,transcriber's ,notes3      ,underscores
 80 before and after a word or phrase   
indicate italics      in the original   
text4    ,equal signs 80 before and     
after a word or phrase indicate bold    
in the original text4    ,small capitals
 have been converted to ,,solid         
capitals4    ,illustrations have been   
moved so they do not break up           
paragraphs4    ,old or antiquated       
spellings have been preserved4          
,typographical and punctuation errors   
have been silently corrected4           
,wiley  ,putnam's ,new ,publications4   
,,lectures                              
,,on                                    
,,agricultural                          
,,chemistry ,,and ,,geology2            
,,to ,,which ,,are ,,added1             
,,suggestions ,,for ,,experiments       
,,in ,,practical ,,agriculture4         
,,by                ,,jas4 ,f4 ,w4      
,,johnston1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,,ss4 ,l4  ,e4
        ,fellow of the ,geological      
,society1 ,honorary ,member of the      

,royal          ,agricultural ,society1 
c4 c42 ,reader in ,chemistry and        
,mineralogy in the ,university of       
,durham1 c4      ,these ,lectures will  
be divided into four ,parts1 of which   
the ,first is  now ready2 the others are
 in course of publication1 and the whole
 will  be completed in two volumes4     
,,outline ,,of ,,part ,i4--8,on the     
,organic ,constituents of               
,plants40--,lecture  ,i4 ,elementary    
substances of which plants subsist4     
,,ii4 and ,,iii4 ,compound  substances  
which minister to the growth of plants4 
,,iv4 ,sources from  which plants       
immediately derive their elementary     
constituents4 ,v4 ,how  the food enters 
into the circulation of plants--general 
structure of  plants4 ,,vi4 ,into what  
substances the food is changed in the   
interior  of plants--substances of which
 plants chiefly consist4 ,,vii4         
,chemical  changes by which the         
substances of which plants chiefly      
consist are  formed from those on which 

they live4 ,,viii4 ,how the supply of   
food for  plants is kept up in the      
general vegetation of the globe4        
,,outline ,,of ,,part ,,ii4--8,on the   
,inorganic ,constituents of ,plants--the
  ,origin1 ,classification1 and         
,chemical ,constitution of              
,soils--,general  and ,special          
,relations of ,geology to               
,agriculture--,origin1 ,constitution1   
,analyses1 and ,methods of ,improving   
,soils in different ,districts and      
under unlike conditions4--,lecture ,,ix4
 ,kind and proportion of inorganic      
matter contained in plants4 ,x4         
,properties of the inorganic compounds  
which exist in vegetable substances1 or 
which promote their growth4 ,,xi4  ,of  
the nature1 origin1 and classification  
of soils--,structure of the  earth's    
crust--,classification and general      
characters of the stratified            
rocks--,agricultural capabilities of the
 soils derived from them4 ,,xii4        
,granite and trap rocks1 and the soils  

derived from them--,superficial         
accumulations4 ,,xiii4 ,on the exact    
chemical constitution1 the analysis1    
and the physical properties of soils4   
,,part ,,iii4--,methods of improving the
 soil by mechanical and by chemical     
means--,manures1 their nature1          
composition1 and mode of action--theory 
of  their application in different      
localities4    ,,part ,,iv4--,the       
results of vegetation--the nature1      
constitution1 and  nutritive properties 
of different kinds of produce1 and by   
different  modes of cultivation--the    
feeding of cattle1 the making of cheese1
 c4  c4 ,the constitution and           
differences of various kinds of wood1   
and the  circumstances which favour     
their growth4      ,,critical ,,notices4
    8,a valuable and interesting course 
of lectures40--,quarterly ,review4      
8,but it is unnecessary to make large   
extracts from a book which we  hope and 
trust will soon be in the hands of      
nearly all our readers4  ,considering it

 as unquestionably the most important   
contribution that  has recently been    
made to popular science1 and as destined
 to exert an  extensively beneficial    
influence in this country1 we shall not 
fail  to notice the forthcoming portions
 as soon as they appear from the        
press40--,silliman's ,american ,journal 
of ,science4 ,notice of ,part ,i of  the
 ,american reprint4    8,we think it no 
compliment to ,professor ,johnston to   
say1 that among  our own writers of the 
present day who have recently been      
endeavouring  to improve our agriculture
 by the aid of science1 there is        
probably no  other who has been more    
eminently successful1 or whose efforts  
have  been more highly                  
appreciated40--,county ,herald4         
8,prof4 ,johnston is one who has himself
 done so much already for ,english      
agriculture1 that to behold him still in
 hot pursuit of the inquiry  into what  
can be done1 supplies of itself a       
stimulus to further  exertion on the    

part of others40--,berwick ,warder4     
,,elements                              
,,of                                    
,,agricultural                          
,,chemistry ,,and ,,geology4            
,,by             ,,jas4 ,f4 ,w4         
,,johnston1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41          
,,honorary ,,member ,,of ,,the ,,royal  
,,english ,,agricultural      ,,society1
 ,,and ,,author ,,of 8,,lectures ,,on   
,,agricultural                          
,,chemistry ,,and ,,geology40           
,,new-,,york3                           
,,wiley ,,and ,,putnam4                 
,,mdcccxlii4                     ,j4 ,p4
 ,,wright1 ,printer1                    
#ah ,new ,street1 ,n4 ,y4               
,,introduction4      ,the scientific    
principles upon which the art of culture
 depends1 have  not hitherto been       
sufficiently understood or appreciated  
by practical  men4 ,into the causes of  
this ,i shall not here inquire4 ,i may  
remark1  however1 that if ,agriculture  
is ever to be brought to that           

comparative  state of perfection to     
which many other arts have already      
attained1 it  will only be by availing  
itself1 as they have done1 of the many  
aids  which ,science offers to it2 and  
that1 if the practical man is ever to   
realize upon his farm all the advantages
 which ,science is capable of  placing  
within his reach1 it will only be when  
he has become so far  acquainted with   
the connection that exists between the  
art by which he  lives and the sciences1
 especially of ,chemistry and ,geology1 
as to be  prepared to listen with       
candour to the suggestions they are     
ready to  make to him1 and to attach    
their proper value to the explanations  
of  his various processes which they are
 capable of affording4    ,the following
 little ,treatise is intended to present
 a familiar outline  of the subjects of 
,agricultural ,chemistry and ,geology1  
as treated of  more at large in my      
,,lectures1 of which the first ,part is 
now before the  public4 ,what in this   

work has necessarily been taken for     
granted1 or  briefly noticed1 is in the 
,,lectures examined1 discussed1 or more 
fully  detailed4    ,durham1 #hth       
,april1 #ahdb4          ,,contents4     
,,chapter ,i4                           
,,page      ,distinction between        
,organic and ,inorganic ,substances     
--,the ,ash of ,plants--,constitution of
 the ,organic          ,parts of        
,plants--,preparation and ,properties of
          ,carbon1 ,oxygen1 ,hydrogen1  
and ,nitrogen--,meaning          of     
,chemical ,combination4                 
#ac                           ,,chapter 
,,ii4        ,form in which these       
different ,substances enter into        
,plants--,properties of the ,carbonic1  
,humic1 and          ,ulmic ,acids2 of  
,water1 of ,ammonia1 and of ,nitric     
,acid--,constitution of the ,atmosphere4
                     #be                
,,chapter ,,iii4        ,structure of   
,plants--,mode in which their           
,nourishment          is                

obtained--,growth and ,substance of     
,plants--          ,production of their 
,substance from the ,food they          
imbibe--,mutual ,transformations of     
,starch1 ,sugar1          and ,woody    
,fibre4                                 
#ch                           ,,chapter 
,,iv4        ,of the ,inorganic         
,constituents of ,plants--,their        
immediate ,source--,their               
,nature--,quantity of each          in  
certain common ,crops4                  
#di                           ,,chapter 
,v4        ,of ,soils--,their ,organic  
and ,inorganic ,portions--,saline       
,matter in ,soils--,examination and     
,classification of                      
,soils--,diversities of ,soils and      
,subsoils4                 #fg          
,,chapter ,,vi4        ,direct          
,relations of ,geology to               
,agriculture--,origin          of       
,soils--,causes of their                
,diversity--,relation to          the   
,rocks on which they rest--,constancy in

 the          ,relative ,position and   
,character of the ,stratified           
,rocks--,relation of this ,fact to      
,practical                              
,agriculture--,general ,characters of   
the ,soils upon          these ,rocks4  
#gh                          ,,chapter  
,,vii4        ,soils of the ,granitic   
and ,trap ,rocks--,accumulations        
of ,transported ,sands1 ,gravels1 and   
,clays--,use          of ,geological    
,maps in reference to                   
,agriculture--,physical ,characters and 
,chemical          ,constitution of     
,soils--,relation between the ,nature   
of the ,soil and the ,kind of ,plants   
that naturally          grow upon it4   
#ajc                          ,,chapter 
,,viii4        ,of the ,improvement of  
the ,soil--,mechanical and ,chemical    
,methods--,draining--,subsoiling--,ploug
hing1 and ,mixing          of           
,soils--,use of ,lime1 ,marl1 and       
,shell-sand--                           
,manures--,vegetable1 ,animal1 and      

,mineral ,manures4         #acc         
,,chapter ,,ix4        ,animal          
,manures--,their ,relative ,value and   
,mode of          ,action--,difference  
between ,animal and ,vegetable          
,manures--,cause of this                
,difference--,mineral ,manures--        
,nitrates of ,potash and                
,soda--,sulphate of ,soda1              
,gypsum1 ,chalk1 and                    
,quicklime--,chemical ,action of        
these ,manures--,artificial             
,manures--,burning and                  
,irrigation of the ,soil--,planting and 
,laying ,down          to ,grass4       
#afe                           ,,chapter
 ,x4        ,the ,products of           
,vegetation--,importance of ,chemical   
quality as well as quantity of          
,produce--,influence          of        
different ,manures on the quantity and  
quality          of the                 
,crop--,influence of the ,time of       
,cutting--          ,absolute quantity  
of ,food yielded by different ,crops    

--,principles on which the ,feeding of  
,animals depends          --,theoretical
 and ,experimental ,value of different  
kinds          of ,food for ,feeding    
,stock--,concluding ,observations4      
#baf                                    
,,elements                              
,,of                                    
,,agricultural ,,chemistry1 c4          
,,chapter ,i4          ,distinction     
between ,organic and ,inorganic         
,substances4--,the ,ash of              
,plants4--,constitution          of the 
,organic ,parts of                      
,plants4--,preparation          and     
,properties of ,carbon1 ,hydrogen1 and  
,nitrogen4--,meaning of ,chemical       
,combination4    ,the object of the     
practical farmer is to raise from a     
given extent of  land the largest       
quantity of the most valuable produce at
 the least  cost1 and with the least    
permanent injury to the soil4 ,the      
sciences  either of chemistry or geology
 throw light on every step he takes or  

ought to take1 in order to effect this  
main object4      ,,section ,i4--,,of   
,,the ,,vegetable ,,and ,,earthy ,,or   
,,the ,,organic ,,and ,,inorganic       
,,parts ,,of ,,plants4    ,in the       
prosecution of his art1 two distinct    
classes of substances  engage his       
attention--the living crops he raises1  
and the dead  earth from which they are 
gathered4 ,if he examine any fragment of
  an animal or vegetable1 either living 
or dead1 he will observe that  it       
exhibits pores of various kinds arranged
 in a certain order--that  it has a     
species of internal structure--that it  
has various parts or  organs--in short1 
that it is what physiologists term      
organized4 ,if  he examine1 in like     
manner1 a lump of earth or rock1 he will
 perceive  no such structure4 ,to mark  
this distinction1 the parts of animals  
and  vegetables1 either living or       
dead--whether entire or in a state of   
decay1 are called organic bodies1 while 
earthy and stony substances  are called 

