,,transcrib]',s ,,note      ,italic text
 is d5ot$ by und]scores4      ,footnote 
an*ors are d5ot$ by numb]1 & ! footnotes
 h be5    plac$ at ! end ( ! *apt]4     
,"s m9or *anges to ! text are not$ at ! 
end ( ! book4          ,,animat$        
,,c>toons    ,illu/ration3 ,,illu/rat+  
,,! ,,me?od ,,( ,,mak+ ,,animat$        
,,c>toons ,,by  ,,cut-,,outs4           
,above3 ,backgr\nd sc5e & ! sep>ate     
items4      ,bel[3 ,complet$ sc5e %[+ "o
 phase ( ! p]=mance (    ! little       
c>dbo>d actors & /age prop]ty4          
,see page #ij                           
,,animat$ ,,c>toons                     
,,h[ ,,!y ,,are ,,made                  
,,_! ,,orig9 ,,& ,,developm5t           
,,by                                    
,e4 ,g4 ,,lutz                          
,,illu/rat$                             
,,new ,,york                            
,,*>les ,,scribn]',s ,,sons             
#aibj                                   
,,copyright1 #aibj1 ,,by                
,,*>les ,,scribn]',s ,,sons             

,publi%$ ,febru>y1 #aibj                
,illu/ration3 7,colophon7               
,,introduction      ,we le>n ?r\gh !    
function+ ( our s5ses2 sight ! mo/      
preci\s %[s u ! appe>ance ( ! ext]ior   
_w4 ,be=e  ! dawn ( pictorial           
pres5tation1 man 0 visually cognizant   
only ( 8 imm$iate or pres5t surr\nd+s4  
,on ! developm5t  ( reali/ic pictur+ x 0
 possible1 m or less tru?fully1  to     
become acqua9t$ ) ! aspect ( ?+s n      
proximately  p]ceivable4 ,! cog5cy ( !  
p]ceptive impression 0 dep5d5t  ^u !    
graphic fai?fulness ( ! ag5cy--a        
pictorial "w--t  gave ! visual          
repres5tation ( ! di/ant ?+4    ,x is by
 means ( sight1 too1 t ! m9d s9ce !     
beg9n+ (  alphabets has be5 made famili>
 ) ! ?\ghts & ! wisdom (  ! pa/ & put   
into relation%ip ) ! le>n+ & reason+ (  
! pres5t4 ,^! two me?ods ( imp>t+       
k--del9eatory  & by inscrib$ symbols--h 
be5 concurr5t ?r\gh\t ! ages4    ,x 0   
ne>ly a c5tury ago t ,joseph ,nicphore  
,niepce 7#agfe-ahcc71  at               

,*lons-sur-,sane1 9 ,france1 inv5t$     
photography4 ,s9ce t  "t x has be5      
possible to fix on a surface1 by        
physico*emical  means1 pictures ( !     
ext]ior _w4 ,x 0 ano!r way (  ext5d+    
man's horizon1 b a way n dep5d5t1 9 !   
matt] (  lit]alness1 ^u ! v>iations (   
any individual's skill or int5t1  b r ^u
 ! accuracy ( mat]ial means4    ,?\ghts 
& ideas once repres5t$ & pres]v$ by     
picture-writ+1  record$ by symbolical   
signs1 & at la/ inscrib$ by alphabetical
  m>ks 71 9 #ahgg1 regi/]$ by m]e trac+s
 on a surface &  aga9 reproduc$ by ,mr4 
,edison ) 8 phonograph4 ,z 9 !          
photograph1 ! proc$ure 0 purely         
me*anical1 & man's artificial  inv5tions
 ( l9e> m>k+s & arbitr>y symbols 7      
totally  disreg>d$4    ,?r\gh           
photography we le>n ( ! ext]ior nature (
 abs5t ?+s  & ! "* ( ! views 9 di/ant   
places4 ,or x pres]ves  ^! pictorial    
matt]s 9 a mat]ial =m = ! future4 ,!    
phonograph communicates to u ! utt]$    
?\ghts ( o!rs or  br+s into our homes ! 

melodies & songs ( great arti/s t we    
%\ld n o!rwise h ! opportunity to he>4  
,& n[ a new physico*emical m>vel has    
come t appreh5ds1  reproduces1 & gu>ds =
 ! future ano!r s5sorial /imulus4 ,x  is
 ! motion-picture & ! /imulus is        
movem5t4    ,photography & ! r5d]+ (    
s\nds by ! phonograph h bo?  be5 adopt$ 
= in/ruction & amusem5t4 ,!             
motion-picture  also is us$ = ^!        
purposes1 b 9 ! ma9 ! art has  be5      
associat$ ) our leisure h\rs z a means (
 div]sion  or ent]ta9m5t4 ,dur+ ! p]iod 
( its gr[?1 h[ev]1 its  adaptability to 
education has nev] be5 lo/ sight (4 ,x  
is simply  t developm5t along ?is l9e   
has n be5 z s]i\sly consid]$  z x %\ld  
be4 ,motion-pictures1 x is true1 t may  
be consid]$  z educational are frequ5tly
 %[n 9 !atres & halls4 ,su*1 =  in/ance1
 are views 9 /range l&s1 sc5ic wond]s1 &
 pictures  %[+ ! manufacture ( "s useful
 article or ! mann] (  proce$+ 9 "s     
field ( human activity4 ,b ^! are       
effect$  entirely by photography & !    

n>ration ( _! mak+ does n  come )9 !    
scope ( ?is book4    ,our conc]n is !   
description ( ! processes ( mak+        
8animat$  c>toons10 or mov+ scre5       
draw+s4 ,relat$ matt]s1 ( c\rse1        
includ+ ! inception & ! developm5t (    
motion-pictures 9  g5]al1 w be ref]r$ to
 9 our "w4 ,at pres5t1 ( ! two          
divisions ( our subject1 ! art ( !      
animat$ comic c>toon has  be5 mo/       
develop$4 ,x is = ?is reason t s mu* ( !
 book  is giv5 to an acc\nt ( _!        
production4    ,b on ! mak+ ( animat$   
scre5 draw+s = sci5tific &  educational 
!mes little has be5 said4 ,?is is n to  
be tak5 z a  measure ( _! importance4   
,x is int]e/+ to reg>d = a mom5t !      
vicissitudes ( !  ^w c>toon4            
,etymologically x is relat$ to words 9  
c]ta9  ,lat9 tongues = pap]1 c>d1 or    
pa/ebo>d4 ,its be/-accept$  employm5t--(
 bygone times--0 t ( designat+ an       
arti/'s  work+-size prelim9>y draft ( a 
pa9t+1 a mural decoration1  or a design 
= tape/ry4 ,raphael's c>toons 9 ! ,s\?  

,k5s+ton  ,museum1 9 ,london1 are !     
be/-kn[n works ( art com+ "u ?is  mean+ 
( ! t]m4 7,!y are1 too1 ! usual in/ances
 giv5 9  diction>ies :5 ?is mean+ is    
expla9$47 ,! mo/ frequ5t use  ( ! ^w up 
to rec5tly1 h[ev]1 has be5 to specify a 
pr9t$  picture 9 :i* ! composition be>s 
^u "s curr5t ev5t or  political topic & 
9 :i* notabilities ( ! day are g5]ally  
c>icatur$4 ,! ^w c>toon did n long      
p>ticul>ize ?is k9d  ( pictorial "w b 0 
soon appli$ to any humor\s or satirical 
pr9t$ picture no matt] :e!r ! subject 0 
on a topic ( !  day or n4    ,:5 "s ( ! 
comic graphic arti/s began to turn _!   
att5tion  to ! mak+ ( draw+s = animat$  
scre5 pictures1 no?+  seem$ m natural   
?an t ! ^w 8animat$0 %\ld be prefix$  to
 ! t]m describ+ _! products & s br++    
into usage !  expression 8animat$       
c>toons40 ,b ! t]m did n long rema9     
re/rict$ to ?is application1 z x soon 0 
call$ into s]vice  by ! work]s 9 !      
indu/ry to describe any film made f     
draw+s )\t reg>d to :e!r ! subject 0 ( a

 humor\s  or ( an educational "*4 ,its  
use 9 ?is s5se is p]haps  ju/ifi$ z x   
=ms a conv5i5t designation 9 ! trade to 
di/+ui% betwe5 films made f draw+s & ^? 
hav+ z  _! basic elem5ts actuality1 t   
is1 p1 sc5es1 & objects4    ,tea*]s n[  
are talk+ ( 8visual in/ruction40 ,!y    
mean by  ?is phrase 9 ! special s5se t  
!y h giv5 to x !  use ( motion-picture  
films = in/ructional purposes4 ,travel  
pictures to be us$ 9 connection ) tea*+ 
geography or  micro-c9ematographic films
 = classes 9 biology are good examples  
( su* films4 ,b n all educational       
subjects c be depict$  by ! cam]a       
solely4 ,= _m !mes ! arti/ mu/ be call$ 
9 to prep>e a s]ies ( draw+s made 9 a   
c]ta9 way & !n  photograph$ & complet$  
to =m a film ( mov+ diagrams or  draw+s4
    ,z x is readily und]/ood t any s*ool
 topic pres5t$ 9  animat$ pictures w    
/imulate & hold ! att5tion1 & t  !      
prop]ties ( ?+s :5 depict$ 9 action are 
m quickly  grasp$ visually ?an by       
description or ?r\gh motionless         

diagrams1  x is likely t visual         
in/ruction by films w soon play an      
important "p 9 any c\rse ( /udies4 ,!n !
 motion-picture  projector w become !   
pre-em95t s*ool app>atus & su*  subjects
 z d n l5d !mselves to photography w v  
g5]ally  ne$ to be drawn2 !reupon !     
prepond]ance ( ! comic c>toon  w cease &
 ! animat$ scre5 draw+ ( s]i\s &        
wor?-:ile  !mes w prevail4              
,e4 ,g4 ,l4          ,,cont5ts          
,,page      ,i4 ,,! ,,beg9n+ ,,(        
,,animat$ ,,draw+s                      
#c      ,,ii4 ,,! ,,g5esis ,,(          
,,motion-,,pictures                     
#ce      ,,iii4 ,,mak+ ,,animat$        
,,c>toons                               
#eg      ,,iv4 ,,fur!r ,,details ,,on   
,,mak+ ,,animat$ ,,c>toons              
#hc      ,v4 ,,on ,,movem5t ,,9 ,,!     
,,human ,,figure                        
#ii      ,,vi4 ,,notes ,,on ,,animal    
,,locomotion                            
#aca      ,,vii4 ,,inanimate ,,?+s ,,9  
,,movem5t                               

#aec      ,,viii4 ,,miscellane\s        
,,matt]s ,,9 ,,mak+ ,,animat$    ,,scre5
 ,,pictures                             
#aga      ,,ix4 ,,photography ,,& ,,o!r 
,,te*nical ,,matt]s                     
#bja      ,x4 ,,on ,,humor\s ,,effects  
,,& ,,on ,,plots                        
#bbc      ,,xi4 ,,animat$ ,,educational 
,,films ,,& ,,! ,,future                
#bde          ,,illu/rations            
,illu/rat+ ! me?od ( mak+ animat$       
c>toons    by cut-outs                  
,frontispiece                           
,,page      ,magic-lant]n &             
motion-picture projector comp>$         
#g      ,g5eva movem5t                  
#i      ,a motion-picture projector     
#aa      ,illu/rat+ ! proportions (     
light & d>k p]iods dur+    projection 9 
two types ( %utt]s                      
#ab      ,section ( an animat$ c>toon   
film                                 #ae
      ,! ?aumatrope                     
#ag      ,two in/rum5ts us$ 9 e>ly      
inve/igations ( optical ph5om5a   #ah   

,app>atus on ! ord] ( ,f>aday's :eel    
#ai      ,an antec$5t ( ! ph5aki/oscope 
#bj      ,a ph5aki/oscope               
#ba      ,ph5aki/oscope comb9$ ) a      
magic-lant]n                       #bb  
,ph5aki/oscope ) a cycle ( draw+s to %[ 
a dog 9 movem5t  #bc      ,! zootrope   
#bd      ,zoetrope ( ,william ,l9coln   
#be      ,reynaud's prax9oscope         
#bf      ,! !atre prax9oscope           
#bh      ,projection prax9oscope        
#bi      ,optical !atre ( ,reynaud      
#cj      ,! k9eograph                   
#ca      ,plan ( ! app>atus ( ,coleman  
,sell]s                            #cf  
,! o/ri* walk+2 f ,muybridge            
,fac+ page     #dj      ,m>ey's         
photographic gun                        
#db      ,plan ( ! k9ora                
#dc      ,plan ( ,edison's fir/         
k9etoscope                              
#df      ,projector & motion-picture    
cam]a comp>$                        #dh 
,a negative & a positive pr9t           
#di      ,plan ( a motion-picture cam]a 

#ej      ,types ( cam]a & projector     
%utt]s                              #ea 
,"o foot ( film passes ?r\gh ! projector
 9 "o second         #ec                
8,animator's0 draw+-bo>d                
#fa      ,a %eet ( p]=at$ pap] & !      
regi/]+ pegs                #fc         
,illu/rat+ ! mak+ ( an animat$ sc5e     
#fg      ,illu/rat+ ! mak+ ( an animat$ 
sc5e ) ! help (    celluloid %eets      
#ga      ,arrangem5t ( bo>d1 pegs1 & h+$
 frame ) glass             #ge          
,balloons                               
#gh      ,?ree elem5ts t complete a sc5e
                                #gi     
,ph5aki/oscope ) cycle ( draw+s ( a face
 to %[ a movem5t    ( ! m\?             
#hj      ,c>dbo>d model ( an airplane ) 
sep>ate cut-out propell]s    ,fac+ page 
#hd      ,! laws ( p]spective are to be 
consid]$ 9 8animat+0 an    object       
#hf      ,p]spective appli$ 9 ! draw+ ( 
birds z well z 9 !    pictur+ ( objects 
#hg      ,articulat$ c>dbo>d figures    
#hi      ,illu/rat+ ! animation ( a m\se

 z he runs ar\nd    ! kit*5             
#ie      ,successive phases ( movem5ts (
 ! legs 9 walk+              #aja       
,illu/rat+ ! action ( ! foot 9 roll+ ov]
 ! gr\nd     #ajc      ,successive      
phases ( movem5ts 9 walk+               
#aje      ,phases ( movem5t ( a quick   
walk                                    
#ajg      ,contractions & expansions z  
*>act]i/ic ( motion            #aji     
,ord] 9 :i* an animator makes ! sequ5ce 
( positions    = a walk                 
#aab & #aac      ,phases ( movem5t ( a  
walk4 ,six phases complete a /ep        
#aae      ,a p]spective walk            
#aag      ,f\r positions = a p]spective 
run                               #aah  
,phases ( movem5t = a p]spective run    
#aai      ,runn+ figure                 
#aba      ,phases ( movem5t = a quick   
walk                                #abc
      ,walk+ movem5ts1 some:at me*anical
                             #abd       
,phases ( movem5t = a lively walk       
#abe      ,phases ( movem5t = a quick   

walk                                #abg
      ,walk+ movem5ts view$ f above     
#abh      ,trott+ horse                 
#acd      ,trott+ horse 7cont9u$7       
#ace      ,a panorama effect            
#ach      ,gallop+ horse = a panorama   
effect                              #aci
      ,! elephant 9 motion              
#adj      ,! elephant 9 motion 7cont9u$7
                               #ada     
,pigeon 9 flight2 f ,muybridge          
,fac+ page    #adb      ,comic walk ( a 
duck                                    
#adc      ,cycle ( phases ( a walk+ dog 
arrang$ = ! ph5aki/oscope  #add         
,ph5aki/oscope ) a cycle ( draw+s to %[ 
a dog 9    movem5t                      
#ade      ,runn+ c[                     
#adg      ,phases ( movem5t ( a walk+   
lion                               #adh 
,dog walk+                              
#adi      ,v>i\s k9ds ( wave motion     
#aej      ,cycle ( draw+s to produce a  
scre5 animation ( a wav+ flag   #aeg    
,cycle ( draw+s = an effect ( fall+ wat]

                   #aei      ,cycle (   
draw+s = a puff ( vapor                 
#afa      ,an explosion                 
#afb      ,! f9i%+ /roke ( "s f>cical   
situation                    #afc       
,piano practice                         
#afd      ,?ree draw+s us$ 9 sequ5ce &  
repeat$ z long z !    p>ticul> effect t 
!y give is desir$                       
#afe      ,a con/ellation               
#aff      ,simple elem5ts us$ 9 animat+ 
a sc5e                          #afg    
,symbolical animation ( snor+           
#agb      ,s]ies ( draw+s us$ to %[ a   
baby cry+                      #agc     
,a 8close-up0                           
#age      ,illu/rat+ ! use ( little     
8model0 hats to vivify a sc5e      #agf 
8,cut-out0 eyes                         
#agh      ,illu/rat+ ! mak+ ( 89-betwe50
 draw+s                   #agi          
,illu/rat+ ! numb] ( draw+s requir$ = a 
movem5t        #ahj      ,illu/rat+ a   
po9t 9 animat+ a mov+ limb              
#ahb      ,mak+ draw+s 9 turn+ ! head   

#ahc      ,easily drawn circul> =ms &   
curves                             #ahf 
,=egr\nd details ( a pictorial          
composition                      #aij   
,mak+ an animat$ c>toon panorama        
#aic      ,illu/rat+ ! app>5t sl[ness ( 
a di/ant object comp>$ to "o    pass+   
close to ! eye                          
#aie      ,di/+ui%+ m>ks on :eels to    
give ! illusion ( turn+     #aig        
,elem5ts us$ 9 giv+ a figure ! effect ( 
trembl+           #aih      ,typical    
arrangem5t ( cam]a & lights             
#bjc      ,"p ( a l5g? ( film = a title 
#bjh      ,vignett] or iris dissolve    
#baa      ,to expla9 ! di/ribution (    
light 9 a cross dissolve           #bac 
,illu/rat+ ! op]ation ( "o type (       
motion-picture pr9t]   #bag      ,ano!r 
plan = an animator's draw+-bo>d         
#bah      ,can9e ?\ghts                 
#bai      ,pl5ty ( movem5t dem&$ 9 scre5
 pictures                     #bbd      
,! pla9t ( inanimate ?+s                
#bbg      ,! p9:eel effect ( two boys   

fight+1 elem5ts ne$$ 9    produc+ x     
#bca      ,cycle ( draw+s to give !     
illusion ( a man sp9n+    l a top       
#bce      ,a blurr$ impression l t ( !  
spokes ( a turn+ :eel is    reg>d$ z    
funny                                   
#bcf      ,hats                         
#bci      ,radiat+ 8d5t0 l9es           
#bdj      ,a laugh-provok+ incid5t 9 an 
animat$ c>toon                  #bda    
,! ,mad ,hatt]                          
#bdf      ,detail ( a fresco by ,mi*ael 
,angelo                                 
#bdh      ,mr4 ,fro/'s spirit$          
del9eation ( figures 9 action           
#bdi      ,! peep-%[                    
#bej      ,dem5y's phonoscope           
#bea      ,draw+s us$ 9 mak+ a film ( a 
gasol5e eng9e 9 op]ation   #bee      ,"*
 ( draw+s t w\ld be prep>$ 9 produc+    
mov+    diagrams ( ! muscles 9 action   
#beh          ,,! ,,beg9n+ ,,( ,,animat$
 ,,draw+s          ,,*apt] ,i    ,,!    
,,beg9n+ ,,( ,,animat$ ,,draw+s      ,! 
picture ?r[n on ! wall by !             

magic-lant]n1 al?\gh an  illusion1 & no 
m tangible ?an a %ad[1 has nev]!less a  
c]ta9 tactile quality4 ,if x is project$
 f a draw+ on a glass  slide1 its design
 is def9ite2 & if f a photographic      
slide1  ! tones are cle>ly disc]nible4  
,x is--unless x is "o ( ^?  qua9tly mov+
 amus+ subjects op]at$ by a crude       
me*anism--a  quiesc5t picture4 ,!       
spirit$ scre5 picture ?r[n by ! l5s  ( a
 motion-picture projector is an         
illusion1 too4 ,x exemplifies1  h[ev]1  
two v>ieties ( ?is class ( s5sory       
deceptions4 ,fir/3  x is an illusion = !
 same reason t ! image f !  magic-lant]n
 is "o2 namely1 a project$ %ad[ ( a m or
 less  opaque design on a transp>5t     
mat]ial int]v5+ betwe5 !  illum9ant & ! 
l5s4 ,& secondly1 x is an illusion 9 t x
  syn!sizes m]e pictorial spectres into 
! appe>ance ( life &  movem5t4 ,?is     
latt] p>ticul>1 ! seem+ activity ( life1
  is ! fundam5tal dissimil>ity betwe5   
pictures project$ by !  magic-lant]n &  
^? ?r[n on ! scre5 by ! motion-picture  

app>atus4    ,& x is only ! addition to 
! magic-lant]n1 ( a me*anism  t makes   
possible ?is optical vibration ( life & 
motion1 t  con/itutes ! diff]+ feature 9
 ! two types ( project+  ma*9es4    ,9 !
 magic-lant]n & its improv$ =m1 !       
/]eopticon1  sep>ate views ( diff]5t    
subjects are %[n 9 succession4 ,ea*     
picture is all[$ to rema9 on ! scre5    
long en\gh to be readily  beheld &      
appreciat$4 ,b ! picture is at re/ &    
does n  move4 ,) ! motion-picture       
projector a s]ies ( slightly v>y+       
pictures ( ! same subject are project$ 9
 quick succession4 ,?is  succession is  
at su* a rapid rate t ! int]val ( "t    
dur+  :i* "o picture moves out ( place  
to make way = ! next is s  %ort t x is  
ne>ly imp]ceptible4 ,9 consequ5ce1 !    
slightly  v>y+ pictures bl5d on ! scre5 
& we h a phantasmagoria (  movem5t4     
,! ph5om5on ( ?is movem5t--?is semblance
 to life--takes  place1 n on ! scre51 b 
)9 ! eye4 ,its consid]ation1 a  subject 
prop] = ! sci5ce ( physiology 7& 9 "s   

aspects  psy*ology71 has weight = u m   
p>ticul>ly z a matt] (  physics4        
,memory has be5 said to be an attribute 
( all organic matt]4 ,an  in/ance ( ?is 
seems to be ! prop]ty ( ! eye to reta9  
on its  ret9a an aft]-image ( any?+ j   
se54 ,t is to say1 :5 an  object        
impresses its image ^u ! ret9a & !n     
moves away1 or  disappe>s1 !re /ill     
rema9s1 = a measurable p]iod1 an image (
  ?is object )9 ! eye4 ,?is s+ul>ity ( !
 visual s5se is  spok5 ( z ! p]si/5ce ( 
vision or ! =mation ( positive          
aft]-images4 ,& x is ref]r$ to z a      
positive aft]-image 9  contradi/9ction  
to ano!r visional ph5om5on call$ !      
negative  aft]-image4 ,?is latt] k9d is 
in/anc$ 9 ! well-kn[n  exp]im5t ( fix+ !
 eyes = a few mom5ts ^u "s design 9  a  
brilliant color & quickly turn+ away to 
gaze at a blank space  ( :ite :]e       
in/antly ! same design w be se51 b ( a  
color  complem5t>y to t ( ! p>ticul> hue
 fir/ gaz$ at4    ,! art ( !            
motion-picture began :5 physici/s fir/  

notic$  ?is peculi>ity ( ! organ ( sight
 9 reta9+ aft]-images4 ,!  :ole art is  
bas$ on its v]ity4 ,x is ! special      
quality ( !  visual s5se t makes        
possible ! appreciation ( liv+ scre5    
pictures4    ,an int]e/+ matt] to be> 9 
m9d is ! circum/ance t !  fir/ attempt  
at giv+ to a scre5 image ! effect ( life
 0 by  means ( a progressive s]ies (    
draw+s4 ,:5 photographs came  lat]1     
draw+s 7 =gott5 & only :5 !             
c9ematographic art  _h rea*$ its great  
developm5t & univ]sality1 7 draw+s  aga9
 br\ght into use to be syn!siz$ on !    
scre54    ,to describe h[ ^! draw+s are 
made1 _! use & application to  ! mak+ ( 
animat$ c>toons1 is ! purpose ( ?is     
book4    ,be=e proce$+ ) a sket* ( !    
developm5t ( ! art  ( mak+ ^! c>toons1 x
 w make ! matt] m readily  und]/ood if  
we give1 at fir/1 9 a few p>agraphs1 a  
brief  description ( ! pres5t-day me?od 
( ?r[+ a liv+ picture on  ! scre5 by !  
motion-picture projector4               
,illu/ration3 ,,magic-,,lant]n ,,&      

,,motion-,,picture ,,projector ,,comp>$4
    ,! projector = motion-pictures1 l ! 
magic-lant]n1 consi/s  ( an illum9ant1  
reflector1 cond5s]1 & objective4 ,?is   
la/ "p  is ! comb9ation ( l5ses t ga!r &
 focus ! light rays  c>ry+ ! p5cils (   
lights & %ad[s compos+ ! picture  & ?r[+
 !m on ! scre54 ,!re is1 9 !            
magic-lant]n1  imm$iately back ( !      
objective1 a n>r[ ap]ture ?r\gh :i*  !  
glass slide hold+ a picture is ?ru/4 ,9 
! motion-picture  app>atus1 ! transp>5t 
surface conta9+ ! picture also passes   
back ( ! objective1 b in/ead ( ! simple 
process ( pu%+  "o slide ?r\gh to make  
way = ano!r1 !re is a complicat$        
me*anism to move a long ribbon conta9+ !
 sequ5ce ( pictures  t produces ! image 
on ! scre54 ,n[ ?is ribbon consi/s (  a 
/rip ( transp>5t celluloid#a ea* ) a    
sep>ate photograph  ( "s "o g5]al sc5e b
 ea* ) slight *anges 9 ! mov+           
details--objects or figures4 ,^! *anges 
record ! movem5ts  f ! beg9n+ to ! end (
 ! p>ticul> /ory1 action1 or  pantomime4

    ,along ! edges ( ! ribbons are r[s (
 p]=ations t are mo/  accurately        
equaliz$ ) respect to _! size & ( !     
di/ances  betwe5 !m4 ,x is by means (   
:eels ) tee? t engage )  ! p]=ations & !
 movem5t ( ano!r too!d "p ( !  me*anism 
t ! ribbon or film is c>ri$ across ! pa?
 (  light 9 ! project+ ma*9e4 ,! device 
= mov+ ! film1  al?\gh n ( a v intricate
 "*1 is nev]!less ( an  +5i\s type4 ,x  
is int]mitt5t 9 action & op]ates s t "o 
section ( film1 conta9+ a picture1 is   
held 9 ! pa? ( light  = a fraction ( a  
second1 mov$ away & ano!r section1 ) !  
next picture1 br\ght into place to be   
project$ 9 its turn4 ,?is  way ( work+1 
9 mo/ ( ! projectors1 is obta9$ by ! use
 (  a me*anical con/ruction kn[n z !    
,g5eva movem5t4 ,! patt]n  ( its        
pr9cipal "p is a :eel %ap$ some:at l a  
,maltese  cross4 ,! =m %[n 9 !          
illu/ration is giv5 z a type2 n all  are
 ( ?is patt]n1 nor are !y all f\r-p>t$4 
,illu/ration3 ,,f\r ,,phases ,,( ,,!    
,,action ,,( ,,! ,,int]mitt5t ,,ge>+    

,,kn[n ,,z ,,! ,,g5eva ,,movem5t4    ,x 
is obvi\s t :ile "o picture moves out ( 
! way = !  next1 !re w\ld be a blur on !
 scre5 dur+ su* a movem5t if  "s means 7
 n devis$ to prev5t x4 ,?is is f\nd by  
eclips+  ! light dur+ ! "t ( ! *ange f  
"o picture to ano!r4  ,! detail ( !     
projector t effects ?is is a revolv+    
%utt]  ) a solid "p & an op5 section4   
7,?is is ! old type (  %utt]4 ,x is     
notic$ "h because ! way 9 :i* ! light   
rays  project ! picture is easily       
expla9$ by us+ x z an example47  ,?is   
%utt] is s ge>$ ) ! re/ ( ! me*anism t  
7#a7 !  solid "p passes across ! pa? (  
light :ile ano!r picture is  mov+ into  
place2 & t 7#b7 ! op5 section passes    
across !  pa? ( light :ile a rectangul> 
area conta9+ a picture is at  re/ & its 
details are be+ project$ on ! scre54    
,x may be ask$1 at ?is po9t1 :y ! eye is
 n aw>e on !  scre5 ( ! pass+ %ad[ ( !  
opaque "p ( ! %utt] z  x eclipses !     
light4 ,x w\ld seem t !re %\ld be ei!r a
  blur or a d>k5$ p]iod on ! scre54 ,b !

 me*anism moves s  rapidly t ! pass+ ( !
 solid portion ( ! %utt] is n  ord9>ily 
p]ceptible4    ,illu/ration3 ,a         
,,motion-,,picture ,,projector4      ,a4
 ,film4 ,b4 ,upp] magaz9e4 ,c4 ,fe$     
reel4 ,d4 ,l[]    magaz9e1 conta9+ !    
take-up reel4 ,e4 ,crank to op]ate      
me*anism by h&4 ,f4 ,motor4 ,g4 ,:]e !  
film /ops    int]mitt5tly to be         
project$4 ,h4 ,lamp-h\se4 ,i4 ,port1 or 
w9d[ 9 ! firepro( projection boo?4 ,j4  
,rotat+ %utt]4    ,k4 ,l5s4 ,l4         
,cond5s]4 ,m4 ,swit*es4 ,n4 ,fire %utt]2
    automatically drops :5 ! film /ops  
or goes too sl[ly4    ,"o foot (        
celluloid film conta9s sixte5 sep>ate   
pictures1 &  ^! pass 9 front ( ! light 9
 "o second4 ,"o s+le t9y  picture ( !   
film takes up !n "o-sixte5? ( a second4 
,b  n all ( ?is fraction ( a second is  
giv5 to ! projection (  ! picture z "s (
 ! "t is tak5 up ) mov+ x into  place   
imm$iately be=e projection4 ,! relative 
apportionm5t (  ?is p]iod ( "o-sixte5? (
 a second is s arrang$ t ab\t           

five-six?s ( x 7five n9ety-six?s ( a    
second7 is giv5 to !  hold+ ( ! film at 
re/ & ! projection ( its picture1 &  !  
rema9+ "o-six? 7"o n9ety-six? ( a       
second7 is giv5 to  ! movem5t ( a       
section ( ! film & ! %utt+ (f ( !  light
 by ! opaque "p ( ! %utt]4              
,illu/ration3      ,,illu/rat+ ,,!      
,,proportions ,,( ,,light ,,& ,,d>k     
,,p]iods ,,dur+    ,,projection ,,9     
,,two ,,types ,,( ,,%utt]s4      #a4    
,old s+le-blade type2 caus$ a 8flick]40 
#b4 ,regul> ?ree-blade type2 light ev5ly
 di/ribut$4 ,x is to be    not$ t :ile !
 picture is on ! scre5 two opaque       
sections    ( ! %utt] eclipse ! light4  
,9 ! la/ few p>agraphs we h ref]r$ to ! 
old type (  %utt] :i* caus$ a flick]1 or
 un/ead9ess ( light on !  scre54        
,n[adays a ?ree-blad$ %utt] t ne>ly does
 away )  an un/eady light is 9 g5]al    
use4 ,its op]ation1 approximately  = !  
purposes ( description is l ?is3 ,x     
turns once 9  "o-sixte5? ( a second2    
"o-six? ( ?is "t is tak5 up )  ! mov+ ( 

! film & ! eclips+ ( ! light by "o blade
  ( ! %utt]4 ,dur+ ! rema9d] ( !        
"t--five-six?s ( x1  ! foll[+ takes     
place3 ! film is /ation>y & ready =     
projection1 !n two blades ( ! %utt] &   
?ree ( its op5  sections pass across !  
pa? ( ! light4    ,f ?is x c be se5 t :5
 ! picture is view$ on !  scre51 !re are
 actually two %ort mom5ts :5 ! light    
rays are  cut (f4 ,?is is n p]ceiv$ by !
 spectator on acc\nt ( !  spe$ ( !      
revolv+ %utt] & ! /rong illum9ant4      
,in/ead1  ! use ( a %utt] ( ?is patt]n  
ev5s ! scre5 light+ by  mak+ an equal   
apportion+ ( light fla%es & d>k p]iods4 
,)  ! old %utt] !re 0 "o long p]iod (   
light & "o %ort  p]iod ( d>kness4 ,x 0  
?is unequal di/ribution t gave rise  to 
! flick]4 ,at times1 "u c]ta9           
conditions1 a two-blad$  %utt] is us$   
also4    ,a reel ( film may v>y 9 l5g? =
 a %ort subject ( fifty feet  7or ev5   
less71 to a v long 8feature0 ( a mile or
 s 9 l5g?4  ,9 wid?1 ! /rip ( celluloid 
measures "o & ?ree-eigh?s  in*es4       

