,transcriber's ,note3 ,italics are enclosed in underscores4 ,superscripts are indicated by carets and braces3 #eme4 ,additional notes will be found near the end of this ebook4 ,,history ,,as ,,past ,,ethics ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,morals ,,by ,,philip ,,van ,,ness ,,myers ,,formerly ,,professor ,,of ,,history ,,and ,,political ,,economy ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,cincinnati4 ,,author ,,of 8,,ancient ,,history10 8,,medi,,val ,,and ,,modern ,,history10 ,,and 8,a ,,general ,,history0 ,,ginn ,,and ,,company ,,boston ,,new ,,york ,,chicago ,,london ,,atlanta ,,dallas ,,columbus ,,san ,,francisco ,,copyright1 #aiac1 ,,by ,,philip ,,van ,,ness ,,myers ,,all ,,rights ,,reserved ,,printed ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,of ,,america #ebf4b ,the ,athenum ,press ,,ginn ,,and ,,company ,,proprietors ,,boston ,u4,s4,a4 ,,to ,i4 ,c4 ,m4 ,my conviction gains infinitely the moment another soul will believe in it4--,,novalis ,,preface ,this work completes the series of historical textbooks which ,i began more than thirty years ago4 ,it is an expansion of a course of lectures given for several years to my advanced classes in history1 and is designed as a brief introduction to the history of morals4 ,in treating the science of morals as a branch of history my thought is1 without trenching in the least upon the domain of the philosophy of morals1 to make the work of the department of history more helpfully introductory than it has hitherto been to that of the department of moral philosophy4 ,the book is the outgrowth of a conviction that the philosophy of ethics1 if it shall become a stimulus and guide to social service and humanitarian effort1--especially if it shall bring renforcement to that ethical idealism which so largely motives the present-day movement for world peace1--must be based on a knowledge of the facts of the moral life of the race in all the various stages of the historic evolution1 and that to gather and systematize these facts is a part of the task of the historian1 indeed the most important part of his task4 ,it is my hope that teachers of both history and ethics may find the book helpful1 whether made the basis of classroom discussion or of lecture comment4 ,p4 ,v4 ,n4 ,m4 ,,college ,,hill ,,cincinnati1 ,,ohio ,ethics gives to ,history its rational goal2 and all morality has the perfect shaping of universal history as its ultimate end4 ,a real understanding of history is not possible without ethics2 universal history is the realization of the moral 444 within humanity4--,,adolf ,,wuttke4 ,the real advance made by ,thucydides consists1 perhaps1 in this1 that he perceived the motive forces of human history to be in the moral constitution of human nature4--,,leopold ,,von ,,ranke4 ,ethics1 if it is to become truly a science1 must shun the path of speculation and follow closely the historical method4444 ,range in fancy over the whole circle of the sciences1 and you will find there no place for ethics save as a branch of human history4444 ,given the earliest morality of which we have any written record1 to trace from it through progressive stages the morality of to-day2 that is the problem1 and the only problem which can fall to a truly scientific ethics4444 ,ethics as the comparative history of universal morality is the vestibule to the temple of moral philosophy4--,,jacob ,,gould ,,schurman4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,introduction #a ,,ii4 ,,the ,,dawn ,,of ,,morality3 ,,conscience ,,in ,,the ,,kinship ,,group #ab ,i4 ,,institutions1 ,,ideas1 ,,and ,,conditions ,,of ,,life ,,determining ,,the ,,rules ,,of ,,conduct #ab ,,ii4 ,,essential ,,facts ,,of ,,kinship ,,or ,,intratribal ,,morality #ae ,,iii4 ,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,intertribal ,,morality #bb ,,iii4 ,,the ,,moral ,,life ,,in ,,ancient ,,egypt3 ,,an ,,ideal ,,of ,,social ,,justice #cj ,i4 ,,circumstances ,,and ,,ideas ,,which ,,molded ,,and ,,motived ,,morality #cj ,,ii4 ,,the ,,ideal #cc ,,iv4 ,,the ,,babylonian-,,assyrian ,,conscience #de ,v4 ,,chinese ,,morals3 ,,an ,,ideal ,,of ,,filial ,,piety #ec ,i4 ,,ideas1 ,,institutions1 ,,and ,,historical ,,circumstances ,,determining ,,the ,,cast ,,of ,,the ,,moral ,,ideal #ec ,,ii4 ,,the ,,ideal #fj ,,iii4 ,,effects ,,of ,,the ,,ideal ,,upon ,,chinese ,,life ,,and ,,history #fi ,,vi4 ,,japanese ,,morals3 ,,an ,,ideal ,,of ,,loyalty #gg ,i4 ,,formative ,,and ,,modifying ,,influences #gg ,,ii4 ,,the ,,ideal #hj ,,iii4 ,,some ,,significant ,,facts ,,in ,,the ,,moral ,,history ,,of ,,japan #hg ,,vii4 ,,the ,,ethical ,,ideals ,,of ,,india #ie ,,part ,i4 ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,brahmanism--,a ,,class ,,morality #ie ,i4 ,,historical ,,and ,,speculative ,,basis ,,of ,,the ,,system #ie ,,ii4 ,,the ,,various ,,moral ,,standards #aja ,,part ,,ii4 ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,buddhism3 ,,an ,,ideal ,,of ,,self-,,conquest ,,and ,,universal ,,benevolence #ajf ,i4 ,,the ,,philosophical ,,basis ,,of ,,the ,,system #ajf ,,ii4 ,,the ,,ideal #aaj ,,iii4 ,,some ,,expressions ,,of ,,the ,,ethical ,,spirit ,,of ,,buddhism #aae ,,viii4 ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,zoroastrianism3 ,,an ,,ideal ,,of ,,combat #abc ,i4 ,,philosophical ,,and ,,religious ,,ideas ,,which ,,created ,,the ,,ethical ,,type #abc ,,ii4 ,,the ,,ideal #abf ,,iii4 ,,the ,,practice #aca ,,ix4 ,,the ,,moral ,,evolution ,,in ,,israel3 ,,an ,,ideal ,,of ,,obedience ,,to ,a ,,revealed ,,law #ace ,i4 ,,the ,,religious ,,basis ,,of ,,hebrew ,,morality #ace ,,ii4 ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,moral ,,ideal #adj #a4 ,the ,development up to the ,exile #adj #b4 ,the ,morality of the ,prophets of the ,exile #aeg #c4 ,the ,moral ,life in the ,postexilic ,age #afb ,x4 ,,the ,,moral ,,consciousness ,,of ,,hellas3 ,,an ,,ideal ,,of ,,self-,,realization #afi ,i4 ,,institutions ,,and ,,ideas ,,determining ,,the ,,moral ,,type #afi ,,ii4 ,,the ,,ideal #agd ,,iii4 ,,limitations ,,and ,,defects ,,of ,,the ,,ideal #agi ,,iv4 ,,the ,,moral ,,evolution #ahe ,,xi4 ,,roman ,,morals3 ,,an ,,ideal ,,of ,,civic ,,duty #bab ,i4 ,,institutions ,,and ,,conditions ,,of ,,life ,,determining ,,the ,,early ,,moral ,,type #bab ,,ii4 ,,the ,,primitive ,,moral ,,type #bad ,,iii4 ,,the ,,moral ,,evolution ,,under ,,the ,,republic #bah ,,iv4 ,,the ,,moral ,,evolution ,,under ,,the ,,pagan ,,empire #bca ,,xii4 ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,doctrinal ,,christianity3 ,,an ,,ideal ,,of ,,right ,,belief #bee ,i4 ,,religious ,,ideas ,,and ,,theological ,,dogmas ,,molding ,,the ,,ideal #bef ,,ii4 ,,the ,,moral ,,ideal #bfa ,,xiii4 ,,moral ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,christian ,,asceticism #bfg ,i4 ,,conceptions ,,of ,,life ,,and ,,historical ,,circumstances ,,that ,,produced ,,the ,,ascetic ,,ideal #bfg ,,ii4 ,,the ,,ideal ,,and ,,its ,,chief ,,types #bgj ,,iii4 ,,the ,,chief ,,moral ,,facts ,,of ,,the ,,period #bgb ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,islam3 ,a ,,martial ,,ideal #bhh ,i4 ,,religious ,,basis ,,of ,,the ,,moral ,,system #bhh ,,ii4 ,,the ,,moral ,,code #bhi ,,iii4 ,,the ,,moral ,,life #bic ,,xv4 ,,the ,,moral ,,life ,,of ,,europe ,,during ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,chivalry #cjj ,i4 ,,the ,,church ,,consecrates ,,the ,,martial ,,ideal ,,of ,,knighthood #cjj ,,ii4 ,,the ,,composite ,,ideal ,,of ,,knighthood #cjf ,,iii4 ,,the ,,chief ,,moral ,,phenomena ,,of ,,the ,,period #cji ,,xvi4 ,,renaissance ,,ethics3 ,,revival ,,of ,,naturalism ,,in ,,morals #cbj ,i4 ,,determining ,,influences #cbj ,,ii4 ,,some ,,essential ,,facts ,,in ,,the ,,moral ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,age #cbb ,,xvii4 ,,ethics ,,of ,,the ,,protestant ,,reformation #ccc ,i4 ,,principles ,,of ,,the ,,reformation ,,of ,,ethical ,,import #ccc ,,ii4 ,,some ,,important ,,moral ,,outcomes ,,of ,,the ,,sixteenth-,,century ,,religious ,,reform #ccd ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,moral ,,evolution ,,since ,,the ,,incoming ,,of ,,democracy3 ,,the ,,new ,,social ,,and ,,international ,,conscience #cdj ,i4 ,,forces ,,determining ,,the ,,trend ,,of ,,the ,,ethical ,,movement #cdj ,,ii4 ,,expressions ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,moral ,,consciousness ,,in ,,different ,,domains ,,of ,,life ,,and ,,thought #cdd #a4 ,the ,ethics of ,democracy #cdd #b4 ,the ,ethics of ,industrialism #cdg #c4 ,the ,ethics of ,modern ,science #cec #d4 ,the ,ethics of ,theology #cfj #e4 ,social ,ethics3 the ,new ,social ,conscience #cfd #f4 ,international ,ethics3 the ,new ,international ,conscience #cga ,,index #chc ,,history ,,as ,,past ,,ethics ,,chapter ,i ,,introduction ,sidenote3 ,the ethical interpretation of history ,professor ,freeman defined history as 8past politics40 ,mr4 ,buckle argued that the essence of the historical evolution consists in intellectual progress4#a ,many present-day economists hold that the dominant forces in the historical development are economic4#b ,churchmen consistently make the chief factor in history to be religion4 ,whether the upholders of these several interpretations of history would have us understand them as speaking of the ultimate goal of the historic evolution1 or merely of the dominant motive under which men and society act1 none of these interpretations can be accepted by the student of the facts of the moral life of the race as a true reading of history4 ,to him not only does moral progress constitute the very essence of the historic movement1 but the ethical motive presents itself as the most constant and regulative force in the evolution of humanity4 ,his chief interest in all the other factors of the historical evolution is in noting in what way and in what measure they have contributed to the growth and enrichment of the moral life of mankind4 ,thus the historian of morals is deeply interested in the growth of political institutions among men1 but chiefly in observing in what way these institutions have affected for good or for evil the moral life of the nation4 ,particularly is the progress of the world toward political unity a matter of profound concern to him1 not because he regards the establishment of the world state as an end in itself1 but because the universal state alone can furnish those conditions under which the moral life of humanity can most freely expatiate and find its noblest and truest expression4 ,it is the same with intellectual progress4 ,the student of morals recognizes the fact that the progress of the race in morality is normally dependent upon its progress in knowledge--that conscience waits upon the intellect4 ,but in opposition to ,buckle and those of his school1 he maintains that1 so far from an advance in knowledge constituting the essence of a progressive civilization1 this mental advance constitutes merely the condition precedent of real civilization1 the distinctive characteristic of which must be a true morality4 ,a civilization or culture which does not include this is doomed to quick retrogression and decay4 ,as ,benjamin ,kidd truly observes1 8,when the intellectual development of any section of the race1 for the time being1 outruns the ethical development1 natural selection has apparently weeded it out like any other unsuitable product40#c ,as with the political and intellectual elements of civilization so is it with the economic4 ,the outward forms of the moral life are1 it is true1 largely determined by the industry of a people2 but the informing spirit of morality is the expression of an implanted faculty4 ,it is elicited but not created by environment4 ,no industrial order from which it is lacking can long endure4 ,natural selection condemns it as unfit4 ,and this we are beginning to recognize--that economics and ethics cannot be divorced1 that every great industrial problem is at bottom a moral problem4 ,to the student of the ethical phase of history all social reformers from the old ,hebrew prophets down to ,karl ,marx and ,henry ,george are primarily moralists pleading for social justice1 equity1 and righteousness4 ,and preminently the same is it with religion4 ,religion has been a great part of the life of man1 and the historian of morals must be a diligent student of the religious systems of the world1 but mainly because religion has been in general such a potent agency in the moral education of mankind4 ,for it is the ethical factor in the great world religions which constitutes their universal and permanent element4 8,it is the function of religion to kindle moral enthusiasm in society at large40#d 8,christianity has no other function or value than as an aid to morality40#e ,all the great religions of the world--,buddhism1 ,confucianism1 ,zoroastrianism1 ,judaism 7reckoning historic ,judaism as beginning with the great prophets of the ninth and eighth centuries ,b4,c471 ,christianity1 and ,islam--began as moral reforms4#f ,in short1 in the words of ,wellhausen1 8,morality is that for the sake of which all other things exist2 it is the alone essential thing in the world40#g ,the really constructive and regulative forces in history are in truth moral ideas and convictions4 ,and there is vast significance in this--that the ethical motive1 never absent and always active1 is constantly becoming more and more dominant in the processes of the historical evolution4 ,as the ages pass there enters into history--we shall see this to be so later--an ever larger ethical element4 ,conscience becomes ever more and more involved in the personal1 national1 and international affairs of the world4 ,sidenote3 ,the history of morals in the main a record of the expansion of the circle covered by the moral feelings ,moral progress consists not so much in changes in the quality or intensity of the moral emotions1 although these gain in diversity1 purity1 and refinement as time passes1 as in the successive enlargements of the circle of persons embraced by the moral feelings4#h 8,it is not the sense of duty to a neighbor1 but the practical answer to the question1 ,who is my neighbor8 that has varied40#i ,as we shall see when we come to examine the morality of primitive man1 the moral feelings embrace at first only kinsmen1 that is1 the members of one's own family1 clan1 or social group4 ,all others are outside the moral pale4 ,but gradually this circle grows larger and embraces in successive expansions the tribe1 the city1 the nation1 and lastly humanity4 ,this expansion of the area covered by the moral feelings is the dominant fact in the moral history of mankind4 ,it is the overlooking of this fact that has caused writers like ,buckle to make their strange misreading of history and to maintain that though man during historic times has made immense progress on material and intellectual lines1 he has made little or no progress in morality4 ,the truth is1 as we shall learn1 that in no domain has progress been greater1 the gains larger or more precious1 than in the moral4 ,from clan morality1 based on physical kinship1 mankind has advanced or is advancing to world morality1 based on the ethical kinship of men4 ,this is the one increasing purpose running through all history--the creation of a moral order embracing the whole human race4 ,sidenote3 ,sources for the history of morals ,the facts for a history of morals must be sought chiefly outside the literature of ethical theory and speculation4 ,they must be looked for in the customs1 laws1 institutions1 mythologies1 literatures1 maxims1 and religions of the different races1 peoples1 and ages of history4#aj ,in all these there is always an ethical element2 often this forms their very essence4 8,in every sentence of the penal code10 as the moralist ,wilhelm ,wundt remarks1 8there speaks the voice of an objective moral conscience40 ,in truth all law codes1 whether civil or criminal1 are essentially nothing more nor less than the embodiment of man's conceptions of what is just and unjust4 ,mythologies1 literatures1 and philosophies are charged with moral sentiment4 ,in religion there struggle for utterance the deepest moral feelings and convictions of the human soul4 ,sidenote3 ,the moral ideal ,the moral life fulfills itself in many ways4 ,every age and every race has its own moral type or ideal4#aa ,this1 as we shall use the term1 may be defined as a group of virtues held in esteem by a given people or a given age4 ,it is the accepted standard of conduct1 of excellence1 of character4 ,this ideal may be a very simple thing1 embracing only a few rudimentary virtues1 as in the case of peoples on the lower levels of culture2 or it may be a very complex thing1 embracing many and refined virtues1 as in the case of civilized societies in which the mutual relationships of the members are many and various4 ,the history of morals is in the main an account of moral ideals or types4#ab ,indeed so large is the part that these have played in the growth and decay of races and civilizations that universal history may be defined quite accurately as 8the paleontology of moral ideals40#ac ,there is one thing about a moral ideal which sets it apart from all other ideals4 ,it possesses a unique dynamic force4 ,all ideals1 it is true1 have in them the impulsion to their embodiment in reality4 ,but in a moral ideal there is the added imperative of conscience4 ,there speaks from it the majestic voice of duty1 demanding that the ideal be made actual in the life of the individual and of society4 ,it is this that has made moral ideals such molding and constructive forces in history4 ,sidenote3 ,composite moral ideals or types ,there is a striking analogy between the different types of moral character and the different types of human beauty4 ,thus corresponding to the great types of masculine and feminine beauty there are masculine and feminine types of moral excellence4 ,and then1 just as the elements of the two chief types of feminine beauty1 the blond and the brunette1 combine to form a great variety of mixed or composite types1 so do the elements of the chief types of goodness blend into many composite types of character4#ad ,there is no more instructive chapter in the history of morals than that which has to do with the formation of these composite ethical types1 since these are often the most significant results of those great race collisions and comminglings which make up so much of the history of the past2 for when races meet and mingle they blend not only their blood but also their consciences4 ,there appears not only a new physical man but also a new moral man4 ,thus the fusion of races in ,europe has resulted in a great fusion of moralities4 ,the conscience of ,europe is a very composite one1 including ,greek1 ,roman1 ,hebraic1 ,celtic1 ,gothic1 and ,slavonic elements4 ,this heterogeneous conscience1 so different1 for instance1 from the comparatively homogeneous conscience of ancient ,egypt and of ,china1 has been the most important factor in the life and civilization of the ,european people4 ,it is largely because ,europe has been constantly getting a new conscience that its history has been so disturbed and so progressive1 just as it is largely because ,china has had the same ,confucian conscience for two thousand years and more1 that her history has been so uneventful and unchanging4 ,sidenote3 ,causes which determine and which modify the moral type ,though every race and every age1 since man is by nature a moral being1 must have some type or standard of moral goodness1 still the cast and content of this type is determined by a great variety of circumstances1 such as the stage of intellectual development1 the physical environment1 social and political institutions1 occupation1 and speculative and religious ideas4#ae ,the stage of intellectual development of a given society determines in general whether the moral standard shall be high or low4 ,peoples still on the level of savagery must necessarily have a very simple moral code1 embracing only a few rudimentary virtues4 ,as a people or race progresses in intelligence and the mental horizon widens1 the moral sense becomes clarified and the moral standard comes to embrace new and refined virtues1 corresponding to the larger and truer mental life2 for1 speaking broadly1 there is a general coincidence between intellectual and moral growth4 ,to create a new intellectual life is to create a new moral life4#af ,physical environment is also a potent agency in determining the cast of the moral type4 ,thus the hot depressing climate and the prodigality of nature in the tropics foster the passive1 quietistic virtues2 while the harsher and more grudging nature of the temperate regions favors the development of the active1 industrial virtues4 ,the strongly contrasted moral types of the peoples of the tropic regions of the earth and those of the temperate lands may without reasonable doubt be ascribed1 in part at least1 to differences in the climatic and other physical influences to which these peoples have been subjected through long periods of time4 ,more positively influential in the formation of moral ideas and feelings are social institutions4 ,thus the place which a whole group of moral qualities that we designate as domestic virtues are assigned in the ethical standard is determined by the place which circumstances may have given the family in the social organism4 ,in ancient ,sparta1 for example1 where certain influences subordinated the family in an unusual degree to the state1 the family virtues held a very low place1 indeed scarcely any place at all1 in the moral ideal2 while in ,china1 where certain notions of the relation of the spirits of the dead members of the family to its living members created a remarkable solidarity of the family group1 the domestic virtues1 and among them preminently the virtue of filial piety1 came to determine the entire cast of the general ideal of goodness4 ,government is another potent agency in molding the moral type4 ,patriarchal monarchy and popular government tend each to nourish a distinct morality1 so that we speak of the ethics of monarchy and the ethics of democracy4 ,as time passes1 governments1 speaking broadly1 become constantly more and more ethical in aim and purpose1 and hence act more and more dynamically upon the moral evolution4 ,the greatest force making for a truer and higher morality in the world to-day is political democracy4#ag ,more effective than any of the agencies thus far mentioned in determining the moral code of a people is occupation4 8,man's character10 as the economist ,alfred ,marshall truly affirms1 8has been molded by his everyday work 444 more than by any other influence unless it be that of his religious ideals40#ah ,every occupation develops a characteristic group of virtues4 ,this is especially true of agriculture4 8,the cultivation of the soil10 says ,wedgwood1 8cultivates much besides--it molds ideals1 implants aspirations1 creates permanent tendencies4 ,it gives1 where it is the predominant industry1 to the character of a people its moral stamp40#ai ,finally we mention religion as the most potent of all agencies in the molding of the moral type4#bj ,religion has been the great schoolmaster in the moral education of the race4 ,it is true that religion has to go to school itself in morals before it can become a schoolmaster4 ,that is to say1 religion in its beginnings is in the main unethical4 ,in its lower manifestations it is hardly more than a system of incantations and sorcery4 ,one of the most important facts of the moral history of the race is the gradual moralization of man's at first unethical conception of the gods1 and the rise out of the unethical religions of primitive times of the great ethical world religions4 ,sidenote3 ,in what virtue or moral goodness consists ,having defined ethical ideals and noted the agencies determining their cast and content1 we may now seek an answer1 in terms of the ethical ideal1 to the question1 ,in what does moral goodness consist8 ,all the truly great seers and moral teachers of the race have here the same word for us1 and it is this3 ,do the thing thou seest to be good2 realize thy ideal4 ,in the words of ,sabatier1 8,the essential thing in the world is not to serve this ideal or that1 but with all one's soul to serve the ideal which one has chosen40 ,such loyalty to one's ideal is moral goodness4#ba ,this imperative of conscience that one be true and loyal to the best one knows is the only thing absolute and categorical in the utterance of the moral faculty4 ,sidenote3 ,every age must be judged by its own moral standard 8,a man must learn a great deal10 says ,marcus ,aurelius1 8to enable him to pass a correct judgment on another man's acts40#bb ,and among the things which he must first learn is this--that the men of every age have their own standard of excellence and that they can be judged fairly only by their own code of morals4#bc ,it is largely because of the general ignorance of the history of moral ideals that there is so much uncharitableness in the world1 so much intolerance1 so much race prejudice and hatred4 ,as one's intellectual outlook broadens1 as he becomes acquainted with the various types of goodness of different peoples and different ages1 he becomes more liberal and charitable in his moral judgments1 since he comes to understand that moral character is determined not by the ideal of conduct but by the way in which this ideal is lived up to4 8,there may be as genuine self-devotion10 declares the moralist ,professor ,green1 8in the act of the barbarian warrior who gives his life that his tribe may win a piece of land from its neighbors1 as in that of the missionary who dies in carrying the gospel to the heathen40#bd ,studying the ideals of races and epochs in the spirit of these words1 we shall make some fruitful discoveries4 ,we shall learn for one thing that since the beginning of the truly ethical age there has ever been about the same degree of conscientiousness in the world2 that the different ages1 viewed in respect to their moral life1 have differed chiefly in the degree of light they have enjoyed1 and consequently in their conceptions of what is noblest in conduct1 of what constitutes duty1 not in their fealty or lack of fealty to their chosen standard of excellence4 ,that is to say1 speaking broadly1 the majority of men in every age and in every land have ever followed loyally the right as they have been given to see the right4#be 8,if men and times were really understood10 the historian ,von ,holst truly observes1 8the moral fault of their follies and crimes will almost always appear diminished by one half40 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,dawn ,,of ,,morality3 ,,conscience ,,in ,,the ,,kinship ,,group ,i4 ,,institutions1 ,,ideas1 ,,and ,,conditions ,,of ,,life ,,determining ,,the ,,rules ,,of ,,conduct ,sidenote3 ,the kinship group ,the most important social product of the human evolution on the lower levels of civilization was the patriarchal family or clan4 ,this community of kinsfolk is the great history-making group4 ,it was the seed plot and nursery not only of almost every social and political institution of the historic peoples1 but of their morality as well4 ,in the bosom of this group were born and nurtured the chief of those affections and sentiments into which enters an ethical element and which form the basis of the moral life4#bf ,the fundamental bond uniting this group was the bond of blood4 ,the members of the group were1 or believed themselves to be1 the actual descendants of a common ancestor4 ,it was this tie of blood1 this physical relationship real or assumed1 that rendered the clan such a closely knit body and created its feeling of corporate oneness4 8,the members of one kindred10 says ,w4 ,robertson ,smith in describing this characteristic of the ,semitic clan1 8looked on themselves as one living whole1 a single animated mass of blood1 flesh1 and bones1 of which no member could be touched without all the members suffering4444 ,if one of the clan has been murdered1 they say #8,our blood has been shed4'0#bg ,compared with this sense of solidarity as it is found among certain of the negro clans in ,africa1 the feeling of solidarity of the family among ,european peoples 8is thin and feeble40#bh ,it was this corporate consciousness of the primitive clan that created its moral solidarity4 ,it naturally called into existence those altruistic sentiments that formed the ground out of which grew man's earliest feelings of moral obligation4 ,sidenote3 ,the religious bond--ancestor worship ,there was a second bond uniting the members of the kinship group4 ,they were united not only by the ties of physical kinship but also by the bonds of a common cult4 ,this was the worship of ancestors4 ,to realize the ethical educative value of this worship we must recall the remarkable constitution of the clan4 ,this group of kinsmen has a visible and an invisible side4 ,there are the earthly members of the group and the spirit members--the souls of the dead4 ,these spirit members are the protectors of the little group1 the punishers of wrongdoing1 the conservators of morals4 ,among the most sacred duties of the earthly members are the duties they owe to these spirit members2 for these spirits have need of many things1 especially of meat and drink at the grave1 and it is the duty of their earthly kinsmen to supply all these wants4 ,the earth group is thus enveloped in a sort of sacred atmosphere1 and in this atmosphere are nurtured those ethical sentiments which form the most precious product of history4 ,as an agency in the moralizing of the life of the race it would be difficult to exaggerate the importance of ancestor worship4 ,to no other form of religion1 save ethical monotheism1 does morality owe so large a debt4 ,in this cult religion and morality are at one almost at the outset1#bi whereas in nature cults1 or the cults of nature gods1 it is generally only at a late period that these elements are united4 ,it was this cult of ancestors which formed the basis of an essential part of the morality of the ,greeks and ,romans1 particularly the latter1 at the first appearance of these peoples in history1 and which to-day1 as the chief religion of the ,chinese1 ,japanese1 and other peoples of the ,far ,east1 fosters the best virtues of a third of the human race4 ,sidenote3 ,conceptions of the god world ,another influence determining the moral code of primitive man is his ideas of the god world4 ,it is true that the conceptions formed of the gods by the untutored mind are for the most part crude and unethical4 ,but man ever makes and remakes his gods in his own image2 therefore as soon as an ethical element begins to enter into his own life he begins to moralize the character of his gods4 ,at this stage the god world begins to react favorably upon the moral life of man4 ,the gods are now conceived as taking notice of the conduct of men and as approving certain acts as right and disapproving certain other acts as wrong4 ,especially are they believed to punish atrocious crimes1 such as the slaying of a kinsman and the breaking of the word sworn by the oath-god4 ,in this way primitive man's ideas of deity react favorably upon his morality4 ,the gods further advance morality by being invoked as the witnesses and guardians of treaties between clans and tribes4 ,by thus giving an added sanctity to solemn engagements mutually entered into by communities they widen the moral domain and become the promoters of intertribal morality4#cj ,sidenote3 ,the fact that competition is between communities and not between individuals ,in nothing perhaps does primitive society differ more widely from modern than in the fact that the competition or struggle for existence is between communities and not between individuals4 ,within the kinship group life is almost wholly communistic4 ,there is practically no competition between the individuals of the community such as characterizes societies advanced in civilization4 ,the only real competition is that between communities4 ,and here the struggle for existence or for superiority is generally habitual and ruthless1 often being carried to the point of the complete destruction of one of the competing communities4 ,these conditions of existence have vast significance for morality4 ,just as the individual competition in cultured societies molds an essential part of their moral code1 so does the group competition of races still in the clan or tribal stage of civilization determine what qualities of character shall be developed among them4 ,as we shall see in a moment1 it makes them strong in the clan virtues4 ,,ii4 ,,essential ,,facts ,,of ,,kinship ,,or ,,intratribal ,,morality ,sidenote3 ,the life of primitive peoples largely unmoral ,as students of morals our chief interest in primeval man as he emerges from the obscurity of prehistoric times is not concerning the degree of skill he has developed in making his weapons or in constructing for himself a shelter1 nor concerning what advance he has made in the arts of weaving and pottery1 nor yet concerning what kind of social arrangements he has worked out2 our main interest in this primeval man as he appears on the threshold of the historic day is not concerning these or any like things1 but rather respecting what kind of a conscience has grown up within him during those long prehistoric ages of struggle1 privation1 watch and ward4 ,the first fact that compels our notice here is that the life of the savage is largely unmoral4#ca ,his activities to secure food1 shelter1 and clothing arise from purely animal impulses1 such as hunger and cold4 ,into all of these activities1 however1 there enters as time passes an ethical element4#cb ,the economic life1 in a word1 comes more and more under the dominance of moral feelings and motives4#cc ,conscience becomes more and more involved in all these matters4 ,this gradual moralization of these at first nonmoral activities of primitive man constitutes one of the most important phases of the moral evolution of the race4 ,sidenote3 ,the 8goodness0 of uncivilized races largely a negative goodness ,a second fact in the moral life of savages that claims our attention is that much that is counted unto them for 8goodness0 is a purely negative goodness4 ,failure in discrimination here often results in a wrong estimate of their morality as compared with that of advanced communities4 ,thus in portraying the manners and customs of primitive peoples1 some writers1 like ,tacitus in his account of the early ,german folk1 laud their morals as superior to those of civilized men4 ,this opinion is based rather on the absence among such peoples of the usual vices and crimes of civilized societies than on the practice by them of the higher positive virtues4#cd ,but the absence of the vices which characterize civilization is to be explained1 of course1 by the simpler organization of society and the fewer temptations to wrongdoing4 ,thus the single circumstance that the institution of individual property has not yet come into existence1 or at least has not as yet received any great extension1 accounts for the comparative absence of crimes against property1 which constitute probably the greater number of criminal acts in civilized society4 ,sidenote3 ,the true starting point of the historic ethical development ,but notwithstanding that so much of the life of primitive man is lived on the nonmoral plane1 and that much which is reckoned unto him for goodness is merely negative goodness1 still in certain of his activities growing out of his clan relationships we discover the beginnings of all human morality4 ,for as we have already said1 the true starting point of the moral evolution of mankind is to be sought in the altruistic sentiments nourished in the atmosphere of the kinship group4 ,there is scarcely an ethical sentiment which does not appear here at least in a rudimentary form4 ,out of the most sacred and intimate relationships of the group we find springing up the maternal virtues of patience1 tenderness1 and self-denial1#ce and the filial virtues of love1 obedience1 and reverence2 out of the fellowship of the men in hunting and in war#cf we see developing the manly virtues of courage1 fortitude1 self-control1 and1 above all1 self-devotion to the common good2 out of the hearth worship of ancestors#cg we observe springing up many of those religious-ethical feelings and sentiments which form one of the chief moral forces in civilization2 out of the sacrificial meal shared with the gods and the spirits of the dead through offerings of portions of the food and drink1 we see forming customs of incalculable moral value in the ethical training of the race4#ch ,a great part of the history of morals consists in the record of how these earliest forms of social virtues1 first nourished by the customs1 habits1 and practices of the kinship group1 have been gradually refined and developed into wider and richer forms of ethical sentiment and feeling4 ,sidenote3 ,custom as the maker of group morality ,there is one special feature of this germinal morality to which our attention must now be directed4 ,it is what is often called customary morality4 ,that is to say1 the standard of right and wrong in the kinship community is custom4 ,custom is the lawgiver1 and morality consists in following custom4 ,the individual1 in a word1 follows the tribal or group conscience rather than the dictates of his own conscience4 ,indeed there is practically no such thing here as a private conscience4 ,individualism has not yet arisen4 ,no one ordinarily has private notions of right and wrong which he feels impelled to set up against the immemorial customs and usages of the community4#ci ,but there is really nothing in this fact which sets this nascent morality apart from our own4 ,it differs from ours not in kind but only in degree4 ,the morality of the masses is still largely customary morality4 ,most persons in their social relations1 in business1 and in religion1 follow unthinkingly the tribal conscience1 that is1 the conventional morality of the society of which they are members1 rather than their own individual sense of right and wrong4 8,reflective morality0 is still the morality of the few4 ,the ever-renewed moral task of man is to change the customary tribal conscience into a reflective individual conscience4 ,sidenote3 ,collective responsibility ,there is still another phase of the incipient morality of the kinship group which claims our attention because of its significance for the history of the evolution of morals4 ,it is a group morality1 that is1 a morality based on the idea of collective responsibility4 ,this conception presents one of the most striking phenomena in the history of the moral evolution of mankind4 ,among peoples in the earlier stages of moral development the family or clan group rather than the individual is regarded as the ethical unit1 and the act of any member of this group1 when such act concerns a member or members of another social group1 is looked upon as the act of the whole body to which he belongs4#dj ,for the wrongdoing of one all are held responsible4#da ,this group morality1 with which the true history of the unfolding moral consciousness of the race begins1 we shall meet with as a sort of survival in every stage of the moral progress of humanity from the lowest to the highest level of culture4 8,it is10 in the words of ,hobhouse1 8one of the dominant facts1 if not the dominant fact1 ethically considered1 in the evolution of human society40#db ,the account of that slow change in the moral consciousness of man which has gradually caused group morality1 in most spheres of life and thought1 to give place to individual morality1 that is1 to that conception of moral responsibility which holds every man responsible for his own act1 and only for his own act1 makes up one of the most instructive chapters in the moral history of the world4#dc ,we shall find significant survivals of this idea of collective responsibility1 particularly in the religious domain4 ,in truth1 a large part of religious history is nothing more nor less than an account of the influence and outworkings of this notion4 ,men making their gods like unto themselves have imagined them as acting on this principle of communal responsibility1 and as bringing upon a whole people pestilence1 famine1 war1 or other calamity in revenge or punishment for some neglect in worship or act of sacrilege on the part of perhaps a single member of the tribe or nation4 ,by the early ,fathers of the ,church this idea of collective responsibility1 embodied in the doctrine of the imputation of the guilt of the transgression of the first man ,adam to all his descendants to the end of the world1 was given a prominent place in ,christian theology and has been a great force in molding the morality of the ,western world4 ,again1 we find this idea of group morality embodied in the war ethics of the modern nations1 which1 regarded from one point of view1 is largely group ethics1 that is to say1 the survival in the domain of international relations of ethical ideas that had their birth on the low intellectual and moral levels of barbarism4 ,as we follow the upward trend of the lines of the moral evolution of the race we shall hear louder and louder protests against this notion of communal responsibility1 especially when this form of human morality has been transferred to the heavens and made a fundamental principle of the divine government4 ,sidenote3 ,the duty of revenge2 the blood feud ,in primitive society if a man slay a kinsman1 he is punished by outlawry1 that is1 by expulsion from the family or clan4#dd ,the story of ,cain1 the first murderer of a kinsman in ,hebrew legend1 is typical4#de ,if1 however1 a member of a clan is slain by an outsider1 it is the duty of the nearest kinsman of the person killed1 or of the collective body of his kinsfolk1 to kill in revenge the slayer or some relative of his4#df ,to ignore this obligation or to forgive the slayer of one's kinsman is regarded as base and cowardly4 ,as1 through the advance of society1 the ties of the clan become relaxed and this group becomes more and more perfectly merged with the larger group of the tribe or state of which it has become a part1 and justice comes to be administered by the tribal head or by regular tribunals1 then blood revenge on the part of the kinsmen of the slain gradually ceases to be a duty and private vengeance becomes a crime4 ,but this is a slow evolution1 and within societies far advanced in civilization we often find belated groups still following with good conscience the ancient custom of blood revenge4 ,the vendetta in ,italy and the feud in some sections of our ,southern states#dg are survivals or degenerate forms of this primitive virtue4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,lex talionis ,closely related to the punishment of homicide in primitive society is punishment of lesser offenses1 especially the infliction of bodily injury1 within the social group4 ,here1 too1 private vengeance rules4 ,the person wronged or injured inflicts such punishment upon the offender as passion or resentment may dictate4 ,as time passes1 however1 and the sense of justice grows more discriminating1 there are limits set to this private vengeance4 ,there is established what is called the rule of equivalence4 ,the avenger is not allowed to wreak upon the offender indiscriminate and unmeasured punishment1 but is restricted to the infliction upon him of exactly such injury and pain as he has inflicted upon his victim4 ,hence arose the ,lex talionis1 limb for limb1 eye for eye1 and tooth for tooth4#dh ,this regulation thus registers an advance in moral feeling1 and may be regarded as probably the first rule of the criminal code of the nations4 ,sidenote3 ,the virtue of courage2 its altruistic element ,in early society those virtues are most highly esteemed which are of service to the clan or tribe4 ,thus courage comes to hold a first place among the virtues4 ,what is especially important to be noted here is that under courage is hidden the virtue of self-sacrifice1 which we give the highest place in our ideal of character4 ,it is this altruistic element in courage which lends to it its real ethical quality4 ,in primitive society this virtue finds expression chiefly in the ready self-devotion of the individual in battle for the common good4 ,throughout pagan antiquity this virtue held a central place in practically every ideal of excellence4 ,in the words of ,robertson ,smith1 8,this devotion to the common weal was1 as every one knows1 the mainspring of ancient morality and the source of all the heroic virtues of which ancient history presents so many illustrious examples40#di ,,iii4 ,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,intertribal ,,morality ,sidenote3 ,primitive man's double standard of morality ,the accounts given by travelers and observers of the morals of savages often present a perplexing contrariety of opinion4 ,some writers represent such people as absolutely without a moral sense1 while others1 as has already been remarked1 hold them up as models for imitation by ourselves4 ,this contrariety in view results in part from an overlooking of the fact1 just pointed out1 that the moral goodness of the savage is largely a negative goodness1 but chiefly from a failure to observe that the shield has two sides1 that is to say1 that savages have a double standard of morality--one standard regulating conduct within the social group1 and another regulating conduct toward outsiders4 ,thus the command1 8,thou shalt not kill10 means to the savage merely that he shall not kill a kinsman4 ,it has in his mind no application to strangers1 just as in our minds it has no application to animals4 ,it is the same in regard to lying4 ,savages in general have a high regard for truthfulness1 as they understand this virtue4 ,the plighted word among them is probably as sacredly kept as by the average of civilized men4#ej ,the repute of many savage folk for untruthfulness comes about from the fact that they do not think that a stranger has any right to the truth4 8,among themselves10 writes ,professor ,starr of certain ,congo tribes1 8lying is not commended and truth is appreciated2 but to deceive a stranger or a white man is commendable40#ea ,and so it is with stealing4 ,many uncivilized peoples are charged1 and in a certain sense rightly1 with making of theft a virtue4 ,but it must be borne in mind that to the savage all persons not members of his own group are strangers and enemies4 ,to steal from such is looked upon as a most praiseworthy exploit1 while to steal from the members of one's own group is regarded as a crime4#eb ,sidenote3 ,this dual morality a survival in civilization ,now the important thing to note here is that this double morality is not something peculiar to the ethics of savages4 ,this dualism runs through the whole moral history of the race1 from the beginning to the present day1 and constitutes one of the most important facts in the moral evolution of humanity4 ,we too1 like the savage1 have our double standard of morality4 ,the chief difference between us and the savage is this3 he puts his double standard in practice all the time1 we only occasionally4 ,on occasion we fling aside our ordinary standard of morality1 lift the savage's war standard1 and then like the savage lie and steal and kill--outside the tribe4 ,to deceive the stranger now is commendable2 to steal from him proper and right2 to kill him a glorious exploit4 ,the great task of this century is to put an end to this scandal of civilization1 to teach men the oneness and universality of the moral law1 to get them to understand that right and wrong are right and wrong everywhere--outside the tribe as well as within4 ,the history of intertribal or international morality1 then1 is the record of its gradual assimilation to intratribal morality4#ec ,it is a record of how the stranger1 the outsider1 has come1 or is coming1 to be regarded as a kinsman1 as a neighbor4 ,sidenote3 ,hospitality1 or the guest right2 the first step beyond kinship morality#ed ,the duty of hospitality1 to which a high place is assigned in the code of primitive peoples1 shows morality taking a step1 the first step1 beyond the narrow circle of the original group of kinsmen4 ,as we have seen1 in the beginning the feeling of duty and obligation is restricted to the little group of fellow clansmen or tribesmen4 ,every one outside this social circle is an enemy1 and is without rights4 ,but necessity forces men to go beyond the limits of their own clan or tribe1 and in time there grows up a rule that the defenseless stranger shall be kindly received1 entertained for a certain period1 and then allowed to depart unharmed4 ,it is easy to see how among clans scattered thinly over a wide territory1 and where the earlier isolation is beginning to be broken by trade relations1 this duty of hospitality should come to be regarded as a very sacred one1 and the person of the stranger guest as inviolable4#ee ,thus in the development of the guest right we see morality broadening1 the circle of moral obligation enlarged1 and the stranger1 ordinarily counted as an enemy and as rightless1 brought for a moment within the sacred pale of ethical sentiment and duty4#ef ,a new ground of moral obligation other than that of kinship has been established4 ,morality is now something more than clan morality4 ,we witness the rise of intertribal morality4 ,the first step in the moral unification of the human race has been taken4 ,sidenote3 ,beginnings of the ethics of war ,even in the domain of war we discover traces of the awakening of an intertribal conscience in races that are still in what we may regard as the kinship stage of culture4 ,speaking broadly1 primitive man1 whose chief occupations are hunting and fighting1#eg makes no distinction between war and the hunt4 ,all persons not belonging to his own group are regarded by him just as he regards wild game4 ,in his efforts to kill or capture them1 all means are right4 ,once in his power1 he may do with them as he likes2 he may make slaves of them1 he may torture them1 or he may eat their flesh as he would that of animals taken in the chase4 ,conscience lays upon him not the least restraint4 ,only slowly do the moral feelings make conquests in this province4 ,one of the earliest mitigations of the barbarities of primitive warfare is probably to be found in the discontinuance of the practice of eating the bodies of the slain4#eh ,it is this practice of cannibalism as a concomitant of war by peoples in the earlier stages of their development that perhaps more than any other circumstance gives such a repellent aspect to human life on the lower levels of culture4 ,but as ,montaigne observes1 the wrong consists in killing men1 not in eating them after they are dead#ei--;a very just observation1 and one which should awaken reflection in us who1 while piously abstaining from eating our enemies1 still persist in killing them4 ,the discontinuance of the practice of cannibalism--the practice seems invariably to be left behind by all peoples as soon as they have made any considerable advance in civilization#fj--may with little hesitation be attributed in part at least to the growth and refinement of the moral feelings4 ,in one case at least we have historical evidence that among a wide reach of savage tribes the custom was abolished by the action of a more civilized people1 who did just what the more advanced ,european nations1 under the impulsion of moral feeling1 are doing in regard to the slave trade and cannibalism in ,africa to-day4 ,the ,incas of ,peru1 before granting to conquered tribes terms of peace1 forced them to abandon the practice of cannibalism4#fa ,the disuse of poisoned arrows marks another significant mitigation of a common barbarity of early warfare4 ,we know that in the ,greek world by the opening of the historic period there were communities that had come to look on the use of poisoned weapons with abhorrence1 and to regard the practice as a crime that aroused the anger of the gods4 ,thus ,homer represents ,ilus of ,ephyra1 when asked by ,odysseus for the fatal poison wherewith to smear the tips of his arrows1 as refusing his request because he feared the immortal gods4#fb ,in these mitigations and prohibitions of the barbarities of war on the lower levels of savagery we have probably the earliest articles of the war code of the nations4 ,they mark the first steps taken in the humanization of war4 ,they indicate the birth of those sympathetic and moral feelings which1 though of painfully slow growth and of intermittent action1 have during the course of the historic ages effected great ameliorations of the cruelties of primitive warfare1 and foreshadow a time when war between civilized nations shall have become an inconceivable thing4 ,sidenote3 ,the reaction of intertribal upon intratribal morality ,there is a heart of good in things evil4 ,even the habitual intertribal wars of primitive communities contain a germ of good4 ,the pressure exerted by these life-and-death struggles upon the clan or tribe has a good effect upon the inner relationships of the group4 ,many of the social virtues1 such as loyalty to comrades and self-devotion to the common weal1 are called into constant and keen activity4 ,for this reason we usually find these social virtues well developed among peoples in the clan or tribal stage of civilization4 ,such peoples may even be stronger in these special virtues than civilized peoples4 ,but there is another side to this4 ,intertribal wars1 though they may in the very earliest stages of human culture be positively promotive of some of the social virtues1 in later and more advanced stages exert a decidedly unfavorable influence upon the moral development4 ,the low backward standard of intertribal ethics1 reacting upon the higher and more advanced intratribal standard1 tends to make it like unto itself4 ,as ,spencer expresses it1 the life of internal amity is assimilated to the life of external enmity4 8,taken in the mass the evidence shows10 he says1 8as we might expect1 that in proportion as intertribal and international antagonisms are great and constant1 the ideas and feelings belonging to the ethics of enmity predominate2 and conflicting as they do with the ideas and feelings belonging to the ethics of amity proper to the internal life of a society1 they in greater or less degree suppress these1 or fill with aggressions the conduct of man to man40#fc ,thus tribes engaged habitually in war are characterized by the frequency of homicide within the group4 ,tribes that regard the robbery of strangers as honorable come to regard stealing within the tribe as irreproachable4#fd ,revengefulness1 inhumanity1 and untruthfulness within each tribe characterize warlike communities4#fe ,on the other hand1 peaceful tribes are characterized by their superior intratribal morality4 ,tribes among whom war is infrequent or unknown are scrupulously honest4#ff ,among such people crimes of violence are rare4#fg ,thus war1 a heritage 7as a phase of the 8struggle for existence07 of the human from the lower animal world1 becomes early in the human stage of the cosmic evolution a drag upon the moral progress of the race4#fh ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,moral ,,life ,,in ,,ancient ,,egypt3 ,,an ,,ideal ,,of ,,social ,,justice ,i4 ,,circumstances ,,and ,,ideas ,,which ,,molded ,,and ,,motived ,,morality ,sidenote3 ,a homogeneous population and a comparatively static civilization ,egypt was the ,china of the ancient ,mediterranean world4 ,like the ,chinese1 the ,egyptians were a comparatively unmixed people4 ,during the historic period no new elements of importance were incorporated with the native population4 ,again1 like the civilization of ,china1 that of ,egypt throughout a great part of the historic age was singularly static4 ,after having made wonderful advance in early times the ,egyptians ceased to make further noteworthy progress4 ,both these fundamental facts of ,egyptian history had great significance for ,egyptian morals2 for since when races mingle their blood they mingle also their moralities1 it is a matter of supreme importance to the moral life of a people whether on the one hand it has1 as the centuries have passed1 undergone a change in physical type through the incorporation of new racial elements1 or on the other hand has preserved unchanged its racial type and physical characteristics4 ,equally important for the moral ideal is it whether the civilization of which it forms one element is progressive or unprogressive2 for changes in the moral standard are largely dependent on changes in the other elements of civilization4 ,where the intellectual life and the religious ideas remain unmodified1 and where all political1 social1 and industrial institutions remain essentially unchanged1 we need not look for fundamental changes in ethical ideas and convictions4 ,how the history of conscience in ancient ,egypt illustrates these truths we shall see a little further on4 ,sidenote3 ,the teaching that immortality is conditioned on righteousness ,we have seen how potent an influence the notion of a life beyond the tomb exercised upon the conduct of the members of the primitive kinship group1 giving birth to some of the noblest virtues of their simple code of morals4 ,now this idea of continued existence after death dominated the life of no other civilized people of antiquity so completely as it dominated the life of the ,egyptians2 and probably in the case of no other people ancient or modern has the belief exerted so profound an influence upon conduct4 ,this was so for the reason that the conception was here early moralized and represented the blessed life in the hereafter as dependent upon rightdoing in the present life4 ,no soul that had done evil was admitted to the bark of the ferryman at the ,egyptian ,styx4 ,in this discrimination we find 8the earliest traces in the history of man of an ethical test at the close of life40#fi ,sidenote3 ,the ethical qualities of the sun-god ,ra ,it is the sun-god ,ra who in the remotest times is most intimately associated with these moral requirements for participation in the felicities of the celestial hereafter4 ,the latest reading and analysis of the texts of the ,pyramid ,age has thrown new light upon the relations of the rival divinities ,ra and ,osiris to the development of the moral consciousness in ancient ,egypt4 ,in his latest work ,professor ,breasted says3 8,the later rapid growth of ethical teaching in the ,osiris faith and the assumption of the rle of judge by ,osiris is not yet discernible in the ,pyramid ,age1 and the development which made these elements so prominent in the ,middle ,kingdom took place in the obscure period after the development of the ,pyramid ,age4 ,contrary to the conclusions generally accepted at present1 it was the sun-god 444 who was the earliest champion of moral worthiness and the great judge in the hereafter40#gj ,the conception of ,ra as the righteous judge1 as the father and protector of the reigning ,pharaoh1 and as the guardian divinity of the ,egyptian state1 influenced profoundly the moral development in prefeudal ,egypt1 and was seemingly the inspiration of the great social reform movement which marked the history of the ,eleventh and ,twelfth ,dynasties4 ,in the words of ,professor ,breasted1 8,the moral obligations emerging in the ,solar theology thus wrought the earliest social regeneration and won the earliest battle for social justice of which we know anything in history40#ga ,sidenote3 ,religious dualism ,in our introductory chapter we spoke of the influence of physical environment upon the moral life of a people4 ,the history of the formation of the ethical type of ancient ,egypt affords an excellent illustration of this2 for it was probably out of the striking physical dualism of the ,egyptian lands--the antagonism between the life-giving ,nile and the ever-encroaching desert--that grew ,egyptian religious dualism1 embodied in the myth of the struggle between ,osiris and ,set4#gb ,at first the tale was a pure nature myth reflecting simply the conflict between two physical elements2 but as the moral consciousness of the people who recited the story deepened1 there was gradually read into it an ethical meaning4 ,the conflict was now conceived as a mighty struggle between the powers of good and evil1 between the beneficent ,osiris 7and his son and avenger1 ,horus7 and the malignant ,set4#gc ,this world philosophy reacted powerfully upon ,egyptian morality1 keeping as it did in the foreground of the moral consciousness the truth that the moral life is a battle against evil4 8,the triumph of right over wrong 444 is the burden of nine tenths of the ,egyptian texts which have come down to us40#gd ,sidenote3 ,the ,osirian myth in its special development ,acted upon by the moral feelings1 the ,osirian myth underwent a special development4 ,it came to represent not simply the eternal opposition between good and evil1 but the whole moral order of the present and the future world4 ,it told of the beneficent life of ,osiris as king of ,egypt1 his death and resurrection1 and of his office as king and judge in the realms of the dead4 ,after having been given this rich moral content1 the myth reacted powerfully upon the moral consciousness and became a chief agency in the formation of the moral character of the ,egyptian race4 ,osiris1 as reflected in the ,osirian myth1 became the incarnation of the ethical ideal4 ,it is a great advantage to morality when the ideal of goodness is thus embodied in a divine exemplar4 ,osiris held some such relation to the moral life of ancient ,egypt as ,christ holds to the moral life of the ,christian world4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,ideal ,sidenote3 ,a homogeneous and unchanging conscience ,by the dawn of history there had been developed in ancient ,egypt an enlightened and discriminating conscience4#ge ,there are two aspects of this conscience which we need to note4 ,first1 it was a comparatively homogeneous conscience2 that is1 the morality of the ancient ,egyptians was not a mixture of moralities like that of the modern ,european nations whose morality is a blend of the moralities of different races--,greek1 ,roman1 ,celtic1 and ,teutonic2 of different religions--pagan and ,christian2 and of different civilizations--,greek1 ,latin1 ,celtic1 and ,german4 ,second1 it was a comparatively unchanging conscience4 ,the moral consciousness which we find in pre-,christian ,roman ,egypt is fundamentally the same as that which emerged in the ,pyramid ,age more than three thousand years before4 ,during this long period the ,egyptian conscience1 although it gained in depth and sensitiveness as the millenniums passed1 underwent less change in its essential qualities than the moral consciousness underwent in less than ten centuries in all the other great nations1 save ,china1 of the ancient world4 ,sidenote3 ,evidences of moral progress during early times ,but though the moral development1 like the development of all other phases of ,egyptian civilization1 was early checked and thereafter made but slow progress1 the essential refinement and clarification of the moral sense during prehistoric times1 or in the obscure period of the earliest dynasties1 is shown by various testimonies1 as1 for instance1 in the moralization of the ,osirian myth1 to which we have already referred1 in the abandonment of the practice of human sacrifices at the tomb1 and in the transition1 concerning the conception of the life after death1 from the continuance to the retribution theory4 ,sidenote3 ,substitution of ka-statues for human sacrifices ,the early ,egyptians1 after the manner of savages1 killed and buried with the dead master a number of his slaves1 that their souls might attend him in the spirit land4 ,but after a time the growing humanitarian and ethical feelings of the ,egyptians forbade human sacrifices1 and then merely the portrait-statues of the slaves were placed in the tomb4#gf ,these1 it was thought1--in consonance with the belief which led to the substitution of pictures or of clay and wood models for the real articles at first buried with the dead1--would take the place of the actual bodies of the servants4 ,but as time passed1 the deepening moral feelings of the ,egyptians would not permit them to do even this thing4 ,it did not now seem right to them that because a man was a slave in the earthly ,egypt he should be a slave forever in the ,osirian fields4#gg ,so they ceased to place in the tomb of the master these portrait-statues of his servants1 and in their stead put in statuettes of nobody in particular4 ,the doubles of these1 it was conceived1 would appear as newly created souls in the underworld1 and1 being indebted for life itself to the master of the tomb1 would1 it was navely assumed1 gratefully labor for him through all eternity4#gh ,the history of the ka-statues1 as these substitutes are called1 thus bears testimony similar to that of the ,osirian myth as to the upward trend of ethical thought and humanitarian feeling in prehistoric ,egypt4#gi ,sidenote3 ,transition from the continuance to the retribution theory ,still further evidence of the advance on moral lines in early ,egypt is afforded by the character of the belief held by the ,egyptians at the beginning of the second millennium ,b4,c4 and perhaps earlier respecting the fate of souls in the world beyond the tomb4 ,to understand this we need to cast our glance a little aside and observe how the world of shades1 in its social and ethical classifications1 has ever been a register of the changing moral feelings of men4 ,as ,oscar ,peschel finely says1 8,the other world has ever answered to this as spectrum to the source of light40 ,edward ,b4 ,tylor happily names the two chief theories which have been held in regard to the state of souls in the hereafter as the continuance and the retribution theory4 ,the first theory is that of primitive man while his moral sense is yet undeveloped4 ,according to this theory the same fate is allotted to all who go down to death4 ,there is no such thing as rewards and punishments4 ,this is the conception of the after-life which is held by all races on the lower levels of culture1 and it is a view which often lingers on as a survival among peoples far advanced in civilization4 ,but as the moral judgment becomes more discriminating1 then this view of the other world is very certain to undergo a change4 ,the quickened sense of justice demands that the allotments after death shall be in accordance with merit and demerit4 ,this ethical feeling gradually transforms the topography of the underworld and organizes the as yet undivided community of shades4 ,the hitherto common abode of the dead is usually divided into two distinct compartments or regions1 heaven and hell1 and souls are separated1 according to their deeds on earth1 into two classes1 the good and the bad1 those to be welcomed to the abode of the blessed and these consigned to the place of torment4 ,sometimes1 however1 the lot conceived for the wicked is simply annihilation4 ,the incoming of this theory of rewards and punishments after death constitutes a great landmark in the moral evolution of mankind4 ,in the words of ,tylor1 this transition from the continuance to the retribution theory 8for deep import to human life has scarcely its rival in the history of religion40#hj ,the sanctions of morality are doubled4 ,now in ancient ,egypt by the beginning of the second millennium ,b4,c4 the transition from the continuance to the retribution theory had already been effected1 as will appear in the following account of the ,egyptian ,judgment of the ,dead4 ,thus here1 as in the change of practices at the tomb1 we have indisputable evidence of the progress of moral ideas in early ,egypt4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,judgment of the ,dead ,the ,judgment of the ,dead was the trial which every soul had to undergo before ,osiris and his forty-two assessors in the great tribunal hall of the underworld4 ,the astonishing thing about this tribunal1 as we have just intimated1 is that at a time when the oldest monuments raised in ,egypt were yet recent this whole conception of the moral order in all its details was already fully matured4#ha ,osiris had been raised to the judgment seat in the other world1 and the moral standard in some departments of life1 particularly in the relations of man to man in the everyday social and business spheres1 was as high and true as is the standard in many of the civilized nations of to-day4 ,this admirable code of social morals points unmistakably to long periods of organized society and moral training in prefeudal ,egypt4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,negative ,confession ,this early standard of goodness is embodied in the so-called ,negative ,confession1 in which the soul before the ,osirian tribunal pleaded his innocence of the forty-two sins condemned by the ,egyptian code of morality4 ,this confession1 previous to the discovery of the ,babylonian code of ,hammurabi1 constituted the oldest known code of morality of the ancient world4 ,these are some of the declarations of the soul3 8,i did not steal02 8,i did not get any man treacherously killed02 8,i did not utter any lie02#hb 8,i did not make any one weep02 8,i did not kill any sacred animals02 8,i did not damage any cultivated land02 8,i was angry only when there was reason for being angry02 8,i did not turn a deaf ear to the words of truth02 8,i did not commit any act of rebellion02 8,i did not do any witchcraft02 8,i did not blaspheme a god02 8,i did not make the slave to be misused by his master02 8,i was not imperious02 8,i did not strip the mummies of their stuff40#hc ,after this confession to the forty-two assessors in the hall of judgment1 the soul made the following affirmative declaration1 which makes a singularly close approach to ,christian morality3 8,i gave bread to the hungry1 water to the thirsty1 garments to the naked1 a bark to the one who was without one that is1 a boat to the detained traveler1 offerings to the gods1 and funeral conservations to the shades40#hd ,after this confession and declaration the heart of the man was placed in one scale of a balance and the image of ,truth in the other4 ,if the heart was not found wanting1 but weighed just equal to the image1 ,osiris pronounced the soul justified1 and it was welcomed to the company of the blessed4 ,the punishment meted out to the soul found lacking seems to have been of a negative nature--a denial of immortality4#he ,sidenote3 ,comparison of the morality of the ,negative ,confession with that of the ,hebrew ,decalogue and other codes ,it is instructive to compare this ancient code1 both in its contents and in its omissions1 with the moral codes of other peoples and other ages4 ,the similarity of the morality of the ,negative ,confession to that of the ,hebrew ,decalogue forces itself at once upon the attention4#hf ,the ,egyptian code1 however1 lays less emphasis than the ,hebrew upon religious duties4 ,in the forty-two duties named only seven are duties toward the gods1 while of the ,ten ,commandments five concern religious duties4 ,as we have already observed1 the duties of the ,egyptian code are those due from man to man2 that is1 they are social as opposed to religious duties4 ,in striking contrast to the ,confucian code of the ,chinese1 the ,egyptian code gives very little place to the duties of children to their parents4 ,these duties are noticed1 it is true1 by the ,egyptian moralists1 but no emphasis is laid upon them4 ,they are mentioned only once in the ,negative ,confession before ,osiris4 ,as the stress laid by ,chinese moralists upon filial piety came about largely through the supposed need of the spirits of the dead for regular offerings at the grave1 so it may be that the neglect of this virtue by the ,egyptian teachers is to be explained1 as ,flinders ,petrie suggests1 by the circumstance that 8the provision of offerings in semblance by the ,egyptians in the tomb left little place for the urgency of filial duties in maintaining continual supplies for the deceased40#hg ,another defect of ,egyptian morality is its lack of depth and seriousness4 ,there is no hungering and thirsting after righteousness1 no passionate yearning for holiness4 ,there is no call to lofty self-sacrifice4 ,it is a calm1 prudent1 worldly-wise1 practical morality4 ,its spirit and temper are well set forth by ,petrie when1 in speaking of its virtues and vices1 he says that 8these belong far more to the tone of ,chesterfield and ,gibbon than to that of ,kingsley and ,carlyle40#hh ,but in spite of the limitations and defects of the code1 it was one of the purest and loftiest framed by the moral consciousness of the races of antiquity4 ,the ,negative ,confession shows that ,egypt had early learned the lesson that blessedness in the hereafter is conditioned on the practice of justice1 truth1 and righteousness in the present life on earth4#hi ,sidenote3 ,the moral precepts of ,ptah-hotep2 an ethical conception of kinship ,after the ,negative ,confession the most valuable memorial of the character of the ,egyptian conscience is found in the precepts of the moralist ,ptah-hotep1#ij who lived probably in the time of the ,twelfth ,dynasty4 ,this moralist laid particular emphasis upon the duties of rulers and of the rich and great4 ,his maxims are intended as a sort of 8,manual of the ,perfect ,official40 8,if1 having been of no account1 thou hast become great1 and if1 having been poor1 thou hast become rich1 and if thou hast become governor of the city1 be not hard-hearted on account of thy advancement1 because thou hast become merely the guardian of the things which ,god has provided40#ia ,in like words emphasis is laid upon the duties of gentleness and considerateness on the part of the administrator and the judge4 ,in truth the doctrine of trusteeship of wealth and of office has never been more zealously taught than in these precepts of the early ,egyptian moralist4#ib ,the teachings of ,ptah-hotep respecting the duties of rulers would seem to have made effective appeal to the heart and conscience of even the holders of the royal office4 ,in any event we find these lofty conceptions of the duties of kingship incarnated in the lives and deeds of several of the ,pharaohs of the ,old ,kingdom4 ,the view held by these monarchs respecting the nature of the royal office was almost exactly like that entertained by the so-called benevolent despots of the eighteenth century of our era4 ,the inscriptions on the royal tomb boast not alone of exploits and triumphs in war1 but the prince vaunts himself for having put no ward in mourning1 for having made no distinction between the great and the humble1 for having been the protector of the widow and the asylum of the orphan1 and for having laid no unjust taxes4#ic ,sidenote3 ,slavery approved by the ,egyptian conscience ,the ,egyptian conscience1 like the conscience of the ancient world in general1 did not condemn the institution of slavery4 ,the relation of master and slave was looked upon by the ,egyptians as perfectly natural and legitimate4 ,the slave class1 which included both whites and blacks1 was recruited not only from the prisoners of war brought back by the ,pharaohs from their numerous foreign conquests1 but also from captives secured on regular man-hunting expeditions into the negro regions of the ,upper ,nile4 ,the treatment of the slave was usually mild1 and the development of the moral feelings had already in early times placed him under the protection of the gods4 ,thus in the judgment hall of ,osiris the soul repudiates the sin of oppression by affirming1 8,i did not cause the slave to be misused by his master40#id ,respecting the moral side1 in general1 of the slave system of antiquity1 which we encounter now for the first time here among the ,egyptians1 the following observation may be made4 ,if we except the ,hebrews1 we shall not find among the peoples of the ancient world whose ethical standards we shall pass in review any fundamental change throughout their history in the common conscience regarding the rightfulness of slavery4 ,indeed any radical and permanent change in the moral feelings of men on this subject was hardly possible till after the incoming of ,christianity with its teachings of a common ,father-,god and the brotherhood of man4 ,sidenote3 ,the ethics of war ,one of the most striking phenomena of the moral evolution of mankind is the unequal rate of movement on different lines4 ,thus while morality has made great progress in some departments of life1 in the domain of war it has remained comparatively stationary from the dawn of history down almost to the present day4 ,the war code of the modern nations1 notwithstanding improvements and ameliorations to which our attention will be drawn later in our study1 is still in large part an unchanged heritage from the ages of primitive savagery4 ,bearing this in mind1 it will not be a matter of surprise to us that the laws of war of the ,egyptians showed little advance the practices of the negro savages of ,africa2 indeed it seems probable that this part of the moral code of ,egypt was actually of ,african origin4#ie ,there is not a word in ,egyptian literature in reprobation of war4#if ,while in their relations to their own people the ,pharaohs observed a comparatively enlightened code of ethics1 being in general humane1 considerate1 and clement1 still in their treatment of the vanquished they seem to have been wholly insensible to all humanitarian feelings4 ,like the ,assyrian kings they 8immortalized their cruelty in their art40 ,numerous scenes upon the monuments celebrate the ,pharaoh's inhumanity2 not one celebrates his compassion or mercy4 ,he is constantly represented in the act of slaying in heaps with his own hands his bound and suppliant captives4#ig ,sidenote3 ,influence of the moral ideal upon ,egyptian life and history ,taken altogether1 the moral standard of ancient ,egypt1 as disclosed in the foregoing brief account of what the ,egyptian conscience condemned and what it approved1 was not a high one1 but it was1 in so far as it concerned the everyday life of the people1 wholly practical1 and probably was as well lived up to by the masses as our higher ideal of character is lived up to by ourselves4 ,we have a right to infer this from the persistence of ,egyptian institutions through two thirds of the historic millenniums2 for no nation or society can long endure where the relations of man to man and of subject to ruler are not in substantial agreement with the real convictions of the age as to what constitutes essential justice and righteousness4 ,the moral standard of the ,egyptians has been compared to that of the ,romans after it had felt the influence of ,stoicism and ,christianity4 ,like the ,roman ideal of excellence at its best1 the ,egyptian ideal tended to develop a strong and manly type of character1 particularly in the ruling class4 ,we think it not an illusion which causes us to see the influence of the ideal in the face of ,rameses the ,great4 ,this face bears the stamp of strength1 resolution1 indomitable energy4 ,we may believe that it was the moral ideal which had something to do in creating such a type of character as we see here1 just as it was the primitive ,roman ideal which helped to create that admirable type of character which lives in the legends of early ,rome4 ,further1 the moral ideal tended to ameliorate the autocratic government of the ,pharaohs by holding constantly before the ruler the example of the righteous and beneficent king-gods ,ra and ,osiris4 ,the influence of the ideal in this relation may be likened to the influence of the moral ideal of ,christianity upon the government of the later ,csars4 ,again1 the practical moral ideal of ,egypt1 laying its emphasis upon the fundamental social virtues1 helped to establish and maintain relations of justice and equity between man and man1 and thus contributed to the general well-being of ,egyptian society and to the stability of ,egyptian institutions4 ,nor was the influence of the moral ideal of ,egypt confined to the ,egyptian land4 ,for1 as ,amlineau truly says1 the wonderful edifice of morality is the collective work of all peoples and all ages4#ih ,in the uprearing of this edifice ,egypt played a great rle4 ,her contributions to the morality of the first nations were as helpful1 we may believe1 as were those she made to the other domains--material1 artistic1 and intellectual--of the civilization of the early world4 ,later she made a rich bequest to ,european morality1 a bequest only less important perhaps than that made by ,judea4 ,her ideas of the future life1 her meditations on death and the final judgment1 renforced the teachings of ,christianity and thus contributed to create that deep conviction of a life hereafter and a coming retribution which for eighteen hundred years and more has furnished sanction and stimulus to the moral life of ,christendom4#ii ,it is not without significance that ,christian monasticism1 with all its otherworldliness1 had its beginnings in ,egypt4 8,the first ,christian monk ,pachomius had been a pagan monk of ,serapis40#ajj ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,babylonian-,,assyrian ,,conscience ,sidenote3 ,the importance of ,babylonian-,assyrian morality for the history of comparative morals ,the information which the cuneiform texts have yielded concerning the moral life of the ,babylonian and ,assyrian peoples1 though scanty1 is of the greatest value to the student of comparative morals1 not only because it casts light upon a moral development in some important respects like the moral evolution of the kindred ,semitic people of ,israel1 but also because that later evolution was probably deeply influenced by it4 ,therefore1 though nothing like a connected account of the moral evolution in the ,euphratean lands can be attempted till the thousands of cuneiform tablets recovered from the ancient libraries of the ,babylonian-,assyrian cities have been deciphered1 and the ethical character and value of their contents determined1 we shall devote a few pages to the portrayal of such manifestations of conscience as are disclosed in the religious1 literary1 historical1 and law tablets whose contents are already known to us4 ,sidenote3 ,the general nonethical character of the ,babylonian-,assyrian religion ,religion filled a large place in the life of the ancient ,babylonians and ,assyrians1 especially in that of the former2 but religion with them had at first little or nothing to do with morality4 ,like the religion of savage and barbarian folk1 it lacked wholly or almost wholly the ethical spirit4 ,throughout the early period it was in the main simply a system of incantations and magical rites4 ,scarcely any moral element entered into the system until the later centuries of ,babylonian-,assyrian history4 ,this religion was in truth simply a survival from primitive savage times when religion was merely a belief in the existence of evil spirits1 and in their disposition and power to do harm to men4#aja ,in this stage of the religious evolution sickness1 death1 misadventure of every kind are believed to be caused by some malignant demon or by some offended and revengeful god4 ,the evil spirits are supposed to act from pure malignancy1 while the great gods are conceived to be angered especially by the nonobservance of some religious rite1 by the violation of some taboo forbidding the use of certain kinds of food1 or by some other like act4 ,to ward off the attacks of the evil demons1 or to appease the offended gods1 recourse was had to the recital of magical formulas and incantations4 ,this was ,shamanism in its lowest and crudest form1 in which there was at work as a motive on the part of the suppliant only cringing fear or a desire to get rid of some present pain1 without the least trace of moral emotions1 such as remorse and repentance4 ,sidenote3 ,ethical tendencies in the religion ,but as time passed1 this earlier nonethical religion1 as is evidenced by the texts recovered from the long-buried temple libraries1#ajb became in a measure moralized4 ,a moral character was given to the great gods1 and they became the inspirers and guardians of a true morality4 ,this ethicalizing process was the same in character as that which went on in the religion of the ancient ,hebrews1 gradually moralizing the primitive conceptions and cult of ,yahweh until among that people religion and morality became wholly at one4 ,the ethical development1 however1 never went as far as this in ,babylonia and ,assyria1 but the movement was such as to lift these peoples far above the low moral plane of primitive society4 8,in the seventh century before ,christ1 if not earlier1 the ,babylonians and ,assyrians possessed a system of morality which in many respects resembled that of the descendants of ,abraham40#ajc ,sidenote3 ,evidence afforded by the penitential psalms of the growth in moral feeling ,the ethical movement found its truest expression in the so-called penitential hymns1#ajd which are in spirit altogether like the penitential psalms of the ,hebrew ,scriptures4#aje ,they exhibit the same intense yearning of the penitent soul for reconciliation and union with a god conceived as just and holy and piteous4 ,in one hymn is found the new moral conception that disease is the work of a good spirit4 ,this is a very lofty ethical idea1 and approaches the ,hebrew conception of afflictions as the visitation in disguise of love4 ,but this idea seems never to have become a permanent part of the ,babylonian moral consciousness4 ,in these psalms and prayers we have evidence that at times the worshipers of ,marduk and ,ashur attained to almost as lofty a conception of deity as that reached by the teachers and prophets of ,israel4 ,the great gods were conceived as the creators1 the sustainers of man2 as loving1 compassionate1 merciful1 and forgiving4 ,the religious-moral ideal was here verging toward the highest that man has ever been able to form1 and could this standard have been steadily upheld and the lower abandoned1 then ,babylonia and ,assyria like ,judea might have made precious contributions to the moral life of humanity4 ,but this was not done4 ,the tablets holding magical formulas and incantations1 wholly devoid of all ethical character1 outnumber a thousand to one those exhaling the spiritual perfume of genuine moral feeling and aspiration4 ,sidenote3 ,ethical significance of the conception of the after life ,respecting the lot of the dead1 the ,babylonians held views like those of the early ,hebrews4 ,this was the continuance as opposed to the retribution theory4#ajf ,arallu1 8the land of no return10 was a vast underground region where were gathered all1 without distinction1 who went down to the grave4 ,it was a sad1 dolorous life that the drowsing shades lived in this dark underworld1 where the bats flitted in the twilight and the dust gathered on the lintels of the doors4 ,an undiscriminating fate allotted the same destiny to all4 ,in so far as the moral consciousness of the ,babylonians demanded that a distinction be made between the good and the bad1 this demand was met by the assumption--which was also that of the ,hebrews so long as they held the ,babylonian view of the life after death--that the evil man is punished in this life1 and the good man rewarded here on earth with numerous flocks1 reputation1 many children1 and long life4 ,for four thousand years the masses in ,babylonia seem to have remained satisfied with this view of the moral government of the world4 ,in the later periods of ,babylonian history1 however1 we find in the literature traces of a protest against this nonethical conception of life in the afterworld--a protest which shows that1 in the case of the more spiritually minded at least1 the moral consciousness was deepening and the ethical judgment becoming clearer and truer4 ,sidenote3 ,the ethical spirit of the laws2 the code of ,hammurabi ,since the law code of a people embraces all those duties the performance of which the state or public authority attempts to enforce1 the ethical spirit of an age or people finds one of its truest embodiments in its laws4 ,it is this fact which renders of such extraordinary interest to the student of the history of morals the recent discovery of the code of the ,babylonian king ,hammurabi1#ajg the oldest known code of public and private morality4 ,this law system exhibits in some departments of life an enlightened and advanced morality1 yet one with serious limitations and defects1 a morality in many respects like that of the ,mosaic code of the kindred ,semitic nation of ,israel4 ,the code informs us that the ,babylonian feeling as to what is right and wrong1 just and unjust1 in the ordinary business relations of life was much like the average conscience of to-day4 ,in some matters the ,babylonian law held ground morally in advance of that held by modern codes1 as1 for instance1 in providing that in case of misfortune the debtor should have both his rent and the interest on his debt remitted4#ajh ,but in its provisions touching the family relations the code reveals ethical conceptions very different from our own4 ,as in other ,oriental law systems1 ancient and modern1 polygamy was regarded as a moral institution4 ,a man in debt could bind his wife and children out to service or sell them as slaves1 but not for a longer period than three years4 ,the punishments meted out to offenders were harsh and cruel1 yet not much more atrociously cruel than those provided by the ,english laws of three hundred years ago4 ,impaling1 burning1 cutting out the tongue1 gouging out the eyes1 cutting off the fingers1 breaking the bones of the hands were common penalties4 ,sometimes the punishment was measured by the primitive principle of the ,lex talionis2 it was eye for eye1 bone for bone1 tooth for tooth4#aji ,this law of retaliation was carried out so rigorously as to result in the punishment of the innocent for the guilty4 ,thus if a man caused the death of another man's daughter1 the law required that his own daughter should be put to death4#aaj ,if a builder1 through the faulty construction of a house1 caused the death of the son of the owner through the falling of the house1 the son of the builder was to be put to death4#aaa ,it is in these provisions of the code that we find the greatest divergence between the ,babylonian feeling and our own as to what is right and just4 ,yet this ,babylonian conscience which sanctioned the visiting of the iniquity of the father upon the children is a conscience which we shall meet with in societies much more advanced than that for which the ,hammurabi code was formulated4 ,the ,babylonian conscience in regard to slavery as embodied in the code was about like our own conscience respecting negro slavery of a generation or two ago4 ,the slave was viewed as a mere chattel1 and the master possessed over him the power of life and death4 ,kind treatment1 however1 was enjoined by the law4 ,there was a fugitive-slave law which reads curiously like our negro-slave laws of two generations ago1 in which the aiding and harboring of a fugitive slave is made a crime punishable with death4#aab ,the slave class was recruited1 as in other lands of the ancient world1 from prisoners of war1 foundlings1 debtors1 criminals1 and through the sale by fathers and husbands of their children and wives4 ,the system seems to have undergone no essential changes or ameliorations1 such as we shall see effected in the ,hebrew system1 by growth in ethical feeling during the four thousand years of ,babylonian history4 ,it is true that enfranchisement of slaves was not uncommon1 the freed man becoming the dependent of his old master1 but it does not appear that moral sentiment afforded the motive for manumission4#aac ,sidenote3 ,international morality2 war ethics ,the international ethics of the ,babylonians and ,assyrians was in every essential respect the international ethics of their age in the ,semitic world4 ,it was the character of the religion of these peoples which determined in large measure international relations in the ,mesopotamian lands throughout the period of ,semitic ascendancy4 8,the conception of religion as an alliance between ,god and man against other peoples and their gods never ceased in ,mesopotamia40#aad ,this conception was essentially the same as that held by the ,hebrews down to the time of the great prophets4 8,let us go up against them1 for our god is greater than their god10 is the war cry of four thousand years of history of the ,semitic world4 ,the ,assyrians far surpassed the ,babylonians in their ferocious cruelty in the treatment of war captives4 ,notwithstanding their advanced morality in some departments of life1 in this domain they stood1 if we except the practice of cannibalism1 on practically the same level as savages4 ,witness the following inscription of ,assur-natsir-pal1 in which he tells of his treatment of certain prisoners of war3 8,the nobles1 as many as had revolted1 ,i flayed2 with their skins ,i covered the pyramid4 ,some of these ,i immured in the midst of the pyramid2 others above the pyramid ,i impaled on stakes4444 ,three thousand of their captives ,i burned with fire4 ,i left not one alive among them to become a hostage4444 ,i cut off the hands and feet of some2 ,i cut off the noses1 the ears and the fingers of others2 the eyes of the numerous soldiers ,i put out4 ,in the middle of them ,i suspended their heads on vine stems in the neighborhood of their city4 ,their young men and their maidens ,i burned as a holocaust40#aae ,the significant thing here is not so much the fact that these things were done1 as the fact that the king exults in having done them and thinks to immortalize himself by portraying them upon imperishable stone4 ,the careful way in which to-day all reference to atrocities of this character1 when in the fury of battle they are inflicted upon a savage enemy1 are suppressed by those responsible for them1 and the indignant condemnation of them by the public opinion of the civilized world1 measures the moral progress humanity has made even along those lines on which progress has been so painfully slow and halting4#aaf ,,chapter ,v ,,chinese ,,morals3 ,,an ,,ideal ,,of ,,filial ,,piety ,i4 ,,ideas1 ,,institutions1 ,,and ,,historical ,,circumstances ,,determining ,,the ,,cast ,,of ,,the ,,moral ,,ideal ,sidenote3 ,introductory ,with the exception of the teachers of the ancient ,hebrews1 the leaders of thought of no people have so insistently interpreted life and history in terms of ethics as have the sages of the ,chinese race4 ,and1 excepting the ,hebrew teachers1 no moralists have so emphasized duties while leaving rights--upon which the ,western world in modern times has laid such stress--to take care of themselves4#aag ,it cannot fail to enhance our interest in a study of the ideal upheld by these teachers of morality1 if we recall that this ideal of character has for upwards of three thousand years exercised an incalculable influence upon the moral life of probably a fourth of the human race and is the cement of a social structure that has outlasted all others of the ancient world4 ,the cast of this moral ideal affords a good illustration of the way in which the moral type of a people is molded by religious and philosophical ideas1 social institutions1 race experiences1 and physical environment4 ,following our usual method of exposition we shall begin our examination of ,chinese morality by first casting a glance at some of the agencies which have been especially influential in the creation of the ethical standard4 ,sidenote3 ,confucianism3 the state worship of ,heaven and the popular worship of ancestors ,there are two religious elements in ,confucianism which have special significance for ,chinese morality4 ,these are1 first1 the state worship of ,heaven and of the lesser gods of the sky and earth2 and second1 the popular cult of ancestral spirits4 ,the worship of ,heaven1 the supreme deity1 is a state function2 that is1 it is a matter which is left entirely to the ,emperor and the magistrates4 ,consequently those duties to ,god1 that is1 to a being looked upon as ,creator and ,father1--duties of reverence1 love1 and worship1 which fill so large a place in the moral ideals of ,judaism and ,christianity1--find scarcely any place among the duties enjoined upon the multitude by ,confucianism4#aah ,the worship of ancestors is the essential and popular element of ,confucianism4 ,commenting on the ethical value of this cult1 ,dr4 ,martin affirms that 8in respect to moral efficiency1 it would appear to be only second to that of faith in the presence of an all-seeing ,deity40#aai ,the constant and reverent dwelling upon the virtues of their ancestors has exalted the virtue of filial piety among the ,chinese to the highest place in their ideal of character and has helped to make respect for what is old1 for what has been handed down from ancestral ages1 a highly prized virtue and a distinguishing trait of the race character4 ,in an indirect way also ancestor worship has exerted a great influence upon the moral life of the ,chinese people1 for this worship is necessarily a family cult and must be cared for by the head of the family4 ,this has prevented the growth of a priestly caste in ,confucian ,china4 ,the absence of a powerful national priesthood has been a great boon to ,chinese morality4 ,the place thus left vacant has been filled by the literati1 or learned class1#abj whose influence upon the ethical life of the people has1 without question1 been more beneficent than that of a priestly class would have been4#aba ,sidenote3 ,demonism3 evil spirits the ministers of retributive justice ,besides peopling the invisible world with beneficent ancestral spirits1 the ,chinese have filled heaven and earth with innumerable demons or evil spirits4 ,even the souls of dead men1 if they have been wronged on earth or if their wants since death have been undutifully neglected1 may become malignant1 revengeful spirits4 ,these demons are believed to be the cause of all kinds of diseases1 of blight and famine1 and of every misfortune befalling men4#abb ,the thing about this ,chinese demonism which is of interest to the student of morals is that1 unlike the demonism of ,babylonia 7p4 #df71 or that of the ,middle ,ages in ,europe1 it contains a distinct ethical element4 ,there was little or nothing ethical in the ,babylonian or the medieval belief in the existence of evil spirits because the good man and the bad were indifferently the victims of their malignant activity4 ,but the ,chinese have moralized their demonism and conceive these spirits as under the control of ,heaven and without power to do harm without ,heaven's commission or consent4 ,they thus represent retributive justice and become the ministers of the ,supreme ,power to punish evildoers1 like ,nemesis and the ,erinyes of the ,greeks4 ,it is this ethical side of the ,chinese belief in evil spirits which causes ,de ,groot1 in emphasizing the import of this demonism for ,chinese morality1 to say that 8it occupies the rank of moral educator of the people1 and has fulfilled a great mission to many thousands of millions who have lived and died on ,asiatic soil4 ,demonism1 the lowest form of religion1 in ,china a source of ethics and moral education--this certainly may be called a singular phenomenon1 perhaps the only one of its kind to be found on this terrestrial globe40 #abc ,sidenote3 ,taoism3 nature the exemplar ,next to ,confucianism and demonism1 ,taoism has been the most important moral force in the life of the ,chinese people4 ,taoism was originally a lofty philosophical ethical system out of which was developed later a religion4#abd ,the philosophy1 however1 has always remained something quite distinct from the religious system4 ,the essence of ,taoism is the pantheistic doctrine that the universe1 or nature1 is ,god4 ,the ethical character of the universe is revealed in its way or method1 which is ,tao4 ,now the characteristics of nature as disclosed in its method of operation are constancy--8heaven never diverges from its course02 unselfishness--8the earth nourishes all things02 impartiality--8the earth brings forth its fruits for all alike02 placidity--8heaven is calm1 serene1 passionless02 humility--the sun which 8after shining sets10 the moon which 8after fullness1 wanes10 the warmth of summer which 8when it has finished its work retires10 water which 8seeks the lowest place10 all these are symbols of 8nature's humility40#abe ,what gives these interpretations of the ethical qualities of nature their importance for human morality is that man's highest duty is to imitate the universe1 to behave as nature behaves4#abf 8,taoism is the exhibition of a way or method of living which men should cultivate as the brightest and purest development of their nature40#abg 8,the true ,taoist then is the man who unites in himself the virtues or qualities of the universe1 including the constant virtues40#abh ,man's way must be nature's way 7,tao74 ,the perfect man must cultivate constancy1 unselfishness1 impartiality1 benevolence1 impassibility1 serenity1 humility1 and quietness1 for these are the characteristics of the universe4#abi ,this ,taoist code is designed especially for rulers4#acj ,he who has assimilated all his virtues to the virtues of nature is qualified to administer government4#aca ,it is in the qualities of character cultivated by the highest-minded ministers and mandarins1 and in the state worship and official customs that we are to look for the main ethical influence of the doctrines of ,taoism4#acb ,sidenote3 ,the conception of human nature as good 8,the tendency of man's nature to good10 says ,mencius1 8is like the tendency of water to flow downwards40#acc ,just as the theological dogma that man's nature is hereditarily corrupt1 with a proneness to evil1 has shaped and colored a large part of ,christian ethics1 so has this opposing conception of human nature as good exercised a tremendous influence upon the ethical ideal of the ,chinese race4#acd ,for if man's nature is good1 then for him to live conformably to his nature is to live rationally1 that is1 morally4 8,to nourish one's nature10 declared ,mencius1 8is the way to secure heaven40#ace ,objections to this view of human nature1 based on the fact that men are actually very different in moral character1 are met by saying that this difference is the effect of environment1 just as the inequalities in the yield of barley seed are due not to a difference in the nature of the grain but to the different qualities of the soil4#acf ,in a word1 it is the social environment--instruction and example--which determines the character of men4 8,by nature10 says ,confucius1 8men are nearly alike2 by practice they get to be far apart40#acg ,as we shall see1 it makes a vast difference in a man's