,,transcriber',s ,,note ,italic text is denoted by underscores4 ,footnote anchors are denoted by number1 and the footnotes have been placed at the end of the chapter4 ,some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book4 ,,animated ,,cartoons ,illustration3 ,,illustrating ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,making ,,animated ,,cartoons ,,by ,,cut-,,outs4 ,above3 ,background scene and the separate items4 ,below3 ,completed scene showing one phase of the performance of the little cardboard actors and stage property4 ,see page #ij ,,animated ,,cartoons ,,how ,,they ,,are ,,made ,,their ,,origin ,,and ,,development ,,by ,e4 ,g4 ,,lutz ,,illustrated ,,new ,,york ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons #aibj ,,copyright1 #aibj1 ,,by ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons ,published ,february1 #aibj ,illustration3 7,colophon7 ,,introduction ,we learn through the functioning of our senses2 sight the most precious shows us the appearance of the exterior world4 ,before the dawn of pictorial presentation1 man was visually cognizant only of his immediate or present surroundings4 ,on the development of realistic picturing it was possible1 more or less truthfully1 to become acquainted with the aspect of things not proximately perceivable4 ,the cogency of the perceptive impression was dependent upon the graphic faithfulness of the agency--a pictorial work--that gave the visual representation of the distant thing4 ,it is by means of sight1 too1 that the mind since the beginning of alphabets has been made familiar with the thoughts and the wisdom of the past and put into relationship with the learning and reasoning of the present4 ,these two methods of imparting knowledge--delineatory and by inscribed symbols--have been concurrent throughout the ages4 ,it was nearly a century ago that ,joseph ,nicphore ,niepce 7#agfe-ahcc71 at ,chlons-sur-,sane1 in ,france1 invented photography4 ,since that time it has been possible to fix on a surface1 by physicochemical means1 pictures of the exterior world4 ,it was another way of extending man's horizon1 but a way not dependent1 in the matter of literalness1 upon the variations of any individual's skill or intent1 but rather upon the accuracy of material means4 ,thoughts and ideas once represented and preserved by picture-writing1 recorded by symbolical signs1 and at last inscribed by alphabetical marks were1 in #ahgg1 registered by mere tracings on a surface and again reproduced by ,mr4 ,edison with his phonograph4 ,as in the photograph1 the procedure was purely mechanical1 and man's artificial inventions of linear markings and arbitrary symbols were totally disregarded4 ,through photography we learn of the exterior nature of absent things and the character of the views in distant places4 ,or it preserves these pictorial matters in a material form for the future4 ,the phonograph communicates to us the uttered thoughts of others or brings into our homes the melodies and songs of great artists that we should not otherwise have the opportunity to hear4 ,and now a new physicochemical marvel has come that apprehends1 reproduces1 and guards for the future another sensorial stimulus4 ,it is the motion-picture and the stimulus is movement4 ,photography and the rendering of sounds by the phonograph have both been adopted for instruction and amusement4 ,the motion-picture also is used for these purposes1 but in the main the art has been associated with our leisure hours as a means of diversion or entertainment4 ,during the period of its growth1 however1 its adaptability to education has never been lost sight of4 ,it is simply that development along this line has not been as seriously considered as it should be4 ,motion-pictures1 it is true1 that may be considered as educational are frequently shown in theatres and halls4 ,such1 for instance1 are views in strange lands1 scenic wonders1 and pictures showing the manufacture of some useful article or the manner of proceeding in some field of human activity4 ,but these are effected entirely by photography and the narration of their making does not come within the scope of this book4 ,our concern is the description of the processes of making 8animated cartoons10 or moving screen drawings4 ,related matters1 of course1 including the inception and the development of motion-pictures in general1 will be referred to in our work4 ,at present1 of the two divisions of our subject1 the art of the animated comic cartoon has been most developed4 ,it is for this reason that so much of the book is given to an account of their production4 ,but on the making of animated screen drawings for scientific and educational themes little has been said4 ,this is not to be taken as a measure of their importance4 ,it is interesting to regard for a moment the vicissitudes of the word cartoon4 ,etymologically it is related to words in certain ,latin tongues for paper1 card1 or pasteboard4 ,its best-accepted employment--of bygone times--was that of designating an artist's working-size preliminary draft of a painting1 a mural decoration1 or a design for tapestry4 ,raphael's cartoons in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 in ,london1 are the best-known works of art coming under this meaning of the term4 7,they are1 too1 the usual instances given in dictionaries when this meaning is explained47 ,the most frequent use of the word up to recently1 however1 has been to specify a printed picture in which the composition bears upon some current event or political topic and in which notabilities of the day are generally caricatured4 ,the word cartoon did not long particularize this kind of pictorial work but was soon applied to any humorous or satirical printed picture no matter whether the subject was on a topic of the day or not4 ,when some of the comic graphic artists began to turn their attention to the making of drawings for animated screen pictures1 nothing seemed more natural than that the word 8animated0 should be prefixed to the term describing their products and so bringing into usage the expression 8animated cartoons40 ,but the term did not long remain restricted to this application1 as it soon was called into service by the workers in the industry to describe any film made from drawings without regard to whether the subject was of a humorous or of an educational character4 ,its use in this sense is perhaps justified as it forms a convenient designation in the trade to distinguish between films made from drawings and those having as their basic elements actuality1 that is1 people1 scenes1 and objects4 ,teachers now are talking of 8visual instruction40 ,they mean by this phrase in the special sense that they have given to it the use of motion-picture films for instructional purposes4 ,travel pictures to be used in connection with teaching geography or micro-cinematographic films for classes in biology are good examples of such films4 ,but not all educational subjects can be depicted by the camera solely4 ,for many themes the artist must be called in to prepare a series of drawings made in a certain way and then photographed and completed to form a film of moving diagrams or drawings4 ,as it is readily understood that any school topic presented in animated pictures will stimulate and hold the attention1 and that the properties of things when depicted in action are more quickly grasped visually than by description or through motionless diagrams1 it is likely that visual instruction by films will soon play an important part in any course of studies4 ,then the motion-picture projector will become the pre-eminent school apparatus and such subjects as do not lend themselves to photography will very generally need to be drawn2 thereupon the preponderance of the comic cartoon will cease and the animated screen drawing of serious and worth-while themes will prevail4 ,e4 ,g4 ,l4 ,,contents ,,page ,i4 ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,animated ,,drawings #c ,,ii4 ,,the ,,genesis ,,of ,,motion-,,pictures #ce ,,iii4 ,,making ,,animated ,,cartoons #eg ,,iv4 ,,further ,,details ,,on ,,making ,,animated ,,cartoons #hc ,v4 ,,on ,,movement ,,in ,,the ,,human ,,figure #ii ,,vi4 ,,notes ,,on ,,animal ,,locomotion #aca ,,vii4 ,,inanimate ,,things ,,in ,,movement #aec ,,viii4 ,,miscellaneous ,,matters ,,in ,,making ,,animated ,,screen ,,pictures #aga ,,ix4 ,,photography ,,and ,,other ,,technical ,,matters #bja ,x4 ,,on ,,humorous ,,effects ,,and ,,on ,,plots #bbc ,,xi4 ,,animated ,,educational ,,films ,,and ,,the ,,future #bde ,,illustrations ,illustrating the method of making animated cartoons by cut-outs ,frontispiece ,,page ,magic-lantern and motion-picture projector compared #g ,geneva movement #i ,a motion-picture projector #aa ,illustrating the proportions of light and dark periods during projection in two types of shutters #ab ,section of an animated cartoon film #ae ,the thaumatrope #ag ,two instruments used in early investigations of optical phenomena #ah ,apparatus on the order of ,faraday's wheel #ai ,an antecedent of the phenakistoscope #bj ,a phenakistoscope #ba ,phenakistoscope combined with a magic-lantern #bb ,phenakistoscope with a cycle of drawings to show a dog in movement #bc ,the zootrope #bd ,zoetrope of ,william ,lincoln #be ,reynaud's praxinoscope #bf ,the theatre praxinoscope #bh ,projection praxinoscope #bi ,optical theatre of ,reynaud #cj ,the kineograph #ca ,plan of the apparatus of ,coleman ,sellers #cf ,the ostrich walking2 from ,muybridge ,facing page #dj ,marey's photographic gun #db ,plan of the kinora #dc ,plan of ,edison's first kinetoscope #df ,projector and motion-picture camera compared #dh ,a negative and a positive print #di ,plan of a motion-picture camera #ej ,types of camera and projector shutters #ea ,one foot of film passes through the projector in one second #ec 8,animator's0 drawing-board #fa ,a sheet of perforated paper and the registering pegs #fc ,illustrating the making of an animated scene #fg ,illustrating the making of an animated scene with the help of celluloid sheets #ga ,arrangement of board1 pegs1 and hinged frame with glass #ge ,balloons #gh ,three elements that complete a scene #gi ,phenakistoscope with cycle of drawings of a face to show a movement of the mouth #hj ,cardboard model of an airplane with separate cut-out propellers ,facing page #hd ,the laws of perspective are to be considered in 8animating0 an object #hf ,perspective applied in the drawing of birds as well as in the picturing of objects #hg ,articulated cardboard figures #hi ,illustrating the animation of a mouse as he runs around the kitchen #ie ,successive phases of movements of the legs in walking #aja ,illustrating the action of the foot in rolling over the ground #ajc ,successive phases of movements in walking #aje ,phases of movement of a quick walk #ajg ,contractions and expansions as characteristic of motion #aji ,order in which an animator makes the sequence of positions for a walk #aab and #aac ,phases of movement of a walk4 ,six phases complete a step #aae ,a perspective walk #aag ,four positions for a perspective run #aah ,phases of movement for a perspective run #aai ,running figure #aba ,phases of movement for a quick walk #abc ,walking movements1 somewhat mechanical #abd ,phases of movement for a lively walk #abe ,phases of movement for a quick walk #abg ,walking movements viewed from above #abh ,trotting horse #acd ,trotting horse 7continued7 #ace ,a panorama effect #ach ,galloping horse for a panorama effect #aci ,the elephant in motion #adj ,the elephant in motion 7continued7 #ada ,pigeon in flight2 from ,muybridge ,facing page #adb ,comic walk of a duck #adc ,cycle of phases of a walking dog arranged for the phenakistoscope #add ,phenakistoscope with a cycle of drawings to show a dog in movement #ade ,running cow #adg ,phases of movement of a walking lion #adh ,dog walking #adi ,various kinds of wave motion #aej ,cycle of drawings to produce a screen animation of a waving flag #aeg ,cycle of drawings for an effect of falling water #aei ,cycle of drawings for a puff of vapor #afa ,an explosion #afb ,the finishing stroke of some farcical situation #afc ,piano practice #afd ,three drawings used in sequence and repeated as long as the particular effect that they give is desired #afe ,a constellation #aff ,simple elements used in animating a scene #afg ,symbolical animation of snoring #agb ,series of drawings used to show a baby crying #agc ,a 8close-up0 #age ,illustrating the use of little 8model0 hats to vivify a scene #agf 8,cut-out0 eyes #agh ,illustrating the making of 8in-between0 drawings #agi ,illustrating the number of drawings required for a movement #ahj ,illustrating a point in animating a moving limb #ahb ,making drawings in turning the head #ahc ,easily drawn circular forms and curves #ahf ,foreground details of a pictorial composition #aij ,making an animated cartoon panorama #aic ,illustrating the apparent slowness of a distant object compared to one passing close to the eye #aie ,distinguishing marks on wheels to give the illusion of turning #aig ,elements used in giving a figure the effect of trembling #aih ,typical arrangement of camera and lights #bjc ,part of a length of film for a title #bjh ,vignetter or iris dissolve #baa ,to explain the distribution of light in a cross dissolve #bac ,illustrating the operation of one type of motion-picture printer #bag ,another plan for an animator's drawing-board #bah ,canine thoughts #bai ,plenty of movement demanded in screen pictures #bbd ,the plaint of inanimate things #bbg ,the pinwheel effect of two boys fighting1 elements needed in producing it #bca ,cycle of drawings to give the illusion of a man spinning like a top #bce ,a blurred impression like that of the spokes of a turning wheel is regarded as funny #bcf ,hats #bci ,radiating 8dent0 lines #bdj ,a laugh-provoking incident in an animated cartoon #bda ,the ,mad ,hatter #bdf ,detail of a fresco by ,michael ,angelo #bdh ,mr4 ,frost's spirited delineation of figures in action #bdi ,the peep-show #bej ,demeny's phonoscope #bea ,drawings used in making a film of a gasolene engine in operation #bee ,character of drawings that would be prepared in producing moving diagrams of the muscles in action #beh ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,animated ,,drawings ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,animated ,,drawings ,the picture thrown on the wall by the magic-lantern1 although an illusion1 and no more tangible than a shadow1 has nevertheless a certain tactile quality4 ,if it is projected from a drawing on a glass slide1 its design is definite2 and if from a photographic slide1 the tones are clearly discernible4 ,it is--unless it is one of those quaintly moving amusing subjects operated by a crude mechanism--a quiescent picture4 ,the spirited screen picture thrown by the lens of a motion-picture projector is an illusion1 too4 ,it exemplifies1 however1 two varieties of this class of sensory deceptions4 ,first3 it is an illusion for the same reason that the image from the magic-lantern is one2 namely1 a projected shadow of a more or less opaque design on a transparent material intervening between the illuminant and the lens4 ,and secondly1 it is an illusion in that it synthesizes mere pictorial spectres into the appearance of life and movement4 ,this latter particular1 the seeming activity of life1 is the fundamental dissimilarity between pictures projected by the magic-lantern and those thrown on the screen by the motion-picture apparatus4 ,and it is only the addition to the magic-lantern1 of a mechanism that makes possible this optical vibration of life and motion1 that constitutes the differing feature in the two types of projecting machines4 ,in the magic-lantern and its improved form1 the stereopticon1 separate views of different subjects are shown in succession4 ,each picture is allowed to remain on the screen long enough to be readily beheld and appreciated4 ,but the picture is at rest and does not move4 ,with the motion-picture projector a series of slightly varying pictures of the same subject are projected in quick succession4 ,this succession is at such a rapid rate that the interval of time during which one picture moves out of place to make way for the next is so short that it is nearly imperceptible4 ,in consequence1 the slightly varying pictures blend on the screen and we have a phantasmagoria of movement4 ,the phenomenon of this movement--this semblance to life--takes place1 not on the screen1 but within the eye4 ,its consideration1 a subject proper for the science of physiology 7and in some aspects psychology71 has weight for us more particularly as a matter of physics4 ,memory has been said to be an attribute of all organic matter4 ,an instance of this seems to be the property of the eye to retain on its retina an after-image of anything just seen4 ,that is to say1 when an object impresses its image upon the retina and then moves away1 or disappears1 there still remains1 for a measurable period1 an image of this object within the eye4 ,this singularity of the visual sense is spoken of as the persistence of vision or the formation of positive after-images4 ,and it is referred to as a positive after-image in contradistinction to another visional phenomenon called the negative after-image4 ,this latter kind is instanced in the well-known experiment of fixing the eyes for a few moments upon some design in a brilliant color and quickly turning away to gaze at a blank space of white where instantly the same design will be seen1 but of a color complementary to that of the particular hue first gazed at4 ,the art of the motion-picture began when physicists first noticed this peculiarity of the organ of sight in retaining after-images4 ,the whole art is based on its verity4 ,it is the special quality of the visual sense that makes possible the appreciation of living screen pictures4 ,an interesting matter to bear in mind is the circumstance that the first attempt at giving to a screen image the effect of life was by means of a progressive series of drawings4 ,when photographs came later1 drawings were forgotten and only when the cinematographic art had reached its great development and universality1 were drawings again brought into use to be synthesized on the screen4 ,to describe how these drawings are made1 their use and application to the making of animated cartoons1 is the purpose of this book4 ,before proceeding with a sketch of the development of the art of making these cartoons1 it will make the matter more readily understood if we give1 at first1 in a few paragraphs1 a brief description of the present-day method of throwing a living picture on the screen by the motion-picture projector4 ,illustration3 ,,magic-,,lantern ,,and ,,motion-,,picture ,,projector ,,compared4 ,the projector for motion-pictures1 like the magic-lantern1 consists of an illuminant1 reflector1 condenser1 and objective4 ,this last part is the combination of lenses that gather and focus the light rays carrying the pencils of lights and shadows composing the picture and throwing them on the screen4 ,there is1 in the magic-lantern1 immediately back of the objective1 a narrow aperture through which the glass slide holding a picture is thrust4 ,in the motion-picture apparatus1 the transparent surface containing the picture also passes back of the objective1 but instead of the simple process of pushing one slide through to make way for another1 there is a complicated mechanism to move a long ribbon containing the sequence of pictures that produces the image on the screen4 ,now this ribbon consists of a strip of transparent celluloid#a each with a separate photograph of some one general scene but each with slight changes in the moving details--objects or figures4 ,these changes record the movements from the beginning to the end of the particular story1 action1 or pantomime4 ,along the edges of the ribbons are rows of perforations that are most accurately equalized with respect to their size and of the distances between them4 ,it is by means of wheels with teeth that engage with the perforations and the movement of another toothed part of the mechanism that the ribbon or film is carried across the path of light in the projecting machine4 ,the device for moving the film1 although not of a very intricate character1 is nevertheless of an ingenious type4 ,it is intermittent in action and operates so that one section of film1 containing a picture1 is held in the path of light for a fraction of a second1 moved away and another section1 with the next picture1 brought into place to be projected in its turn4 ,this way of working1 in most of the projectors1 is obtained by the use of a mechanical construction known as the ,geneva movement4 ,the pattern of its principal part is a wheel shaped somewhat like a ,maltese cross4 ,the form shown in the illustration is given as a type2 not all are of this pattern1 nor are they all four-parted4 ,illustration3 ,,four ,,phases ,,of ,,the ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,intermittent ,,gearing ,,known ,,as ,,the ,,geneva ,,movement4 ,it is obvious that while one picture moves out of the way for the next1 there would be a blur on the screen during such a movement if some means were not devised to prevent it4 ,this is found by eclipsing the light during the time of the change from one picture to another4 ,the detail of the projector that effects this is a revolving shutter with a solid part and an open section4 7,this is the old type of shutter4 ,it is noticed here because the way in which the light rays project the picture is easily explained by using it as an example47 ,this shutter is so geared with the rest of the mechanism that 7#a7 the solid part passes across the path of light while another picture is moving into place2 and that 7#b7 the open section passes across the path of light while a rectangular area containing a picture is at rest and its details are being projected on the screen4 ,it may be asked1 at this point1 why the eye is not aware on the screen of the passing shadow of the opaque part of the shutter as it eclipses the light4 ,it would seem that there should be either a blur or a darkened period on the screen4 ,but the mechanism moves so rapidly that the passing of the solid portion of the shutter is not ordinarily perceptible4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,motion-,,picture ,,projector4 ,a4 ,film4 ,b4 ,upper magazine4 ,c4 ,feed reel4 ,d4 ,lower magazine1 containing the take-up reel4 ,e4 ,crank to operate mechanism by hand4 ,f4 ,motor4 ,g4 ,where the film stops intermittently to be projected4 ,h4 ,lamp-house4 ,i4 ,port1 or window in the fireproof projection booth4 ,j4 ,rotating shutter4 ,k4 ,lens4 ,l4 ,condenser4 ,m4 ,switches4 ,n4 ,fire shutter2 automatically drops when the film stops or goes too slowly4 ,one foot of celluloid film contains sixteen separate pictures1 and these pass in front of the light in one second4 ,one single tiny picture of the film takes up then one-sixteenth of a second4 ,but not all of this fraction of a second is given to the projection of the picture as some of the time is taken up with moving it into place immediately before projection4 ,the relative apportionment of this period of one-sixteenth of a second is so arranged that about five-sixths of it 7five ninety-sixths of a second7 is given to the holding of the film at rest and the projection of its picture1 and the remaining one-sixth 7one ninety-sixth of a second7 is given to the movement of a section of the film and the shutting off of the light by the opaque part of the shutter4 ,illustration3 ,,illustrating ,,the ,,proportions ,,of ,,light ,,and ,,dark ,,periods ,,during ,,projection ,,in ,,two ,,types ,,of ,,shutters4 #a4 ,old single-blade type2 caused a 8flicker40 #b4 ,regular three-blade type2 light evenly distributed4 ,it is to be noted that while the picture is on the screen two opaque sections of the shutter eclipse the light4 ,in the last few paragraphs we have referred to the old type of shutter which caused a flicker1 or unsteadiness of light on the screen4 ,nowadays a three-bladed shutter that nearly does away with an unsteady light is in general use4 ,its operation1 approximately for the purposes of description is like this3 ,it turns once in one-sixteenth of a second2 one-sixth of this time is taken up with the moving of the film and the eclipsing of the light by one blade of the shutter4 ,during the remainder of the time--five-sixths of it1 the following takes place3 the film is stationary and ready for projection1 then two blades of the shutter and three of its open sections pass across the path of the light4 ,from this it can be seen that when the picture is viewed on the screen1 there are actually two short moments when the light rays are cut off4 ,this is not perceived by the spectator on account of the speed of the revolving shutter and the strong illuminant4 ,instead1 the use of a shutter of this pattern evens the screen lighting by making an equal apportioning of light flashes and dark periods4 ,with the old shutter there was one long period of light and one short period of darkness4 ,it was this unequal distribution that gave rise to the flicker4 ,at times1 under certain conditions1 a two-bladed shutter is used also4 ,a reel of film may vary in length for a short subject of fifty feet 7or even less71 to a very long 8feature0 of a mile or so in length4 ,in width1 the strip of celluloid measures one and three-eighths inches4 ,between the two rows of perforations that engage with the teeth on the sprocket-wheels and by which a certain part of the intermittent mechanism pulls the film along1 are little rectangular panels1 already alluded to1 containing the photographs4 ,sometimes these panels are called 8frames10 generally though1 in the parlance of the trade1 they are simply designated as 8pictures40 ,they measure one inch across and three-quarters of an inch in height4 ,as noted above1 these frames contain photographs of scenes that record1 by changes in their action1 the incidents and episodes of the story of any particular reel4 ,in the case of animated cartoons1 the frames on the film also contain photographs1 but these photographs are made from sets of progressive drawings depicting the action of the characters of the animated cartoon4 ,illustration3 ,,section ,,of ,,an ,,animated ,,cartoon ,,film4 ,exact size4 ,in concluding this brief account of the modern motion-picture1 the attention is directed1 as the subject is studied1 to a few details of the mechanism and to the general procedure that are found to be elementary features in nearly all apparatus used during the round of years that the art was developing4 ,they are as follows3 7#a7 ,a series of