9 ord] ( classification1 ! details & me?ods ( manufacture ( type #a may be consid]$4 ,! long]ons are usually ( a% or hickory1 al?\gh latt]ly silv] spruce has come into use = ?is purpose1 ?is be+ due to ! desire to r$uce weight to ! absolute m9imum4 ,9 ! op9ion ( ! writ]1 a spruce long]on %\ld be ( l>g] section ?an "o ( h>d wood1 = "o or two reasons4 ,spruce is a s(t wood1 & ! outside fibres are f> m apt to get damag$ by a fitt+ :i* has be5 bolt$ home ) too mu* pressure1 also ! corn]s may get rubb$ or knock$ (f1 :i* all means a r$uction 9 /r5g?4 ,! use ( a spruce long]on precludes any %>p b5ds 9 ! cont\r ( ! fuselage1 z ?is wood does n l5d itself to b5d+1 al?\gh x may be sprung to an easy curve4 ,by dispos+ jo9ts 9 ! long]ons1 x is possible to arrange ! l5g?s s t ! b5d is conta9$ 9 "o portion4 ,?is portion c !n be ( lam9at$ con/ruction1 i4e4 x c be built up ( a numb] ( lay]s glu$ toge!r1 & clamp$ to a block ( ! requir$ %ape until ! glue has set4 ,9 "s cases ! long]ons f ! eng9e m\nt+ to ! re> cockpit1 :]e additional /r5g? is necess>y1 are ( a%1 :ile aft ( t1 to ! /]n po/1 spruce is ! mat]ial4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--,long]on sections4 ,x is usual1 9 ?is c\ntry at lea/1 to sp9dle ! rails to "o ( ! sections illu/rat$ by ,fig4 #fg1 ?is sp9dl+ or *annell+ runn+ ?r\gh f nose to /]n po/1 or ! front portion1 ext5d+ z f> z ! re> cockpit1 is left solid1 ! tail "p only be+ sp9dl$4 ,?is *annell+ is always /opp$ at ! int]section ( ! cross-/ruts ) ! rails1 to provide ! abutm5t = ! /ruts1 & ! extra mat]ial to comp5sate = any holes necess>y = ! atta*m5t ( ! fitt+4 ,9 ! %ap+ ( ! rails longitud9ally1 two me?ods are available3 !y may be tap]$ or gradually dim9i%$ f ! front to ! /]n po/1 or ! ov]all section may be p>allel to a po9t some:]e 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! pilot's seat1 & f t po9t dim9i%$ to ! /]n po/4 ,! fir/ me?od is obsolete1 z all ! fitt+s v>y 9 size1 :i* makes = undue complication z well z increas+ ! numb] ( jigs & dies necess>y to produce ! /amp+s4 ,! second me?od only p>tly obviates ?is1 & ! only sy/em :i* p]mits ( ! same size fitt+ be+ us$ "r ?r\gh is t 9 :i* ! rails are ( ! same ov]all section ?r\gh\t1 b ?is is v r>ely us$4 ,ano!r arrangem5t consi/s ( keep+ ! rail ( equal ?ickness = approximately #aj ft4 f ! eng9e be>]s1 & !n dim9i%+ 9 a s]ies ( /eps to ! /]n po/4 ,by ?is me?od only ?ree or f\r sizes ( fitt+s are necess>y4 ,"s fitt+s are n affect$ by ! tap] ( ! rails1 & are made ! same size ?r\gh\t1 b 9 ne>ly e case ! atta*m5t to ! rails is accompli%$ ei!r by bolts or screws4 ,! pi]c+ ( ! long]on1 p>ticul>ly :5 ?is is ( spruce1 is h>dly comm5dable practice1 & c]ta9ly 9 view ( ! _m =ms ( clip fitt+s 9 use appe>s to be unnecess>y4 ,a po9t :i* app>5tly escapes ! notice ( "s design]s1 is ! necessity ( "s all[ance be+ made = unfair /resses induc$ by l&+ %ocks & r\gh h&l+4 ,!re is a t5d5cy to make ! tail portion sep>ate f ! front1 ! jo9t occurr+ j aft ( ! re> cockpit1 s t 9 ! ev5t ( damage due to /ra9s transmitt$ by ! tail skid1 ?is portion c be deta*$ & a new portion sub/itut$1 :i* seems inf9itely bett] ?an dismantl+ ! :ole ma*9e & return+ ! :ole body to ! works or dept4 ,9 ! design ( ! body "u consid]ation due reg>d %\ld be giv5 to ! necessity ( occasional replacem5t ( a damag$ rail4 ,"s fitt+s af=d ! utmo/ facility = ?is1 :ile o!rs r5d] ?is proc$ure a l5g?y & difficult op]ation4 ,jo9t+ ( ,long]ons4 ,a popul> me?od ( jo9t+ long]ons consi/s usually ( a pla9 butt jo9t1 clipp$ ) "s =m ( /eel tube socket1 or by fi%-plates flang$ to clip ! edges ( ! long]ons & bolt$ ?r\gh4 ,a splic$ jo9t is sometimes us$ :5 timb] is n procurable 9 any great l5g?1 ?is consi/+ ( an ord9>y splice f #ab to #ah ins4 long1 glu$ & rivet$1 & aft]w>ds1 :5 ! jo9t is ?or\ghly set1 b\nd ) tape soak$ 9 glue & subsequ5tly dop$ & v>ni%$4 ,z ?is is a some:at l5g?y op]ation ! socket me?od pr$om9ates4 ,9 mod]n a]oplanes ! size ( a long]on r>ely exce$s #a ins4 squ>e1 & x w !re=e be realiz$ t ?is con/ruction is all t is possible1 z1 ow+ to ! slightness ( mat]ial1 no advantage w\ld accrue f ! employm5t ( a jo9t ( ! halv$ or sc>f$ v>iety4 ,diagonal ,wood ,brac+4 ,a great deal ( ! =ego+ applies to ! second type1 s f> z ! long]ons & tail portion are conc]n$4 ,! diagonal wood brac+ is usually ( spruce1 & is1 ( c\rse1 heavi] ?an wir+4 ,! alum9ium or duralum9 %eet+ has latt]ly giv5 place to ?ree-ply = ! outside cov]+1 :i* may be ascrib$ to ! sav+ 9 weight effect$ by its use1 z a squ>e foot ( #bj ,b4,w4,g4 alum9ium1 :i* is ! g5]al ?ickness = ?is purpose1 weighs #h ozs41 :ile a squ>e foot ( #c_/cb 94 bir* ?ree-ply weighs approximately #e ozs4 ,?is gives a sav+ ( #c ozs4 = e squ>e foot ( surface cov]$1 & moreov] ?ree-ply1 prop]ly glu$ & screw$ or copp]1 nail$ to ! framework1 con/itutes by f> ! bett] /iff5+ m$ium4 ,! disadvantages ( ?is me?od ( con/ruction are3 7#a7 ! difficulty ( re-tru+ ! front portion %\ld di/ortion occur2 7#b7 erection is some:at involv$2 & 7#c7 x is heavi] ?an ! fir/ type1 al?\gh x af=ds a m solid m\nt+ = ! eng9e1 ) a consequ5t r$uction ( vibration4 ,?ree-ply ,fuselage4 ,! ?ird sy/em is typical ( ! me?od adopt$ = ! s]ies ( ,g]man ,albatross ma*9es4 ,!re are few1 if any1 examples ( its use 9 ?is c\ntry1 al?\gh prior to ! w> a few con/ructors fav\r$ its use1 & "o successful monoplane ( note 0 s built4 ,! writ] is acqua9t$ ) "o pione] design] :o v /rongly believes 9 ?is =m ( con/ruction1 & c]ta9 lat] developm5ts 9 ! use ( ?ree-ply confirm ?is view4 ,! advantages ( ?is =m ( con/ruction are3 7#a7 quickness ( production2 7#b7 great /r5g? 9 a v]tical & horizontal direction2 7#c7 ! result ( ! long]on be+ %ot ?r\gh w\ld n endang] ! /ructure to ! same ext5t z ) a wire-brac$ sy/em4 ,aga9/ ?is mu/ be balanc$ ! fact t3 7#a7 x entails a consid]able increase 9 weight2 7#b7 is weak "u a torsional /ra91 su* z t produc$ by ! comb9$ actions ( elevator & rudd]2 & 7#c7 _c be tru$ up 9 ! ev5t ( di/ortion4 ,examples ( ?is sy/em 9 pre-w> ma*9es are af=d$ by ! ,m>t9syde & ,blackburn monoplanes1 al?\gh ! framework 9 bo? cases 0 s =m$ z to con/itute a lattice gird]4 ,! tail portion ( ! ,m>t9syde 0 light5$ by cutt+ away diamond-%ap$ pieces f ea* bay4 ,! =m]s ( ! ,albatross are extremely simple4 ,9 ! =e "p !y are cut f ?ree-ply1 :ile at ! re> !y are j simple frames compos$ ( la?s1 re9=c$ :]e ! long]ons occur by ?ree-ply /iff5]s4 ,!re are six long]ons1 ! two middle ones be+ fix$ slightly m ?an halfway up ea* side1 :i* are really longitud9al /r+]s to prev5t ! ?ree-ply buckl+ betwe5 ! po9ts ( atta*m5t4 ,! ,monocoque ,type4 ,! monocoque sy/em orig9at$ 9 ,france1 sev]al con/ructors hav+ produc$ ma*9es incorporat+ ?is feature4 ,! mo/ successful ma*9e produc$ on ^! l9es 0 ! ,dep]duss91 & _m w recall ! excell5t /reaml9e =m ( ! ma*9e exhibit$ at ! #aiac ,a]o ,%[4 ,^! bodies 7 built ov] =m]s ( v>i\s sections1 :i* 7 remov$ :5 ! glue jo9+ ! diff]5t lay]s _h set4 ,! resultant %ell1 :i* 0 ab\t f\r millimetres ?ick1 0 !n cov]$ ) fabric & v>ni%$4 ,sev]al factors militate aga9/ its ext5sive adoption z a me?od4 ,x is r co/ly1 & does n seem to be suit$ to rapid production4 ,9 addition1 ! atta*m5t ( su* memb]s z ! *assis1 w+s1 & int]plane /ruts1 is m complicat$4 ,x %\ld be not$1 h[ev]1 t v>i\s mod]n ma*9es are simil>ly built4 ,! ,borel firm produc$ a ma*9e ) monocoque body1 ?is be+ compos$ ( ?ree-ply cov]+ on ribs runn+ diagonally ! l5g? ( ! body1 & al?\gh ?is is n su* a l5g?y op]ation z ! ,dep4 sy/em1 x has n surviv$1 unless "o consid]s fly+-boat con/ruction z its mod]n v]sion4 ,a slight v>iation ( ! monocoque sy/em is us$ = ! bodies ( "s mod]n a]oplanes4 ,! framework consi/s ( v small /r+]s arrang$ at v>i\s po9ts on light =m]s cut to ! fuselage section4 ,to ?is /ructure is appli$ two ?icknesses ( ?ree-ply 9 ! =m ( /rips ab\t #c ins4 wide1 ea* ?ickness be+ dispos$ diagonally 9 opposite directions1 z %[n by ,fig4 #fh4 ,?is is cov]$ ) fabric1 ! total ?ickness be+ no m ?an #a mm41 & z ?is is made up ( six lay]s ( wood & "o ( fabric1 ! f95ess ( ! ply-wood w be realiz$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--;,arrangem5t ( ?ree-ply b&s 9 monocoque fuselage4 ,x %\ld be not$ t ! ply-wood /rips d n completely encircle ! =m]s1 b are jo9t$ at ! top & bottom1 a light long]on be+ arrang$ at ^! po9ts4 ,a detail :i* w\ld appe> to be ( great utility at ! pres5t "t is ! arrangem5t :]e9 ! nose ( ! body conta9+ ! eng9e & accessories is a sep>ate unit1 & 9 ! ev5t ( eng9e breakd[n c be deta*$ & ano!r sub/itut$4 ,fuselage ,cont\rs4 ,9 ! design ( ! cont\r ( ! fuselage ! type ( ! motor us$ is ! det]m9+ influ5ce4 ,) ! v]tical 89 l9e0 eng9e1 x is possible to design a slim n>r[ body1 :ile a rot>y or radial eng9e necessitates an increase 9 wid?1 :i* also means increas$ air resi/ance4 ,) ! ,vee type eng9e1 ! popul> practice is to all[ ! tops ( ! cyl9d]s to project ?r\gh ! c[l+1 :i* p]mits ( a n>r[] body ?an if ! wid? ( ! body equall$ ! ov]all wid? ( ! eng9e4 ,:]e a rot>y eng9e is employ$ & ! m\nt+ is ( ! ov]hung type1 ! wid? ( ! fuselage may be r$uc$ by all[+ ! eng9e to project ov] ! sides1 & ! c[l+ c>ri$ on an arrangem5t ( =m]s & /r+]s1 :i* gradually m]ges into ! ma9 /ructure1 z 9 ,fig4 #fi4 ,x is app>5t t ! l9e ( ! body & t ( ! fair+ %\ld conv]ge z gradually z possible1 z1 %\ld ?is be at all abrupt1 !re is a di/9ct possibility t ! air fl[ w take ! c\rse indicat$ 9 ,fig4 #gj1 result+ 9 a dead air region & ineffici5cy4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--;,fuselage outl9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--;,fuselage outl9e4 ,x may be tak5 g5]ally t ! wid] ! body ! great] ! weight1 = ! /ruts h n only to be made long] b also ( great] ov]all section4 ,! practice 9 ?is c\ntry is to keep ! long]ons p>allel to ! c5tre l9e on plan1 z f> z ! re> cockpit1 tap]+ f t po9t to ! /]n po/ 9 a /raight or slightly curv$ l9e1 z ,fig4 #ga4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--;,fuselage outl9e4 ,?is simplifies ! fitt+s1 ! sockets = ! c5tre plane /ruts are 9 l9e1 & ! diff]5t l5g?s ( fuselage /ruts necess>y r$uc$ to a m9imum4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--;,fuselage outl9e4 ,! plan outl9e ( sev]al ,g]man ma*9es is %[n diagrammatically by ,fig4 #gb4 ,x w be se5 t f ! nose ! body gradually wid5s out until ! maximum wid?1 g5]ally 9 ! vic9ity ( ! front seat1 is rea*$1 f :]e x tap]s to ! tail4 ,?is %ape appe>s to satisfy a]o-dynamic requirem5ts m closely ?an ei!r ( ! =ego+ examples2 b 9 practice ! diff]5ce is n appreciable1 & 9 any case ! r$uction ( head resi/ance does n comp5sate = ! additional "w4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--;,fuselage outl9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--;,fuselage outl9e4 ,9 side elevation ! g5]al practice1 ) exceptions1 is to arrange ! top long]ons p>allel to ! l9e ( ?ru/1 i4e4 ! axis ( ! motor1 z 9 ,fig4 #gc4 ,?is simplifies erection & af=ds a conv5i5t datum l9e = tru+ up4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--;,fuselage outl9e4 ,on ! ,g]man ,rumpl] & e>ly ,albatross biplanes1 ! upp] long]ons are curv$1 z 9 ,fig4 #gd1 b 9 ! mo/ rec5t v]sions ( ! ,albatross !y are level ) ! l9e ( ?ru/4 ,fig4 #ge illu/rates an arrangem5t :]e ! top rails1 f a po9t "s di/ance along1 slope d[n to ! nose4 ,by ?is me?od ! body weight is kept z l[ z possible & ! eng9e & accessories r5d]$ m accessible4 ,al?