conception as to what he ought to do1--as to how he should regulate his life1--whether he believes his nature to be inclined to virtue and all his instincts1 impulses1 and appetites to be good1 or believes his nature to be corrupt and all his instincts and appetencies to be evil4 ,sidenote3 ,conception of the past as perfect ,another conception that has had a molding influence upon the moral ideal of ,china is the conception of the past as perfect without any historic lapse from this perfection4 ,to understand the import of this in the ethical history of ,china we must compare it with the theological conception of the fall of man4 ,this conception determined what should be the saving virtues of the historic ethical ideal of the ,western world1 making them to be theological in character and having to do with man's restoration from an hereditary fallen state4 ,now the ,chinese1 instead of believing in the lapse of man from a state of original innocence1 conceive the past as perfect4 ,this interpretation of history has had the effect of making reverence for the past1 for the customs1 institutions1 and teachings of the fathers1 a chief virtue of the moral ideal4#ach ,the far-reaching consequences for ,chinese life and history which the emphasis laid upon this virtue has had will be the subject of remark a little further on4 ,sidenote3 ,geographical and intellectual isolation ,again1 the moral development of the ,chinese people has been profoundly influenced by the geographical isolation of ,china4 ,from the earliest times down almost to the present day ,china was shut out from intercourse with the civilized and progressive nations of the ,west1 and was surrounded by neighbors greatly her inferior in intellectual1 social1 and moral culture4 ,the effect of this isolation upon the ,chinese was to foster in them an exaggerated self-esteem and a feeling of contempt for foreigners4 ,in this respect the masses are still ethically in that stage of development that the ,greeks were in when they looked contemptuously upon all non-,greeks as 8barbarians40 ,in still another way has the physical and intellectual isolation of the ,chinese people reacted upon their ethical life4 ,this isolation has prevented progress beyond a certain stage1 and where there is no progress or very slow progress there is likely to grow up an undue attachment to ways and customs that are old4 ,this is what has happened in ,china1 and this has worked together with the worship of ancestors to create one of the main requirements of the ideal of character1 namely1 reverence for the past4 ,sidenote3 ,the appearance of great men3 ,confucius and ,mencius ,besides the various agencies already passed under review1 the teachings of two great moralists1 ,confucius and ,mencius1 have been a vital force in the shaping of the moral ideal of ,china4 ,the greater of these sages was ,confucius 7#eea-dgh ,b4,c47 ,he was unimaginative and practical4 ,he was not an original thinker4 ,his mission was not to found a new religion or hold up a new ideal of character1 but to give new force and effectiveness to the already existing moral code of his time and people4#aci ,his teachings were especially effective in giving filial piety the fixed place it holds in the moral ideal of his countrymen4 ,the influence of ,mencius 7#cga-bhh ,b4,c471 whose teachings are characterized by an emphatic denunciation of the wickedness of war1 is to be traced particularly in the low place which is assigned in the ,chinese standard of character to the martial virtues1 and the general disesteem in which the military life is held4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,ideal ,sidenote3 ,the four cardinal virtues ,chiefly under the molding influence of the agencies noticed in the preceding sections1 there was shaped in early times in ,china one of the most remarkable moral ideals of history1 an ideal which has been a guiding and controlling force in the moral life of probably more of the human race than any other of the ethical ideals of mankind4 ,the duties given the highest place in this standard of character are filial obedience1 reverence for superiors1 a conforming to ancient custom1 and the maintenance of the just medium4 ,the man who is carefully observant of these duties is looked upon in ,china as a man of superior excellence4 ,in the following pages we shall speak with some detail of each of these requirements of the ethical ideal4 ,sidenote3 ,filial obedience or piety ,in an analysis of the symbols used in the ,chinese system of writing ,dr4 ,legge points out the significant fact that one of the oldest of these characters1 the one standing for filial piety1 was originally the picture of a youth upholding on his shoulders an old man4#adj ,in this worn-down symbol is embodied the fundamental fact in the moral life of the ,chinese people4 ,it tells us that the first of family virtues1 filial piety1 the virtue that formed the basis of the strength and greatness of early ,rome1 constituted also the firm foundation upon which the enduring fabric of ,chinese society was raised4 ,the whole framework of the social structure is modeled on the family1 and all relations and duties are assimilated1 in so far as possible1 to those of the domestic circle4 ,in no other of the moral ideals of history do we find a more prominent place given the duties of children toward their parents4 ,it was ancestor worship1 doubtless1 as we have already said1 which gave these duties this foremost place in the moral code1 and which through all the millenniums of ,chinese history has maintained for them the highest place in the ,chinese standard of moral excellence4#ada ,the ,classic of ,filial ,piety declares3 8,the services of love and reverence to parents when alive1 and those of grief and sorrow to them when dead--these completely discharge the fundamental duty of living men40#adb 8,the ,master said3 #8,there are three thousand offenses against which the five punishments are directed1 and there is not one of them greater than being unfilial4'0#adc ,the punishments which the ,chinese laws enjoin for unfilial conduct bear witness to the high estimation in which the ,chinese moralists and rulers hold the virtue of filial obedience and reverence4 ,thus a parent may1 with the consent of the maternal uncle1 require a magistrate to whip to death an unfilial son4#add ,a parricide is beheaded1 his body cut in pieces1 his house torn down1 his neighbors are punished1 his chief teacher is put to death1 and the magistrates of the district in which he lived are degraded or deposed4#ade ,sidenote3 ,reverence toward superiors ,filial piety is regarded by ,chinese moralists as the root out of which grow all other virtues4 ,immediately out of this root springs the duty of obedience and reverence toward all superiors4 ,this is the corner stone of the ,chinese system of political ethics4 8,in the family life10 in the words of ,jernigan1 8may be seen the larger life of the empire40#adf ,sidenote3 ,a conforming to ancient custom ,we have here the third of the cardinal duties1 the duty which in practice constitutes the heart and core of ,chinese morality4#adg ,the commandment is1 ,follow the ancients2 walk in the trodden paths2 let to-day be like yesterday4 ,this duty1 as we have already noticed1 springs from the ,chinese conception of the past as perfect4 ,if that past be perfect1 then of course it becomes the duty of living men to make the present like unto it1 and in no case to depart from the customs and practices of the fathers4 ,we can easily make the ,chinese view in this matter intelligible to ourselves by recalling how we have been wont to regard the religious past of that ,hebrew world of which we are the heirs4 ,sanctity in our minds has attached to it all1 and we regard any departure from the teachings and commandments of that past to be a fault1 even a species of wickedness deserving eternal punishment4 ,now in ,china this idea of sanctity1 which among ourselves attaches only to the religious side of life1 has attached to all phases of life1 to government1 to society1 to art1 to science1 to trade and commerce--to all of the ideas1 ways1 and customs of antiquity4 ,as their fathers did1 so must the children do4 ,they must deem worthy what their fathers deemed worthy and love what their fathers loved4#adh ,he who departs from the beliefs and practices of the ancients is regarded as irreverent and immoral1 just as he who with us departs from the beliefs and customs of the fathers in religion is looked upon as presumptuous and irreligious4 ,sidenote3 ,the maintenance of the just medium ,the virtue with which we here have to do is akin to the ,greek virtue of moderation4 ,it consists in never going to extremes1 in avoiding excess in everything1 in being always well balanced1 standing in the middle1 and leaning not to either side2 8to go beyond is as wrong as to fall short40#adi ,one of the sacred books of the ,chinese1 called ,chung ,yung1 which is ascribed to a grandson of ,confucius1 and in which is portrayed an ideally perfect character1 ,the ,princely ,man1 celebrates this virtue of the just medium4#aej ,this portraiture of the perfect man1 held up as a pattern for imitation to the successive generations of ,chinese youth1 has been a molding force in the moral life of the ,chinese race4#aea ,sidenote3 ,the duty of intellectual self-culture ,having now spoken of the four cardinal virtues of the ,chinese standard of excellence1 we shall next proceed to speak more briefly of several other virtues1 which1 though not given the most prominent place in the ideal1 are nevertheless assigned a high place among the virtues exemplified by the perfect man4 ,first among these we note that of intellectual self-culture4 ,concerning this virtue and duty the ,chinese sages have thoughts like those of the ,greek teachers4 ,confucius taught that true morality is practically dependent upon learning4 8,it is not easy10 he says1 8to find a man who has learned for three years without coming to be good40#aeb ,here we have1 as in the teachings of the ,greek philosophers1 knowledge made almost identical with goodness4 ,intellectual culture and good morals run together4 ,again the ,master1 speaking of the ancients1 says3 8,their knowledge being complete1 their thoughts were sincere2 their thoughts being sincere1 their hearts were then rectified40#aec 8,how would it be possible10 asks ,lao-tsze1 8to go forward in one's knowledge and go backward in one's morals80#aed ,this commendation of learning by the sages1 as we shall see further on1 gave a great impulse to the educational system of ,china4 ,sidenote3 ,the duties of rulers ,the teachings of ,chinese moralists are especially marked by the emphasis laid upon the duties of rulers4 ,in the times of ,confucius there was lack of union between the different provinces1 and ,china was in a state bordering on political anarchy4 ,a chief aim of the teachings of the ,master was to correct this condition of things by laying stress upon the duties of those in authority4 ,never have the duties of rulers been more insistently inculcated4 ,in the first place ,confucius set a high aim for the state1 an aim altogether like that set by ,plato for the ideal ,greek city4 ,he makes the end of government to be virtue and not wealth4 ,its aim should be to promote goodness and not merely material prosperity3 8,in a state1 pecuniary gain is not to be considered to be prosperity1 but prosperity will be found in righteousness40#aee ,the indispensable qualification in the ruler is goodness4 8,the love of what is good10 declares ,mencius1 8is more than a sufficient qualification for the government of the empire40#aef ,the ruler should be a father to his people1 kind and benevolent1 should instruct them1 should follow the laws of the ancient kings1 should be a model for his subjects1 should leave a good example to future ages4 ,much is said by the ,master respecting the influence of the example set by the ruler3 8,when the ruler as a father1 a son1 a brother1 is a model1 then the people imitate him40#aeg ,the relation between superior and inferior is like that between the wind and the grass3 8,the grass must bend when the wind blows across it40#aeh 8,never has there been a case of the sovereign loving benevolence and the people not loving righteousness40#aei 8,if good men were to govern a country in succession for a hundred years1 they would be able to transform the violently bad and dispense with capital punishment40#afj ,but there has never been such a succession of good rulers in ,china4 ,respecting the influences and circumstances which have brought about a great discrepancy between the ideal and practice we shall have something to say in the last division of this chapter4 ,sidenote3 ,disesteem of the heroic or martial virtues ,the ,chinese ideal of goodness and nobility allows no place among its virtues to the qualities of the warrior1 which have in general been given such a prominent place in the moral ideals of almost all other peoples throughout all periods of history4 ,soldiers hold a very low place in the social scale2 they are looked upon as a 8pariah class10 and their life is regarded as degrading4 ,the ,emperor of ,china1 8alone among the great secular rulers of the world1 never wears a sword40#afa ,this spirit of opposition to militarism is embodied in the teachings of the great moralist ,mencius4 8,the warlike ,western world has scarcely known a more vigorous and sweeping protest against warfare and everything connected with it and every principle upon which it is based40#afb ,to gain territory by the slaughter of men ,mencius declared to be contrary to the principles of benevolence and righteousness4#afc ,he speaks as follows of the military profession3 8,there are men who say1 ,i am skillful at marshaling troops4 ,i am skillful in conducting a battle4 ,they are great criminals40#afd ,in ,spring and ,autumn1 a chronicle of early ,chinese history1 he declares1 8,there are no righteous wars10 though he admits that one might be better than another4#afe ,confucius also1 though he did not lay the stress upon the inherent wickedness of war that was placed upon it by ,mencius1 maintained that the same rules of morality apply in the relations of nations as in those of individuals1 and taught that differences between nations should be settled by arbitration and by considerations of equity and justice1 not by brute force4 ,sidenote3 ,principles and inner disposition ,it is often affirmed that the teachings of ,chinese moralists are defective in that they consist in moral precepts rather than in moral principles1 that they lay stress upon the observance of minute rules of conduct rather than upon the inner disposition4 ,there is1 however1 in the body of ethical teachings of the sages no lack of insistence upon principles of conduct and upon states and dispositions of mind and heart4 ,all must be right within the heart1 says ,confucius1 for 8what truly is within will be manifested without40#aff 8,let the prince be benevolent10 says ,mencius1 8and all his acts will be benevolent2 let the prince be righteous and all his acts will be righteous40#afg ,have no depraved thoughts1 sums up the contents of the three hundred pieces in the ,book of ,poetry4 8,in the ceremony of mourning10 says ,confucius again1 8it is better that there be deep sorrow than a minute attention to observances40#afh ,and it is the same teaching as to what constitutes true morality which we find in such sayings as these3 8,the doctrine of our ,master is to be true to the principles of our nature40#afi 8,man is born for uprightness10#agj and he should love virtue as he loves beauty1#aga for its own sake4 ,in reciprocity ,confucius found that same comprehensive rule of conduct which is rightly regarded as one of the noblest principles of ,christian morality4 ,being asked if there was one word which may serve as a rule of practice for all one's life1 the ,master said3 8,is not reciprocity such a word8 ,what you do not want done to yourself1 do not do to others40#agb ,and surely nothing could be farther from mere preceptorial teaching than these words of ,mencius3 8,let a man not do what his own sense of righteousness tells him not to do2444 ,to act thus is all he has to do40#agc ,and in the following utterances the sages of ,china speak with an accent strangely like that of the ,great ,prophet of ,israel3 8,the great man is he who does not lose his child heart40#agd ,again1 8,i like life2 ,i also like righteousness4 ,if ,i cannot keep the two together1 ,i will let life go and choose righteousness40#age ,still again3 8,with coarse rice to eat1 with water to drink1 and my bended arm for a pillow--,i have still joy in the midst of these things40#agf ,in the following ,mencius shows that he understood the moral use of dark things3 8,when ,heaven is about to confer a great office on any man1 it first exercises his mind with suffering and his sinews and bones with toil4 ,it exposes his body to hunger and subjects him to extreme poverty4 ,it confounds his undertakings4 ,by all these methods it stimulates his mind1 hardens his nature1 and supplies his incompetencies40#agg ,and again3 8,life springs from sorrow and calamity1 and death from ease and pleasure40#agh 8,men who are possessed of intelligent virtue and prudence in affairs will generally be found to have been in sickness and trouble40#agi ,sidenote3 ,defects of the ideal3 no duties to ,god1 and the duties of parents to children not emphasized ,regarded from our point of view the ,confucian ideal of moral character has serious limitations and defects4 ,first1 it omits practically all duties to ,god4 ,in the words of ,dr4 ,legge1 8man's duty to ,god is left to take care of itself40 ,god or ,heaven was a subject of which ,confucius seldom spoke1 and the ,chinese have in this matter followed the example of the ,master4 ,heaven is not in all their thoughts4 ,if we recall what an influence the conception of a supreme being as ,creator and ,father has exerted upon the morality of all the races that have accepted as their creed the ethical monotheism of the ,hebrew teachers1 we shall realize how fundamentally the ,chinese ideal of excellence has been modified by the omission of all those duties which have entered into our own moral code as duties owed to ,god4#ahj ,second1 while laying such stress upon the duties of children to their parents1 ,confucianism is almost silent regarding the duty of parents to their children4 ,at this point there is a wide divergence between the ,christian and the ,chinese conception of duty4 ,commenting upon this matter1 ,dr4 ,legge says3 8,i never quoted in a circle of ,chinese friends the words of ,paul in ,corinthians--#8,the children ought not to lay up for the parents1 but the parents for the children'--without their encountering a storm of opposition4 ,when ,i tried to show that the sentiment was favorable to the progress of society1 and would enable each generation to start from a higher standpoint1 ,i found it difficult to obtain a hearing40#aha ,the effects of the family ethics of ,confucianism upon the moral practice of the ,chinese in the domestic sphere will be noted in the following division of this chapter4 ,,iii4 ,,effects ,,of ,,the ,,ideal ,,upon ,,chinese ,,life ,,and ,,history ,sidenote3 ,degree of accordance between theory and practice2 mandarin morality ,no people have ever lived up to their ideal of moral excellence4 ,the ,chinese like others have obviously fallen far short of embodying in actual practice the high standard of their sages4 ,but it is certainly a gross misjudgment of ,chinese morality to say1 as some writers on things ,chinese have said1 that the ideal and the standard maintained are wholly disconnected4#ahb ,this depreciatory opinion1 however1 admits of little dispute if its application be confined to the mandarin class4 ,in public or official morality there is a deplorable divergence between theory and practice4 ,probably the ,chinese official class1 in spite of the stress which is laid by moralists upon the duties of magistrates and rulers1 is the most corrupt in the world4 ,peculation in office is universal4 ,bribery is as rife as it was in ,rome under the later ,republic4 ,justice is almost universally bought and sold4 ,this very general lack of integrity in office is attributable in part at least to the inadequate salaries4 ,this inevitably calls into existence a system of fees and presents1 which as inevitably grows into a system of extortion1 oppression1 and corruption4 ,but1 as a well-informed writer affirms1 8,whatever laxity ,chinese morality may permit in official relations1 from the workingman1 the tradesman1 and the servant it exacts most scrupulous honesty40#ahc ,the average man in ,china1 it may be confidently affirmed1 is as moral--defining morality as loyalty to an ideal--as the average man in any other country of the world4 ,sidenote3 ,favorable effects of the ideal ,but this general loyalty to the ideal1 since this has serious defects1 has brought it about that the ideal has been an efficient force for evil as well as for good4 ,in some respects it has promoted a true morality1 while in others it has marred and cramped the moral life of the ,chinese people4 ,prominent among the favorable effects of the ideal is its exaltation of the family life4 ,through the emphasis laid upon special domestic virtues1 particularly that of filial piety1 the ideal has given the family such a place in the fabric of ,chinese society as has probably been given it in no other society ancient or modern1 except in that of early ,rome4 ,as the family is the connecting link between the generations1 and consequently as a true family life must characterize every society that shall live long on the earth1 we may without reserve accept that interpretation of ,chinese history which finds in the exaltation of filial virtue by the sages of ,china one secret of that longevity of the ,chinese nation which makes it the sole survivor among the nations from the ancient world of culture4 ,like the maxim of filial piety1 the ,confucian teaching which makes virtue and not material prosperity the aim and end of government has been a conservative force in ,chinese life and society4 8,it would be hard to overestimate10 says ,dr4 ,martin1 8the influence which has been exerted by this little schedule of political ethics the ,great ,study1 occupying1 as it has1 so prominent a place in the ,chinese mind for four and twenty centuries1 teaching the people to regard the ,empire as a vast family1 and the ,emperor to rule by moral influence1 making the goal of his ambition not the wealth but the virtue of his subjects4 ,it is certain that the doctrines which it embodies have been largely efficient in rendering ,china what she is1 the most ancient and the most populous of existing nations40#ahd ,in still another way has the moral ideal reacted favorably upon ,chinese civilization4 ,we have noted the high place in the standard of excellence assigned by the ,chinese sages to the duty of intellectual self-culture4 ,it is scarcely to be doubted that this emphasis laid upon learning as an important factor in the formation of moral character has greatly fostered learning and has been a chief agency in the creation of the ,chinese educational system with its competitive literary examinations1 which from the earliest times down almost to the present day formed the sole gateway to public office4 ,sidenote3 ,unfavorable effects of the ideal ,but ,confucius1 while inculcating the duty of seeking wisdom1 taught his people to look for it in the past4 ,he enjoined them to seek the moral ideal in the life and deeds of the ancients4 ,never in the moral history of the world has the inculcation of a specific duty had a profounder influence upon the destinies of a people than this requirement of conformity to the ways of the fathers has had upon the destinies of the ,chinese race4 ,it has been one of the chief causes of the unchanging1 stereotyped character of ,chinese civilization4 ,in obedience to the requirements of this ideal of goodness the ,chinese for two millenniums and more have made to-day like yesterday4 ,hence the cycling1 goalless movement of ,chinese history4 ,just as the undue emphasis laid by the ,chinese moralists upon the duty of conforming to the ways of the ancients has reacted in some respects unfavorably upon ,chinese life1 so has the exaggerated stress laid by them upon the doctrine of the just medium exerted a similar unfavorable influence4 ,this has tended to produce a dull uniformity in ,chinese life and thought4 ,the lack of lofty ideal aims has caused ,chinese history to be singularly barren in chivalric and heroic elements4 ,the everlasting round of routine makes life a treadmill4 ,it is 8the prose of existence40 ,again1 the ,confucian system tends to produce a formal morality4 ,while it is not true1 as we have seen1 that ,confucianism neglects to deal with general principles1 right feelings1 and motives of action1 still it is true that instead of relying upon these there is an immense multitude of precepts and minute rules covering the smallest details of conduct4 ,there are three thousand rules of deportment4 ,this has resulted1 and naturally1 in the substitution of the letter for the spirit4 ,even the ,master has come to serve as a pattern rather in the outer form of his life than in its informing spirit4#ahe ,never was there a better illustration of how the letter killeth2 for a reliance on exact rules and instructions as to conduct in all conceivable relations and situations has made much of ,chinese morality a formal and lifeless thing4 ,the ,chinese are governed by a sense of propriety rather than by a sense of duty4 ,their morality is largely etiquette4#ahf ,it has justly been likened to the morality of the ancient ,romans in that it makes manners and morals to be almost interchangeable terms4 ,especially have the hundreds of rules prescribed for the expression of reverence for superiors tended to empty this part of ,chinese morality of reality and sincerity1 and to make ,chinese official ceremonialism one of the most curious phases of ,chinese life4 ,it would seem1 further1 that the very great emphasis laid by the ,chinese moralists upon the duties of children toward their parents has prevented the normal development among the ,chinese of that ethical sentiment which among ourselves assigns the duties of parents to infant children an important place in the code of domestic morality4 ,this lack among the ,chinese of any deep feeling of parental obligation results in a widespread practice condemned by the conscience of ,christian nations4 ,the exposure or destruction of infants prevails in almost every province of the ,republic4 ,it is the girl babies that are the victims of this practice4#ahg ,they are often drowned or buried alive4 ,in this practice the subsistence motive of course is active4 ,it is in general the extreme poverty of the people which causes them thus to destroy their offspring4 ,but what renders this practice significant for the student of morality is the fact that these things are done with little or no scruple of conscience1#ahh showing that acts respecting which the conscience of ,christian nations has become very sensitive have not yet among the ,chinese been brought generally within the circle covered by the moral feelings4 ,sidenote3 ,impending changes in the moral ideal ,we have seen how the moral ideal of a people is modified by all the changing circumstances of their life and history4 ,the moral ideal of the ,chinese has undergone little modification for upward of two millenniums1 such1 for instance1 as the ideal of the ,european peoples has undergone in a like period1 because throughout this long term the influences acting upon the national life have been practically unchanged4 ,there have been in ,chinese history no such interminglings of races1 revivals in learning1 religious reformations1 and political and industrial revolutions as mark the history of the ,western nations1 and responding to which the moral evolution of these peoples has gone on apace4 ,but now that the long-continued isolation of ,china has been broken1 and she is being subjected to all the potent influences of the civilization of the ,west1 it is certain that her social and mental life will be remolded and cast in new forms4 ,sooner or later constitutional government must supersede1 has already superseded1 the patriarchal government of the past2 the whole social fabric must necessarily be reconstructed and the individual instead of the family or clan be made the social and ethical unit2#ahi the science of the ,western nations will displace1 is already displacing1 the obsolete learning of the ,four ,classics2 ,christianity will quicken the atrophied religious consciousness of the race2 and in place of the isolation of the past there will be established those international relations and intellectual exchanges which perhaps more than all other agencies combined have been the motive force of ,european civilization and progress4 ,this new environment1 these new influences molding afresh ,chinese social1 intellectual1 and religious life and institutions1 cannot fail to react powerfully upon the moral ideal of the nation4 ,it too must inevitably undergo a great change4 ,there will be a shifting in the standard of character of the different virtues1 for the moral ideal of a simple patriarchal community cannot serve as the model for a complex modern society1 and doubtless some of those virtues--as1 for instance1 reverence for the past--which now hold the highest rank in the code will exchange places with others at present held in little esteem4 ,changes in the feelings and beliefs of the people in regard to ancestor worship1 which changes are inevitable1 will effect important modifications in family ethics4 ,the substitution of ,western science for the lore of the classics will introduce evolutionary ethics and the philosophical virtues of the ,western world2 while the substitution of popular government for the patriarchal autocracy will necessarily bring in the ethics of democracy4 ,these certain changes in the form and content of the ancestral ideal of goodness will not only assimilate it to the ethical standard of the ,western world1 but1 correcting some of its obvious shortcomings1 will render it a still more effective force in the guidance and control of the moral life of a great and ancient people1 whose day apparently is still in the future4#aij ,,chapter ,,vi ,,japanese ,,morals3 ,,an ,,ideal ,,of ,,loyalty ,i4 ,,formative ,,and ,,modifying ,,influences ,sidenote3 ,introductory3 a practically independent evolution in morals ,in their moral evolution the ,japanese people have developed a system of morals which1 notwithstanding certain defects and limitations1 is one of the noblest created by any of the great races4 ,a study of this system is especially interesting and instructive for the reason that it shows how a very admirable moral ideal may be created by a people in comparative isolation and under influences wholly different from those which have shaped and molded our own ideal of moral goodness4 ,this compels a recognition of the fact that the historian of morals can no longer overlook or ignore the moral phenomena of the ,far ,east4 ,a second reason that a study of the ,japanese code of morals is important and interesting is because this ideal of worthiness and duty has been indubitably a main factor in lifting the ,japanese nation to the high place it holds to-day among the great nations of the earth4 ,in our examination of this system of morality we must first note the nature of the agencies which lent to the moral ideal its characteristic cast4 ,among the various forces molding and modifying the ethical type we shall find the most important to have been the family and clan system1 ancestor worship1 the monarchy of supposed divine origin1 feudalism1 ,confucianism1 ,buddhism1 and ,western civilization4 ,sidenote3 ,the family and clan system ,as in ,china1 so in ,old ,japan the family rather than the individual was the social unit4 ,through the expansion of the family arose the clan1 which in the sentiments and feelings which governed its members was simply a large patriarchal household4 ,this organization of early ,japanese society1 with the family and its outgrowth1 the clan1 forming the basis of the fabric1 was1 as we shall learn1 a potent force in the creation of the moral type of the nation4 ,the relationships of the kinship group determined the duties and virtues of its members and constituted the chief sphere of their moral activity4 ,here was the nursery of ,japanese morality4 ,sidenote3 ,shinto1 or ancestor worship ,the influence of religion has mingled with that of the family sentiment4 ,throughout all the past the vital religious element in the life of the ,japanese peoples has been the ,shinto cult1 and this is now the established religion of the state4 ,the system in its essence is ancestor and hero worship1 the spirits of the dead being revered as guardian divinities4 ,this cult has created moral feelings and family duties like those called into existence by the same cult in ,china4 ,out of these rudimentary family virtues1 as from a central root1 have sprung many of those virtues of wider relationships which have helped to give to the ,japanese type of moral excellence its essential features4 ,sidenote3 ,the monarchy of divine origin ,the central teaching of ,shinto is that the ,emperor is of divine descent and that his person is sacred and inviolate4#aia ,this doctrine of the divine nature of the monarchy#aib has exerted a profound influence upon the moral ideal of ,japan and has had consequences of great moment4 ,it has made unquestioning obedience and absolute loyalty to the ,emperor the religious duties and preminent virtues of the subject4 ,sidenote3 ,feudalism ,in times preceding the twelfth century there grew up in ,japan a feudal system which in many respects was remarkably like the feudal system of medieval ,europe4 ,the unit of the system was the clan1 the members of which1 forming a close brotherhood1 were bound to their lord by ties of affection and fidelity like those which in ,europe theoretically bound the retainer to his lord4#aic ,this system exerted a great influence upon the moral type4 ,it developed a martial ideal of character known as ,bushido1 many of the virtues of which are almost identical with corresponding virtues in the ,european ideal of chivalry4 ,probably this system has had more to do with creating in ,japan a moral consciousness in many respects like our own than has any other single agency4 ,to the lack in the ,chinese social system of any institution like ,japanese feudalism may be ascribed in part at least the wide difference which exists between the moral ideals of the two peoples1 especially in regard to the rank assigned the military virtues4 ,sidenote3 ,confucianism ,along with the ,chinese classics ,confucianism was introduced into ,japan about the middle of the sixth century of our era1 and being in perfect accord with the native system of ,shinto and with the ,japanese ways of thinking1 this cult of ancestors tended to renforce native ethical tendencies and thus contributed essentially to make the virtues of filial obedience and reverence for superiors prominent in the growing type of character4 ,sidenote3 ,buddhism ,buddhism was introduced into ,japan in the sixth century of our era4 ,its incoming had deep import for the moral life of the ,japanese people4 ,it inculcated the gentler virtues1 exerting here in this respect1 as elsewhere in the ,far ,east1--save in ,china1 where it too quickly became shockingly degenerate1--an influence like that exerted by ,christianity in the ,western world4 ,it helped to make gentleness1 courtesy1 and tenderness distinctive traits of the ,japanese character4 ,through the regard which it instilled for dumb animals it placed the whole lower world of animal life under the protection of the moral sentiment4#aid ,sidenote3 ,western civilization ,a little more than a generation ago the civilization of ,japan came into vital contact with the civilization of the ,west4 ,almost every element of the old ,japanese culture has felt the modifying effect of this contact4 ,the political1 the economic1 the social1 the domestic1 and the religious institutions have undergone or are undergoing great changes4 ,these changes in these departments of life and thought have caused1 as such changes always do1 important modifications in ethical sentiments and convictions4 ,of all the influences which for more than two thousand years have been at work shaping and molding the moral ideal of the ,japanese nation1 those now entering from the ,occidental world will doubtless leave the deepest impress upon the ethical type4 ,in a still more direct way is this contact of ,japan with ,western civilization resulting in important consequences for ,japanese morality4 ,christian ethics1 like ,buddhist ethics1 is making a strong appeal to certain classes of ,japanese society4 ,the result is what in an earlier chapter was designated as a 8mingling of moralities0 and the creation of a new composite conscience4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,ideal ,sidenote3 ,bushido ,the heart of ,japanese morality is to be sought in ,bushido1#aie the ethics of the samurai4 ,we shall best understand this moral code by thinking of it as the ,japanese ideal of chivalry or1 perhaps better1 as a blending of the ,western chivalric1 ,spartan1 and ,stoic ideals of goodness and nobility1 since in the list of virtues making up the ,bushido ideal we find several of the cardinal virtues entering into each of these three distinct types of character4 ,as we have already intimated1 ,bushido is an ideal of excellence which grew up out of the root of ,japanese feudalism1 just as the ,western ideal of chivalry developed out of ,european feudalism4 ,it was essentially an ideal of knighthood1 the prime virtue of which was personal loyalty to one's superior4 ,fealty to one's chief was made so dominant a virtue that it overshadowed all other virtues4 ,in the defense or in the service of his lord a samurai might commit1 without offense to his sense of moral right1 practically any crime1 such as blackmailing1 lying1 treachery1 or even murder4 ,grouped about this cardinal virtue of loyalty were the other knightly virtues of courage1 fidelity to the plighted word1 liberality1 self-sacrifice1 gratitude1 courtesy1 and benevolence4 ,liberality1 or free-handedness1 was carried to such an extreme as to become a defect of character4 ,the true samurai must have no thought of economy and money-making4 8,ignorance of the value of different coins was a token of good breeding40#aif ,to handle money was thought degrading4 ,in one respect the code of honor of the ,japanese knight was wholly unlike that of the ,western knight4 ,it did not include any special duty to woman4 8,neither ,god nor the ladies inspired any enthusiasm in the samurai's breast40 ,the ,spartan element in the samurai code appears particularly in the training of the youth4 ,the boy was taught always to act from motives of duty4 ,he was denied every comfort4 ,his clothing and his diet were coarse4 ,he was allowed no fire in the winter4 8,if his feet were numbed by frost1 he would be told to run about in the snow to make them warm40 ,to accustom him to the sight of blood1 he was taken to see the execution of criminals2 and to banish foolish fear from his mind1 he was forced to visit alone at night the place of execution4#aig ,the ,stoic element in the ideal appears in the high place assigned to the virtue of self-control4 ,the samurai1 like the ,stoic1 must suppress all signs of his emotions4 ,like the ,stoic1 too1 he must have courage to live or courage to die1 as enjoined by duty4 ,and his code of honor taught him what true courage is3 8,it is true courage to live when it is right to live1 and to die only when it is right to die40#aih ,this samurai ideal of character constitutes1 as we shall see1 a molding force in the moral life of ,japan4 ,bushido1 it is true1 died with the passing of feudalism1#aii but the spirit of ,bushido lived on4 ,the samurai's sense of honor and of duty became the inheritance of the ,japanese people4 ,this great bequest of honor and valor and of all samurai virtues is1 in the words of the author of the ,soul of ,japan1 but 8a trust to the nation1 and the summons of the present is to guard this heritage1 nor to bate one jot of the ancient spirit2 the summons of the future will be so to widen its scope as to apply it in all walks and relations of life40#bjj ,sidenote3 ,the virtue of loyalty to the ,emperor1 or patriotism ,the belief in the divine origin of the imperial house of ,japan makes loyalty to the ,emperor the supreme duty4#bja ,during the ascendancy of feudalism this duty1 in so far as the samurai class was concerned1 was1 it is true1 overshadowed by the duty of loyalty to one's immediate feudal superior4 ,the sentiment due the ,emperor was intercepted by the daimyos4 ,but in theory loyalty to the imperial house has ever been the paramount virtue of the ,japanese4 ,the ,emperor's command is to his subjects as the command of ,god to us1 and obedience must be perfect and unquestioning4 ,so dominant is the place assigned this virtue of loyalty to the head of the nation that the ,japanese moralist seems almost to make morality consist in this single virtue1 as if 8to fear the ,emperor and to keep his commandments0 were the full duty of man4#bjb ,this sentiment of the people toward the imperial family renders the government a sort of theocracy4 ,hence patriotism with the ,japanese is in large measure a religious feeling4 ,indeed1 patriotism has been called the religion of the ,japanese4 ,it is this virtue1 exalted to a degree which the world has never seen surpassed1 which has contributed more than any other quality of the ,japanese character to make ,japan a great nation and to give her the victory over a powerful foe in one of the most gigantic wars of modern times4 ,sidenote3 ,family ethics ,if the first duty of the ,japanese is to his ,emperor1 his second is to his parents4 ,in ,japanese phrase1 the two virtues of loyalty and filial piety are 8the two wheels of the chariot of ,japanese ethics40#bjc ,shinto and ,confucianism1 as we have seen1 have both contributed to the fostering in children of the moral sentiments of grateful love1 reverence1 and obedience toward parents and all ancestors living and dead4 ,the ,japanese regard the high place assigned to these filial duties in the standard of character as a mark of the vast superiority of their morality to ours4#bjd ,the sentiments of filial affection and reverence1 coloring as they do the whole moral life1 lend to ,japanese society an ethical cast which places it in many respects in strong contrast to the social order of the ,western nations1 and makes it difficult for the ,japanese to understand us and for us to understand them4#bje ,sidenote3 ,woman as wife and as mother ,as respects the position of woman the family ethics of ,japan are the family ethics of the ,east4 ,in a work from every page of which breathes the spirit of the ,orient1 a ,japanese writer1 dwelling upon the difference between the ethical sentiments respecting family relationships which have been evoked by the different social environments of the ,east and the ,west1 says3 8,in the ,east woman has always been worshiped as the mother1 and all those honors which the ,christian knight brought in homage to his ladylove1 the samurai laid at his mother's feet40#bjf ,lafcadio ,hearn1 touching upon this same feature of the family ethics of the ,japanese1 declares that the ,bible text1 8,for this cause shall a man leave his father and mother and shall cleave unto his wife10 is1 to their way of thinking and feeling1 8one of the most immoral sentences ever written40#bjg ,in another important respect does the domestic morality of the ,japanese differ essentially from that of the ,christian ,west4 ,the family is not strictly monogamous1 as with us4 ,the moral sense of the ,japanese discerns nothing wrong in polygamy or concubinage4#bjh ,as respects the whole relation of marriage1 the ,japanese appear to be in about the same stage of evolution as had been reached by the ,hebrews at the time of ,abraham4 ,a chief virtue of the ,japanese women in all their relations is obedience to the one--whether father1 or husband1 or son--to whom obedience is due4 ,it is the setting of this duty before all other duties that causes the ,japanese women sometimes to do what appears to us immoral1 but which seems to them truest piety and noblest self-sacrifice4#bji ,in loyalty to duty1 as they interpret duty1 they maintain a standard rarely surpassed by the women of any land4#baj ,sidenote3 ,suicide regarded as a virtuous act ,suicide is infrequent among savage and barbarian races1 but is common among all peoples in an advanced stage of civilization4 ,it is not so much the fact itself of self-destruction that claims the attention of the historian of morals1 as the light in which the act is viewed2 that is1 whether it is considered a virtuous or a reprehensible deed4 ,now the ,japanese regard suicide1 if prompted by a good motive1 as a justifiable and noble act4 ,the motives with them for the deed are various1 as in the case of other peoples1 but among these motives is one which discloses the existence among the ,japanese of a sentiment unknown or almost unknown among ourselves4 ,the deed is often committed in the way of making a solemn protest against something disapproved of in the conduct or acts of others4 ,thus when the ,japanese government after war with ,china in #ahih acceded to the demands of ,russia1 ,france1 and ,germany respecting the recession to ,china of certain territories on the ,continent1 forty men in the ,japanese army1 by way of protest1 committed suicide 8in the ancient way40#baa ,tyrannicide is also looked upon by the ,japanese as an heroic and praiseworthy deed1 provided the person committing the act makes clear the self-sacrificing and patriotic character of his motives by at once taking his own life4 ,sidenote3 ,low estimation of the virtue of truthfulness ,a marked defect of the moral standard of the ,japanese is the low place assigned to the virtue of truthfulness4 ,among the ,japanese1 to call a person a liar is not to apply to him a term of reproach1 but rather to pay him a pleasant compliment as a person of tact and shrewdness4 ,this lack of reverence for truth probably springs in part from the virtue of politeness as a root4 ,the extreme emphasis laid upon courtesy as the sign and expression of reverence and loyalty toward superiors fosters the general habit of saying things which are pleasant and agreeable whether they are true or not4 ,this complacent disregard of truth in social intercourse would seem to have dulled the sense of obligation of truth-speaking in other relations4 ,,iii4 ,,some ,,significant ,,facts ,,in ,,the ,,moral ,,history ,,of ,,japan ,sidenote3 ,general influence of the ideal of ,bushido ,the ,japanese knightly ideal1 which1 as we have said1 constitutes the heart and core of theoretical ,japanese morality1 has a history somewhat like that of the ideal of ,european knighthood4 ,it was a lofty ideal very imperfectly realized1 yet realized to such a degree as to make it a chief motive force in the political and social life of ,japan for several centuries4#bab ,it left a permanent impress upon the moral consciousness of the ,japanese nation1 an impress certainly deeper and more enduring than that left by the ideal of ,european chivalry upon the moral consciousness of the peoples of ,western ,europe4 ,new ,japan is directly or indirectly the creation of ,japanese knighthood4 ,we have seen that loyalty to his chief was the preminent virtue of the samurai4 ,upon the downfall of feudalism this loyalty was transferred to the ,emperor4 ,the spirit of the samurai came to inspire the ,japanese nation4 ,since the time when the loyalty of ,scottish clansmen to their chief was transferred to ,scottish royalty1 there has not been seen a more remarkable example of the absolute devotion of a people to their sovereign than that exhibited to-day by the people of ,japan4 ,the samurai were taught to despise the love of gain1 and thus these knights of ,japan were strangers to those vices which spring from the love of money4 ,to this circumstance may be ascribed the fact that the statesmen of ,japan1 who almost invariably are of the samurai class1 have been so notably free from venality and corruption4#bac ,finally1 ,bushido held aloft a high standard of truthfulness4 ,the true samurai regarded an oath as a derogation of his honor4 ,it cannot be affirmed that this ,bushido virtue of veracity has yet become the inheritance of the mercantile and peasant classes of ,japan1 but it has at least been retained by the samurai as a class1 and is working to-day like leaven in the mass of ,japanese society4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,bushido code in action ,there are two remarkable passages in recent ,japanese history which well illustrate in what way and to what degree the spirit of the samurai1 8the spirit of not living unto one's self10 has become an inspiration to the whole ,japanese nation4 ,the first passage has to do with the ,russo-,japanese ,war of #aijd-aije1 which on the part of ,japan was a struggle for national existence4 ,it was the samurai morality1 a morality of loyalty1 of valor1 of selflessness1 of fidelity to duty1 that formed a chief element of the strength of ,japan in that critical juncture of the nation's life4 ,the ,bushido code of honor showed itself equal to the ,spartan code in creating a race of invincible warriors4 ,since the ,spartan ,leonidas and his companions died for ,greece in the pass of ,thermopyl there has been no sublimer exhibition of fortitude and self-devotion in a great cause than that shown by ,japanese soldiers in the trenches before ,port ,arthur and on the battlefields of ,manchuria4 ,this war for national independence also afforded proof of how the gentle virtue of ,japanese knighthood1 courteous generosity to the vanquished1 has passed as a noble legacy to the nation at large2 for as an eminent ,japanese statesman affirms1 8,in the tender care bestowed upon our stricken adversary of the battlefield will be found the ancient courtesy of the samurai40#bad ,sidenote3 ,the moral standard of the samurai in competition with that of the plebeian trader ,the second passage shows the morality of the samurai in competition with the morality of the common ,japanese shopman4 ,now the morality of the plebeian ,japanese trader is about on a level with that of the ancient ,greek shopkeeper4#bae ,and a chief cause of his low moral standard is the same1 namely1 the general disesteem in which the trader's business has been held4 ,this social stigma has resulted in the mercantile business being left in the hands of the lowest class socially1 intellectually1 and morally4#baf ,the great mass of the people have from time immemorial been engaged in the honorable business of agriculture2 while the samurai class1 as we have seen1 regarded it as degrading to engage in trade or even to handle money4 ,in these circumstances it was inevitable that the mercantile class should evolve a very low code of business ethics2 for1 as the author of ,bushido very justly observes1 8put a stigma on a calling and its followers adjust their morals to it40 ,the strictly class character of this loose commercial morality is shown by the experience of the samurai after the abolition of feudalism in #ahfh4 ,upon that event many of them engaged in mercantile business1 carrying with them their high moral standard1 with results pathetically depicted by ,nitob in these words3 8,those who had eyes to see could not weep enough1 those who had hearts to feel could not sympathize enough1 with the fate of many a noble and honest samurai who signally and irrevocably failed in his new and unfamiliar field of trade and industry1 through sheer lack of shrewdness in coping with his artful plebeian rival4444 ,it will be long before it will be recognized how many fortunes were wrecked in the attempt to apply ,bushido ethics to business methods1 but it was soon apparent to every observing mind that the ways of wealth were not the ways of honor40#bag ,about ninety-nine out of every hundred samurai who ventured into business are said to have failed4 ,this passage out of the history of ,new ,japan carries with it various lessons1 but particularly does it teach how unjust it is to judge the morality of a people by the morality of a class4#bah ,notwithstanding the disastrous outcome of their first venture into the mercantile field1 the samurai still remain in business1 so that there is going on to-day in ,japan in the commercial domain a competition between two moral standards4 ,the triumph of the standard of the samurai over that of the plebeian trader would mean the development in ,japan of a matchless business morality1 which1 in the increasing closeness of commercial relations between the ,east and the ,west1 might well act cleansingly on our own business ethics4#bai ,sidenote3 ,moral education in the schools2 the ,imperial ,rescript ,the rapid transformation in the institutions and ideas of ,old ,japan after the revolution of #ahfh created a crisis in the moral life of the ,japanese people4 ,the old basis of the national morality was destroyed4 ,reverence for the ,confucian teachings was lost4 ,respect for ancestral customs was seriously impaired4 ,moral anarchy impended4 ,in this critical juncture some proposed that ,buddhism1 others that ,christianity1 should be made the basis of the moral code4 ,especially in the schools was the urgency of the need of some new sanction for morality felt1 because moral instruction and training have always formed an essential part of the education of the youth of ,japan4 ,the ,japanese have ever believed that it is possible to mold the character of the nation by education4 8,with us10 says a native writer1 8education has meant moral education more than anything else for centuries40#bbj 8,the object of teaching10 says the official regulations for teaching in elementary schools1 8is to cultivate the moral nature of children and to guide them in the practice of virtues40#bba ,because of this central place assigned moral education in the work of the schools1 the necessity for removing all uncertainty as to what should be inculcated was all the more exigent4 ,to meet the crisis the following imperial rescript was issued--certainly one of the most remarkable state papers ever promulgated3 8,know ye1 our subjects3 8,our imperial ancestors have founded our ,empire on a basis broad and everlasting and have deeply and firmly implanted virtue2 our subjects1 ever united in loyalty and filial piety1 have from generation to generation illustrated the beauty thereof4 ,this is the glory and the fundamental character of our ,empire1 and herein also lies the source of our education4 ,ye1 our subjects1 be filial to your parents1 affectionate to your brothers and sisters2 as husbands and wives be harmonious2 as friends true2 bear yourselves in modesty and moderation2 extend your benevolence to all2 pursue learning and cultivate arts1 and thereby develop intellectual faculties and perfect moral powers2 furthermore1 advance public good and promote common interests2 always respect the ,constitution and observe the laws2 should emergency arise1 offer yourselves courageously to the state2 and thus guard and maintain the prosperity of our imperial throne coeval with heaven and earth4 ,so shall ye not only be our good and faithful subjects1 but render illustrious the best traditions of your forefathers4 8,the way here set forth is indeed the teaching bequeathed by our imperial ancestors1 to be observed alike by their descendants and the subjects1 infallible for all ages and true in all places4 ,it is our wish to lay it to heart in all reverence1 in common with you1 our subjects1 that we may all thus attain to the same virtue4 8,the #cjth day of the #ajth month of the #bc;d year of ,meiji0 #ahij4bbb ,it would be almost impossible to exaggerate the influence of this imperial edict4 8,our whole moral education10 affirms ,baron ,kikuchi1 8consists in instilling into the minds of our children the proper appreciation of the spirit of this rescript40#bbc ,the children learn it by heart just as the ,roman children committed to memory the ,twelve ,tables of the laws4 ,japanese believe that the effect of this instruction upon the national character1 renforcing the ancestral virtues of loyalty and devotion to duty1 was exhibited in the recent war with ,russia4#bbd ,a noteworthy feature of the rescript is that it is simply a reaffirmation of the teachings of the ancient moralists and the ethical traditions of the fathers--an inculcation of those virtues of loyalty and filial piety which the ,japanese people have held in esteem and practiced from generation to generation4 ,a second feature of the edict which arrests attention is the universalistic and secular character of the morality inculcated4 ,the virtues enjoined are universal benevolence1 loyalty to duty1 and self-devotion to the common good--a morality of the universal human heart and conscience1 a morality1 as the edict declares1 good for all ages and for all places4 ,sidenote3 ,japanese morals and ,western civilization ,the foregoing anticipates and gives answer to the questions3 ,what will be the effect upon ,japanese morality of those changes now going on in the life and thought of ,japan through contact with the civilization of the ,west8 ,what will be the effect upon ,japanese public morality when the common belief in the divine descent of the ,emperor1 which is the root from which springs the primal duty of loyalty1 is undermined1 as modern science is certain to undermine it8 ,what will be the effect upon ,japanese domestic morality when ,occidental conceptions of the family and of woman's place in it come to modify1 as they seem likely to do1 those ideas and sentiments which from time immemorial have formed the basis of the family ethics of the ,east8 ,what will be the ethical consequences when ,western science renders obsolete the ,shinto learning and the ,confucian classics1 which have hitherto formed the basis of so large a part of ,japanese morality8 ,what will be the effect upon the ancient ideal of character of the adoption of ,christian ideas and teachings in place of those which have so long nourished the ethical feelings and sentiments of the ,japanese people8 ,that the intrusion into the ancient culture of ,japan of these various elements of ,western civilization has deep import for ,japanese morality cannot be made a matter of doubt4 ,in the new environment1 so different from that in the midst of which the ancient ideal of goodness was developed1 this ideal must inevitably undergo important changes4 ,some of those qualities of character which have so long held high places in the ideal of excellence will cease to evoke the old-time homage1 while other qualities at present assigned low places in the standard will be exalted4 ,virtues now practically unrecognized by the ,japanese as virtues1 but which among us are highly esteemed moral qualities1 will certainly be incorporated in the modified ideal1 giving it a new cast1 yet probably without changing fundamentally the type2 for the moral life of the ,japanese people is too virile and too essentially sound to permit us to think that the new influences now coming in will produce such radical changes in the ethical feelings and convictions of the race as to result in a repetition of what happened upon the entrance of ,christianity into the morally decadent ,greco-,roman world--the displacement of the old ideal of character by a new and essentially different ideal4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,ethical ,,ideals ,,of ,,india ,,part ,i4 ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,brahmanism--,a ,,class ,,morality ,i4 ,,historical ,,and ,,speculative ,,basis ,,of ,,the ,,system ,sidenote3 ,the conception of the ,first ,cause--,brahma ,as in ,judea so in ,india the conception formed of the ,supreme ,being reacted potently upon morality4 ,hence in naming the influences under which the moral ideal of ,brahmanism was molded we must speak first of the ,indian conception of the ,first ,cause4 ,the ,aryan conquerors of ,india originally held notions of the gods in general like those held by their kinsmen1 the early ,greeks and ,romans4 ,when they entered ,india they were ancestor worshipers and polytheists4 ,they had earth gods and sky gods4 ,the gods of the celestial phenomena gradually acquired ascendancy4 ,then1 as in ,egypt1 there came a tendency toward unity4 ,the various gods came to be looked upon by the loftier minds as merely different manifestations of one primal being4#bbe ,it is right at this point that we find the great antithesis between ,indian modes of thought and those of all or almost all other peoples4 ,when the thinkers of ,egypt1 of the ,semitic lands1 of ,persia1 of ,greece and ,rome1 had at last through reflection evolved the lofty conception of a single great ,first ,cause1 they endowed this cause with conscious personal life4 ,this mode of thought is our heritage from the past4 ,it is to us almost or quite impossible to conceive of conscious personal life as springing from an unconscious impersonal cause4 ,hence we place behind the manifold phenomena of the universe a conscious personal being as the origin and source of all things and all life4#bbf ,it is wholly different with the thinkers of ,india4 ,they seem to be able to postulate as the beginning of things an impersonal cause1 a cause without perception1 thought1 or consciousness4 ,they affirm that out of unconsciousness consciousness arises4 ,they teach that out of ,brahma1 the unconscious1 impersonal1 passionless ,one1 emanate all material worlds and sentient beings1 gods as well as men4 ,how profoundly this conception of the ,first ,cause has reacted on the ethical speculations of the ,hindu sages and on the moral life of ,india will appear a little further on4 ,sidenote3 ,the god ,brahma 7,brahman7 ,but this incomprehensible1 unconscious1 passionless ,brahma is not the ,brahma of the popular faith4 ,the masses and even the philosophers themselves must have something more concrete4 ,so this impersonal1 neuter ,brahma is conceived as giving existence to the personal1 masculine ,god ,brahma 7,brahman71 8the progenitor of all worlds1 the first-born among beings40#bbg ,it is very necessary for the student of ,brahmanic ethics to keep in mind the distinction between the uncreated1 unconditioned1 impersonal ,brahma and the created1 conditioned1 personal ,brahma1 since there is here laid the foundation of a double goal for rational moral striving3 the goal of the ascetic whose ultimate aim is deliverance from individual existence and absorption into the absolute1 unchangeable1 impersonal ,brahma1 which means a state of eternal unconsciousness--dreamless sleep2 and the goal of the multitude1 whose hope and aim is blissful1 though temporary1 union with the personal ,brahma in the heaven of the mortal1 conditioned gods4#bbh ,sidenote3 ,the system of castes ,the ethical evolution in ,india was also profoundly influenced by a prehistoric event1 namely1 the subjection of the original non-,aryan population of the land by an intruding ,aryan people4 ,as a result of the long and bitter struggle the two races became separated by a sharp line of race prejudice and hatred4 ,the dark-skinned natives were reduced to a state of servitude or dependence upon their conquerors4 ,intermarriages between the two races were strictly prohibited1 and thus the population of the conquered districts of the peninsula became divided into two sharply defined classes4 ,these constituted a model upon which ,indian society was framed4 ,other classes were formed1 and these gradually hardened into castes1 that is1 into classes between which marriages were prohibited4 ,four great castes arose3 namely1 priests or ,brahmans1 warriors and rulers1 peasants and merchants1 and sudras4 ,below these castes were the pariahs1 or outcasts1 made up of the most degraded of the natives4 ,as time passed1 still other divisions were formed1 every occupation coming to constitute the basis of a new caste1 till society was stratified like a geologic deposit4 ,religion came in to consecrate this division of the people into privileged and nonprivileged classes4#bbi ,the sacred scriptures declare that the ,brahmans sprang from the mouth of ,brahma1 the warriors from his arms1 the peasants and traders from his thighs1 and the sudras from his feet4#bcj ,no institution known among men ever exercised a more fateful and sinister influence upon morality than this caste system has exercised upon the morality of the peoples of ,india4 ,the rooted belief and dogma of the natural inequality of men has made ,brahmanic ethics a thing of grades and classes1 and has thus rendered impossible the evolution of a true morality1 which requires for its basis genuine sentiments of equality and brotherhood4 ,sidenote3 ,the doctrine of transmigration ,we easily realize the importance for morality of a belief in a life after death4 ,but a belief in prexistence may exert an even greater influence upon the moral code of a people than a belief in post-existence4#bca ,now the morality of the ,hindus has been molded by both these doctrines1 for according to the teachings of ,brahmanism a man has lived through many lives before his 8birth10 and may wander through 8ten thousand millions of existences0 after death has freed him from his present body4#bcb ,the class and the condition into which he is born here on earth is believed to be determined by the sum total of his merits or demerits earned in preceding existences4 ,as a result of sin he may in his next birth be reborn in a lower caste1 or may be imprisoned in some animal or vegetable form4 ,he may pass a thousand times through the bodies of spiders1 snakes1 and lizards1 and hundreds of times through the forms of grasses1 shrubs1 and creepers4 ,and all this experience may come after the soul has passed through dreadful and innumerable hells for vast cycles of years4#bcc ,this transmigration theory was framed by the thinkers of ,india to explain among other things the seemingly unjust inequalities of human life4#bcd ,it afforded an explanation why one man should be born a ,brahman and another a sudra1 one born in a hovel and another in a palace1 by conceiving the place of every person born into the world as being determined by the manner of his life in former existences4#bce ,it is unnecessary to dwell upon the profound influence which this doctrine of transmigration1 or round of births1 has exerted upon the moral life of ,india4 ,the tendency of this theory1 as soon as elaborated1 was to render still more intolerable the position of the lower castes1 particularly that of the sudras1 since it made their low place and hard lot to be the merited punishment of crimes and misdoings in previous lives2 while at the same time it fed the pride and enhanced the arrogance of the ,brahmans1 since their superior lot was1 according to the theory1 attributable to merit acquired in other existences4 ,thus did the theory tend to give a more sinister aspect to the baneful caste system1 to make it appear a part of the unchangeable order of things1 and to render impossible the growth of any other than a class morality4 ,sidenote3 ,indian pessimism ,hardly less important than the doctrine of transmigration for ,hindu morality is the ,indian conception of life--of all individual1 conscious existence whether here on earth or in other worlds--as inseparable from misery1 pain1 decay1 and death4 ,the ,aryan immigrants into ,india seem to have been1 like their kinsmen the ,greeks1 a light-hearted folk1 filled with a strong joy in life4 ,but as in their journeyings they pressed southward into the valleys of the ,indus and the ,ganges and came under the influences of the hot1 depressing climate1 and of an oppressive social and political system1#bcf they appeared to have lost their buoyant spirits4 ,the skies seemed less bright and life less worth living1 and1 weary of it all1 they at last came to regard eternal death1 annihilation1 as the greatest of boons4 ,this pessimistic view of the world and of life1 as we shall see a little further on1 forms the basis of large sections of ,indian ethics1 since it makes the ultimate goal of rational or moral effort to be the getting rid of conscious existence4 ,sidenote3 ,the conception of sacrifice ,another conception which has exerted a profound influence upon the religious ethics of ,brahmanism is that respecting sacrifice4 ,this conception is that the gods need sustenance1 and can only exist through the gifts and offerings made to them by men4#bcg 8,the gods live by sacrifice0 say the sacred scriptures2 8the sun would not rise if the priests did not make sacrifice40 ,to understand this teaching we must connect it with the belief of primitive man that the spirits of the dead have absolute need of meat and drink offerings at the hands of the living1 and remember that in ,india there is no sharp distinction drawn between the gods and the souls of men4 ,the gods1 like the spirits of the dead1 are dependent for life and strength upon the offerings laid on their altars4 ,without these gifts they would die or pine away1 and all the movements of the universe controlled by them would cease4#bch ,from this conception of the gods came the emphasis laid by ,brahmanism upon sacrifice1 and the prominence given the religious duty of bringing rich gifts to the priests and keeping the altars of the gods heaped with food4#bci ,,ii4 ,,the ,,various ,,moral ,,standards ,sidenote3 ,a class morality ,the fundamental fact of ,brahmanic morality is that as a result of the caste system it is a class morality2 that is1 there is a different moral standard or code for each of the different castes4 ,in the account given in the ,laws of ,manu of the origin of the four chief castes1 the occupation and the duties of each class are carefully prescribed4 ,to the ,brahman was assigned teaching and offering sacrifice2 to the warriors and rulers the protection of the people2 to the peasants and merchants the tilling of the ground and trading2 and to the sudras--8,one occupation only10 reads the sacred law1 8is prescribed to the sudra1 to serve meekly the other three castes40#bdj ,the ,brahman is by right the lord of the whole creation4#bda ,his name must express something auspicious1 but the first part of the sudra's name must express something contemptible1 and the second part must be a word denoting service4#bdb ,for a man of a lower caste to affect equality with a person of a higher caste is a crime3 8,if a man of an inferior caste1 proudly affecting an equality with a man of superior caste1 should travel by his side on the road1 or sit or sleep upon the same carpet with him1 the magistrate shall take a fine from the man of inferior caste to the extent of his ability40#bdc ,for a ,brahman to explain to a sudra the sacred ,vedas is a sin3 8,let him the ,brahman not give to a sudra advice nor the remnants of his meal 4442 nor let him explain the sacred law to such a man2 444 for he who explains the sacred law to such 444 will sink together with that man into hell40#bdd ,in the matter of punishments for crimes the laws are grossly unequal1 the punishment of a person of inferior caste being always more severe than that of a person of a superior caste for the same offense4 ,thus for a crime punishable with death if committed by a person of an inferior caste1 tonsure only is ordained if committed by a ,brahman2#bde for a ,brahman must never be slain1 8though he have committed all horrible crimes40#bdf ,there is no crime in all the world as great as that of slaying a ,brahman4#bdg ,a knowledge of the inequality of these sacred laws of the ,brahmans and the burdensomeness of this caste morality as it pressed upon the lower classes is necessary to an understanding of the rise and rapid spread of ,buddhism1 and the fervor with which its teachings of equality and brotherhood were embraced by the masses of ,brahmanic ,india4 ,sidenote3 ,the highest moral excellence attainable in general only by ,brahmans ,of the different standards of morality of the several castes that of the ,brahman is of course the highest4 ,the study of the sacred books is for him the chief duty4 8,let him10 says the sacred law1 8without tiring daily mutter the ,veda at the proper time2 for that is one's highest duty2 all other observances are secondary duties40#bdh ,knowledge of the ,veda destroys guilt as fire consumes fuel4#bdi ,among the secondary duties are observance of the rules of purification1 the practice of austerities1 and doing no injury to created beings4#bej ,by austerities1 that is1 by ascetic practices1 by hideous self-torture1 the ,brahman may atone for all sins of whatsoever kind and may become so holy that at death1 having conquered all desires1 save only the desire for union with the ,universal ,one1 he may hope to fall away into unawakening unconsciousness and be absorbed into the absolute1 impersonal ,brahma1 and thus escape forever from the weary round of births4 ,this way of full salvation1 and it is the only one1 is open only to ,brahmans and to the chosen few from other castes who1 having gone forth 8from home into homelessness10 as mendicants or forest hermits1 follow this life of complete renunciation of all that is earthly4 ,sidenote3 ,the moral code for inferior castes ,the duties1 the faithful performance of which avail most for persons of inferior castes1 are those that have to do with religion1 and chiefly with sacrifice4 ,these duties are the bringing of gifts and offerings for the sacrifices and the giving of generous fees to the priests4 ,through the faithful performance of his assigned duties the man of inferior caste can make sure of salvation--not the full and perfect salvation attained by the ,brahman through his austerities1 but a qualified salvation4 ,he may hope for rebirth in some higher caste or in some better state either on earth or in some other world4#bea ,sidenote3 ,animal ethics ,duty to animals seems to have formed no part of the moral code of the early ,indian ,aryans4 ,but chiefly through the influence of the doctrine of transmigration respect for every living thing became a high moral requirement4 ,to take life wantonly became a crime4 ,to kill a kine1 a horse1 a camel1 a deer1 an elephant1 a goat1 a sheep1 a fish1 a snake1 a buffalo1 insects1 or birds is an offense which must be expiated by penances4#beb ,in order that he may not harm any living creature1 the ascetic is enjoined 8always by day and by night1 even with pain to his body1 to walk carefully1 scanning the ground40#bec ,should he unintentionally injure any creature he must expiate its death by penitent austerities4#bed ,animals may1 however1 be slain for food#bee and for sacrifices1 since they were created for these special purposes4 ,and then there is compensation for the victims of the altars3 8,herbs1 trees1 cattle1 birds1 and all animals that have been destroyed for sacrifices receive1 being reborn1 higher existences40#bef ,the killing of animals for sport is an inexpiable sin3 8,he who injures innoxious beings from a wish to 7give7 himself pleasure never finds happiness1 neither living nor dead40#beg ,under the influence of ,buddhism we shall see this consideration for animal life deepening into a genuine tenderness for every living creature1 and duties toward the inferior animals becoming one of the most beautiful and characteristic features of the ethical ideal4 ,sidenote3 ,war ethics ,in ,brahmanic as in ,confucian ethics the military virtues are assigned a low place4 ,brahmanism1 however1 concedes the legitimacy of war and permits the employment of force by the king in augmenting his possessions1#beh even enjoining upon him to be ever ready to strike2 for 8of him who is always ready to strike1 the whole world stands in awe40#bei ,but the genuine spirit of ,brahmanism is opposed to the fierce war spirit of the ,aryan conquerors of ,india1 and the sacred law attempts to ameliorate the cruelties and atrocities of primeval warfare1 instilling in the warrior a spirit of magnanimity and chivalry4 ,thus the 8blameless law for the warrior0 forbids to him the use of barbed or poisoned weapons2 he must spare the suppliant for mercy2 he must not strike an enemy who has lost his armor or whose weapons are broken1 or who has received a wound1 or who has turned in flight4 ,he must do no harm to the onlooker4 ,the king must conduct war without guile or treachery4#bfj ,sidenote3 ,natural morality versus ritualism ,at the heart of ,brahmanism1 as at the heart of every other great religion of the world1 there is a core of lofty spiritual teachings and true morality4 ,the sacred scriptures of the ,brahmans declare1 8,the soul itself is the witness of the soul1 and the soul is the refuge of the soul2 despise not thy own soul1 the supreme witness of men40#bfa ,the sacred law teaches that he is pure who is pure in thought and in deed3 8,among all modes of purification1 purity in 7the acquisition of7 wealth is declared to be the best2 for he is pure who gains wealth with clean hands1 not he who purifies himself with earth and water40#bfb ,repentance and resolutions of amendment free the soul from its transgressions3 8,he who has committed a sin and has repented1 is freed from that sin1 but he is purified only by the resolution of ceasing to sin and thinking ,i will do so no more40#bfc ,brahmanism teaches the duty of forgiving injuries and of returning blessings for curses3 8,against an angry man let him the ascetic not in return show anger2 let him bless when he is cursed40#bfd 8,a king must always forgive litigants1 infants1 aged and sick men1 who inveigh against him40#bfe 8,he who1 being abused by men in pain1 pardons them1 will in reward of that act be exalted in heaven40#bff ,here is a morality as pure and lofty as any taught by ,hebrew prophets4 ,but as in ,judaism1 so in ,brahmanism1 such was the stress laid by the priests upon sacrifice1 upon the observance of the rites and ceremonies of the temple1 and upon the performance of a thousand and one morally indifferent acts1 that as time passed there resulted an almost complete overshadowing of natural by ritual morality4 ,it was such a triumph of ritualism as marked the postexilic period in the history of ,israel4 ,as there came a protest and reaction in ,judea issuing in ,christianity1 so did there come a protest and reaction in ,brahmanic ,india issuing in ,buddhism4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,buddhism2 ,,an ,,ideal ,,of ,,self-,,conquest ,,and ,,universal ,,benevolence ,i4 ,,the ,,philosophical ,,basis ,,of ,,the ,,system ,sidenote3 ,the four great truths ,four tenets or principles1 called the four truths1 sum up the essentials of ,buddhism4#bfg ,these are the truth of pain1 the origin of pain1 the destruction of pain1 and the eightfold way that 8leads to the quieting of pain40#bfh ,the first three of these truths form the philosophical basis of ,buddhist ethics1 and to a brief exposition of these tenets we shall devote the immediately following sections4 ,the fourth truth is a summary of the ethics of ,buddhism1#bfi and therefore what we shall have to say about it will appropriately find a place under the next subdivision of this chapter when we come to speak of the moral ideal of ,buddhism4 ,sidenote3 ,the truth of pain ,the truth of pain1 in the language of the sacred scriptures1 is this3 8,birth is pain1 death is pain1 clinging to earthly things is pain40 ,this is simply an expression1 with added emphasis1 of that world-weariness1 of that despair of life1 which we have seen pressing like an incubus upon the spirit of ,brahmanic ,india4 ,buddhism teaches that life is an evil1 that misery and sorrow and pain are inseparable from all modes of existence4 ,we shall be able to get the ,buddhist's point of view if we bear in mind how we ourselves sometimes look upon this earthly life4 ,in despondent moods we ask1 8,is life worth living80 and make answer ourselves by declaring that if this earthly life is all1 then there is in it nothing worth while4 ,if now we extend this gloomy view so as to make it embrace the life to come as well as the life that now is1 we shall have the viewpoint of the true ,buddhist4 ,to him life not only in this world but in all other possible worlds is transitory1 illusive1 and painful1 and in utter despair and weariness he longs to be through with it all and to lay down forever the intolerable burden of existence4#bgj 8,as the glow of the ,indian sun causes rest in cool shades to appear to the wearied body the good of goods1 so also with the wearied soul1 rest1 eternal rest1 is the only thing for which it craves40#bga ,sidenote3 ,the origin of pain ,the truth of the origin of pain is this3 8,it is the thirst for life1 together with lust and desire1 which causes birth and rebirth40 ,it should be noted here that there are different interpretations given to this tenet4 ,some understand by it not that all desires1 but simply evil desires1 cause and feed the flame of life2 others interpret it as teaching that desires or longings of every kind whatsoever possess this sinister potency of recreating life and keeping one entangled in the meshes of the net of existence4 ,sidenote3 ,the truth of the destruction of pain ,the truth of the destruction of pain is this3 8,pain can be ended only by the complete extinction of desire40 ,desire being the root which feeds life and causes the round of births1 existence can be ended only by getting rid of desire4 ,here again there are different acceptations of the dogma4 ,to most it means simply the getting rid of all unholy passions and desires1 while to the thoroughgoing ,buddhist it means freedom from every desire of whatsoever kind3 8,not a few trees but the whole forest0 of desires must be cut down1 together with all 8the undergrowth40#bgb ,sidenote3 ,the doctrine of karma ,besides these three philosophical principles1--the truth of pain1 the origin of pain1 and the extinction of pain1--there are two other speculative doctrines of orthodox ,buddhism1 a comprehension of which is necessary to an understanding of the ethics of the system4 ,the first of these is the doctrine of karma4 ,this is a denial of the soul theory4 ,orthodox ,buddhism denies that man has a soul separable from the body4 ,it teaches that when a person dies there does not go out of his body a spirit which lives elsewhere a conscious life1 a continuation of the life just ended1 but that all that goes out is karma1 that is1 something which is the net product of all the good and evil acts of the person in all his various existences--a sort of seed or germ from which will spring up here on earth or in some heaven or hell another being4#bgc ,there is no conscious identity1 however1 between the two beings4 ,they stand related to each other as father to son4 ,some illustrations will help us to seize the thought4 ,the ,buddhist teacher likens the relation of the life going out here to the new life beginning elsewhere1 to the relation of two candle flames1 the second of which has been lighted from the first4 ,through the transmission of karma the flame of life is passed on from one being to another2 but all these life flames are different4 ,no abiding self-consciousness binds them together and makes them one4 ,again1 this succession of lives is likened to the undulations of a wave in the ocean4 ,the successive undulations are not the same1 yet the first causes the second1 the second the third1 and so on4 ,notwithstanding the important place this doctrine holds in ,buddhist speculative philosophy and theoretical ethics1 it was neither understood nor adopted by the masses4 ,it was developed in the schools1 but the people in general held to their old ,brahmanic belief in the soul and its transmigrations1 so that in most ,buddhist lands to-day belief in a conscious personal existence after death is the prevailing one4#bgd ,sidenote3 ,nirvana and the different senses in which the term is used ,the other philosophical doctrine of which we have to speak is that of ,nirvana4 ,this term is used with many different meanings4 ,often it denotes merely the extinguishment in the soul of lust and hate and ignorance1 and the state of quiet contentment and blissful repose which results from such self-mastery4 ,buddha himself1 says ,rhys ,davids1 meant by the term just what ,christ meant by the kingdom of ,god1 that kingdom within the soul of calm and abiding peace4#bge ,again1 it is used to express a state of eternal1 unchanging1 blissful rest and ineffable peace beyond all the realms--heavens and hells--of transmigration4 ,still again the term is used to denote the absolute extinction of existence1 annihilation4 ,this is the view of ,nirvana held to-day by the ,buddhists of ,ceylon1 ,siam1 and ,burma who claim to hold the ancient faith in its primitive purity4#bgf ,,ii4 ,,the ,,ideal ,sidenote3 ,the truth of the eightfold path ,the ethics of ,buddhism is summed up in the formula of the truth of the eightfold path4#bgg ,the truth of the eight-membered way is this3 the only path which leads to the quieting of pain is the eightfold holy path--right belief1 right resolve1 right speech1 right behavior1 right occupation1 right effort1 right thought1 right concentration4#bgh ,the essence of all this expressed in familiar ethical phrase is that the demands of morality are right thoughts1 right words1 and right deeds4 ,as the eight requirements are interpreted and expounded by ,buddhist teachers1 they demand a mind free from all evil passions and unholy desires 7and1 according to the thoroughgoing ,buddhist1 of every desire whatsoever7#bgi and 8a heart of love far-reaching1 grown great1 and beyond measure40 ,this is the path leading to deliverance from transmigration1 this the path leading to the quieting of pain1 this the path leading to the sweet rest and peace of ,nirvana4 ,it will be worth our while to note with some attention some of the special primary duties and virtues which are included in these general demands of self-conquest and unmeasured love4 ,sidenote3 ,particular virtues and duties of the ideal ,one of the primary duties of the true ,buddhist is to seek knowledge1 for true knowledge1 insight1 is the cure for desire4 ,this knowledge which quenches all craving thirst is best attained1 so ,buddha taught1 through meditation4#bhj ,one must meditate on the transitoriness of life1 on pain1 on death1 on truth1 on gentleness1 on love4 ,it was through profound meditation under the ,bo tree that ,gautama became the ,buddha1 8,the ,enlightened40 ,another cardinal virtue of the ,buddhist ideal of character is universal benevolence4 ,by no other ethical system has such stress been laid upon the duty of gentleness to everything that has life4 ,the animal world is here brought within the sanctuary of morality and safeguarded by ethical sentiment4 ,it is of course the doctrine of transmigration1 which ,buddhism inherits from ,brahmanism1 which gives animal ethics the prominent place it holds in ,buddhist morality4#bha ,still a third requirement of the true ,buddhist is toleration1 which follows as a corollary from the virtue of universal benevolence4 ,in the prominent place assigned this virtue in the ideal of character1 ,buddhism stands alone among the great world religions4 ,a fourth cardinal duty of the ideal is to make known to all men the eightfold way to salvation4 ,buddha's command to his disciples was1 8,go ye now and preach the most excellent ,law1 explaining every point thereof1 unfolding it with diligence and care40 ,this is a duty which brings its own reward2 for the exercise of compassion and charity produces that serenity of spirit which is the aim of moral striving2 and hence nothing advances one more rapidly on the way to salvation than preaching the good tidings and laboring to lessen the sorrows and lighten the burdens of one's fellow creatures4 ,the moral requirement to preach to all the most excellent way made of ,buddhism a missionary religion4 ,in a few centuries after the death of ,buddha devoted missionaries had spread the new faith throughout the ,far ,east4 ,sidenote3 ,the different degrees of moral attainment ,there are in ,buddhism three grades of moral attainment4 ,the lowest is that which may be reached by any one in the ordinary life4 ,through purity of thought and word and deed1 through the exercise of universal kindliness1 and by the fulfillment of every duty pertaining to his station in life1 one attains such a degree of moral excellence that he may at least hope at death to avoid painful rebirth4 ,the second degree of moral excellence is that attained by the monk of ,gautama's ,order4 ,the idea of the ,buddhist here is like that of the ,christian respecting the monastic life4 ,for centuries in the ,west the ascetic life was looked upon as more perfect than the ordinary life1 and as the better and surer way to salvation4 ,it is the same in ,buddhist lands4 ,the goal striven after1 the extinction of unholy desires1 the ,buddhist believes is most quickly and surely reached by him who has rid himself of the cares and worries of domestic life1 and withdrawn from all the distractions of the world4 ,the prime duty of the ,buddhist monk is meditation1 which takes the place of prayer in the code of the ,christian recluse4 ,through following faithfully and patiently all the rules of the ,order he may hope to attain such comparative perfection that at his death he will be reborn in some better state4 ,the third and highest degree of moral attainment can be reached only in the ,arhatship4 ,the ,arhat is what we would call the perfect man4 ,he is one who1 like the ,buddha1 reaches a state of perfect insight or mental illumination and of perfect freedom from all desires#bhb save the desire for ,nirvana4 ,this state is reached only through absolute renunciation of the world4 ,he who would be perfect must leave all earthly pleasures behind1 and calling nothing his own1 with all appetites stilled1 passionless and desireless1 go out from home into homelessness4#bhc ,in such a one karma becomes extinct1 and for him there are no new births4 8,the living1 moving body of the perfect man is visible still10 says ,rhys ,davids in explaining this state1 444 8but it will decay and die and pass away1 and as no new body will be formed1 where life was1 will be nothing40#bhd ,sidenote3 ,the genuine altruism of ,buddhist ethics ,it is impossible to conceive a higher altruism than that inculcated by the higher thoroughgoing ,buddhism4 ,since it denies the existence of the soul1--nothing save the seed 7karma7 of another but different life remaining at death1--when one strives to break the chain of existence1 to make an end of the weary cycle of births1 such a one is seeking good not for himself but for another4 ,in the words of ,dr4 ,hopkins1 8,it is to save from sorrow this son of one's acts that one should seek to find the end40#bhe ,thus orthodox ,buddhism alone1 of all the great ethical systems of history1 refuses to sully virtue with promises of reward4 ,its morality stands absolutely alone1 unsupported by the hope of recompense either in this world or in the world to come4 8,buddhism alone teaches that to live on earth is weariness1 that there is no bliss beyond1 and that one should yet be calm1 pure1 loving1 and wise40#bhf ,another thing especially noteworthy regarding the ethics of ,buddhism is that it is the ethics of naturalism4 8,for the first time in the history of the world10 in the words of ,rhys ,davids1 8,buddhism proclaimed a salvation which each man could gain for himself and by himself in this world1 during this life1 without the least reference to ,god or the gods1 either great or small40 ,in this respect ,buddhism is somewhat like the present-day socialism of the materialistic school1 which ardently proclaims justice1 equity1 and universal brotherhood1 but says nothing about ,god4 ,,iii4 ,,some ,,expressions ,,of ,,the ,,ethical ,,spirit ,,of ,,buddhism ,sidenote3 ,introductory ,buddhism has been called the ,christianity of the ,orient4 ,like ,christianity1 it has been a great moralizing force in history4 ,its ethical ideal has been just such a factor in the moral life of the ,east as the ethical ideal of ,christianity has been in the moral life of the ,west4 ,to portray even in scantiest outline the influence of this ideal upon the different peoples who have accepted it as their standard of goodness1 or whose moral codes have felt its modifying effects1 would lead us far beyond the limits of our work4 ,in what follows we shall aim at nothing more--after having first remarked the ethical kinship of the ,buddhist reform with other contemporary reform movements--than to note briefly the practical outworkings of the ideal in three or four departments of the moral domain4 ,sidenote3 ,the ethical relationships of the ,buddhist reform ,we shall understand best the import for the moral evolution of humanity of that remarkable revolution in ,brahmanic ,india which resulted in the establishment of ,buddhism throughout the peninsula and in other countries of the ,far ,east1 if we first notice its ethical kinship with other reform movements which1 about the close of the sixth pre-,christian century1 make a dividing line in the inner histories of so many of the progressive societies and cultures of that age4#bhg ,in ,greece ,pythagoreanism was rising4 ,this movement was in its essential spirit a social and moral reform4 ,it was an attempt to introduce a true ethics in ,greek city life1 and to find a basis for morality in the deep intuitions of the human soul4#bhh ,in ,israel the ,isaiah of the ,exile was proclaiming the loftiest ethical doctrines ever taught by ,hebrew prophet1 and in his interpretation of the moral government of ,yahweh was scattering the seed from which was to spring up a new ethical life among men4 ,in ,persia the great teacher ,zarathustra 7,zoroaster71 with like vision of moral things1 was declaring to the followers of ,ahura ,mazda that what ,god requires of men is purity of purpose1 truthfulness in word and act1 and unceasing warfare against evil within and without4 ,in ,china the ,master1 ,confucius1 reaffirming the teachings of antiquity1 was inculcating essentially the same truth--that the sum of true morality is reverence1 obedience1 and right living4 ,it probably would be unhistorical to suppose that there was any actual connection between these several ethical or religious reform movements in these widely separated lands4 ,they are brought together here merely that they may be used to interpret one another in terms of ethical progress1 and that they may bear witness to the substantial oneness of the expressions of the moral faculty of man in response to the same or similar intellectual and social stimulus4 ,sidenote3 ,the ethical content for the masses of ,buddha's message ,the question naturally arises1 ,how could ,buddha's dismal doctrine of annihilation as the ultimate aim and end of moral striving--for this dogma was undoubtedly one of the fundamental principles of primitive ,buddhism--ever have been received by the multitude as a word of consolation and hope8 ,what is there of ethical authority or appeal in such a doctrine to constitute it the motive force in a great popular moral reform8 ,the answer is that although ,buddha himself probably believed that death for the perfect man meant absolute extinction of being1 nevertheless he lay no emphasis upon this part of his world philosophy4 ,he knew very well that it would be a hard doctrine for many to receive1 and when questioned about it he was reticent4 ,it was his other doctrine1 the way in which one may escape painful rebirths1 upon which ,buddha laid the stress of his teaching4 ,and here his simple word to the people was this3 ,be gentle and merciful and just2 get rid of all impure and craving desires1 and then at death1 instead of suffering some painful rebirth1 you will be reborn into a happier condition here on earth or in some other world4 ,in a word1 he said1 ,follow after goodness and it will be well with you4 ,to be able to understand how this simple word should be received with such enthusiasm by the multitude1 we need to bear in mind how hard the way of escape from painful rebirths had been made by the ,brahmans4 ,they had taught the people that salvation was possible only through ritual and ceremony1 through costly offerings to the gods1 through the payment of liberal fees to the priests1 through penances and ascetic practices4#bhi ,thus the way of deliverance had been made so hard that few could follow it1 and so unethical that it left the heart cold and the conscience unsatisfied4 ,the situation was like that in ,judea when the greatest of the prophets1 in opposition to the teachings of the scribes and ,pharisees who were laying upon men's shoulders a burden of ritualism too heavy to be borne1 declared that man finds salvation not through ritual or sacrifice1 but through humility1 obedience1 and love--and the people heard him gladly and followed him1 because his yoke was easy and his burden light4 ,so was it in ,india4 ,buddha interprets anew to men the divine message that all which is required of them is purity and justice and tenderness toward all creatures4 ,the spirit of the heavy-burdened multitude witnesseth with the spirit of the ,prophet that this is indeed a true and divine ,word2 and ,buddhism1 with its ethical enthusiasms and fresh hopes1 marks a new era in the moral evolution of the peoples of the ,eastern world4 ,sidenote3 ,monasticism as an ethical expression of ,buddhism ,in explaining the different degrees of moral attainment possible to the ,buddhist1 we spoke of the monastic ideal of virtue4 ,this part of ,buddhist ethical theory has left a deep impress upon practical morality in all those lands into which the faith of the ,buddha has spread4 ,monasticism has been1 and is still to-day1 just such a dominant factor in the moral life of all ,buddhist communities of eastern ,asia as it was in the moral life of medieval ,christian ,europe4 ,the causes that fostered the upgrowth of the system in the ,east were essentially the same as those that fostered its development in the ,west4 ,among these causes a prominent place must be assigned that feeling of world-weariness to which we have already more than once referred1 a feeling evoked by the burden and ache of existence4 ,it was this predisposition of spirit that caused the doctrine of renunciation of the world preached by the disciples of ,buddha to appeal with such persuasion to multitudes throughout all the ,eastern lands4 ,we may stop to note but one of various points of difference between ,buddhist and ,christian monasticism4 ,the latter1 in general1 recognized the ethical value of labor4 ,this feeling found expression in various forms of activity among the monks1 particularly in agricultural labor and in the work of the scriptorium4 ,it was this which not only helped to keep life in the ,western monasteries morally wholesome for a period1 but which also made the monastic system such an efficient force in the conquest and redemption of the waste lands of ,europe and in the upbuilding of ,western civilization in the early medieval age4 ,now ,buddhist monasticism never recognized the moral value of work4#bij ,useful labor had no place among the requirements of the monastic ideal4 ,here doubtless is to be sought one cause of that lamentable moral degeneracy into which the monastic communities soon fell in almost all the lands whither ,buddhism was carried by the missionary zeal of its early converts4 ,sidenote3 ,practical effects of the animal ethics of ,buddhism ,we have seen that under the ,buddhist system the whole animal and insect world is brought within the domain of ethics4 ,buddhist morality has gone to a greater extreme here than any other ethical system1 excepting that of ,jainism4 ,the inculcating of this sympathy with all living creatures has developed one of the most attractive traits of the ,hindu character4#bia ,but the extreme emphasis laid upon this branch of ethics by ,buddhism1 ,jainism1 and modern ,brahmanism or ,hinduism has had practical consequences of a very serious nature4 ,the scruple in regard to killing animals1 even harmful creatures1 has cost ,india millions of human lives4 ,it has been a contributory cause of the country being overrun with dangerous animals1 such as tigers and venomous snakes1 which destroy many thousands of human beings annually1 and has even fostered the propagation of forms of life which are now known to be effective agents in the spread of infectious diseases like the bubonic plague4#bib ,nothing is surer than that at this point the ethics of ,buddhism must sooner or later feel the modifying influence of ,western science4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,buddhist spirit of toleration ,as an efficient force in promoting a spirit of the broadest toleration1 ,buddhism holds a unique place among the great religious and ethical systems of the world4#bic ,an edict of the ,buddhist ,emperor ,asoka1 dating from the third century ,b4,c41 inculcates the practice of toleration in these words3 8,a man must not do reverence to his own sect by disparaging that of another man for trivial reasons4 ,depreciation should be for adequate reasons only1 because the sects of other people deserve reverence for one reason or another40 ,the spirit of this imperial edict has been obeyed wherever the word of the ,buddha has prevailed4 8,there is no record known to me10 writes ,rhys ,davids1 8in the whole long history of ,buddhism1 throughout the many centuries where its followers have been for such lengthened periods supreme1 of any persecution by the ,buddhists of the followers of any other faith40#bid ,sidenote3 ,disesteem of the military life ,like ,confucianism1 ,buddhism in its spirit and its ethical teachings is1 as we have seen1 absolutely opposed to the spirit of militarism in every form4 ,doubtless it has been a potent force in fostering among the peoples of eastern ,asia an anti-military spirit and in creating a disesteem for the warlike qualities of character4#bie ,from one land--the ,tartar land of ,thibet--it has banished absolutely the war spirit and practically war itself4#bif 8,it has taken all the fierceness out of the ,mongols10 and thus rendered useless the ,great ,wall built to check their raids into ,china4#big ,sidenote3 ,softening effects on national character of ,buddhist teachings ,buddhism has been well characterized as the incarnation of sympathy with suffering4 ,inculcating a morality of gentleness1 instilling tenderness toward every living thing1 it has exercised a softening influence upon the spirit and temper of every race that has received