pictures--drawings or photographs--representing an action by progressive changes in their delineation4 7#b7 ,their presentation1 one at a time1 in rapid succession4 7#c7 ,their synthesis1 directly upon the retina of the eye1 or projected on a screen and then viewed by the eye4 7#d7 ,some means by which light--or the vision--is shut off while the change from one picture to another is taking place4 7,projecting machines have been made1 however1 in which the film is moved so rapidly1 and in a particular way1 that a shutter to eclipse the light is not needed47 ,now1 as stated before1 the phenomenon of the persistence of vision is the fundamental physiological fact upon which the whole possibility of seeing screen pictures rests4 ,one of the first devices made that depended upon it1 and that very simply demonstrated this faculty of the retina for holding a visional image for a time1 was an optical toy called the thaumatrope4 ,it dates from about #ahbf4 ,it was a cardboard disk with two holes close to the edge at opposite points4 ,strings were passed through these holes and fastened and the dangling ends held and rolled between the thumbs and fingers so that the disk was made to twirl rapidly4 ,each side of the disk had a picture printed or drawn upon it4 ,these two pictures when viewed together while the disk was twirled appeared as one complete picture4 ,a favorite design for depiction was an empty bird-cage on one side and a bird on the other4 ,the designs were placed with respect to each other in the same way as the marks and insignia of the two sides of most coins4 7,the coins of ,great ,britain are an exception1 on them the designs are placed differently4 ,in reading their marks or looking at the images of the two sides1 we turn the coin over like the page of a book47 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,thaumatrope4 ,above3 ,how the designs of the two sides are placed with respect to each other4 ,below3 ,the combined image when the thaumatrope is twirled4 ,the thaumatrope illustrates the persistence of vision in a very elementary way4 ,simply explained1 the face of one side of the disk with its design is before the eye1 the design impresses its true image upon the retina1 the disk turns away and the picture disappears1 but its after-image remains on the retina4 ,the disk having turned1 brings the other picture into view4 ,its true image is impressed upon the retina to blend with the after-image of the first picture4 ,in rapid sequence this turning continues and the two images commingle to give the fantasy of a perfect design4 ,a limited number of subjects only were suitable for demonstration by a toy of this character4 ,two other subjects were those showing designs to give the effect of a rider on a horse and a tight-rope dancer balanced on a rope4 ,illustration3 ,,two ,,instruments ,,used ,,in ,,early ,,investigations ,,of ,,optical ,,phenomena4 ,from ,the ,saturday ,magazine of #ahcg and #ahda4 ,later when scientific investigators were busy inquiring into the phenomena of visual distortions exhibited by the spokes and teeth of turning wheels when seen in contrast with certain intervening objects1 a curious apparatus was contrived by ,faraday the ,english scientist 7#agia-ahfg74 ,this apparatus was so constructed that two disks were made to travel1 by cogged gearing1 in opposite directions1 but at the same speed4 ,around the circumferences of the disks were cut narrow slots at equal distances apart and so making the solid portions between them like teeth1 or spokes of a wheel4 ,illustration3 ,,apparatus ,,on ,,the ,,order ,,of ,,faraday',s ,,wheel4 ,with the disks moving as marked1 the disk ,b will appear to be motionless when viewed through the passing slots of disk ,a4 ,when this machine was set in motion and the eye directed through the moving and blurred teeth of the front disk toward the far disk1 this far disk appeared to be stationary4 ,its outline--the teeth1 slots1 and circumference--were distinctly seen and not blurred4 ,then it was found that the same effect could be obtained with the use of one slotted disk by simply holding it in front of a mirror and viewing the reflected image through the moving slots of the disk4 ,the reflection answered for the second disk of the instrument of the first experiment4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,antecedent ,,of ,,the ,,phenakistoscope4 ,when the disk is twirled the reflections of its spokes appear stationary when viewed through the moving slots4 ,from this type of optical toy it was but a step to the contriving of various types of instruments constructed on the pattern of a slotted disk1 or some sort of a turning mechanism with a series of apertures1 to use in giving the illusion of movement in connection with drawings or photographs4 ,the best-known was the phenakistoscope1 the invention of which has been credited to the ,belgian physicist1 ,plateau 7#ahja-ahhc74 ,this toy was a large cardboard disk with pictures on one side that were to be viewed by their reflections through slots in the disk while it was held before a mirror4 ,the pictures drawn in sequence represented some action1 as a horse running1 an acrobat1 a juggler1 or some amusing subject that could be drawn easily in a cycle of actions and that would lend itself to repetition4 ,illustration3 ,holding a phenakistoscope before a mirror and ready to twirl it around4 ,the phenakistoscope has some rough resemblance in its plan to a motion-picture projector--the cycle of slightly different drawings represents the film with its sequence of tiny pictures2 the slots in the disk by which the drawings are viewed in the mirror correspond to the open sections of the revolving shutter2 while the solid portions of the disk answer to the opaque parts of the shutter4 ,as it only was possible in the phenakistoscope that one person at a time could view conveniently the reflected pictures1 the attempt was made to arrange it for projection4 ,a lens was added with a light and mirrors so that a number of people could see its operation at the same time4 ,in another form the pictures were placed on a glass disk which was made to rotate back of a magic-lantern objective4 ,illustration3 ,,phenakistoscope ,,combined ,,with ,a ,,magic-,,lantern4 ,when the number of slots in a phenakistoscope correspond to the number of drawings in the cycle1 the different figures of the cycle are in action but they do not move from the place where they are depicted4 ,only their limbs1 if it is an action in which these parts are brought into play1 are in movement4 ,but if there is one slot more and the disk turned in the proper direction1 the row of drawings will appear to be going around a circle4 ,this is particularly adapted to series of running animals4 ,illustration3 ,,phenakistoscope ,,with ,a ,,cycle ,,of ,,drawings ,,to ,,show ,a ,,dog ,,in ,,movement4 ,another method of giving the semblance of motion to a series of progressive drawings1 soon devised after the invention of the phenakistoscope1 was the zootrope1 or wheel of life4 ,it embodied the idea1 too1 of a rapidly moving opaque flat portion with a row of slots passing between the eye and the drawings4 ,in form the zootrope was like a cylindrical lidless box of cardboard4 ,it was pivoted and balanced on a vertical rod so that it could be made to turn easily and very rapidly4 ,the slots were cut around the upper rim of the box4 ,long strips of paper holding pictures fitted into the box4 ,when one of these strips was put in place1 it was so adjusted that any particular drawing of the series could be viewed through a slot of the opposite side4 ,these drawings appeared to be in motion when the zootrope was made to twirl4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,zootrope4 ,this type of optical curiosity1 as a matter of priority1 is associated with the name of ,desvignes1 as he obtained a patent for it in ,england in #ahfj4 ,later in #ahfg1 a ,united ,states patent was issued for a similar instrument to ,william ,lincoln1 of ,providence1 ,r4 ,i4 ,he called his device the zoetrope4 ,illustration3 ,,zoetrope ,,of ,,william ,,lincoln4 ,this cylindrical synthesizing apparatus was sold as a toy for many years4 ,bands of paper with cycles of drawings of a variety of humorous and entertaining subjects thereon were prepared for use with it4 ,but the busy inventors were not satisfied with the simple form in which it was first fabricated4 ,very soon from the zootrope was evolved another optical curiosity that preserved the general cylindrical plan1 but made use of the reflective property of a mirror to aid the illusion4 ,this was the praxinoscope of ,m4 ,reynaud1 of ,france4 ,he perfected it and adapted its principles to create other forms of rotating mechanisms harmonizing progressive drawings to show movement4 ,illustration3 ,a4 ,,reynaud',s ,,praxinoscope4 ,b4 ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,praxinoscope4 ,the praxinoscope held to the idea of a box1 cylindrical and lidless1 and pivoted in the centre so that it turned4 ,the strip of drawings1 and the plan of placing them inside of the box--two features of the zootrope--were both retained4 ,but instead of looking at the drawings through apertures in the box rim1 they were observed by their reflections in mirrors placed on an inner section or drum4 ,the mirrors were the same in number as the drawings and turned with the rest of the apparatus4 ,the mirrors were placed on the drum--the all-important point in the construction of the praxinoscope--half-way between the centre and the inner side of the rim of the box4 ,as the drawings were placed here1 the eye1 looking over the rim of the box1 viewed their reflections in the mirrors4 ,but the actual place of a reflection was the same distance back of the surface of a mirror that a drawing was in front of it2 namely1 at the dead centre of the rotating cylinder4 ,it was here1 at this quiet point1 that it was possible to see the changing images of the succession of graduated drawings blending to give the illusion of motion4 ,reynaud next fixed his praxinoscope with improvements that made the characters in his drawings appear to be going through a performance on a miniature stage4 ,he called his new contrivance the theatre praxinoscope4 ,this new mechanism1 was fixed in a box before which was placed a mask-like section to represent a proscenium4 ,another addition in front of this had a rectangular peep-hole and small cut-out units of stage scenery that were reflected on the surface of a glass inserted into the proscenium opening4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,theatre ,,praxinoscope4 ,not satisfied with this toy theatre1 ,reynaud's next step was to combine with the praxinoscope1 condensers1 lenses1 and an illuminant with which to project the images on a screen1 so that spectators in an auditorium could see the illusion4 ,a more intricate mechanism1 again1 was later devised by ,reynaud4 ,this was his optical theatre in which there was used an endless band of graduated drawings depicting a rather long pantomimic story4 ,it1 of course1 was an enlargement of the idea of the simple early form of praxinoscope with its strip of paper containing the drawings4 ,but this optical theatre had such a complication of mirrors and lenses that the projected light reached the screen somewhat diminished in illuminating power1 and the pictures were consequently dimmed4 ,illustration3 ,,projection ,,praxinoscope4 7,after picture in ,la ,nature1 #ahhb47 ,from the time of the invention of the thaumatrope in #ahbf1 and throughout the period when the few typical machines noted above were in use1 drawings only in graduated and related series1 were applied in the production of the illusion of movement4 ,illustration3 ,,optical ,,theatre ,,of ,,reynaud4 7,after picture in ,la ,nature1 #ahib47 ,drawings1 too1 were first employed for a little optical novelty in book-form1 introduced about #ahfh1 called the kineograph4 ,it consisted of a number of leaves1 with drawings on one side1 firmly bound along an edge4 ,the manner of its manipulation was to cause the leaves to flip from under the thumb while the book was held in the hands4 ,the pictures1 all of a series depicting some action of an entertaining subject1 passed quickly before the vision as they slipped from under the thumb and gave a continuous action of the particular subject of the kineograph4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,kineograph4 ,now when the camera began to be employed in taking pictures of figures in action1 one of the first uses made of such pictures was to put a series of them into the book-form so as to give1 by this simple method of allowing the leaves to flip from under the thumb1 the visional deception of animated photographs4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,celluloid is at this date the most serviceable material for these ribbons4 ,but as it is inflammable a substitute is sought--one that has the advantages possessed by celluloid but of a non-combustible material4 ,,the ,,genesis ,,of ,,motion-,,pictures ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,genesis ,,of ,,motion-,,pictures ,although the possibilities of taking pictures photographically was known as early as the third decade of the nineteenth century1 drawings only were used in the many devices for rendering the illusion of movement4 ,in the preceding chapter in which we have given a brief history of the early efforts of synthesizing related pictures1 typical examples of such instruments have been given4 ,but the pictorial elements used in them were always drawings4 ,it was not until #ahfa that photographic prints were utilized in a machine to give an appearance of life to mere pictures4 ,this machine was that of ,mr4 ,coleman ,sellers1 of ,philadelphia4 ,his instrument brought stereoscopic pictures into the line of vision in turn where they were viewed by stereoscopic lenses4 ,not only did this arrangement show movement by a blending of related pictures but procured an effect of relief4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,apparatus ,,of ,,coleman ,,sellers ,,for ,,giving ,,the ,,illusion ,,of ,,life ,,to ,a ,,series ,,of ,,photographs4 ,it is to be remembered that in the days of ,mr4 ,sellers1 photography did not have among its means any method of taking a series of pictures on a length of film1 but the separate phases of a movement had to be taken one at a time on plates4 ,the ribbon of sensitized film1 practical and dependable1 did not come until more than twenty-five years later4 ,its introduction into the craft was coincident with the growth of instantaneous photography4 ,when scientists began to study movement with the aid of instantaneous photographs1 they quite naturally cared less for synthesizing the pictorial results of their investigations than they did for merely observing and recording exactly how movement takes place4 ,at first diagrams and drawings were used by students of movement to fix in an understandable way the facts gained by their inquiries4 ,in ,england1 for instance1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,bell ,pettigrew 7#ahcd-aijh7 illustrated his works with a lot of carefully made diagrammatic pictures4 ,he made many interesting observations on locomotion and gave much attention to the movement of flying creatures1 adding some comment1 too1 on the possibility of artificial flight4 ,again in ,paris1 ,m4 ,e4 ,j4 ,marey 7whose work is to be considered a little farther on7 embellished his writings with charts and diagrams that were made with the aid of elaborate apparatus for the timing of animals in action and the marking of their footprints on the ground4 ,then he traced1 too1 by methods that involved much labor and patience1 the trajectory of a bird's wing4 ,and in his continued searching out of the principles of flight registered by ingenious instruments the wing-movements in several kinds of insects4 ,in our first chapter no instructions were given as to how animated cartoons are made4 ,and although this is the specific purpose of the book1 we must again in this chapter refer but slightly to the matter1 as there is need that we first devote some time to chronicling the early efforts in solving animal movements by the aid of photography4 ,then we must touch1 too1 upon the modes of the synthesis of analytic photographs for the purpose of screen projection4 ,both these matters are pertinent to our theme3 the animated screen artist makes use of instantaneous photographs for the study of movement1 and the same machine that projects the photographic film is also used for the animated cartoon film made from his drawings4 ,what appears to have been the first use of photographs to give a screen synthesis in an auditorium1 was that on an evening in ,february1 #ahgj1 at the ,academy of ,music1 in ,philadelphia4 ,it was an exhibition given by ,mr4 ,henry ,r4 ,heyl1 of his phasmatrope4 ,he showed on a screen1 life-sized figures of dancers and acrobats in motion4 ,the pictures were projected1 with the aid of a magic-lantern1 from photographs on thin glass plates that were placed around a wheel which was made to rotate4 ,a 8vibrating shutter0 cut off the light while one photograph moved out of the way1 and another came in to take its place4 ,the wheel had spaces for eighteen photographs4 ,it was so planned that those of one set could be taken out and those of another slipped in to change a subject for projection4 ,the photographs used in the phasmatrope were from posed models2 a certain number of which were selected to form a cycle so that the series could be repeated and a continuous performance be given by keeping the wheel going4 ,at this period there were no pliant sensitized ribbons to take a sequence of photographs of a movement1 and ,heyl had to take them one at a time on glass plates by the wet collodion process4 ,a notable point about this early motion-picture show was that it was quite like one of our day1 for according to ,heyl1 in his letter to the ,journal of the ,franklin ,institute1 he had the orchestra play appropriate music to suit the action of the dancers and the grotesqueries of the acrobats4 ,better known in the fields of the study of movement and that of instantaneous photography and pictorial synthesis are ,m4 ,marey1 already mentioned 7#ahcj-aijd71 and his contemporary1 ,mr4 ,e4 ,muybridge 7#ahcj-aijd74 ,while ,marey conducted his inquiries in ,paris1 ,muybridge pursued his studies in ,san ,francisco and ,philadelphia4 ,marey1 who in the beginning recorded the changes and modification of attitudes in movement by diagrams and charts1 later used diagrams made from photographs and then photographs themselves4 ,he studied the phases of movement from a strictly scientific standpoint1 in human beings1 four-footed beasts1 birds1 and nearly all forms of life4 ,and he did not neglect to note the speed and manner of moving of inorganic bodies1 such as falling objects1 agitated and whirling threads4 ,illustration3 ,,ostrich ,,walking4 ,part of a plate in ,muybridge's 8,animal ,locomotion40 ,published and copyrighted by him in #ahhg4 ,an imposing work1 made under the auspices of the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 of more than #gjj large plates4 ,it was the first comprehensive analytical study of movement in human figures and animals4 ,muybridge1 on the other hand1 seemed to have a trend toward the educational1 in a popular sense of the word2 and had a faculty of giving his works a pictorial quality4 ,he showed this in the choice of his subjects and the devising of machines that combined his photographs somewhat successfully in screen projection4 ,in ,muybridge's first work in which he photographed a horse in motion1 he used a row of cameras in front of which the horse proceeded4 ,the horse in passing before them1 and coming before each particular camera1 broke a string connected with its shutter4 ,this in opening exposed the plate and so pictured the horse at that moment1 and in the particular attitude of that moment4 ,this breaking of a string1 opening of a shutter1 and so on1 took place before each camera4 ,muybridge in his early work used the collodion wet plate1 a serious disadvantage4 ,later he had the convenience of the sensitized dry plate and was also able to operate the cameras by motors4 ,when ,marey began to employ a camera in his researches he registered the movements of an entire action on one plate2 while ,muybridge's way was to take but one phase of an action on one plate4 ,the two men differed greatly in their objects and methods4 ,marey in his early experiments1 at least1 traced on one plate or chart the successive changes in attitudes of limbs or parts1 or the positions of certain fixed points on his models4 ,but ,muybridge procured single but related pictures of attitudes assumed by his subjects in a connected and orderly sequence4 ,the latter method lent itself more readily to adaptation for the projecting lantern and so became popularly appreciated4 ,perhaps it is for this reason that ,muybridge has been referred to as the father of the motion-picture4 ,the photographic gun was ,marey's most novel camera4 ,with this he caught on a glass plate the movements of flying birds4 ,this instrument was suggested by a similar one used by ,m4 ,janssen1 the astronomer1 in #ahgd1 to make a photographic record of the transit of a planet across the sun's disk4 ,illustration3 ,,marey',s ,,photographic ,,gun4 ,the kineograph1 mentioned at the beginning of this chapter1 by which the illusion of motion was given to a series of pictures arranged like a book1 formed the basic idea for a number of other popular contrivances4 ,one of these was the mutoscope1 in which the leaves were fastened by one edge to an axis in such a way that they stood out like spokes4 ,the machine in operation brought one leaf for a moment at rest under the gaze of the eye and then allowed it to snap away to expose another picture in its place4 ,when this was viewed in its turn1 it also disappeared to make way for the next in order4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,lumi,,re',s ,,kinora4 ,an apparatus similar in principle to the mutoscope4 ,as yet experimenters were not altogether sure in what particular way to combine a series of graduated pictures so as to produce one living image4 ,besides the ways that have been exemplified in the apparatus so far enumerated1 some experimenters tried to put photographs around the circumference of a large glass disk somewhat on the order of the phenakistoscope4 ,heyl's phasmatrope1 of #ahgj1 was on this order4 ,on this plan of a rotating disk1 ,muybridge constructed his zopraxiscope by which he projected some of his animal photographs4 ,another expedient tried by some one was that of putting a string of minute pictures spirally on a drum which was made to turn in a helix-like fashion4 ,the pictures were enlarged by a lens and brought into view back of a shutter that worked intermittently4 ,although the dry plate assuredly was a great improvement over the slow and troublesome old-fashioned wet plate1 there was felt the need of some pliant material that could be sensitized for photography and that could furthermore be made in the form of a ribbon4 ,the suitableness of the paper strips for use in the zootrope and the praxinoscope obviously demonstrated the advantages of an elongated form on which to put a series of related pictures4 ,experiments were made to obtain a pliant ribbon for the use4 ,transparent paper was at one time tried but found unadaptable4 ,eventually the celluloid film came into use1 and it is this material that is now generally in use to make both the ordinary snap-shot film and the 8film stock0 for the motion-picture industry4 ,edison's kinetoscope of #ahij1 or more particularly its improved form of #ahic1 that found immediate recognition on its exhibition at the ,world's ,fair at ,chicago1 was the first utilization on a large scale of the celluloid film for motion-pictures4 ,it is to be remarked1 however1 that in the kinetoscope the pictures were viewed1 not on a screen in an auditorium by a number of people1 but by one person at a time peering through a sight opening in the apparatus4 ,it was the kinetoscope1 it appears1 that set others to work devising ways of using celluloid bands for projecting pictures on a screen4 ,while some inventors were busy in their efforts to construct workable apparatus both for photography and projection1 others were endeavoring to better the material for the film and improve the photographic emulsion covering it4 ,there is no need in this book1 in which we shall try to explain the making of animated screen drawings1 to recount the whole story of the progressive improvements of the machines used in the motion-picture industry4 ,but a short notice of the present-day appliances will not be out of place4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,edison',s ,,first ,,kinetoscope4 ,modified from the ,patent ,office drawing4 ,the three indispensable pieces of mechanism are the camera1 the projector1 and the printer1 or apparatus that prints pictures photographically4 ,all three in certain parts of their construction are similar in working principles4 ,the mechanical arrangements of the camera and projector especially are so much alike that some of the first apparatus fabricated were used both for photography and projection4 ,a few early types of cameras served even for printers as well4 ,the essential details of the three machines named above can be described briefly as follows3 7#a7 ,a camera has a light-tight compartment within which a fresh strip of film passes and stops intermittently back of a lens that is focussed on a subject1 a rotating shutter with an open and an opaque section makes the exposure4 7,when the strip of film is developed it is known as the negative47 7#b7 ,a printer pulls the negative1 together with a fresh strip of film in contact with it1 into place by an intermittent mechanism before a strong light4 ,a rotating shutter flashes the light on and off4 7,the new piece of film1 when it is developed and the pictures are brought out1 is known as the positive47 7#c7 ,the projector moves the positive film by an intermittent mechanism between a light and a lens2 a rotating shutter1 with open and opaque sections1 alternately shuts the light off and on4 ,when the light rays are allowed to pass the pictures contained on the positive film are projected on the screen4 ,illustration3 ,,principles ,,of ,,the ,,projector ,,and ,,the ,,motion-,,picture ,,camera ,,compared4 ,it seems unnecessary1 perhaps1 in these days of the ubiquity of snap-shot cameras1 and the fact that nearly every one becomes acquainted with their manipulation1 to mention that a photographic negative records the light