\gh x is usual to t]m9ate ! body 9 a v]tical knife-edge1 =m$ g5]ally by ! rudd] po/1 ano!r arrangem5t1 typical ( ! ,morane monoplane1 f9i%es 9 a horizontal edge4 ,! ,g]man ,fokk]1 obvi\sly inspir$ by ! ,fr5* ,morane1 & ! ,albatross ,,di1 are simil>ly t]m9at$4 ,?is sy/em ( tap]+ to a horizontal knife-edge is n consid]$ ! be/ arrangem5t f a /r5g? po9t ( view1 ! flat angle ( ! brac+ wires p]mitt+ a c]ta9 am\nt ( movem5t1 ev5tually result+ 9 slackness & loss ( alignm5t4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,fuselage ,,fitt+s4 ,! design & type ( fitt+ employ$ = connect+ ! long]ons1 cross & v]tical /ruts ( ! fuselage1 v>ies greatly1 be+ usually "o ( ! di/9ctive con/ructional details ( a ma*9e4 ,?is position r5d]s uni=mity ( practice a comp>atively unatta9able quantity1 :i*1 9 view ( pres5t requirem5ts1 & ! absolute ne$ ( rapidity ( output 7:i* mu/ comm5ce z soon z possible aft] a successful design is produc$71 c only be consid]$ z regrettable4 ,?is div]sity ( design is ma9ly ! result ( ! desire = orig9ality ( ea* individual design]1 & h[ev] comm5dable f ?is /&po9t1 is a position :i* is almo/ c]ta9 to disappe> ) ! progress ( ! indu/ry4 ,take z a hypo!sis ! case (1 say1 t5 makes ( sc\t+ biplanes 9 use1 ea* ) approximately ! same arrangem5t ( long]ons & /ruts1 & ) a simil> ov]all size ( fuselage4 ,ea* ( ^! ma*9es w incorporate a diff]5t fuselage clip1 :i* means t some:]e highly skill$ lab\r is be+ unnecess>ily exp5d$ 9 ! mak+ ( jigs & press tools1 :]eas a suitably /&>diz$ clip = all sc\t ma*9es ( c]ta9 dim5sions w\ld involve ! mak+ ( "o set ( press & b5d+ tools only = ! ma*9es ( ! "o type built4 ,ano!r aspect1 q z important1 is ! simplification ( ! supply ( sp>es4 ,accel]ation ( aircraft output1 if a*iev$ only ?r\gh ! m$ium ( small "p production1 is "o ( ! mo/ important contribut>y factors t[>ds ultimate success 9 ! field4 ,types 9 ,use4 ,! sket*es1 expla9$ 9 detail h]eaft]1 are illu/rative ( "s ( ! _m sy/ems 9 use1 & tak5 collectively fall "u two categories3 7#a7 ^? 9 :i* atta*m5t to ! long]on involves drill+1 & 7#b7 ^? 9 :i* ! fitt+ clips or encircles ! long]on1 friction only keep+ x 9 position4 ,! fir/ me?od p]mits ( a clip ( comp>atively simple design1 b x has ! s]i\s disadvantage ( weak5+ ! mat]ial1 & assum+ ! long]on section is suffici5t to acc\nt = ?is1 !n cle>ly a fitt+ :i* is atta*$ )\t ! use ( bolts w\ld all[ a r$uction 9 ! size ( a long]on 7:i* means a sav+ 9 weight7 )\t depreciat+ ! factor ( safety4 ,9 ! second me?od ! atta*m5t is usually accompli%$ by ! pressure ( bolts1 ) practically no weak5+ effect2 b 9 ?is case ! disadvantage lies 9 ! fact t at ea* po9t ( atta*m5t a diff]5tly dim5sion$ clip w be necess>y1 ?is be+ due1 z expla9$ 9 ! previ\s *apt]1 to ! long]on tap]+ t[>ds ! /]n po/4 7,a me?od ( r$uc+ ! numb] ( diff]5t clips by suitably %ap+ ! long]on 0 also dealt )47 ,x is evid5t t mo/ fitt+s mu/ inevitably =m a compromise betwe5 ! dem&s ( production & design1 al?\gh x mu/ be admitt$ t 9 "s cases ! fitt+s collectively v successfully evade ! requirem5ts ( bo?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--;,fuselage fitt+4 ,! clip indicat$ by ,fig4 #gf is ! p>ticul> =m ( con/ruction associat$ ) ! v>i\s v]sions ( ! ,bl]iot monoplane1 & fav\r$ by ! e>ly pione]s g5]ally4 ,x 0 reta9$ 9 ! ,bl]iot con/ruction until "s "t aft] ! outbreak ( ! w>--z a matt] ( fact1 until ! type 0 delet$ = w> purposes4 ,x is compos$1 z w be se5 f ! sket*1 ( simply two ,u-bolts1 ! atta*m5t to ! long]on involv+ ! drill+ ( f\r holes1 :i* con/itutes ! *ief objection to ?is p>ticul> =m ( clip1 & has be5 ! subject ( criticism f ! "t ( its fir/ appe>ance z an aircraft detail4 ,! /ruts are slott$ ov] ! bolt1 & al?\gh ?is does n con=m to ! be/ pr9ciples1 x is simple1 & may h be5 suffici5t = a lightly load$ ma*9e4 ,a po9t ab\t ?is clip1 :i* und\bt$ly 0 ! cause ( its popul>ity among/ ! pione]s1 ) :om economy 0 an evil necessity1 is t ! wires c be /ra9$ or t5sion$ by an adju/m5t ( ! nuts on ! long]ons1 ?us r5d]+ turnbuckles ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--;,fuselage fitt+4 unnecess>y4 ,fig4 #gg %[s ! =m ( clip us$ on ! ,hanriot monoplanes1 & is a good example ( ! class ( fitt+ b5t up f %eet metal4 ,?is is usually made to be slightly small] ?an ! long]on1 ! pressure result+ f ! tight5+ ( ! bolts on ! ends =m+ ! cross-brac+ lug1 keep+ x 9 place4 ,! defect ( ?is arrangem5t is t any slight %r9kage ( ! long]on w p]mit movem5t1 & = ?is reason provision %\ld be made = ! subsequ5t adju/m5t ( ! bolts4 ,! /ruts are tak5 by ! lugs pun*$ up f ! body ( ! clip4 ,?is leaves v little mat]ial to resi/ ! t5sion ( ! brac+ wires or ti]ods1 b a modification ( ?is clip surm\nts ?is difficulty4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--;,fuselage fitt+4 ,a simil> clip is us$ by ! ,g]man ,aviatik firm1 b x is c]ta9ly inf]ior ow+ to ! v poor connection ( ! /ruts4 ,in/ead ( ! f\r lugs gripp+ ! sides ( ! /ruts1 !y are pun*$ up to =m a squ>e or t5on1 ov] :i* ! cross-/ruts are mortis$4 ,9 any case x w\ld n satisfy ! /&>ds ma9ta9$ by our lead+ con/ructors1 & c]ta9ly n ! te*nical advis]s to ! ,air ,bo>d4 ,! clip indicat$ 9 ,fig4 #gh does n encircle ! long]on1 b abuts aga9/ ! two inn] sides ( ! long]on only4 ,! body ( ?is clip is a /amp+1 b5t to a "r angle1 to :i* ! squ>e sockets = ! /ruts are weld$4 ,atta*m5t to ! long]on is effect$ by an eyebolt1 :i* passes diagonally ?r\gh x1 ?is also provid+ ! an*orage = ! cross-brac+ wire4 ,a =m ( ?is clip has be5 us$ on a c]ta9 make ( ma*9e = a consid]able p]iod1 s t x has advantages t are n readily app>5t4 ,"o out/&+ defect is exi/5t 9 t ! pull ( ! wires w\ld t5d to lift ! socket on ! side opposite to ! eye bolt1 & ?is 9 turn w\ld cause di/ortion ( ! /ruts4 ,a connection fav\r$ by an ,am]ican firm is %[n by ,fig4 #gi1 & possesses ! m]it ( extreme simplicity4 ,! long]ons are n drill$1 ! atta*m5t be+ ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( an ,l bolt1 :i* also provides ! an*orage = ! cross-brac+ wire4 ,to prev5t movem5t ! clip is additionally fix$ to ! long]on by wood screws4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--;,fuselage fitt+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--;,fuselage fitt+4 ,! me?od %[n by ,fig4 #hj is t us$ on ! ,dep]duss9 monoplanes1 be+ pat5t$ by t firm z f> back z #aiab1 & consi/s ( two ca/ alum9ium sockets1 bolt$ to ! long]on4 ,! /ruts1 9 ?is case oval 9 section1 are fa/5$ 9 place by /eel bu%es1 :i* are driv5 ?r\gh 9 ! =m ( /eel tube1 & exp&$ & burr$ r\nd ! socket1 at ! same "t =m+ ! an*orage = ! wires4 ,?is sy/em has be5 us$ 9 ! con/ruction ( a fa/ sc\t ( comp>atively rec5t orig91 b x embodies ! same defects z ! ,bl]iot clip1 i4e4 f\r holes are ne$$ 9 ! long]on = e jo9t2 b x has ! advantage ov] ! latt] 9 t a bett] t]m9al is provid$ = ! /ruts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--;,fuselage fitt+4 ,fig4 #ha indicates ! arrangem5t on ! ,g]man ,l4,v4,g4 7,luft-,v]kehrs-,gesells*aft7 fight+ biplane4 ,?is is an alum9ium alloy ca/+1 fa/5$ to ! long]on by screws1 & z x is n affect$ by ! tap] ( ! long]on1 all ! fitt+s1 or at any rate1 ^? 9 ! tail portion1 c be ( ! same dim5sions4 ,a po9t :i* is (t5 ov]look$ :5 us+ a fitt+ ( ?is type is t any /ra9 on ! wires is transmitt$ to ! long]on by ! fa/5+ screws only1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! t5d5cy ( ! wires :5 t5sion$ to pull ! fitt+ f ! long]on is resi/$ by ! screws only4 ,?is does n impress "o z be+ well suit$ to p]=m ! functions dem&$ ( ! av]age jo9t1 & ab\t ! only detail ^u :i* its exi/5ce is ju/ifi$ is its ease ( production4 ,9 ! writ]'s op9ion ! clip1 ,fig4 #hb1 is by f> ! f9e/ connection yet devis$1 & "o t %\ld be /&>diz$4 ,its atta*m5t is accompli%$ )\t objectionable drill+2 x provides an excell5t h\s+ = ! cross-/ruts2 c be tight5$ up %\ld %r9kage occur 9 ! long]ons2 & c be produc$ at an absurdly l[ figure4 ,?is clip has be5 us$ on ma*9es :i* h accompli%$ "s meteoric p]=mances dur+ ! w>1 &1 moreov]1 0 design$ & 9 use a consid]able p]iod be=e ! w>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--;,fuselage fitt+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--;,fuselage fitt+4 ,! clip1 ,fig4 #hc1 is simple & q easily manufactur$1 be+ /amp$ out ( %eet metal1 & b5t up to %ape4 ,! lugs =m+ ! an*orage = ! wires w\ld h a t5d5cy to /raight5 out at ! b5ds2 b ! am\nt ( ?is1 :e!r s]i\s or o!rwise1 9 ! abs5ce ( actual exp]i5ce1 is l>gely conjectural4 ,h[ev]1 a fitt+ ( ?is k9d 0 us$ 9 ! con/ruction ( ! nacelle ( a seaplane exhibit$ at ,olympia 9 #aiad4 ,/eel ,tube ,fuselage ,con/ruction4 ,illu/ration3 ,,weld$ ,,wires #ah ,,bwc ,,fig4 #hd4--,weld$ jo9t 9 /eel tube fuselage4 ,9 c]ta9 isolat$ in/ances1 ! fuselage is built up ( /eel tub+1 & on "o ma*9e ( rec5t design ! jo9ts ?r\gh\t are effect$ by weld+3 a detail ( ! atta*m5t ( ! v]tical & cross /ruts to ! long]ons is %[n by ,fig4 #hd4 ,x w be notic$ t a small quadrant-%ap$ piece ( tube or rod is weld$ to ! /ruts1 & f ?is are tak5 ! brac+ wires4 ,z ! weld$ jo9ts imp>t a c]ta9 rigidity to ! /ructure1 ! fact t ! wires are ex]t+ a side pull on ! /ruts may be ( little consequ5ce1 al?\gh ?is me?od c\ld h>dly be us$ 9 conjunction ) ! fuselage con/ruction ( av]age ,engli% ma*9es4 ,a r unusual feature may be notic$ 9 ! atta*m5t ( ! brac+ wires1 :i* are n f9i%$ (f ) ! or?odox wire f]rule1 b are arrang$ z a loop1 ! turnbuckle =m+ ! an*orage = ! two ends4 ,! tr5d ( design 9 ?is c\ntry seems to incl9e t[>ds ! clip /amp$ out f %eet /eel & b5t up4 ,?is class ( fitt+ c be produc$ accurately & quickly1 &1 9 ! writ]'s op9ion1 is by f> ! be/ manufactur+ proposition4 ,alum9ium ca/+s are q obsolete1 & ! built-up fitt+1 involv+ weld+ or braz+1 does n seem greatly 9 vogue4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,und]c>riage ,,types4 ,! pres5t *apt] deals ) ! g5]al arrangem5t ( ! diff]5t types ( und]c>riages1 z di/9ct f ! details ( con/ruction4 ,! pr9ciples ( design embodi$ 9 ! und]c>riage are necess>ily a compromise1 ?is position be+ due to ! fact t its con/ruction has to be consid]$ f two di/9ctly oppos$ view-po9ts1 & undue att5tion to ! requirem5ts ( ei!r does n produce ! be/ results4 ,?us1 on ! "o h&1 we h ! desirability ( great /r5g? to )/& l&+s on v r\gh gr\nd1 pl\gh$ fields1 & ! l2 & on ! o!r h&1 we h ! consid]ations ( a]odynamical effici5cy 9 flight1 :i*1 tak5 to "o extreme1 w\ld be be/ satisfi$ if ! und]c>riage did n exi/1 & at mo/ calls = a sy/em 9 :i* ! head resi/ance is br\ght to an irr$ucible m9imum4 ,by ! ord9>y process ( evolution ! agglom]ation ( ideas exi/+ 9 ! e>ly days ( fly+ ) reg>d to ! mo/ suitable =m ( l&+ ge>1 h giv5 place to some?