its teachings4 ,we have in the preceding chapter noted its humanizing effects upon ,japanese morality4#bih ,even in ,india1 where after a comparatively short period of supremacy it yielded sway again to ,brahmanism1 it left significant traces of its brief dominance in the deepened humanitarianism of the restored creed of the ,brahmans1 and in certain of those traits and dispositions of the native races which render truthfully descriptive the term 8gentle ,hindu40 8,the land of meekness and gentleness10 were the words used by a native ,hindu#bii at a recent ,lake ,mohonk ,conference to express the ethical character of ,india4 ,sidenote3 ,historical significance of the ethical unity created by ,buddhism ,there is deep significance for the moral evolution of the human race in this ethical propaganda of ,buddhism4 ,for just as ,christianity has created an ethical unity among the nations of the ,western world1 so has ,buddhism created a certain ethical unity among the races of the ,eastern world4 ,the historical importance of this lies in the fact that these two ethical systems1 though differing in form and content1 are in spirit essentially the same3 both are moralities of universalism2 both teach the brotherhood of man2 both exalt the gentle#cjj and self-denying virtues2 both enjoin self-conquest2 both inculcate the duty of universal benevolence4 ,because of this moral kinship1 the ethical conquests of ,buddhism--and there is not a land in the ,far ,east that has not felt its influence--are in a degree supplemental to those of ,christianity in the ,west1 and are thus an important step in the creation of the ethical unity of the world4 ,india and ,japan are both nearer to us ethically to-day than they would be1 were it not for the modifying influence of ,buddhist teachings upon the ethical spirit and temper of their peoples4#cja ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,zoroastrianism3 ,,an ,,ideal ,,of ,,combat ,i4 ,,philosophical ,,and ,,religious ,,ideas ,,which ,,created ,,the ,,ethical ,,type ,sidenote3 ,religious dualism ,in view of the mixed good and evil in the world1 thinkers of antiquity1 outside of ,israel and before the rise of the ,stoic philosophy in ,greece1 could not conceive the universe as being set in motion and directed by one ,god infinite at once in power and goodness4 ,even the most penetrating intellect of ,greece faltered in his search for unity3 8,we cannot suppose10 says ,plato1 8that the universe is ordered by one soul2 there must be more than one1 probably not less than two--one the author of good1 and the other of evil40#cjb ,the seers of ,israel alone reached with perfect conviction the height of the great argument1 and announced confidently that ,he who is the author of the good in the world is the author likewise of the evil3 8,i form the light and create the darkness2 ,i make peace and create evil10 are the words which the prophet ,isaiah puts in the mouth of ,yahweh4#cjc ,the religious thinkers of ,persia never reached this lofty viewpoint4 ,it seemed to them1 as it seemed to the ,greek philosopher1 that at least two deities must have been concerned in the creation and ordering of the universe4 ,they believed in the existence of two great powers3 a good being1 ,ahura ,mazda1 the creator of light and of all beneficent things2 and an evil being1 ,ahriman1 the author of darkness and of all baneful creatures4 ,between these two powers they conceived to be going on a fierce struggle for the mastery1 in which ultimate victory was assured to the good ,ahura4#cjd ,this ,persian world philosophy reacted favorably upon the moral character1 and1 as we shall see further on1 contributed to create in ancient ,persia a deep consciousness of the eternal distinction between good and evil1 a profound sentiment of duty1 and an active1 strenuous morality4#cje ,it is when contrasted with the world philosophy of ,brahmanism and ,buddhism that the ethical value of this dualistic philosophy of the old ,persian thinkers is best disclosed4 ,sidenote3 ,conception of the character of the supreme god1 ,ahura ,mazda ,while it is true that the moral qualities attributed by a people to their gods are nothing more nor less than the moral qualities possessed or revered by this people themselves1 still it is also true that the moral nature thus given to the gods reacts powerfully upon the ethical life of their worshipers and tends to mold their moral character after the heavenly type4 ,in a word1 celestial morality is at once effect and cause4 ,in the case of no other people of antiquity1 except the people of ,israel1 did the conception of deity exercise a greater influence upon morality than in that of the ancient ,persians4 ,the supreme being1 ,ahura ,mazda1 was conceived1 as we have already noted1 as the creator of the light and of all good things1 as the god of righteous order and benevolence4 ,he was the lover of truth4 ,truth was the innermost essence of his being1 as love is the innermost essence of the ,god of ,christianity4 ,farther on we shall see how this conception of deity formed the mold in which was cast the ,persian ideal of moral excellence4 ,sidenote3 ,the ethical character of ,mithra ,ahura ,mazda was the god of the sky4 ,as time passed1 ,mithra1 the god of the sun1 gradually came into greater prominence and finally quite eclipsed the at first supreme deity1 ,ahura4 ,as the solar god he appropriated the ethical attributes of the sky god and became preeminently the god of light1 the champion of truth1 and the avenger of lies4 ,he it is who1 when not deceived1 establisheth nations in victory and strength4#cjf ,it was from this solar deity that ,zoroastrianism in the later pre-,christian centuries was called ,mithraism1 under which name1 as we shall see1 it entered the ,greco-,roman world and there became a chief competitor with ,christianity for the control and guidance of the moral life of the ,european nations4 ,sidenote3 ,doctrine of the sacredness of the elements--fire1 earth1 and water ,the principle of ,persian world philosophy which1 next after that of the divided government of the universe1 had probably the greatest consequences1 and those not wholly favorable1 for ,persian morality1 was the principle of the purity and sacredness of the elements--fire1 earth1 and water4 ,from this principle or belief were deduced endless ritual requirements whose aim was to preserve these elements from pollution1 or to restore their purity after defilement1 and thus one large division of the moral code embraced mainly artificial duties1 duties which had no vital relation to natural morality1 that is1 to conduct deriving its sanction from the natural feelings of moral right and wrong4 ,sidenote3 ,the personality of a great reformer1 ,zarathustra ,as the great moral systems of ,confucianism1 ,buddhism1 ,christianity1 and ,mohammedanism bear each the impress of the moral consciousness of some great teacher1 so is it with ,zoroastrianism4 ,for the moral ideal of ,persia1 while doubtless largely the creation of the ethical feelings and convictions of the ,iranian race1 developed through many centuries of race experiences1 nevertheless bears the unmistakable imprint of a unique personality4 ,that the ,zarathustra of tradition represents a real historical personage1 there can hardly be longer a reasonable doubt4#cjg ,the time of ,zarathustra's mission probably falls in the first half of the sixth century ,b4,c4 ,he thus belongs to that era in the history of antiquity when1 at various centers of culture1 reform movements announced the opening of a new epoch in the moral evolution of the human race4#cjh ,the sum of what we may believe to have been his moral teachings was that man's full duty is purity and sincerity in thought1 word1 and deed1 and an untiring warfare against evil4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,ideal ,sidenote3 ,the essence of the moral life ,the distinctive character of the ,persian moral ideal was determined by the ,persian dualistic world philosophy4 ,the essence of the moral life is a struggle against evil4 ,the good man is the strong fighter with ,ahura against ,ahriman and all his creations4 ,there was no place in the ideal for those ascetic virtues--celibacy1 fasting1 self-mortification--which conferred sainthood in ,india4#cji ,the married state was regarded as superior to the unmarried3 8,he who has children10 says the ,zend-,avesta1 8is far above the childless man40#caj ,fasting was condemned as ungodly1 for 8no one who does not eat has strength to do heavy work of holiness02#caa the well-fed man can fight better than the one who lessens his vitality by fasting1 can withstand the cold better1 8can strive against the wicked tyrant and smite him on the head40#cab ,the ,zoroastrians regarded ,christianity1 in the form in which they knew it1 with disapproval1 because it exalted celibacy and made fasting a virtue4 ,this moral ideal which made life a strenuous battling for the right was1 after the ideal of the ,hebrew prophets1 the loftiest developed by the ancient world4 ,as we shall see immediately1 it tended to make the morality of the ancient ,persians 8a morality of vigor and manliness40 ,sidenote3 ,truthfulness the paramount virtue ,among the special virtues making up the moral ideal1 the highest place was assigned the virtue of veracity4 ,it is noteworthy how this virtue was1 if not created1 at least fostered by the ,persian conception of the supreme god1 ,ahura ,mazda1 whose symbol was the light4#cac ,as ,ahriman was the god of deceit and lies1 so was ,ahura the god of sincerity and truth4 ,this thought of deity made truthfulness a supreme virtue1 for man must in all things take for his model the good spirit on whose side he battles4 ,various testimonies bear witness to the high place assigned in the scale of virtues to veracity4 ,there was to be no liar among those persons whom the ,persian ,noah 7,yima7 was commanded to bring into the great underground abode1 that the earth might be repeopled with a superior race after the deadly cold of the long winter4#cad ,the punishment provided in the ,zend-,avesta for false swearing was terrible4 ,the very first time one knowingly tells a lie unto ,mithra 7the god adjured in taking an oath71 8without waiting until it is done again10 he shall be beaten on earth with twice seven hundred stripes1 and below in hell shall receive punishment harder than the pain from the cutting off of limbs1 from falling down a precipice1 from impalement4#cae ,what is especially noteworthy here is that ,zoroastrian morals recognize the universality of the law of truthfulness and require that contracts made even with the unfaithful be faithfully kept3 8,break not the contract10 says the sacred law2 444 8for ,mithra stands for both the faithful and the unfaithful40#caf ,even more sacred than the engagements of kinsman with kinsman are the engagements between nations1 for while a contract between members of the same group is thirtyfold more binding than one between two strangers1 a contract between two nations is a thousandfold more binding4#cag ,here is raised a standard of international morality to which modern statesmen and diplomatists have not yet attained4 ,sidenote3 ,the duty of industry2 the ethics of labor ,industry was another cardinal virtue of the ,zoroastrian ideal of character4 ,labor was enjoined not only as honorable but as a sacred duty4 ,wedgwood endeavors to show how this virtue was the outgrowth of the ,persian conception of the origin of the universe4 ,in ,indian thought the world is not a creation1 the work of a divine ,creator2 it is an emanation from an impersonal1 unconscious1 primal principle4 ,but in the ,persian world-view the universe is conceived as the work of a deity who labors to give it form and shape4 ,this conception of ,god as a worker reacted powerfully upon the ideal of human excellence4 ,man must imitate this divine virtue of labor4 ,he must become a co-worker with the good ,ahura ,mazda4 ,thus was labor idealized1 and all work1 even the most lowly1 made a sacred thing4#cah ,there is in this view doubtless an element of truth1 but it is probable that this duty of industry and thrift upon which such emphasis is laid in the ,zend-,avesta was in the beginning taught and enforced by the limited area of fruitful soil and the necessity of careful irrigation and tillage1 and that only later the virtue thus engendered received the sanction and support of religion4 ,we may infer this from the fact that agriculture was the most sacred of occupations4 8,he who sows corn10 says the ,zend-,avesta1 8sows righteousness40#cai ,to sow corn1 grass1 and fruit2 to water dry ground and to drain ground that is too wet--this is the duty of man4#cbj ,sidenote3 ,animal ethics ,the ,zoroastrian code1 like the ,laws of ,manu1 gives a large place to man's duties toward the lower animal creation4 ,but the animal ethics of the ,iranian lawgiver are much more reasonable than those of the ,hindu legislator4 ,the ,buddhist1 as we have seen1 is enjoined to spare every living thing2 there is no distinction made between useful animals and dangerous beasts and noxious reptiles4 ,to such an extreme is this regard for all life carried that agriculture1 though a permissible because a necessary occupation1 still is looked upon with disfavor for the reason that the plow injures the beings living in the earth4#cba ,on the other hand1 the ,zoroastrian code distinguishes between beneficent and baneful creatures1 declares the first to have been created by the good ,ahura and the latter by the evil ,ahriman1 and makes it the duty of the good man to protect and treat kindly all useful animals1 and to destroy all baneful creatures1 including noxious plants1 such as weeds and brambles4 ,hence tilling the soil is praised as an especially holy occupation1 since the plow destroys the thistles and weeds sown by the evil-disposed ,ahriman4 ,sidenote3 ,duty of protecting the purity of the elements ,another important department of ,persian ethics was based on the idea of the holiness of the elements--fire1 earth1 and water4 ,any defilement of these was a sin1 in some cases an unpardonable sin4 ,for instance1 burying the corpse of a man or of an animal in the earth1 and not disinterring it within two years--8for that deed there is nothing that can pay2 444 it is a trespass for which there is no atonement for ever and ever40#cbb ,equally stringent were the prohibitions against the pollution of the holy elements fire and water1 through casting into them any unclean matter4#cbc ,we shall perhaps best understand the moral value of such duties as we have to do with in this division of ,persian ethics1 if we compare them with those duties of the ,christian code--,sabbath observances--which are based on the idea of the holiness of a certain portion of time4 ,the ethical feelings evoked in the one case are akin to those evoked in the other4 ,sidenote3 ,the judgment of the dead2 the soul the judge of the soul ,in the ,persian judgment of the soul after death we have the most profound and spiritual conception of the rewards and punishments of the hereafter that has found expression in the ethical teachings of any people4 ,the soul is conceived as being judged by itself4 ,upon its departure from this life the soul of the faithful is met by a beautiful maiden1 8fair as the fairest thing10 who says to him3 8,i am thy own conscience2 ,i was lovely and thou madest me still lovelier2 ,i was fair and thou madest me still fairer1 through thy good thought1 thy good speech1 and thy good deed40 ,and then the soul is led into the paradise of endless light4 ,but the soul of the wicked one is met by a hideous old woman1 8uglier than the ugliest thing10 who is his own conscience4 ,she says to him3 8,i am thy bad actions1 ,o youth of evil thoughts1 of evil words1 of evil deeds1 of evil religion4 ,it is on account of thy will and actions that ,i am hideous and vile40 ,and then the soul is led down into the hell of endless darkness4#cbd ,the remarkable thing about all this is that this profound and spiritual conception of 8a mental heaven and hell with which we are now familiar as the only future state recognized by intelligent people0 should have found expression at the early period when the faith of the ,zend-,avesta was formulated4 8,while mankind were delivered up to the childish terrors of a future replete with horrors visited upon them from without1 the early ,iranian sage announced the eternal truth that the rewards of ,heaven and the punishments of ,hell can only be from within4 ,he gave us1 we may fairly say1 through the systems which he has influenced1 that great doctrine of subjective recompense1 which must work an essential change in the mental habits of every one who receives it40#cbe ,,iii4 ,,the ,,practice ,sidenote3 ,effects of the moral ideal upon the ,persian character ,in setting for man as his chief moral task a courageous warfare against evil1 the ,zoroastrian ethics produced a certain exaltation of character1 and inspired strenuous activity motived by a deep sense of duty4 ,it created1 or concurred with other causes in creating1 8a race of zealous ,puritans10 a strong1 self-reliant people1 who disdained all asceticism and indolence4#cbf ,fasting1 as we have seen1 was regarded as a crime because it weakens the body and unfits one for active exertion4 ,it is instructive to place the masculine ideal of ,persia alongside the feminine ideal of ,buddhist ,india and note the different effects of these strongly contrasted standards of goodness upon the races accepting them as the measure and rule of rational conduct and duty4 ,the ,buddhist ideal1 as we have seen1 is made up largely of the gentler1 contemplative1 passive virtues1 the virtues of the recluse and the ascetic4 ,its issue in character is quietism4 ,in opposition to this1 the ,zoroastrian ideal inspires sturdy1 virile1 active virtues1 the moral qualities of the reformer1 of the toiler and the fighter4 ,the natural effect of the ideal was to confirm in the ,persians all the seemingly original strong ethical qualities of the ,iranic race4 ,sidenote3 ,persian veneration for the truth ,we have seen that one of the chief requirements of the ,zoroastrian code was truthfulness2 man must be veracious even as ,ahura ,mazda is veracious4 ,various testimonies assure us that in respect to this virtue there was in ancient ,persia a commendable conformity of practice to theory4 ,the feeling for the beauty and nobility of truthfulness was much more fully developed among the ,persians than among any other people of ancient or modern times4 ,they were a truth-revering and a truth-speaking people4 ,lying was the great crime4 ,to lie1 to deceive1 was to be a follower of ,ahriman1 the god of lies and deceit4 ,hence lying was regarded as a species of treason against ,ahura ,mazda4 8,the most disgraceful thing in the world10 affirms ,herodotus1 in his account of the ,persians1 8they think1 is to tell a lie2 the next worse is to owe a debt1 because1 among other reasons1 the debtor is obliged to tell lies40#cbg ,in his report of the ,persian system of education he says1 8,the boys are taught to ride1 to draw the bow1 and to speak the truth40#cbh ,i was not wicked1 nor a liar1 is the substance and purport of many a record of the ancient kings4 ,rawlinson adduces this as evidence of their veneration for truthfulness4 8,the special estimation in which truth was held among the ,persians10 he says1 8is evidenced in a remarkable manner by the inscriptions of ,darius1 where lying is taken as the representative of all evil4 ,it is the great calamity of the usurpation of the pseudo-,smerdis1 that #8then the lie became abounding in the land4' #8,the ,evil ,one 787 invented lies that they should deceive the state4' ,darius is favored by ,ormazd1 #8because he was not a heretic1 nor a liar1 nor a tyrant4' ,his successors are exhorted not to cherish1 but to cast into utter perdition1 #8the man who may be a liar1 or who may be an evildoer4' ,his great fear is lest it may be thought that any part of the record which he has set up has been #8falsely related1' and he even abstains from relating certain events of his reign #8lest to him who may hereafter peruse the tablet1 the many deeds that have been done by him may seem to be #8falsely recorded4'0#cbi ,the ,persian kings1 shaming in this all other nations ancient and modern1 kept sacredly their pledged word2#ccj only once were they ever even charged with having broken a treaty with a foreign power4#cca ,that truthfulness was a national virtue of the ,persians is further attested by the fact that ,herodotus represents them as always relying implicitly upon every tale told them by the lying ,greeks whom they had taken captive4 ,it never seemed to occur to them that even an enemy could be guilty of so awful a blasphemy as lying4 ,it was this trait which led to their undoing at ,salamis by the unscrupulous and mendacious ,themistocles4#ccb ,sidenote3 ,influence of the ideal upon ,persian history ,that exaltation of character which we have remarked as springing naturally from the moral dignity with which man was invested by being made an associate of the good ,ahura in his struggle with the wicked ,ahriman may be noticed especially in the aims and undertakings of the ,persian monarchs in the period before the moral decadence of the ,iranian civilization set in1 and while the strength of the ethical appeal of the ,zoroastrian ideal was yet unimpaired4 ,this appears in all their records1 which make the aim of their conquests to be the overthrow of the powers of evil and disorder and the setting up of a kingdom of righteousness in the world4 ,the inscriptions of ,darius ,i read like the letters of the ,puritan ,cromwell4 ,indeed1 just as it was the masculine moral ideal of ,english ,puritanism which helped to make ,england great1 and strong to play her part in the transactions of modern times1 so we may believe it was the strenuous moral ideal of ,zoroastrianism that helped to make ,persia great1 and strong to play her great rle in the affairs of the ancient world4 ,in truth1 the ideal is still an unexpended force in history4 ,it seems to have given immortality to the people that it inspired2 for it can hardly be doubted that it is largely owing to their active practical morality that the ,parsees in ,india1 the representatives to-day of the old ,zoroastrian faith1 constitute such a dominant element in the ,indian communities of which they form a part4#ccc ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,moral ,,evolution ,,in ,,israel3 ,,an ,,ideal ,,of ,,obedience ,,to ,a ,,revealed ,,law ,i4 ,,the ,,religious ,,basis ,,of ,,hebrew ,,morality ,sidenote3 ,introductory3 ,israel's historic task a moral one ,to the pious ,hebrew the rainbow1 which to the esthetic ,greek was merely the beautiful pathway of ,iris1 the messenger of ,olympus1 was ,yahweh's bow hung out from the dark retreating thundercloud as a sign of righteous anger spent and the pledge of a divine covenant and promise4 ,in this ethical interpretation by the ,hebrew spirit of this portent is foretokened the history and mission of ancient ,israel4 ,it was her allotted task to interpret in ethical terms the phenomena of the world of nature and the drama of human life and history4 ,and it was her happy lot to become the teacher to mankind of the truth of an alone and righteous ,god1 and to be the creator of a moral ideal which is to-day the highest ethical standard of all the races of the ,western world1 and the most vital moral force at work in universal history4 ,in the short account which we shall give of ,hebrew morality we shall adopt a mode of treatment somewhat different from that followed in describing the moral systems of the peoples already passed in review1 for the reason that in the case of the ancient ,hebrews the historical material is sufficiently abundant to enable us to trace step by step the development of the ethical ideal and to watch the gradual clarification of the moral consciousness of the race4#ccd ,hence1 after speaking of the religious ideas which formed the basis of the moral code1 we shall sketch briefly the evolution of the rudimentary morality of the tribal age of the nation into the high ideal of the prophets of the later time4 ,sidenote3 ,the conception of deity2 monolatry and monotheism ,we have seen how the ,persian view of deity molded ,persian morality4 ,in a still more decisive way did the ,hebrew idea of ,god1 of his character and his relation to ,israel and the world1 shape and mold the moral ideal of the race4#cce ,when the ,hebrews in the second millennium before ,christ appeared in history1 they were in possession of a stock of ideas concerning the gods which was1 in all essentials save one1 altogether like that held by their ,semitic kinsmen of the various lands of southwestern ,asia4 ,the single essential point of difference between their religious belief and that of their neighbors was this3 the nations about them were polytheists2 they were monolatrists2 that is1 the ,hebrews1 while they believed in many gods1 worshiped only one god1 their tribal god ,yahweh4 ,as ,stade expresses it1 8the old ,israelite was a theoretical polytheist1 but a practical monotheist40#ccf ,there is scarcely need that we add in qualification of this1 that when the ,hebrews first appeared in history they were not all monolatrists4 ,the multitude were then1 and for a long time thereafter1 polytheists4 ,all that can be affirmed is that in the earliest times of their history there were among them teachers of monolatrism1 teachers who inculcated the duty of worshiping a single god1 the patron and champion of the nation4 ,through what experiences and under what tuition these teachers of ,israel made the passage in thought from polytheism to monolatrism we need not now inquire4 ,for our purpose we need simply note the fact and emphasize its supreme historical importance4 ,it marks the beginning of a divergent evolution in religious belief and ethical conviction which in the lapse of time was to lead ,israel far apart from her ,semitic kinsmen1 and make her the standard bearer of a universal religion and a universal morality4 ,for monolatry was with the prophets and seers of ,israel only the first step toward monotheism1 the doctrine that there is only one ,god1 the ,universal ,father4 ,this idea of deity was not reached much before the time of the ,second ,isaiah4 ,along with this later view of ,yahweh there came the thought and conviction that he is a ,god of absolute righteousness4 ,this conception of ,god and of his character was1 as we shall see1 an idea charged with the deepest significance not only for the ethical development in ,israel but for the moral life of all mankind4 ,sidenote3 ,the belief in a supernaturally revealed law ,after this conception of ,yahweh1 first as a jealous tribal deity and later as the sole ,god and ,universal ,father1 the belief in a supernaturally revealed law wherein all the duties of man were made known was the most potent force in molding the moral ideal of ,israel4 ,it was this belief which made the chief duty of man to be unquestioning obedience to the divine commandments2 for the revealed law was the measure of duty--what it enjoined was right1 what it forbade was wrong4 ,this investiture of an outer law1 conceived to be of supernatural origin1 with sovereign authority over man's every act1 and the subordination to it of the inner law of the individual conscience1 had consequences of vast importance for the ethical evolution not only in ancient ,israel but also among all the peoples whose moral ideal was essentially an inheritance from her4 ,for where the full duty of man is made to consist in obedience to the minute requirements of an external law there is inevitably created a morality made up largely of artificial ritual duties1 and as intelligence grows and the moral consciousness deepens and clarifies1 there necessarily arises a conflict between this conventional morality and the natural morality of the human reason and conscience4 ,in such a conflict1 in this way created1 within the moral life of ,israel centers the dramatic interest of her moral history4 ,sidenote3 ,special ground of the ,israelites' feeling that obedience to the law was their highest duty ,there was a special reason why the ,israelites felt that their first duty was absolute obedience to the revealed will of ,yahweh4 ,they possessed a tradition which told how their fathers were serfs in the land of ,egypt2 how ,yahweh1 through his servant ,moses1 had intervened in their behalf1 and with a strong arm and with mighty signs had brought them up out of the land of bondage2 and how at ,mt4 ,sinai he had entered into a covenant with them in which he pledged to them his powerful protection on condition of their fidelity in his worship and obedience to all his commandments4 ,this belief was the germ out of which grew most of what was unique in the ethical development of ,israel4#ccg ,it played exactly the same part in creating and molding the religious conscience of ,israel that the ,christian's belief in the descent of the ,son of ,god into the world and his voluntary death to effect man's deliverance has had in molding the religious conscience of ,christendom4 ,as we advance in our study we shall see how largely the moral consciousness of the ,israelites was a creation of this belief in a most sacred covenant between ,yahweh and their fathers at the 8,terrible ,mount0 in the wilderness4 ,sidenote3 ,the rite of sacrifice ,we have seen that religion on the lower levels of culture consists largely in sacrifice2 that is1 in gifts or offerings either to the spirits of the dead or to the gods4 ,the religion of the ancient ,hebrews did not differ in this respect from the religion of other peoples in the same stage of culture4#cch ,but the evolution of the rite of sacrifice among the ,israelites differs from its development among all other peoples in that1 under the influence of the ,hebrew spirit1 the rite was gradually reduced to symbolism and spiritualized4 ,in this process it underwent the most remarkable metamorphoses4 ,beginning with meat and drink offerings from man to ,god1 it ends with ,god giving himself a sacrifice for man4 ,the system thus transformed became the great inspirer of ethical sentiment and a unique vehicle of moral instruction4 ,sidenote3 ,the vagueness of the belief in an after life ,the ,israelite's thought of death and of the after life also reacted powerfully upon his moral feelings and colored all his ethical speculations2 for1 like the conceptions held of ,god1 the notions entertained of man's lot after death1 as we have seen in the case of the ancient ,egyptians1 has far-reaching consequences for the moral life4 ,now the ,hebrew conception of the future state was the same as the ,babylonian4 ,sheol1 like the ,babylonian ,arallu1 was a vague and shadowy region beneath the earth1 a sad and dismal place which received without distinction the good and the bad4 ,the same fate was allotted all who went down to the grave3 8,the small and the great are there2 and the servant is free from his master40#cci ,there was no return there for good1 or for evil3 8,but the dead know not anything1 neither have they any more a reward40#cdj ,memory and hope were there dead3 8,for in death there is no remembrance of thee4444 ,they that go down into the pit cannot hope for thy truth40#cda ,we shall see later how this vague and feebly held idea of the future life reacted upon the evolution of the moral consciousness in ,israel1 how deeply it influenced the troubled ethical speculations of the more thoughtful minds of the nation1 and how it inspired theories of the moral order of the world which have not yet lost their power over the thoughts and the conduct of men4#cdb ,we need in this place merely to point out how it was the absence of a clearly defined belief in a life of rewards and punishments in another world that created1 or helped to create1 the ,messianic ideal1 one of the most fruitful conceptions1 in its ethical outcomes1 that ever entered into the mind of man4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,moral ,,ideal #a4 ,the ,development up to the ,exile ,sidenote3 ,the primitive moral code ,the history of ,hebrew morals is the record of a long and slow evolution4 ,the primitive code with which the development began was the code of ,semitic nomadism4 ,it was essentially the same as that which to-day governs the conduct of the practically unchanged kinsmen of the ,hebrews1 the ,bedouin of ,arabia and neighboring lands4 ,it was the morality of the kinship group4#cdc ,the principle of communal responsibility1 which affords the key to a large part of the moral history of ,israel1 had not yet been challenged as unethical1 and blood revenge was a most sacred duty4 ,the circle covered by the moral feelings was still narrow2 there was practically no sentiment of duty or obligation toward tribes or nations outside the group of tribes constituting the people of ,israel4 ,the conception of ,yahweh as a jealous national god prevented the growth of feelings which might have formed the basis of a true international morality4 ,the wars which the ,israelites waged against their enemies were wars of ruthless slaughter and rapine4 ,this rudimentary morality is summarized in the ,decalogue1#cdd for the ,ten ,commandments are indisputably of a high antiquity4 ,one mark of the primitive character of this legislation is the negative form of the commandments4#cde ,where there is need of the 8thou shalt not10 the moral life is still on a low plane4 ,the aim and purpose of the law thus worded are restraint and repression4 ,there is a wide interval in moral chronology between the morality of the ,ten ,words and that of the ,sermon on the ,mount4 ,in this earlier code there is only the slightest recognition of the truth that the truly moral life consists not in refraining from evil but in doing good4 ,the nomads of the desert for whom these negative commands were framed1 forbidding mostly crude1 coarse crimes1 were evidently a long way yet from that level of moral attainment where the only law is the law of love and liberty4 ,sidenote3 ,the moral anarchy of the age of the ,judges ,that period of transition which marks the passage of the ,israelite tribes from the nomadic pastoral life of the desert to a settled agricultural life in ,palestine may be instructively compared with that transition period in the history of ,europe which followed the migration of the ,german tribes and their settlement in the provinces of the disrupted ,roman ,empire4 ,it was an epoch characterized by the rapid decay of the clan and tribal organization1 with an accompanying loss of the rude virtues of the nomadic and pastoral life1 and the acquisition of the vices of the civilized or semicivilized communities among which they had thrust themselves and whose lands they had forcibly seized4 ,especially upon the religious system1 which in ,israel was ever closely bound up with morality1 was felt the reaction of the new environment4 ,many foreign elements adopted from the ,canaanite peoples were incorporated with it1 while the national god ,yahweh1 as conceived by the popular imagination1 tended to become sanguinary1 capricious1 and unjust4 ,he became eminently a god of war1 and is for his people right or wrong4 ,thus a chief bulwark of morality was impaired4 ,the result was a moral interregnum4 ,the old standards and rules of conduct lost their sanction4 ,every man did that which was right in his own eyes4#cdf ,sidenote3 ,prophetism3 its different elements ,the necessities of the situation called into existence the monarchy 7about #ajej ,b4,c474 ,then followed the disruption of the kingdom 7about #iec ,b4,c474 ,the significant matter in the moral domain during the period of the united and the divided kingdom#cdg was the appearance of teachers called prophets or seers1 men who were believed to speak the word given them by ,yahweh4 ,this emergence of prophetism in ,israel is beyond controversy one of the most important phenomena in the moral history of the world4 ,there were in this prophetism various elements4#cdh ,first1 it contained a nomadic element2 that is1 some of the prophets were men who looked backward to the simple pastoral life of the desert as the ideal moral life4 ,they regarded civilization as the sum of all evils4 ,their reading of history was1 in the words of ,wellhausen1 that 8as the human race goes forward in civilization1 it goes backward in the fear of ,god40 ,second1 there was in it a socialistic element4 ,these prophets were the first socialists4 ,theirs was the first passionate plea for the poor1 the wretched1 and the heavy-burdened4 ,third1 it contained a predictive element4 ,the prophets were regarded as seers1 as foretellers of future events4 ,fourth1 there was in this prophetism an element of pure intuitional morality which was in irreconcilable antagonism to all legal ritual morality4 ,fifth1 it contained a monotheistic element4 ,the later prophets were distinctively teachers of the doctrine that there is only one ,god1 beside whom there is no other4 ,of these several elements the predictive1 or prophetic in the popular sense1 has been given such undue prominence that ,hebrew prophetism in the minds of many stands for little else than a supernatural forecasting of future events4 ,but1 in truth1 this is the element of least importance4 ,in the words of ,kuenen1 the business of the prophets was 8not to communicate what shall happen1 but to insist upon what ought to happen40#cdi ,they were preachers of individual and social righteousness4 ,it is this ethical element1 forming the very heart and core of their message1 which makes the appearance of prophetism in ,israel a matter of such transcendent importance for universal history4 ,our main task in the following pages of this chapter will be to point out this moral element in the message of the prophets1 to show how the conception of ,yahweh was by them moralized1 and how the morality they inculcated became purer and more elevated as the centuries passed1 till the evolution culminated in the lofty teachings of the ,prophet of ,nazareth4 ,sidenote3 ,the beginnings of historical prophetism3 ,elijah and ,elisha ,the real history of ,hebrew prophetism opens with the appearance in the northern kingdom1 about the beginning of the ninth century ,b4,c41 of the great prophets ,elijah and ,elisha4 ,it was the moral degeneracy of the times of the monarchy1 the inrush of the hateful vices of civilization1--the greed of land#cej and of wealth1 the cruel inequalities of the new society1 the selfish luxury of the rich1 the harsh oppression of the poor1 the forgetting of men's kinship1 the substitution of the worship of other gods for the sole worship of ,yahweh1--it was all this which called out the vehement protest of these teachers of social justice and national righteousness4 ,it was1 however1 a very different prophetism from that of the later seers of ,israel which was represented by these early teachers4 ,there was in it a large nomadic element4 ,its representatives looked back to the times of the simple pastoral life of the fathers as the ,golden ,age of ,israel4 ,they hated civilization1 that grossly material civilization which ,israel1 under the lead of an idolatrous and luxurious court1 was now adopting from the surrounding nations1 and looked upon it as 8the sum of all evils40 ,they were1 furthermore1 monolatrists rather than monotheists4 ,they believed in sacrifice2 but sacrifices must not be offered to strange gods--only to ,yahweh4 ,they were fanatical in their zeal for the worship of ,israel's patron ,god2 but even here there was an ethical element1 for in their view the triumph of the worship of ,yahweh over that of the ,baals meant a triumph of the simple1 severe1 desert morality over the voluptuousness and the nameless vices of the ,canaanite civilization4 ,this early prophetism1 in a word1 was a sort of ,puritanism4 ,renan calls it 8this terrible prophetism40 ,it was fierce1 cruel1 fanatical1 intolerant1 like ,english ,puritanism4 ,indeed1 it can best be studied in this modern seventeenth-century prophetism1 which was essentially a revival of it4 ,but notwithstanding the imperfect character of this early prophetism1 because of the true ethical element it contained1#cea its appearance in ,israel and its successful fight against a sensuous idolatry was a matter of vast moral import1 for here in this narrow1 intolerant monolatry is the real historical beginning of that long religious-ethical development which lends chief significance to the story of ,israel1 and constitutes a main interest of the history of ,european civilization4 ,in the words of ,renan1 8,the prophetism which struggled under ,ahab and triumphed under ,jehu is 444 upon the whole the most decisive event in the history of ,israel4 ,it forms the commencement of the chain which1 after nine hundred years1 found the last link in ,jesus40#ceb ,sidenote3 ,the moral advance represented by ,amos 7#gfj ,b4,c47 and ,hosea 7#gch-gce ,b4,c47 ,the second link in this chain was formed by the prophets ,amos and ,hosea1 who delivered their message about the middle of the eighth century4 ,amos was the earlier4 ,there is in his message the note of true prophetism4 ,his thought of ,yahweh is that he is a ,god who hates iniquity and loves righteousness4 ,what angers him is not idolatry or the worship of other gods1 but social wrongs and injustice--wickedness in every form4 ,he is angry with ,israel#cec because there has been stored up violence and robbery in the palace2#ced because of the luxury and self-indulgence of the rich2 because of the treading upon the poor and the taking from him burdens of wheat2 because of the taking of bribes and the turning aside of the poor in the gate from their right2#cee because of the falsifying of the balances by deceit that the poor may be bought for silver and the needy for a pair of shoes4#cef ,and what pleases ,yahweh is not fast days and sacrifices1 but justice and righteousness3 8,i hate1 444 ,i despise your fast days10#ceg declares ,yahweh4 8,though ye offer me burnt offerings and meat offerings1 ,i will not accept40#ceh 8,but let judgment run down as water and righteousness as a mighty stream40#cei ,a generation later the prophet ,hosea repeats the same message2 namely1 that what angers ,yahweh is moral evil--lying1 swearing1 stealing1 and killing4 ,he puts in the mouth of ,yahweh these words3 8,for ,i desire mercy and not sacrifice1 and the knowledge of ,god more than burnt offerings40#cfj ,there is here a notable ethical advance over the word to ,israel of the prophets of the preceding century4 ,the thought of ,amos and ,hosea that it is social wrongdoing that angers ,yahweh is indeed no new thought1 for we meet with this conception of the moral character of ,god in the teachings of the earlier prophets2 what is new is the emphasis which is laid upon it4 ,here we reach ethical monolatry2#cfa ethical monotheism lies not far in the future4 ,sidenote3 ,the ideal of the brotherhood of nations and universal peace ,the morality of ,amos and ,hosea infolded the germ of ethical cosmopolitanism4 ,the conviction that the government of ,yahweh is founded on absolute justice and righteousness led to the conviction of its ultimate universality1 8for right is everywhere right1 and wrong is everywhere wrong40 ,the political situation in the ,semitic world at this time fostered the thought thus awakened4 ,the predominant fact in international relations in the latter half of the eighth century was the growth of the ,assyrian ,empire4 ,in its expansion it had already engulfed many of the smaller states of western ,asia1 and ,assyria had become a world power4 ,political unity suggested now1 as it did when ,rome had established a world empire1 religious and ethical unity4 ,yahweh1 ,israel's ,god of justice and right1 is the suzerain of all other gods and peoples4 ,he will establish a world-wide kingdom1 and all nations shall acknowledge his righteous rule4 ,as representatives of this broadening vision we have the great prophets ,isaiah and ,micah1 who1 proclaiming the universal reach of the law of right and justice1 held aloft a noble ethical ideal of the brotherhood of nations and universal peace4 ,seers by virtue of their conviction of the absoluteness1 the oneness and sovereignty1 of the moral law1 they foretold the coming of a time in the last days when all the nations of the earth should form a federation under the suzerainty of ,israel with ,jerusalem as the world capital3 8,out of ,zion shall go forth the law1 and the word of the ,lord from ,jerusalem1 and he shall judge among the nations1 and shall rebuke many people2 and they shall beat their swords into ploughshares1 and their spears into pruning-hooks2 nation shall not lift up sword against nation1 neither shall they learn war any more40#cfb ,this is the first distinct expression in ,hebrew literature1 or in that of any race1 of the idea of the brotherhood of man and a federated world4 ,the lofty ideal has never faded from the eyes of men4 ,it has inspired all the noblest visions of world unity and peace through the war-troubled ages1 and is in the world of to-day the source and spring of much of that ethical idealism which with prophetic faith and conviction proclaims a federated world1 with the nations dwelling together in peace and amity1 as the one divine event toward which all history moves4 ,with this lofty ethical universalism in the teachings of ,isaiah and ,micah was joined a simple personal and social morality of the human heart and reason4 ,these prophets were at one with ,amos and ,hosea in proclaiming that what ,yahweh delights in is not sacrifices and the observance of new moons and ,sabbaths1 but cleanliness of life and services of love4 ,hear ,isaiah as he repeats the words of the ,lord3 8,i delight not in the blood of bullocks1 or of lambs1 or of he goats4444 ,your new moons and your appointed feasts my soul hateth4444 ,cease to do evil2 learn to do well2 seek judgment1 relieve the oppressed1 judge the fatherless1 plead for the widow40#cfc ,and listen to ,micah3 8,wherewith shall ,i come before the ,lord and bow myself before the high ,god8 ,shall ,i come before him with burnt offerings1 with calves of a year old8 ,will the ,lord be pleased with thousands of rams and with ten thousands of rivers of oil8444 ,he hath shewed thee1 ,o man1 what is good2 and what doth the ,lord require of thee1 but to do justly1 and to love mercy1 and to walk humbly with thy ,god80#cfd ,sidenote3 ,the prophetic spirit creates a unique ethical literature ,the prophets of the eighth century were the first of the literary prophets2 that is1 the first of those who employed literature as the vehicle of their message to ,israel4 ,hence here our attention is called to a matter of supreme significance for universal morality--the ethicalizing of the mythology and traditional history of the ,hebrew people4 ,it was during the age of the kings that the mass of cosmological myths and legends borrowed from ,babylonia1--doubtless largely through contact with ,assyria1--the traditions of the patriarchs1 and the story of the sojourn in ,egypt and the ,exodus1 all of which had been transmitted from the foretime orally or in writing1 was worked over and edited afresh1 in which process it received the indelible stamp of the deeper and truer moral consciousness of this later age4 ,for though probably little of this work was done by the prophets themselves1 it was done by men who wrote under the inspiration of the new thoughts of ,god and of his moral government which had been awakened in the souls of the great teachers of ,israel4 ,the polytheistic elements of these myths and traditions and their grosser and more archaic immoralities were pruned away1 while at the same time they were given a monotheistic cast and a truer morality was breathed into them4 ,in a word1 all this literary material was censored by the growing moral consciousness of ,israel4 ,the outcome was the creation of a literature absolutely unique in its moral educative worth4 ,thus the remolded and moralized ,chaldean account of the creation of the world and the beginnings of human history came to form the basis of the opening chapters of ,genesis1 whose influence upon ,hebrew morality1 through molding ,israel's idea of the character of ,yahweh and of his relations to man1 it would hardly be possible to exaggerate4 ,also the tradition of the ,exodus1 given now its final form and received by the later generations of ,israel as an historically true account of the experiences of their fathers1 left an ineffaceable impress upon the mind and heart of the ,hebrew nation1 determining largely their ideas as to their chief moral obligations as the chosen and covenanted people of ,yahweh4 ,it was this tradition of their heroic past which was the inspiration of the moral strivings of the nation4 ,furthermore1 all this literary material1 thus reshaped and colored by the growing monotheistic ideas of the teachers of ,israel and bearing the stamp of their gradually deepening moral consciousness1 and in this form transmitted to the ,aryan nations of the ,west1 was destined to become one of the most important factors not merely in the religious but especially in the moral life of the ,european peoples4 ,sidenote3 ,the ethicalizing of pagan festivals and cults ,just as the myths and traditions1 in part borrowed from neighboring peoples and in part transmitted from ,israel's own foretime1 were transformed and moralized by the ethical genius of the ,hebrew spirit1 so were the institutions and festivals borrowed by the ,israelites from kindred ,semitic peoples1 and particularly from the ,canaanites1 transmuted and moralized4#cfe ,permeated by the ethical spirit of ,israel's great teachers and transformed into moral symbols1 these originally nonethical agricultural cults and festivals were given a distinct educative value4 ,among these pagan institutions thus moralized was the festival or rest day of the ,sabbath4#cff ,filled with ethical meaning and consecrated to a religious-moral purpose1 this originally pagan lunar festival was made a most important means of moral instruction and discipline4#cfg ,this borrowing and moralizing by ,israel of this festival has an almost exact parallel in the later borrowing and moralizing by the ,christian ,church of the pagan festival of the winter solstice1 which has given ,christendom one of its most beautiful anniversaries1 one which takes precedence of all others in its power to evoke the tenderest altruistic sentiments4 ,as with the ,sabbath1 so was it with all the festivals which the ,israelites1 after their settlement in ,palestine and during the period when they were passing from the nomadic to the agricultural life1 adopted from the ,canaanite peoples among whom they were dwelling4 ,all of these in the course of time were turned from their original purpose1 were cleansed of immoral and sensuous elements1 and were thus made the means of awakening moral feelings and developing moral character4 ,this transforming power of the ethical genius of ,israel finds a true historical parallel in the esthetic genius of ancient ,hellas1 which1 receiving from every side elements of art and general culture1 inspired them all with the beauty and energy of her own spirit4#cfh 8,israel10 as ,cornill finely says1 8resembles in spiritual things the fabulous ,king ,midas1 who turned everything he touched into gold40 ,sidenote3 ,the dual morality of the ,deuteronomic code ,the effect of the capture of ,samaria by the ,assyrians in #gbb ,b4,c4 and the carrying away into captivity of the flower of the ,ten ,tribes was to put an end to prophetism in the ,north and to make ,judah in the ,south the center of the movement which had such significance for the moral life of the world4 ,during the century and a half that passed between the fall of the northern kingdom and the destruction of ,jerusalem by the ,babylonian ,king ,nebuchadnezzar1 only one great prophet appeared in ,judah4 ,this was ,jeremiah1 who prophesied in the reign of ,king ,josiah1 just a little time before the ,captivity4 ,it was during the reign of this king that there appeared a book which1 excepting the ,gospels of the ,new ,testament1 has had a greater influence upon the general evolution of morality than any other book ever written4 ,this was a work known as the ,book of ,deuteronomy1 that is1 the repetition of the law4 ,before the discovery of the ,laws of ,hammurabi this was the oldest known code of laws4 ,the book contains much archaic material--traditions1 customs1 judicial decisions1 laws1 and rituals--manifestly handed down from the earliest times in ,israel1 with additions made at the moment of its appearance1 and all bearing plainly the stamp of the spirit and temper of these later times4 ,hence it comes that there are two moralities embodied in the work--an atavistic ritual morality and a progressive social morality4 ,sidenote3 ,the ritual ethics of the code ,in that part of the code which has to do with the ethics of ritualism the dominant motive of the editors or compilers springs from a dread and abhorrence of idolatry1 like the dread and abhorrence of heresy in medieval ,christendom4 ,yahweh will divide his worship with no other god4 ,israel had gone after other gods and ,yahweh had given her into the hands of the ,assyrians4 ,a like fate awaited ,judah if she served any other than him3 8,ye shall not go after other gods1 or the gods of the people which are round about you1 lest the anger of the ,lord be kindled against thee1 and destroy thee from off the face of the earth10#cfi is the first commandment with threatening4 ,fear that ,yahweh would do unto ,judah as he had done unto ,israel awakened the conscience of the nation4 ,idolatry was suppressed2 the high places on which incense was burned unto the ,baals were defiled1 and the altars and the images of the strange gods were broken down and ground into dust4 ,this reform movement practically ended the long struggle which had gone on now for six hundred years and more between polytheism and the rising monotheism of the people of ,israel4 ,but unfortunately while the monotheistic element of the religion of ,yahweh was brought out by the reform in sharper outline1 the ethical element was obscured4 ,the religion that was now made the exclusive worship was really little more than a pagan cult4 ,it consisted in the careful keeping of feast days and the observance of the rites and sacrifices of the ,temple--an inheritance largely from the heathen nations around about ,israel4 ,nothing could have been more opposed to true prophetism4 ,it was the triumph of reactionary ritualism4 ,this victory of ritualism has exerted an almost incalculable influence upon the development of morality from the time of ,king ,josiah down to the present day4 ,the immediate effect upon prophetism in ,judah was most lamentable4 8,deuteronomy simply confirmed the belief that religion was concerned with ritual rather than with morality40#cgj ,and so the outcome of the promulgation of a written revealed law was1 in the words of ,wellhausen1 8the death of prophecy40#cga ,but this fatal effect was not felt at once4 ,in the dark days of the ,exile1 now just at hand1 there was a revival of true prophetism2 but after the return from the ,captivity1 as we shall see1 the prophetic spirit was almost stifled by the rigid legalism of the ,temple cult4 ,and it was this same ,deuteronomic law which1 in the hands of medieval inquisitors1 stifled awakening prophetism in ,europe and delayed for generations true moral reform after the stirring of the ,european mind by the ,renaissance4#cgb ,the intolerant spirit of this narrow1 rigid religion of ritualism found specially sinister expression in ,israel's war ethics4 ,instead of promoting international amity and good will1 it deepened intertribal prejudices and hatreds and intensified the barbarities of war4 8,thou shalt save alive nothing that breatheth20#cgc 8thou shalt smite them and utterly destroy them1 thou shalt make no covenant with them1 nor show mercy unto them10#cgd were the commands to ,israel regarding the nations round about her who were the worshipers of other gods than ,yahweh4 ,thus religion was made an active principle of international savagery4 ,it made it1 in the words of ,cheyne1 8difficult1 if not impossible1 444 to love ,god fervently without hating a large section of ,god's creatures40#cge ,under the influence of the fierce ordinances of the ,deuteronomic code the war practices of the ,israelites became more ferocious and savage than those of any other nation of antiquity1 unless it be those of the ,assyrian kings4 ,their enemies1 who were also the enemies of ,yahweh1 they smote with the utmost fury1 putting to the edge of the sword men1 women1 and the little ones1 and taking as booty the cattle and the spoils4 ,sidenote3 ,the social ethics of the code ,but1 as we have said1 there were two spirits striving together in this strange ,deuteronomic code4 ,in opposition to this spirit of stern fanatical intolerance there was a spirit of tender sympathy for the unfortunate1 the poor1 and the oppressed4#cgf ,along with this priestly morality1 based on a certain conception of ,yahweh and of his relations to ,israel1 there was another wholly different morality--a social morality whose chief sanctions were the natural impulses and sentiments of the human heart and conscience4 ,this code of social ethics bears witness to a progressive development of the moral consciousness in ,israel4 ,the ethical advance is unmistakably registered in various ameliorations effected in the crude customary law of earlier times4 ,one of the most noteworthy of these mitigations concerned the primitive blood revenge4 ,in common with other peoples in the kinship stage of culture1 the early ,hebrews in their pursuit of blood vengeance made no distinction between intentional and unintentional homicide4 ,the regulations of the ,deuteronomic code regarding the so-called cities of refuge#cgg bear witness to a growing power of moral discrimination2 for these cities are made inviolable sanctuaries whither might flee the manslayer who had slain his neighbor unawares and hated him not in time past4#cgh ,especially is the humanitarian advance shown in the provisions of the code which relate to the poor1 the debtor1 and the bondsman4 ,we meet here some of the most humane regulations to be found in any of the codes of antiquity4 ,social morality is almost made to consist in consideration for the poor3 8,if there be among you a poor man 444 thou shalt open thine hand wide unto him0--so the law enjoins--8and shalt surely lend him sufficient for his need40#cgi ,things that were necessities to the poor man were not to be taken as security for a loan3 8,no man shall take the nether or the upper millstone to pledge40#chj ,if a garment be taken as security1 this must be returned before night1 in order that the man may sleep in his own raiment4#cha ,the widow's raiment must not be taken in pledge at all4#chb ,the wages of the poor and needy must be promptly paid3 8,at his day thou shalt give him his hire1 neither shall the sun go down upon it2 for he is poor1 and setteth his heart upon it40#chc ,the law goes even further in its humane endeavor to prevent the oppression of the needy4 ,the loaning of money in ancient times was in general a very different thing from similar money transactions in this commercial and industrial age of ours4 ,those seeking loans were the very poor1 who were forced to borrow to meet domestic necessities4 ,under such conditions the taking of interest would naturally be denounced1 and those who did so would come to be regarded as extortioners1 and robbers of the poor4 ,hence the prohibition1 8,thou shalt not lend upon usury to thy brother2 444 unto a stranger thou mayest lend upon usury40#chd ,this legislation1 well adapted to the times and the conditions of the society for which it was enacted1 became centuries later1 through its adoption and attempted enforcement by the medieval ,church1 a source of grave mischief4 ,it constituted a heavy drag for centuries upon the industrial development of ,european civilization4 ,the same spirit of tenderness toward the portionless and needy is shown in the provision concerning the ingathering of the harvest3 8,when thou cuttest down thine harvest in thy field1 and hast forgot a sheaf in the field1 thou shalt not go again to fetch it2 it shall be for the stranger1 for the fatherless1 and for the widow40#che ,this tender consideration for the poor speaks from one of the most beautiful of ,bible pictures--that of the ,moabitess ,ruth gleaning in the fields after the reapers1 who 8let fall some of the handfuls of purpose for her40#chf ,the social conscience awakening in ,israel1 to which the above regulations and commandments bear witness1 finds further expression in the provisions of the code effecting ameliorations in the lot of the unfortunate bondsman4 ,the master is enjoined to see that the ,sabbath is observed by his slave as well as by himself and his family1 and the reason assigned is the humanitarian one--8that thy manservant and thy maidservant may rest as well as thou40#chg ,and a limitation was set to the time that a person could be held in bondage3 8,and if thy brother1 an ,hebrew man1 or an ,hebrew woman1 be sold unto thee1 and serve thee six years2 then in the seventh year thou shalt let him go free from thee40#chh ,furthermore1 the law is solicitous respecting the welfare of the bondsman even after emancipation3 8,and when thou sendest him out free from thee1 thou shalt not let him go away empty4 ,thou shalt furnish him liberally out of thy flock1 and out of thy threshing floor1 and out of thy winepress3 of that wherewith the ,lord thy ,god hath blessed thee thou shalt give unto him40#chi ,to these ameliorative measures effect is sought to be given through a revival of memories of the past4 ,the masters are enjoined to be compassionate to their bondsmen because they themselves had been worn and bruised in bondage3 8,remember10 says the lawgiver1 8that ye were bondsmen in the land of ,egypt40#cij #b4 ,the ,morality of the ,prophets of the ,exile ,sidenote3 ,the effects of the ,captivity upon the moral evolution in ,israel ,we have reached now a turning point in the moral history of ,israel4 ,speaking of the effects of the ,exile upon the inner life of ,israel1 ,renan uses these words3 8,twice it was the fate of ,israel to owe its salvation to that which is the ruin of others1 and to be recalled by the crushing of its earthly hopes to a sense of its great duties toward humanity40 ,the mission of ,israel1 her duty toward humanity1 was1 as we have said1 to interpret life in ethical terms4 ,as the story of the exilic and the postexilic period unfolds1 we shall see how the sad experiences of the ,exile purified and deepened the moral consciousness of ,israel1 and prepared her for the great part she was destined to play in the moral education of mankind4 ,it was the great unknown prophet of the ,exile1 the so-called ,second ,isaiah1 who wrote just after the capture of ,babylon by the ,persian king ,cyrus 7#eci ,b4,c471 who was the representative of the essentially new conceptions of ,yahweh and of the requirements of the moral law which characterize this ethical development4#cia ,sidenote3 ,ethical monotheism at last2 religion and morality at one ,shut out from participation in political affairs1 the best energies of the exiled community seem to have been turned to the things of the inner life1 and consequently the development in the religious and moral spheres went on apace4 ,the conception of ,god--of what is pleasing to him and what he requires of man--was elevated and purified4 ,we meet now for the first time monotheism pure and absolute4 ,yahweh is conceived as the only ,god2 the gods of the other nations are no gods at all4 ,some of the earlier prophets had1 it is true1 caught sight of this lofty truth2 but the multitude of the people certainly had no such idea of their patron god4 ,the prophets of the ,exile are the first to proclaim this doctrine with such emphasis as to cause it to become a part of the indestructible religious consciousness of ,israel4#cib ,one cannot read the declarations which the unknown prophet puts in the mouth of ,yahweh--8,before me there was no ,god formed1 neither shall there be after me20#cic 8,i am the first and ,i am the last2 and besides me there is no ,god20#cid 8,i am ,yahweh who wrought everything1 who stretched forth the heavens above1 who spread forth the earth--who was with me20#cie 8,i am ,yahweh and there is none beside me20#cif 8,i am ,god1 and there is none else1 ,i am ,god1 and there is none like me0#cig--one cannot read these declarations without being convinced that they were not phrased by one to whom the idea of the unity of ,god had become a commonplace1 but rather by one to whom the thought was something in the nature of a discovery4#cih ,but it was not merely the idea of the oneness of deity1 of ,yahweh as the sole ,god1 that was the element of supreme significance in this practically new thought of ,god4 ,there is nothing unethical in the belief in many gods2 nor1 on the other hand1 is there anything ethical in the belief that there is only one ,god4 ,the historically important thing about the monotheism of ,israel is that it was ethical monotheism4 ,up to the time of the ,exile the multitude in ,israel1 notwithstanding the teachings of the prophets ,amos and ,hosea1 ,isaiah and ,micah1 had never thought of ,yahweh as an absolutely just god1 but rather as one who would favor his people under all circumstances4 ,put in the language of to-day1 they conceived ,yahweh as a partisan1 who would be for his people right or wrong4 ,but under the discipline of the ,exile the more spiritual-minded of the nation came to accept the teaching that ,yahweh's favor 8is conditioned by a law of absolute righteousness40#cii ,this conception of ,god marks a turning point in the moral evolution of humanity4 ,it lifted a new ethical standard4 ,it effected a union of religion and morality4 ,this1 it is true1 was not a wholly new thing in history4 ,in the worship of the good ,osiris in ,egypt these elements had been united2 in the ,zoroastrian worship of ,ahura ,mazda they had also been brought together2 and at this very time in ,greece there was an effort being made to unite them in the worship of the ,delphian ,apollo4 ,but the union effected by the prophets of ,israel was the only one destined to have large and permanent historical consequences4 ,because of the ethical content given the god idea by them1 their conception of deity constituted the most precious part of the spiritual heritage bequeathed by ,judaism to ,christianity4 ,sidenote3 ,repudiation of the doctrine of collective responsibility ,the progressive clarification of the moral consciousness in ,israel disclosed by this truer conception of the divine character is further shown by the definite and emphatic repudiation by the prophets of the ,exile of the doctrine of collective responsibility4#djj ,there was an ironical proverb current in ,israel1 which1 expressing bitter protest against the unequal ways of ,yahweh in visiting the sins of the fathers upon the children1#dja ran thus3 8,the fathers have eaten sour grapes1 and the children's teeth are set on edge40#djb ,the prophet ,ezekiel says to the people that they shall not have occasion any more to use this proverb4#djc ,with clear moral vision he sees how impossible it is that the moral government of ,yahweh should rest upon the principle of collective responsibility1 and that the innocent should be punished for the guilty4 ,declaring that the ways of ,god are just and equal1 he annuls all earlier provisions of the law by boldly proclaiming that the son shall not bear the iniquity of the father1 neither shall the father bear the iniquity of the son4#djd ,it marks a great moral advance when guilt comes thus to be viewed as a personal and not a communal thing4 ,but unfortunately the ground here gained for morality was lost when the theologians of the early ,christian ,church1 reviving the outgrown conception of collective responsibility1 formulated the dogma that all the generations of men--such being the solidarity of the human race--are partakers in the sin of the first parents and under condemnation therefor4#dje ,sidenote3 ,the doctrine of the sufferings of the righteous as vicarious and expiatory ,but the decisive rejection by the deepening moral consciousness in ,israel of the doctrine that under the moral government of ,yahweh the innocent are punished for the guilty left still unsolved the problem of the sufferings of the righteous--that problem which had at all times so troubled the pious ,israelite1 and for the solution of which so many different theories had been framed4 ,the new teaching1 or the implication of the new teaching1 that such sufferings are not penal in character1 that they are no sign of ,god's displeasure with the sufferer1 while a teaching of consolation1 contributed nothing to the actual solution of the problem4 ,but a new theory now offers a new interpretation4 ,this theory assumes that all transgression must be atoned for by suffering1 but teaches that this suffering may be borne vicariously by one not the transgressor1 and the guilt thereby expiated4 ,this idea worked itself out in the sorrow-burdened souls of the pious exiles in ,babylon4 ,never did acquaintance with bitter sorrow yield sweeter fruit4 ,the thought finds expression in ,chapters ,,lii and ,,liii of ,isaiah4#djf ,the righteous ,servant of ,yahweh1 who is despised and rejected of men1 a man of sorrow and acquainted with grief1 is the personified community of the pious ,israelites1 who are wounded for the transgressions and bruised for the iniquities of the nation4#djg ,of all the ethical products of the troublous life of ,israel1 this idea that under the moral government of the world one may vicariously bear the burden of another's fault and thus atone for it was the most important in its historical consequences4 ,six hundred years after the utterance of this message of consolation to the pious ,israelite exiles1 the ideal of the suffering ,servant of ,yahweh1 thus held aloft by the ,great ,unknown1 was incarnated1 so it was believed1 in ,jesus of ,nazareth4 ,clothed in actual flesh and blood1 the sweet persuasiveness of the ideal--the nobility and divineness of suffering voluntarily borne in the stead of another--made unwonted appeal to the heart of humanity1 and for eighteen hundred years and more1 accepted as a true symbol and interpretation of the moral order1 it has been a chief molding force in the moral life of the ,western world4 #c4 ,the ,moral ,life in the ,postexilic ,age ,sidenote3 ,a ritual morality ,the chief moral fact in the postexilic period#djh was the putting into strict practice of the ,levitical and ,deuteronomic law1 and the consequent triumph of ritual morality4 ,from the establishment of this law till the rise of ,christianity1 orthodox morality in ,judah consisted in the careful observance of the thousand and one minute rules and requirements of this ,temple code4 ,the good man was he who kept the law of the ,lord4#dji ,all duties were in a sense religious duties2 they were acts performed simply because of the supposed divine command that they should be performed4#daj ,such dependence as this on rules and forms and rites is of course disastrous to all true morality4 ,it fosters the idea that morality consists in the performance of certain outer acts1 instead of being the attitude of the soul toward the good and the right inwardly discerned4 ,it substitutes an outer standard for the individual conscience4 ,conscience disused loses its power of discrimination and becomes atrophied4 ,the ethically indifferent is made the all-important1 and thus all moral values are confused4 ,what confusion resulted in ,israel is revealed in the denunciations of this rigid1 mechanical legalism by the ,prophet of ,nazareth3 8,woe unto you1 scribes and ,pharisees1 hypocrites6 for ye pay tithe of mint and anise and cummin1 and have omitted the weightier matters of the law1 judgment1 mercy1 and faith2 these ought ye to have done1 and not to leave the other undone40#daa 8,not that which goeth into the mouth defileth a man1 but that which cometh out of the mouth4444 ,to eat with unwashen hands defileth not a man40#dab ,the ,sermon on the ,mount announces the awakening of the true prophetic spirit in ,israel after a sleep of five hundred years4 ,sidenote3 ,an intolerant nationalism ,a sinister phase of the orthodox religious-ethical system of the postexilic age was its narrow1 intolerant nationalism4 ,to be an enemy of ,israel was what was believed to constitute wickedness1 and to excite the wrath of ,yahweh1 just as later in the ethics of certain systems of ,christian theology the unbeliever or pagan1 merely because of his unbelief or paganism1 was regarded as wicked and as deserving of eternal punishment4 ,in psalms which date from this period these enemies of ,yahweh are cursed with a fierce hatred which spares not even the children1 but pronounces happy him who shall take up and dash the little ones against the stones4#dac ,nowhere in history do we meet with a more fanatically intolerant nationalism4 ,sidenote3 ,the relation of the synagogue to the moral evolution ,it was only a comparatively small part of the ,jewish nation whose home was the city of ,jerusalem in the later postexilic period4 ,the ,israelite community was now widely scattered in the cities of the ,east and the ,west4 ,one important outcome of this1 in its bearings upon the moral life of ,israel and of the nations that were to receive ethical instruction from her1 was the establishment of the synagogue4#dad ,for the ,deuteronomic code had made religion to be something connected with the ,temple1 something separate and apart from true morality1 whose root is in human relationships4 ,now the ,dispersion1 tearing the ,israelites away from the ,temple1 tended to bring into prominence those religious exercises and those duties which had nothing to do with the ,temple service4 ,this was favorable to the religion and morality of the prophets1 as opposed to the religion and morality of the priests4 ,the services of the synagogue took the place of the ceremonies and sacrifices of the ,temple4#dae ,these services consisted in the reading and translation of a portion of the ,scriptures with comments thereupon4#daf ,this meant the incoming of a new and powerful agency in the promotion not only of the religious but also of the moral education of humanity1 for this custom 8was the origin of the homily and sermon40#dag ,the synagogue was the prototype and precursor of the ,christian basilica and the ,puritan meetinghouse4 ,sidenote3 ,the new doctrine of immortality3 its ethical import ,the restablishment of the ,law we have pronounced the chief ethical fact in the history of ,judaism after the return from the ,babylonian ,captivity4 ,and this is true if it is the history of the ,jews alone that we have in mind2 but regarding the moral evolution in the world at large there is another fact belonging to this period of even greater importance4 ,this was the incoming of the doctrine of immortality4#dah ,we have seen that from the first the ,hebrews1 like the ,babylonians1 held a belief in a sort of shadowy existence after death2#dai but of a belief in personal immortality in our sense of the word1 of a life of rewards and punishments beyond the grave1 there is no certain trace in ,hebrew literature until about the third or second century ,b4,c4#dbj ,different influences had concurred to create this new conception of the hereafter and to secure for it by the end of the ,greek period a wide acceptance4 ,first1 there was what has been called the subjective sense of fellowship with ,god4 ,during this period of ,israelite history there was engendered in select souls a passionate outreaching after divine companionship4 ,this feeling is revealed in many a postexilic psalm1 as where the psalmist exclaims1 8,for thou wilt not leave my soul to ,sheol2 neither wilt thou suffer thine holy one beloved to see corruption40#dba ,this was the divination of love like that of the old mystic who exclaimed1 8,o ,god1 if ,i should die1 ,thou couldst not live40#dbb ,it was such filial love and trust as this1 which found its divinest expression in the life of 8the ,sublime ,mystic of ,galilee10 that created in many a devout soul in ,israel that larger hope which gave birth to the doctrine of personal immortality4 ,but while it was probably deep religious feeling1 the soul's recognition of its sonship to ,god1 that called into existence the idea of personal immortality1 it was the ethical necessity created by a profound faith in ,god's absolute justice1 an irrefragable conviction that under the moral government of the world well-doing will be rewarded and evildoing punished1 that gained for the doctrine its wide acceptance4 ,that good men should be afflicted and wicked men should enjoy prosperity1 has in all ages of reflection caused questionings and murmurings4 ,but this ethical problem filled with peculiar unrest the souls of the ,israelites1 first1 because more than any other people they felt the need of a just ,god2 and second1 because of their lack of belief in a future life of rewards and punishments in which the wrongs and inequalities of this life might be righted4 ,hence the many different solutions of the problem which they thought out1 and through which they sought to justify the ways of ,god to man4 ,so long1 however1 as life practically ended at the grave1 the problem remained insolvable4 ,but the doctrine of another existence in which the righteous man should receive compensation for his sufferings here1 and the evil man just retribution for his deeds1 offered a reasonable solution of the problem that had so troubled the conscience of ,israel4 ,it was this undoubtedly that caused the teaching to gain popular currency4 ,the doctrine1 however1 was not wholly the product of the religious and ethical development within ,israel4 ,its growth was fostered by various outside influences4 ,among these was the ,persian doctrine of the resurrection and a future life of retributive justice1 with which the ,jews became familiar at the time of the ,exile in ,babylon or later in the ,persian period4 ,then again the development of the idea was stimulated1 after the third century ,b4,c41 by ,greek philosophy1 particularly the ,platonic4 ,but far more influential than either ,zoroastrian teachings or ,greek philosophy must have been the thought and conviction of ancient ,egypt4 ,after the founding of ,alexandria1 toward the end of the fourth century ,b4,c41 a vast number of ,jews were settled in that capital2 and though the positive evidence here is very meager1 still we have a right to something more than a conjecture that in that city ,judaism was deeply influenced by the ancient ,egyptian doctrine of immortality4#dbc ,under these various influences this doctrine rooted itself firmly among the ,jews1 and by the time of the appearance of ,christ had become a distinctive tenet of a large and influential party among them4#dbd ,after the conception of a just ,god and the ideal of the suffering ,servant of ,yahweh1 this doctrine of immortality1 with its correlate teaching of future rewards and punishments1 was perhaps the most important product1 in its moral consequences1 of the life and ethical experiences of ancient ,israel4 ,it exercised little or no influence1 at least no decisive influence1 upon the moral evolution in ,judaism1 but1 adopted by ,christianity1 it was given new force and currency1 and for eighteen hundred years and more has been one of the great bulwarks and sanctions of morality in the ,western world4 ,sidenote3 ,the expansion of the moral sympathies in the ,hellenistic ,age ,we have spoken of the rigid legalism and the narrow nationalistic spirit of orthodox postexilic ,judaism4 ,but it must not be thought that in these last days the spirit of prophetism was dead4 ,hidden beneath this hard rind of legalism there pulsed a true moral life4 ,this life found expression in a movement toward ethical universalism4 ,to understand this movement we must recall the great political revolution of this epoch4 ,almost exactly two centuries after the return of the ,jews from the ,babylonian ,captivity1 all the political relations of the ,semitic ,east were abruptly ended and new relations established by the conquests of ,alexander the ,great4 ,hellenism1 the most powerful solvent of history1 now came in contact with ,hebrew life and thought both in ,palestine and in ,egypt4 ,the effect upon the ethical development in ,judaism was profound4 ,with the expansion of the political and mental horizons the moral sympathies of men were widened4 ,the wall of separation between ,jew and ,gentile was thrown down4 ,in ,alexandria and in the many new ,hellenistic cities in ,asia1 the nobler spirits of dispersed ,israel1 casting aside their narrow racial prejudices1 with enlarged mental vision and widened moral sympathies1 came to read with new understanding their great prophets who had preached the universality of the moral law and the brotherhood of nations4#dbe ,hebrew literature registers the change4 ,this new spirit of internationalism1 of kindness and justice even to enemies1 breathes from many of the later psalms#dbf and speaks from many a passage of the so-called 8wisdom books0 of the period4 ,the allegory of ,jonah embodies the liberal spirit of this new ,judaism4 ,the great lawyers ,hillel and ,shammai1#dbg who laid emphasis upon social duties and human service1 represented the humanitarian phase of the age movement4 ,philo1 the ,alexandrian ,jew1 represented its philosophical side4 ,the way was being prepared for the incoming of the ethical universalism of ,christianity4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,moral ,,consciousness ,,of ,,hellas3 ,,an ,,ideal ,,of ,,self-,,realization ,sidenote3 ,introduction ,the ,greek ethical ideal1 a creation of the natural feelings and impulses of the human mind and heart uninfluenced by theological doctrines1 was one of the most imperishable products of ,greek life and thought4 ,this conception of what constitutes good life became a part of the ,greek bequest to civilization4 ,the modern world is thus indebted to ,greece not only for priceless elements of its intellectual and art life1 but for precious elements of its moral life as well4 ,throughout the medieval age1 it is true1 it was the ethical heritage from ,judea that shaped and colored the moral ideal of the ,european peoples1 but even during that period this ,semitic ideal bore the deep impress of ,greek ethics1 while ever since the ,renaissance it is the ethical bequest of ,hellas which has steadily become an ever more and more dominant factor in the moral life of the ,western nations4 ,the conscience of the modern world of science is ,hellenic rather than ,hebraic4 ,i4 ,,institutions ,,and ,,ideas ,,determining ,,the ,,moral ,,type ,sidenote3 ,the city state the mold of ,greek morality and the chief sphere of ,greek moral activity ,the ,greek city state was the creator of the ,greek conscience2 that is to say1 the relationships and activities of the ,greek as a citizen1 and not his relationships and activities as a husband or father or business man1 determined his chief duties4 ,conscience was very little involved in that part of his life which lay outside the civic sphere4 ,it was solely as a member of a city community1 which was to the ,greek what the ,church was to the man of medieval times1 that he could live the truly moral life and attain the highest virtue4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,greek view of man's nature as good ,the common ,greek view of man's nature was like that of the ,chinese moralists2 that is1 it conceived human nature as being essentially good4#dbh ,and this conception included the whole of man's nature1 his body as well as his spirit4 ,as we shall learn1 this doctrine influenced profoundly the ,greek conception of what is permissible and right in conduct4 ,it made it seem right to give full1 though regulated and reasonable1 indulgence to the bodily impulses and instincts4 ,it made the fundamental maxim of ,greek morality to be1 ,live according to nature4 ,it left no place in ,greek thought for the ,oriental notion of an antagonism between the flesh and the spirit4 ,hence asceticism with its repressions of the bodily instincts and appetites1 which is so common an expression of the moral sentiment among the ,oriental races1 found no place in ,greek morality till after ,greek culture had come in contact with the religious and ethical systems of ,asia4 ,sidenote3 ,the idea of harmony in the god world ,closely connected with this idea of the essential goodness and oneness of man's nature was the conception of unity and harmony in the god world4 ,in passing from the ,orient to ,greece we leave behind not only ,indian pessimism1 but ,egyptian and ,persian dualism4 ,we leave behind that conception of disharmony and conflict in the invisible world which is such a characteristic phase of much of ,oriental thought4 ,we hear1 indeed1 the faint echo of a prehistoric struggle between the earth gods and the sky gods4 ,but all now is peace4 ,the ,titans are chained1 and the gods that are the friends of men reign supreme4#dbi ,just as that ,oriental dualistic world philosophy exercised a vast influence upon the moral ideals of the ,east and of the later ,christian world that inherited that system of thought1 making the moral life serious and strenuous1 a fight against evil1 so did the opposing ,greek conception of unity and harmony in the god world exert a profound influence upon ,greek morality1 emptying the moral life of everything like strenuousness and battle4 ,it made ,greek morality to be like the morality of sensuous1 joyous youth4 ,sidenote3 ,the character of the ,greek gods ,in strong contrast to ,hebrew morality1 which1 as we have seen1 was almost exclusively a religious one1 springing1 that is to say1 from certain conceptions of ,god's character and of his relations to man1 ,greek morality was in the main a lay or secular one4 ,aristotle1 who gave scientific form to ,greek ethics1 allowed hardly any place in the moral code to religious duties4 ,yet1 though the ,greek moral ideal was not based upon religion1 it was influenced by it2 for there cannot be an entire separation of religion and morality4 ,religious beliefs1 like beliefs of every other kind1 help to shape men's ideas of what is right and what is wrong in conduct4 ,the influence of the ,greek religion upon ,greek morality was not wholly favorable4 ,the attribution by the ,greeks of human frailties and vices to their gods tended to depress human morality1 since men are never better than their gods4 ,it is true that the moral character of the gods of any people is a creation of the moral consciousness of that people2 still1 after once called into existence and enthroned1 these divinities react upon their creators and shape in a greater or less degree the moral character of their worshipers4 ,but though there were elements in some of the ,greek cults1 particularly in those of ,dionysus#dcj and ,aphrodite in the later period1#dca that were harmful to morality1 still in general ,greek morality found in religion at once a restraining and a stimulating influence4 ,even as early as the ,homeric ,age religion had become a moral force4 ,it is the fear of the gods even more than the fear of men which is the motive force for rightdoing4#dcb ,odysseus' request of ,ilus of ,ephyra for poison with which to smear the points of his arrows is refused through fear of the divine anger1 and ,priam in praying ,achilles for the body of ,hector admonishes him to have reverence for the gods4 ,and throughout later times the gods are the guardians of morality4 ,they are the avengers of perjury4 ,they are the punishers of him who breaks the law of hospitality4 ,especially does ,zeus1 as the god of hospitality1 8take note of those who welcome and those who maltreat the stranger40#dcc ,the shrines of all the gods are places of refuge and sanctuary4 ,the suppliant at the altar is sacrosanct4 ,here the hand of the avenger of injury is stayed4 8,mercy10 says ,sophocles1 8shares the judgment seat of ,zeus40 ,as the god of the suppliant1 ,zeus not only protects but purifies and delivers4 ,thus were the high moral qualities of mercy and forgiveness thrown into relief1 and men1 while taught self-restraint1 were imbued with reverence for these attributes of character4 ,this high morality of the ,greek religion reached its culmination in the worship of the ,delphian ,apollo4 ,in truth1 the history of ,delphi is a large part of the history of ,greek morality4 ,it reflected from age to age the deepening moral perceptions of the race4 ,the oracle thus stood in close relation with the great teachers of ,greece4 ,the ethical impulse of ,pythagoreanism seems to have gone forth from ,delphi4 ,apollo gave a religious sanction to the emancipation of the slave1 and thus promoted social morality4 ,the slave given his freedom by his master at ,delphi became1 as a freedman1 sacrosanct4#dcd ,apollo stimulated also political morality4 ,through the ,delphic ,amphictyony his influence was exerted in mitigating the barbarities of war between ,greek and ,greek1 and in creating an ,hellenic fraternity4 ,thus through religion was the narrow sphere embraced by the ordinary moral feelings of the ,greeks broadened and brought to cover wide federations of cities and tribes4 ,greek religion also exercised a stimulating influence upon morality through the ,mysteries1 especially through those of ,eleusis4 ,the greater number of these religious fraternities had an ethical aim--8the aim of worshiping a pure god1 the aim of living a pure life1 and the aim of cultivating a spirit of brotherhood40#dce ,sidenote3 ,significance for ,greek morality of the absence of a priestly caste ,but the most noteworthy fact concerning ,greek religion in its relations to ,greek morality is this--that it was a religion practically without a priesthood4 ,for there never arose in ,greece a priestly class like that in ,egypt1 in ,persia1 in ,india1 and in ,judea4 ,this is a fact of supreme importance in the history of ,greek morals4 ,it prevented the growth of a theocratic morality1 with its artificial ritual duties and its conservative tendencies4 ,it is interesting to note that it was the early rise of philosophy in the ,greek cities of ,ionia that saved ,hellas from the domination of a sacerdotal caste4 ,for at the time this philosophy arose the ,orphic doctrines were overspreading ,greece4 ,now this was a priestly religion1 that is1 a religion interpreted and administered by priests4 ,its triumph in ,greece would have meant the establishment of a powerful national priesthood4 ,this misfortune was prevented by the intellectual and philosophical movement in ,ionia4 ,it is this fact which leads ,professor ,bury to pronounce the rise of the study of philosophy in the ,ionian cities one of the most important facts in the history of ,hellas2 for 8it meant the triumph of reason over mystery2 it led to the discrediting of the ,orphic movement2 it insured the free political and social progress of ,hellas40#dcf ,and all this meant the keeping of the ground clear for the upgrowth and development of an essentially lay or secular morality1 a morality that found its sanctions alone in the human reason and conscience4 ,sidenote3 ,the doctrine of race election2 ,hellenes and ,barbarians ,there was one conception common to both ,greek and ,jew which reacted powerfully upon the moral system of each4 ,this was what has been called the doctrine of race election4 ,the ,jews believed themselves to be the 8chosen people40 ,the ,greeks believed the same concerning themselves4 ,they were the intellectually elect people4 ,all other peoples were 8barbarians40 ,just as the ,jewish doctrine of election excluded the ,gentile world from the pale of ,jewish moral sympathies1 so did the ,greek doctrine of separateness cause the ,greek to shut out from his moral sympathies the entire non-,greek world4 ,we shall see a little further on how this race egotism dictated large sections of the ,greek code of morals4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,ideal ,sidenote3 ,patriotism the cardinal virtue2 civic and military duties ,as we have already noticed1 it was out of his relations as a citizen that the primary duties of the ,greek arose4 ,his supreme duty was patriotism1 devotion to his city4 8,good citizen0 and 8good man0 were interchangeable terms4 ,and since a state of war rather than of peace was the normal relation of the ,greek cities1 the military virtues held the highest place in the ideal of excellence4 8,their bodies10--thus ,thucydides makes one of his characters speak of the citizen soldiers of a typical ,greek city--8their bodies they devote to their country as though they belonged to other men40#dcg ,thus the preminent ,greek virtue1 courage1 was almost synonymous with valor in war4 ,to throw away one's shield was the last infamy with the ,greeks as with the ,romans4 ,this type of character1 blending the civic and the military virtues1 is presented to us with incomparable charm in ,plutarch's ,lives4 ,here we see the ideal in actual flesh and blood4 ,it is the altruistic element in this type of character which renders it so morally attractive4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,greek virtue of courage a form of our virtue of self-sacrifice ,for we should not fail to note that in the ,greek enumeration of the virtues1 the virtue of self-sacrifice1 which we give the first place in our own moral ideal1 is hidden under courage or fortitude4#dch ,with us this virtue expresses itself in a great variety of forms2 with the ,greeks1 in one form chiefly--self-devotion on the battlefield4 ,this altruism1 it is true1 was narrow2 it did not look beyond one's own city2 but notwithstanding this limitation it was genuine altruism1 for facing death in battle1 as ,aristotle says1 is 8the greatest and noblest of perils40#dci ,this ready self-devotion of the individual to the common interests of his city was the most attractive feature of ,greek morality4 ,it formed the basis of ,greek civilization4 ,when this virtue was lost the ,greek city perished1 and with it ,greek civilization passed away4 ,among all the cities of ,greece1 ,sparta realized most perfectly the military virtues of the ,greek ideal4 ,the great place so long held by her in the ancient world she won through the loyalty of her citizens to the soldier's ideal of obedience1 courage1 and self-devotion4 ,the conduct of ,leonidas and his companions in the pass of ,thermopyl not only had a bracing effect upon ,greek character for generations1 but has never ceased1 through the inspiration of example1 to add to the sum total in the world of loyalty to duty4 ,sidenote3 ,the virtues of temperance and justice ,to the virtue of self-sacrifice1 under the guise of fortitude1 or the facing of danger or the endurance of pain in a worthy cause1 the ,greeks added temperance1 justice1 and wisdom4 ,the ,greek virtue of temperance or moderation was essentially the same as our virtue of self-control or self-denial4 ,it meant measure in all things1 the avoidance of the too much and the too little4#ddj ,everything must be in fair proportion4 ,in building a house one should not go 8beyond bounds in size1 magnificence1 and expense40 ,in conduct likewise the mean must always be the aim4 ,restraint must be laid upon one's appetites and desires4 ,excessive ambition was a grave fault1 as was an undue lack of ambition4 ,the ,greek conception of justice was this3 ,do no wrong1 and suffer no wrong to self or to others--with the emphasis on the latter part of the injunction4#dda ,christianity shifted the emphasis to the first part of the commandment4 ,sidenote3 ,the virtue of wisdom2 mental self-culture a duty ,by the term 8wisdom0 the ,greeks covered very nearly what we mean by mental self-culture4 ,now there has been a wide divergence of opinion among different peoples respecting this matter4 ,primitive races can of course have no feeling of obligation as to intellectual self-culture2 but even a people as advanced in civilization as the ,romans may have little or no conscience concerning it4 ,throughout a great part of the medieval age in ,europe mental culture was looked upon with suspicion4 ,very few regarded it as a duty4 ,but since the ,renaissance1 that is1 since the rebirth in the ,european world of the ,greek spirit1 intellectual culture has been coming to be regarded more and more as an urgent and imperious duty4 ,it is to the ancient ,greeks1 as implied in what we have just said1 that we are largely indebted for this ethical feeling4 ,to the truly representative ,greek the ethical imperative to seek self-realization called especially for the development of the mind1 8his true self40 ,mere intellectual curiosity1 love of knowledge for its own sake1 was1 it is true1 one of the creative forces of ,greek intellectualism2 but the ethical motive was ever near4 ,in the ,socratic philosophy indeed it is made the dominant motive for the reason that virtuous conduct is by ,socrates held to be dependent upon knowledge1 the knowledge of things as they really are1 things human and divine4 ,with the philosopher the gaining of this knowledge is the aim and end of life4 ,sidenote3 ,the development of the body a duty2 the ethical element in ,greek athleticism ,asceticism1 a chief characteristic of which is the conception that there is something meritorious in the illtreatment or neglect of the body1 is one of the most striking phenomena in the moral history of mankind4 ,the ,oriental peoples especially have ever been easily persuaded1 under the influence of religious ideas1 that the body should be illtreated in the interest of the spirit4 ,in passing from ,asia to ,greece we seem to enter a new ethical atmosphere4 ,we leave behind every trace of asceticism4 ,we are no longer surrounded by unkempt1 gaunt1 hollow-eyed fakirs1 anchorites1 and monks4 ,in ,greek thought1 as we have seen1 there was no trace of that ,oriental idea of a warring between body and spirit4 ,this happy consciousness of the ,greek of harmony in his own being had most important consequences for ,greek morality4 ,it made the development of the body1 equally with that of the soul1 an ethical requirement4 ,the outcome was ,greek athleticism1 one of the most attractive phases of ,hellenic civilization4 ,we do not mean to say that moral feeling was to the same degree active in calling into existence ,greek athleticism that religious-ethical feeling was active in the creation of ,oriental asceticism1 but simply that the ethical motive held a place among the various motives and sentiments at work4 ,without this motive the ,olympian games and the other sacred festivals into which athletic exercises and competitions entered1 would never have won the place they held in ,greek life and culture4 ,when in later times these festivals1 subjected to commercial and mercenary influences1 lost wholly or in part this religious-ethical element1 then they lost also their distinctive character1 and that morally wholesome and uplifting influence which they had exercised upon the ,greek world throughout the best days of ,hellas4 ,sidenote3 ,identification of moral goodness with beauty ,just as the cultured ,greek brought the intellectual domain of life within the province of morals1 so likewise did he with the sthetic4 ,it was not merely his sthetic sense which was offended by ugliness in form1 but also his moral sense4 ,to the ,greek mind1 to love beauty1 sensuous and spiritual1 and to be beautiful was synonymous with being good4 8,he who is beautiful to look upon10 says ,sappho1 8is good2 and who is good will soon be beautiful40#ddb 8,the beautiful10 comments ,wuttke in speaking of this phase of ,greek ethics1 8is per se the good2 in enjoying and creating the beautiful man is moral40#ddc 8,the #8good' and the #8beautiful'0--thus ,g4 ,lowes ,dickinson sums up the ,greek view--8were one and the same thing2 that is the first and the last word of the ,greek ideal40#ddd ,this identification by the ,greeks of goodness with beauty is one of the most important matters in ,greek ethics4 ,for the conception was not with them an inert thing4 ,greek civilization in all its phases was in a great measure the expression of this conviction4 ,the ,greeks filled the world with beautiful things because to create beauty was with them an ethical as well as an sthetic impulse and necessity4 ,they felt the holiness of beauty4 ,sidenote3 ,live according to nature sums up all moral requirements ,all the particular requirements of ,greek morality1 some of the most important of which we have now briefly commented upon1 are summed up in the formula1 ,live conformably to nature4 ,the idea here embodied of what constitutes man's full duty springs naturally from the doctrine that man's nature is essentially good4 ,if that nature be good1 then virtuousness will consist in the well-rounded symmetrical development of all the capacities of body and mind4 ,pindar's profound injunction1 8,be what you are10 embodies the essence of the teachings of the ,greek moralists4 ,they taught that man fulfills his destiny by becoming what he is in his innermost being--by complete self-realization4#dde ,,iii4 ,,limitations ,,and ,,defects ,,of ,,the ,,ideal ,sidenote3 ,its aristocratic character ,a chief defect of ,greek ethics was its aristocratic spirit4 ,so many were the classes excluded in whole or in part from the moral field that ,greek morality was almost as much a class morality as that of ,brahmanic ,india4 ,entire races and classes were as completely outside the moral pale as is the ,indian pariah4 ,it was only the higher cultured classes of citizens who1 the moral philosophers taught1 were capable of attaining the noblest virtues and living the truly moral life4 ,all others were regarded as living on a semimoral or nonmoral animal plane of existence4 ,sidenote3 ,the exclusion of non-,greek races from the moral sphere ,thus throughout a great part of the historic period the ,greeks virtually excluded all non-,greek peoples from the moral domain4#ddf ,they regarded these non-,hellenic folk about as we regard animals1 or as many a few generations ago looked upon the black race4 ,they thought it right for them to make unprovoked war upon such people and to make slaves of those they might capture4 ,aristotle taught that to hunt barbarians for the purpose of getting slaves was just as right and proper as to hunt animals for food or sacrifice4#ddg ,in a word1 non-,greeks were regarded as being practically outside the pale of humanity4 ,sidenote3 ,the exclusion of slaves ,the moral status of the slave in ancient ,greece was determined by the fact that slaves were usually barbarians4#ddh ,since as non-,greeks they were already outside the moral pale1 it followed naturally that as slaves they had no standing in the court of morals4 ,their status was almost the same as that of domestic animals4 ,the ,greek master never felt that he owed any moral duties to his slaves1 though kind and merciful treatment of them was enjoined by the philosophers and moralists4 ,according to ,aristotle1 the relation of slave and master is a purely natural one1 like that of body and soul4 ,he calls slaves 8living instruments40 ,sidenote3 ,the exclusion of the domestic sphere ,out of the family relationships arise a large part of the duties making up the moral code of the modern ,western world1 while in the atmosphere of the domestic circle are nourished many of what we regard as the most sacred and attractive of the virtues4 ,now these family virtues1 which we esteem so highly1 found only a very subordinate place in the ,greek ideal of character1 for the reason that the family1 like the clan and the tribe1 was almost absorbed by the city4 ,in ,sparta the family and family life practically disappeared4 ,in ,plato's ideal republic the family is sacrificed to the state4 ,the status of the wife in most of the ,greek cities was a low one4 ,she was practically one of the slaves4 ,ethical sentiment1 as was true of the sentiment of romantic love1 seems to have been almost wholly lacking in the marriage relation4 ,infancy1 in its earliest stages1 was in general never brought beneath the protecting gis of the moral sentiment4#ddi ,in the practice of the exposure of ill-formed1 weak1 defective1 or unpromising newborn infants the ,greeks1 like the ,romans1 never advanced much beyond the standpoint of barbarians4 ,this abandonment or destruction by parents of their offspring did not offend the common conscience4 ,even the philosophers and moralists saw nothing in the practice to censure4 ,evidence of how general the custom was1 is afforded by various tales and dramas which turn on the rescue of the hero in his infancy after having been cast out to die4#dej ,the story of ,king dipus is typical4#dea ,in this connection a word must be said regarding chastity4 ,we find here one of the most serious defects of ,greek morality4 ,the virtue of chastity was given a very low place1 hardly any place at all1 in the ,greek ideal of character4 ,it was the undervaluing of this virtue that without doubt was one of the contributing causes of the decline and early decay of ,greek civilization4 ,another equally grave defect in the ,greek moral character was lack of respect for the aged4 ,save at ,sparta and ,athens1 age was not reverenced in ancient ,greece4#deb ,in this respect the ,greeks stood almost on a level with most primitive races4 ,sidenote3 ,the disesteem of industrial virtues ,a marked characteristic of ,greek ethical feeling was a deep prejudice against manual and commercial occupations as unworthy of freemen4 ,aristotle taught that there was 8no room for moral excellence0 in the trades and employments of artisans1 traders1 and laborers4#dec ,even artists like ,phidias and ,polyclitus were looked upon as 8miserable handicraftsmen40#ded ,plato in his ,laws says3 8,he who in any way shares in the illiberality of retail trade may be indicted by any one who likes for dishonoring his race1 before those who are judged to be first in virtue2 and if he appear to throw dirt upon his father's house1--by an unworthy occupation1--let him be imprisoned for a year and abstain from that sort of thing40#dee ,in some cities the person who engaged in trade was disqualified for citizenship1 and in others no mechanic or field laborer could enter the place where the freemen met4 ,this feeling that labor is degrading came in after the ,homeric ,age1 with the rule of the oligarchs1 and was the natural and inevitable outcome of slavery4 ,the effect of slavery is to make work seem ignoble and servile1 and to cause the industrial virtues to assume a low place in the moral ideal1 or to drop out of it entirely4 ,the high place assigned the industrial virtues in the moral ideals of ancient ,persia and ,israel was due probably as largely to the subordinate place which slavery held in those countries as to the influence of religious doctrines and physical environment4 ,another ground for the feeling was that hard1 coarse work destroys the suppleness and mars the beauty and symmetry of the body2 and this to the ,greek way of thinking was sufficient reason why the freeman--to use ,plato's phrase--8should abstain from that sort of thing40 ,still another reason for the feeling that the retail trades were unworthy of citizens was the conviction that this kind of business had 8a strong tendency to make men bad40 ,the small merchants and traders in ,greece certainly bore a very bad reputation1#def and it is probable that the public disesteem of their occupation and the contempt in which they themselves were held had the same sinister influence upon them that the similar feeling in ,old ,japan had upon the petty trader there4#deg ,sidenote3 ,revenge reckoned as a virtue ,in nothing did the ordinary ,greek moral consciousness differ more widely from the ,christian than in the matter of forgiving injuries4 ,this was one of the virtues brought in by ,christianity which to the ,greek mind was foolishness4 ,to the ,greek the taking of revenge upon an enemy was a duty4 ,a man should render himself useful to his friends and dangerous to his enemies4 ,the ,greek orator1 in order to justify his resentment toward any one1 always took pains to show that he had been injured in some way by the person1 and hence had good ground for wishing to do him evil4 ,indeed1 one who neglected to take revenge upon his personal enemy was looked upon as a weak1 pusillanimous creature4#deh ,but out of this virtue of revenge1 paradoxically enough1 arose the virtue of forgiveness2 for revenge was limited by the requirements of the virtue of moderation or self-restraint4 ,the person seeking revenge for an injury must set reasonable bounds to his thirst for vengeance4 ,hence when the age of reflection came there were teachers of spiritual insight who1 regarding the matter from this point of view1 saw forgiveness to be a virtue because it required in the one forgiving great self-conquest and self-control4#dei ,sidenote3 ,low estimation of truthfulness ,another serious defect in the ordinary ,greek moral standard was the low place assigned to the virtue of veracity4 ,the ,greeks1 in marked contrast to the ancient ,persians1 had only a very feeble sense of the sanctity of the plighted word4 ,untruthfulness was ingrained in the nation4 ,the ,homeric heroes were full of guile and deceit1 and the historic ,greeks were little better4 ,they had throughout the ancient world a well-earned reputation for disregard of promises and oaths4 ,when it seemed to them necessary to lie in order to gain a desired end1 then lying appeared to them justifiable4 ,scythas1 tyrant of ,zancle1 if we may judge from a story told by ,herodotus1 was the only ,greek who kept his word to ,darius4 ,this man was in exile at ,susa4 ,he obtained from the king permission1 presumably on parole1 to visit ,sicily1 and honorably returned to ,persia4 ,the conduct of ,scythas in this matter must have been exceptional1 for1 in the words of ,herodotus1 8him ,darius regarded the most upright of all the ,greeks to whom he afforded a refuge40#dfj ,the great moral teachers of ,greece recognized this defect in the moral character of their countrymen and sought to correct it by extolling the virtue of truthfulness4 ,after the ,persian war a class of men arose1 historians and philosophers1 whom ,schmidt1 because of their reverence for truth1 calls the ancestors of the modern men of science4#dfa ,thucydides had the same sense of the sanctity of exactness in statement of fact as has the historian of to-day4 ,socrates died rather than cloak the truth before his judges4 ,aristotle said1 8,friends and truth are both dear to us1 but it is a sacred duty to prefer the truth40#dfb ,,iv4 ,,the ,,moral ,,evolution ,sidenote3 ,the morality of the ,homeric ,age ,the historical starting point of the moral evolution in ,greece is the morality of the ,homeric ,age4 ,this morality we find incarnated in the heroes of the time1 ,achilles and ,odysseus1 for1 as ,wundt observes1 8the inmost moral convictions of a people are shown far more plainly in the character of its heroes than in its gods40#dfc ,the qualities of character with which1 as worthy of admiration1 the poet invests his heroes show that1 notwithstanding the great advance already achieved in many of the arts of life1 in morality the ,greeks of this age were still in some respects on a level with savages4 ,thus the poet extols the 8good ,autolycus0 for his skill in thievery and perjury4#dfd ,but stealing and lying1 as with uncivilized people generally1 to be proper and right1 must be adroit and 8for the good of friends and the harm of enemies40 ,piracy was an honorable occupation4#dfe ,the bodies of enemies slain in battle were maltreated1 as is the wont of savages4#dff ,conceptions of deity were crude and unethical1 the gods being represented as capricious1 profligate1 partial1 and unjust4 ,but there was a sound core in this morality4 ,clan virtues were firmly inwrought in character4 ,the virtue of loyalty to comrades was strong2 the ethical qualities of courage and self-devotion for the common good1 and of hospitality to strangers were well developed2 and the domestic virtues of chastity and constancy in woman are portrayed in such a way as to show that1 if not common1 they were at least held in high esteem and reverence4 ,sidenote3 ,reprobation by the philosophers and later poets of the ,homeric tales of the gods ,from the ,homeric ,age onward there was a progressive purification of the moral feelings4 ,one evidence of this ethical progress is found in the repudiation by the later moral consciousness of the primitive myths of the gods4 ,these tales1 as we have just noted1 were coarse1 sensual1 and immoral4 ,the philosophers of the sixth and following centuries1 and the poets of this later time1 denounced these stories as unworthy and unethical conceptions of deity4 ,pythagoras is said1 upon his return from ,hades1 to have reported seeing there the souls of ,homer and ,hesiod undergoing punishment for what they had said of the gods4 ,pindar purges the tales of their grosser immoral elements4 ,others sought to relieve the poets of the charge of impiety by reading the myths as allegories4 ,the ,sophists and ,stoics moralized them1 giving them an ethical aim and purpose4#dfg ,plato1 in reprobating what ,hesiod says of ,uranus1 declared it 8the greatest of all lies in high places40 ,he would strike out from the poets all passages in which they told these lies about the gods and heroes1 before allowing the boys and men to read them4#dfh ,in the hands of the later ,attic tragedians the whole traditionary religious mythology was spiritualized and given a deeper ethical content and meaning4 ,this purifying of the ,greek moral consciousness finds an exact parallel in what is taking place in the modern ,christian world respecting the conceptions of deity found in the early chronicles of the ,hebrew ,bible and transmitted as a religious bequest to the ,european peoples4 ,these ideas of ,god are rejected by the truer moral consciousness of to-day as the crude notions of a gross and morally immature age4 ,just as this modern rejection of these unworthy primitive conceptions of the divine character register our own moral advance1 so does the rejection1 by the later ,greek thinkers and teachers1 of the ,homeric and ,hesiodic conceptions of the gods register the advance in ethical thought in ,greece during the interval that separates the era of these poets from the ,solonian and ,platonic ,ages4 ,sidenote3 ,ethical significance of the transition from the continuance to the retribution theory ,in an earlier chapter we spoke of the continuance theory of life after death1 and of the retribution theory as marking an advance upon this in ethical feeling4#dfi ,at the opening of the historical period in ,greece we find the primitive unethical continuance theory in existence1 but in a state of transition into the retribution theory4 ,the early ,greek ,hades1 like the ,babylonian ,arallu and the ,hebrew ,sheol1 was a place where moral distinctions were not recognized4 ,the same phantom life was the lot of all alike who went down to the world of shadows4 ,the ,elysian ,fields1 it is true1 had already been created1 but these were simply a sort of aristocratic heaven1 a 8,greek ,valhalla10 the abode of the great heroes of the race2#dgj and ,tartarus also had been called into existence1 but this was a prison house only for those who had incurred the special enmity of the gods4 ,the fables of ,tantalus1 ,ixion1 and the ,danades show that the belief in an after life had no ethical significance for the masses4#dga ,but already in ,pindar these ideas of the after life1 through virtue of an ethical necessity1 have undergone great changes4#dgb ,just as the poet moralizes the ,homeric conception of the gods1 so does he moralize the ,homeric conception of the underworld4 ,alongside the continuance theory we find now the retribution theory4 ,the life beyond the grave is conceived as a life of rewards and punishments4 ,the ,elysian ,fields have been 8opened to moral worth10 and a tribunal1 called into existence by a growing moral consciousness like that which created the ,egyptian ,judgment of the ,dead1 has been set up1 and ,rhadamanthus apportions the destiny of souls according to their merit and demerit4#dgc ,from the ,persian war on1 the life after death had ethical significance for all men1 and not simply for exceptional cases4 ,in the literature there are allusions in growing numbers to the retribution awaiting the wicked and the blessedness in store for those 8unstained with vice40 ,in ,plato this moral evolution attains a stage almost identical with that reached by medieval ,christian ethics4 ,we find in the ,republic a threefold division of the realm of the dead corresponding closely to the ,schoolmen's purgatory1 heaven1 and hell4#dgd ,punishment is conceived as having for aim and end1 in all save cases of abominable and incurable wickedness1 the purification of earth-stained souls4 ,all these modifications in the topography1 the classifications1 and the arrangements of the underworld1 like the similar changes effected by the modern spirit in the medieval conception of hell1 were the work of a gradually clarifying moral sense1 and bear witness to the progressive development of ,greek ethical thought between the ,homeric and the ,alexandrian ,age4 ,sidenote3 ,the evolution of the doctrine of divine envy into that of ,nemesis ,the early ,greeks held a doctrine known as the ,envy of the ,gods4 ,they imagined that the gods were envious of the great and prosperous4 ,hence they thought it was the envy of the gods which brought about the undoing of the great and powerful4 ,their prayer for a friend enjoying an unusual run of good fortune was1 8,may the gods not become envious40 ,we find this doctrine embodied in the ,herodotean story of ,crsus1 king of ,lydia1 whose long career of unbroken and dazzling prosperity ends at last in dreadful reverses and sudden downfall4#dge ,the same belief colors the advice which ,herodotus represents ,artabanus1 the uncle of ,xerxes1 as giving the king1 who was meditating an attack on the ,greek cities4 ,the immoderate ambition of the king1 in view of the envious nature of the gods1 had awakened the apprehension of the old and experienced counselor1 and he labored to dissuade the king from engaging in so vast a project4 8,dost thou not notice10 said he1 8how the lightning smites always the highest buildings and the tallest trees4 ,thus often the mighty host is overthrown by lightning sent by the jealous gods2 for the gods are jealous of mortals1 and will allow no one unduly to exalt himself40#dgf ,there is here no suggestion of an ethical element4 ,the envious gods overthrow things simply and solely because they are big and tall and cast them into the shade4 ,at a still later period the ,athenian general ,nicias gives memorable expression to this belief in his speech to his disheartened troops before ,syracuse4 ,he bade them take cheer from their wretched plight because the envious gods must certainly be disarmed by the sight of their woeful condition and would now pity and help4#dgg ,but alongside this unethical doctrine of the ,envy of the ,gods the ,greeks held another1 which seems to have been simply a modification and outgrowth of the earlier crude conception of deity4 ,this was the doctrine of ,nemesis4 ,there was here full recognition of the vicissitudes of human life4 ,the great and the overpowerful are indeed destroyed by the gods1--there was no denying the fact1--but not merely because they are great1 but because their greatness and their prosperity has made them self-confident1 insolent1 overbearing4 ,in their blind arrogance they have overstepped the limits of moderation2 hence their downfall wrought by the gods4 ,it was under the spell of this belief that ,herodotus wrote his history of the ,persian wars1 although1 as we have seen1 he loved to rehearse stories which illustrated the doctrine of the envious nature of the gods4 ,his narrative is in truth a great historical drama illustrating the moral order of the world and teaching the impressive lesson of how the gods punish presumptuous pride and overvaulting ambition4 ,the historian prepares his pious readers for the final catastrophe by showing in vivid portrayal the transactions at the ,hellespont4 ,the swift current of the strait has broken the bridge of boats laid upon the waters by ,xerxes4 ,the all-powerful and audacious king orders that the sacred ,hellespont be scourged with three hundred lashes1 that fetters be cast into the rebellious waters1 and that they be branded as a slave is marked with branding irons4 ,all this is done1 and the treacherous waters are cursed with blasphemous words4 ,now follows quickly the tragic issue at ,salamis of the vast undertaking1 and the return passage of the ,hellespont a few months later by the humbled and fugitive king4 ,all this is the work of ,nemesis1 the punisher of those who have lifted up their hearts in insufferable pride and arrogance4 ,it is not alone in the dramatized history of ,herodotus that we are able to trace the moral effects of the ,persian wars in bringing into the foreground of the ,greek consciousness the conception of ,nemesis as the vindicator of the moral government of the world4 8,after the battle of ,salamis10 in the words of the historian ,abbott1 8the instability of human greatness and the punishment of #8insolence' echoes as an undertone through all ,greek thought40#dgh ,this deepened moral feeling of the nation found expression both in art and in the drama4 ,the order given by the ,athenians to ,phidias to carve a statue of ,nemesis as a memorial of the war was a sanction of that interpretation of the ,persian overthrow which made it the work of the avenging goddess4 ,but the fullest expression of this new ethical sentiment is found in ,athenian tragedy4#dgi schylus was the representative of this moral awakening and advance4 ,the doctrine of ,nemesis colors all his dramas4 ,he was the first to give to the legend of ,niobe1 originally merely a tale of the envy of ,apollo1 an ethical meaning as an instance of 8retribution for presumptuous sin40#dhj ,his imperishable tragedy ,prometheus ,bound makes the sufferings of the ,titan to be but the just penalty of his presumption and self-will4 ,his ,agamemnon depicts with tragic intensity the awful vengeance with which the implacable goddess punishes unnatural crime4 ,his ,persians teaches how ,nemesis humbles insolent pride and 8,zeus tames excessive lifting up of heart40 ,in the later ,thucydides we meet with the same teaching concerning the moral government of the world4 ,in a memorable passage of his ,history of the ,peloponnesian ,war the historian becomes the moralist and gives his reader a tragic illustration of the workings of the law of ,nemesis4 ,thucydides is approaching the chapter in his history which depicts the terrible catastrophe which befell the ,athenians in ,sicily4 ,he skillfully foreshadows the coming tragedy by preluding his narrative of the ,sicilian ,expedition with an account of the arrogant and wicked conduct of the ,athenians in driving the ,melians from their island home and adding the stolen land to their own empire4#dha ,this high-handed crime1 like the impiety of the presumptuous ,mede at the ,hellespont1 arouses the avenging ,nemesis4 ,the reader forecasts the future1 and in the cruel fate of the ,melians reads the doom of the ,athenian army before ,syracuse4 ,this moralizing of the primitive unethical conception of the gods as envious and unjust1 and the evolving therefrom of the morally advanced doctrine of ,nemesis1 is an instructive illustration of how1 as time passed1 ,greek ethical feeling was deepened and ,greek ethical thought was purified and elevated through intellectual progress and the teachings of experience4#dhb ,sidenote3 ,further moralization of the doctrine of ,nemesis ,there was a still further evolution of ,greek ethical thought along the line traced above4 ,the mutations and tragedies of life1--terrible reverses of fortune1 sudden loss of reputation and friends1 irremediable ruin following great prosperity1--these things are by a truer moral insight recognized as the sign neither of the envy nor of the righteous anger of the gods1 but of the divine pity and love4#dhc 8,the wholesomeness of punishment for the wrongdoer himself is the crown of schylean ethics40#dhd ,phidias taught the same lofty truth through carving the myth of ,prometheus ,unbound on the throne of his ,olympian ,zeus4 ,it spoke1 as no other scene wrought there1 of the moral significance of suffering1 of divine mercy and deliverance4#dhe ,and ,plato's philosophy accords with the schylean teaching that 8,zeus has put in suffering sovereign instruction40 8,then this must be our notion of the just man10 he says1 8that even when he is in poverty or sickness or any other seeming misfortune1 all things will in the end work together for good to him in life and death40#dhf ,in this ethical interpretation of the vicissitudes of human life1 of the miscarriage of ambitious plans1 the wrecking of high hopes1 the ,greek thinkers reached at last the same elevated point of view that was attained by the great prophets of the ,hebrew race4#dhg ,sidenote3 ,the amelioration of war rules and practices ,in the ethics of war a similar though less marked development in moral feeling is traceable4 ,aside from the relapse into the practices of savagery under the malign influence of the ,peloponnesian ,war1 there was throughout ,greek history a slow but steady amelioration of the primitive barbarities of warfare4 ,in the ,homeric ,age moral feeling had hardly begun to exercise its influence in humanizing war and in setting limits to the rights of the conqueror4 ,the ,greeks of ,homer were in some respects almost on the level of savages in their war practices4 ,the life of the captive was in the hands of his captor1 and he might be slain without offense to the common conscience4 ,women and children were1 as a matter of course1 appropriated by the conqueror or sold into slavery4 ,homer relates as something to be gloried in1 how his hero ,achilles dragged the body of ,hector around the walls of ,troy4 ,such an act of savagery evidently stirred in the poet's listeners no feelings of reprobation4#dhh ,in the historical period the mitigation of the barbarities of war was1 after the protection of the sanctuary of ,apollo at ,delphi1 a chief object of the celebrated ,amphictyonic ,league4 ,the oath taken by the members of the league included the following engagement3 8,we will not destroy any ,amphictyonic town1 nor cut it off from running water1 in war or in peace40 ,this was one of the most noteworthy efforts in antiquity to lay restraint upon the primitive license of war4 ,limits are set to the rights of the conqueror4 ,war begins to have rules4 ,from the words which ,thucydides puts into the mouth of the ,platans at the beginning of the ,peloponnesian ,war1 we gather that at that time the common sentiment of ,hellas condemned the slaughter of prisoners of war4#dhi ,at ,athens this sentiment had found embodiment in the laws1 which forbade the slaying of war captives4 ,but under the demoralizing influences of the long and bitter struggle between ,sparta and ,athens1 the little gain which had been made in the humanizing of war during the preceding centuries was lost4 ,prisoners of war were sold into slavery or killed without the least offense being given to the numbed conscience of ,hellas4#dij ,even the terrible massacre1 toward the end of the war1 of the four thousand ,athenian prisoners at gospotami1 by the ,spartan ,lysander1 awakened no protest in ,greece at large4#dia ,never has 8the moral damage of war0 had a more tragic illustration4#dib ,during the century following the ,peloponnesian ,war1 however1 there seems to have been a positive advance in this domain4 ,in this period the grosser atrocities of war were in a measure mitigated by a growing humanitarian sentiment4 ,but all efforts to humanize war seem to have been limited to wars between ,greek and ,greek4 ,from first to last in ,greek history war against barbarians was waged practically without the least mitigation of its primitive barbarities4 ,it was the practice of ,alexander the ,great in his campaigns in ,asia to massacre the men of non-,greek cities taken by assault1 and to sell the women and children as slaves4 ,we hear no protest1 even on the part of the philosophers1 against these atrocities so long as it is non-,greeks who are the victims of them4 ,but though the efforts of the ,greeks to regulate and limit the rights of the conqueror were confined to wars of ,greek against ,greek1 still these efforts are significant as a sign of an awakening ethical sentiment in this domain4 ,this is a prophecy of a future day1 distant though it be1 when the growing conscience of mankind shall have rendered wars between civilized nations an impossible crime4 ,sidenote3 ,efforts to prevent war by arbitration ,the common ,greek conscience never condemned war in itself4 ,there never sprang up in ,greece an agitation like the ,peace ,movement of to-day in ,christendom4 ,how deeply ingrained in the ,greek mind was the conviction that war is a part of the established order of things is shown by the fact that their treaties ending open hostilities were ordinarily drawn for a limited term of years4 ,they were merely truces1 as though peace were only an incident in international relations4 ,even the philosophers regarded a state of war as the normal and natural relation of ,hellenes and barbarians4 ,aristotle1 as we have seen1 taught that barbarians might1 without moral scruple1 be hunted like wild animals4#dic ,plato had no word of condemnation of war by ,greek against non-,greek4 ,but the ,greeks had an uneasy feeling respecting the rightfulness of war between ,greek and ,greek2 and there came a time when the best-instructed conscience of ,greece positively denounced wars of this kind4 ,plato condemned wars between ,hellenes and ,hellenes as unnatural4#did ,this feeling had a kind of restraining influence upon the ,greek cities1 and there are many instances of arbitration in ,greek history4 ,sometimes a single person of eminence acted as mediator2 but oftener some city or league like the ,delphian ,amphictyony was chosen as the arbitrator4 ,in the ,hellenistic ,age the ,roman ,senate frequently undertook the commission of arbitrating quarrels4 ,the cities concerned were sometimes bound by oath or by a deposit of money to abide by the decision4 ,oftener1 however1 the decisions rendered1 like those by the ,hague ,tribunal of to-day1 depended for their execution upon the good will and honor of the states concerned4 ,there are instances recorded where one or both of the parties refused to abide by the judgment of the arbitrator4#die ,various motives1 it is true1 were at work in these arbitration treaties1 but the ethical motive was certainly operative to a greater or less degree4 ,there was not lacking the feeling1 vague though it may have been1 which was later given explicit expression by ,plato1 that war between ,greek and ,greek was wrong and a crime against ,hellenic civilization4 ,but the most interesting and instructive of all the measures taken by the ,greeks to limit wars among themselves or to fence them away from a given district was the consecration1 by common consent and agreement1 of the land of ,elis--wherein was situated the sacred ,olympia--to perpetual peace and the establishment of a truce of forty days1 embracing the festival period of the ,olympian games1 during which it was sacrilegious for one ,greek city to make war upon another4 ,with true vision the philosopher-historian ,laurent sees in the little land of ,elis1 inviolable as a temple1 a prophecy of the time when the whole earth shall be consecrated to perpetual peace--an ideal toward which humanity unceasingly advances4#dif ,sidenote3 ,socrates and his relation to the moral movement ,from no other personage in history1 aside from the founders of universal religions1 has there flowed such a stream of moral influence as issued from the life and teachings of ,socrates1 the son of ,sophroniscus4 ,all the chief ethical systems of the ,greco-,roman world were the development of germs found in his doctrines4 ,the ,cyrenaic and ,eleatic1 the ,cynic1 ,stoic1 and ,epicurean1 the ,platonic1 ,neoplatonic1 and ,aristotelian systems had their sources here4 ,the ,stoic and ,neoplatonic systems contributed important elements to early ,christian ethics1 while the ,aristotelian system exercised a profound influence upon the scholastic ethics of medieval times4 ,in the contribution which these various systems1 especially the ,stoic1 have made to the world's common fund of ethical thought and feeling is found in large part the measure of the ethical debt which modern civilization owes to ,hellenism4 ,socrates' aim was to replace the artificial conventional conscience of his contemporaries by a natural rational conscience2 in other words1 to replace customary communal morality by reflective individual morality4#dig ,his fundamental doctrine was that virtue is dependent upon knowledge2 indeed he almost or quite made knowledge and virtue one and the same thing4 ,he maintained that one can no more see the right without doing it than one can see a proposition to be true without believing it4 ,therefore without knowledge--insight--there can be no true virtue4#dih ,but clearness of vision requires the purification of the intellect1 the getting rid of all false intellectual and moral notions2 hence the aim and purpose of ,socrates' unique method of cross-examination was to show his interlocutor the baseless and mutually contradictory character of his inherited chance-acquired ideas and beliefs1 and to bring him to that self-knowledge which is the beginning of real knowledge4#dii ,this practical identification by ,socrates of knowledge and virtue1 this doctrine of his that it is impossible that one should not will to do that which he sees to be good and right1 overlooks the saddest and yet most certain fact of human experience1 namely1 that perversity of the human will which causes man though seeing the good to choose the evil4 ,but it is a theory of human nature which1 in the case of such happily constituted souls as ,socrates1 in whom the authority of conscience is sacrosanct and inviolable1 is nearly or quite accordant with fact4 ,with such persons to see an act to be right is to do it4 ,with them dissonance between knowledge and volition is a moral impossibility4 ,right here1 however1 a just criticism may be made of the ,socratic philosophy4 ,it is true that without self-knowledge1 without the fulfilling of the ,delphian requirement1 8,know thyself10 one cannot be truly moral4 ,but neither ,socrates nor the ,greek philosophers in general recognized that this self-knowledge comes through right living rather than through right thinking4 ,as ,goethe discerningly observes1 man comes to know himself not through reflection but through conduct3 8,do your duty and thou wilt know what thou art40#ejj ,and for the common moral life of the world there is a profound teaching in this ,socratic doctrine which makes knowledge the spring of virtue4#eja ,there is in knowledge1 in insight1 in the clear recognition of the relation of man's highest good to virtue1 an impelling force and authority4 ,as the world advances in true knowledge1 it will advance in true morality4 ,the ,renaissance is ever the precursor of the ,reformation4 ,it is this fact which should make optimists of us all1 for the unceasing advance of the world in knowledge is well assured4 ,in the ethical system of ,socrates we have a good illustration of the truth that great men are the product of their age4 ,with all his originality and profound spiritual insight1 ,socrates could not and did not rise much above the plane of the common moral consciousness of his contemporaries4 ,he stood on essentially ,greek ground4 ,his morality was the morality of his time and place4 ,in his practical code of morals he made the ,greek virtue of self-control or moderation a cardinal virtue2 he laid the ,greek emphasis upon the civic virtues1 dying rather than disobey or evade the decree of his city2 he entertained the common ,greek ideas respecting the family and the domestic virtues2 he saw nothing to disapprove in the life of the hetra2 he viewed the beautiful from a standpoint wholly ,greek1 almost identifying beauty with goodness2 he was thoroughly ,greek in the aristocratic tendency of his ethical teachings1 making the practice of true virtue the prerogative of the cultured class alone2 he had the ordinary ,greek conscience in regard to slavery2 and he never detached himself from that narrow ,greek prejudice which saw in the ,hellenes the elect race4 ,he never proclaimed1 as did many a later ,greek and ,roman moralist1 the essential unity of the human race4 ,sidenote3 ,plato and his ethical system ,socrates made virtue and man's moral nature the subject of philosophic reflection4 ,his pupil1 ,plato1 systematized his master's teachings1 and1 reducing these and the common ethical notions of his time to scientific form laid the basis of the science of ethics4 ,plato agreed with ,socrates in teaching that to know the good is necessarily to seek it4 ,he accordingly makes wisdom the first of the virtues1 by wisdom meaning insight1 the clear recognition of what constitutes the highest good4 ,issuing from this primary virtue of wisdom1 like a stream from a fountain1 are the virtues of courage1 temperance1 and justice4 ,from wisdom comes courage1 for perfect knowledge of good and evil casts out fear2 and moderation1 for knowledge of higher and lower1 of the penalty that awaits all excess1 leads to prudence and self-control2 and justice1 for knowledge of one's relations to one's fellows creates consideration for the rights of others4 ,plato here simply systematizes and reduces to scientific form those various virtues which the common ,greek conscience recognized as constituting moral excellence4 ,particularly noteworthy is ,plato's doctrine that virtue in the state is the same as virtue in the individual4 ,there is need of emphasis being laid anew upon this teaching at the present time1 when the disciples of ,machiavelli would give fresh vogue to the doctrine of a double standard of morality1 one for the individual and another for the state4 ,the modern world might well sit at ,plato's feet and learn that virtue is ever one and the same1 and that the moral law can no more be traversed with impunity by a nation than by a single individual4 ,in many of his ethical teachings ,plato anticipated and deeply influenced ,christian doctrines4 ,he has been called the precursor of the ,fathers of the ,church4 8,his ideas on virtue10 as ,denis observes1 8take us far from ,greece and antiquity2 they seem addressed rather to the saints and anchorites than to the citizens of ,sparta and ,athens40#ejb ,his doctrines that the way of approach to ,god is through contemplation2 that withdrawal from the turmoil of public life is a furtherance of the true life2 that the body is a 8prison house0 of the soul2 that the soul is immortal and that there awaits it in the after life recompense for deeds done in the flesh2 that expiation for sin is an ethical necessity2 that punishment is not a deterrent and restraint but a remedy that restores to health the sin-diseased soul#ejc--;all these ideas and principles were in exact accord with the ,christian moral consciousness1 and through ,st4 ,augustine and other ,fathers of the ,church came to enrich and renforce the ethical system of the monastic and the papal ,church of the medieval age4 ,perhaps what is the most admirable of ,plato's teachings is embodied in this petition3 8,and may ,i1 being of sound mind1 do to others as ,i would that they should do to me40#ejd ,the significance of this lies in the fact that it is a prayer1 and that the petitioner asks that he may be of sound mind when he reflects on what he would like to have others do to him4 ,yet notwithstanding the loftiness and nobility of much of ,plato's ethical thought1 still1 like ,socrates1 he stood almost wholly on ,greek ground4 ,his ethics is scarcely more than a justification of the common ,greek morality of his time4 ,he destroys the family in the interest of the state2 he approves of the exposition of ill-formed1 unpromising infants2 he makes morality to be a class thing--only select and cultured souls are with him capable of genuine virtue4 ,he accepts slavery as a necessary institution of the state2 he practically shuts out the non-,greek world from the sphere of morality2#eje and with the common ,greek he believes that to do evil to one's enemies is an imperative duty4#ejf ,nor does ,plato1 like ,hebrew seer1 rise high enough above the general ,greek viewpoint to discern the great law of moral progress1 and to prevision the historical goal--ethical world unity4 ,sidenote3 ,aristotle and his ethics ,aristotle makes ,plato's classification of the virtues the basis of his well-rounded system of ethics4 ,in one important respect1 however1 he differs from ,plato2 he did not believe that knowledge of the right necessarily leads to its practice4 ,he recognized the fact that man though knowing the good often perversely follows evil4 ,the great defect of ,aristotelian ethics is its failure to rise to the ethical conception of collective humanity4 ,in the moral inequality of men1 which he assumes as the presupposition of his ethics1 he even exaggerated the common ,greek view4 ,he divided men so rigorously into classes with varying grades of moral capacity that his moral system was ethically like the caste system of the ,indian ,brahmans4 ,to affirm the moral equality of men seemed to him to be a species of treason against the true humanity1 a crime against ,greek civilization4 ,according to ,aristotle the slave was a being so morally different from the freeman as to constitute practically another species4 ,he was not wholly incapable of virtue1 but could practice only such servile virtues as obedience and humility4 ,the last1 though a virtue in a slave1 was in a freeman an unworthy weakness4 ,barbarians were slaves by nature4 ,hence it was right for the ,greeks to make war on them and reduce them to slavery1 because 8for that end they were born40#ejg ,plato had in his ,laws accepted slavery as a political necessity2 ,aristotle proclaimed it as a part of the natural order of things4 ,this doctrine had far-reaching historical consequences4 ,aristotle's declaration that slaves are merely animated instruments1 are men incapable of virtue1 worked as powerfully in destroying ancient slavery as the obiter dictum of ,chief ,justice ,taney of the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states1 in the ,dred ,scott case1 that negro slaves have no rights which the white man is bound to respect1 worked for the destruction of negro slavery in the ,southern states4 ,for1 as ,professor ,denis says1 by pushing too far the argument1 by founding slavery on natural right1 ,aristotle provoked thought and protest1 and led the ,stoics to reject with indignation his theories and to proclaim the moral equality of master and slave1 of ,greek and barbarian4#ejh ,aristotle's ethics exercised very little influence either upon the actual moral life or the ethical speculations of antiquity2 but in the medieval time it came to exert a profound influence upon ,christian ethics4#eji ,the schoolmen made it the trunk into which they grafted ,christian morals--with incongruous results1 as we shall see later4 ,sidenote3 ,decay of the ,greek city state and the accompanying decay of the ,greek ideal of character ,the political revolution in ,hellas in the fourth century ,b4,c4 had deep import for ,greek morality4 ,that century saw the triumph of ,macedonia over the ,greek cities4 ,this meant the triumph of despotic monarchy over city democracy4 ,this revolution in the political realm meant a great revolution in the realm of morals1 for the reason that1 as we have seen1 the old ,greek ideal of excellence was largely based upon the relation of the individual to the state4 ,with the loss of ,greek liberty the very basis of the ,greek ideal of character was removed1 and the virtues of the type tended to disappear4#eaj ,in the despotic monarchies of the successors of ,alexander there was little room for the growth and exercise of those virtues of citizenship which had been nourished in the free air of the ancient city4 ,the virtues now in vogue and fostered by the new monarchical rgime were no longer those of the patriot citizen and the patriot warrior1 but those of the pliant subject1 the servile courtier1 and the mercenary soldier4 ,in ,plutarch's ,lives1 out of the twenty heroes and worthies whom the biographer selected as the noblest representatives of the virtues most highly esteemed by the ,greeks1 we find only two who lived after the general loss of ,greek freedom1 and these#eaa were men whose characters were formed in the cities of the ,achan ,league1 in which the ancient liberties of ,hellas were maintained till the rise of the ,roman power4 ,it could not be otherwise1 so completely were the fortunes of the ,greek moral ideal bound up with the fortunes of the ,greek city state4 ,but besides the decay of the free city there were other causes contributing to the moral decadence which marked ,hellenism in the ,alexandrian ,age4 ,the close contact of ,greek culture with the corrupt society of the ,orient had disastrous consequences for ,greek morality4 ,the principal courts of the ,hellenistic ,east were plague spots of moral contagion4 ,the virus of gross sensual immorality was communicated to ,greece1 and ,greek society was fatally infected4 ,the ,orontes emptied into the ,ilissus and the ,eurotas1 as later it emptied into the ,tiber4 ,and still another contributing cause of the moral decline in ,hellas was the sudden acquisition of vast individual and social wealth through the conquest and exploitation of the ,east4 ,the morals of no age or people have been proof against suddenly acquired riches4 ,one explanation of this is that new and untried sources of pleasure1 most often illicit sensuous pleasure1 are opened up1 and the temptation to selfish indulgence is irresistible1 coming as it does before self-restraint1 in the face of these unaccustomed solicitations1 has become a habit4 ,still another cause of the moral degeneracy of the age1 one which we shall have occasion to speak of more at length a little further on1 is to be sought in the fact that the period was one of transition in religion as well as in politics and social relations4 ,greek morality was1 it is true1 based in the main upon the old system of independent city life4 ,yet ,greek morality was in a way braced by religion and even in part based upon it4 ,now in the ,alexandrian ,age the religious system of ,hellas was undergoing a process of disintegration4 ,men were losing faith in their ancestral gods4 ,philosophic skepticism was widespread4 ,inevitably this movement in the religious realm caused all that part of the moral system dependent in any degree upon the old religious doctrines and teachings to weaken and crumble away4 ,sidenote3 ,ethical products of the ,hellenistic ,age3 ,stoicism and ,epicureanism ,there were1 however1 two ethical products of the ,hellenistic ,age which render that period one of the most important of all epochs in the moral evolution of humanity4 ,these were ,stoicism and ,epicureanism4 ,at first blush it may seem strange that out of the same environment there should arise two systems of life and thought so strongly contrasted4 ,but both of these systems are perfectly natural1 indeed inevitable1 products of an epoch1 such as the ,alexandrian ,age was1 of transition and moral decadence4 ,in such times strong1 self-reliant1 deeply moral natures ever seek refuge in the philosophy and creed of ,zeno1 while those of less sturdy faith in the moral order of the world1 of a less strong sense of duty1 turn to the philosophy and creed of ,epicurus4 ,springing up in ,greece as an offshoot of the ,socratic philosophy just after the death of ,alexander1 ,stoicism became the creed of the select spirits of the age4 ,the crowning virtues of the moral ideal it held aloft were self-control1 imperturbability1 the patient endurance of the ills of life4 ,amidst the wreck of worlds one must stand unmoved and erect4 ,in the very rigid restraint it placed upon the appetites1 passions1 and emotions the ,stoic ideal of character differed widely from the ordinary ,greek ideal4 ,it approached here the ascetic type4#eab ,however1 in general the ,stoic type of character was closely related to the historic ideal of the ,greek race4 ,the ,stoics adopted the fundamental maxim of classical ,greek morality1 namely1 that man should live conformably to nature4 ,they possessed the common ,greek consciousness in the light esteem in which they held the family relations and duties4 ,they were aristocratic in their moral sympathies and looked upon the multitude with disdain4 ,they regarded the gentler virtues1 compassion and forgiveness1 as weaknesses1 and ranked humility as a virtue only in the slave4 ,because of the weak sense of duty possessed in general by the ,greeks1 the ,stoic ideal of character did not become a really important factor in the ethical life of the ancient world till after its adoption by the finer spirits1 like ,marcus ,aurelius1 among the ,romans1 to whose sense of 8the majesty of duty0 the ideal made strong and effective appeal4 ,it never influenced the masses1 but for several centuries it gave moral support and guidance to the best men of the ,roman race4 ,alongside ,stoicism grew up ,epicureanism1 which made pleasure1 not gross sensuous pleasure1 but rational refined enjoyment1 the chief good1 and hence the pursuit of pleasure 8the highest wisdom and morality40 ,but this philosophy made pleasurable feeling dependent upon tranquillity of mind4 ,to secure this mental repose1 one must get rid of fear of the gods and of death4 ,these ignoble and disquieting fears ,epicurus and his disciples sought to banish by teaching that the gods do not concern themselves with human affairs1 and that death ends all for man4 ,epicureanism in its moral code was at one with the common ,greek consciousness in making moderation or prudence a cardinal virtue2#eac but it differed radically from the ordinary ,greek mode of thought in its depreciation and neglect of the civic virtues4 ,hence the system was at once a symptom and a cause of the decay of the ,greek city state and of the old moral ideal which was based so largely upon it4 ,the philosophy of ,epicurus1 as we have already said1 is the natural product of an age of transition and social dislocation4 ,it offers an ideal of life which is eagerly adopted by those unable to combat trouble1 by those to whom duty does not appeal as something dignified and majestic4 ,hence in the decadent and unsettled age of the ,roman ,empire it became the rule of life of large numbers of the cultured classes of society1 and must be regarded as one of the disintegrating agencies of ,greco-,roman civilization4 ,sidenote3 ,advance in humanitarian feelings and growth in ethical cosmopolitanism ,a general view of the society of the ,hellenistic world toward the opening of the ,christian era discloses the fact that the moral evolution so long in progress has effected such changes in the ,greek moral consciousness as to render this ethical movement an important preparation for the incoming of the moral ideal of ,christianity4 ,these changes are especially to be observed in the growth of humanitarian sentiment and in a broadening of the moral sympathies4 ,the ,greeks1 compared with the ,romans1 were naturally a humane folk4 ,when it was proposed to introduce at ,athens the gladiatorial games1 the orator ,demonax told the people that they should first tear down the ancestral altar to ,pity1 a shrine which1 in the words of ,lecky1 8was venerated throughout the ancient world as the first great assertion among mankind of the supreme sanctity of mercy40#ead ,one of the motives of ,pythagoras in forbidding the use of meat as food was1 seemingly1 to inspire a horror of shedding blood1 even that of an animal4 ,the laws of ,athens permitted no punishment more severe than a painless death4#eae ,this natural humaneness of the ,greek spirit deepened as the centuries passed4 ,contrasted with the ,periclean ,age the ,platonic ,age shows1 ,professor ,mahaffy affirms1 8a greater gentleness and softness1 444 a nearer approach to the greater humanity of ,christian teaching40#eaf ,we have already noted this movement in the domain of war practices and customs1 where it found expression in the amelioration of the gross1 archaic barbarities of primitive warfare4 ,in the social sphere the progressive evolution is evidenced by the growing mildness of slavery and the frequency of the manumission of slaves4#eag ,the broadening movement ran parallel with the humanitarian4 ,classical ,greek morality1 as we have seen1 was narrow and racial4 ,now one of the most important facts in the moral evolution of ,hellas was the broadening of the moral sympathies1 especially during the three centuries immediately preceding our era4 ,this development is connected closely with the great expansion movement which followed the conquests of ,alexander and which resulted in the ,hellenization of the ,east4 ,everywhere the ,greeks came in close contact with various peoples upon whom they had been accustomed to look with aversion or disdain4 ,ancient prejudices were dispelled1 race barriers were leveled1 and the moral sympathies overspread wide areas from which they had hitherto been excluded by ignorance and race egotism4 ,it would doubtless be unhistorical to represent this movement as anything more than a tendency--a dawning recognition by select spirits of the ethical kinship of all men1 and the coextension of the moral law with the human race4 ,it may1 however1 rightly be compared with that broadening of the moral feelings which we have traced among the people of ,israel1 and which resulted in a morality at first as narrow and exclusive as that of the ,greeks1 widening at last into the ethical universalism of the great teachers of the nation4 ,the widening movement was represented1 and was given its chief impetus1 by the ,stoics4 ,the ,stoic ideal of character differed from the ordinary ,greek ideal especially in its cosmopolitanism4 ,influenced by the spirit of the age in which it had birth1 it ignored the old distinction between ,greek and non-,greek and proclaimed the essential brotherhood of man4#eah ,the ,stoic regarded the world and not his native city as his fatherland4 ,the ,cynics1 whom we may regard as extreme ,stoics1 looked upon city patriotism as a narrow prejudice and refused to give love of one's city a place among the virtues4 ,just as the ,greek age was merging into the ,greco-,roman the broadening movement found its noblest representative in ,plutarch1 8the last of the ,greeks40#eai ,his chief characteristics were his broad interests and his universal moral sympathies4 ,he had moved far away from the common ,greek standpoint4 ,he had emancipated himself from the tyranny of the common ,greek prejudices4 ,under the influences of his time he had become a cosmopolitan4 ,to him the ,greek was no longer an elect race4 ,his moral sympathies embraced all mankind4 ,his was almost a ,christian conscience1 save as to the purely theological virtues4 ,this enlargement of the intellectual and moral outlook of the ,greek world presaged the dawn of a new epoch in the moral evolution of humanity4 ,it made easier for many the acceptance of the ,gospel teachings of human brotherhood and universal love4 ,christian ethics was largely debtor to the cosmopolitan spirit of ,greek culture1 especially as embodied in the ,stoic ideal of moral excellence4#ebj ,to trace further this moral development in the ancient world we must now turn from following its course among the ,greeks to follow it among that kindred people1 the ,romans1 who1 through the political unification of the world1 renforced this growing universalism in the moral domain1 and thereby reached that ethical conception of collective humanity which ,israel had reached through spiritual intuition1 and ,hellas through philosophical reflection and widening culture4#eba ,,chapter ,,xi ,,roman ,,morals3 ,,an ,,ideal ,,of ,,civic ,,duty ,i4 ,,institutions ,,and ,,conditions ,,of ,,life ,,determining ,,the ,,early ,,moral ,,type ,sidenote3 ,the ,roman family3 ancestor worship and the patria potestas ,the family in early ,rome may more unreservedly be pronounced a seed plot of morals than in the case of any other ancient people save the ,chinese4 ,it was ancestor worship which made it such a nursery of morality1 for the cult of ancestors made the family a group of co-worshipers about the domestic hearth4 ,this worship purified and braced morality1 since the tutelary spirits were believed to watch over the morals of the family and to punish wrongdoing4 ,no impure act could be committed in the presence of the chaste hearth fire1 and no one guilty of unexpiated crime dared to come into its presence4#ebb ,but it was in constituting the father the high priest of the family group that this domestic worship exercised its greatest influence upon early ,roman morality4 ,it gave a religious sanction to the father's authority and made the patria potestas for many centuries a molding force in the moral life of the ,roman people4#ebc ,a little further on we shall see how1 in the atmosphere of the home thus constituted1 was fostered in the youth the virtues of submission to rightful authority1 respect for law1 and obedience to magistrates--virtues which were one secret of the strength and triumphs of early ,rome4 ,sidenote3 ,the city state ,next after the family the state was the most important agency in the creation of the ,roman type of virtue4 ,we have to do here1 as in ,greece1 with the city state4 ,this was the chief sphere of duty of the ,roman during his mature and active life4 ,consequently1 just as it was the nature of the city state which in ,greece determined in large measure what should constitute the supreme virtues and duties of the ,greek ideal of character1 so was it the constitution of ,rome as a city state that1 as we shall see a little later1 determined what should be the leading virtues and duties entering into the ,roman ideal of goodness4 ,this made that ideal to be preminently an ideal of civic duty4 8,never since the fall of paganism have the civic virtues shone out so brilliantly40#ebd ,sidenote3 ,the occupations of farming and war ,alongside domestic and political institutions stands1 as we have seen1 occupation as a creator and molder of the moral type of a people4 ,the two occupations of the early ,latins were farming and war1 and thus it came about that in the primitive ethical type were united the sturdy moral qualities of the peasant farmer and the heroic virtues of the warrior4 ,this blend produced one of the most admirable moral types of the ancient world4 ,sidenote3 ,the religion ,aside from the cult of ancestors1 religion among the ,romans exercised but little direct influence upon morality1 for the reason that it was mainly a method of obtaining prosperity1 of averting calamity1 and of reading the future4 ,there was in truth an almost complete separation of religion and morality4 ,it was only in later times that the ,roman philosophers sought in the moral character of the gods models for human imitation4 ,but though religion had so little to do in creating the salient virtues of the moral type1 it did renforce the sentiment of patriotism1 since the temple was a state institution1 and in various other ways--as1 for instance1 in lending sanctity to oaths--quickened and strengthened the sense of obligation and duty4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,primitive ,,moral ,,type ,sidenote3 ,the ethics of the family2 the virtue of obedience ,in the bosom of the family was nourished what we may regard as the primal virtue of the ,latin race--submission to authority4#ebe ,the son's subjection to the father's authority was complete throughout his whole existence4 ,he could not disobey his father's command4 ,more than seven centuries after the founding of ,rome the ,emperor ,tiberius absolved a certain person from guilt in participating in a revolt1 because it was shown that he had acted under the orders of his father4#ebf ,this virtue of submission to rightful authority1 of obedience to superiors1 contributed much to the military efficiency of the ,roman people4 ,indeed1 it lay at the basis of their greatness in war4 ,the consul's authority in the field was like that of the father in the family1 and obedience in the soldier was a habit1 almost a religious instinct4 ,thus did this virtue1 which had its starting point in the family1 help largely to give the ,romans the rule of the world4#ebg ,sidenote3 ,civic and military virtues ,patriotism1 meaning submission1 obedience1 devotion to the state1 was the saving virtue in the ,roman ideal of excellence4 8,patriot0 and 8good man0 were identical terms4 8,dear to us are our parents10 says ,cicero1 8dear our children1 our kindred and our friends2 but one's country alone includes all our loves1 for what good man would hesitate to die if he could promote her welfare40#ebh ,since war was the normal status of society in ancient times1 the moral qualities of the ,roman as of the ,greek patriot were the virtues of the soldier--obedience1 courage1 and self-devotion in battle4 ,and by no people1 save perhaps the ,japanese as shown in their recent history1 has the soldierly virtue of self-renunciation for the fatherland been more exalted or more finely exemplified than by the ,romans in early times4 ,in this ready self-devotion of the ,roman hero to public interests we have an exhibition of the altruistic sentiment in its loftiest form1 for of all forms of disinterested action1 as ,lecky maintains1 the self-abnegation of the ancient warrior for his city was the most unselfish1 for the reason that he made the sacrifice without any hope of reward in another life4#ebi ,sidenote3 ,the industrial virtues ,in early ,rome there was no such prejudice against labor as unworthy and morally degrading as we meet with at a later period4 ,the fact that a large body of the citizens in primitive ,rome were peasant farmers determined that the traditional virtues of this class should find a high place in the early national ideal of character4 ,the moral or semi-moral qualities of the peasant1 namely1 simplicity1 frugality1 industry1 and conservatism or respect for the past1 formed the substratum of early ,roman morality4 ,it was from the primitive citizen peasantry that came the strong1 tough1 moral fiber of the old ,roman character4 ,sidenote3 ,religious duties ,in dealing with the subject of the relation of the ,roman religion to morality we may speak of religious duties but hardly of religious virtues1 and for the reason that the aim of religion was the safety and welfare of the state4 ,neglect of the temple rites and sacrifices was believed to anger the gods1 who would in their resentment bring terrible trouble and misfortune upon the nation--for the ,romans never outgrew the conception of collective responsibility4 ,hence the careful performance of religious duties was a phase of patriotism4 ,neglect of these duties was antisocial conduct4#ecj ,in the performance of his religious duties the ,roman conceived that all that was necessary was to do the right thing1 to perform the right act1 or repeat correctly the right formula2 the disposition of mind and state of heart made no difference with the result4 ,man's relations to deity were assimilated to his relations to nature4 ,to secure a given result in the physical world1 man needs only to do the right thing1 as1 for instance1 to drop the seed into the ground at the right season and the harvest follows without any regard to the state of mind or heart of the person performing the act4 ,this was the ,roman's conception of his relation to the gods4 ,hence religion and morality were practically separated4 ,religion failed to supply motives for moral action1 except in so far as it renforced the sentiment of patriotism4 ,sidenote3 ,defects of the type3 7a7 its aristocratic character ,from the foregoing brief notice of some of the chief expressions of the moral consciousness of the early ,romans we cannot fail to recognize that their ideal of character was in many respects a very admirable one4 ,its realization in actual flesh and blood gives us those heroic characters which will live forever in ,roman legend1 and alongside the ,greek heroes in the pages of ,plutarch4 ,it molded men grave1 earnest1 and austere1 reverent toward superiors1 patriotic and self-devoted to the common good4 ,but the ideal had great defects4 ,one of the most conspicuous of these was its aristocratic character4 ,rome1 writes ,wedgwood1 8accepts consistently and logically the aristocratic theory on which ancient society is based1 and carries out the ideal of the ,old ,world in all its naked impressiveness40#eca ,though advancing far during a thousand years of eventful history toward ethical universalism1 pagan ,rome never actually reached this moral goal4 ,she never recognized in practice the moral equality of all men4 ,there were to the very last in the pagan ,empire1 classes1 such as slaves and gladiators1 who were practically outside the moral sphere4 ,even ,roman ,stoicism1 which was the latest and noblest expression of the moral life of ,rome1 notwithstanding its cosmopolitan tendencies1 was essentially aristocratic4 ,sidenote3 7b7 ,its omission of the gentler and the intellectual virtues ,another defect of the old ,roman type of excellence was its exclusion of the gentler virtues--humility1 tenderness1 and sympathy with suffering4 ,the type of character fostered by the ideal was hard and severe1 even callous and cruel1 proud and self-assertive4 ,it was a type somewhat like the ,spartan1 one which1 when the age of reflection came1 naturally developed into the ,stoic4 ,the old ,romans lacked the quality of mercy and compassion for weakness4 ,they seemed almost destitute of the sentiment of pity for misfortune4 ,their treatment of prisoners of war and of their slaves in the later period was marked by a repellent brutality4 ,the place in their amusements which the gladiatorial combats assumed evidences their callous insensibility to suffering4 ,still another defect of this ideal was that it gave little or no place to the intellectual virtues4 ,these ethical qualities which were assigned so prominent a place in the ,greek type of excellence1 and which since the ,renaissance the ,western world has come to esteem so highly1 were never greatly valued by the ,romans until they came under the influence of ,greek culture1 and then only by the few2 hence their intellectual life was1 in general1 lacking in moral impulse4 ,mental self-culture was not with them1 as it was with the ,greeks and is coming to be with ourselves1 a moral requirement4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,moral ,,evolution ,,under ,,the ,,republic ,sidenote3 ,the maintenance of the standard in early times ,the four essential facts in the moral life of ,rome as a republic are3 first1 the high standard maintained in the early period2 second1 the gradual widening of the moral sympathies through the influence of conquest and advance in civilization2 third1 the general decline in morals during the two centuries preceding the establishment of the ,empire2 and fourth1 the modification of the moral type through contact with ,greece and the ,orient4 ,through the legendary haze which envelops all the earlier centuries of ,rome1 the one fact which stands out with comparative clearness is the ,spartan-like loyalty of the old ,roman to the ideal of character which he had conceived as the noblest and best4 ,the legends of this period1 invented or repeated by the men of a later age1 celebrate qualities of character which we may believe really marked early ,roman life and thought4 ,among these virtues were patriotic altruism1 absolute self-abnegation for the common good1 as illustrated by such tales as those of the self-devotion for the ,roman people of ,curtius and of the ,elder and ,younger ,publius ,decius ,mus2 reverence for law1 as shown by the consul ,lucius ,junius ,brutus in the condemnation of his sons to death for taking part in a conspiracy2 and incorruptible integrity1 as illustrated by the tales of ,fabricius4 ,even though all these stories of the heroic age of ,rome be the invention of a later time1 they at least show what at this later 7though still comparatively early7 period were highly esteemed qualities of character1 just as the stories celebrating the filial piety of ,chinese heroes of the olden time show how high a place this moral trait held in the ideal of the age that invented or repeated these tales with a didactic purpose4 ,sidenote3 ,the widening of the moral sympathies ,the gradual broadening of the moral sympathies was a very important phase of the moral evolution in ,roman society up to the end of the ,republic4 ,these sympathies embraced at first hardly more than the patrician class1 which formed the nucleus of the early ,roman community4 ,the enlarging of the area covered by the ethical feelings was simply one phase1 and1 from the viewpoint of the student of morals1 the most important phase of that political evolution which in the course of centuries brought within the sacred pale of ,roman citizenship first the ,plebeians1 then the ,latins1 next the ,italians1 and finally all the freemen of the extended ,roman dominions4 ,that is to say1 this central fact in ,roman history1 the expansion of the city into the world state1 was in its deepest significance1 in its remote consequences1 as much a moral as a political movement4 ,conquest1 it is true1 prepared the way for the revolution1 and the concessions made by the ruling class to the demands of the disfranchised classes and peoples were motived in the main by political prudence and expediency4 ,but it is equally true that ethical sentiment worked with these other causes in determining the course and progress of the revolution1 and that one of its most important results was the imparting of a great impulse to the widening moral movement going on in the ancient world1 and the bringing to recognition of the principles of the moral equality and brotherhood of men4 ,this great all-embracing movement in the ,roman world can1 we believe1 best be understood in its significance for the moral evolution of mankind only when translated into terms of the similar movement in modern times4 ,we recognize the moral character1 in a final analysis1 of the revolution which1 during the past century1 has by successive enfranchisements admitted to a share in government and to the enjoyment of political rights the masses in modern civilized states4 ,the movement has been largely ethical in its causes and still more largely ethical in its effects4 ,the struggle of the people has had for aim to do away with unjust privilege and to establish equality and justice4 ,the most important permanent effects of the revolution are indisputably to be looked for in the moral sphere4 ,the incoming of democracy1 meaning as it does the investing of the individual with dignity and worth1 means the ennobling of the moral life of the world4 ,it is this that constitutes the real significance of the democratic revolution and which gives it its important place in the moral history of humanity4#ecb ,the same is true of that phase of the modern movement which looks toward the formation of the world state4 ,the forces at work here are admittedly varied and complex1 but prominent among these agencies are the ethical4 ,it is the broadening of the moral sympathies1 the development of a true cosmopolitanism1 a deepening consciousness of the brotherhood of men1 the growth of a new social and international conscience--it is this slow evolution in the moral realm that has laid or is laying the true basis of the future world union4 ,the universal state1 once created1--this need not be argued1--would inevitably react powerfully and favorably upon the moral feelings and sympathies of men4 ,it was the same in the ancient world4 ,the admission to full ,roman citizenship1 through successive enfranchisements1 of all the freemen of the ,roman dominions was at once the sign and the cause of a vast moral development4 ,as fellow citizens with equal rights and privileges1 men came to know and feel their ethical kinship4 ,likewise the establishment of the world state registered a great moral advance and supplied the conditions of a still greater progress4 ,had not the moral forces worked with the ,roman legions1 the world union could never have been formed1 or1 at least1 if once formed1 could never have been maintained for the long period that it was4 ,it is probably true that the bringing by ,rome of such a wide reach of lands under her rule did as much to awaken the sense of the brotherhood of man as did the teachings of ,hebrew prophet or the culture and philosophy of ,greece4 ,it was certainly the political union of the civilized world that helped to awaken in ,cicero and in the later philosophers of the ,empire the conviction that the reach of the moral sympathies should be as extended as the human race4 ,thus the wide empire created by ,rome was a potent influence making for ethical universalism4 ,never since the unification of the ancient world by ,rome have the moral feelings of men been quite so narrow as before2 never since has the conception of human brotherhood1 the ideal of a united world1 seemed so entirely a dream4 ,sidenote3 ,causes of the decline in morals under the later ,republic3 7a7 the passing of the city state ,notwithstanding this broadening movement in the moral domain1 the last century of the ,republic was marked by a great lowering of the earlier high moral standard and by a loss of some of the chief virtues of the primitive ,roman type4 ,there were many causes contributing to this moral degeneracy4 ,among these was the decay of institutions that had created or fostered the primitive moral type1 and the growth of others1 such as slavery and the gladiatorial games1 which exercised a pernicious influence upon morality4 ,besides causes of this nature there were others which were the natural outcome of the career of conquest the ,romans had led4 ,the conquest of the world had imported into the ,roman political and social system many alien elements unfavorable to morality1 and had brought ,roman civilization1 on one side1 into hurtful contact with the older and morally corrupt cultures of the ,orient4 ,in what follows we shall speak in some detail of the more important of these agencies1 which in the later preimperial period undermined the originally sound morality of the ,roman people4 ,a first cause of the moral deterioration was the decay of the city constitution4 ,we have seen that the free city state was the chief nursery of those patriotic virtues which constituted the cardinal moral qualities of the ,roman ideal of character4 ,but by the beginning of the last century preceding the ,christian era various causes1 chiefly1 however1 the mere widening of the ,roman territory through conquest1 had undermined the political institutions of ,rome and had converted into mobs of the proletariat the public assemblies of citizens4 ,the original constitution of the city had become an empty form1 and the way had been paved for the setting up of monarchical government4 ,with the passing of the city state those civic patriotic virtues which the discipline of the democratic city constitution had trained and developed1 disappeared4#ecc ,as the ,christian ,church1 which was destined in the fullness of time to take the place of the city in the minds and hearts of men and become the object and inspirer of moral enthusiasm1 had not yet come in with its new ideal of virtue1 there ensued a sort of moral interregnum1 such as usually marks transition periods in the history of states and races4 ,sidenote3 7b7 ,the economic decay of the rural class ,a second cause of the moral decline is to be found in the decay of the ,italian peasantry4 ,this economic revolution had its real starting point in the ,hannibalic ,war4 ,that protracted struggle1 carried on largely in ,italy itself1 practically ruined the peasant class in many districts1 and their little farms were absorbed by the growing estates of the great landholders--those latifundia which ,pliny later declared to have been the ruin of ,italy4 ,the practical disappearance of the ,italian peasant farmer meant the disappearance of those simple robust virtues1 bred in thousands of homes of the countryside1 like the little ,sabine farm of the ,elder ,cato1 which had contributed so largely to determine the type of ,roman character4 ,sidenote3 7c7 ,growth of the slave system ,the decay of the ,italian peasantry was accompanied by the development of the slave system1 so that at the same time that the peasant home1 a nursery of sterling if crude virtues1 was being destroyed1 the slave estate with its chain gangs and its ergastula1 a very hotbed of degrading vices1 was being created4 ,of all the institutions that contributed to the moral degradation of the later ,republic1 slavery as it developed here must be assigned the first place of evil preminence4 ,its effects were equally debasing upon the master1 the slave1 and the poor farmer4 ,it tended to render more callous and cruel the spirit of the master1#ecd to destroy the moral character of the slave1 to undermine family morals1#ece and1 by placing a stigma upon labor1 to degrade the free laborer4 ,thus did the institution tend to develop in different classes of the population feelings1 sentiments1 and a disposition of mind wholly unfavorable to the existence or the development of a sound moral life in society at large4 ,sidenote3 7d7 ,the disesteem of the industrial virtues ,in placing a stigma upon labor1 slavery did not create a new prejudice1 but merely intensified and made more inclusive a prejudice already existing4 ,as we have seen1 there existed in classical antiquity a deep-rooted feeling against manual labor as morally unworthy of a freeman4 ,agriculture was the only occupation which escaped this general condemnation1 and which was regarded as becoming a gentleman4#ecf ,cicero declares all mechanical laborers to be by virtue of their profession mean1 the gains of hired workmen to be ungenteel1 and says that all retailers of merchandise should be despised4#ecg ,even buying and selling on a large scale did not entirely escape the taint of retail merchandizing2 it was merely a little less despicable4 ,this general contempt for the occupations of the artisan and merchant rendered impossible the development of industrial virtues in the ,roman masses4 ,torn from the soil and swept into the cities by the movement cityward in this period1 the free poor1 too proud to engage in occupations which were looked upon as degrading1 were stranded in idleness and exposed to all the demoralizing influences of city life4 ,crowds of them became the dependents of the rich and formed that despicable client class of the later ,republic and the early ,empire whose abominable vices roused the anger and provoked the scorn of the satirists and moralists of the time4 ,sidenote3 7e7 ,free distribution of corn ,a direct outgrowth of the presence in ,rome of this great multitude of the idle free poor was the evil of the corn laws4 ,the indiscriminate public free distribution of corn to the poorer citizens--prompted1 for the most part1 not by genuine humanitarian feelings but by unworthy political and personal motives--had a most debauching effect upon morals4 ,it intensified the very evil it was supposed to ameliorate4 ,it attracted still greater crowds of the idle to the capital1 depressed to a still greater degree agriculture in ,italy1--grain for distribution being imported in the main from ,egypt and ,north ,africa1--and checked every tendency toward the formation of habits of industry1 self-reliance1 and thrift in the lower classes4 ,the evil attained its climax when the largesses became an undisguised bid by the corrupt demagogue for popular favor--the naked price paid by rich plotters against the commonwealth for the support of the morally debauched and fickle proletariat4 ,sidenote3 7f7 ,gladiatorial games ,the idle population of ,rome had not only to be fed but to be amused4 ,the same motives that had led to the enormous increase in the largesses of grain to the free poor contributed also to the multiplication of the spectacles of the circus and the amphitheater1 particularly of the gladiatorial games1 which1 introduced at ,rome in the third century ,b4,c41 had now become the favorite amusement of the ,roman populace4 8,that not only men1 but women in an advanced period of civilization1--men and women who not only professed but very frequently acted upon a high code of morals1--should have made the carnage of men their habitual amusement1 that all this should have continued for centuries1 with scarcely a protest1 is one of the most startling facts in moral history40#ech ,but this fact is by no means an isolated or unique one in the ethical history of mankind4 ,the student of the history of morals is often brought face to face with similar facts in the annals of every race and of every age4 ,the fact with which the moralist is here confronted is hardly more startling than the hideously barbarous treatment of their enemies by the deeply pious ,jews2 the heartless massacre at times of their prisoners by the naturally humane ,greeks2 the savage severity of the medieval inquisitors toward heretics1 while in general showing the greatest compassion and sympathy for those in pain and distress2 the atrocious cruelty of the punishments meted out to offenders against society by the ,christian governments of ,europe down almost to the last century2 the callous insensibility1 until just now1 of modern society to 8the bitter cry of the children0 of its city slums2 and1 above all1 the glorification of war by the professed followers of ,him whose most distinctive title is the ,prince of ,peace4 ,but just as all these startling inconsistencies and aberrations in moral conduct may be explained1 in part at least1 by reference to the effect upon the moral sympathies of tribal religion1 of political rancor and fanaticism1 of false theological dogmas1 and of bad bequests of practices and conventions unreflectingly adopted by an advanced civilization from ages of barbarism and savagery1 so is it possible in the same way to explain and render in a measure comprehensible to ourselves the existence without protest among the comparatively cultured ,romans of such an institution as that of the gladiatorial combats4 ,the system was fostered by slavery and the ,romans' occupation of war4 ,the ,roman people were originally stern and just2 slavery and war tended to make them hard and callous4 ,slavery created a sort of caste morality1 which excluded from the moral sphere large classes as completely as though they belonged to the dumb-animal creation4 ,it was these pariah classes that contributed a large portion of the victims of the cruel sport4 ,the enormous quantities of human flesh and blood required to nourish the system could have been found in no society except in one where a considerable part of the population had been degraded to a mere animal plane of existence and thus put practically beyond the range and reach of the moral feelings4 ,like slavery1 the constant wars in which the ,romans were engaged tended to indurate their feelings and to destroy all sense of the sanctity of human life4 ,in what way the military life of the ,romans reacted upon their feelings and sentiments and molded even their ethical theories is shown by the fact that the ,roman moral philosophers in general defended and approved the combats of the amphitheater on the ground that they inured the soldier to the sight of blood and taught him contempt of death4#eci ,the effect of these inhuman spectacles upon morality was most lamentable4 ,they hindered the growth of humane feelings in the men1 deadened every tender sensibility of the women1 habituated the young to scenes of cruelty1#edj and developed finally the normal impassiveness of the ,roman temperament into a fierce delight in human suffering4#eda ,sidenote3 7g7 ,decay of religious faith ,the influence of religion upon ,roman morality was never great2 still1 as we have seen1 the ,roman's sense of duty was in some degree strengthened by his belief in the gods and in their general watch over the conduct of men4 ,hence that growth of philosophic doubt among the learned class which characterized the later period of the ,republic1 and the transformation of religion into gross superstition among the debased population of the cities1 contributed to hasten and render more decisive the moral decline we are tracing4 ,sidenote3 7h7 ,extremes of wealth and poverty ,the apparent teaching of history is that there is an antithesis between wealth and morality4 ,it is a commonplace of the records of civilization that as a community has advanced in material prosperity and waxed rich it has gone backward in morals4 ,the growth in great riches of a people has usually been the prelude to their moral degeneracy and loss of place in the competition of races and cultures4 ,there ought certainly to be no antithesis between riches and morality1 any more than between intellectual culture and morality4 ,to suppose that there is any natural and necessary incompatibility between these two elements of civilization is to suppose that there exists a fatal antinomy at the very heart of the cosmic evolution4 ,that moral degeneracy should be the common accompaniment of a community's growth in wealth1 springs not from the mere possession of wealth1 but in the main from its inequitable distribution4 ,thus far in history1 as a society has grown in riches it has become divided into two sharply contrasted classes1 the very rich and the very poor4 ,now each of these extremes is unfavorable to morality4 ,excessive fortune gives birth to luxury1 to gross1 extravagant1 and unethical uses of wealth4 ,particularly is this likely to be true if the elevation to affluence has been sudden and from comparative poverty4 ,the reason of this is1 as was long ago pointed out1 that men before they have learned self-control have placed in their hands means for the unlimited satisfaction of every appetite and desire1 and generally the desire of such men is for indulgence in gross sensuous and sensual forms of pleasure4 ,on the other hand1 extreme poverty is equally disastrous to morals2 for poverty means almost inevitably undue nutrition of body and soul1 and generally squalid and insanitary conditions of life that destroy at once physical and moral health1 and breed in the young and old alike the most repellent and contagious forms of vice4 ,now while at every period of ,roman history we find two classes1 the rich and the poor1 the extremes of wealth and poverty do not appear until about a century before the establishment of the ,empire4#edb ,and unfortunately all the conditions which tend to render such inequality of fortune especially pernicious to morals were existent at this time in ,roman society4 ,the men into whose control came the great fortunes of the period were generally men of servile origin1 because law and public sentiment prevented the senatorial order from engaging in trade or commerce4 ,these men1 who had not yet outgrown the grossness and vices of the slave class from which they had sprung1 with unlimited wealth at their command1 and 8without the restraint of traditions or ideals10 were naturally prone to indulge in vulgar luxury1 in ostentatious extravagance1 and in orgies of sensuality4 ,at the same time at the other end of the social scale were the very poor1 subjected to the debasing influences of idleness1 of a grossly immoral stage1 and of the brutalizing spectacles of the amphitheater4 ,the relations of the large number of propertyless clients to their wealthy patrons bred in this class the hateful vices of servility and hypocrisy4#edc ,thus the division of ,roman society into two classes1 the overrich and the very poor1--a division which is always the sign and register of social maladjustment and injustice1--became one of the most potent causes of that moral degeneracy which relaxed the fiber of the ,roman race and preluded the downfall of the ,republic4 ,sidenote3 7i7 ,demoralizing influence of ,eastern luxury and vice ,after the conquest of the ,east the national character of the ,romans was subjected to a great variety of influences from ,greece and the half-,hellenized countries of the ,orient4 ,many of these influences1 as we shall notice a little later1 had a strengthening and uplifting effect upon ,roman life1 especially in the upper circles of society1 but in general the new elements now imported into ,roman civilization from the ,hellenistic ,east were hurtful to morals4 ,rome 8sucked poison from the ,attic bloom decayed40 ,it is a commonplace of history that at the time of the ,roman conquest of the ,east the great semi-,hellenized cities of the ,orient were sinks of moral corruption4 ,brought into close contact with these morally debased communities1 ,roman civilization was at once infected with the fatal virus4 ,streams of impurity overflowed every country of the once moral ,west4 ,the ,orontes emptied into the ,tiber4 ,oriental vices and luxury came in as a flood4 ,the primitive ,roman virtues of frugality and simplicity disappeared4 ,greek cooks1 we are told1 brought a higher price than ,greek philosophers4 ,almost every element of the ,greco-,oriental culture seemed to bear within it the seeds of moral deterioration and decay4 ,greek philosophy1 pervaded in general by a spirit of skepticism1 tended to unsettle still more positively the already shaken faith of the ,romans in their ancestral gods4 ,roman morality1 in so far as it was supported by religious belief1 was thus fatally impaired4 ,the ,epicurean philosophy1 if not--as taught by most of the ,sophists--a direct incentive to vice1 afforded at least a ready apology for indulgence in coarse and gluttonous pleasures4 ,the plays presented on the ,roman comic stage were mostly pieces of the ,greek drama1 which1 in the process of adaptation to a ,roman audience1 had been made coarse and dissolute4 ,thus the theater became one of the most effective agencies of social corruption4 ,in the words of ,mommsen1 it was 8the great school at once of ,hellenism and of vice40#edd ,sidenote3 ,modifications in the moral type itself ,a much more important fact in the moral history of the later ,republic than this lowering of the standard of conduct is the change which was being effected in the moral ideal itself4 ,while certain causes were at work depressing the moral standard to the lowest point1 perhaps1 that it ever touched in the long history of ,rome1 there were other causes in operation which were slowly modifying the old ,roman type of character and creating a new type made up largely of new virtues4 ,we speak of this change in the ideal as a fact of greater significance than that of moral degeneracy1 for the reason that a decline in actual morality1 the failure of a people to live up to the best they know1 is always a superficial and transient phenomenon compared with the changes effected by different influences in the moral type itself1 since these changes constitute the very essence of the ethical evolution4 ,the causes at work modifying the old ,roman ideal of character were various2 but more vital than all other influences were those that came through the contact of ,rome with ,greek culture and the civilizations of the ,orient4 ,at the heart of these ancient cultures were ethical elements of inestimable value4 ,among these were the ,greek humanitarian spirit and the various intellectual virtues which characterized the ,greek type of excellence2 and1 in the ,oriental theosophic cultures1 a deeply religious spirit and the religious virtues which marked the moral ideals of the ,eastern nations1 particularly the ,egyptian1 the ,persian1 and the ,hebrew4 ,we recognize the supreme importance for the later moral history of ,rome1 as well as for that of the whole ,western world1 of the ethical products of the religious culture of ,judea1 but we do not recognize as fully the importance of the ethical elements of the secular culture of ,greece and of the theosophic civilizations of ,egypt and ,persia4 ,but ,rome's ethical debt to these older cultures was also indisputably great4 ,but since these ,greco-,oriental influences which were at work modifying the old ,roman type of character had not wrought their full effects before the close of the third century of the imperial period1 we shall reserve further comment on them1 and on the new composite type they were contributing to create1 for the next division of this chapter1 in which we shall follow the trend of the moral evolution under the pagan ,empire4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,moral ,,evolution ,,under ,,the ,,pagan ,,empire ,sidenote3 ,the bad bequest ,roman society throughout the first century of the pagan ,empire1 as mirrored in the literature of the period1 presents a picture of frightful moral degeneracy4 ,this state of things was largely an inheritance from the ,republic4 ,it was the continuation of that moral decline which began in the second century ,b4,c41 and some of the contributing causes of which1 such as slavery1 the spectacles of the amphitheater1 the free distribution of corn1 together with contact with the dissolute civilizations of the ,orient1 were considered briefly in the preceding pages4 ,since all these causes of moral degradation were still at work in the society of the early ,empire1 and as fresh agencies of malign influence were added to them1 it was inevitable that the moral anarchy should not only continue but should grow worse4 ,the definitive establishment of the ,empire and the passing of the liberal institutions of the ,republic changed wholly the atmosphere in which had been nourished the virtues of ,republican ,rome4 ,political liberty was dead1 and all true civic activity1 which had been the very breath of life to the citizen of the ancient city1 had come to an end4 ,in the new world that was forming there was no room for the exercise of those patriotic virtues which had made the early history of ,rome so great1 and had given her the rule of the world4#ede ,one wholly fresh cause of moral debasement was the personal character of several of the occupants of the imperial throne during the first century of the ,empire4 ,the ,oriental extravagancies and coarse debaucheries which disgraced the court of a ,claudius1 a ,caligula1 or a ,nero1 communicated their virus to every part of the social body4 ,never did the proverb1 8,as court1 so people10 have such justification4 ,at the same time the tyranny which marked the rule of more than one of the emperors instituted a demoralizing terror like that of the proscriptions of the ,civil ,wars4 ,under the influence of the frightful persecutions of their order1 the senatorial aristocracy1 with moral fiber now relaxed and corroded by effeminate luxury1 lost seemingly all those virtues which earlier had characterized their class1 and was transformed into a body at times sycophantic1 cringing1 and base almost beyond belief4 ,but it is doubtful if any other aristocracy which history has known would have stood the test any better4 ,the ,french nobility of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 excluded from participation in political affairs by the divine-right monarchy1 and made servile dependents of the court1 exhibited almost as depressing a spectacle of moral degeneracy as did the higher ,roman classes under the more frightful tyranny of the early ,csars4 ,sidenote3 ,the old and the new ,but we may here profitably call to mind the words of ,wedgwood to the effect that the phenomenon of moral decay1 although the most striking1 is not the most significant fact in the moral history of a race or of an age4 8,the fact that an old ideal is perishing10 remarks this writer1 8must always be a stronger or at least a more obvious moral influence than the fact that a new one is coming into life4444 ,a death is more impressive than a birth40#edf ,what in this reflection claims our attention here is the implied truth that the passing of the old means the coming of the new4 ,at the base of the falling leaf there is always a new-forming bud4 ,it is not otherwise in the moral world4 ,unless the forces of the moral life have become fatally impaired1 the decay of an old ideal of excellence is ever accompanied by the growth of a new and better one4 ,and it was so in the ,rome of the early ,csars4 ,the ,roman ancestral ideal of character1 with its attractive civic and heroic virtues1 was indeed falling into decay and passing away1 but a new and better ideal of goodness was slowly forming and winning the allegiance of the select spirits of the age4 ,sidenote3 ,the three periods in the moral history of ,rome ,lecky distinguishes in the moral history of pagan ,rome three periods characterized 8by the successive ascendancy of the ,roman1 the ,greek1 and the ,egyptian spirit40 ,up to near the end of the ,republic the moral ideal was essentially ,roman2 during the first and second centuries of the ,empire it was characterized by the dominance of the humanitarian and cosmopolitan spirit of ,greece2 while in the third and last century of the pagan ,empire it was marked by the ascendency of the ,egyptian spirit of religious reverence4#edg ,in the immediately following pages we shall consider the second of these periods4 ,sidenote3 ,modifying influence on the ,roman ideal of the ,greek spirit ,already at the time of the establishment of the ,empire the two great civilizations of classical antiquity had been in close contact for a hundred years and more4 ,the elements of ,greek culture which reacted most powerfully upon ,roman society were the purely intellectual and the ethical4 ,history has fully recognized the debt of ,rome to ,greek intellectualism1 but it has not so fully recognized her ethical debt to ,hellenism4 ,yet it was the contribution made by ,greece to the new-forming moral ideal of the ,roman world which was probably the most historically important element of the ,hellenic bequest4 ,this ethical inheritance of ,rome from ,greece was second only to her ethical heritage from ,judea4 ,it was largely through the medium of ,greek literature and ,greek philosophy1 particularly the ,platonic and the ,stoic1 that the ethical ,greek spirit1 characterized by its humanitarian and cosmopolitan sympathies1 exerted its modifying influence upon the ,roman moral consciousness and gradually changed it into something very different from what it was at first4 ,this influence can best be traced in ,roman literature and the imperial legislation4 ,sidenote3 ,evidences in literature of the softening of the moral feelings ,the two great changes in the moral type consisted1 as ,lecky observes1 in the greater prominence accorded the benevolent or amiable virtues1 and in the broadening of the moral sympathies4#edh ,the effect of the action of the humanitarian ,greek spirit upon the old ,roman ideal of character was to soften its harsher features and to cause the heroic virtues to yield place1 in a measure1 to the benevolent qualities1 that is to say1 to those virtues which in the course of three centuries or more1 largely under ,hebrew-,christian influences1 were destined to assume a dominant place in the accepted ideal of moral excellence4#edi ,cicero1 ,vergil1 ,juvenal1 and ,seneca may be considered the truest representatives of this new-forming social conscience4 ,cicero1 writing just at the end of the ,republic and after ,rome for more than three generations had been under the influence of ,greek culture and philosophy1 exhibits unmistakably the effect upon the ,roman character of the comparatively humane and gentle spirit of ,hellas4 ,in his treatise ,de ,officiis1 8concerning duties10 in which he interprets and enlarges for the benefit of his son ,marcus the ethical work of the ,greek philosopher ,pantius1 he gives his sanction to moral doctrines which could hardly have been approved by a ,roman moralist before ,rome had felt the influence of the ethical spirit of ,greece4 ,the work is a glorification of the virtues of pity1 gentleness1 and benevolence4 ,the softening movement finds another representative in ,vergil4 ,his great poem is in its ethical spirit more ,greek than ,roman4 ,in the 8transformation of the goddess of lawless self-pleasing love into a goddess of a maternal compassionate love10 ,wedgwood would have us see summed up the change in moral feeling of the classical world during the centuries that separated the age of the ,iliad from that of the neid4#eej ,juvenal1#eea too1 applauds the moral qualities of pity and tenderness4 8,his moral tone appears to unite the spirit of two different ages40#eeb ,seneca denounced the gladiatorial games as inhuman and degrading4 ,he constantly lays emphasis upon those amiable virtues which belong rather to the ,greek than to the ,roman ideal of moral excellence4 ,sidenote3 ,ethical theory finds embodiment in practice ,nor was this moral evolution confined to ethical theory2 these precepts of the moralists found generous embodiment in practice4 ,especially was the age of the ,antonines a benevolent age1 one in which all kinds of charities abounded4 ,respecting private benefactions in this period ,professor ,samuel ,dill asserts that we may well doubt whether they were less numerous and generous than at the present day1 and that 8there has probably seldom been a time when wealth was more generally regarded as a trust1 a possession in which the community at large has a right to share40#eec ,these numerous gifts and legacies assumed the form of baths1 theaters1 libraries1 markets1 colonnades1 aqueducts1 fountains1 temples1 basilicas1 and other monuments of utility or adornment4 ,the motives which led to all this public giving were of course mixed1 just as are the motives of givers of to-day1 but we may without much hesitation assume with the historian ,dill that they sprang largely from genuine altruistic feeling1 from a recognition of the true uses of wealth1 and from a sense of the duty of the rich to the poor and dependent--from the same motives1 in a word1 that a century or two later were to cover these same lands with churches and monasteries and oratories4#eed ,sidenote3 ,the broadening movement3 ethical universalism as the outcome of the world empire and of ,stoicism ,the second important ethical movement in the pre-,christian ,roman world consisted1 as we have seen1 in the widening of the moral sympathies4 ,the two most efficient causes of this movement were the establishment of the world empire and the ascendancy at ,rome of ,greek philosophy1 particularly the philosophy of the ,stoics4 ,never before in the history of the world down to our own day were there so many forces and circumstances making for cosmopolitanism in life and thought as in the age of the early ,csars4 ,the growth of the little city state of ,rome into a world state had made all freemen actually or potentially citizens of the world4 ,the political unity of the world had awakened the consciousness of a moral unity4 ,in thought and feeling many select souls recognized themselves as brothers of all other men4 ,it was not merely the world-wide reach of the ,roman rule that promoted the growth of this cosmopolitanism1 but contributing largely to it were the policies of the imperial government1 many of whose agencies and institutions made directly and powerfully for the development of a sentiment of universal human kinship4 ,the unification of the world on its physical side1 by the creation of the splendid ,roman roads and the facilities thus provided for world-wide trade and travel1 had the same broadening effect upon the moral feelings that modern railways1 steamboats1 and telegraphs have upon the ethical sympathies of our own day4 ,furthermore1 the practically autocratic authority of the ,emperor tended to destroy class distinctions by reducing all to the same level of servitude1 to obliterate national boundaries1 and to weaken race prejudices4 ,then also1 as the capital of the world1 ,rome had become1 as a center and creator of cosmopolitan life1 a second ,alexandria4 ,the character1 too1 of the slaves1 drawn now largely from the ,east1 and often superior in culture to their masters1 tended to blur the distinctions between classes based on outer conditions1 and to suggest the doctrine of equality in the sphere of the spirit4 ,the army1 also1 recruited from every race and land in the ,empire1 and from the outside barbarian world as well1 with the legions raised in one country serving in another1 was a liberalizing agency1 and a most effective one in breaking down race barriers and in widening the mental outlook and the moral sympathies of the traveled legionaries4 ,the second great cause of the enlarging of the moral feelings was the influence of the ,greek spirit4 ,indeed1 this broadening movement was in large measure the effect of the action of the cosmopolitan spirit of the ,stoic philosophy upon the originally narrow spirit of ,rome4#eee ,evidences in literature of this widening of the moral horizon multiply from ,terence in the second century ,b4,c4 to the age of the ,antonines4 ,the familiar sentiment of the poet1 8,i am a man and nothing human is alien to me10#eef although we know nothing as to the response this evoked in the readers of ,terence1 may fairly be accepted as evidence that the new spirit of cosmopolitanism was already at work in ,roman society4 ,but the first clear sustained note of universalistic morality comes from ,cicero in his treatise ,de ,officiis1#eeg to which we have already referred4 ,the author says much about the ,law of ,nature and of the society and community of the human race4 ,one should1 in imitation of ,hercules1 even at the cost of great labor and pain1 give succor and aid to every one1 whoever he may be1 for this is consonant with nature4#eeh ,in destroying ,corinth ,rome was guilty of a great crime4#eei ,the human race forms a universal society1 by virtue of the bond of reason and speech2 therefore we are to do good to all men--but liberality should begin at home4#efj 8,the love of humanity10 he says1 8which has its beginnings in the love of parents for their offspring1 binds together first the members of the family2 then1 gradually reaching out beyond the domestic circle1 embraces successively relatives1 friends1 neighbors1 fellow citizens2 next broadens to include allied nations2 and finally comes to embrace the whole human race40#efa ,two generations later1 in the reign of ,nero1 ,seneca enjoined the same cosmopolitan morality4 ,he declared all men to be citizens of a universal commonwealth1 and inculcated the lofty sentiment1 8,man should be sacred to his fellow man40 ,epictetus in the same age preached a like doctrine of human fraternity1 and taught that a man should regard himself not as a citizen of this or of that city1 but as a citizen of the world4 ,but it is in the ,meditations of the ,emperor ,marcus ,aurelius that we find the most emphatic declaration of this ,stoic doctrine of the unity of mankind and the universal reach of the moral law4 ,as envisioned by the emperor-philosopher the whole world is a single state and all men are fellow citizens4 8,my city and country10 he says1 8so far as ,i am ,antoninus1 is ,rome1 but so far as ,i am a man1 it is the world40#efb ,again he muses3 8,the poet says1 ,dear city of ,cecrops2 and wilt not thou say1 ,dear city of ,zeus80#efc ,every man1 he declares1 should remember that every rational being is his kinsman1 and that 8to care for all men is according to man's nature20#efd for 8men exist for the sake of one another40#efe ,in what measure these moralists and philosophers whom we have quoted really represented their times it is of course impossible to say2 but probably we would not be wrong in assuming that they appealed to a certain public sentiment1 and that the doctrines they taught evoked consenting response from the moral consciousness of more than a few in every rank of ,roman society4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,stoic doctrine of the ,law of ,nature and its ethical influence ,the doctrine of the ,law of ,nature1 upon which such emphasis was laid by the ,stoic philosophers1 had such consequences for the evolution of ,roman morals and so great an influence upon the moral philosophers of later times1 particularly upon the speculations of the philosophers of the eighteenth century1 that we must in the present connection endeavor to gain some idea of what the ,stoics meant by this phrase1 and the ethical value of the conception4#eff ,the ,law of ,nature is merely the ,stoic designation of a law which1 under other names1 all the ages have revered as the supreme law of the universe4 ,it is practically the law of conscience1 the inner law written on the hearts of men4#efg ,it is that law which is in the background of our consciousness when we say1 8,we must obey ,god rather than man40 ,it is that holy law which came to ,hebrew prophet as the word of ,jehovah4 ,it is that inviolable law which ,antigone feared to break1 8a law not proclaimed by men1 and which lives not for to-day nor yesterday1 but evermore40#efh ,it is what the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states in a recent decision calls 8the rule of reason10 that inborn sense of what is reasonable and just4 ,this ,law of ,nature being thus the expression of what is most constituent and essential in man as man1 it necessarily results that there is a large common element in the customs and the rules of conduct of all peoples who are in the same or nearly the same stage of culture2 hence the substantial conformity between the ,law of ,nature and the ,laws of ,nations4 ,the conformity1 however1 is not perfect4 ,the moral task of humanity is to make it perfect4 ,it is of course the ethical imperative of the ,law of ,nature which has rendered it such a revolutionary and reconstructive force in history4 ,during the medieval period it was seldom invoked because the ,church and not the normal human reason was regarded as the supreme authority in the domain of morals4 ,but after the ,renaissance and the ,reformation had proclaimed the autonomy of the individual spirit and the ultimate authority of the individual conscience in the realm of moral right and wrong1 then came naturally an appeal from the rules and conventions of society to the unwritten ,law of ,nature2 hence the prominence it assumed in the writings of the philosophers of the eighteenth century1 who prepared the way for the ,french ,revolution4 ,but what it concerns us now to notice is merely the influence of this conception of a ,law of ,nature on the moral development in the later period of the ,roman ,empire4 ,a fundamental principle of the law1 as apprehended by the ,stoics1 is that men are born free and equal4 ,if this teaching be received as axiomatic1 it is easy to understand its importance for morality4 ,tried by this touchstone1 many social institutions1 such for instance as slavery1 are shown at once to be contrary to nature1 and hence opposed to natural justice4 ,the acceptance of this ,stoic doctrine by the ,roman jurists caused the ,roman law1 as we shall see immediately1 to be molded in opposition to servitude and in the interest of freedom4#efi ,sidenote3 ,influence of ,stoicism as an ethical force on ,roman government and law ,in its moral influence ,stoicism worked in the ,roman world more like a religion than a philosophy4 ,in truth it was a missionary philosophy4 ,it created in a remarkable measure moral enthusiasm4 8,in the ,roman ,empire10 declares ,lecky1 8almost every great character1 almost every effort in the cause of liberty1 emanated from the ranks of ,stoicism40#egj ,in the first place it presented an ideal of monarchy which powerfully influenced ,roman imperialism4#ega ,it made the prince 8the shepherd of his people40 ,it taught that the sole aim of the ruler should be 8the good of his subjects40 ,the effects of these teachings were evident in the rule of more than one of the pagan emperors4 ,the blessings which the reigns of ,pius and ,marcus ,aurelius ,antoninus and others of the 8good emperors0 brought to the ,roman world are to be attributed in large measure to the influence upon these rulers of the doctrines and ideals of ,stoicism4 ,in the beneficent rule of these ,stoic emperors the ideal of ,plato and ,dion was realized2 the philosopher was upon the throne4 ,only in the effects of the teachings of the philosophers of the eighteenth century upon the ,enlightened ,despots of that period do we find a like illustration of the influence of philosophy upon the possessors of absolute power4 ,the enlightened and humane spirit of ,stoicism was felt especially in the law4#egb ,it was the ,stoic doctrine of the natural equality of all men that worked most effectively in this domain4 ,many of the disabilities placed upon woman by the earlier law were removed2 children were emancipated in a measure from the now unreasonable authority of the father2#egc and the slave was placed under the protection of the law and safeguarded against the worst brutalities of a cruel master4 ,sidenote3 ,amelioration of slavery under the pagan emperors ,the mitigation of the lot of the slave constitutes so important a phase of the moral evolution of the pre-,christian period that we must consider it here apart and in some detail4 ,the causes of this moral reform were various4 ,among the most efficient agencies were ,stoicism and the other ,greek philosophies4#egd ,then the character of many of the slaves themselves1 the equal or superior often of their master in intelligence and culture1 won for the class respect and consideration4 ,furthermore1 the great number of freedmen1 who constituted a very large element of the free population of the ,empire1#ege tended to create a public sentiment favorable to the slave4 ,having had1 like ,epictetus the ,stoic1 acquaintance with the bitterness of bondage1 they knew how to pity the bondsman4 ,already in the first century of the ,empire all the chief leaders of moral reform taught that the slave is the equal of his master in capacity for virtue4#egf ,dion ,chrysostom condemned hereditary slavery as contrary to the ,law of ,nature and hence wrong4 ,he is thought to have been the earliest writer in the ,roman ,empire to take this advanced moral ground4#egg ,seneca proclaimed the obligations of the higher law3 8,although our laws10 he says1 8permit a master to treat his slave with every degree of cruelty1 still there are some things that the common law of life forbids being done to a human being40#egh ,cruel masters1 he adds1 are hated and detested4 ,the growing sentiment of tenderness for the slave found significant popular expression in the reign of ,nero4 ,a certain prefect of the city having been murdered by a slave1 the ,senate1 in accordance with ancient usage1 adjudged to death the entire household of slaves1 four hundred in number4 ,sentiment in the ,senate itself was divided1 some of the senators voting against the proposal1 while the people gathering in seditious crowds threatened to prevent by force the carrying out of the edict4 ,a body of soldiers was necessary to overawe the populace and secure the execution of the slaves4#egi ,a little later we see these growing humanitarian feelings reflected in the imperial legislation4 ,hadrian took away from masters the ancient right willfully to kill their slaves2 and ,antoninus ,pius made the killing of a slave1 sine causa1 murder4 ,the edicts of other emperors effected further mitigations of the law1 so that the slave code of the later pagan ,empire is characterized by a humaneness of spirit that places it in strong contrast with the callousness of the code of earlier times4 ,additional evidence of the increased humanity of the age is afforded by the numerous manumissions of slaves4#ehj ,the motives that prompted such action were undoubtedly mixed1 one self-regarding motive being the ambition to have a great retinue of clients2#eha but the dominant motive is unquestionably to be sought in the growing humanity of the age4 ,it is noteworthy that the greatest alleviations of slavery were effected before the influence of ,christianity was felt4 ,the ,christian emperors added almost nothing to the laws of the pagan ,empire ameliorating the lot of the slave1 and the ,christian bishops in general fell behind ,seneca in advocacy of the cause of the bondsman4 ,the emphasis laid by the ,church upon a future life where the poor and the oppressed of this world should receive compensation for their wrongs and sufferings here1 caused the ,christian teachers to regard earthly rank and outer conditions of life as of little moment4#ehb ,sidenote3 ,ethics of the persecution of the ,christians by the pagan emperors ,while considering the steady expansion of the moral sympathies and the growth of humanitarian sentiment in the pagan ,empire1 we are confronted by the startling fact that the best of the emperors1 those most closely identified with the legislation embodying the new spirit of humanity and justice1 were among the most severe and persistent persecutors of the ,christians4 ,this apparent moral paradox is the same as will again confront us in the medieval age in connection with the ,inquisition and the cruel persecution of heretics and dissenters by a ,church which was based on the principle of universal love1 and which exalted to the highest place in its ideal of goodness the qualities of gentleness and pity4 ,the paradox in each case is1 however1 such only in seeming4 ,the persecution of ,christians by pagans1 and of heretics by ,christians1 was practically the inevitable issue of certain ideas and beliefs which became the premises of moral conclusions4 ,in neither case does the act of the persecutor necessarily imply moral turpitude4#ehc ,the persecution of the ,christians by the pagan emperors sprang in the main from the belief--in connection with the idea of corporate responsibility--that the welfare of the state was bound up with the careful observance of the rites of the temple4#ehd ,it was thought that the neglect of the temple service by any single member of the community awakened the resentment of the gods toward all the members alike4 ,if the ,tiber overflowed its banks1 the people were ready to believe that the calamity had been brought upon the city by the neglect of the new sect to offer the customary sacrifices to the gods1 and the cry arose1 8,the ,christians to the lions60 ,in a word1 the refusal of the ,christians to participate in the common worship was looked upon as a crime1 as a species of treason against the state1 and was punished as such4#ehe ,sidenote3 ,stoic teachings ,christian in tone and sentiment ,as we are now approaching the time when a new moral ideal1 that of ,christianity1 is to displace the old classical ideal of character1 it will be both instructive and interesting to note to what degree this ideal which was passing away had1 in theory if not in practice1 under the varied influences to which it had been subjected through the centuries1 become assimilated to this new ideal of excellence4#ehf ,the nobility of forgiveness was taught by many of the pagan philosophers with ,christian insistence4 ,cicero regarded repentance as perhaps sufficient to stay the hand of chastisement1 and declares that nothing is more laudable than clemency and willingness to forgive4#ehg ,marcus ,aurelius would repress even the first risings of resentment for injury3 8,when one is trying to do thee harm1 continue to be of a kind disposition toward him1 gently admonish him1 and calmly correct his error1 saying1 #8,not so1 my child2 we are constituted by nature for something else2 ,i shall certainly not be injured1 but thou art injuring thyself1 my child1'--and show him by gentle tact and by general principles that this is so40#ehh ,and again3 8,it is royal to do good and to be abused0#ehi2 8be gentle toward those who try to hinder or otherwise trouble thee40#eij 8,the best way of avenging thyself is not to become like the wrongdoer40#eia ,epictetus quotes with approval ,pittacus1 one of the ,seven ,wise ,men1 in these words3 8,forgiveness is better than revenge1 for forgiveness is the sign of a gentle nature1 but revenge the sign of a savage nature40#eib ,purity and sincerity of thought is inculcated by ,marcus ,aurelius4 8,a man should10 he says1 8accustom himself to think of those things only about which if one should suddenly ask1 ,what hast thou now in thy thought8 with perfect openness thou mightest immediately answer1 ,this or that2 so that from thy word it should be plain that everything in thee is simple and benevolent40#eic ,seneca taught that adversity has moral uses3 8,god does not pamper the good man2 he puts him to the test to prove him1 he hardens him1 and thus prepares him for himself40#eid ,trust in ,providence and resignation is inculcated by ,marcus ,aurelius in many passages in which he teaches that one should accept with all his soul everything which happens to him as his portion assigned by ,god4 ,he trusts in ,him who governs2 he says to the universe1 8,i love as thou lovest40#eie ,he accepts death with perfect resignation whether it be extinction1 or birth into another life3 8,to go away from among men is not a thing to be afraid of1 for the gods1 if there be gods1 will not involve thee in evil40#eif ,but death may be extinction4 ,if so1 well2 for 8if it ought to have been otherwise1 the gods would have ordered it so40#eig ,strangely ,christian in tone are the reflections of ,marcus ,aurelius on the transitoriness of earthly life3 8,what belongs to the soul is a dream and vapor1 and life is a warfare and a stranger's sojourn40#eih ,the duty of godlikeness is enjoined by ,epictetus3 8,he who seeks to please the gods must labor as far as in him lies to resemble them4 ,he must be faithful as ,god is faithful1 free as ,he is free1 beneficent as ,he is beneficent1 magnanimous as ,he is magnanimous40#eii ,marcus ,aurelius sums up the duty of man in love to his fellows and in following ,god2#fjj and ,plutarch declares that 8man can enjoy no greater blessing from ,god than to attain to virtue by the earnest imitation of the noblest qualities of the divine nature40#fja ,sidenote3 ,some divergences between ,roman and ,christian ethics ,but while in many of the teachings of the leaders of moral thought in the later ,roman ,empire1 as shown by the above quotations1 we find a near approach to ,christian ethics1 or a perfect accordance therewith1 still it is a fact that must not be overlooked or minimized that in other of their teachings in which they represented more truly the popular conceptions of right and wrong1 they as conspicuously diverged from the ,christian ideal4 ,we have heard some of the moralists1 particularly the ,stoic ,marcus ,aurelius1 condemning the spirit of revenge and extolling forgiveness as a virtue2 but in general the ,stoics as well as the followers of other schools had not advanced beyond the common conscience of the time in regard to the permissibility and even duty of returning injury for injury4 ,cicero unequivocally approved the taking of revenge for injuries received2#fjb only the person injured should avenge himself equitably and humanely4#fjc ,again he says that justice requires that no one should do harm to another1 8unless in requital of some injury received40#fjd ,even the gentle ,plutarch1 who may be regarded as representing the composite ideal of character which was forming in the first century of the ,empire through the union of ,greek and ,roman ethical ideas and feelings1 declares it to be a virtue to make one's self disagreeable to one's enemies4 ,tyrannicide1 which in general is condemned by the modern conscience1 was given by the ,roman moralist1 as by the ,greek teachers1 a place among the greatest of the virtues4 ,cicero deems it a meritorious act to slay a tyrant on the ground that he is but a 8ferocious beast in the guise of a man10#fje and declares that of all illustrious deeds the ,roman people regard tyrannicide the most laudable4#fjf ,consistently he extols the killing of the ,gracchi4#fjg ,pity or compassion for suffering1 which is assigned such a high place in the ,christian type of character1 was regarded by the ,roman moralists as a weakness1 even a vice2 not but that they extolled clemency in the ruler1 but they distinguished between this sentiment and that of pity4 ,seneca declared pity to be a vice incident to weak minds4 8,the wise man10 he said1 8will dry the tears of others but will not add his to theirs4 ,he will not pity those in distress1 but will relieve and aid them40#fjh ,suicide1 which to the modern conscience appears a censurable act1 was by most of the ,roman moralists regarded with unqualified approval1#fji provided the person committing the act had a strong motive for doing so4 ,epictetus said1 8,the door is open02 but added this admonition1 8,do not depart without a reason40#faj ,but almost any circumstance which made life hard or a burden would justify the act2 8,the house is smoky1 and ,i quit it10 calmly remarks the ,stoic ,emperor ,aurelius4#faa ,seneca says1 8,the eternal law has decreed nothing better than this1 that life should have but one entrance and many exits40#fab ,he thinks the gods must have looked on with great joy when ,cato1 with the world fallen into ,csar's power1 drove the sword into his own breast4 ,that in his view was 8a glorious and memorable departure40 ,by such an act a man raises himself to the level of the gods4#fac ,suicide was at its height in the early ,empire4 ,this is to be explained by the teachings of the ,stoics--among whom suicides were numerous#fad--;and the unbearable tyranny of the imperial rgime4 ,not till ,christianity came with its teachings regarding the sacredness of human life and the duty of resignation was there any essential change in the general attitude of the ancient world toward the act of self-destruction4#fae ,sidenote3 ,the insufficiency of ,stoicism as a moral guide for the masses ,the composite ,greco-,roman ideal1 in which ,stoicism had united the best elements of the ,greek and the ,roman type of character1 while it did serve as a guide to the moral strivings of select souls1 was wholly unfitted to give support to the moral life of the masses or to awaken in them moral enthusiasm4 ,there were in ,stoicism two serious defects which made it impossible for it to become the guide and rule of life for the multitude4 ,first1 it was too intellectually exalted and cold to make appeal to the common people4 ,the ,stoics1 in the suppression of the feelings and emotions1--8they made solitude in the heart and called it peace10#faf--;cut themselves off from all sympathy with the masses1 with whom feeling is ever the larger part of life4 ,second1 ,stoicism failed to give due place to the religious sentiment4 ,belief in the ancestral ,roman gods had1 it is true1 been undermined1 but the religious feeling of awe and mystery in the presence of the ,unseen was deeper and more universal than ever before4 ,man1 in the fine phrase of ,sabatier1 is incurably religious4 ,the ideal of character which shall appeal to the masses must be an ideal whose requirements make full recognition of the rightful claims of human affections and of the religious instinct of mankind4 ,the mystical and religious ,east contributes to the ideal created by the interaction of the ,greek and the ,roman spirit those elements which neither of the classical cultures could supply4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,orient contributes new elements to the moral life of the ,west ,from the first century of our era1 ,rome was in close contact with the ,orient1 as long before she had been in contact with ,greece4 ,and just as the ,greek spirit had profoundly influenced the moral ideal of ,rome1 so now was the spirit of the ,orient to effect even greater changes in her ancestral standard of character4 ,as philosophy mediated between ,rome and ,greece1 so did religion mediate between ,rome and the ,orient4 ,it was through the religions or cults of ,egypt1 ,persia1 and ,judea that the ethical forces of the ancient cultures of the ,east were brought to bear on ,roman life and thought and conduct4 ,in the present connection we shall speak only of the influences which went forth from ,egypt and ,persia1 and point out in what way they gave an added impulse to that ethical movement going on in the ,roman world which finally culminated in the triumph of the creed and moral ideal of ,judea4 ,sidenote3 ,the contribution of ,egypt2 the worship of ,isis ,and first we note the relation to this ethical evolution of the worship of ,isis and ,serapis1 the chief imported and modified cults of the ancient civilization of the ,valley of the ,nile4 ,in this worship religion and morality were joined in a way practically unknown to the priestly colleges of ,rome4 8,the ,egyptian10 says ,lecky1 8444 bowed low before the divine presence4 ,he veiled his eyes1 he humbled his reason1 he represented the introduction of a new element into the moral life of ,europe1 the spirit of religious reverence and awe40#fag ,forming an important part of the body of ideas which constituted the basis of this religious feeling1 was the doctrine of a life after death4 ,this was a doctrine which was common to all the ,oriental religions with which we have here to do1--the ,isiac1 the ,mithraic1 and the ,christian1--but a doctrine which1 aside from the initiates of the ,orphic1 the ,eleusinian1 and like ,mysteries1 was practically new to the classical world4 ,it was this doctrine which helped greatly to secure for these religions or cults such wide acceptance in the ,roman world1--for the ,roman world1 old1 worn1 and weary1 was yearning for assurance of another and better life1--and which largely explains the moral influence they exerted upon the nations of the ,west4#fah ,for more than five hundred years the worship of ,isis particularly found ardent devotees in the ,west4 ,the general effect of the cult upon its followers was to cause the active1 heroic qualities in the old ,roman ideal of character to be overshadowed by the passive contemplative virtues1 and to impart a religious1 ritual character to the moral code4 ,expiatory and purification rites formed a large part of the duties of the worshiper of the ,egyptian goddess4#fai ,sidenote3 ,the contribution of ,persia3 ,mithraism ,the influence of ,egypt upon the religious-ethical life of the ,west was renforced by a like influence from ,persia1 which came through the cult of ,mithra4#fbj ,this worship came into ,europe by the way of ,asia ,minor4 ,its missionaries were seemingly ,oriental recruits in the ,roman legions4 ,it came bearing many accretions gathered in its passage through the west ,asian lands1 and yet with all the characteristics which marked the old ,persian religion as a religion of combat and strenuousness1 of moral striving and moral achievement4#fba ,during the last three centuries of the ,empire the cult spread widely in the ,western lands1 taking deep root especially in the frontier regions of the ,danube and the ,rhine1 and in the remote province of ,britain4 ,this incoming of ,mithraism had special significance for the reason that ,mithra1 as the god of light1 was invested with certain moral qualities symbolized by his physical attributes4 ,he was the god of truth and purity4 ,it was this moral element in the cult1 in connection with its doctrine of a future life1--the promise and hope of which was dependent upon purification1 inward as well as ceremonial1 from all earthly stains and impurities1--which in a measure met and satisfied the yearnings of the age1 and which1 in the great religious and ethical propaganda that marked the later centuries of the ,roman ,empire1 rendered the religion of ,mithra the most formidable rival of ,christianity in its great competition with the various ,oriental religions and cults for supremacy in the hearts and consciences of men4#fbb ,sidenote3 ,relation of the ,egyptian and ,persian propaganda to that of ,christianity ,but the pagan priest no more than the pagan philosopher could effect the moral renovation of ancient society4 ,like the moral propaganda carried on by ,cynic1 ,stoic1 and ,neoplatonist missionaries and preachers1 these efforts of paganism to effect its own moral regeneration failed1 perhaps because these pagan cults lacked what ,christianity possessed--8the dynamic of a great personality40 ,yet these efforts were not without influence upon the ethical development of the ,western nations4 ,in two ways the ,egyptian and ,persian propaganda was a preparation for the moral revolution effected by ,christianity3 first1 it helped to give morality a religious basis1 which it did not have in classical antiquity2 and second1 it taught men to seek in deity and not in themselves the pattern of moral excellence4#fbc ,thus did ,egypt and ,persia1 through the mediation of religion1 contribute important ethical elements to ,greco-,roman civilization1 and thereby help to give a fresh impulse and a new trend to the moral evolution of the ,western world4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,doctrinal ,,christianity3 ,,an ,,ideal ,,of ,,right ,,belief ,sidenote3 ,ethical import of the ,christianization of ,rome ,the establishment of ,christianity1 in its ,greco-,judaic form1 as the favored religion of the ,roman ,empire by the edict of the ,emperor ,constantine is rightly regarded as one of the most important events not only in the history of the ,empire but also in that of the ,western world4 ,what made this act1 or rather the religious revolution it registered1 of such transcendent importance was the fact that the ascendancy of the new religion meant the ascendancy of a new moral ideal2 for ,christianity1 unlike ,stoicism1 did not merely act upon the old classical ideal of excellence to modify and remold it1 but superseded it by another made up largely of a wholly different set of virtues4 ,it was this new ethical element thus introduced into ,greco-,roman civilization which was the most dynamic of the forces active in the transformation of the ancient into the medieval world4 ,the new ideal re-created ethically the ,roman world and made ,europe for a thousand years and more--until the ,renaissance of the fifteenth century called forth again the ethical thought and feeling of classical antiquity--in moral conviction and striving an extension of ,asia4 ,a prerequisite to an intelligent study of the history of this new moral ideal is a knowledge of the beliefs and theological doctrines out of which it arose2 for this ideal has through the centuries followed the fortune of these beliefs and teachings4 ,in the immediately following pages we shall indicate what were some of the most influential of these ideas and doctrines4 ,i4 ,,religious ,,ideas ,,and ,,theological ,,dogmas ,,molding ,,the ,,ideal ,sidenote3 ,the doctrine of a moral law supernaturally revealed ,among the doctrines of ,christian theology freighted heavily with ethical consequences was that of a moral law supernaturally promulgated4 ,this was essentially an ,oriental conception1 a heritage of ,christianity from the ,hebrew past1 and a conception quite alien in general to the manner of thinking of the ,greeks and ,romans1 with whom morality1 as we have seen1 was a civic and secular and human thing1 an expression of man's essential nature1 that is1 an outcome of the human reason and conscience4 ,this doctrine exercised an immense influence upon the moral evolution in the ,western world4 ,first1 it displaced naturalism with supernaturalism in ethics4 ,the whole history of morals records no revolution more momentous than this4 ,second1 it made rigid large sections of the moral code and thus tended to impart for an historical epoch a certain immobility to the religious-ethical side of ,european civilization4 ,sidenote3 ,the teaching of the unity of ,god and of his universal fatherhood ,another idea found in this body of religious doctrines1 an idea rich in ethical consequences1 was the conception of ,god as one and as the ,universal ,father4 ,we have seen that the great defect in primitive morality was the limited range of the moral feelings4 ,the circle of moral obligation was bounded by the clan1 the tribe1 the city4 ,this resulted in large part from the notion that each kin group had an origin and ancestry different from that of every other4 ,one group thought themselves to be the offspring of ,zeus2 another proclaimed themselves to be the descendants of ,heracles2 and still another believed themselves to be the children of ,mars4 ,so long as this view of men's origin and descent prevailed there could arise no conception of their spiritual relationship and ethical oneness4 ,tacitus merely expressed the common opinion of the ancient world when he declared absurd the doctrine that all men are brothers4 ,but from the doctrine of the common fatherhood of ,god there arises naturally the conception of the essential brotherhood of men4 ,the apostle's declaration1 8,we are the offspring of ,god10#fbd--phrasing the teachings of the ,master in terms understood by the men to whom he spoke1--announced the opening of a new era in the moral development of the race4 ,the proclamation of this practically new thought#fbe meant1 at once in ethical theory and sooner or later in actual practice1 the widening of the narrow class and race circle of moral obligation to include all tribes and peoples4 ,sidenote3 ,the doctrine of a future life of rewards and punishments ,greco-,roman morality was influenced but slightly by a belief in a life after death4 ,the vision of the other world was in general too indistinct for it to exert any decided influence upon the conduct of men4#fbf ,the conception of ,hades1 though it did undergo with the lapse of time a process of moralization1 was never so far ethicalized as to have a positive moral value4 ,but by ,christianity the other world was lifted into such prominence as it had had in the life and thought of no people of antiquity except the ,egyptians1 and immortality was declared to be the destiny of every human soul4 ,with the classical peoples it was the city which had been conceived as eternal4 ,this transference of immortality from the city to the individual had vast import for morality4#fbg ,what contributed to render it of such ethical importance was the fact that the after life was conceived as a life of rewards and punishments4 ,a heaven of ineffable and everlasting bliss and a hell of unutterable and everlasting torment were laid open to the eyes of men1 and became the tremendous sanctions of the new moral code promulgated by ,christianity4 ,it would be difficult to exaggerate the influence of this teaching upon the moral life of the ,european peoples1 especially during the medieval centuries of faith4 ,to make this life transitory1 vain1 and worthless1 and life in another world the only real life1 is to cause the transvaluation of all moral values1 and to change fundamentally conceptions of what is rational and right in conduct4 ,sidenote3 ,the teaching of the sanctity of human life ,springing naturally from the foregoing conceptions of man's origin and eternal destiny is the ,christian doctrine of the sanctity of human life4 ,in no respect do ,christian teachings contrast more sharply with pagan conceptions than in this regard4 ,in the ,greco-,roman view value did not attach to man as man4 ,to the ,greek way of thinking it was the ,greek freeman alone who possessed the full capacity for virtue and the rights of manhood4 ,in the common ,roman view only the ,roman citizen was regarded as dowered with the full faculties and rights of a human being4 ,the slave was looked upon and treated as belonging to an inferior order of existence4 ,the ,christian doctrine of man's divine sonship and of his eternal destiny gave infinite worth to every human life1 and1 investing man as man with an inviolable sanctity1 worked effectively in widening the range of the moral sympathies and in bringing within the scope of the moral law all classes and conditions of men4 ,it checked infanticide1 which in the pre-,christian world had been very generally practiced without the least moral scruple2 it suppressed the gladiatorial games in which the lives of men were placed on a level with those of the wild beasts with which they fought2 it helped to make suicide1 which the ,romans looked upon as a noble mode of departure from life1 a crime2 and contributed to mitigate the lot of the slave and finally to help lift him into freedom4 ,sidenote3 ,the dogma of the fall of man and hereditary guilt ,the view of man's moral nature taught by the ,founder of ,christianity was simple and natural4 ,it is embodied in the parable of the prodigal son4 ,man may go wrong1 but he has ever the capacity1 and1 when he comes to himself1 the desire1 to return to the right way4 ,in direct opposition to this view of man's nature and deepest preferences as being essentially good1 we find elaborated in early ,christian theology the dogma that the first man1 though created upright1 fell through disobedience and transmitted to all his descendants a nature wholly evil and a total incapacity for doing good or even desiring the good4 ,and not only was man thus attainted by the primal disobedience1 but all nature became accursed4 ,this dogma of the fall of man is one of the most influential conceptions in the moral domain ever entertained by the human mind4 ,it was the germ from which was developed the larger part of ,christian theological ethics4#fbh ,for out of the dogma of ancestral sin and total depravity sprang naturally and logically the doctrines of the atonement1 imputed righteousness1 and salvation through faith4 ,the moral history of the ,christian centuries we shall find to be largely the history of the influence of this doctrine upon men's conceptions of their religious obligations and duties4 ,as with the passage of time and the incoming of evolutionary science the belief in this teaching decays1 we shall find men's idea of what constitutes duty in the religious sphere undergoing a great change1 and shall see acts1 observances1 and states of mind once regarded as supremely virtuous and indispensable to salvation now looked upon as morally indifferent or even positively wrong4 ,sidenote3 ,the doctrine of the sacredness of the ,sabbath ,christianity inherited from ,judaism the belief in the sacred character of the ,sabbath day4 ,this belief created one of the most important of the religious duties of the ,christian4 ,it determined how one seventh of all his time should be spent4 ,the history of the observance of this ,sabbath as holy time1 and the changed moral value attached to such observance as times and beliefs have changed1 forms a chapter of the greatest suggestiveness to the student of the evolution of morals1 since this chapter epitomizes and repeats the entire history of ceremonial or ritual morality4 ,sidenote3 ,the personality of the ,prophet of ,nazareth#fbi ,but far more influential than all these inherited ,jewish beliefs and doctrines of speculative theology in molding the moral ideal of ,christianity1 in all that renders it superior to the moral ideals of the other great religions of the world1 as well as in all that it possesses of permanent ethical value for humanity1 has been the simple appealing story of the words and deeds of the ,prophet of ,nazareth4#fcj ,those elements of the ideal which are based on speculative theological doctrines have changed as these doctrines have changed with the world's advance in general intelligence and with the deepening and clarifying of the moral consciousness of men2 while those elements derived from that wonderful personality1 from that life of unbounded tenderness and love and self-forgetting service1 have been given an ever higher and more dominant place in the world's ideal of goodness4 ,in the eloquent words of the historian ,lecky3 8,it was reserved for ,christianity to present to the world an ideal character1 which through all the changes of eighteen centuries has inspired the hearts of men with an impassioned love2 has shown itself capable of acting on all ages1 nations1 temperaments1 and conditions2 has been not only the highest pattern of virtue but the strongest incentive to its practice2 and has exercised so deep an influence that it may be truly said that the simple record of three short years of active life has done more to regenerate and to soften mankind than all the disquisitions of philosophers and the exhortations of moralists4 ,this has indeed been the well-spring of whatever is best and purest in ,christian life40#fca ,,ii4 ,,the ,,moral ,,ideal ,sidenote3 ,orthodoxy1 or correct religious opinion1 the indispensable saving virtue#fcb ,before the end of the third century1 under the influence largely of the speculative ,greek spirit1 what was to be essentially the historical creed of the ,church had been practically formulated and the corresponding moral code brought into existence4#fcc ,in the creation of this standard of goodness which was to give guidance for an epoch to the moral life of the ,european peoples1 it was the theological doctrine of the moral value of faith1 which came practically to be defined as 8the acceptance of the dogma of the ,trinity and the main articles of the creed10 that determined the precedence and subordination of virtues and duties4#fcd ,correct belief was made an indispensable virtue4 ,without this there could be no salvation4#fce ,on the other hand1 unbelief1 doubt1 error1 even honest error1 in religious matters was declared to be in the highest degree sinful4 ,this conception that belief is a virtue and doubt a sin was destined1 since it imperils freedom of thought1 to have momentous and sinister consequences for the intellectual and moral history of ,europe4 ,sidenote3 ,the virtue of charity or love ,just as the theological dogma of the ethical value of religious opinions has made correct belief theoretically the saving virtue in ,church ethics1 so has the personality of ,jesus1 his teachings and his self-sacrificing life as mirrored in the gospel records1 made love and service of others1 in multitudes of souls1 practically the supreme and controlling motive of life4 ,it was the emphasis placed by primitive ,christianity on this virtue1 and the persuasion to its practice afforded by the example of the ,master1 that for the first two centuries of the new era--until the emphasis became changed from right living to right opinion--lent to the moral life in the ,christian communities of the ,empire such sincerity1 purity1 and elevation as have marked no other period in the history of the ,church4 ,but orthodox theology has never allowed that charity1 though combined with perfect uprightness of life and expressed in noblest acts of self-abnegating service of humanity1 is a saving virtue unless associated with correctness of religious belief and the outgrowth of it4 ,this opposition in the bosom of the ,church itself between theological and natural morality has created a great dualism in the moral history of all the ,christian centuries1 like the dualism in ancient ,hebrew history caused by the opposition between the morality of ritualism and the morality of prophetism4 ,sidenote3 ,the body of secondary virtues ,alongside the primary ,christian virtue1 whether this be regarded as correct belief or as charity1 were grouped a cluster of secondary virtues1 such as humility1 meekness1 gentleness1 compassion for weakness1 resignation1 and renunciation of the world4 ,what is especially noteworthy respecting this body of moral qualities making up the ,christian ideal of excellence is that all these were virtues which in general were undervalued or held in positive disesteem by the ,greeks and ,romans4#fcf ,indeed it was made a matter of reproach to the early ,christians by the pagan opponents of ,christianity1 that its virtues were all servile virtues--the virtues of the slave4 ,it was undoubtedly this character of the new ideal which caused it1 in the primal age of ,christianity1 to make such strong appeal to the common people1 to the despised and lowly1 to the broken and humble in spirit1 in the aristocratically graded society of the ancient world4 ,sidenote3 ,creation of specific types through modifications of the general ideal ,the ,christian ideal of excellence has fulfilled itself in many ways2 that is1 different types have arisen through the shifting in rank of the virtues constituting the ideal1 through the incorporation of pagan elements1 through racial influence1 and through the reaction upon the ideal of the changing intellectual1 political1 and economic environment4 ,generally these specific forms of the ideal have been created by an exaggerated enthusiasm for one or another particular virtue of the standard1 which has caused this special virtue so to overshadow all the others1 save the indispensable one of correct belief1 as to bring into existence a distinctive ,christian type4 ,thus through the exaltation of the virtue of chastity there arose in the early ,church the ascetic type of excellence1 which for several centuries inspired unbounded moral enthusiasm and drew away into the desert and into the seclusion of the cloister great multitudes of both men and women2 later1 through the reaction upon the ,church of the pagan and barbarian world it had nominally converted1 and through the incorporation into the ideal of a number of heathen virtues1 there came into existence a composite type of character--a combination of the virtues of the saint and the virtues of the hero--known as the chivalric ideal1 which colored the events of ,european history from the ninth to the fourteenth century2 and still later1 through the suppression of some of the distinctive virtues of the ,roman ,catholic type of excellence and a fresh emphasis laid upon others1 there was created the ,protestant type of moral character1 which has given a special cast to the theological morality of a large section of modern ,christendom4 ,sidenote3 ,limitations and defects of the ideal ,that we may better be prepared to follow intelligently the various phases of the moral history of the ,christian centuries1 to the tracing of which the remaining chapters of this volume will be devoted1 there is need that to the brief description we have now given of the chief virtues making up the ideal which was to give guidance to the moral life of the ,european peoples1 we add a word concerning its limitations and defects1 since these negative qualities of the ideal have exercised an influence scarcely less decisive than its positive qualities in making the history of the ,christian world what it has been--a history1 on the whole1 of inspiring moral progress1 yet a history of moral losses as well as of moral gains4 ,the first limitation of the ideal which we notice is its practical exclusion of those civic1 patriotic duties and virtues which had been so highly esteemed by both the ,greeks and the ,romans4 ,man was henceforth to be the citizen of no earthly city1 but of a heavenly city whose builder and maker is ,god4 ,we can easily understand how this new conception of life1 which transferred all its chief interests to another world1 which substituted the ,church--symbolized in accordance with the modes of thought of the time as 8the city of ,god0--for the ancient city state as the object of moral enthusiasm and self-devotion1 should leave no place for those civic1 military1 and heroic virtues that had constituted the very soul of the morality of classical antiquity4 ,a second limitation of the ideal is its neglect of the intellectual virtues1 which by the ,greeks had been assigned such a high place in their ethical standard4#fcg ,the slighting of this important domain of ethics by ,christian theology arose naturally from its exaltation of faith above reason1 and from its assumption that in the revealed word the ,church was already in possession of all knowledge really essential to man's welfare and salvation4#fch ,but the chief defect of the ideal1 the lamentable historical consequences of which we shall witness later1 is1 as we have already pointed out1 in its making the acceptance of all the articles of a given creed an indispensable virtue4 ,in assigning orthodox belief this place in the ideal of moral goodness1 theological ethics has marred ,christian morality by fostering the faults of intolerance and intellectual insincerity4 ,this dogma inspired in the ,church1 as soon as it became powerful1 a persecuting spirit1 and made ,christianity for centuries something altogether alien to its real genius and spirit--one of the most intolerant of the world's religions4 ,at the same time this dogma1 by making religious unbelief and nonconformity a sin so heinous as to be worthy of death by the most exquisite torture1 and of everlasting punishment in the hereafter1 discouraged intellectual veracity and open-mindedness1 and fostered the vice of insincere conformity1 which1 more than any other fault1 has marred ,church morality from the end of the early age of the martyrs to the present day4 ,sidenote3 ,conclusion ,in the following pages we shall follow the fortunes of this ethical ideal through medieval and modern times4 ,we shall trace the modifying influence upon it of the different and changing elements of the civilization of which it has formed a part1 and shall note the reaction of the ideal1 in its successive types1 upon the history of the passing centuries4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,moral ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,christian ,,asceticism ,i4 ,,conceptions ,,of ,,life ,,and ,,historical ,,circumstances ,,that ,,produced ,,the ,,ascetic ,,ideal ,sidenote3 ,general fostering causes of asceticism ,before the close of the third century the development in the ,christian communities of the ,east of asceticism1 the germs of which were immanent from the first in ,christianity1 had given a remarkable trend to the moral movement inaugurated by the new religion4 ,we shall gain a sympathetic understanding of this phase of ,christian ethics only as we bear in mind the conceptions of life and of the world1 and the historical conditions which in general tend to foster the development of the ascetic ideal of goodness4 ,asceticism1 a definitive characteristic of which is renunciation of the world and all earthly pleasures1 springs from various roots4 ,sometimes it grows out of a dualistic world philosophy1 which1 holding matter to be an evil creation and 8the corruptible body a load upon the soul10 teaches the meritoriousness of the suppression1 in the interest of the spirit1 of all bodily impulses and appetites4 ,sometimes it arises from inequitable and oppressive conditions of society1 which have made life for the enslaved and impoverished masses so joyless and wretched as to create an inappeasable yearning for deliverance from its intolerable burdens4 ,again1 it springs from a world philosophy1 which1 because of its vivid vision of another world of eternal realities1 undervalues and reduces to nothingness this earthly life and all its relationships4 ,still again1 it may spring from the soil of a morally decadent civilization1 for1 unless the sources of spiritual life have been wholly destroyed1 from a debasing sensuality and dissoluteness that rob life of worth and dignity there is ever sure to come a reaction--a reaction expressing itself in an extreme emphasis laid upon the worth and meritoriousness of world renunciation4 ,sidenote3 ,fostering causes of ,christian asceticism3 7a7 certain ,christian teachings ,now in the case of ,christianity there was1 in the early ,christian centuries1 an unusual concurrence of causes and conditions conducive to the growth of asceticism4 ,first1 there were virile germs of asceticism in the teachings of the new religion4 ,it taught that the things of the spirit are the only abiding realities4 ,it caused this earthly life to shrink into insignificance and to disappear as it opened to the eyes of faith the infinite perspectives of another world4 ,the ,master said3 8,he that hateth his life in this world shall keep it unto life eternal4444 ,whosoever he be of you that forsaketh not all that he hath1 he cannot be my disciple40 ,and to the young man who asked him what he should do to inherit eternal life1 he replied1 8,sell all that thou hast1 and distribute unto the poor1 and thou shalt have treasure in heaven3 and come1 follow me40 ,he seemed to set the relationships of the spiritual life above the most intimate of earthly relationships when he declared1 8,if any man come to me1 and hate not his father1 and mother1 and wife1 and children1 and brethren1 and sisters1 yea1 and his own life also1 he cannot be my disciple40 ,he taught the worthlessness of earthly riches compared with the treasures of the spirit1 and declared that the rich should hardly enter into the kingdom of heaven4 ,the disciples and near followers of the ,master spoke in like manner4 ,these teachings tended directly and powerfully to cause men to regard this earthly life as fleeting and valueless1 and to esteem those as choosing the better and worthier part who1 breaking all earthly ties and suppressing all natural affections and desires1 sought in the solitude of the desert or the quiet of the cloister to win the life eternal4 ,sidenote3 7b7 ,the social and moral state of the ,greco-,roman world ,these seeds of ,asian asceticism fell into a soil well fitted to nourish them into a vigorous growth4 ,the doctrine of world renunciation was one easy of acceptance by the age in which ,christianity arose1#fci for the world into which primitive ,christianity entered was a senile1 disillusioned1 morally corrupt1 and life-weary world4 ,it was an aged and disillusioned world4 ,the great races of the ,east and the ,west1 which had been the pioneers in human culture1 were now old4 ,they had lost the youthful zest of life4 ,it was the disillusionment of age that predisposed the minds of men to an acceptance of the doctrine of deliverance through self-denial and renunciation of the world4 ,and this old world was morally corrupt4 ,the vice of ancient civilization in its senility was sensuality4 ,christian asceticism was in part a recoil from this dissoluteness which denied the worth and majesty of life4#fdj ,and because it was a sensual world it was a life-weary world4 ,the prevailing mood of society of the ,greco-,roman ,empire at the time of the great propaganda of ,christianity was one of satiety and weariness4 ,it was a favorable moment to preach contempt of the world and all earthly things4 ,thus did the state of decrepitude and moral decadence into which the cultured communities of the ancient world had fallen1 help to develop into a spirit of absolute world renunciation the spirit of unworldliness which characterized primitive ,christianity4 ,sidenote3 7c7 ,the ,platonic philosophy ,still another influence which contributed to give direction and force to the ethical movement of the age was the ,platonic philosophy4 ,there is in this philosophy an ascetic element4 ,plato taught that a life of contemplation aloof from society is the highest and the truly blessed life4 ,this teaching was one of the formative forces in the creation of the monastic ideal4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,ideal ,,and ,,its ,,chief ,,types ,sidenote3 ,the two types of the ascetic ideal3 7a7 the anchoretic2 7b7 the monastic ,the moral ideal of ,christian asceticism is1 in its essential elements1 the same as the ascetic ideal of other religions4 ,its leading requirement1 after that of right belief1 is1 in comprehensive terms1 world renunciation4 ,in the early ,christian period with which we have here to do1 the ideal presented two types1 the anchoretic and the monastic4 ,the anchoretic or eremite conception of the perfect life was complete renunciation of the world with all its domestic1 social1 business1 and political ties1 and a life in the desert1 apart from all human companionship1 spent in ceaseless vigils1 prayer1 and meditation4 ,he who followed this mode of life with the utmost rigor1 who suppressed every natural desire1--desire of family and wealth and reputation and pleasure1--and tamed his body by fasting1 scourging1 and other austerities was looked upon as a saint and was regarded with peculiar homage and veneration4 ,throughout the third and much of the fourth century in all the countries of the ,orient where ,christianity had spread1 the anchoretic ideal was regarded as the highest and most meritorious type of the ,christian life4 ,but as the ascetic enthusiasm overspread the lands of the ,west1 various influences1 such as climate and race temperament1 caused the ascetics in general to avoid the solitary life1 and1 gathering in communities1 to subject themselves to rules and the oversight of superiors4 ,after the legislation of ,st4 ,benedict 7#dhj-edc ,a4,d47 this quickly became the prevailing mode of life for ascetics4 ,thus came into existence the monastic system with its distinctive ideal of character1 which added to the virtues of the eremite ideal the virtue of obedience or humility and abated somewhat its bodily austerities4 ,this ideal was destined to exercise for centuries a profound influence upon the religious ethical evolution of the ,european peoples4 ,both types are mirrored in ,the ,lives of the ,saints1#fda the characteristic literary product of the earlier medieval time4 ,this species of literature1 a creation of the pious inventiveness of the monks1 was steeped in the spirit that pervaded hermitage and cloister4 ,the tales illustrate many sides of the life of the recluses1 but are chiefly valuable in showing what acts and practices were regarded as constituting the most meritorious and morally excellent life4 ,sidenote3 ,the moral standard for the ordinary life ,the ascetic life was not binding upon all4 ,it could not1 of course1 become the universal mode of life4 ,it was a sort of extra service1 which secured extra merit for him who rendered it4#fdb ,it is true that the ascetic ideal absorbed a vast amount of the moral enthusiasm of the age1 nevertheless it was a standard of moral attainment for the lesser number2 for the larger body of ,christians there was the less exacting ideal of excellence which could be realized in the ordinary life in the world4 ,he who practiced the common domestic1 social1 and business virtues1 who accepted the creed of the ,church1 paid tithes to the priest1 and was faithful in the performance of all required religious duties1 was accounted a good man1 and had the approval of his fellow men and the approbation of his own conscience4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,chief ,,moral ,,facts ,,of ,,the ,,period ,sidenote3 ,introductory ,in the present division of this chapter it will be our aim merely to indicate the essential facts in the moral history of the earlier medieval centuries4 ,some of these facts will serve to show in how remarkable a manner the age was dominated by the monastic conception of good life1 while others will simply reveal the historical outworkings1 in its more general manifestations1 of the new conscience brought into the world by ,christianity4 ,sidenote3 ,the ideal of the saint and that of the hero3 8,dialogue between ,oisin and ,st4 ,patrick0 ,as a prelude to the brief review proposed we shall do well to consider for a moment the contrariety between the new ideal of the ,christian monk and the old ideal of the pagan hero as this oppositeness emerges in the so-called 8,dialogue between ,oisin and ,st4 ,patrick40#fdc ,this poem discloses most impressively the vast revolution which the incoming of ,christianity effected in the moral feelings and judgments of men4 ,oisin1 8the blind ,homer of ,erin10 is represented as in his old age entering into a controversy with the saint respecting the relative merits of the monk's and the hero's conception of worthiness4 ,the dialogue runs as follows3 ,,st4 ,,patrick4 ,oisin1 long is thy slumber1 arise and listen to the psalm2 forsaken is thy activity1 forsaken thy strength1 yet wouldst thou delight in battle and wild uproar4 ,,oisin4 ,my swiftness and my strength have deserted me since the ,fenii1 with ,fionn their chief1 are no longer alive2 for clerks ,i have no attachment1 and their melodies are not sweet to me4 99 99 99 99 99 ,o ,patrick1 hard is thy service1 and shameful is it for you to reproach me for my appearance2 if ,fionn lived1 and the ,fenii1 ,i would forsake the clergy of the cross4 99 99 99 99 99 ,patrick1 pray thou to the ,god of heaven for ,fionn of the ,fenii and for his children1 making entreaty of the prince1 whose equal ,i have never heard of4 ,,st4 ,,patrick4 ,o learned man1 ,i desire not strife with thee1 but ,i will not make request to heaven for ,fionn1 for all the actions of his life were to be in love and to urge the sounding chase4 ,,oisin4 ,if you were to be in company with the ,fenii1 ,o clerk of clergy and of bells1 not for long wouldst thou be able to give heed to the ,god of truth1 and serve the clergy4 ,,st4 ,,patrick4 444 ,oisin1 the remainder of your life is short1 and badly will you fare if you despise the clergy4 ,,oisin4 ,small is my esteem for thyself and clergy1 ,o holy ,patrick of the crozier3 ,i have greater regard for ,fionn1 the white-handed king of the ,fenii1 but he is not near me now4 ,mournful ,i am without his hounds bounding1 and his dogs all around me2 if they and their agile hero were alive1 ,patrick1 you would have to fear rebuke from me4 ,,st4 ,,patrick4 ,in that way did you and the ,fenii of ,erin forsake heaven3 you never submitted to religion1 but ever put confidence in strength of limbs1 and in battles4 ,,oisin4 ,were ,fionn alive1 and the ,fenii comely and warlike1 with their hounds running propitiously1 they would seem to me more majestic than those who dwell in heaven4 ,,st4 ,,patrick4 ,desolate are the ,fenii1 without slumber or liberty in the house of torment1 for never in any way did they render service to the ,holy ,father4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,oisin4 ,fionn delighted in strokes upon shields1 in conquering heroes1 and hunting on hills2 the sound of his dogs in toil was more melodious to me than the preaching of clerks in church of bells4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,st4 ,,patrick4 ,it is because his time and delight were taken up by pleasures of the chase1 and the array of warlike hosts2 and because he never thought about ,god1 that ,fionn of the ,fenii is in thralldom4 ,he is now shut up in torment2 all his generosity and wealth do not avail him now1 for lack of piety toward ,god1 for this he is in sorrow1 in the mansion of pain4 ,,oisin4 ,little do ,i believe in thy speech1 thou man from ,rome with white books1 that ,fionn the generous hero is now with demons and devils4 99 99 99 99 99 ,o ,patrick1 doleful is the story3 ,fionn the hospitable to be under locks6 heart without malice and without aversion1 heart stern in defense of battle4 ,,st4 ,,patrick4 ,however great the number of troops fighting for ,fionn1 he did not act the will of ,god above3 his crimes are above him in pains of fire1 forever in anguish4 ,,oisin4 ,it is plain that your ,god does not delight in giving gold and food to others3 ,fionn never refused strong or weak1 and shall he receive hell for his abode666 ,,st4 ,,patrick4 ,however much he may have divided gold and venison1 hard are his bonds in the den of pains3 no glimpse of light for him1 no sight of brightness such as he first received from ,god4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,oisin4 ,patrick1 inquire of ,god if ,he remembers the ,fenii when alive3 ask if1 east or west1 ,he ever saw men better in conflict4 ,or did ,he observe in ,his own country1 although it is high above us1 for sense1 for conflict1 or for strength1 any man good in comparison with ,fionn8 99 99 99 99 99 ,patrick1 ,i am wretched1 a poor bard1 ever changing residence1 without power1 without activity1 without force1 journeying to mass and altars4 ,without good food1 without getting wealth and booty1 without play in athletic games2 without going a-wooing and hunting1 two objects for which ,i always longed4 ,without reciting deeds of champions1 without bearing spear2 alas6 ,i have lost ,osgur and ,fionn1 and ,i am left standing like a withered tree1 out under injury4 ,,st4 ,,patrick4 ,cease1 ,o ,bard6 ,leave off thy folly2 you have as yet said but little in favour of yourself3 think of the torments that await you2 the ,fenii are departed1 and ere long you will go likewise4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,oisin4 ,i will not obey you1 ,o ,patrick1 though great your creed and faith4 ,i own without lie that firm is my belief that the devil will be your portion4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i would rather return to the ,fenii once more1 ,o ,patrick1 if they were alive1 than go to the heaven of ,jesus ,christ1 to be forever under tribute to ,him4 ,,st4 ,,patrick4 ,o withered ,bard1 thou art foolish2 thou wouldst not pay tribute to any one if thou wast in the heaven of ,jesus ,christ1 nor wouldst thou witness battle and uproar4 ,,oisin4 ,i would rather be in ,fionn's court harkening to the voices of hounds every morning1 and meditating on hard-fought battles1 than in the court of ,jesus ,christ2 that is certain4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it was easier for me to obtain without fail both meat and drink in ,fionn's court than in thy mansion1 and in the dwelling of the ,son of ,god1 ,o ,patrick1 not generous in dividing4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,st4 ,,patrick4 ,it is better for thee to be with me and the clergy1 as thou art1 than to be with ,fionn and the ,fenii1 for they are in hell without order of release4 ,,oisin4 ,by thy book and its meaning1 by thy crozier and by thy image1 better were it for me to share their torments1 rather than be among the clergy continually talking4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ah6 ,patrick1 your religion may be great2 but ,i have not1 up to this day1 witnessed among ye dinner nor banquet like banquet of the ,fenii4 ,,st4 ,,patrick4 ,although ,fionn spent generously all he obtained by strength1 fleetness1 and plunder1 he is now sorrowful in the mansion of a lord who furnishes no dinner1 and demons torment him forever4 ,,oisin4 ,it would be pitiful and mournful1 if thy story were true1 ah ,patrick6 for all the saints who are in heaven1 if they were to strive with ,fionn in contest of liberality1 could not obtain the victory over him4 99 99 99 99 99 ,tell to me without controversy what is the reason of the custom you have to be ever beating your breasts1 and each evening kneeling under gloom8 ,,st4 ,,patrick4 ,i tell thee that it is not because we have scarcity of food and of drink that we are under armour 7watching71 but because we desire to be perpetually on our guard against gluttony4 ,,oisin4 ,it is not fear of gluttony1 nor in dread of king of saints that ,i receive for myself scarcity of bread1 but because ,i am not able to obtain it from the clergy4 ,astonishment is upon me to witness the greatness of your love for the man you call ,christ1 if hereafter he will perpetually upbraid you for the abundance of your portions and of your drink6 ,farewell to ,fionn of the noble ,fenii2 with him was ample banquet and division2 he was not like the man who is called ,god2 and moreover he gave without waiting for remuneration4444 ,never at any time did ,i witness him asking for kneeling and bitter weeping4#fdd ,but vain was the lament of the blind bard4 ,the ideal of the pagan hero1 whose fame he vaunted1 had lost its primal appeal4 ,it was the ideal of the cloister1 incarnate in the 8saint of many prayers and many vigils10 that was now enthralling the affections and shaping the consciences of men4 ,sidenote3 ,the monasteries as the cradle of the modern social conscience ,in the course of a few generations the vast enthusiasm awakened for the ascetic life covered all ,christian lands with convents and monasteries1 which in their ethical influence constituted one of the most important of the institutions of the ,church4 ,in truth1 the monasteries stand in closer and more vital relation than does any other ecclesiastical institution to the ethical evolution of the ,western world4 ,the service they rendered to civilization in preserving and transmitting to the modern world various elements of the intellectual and material cultures of antiquity has been fully recognized and gratefully acknowledged2 but not so full justice has been rendered them for their contribution to the moral life of modern times4 ,yet it is probably true that the most precious thing conserved by the monasteries from the wreck of ancient civilization was that social conscience which was generated in the heart of old ,judaism and bequeathed to ,christianity4 ,professor ,nash1 in his work entitled ,the ,genesis of the ,new ,social ,conscience1 maintains1 and we think with right1 that the distinctive qualities of the modern conscience--tenderness for the unfortunate1 a lofty altruism1 a noble capacity for self-sacrifice--were qualities conserved and cradled in the medieval monasteries4 ,this view of the relation of the monasteries to the moral evolution in ,western civilization may be accepted by the student of morals as a correct interpretation of medieval monastic history1 while at the same time he admits the truth of ,lecky's contention that there was a self-regarding motive in ,christian asceticism--it was personal salvation1 he says1 that the monk was primarily seeking--which made the morality of the ,christian saints inferior to the morality of the heroes of ,greece and ,rome4 ,it is undoubtedly true that many entered upon the monastic life from self-regarding motives2 but it is also true that constant meditation upon religious themes1 and especially the holding ever before the imagination the ideal of the ,master1 who for love of man made the supreme self-sacrifice of the ,cross1 had as a natural result the deepening of the altruistic feelings1 the sensitizing of the conscience1 and the moving of the will to self-denying service for others4 ,as a consequence the spirit of true self-renunciation was often exalted among the recluses of the cloister to an unwonted degree1 and thus it came about in the course of time that many who out of solicitude for their own salvation had sought the solitude of the cloister are later found in the outside world1 going about1 in imitation of their ,master1 doing good1 ministering in the spirit of absolute self-forgetfulness to the needs1 temporal as well as spiritual1 of the poor1 the afflicted1 the heavy-laden1 and the life-weary4 ,a large part of the philanthropic work of the ,church during the ,middle ,ages was carried on by the monks4 ,this humanitarian spirit1 this cloister conscience of monasticism1 was bequeathed to society at large4 ,thus may the direct line of descent of the modern social conscience be traced through the medieval monasteries4 ,sidenote3 ,the new conscience condemns and finally suppresses the gladiatorial games ,one of the earliest and the most important of the moral reforms effected by the new conscience in the institutions of pagan ,rome was the suppression of the gladiatorial games4 ,for almost seven hundred years preceding the triumph of ,christianity in the ,roman world1 these spectacles had formed the favorite amusement of the ,roman people without having awakened any special moral protest4 ,some of the pagan philosophers and moralists1 particularly ,seneca and ,plutarch1 had denounced them as opposed to the sentiment of humanity1 but their protest had found no echo in the common conscience of the age4 ,as a rule the pagan moralists saw nothing in them to condemn4 ,it was reserved for the ,christian moralists to awaken the conscience to a recognition of the criminality of these cruel spectacles4 ,it was particularly the ,christian teaching of the sacredness of human life that contributed powerfully to create the new ethical feeling as to the immoral character of these amusements1 and prepared the way for their final abolition 7#djd ,a4,d47 through the protest made by the monk ,telemachus and sealed by his martyr death4 ,speaking of the significance of the abolition of the gladiatorial games1 ,lecky declares that 8there is scarcely any other reform so important in the moral history of mankind40#fde ,one thing which enhanced greatly the importance of the reform was its timeliness4 ,just at the moment of the suppression of these spectacles the ,germanic tribes were passing the frontiers of the ,empire and adopting the customs and institutions of the ,romans4 ,had not these amusements been abolished or put under the ban of the moral feelings before the final catastrophe to the ,empire1 the barbarian tastes and fighting instincts of this new race would have led to the eager introduction of these sports into all the northern countries1 just as certainly as the humane spirit of the ,greeks prevented their general introduction into ,grecian lands4 ,when we recall the indurating and dehumanizing effects of these amusements upon the ,roman populace1 we realize the importance and timeliness of the reform which kept the barbarian nations free from their brutalizing and deadening influence4 ,sidenote3 ,the new conscience condemns infanticide and self-destruction ,equally emphatic was the condemnation which the new conscience pronounced on infanticide and self-destruction4 ,we have seen in our review of the morality of the classical peoples how almost universal was the practice of the exposition of infants1 and how slight was the moral condemnation which the custom evoked even from philosophers and moralists4 ,when the practice was prohibited1 usually the prohibition sprang from considerations of a prudential or economic character rather than from scruples of conscience4 ,but the ,christian teachers1 proclaiming the sacredness of human life and the immortal destiny of every human soul1 declared the destruction of the infant as sinful as the taking of the life of the adult4 ,it is to this teaching doubtless that is1 in large measure1 due the existence in ,christian lands of a conscience which condemns the destruction of the newborn babe as an act of deep moral turpitude4 ,it was the same ,christian doctrine of the sacredness of human life1 along with the teaching of the duty of resignation1 that created also a new moral feeling in regard to suicide4 ,we have seen how the conscience of the classical peoples in general passed no condemnation upon the act of self-destruction if life had in any way become a burden2 but the ,church taught that suicide is the same as murder1 indeed a greater sin because it destroys not only the body but also the soul4 ,some ,christian moralists maintained that 8,judas committed a greater sin in killing himself than in betraying his master ,christ40#fdf ,throughout the ,middle ,ages1 under the influence of the ,church1 the act of self-destruction was regarded with the greatest abhorrence1#fdg and without that commingling of tenderness and pity which with us has come to temper the feeling of condemnation4 ,sidenote3 ,the great missionary propaganda as an expression of ,christian altruism ,but the new conscience found most characteristic expression not in its restraints and prohibitions but in its impulsions to altruistic activity and endeavor4 ,in our account of the primitive ethical ideals of ,greece and ,rome we noticed how the virtue of altruism or self-abnegation for the common good was hidden under the guise of courage4#fdh ,it was therefore no new virtue which ,christianity brought into the world when it proclaimed the supreme moral excellence of self-renunciation for others4 ,what it did was to widen the circle of those for whom the supreme sacrifice should be made1 and to give the virtue fuller and richer content4 ,it thus imparted fresh impulse to that altruistic movement which we have seen to characterize the last centuries of the civilization of ,greco-,roman antiquity4 ,the deepened ethical sentiment found various forms of expression1 but the most important of these was the great missionary propaganda which1 during the centuries from the sixth to the ninth1 carried the new gospel to the pagan ,german tribes of ,europe4 ,lecky regards this as the chief altruistic movement of the medieval period4 ,this conquest of the continent for ,christianity was effected in large part by men whose fervid zeal for social service had been kindled in the quiet and holy atmosphere of the cloister4#fdi ,the movement was inspired and maintained by that same spirit of self-devotion which animated the missionaries of the apostolic age of ,christianity4 ,the declaration of the first great apostle to the gentiles1 ,st4 ,paul1 that he would himself willingly be a castaway if thereby he might secure the salvation of others1 could have been made by many a self-devoted monk-apostle who won a like crown of martyrdom4 ,in the romance of ,christian missions the monastic chronicles of ,iona and ,lindisfarne and ,st4 ,gall1 and the tales of the labors and martyrdom of ,saints ,columba1 ,wilfrid1 ,boniface1 and a great company of others will never cease to enthrall the imagination so long as the virtue of self-renunciation is esteemed and reverenced among men4 ,this great missionary movement which brought within the pale of the ,church the northern peoples is of transcendent interest to the student of the history of morals1 not merely because it is such a splendid exhibition of the altruistic spirit of ,christianity1 but also because the success of these medieval missions meant1 besides the winning of the barbarians to a new religion1 the winning of them to a new moral life2 for to give a people a new religion is to give them also a new conscience4 ,sidenote3 ,almsgiving and the founding of charitable institutions ,the altruistic spirit of the new religion found a second expression in charity1 in the sense of almsgiving to the poor and the wretched4 ,this was not a new virtue any more than that of general benevolence4 ,it was never1 it is true1 a prominent virtue with the ,greeks and ,romans1 but it had always been given a place among the cardinal virtues by all the great ethical religions of the ,east4 ,judaism laid special stress upon the duty of open-handedness to the poor1 while ,buddhism made it a rudimentary virtue4#fej ,christianity inherited from ,judaism this attractive virtue and laid a fresh emphasis upon it4 ,since the incoming of ,christianity the poor and the afflicted have been cared for in a spirit of compassion and tenderness never before known in the history of the ,western races4 ,asylums and hospitals and charitable institutions of every kind have multiplied in number and have been increased in effectiveness in relieving want and distress as the centuries have passed1 until these endowments and provisions have become a distinctive feature of ,christian civilization4 ,in the period we are here reviewing1 and throughout the later medieval ages1 gifts to the monasteries were especially numerous and large1 one reason for this being that the monks were looked upon as the almoners of society and 8trustees for the poor40 ,the founding of hospitals and the endowing of infirmaries afforded another outlet for the unbounded charity of the age4 ,the first ,christian hospital was founded at ,rome in the fourth century by a ,roman lady named ,fabiola1 a widow of the ancient house of the ,fabii1 who also established a hospice for pilgrims at the mouth of the ,tiber4#fea ,the spirit of charity found further expression in the emancipation of slaves1 and in the ransoming of prisoners of war1 especially1 after the rise of ,islam1 of ,christian captives4 ,unfortunately the teaching of the ,church respecting the possibility of possession by demons caused insanity to be regarded as obsession by an evil spirit1 and for more than a thousand years this belief not only put the unhappy class of the insane outside the pale of ,christian charity1 but subjected them to the most cruel treatment that fear and superstition could devise4#feb ,sidenote3 ,mitigations of slavery ,a religion or a philosophy which has for aim the reform and improvement of human society may act directly either upon the individual or upon institutions4 ,thus modern socialism ignores the individual1 maintaining that the individual is the product of environment1 and makes its direct proximate end and aim the reform of social and economic institutions4 ,through the improvement and perfection of these it would bring about the improvement and perfection of the individual1 and thus usher in the era of equality1 justice1 and brotherhood among men4 ,now the method of ,christianity is exactly the reverse of this4 ,its appeal is made to the individual2 it does not concern itself directly with social and industrial systems1 or with governmental institutions and arrangements4 ,it would reform society by reforming the individual4 ,when ,christianity entered the world ,csarism had just established itself upon the ruins of republican and national freedom1 but the ,christian preachers said nothing about political liberty2 the ,master had said1 8,render unto ,csar the things that are ,csar's40 ,the war system was in full vigor2 after a period of ,quakerism the ,church first condoned1 then accepted1 and finally consecrated this heritage of barbarism as one of the necessary institutions of human society4 ,the gladiatorial games were the sole important institution of antiquity which the ,christian teachers absolutely condemned as an institution1 and the abolition of which they persistently demanded and finally effected4 ,it was the same with slavery as with other social institutions4 ,it existed everywhere when ,christianity appeared1 but the ,christian teachers never preached abolition4 ,the ,christian emperors adopted1 and for two centuries maintained practically unchanged1 the pagan slave code4 ,there were under these rulers1 it is true1 some ameliorations in the laws1 due to ,christian influence2 thus cruel forms of punishment1 as branding on the forehead or throwing from a precipice1 were prohibited4 ,with the exception of these minor isolated mitigations of the lot of the slave1 slavery passed over into ,christian civilization as an unchanged heritage from the ancient world1 and continued to exist as a ,christian institution until1 through the action of various agencies1 political and economic as well as moral1 it was gradually transformed into serfdom4 ,during the later centuries of its prevalence1 however1 ,christian teachings softened many of the cruelties of the system1 and caused1 speaking generally1 the individual slave to be treated with greater consideration and humanity4 ,sidenote3 ,the broadening moral movement in progress in the ancient world is checked ,unfortunately there were large offsets to the moral gains of which we have been speaking4 ,christianity had entered a world in which the most important ethical movement in progress was the broadening of the moral sympathies4 ,the genius of the new religion1 a genius inherited from the great prophets of ,judaism1 was well calculated to impart1 as for a period it did1 a fresh impulse to this cosmopolitan movement1 and to foster and strengthen this growing sentiment of philanthropy and universal brotherhood4 ,its mission seemed to be to consummate the work of ,greek philosophy and of ,roman world conquest1 to complete the obliteration of national boundaries1 to throw down the partition wall between ,greek and barbarian1 ,jew and gentile1 patrician and plebeian1 bond and free1 and to make each man's neighbor to be every fellow being of whatsoever race or class or creed4 ,but this spirit of genuine ,christianity was soon obscured and the world movement toward ethical universalism obstructed and checked by the theological teaching which made moral merit and salvation dependent upon the acceptance of a prescribed creed4 ,in place of the tribal and racial walls of division which had originally separated the communities of men and which the progress of events had thrown down1 it raised a new partition wall which divided mankind into two great ethically artificial classes1 believers and unbelievers1 ,christians and pagans4 ,in place of the doctrine of race election it substituted the doctrine of individual election4 ,throughout a large part of the ,christian period 8infidels0 and 8heathen0 have too often been to ,christians what 8gentiles0 were to the 8chosen people10 and 8barbarians0 to the intellectually elect ,greeks4 ,thus was the broadening and leveling movement which marked the later centuries of antiquity checked1 while a new division as inimical to universal charity as the old divisions of race and cult was created4 ,sidenote3 ,st4 ,augustine as the representative of the narrowing movement ,the representative and promoter of this retrograde movement in the moral domain was the ,african bishop ,st4 ,augustine4 ,his 8,city of ,god10 viewed from one side1 is altogether like unto the old city of man4 ,it is simply the ancient classical city in its early period of aristocratic pride and exclusiveness before it had felt the broadening influence of a thousand years of varied experience and growing culture4 ,only a few can acquire citizenship in the new city4 ,its privileges are only for 8the elect40 ,a great multitude1 the nonelect1 are left outside the city gates4 ,thus1 in the words of ,wedgwood1 8all the arrogance1 all the exclusiveness1 all the love of privilege1 for which the city of man no longer afforded any escape1 found a refuge in the city of ,god40#fec ,the narrowing and hampering influence upon the moral development of the ,european peoples of this unethical system of ,augustinian theology and metaphysics it would be difficult to exaggerate4 ,sidenote3 ,loss of the virtue of toleration ,the new division was even more of a hindrance in some respects than the old to the moral progress of the world2 for there was not merely created a tendency to the limitation of ,christian charity to the community of believers1 but there was fostered an intolerant and persecuting spirit4 ,the world into which ,christianity entered was1 speaking generally1 a tolerant world4 ,there were1 it is true1 persecutions for opinion's sake in the pre-,christian age1 but these were comparatively infrequent4 ,in general1 persecution in classical antiquity sprang from some other motive than dislike or fear of religious dissent1 as we have seen to have been the case in the persecution of the ,christians by the pagan emperors of ,rome4#fed ,but after the promulgation of the moral code of the ,church1 which made wrong belief or denial of the orthodox creed a fault of unmeasured criminality1 toleration ceased to be a virtue and became a vice4 ,thus the virtue of toleration1 which ,lecky pronounces 8the supreme attainment of ,roman civilization10 was lost4 ,intolerance became a duty1 and remained such for more than a thousand years1 making a tragedy of centuries of ,european history4 ,wars of annihilation or subjection against pagans and infidels were waged1 and the persecution of heretics was carried on with a hatred and ferocity in strange contrast to the unbounded charity and infinite tenderness of the ,founder of the religion in the name of which these things were done4 ,this spirit of intolerance thus called into existence led1 during the period under review1 to the suppression1 first1 in the fourth century by the ,christian emperors1 of freedom of religious worship2 and then quickly to the suppression of liberty of thought throughout ,christendom4#fee ,by the opening of the sixth century no one in any ,christian land could freely think or freely express his thought1 even on philosophical themes4 ,this retrograde movement in its ultimate consequences was one of the most far-reaching revolutions in the moral history of the ,western world4 ,sidenote3 8,between moralities02 the new-forming ideal ,aside from the broad ethical movements traced above1 induced by the ,christian conception of life and its new valuation of particular virtues and duties1 there was in this epoch a moral phenomenon of another sort which we must now notice1 namely1 the moral anarchy which characterized the later centuries of the period under review4 ,in an earlier chapter we spoke of the fusion of moral ideals which ultimately takes place when two races meet and unite to form a new race and a new culture4#fef ,but as ,bagehot has pointed out1 such a commingling of races is always attended by a special danger4 ,it is likely for a time to produce 8something not only between races1 but between moralities40#feg ,in the fact here stated we must doubtless look for the explanation in part of the turbulent1 anarchical character1 ethically viewed1 of the period which immediately followed the downfall of ancient civilization1 and which saw the creation1 out of ,roman and barbarian elements1 of the new ,romano-,german world4 ,in the migrations and settlements of the ,german conquerors in the ,roman provinces1 and in the mixture of races which there took place1 there resulted necessarily1 on the one side1 a break-up of all the old tribal relations which formed the basis of the morality of the barbarians1 and1 on the other side1 the destruction of all the restraints and conventions which had formed the bulwark and stay of the more refined1 if less simple and pure1 morality of the ,romans4 ,with the old moral codes discredited1 with ancestral ethical ideals disintegrated1#feh men stood1 to use ,bagehot's phrase1 not between races only but also between moralities1 and the historical ethical evolution was broken by what has been aptly called a moral interregnum4 ,the epoch covering the interval between the destruction of the ,roman governmental system in the ,west in the fifth century and the establishment of a semblance of social order by ,charlemagne toward the end of the eighth century1 presents1 according to the concurrent view of all chroniclers and historians of the period1 one of the most appalling spectacles of moral anarchy afforded by the records of human history4 ,in the midst of this moral chaos1 however1 a new moral world was forming4 ,gradually1 under various influences1 racial1 cultural1 and religious1 there was taking shape and form1 through a fusion of different ethical elements1 a new moral ideal1 the ideal of knighthood1 which for an epoch--throughout the crusading centuries--was to absorb a large part of the moral enthusiasm of ,christendom1 and to determine in great measure the character of the enterprises of the age4 ,since one of the influences which produced this great transformation in the ,christian ideal was the creed and moral code of ,islam1 we shall in our next chapter turn aside from following the ethical evolution among the ,european peoples to watch for a space the rise and progress of this new faith whose martial ethics was destined to leave so deep an impress upon the moral ideal of ,christianity4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,islam3 ,a ,,martial ,,ideal ,i4 ,,religious ,,basis ,,of ,,the ,,moral ,,system ,sidenote3 ,introduction3 ,islam creates a new conscience in the ,arab race ,the great revolution which in the seventh century of the ,christian era agitated all ,arabia and gave a new trend to vast currents of world history was essentially a moral revolution4 ,it was the moral degradation of the ,arab tribes1 still clinging to an outgrown1 idolatrous worship incapable longer of giving moral guidance to its followers1 that stirred the soul and inspired the message of ,mohammed4 ,the ,prophet's real appeal was to the conscience of the ,arab race4 ,the chief aim and purpose of his preaching was to effect a moral reform4 ,he gave the ,arabs1 it is true1 a new religion1 but the religion was to give impulse and sanction to the new morality4 ,the transformation which the new faith wrought in the moral consciousness of the ,arabian nation was probably not less profound than that effected by ,christianity in the moral consciousness of the ,european peoples4 ,it is this which makes the rise of ,islam a matter as important in the moral as in the religious history of mankind4 ,sidenote3 ,the doctrine of the unity of ,god ,islam may1 with strict historical accuracy1 be said to be essentially a republication of ,judaism4 ,its morality1 like the old ,hebrew morality1 is largely derived from its conception of deity4 ,it teaches that ,god is one1 and that he is all-powerful1 compassionate1 forgiving1 and righteous4 ,allah is great and merciful and just1 is the burden of the ,prophet's message respecting deity4 ,this ethical monotheism has been a governing force in the moral life of the ,mohammedan world1 just as a like ethical monotheism has been a molding influence in the moral life of the ,jews and of all those nations that have received their religion from them4 ,sidenote3 ,the dogma of salvation by belief ,another religious doctrine which has contributed largely to shape the morality of ,islam is that of salvation by belief4 ,only the true believer can be saved4 ,the tendency1 indeed the logical and inevitable consequence of this doctrine1 has been to make ,islam one of the most intolerant of the great religions4 ,it has tended to restrict the moral sympathies of ,moslems to coreligionists and to make propagandism by violence seem a virtue4 ,sidenote3 ,an unchangeable moral law ,islam claims to be a divine revelation to man4 ,this doctrine of the supernatural origin of the religion makes the moral code1 which is bound up with it1 a rigid1 unchangeable law1 for it is only a human code that can be changed without irreverence and sacrilege4 ,the blighting effects upon ,mohammedan morality of this dogma of a moral law supernaturally given for all time will be noted a little later1 when we come to speak of the actual moral life in ,mohammedan lands4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,moral ,,code ,sidenote3 ,general nature of the code ,like all the other ethical systems of ,asia1 save those of genuine ,christianity and ,buddhism1 the ,islamic system lays special emphasis upon the performance of particular prescribed acts4 ,it is by no means silent respecting the necessity of right states and dispositions of mind4 ,but instead of relying upon general principles for the guidance of the moral life1 it lays its emphasis upon specific outer observances1 such as almsgiving1 fasting1 pilgrimages1 and stated prayers4#fei ,the tendency of such a code of precise rules and commands1 as was pointed out in connection with ,chinese morality and again in connection with the postexilic morality of the ,jews1 is to externalize morality and render the moral life conventional and mechanical4 ,sidenote3 ,the duty and virtue of right belief ,in correspondence with the dogma of salvation through belief1 the paramount duty and virtue in the ethical-religious code of ,islam is unquestioning belief in ,allah as the only true ,god and in ,mohammed as his prophet4 ,without this virtue of correct belief there can be1 according to the teachings of ,islam1 no salvation4 ,sidenote3 ,fighting for the true religion a cardinal duty ,one effect of thus making right belief an indispensable virtue was to make intolerance practically a virtuous disposition of mind1 and the conquest of infidels a paramount duty4 ,it is here that we find one of the fundamental differences between the ethical teachings of ,christ and those of ,mohammed4 ,the ,founder of ,christianity1 through his teaching of nonresistance1 condemned war4 ,he commanded his followers to put up the sword4 ,the founder of ,islam1 on the other hand1 frankly and without scruple adopted the war system of his time and consecrated it to a religious end and purpose4 ,his followers were commanded to fight for the extension of the religion of ,allah4#ffj ,those who fell in battle for the faith were promised immediate entrance into the joys of ,paradise4#ffa ,never was there a more fateful provision given a place in a code of morals4 ,it determined in large measure the character of ,islam and foreshadowed its history4 ,it made it a martial religion4 ,this martial religion1 through reaction upon ,christianity1 helped to make it like unto itself4 ,thus was prepared the way for the ,holy ,wars4 ,sidenote3 ,provisions of the code respecting slavery ,just as ,mohammed adopted the war system he found in existence1 so did he adopt that of slavery4 ,but while accepting the system1 he did much to improve the status of the bondsman4 ,the legislation of the ,koran in this department of ethics follows the humane regulations of the old ,hebrew code4 ,in its specific provisions favorable to the slave it goes beyond the requirements of the ,new ,testament4 ,it not only enjoins the kind treatment of slaves but provides that converts to ,islam shall be set free1 and in general encourages manumission4#ffb ,sidenote3 ,family morals3 polygamy recognized as ethical ,in no department of ethics is the contrast between ,christian and ,mohammedan morals sharper than in the sphere of domestic morality4 ,sex relations which the ,christian ,church condemns as sin1 and which the ,christian civil law makes a crime1 are by the ,mohammedan moral consciousness pronounced natural and right1 or at least ethically indifferent4 ,the ,new ,testament absolutely prohibited polygamy1 although from primitive times the moralists of the ,east had had in general no condemnation for the custom2 but the ,koran accepted the system without scruple4 ,in doing so1 however1 it placed salutary restraints upon the unregulated license which had hitherto characterized the institution4 ,it limited the number of wives of the faithful to four1#ffc and surrounded divorce with wholesome restrictions4 ,family ethics were further lifted to a higher level by the positive prohibition of infanticide1#ffd a practice which constituted one of the worst evils of ,arab society in pre-,islamic times4 ,the positive enactments of the ,koranic code in this department of morals accomplished what was effected indirectly in the same domain by ,christianity through its teachings of the sanctity of human life4 ,sidenote3 ,the prohibition of gambling and the use of intoxicating liquors ,among the other prohibitions of the moral code of ,islam are two worthy of special notice for the reason that1 being made largely effective by the sanctions of religion1 they have exercised an incalculable influence upon the ,mohammedan world4 ,these are the provisions of the ,koran forbidding in the most positive terms gambling and the use of alcoholic drinks4#ffe ,these prohibitions have had a great and undeniable influence in preserving ,mohammedan civilization1 in the extended reach of lands over which it has spread1 from those inveterate twin evils of gambling and drunkenness which constitute one of the deepest stains on ,christian civilization4 ,sidenote3 ,animal ethics ,it has been maintained that the place given duties to lower animals is a crucial test of a moral code4#fff ,tried by this standard1 the code of ,islam must be accorded a high place among the ethical systems of the world4 ,in the department of animal ethics it is on a level with that of the old ,hebrew ,testament4 ,indeed1 the tender solicitude of the code for dumb animals is one of its most admirable features4 ,the whole animal creation is here brought within the pale of ethics4 ,thus at the outset ,islam took up a position respecting man's duty toward the animal world which ,christianity is only just now tardily assuming4 ,sidenote3 ,a concrete and practical morality ,taken as a whole the ethical rules and commands of the ,koran constitute an admirable code1 one which has been an efficient force in the moral improvement and uplift of the peoples of vast regions of the earth4 ,the morality inculcated has been succinctly characterized as a concrete and practical one4 ,it is particularly well adapted to races in a low stage of culture4 ,the very fact that1 notwithstanding some serious defects and limitations1 the code has been accepted by so large a part of the human race1 and has1 for over a thousand years1 given moral guidance and inspiration to such vast multitudes1 goes to prove that the great body of its rules and prescriptions of conduct are in general in line with the elemental laws of the moral world4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,moral ,,life ,sidenote3 ,mohammedan morality depressed by racial influences ,in any comparison instituted between ,christianity and ,islam as moral regenerators of society there is need that the difference in the fields entered by these rival creeds be kept carefully in mind4 ,islam was placed at a disadvantage in that it went among the morally degenerate and dissolute peoples of the ,orient1 while ,christianity had for its field the classical peoples and particularly the fresh ,german race4 ,in those same ,eastern lands and among those same ,oriental or semi-,hellenized races ,christianity had not only signally failed morally to reform and uplift society1 but in that unfavorable environment had itself become lamentably degenerate and corrupt4 ,in pointing out this disadvantage to which ,islam has been subjected1 a discerning ,moslem writer says1 8,like rivers flowing through varied tracts1 both these creeds have produced results in accordance with the nature of the soil through which they have found their course40#ffg ,there is here the necessary recognition of the influence which the historical environment exercises upon the moral standard4 ,the prerequisite of a good harvest in the field of morals1 as in the physical world1 is not only good seed but also a good soil4 ,sidenote3 ,consequence of giving a religious sanction to war ,the whole history of ,islam1 as already remarked1 has been molded by the fact that fighting for the extension of the true religion was made by ,mohammed a chief duty of the faithful4 ,islam's wonderful career of conquest during the first century after its rise was in large measure the result of the ,prophet having made war against infidels a pious duty4 ,hitherto war among the ,arabs had been for the most part merely a raid or hunt4 ,now it was given an ethical-religious motive and thus made a crusade4 ,in the space of a single century a large part of the countries which had formed the historic lands of antiquity had been brought by the ,arabian warriors under the sway of ,islam4 ,but this was not all4 ,these conquests brought ,islam in contact with ,christendom along all its extended frontier from the ,straits of ,gibraltar to the ,bosporus1 and thus created the conditions which led to the ,holy ,wars between ,moslem and ,christian1 which filled the eleventh and twelfth centuries4 ,such were the momentous and far-reaching consequences of the giving by the ,arabian ,prophet of a religious sanction to war1 and the renforcing of the war spirit among a martial race by making warfare a duty and death in battle a sure passport to the bliss of paradise4 ,sidenote3 ,mitigation of ,oriental barbarities in war ,while adopting and sanctifying the war system1 ,islam did something in the way of mitigating its savagery4 ,up to this time the war code of the ,asian peoples had lost little or none of its primitive barbarity4 ,the indiscriminate slaughter of the vanquished1 without regard to age or sex1 had been a common practice4 ,but when the second ,arabian caliph1 ,omar1 sent out his warriors to effect the conquest of the world for the true religion1 he strictly enjoined them to spare the women and children and the old men4 ,this injunction became a part of the ,mohammedan war code1 and1 though not always observed1 it did much to make the earlier wars waged for the spread of ,islam1 compared with most of the recorded wars among the ,oriental races1 merciful and humane4 ,sidenote3 ,intolerance as a corollary of religious principles ,intimately related to the subject of the ,mohammedan ethics of war is the subject of toleration4 ,as we have seen1 the natural tendency of the teaching that right religious belief is necessary to salvation1 and that fighting for the spread of the true religion is a