and shade of nature negatively1 and that a positive print is one that gives a positive representation of such light and shade4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,negative4 ,a ,,positive ,,print4 ,a motion-picture camera of the most approved pattern is an exceedingly complicated and finely adjusted instrument4 ,its principle of operation can be understood easily if it is remembered that it is practically a snap-shot camera with the addition of a mechanism that turns a revolving shutter and moves a length of film across the exposure field1 holds it there for an interval while the photographic impression is made1 and then moves it away to continue the process until the desired length of film has been taken4 ,this movement1 driven by a hand-crank1 is the same as that of a projector--previously explained--namely1 an intermittent one4 ,this is effected in a variety of ways4 ,the method in many instruments is an alternate one of the going back and forth of a pair of claw-levers that during one such motion draw the film into place by engaging the claws into perforations on the margins of the film4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,a ,,motion-,,picture ,,camera4 ,a4 ,film4 ,b4 ,top loop to allow for the pulling down of the film during the intermittent movement4 ,c4 ,magazine to hold the blank film4 ,d4 ,magazine to hold the exposed film4 ,e4 ,claw device which pulls down the film three-quarters of an inch for each picture4 ,f4 ,sprocket-wheels4 ,g4 ,exposure field4 ,h4 ,focusing-tube4 ,i4 ,eye-piece for focusing4 ,j4 ,shutter4 ,k4 ,lens4 ,l4 ,film gate4 ,the patterns of the shutters in camera and projector differ4 ,that of the projector is three or two parted1 as stated in our observations previously made4 ,a camera shutter is a disk with an open section4 ,the area of this open section can be varied to fit the light conditions4 ,illustration3 ,,types ,,of ,,camera ,,and ,,projector ,,shutters4 ,the general practice relative to taking motion-pictures is to have one-half foot of film move along for each turn of the camera handle4 ,eight separate pictures are made on this one-half foot of film4 ,but in a camera that the animated cartoon artist uses1 but one turn of the handle for each picture is the method4 ,in most cameras the gearing can be changed to operate either way4 ,to photograph drawings in making animated films a good reliable instrument is necessary1 and requirements to the purpose should be thought of in selecting one4 ,one important matter that may be mentioned here is that there should be an easy way of focussing the scene4 ,generally in taking topical pictures and views1 an outside finder and a graduated scale for distance and other matters is made use of1 but for drawings it is essential to be able to focus on a suitable translucent surface within the exposure field in the camera4 ,there are certain numerical formulas that those going into motion-picture work should learn at the start4 ,it is well1 too1 for the general reader1 even if he is interested only as a matter of information to take note of them4 ,their comprehension will help to a better understanding of how both the ordinary photographic film1 and the film from animated drawings1 are made1 prepared1 and shown on the screen4 ,as the ordinary phrase goes1 any single subject in film form is spoken of as a reel2 but in strict trade usage the word means a length of one thousand feet4 ,as it is generally reckoned1 sixty feet of film pass through the projecting machine every minute4 ,this means that a reel of one thousand feet will take about seventeen minutes4 ,now with sixty feet of film crossing the path of light in one minute1 we see that one foot hurries across in one second4 ,and as sixteen little pictures are contained in one foot of film1 we get an idea of the great number of such separate pictures in a reel of ordinary length4 ,all these particulars--especially that regarding the speed at which the film moves--are vital matters for the animated cartoon artist to keep in mind as he plans his work4 ,illustration3 ,,one ,,foot ,,of ,,film ,,passes ,,through ,,the ,,projector ,,in ,,one ,,second ,,making ,,animated ,,cartoons ,,chapter ,,iii ,,making ,,animated ,,cartoons ,in the preceding chapter the attention was called to the fact that a foot of film passes through the projector in one second1 and that in each foot there are sixteen pictures1 or frames1 within the outlines of which the photographic images are found4 ,when a camera man sets up his apparatus before a scene and starts to operate the mechanism1 the general way is to have the film move in the camera at this same rate of speed2 to wit1 one foot per second4 ,as each single turn of the camera handle moves only one-half of a foot of film1 the camera man must turn the handle twice in one second4 ,and one of the things that he must learn is to appraise time durations so accurately that he will turn the handle at this speed4 ,the animated cartoon artist1 instead of using real people1 objects1 or views to take on his film1 must make a number of related drawings1 on every one of which there must be a change in a proper1 progressive1 and graduated order4 ,these drawings are placed under a camera and photographed in their sequence1 the film developed and the resultant negative used to make a positive film4 ,this is used1 as we know1 for screen projection4 ,all the technical and finishing processes are the same whether they are employed in making the usual reel in which people and scenes are used1 or animated cartoon reels from drawings4 ,when it is considered that there are in a half reel 7five hundred feet1 the customary length for a comic subject7 exactly eight thousand pictures1 with every one--theoretically--different1 it seems like an appalling job to make that number of separate drawings for such a half reel4 ,but an artist doesn't make anywhere near as many drawings as that for a reel of this length1 and of all the talents required by any one going into this branch of art1 none is so important as that of the skill to plan the work so that the lowest possible number of drawings need be made for any particular scenario4 8,animator0 is the special term applied to the creative worker in this new branch of artistic endeavor4 ,besides the essential qualification of bestowing life upon drawings1 he must be a man of many accomplishments4 ,first as a scenario is always written of any screen story no matter whether serious1 educational1 or humorous1 he must have some notion of form2 that is to say1 he must know what good composition means in putting components together in an orderly and proportional arrangement4 ,if the subject is an educational one he must have a grasp of pedagogical principles1 too1 and if it is of a humorous nature1 his appreciation of a comic situation must be keen4 ,and then with the terrifying prospect confronting him of having to make innumerable drawings and attending to other incidental artistic details before his film is completed1 he must be an untiring and a courageous worker4 ,his skill as a manager comes in when planning the whole work in the use of expedients and tricks1 and an economy of labor in getting as much action with the use of as few drawings as possible4 ,besides the chief animator1 others1 such as assistant animators1 tracers1 and photographers1 are concerned in the production of an animated film from drawings4 ,comments on the writing of the scenario we do not need to go into now4 ,often the artist himself writes it2 but if he does not1 he at least plans it1 or has a share in its construction4 ,presuming1 then1 that the scenario has been written1 the chief animator first of all decides on the portraiture of his characters4 ,he will proceed to make sketches of them as they look not only in front and profile views1 but also as they appear from the back and in three-quarter views4 ,it is customary that these sketches--his models1 and really the dramatis person1 be drawn of the size they will have in the majority of the scenes4 ,after the characters have been created1 the next step is to lay out the scenes1 in other words1 plan the surroundings or settings for each of the different acts4 ,the rectangular space of his drawings within which the composition is contained is about ten or eleven times larger than the little three-quarter-by-one-inch pictures of the films2 namely1 seven and one-half by ten inches1 or eight and one-quarter by eleven inches4 ,for some kinds of films--plain titles and 8trick0 titles--the making of which will be remarked upon further on--a larger field of about thirteen and one-half by eighteen inches is used4 ,illustration3 8,,animator',s0 ,,drawing-,,board4 ,now with a huge pile of white linen paper cut to a uniform size of about nine by twelve inches1 the animator apportions the work to the several assistant animators4 ,the most important scene or action1 of course1 falls to his share4 ,there are several ways of going about making animated cartoons1 and trick titles1 and these methods will be touched upon subsequently4 ,but in the particular method of making animated cartoons which we are describing now--that in which paper is the principal surface upon which the drawings are made in ink--all the workers make their drawings over a board that has a middle portion cut out and into which is fitted a sheet of thick glass4 ,under this glass is fixed an electric light4 ,on the board along the upper margin of the glass1 there is fixed to the wood a bar of iron to which two pins or pegs are firmly fixed4 ,these pegs are a little less than one-half inch high and distant from each other about five inches4 ,it doesn't matter much what this distance is1 excepting this important point3 all the boards in any one studio must be provided with sets of pegs that are uniform with respect to this distance between them4 ,and all of them should be most accurately measured in their placing4 ,sometimes as an expedient1 pegs are merely driven into the board at the required distance4 ,these pegs are seven thirty-seconds of an inch in diameter4 ,that the animator should use this particular size of pegs was determined1 no doubt1 by the fact that an article manufactured originally for perforating pages and sheets used in certain methods of bookkeeping was found available for his purposes4 ,this perforator cuts holes exactly seven thirty-seconds of an inch in diameter4 ,each one of the sheets of paper from the huge pile spoken of above1 before it is drawn upon1 has two holes punched into one of its long edges at the same distance apart as the distance between the two pegs fixed to the animator's drawing-board4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,sheet ,,of ,,perforated ,,paper ,,and ,,the ,,registering ,,pegs4 ,fitting one of these sheets of paper over the pegs1 the artist-animator is ready for work4 ,as the paper lies flat over the glass set into the board1 he can see the glare of the electric light underneath4 ,this illumination from below is to enable him to trace lines on a top sheet of paper from lines on a second sheet of paper underneath2 and also to make the slight variations in the several drawings concerned in any action4 ,now the reason for the pegs is this3 as in an ordinary motion-picture film certain characters1 as well as objects and other details are quiescent1 and only one or a few characters are in action1 so in an animated cartoon some of the figures1 or details1 are quiescent for a time4 ,and as they stay for a length of time in the same place in the scene1 their portrayal in this same place throughout the series of drawings is obtained by tracing them from one sheet to another4 ,the sheets are held in place by the pegs and they insure the registering of identical details throughout a series4 ,when the animator designs his setting1 the stage scenery of any particular animated play1 he keeps in mind the area within which his figures are going to move4 ,reasons for this will become apparent as the technic of the art is further explained4 ,the outline of his scene1 say a background1 simply drawn in ink on a sheet of paper is fitted over the pegs4 ,the light under the glass1 as explained immediately above1 shows through it4 ,next a fresh sheet of paper is placed over the one with the scene1 and as the paper is selected for its transparent qualities1 as well as its adaptability for pen-drawing1 the ink lines of the scene underneath are visible4 ,let us presume now1 that the composition is to represent two men standing and facing each other and talking4 ,they are to gesticulate and move their lips slightly as if speaking4 7,in the following description we will ignore this movement of the mouth and have it assumed that the artist is drawing this action1 also1 as he proceeds with the work47 ,the two men are sketched in some passive position1 and the animation of one of the figures is started4 ,with the key sketch of the men in the passive position placed over the light1 a sheet of paper is placed over it and the extreme position of a gesticulating arm is drawn1 then on another sheet of paper placed over the light the other extreme position of this arm action is drawn4 ,now1 with still another sheet of paper placed over the others1 the intermediate position of the gesture is drawn4 ,as the man was standing on the same spot all the time his feet would be the same in all the drawings and other parts of his figure would occupy the same place4 ,but the animator does not draw these parts himself but marks the several sheets where they occur with a number1 or symbol1 that will be understood by one of his helpers--a tracer--as instructions to trace them4 ,the other man in the picture1 who all this time has been motionless1 is also represented in all the drawings line for line as he was first drawn in the preliminary key sketch4 ,this again is a job for the tracer4 ,when the action of the second figure is made1 the drawing of the three phases of movement in his arms is proceeded with in the same way1 and the first figure is repeated in his passive position during the gesturing of the second man4 ,it can be seen from this way of working in the division of labor between the animator and his helper that the actual toil of repeating monotonous details falls upon the tracer4 ,the animator does the first planning and that part of the subsequent work requiring true artistic ability4 ,so that the artists can see to do the work described above--tracing from one sheet of paper to another and distinguishing ink lines through two or more sheets of paper while they are over the illuminated glass--the expedient is adopted of shading the work-table from the glare of strong daylight4 ,illustration3 ,,complete ,,scene ,,illustrating ,,the ,,great ,,amount ,,of ,,drawing ,,required ,,in ,,animating ,a ,,scene ,,without ,,the ,,help ,,of ,,transparent ,,celluloid4 ,in this typical process of depicting a simple action1 or animating a figure1 as it is called1 we have left out specific explanations for drawing the details of the scenery--trees1 foreground1 or whatever is put into the composition as an accessory4 ,they go into a finished composition1 to be sure4 ,one way would be to trace their outlines on each and every sheet of paper4 ,it is a feasible way but not labor-saving4 ,there is a much more convenient way than that4 ,in beginning this exposition on animation it was noted that the artist in designing the scenery gave some thought to the area within which his figures were placed1 or were to act4 ,he planned when he did this1 that no part of the components of the scenery should interfere by crossing lines with any portions of the figures4 ,the reason for this will be apparent when it is explained that the scenery is drawn on a sheet of transparent celluloid4 ,then when the celluloid with its scenery is placed over one of the drawings it completes the picture4 ,the celluloid sheet has also two perforations that fit over the pegs1 and it is by their agency that its details are made to correspond with the drawings on paper4 ,and it can further be understood that this single celluloid sheet will complete1 if it is designed properly1 the pictorial composition of every one of the drawings4 7,a sheet of this substance that we are referring to now is known in the craft as 8a celluloid0 or shortened sometimes to 8cell407 ,the employment of celluloid can be extended to save other work in tracing parts of figures that are in the same position1 or that are not in action throughout several drawings4 ,in this case a second celluloid will be used in conjunction with that holding the scenery4 ,to exemplify3 ,in giving an account of the drawing of the arm gestures in the instance above1 it was noted that an animator drew the action only while he had a tracer complete on all the drawings the parts that did not move4 ,now1 to save the monotony of all this1 the tracer takes celluloid and draws the similarly placed quiet parts on it but once4 ,this celluloid is used during the photography with the several action phases to complete the picture of the figure1 or figures4 ,a matter that the animator should guard against1 however1 in having several celluloids over his drawings1 during the photography1 is that they will impart a yellowish tinge to his white paper underneath if he uses more than two or three4 ,this would necessitate care in timing the exposure correctly as a yellow tint has non-actinic qualities that make its photography an uncertain element4 ,illustration3 ,scenery1 drawn on celluloid1 used with the elements on the opposite page4 ,the methods so far described of making drawings for animated films are not complex and are easy to manage4 ,for effective animated scenes1 many more drawings are required and the adaptation of celluloids is not always such an easy matter as here described4 ,for complete films of ordinary length1 the drawings1 celluloids1 and other items--expedients or ingenious devices to help the work--number into the hundreds4 ,illustration3 ,,on ,,celluloid ,,on ,,celluloid ,,illustrating ,,the ,,saving ,,of ,,time ,,and ,,labor ,,in ,,making ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,expedient ,,of ,,drawing ,,the ,,still ,,parts ,,on ,,celluloid ,,sheets4 ,we will use1 however1 our few drawings and celluloids that we have completed to explain the subsequent procedure in the making of animated cartoons2 namely1 the photographic part of the process4 ,a moving-picture camera is placed on a framework of wood1 or iron1 so that it is supported over a table top or some like piece of carpentry4 ,it is placed so that it faces downward with the lens centred on the table4 ,the camera is arranged for a 8one picture one turn of the crank0 movement1 and a gearing of chain belts and pulleys1 to effect this1 is attached to the camera and framework4 ,this gearing is put into motion by a turning-handle close to where the photographer is seated as he works before the table top where the drawings are placed4 ,each time the handle is turned but one picture1 or one-sixteenth of a foot of film1 is moved into the field back of the lens where the exposure is made4 ,the view or studio camera1 as we know1 when a complete turn of the crank handle is made1 moves eight pictures1 or one-half of a foot of film1 into position4 ,on the table directly under the lens and at the proper distance for correct focussing1 a field is marked out exactly that of the field that was used in making the drawings4 ,two registering pegs are also fastened relatively to the field as those on all the drawing-boards in the studio4 ,over the field1 but hinged to the table top so that it can be moved up and down1 a frame holding a clear sheet of glass is placed4 ,the glass must be fitted closely and firmly in the frame1 as it is intended to be pressed down on the drawings while they are being photographed4 ,wood serves the purpose very well for these frames4 ,a metal frame would seem to be the most practical1 but if there is in its construction the least inequality of surface where glass and metal touch1 the pressure put upon the frame in holding the drawings down is liable to crack the glass4 ,with wood1 as there is a certain amount of give1 this is not so likely to happen4 ,considering now that the camera has been filled with a suitable length of blank film and properly threaded in and out of the series of wheels that feed it to the intermittent mechanism1 and then wind it up into its proper receptacle1 we can proceed with the photography4 ,the pioneers in the art who first tried to make animated cartoons and similar film novelties attempted the photography by daylight4 ,their results were not very good1 for they were much handicapped by the uncertainty of the light4 ,nowadays the ,cooper ,hewitt mercury vapor light is used almost exclusively4 ,the commonest method of lighting is to fix a tube of this illuminant on each side of the camera above the board1 but so placed that light rays do not go slantingly into the lens1 or are caught by any polished surface1 and so cause reflected lights that interfere with the work4 ,to get the exact position of the light for an even illumination over the field means a little preliminary experiment4 ,in looking over the material for our little film we find that we have but a few drawings and celluloids4 ,now1 if we were to photograph them and give each drawing one exposure--one picture1 or section on the film for each drawing--we should get a length of film not even a foot long1 and the time on the screen not even lasting a second1 but an insignificant result for so much work4 ,here at this stage of the work the able animator must exercise his talents in getting as much film as possible1 i4 e41 8footage10 out of his few drawings4 ,illustration3 ,,arrangement ,,of ,,board1 ,,pegs1 ,,and ,,hinged ,,frame ,,with ,,glass4 7,for its position under the camera1 see engraving on page #bjc47 ,a perforated sheet of paper holding a drawing is fitted over the pegs and the frame lowered4 ,to begin3 ,the first drawing in which the men are quiescent is fitted over the pegs2 but the picture is not complete until the celluloid with the scenery is also fitted over the pegs4 ,when this is put in place and the frame with the glass is pressed down it is ready for photography4 ,the first figures will not begin to gesticulate immediately--no1 a certain time is necessary for the audience to appreciate--have enter into their consciousness--that the picture on the screen represents two men facing each other and about to carry on a conversation4 ,therefore the drawing showing the men motionless is photographed on about two or three feet of film4 ,this will give on the screen just so many seconds--two or three--for the mental grasping by the audience of the particulars of the pictorial composition4 ,next to show the first figure going through his movements we lift the framed glass and take off the celluloid with the scenery and the paper with the two men motionless4 ,now we put down over the pegs the sheet of paper with one of the extreme positions of the moving arms1 and then as that is all there is on the paper we must1 to complete the portrayal1 place over it the celluloid with the rest of his figure4 7,this celluloid also holds the complete drawing of the other individual as he is motionless during the action of the first one47 ,next the entire composition is completed by putting down the scenery celluloid4 ,then when the framed glass is lowered and pressed down so that everything presents an even surface1 the picture is photographed4 ,after two turns of the handle--photographing it on two sections of the film--the frame is raised and the celluloids and the drawing are both taken off of the pegs4 ,the photographing of the second or intermediate position is proceeded with in the same way4 ,after this the third or other extreme phase of the action is photographed4 ,the photography is continued by taking the intermediate phase again1 then the first position1 then back to the intermediate one1 and so on4 ,the idea is to give a gesticulating action to the figure by using these three drawings back and forth in their order as long as the story seems to warrant it4 ,it is not to be forgotten that the celluloid with the scenery is used every time the different action phases are photographed4 ,the same procedure will be followed with the celluloid and drawings of the other figure1 only before beginning his action a little extra footage can be eked out by giving a slight dramatic pause between the ending of the first man's gesticulating and the beginning of that of the other one4 ,by this is meant that the first scene with the men motionless is taken on a short length of film4 ,illustration3 ,,balloons4 ,in a little incident of this sort1 dialogue1 of course1 is required to help tell the point of the story4 ,this is effected by putting the wording on a separate piece of paper--balloons1 they are called--for each case and placing it over the design somewhere so that it will not cover any important part of the composition4 ,the necessary amount of film for one of these balloons with its lettering is determined by the number of seconds that it takes the average spectator to read it4 ,it is by the interjection of these balloons with their dialogue that an animator1 in comic themes1 can get a considerable length of film from a very few drawings4 ,after the photography is finished the exposed film is taken out of the camera and sent to the laboratory for development4 ,illustration3 ,three elements when fitted over the pegs complete the scene above4 ,illustration3 ,phenakistoscope with cycle of drawings of a face to show a movement of the mouth4 ,,further ,,details ,,on ,,making ,,animated ,,cartoons ,,chapter ,,iv ,,further ,,details ,,on ,,making ,,animated ,,cartoons ,one of the inspiriting things about this new art of making drawings for animated cartoons is that it affords such opportunities for a versatile worker to exercise his talents4 ,a true artist delights in encountering new problems in connection with his particular branch of work4 ,the very fact that he selects as his vocation some art activity1 rather than employment that is mechanical1 evinces this4 ,in making drawings for animated films and in following the whole process of their making1 the artist will find plenty of scope for his ingenuity in the devising of expedients to advance and finish the work4 ,the first animated screen drawings were made without the labor and time-saving resources of the celluloid sheet4 ,as has been explained1 it holds the still parts of a scene during the photography4 ,the employment of this celluloid is now in common usage in the art4 ,it is found an expedient in various ways2 sometimes to hold part only of a pictorial composition as in the method touched upon in