inorganic bodies4    ,organic substances
 are also more or less readily burned   
and dissipated  by heat in the open air2
 inorganic substances are generally     
fixed and  permanent in the fire4       
,but the crops which grow upon it1 and  
the soil in which they are  rooted1     
contain a portion of both of these      
classes of substances4 ,in  all fertile 
soils1 there exists from #c to #aj per  
cent4 of vegetable  or other matter of  
organic origin2 while1 on the other     
hand1 all  vegetables1 as they are      
collected for food1 leave1 when burned1 
from  one-half to twenty per cent4 of   
inorganic ash4    ,if we heat a portion 
of soil to redness in the open air1 the 
organic  matter will burn away1 and1 in 
general1 the soil1 if previously  dry1  
will not be materially diminished in    
bulk4 ,but if a handful of  wheat1 or of
 wheat straw1 or of hay1 be burned in   
the same manner1  the proportion that   
disappears is so great1 that in most    
cases a  comparatively minute quantity  

only remains behind4 ,every one is      
familiar with this fact who has seen the
 small bulk of ash that is left  when   
weeds1 or thorns1 or trees1 are burned  
in the field1 or when a  hay or         
corn-stack is accidentally consumed4    
,yet the ash thus left is a  very       
appreciable quantity1 and the study of  
its true nature throws much  light1 as  
we shall hereafter see1 on the practical
 management of the  land on which any   
given crop is to be made to grow4       
,thus the quantity of ash left by a ton 
of wheat straw is sometimes as  much as 
#cfj lbs42 by a ton of oat straw as much
 as #bjj lbs42 while a  ton of the grain
 of wheat leaves only about #dj lbs42 of
 the grain of  oats about #ij lbs42 and 
of oak wood only #d or #e lbs4 ,the     
quantities of  inorganic matter1        
therefore1 though comparatively small1  
yet1 in some  cases1 amount to a        
considerable weight in an entire crop4  
,the nature1  source and uses of this   
earthy matter will be explained in a    

subsequent  chapter4      ,,section     
,,ii4--,,constitution ,,of ,,the        
,,organic ,,part ,,of ,,plants ,,and    
,,animals4    ,the organic part of      
plants1 when in a perfectly dry state1  
constitutes  therefore from #he to #ii  
per cent4 of their whole weight4 ,of    
those parts  of plants which are        
cultivated for food1 it is only hay and 
straw1 and  a very few others1 that     
contain as much as #aj per cent4 of     
inorganic  matter4    ,this organic part
 consists of four substances1 known to  
chemists by the  names of carbon1       
hydrogen1 oxygen1 and nitrogen4 ,the    
first of these1  carbon1 is a solid     
substance1 the other three are gases or 
peculiar  kinds of air4    #a4 ,,carbon4
 ,when wood is burned in a covered heap1
 as is done by the  charcoal burners1 or
 is distilled in iron retorts1 as in    
making  wood-vinegar1 it is charred and 
converted into common wood charcoal4    
,this charcoal is the most usual and    
best known variety of carbon4 ,it  is   

black1 soils the fingers1 and is more or
 less porous according  to the kind of  
wood from which it has been formed4     
,coke obtained by  charring or          
distilling coal is another variety4 ,it 
is generally denser  or heavier than the
 former1 though less pure4 ,black lead  
is a third  variety1 still heavier and  
more impure4 ,the diamond is the only   
form in  which carbon occurs in nature  
in a state of perfect purity4    ,this  
latter fact1 that the diamond is pure   
carbon--that it is  essentially the same
 substance with the finest and purest   
lamp-black--is  very remarkable2 but it 
is only one of many striking            
circumstances that  every now and then  
present themselves before the inquiring 
chemist4    ,charcoal1 the diamond1     
lamp-black1 and all the other forms of  
carbon1  burn away more or less slowly  
when heated in the air1 and are         
converted  into a kind of gas known by  
the name of carbonic acid4 ,the impure  
varieties leave behind them a greater or

 less proportion of ash4    #b4         
,,hydrogen4--,if oil of vitriol         
7sulphuric acid7 be mixed with twice    
its bulk of water1 and then poured upon 
iron filings1 the mixture will  speedily
 begin to boil up1 and bubbles of gas   
will rise to the surface  of the liquid 
in great abundance4 ,these are bubbles  
of hydrogen gas4    ,if the experiment  
be performed in a bottle1 the hydrogen  
which is  produced will gradually drive 
out the atmospheric air it contained1   
and will itself take its place4 ,if a   
bit of wax taper be tied to the  end of 
a wire1 and when lighted be introduced  
into the bottle1 it will  be instantly  
extinguished2 while the hydrogen will   
take fire1 and burn  at the mouth of the
 bottle with a pale yellow flame4 ,if   
the taper be  inserted before the common
 air is all expelled1 the mixture of    
hydrogen  and common air will burn with 
an explosion more or less violent1  and 
may even shatter the bottle and produce 
serious accidents4 ,this  experiment1   

therefore1 ought to be made with care4  
,it may be safely  made in an open      
tumbler1 covered by a plate or a piece  
of paper1 till a  sufficient quantity of
 hydrogen is collected1 when1 on the    
introduction  of the taper1 the light   
will be extinguished1 and the hydrogen  
will  burn with a less violent          
explosion4    ,this gas is also an      
exceedingly light substance1 rising     
through common  air as wood does through
 water4 ,hence1 when confined in a bag  
made  of silk1 or other light tissue1 it
 is capable of sustaining heavy         
substances in the air1 and even of      
transporting them to great heights4     
,for this reason it is employed for     
filling and elevating balloons4         
,hydrogen gas is not known to occur     
anywhere in nature in any sensible      
quantity4 ,it is very abundant1 as we   
shall hereafter see1 in what by         
chemists is called a state of           
combination4    #c4 ,,oxygen4--,when    
strong oil of vitriol is poured upon    

black oxide of  manganese1 and heated in
 a glass retort3 or when red oxide of   
mercury1  or chlorate of potash1 is so  
heated alone2 or when saltpetre1 or the 
same oxide of manganese1 is heated alone
 in an iron bottle2--in all  these cases
 a kind of air is given off1 which1 when
 collected and  examined by plunging a  
taper into it1 is found to be neither   
common  air nor hydrogen gas4 ,the      
taper1 when introduced1 burns with great
  rapidity1 and with exceeding          
brilliancy1 and continues to burn till  
either the whole of the gas disappears1 
or the taper is entirely  consumed4 ,if 
a living animal is introduced1 its      
circulation and its  breathing become   
quicker--it is speedily thrown into a   
fever--it lives as  fast as the taper   
burned--and1 after a few hours1 dies    
from excitement  and exhaustion4 ,this  
gas is not light like hydrogen1 but is  
about  one-ninth part heavier than      
common air4    ,in the atmosphere1      
oxygen exists in the state of gas4 ,it  

forms about  one-fifth of the bulk of   
the air we breathe1 and is the substance
  which1 in the air1 supports all animal
 life and the combustion of  all burning
 bodies4 ,were it by any cause suddenly 
removed from the  atmosphere of our     
globe1 every living thing would perish1 
and all  combustion would become        
impossible4    #d4 ,,nitrogen4--,if a   
saucer be half filled with milk of lime1
 formed by  mixing slaked quicklime with
 water1 a very small tea-cup containing 
a little burning sulphur then placed in 
the middle1 and a common large  tumbler 
inverted over the whole1 the sulphur    
will burn for a while1 and  will then   
gradually die out4 ,on allowing the     
whole to remain for some  time1 the     
fumes of the sulphur will be absorbed by
 the milk of lime1  which will rise a   
certain way into the tumbler4 ,when the 
absorption has  ceased1 a quantity of   
air will remain in the upper part of the
 tumbler4  ,this air is nitrogen gas4   
,if the whole be now introduced into a  

large basin of water1 the tumbler  being
 held in the left hand1 the cup and     
saucer may be removed from  beneath4    
,the saucer may then be inverted and    
introduced with its under  side into the
 mouth of the tumbler1 which may thus be
 lifted out of  the water and restored  
to its upright position1 the saucer     
serving the  purpose of a cover4 ,by    
carefully removing this cover with the  
one hand1  a lighted taper may be       
introduced by the other4 ,it will then  
be seen  that the taper is extinguished 
by this air1 and that no other effect   
follows4 ,or if a living animal be      
introduced into it1 breathing will      
instantly cease1 and it will drop       
without signs of life4    ,this gas     
possesses no other remarkable property4 
,it is a very little  lighter than      
common air1 and is known to exist in    
large quantity in the  atmosphere only4 
,of the air we breathe it forms nearly  
four-fifths of  the entire bulk4        
,these three gases are incapable of     

being distinguished from common  air1 or
 from each other1 by the ordinary       
senses2 but by the aid of the  taper    
they are readily recognised4 ,hydrogen  
extinguishes the taper1 but  itself     
takes fire2 nitrogen simply extinguishes
 it2 while in oxygen the  taper burns   
with extraordinary brilliancy and       
rapidity4    ,of this one solid         
substance1 carbon1 and these three      
gases1 hydrogen1  oxygen1 and nitrogen1 
all the organic part of vegetable and   
animal  substances is made up4    ,into 
these substances1 however1 they enter in
 very different  proportions4 ,nearly   
one-half the weight of all vegetable    
productions  which are gathered as food 
for man or beast--in their dry          
state--consists  of carbon2 the oxygen  
amounts to rather more than one-third1  
the  hydrogen to little more than five  
per cent41 while the nitrogen rarely    
exceeds two and a half or three per     
cent4 of their weight4    ,this will    
appear from the following table1 which  

exhibits the actual  constitution by    
analysis of some varieties of the more  
common crops  when perfectly dry4       
,carbon4  ,hydrogen4  ,oxygen4          
,nitrogen4  ,ash4      ,hay1            
#deh       #ej       #chg       #ae     
#ij      ,potatoes1       #dda       #eh
       #dci       #ab        #ej        
,wheat ,straw1    #dhe       #eb        
#chi       #c       #gj      ,oats1     
#ejg       #fd       #cfg       #bb     
#dj    ,these numbers represent the     
weights of each element in pounds1      
contained in #ajjj lbs4 of the dry hay1 
potatoes1 c42 but in drying by  a gentle
 heat1 #ajjj lbs4 of hay from the stack1
 lost #aeh lbs4 of water1  of potatoes  
wiped dry externally #gbb lbs41#a wheat 
straw #bfj lbs41 and  oats #aea lbs4    
#a ,both potatoes and turnips contain   
about four-fifths of their weight  of   
water1 or five tons of either of these  
roots contain nearly four  tons of      
water4      ,,section ,,iii4--,,of ,,the
 ,,meaning ,,of ,,chemical              

,,combination4    ,if the three kinds of
 air above spoken of be mixed together  
in a  bottle1 no change will take place1
 and if charcoal in fine powder be      
added to them1 still no new substance   
will be produced4 ,if we take the  ash  
left by a known weight of hay or wheat  
straw1 and mix it with the  proper      
quantities of the four elementary       
substances1 carbon1 hydrogen1  c41 as   
shewn in the above table1 we shall be   
unable by this means  to form either hay
 or wheat straw4 ,the elements of which 
vegetable  substances consist1          
therefore1 are not merely mixed         
together--they are  united in some      
closer and more intimate manner4 ,to    
this more intimate  state of union1 the 
term chemical combination is            
applied--the elements  are said to be   
chemically combined4    ,thus1 when     
charcoal is burned in the air1 it slowly
 disappears1 and  forms1 as already     
stated1 a kind of air known by the name 
of carbonic  acid gas1 which rises into 

the atmosphere and disappears4 ,now1    
this  carbonic acid is formed by the    
union of the carbon 7charcoal71 while   
burning1 with the oxygen of the         
atmosphere1 and in this new air the two 
elements1 carbon and oxygen1 are        
chemically combined4    ,again1 if a    
piece of wood or a bit of straw1 in     
which the elements are  already         
chemically combined1 be burned in the   
air1 these elements are  separated and  
made to assume new states of            
combination1 in which new  states they  
escape into the air and become          
invisible4 ,when a substance  is thus   
changed by the action of heat1 it is    
said to be decomposed1  or if it        
gradually decay and perish by exposure  
to the air and  moisture1 it undergoes  
slow decomposition4    ,when1 therefore1
 two or more substances unite together1 
so as to  form a third possessing       
properties different from both1 they    
enter  into chemical union--they form a 
chemical combination or chemical        