paramount duty1 is to foster intolerance1 indeed1 is to make intolerance a virtue4 ,these doctrines of ,islam have in the main restricted to the faithful the outgoings of the moral sympathies4 ,to the moral consciousness of the ,moslem masses tolerance has not presented itself as a virtue at all1 but rather as a reprehensible disposition of mind1 since it argues lack of zeal for the true faith4 ,there is to-day more religious intolerance in ,moslem lands than in any other regions of the earth4 ,in this respect the ,mohammedan world is about at the standpoint held by ,christendom in the ,middle ,ages4 ,but fortunately it is the same with a bad principle as with a good one--it never produces its full logical consequences4 ,there is that in the constitution of things and in human nature which prevents this4 ,hence there has been in ,mohammedan lands a larger measure of toleration than1 in view of the teachings of ,islam1 we should have looked for4 ,but the toleration enjoyed by non-,moslems under ,mohammedan rule has been at best precarious4 ,with lamentable frequency1 in lands where large sections of the population are ignorant and debased1 outbursts of fanaticism have resulted in terrible massacres of 8unbelievers40 ,not until ,moslem civilization has felt the broadening effect of those material1 intellectual1 and moral revolutions which have finally brought in toleration in a once intolerant ,christendom1 will this virtue1 without which a true and progressive moral life is impossible1 find a place in the ethical code of ,islam4 ,sidenote3 ,the slave trade under ,islam ,the slave trade in ,mohammedan lands has been fostered through the consecration of the war system by ,mohammed and his recognition of slavery as a part of the established social order4 ,throughout the first century of the career of ,islam the propaganda of the faith by the sword provided an unfailing source of slaves1 such as had not been opened up since the completion of the conquest of the world by the ,roman legions4#ffh ,this religious legitimatizing of the slave trade filled ,moslem lands with slave markets1 and1 when the wars of the religious propaganda had ceased1 tended to give a fresh impulse to the ,african slave traffic1 which had been in existence from time immemorial4 ,this trade by ,mohammedans has been just such a curse to eastern and central ,africa as the ,european ,christian slave traffic--which1 beginning in the fifteenth century1 continued till its final suppression in the nineteenth--was to the west ,african coast and the hinterland4 ,the ,moslem trade is still carried on clandestinely1#ffi since there has as yet been little or no moral disapprobation of the traffic awakened in ,mohammedan lands4 ,sidenote3 ,drunkenness in ,mohammedan countries ,the absolute prohibition in the ,koran of the use of all intoxicating liquors has been wonderfully effective in preserving ,mohammedan lands from the great evil of drunkenness4 ,this vice1 so common in ,christian lands1 is almost unknown in countries where the faith of the ,koran is really dominant and the influence of ,europeans has not been felt4 ,in ,afghanistan the penalty inflicted for drunkenness is death4 ,so rigorously is the law of ,islam in this matter enforced that persons in a state of intoxication are almost never seen4 ,nor is the evil simply driven under cover2 there is practically very little drinking going on in the privacy of the home4 ,sidenote3 ,moslem charity ,islam has been only less effective than ,buddhism and ,christianity in fostering the attractive virtue of charity4 ,the precepts of the ,koran respecting almsgiving and other deeds of benevolence have greatly promoted the habit of giving among the followers of the ,prophet4 ,the giving of direct relief to the poor in the form of alms is probably quite as general as among ,christians1 though much of this charity is indiscriminate and tends to foster that mendicity which is such an ever-present evil in ,mohammedan lands4 ,the building of caravansaries1 the construction of aqueducts1 the opening of fountains along the routes of travel1 and the founding of asylums are forms of benevolence which recall similar works of philanthropy in the later period of the pagan ,roman ,empire4 ,respecting this charity1 however1 it must be said that much of it has the taint of self-interest4 ,many of these good works are performed not so much from genuine philanthropy as from self-regarding motives1 the dominant thought of the doer being to gain religious merit for himself4 ,sidenote3 ,moral influence of ,islam on races low in civilization ,the spread of ,islam has been almost from the first largely among tribes and peoples low in the scale of civilization4 ,in the earlier centuries of its career1 besides its conquests among the peoples of ancient culture1 it won over a great part of the uncivilized clans and tribes of ,asia1 and to-day is making constant and rapid progress among the negro tribes of central ,africa4 ,what renders this fact of significance to the historian of morals is that ,islam has shown itself to be one of the most potent forces at work in the world to-day for the moral elevation of peoples still on or near the level of savagery4 ,canon ,isaac ,taylor affirms that it 8causes the negro tribes of ,africa to renounce paganism1 devil worship1 fetishism1 cannibalism1 human sacrifices1 infanticide1 witchcraft1 gambling1 drunkenness1 unchastity1 cruelty1 and personal uncleanliness40#fgj ,that the moral code of ,islam should be even more effective than the ,christian in lifting savages to a higher moral level is attributed by ,canon ,taylor to the fact that the moral standard of ,christianity is so high that 8its virtues are only vaguely understood and not generally practiced1 while the lower virtues which ,islam enforces are understood and generally practiced40 ,in a word1 it is with ,islam's morality the same as with its theology4 ,its doctrine of one ,god is simple1 concrete1 and easily understood1 and for this reason ,islam is admittedly more readily accepted by races low in culture than ,christianity with its metaphysical doctrine of the ,trinity4 ,as the simplicity and concreteness of its teachings respecting deity adapt its creed to the savage mind1 so do the lower concrete practical virtues of its moral code adapt it to the rudimentary moral sense of the primitive man4 ,sidenote3 ,effects upon ,mohammedan morality of an unpliant law ,one of the most striking and instructive phenomena of universal history is the contrasted fortunes of ,mohammedan and ,christian civilization4 ,in the eighth century of our era ,mohammedan culture was in many respects superior to that of ,christendom4 ,it held forth great promises for the future4 ,but these promises were not kept4 ,stagnation quickly followed the period of brilliant achievement1 and a blight fell upon the ,moslem world1 while the history of ,christendom has been a record of wonderful development and progress1 until to-day the two worlds cannot be placed in comparison with one another1 but only in contrast4 ,beyond question many agencies1 such as race1 religion1 and government1 have concurred to produce this contrast in history and fortune1 but equally certain is it that a potent contributory cause is the difference in the moral systems which the two civilizations respectively inherited4 ,the moral life of the ,christian world1 happily freed from the bondage of the rigid ,mosaic law1 an outer law of positive minute commands1 has expatiated under the comprehensive1 flexible law of the ,gospel1 a law of love and liberty4 ,as a result the moral life of ,christendom has been1 on the whole1 notwithstanding certain ,mohammedanizing tendencies1 an expansive growth under the guidance of a moral consciousness gradually purified and refined by experience and advancing culture4 ,on the other hand1 the moral life of the ,mohammedan world has been subjected to the authority of an external1 unchanging law1 a law conceived to have been given for all time1 a republication practically of that rigid ,mosaic law from the bondage of which the ,christian world had fortunately escaped4 ,but the moral life cannot be thus subjected to a rigid external authority without resulting inanition and death4 8,the blight that has fallen on the ,moslem nations10 declares a well-informed and thoughtful ,mohammedan writer1 8is due to the patristic doctrine which has prohibited the exercise of individual judgment40#fga ,the ethical code of a people1 like its civil code1 must be elastic and responsive to the ever-changing needs and demands of the growing moral life4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,the ,,moral ,,life ,,of ,,europe ,,during ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,chivalry ,i4 ,,the ,,church ,,consecrates ,,the ,,martial ,,ideal ,,of ,,knighthood ,sidenote3 ,introductory ,from the third to the ninth century the ideal of asceticism absorbed a great part of the moral enthusiasm of ,christendom4 ,during the later part of this period1 however1 as we have noted1 there was growing up alongside the ascetic ideal another of a very different character--the martial ideal of knighthood4 ,in the present chapter we shall first make a brief survey of the various causes that gave this new trend to the moral feelings and convictions of the age1 and then shall glance at some of the more important historical outcomes of the vast enthusiasm evoked by this new ideal of character4 ,the ideal of knighthood1 a product in the main of feudalism1 grew up outside the ,church1 and only later was recognized by ecclesiastical authority and approved as compatible with the ethical spirit of ,christianity4 ,had not the ideal been thus approved by ecclesiastical authority1 and advantage taken of the enthusiasm it evoked to promote through it the cause of the ,church1 it would never have become the significant force it did in ,european history4 ,therefore we must first inquire what were the influences that engendered a military spirit in the ,church and led it to approve the martial ideal of the knight and give the consecration of religion to the institution of chivalry which was its embodiment4 ,sidenote3 ,the genius of ,christianity opposed to the war spirit ,if at the advent of ,christianity one reflecting upon the genius of the new religion and the teachings of its ,founder had ventured to forecast the influence of the new faith upon the different departments of morality1 he would almost certainly have predicted that this influence would be felt most decisively upon the ethics of war4 ,the attitude assumed by the early ,christians toward the military life would have justified this forecast1 for ,christianity brought into the world the new principle of nonresistance4#fgb ,this teaching made the primitive ,christian community almost a ,quaker body2 but barely three centuries had passed before this religion which had entered the world as a gospel of peace and good will had become a martial creed and its emblem been made a battle standard4 ,sidenote3 ,causes which fostered the war spirit in the ,church3 7a7 the heritage of the war ethics of the ancient world of culture ,the causes that produced this amazing transformation in the ,christian ,church were various and so interrelated as to make it difficult to determine just what influence was exercised by each4 ,yet it is possible to note the character of the different agencies at work1 and to form at least some general idea of the way in which the transformation was wrought4 ,first1 there was the inheritance from the past4 ,war had always been one of the leading occupations of men4 ,it had scarcely ever occurred to any one to question its legitimacy4 ,it was looked upon as a part of the constitution of things4 ,the ideas1 feelings1 habits1 engendered by its practice through uncounted millenniums of history had become ingrained in every tissue and fiber of man's being4 ,set in the midst of the world1 the ,church yielded to the influence of this baneful pagan heritage4 ,it incorporated with its own moral code1 wholly alien to the essential spirit of ,christianity as these elements were1 the war ethics of the pre-,christian world1 and thus made this pagan international morality a permanent part of ,christian ethics4#fgc ,it will be instructive for us to follow somewhat closely this reaction upon the ethics of the ,church1 first of the war code of the civilized world of the south1 and then later of the war spirit of the barbarian world of the north4 ,the early ,fathers of the ,church in general condemned the military service as incompatible with the ,christian life4#fgd ,not till the second century of the ,empire do we find any record of ,christian soldiers serving in the ,roman armies4 ,by this time the early rule of the ,church forbidding a member to serve in the army had become relaxed2 but members of the ,christian body who entered the ,roman legions were required to undertake a prescribed penance and to seek absolution before partaking of the ,eucharist4 ,by the time of ,diocletian ,christians appear to have entered with little or no scruple upon the military life4#fge ,a significant waymark of this gradual transformation is the great victory won by the ,emperor ,constantine over his rival ,maxentius at the battle of ,milvian ,bridge1 #cab ,a4,d4 ,upon that field the soldiers of ,constantine fought beneath the ,labarum1 a standard which bore as an emblem the ,christian cross4 ,the fortunate issue of the battle for ,constantine seems to have greatly confirmed the feeling in the ,christian community as to the legitimacy of war4 ,the ,church conformed more and more positively its teachings and discipline to the requirements of the military service4 ,saints ,augustine 7#ced-dcj ,a4,d47 and ,ambrose 7#cdj-cig ,a4,d471 in opposition to most of the earlier ,fathers1 were open apologists and defenders of war and of the military life4 ,thus during the very period when the ,church was putting under its ban the cruel and sanguinary amusements of the ,romans by the suppression of the gladiatorial games1#fgf and thus lifting domestic morality to a new and higher plane1 through a strange inconsistency it was first condoning and then finally consecrating the international pagan war system of which these sports were only a mild imitation4 ,sidenote3 7b7 ,the war spirit of the ,german race ,after the fifth century the influence upon the ethics of the ,church of the war system of the civilized world of the south was renforced by the martial spirit of the barbarian world of the north4 ,that world was now1 largely through the missions of the monastic ,church1 being rapidly brought within the pale of ,christianity4 ,but all these northern peoples were the very incarnation of the war spirit4 ,their favorite deities were gods who delighted in battle and bloodshed4 ,fighters these men were1 and fighters they remained even after conversion and baptism4 ,the mingling of moralities which followed their conversion is well illustrated by the passionate outburst of the ,frankish chieftain ,clovis as he listened to the story of the ,crucifixion3 8,oh10 he exclaimed1 8if only ,i could have been there with my trusty warriors60 ,the soul of ,clovis lived on in his race4 ,four centuries later these ,frankish warriors1 as knight crusaders1 were on the spot of the ,crucifixion1 redeeming with lance and sword the tomb of the slain ,christ from the hands of infidels4 ,it was this ineradicable war spirit of the northern barbarians to which was due1 perhaps more than to any other agency1 the infusion of a military spirit into that church of which the ,founder was the ,prince of ,peace4 ,among the customs of the early ,germans there was one which had such a positive influence upon the evolution we are tracing in ,church morality that we must here make special note of it4 ,this was the ordeal by fire1 by water1 or by wager of battle to determine the guilt or innocence of an accused person4 ,the prominent place held by this institution among savage or semicivilized peoples is familiar to the student of primitive society4 ,now the ,german folk brought with them this institution1 and with it the belief which made the ordeal1 and particularly the ordeal by combat1 a solemn judicial matter in which ,god rendered decision and gave victory to the one whose cause was just4 ,this barbarian conception of the wager of battle between individuals became incorporated with the common body of ,christian ideas and beliefs4 ,the same manner of thinking was perforce applied to war4 ,a conflict between great armies was conceived as a wager of battle in which ,god gave victory to the right4 ,thus was war consecrated and made an agency whereby ,god executes judgment among the nations4 ,sidenote3 7c7 ,the war records of the ,old ,hebrew ,testament ,this interpretation of the nature and mission of war was renforced by a like unfortunate interpretation of the records of the ,old ,testament4 ,the good bishop ,ulfilas was right when1 in translating the ,hebrew ,bible into the ,gothic tongue1 he omitted the war chronicles through fear that these records of wars and massacres would fan into too fierce a flame the martial zeal of his ,gothic neophytes4 ,to these terrible chronicles1 which represent ,god as commanding the ,israelites to wage war against his enemies1 and even as ordering the most horrid atrocities upon war captives1 is due in large part the idea so dominant even to-day among ,christian nations that ,god is a ,god of ,war1 and that through the ordeal of battle he gives judgment on the earth4#fgg ,sidenote3 7d7 ,the armed propaganda of ,islam ,the transformation taking place in the ethical standard of the ,church under the various influences we have named was hastened and completed by the reaction upon ,christian ethics of the martial ethics of ,islam4#fgh ,this new influence began to be exerted in the seventh century4 ,by infection the crusading spirit of the ,mohammedan zealots was communicated to the ,christian ,church4 ,toward the close of the eleventh century the spiritual head of ,christendom1 ,pope ,urban ,,ii1 summoned the ,christian nations of ,europe to arms for the recovery of the ,holy ,sepulcher from the hands of the unbelievers4 ,feudalism by this time had flowered in chivalry4 ,the ,christian lands were filled with brave young knights1 especially knights of ,norman descent1 aflame with martial enthusiasm and eager for warlike adventure4 ,it was the ancestors of these very men1 instinct with the military spirit1 that ,rome had once enlisted in her legions to fight the battles of the ,empire2 it is the children of those legionaries that the ,christian ,church now summons in the name of ,christ to her standard to fight the battles of the ,cross4 ,the transformation of that ,church was now complete4 ,the age of the ,crusades had opened4 ,christ and ,mars were co-sovereigns in ,christian ,europe4 ,the teachings of the ,prince of ,peace and the war spirit of the civilization of antiquity and of the ,german barbarians were reconciled4#fgi ,as ,lecky finely portrays it1 8,at the hour of sunset when the ,christian soldier knelt down to pray before his cross1 that cross was the handle of his sword40#fhj ,,ii4 ,,the ,,composite ,,ideal ,,of ,,knighthood ,sidenote3 ,the composite character of the ideal3 its pagan-,christian virtues ,the foregoing brief account of the reconciliation and commingling in later ,roman and early medieval times of the pagan ethics of war and the ,christian ethics of peace has already acquainted us with what was the distinctive characteristic of the ethical ideal of knighthood1 the ideal which resulted from this mingling of these two strongly contrasted moralities4 ,it was a composite ideal1 a combination of pagan and ,christian virtues4 ,the true knight1 who was the incarnation of the ideal1 must possess all the admired moral qualities of the pagan hero1 and1 together with these1 all the essential virtues of the ,christian saint4 ,among the pagan virtues we find a set of moral qualities that are attributes of character which1 with possibly one or two exceptions1 were assigned a high place either in the barbarian ,german or in the classical ideal of excellence4 ,chief among these qualities are personal loyalty1 courage1 truthfulness1 justice1 magnanimity1 courtesy1 and self-respect4 ,the first duty and virtue of the true knight was absolute loyalty to his superior1 to his comrades in arms1 and to the cause espoused4 ,this virtue of loyalty is the virtue which ,professor ,royce makes the root from which all other virtues spring4#fha ,without doubt it is1 if not the central virtue of every true moral system1 one of the most attractive of all ethical traits1 and one most sacredly held from taint by every person with a nice sense of what constitutes true nobility of character4 ,a second and indispensable virtue was courage4 ,the knight must be brave as well as loyal4 ,cowardice and knighthood were wholly incompatible things4 ,another moral quality was veracity1 absolute fidelity to a promise4 ,the pledged word of the true knight was sacrosanct and inviolable4#fhb ,still another indispensable trait in the character of the ideal knight was love of justice4 ,the true knight must be just2 an unjust knight could not be a true knight any more than an unjust judge can be a true judge4 ,again1 the knight who would be loyal to the ideal of knighthood must be magnanimous4 ,one of the elements of this virtue is unwillingness to take an unfair advantage of another1 especially of an enemy4 ,it was a disgraceful thing for a knight to attack his foe when at a disadvantage1 as when disarmed or fallen4 ,he must always meet his enemy in fair and open fight4 ,furthermore1 the true knight must be courteous4 ,it was as much his duty to be courteous as to be truthful4 ,now courtesy is not a trait or feeling which inspires lofty action1 but one which induces gentleness1 kind consideration1 and gracious deference toward all alike--rich and poor1 high and low4 ,lastly1 the knight must possess dignity or self-respect4 ,the age of chivalry interpreted this virtue or duty as requiring the knight to stand on his rights as a man4 ,he must not let an injury to himself or to a friend go unpunished4 ,he must resent every insult and return blow for blow4 ,not to do so argued cowardice and pusillanimity4 ,all this was of course directly opposed to the ,christian requirements of humility1 meekness1 nonresistance1 and forgiveness of injuries1 and was distinctly a part of the moral code of chivalry which was borrowed from pre-,christian or non-,christian morality4 ,to these essentially pagan virtues the knight1 after the institution of chivalry had been approved and consecrated by the ,church1 must add all the distinctly ,christian virtues1 particularly the virtue of right religious belief4 ,only the true believer could be a true knight4 ,a striking illustration of the mixture of moralities with which we have to do in the period of chivalry is afforded by the celebrated religious military orders of the ,hospitalers and ,templars1 which were formed just before the ,second ,crusade1 when the enthusiasm for the chivalric ideal was at its height1 while that for the ascetic had not yet sensibly abated4 ,the ,hospitalers were monks who1 to their monastic vows of poverty1 chastity1 and obedience or humility1 added the martial obligations of knighthood2 the ,templars were knights who to their military vows added those of the monk4 ,thus in these remarkable orders of knight-monks we see incongruously united the monastic and military ideals1 two of the most sharply contrasted conceptions of worthy life that it is possible to find in the whole history of ethical ideals4 ,sidenote3 ,defects of the ideal ,the ideal of chivalry had serious defects4 ,first1 the military spirit1 borrowed from paganism1 which the ideal apotheosized1 was in absolute opposition to the spirit of ,christianity1 so that the perfect reconciliation and fusion of the different moral qualities entering into the ideal was impossible4 ,second1 from feudalism1 with its sharply defined social classes1 the ideal received an aristocratic stamp4 ,in this respect it was the direct opposite of the monastic ideal4 ,any person1 freeman or slave1 king or peasant1 could become a monk1 and by following the more excellent way gain the homage of men and win the crown of sainthood4 ,but the chivalric ideal was one to which no plebeian might aspire4 ,only a person of noble birth could become a knight4 ,this exclusive aristocratic character of the ideal constituted one of its most serious defects4 ,yet in spite of this and other defects it was a noble and attractive ideal1 and one which not only left a deep stamp upon medieval history1 but contributed precious elements to the ethical heritage which the modern world received from the ,middle ,ages4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,chief ,,moral ,,phenomena ,,of ,,the ,,period ,sidenote3 ,influence of the ideal of chivalry upon the history of the epoch ,just as the moral enthusiasm awakened by the monastic ideal gave a special character and trend to much of the history of the age of its ascendancy1--inspiring or helping to inspire the missionary propaganda among the barbarian tribes of ,europe1 giving birth to a special literature 7the ,lives of the ,saints71 and fostering the spirit of benevolence and self-renunciation1--so did the unmeasured enthusiasm created by the chivalric ideal give a distinctive character to much of the history of the age of its predominance--lending a romantic cast to the ,crusades1 creating a new form of literature1 and giving a more assured place in the growing ,european ideal of character to several attractive traits and virtues4 ,respecting each of these matters we shall offer some observations in the immediately following pages1 and then shall proceed to speak briefly of some reform movements which belong to the general moral history of the epoch under review4 ,sidenote3 ,chivalry and the ,crusades ,the ,crusades of the eleventh and twelfth centuries against the ,moslems of the ,east1 in so far as those enterprises were inspired by moral feeling1--and religious-ethical feeling was the chief motive force behind them1--were largely the translation into action of the ideal of chivalry now commended and consecrated by the ,church4 ,the oath of the ,knights of ,malta1 who were a perfect incarnation of the spirit of chivalry1 was 8to make eternal war upon the ,turks2 to recognize no cessation of hostilities with the infidel1 on any pretext whatsoever40 ,it is an amazing change that1 in the course of a few generations1 has come over the ethical spirit and temper of the peoples of ,christendom4 ,in the earlier medieval time the best conscience of the age was embodied in the monk-saints ,augustine1 ,columba1 ,winfrid1 and a great company of other unarmed missionary apostles to the pagan ,celts and ,germans2 in this later time the best conscience of the age is incarnated in the armor-clad warriors ,godfrey of ,bouillon1 ,raymond1 ,bohemond1 ,tancred1 and a multitude of other knightly leaders of the hosts of ,crusaders who go forth to redeem with blood and slaughter the tomb of their martyred ,lord4 ,sidenote3 ,romance literature as an expression of the ethical spirit of the age ,no element of civilization responds more quickly to the changing ethical ideal of a people than its literature4 ,the change that passed over the popular literature of ,christendom in the transition of ,europe from the age of asceticism to the age of chivalry is finely summarized by ,lecky in these words3 8,when the popular imagination in the earlier age embodied in legends its conception of humanity in its noblest and most attractive form1 it instinctively painted some hermit-saint of many penances and many miracles4444 ,in the romances of ,charlemagne and ,arthur we may trace the dawning of a new type of greatness4 ,the hero of the imagination of ,europe is no longer the hermit but a knight40#fhc ,an interesting monument of this new species of literature1 in what we may view as a transition stage1 is the ,gesta ,romanorum1#fhd a collection of moral stories invented by the monks in their idle hours4 ,these tales are a curious mixture of things ,roman1 monastic1 and knightly4 ,but for a true expression of this romance literature we must turn to the legends of the ,holy ,grail1 in which a lofty imagination blends1 in so far as they can be blended1 all the varied elements of the knightly ideal in a consistent whole4 ,no age save the age of ,christian knighthood could have produced this wonderful cycle of tales4 ,sidenote3 ,contribution of chivalry to the moral heritage of the ,christian world ,but it is neither in the crusading enterprises nor in the literary products of the age of chivalry that we are to look for the real historical significance of the ideal of chivalry4 ,its chief import for the moral evolution of the ,european nations lies in the fact that it helped to give fuller and richer content to the ,christian ideal by contributing to it1 or by giving a surer place in it1 certain nontheological virtues1 some of which the ,church had laid little emphasis upon or had entirely neglected4 ,thus the enthusiasm for the ideal of chivalry1 like the ,church's veneration of the ,holy ,virgin1#fhe tended to elevate and refine the ideal of woman1 and thus to counteract certain tendencies of the ascetic ideal4 ,it helped to give a high valuation to the moral qualities of loyalty1 truthfulness1 magnanimity1 self-reliance1 and courtesy4 ,we designate these attractive traits of character as chivalrous virtues for the reason that we recognize that knighthood made precious contributions to these elements of the moral inheritance which the modern received from the medieval world4 ,sidenote3 ,restrictions on the right of private war3 the ,truce of ,god ,very closely connected ethically and historically with chivalry is the movement during the later medieval time for the abolition of the right of private war4#fhf ,in the tenth century1 as feudalism developed and the military spirit of knighthood came more and more to dominate society1 the right of waging war1 with which privilege every feudal lord of high rank was invested1 resulted in a state of intolerable anarchy in all those lands where the feudal system had become established4 ,respecting this right1 claimed and exercised by the feudal prince1 of waging war against any and every other chieftain1 even though this one were a member of the same state as that to which he himself belonged1 there was in these medieval centuries precisely the same moral feeling1 or rather lack of moral feeling1 that exists to-day in regard to the right claimed and exercised by the different independent nations of waging war against one another4 ,as a result of this practice of private war1 ,europe reverted to a condition of primitive barbarism4 ,every land was filled with fightings and violence4 8,every hill10 as one pictures it1 8was a stronghold1 every plain a battlefield4 ,the trader was robbed on the highway1 the peasant was killed at his plow1 the priest was slain at the altar4 ,neighbor fought against neighbor1 baron against baron1 city against city40 ,in the midst of this universal anarchy the ,church lifted a protesting voice4 ,toward the end of the tenth century there was started in ,france a movement which aimed at the complete abolition of private war4 ,the ,church aspired to do what had been done by pagan ,rome4 ,it proclaimed what was called the ,peace of ,god4 ,it commanded all men everywhere to refrain from fighting and robbery and violence of every kind as contrary to the spirit and teachings of ,christianity4 ,but it was found utterly impossible to make the great feudal barons refrain from fighting one another even though they were threatened with the eternal torments of hell4 ,they were just as unwilling to surrender this highly prized privilege and right of waging private war as the nations of to-day are to surrender their prized privilege and right to wage public war4 ,then the leaders of the clergy of ,france1 seeing that they could not suppress the evil entirely1 resolved to attempt to regulate it4 ,this led to the proclamation of what was called the ,truce of ,god4 ,the first certain trace of this movement dates from the year #ajda4fhg ,in that year the abbot of the monastery of ,cluny and the other ,french abbots and bishops issued an edict commanding all men to maintain a holy and unbroken peace during four days of every week1 from ,wednesday evening till ,monday morning4#fhh ,every man was required to take an oath to observe this ,truce of ,god4 ,the oath was renewed every three years1 and was administered to boys on their reaching their twelfth year4 ,this movement to redeem at least a part of the days from fighting and violence came gradually to embrace all the countries of ,western ,europe4 ,the details of the various edicts issued by ,church councils and popes vary greatly1 but all embody the principle of the edict of #ajda4 ,holydays1 and especially consecrated periods1 as ,easter time and ,christmas week1 came to be covered by the ,truce4 ,the ,council of ,clermont1 which inaugurated the ,first ,crusade1 extended greatly the terms of the ,truce1 forbidding absolutely private wars while the ,crusade lasted1 and placing under the gis of the ,church the person and property of every crusader4 ,the ,truce of ,god was never well observed1 yet it did something during the eleventh and twelfth centuries to mitigate the evils of private war and to render life more secure and tolerable4 ,after the twelfth century the kings of ,europe1 who were now strengthening their authority and consolidating their dominions1 took the place of the ,church in maintaining peace among their feudal vassals4 ,they came to regard themselves as responsible for the 8peace of the land10 which phrase now superseded those of the 8,peace of ,god0 and the 8,truce of ,god40 ,thus the movement to which moral forces had given the first impulse was carried to its consummation by political motives4 ,to the ,church1 however1 history will ever accord the honor of having begun this great reform which enforced peace upon the members of the same state1 and which has made private wars in civilized lands a thing of the past4 ,the abolition of private warfare was the first decisive step marking the advance of ,europe toward universal peace4 ,public war1 that is1 war between nations1 is still an established and approved institution of international law2 but in the moral evolution of humanity a time approaches when public war shall also1 like private war1 be placed under the ban of civilization1 and will have passed upon it by the truer conscience of that better age the same judgment that the conscience of to-day pronounces on that private warfare upon which the ,truce of ,god laid the first arresting hand4 ,sidenote3 ,progress in the ethics of war3 sale into slavery of ,christian captives condemned ,although the ,church has done little in a direct way to abolish public war1 or even directly to create in society at large a new conscience in regard to the wickedness of war in itself as an established method of settling international differences1 its influence has been felt from early ,christian times in the alleviation of its barbarities and cruelties4 ,one of the first ameliorations in the rules of war effected through ,christian influence concerned the treatment of war captives4 ,among the ancient ,greeks1 as we have seen1 under the influence of the sentiment of ,panhellenism1 there was developed a vague feeling that ,greeks should not enslave ,greeks4 ,but aside from this ,panhellenic sentiment1 which had very little influence upon actual practice1 there was in the pre-,christian period seemingly little or no moral feeling on the subject1 and the custom of reducing prisoners of war to slavery was practically universal4 ,but the custom1 in so far as it concerned ,christian prisoners1 was condemned by the ,christian conscience as incompatible with the spirit of ,christianity1 and the rule was established that such captives should not be enslaved4#fhi ,we observe the first clear workings of this new war conscience in ,britain after the conversion of the ,saxon invaders4 ,the ,celts of ,britain were ,christians1 and the ,saxons1 after they themselves had been won over to ,christianity1 ceased to sell into slavery their ,celtic captives4 ,gradually this new rule was adopted by all ,christian nations4 ,no other advance of equal importance marks the moral history of public war during the medieval period4 ,this humane rule1 however1 did not1 as we have intimated1 embrace non-,christians4 ,our word 8slave0 bears witness to this fact4 ,this term came to designate a person in servitude from the circumstance that up to the eleventh century1 which saw the evangelization of ,russia1 the slave class in ,europe was made up largely of ,slavs1 who1 as pagans1 were without scruple reduced to slavery by their ,christian captors4 ,but the earlier rights which the immemorial laws of war conferred upon the captor were not wholly annulled in the case of ,christian captives4 ,the practice of holding for ransom took the place of sale into slavery4 ,this custom prevailed throughout the feudal period1 but gradually during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries this practice finally yielded to the more humanitarian custom of exchange of prisoners4#fij ,thus in this department of ethics there is to be traced a gradual humanization of the code1 which1 beginning in savagery with gross cannibalism and torture1 advances through killing in cold blood1 sale into slavery1 and holding for ransom1 to equal exchange4 ,sidenote3 ,morality in the monasteries3 moral significance of the rise of the ,mendicant ,orders ,during the age of chivalry the ideal of the knight overshadowed the ideal of the monk4 ,nevertheless throughout the whole period the monastic ideal inspired a great deal of moral enthusiasm4 ,the founding and endowment of monasteries divided with the equipping of knightly expeditions for the ,crusades the zeal and efforts and sacrifices of the ,european peoples4 ,in the old orders of monks1 however1 zeal for the ascetic ideal would often grow cold1 and the high moral standard of the earlier time would be lowered4 ,then some select soul1 set aflame by a fresh vision of the ideal1 would draw together a group of devoted followers1 and thus would come into existence a new order of monks1 among whom the flame of a holy enthusiasm would burn brightly for a time4#fia ,among the numerous new orders called into existence by these reform movements there were two which1 in the ideal of duty which they followed1 stand quite apart from the ordinary monastic orders4 ,this new ideal had its incarnation in ,st4 ,francis#fib and ,st4 ,dominic1 the founders respectively of the ,franciscan and the ,dominican order of friars4 ,in this new conception of what constitutes the worthiest and most meritorious life1 the quietistic virtues of the earlier ascetic ideal1 which had developed during the period of terror and suffering which followed the subversion of classical civilization by the northern barbarians1 gave place to the active1 benevolent virtues4 ,in the earlier monastic movement there was a self-regarding element4 ,the monk fled from the world in order to make sure of his own salvation4 ,the world was left to care for itself4 ,in the new orders1 the brother1 in imitation of the ,master who went about among men teaching and healing1 left the cloister and went out into the world to rescue and save others4 ,in its lofty call to absolute self-forgetfulness and complete consecration to the service of humanity1 the early ideal of the ,mendicants was one of the noblest and most attractive that had grown up under ,christian influence4 ,the loftiness of the ideal attracted the select spirits of the age--for noble souls love self-sacrifice4 8,whenever in the thirteenth century10 says the historian ,lea1 8we find a man towering above his fellows1 we are almost sure to trace him to one of the ,mendicant ,orders40#fic ,it is in the exaltation of this virtue of self-renunciation that we find one of the chief services rendered by the ,mendicant ,orders1 especially by the ,franciscan1 to ,european morality4 ,just as the early monks1 through the emphasis laid on the virtue of chastity1 made a needed protest against the sensuality of a senile and decadent civilization1 so did the friars1 through the stress laid on the virtue of self-denial for others1 make a needed protest against the selfishness and hardness of an age that seemed to have forgotten the claims of the poor and the lowly4#fid ,it can hardly be made a matter of reasonable doubt that the slowly growing fund of altruistic feeling in ,christendom was greatly enriched by the self-devoted lives and labors of the followers of ,saints ,francis and ,dominic4 ,but the value of the ideal of the friars as an ethical force in the evolution of ,european civilization was seriously impaired by certain theological elements it contained4 ,it was an ideal in which1 as in the ordinary monastic ideal1 the duty of correct opinion came to be exalted above all others4 ,the ethics of belief took precedence of the ethics of service4 ,thus the friars1 particularly the ,dominicans1 through their zeal for orthodoxy1 fostered the grave moral fault of intolerance4 ,the growth of this conception of ,christian duty1 concurring with other causes of which we shall speak in the next chapter1 ushered in the age of the ,inquisition4 ,sidenote3 ,the ethics of ,scholasticism ,the ethical history of the friars or the preaching orders mingles with the ethical history of ,scholasticism4 ,the ethics of the ,schoolmen was a syncretism of two moral systems1 the pagan-classical or ,aristotelian and the ,christian4 ,with the four classical virtues of wisdom1 prudence1 temperance1 and justice were combined the three ,christian virtues of faith1 hope1 and love4 ,but these two moral types1 the classical and the theological1 each being taken in its entirety1 were mutually inconsistent ideals of virtue4 ,the pagan code was a morality based on the autonomy of the individual reason2 the ,church code was based on an external authority4 ,the one was inner and natural1 the other outer and supernatural4 ,the scholastic system was thus an incongruous combination of naturalism and supernaturalism in ethics1 of native virtues and 8virtues of grace40 ,this dualism is the essential fact in the history of the ethics of ,scholasticism4 ,as it was the great effort of the ,schoolmen in the domain of dogma to justify the doctrines of the ,church1 to show their reasonableness and consistency1 so was it their great effort in the domain of ethics to justify the ,church's composite moral ideal1 to show all its duties and virtues to form a reasonable and consistent system4 ,the best representative of this effort of reconciliation was the great ,schoolman ,thomas ,aquinas4 ,but a perfect fusion of the diverse elements was impossible4 ,there were ever striving in the system two spirits--the spirit of ,greek naturalism and the spirit of ,hebrew-,christian supernaturalism4 ,but there was another line of cleavage in the system which was still more fateful in its historical consequences than the cleavage between the ,aristotelian and the ,church morality4 ,this cleavage was created by the twofold ethics of the ,church1 for the ecclesiastical morality1 considered apart from the ,aristotelian element1 was itself made up of two mutually inconsistent ethics1 namely1 ,gospel ethics and ,augustinian ethics4#fie ,the saving virtue of the first was loving1 self-abnegating service2 the saving virtue of the second was faith1 which was practically defined as 8the acceptance as true of the dogma of the ,trinity and the main articles of the creed40 ,such was the emphasis laid by certain of the ,schoolmen upon the metaphysical side of this dual system that there was in their ethics more of the mind of ,augustine than of the mind of ,christ4 ,this making of an external authority the basis of morality1 this emphasizing of the theological virtues1 especially the virtue of right belief1 had two results of incalculable consequences for the moral evolution in ,christendom4 ,first1 it led naturally and inevitably to that system of casuistry#fif which was one of the most striking phenomena of the moral history of the later medieval and earlier modern centuries2 and second1 it laid the basis of the tribunal of the ,inquisition4 ,thus does the theological ethics of ,scholasticism stand in intimate and significant relation to these two important matters in the moral history of ,europe4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,renaissance ,,ethics3 ,,revival ,,of ,,naturalism ,,in ,,morals ,i4 ,,determining ,,influences ,sidenote3 ,the ,renaissance3 the new intellectual life ,toward the close of the medieval ages came that important movement in ,european society known as the ,renaissance1 a main feature of which was the restoration of classical culture4 ,since the incoming of the northern barbarians with their racial traits and martial moral code there had been no such modifying force brought to bear upon the moral evolution of the ,european peoples1 nor was there to appear a greater till the rise of modern evolutionary science4 ,the ,renaissance exerted its transforming influence on the moral life of the ,west chiefly through the new intellectual life it awakened by bringing the ,european mind in vital contact with the culture of the ancient world2 for intellectual progress means normally moral progress4 ,hence as the ,renaissance meant a new birth of the ,european intellect1 so did it mean also a new birth of the ,european conscience4 ,just as the conscience of the medieval age had its genesis in the new religion which superseded the paganism of the ancient world1 so did the common conscience of to-day have its genesis in the new science1 the new culture1 which in the ,renaissance superseded medieval ideas and theological modes of thought4 ,a chief part of our remaining task will be to make plain how the new intellectual life born in the revival of the fifteenth century1 and expressing itself since in every department of human life1 thought1 and activity1 has reacted upon the moral feelings and judgments of men and taught them to seek the ultimate sanctions of a true morality in the deep universal intuitions of the human heart and conscience4 ,sidenote3 ,the decay of feudalism and the rise of monarchy3 court life ,running parallel throughout the later medieval time with the classical revival1 whose significance was so great for ,european morality1 there was going on a political and social revolution which exerted an influence on the ethical evolution only less potent and far-reaching than that of the intellectual movement4 ,during this period the petty feudal states in the different countries of ,europe were being gathered up into larger political units4 ,the principle of monarchy was everywhere triumphing over that of feudalism4 ,the multitude of feudal castles1 in which had been cradled the knightly ideal of manhood1 were replaced by the palaces and courts of rich princes and powerful kings4 ,this meant a great change in the social and political environment of the higher classes4 ,in the first place1 in these later courts there was a brilliancy of life1 a culture and a refinement rarely found in the earlier feudal castles4 ,in the next place1 the relation which every member of the court sustained to the prince or sovereign was fundamentally different from that which the vassal had sustained to his lord under the feudal rgime4 ,this relation1 it is true1 was still a personal one2 but independence was gone1 and with this were gone the pride and self-sufficiency which it engendered4 ,in these princely courts the knight became a courtier4 ,the effect of these changes in surroundings and relationships upon the standard of conduct was profound1 as we shall see when1 a little farther on1 we come to inquire what were the ethical feelings and judgments awakened in this new environment4 ,sidenote3 ,the growth of the towns3 the workshop and the market as molders of morals ,three institutions--the monastery1 the castle1 and the town--dominated successively the life of the ,middle ,ages4 ,each developed a distinct ethical ideal4 ,the monastery cradled the conscience of the monk2 the castle1 the conscience of the knight2 and the town1 the conscience of the burgher4 ,what particular virtues were approved by the moral sense of the town dweller we shall note a little farther on4 ,we here merely observe that in the atmosphere of the town1 in the relationships of the workshop and the market1 were nourished the lowly lay virtues of the artisan and the trader1 virtues which1 though disesteemed by classical antiquity1 regarded as of subordinate worth by the monk1 and held in positive contempt by the knight1 were yet to constitute the heart and core of the ethical ideal of the modern world4 ,,ii4 ,,some ,,essential ,,facts ,,in ,,the ,,moral ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,age ,sidenote3 ,revival of the classical conception of life3 the new birth of the ,european conscience ,when ,christianity entered the ,greco-,roman world with its new moral ideal1 the old classical ideal of character1 as we have seen1 was practically superseded4 ,there were1 it is true1 certain elements of this pagan morality which were consciously or unconsciously absorbed by ,christianity2 but the classical ideal as a whole was rejected1 just as the greater part of the cultural elements of ,greco-,roman civilization were cast aside4 ,for a thousand years ,hebrew-,christian conceptions of the world and of life shaped the thought and conduct of men4 ,then came the ,renaissance4#fig ,in the study of this movement the attention of the historian has ordinarily been centered on the literary1 artistic1 and intellectual phases of the revival1 while the ethical phase has been given but slight attention or has been dismissed with the facile observation that the movement induced a revival of pagan immorality4 ,this is true4 ,but the really significant thing was not the revival of pagan immorality but the revival of pagan morality4 ,for just as this classical revival meant a new enthusiasm for the artistic1 literary1 and cultural elements of the earlier ,greco-,roman civilization1 so did it also mean a new enthusiasm for the ,greco-,roman ideal of character4 ,to many it was no longer the ,church ideal but the classical that seemed the embodiment of what is ethically most noble and worthy4 ,such persons gave up the practice of the distinctively ,christian theological virtues1 or1 if they still outwardly observed the ,church code1 this was merely insincere conformity suggested by prudence or policy2 the code of morals which their minds and hearts approved and which they observed1 if they observed any at all1 was the code of pagan antiquity4 ,it is in this secularization of the ethical ideal1 in this divorce of morality from theology1 in this announcement of the freedom and autonomy of the individual spirit1 that is to be sought the real significance of the classical revival of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries for the moral history of the ,western world4 ,in two ways chiefly did the ,renaissance exert its transforming influence upon ,european morals3 first1 by awakening a new intellectual life1 for1 as we have had repeatedly shown us1 a new mental life means a new moral life2 and second1 by the direct introduction of various elements of ,greco-,roman morals into the ,christian ideal of character4 ,thus at the same time that the cultural life of ,europe was being enlarged and enriched by the incorporation of those literary and art elements of classical civilization which had been rejected or underestimated by the ,middle ,ages1 the moral life of ,christendom was being profoundly modified by the incorporation of those ethical elements which constituted the precious product of the moral aspirations and achievements of the best generations of the ancient world4 ,the conscience of those persons in the modern world who are imbued with the true scientific spirit1 that is to say1 with the humanistic spirit of the ,renaissance1 is quite as largely ,greek as ,hebraic4 ,a recent writer reviewing the life of a distinguished personage 7,julia ,ward ,howe7 recognized this mingling in modern culture of these diverse elements in these words3 8,she has blended and lived1 as no other eminent ,american woman1 the humanistic and the ,christian ideals of life4 ,she has preached love and self-sacrifice1 and she has loved beauty and self-realization40 ,sidenote3 ,theological morality3 the ethics of persecution ,in the domain of theological morality the history of the ,renaissance affords one of the most painful chapters in ,european history4 ,this chapter has to do with the establishment of the ,inquisition to maintain uniformity of religious belief4 ,it is not an accident that this chapter should form an integral part of the history of the ,renaissance4 ,the spread of heresy1 which threatened the unity of the medieval ,church1 was largely the outgrowth of the new intellectual life awakened by the revival of learning4#fih ,hence it was inevitable that the age of the ,renaissance should be also the age of persecution4 ,it is not a recital of the history of the ,holy ,office during the period under review which is our concern in this place1 but only a consideration of the motives of ,christian persecution4 ,that intolerance should ever have been regarded by the followers of the tolerant ,nazarene as a virtue and persecution of misbelievers as a pious duty1 challenges the attention of the historian of morals and incites earnest inquiry into the causes of such an aberration of the moral sentiment4 ,it cannot be made a matter of reasonable doubt that one of the chief causes of ,christian intolerance is the theological doctrine that salvation is dependent upon right belief in religious matters1 and that error in belief1 even though honest1 is a crime that merits and receives eternal punishment4#fii ,this dogma leads logically and inevitably to intolerance and persecution2#gjj for if wrong belief is a crime of so heinous a nature as justly to subject the misbeliever to everlasting and horrible torments1 and if the misbeliever is likely to bring others into the same fatal way of thinking1 then it follows that heresy should be extirpated1 just as the germs of a dreaded contagion are stamped out1 by any and every means however seemingly harsh and cruel4 ,thus ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas and other theologians logically 8argued that if the death penalty could be rightly inflicted on thieves and forgers1 who rob us only of worldly goods1 how much more righteously on those who cheat us out of supernatural goods--out of faith1 the sacraments1 the life of the soul40#gja ,it was this theological teaching that heresy is a fault of unmeasured sinfulness1 an 8insidious preventable contagion10 which was the main root that fostered ,christian intolerance and persecution4#gjb ,the activities of the ,holy ,office were maintained not by bad men but by good men4 8,with such men it was not hope of gain1 or lust of blood1 or pride of opinion1 or wanton exercise of power that moved them1 but sense of duty1 and they but represented what was universal public opinion from the thirteenth to the seventeenth century40#gjc ,reflecting on these facts1 we readily give assent to the charitable judgment of the historian ,von ,holst in commenting on the acts of the ,terrorists in the ,french ,revolution1 that 8wrongdoing to others lies not so much in the will as in the understanding40 ,the greatest crime of history was committed by men who knew not what they did4#gjd ,it was a theological doctrine which is to-day rejected by the reason and conscience of a large section of the ,church itself1 that caused the loss for centuries of the virtue of toleration1 which in the ethical systems of the classical world had been assigned a prominent place among the virtues1 and which1 could it have found a place in the standard of goodness of the ,church1 would have saved ,christendom the horrors of the ,albigensian crusades1 the pious cruelties of the ,inquisition1 and the mutual persecutions of ,catholics and ,protestants throughout the age of the ,reformation4 ,sidenote3 ,political morality3 ,machiavellian ethics ,the matter of dominant importance in the sphere of political morality during the ,renaissance was the creation of a code of morals for princes4 ,this was a system formulated by the ,italian philosopher ,machiavelli1 who wrote under the secularizing influences of the classical revival and of the paganized courts of the ,italian princes of his time4#gje ,it was a code which the ruling class1 for whom it was designed1 eagerly adopted1 for the reason that it harmonized with their desires1 ambitions1 and practices1 and sanctioned as not only morally permissible1 but even as obligatory and meritorious1 policies and acts which1 without such sanction1 might have awakened in some at least inconvenient and hampering scruples of conscience4 ,this princely ideal1 notwithstanding that the conduct of the prince who acted in accordance with it was generally condoned1 was not one which1 like the ascetic or the knightly ideal1 awakened moral enthusiasm4 ,it was a standard of conduct never approved by the best conscience of ,christendom4 ,on the contrary1 the work in which ,machiavelli embodied this ideal for princes was1 on its first appearance1 fiercely assailed as grossly immoral1 and ever since has called forth the severest condemnation of moralists4 ,the fundamental principle of ,machiavelli's system is that the moral code binding on the subject is not binding on the ruler2 or rather that ethics has nothing to do with politics4#gjf ,with the prince the end justifies the means4 ,he is at liberty to lie1 defraud1 steal1 and kill1 in fine1 to employ all and every form of deception1 injustice1 cruelty1 and unrighteousness in dealing with his enemies and with other princes or states4 ,this moral standard set for princes by ,machiavelli was the dominant force in international affairs from the middle of the sixteenth to the middle of the seventeenth century4 ,during this period it debased the public morals not only of ,italy but of every other land in ,christendom4 ,its vicious principles were acted upon by every court of ,europe4#gjg ,even to-day ,machiavellism1 though condemned in theory1 is still too often followed in practice4 ,it would not be an exaggeration to say that ,the ,prince has exercised a more baneful influence over the political morals of ,europe than any other book ever written4 ,it is instructive to contrast the influence of ,machiavellism with that of ,stoicism4 ,among the good effects of ,roman ,stoicism was its ennobling influence upon the imperial government4 ,it gave the ,roman ,empire such a succession of high-minded and conscientious rulers as scarce is shown by the history of any other state ancient or modern4 ,in contrast to the influence of this noble philosophy which apotheosized duty and exalted in rulers the virtues of clemency1 truthfulness1 magnanimity1 and justice1 ,machiavellism filled1 or contributed to fill1 the thrones of ,christendom with rulers whose moral sense was so blunted by its sinister doctrines that for generations truth speaking1 sincerity1 regard for the obligations of treaties1 and respect for the rights of sister states were almost unknown in the diplomacy and mutual dealings of the governments of ,europe4 ,it is only after the lapse of more than three centuries that ,christendom is freeing itself from the evil influence of ,machiavelli's teachings1 and that there has been generated a new public conscience which recognizes that states like individuals are subjects of the moral law1 and that the code which is binding on individuals is binding likewise on governments and communities4 ,sidenote3 ,the ethical value of the ideal of the courtier ,we have already mentioned the ideal of the courtier as one of the ethical or semi-ethical products of the age of the ,renaissance4 ,this was a conception of perfect manhood which was nurtured in the socially brilliant and refined courts of the ,italian princes of this period4 ,it was a fusion and modification of selected virtues and qualities of the knight and of the scholar4 ,the ,christian theological virtues had no necessary place in it4 ,it was the distinctive virtues of the knight1 elevated and refined1 which formed the heart and core of the ideal4 ,like the ideal of knighthood1 the courtly ideal was an aristocratic one2 the courtier1 like the knight1 must be 8nobly born and of gentle race40#gjh ,martial exploits were accounted to him as virtues2 8his principal and true profession ought to be that of arms40#gji ,as loyalty to his superior was a supreme virtue in the knight1 so was absolute loyalty to his prince the pre-eminent virtue of the courtier4 ,not less prominent was the place accorded in the ideal to the knightly virtues of courage and courtesy4#gaj ,but to these qualities and virtues of the knight the courtier must needs add those of the scholar4 ,the ordinary knight despised learning and held the virtues of the scholar in contempt4 ,but the ideal of courtliness grew up in a land where humanistic studies had become a ruling passion1 and in an age when the highest ambition of many an ,italian prince was to be known as a patron of learning4 ,it was natural that1 developing in the atmosphere of these courts1 the new standard of perfect manhood should give a prominent place to the qualifications and virtues of the scholar4 ,this ideal of the courtier was never such a moral force in history as that of the monk or of the knight1 but there were in it ethical elements of positive value to the moral life of the world4 ,it was the inspiration of many of the finest spirits of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4#gaa ,of the noble-minded ,sir ,philip ,sidney a biographer says1 8,he conscientiously molded his life on the model of the perfect courtier of ,cortelliani40 ,nor has the ideal ever ceased to appeal to the imagination1 or lost its power to soften and refine manners and ennoble conduct4 ,it inspires gentle consideration for others of whatsoever estate1 incites to unselfish service1 and induces absolute good faith and self-forgetting loyalty to friends and to the cause espoused1 all of which are moral qualities of high value1 and all of which have entered or are entering as permanent elements into the growing world ideal of perfect manhood4 ,sidenote3 ,the ethics of industry3 the medieval towns the cradle of the modern business conscience ,in the medieval town was developed a moral ideal as distinct and individual as that of the monastery or of the castle4 ,central in this type of goodness were the homely virtues of industry1 carefulness in workmanship1 punctuality1 honesty1 faithful observance of engagements1 and general fair dealing4 ,to these lay virtues were added all those which made up the ,church ideal for the ordinary life1 for there had not yet been effected that divorce of business from theology which had been effected in the case of politics4 ,the development of this ideal of goodness was a matter of immense importance for the moral life of the ,west1 because1 acted upon by the practical ethical spirit of ,protestantism and other agencies1 it was destined to supersede the ascetic and chivalric ideals of life1 which for more than a thousand years had been the ruling moral forces in the life of ,christendom1 for neither of these ideals of goodness could be more than a partial and passing form of the moral life4 ,the ascetic ideal1 having for its distinctive qualities such virtues as celibacy1 poverty1 solitary contemplation1 vigils1 fastings1 and mortifications of the body1 could not possibly become the standard for all men4 ,it was confessedly a standard of perfection for the few only4 ,as to the knightly ideal1 this was too exclusively a martial one to become the supreme rule of life and conduct for the multitude4 ,furthermore1 it was an aristocratic ideal1 an ideal for the noble born alone4 ,this precluded the possibility of its becoming1 as a distinct type1 a permanent force in civilization4 ,but the ethical type of the towns1 embracing those native human virtues which spring up everywhere out of the usual and universal relationships of everyday life and occupations1 was sure of a permanent place among the ethical types of the classes and professions of modern society4 ,in the same sense that the medieval towns 7as the birthplace of the third estate7 were the cradle of modern democracy1 were they the cradle of modern business morality4 ,just as through the medieval monastery passes the direct line of descent of the present-day social conscience of ,christendom1#gab just so through the medieval town passes the direct line of descent of the present-day business conscience of the ,western world4 ,sidenote3 ,disuse of trial by wager of battle ,the influence of the spirit generated in the medieval towns is seen in that important reform1 the abolition of the judicial duel1 which was one of the most noteworthy matters in the moral history of the ,middle ,ages4#gac ,it was the military spirit of the ,german barbarians which1 as we have seen1 was a chief agency in the introduction of the wager of battle or trial by combat in the jurisprudence of the ,european peoples4#gad ,besides the influence of the towns1 a number of other causes concurred in gradually effecting the abrogation of this method of settling disputes1 among which the most efficient were the opposition of the ,church1 the revival of the ,roman law in the eleventh century1 and the advance in general intelligence4 ,into every one of these agencies there entered an ethical element1 so that we may regard this great reform1 in its causes as well as in its effects1 as distinctively a moral reform4 ,thus the influence of the towns was essentially ethical1 for the rise of these communities1 as we have just seen1 meant the superseding of the ethics of aristocracy and war by the ethics of democracy and industry4 ,consequently the influence exerted by the towns was largely that of a new ideal of character4 ,the opposition of the ,church was motived chiefly by moral feeling1 the pontiffs and the bishops who opposed the practice doing so on the ground that the ordeal by battle was 8brutal1 unchristian1 and unrighteous40 ,the advocates of the civil law opposed the practice not only because it interfered with the royal and imperial administration of justice1 but because it was a practice based on ignorance and superstition and 8incompatible with every notion of equity and justice10 since brutal force was allowed to usurp the place of testimony and reason4 ,thus the ,roman law1 as the embodiment of right reason1 was here as everywhere else a moral force making for what is reasonable and just4 ,the influence of the general progress in enlightenment was also profoundly ethical1 since this movement resulted1 as intellectual advance always normally does1 in a growing refinement of the moral feelings1 in progress in moral ideas1 and in truer ethical judgments4 ,by the opening of the modern age trial by combat1 acted on by these various influences1 had become obsolete or obsolescent in most of the countries of ,europe4#gae ,strangely enough1 the international duel or public war1 resting on substantially the same basis as the private judicial duel1 has held its place as the instituted and legalized method of settling controversies between nations down to the present time1 without1 till just yesterday1 being seriously challenged by the awakening conscience of the world as equally repugnant to the moral law and incompatible with every principle of reason1 humanity1 and justice4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,ethics ,,of ,,the ,,protestant ,,reformation ,i4 ,,principles ,,of ,,the ,,reformation ,,of ,,ethical ,,import ,sidenote3 ,principle of the self-sovereignty of the individual as the ultimate authority in morals ,in its essential principle the ,protestant ,reformation was a protest against the principle of authority in the realm of the spirit4 ,it proclaimed the right of individual judgment in matters of religion and morals4 ,there was in this proclamation an ethical implication of revolutionary significance4 ,it was a recognition of the truth 8that duty in the last analysis is imposed upon the individual 444 by himself2 that there is no authority in moral matters more ultimate than a man's rational conviction of what is best40#gaf ,of all the agencies which during recent times have been at work moralizing morality and creating for the moral life a permanent and indestructible basis in reason and conscience1 this ,protestant principle of the autonomy of the individual soul in the spiritual domain has been one of the most efficient and pervasive4 ,sidenote3 ,the principle of salvation by right belief ,though the chief significance of the ,protestant revolution and its ultimate import for morality lay in this assertion of the self-sovereignty of the individual1 still the full ethical consequences of this revolutionary principle did not become clearly manifest till after the lapse of more than three centuries4 ,throughout the earlier periods of the ,reformation era the moral evolution in ,protestant lands was influenced less by the announcement of this principle than by that of certain other principles less fundamentally important1 or by certain minor modifications effected by the reformers in the body of doctrines and practices of the ,roman ,catholic ,church4 ,among these principles was that of salvation by faith1 which meant practically salvation by right belief4 ,this was no new principle in ,christian theology4 ,the ,church had always insisted upon acceptance of the main articles of its creed as necessary to salvation4 ,but by reason of the emphasis which had been placed upon the doctrine of the meritoriousness of works1 many had come to believe1 and to act upon the belief1 that a man is justified by what he does4 ,the assertion of the doctrine of justification through faith alone had important consequences for morality1 since it implied the denial of the ethical value of works1 which meant specifically the repudiation of the principles of asceticism1 on which the monastic system rested1 as well as the rejection of the doctrine of purgatory1 which afforded basis and sanction for a considerable part of the moral code of the medieval ,church4 ,,ii4 ,,some ,,important ,,moral ,,outcomes ,,of ,,the ,,sixteenth-,,century ,,religious ,,reform ,sidenote3 ,the reform movement renforces the ethical tendencies of the ,renaissance ,though the immediate results of the ,reformation were disastrous to ,humanism1 the ultimate effect of the religious movement was to renforce the true ethical tendencies of the intellectual revival4 ,as we have seen1 the thing of deepest import for morals in the ,renaissance of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries was the announcement of the freedom and self-dependence of the individual spirit1 since such self-sovereignty is the prerequisite of a true and vital morality4 ,likewise the essential proclamation of the ,reformation was the autonomy of the individual in matters religious and moral4 ,it is true that the reformers1 though proclaiming liberty of conscience1 the right of individual judgment1 did not1 as has already been said1 at once recognize all the ethical implications of this principle4 8,the ,reformation10 as ,dr4 ,arnold truly observes1 8was weak in that it never consciously grasped or applied the central idea of the ,renaissance--the ,hellenic idea of pursuing1 in all lines of activity1 the law and science1 to use ,plato's words1 of things as they really are40#gag ,but the assertion of the right of individual judgment in matters religious and moral was bound sooner or later to lead to the recognition of the duty of inquiry1 of investigation of the law and science of things as they really are1 and of absolute loyalty to the truth when found4 ,the final outcome within the ,church of this new mental attitude has been the 8,higher ,criticism10 which is simply the continuation by modern scholars within the reformed denominations of the scientific criticism of the ,bible begun by the distinguished humanist ,erasmus4 ,in this remoter issue of the ,reformation the essential oneness of its spirit with that of the ,renaissance is revealed1 and the ground for the assertion that the ultimate moral results of the religious reform were a renforcement of the deepest ethical tendencies of the intellectual revival is disclosed4 ,sidenote3 ,substitution of an inerrant ,book for an inerrant ,church ,had all the implications of the principle of the right of individual judgment in matters of religion and morals been seen and frankly accepted by the reformers of the sixteenth century1 the ,protestant revolution would have effected at once the transfer of morality from a supernatural to a natural basis4 ,but for an inerrant ,church the reformers substituted an inerrant ,book1 which every one should accept as an infallible guide and rule of conduct4 ,the ultimate sanctions of morality were still looked for in the historic past1 in an outer revelation and an outer authority4 ,consequently the moral ideal of ,protestantism retained the essentially theological1 supernatural character of the ideal of ,roman ,catholicism4 ,sidenote3 ,new ranking of virtues in the moral type ,but the changes effected by the reformers in the body of the teachings of the old ,church resulted necessarily in a certain displacement and shifting of the virtues in the moral type1 and in a new estimation of ethical values4 ,various virtues or duties hitherto regarded as essential to excellence of character were assigned a lower place in the rank of virtues or were excluded altogether from the ideal1 while new moral qualities or attributes were added1 the outcome being what we must regard as a new moral type4 ,in the following pages we shall comment briefly upon the more important of the changes effected in several domains of the religious-ethical life4 ,sidenote3 ,protestantism brings into disesteem the monastic ideal ,we proceed now to notice some of the immediate and special moral effects of the ,reformation4 ,in the first place ,protestantism discredited the monastic type of goodness4 ,the meritoriousness of celibacy was denied4 ,the austerities of the ascetic were declared to be not only useless but positively wrong4 ,instead of being an object of profound veneration and homage1 the saint of medieval times became to the ,protestant reformers an object of the deepest moral detestation4 ,the immediate consequences of this change in men's conceptions of what constitutes the highest moral excellence was that throughout one half of ,europe the monasteries1 which the religious-moral enthusiasm of the earlier centuries of ,christianity had created1 were dismantled and razed to the ground1 and an institution which had dominated ,christian ,europe for a thousand years was suppressed in all the northern lands4 ,this revolution1 we believe1 effected on the whole a great gain for morality and marked a forward movement in the moral evolution of the ,western world2 but at the same time it must be recognized that the destruction of this system1 which throughout a full historical period had fostered some of the most admirable of ,christian virtues and nurtured unnumbered saintly lives1 resulted in the exclusion of valuable ethical elements from the moral life of ,protestant communities4 ,there are types of character nourished by the conventual system that society can ill afford to spare4 ,very few will dissent from ,lecky's view that 8in the ,sisters of ,charity the religious orders of ,catholicism have produced one of the most perfect of all types of womanhood40#gah ,sidenote3 ,effects upon industrial morals of the dissolution of the monasteries ,in destroying monasticism the ,protestant reformers destroyed an anti-industrial type of character1 and thus helped to clear the ground for the great industrial development which during the last three centuries has given a new aspect and outlook to civilization4 ,the reformed ,church gave prominence to the active masculine virtues as opposed to the passive feminine virtues exalted by the conventual system4 ,hence it was more favorable than the old ,church to the development of civilization on its material side4 ,it hardly admits of doubt that in these opposed tendencies of the ethical ideals of the two churches is to be sought one cause of the amazing contrast1 industrially viewed1 long observed between the distinctively ,protestant and the distinctively ,catholic countries of ,europe4 ,it is true that the line of demarcation once so observable is now becoming blurred1 and that modern industrialism with its ideal of industrial virtues is fast becoming equally characteristic of all lands of advancing culture1 whether ,protestant1 ,catholic1 or pagan4 ,sidenote3 ,effects upon morals of the abolition of purgatory ,the ,protestant denial of the ,catholic doctrine of purgatory1 which followed as a direct logical result of the reformers' doctrine of justification by faith1 had consequences for morality no less positive than those that followed the denial of the ,catholic teaching of the meritoriousness of the ascetic life4 ,it is undoubtedly true that the doctrine of purgatory1 conceived as part of a system of future rewards and punishments1 has exerted on the whole an influence favorable to morality4 ,but the institution lends itself easily to misuse4 ,in the ,middle ,ages the doctrine of indulgences was applied to souls in purgatory1 and the shortening of the period of their suffering there made dependent not alone upon the prayers of their friends on earth1 but often practically upon the payment of sums of money1 designated as alms to the poor or gifts to the ,church4 ,the forgiveness of sins was thus too often made a commercial transaction4 ,thus the doctrine of purgatory1 beyond controversy1 contributed essentially to that despiritualizing of religion and that deadening in wide circles of the moral sense which characterized the later medieval period and which1 through inevitable reaction1 helped to provoke the ,protestant revolt4 ,the effect upon morals of the abolition of purgatory by the reformers was immediate and far-reaching4 ,many specific duties were at once dropped from the moral code4 ,prayers for the dead ceased to be a pious duty2 they were not even morally permissible4 ,furthermore1 the performance of such good works as the making of pilgrimages and the giving of alms for the benefit of souls in purgatory not only ceased to be regarded as meritorious1 but came to be looked upon as positively wrong4 ,besides these direct ethical consequences of the abolition of purgatory there were indirect ethical results which we shall notice in another connection4#gai ,sidenote3 ,effects of the religious reform upon the virtue of toleration#gbj ,ultimately the ,reformation1 largely through the outworkings of the principle of the right of private judgment in matters of conscience1 was destined to foster the growth of the important virtue of toleration4 ,but throughout the first three centuries of ,protestantism1 owing mainly to the great emphasis laid by the reformers on the doctrine of the supreme ethical value of correctness of religious belief1 this principle of the right of private judgment exerted little appreciable influence upon the moral evolution4 ,holding fast to the doctrine of the criminality of wrong belief1 the new ,church like the old was necessarily intolerant4 ,it regarded heresy with dread1 looked upon toleration as a fault1 and1 whenever circumstances favored1 engaged in persistent and unrelenting persecution to maintain uniformity of religious belief4 ,it was not till late in the modern period that religious toleration came generally to be recognized by the ,protestant conscience as a virtuous disposition of supreme worth4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,the ,,moral ,,evolution ,,since ,,the ,,incoming ,,of ,,democracy3 ,,the ,,new ,,social ,,and ,,international ,,conscience ,i4 ,,forces ,,determining ,,the ,,trend ,,of ,,the ,,ethical ,,movement ,sidenote3 ,the incoming of democracy ,of all the forces which since the rise of ,christianity have given fresh impulse to the ethical movement inaugurated by the new religion1 none has exerted a greater influence than modern democracy4 ,this is so because in its essential spirit democracy is at one with ,christianity4 ,it is merely 8a principle which continues 444 over a wider range of institutions the same principle as ,christianity introduced40#gba ,it extends the ,christian principle of equality from the spiritual to the political1 the social1 and the economic domain4 ,it makes all men equal before ,csar as well as before ,god4 ,and like ,christianity1 democracy extends the range of persons who are brothers until not only all classes within the same state but all peoples and races are included4 8,in the democratic union of nations10 in the words of ,lecky1 8we find the last and highest expression of the ,christian ideal of the brotherhood of mankind40#gbb ,it is this identity of the essential spirit of democracy with the essential spirit of ,christianity which makes the incoming of democracy a revolution of such supreme importance in the moral history of the world4 ,to truly democratize society1 as to truly christianize it1 is to moralize it4 ,sidenote3 ,modern inventions and the new industrialism 8,the causes10 observes ,lecky1 8which most disturbed or accelerated the moral progress of society in antiquity were the appearance of great men2 in modern times they have been the appearance of great inventions40#gbc ,in no department of morals1 save the international1 have modern inventions exerted a greater influence than in the department of industrial ethics4 ,in this sphere these inventions have reacted on morals in two ways3 first1 they have changed fundamentally for the masses in all civilized lands the economic conditions of life1 which conditions1 as we have seen1 are the great molders of morals2 and second1 through the changes they have wrought in the processes of production1 and through the immense development they have given to the whole industrial system1 they have caused principles and institutions once just and beneficent in their outworkings to become instruments of inequity and oppression1 and have thus awakened new moral judgments respecting these maxims and conventions4 ,the growth of these new ethical feelings and convictions constitute an important part1 perhaps the most important part1 of the moral history of recent times4 ,they are the motive force in several of the most significant moral movements of to-day in the industrial world4 ,preminently true is this of the present-day labor movement4 8,its form10 as ,professor ,peabody says1 8is economic1 but its motives are moral4 ,it is an effort--often blind and groping1 sometimes pitifully misdirected1 yet none the less proceeding from the conscience of the time--to shape economic life into an instrument of social justice and peace40#gbd ,socialism1 too1 with all its ethical aspirations and enthusiasms1 is in large part a product of the new industrialism4 ,sidenote3 ,the doctrine of evolution ,not less disturbing to morals than the political and industrial revolutions has been the revolution in scientific thought effected by the doctrine of evolution4 ,this theory has been not only a powerful dissolvent of a large part of the body of medieval theology and hence of that part of morality dependent upon this system of thought1 but1 through the dominant place which this interpretation of the cosmic process assigns to the self-regarding motives1 it has exercised in wide circles of society an unfavorable influence upon morals by seeming to give nature's sanction to self-assertive1 antisocial conduct4 ,there are drifts in both the public and the private morality of the last half century which1 as we shall see1 find their explanation in the disturbance of ethical values created by the general acceptance of the ,darwinian theory of progress through 8the survival of the fittest40 ,but we shall also see this same theory1 better interpreted in its profoundest intimations1 giving strong support to the best ethical instincts of humanity and supplying new incentives and encouragement to humanitarian endeavor4 ,sidenote3 ,general intellectual progress ,the moral history of the ,western world since the ,renaissance affords a striking illustration of the dependence of progress in morals upon progress in general intelligence4 ,it is undoubtedly true that1 fostered by a free press1 by the public-school system1 and by various other agencies1 the average of intelligence in the modern democratic state is higher than it was in any of the states--save possibly in some of the small city states of ,greece--of ancient or medieval times4 ,this new intellectual life1 speaking broadly1 has reacted favorably upon the moral life4 ,it has dispelled superstition1 destroyed prejudices1 widened the outlook of men1 and broadened their moral sympathies4 ,in a word1 the seeing of life and things as they really are has tended to clarify the moral sense and to render clearer and truer the vision of the ethical ideal4 ,sidenote3 ,the decline of dogmatic theology ,the body of hereditary ethical convictions and judgments upon which modern influences have been especially at work was1 as has been seen1 shaped and molded largely by theology4 ,hence nothing has influenced more positively the moral evolution in recent times than the profound modification which1 during the period1 has taken place in men's religious beliefs4 ,under the influence of advancing intelligence1 of evolutionary science1 of ever closer relations between the different races and nations1 and the resulting contact and comparison of different religions1 there has gone on a rapid disintegration of old creeds4 ,the effect of this upon many has been the elimination from their moral code of all purely theological elements1 the erection of a new standard of moral values1 and the adoption of an ideal of character which may best be described as being in the main a composite of ,greek and gospel ethics4 ,sidenote3 ,growing intimacy of international relations ,the dependence of moral progress in modern times upon inventions1 as ,lecky observes1 is shown perhaps even more strikingly in the domain of international than in that of industrial ethics4 ,as in antiquity it was the world-wide extension of the ,roman rule through conquest which broke the primal isolation of the ,mediterranean peoples and created that cosmopolitanism in life and thought from which arose the ethical universalism characterizing the cultured circles of ,roman society in the later centuries of the ,empire1 so in this modern age it is the great inventions of the steamship1 the steam railway1 the electric telegraph1 the ocean cable1 the telephone1 wireless telegraphy1 and the rest1 which have broken the isolation of the nations1 bound them together by a thousand commercial1 social1 and intellectual ties1 and created that cosmopolitanism in life and thought from which have naturally sprung those ethical feelings and convictions which form the growing international conscience of to-day4 ,thus it is that inventions1 whose aims were primarily to promote civilization on its material side1 have become the most efficient agencies in creating a sense of ethical oneness among the nations1 and thus in opening a new epoch in the moral evolution of mankind4 ,,ii4 ,,expressions ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,moral ,,consciousness ,,in ,,different ,,domains ,,of ,,life ,,and ,,thought #a4 ,the ,ethics of ,democracy ,sidenote3 ,the democratic revolution a moral movement ,the great history-making upheavals and readjustments in human society are moral in their causes as well as in their effects4 ,they arise from a divergence between what is and what ought to be4 ,the democratic revolution which began in ,france in #aghi affirms with emphasis the correctness of this ethical interpretation of the great passages of human history4 ,what superficially viewed appears to have been primarily a political or economic revolution was in truth1 in its deepest motives and impulses1 a moral revolution4 8,it was moral enthusiasm for the rights of man 444 and not the breakdown of an economic system1 which created modern democracy40#gbe ,the watchwords of the ,revolution--,liberty1 ,equality1 ,fraternity--are all words of moral import4 ,they are tremulous with righteous wrath at age-long oppression1 contempt1 and abuse2 and they are instinct with the living forces of a noble moral ideal4 ,they express the essential spirit of the ,revolution1 which each day1 where it has free course1 finds fuller embodiment in political1 social1 and moral reforms1 in humanitarian institutions and altruistic effort4 ,sidenote3 ,the ethics of democracy rejects class morality ,democracy tends in various ways to purify and ennoble morality1 but especially by destroying all invidious class distinctions1 and thereby destroying that class morality which through all periods of history has hampered the moral progress of the race4 ,all the civilizations known to history before the incoming of modern democracy had their superior class1 including only the few1 who alone were regarded as possessing capacity for the highest virtues2 and their inferior classes1 embracing the many1--sudras1 slaves1 or serfs1--persons regarded as created for the use of others and capable of nothing more than a qualified or servile morality4 ,now democracy1 recognizing 8human capacities in all and not merely in a few10 throws down the partition walls between classes and puts all on the same level of opportunity and privilege4 ,it thus establishes the conditions of a common moral life and of a progressive moral evolution2 for if history teaches any truth1 it teaches that a civilization dominated by a privileged class that uses the masses selfishly or thoughtlessly for the enhancement of its own interests and pleasures is foredoomed to moral stagnation and decadence--so true is it that society is an organic body and that if one member suffers the whole body suffers with it4 ,sidenote3 ,the ethical import of education by the state ,again1 democracy has deep significance for morality on account of its relation to education4 ,despotic bureaucratic monarchy is indifferent or positively opposed to the education of the masses because the safest basis of such a government is sodden ignorance4 ,on the other hand1 general intelligence is the very breath of life of a democracy4 ,hence the education of the masses is the foremost task of the modern free state4 ,the public-school system of the modern world is the outcome of this imperious demand of democracy4 ,now this relation of the democratic state to popular education has immense importance for the moral life1 first1 for the reason that advance in general intelligence means a better maintenance of the moral standard4 ,to increase the number of schools in a community is to lessen the need of prisons and reformatories4 ,more than a century ago ,beccaria previsioned this relation of popular education to crime4 8,the most certain method of preventing crime10 he maintained1 8is to perfect the system of education40#gbf ,and second1 education in the modern democratic state has special significance for the moral development going on in ,western civilization1 for the reason that it means not merely a better maintenance of the moral standard1 but also an essential modification of the moral type itself4 ,for in the establishment of its system of education the state has assumed what formerly was one of the chief functions of the ,church4 ,this transference of the business of education from the ,church to the state has rightly been pronounced 8one of the most important movements in the history of education since the ,dark ,ages40 ,what renders it of such importance in the view of the historian of morals is that1 in the hands of the state1 education has become or is becoming wholly secularized4 ,in some countries even the reading of the ,bible in the schools or the giving of any religious instruction whatsoever is prohibited4 ,now this secularization of education results inevitably in the secularization of morality4 ,that portion of the moral code which derives its sanction from theological or special religious doctrines is neglected4 ,thus one outcome of the transfer of the function of education from the ,church to the state has been the imparting of a fresh impulse to that naturalistic movement in morals whose point of departure was the classical revival of the fifteenth century4 ,and thus the three dominant movements in modern ,european civilization--the ,renaissance1 the ,reformation 7in its ultimate effects71 and the democratic revolution--have all worked together in determining the general trend of the moral evolution in the ,western world4 ,sidenote3 ,the democratic state assumes the social-ethical functions of the ,church ,the ethical import of the incoming of democracy is shown again in the assumption by the democratic state of the philanthropic work of society4 ,throughout the ,middle ,ages the ,church was the almoner of society1 the builder of hospitals1 asylums1 and poorhouses4 ,since the advent of democracy much of this humanitarian work has1 like education1 been taken over by the state4 ,this assumption by the state of these former functions of the ,church is one of the most noteworthy ethical movements in modern history4#gbg ,what makes it significant is1 first1 the fact that the work is undertaken by modern governments largely from purely philanthropic motives4 ,this means that with the coming to political power of the people a new spirit has entered into government1 which means1 further1 that those altruistic sentiments which it has been a chief function of religion to foster have come to inspire society at large4 ,and second1 this assumption by the state of the philanthropic functions of the ,church is significant because of what has made its undertaking of these tasks necessary4 ,this necessity has arisen not merely by reason of the possession by the state of the taxing power and hence of the means needed for carrying on this humanitarian work1 but also because of its relation to modern science4 ,much of this work of rescue and cure is dependent for its successful administration upon scientific knowledge and skill4 ,it is largely because the state is in closer alliance than the ,church with modern science1 and therefore is the more efficient agent for carrying on this humanitarian work1 that society makes it1 instead of the ,church1 its chief almoner and trustee4 #b4 ,the ,ethics of ,industrialism ,sidenote3 ,the alliance of modern industry and science ,a distinctive characteristic of modern industry is its alliance with science4 ,this union dates from the ,french ,revolution4 ,one aim of the revolutionists was to put exact knowledge at the service of the industrial arts1 and1 by thus increasing the productive forces of society1 to create an abundance for all1 banish poverty from the earth1 and advance civilization to a higher point than ever before reached4 ,and this alliance of industry and science has1 in so far as mere production is concerned1 more than met every expectation4 ,through the application of inventions and scientific knowledge to the various industrial processes1 society's powers of production have been increased threefold1 tenfold1 fifty-fold1 in some arts even a thousandfold4 ,surely now all will be fed and clothed and sheltered4 ,but this vision of a millennium of well-being for all as the result of the union of science and industry has not come true4 ,the great mass of the world's toilers are underfed1 ill-clad1 and improperly housed4 ,from the slums1 from the dark and noisome tenements of our great cities1 arises the bitter cry of children1 ragged1 wan1 and hungry1 robbed through the parents' poverty of every delight and right of childhood4 8,the poverty of the workers10 cries ,henry ,demarest ,lloyd in passionate protest1 8is the sin of our age40#gbh ,sidenote3 ,the divorce of modern industry and ethics3 economic ,machiavellism ,the causes of this pitiful failure of the new industrialism1 notwithstanding its capacity for enormous production1 to provide for the wants of all is not far to seek4 ,our age1 while uniting science and business1 has divorced ethics and business1 just as in the time of the ,renaissance in ,italy there was effected a divorce of ethics and politics4 ,political economists have taught that ethics has nothing to do with economics4 ,and this economic ,machiavellism of the schools has not been merely an academic thing2 it has probably exerted as sinister an influence upon the modern industrial order as the political doctrines of ,machiavelli exerted upon the diplomacy and governmental policies of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4 ,dominated by this philosophy our business life has become frankly unmoral--large sections of it grossly immoral4 ,sidenote3 ,the breakdown of the system ,but economics and ethics can no more be divorced than politics and ethics4 ,machiavellism has succeeded no better in economics than in politics4 8,the system based on this philosophy is breaking down all over1 in strikes1 riots1 panics1 gluts1 unemployed idleness1 and class murder4 ,it is breaking down not because the task of getting plenty for the body--and the soul--for every one out of the fruitful earth and the fellowship of man is an impossible task1 but because the task is an impossible one of accomplishment--that or anything else in human affairs--by the devil's code of selfishness instead of love1 of solitary advantage instead of the good of all4 ,by such a philosophy there could be no government1 no family2 and if it continues1 there will ere long be no business4 ,but it cannot continue40#gbi ,sidenote3 ,reforms whose aims are the moralization of the industrial order3 7a7 socialization of the unearned increment in land values ,it cannot continue because there is a fast-growing conviction of the falsity of the philosophy of economic ,machiavellism--an ever-growing recognition of the truth that the relationships of men in business1 like all other human relationships1 are conditioned by the moral law of human brotherhood4 ,there are profound changes taking place in the moral feelings and judgments of men respecting many of the customs1 principles1 and institutions of the modern industrial order4 ,there is a growing recognition of the fact that though these conventions and arrangements may in past periods of history have been promotive of human welfare and therefore moral1 they are1 as applied to the more complex social and economic relations of modern society1 the very embodiment of unreason and injustice4 ,among the economic institutions respecting which there is taking place such a change in moral judgment is that of absolute private property in land4 ,although this is an institution unknown to primitive peoples1 in all the great civilizations of the past we find society based upon it4 ,that the system1 since it inevitably results in private monopoly1 has contributed largely to the creation of that gross inequality in wealth which has characterized every advanced civilization known to history1 and which has helped to prepare its downfall1 does not admit of reasonable doubt4 ,the monopolization of land by a class has been one source1 and probably a main source1 of the phenomenon in modern society of deepening poverty in the midst of growing wealth1 of dehumanizing want for the many along with demoralizing luxury for the few4 ,that in countries of large and thickening population a private monopoly in the arable land is the embodiment of a colossal and cruel wrong is incontrovertible4 ,that a single class should be allowed to become the absolute owners of the soil and thereby acquire the legal right to exclude all others from it save on the condition that practically all that can be got from it by the hardest toil1 save just enough for the bare subsistence of the laborer1 shall be given over as rent to the holder of the land1 is as great a moral wrong as to take directly from the worker the product of his toil by reducing him to bodily slavery4 ,it is this gross inequity which has made the history of many countries1 like much of the history of ,ireland1 a harrowing tragedy4 ,the wrong1 if not greater1 is at least more obvious when the land thus monopolized is the site of a great city where the enormous ground values have been created not by any labor or expenditure on the part of the owners1 but by the growth and enterprise of the community as a whole4 ,just as the world has got a new conscience in regard to the wrong of slavery1 so is it getting a new conscience in regard to this 8great iniquity10 as ,tolstoy calls it1 of private monopoly in land4 ,this growing ethical conviction will ultimately destroy the illusion that the earth and its resources may1 without moral wrong1 be monopolized by a fortunate or favored few and the great masses be dispossessed4#gcj ,the new conscience will decree that all of nature's gifts in land and all increments in its value created by society shall belong to society and shall be the common heritage of the successive generations of men4 ,sidenote3 7b7 ,limitation of inheritance ,another of the conventions of our industrial system in which the moral sense of mankind is beginning to recognize an element of inequity is the right of unlimited inheritance4 ,so long as land remains the common property of the community1 or so long as there exists substantial equality in wealth among the members or families of a social group1 the injustice of this is not apparent4 ,but after great extremes of poverty and wealth have appeared1 as in present-day civilization1 then the essential injustice of the institution is disclosed2 for there is thus created an idle class living on the labor of others4 ,when a single child through the accident of birth becomes the heir of millions1 while hundreds of other children come into the world absolutely portionless and at the same time shut out from the use of any bit of the earth even as standing room1 then the system becomes a crass denial of human solidarity and brotherhood4 ,and there is in this law of unlimited bequest a double wrong4 ,the child of over-great wealth is wronged as well as the child of poverty4 ,one is born to a life of luxurious leisure1 and the other to a life of unremitting toil4 ,now1 as ,professor ,dewey observes1 there is moral value in work and there is moral value in leisure1 but 8it is beginning to be seen that their values cannot be divided so that one social class shall