the preceding chapter where ink drawings are made on paper2 or1 again1 in another method to be used instead of paper1 to hold practically all of the picture elements4 ,by this latter method1 in which a pigment is also put on the transparent material1 the projected screen image is in graduated tones giving the appearance of a monochrome drawing4 ,animators sometimes are released from the irksomeness of making the innumerable drawings for certain cases of movement1 as that of an object crossing the picture field from one side to the other1 by using little separate drawings cut out in silhouette4 ,illustration3 ,,cardboard ,,model ,,of ,,an ,,airplane ,,with ,,separate ,,cut-,,out ,,propellers4 ,the propellers are placed in position on the front of the airplane in their order continuously while the model1 under the camera1 is moved across the sky4 ,on the left3 ,part of film made from the cut-out model4 ,it is an airplane1 as an instance1 we will say1 that is to fly across the sky4 ,for this1 the airplane will be drawn but once on a piece of thin cardboard1 finished in light and shade and then carefully cut out around its contour so that it will be like a flattened model4 ,this model1 specifically spoken of as a 8cut-out10 is pushed over the background under the camera and photographed4 ,the manipulation of this airplane cut-out1 to a chance observer1 would be thought of as being child's play4 ,it is anything but that1 however1 as infinite patience is required to move it properly and have the distances between the various positions evenly spaced4 ,if1 too1 there is a change of speed intended1 the necessary ratio of spacing and timing must be relatively proportionate4 ,of course1 it is understood that the airplane cut-out is1 after each move1 photographed4 ,the distance that it is moved determines the speed that will show on the screen4 ,if1 for example1 it is moved only one-sixteenth of an inch each time1 the movement will be very slow4 ,when an artist wishes to give a more natural effect in a moving object in which a cut-out is used1 he makes some allowance for the laws of perspective by making several cut-outs in which the outlines defining the object observe these laws to some extent4 ,it is to be remembered that an object looks differently according to whether it is viewed on an extreme side or in the centre of the field4 ,to be absolutely correct1 there should be a separate drawing for each position4 ,to explain3 ,beginning with an extreme side position1 the lines defining the thickness go off somewhat obtusely to the centre of vision2 as the object moves and nears the middle1 these lines keep their direction but change their angle4 ,the direction is always toward the centre of vision1 and the angle1 with respect to a vertical1 is always sharper4 ,in the very centre1 the object1 if it is on a level with the eye1 is in profile4 ,illustration3 ,the laws of perspective are to be considered in 8animating0 an object as it passes across the screen4 ,the entire matter is one of a different perspective drawing for each position4 ,in the movement of the subject toward the other side a reverse change takes place in the direction of the lines4 ,generally only a few separate drawings--or cut-outs--are needed to render the screen illusion sufficiently resembling actuality to satisfy the eye4 ,there is a form of animated cartoon in which the objects1 details of the view1 and the figures are in white on a black ground4 ,usually this kind of film is of a comic subject4 ,with the delineations of the characters in a burlesque style and the actions indubitably ludicrous1 they provoke a great deal of laughter4 ,such screen stories1 when the figures are well imagined and drawn in an exaggerated way1 and the other parts are conformably incongruous and with a unity of ridiculousness and absurdity in story and action1 are to be considered as true works of dramatic art4 ,illustration3 ,the principles of perspective are applied in the drawing of birds as well as in the picturing of objects4 ,the mode1 generally1 of making these strong black-and-white effects is to have the figures and moving parts of separate units to be arranged under the camera in connection with a simple scene drawn in white1 or gray1 on a black ground4 ,the figures of animals are made as dummies1 with jointed limbs4 ,this makes it possible to put them into the various positions necessary for giving the illusion of life as they are moved about over the background4 ,these dummies are designed with but little detail and are drawn on a carefully selected white surfaced cardboard or thick paper that gives in contrast with the background good white-and-black negatives4 ,the joinings of these figures or animals1 are made with the thinnest kind of wire fashioned into tiny pivoting pins4 ,sometimes in spite of the artist's efforts to conceal these wire pivots by placing them where a hooked ink line indicates a fold of drapery1 sharp-eyed individuals can detect them on the screen4 ,where such jointed dummies are used under the framed glass1 the wire pivots will not do4 ,instead1 the artist must find some way of fashioning cardboard rivets1 or washers1 to join the parts of the figures4 ,a thin elastic tissue would do perhaps1 as an expedient1 to clothe these little dummies and hide the joinings of the cardboard segments4 ,illustration3 ,,articulated ,,cardboard ,,figures4 ,here we may note the so-called 8trick0 titles that are shown in theatres for special occasions1 or in connection with the regular films4 ,they add with their liveliness a little variety to the tedium of a long presentation of monotonously toned photographs4 ,in them1 the letters make their appearance one at a time1 and in most cases they are white on a black ground4 ,the production of these titles with their letters that merrily cut capers all over the background before they come into their orthographic order is a very simple manuvre4 ,the separate letters1 cut out of cardboard1 are laid down to be photographed one at a time as they spell the words4 ,where they are first made to move about in an amusing manner1 they are similarly manipulated on the background under the camera by being pushed about as desired and photographed at each change of position4 ,the best background for these titles1 when it is to be solid black1 is a piece of black velvet4 ,this material is a serviceable article in motion-picture work as it gives an intense and certain black1 and if wrinkles form in it they do not betray themselves by any lights or shadows in the photographic print4 ,sometimes in trick work it is intended that some part of the design is masked while another part is being photographed4 ,this is a simple matter if the background is a dark one1 as a piece of paper1 or cardboard1 of the same color is placed over it while the photography is taking place4 ,a line of letters1 for instance1 that is already drawn on the dark ground is to appear letter by letter4 ,a strip of this dark-colored paper covers the words at first1 but is pulled away to expose the letters one by one4 ,another way would be to clip off a section of the paper bit by bit4 ,blackening the edges of the paper will provide against these edges showing as light lines and so giving away the ruse4 ,in selecting for working under the camera of dark-colored cardboards1 it is advisable to pick out only those with dead mat surfaces and reject those with any enamelled or shiny surfaces4 ,as previously mentioned1 for trick titles1 a larger field is used than that for animated cartoons4 ,it makes the manipulation of dummies and detached items much more convenient4 ,an amazing and wonderful screen illusion is that of animated sculpture4 ,the audience first sees a shapeless mass of clay which of itself seems to assume in a few seconds a plastic composition4 ,it is a portrait of a notable1 perhaps1 or it may take the form of a grotesque mask4 ,the trick of animated sculpture is produced like this3 ,a camera is centred on a rough mass of clay1 which is first photographed in this shapeless form4 ,a sculptor now pushes the clay around to a desired preliminary effect1 then when he has stepped out of the picture1 that is1 gets out of the range of the lens1 the clay is photographed again4 ,once more the sculptor moulds the clay to a stage approaching the contemplated form1 steps out of the picture and the camera brought into action again4 ,the proceeding is continued3 modelling the clay1 the sculptor getting out of the range of the lens1 and the camera brought into action1 until the clay has been fashioned in its complete form4 ,the interruptions during which the sculptor was working will not be represented on the screen as the camera was not working then1 and so no exposures were made4 ,instead1 the effect will be a continuous one of a mass of clay miraculously forming itself into a plastic work4 ,the way of working in making animated sculpture1 like that of the process of using dummies that are moved1 little by little1 while the shutter is closed and then photographed after each time that they have been moved1 is called the 8stop-motion0 method4 ,the motion of the camera is stopped1 in other words1 while the particular object is placed in a new position each time before it is photographed4 ,when on the screen you see some thin black line appearing on one side1 crawling reptilian fashion1 suddenly turning upward1 twisting and soon beginning to outline the silhouette of a figure or part of a pictorial composition1 there is exemplified another instance of this 8stop-motion0 photography4 ,this extraordinary performance of a plain line1 to the average spectator seems wondrous1 and its production a veritable mystery4 ,but it is managed very easily4 ,for news picture reels it has been found judicious for variety's sake1 as well as for business reasons1 to combine with them cartoons satirizing topics of the hour4 ,when they are wanted1 they are wanted in a hurry1 and as the regular type of cartoon takes not a little time to make1 the living line drawings adverted to above1 as they are quickly made1 are often used for the purpose4 ,we shall try to give in the following few paragraphs an elucidation of the method of making a film like this4 ,the general idea or composition of the drawing is sketched out first on a piece of ordinary paper1 then its outlines are traced in blue markings to a sheet of ,bristol board that has been fastened down to the table beneath the camera within the photographic field4 ,light-blue marks do not take on the ordinary sensitized film4 ,but the blue markings1 it is to be remembered1 must be of the faintest4 ,the very cautious artist in beginning a work of this sort makes a preliminary test of his blue pencilling by photographing a short length of film and developing it to see if the marks show on the negative4 ,if they show at all1 it will be necessary to take a soft eraser and go over the drawing and make the blue marks less distinct1 and only have them show enough to be able to follow the drawing in executing the pen work4 ,illustration3 ,,illustrating ,,the ,,animation ,,of ,a ,,mouse ,,as ,,he ,,runs ,,around ,,the ,,kitchen ,,and ,,frightens ,,the ,,cook4 ,the general scene is drawn on celluloid1 while fifty or more sheets of paper hold a sequence of pictures of the mouse in attitudes of running4 ,when quite sure that the blue marks will not photograph1 the artist begins his drawing4 ,it is not a difficult task that he has before him--he merely inks his previously drawn lines little by little4 ,each stroke of the pen1 after it has been made1 is photographed4 ,if the ink lines are short the movement on the screen will be very slow1 and if they are long the movement will be very rapid4 ,and1 again1 whether the artist turns the camera handle once1 twice1 or three times for each pen stroke has its effect upon the speed with which the lines grow on the screen4 ,if somewhat long pen strokes are made and the exposure is but one picture for each stroke the lines will run in and finish the design at a rapid rate4 ,on the other hand1 if they are very short strokes and three pictures 7about one-fifth of a foot of film7 are given to each one1 the lines will creep in on the screen at a snail's pace4 ,all this1 making a line1 a patch of tinting1 a small detail of a picture1 and photographing each item after it has been made1 is continued until the entire pictorial design is completed4 ,variety is produced by having the lines go slowly or fast according to the requirements of the idea to be expressed or the story to be told4 ,,on ,,movement ,,in ,,the ,,human ,,figure ,,chapter ,v ,,on ,,movement ,,in ,,the ,,human ,,figure ,having now chronicled in a brief way the development of the cinematographic art1 particularly in its relation to animated screen drawings1 and having tried to give some notion of the fundamentals in their making with an account of their exhibition on the screen1 it is in order now that we consider the matter of movement and its depiction by drawings that will give the visional synthesis of life4 ,the very first thing that a tyro in the animating art must learn is to draw a walk2 or in other words1 to become skilled in sketching the successive phases of limb and trunk movements so that they give in their order the appearance of walking when projected as a film4 ,walking directly effected by the lower limbs calls into action the upper limbs too4 ,the upper limbs act1 as they swing from the shoulders1 in concord with the legs1 as counterpoises in maintaining the equilibrium4 ,an understanding of the principles underlying locomotion in man--walking or running--is an important matter to consider in this art4 ,when an artist knows the basic facts of movement in the human figure1 he will more readily comprehend animal locomotion and all other movements in general4 ,all forms of motion are pertinent as studies for the animator1 and the all-important study is that of the human organism4 ,although we observe at once1 in considering a simple walking movement1 that there is also a simultaneous activity of the arms accompanied by a harmony of exertion in the trunk1 we will at the start dwell mainly upon the phases of action in the legs only4 ,imagine now that the figure that is to serve us as a model is walking4 ,the trunk in the air1 some thirty inches above the ground1 is moving forward4 ,attached to it are the nether limbs1 alternately swinging pendently and alternately supporting the trunk in its position above the ground4 ,illustration3 ,,successive ,,phases ,,of ,,movements ,,of ,,the ,,legs ,,in ,,walking4 ,above3 ,diagram to indicate the length of a stride and to show how the head describes a 8wave40 ,further to simplify our study1 we will1 at first1 consider the mechanism of one limb only4 ,as one foot swings forward and reaches a certain place1 it seems to hesitate for an instant and then come down1 heel first1 on the ground4 ,as the heel strikes1 the body is slightly jarred and the oblique line of the limb1 its axis1 moves and approaches the vertical4 ,in a moment1 the limb is vertical as it supports the trunk and the sole of the foot bears on the ground4 ,then the axis of the leg changes its verticality and leans forward1 carrying with it the body4 ,soon the heel leaves the ground and only the fore part of the foot--the region of the toes--remains on the ground4 ,but before the foot is entirely lifted from the ground1 there is a slight pause1 almost immeasurable1 coming immediately before the foot gives a push1 leaves the ground1 and projects the body forward4 ,during the time of the phases of movement described above1 the foot1 in a sort of way1 rolls over the ground from heel to toes4 ,immediately after the toes leave the ground1 the knee bends slightly and the limb swings pendulum-like forward1 then1 as it nears the point directly under the centre of the trunk1 it bends a little more and lifts the foot to clear the ground4 ,after the limb has passed this central point under the trunk and is beginning to advance1 it straightens out ready to plant its heel on the ground again4 ,when it has done so it has completed the step1 and the limb repeats the series of movement phases again for the next step4 ,now1 the limb of the other side has gone through the same movements1 too1 but the corresponding phases occurred alternately in point of time4 ,illustration3 ,,illustrating ,,the ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,foot ,,in ,,rolling ,,over ,,the ,,ground4 ,one of these positions of the leg1 that when it is bent at the knee so as to clear the ground as it passes from the back to its advancing movement forward1 is rarely represented by the graphic artist in his pictures4 ,the aspect of the limbs when they are at their extremes--spread out--one forward and one to the back1 is his usual pictorial symbol for walking4 ,but the position1 immediately noted above1 is an important phase of movement1 as it is during its continuance that the other limb is supporting the trunk4 ,a movement of the trunk in walking that is to be remarked is its turning from side to side as it swings in unison with the upper limbs while they alternately swing forward and backward4 ,it is a movement that animators do not always regard1 since only an accomplished figure draftsman can imagine movement clearly enough to reproduce it4 ,to describe the movement better we will consider it visionally4 ,illustration3 ,,successive ,,phases ,,of ,,movements ,,in ,,walking1 ,,illustrating ,,especially ,,the ,,reciprocal ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,limbs4 ,we are looking at the walker from the side and see the trunk in profile--exactly in profile1 of course1 when the arms are at the middle position4 ,as the near-side arm moves forward we see a slight three-quarter back view of the upper part of the trunk1 then when the arm swings back we see the profile again1 and with the arm moving still farther back1 the corresponding side of the shoulder moves with it and the upper part of the trunk is seen in three-quarter front view4 ,if the artist shows1 in a walk1 these particulars3 7#a7 ,a three-quarter view from the front2 7#b7 profile2 7#c7 a three-quarter view from the back1 and then carries them back and forth1 he will add to the effectiveness of the screen representation4 ,it gives to a figure1 when slightly exaggerated in a humorous picture1 a very laughable swaggering gait4 ,the arms were mentioned as swinging in a walk so as to help maintain the equilibrium4 ,it will not be difficult to understand the phases through which they go if it is remembered that an arm moves in unison with the lower limb of the opposite side4 ,this can be observed if one looks from an upper window down on the passers-by4 ,it will then be noted how one arm as it hinges and oscillates from the shoulder-joint1 follows the lower limb of the opposite side as it hinges and swings from the hip-joint4 ,illustration3 ,,phases ,,of ,,movement ,,of ,a ,,quick ,,walk4 ,four phases complete a step4 ,contemplating the arms only1 it will be perceived that they keep up a constant alternate swinging back and forth4 ,the point where they pass each other will be when they both have approached their respective sides of the trunk4 ,this particular moment when the arms are opposite one another and close to the trunk1 or at least near the vertical line of the body1 is coincident with the phases of the lower limb movements when one is nearly rigid as it supports the body and the other is at its median phase of the swinging movement4 ,these middle positions of the four limbs--the lower near to each other1 and the upper close to the body--is a characteristic that should be taken note of by the artist4 ,it illustrates1 in connection with the extreme positions1 certain peculiarities of motion in living things1 in general4 ,this is a sort of opening movement following by a closing one4 ,these reciprocal changes1 expansion and retraction in organic forms1 symbolize the activity of life4 ,in the human body1 for instance1 during action1 there are certain times when the limbs are close to the trunk and at other times when they are stretched out or extended4 ,this is adequately made plain in jumping4 ,specifically3 in the preliminary position before the actual jump1 the appendicular members bend and lie close to the trunk4 ,the entire body is compact and repressed like a spring4 ,then when the jump takes place1 there is a sudden opening as the limbs fling themselves outward4 ,a rower in a shell plying his sculls exemplifies this phenomenon of a spring-like closing and expansion4 ,in this case there is also a typical example of reciprocal compensating movements in the two pairs of limbs4 ,when the rower leans forward and the arms are extended ready to pull on his sculls1 the lower limbs are flexed and in contact with the front of his trunk4 ,then when the sculls have been pulled back and he has reached the other extreme position1 the arms are flexed and close to his chest1 while the lower limbs are stretched out straight4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,succession ,,of ,,alternate ,,contractions ,,and ,,expansions ,,characterizes ,,motion4 ,if the animator is planning to walk a figure across the field of the screen1 there is one matter in the representation that he punctiliously takes heed of4 ,it is this3 to have the trunk rise as it is in turn supported upon one rigid leg and then upon the other1 and to show that it falls slightly when the two limbs are outstretched at their extreme positions4 ,in this alternating rise and fall of the trunk in walking1 the head can be observed as describing a wave4 ,the highest point of the wave is when the trunk is supported on the rigid leg and the lowest point when both limbs are stretched out as if flying from the vertical of the body4 7,for the following few paragraphs1 see illustrations on pages #aab and #aac47 ,in scheming out the positions for a walk1 the artist first draws one of the extreme outstretched positions 7,a74 7,it is supposed that we are drawing a figure that is going from left to right47 ,then on another sheet of paper the following outstretched position 7,b71 but placed one step in advance4 ,these drawings are now placed over the tracing glass of the drawing-board4 ,all the following drawings of this walk are to be traced over this glass1 and they will be kept in register by the two pegs in the board4 ,as now placed1 the two drawings 7,a and ,b7 cover the distance of two steps4 ,a foot that is about to fall on the ground and one that is about to leave it meet at a central point4 ,here a mark is made to indicate a footprint4 ,a similar mark for a footprint is made on each side to indicate the limits of the two steps4 ,a sheet of paper is next placed over the two drawings 7,a and ,b71 and on the central footprint the middle position 7,c7 of the legs is drawn4 ,in this the right limb is nearly straight and supporting the body1 while the other limb1 the left1 is bent at the knee and has the foot raised to clear the ground4 ,the next stage will be to make the first in-between position 7,d7 between the first extreme and the middle position4 ,it is made on a fresh sheet of paper placed over those containing the positions just mentioned4 ,the attitude of the right limb in this new position would be that in which it is about to plant its foot on the ground and the left limb is depicted as if ready to swing into the position that it has in the middle one 7,c74 ,illustration3 ,,order ,,in ,,which ,,an ,,animator ,,makes ,,the ,,sequence ,,of ,,positions ,,for ,a ,,walk4 ,illustration3 ,illustrating how alternating series of positions are the same in outline1 differing only with respect to whether the near or the far limb is moving forward4 ,then with the middle position 7,c7 and the last extreme one 7,b7 over the glass1 on another sheet of paper1 the next in-between one 7,e7 is drawn4 ,this shows the right foot leaving the ground and the left leg somewhat forward ready to plant its heel on the ground4 ,we have now secured five phases or positions of a walking movement4 ,the two extremes 7,a and ,b7 spoken of as the outstretched ones have the same contours but differ in that in one the right limb is forward1 and the left is directed obliquely backward1 while in the other it is the left limb that projects forward and the right has an obliquity backward4 ,now1 if we make tracings1 copying the outlines only1 of the three other positions 7,c1 ,d1 and ,e71 but reversing the particular aspects of the right and the left limbs1 we shall have obtained enough drawings to complete two steps of a walk4 ,illustration3 ,,phases ,,of ,,movement ,,of ,a ,,walk4 ,six phases complete a step4 ,as a better understanding of the preceding the fact should be grasped that while one limb1 the right we will say1 is assuming a certain position during a step1 in the next step it is the turn of the other limb1 the left1 to assume this particular position4 ,and again in this second step1 the right limb takes the corresponding position that the other limb had in the first step4 ,there are always1 in a walk1 two sets of drawings1 used alternately4 ,any particular silhouette in one set has its identical silhouette in the other set1 but the attitudes of the limbs are reversed4 ,to explain by an example3 ,in the drawing of one middle position1 the right leg supports the body and the left is flexed1 in its coincidental drawing1 it is the left that supports the body and the right is flexed4 7,see #b and #c1 of engraving on page #aac47 ,from this it can be seen that the two sets of drawings differ only in the details within their general contours4 ,these details will be such markings as drapery folds1 stripes on trousers1 indications of the right and the left foot by little items like buttons on boots4 ,heeding and taking the trouble to mark little details like these add to the value of a screen image4 ,one of the most difficult actions to depict in this art is that which the animator calls a perspective walk4 ,by this term he means a walk in which the figure is either coming diagonally1 more or less1 toward the front of the picture or going away from it toward the horizon4 ,it is obvious that according to the rules of perspective1 in coming forward the figure gets larger and larger1 and in travelling in the opposite direction it gets smaller and smaller4 ,to do this successfully is not easy4 ,only after a worker has had a great deal of experience in the art is he able to draw such a movement easily4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,perspective ,,walk4 ,the constant changing sizes of the figures and getting them within the perspective lines in a graduated series are perplexing enough matters4 ,but this is not all4 ,there is the problem of the foreshortened