compound4 ,when1 on the other hand1 one 
compound body is so changed  as to be   
converted into two or more substances   
different from itself1  it is           
decomposed4 ,carbon1 hydrogen1 c41 are  
chemically combined in  the interior of 
the plant during the formation of wood3 
wood1 again1  is decomposed when by the 
vinegar-maker it is converted among     
other  substances into charcoal and     
wood-vinegar1 and the flour of grain    
when  the brewer or distiller converts  
it into ardent spirits4                 
,,chapter ,,ii4          ,form in which 
these different substances enter into   
,plants4 ,properties of the ,carbonic1  
,humic1 and          ,ulmic ,acids--of  
,water1 of ,ammonia1 and of ,nitric     
,acid4 ,constitution of the ,atmosphere4
      ,,section ,i4--,,form ,,in ,,which
 ,,the ,,carbon1 ,,etc4 ,,enter ,,into  
,,plants4    ,it is from their food that
 plants derive the carbon1 hydrogen1    
oxygen1  and nitrogen1 of which their   
organic part consists4 ,this food enters

  partly by the minute pores of their   
roots1 and partly by those which  exist 
in the green part of the leaf and of the
 young twig4 ,the roots  bring up food  
from the soil1 the leaves take it in    
directly from the  air4    ,now1 as the 
pores in the roots and leaves are very  
minute1 carbon  7charcoal7 cannot enter 
into either in a solid state2 and as it 
does  not dissolve in water1 it cannot1 
in the state of simple carbon1 be any   
part of the food of plants4 ,again1     
hydrogen gas neither exists in the  air 
nor usually in the soil--so that1       
although hydrogen is always found  in   
the substance of plants1 it does not    
enter them in the state of the  gas     
above described4 ,oxygen exists in the  
air1 and is directly absorbed  both by  
the leaves and by the roots of plants2  
while nitrogen1 though  it forms a large
 part of the atmosphere1 is not supposed
 to enter  directly into plants in any  
considerable quantity4    ,the whole of 
the carbon and hydrogen1 and the greater

 part of the  oxygen and nitrogen also1 
enter into plants in a state of chemical
  combination with other substances2 the
 carbon chiefly in the state of         
carbonic acid1 and of certain other     
soluble compounds which exist  in the   
soil2 the hydrogen and oxygen in the    
form of water3 and the  nitrogen in     
those of ammonia or nitric acid4 ,it    
will be necessary  therefore briefly to 
describe these several compounds4       
,,section ,,ii4--,,of ,,the ,,carbonic1 
,,humic1 ,,and ,,ulmic ,,acids4    #a4  
,,carbonic ,,acid4--,if a few pieces of 
chalk or limestone be put into  the     
bottom of a tumbler1 and a little spirit
 of salt 7muriatic acid7  be poured upon
 them1 a boiling up or effervescence    
will take place1  and a gas will be     
given off1 which will gradually collect 
and fill the  tumbler2 and when produced
 very rapidly1 may even be seen to run  
over  its edges4 ,this gas is carbonic  
acid4 ,it cannot be distinguished from  
common air by the eye2 but if a taper be

 plunged into it1 the flame  will       
immediately be extinguished1 while the  
gas remains unchanged4  ,this kind of   
air is so heavy1 that it may be poured  
from one vessel  into another1 and its  
presence recognised by the taper4 ,it   
has also a  peculiar odour1 and is      
exceedingly suffocating1 so that if a   
living  animal be introduced into it1   
life immediately ceases4 ,it is absorbed
  by water1 a pint of water absorbing or
 dissolving a pint of the gas4          
,carbonic acid exists in the atmosphere2
 it is given off from the lungs  of all 
living animals while they breathe2 it is
 also produced largely  during the      
burning of wood1 coal1 and all other    
combustible bodies1 so  that an         
unceasing supply of this gas is poured  
into the air4 ,decaying  animal and     
vegetable substances also give off this 
gas1 and hence it is  always present in 
greater or less abundance in the soil1  
and especially  in such soils as are    
rich in vegetable matter4 ,during the   

fermentation  of malt liquors1 or of the
 expressed juices of different          
fruits1--the  apple1 the pear1 the      
grape1 the gooseberry--it is produced1  
and the  briskness of such fermented    
liquors is due to the escape of this    
gas4  ,from the dung and compost heap it
 is also given off2 and when put into   
the ground in a fermenting state1       
farm-yard manure affords a rich  supply 
of carbonic acid to the young plant4    
,carbonic acid consists of carbon and   
oxygen only1 combined together in  the  
proportion of #bh of the former to #gb  
of the latter1 or #ajj lbs4 of  carbonic
 acid contain #bh lbs4 of carbon and #gb
 lbs4 of oxygen4    #b4 ,,humic ,,and   
,,ulmic ,,acids4--,the soil always      
contains a portion of  vegetable matter 
7called humus by some writers71 and such
 matter is  always added to it when it  
is manured from the farm-yard or the    
compost  heap4 ,during the decay of this
 vegetable matter1 carbonic acid1 as    
above stated1 is given off in large     

quantity1 but other substances  are also
 formed at the same time4 ,among these  
are the two to which  the names of humic
 and ulmic acids are respectively given4
 ,they both  contain much carbon1 are   
both capable of entering the roots of   
plants1  and both1 no doubt1 in         
favourable circumstances1 help to feed  
the plant4    ,if the common soda of the
 shops be dissolved in water1 and a     
portion  of a rich vegetable soil1 or a 
bit of peat1 be put into this solution1 
and the whole boiled1 a brown liquid is 
obtained4 ,if to this brown  liquid1    
spirit of salt 7muriatic acid7 be added 
till it is sour to the  taste1 a brown  
flocky powder falls to the bottom4 ,this
 brown substance  is humic acid4 ,but if
 in this process we use spirit of       
hartshorn  7liquid ammonia71 instead of 
the soda1 ulmic acid is obtained4       
,these acids exist along with other     
substances in the rich brown liquor  of 
the farm-yard1 which is so often allowed
 to run to waste2 they are  also        

produced in greater or less quantity    
during the decay of the  manure after it
 is mixed with the soil1 and no doubt   
yield to the plant  a portion of that   
supply of food which it must necessarily
 receive from  the soil4      ,,section 
,,iii4--,,of ,,water1 ,,ammonia1 ,,and  
,,nitric ,,acid4    #a4 ,,water4--,if   
hydrogen be prepared in a bottle1 in the
 way already  described1 and a          
gas-burner be fixed into its mouth1 the 
hydrogen may  be lighted1 and will burn 
as it escapes into the air4 ,held over  
this  flame a cold tumbler will become  
covered with dew1 or with little drops  
of water4 ,this water is produced during
 the burning of the hydrogen2  and as it
 takes place in pure oxygen gas as well 
as in the open air1  this water must    
contain the hydrogen and oxygen which   
disappear1 or  must consist of hydrogen 
and oxygen only4    ,this is a very     
interesting fact2 and were it not that  
chemists are now  familiar with many    
such1 it could not fail to appear truly 

wonderful  that the two gases1 oxygen   
and hydrogen1 by their union1 should    
form so  very different a substance as  
water is from either4 ,it consists of #a
  of hydrogen to #h of oxygen1 or every 
#i lbs4 of water contain #h lbs4 of     
oxygen and #a lb4 of hydrogen4    ,water
 is so familiar a substance1 that it is 
unnecessary to dwell upon  its          
properties4 ,when pure1 it has neither  
colour1 taste1 nor smell4 ,at  #cb of   
,fahrenheit's#b scale 7the freezing     
point71 it solidifies into  ice1 and at 
#bab it boils1 and is converted into    
steam4 ,there are two  others of its    
properties which are especially         
interesting in connection  with the     
growth of plants4    #b ,this is the    
scale of the common thermometer used in 
this country4    #ast1 ,if sugar or salt
 be put into water1 they disappear or   
are  dissolved4 ,water has the power of 
thus dissolving numerous other          
substances in greater or less quantity4 
,hence1 when the rain falls  and sinks  

into the soil1 it dissolves some of the 
soluble substances  it meets in its way1
 and rarely reaches the roots of plants 
in a pure  state4 ,so waters that rise  
up in springs are rarely pure4 ,they    
always  contain earthy and saline       
substances in solution1 and these they  
carry  with them1 when they are sucked  
in by the roots of plants4    ,it has   
been above stated1 that water absorbs   
7dissolves7 its own bulk  of carbonic   
acid2 it dissolves also smaller         
quantities of the oxygen  and nitrogen  
of the atmosphere2 and hence1 when it   
meets any of these  gases in the soil1  
it becomes impregnated with them1 and   
conveys them  into the plant1 there to  
serve as a portion of its food4    #b;d1
 ,water is composed of oxygen and       
hydrogen2 by certain chemical  processes
 it can readily be resolved or          
decomposed artificially into  these two 
gases4 ,the same thing takes place      
naturally in the interior  of the living
 plant4 ,the roots absorb the water1 but

 if in any part  of the plant hydrogen  
be required1 to make up the substance   
which it  is the function of that part  
to produce1 a portion of the water is   
decomposed and worked up1 while the     
oxygen is set free1 or converted to     
some other use4 ,so1 also1 in any case  
where oxygen is required water is       
decomposed1 the oxygen made use of1 and 
the hydrogen liberated4 ,water1         
therefore1 which abounds in the vessels 
of all growing plants1 if not  directly 
converted into the substance of the     
plant1 is yet a ready and  ample source 
from which a supply of either of the    
elements of which it  consists may at   
any time be obtained4    ,it is a       
beautiful adaptation of the properties  
of this all-pervading  compound 7water71
 that its elements should be so fixedly 
bound together  as rarely to separate in
 external nature1 and yet to be at the  
command  and easy disposal of the vital 
powers of the humblest order of living  
plants4    #b4 ,,ammonia4--,if the sal  

ammoniac of the shops be mixed with     
quicklime1  a powerful odour is         
immediately perceived1 and an invisible 
gas is  given off which strongly affects
 the eyes4 ,this gas is ammonia4 ,water 
dissolves or absorbs it in very large   
quantity1 and this solution forms  the  
common hartshorn of the shops4 ,the     
white solid smelling-salts of  the shops
 are a compound of ammonia with carbonic
 acid1--a solid formed  by the union of 
two gases4    ,the gaseous ammonia      
consists of nitrogen and hydrogen only1 
in the  proportion of #ad of the former 
to #c of the latter1 or #ag lbs4 of     
ammonia contain #c lbs4 of hydrogen4    
,the chief natural source of this       
compound is1 in the decay of animal     
substances4 ,during the putrefaction of 
dead animal bodies ammonia is           
invariably given off4 ,from the animal  
substances of the farm-yard it is       
evolved1 and from all solid and liquid  
manures of animal origin4 ,it is  also  
formed in lesser quantity during the    

decay of vegetable substances  in the   
soil2 and in volcanic countries1 it     
escapes from many of the hot  lavas1 and
 from the crevices in the heated rocks4 
,it is produced artificially by the     
distillation of animal substances       
7hoofs1 horns1 c471 or of coal4         
,thousands of tons of the ammonia       
present in the ammoniacal liquors of the
 gas-works1 which might be  beneficially
 applied as a manure1 are annually      
carried down by the  rivers1 and lost in
 the sea4    ,the ammonia which is given
 off during the putrefaction of animal  
substances rises partially into the air1
 and floats in the atmosphere1  till it 
is either decomposed by natural causes1 
or is washed down by  the rains4 ,in our
 climate1 cultivated plants derive a    
considerable  portion of their nitrogen 
from ammonia4 ,it is supposed to be one 
of the  most valuable fertilizing       
substances contained in farm-yard       
manure2 and  as it is present in greater
 proportion by far in the liquid than in

 the  solid contents of the farm-yard1  
there can be no doubt that much real    
wealth is lost1 and the means of raising
 increased crops thrown away in  the    
quantities of liquid manure which are   
almost everywhere permitted  to run to  
waste4    #c4 ,,nitric ,,acid--is a     
powerfully corrosive liquid known in the
 shops by  the familiar name of         
aquafortis4 ,it is prepared by pouring  
oil of  vitriol 7sulphuric acid7 upon   
saltpetre1 and distilling the mixture4  
,the aquafortis of the shops is a       
mixture of the pure acid with water4    
,pure nitric acid consists of nitrogen  
and oxygen only2 the union of  these two
 gases1 so harmless in the air1         
producing the burning and  corrosive    
compound which this is known to be4     
,it never reaches the roots of plants in
 this free and corrosive state4  ,it    
exists in many soils1 and is naturally  
formed in compost heaps1  and in most   
situations where vegetable matter is    
undergoing decay  in contact with the   