,betwe5 ! two r[s ( p]=ations t engage )
 !  tee? on ! sprocket-:eels & by :i* a 
c]ta9 "p ( !  int]mitt5t me*anism pulls 
! film along1 are little rectangul>     
panels1 already allud$ to1 conta9+ !    
photographs4 ,sometimes  ^! panels are  
call$ 8frames10 g5]ally ?\gh1 9 !       
p>lance  ( ! trade1 !y are simply       
designat$ z 8pictures40 ,!y measure  "o 
in* across & ?ree-qu>t]s ( an in* 9     
height4    ,z not$ above1 ^! frames     
conta9 photographs ( sc5es t  record1 by
 *anges 9 _! action1 ! incid5ts &       
episodes ( !  /ory ( any p>ticul> reel4 
,9 ! case ( animat$ c>toons1 !  frames  
on ! film also conta9 photographs1 b ^! 
photographs  are made f sets (          
progressive draw+s depict+ ! action (  !
 *>act]s ( ! animat$ c>toon4            
,illu/ration3 ,,section ,,( ,,an        
,,animat$ ,,c>toon ,,film4    ,exact    
size4    ,9 conclud+ ?is brief acc\nt ( 
! mod]n motion-picture1 !  att5tion is  
direct$1 z ! subject is /udi$1 to a few 
details  ( ! me*anism & to ! g5]al      

proc$ure t are f\nd to be  elem5t>y     
features 9 ne>ly all app>atus us$ dur+ !
 r\nd  ( ye>s t ! art 0 develop+4 ,!y   
are z foll[s3 7#a7 ,a  s]ies (          
pictures--draw+s or                     
photographs--repres5t+ an action by     
progressive *anges 9 _! del9eation4 7#b7
 ,_! pres5tation1  "o at a "t1 9 rapid  
succession4 7#c7 ,_! syn!sis1 directly  
^u ! ret9a ( ! eye1 or project$ on a    
scre5 & !n view$  by ! eye4 7#d7 ,"s    
means by :i* light--or ! vision--is %ut 
(f :ile ! *ange f "o picture to ano!r is
 tak+ place4  7,project+ ma*9es h be5   
made1 h[ev]1 9 :i* ! film is  mov$ s    
rapidly1 & 9 a p>ticul> way1 t a %utt]  
to eclipse  ! light is n ne$$47    ,n[1 
z /at$ be=e1 ! ph5om5on ( ! p]si/5ce (  
vision is  ! fundam5tal physiological   
fact ^u :i* ! :ole possibility  ( see+  
scre5 pictures re/s4 ,"o ( ! fir/       
devices made t  dep5d$ ^u x1 & t v      
simply demon/rat$ ?is faculty  ( ! ret9a
 = hold+ a visional image = a "t1 0 an  
optical toy call$ ! ?aumatrope4 ,x dates

 f ab\t #ahbf4 ,x  0 a c>dbo>d disk )   
two holes close to ! edge at opposite   
po9ts4 ,/r+s 7 pass$ ?r\gh ^! holes &   
fa/5$ &  ! dangl+ ends held & roll$     
betwe5 ! ?umbs & f+]s s  t ! disk 0 made
 to twirl rapidly4 ,ea* side ( ! disk _h
  a picture pr9t$ or drawn ^u x4 ,^! two
 pictures :5 view$  toge!r :ile ! disk 0
 twirl$ appe>$ z "o complete picture4   
,a favorite design = depiction 0 an     
empty bird-cage on "o side  & a bird on 
! o!r4 ,! designs 7 plac$ ) respect to  
ea*  o!r 9 ! same way z ! m>ks &        
insignia ( ! two sides (  mo/ co9s4 7,! 
co9s ( ,great ,brita9 are an exception1 
on !m  ! designs are plac$ diff]5tly4 ,9
 read+ _! m>ks or look+  at ! images ( !
 two sides1 we turn ! co9 ov] l ! page  
( a book47    ,illu/ration3 ,,!         
,,?aumatrope4      ,above3 ,h[ ! designs
 ( ! two sides are plac$ ) respect    to
 ea* o!r4      ,bel[3 ,! comb9$ image :5
 ! ?aumatrope is twirl$4    ,!          
?aumatrope illu/rates ! p]si/5ce (      
vision 9 a v  elem5t>y way4 ,simply     

expla9$1 ! face ( "o side ( !  disk )   
its design is be=e ! eye1 ! design      
impresses its  true image ^u ! ret9a1 ! 
disk turns away & ! picture  disappe>s1 
b its aft]-image rema9s on ! ret9a4 ,!  
disk  hav+ turn$1 br+s ! o!r picture    
into view4 ,its true image is  impress$ 
^u ! ret9a to bl5d ) ! aft]-image ( !   
fir/  picture4 ,9 rapid sequ5ce ?is     
turn+ cont9ues & ! two images  comm+le  
to give ! fantasy ( a p]fect design4    
,a limit$ numb] ( subjects only 7       
suitable = demon/ration  by a toy ( ?is 
"*4 ,two o!r subjects 7 ^? %[+  designs 
to give ! effect ( a rid] on a horse & a
 tight-rope  danc] balanc$ on a rope4   
,illu/ration3 ,,two ,,in/rum5ts ,,us$   
,,9 ,,e>ly ,,inve/igations ,,(          
,,optical ,,ph5om5a4    ,f ,! ,saturday 
,magaz9e ( #ahcg & #ahda4    ,lat] :5   
sci5tific inve/igators 7 busy inquir+   
into !  ph5om5a ( visual di/ortions     
exhibit$ by ! spokes & tee?  ( turn+    
:eels :5 se5 9 contra/ ) c]ta9 int]v5+  
objects1 a curi\s app>atus 0 contriv$ by

 ,f>aday ! ,engli%  sci5ti/             
7#agia-ahfg74 ,?is app>atus 0 s         
con/ruct$ t two  disks 7 made to travel1
 by cogg$ ge>+1 9 opposite directions1  
b at ! same spe$4 ,ar\nd ! circumf]5ces 
( ! disks 7  cut n>r[ slots at equal    
di/ances ap>t & s mak+ ! solid  portions
 betwe5 !m l tee?1 or spokes ( a :eel4  
,illu/ration3 ,,app>atus ,,on ,,! ,,ord]
 ,,( ,,f>aday',s ,,:eel4    ,) ! disks  
mov+ z m>k$1 ! disk ,b w appe> to be    
motionless :5 view$ ?r\gh ! pass+ slots 
( disk ,a4    ,:5 ?is ma*9e 0 set 9     
motion & ! eye direct$ ?r\gh !  mov+ &  
blurr$ tee? ( ! front disk t[>d ! f>    
disk1 ?is  f> disk appe>$ to be         
/ation>y4 ,its outl9e--! tee?1 slots1  &
 circumf]5ce--7 di/9ctly se5 & n blurr$4
    ,!n x 0 f\nd t ! same effect c\ld be
 obta9$ ) ! use  ( "o slott$ disk by    
simply hold+ x 9 front ( a mirror &     
view+ ! reflect$ image ?r\gh ! mov+     
slots ( ! disk4  ,! reflection answ]$ = 
! second disk ( ! in/rum5t ( !  fir/    
exp]im5t4    ,illu/ration3 ,,an         

,,antec$5t ,,( ,,! ,,ph5aki/oscope4     
,:5 ! disk is twirl$ ! reflections ( its
 spokes appe>  /ation>y :5 view$ ?r\gh !
 mov+ slots4    ,f ?is type ( optical   
toy x 0 b a /ep to ! contriv+ (  v>i\s  
types ( in/rum5ts con/ruct$ on ! patt]n 
( a slott$  disk1 or "s sort ( a turn+  
me*anism ) a s]ies ( ap]tures1  to use 9
 giv+ ! illusion ( movem5t 9 connection 
)  draw+s or photographs4 ,! be/-kn[n 0 
! ph5aki/oscope1  ! inv5tion ( :i* has  
be5 cr$it$ to ! ,belgian physici/1      
,plateau 7#ahja-ahhc74 ,?is toy 0 a l>ge
 c>dbo>d disk )  pictures on "o side t 7
 to be view$ by _! reflections  ?r\gh   
slots 9 ! disk :ile x 0 held be=e a     
mirror4 ,!  pictures drawn 9 sequ5ce    
repres5t$ "s action1 z a horse  runn+1  
an acrobat1 a juggl]1 or "s amus+       
subject t c\ld  be drawn easily 9 a     
cycle ( actions & t w\ld l5d itself to  
repetition4    ,illu/ration3 ,hold+ a   
ph5aki/oscope be=e a mirror & ready to  
twirl x ar\nd4    ,! ph5aki/oscope has  
"s r\gh resemblance 9 its plan to a     

motion-picture projector--! cycle (     
slightly diff]5t draw+s  repres5ts !    
film ) its sequ5ce ( t9y pictures2 !    
slots 9  ! disk by :i* ! draw+s are     
view$ 9 ! mirror correspond to  ! op5   
sections ( ! revolv+ %utt]2 :ile ! solid
 portions  ( ! disk answ] to ! opaque   
p>ts ( ! %utt]4    ,z x only 0 possible 
9 ! ph5aki/oscope t "o p]son at a  "t   
c\ld view conv5i5tly ! reflect$         
pictures1 ! attempt 0  made to arrange x
 = projection4 ,a l5s 0 add$ ) a light &
  mirrors s t a numb] ( p c\ld see its  
op]ation at !  same "t4 ,9 ano!r =m !   
pictures 7 plac$ on a glass disk  :i* 0 
made to rotate back ( a magic-lant]n    
objective4    ,illu/ration3             
,,ph5aki/oscope ,,comb9$ ,,) ,a         
,,magic-,,lant]n4    ,:5 ! numb] ( slots
 9 a ph5aki/oscope correspond to !      
numb] ( draw+s 9 ! cycle1 ! diff]5t     
figures ( ! cycle  are 9 action b !y d n
 move f ! place :]e !y are  depict$4    
,only _! limbs1 if x is an action 9 :i* 
^! p>ts  are br\ght into play1 are 9    

movem5t4 ,b if !re is "o slot m  & !    
disk turn$ 9 ! prop] direction1 ! r[ (  
draw+s w  appe> to be go+ ar\nd a       
circle4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly adapt$ to    
s]ies ( runn+ animals4    ,illu/ration3 
,,ph5aki/oscope ,,) ,a ,,cycle ,,(      
,,draw+s ,,to ,,%[ ,a ,,dog  ,,9        
,,movem5t4    ,ano!r me?od ( giv+ !     
semblance ( motion to a s]ies (         
progressive draw+s1 soon devis$ aft] !  
inv5tion ( !  ph5aki/oscope1 0 !        
zootrope1 or :eel ( life4 ,x embodi$ !  
idea1 too1 ( a rapidly mov+ opaque flat 
portion ) a r[ (  slots pass+ betwe5 !  
eye & ! draw+s4    ,9 =m ! zootrope 0 l 
a cyl9drical lidless box ( c>dbo>d4  ,x 
0 pivot$ & balanc$ on a v]tical rod s t 
x c\ld be  made to turn easily & v      
rapidly4 ,! slots 7 cut ar\nd !  upp]   
rim ( ! box4 ,long /rips ( pap] hold+   
pictures fitt$  into ! box4 ,:5 "o ( ^! 
/rips 0 put 9 place1 x 0 s  adju/$ t any
 p>ticul> draw+ ( ! s]ies c\ld be view$ 
?r\gh a slot ( ! opposite side4 ,^!     
draw+s appe>$ to be 9  motion :5 !      

zootrope 0 made to twirl4               
,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,zootrope4    ,?is   
type ( optical curiosity1 z a matt] (   
priority1 is  associat$ ) ! "n (        
,desvignes1 z he obta9$ a pat5t =  x 9  
,engl& 9 #ahfj4 ,lat] 9 #ahfg1 a ,unit$ 
,/ates pat5t 0  issu$ = a simil>        
in/rum5t to ,william ,l9coln1 (         
,provid5ce1 ,r4  ,i4 ,he call$ 8 device 
! zoetrope4    ,illu/ration3 ,,zoetrope 
,,( ,,william ,,l9coln4    ,?is         
cyl9drical syn!siz+ app>atus 0 sold z a 
toy = _m  ye>s4 ,b&s ( pap] ) cycles (  
draw+s ( a v>iety (  humor\s & ent]ta9+ 
subjects !reon 7 prep>$ = use )  x4     
,b ! busy inv5tors 7 n satisfi$ ) !     
simple =m 9  :i* x 0 fir/ fabricat$4 ,v 
soon f ! zootrope 0  evolv$ ano!r       
optical curiosity t pres]v$ ! g5]al     
cyl9drical plan1 b made use ( !         
reflective prop]ty ( a mirror  to aid ! 
illusion4 ,?is 0 ! prax9oscope ( ,m4    
,reynaud1 (  ,france4 ,he p]fect$ x &   
adapt$ its pr9ciples to create o!r  =ms 
( rotat+ me*anisms h>moniz+ progressive 

draw+s to %[  movem5t4    ,illu/ration3 
,a4 ,,reynaud',s ,,prax9oscope4    ,b4  
,,plan ,,( ,,! ,,prax9oscope4    ,!     
prax9oscope held to ! idea ( a box1     
cyl9drical & lidless1  & pivot$ 9 !     
c5tre s t x turn$4 ,! /rip ( draw+s1  & 
! plan ( plac+ !m inside ( ! box--two   
features (  ! zootrope--7 bo? reta9$4 ,b
 in/ead ( look+ at !  draw+s ?r\gh      
ap]tures 9 ! box rim1 !y 7 obs]v$ by  _!
 reflections 9 mirrors plac$ on an inn] 
section or drum4  ,! mirrors 7 ! same 9 
numb] z ! draw+s & turn$ )  ! re/ ( !   
app>atus4 ,! mirrors 7 plac$ on !       
drum--!  all-important po9t 9 !         
con/ruction ( ! prax9oscope--half-way   
betwe5 ! c5tre & ! inn] side ( ! rim ( !
 box4 ,z !  draw+s 7 plac$ "h1 ! eye1   
look+ ov] ! rim ( ! box1  view$ _!      
reflections 9 ! mirrors4 ,b ! actual    
place ( a  reflection 0 ! same di/ance  
back ( ! surface ( a mirror  t a draw+ 0
 9 front ( x2 namely1 at ! dead c5tre ( 
!  rotat+ cyl9d]4 ,x 0 "h1 at ?is quiet 
po9t1 t x 0  possible to see ! *ang+    

images ( ! succession ( graduat$  draw+s
 bl5d+ to give ! illusion ( motion4     
,reynaud next fix$ 8 prax9oscope )      
improvem5ts t made !  *>act]s 9 8 draw+s
 appe> to be go+ ?r\gh a p]=mance  on a 
m9iature /age4 ,he call$ 8 new          
contrivance ! !atre  prax9oscope4 ,?is  
new me*anism1 0 fix$ 9 a box be=e :i*  0
 plac$ a mask-l section to repres5t a   
prosc5ium4 ,ano!r  addition 9 front (   
?is _h a rectangul> peep-hole & small   
cut-out units ( /age sc5]y t 7 reflect$ 
on ! surface (  a glass ins]t$ into !   
prosc5ium op5+4    ,illu/ration3 ,,!    
,,!atre ,,prax9oscope4    ,n satisfi$ ) 
?is toy !atre1 ,reynaud's next /ep 0 to 
comb9e ) ! prax9oscope1 cond5s]s1 l5ses1
 & an illum9ant  ) :i* to project !     
images on a scre51 s t spectators 9  an 
auditorium c\ld see ! illusion4 ,a m    
intricate me*anism1  aga91 0 lat] devis$
 by ,reynaud4 ,?is 0 8 optical !atre 9  
:i* !re 0 us$ an endless b& ( graduat$  
draw+s depict+  a r long pantomimic     
/ory4 ,x1 ( c\rse1 0 an enl>gem5t  ( !  

idea ( ! simple e>ly =m ( prax9oscope ) 
its /rip  ( pap] conta9+ ! draw+s4 ,b   
?is optical !atre _h  su* a complication
 ( mirrors & l5ses t ! project$ light   
rea*$ ! scre5 some:at dim9i%$ 9         
illum9at+ p[]1 & !  pictures 7          
consequ5tly dimm$4    ,illu/ration3     
,,projection ,,prax9oscope4    7,aft]   
picture 9 ,la ,nature1 #ahhb47    ,f !  
"t ( ! inv5tion ( ! ?aumatrope 9 #ahbf1 
&  ?r\gh\t ! p]iod :5 ! few typical     
ma*9es not$ above 7  9 use1 draw+s only 
9 graduat$ & relat$ s]ies1 7 appli$  9 !
 production ( ! illusion ( movem5t4     
,illu/ration3 ,,optical ,,!atre ,,(     
,,reynaud4    7,aft] picture 9 ,la      
,nature1 #ahib47    ,draw+s1 too1 7 fir/
 employ$ = a little optical novelty 9   
book-=m1 introduc$ ab\t #ahfh1 call$ !  
k9eograph4 ,x consi/$  ( a numb] (      
leaves1 ) draw+s on "o side1 firmly b\nd
 along  an edge4 ,! mann] ( its         
manipulation 0 to cause ! leaves to     
flip f "u ! ?umb :ile ! book 0 held 9 ! 
h&s4 ,!  pictures1 all ( a s]ies depict+

 "s action ( an ent]ta9+  subject1 pass$
 quickly be=e ! vision z !y slipp$ f "u 
! ?umb & gave a cont9u\s action ( !     
p>ticul> subject (  ! k9eograph4        
,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,k9eograph4    ,n[ :5
 ! cam]a began to be employ$ 9 tak+     
pictures (  figures 9 action1 "o ( !    
fir/ uses made ( su* pictures 0  to put 
a s]ies ( !m into ! book-=m s z to give1
 by ?is  simple me?od ( all[+ ! leaves  
to flip f "u ! ?umb1  ! visional        
deception ( animat$ photographs4        
,,footnotes3    #a ,celluloid is at ?is 
date ! mo/ s]viceable mat]ial = ^!      
ribbons4 ,b z x is inflammable a        
sub/itute is s\ght--"o t  has !         
advantages possess$ by celluloid b ( a  
non-combu/ible  mat]ial4          ,,!   
,,g5esis ,,( ,,motion-,,pictures        
,,*apt] ,,ii    ,,! ,,g5esis ,,(        
,,motion-,,pictures      ,al?\gh !      
possibilities ( tak+ pictures           
photographically  0 kn[n z e>ly z ! ?ird
 decade ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1  draw+s only
 7 us$ 9 ! _m devices = r5d]+ !         

illusion ( movem5t4 ,9 ! prec$+ *apt] 9 
:i* we h  giv5 a brief hi/ory ( ! e>ly  
ef=ts ( syn!siz+ relat$  pictures1      
typical examples ( su* in/rum5ts h be5  
giv54 ,b  ! pictorial elem5ts us$ 9 !m 7
 always draw+s4    ,x 0 n until #ahfa t 
photographic pr9ts 7 utiliz$ 9 a  ma*9e 
to give an appe>ance ( life to m]e      
pictures4 ,?is ma*9e  0 t ( ,mr4        
,coleman ,sell]s1 ( ,philadelphia4 ,8   
in/rum5t  br\ght /]eoscopic pictures    
into ! l9e ( vision 9 turn  :]e !y 7    
view$ by /]eoscopic l5ses4 ,n only did  
?is  arrangem5t %[ movem5t by a bl5d+ ( 
relat$ pictures b  procur$ an effect (  
relief4    ,illu/ration3 ,,plan ,,( ,,! 
,,app>atus ,,( ,,coleman ,,sell]s ,,=   
,,giv+    ,,! ,,illusion ,,( ,,life ,,to
 ,a ,,s]ies ,,( ,,photographs4    ,x is 
to be rememb]$ t 9 ! days ( ,mr4        
,sell]s1 photography  did n h among its 
means any me?od ( tak+ a s]ies (        
pictures on a l5g? ( film1 b ! sep>ate  
phases ( a movem5t  _h to be tak5 "o at 
a "t on plates4 ,! ribbon ( s5sitiz$    

film1 practical & dep5dable1 did n come 
until m ?an  tw5ty-five ye>s lat]4 ,its 
introduction into ! craft 0  co9cid5t ) 
! gr[? ( in/antane\s photography4    ,:5
 sci5ti/s began to /udy movem5t ) ! aid 
( in/antane\s  photographs1 !y q        
naturally c>$ less = syn!siz+ !         
pictorial results ( _! inve/igations ?an
 !y did = m]ely  obs]v+ & record+       
exactly h[ movem5t takes place4    ,at  
fir/ diagrams & draw+s 7 us$ by /ud5ts (
 movem5t to  fix 9 an und]/&able way !  
facts ga9$ by _! inquiries4 ,9  ,engl&1 
= in/ance1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,bell ,pettigrew    
7#ahcd-aijh7 illu/rat$  8 works ) a lot 
( c>efully made diagrammatic pictures4  
,he made  _m int]e/+ obs]vations on     
locomotion & gave mu* att5tion  to !    
movem5t ( fly+ creatures1 add+ "s       
comm5t1 too1 on !  possibility (        
artificial flight4    ,aga9 9 ,p>is1 ,m4
 ,e4 ,j4 ,m>ey 7^: "w is to be consid]$ 
a  little f>!r on7 embelli%$ 8 writ+s ) 
*>ts & diagrams  t 7 made ) ! aid (     
elaborate app>atus = ! tim+  ( animals 9

 action & ! m>k+ ( _! footpr9ts on !    
gr\nd4 ,!n he trac$1 too1 by me?ods t   
involv$ mu* labor  & pati5ce1 !         
trajectory ( a bird's w+4 ,& 9 8 cont9u$
  se>*+ out ( ! pr9ciples ( flight      
regi/]$ by +5i\s  in/rum5ts !           
w+-movem5ts 9 sev]al k9ds ( insects4    
,9 our fir/ *apt] no in/ructions 7 giv5 
z to h[ animat$  c>toons are made4 ,&   
al?\gh ?is is ! specific purpose ( !    
book1 we mu/ aga9 9 ?is *apt] ref] b    
slightly to ! matt]1  z !re is ne$ t we 
fir/ devote "s "t to *ronicl+ !  e>ly   
ef=ts 9 solv+ animal movem5ts by ! aid (
 photography4  ,!n we mu/ t\*1 too1 ^u !
 modes ( ! syn!sis ( analytic           
photographs = ! purpose ( scre5         
projection4    ,bo? ^! matt]s are p]t95t
 to our !me3 ! animat$ scre5  arti/     
makes use ( in/antane\s photographs = ! 
/udy (  movem5t1 & ! same ma*9e t       
projects ! photographic film is  also   
us$ = ! animat$ c>toon film made f 8    
draw+s4    ,:at appe>s to h be5 ! fir/  
use ( photographs to give  a scre5      

syn!sis 9 an auditorium1 0 t on an ev5+ 
9  ,febru>y1 #ahgj1 at ! ,academy (     
,music1 9 ,philadelphia4 ,x 0 an        
exhibition giv5 by ,mr4 ,h5ry ,r4 ,heyl1
 ( 8 phasmatrope4 ,he %[$  on a scre51  
life-siz$ figures ( danc]s & acrobats 9 
motion4  ,! pictures 7 project$1 ) ! aid
 ( a magic-lant]n1 f  photographs on ?9 
glass plates t 7 plac$ ar\nd a :eel  :i*
 0 made to rotate4 ,a 8vibrat+ %utt]0   
cut (f ! light  :ile "o photograph mov$ 
out ( ! way1 & ano!r came 9 to  take its
 place4 ,! :eel _h spaces = eighte5     
photographs4 ,x  0 s plann$ t ^? ( "o   
set c\ld be tak5 out & ^? (  ano!r      
slipp$ 9 to *ange a subject =           
projection4    ,! photographs us$ 9 !   
phasmatrope 7 f pos$ models2 a  c]ta9   
numb] ( :i* 7 select$ to =m a cycle s t 
!  s]ies c\ld be repeat$ & a cont9u\s   
p]=mance be giv5  by keep+ ! :eel go+4  
,at ?is p]iod !re 7 no pliant  s5sitiz$ 
ribbons to take a sequ5ce ( photographs 
( a movem5t1  & ,heyl _h to take !m "o  
at a "t on glass plates by ! wet        

collodion process4    ,a notable po9t   
ab\t ?is e>ly motion-picture %[ 0 t x  0
 q l "o ( our day1 = accord+ to ,heyl1 9
 8 lett]  to ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,frankl9     
,in/itute1 he _h ! or*e/ra  play        
appropriate music to suit ! action ( !  
danc]s & !  grotesqu]ies ( ! acrobats4  
,bett] kn[n 9 ! fields ( ! /udy (       
movem5t & t (  in/antane\s photography &
 pictorial syn!sis are ,m4 ,m>ey1       
already m5tion$ 7#ahcj-aijd71 & 8       
contempor>y1 ,mr4 ,e4 ,muybridge        
7#ahcj-aijd74 ,:ile ,m>ey conduct$ 8    
inquiries 9 ,p>is1 ,muybridge  pursu$ 8 
/udies 9 ,san ,francisco &              
,philadelphia4    ,m>ey1 :o 9 ! beg9n+  
record$ ! *anges & modification (       
attitudes 9 movem5t by diagrams & *>ts1 
lat] us$ diagrams  made f photographs & 
!n photographs !mselves4 ,he /udi$  !   
phases ( movem5t f a /rictly sci5tific  
/&po9t1 9  human be+s1 f\r-foot$ bea/s1 
birds1 & ne>ly all =ms (  life4 ,& he   
did n neglect to note ! spe$ & mann] (  
mov+  ( inorganic bodies1 su* z fall+   

objects1 agitat$ & :irl+  ?reads4       
,illu/ration3 ,,o/ri* ,,walk+4    ,"p ( 
a plate 9 ,muybridge's 8,animal         
,locomotion40 ,publi%$ &  copyright$ by 
him 9 #ahhg4    ,an impos+ "w1 made "u !
 auspices ( ! ,univ]sity (              
,p5nsylvania1 ( m ?an #gjj l>ge plates4 
,x 0 ! fir/  compreh5sive analytical    
/udy ( movem5t 9 human figures &        
animals4    ,muybridge1 on ! o!r h&1    
seem$ to h a tr5d t[>d !  educational1 9
 a popul> s5se ( ! ^w2 & _h a faculty ( 
giv+ 8 works a pictorial quality4 ,he   
%[$ ?is 9 ! *oice  ( 8 subjects & !     
devis+ ( ma*9es t comb9$ 8  photographs 
some:at successfully 9 scre5 projection4
    ,9 ,muybridge's fir/ "w 9 :i* he    
photograph$ a horse 9 motion1  he us$ a 
r[ ( cam]as 9 front ( :i* ! horse       
proce$$4 ,!  horse 9 pass+ be=e !m1 &   
com+ be=e ea* p>ticul>  cam]a1 broke a  
/r+ connect$ ) its %utt]4 ,?is 9 op5+   
expos$ ! plate & s pictur$ ! horse at t 
mom5t1 & 9  ! p>ticul> attitude ( t     
mom5t4 ,?is break+ ( a /r+1  op5+ ( a   

%utt]1 & s on1 took place be=e ea*      
cam]a4  ,muybridge 9 8 e>ly "w us$ !    
collodion wet plate1 a s]i\s            
disadvantage4 ,lat] he _h ! conv5i5ce ( 
! s5sitiz$ dry  plate & 0 also able to  
op]ate ! cam]as by motors4    ,:5 ,m>ey 
began to employ a cam]a 9 8 rese>*es he 
regi/]$  ! movem5ts ( an entire action  
on "o plate2 :ile ,muybridge's  way 0 to
 take b "o phase ( an action on "o      
plate4 ,! two m5  diff]$ greatly 9 _!   
objects & me?ods4 ,m>ey 9 8 e>ly        
exp]im5ts1 at lea/1 trac$ on "o plate or
 *>t ! successive  *anges 9 attitudes ( 
limbs or p>ts1 or ! positions ( c]ta9   
fix$ po9ts on 8 models4 ,b ,muybridge   
procur$ s+le b  relat$ pictures (       
attitudes assum$ by 8 subjects 9 a      
connect$  & ord]ly sequ5ce4 ,! latt]    
me?od l5t itself m readily  to          
adaptation = ! project+ lant]n & s      
became popul>ly  appreciat$4 ,p]haps x  
is = ?is reason t ,muybridge has be5    
ref]r$ to z ! fa!r ( ! motion-picture4  
,! photographic gun 0 ,m>ey's mo/ novel 

cam]a4 ,) ?is  he caught on a glass     
plate ! movem5ts ( fly+ birds4 ,?is     
in/rum5t 0 sugge/$ by a simil> "o us$ by
 ,m4 ,janss51 !  a/ronom]1 9 #ahgd1 to  
make a photographic record ( ! transit (
  a planet across ! sun's disk4         
,illu/ration3 ,,m>ey',s ,,photographic  
,,gun4    ,! k9eograph1 m5tion$ at !    
beg9n+ ( ?is *apt]1 by :i*  ! illusion (
 motion 0 giv5 to a s]ies ( pictures    
arrang$  l a book1 =m$ ! basic idea = a 
numb] ( o!r popul>  contrivances4 ,"o ( 
^! 0 ! mutoscope1 9 :i* ! leaves  7     
fa/5$ by "o edge to an axis 9 su* a way 
t !y /ood  out l spokes4 ,! ma*9e 9     
op]ation br\ght "o leaf = a  mom5t at   
re/ "u ! gaze ( ! eye & !n all[$ x to   
snap  away to expose ano!r picture 9 its
 place4 ,:5 ?is 0 view$ 9  its turn1 x  
also disappe>$ to make way = ! next 9   
ord]4    ,illu/ration3 ,,plan ,,(       
,,lumi,,re',s ,,k9ora4    ,an app>atus  
simil> 9 pr9ciple to ! mutoscope4    ,z 
yet exp]im5t]s 7 n altoge!r sure 9 :at  
p>ticul> way  to comb9e a s]ies (       

graduat$ pictures s z to produce "o liv+
  image4 ,besides ! ways t h be5        
exemplifi$ 9 ! app>atus  s f> enum]at$1 
"s exp]im5t]s tri$ to put photographs   
ar\nd  ! circumf]5ce ( a l>ge glass disk
 some:at on ! ord] ( !  ph5aki/oscope4  
,heyl's phasmatrope1 ( #ahgj1 0 on ?is  
ord]4    ,on ?is plan ( a rotat+ disk1  
,muybridge con/ruct$ 8  zopraxiscope by 
:i* he project$ "s ( 8 animal           
photographs4  ,ano!r exp$i5t tri$ by "s 
"o 0 t ( putt+ a /r+  ( m9ute pictures  
spirally on a drum :i* 0 made to turn 9 
a  helix-l fa%ion4 ,! pictures 7 enl>g$ 
by a l5s & br\ght  into view back ( a   
%utt] t work$ int]mitt5tly4    ,al?\gh !
 dry plate assur$ly 0 a great improvem5t
 ov] !  sl[ & tr\blesome old-fa%ion$ wet
 plate1 !re 0 felt ! ne$  ( "s pliant   
mat]ial t c\ld be s5sitiz$ = photography
  & t c\ld fur!rmore be made 9 ! =m ( a 
ribbon4 ,!  suitabl5ess ( ! pap] /rips =
 use 9 ! zootrope & !  prax9oscope      
obvi\sly demon/rat$ ! advantages ( an   
elongat$  =m on :i* to put a s]ies (    

relat$ pictures4    ,exp]im5ts 7 made to
 obta9 a pliant ribbon = ! use4         
,transp>5t pap] 0 at "o "t tri$ b f\nd  
unadaptable4  ,ev5tually ! celluloid    
film came into use1 & x is ?is mat]ial  
t is n[ g5]ally 9 use to make bo? !     
ord9>y snap-%ot film  & ! 8film /ock0 = 
! motion-picture indu/ry4    ,edison's  
k9etoscope ( #ahij1 or m p>ticul>ly its 
improv$ =m  ( #ahic1 t f\nd imm$iate    
recognition on its exhibition at !      
,_w's ,fair at ,*icago1 0 ! fir/        
utilization on a l>ge scale  ( !        
celluloid film = motion-pictures4 ,x is 
to be rem>k$1  h[ev]1 t 9 ! k9etoscope !
 pictures 7 view$1 n on a  scre5 9 an   
auditorium by a numb] ( p1 b by "o p]son
 at  a "t pe]+ ?r\gh a sight op5+ 9 !   
app>atus4 ,x 0 !  k9etoscope1 x appe>s1 
t set o!rs to "w devis+ ways (  us+     
celluloid b&s = project+ pictures on a  
scre54    ,:ile "s inv5tors 7 busy 9 _! 
ef=ts to con/ruct  workable app>atus bo?
 = photography & projection1 o!rs 7     
endeavor+ to bett] ! mat]ial = ! film & 

improve !  photographic emulsion cov]+  
x4    ,!re is no ne$ 9 ?is book1 9 :i*  
we %all try to expla9 !  mak+ ( animat$ 
scre5 draw+s1 to rec\nt ! :ole /ory ( ! 
progressive improvem5ts ( ! ma*9es us$ 9
 ! motion-picture  indu/ry4 ,b a %ort   
notice ( ! pres5t-day appliances w n  be
 out ( place4    ,illu/ration3 ,,plan   
,,( ,,edison',s ,,fir/ ,,k9etoscope4    
,modifi$ f ! ,pat5t ,(fice draw+4    ,! 
?ree indisp5sable pieces ( me*anism are 
! cam]a1 !  projector1 & ! pr9t]1 or    
app>atus t pr9ts pictures               
photographically4 ,all ?ree 9 c]ta9 p>ts
 ( _! con/ruction  are simil> 9 work+   
pr9ciples4 ,! me*anical arrangem5ts (  !
 cam]a & projector especially are s mu* 
alike t "s (  ! fir/ app>atus fabricat$ 
7 us$ bo? = photography &  projection4  
,a few e>ly types ( cam]as s]v$ ev5 =   
pr9t]s z  well4    ,! ess5tial details (
 ! ?ree ma*9es nam$ above c be  describ$
 briefly z foll[s3 7#a7 ,a cam]a has a  
light-tight  comp>tm5t )9 :i* a fre%    
/rip ( film passes & /ops  int]mitt5tly 

back ( a l5s t is focuss$ on a subject1 
a  rotat+ %utt] ) an op5 & an opaque    
section makes !  exposure4 7,:5 ! /rip (
 film is develop$ x is kn[n z !         
negative47 7#b7 ,a pr9t] pulls !        
negative1 toge!r ) a fre%  /rip ( film 9
 contact ) x1 into place by an          
int]mitt5t  me*anism be=e a /rong light4
 ,a rotat+ %utt] fla%es !  light on &   
(f4 7,! new piece ( film1 :5 x is       
develop$ &  ! pictures are br\ght out1  
is kn[n z ! positive47 7#c7 ,!          
projector moves ! positive film by an   
int]mitt5t me*anism  betwe5 a light & a 
l5s2 a rotat+ %utt]1 ) op5 & opaque     
sections1 alt]nately %uts ! light (f &  
on4 ,:5 ! light rays  are all[$ to pass 
! pictures conta9$ on ! positive film   
are  project$ on ! scre54               
,illu/ration3 ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,!       
,,projector ,,& ,,! ,,motion-,,picture  
,,cam]a ,,comp>$4    ,x seems           
unnecess>y1 p]haps1 9 ^! days ( !       
ubiquity (  snap-%ot cam]as1 & ! fact t 
ne>ly e "o becomes  acqua9t$ ) _!       