views as the limbs are beheld perspectively4 ,imagine1 for instance1 an arm pointing toward the spectator in a foreshortened view4 ,every artist would have his own individual way of drawing this4 ,those with a natural feeling for form and understanding anatomy solve problems of this kind by methods for which it is impossible to give any recipe4 ,some would start with preliminary construction lines that have the appearance of columnar solids in perspective1 while others scribble and fumble around until they find the outlines that they want4 ,illustration3 ,,four ,,positions ,,for ,a ,,perspective ,,run4 ,below3 ,how the drawings are placed on the separate sheets of paper4 ,illustration3 ,,phases ,,of ,,movement ,,for ,a ,,perspective ,,run4 ,above3 ,in the last of the series--on the right--the figure has taken a position nearly that of the first of the series4 ,below3 ,how the figures are placed with respect to each other when drawn on separate sheets of paper4 ,happily in most of the occasions when a perspective walk is required in a story it is for some humorous incident4 ,this signifies that it can be made into a speedy action1 and that but a few drawings are needed to complete a step4 ,artists when they begin to make drawings for screen pictures find a new interest in studying movement4 ,in the study of art the student gives some attention1 of course1 to this question of movement4 ,usually1 though1 the study is not discriminating1 nor thorough4 ,but to become skilled in animating involves a thoughtful and analytic inquiry into the subject4 ,if the artist is a real student of the subject its consideration will be more engrossing than the more or less slight study given to the planning of the single isolated phases1 or attitudes1 of action in ordinary pictorial work4 ,a great help in comprehending the nature of movement and grasping the character of the attitudes of active figures are the so-called 8analysis of motion0 screen pictures4 ,in these the model1 generally a muscular person going through the motions of some gymnastic or athletic activity1 is shown moving very much slower than the movement is in actuality4 ,this is effected by taking the pictures with a camera so constructed that it moves its mechanism many times faster than the normal speed4 ,illustration3 ,,running ,,figure ,above3 ,six positions complete two steps4 ,below3 ,diagram to show that1 considered as outlines1 the six positions resolve themselves into three silhouettes4 ,the speed of the ordinary camera1 as we know1 moves during every second but one foot of film and on which sixteen separate photographs are made4 ,now1 in one type of camera for analysis of motion photography1 eight times more film is moved with a corresponding increase in the number of separate pictures taken on it during this same time of one second4 ,to take a specific movement of a model lasting one second3 the ordinary camera catches sixteen phases of it1 but the extra-rapid camera takes about one hundred and twenty-eight separate pictures of as many corresponding separate phases4 ,in other words1 the ordinary camera takes about as much as our eyes appreciate1 while the fast camera records on a length of film many more attitudes during the course of the given activity than the unaided eye can ever hope to see4 ,when this long film of the extra-rapid camera is run through the projecting machine at the normal speed it shows us on the screen1 in a period of eight seconds1 that which took place in reality in but one second4 ,illustration3 ,,phases ,,of ,,movement ,,for ,a ,,quick ,,walk4 ,lower diagram shows how the several drawings1 each on a separate sheet of paper1 are placed in advance of each other4 ,illustration3 ,,walking ,,movements1 ,,somewhat ,,mechanical4 ,suitable for a droll theme4 ,the animated drawing artist becomes1 through the training of his eye to quick observation and the studying of films of the nature immediately noted above1 an expert in depicting the varied and connected attitudes of figures in action4 ,examples for study on account of the clear-cut definitions of the actions1 are the acrobats with their tumbling and the clowns with their antics4 ,then in the performances of the jugglers and in the pranks of the knock-about comedians1 the animator finds much to spur him on to creative imagery4 ,the pictorial artist for graphic or easel work1 in any of these cases1 intending to make an illustration1 is content with some representative position that he can grasp visually1 or1 which is more likely to be the case1 the one that is easiest for him to draw4 ,but the animator must have sharp and quickly observing eyes and be able to comprehend and remember the whole series of phases of a movement4 ,illustration3 ,,phases ,,of ,,movement ,,for ,a ,,lively ,,walk4 ,lower diagram shows how the drawings1 on separate sheets of paper1 are placed with respect to each other to continue the figure across the scene4 ,a fancy dancer1 especially1 is a rich study4 ,to follow the dancer with his supple joints bending so easily and assuming unexpected poses of body and limbs1 requires attentive eyes and a lively mental photography4 ,the limbs do not seem to bend merely at the articulations and there seems to be a most unnatural twisting of arms1 lower limbs1 and trunk4 ,but it is all natural4 ,it simply means that there is co-ordination of movement in all parts of the jointed skeletal frame4 ,this co-ordination--and reciprocal action--follows definite laws of motion1 and it is the business of the animator to grasp their signification4 ,it is1 in the main1 the matter already spoken of above2 namely1 the alternate action of flexion or a closing1 and that of extension or an opening4 ,with these characteristics there is also observable in the generality of dancing posturing a tendency of an upper limb to follow a lower limb of the opposite side as in the cases of walking and running4 ,very strongly is this to be noticed in the nimbleness of an eccentric dancer as he cuts bizarre figures and falls into exaggerated poses4 ,for instance1 when a lower limb swings in any particular direction1 the opposite arm oscillates in the same direction and brings its hand close enough to touch this concurrently swinging lower limb4 ,illustration3 ,,phases ,,of ,,movement ,,for ,a ,,quick ,,walk4 ,this symbolical phenomenon of the activity of living things--the negative quality of a closing or flexion1 and the positive one of an opening or extension--is not a feature entirely confined to human beings and animals1 but is a characteristic showing in the mechanics of many non-living things4 ,illustration3 ,,walking ,,movement ,,viewed ,,from ,,above4 ,illustrating how the diagonally opposite limbs move in unison4 ,,notes ,,on ,,animal ,,locomotion ,,chapter ,,vi ,,notes ,,on ,,animal ,,locomotion ,in the usual manner of locomotory progress in the four-footed beasts1 with but a few exceptions1 the actions of the limbs with respect to the reciprocal movement of the two pairs1 is the same as that of man4 ,when1 for instance1 a fore limb moves1 corresponding to the human arm1 the diagonally opposite hind limb1 corresponding to the human lower limb1 moves also4 ,to explain this matter1 again1 we shall find it helpful to give a somewhat humorous1 but at the same time a very practical example4 ,an artist intends to draw the picture of a man crawling on his hands and knees4 ,before beginning to work1 the artist will visualize the movement if he can1 if not1 try it by personal experiment4 ,then he will see that when the right hand1 we will say1 is lifted to go forward1 immediately the left knee leaves the floor and the two limbs--the right arm and the left leg--advance at the same time4 ,on the completion of this advancing action1 the hand and the knee touch the floor nearly at the same instant4 7,exactly1 though1 the hand is carried forward more rapidly and anticipates the knee in reaching the floor47 ,after this action1 which has just been described1 is concluded1 it is the turn of the other arm and leg to go through the same movements4 ,this is the manner1 in a general way1 that the four-footed animals walk1 successively moving together the diagonally opposite limbs4 ,an understanding of this locomotory principle--the reciprocal actions of the two pairs of limbs--in the generality of quadrupeds1 will help an artist to animate the various types of animals that he will from time to time wish to put into his cartoons4 ,naturally1 they will be in most cases combined with a comical screen story4 ,their depiction1 then1 can be represented in a humorous way and the artist merely needs to show in his drawings the essentials of animal locomotion4 ,instantaneous photographs of moving animals1 especially those of ,muybridge1 are helpful in studying the movements of the dumb creatures4 ,the mindful examination of such photographs gives hints as to the particular phases of movement adaptable to animation4 ,besides photographs1 an ingenious auxiliary1 as a help in study1 would be a little cardboard jointed model of an animal4 ,say it is one to represent a horse1 it can be employed by moving the limbs about in their order as they successively make the steps while the artist selects from a series of photographs a cycle of positions for a movement4 ,in making a jointed cut-out model1 however1 and fastening the limbs by pivoting pins1 it is well to remember that the model can be approximate only4 ,take the fore limbs1 for instance4 ,in your model you will probably fasten them to the trunk at some fixed place4 ,that is not the way that they are joined in the bony framework4 ,the joining of the fore limbs is not by a hard articulation as in the arms of man which are joined1 through the intermediary collar-bone1 to the breast-bone4 ,in the horse and in quadrupeds1 generally1 the joining to the main bulk of the body is by soft tissues4 ,that is1 by layers and bands of muscle4 ,illustration3 ,,trotting ,,horse4 ,the horse in the first series moves from ,a ,b to ,c ,d4 ,the drawings in the second series1 on the next page1 with plus marks are the same in silhouette as the correspondingly numbered ones of the first series4 ,illustration3 ,,trotting ,,horse 7continued74 ,in the second series the horse moves from ,c ,d to ,e ,f1 where he takes the same attitude as that of number #a of the first series4 ,in studying the actions of animals it will be observed1 especially in the antelope and deer kind1 that in leaping they land on their forefeet4 ,any hard articulations of the fore limbs with the rest of the skeleton could not submit to the shock of these landings4 ,when they land1 it is the soft yielding and elastic muscular parts of the shoulders and adjacent regions that absorb the force of the jolts4 ,the characteristic of life activity1 flexion and extension1 is exemplified clearly in the actions of an animal's hind limbs as they double up in the preparation for a leap2 and then suddenly spread out during the first part of the leap4 ,taking it as a whole1 in fleet-footed animals1 the function of the hind limbs is to furnish the forward propelling force while that of the fore limbs is to land on the ground at an advanced position4 ,this observation1 of course1 applies to certain rapid methods of progression1 and it will do as a general statement only1 as it has been shown by photographs that the fore limbs have a share in giving an impulse in locomotion4 ,for example1 photographs of the horse in action show the quick springing action of the fetlock and the pastern joints as they bend in the hoof's impact1 and its subsequent extension when the foot leaves the ground4 ,in a rapid walk of a horse a phase of movement that is apprehended by the eye is the lifting of a forefoot and then the immediate impact of the hind limb of the same side as it nearly falls into the impression left by the fore foot4 ,there are speeds in which the footprints coincide4 ,in a more rapid pace than a walk1 the imprint of the hind foot is farther forward than that of the forefoot4 ,as the speed increases the stride lengthens and the footprints are much farther in advance4 ,in a certain type of humorous animation--the panorama--to be explained in a succeeding chapter1 the artist is quite satisfied with his animation of a quadruped if a lively bewildering effect of agitated limbs is produced on the screen4 ,this bewildering blur has after all a resemblance to that which the eye sees in rapidly running animals2 namely1 a confused disturbance of limbs4 ,this effect on the screen always causes laughter and the artist considers that as a proof of the success of his work4 ,to produce this effect1 the animator selects from his studies three or five consecutive positions of a gallop1 or trot1 that will animate well4 ,this means1 specifically1 that any particular drawing should1 with the next in order1 give an appearance of movement when they are synthesized4 ,the drawings are made in a cycle so that when used continuously in their order they will give the illusion desired4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,panorama ,,effect ,,obtained ,,by ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,three ,,drawings ,,on ,,the ,,opposite ,,page4 ,in a panorama it is not necessary to trouble about a matter that in other forms of screen representation of locomotion are highly important4 ,this is to have the feet register1 by which is meant that in any several succeeding drawings where a foot is represented as touching1 bearing down1 and leaving the ground1 it should do all this on a footprint that coincides in all of the series4 ,tracing over the illuminated glass1 while making the drawings1 is the only way to get footprints accurately placed4 ,illustration3 ,,galloping ,,horse4 ,three phases of the action for panorama effects4 ,the droll-looking giraffe1 with his awkwardly set limbs1 has a different sort of movement1 in some of his paces1 from that remarked as natural to quadrupeds4 ,in the giraffe1 the two limbs of the same side move at the same time and in the same direction4 ,the camel is also noted as going this way1 and the elephant has a pace that seems to be a combination of the amble and the typical four-footed way of walking4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,elephant ,,in ,,motion4 ,now and then the animator has as one of his characters a walking bird2 an ungainly ostrich is a good example1 or a droll duck1 perhaps4 ,here he will have plenty of scope in applying his skill as a humorous draftsman4 ,a nodding of the head and a bobbing of the body from side to side in the duck1 and in the case of the ostrich a wiggling of the neck1 are appropriate adjuncts to such animation4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,elephant ,,in ,,motion 7continued74 ,in the walking movement of a bird the method of getting the different phases will be the same as that of planning a walk for the human figure4 ,particularly1 too1 must the artist observe in the bird's walk1 the middle phases in which one leg crosses the vertical of the body to go forward for the implanting of its foot upon the ground4 ,with respect to the study of wing movement in flying birds1 it is interesting to note that the ,japanese artist apprehended the various positions that wings took in flying before the fact was demonstrated by photography4 ,the ,occidental artist1 before the days of the instantaneous snap-shot camera1 had but one or two stereotyped positions for picturing flying birds4 ,generally one of these positions had the wings pointing upward1 and another with them outspread1 more or less1 horizontally4 ,but the ,japanese artist anticipated the snap-shot picture2 he often had his flying birds with the wings drawn below the level of the bird's body and pointing downward4 ,illustration3 ,,pigeon ,,in ,,flight4 ,note the positions with the wings pointing downward4 ,these are phases of wing movement anticipated by the ,japanese artist before their existence was clearly shown by instantaneous photography4 ,part of a plate in ,muybridge's 8,animals in ,motion40 ,copyright1 #ahii1 by ,eadweard ,muybridge4 ,london1 ,chapman ,hall1 ,ltd4 ,new ,york1 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons4 ,a valuable work for the artist in studying movement in animals4 ,illustration3 ,,comic ,,walk ,,of ,a ,,duck4 ,series of drawings required to move the bird from ,a to ,c4 ,one good way1 if an animator wishes to represent a bird flying across the sky1 is to have several--five or seven--positions for the action drawn on cardboard and then cut out4 ,these little bird models are placed1 one at a time1 over the general scene during the photography and manipulated in the same way as described for other cut-out models4 ,the slight wavering from the direct line of the bird's flight that may occur by this cut-out method would not matter very much4 ,the bird describes a wavering line anyway as he flies--its body dropping slightly when the wings go up and a correlative rise occurring when the wing flap takes place4 ,illustration3 ,,cycle ,,of ,,phases ,,of ,a ,,walking ,,dog ,,arranged ,,for ,,the ,,phenakistoscope4 ,illustration3 ,,phenakistoscope ,,with ,a ,,cycle ,,of ,,drawings ,,to ,,show ,a ,,dog ,,in ,,movement4 ,if an artist wishes scrupulously to be exact in drawing a bird flying across the sky1 he should observe certain rules of perspective applying to the case4 ,the problem is the same as that of the airplane1 previously noted1 which flew across the field of the picture4 ,regarding this matter1 to specify3 ,when the bird appears on one side it is represented in a side view1 which changes as it gets near the centre to a profile4 ,after it has been viewed in profile1 the perspective changes again and when it reaches the other side it is again in a perspective side view1 slightly from the back4 ,in the mode of progression that was given as the usual one in quadrupeds1 in which a diagonally opposite fore and hind limb moved simultaneously1 there is a sinuous lateral twisting of the back-bone4 ,it is not so perceptible to us in the larger beasts4 ,it is an effect1 though1 that takes place in other creatures and in some of them can be clearly seen4 ,in the walk of the lizard1 as an instance1 when viewed from above1 a successive undulation of the back-bone takes place4 ,as one fore limb--the right1 to particularize--moves forward1 that side of his body--the right shoulder1 moves forward1 too2 while approximately at the same time the left hind limb moves forward and carries with it that side or the left pelvic regions4 ,this causes an alternating obliquity of the transverse axes of the shoulder and the hind regions of the body of the reptile as he walks on the ground4 ,and this alternate changing of these axes gives rise to a continuing sinuosity in the spine4 ,illustration3 ,,running ,,cow4 ,positions selected and adapted from ,muybridge's photographs4 ,illustration3 ,,phases ,,of ,,movement ,,of ,a ,,walking ,,lion4 ,illustration3 ,,dog ,,walking4 ,the mode of progression in legless creatures is distinguished1 too1 by a lateral bending in and out4 ,snakes and eels1 for example1 as they proceed agitate their bodies in wave-like motions4 ,the waves pass from the head to the tail1 the fluctuations taking the form of rather large loop-like wrigglings of the elongated body4 ,a spring-like coiling up and then an expanding--flexion and extension again--is the principle of the locomotory manuvre in the snake4 ,illustration3 ,,various ,,kinds ,,of ,,wave ,,motion4 ,a characteristic of many forms of movement which the animator gets in certain of his delineations4 ,the undulatory motive impulse of a creeping animal is somewhat like the sudden lashing of a whip1 or the wave-like disturbance given to a rope when it is sharply and strongly shaken in a certain way4 ,,inanimate ,,things ,,in ,,movement ,,chapter ,,vii ,,inanimate ,,things ,,in ,,movement ,there is very little effect of motion on the screen of a moving straight line by itself without any contrasting elements4 ,or1 as the moving-picture draftsman would say1 it does not animate well4 ,now supposing a picture is intended of a man tugging at a rope4 ,he pulls hard and the rope is taut and it appears practically straight4 ,the animation of the arms shows that they are moving and give a good illusion of the tugging1 but the rope shows no movement on account of its rectilinearity4 ,it will be only when the artist gives the rope a little undulating--or even a snake-like--motion now and then that he can give the effect of any disturbance in it4 ,this sort of thing1 a slight shaking or a wavering of the line1 would do for ordinary cases but it would be better if the artist showed a loose strand of cordage fibre creeping along in the direction that the rope is supposed to be going4 ,but still better would it be to have a few kinks forming in the rope and showing them agitated as they go in the direction of the pull on the rope4 ,in producing this latter illusion the likely expedient that the skilled animator would use is that of having a set of celluloids with drawings--three or five--showing the kink represented in a number of progressive positions4 ,the plan would be to have the details in a cycle1 so that when the last detail of the cycle is photographed1 the first one exactly follows in a proper order4 ,the artist can put these rope drawings on the same sheets of paper that hold the arm movements--we have in mind the picture of the man tugging at the rope1 of course4 ,then the cycle of drawings with the arm movements and the kinks of the rope in their progressive order can be used over and over again as long as it seems consistent with good judgment4 ,this idea of arranging things in cycles is the general way of animating inanimate things4 ,nearly all the technical items in this chapter are managed with some such plan4 ,generally1 too1 the details are drawn on the transparent celluloids4 ,the problem in devising the components of any cycle is to have these components so arranged that the orderly movements take place from the first of the series to the last and then begin with the first again4 ,the action must not skip1 cause a hesitation1 or go backward4 ,this simply means that the components are to be spaced properly with respect to their relations to each other4 ,it would be difficult to give by words any directions exactly how to do this2 actual drawing1 with a testing in the preliminary sketches is the surest way of accomplishing it4 ,as general directions1 however1 the advice would be to have an odd number of drawings and to vary the spatial intervals between the separate items4 ,they should not1 above all things1 be equidistant4 ,where the artist wishes to present to the spectator an animated drawing of a waving banner1 or flag1 he makes a cycle of different drawings4 ,if it is a flag1 these drawings are made with undulating folds that pass the length of the flag as if it were agitated by the wind4 ,almost any sort of rippling effect1 necessitating but three slightly different drawings1 will satisfy the average audience4 ,but if the artist wishes to do conscientious work1 he will give a little more attention to his planning and try to make it nearer actuality4 ,then he will contrive that there be one dominant drapery fold which is carried out farther and farther along the ruffled flag4 ,as this fold nears the end it lessens its volume and at last disappears in a sudden flap4 ,this will take five or seven drawings4 ,in planning the cycle it will be arranged that immediately before the last flapping1 the first phase of the dominant fold begins again4 ,this effect of ruffling drapery by a fixed set of cycles used always in the same order will1 of course1 give a monotonous waving4 ,but it can be diversified by an occasional break in the order in which the separate elements of the cycle are photographed1 or an added modification obtained by a supplemental large flapping fold which can be produced by one extra drawing4 ,an ordinary fragment of drapery in a garment is easily animated by making it in three phases4 ,this will give a satisfactory quivering motion when projected in any bit of drapery that is blown about or flutters on a figure in action4 ,illustration3 ,,cycle ,,of ,,drawings ,,to ,,produce ,a ,,screen ,,animation ,,of ,a ,,waving ,,flag4 ,flowing water1 waves1 and rippling on the surface of a stream1 are not difficult matters to animate if the artist keeps in mind that the plainest unelaborated line work gives for these elusive pictorial ingredients the most striking effects on the screen4 ,it is customary1 again1 for artistic particulars like these to be made in cycles of three or five drawings4 ,the action for this class of subjects is nearly always quick1 and so drawings for the purpose need not be numerous4 ,a water-splash is a detail of a screen animation rather frequently introduced4 ,animators have adopted a stereotyped way of rendering it4 ,when it is associated with a falling of some unlucky character into the water1 it is very effective from a pictorial and a humorous point of view4 ,the succeeding up-rushing column of water1 after the splash1 is made in the form of a huge mushroom--rather conventional but extremely comical4 ,in such a particular as a jet of water1 a cycle of drawings is also used4 ,in planning such drawings for animation care must be taken that they give in the combined screen illusion a proper one of falling water4 ,the slightest misplacing of succeeding details representing the jet may give an effect of the water going backward4 ,a funny touch is what is wanted in a humorous picture1 but1 generally1 not of this sort4 ,illustration3 ,,cycle ,,of ,,drawings ,,for ,,an ,,effect ,,of ,,falling ,,water4 ,the drawings are repeated1 number #a following number #c4 ,imparting an appearance of rain over a scene is produced by having several celluloids with lines indicating this4 ,they would be used in their order as designed during the photography in the usual way4 ,falling snow--that indispensable ingredient of the provincial melodrama--is simply managed by spreading1 at haphazard over several celluloids1 spots of white pigment4 ,a general tinting1 of course1 over the underlying pictorial composition would add1 by contrast of tone1 to the illusion4 ,a blank sheet of celluloid placed over the entire drawing is often employed to hold components of some quickly moving element of an incident4 ,each separate detail of its drawing1 in this case1 is made on this blank celluloid under the camera and photographed as it is made4 ,supposing that it is lightning zigzagging across a dark background4 ,there will be drawn over this celluloid the first part of the bolt1 photographed and then another part drawn which is photographed1 and then the end of the bolt which is also separately taken4 ,this drawing of the lightning-bolt1 in white pigment1 can be easily rubbed off with a paint rag1 or cotton wadding1 and then another lightning-bolt drawn and photographed in the same way4 ,in some cases where a large volume of smoke is to be shown in hurried movement1 the animator draws the smoke in distemper pigment--sombre dark grays1 half-tints1 or in white--on a blank sheet of celluloid covering the scene4 ,the effect of smoke moving very quickly could also be drawn in progressive fragments on the upper surface of the glass in the frame that is pressed down upon the drawings each time that they are photographed4 ,if it is a house burning1 for instance1 the flames in white paint and the smoke in grays and black can be put on its surface4 ,illustration3 ,a cycle of three drawings is sufficient to give a vivid representation of the puffing exhaust from an automobile4 ,little happenings that form part of a general scene are managed1 as a rule1 too1 by cycles of drawings or cycles of details in a drawing4 ,to specify a few things1 we may cite puffs of vapor from an automobile1 steam pouring out of the spout of a teakettle1 and smoke from a chimney4 ,vapor1 steam1 and smoke are best represented by pigment1 as hard ink contours are not exactly suited for such elements of a pictorial composition4 ,but such elements defined by ink lines in a comic drawing are1 of course1 excusable4 ,sometimes to show smoke moving where the drawings are all on paper1 representing it by crayon-sauce with a stump has been found to be effective4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,explosion4 ,if an artist is picturing in a comic cartoon the firing of a cannon1 he indicates a globular projectile leaving the cannon's mouth4 ,the artist does not do this because of any scrupulous care in picturing reality but merely that it seems in keeping with the idea of vivid comic delineation4 ,in producing the appearance of a cannon-ball following its trajectory off into the far distance he takes heed of the law of perspective that requires an object to become visionally smaller as it nears the horizon4 ,this animation is easily managed4 ,a certain number of models of the missile are cut out of thin cardboard graduated in size from the first that leaves the cannon's mouth to the smallest for the distance4 ,they are used by putting one at a time in their proportionate places under the camera in connection with the other work during the photography4 ,not many of these models would be required1 as the action is so rapidly represented that almost any sort of illusive effect will do for the purpose4 ,according to the popular idea1 every comic scenario should provide for some cataclysmic climax in which the entire picture area1 or a large part of it1 is to be filled with the graphic symbols denoting an explosion or any sudden occurrence or mishap4 ,such things for the animator are not hard4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,finishing ,,stroke ,,of ,,some ,,farcical ,,situation4 ,illustration3 ,,piano ,,practice4 ,a4 ,general effect of the animation4 ,b4 ,part of the design which is drawn on the transparent celluloid4 ,below3 ,three separate drawings1 used in sequence1 with the design on the stationary celluloid4 ,then radiating lines1 exclamation-points1 zigzagging lines1 and similar whimsical markings--shorthand signs emphasizing the comic note--are ideographs of expression that the animator delights to put into his work4 ,besides their forcibleness1 they add variety to the film4 ,illustration3 ,these three drawings are used in sequence and repeated as long as the particular effect that they give is desired4 ,but bits of dramatic business like these should be used in moderation and in their proper places and always at the right time4 ,besides1 being easily drawn1 their accomplishment on the film presents no difficulties4 ,the several methods by which they can be produced are3 7#a7 ,to arrange their components in cycles2 7#b7 drawing them in their order under the camera and photographing progressively2 7#c7 have little cut-out pieces to move about under the camera and photographed at each place that they have been moved to4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,constellation4 ,the four simple elements above give on the screen the lively animation indicated by the lower sketch4 ,take for instance such a nonsensical conceit as that of having a constellation of stars encircling a dazed man's head4 ,this could be made by having 7#a7 a cycle of drawings for the effect2 or 7#b7 drawing it progressively under the camera over a piece of celluloid2 or1 again1 7#c7 by having a number of little stars cut out of paper and moved around and manipulated the same as other cut-out models4 ,illustration3 ,the simple elements1 #a1 #b1 and #c1 are used with sketch ,b to give the screen effect shown in ,a4 ,one can see from all these particulars that making animated cartoons is not always a matter of drawing1 pure and simple4 ,the animator would make very little progress if he were to refuse to take advantage of any proper expedients or tricks to accelerate his work4 ,illustration3 ,the animator1 as well as the comic graphic artist1 makes use of signs to elucidate the story4 ,,miscellaneous ,,matters ,,in ,,making ,,animated ,,screen ,,pictures ,,chapter ,,viii ,,miscellaneous ,,matters ,,in ,,making ,,animated ,,screen ,,pictures ,many of the striking ways of telling incidents of an animated cartoon put one in mind of the pictorial symbols of primitive man4 ,an example is that of a vision appearing above the head of some one in doubt or in a revery4 ,then there is the miniature scene floating over a sleeper to tell that of which he is dreaming4 ,these and other similar forms are supplementary ways of explaining incidents in a screen story4 ,they are also used in the regular photographic film2 but they are specifically typical of the animated cartoon4 ,they are amusing additions to a film that are certain to please whether used to apprise the audience of what is going on in the character's mind1 or to explain the dream of a sleeper as he lies abed4 ,there are several modes of creating any of these effects4 ,the usual way would be that of having the quiescent part1 say it is a sleeper1 limned on the celluloid2 and the details of the moving part1 say the vision1 on three or five sheets of paper4 ,illustration3 ,,symbolic ,,animation ,,of ,,snoring4 ,to effect this1 the sleeper would be drawn on celluloid and the pictures in the clouds on separate sheets of paper4 ,perhaps the humorist-artist wishes to make his picture a little bit more telling by indicating1 with appropriate onomatopic consonants1 the sound of snoring4 ,these additions can be drawn while the photography is taking place on a blank celluloid sheet superimposed over all the drawings in a way explained in a preceding chapter4 ,symbols of musical notation and sound-imitating words are often introduced into a screen picture4 ,they can be made to dance in rhythm1 or at haphazard1 by drawing them in series of three or so1 on celluloid sheets4 ,these would be placed1 one at a time1 in their order over the general scene and repeated as long as desired4 ,illustration3 ,series of drawings marked ,a show the screen effect desired4 ,below3 the elements representing it that are used with the simple component--on celluloid--marked ,b4 ,the employment of balloons--they have been alluded to before--is a frequent one in comic screen work4 ,they are the mouthpieces containing the dialogue of the characters4 ,their outline1 more or less balloon-shaped1 hovers over the heads of the speakers4 ,the lines defining the balloons can come into the scene gradually in a lively way1 and the dialogue itself can come in word by word4 ,this latter scheme itself suggests talking4 ,when the first animated cartoons were produced and an effect with balloons was intended1 the artist thought that he was doing well enough if he showed the lettering and merely had the person supposed to be speaking standing motionless4 ,but now an artist who cares enough for his craft to put as much business into the scenes as possible will show the lips moving and the arms gesticulating at the same time that the lettering appears4 ,there are innumerable things that the artist must think of while he is photographing his drawings1 and one of the weighty ones is to have the lettering for any particular dialogue1 or explanation1 held long enough on the screen for it to be read4 ,every studio has its own special rule as to the number of separate frames of a film to allow for a word4 ,the only way to arrive at any conclusion as to how much film to take for any sentence in a balloon1 or on a title1 is to have some one read it and then time this reading4 ,in this way the artist will be able to tell how much to give any particular wording4 ,he will be able1 too1 after a while1 to formulate his own rule with regard to the matter4 ,illustration3 ,a 8,,close-,,up40 ,a favorite method of telling something1 or to hint as to that which is to follow1 is to have a character discovered reading a newspaper upon which the item explaining the matter shows in an exaggerated type4 ,the design is usually enclosed within a circle with the outside space a solid black4 ,there is no special reason for using this particular encircling design4 ,it is a way often used4 ,technically it is a good plan to employ this telescopic mat1 as it may be called1 as its forcible contrast of solid black margin breaks the monotony of the general uniform photographic tone of the rest of the film4 ,illustration3 ,to vivify this on the screen1 little 8model0 hats are used during the photography4 ,an amusing occurrence sometimes brought into a story is that of having a man's hat fly from his head into the air and come down upon his head again4 ,of course1 the practical way of putting this on a length of film would be that of having a little cut-out dummy4 ,the artist1 however1 takes the trouble of making several dummies of the hat drawn in different views4 ,a single dummy would show but a mere mechanical turning1 but by using several in different views1 he gets a very good similitude of actuality in the wind twirling the hat around in a lively way4 ,a little point to help the humor of the situation is that of having the hat hesitate1 as it were1 and give an extra spin immediately before it lands upon the head4 ,it isn't always necessary for an artist to make a cycle or a series of drawings for a movement4 ,for instance1 he is showing a rather large face on the screen and it is intended that the eyes move4 ,this could be effected by drawings1 but there is a much simpler way4 ,the places for the eyes on the main drawing are left blank and holes cut out the size of these blank spaces4 ,on a narrow piece of paper at the proper distance1 two eyes are drawn4 ,this paper1 with the eyes1 is slipped underneath the one with the drawing that has the eye spaces cut out4 ,now the manipulation of this paper1 holding the eyes while in position under the face1 is easy4 ,the various positions in which the eyes are placed1 it is understood1 will be photographed by the stop-motion method4 ,illustration3 8,,cut-,,out0 ,,eyes4 ,the true artist1 in keeping with his talent for creative work1 will be disposed to devise helpful contrivances or expedients to lighten irksome and monotonous details arising in this art4 ,and in addition to the possession of this talent1 and that of good draftsmanship1 he must be quick in deciding on the best means of economizing labor1 so that he can spend more time where thorough drawing is needed4 ,he must1 in short1 in any particular case1 put in as much work as it requires and no more4 ,by experience he will learn to know where to slight--8slight0 isn't exactly the word1 but it will do--the drawing4 ,with respect to this latter point1 suppose there is some arm movement1 with the arm swinging as it does in a hurried walk4 ,hands1 it is certain1 are difficult details to draw1 and if they are carefully rendered in all of the positions it would take a long time to draw the entire series4 ,but the experienced animator has learned that at times he can1 for some of the positions1 every other one perhaps1 make quickly lined marks indicative of hands4 ,these quickly made lines1 however1 must be drawn in a way that will help the action4 ,exactly how to make them and to what extent to 8slight0 them is learned only by long experience4 ,illustration3 ,for some quick actions1 8in-between0 drawings can be slighted as shown in numbers #b and #d4 ,often there is a question as to the number of drawings necessary for a movement4 ,if a hand1 for example1 is to be moved from the side of the thigh to the head and then to touch the brim of the hat1 one single position half-way between the two extreme ones may do for some swift action in a humorous cartoon1 but if it is for a slower action it should have at least three positions between the extremes4 ,illustration3 ,,illustrating ,,the ,,number ,,of ,,drawings ,,required ,,for ,a ,,movement4 ,above3 for a quick movement4 ,below3 for a slower movement4 ,but it doesn't worry the skilled animator very much whether he makes three1 five1 or even more drawings between the extreme positions of any gesture or action4 ,nevertheless1 while the artist is making these arm movements he must put thought into the work4 ,there is1 for instance1 a certain matter with respect to drawing the relative axes of the segments of a limb that requires reflective attention4 ,to be precise1 suppose the action is to represent an arm moving from below and pointing with the index-finger skyward4 ,now1 in any directly following phases of the movement the same degree of flexure at the articulations must not be present in the drawings4 ,the whole arm as it hangs by the side1 before the action begins1 is nearly straight1 with very little bending at either elbow or wrist4 ,in moving it upward1 it is not to be traced with this same relative straightness and same degree of joint angularity in all the positions4 ,it would move then on the screen with the ungracefulness of an automaton4 ,instead1 the several drawings should have the joints--elbow and wrist--at different degrees of flexure4 ,especially is this difference to vary from one drawing to a succeeding one1 with the angle at the joint1 just a little more1 or just a little less4 ,the whole matter can be best comprehended if the artist1 before depicting this action1 try it himself4 ,then he would see that if he moves the arm as if it were a rigid thing1 only hinged at the shoulder1 the movement would be false and not characteristic of a living organism4 ,the natural way is an unconstrained1 easy bending movement4 ,the animator in his drawings slightly emphasizes this manner of moving4 ,illustration3 ,,illustrating ,a ,,point ,,in ,,animating ,a ,,moving ,,limb4 ,above3 moving automaton-like with no bending at the joints4 ,below3 moving with various degrees of flexion at the joints4 ,an artist shows his aptness for character delineation in the way in which he draws the views of a face for turning it from side to side4 ,a graphic caricaturist of limited scope has a proneness for adhering to a few stencil patterns1 in the matter of pose1 for his characters4 ,front face1 profile1 and occasionally a three-quarter view make up his catalogue of facial picturing4 ,the animator uses this delineatory trilogy1 too1 in the ordinary turning of the head from side to side4 ,but he must be skilled1 besides that of portraying a face in these views1 in drawing it in any view4 ,and a skill that is still more needed is that of being able to keep the portraiture of a character throughout any series of drawings4 ,illustration3 ,in turning the head from profile to full face1 one drawing between the extremes is sufficient for a quick movement4 ,but when it is desired that the action be 8smoother0 two more drawings are required4 ,to keep the features the same throughout a number of drawings it is found advantageous to spend a little more time in the preliminary planning when creating the original sketch for the character4 ,the idea is not so much to make a face that is easy to draw as to give it certain distinguishing lineaments that are recognizable in the varying positions needed in animating it4 ,besides1 when originating a face for frequent repetition in a cartoon1 seeking one that can be drawn quickly and easily represented in any view facilitates the work of the tracers4 ,a little trick of comic graphic artists is that of making the features of a face in small circles1 or somewhat roundish curves4 ,this sort of thing is not conducive to good character drawing4 ,the animator also uses these forms--round eyes1 circle-like nose1 and a circular twist in other parts of the features4 ,now in his case1 this can be forgiven1 perhaps1 when one considers the difficulties of his art2 for these particular forms are1 as we shall try to explain immediately below1 easy to copy and trace4 ,as in caligraphy1 unfixed and diverse in its qualities and peculiarities1 so with every individual in pen drawing1 certain traits occur in the strokes4 ,in pen-and-ink drawing the more individual and distinctive the style1 the harder it will be to copy or counterfeit it4 ,but if the markings approach the geometric1 definite and precise1 then they are easily copied and imitated4 ,this is why the little circles and similar curved markings are so frequently used in animated cartoons4 ,there is nothing ambiguous in the lineaments of a face made with saucer-like eyes1 and a nose like a circle4 ,its peculiarities are quickly noticed1 easily remembered1 and traced with facility4 ,as has been explained1 an artist rarely finishes an entire set of drawings for a film without help1 but has a staff of helpers4 ,it can be well understood1 then1 that an essential to success is that the members of this staff keep the same quality of line in all the drawings4 ,one of the difficulties in a staff of helpers is that of keeping a uniformity of portraiture in the characters4 ,and because the circular lineaments are easy to trace that is the reason why they are chosen to form the basis for the details of a face4 ,illustration3 ,easily drawn circular forms and curves make for speed in animated cartoon work4 ,there is a tendency in every one1 even on the part of the author of the original model1 to depart from the first-planned type of face4 ,the approved way of avoiding this is to have a set of sketches of the characters drawn on special sheets of paper that are to be used by all the workers to trace from4 ,in a studio with numerous workers1 all rushing to finish a five-hundred-foot reel in every week1 it is the custom to have plates engraved from the original sketches and a number of copies printed1 so that all may have a set4 ,with these printed copies it will then be merely a matter of having a steady hand and an ability to trace accurately from the copy on to a fresh sheet of paper placed over the illuminated glass of the drawing-board4 ,no doubt1 as it has been referred to so many times1 it is clearly understood now what an important part transparent celluloid plays in this art4 ,it is employed not only to save the labor of reproducing a number of times the details of a scene1 but also to help keep these details coincident1 or uniform4 ,in a face1 there is a certainty that its lineaments will be the same if it is drawn but once on celluloid2 but if it is copied each time on a long string of successive sheets of paper1 there is a likelihood that it will vary and so give the lines on the screen an effect of wiggling about4 ,there are many little matters of technic and rendering that arise in this art4 ,for example1 in making certain parts of a figure1 say a coat1 in solid black1 it has been found best1 instead of making it an absolute silhouette1 to indicate by the thinnest of white lines the contours of the details4 ,a sleeve1 for instance1 should be outlined with such a white line4 ,this seems to be a lot of trouble for so little1 but1 judged by the result on the screen1 has been shown to be worth while4 ,at this point we can touch upon the question of what is meant by 8animation40 ,an artist with little experience may make a series of movement phases for an action1 but when the drawings are tested it is found that they do not animate2 that is1 give in synthesis the illusion of easy motion4 ,it may be a matter of incorrect drawing1 perhaps1 or he may have the drawings nearly correct1 but he has failed to make use of certain little tricks1 or1 shall we say1 failed to observe certain dexterous points in the technic of the art8 ,we will cite one little trick--humoring the vision1 if one may put it this way3 have a spot1 or patch1 of black repeated relatively in the same position throughout the series of a movement4 ,an example is that of having the boots of a figure of a solid black4 ,the eye catching the two black spots as they alternately go back and forth is deluded with respect to the forcibleness of the animation even if the walking action is not as correctly drawn as it should be4 ,an added effect is given to this illusory ruse if a tiny high light is left on the toe of each black boot4 ,the final test for drawings for animation is1 it stands to reason1 the result on the screen4 ,one may1 though1 approximately find out whether or not any sequence of drawings animate by flapping them in a sort of way akin to the book-form kineograph novelty noted in a preceding chapter4 ,two immediately following drawings can be tested this way3 with one hand they are held near one corner pressed against the drawing-board1 then with the other hand the top drawing is moved rapidly up and down4 ,in this way the two drawings are synthesized somewhat1 and if the action is delineated correctly there will be some notion of the appearance on the screen4 ,this little experiment crudely demonstrates the phenomenon of after-images and the operation typifies a simple synthesizing apparatus4 ,a significant addition to a scene1 if it is suited to the story and consistent with the general plan1 is to have some foreground detail in front of the moving figure1 or figures4 ,this sometimes consists of a rock1 a clump of foliage1 or a tree trunk4 ,the contrast of the inertness in these details gives an added force to the animating that takes place back of their mass4 ,illustration3 ,foreground details of a pictorial composition help the animator in several ways4 ,their inertness1 for one thing1 affords a contrast to the moving figure4 ,this feature of a picture is drawn on celluloid that is placed on top of the rest of the set having to do with the particular animation4 ,it is possible1 though1 for an artist1 if he is dexterous1 to fasten this inert foreground to the under-side of the glass in the frame which is pressed down over the drawings during the photography4 ,the foreground feature1 of course1 is cut out in silhouette and fastened with an adhesive like rubber cement4 ,this cement is an article of great usefulness in a photographic studio2 especially for temporary use over drawings1 as it can be easily rubbed off afterward by the friction of the finger-tips4 ,radically opposite in method to the scheme described above1 in which an inert object helps the animation1 is the panorama4 ,in this screen illusion the figure1 which is thought of as moving1 occupies the same position2 while the landscape1 normally quiet1 is in motion4 ,certainly we have all experienced the sensation1 when seated in a railway-train waiting for it to go1 of suddenly imagining that it has started2 when1 in fact1 it has not budged4 ,this simply has happened3 while occupied with thoughts not pertaining to our surroundings--perhaps reading--we casually caught sight of a moving train on an adjacent track1 and as we were in the state of expectancy of at any moment being on the move1 we immediately thought that our anticipation had been fulfilled4 ,even if1 in a moment or two1 we realize that our senses have deceived us1 it is hard to shake off the first-formed delusion of being in motion4 ,now the screen panorama is a similar delusion4 ,we see near the centre of the screen a figure going through the motions of progression1 but we know perfectly well that he is in the same place all the time4 ,and we know that the landscape is drawn on a band of paper that is pushed along back of the figure4 ,all our knowing does not help us4 ,in spite of it the little figure spectrally advances and the landscape deceptively passes by as we know it does 7visionally7 when we ourselves are running very fast4 ,illustration3 ,,making ,,an ,,animated ,,cartoon ,,panorama4 ,the figure is depicted in a series of movement phases drawn on separate sheets of celluloid4 ,these are used continuously1 one at a time1 and in their proper order during the photography4 ,the landscape1 drawn on a strip of paper1 moves along under the celluloid little by little in the direction of the arrow4 ,the manner in which a panorama is produced is this3 the landscape is drawn on a long strip of paper2 this is to be moved little by little and photographed at each place to which it has been moved4 ,the figure that is to walk1 or run1 is drawn in the different phases of action on sheets of celluloid4 ,these are placed in their order over the landscape during the photography4 ,the separate drawings of the actions of the figure were drawn so that the bodies remained relatively in the same place1 but the limbs1 or heads1 varied in attitudes4 ,the planning of the action in a figure for a panorama is proceeded with in the same way as that for producing a regular walk or run4 ,one special care in the work1 however1 is this3 the limbs as they are sketched in their appropriate attitudes in the several drawings must not have identical outlines4 ,that is1 explaining it in another way1 if all of the set are placed together over the illuminated tracing glass1 no two drawings should correspond with respect to the positions of the limbs4 ,the bodies in the drawings should exactly concur in position1 but if some attention is given to the rise and fall of the trunk1 as in a typical walk1 the screen illusion will be very much better4 ,slightly shifting it up and down on a vertical would effect this4 ,the band of paper with the landscape is moved in the direction opposite to that in which the figure is supposed to go4 ,the photographer has many things to think of while he is putting this panorama effect on a film4 ,he must move the landscape strip2 sometimes as little as one-sixteenth of an inch at a time2 put a celluloid sheet with one of the phases of the action in place1 get it in its proper order1 and then turn the camera gearing to make the exposure4 ,in some special cases he will have another matter