+ :i*1 = ma*9es ( mod]n atta9m5ts1 approa*es f9ality4 ,?is has result$ f improvem5ts along ! l9e ( 7#a7 simplification ( g5]al design1 7#b7 ! r$uction ( head resi/ance & weight )\t a consequ5t dim9ution 9 its p[]s z an alight+ ge>4 ,a bett] impression ( ! di/+ui%+ po9ts ( ! v>i\s types w be ga!r$ if we consid] ! desid]ata ( an ideal und]c>riage4 ,pr9ciples ( ,design4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important po9ts is t roll+ %ocks %\ld be completely absorb$1 & ! lea/ possible /ra9 transmitt$ to ! fuselage or ma9 /ructure1 ?is call+ = a good sy/em ( :eel susp5sion4 ,x mu/ be capable ( /&+ ! consid]able /ra9s su/a9$ 9 alight+1 n ! lea/ ( :i* are ^? att5dant ^u l&+ 9 a side w9d2 %\ld (f] ! lea/ possible head resi/ance1 :ile ! weight mu/ be r$uc$ to a m9imum4 ,cross-c\ntry fly+1 :i* m (t5 ?an n means 8gett+ (f0 9 a re/rict$ space1 requires t ! ma*9e %all atta9 fly+ spe$ 9 ! %orte/ "t1 & conv]sely 9 alight+ ! ma*9e %\ld come to re/ 9 ! quicke/ "t4 ,innum]able sma%es h be5 caus$ aft] a p]fectly good l&+ by failure to pull up be=e a h$ge1 f5ce1 or dit*4 ,^! are ! ma9 pr9ciples involv$1 & at lea/ !y indicate h[ & :y ! und]c>riage is necess>ily a compromise4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #he4 ,x is cle> t 9 l&+ ! spe$ ( ! ma*9e relative to ! gr\nd %\ld be z l[ z possible1 )\t develop+ into ! op]ation g5]ally kn[n z 8pancak+10 or /all+1 & ! usual me?od ( accompli%+ ?is is to br+ ! ma*9e into ! w9d1 :i*1 if ( a mod]ate velocity1 mat]ially r$uces ! spe$ relative to ! e>?4 ,9 ord9>y circum/ances1 l&+ w\ld be accompli%$ by gradually increas+ ! angle ( incid5ce until ! maximum1 or angle ( no lift1 is rea*$1 :i* is practically /all+ po9t4 ,to satisfy ?is consid]ation1 ! heights ( ! ma9 roll+ :eels & tail skid %\ld be arrang$ to all[ ! w+s to lie at an angle a little 9 excess ( ?is4 ,) mod]n w+ sections ! angle ( maximum lift is betwe5 #ad & #af1 s t ! angle ( #ah1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #he1 is usually suffici5t4 ,?is has additional value 9 re/rict+ ! l5g? ( run aft] contact ) ! gr\nd1 ! w+s act+ z air-brakes4 ,x w be realiz$ t r$uction 9 height ( ! und]c>riage1 desirable z x is f ! aspect ( head resi/ance1 _c be c>ri$ beyond a c]ta9 po9t )\t ! sacrifice to "s ext5t ( ! =ego+ qualities4 ,s f> we h tak5 ! pr9ciples ( design z affect+ ! disposition ( ! und]c>riage memb]s 9 a longitud9al direction1 b1 ( c\rse1 !re are sev]al details to be consid]$ 9 its arrangem5t lat]ally4 ,a fundam5tal po9t is t ! track ( ! :eels1 i4e4 ! di/ance1 c5tre to c5tre1 %\ld be ( ample wid?1 b sev]al con/ructional difficulties t5d to re/rict ?is to c]ta9 limits4 ,:]e ! und]c>riage is ( ! type 9 :i* ! ma9 roll+ :eels are m\nt$ on a s+le axle1 x is cle> t ! :eel base is limit$ to ! greate/ l5g? ! /eel or duralum9 tube c be us$ )\t buckl+ "u l&+ %ocks4 ,if ?is is to be exce$$ a bigg] diamet] tube ( ?ick] gauge w be necess>y1 & ?is means additional weight4 ,aga91 ! fuselage wid? = ! tractor ma*9es n[ 9 vogue does n greatly exce$ #c ft41 be+ m usually "u t figure1 s t a v wide base w\ld mean rak+ ! /ruts at a flat angle1 :i* w\ld !re=e require to be made ( l>g] section ?an w\ld be ! case if ! :eel base 0 n>r[]2 or1 if ! same section /rut is us$1 ! /r5g? is r$uc$4 ,a wide :eel base !re=e means an undesirable increase 9 weight & resi/ance4 ,to make up = ! defici5cies ( ! almo/ unavoidable n>r[ :eel base1 x is usual to make use ( ! w+ tips by fitt+ skids ( malacca cane or lam9at$ a%1 :i* are br\ght into action :5 ! ma*9e is excessively cant$ ov] sideways4 ,at "o "t ! w+ tips 7 almo/ inv>iably us$ to assi/ ! und]c>riage1 ! w+ tips ( ! ,nieuport monoplane be+ specially con/ruct$ = ! purpose1 & no skids 7 fitt$4 ,e>li] /ill ! ,r4,e4,p4 monoplane _h only "o c5tral roll+ :eel1 a small] :eel be+ atta*$ to ea* w+ tip4 ,! w+ tip :eels ( ! ,cody biplane p]=m$ simil> functions1 al?\gh ^! 7 us$ 9 conjunction ) two ma9 :eels4 ,und]c>riage ,types4 ,! type ( l&+ ge> 9 use to-day does n v>y 9 pr9ciple to any great ext5t1 ! diff]5ces usually occurr+ 9 ! *oice ( mat]ial1 ! sy/em be+ t usually kn[n z ! ,vee type1 f ! fact t view$ 9 side elevation1 ! /ruts =m a ,v4 ,:ile ?is type has mu* to comm5d x f ! po9ts ( l[ head resi/ance & great /r5g? = weight1 !re are o!r sy/ems1 "s ( :i* h be5 tri$-out1 :ile o!rs /ill exi/1 incorporat+ features design$ = "s specific purpose4 ,( ^! ! ,f>man type is an example ( a l&+ ge> design$ = ! requirem5ts ( s*ool "w1 consi/+ ( two long a% skids1 :i*1 ext5d$ f ! re> end ( ! nacelle1 be+ gradually b5t upw>ds to c>ry ! front elevator4 ,?is 0 ! arrangem5t on ! 8,longhorn0 ma*9e1 b on ! 8,%or?orn10 produc$ at ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--,side view ( ,f>man l&+ ge>4 a lat] date1 ! skids1 z %[n by ,fig4 #hf1 t]m9at$ 9 %ort b5ds4 ,ea* skid c>ri$ a pair ( roll+ :eels1 atta*$ to a %ort axle1 ?is be+ b\nd to ! skids by rubb] b&s4 ,! :eel base be+ almo/ #i ft41 ?is type gave excell5t results4 ,9 ! case ( big ma*9es1 :]e x is desir$ to keep ! load on ! tail skid z light z possible1 ?ree :eels are sometimes us$1 two ma9 roll+ :eels & a light pilot :eel 9 ! front4 ,?is enables ! ma9 roll+ :eels to be plac$ "u ! c5tre ( gravity1 ! pilot :eel prev5t+ ! consequ5t t5d5cy to pit* =w>d :5 roll+4 ,a fur!r developm5t ( ?is sy/em disp5ses ) ! tail skid1 two ma9 :eels be+ plac$ "u ! c5tre ( gravity1 & two small] :eels a little =w>d ( ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--,side view ( f\r-:eel$ l&+ ge>4 ! propell]1 z 9 ,fig4 #hg4 ,! skids 7 sometimes cont9u$ back beh9d ! re> /ruts1 & saw-k]f$ to increase ! resili5cy4 ,! base ( support 0 =m$ by ! re> :eels & ! ends ( ! skids1 ! ma*9e be+ pull$ on to ! front :eels by ! ?ru/ ( ! propell]4 ,! %ort :eel base is bad = roll+ on bumpy gr\nd1 & frequ5t skid replacem5ts are necess>y ) ?is sy/em4 ,a simil> type ) no tail skid has ! :eels dispos$ =w>d ( ! ,c4,g41 :ile a s+le c5tral skid1 connect$ to ! fuselage by ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--,side view ( ,nieuport und]c>riage4 a s]ies ( ,v /ruts1 replac$ ! d\ble skids1 z 9 ,fig4 #hh4 ,?is type 0 us$ on ! orig9al ,nieuport monoplane1 & ) m9or modifications on ! ,avro #hj h4p4 ,gnome tractor biplane4 ,its *ief advantage is l[ head resi/ance1 b un=tunately ) ?is sy/em a n>r[ :eel base1 ) ! att5dant defects1 is inevitable4 ,a v di/9ctive sy/em 0 t fav\r$ by ,bl]iot1 & us$ ) m9or alt]ations on all ! ,bl]iot monoplanes4 ,?is is %[n1 diagrammatically1 9 side elevation1 by ,fig4 #hi1 & 0 unusual 9 t ! :eels 7 arrang$ to swivel1 ?is be+ an attempt to c\nt]act ! side /ra9s set up :5 l&+ 9 a side w9d4 ,al?\gh 9 ! h&s ( "s ( our mo/ fam\s exhibition pilots ?is has function$ excell5tly1 x is complicat$ & some:at heavy4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--;,bl]iot und]c>riage4 ,rec5t ,developm5ts4 ,dur+ ! la/ ?ree ye>s ! vital necessity ( spe$ & climb1 & m spe$ & climb1 has result$ 9 ! gradual elim9ation ( skids1 /ruts1 & wires1 until to-day ! *assis = ma*9es ( av]age dim5sions is almo/ inv>iably ! ,v type 7,fig4 #ij74 ,! :eels are plac$ ab\t a foot 9 front ( ! ,c4,g41 z1 ow+ to ! abs5ce ( any =w>d skid1 no o!r provision exi/s to c\nt]act ! t5d5cy to pit* ov]4 ,9 ! actual con/ruction ( ! ,vee und]c>riage1 "s div]sity ( practice exi/s ) reg>d to ! mat]ial *os54 ,9 "s cases ! /ruts =m+ ! ,vees are con/ruct$ ( a /reaml9e section /eel tub+1 9 o!rs r\nd tub+1 ! /reaml9e section be+ obta9$ by a wood5 fair+ b\nd on1 :ile a numb] ( con/ructors use wood = ! /ruts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--,vee type und]c>riage4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,und]c>riage ,,details4 ,! details ( con/ruction associat$ ) ! und]c>riage are ^? conc]n$ ) ! =m+ ( ! /ruts & ma9 memb]s1 & ! susp5sion ( ! axle4 ,z not$ 9 ! previ\s *apt] ! ,vee und]c>riage is greatly 9 fav\r at pres5t1 b ! fact t ) ?is type no =w>d support exi/s to prev5t pit*+ ov] :5 ob/ructions are met 9 roll+1 w almo/ c]ta9ly result 9 "s arrangem5t ( :eels & skids = ! t\r+ ma*9es ( ! po/-w> p]iod4 ,ma*9es are n[ design$ = air p]=mance pure & simple1 s t an und]c>riage ( ! simple ,vee type is all t is p]missible2 b 9 ! po/-w> ma*9e g5]al utility w be ! desid]atum s\ght = by design]s4 ,at "o "t ! majority ( ! und]c>riage arrangem5ts incorporat$ "o or m skids4 ,! mat]ial mo/ suit$ = ?is purpose is hickory1 al?\gh "s design]s pref] a%1 /eam$ to ! desir$ curve1 & g5]ally *annell$ out betwe5 ! po9ts ( int]section ( ! /ruts1 fitt+s1 etc41 9 a simil> mann] to long]ons & w+ sp>s4 ,:]e ! b5d is %>p1 & !re=e difficult to obta9 by /eam+1 x is usual to =m ! skid f a numb] ( /rips1 or lam9ations1 glu$ toge!r4 ,q a good me?od ( /ream-l9+ ! curv$ toe ( ! skid is %[n by ,fig4 #ia1 consi/+ ( a spruce block atta*$ to ! skid by screws1 & x has additional value 9 ensur+ p]man5cy ( curve4 ,:]e ! design is su* t ! re> end ( ! skid p]=ms ! functions ( a tail skid x is saw-k]f$1 z 9 ,fig4 #ib1 ! lam9ations s =m$ be+ /epp$ back1 & ! bottom lay] %od ) a plate1 or claw fitt+1 act+ z a brake1 & also prev5t+ we> produc$ by contact ) ! gr\nd4 ,at "o "t ?is con/itut$ popul> practice1 b x is a matt] ( "s difficulty to prev5t ! saw-cuts f develop+ into fractures4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 on "o type ( ma*9e replacem5ts 7 s frequ5t t ev5tually ! skid end 0 left solid4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--,/reaml9+ curv$ toe ( skid4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--,lam9at$ skid end4 ,me?ods ( ,susp5sion4 ,9 ! prelim9>ies ( design ref]r$ to 9 ! la/ *apt]1 x 0 obs]v$ t ! action ( roll+ & alight+ call$ = a good sy/em ( susp5sion & %ock absorption1 & ?is is accompli%$ on mod]n ma*9es by b9d+ ! axle to ! ma9 memb]s ( ! /ructure ) ei!r rubb] cord 7?is be+ a numb] ( /r&s ( rubb] ab\t #a_/af 94 squ>e1 compress$ & b\nd toge!r ) a wov5 tw9e cas+7 or pla9 rubb] r+s4 ,! latt] are m or less obsolesc5t1 at lea/ 9 ?is c\ntry1 ! reason be+ f\nd 9 ! bett] la/+ qualities ( ! cord1 :i* w also )/& a mu* high] ultimate /ress1 ! fabric cov]+ contribut+ l>gely to ?is4 ,9 a numb] ( cases1 & g5]ally = heavy ma*9es1 /eel helical spr+s are fitt$4 ,v>i\s attempts "r f ! beg9n+ ( successful flight h be5 made to utilize /eel spr+s = susp5sion1 b hi!rto v few ma*9es h successfully incorporat$ !m1 & b a brief exam9ation w %[ t _! use on ma*9es ( ! av]age mod]n type is att5d$ ) "s unsatisfactory features4 ,fir/ly1 !y are mu* heavi] ?an rubb]1 b ?is 9 itself is no great disadvantage1 z ease ( atta*m5t probably comp5sates = ?is2 b :at is ( mom5t is ! fact t /eel spr+s are n ne>ly s effici5t %ock-absorb]s z ! rubb] v>iety1 :ile ev5 ! effici5cy ( ! latt] is capable ( consid]able improvem5t4 ,if we take ! case ( a ma*9e roll+ ov] bumpy gr\nd1 all t is requir$ ( ! susp5sion is t ! :eel movem5t ov] ! inequalities %all n be transmitt$ to ! :ole ma*9e4 ,s f> bo? /eel spr+s & rubb] cord satisfy ^! conditions1 b 9 ! op]ation ( alight+ ! ma*9e n infrequ5tly /rikes ! gr\nd ) "s =ce1 sometimes ! result ( gu/s or pancak+4 ,) /eel spr+s1 & to a less] degree ^? ( rubb]1 ! en]gy ( l&+ is n absorb$1 b is /or$ up1 be+ giv5 out aga9 9 ! =m ( a reb\nd4 ,) rubb]1 elongation & its consequ5t depreciation ( ultimate t5sile /r5g? prev5ts any en]gy ( mom5t be+ return$ to ! a]oplane1 :i* is :y1 = light ma*9es ( mod]n design1 say1 up to #bejj lbs4 total weight1 rubb] is ! bett] mat]ial4 ,/eel spr+s be+ defici5t 9 ! p[] to damp out %ocks1 x becomes necess>y to use ^! 9 conjunction ) "s o!r m$ium possess+ ?is quality1 & "o ( ! mo/ suitable arrangem5ts extant is t kn[n z ! oleo-pneumatic ge>1 consi/+ ( a comb9ation ( helical coil spr+ & oil plung]4 ,x is usual to arrange ! ma9 compression memb]s 9 two halves1 ! upp] half =m+ a pi/on1 & ! l[]1 atta*$ to ! :eels1 con/itut+ ! cyl9d]1 is fill$ ) oil4 ,! weight ( ! ma*9e is tak5 normally dur+ roll+ by ! helical spr+1 w\nd r\nd ! upp] half ( ! telescopic tube4 ,excessive %ocks cause ! oil to be =c$ ?r\gh a spr+ valve1 adju/$ to op5 at a c]ta9 pressure1 into ! upp] half1 a back-pressure valve enabl+ ! oil to gradually return to ! cyl9d]4 ,! ,breguet biplane1 a pre-w> ma*9e ( orig9al design1 embodi$ 9 ! und]c>riage arrangem5t a sy/em analog\s to ! =ego+4 ,%ock ,absorb+ ,effect ( ,tyres4 ,! assi/ance r5d]$ by tyres ( l>ge diamet] mu/ n be ov]look$4 ,! m]its ( ! l>ge tread are q well kn[n 9 ! sph]e ( ! motor-c>1 & !y are no less b5eficial to ! a]oplane4 ,x is ( int]e/ to record t a pre-w> rac+ ma*9e _h no o!r susp5sion & %ock-absorb+ m$ium ?an t provid$ by ! v l>ge tyres fitt$ to ! :eels1 ! axle be+ fix$ rigidly to ! und]c>riage /ruts4 ,a simil> arrangem5t exi/$ on a ma*9e ( mu* m rec5t date4 ,"o does n advocate ?is sy/em1 z x c be ( v little use = r\gh gr\nd1 ! in/ance be+ cit$ to emphasize ! assi/ance s r5d]$ to ! ord9>y type ( susp5sion4 ,connections4 ,v>i\s me?ods exi/ = connect+ ! rubb] to ! ma9 memb]s1 a typical arrangem5t ) ! ,vee und]c>riage ( /eel be+ %[n by ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--;,arrangem5t ( susp5sion on /eel tube und]c>riage4 ,fig4 #ic1 & a v>iation ( ?is1 :5 wood is ! mat]ial1 is indicat$ by ,fig4 #id4 ,! web plate 9 ,fig4 #ic =ms a means = guid+ ! axle 9 its upw>d travel1 & is ano!r v]sion ( ! "o-"t popul> ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #id4--;,arrangem5t ( susp5sion on wood und]c>riage4 radius rod4 ,x is n consid]$ necess>y1 9 _m in/ances1 to fit ei!r web plate or radius rod1 ! movem5t ( ! axle ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--;,f>man type axle susp5sion4 be+ ( no great ext5t4 ,ano!r sy/em is %[n by ,fig4 #ie1 ?is be+ ! me?od ( susp5sion adopt$ = ! ,f>man ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #if4--,rubb] cord susp5sion4 ma*9es4 ,9 ?is case rubb] b&s are atta*$ to ! ma9 skids1 ! %ort axle pass+ betwe5 ! two4 ,a simil> arrangem5t 9 g5]al outl9e is %[n by ,fig4 #if1 al?