manipulation1 to m5tion t a photographic
  negative records ! light & %ade (     
nature negatively1 & t a  positive pr9t 
is "o t gives a positive repres5tation (
 su*  light & %ade4    ,illu/ration3 ,a 
,,negative4    ,a ,,positive ,,pr9t4    
,a motion-picture cam]a ( ! mo/ approv$ 
patt]n is an  exce$+ly complicat$ &     
f9ely adju/$ in/rum5t4 ,its pr9ciple  ( 
op]ation c be und]/ood easily if x is   
rememb]$ t x  is practically a snap-%ot 
cam]a ) ! addition ( a me*anism  t turns
 a revolv+ %utt] & moves a l5g? ( film  
across !  exposure field1 holds x !re = 
an int]val :ile ! photographic          
impression is made1 & !n moves x away to
 cont9ue ! process  until ! desir$ l5g? 
( film has be5 tak54 ,?is movem5t1      
driv5 by a h&-crank1 is ! same z t ( a  
projector--previ\sly  expla9$--namely1  
an int]mitt5t "o4    ,?is is effect$ 9 a
 v>iety ( ways4 ,! me?od 9 _m in/rum5ts 
is an alt]nate "o ( ! go+ back & =? ( a 
pair (  claw-lev]s t dur+ "o su* motion 
draw ! film into place by  engag+ !     

claws into p]=ations on ! m>g9s ( !     
film4    ,illu/ration3 ,,plan ,,( ,a    
,,motion-,,picture ,,cam]a4      ,a4    
,film4 ,b4 ,top loop to all[ = ! pull+  
d[n ( !    film dur+ ! int]mitt5t       
movem5t4 ,c4 ,magaz9e to hold !    blank
 film4 ,d4 ,magaz9e to hold ! expos$    
film4 ,e4 ,claw    device :i* pulls d[n 
! film ?ree-qu>t]s ( an in* =    ea*    
picture4 ,f4 ,sprocket-:eels4 ,g4       
,exposure field4 ,h4    ,focus+-tube4   
,i4 ,eye-piece = focus+4 ,j4 ,%utt]4 ,k4
    ,l5s4 ,l4 ,film gate4    ,! patt]ns 
( ! %utt]s 9 cam]a & projector diff]4 ,t
 (  ! projector is ?ree or two p>t$1 z  
/at$ 9 our obs]vations  previ\sly made4 
,a cam]a %utt] is a disk ) an op5       
section4 ,!  area ( ?is op5 section c be
 v>i$ to fit ! light conditions4        
,illu/ration3 ,,types ,,( ,,cam]a ,,&   
,,projector ,,%utt]s4    ,! g5]al       
practice relative to tak+               
motion-pictures is to h  "o-half foot ( 
film move along = ea* turn ( ! cam]a    
h&le4  ,eight sep>ate pictures are made 

on ?is "o-half foot ( film4 ,b  9 a     
cam]a t ! animat$ c>toon arti/ uses1 b  
"o turn  ( ! h&le = ea* picture is !    
me?od4 ,9 mo/ cam]as !  ge>+ c be *ang$ 
to op]ate ei!r way4 ,to photograph      
draw+s  9 mak+ animat$ films a good     
reliable in/rum5t is necess>y1  &       
requirem5ts to ! purpose %\ld be ?\ght (
 9 select+  "o4 ,"o important matt] t   
may be m5tion$ "h is t !re  %\ld be an  
easy way ( focuss+ ! sc5e4 ,g5]ally 9   
tak+  topical pictures & views1 an      
outside f9d] & a graduat$ scale  =      
di/ance & o!r matt]s is made use (1 b = 
draw+s x  is ess5tial to be able to     
focus on a suitable transluc5t surface  
)9 ! exposure field 9 ! cam]a4    ,!re  
are c]ta9 num]ical =mulas t ^? go+ into 
motion-picture "w %\ld le>n at ! />t4 ,x
 is well1 too1 =  ! g5]al read]1 ev5 if 
he is int]e/$ only z a matt] (          
in=mation to take note ( !m4 ,_!        
compreh5sion w help to a  bett] und]/&+ 
( h[ bo? ! ord9>y photographic film1 &  
! film f animat$ draw+s1 are made1      

prep>$1 & %[n on !  scre54    ,z !      
ord9>y phrase goes1 any s+le subject 9  
film =m is  spok5 ( z a reel2 b 9 /rict 
trade usage ! ^w means a  l5g? ( "o ?\s&
 feet4 ,z x is g5]ally reckon$1 sixty   
feet  ( film pass ?r\gh ! project+ ma*9e
 e m9ute4 ,?is means  t a reel ( "o ?\s&
 feet w take ab\t sev5te5 m9utes4  ,n[ )
 sixty feet ( film cross+ ! pa? ( light 
9 "o m9ute1  we see t "o foot hurries   
across 9 "o second4 ,& z sixte5  little 
pictures are conta9$ 9 "o foot ( film1  
we get an idea  ( ! great numb] ( su*   
sep>ate pictures 9 a reel ( ord9>y      
l5g?4 ,all ^! p>ticul>s--especially t   
reg>d+ ! spe$  at :i* ! film moves--are 
vital matt]s = ! animat$ c>toon  arti/  
to keep 9 m9d z he plans 8 "w4          
,illu/ration3 ,,"o ,,foot ,,( ,,film    
,,passes ,,?r\gh ,,! ,,projector ,,9    
,,"o  ,,second          ,,mak+ ,,animat$
 ,,c>toons          ,,*apt] ,,iii       
,,mak+ ,,animat$ ,,c>toons      ,9 !    
prec$+ *apt] ! att5tion 0 call$ to !    
fact t a  foot ( film passes ?r\gh !    

projector 9 "o second1 & t 9  ea* foot  
!re are sixte5 pictures1 or frames1 )9 !
 outl9es  ( :i* ! photographic images   
are f\nd4 ,:5 a cam]a man sets  up 8    
app>atus be=e a sc5e & />ts to op]ate ! 
me*anism1  ! g5]al way is to h ! film   
move 9 ! cam]a at ?is same  rate ( spe$2
 to wit1 "o foot p] second4 ,z ea* s+le 
turn (  ! cam]a h&le moves only "o-half 
( a foot ( film1 ! cam]a  man mu/ turn !
 h&le twice 9 "o second4 ,& "o ( ! ?+s  
t he mu/ le>n is to appraise "t         
durations s accurately t  he w turn !   
h&le at ?is spe$4    ,! animat$ c>toon  
arti/1 in/ead ( us+ real p1 objects1  or
 views to take on 8 film1 mu/ make a    
numb] ( relat$  draw+s1 on e "o ( :i*   
!re mu/ be a *ange 9 a prop]1           
progressive1 & graduat$ ord]4 ,^! draw+s
 are plac$ "u a  cam]a & photograph$ 9  
_! sequ5ce1 ! film develop$ &  !        
resultant negative us$ to make a        
positive film4 ,?is is us$1  z we "k1 = 
scre5 projection4 ,all ! te*nical &     
f9i%+  processes are ! same :e!r !y are 

employ$ 9 mak+ ! usual  reel 9 :i* p &  
sc5es are us$1 or animat$ c>toon reels  
f draw+s4    ,:5 x is consid]$ t !re are
 9 a half reel 7five hundr$  feet1 !    
cu/om>y l5g? = a comic subject7 exactly 
eight  ?\s& pictures1 ) e               
"o--!oretically--diff]5t1 x seems  l an 
appall+ job to make t numb] ( sep>ate   
draw+s =  su* a half reel4 ,b an arti/  
doesn't make any:]e ne> z _m  draw+s z t
 = a reel ( ?is l5g?1 & ( all ! tal5ts  
requir$ by any "o go+ into ?is bran* (  
art1 none is s  important z t ( ! skill 
to plan ! "w s t ! l[e/  possible numb] 
( draw+s ne$ be made = any p>ticul>     
sc5>io4    8,animator0 is ! special t]m 
appli$ to ! creative work]  9 ?is new   
bran* ( arti/ic endeavor4 ,besides !    
ess5tial  qualification ( be/[+ life ^u 
draw+s1 he mu/ be a man (  _m           
accompli%m5ts4 ,fir/ z a sc5>io is      
always writt5 ( any  scre5 /ory no matt]
 :e!r s]i\s1 educational1 or humor\s1 he
  mu/ h "s notion ( =m2 t is to say1 he 
mu/ "k :at good  composition means 9    

putt+ compon5ts toge!r 9 an ord]ly &    
proportional arrangem5t4    ,if !       
subject is an educational "o he mu/ h a 
grasp (  p$agogical pr9ciples1 too1 & if
 x is ( a humor\s nature1 8             
appreciation ( a comic situation mu/ be 
ke54    ,& !n ) ! t]rify+ prospect      
confront+ him ( hav+ to  make innum]able
 draw+s & att5d+ to o!r incid5tal       
arti/ic  details be=e 8 film is         
complet$1 he mu/ be an untir+ & a       
c\rage\s work]4 ,8 skill z a manag]     
comes 9 :5 plann+ !  :ole "w 9 ! use (  
exp$i5ts & tricks1 & an economy (  labor
 9 gett+ z mu* action ) ! use ( z few   
draw+s z  possible4    ,besides ! *ief  
animator1 o!rs1 su* z assi/ant          
animators1  trac]s1 & photograph]s1 are 
conc]n$ 9 ! production ( an  animat$    
film f draw+s4    ,comm5ts on ! writ+ ( 
! sc5>io we d n ne$ to g into  n[4 ,(t5 
! arti/ himself writes x2 b if he does  
n1 he at  lea/ plans x1 or has a %>e 9  
its con/ruction4    ,presum+1 !n1 t !   
sc5>io has be5 writt51 ! *ief  animator 

fir/ ( all decides on ! portraiture ( 8 
*>act]s4  ,he w proce$ to make sket*es (
 !m z !y look n only 9  front & pr(ile  
views1 b also z !y appe> f ! back &  9  
?ree-qu>t] views4 ,x is cu/om>y t ^!    
sket*es--8  models1 & really ! dramatis 
p]son1 be drawn ( ! size !y  w h 9 !    
majority ( ! sc5es4 ,aft] ! *>act]s h   
be5 creat$1 ! next /ep is to lay out !  
sc5es1 9 o!r words1  plan ! surr\nd+s or
 sett+s = ea* ( ! diff]5t acts4  ,!     
rectangul> space ( 8 draw+s )9 :i* !    
composition  is conta9$ is ab\t t5 or   
elev5 times l>g] ?an ! little           
?ree-qu>t]-by-"o-in* pictures ( ! films2
 namely1 sev5 &  "o-half by t5 in*es1 or
 eight & "o-qu>t] by elev5 in*es4  ,= "s
 k9ds ( films--pla9 titles & 8trick0    
titles--! mak+  ( :i* w be rem>k$ ^u    
fur!r on--a l>g] field ( ab\t  ?irte5 & 
"o-half by eighte5 in*es is us$4        
,illu/ration3 8,,animator',s0           
,,draw+-,,bo>d4    ,n[ ) a huge pile (  
:ite l95 pap] cut to a uni=m size (     
ab\t n9e by twelve in*es1 ! animator    

apportions ! "w to !  sev]al assi/ant   
animators4 ,! mo/ important sc5e or     
action1 (  c\rse1 falls to 8 %>e4 ,!re  
are sev]al ways ( go+ ab\t  mak+ animat$
 c>toons1 & trick titles1 & ^! me?ods w 
be t\*$ ^u subsequ5tly4 ,b 9 ! p>ticul> 
me?od ( mak+  animat$ c>toons :i* we are
 describ+ n[--t 9 :i* pap] is  !        
pr9cipal surface ^u :i* ! draw+s are    
made 9 ink--all !  work]s make _! draw+s
 ov] a bo>d t has a middle portion  cut 
out & into :i* is fitt$ a %eet ( ?ick   
glass4 ,"u ?is  glass is fix$ an        
electric light4 ,on ! bo>d along ! upp] 
m>g9  ( ! glass1 !re is fix$ to ! wood a
 b> ( iron to :i* two  p9s or pegs are  
firmly fix$4 ,^! pegs are a little less 
?an  "o-half in* high & di/ant f ea* o!r
 ab\t five in*es4 ,x  doesn't matt] mu* 
:at ?is di/ance is1 except+ ?is         
important  po9t3 all ! bo>ds 9 any "o   
/udio mu/ be provid$ ) sets  ( pegs t   
are uni=m ) respect to ?is di/ance      
betwe5 !m4  ,& all ( !m %\ld be mo/     
accurately measur$ 9 _! plac+4          

,sometimes z an exp$i5t1 pegs are m]ely 
driv5 into ! bo>d at  ! requir$ di/ance4
    ,^! pegs are sev5 ?irty-seconds ( an
 in* 9 diamet]4 ,t !  animator %\ld use 
?is p>ticul> size ( pegs 0 det]m9$1  no 
d\bt1 by ! fact t an article manufactur$
 orig9ally =  p]=at+ pages & %eets us$ 9
 c]ta9 me?ods ( bookkeep+  0 f\nd       
available = 8 purposes4 ,?is p]=ator    
cuts holes  exactly sev5 ?irty-seconds (
 an in* 9 diamet]4 ,ea* "o ( !  %eets ( 
pap] f ! huge pile spok5 ( above1 be=e x
 is  drawn ^u1 has two holes pun*$ into 
"o ( its long edges at !  same di/ance  
ap>t z ! di/ance betwe5 ! two pegs fix$ 
to !  animator's draw+-bo>d4            
,illu/ration3 ,a ,,%eet ,,( ,,p]=at$    
,,pap] ,,& ,,! ,,regi/]+ ,,pegs4        
,fitt+ "o ( ^! %eets ( pap] ov] ! pegs1 
!  arti/-animator is ready = "w4 ,z !   
pap] lies flat ov] !  glass set into !  
bo>d1 he c see ! gl>e ( ! electric light
  und]nea?4 ,?is illum9ation f bel[ is  
to enable him to trace  l9es on a top   
%eet ( pap] f l9es on a second %eet (   

pap]  und]nea?2 & also to make ! slight 
v>iations 9 ! sev]al  draw+s conc]n$ 9  
any action4    ,n[ ! reason = ! pegs is 
?is3 z 9 an ord9>y motion-picture  film 
c]ta9 *>act]s1 z well z objects & o!r   
details are  quiesc5t1 & only "o or a   
few *>act]s are 9 action1 s 9 an        
animat$ c>toon "s ( ! figures1 or       
details1 are quiesc5t = a  "t4 ,& z !y  
/ay = a l5g? ( "t 9 ! same place 9 !    
sc5e1 _! portrayal 9 ?is same place     
?r\gh\t ! s]ies (  draw+s is obta9$ by  
trac+ !m f "o %eet to ano!r4 ,!  %eets  
are held 9 place by ! pegs & !y insure !
 regi/]+  ( id5tical details ?r\gh\t a  
s]ies4    ,:5 ! animator designs 8      
sett+1 ! /age sc5]y ( any  p>ticul>     
animat$ play1 he keeps 9 m9d ! area )9  
:i* 8  figures are go+ to move4 ,reasons
 = ?is w become app>5t  z ! te*nic ( !  
art is fur!r expla9$4 ,! outl9e ( 8     
sc5e1 say a backgr\nd1 simply drawn 9   
ink on a %eet ( pap]  is fitt$ ov] !    
pegs4 ,! light "u ! glass1 z expla9$    
imm$iately above1 %[s ?r\gh x4 ,next a  

fre% %eet ( pap]  is plac$ ov] ! "o ) ! 
sc5e1 & z ! pap] is select$  = its      
transp>5t qualities1 z well z its       
adaptability =  p5-draw+1 ! ink l9es ( !
 sc5e und]nea? are visible4    ,let u   
presume n[1 t ! composition is to       
repres5t two m5  /&+ & fac+ ea* o!r &   
talk+4 ,!y are to ge/iculate  & move _! 
lips slightly z if speak+4 7,9 ! foll[+ 
description we w ignore ?is movem5t ( ! 
m\? & h x  assum$ t ! arti/ is draw+ ?is
 action1 also1 z he proce$s  ) ! "w47 ,!
 two m5 are sket*$ 9 "s passive         
position1  & ! animation ( "o ( !       
figures is />t$4 ,) ! key  sket* ( ! m5 
9 ! passive position plac$ ov] ! light1 
a %eet ( pap] is plac$ ov] x & ! extreme
 position ( a  ge/iculat+ arm is drawn1 
!n on ano!r %eet ( pap] plac$  ov] !    
light ! o!r extreme position ( ?is arm  
action is  drawn4 ,n[1 ) /ill ano!r %eet
 ( pap] plac$ ov] ! o!rs1  ! int]m$iate 
position ( ! ge/ure is drawn4 ,z ! man 0
  /&+ on ! same spot all ! "t 8 feet    
w\ld be ! same 9  all ! draw+s & o!r    

p>ts ( 8 figure w\ld occupy ! same      
place4 ,b ! animator does n draw ^! p>ts
 himself b m>ks  ! sev]al %eets :]e !y  
occur ) a numb]1 or symbol1 t  w be     
und]/ood by "o ( 8 help]s--a trac]--z   
in/ructions to  trace !m4 ,! o!r man 9 !
 picture1 :o all ?is "t has be5         
motionless1 is also repres5t$ 9 all !   
draw+s l9e = l9e z  he 0 fir/ drawn 9 ! 
prelim9>y key sket*4 ,?is aga9 is a job 
= ! trac]4    ,:5 ! action ( ! second   
figure is made1 ! draw+ ( !  ?ree phases
 ( movem5t 9 8 arms is proce$$ ) 9 !    
same  way1 & ! fir/ figure is repeat$ 9 
8 passive position dur+  ! ge/ur+ ( !   
second man4    ,x c be se5 f ?is way (  
work+ 9 ! division ( labor  betwe5 !    
animator & 8 help] t ! actual toil (    
repeat+  monoton\s details falls ^u !   
trac]4 ,! animator does ! fir/  plann+ &
 t "p ( ! subsequ5t "w requir+ true     
arti/ic  ability4    ,s t ! arti/s c see
 to d ! "w describ$ above--trac+  f "o  
%eet ( pap] to ano!r & di/+ui%+ ink l9es
  ?r\gh two or m %eets ( pap] :ile !y   

are ov] !  illum9at$ glass--! exp$i5t is
 adopt$ ( %ad+ ! "w-table  f ! gl>e (   
/rong daylight4    ,illu/ration3        
,,complete ,,sc5e      ,,illu/rat+ ,,!  
,,great ,,am\nt ,,( ,,draw+ ,,requir$   
,,9 ,,animat+ ,a    ,,sc5e ,,)\t ,,!    
,,help ,,( ,,transp>5t ,,celluloid4     
,9 ?is typical process ( depict+ a      
simple action1 or animat+ a  figure1 z x
 is call$1 we h left out specific       
explanations =  draw+ ! details ( !     
sc5]y--trees1 =egr\nd1 or :atev] is  put
 into ! composition z an accessory4 ,!y 
g into a f9i%$  composition1 to be sure4
 ,"o way w\ld be to trace _! outl9es  on
 ea* & e %eet ( pap]4 ,x is a feasible  
way b n  labor-sav+4 ,!re is a mu* m    
conv5i5t way ?an t4    ,9 beg9n+ ?is    
exposition on animation x 0 not$ t !    
arti/ 9 design+ ! sc5]y gave "s ?\ght to
 ! area )9  :i* 8 figures 7 plac$1 or 7 
to act4 ,he plann$ :5 he did  ?is1 t no 
"p ( ! compon5ts ( ! sc5]y %\ld int]f]e 
by cross+ l9es ) any portions ( !       
figures4 ,! reason =  ?is w be app>5t :5

 x is expla9$ t ! sc5]y is  drawn on a  
%eet ( transp>5t celluloid4 ,!n :5 !    
celluloid  ) its sc5]y is plac$ ov] "o (
 ! draw+s x completes  ! picture4 ,!    
celluloid %eet has also two p]=ations t 
fit ov] ! pegs1 & x is by _! ag5cy t its
 details are  made to correspond ) !    
draw+s on pap]4 ,& x c fur!r  be        
und]/ood t ?is s+le celluloid %eet w    
complete1 if x  is design$ prop]ly1 !   
pictorial composition ( e "o ( !        
draw+s4 7,a %eet ( ?is sub/ance t we are
 ref]r+ to n[ is  kn[n 9 ! craft z 8a   
celluloid0 or %ort5$ sometimes to       
8cell407    ,! employm5t ( celluloid c  
be ext5d$ to save o!r "w 9  trac+ p>ts (
 figures t are 9 ! same position1 or t  
are  n 9 action ?r\gh\t sev]al draw+s4  
,9 ?is case a second  celluloid w be us$
 9 conjunction ) t hold+ ! sc5]y4  ,to  
exemplify3 ,9 giv+ an acc\nt ( ! draw+ (
 ! arm ge/ures  9 ! in/ance above1 x 0  
not$ t an animator drew ! action  only  
:ile he _h a trac] complete on all !    
draw+s ! p>ts  t did n move4 ,n[1 to    

save ! monotony ( all ?is1 ! trac]      
takes celluloid & draws ! simil>ly plac$
 quiet p>ts on x b  once4 ,?is celluloid
 is us$ dur+ ! photography ) ! sev]al   
action phases to complete ! picture ( ! 
figure1 or figures4    ,a matt] t !     
animator %\ld gu>d aga9/1 h[ev]1 9 hav+ 
sev]al celluloids ov] 8 draw+s1 dur+ !  
photography1 is t  !y w imp>t a yell[i% 
t+e to 8 :ite pap] und]nea? if  he uses 
m ?an two or ?ree4 ,?is w\ld necessitate
 c>e 9 tim+  ! exposure correctly z a   
yell[ t9t has non-act9ic qualities  t   
make its photography an unc]ta9 elem5t4 
,illu/ration3 ,sc5]y1 drawn on          
celluloid1 us$ ) ! elem5ts on  !        
opposite page4    ,! me?ods s f>        
describ$ ( mak+ draw+s = animat$ films  
are n complex & are easy to manage4 ,=  
effective animat$  sc5es1 _m m draw+s   
are requir$ & ! adaptation (  celluloids
 is n always su* an easy matt] z "h     
describ$4 ,=  complete films ( ord9>y   
l5g?1 ! draw+s1 celluloids1 &  o!r      
items--exp$i5ts or +5i\s devices to help

 ! "w--numb]  into ! hundr$s4           
,illu/ration3 ,,on ,,celluloid    ,,on  
,,celluloid      ,,illu/rat+ ,,! ,,sav+ 
,,( ,,"t ,,& ,,labor ,,9 ,,mak+ ,,use   
,,( ,,!    ,,exp$i5t ,,( ,,draw+ ,,!    
,,/ill ,,p>ts ,,on ,,celluloid ,,%eets4 
,we w use1 h[ev]1 our few draw+s &      
celluloids t we h  complet$ to expla9 ! 
subsequ5t proc$ure 9 ! mak+ (  animat$  
c>toons2 namely1 ! photographic "p ( !  
process4    ,a mov+-picture cam]a is    
plac$ on a framework ( wood1 or iron1  s
 t x is support$ ov] a table top or "s l
 piece (  c>p5try4 ,x is plac$ s t x    
faces d[nw>d ) ! l5s  c5tr$ on ! table4 
,! cam]a is arrang$ = a 8"o picture  "o 
turn ( ! crank0 movem5t1 & a ge>+ ( *a9 
belts &  pulleys1 to effect ?is1 is     
atta*$ to ! cam]a & framework4  ,?is    
ge>+ is put into motion by a turn+-h&le 
close to :]e  ! photograph] is seat$ z  
he works be=e ! table top :]e !  draw+s 
are plac$4    ,ea* "t ! h&le is turn$ b 
"o picture1 or "o-sixte5?  ( a foot (   
film1 is mov$ into ! field back ( ! l5s 

:]e  ! exposure is made4 ,! view or     
/udio cam]a1 z we "k1 :5 a  complete    
turn ( ! crank h&le is made1 moves eight
 pictures1 or  "o-half ( a foot ( film1 
into position4    ,on ! table directly  
"u ! l5s & at ! prop] di/ance =  correct
 focuss+1 a field is m>k$ out exactly t 
( ! field  t 0 us$ 9 mak+ ! draw+s4 ,two
 regi/]+ pegs are also  fa/5$ relatively
 to ! field z ^? on all ! draw+-bo>ds  9
 ! /udio4 ,ov] ! field1 b h+$ to ! table
 top s t  x c be mov$ up & d[n1 a frame 
hold+ a cle> %eet ( glass  is plac$4 ,! 
glass mu/ be fitt$ closely & firmly 9 ! 
frame1  z x is int5d$ to be press$ d[n  
on ! draw+s :ile !y are  be+            
photograph$4 ,wood s]ves ! purpose v    
well = ^!  frames4 ,a metal frame w\ld  
seem to be ! mo/ practical1 b if  !re is
 9 its con/ruction ! lea/ inequality (  
surface :]e  glass & metal t\*1 !       
pressure put ^u ! frame 9 hold+ !       
draw+s d[n is liable to crack ! glass4  
,) wood1 z !re is a  c]ta9 am\nt ( give1
 ?is is n s likely to happ54            

,consid]+ n[ t ! cam]a has be5 fill$ ) a
 suitable  l5g? ( blank film & prop]ly  
?read$ 9 & out ( ! s]ies  ( :eels t fe$ 
x to ! int]mitt5t me*anism1 & !n  w9d x 
up into its prop] receptacle1 we c      
proce$ ) !  photography4    ,! pione]s 9
 ! art :o fir/ tri$ to make animat$     
c>toons &  simil> film novelties        
attempt$ ! photography by daylight4 ,_! 
results 7 n v good1 = !y 7 mu* h&icapp$ 
by !  unc]ta9ty ( ! light4 ,n[adays !   
,coop] ,hewitt m]cury vapor  light is   
us$ almo/ exclusively4 ,! commone/ me?od
 ( light+ is  to fix a tube ( ?is       
illum9ant on ea* side ( ! cam]a above ! 
bo>d1 b s plac$ t light rays d n g      
slant+ly into !  l5s1 or are caught by  
any poli%$ surface1 & s cause reflect$  
lights t int]f]e ) ! "w4 ,to get ! exact
 position (  ! light = an ev5           
illum9ation ov] ! field means a little  
prelim9>y exp]im5t4    ,9 look+ ov] !   
mat]ial = our little film we f9d t we h 
b a few draw+s & celluloids4 ,n[1 if we 
7 to photograph !m  & give ea* draw+ "o 

exposure--"o picture1 or section on !   
film = ea* draw+--we %\ld get a l5g? (  
film n ev5 a foot  long1 & ! "t on !    
scre5 n ev5 la/+ a second1 b an         
insignificant result = s mu* "w4 ,"h at 
?is /age ( ! "w  ! able animator mu/    
ex]cise 8 tal5ts 9 gett+ z mu* film  z  
possible1 i4 e41 8footage10 out ( 8 few 
draw+s4    ,illu/ration3 ,,arrangem5t   
,,( ,,bo>d1 ,,pegs1 ,,& ,,h+$ ,,frame   
,,)  ,,glass4      7,= its position "u !
 cam]a1 see engrav+ on page #bjc47 ,a   
p]=at$ %eet ( pap] hold+ a draw+ is     
fitt$ ov] ! pegs    & ! frame l[]$4     
,to beg93 ,! fir/ draw+ 9 :i* ! m5 are  
quiesc5t is fitt$  ov] ! pegs2 b !      
picture is n complete until ! celluloid 
) ! sc5]y is also fitt$ ov] ! pegs4 ,:5 
?is is put  9 place & ! frame ) ! glass 
is press$ d[n x is ready  = photography4
 ,! fir/ figures w n beg9 to ge/iculate 
imm$iately--no1 a c]ta9 "t is necess>y =
 ! audi5ce to  appreciate--h ent] into  
_! consci\sness--t ! picture on  ! scre5
 repres5ts two m5 fac+ ea* o!r & ab\t to

 c>ry on  a conv]sation4 ,!re=e ! draw+ 
%[+ ! m5 motionless is  photograph$ on  
ab\t two or ?ree feet ( film4 ,?is w    
give on  ! scre5 j s _m seconds--two or 
?ree--= ! m5tal grasp+  by ! audi5ce ( !
 p>ticul>s ( ! pictorial composition4   
,next to %[ ! fir/ figure go+ ?r\gh 8   
movem5ts we lift  ! fram$ glass & take  
(f ! celluloid ) ! sc5]y & !  pap] ) !  
two m5 motionless4 ,n[ we put d[n ov] ! 
pegs  ! %eet ( pap] ) "o ( ! extreme    
positions ( ! mov+  arms1 & !n z t is   
all !re is on ! pap] we mu/1 to         
complete ! portrayal1 place ov] x !     
celluloid ) ! re/ (  8 figure4 7,?is    
celluloid also holds ! complete draw+ ( 
!  o!r individual z he is motionless    
dur+ ! action ( ! fir/  "o47 ,next !    
entire composition is complet$ by putt+ 
d[n !  sc5]y celluloid4 ,!n :5 ! fram$  
glass is l[]$ & press$  d[n s t ev]y?+  
pres5ts an ev5 surface1 ! picture is    
photograph$4 ,aft] two turns ( !        
h&le--photograph+ x on  two sections ( !
 film--! frame is rais$ & ! celluloids &