air2 but it is always in a state of     
chemical  combination in these cases4   
,with potash1 it forms nitrate of potash
  7saltpetre72 with soda1 nitrate of    
soda2 and with lime1 nitrate  of lime2  
and it is generally in one or other of  
these states of  combination that it    
reaches the roots of plants4    ,nitric 
acid is also naturally formed1 and in   
some countries probably in  large       
quantities1 by the passage of           
electricity through the atmosphere4     
,the air1 as has been already stated1   
contains much oxygen and nitrogen  mixed
 together1 but when an electric spark is
 passed through a  quantity of air1 a   
certain quantity of the two unite       
together  chemically1 so that every     
spark that passes forms a small portion 
of  nitric acid4 ,a flash of lightning  
is only a large electric spark2  and    
hence every flash that crosses the air  
produces along its path a  quantity of  
this acid4 ,where thunder-storms are    
frequent1 much nitric  acid must be     

produced in this way in the air4 ,it is 
washed down by the  rains1 in which it  
has frequently been detected1 and thus  
reaches the  soil1 where it produces one
 or other of the nitrates above         
mentioned4    ,it has been long observed
 that those parts of ,india are the most
  fertile in which saltpetre exists in  
the soil in the greatest  abundance4    
,nitrate of soda1 also1 in this country1
 has been found  wonderfully to promote 
vegetation in many localities2 and it is
 a  matter of frequent remark1 that     
vegetation seems to be refreshed and    
invigorated by the fall of a            
thunder-shower4 ,there is1 therefore1 no
  reason to doubt that nitric acid is   
really beneficial to the general        
vegetation of the globe4 ,and since     
vegetation is most luxuriant  in those  
parts of the globe where thunder or     
lightning are most  abundant1 it would  
appear as if the natural production of  
this compound  body in the air1 to be   
afterwards brought to the earth by the  

rains1  were a wise and beneficent      
contrivance by which the health and     
vigour  of universal vegetation is      
intended to be promoted4    ,it is from 
this nitric acid1 thus universally      
produced and existing1  that plants     
appear to derive a large--probably1     
taking vegetation in  general1 the      
largest--portion of their nitrogen4 ,in 
all climates they  also derive a portion
 of this element from ammonia2 but less 
from this  source in tropical than in   
temperate climates4#c    #c ,for fuller 
information on this point1 see the      
,author's 8,,lectures  on ,agricultural 
,chemistry and ,geology10 ,part ,i4     
,,section ,,iv4--,,of ,,the             
,,constitution ,,of ,,the ,,atmosphere4 
,the air we breathe1 and from which     
plants also derive a portion of  their  
nourishment1 consists of a mixture of   
oxygen and nitrogen gases1  with a      
minute quantity of carbonic acid1 and a 
variable proportion  of watery vapour4  
,every hundred gallons of dry air       

contain about #ba  gallons of oxygen and
 #gi of nitrogen4 ,the carbonic acid    
amounts only to  one gallon in #bejj1   
while the watery vapour in the          
atmosphere varies  from #a to #b gallons
 7of steam7 in #ajj gallons of common   
air4    ,the oxygen in the air is       
necessary to the respiration of animals1
 and  to the support of combustion      
7burning of bodies74 ,the nitrogen      
serves  principally to dilute the       
strength1 so to speak1 of the pure      
oxygen1  in which gas1 if unmixed1      
animals would live and combustibles burn
  with too great rapidity4 ,the small   
quantity of carbonic acid affords  an   
important part of their food to plants1 
and the watery vapour in  the air aids  
in keeping the surfaces of animals and  
plants in a moist  and pliant state2    
while1 in due season1 it descends also  
in refreshing  showers1 or studs the    
evening leaf with sparkling dew4        
,there is a beautiful adjustment in the 
constitution of the atmosphere  to the  

nature and necessities of living beings4
 ,the energy of the pure  oxygen is     
tempered1 yet not too much weakened1 by 
the admixture of  nitrogen4 ,the        
carbonic acid1 which alone is noxious to
 life1 is mixed  in so minute a         
proportion as to be harmless to animals1
 while it is  still beneficial to       
plants2 and when the air is overloaded  
with watery  vapour1 it is provided that
 it shall descend in rain4 ,these rains 
at  the same time serve another purpose4
 ,from the surface of the earth  there  
are continually ascending vapours and   
exhalations of a more or  less noxious  
kind2 these the rains wash out from the 
air1 and bring  back to the soil1 at    
once purifying the atmosphere through   
which they  descend1 and refreshing and 
fertilizing the land on which they fall4
          ,,chapter ,,iii4              
,structure of plants--,mode in which    
their nourishment          is           
obtained--,growth and substance of      
plants--          ,production of their  

substance from the food          they   
imbibe--,mutual transformations of      
starch1          sugar1 and woody fibre4
    ,from the compound substances1      
described in the preceding chapter1     
plants derive the greater portion of the
 carbon1 hydrogen1 oxygen1  and         
nitrogen1 of which their organic part   
consists4 ,the living  plant possesses  
the power of absorbing these compound   
bodies1 of  decomposing them in the     
interior of its several vessels1 and of 
recompounding their elements in a       
different way1 so as to produce new     
substances1--the ordinary products of   
vegetable life4 ,let us briefly         
consider the general structure of       
plants1 and their mode of growth4       
,,section ,i4--,,of ,,the ,,structure   
,,of ,,plants1 ,,and ,,the ,,mode ,,in  
,,which ,,their  ,,nourishment ,,is     
,,obtained4    ,a perfect plant consists
 of three several parts1--a root which  
throws  out arms and fibres in every    
direction into the soil1--a trunk which 

branches into the air on every          
side1--and leaves which1 from the ends  
of  the branches and twigs1 spread out a
 more or less extended surface into  the
 surrounding air4 ,each of these parts  
has a peculiar structure and a  special 
function assigned to it4    ,the stem of
 any of our common trees consists of    
three parts1--the  pith in the centre1  
the wood surrounding the pith1 and the  
bark which  covers the whole4 ,the pith 
consists of bundles of minute hollow    
tubes1  laid horizontally one over the  
other2 the wood and inner bark1 of long 
tubes bound together in a vertical      
position1 so as to be capable of        
carrying liquids up and down between the
 roots and the leaves4 ,when a  piece of
 wood is sawn across1 the ends of these 
tubes may be distinctly  seen4 ,the     
branch is only a prolongation of the    
stem1 and has a similar  structure4     
,the root1 immediately on leaving the   
trunk or stem1 has also a  similar      
structure2 but as the root tapers away1 

the pith gradually  disappears1 the bark
 also thins out1 the wood softens1 till 
the white  tendrils1 of which its       
extremities are composed1 consist only  
of a  colourless spongy mass1 full of   
pores1 but in which no distinction of   
parts can be perceived4 ,in this spongy 
mass the vessels or tubes which  descend
 through the stem and root lose         
themselves1 and by them these  spongy   
extremities are connected with the      
leaves4    ,the leaf is an expansion of 
the twig4 ,the fibres which are seen  to
 branch out from the base over the inner
 surface of the leaf are  prolongations 
of the vessels of the wood4 ,the green  
exterior portion  of the leaf is1 in    
like manner1 a continuation of the bark 
in a very  thin and porous form4 ,the   
green of the leaf1 though full of pores1
  especially on the under part1 yet also
 consists of1 or contains1 a  collection
 of tubes or vessels1 which stretch     
along its surface1 and  communicate with
 those of the bark4    ,most of these   

vessels in the living plant are full of 
sap1 and this sap  is in almost         
continual motion4 ,in spring and autumn 
the motion is more  rapid1 and in winter
 it is sometimes scarcely perceptible2  
yet the sap  is supposed to be rarely   
quite stationary in every part of the   
tree4    ,from the spongy part of the   
root the sap ascends through the vessels
  of the wood1 till it is diffused over 
the inner surface of the leaf  by the   
fibres which the wood contains4 ,hence1 
by the vessels in the  green of the     
leaf1 it is returned to the bark1 and   
through the vessels  of the inner bark  
it descends to the root4    ,every one  
understands why the roots send out      
fibres in every direction  through the  
soil1--it is in search of water and of  
liquid food1 which  the spongy fibres   
suck in and send forward with the sap to
 the upper  parts of the tree4 ,it is to
 aid these roots in procuring food that1
 in  the art of culture1 such substances
 are mixed with the soil where these    

roots are1 as are supposed to be        
necessary1 or at least favourable1 to   
the growth of the plant4    ,it is not  
so obvious that the leaves spread out   
their broad surfaces  into the air for  
the same purpose precisely as that for  
which the roots  diffuse their fibres   
through the soil4 ,the only difference  
is1 that  while the roots suck in       
chiefly liquid1 the leaves inhale almost
  solely gaseous food4 ,in the sunshine1
 the leaves are continually  absorbing  
carbonic acid from the air and giving   
off oxygen gas4 ,that  is to say1 they  
are continually appropriating carbon    
from the air4#d  ,when night comes1 this
 process ceases1 and they begin to      
absorb  oxygen and to give off carbonic 
acid4 ,but this latter process does  not
 go on so rapidly as the former1 so     
that1 on the whole1 plants  when growing
 gain a large portion of carbon from the
 air4 ,the actual  quantity1 however1   
varies with the season1 with the        
climate1 and with  the kind of tree4    

,the proportion of the whole carbon     
contained by a  plant1 which has been   
derived from the air1 is greatly        
modified also  by the quality of the    
soil in which it grows1 and by the      
comparative  abundance of liquid food   
which happens to be within reach of its 
roots4  ,it has been ascertained1       
however1 that in our climate1 on an     
average1  not less than from one-third  
to three-fourths of the entire quantity 
of  carbon contained in the crops we    
reap from land of average fertility1  is
 really obtained from the air4    #d    
,since carbonic acid1 as shewn in the   
previous chapter1 consists  only of     
carbon and oxygen1 they retain the      
carbon and reject the oxygen4    ,we see
 then why1 in arctic climates1 where the
 sun once risen never  sets again during
 the entire summer1 vegetation should   
almost rush up  from the frozen         
soil--the green leaf is ever gaining    
from the air and  never losing1 ever    
taking in and never giving off carbonic 

acid1 since  no darkness ever interrupts
 or suspends its labours4    ,how       
beautiful1 too1 does the contrivance of 
the expanded leaf appear6  ,the air     
contains only one gallon of carbonic    
acid in #bejj1 and this  proportion has 
been adjusted to the health and comfort 
of animals to  whom this gas is hurtful4
 ,but to catch this minute quantity1 the
 tree  hangs out thousands of square    
feet of leaf in perpetual motion1       
through  an ever-moving air2 and thus1  
by the conjoined labours of millions of 
pores1 the substance of whole forests of
 solid wood is slowly extracted  from   
the fleeting winds4 ,the green stem of  
the young shoot1 and the  green stalks  
of the grasses1 also absorb carbonic    
acid as the green of  the leaf does1 and
 thus a larger supply is afforded when  
the growth is  most rapid1 or when the  
short life of the annual plant demands  
much  nourishment within a limited time4
      ,,section ,,ii4--,,of ,,the       
,,growth ,,and ,,substance ,,of         