\gh 9 ?is case ! rubb] takes ! =m ( cord4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--;,bridge type susp5sion4 ,a me?od greatly 9 vogue 9 ,am]ica is t indicat$ by ,fig4 #ig1 kn[n z ! bridge type1 & a *>act]i/ic ,wright detail1 ! r+s be+ approximately two in*es wide by two in*es long4 ,! fact t v few examples ( ?is sy/em exi/ 9 ?is c\ntry may be ascrib$ to ! inf]iority ( rubb] b&s comp>$ ) ! rubb] cable4 ,axle ,fair+s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ih4--;,axle fair+4 ,x is n[ ! practice to /reaml9e ! compression tubes betwe5 ! vees ( ! und]c>riage ) a fair+ ( alum9ium or ?ree-ply4 ,?is is s arrang$ t 9 flight ! axle lies 9 a slot =m$ 9 ! fair+1 :i* appreciably r$uces head resi/ance4 ,a typical arrangem5t is indicat$ by ,fig4 #ih4 ,! axle is usually =m$ ( /eel or duralum9 tube1 & 9 ! majority ( und]c>riage arrangem5ts is divid$ & h+$ 9 ! c5tre1 a wire or wires f ?is po9t to ! fuselage acc\nt+ = any /ra94 ,duralum9 tube is especially suit$ = ?is item1 z a mu* /iff] axle is possible = a giv5 weight1 al?\gh1 un=tunately1 ?is is slightly disc\nt$ by ! fact t duralum9 does n =m a good be>+ surface = ! :eel hubs1 & x !re=e becomes necess>y to fit ei!r sleeves or /ub-axles ( /eel4 ,und]c>riage ,brakes4 ,additional means = re/rict+ ! l5g? ( travel aft] contact ) ! gr\nd is sometimes f\nd 9 ! employm5t ( brakes ( v>i\s types4 ,a v simple & widely us$ arrangem5t is to t]m9ate ! tail skid 9 a claw fitt+1 z ,fig4 #ii1 s t 9 alight+ ! tail is %ov$ h>d d[n1 br++ ! skid into contact ) ! gr\nd4 ,! disadvantage is t undesirable /ra9s may be c>ri$ to ! fuselage memb]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ii4--,tail skid ) claw fitt+4 ,ano!r v]sion rec5tly pat5t$ is to con/ruct small planes to con=m to ! w+ curve1 & h+$ s t by a sy/em ( wires & pulleys1 actuat$ f ! pilot's seat1 !y c\ld be adju/$ to (f] a normal surface to ! direction ( flight4 ,! effici5cy ( ?is arrangem5t at l[ spe$s is n v great1 moreov] a l&+ ) ! w9d r5d]s !m q useless4 ,! be/ =m ( brake is und\bt$ly "o act+ direct on ! ma9 :eels1 ei!r ( ! rim or b& type1 a good example ( ! latt] be+ ! sy/em us$ on ! #gj h4p4 ,bri/ol biplane4 ,closely alli$ to ! "q ( brakes is t ( /e]+1 & ! requirem5ts ( ?is latt] item are fairly well satisfi$ by pivot+ ! tail skid & work+ x 9 conjunction ) ! rudd] f ! foot-b> or :eel4 ,h\s+ ( ,und]c>riage dur+ ,flight4 ,num]\s sugge/ions1 ideas1 & pat5ts exi/1 hav+ z _! object ! h\s+ ( ! und]c>riage 9 ! fuselage dur+ flight1 ) a resultant r$uction 9 resi/ance2 & excell5t z ! pr9ciple is1 its practical application is difficult ( a*ievem5t--at lea/1 = ma*9es ( ! pres5t4 ,9 flight ! und]c>riage is a useless encumbrance1 add+ weight & head resi/ance1 s t an arrangem5t :]eby ?is compon5t c\ld be fold$ into ! ma9 /ructure w\ld app>5tly effect a sav+ 9 resi/ance4 ,?is w\ld mean t ! fuselage w\ld be ( l>g] cross-sectional area1 ! natural sequ5ce be+ extra weight & resi/ance4 ,x does n appe> t ! sav+ effect$ 9 resi/ance1 :5 ! und]c>riage is fold$ dur+ flight1 w\ld acc\nt = ! additional weight ( ! op]at+ me*anism & ! increas$ head resi/ance ( ! fuselage1 s t altoge!r ! advantages ( any s-call$ disappe>+ l&+ ge> are v mu* m app>5t ?an real4 ,!re is also ! v great possibility ( ! und]c>riage fold+ up or disappe>+ :5 x w\ld be lea/ requir$ to d s4 ,9 ! con/ruction ( ! problematic air-l9]s ( ! future x may be possible to economically effect ! h\s+ ( ! und]c>riage4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,control ,,sy/ems4 ,! me*anism by :i* ! a]oplane is controll$ 9 flight =ms ! connect+ l9k betwe5 ! pilot & ma*9e1 & con/itutes a vitally important & some:at vuln]able item ( ! complete /ructure4 ,ma9 ,pr9ciples4 ,! control ( all mod]n a]oplanes is effect$ 9 a lat]al direction by small planes h+$ to ! re> sp> ( ! out] ends ( ! w+s1 & kn[n z 8ail]ons02 9 a longitud9al or 8=e-&-aft0 direction by ! elevator planes2 & = /e]+ by ! rudd]4 ,al?\gh ^! functions are allud$ to sep>ately1 !y are m (t5 ?an n comb9$ 9 _! actions4 ,! correct proportion ( ! controll+ surfaces is an important factor 9 det]m9+ ! ease or o!rwise ) :i* a ma*9e c be h&l$ 9 flight1 & faults 9 ?is direction are responsible = ! t]ms 8heavy0 or 8/iff0 on ! controls be+ appli$ to a ma*9e4 ,! use ( subsidi>y flaps or ail]ons = lat]al control is a comp>atively mod]n innovation4 ,at "o "t x 0 usual to w>p ! entire plane1 or 9 "s cases ! out] section only1 & al?\gh ! pr9ciple is ! same--t ( =m+ a negative or positive surface to ! l9e ( flight--/ructural consid]ations are :olly 9 fav\r ( ail]ons4 ,) w>p+1 ! :ole plane is subject$ to cont9u\s torsional movem5t1 & to obta9 ?is "s ( ! truss+ wires h necess>ily to be arrang$ z control wires1 ! result be+ t ! plane curvature loses its uni=mity1 & ! :ole gird] sy/em ( ! planes is less effici5t "u load ?an if ! wires 7 p]man5tly fix$2 & ! latt] item is only possible ) ail]on control4 ,al?\gh x is usual to atta* ail]ons to bo? top & bottom planes ( a biplane1 !re are occasions :5 suffici5t control c be obta9$ ) ail]ons to ! upp] plane only1 usually :5 ! span ( ?is plane is great] ?an t ( ! bottom4 ,control by ,inh]5t ,/ability4 ,) ma*9es ( ! inh]5t /ability class ! lat]al control is effect$ by additional means1 ! planes be+ design$ to automatically "r ! effects ( gu/s4 ,?is elem5t ( inh]5t /ability is obta9$ by suitably grad+ ! camb] & incid5ce ( ! w+s1 until at ! w+ tips ! *ord ( ! plane section =ms a negative angle to ! l9e ( flight4 ,al?\gh ?is arrangem5t is und\bt$ly ( value1 especially = ! t\r+ ma*9e ( mod]ate p[]1 its *ief fault lies 9 ! relatively sl[ right+ movem5ts1 :i*1 al?\gh ( no great consequ5ce at a reasonable altitude1 becomes a s\rce ( dang] :5 alight+1 & c]ta9ly entail ! use ( ail]ons1 or w>p1 to c\nt]act x4 ,! type 0 well exemplifi$ 9 ?is c\ntry by ! ,h&ley-,page monoplane & biplane1 :ile 9 ,g]many x a*iev$ great popul>ity1 surviv+ 9 "s makes until ! latt] "p ( #aiaf4 ,9 ! matt] ( control-surface design x is int]e/+ to note ! contra/ betwe5 ! pref]5ces ( ,engli% & ,g]man design]s4 ,9 almo/ all ,g]man ma*9es ! ail]ons1 elevators1 & rudd] are balanc$1 i4e4 surface is dispos$ ea* side ( ! h+e-axis1 ?is apply+ to ! small ,albatross sc\ts & to ! l>ge ma*9es ( ! ,go?a class2 :ile 9 ?is c\ntry few examples ( ?is practice occur4 ,! reason = ! balanc+ ( controls lies 9 ! desire to r$uce ! manual /ra9 on ! pilot to a m9imum2 & x appe>s t ) l>ge ma*9es balanc$ surfaces w be imp]ative4 ,sev]al automatic controls h be5 produc$1 ! mo/ notable p]haps be+ ! ,sp]ry gyroscopic1 ?is be+ a comb9ation ( s]vo-motor & gyroscope4 ,?is app>atus has be5 well tri$4 ,s f> z ! arrangem5t ( ! control surfaces is conc]n$1 little v>iation occurs1 :i* condition has obta9$ f ! e>ly days ( aviation1 b ! me*anism gov]n+ or direct+ ^! movem5ts v>i$ at "o "t consid]ably1 & al?\gh 9 ?is c\ntry "o type ( control is us$1 !re are /ill in/ances ( ! use ( widely diff]5t sy/ems4 ,9 =m] days ! practice ( individual mak]s fitt+ diff]5t controls result$ 9 "s arrangem5ts be+ 9 exact contradi/9ction to o!rs1 :i* n infrequ5tly meant1 to a pilot tak+ on a new type1 ! unle>n+ ( a great deal :i* practice _h r5d]$ in/9ctive4 ,! ,in/9ctive ,pr9ciple4 ,all mod]n controls are bas$ on ! in/9ctive pr9ciple1 i4e4 ! movem5ts ( ! control lev] co9cide 9 direction ) ! prompt+s ( natural in/9ct4 ,?us1 to *ange ! c\rse ( a ma*9e fly+ level into an upw>d "o1 ! column is pull$ t[>ds ! pilot1 & = desc5t1 ! rev]se1 :ile to correct a bank1 ! column is mov$ 9 a direction oppos$ to t ( ! bank4 ,= /e]+1 a foot-b> is employ$1 s arrang$ t = a turn to ! left ! left foot is pu%$ =w>d1 & ! rev]se = a "r turn4 ,on "o well kn[n ma*9e ( =m] days1 ! foot-b> actuat$ ! lat]al control1 :i* is suffici5t indication ( ! great div]sity ( op9ion !n exi/+4 ,v]tical ,column ,control4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4--;,arrangem5t ( v]tical column control4 ,a typical control ( ! imm5sely popul> 8joy-/ick0 type is %[n by ,fig4 #ajj4 ,?is consi/s ( a v]tical column pivot$ ?r\gh ! m$ium ( a =k-jo9t to a rock+ %aft4 ,! elevator wires are tak5 r\nd pulleys m\nt$ "u ! seat1 & ! ail]on wires f a =m ( bell-crank1 flang$ & weld$ to ! /eel tube4 ,a disadvantage ) ?is sy/em1 9 addition to ! complication ( ! wires1 is t lat]al movem5t also affects ! elevator1 al?\gh ! ext5t ( ?is is ( no great mom5t4 ,x is obvi\s1 al?\gh some:at p>adoxical1 t if ! elevator is to be depress$ by a =w>d movem5t ( ! column1 ! control wires w requir$ to be cross$1 i4e4 ! wire runn+ f ! base ( ! tube to ! pulleys w be atta*$ to ! arm on ! top side ( ! elevator1 & vice v]s4 ,on s+le-seat] ma*9es x is sometimes necess>y = ! pilot to h bo? h&s free ( ! controls1 s t x becomes necess>y to in/all "s =m ( lock+ device = ! elevator control1 !re be+ _m simple ways ( accompli%+ ?is4 ,! lock+ ( ! control lev] fixes ! flight pa? ( ! ma*9e1 b1 ( c\rse1 lat]al equilibrium c be ma9ta9$ by movem5ts ( ! lev] sideways1 & /e]+ by ! rudd] b>4 ,! ,g]man ma*9es ( ! ,fokk] & ,albatross types are bo? fitt$ ) ! s+le lev] control ) a lock+ arrangem5t4 ,ano!r me?od :i* a*ieves ! same purpose consi/s ( brac+ ! lev] 9 a normal fly+ position1 ) rubb] cable or coil spr+s an*or$ to v>i\s p>ts ( ! fuselage1 & al?\gh ?is p]mits ( movem5t1 ! control column always t5ds to return to ! normal position4 ,:eel ,controls4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aja4--;,arrangem5t ( :eel control4 ,:ile ! 8joy-/ick0 type ( control is greatly 9 fav\r1 !re are v>i\s =ms ( :eel control 9 use4 ,am]ican ma*9es are almo/ entirely fitt$ ) :eel controls1 & all ?+s consid]$1 x appe>s t mod]n practice is ev5ly divid$ betwe5 ! two types4 ,! sequ5ce ( movem5ts ( ! :eel type may be v>i$ 9 a numb] ( ways1 ! g5]al arrangem5t %[n by ,fig4 #aja be+ typical ( an av]age sy/em4 ,9 ?is case ! h&-:eel is m\nt$ on a c5tral column1 :i* 9 turn is rigidly fix$ by "s =m ( ,tee jo9t to a transv]se rock+ %aft4 ,a sprocket atta*$ to ! :eel c5tre engages ) a %ort l5g? ( *a91 :i* connects to ! ail]on control1 :ile ! elevator wires are connect$ to %ort till]s1 arrang$ to "w on ! out] side ( ! fuselage4 ,) ?is sy/em ! h&-:eel is rotat$ = ! ail]on movem5ts1 a =e-&-aft rock+ motion = ! elevation1 & ! rudd] is actuat$ by an outw>d movem5t1 ) ei!r foot on ! rudd] b>4 ,a developm5t designat$ 8?ree 9 "o0 embodies all ^! movem5ts 9 ! :eel column1 :i* 9 ?is case is pivot$ at its base3 a to-&-fro motion 9 ! column = ! elevators1 sideways = ! ail]ons1 :ile ! rudd] control is effect$ by ! rotation ( ! :eel4 ,?is sy/em is fitt$ to a numb] ( ,am]ican ma*9es1 b x is a moot po9t :e!r ! rotation ( ! :eel = w>p+ or /e]+ is q su* an in/9ctive action1 z ! sideways movem5t ( ! lev] comb9$ ) ! movem5ts ( ! foot on ! rudd]-b>2 9 any case1 !re is j a suspicion ( complication 9 its work+ :i* is undesirable1 t is1 = ma*9es int5d$ = popul> use4 ,! 