  ! draw+ are bo? tak5 (f ( ! pegs4 ,!  
photograph+ (  ! second or int]m$iate   
position is proce$$ ) 9 ! same  way4    
,aft] ?is ! ?ird or o!r extreme phase ( 
! action is  photograph$4    ,!         
photography is cont9u$ by tak+ !        
int]m$iate phase aga91  !n ! fir/       
position1 !n back to ! int]m$iate "o1 & 
s  on4 ,! idea is to give a ge/iculat+  
action to ! figure by us+  ^! ?ree      
draw+s back & =? 9 _! ord] z long z !   
/ory seems to w>rant x4    ,x is n to be
 =gott5 t ! celluloid ) ! sc5]y is us$  
e "t ! diff]5t action phases are        
photograph$4    ,! same proc$ure w be   
foll[$ ) ! celluloid & draw+s  ( ! o!r  
figure1 only be=e beg9n+ 8 action a     
little extra  footage c be ek$ out by   
giv+ a slight dramatic pause betwe5 !   
end+ ( ! fir/ man's ge/iculat+ & !      
beg9n+ ( t (  ! o!r "o4 ,by ?is is meant
 t ! fir/ sc5e ) ! m5  motionless is    
tak5 on a %ort l5g? ( film4             
,illu/ration3 ,,balloons4    ,9 a little
 incid5t ( ?is sort1 dialogue1 ( c\rse1 

is requir$  to help tell ! po9t ( !     
/ory4 ,?is is effect$ by putt+ !  word+ 
on a sep>ate piece ( pap]--balloons1 !y 
are call$--=  ea* case & plac+ x ov] !  
design some:]e s t x w  n cov] any      
important "p ( ! composition4 ,!        
necess>y am\nt  ( film = "o ( ^!        
balloons ) its lett]+ is det]m9$ by  !  
numb] ( seconds t x takes ! av]age      
spectator to read x4  ,x is by !        
int]jection ( ^! balloons ) _! dialogue 
t  an animator1 9 comic !mes1 c get a   
consid]able l5g? ( film  f a v few      
draw+s4    ,aft] ! photography is f9i%$ 
! expos$ film is tak5 out (  ! cam]a &  
s5t to ! laboratory = developm5t4       
,illu/ration3 ,?ree elem5ts :5 fitt$ ov]
 ! pegs complete !  sc5e above4         
,illu/ration3 ,ph5aki/oscope ) cycle (  
draw+s ( a face to  %[ a movem5t ( !    
m\?4           ,,fur!r ,,details ,,on   
,,mak+ ,,animat$ ,,c>toons              
,,*apt] ,,iv    ,,fur!r ,,details ,,on  
,,mak+ ,,animat$ ,,c>toons      ,"o ( ! 
inspirit+ ?+s ab\t ?is new art ( mak+   

draw+s  = animat$ c>toons is t x af=ds  
su* opportunities = a  v]satile work] to
 ex]cise 8 tal5ts4 ,a true arti/        
delights 9  enc\nt]+ new problems 9     
connection ) 8 p>ticul> bran*  ( "w4 ,! 
v fact t he selects z 8 vocation "s art 
activity1 r ?an employm5t t is          
me*anical1 ev9ces ?is4    ,9 mak+ draw+s
 = animat$ films & 9 foll[+ ! :ole      
process ( _! mak+1 ! arti/ w f9d pl5ty (
 scope = 8  +5uity 9 ! devis+ ( exp$i5ts
 to advance & f9i% !  "w4    ,! fir/    
animat$ scre5 draw+s 7 made )\t ! labor 
&  "t-sav+ res\rces ( ! celluloid %eet4 
,z has be5 expla9$1  x holds ! /ill p>ts
 ( a sc5e dur+ ! photography4 ,!        
employm5t ( ?is celluloid is n[ 9 common
 usage 9 ! art4 ,x  is f\nd an exp$i5t 9
 v>i\s ways2 sometimes to hold "p only  
( a pictorial composition z 9 ! me?od   
t\*$ ^u 9 !  prec$+ *apt] :]e ink draw+s
 are made on pap]2 or1 aga91 9  ano!r   
me?od to be us$ in/ead ( pap]1 to hold  
practically all  ( ! picture elem5ts4   
,by ?is latt] me?od1 9 :i* a pigm5t is  

also put on ! transp>5t mat]ial1 !      
project$ scre5 image is  9 graduat$     
tones giv+ ! appe>ance ( a mono*rome    
draw+4    ,animators sometimes are      
releas$ f ! irksom5ess ( mak+ !         
innum]able draw+s = c]ta9 cases (       
movem5t1 z t ( an  object cross+ !      
picture field f "o side to ! o!r1 by    
us+ little sep>ate draw+s cut out 9     
silh\ette4    ,illu/ration3 ,,c>dbo>d   
,,model ,,( ,,an ,,airplane ,,)         
,,sep>ate ,,cut-,,out  ,,propell]s4     
,! propell]s are plac$ 9 position on !  
front ( ! airplane 9  _! ord] cont9u\sly
 :ile ! model1 "u ! cam]a1 is mov$      
across ! sky4    ,on ! left3 ,"p ( film 
made f ! cut-out model4    ,x is an     
airplane1 z an in/ance1 we w say1 t is  
to fly across  ! sky4 ,= ?is1 ! airplane
 w be drawn b once on a piece (  ?9     
c>dbo>d1 f9i%$ 9 light & %ade & !n      
c>efully cut  out ar\nd its cont\r s t x
 w be l a flatt5$ model4  ,?is model1   
specifically spok5 ( z a 8cut-out10 is  
pu%$ ov] !  backgr\nd "u ! cam]a &      

photograph$4 ,! manipulation (  ?is     
airplane cut-out1 to a *ance obs]v]1    
w\ld be ?\ght ( z  be+ *ild's play4 ,x  
is any?+ b t1 h[ev]1 z inf9ite  pati5ce 
is requir$ to move x prop]ly & h !      
di/ances  betwe5 ! v>i\s positions ev5ly
 spac$4 ,if1 too1 !re is a  *ange ( spe$
 int5d$1 ! necess>y ratio ( spac+ & tim+
  mu/ be relatively proportionate4 ,(   
c\rse1 x is und]/ood t !  airplane      
cut-out is1 aft] ea* move1 photograph$4 
,! di/ance t  x is mov$ det]m9es ! spe$ 
t w %[ on ! scre54 ,if1  = example1 x is
 mov$ only "o-sixte5? ( an in* ea* "t1 !
  movem5t w be v sl[4    ,:5 an arti/   
wi%es to give a m natural effect 9 a    
mov+  object 9 :i* a cut-out is us$1 he 
makes "s all[ance = !  laws ( p]spective
 by mak+ sev]al cut-outs 9 :i* ! outl9es
  def9+ ! object obs]ve ^! laws to "s   
ext5t4    ,x is to be rememb]$ t an     
object looks diff]5tly accord+  to :e!r 
x is view$ on an extreme side or 9 !    
c5tre (  ! field4 ,to be absolutely     
correct1 !re %\ld be a sep>ate  draw+ = 

ea* position4 ,to expla93 ,beg9n+ ) an  
extreme  side position1 ! l9es def9+ !  
?ickness g (f some:at  obtusely to !    
c5tre ( vision2 z ! object moves & ne>s 
!  middle1 ^! l9es keep _! direction b  
*ange _! angle4 ,!  direction is always 
t[>d ! c5tre ( vision1 & ! angle1 )     
respect to a v]tical1 is always %>p]4 ,9
 ! v c5tre1 !  object1 if x is on a     
level ) ! eye1 is 9 pr(ile4             
,illu/ration3 ,! laws ( p]spective are  
to be consid]$ 9  8animat+0 an object z 
x passes across ! scre54    ,! entire   
matt] is "o ( a diff]5t p]spective draw+
 = ea*  position4 ,9 ! movem5t ( !      
subject t[>d ! o!r side a  rev]se *ange 
takes place 9 ! direction ( ! l9es4     
,g5]ally  only a few sep>ate draw+s--or 
cut-outs--are ne$$ to r5d] !  scre5     
illusion suffici5tly resembl+ actuality 
to satisfy ! eye4    ,!re is a =m (     
animat$ c>toon 9 :i* ! objects1 details 
( ! view1 & ! figures are 9 :ite on a   
black gr\nd4 ,usually  ?is k9d ( film is
 ( a comic subject4 ,) ! del9eations (  

! *>act]s 9 a burlesque /yle & ! actions
 indubitably  ludicr\s1 !y provoke a    
great deal ( laught]4 ,su* scre5        
/ories1 :5 ! figures are well imag9$ &  
drawn 9 an  exagg]at$ way1 & ! o!r p>ts 
are con=mably incongru\s &  ) a unity ( 
ridicul\sness & absurdity 9 /ory &      
action1 are  to be consid]$ z true works
 ( dramatic art4    ,illu/ration3 ,!    
pr9ciples ( p]spective are appli$ 9 !   
draw+ ( birds z well z 9 ! pictur+ (    
objects4    ,! mode1 g5]ally1 ( mak+ ^! 
/rong black-&-:ite effects  is to h !   
figures & mov+ p>ts ( sep>ate units to  
be  arrang$ "u ! cam]a 9 connection ) a 
simple sc5e drawn 9  :ite1 or gray1 on a
 black gr\nd4 ,! figures ( animals are  
made z  dummies1 ) jo9t$ limbs4 ,?is    
makes x possible to put !m into  ! v>i\s
 positions necess>y = giv+ ! illusion ( 
life z  !y are mov$ ab\t ov] !          
backgr\nd4    ,^! dummies are design$ ) 
b little detail & are drawn on a        
c>efully select$ :ite surfac$ c>dbo>d or
 ?ick pap] t gives  9 contra/ ) !       

backgr\nd good :ite-&-black negatives4  
,!  jo9+s ( ^! figures or animals1 are  
made ) ! ?9ne/ k9d  ( wire fa%ion$ into 
t9y pivot+ p9s4 ,sometimes 9 spite ( !  
arti/'s ef=ts to conceal ^! wire pivots 
by plac+ !m :]e a  hook$ ink l9e        
indicates a fold ( drap]y1 %>p-ey$      
individuals  c detect !m on ! scre54    
,:]e su* jo9t$ dummies are us$  "u !    
fram$ glass1 ! wire pivots w n d4       
,in/ead1 !  arti/ mu/ f9d "s way (      
fa%ion+ c>dbo>d rivets1 or wa%]s1  to   
jo9 ! p>ts ( ! figures4 ,a ?9 ela/ic    
tissue w\ld d  p]haps1 z an exp$i5t1 to 
clo! ^! little dummies & hide !  jo9+s (
 ! c>dbo>d segm5ts4    ,illu/ration3    
,,articulat$ ,,c>dbo>d ,,figures4    ,"h
 we may note ! s-call$ 8trick0 titles t 
are %[n 9  !atres = special occasions1  
or 9 connection ) ! regul>  films4 ,!y  
add ) _! livel9ess a little v>iety to ! 
t$ium  ( a long pres5tation (           
monoton\sly ton$ photographs4 ,9 !m1  ! 
lett]s make _! appe>ance "o at a "t1 & 9
 mo/ cases  !y are :ite on a black      

gr\nd4 ,! production ( ^! titles  ) _!  
lett]s t m]rily cut cap]s all ov] !     
backgr\nd  be=e !y come into _!         
or?ographic ord] is a v simple  manuvre4
 ,! sep>ate lett]s1 cut out ( c>dbo>d1  
are laid d[n  to be photograph$ "o at a 
"t z !y spell ! words4 ,:]e !y  are fir/
 made to move ab\t 9 an amus+ mann]1 !y 
are simil>ly  manipulat$ on ! backgr\nd 
"u ! cam]a by be+ pu%$ ab\t  z desir$ & 
photograph$ at ea* *ange ( position4    
,! be/ backgr\nd = ^! titles1 :5 x is to
 be solid black1  is a piece ( black    
velvet4 ,?is mat]ial is a s]viceable    
article 9  motion-picture "w z x gives  
an int5se & c]ta9 black1 & if  wr9kles  
=m 9 x !y d n betray !mselves by any    
lights or  %ad[s 9 ! photographic pr9t4 
,sometimes 9 trick "w x is int5d$ t "s  
"p ( ! design  is mask$ :ile ano!r "p is
 be+ photograph$4 ,?is is a simple      
matt] if ! backgr\nd is a d>k "o1 z a   
piece ( pap]1 or  c>dbo>d1 ( ! same     
color is plac$ ov] x :ile ! photography 
is tak+ place4 ,a l9e ( lett]s1 =       

in/ance1 t is already  drawn on ! d>k   
gr\nd is to appe> lett] by lett]4 ,a    
/rip (  ?is d>k-color$ pap] cov]s !     
words at fir/1 b is pull$ away  to      
expose ! lett]s "o by "o4 ,ano!r way    
w\ld be to clip (f  a section ( ! pap]  
bit by bit4 ,black5+ ! edges ( ! pap]  w
 provide aga9/ ^! edges %[+ z light l9es
 & s giv+  away ! ruse4    ,9 select+ = 
work+ "u ! cam]a ( d>k-color$ c>dbo>ds1 
x is advisable to pick out only ^? )    
dead mat surfaces &  reject ^? ) any    
enamell$ or %9y surfaces4    ,z         
previ\sly m5tion$1 = trick titles1 a    
l>g] field is us$  ?an t = animat$      
c>toons4 ,x makes ! manipulation (      
dummies  & deta*$ items mu* m conv5i5t4 
,an amaz+ & wond]ful scre5 illusion is t
 ( animat$  sculpture4 ,! audi5ce fir/  
sees a %apeless mass ( clay :i* (       
itself seems to assume 9 a few seconds a
 pla/ic composition4 ,x  is a portrait (
 a notable1 p]haps1 or x may take ! =m (
 a  grotesque mask4    ,! trick (       
animat$ sculpture is produc$ l ?is3 ,a  

cam]a is  c5tr$ on a r\gh mass ( clay1  
:i* is fir/ photograph$ 9 ?is  %apeless 
=m4 ,a sculptor n[ pu%es ! clay ar\nd to
 a desir$  prelim9>y effect1 !n :5 he   
has /epp$ out ( ! picture1 t  is1 gets  
out ( ! range ( ! l5s1 ! clay is        
photograph$  aga94 ,once m ! sculptor   
m\lds ! clay to a /age approa*+  !      
contemplat$ =m1 /eps out ( ! picture & !
 cam]a  br\ght into action aga94    ,!  
proce$+ is cont9u$3 modell+ ! clay1 !   
sculptor  gett+ out ( ! range ( ! l5s1 &
 ! cam]a br\ght into  action1 until !   
clay has be5 fa%ion$ 9 its complete =m4 
,!  int]ruptions dur+ :i* ! sculptor 0  
work+ w n be  repres5t$ on ! scre5 z !  
cam]a 0 n work+ !n1 & s  no exposures 7 
made4 ,in/ead1 ! effect w be a cont9u\s 
"o  ( a mass ( clay miracul\sly =m+     
itself into a pla/ic "w4    ,! way (    
work+ 9 mak+ animat$ sculpture1 l t ( ! 
process ( us+ dummies t are mov$1 little
 by little1 :ile !  %utt] is clos$ & !n 
photograph$ aft] ea* "t t !y  h be5     
mov$1 is call$ ! 8/op-motion0 me?od4 ,! 

motion (  ! cam]a is /opp$1 9 o!r words1
 :ile ! p>ticul> object is  plac$ 9 a   
new position ea* "t be=e x is           
photograph$4    ,:5 on ! scre5 y see "s 
?9 black l9e appe>+ on "o  side1 crawl+ 
reptilian fa%ion1 sudd5ly turn+ upw>d1  
twi/+  & soon beg9n+ to outl9e !        
silh\ette ( a figure or "p ( a          
pictorial composition1 !re is exemplifi$
 ano!r in/ance ( ?is  8/op-motion0      
photography4    ,?is extraord9>y        
p]=mance ( a pla9 l9e1 to ! av]age      
spectator seems wondr\s1 & its          
production a v]itable my/]y4 ,b  x is   
manag$ v easily4    ,= news picture     
reels x has be5 f\nd judici\s = v>iety's
  sake1 z well z = bus9ess reasons1 to  
comb9e ) !m c>toons  satiriz+ topics ( !
 h\r4 ,:5 !y are want$1 !y are want$  9 
a hurry1 & z ! regul> type ( c>toon     
takes n a little  "t to make1 ! liv+ l9e
 draw+s adv]t$ to above1 z !y are       
quickly made1 are (t5 us$ = ! purpose4  
,we %all try to give 9  ! foll[+ few    
p>agraphs an elucidation ( ! me?od (    

mak+ a  film l ?is4    ,! g5]al idea or 
composition ( ! draw+ is sket*$ out fir/
  on a piece ( ord9>y pap]1 !n its      
outl9es are trac$ 9 blue  m>k+s to a    
%eet ( ,bri/ol bo>d t has be5 fa/5$ d[n 
to ! table b5ea? ! cam]a )9 !           
photographic field4  ,light-blue m>ks d 
n take on ! ord9>y s5sitiz$ film4 ,b  ! 
blue m>k+s1 x is to be rememb]$1 mu/ be 
( ! fa9te/4  ,! v cauti\s arti/ 9 beg9n+
 a "w ( ?is sort makes a  prelim9>y te/ 
( 8 blue p5cill+ by photograph+ a %ort  
l5g? ( film & develop+ x to see if !    
m>ks %[ on !  negative4 ,if !y %[ at    
all1 x w be necess>y to take a s(t      
eras] & g ov] ! draw+ & make ! blue m>ks
 less di/9ct1  & only h !m %[ en\gh to  
be able to foll[ ! draw+ 9  execut+ ! p5
 "w4    ,illu/ration3 ,,illu/rat+ ,,!   
,,animation ,,( ,a ,,m\se ,,z ,,he      
,,runs  ,,ar\nd ,,! ,,kit*5 ,,&         
,,fright5s ,,! ,,cook4    ,! g5]al sc5e 
is drawn on celluloid1 :ile fifty or m  
%eets  ( pap] hold a sequ5ce ( pictures 
( ! m\se 9 attitudes (  runn+4    ,:5 q 

sure t ! blue m>ks w n photograph1 !    
arti/  beg9s 8 draw+4 ,x is n a         
difficult task t he has be=e  him--he   
m]ely inks 8 previ\sly drawn l9es little
 by little4 ,ea*  /roke ( ! p51 aft] x  
has be5 made1 is photograph$4 ,if !  ink
 l9es are %ort ! movem5t on ! scre5 w be
 v sl[1 &  if !y are long ! movem5t w be
 v rapid4 ,&1 aga91 :e!r  ! arti/ turns 
! cam]a h&le once1 twice1 or ?ree times 
=  ea* p5 /roke has its effect ^u ! spe$
 ) :i* ! l9es  gr[ on ! scre54 ,if      
some:at long p5 /rokes are made & !     
exposure is b "o picture = ea* /roke !  
l9es w run 9 &  f9i% ! design at a rapid
 rate4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if !y are  v %ort  
/rokes & ?ree pictures 7ab\t "o-fif? ( a
 foot (  film7 are giv5 to ea* "o1 !    
l9es w creep 9 on ! scre5 at  a snail's 
pace4    ,all ?is1 mak+ a l9e1 a pat* ( 
t9t+1 a small detail ( a  picture1 &    
photograph+ ea* item aft] x has be5     
made1 is  cont9u$ until ! entire        
pictorial design is complet$4    ,v>iety
 is produc$ by hav+ ! l9es g sl[ly or   

fa/ accord+  to ! requirem5ts ( ! idea  
to be express$ or ! /ory to be  told4   
,,on ,,movem5t ,,9 ,,! ,,human ,,figure 
,,*apt] ,v    ,,on ,,movem5t ,,9 ,,!    
,,human ,,figure      ,hav+ n[ *ronicl$ 
9 a brief way ! developm5t ( !          
c9ematographic art1 p>ticul>ly 9 its    
relation to animat$ scre5  draw+s1 &    
hav+ tri$ to give "s notion ( !         
fundam5tals  9 _! mak+ ) an acc\nt ( _! 
exhibition on ! scre51  x is 9 ord] n[ t
 we consid] ! matt] ( movem5t & its     
depiction by draw+s t w give ! visional 
syn!sis ( life4    ,! v fir/ ?+ t a tyro
 9 ! animat+ art mu/ le>n is  to draw a 
walk2 or 9 o!r words1 to become skill$ 9
 sket*+ !  successive phases ( limb &   
trunk movem5ts s t !y give 9  _! ord] ! 
appe>ance ( walk+ :5 project$ z a film4 
,walk+ directly effect$ by ! l[] limbs  
calls into action  ! upp] limbs too4 ,! 
upp] limbs act1 z !y sw+ f !  %\ld]s1 9 
concord ) ! legs1 z c\nt]poises 9       
ma9ta9+  ! equilibrium4 ,an und]/&+ ( ! 
pr9ciples und]ly+  locomotion 9         

man--walk+ or runn+--is an important    
matt] to  consid] 9 ?is art4 ,:5 an     
arti/ kn[s ! basic facts (  movem5t 9 ! 
human figure1 he w m readily compreh5d  
animal  locomotion & all o!r movem5ts 9 
g5]al4    ,all =ms ( motion are p]t95t z
 /udies = ! animator1 &  ! all-important
 /udy is t ( ! human organism4          
,al?\gh we obs]ve at once1 9 consid]+ a 
simple walk+  movem5t1 t !re is also a  
simultane\s activity ( ! arms           
accompani$ by a h>mony ( ex]tion 9 !    
trunk1 we w at !  />t dwell ma9ly ^u !  
phases ( action 9 ! legs only4          
,imag9e n[ t ! figure t is to s]ve u z a
 model is  walk+4 ,! trunk 9 ! air1 "s  
?irty in*es above ! gr\nd1  is mov+     
=w>d4 ,atta*$ to x are ! ne!r limbs1    
alt]nately  sw++ p5d5tly & alt]nately   
support+ ! trunk 9 its  position above !
 gr\nd4    ,illu/ration3 ,,successive   
,,phases ,,( ,,movem5ts ,,( ,,! ,,legs  
,,9 ,,walk+4    ,above3 ,diagram to     
indicate ! l5g? ( a /ride & to %[ h[ !  
head describes a 8wave40    ,fur!r to   

simplify our /udy1 we w1 at fir/1       
consid] !  me*anism ( "o limb only4 ,z  
"o foot sw+s =w>d & rea*es  a c]ta9     
place1 x seems to hesitate = an in/ant &
 !n come  d[n1 heel fir/1 on ! gr\nd4 ,z
 ! heel /rikes1 ! body is  slightly j>r$
 & ! oblique l9e ( ! limb1 its axis1    
moves  & approa*es ! v]tical4 ,9 a      
mom5t1 ! limb is v]tical z  x supports !
 trunk & ! sole ( ! foot be>s on !      
gr\nd4  ,!n ! axis ( ! leg *anges its   
v]ticality & leans =w>d1  c>ry+ ) x !   
body4 ,soon ! heel leaves ! gr\nd & only
  ! =e "p ( ! foot--! region ( !        
toes--rema9s on !  gr\nd4 ,b be=e ! foot
 is entirely lift$ f ! gr\nd1 !re  is a 
slight pause1 almo/ immeasurable1 com+  
imm$iately be=e !  foot gives a pu%1    
leaves ! gr\nd1 & projects ! body =w>d4 
,dur+ ! "t ( ! phases ( movem5t describ$
 above1 ! foot1  9 a sort ( way1 rolls  
ov] ! gr\nd f heel to toes4             
,imm$iately aft] ! toes leave ! gr\nd1 !
 knee b5ds slightly  & ! limb sw+s      
p5dulum-l =w>d1 !n1 z x ne>s !  po9t    

directly "u ! c5tre ( ! trunk1 x b5ds a 
little m  & lifts ! foot to cle> !      
gr\nd4 ,aft] ! limb has pass$  ?is      
c5tral po9t "u ! trunk & is beg9n+ to   
advance1 x  /raight5s out ready to plant
 its heel on ! gr\nd aga94 ,:5  x has   
done s x has complet$ ! /ep1 & ! limb   
repeats !  s]ies ( movem5t phases aga9 =
 ! next /ep4    ,n[1 ! limb ( ! o!r side
 has gone ?r\gh ! same movem5ts1  too1 b
 ! correspond+ phases occurr$ alt]nately
 9 po9t (  "t4    ,illu/ration3         
,,illu/rat+ ,,! ,,action ,,( ,,! ,,foot 
,,9 ,,roll+ ,,ov]  ,,! ,,gr\nd4    ,"o (
 ^! positions ( ! leg1 t :5 x is b5t at 
!  knee s z to cle> ! gr\nd z x passes f
 ! back to its  advanc+ movem5t =w>d1 is
 r>ely repres5t$ by ! graphic  arti/ 9 8
 pictures4 ,! aspect ( ! limbs :5 !y are
 at  _! extremes--spread out--"o =w>d & 
"o to ! back1 is 8  usual pictorial     
symbol = walk+4 ,b ! position1          
imm$iately  not$ above1 is an important 
phase ( movem5t1 z x is dur+ its        
cont9uance t ! o!r limb is support+ !   

trunk4    ,a movem5t ( ! trunk 9 walk+ t
 is to be rem>k$ is its  turn+ f side to
 side z x sw+s 9 unison ) ! upp] limbs  
:ile !y alt]nately sw+ =w>d & backw>d4  
,x is a movem5t  t animators d n always 
reg>d1 s9ce only an accompli%$  figure  
draftsman c imag9e movem5t cle>ly en\gh 
to reproduce x4  ,to describe ! movem5t 
bett] we w consid] x visionally4        
,illu/ration3 ,,successive ,,phases ,,( 
,,movem5ts ,,9 ,,walk+1  ,,illu/rat+    
,,especially ,,! ,,reciprocal ,,action  
,,( ,,! ,,limbs4    ,we are look+ at !  
walk] f ! side & see ! trunk 9          
pr(ile--exactly 9 pr(ile1 ( c\rse1 :5 ! 
arms are at !  middle position4 ,z !    
ne>-side arm moves =w>d we see a slight 
?ree-qu>t] back view ( ! upp] "p ( !    
trunk1 !n :5 !  arm sw+s back we see !  
pr(ile aga91 & ) ! arm mov+  /ill f>!r  
back1 ! correspond+ side ( ! %\ld] moves
  ) x & ! upp] "p ( ! trunk is se5 9    
?ree-qu>t]  front view4 ,if ! arti/ %[s1
 9 a walk1 ^! p>ticul>s3 7#a7 ,a        
?ree-qu>t] view f ! front2 7#b7 pr(ile2 

7#c7 a ?ree-qu>t]  view f ! back1 & !n  
c>ries !m back & =?1 he w  add to !     
effectiv5ess ( ! scre5 repres5tation4 ,x
 gives to  a figure1 :5 slightly        
exagg]at$ 9 a humor\s picture1 a v      
laughable swagg]+ gait4    ,! arms 7    
m5tion$ z sw++ 9 a walk s z to help     
ma9ta9  ! equilibrium4 ,x w n be        
difficult to und]/& ! phases  ?r\gh :i* 
!y g if x is rememb]$ t an arm moves 9  
unison  ) ! l[] limb ( ! opposite side4 
,?is c be obs]v$ if  "o looks f an upp] 
w9d[ d[n on ! pass]s-by4 ,x w  !n be    
not$ h[ "o arm z x h+es & oscillates f !
  %\ld]-jo9t1 foll[s ! l[] limb ( !     
opposite side z x  h+es & sw+s f !      
hip-jo9t4      ,illu/ration3 ,,phases   
,,( ,,movem5t ,,( ,a ,,quick ,,walk4    
,f\r phases complete a /ep4             
,contemplat+ ! arms only1 x w be p]ceiv$
 t !y keep  up a con/ant alt]nate sw++  
back & =?4 ,! po9t :]e  !y pass ea* o!r 
w be :5 !y bo? h approa*$ _!  respective
 sides ( ! trunk4 ,?is p>ticul> mom5t :5
 ! arms  are opposite "o ano!r & close  

to ! trunk1 or at lea/ ne> !  v]tical   
l9e ( ! body1 is co9cid5t ) ! phases ( !
 l[]  limb movem5ts :5 "o is ne>ly rigid
 z x supports ! body &  ! o!r is at its 
m$ian phase ( ! sw++ movem5t4    ,^!    
middle positions ( ! f\r limbs--! l[]   
ne> to ea*  o!r1 & ! upp] close to !    
body--is a *>act]i/ic t  %\ld be tak5   
note ( by ! arti/4 ,x illu/rates1 9     
connection  ) ! extreme positions1 c]ta9
 peculi>ities ( motion 9 liv+  ?+s1 9   
g5]al4 ,?is is a sort ( op5+ movem5t    
foll[+ by  a clos+ "o4 ,^! reciprocal   
*anges1 expansion & retraction 9        
organic =ms1 symbolize ! activity (     
life4    ,9 ! human body1 = in/ance1    
dur+ action1 !re are c]ta9  times :5 !  
limbs are close to ! trunk & at o!r     
times :5  !y are /ret*$ out or ext5d$4  
,?is is adequately made pla9 9  jump+4  
,specifically3 9 ! prelim9>y position   
be=e ! actual  jump1 ! app5dicul> memb]s
 b5d & lie close to ! trunk4  ,! entire 
body is compact & repress$ l a spr+4 ,!n
 :5  ! jump takes place1 !re is a sudd5 

op5+ z ! limbs fl+  !mselves outw>d4    
,a r[] 9 a %ell ply+ 8 sculls           
exemplifies ?is ph5om5on  ( a spr+-l    
clos+ & expansion4 ,9 ?is case !re is   
also  a typical example ( reciprocal    
comp5sat+ movem5ts 9 ! two  pairs (     
limbs4 ,:5 ! r[] leans =w>d & ! arms are
  ext5d$ ready to pull on 8 sculls1 !   
l[] limbs are flex$ &  9 contact ) !    
front ( 8 trunk4 ,!n :5 ! sculls h  be5 
pull$ back & he has rea*$ ! o!r extreme 
position1 !  arms are flex$ & close to 8
 *e/1 :ile ! l[] limbs are  /ret*$ out  
/raight4    ,illu/ration3 ,a            
,,succession ,,( ,,alt]nate             
,,contractions ,,& ,,expansions         
,,*>act]izes ,,motion4    ,if ! animator
 is plann+ to walk a figure across !    
field  ( ! scre51 !re is "o matt] 9 !   
repres5tation t he  punctili\sly takes  
he$ (4 ,x is ?is3 to h ! trunk rise z x 
is 9 turn support$ ^u "o rigid leg & !n 
^u ! o!r1 &  to %[ t x falls slightly :5
 ! two limbs are out/ret*$  at _!       
extreme positions4 ,9 ?is alt]nat+ rise 

& fall ( !  trunk 9 walk+1 ! head c be  
obs]v$ z describ+ a wave4 ,!  highe/    
po9t ( ! wave is :5 ! trunk is support$ 
on ! rigid  leg & ! l[e/ po9t :5 bo?    
limbs are /ret*$ out z if  fly+ f !     
v]tical ( ! body4    7,= ! foll[+ few   
p>agraphs1 see illu/rations on pages    
#aab  & #aac47    ,9 s*em+ out !        
positions = a walk1 ! arti/ fir/ draws  
"o  ( ! extreme out/ret*$ positions     
7,a74 7,x is suppos$ t  we are draw+ a  
figure t is go+ f left to "r47 ,!n on   
ano!r %eet ( pap] ! foll[+ out/ret*$    
position 7,b71  b plac$ "o /ep 9        
advance4 ,^! draw+s are n[ plac$ ov]  ! 
trac+ glass ( ! draw+-bo>d4 ,all !      
foll[+ draw+s  ( ?is walk are to be     
trac$ ov] ?is glass1 & !y w be kept  9  
regi/] by ! two pegs 9 ! bo>d4 ,z n[    
plac$1 ! two  draw+s 7,a & ,b7 cov] !   
di/ance ( two /eps4 ,a foot t  is ab\t  
to fall on ! gr\nd & "o t is ab\t to    
leave x meet  at a c5tral po9t4 ,"h a   
m>k is made to indicate a footpr9t4 ,a  
simil> m>k = a footpr9t is made on ea*  

side to indicate !  limits ( ! two /eps4
    ,a %eet ( pap] is next plac$ ov] !  
two draw+s 7,a & ,b71  & on ! c5tral    
footpr9t ! middle position 7,c7 ( ! legs
  is drawn4 ,9 ?is ! "r limb is ne>ly   
/raight & support+  ! body1 :ile ! o!r  
limb1 ! left1 is b5t at ! knee & has  ! 
foot rais$ to cle> ! gr\nd4 ,! next /age
 w be to make  ! fir/ 9-betwe5 position 
7,d7 betwe5 ! fir/ extreme & !  middle  
position4 ,x is made on a fre% %eet (   
pap] plac$ ov]  ^? conta9+ ! positions j
 m5tion$4 ,! attitude ( !  "r limb 9 ?is
 new position w\ld be t 9 :i* x is ab\t 
to plant its foot on ! gr\nd & ! left   
limb is depict$ z if  ready to sw+ into 
! position t x has 9 ! middle "o 7,c74  
,illu/ration3 ,,ord] ,,9 ,,:i* ,,an     
,,animator ,,makes ,,! ,,sequ5ce ,,(    
,,positions ,,= ,a ,,walk4              
,illu/ration3      ,illu/rat+ h[        
alt]nat+ s]ies ( positions are ! same 9 
outl9e1 diff]+ only ) respect to :e!r ! 
ne> or ! f>    limb is mov+ =w>d4    ,!n
 ) ! middle position 7,c7 & ! la/       

extreme "o 7,b7  ov] ! glass1 on ano!r  
%eet ( pap]1 ! next 9-betwe5 "o  7,e7 is
 drawn4 ,?is %[s ! "r foot leav+ ! gr\nd
 & !  left leg some:at =w>d ready to    
plant its heel on ! gr\nd4 ,we  h n[    
secur$ five phases or positions ( a     
walk+ movem5t4    ,! two extremes 7,a & 
,b7 spok5 ( z ! out/ret*$ ones  h ! same
 cont\rs b diff] 9 t 9 "o ! "r limb is  
=w>d1 & ! left is direct$ obliquely     
backw>d1 :ile 9 !  o!r x is ! left limb 
t projects =w>d & ! "r has an  obliquity
 backw>d4    ,n[1 if we make trac+s1    
copy+ ! outl9es only1 ( ! ?ree  o!r     
positions 7,c1 ,d1 & ,e71 b rev]s+ !    
p>ticul>  aspects ( ! "r & ! left limbs1
 we %all h obta9$  en\gh draw+s to      
complete two /eps ( a walk4             
,illu/ration3 ,,phases ,,( ,,movem5t ,,(
 ,a ,,walk4    ,six phases complete a   
/ep4    ,z a bett] und]/&+ ( ! prec$+ ! 
fact %\ld be grasp$  t :ile "o limb1 !  
"r we w say1 is assum+ a c]ta9  position
 dur+ a /ep1 9 ! next /ep x is ! turn ( 
! o!r  limb1 ! left1 to assume ?is      

p>ticul> position4 ,& aga9 9 ?is  second
 /ep1 ! "r limb takes ! correspond+     
position t !  o!r limb _h 9 ! fir/ /ep4 
,!re are always1 9 a walk1 two  sets (  
draw+s1 us$ alt]nately4 ,any p>ticul>   
silh\ette 9 "o  set has its id5tical    
silh\ette 9 ! o!r set1 b ! attitudes  ( 
! limbs are rev]s$4 ,to expla9 by an    
example3 ,9 ! draw+  ( "o middle        
position1 ! "r leg supports ! body & !  
left  is flex$1 9 its co9cid5tal draw+1 
x is ! left t supports  ! body & ! "r is
 flex$4 7,see #b & #c1 ( engrav+ on page
  #aac47    ,f ?is x c be se5 t ! two   
sets ( draw+s diff] only  9 ! details )9
 _! g5]al cont\rs4 ,^! details w be  su*
 m>k+s z drap]y folds1 /ripes on tr\s]s1
 indications (  ! "r & ! left foot by   
little items l buttons on boots4  ,he$+ 
& tak+ ! tr\ble to m>k little details l 
^! add  to ! value ( a scre5 image4     
,"o ( ! mo/ difficult actions to depict 
9 ?is art is t  :i* ! animator calls a  
p]spective walk4 ,by ?is t]m he means a 
walk 9 :i* ! figure is ei!r com+        