perform the labor and the other enjoy the freedom40#gca ,therefore the ethical demand for the modification of our laws of inheritance in such a way that they shall recognize the social as well as the individual element in wealth must be heeded as much out of regard for the children of the overrich as out of regard for the children of the very poor4 ,sidenote3 7c7 ,socialism3 the democratization of industry ,still another institution of modern industrialism which has come or is coming under the reprobation of the present-day conscience of a rapidly growing number is private capitalism1 that is1 private ownership of the instruments of production1 together with competition and the wage system1 the necessary concomitants of this capitalistic rgime4 ,these new ethical feelings and convictions form the real motive force in the propaganda of modern socialism4 ,the presupposition of socialism is that not merely ground rents but all returns 7interest1 dividends1 profits7 on every form of private capital embody an unearned increment1 and that this element should determine the ownership and control of capital4 ,hence socialists demand that all the material instruments of production now owned by individuals or by a class shall be held in common2 that there shall be common1 democratic management of production2 that competition1 as inherently unethical1#gcb shall be replaced by coperation2 and that the wage system shall be replaced by a system of distribution by public authority which shall give the manual workers of the world a more equitable share of the products of industry4 ,socialism embodies one of the largest funds of ethical feeling that have become active in ,western civilization since the incoming of ,christianity4 ,in truth1 in its real essence and purified form it is the spirit of primitive ,christianity at work in the industrial domain4 ,it is a recognition of human fraternity4 ,it is an effort to unite economics and ethics1 to make business life a realization of the moral ideal4 ,the aim of true socialists is to make the benefits of science1 invention1 and civilization a common heritage4 ,they recognize that society can continuously progress only as these benefits become the possession not merely of a few but of all4 ,in the disregard of this immutable law of human progress they discern the main cause of the retrogression1 decay1 and failure of every great civilization of the past2 in its solicitous fulfillment they find the only ground of hope for the constant improvement of human society as a whole and the uninterrupted moral progress of the world4 #c4 ,the ,ethics of ,modern ,science ,sidenote3 ,science and the virtue of intellectual sincerity ,we have already referred to the influence of modern science upon morals4 ,this influence has been felt in the fostering of specific virtues and in the creation of a certain attitude of mind toward life and its ethical problems4 ,among the particular virtues which science has fostered is philosophical veracity or love of truth4 ,this virtue of intellectual sincerity is to the scientist what the virtue of faith or belief is to the churchman4 ,without it there is no salvation in the world of science4 ,the man of science must be a truth-lover1 a truth-seeker1 and a truth-teller4 ,he must take every pains to find out what is the exact fact1 and then make a scrupulously veracious report of what he has found4 ,he must be loyal to the truth at all hazards4 ,this reverent regard for the truth1 this intellectual sincerity1 which is the cardinal virtue of the man of science1 is fostered in him partly by the recognition of the supreme importance of exactness when it comes to the application of scientific knowledge to the arts of life4 ,the least departure here from the truth of the matter means dire disaster and loss4 ,then also the veraciousness of nature reacts upon the student of her laws4 ,nature is not only infinitely exact in all her movements1 but punctual in the fulfillment of all her engagements4 ,she keeps her word with us1 as ,emerson says4 ,she is the same yesterday1 to-day1 and forever4 ,the careless1 unveracious man can enter into no partnership with her4 ,open-mindedness and impartiality are elements of this virtue of intellectual veracity4 ,the wide divergence between philosophical and theological morality is here impressed upon the student of moral ideals and standards4 ,in the ethics of theology doubt1 even sincere doubt1 is reckoned as an unfortunate infirmity1 or often as positive and fatal sin4 ,science1 on the other hand1 reckons it a cardinal duty4 ,hardening oneself in belief when there are circumstances calculated to awaken doubt1 even the slightest conceivable doubt1 is justly regarded by the man of science as treachery to truth and an unpardonable sin4 ,it is in the creation of this scientific conscience1 which pronounces the habit of accuracy1 open-mindedness1 impartiality of judgment1 love of truth for truth's sake a supreme virtue1 that science has rendered one of its greatest services to morality4 ,sidenote3 ,egotistic tendencies of the doctrine of evolution3 the philosophy of ,nietzsche ,the scientific doctrine of evolution1 which teaches that life has advanced from lower to higher forms through struggle and competition1 resulting in the survival of the fittest1 has exercised a profound influence upon all the sciences relating to man1 but upon none has it left a deeper impress than upon the science of ethics4#gcc ,nor have its effects here been confined to ethical speculation2 it has largely shaped and molded actual conduct4 ,in some respects this influence has been harmful to both ethical theory and practice4 ,in the domain of philosophy it may best be traced in the teachings of ,nietzsche4 ,nietzsche insists that man must follow the lead of nature2 that the struggle for existence must be kept up on the human plane just as it goes on in the lower realms of life2 that the strong should use for their own advancement the weak2 that the nurture and care of the defective and weak is a crime against humanity#gcd--;for 8the hope of the future lies in perfecting the strong1 not in strengthening the weak02 that only through the struggle for existence has nature produced her highest type1 man1 and that it is only through obedience to this great cosmic law1 in accordance with which the higher prey upon the lower1 that 8the superman10 the highest possible type of mankind1 can be brought into existence4 ,this teaching tends to steel the heart against human sympathy and to blunt all the finer sensibilities4 ,it seems to justify and excuse all kinds of antisocial action4 ,and1 indeed1 the doctrine has been used as a justification and excuse not only of individual self-assertion and egotism but of national and race self-assertion and egotism as well4 ,modern imperialism has sought to justify aggression upon weaker and so-called 8inferior races0 by an appeal to this law of evolution as it works on the lower levels of life4 ,thus the doctrine has in a certain measure fostered national egotism1 and has stood right in the way of the development of a true international morality4 ,sidenote3 ,altruism versus egotism in the cosmic process ,but these drifts toward egotism in modern philosophy and life induced by evolutionary science are more than compensated by opposing movements of ethical thought created by a truer interpretation of the facts of evolution and a deeper insight into the cosmic process4#gce ,the philosophy of ,nietzsche is a strange misreading of nature4 ,to say that self-sacrifice is 8in open defiance of nature10 is to overlook the dominant fact in evolution1 namely1 maternity2 for maternity1 motherhood1 is only another name for self-sacrifice4 ,and it is further to overlook the fact that the principle of coperation is even more dominant and controlling in the cosmic process than the principle of competition4 ,social animals1 those in which the altruistic instincts are most strongly developed1 greatly outnumber the unsocial1 solitary animals4#gcf ,the ,carnivora1 those animals that live by preying upon others1 are becoming extinct4 ,on the plane of human life this principle of coperation1 of mutual helpfulness1 has supplanted1 or is gradually supplanting1 the lower principle of competition4 ,in the struggle for existence between tribes and peoples those groups have gained supremacy that have developed the strongest social instincts2 that is1 those within which the principle of coperation and the virtue of the self-devotion of the individual to the welfare of the whole have been dominant forces in the life of the community4 ,from these facts we are justified in assuming that it is the altruistic and not the egoistic instincts and motives that nature aims to make the permanent and controlling factors in the cosmic evolution4 ,again1 that nature is ethical in her aim is disclosed by the fact that she has brought forth such a being as man4 ,her preferences are shown in the preferences of the being she has produced4#gcg ,man prefers good to evil2 he loves justice and hates injustice2 he reveres the truth and detests falsehood2 he recognizes that self-sacrifice is nobler than selfishness2 he divines the final triumph of his ethical ideals4 ,in man--at his best--nature reveals her preferences4 ,man is the answer to the question1 8,is ,nature good80#gch ,viewed thus from a higher standpoint the cosmic process of evolution has renforced faith in a moral order of the universe and has been an inspiration and an incentive to humanitarian effort4#gci ,sidenote3 ,evolution and animal ethics#gdj ,in ,brahmanic ,india and in all ,buddhist lands religious beliefs have1 as we have seen1 placed the whole animal creation under the protection of the moral feelings4 ,in ancient ,persia it was religious ideas which caused one half of the lower animal world to be regarded as sacred and thus to be brought within the protective pale of morals4 ,dogmatic ,christianity1 falling far short of the ethics of ,judaism in this domain1 created a vast rift in the organic world between man and the lower animals4 ,the dumb creatures were declared to be made solely for man's use and enjoyment4 ,psychical relationship between them and man was denied1 though the ancient world had very generally assumed this4 ,indeed1 this attitude of the ,christian dogmatists toward the animal creation was made a matter of reproach by their pagan critics4 ,these teachings were not without their influence on practice4 ,humanity to animals became a less prominent virtue than it had been in pre-,christian times4 ,the closeness to nature of the lives of the medieval hermits and monks often caused1 it is true1 a feeling of tenderness to be awakened in them for their 8brothers10 the birds and animals1 which found expression in many beautiful legends4 ,but in general the attitude of the ,christian world toward the lower animals has been unsympathetic4 ,the doctrine of evolution1 however1 teaching the kinship of all life1 has bridged the gulf between man and the lower animal world1 and has brought all dumb creatures more positively than ever before in the ,western world under the protection of the moral sentiment4 ,societies for the prevention of cruelty to animals have sprung up and increased in number as in no other epoch of the ,christian era4 ,the new moral feeling condemns all inhumanity to dumb creatures1 and looks with disapproval upon such sports as cockfighting1 bear baiting1 and bullfights1 which were favorite amusements only a few generations ago4#gda ,hunting for pastime is also coming under the condemnation of this growing moral sentiment4 ,thus 8through the portals of spiritual kinship10 in the words of ,professor ,evans1 444 8our elder brothers enter into the temple of justice1 and enjoy the privilege of sanctuary against the wanton or unwitting cruelty hitherto authorized by the assumptions and usurpations of man40#gdb ,sidenote3 ,import for morals of psychical research ,it is undeniable that the earlier tendency of modern science was agnostic and materialistic4 ,it caused in many minds an attenuation or an absolute destruction of the belief in a supersensuous world and a life after death4 ,the practical effect of this fading from the eyes of men of the vision of another world was1 upon certain temperaments1 a loss of faith in the ethical character of the cosmic process and a consequent lessening of moral enthusiasm4 ,this attitude of mind1 which is still that of a large class1 can be changed only by the reaffirmation by science of the assumptions and teachings of all the great world religions respecting the existence of a supersensuous world and a future life4 ,it is therefore a matter of immeasurable import to morality that these assumptions of religion are coming to be regarded by an ever-growing number of scientists as well founded in reality4 ,psychical research has given a new trend to large sections of scientific speculation4#gdc ,it is no longer crassly materialistic4 ,it even assumes the existence of a supersensuous world4 ,thus at the conclusion of a careful survey of the evidence of man's survival gathered by the ,english ,society for ,psychical ,research1 the distinguished physicist ,sir ,oliver ,lodge writes3 8,the boundary between the two states--the known and the unknown--is still substantial1 but it is wearing thin in places2 and like excavators engaged in boring a tunnel from opposite ends1 amid the roar of water and other noises1 we are beginning to hear now and again the strokes of the pickaxes of our comrades on the other side40#gdd ,incontrovertible proof of man's survival after bodily death would mark the opening of a new era in the moral life of humanity2 for1 in the minds of many1 8ethics can be rendered ethical only on the assumption that there is a reality deeper than the phenomenal world of sense1 truer than the world we know and better40#gde ,it was doubtless a conviction that the future of both religion and morality is in large measure dependent upon a firm belief in a future life which led ,william ,ewart ,gladstone to say of psychical research that it is 8the most important work which is being done in the world--by far the most important40 ,indisputably1 the reaction of another world lying clear and distinct in the light of science beyond the frontiers of earth would give new meaning to life and a fresh impulse to the moral progress of the race4 ,the effect upon the moral life of the modern world would be not less profound than that produced upon the moral life of the ancient world by the incoming of ,christianity with its glad affirmation of a life beyond the tomb4 #d4 ,the ,ethics of ,theology ,sidenote3 ,the progressive moralization of the idea of ,god ,in an admirable chapter entitled 8,ethics and ,theology0 the author of ,moral ,evolution1 after noting how religious ideas and beliefs exert an influence on moral ideas and conduct1 remarks3 8,now we are to observe that moral ideals have1 in their turn1 modified and clarified doctrine1 or1 in other words1 that there has been an ethical development of theology1 and that contempt of creed is really the substitution of a moral for an immoral or a nonmoral theology40#gdf ,the same truth is expressed by ,newman ,smyth in these words3 8,reformations have grown out of the ethical protest of the ,christian mind against inherited dogmas4 ,old theology is always becoming new in the vitalizing influence of ethics40#gdg ,as a result of the growth and refinement of the moral feelings1 there has been going on in wide circles in ,western ,christendom just such a change in men's conception of the character of ,god as marked the best ,hebrew thought during the later centuries of the history of the people of ,israel4 ,the idea of ,god inherited by the modern from the medieval age was an incongruous blending of ideas derived from three different sources4 ,there was1 first1 the crude archaic notion of deity derived from the ,old ,testament records of what conduct in his chosen people ,yahweh approved2 second1 the dogmas of ,augustinian theology respecting imputed sin1 election1 everlasting punishment1 and other supposed principles of the divine government2 and third1 conceptions wholly inconsistent with these drawn from the ,new ,testament narratives of the life and teachings of the ,prophet of ,nazareth4 ,gradually1 through the growth of the moral feelings1 this conception of the divine character has been purged of its grosser1 archaic1 and immoral elements4 ,the early ,hebrew ideas have been rejected as the immature and unworthy notions of deity of a race still on a low plane of religious development2 the ,calvinistic idea of ,god has become 8the supreme incredibility02 while the ,gospel teaching of deity has been received by the instructed reason and conscience as the only credible ideal of the divine4#gdh ,since1 as we have repeatedly had brought to our attention1 religious ideas exert a profound influence on moral ideas and on conduct1 this moralization of the conception of the divine character has deep significance for the progressive purification and refinement of the moral life of man4 ,sidenote3 ,the moralization of the conception of future punishment ,closely connected with these changes in men's idea of ,god1 indeed forming a part of that conception1 are the changes which have taken place in their ideas of the divine government in the hereafter4 ,at different stages of our study we have noted how the classifications and arrangements of the invisible world are the work of the moral faculty1 and how the developing moral feelings of the historic peoples have1 with the lapse of time1 ever modified anew the topography and moralized afresh the government of the world of spirits4#gdi ,now one of the most important modifications ever effected in man's conceptions of the other world was brought about by the ,protestant ,reformation4 ,the reformers abolished purgatory1 and thus left only two separate realms1 heaven and hell1 in the world of souls4 ,but in abolishing purgatory and thereby making all suffering in the hereafter punitive and eternal1 and in failing to recognize gradations of guilt in human sin by consigning all evildoers1 unbelievers1 and misbelievers to the same awful and everlasting torments1 the reformers made still more unethical the government which the popular medieval imagination had created for the unseen world4 ,the gradual clarification and growing sensitiveness of the moral feelings could not long leave unchallenged such a grossly immoral notion of the divine government4 ,during the last two generations a notable change has passed over men's conceptions of the netherworld of spirits4 ,the hell of the reformers' imagination has become1 like much else in the ,augustinian theology1 8the supreme incredibility40 ,the blurring of that awful vision is one of the most significant changes which1 during the ,christian era1 have passed over that world which is at once the creation and the creator of human morality4 ,sidenote3 ,exchange in rank of the theological and the natural ,gospel virtues ,the advance in religious ethics during the last few decades is registered again in the exchange in rank of the theological and the natural gospel virtues in the moral ideal of ,protestant ,christendom4 ,during this period there has taken place here a genuine 8transvaluation of moral values40 ,many representative religious teachers have come to assign a dominant place in the ethical standard to the natural social virtues1 and have relegated to a lower place the purely theological virtues1 such as right religious belief and ritual observances4 ,in the case of many the rejection of that part of the moral code resting upon theological dogmas is as complete as was the rejection by ,christianity of the morality based on the ceremonial laws of the ,jews4 ,with these the saving virtue is no longer acceptance of a prescribed creed1 but loving1 self-denying service of humanity4#gej ,this transvaluation of moral values within the ,church itself is one of the most important movements going on in the moral life of the modern world4 ,sidenote3 ,extension to theological ethics of the principle of individual responsibility ,further illustration of progress in ,church ethics in recent times is found in the extension of the principle of individual responsibility to the domain of religion4#gea ,it will be recalled how completely the law of collective responsibility dominates the morality of primitive peoples4#geb ,with the growth and clearing of the moral sense the injustice of this is perceived1 and the principle of individual responsibility comes to be established4 ,this moral movement is consummated earlier in the civil than in the religious domain2 that is1 the civil-law codes are first modified in accordance with the demands of the truer ethical feeling1 and not until later does the religious code1 more conservative1 undergo a like change4 ,thus gradually during the medieval time the civil law of the more advanced nations of ,western ,christendom abrogated the principle of collective responsibility1 while the ecclesiastical code retained it far into the nineteenth century4 ,during the last fifty years1 however1 the best conscience of the ,church has rejected the principle as the embodiment of a gross inequity4 ,the doctrine that all the generations of men sinned in the first parent and justly suffer for his transgression has been repudiated by the modern instructed conscience as incredible1 untrue1 and immoral4 ,this repudiation of the principle of collective responsibility by the ethics of religion harmonizes in this respect ,church morality with the morality of the civil codes of the civilized world1 and marks the consummation of an ethical evolution which1 commencing in the dawn of civilization1 covers all the millenniums of human history4 #e4 ,social ,ethics3 the ,new ,social ,conscience ,sidenote3 7a7 ,as manifested in the history of the ,african slave trade ,by the phrase 8social conscience10 as we shall use it here1 we mean those ethical feelings and judgments which cover the relations of master and slave and the relations of society to its unfortunate and erring members4 ,in the entire history of the moral evolution of humanity there is no chapter which reveals so plainly the upward trend of the ethical movement in civilization as that which tells the story of the beginnings and the final suppression of the ,african slave trade1 and of the rise and fall of the institution of negro slavery among ,christian peoples4#gec ,restricting our survey for the moment to the slave trade as distinct from slavery1 the amazing fact which meets us here at the outset is that until late in the modern period the peoples of ,western ,christendom had practically no conscience whatsoever in regard to the ,african slave trade1 and this notwithstanding that the conscience of the age was in many other matters true and sensitive4 ,the whole subject lay practically outside the realm of morals4 ,the slave trade was looked upon as a perfectly legitimate business4#ged ,practically no one thought it wrong to go to ,africa1 kidnap or purchase a shipload of the natives1 bring them in stifling holds--where sometimes half the unhappy victims died on the passage--to the ,west ,indies or to the ,spanish and ,english mainland of the ,americas and sell them as slaves4#gee ,what little opposition to the traffic existed1 arose in general from other than feelings of moral disapproval4#gef ,the movement for the abolition of the trade constitutes an important phase of the social and moral life1 particularly of ,england and of the ,english colonies in ,america1 during the latter part of the eighteenth century and the earlier part of the nineteenth4 ,in ,england the wave of humanitarian feeling which swept away the obstacles set in the way of the abolition of the traffic by selfish interests was raised by the great religious revival led by ,whitefield and the ,wesleys4 ,the leaders of the reform were ,thomas ,clarkson and ,william ,wilberforce4 ,after twenty years of agitation a bill was passed abolishing the trade 7#ahjg74 ,this marked as great a moral victory as ever was won in the ,english ,parliament1 for it was the aroused moral sentiment of the nation which was the main force that carried the reform measure through the ,houses4 ,in ,america there had arisen among the ,quakers of ,pennsylvania1 even before the ,revolution1 a protest against the trade on purely moral grounds4 ,by the time the ,federal ,convention met in #aghg sufficient sentiment had been developed in the matter to secure the adoption of a provision in the ,constitution to the effect that the importation of slaves should cease in #ahjh4 ,from that year on1 the slave trade1 as distinct from slavery1 was under the ban both of the law and of the public conscience2 but it continued to be carried on clandestinely until the ,civil ,war4 ,sidenote3 7b7 ,as manifested in the antislavery movement ,even before the consummation of the movement for the suppression of the negro slave trade there had sprung up an agitation for the suppression of the negro-slave system itself4 ,england abolished slavery in her colonies in #ahcc1 paying #bj1jjj1jjj for the emancipation of #hjj1jjj slaves in her ,west ,india possessions4 ,in the ,united ,states there was very little antislavery feeling prior to #ahcj4geg ,at that time the great majority of the peoples of the ,northern as well as of the ,southern states1 if they did not look upon negro slavery as wholly proper and right1 at least regarded as reprehensible any interference with the institution where established4 ,even the ,church in general denounced the abolitionists as infidels and pronounced their conduct fanatical and wicked4#geh ,but notwithstanding this opposition the abolition movement and the movement for the restriction of slavery to the states where already established gained impetus steadily1 and the heated debate led up quickly to the ,civil ,war4 ,the most significant thing in that passage of our history is not the revolt of the ,south1 but the revolt of the conscience of the ,north4 ,had there been no moral revolt in the ,north1 there would have been no slaveholders' revolt in the ,south4 ,the development of moral feeling respecting the wrongfulness of slavery did not cease with the emancipation of the slaves as a result of the ,civil ,war4 ,indeed1 with the reform an accomplished fact1 the clarification of the moral sense of the people has gone on uninterruptedly until a gulf has come to separate the present-day conscience of the great majority of the instructed and thinking classes in both sections of the ,union from the conscience of the same classes one or two generations ago4 ,sidenote3 7c7 ,as manifested in society's treatment of its unfortunate and delinquent members ,the record of society's treatment of its dependent and erring members forms another inspiring chapter in the history of the growth of the new social conscience4 ,in a little over one hundred years the ,christian world has advanced from harsh vagrant laws to associated charities2 from the burning of witches to asylums for the insane2 from noisome dungeons to penitentiaries and institutions of rescue and correction4#gei ,the numerous and costly private and public institutions established and maintained by the new humanitarian sentiment is one of the most distinctive characteristics1 ethically viewed1 of modern civilization4 ,so multiform are the expressions of this new spirit that it is impossible in so brief a survey as the present to exhibit in more than barest outline this phase of the ethical evolution4 ,the recent history of charity1 taken in the sense of relief given to the poor1 is a record of change both in motive and method4 ,there has always been a great deal of almsgiving in the world1 since this has been a duty especially enjoined by religion4 ,but because charity has had this religious motive1 it has often been sullied by self-love1 alms being given not so much for the sake of the poor as for the benefit of the soul of the donor4 ,in recent times this religious motive has become less operative1 but the amount of almsgiving has undoubtedly increased1 and we are justified in the conclusion that it is motived as never before by genuine altruistic feeling4 ,it is probably true1 however1 that there is less indiscriminate1 emotional almsgiving now than formerly4 ,but there is greater 8social compunction10 a deeper sense of society's responsibility for the existence of poverty1 and an earnest inquiry respecting the primary social causes of it4 ,hence effort is directed not merely to the immediate relief of want and misery through organized charity1 but to the cure of poverty through the removal of the causes of destitution4 ,at this point the investigations and labors of the philanthropist merge with those of the sociologist1 the economist1 and the statesman4 ,in society's treatment of the defective and the insane1 as compared with its treatment of these same classes scarcely more than a century ago1 is registered an ethical progress truly remarkable4 ,a hundred years or less ago in ,england and in all the ,european countries the idiot and the oddly formed human prodigy were exhibited to afford amusement to the people4 ,the growth in humanitarian feeling has rendered all this a thing of the past4 8,the passing of the freak is not a casual incident in the history of the circus1 but a striking illustration of the tendency which has been in progress for centuries toward the humanizing of our amusements4444 ,to spend a merry afternoon at the madhouse watching the antics of the maniacs in their chains seemed natural and reasonable to civilized ,englishmen not so many generations ago4 ,it has become absolutely unthinkable40#gfj ,the history of the stage offers like testimony4 8,not so very long ago10 writes ,david ,belasco1 in giving advice to the amateur playwright1 8the entrance of a cripple or a hunchback was sufficient to get a laugh from the audience4 ,in these humanitarian times there is no fun to be made out of physical deformity40#gfa ,but it is in society's treatment of the criminal class that there is to be traced the greatest progress in humanitarianism4 ,in the pre-,norman period in ,england the punishments for crime were characterized by a barbarity incredibly callous4 8,men branded on the forehead1 without hands1 without feet1 without tongues1 lived as an example of the danger which attended the commission of petty crimes1 and as a warning to all who had the misfortune of holding no higher position than that of a churl4444 ,the eyes were plucked out2 the nose1 the ears1 and the upper lips were cut off2 the scalp was torn away2 and sometimes even1 there is reason to believe1 the whole body was flayed alive40#gfb ,what was true of ,english law was true of the laws of every other ,european country4 ,and there was little or no essential amelioration of these savage law systems before the last quarter of the eighteenth century4 ,seventy thousand executions took place in ,england during the reign of ,henry ,,viii4#gfc 8,in the reign of ,william ,,iii there does not appear to have been any consciousness that the penal laws were1 in many respects1 disgraceful to any community but a tribe of savages40#gfd ,if a definite point of departure of the movement for the humanizing of the criminal laws of ,europe and the putting of the treatment of criminals on an ethical basis be sought1 it will be found in the life and writings of the ,italian jurist ,beccaria1#gfe who maintained that the effect of cruel punishments is to increase crime by indurating the sensibilities of the people4#gff ,a great impulse to the humanitarian movement initiated by ,beccaria was given by the devoted labors of the great philanthropist ,john ,howard 7#agbf-agij71 who1 with his eyes opened to the awful conditions of prison life through official connection with ,bedford jail1 where ,bunyan dreamed1 spent his life in visiting all lands inspecting prisons and jails and dungeons and lazar houses1 and 8taking the gauge and dimension of misery1 depression1 and contempt40 ,the crusade of ,john ,howard marks the real beginning of practical prison reform1 which has 8transformed prisons from hells into hospitals for recovery10 and revolutionized the entire theory and administration of judicial punishment4#gfg ,the aim and purpose of the modern penitentiary system is to develop self-respect and manhood4#gfh ,to this end the lock-step and striped clothing have been abolished in many prisons1 and along with them all cruel and humiliating punishments4 ,the establishment of reform schools1 reformatories1 and penitentiaries1 the introduction of the indeterminate sentence1 the proposed creation of courts of rehabilitation1 and the founding of the juvenile court1#gfi mark the ethical advance which the last century has witnessed in this domain4#ggj #f4 ,international ,ethics3 the ,new ,international ,conscience ,sidenote3 ,the development of international morality foreshadowed by the earlier development of intranational morality ,one of the most significant of phylogenetic laws is formulated by ,haeckel in these words3 8,the short1 quick history of an individual organism is a compressed story of the long1 slow history of the species to which the organism belongs40 ,now this law holds good for the history of the human species as well as for that of the lower tribes of life4 ,and here it embraces not only the history of the bodily but also that of the psychical development4 ,consequently the law under which the moral evolution of man is going on may be stated in this way3 ,the history of the development of conscience within a social group 7clan1 tribe1 nation7 is a compressed story of the long1 slow history of the development of conscience in humanity at large1 that is to say1 between the groups composing the human race4 ,and since law codes1 private and public1 are essentially embodiments of the growing and clarifying conscience1 this mode of the ethical evolution may be expressed in strictly juristic terms as follows3 8,the development of international law follows step by step the earlier development of municipal law40#gga ,with this law in mind we may define moral progress in the international domain as the gradual assimilation of international to intranational ethics1 or1 in other words1 the growing conformity of the standard of public morality to that of private morality4 ,sidenote3 ,the gradual moralizing of the relations of the advanced to the backward races3 ,the ,white ,man's ,burden ,as thus defined1 a special expression of progress in international morality is found in the growing recognition by governments that the obligations of the strong toward the weak are the same for nations as for individuals4 ,a public conscience that is like the best private conscience is constantly becoming more and more a regulative force in the relations of the superior to the inferior races4#ggb ,unhappily that exploitation of the weaker by the stronger races1 which makes up so large a part of the history of the past ages1 still goes on2 but it is1 in general1 less grossly unethical than ever before1 while with each succeeding generation the protest of the common conscience of the civilized world against all unfair and oppressive treatment of the backward by the more advanced races grows more earnest and insistent4 ,good illustrations of this quickening of the public conscience are found in ,england's dealings with ,india and ,china4 ,in the year #ahac a resolution declaring that ,england's first duty in legislating for ,india was to promote the interests of the people of ,india was proposed in ,parliament1 but was defeated4 ,twenty years later 7in #ahcc7 this principle was definitely embodied in a ,government of ,india ,act4#ggc ,in #ahda-ahdb ,england1 at the end of what has been justly characterized as 8one of the most dishonorable and detestable wars that ever stained her annals10 compelled ,china to keep her ports open to the iniquitous opium traffic4 ,two generations later 7in #aijf7 the ,house of ,commons by resolution unanimously declared the ,indian opium trade with ,china to be 8morally indefensible10 and requested the ,government to bring it to a speedy end4#ggd ,five years later ,england entered into an agreement with ,china1 according to the terms of which the importation of ,indian opium into ,china will cease on or before #aiag4 ,this is a notable triumph of the new international conscience4 ,our dealings with the island of ,cuba since its liberation--opinions may differ in regard to the rightness of our original act of intervention--affords another encouraging illustration of the progress the world has made in international morality4 ,and the same is true of our dealings with the ,filipinos1 notwithstanding the utterly painful character of the earlier chapters of the story4 ,there has been no responsible official utterance on this subject that has represented our task in our acquired dependency as other than a public trust1 as a guardianship to be exercised solely in the interest of the ,filipinos as the nation's wards4 ,the better moral feeling of the nation1 intensified in many by deep compunction1 has indignantly repudiated all those unofficial utterances which have cynically represented the islands as an inviting field for selfish exploitation by ,american capitalists1 and has demanded that our government in the islands should be inspired and controlled by the spirit of unselfish service4 ,and this ethical spirit has in general marked our administration of the affairs of the islanders4 8,i believe that ,i am speaking with historic accuracy and impartiality10 declares ex-,president ,roosevelt1 8when ,i say that the ,american treatment of and attitude toward the ,filipino people1 in its combination of disinterested ethical purpose and sound common sense1 marks a new and long stride forward in advance of all steps that have hitherto been taken along the path of wise and proper treatment of weaker by stronger races40 ,this ethical purpose is especially manifested in the sending out1 in the early period of our rule1 of five hundred young ,american teachers to carry to this deeply wronged people the best we have to give--a national act without a parallel in all the history of the past4 ,it inspires hope in the future to note how far this last step forward carries us away from the starting point on this line of ethical advance4 ,at first the fate of the weaker race was extermination or slavery2 then its fate was to be reduced to the condition of a tributary2 still later1 to be subjected to commercial and industrial exploitation by the conquering people2 and lastly1 to be made1 in theory if not yet in actual practice1 the beneficiaries of a benevolent self-sacrificing service1 which finds lofty expression in ,kipling's ,the ,white ,man's ,burden3 ,go1 bind your sons to exile ,to serve your captives' need4 ,this sentiment would scarcely have found any such response in the common heart and conscience of any past age of human history as it finds in the heart and conscience of our own4 ,but1 it must be admitted1 the sentiment embodies an ideal yet to be realized1 rather than something already attained4 ,sidenote3 ,progress in war ethics3 ,hugo ,grotius ,but it is in the changes effected in men's feelings respecting what is morally permissible in warfare that is to be observed the most encouraging progress in international ethics in modern times4 ,this progressive clarification of the moral consciousness may be distinctly traced from the close of the ,thirty ,years' ,war in ,germany4 ,in no period of ,christian history had war been waged with greater ferocity or with greater contempt of moral rules than during the so-called religious wars of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4 ,what little gains had been made in the humanization of war during preceding eras seem to have been lost4 ,this barbarizing of war1 however1 produced1 as all retrogressions in morality do if the moral life is still on the whole virile and sound1 a reaction which found expression in the epoch-making work1 ,de ,jure ,belli et ,pacis1 by the distinguished ,dutch jurist ,hugo ,grotius#gge--;a work that has been pronounced 8the most beneficent of all volumes ever written not claiming divine inspiration40#ggf ,the aim of ,grotius was not to abolish war1--he did not think universal peace an attainable ideal1--but simply to moderate its excesses and lessen its atrocities1 to set limits to the rights of the victor4 ,the age of nationalism had come1 and an ethics for nations in their mutual relations must be formulated4 ,grotius sought a law that all would recognize as binding4 ,the law to which he appealed was the ,stoic ,law of ,nature4#ggg ,as the ,stoics had made this law the instrument for the reform of the ,roman civil law1 so now would ,grotius make it the instrument for the reform of the laws of war4#ggh ,the influence of the work of ,grotius was profound and widespread4 ,from the time of its appearance dates a new departure in the humanization of war1 and a fresh moral advance in international law4#ggi 8,his ideas10 says ,dr4 ,andrew ,d4 ,white1 8found their way into current discussion1 into systems of law1 into treaties2 and as generations rolled by1 the world began to find itself1 it hardly knew how1 less and less cruel1 until men looked back on war as practiced in his time as upon a hideous dream--doubtless much as men in future generations will look back upon the wars of our times40#ghj ,the humane provisions of the ,geneva ,convention of #ahfd and the establishment of the ,red ,cross ,society1 which on the field of battle cares without discrimination for the stricken1 are inspiring illustrations of the growth of this new humanitarianism4 ,sidenote3 ,movement for the abolition of war--a moral issue ,now this growing sensitiveness of the public conscience which has effected so many mitigations of the barbarities of war has resulted in a widespread and insistent demand that war between civilized nations shall not merely be humanized but that it shall be abolished1 that disputes between nations shall be settled as disputes between individuals are settled--by courts of justice4 ,without doubt many influences1 political1 social1 and economic1#gha have concurred in creating this great world-wide movement1 and in calling into existence the ,hague ,conferences and the international and national peace congresses of the last decade or two2 but among all these forces and motives the one of greatest potency is the awakened and instructed conscience of the world in regard to the criminality of war as an established and legalized method of settling controversies between civilized nations4 ,it is this new conscience and not the new dreadnought to which we must look to abolish war and to keep it abolished4 ,for1 like the question of slavery two generations ago1 this question of war has become a moral issue1 and1 like the slavery question1 it will give the world no rest until settled in accordance with the demands of the new conscience4 ,sidenote3 ,war an abrogation of the ordinary moral code ,especially intolerable to the more sensitive conscience of to-day is the assumption that nations may at will suspend or abrogate the ordinary moral code4 ,for1 as ,lord ,morley truly says1 8,to declare war is to suspend not merely habeas corpus but the ,ten ,commandments1 and some other good commandments besides40#ghb ,that is to say1 war is a suspension of a great part of those rules of morality which1 slowly and painfully formulated by the growing moral consciousness of man1 have become the guide and standard of ordinary conduct4 ,in war the conscience of the commander is inhibited4 8,the commander who lost a battle through the activity of his moral nature10 once cynically declared ,united ,states ,senator ,ingalls1 8would be the derision and jest of history40 ,and that is so4 ,the world has not yet ceased to deride those ,jews who lost their city to the ,romans because their consciences forsooth would not let them fight on the ,sabbath day4 ,war cannot be conducted by the rules of ordinary morality4 ,with a great part of the ordinary moral code suspended1 there is substituted for it a war code every maxim of which reveals its archaic1 vestigial character1 stamps it as a survival from an early savage stage of human development1 as a legacy from a long-past age of the historical evolution when morality was as yet only an intratribal thing1 that is1 when men felt that they owed duties only to members of their own tribe or social group4#ghc ,sidenote3 ,unfavorable reaction of the ethics of war upon the ethics of peace ,in many ways1 some obvious and others subtle and hidden1 war works 8moral damage0 to society1 but we here confine ourselves to emphasizing merely the moral loss and hurt resulting from the reaction of its low archaic code upon the more advanced peace code4 ,for1 as ,professor ,j4 ,neville ,figgis justly observes1 8,it is impossible to remove the very notion of morality from international affairs without in the long run undermining it in private life40#ghd ,what is regarded as right and proper in war will come to be regarded as right and proper in peace4 ,that is to say1 the maintenance of a double standard in morals is just as impossible as the maintenance of a double standard in money4 ,by a sort of ,gresham's ,law the lower standard will drive out the higher or drag it down to its own low level4 ,this reaction of the war code upon the ordinary moral code is well illustrated by what takes place when society metes out to persons convicted of crime ferocious and barbarous punishments4 ,in the medieval centuries in ,europe when the penalties for offenses were often fiendishly cruel mutilations of the body1 such as cutting off the ears1 the hands1 the lips1 or the nose1 this judicial procedure was imitated to such a degree by individuals seeking private vengeance that mayhem1 that is1 the mutilation of an enemy by depriving him of a member1 became a crime of such frequent occurrence that it was necessary to make special and severe enactments against it4#ghe ,after society stopped mutilating the bodies of offenders against its laws1 this offense of mayhem virtually dropped out of the calendar of private crimes4 ,in a similar way does the war ethics of the nations react disastrously upon private morality4 ,the slow moral progress of ,european civilization during the last two or three centuries1 compared with its wonderful intellectual and material progress1 may with little hesitation be attributed in large part to the unfavorable influence of its war ethics upon its everyday moral code4 ,the war code is applied to politics1 to ordinary business1 and to the relations of industrial classes4 ,the politician as a politician does a hundred things he would not think of doing as a man1 and justifies his acts by appealing to the adage1 8,politics is war40 ,the business man1 citing the like maxim1 8,business is business10 which means that competition is a species of war and must be conducted on war principles1 flings his ,christian code to the winds and1 pitilessly pushing his competitor to the wall1 compasses his financial ruin4 ,it is the same in the struggle between labor and capital4 ,in this struggle acts of violence1 like those of the ,mc,namaras1 are committed1 and the persons who do these things absolve themselves in the forum of their own consciences on the plea that a state of war exists between capital and labor and that this justifies the adoption of war methods4 ,here doubtless we have the moral psychology of the suffragette movement in ,england4 ,indeed1 the leaders of this startling propaganda tell us frankly that they are waging war1 and that this justifies their suspension of the ordinary rules of conduct4 ,in the light of this avowal the alleged inscrutability of their acts disappears4 ,the movement is simply another illustration of the truth that so long as nations act under the illusion that they may without moral wrong employ violence to obtain justice1 just so long will there be individuals who with good conscience will seek justice through violence4 ,at the same time1 however1 these same classes and persons who thus in various important spheres of activity adopt the lower standard of war ethics1 in all other domains and relationships--in the family1 in the ,church1 and in social intercourse--act in accordance with the higher moral code4 ,the result is a loose synthesis of the two systems1 the establishment of a sort of bi-moral code made up of rules and practices mutually inconsistent and irreconcilable4 ,the moral damage resulting from such moral confusion is beyond estimate4 ,it is the inconsistencies and hypocrisies involved in such a bi-moral code that is one ground of ,nietzsche's bitter attack on the ethics of ,christendom4 ,yet1 as ,professor ,figgis says1 8,nietzsche deserves the gratitude of all friends of humanity for the service he has done in 444 showing that the whole sphere of private life cannot in the long run be different from the ideals accepted in public affairs40#ghf ,sidenote3 ,obsolescence of war as a school of morals3 the war system an anachronism in modern civilization ,the arraignment of the war system by the awakening conscience of the civilized world has led its advocates to lay the stress of their argument on the moral uses of war4 ,they eulogize war as the nurse of the sturdy1 heroic virtues1 and hence as an indispensable agency in the moral education of the race4 ,war has1 it is true1 in past ages been 8the supreme theater of human strenuousness10 and it may be true1 as is assumed by ,professor ,william ,james in his ,moral ,equivalent of ,war1 that the qualities of courage1 fortitude1 and self-devotion to common interests were in the beginning evoked and fostered in the race by war2 but whatever may have been the moral uses of war in the past stages of human development1 the time is past when the war system can serve the highest ends of civilization4 ,it is an anachronism in the modern world4 ,it has become a drag upon the moral progress of the race4 ,by an ethical necessity the day of its abolition approaches4 ,at a time not remote1 as history reckons time1 the common conscience of the world will brand war between civilized nations as the greatest of crimes1 and will regard the nation that assaults another with intent to commit general slaughter as a criminal nation--as a common enemy of the human race4 ,in that coming and better age men will look with the same incredulous amazement upon our infernal engines and devices for wholesale man-killing that we of this age look upon 8the iron virgin of ,nuremberg0 and the other medieval instruments of torture in the museums of ,europe4 ,to many this optimistic forecast1 in the face of the prevailing war spirit and the ever-growing armaments of the nations1 may seem oversanguine and incredible4 ,but to think despairingly of the future argues a failure to discern what is really most significant in the international situation to-day4 ,the most significant thing in the ongoings of life at ,rome on that memorable day of the year #djd of our era which saw the last gladiatorial combat in the ,colosseum was not that1 four hundred years after the incoming of ,christianity with its teachings of the sanctity of human life1 gladiators fought on the arena to make a holiday for ,rome2 the significant thing was the protest made by the ,christian monk ,telemachus and sealed by his martyr death1#ghg for that announced the birth into the ,roman world of a new conscience1 and that1 through an ethical necessity1 meant the speedy abolition of 8the human sacrifices of the amphitheater40 ,and so to-day the significant thing is not that nineteen hundred years after the advent of a religion of peace and good will among men1 gladiator nations still wet the earth with fratricidal blood2 the significant thing is the constantly growing protest against it all1 for that announces the birth into the modern world of a new international conscience1 and that1 through an ethical necessity like that which abolished forever the bloody sacrifices of the ,colosseum1 means the certain and speedy abolition of war as a crass negation of human solidarity and brotherhood1 and a venturous denial of a moral order of the world and the sovereignty of conscience4 ,,footnotes #a ,henry ,t4 ,buckle1 ,history of ,civilization in ,england 7#ahia71 vol4 i1 chap4 iv4 ,for a trenchant criticism of ,buckle's contention that there has been no progress in morals during historic times1 see article entitled 8,the ,natural ,history of ,morals10 ,north ,british ,review for ,december1 #ahfg4 #b ,for a discussion of the economic theory1 see ,edwin ,r4 ,a4 ,seligman1 ,the ,economic ,interpretation of ,history1 #b;d ed4 #c ,social ,evolution 7#ahid71 p4 #cjg4 #d ,ralph ,barton ,perry1 ,the ,moral ,economy 7#aiji71 p4 #bed4 #e ,immanuel ,kant1 ,critique of the ,practical ,reason2 cited by ,fisher1 ,history of the ,christian ,church 7#ahhh71 p4 #fbc4 #f 8,it is probable indeed that every movement of religious reform has originated in some clearer conception of the ideal of human conduct1 arrived at by some person or persons40--,t4 ,h4 ,,green1 ,prolegomena to ,ethics1 #eth ed41 p4 #cfa4 #g ,prolegomena to the ,history of ,israel1 tr4 ,black and ,menzies 7#ahhe71 p4 #dgb2 summing up the moral teachings of the prophet ,amos4 #h ,wake1 ,the ,evolution of ,morality 7#ahgh71 vol4 ii1 p4 #d2 ,westermarck1 ,the ,origin and ,development of the ,moral ,ideas 7#aijf71 vol4 ii1 p4 #gdc2 ,t4 ,h4 ,green1 ,prolegomena to ,ethics1 #eth ed41 p4 #bcg2 ,george ,harris1 ,moral ,evolution 7#ahif71 p4 #gi4 #i ,t4 ,h4 ,green1 ,prolegomena to ,ethics1 #eth ed41 p4 #bdj4 #aj 8,we cannot explain morality without going to objective morality1 which is expressed in the customs and laws1 in the moral commands and judgments1 conceptions and ideals of the race0 7,frank ,thilly1 8,friedrich ,paulsen's ,ethical ,work and ,influence10 ,the ,international ,journal of ,ethics for ,january1 #aiji1 p4 #aej74 ,and so ,wundt3 8,the original source of ethical knowledge is the moral consciousness of man1 as it finds objective expression in the universal perceptions of right and wrong1 and further1 in religious ideas and in customs4 ,the most direct method for the discovery of ethical principles is1 therefore1 the anthropological method4 ,we use this term in a wider sense than is customary1 to include ethnic psychology1 the history of primitive man and the history of civilization1 as well as the natural history of mankind0 7,ethics3 the ,facts of the ,moral ,life1 tr4 ,gulliver and ,titchener 7#aijh71 p4 #ai74 ,cf4 also ,westermarck1 ,the ,origin and ,development of the ,moral ,ideas 7#aijf71 vol4 i1 pp4 #aeh ff4 #aa 8,an ideal is essential to the very existence of morality40--,,george ,,harris1 ,moral ,evolution 7#ahif71 p4 #ed4 #ab 8,the history of moral ideals and institutions1 though hitherto ignored by moralists1 seems to me the most important topic in the whole realm of ethics40--,,schurman1 ,the ,ethical ,import of ,darwinism 7#ahhg71 p4 #bja4 #ac ,s4 ,alexander1 ,moral ,order and ,progress 7#ahhi71 p4 #ced4 ,the same thought is expressed by the writer of 8,the ,natural ,history of ,morals10 ,north ,british ,review for ,december1 #ahfg3 8,the earth is a moral graveyard 444 and our virtues and vices will1 in turn1 be but fossils which the eye of science shall curiously scan1 and they will finally crumble into dust1 from which the moral harvests of the future shall spring40 #ad ,lecky1 ,history of ,european ,morals1 #c;d ed41 vol4 i1 p4 #aed4 #ae 8,effective ideals are elicited by circumstances4 ,but they are not created by them4 ,it is a prejudice of modern sociology1 a prejudice which sociology has taken over from biology1 to try to explain the inner by the outer40--,g4 ,,lowes ,,dickinson1 8,ideals and ,facts10 ,hibbert ,journal for ,january1 #aiaa1 p4 #bff4 #af 8,the growth of intellectuality1 considered as breadth of view and competence of personal judgment1 carries with it normally growth in sensitiveness of feeling and rightness of ethical attitude40--,,baldwin1 ,social and ,ethical ,interpretation in ,mental ,development 7#ahig71 p4 #cig4 #ag ,see ,chapter ,,xviii4 8,the activity of a free people creates a great number of social relations from which arise new duties and new rights2 so that liberty is not less favorable to the development of morality than to that of letters1 arts1 and sciences1 of all the noble interests and high faculties of our nature40--,,denis1 ,histoire des thories et des ides morales dans l'antiquit 7#ahgi71 t4 i1 p4 #aj4 #ah ,principles of ,economics1 #b;d ed41 p4 #a4 8,it is not ,christianity but industrialism that has brought into the world that strong sense of the moral value of thrift1 steady industry1 punctuality in observing engagements1 constant forethought with a view to providing for the contingencies of the future1 which is now so characteristic of the moral type of the most civilized nations40--,,lecky1 ,the ,map of ,life 7#aijj71 pp4 #ec f4 #ai ,the ,moral ,ideal1 new and revised edition1 p4 #ai4 #bj 8,doubtless the ethical life of the world has suffered much from religion1 but it owes to religion immeasurably more than it has suffered from it4 ,faulty enough indeed the influence has been1 but the ethical life of the world has on the whole been greatly renforced and purified by its religions40--,,william ,,newton ,,clarke1 ,the ,christian ,doctrine of ,god 7#aiji71 p4 #ac4 #ba 8,morality is the endeavor to realize an ideal0 7,george ,harris1 ,moral ,evolution 7#ahif71 p4 #ed74 ,not to miss the import of this dictum emphasis must be laid on the word 8endeavor02 for1 in the words of ,professor ,green1 morality must be regarded 8as an effort1 not an attainment0 7,prolegomena to ,ethics1 #eth ed41 p4 #cja74 #bb ,meditations1 tr4 ,long1 xi1 #ah4 #bc 8,there is nothing more modern than the critical spirit which dwells upon the difference between the minds of men in one age and in another2 which endeavors to make each age its own interpreter1 and judge what it did or produced by a relative standard40--,,james ,,bryce1 ,the ,holy ,roman ,empire1 #hth ed41 p4 #bfa4 #bd ,prolegomena to ,ethics1 #eth ed41 p4 #bia4 #be ,after long observation of the life of the uncivilized races of ,polynesia1 ,alfred ,russel ,wallace records as his opinion that 8savages act up to their simple code at least as well as we act up to ours0 7,the ,malay ,archipelago1 vol4 i1 p4 #aci74 8,many strange customs and laws obtain in ,zululand1 but there is no moral code in all the world more rigidly observed than that of the ,zulus0 7,russell ,hastings ,millward in ,national ,geographic ,magazine for ,march1 #aiji1 p4 #bhg74 #bf 8,the larger morality which embraces all mankind has its basis in habits of loyalty1 love1 and self-sacrifice which were originally formed and grew strong in the narrow circle of the family or the clan40--,w4 ,,robertson ,,smith1 ,the ,religion of the ,semites1 #b;d ed41 p4 #ed4 #bg ,the ,religion of the ,semites1 #b;d ed41 p4 #bgd4 ,cf4 ,judges ix4 #b2 #b ,sam4 v4 #a4 #bh ,dudley ,kidd1 ,savage ,childhood 7#aijf71 p4 #gd4 ,see also ,clifford1 ,lectures and ,essays 7#aija71 vol4 ii1 p4 #gi1 on the 8tribal self40 #bi ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,the ,religion of the ,semites1 #b;d ed41 p4 #bfg4 ,see also ,coulanges1 ,the ,ancient ,city1 bk4 ii1 chap4 ix4 #cj ,before this stage in civilization has been reached1 religion is a hindrance to the widening of the moral sympathies2 for in earlier stages 8a man is held answerable to his god only for wrong done to a member of his own kindred or political community2 444 he may deceive1 rob1 or kill an alien without offense to religion2 the deity cares only for his own kinsfolk0 7,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,the ,religion of the ,semites1 #b;d ed41 pp4 #ec f474 #ca ,it should be carefully noted that this is very different from saying that his life is immoral4 ,to pronounce it immoral would be like pronouncing immoral the life of the child1 in whom the sense of right and wrong has not yet arisen4 ,the savage is a child not only in intellect but also in moral feeling4 ,as ,bagehot says1 8,we may be certain that the morality of prehistoric man was as imperfect and as rudimentary as his reason0 7,physics and ,politics 7#ahgc71 p4 #aae74 #cb 8,at the beginning of the developmental series stands the bare animal impulse1 stripped of all moral motives2 at the end we have the complete interpenetration of organic requirement and moral idea40--,,wundt1 ,ethics3 the ,facts of the ,moral ,life 7#aijh71 p4 #aia4 #cc ,see ,,ii1 ,the ,ethics of ,industrialism1 ,chapter ,,xviii4 #cd ,respecting certain ,brazilian tribes the naturalist ,bates remarks3 8,the goodness of these ,indians1 like that of most others amongst whom ,i lived1 consisted perhaps more in the absence of active bad qualities than in the possession of good ones2 in a word1 it was negative rather than positive0 7,the ,naturalist on the ,river ,amazon74 ,cf4 ,edward ,howard ,griggs1 ,the ,new ,humanism1 #fth ed41 pp4 #ajc f4 #ce ,for the relation of motherhood and infancy to the beginnings of morality1 see ,fiske1 ,cosmic ,philosophy 7#ahge71 vol4 ii1 pp4 #cdj ff4 #cf 8,the spring of virtuous action is the social instinct1 which is set to work by the practice of comradeship40--,,clifford1 ,lectures and ,essays 7#aija71 vol4 ii1 p4 #bec4 ,cf4 ,peabody1 ,the ,approach to the ,social ,question 7#aiji71 p4 #adi4 #cg 8,this family worship 7long-forgotten precursor of our modern family prayers7 was always offered to the ancestors at the domestic hearth40--,,helen ,,bosanquet1 ,the ,family 7#aijf71 p4 #ah4 ,cf4 ,wundt1 ,ethics3 the ,facts of the ,moral ,life 7#aijh71 p4 #aga4 #ch ,the blessing offered at the daily family meal is presumptively a survival from the consecrated communal meal of the primitive kinship group4 #ci ,when such an individual arises he becomes1 if circumstances favor1 a lawgiver1 and the age of law supersedes the age of custom4 ,morality now consists in obedience to the law4 #dj ,westermarck1 ,the ,origin and ,development of the ,moral ,ideas 7#aijf71 vol4 i1 chap4 ii1 and passim4 #da 8,in early times the solidarity of the kinship is such that it does not occur to the individual to regard as unjust a suffering which he endures in behalf of1 or along with1 his people40--,,edward ,,caird1 ,the ,evolution of ,religion 7#ahid71 p4 #cg4 #db ,hobhouse1 ,morals in ,evolution 7#aijf71 vol4 i1 p4 #bhc4 #dc ,the system of collective responsibility arises in part1 it is true1 from the belief that sin is contagious and infects all persons related to the transgressor4 ,therefore the innocent members of the family or group of the transgressor may be put out of the way as a merely preventive measure--not as a measure of justice or punishment4 ,but the ethical element is seldom or never absent and it is this which gives the conception its importance for the student of morals4 #dd 8,outlawry from the clan is the most effective of all weapons1 because in primitive society the exclusion of a man from his kinsfolk means he is delivered over to the first comer absolutely without protection40--,,hobhouse1 ,morals in ,evolution 7#aijf71 vol4 i1 p4 #ij4 #de ,gen4 iv4 #ac1 #ad4 #df 8,blood atonement 444 was one of the very earliest cases we can find in which there was a notion of duty and social obligation40--,,sumner1 ,folkways 7#aijg71 p4 #ejf4 #dg 8,it the feud is the ,southern sense of the solidarity of the family in opposition to extreme ,northern individualism40--,,wines1 ,punishment and ,reformation 7#ahie71 p4 #cc4 #dh ,on the ,lex talionis consult ,westermarck1 ,the ,origin and ,development of the ,moral ,ideas 7#aijf71 vol4 i1 pp4 #agg ff42 ,hobhouse1 ,morals in ,evolution 7#aijf71 vol4 i1 pp4 #hd ff42 ,spencer1 ,principles of ,ethics 7#ahib71 vol4 i1 pp4 #cfi ff4 ,the principle embodied in the ,lex talionis has played a large part in the jurisprudence of all peoples4 #di ,the ,religion of the ,semites 7#ahid71 p4 #bfg4 #ej ,seeck 7,geschichte des ,untergangs der antiken ,welt 7#aija71 ,bd4 i1 ,s4 #bjj7 reminds us how the ancient ,german player when he had lost in a game where the stake was his own liberty1 honorably gave himself up as the slave of the winner4 #ea ,the ,truth about the ,congo 7#aijg71 p4 #bi4 #eb 8,throughout tribal life the stranger is a menace2 he is a being to be plundered because he is a being who plunders4444 ,native houses are often left for days or weeks1 and it would be easy for any one to enter and rob them4 ,yet robbery among themselves is not common4 ,to steal1 however1 from a white employer 444 is no sin40--,,starr1 ,the ,truth about the ,congo 7#aijg71 pp4 #bh f4 #ec ,see ,,vi1 ,international ,ethics3 the ,new ,international ,conscience1 in ,chapter ,,xviii4 #ed ,on this subject see ,westermarck1 ,the ,origin and ,development of the ,moral ,ideas 7#aijf71 vol4 i1 chap4 xxiv1 8,hospitality40 #ee ,speaking of the duty of hospitality among the early ,greeks1 ,farnell says1 8,the sanctity of the stranger guest 444 was almost as great as the sanctity of the kinsman's life0 7,the ,cults of the ,greek ,states 7#ahif71 vol4 i1 p4 #gc74 #ef ,without doubt other feelings and conceptions than purely ethical ones are sometimes operative in the case of the guest right4 ,the stranger may be kindly treated because of superstitious fears4 ,thus the primitive man's notions of magic and sorcery may cause him to be hospitable to the stranger through fear of the consequences of a refusal1 since untutored people are apt to attribute magical powers to the stranger4 ,see ,westermarck1 ,the ,origin and ,development of the ,moral ,ideas 7#aijf71 vol4 i1 chap4 xxiv4 #eg ,among some uncivilized peoples1 however1 where the population is thin and there is little competition wars are unknown4 8,to the ,greenlander 444 war is incomprehensible and repulsive1 a thing for which their language has no word0 7,westermarck1 ,the ,origin and ,development of the ,moral ,ideas 7#aijf71 vol4 i1 p4 #ccd74 #eh ,cannibalism springs from several roots4 ,sometimes savages eat the body of the enemy slain in battle because they believe that thereby they destroy the soul or double and thus secure themselves against its vengeance4 ,again the custom grows out of the belief that the virtues of the victim pass into him who eats the flesh4 ,but the most common motive is the subsistence motive4 ,indeed1 many of the incessant wars waged by primitive tribes are nothing more nor less than man-hunting expeditions for securing food4 ,later these expeditions became raids for securing slaves4 #ei ,quoted by ,letourneau1 ,la guerre dans les diverses races humaines 7#ahie71 p4 vi4 #fj ,often we find vestiges of the abandoned practice in what may be called celestial cannibalism 7see ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,the ,religion of the ,semites 7#ahid71 p4 #bbd74 ,thus the god of war of the ,mexican ,aztecs and the gods of many ,polynesian tribes were cannibals1 for human sacrifices must be regarded as a sort of celestial cannibalism1 when the offering is made in the belief that the god actually repasts on the blood and the finer essences of the sacrificial victim4 ,where men have thus made their gods like unto themselves1 and the practice of cannibalism has been consecrated by religion1 the gods1 because religion is always conservative1 are certain to remain anthropophagi much longer than their worshipers4 ,consequently we find human sacrifices still lingering on as a kind of survival among peoples1 as1 for instance1 the ,mexicans1 who have themselves left far behind the practice of eating human flesh4 #fa ,letourneau1 ,la guerre dans les diverses races humaines 7#ahie71 p4 #ahe4 #fb ,od4 i4 #bfj4 #fc ,spencer1 ,principles of ,ethics 7#ahib71 vol4 i1 p4 #cej4 #fd ,ibid4 vol4 i1 pp4 #cee f4 #fe ,ibid4 vol4 i1 pp4 #cfh1 #cih1 #dja4 #ff ,spencer1 ,principles of ,ethics 7#ahib71 vol4 i1 pp4 #cei f4 #fg ,ibid4 vol4 i1 p4 #cdi4 #fh ,for the influence of the war ethics of the modern nations upon their peace ethics1 see ,,vi1 ,international ,ethics3 the ,new ,international ,conscience1 in ,chapter ,,xviii4 #fi ,breasted1 ,a ,history of ,egypt 7#aije71 p4 #fe4 #gj ,development of ,religion and ,thought in ,ancient ,egypt 7#aiab71 p4 #agf4 #ga ,breasted1 ,development of ,religion and ,thought in ,ancient ,egypt 7#aiab71 p4 #bej4 #gb ,maspero1 ,the ,dawn of ,civilization1 p4 #agb4 #gc ,this moralization of pure physical myths marks the advance of all races in culture and morality4 ,as we shall see1 ,greek and ,hebrew mythologies underwent just such an ethicalizing process4 #gd ,renouf1 ,the ,religion of ,ancient ,egypt 7#ahhd71 p4 #gc4 #ge 8,it has long been recognized that the ,egyptians had a much more highly organized conscience than that of most other nations of early times40--,,petrie1 ,religion and ,conscience in ,ancient ,egypt 7#ahih71 p4 #hf4 #gf ,maspero1 ,the ,dawn of ,civilization1 pp4 #aic f4 #gg ,wiedemann1 ,the ,ancient ,egyptian ,doctrine of the ,immortality of the ,soul 7#ahie71 pp4 #fb f4 #gh ,wiedemann1 ,the ,ancient ,egyptian ,doctrine of the ,immortality of the ,soul 7#ahie71 p4 #fd4 #gi ,the same evolution is to be traced in ,china4 8,imitations made of wood1 clay1 straw1 paper1 and of other material have been substituted for the real things4444 ,slaves and servants1 wives and concubines are also burned1 i4e41 in paper imitations4 ,they point back to the time when actual human sacrifices were the custom0 7,de ,groot1 ,the ,religion of the ,chinese 7#aiaj71 p4 #ga74 #hj ,primitive ,culture 7#ahgd71 vol4 ii1 p4 #he4 #ha ,maspero1 ,the ,dawn of ,civilization1 pp4 #ahg ff4 #hb ,truthfulness was one of the cardinal virtues of the ,egyptian ideal4 ,the requirements here were very exact3 8,i have not altered a story in the telling of it2 ,i have repeated what ,i have heard just as it was told to me10 are the words of one in the judgment hall of ,osiris4 ,cf4 ,renouf1 ,the ,religion of ,ancient ,egypt 7#ahhd71 pp4 #gf f4 #hc ,the ,egyptian ,book of the ,dead1 tr4 ,davis1 chap4 cxxv4 #hd ,the ,egyptian ,book of the ,dead1 tr4 ,davis1 chap4 cxxv4 #he ,annihilation appears to have been the lot of the very wicked2 but the texts are not perfectly clear on this point4 ,consult ,wiedemann1 ,the ,ancient ,egyptian ,doctrine of the ,immortality of the ,soul 7#ahie71 p4 #ee4 #hf ,here are six declarations of the confession which correspond almost exactly with six of the ,ten ,commandments3 7#a7 ,i have not blasphemed2 7#b7 ,i have not stolen2 7#c7 ,i have not slain any one treacherously2 7#d7 ,i have not slandered any one1 or made false accusations2 7#e7 ,i have not reviled the face of my father2 7#f7 ,i have not eaten my heart through with envy4 ,see ,rawlinson1 ,history of ,ancient ,egypt1 #b;d ed41 vol4 i1 p4 #adb4 #hg ,petrie1 ,religion and ,conscience in ,ancient ,egypt 7#ahih71 p4 #ace4 #hh ,ibid4 p4 #afb4 #hi 8,in this judgment the ,egyptian introduced for the first time in the history of man the fully developed idea that the future destiny of the dead must be dependent entirely upon the ethical quality of the earthly life1 the idea of future responsibility1--of which we found the first traces in the ,old ,kingdom0 7,breasted1 ,a ,history of ,egypt 7#aije71 p4 #agc74 ,professor ,breasted suggests a connection between the growth of the ideal of an ethical ordeal in the hereafter with the discontinuance of the building of immense pyramids4 ,he says3 8,it is impossible to contemplate the colossal tombs of the ,fourth ,dynasty1 so well known as the pyramids of ,gizeh1 and to contrast them with the comparatively diminutive royal tombs which follow in the next two dynasties1 without 444 discerning more than exclusively political causes behind this sudden and startling change4444 ,the recognition of a judgment and the requirement of moral worthiness in the hereafter 444 marked a transition from reliance on agencies external to the personality of the dead to dependence on inner values4 ,immortality began to make its appeal as a thing achieved in a man's own soul0 7,development of ,religion and ,thought in ,ancient ,egypt 7#aiab71 pp4 #agh f474 #ij ,records of the ,past1 ,new ,series1 vol4 iii4 ,for extended comments on the maxims of ,ptah-hotep1 see ,amlineau1 ,essai sur l'volution historique et philosophique des ides morales dans l',egypt ancienne 7#ahie71 pp4 #ic ff4 #ia ,budge1 ,egyptian ,ideas of the ,future ,life 7#ahii71 p4 ii4 #ib ,for other documents of this age which embody the same spirit of social justice as the precepts of ,ptah-hotep1 see ,breasted1 ,development of ,religion and ,thought in ,ancient ,egypt 7#aiab71 lect4 vii4 #ic ,amlineau1 ,essai1 pp4 #adj f4 #id ,alongside slavery proper there existed the system of serfdom1 the nature of which is revealed by the history of the ,children of ,israel in ,lower ,egypt4 ,the status of the ,egyptian serf appears to have been somewhat like that of the ,helots of ,laconia in ,greece4 ,if we rightly interpret the ,biblical account of the servitude of the ,children of ,israel1 the number of serfs1 if their increase seemed dangerous1 was kept down by enforced infanticide 7,ex4 i4 #g-bb74 #ie ,laurent1 tudes sur l'histoire de l'humanit1 t4 i1 p4 #cba4 #if ,amlineau1 ,essai1 p4 #cdd4 ,the monotheist ,ikhnaton 7,amenhotep ,,iv71 the reform ,pharaoh of the ,eighteenth ,dynasty1 it is true1 pursued throughout his reign a peace policy1 but this policy manifestly was dictated by temperament1 or the king's preoccupation with religious affairs1 and not by moral scruples4 ,his reform was essentially a religious and not a social or moral one4 ,not one of the historical documents of the age contains a word in condemnation of war as inherently wrong 7see ,breasted1 ,ancient ,records of ,egypt 7#aijf71 vol4 ii1 pp4 #chb-dai71 though in these 8the customary glorying in war has almost disappeared0 7,petrie1 ,a ,history of ,egypt 7#ahif71 vol4 ii1 p4 #bah74 #ig ,this1 however1 must not be regarded as wholly an act of wanton savagery4 ,the killing of his prisoners by the king was probably a sort of sacrifice in honor of the god who had given him victory over his enemies4 ,see ,amlineau1 ,essai1 p4 #ab4 #ih ,essai1 p4 ix2 see also p4 #beb1 n4 #a4 #ii ,for the influence of the moral ideas of ,egypt on ,greece1 see ,amlineau1 ,essai1 chap4 xii1 pp4 #cei-cii2 ,wiedemann1 ,the ,ancient ,egyptian ,doctrine of the ,immortality of the ,soul 7#ahie71 p4 x2 and ,toy1 ,judaism and ,christianity 7#ahia71 p4 #chg4 #ajj ,petrie1 ,egypt and ,israel 7#aiaa71 p4 #acc4 #aja ,demonism here was not1 as it was and is in ,china 7p4 #ee71 a moral educator of the people1 for the reason that the spirits were not conceived as the avengers of wrongdoing1 but were thought to molest indifferently the good and the bad4 #ajb ,it is not possible1 however1 to draw a definite chronological line between the nonethical and the ethical texts4 ,cf4 ,jastrow1 ,the ,religion of ,babylonia and ,assyria 7#ahih71 p4 #big4 #ajc ,king1 ,babylonian ,religion and ,mythology 7#ahii71 p4 #bbj4 #ajd ,the nature myths constituting the epic literature of the ,babylonians1 which consisted largely of elaborate tales of the struggle between the gods of light and the powers of darkness1 were never moralized like the ,egyptian myth of ,osiris and ,set1 or the ,iranian myth of ,ahura ,mazda and ,ahriman4 #aje ,here are a few lines of a penitential prayer or psalm3 ,o my god who art angry with me1 accept my prayer2 99 99 99 99 99 ,may my sins be forgiven1 my transgressions be wiped out4 ,may the ban be loosened1 the chain broken1 ,may the seven winds carry off my sighs4 ,let me tear away my iniquity1 let the birds carry it to heaven2 99 99 99 99 99 ,may the beasts of the field take it away from me1 ,the flowing waters of the stream wash me clean4 ,let me be pure like the sheen of gold4 ,,jastrow1 ,the ,religion of ,babylonia and ,assyria 7#ahih71 p4 #cbc4 #ajf ,cf4 above1 p4 #ce4 #ajg ,the stele which bore this code of laws was discovered at ,susa in #aija-aijb4 ,the reign of ,hammurabi is placed at about the end of the third millennium ,b4,c4 ,there are translations of the code by ,c4 ,h4 ,w4 ,johns 7#aijc7 and ,robert ,francis ,harper 7#aijd74 #ajh 8,if a man owe a debt and ,adad god of storms inundate his field and carry away the produce1 or1 through lack of water1 grain have not grown in the field1 in that year he shall not make any return of grain to the creditor1 he shall alter his contract-tablet and he shall not pay the interest for that year40--,code1 sec4 #dh4 ,we have used throughout ,harper's translation4 #aji ,code1 secs4 #aif1 #aig1 #bjj4 ,cf4 similar provisions of the ,mosaic code3 ,ex4 xxi4 #bc-be2 ,deut4 xix4 #ba4 #aaj ,ibid4 secs4 #bji1 #baj4 #aaa ,ibid4 secs4 #bbi1 #bcj4 #aab ,the provisions read3 8,if a man aid a male or female slave of the palace1 or a male or female slave of a freeman to escape from the city gate1 he shall be put to death40 8,if a man harbor in his home a male or female slave who has fled from the palace or from a freeman1 and do not bring him the slave forth at the call of the commandant1 the owner of that house shall be put to death0 7,code1 secs4 #ae1 #af74 #aac ,maspero1 ,the ,dawn of ,civilization1 p4 #gdd4 #aad ,taylor1 ,ancient ,ideals 7#ahif71 vol4 i1 p4 #da4 #aae ,records of the ,past1 ,new ,series1 vol4 ii1 pp4 #adc ff4 #aaf 8,the white man has no doubt committed great barbarities upon the savage1 but he does not like to speak of them1 and when necessity compels a reference he has always something to say of manifest destiny1 the advance of civilization and the duty of shouldering the white man's burden in which he pays tribute to a higher ethical conscience0 7,hobhouse1 ,morals in ,evolution 7#aijf71 vol4 i1 p4 #bg74 ,king ,leopold may have been responsible for barbarities committed against the natives of the ,kongo as atrocious as those of the ,assyrians1 but he paid tribute to the modern conscience by refraining from portraying them in imperishable marble at ,the ,hague4 #aag ,cf4 ,martin1 ,the ,lore of ,cathay 7#aija71 p4 #bbf4 #aah ,though the people are shut out from participation in the state worship1 they have set up for themselves a multitude of local shrines where they worship the spirits of almost every earthly thing1 such as mountains1 rivers1 trees1 and rocks4 8,men debarred from communion with the ,great ,spirit resorted more eagerly to inferior spirits1 to spirits of the fathers1 and to spirits generally4444 ,the accredited worship of ancestors1 with that of the departed great added to it1 was not enough to satisfy the cravings of men's minds40 7,legge1 ,the ,religions of ,china 7#ahha71 p4 #agf74 #aai ,the ,lore of ,cathay 7#aija71 p4 #bgd4 #abj ,williams1 ,the ,middle ,kingdom 7#ahhc71 vol4 ii1 p4 #bci4 #aba ,we do not mention ,buddhism in this connection for the reason that it is not possible to trace any decisive influence1 save in the promotion of toleration1 that this system has exercised upon ,chinese morality4 ,buddhism enjoins celibacy1 and this1 like ,christian asceticism1 is in radical opposition to the genius of ,confucianism4 ,for this reason1 in conjunction with others1--among these its early degeneracy1--,buddhism has remained practically inert as an ethical force in ,chinese society4 ,what little influence it has exerted has been confined almost wholly to the monasteries4 #abb 8,the dread of spirits is the nightmare of the ,chinaman's life40--,,legge1 ,the ,religions of ,china 7#ahha71 p4 #aig4 #abc ,the ,religion of the ,chinese 7#aiaj71 p4 #cd4 #abd ,the ,taoist doctrines are contained in the ,tao-teh-king1 supposed to have been written by ,lao-tsze1 a sage who lived in the fifth century ,b4,c4 ,the religion which grew out of his philosophy became in time degenerate1 absorbed the worst elements of ,buddhism1 and is to-day a system of gross superstitions1 magic1 and sorcery1 which has undeniably a blighting effect upon morality4 #abe ,de ,groot1 ,the ,religion of the ,chinese 7#aiaj71 pp4 #aci ff4 #abf ,ibid4 #ach4 #abg ,legge1 ,the ,religions of ,china 7#ahha71 p4 #bbi4 #abh ,de ,groot1 ,the ,religion of the ,chinese 7#aiaj71 p4 #adc4 #abi ,nietzscheism is in essence at one with ,taoism4 ,nietzsche insists that man should behave as ,nature behaves2 for instance1 that the strong should prey upon the weak4 ,the difference between ,lao-tsze and ,nietzsche lies in their different readings of the essential qualities of the universe4 ,see below1 p4 #cee4 #acj ,taoism is too lofty a doctrine for the multitude4 ,they are enjoined to imitate the ancient sages1 and as these imitated the way of heaven and earth1 in imitating them they are really imitating the universe4 #aca ,de ,groot1 ,the ,religion of the ,chinese 7#aiaj71 p4 #adc4 #acb ,the imitation of the qualities of nature 8have given existence to important state institutions1 considered to be for the nation and rulers matters of life and death40 7,de ,groot1 ,the ,religion of the ,chinese 7#aiaj71 p4 #aci74 #acc ,the ,works of ,mencius 7,the ,chinese ,classics1 #b;d ed41 vol4 ii71 bk4 vi1 pt4 i1 chap4 ii1 #b4 #acd 8,this inference that man is naturally good comes into prominence in the classics as a dogma1 and therefore has been the principal basis of all ,taoistic and ,confucian ethics to this day0 7,de ,groot1 ,the ,religion of the ,chinese 7#aiaj71 p4 #acg74 ,every schoolboy is taught this doctrine3 8,man commences life with a virtuous nature0 7,martin1 ,the ,lore of ,cathay 7#aija71 p4 #bag74 #ace ,the ,works of ,mencius1 bk4 vii1 pt4 i1 chap4 ii1 #b4 ,and so ,confucius3 8,an accordance with this nature man's is called the ,path of ,duty0 7,the ,doctrine of the ,mean1 chap4 i2 ,the ,chinese ,classics1 #b;d ed41 vol4 i74 #acf ,the ,works of ,mencius1 bk4 vi1 pt4 i1 chap4 vii1 #b1 #c4 #acg ,confucian ,analects 7,the ,chinese ,classics1 #b;d ed41 vol4 i71 bk4 xvii1 chap4 ii4 ,the student of biology will see in this view an anticipation of the latest teaching of modern science in respect to the relative importance of heredity and education in the determining of character4 #ach 8,there is nothing in this world so dangerous for the national safety1 public health and welfare as heterodoxy1 which means acts1 institutions1 doctrines not based upon the classics40--,,de ,,groot1 ,the ,religion of the ,chinese 7#aiaj71 p4 #dh4 #aci ,confucius thus describes himself3 8,a transmitter and not a maker1 believing in and loving the ancients0 7,confucian ,analects1 bk4 vii1 chap4 i74 #adj ,the ,religions of ,china 7#ahha71 p4 #bee4 #ada ,chinese literature bears unique testimony to the high consideration in which the virtue of filial devotion and reverence is held4 ,it abounds in anecdotes exalting this virtue1 holding up great exemplars of it for imitation by the ,chinese youth4 ,see ,doolittle1 ,social ,life of the ,chinese4 #adb ,the ,hsiao ,king 7,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 iii71 chap4 xviii4 #adc ,ibid4 chap4 xi4 #add ,doolittle1 ,social ,life of the ,chinese 7#ahfh71 p4 #ajc4 #ade ,ibid4 p4 #ajc4 #adf ,china in ,law and ,commerce 7#aije71 p4 #cd4 #adg 8,the chief characteristic of ,chinese society and the essence of ,chinese morality is reverence for the past40--,,reinsch1 ,world ,politics 7#aijj71 p4 #ij4 #adh ,the ,great ,learning 7,the ,chinese ,classics1 #b;d ed41 vol4 i71 chap4 iii1 #e4 #adi ,confucian ,analects1 bk4 xi1 chap4 xv1 #c4 #aej ,it is interesting to compare the portraiture of ,the ,princely ,man1 as depicted by the pagan ,chinese moralist1 with that of ,the ,prince1 as portrayed by ,machiavelli4 #aea 8,the standard of excellence in ,the ,princely ,man is placed so high as to be absolutely unattainable by unaided human nature2 and though the author probably intended to elevate the character of his grandfather ,confucius to this height1 and thus hand him down to future ages as a shing jin1 or #8perfect and holy man1' he has in the providence of ,god done his countrymen great service in setting before them such a character as is here given in the ,chung ,yung4 ,by being made a text-book in the schools it has been constantly studied and memorized by generations of students to their great benefit40--,,williams1 ,the ,middle ,kingdom 7#ahhc71 vol4 i1 pp4 #fee f4 #aeb ,confucian ,analects1 bk4 viii1 chap4 xii4 #aec ,the ,great ,learning 7text71 par4 #e4 #aed ,quoted by ,pfleiderer1 ,religions and ,historic ,faiths1 p4 #if4 #aee ,the ,great ,learning1 chap4 x1 #bb4 #aef ,the ,works of ,mencius1 bk4 vi1 pt4 ii1 chap4 xiii1 #f4 #aeg ,the ,great ,learning1 chap4 ix1 #h4 #aeh ,confucian ,analects1 bk4 xii1 chap4 xix4 #aei ,the ,great ,learning1 chap4 x1 #ba4 #afj ,confucian ,analects1 bk4 xiii1 chap4 xi4 #afa ,okakura-,kakuzo1 ,the ,ideals of the ,east 7#aije71 p4 #bci4 #afb ,hobhouse1 ,morals in ,evolution 7#aijf71 vol4 i1 p4 #bfe4 #afc ,the ,works of ,mencius1 bk4 vi1 pt4 ii1 chap4 viii1 #h4 #afd ,ibid4 bk4 vii1 pt4 ii1 chap4 iv1 #a4 #afe ,ibid4 bk4 vii1 pt4 ii1 chap4 ii1 #a4 ,while denouncing the essential wickedness of war1 ,mencius sanctioned rebellion against a tyrannical and wicked ruler4 #aff ,the ,great ,learning1 chap4 vi1 #b4 #afg ,the ,works of ,mencius1 bk4 iv1 pt4 i1 chap4 xx4 #afh ,confucian ,analects1 bk4 iii1 chap4 iv1 #c4 #afi ,ibid4 bk4 iv1 chap4 xv1 #b4 #agj ,ibid4 bk4 vi1 chap4 xvii4 #aga ,ibid4 bk4 ix1 chap4 xvii4 #agb ,ibid4 bk4 xv1 chap4 xxiii4 ,the same precept is found in bk4 xii1 chap4 ii1 of the ,analects1 and also in ,the ,doctrine of the ,mean1 chap4 xiii1 #c4 #agc ,the ,works of ,mencius1 bk4 vii1 pt4 i1 chap4 xvii4 #agd ,ibid4 bk4 iv1 pt4 ii1 chap4 xii4 #age ,ibid4 bk4 vi1 pt4 i1 chap4 x1 #a4 #agf ,confucian ,analects1 bk4 vii1 chap4 xv4 #agg ,the ,works of ,mencius1 bk4 vi1 pt4 ii1 chap4 xv1 #b4 #agh ,ibid4 bk4 vi1 pt4 ii1 chap4 xv1 #e4 #agi ,ibid4 bk4 vii1 pt4 i1 chap4 xviii1 #a4 #ahj ,the ,chinese pay worship1 it is true1 to the multitude of inferior gods of ,buddhism1 but there is little in these cults calculated to awaken and discipline the moral feelings4 #aha ,the ,religions of ,china 7#ahha71 p4 #bef4 #ahb ,see ,colquhuon1 ,china in ,transformation 7#ahih71 p4 #ahi4 #ahc ,reinsch1 ,world ,politics 7#aijj71 p4 #ih4 ,in their relations with foreigners the ,chinese bankers have won an enviable reputation for integrity and the scrupulous observance of engagements4 ,the word of a ,chinaman in financial matters is his bond4 #ahd ,the ,lore of ,cathay 7#aija71 p4 #bad4 #ahe ,froebel has an illuminating comment on the danger to true morality that lurks here3 8,a life whose ideal value has been perfectly established in experience never aims to serve as a model in its form1 but only in its essence1 in its spirit4 ,it is the greatest mistake to suppose that spiritual1 human perfection can serve as a model in its form4 ,this accounts for the common experience that the taking of such external manifestations of perfection as examples1 instead of elevating mankind1 checks1 nay1 represses1 its development0 7,the ,education of ,man1 pt4 i1 sec4 #aj74 #ahf ,etiquette has been well defined as 8the formal expression of courtesy10 and courtesy as 8morality in trifles40 ,in ,japan1 as ,kikuchi informs us1 etiquette forms a part of the moral instruction in the schools4 ,see ,sadler1 ,moral ,instruction and ,training in ,schools1 vol4 ii1 p4 #cdb4 #ahg ,edward ,a4 ,ross 7,the ,changing ,chinese 7#aiaa71 p4 #aic7 says native authorities admit that from one tenth to one twentieth of the girl infants are abandoned or made away with4 #ahh 8,female infanticide in some parts is openly confessed and divested of all disgrace and penalties everywhere0 7,williams1 ,the ,middle ,kingdom 7#ahhc71 vol4 i1 p4 #hcf74 ,jernigan1 however1 says1 8,when carried to the extreme there is a public sentiment in ,china which condemns it1 and there are official proclamations against infanticide0 7,china in ,law and ,commerce 7#aije71 p4 #abc74 #ahi ,the primitive kinship group is a characteristic feature of ,chinese society4 8,thousands of ,chinese villages comprise exclusively persons having the same surname and the same ancestors0 7,a4 ,h4 ,smith1 ,chinese ,characteristics 7#ahid71 p4 #bbf74 8,i have seen a town of #be1jjj people1 all belonging to the same clan and bearing the same family name0 7,martin1 ,the ,lore of ,cathay 7#aija71 p4 #bgb74 ,along with this clan constitution of society goes the principle of collective responsibility4 ,the group is to a great degree held responsible for the conduct of each of its members4 ,in case of serious crime1 as1 for instance1 treason1 all the male adult members of the criminal's family are punished along with the offender 7,westermarck1 ,the ,origin and ,development of the ,moral ,ideas 7#aijf71 vol4 i1 p4 #de74 ,recently the punishment of relatives of the offender has been abolished in certain cases4 #aij ,the efforts of the ,chinese government to put an end to the use of opium among its subjects--the anti-opium decree was issued in #aijf--;is the most noteworthy matter in the recent moral history of ,china4 ,this movement is motived by moral feeling as truly as is the movement among ourselves for the suppression of the liquor traffic4 ,it is1 in the words of ,professor ,edward ,a4 ,ross1 8the most extensive warfare on a vicious private habit that the world has ever known0 7,the ,changing ,chinese 7#aiaa71 p4 #adf74 #aia 8,the ,emperor is sacred and inviolable40--,japanese ,constitution1 art4 iii4 #aib ,the state in ,japan occupies the place of the ,church with us4 8,to look up to the state as a sacred institution has always been characteristic of the people1 and from the great work of the recent reformation onward there has not been a single event of national consequence which has not originated in this peculiar turn of mind0 7,count ,okuma1 ,fifty ,years of ,new ,japan 7#aiji71 vol4 ii1 p4 #eei74 #aic ,corresponding to the knights in ,european feudalism were the samurai1 above them the daimios1 and at the head of the system the ,shogun4 #aid ,japanese boys and men1 ,dr4 ,william ,elliot ,griffis affirms1 are 8more tender and careful with all living creatures than are those of ,christendom0 7,the ,religions of ,japan 7#ahie71 p4 #bid74 ,buddhism caused in large measure the disuse of flesh for food4 #aie ,this word means 8the way of the warrior10 or 8the rule of knighthood40 #aif ,nitob1 ,bushido3 the ,soul of ,japan1 p4 #ih4 ,the edition cited throughout this chapter is that of ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons1 #aije4 ,the ,introduction is by ,william ,elliot ,griffis4 #aig ,nitob1 ,bushido1 p4 #cb4 #aih ,ibid4 p4 #cj4 #aii ,for the subject of the downfall of feudalism and the ,restoration1 see ,count ,okuma1 ,fifty ,years of ,new ,japan 7#aiji71 vol4 i1 chap4 ii4 #bjj ,nitob1 ,bushido1 p4 #ahi4 #bja ,baron ,kikuchi1 in ,sadler1 ,moral ,instruction and ,training in ,schools 7#aijh71 vol4 ii1 p4 #cbc4 #bjb ,scherer1 ,what is ,japanese ,morality8 7#aijf71 p4 #aj4 #bjc ,nitob1 ,bushido1 p4 vi4 #bjd ,the works of ,molire1 it is said1 have been put under the ban of the censor in ,japan and their circulation forbidden1 for the reason that ,molire ridicules old age1 and constantly1 like the comic supplement of the newspapers1 8makes some father the butt of jokes and gross wit by his child or children40 #bje 8,any social system of which filial piety is not the moral cement2 any social system in which children leave their parents in order to establish families of their own2 any social system in which it is considered not only natural but right to love wife and child more than the author of one's being2 any social system in which marriage can be decided independently of the will of parents1 by the mutual inclination of the young people themselves2 any social system in which the mother-in-law is not entitled to the obedient service of the daughter-in-law1 appears to him the ,japanese of necessity a state of life scarcely better than that of the birds of the air and the beasts of the field1 or at best a sort of moral chaos40--,,lafcadio ,,hearn1 ,out of the ,east 7#ahie71 p4 #hi4 #bjf ,okakura-,kakuzo1 ,the ,awakening of ,japan 7#aijd71 p4 #agi4 ,romantic love is almost unknown in ,japan4 ,b4 ,h4 ,chamberlain affirms that in a residence of twenty-eight years he heard of only one love match1 and then the young people had been brought up in ,america4 #bjg ,out of the ,east 7#aihe71 p4 #hj4 #bjh ,five per cent of the men have concubines4 #bji 8,the central idea in ,japanese life is obedience to parents and reverence for ancestors4 ,should a ,japanese father have misfortunes1 his daughter would think it her filial duty to sell her body4 ,she would not be regarded as fallen and disgraced1 but as having done a right and noble deed1 and might afterwards be restored to her place in society4 ,but1 though it is hard to explain1 the ,japanese woman is as chaste and pure and exalted in her ideas of womanhood as any woman on the globe40--,,sir ,,edwin ,,arnold 7in an interview74 #baj ,bacon1 ,japanese ,girls and ,women 7#ahia71 p4 #aba4 #baa ,chamberlain1 ,things ,japanese1 #dth ed41 p4 #bbj4 ,by 8the ancient way0 is meant hara-kiri1 or disemboweling4 ,the death by his own hand of ,general ,nogi1 the hero of ,port ,arthur1 during the funeral of his departed sovereign ,mutsuhito 7,september #ac1 #aiab71 reveals another motive for suicide which is wholly foreign to our modes of thought and feeling4 8,in very early1 almost prehistoric1 times the custom of jun-shi1 or dying with the master1 led to the interment of living ,japanese retainers with their dead lord4 ,the custom gradually died out1 but voluntary suicide as a means of showing personal devotion or attachment to a master or superior persisted for many centuries0 7,george ,kennan1 8,the ,death of ,general ,nogi10 ,new ,york ,outlook for ,october #e1 #aiab74 ,it was this ancient custom that ,count ,nogi followed4 8,when all was over0--such is ,mr4 ,kennan's interpretation of his act--8he ended his own life as an expression of his boundless devotion to the man whom he had loved4 ,it was in the spirit of ,old ,japan1 but ,nogi was a man of that era1 and lived in the mental and moral atmosphere of that time40 #bab ,japanese feudalism began about the eleventh century4 ,the year #ahfh saw its final downfall4 #bac ,nitob1 ,bushido1 p4 #ii4 #bad ,okakura-,kakuzo1 ,the ,awakening of ,japan 7#aijd71 p4 #age4 ,count ,okuma makes a similar assertion3 8,the humanitarian efforts which in the course of the recent war were so much in evidence1 and which so much surprised ,western nations1 were not1 as might have been thought1 the products of the new civilization1 but survivals of our ancient feudal chivalry0 7,fifty ,years of ,new ,japan 7#aiji71 vol4 i1 p4 #abd74 ,by no people has the ,red ,cross movement been taken up with greater enthusiasm than by the ,japanese4 #bae ,consult ,count ,okuma1 ,fifty ,years of ,new ,japan 7#aiji71 vol4 ii1 pp4 #eff f4 #baf 8,the obloquy attached to the calling brought within its pale such as cared little for social repute0 7,nitob1 ,bushido1 p4 #ff74 8,the trades-people10 writes ,chamberlain1 8stood at the very bottom of the scale4 ,the hucksters or traders were a degraded class in old ,japan1 and degraded their business morals remain1 which is the principal cause of the difficulties experienced by ,european merchants in dealing with them0 7,things ,japanese1 #dth ed41 p4 #ic74 #bag ,nitob1 ,bushido1 p4 #fg4 #bah ,the statement has obtained wide currency that all the banks in ,japan employ only ,chinese as cashiers because they cannot find honest ,japanese for these positions of trust4 ,chinese are sometimes employed in ,japanese banks1 but the true reason for their employment is not the one here assigned4 ,one well qualified to speak authoritatively on this subject says3 ,chinese bankers and cashiers are largely ,shansi men1 that is1 men from the province of ,shansi1 where the profession of banking has become hereditary in a large number of families4 ,they are all1 or nearly all1 members of the powerful organization known as the ,bankers' ,guild1 which has branches in every part of the ,empire4 ,the ,bankers' ,guild has discovered that it is practically impossible to conduct large financial operations without honesty2 and it therefore enforces honesty by means of a discipline that is as rigorous 444 as that of the ,new ,york ,stock ,exchange4444 ,if a ,chinese banker breaks faith1 violates a contract1 or betrays a trust1 he is expelled from his guild and the doors of banks are closed against him for all time4 ,in the first place1 therefore1 the ,chinese cashier is honest because honesty is a condition of his business existence4 ,he may not be honest in other respects1--often he is not1--but he is absolutely honest in the handling of money4 ,in the second place1 he is probably the most expert man living in the rapid calculation of exchanges4 ,the monetary system of his country is the most confused1 chaotic1 and complicated system in the world4 ,there are fifteen or twenty different kinds of taels1 no one of which bears a fixed relation to any other1 or to any established monetary standard4444 ,the necessity of dealing in some way with this great mass of unstable and fluctuating currency and of earning a subsistence from it has made the ,chinese cashier one of the most expert of living accountants4 ,he will solve difficult monetary problems by short cuts of mental arithmetic1 and he calculates exchanges to eight points of decimals4 ,in the third place1 the ,chinese cashier counts and manipulates bank bills and coins with extraordinary skill and accuracy4 ,i have had dealings with him in many parts of the ,far ,east1 but ,i cannot remember ever to have seen him count a sum of money twice1 and ,i have never caught him in an error4444 ,now1 when you get a man whose honesty is guaranteed by his guild1 whose manipulation of money is phenomenally dexterous1 and who can calculate exchanges to eight points of decimals1 you have an ideal cashier2 and if ,japanese bankers employ him1 it shows their good business sense rather than their distrust of their own people4 ,but all ,japanese bankers do not employ him4 ,in some of the largest banks in ,tokyo1 ,kioto1 and ,osaka there are no ,chinese at all--or at least ,i have never seen any4 ,this explanation would not be worth1 perhaps1 the space that ,i have given to it1 if the story of the ,chinese cashier had not been so widely circulated1 and if it were not typical of a whole class of cases in which the ,japanese are misjudged on the basis of a single incident or a solitary fact4--,,george ,,kennan1 8,are the ,japanese ,honest80 the ,new ,york ,outlook for ,august #ca1 #aiab4 #bai 8,if the descendants of the samurai can erect a standard of commercial integrity at all comparable to their fine record for courage and loyalty1 we shall be their debtors1 not they ours40--,the ,new ,york ,nation for ,july #cj1 #aijh1 p4 #ij4 #bbj ,baron ,kikuchi1 in ,sadler1 ,moral ,instruction and ,training in ,schools 7#aijh71 vol4 ii1 p4 #cdc4 #bba ,baron ,kikuchi1 in ,sadler1 ,moral ,instruction and ,training in ,schools 7#aijh71 vol4 ii1 p4 #cca4 #bbb ,ibid4 vol4 ii1 p4 #cai4 #bbc ,ibid4 vol4 ii1 p4 #bcj4 #bbd 8,i certainly consider that the courage and devotion of the ,japanese soldiers during the late war was to a great extent the result of this systematic moral instruction and training in schools40--,,baron ,,kikuchi1 in ,sadler1 ,moral ,instruction and ,training in ,schools 7#aijh71 vol4 ii1 p4 #cdd4 #bbe ,wedgwood 7,the ,moral ,ideal1 #c;d ed41 p4 #bb7 suggestively likens the reduction to unity of the various gods of polytheism to the correlation of the physical forces--light1 heat1 electricity1 and magnetism4 ,just as all these are found to be merely different manifestations of a single force or energy1 so are all the deified phenomena of nature at last discovered to be but different manifestations of a single primal power--the ,one1 the ,supreme1 the ,eternal4 ,this correlation of the gods1 this reduction of polytheism to monotheism1 holds the same place in the records of the religious and moral evolution of the race that the correlation of the physical forces holds in the records of the progress of science4 #bbf ,there may be some philosophers and scientists who profess materialism1 and who make an infinite and eternal unconscious energy the primal cause of all things4 ,but this is a philosophy of the universe which has never secured a wide acceptance in the ,west4 #bbg ,oldenberg1 ,buddha 7#ahhb71 p4 #ei4 #bbh ,hopkins1 ,the ,religions of ,india 7#ahie71 p4 #cef4 #bbi ,this was the work of the ,brahmans1 who1 to secure the ascendancy of their own class1 falsified and misinterpreted the sacred books4 #bcj ,laws of ,manu 7,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 xxv71 i4 #ca1 #hg4 #bca ,cf4 ,hearn1 ,kokora1 chap4 xii4 #bcb ,laws of ,manu1 vi4 #fc4 #bcc ,ibid4 xii4 #i1 #ec-eh4 ,the germs out of which this system was developed by the ,brahmans formed a part of the animistic conception of the world held by the conquered natives4 ,by the sixth century ,b4,c4 the system had been fully elaborated4 ,see ,rhys ,davids1 ,hibbert ,lectures 7#ahha71 pp4 #af f4 #bcd ,the theory was also undoubtedly in part the creation of the same ethical necessity that called into existence the purgatory of the medieval ,church4 ,the reincarnations have for aim and purpose not merely retribution1 but expiation and purification4 #bce ,the reader of ,edward ,beecher's ,the ,conflict of ,ages1 wherein the author attempts to explain the inequalities of earthly life by the theory of prexistence1 will be able to appreciate this effort of ,indian philosophers to solve the same problem4 #bcf ,indian pessimism is doubtless to be attributed in part to the hot1 depressing climate1 but more largely to the burdensome caste system and an oppressive government1 which made free and joyous life impossible to the masses1 shutting them up1 without hope1 to an existence of ache and pain and wretchedness4 8,politics and society1 in our opinion10 says ,dr4 ,hopkins1 8had more to do with altering the religion of ,india than had a higher temperature and miasma0 7,the ,religions of ,india 7#ahie71 p4 #aii74 ,but cf4 ,bloomfield1 ,the ,religion of the ,veda 7#aijh71 pp4 #bfc ff4 #bcg ,hopkins1 ,the ,religions of ,india 7#ahie71 p4 #adi4 #bch ,ibid4 p4 #ahg4 #bci ,this ,brahmanic notion of sacrifice1 that the gods need food1 is the underlying notion in all religions of which sacrifices form a part4 8,that the purpose of sacrifice was simply to feed the gods was admitted on all sides in the controversy which accompanied the diffusion of ,christianity in the ancient world4444 ,the altar1 in the words of ,dean ,spenser1 was merely the table on which food and drink were set before the languishing deity0 7,payne1 ,history of the ,new ,world called ,america 7#ahib71 vol4 i1 pp4 xi f474 8,it is on precisely the same principle that the ,mexicans kept their great war-gods 444 alive and vigorous by the blood of young human victims selected from their tributaries1 and the ,peruvians maintained the ,creator1 ,sun1 ,moon1 and ,thunder1 on whose favor their crops depended1 in youth and vigor by the continual smoke of burnt llamas0 7,ibid4 vol4 i1 p4 #dhd74 ,consult also ,frazer1 ,adonis1 ,attis1 and ,osiris4 ,all these were divinities of vegetation1 which were believed to die and to come to life again1 as with the revolution of the seasons vegetation died and was renewed4 ,along with this belief went the notion that by magical ceremonies the worshipers of the gods could aid them in recovering their wasted energies4 #bdj ,laws of ,manu1 i4 #hh-ia4 #bda ,ibid4 i4 #ic4 #bdb ,ibid4 ii4 #cb1 #ce4 #bdc ,the ,gentoo ,code 7#aggf71 xvi4 #a4 #bdd ,laws of ,manu1 iv4 #hj1 #ha4 #bde ,ibid4 viii4 #cgi4 #bdf ,ibid4 viii4 #chj4 #bdg ,ibid4 viii4 #cha4 #bdh ,ibid4 iv4 #adg4 #bdi ,laws of ,manu1 xi4 #bdg4 #bej ,ibid4 iv4 #adh4 #bea ,even the sudra is not shut out from this hope4 ,if he be pure1 the faithful servant of his betters1 gentle in his speech and free from pride1 he will at death be reborn into a higher caste 7,laws of ,manu1 ix4 #cce74 #beb ,laws of ,manu1 xi4 #fj1 #fi1 #ga1 #gb1 #acb-ach1 #adj-adb1 #add4 ,especially severe is the penance imposed for killing a cow4 ,see ,ibid4 xi4 #aji-aag4 #bec ,ibid4 vi4 #fh4 #bed ,ibid4 vi4 #fi4 #bee ,it is better1 however1 to abstain wholly from the use of meat1 since this can be obtained only through pain to sentient beings 7,laws of ,manu1 v4 #dh74 ,there is no sin in eating meat1 8but abstention brings great rewards0 7,ibid4 v4 #ef74 #bef ,laws of ,manu1 v4 #dj4 #beg ,ibid4 v4 #de4 #beh ,ibid4 vii4 #aja4 #bei ,ibid4 vii4 #ajc4 #bfj ,laws of ,manu1 vii4 #ij-ic1 #ajd4 #bfa ,ibid4 viii4 #hd4 #bfb ,ibid4 v4 #ajf4 #bfc ,ibid4 xi4 #bca4 #bfd ,ibid4 vi4 #dh4 #bfe ,ibid4 viii4 #cab4 #bff ,laws of ,manu1 viii4 #cac4 #bfg ,gautama or ,buddha1 8,the ,enlightened10 the founder of ,buddhism1 died about ,b4,c4 #dhj4 ,long before he began his teachings moral reform was in the air in ,india4 ,many reforming sects came into existence4 ,the most important of these was the sect of the ,jains4 ,the central teaching of ,jainism is the sacredness of all life1 and its first and chief commandment1 ,do no harm to any living thing4 ,its spirit of universal benevolence left a deep impress not only upon ,buddhism but also upon later ,hinduism4 #bfh ,dhammapada 7,sacred ,books of the ,east1 #b;d ed41 vol4 x71 xiv4 #aij1 #aia4 ,cf4 ,oldenberg1 ,buddha 7#ahhb71 p4 #bji4 #bfi ,oldenberg1 ,buddha1 p4 #bhf4 #bgj ,cf4 ,rhys ,davids1 ,hibbert ,lectures 7#ahha71 p4 #ba2 ,hopkins1 ,the ,religions of ,india 7#ahie71 pp4 #caf f4 #bga ,oldenberg1 ,buddha 7#ahhb71 p4 #bbj4 #bgb ,dhammapada1 xx4 #bhc4 ,this doctrine that peace and contentment of mind come through suppression of desire was also the teaching of the ,greek ,cynics4 #bgc 8,no sentient being can tell in what state the karma that he possesses will appoint his next birth1 though he may be now1 and continue to be until death1 one of the most meritorious of men4 ,in that karma may be the crime of murder1 committed many ages ago1 but not yet expiated2 and in the next existence its punishment may have to be endured4 ,there will ultimately be a reward for that which is good1 but it may be long delayed4 ,it acts like an hereditary disease40--,,hardy1 ,manual of ,buddhism 7#ahhj71 p4 #daa4 #bgd 8,the difficulties attendant upon this peculiar dogma karma may be seen in the fact that it is almost universally repudiated4444 ,in historical composition1 in narrative1 and in conversation1 the common idea of transmigration is continually presented0 7,hardy1 ,manual of ,buddhism 7#ahhj71 p4 #dab74 ,by #bej ,b4,c4 8in the ,north and also in the ,south the old heresy of the soul-theory had crept back by side issue into the doctrine from which it had been categorically and explicitly excluded by ,gautama and his earlier followers0 7,rhys ,davids1 ,buddhism 7#ahif71 p4 #aih74 #bge ,hibbert ,lectures 7#ahha71 pp4 #ca1 #bjf4 ,cf4 ,hopkins1 ,the ,religions of ,india 7#ahie71 p4 #cba4 #bgf ,but this1 as we have just seen1 is not the ,buddhism of the ,buddhist world in general4 ,the masses in ,buddhist lands have never accepted the doctrine of ,nirvana in the sense of extinction of existence4 ,the following conversation between ,moncure ,conway and a ,singhalese priest discloses the meaning of the term to an orthodox ,buddhist of ,ceylon3 8,i asked1 #8,have those who are in ,nirvana any consciousness8' ,i was then informed that there is no ,singhalese word for consciousness4 ,sumangala said1 #8,to reach ,nirvana is to be no more4' ,i pointed to a stone step and said1 #8,one is there only as that stone is here8' #8,not so much1' answered the priest2 #8for the stone is actually here1 but in ,nirvana there is no existence at all'0 7,my ,pilgrimage to the ,wise ,men of the ,east 7#aijf71 p4 #acd74 #bgg ,these eight requirements are often condensed into four1 and then the formula is called the fourfold path to deliverance4 #bgh ,cf4 ,oldenberg1 ,buddha 7#ahhb71 p4 #baa2 ,hopkins1 ,the ,religions of ,india 7#ahie71 p4 #cje4 #bgi ,there is in this teaching respecting desirelessness an apparent inconsistency1 for with all other desires suppressed1 there remains the desire for ,nirvana4 ,but the difficulty here is only apparent4 ,a ,buddhist priest1 questioned respecting this1 replied as follows3 8,the desire for ,nirvana escapes from the mesh that entangles all other desires1 because it is not desire for any object at all0 7,conway1 ,my ,pilgrimage to the ,wise ,men of the ,east 7#aijf71 p4 #acd74 ,but all other desires aside from this desire for ,nirvana are in a sense sins of covetousness4 ,and this is the cardinal sin in the view of the true ,buddhist1 for covetousness 8is a strong desire for something1 and all desire is a hindrance in one's way to ,nirvana40 #bhj ,this teaching that mental illumination comes through contemplation is the doctrine in general of the religious and moral teachers of the ,east1 and of all mystics4 ,it differs fundamentally from the scientific view1 which makes observation and study the means of enlightenment4 #bha ,buddhism limits transmigration to the animal creation2 ,brahmanism1 it will be recalled1 supposes the soul to transmigrate into vegetable as well as into animal forms4 #bhb 8,to be a true ,buddhist1 one must renounce1 as lust1 all desire of evil1 which brings evil2 and must live without other hope than that of extinguishing all desire and passion1 believing that in so doing he will at death be annihilated40--,,hopkins1 ,the ,religions of ,india 7#ahie71 p4 #efd4 #bhc ,dhammapada1 vii4 #ij-ii4 #bhd ,but--and differing in this from ,dr4 ,hopkins--,professor ,rhys ,davids makes this perfection which results in annihilation to consist not in the extinction of every desire1 but only of craving desire and evil passions4 #bhe ,the ,religions of ,india 7#ahie71 p4 #cbb4 #bhf ,hopkins1 ,the ,religions of ,india 7#ahie71 p4 #cag4 ,stoicism indeed approaches ,buddhism in this respect2 but its attitude toward the doctrine of a future life was in general merely agnostic--it made no positive denial of immortality4 #bhg ,cf4 ,rhys ,davids1 ,hibbert ,lectures 7#ahha71 p4 #abc4 #bhh ,zeller represents ,pythagoreanism as springing from an effort to give an ethical content to life4 8,we may consider it proved10 he says1 8that the school of ,pythagoras1 believing in the almighty favor of the gods1 and in future retribution1 enforced purity of life1 moderation and justice1 minute self-examination and discretion in all actions1 and especially discouraged self-conceit0 7,history of ,philosophy 7#ahha71 vol4 i1 p4 #dif74 ,oldenberg 7,ancient ,india 7#ahif71 p4 #hg7 conceives ,pythagoreanism--together with the ,orphic worship--as 8a bit of ,buddhism in the midst of ,greek civilization40 #bhi ,gautama's attitude toward ascetic practices is shown by the following3 8,not nakedness1 not platted hair1 not dirt1 not fasting1 or lying on the earth1 not rubbing with dust1 not sitting motionless1 can purify a mortal who has not overcome desires0 7,dhammapada1 x4 #ada74 #bij ,oldenberg1 ,buddha 7#ahhb71 p4 #cff4 #bia ,this is well illustrated in the following incident related by ,moncure ,conway4 ,in the island of ,ceylon he was visited by an aged ,buddhist priest1 who came in a sedan borne by men4 ,asked why he did not use a carriage drawn by horses1 the priest replied that 8he was afraid a horse might be vitally injured by carrying him40 8,but10 said ,mr4 ,conway1 8might it not be the same with one of those men while he is carrying you80 ,after a moment's silence the priest answered1 8,but a man can tell me if he is suffering0 7,my ,pilgrimage to the ,wise ,men of the ,east 7#aijf71 pp4 #aaf f474 #bib ,thousands of rats were formerly kept at public expense in a hospital at the ,indian town of ,kutel4 #bic ,toleration is not even recognized as a virtue in the moral codes of ancient ,judaism1 dogmatic ,christianity1 and ,islam4 #bid ,hibbert ,lectures 7#ahha71 p4 #bca4 #bie ,under ,asoka1 it is true1 ,buddhism1 like ,christianity under ,constantine the ,great1 became militant4 ,but ,asoka was a gentle warrior and made war gently4 ,he neither killed his prisoners nor tortured them1 a common practice with ,oriental conquerors1 nor did he sell them as slaves4 #bif 8,les paisibles sujets du ,grand-,lama thibetain ont cess d'aimer la guerre et presque de la faire0 7,letourneau1 ,la guerre dans les diverses races humaines 7#ahie71 p4 #bac74 #big ,edward ,a4 ,ross1 ,the ,changing ,chinese 7#aiaa71 p4 #bi4 #bih ,see above1 p4 #gi4 #bii ,mozoomdar1 a leader of the ,brahmo-,somaj4 #cjj ,buddhism1 like ,christianity1 teaches that hatred must be overcome by love3 8,let a man overcome anger by love1 let him overcome evil by good0 7,dhammapada1 xvii4 #bbc74 8,for hatred does not cease by hatred at any time2 hatred ceases by love1 this is an old rule0 7,ibid4 i4 #e74 #cja ,for the influence of ,buddhism on the ,japanese character1 see ,count ,okuma1 ,fifty ,years of ,new ,japan 7#aiji71 vol4 ii1 chap4 iv1 8,japanese ,religious ,beliefs3 ,buddhism40 #cjb ,laws1 tr4 ,jowett1 x4 #hif4 ,and the thought is near even in the latest philosophy3 8,but it feels like a real fight10 says ,professor ,william ,james1 8as if there were something really wild in the universe which we1 with all our idealities and faithfulness1 are needed to reform40 #cjc ,is4 xlv4 #g4 #cjd ,this dualistic world philosophy is regarded by some students of the ,zend-,avesta as being in the nature of a protest against 8the inert asceticism of ,buddhism and the ethical indifference of ,brahmanism0 7,darmesteter1 8,introduction10 ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 #b;d ed41 vol4 iv1 p4 lxviii74 ,ranke views it as the product of environment3 8,if we keep well in view the contrasts between the various districts and nations included within the limits of ,persia and her provinces1 the incessant struggle between the settled populations and the inhabitants of the steppes1 between the cultivated regions and the desolation of the desert1 thrust back1 indeed1 yet ever resuming its encroachments1 the ideas of the ,zend-,avesta will appear to us natural and1 as we may term it1 autochthonic0 7,universal ,history1 vol4 i 7#ahhe71 p4 #aje74 #cje ,the way in which such a conception acts upon the moral life is well illustrated in the history of ,english ,puritanism4 ,the ethical strenuousness of the ,puritan was the outcome of his deeply felt consciousness of the ineradicable antagonism between good and evil4 ,it is all brought vividly before us in ,bunyan's ,holy ,war1 in the struggle between ,immanuel and ,diabolus--of which the myth of ,ahura and ,ahriman was the prototype4 #cjf ,mihir ,yasht 7,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 xxiii71 vii4 #bf4 #cjg ,see ,jackson1 ,zoroaster1 the ,prophet of ,ancient ,iran4 #cjh ,see above1 p4 #aae4 #cji ,zoroastrian ethics1 as ,wedgwood says1 is best understood when viewed as a protest against the ,hindu conception of the universe and life4 8,the injunction to industry1 the elaborate provisions for agriculture1 the constant stimulus to exertion of every kind1 are most intelligible when we see in them a recoil from the faith which appeared to this active race the ,iranian a confusion of good and evil0 7,the ,moral ,ideal1 #c;d ed41 p4 #ei74 #caj ,venddd 7,sacred ,books of the ,east1 #b;d ed41 vol4 iv71 ,farg4 iv4 #dg4 #caa ,ibid4 ,farg4 iii4 #cc4 #cab ,ibid4 ,farg4 iv4 #di4 #cac 8,aryan morality came down from the heavens in a ray of light0 7,selected ,essays of ,james ,darmesteter1 ed4 ,morris ,jastrow1 p4 #cjd74 #cad ,venddd1 ,farg4 ii4 #bi4 #cae ,ibid4 ,farg4 iv4 #di 7bis7-#ee4 #caf ,mihir ,yasht1 i4 #b4 #cag ,ibid4 xxix4 #aaf1 #aag4 #cah ,the ,moral ,ideal1 #c;d ed41 pp4 #ga ff4 ,it is significant that the sacred standard of the early ,persians was the apron of a blacksmith4 #cai ,venddd1 ,farg4 iii4 #ca4 #cbj ,ibid4 ,farg4 iii4 #d4 #cba ,laws of ,manu1 x4 #hd4 #cbb ,venddd1 ,farg4 iii4 #ch1 #ci4 #cbc ,the king who reigned in ,persia at the time of ,nero1 going from ,asia to ,italy1 traveled by land along the shore instead of going by ship1 8because the ,magi are forbidden to defile the sea0 7,james ,darmesteter1 ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 iv1 p4 xl74 ,but the anxious observance by the ,persians of the requirements of the code is best disclosed in the disposition which they made of their dead4 ,since corpses could neither be burned nor buried nor thrown into the water without defiling a sacred element1 they were exposed on the summits of mountains or on the top of low towers 7dakhmas71 the so-called 8,towers of ,silence10 that the flesh might be eaten by birds of prey4 #cbd ,zend-,avesta1 pt4 ii1 ,yasht xxii 7,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 xxiii1 pp4 #cad ff474 #cbe ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 xxxi1 8,introduction10 p4 xx4 #cbf 8,their the servitors of ,mithra dualistic system was particularly adapted to fostering individual effort and to developing human energy40--,,cumont1 ,the ,mysteries of ,mithra 7#aijc71 p4 #ada4 #cbg ,herod4 i4 #aci4 ,we quote ,rawlinson's version4 #cbh ,herod4 i4 #acf4 #cbi ,rawlinson's ,herodotus1 vol4 i1 p4 #bad1 n4 #aj4 ,we omit the references4 #ccj ,cf4 ,herod4 ix4 #aji4 #cca ,rawlinson1 ,the ,five ,great ,monarchies 7#ahga71 vol4 iii1 p4 #agj4 ,the exception was the case of the ,barcans4 ,cf4 ,herod4 iv4 #bja4 #ccb ,the modern ,persians1 who have exchanged the truth-impelling creed of ,zoroaster for that of ,mohammed1 seem to have lost this ancestral virtue4 ,it is noteworthy1 however1 that the ,indian ,parsees1 the inheritors and preservers of the faith of ancient ,persia1 are noted for their uprightness and veracity4 #ccc 8,they the ,parsees form one of the most esteemed1 wealthy1 and philanthropic communities on the west coast of ,india1 notably in the city of ,bombay40--,,bloomfield1 ,the ,religion of the ,veda 7#aijh71 p4 #ae4 #ccd 8,the whole history of the religion of ,israel is a history of the development of the moral consciousness1 and consequently of the deepening and widening of the opposition between that which ought to be and that which is40--,,edward ,,caird1 ,the ,evolution of ,religion 7#ahid71 vol4 ii1 p4 #ib4 #cce ,it may be urged that the moral character given to ,yahweh was the creation of the moral consciousness of his worshipers2 but even so1 this conception of deity once formed would inevitably react upon the moral sense to deepen and purify the feelings that gave it birth4 #ccf ,geschichte des ,volkes ,israel 7#ahhi71 ,bd4 i1 ,s4 #dbi4 #ccg ,budde1 ,religion of ,israel to the ,exile 7#ahii71 pp4 #ce ff42 ,toy1 ,judaism and ,christianity 7#ahia71 p4 #cjg2 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,the ,religion of the ,semites 7#ahid71 pp4 #ge ff4 #cch ,w4 ,robertson ,smith urges that sacrifice among the ,hebrews had its origin in the sacramental communal idea4 ,according to this belief the clansmen and their god are of the same stock1 and the bond of kinship is renewed and strengthened through the human and the divine members of the community partaking together of the flesh and blood of an animal slain4 #cci ,job iii4 #ai4 #cdj ,eccl4 ix4 #e2 and so ix4 #aj3 8,for there is no work1 nor desire1 nor knowledge1 nor wisdom in ,sheol1 whither thou goeth40 #cda ,is4 xxxviii4 #ah4 #cdb ,see below1 pp4 #afe f4 #cdc ,cf4 ,chapter ,,ii4 #cdd ,the oldest form of the ,decalogue is found in ,ex4 xxxiv2 cf4 ,ex4 xxxiii4 #cde ,if we compare the morality of this ,hebrew ,decalogue with that of the ,egyptian ,negative ,confession1 we shall find it to belong to about the same stage of ethical development4 #cdf ,in the ,book of ,judges are preserved some traditions which are illustrative of the moral state of society at this time2 for though all the details of these stories may not be historical1 still they doubtless reflect the general condition of things during this period4 ,there is a striking similarity between these traditions of gross and incredible crimes and the traditions of the atrocious immoralities of the ,merovingian ,age in ,european history4 #cdg ,the kingdom of ,israel was destroyed by the ,assyrian power #gbb ,b4,c42 the kingdom of ,judah fell before ,nebuchadnezzar1 king of ,babylon1 #ehf ,b4,c4 #cdh ,cf4 ,kuenen1 ,the ,prophets and ,prophecy in ,israel4 #cdi ,the ,prophets and ,prophecy in ,israel 7#ahgg71 p4 #cdd4 #cej ,cf4 #a ,kings xxi--the story of ,naboth's vineyard4 #cea 8,the life-work of ,elijah was a turning-point in the history of the religion of ,israel1 similar in its consequences to those which followed the appearance of ,zarathustra in ,iran4444 ,it was the ethical idea of ,god matured in the soul of the prophet by the need of his time which broke through with irresistible power to the demand for a final choice between ,jehovah1 the holy ,god1 and the unholy nature gods of the heathen40--,,pfleiderer1 ,religions and ,historic ,faiths 7#aijg71 pp4 #bbe f4 #ceb ,history of the ,people of ,israel 7#ahib71 vol4 ii1 p4 #bge4 #cec ,calamities were at this time befalling ,israel4 8,the national distress served to awaken ,israel's conscience4 ,the obligation covenanted at ,sinai knocked again at the door of their hearts0 7,budde1 ,religion of ,israel to the ,exile 7#ahii71 p4 #ic74 #ced ,amos iii4 #aj4 #cee ,ibid4 v4 #aa1 #ab4 #cef ,ibid4 viii4 #e1 #f4 #ceg ,ibid4 v4 #ba4 #ceh ,ibid4 v4 #bb4 #cei ,ibid4 v4 #bd4 #cfj ,hosea vi4 #f4 #cfa ,to ,amos and ,hosea1 ,yahweh is simply the supreme god1 the suzerain of all other gods4 #cfb ,is4 ii4 #c1 #d2 cf4 ,micah iv4 #a-c4 ,see ,driver1 ,introduction to the ,literature of the ,old ,testament 7#ahig71 p4 #bbi1 for the opinion of different commentators on the possible exilic or postexilic date of these passages4 #cfc ,is4 i4 #aa-ag4 #cfd ,micah vi4 #f-h4 #cfe ,wellhausen1 ,prolegomena to the ,history of ,israel 7#ahhe71 p4 #dad4 #cff ,this festival was probably of ,babylonian origin4 ,it was associated with astronomical phenomena--with the seven planets of ancient astronomy and with the phases of the moon4 #cfg ,the feast of ,purim is another transformed festival2 8,babylonian in origin1 it was given a ,jewish dress and became incorporated into the system of ,jewish observances0 7,david ,philipson1 ,the ,reform ,movement in ,judaism 7#aijg71 p4 #c74 #cfh ,thus the festival of ,dionysus1 which 8in its origin was a mere burst of primitive animal spirits1 is transmuted into a complex and beautiful work of art0 7,dickinson1 ,the ,greek ,view of ,life1 p4 #ad74 #cfi ,deut4 vi4 #ad4 #cgj ,montefiori1 ,lectures on the ,origin and ,growth of ,religion 7#ahib71 p4 #aig4 #cga ,prolegomena to the ,history of ,israel 7#ahhe71 p4 #djb4 ,renan speaks of ,deuteronomy in the same strain3 8,this ,thora was the worst enemy of the universal religion which the prophets of the eighth century had in their dreams0 7,history of the ,people of ,israel 7#ahia71 vol4 iii1 p4 #age74 #cgb ,cf4 ,chapter ,,xvi4 ,the persecutions of the medieval ,church were largely the outcome of this legislation which made the extermination of ,god's enemies1 that is1 idolators and misbelievers1 a pious duty4 8,the terrible ,directorium ,inquisitorum of ,nicholas ,eymeric follows ,deuteronomy word for word0 7,renan1 ,history of the people of ,israel 7#ahia71 vol4 iii1 p4 #agi74 #cgc ,deut4 xx4 #af4 #cgd ,ibid4 vii4 #b4 #cge ,jewish ,religious ,life after the ,exile 7#ahih71 p4 #de4 ,the teachings of this same intolerant monolatry has1 down to the present day1 exerted a retarding influence upon the development of international morality1 especially upon the war ethics of the ,christian nations4 #cgf ,we meet with the same phenomenon in medieval times4 ,the ,christian ,church1 which was so harsh in its dealings with misbelievers1 was a tender mother toward the poor and the afflicted of the faith4 #cgg ,the origin of these cities may date from a much earlier time than the reform under ,king ,josiah4 ,the code may simply register changes already effected in the customary law4 ,see ,nathaniel ,schmidt1 ,the ,prophet of ,nazareth 7#aije71 p4 #fa4 #cgh ,deut4 iv4 #da1 #db2 xix4 #a-ac4 #cgi ,deut4 xv4 #g1 #h4 #chj ,ibid4 xxiv4 #f4 #cha ,ibid4 xxiv4 #ab1 #ac4 #chb ,ibid4 xxiv4 #ag4 #chc ,ibid4 xxiv4 #ad1 #ae4 #chd ,ibid4 xxiii4 #ai1 #bj4 ,cf4 ,maspero1 ,the ,dawn of ,civilization1 p4 #gfj4 ,the poor in these early times were1 in all the lands advancing in civilization1 literally devoured by the money lenders4 #che ,deut4 xxiv4 #ai4 #chf ,ruth ii4 #d-ag4 #chg ,deut4 v4 #ad1 #ae4 #chh ,ibid4 xv4 #ab4 #chi ,ibid4 xv4 #ac1 #ad4 #cij ,all these regulations respecting slaves1 however1 lack universalism4 ,it is compassion for the slave not as a man1 but as a ,hebrew1 that moves the legislator4 ,the laws are in general for the benefit of ,hebrew slaves alone4 ,gentiles or foreigners are not included in these humane provisions4 ,see ,lev4 xxv and ,ex4 xxi4 #b4 #cia ,see ,is4 xl-lxvi4 #cib 8,deutero-,isaiah was the first to emphasize and make use of this plenary and unconditional monotheism40--,,montefiori1 ,lectures on the ,origin and ,growth of ,religion 7#ahib71 p4 #bfi4 #cic ,is4 xliii4 #aj4 #cid ,ibid4 xliv4 #f4 #cie ,ibid4 xliv4 #bd4 #cif ,ibid4 xlv4 #e4 #cig ,ibid4 xlvi4 #i4 #cih ,there is a repetition of this in the ,koran1 where the ,prophet of ,arabia speaks as one to whom the idea of the unity of deity had come as a new thought4 #cii ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,the ,religion of the ,semites 7#ahid71 p4 #ha4 #djj ,see above1 pp4 #ah-bj4 #dja 8,i the ,lord thy ,god am a jealous ,god1 visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth generation of them that hate me40--,deut4 v4 #i4 #djb ,ezek4 xviii4 #b4 #djc ,ibid4 xviii4 #c4 #djd ,ezek4 xviii4 #bj4 ,the entire chapter is devoted to this single subject4 ,this truer view had dawned upon the compilers of the ,deuteronomic code4 ,cf4 ,deut4 xxiv4 #af and ,jer4 xxxi4 #bi1 #cj4 #dje ,see below1 p4 #cfd4 #djf ,see lii4 #ac-liii4 #ab4 #djg ,cf4 ,bennett1 ,the ,religion of the ,post-,exilic ,prophets 7#aijg71 pp4 #cbf ff4 #djh ,in the year #eci ,b4,c4 ,cyrus1 king of ,persia1 having captured ,babylon1 issued a decree giving the ,jewish exiles in ,babylonia permission to return to their own land and to rebuild the ,temple destroyed fifty years before by ,nebuchadnezzar4 ,a band returned and set themselves to the task of restoring their houses and rebuilding the ,temple4 ,after many interruptions and long delay the building was finished and dedicated anew to the worship of ,yahweh 7#eaf ,b4,c474 #dji 8,the growth of ,judaism and the ,judaic veneration for the law1 after ,ezra's reformation1 shows some marked resemblances to the growth in post-,reformation ,protestant theology of the legal conception of salvation1 and particularly the tendency to formalize and almost to deify the literal inspiration and authority of the ,scriptures40--,,newman ,,smyth1 ,christian ,ethics 7#ahib71 p4 #ie4 #daj ,for life under the law consult ,schrer1 ,history of the ,jewish ,people1 division ii1 vol4 ii1 pp4 #ij ff4 #daa ,matt4 xxiii4 #bc4 #dab ,ibid4 xv4 #aa1 #bj4 8,the identification of morality with ritual in his ,jesus' day had confused the issue before human life much as that issue is now confused by the identification of morality with opinion0 7,hall1 ,history of ,ethics within ,organized ,christianity 7#aiaj71 p4 #fb74 #dac ,ps4 cxxxvii4 #i2 see ,ps4 cix4 #dad ,on this subject see ,toy1 ,judaism and ,christianity 7#ahia71 pp4 #bdf ff4 #dae 8,the people had learned to draw nigh to ,god without the aid of sacrifice40--,w4 ,,robertson ,,smith1 ,the ,religion of the ,semites 7#ahid71 p4 #bae4 #daf ,cf4 ,mark i4 #ba2 vi4 #b4 #dag ,renan1 ,history of the ,people of ,israel 7#ahie71 vol4 iv1 p4 #aie4 #dah ,consult on this subject ,charles1 ,a ,critical ,history of the ,doctrine of a ,future ,life 7#ahih-ahii74 #dai ,see above1 pp4 #aci f4 #dbj ,see ,cheyne1 ,jewish ,religious ,life after the ,exile 7#ahih71 p4 #bbi2 and ,toy1 ,judaism and ,christianity 7#ahia71 pp4 #cgh1 #chf4 #dba ,ps4 xvi4 #aj1 ,rev4 ,ver4 #dbb 8,i know without me ,god cannot a moment live2 ,if ,i to death should go1 ,he1 too1 would death receive40 ,quoted by ,,blow1 ,a ,study of ,dante 7#ahhg71 p4 #ajb4 #dbc ,cf4 above1 p4 #dd2 see also ,toy1 ,judaism and ,christianity 7#ahia71 p4 #chg2 ,hall1 ,history of ,ethics within ,organized ,christianity 7#aiaj71 p4 #baf4 #dbd ,the ,pharisees2 cf4 ,acts xxiii4 #f-h4 #dbe ,we see a repetition of all this in what is going on to-day among the ,jews in the great cities of the ,new ,world4 ,liberal ,judaism is largely the outcome of just such influences as brought forth ,christianity out of the narrow ritual ,judaism of the ,alexandrian ,age4 ,see ,david ,philipson1 ,the ,reform ,movement in ,judaism 7#aijg71 chap4 xii4 #dbf 8,those psalms into which a sense of something like the brotherhood of nations begins to penetrate are for various reasons later than #chb ,b4,c4444 ,not till the coming of the ,macedonian reconciler of ,east and ,west could there be a presentiment of the truth of the divine education1 not only of ,israel1 but of the human race40--,,cheyne1 ,jewish ,religious ,life after the ,exile 7#ahih71 pp4 #acd f4 #dbg ,to ,hillel is credited the maxim1 8,what thou wouldst not have another do to thee1 do not thou to another40 #dbh ,the teaching of the ,orphic sects that there are two elements1 one good and another bad1 in man's nature1 was an esoteric doctrine which had no influence on the popular mind and conscience4 ,cf4 ,g4 ,lowes ,dickinson1 ,the ,greek ,view of ,life1 #fth ed41 pp4 #ca f4 #dbi ,there are1 it is true1 gods of the lower world unfriendly to man1 but there is nothing in the ,greek world-view corresponding to the ,egyptian conception of the struggle between the good ,osiris and the wicked ,set1 or of the ,persian idea of the conflict between the beneficent ,ahura ,mazda and the evil-working ,ahriman4 ,nor was there anything in this view like the ,babylonian or ,persian notion of malicious spirits4 #dcj ,the ,dionysian cult fostered art1 but not directly morality4 ,in so far as the ,attic drama was an elevating moral influence1 the cult may be said to have indirectly promoted morals4 ,but the foreign orgiastic god had to be thoroughly converted before he could strengthen others4 #dca ,the pre-,hellenic ,oriental cult of ,aphrodite had undoubtedly an unfavorable influence on morality4 8,some part of this evil character was transplanted into ,greek legend1 but very little into ,greek worship4444 ,what we know is that until the declining period of ,greek history the cult of ,aphrodite1 so far as it appears in written or monumental record1 was as pure and austere as that of ,zeus and ,athena0 7,farnell1 ,the ,cults of the ,greek ,states 7#ahif71 vol4 ii1 pp4 #feg1 #ffc74 #dcb ,cf4 ,schmidt1 ,die ,ethik der alten ,griechen 7#ahhb71 ,bd4 i1 ,s4 #afe4 #dcc ,farnell1 ,the ,cults of the ,greek ,states 7#ahif71 vol4 i1 p4 #gd1 quoting ,charondas1 the ,sicilian legislator4 #dcd ,farnell1 ,the ,cults of the ,greek ,states 7#ahif71 vol4 iv1 pp4 #agg ff4 #dce ,hatch1 ,the ,influence of ,greek ,ideas and ,usages upon the ,christian ,church1 #b;d ed41 p4 #bib4 #dcf ,history of ,greece 7#aijj71 pp4 #cbj f4 #dcg ,thucyd4 i4 #gj4 #dch ,for an illuminating comparison of the ,greek virtues of fortitude and temperance with the corresponding ,christian virtues1 see ,t4 ,h4 ,green1 ,prolegomena to ,ethics1 #eth ed41 pp4 #cjd ff4 #dci ,ethics1 iii4 #aj4 #ddj 8,but let each man know10 says ,plato1 8how to choose the mean and avoid the extremes on either side1 as far as in him lies1 not only in this life but in all that which is to come4 ,for this is the way of happiness0 7,republic1 tr4 ,jowett1 x4 #fai74 #dda ,socrates1 it is true1 taught that it is better to suffer wrong than to do wrong1 but he was here far in advance of the common ,greek conscience4 #ddb ,quoted by ,taylor1 ,ancient ,ideals 7#ahif71 vol4 i1 p4 #bdg4 #ddc ,christian ,ethics 7#ahgc71 vol4 i1 p4 #fc4 #ddd ,the ,greek ,view of ,life 7#aiji71 p4 #bje4 #dde ,if we contrast the ,greek conception of man's nature with that of certain systems of ,christian theology1 we shall better understand the ethical value of such ideas and beliefs4 ,on the occasion of a college commencement one of the speakers1 a stout upholder of the doctrines of the fall of man1 original sin1 and the utter depravity of the natural man1 roundly denounced this injunction of ,pindar's4 ,he said to the young people who had chosen as their class motto1 8,be what you are10 that that was just what they ought not to be4 ,he then went on to show them that their nature was wholly corrupt1 that all their natural inclinations were toward evil continually1 and that if they ever hoped for salvation they must become what they were not4 #ddf 8,aristotle may be almost said to have made the difference between ,greek and barbarian the basis of his moral code40--,,lecky1 ,history of ,european ,morals1 #c;d ed41 vol4 i1 p4 #bjj4 #ddg ,politics1 i4 #g1 sec4 #e2 #h1 sec4 #ab2 vii4 #ad1 sec4 #ba4 #ddh ,for the ethics of ,greek slavery consult ,schmidt1 ,die ,ethik der alten ,griechen 7#ahhb71 ,bd4 ii1 ,s4 #bjc-bai4 #ddi ,thebes1 but not from moral scruples seemingly1 prohibited under the penalty of death the destruction of healthy infants4 #dej ,the reader of ,plato will recall how ,socrates uses this practice of the exposition of infants to illustrate his art of bringing to birth true and false ideas 78lies and shadows07 in the minds of his pupils1 and exposing to die those that are vain shadows4 ,see his ,dialogues1 tr4 ,jowett1 vol4 iii1 pp4 #cej f4 #dea ,the practice of the exposition of female infants in the ,hellenistic ,age1 when luxury increased and children became a burden1 seems to have been more common than in earlier times4 #deb ,mahaffy1 ,social ,life in ,greece 7#ahhh71 p4 #abj4 #dec ,politics1 vi4 #d1 sec4 #ab4 ,this contempt for tradesmen and laborers1 generally speaking1 continued through all periods of ,greek history4 ,in some states1 however1 particularly in ,athens1 it underwent modification4 8,the later ,athenians began to consider trade an honorable road to riches1 and aristocrats like ,nicias were known as careful trade masters40 ,in ,rhodes1 also1 trade became honorable4 #ded ,paulsen1 ,system of ,ethics1 tr4 ,thilly1 p4 #fb n4 #dee ,laws1 tr4 ,jowett1 xi4 #iai4 #def ,they were charged with adulteration of foods1 cheating in measure1 etc4 ,demosthenes declares that a man honest in commercial transactions was a prodigy4 ,cf4 ,mahaffy1 ,social ,life in ,greece 7#ahhh71 p4 #dai4 #deg ,see above1 p4 #hi4 #deh ,this ethical feeling is to be reckoned with in dealing with ,asiatics--until there is a change in their ideal of manliness4 ,the overlooking of an injury is apt to be regarded by them as an indication of weakness and cowardice4 #dei ,schmidt1 ,die ,ethik der alten ,griechen 7#ahhb71 ,bd4 ii1 ,s4 #cab4 #dfj ,herod4 vi4 #bd4 ,the ,delphian oracle tried to cure this defect in the national character4 ,see the story of ,glaucus1 ,herod4 vi4 #hf4 #dfa ,die ,ethik der alten ,griechen 7#ahhb71 ,bd4 ii1 ,s4 #dac4 #dfb ,ethics1 tr4 ,welldon1 i4 #d4 #dfc ,ethics3 the ,facts of the ,moral ,life 7#aijh71 p4 #ie4 #dfd ,od4 xix4 #cif-cih4 #dfe ,thucyd4 i4 #e4 #dff ,il4 xxii4 #dhe-dii4 #dfg ,see ,xen4 ,mem4 ii4 #a1 #ba1 for the parable1 by the ,sophist ,prodicus1 of the choice of ,heracles at the parting of the ways4 #dfh ,the ,republic1 iii4 #chf-cib4 #dfi ,see above1 p4 #ce4 #dgj 8,the blessed islands of the ,west were indeed even then in the ,homeric ,age a home for the dead1 but they had not yet been opened to moral worth1 as in the days of ,pindar40--,,mahaffy1 ,social ,life in ,greece 7#ahhh71 p4 #bf4 #dga ,see ,zeller1 ,history of ,philosophy 7#ahha71 vol4 i1 p4 #abe1 and ,schmidt1 ,die ,ethik der alten ,griechen 7#ahhb71 ,bd4 i1 ,s4 #ii4 8,strictly speaking10 says ,professor ,seymour1 8,homer knows of no instance of rewards1 and of only one case of punishment after death0 7,life in the ,homeric ,age 7#aijh71 p4 #dfi74 #dgb ,for the ,greek view of the underworld1 and the incoming of the idea of rewards and punishments in the after life1 see ,schmidt1 ,die ,ethik der alten ,griechen 7#ahhb71 ,bd4 i1 ,s4 #ig ff41 and ,rhode1 ,psyche3 ,seelencult und ,unsterblichkeits ,glaube der ,griechen1 #dte ,auflage1 ,bd4 i1 ,s4 #cja-cai4 #dgc ,this moralization of ,hades is carried still further by ,vergil4 ,it is instructive to compare his vision of ,hades with ,homer's4 #dgd ,republic1 x4 #fad-faf2 see also ,gorgias1 #ebc-ebg4 #dge ,herod4 i4 #cj-cb4 ,but ,nemesis appears later in the story1 and ,crsus is represented as being punished for the crime of an ancestor4 #dgf ,ibid4 vii4 #aj4 ,the views which the historian here attributes to the ,persian ,artabanus were of course a reflection of ,greek belief4 ,for further instances in ,greek literature of the conception of the envy of the gods1 consult ,schmidt1 ,die ,ethik der alten ,griechen 7#ahhb71 ,bd4 i1 ,s4 #gh-hd4 #dgg ,thucyd4 vii4 #gg4 #dgh ,pericles 7#ahij71 p4 #cab4 #dgi 8,the very event the ,persian war which determined the sudden splendor of the drama gave a sublime and terrific sanction to the already existing morality40--,,symonds1 ,studies of the ,greek ,poets 7#ahhj71 vol4 ii1 p4 #ag4 #dhj ,farnell1 ,the ,cults of the ,greek ,states 7#ahif71 vol4 i1 p4 #abi4 ,after the tale had been moralized by schylus1 ,phidias carved the story on the great ,zeus throne at ,olympia1 using it to give emphasis to the conception of the god as the guardian of the moral order of the world4 #dha ,thucyd4 v4 #hd-aaf4 #dhb ,the attitude of the later philosophers toward the notion that the gods are envious is fairly represented by ,plato's protest3 8,he the ,creator is good1 and no goodness can have any jealousy of anything0 7,timus1 tr4 ,jowett1 #bi74 #dhc 8,the dispensation which takes the aspect of divine envy to mortals might1 it seems1 from a higher point of view1 be discerned as the very opposite2 human vicissitude is the result of a divine love anxious to share the true blessedness which comes in the form of sorrow40--,,wedgwood1 ,the ,moral ,ideal1 #c;d ed41 p4 #aab4 #dhd ,taylor1 ,ancient ,ideals 7#ahif71 vol4 i1 p4 #bbg4 #dhe ,farnell1 ,the ,cults of the ,greek ,states 7#ahia71 vol4 i1 p4 #abi4 #dhf ,republic1 tr4 ,jowett1 x4 #fac4 #dhg ,see ,james ,adam1 ,the ,vitality of ,platonism 7#aiaa71 chap4 v1 8,ancient ,greek ,views of ,suffering and ,evil40 #dhh ,when we contrast with this ,sophocles' treatment of the same theme in ,antigone we realize how great an advance during the interval the ,greeks had made in humanitarian feeling4 #dhi ,see ,thucyd4 iii4 #ec-ei4 #dij ,the ,spartan admiral ,callicratides 7the successor of ,lysander1 #djf ,b4,c47 refused to sell his ,greek prisoners of war as slaves1 but he stood almost or quite alone in this4 ,see ,xen4 ,hellen4 i4 #f1 #ad4 #dia ,mahaffy1 ,social ,life in ,greece 7#ahhh71 p4 #bce4 #dib ,the war brought into fearful exaggeration the salient weakness of ,greek morality4 ,the most reprehensible moral faults of the ,greeks were the outgrowth of political factions and cabals1 of party jealousies and rivalries in the close quarters of city walls4 ,these faults were lifted into the most savage passions by the war4 ,thucydides in a memorable passage 7iii4 #hb7 draws a striking picture of the disastrous moral effects of the prolonged quarrel4 #dic ,see above1 p4 #ahj4 #did ,republic1 v4 #dfi-dga4 #die ,hobhouse1 ,morals in ,evolution 7#aijf71 vol4 i1 p4 #bfg2 see also ,a4 ,rder1 ,l',arbitrage international chez les ,hellenes 7#aiab74 #dif tudes sur l'histoire de humanit 7#ahhj71 t4 ii1 p4 #aje4 ,because of its long exemption from the ravages of war1 ,elis was more populous and wealthy than any other district of the ,peloponnesus 7,polyb4 iv4 #gc1 #gd74 ,the contrast presented by ,greece in general constituted an impressive commentary on the fatal consequences for ,greek civilization of the war system4 ,speaking of the depopulation which incessant wars had caused over almost all the world he knew1 ,plutarch says of ,greece1 a land once 8strong in cities10 that the whole country could raise barely three thousand men1 the same number that the single city of ,megara sent to ,plata at the time of the ,persian war 7,philosophical ,essays1 8,on the ,cessation of ,oracles10 sec4 viii74 #dig ,see above1 p4 #ah4 #dih 8,really to see the good and to know it as such1 yet not to love and pursue it1 is impossible2 the vision carries with it its own persuasion and authority40--,,martineau1 ,types of ,ethical ,theory1 #c;d ed41 vol4 i1 p4 #gd4 8,mere school and word knowledge1 of course1 is powerless1 but real knowledge1 knowledge that represents real personal conviction1 cannot fail to influence life40--,,paulsen1 ,system of ,ethics1 tr4 ,thilly 7#aijf71 p4 #fb4 #dii 8,there are few men whose minds are not more or less in that state of sham knowledge against which ,socrates made war2 there is no man whose notions have not been first got together by spontaneous1 unexamined1 unconscious1 uncertified association--resting upon forgotten particulars1 blending together disparities or inconsistencies1 and leaving in his mind old and familiar phrases and oracular propositions1 of which he has never rendered to himself account2 there is no man1 who1 if he be destined for vigorous and profitable scientific effort1 has not found it a necessary branch of self-education to break up1 disentangle1 analyse1 and reconstruct this ancient mental compound1 and who has not been driven to it by his own lame and solitary efforts1 since the giant of the colloquial ,elenchus no longer stands in the market place to lend him help and stimulus40--,,grote1 ,history of ,greece 7#ahhh71 vol4 vii1 pp4 #afh f4 #ejj ,quoted by ,schmidt1 ,die ,ethik der alten ,griechen 7#ahhb71 ,bd4 ii1 ,s4 #cif4 #eja 8,his ,socrates' significancy for moral philosophy lies in his calling attention to rational knowledge as the source of the moral40--,,wuttke1 ,christian ,ethics 7#ahgc71 vol4 i1 p4 #fi4 #ejb ,histoire des thories et des ides morales dans l'antiquit 7#ahgi71 t4 i1 pp4 #abe f4 #ejc ,cf4 ,gorgias1 #dgh1 #dgi4 #ejd ,laws1 tr4 ,jowett1 xi4 #iac4 ,plato saw what the socialist-philosopher ,lloyd saw when he wrote1 8,more searching 444 than the ,golden ,rule is that which commands us to inquire if what we desire for ourselves and others is a right desire0 7,man the ,social ,creator 7#aijf71 p4 #adg74 #eje ,in the ,republic ,plato reaches the conception of a ,greek brotherhood1 but beyond this he never advanced4 #ejf ,xen4 ,mem4 ii4 #f1 #ce4 #ejg ,politics1 i4 #g1 sec4 #e2 #h1 sec4 #ab2 vii4 #b1 sec4 #ae2 #ad1 sec4 #ba4 #ejh ,histoire des thories et des ides morales dans l'antiquit 7#ahgi71 t4 i1 p4 #bbh4 #eji 8,a moral ideal which was not coextensive with the whole spiritual nature of man was taken by the schoolmen from the ,aristotelian ethics1 and then the so-called religious virtues were more or less cumbrously and precariously built upon it4 ,supernaturalism in morals was added to the classic naturalism as a divine appendix to ethics40--,,newman ,,smyth1 ,christian ,ethics 7#ahib71 p4 #acc4 #eaj ,the downfall of the institutions of the free city state was to ,greek morality what the downfall of the papal ,church would have been to the morality of the medieval ages4 #eaa ,philopman and ,aratus4 #eab ,this ascetic tendency in ,stoicism is doubtless to be attributed to the influence of the ,orient upon ,greek life and thought4 #eac ,consistently so1 since only through self-control and the avoidance of all excesses of passion1 appetite1 and desires can one maintain that tranquillity of mind which is the condition precedent of happiness4 #ead ,lecky1 ,history of ,european ,morals1 #c;d ed41 vol4 i1 p4 #bbh4 #eae ,mahaffy1 ,social ,life in ,greece1 p4 #bfd4 ,the author contrasts this humaneness of the laws of the ,athenian democracy four centuries before ,christ with the atrocious cruelty of the criminal laws of ,christian ,europe down almost to the nineteenth century4 #eaf ,social ,life in ,greece 7#ahhh71 p4 #bfi4 #eag ,ibid4 p4 #eed4 #eah ,the ,apostle ,paul at ,athens1 seeking common ground with his hearers for the doctrine he preached that ,god hath made of one blood all nations of men1 finds it in the familiar line of the ,stoic ,cleanthes--8,we are the offspring of ,god40 #eai ,plutarch died about #dj ,a4,d4 #ebj 8,from contact with the ,greeks1 therefore1 ,christianity obtained this support1 that an ideal long known to the ,western world1 the ,stoic ideal1 was found to correspond with it1 so that the preaching of the ,apostles was in this respect not out of harmony with the wants and aspirations of the higher and better minds of the age40--,,mahaffy1 ,progress of ,hellenism in ,alexander's ,empire 7#aije71 p4 #adf4 #eba 8,the essential oneness of human moral experience has shown itself in the ethical results achieved by these various peoples40--,,toy1 ,judaism and ,christianity 7#ahia71 p4 #ccg4 #ebb ,coulanges1 ,the ,ancient ,city1 ii1 #i4 #ebc ,the authority of the father over each and every member of the family was legally absolute1 extending to life and death4 ,not until late in the ,empire did the law forbid fathers to kill their grown-up children or to sell them as slaves4 ,cf4 ,mc,kenzie1 ,studies in ,roman ,law1 #fth ed41 p4 #ada2 and ,sohm1 ,institutes 7#aija71 p4 #ec4 #ebd ,inge1 ,society in ,rome under the ,csars 7#ahhh71 p4 #h4 #ebe ,this ,roman virtue of obedience to the state has been just such an enduring force in the moral life of the ,christian world as has the ,jewish virtue of obedience to a revealed law 7see ,chapter ,,ix74 ,historically regarded1 the ,protestant ,church1 which makes obedience to a written revealed law a necessary virtue1 is the inheritor of the ethical feeling and conviction of ancient ,israel2 while the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 which makes submission to ecclesiastical authority an indispensable virtue1 is the inheritor of the ethical tradition and spirit of ancient ,rome4 ,see ,h4 ,m4 ,gwatkin 7co-author71 ,early ,ideals of ,righteousness 7#aiaj71 pp4 #ga ff4 #ebf ,tacitus1 ,annals1 iii4 #af1 #ag4 #ebg ,this legal subjection of the son to the father1 while it developed and strengthened the virtue of obedience1 seemed to deaden filial affection4 8,of all the forms of virtue10 says ,lecky1 8filial affection is perhaps that which appears most rarely in ,roman history0 7,history of ,european ,morals1 #c;d ed41 vol4 i1 p4 #bii74 #ebh ,de ,off4 i4 #ag4 #ebi ,history of ,european ,morals1 #c;d ed41 vol4 i1 pp4 #agg f4 #ecj ,see p4 #bde1 on the ethics of persecution4 #eca ,the ,moral ,ideal1 #c;d ed41 p4 #adh4 #ecb ,cf4 ,chapter ,,xviii4 #ecc ,the citizen army1 which had been the seed plot of those heroic virtues that cast such a halo around the earlier history of ,rome1 had been replaced by a mercenary force in which only the coarser military virtues could find sphere for exercise4 #ecd 8,the unchecked power of the master 444 produced those cold hearts which gloated over the agony of gallant men in the arena40--,,dill1 ,roman ,society from ,nero to ,marcus ,aurelius 7#aijd71 p4 #ab4 #ece ,friedlander1 ,darstellungen aus der ,sittengeschichte ,roms 7#ahhh71 ,bd4 i1 ,s4 #dgi-dha2 ,english ed41 ,roman ,life and ,manners under the ,early ,empire1 vol4 i1 pp4 #bdc f4 #ecf 8,the senator was forbidden down to the last age of the empire1 both by law and sentiment1 to increase his fortune by commerce40--,,dill1 ,roman ,society from ,nero to ,marcus ,aurelius1 p4 #ajb4 #ecg ,de ,off4 i4 #db4 #ech ,lecky1 ,history of ,european ,morals1 #c;d ed41 vol4 i1 p4 #bga4 #eci ,friedlander1 ,darstellungen aus der ,sittengeschichte ,roms 7#ahhi71 ,bd4 ii1 ,s4 #dad2 ,english ed41 ,roman ,life and ,manners under the ,early ,empire1 vol4 ii1 p4 #gg4 #edj 8,the unusual enthusiasm for the shows is expressed in many a rude sketch which has been traced by boyish hands upon the walls40--,,dill1 ,roman ,society from ,nero to ,marcus ,aurelius1 p4 #bch4 #eda ,in an eloquent passage ,lecky thus sums up the demoralizing effects of the spectacles3 8,those hateful games1 which made the spectacle of human suffering and death the delight of all classes1 had spread their brutalising influence wherever the ,roman name was known1 had rendered millions absolutely indifferent to the sight of human suffering1 had produced in many1 in the very centre of an advanced civilization1 a relish and a passion for torture1 a rapture and an exultation in watching the spasms of extreme agony1 such as an ,african or an ,american savage alone can equal04 7,history of ,european ,morals1 #c;d ed41 vol4 i1 p4 #dfg74 #edb ,the period which witnessed the greatest inequality of fortunes was the last century of the ,republic and the first of the ,empire4 #edc ,it should be borne in mind that the clients of this period were wholly different from the clients of the earlier times4 ,the relations of the early clients to their patrons were those of clansmen to their chief2 the relations of these later clients to their patrons were the degrading relations of idle1 needy dependents to newly rich men without family traditions and socially and morally wholly unfit for their elevation4 #edd ,the ,history of ,rome 7#ahhh71 vol4 ii1 p4 #ebd4 #ede 8,the deepest feeling of ,tacitus about the early ,empire seems to have been that it was fatal to character both in prince and subject40--,,dill1 ,roman ,society from ,nero to ,marcus ,aurelius1 p4 #bi4 #edf ,the ,moral ,ideal1 #c;d ed41 p4 #bjd4 #edg ,history of ,european ,morals1 #c;d ed41 vol4 i1 pp4 #ccb ff4 #edh ,ibid4 #c;d ed41 vol4 i1 p4 #bbg4 #edi 8,men ceased to be adventurous1 patriotic1 just1 magnanimous2 but in exchange they became chaste1 tender-hearted1 loyal1 religious1 and capable of infinite endurance in a good cause40--,,seeley1 ,roman ,imperialism 7#ahhi71 p4 #cc4 #eej ,the ,moral ,ideal1 #c;d ed41 p4 #ahg4 #eea ,about #dj-abj ,a4,d4 #eeb ,dill1 ,roman ,society from ,nero to ,marcus ,aurelius1 p4 #fd4 #eec ,dill1 ,roman ,society from ,nero to ,marcus ,aurelius1 pp4 #bca f4 #eed ,cf4 ,ibid4 p4 #bcb4 #eee ,stoicism is second only to ,christianity as a moral force in ,european civilization4 8,one of the most important expressions of the moral sense for all time10 affirms ,professor ,clifford1 8is that of the ,stoic philosophy1 especially after its reception among the ,romans0 7,lectures and ,essays 7#aija71 vol4 ii1 p4 #ajh74 ,mahaffy declares that the ,stoic philosophy1 8above all the human influences we know1 purified and ennobled the world0 7,the ,silver ,age 7#aijf71 p4 #ajc74 ,denis thinks that it was through ,stoicism that ,rome did most for civilization 7,histoire des thories et des ides morales dans l'antiquit 7#ahgi71 t4 ii1 p4 #e74 #eef ,taken from ,menander4 #eeg 8,one of the most emphatic as well as one of the earliest extant assertions of the duty of charity to the human race occurs in the treatise of ,cicero upon duties40--,,lecky1 ,history of ,european ,morals1 #c;d ed41 vol4 i1 p4 #bdj4 #eeh ,de ,off4 iii4 #e4 #eei ,ibid4 iii4 xi4 #efj ,ibid4 i4 #af4 #efa ,de ,finibus1 v4 #bc4 #efb ,meditations1 vi4 #dd4 ,this and the following citations are from ,long's translation1 #b;d ed4 #efc ,ibid4 iv4 #bc4 ,the moral element in the conception of the universal city must not be overlooked4 ,there was implied in it the idea of universal brotherhood1 of the ethical oneness of mankind4 ,the creation and promulgation of this conception was one of the great services which ,stoicism rendered to civilization4 #efd ,ibid4 iii4 #d4 #efe ,ibid4 viii4 #ei4 #eff ,this subject is dealt with by ,lecky1 ,history of ,european ,morals1 #c;d ed41 vol4 i1 pp4 #bie ff42 ,bryce1 ,studies in ,history and ,jurisprudence1 vol4 ii1 essay xi1 8,the ,law of ,nature40 #efg ,bryce1 ,studies in ,history and ,jurisprudence 7#aija71 vol4 ii1 p4 #adc4 #efh ,sophocles1 ,antigone4 #efi ,commenting on the consequences of the inspiration of ,roman law by this doctrine of ,stoicism1 ,lecky says3 8,to the ,stoics and the ,roman lawyers is mainly due the clear recognition of the existence of a law of nature above and beyond all human enactments1 which has been the basis of the best moral and of the most influential1 though most chimerical1 political speculations of later ages1 and the renewed study of ,roman law was an important element in the revival that preceded the ,reformation0 7,history of ,european ,morals1 #c;d ed41 vol4 i1 p4 #big74 #egj ,history of ,european ,morals1 #c;d ed41 vol4 i1 p4 #abi4 ,lecky instances 7vol4 i1 p4 #bib7 three ways in which ,stoicism worked for good in the ,empire3 7#a7 it raised up good emperors2 7#b7 it led men to engage in the public service2 and 7#c7 it rendered the law more catholic and humane4 #ega ,dill1 ,roman ,society from ,nero to ,marcus ,aurelius 7#aijd71 p4 #cgf4 #egb 8,in the ,stoic emperors 444 we find probably the earliest example of great moral principles applied to legislation on a large scale40--,,clifford1 ,lectures and ,essays1 vol4 ii1 p4 #ajh4 #egc ,public feeling in regard to the exercise of the patria potestas had been slowly changing during the centuries4 ,seneca relates 7,de ,clem4 i4 #ad7 how within his memory the people furiously assaulted in the ,forum a certain knight because he had whipped his son to death4 #egd 8,the alleviations of slavery by the imperial law are essentially traceable to the influence of the ,greek view40--,,mommsen1 ,roman ,provinces 7#ahhg71 vol4 i1 p4 #bif4 #ege 8,the majority of the free population had probably either themselves been slaves1 or were descended from slaves40--,,lecky1 ,history of ,european ,morals1 #c;d ed41 vol4 i1 p4 #bcg4 #egf ,dill1 ,roman ,society from ,nero to ,marcus ,aurelius 7#aijd71 p4 #c4 #egg ,lecky1 ,history of ,european ,morals1 #c;d ed41 vol4 i1 p4 #cab4 #egh ,de ,clem4 i4 #ah4 #egi ,tacitus1 ,annals1 xiv4 #db-de4 #ehj ,manumissions were frequent even in ,seneca's time4 ,pliny the ,elder was a kind master1 regarded his slaves as 8humble friends10 and manumitted many of them4 #eha ,the client class of the imperial period was made up almost wholly of freedmen4 #ehb ,it is surprising that while in the ,stoic and other schools there was1 during these centuries1 great advance in theoretical ethics in various domains1 in that of war there was no essential modification of the views and feelings of the teachers and leaders of moral reforms4 ,in the whole range of ,roman literature and philosophy there are to be found scarcely any expressions of disapproval of war4 ,the attitude of the ,roman moralists in this matter appears to have been altogether like that of the ,greek philosophers4 ,the right to wage war for empire and for glory was taught even by ,cicero1 only such wars1 he insisted1 should be waged more gently than wars to recover property1 to punish insult1 or to avenge a wrong 7,de ,off4 i4 #ab74 #ehc ,for the ethics of ,christian persecution1 see below1 p4 #cbd4 #ehd ,see on this subject ,fiske1 ,excursions of an ,evolutionist 7#ahhc71 pp4 #bch ff42 ,hardy1 ,christianity and the ,roman ,government 7#ahid71 p4 #ag2 ,pollock1 ,essays in ,jurisprudence and ,ethics 7#ahhb71 p4 #adg4 #ehe ,besides this main motive of the persecutions there were these minor ones3 7#a7 ,the teachings and practices of the new sect offended the prevailing spirit of luxury and sensuality2 7#b7 families were divided2 7#c7 the business of many1 as that of the silversmiths of ,ephesus1 was threatened 7,acts xix4 #bd-da72 and 7#d7 fear on the part of the government of the danger from the growth of such a strong semi-secret organization as the ,church was becoming within the ,empire 7,hardy1 ,christianity and the ,roman ,government 7#ahid71 p4 #afe74 #ehf 8,upon the approach of ,christianity humanity took a consciousness more alert and sensitive1 and during the first three centuries of our era all the ideas1 all the sentiments which constitute morality developed on parallel lines and with remarkable force in the growing ,church and in expiring paganism40--,,denis1 ,histoire des thories et des ides morales dans l'antiquit 7#ahgi71 t4 ii1 p4 #ade4 #ehg ,de ,off4 i4 #be4 #ehh ,meditations1 xi4 #ah4 #ehi ,ibid4 vii4 #cf4 #eij ,ibid4 ix4 #i2 cf4 vi4 #dg4 #eia ,ibid4 vi4 #f4 #eib ,fragments1 tr4 ,long1 lxviii2 cf4 lxvii4 #eic ,meditations1 iii4 #d4 #eid ,de ,prov4 i4 #a4 #eie ,meditations1 x4 #ba4 #eif ,ibid4 ii4 #aa4 #eig ,ibid4 xii4 #e4 #eih ,ibid4 ii4 #ag4 #eii ,arrian1 ,epict4 ii4 #ad2 quoted by ,lecky1 ,history of ,european ,morals1 #c;d ed41 vol4 i1 p4 #bdf4 #fjj ,meditations1 vii4 #ca4 #fja ,ethical ,essays1 v1 8,on those who are punished by the ,deity late40 #fjb ,de ,off4 ii4 #ad4 #fjc ,ibid4 ii4 #e4 #fjd ,ibid4 i4 #g4 #fje ,ibid4 iii4 #f4 #fjf ,ibid4 iii4 #d4 ,compare this expression of the ancient ,greek and ,roman moral consciousness with that of the modern ,japanese 7see p4 #hf74 #fjg ,ibid4 ii4 #ab4 #fjh ,de ,clem4 ii4 #f4 ,the trouble with this philosophy1 as has been said1 is that if one does not feel pity for the sufferings of others he will not be likely to help them4 #fji ,cicero1 however1 denied the right of self-destruction1 and ,vergil mildly censured the act4 ,see neid1 vi4 #dcd4 #faj ,discourses1 i4 #i4 #faa ,meditations1 v4 #bi4 #fab ,ep4 lxx2 quoted by ,lecky1 ,history of ,european ,morals1 #c;d ed41 vol4 i1 p4 #bah4 #fac ,de ,prov4 i4 #b4 #fad ,zeno1 the founder of the school1 and ,cato1 its exemplifier in active life1 both committed suicide4 #fae ,compare the views on this subject of the ancient classical peoples with those of the modern ,japanese 7see p4 #he and p4 #hf n4 #a474 #faf ,glover1 ,the ,conflict of ,religions in the ,early ,roman ,empire1 #c;d ed4 7#aiji71 p4 #fg4 #fag ,history of ,european ,morals1 #c;d ed41 vol4 i1 p4 #cbd4 #fah ,paulsen1 ,a ,system of ,ethics1 tr4 ,thilly 7#aijf71 pp4 #aaa f4 #fai ,the cult of ,isis when introduced into the ,western lands favored illicit love1 but by the second century of our era it had1 in its new environment1 become so far transformed as to be a true moral force in society4 8,sacrament and mystery lent their aid to fortify the worshiper of ,isis in the face of death1 but1 to derive their full virtue1 he must exercise himself in temperance1 abjure the pleasures of the senses1 and purify himself for the vision of ,god0 7,dill1 ,roman ,society from ,nero to ,marcus ,aurelius 7#aijd71 p4 #ehc74 #fbj ,on this subject see ,franz ,cumont1 ,les ,mystres de ,mithra 7#ahib72 ,english ed41 ,the ,mysteries of ,mithra1 tr4 ,mc,cormack4 #fba 8,it ,mithraism is perhaps the highest and most striking example of the last efforts of paganism to reconcile itself to the great moral and spiritual movement which was settling steadily1 and with growing momentum1 toward purer conceptions of ,god1 of man's relations to ,him1 and of the life to come40--,,dill1 ,roman ,society from ,nero to ,marcus ,aurelius1 p4 #ehe4 #fbb 8,on peut dire que1 si le christianisme et t arrt dans sa croissance par quelque maladie mortelle1 le monde et t ,mithriaste40--,,renan1 ,marc-,aurle1 #eme ed41 p4 #egi4 #fbc 8,isis and ,serapis and ,mithra were preparing the ,western world for the religion which was to approve the long travail of humanity by a more perfect vision of the divine40--,,dill1 ,roman ,society from ,nero to ,marcus ,aurelius 7#aijd71 p4 #egd4 #fbd ,acts xvii4 #bi4 #fbe ,new to the multitude4 ,some of the ,stoic philosophers1 as we have seen1 held and taught this doctrine4 #fbf ,the ,eleusinian ,mysteries in ,greece1 and some ,oriental cults1 particularly that of ,mithra1 imported into the ,roman ,empire1 made the participation in a blessed life beyond the grave dependent upon moral purity of life on earth and through this doctrine exercised a favorable influence upon morality 7see p4 #bed74 #fbg ,this thought and conviction of the immortality of the individual was1 it is possible1 in part the outcome of the decay of the ancient city1 whose fancied eternity had satisfied for a time the instinct of immortality4 ,but when some centuries had passed1 the 8,romans sailed round the ,mediterranean and recognized that the cities of the past were not eternal1 and with the same waft of conviction came a compensating belief that eternity was the heritage of every son of man4 ,immortality arose on the horizon of the man1 as its last glow faded from the city0 7,wedgwood1 ,the ,moral ,ideal1 #c;d ed41 p4 #cda74 ,it was the same in ,judea2 as immortality faded from the political horizon of ,israel1 it arose on that of the individual soul4 #fbh ,though the account of the fall of man forms the prelude of the ,hebrew ,scriptures1 the conception never influenced to an appreciable degree pre-,christian ethics4 #fbi ,see ,schmidt1 ,the ,prophet of ,nazareth 7#aije71 p4 #cbb4 #fcj 8,l'humanit cherche l'idal2 mais elle veut que l'idal soit une personne2 elle n'aime pas une abstraction40--,,renan1 ,marc-,aurle1 #eme ed41 p4 #ehb4 #fca ,history of ,european ,morals1 #c;d ed41 vol4 ii1 p4 #h4 #fcb ,on this subject consult ,hatch1 ,the ,influence of ,greek ,ideas and ,usages upon the ,christian ,church 7#ahhh71 lect4 xii1 8,the ,transformation of the ,basis of ,christian ,union3 ,doctrine in the ,place of ,conduct40 #fcc 8,after the middle of the third century1 444 ,christianity may be just as truly called a ,hellenic religion as an ,oriental40--,,harnack1 ,the ,expansion of ,christianity 7#aijd71 vol4 i1 pp4 #cic f4 #fcd ,the change of emphasis from moral life to correct doctrine took place during the last half of the second and the first half of the third century4 8,under the influence of contemporary ,greek thought1 the word faith came to be transferred from simple trust in ,god to mean the acceptance of a series of propositions1 and these propositions1 propositions in abstract metaphysics0 7,hatch1 ,the ,influence of ,greek ,ideas and ,usages upon the ,christian ,church 7#ahhh71 p4 #caj74 #fce ,the ,athanasian ,creed1 which by the end of the ninth century was in use in the churches of the ,west as an authoritative symbol and exposition of the ,roman ,catholic faith1 says1 8,whosoever will be saved1 before all things1 it is necessary that he hold the ,catholic faith1 which faith1 except every one who do keep entire and unviolated1 without doubt he shall perish everlastingly0 7,philip ,schaff1 ,bibliotheca ,symbolica ,ecclesiae ,universalis1 vol4 ii1 p4 #ff74 #fcf ,lecky1 ,history of ,european ,morals1 #c;d ed41 vol4 ii1 p4 #fh4 #fcg 8,the virtues of the intellect1 freedom and boldness of thought and the power to doubt1 the vital principle of scientific research1 are1 in the eyes of primitive ,christianity1 worthless and dangerous40--,,paulsen1 ,a ,system of ,ethics1 tr4 ,thilly 7#aijf71 p4 #fh4 #fch ,cf4 ,harnack1 ,the ,expansion of ,christianity 7#aijd71 vol4 i1 chap4 v1 8,the ,religion of ,authority and ,reason40 #fci ,see ,paulsen1 ,system of ,ethics1 tr4 ,thilly 7#aijf71 bk4 i1 chap4 iii4 #fdj ,the ascetic movement was a reaction not only against the moral dissoluteness of pagan society1 but also against the moral degeneracy which1 before the end of the third century1 had set in within the ,christian community itself4 ,the ,church had become to a lamentable degree conformed unto the world1 and had lost much of that moral fervor which characterized it during the first two centuries4 #fda ,alban ,butler1 ,the ,lives of the ,saints 7the ,fathers1 ,martyrs1 and other ,principal ,saints1 compiled from monuments and other authentic sources71 #ab vols4 7#ahed74 ,orig4 ed4 pub4 #aged-agfj4 #fdb 8,if you do any good beyond what is commanded by ,god1 you will gain for yourself more abundant glory1 and will be more honored by ,god than you would otherwise be10 was the teaching of the ,church respecting the meritoriousness of ascetic practices4 ,cf4 ,newman ,smyth1 ,christian ,ethics 7#ahib71 p4 #cac4 #fdc ,the 8,dialogue0 is of course a purely literary creation of some monk4 ,oisin was not a contemporary of ,st4 ,patrick4 #fdd ,j4 ,h4 ,simpson1 ,poems of ,oisin 7#aheg71 pp4 #db ff4 ,we have reproduced only a small part of the poem4 #fde ,history of ,european ,morals1 #c;d ed41 vol4 ii1 p4 #cd4 #fdf ,westermarck1 ,the ,origin and ,development of the ,moral ,ideas 7#aijh71 vol4 ii1 p4 #beb4 #fdg ,cf4 ,dante1 ,inf4 xiii4 #fdh ,see above1 pp4 #age1 #bae4 #fdi ,ireland was foremost in this missionary movement because she was so given over to the monastic spirit4 ,see ,montalembert1 ,the ,monks of the ,west 7#ahfa71 vol4 ii1 p4 #cig4 #fej ,according to ,westermarck 7,the ,origin and ,development of the ,moral ,ideas 7#aijf71 vol4 i1 pp4 #efe-efi7 charity took the place of sacrifice in the primitive cults1 and for this reason became such a prominent religious duty in all the higher faiths4 #fea ,montalembert1 ,the ,monks of the ,west 7#ahfa71 vol4 i1 pp4 #cig f4 #feb ,lecky1 ,history of ,european ,morals1 #c;d ed41 vol4 ii1 pp4 #hf ff4 #fec ,the ,moral ,ideal1 #c;d ed41 p4 #cfi4 #fed ,see above1 p4 #bde4 #fee 8,the suppression of all religions but one by ,theodosius1 the murder of ,hypatia by the monks of ,cyril1 and the closing by ,justinian of the schools of ,athens1 are the three events which mark the decisive overthrow of intellectual freedom40--,,lecky1 ,history of ,european ,morals1 #c;d ed41 vol4 i1 p4 #dbh4 #fef ,see above1 p4 #f4 #feg ,physics and ,politics 7#ahgc71 pp4 #gj f4 #feh 8,one may find 444 the chief characteristic of the period of the migrations in a complete uprooting of public morality1 a universal overturning of inherited conceptions of right and wrong40--,,francke1 ,social ,forces in ,german ,literature1 #b;d ed41 p4 #ab4 #fei ,parliament of ,religions 7#ahic71 vol4 i1 pp4 #egd f42 consult also ,bryce1 ,studies in ,history and ,jurisprudence 7#aija71 vol4 ii1 p4 #bcg4 #ffj ,qur'n1 tr4 ,palmer 7,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vols4 vi1 ix71 suras ii4 #ahd-ahi1 #bab-bae2 iv4 #ij2 viii4 #dj2 ix4 #e-ad1 #bi2 xlvii4 #d1 and many others4 #ffa ,ibid4 suras ii4 #adi2 iii4 #aea2 ix4 #aac4 #ffb ,sura xxiv4 #cc4 ,the ,new ,testament nowhere inculcates the manumission of slaves1 but the spirit of its teachings is opposed to slavery1 and the early ,fathers of the ,church encouraged the emancipation of slaves4 #ffc ,sura iv4 #c4 #ffd ,suras vi4 #ach1 #ada1 #aeb2 xvii4 #cc4 #ffe ,suras ii4 #baf2 v4 #ic4 #fff ,r4 ,bosworth ,smith1 ,mohammed and ,mohammedanism 7#ahge71 p4 #bjd4 #ffg ,ameer ,ali1 ,the ,spirit of ,islam1 #b;d ed41 p4 #bhc4 #ffh ,according to the principles of the ,koran1 though no ,moslem captive might be reduced to servitude1 all non-,moslem prisoners could1 as spoils of war1 be enslaved3 8,we make lawful for ye 444 what thy right hand possesses slaves out of the booty ,god has granted thee0 7sura xxxiii4 #di74 #ffi 8,the recognition of the slave traffic by ,mohammedanism has been1 and is to this day1 a curse to ,africa and a source of disturbance to the world's politics40--,,hobhouse1 ,morals in ,evolution 7#aijf71 vol4 i1 p4 #cjg4 #fgj ,in an address4 ,cf4 ,r4 ,bosworth ,smith1 ,mohammed and ,mohammedanism 7#ahge71 pp4 #ei ff4 #fga ,ameer ,ali1 ,the ,spirit of ,islam1 #b;d ed41 p4 #cbh4 ,the author maintains that ,mohammed himself did not intend that his rules should be binding for all time4 #fgb ,this teaching is one which does not show itself as a generally recognized principle in the pre-,christian centuries1 as does the principle of love1 or self-devotion to the common good1 or universal benevolence4 8,christianity at its inception did not take over this moral principle1 ready-made1 from any of the older cults or cultures from which the ,christian movement was in a position to draw4 ,it is not found1 at least in appreciable force1 in the received ,judaism2 nor can it be derived from the classical 7,greco-,roman7 cultures1 which had none of it0 7,thorstein ,b4 ,veblen1 8,christian ,morals and the ,competitive ,system10 ,the ,international ,journal of ,ethics for ,january1 #aiaj74 #fgc 8,christian mores in the ,western ,empire were formed by syncretism of ,jewish and pagan mores4 ,christian mores therefore contain war1 slavery1 concubinage1 demonism1 and base amusements1 together with some abstract ascetic doctrines with which these things are inconsistent40--,,sumner1 ,folkways 7#aijg71 p4 #aaf4 #fgd ,for opinions of early ,christian writers and the attitude of the ,church on the soldier's profession and the rightfulness of war1 see ,grotius1 ,rights of ,war and ,peace1 tr4 ,whewell1 pp4 #di ff4 #fge ,harnack1 ,the ,expansion of ,christianity 7#aijd71 vol4 ii1 p4 #bje4 #fgf ,see above1 p4 #bgg4 #fgg ,throughout the medieval ages and down almost to our own day these ,old ,testament records1 misread1 were used to justify many of the cruelties of war1 and other atrocities3 ,plunder and pillage were supported by reference to the divinely approved 8spoiling of the ,egyptians0 by the ,israelites4 ,the right to massacre unresisting enemies was based upon the command of the ,almighty to the ,jews in the twentieth chapter of ,deuteronomy4 ,the indiscriminate slaughter of whole populations was justified by a reference to the divine command to slaughter the nations round about ,israel4 ,torture and mutilation of enemies was sanctioned by the conduct of ,samuel against ,agag1 of ,king ,david against the ,philistines1 of the men of ,judah against ,adonibezek4 ,even the slaughter of babes in arms was supported by a passage from the ,psalms1 8,happy shall he be1 that taketh and dasheth thy little ones against the stones40 ,treachery and assassination were supported by a reference to the divinely approved ,phinehas1 ,ehud1 ,judith1 and ,jael2 and murdering the ministers of unapproved religions1 by ,elijah's slaughter of the priests of ,baal4--,,andrew ,d4 ,,white1 ,seven ,great ,statesmen 7#aiaj71 pp4 #he f4 #fgh ,lecky believes this to have been the main cause of the transformation in the ,church4 8,the transition10 he says1 8from the almost ,quaker tenets of the primitive ,church to the essentially military ,christianity of the ,crusades was due chiefly 444 to the terror and the example of ,mohammedanism0 7,history of ,european ,morals1 #c;d ed41 vol4 ii1 p4 #beb74 ,but1 as we have seen1 the transition was already nearly complete before the rise of ,islam4 #fgi ,in a portrayal of the character of the ,scandinavians1 the ,church historian ,schaff observes3 8,their only enthusiasm was the feeling of duty2 but the direction which had been given to this feeling was so absolutely opposed to that pointed out by the ,christian morality1 that no reconciliation was possible0 7,history of the ,christian ,church1 vol4 iv1 p4 #aaj74 ,yet in the important domain of ethics which we are here examining this is exactly what did happen4 #fhj ,history of ,european ,morals1 #c;d ed41 vol4 ii1 p4 #bec4 #fha ,josiah ,royce1 ,the ,philosophy of ,loyalty 7#aijh74 #fhb 8,so great1 it is said1 was the knights' respect for an oath1 a promise1 or a vow1 that when they lay under any of these restrictions1 they appeared everywhere with little chains attached to their arms or habits to show all the world they were slaves to their word2 nor were these chains taken off till their promise had been performed1 which sometimes extended to a term of four or five years4 ,it cannot be expected1 of course1 that reality should have always come up to the ideal40--,,westermarck1 ,the ,origin and ,development of ,moral ,ideas 7#aijh71 vol4 ii1 p4 #ajb4 #fhc ,history of ,european ,morals1 #c;d ed41 vol4 ii1 p4 #bgb4 #fhd ,first printed in #ahgc1 from ,,mss4 compiled probably as early as the twelfth or thirteenth century4 ,there is an ,english translation by ,charles ,swan 7#ahgg74 #fhe 8,there can be little doubt10 says ,lecky1 8that the ,catholic reverence for the ,virgin has done much to elevate and purify the ideal of woman and soften the manners of men0 7,history of ,european ,morals1 #c;d ed41 vol4 ii1 p4 #cfg74 ,and so ,professor ,nathaniel ,schmidt3 8,the chivalry of the medieval knight from which our modern treatment of woman so largely is derived cannot be regarded as solely a product of ,christianity1 for it has a deep root in the dreamy reverence for woman characteristic of our pagan ancestors4 ,yet it would not have become what it was but for the veneration accorded to the ,virgin ,mary0 7,the ,prophet of ,nazareth 7#aije71 p4 #cbd74 #fhf ,see ,curtis ,m4 ,geer1 ,the ,beginning of the ,peace ,movement 7#aiab74 #fhg ,kluckhohn1 ,geschichte des ,gottesfriedens 7#aheg71 p4 #ch4 #fhh ,this part of the week was chosen because these days had been consecrated by ,christ's passion1 burial1 resurrection1 and ascension4 #fhi ,hobhouse1 ,morals in ,evolution 7#aijf71 vol4 i1 p4 #cad4 #fij ,the last instance of an arrangement for ransom of prisoners was an agreement between ,england and ,france in #aghj4 ,see ,hall1 ,international ,law1 #eth ed41 p4 #dad1 n4 #a4 #fia ,one center of these reform movements was the celebrated ,french monastery of ,cluny4 ,the influences which radiated from the cloisters of this convent had a profound effect for centuries upon the moral life of ,christendom4 #fib ,see ,sabatier1 ,life of ,st4 ,francis of ,assisi4 #fic ,history of the ,inquisition 7#ahhg71 vol4 i1 p4 #bff4 #fid 8,there was need of the exaggeration of self-sacrifice taught by ,francis to recall humanity to a sense of its obligations4444 ,the value of such an ideal on an age hard and cruel can scarce be exaggerated0 7,lea1 ,history of the ,inquisition 7#ahhg71 vol4 i1 pp4 #bfj f474 ,see also ,nathaniel ,schmidt1 ,the ,prophet of ,nazareth 7#aije71 p4 #cbe4 #fie ,see above1 p4 #bfb4 #fif 8,ethics on the basis of authority becomes a mere legal casuistry40--,,hall1 ,the ,history of ,ethics within ,organized ,christianity 7#aiaj71 pp4 #bif1 #cbf4 #fig 8,but meanwhile by alternations of ,hebraism and ,hellenism1 of a man's intellectual and moral impulses1 of the effort to see things as they really are1 and the effort to win peace by self-conquest1 the human spirit proceeds2 and each of these two forces has its appointed hours of culmination and seasons of rule40--,,matthew ,,arnold1 ,culture and ,anarchy 7#ahge71 p4 #adc4 #fih ,it must be borne in mind that the spirit of the ,renaissance was at work long before the ,renaissance4 #fii ,in this there is substantial agreement among historians of the ,inquisition3 consult ,lea1 ,the ,inquisition of the ,middle ,ages 7#ahhg71 vol4 i1 pp4 #bcf ff42 ,lecky1 ,history of ,european ,morals1 #c;d ed41 vol4 i1 pp4 #ih1 #cie f42 ,pollock1 ,essays in ,jurisprudence and ,ethics 7#ahhb71 essay vi1 8,the ,theory of ,persecution02 ,catholic ,encyclopedia1 vol4 viii1 article on 8,inquisition40 #gjj 8,the case for theological persecution is unanswerable if we admit the fundamental supposition that one faith is known to be true and necessary for salvation40--,,pollock1 ,essays in ,jurisprudence and ,ethics 7#ahhb71 p4 #aee4 #gja ,catholic ,encyclopedia1 vol4 viii1 under 8,inquisition40 #gjb ,besides the doctrine of the criminality of misbelief1 ,lecky finds a secondary cause of ,christian persecution in the medieval teaching respecting hell4 ,that vision of the awful and eternal torments prepared for misbelievers1 he says1 8chilled and deadened the sympathies and predisposed men to inflict suffering0 7,rationalism in ,europe1 new ed4 7#ahij71 vol4 i1 p4 #cdg74 #gjc ,lea1 ,history of the ,inquisition in the ,middle ,ages 7#ahhg71 vol4 i1 p4 #bcd4 8,the representatives of the ,church were children of their own age4444 ,theologians and canonists1 the highest and the saintliest1 stood by the code of their day and sought to explain and justify it0 7,catholic ,encyclopedia1 vol4 viii1 under 8,inquisition074 #gjd 8,it was strange that one almost swooning with pain should have said the gentlest-hearted and truest thing about human nature that has ever been said since the world began40--,,gerald ,,stanley ,,lee1 8,business1 ,goodness1 and ,imagination10 ,hibbert ,journal for ,april1 #aiab1 p4 #fea4 #gje ,on ,machiavellism see ,the ,prince1 and introductions to different editions by ,macaulay1 ,lord ,acton1 and ,henry ,morley2 ,figgis1 ,studies of ,political ,thought from ,gerson to ,grotius 7#aijg71 pp4 #ha-ajg2 ,john ,morley1 ,machiavelli 7,romanes ,lecture for #ahig74 #gjf ,it should be borne in mind that in ,machiavelli's age politics had been secularized1 that is1 divorced from theology1 and this with the approval of most men4 ,machiavelli would now go farther and separate politics and morality4 ,this is ,lord ,morley's interpretation of ,the ,prince4 ,he thinks we shall best understand ,machiavelli1 yet without for a moment approving his teaching1 8if we take him as following up the divorce of politics from theology1 by a divorce from ethics also4 ,he was laying down certain maxims of government as an art2 the end of that art is the security and permanence of the ruling power2 and the fundamental principle from which he silently started1 without shadow of doubt or misgiving as to its soundness1 was that the application of moral standards to this business is as little to the point as it would be in the navigation of a ship4 ,the effect was fatal even for his own purpose1 for what he put aside1 whether for the sake of argument or because he thought them in substance irrelevant1 were nothing less than the living forces by which societies subsist and governments are strong0 7,machiavelli1 ,romanes ,lecture for #ahig74 #gjg 8,catherine de ,medici1 ,philip ,,ii1 ,alva1 ,des ,adrets1 ,tilly1 ,wallenstein were simply incarnations of the ,machiavellian theories which ruled this period40--,,andrew ,d4 ,,white1 ,seven ,great ,statesmen 7#aiaj71 pp4 #hf f4 #gjh ,castiglione1 ,the ,book of the ,courtier 7#aijc71 p4 #bb4 #gji ,ibid4 p4 #be4 #gaj ,special emphasis was laid upon this virtue of courtesy in the ideal of courtliness4 ,and rightly so1 for1 as has been well said1 8,to be courteous is just as much a duty as to be honest1 for rudeness rouses more hatred and bitterness than good honest cheating40 #gaa ,in many lives of this period there was a combination of the ideal of the courtier and that of the monk4 ,there is a fine portrayal of such a character in ,shorthouse's ,john ,inglesant4 #gab ,see above1 p4 #bgf4 #gac ,the best authority on this subject is ,lea1 ,superstition and ,force1 #dth ed41 pp4 #aja-bdg4 #gad ,see above1 p4 #cjd4 #gae ,the last judicial duel in ,england was fought in #adib1 but the practice was not abrogated in ,russia till #afdi4 #gaf ,ralph ,barton ,perry1 ,the ,moral ,economy 7#aiji71 p4 #cd4 ,and so ,thomas ,cuming ,hall3 8,the glory of ,protestant ethics as founded by ,luther and developed by ,kant is the autonomous1 democratic1 unpriestly character stamped upon it0 7,history of ,ethics within ,organized ,christianity 7#aiaj71 p4 #ebg74 #gag ,culture and ,anarchy 7#ahge71 p4 #ade4 #gah ,history of ,european ,morals1 #c;d ed41 vol4 ii1 p4 #cgj4 #gai ,see below1 p4 #cfb4 #gbj ,on this subject see ,andrew ,d4 ,white1 ,seven ,great ,statesmen 7#aiaj71 chapter on ,thomasius4 #gba ,s4 ,alexander1 ,moral ,order and ,progress 7#ahhi71 p4 #cia4 #gbb ,history of ,rationalism in ,europe 7#ahij71 vol4 ii1 p4 #bbj4 #gbc ,history of ,european ,morals1 #c;d ed41 vol4 i1 p4 #abf4 #gbd ,the ,approach to the ,social ,question 7#aiji71 p4 #hd4 #gbe ,muirhead1 ,the ,elements of ,ethics 7#aiji71 p4 #bcb4 #gbf ,an ,essay on ,crimes and ,punishments1 tr4 ,voltaire 7#agic71 p4 #aeg4 #gbg ,see ,sisson1 8,the ,state absorbing the ,functions of the ,church10 ,international ,journal of ,ethics for ,april1 #aijg1 p4 #cda4 #gbh 8,it won't do any longer to lay the blame for poverty wholly upon its victims4 ,these cruel theories cannot face a growing suspicion that poverty is somehow involved in the ethics of distribution40--,,louis ,f4 ,,post1 in address2 see ,the ,public for ,june #ba1 #aiab1 p4 #eic4 #gbi ,lloyd1 ,man the ,social ,creator 7#aijf71 p4 #ace4 #gcj ,the most practicable proposal for the undoing of this ancient and ever-augmenting wrong of private monopoly in land is that presented with singular force and clarity by ,henry ,george in his epochal work1 ,progress and ,poverty4 ,his proposal is to exempt from taxation industry and all forms of property save land1 and to lay upon land values1 or1 in other words1 upon actual or potential ground rents1 a tax that would reclaim practically the whole of these for society1 and secure to the public all future increments in land values created by communal growth and enterprise4 ,since this tax is to take the place of all other forms of taxation it has become known as 8the single tax40 ,such a change in the tax system would inevitably create a hardship in a few cases1 but a hardship almost infinitesimal as compared with that now inflicted upon the many by the premption of the earth by a class4 ,the reform would undoubtedly1 as claimed by its advocates1 destroy private monopoly in land1 the root which nourishes most other monopolies1 and secure to all equal right of access to the earth and its resources4 #gca ,dewey and ,tufts1 ,ethics 7#aijh71 p4 #afb4 #gcb ,see ,ira ,woods ,howerth1 8,competition1 ,natural and ,industrial10 ,the ,international ,journal of ,ethics for ,july1 #aiab4 #gcc 8,we may fairly ask whether there is a single moral question of any magnitude which intelligent and educated men would answer to-day in precisely the same fashion as they would have done before the publication of ,darwin's ,origin of ,species0 7,taylor1 ,the ,problem of ,conduct 7#aija71 pp4 #eg f474 ,see also ,huxley1 ,evolution and ,ethics 7#ahii74 ,huxley maintains that the 8cosmic process0 is nonethical and in direct opposition to the ethical evolution going on in human society4 #gcd 8,the best is wanting when selfishness begins to be deficient0 78,the ,twilight of the ,gods10 ,the ,works of ,friedrich ,nietzsche1 ed4 ,alexander ,tille1 vol4 xi1 p4 #aia74 8,the weak and ill-constituted shall perish4444 ,what is more injurious than any crime8 ,practical sympathy for all the ill-constituted and weak--,christianity0 78,the ,antichrist10 ibid4 vol4 xi1 p4 #bch74 ,this way of thinking and talking is by no means exclusively modern4 ,callicles1 in ,plato's ,gorgias1 says to ,socrates3 8,and therefore this seeking to have more than the many is conventionally said to be shameful and unjust1 and is called injustice1 whereas nature herself intimates that it is just for the better to have more than the worse1 the more powerful than the weaker2 and in many ways1 among men as well as among animals1 and indeed among whole cities and races1 that justice consists in the superior ruling over and having more than the inferior0 7,jowett's ,dialogues of ,plato1 vol4 iii1 p4 #gb74 #gce ,see ,kropotkin1 ,mutual ,aid4 #gcf 8,the animal species in which individual struggle has been reduced to its narrowest limits1 and the practice of mutual aid has attained the greatest development1 are invariably the most numerous1 the most prosperous1 and the most open to further progress0 7,kropotkin1 ,mutual ,aid 7#aiji71 p4 #bic74 ,see also ,bixby1 ,the ,crisis in ,morals 7#ahia71 p4 #bce4 #gcg ,see ,dewey1 8,is ,nature ,good10 ,hibbert ,journal for ,july1 #aiji4 #gch 8#8,ye have compassion on one another'3 this struck me much3 ,allah might have made you having no compassion on one another1--how had it been then8 ,this is a great direct thought1 a glance at first hand into the very fact of things0 7,carlyle1 ,heroes and ,hero ,worship1 8,the ,hero as ,prophet074 ,the ,gthas have the same thought3 8,who1 ,o ,great ,creator6 is the inspirer of the good thoughts 7within our souls78 ,who 444 hath made the son revering the father80 7,yasna xliv4 #d1 #g1 ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 xxxi74 #gci 8,in the new way of looking at things1 which came to the world from ,darwin1 there is hope and cheer1 if we but take the matter aright4 ,only consider what his doctrine of the shaping power of environment is leading us to do in bettering the conditions of the poor1 the defective1 the prone to crime4 ,his demonstration that circumstances may make or break a man1 is a clarion call to humanitarian zeal4 ,and his teaching of the infinite variability of species1 and of the indefinite progress which man may make in the cultivation of humane and moral qualities1 is one that looks distinctly to the perfectibility of the race40--,the ,new ,york ,nation for ,january #g1 #aiji1 p4 #g4 #gdj ,on this subject see ,evans1 ,evolutional ,ethics and ,animal ,psychology 7#ahih74 #gda ,when in #afed matches for cockfighting were forbidden in ,england the reason for the prohibition was not that it was cruel to the birds1 but for the reason that the matches were 8commonly accompanied with gaming1 drinking1 swearing1 quarreling1 and other dissolute practices0 7,pike1 ,a ,history of ,crime in ,england 7#ahgc71 vol4 ii1 p4 #ahf74 ,consult further1 ,lecky1 ,rationalism in ,europe 7#ahij71 vol4 i1 pp4 #cjg f4 #gdb ,evolutional ,ethics and ,animal ,psychology 7#ahih71 p4 #ah4 ,darwinism has without doubt also aided the vegetarians in their crusade against the use of animal flesh for food1 and in conjunction with the influence of ,eastern ideas and convictions may cause ultimately a great change in the ethical feelings of the ,western peoples respecting this practice4 ,they may come to regard it with the same deep moral reprobation as is now felt by ,eastern moralists4 8,for my part10 says the ,japanese writer ,nitob1 8the surprising thing is that ,european ethics can be so atavistic as to stoop to a sort of cannibalism0 7,fifty ,years of ,new ,japan 7#aiji71 vol4 ii1 p4 #dfb74 #gdc ,see ,frederic ,w4 ,h4 ,myers1 ,human ,personality 7#aijc71 #b vols42 ,sir ,oliver ,lodge1 ,the ,survival of ,man 7#aiji72 ,james ,h4 ,hyslop1 ,enigmas of ,psychical ,research 7#aijf72 ,w4 ,f4 ,barrett1 ,psychical ,research 7#aiab74 #gdd ,the ,survival of ,man 7#aiji71 p4 #cda4 #gde ,george ,william ,knox1 8,religion and ,ethics10 ,international ,journal of ,ethics for ,april1 #aijb4 #gdf ,george ,harris1 ,moral ,evolution 7#ahif71 p4 #cib4 #gdg ,christian ,ethics 7#ahib71 p4 #aa4 ,lecky makes a similar observation3 8,generation after generation the power of the moral faculty becomes more absolute1 the doctrines that oppose it wane and vanish1 and the various elements of theology are absorbed and recast by its influence0 7,history of ,rationalism in ,europe 7#ahij71 vol4 i1 pp4 #cea f474 #gdh 8,it is because the ethical ideals of ,christendom have become so wonderfully enlarged and perfected within the last half century that the character of ,god has taken on such new and glorious forms4 ,the ,god whom ,christian people generally believe in and worship is a very different being from the one they were thinking about and praying to when ,i began my ministry40--,,washington ,,gladden 7in report of address74 #gdi ,see above1 pp4 #ce1 #afd and #ahg4 #gej ,cf4 ,borden ,parker ,bowne1 ,the ,essence of ,religion 7#aiaj71 chap4 iv1 8,righteousness the ,essence of ,religion40 #gea ,westermarck1 ,the ,origin and ,development of the ,moral ,ideas 7#aijh71 vol4 i1 p4 #gb4 #geb ,see above1 p4 #ah4 #gec 8,along with the gloomy record of the two hundred fifty years of negro slavery we find the history of its abolition2 perhaps the most impressive history on record of the origin and completion of a purification of the moral consciousness of peoples40--,,caldecott1 ,english ,colonization and ,empire 7#ahia71 p4 #aif4 #ged 8,in ,elizabeth's time ,sir ,john ,hawkins initiated the slave trade1 and in commemoration of the achievement was allowed to put in his coat of arms #8a demi-moor1 proper bound with a cord'2 the honorableness of his action being thus assumed by himself and recognized by ,queen and public40--,,spencer1 ,principles of ,ethics 7#ahib71 vol4 i1 p4 #dfh4 #gee ,by a provision of the ,peace of ,utrecht 7#agad7 ,england secured the contract known as the ,assiento1 which gave ,english subjects the sole right for thirty years of shipping annually #dhjj ,african slaves to the ,spanish colonies in ,america4 #gef ,in the ,southern colonies the opposition to the further importation of negroes sprang in general from the fear of the insurrection of the slaves1 should they become too numerous4 ,the little opposition that existed in some of the ,middle ,states was based almost wholly on economic grounds4 #geg ,the first abolition paper was established in #ahba1 but the movement it represented soon died out4 ,the movement started anew with the appearance of ,the ,liberator in #ahca4 ,see ,albert ,bushnell ,hart1 ,slavery and ,abolition 7#aijf71 pp4 #agc ff4 #geh 8,when ,garrison began his work1 he thought nothing was more like the spirit of ,christ 444 than to bring a whole race of people out of sin and debasement1 444 but he soon found that neither minister nor church anywhere in the lower ,south continued to protest against slavery2 that the cloth in the ,north was arrayed against him1 and that many northern divines entered the lists against abolition1 especially ,moses ,stuart1 ,professor of ,hebrew in ,andover ,theological ,seminary1 who justified slavery from the ,new ,testament2 ,president ,lord of ,dartmouth ,college1 who held that slavery was an institution of ,god1 according to natural law2 and ,hopkins1 ,episcopal bishop of ,vermont1 who came forward as a thick and thin defender of slavery4 ,the positive opposition of churches soon followed0 7,albert ,bushnell ,hart1 ,slavery and ,abolition 7#aijf71 p4 #baa74 ,in #ahcb took place the secession of students from ,lane ,seminary1 ,cincinnati1 because the trustees and ,dr4 ,lyman ,beecher had forbidden them to discuss the slavery question4 ,four fifths of the student body withdrew4 #gei ,cf4 ,henderson1 ,dependents1 ,defectives1 and ,delinquents 7#ahic72 ,zebulon ,r4 ,brockway1 ,fifty ,years of ,prison ,service 7#aiab74 #gfj ,the ,new ,york ,nation of ,march #ai1 #aijh1 p4 #bed4 #gfa ,the ,century ,magazine for ,september1 #aiab1 p4 #hhf4 #gfb ,pike1 ,a ,history of ,crime in ,england 7#ahgf71 vol4 i1 p4 #ej4 #gfc ,wines1 ,punishment and ,reformation1 #fth ed41 p4 #ajc4 #gfd ,pike1 ,a ,history of ,crime in ,england 7#ahgf71 vol4 ii1 p4 #bhg4 #gfe ,his ,essay on ,crimes and ,punishments appeared in #agfd and produced a profound impression4 ,it did much to abolish torture in judicial proceedings4 #gff 8,in proportion as punishments become more cruel1 the minds of men1 as a fluid rises to the same height with that which surrounds it1 grow hardened and insensible40--,,beccaria1 ,an ,essay on ,crimes and ,punishments 7#agic71 p4 #ie4 #gfg ,wines1 ,punishment and ,reformation1 #fth ed41 pp4 #abb ff4 #gfh ,the penitentiary system was inaugurated in #agjd by ,pope ,clement ,,xi1 who in that year established the ,hospital of ,st4 ,michael at ,rome4 ,for the history of the penitentiary movement see ,wines1 ,punishment and ,reformation4 #gfi 8,the whole conception and method of these courts suggests the religious spirit and almost startles us with its indication of the spiritualizing of the civil power40--,,edward ,o4 ,,sisson1 8,the ,state absorbing the ,functions of the ,church10 ,international ,journal of ,ethics for ,april1 #aijg1 p4 #cdd4 #ggj ,the progressive purification of the social conscience may be traced further in the changed feeling in regard to dueling1 lotteries1 gambling1 and the use of intoxicating liquors4 ,less than a century ago dueling was common among all the ,european peoples4 ,to-day in all ,anglo-,saxon lands the duel is condemned by the common conscience and prohibited by law4 ,during the last few decades in the ,united ,states lotteries have been transferred 8from the class of respectable to a class of criminal enterprises40 ,so too is it the growing moral disapproval of the use of alcoholic drinks that has caused drunkenness both in ,england and in our country to become much less common among the reputable members of society than it was only two or three generations ago4 #gga ,thus formulated by the distinguished jurist ,james ,brown ,scott4 ,cf4 ,report of the ,seventeenth ,annual ,lake ,mohonk ,conference 7#aiaa71 pp4 #ce ff4 ,professor ,scott here shows how the growth of juridical institutions between nations is similar to that within nations1 only later and slower4 ,the stages of this growth are self-redress1 arbitration1 courts of justice4 #ggb ,see ,sir ,charles ,bruce1 8,the ,modern ,conscience in ,relation to the ,treatment of ,dependent ,peoples and ,communities10 ,papers on ,inter-,racial ,problems 7#aiaa71 pp4 #bgi ff4 #ggc ,papers on ,inter-,racial ,problems 7#aiaa71 ed4 ,g4 ,spiller1 p4 #bhf4 #ggd ,for this subject viewed from a ,chinese standpoint1 see ,edward ,alsworth ,ross1 ,the ,changing ,chinese 7#aiaa71 p4 #agj4 #gge ,grotius 7,hugo de ,groot71 ,the ,rights of ,war and ,peace1 tr4 ,campbell 7#aija-aijc74 ,on ,grotius see ,hill1 ,history of ,diplomacy 7#aije-aijf71 vol4 ii1 pp4 #efi ff42 ,andrew ,d4 ,white1 ,seven ,great ,statesmen 7#aiaj71 pp4 #ee ff42 ,dunning1 ,a ,history of ,political ,theories 7#aije71 vol4 ii1 chap4 v4 #ggf ,andrew ,d4 ,white1 ,seven ,great ,statesmen 7#aiaj71 p4 #gi4 #ggg ,see above1 p4 #bdj4 #ggh ,james ,bryce1 ,studies in ,history and ,jurisprudence 7#aija71 vol4 ii1 p4 #afg4 #ggi ,hill1 ,history of ,diplomacy 7#aije-aijf71 vol4 ii1 p4 #egc4 #ghj ,seven ,great ,statesmen 7#aiaj71 p4 #gc4 #gha ,we cannot concur with the author1 ,norman ,angell1 of ,the ,great ,illusion in his contention that there will be no change in the practice of nations regarding war and preparations for war till there is a change in ideas respecting the economic advantage to be derived from successful war4 ,moral idealism1 finding expression in revolutions and reforms1 is constantly giving denial to the validity of the economic or materialistic interpretation of history when the economic motive is thus made the dominant motive in human action4 ,war will become a thing of the past only when men can no longer fight with a good conscience4 #ghb ,machiavelli 7,the ,romanes ,lecture for #ahig74 #ghc ,this archaic nature of the code is shown especially in its retention as a survival of the principle of collective responsibility1 which1 long outgrown by ordinary morality1 still forms the very basis of the war system4 ,again1 the true nature of the war code as a heritage from the low level of savagery is shown in its retention of the primitive rule that the one suffering an injury shall be the judge of his own cause and the avenger of his wrong1 a principle of self-redress long since discarded by the private law of all civilized peoples4 #ghd ,studies of ,political ,thought from ,gerson to ,grotius 7#aijg71 p4 #id4 #ghe ,pike1 ,a ,history of ,crime in ,england 7#ahgc71 vol4 i1 p4 #baa2 vol4 ii1 p4 #dad4 #ghf ,studies of ,political ,thought from ,gerson to ,grotius 7#aijg71 p4 #if4 #ghg ,telemachus was an ,asiatic monk who journeyed to ,rome for the purpose of making a protest against the bloody spectacles4 8,the ,romans were provoked by the interruption of their pleasures2 and the rash monk1 who had descended into the arena to separate the gladiators1 was overwhelmed under a shower of stones4 ,but the madness of the people soon subsided2 they respected the memory of ,telemachus1 who had deserved the honors of martyrdom2 and they submitted without a murmur to the laws of ,honorius1 which abolished forever the human sacrifices of the amphitheatre0 7,gibbon1 ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire1 chap4 xxx74 ,,index gospotami1 slaughter of ,athenian prisoners at1 #aid schylus1 #aia ,ahriman1 #abd ,ahura ,mazda1 #abd ,almsgiving1 #bha1 #cfh ,altruism1 ,greek and ,roman1 #age1 #bae2 ,christian1 #bgi ,amlineau1 #dd ,amos1 #ade ,amphictyonic ,league1 #aid ,amusements1 humanizing of1 #cfi ,ancestor worship1 as a moral force1 #ac2 in ,china1 #ed2 in ,japan1 #gh ,angell1 ,norman1 #cgf n4 #e ,animal ethics1 ,brahmanic1 #ajc2 ,buddhist1 #aai2 ,zoroastrian1 #abi2 ,mohammedan1 #bib2 ,christian1 #ceg2 influence of evolutionary science upon1 #ceh ,aphrodite1 #aga ,aquinas1 ,thomas1 #cah1 #cbe ,arbitration among the ,greeks1 #aie ,arhat1 the1 #aac ,aristotle1 views of1 on war against non-,greeks1 #ahj2 ethical system of1 #bjb-bjd2 views of1 on slavery1 #bjc ,asceticism1 general fostering causes of1 #bfg2 ,christian fostering causes of1 #bfh ,assur-natsir-pal1 #ea ,athleticism1 ,greek moral elements in1 #agg ,aurelius1 ,marcus1 ,meditations of1 #bci1 #bdg ,autolycus1 #ahe ,bagehot1 #bhg ,beccaria1 #cde1 #cgj ,benevolence1 ,roman1 #bcf ,blood feud1 #bj ,brahma1 the impersonal1 #if2 the personal1 #if ,brahmans1 the1 #ig1 #aja1 #ajb ,breasted1 ,professor1 #ca1 #ci n4 #c ,buckle1 ,henry ,t41 #a1 #b ,buddha1 #aaa2 ethical content of his message1 #aaf ,buddhism1 in ,japan1 #gi2 the four truths of1 #ajf2 the eightfold path of1 #aaj2 influence of1 on the military spirit1 #abj ,bury1 ,j4 ,b41 #agd ,bushido1 ideal of1 #gi1 #hj-hb2 influence of1 #hg2 in action1 #hh1 #hi ,cannibalism1 #bf2 celestial1 #bf n4 #c ,castes1 ,hindu1 #ig ,charity1 ,christian1 #bgi-bhb2 ,moslem1 #bif ,chinese cashiers in ,japan1 #ij n4 #b ,christianity1 doctrinal1 ethical ideal of1 #bfa2 limitations of the ideal of1 #bfd ,chrysostom1 ,dion1 #bdc ,cicero1 #bae2 contempt of1 for manual labor and merchandizing1 #bbd ,city state1 as the mold of ,greek morality1 #afi2 ,roman1 #bac2 effect of decay of1 on ,greek and ,roman morals1 #bjd1 #bba ,class morality1 #cdd ,clemency1 ,roman virtue1 #bdi ,clovis1 ,frankish chieftain1 #cjc ,cluny1 #cac ,collective responsibility1 #ah-bj2 doctrine of1 repudiated by ,hebrew prophets1 #aei2 principle of1 as embodied in ,church code rejected by the modern conscience1 #cfd2 a survival of1 in modern war code1 #cgh n4 #a ,competition1 in primitive society1 #ad ,confucianism1 #ec ,confucius1 #fj ,conscience1 new social1 nurtured in the medieval towns1 #ccj1 #cca2 purification in modern times1 #cfd-cga2 new international1 #cga-chb ,constantine the ,great1 #cjb ,continuance theory1 #ce-cg2 in the ,greek moral evolution1 #ahg ,corn1 moral effects of free distribution of1 at ,rome1 #bbd ,cosmopolitanism1 growth of1 in ,hellenistic ,age1 #bji2 in the ,roman ,empire1 #bcf-bdj ,courage1 altruistic element in1 #bb1 #age ,courtier1 ideal of the1 #cbh-ccj ,criticism1 higher1 #cce ,crusades1 as ideal of knighthood in action1 #cji ,cuba1 our 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first ,christian1 #bha ,hospitalers1 the1 #cjh ,hospitality1 #bd ,howard1 ,john1 #cgj ,howe1 ,julia ,ward1 #cbd ,humanitarianism1 growth of1 in ,hellenistic ,age1 #bjh2 in pre-,christian1 of ,roman ,empire1 #bcd-bcf2 advance of1 in modern times1 #cfi-cga ,ideal1 moral1 defined1 #e2 causes which determine1 #g-aj ,ilus1 prince of ,ephyra1 #agb ,immortality1 emergence of doctrine of1 in ,israel1 #afd-aff2 its ethical value1 #beg ,india1 ,government of ,india ,act1 #cgc ,industrial virtues1 ,persian1 #abh2 disesteemed by the ,greeks and ,romans1 #ahb1 #bbc2 cradled in the medieval towns1 #ccj2 effects upon1 of the dissolution of the monasteries1 #ccg ,industrialism1 modern1 relation to morals1 #cda2 ethics of1 #cdg-cec2 modern1 alliance of industry and science1 #cdg2 divorce of industry and ethics1 #cdh ,infanticide1 in ,china1 #gc2 condemned by ,christian teaching1 #bgh2 in ,greece1 #aha ,inheritance1 limitation of1 #cea ,inquisition1 #cbd-cbf ,insanity1 regarded as demon possession1 #bhb ,intellectual progress1 relation of1 to moral progress1 #cdb ,international law1 relation of1 to municipal law1 #cgb ,intertribal morality1 beginnings of1 #bb-bi ,intolerance1 ,jewish1 #afc2 ,christian1 #bfe1 #cbd2 ,mohammedan1 #bid ,intoxicating liquors1 use of1 prohibited by ,koran1 #bib1 #bif ,inventions1 relation of1 to moral progress1 #cda ,iona1 #bhj ,iron virgin of ,nuremberg1 #cha ,isaiah1 #adg2 the ,second1 #aeg1 #afa ,isis1 worship of1 in ,roman ,empire1 #beb ,ixion1 #ahg ,jeremiah1 #aea ,jesus of ,nazareth1 relation of1 to moral history of ,west1 #bfj ,judgment of ,dead1 ,egyptian1 #cf2 ,persian1 #acj ,justice1 ,greek virtue of1 #agf ,juvenal1 #bce ,karma1 #ajh ,ka-statues1 #cd ,kidd1 ,benjamin1 #b ,knighthood1 ideal of1 #cjf-cji2 contribution of1 to moral heritage of ,christendom1 #caa ,koran1 ethics of1 #bhi-bib ,labarum1 #cjb ,land values1 property in1 #cdi ,legge1 ,james1 #fh1 #fi ,leonidas1 #agf ,lex talionis1 #ba ,lindisfarne1 #bhj ,machiavelli1 #cbf-cbh ,machiavellism in politics1 #cbf-cbh2 in economics1 #cdh ,malta1 ,knights of1 #caj ,mandarin morality1 #fi ,melians1 #aib ,mencius1 #fj ,mendicant ,orders1 #caf-cah ,micah1 #adh ,milvian ,bridge1 battle of1 #cjb ,mithra1 #abe ,mithraism1 propaganda of1 in ,roman ,empire1 #bec ,mohammed1 #bhh1 #bij ,mohammedanism1 moral code of1 #bhi-bib ,monasteries1 cradle of modern social conscience1 #bgf2 dissolution of1 #ccf ,monastic ideal1 #bgj2 discredited by ,protestant ,reformation1 #ccf ,monasticism1 ,buddhist1 #aah2 ,christian1 #bfg-bhg ,monopoly in land1 #cej ,monotheism1 ethical1 emergence of1 in ,israel1 #aeh1 #aei ,morley1 ,lord1 #cgg ,nature1 ,law of1 #bdj ,negative ,confession1 #cg ,nemesis1 doctrine of1 #aij-aib ,nietzsche1 #cee1 #cef ,nirvana1 #aji ,nonresistance1 ,christian teaching of1 #cja1 #cjb ,occupation1 influence of1 on morals1 #i ,oisin1 #bgb n4 ,opium trade with ,china1 #cgc ,ordeals1 #cjd ,orphic doctrines1 #agd ,orthodoxy1 regarded as saving virtue1 #bfa ,osiris1 myth of1 #cb ,pachomius1 #dd ,patria potestas1 #bab ,paulsen1 ,friedrich1 #e n4 #a ,peace of ,god1 #cab ,peace1 universal1 an ideal of ,hebrew prophets1 #adf1 #adg ,peloponnesian ,war1 effects of1 on ,greek morality1 #aid1 #aie n4 #a ,penitential psalms1 ,babylonian1 #dg ,penitentiary system1 #cga ,persecution of ,christians by pagan ,roman emperors1 #bde ,pessimism1 in ,brahmanic system1 #ii2 in ,buddhist1 #ajg ,petrie1 ,flinders1 #ci ,philipson1 ,david1 #afh n4 #a ,philo1 #afh ,pindar1 #agi1 #ahf1 #ahh ,plato1 #bjj-bjb ,plutarch1 #baj1 #bdi ,poisoned arrows1 disuse of1 #bg1 #agb ,polygamy1 accepted as ethical by ,mohammed1 #bia ,private war1 restrictions on1 #cab-cad ,prophetism1 ,hebrew1 different elements of1 #adb ,psychical research1 import of1 for morals1 #cei ,ptah-hotep1 #dj ,purgatory1 effect of abolition of1 upon morals1 #ccg1 #cfb ,pythagoras1 #ahf ,pythagoreanism1 #aae ,ra1 son-god1 #ca ,ransom of war captives1 #cae ,red ,cross ,society1 #cgf ,reformation1 ,protestant1 #ccc-cci ,refuge1 cities of1 #aed ,religion1 relation of1 to morals1 #i1 #ad ,renaissance1 influence of1 on the moral evolution1 #cbj1 #cbb-cbd ,retribution theory1 #ce-cg2 in ,greek moral evolution1 #ahh ,revenge1 duty of1 #bj2 a ,greek virtue1 #ahc2 how regarded by ,roman moralists1 #bdi ,right belief regarded as a virtue1 #ccd ,ritual morality1 in ,india1 #ajf2 in ,israel1 #aea-aed1 #afb ,ruth1 the ,moabitess1 #aef ,sabbath1 #aej1 #bfj ,sacrifice1 in ,brahmanic system1 #ajj2 in ,israel1 #ach ,st4 ,ambrose1 #cjc ,st4 ,augustine1 #bhd1 #cjc ,st4 ,boniface1 #bhj ,st4 ,columba1 #bhj ,st4 ,dominic1 #caf1 #cag ,st4 ,francis1 #caf1 #cag ,st4 ,gall1 #bhj ,st4 ,patrick1 #bgb ,st4 ,wilfred1 #bhj ,saints1 ,lives of the1 #cji ,samurai1 #hj1 #hb1 #hg-ia ,sappho1 #agh ,schmidt1 ,nathaniel1 #aed n4 #b1 #bfj n4 #a ,scholasticism1 ethics of1 #cah ,science1 ethics of1 #cec-cfj ,scott1 ,james ,brown1 #cgb n4 #a ,self-redress1 a survival of1 in international law1 #cgh n4 #a ,seneca1 #bci1 #bdc1 #bdg1 #bdi1 #bej ,set1 ,egyptian god1 #cb ,shammai1 #afh ,sheol1 #aci ,shinto cult1 #gh ,single tax1 #cej n4 #a ,slave trade1 suppression of1 #cfd-cff ,slavery1 in ancient ,egypt1 #da2 among the ,hebrews1 #aef2 in ,greece1 #ahj1 #bjc2 ,roman1 #bbc2 ameliorations of1 under pagan ,roman emperors1 #bdc2 influence of ,christianity upon1 #bhb2 under ,islam1 #bij1 #bie2 prisoners of war sold as slaves1 #cad2 origin of word 8slave10 #cae2 abolition of ,african1 #cff ,smith1 ,w4 ,robertson1 #ab ,social ethics1 #cfd-cga ,socialism1 #ceb ,socrates1 #aig-bjj ,stoicism1 #bjf1 #bji2 influence of1 upon ,roman government and law1 #bda-bdc2 as a moral force1 #bda2 teachings of1 ,christian in tone1 #bdf-bdh2 insufficiency of1 as guide to the masses1 #bea2 contrasted with ,machiavellism1 #cbh ,stoics1 views of1 on slavery1 #bjc ,suicide1 among the ,japanese1 #he2 among the ,romans1 #bej2 condemned by ,christianity1 #bgi ,synagogue1 #afc1 #afd ,tantalus1 #ahg ,taoism1 #ef ,telemachus1 ,christian monk1 #cha n4 #a ,temperance1 ,greek virtue of1 #agf ,templars1 the1 #cjh ,terence1 #bch ,theology1 moralization of1 #cfj1 #cfa ,thirty ,years' ,war1 #cge ,thucydides1 #aib ,toleration1 under ,buddhism1 #aab1 #abj2 influence of doctrinal ,christianity upon virtue of1 #bhe2 how affected by the ,protestant ,reformation1 #cch ,towns1 medieval1 as molders of morals1 #cba1 #ccj ,transmigration1 #ih ,truce of ,god1 #cab-cad ,truthfulness1 virtue of1 ,japanese lack of reverence for1 #he2 highly esteemed by the ,persians1 #abh1 #acb-acd2 low estimation of1 among ,greeks1 #ahd ,tyrannicide1 among ,japanese1 #hf2 views of ,roman moralist on1 #bdi ,ulfilas1 bishop1 #cjd ,unearned increment1 #cdi ,universalism1 ethical1 pre-,christian1 #bcf ,urban ,,ii1 ,pope1 #cje ,usury1 #aee ,veracity1 fostered by science1 #cec ,vergil1 #bce ,vicarious suffering1 doctrine of1 #afj ,wager of battle1 #cjd2 disuse of1 #cca1 #ccb ,war1 abolition of1 a moral issue1 #cgf2 abrogation of the ordinary moral code by1 #cgg2 obsolescence of1 as school of morals1 #chj ,war ethics1 as group morality1 #bj2 as survival from barbarism1 #bj2 beginning of rules of1 #be-bi2 ,egyptian1 #db2 ,assyrian1 #ea2 ,chinese1 #fe2 ,brahmanic1 #ajd2 ,greek1 #aic-aie2 ,roman1 #bde n4 #a2 ,mohammedan1 #bij1 #bid2 syncretism of pagan war ethics and ,christian peace ethics1 #cjj-cjf2 influence of martial ethics of ,islam upon ,christian ethics1 #cje2 progress in1 in ,middle ,ages1 #cad-caf2 progress in1 in modern times1 #cge1 #cgf2 atavistic character of war code1 #cgh2 unfavorable reaction of1 upon peace code1 #cgh-chj ,wealth1 moral effects of unequal distribution of1 #bbh ,wedgwood1 ,julia1 #i ,wellhausen1 #c ,wisdom1 ,greek virtue of1 #agf ,world state1 ethical basis of1 #bbj ,wundt1 ,wilhelm1 #e ,zarathustra1 #abf ,zeno1 #bjf ,zoroaster1 see ,zarathustra ,transcriber's ,notes ,punctuation1 hyphenation1 and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in the original book2 otherwise they were not changed4 ,simple typographical errors were corrected2 unbalanced quotation marks were remedied when the change was obvious1 and otherwise left unbalanced4 ,footnotes1 originally at the bottoms of the pages that referenced them1 have been collected1 sequentially renumbered1 and placed at the end of the main text1 just before the ,index4 ,the ,index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references4 ,page #aei3 8the good ,osiris0 was printed that way1 but may be a misprint for 8the god ,osiris04