,,plants4    ,in this way the perfect   
plant derives its food from the soil and
  from the air2 but perfect plants arise
 from seeds2 and the study of  the      
entire life--the career1 so to speak--of
 a plant1 presents many  interesting and
 instructive subjects of consideration4 
,when a portion of flour is made into   
dough1 and this dough is kneaded  with  
the hand under a stream of water upon a 
fine sieve1 as long as the  water passes
 through milky1 there will remain on the
 sieve a glutinous  sticky substance    
resembling birdlime1 while the milky    
water will  gradually deposit a pure    
white powder4 ,this powder is starch1   
that  which remains on the sieve is     
gluten4 ,both of these substances exist1
  therefore1 in the flour2 they both    
also exist in the grain4 ,the starch    
consists of carbon1 hydrogen1 and oxygen
 only2 the gluten1 in addition  to      
these1 contains also nitrogen4    ,when 
ground into flour1 these substances     
serve for food to man2 in  the unbruised

 grain they are intended to feed the    
future plant in its  earliest infancy4  
,when a seed is committed to the earth1 
if the warmth and moisture are          
favourable1 it begins to sprout4 ,it    
pushes a shoot upwards1 it thrusts  a   
root downwards1 but1 until the leaf     
expand1 and the root has fairly  entered
 the soil1 the young plant derives no   
nourishment other than  water1 either   
from the earth or from the air4 ,it     
lives on the starch  and gluten         
contained in the seed4 ,but these       
substances1 though capable  of being    
separated from each other by means of   
water1 as above stated1  yet are neither
 of them soluble in water4 ,hence1 they 
cannot1 without  undergoing a previous  
change1 be taken up by the sap1 and     
conveyed  along the pores of the young  
shoot they are destined to feed4 ,but it
 is  so arranged that1 when the seed    
first shoots1 there is produced at the  
base of the germ1 from a portion of the 
gluten1 a small quantity of a  substance

 7diastase7 which has so powerful an    
effect upon the starch  as immediately  
to render it soluble in the sap1 which  
is thus enabled  to take it up and      
convey it by degrees1 just as it is     
wanted1 to the  shoot or to the root4#e 
,as the sap ascends1 it becomes         
sweet1--the  starch thus dissolved      
changes into sugar4 ,when the shoot     
first becomes  tipped with green1 the   
sugar is again changed into the woody   
fibre1 of  which the stem of perfect    
plants chiefly consists4 ,by the time   
that the  food contained in the seed is 
exhausted1--often1 as in the potato1    
long  before1--the plant is able to live
 by its own exertions1 at the expense   
of the air and the soil4    #e ,in      
malting barley1 it is made to sprout a  
certain length1 and the  growth is then 
arrested by heating and drying it4      
,mashed barley1 before  sprouting1 will 
not dissolve in water1 but when         
sprouted1 the whole of  the starch 7the 
flour7 it contains dissolves readily by 

a gentle heat4  ,the diastase formed    
during the germination effects this4 ,by
 further  heating in the brewer's wort1 
this starch is converted into sugar as  
it  is in the growing plant4    ,this   
change of the sugar of the sap into     
woody fibre is observable  more or less 
in all plants4 ,when they are shooting  
fastest the sugar  is most abundant2    
not1 however1 in those parts which are  
growing1 but  in those which convey the 
sap to the growing parts4 ,thus the     
sugar of  the ascending sap of the maple
 and the alder disappears in the leaf   
and in the extremities of the twig2 thus
 the sugar-cane sweetens  only a certain
 distance above the ground1 up to where 
the new growth  is proceeding2 and thus 
also the young beet and turnip abound   
most in  sugar1 while in all these      
plants the sweet principle diminishes as
 the  year's growth draws nearer to a   
close4    ,in the ripening of the ear   
also1 the sweet taste1 at first so      
perceptible1 gradually diminishes and   

finally disappears2 the sugar of  the   
sap is here changed into the starch of  
the grain1 which1 as above  described1  
is afterwards destined1 when the grain  
begins to sprout1 to  be reconverted    
into sugar for the nourishment of the   
rising germ4    ,in the ripening of     
fruits a different series of changes    
presents  itself4 ,the fruit is first   
tasteless1 then becomes sour1 and at    
last  sweet4 ,in this case the acid of  
the unripe is changed into the sugar of 
the ripened fruit4    ,the substance of 
plants1--their solid parts that         
is--consist chiefly of  woody fibre1 the
 name given to the fibrous substance1 of
 which wood  evidently consists4 ,it is 
interesting to inquire how this         
substance  can be formed from the       
compounds1 carbonic acid and water1 of  
which the  food of plants in great      
measure consists4 ,nor is it difficult  
to find  an answer4    ,it will be      
recollected that the leaf drinks in     
carbonic acid from the  air1 and        

delivers back its oxygen1 retaining only
 its carbon4 ,it is  also known that    
water abounds in the sap4 ,hence carbon 
and water are  thus abundantly present  
in the pores or vessels of the green    
leaf4 ,now1  woody fibre consists only  
of carbon and water chemically combined 
together1--#ajj lbs4 of dry woody fibre 
consisting of #ej lbs4 of carbon  and   
#ej lbs4 of water4 ,it is easy1         
therefore1 to see how1 when the  carbon 
and water meet in the leaf1 woody fibre 
may be produced by their  mutual        
combination4    ,if1 again1 we inquire  
how this important principle of plants  
may be  formed from the other           
substances1 which enter by their roots1 
from the  ulmic acid1 for example1 the  
answer is equally ready4 ,this acid also
  consists of carbon and water only1 #ej
 lbs4 of carbon with #cg of water       
forming ulmic acid1 so that when it is  
introduced into the sap of the  plant1  
all the materials are present from which
 the woody fibre may be  produced4      

,nor is it more difficult to see how    
starch may be converted into sugar1  and
 this again into woody fibre2 or how1   
again1 sugar may be converted  into     
starch in the ear of corn1 or woody     
fibre into sugar during the  ripening of
 the winter pear after its removal from 
the tree4 ,any one  of these substances 
may be represented by carbon and water  
only4 ,thus1--        #ej lbs4 of carbon
 with #ej      of water1 make #ajj   of 
woody fibre4        #ej lbs4            
#cg                     #hg  of ulmic   
acid4                                   
of cane sugar1      #ej lbs4            
#gb                    #abb   of starch1
 or                                     
of gum4        #ej lbs4                 
#ef                     #ajf   of       
vinegar4    ,in the interior of the     
plant1 therefore1 it is obvious that1   
whichever  of these substances be       
present in the sap1 the elements are at 
hand out  of which any of the others may
 be produced4 ,in what way they really  

are produced1 the one from the other1   
and by what circumstances these         
transformations are favoured1 it would  
lead into too great detail to  attempt  
here to explain4#f    ,we cannot help   
admiring to what varied purposes in     
nature the  same elements are applied1  
and from how few and simple materials1  
substances1 the most varied in their    
properties1 are in the living  vegetable
 daily produced4    #f ,for fuller and  
more precise explanations on these      
interesting  topics1 see the ,author's  
,,lectures on ,agricultural ,chemistry  
and  ,geology1 ,part ,i4                
,,chapter ,,iv4          ,of the        
,inorganic ,constitution of             
,plants--,their          immediate      
,source--,their ,nature--,quantity of   
each in          certain common ,crops4 
,,section ,i4--,,source ,,of ,,the      
,,earthy ,,matter ,,of                  
,,plants--,,substances ,,of ,,which ,,it
  ,,consists4    ,when plants are       
burned1 they always leave more or less  

of ash behind4  ,this ash varies in     
quantity in different plants1 in        
different parts of  the same plant1 and 
sometimes in different specimens of the 
same kind  of plant1 especially if grown
 upon different soils2 yet it is never  
wholly absent4 ,it seems as necessary to
 their existence in a state of  perfect 
health as any of the elements which     
constitute the organic or  combustible  
part of their substance4 ,they must     
obtain it therefore  along with the food
 on which they live3 it is in fact a    
part of their  natural food1 since      
without it they become unhealthy4 ,we   
shall speak of  it therefore as the     
inorganic food of plants4    ,we have   
seen that all the elements which are    
necessary to the  production of the     
woody fibre1 and of the other organic   
parts of the  plant1 may be derived     
either from the air1 from the carbonic  
acid  and watery vapour taken in by the 
leaves1 or from the soil1 through  the  
medium of the roots4 ,in the air1       

however1 only rare particles of         
inorganic or earthy matter are known to 
float1 and these in a solid  form1 so as
 to be unable to enter by the leaves2   
the earthy matter  which constitutes the
 ash1 therefore1 must be all derived    
from the soil4    ,the earthy part of   
the soil1 therefore1 serves a double    
use4 ,it is not  merely1 as some have   
supposed1 a substratum in which the     
plant may so  fix and root itself1 as to
 be able to maintain its upright        
position  against the force of winds and
 tempests2 but it is a storehouse of    
food also1 from which the roots of the  
plant may select such earthy  substances
 as are necessary to1 or are fitted to  
promote1 its growth4    ,the ash of     
plants consists of a mixture of several1
 sometimes of as  many as eleven1       
different earthy substances4 ,these     
substances are the  following3--    #a4 
,potash4--,the common pearl-ash of the  
shops is a compound of potash  with     
carbonic acid2 it is a carbonate of     

potash4 ,by dissolving the  pearl-ash in
 water1 and boiling it with quicklime1  
the carbonic acid is  separated1 and    
potash alone1 or caustic potash1 as it  
is often called1  is obtained4    #b4   
,soda4--,the common soda of the shops is
 a carbonate of soda1 and by  boiling it
 with quicklime1 the carbonic acid is   
separated1 as in the  case of pearl-ash4
    #c4 ,lime4--,this is familiar to    
every one as the lime-shells1 or        
unslaked lime of the limekilns4 ,the    
unburned limestone is a carbonate  of   
lime2 the carbonic acid in this case    
being separated by the  roasting in the 
kiln4    #d4 ,magnesia4--,this is the   
calcined magnesia of the shops4 ,the    
uncalcined is a carbonate of magnesia1  
from which heat drives off the  carbonic
 acid4    #e4 ,silica4--,this is the    
name given by chemists to the substance 
of  flint1 quartz1 and of siliceous     
sands and sandstones4    #f4 ,alumina is
 the pure earth of alum1 obtained by    
dissolving alum in  water1 and adding   

liquid ammonia 7hartshorn7 to the       
solution4 ,it forms  about two-fifths of
 the weight of porcelain and pipe-clays1
 and of some  other very stiff kinds of 
clay4    #g4 ,oxide of ,iron4--,the most
 familiar form of this substance is the 
rust that forms on metallic iron in damp
 places4 ,it is a compound of  iron with
 oxygen1 hence the name oxide4    #h4   
,oxide of ,manganese is a brown powder1 
which consists of oxygen  in combination
 with a metal resembling iron1 to which 
the name of  manganese is given4 ,it    
exists in plants1 and in soils only in  
very  small quantity4    #i4            
,sulphur4--,this substance is well      
known4 ,it generally exists in  the ash 
in the state of sulphuric acid 7oil of  
vitriol71 which is a  compound of       
sulphur with oxygen4 ,it does not always
 exist in living  plants1 however1 in   
this state4    ,sulphuric acid forms    
with potash a sulphate of potash1--with 
soda1  sulphate of soda 7or ,glauber's  
salts71--with lime1 sulphate of lime    

7gypsum71--with magnesia1 sulphate of   
magnesia 7,epsom salts71--with  alumina1
 sulphate of alumina1--and with oxide of
 iron1 sulphate of  iron or green       
vitriol4 ,when the sulphate of potash is
 combined with  sulphate of alumina1 it 
forms common alum4    #aj4 ,phosphorus  
is a soft pale yellow substance which   
readily takes  fire in the air1 and     
gives off1 while burning1 a dense white 
smoke4 ,the  white fumes which form this
 smoke are a compound of phosphorus with
  oxygen obtained from the air1 and are 
called phosphoric acid4 ,in the  ash of 
plants the phosphorus is found in the   
state of phosphoric acid1  though it    
probably does not all exist in the      
living plant in that state4             
,phosphoric acid forms phosphates with  
potash1 soda1 lime1 and  magnesia4 ,when
 bones are burned1 a large quantity of a
 white earth  remains 7bone-earth71     
which is a phosphate of lime1 consisting
 of  lime and phosphoric acid4          
,phosphate of lime is generally present 

in the  ash of plants2 phosphate of     
magnesia is contained most abundantly in
  the ash of wheat and other varieties  
of grain4    #aa4 ,chlorine4--,this is a
 very suffocating gas1 which gives its  
peculiar smell to chloride of lime1 and 
is used for bleaching and  disinfecting4
 ,it is readily obtained by pouring     
muriatic acid 7spirit  of salt7 on the  
black oxide of manganese of the shops4  
,in combination  with the metallic bases
 of potash1 soda1 lime1 and magnesia1 it
 forms  the chlorides of potassium1     
sodium 7common salt71 calcium and       
magnesium1#g and in one or other of     
these states it generally enters  into  
the roots of plants1 and exists in their
 ash4    #g ,potash1 soda1 lime1 and    
magnesia1 are compounds of the metals   
here  named with oxygen4 ,it is a very  
striking fact1 that the suffocating  gas
 chlorine1 when combined with sodium1 a 
metal which takes fire when  placed upon
 water1 should form the agreeable and   
necessary condiment1  common salt4      