diagonally1 m or less1  t[>d ! front ( !
 picture or go+ away f x t[>d !         
horizon4 ,x is obvi\s t accord+ to !    
rules ( p]spective1 9  com+ =w>d !      
figure gets l>g] & l>g]1 & 9 travell+  9
 ! opposite direction x gets small] &   
small]4 ,to d ?is  successfully is n    
easy4 ,only aft] a work] has _h a great 
deal (  exp]i5ce 9 ! art is he able to  
draw su* a movem5t easily4              
,illu/ration3 ,a ,,p]spective ,,walk4   
,! con/ant *ang+ sizes ( ! figures &    
gett+ !m  )9 ! p]spective l9es 9 a      
graduat$ s]ies are p]plex+  en\gh       
matt]s4 ,b ?is is n all4 ,!re is !      
problem ( !  =e%ort5$ views z ! limbs   
are beheld p]spectively4 ,imag9e1  =    
in/ance1 an arm po9t+ t[>d ! spectator 9
 a =e%ort5$  view4 ,e arti/ w\ld h 8 own
 individual way ( draw+ ?is4  ,^? ) a   
natural feel+ = =m & und]/&+ anatomy    
solve  problems ( ?is k9d by me?ods =   
:i* x is impossible to give  any recipe4
 ,"s w\ld />t ) prelim9>y con/ruction   
l9es  t h ! appe>ance ( column> solids 9

 p]spective1 :ile  o!rs scribble &      
fumble ar\nd until !y f9d ! outl9es t   
!y want4    ,illu/ration3 ,,f\r         
,,positions ,,= ,a ,,p]spective ,,run4  
,bel[3 ,h[ ! draw+s are plac$ on !      
sep>ate %eets (    pap]4                
,illu/ration3 ,,phases ,,( ,,movem5t ,,=
 ,a ,,p]spective ,,run4      ,above3 ,9 
! la/ ( ! s]ies--on ! "r--! figure has  
tak5 a position ne>ly t ( ! fir/ ( !    
s]ies4      ,bel[3 ,h[ ! figures are    
plac$ ) respect to ea* o!r :5    drawn  
on sep>ate %eets ( pap]4    ,happily 9  
mo/ ( ! occasions :5 a p]spective walk  
is requir$  9 a /ory x is = "s humor\s  
incid5t4 ,?is signifies t x  c be made  
into a spe$y action1 & t b a few draw+s 
are  ne$$ to complete a /ep4    ,arti/s 
:5 !y beg9 to make draw+s = scre5       
pictures f9d a  new int]e/ 9 /udy+      
movem5t4 ,9 ! /udy ( art ! /ud5t  gives 
"s att5tion1 ( c\rse1 to ?is "q (       
movem5t4  ,usually1 ?\gh1 ! /udy is n   
discrim9at+1 nor ?or\gh4 ,b  to become  
skill$ 9 animat+ involves a ?\ghtful &  

analytic  inquiry into ! subject4 ,if ! 
arti/ is a real /ud5t ( !  subject its  
consid]ation w be m engross+ ?an ! m  or
 less slight /udy giv5 to ! plann+ ( !  
s+le isolat$  phases1 or attitudes1 (   
action 9 ord9>y pictorial "w4    ,a     
great help 9 compreh5d+ ! nature (      
movem5t & grasp+  ! "* ( ! attitudes (  
active figures are ! s-call$  8analysis 
( motion0 scre5 pictures4 ,9 ^! ! model1
 g5]ally  a muscul> p]son go+ ?r\gh !   
motions ( "s gymna/ic or  a?letic       
activity1 is %[n mov+ v mu* sl[] ?an !  
movem5t  is 9 actuality4 ,?is is effect$
 by tak+ ! pictures ) a  cam]a s        
con/ruct$ t x moves its me*anism _m     
times fa/]  ?an ! normal spe$4          
,illu/ration3 ,,runn+ ,,figure          
,above3 ,six positions complete two     
/eps4      ,bel[3 ,diagram to %[ t1     
consid]$ z outl9es1 ! six    positions  
resolve !mselves into ?ree silh\ettes4  
,! spe$ ( ! ord9>y cam]a1 z we "k1 moves
 dur+ e  second b "o foot ( film & on   
:i* sixte5 sep>ate photographs  are     

made4 ,n[1 9 "o type ( cam]a = analysis 
( motion  photography1 eight times m    
film is mov$ ) a correspond+  increase 9
 ! numb] ( sep>ate pictures tak5 on x   
dur+ ?is  same "t ( "o second4 ,to take 
a specific movem5t ( a model  la/+ "o   
second3 ! ord9>y cam]a cat*es sixte5    
phases  ( x1 b ! extra-rapid cam]a takes
 ab\t "o hundr$ &  tw5ty-eight sep>ate  
pictures ( z _m correspond+ sep>ate     
phases4 ,9 o!r words1 ! ord9>y cam]a    
takes ab\t z mu* z  our eyes appreciate1
 :ile ! fa/ cam]a records on a l5g? (   
film _m m attitudes dur+ ! c\rse ( !    
giv5 activity  ?an ! unaid$ eye c ev]   
hope to see4 ,:5 ?is long film (  !     
extra-rapid cam]a is run ?r\gh !        
project+ ma*9e at !  normal spe$ x %[s u
 on ! scre51 9 a p]iod ( eight seconds1 
t :i* took place 9 reality 9 b "o       
second4    ,illu/ration3 ,,phases ,,(   
,,movem5t ,,= ,a ,,quick ,,walk4    ,l[]
 diagram %[s h[ ! sev]al draw+s1 ea* on 
a sep>ate  %eet ( pap]1 are plac$ 9     
advance ( ea* o!r4    ,illu/ration3     

,,walk+ ,,movem5ts1 ,,some:at           
,,me*anical4    ,suitable = a droll !me4
    ,! animat$ draw+ arti/ becomes1     
?r\gh ! tra9+ ( 8  eye to quick         
obs]vation & ! /udy+ ( films ( ! nature 
imm$iately not$ above1 an exp]t 9       
depict+ ! v>i$ &  connect$ attitudes (  
figures 9 action4 ,examples = /udy on   
acc\nt ( ! cle>-cut def9itions ( !      
actions1 are ! acrobats  ) _! tumbl+ & !
 cl[ns ) _! antics4 ,!n 9 !  p]=mances (
 ! juggl]s & 9 ! pranks ( ! knock-ab\t  
com$ians1 ! animator f9ds mu* to spur   
him on to creative  imag]y4 ,! pictorial
 arti/ = graphic or easel "w1 9 any (   
^! cases1 int5d+ to make an illu/ration1
 is cont5t ) "s  repres5tative position 
t he c grasp visually1 or1 :i* is m     
likely to be ! case1 ! "o t is easie/ = 
him to draw4 ,b  ! animator mu/ h %>p & 
quickly obs]v+ eyes & be able  to       
compreh5d & rememb] ! :ole s]ies (      
phases ( a movem5t4    ,illu/ration3    
,,phases ,,( ,,movem5t ,,= ,a ,,lively  
,,walk4    ,l[] diagram %[s h[ ! draw+s1

 on sep>ate %eets ( pap]1  are plac$ )  
respect to ea* o!r to cont9ue ! figure  
across  ! sc5e4    ,a fancy danc]1      
especially1 is a ri* /udy4 ,to foll[ !  
danc]  ) 8 supple jo9ts b5d+ s easily & 
assum+ unexpect$  poses ( body & limbs1 
requires att5tive eyes & a lively  m5tal
 photography4 ,! limbs d n seem to b5d  
m]ely at !  articulations & !re seems to
 be a mo/ unnatural twi/+ (  arms1 l[]  
limbs1 & trunk4 ,b x is all natural4 ,x 
simply means  t !re is co-ord9ation (   
movem5t 9 all p>ts ( ! jo9t$  skeletal  
frame4 ,?is co-ord9ation--& reciprocal  
action--foll[s  def9ite laws ( motion1 &
 x is ! bus9ess ( ! animator to  grasp  
_! signification4 ,x is1 9 ! ma91 !     
matt] already  spok5 ( above2 namely1 ! 
alt]nate action ( flexion or a  clos+1 &
 t ( ext5sion or an op5+4    ,) ^!      
*>act]i/ics !re is also obs]vable 9 !   
g5]ality  ( danc+ po/ur+ a t5d5cy ( an  
upp] limb to foll[ a l[]  limb ( !      
opposite side z 9 ! cases ( walk+ &     
runn+4    ,v /rongly is ?is to be notic$

 9 ! nimbl5ess ( an ecc5tric  danc] z he
 cuts biz>re figures & falls into       
exagg]at$ poses4  ,= in/ance1 :5 a l[]  
limb sw+s 9 any p>ticul> direction1  !  
opposite arm oscillates 9 ! same        
direction & br+s its h&  close en\gh to 
t\* ?is concurr5tly sw++ l[] limb4      
,illu/ration3 ,,phases ,,( ,,movem5t ,,=
 ,a ,,quick ,,walk4    ,?is symbolical  
ph5om5on ( ! activity ( liv+ ?+s--!     
negative quality ( a clos+ or flexion1 &
 ! positive "o (  an op5+ or            
ext5sion--is n a feature entirely conf9$
 to human  be+s & animals1 b is a       
*>act]i/ic %[+ 9 ! me*anics  ( _m       
non-liv+ ?+s4    ,illu/ration3 ,,walk+  
,,movem5t ,,view$ ,,f ,,above4          
,illu/rat+ h[ ! diagonally opposite     
limbs move 9 unison4          ,,notes   
,,on ,,animal ,,locomotion              
,,*apt] ,,vi    ,,notes ,,on ,,animal   
,,locomotion      ,9 ! usual mann] (    
locomotory progress 9 ! f\r-foot$ bea/s1
  ) b a few exceptions1 ! actions ( !   
limbs ) respect to  ! reciprocal movem5t

 ( ! two pairs1 is ! same z t ( man4    
,:51 = in/ance1 a =e limb moves1        
correspond+ to ! human  arm1 !          
diagonally opposite h9d limb1           
correspond+ to ! human  l[] limb1 moves 
also4    ,to expla9 ?is matt]1 aga91 we 
%all f9d x helpful to give a  some:at   
humor\s1 b at ! same "t a v practical   
example4 ,an  arti/ int5ds to draw !    
picture ( a man crawl+ on 8 h&s  &      
knees4 ,be=e beg9n+ to "w1 ! arti/ w    
visualize !  movem5t if he c1 if n1 try 
x by p]sonal exp]im5t4 ,!n he  w see t  
:5 ! "r h&1 we w say1 is lift$ to g     
=w>d1 imm$iately ! left knee leaves !   
floor & ! two  limbs--! "r arm & ! left 
leg--advance at ! same "t4    ,on !     
completion ( ?is advanc+ action1 ! h& & 
! knee  t\* ! floor ne>ly at ! same     
in/ant4 7,exactly1 ?\gh1 !  h& is c>ri$ 
=w>d m rapidly & anticipates ! knee  9  
rea*+ ! floor47 ,aft] ?is action1 :i*   
has j be5  describ$1 is conclud$1 x is !
 turn ( ! o!r arm & leg to  g ?r\gh !   
same movem5ts4 ,?is is ! mann]1 9 a     

g5]al way1  t ! f\r-foot$ animals walk1 
successively mov+ toge!r !  diagonally  
opposite limbs4    ,an und]/&+ ( ?is    
locomotory pr9ciple--! reciprocal       
actions  ( ! two pairs ( limbs--9 !     
g5]ality ( quadrup$s1 w help  an arti/  
to animate ! v>i\s types ( animals t he 
w f  "t to "t wi% to put into 8 c>toons4
 ,naturally1 !y w be  9 mo/ cases comb9$
 ) a comical scre5 /ory4 ,_! depiction1 
!n1 c be repres5t$ 9 a humor\s way & !  
arti/ m]ely  ne$s to %[ 9 8 draw+s !    
ess5tials ( animal locomotion4          
,in/antane\s photographs ( mov+ animals1
 especially ^?  ( ,muybridge1 are       
helpful 9 /udy+ ! movem5ts ( ! dumb     
creatures4 ,! m9dful exam9ation ( su*   
photographs gives h9ts  z to ! p>ticul> 
phases ( movem5t adaptable to animation4
    ,besides photographs1 an +5i\s      
auxili>y1 z a help 9 /udy1  w\ld be a   
little c>dbo>d jo9t$ model ( an animal4 
,say x is  "o to repres5t a horse1 x c  
be employ$ by mov+ ! limbs  ab\t 9 _!   
ord] z !y successively make ! /eps :ile 

!  arti/ selects f a s]ies ( photographs
 a cycle ( positions =  a movem5t4 ,9   
mak+ a jo9t$ cut-out model1 h[ev]1 &    
fa/5+  ! limbs by pivot+ p9s1 x is well 
to rememb] t ! model  c be approximate  
only4 ,take ! =e limbs1 = in/ance4 ,9   
y\r  model y w probably fa/5 !m to !    
trunk at "s fix$ place4  ,t is n ! way t
 !y are jo9$ 9 ! bony framework4 ,!     
jo9+ ( ! =e limbs is n by a h>d         
articulation z 9 !  arms ( man :i* are  
jo9$1 ?r\gh ! int]m$i>y coll>-bone1  to 
! brea/-bone4 ,9 ! horse & 9 quadrup$s1 
g5]ally1 !  jo9+ to ! ma9 bulk ( ! body 
is by s(t tissues4 ,t is1 by  lay]s &   
b&s ( muscle4    ,illu/ration3 ,,trott+ 
,,horse4      ,! horse 9 ! fir/ s]ies   
moves f ,a ,b to ,c ,d4 ,!    draw+s 9 !
 second s]ies1 on ! next page1 ) plus   
m>ks    are ! same 9 silh\ette z !      
correspond+ly numb]$ ones (    ! fir/   
s]ies4    ,illu/ration3 ,,trott+ ,,horse
 7cont9u$74      ,9 ! second s]ies !    
horse moves f ,c ,d to ,e ,f1 :]e he    
takes ! same attitude z t ( numb] #a ( !

 fir/ s]ies4    ,9 /udy+ ! actions (    
animals x w be obs]v$1 especially  9 !  
antelope & de] k9d1 t 9 leap+ !y l& on  
_!  =efeet4 ,any h>d articulations ( !  
=e limbs ) ! re/ (  ! skeleton c\ld n   
submit to ! %ock ( ^! l&+s4 ,:5  !y l&1 
x is ! s(t yield+ & ela/ic muscul> p>ts 
( !  %\ld]s & adjac5t regions t absorb !
 =ce ( ! jolts4    ,! *>act]i/ic ( life 
activity1 flexion & ext5sion1 is        
exemplifi$ cle>ly 9 ! actions ( an      
animal's h9d limbs z !y  d\ble up 9 !   
prep>ation = a leap2 & !n sudd5ly spread
 out  dur+ ! fir/ "p ( ! leap4    ,tak+ 
x z a :ole1 9 fleet-foot$ animals1 !    
function ( !  h9d limbs is to furni% !  
=w>d propell+ =ce :ile t (  ! =e limbs  
is to l& on ! gr\nd at an advanc$       
position4  ,?is obs]vation1 ( c\rse1    
applies to c]ta9 rapid me?ods (         
progression1 & x w d z a g5]al /atem5t  
only1 z x has  be5 %[n by photographs t 
! =e limbs h a %>e 9 giv+  an impulse 9 
locomotion4 ,= example1 photographs ( ! 
horse  9 action %[ ! quick spr++ action 

( ! fetlock & !  pa/]n jo9ts z !y b5d 9 
! ho('s impact1 & its subsequ5t         
ext5sion :5 ! foot leaves ! gr\nd4    ,9
 a rapid walk ( a horse a phase (       
movem5t t is appreh5d$ by  ! eye is !   
lift+ ( a =efoot & !n ! imm$iate impact 
(  ! h9d limb ( ! same side z x ne>ly   
falls into ! impression  left by ! =e   
foot4 ,!re are spe$s 9 :i* ! footpr9ts  
co9cide4 ,9 a m rapid pace ?an a walk1 !
 impr9t ( ! h9d  foot is f>!r =w>d ?an t
 ( ! =efoot4 ,z ! spe$  increases !     
/ride l5g!ns & ! footpr9ts are mu* f>!r 
9  advance4    ,9 a c]ta9 type ( humor\s
 animation--! panorama--to be expla9$  9
 a succe$+ *apt]1 ! arti/ is q satisfi$ 
) 8  animation ( a quadrup$ if a lively 
bewild]+ effect ( agitat$  limbs is     
produc$ on ! scre54 ,?is bewild]+ blur  
has aft] all  a resemblance to t :i* !  
eye sees 9 rapidly runn+ animals2       
namely1 a confus$ di/urbance ( limbs4   
,?is effect on ! scre5  always causes   
laught] & ! arti/ consid]s t z a pro( ( 
! success ( 8 "w4    ,to produce ?is    

effect1 ! animator selects f 8 /udies   
?ree  or five consecutive positions ( a 
gallop1 or trot1 t w animate  well4 ,?is
 means1 specifically1 t any p>ticul>    
draw+ %\ld1  ) ! next 9 ord]1 give an   
appe>ance ( movem5t :5 !y  are syn!siz$4
 ,! draw+s are made 9 a cycle s t :5 us$
  cont9u\sly 9 _! ord] !y w give !      
illusion desir$4    ,illu/ration3 ,a    
,,panorama ,,effect ,,obta9$ ,,by ,,!   
,,use ,,( ,,! ,,?ree  ,,draw+s ,,on ,,! 
,,opposite ,,page4    ,9 a panorama x is
 n necess>y to tr\ble ab\t a matt] t  9 
o!r =ms ( scre5 repres5tation (         
locomotion are highly  important4 ,?is  
is to h ! feet regi/]1 by :i* is meant t
  9 any sev]al succe$+ draw+s :]e a foot
 is repres5t$ z  t\*+1 be>+ d[n1 & leav+
 ! gr\nd1 x %\ld d all ?is  on a        
footpr9t t co9cides 9 all ( ! s]ies4    
,trac+ ov] !  illum9at$ glass1 :ile mak+
 ! draw+s1 is ! only way to get         
footpr9ts accurately plac$4             
,illu/ration3 ,,gallop+ ,,horse4        
,?ree phases ( ! action = panorama      

effects4    ,! droll-look+ giraffe1 ) 8 
awkw>dly set limbs1 has a  diff]5t sort 
( movem5t1 9 "s ( 8 paces1 f t rem>k$  z
 natural to quadrup$s4 ,9 ! giraffe1 !  
two limbs ( ! same  side move at ! same 
"t & 9 ! same direction4 ,! camel is    
also not$ z go+ ?is way1 & ! elephant   
has a pace t seems  to be a comb9ation (
 ! amble & ! typical f\r-foot$ way (    
walk+4    ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,elephant  
,,9 ,,motion4    ,n[ & !n ! animator has
 z "o ( 8 *>act]s a walk+  bird2 an     
unga9ly o/ri* is a good example1 or a   
droll duck1  p]haps4 ,"h he w h pl5ty ( 
scope 9 apply+ 8 skill z  a humor\s     
draftsman4 ,a nodd+ ( ! head & a bobb+ (
 !  body f side to side 9 ! duck1 & 9 ! 
case ( ! o/ri* a  wiggl+ ( ! neck1 are  
appropriate adjuncts to su* animation4  
,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,elephant ,,9        
,,motion 7cont9u$74    ,9 ! walk+       
movem5t ( a bird ! me?od ( gett+ !      
diff]5t  phases w be ! same z t ( plann+
 a walk = ! human  figure4 ,p>ticul>ly1 
too1 mu/ ! arti/ obs]ve 9 ! bird's      

walk1 ! middle phases 9 :i* "o leg      
crosses ! v]tical ( !  body to g =w>d = 
! implant+ ( its foot ^u ! gr\nd4    ,) 
respect to ! /udy ( w+ movem5t 9 fly+   
birds1 x  is int]e/+ to note t !        
,japanese arti/ appreh5d$ !  v>i\s      
positions t w+s took 9 fly+ be=e ! fact 
0  demon/rat$ by photography4 ,!        
,occid5tal arti/1 be=e !  days ( !      
in/antane\s snap-%ot cam]a1 _h b "o or  
two  /]eotyp$ positions = pictur+ fly+  
birds4 ,g5]ally "o (  ^! positions _h ! 
w+s po9t+ upw>d1 & ano!r )  !m          
outspread1 m or less1 horizontally4 ,b !
 ,japanese arti/  anticipat$ ! snap-%ot 
picture2 he (t5 _h 8 fly+ birds  ) ! w+s
 drawn bel[ ! level ( ! bird's body &   
po9t+  d[nw>d4      ,illu/ration3       
,,pigeon ,,9 ,,flight4    ,note !       
positions ) ! w+s po9t+ d[nw>d4 ,^! are 
phases  ( w+ movem5t anticipat$ by !    
,japanese arti/ be=e _!  exi/5ce 0      
cle>ly %[n by in/antane\s photography4  
,"p ( a plate 9 ,muybridge's 8,animals 9
 ,motion40 ,copyright1 #ahii1  by       

,eadwe>d ,muybridge4 ,london1 ,*apman   
,hall1 ,ltd4 ,new ,york1 ,*>les         
,scribn]'s ,sons4 ,a valuable "w = !    
arti/ 9 /udy+ movem5t  9 animals4       
,illu/ration3 ,,comic ,,walk ,,( ,a     
,,duck4    ,s]ies ( draw+s requir$ to   
move ! bird f ,a to ,c4    ,"o good way1
 if an animator wi%es to repres5t a bird
 fly+ across  ! sky1 is to h            
sev]al--five or sev5--positions = !     
action  drawn on c>dbo>d & !n cut out4  
,^! little bird models are  plac$1 "o at
 a "t1 ov] ! g5]al sc5e dur+ !          
photography  & manipulat$ 9 ! same way z
 describ$ = o!r cut-out  models4 ,!     
slight wav]+ f ! direct l9e ( ! bird's  
flight  t may occur by ?is cut-out me?od
 w\ld n matt] v mu*4 ,!  bird describes 
a wav]+ l9e anyway z he flies--its body 
dropp+  slightly :5 ! w+s g up & a      
correlative rise occurr+ :5  ! w+ flap  
takes place4    ,illu/ration3 ,,cycle   
,,( ,,phases ,,( ,a ,,walk+ ,,dog       
,,arrang$ ,,= ,,!  ,,ph5aki/oscope4     
,illu/ration3 ,,ph5aki/oscope ,,) ,a    

,,cycle ,,( ,,draw+s ,,to ,,%[ ,a ,,dog 
,,9 ,,movem5t4    ,if an arti/ wi%es    
scrupul\sly to be exact 9 draw+ a bird  
fly+  across ! sky1 he %\ld obs]ve c]ta9
 rules ( p]spective  apply+ to ! case4  
,! problem is ! same z t ( !  airplane1 
previ\sly not$1 :i* flew across ! field 
( !  picture4 ,reg>d+ ?is matt]1 to     
specify3 ,:5 ! bird appe>s on  "o side x
 is repres5t$ 9 a side view1 :i* *anges 
z x gets  ne> ! c5tre to a pr(ile4 ,aft]
 x has be5 view$ 9 pr(ile1  ! p]spective
 *anges aga9 & :5 x rea*es ! o!r side x 
is aga9 9 a p]spective side view1       
slightly f ! back4    ,9 ! mode (       
progression t 0 giv5 z ! usual "o 9     
quadrup$s1 9 :i* a diagonally opposite  
=e & h9d limb mov$  simultane\sly1 !re  
is a s9u\s lat]al twi/+ ( ! back-bone4  
,x is n s p]ceptible to u 9 ! l>g]      
bea/s4 ,x is an effect1  ?\gh1 t takes  
place 9 o!r creatures & 9 "s ( !m c  be 
cle>ly se54 ,9 ! walk ( ! liz>d1 z an   
in/ance1 :5  view$ f above1 a successive
 undulation ( ! back-bone takes  place4 

,z "o =e limb--! "r1 to                 
p>ticul>ize--moves =w>d1  t side ( 8    
body--! "r %\ld]1 moves =w>d1 too2 :ile 
approximately at ! same "t ! left h9d   
limb moves =w>d &  c>ries ) x t side or 
! left pelvic regions4 ,?is causes an   
alt]nat+ obliquity ( ! transv]se axes ( 
! %\ld] & !  h9d regions ( ! body ( !   
reptile z he walks on ! gr\nd4  ,& ?is  
alt]nate *ang+ ( ^! axes gives rise to a
 cont9u+  s9uosity 9 ! sp9e4            
,illu/ration3 ,,runn+ ,,c[4             
,positions select$ & adapt$ f           
,muybridge's photographs4               
,illu/ration3 ,,phases ,,( ,,movem5t ,,(
 ,a ,,walk+ ,,lion4    ,illu/ration3    
,,dog ,,walk+4    ,! mode ( progression 
9 legless creatures is di/+ui%$1 too1   
by a lat]al b5d+ 9 & out4 ,snakes &     
eels1 = example1  z !y proce$ agitate _!
 bodies 9 wave-l motions4 ,!  waves pass
 f ! head to ! tail1 ! fluctuations tak+
 !  =m ( r l>ge loop-l wriggl+s ( !     
elongat$ body4 ,a  spr+-l coil+ up & !n 
an exp&+--flexion & ext5sion  aga9--is !

 pr9ciple ( ! locomotory manuvre 9 !    
snake4    ,illu/ration3 ,,v>i\s ,,k9ds  
,,( ,,wave ,,motion4    ,a *>act]i/ic ( 
_m =ms ( movem5t :i* ! animator gets 9  
c]ta9 ( 8 del9eations4    ,! undulatory 
motive impulse ( a creep+ animal is     
some:at l  ! sudd5 la%+ ( a :ip1 or !   
wave-l di/urbance giv5 to a  rope :5 x  
is %>ply & /rongly %ak5 9 a c]ta9 way4  
,,inanimate ,,?+s ,,9 ,,movem5t         
,,*apt] ,,vii    ,,inanimate ,,?+s ,,9  
,,movem5t      ,!re is v little effect (
 motion on ! scre5 ( a mov+  /raight l9e
 by itself )\t any contra/+ elem5ts4    
,or1 z !  mov+-picture draftsman w\ld   
say1 x does n animate well4    ,n[      
suppos+ a picture is int5d$ ( a man     
tugg+ at a rope4 ,he  pulls h>d & ! rope
 is taut & x appe>s practically /raight4
  ,! animation ( ! arms %[s t !y are    
mov+ & give a good  illusion ( ! tugg+1 
b ! rope %[s no movem5t on acc\nt (  its
 rectil9e>ity4 ,x w be only :5 ! arti/  
gives ! rope a  little undulat+--or ev5 
a snake-l--motion n[ & !n t he  c give !

 effect ( any di/urbance 9 x4 ,?is sort 
( ?+1  a slight %ak+ or a wav]+ ( ! l9e1
 w\ld d = ord9>y  cases b x w\ld be     
bett] if ! arti/ %[$ a loose /r&  (     
cordage fibre creep+ along 9 ! direction
 t ! rope is  suppos$ to be go+4 ,b /ill
 bett] w\ld x be to h a few  k9ks =m+ 9 
! rope & %[+ !m agitat$ z !y g 9 !      
direction ( ! pull on ! rope4 ,9 produc+
 ?is latt] illusion  ! likely exp$i5t t 
! skill$ animator w\ld use is t (  hav+ 
a set ( celluloids ) draw+s--?ree or    
five--%[+ !  k9k repres5t$ 9 a numb] (  
progressive positions4 ,! plan w\ld  be 
to h ! details 9 a cycle1 s t :5 ! la/  
detail (  ! cycle is photograph$1 ! fir/
 "o exactly foll[s 9 a prop]  ord]4 ,!  
arti/ c put ^! rope draw+s on ! same    
%eets (  pap] t hold ! arm movem5ts--we 
h 9 m9d ! picture ( !  man tugg+ at !   
rope1 ( c\rse4 ,!n ! cycle ( draw+s )  !
 arm movem5ts & ! k9ks ( ! rope 9 _!    
progressive  ord] c be us$ ov] & ov]    
aga9 z long z x seems consi/5t  ) good  
judgm5t4    ,?is idea ( arrang+ ?+s 9   

cycles is ! g5]al way (  animat+        
inanimate ?+s4 ,ne>ly all ! te*nical    
items 9 ?is  *apt] are manag$ ) "s su*  
plan4 ,g5]ally1 too1 ! details  are     
drawn on ! transp>5t celluloids4    ,!  
problem 9 devis+ ! compon5ts ( any cycle
 is to h ^!  compon5ts s arrang$ t !    
ord]ly movem5ts take place f  ! fir/ ( !
 s]ies to ! la/ & !n beg9 ) ! fir/      
aga94 ,! action mu/ n skip1 cause a     
hesitation1 or g backw>d4  ,?is simply  
means t ! compon5ts are to be spac$     
prop]ly )  respect to _! relations to   
ea* o!r4    ,x w\ld be difficult to give
 by words any directions exactly h[ to  
d ?is2 actual draw+1 ) a te/+ 9 !       
prelim9>y sket*es  is ! sure/ way (     
accompli%+ x4 ,z g5]al directions1      
h[ev]1 ! advice w\ld be to h an odd     
numb] ( draw+s & to  v>y ! spatial      
int]vals betwe5 ! sep>ate items4 ,!y    
%\ld  n1 above all ?+s1 be equidi/ant4  
,:]e ! arti/ wi%es to pres5t to !       
spectator an animat$  draw+ ( a wav+    
bann]1 or flag1 he makes a cycle (      

diff]5t  draw+s4 ,if x is a flag1 ^!    
draw+s are made ) undulat+  folds t pass
 ! l5g? ( ! flag z if x 7 agitat$ by !  
w9d4 ,almo/ any sort ( rippl+ effect1   
necessitat+ b ?ree  slightly diff]5t    
draw+s1 w satisfy ! av]age audi5ce4 ,b  
if ! arti/ wi%es to d consci5ti\s "w1 he
 w give a little  m att5tion to 8 plann+
 & try to make x ne>] actuality4  ,!n he
 w contrive t !re be "o dom9ant drap]y  
fold :i*  is c>ri$ out f>!r & f>!r along
 ! ruffl$ flag4 ,z ?is  fold ne>s ! end 
x less5s its volume & at la/ disappe>s 9
 a  sudd5 flap4 ,?is w take five or sev5
 draw+s4 ,9 plann+ !  cycle x w be      
arrang$ t imm$iately be=e ! la/ flapp+1 
! fir/ phase ( ! dom9ant fold beg9s     
aga94    ,?is effect ( ruffl+ drap]y by 
a fix$ set ( cycles us$ always  9 ! same
 ord] w1 ( c\rse1 give a monoton\s wav+4
 ,b  x c be div]sifi$ by an occasional  
break 9 ! ord] 9 :i*  ! sep>ate elem5ts 
( ! cycle are photograph$1 or an add$   
modification obta9$ by a supplem5tal    
l>ge flapp+ fold :i* c  be produc$ by "o

 extra draw+4    ,an ord9>y fragm5t (   
drap]y 9 a g>m5t is easily animat$ by   
mak+ x 9 ?ree phases4 ,?is w give a     
satisfactory quiv]+  motion :5 project$ 
9 any bit ( drap]y t is bl[n ab\t or    
flutt]s on a figure 9 action4           
,illu/ration3 ,,cycle ,,( ,,draw+s ,,to 
,,produce ,a ,,scre5 ,,animation ,,( ,a 
,,wav+ ,,flag4    ,fl[+ wat]1 waves1 &  
rippl+ on ! surface ( a /ream1 are  n   
difficult matt]s to animate if ! arti/  
keeps 9 m9d t !  pla9e/ unelaborat$ l9e 
"w gives = ^! elusive pictorial  +r$i5ts
 ! mo/ /rik+ effects on ! scre54    ,x  
is cu/om>y1 aga91 = arti/ic p>ticul>s l 
^! to be  made 9 cycles ( ?ree or five  
draw+s4 ,! action = ?is class  (        
subjects is ne>ly always quick1 & s     
draw+s = ! purpose  ne$ n be num]\s4    
,a wat]-spla% is a detail ( a scre5     
animation r frequ5tly  introduc$4       
,animators h adopt$ a /]eotyp$ way (    
r5d]+  x4 ,:5 x is associat$ ) a fall+ (
 "s unlucky "*  into ! wat]1 x is v     
effective f a pictorial & a humor\s     

po9t ( view4 ,! succe$+ up-ru%+ column (
 wat]1 aft] !  spla%1 is made 9 ! =m ( a
 huge mu%room--r conv5tional  b         
extremely comical4    ,9 su* a p>ticul> 
z a jet ( wat]1 a cycle ( draw+s is also
  us$4 ,9 plann+ su* draw+s = animation 
c>e mu/ be tak5 t  !y give 9 ! comb9$   
scre5 illusion a prop] "o ( fall+  wat]4
 ,! slighte/ misplac+ ( succe$+ details 
repres5t+  ! jet may give an effect ( ! 
wat] go+ backw>d4 ,a funny  t\* is :at  
is want$ 9 a humor\s picture1 b1        
g5]ally1 n (  ?is sort4    ,illu/ration3
 ,,cycle ,,( ,,draw+s ,,= ,,an ,,effect 
,,( ,,fall+ ,,wat]4    ,! draw+s are    
repeat$1 numb] #a foll[+ numb] #c4      
,imp>t+ an appe>ance ( ra9 ov] a sc5e is
 produc$ by hav+  sev]al celluloids )   
l9es indicat+ ?is4 ,!y w\ld be us$ 9  _!
 ord] z design$ dur+ ! photography 9 !  
usual way4    ,fall+ sn[--t indisp5sable
 +r$i5t ( ! prov9cial  melodrama--is    
simply manag$ by spread+1 at haphaz>d   
ov] sev]al  celluloids1 spots ( :ite    
pigm5t4 ,a g5]al t9t+1 ( c\rse1  ov] !  