8,dep0 ,control4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4--8;,dep0 type control4 ,! type ( control us$ on ! ,dep]duss9 monoplanes ( #aiaj & onw>ds has surviv$ until ! pres5t day1 & =ms a di/9ctive arrangem5t4 ,its *ief attribute is t1 comp>$ ) o!r sy/ems1 mu* great] room & fre$om is af=d$ ! pilot1 :i* is evid5t by a consid]ation ( ! diagrammatic sket*1 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,! inv]t$ ,u-%ap$ lev] is compos$ ( ei!r a%1 b5t to %ape1 or /eel1 or duralum9 tube1 ! g5]al sy/em ( its work+ be+ ! same z ! :eel control %[n by ,fig4 #aja4 ,incid5tally1 pass+ ref]5ce may be made to ! fact t ! usual close proximity ( ! compass to ! controls precludes ! use ( /eel 9 any great quantity = ! con/ruction ( ! lev]1 z ! v>i\s movem5ts adv]sely affect ! compass read+s4 ,! ,wright ,sy/em4 ,ano!r v>iant ( ! :eel control is in/anc$ by ! ,wright sy/em1 ?is consi/+ ( a g5]al lay out simil> to t %[n by ,fig4 #aja1 b no rudd]-b> is fitt$4 ,! rudd] control is provid$ by a small lev]1 m\nt$ conc5tric ) ! :eel1 ! latt] c>ry+ a rigidly atta*$ sprocket4 ,! h&-lev] is also connect$ to a sprocket1 ?is runn+ free on ! :eel %aft1 s t by gripp+ bo? h&-lev] & :eel x is possible to op]ate ! ail]ons & rudd] simultane\sly1 ?is action be+ a *>act]i/ic feature ( all ! ,wright productions4 ,al?\gh !re are _m types ( control 9 use1 ^? describ$ 9 ! =ego+ *apt] are illu/rative ( g5]al practice4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,wires ,,& ,,connections4 ,9 all a]oplanes ! "q ( wires & ! t]m9al connections associat$ !re) is a matt] ( "s importance1 & :ile ?is may v>y 9 degree1 !re is little d\bt t ! effici5cy ( mod]n wir+ sy/ems is l>gely responsible = ! /ructural effici5cy ( ! a]oplane z a :ole4 ,a]oplane con/ruction consi/s almo/ exclusively ( a framework ( wood brac$ by wires1 a condition ( ?+s :i* has obta9$ s9ce ! inception ( flight2 z may be judg$ by ! v>i\s engrav+s ( ,h5son's project$ monoplane ( #ahdb4 ,?is ma*9e incorporat$ an arrangem5t ( k+-po/s & wires approximat+ v closely to mod]n practice1 & ! natural sequ5ce ( improvem5ts h t5d$ t[>ds ! gradual elim9ation ( expos$ wir+4 ,v>i\s ,wires us$4 ,! v>i\s wires us$ 9 con/ruction may be classifi$ into f\r di/9ct types3 ! solid wire /ay1 ! /ra9+ cord or cable us$ = /ay wires1 ! extra flexible cable us$ = controls1 & ! swag$ tie rods 9 pla9 or /reaml9e =m4 ,! e>lie/ =m ( brac+ 0 ( ! solid piano wire v>iety1 ?is hav+ be5 us$ on mo/ a]oplanes f ! days ( ! ,wrights onw>d4 ,f ! view-po9t ( ! e>ly pione]s1 ?is wire 0 em95tly satisfactory1 be+ *eap 7a vital consid]ation7 & simple to atta* & replace4 ,al?\gh ! t5sile /r5g? ( ?is wire _c probably be excell$1 its h>dness r5d]s some:at difficult ! =m+ ( ! end loop )\t fracture ( ! wire4 ,= ?is reason piano wire gradually gave place to a s(t] grade ( wire :i*1 :ile be+ /rong1 0 t\gh & ductile1 enabl+ b5ds to be made ) a less] dang] ( fracture4 ,! orig9al connection us$ = ! piano wire /ay is %[n by ,fig4 #ajc1 ?is consi/+ ( a loop or eye1 ! free end be+ turn$ r\nd a f]rule ( s(t copp] tube1 ?is be+ sometimes v>i$ by ! use ( a flat /rip ( t9n$ iron1 wrapp$ r\nd & sold]$4 ,:ile ?is 0 fairly satisfactory = %ort /ays1 x 0 h>dly suitable = ! ma9 lift wires ( ! int]plane brac+1 ow+ to ! comp>ative ease ) :i*1 "u load1 ! free end pull$ or cut ?r\gh ! f]rule1 s t aft] a :ile ! oval spr+-wire f]rule1 ,fig4 #ajd1 came into use4 ,?is is made ( ! same gauge wire z ! /ay1 & is f sev5 to n9e convolutions 9 l5g?4 ,! eye %\ld be =m$ z an easy b5d1 & n k9k$1 ! f]rule be+ pu%$ tight aga9/ ! %\ld]s1 & ! free end turn$ back4 ,result ( ,te/s4 ,te/s und]tak5 at ! in/ance ( ! ,am]ican ,advisory ,committee = ,a]onautics %[$ t #hj p] c5t4 ( ! wires te/$ fail$ by ! free end pull+ ?r\gh ! f]rule1 ! rema9+ #bj p] c5t4 fail+ by fracture1 ! /ays possess+ an av]age effici5cy ( #fh p] c5t4 ( ! maximum /r5g? ( ! wire4 ,al?\gh v>i\s modifications1 su* z ty+ ! free end to ! f]rule ) f9e wire1 z 9 ,fig4 #aje1 result$ 9 an increase 9 total effici5cy1 av]age ,european practice consi/s ( t %[n by ,fig4 #ajd4 ,at ! pres5t "t ! solid wire /ay ( ! =m dealt ) is us$ ma9ly = ! brac+ ( ! fuselage frame1 & ! int]nal wir+ ( ! tail planes4 ,/r&$ ,cable4 ,! gradual increase 9 eng9e p[] & total weight ( a]oplanes l$ to ! adoption ( /r&$ cable = all important load$ wires1 ?is be+ made 9 two di/9ct ways4 ,! cable employ$ = int]plane brac+ is compos$ ( a numb] ( f9e wires1 v>y+ f n9ete5 to ?irty-sev5 accord+ to ! diff]5t diamet]s1 ! end section be+ indicat$ by ,fig4 #ajf4 ,illu/ration3 ,,figs4 #ajc-aab4--,me?ods ( =m+ wire connections4 ,:]e extra flexibility is requir$1 su* z = control wires runn+ r\nd pulleys1 ! cable is compos$ ( a numb] ( /r&s1 g5]ally sev51 :i* 9 turn consi/s ( a numb] ( f9e wires1 usually n9ete51 ! end section be+ %[n by ,fig4 #ajg4 ,engli% practice designates ?is =m ( cable z extra flexible1 & ! s+le rope ( n9ete5 wires z /ra9+ cord4 ,am]ican classification is practically ! rev]se1 9 t ! s+le rope is kn[n z /r&$ cable1 & ! multi-/r& z cord4 ,al?\gh ! factor ( /r5g? is an important "o x does n entirely gov]n ! selection ( a wire1 z o!r consid]ations1 su* z flexibility & fatigue /ra91 influ5ce greatly ! effici5cy ( a /ay "u active s]vice conditions4 ,"u te/ ! solid wire possesses ! greate/ ultimate break+ weight1 ! next be/ be+ ! s+le rope4 ,x mu/ be und]/ood t 9 flight a wire is subject$ to con/ant & int5sive vibration1 :i* mu/ h a delet]i\s effect on ! mat]ial1 & = ?is reason a flaw or slight fracture 9 a solid wire may escape notice until complete failure 9 ! air2 :]eas ! cable1 by ! un/r&+ ( ! damag$ wires1 w\ld give w>n+ ( we>4 ,*iefly ow+ to ! difficulty ( =m+ a satisfactory splice 9 ! s+le-/r& cable1 mod]n practice incl9es t[>d ! use ( ! multi-/r& cable = all purposes1 z ! con/ruction ( ?is wire l5ds itself to ! =m+ ( a successful splice4 ,cable ,connections4 ,! e>lie/ =m ( t]m9al connection = /r&$ cable consi/$ ( a loop1 ! free end be+ b\nd to ! ma9 "p ( ! wire & sold]$4 ,) ! addition ( a b9d+ or s]v+ ( wire r\nd ! loop to prev5t injury1 due to contact ) ! wir+ lug1 or /ra9] eye1 ?is wire1 9 a rec5t te/1 gave an effici5cy ( #ajj p] c5t4 = all diamet]s up to 94 ,?is result1 consid]+ ! elem5t>y nature ( ! jo9t1 is surpris+4 ,un=tunately ! effect ( corrosion due to acid & sold] is a some:at d\btful quantity2 moreov]1 ! appe>ance ( ! jo9t is f> f neat4 ,an atta*m5t :i* at "o "t a*iev$ "s popul>ity is %[n by ,fig4 #ajh1 & is especially suitable = ! s+le-/r& wire4 ,?is consi/s ( a cone-%ap$ =k$ end ) a tap] hole1 into :i* ! cable is ins]t$1 ! free end be+ un/r&$1 spread out & sold]$4 ,! atta*m5t has be5 us$ on :at 0 at "o "t "o ( our be/ products4 ,! effici5cy obta9$ ) ?is fitt+ is 9 ! neighb\rhood ( #ajj p] c5t4 ,9 ! me?od indicat$ by ,fig4 #aji a piece ( flat copp] tube is pass$ ov] ! wire1 ! free end ( ! latt] be+ b5t r\nd a brass ?imble1 & !n pass$ ?r\gh ! copp] tube1 9 a simil> mann] to ! connection = ! solid wire 9 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,! tube is !n giv5 sev]al turns1 & ! complete jo9t well sold]$4 ,?is sy/em is reliable1 & has giv5 good results4 ,a di/9ctive t]m9al is indicat$ by ,fig4 #aaj1 consi/+ ( a brass f]rule j suffici5tly wide to accommodate ! two ?icknesses ( wire4 ,! bolts are ( ! c\nt]-sunk head v>iety1 s t ! op]ation ( screw+ a bolt home also =ces ! wires into ! protub]ances 9 ! sides ( ! f]rule4 ,al?\gh ! =ego+ me?ods h all be5 ext5sively us$1 !y h n[ giv5 place to ! ?imble splice1 ,fig4 #aaa1 :i*1 z a g5]al proposition1 is und\bt$ly ! bett] t]m9al connection4 ,! brass ?imble protects ! /r&s f ! we>+ effect produc$ by contact ) ! turnbuckle or wir+ lug4 ,x is ! usual practice to wrap ! splice ) a b9d+ or s]v+ ( f9e copp] wire1 or wax$ tw9e4 ,! effici5cy ( ?is jo9t ) a prop]ly made splice may be safely tak5 z #he p] c5t4 ( ! total /r5g? ( ! wire4 ,) ?is jo9t ! po9t ( failure1 z evid5c$ by num]\s te/s1 always occurs at1 or ne>1 ! la/ tuck 9 ! splice1 at :i* po9t ! extra ?ickness ( ! splice is j m]g+ into ! normal ?ickness ( ! wire4 ,! disadvantage ) all t]m9al connections :i* necessitate ! use ( sold] is ! impossibility ( det]m9+ j h[ mu* ! heat+ op]ation affects ! /r5g? ( ! wire1 & also ! effects ( corrosion1 set up by ! v>i\s species ( flux us$ 9 ! process ( sold]+4 ,relative ,/r5g?s4 ,= a giv5 diamet] ! solid-wire /ay possesses ! greate/ /r5g?1 ! next be/ be+ ! s+le-/r&$ cable1 z ! foll[+ comp>ison ( /ay /r5g?1 tak5 f ! ,report ( ! ,national ,advisory ,committee = ,a]onautics1 #aiae1 ( ,am]ica1 w %[3-- ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,mat]ial4 ,diamet]4 ,/r5g? ( ,/r5g? mat]ial4 ( /ay4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- in*4 lbs4 lbs4 ,wire1 solid #c_/af #eejj #eajj ,/r&1 s+le #c_/af #dfjj #dajj #g #ai multi-/r& #c_/af #dbjj #cejj ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,/reaml9e ,wires4 ,al?\gh 9 ! que/ = increas$ spe$ ! numb] ( expos$ wires 7 r$uc$ to a m9imum1 ! aggregate resi/ance /ill rema9$ consid]able1 ?is lead+ to ! developm5t ( ! swag$ /reaml9e wire1 ! introduction ( :i* is g5]ally ascrib$ to ! ,royal ,aircraft ,factory2 & ^! wires are n[ g5]ally us$ = all expos$ wir+4 ,! po9ts 9 fav\r ( !m are t1 prop]ly fitt$1 a consid]able r$uction 9 resi/ance is obta9$1 !re is a less5$ liability to slack5 aft] "s use1 ?is r5d]+ rigg+ a m c]ta9 op]ation1 & ! nature ( its connection obviates ! use ( turnbuckles4 ,illu/ration3 ,,figs4 #aac-aaf4--,me?ods ( =m+ wire connections4 ,!y h be5 v>i\sly criticiz$ z be+ exp5sive to produce1 t ! resi/ance may be increas$ if improp]ly align$ 9 ! ma*9e1 & also t any fracture or flaw is less liable to be detect$ be=e complete failure dur+ flight4 ,9 manufacture ! solid rod is roll$ to ! section %[n by ,fig4 #aab1 a c]ta9 l5g? ea* end be+ left = ! "r- & left-h& ?read4 ,two ( ! connections mo/ly us$ are %[n by ,figs4 #aac & #aad1 ! latt] be+ pref]able1 z ! univ]sal jo9t p]mits ( movem5t 9 two directions1 :i* r$uces ! t5d5cy ( ! wire to cry/allize z a result ( excessive vibration4 ,to prev5t we> at ! po9ts ( int]section x is usual to fit acorns ( fibre or alum9ium1 a popul> =m be+ %[n by ,fig4 #aae4 ,"s design]s /ill pref] to use ! wire cable = int]plane brac+1 a fair+ ( wood be+ b\nd to ! cables by tape at int]vals1 ?is also prev5t+ excessive vibration4 ,"s ye>s ago v>i\s attempts 7 made1 mo/ly on ,fr5* monoplanes1 to utilize flat /eel ribbon = expos$ wir+1 b1 ow+ to ! difficulty ( successfully =m+ a t]m9al1 its use nev] became ext5sive1 al?\gh x may possibly be reg>d$ z ! precursor ( ! mod]n /reaml9e wire4 ,x is notable t1 s f>1 ! wir+ ( all ,g]man a]oplanes is effect$ by cable1 s t app>5tly ! m]its ( ! /reaml9e wire are n recogniz$4 ,x is also surpris+ t no attempt has be5 made to /reaml9e ! cable4 ,a device = ty+ ! wires & prev5t+ friction at ! po9t ( int]section1 f\nd on ne>ly all enemy a]oplanes1 is indicat$ by ,fig4 #aaf1 & !re are also in/ances ( quick release devices1 ^! be+ popul> 9 ?is c\ntry ab\t #aiab1 & n[ obsolete4 ,al?