to think of2 namely1 a second panorama strip to move1 and at a different speed4 ,this is when he wishes to give a little better representation of verisimilitude than that produced by the single panorama strip4 ,far-off moving objects1 as we know1 appear to go slower than those that are close to us4 ,we are aware of this in looking at a distant airplane high up in the sky that we know is going very fast but seems as though it is going very slowly4 ,and at night an illuminated railway-train in the valley below us1 when we are on an elevation1 seems to creep along like a snail4 ,illustration3 ,,illustrating ,,the ,,apparent ,,slowness ,,of ,a ,,distant ,,moving ,,object ,,compared ,,to ,,one ,,passing ,,close ,,to ,,the ,,eye4 ,to bring it to pass that a panorama have the effect of near objects going faster than those that are distant1 it is necessary to have two strips of panorama details4 ,one strip will represent the foreground1 which is to be moved much quicker1 one-eighth of an inch1 or so4 ,a second strip will answer for the distance1 which is moved1 about one-sixteenth of an inch1 or even less4 ,if the foreground strip is moved at rather wide intervals1 the effect on the screen will be a little like that which we see from the window of a railway-coach when telegraph-poles and near objects seem to fly by4 ,the panorama strip for the foreground is designed with simple elements so that it can be cut out in silhouette and laid over the other one4 ,with reference to the quality of the details of a scene on a panorama2 although it is usual to fill up the whole length with items of interest1 there must be observed some degree of simplicity4 ,perhaps it might be best to say that there should be a subordination in the details1 even if they are numerous1 and then have some striking feature or object occurring every once in a while1 to catch the eye and so help the movement4 ,objects1 too1 automobiles and other vehicles1 are combined with these panoramas4 ,this brings us to the consideration of the matter of animating wheels1 or making them turn in the screen illusion4 ,illustration3 ,some distinguishing mark on a wheel is needed to give it the screen illusion of turning4 ,a wheel true and accurately adjusted and going rapidly gives--with the exception of a blurring of spokes1 if there are any--very little evidence of rotation4 ,it is only when it turns unsteadily1 or when there is some distinguishing mark found on or near the rim1 that we see plainly that the wheel turns4 ,sometimes it is a stain1 a spot on the tire1 a temporary repair1 or a piece of paper that has caught in the spokes that indicates a turning of the wheel4 ,further amplification is needless1 as a glance at the vehicles1 as they pass in the roadway1 will make clear4 ,so the animator1 when he wishes to show a wheel turning1 simply copies actuality by drawing a wheel with some such feature as noted above4 ,a mere black spot on a wheel near the circumference is sometimes sufficient4 ,it is usual to have the wheels drawn on thin cardboard and cut out and fastened in their proper places so that they can be turned4 ,they are turned a little at a time and photographed after each turn4 ,illustration3 ,to represent the hunter in sketch ,a suddenly trembling with fear as in sketch ,b1 two drawings1 #a and #b1 with varying wavy lines are used alternately during the photography4 ,,photography ,,and ,,other ,,technical ,,matters ,,chapter ,,ix ,,photography ,,and ,,other ,,technical ,,matters ,respecting adaptability and results1 the same motion-picture camera that is used in the field1 or the studio1 can be used to make films for animated cartoons4 ,in making cartoons1 however1 two particulars at variance with the usual procedure first must be noted3 7#a7 ,the camera is pointed downward and not horizontally1 as is ordinarily the case1 and 7#b7 with each turn of the camera handle only one frame--one-sixteenth of a foot of film--is photographed1 and not eight1 as is commonly the case4 ,the camera in making animated cartoons is held1 pointing downward1 by a firmly built framework4 ,the artist1 having decided on the dimension of the field for his drawings1 determines the height approximately of the camera above the table top1 where the drawings are placed4 ,naturally it will be high enough so that when he works at the table while disposing the drawings1 adjusting the dummies1 or in some cases making drawings1 his head will not come in contact with the front of the lens4 ,the particular distance between the lens and the table top is dependent upon the kind of lens in the camera4 ,it is a common practice to equip a camera with a two-inch 7fifty-millimetre7 lens4 ,it is possible to use a lens of this focus for cartoons4 ,there is no special type of structure for supporting the camera above the board upon which the drawings are placed for photography4 ,an artist contemplating embarking upon this line of work1 and intending to carry on the whole process from the beginning to the time when he hands the exposed film to the laboratory for development1 will have a chance to put any inventive ability that he may have into practice in designing a framework for the purpose4 ,in building such a structure these things must be thought of3 7#a7 ,the structure must be firmly built so that the likelihood of the camera being jarred is lessened2 7#b7 the distance between the camera and board to be ascertained1 approximately at first2 7#c7 an arrangement for fixing the camera in a grooved sliding section so that its exact height can be adjusted when the field and focus are definitely fixed or there is to be any later readjustment4 ,the camera1 for instance1 may get jarred and put out of focus1 or get set obliquely with respect to the lines defining the field4 ,illustration3 ,,typical ,,arrangement ,,of ,,camera ,,and ,,lights ,,to ,,photograph ,,drawings ,,for ,,animated ,,cartoons4 ,c4 ,camera4 ,l4 ,lights4 ,m4 ,mechanism to turn camera shutter4 ,f4 ,hinged frame with glass to press down on the drawings4 ,b4 ,board holding the registering pegs4 ,some animators have mounted their camera so that the same framework can be used for a small field as well as a larger one4 ,this necessitates1 each time that the size of field is changed1 a troublesome setting of the camera in order again4 ,it is wisdom to keep to one size of field for all work1 so that when the camera is once in position it need not be changed4 ,the frame that holds the glass1 and which is hinged to the board where the drawings are placed1 and the registering pegs have already been described4 ,it is an excellent plan to have this board with the above-named adjuncts separate but screwed down upon the table top4 ,by having it this way it is possible to have another means of getting the camera and the field lines adjusted4 ,then if the outline of the field on the board and those defining the field in the camera do not fit each other exactly1 the board can be unscrewed1 shifted until it is right1 and fastened again4 ,in any film where there is a preponderance of straight lines--horizontal ones1 especially--it is a serious fault to have the slightest obliquity4 ,it will be emphasized on the screen4 ,the outlines of the little rectangular area1 where the pictures are taken in the camera1 must coincide with the outlines of the field on the board4 ,when the field is fixed and permanently marked with ink lines1 it is a good plan to draw a smaller rectangle1 one-half inch all around1 within the outer one4 ,the idea of this is to have a limiting area within which all important matters of the drawing are kept4 ,if the animator has had any experience with the ordinary still camera1 the practical knowledge gained then will help him in the matter of focussing1 or regulating the diaphragm of the lens1 so that all the details of the picture are sharply defined4 ,this comes next1 or rather in conjunction with the determining of the field and the permanent fixing of the camera4 ,in a still camera--that is to say1 an ordinary portrait or view apparatus--the focussing is on a ground glass1 while in a cinematographic instrument it is usual to place a piece of celluloid with a grained surface somewhat like ground glass into the place where the film passes4 ,the picture is focussed on this celluloid4 ,some1 however1 find a piece of blank film answers the purpose4 ,to the above consideration of setting up the camera and ascertaining the correctness of the field and the sharpness of the image1 the worker wise in perception will1 before beginning any important work1 make a test4 ,this is merely a matter of photographing a drawing1 or two1 on a short length of film1 taking it out of the camera1 and developing it4 ,here1 again1 any knowledge of photographic processes previously learned will be found useful4 ,there are in all metropolitan centres film laboratories to which the animator can send his exposed films to be developed and printed4 ,but for a test before beginning the work it is prudent and expeditious to keep a supply of chemicals on hand1 and then1 in a few minutes1 it will be possible to tell how matters stand in any particular that is in doubt4 ,the next step1 after the camera has been fixed in place1 is to construct a mechanism by which it can be turned conveniently by the photographer1 as he is seated below at the board where the drawings are placed4 ,this is contrived by a system of sprocket-wheels and chain-belts coming from the camera and carried down to the side of the table top1 where it ends in a wheel with a turning handle4 ,for the average individual this would not be a difficult construction to put up2 but it would be an altogether different problem if the animator wished to equip his camera with an electric motor to turn the camera mechanism4 ,in this case he would have many things to consider1 getting the particular type of motor1 for instance1 that will operate with the continual turning on and off of the power4 ,here certainly the best course is to have an expert install the motor and fix the intermediary mechanism connecting it with the camera-working parts4 ,electric motors to drive camera mechanisms are in general use among those who make titles for moving-picture films4 ,for this particular branch of the industry they are an indispensable adjunct4 ,illustration3 ,,part ,,of ,a ,,length ,,of ,,film ,,for ,a ,,title4 ,for every second that the wording is viewed on the screen1 sixteen of these frames pass through the projector4 ,it would seem to the spectator in the theatre1 unfamiliar with the technic of cinematography1 that when he sees a title held on the screen for any lengthy period1 the practical way of effecting this would be to have a single picture of this title kept stationary during the period4 ,but this is not the way the matter is worked out4 ,a title in a screen story is given a certain length of film1 with every frame in this length containing the same words4 ,the particular length--footage--allowed for a title depends upon the amount of its reading-matter4 ,some titles are very long4 ,one such1 requiring1 say1 fifteen feet1 makes it necessary to turn the camera handle two hundred and forty times1 if the operation is by hand4 ,a very monotonous job4 ,so title studios attach a motor and appropriate mechanism to a camera1 and with it1 too1 an automatic counter4 ,then in photographing a title it is a simple matter of starting the mechanically driven shutter1 watching the figures on the counter dial1 and when the required exposures have been registered1 pulling the lever that stops the mechanism4 ,where a camera1 however1 is used for animated drawings exclusively1 a motor is not absolutely necessary4 ,an automatic counter would be a very useful addition to a camera in making dissolves4 ,one form of these fantasies is that in which the screen is perfectly black at first and then a small spot of light appears1 which grows larger by degrees1 to reveal at the full opening the scene or subject of the film4 ,this is produced by a vignetter1 or iris dissolve4 ,a vignetter is a device1 fixed generally in front of a lens1 that consists of a number of crescent-shaped segments of thin metal pivoted on a circumference4 ,when these segments move in unison toward the centre1 they gradually decrease the aperture in the lens tube4 ,but when the movement is in a contrary direction1 they cause the aperture to open by degrees4 ,those who have used an ordinary snap-shot camera no doubt are familiar with a similar device--the iris diaphragm1 or lens stop4 ,but in the diaphragm the segments do not completely close1 and there is always a tiny opening left in the centre4 ,the iris dissolve1 or vignetter1 is made to close completely4 ,the way by which pictures are 8faded on0 is to start with the vignetter closed and then open it while the camera handle is turned to take the picture4 ,to 8fade off0 a picture1 the process is simply reversed2 i4 e41 gradually closing the vignetter while the last part of the picture is being taken4 ,the most frequent application that an animated cartoon artist makes of a vignetter is making cross dissolves1 or causing one picture to blend into another4 ,imagine now that the idea to be expressed1 through the medium of one of these cross dissolves1 is that of a character standing in an attitude of reflection and supposed to be thinking of how he would look in a complete suit of armor4 ,there will be two drawings3 one with the figure in ordinary dress1 and the other with him clad in the armor4 ,first the picture with ordinary dress is photographed4 ,during this operation the vignetter is closed by degrees4 ,when it is closed1 the film that was just photographed upon is wound back again into the magazine4 ,now1 as we know1 during this procedure the light1 which was getting weaker and weaker1 proportionately lessened its effect on the sensitized emulsion of the film1 so that its picture-forming property was not all used up4 ,there is still a certain proportion of photographic potency left for the next exposure4 ,the next step is to replace the first drawing with the one showing the character in armor4 ,illustration3 ,,vignetter1 ,,or ,,iris ,,dissolve4 ,below3 ,three stages during the movement of the pivoted segments4 ,we left the vignetter completely closed1 and the same length of film that had just passed back of the lens has been wound back into the magazine and is ready to cross the exposure field again and be photographed upon the second time4 ,now the vignetter is gradually opened1 the new picture is being taken and blended with the image of the first picture4 ,these two procedures in their method of operating and their effects compensate one another4 ,the gradual closing of the vignetter has its reciprocal part in the gradual opening2 the lessening of the light strength is reciprocal to the increase of the light strength2 then the fading of definiteness in one picture is made up by the gradually increasing clearness in the other4 ,in trick work of this kind a mechanical counter would be very useful in measuring the length of film as it is turned into the magazine and then out again4 ,it is understood1 of course1 that our particular counter also counts backward4 ,and1 again1 with reference to cameras3 an animator when he selects his camera should be certain that he gets one with which it is possible to turn the camera backward for making these dissolves and any other trick work involving like manipulation4 ,immediately above we gave certain reasons for the making of tests on a small piece of film before photographing4 ,another matter for which tests should be made is the question of illumination4 ,it is important that the field should be evenly illuminated4 ,all this is an affair of adjusting the lights2 that is1 getting them one on each side of the camera in their proper positions with reference to the lens opening and the distance away from the drawing-board4 ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,to ,,explain ,,the ,,distribution ,,of ,,light ,,in ,a ,,cross ,,dissolve4 ,a4 ,when the vignetter is gradually closed during the taking of the first picture4 7,the film having been wound back is ready to be photographed upon again for the second part of the procedure47 ,b4 ,while the vignetter is gradually opened during the taking of the second picture4 ,c4 ,the percentages of light in the two exposures combined and giving the complete exposure time4 ,the mercury vapor-lamp which1 as has been mentioned1 is in general use for cartoon films1 has besides its illuminating qualities another great merit4 ,it is this3 it does not emit heat rays4 ,when it is remembered that an artist sometimes spends hours at a stretch photographing his numerous drawings for a cartoon film1 and that all this time his head is but a few inches from the lights1 this absence of heat is a desirable feature4 ,the manner of going about the photography1 which is the next stage of the work1 has been touched upon in another part of the book4 ,there are many more minute particulars in the making of an animated film to be considered4 ,take1 for instance1 the technical questions respecting the preparation of the drawings4 ,in the process where most of the drawings are made on paper1 the paper should be a fair quality of white linen ledger paper--but not too thick1 as transparency is a thing to think of1 and it is preferable1 too1 that there be no water-mark4 ,the design of a water-mark would be a disturbing element in tracing from one drawing to another4 ,ordinary black drawing ink is used for the line work1 but when a large area is to be solid black1 it has been found best to employ one of the black varnish stains that are mixed with turpentine4 ,in spite of the turpentine medium it is possible to apply it to paper4 ,these black stains are an intense black and do not lose their strength when viewed through the celluloid sheets4 ,it is not usual to obliterate a mistake in drawing with white pigment1 as it is an uncertain quantity in photography4 ,whether or not it will come out as a patch of gray1 or photograph correctly as white1 is difficult to judge beforehand4 ,it is best to take out ink lines that are not wanted with a sharp-bladed penknife and then smooth the surface of the paper with an ink eraser 7of rubber74 ,in drawing over the smooth surface of the celluloid a preliminary cleaning with weak ammonia water will make the ink flow evenly4 ,it is of course understood that the celluloid sheets can be used again after any particular film is finished4 ,ink or pigment can very easily be washed off with water4 ,in drawing on celluloid with a pen it is well to select one that will not scratch the surface4 ,scratches will hold1 in their shallow depths1 enough ink or pigment to break the evenness of a uniform background4 ,they will come out as spots on the film4 ,a well-worn pen1 one that has been 8broken in10 as the pen draftsmen say1 is the best4 ,the scheme of employing celluloid sheets to hold simple ink drawings1 which scheme is in common usage in the art1 has been adapted to the purpose of holding intricate drawings in distemper pigment4 ,before drawing any series of movements on celluloid it is the usual plan to work out all the scenes and actions on paper first and then trace them1 from these drawings1 to the surface of the celluloid4 ,when the drawings for a cartoon have been photographed1 the magazine into which the exposed film has been wound is taken out of the camera4 ,then1 in the dark room1 the film is taken out of this magazine and put into a regulation tin can and sent to the laboratory4 ,and so as to make it quite certain that the lid will not slip off and spoil the whole reel1 it is sealed around the edge with a piece of adhesive tape4 ,after the film has been developed1 the next step in the process is that of printing the positive4 ,this as well as the remaining technical matters is attended to by the laboratory4 ,titles1 to be sure1 could have been made at the same time that the animated pictures were taken2 but it is found advisable to have titles made by a studio that does this work exclusively and then have them joined to the film in their proper order4 ,illustration3 ,,illustrating ,,the ,,operation ,,of ,,one ,,type ,,of ,,motion-,,picture ,,printer4 ,with respect to this joining1 or splicing1 this is also looked after for the animator at the film laboratory4 ,but as it is not difficult to do1 the animator--impatient to have his film completed1 and not caring to wait until the laboratory finish it--will try his hand at it1 no doubt4 ,illustration3 ,,another ,,plan ,,for ,,an ,,animator',s ,,drawing-,,board4 ,reflecting the light with a mirror does away with the direct glare of the electric lamp4 ,he needs for this a little device to hold the two ends of the film together in their proper relationship while he spreads on the overlapping section a little film cement4 ,this is a firm adhesive4 ,the emulsion on the film where the cement is spread must be removed by a little moistening4 ,when the positive is entirely finished1 with main title and subtitles1 it is ready for screen examination4 ,then only will the artist be able to see1 as a finality1 his skill as an animator1 his expertness as a technical worker1 his cleverness as a humorist1 and the extent of his adroitness in plot construction4 ,illustration3 ,,canine ,,thoughts4 ,in giving screen life to the above1 the dog and dish would be drawn but once on celluloid and the other parts separately drawn for each phase of the movement4 ,,on ,,humorous ,,effects ,,and ,,on ,,plots ,,chapter ,x ,,on ,,humorous ,,effects ,,and ,,on ,,plots ,the purpose of the animated cartoon being to amuse1 the experienced animator makes it his aim to get1 as the saying goes in the trade1 a laugh in every foot of film4 ,the animated cartoon is allied in its kind to an extravagant farce or a lively comedy of the spoken stage4 ,although strongly limned character and that there be something moving all the time seem to be the two important ingredients of a film of this type1 it is not to be forgotten that plot is an essential in the work4 ,naturally1 a scenario1 or skeletonized plan of the story1 is written out first4 ,the full details of the action and business1 from the beginning to the very end1 are not worked out as they are in a manuscript for a stage play4 ,it is simply that some sort of a framework1 on which to build the story1 is first required4 ,in the early days of the art a film with a string of incidents only1 but with plenty of movement in the animated figures1 would find a ready market and an appreciative audience4 ,at the present time not only must the pictorial properties be well rendered imageries of nature but the story must be artistic in form4 ,this signifies that the idea of plot1 and all its attendant concomitants1 should be present4 ,the usual requirements of a dramatic story are now sought for in an animated cartoon4 ,the plot must be the orderly establishment of parts leading up to some main point1 or the working to a climax and a subsequent untangling of it all4 ,illustration3 ,,plenty ,,of ,,movement ,,is ,,demanded ,,in ,,screen ,,pictures4 ,if the artist does write the first sketch of the play himself1 he at least will elaborate it and add various bits of dramatic business4 ,this is all very well if he understands and knows what he is about1 but if1 on the other hand1 he has not the dramatic idea1 his additions are quite likely to confuse the story4 ,whether a film is for the purpose of amusement or to educate1 the plan should show that the attainment of something is being striven for4 ,in an educational film this is brought about by an adherence to pedagogical principles4 ,if it is a comic story1 due regard must be paid to dramatic construction4 ,it is obvious that if a humorous scenario has but two characters this will simplify the telling1 and the idea of their antagonisms1 obstacles1 and embarrassing difficulties are easily told4 ,the clash and the struggle between the two can be expressed in many simple ways1 the story carried on1 curiosity stimulated1 and an expectant feeling engendered as to what will happen4 ,the final episode is apt to be some calamitous fall with the whole picture area perhaps filled with a graphic representation of an explosion1 to be followed by an after-climax1 when the smoke has cleared away1 of the victim rubbing his head4 ,to be sure1 an animated cartoon needs a good many more incidents than one calamitous occurrence4 ,it is indispensable1 for the sake of an uninterrupted animation1 that it should have a succession of distressing mishaps1 growing in violence4 ,this idea of a cumulative chain of actions1 increasing in force and resultant misfortune1 is peculiarly adapted to animated drawings4 ,the animator1 if he is a good draftsman1 can manage his little picture people much easier than the theatrical manager does the members of his company4 ,a great danger1 nevertheless1 is that the animator1 with this facility of doing whatever he pleases with his characters1 may overdo the matter4 ,he must be careful that he does not create too much business for his actors1 and so retard the sequence of those episodes proper to the plot4 ,the very best type of animated cartoon tells the story from the very first incidents and throughout its whole continuance to the crisis1 and the ending by pantomimic acting only4 ,this means that there is no dialogue lettered on the drawings themselves4 ,symbolical signs1 like exclamation-marks1 sound-suggesting letters1 or the like1 are naturally proper and happy additions to drawings2 but as little dialogue as possible should be used in drawings4 ,they break the continuity of the animation1 for one thing4 ,although it is true that balloons with their wording make an easy way for the animator to have the automatic counter register 8footage0 7a consideration appealing to the business sense of the artist71 it is only when there is a good jest brought out that lettering on the drawings themselves can be forgiven4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,plaint ,,of ,,inanimate ,,things ,,can ,,be ,,rendered ,,effectively ,,on ,,the ,,screen4 ,in the early period of the development of animated comic drawings1 not even subtitles were interspersed throughout a film4 ,the entire story was told by pantomime4 ,nowadays it is becoming the fashion to use subtitles1 and have them to introduce incidentals1 mark a change of scene1 or bring in a witty remark4 ,wording brought into a cartoon film this way is often felicitous and technically legitimate4 ,but dialogue1 as has been stated1 should be kept out of the drawings themselves1 not only for the sake of artistic form1 but for commercial reasons4 7,films intended for exportation to countries where ,english is not spoken are much more valuable if they are