,such are the inorganic substances      
usually found mixed or combined         
together in the ash of plants4 ,it has  
already been observed1 that the         
quantity of ash left by a given weight  
of vegetable matter varies  with a great
 many conditions4 ,this fact deserves a 
more attentive  consideration4          
,,section ,,ii4--,,of ,,the ,,difference
 ,,in ,,the ,,quantity ,,of ,,ash4      
#a4 ,the quantity of ash yielded by     
different plants is unlike4 ,thus  #ajjj
 lbs4 of        ,wheat       leave #ab  
lbs4      ,oats              #bf lbs4   
,turnips            #h lbs4      ,red   
,clover        #af lbs4      ,rye ,grass
         #ag lbs4      ,barley          
#be lbs4      ,potatoes           #h    
lbs4      ,carrots            #g lbs4   
,white ,clover      #ag lbs4    ,so that
 the quantity of inorganic food required
 by different vegetables  is greater or 
less according to their nature2 and if a
 soil be of such  a kind that it can    
yield only a small quantity of this     

inorganic food1  then only those plants 
will grow well upon it which require the
 least4  ,hence1 trees may often grow   
where arable crops fail to thrive1      
because  many of them require and       
contain very little inorganic matter4   
,thus  while #ajjj lbs4 of elm wood     
leave #ai lbs4 and of poplar #bj lbs4 of
  ash1 the same weight of the willow    
leaves only #d lbs41 of the beech #d    
lbs41 of the birch #c lbs41 of different
 pines less than #c lbs41 and of  the   
oak only #b lbs4 of ash when burned4    
#b4 ,the quantity of inorganic matter   
varies in different parts of the  same  
plant4 ,thus while #ajjj lbs4 of the    
turnip root sliced and dried  in the air
 leave #gj lbs4 of ash1 the dried leaves
 give #acj lbs42 and  while the grain of
 wheat yields only #ab lbs41 wheat straw
 will yield  #fj lbs4 of earthy matter4 
,so1 though the willow and other woods  
leave little ash1 as above stated1 yet  
the willow leaf leaves #hb lbs41  the   
beech leaf #db lbs41 the birch #ej lbs41

 the different pine leaves  #bj lbs4 to 
#cj lbs41 and the leaves of the elm as  
much as #abj lbs4 of  incombustible     
matter when burned in the air4    ,most 
of the inorganic matter1 therefore1     
which is withdrawn from  the soil in a  
crop of corn is returned to it again1 by
 the skilful  husbandman1 in the        
fermented straw1--in the same way as    
nature1 in  causing the trees           
periodically to shed their leaves1      
returns with them  to the soil a very   
large portion of the soluble inorganic  
substances  which had been drawn from it
 by the roots during the season of      
growth4    ,thus an annual top-dressing 
is given to the land where forests grow2
  and that which the roots from spring  
to autumn are continually sucking  up1  
and carefully collecting from           
considerable depths1 winter strews      
again on the surface1 so as1 in the     
lapse of time1 to form a soil  which    
cannot fail to prove fertile1--because  
it is made up of those  very materials  

of which the inorganic substance of     
former races of  vegetables has been    
entirely composed4    #b4 ,the quantity 
of inorganic matter often differs in    
different  specimens of the same plant4 
,thus1 #ajjj lbs4 of wheat straw1 grown 
at  different places1 gave to four      
different experimenters #dc1 #dd1 #ce1  
and  #aee lbs4 of ash respectively4     
,wheat straw1 therefore1 does not always
  leave the same quantity of ash4    ,to
 what is this difference owing8 ,is it  
to the nature of the soil1 or  does it  
depend upon the variety of wheat        
experimented upon8 ,it seems  to depend 
partly upon both4 ,thus1 on the same    
field1 in ,ravensworth  dale1           
,yorkshire1 on a rich clay soil         
abounding in lime1 the ,golden  ,kent   
and ,flanders ,red wheats were sown in  
the spring of #ahda4 ,the  former gave  
an excellent crop1 while the latter was 
a total failure1  the ear containing #bj
 or #cj grains only of poor wheat4 ,the 
straw of the  former left #afe lbs4 of  

ash from #ajjj lbs41 that of the latter 
only #abj  lbs4 ,something1 therefore1  
depends upon the variety4 ,but as from  
the  straw of a good wheat crop grown   
near ,durham this last summer on a clay 
loam ,i obtained only #ff lbs4 of ash1  
,i am persuaded that the very wide      
variations in the quantity of ash left1 
by different wheat straws1 must  be     
dependent in some considerable degree   
upon the soil4    ,the truth1 so far as 
it can as yet be made out1 seems to be  
this--that  every plant must have a     
certain quantity of inorganic matter to 
make it  grow in the most healthy       
manner2--that it is capable of living1  
growing1  and even ripening seed with   
very much less than this quantity2--but 
that those soils will produce the most  
perfect plants which can best  supply   
all their wants1--and that the best seed
 will be raised in those  districts     
where the soil1 without being too rich  
or rank1 yet can yield  both organic and
 inorganic food in such proportions as  

to maintain the  corn plants in their   
most healthy condition4      ,,section  
,,iii4--,,of ,,the ,,quality ,,of ,,the 
,,ash ,,of ,,plants4    ,but much also  
depends upon the quality as well as upon
 the quantity  of the ash4 ,plants may  
leave the same weight of ash when       
burned1 and  yet the nature of the two  
specimens of ash1 the kind of matter of 
which they respectively consist1 may be 
very different4 ,the ash of one  may    
contain much lime1 of another much      
potash1 of a third much soda1  while in 
a fourth much silica may be present4    
,thus #ajj lbs4 of the ash  of bean     
straw contain #ec lbs4 of potash1 while 
that of barley  straw contains only #c  
lbs4 in the hundred2 and1 on the other  
hand1 the  same weight of the ash of the
 latter contains #gc lbs4 of silica1    
while  in that of the former there are  
only #g lbs4    ,the quality of the ash 
seems to vary with the same conditions  
by which  its quantity is affected4     
,thus--    #a4 ,it varies with the kind 

of plant4 #ajj lbs4 of the ash of wheat1
  barley1 and oats1 for example1        
contain1 respectively1                  
,wheat4    ,barley4      ,oats4         
,potash1            #ai         #ab     
#f      ,soda1              #bj         
#ab          #e      ,lime1             
#h          #d         #c               
,magnesia1           #h          #h     
#b      ,alumina1            #b         
#a                 ,oxide of ,iron1     
#j        trace4       #a      ,silica1 
#cd         #ej         #gf             
,sulphuric acid1     #d          #b     
#a      ,phosphoric acid1    #c         
#i          #c      ,chlorine1          
#a          #a                          
---------  ---------  ---------         
#ajj        #ajj        #ajj    ,a      
comparison of the several numbers       
opposite to each other in these  three  
columns1 shews how unlike the quantities
 of the different  substances are1 which
 are contained in an equal weight of the
 ash of  these three varieties of grain4

 ,the ash of wheat contains #ai lbs4 of 
potash in the #ajj lbs41 while that of  
oats contains only #f lbs4 ,in  wheat   
are #bj per cent4 of soda1 in oats only 
#e per cent4 ,wheat also  contains more 
sulphuric acid than either of the other 
grains1 while  barley contains a still  
greater predominance of phosphoric acid4
    ,it is thus evident that a crop of  
wheat will carry off from the           
soil--even suppose the whole quantity of
 ash left by each the same in           
weight--very different quantities of    
potash1 soda1 c4 from a crop of  oats4  
,it will take more of these1 of         
sulphuric acid1 and of certain  other   
substances1 from the soil4 ,it will1    
therefore1 exhaust the soil  more of    
these substances--as barley and oats    
will of others--hence  one reason why a 
piece of land may suit one of these     
crops and not  suit the others4 ,that   
which cannot grow wheat may yet grow    
oats4  ,hence1 also1 two successive     
crops of different kinds of grain may   

grow where it would greatly injure the  
soil to take two in succession  of the  
same kind1 especially of either wheat or
 barley2 and hence  we likewise deduce  
one natural reason for a rotation of    
crops4 ,the  surface soil may be so far 
exhausted of one inorganic substance1   
that  it cannot afford it in sufficient 
quantity during the present season  to  
bring a given crop to healthy maturity1 
and yet may1 by natural  processes1 be  
so far supplied again1 during the       
intermediate growth  of certain other   
crops1 as to be prepared in a future    
season fully to  supply all the wants of
 the same crop1 and to yield a plentiful
 harvest4    #b4 ,the kind of inorganic 
matter varies with the part of the      
plant4  ,thus the grain and the straw of
 the corn plants contain very unlike    
quantities of the several inorganic     
constituents1 as will appear by         
comparing the following with the        
preceding table3--                      
,wheat   ,barley    ,oat                

,straw4  ,straw4   ,straw4      ,potash1
                       #c       #ae     
,soda1                         #a       
trace4      ,lime1                  #g  
#aj        #b      ,magnesia1           
#a       #a               ,alumina1     
#b      #c       trace4        ,oxide of
 ,iron1            ,oxide of manganese1 
#j              trace4        ,silica1  
#ha      #gc       #hj      ,sulphuric  
acid1        #a       #b         #a     
,phosphoric acid1       #e       #c     
,chlorine1              #a       #a     
trace4                          ------- 
-------   --------                      
#ajj     #ajj         #ajj    ,not only 
are the quantities of the several       
inorganic substances kinds  of straw    
very unlike--especially the proportions 
of potash1 lime1 and  phosphoric acid in
 each--but these quantities are also    
very different  from those exhibited by 
the numbers in the preceding table as   
contained  in the three varieties of    
grain4 ,in this difference we see1      

further1  one reason why the same soil  
which may be favourable to the growth   
of straw may not be equally propitious  
to the growth of the ear4 ,wheat  straw 
contains little either of potash or of  
soda2 the ash of the  grain contains a  
large proportion2 while the ash of the  
oat-straw1  on the other hand1 contains 
a much larger proportion of potash than 
that of its own ear does4 ,it is clear1 
therefore1 that the roots may1  in      
certain plants and in certain soils1    
succeed in fully nourishing  the straw  
while they cannot fully ripen the ear2  
or contrariwise1  where they feed but a 
scanty straw1 may yet be able to give   
ample  sustenance to the filling ear4#h 
#h ,and occasionally do give2 for a     
plump grain1 and even a  well-filled    
ear1 are not unfrequently found where   
the straw is  unusually deficient4      
#c4 ,the quality of the ash varies also 
with the soil in which it grows4  ,this 
will be understood from what is stated  
above4 ,where the soil is  favourable1  

the roots can send up into the straw    
every thing which the  healthy plant    
requires2 when it is poorly supplied    
with some of those  inorganic           
constituents which the plant desires1   
life may be prolonged1  a stunted or    
unhealthy crop may be raised1 in which  
the kind1 and  perhaps the quantity1 of 
ash left in burning will necessarily be 
different from that left by the same    
species of plant grown under more       
favouring circumstances4 ,of this fact  
there can be no doubt1 though  the      
extent to which such variations may take
 place without absolutely  killing the  
plant1 has not yet been by any means    
made out4    #d4 ,it varies also with   
the period of a plant's growth1 or the  
season at  which it is reaped4 ,thus1 in
 the young leaf of the turnip and       
potato1  a greater proportion of the    
inorganic matter they contain consists  
of  potash than in the old leaf4 ,the   
same is true of the stalk of wheat2  and
 similar differences prevail in almost  