\gh det]m9$ attempts h be5 made ( late to entirely elim9ate expos$ wir+1 examples ( ?is occurr+ 9 ! rec5t ,g]man ,fokk] triplane1 x appe>s t ! v>i\s alt]ations eng5d]$ by ?is proc$ure 9 ! /ructure ( ! ma*9e m ?an c\nt]act ! sav+ 9 head resi/ance4 ,moreov]1 ) mod]n me?ods ( con/ruction ! ultimate /r5g? ( a wireless w+ /ructure leaves consid]able room = improvem5t1 & ! price paid = ! sav+ is too great4 ,! arrival ( ! all-/eel a]oplane w\ld entirely alt] ! condition ( ?+s1 z ) ?is con/ruction mu* bett] *ances exi/ = ! production ( a reasonably /rong w+ /ructure )\t expos$ w+ brac+4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,eng9e ,,m\nt+s4 ,! m\nt+ ( ! eng9e & ! g5]al arrangem5t con/itute "o ( ! mo/ important & int]e/+ sections ( a]oplane con/ruction1 & p]haps a brief outl9e ( ! v>i\s eng9es 9 use w suitably preface a consid]ation ( ! m\nt+s ( ! diff]5t types4 ,al?\gh !re are signs t c]ta9 revolution>y eng9es may ev5tually come into use1 ! types 9 use on mod]n aircraft are ! /ation>y air & wat]-cool$1 ! radial air & wat]-cool$1 & ! air-cool$ rot>y4 ,! great] v>iety occurs ) ! /ation>y type ( eng9e1 :i* may be sub-divid$ into ^? 9 :i* ! cyl9d]s are arrang$ v]tically 9 l9e1 & ^? :]e ! cyl9d]s view$ f ! front =m a ,v4 ,eng9es typical ( ! =m] class are ! ,be>dmore1 ,gre51 ,m]c$es1 & ,b5z1 all ( :i* are wat]-cool$2 & ( ! latt] class1 ,rolls-,royce1 ,sunbeam1 ,hispano-,suiza wat]-cool$1 & ! ,r5ault & ,r4,a4,f4 air-cool$4 ,! types ( radial eng9es :i* h be5 ext5sively us$ are conf9$ to two1 ^! be+ ! air-cool$ ,anzani & ! wat]-cool$ ,salmson4 ,!re is ano!r radial eng9e ( comp>atively rec5t production2 b m5tion ( ?is :ile pres5t conditions obta9 is n p]missible4 ,rot>y eng9es ( note are ! ,gnome1 ,le ,rhone1 & ,cl]get1 all ( :i* are necess>ily air-cool$4 ,ess5tial ,requirem5ts ( an ,eng9e ,m\nt+4 ,! ess5tial features ( any m\nt+ are absolute rigidity1 accessibility to p]mit ease ( erection & dism\nt+2 & x %\ld also be ( a mod]ately l[ weight4 ,moreov]1 ! g5]al arrangem5t mu/ (f] a m9imum ( head resi/ance1 al?\gh 9 ?is direction ! type ( eng9e us$ is a det]m9+ factor4 ,rigidity is a p>am\nt consid]ation1 = ! slighte/ t5d5cy to slackness or 8play10 "u ! effect ( eng9e vibration1 spe$ily develops1 until ei!r s]i\s /resses are induc$ 9 ! =e "p ( ! fuselage or ! eng9e loses its correct alignm5t1 ) a consequ5t detrim5tal effect on ! fly+ qualities ( ! a]oplane4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 %\ld be provid$ aga9/ 9 ! g5]al design2 b x is also a cont+5cy :i* %\ld be kept 9 m9d dur+ ! actual con/ruction ( ! v>i\s compon5ts ( ! complete m\nt+4 ,a detail :i* does n always receive suffici5t att5tion is ! provision ( adequate brac+ aga9/ ! ?ru/ ( ! eng9e4 ,:]e ! con/ruction is su* t ! eng9e-be>]s =m an integral "p ( ! fuselage /ructure1 !re is g5]ally little fault to f9d1 b ) "s %eet /eel m\nt+s1 p>ticul>ly ^? employ$ = ! rot>y type ( eng9e1 ! only brac+ 9 a =e-&-aft direction is t provid$ by ! flang$ edges ( ! plate1 :i* are usually mu* too n>r[ to be ( real use4 ,fur!r1 ! con/ruction ( bo? ! eng9e m\nt+ & ! =e "p ( ! fuselage %\ld be ( ! necess>y /r5g? to ensure t ! be>]s support+ ! eng9e are always correctly 9 alignm5t & dead level4 ,) "s me?ods ( con/ruction ! weight ( ! eng9e & v>i\s l&+ %ocks1 result aft] a "t 9 ! l[]+ ( ! be>]s at ! front1 :i* means t ! angle ( ?ru/ is n 9 its correct position relative to ! c5tre ( gravity & ! incid5ce ( ! w+s1 ?is be+ extremely detrim5tal to ! fly+ prop]ties ( ! ma*9e4 ,mat]ials4 ,wood1 on acc\nt ( its prop]ty ( absorb+ vibration1 is p>ticul>ly well suit$ = ! con/ruction ( ! eng9e m\nt+1 & "o f9ds examples ( its use 9 a v>iety ( ways4 ,p]haps ! mo/ common =m is t 9 :i* a be>] ( a% or spruce1 *annell$ out betwe5 ! fa/5+-d[n bolt holes = lightness1 is atta*$ to /eel brackets :i* 9 turn are bolt$ to ! v>i\s fuselage memb]s4 ,a developm5t ( ?is me?od consi/s ( m\nt+ ! be>]s on ei!r multi-ply =m]s ( wood1 or built-up wood brackets /iff5$ ) a ?ree-ply cov]+ on ea* side1 & bo? ( ^! arrangem5ts are be+ ext5sively us$4 ,%eet /eel is us$ = ! m\nt+s ( v>i\s ma*9es1 b x does n possess ! *>act]i/ic ( absorb+ vibration4 ,9 "s in/ances "o f9ds t ! eng9e has be5 specifically design$ to be support$ on be>]s ( ! tubul> v>iety1 9 ei!r /eel or duralum92 b "h aga9 rigidity is difficult ( atta9m5t4 ,al?\gh ! use ( weld+1 t is to any ext5t1 is n advisable 9 ! con/ruction ( ! eng9e m\nt+1 "o f9ds ?is process v ext5sively us$ = ! m\nt+s ( "s mod]n ma*9es4 ,9 "o p>ticul> in/ance1 ! tubul> be>]s are support$ f ! /eel tube fuselage by v>i\s tubes1 ! :ole /ructure be+ weld$1 & al?\gh e jo9t successfully surviv$ a sma% :i* result$ 9 a consid]able b5d+ & di/ortion ( ! fuselage1 its use does n eng5d] a s5se ( security or reliability4 ,rot>y ,eng9e ,m\nt+s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aag4--,rot>y eng9e m\nt+1 9 :i* eng9e is support$ betwe5 two plates4 ,! m\nt+s associat$ ) ! rot>y type ( eng9e fall "u two categories3 ^? :]e ! motor is support$ betwe5 two or m plates1 & ^? 9 :i* ! motor itself is ov]hung4 ,! me?od ( m\nt+ adopt$ = ! fir/ case is g5]ally ! type %[n by ,fig4 #aag4 ,! plates are press$ or b5t up f %eet /eel1 & all edges flang$ to prev5t buckl+4 ,! front plate embodies a ball race1 ?r\gh :i* ! propell] %aft runs1 :ile to ! re> be>] is bolt$ ! back plate ( ! eng9e4 ,?is arrangem5t ) m9or v>iations has be5 ext5sively us$ = ! diff]5t makes ( small sc\t+ biplanes eng9$ ) ! #hj h4p4 & #ajj h4p4 ,gnome motors4 ,:]e ! weight ( ! rot>y eng9e us$ is excessive1 z 9 ! case ( ! #afj h4p4 ,gnome ) #bj cyl9d]s1 :i* is n[ out ( date1 a m\nt+ incorporat+ ?ree be>]s is us$4 ,! arrangem5t w\ld be simil> to t indicat$ by ,fig4 #aag1 ) ! addition ( an extra be>] = ! support ( ! crank-%aft ext5sion4 ,ov]hung ,m\nt+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aah4--,ov]hung rot>y eng9e m\nt+4 ,! ov]hung type ( eng9e m\nt+ :i* is us$ = bo? propell] & tractor a]oplanes1 is %[n by ,fig4 #aah4 ,9 ?is case ! back plate ( ! motor is bolt$ to ! capp+ plate1 :ile an ext5sion ( ! holl[ crank %aft is support$ by a small] re> plate4 ,?is sy/em has be5 v widely us$1 *iefly by reason ( its extreme lightness1 & ! great facility af=d$ = ! op]ation ( dism\nt+ ! eng9e2 inde$1 x w\ld be difficult to f9d an arrangem5t 9 :i* ! dem&s ( accessibility are s well satisfi$4 ,ano!r =m ( ov]hung m\nt+1 :i* has be5 us$ = a radial ,anzani motor1 is %[n by ,fig4 #aai4 ,9 ?is case ! f\r long]ons ( ! fuselage are capp$ by a s+le flang$ /eel plate1 to :i* ! eng9e is atta*$ by long bolts ?r\gh ! crank case4 ,additional support is provid$ by light /eel tube /ays1 :i* are tak5 f v>i\s po9ts on ! front ( ! crank case to ! c5tre section ( ! upp] plane1 or o!r p>ts ( ! ma*9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aai4--;,anzani type eng9e m\nt+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,front ,,elevation ,,side ,,elevation ,,fig4 #abj4--;,an ov]hung m\nt+ built up ( /eel tubes4 ,a di/9ctly orig9al type ( ov]hung m\nt+ is %[n by ,fig4 #abj 9 front & side elevation1 ?is be+ us$ on a ma*9e incorporat+ an all-/eel fuselage4 ,! r+ to :i* ! back plate ( ! eng9e is bolt$1 is support$ f ! f\r corn]s ( ! fuselage by /eel tub+1 :ile ! be>+ = ! crank-%aft ext5sion is =m$ by a pyramid ( tubes weld$ to a press+ ( %eet /eel1 to :i* 9 turn is bolt$ a ball-race h\s+4 ,at ea* corn] ! ?ree conv]g+ tubes are weld$ toge!r1 & bolt$ to small angle plates1 :i* are also weld$ to ! framework ( ! fuselage4 ,x w be se5 t ! /r5g? ( ?is m\nt+ is entirely dep5d5t ^u ! weld+2 b su* reliance1 9 view ( ! g5]ally unc]ta9 nature ( ?is latt] process1 is n to be recomm5d$4 ,a ,/ation>y ,eng9e ,m\nt+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aba4--,/ation>y eng9e m\nt+4 ,a m\nt+ us$ = a #gj h4p4 air-cool$ ,r5ault1 :i* is design$ to be support$ by %ort l5g?s ( /eel tube project+ f ! crank case1 is %[n by ,fig4 #aba1 ?is p>ticul> arrangem5t be+ us$ on a propell] biplane4 ,! f\r a% long]ons ( ! nacelle are built up 9 ! =m ( a box gird]1 ! /ruts imm$iately "u ! eng9e be>]s be+ re9=c$ ) /eel plates4 ,! /eel tubes f ! crank case emb$d$ 9 a /eel be>+1 compos$ ( two semi-circul> clips1 :i* are let into ! upp] long]ons1 & are prev5t$ f mov+ sideways by /eel coll>s sweat$ to ! tubes & abutt+ aga9/ ! fix+ clips4 ,9 ?is case1 by ! removal ( ! f\r fix+ clips & ! necess>y pipe connections1 ! eng9e c be lift$ bodily out4 ,multi-,eng9e ,m\nt+s4 ,sev]al v]sions ( ! type ( ma*9e employ+ two or m eng9es1 & :i*1 by ! way1 is reg>d$ z be+ ! type mo/ suitable = ! comm]cial purposes ( ! future1 are exi/5t4 ,! usual arrangem5t ) ! tw9-eng9$ ma*9e is to support ! eng9es betwe5 ! planes on ei!r side ( ! body1 ! be>]s be+ m\nt$ on a /ructure ( /ruts1 :i* also s]ve z int]plane supports4 ,) reg>d to ! fly+-boat type ( ma*9e1 a fav\rite practice is to m\nt ! motor on ! f\r /ruts support+ ! c5tre section ( ! upp] plane1 :i* is brac$ by /ruts & wires f diff]5t po9ts on ! hull or body4 ,al?\gh ! mod]n aircraft eng9e is ( greatly increas$ p[]1 comp>$ ) ! eng9e ( ! p]iod #aiab-aiad1 "o does n f9d any great diff]5ce 9 ! /ructural features ( ! m\nt+ employ$1 & 9 view ( ! v div]se arrangem5ts = m\nt+ ! same type ( eng9e :i* n[ exi/1 !re is ne$ = great] uni=mity4 ,) reg>d to ! mat]ials employ$1 !re is a v pron\nc$ tr5d t[>ds ! great] use ( wood1 :i* circum/ance is c]ta9ly at v>iance ) ! (t-port5d$ approa*+ era ( /eel4 ,z indicat$ 9 previ\s *apt]s1 wood possesses rem>kable p[]s ( resi/ance to sudd5 %ock1 :i*1 comb9$ ) its quality ( absorb+ vibration1 r5d]s x peculi>ly suitable = ! /ructure ( ! a]oplane1 & despite its num]\s defects1 w und\bt$ly cont9ue 9 use until ei!r ! available supplies ( suitable timb] are exhau/$1 or until ! production ( a rem>kably light alloy possess+ high /r5g? values4 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,erection ,,& ,,alignm5t4 ,! accurate erection & alignm5t or tru+ up ( ! a]oplane1 is a cog5t factor 9 ensur+ t ! be/ p]=mance is obta9$1 & x is almo/ platitud9\s to emphasize ! fact t a ma*9e incorrectly align$ gives inf]ior results 9 flight1 entails great] att5tion on ! "p ( ! pilot1 & may possibly s]i\sly int]f]e ) ! g5]al /ability ( ! a]oplane4 ,! degree ( precision atta9$ 9 ! manufacture ( ! v>i\s compon5ts is reflect$ 9 ! ease or o!rwise ) :i* ! complete assembly is align$2 inde$1 accuracy ( erection is impossible )\t ! close obs]vance ( limits & g5]al tru5ess 9 ! production ( ! diff]5t p>ts4 ,= ?is reason ! erection ( ! pr9cipal compon5ts is survey$ z a necess>y prelim9>y to a consid]ation ( _! assembly 9 ! complete /ructure4 ,accurate ,"p ,production4 ,9 ! production ( ! v>i\s /ruts1 long]ons & fitt+s ( ! fuselage1 ! w+ sp>s1 compression & int]plane /ruts ( ! planes1 ! utmo/ accuracy mu/ be obs]v$4 ,al?\gh tol]ances are p]missible ) reg>d to ! ov]all dim5sions ( ! /ruts1 sp>s1 long]ons1 etc41 ! l5g?s p>ticul>ly ( ! fuselage /ruts %\ld be absolutely correct to draw+4 ,! bad effects ( a /rut1 say #a millimetre %ort1 are n re/rict$ to ! p>ticul> compon5t ( :i* x =ms a "p1 b are noticeable 9 "o way or ano!r 9 ! complete /ructure4 ,simil>ly ! ends ( /ruts :i* are requir$ to be squ>e %\ld be dead squ>e1 & ^? :i* are cut to a bevel %\ld correspond ) ! correct angle4 ,! result ( ! slighte/ discrepancy 9 ?is respect becomes spe$ily app>5t :5 ! defective /ruts are assembl$1 z ! t5sion ( ! brac+ wires w result 9 ! /rut becom+ b[$ or b5t1 ?is be+ due to ! b$d+ d[n ( ! /rut end 9 ! socket or clip4 ,x is also advisable to trim ! ends 9 a ma*9e aft] be+ sawn to some?