und]ly+ pictorial composition w\ld add1 
by contra/ (  tone1 to ! illusion4    ,a
 blank %eet ( celluloid plac$ ov] !     
entire draw+ is (t5  employ$ to hold    
compon5ts ( "s quickly mov+ elem5t ( an 
incid5t4 ,ea* sep>ate detail ( its      
draw+1 9 ?is case1 is  made on ?is blank
 celluloid "u ! cam]a & photograph$ z  x
 is made4 ,suppos+ t x is lightn+       
zigzagg+ across a d>k  backgr\nd4 ,!re w
 be drawn ov] ?is celluloid ! fir/ "p  (
 ! bolt1 photograph$ & !n ano!r "p drawn
 :i* is  photograph$1 & !n ! end ( !    
bolt :i* is also sep>ately  tak54 ,?is  
draw+ ( ! lightn+-bolt1 9 :ite pigm5t1 c
  be easily rubb$ (f ) a pa9t rag1 or   
cotton wadd+1 & !n  ano!r lightn+-bolt  
drawn & photograph$ 9 ! same way4    ,9 
"s cases :]e a l>ge volume ( smoke is to
 be %[n 9 hurri$  movem5t1 ! animator   
draws ! smoke 9 di/emp] pigm5t--sombre  
d>k grays1 half-t9ts1 or 9 :ite--on a   
blank %eet ( celluloid  cov]+ ! sc5e4 ,!
 effect ( smoke mov+ v quickly c\ld     
also be drawn 9 progressive fragm5ts on 

! upp] surface ( !  glass 9 ! frame t is
 press$ d[n ^u ! draw+s ea* "t  t !y are
 photograph$4 ,if x is a h\se burn+1 =  
in/ance1  ! flames 9 :ite pa9t & ! smoke
 9 grays & black c be put  on its       
surface4    ,illu/ration3 ,a cycle (    
?ree draw+s is suffici5t to give a      
vivid repres5tation ( ! puff+ exhau/ f  
an automobile4    ,little happ5+s t =m  
"p ( a g5]al sc5e are manag$1  z a rule1
 too1 by cycles ( draw+s or cycles (    
details 9 a  draw+4 ,to specify a few   
?+s1 we may cite puffs ( vapor f an     
automobile1 /eam p\r+ out ( ! sp\t ( a  
teakettle1 & smoke  f a *imney4         
,vapor1 /eam1 & smoke are be/ repres5t$ 
by pigm5t1 z h>d ink  cont\rs are n     
exactly suit$ = su* elem5ts ( a         
pictorial  composition4 ,b su* elem5ts  
def9$ by ink l9es 9 a comic  draw+ are1 
( c\rse1 excusable4 ,sometimes to %[    
smoke mov+  :]e ! draw+s are all on     
pap]1 repres5t+ x by crayon-sauce  ) a  
/ump has be5 f\nd to be effective4      
,illu/ration3 ,,an ,,explosion4    ,if  

an arti/ is pictur+ 9 a comic c>toon !  
fir+ ( a cannon1  he indicates a globul>
 projectile leav+ ! cannon's m\?4 ,!    
arti/ does n d ?is because ( any        
scrupul\s c>e 9 pictur+  reality b m]ely
 t x seems 9 keep+ ) ! idea ( vivid     
comic del9eation4    ,9 produc+ !       
appe>ance ( a cannon-ball foll[+ its    
trajectory  (f into ! f> di/ance he     
takes he$ ( ! law ( p]spective  t       
requires an object to become visionally 
small] z x ne>s  ! horizon4 ,?is        
animation is easily manag$4 ,a c]ta9    
numb] (  models ( ! missile are cut out 
( ?9 c>dbo>d graduat$ 9  size f ! fir/ t
 leaves ! cannon's m\? to ! smalle/  = !
 di/ance4 ,!y are us$ by putt+ "o at a  
"t 9 _!  proportionate places "u ! cam]a
 9 connection ) ! o!r  "w dur+ !        
photography4 ,n _m ( ^! models w\ld be  
requir$1 z ! action is s rapidly        
repres5t$ t almo/ any  sort ( illusive  
effect w d = ! purpose4    ,accord+ to !
 popul> idea1 e comic sc5>io %\ld       
provide  = "s cataclysmic climax 9 :i* !

 entire picture area1 or a  l>ge "p ( x1
 is to be fill$ ) ! graphic symbols     
d5ot+  an explosion or any sudd5        
occurr5ce or mi%ap4 ,su* ?+s = !        
animator are n h>d4    ,illu/ration3 ,,!
 ,,f9i%+ ,,/roke ,,( ,,"s ,,f>cical     
,,situation4    ,illu/ration3 ,,piano   
,,practice4      ,a4 ,g5]al effect ( !  
animation4      ,b4 ,"p ( ! design :i*  
is drawn on ! transp>5t celluloid4      
,bel[3 ,?ree sep>ate draw+s1 us$ 9      
sequ5ce1 ) ! design    on ! /ation>y    
celluloid4    ,!n radiat+ l9es1         
exclamation-po9ts1 zigzagg+ l9es1 &     
simil> :imsical m>k+s--%or?& signs      
emphasiz+ ! comic  note--are ideographs 
( expression t ! animator delights to   
put  into 8 "w4 ,besides _! =cibl5ess1  
!y add v>iety to !  film4               
,illu/ration3 ,^! ?ree draw+s are us$ 9 
sequ5ce & repeat$  z long z ! p>ticul>  
effect t !y give is desir$4    ,b bits (
 dramatic bus9ess l ^! %\ld be us$ 9    
mod]ation  & 9 _! prop] places & always 
at ! "r "t4 ,besides1  be+ easily drawn1

 _! accompli%m5t on ! film pres5ts no   
difficulties4    ,! sev]al me?ods by :i*
 !y c be produc$ are3 7#a7 ,to arrange  
_! compon5ts 9 cycles2 7#b7 draw+ !m 9  
_! ord] "u  ! cam]a & photograph+       
progressively2 7#c7 h little cut-out    
pieces to move ab\t "u ! cam]a &        
photograph$ at ea* place  t !y h be5    
mov$ to4    ,illu/ration3 ,a            
,,con/ellation4    ,! f\r simple elem5ts
 above give on ! scre5 ! lively         
animation indicat$ by ! l[] sket*4      
,take = in/ance su* a nons5sical conceit
 z t ( hav+ a  con/ellation ( />s       
encircl+ a daz$ man's head4 ,?is c\ld be
  made by hav+ 7#a7 a cycle ( draw+s = !
 effect2 or 7#b7 draw+  x progressively 
"u ! cam]a ov] a piece ( celluloid2 or1 
aga91 7#c7 by hav+ a numb] ( little />s 
cut out ( pap] &  mov$ ar\nd &          
manipulat$ ! same z o!r cut-out models4 
,illu/ration3 ,! simple elem5ts1 #a1 #b1
 & #c1 are us$ ) sket*  ,b to give !    
scre5 effect %[n 9 ,a4    ,"o c see f   
all ^! p>ticul>s t mak+ animat$ c>toons 

is n always a matt] ( draw+1 pure &     
simple4 ,! animator  w\ld make v little 
progress if he 7 to refuse to take      
advantage ( any prop] exp$i5ts or tricks
 to accel]ate 8 "w4    ,illu/ration3 ,! 
animator1 z well z ! comic graphic      
arti/1  makes use ( signs to elucidate !
 /ory4          ,,miscellane\s ,,matt]s 
,,9 ,,mak+ ,,animat$ ,,scre5 ,,pictures 
,,*apt] ,,viii    ,,miscellane\s        
,,matt]s ,,9 ,,mak+ ,,animat$ ,,scre5   
,,pictures      ,_m ( ! /rik+ ways (    
tell+ incid5ts ( an animat$ c>toon  put 
"o 9 m9d ( ! pictorial symbols (        
primitive man4 ,an example  is t ( a    
vision appe>+ above ! head ( "s "o 9    
d\bt  or 9 a rev]y4 ,!n !re is !        
m9iature sc5e float+ ov] a  sleep] to   
tell t ( :i* he is dream+4 ,^! & o!r    
simil>  =ms are supplem5t>y ways (      
expla9+ incid5ts 9 a scre5  /ory4 ,!y   
are also us$ 9 ! regul> photographic    
film2 b !y  are specifically typical ( !
 animat$ c>toon4    ,!y are amus+       
additions to a film t are c]ta9 to      

please  :e!r us$ to apprise ! audi5ce ( 
:at is go+ on 9 !  "*'s m9d1 or to      
expla9 ! dream ( a sleep] z he lies     
ab$4    ,!re are sev]al modes ( creat+  
any ( ^! effects4 ,! usual  way w\ld be 
t ( hav+ ! quiesc5t "p1 say x is a      
sleep]1  limn$ on ! celluloid2 & !      
details ( ! mov+ "p1 say !  vision1 on  
?ree or five %eets ( pap]4              
,illu/ration3 ,,symbolic ,,animation ,,(
 ,,snor+4    ,to effect ?is1 ! sleep]   
w\ld be drawn on celluloid & !  pictures
 9 ! cl\ds on sep>ate %eets ( pap]4     
,p]haps ! humori/-arti/ wi%es to make 8 
picture a little bit  m tell+ by        
indicat+1 ) appropriate onomatopic      
consonants1  ! s\nd ( snor+4 ,^!        
additions c be drawn :ile !  photography
 is tak+ place on a blank celluloid %eet
 sup]impos$  ov] all ! draw+s 9 a way   
expla9$ 9 a prec$+ *apt]4    ,symbols ( 
musical notation & s\nd-imitat+ words   
are (t5  introduc$ into a scre5 picture4
 ,!y c be made to dance 9  rhy?m1 or at 
haphaz>d1 by draw+ !m 9 s]ies ( ?ree or 

s1  on celluloid %eets4 ,^! w\ld be     
plac$1 "o at a "t1 9 _!  ord] ov] !     
g5]al sc5e & repeat$ z long z desir$4   
,illu/ration3      ,s]ies ( draw+s m>k$ 
,a %[ ! scre5 effect desir$4    ,bel[3 !
 elem5ts repres5t+ x t are us$ ) !      
simple    compon5t--on celluloid--m>k$  
,b4    ,! employm5t ( balloons--!y h be5
 allud$ to be=e--is  a frequ5t "o 9     
comic scre5 "w4 ,!y are ! m\?pieces     
conta9+ ! dialogue ( ! *>act]s4 ,_!     
outl9e1 m or  less balloon-%ap$1 hov]s  
ov] ! heads ( ! speak]s4 ,! l9es  def9+ 
! balloons c come into ! sc5e gradually 
9 a lively  way1 & ! dialogue itself c  
come 9 ^w by ^w4 ,?is latt]  s*eme      
itself sugge/s talk+4    ,:5 ! fir/     
animat$ c>toons 7 produc$ & an effect ) 
balloons 0 int5d$1 ! arti/ ?\ght t he 0 
do+ well  en\gh if he %[$ ! lett]+ &    
m]ely _h ! p]son suppos$  to be speak+  
/&+ motionless4 ,b n[ an arti/ :o c>es  
en\gh = 8 craft to put z mu* bus9ess    
into ! sc5es z  possible w %[ ! lips    
mov+ & ! arms ge/iculat+ at !  same "t t

 ! lett]+ appe>s4    ,!re are innum]able
 ?+s t ! arti/ mu/ ?9k ( :ile he  is    
photograph+ 8 draw+s1 & "o ( ! weighty  
ones is to h  ! lett]+ = any p>ticul>   
dialogue1 or explanation1 held long     
en\gh on ! scre5 = x to be read4 ,e     
/udio has its own  special rule z to !  
numb] ( sep>ate frames ( a film to all[ 
= a ^w4 ,! only way to arrive at any    
conclusion z to h[ mu*  film to take =  
any s5t5ce 9 a balloon1 or on a title1  
is to h  "s "o read x & !n "t ?is read+4
 ,9 ?is way ! arti/  w be able to tell  
h[ mu* to give any p>ticul> word+4 ,he w
  be able1 too1 aft] a :ile1 to =mulate 
8 own rule ) reg>d to  ! matt]4         
,illu/ration3 ,a 8,,close-,,up40    ,a  
favorite me?od ( tell+ some?+1 or to h9t
 z to t :i*  is to foll[1 is to h a "*  
discov]$ read+ a newspap]  ^u :i* ! item
 expla9+ ! matt] %[s 9 an exagg]at$     
type4 ,! design is usually enclos$ )9 a 
circle ) ! outside  space a solid black4
 ,!re is no special reason = us+ ?is    
p>ticul> encircl+ design4 ,x is a way   

(t5 us$4 ,te*nically x  is a good plan  
to employ ?is telescopic mat1 z x may be
 call$1 z  its =cible contra/ ( solid   
black m>g9 breaks ! monotony (  ! g5]al 
uni=m photographic tone ( ! re/ ( !     
film4    ,illu/ration3      ,to vivify  
?is on ! scre51 little 8model0 hats are 
us$ dur+    ! photography4    ,an amus+ 
occurr5ce sometimes br\ght into a /ory  
is t (  hav+ a man's hat fly f 8 head   
into ! air & come d[n  ^u 8 head aga94  
,( c\rse1 ! practical way ( putt+ ?is   
on a l5g? ( film w\ld be t ( hav+ a     
little cut-out dummy4  ,! arti/1 h[ev]1 
takes ! tr\ble ( mak+ sev]al dummies (  
! hat drawn 9 diff]5t views4 ,a s+le    
dummy w\ld %[ b a  m]e me*anical turn+1 
b by us+ sev]al 9 diff]5t views1 he     
gets a v good similitude ( actuality 9 !
 w9d twirl+ !  hat ar\nd 9 a lively way4
 ,a little po9t to help ! humor ( !     
situation is t ( hav+ ! hat hesitate1 z 
x 71 & give an  extra sp9 imm$iately    
be=e x l&s ^u ! head4    ,x isn't always
 necess>y = an arti/ to make a cycle or 

a s]ies  ( draw+s = a movem5t4 ,=       
in/ance1 he is %[+ a r  l>ge face on !  
scre5 & x is int5d$ t ! eyes move4 ,?is 
c\ld be effect$ by draw+s1 b !re is a   
mu* simpl] way4 ,!  places = ! eyes on !
 ma9 draw+ are left blank & holes cut   
out ! size ( ^! blank spaces4 ,on a n>r[
 piece ( pap] at !  prop] di/ance1 two  
eyes are drawn4 ,?is pap]1 ) ! eyes1 is 
slipp$ und]nea? ! "o ) ! draw+ t has !  
eye spaces  cut out4 ,n[ ! manipulation 
( ?is pap]1 hold+ ! eyes :ile  9        
position "u ! face1 is easy4 ,! v>i\s   
positions 9 :i*  ! eyes are plac$1 x is 
und]/ood1 w be photograph$ by !         
/op-motion me?od4    ,illu/ration3      
8,,cut-,,out0 ,,eyes4    ,! true arti/1 
9 keep+ ) 8 tal5t = creative "w1 w  be  
dispos$ to devise helpful contrivances  
or exp$i5ts to light5  irksome &        
monoton\s details aris+ 9 ?is art4 ,& 9 
addition  to ! possession ( ?is tal5t1 &
 t ( good draftsman%ip1 he  mu/ be quick
 9 decid+ on ! be/ means ( economiz+    
labor1  s t he c sp5d m "t :]e ?or\gh   

draw+ is ne$$4 ,he  mu/1 9 %ort1 9 any  
p>ticul> case1 put 9 z mu* "w z x       
requires & no m4 ,by exp]i5ce he w le>n 
to "k :]e to  slight--8slight0 isn't    
exactly ! ^w1 b x w d--! draw+4    ,)   
respect to ?is latt] po9t1 suppose !re  
is "s arm  movem5t1 ) ! arm sw++ z x    
does 9 a hurri$ walk4 ,h&s1  x is c]ta91
 are difficult details to draw1 & if !y 
are  c>efully r5d]$ 9 all ( ! positions 
x w\ld take a long "t  to draw ! entire 
s]ies4 ,b ! exp]i5c$ animator has le>n$ 
t at times he c1 = "s ( ! positions1 e  
o!r "o  p]haps1 make quickly l9$ m>ks   
indicative ( h&s4 ,^! quickly  made     
l9es1 h[ev]1 mu/ be drawn 9 a way t w   
help !  action4 ,exactly h[ to make !m &
 to :at ext5t to 8slight0 !m  is le>n$  
only by long exp]i5ce4    ,illu/ration3 
,= "s quick actions1 89-betwe50 draw+s c
 be  slight$ z %[n 9 numb]s #b & #d4    
,(t5 !re is a "q z to ! numb] ( draw+s  
necess>y =  a movem5t4 ,if a h&1 =      
example1 is to be mov$ f ! side (  !    
?igh to ! head & !n to t\* ! brim ( !   

hat1 "o  s+le position half-way betwe5 !
 two extreme ones may d = "s  swift     
action 9 a humor\s c>toon1 b if x is = a
 sl[] action  x %\ld h at lea/ ?ree     
positions betwe5 ! extremes4            
,illu/ration3 ,,illu/rat+ ,,! ,,numb]   
,,( ,,draw+s ,,requir$ ,,= ,a           
,,movem5t4      ,above3 = a quick       
movem5t4    ,bel[3 = a sl[] movem5t4    
,b x doesn't worry ! skill$ animator v  
mu* :e!r he makes  ?ree1 five1 or ev5 m 
draw+s betwe5 ! extreme positions  ( any
 ge/ure or action4 ,nev]!less1 :ile !   
arti/ is mak+  ^! arm movem5ts he mu/   
put ?\ght into ! "w4 ,!re is1 =         
in/ance1 a c]ta9 matt] ) respect to     
draw+ ! relative axes  ( ! segm5ts ( a  
limb t requires reflective att5tion4 ,to
 be  precise1 suppose ! action is to    
repres5t an arm mov+ f bel[  & po9t+ ) !
 index-f+] skyw>d4 ,n[1 9 any directly  
foll[+ phases ( ! movem5t ! same degree 
( flexure at !  articulations mu/ n be  
pres5t 9 ! draw+s4 ,! :ole arm z  x     
hangs by ! side1 be=e ! action beg9s1 is

 ne>ly /raight1  ) v little b5d+ at ei!r
 elb[ or wri/4 ,9 mov+ x  upw>d1 x is n 
to be trac$ ) ?is same relative         
/raightness  & same degree ( jo9t       
angul>ity 9 all ! positions4 ,x w\ld    
move !n on ! scre5 ) ! ungracefulness ( 
an automaton4    ,in/ead1 ! sev]al      
draw+s %\ld h ! jo9ts--elb[ &  wri/--at 
diff]5t degrees ( flexure4 ,especially  
is ?is diff]5ce  to v>y f "o draw+ to a 
succe$+ "o1 ) ! angle at !  jo9t1 j a   
little m1 or j a little less4 ,! :ole   
matt]  c be be/ compreh5d$ if ! arti/1  
be=e depict+ ?is  action1 try x himself4
 ,!n he w\ld see t if he moves ! arm z  
if x 7 a rigid ?+1 only h+$ at ! %\ld]1 
! movem5t  w\ld be false & n *>act]i/ic 
( a liv+ organism4 ,!  natural way is an
 uncon/ra9$1 easy b5d+ movem5t4 ,!      
animator  9 8 draw+s slightly emphasizes
 ?is mann] ( mov+4    ,illu/ration3     
,,illu/rat+ ,a ,,po9t ,,9 ,,animat+ ,a  
,,mov+ ,,limb4      ,above3 mov+        
automaton-l ) no b5d+ at ! jo9ts4       
,bel[3 mov+ ) v>i\s degrees ( flexion at

 ! jo9ts4    ,an arti/ %[s 8 aptness =  
"* del9eation 9 ! way 9  :i* he draws ! 
views ( a face = turn+ x f side to side4
  ,a graphic c>icaturi/ ( limit$ scope  
has a pron5ess = adh]+  to a few /5cil  
patt]ns1 9 ! matt] ( pose1 = 8 *>act]s4 
,front face1 pr(ile1 & occasionally a   
?ree-qu>t] view make up  8 catalogue (  
facial pictur+4 ,! animator uses ?is    
del9eatory  trilogy1 too1 9 ! ord9>y    
turn+ ( ! head f side to side4  ,b he   
mu/ be skill$1 besides t ( portray+ a   
face 9 ^!  views1 9 draw+ x 9 any view4 
,& a skill t is /ill m  ne$$ is t ( be+ 
able to keep ! portraiture ( a "*       
?r\gh\t any s]ies ( draw+s4             
,illu/ration3      ,9 turn+ ! head f    
pr(ile to full face1 "o draw+ betwe5    
! extremes is suffici5t = a quick       
movem5t4 ,b :5 x    is desir$ t ! action
 be 8smoo!r0 two m draw+s are           
requir$4    ,to keep ! features ! same  
?r\gh\t a numb] ( draw+s x is  f\nd     
advantage\s to sp5d a little m "t 9 !   
prelim9>y  plann+ :5 creat+ ! orig9al   

sket* = ! "*4 ,!  idea is n s mu* to    
make a face t is easy to draw z to give 
x c]ta9 di/+ui%+ l9eam5ts t are         
recognizable 9 !  v>y+ positions ne$$ 9 
animat+ x4    ,besides1 :5 orig9at+ a   
face = frequ5t repetition 9 a  c>toon1  
seek+ "o t c be drawn quickly & easily  
repres5t$  9 any view facilitates ! "w (
 ! trac]s4    ,a little trick ( comic   
graphic arti/s is t ( mak+ !  features (
 a face 9 small circles1 or some:at     
r\ndi% curves4  ,?is sort ( ?+ is n     
conducive to good "* draw+4 ,!  animator
 also uses ^! =ms--r\nd eyes1 circle-l  
nose1 &  a circul> twi/ 9 o!r p>ts ( !  
features4 ,n[ 9 8 case1  ?is c be =giv51
 p]haps1 :5 "o consid]s ! difficulties  
( 8 art2 = ^! p>ticul> =ms are1 z we    
%all try to  expla9 imm$iately bel[1    
easy to copy & trace4 ,z 9 caligraphy1  
unfix$ & div]se 9 its qualities &       
peculi>ities1 s ) e  individual 9 p5    
draw+1 c]ta9 traits occur 9 ! /rokes4 ,9
  p5-&-ink draw+ ! m individual &       
di/9ctive ! /yle1  ! h>d] x w be to copy

 or c\nt]feit x4 ,b if ! m>k+s  approa* 
! geometric1 def9ite & precise1 !n !y   
are easily  copi$ & imitat$4 ,?is is :y 
! little circles & simil>  curv$ m>k+s  
are s frequ5tly us$ 9 animat$ c>toons4  
,!re is  no?+ ambigu\s 9 ! l9eam5ts ( a 
face made ) sauc]-l  eyes1 & a nose l a 
circle4 ,its peculi>ities are quickly   
notic$1 easily rememb]$1 & trac$ )      
facility4    ,z has be5 expla9$1 an     
arti/ r>ely f9i%es an entire set (      
draw+s = a film )\t help1 b has a /aff (
 help]s4 ,x  c be well und]/ood1 !n1 t  
an ess5tial to success is t  ! memb]s ( 
?is /aff keep ! same quality ( l9e 9 all
 !  draw+s4 ,"o ( ! difficulties 9 a    
/aff ( help]s is t (  keep+ a uni=mity (
 portraiture 9 ! *>act]s4 ,& because  ! 
circul> l9eam5ts are easy to trace t is 
! reason :y !y  are *os5 to =m ! basis =
 ! details ( a face4    ,illu/ration3   
,easily drawn circul> =ms & curves make 
= spe$  9 animat$ c>toon "w4    ,!re is 
a t5d5cy 9 e "o1 ev5 on ! "p ( ! au?or (
  ! orig9al model1 to dep>t f !         

fir/-plann$ type ( face4  ,! approv$ way
 ( avoid+ ?is is to h a set ( sket*es ( 
! *>act]s drawn on special %eets ( pap] 
t are to be us$  by all ! work]s to     
trace f4 ,9 a /udio ) num]\s work]s1    
all ru%+ to f9i% a five-hundr$-foot reel
 9 e week1 x is  ! cu/om to h plates    
engrav$ f ! orig9al sket*es & a  numb] (
 copies pr9t$1 s t all may h a set4 ,)  
^!  pr9t$ copies x w !n be m]ely a matt]
 ( hav+ a /eady  h& & an ability to     
trace accurately f ! copy on to a fre%  
%eet ( pap] plac$ ov] ! illum9at$ glass 
( ! draw+-bo>d4    ,no d\bt1 z x has be5
 ref]r$ to s _m times1 x is cle>ly      
und]/ood n[ :at an important "p         
transp>5t celluloid plays 9  ?is art4 ,x
 is employ$ n only to save ! labor (    
reproduc+ a  numb] ( times ! details ( a
 sc5e1 b also to help keep ^!  details  
co9cid5t1 or uni=m4 ,9 a face1 !re is a 
c]ta9ty t  its l9eam5ts w be ! same if x
 is drawn b once on celluloid2  b if x  
is copi$ ea* "t on a long /r+ (         
successive %eets  ( pap]1 !re is a      

likelihood t x w v>y & s give !  l9es on
 ! scre5 an effect ( wiggl+ ab\t4       
,!re are _m little matt]s ( te*nic &    
r5d]+ t arise 9  ?is art4 ,= example1 9 
mak+ c]ta9 p>ts ( a figure1 say a  coat1
 9 solid black1 x has be5 f\nd be/1     
in/ead ( mak+ x an  absolute silh\ette1 
to indicate by ! ?9ne/ ( :ite l9es !    
cont\rs ( ! details4 ,a sleeve1 =       
in/ance1 %\ld be outl9$  ) su* a :ite   
l9e4 ,?is seems to be a lot ( tr\ble = s
  little1 b1 judg$ by ! result on !     
scre51 has be5 %[n to be  wor? :ile4    
,at ?is po9t we c t\* ^u ! "q ( :at is  
meant by  8animation40 ,an arti/ )      
little exp]i5ce may make a s]ies (      
movem5t phases = an action1 b :5 !      
draw+s are te/$ x  is f\nd t !y d n     
animate2 t is1 give 9 syn!sis !         
illusion ( easy motion4 ,x may be a     
matt] ( incorrect draw+1  p]haps1 or he 
may h ! draw+s ne>ly correct1 b he has  
fail$ to make use ( c]ta9 little tricks1
 or1 %all we say1 fail$  to obs]ve c]ta9
 dext]\s po9ts 9 ! te*nic ( ! art8      

,we w cite "o little trick--humor+ !    
vision1 if "o may put x  ?is way3 h a   
spot1 or pat*1 ( black repeat$          
relatively 9 !  same position ?r\gh\t ! 
s]ies ( a movem5t4 ,an example is t  (  
hav+ ! boots ( a figure ( a solid black4
 ,! eye cat*+  ! two black spots z !y   
alt]nately g back & =? is delud$  )     
respect to ! =cibl5ess ( ! animation ev5
 if ! walk+  action is n z correctly    
drawn z x %\ld be4 ,an add$ effect is   
giv5 to ?is illusory ruse if a t9y high 
light is left on ! toe  ( ea* black     
boot4    ,! f9al te/ = draw+s =         
animation is1 x /&s to reason1  ! result
 on ! scre54 ,"o may1 ?\gh1             
approximately f9d out  :e!r or n any    
sequ5ce ( draw+s animate by flapp+ !m 9 
a sort ( way ak9 to ! book-=m k9eograph 
novelty not$ 9 a  prec$+ *apt]4 ,two    
imm$iately foll[+ draw+s c be te/$  ?is 
way3 ) "o h& !y are held ne> "o corn]   
press$ aga9/  ! draw+-bo>d1 !n ) ! o!r  
h& ! top draw+ is mov$  rapidly up &    
d[n4 ,9 ?is way ! two draw+s are        

syn!siz$  some:at1 & if ! action is     
del9eat$ correctly !re w be  "s notion (
 ! appe>ance on ! scre54    ,?is little 
exp]im5t crudely demon/rates ! ph5om5on 
(  aft]-images & ! op]ation typifies a  
simple syn!siz+  app>atus4    ,a        
significant addition to a sc5e1 if x is 
suit$ to ! /ory &  consi/5t ) ! g5]al   
plan1 is to h "s =egr\nd detail  9 front
 ( ! mov+ figure1 or figures4 ,?is      
sometimes consi/s  ( a rock1 a clump (  
foliage1 or a tree trunk4 ,! contra/ ( !
  in]tness 9 ^! details gives an add$   
=ce to ! animat+  t takes place back (  
_! mass4    ,illu/ration3      ,=egr\nd 
details ( a pictorial composition help !
 animator 9    sev]al ways4 ,_!         
in]tness1 = "o ?+1 af=ds a contra/ to   
! mov+ figure4    ,?is feature ( a      
picture is drawn on celluloid t is plac$
 on top  ( ! re/ ( ! set hav+ to d ) !  
p>ticul> animation4  ,x is possible1    
?\gh1 = an arti/1 if he is dext]\s1 to  
fa/5  ?is in]t =egr\nd to ! "u-side ( ! 
glass 9 ! frame  :i* is press$ d[n ov] !

 draw+s dur+ ! photography4 ,!  =egr\nd 
feature1 ( c\rse1 is cut out 9 silh\ette
 & fa/5$  ) an adhesive l rubb] cem5t4  
,?is cem5t is an article (  great       
usefulness 9 a photographic /udio2      
especially = tempor>y  use ov] draw+s1 z
 x c be easily rubb$ (f aft]w>d by !    
friction ( ! f+]-tips4    ,radically    
opposite 9 me?od to ! s*eme describ$    
above1 9 :i*  an in]t object helps !    
animation1 is ! panorama4 ,9 ?is scre5  
illusion ! figure1 :i* is ?\ght ( z     
mov+1 occupies ! same  position2 :ile ! 
l&scape1 normally quiet1 is 9 motion4   
,c]ta9ly we h all exp]i5c$ ! s5sation1  
:5 seat$ 9  a railway-tra9 wait+ = x to 
g1 ( sudd5ly imag9+ t  x has />t$2 :51 9
 fact1 x has n budg$4 ,?is simply  has  
happ5$3 :ile occupi$ ) ?\ghts n p]ta9+  
to our  surr\nd+s--p]haps read+--we     
casually caught sight ( a mov+  tra9 on 
an adjac5t track1 & z we 7 9 ! /ate (   
expectancy  ( at any mom5t be+ on !     
move1 we imm$iately ?\ght t our         
anticipation _h be5 fulfill$4 ,ev5 if1 9

 a mom5t or two1 we  realize t our s5ses
 h deceiv$ u1 x is h>d to %ake (f !     
fir/-=m$ delusion ( be+ 9 motion4    ,n[
 ! scre5 panorama is a simil> delusion4 
,we see ne>  ! c5tre ( ! scre5 a figure 
go+ ?r\gh ! motions (  progression1 b we
 "k p]fectly well t he is 9 ! same place
  all ! "t4 ,& we "k t ! l&scape is     
drawn on a b& (  pap] t is pu%$ along   
back ( ! figure4 ,all our kn[+ does  n  
help u4 ,9 spite ( x ! little figure    
spectrally advances &  ! l&scape        
deceptively passes by z we "k x does    
7visionally7  :5 we ourselves are runn+ 
v fa/4    ,illu/ration3 ,,mak+ ,,an     
,,animat$ ,,c>toon ,,panorama4      ,!  
figure is depict$ 9 a s]ies ( movem5t   
phases drawn on    sep>ate %eets (      
celluloid4 ,^! are us$ cont9u\sly1 "o   
at a "t1 & 9 _! prop] ord] dur+ !       
photography4    ,! l&scape1 drawn on a  
/rip ( pap]1 moves along "u !           
celluloid little by little 9 ! direction
 ( ! arr[4    ,! mann] 9 :i* a panorama 
is produc$ is ?is3 ! l&scape  is drawn  

on a long /rip ( pap]2 ?is is to be mov$
 little by  little & photograph$ at ea* 
place to :i* x has be5 mov$4  ,! figure 
t is to walk1 or run1 is drawn 9 !      
diff]5t phases  ( action on %eets (     
celluloid4 ,^! are plac$ 9 _! ord]  ov] 
! l&scape dur+ ! photography4 ,! sep>ate
 draw+s (  ! actions ( ! figure 7 drawn 
s t ! bodies rema9$  relatively 9 ! same
 place1 b ! limbs1 or heads1 v>i$ 9     
attitudes4 ,! plann+ ( ! action 9 a     
figure = a panorama is  proce$$ ) 9 !   
same way z t = produc+ a regul> walk  or
 run4 ,"o special c>e 9 ! "w1 h[ev]1 is 
?is3 ! limbs  z !y are sket*$ 9 _!      
appropriate attitudes 9 ! sev]al  draw+s
 mu/ n h id5tical outl9es4 ,t is1       
expla9+ x  9 ano!r way1 if all ( ! set  
are plac$ toge!r ov] !  illum9at$ trac+ 
glass1 no two draw+s %\ld correspond )  
respect to ! positions ( ! limbs4 ,!    
bodies 9 ! draw+s  %\ld exactly concur 9
 position1 b if "s att5tion is giv5  to 
! rise & fall ( ! trunk1 z 9 a typical  
walk1 ! scre5  illusion w be v mu*      

bett]4 ,slightly %ift+ x up & d[n  on a 
v]tical w\ld effect ?is4    ,! b& ( pap]
 ) ! l&scape is mov$ 9 ! direction      
opposite to t 9 :i* ! figure is suppos$ 
to g4    ,! photograph] has _m ?+s to   
?9k ( :ile he is putt+  ?is panorama    
effect on a film4 ,he mu/ move ! l&scape
 /rip2  sometimes z little z "o-sixte5? 
( an in* at a "t2 put a  celluloid %eet 
) "o ( ! phases ( ! action 9 place1 get 
x 9 its prop] ord]1 & !n turn ! cam]a   
ge>+ to make  ! exposure4 ,9 "s special 
cases he w h ano!r matt] to  ?9k (2     
namely1 a second panorama /rip to move1 
& at a diff]5t  spe$4    ,?is is :5 he  
wi%es to give a little bett]            
repres5tation (  v]isimilitude ?an t    
produc$ by ! s+le panorama /rip4        
,f>-(f mov+ objects1 z we "k1 appe> to g
 sl[] ?an ^?  t are close to u4 ,we are 
aw>e ( ?is 9 look+ at a di/ant  airplane
 high up 9 ! sky t we "k is go+ v fa/ b 
seems z ?\gh x is go+ v sl[ly4 ,& at    
night an illum9at$  railway-tra9 9 !    
valley bel[ u1 :5 we are on an          

elevation1  seems to creep along l a    
snail4    ,illu/ration3      ,,illu/rat+
 ,,! ,,app>5t ,,sl[ness ,,( ,a ,,di/ant 
,,mov+ ,,object    ,,comp>$ ,,to ,,"o   
,,pass+ ,,close ,,to ,,! ,,eye4    ,to  
br+ x to pass t a panorama h ! effect ( 
ne> objects  go+ fa/] ?an ^? t are      
di/ant1 x is necess>y to h two  /rips ( 
panorama details4 ,"o /rip w repres5t ! 
=egr\nd1  :i* is to be mov$ mu* quick]1 
"o-eigh? ( an in*1 or s4 ,a  second /rip
 w answ] = ! di/ance1 :i* is mov$1 ab\t 
"o-sixte5? ( an in*1 or ev5 less4 ,if ! 
=egr\nd /rip is  mov$ at r wide         
int]vals1 ! effect on ! scre5 w be a    
little l t :i* we see f ! w9d[ ( a      
railway-coa* :5  telegraph-poles & ne>  
objects seem to fly by4    ,! panorama  
/rip = ! =egr\nd is design$ ) simple    
elem5ts s t x c be cut out 9 silh\ette &
 laid ov] !  o!r "o4 ,) ref]5ce to !    
quality ( ! details ( a sc5e  on a      
panorama2 al?\gh x is usual to fill up !
 :ole l5g? )  items ( int]e/1 !re mu/ be
 obs]v$ "s degree ( simplicity4  ,p]haps

 x might be be/ to say t !re %\ld be a  
subord9ation  9 ! details1 ev5 if !y are
 num]\s1 & !n h "s  /rik+ feature or    
object occurr+ e once 9 a :ile1 to cat* 
! eye & s help ! movem5t4    ,objects1  
too1 automobiles & o!r vehicles1 are    
comb9$ ) ^!  panoramas4 ,?is br+s u to !
 consid]ation ( ! matt] (  animat+      
:eels1 or mak+ !m turn 9 ! scre5        
illusion4    ,illu/ration3 ,"s di/+ui%+ 
m>k on a :eel is ne$$ to give  x ! scre5
 illusion ( turn+4    ,a :eel true &    
accurately adju/$ & go+ rapidly gives--)
  ! exception ( a blurr+ ( spokes1 if   
!re are any--v little  evid5ce (        
rotation4 ,x is only :5 x turns         
un/eadily1 or :5  !re is "s di/+ui%+ m>k
 f\nd on or ne> ! rim1 t  we see pla9ly 
t ! :eel turns4 ,sometimes x is a /a91 a
  spot on ! tire1 a tempor>y repair1 or 
a piece ( pap] t has  caught 9 ! spokes 
t indicates a turn+ ( ! :eel4 ,fur!r    
amplification is ne$less1 z a glance at 
! vehicles1 z !y pass  9 ! roadway1 w   
make cle>4 ,s ! animator1 :5 he wi%es to