every kind of plant at  different stages
 of its growth4    ,the enlightened     
agriculturist will perceive that all the
 facts above  stated have a perceptible 
connection with the ordinary processes  
of  practical agriculture1 and tend to  
throw considerable light on some of  the
 principles by which they ought to be   
regulated4 ,one illustration of  this is
 exhibited in the following section4    
,,section ,,iv4--,,quantity ,,of        
,,inorganic ,,matter ,,contained ,,in   
,,an ,,ordinary ,,crop  ,,or ,,series   
,,of ,,crops4    ,the importance of the 
inorganic matter contained in living    
vegetables1  or in vegetable substances 
when reaped and dry1 will appear more   
distinctly if we consider the actual    
quantity carried off from the soil  in a
 series of crops4    ,in a four-years'  
course of cropping1 in which the crops  
gathered amount  per acre to--          
#ast year1 ,turnips1 #be tons of bulbs1 
and #g tons of tops4      #b;d year1    
,barley1 #ch bushels of #fc lbs4 each1  

and #a ton of straw4      #c;d year1    
,clover and ,rye ,grass1 #a ton of each 
in hay4      #dth year1 ,wheat1 #be     
bushels of #fj lbs41 and #a tons of     
straw4    ,the quantity of inorganic    
matter carried off in the four crops1   
supposing none of them to be eaten on   
the land1 amounts to--        ,potash1  
#bha lbs4      ,soda1            #acj  0
      ,lime1            #bdb  0         
,magnesia1         #db  0      ,alumina1
          #aa  0      ,silica1          
#cah  0      ,sulphuric acid1  #aaa  0  
,phosphoric acid1  #fa  0               
,chlorine1         #ci  0               
--------      ,total1           #abdj   
or1 in all1 about #aa cwt4--of which    
gross weight the different  substances  
form very unlike proportions4    ,a     
still clearer idea of these quantities  
will be obtained by a  consideration of 
the fact1 that if we carry off the      
entire produce1 and  return none of it  
again in the shape of manure1 we must or
 ought in its  stead1 if the land is to 

be restored to its original condition1  
add to  each acre every four years3--   
,pearl or ,potash1                 #cij 
lbs4 at a cost of l4#c  #aj  #j         
,crystallized carbonate of soda1  #ddj  
#b   #e  #j      ,common salt1          
#fe                       #j   #b  #j   
,quick 7burned7 lime1             #bdj  
#j   #a  #j      ,epsom salts1          
#bej                       #a   #e  #j  
,alum1                             #hd  
#j   #h  #j      ,bone-dust1            
#bfj                       #j  #af  #j  
------                     ---------    
,total1                          #agbi  
l4#h   #g  #j    ,several observations  
suggest themselves from a consideration 
of the  above statements3 first1 that if
 this inorganic matter be really        
necessary to the plant1 the gradual and 
constant removal of it from the  land   
ought by-and-by to impoverish the soil  
of this inorganic food2  second1 that   
the more of what grows upon the land we 
can again return  to it in manure1 the  

less will this deterioration be         
perceptible2  third1 that as many of    
these inorganic substances are readily  
soluble  in water1 the liquid manure of 
the farm-yard1 so often allowed to run  
to waste1 carries with it to the rivers 
much of the saline matter  that ought to
 be returned to the land2 and1 lastly1  
that the utility  and often             
indispensable necessity of certain      
artificial manures is  owing1 it may be1
 in some districts1 to the natural      
poverty of the  land in certain         
inorganic substances1--but more         
frequently to a want  of acquaintance   
with the facts above stated1 among      
practical men1 and  to the long         
continued neglect and waste which has   
been the natural  consequence4    ,in   
certain districts1 the soil and subsoil 
contain within themselves  an almost    
unfailing supply of some of these       
inorganic substances1 so  that the waste
 is long in being felt2 in others they  
become sooner  exhausted1 and hence call

 for more care1 and1 when exhausted1 for
 a  more expensive cultivation1 in order
 to replace them4    ,one thing is of   
essential importance to be remembered by
 the practical  farmer--that the        
deterioration of land is often an       
exceedingly slow  process4 ,in the hands
 of successive generations a field may  
so  imperceptibly become less valuable1 
that a century even may elapse  before  
the change prove such as to make a      
sensible diminution in the  valued      
rental4 ,such slow changes1 however1    
have been seldom recorded2  and hence   
the practical man is occasionally led to
 despise the clearest  theoretical      
principles1 because he has not happened 
to see them  verified in his own limited
 experience1 and to neglect therefore   
the  suggestions and the wise           
precautions which these principles lay  
before  him4    ,the agricultural       
history of tracts of land of different  
qualities1  shewing how they had been   
cropped and tilled1 and the average     

produce  in grain1 hay1 straw1 and other
 crops1 every five years1 during an     
entire century1 would be invaluable     
materials both to theoretical and  to   
practical agriculture4                  
,,chapter ,v4          ,of ,soils--their
 ,organic and ,inorganic                
,portions--,saline          ,matter in  
,soils--,examination and ,classification
 of          ,soils--,diversities of    
,soils and ,subsoils4    ,soils consist 
of two parts1--of an organic part1 which
 can readily be  burnt away when the    
soil is heated to redness2 and of an    
inorganic  part1 which is fixed in the  
fire1 and which consists entirely of    
earthy  and saline substances4          
,,section ,i4--,,of ,,the ,,organic     
,,part ,,of ,,soils4    ,the organic    
part of soils is derived chiefly from   
the remains of  vegetables and animals  
which have lived and died in or upon the
 soil1  which have been spread over it  
by rivers and rains1 or which have been 
added by the hand of man for the purpose

 of increasing its natural  fertility4  
,this organic part varies very much in  
quantity in different soils4 ,in  some1 
as in peaty soils1 it forms from #ej to 
#gj per cent4 of their  whole weight1   
and even in some rich long cultivated   
lands it has been  found1 in a few rare 
cases1 to amount to as much as #be per  
cent4 ,in  general1 however1 it is      
present in much smaller proportion1 even
 in our  best arable lands4 ,oats and   
rye will grow upon a soil containing    
only  #a per cent41 barley when #b to #c
 are present1 while good wheat soils    
generally contain from #d to #h per     
cent4 ,in stiff and very clayey soils   
#aj to #ab per cent4 may occasionally be
 detected4 ,in very old pasture  lands  
and in gardens1 vegetable matter        
occasionally accumulates1 so as  to     
overload the upper soil4    ,to this    
organic matter in the soil the name of  
humus has been given  by some writers4  
,it contains or yields to the plant the 
ulmic and  humic acids described in a   

previous chapter4 ,it supplies also1 by 
its decay1 in contact with the air which
 penetrates the soil1 much  carbonic    
acid1 which is supposed to enter the    
roots and minister to the  growth of    
living vegetables4 ,during the same     
decay ammonia is likewise               
produced1--and in larger quantity1 if   
animal matter be present in             
considerable abundance1--which ammonia  
is found to promote vegetation  in a    
remarkable manner4 ,other substances1   
more or less nutritious1  are also      
formed from it in the soil4 ,these enter
 by the roots1 and  contribute to       
nourish the growing plant1 though the   
extent to which  it is fed from this    
source is dependent1 both upon the      
abundance with  which these substances  
are supplied1 and upon the nature of the
 plant  itself1 and of the climate in   
which it grows4    ,another influence of
 this organic portion of the soil1      
whether  naturally formed in it1 or     
added to it as manure1 is not to be     

neglected4 ,it contains1--as we have    
seen that all vegetable substances      
do1--a considerable quantity of         
inorganic1 that is1 of saline and earthy
  matter1 which is liberated as the     
organic part decays4 ,thus living       
plants derive from the remains of former
 races buried beneath the  surface1 a   
portion of that inorganic food which can
 only be obtained  in the soil1--and    
which1 if not thus directly supplied1   
must be sought  for by the slow         
extension of their roots through a      
greater depth and  breadth of the earth 
in which they grow4 ,the addition of    
manure to the  soil1 therefore1 places  
within the easy reach of the roots not  
only  organic but inorganic food also4  
,,section ,,ii4--,,of ,,the ,,inorganic 
,,part ,,of ,,soils4    ,the inorganic  
part of soils1--that which remains      
behind1 when every  thing combustible is
 burned away by heating it to redness in
 the open  air1--consists of two        
portions1 one of which is soluble in    

water1 the  other insoluble4 ,the       
soluble consists of saline substances1  
the  insoluble of earthy substances4    
#a4 ,the saline or soluble portion4--,in
 this country the surface soil  of our  
fields1 in general1 contains very little
 soluble matter4 ,if a  quantity of soil
 be dried in an oven1 a pound weight of 
it taken1 and  a pint and a half of pure
 boiling rain-water poured over it1 the 
whole  well stirred and allowed to      
settle1--the clear liquid1 when poured  
off  and boiled to dryness1 may leave   
from #b to #bj grains of saline matter4 
,this saline matter will consist of     
common salt1 gypsum1 sulphate of  soda  
7,glauber's salts71 sulphate of magnesia
 7,epsom salts71 with  traces of the    
chlorides of calcium1 magnesium1 and    
potassium1 and of  the nitrates of      
potash1 soda1 and lime4#i ,it is from   
these soluble  substances that the      
plants derive the greater portion of the
 saline  ingredients contained in the   
ash they leave when burned4    #i ,see  

pages #ea and #eb1 where these          
substances are described4    ,nor must  
the quantity thus obtained from a soil  
be considered too small  to yield the   
whole supply which a crop requires4 ,a  
single grain of  saline matter in every 
pound of a soil a foot deep1 is equal to
 #ejj  lbs4 in an acre1 which is more   
than is carried off from the soil in    
#aj rotations 7#dj years71 where only   
the wheat and barley are sent to        
market1 and the straw and green crops   
are regularly returned to the  land in  
the manure4#aj    #aj ,a further        
portion1 it will be recollected1 is     
carried off in the  cattle that are sent
 to market1--this is here neglected4    
,in some countries1 indeed in some      
districts of our own country1 the       
quantity of saline matter in the soil is
 so great1 as in hot seasons to  form a 
distinct incrustation on the surface4   
,this may often be seen in  the         
neighbourhood of ,durham2 and is more   
especially to be looked for  in         

districts where the subsoil is sandy and
 porous1 and more or less  full of      
water4 ,in hot weather the evaporation  
on the surface causes  the water to     
ascend from the porous subsoil3 and as  
this water always  brings with it a     
quantity of saline matter1--which it    
leaves behind when  it rises in         
vapour1--it is evident that the longer  
the dry weather and  the consequent     
evaporation from the surface continue1  
the thicker the  incrustations will be1 
or the greater the accumulation of      
saline matter  on the surface4 ,hence1  
where such a moist and porous subsoil   
exists in  countries rarely visited by  
rain1 as in the plains of ,peru1 of     
,egypt1  or of ,india1 the country is   
whitened over in the dry season with an 
unbroken covering of the different      
saline substances above mentioned4      
,when rain falls1 the saline matter is  
dissolved1 and descends again to  the   
subsoil1--in dry weather it reascends4  
,thus the surface soil of any  field    

will contain a larger proportion of     
soluble inorganic matter in  the middle 
of a hot season than in one of even     
ordinary rain2 and hence  the fine dry  
weather which1 in early summer1 hastens 
the growth of  corn1 and later in the   
season favours its ripening1 does so1   
among its  other modes of action1 by    
bringing up to the roots from beneath a 
more  ready supply of those saline      
compounds which the crop requires for   
its  healthful growth4    #b4 ,the      
earthy or insoluble portion4--,the      
earthy or insoluble portion  of soils   
rarely constitutes less than #ie lbs4 in
 a hundred of their  whole weight4 ,it  
consists chiefly of silica in the form  
of sand1  of alumina in the form of     
clay1 and of lime in the form of        
carbonate of lime4 ,it is rarely free1  
however1 from one or two per  cent4 of  
oxide of iron2 and where the soil is of 
a red colour1 this  oxide is present in 
a still larger quantity4 ,a trace of    
magnesia also  may be almost always     

detected1 and a minute quantity of      
phosphate of  lime4 ,the principal      
ingredients1 however1 of the earthy part
 of all  soils are sand1 clay1 and lime2
 and soils are named or classified      
according to the quantities of each of  
these three they may happen to  contain4
    ,if an ounce of soil be boiled in a 
pint of water till it is perfectly      
softened and diffused through it1 and1  
after shaking1 the heavy parts  be      
allowed to settle for a few minutes1 the
 sand will subside1 while  the          
clay--which is in finer particles1 and  
is less heavy--will still  remain       
floating4 ,if the water and clay be now 
poured into another  vessel1 and be     
allowed to stand till the water has     
become clear1 the  sandy part of the    
soil will be on the bottom of the one   
vessel1 the  clayey part on that of the 
other1 and they may be dried and weighed
  separately4    ,if #ajj grains of dry 
soil leave no more than #aj of clay1 it 
is called  a sandy soil2 if from #aj to 