+ approa*+ ! correct l5g?1 & ! practice ( saw+ to dead l5g? %\ld n be p]mitt$4 ,! surface ( a sawn /rut end is =m$ ( a numb] ( m or less ragg$ fibres1 :i* 9 position 9 ! ma*9e & "u pressure ( ! brac+ wires t5d to gradually flatt5 d[n1 ?is result+ 9 slack wires & loss ( alignm5t4 ,absolute accuracy & uni=mity ( "p production c only be obta9$ by ! use ( jigs1 pref]ably ( metal1 & "s =m ( jig %\ld c]ta9ly be us$ = cutt+ ! v>i\s /ruts to l5g?4 ,ref]r+ aga9 to ! necessity ( ! /rut ends be+ ( ! correct angle1 x is surpris+ to note ! effect ( ! smalle/ inaccuracy4 ,! writ] has frequ5tly notic$ fuselage /ruts consid]ably out ( /raight1 ! gra9 ( ! timb] be+ sometimes advanc$ z ! reason4 ,h[ev]1 ! removal ( ! defective /rut always result$ 9 its return to a /raight condition4 ,x %\ld be realiz$ t ! effect ( an initially b5t /rut is a r$uction ( /r5g?1 & z ?is may prove a s\rce ( dang]1 x is 9 itself suffici5t reason = ! rigid obs]vance ( l5g? limits4 ,drill+ ( ,bolt ,holes4 ,( equal importance is ! drill+ ( ! v>i\s bolt holes = ! atta*m5t ( ! fitt+s4 ,x is n always advisable to drill ! holes 9 ! sp>s & long]ons be=e ! fitt+s are appli$1 b 9 num]\s in/ances ?is is possible1 & :]e int]*angeability is an important consid]ation x is imp]ative4 ,! practice ( sett+ out ! positions ( ! v>i\s holes f a draw+ & !n drill+ ) a h& brace1 is a proc$ure only ju/ifi$ :5 a small numb] ( ma*9es ( a c]ta9 type are to be produc$1 & ought by n[ to be obsolete4 ,"u su* a sy/em no two sp>s w\ld be exactly ! same1 z ow+ to ! influ5ce ( gra9 9 ! wood1 ! drill or bit always t5ds to 8run0 f ! correct angle4 ,view$ f ! aspect ( quantity production su* a practice is v defici5t4 ,x is only by ! use ( metal drill+ jigs ( suitable design t any?+ approa*+ absolute accuracy is possible4 ,su* jigs %\ld n only locate ! hole1 b %\ld also =m a guide = ! drill4 ,9 ! atta*m5t ( ! fitt+s to a prop]ly jig-drill$ sp>1 x %\ld n be necess>y to aga9 drill ?r\gh1 al?\gh ?is (t5 occurs4 ,:]e ?is is done1 !re is a di/9ct possibility ( ! brace n be+ held true1 :i* means t ! hole becomes l>g] ?an necess>y & n infrequ5tly oval 9 %ape4 ,an additional bad po9t is ! impossibility ( detect+ su* a fault aft] ! fitt+ is bolt$ on1 & x may n be realiz$ until a noticeably slack wire 9 ! complete ma*9e indicates ! movem5t ( ! fitt+4 ,9 ! =ego+1 absolute accuracy 9 ! v>i\s fitt+s has be5 assum$1 b un=tunately 9 practice almo/ ! rev]se is true4 ,v>iation g5]ally occurs 9 built- or b5t-up fitt+s1 & is usually ! result ( jigs ( ei!r incorrect or bad design4 ,:]e ! v>iation includes a hole out ( position1 ! use ( ?is fitt+ on a previ\sly drill$ wood "p is only possible by ! bad practice ( drill+ ?r\gh ) ! results expla9$ above4 ,x w ?us be realiz$ t ! uni=mity & accuracy ( compon5t production is only atta9able by ! utmo/ precision 9 ! manufacture ( bo? wood & metal p>ts4 ,lock+ ( ,bolts4 ,?r\gh\t ! complete ma*9e x is necess>y to lock ! nuts ( ! bolts1 to prev5t _! gradual loos5+ "u ! vibration ( ! eng9e1 & diff]5t me?ods ( accompli%+ ?is are 9 use4 ,und\bt$ly ! be/ =m ( lock is by ! use ( a ca/ellat$ nut & split p94 ,by ?is me?od "o c readily asc]ta9 :e!r or no a bolt is lock$1 :ile by ! )drawal ( ! split p9 ! bolt may be tak5 out4 ,a disadvantage is t its use entails consid]able drill+1 s t a modification consi/s ( fitt+ ca/ellat$ nuts to all bolts liable to removal = m9or adju/m5ts2 :ile else:]e ! ?read$ portion ( ! bolt is left a little long] ?an ! nut1 & !n rivet$ ov]4 ,al?\gh ?is r$uces lab\r1 x is a some:at de/ructive me?od2 & x is also difficult to det]m9e ! adequacy ( ! rivet+4 ,ano!r me?od consi/s ( fil+ ! bolt end flu% ) ! nut1 & !n c5tre pun*+ ?ree or f\r dots 9 ! jo9t betwe5 nut & bolt4 ,?is me?od is neat1 ! removal ( a bolt is easily effect$1 & ! fact t x has be5 us$ 9 ! con/ruction ( "s fa/ sc\t+ biplanes is pro( ( its effectiv5ess4 ,o!r sy/ems include ! use ( two nuts1 ( a s+le nut sold]$ to ! bolt end1 & ! v>i\s pat5t lock-wa%]s1 :i* 9 ?is c\ntry are n greatly 9 vogue4 ,! practice ( re-runn+ d[n ! ?reads ( bolts to ensure ease 9 ! application ( ! nut is n to be recomm5d$--t is1 indiscrim9ately done4 ,unless ! die is prop]ly adju/$ !re is a possibility ( too mu* ?read be+ tak5 (f2 ! result1 an extremely slack nut1 be+ detrim5tal to g5]al reliability4 ,! durability ( an a]oplane 9 s]vice is dep5d5t ^u ! good workman%ip effect$ 9 ! smalle/ & mo/ insignificant detail4 ,moreov]1 x %\ld be rememb]$ t ! abs5ce ( a split p9 may ev5tually result 9 disa/]4 ,tru+ ( ,ma9 ,planes4 ,! planes or sections ( a ma*9e ( ! /raight-w+ type1 z di/9ct f a ma*9e possess+ arr[-%ap$ or retreat+ w+s1 %\ld1 :5 erect$ on ! fuselage1 =m a /raight l9e f tip to tip4 ,?is feature is dep5d5t ^u 7#a7 ! tru5ess ( ! planes1 & 7#b7 ! alignm5t ( ! atta*m5ts on ! fuselage1 ! latt] be+ consid]$ "u ! fuselage head+4 ,to ensure t ! plane is q squ>e1 x %\ld be *eck$ previ\s to cov]+ by diagonal measurem5ts on ! w+ sp>s1 ^! be+ tak5 f accurate set positions su* z are provid$ by ! w+-root atta*m5ts & ! int]plane /rut fitt+s4 ,%\ld a diff]5ce 9 ! diagonals exi/1 ?is c easily be rectifi$ by a slight adju/m5t ( ! turnbuckles incorporat$ 9 ! int]nal plane wir+4 ,z ! ribs ( ! plane are built up be=eh&1 & *eck$ = correct cont\r by patt]n1 little v>iation %\ld occur 9 ! camb]4 ,a po9t :]e diff]5ces may occur is betwe5 ! front sp> & ! lead+ edge1 z ! nose =m]s are g5]ally ins]t$ dur+ ! assembl+ ( ! plane4 ,= ! detection ( faults 9 ?is direction ! template illu/rat$ by ,fig4 #cd 9 ,*apt] ,,iv4 is ( great utility4 ,fabric ,cov]+ ( ,planes4 ,! ev5ness & correct tautness ( ! fabric cov]+ contributes l>gely to ! tru5ess ( ! plane4 ,%\ld ! cov]+ be /ret*$ unev5ly or too tightly1 ! application ( ! dope w cause di/ortion ( ! framework1 :i* c only be obviat$ by re-cov]+4 ,! bad effects ( ?is is m noticeable ) reg>d to ! ail]ons1 elevators & rudd]1 :i*1 be+ ( v sl5d] con/ruction1 are m liable to de=mation4 ,twi/$ or w>p$ control surfaces %\ld nev] be us$1 z su* surfaces n only (f] increas$ resi/ance1 b also int]f]e ) ! balance ( ! ma*9e 9 flight4 ,fuselage ,erection4 ,z ! fuselage con/itutes ! nucleus ( ! a]oplane1 accuracy ( alignm5t 9 ?is compon5t is ess5tial1 & ! degree ( accuracy obta9$ 9 ! complete erection dep5ds l>gely on ! correctness or o!rwise ( ! fuselage4 ,9 diff]5t individual designs ! me?ods employ$ = ! con/ruction ( ! body w be f\nd to v>y consid]ably4 ,! process ( erection adopt$ 9 _m in/ances is to assemble ! sides fir/1 ^u a table or b5* ^u :i* ! correct disposition ( ! v>i\s p>ts h previ\sly be5 set out4 ,! wires are adju/$ until ! sides con=m to ! sett+ out1 :i* are !n pack$ up on a pair ( tre/les & ! cross-/ruts atta*$4 ,x n[ rema9s to align ! body s t x is p]fectly symmetrical 9 plan2 & ?is is accompli%$ by m>k+ ! c5tre ( ea* cross-/rut1 pref]ably be=e ins]tion 9 ! fuselage1 & !n adju/+ ! plan-wires until a cord /ret*$ f ! /]n-po/ to ! nose cov]s ea* c5tre l9e4 ,! cross or sectional brac+-wires are !n t5sion$ until ea* diagonal co9cides absolutely 9 l5g?4 ,?is proc$ure answ]s v well = a small fuselage ( simple con/ruction1 & ( ! wire-brac$ fabric-cov]$ type2 b :]e ! =w>d portion is cov]$ ) ply-wood1 & ! top rails ( ! body are horizontal1 view$ 9 side elevation1 x is usual to true up on a b5*4 ,?is consi/s ( a wood5 /ructure built up ( /rong sides1 ) legs at %ort int]vals1 ! :ole be+ well brac$4 ,! top surface1 on :i* ! body lays1 is compos$ ( bo>ds plac$ :]ev] a plan-/rut occurs4 ,! b5* %\ld be rigidly fix$ to a concrete floor1 ! top plan$ until x is level bo? longitud9ally & transv]sely1 & a c5tre l9e m>k$ on ea* bo>d1 :ile ^! l9es1 *eck$ ) a f9e /eel wire /ret*$ f end to end1 %\ld be 9 exact agreem5t ) x4 ,! fuselage1 hav+ be5 previ\sly assembl$1 ) ! wires ins]t$ & ! plan /ruts accurately c5tr$1 is plac$ on x 9 an inv]t$ position4 ,all wires %\ld be !n slack$ (f1 & ! top1 :i* is n[ und]nea?1 %\ld be wir$ until ! c5tre on ea* /rut co9cides ) ! c5tres on ! b5*4 ,! side wires are !n t5sion$ until ! /]n po/ is v]tical1 or until v>i\s fix$ po9ts1 su* z w+-sp> atta*m5ts1 are 9 agreem5t ) po9ts m>k$ on ! b5* & squ>$ or l9$ up1 & also until ! long]ons are t\*+ e bo>d4 ,! sectional wires are !n tight5$ & adju/$ s t ea* diagonal is ( ! same l5g?2 & ?is w ensure ! c5tre l9es on ! cross-/ruts connect+ ! bottom rails be+ plumb or v]tical ov] ! c5tre l9es ( ! cross-/ruts connect+ ! top rails4 ,:]e ! top rails ( ! fuselage are n p>allel to ! l9e ( flight1 b slope d[n t[>ds ! tail1 x w\ld be necess>y1 if ! b5* me?od is us$1 to con/ruct x s t ! bo>ds con=m to ! slope4 ,) ! wire-brac$ fuselage m9or adju/m5ts to ! w+-sp> atta*m5ts1 :i* pr$et]m9e ! angle ( incid5ce ( ! ma9 planes1 c be subsequ5tly made4 ,a type ( fuselage :i* precludes ?is op]ation1 & :i* dem&s extreme accuracy 9 con/ruction1 is t 9 :i* ! brac+ ( ! =w>d portion is effect$ by ?ree-ply1 all wir+ 9 a v]tical dim5sion be+ elim9at$1 ?is sy/em be+ describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,viii4 & illu/rat$ by ,fig4 #ff4 ,) ?is con/ruction po9ts su* z ! w+ sp> atta*m5ts are fix$1 & _c be alt]$ aft] ! fuselage is built1 s t meticul\s c>e mu/ be tak5 9 ! sett+ ( ! %ort w+ sp>s across ! body1 or ! fitt+s to :i* ! w+ roots are an*or$4 ,:]e a jo9t occurs 9 ! fuselage x is usual to build ! tail sep>ate f ! front portion1 & occasionally ! two sections are tru$ up indep5d5tly4 ,?is does n give su* good results z :5 ! two portions1 al?\gh sep>ately built1 are jo9$ toge!r & tru$ up complete4 ,*eck+ ( ,fuselage4 ,to *eck ! fuselage = alignm5t x %\ld be plac$ on a pair ( tre/les1 "o und]nea? ! =w>d und]c>riage /rut fix+ & ! o!r "u a v]tical /rut a %ort di/ance f ! /]n po/4 ,! body %\ld !n be levell$ up longitud9ally by a /raight$ge plac$ on two %ort /raight$ges ( exactly simil> wid?s1 "o be+ plac$ at ! front & ! o!r t[>ds ! tail4 ,x %\ld !n be pack$ up on ! tre/les until ! top long]ons are dead level across4 ,at ?is po9t1 if ! body is 9 correct alignm5t1 ! eng9e-be>]s w\ld be level bo? longitud9ally & transv]sely1 ! incid5ce ( ! ma9 sp> atta*m5ts %\ld be correct & ! /]n po/ p]fectly v]tical 9 all directions4 ,o!r te/s %\ld include ! plac+ ( a /raight$ge at ! nose1 & ano!r plac$ at ! po9ts :]e /ruts occur1 %\ld1 :5 sight$ across ! top edges1 be 8out ( w9d10 t is 9 agreem5t4 ,a po9t :i* %\ld be c>efully levell$ is t portion ( ! fuselage t[>ds ! /]n po/ to :i* is atta*$ ! fix$ tail plane4 ,any inaccuracy "h w result 9 ! tail be+ twi/$ 9 relation to ! ma9 planes4 ,ea* fitt+ or atta*m5t %\ld also be equidi/ant f ! /]n po/1 & ! effect ( v>iation "h w be evid5c$ by ! tail plane be+ out ( squ>e ) ! c5tre l9e ( ! fuselage4 ,:]e ! type ( ma*9e is su* t ! eng9e is support$ on be>]s ( wood1 x is usual to drill ! holes = ! accommodation ( ! hold+-d[n bolts to jig be=e ! be>] is built 9 ! /ructure4 ,9 ?is case c>e %\ld be tak5 to ensure t ! correspond+ bolt holes 9 ea* be>] are squ>e ) ! c5tre l9e4 ,any deviation w result 9 ! axis ( ! eng9e =m+ an angle ) ! c5tre l9e4 ,alignm5t ( ,complete ,ma*9e4 ,9 ?is connection x w be bett] to consid] ! alignm5t ( a type ( ma*9e 9 common use3 a tractor-biplane 9 :i* ! upp] plane is compos$ ( two out] planes & a c5tre section1 & ! l[] plane 9 two sections1 ea* abutt+ aga9/ ! side ( ! fuselage1 ?is arrangem5t be+ %[n 9 front elevation by ,fig4 #abb4 ,! fir/ op]ation is ! levell+ ( ! fuselage transv]sely by plac+ ! level across ! eng9e be>]s1 & ! atta*m5t ( ! c5tre section1 :i* is m\nt$ ^u f\r /ruts :i* h be5 previ\sly cut to dead l5g? & te/$ by jig4 ,?is1 consid]$ 9 front elevation1 %\ld be c5trally plac$ ov] ! body1 & ?is is assur$ by adju/m5ts 9 ! wires ,a-,a#a4 ,?is c be *eck$ by dropp+ a plumb-l9e f ! c5tre plane sp> ends & measur+ ! di/ance f ! l9e to ! side ( ! body1 ! di/ances on ei!r side %\ld1 ( c\rse1 co9cide4 ,! next po9t is to brace ! out] sections to ! correct dih$ral4 ,"o me?od ( accompli%+ ?is1 z %[n by ,fig4 #abb1 is by ! use ( a dih$ral bo>d1 ?is be+ prep>$ p]fectly /raight on "o edge1 ! o!r be+ tap]$ to ! desir$ angle4 ,! wires are !n adju/$ until ! /raight$ge is level4 ,ano!r me?od is to use an ord9>y /raight$ge plac$ along ! top surface ( ! plane1 ! angle be+ measur$ ) a protractor or cl9omet]1 ! latt] in/rum5t be+ mo/ accurate4 ,to *eck ! dih$ral a l9e c be /ret*$ betwe5 po9ts imm$iately above ! top int]plane /ruts on ea* side & !n measur+ to ! c5tre section1 b x w\ld be difficult to detect diff]5ces 9 ! angles ( ea* w+4 ,) reg>d to ! und]c>riage1 ! di/ances betwe5 l9es dropp$ f ! fuselage sides & ! :eel c5tres %\ld co9cide4 ,alignm5t ( ,ma*9e 9 ,side ,elevation4 ,consid]+ ! side elevation1 ,fig4 #abc1 alignm5t "h is conc]n$ ) ! incid5ce ( ! ma9 planes1 ! di/ance =w>d ( ! top plane f ! l[] plane or /agg]1 & ! level ( ! eng9e be>]s 9 relation to ! top long]ons ( ! fuselage4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abb4--,%[+ use ( dih$ral bo>d & _s-level4 ,,fig4 #abc4--;,*eck+ ( ma9-plane incid5ce & /agg]4 ,,fig4 #abd4--,template = *eck+ incid5ce4 ,! fuselage %\ld be levell$ longitud9ally by plac+ ! level on ! eng9e be>]s1 assum+ ! eng9e is n 9 place4 ,:5 ! be>]s are level1 ! top long]on %\ld also be level1 9 any case ! incid5ce ( ! plane %\ld only be adju/$ 9 relation to ! eng9e be>]s4 ,to *eck ! /agg]1 a plumb l9e %\ld be dropp$ f ! lead+ edge ( ! c5tre plane1 & adju/m5ts made ) ! incid5ce wires f ! fuselage to ! c5tre-plane /ruts1 until ! requir$ di/ance =w>d f ! lead+ edge ( ! l[] plane is obta9$4 ,! incid5ce c be te/$ by a /raight$ge plac$ "u ! plane & a cl9omet]1 z 9 ,fig4 #abc1 & ano!r device sometimes us$ is %[n by ,fig4 #abd4 ,?is is made ( dry wood1 ! l5g?s ( ! legs to ! tops ( ! sp>s be+ obta9$ f a draw+ ( ! w+ section1 & its incid5ce4 ,plan ,alignm5t ( ,ma*9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abe4--,%[+ po9ts to *eck = correct alignm5t on plan4 ,9 ! plan view1 ,fig4 #abe1 ! di/ances ,,ab & ,,ac mu/ be equal1 ! same apply+ to ,,cd & ,,bd4 ,) mod]n ma*9es ext]nal drift wir+ is obsolete1 s t discrepancies 9 ^! measurem5ts mu/ be rectifi$ by alt]ations 9 ! wir+ ( ! fuselage1 z x is inaccuracy at "s po9t 9 ! latt] compon5t to :i* ! tr\ble may be ascrib$4 ,x is at ?is po9t t "o realizes ! ne$ = precision 9 ! con/ruction ( ! fuselage4 ,9 ,fig4 #abf is %[n a plan view 9 :i* ! ma9 plane is v obvi\sly out ( squ>e ) ! c5tre l9e ( ! body1 ! am\nt is n likely to occur 9 actual practice1 b x has be5 exagg]at$ 9 ! draw+4 ,! cause ( ?is tr\ble c be trac$ to ! %ort w+ sp>s 9 ! fuselage1 to :i* ! l[] plane is atta*$1 or 9 o!r cases to ! fitt+s1 to :i* ! l[] plane is an*or$1 be+ out ( c5tre1 possibly only an insignificant am\nt4 ,! l5g?s ( ! fuselage w+ sp>s are also possible causes ( tr\ble4 ,assum+ t ! re> sp> is ! correct l5g?1 & ! front sp> is ov] ! l5g?1 ?is w\ld result1 :5 ! out] sections 7 atta*$1 9 ! latt] slop+ backw>ds1 :i* aga9 emphasizes ! ne$ = accurate "p production4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abf4 ,) reg>d to ! tail plane1 measurem5ts tak5 f ! extremities ( ! back sp> to "s fix$ po9t =w>d on ! fuselage1 to ! /rut sockets on ! planes1 or to ! re> w+ sp> an*orage1 z 9 ,fig4 #abe1 %\ld be equal4 ,! prim>y consid]ation ) reg>d to ! rudd] & f9 is t1 view$ f ! re>1 !y %\ld be p]p5dicul>1 :i* c be v]ifi$ by a plumb-l9e dropp$ f ! top ( ! rudd]-po/4 ,9 plan view ! fix$ f9 %\ld correspond ) ! c5tre l9e ( ! fuselage al?\gh !re are exceptions to ?is rule1 notably :]e ! f9 is set ov]1 to neutralize propell] torque1 & 9 ?is case ! measurem5ts giv5 9 ! g5]al draw+s mu/ be adh]$ to4 ,t5sion ( ,wires4 ,! correct t5sion+ ( wires is a matt] ^u :i* "s v>iation ( op9ion occurs4 ,al?\gh wires %\ld n be left slack1 conv]sely !y %\ld n be ov]-t5sion$1 z ?is results 9 ! sp>s1 wires1 & /ruts1 be+ initially /ress$ be=e any load due to flight is appli$4 ,9 ?is connection ! importance ( ev5 or uni=m t5sion 9 ! wires may be emphasiz$4 ,! wires 9 "o bay be+ ( great] t5sion ?an ^? 9 an adjac5t bay1 is ! frequ5t cause ( b5t or de=m$ /ruts4 ,! m ext5d$ use ( a tautness met] = ! int]plane wir+ w\ld result 9 great] uni=mity & ! m equal di/ribution ( /resses4 ,,index4 ,ail]on & w>p control1 #aja ,alum9ium1 #af ,an*orage ( wires to eyebolts1 #ee ,a%1 #aj ,a%1 weight (1 #aj ,axle fair+s1 #ih ,biplane truss+1 #fb ,bir*1 #ab ,bir*1 weight (1 #ab ,braz+ & weld+1 #eb ,bridge-type und]c>riage susp5sion1 #ih ,control sy/ems1 #aja ,control by inh]5t /ability1 #ajb ,control1 v]tical column1 #ajc ,control1 :eel type1 #ajd ,control1 ! 8,dep10 #ajf ,control1 ! 8,wright10 #ajg ,control surfaces1 balanc+ (1 #ajb ,cypress1 #ac ,drift brac+1 #fe ,drill+ ( bolt-holes1 #abd ,duralum91 #ag ,eng9e m\nt+s1 #aaf ,eng9e m\nt+s1 rot>y1 #aah ,eng9e m\nt+s1 ov]hung1 #aai ,eng9e m\nt+s1 /ation>y1 #aba ,eng9e m\nt+ mat]ials1 #aag ,erection & alignm5t1 #abc ,fabric1 atta*m5t (1 #dg ,fabric1 sagg+ (1 #dj ,fabric1 t5sion (1 #dh ,fabric1 friction blocks1 #di ,false ribs1 #da ,f95ess ratio1 #bf ,fuselage con/ruction1 #fg ,fuselage cov]+1 #ga ,fuselage cont\rs1 #ge ,fuselage erection1 #abg ,fuselage fitt+s1 #gg ,fuselage /ruts1 #bh ,fuselage types1 #fg ,glue1 defects (1 9 w+ sp>s1 #cc ,hickory1 #aa ,int]plane /ruts1 tap]+ (1 #bf ,int]plane /rut connections1 #ea ,lead+ & trail+ edges1 #dc ,lift wires1 an*orage (1 #fb ,lock+ ( bolts1 #abe ,long]ons1 #fh ,long]on sections1 #fi ,long]on1 jo9t+ (1 #gj ,long]on1 %ap+ (1 #fi ,mahogany1 ,honduras1 #aa ,mahogany1 ,honduras1 weight (1 #aa ,mahogany1 ,cuban1 weight (1 #ab ,ma9 planes1 tru+ (1 #abf ,ma9 sp>s1 %ap+ (1 #cb ,mat]ials1 #f ,maurice ,f>man /rut arrangem5t1 #fb ,metal con/ruction1 g5]al1 #d ,metal w+ con/ruction1 #de ,me?ods ( manufacture1 g5]al1 #c ,moi/ure cont5t ( timb]1 #h ,monoplane brac+1 #fj ,monocoque fuselage con/ruction1 #gb ,multi-ply wood1 #ac ,oleo-pneumatic ge>1 #ie ,oregon p9e1 #ab ,p>ang1 #ac ,piano wire brac+1 #ajh ,piano wire connections1 #aji ,plane con/ruction1 #cj ,plane con/ruction1 details (1 #dj ,planes1 arrangem5t (1 #cc ,popl>1 #ab ,pratt truss1 #ei ,rak$ w+ tip1 effici5cy (1 #dc ,ribs1 spac+ (1 #dj ,ribs1 types 9 use1 #cd ,ribs "u compression1 #cf ,%akes1 #ad ,%r9kage1 #g ,silv] spruce1 #h ,silv] spruce1 weight (1 #h ,s+le-/rut truss1 #fc ,sp> con/ruction1 holl[1 #bj-bb ,sp>1 lam9at$1 #ai ,sp> sections1 #ai ,sp>s & /ruts1 #ah ,spruce fir1 #i ,/&>dization ( details1 g5]al1 #b ,/eel1 #ae ,/eel tube1 #af ,/eel-tube fuselage con/ruction1 #hd ,/r&$ cable1 #aji ,/r&$-cable connections1 #aaa ,/reaml9e wires1 #aac ,/reaml9e wires1 atta*m5ts1 #aac ,/rut sections1 #bc ,/rut sections1 design (1 #bf ,/rut mat]ials1 #be ,/rut socket1 8,wright10 #ec ,/rut socket1 8,cody10 #ec ,/rut-socket fair+s1 #eh ,susp5sion spr+s1 /eel1 #ie ,susp5sion spr+s1 rubb]1 #ig ,tabulat$ te/s1 unreliability (1 #h ,?ree-ply fuselage con/ruction1 #ga ,?und] %akes1 #aa ,timb]1 defects 91 #ad ,trail+ edge1 wire1 #dc ,twi/$ gra91 #ad ,und]c>riage brakes1 #ii ,und]c>riage details1 #ic ,und]c>riage1 pr9ciples ( design1 #hf ,und]c>riage skids1 #ic ,und]c>riage types1 #hi ,walnut1 #aa ,:ite deal1 #i ,w+ baffles1 #dd ,w+ fitt+s1 atta*m5t to sp>s1 #ea ,w+-tip con/ruction1 #ci ,w+-tip details1 #ch ,w+-truss+ sy/ems1 #ei ,wireless w+ /ructures1 #fa ,wires & connections1 #ajh ,wires1 results ( te/s on1 #aji ,wires1 relative /r5g?s (1 #aab ,wires1 t5sion (1 #acd ,wood1 *oice ( a suitable1 #f ,wood1 v>iable qualities (1 #f ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,,william ,,cl[es ,,& ,,sons1 ,,limit$1 ,,london ,,& ,,beccles4 ,j ,publi%$4 ,ov] #ajj pages4 ,) num]\s ,diagrams4 ,fcap #hvo4 ,pap] wrapp]1 ,price #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,! ,aircraft ,id5tification ,book ,a ,,concise ,,guide ,,to ,,! ,,recognition ,,( ,,diff]5t ,,types ,,& ,,makes ,,( ,,all ,,k9ds ,,( ,,a]oplanes ,,& ,,air%ips ,,by ,r4 ,,borlase ,,mat!ws ,associate ,memb] ( ! ,in/itution ( ,civil ,eng9e]s1 ,memb] ( ! ,in/itution ( ,electrical ,eng9e]s1 ,fell[ ( ! ,royal ,a]onautical ,society1 ,:itwor? ,exhibition]1 ,au?or ( ! 8,aviation ,pocket-,book10 etc4 ,,& ,g4 ,t4 ,,cl>kson ,,extract ,,f ,,preface ,j z "o make ( motor c> c be di/+ui%$ f ano!r by not+ "s *>act]i/ic detail1 su* z ! radiator1 ! trade m>k1 ! hubs1 etc41 s c ! ma9 types ( a]oplanes & air%ips be readily diff]5tiat$ by ! recognition ( ! out/&+ features ( ea* ma*9e4 ,x mu/ be admitt$1 nev]!less1 t x ne$s consid]able exp]i5ce to be able def9itely to classify detail modifications ( a p>ticul> type ( aircraft1 = ! diff]5ce is (t5 v slight4 ,besides1 ! ma*9es are frequ5tly only visible at a great di/ance1 & = b %ort p]iods 7_! spe$ be+ s high--#fj to #aej miles p] h\r74 ,!re are1 moreov]1 physical difficulties to cont5d )1 9 ! =m ( cl\ds1 effects ( w9ds1 position ( ! sun1 etc4 ,x is claim$1 h[ev]1 t ?is book w enable ! read] to id5tify any aircraft1 provid$ x c be se5 = suffici5t "t to obs]ve its ma9 features4 ,,london ,,crosby ,,lockwood ,,& ,,son1 #g ,,/ation]s' ,,hall ,,c\rt1 ,,ludgate ,,hill1 ,e4,c4 #d1 ,,& #e ,,broadway1 ,,we/m9/]1 ,s4,w4 #a ,,li/ ,,( ,,books ,,on ,,aviation4 ,,! ,,aviation ,,pocket ,,book4 ,a ,comp5dium ( ,mod]n ,practice & a collection ( useful ,notes1 ,=mul1 ,rules & ,tables relat+ to ,a]onautics4 ,by ,r4 ,,borlase ,,mat!ws1 ,:4 ,ex41 ,a4,m4,in/4,c4,e41 ,m4,i4,e4,e41 ,f4,r4,ae4,s41 etc4 ,assi/$ by ,speciali/s4 ,new ,edition1 revis$ & enl>g$4 ,fully illu/rat$4 ,fcap #hvo4 #aiah ,edition4 ,price #fs4 net4 ,,! ,a4,b4,c4 ,,( ,,aviation4 ,a ,complete ,practical ,treatise outl9+ cle>ly ! elem5ts ( ,a]onautical ,eng9e]+1 ) special ref]5ce to simplifi$ explanations ( ! ,!ory ( ,flight1 ,a]odynamics1 & ,basic ,pr9ciples und]ly+ ! ,action ( ,balloons & ,airplanes ( all types4 ,by ,capta9 ,,victor ,w4 ,,pag1 ( ! ,u4,s4 ,air ,s]vice4 ,demy #hvo4 #bgd pages1 ) v num]\s illu/rations & #d fold+ plates4 ,price #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,?is ,"w conta9s valuable in/ructions = all ,aviation ,/ud5ts1 ,airplane ,me*anics1 ,squadron ,eng9e]+ ,(fic]s1 & e "o int]e/$ 9 ,con/ruction & ,up-keep ( ,airplanes4 ,,aviation ,,eng9es4 ,_! ,design1 ,con/ruction1 ,op]ation1 & ,repair4 ,a ,book = ! ,/ud5t1 ,eng9e]1 & all int]e/$ 9 ,aviation4 ,giv+ practical in/ruction on repair & ma9t5ance4 ,by ,capta9 ,,victor ,w4 ,,pag1 ( ! ,u4,s4 ,air ,s]vice4 #ehj pages1 ) ov] #bdj illu/rations4 ,m$ium #hvo1 #afs4 net4 ,,gloss>y ,,( ,,aviation ,,t]ms4 ,engli%-,fr5*1 ,fr5*-,engli%4 ,cr4 #hvo1 #ajj pages1 ) plates & illu/rations4 ,by ,capta9 ,,victor ,w4 ,,pag & ,lieut4 ,,paul ,,mont>iol4 ,price #es4 net4 ,,aviation ,,*>t4 ,a l>ge ,wall ,*>t1 %[+ a typical ,a]oplane ,p[] ,plant 9 ,"p ,section ) all important compon5ts4 ,fold+ to pocket size4 ,price #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,obs]vation ,,balloons4 ,by ,,emil ,j4 ,,widm]4 #aej pages1 ) #c plates & #ch illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo4 #afs4 net4 ,,crosby ,,lockwood ,,& ,,son1 #g ,,/ation]s' ,,hall ,,c\rt1 ,e4,c4 #d4 ,transcrib]'s ,notes ,punctuation1 hyph5ation1 & spell+ 7 made consi/5t :5 a pr$om9ant pref]5ce 0 f\nd 9 ! orig9al book2 o!rwise !y 7 n *ang$4 ,simple typographical errors 7 correct$2 unbalanc$ quotation m>ks 7 rem$i$ :5 ! *ange 0 obvi\s1 & o!rwise left unbalanc$4 ,_m illu/rations 9 ?is e,book h be5 left ne> :]e !y orig9ally appe>$1 ev5 :5 t 0 mid-p>agraph4 ,! index 0 n *eck$ = prop] alphabetization or correct page ref]5ces4