  %[ a :eel turn+1 simply copies        
actuality by draw+ a :eel  ) "s su*     
feature z not$ above4 ,a m]e black spot 
on a :eel  ne> ! circumf]5ce is         
sometimes suffici5t4 ,x is usual to h  !
 :eels drawn on ?9 c>dbo>d & cut out &  
fa/5$ 9 _!  prop] places s t !y c be    
turn$4 ,!y are turn$ a little at  a "t &
 photograph$ aft] ea* turn4             
,illu/ration3      ,to repres5t ! hunt] 
9 sket* ,a sudd5ly trembl+ ) fe>    z 9 
sket* ,b1 two draw+s1 #a & #b1 ) v>y+   
wavy l9es    are us$ alt]nately dur+ !  
photography4          ,,photography ,,& 
,,o!r ,,te*nical ,,matt]s               
,,*apt] ,,ix    ,,photography ,,& ,,o!r 
,,te*nical ,,matt]s      ,respect+      
adaptability & results1 ! same          
motion-picture cam]a  t is us$ 9 !      
field1 or ! /udio1 c be us$ to make     
films  = animat$ c>toons4 ,9 mak+       
c>toons1 h[ev]1 two p>ticul>s  at       
v>iance ) ! usual proc$ure fir/ mu/ be  
not$3 7#a7 ,!  cam]a is po9t$ d[nw>d & n
 horizontally1 z is ord9>ily  ! case1 & 

7#b7 ) ea* turn ( ! cam]a h&le only "o  
frame--"o-sixte5? ( a foot ( film--is   
photograph$1 & n eight1  z is commonly !
 case4    ,! cam]a 9 mak+ animat$       
c>toons is held1 po9t+ d[nw>d1 by  a    
firmly built framework4 ,! arti/1 hav+  
decid$ on ! dim5sion  ( ! field = 8     
draw+s1 det]m9es ! height approximately 
( ! cam]a above ! table top1 :]e !      
draw+s are plac$4  ,naturally x w be    
high en\gh s t :5 he works at ! table   
:ile dispos+ ! draw+s1 adju/+ ! dummies1
 or 9 "s cases  mak+ draw+s1 8 head w n 
come 9 contact ) ! front  ( ! l5s4 ,!   
p>ticul> di/ance betwe5 ! l5s & ! table 
top is dep5d5t ^u ! k9d ( l5s 9 ! cam]a4
 ,x is a common  practice to equip a    
cam]a ) a two-in* 7fifty-millimetre7    
l5s4  ,x is possible to use a l5s ( ?is 
focus = c>toons4    ,!re is no special  
type ( /ructure = support+ ! cam]a above
  ! bo>d ^u :i* ! draw+s are plac$ =    
photography4 ,an  arti/ contemplat+     
emb>k+ ^u ?is l9e ( "w1 & int5d+  to    
c>ry on ! :ole process f ! beg9n+ to !  

"t :5 he  h&s ! expos$ film to !        
laboratory = developm5t1 w h a  *ance to
 put any inv5tive ability t he may h    
into practice 9  design+ a framework = !
 purpose4 ,9 build+ su* a /ructure  ^!  
?+s mu/ be ?\ght (3 7#a7 ,! /ructure mu/
 be firmly  built s t ! likelihood ( !  
cam]a be+ j>r$ is less5$2  7#b7 !       
di/ance betwe5 ! cam]a & bo>d to be     
asc]ta9$1  approximately at fir/2 7#c7  
an arrangem5t = fix+ ! cam]a 9  a groov$
 slid+ section s t its exact height c be
 adju/$  :5 ! field & focus are         
def9itely fix$ or !re is to be any  lat]
 readju/m5t4 ,! cam]a1 = in/ance1 may   
get j>r$ & put  out ( focus1 or get set 
obliquely ) respect to ! l9es def9+  !  
field4    ,illu/ration3 ,,typical       
,,arrangem5t ,,( ,,cam]a ,,& ,,lights   
,,to ,,photograph  ,,draw+s ,,=         
,,animat$ ,,c>toons4      ,c4 ,cam]a4   
,l4 ,lights4 ,m4 ,me*anism to turn cam]a
 %utt]4    ,f4 ,h+$ frame ) glass to    
press d[n on ! draw+s4 ,b4    ,bo>d     
hold+ ! regi/]+ pegs4    ,"s animators h

 m\nt$ _! cam]a s t ! same framework  c 
be us$ = a small field z well z a l>g]  
"o4 ,?is  necessitates1 ea* "t t ! size 
( field is *ang$1 a  tr\blesome sett+ ( 
! cam]a 9 ord] aga94 ,x is wisdom to    
keep to "o size ( field = all "w1 s t :5
 ! cam]a is  once 9 position x ne$ n be 
*ang$4    ,! frame t holds ! glass1 &   
:i* is h+$ to ! bo>d  :]e ! draw+s are  
plac$1 & ! regi/]+ pegs h already  be5  
describ$4 ,x is an excell5t plan to h   
?is bo>d ) !  above-nam$ adjuncts       
sep>ate b screw$ d[n ^u ! table top4 ,by
  hav+ x ?is way x is possible to h     
ano!r means ( gett+  ! cam]a & ! field  
l9es adju/$4 ,!n if ! outl9e ( !  field 
on ! bo>d & ^? def9+ ! field 9 ! cam]a d
 n  fit ea* o!r exactly1 ! bo>d c be    
unscrew$1 %ift$ until x  is "r1 & fa/5$ 
aga94    ,9 any film :]e !re is a       
prepond]ance ( /raight  l9es--horizontal
 ones1 especially--x is a s]i\s fault to
 h  ! slighte/ obliquity4 ,x w be       
emphasiz$ on ! scre54 ,!  outl9es ( !   
little rectangul> area1 :]e ! pictures  

are  tak5 9 ! cam]a1 mu/ co9cide ) !    
outl9es ( ! field  on ! bo>d4 ,:5 !     
field is fix$ & p]man5tly m>k$ )  ink   
l9es1 x is a good plan to draw a small] 
rectangle1 "o-half  in* all ar\nd1 )9 ! 
out] "o4 ,! idea ( ?is is to h a  limit+
 area )9 :i* all important matt]s ( !   
draw+ are  kept4    ,if ! animator has  
_h any exp]i5ce ) ! ord9>y /ill  cam]a1 
! practical k ga9$ !n w help him 9 !    
matt] ( focuss+1 or regulat+ ! diaphragm
 ( ! l5s1 s t  all ! details ( ! picture
 are %>ply def9$4 ,?is comes next1  or r
 9 conjunction ) ! det]m9+ ( ! field & !
  p]man5t fix+ ( ! cam]a4 ,9 a /ill     
cam]a--t is to say1  an ord9>y portrait 
or view app>atus--! focuss+ is on a     
gr\nd  glass1 :ile 9 a c9ematographic   
in/rum5t x is usual to place a  piece ( 
celluloid ) a gra9$ surface some:at l   
gr\nd glass  into ! place :]e ! film    
passes4 ,! picture is focuss$ on ?is    
celluloid4 ,"s1 h[ev]1 f9d a piece (    
blank film answ]s !  purpose4    ,to !  
above consid]ation ( sett+ up ! cam]a & 

asc]ta9+  ! correctness ( ! field & !   
%>pness ( ! image1 !  work] wise 9      
p]ception w1 be=e beg9n+ any important  
"w1  make a te/4 ,?is is m]ely a matt] (
 photograph+ a draw+1 or  two1 on a %ort
 l5g? ( film1 tak+ x out ( ! cam]a1 &   
develop+ x4 ,"h1 aga91 any k (          
photographic processes  previ\sly le>n$ 
w be f\nd useful4    ,!re are 9 all     
metropolitan c5tres film laboratories to
 :i* !  animator c s5d 8 expos$ films to
 be develop$ & pr9t$4 ,b  = a te/ be=e  
beg9n+ ! "w x is prud5t & exp$iti\s to  
keep a supply ( *emicals on h&1 & !n1 9 
a few m9utes1 x  w be possible to tell  
h[ matt]s /& 9 any p>ticul> t is  9     
d\bt4    ,! next /ep1 aft] ! cam]a has  
be5 fix$ 9 place1 is to  con/ruct a     
me*anism by :i* x c be turn$ conv5i5tly 
by !  photograph]1 z he is seat$ bel[ at
 ! bo>d :]e ! draw+s  are plac$4 ,?is is
 contriv$ by a sy/em ( sprocket-:eels & 
*a9-belts com+ f ! cam]a & c>ri$ d[n to 
! side (  ! table top1 :]e x ends 9 a   
:eel ) a turn+ h&le4 ,=  ! av]age       

individual ?is w\ld n be a difficult    
con/ruction  to put up2 b x w\ld be an  
altoge!r diff]5t problem if !  animator 
wi%$ to equip 8 cam]a ) an electric     
motor to turn  ! cam]a me*anism4 ,9 ?is 
case he w\ld h _m ?+s to  consid]1 gett+
 ! p>ticul> type ( motor1 = in/ance1 t  
w op]ate ) ! cont9ual turn+ on & (f ( ! 
p[]4 ,"h  c]ta9ly ! be/ c\rse is to h an
 exp]t in/all ! motor &  fix ! int]m$i>y
 me*anism connect+ x ) ! cam]a-work+    
p>ts4    ,electric motors to drive cam]a
 me*anisms are 9 g5]al use among  ^? :o 
make titles = mov+-picture films4 ,= ?is
 p>ticul>  bran* ( ! indu/ry !y are an  
indisp5sable adjunct4    ,illu/ration3  
,,"p ,,( ,a ,,l5g? ,,( ,,film ,,= ,a    
,,title4      ,= e second t ! word+ is  
view$ on ! scre51 sixte5    ( ^! frames 
pass ?r\gh ! projector4    ,x w\ld seem 
to ! spectator 9 ! !atre1 unfamili> ) ! 
te*nic ( c9ematography1 t :5 he sees a  
title held on !  scre5 = any l5g?y      
p]iod1 ! practical way ( effect+ ?is    
w\ld be to h a s+le picture ( ?is title 

kept /ation>y  dur+ ! p]iod4 ,b ?is is n
 ! way ! matt] is work$ out4  ,a title 9
 a scre5 /ory is giv5 a c]ta9 l5g? (    
film1 )  e frame 9 ?is l5g? conta9+ !   
same words4 ,! p>ticul>                 
l5g?--footage--all[$ = a title dep5ds ^u
 ! am\nt ( its  read+-matt]4 ,"s titles 
are v long4 ,"o su*1 requir+1  say1     
fifte5 feet1 makes x necess>y to turn ! 
cam]a h&le  two hundr$ & =ty times1 if !
 op]ation is by h&4 ,a v  monoton\s job4
 ,s title /udios atta* a motor &        
appropriate  me*anism to a cam]a1 & ) x1
 too1 an automatic c\nt]4 ,!n  9        
photograph+ a title x is a simple matt] 
( />t+ !  me*anically driv5 %utt]1 wat*+
 ! figures on ! c\nt]  dial1 & :5 !     
requir$ exposures h be5 regi/]$1 pull+  
! lev] t /ops ! me*anism4 ,:]e a cam]a1 
h[ev]1 is  us$ = animat$ draw+s         
exclusively1 a motor is n absolutely    
necess>y4    ,an automatic c\nt] w\ld be
 a v useful addition to a cam]a 9  mak+ 
dissolves4 ,"o =m ( ^! fantasies is t 9 
:i* !  scre5 is p]fectly black at fir/ &

 !n a small spot ( light  appe>s1 :i*   
gr[s l>g] by degrees1 to reveal at !    
full op5+  ! sc5e or subject ( ! film4  
,?is is produc$ by a vignett]1 or  iris 
dissolve4 ,a vignett] is a device1 fix$ 
g5]ally 9 front ( a  l5s1 t consi/s ( a 
numb] ( cresc5t-%ap$ segm5ts ( ?9  metal
 pivot$ on a circumf]5ce4 ,:5 ^! segm5ts
 move 9 unison  t[>d ! c5tre1 !y        
gradually decrease ! ap]ture 9 ! l5s    
tube4 ,b :5 ! movem5t is 9 a contr>y    
direction1 !y cause  ! ap]ture to op5 by
 degrees4 ,^? :o h us$ an ord9>y        
snap-%ot cam]a no d\bt are famili> ) a  
simil> device--! iris  diaphragm1 or l5s
 /op4 ,b 9 ! diaphragm ! segm5ts d n    
completely close1 & !re is always a t9y 
op5+ left 9 !  c5tre4 ,! iris dissolve1 
or vignett]1 is made to close           
completely4    ,! way by :i* pictures   
are 8fad$ on0 is to />t ) !  vignett]   
clos$ & !n op5 x :ile ! cam]a h&le is   
turn$  to take ! picture4 ,to 8fade (f0 
a picture1 ! process is simply  rev]s$2 
i4 e41 gradually clos+ ! vignett] :ile !

 la/  "p ( ! picture is be+ tak54    ,! 
mo/ frequ5t application t an animat$    
c>toon arti/ makes  ( a vignett] is mak+
 cross dissolves1 or caus+ "o picture   
to bl5d into ano!r4 ,imag9e n[ t ! idea 
to be express$1  ?r\gh ! m$ium ( "o ( ^!
 cross dissolves1 is t ( a  "* /&+ 9 an 
attitude ( reflection & suppos$ to be   
?9k+ ( h[ he w\ld look 9 a complete suit
 ( armor4 ,!re  w be two draw+s3 "o ) ! 
figure 9 ord9>y dress1 & !  o!r ) him   
clad 9 ! armor4 ,fir/ ! picture ) ord9>y
  dress is photograph$4 ,dur+ ?is       
op]ation ! vignett] is clos$  by        
degrees4 ,:5 x is clos$1 ! film t 0 j   
photograph$  ^u is w\nd back aga9 into !
 magaz9e4 ,n[1 z we "k1 dur+  ?is       
proc$ure ! light1 :i* 0 gett+ weak] &   
weak]1  proportionately less5$ its      
effect on ! s5sitiz$ emulsion ( !  film1
 s t its picture-=m+ prop]ty 0 n all us$
 up4 ,!re  is /ill a c]ta9 proportion ( 
photographic pot5cy left = !  next      
exposure4 ,! next /ep is to replace !   
fir/ draw+ ) !  "o %[+ ! "* 9 armor4    

,illu/ration3 ,,vignett]1 ,,or ,,iris   
,,dissolve4    ,bel[3 ,?ree /ages dur+ !
 movem5t ( ! pivot$ segm5ts4    ,we left
 ! vignett] completely clos$1 & ! same  
l5g? ( film  t _h j pass$ back ( ! l5s  
has be5 w\nd back into  ! magaz9e & is  
ready to cross ! exposure field aga9 &  
be  photograph$ ^u ! second "t4 ,n[ !   
vignett] is gradually  op5$1 ! new      
picture is be+ tak5 & bl5d$ ) ! image ( 
! fir/ picture4    ,^! two proc$ures 9  
_! me?od ( op]at+ & _! effects          
comp5sate "o ano!r4 ,! gradual clos+ ( !
 vignett] has its  reciprocal "p 9 !    
gradual op5+2 ! less5+ ( ! light  /r5g? 
is reciprocal to ! increase ( ! light   
/r5g?2 !n  ! fad+ ( def9it5ess 9 "o     
picture is made up by ! gradually       
increas+ cle>ness 9 ! o!r4    ,9 trick  
"w ( ?is k9d a me*anical c\nt] w\ld be v
 useful  9 measur+ ! l5g? ( film z x is 
turn$ into ! magaz9e  & !n out aga94 ,x 
is und]/ood1 ( c\rse1 t our p>ticul>    
c\nt] also c\nts backw>d4 ,&1 aga91 )   
ref]5ce to cam]as3  an animator :5 he   

selects 8 cam]a %\ld be c]ta9 t he gets 
"o ) :i* x is possible to turn ! cam]a  
backw>d = mak+  ^! dissolves & any o!r  
trick "w involv+ l manipulation4        
,imm$iately above we gave c]ta9 reasons 
= ! mak+ ( te/s on  a small piece ( film
 be=e photograph+4 ,ano!r matt] = :i*   
te/s %\ld be made is ! "q ( illum9ation4
 ,x is important  t ! field %\ld be     
ev5ly illum9at$4 ,all ?is is an affair (
  adju/+ ! lights2 t is1 gett+ !m "o on 
ea* side ( !  cam]a 9 _! prop] positions
 ) ref]5ce to ! l5s op5+  & ! di/ance   
away f ! draw+-bo>d4    ,illu/ration3   
,,diagram ,,to ,,expla9 ,,!             
,,di/ribution ,,( ,,light ,,9 ,a        
,,cross ,,dissolve4      ,a4 ,:5 !      
vignett] is gradually clos$ dur+ ! tak+ 
(    ! fir/ picture4 7,! film hav+ be5  
w\nd back is ready to be    photograph$ 
^u aga9 = ! second "p ( ! proc$ure47 ,b4
    ,:ile ! vignett] is gradually op5$  
dur+ ! tak+ ( !    second picture4 ,c4  
,! p]c5tages ( light 9 ! two exposures  
comb9$ & giv+ ! complete exposure "t4   

,! m]cury vapor-lamp :i*1 z has be5     
m5tion$1 is 9 g5]al  use = c>toon films1
 has besides its illum9at+ qualities    
ano!r great m]it4 ,x is ?is3 x does n   
emit heat rays4 ,:5  x is rememb]$ t an 
arti/ sometimes sp5ds h\rs at a /ret*   
photograph+ 8 num]\s draw+s = a c>toon  
film1 & t all  ?is "t 8 head is b a few 
in*es f ! lights1 ?is abs5ce  ( heat is 
a desirable feature4    ,! mann] ( go+  
ab\t ! photography1 :i* is ! next /age (
  ! "w1 has be5 t\*$ ^u 9 ano!r "p ( !  
book4    ,!re are _m m m9ute p>ticul>s 9
 ! mak+ ( an animat$  film to be        
consid]$4 ,take1 = in/ance1 ! te*nical  
que/ions  respect+ ! prep>ation ( !     
draw+s4 ,9 ! process :]e mo/  ( ! draw+s
 are made on pap]1 ! pap] %\ld be a fair
 quality  ( :ite l95 l$g] pap]--b n too 
?ick1 z transp>5cy is  a ?+ to ?9k (1 & 
x is pref]able1 too1 t !re be no        
wat]-m>k4 ,! design ( a wat]-m>k w\ld be
 a di/urb+ elem5t  9 trac+ f "o draw+ to
 ano!r4 ,ord9>y black draw+ ink  is us$ 
= ! l9e "w1 b :5 a l>ge area is to be   

solid  black1 x has be5 f\nd be/ to     
employ "o ( ! black v>ni%  /a9s t are   
mix$ ) turp5t9e4 ,9 spite ( ! turp5t9e  
m$ium x is possible to apply x to pap]4 
,^! black /a9s are an  int5se black & d 
n lose _! /r5g? :5 view$ ?r\gh !        
celluloid %eets4    ,x is n usual to    
oblit]ate a mi/ake 9 draw+ ) :ite       
pigm5t1 z x is an unc]ta9 quantity 9    
photography4 ,:e!r or  n x w come out z 
a pat* ( gray1 or photograph correctly  
z :ite1 is difficult to judge be=eh&4 ,x
 is be/ to take out  ink l9es t are n   
want$ ) a %>p-blad$ p5knife & !n  smoo? 
! surface ( ! pap] ) an ink eras] 7(    
rubb]74    ,9 draw+ ov] ! smoo? surface 
( ! celluloid a prelim9>y  clean+ ) weak
 ammonia wat] w make ! ink fl[ ev5ly4 ,x
  is ( c\rse und]/ood t ! celluloid     
%eets c be us$ aga9  aft] any p>ticul>  
film is f9i%$4 ,ink or pigm5t c v easily
  be wa%$ (f ) wat]4    ,9 draw+ on     
celluloid ) a p5 x is well to select "o 
t  w n scrat* ! surface4 ,scrat*es w    
hold1 9 _! %all[  dep?s1 en\gh ink or   

pigm5t to break ! ev5ness ( a uni=m     
backgr\nd4 ,!y w come out z spots on !  
film4 ,a well-worn p51  "o t has be5    
8brok5 910 z ! p5 draftsm5 say1 is !    
be/4    ,! s*eme ( employ+ celluloid    
%eets to hold simple ink draw+s1  :i*   
s*eme is 9 common usage 9 ! art1 has be5
 adapt$ to !  purpose ( hold+ intricate 
draw+s 9 di/emp] pigm5t4 ,be=e  draw+   
any s]ies ( movem5ts on celluloid x is !
 usual plan to  "w out all ! sc5es &    
actions on pap] fir/ & !n trace  !m1 f  
^! draw+s1 to ! surface ( ! celluloid4  
,:5 ! draw+s = a c>toon h be5           
photograph$1 !  magaz9e into :i* !      
expos$ film has be5 w\nd is tak5 out  ( 
! cam]a4 ,!n1 9 ! d>k room1 ! film is   
tak5 out (  ?is magaz9e & put into a    
regulation t9 c & s5t to !  laboratory4 
,& s z to make x q c]ta9 t ! lid w n    
slip (f & spoil ! :ole reel1 x is seal$ 
ar\nd ! edge )  a piece ( adhesive tape4
    ,aft] ! film has be5 develop$1 !    
next /ep 9 ! process  is t ( pr9t+ !    
positive4 ,?is z well z ! rema9+        

te*nical matt]s is att5d$ to by !       
laboratory4 ,titles1 to  be sure1 c\ld h
 be5 made at ! same "t t ! animat$      
pictures 7 tak52 b x is f\nd advisable  
to h titles made by  a /udio t does ?is 
"w exclusively & !n h !m jo9$ to  ! film
 9 _! prop] ord]4    ,illu/ration3      
,,illu/rat+ ,,! ,,op]ation ,,( ,,"o     
,,type ,,(  ,,motion-,,picture ,,pr9t]4 
,) respect to ?is jo9+1 or splic+1 ?is  
is also look$ aft]  = ! animator at !   
film laboratory4 ,b z x is n difficult  
to d1 ! animator--impati5t to h 8 film  
complet$1 & n  c>+ to wait until !      
laboratory f9i% x--w try 8 h& at  x1 no 
d\bt4    ,illu/ration3 ,,ano!r ,,plan   
,,= ,,an ,,animator',s ,,draw+-,,bo>d4  
,reflect+ ! light ) a mirror does away )
 ! direct gl>e (  ! electric lamp4      
,he ne$s = ?is a little device to hold !
 two ends ( ! film  toge!r 9 _! prop]   
relation%ip :ile he spreads on !        
ov]lapp+ section a little film cem5t4   
,?is is a firm adhesive4  ,! emulsion on
 ! film :]e ! cem5t is spread mu/ be    

remov$  by a little moi/5+4    ,:5 !    
positive is entirely f9i%$1 ) ma9 title 
&  subtitles1 x is ready = scre5        
exam9ation4 ,!n only w !  arti/ be able 
to see1 z a f9ality1 8 skill z an       
animator1 8  exp]tness z a te*nical     
work]1 8 clev]ness z a humori/1 &  !    
ext5t ( 8 adroitness 9 plot con/ruction4
    ,illu/ration3 ,,can9e ,,?\ghts4     
,9 giv+ scre5 life to ! above1 ! dog &  
di% w\ld be drawn    b once on celluloid
 & ! o!r p>ts sep>ately drawn = ea*     
phase ( ! movem5t4          ,,on        
,,humor\s ,,effects ,,& ,,on ,,plots    
,,*apt] ,x    ,,on ,,humor\s ,,effects  
,,& ,,on ,,plots      ,! purpose ( !    
animat$ c>toon be+ to amuse1 ! exp]i5c$ 
animator makes x 8 aim to get1 z ! say+ 
goes 9 ! trade1 a  laugh 9 e foot (     
film4 ,! animat$ c>toon is alli$ 9 its  
k9d to an extravagant f>ce or a lively  
com$y ( ! spok5 /age4    ,al?\gh /rongly
 limn$ "* & t !re be some?+ mov+  all ! 
"t seem to be ! two important +r$i5ts ( 
a film (  ?is type1 x is n to be =gott5 

t plot is an ess5tial 9 !  "w4          
,naturally1 a sc5>io1 or skeletoniz$    
plan ( ! /ory1 is  writt5 out fir/4 ,!  
full details ( ! action & bus9ess1  f ! 
beg9n+ to ! v end1 are n work$ out z !y 
are  9 a manuscript = a /age play4 ,x is
 simply t "s sort ( a  framework1 on :i*
 to build ! /ory1 is fir/ requir$4    ,9
 ! e>ly days ( ! art a film ) a /r+ (   
incid5ts only1  b ) pl5ty ( movem5t 9 ! 
animat$ figures1 w\ld f9d  a ready m>ket
 & an appreciative audi5ce4 ,at ! pres5t
 "t  n only mu/ ! pictorial prop]ties be
 well r5d]$ imag]ies  ( nature b ! /ory 
mu/ be arti/ic 9 =m4 ,?is signifies  t !
 idea ( plot1 & all its att5dant        
concomitants1 %\ld  be pres5t4 ,! usual 
requirem5ts ( a dramatic /ory are n[    
s\ght = 9 an animat$ c>toon4 ,! plot mu/
 be ! ord]ly  e/abli%m5t ( p>ts lead+ up
 to "s ma9 po9t1 or ! work+  to a climax
 & a subsequ5t untangl+ ( x all4        
,illu/ration3 ,,pl5ty ,,( ,,movem5t ,,is
 ,,dem&$ ,,9 ,,scre5 ,,pictures4    ,if 
! arti/ does write ! fir/ sket* ( ! play

 himself1 he at  lea/ w elaborate x &   
add v>i\s bits ( dramatic bus9ess4  ,?is
 is all v well if he und]/&s & kn[s :at 
he is  ab\t1 b if1 on ! o!r h&1 he has n
 ! dramatic idea1 8  additions are q    
likely to confuse ! /ory4    ,:e!r a    
film is = ! purpose ( amusem5t or to    
educate1 !  plan %\ld %[ t ! atta9m5t ( 
some?+ is be+ /riv5  =4 ,9 an           
educational film ?is is br\ght ab\t by  
an adh]5ce to  p$agogical pr9ciples4 ,if
 x is a comic /ory1 due reg>d mu/ be    
paid to dramatic con/ruction4    ,x is  
obvi\s t if a humor\s sc5>io has b two  
*>act]s  ?is w simplify ! tell+1 & !    
idea ( _! antagonisms1  ob/acles1 &     
emb>rass+ difficulties are easily told4 
,! cla%  & ! /ruggle betwe5 ! two c be  
express$ 9 _m simple  ways1 ! /ory c>ri$
 on1 curiosity /imulat$1 & an expectant 
feel+ eng5d]$ z to :at w happ54 ,! f9al 
episode is apt  to be "s calamit\s fall 
) ! :ole picture area p]haps fill$  ) a 
graphic repres5tation ( an explosion1 to
 be foll[$ by an  aft]-climax1 :5 !     

smoke has cle>$ away1 ( ! victim rubb+  
8 head4    ,to be sure1 an animat$      
c>toon ne$s a good _m m incid5ts  ?an "o
 calamit\s occurr5ce4 ,x is             
indisp5sable1 = ! sake  ( an un9t]rupt$ 
animation1 t x %\ld h a succession (    
di/ress+ mi%aps1 gr[+ 9 viol5ce4 ,?is   
idea ( a cumulative  *a9 ( actions1     
increas+ 9 =ce & resultant mis=tune1 is 
peculi>ly adapt$ to animat$ draw+s4     
,! animator1 if he is a good draftsman1 
c manage 8 little  picture p mu* easi]  
?an ! !atrical manag] does !  memb]s ( 8
 company4 ,a great dang]1 nev]!less1 is 
t !  animator1 ) ?is facility ( do+     
:atev] he pleases ) 8  *>act]s1 may     
ov]do ! matt]4 ,he mu/ be c>eful t he   
does  n create too mu* bus9ess = 8      
actors1 & s ret>d !  sequ5ce ( ^?       
episodes prop] to ! plot4    ,! v be/   
type ( animat$ c>toon tells ! /ory f ! v
  fir/ incid5ts & ?r\gh\t its :ole      
cont9uance to ! crisis1  & ! end+ by    
pantomimic act+ only4 ,?is means t !re  
is  no dialogue lett]$ on ! draw+s      

!mselves4 ,symbolical signs1  l         
exclamation-m>ks1 s\nd-sugge/+ lett]s1  
or ! l1 are  naturally prop] & happy    
additions to draw+s2 b z little         
dialogue z possible %\ld be us$ 9       
draw+s4 ,!y break !  cont9uity ( !      
animation1 = "o ?+4 ,al?\gh x is true t 
balloons ) _! word+ make an easy way = !
 animator to h  ! automatic c\nt] regi/]
 8footage0 7a consid]ation appeal+  to !
 bus9ess s5se ( ! arti/71 x is only :5  
!re is a good  je/ br\ght out t lett]+  
on ! draw+s !mselves c be  =giv54       
,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,pla9t ,,(           
,,inanimate ,,?+s ,,c ,,be ,,r5d]$      
,,effectively ,,on ,,! ,,scre54    ,9 ! 
e>ly p]iod ( ! developm5t ( animat$     
comic draw+s1  n ev5 subtitles 7        
int]sp]s$ ?r\gh\t a film4 ,! entire     
/ory 0 told by pantomime4 ,n[adays x is 
becom+ ! fa%ion  to use subtitles1 & h  
!m to introduce incid5tals1 m>k  a *ange
 ( sc5e1 or br+ 9 a witty rem>k4 ,word+ 
br\ght  into a c>toon film ?is way is   
(t5 felicit\s & te*nically  legitimate4 