without lettering in the pictorial parts4 ,with all wording on separate titles1 it is very easy to change them and have them joined to the film proper47 ,the above statement with its frank allusion to a matter of business seems to be getting away from our subject2 but it is not1 as it calls to our attention the principal quality of a comic screen drawing--namely1 pantomime--and it emphasizes1 too1 the universality of pantomime4 ,an animated cartoon clever in gesturing is understood by all races4 ,it is to be remembered that pantomime is a matter of interpretation1 both on the stage by an actor and by the artist when he essays to represent it pictorially4 ,if it were an actual copying of nature1 it only would be as interesting as a normal photograph2 and that is not very interesting4 ,as in all interpretative arts there is a slight betrayal of the mechanical means1 or processes1 so in pantomime there is a suggestion of the mechanistic4 ,let us recall the rhythmical and toy-like movements of the actors whom we have seen playing in some whimsical dumb show4 ,how often do the clowns pretend in their foolery that they are automatons1 or that they can move only by mechanistic motions4 ,they find need1 too1 in their ludicrous acting1 for mechanical properties--slap sticks1 absurd objects1 or toys4 ,it is very certain that there are some forms of motion productive of laughter that do not imitate actions natural to the human organism1 but seem to acquire their power of risibility from their resemblance to mechanical motion4 ,this is on the order of the notion that ,bergson has elaborated upon in his treatise in explanation of the comic4 ,he states1 in substance1 as one law of the ludicrous1 that the human body appears laughable when its movements give a similitude of a machine in operation4 ,there is no question of the correctness of this view as a matter of mere exterior observation4 ,rather it seems to us that machine-like movements in organic bodies amuse us because of the rhythmic1 orderly1 or periodic occurrences of these movements in themselves1 and not to any matter of comparison4 ,in a boisterous low comedy it is always incumbent upon the victim of a blow to reel around like a top before he falls4 ,it never fails to bring laughter4 ,an effect like this is easy to produce in animated cartoons4 ,there is no need to consider physiological impossibilities of the human organism1 the artist can make his characters spin as much as he pleases4 ,in a screen picture two boys will be seen fighting2 at first they will parry a few blows1 then suddenly begin to whirl around so that nothing is visible but a confused mass and an occasional detail like an arm or leg4 ,it will be exactly like a revolving pinwheel4 ,this is made on the film by having a drawing representing the boys as clinched and turning it around as if it were a pinwheel4 ,in a panorama screen effect it seems to be sufficiently realistic1 for laughter purposes1 to have the legs and arms of the individual in a hurry give a blurred impression1 in some degree1 like that of the spokes of a rapidly turning wheel4 ,illustration3 ,the pinwheel effect of the two boys that have come to blows is produced by turning around to four different positions a drawing representing the boys fighting4 ,it is an indisputable fact that the human mind finds fascination in any movement resembling a rotary one4 ,witness the interest that a novel mechanism or an automatic toy creates in a shop-window4 ,such interest is still further stimulated if there is an added item of anything of the human1 or something definite accomplished in the operations4 ,we require1 it seems1 if we are really alive1 not occasional1 but constant1 stimuli of some sort4 ,when we become weary of toil--which in itself is often an unwelcome and imposed form of stimulus--we seek stimuli in recreation4 ,or if we haven't energy enough for the self-stimulation of sports1 or the like activity1 we look for it outside of ourselves4 ,perhaps it is music1 exciting us metronomically2 or a play where our emotions are agitated--rhythmically or in dissonance2 maybe it is a circus or the music-hall1 where color and sound vibrations stimulate us4 ,everywhere it will be some form of measured time1 movement1 or rotation1 whether the theme be comic or serious4 ,idlers will stop to gaze at a machine in motion where there is building going on1 or they will stop to peer into the windows of a busy factory4 ,there is something in all this that shows that the human mind craves the periodicity of stimulation4 ,perhaps one of the reasons why those crudely executed white on black animated cartoons--alluded to in a preceding chapter--are so laugh-provoking is that they represent the characters performing their antics more or less mechanically4 ,a windmill effect1 a twirling1 a spinning1 and a merry-go-round movement are of striking import in animated cartoons4 ,they never fail to cause laughter when depicted in some such fashion or other4 ,sometimes in a pursuit in a comic picture there is an introduction of a chase around a house or around a tree4 ,the gyration about the house is particularly productive of laughter4 ,the slight interruption while the figure passes back of the house gives occasion for the necessary pause in this comic business4 ,the author recalls a film of real people and scenes that exemplified the potency of a mechanical turning and the value of a pause for laugh-provoking purposes4 ,the scene represented a tiny bungalow that was blown from its foundation by the force of the storm and made to revolve as if it were pivoted in the centre4 ,the droll character of the play saved himself from being blown away by clinging to one corner of the porch4 ,the laughter of the audience although continuous came in waves of different strength4 ,the twirling house itself caused laughter1 but it increased when the ludicrous figure clinging to the porch came into view1 and it decreased when he disappeared while he was being twirled around the far side of the house4 ,possibly one of the reasons why this performance was so successful was because this movement allowed for the physiological necessity of a rest on the part of the spectators4 ,the emotional excitement would have been fatiguing to the breaking point had the incitement to laughter been continuous4 ,the humorous proceeding operated so that any individual member of the audience was not compelled to shake or be agitated by laughter all the time1 but could slacken up and rest rhythmically4 ,illustration3 ,a cycle of drawings1 like those above1 used in turn and repeated for a time will give the screen illusion of a man spinning like a top4 ,the need of a rhythmic slowing-up1 or pause1 to allow for a respite for the emotions and the convulsed physical organism is well illustrated in the following incident often introduced into animated scenes4 ,a little figure is observed running up hill and down dale4 ,the manner of his performance is like this3 he runs up the first hill and disappears2 there is a moment or so when the scene is empty and during which he is supposed to be running down the far side of the hill4 ,soon he is discovered running up the second hill1 at the top of which he again disappears for a time to run down its far side4 ,in another moment he is scrambling up the next hill and down the other side again4 ,this continues until he is lost as a tiny black spot near the horizon4 ,illustration3 ,a blurred impression like that of the spokes of a turning wheel is regarded as funny in comic picturing4 ,this disjointed hill-climbing causes hilarious laughter and1 as in the case cited above1 comes in waves4 ,the rise and fall of the laughter waves can be distinguished as the little figure runs up the hills and down the valleys4 ,a pause is a necessary element in any continued comic situation4 ,it is1 in fact1 proper to any series intended to arouse the emotion of laughter4 ,and in some respects a pause corresponds to the negative moment of flexion--adverting our thoughts for a moment to physical activity--while the outburst of laughter corresponds to the positivity of extension4 ,a bit of striking animation is that of having a continuous stream of individuals pouring out of a building1 or a procession of funny animals coming out of a receptacle from which we did not expect such a parade4 ,these episodes of movement do resemble a parade--a species of regularly recurring stimulation4 ,illustration3 ,,from 8,,the #8,,bab' ,,ballads40 ,the psychological questions in regard to these effects is related certainly to the matter of the delight of the human mind in a stirring up by repetition4 ,undoubtedly the same liking or pleasure in these little bits of screen animation bear a resemblance to the delight experienced in watching a parade4 ,what is there in a spectacle of this sort that tickles our senses8 ,is it the regularness of the step-keeping1 the hypnotic music of the band1 or the show of varied uniforms8 ,perhaps the principles of unity and variety--two essentials of any art work--enter into the matter4 ,the variety in the uniforms of the different sections satisfies the eye1 and the unity of the marching pleases the mind4 ,illustration3 ,pictures of this sort can be presented on the screen more vividly than in this simple graphic sketch4 ,keeping step is an artificial recurrence of movement4 ,it pleases1 of course1 but when this motion is rendered strongly mechanistic it takes on immediately an element of the comic4 ,in some of the little figures drolly drawn by ,bab 7,w4 ,s4 ,gilbert1 of 8,pinafore0 and 8,mikado0 fame71 this is well expressed4 ,a little picture of his1 for instance1 shows three tiny men stepping out like mechanically operated toys4 ,illustration3 ,,hats4 ,illustration3 7,cartoon man chasing hat7 ,one of the most primitive of practical jokes is that of throwing a stone at a hat on some one's head4 ,and its most aggravated form as a joke is that in which the hat is of a stovepipe pattern4 ,in a humorous stage play1 merely to show an individual with a stone in his hand while a sprucely dressed one wearing a high hat is passing is motive enough to cause laughter4 ,the graphic artist copies this situation by representing a stone in the air nearing the hat4 ,action lines1 as they are called1 indicate that the missile is flying through the air4 ,in both of these cases--in reality and in the picture--mere anticipation is enough to awaken the risibilities4 ,the animator1 of course1 can gratify both the spectator's joy of anticipation and the mischievous delight of seeing the consummation of the action4 ,illustration3 ,radiating 8dent0 lines give emphasis to this bludgeon blow4 ,many professional entertainers have built their reputation on some dramatic business with hats4 ,either they wear some odd head-gear or else it will be in their manner of wearing a hat or a trick in doffing it4 ,if a hat is too small1 it is sure to create laughter2 and if too large1 it is a certainty that there will be mocking hilarity4 ,and even if it is of the right size1 it need only to be perched on the head at an angle to be considered ludicrous4 ,illustration3 ,a chase around some object is a never-failing laugh-provoking incident in an animated cartoon4 ,the spirited screen actors1 too1 of the animator's pencil are shown going through all sorts of strange doings with their hats4 ,,animated ,,educational ,,films ,,and ,,the ,,future ,,chapter ,,xi ,,animated ,,educational ,,films ,,and ,,the ,,future ,nearly everything in our book so far1 in accord with its title1 has had reference to the making of comic screen drawings4 ,they gratify a proper human longing and they strike a responsive chord in the consciousness4 ,now there is another kind of appeal1 in the matter of satisfying a human need1 to which animated screen drawings can be put4 ,it is that touched upon in the introductory chapter2 namely1 animated films of educational subjects4 ,by educational films would be meant1 if the strict definition of the term is intended1 only those that are instructional4 ,it is to be remarked1 however1 that enlightened opinion now includes in the category of educational subjects any theme1 or story for children1 even if a slight touch of the humorous or diverting is to be found in it4 ,the kind of stories1 with the latter thought particularly in mind1 especially fitted for the screen are those of ,lewis ,carroll4 ,his 8,alice in ,wonderland0 is a good example of the type of fanciful tale on the order of which animated cartoons could be made for children4 ,and ,sir ,john ,tenniel's interpretations of the characters seem to have been created especially for translation to the animated screen4 ,the ,mad ,hatter1 with his huge beaver 7signalizing again the hat as inspiring the comic71 would make an admirable figure to pace across the screen4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,mad ,,hatter4 ,an artist desiring to be the author of an animated story built on the model of ,carroll's classics would need a gleeful imagination and a turn for the fantastic4 ,and he would require1 besides1 if he hoped to draw characters on a par with ,tenniel's depictions1 more than the ordinary qualifications of a screen draftsman4 ,as in the rough-and-tumble antics of the rustic clown little refinement is either prevalent or expected1 so in the ordinary comic animated cartoon exquisiteness of drawing is neither found nor ordinarily looked for4 ,but in a story with fineness of wit1 and told artistically1 it is obligatory that its interpretation be of a corresponding quality4 ,it is necessary1 in other words1 that the artist be good at figure work and especially skilful in drawing difficult actions and perspective walks4 ,as remarked before1 when the latter subject was considered1 this requires dexterity in picturing figures in foreshortened views4 ,and to become expert in this particular means study4 ,for examples of foreshortened figures to contemplate1 the student of animation can find no better ones than those in the frescos of ,michael ,angelo4 ,especially valuable are the decorations of the ,sistine ,chapel in ,rome4 ,photographs or copies1 no doubt1 of these wonderful art works can be found in the print-rooms of public libraries or in any collection of engravings of a picture-gallery4 ,illustration3 ,,detail ,,of ,a ,,fresco ,,by ,,michael ,,angelo4 ,it is an entertaining speculation as to whether or not ,michael ,angelo1 being a man of many artistic activities1 would have tried his hand at animating drawings1 had the art been in existence in his time4 ,in our own day1 patterns for emulation in the matter of depicting action and the delineation of character are found in the drawings of ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,frost4 ,witness his achievements in these respects in his book 8,stuff and ,nonsense40 ,then1 too1 ,mr4 ,frost's appreciation of the comic spirit is particularly noteworthy4 ,his graphic work could with every success be set forth on the animated screen4 ,illustration3 ,,mr4 ,,frost',s ,,spirited ,,delineation ,,of ,,figures ,,in ,,action4 ,the old-fashioned peep-show has long since passed its way1 and in its place has come the cinematographic exhibition4 ,children consider it a commonplace occurrence in their lives to be taken to the 8movies40 ,very soon they will imbibe knowledge as well as receive entertainment through the medium of the films4 ,there are many instructional themes that could be elucidated in the school by animated drawings4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,peep-,,show4 ,detail of a composition of a ,french eighteenth-century tapestry designed by ,boucher4 ,educational1 travel1 and scenic films are frequently presented in motion-picture theatres1 but the possibilities in these subjects have not been exhausted4 ,some of the first investigators who looked into the problems connected with photographic analysis and pictorial synthesis to produce the appearance of movement had ideas of applying the results of their labors to practical purposes4 ,m4 ,g4 ,demeny1 in ,paris1 to cite an instance1 invented an instrument by which deaf-mutes could learn to speak and to read lip movements4 ,his instrument consisted of an optical contrivance that gave the representation of a person speaking by the turning of a glass disk upon which there was placed a series of photographs of a person speaking4 ,the pictures were arranged in a cycle which1 when the disk was made to rotate1 produced a continuous effect of the action4 ,illustration3 ,,demeny',s ,,phonoscope4 ,modified from a picture in ,la ,nature1 #ahib4 ,one form of this apparatus1 or photophone1 was made to be turned by hand1 and the combined picture or illusion viewed through a lens by one person at a time4 ,another type was constructed so that the synthesized picture of the speaking face could be thrown on a screen4 ,there is a natural curiosity in nearly every one to want to know about methods in art4 ,and the interest is general in watching a craftsman create an object of art1 or an artist bring into graphic being some imagery of his brain4 ,it would not be out of place for these reasons1 as well as a matter of instruction1 to produce films showing art methods4 ,especially for elementary pupils would it be a desirable thing to show the way of making simple free-hand drawings4 ,then1 instead of an instructor repeating the process--sometimes with indifferent interest or enthusiasm--it can be arranged that some one skilled in drawing1 and when he is feeling at his best1 go through the procedure under the motion-picture camera4 ,the result could be multiplied a number of times and shown in many classrooms with an evenness of performance not possible when some one does it day in and day out4 ,methods and principles of the more advanced branches of art instruction--pictorial composition1 for instance1 could be taught1 too4 ,as one example1 we will suppose that the purpose is to show what good pictorial composition is4 ,first an indifferent picture1 poorly arranged1 is shown2 the various components appear on the screen exactly as they would in making a picture on canvas or paper2 then little things pointed out that are lacking in artistic merit1 or an explanation given of any detail that is not quite clear4 7,for this purpose a drawing of a pointer is made on cardboard and cut out in silhouette4 ,it is moved around precisely as if it were a real pointer47 ,after showing the faulty construction the various components can be moved again1 but into places to form the well-composed picture4 ,methods of designing in the crafts could be demonstrated by animated drawings2 and they could also be employed to explain visually the story or history of design4 ,ornament can be shown as it evolves from its natural form1 to the first rudimentary basic type2 then it passes into the best classical style1 after which it becomes1 as in all art evolution1 the merely decorative4 ,and it can be shown1 as is usually the case in the history of an ornamental form1 terminating in a debased and meaningless figure or scroll4 ,all these screen pictures could be managed so that the pictures go through their mutations before the eyes as if they were living things4 ,presuming that in the acquiring of knowledge all brains function in a similar way1 what could be better as a means of instruction than a film of some educational subject8 ,in any special study or theme in physics1 for instance1 an entire course could be planned for an animated film4 ,some of the divisions of the theme could be actual photographs of the experimental apparatus in operation4 ,but other matters would need to be moving diagrams1 or progressively changing charts4 ,explanations on the titles and other wording1 previously thought out with due regard to their educational value1 would be combined with the film4 ,could there be anything more interesting than screen drawings of machinery in operation8 ,to draw the successive pictures required for work of this character would present no great difficulties to any one trained in mechanical drafting4 ,it would be a great improvement on the diagrams and mechanical plans with their complicated markings to see the work of the draftsman projected on the screen and giving the appearance of motion4 ,with vivid object-lessons of this kind1 the eye can comprehend in a few moments that which it would take lengthy paragraphs to make clear4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,few ,,of ,,the ,,drawings ,,used ,,in ,,the ,,making ,,of ,a ,,film ,,to ,,show ,a ,,gasolene-,,engine ,,in ,,operation4 ,on this subject of animating machinery1 it is an interesting fact to note that as early as #ahfj1 ,desvignes1 who invented one form of the zootrope1 is recorded as having made a series of pictures for his optical instrument that showed a steam-engine in motion4 ,the teaching of history could be made still more interesting than it is by series of changing maps4 ,such maps would show1 as their outlines changed1 the growth or modification of a country as affected by events of history4 ,historical battles could be illustrated with the usual reference marks and symbols4 ,but they would not be still2 instead1 they would move about to illustrate the progress of the battle4 ,this form of animated maps frequently has been used in connection with pictorial-news reels4 ,physiology and anatomy are two studies that need good pictorial exposition in the classroom4 ,scientific moving pictures of the actual subjects are in many cases available and their photography is feasible4 ,but for some details that cannot be taken with the camera1 animated diagrams would have to be substituted4 ,to suggest a very good theme in physiology1 we may mention that of the circulation of the blood4 ,only a few particulars of this could be photographed4 ,most of the story of the blood circulation would have to be told by animated diagrams4 ,there would be at first1 perhaps1 a sectional view of the heart showing the auricles1 and ventricles with the valves and their reciprocal action4 ,the flow of the vital fluid1 to be sure1 would be indicated very clearly as it passes through the cavities4 ,a striking animation of this film would be that of the blood flow in its course through the body4 ,this would be represented by a schematic diagram like those usually set forth in the books4 ,it would have an added interest if the fluid were colored--the arterial blood red and the venous blood blue4 7,this is the usual way1 when printed in colors1 in which they are distinguished in textbooks47 ,a film like this1 it can be understood1 must be planned well--a scenario practically would be written for it4 ,the manner in which the muscles move the bony frame of the body can be strikingly demonstrated by animated diagrams4 ,take as a simple case the bending of the arm4 ,the two antagonist muscles of the front and the back of the upper arm can be made to show as swelling and lengthening1 alternately1 as they flex and extend the forearm4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,muscles ,,on ,,the ,,frame ,,could ,,be ,,shown ,,on ,,the ,,screen4 ,a series of drawings like this would be the first thing to prepare for making the film4 ,a similar animation of the skeleton would be that of the bony levers in the human frame4 ,and as a comparison1 actual mechanical levers of all three orders could be made to operate in connection with the levers in the skeleton4 ,it would be possible1 to some extent1 to put the 8,origin of ,species0 on the screen with the help of animated diagrams4 ,for the vertebrates1 a section of the film could represent a schematic evolutionary tree4 ,on it1 the lower forms of back-bone life1 such as amphibians and fishes1 would be placed on an offshoot near the lowest part of the main trunk4 ,odd creatures like marsupials would branch off a little higher up1 and still higher a larger branch of the tree would split into two minor branches for reptiles and birds1 respectively4 ,the tree would show above a branching off into three important divisions for the ungulates1 carnivores1 and quadrumana4 ,the story could be continued by separate delineations of the different branches and tell in further detail the development of the forms that belong to them4 ,the art of the animated cartoon and the educational screen drawing has as yet not been developed to its highest point4 ,it needs1 for one thing1 color4 ,such films are only shown1 at present1 in monochrome or simple outlines4 ,of course colored cartoons will come4 ,effecting the tinting by hand would be easy as a process1 but very tedious and costly4 ,a practical way of coloring the ordinary photographic film is now in use by tinting them with the aid of stencils4 ,both the stencil-cutting and the coloring are accomplished by the help of machinery4 ,at present there are color processes that produce very beautiful photographs on the screen2 but they do not show1 at least in those that so far have come under the observation of the author1 all colors of nature4 ,the craft is awaiting the inspired inventor who will produce motion-pictures in colors that will exhibit nature's full range of hues and shades4 ,then in comparison with ,niepce's simple process1 of about #ahbd1 of fixing a lens-formed image upon a metal plate coated with bitumen1 the photographic art will have attained to a marvellous degree of technical development4 ,a consummate color process should reproduce1 too1 an artist's work upon the canvas without losing any variations of hue that he has set forth4 ,then it will be possible to have animated paintings4 ,one will go1 when this wonder has been achieved1 to an exhibition gallery to see art works with the additional interest of movement as well as those of color and individual interpretation4 ,and1 too1 our museums will have projecting rooms and fireproof libraries for keeping films4 ,it seems like fantastic dreaming to hold such notions2 but many things that were once considered purely visionary--have now become commonplaces4 ,,transcriber',s ,,note ,illustrations in this e,book have been positioned between paragraphs and outside quotations4 ,illustrations without captions have had a description added1 this is denoted with parentheses4 ,obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources4 ,some hyphens in words have been silently removed1 some added1 when a predominant preference was found in the original book4 ,except for those changes noted below1 all misspellings in the text1 and inconsistent or archaic usage1 have been retained4 ,pg xx3 8,michel0 replaced with 8,michael0 ,pg #ca3 8give0 replaced with 8gave0 ,pg #dj3 8,franscisco0 replaced with 8,francisco0 ,pg #de3 8,word's0 replaced with 8,world's0 ,pg #gc3 8constructon0 replaced with 8construction0 ,pg #ajb3 8its0 replaced with 8it0