,b dialogue1 z has be5 /at$1 %\ld be    
kept out (  ! draw+s !mselves1 n only = 
! sake ( arti/ic =m1  b = comm]cial     
reasons4 7,films int5d$ = exportation to
  c\ntries :]e ,engli% is n spok5 are   
mu* m valuable if !y  are )\t lett]+ 9 !
 pictorial p>ts4 ,) all word+ on        
sep>ate titles1 x is v easy to *ange !m 
& h !m jo9$  to ! film prop]47    ,!    
above /atem5t ) its frank allusion to a 
matt] ( bus9ess  seems to be gett+ away 
f our subject2 b x is n1 z x  calls to  
our att5tion ! pr9cipal quality ( a     
comic scre5  draw+--namely1 pantomime--&
 x emphasizes1 too1 ! univ]sality (     
pantomime4 ,an animat$ c>toon clev] 9   
ge/ur+ is und]/ood by  all races4    ,x 
is to be rememb]$ t pantomime is a matt]
 ( int]pretation1  bo? on ! /age by an  
actor & by ! arti/ :5 he essays to      
repres5t x pictorially4 ,if x 7 an      
actual copy+ ( nature1 x  only w\ld be z
 int]e/+ z a normal photograph2 & t is n
  v int]e/+4 ,z 9 all int]pretative arts
 !re is a slight  betrayal ( ! me*anical

 means1 or processes1 s 9 pantomime !re 
is a sugge/ion ( ! me*ani/ic4 ,let u    
recall ! rhy?mical &  toy-l movem5ts ( !
 actors :om we h se5 play+ 9 "s         
:imsical dumb %[4    ,h[ (t5 d ! cl[ns  
pret5d 9 _! fool]y t !y are  automatons1
 or t !y c move only by me*ani/ic       
motions4  ,!y f9d ne$1 too1 9 _!        
ludicr\s act+1 = me*anical              
prop]ties--slap /icks1 absurd objects1  
or toys4    ,x is v c]ta9 t !re are "s  
=ms ( motion productive (  laught] t d n
 imitate actions natural to ! human     
organism1  b seem to acquire _! p[] (   
risibility f _! resemblance  to         
me*anical motion4 ,?is is on ! ord] ( ! 
notion t ,b]gson  has elaborat$ ^u 9 8  
treatise 9 explanation ( ! comic4 ,he   
/ates1 9 sub/ance1 z "o law ( !         
ludicr\s1 t ! human  body appe>s        
laughable :5 its movem5ts give a        
similitude ( a  ma*9e 9 op]ation4 ,!re  
is no "q ( ! correctness ( ?is  view z a
 matt] ( m]e ext]ior obs]vation4 ,r x   
seems to u  t ma*9e-l movem5ts 9 organic

 bodies amuse u because (  ! rhy?mic1   
ord]ly1 or p]iodic occurr5ces ( ^!      
movem5ts 9  !mselves1 & n to any matt] (
 comp>ison4    ,9 a boi/]\s l[ com$y x  
is always incumb5t ^u ! victim (  a bl[ 
to reel ar\nd l a top be=e he falls4 ,x 
nev] fails to  br+ laught]4 ,an effect l
 ?is is easy to produce 9 animat$       
c>toons4 ,!re is no ne$ to consid]      
physiological impossibilities  ( ! human
 organism1 ! arti/ c make 8 *>act]s sp9 
z  mu* z he pleases4    ,9 a scre5      
picture two boys w be se5 fight+2 at    
fir/ !y  w p>ry a few bl[s1 !n sudd5ly  
beg9 to :irl ar\nd s t  no?+ is visible 
b a confus$ mass & an occasional detail 
l  an arm or leg4 ,x w be exactly l a   
revolv+ p9:eel4 ,?is  is made on ! film 
by hav+ a draw+ repres5t+ ! boys z      
cl9*$ & turn+ x ar\nd z if x 7 a p9:eel4
    ,9 a panorama scre5 effect x seems  
to be suffici5tly reali/ic1  = laught]  
purposes1 to h ! legs & arms ( !        
individual 9  a hurry give a blurr$     
impression1 9 "s degree1 l t ( !  spokes

 ( a rapidly turn+ :eel4                
,illu/ration3      ,! p9:eel effect ( ! 
two boys t h come to bl[s is    produc$ 
by turn+ ar\nd to f\r diff]5t positions 
a draw+    repres5t+ ! boys fight+4     
,x is an indisputable fact t ! human m9d
 f9ds fasc9ation 9  any movem5t resembl+
 a rot>y "o4 ,witness ! int]e/ t a      
novel me*anism or an automatic toy      
creates 9 a %op-w9d[4 ,su*  int]e/ is   
/ill fur!r /imulat$ if !re is an add$   
item (  any?+ ( ! human1 or some?+      
def9ite accompli%$ 9 !  op]ations4      
,we require1 x seems1 if we are really  
alive1 n occasional1 b  con/ant1 /imuli 
( "s sort4 ,:5 we become we>y (         
toil--:i*  9 itself is (t5 an unwelcome 
& impos$ =m ( /imulus--we  seek /imuli 9
 recreation4 ,or if we hav5't en]gy     
en\gh = !  self-/imulation ( sports1 or 
! l activity1 we look = x  outside (    
ourselves4    ,p]haps x is music1 excit+
 u metronomically2 or a play :]e our    
emotions are agitat$--rhy?mically or 9  
dissonance2 maybe x is a  circus or !   

music-hall1 :]e color & s\nd vibrations 
/imulate  u4 ,ev]y:]e x w be "s =m (    
measur$ "t1 movem5t1 or  rotation1 :e!r 
! !me be comic or s]i\s4    ,idl]s w /op
 to gaze at a ma*9e 9 motion :]e !re is 
build+ go+ on1 or !y w /op to pe] into !
 w9d[s (  a busy factory4 ,!re is some?+
 9 all ?is t %[s t !  human m9d craves !
 p]iodicity ( /imulation4    ,p]haps "o 
( ! reasons :y ^? crudely execut$ :ite  
on  black animat$ c>toons--allud$ to 9 a
 prec$+ *apt]--are s  laugh-provok+ is t
 !y repres5t ! *>act]s p]=m+  _! antics 
m or less me*anically4 ,a w9dmill       
effect1 a  twirl+1 a sp9n+1 & a         
m]ry-g-r\nd movem5t are ( /rik+  import 
9 animat$ c>toons4 ,!y nev] fail to     
cause laught] :5  depict$ 9 "s su*      
fa%ion or o!r4    ,sometimes 9 a pursuit
 9 a comic picture !re is an            
introduction (  a *ase ar\nd a h\se or  
ar\nd a tree4 ,! gyration ab\t ! h\se   
is p>ticul>ly productive ( laught]4 ,!  
slight int]ruption :ile  ! figure passes
 back ( ! h\se gives occasion = !       

necess>y  pause 9 ?is comic bus9ess4    
,! au?or recalls a film ( real p & sc5es
 t exemplifi$  ! pot5cy ( a me*anical   
turn+ & ! value ( a pause =             
laugh-provok+ purposes4 ,! sc5e         
repres5t$ a t9y bungal[ t  0 bl[n f its 
f\ndation by ! =ce ( ! /orm & made  to  
revolve z if x 7 pivot$ 9 ! c5tre4 ,!   
droll "*  ( ! play sav$ himself f be+   
bl[n away by cl++ to "o  corn] ( ! por*4
 ,! laught] ( ! audi5ce al?\gh cont9u\s 
came 9 waves ( diff]5t /r5g?4 ,! twirl+ 
h\se itself caus$  laught]1 b x increas$
 :5 ! ludicr\s figure cl++ to !  por*   
came into view1 & x decreas$ :5 he      
disappe>$ :ile he  0 be+ twirl$ ar\nd ! 
f> side ( ! h\se4    ,possibly "o ( !   
reasons :y ?is p]=mance 0 s successful  
0 because ?is movem5t all[$ = !         
physiological necessity  ( a re/ on ! "p
 ( ! spectators4 ,! emotional excitem5t 
w\ld h be5 fatigu+ to ! break+ po9t _h !
 incitem5t to  laught] be5 cont9u\s4 ,! 
humor\s proce$+ op]at$ s t  any         
individual memb] ( ! audi5ce 0 n        

compell$ to %ake or  be agitat$ by      
laught] all ! "t1 b c\ld slack5 up & re/
  rhy?mically4    ,illu/ration3 ,a cycle
 ( draw+s1 l ^? above1 us$ 9 turn  &    
repeat$ = a "t w give ! scre5 illusion (
 a man  sp9n+ l a top4    ,! ne$ ( a    
rhy?mic sl[+-up1 or pause1 to all[ = a  
respite  = ! emotions & ! convuls$      
physical organism is well  illu/rat$ 9 !
 foll[+ incid5t (t5 introduc$ into      
animat$  sc5es4 ,a little figure is     
obs]v$ runn+ up hill & d[n dale4  ,!    
mann] ( 8 p]=mance is l ?is3 he runs up 
! fir/ hill  & disappe>s2 !re is a mom5t
 or s :5 ! sc5e is empty &  dur+ :i* he 
is suppos$ to be runn+ d[n ! f> side ( !
  hill4 ,soon he is discov]$ runn+ up ! 
second hill1 at ! top (  :i* he aga9    
disappe>s = a "t to run d[n its f> side4
 ,9  ano!r mom5t he is scrambl+ up !    
next hill & d[n ! o!r  side aga94 ,?is  
cont9ues until he is lo/ z a t9y black  
spot ne>  ! horizon4    ,illu/ration3 ,a
 blurr$ impression l t ( ! spokes ( a   
turn+ :eel is reg>d$ z funny 9 comic    

pictur+4    ,?is disjo9t$ hill-climb+   
causes hil>i\s laught] &1 z  9 ! case   
cit$ above1 comes 9 waves4 ,! rise &    
fall ( !  laught] waves c be di/+ui%$ z 
! little figure runs up !  hills & d[n !
 valleys4    ,a pause is a necess>y     
elem5t 9 any cont9u$ comic situation4 ,x
  is1 9 fact1 prop] to any s]ies int5d$ 
to ar\se ! emotion (  laught]4 ,& 9 "s  
respects a pause corresponds to !       
negative  mom5t ( flexion--adv]t+ our   
?\ghts = a mom5t to physical            
activity--:ile ! outbur/ ( laught]      
corresponds to ! positivity  ( ext5sion4
    ,a bit ( /rik+ animation is t ( hav+
 a cont9u\s /ream  ( individuals p\r+   
out ( a build+1 or a procession ( funny 
animals com+ out ( a receptacle f :i* we
 did n expect su*  a p>ade4 ,^! episodes
 ( movem5t d resemble a p>ade--a species
  ( regul>ly recurr+ /imulation4        
,illu/ration3 ,,f 8,,! #8,,bab'         
,,ballads40    ,! psy*ological que/ions 
9 reg>d to ^! effects is relat$  c]ta9ly
 to ! matt] ( ! delight ( ! human m9d 9 

a  /irr+ up by repetition4 ,und\bt$ly ! 
same lik+ or pleasure  9 ^! little bits 
( scre5 animation be> a resemblance to  
! delight exp]i5c$ 9 wat*+ a p>ade4 ,:at
 is !re 9  a spectacle ( ?is sort t     
tickles our s5ses8 ,is x !  regul>ness (
 ! /ep-keep+1 ! hypnotic music ( ! b&1  
or  ! %[ ( v>i$ uni=ms8 ,p]haps !       
pr9ciples ( unity &  v>iety--two        
ess5tials ( any art "w--ent] into !     
matt]4 ,!  v>iety 9 ! uni=ms ( ! diff]5t
 sections satisfies ! eye1  & ! unity ( 
! m>*+ pleases ! m9d4    ,illu/ration3  
,pictures ( ?is sort c be pres5t$ on !  
scre5  m vividly ?an 9 ?is simple       
graphic sket*4    ,keep+ /ep is an      
artificial recurr5ce ( movem5t4 ,x      
pleases1  ( c\rse1 b :5 ?is motion is   
r5d]$ /rongly me*ani/ic  x takes on     
imm$iately an elem5t ( ! comic4 ,9 "s ( 
!  little figures drolly drawn by ,bab  
7,w4 ,s4 ,gilb]t1 ( 8,p9a=e0 &          
8,mikado0 fame71 ?is is well express$4  
,a little picture ( 81  = in/ance1 %[s  
?ree t9y m5 /epp+ out l me*anically     

op]at$ toys4    ,illu/ration3 ,,hats4   
,illu/ration3 7,c>toon man *as+ hat7    
,"o ( ! mo/ primitive ( practical jokes 
is t ( ?r[+  a /one at a hat on "s "o's 
head4 ,& its mo/ aggravat$ =m  z a joke 
is t 9 :i* ! hat is ( a /ovepipe patt]n4
 ,9  a humor\s /age play1 m]ely to %[ an
 individual ) a /one  9 8 h& :ile a     
sprucely dress$ "o we>+ a high hat is   
pass+ is motive en\gh to cause laught]4 
,! graphic arti/  copies ?is situation  
by repres5t+ a /one 9 ! air ne>+ !  hat4
 ,action l9es1 z !y are call$1 indicate 
t ! missile is  fly+ ?r\gh ! air4 ,9 bo?
 ( ^! cases--9 reality & 9  !           
picture--m]e anticipation is en\gh to   
awak5 ! risibilities4  ,! animator1 (   
c\rse1 c gratify bo? ! spectator's joy (
  anticipation & ! mis*iev\s delight (  
see+ ! consummation  ( ! action4        
,illu/ration3 ,radiat+ 8d5t0 l9es give  
emphasis to ?is bludgeon  bl[4    ,_m   
pr(essional ent]ta9]s h built _!        
reputation on "s  dramatic bus9ess )    
hats4 ,ei!r !y we> "s odd head-ge>  or  

else x w be 9 _! mann] ( we>+ a hat or a
 trick 9  d(f+ x4 ,if a hat is too      
small1 x is sure to create laught]2 &   
if too l>ge1 x is a c]ta9ty t !re w be  
mock+ hil>ity4  ,& ev5 if x is ( ! "r   
size1 x ne$ only to be p]*$ on  ! head  
at an angle to be consid]$ ludicr\s4    
,illu/ration3 ,a *ase ar\nd "s object is
 a nev]-fail+  laugh-provok+ incid5t 9  
an animat$ c>toon4    ,! spirit$ scre5  
actors1 too1 ( ! animator's p5cil are   
%[n  go+ ?r\gh all sorts ( /range do+s )
 _! hats4          ,,animat$            
,,educational ,,films ,,& ,,! ,,future  
,,*apt] ,,xi    ,,animat$ ,,educational 
,,films ,,& ,,! ,,future      ,ne>ly    
ev]y?+ 9 our book s f>1 9 accord ) its  
title1 has  _h ref]5ce to ! mak+ ( comic
 scre5 draw+s4 ,!y gratify  a prop]     
human long+ & !y /rike a responsive *ord
 9 !  consci\sness4 ,n[ !re is ano!r k9d
 ( appeal1 9 ! matt] (  satisfy+ a human
 ne$1 to :i* animat$ scre5 draw+s c be  
put4 ,x is t t\*$ ^u 9 ! introductory   
*apt]2 namely1  animat$ films (         

educational subjects4 ,by educational   
films w\ld  be meant1 if ! /rict        
def9ition ( ! t]m is int5d$1 only  ^? t 
are in/ructional4 ,x is to be rem>k$1   
h[ev]1 t  enlight5$ op9ion n[ includes 9
 ! category ( educational  subjects any 
!me1 or /ory = *ildr51 ev5 if a slight  
t\* (  ! humor\s or div]t+ is to be f\nd
 9 x4    ,! k9d ( /ories1 ) ! latt]     
?\ght p>ticul>ly 9 m9d1  especially     
fitt$ = ! scre5 are ^? ( ,lewis ,c>roll4
 ,8  8,alice 9 ,wond]l&0 is a good      
example ( ! type ( fanciful tale  on !  
ord] ( :i* animat$ c>toons c\ld be made 
= *ildr54    ,& ,sir ,john ,t5niel's    
int]pretations ( ! *>act]s seem to  h   
be5 creat$ especially = translation to !
 animat$ scre54  ,! ,mad ,hatt]1 ) 8    
huge beav] 7signaliz+ aga9 ! hat z      
inspir+ ! comic71 w\ld make an admirable
 figure to pace across  ! scre54        
,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,mad ,,hatt]4    ,an 
arti/ desir+ to be ! au?or ( an animat$ 
/ory built on !  model ( ,c>roll's      
classics w\ld ne$ a gleeful imag9ation &

 a  turn = ! fanta/ic4 ,& he w\ld       
require1 besides1 if he hop$ to  draw   
*>act]s on a p> ) ,t5niel's depictions1 
m ?an !  ord9>y qualifications ( a scre5
 draftsman4    ,z 9 ! r\gh-&-tumble     
antics ( ! ru/ic cl[n little  ref9em5t  
is ei!r preval5t or expect$1 s 9 !      
ord9>y  comic animat$ c>toon            
exquisit5ess ( draw+ is nei!r f\nd  nor 
ord9>ily look$ =4 ,b 9 a /ory ) f95ess (
 wit1  & told arti/ically1 x is         
obligatory t its int]pretation  be ( a  
correspond+ quality4 ,x is necess>y1 9  
o!r words1  t ! arti/ be good at figure 
"w & especially skilful 9  draw+        
difficult actions & p]spective walks4 ,z
 rem>k$ be=e1  :5 ! latt] subject 0     
consid]$1 ?is requires dext]ity 9       
pictur+ figures 9 =e%ort5$ views4 ,& to 
become exp]t 9  ?is p>ticul> means /udy4
 ,= examples ( =e%ort5$ figures  to     
contemplate1 ! /ud5t ( animation c f9d  
no bett] ones  ?an ^? 9 ! frescos (     
,mi*ael ,angelo4 ,especially valuable   
are ! decorations ( ! ,si/9e ,*apel 9   

,rome4 ,photographs or  copies1 no d\bt1
 ( ^! wond]ful art works c be f\nd 9 !  
pr9t-rooms ( public libr>ies or 9 any   
collection ( engrav+s (  a              
picture-gall]y4    ,illu/ration3        
,,detail ,,( ,a ,,fresco ,,by ,,mi*ael  
,,angelo4    ,x is an ent]ta9+          
speculation z to :e!r or n ,mi*ael      
,angelo1 be+ a man ( _m arti/ic         
activities1 w\ld h tri$ 8  h& at animat+
 draw+s1 _h ! art be5 9 exi/5ce 9 8 "t4 
,9 our own day1 patt]ns = emulation 9 ! 
matt] ( depict+  action & ! del9eation (
 "* are f\nd 9 ! draw+s (  ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 
,fro/4 ,witness 8 a*ievem5ts 9 ^!       
respects 9 8  book 8,/uff & ,nons5se40  
,!n1 too1 ,mr4 ,fro/'s appreciation ( ! 
comic _s is p>ticul>ly notewor?y4 ,8    
graphic "w c\ld )  e success be set =?  
on ! animat$ scre54    ,illu/ration3    
,,mr4 ,,fro/',s ,,spirit$ ,,del9eation  
,,( ,,figures ,,9 ,,action4    ,!       
old-fa%ion$ peep-%[ has long s9ce pass$ 
its way1 & 9 its  place has come !      
c9ematographic exhibition4 ,*ildr5      

consid] x  a commonplace occurr5ce 9 _! 
lives to be tak5 to ! 8movies40  ,v soon
 !y w imbibe k z well z receive         
ent]ta9m5t  ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! films4    
,!re are _m in/ructional !mes  t c\ld be
 elucidat$ 9 ! s*ool by animat$ draw+s4 
,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,peep-,,%[4          
,detail ( a composition ( a ,fr5*       
eighte5?-c5tury tape/ry  design$ by     
,b\*]4    ,educational1 travel1 & sc5ic 
films are frequ5tly pres5t$ 9           
motion-picture !atres1 b ! possibilities
 9 ^! subjects h  n be5 exhau/$4    ,"s 
( ! fir/ inve/igators :o look$ into !   
problems  connect$ ) photographic       
analysis & pictorial syn!sis to  produce
 ! appe>ance ( movem5t _h ideas ( apply+
 ! results  ( _! labors to practical    
purposes4 ,m4 ,g4 ,dem5y1 9 ,p>is1 to   
cite an in/ance1 inv5t$ an in/rum5t by  
:i* deaf-mutes c\ld  le>n to speak & to 
read lip movem5ts4 ,8 in/rum5t consi/$  
( an optical contrivance t gave !       
repres5tation ( a p]son  speak+ by !    
turn+ ( a glass disk ^u :i* !re 0 plac$ 

a s]ies ( photographs ( a p]son speak+4 
,! pictures 7  arrang$ 9 a cycle :i*1 :5
 ! disk 0 made to rotate1 produc$  a    
cont9u\s effect ( ! action4             
,illu/ration3 ,,dem5y',s ,,phonoscope4  
,modifi$ f a picture 9 ,la ,nature1     
#ahib4    ,"o =m ( ?is app>atus1 or     
photophone1 0 made to be turn$ by  h&1 &
 ! comb9$ picture or illusion view$     
?r\gh a l5s  by "o p]son at a "t4 ,ano!r
 type 0 con/ruct$ s t !  syn!siz$       
picture ( ! speak+ face c\ld be ?r[n on 
a scre54    ,!re is a natural curiosity 
9 ne>ly e "o to want to "k  ab\t me?ods 
9 art4 ,& ! int]e/ is g5]al 9 wat*+ a   
craftsman create an object ( art1 or an 
arti/ br+ into graphic  be+ "s imag]y ( 
8 bra94 ,x w\ld n be out ( place =  ^!  
reasons1 z well z a matt] ( in/ruction1 
to produce films  %[+ art me?ods4       
,especially = elem5t>y pupils w\ld x be 
a desirable ?+ to  %[ ! way ( mak+      
simple free-h& draw+s4 ,!n1 in/ead ( an 
in/ructor repeat+ ! process--sometimes )
 indiff]5t int]e/  or en?usiasm--x c be 

arrang$ t "s "o skill$ 9 draw+1  & :5 he
 is feel+ at 8 be/1 g ?r\gh ! proc$ure  
"u  ! motion-picture cam]a4 ,! result   
c\ld be multipli$ a numb] (  times & %[n
 9 _m classrooms ) an ev5ness ( p]=mance
  n possible :5 "s "o does x day 9 & day
 out4    ,me?ods & pr9ciples ( ! m      
advanc$ bran*es ( art                   
in/ruction--pictorial composition1 =    
in/ance1 c\ld be taught1 too4    ,z "o  
example1 we w suppose t ! purpose is to 
%[ :at  good pictorial composition is4  
,fir/ an indiff]5t picture1 poorly      
arrang$1 is %[n2 ! v>i\s compon5ts appe>
 on ! scre5  exactly z !y w\ld 9 mak+ a 
picture on canvas or pap]2 !n  little   
?+s po9t$ out t are lack+ 9 arti/ic     
m]it1  or an explanation giv5 ( any     
detail t is n q cle>4  7,= ?is purpose a
 draw+ ( a po9t] is made on c>dbo>d  &  
cut out 9 silh\ette4 ,x is mov$ ar\nd   
precisely z if x  7 a real po9t]47 ,aft]
 %[+ ! faulty con/ruction !  v>i\s      
compon5ts c be mov$ aga91 b into places 
to =m !  well-compos$ picture4          

,me?ods ( design+ 9 ! crafts c\ld be    
demon/rat$ by animat$  draw+s2 & !y c\ld
 also be employ$ to expla9 visually !   
/ory or hi/ory ( design4 ,ornam5t c be  
%[n z x evolves f  its natural =m1 to ! 
fir/ rudim5t>y basic type2 !n x passes  
into ! be/ classical /yle1 aft] :i* x   
becomes1 z 9 all art  evolution1 ! m]ely
 decorative4 ,& x c be %[n1 z is usually
  ! case 9 ! hi/ory ( an ornam5tal =m1  
t]m9at+ 9 a  debas$ & mean+less figure  
or scroll4 ,all ^! scre5 pictures  c\ld 
be manag$ s t ! pictures g ?r\gh _!     
mutations  be=e ! eyes z if !y 7 liv+   
?+s4    ,presum+ t 9 ! acquir+ ( k all  
bra9s function 9  a simil> way1 :at c\ld
 be bett] z a means ( in/ruction ?an a  
film ( "s educational subject8    ,9 any
 special /udy or !me 9 physics1 =       
in/ance1 an entire  c\rse c\ld be plann$
 = an animat$ film4 ,"s ( ! divisions  (
 ! !me c\ld be actual photographs ( !   
exp]im5tal  app>atus 9 op]ation4 ,b o!r 
matt]s w\ld ne$ to be mov+  diagrams1 or
 progressively *ang+ *>ts4 ,explanations

 on !  titles & o!r word+1 previ\sly    
?\ght out ) due reg>d to  _! educational
 value1 w\ld be comb9$ ) ! film4        
,c\ld !re be any?+ m int]e/+ ?an scre5  
draw+s (  ma*9]y 9 op]ation8 ,to draw ! 
successive pictures requir$ =  "w ( ?is 
"* w\ld pres5t no great difficulties to 
any "o  tra9$ 9 me*anical draft+4 ,x    
w\ld be a great improvem5t on  !        
diagrams & me*anical plans ) _!         
complicat$ m>k+s to  see ! "w ( !       
draftsman project$ on ! scre5 & giv+ !  
appe>ance ( motion4 ,) vivid            
object-lessons ( ?is k9d1 !  eye c      
compreh5d 9 a few mom5ts t :i* x w\ld   
take l5g?y  p>agraphs to make cle>4     
,illu/ration3 ,a ,,few ,,( ,,! ,,draw+s 
,,us$ ,,9 ,,! ,,mak+ ,,( ,a ,,film ,,to 
,,%[ ,a ,,gasol5e-,,eng9e ,,9           
,,op]ation4    ,on ?is subject ( animat+
 ma*9]y1 x is an int]e/+ fact to  note t
 z e>ly z #ahfj1 ,desvignes1 :o inv5t$  
"o =m ( !  zootrope1 is record$ z hav+  
made a s]ies ( pictures = 8  optical    
in/rum5t t %[$ a /eam-eng9e 9 motion4   

,! tea*+ ( hi/ory c\ld be made /ill m   
int]e/+ ?an  x is by s]ies ( *ang+ maps4
 ,su* maps w\ld %[1 z _!  outl9es *ang$1
 ! gr[? or modification ( a c\ntry z    
affect$  by ev5ts ( hi/ory4 ,hi/orical  
battles c\ld be illu/rat$ )  ! usual    
ref]5ce m>ks & symbols4 ,b !y w\ld n be 
/ill2  in/ead1 !y w\ld move ab\t to     
illu/rate ! progress ( !  battle4 ,?is  
=m ( animat$ maps frequ5tly has be5 us$ 
9  connection ) pictorial-news reels4   
,physiology & anatomy are two /udies t  
ne$ good pictorial  exposition 9 !      
classroom4 ,sci5tific mov+ pictures ( ! 
actual  subjects are 9 _m cases         
available & _! photography is  feasible4
 ,b = "s details t _c be tak5 ) ! cam]a1
  animat$ diagrams w\ld h to be         
sub/itut$4 ,to sugge/ a v  good !me 9   
physiology1 we may m5tion t ( !         
circulation (  ! blood4 ,only a few     
p>ticul>s ( ?is c\ld be photograph$4    
,mo/ ( ! /ory ( ! blood circulation w\ld
 h to be told by  animat$ diagrams4     
,!re w\ld be at fir/1 p]haps1 a         

sectional view ( ! he>t  %[+ ! auricles1
 & v5tricles ) ! valves & _!  reciprocal
 action4 ,! fl[ ( ! vital fluid1 to be  
sure1 w\ld be  indicat$ v cle>ly z x    
passes ?r\gh ! cavities4 ,a /rik+       
animation ( ?is film w\ld be t ( ! blood
 fl[ 9 its c\rse  ?r\gh ! body4 ,?is    
w\ld be repres5t$ by a s*ematic diagram 
l ^? usually set =? 9 ! books4 ,x w\ld h
 an add$  int]e/ if ! fluid 7 color$--! 
art]ial blood r$ & !  v5\s blood blue4  
7,?is is ! usual way1 :5 pr9t$ 9 colors1
 9  :i* !y are di/+ui%$ 9 textbooks47 ,a
 film l ?is1 x c  be und]/ood1 mu/ be   
plann$ well--a sc5>io practically w\ld  
be  writt5 = x4    ,! mann] 9 :i* !     
muscles move ! bony frame ( ! body c  be
 /rik+ly demon/rat$ by animat$ diagrams4
 ,take z a simple  case ! b5d+ ( ! arm4 
,! two antagoni/ muscles ( ! front  & ! 
back ( ! upp] arm c be made to %[ z     
swell+ &  l5g!n+1 alt]nately1 z !y flex 
& ext5d ! =e>m4    ,illu/ration3 ,,!    
,,action ,,( ,,! ,,muscles ,,on ,,!     
,,frame ,,c\ld ,,be ,,%[n  ,,on ,,!     

,,scre54    ,a s]ies ( draw+s l ?is w\ld
 be ! fir/ ?+ to prep>e  = mak+ ! film4 
,a simil> animation ( ! skeleton w\ld be
 t ( ! bony lev]s  9 ! human frame4 ,& z
 a comp>ison1 actual me*anical lev]s (  
all ?ree ord]s c\ld be made to op]ate 9 
connection ) !  lev]s 9 ! skeleton4     
,x w\ld be possible1 to "s ext5t1 to put
 ! 8,orig9 (  ,species0 on ! scre5 ) !  
help ( animat$ diagrams4 ,= !           
v]tebrates1 a section ( ! film c\ld     
repres5t a s*ematic  evolution>y tree4  
,on x1 ! l[] =ms ( back-bone life1 su*  
z amphibians & fi%es1 w\ld be plac$ on  
an (f%oot ne> !  l[e/ "p ( ! ma9 trunk4 
,odd creatures l m>supials w\ld  bran*  
(f a little high] up1 & /ill high] a    
l>g] bran* (  ! tree w\ld split into two
 m9or bran*es = reptiles & birds1       
respectively4    ,! tree w\ld %[ above a
 bran*+ (f into ?ree important          
divisions = ! ungulates1 c>nivores1 &   
quadrumana4 ,! /ory  c\ld be cont9u$ by 
sep>ate del9eations ( ! diff]5t bran*es 
& tell 9 fur!r detail ! developm5t ( !  

=ms t belong  to !m4    ,! art ( !      
animat$ c>toon & ! educational scre5    
draw+  has z yet n be5 develop$ to its  
highe/ po9t4 ,x ne$s1 = "o  ?+1 color4  
,su* films are only %[n1 at pres5t1 9   
mono*rome  or simple outl9es4 ,( c\rse  
color$ c>toons w come4 ,effect+  ! t9t+ 
by h& w\ld be easy z a process1 b v     
t$i\s  & co/ly4 ,a practical way (      
color+ ! ord9>y photographic  film is n[
 9 use by t9t+ !m ) ! aid ( /5cils4 ,bo?
  ! /5cil-cutt+ & ! color+ are          
accompli%$ by ! help (  ma*9]y4    ,at  
pres5t !re are color processes t produce
 v beautiful  photographs on ! scre52 b 
!y d n %[1 at lea/ 9 ^?  t s f> h come  
"u ! obs]vation ( ! au?or1 all colors  (
 nature4 ,! craft is await+ ! inspir$   
inv5tor :o w  produce motion-pictures 9 
colors t w exhibit nature's full  range 
( hues & %ades4 ,!n 9 comp>ison )       
,niepce's simple  process1 ( ab\t #ahbd1
 ( fix+ a l5s-=m$ image ^u a metal      
plate coat$ ) bitum51 ! photographic art
 w h atta9$ to  a m>vell\s degree (     

te*nical developm5t4    ,a consummate   
color process %\ld reproduce1 too1 an   
arti/'s "w  ^u ! canvas )\t los+ any    
v>iations ( hue t he has set  =?4 ,!n x 
w be possible to h animat$ pa9t+s4 ,"o w
  g1 :5 ?is wond] has be5 a*iev$1 to an 
exhibition gall]y to  see art works ) ! 
additional int]e/ ( movem5t z well z  ^?
 ( color & individual int]pretation4 ,&1
 too1 our museums  w h project+ rooms & 
firepro( libr>ies = keep+ films4    ,x  
seems l fanta/ic dream+ to hold su*     
notions2 b _m  ?+s t 7 once consid]$    
purely vision>y--h n[ become            
commonplaces4            ,,transcrib]',s
 ,,note      ,illu/rations 9 ?is e,book 
h be5 position$ betwe5 p>agraphs    &   
outside quotations4      ,illu/rations  
)\t captions h _h a description add$1   
?is is    d5ot$ ) p>5!ses4      ,obvi\s 
typographical errors & punctuation      
errors h be5    correct$ aft] c>eful    
comp>ison ) o!r occurr5ces )9    ! text 
& consultation ( ext]nal s\rces4        
,"s hyph5s 9 words h be5 sil5tly remov$1

 "s add$1    :5 a pr$om9ant pref]5ce 0  
f\nd 9 ! orig9al book4      ,except = ^?
 *anges not$ bel[1 all misspell+s 9 !   
text1    & inconsi/5t or ar*aic usage1 h
 be5 reta9$4      ,pg  xx3 8,mi*el0     
replac$ ) 8,mi*ael0    ,pg  #ca3 8give0 
replac$ ) 8gave0    ,pg  #dj3           
8,franscisco0 replac$ ) 8,francisco0    
,pg  #de3 8,^w's0 replac$ ) 8,_w's0     
,pg  #gc3 8con/ructon0 replac$ )        
8con/ruction0    ,pg #ajb3 8its0 replac$
 ) 8x0