#dj1 a sandy loam2 if from #dj to #gj1 a
  loamy soil2 if from #gj to #he1 a clay
 loam2 from #he to #ie1 a strong  clay  
soil2 and when no sand is separated at  
all by this process1 it is  a pure      
agricultural clay4    ,the strong clay  
soils are such as are used for making   
tiles and  bricks2 the pure agricultural
 clay is such as is commonly employed   
for the manufacture of pipes            
7pipe-clay74    ,soils consist of these 
three substances mixed together4 ,the   
pure  clay is a chemical compound of    
silica and alumina1 in the  proportion  
of about #fj of the former to #dj of the
 latter4 ,pure clay  soils rarely       
occur--it being well known to all       
practical men1 that the  strong clays   
7tile clays7 which contain from #e to   
#ae per cent4 of  sand1 are brought into
 arable cultivation with the greatest   
possible  difficulty4 ,it will rarely   
happen1 therefore1 that arable land will
  contain more than #cj to #ce of       
alumina4    ,if a soil contain more than

 #e per cent4 of carbonate of lime1 it  
is  called a marl2 if more than #bj per 
cent41 it is a calcareous soil4  ,peaty 
soils1 of course1 are those in which the
 vegetable matter  predominates very    
much4    ,to estimate the lime1 a       
quantity of the soil should be burned in
 the  air1 and a weighed portion1 #ajj  
or #bjj grains1 diffused through half a 
pint of cold water mixed with half a    
wine glassful of spirit of salt         
7muriatic acid71 and allowed to stand   
for a couple of hours1 with  occasional 
stirring4 ,the water is then poured off1
 the soil dried1  heated to redness as  
before1 and weighed3 the loss is nearly 
all  lime4#aa    #aa ,unless the soil   
happen to contain a large quantity of   
magnesia1  which is rarely the case4    
,the quantity of vegetable or other     
organic matter is determined by  drying 
the soil well upon paper in an oven1 and
 then burning a  weighed quantity in the
 air3 the loss is nearly all organic    
matter4  ,in stiff clays this loss will 

comprise a portion of water1 which is   
not wholly driven off from such soils by
 drying upon paper in the way           
described4      ,,section ,,iii4--,,of  
,,the ,,diversities ,,of ,,soils ,,and  
,,subsoils4    ,though the substances of
 which soils chiefly consist are so few 
in  number1 yet every practical man     
knows how very diversified they are  in 
character--how very different in        
agricultural value4 ,thus1 in some  of  
our southern counties1 we have a white  
soil1 consisting apparently  of nothing 
else but chalk2 in the centre of        
,england a wide plain of  dark red land2
 in the border counties of ,wales1 and  
on many of our  coal-fields1 tracts of  
country almost perfectly black2 while   
yellow1  white1 and brown sands give the
 prevailing character to the soils of   
other districts4 ,such differences as   
these arise from the different          
proportions in which the sand1 lime1    
clay1 and the oxide of iron which       
colours the soils1 have been mixed      

together4    ,but how have they been so 
mixed--differently in different parts of
 the  country4 ,by what natural         
agency8--for what end8    ,again1 the   
soil on the surface rests on what is    
usually denominated the  subsoil4 ,this1
 also1 is very various in its character 
and quality4  ,sometimes it is a porous 
sand or gravel1 through which water     
readily  ascends from beneath or sinks  
in from above2 sometimes it is light and
  loamy like the soil that rests upon   
it2 sometimes stiff and impervious  to  
water4    ,the most ignorant farmer     
knows how much the value of a piece of  
land  depends upon the characters of the
 surface soil1--the intelligent         
improver understands best the importance
 of a favourable subsoil4 8,when  ,i    
came to look at this farm10 said an     
excellent agriculturist to me1  8it was 
spring1 and damp growing weather3 the   
grass was beautifully  green1 the clover
 shooting up strong and healthy1 and the
 whole farm  had the appearance of being

 very good land4 ,had ,i come in ,june1 
when  the heat had drunk up nearly all  
the moisture which the sandy subsoil    
had left in the surface1 ,i should not  
have offered so much rent for  it by ten
 shillings an acre40 ,he might have said
 also1 8,had ,i taken a  spade1 and dug 
down #ah inches in various parts of the 
farm1 ,i should  have known what to     
expect in seasons of drought40    ,but  
how come subsoils thus to differ--one   
from the other--and from the  surface   
soil that rests upon them8 ,are there   
any principles by which  such           
differences can be accounted for--by    
which they can be foreseen--by  the aid 
of which we can tell what kind of soil  
may be expected in this  or that        
district--even without visiting the     
spot--and on what kind of  subsoil it is
 likely to rest8    ,geology explains   
the cause of all such differences1 and  
supplies us  with principles by which we
 can predict the general quality of the 
soil  and subsoil in the several parts  

of entire kingdoms2--and where the soil 
is of inferior quality and yet          
susceptible of improvement1 the same    
principles indicate whether the means of
 improving it are likely1 in  any given 
locality1 to be attainable at a         
reasonable cost4    ,it will be proper  
shortly to illustrate these direct      
relations of  geology to agriculture4   
,,chapter ,,vi4          ,direct        
relations of ,geology to                
,agriculture--,origin          of       
,soils--,causes of their                
,diversity--,relation to          the   
,rocks on which they rest--,constancy in
 the          relative ,position and    
,character of the ,stratified           
,rocks--,relation of this fact to       
,practical                              
,agriculture--,general ,character of the
 ,soils upon          these ,rocks4     
,geology is that branch of knowledge    
which embodies all ascertained  facts in
 regard to the nature and internal      
structure1 both physical and  chemical1 

of the solid parts of our globe4 ,this  
science has many close  relations with  
practical agriculture1 and especially   
throws much light  on the nature and    
origin of soils1--on the cause of their 
diversity1--on  the kind of materials by
 the admixture of which they may be     
permanently  improved1--and on the      
sources from which these materials may  
be derived4      ,,section ,i4--,,of    
,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,soils4    ,if we  
dig down through the soil and subsoil to
 a sufficient depth1 we  always come    
sooner or later to the solid rock4 ,in  
many places the rock  actually reaches  
the surface1 or rises in cliffs1 hills1 
or ridges1  far above it4 ,the surface  
7or crust7 of our globe1 therefore1     
consists  everywhere of a solid mass of 
rock1 overlaid with a covering1         
generally  thin1 of loose materials4    
,the upper or outer part of these loose 
materials forms the soil4    ,the       
geologist has travelled over great part 
of the earth's surface1  has examined   

the nature of the rocks1 which          
everywhere repose beneath  the soil1 and
 has found them to be very unlike in    
character1 in  composition1 and in      
hardness--in different countries and    
districts4 ,in  some places he has met  
with a sandstone1 in other places a     
limestone1  in others a slate or        
hardened rock of clay4 ,but a careful   
comparison  of all the kinds of rock he 
has observed1 has led him to the general
  conclusion1 that they are all either  
sandstones1 limestones1 or clays  of    
different degrees of hardness1 or a     
mixture in different proportions  of two
 or more of these kinds of matter4      
,when the loose covering of earth is    
removed from the surface of any of      
these rocks1 and it is left exposed1    
summer and winter1 to the action  of the
 winds and rains and frosts1 it may be  
seen gradually to crumble  away4 ,such  
is the case even with many of those     
which1 on account of  their greater     
hardness1 are employed as               

building-stones1 and are kept  generally
 dry2 how much more with such as are    
less hard1 and1 beneath  a covering of  
moist earth1 are continually exposed to 
the action of  water4 ,the natural      
crumbling of a naked rock thus gradually
 covers  it with loose materials1 in    
which seeds fix themselves and vegetate1
  and which eventually forms a soil4    
,the soil thus produced partakes        
necessarily of the character of the rock
 on which it rests1 and to the          
crumbling of which it owes its origin4  
,if the rock be a sandstone the  soil is
 sandy2 if a claystone1 it is a more or 
less stiff clay2 if a  limestone1 it is 
more or less calcareous2 and if the rock
 consist of  any peculiar mixture of    
those three substances1 a similar       
mixture is  observed in the earthy      
matter into which it has crumbled4      
,led by this observation1 the geologist1
 after comparing the rocks  of different
 countries with one another1 compared   
next the soils of  various districts    

with the rocks on which they immediately
 rest4 ,the  general result of this     
comparison has been1 that in almost     
every  country the soils have as close a
 resemblance to the rocks beneath       
them--as the loose earth derived from   
the crumbling of a rock before  our     
eyes1 bears to the rock of which it     
lately formed a part4 ,the  conclusion  
therefore is irresistible1 that soils1  
generally speaking1  have been formed by
 the crumbling or decay of the solid    
rocks1--that  there was a time when     
these rocks were uncovered by any loose 
materials1--and that the accumulation of
 soil has been the slow result  of the  
natural degradation 7wearing away7 of   
the solid crust of the  globe4          
,,section ,,ii4--,,cause ,,of ,,the     
,,diversity ,,of ,,soils4    ,the cause 
of the diversity of soils in different  
districts1 therefore1  is no longer     
obscure4 ,if the subjacent rocks in two 
localities differ1  the soils met with  
there must differ also1 and in an equal 

degree4    ,but why1 it may be asked1 do
 we find the soil in some countries     
uniform1 in mineral#ab character and    
general fertility1 over hundreds  or    
thousands of square miles1 while in     
others it varies from field to          
field1--the same farm often presenting  
many well marked differences both  in   
mineral character and in agricultural   
value8 ,the cause of this is to  be     
found in the mode in which the different
 rocks are observed to lie1  one upon or
 by the side of the other4    #ab ,that 
is1 containing the same general         
proportions of sand1 clay1  lime1 c41 or
 coloured red by similar quantities of  
oxide of iron4    ,geologists           
distinguish rocks into two classes1 the 
stratified and the  unstratified4 ,the  
former are found lying over each other  
in separate  beds or strata1 like the   
leaves of a book1 when laid on its side1
  or like the layers of stones in the   
wall of a building2 the latter  form    
hills1 mountains1 or sometimes ridges of

 mountains1 consisting  of one more or  
less solid mass of the same material1 in
 which no  layers or strata are any     
where distinctly perceptible4 ,thus1 in 
the  following diagram1 7,no4 #a71 ,a   
and ,b represent unstratified masses1   
in connection with a series of          
stratified deposits1 #a1 #b1 #c1 lying  
over each other in a horizontal         
position4 ,on ,a one kind of soil will  
be  formed1 on ,c another1 on ,b a      
third1 and on ,d a fourth1--the rocks   
being  all different from each other4   
,illustration3 ,,no4 #a4    ,if from ,a 
to ,d be a wide valley of many miles in 
extent1 the undulating  plain at the    
bottom of the valley1 resting in great  
part on the same  rock 7#b71 will be    
covered by a similar soil4 ,on ,b the   
soil will be  different for a short     
space2 and again at ,c1 and on the first
 ascent to  ,a1 where the rock 7#c7     
rises to the surface4 ,in this case the 
stratified  rocks lie horizontally2 and 
it is the undulating nature of the      

country  which1 bringing different kinds
 of rock to the surface1 causes a       
necessary diversity of soil4    ,but the
 degree of inclination1 which the beds  
possess1 is a more  frequent cause of   
variation in the characters of the soil 
in the same  district1 and even at      
shorter distances4 ,this is shewn in the
 annexed  diagram 7,no4 #b71 where ,a1  
,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 represent the mode in   
which the  stratified rocks of a        
district of country not unfrequently    
occur in  connection with each other4   
,illustration3 ,,no4 #b4    ,proceeding 
from ,e in the plain1 the soil would    
change when we came upon  the rock ,d1  
but would then continue uniform till we 
reached the layer  ,c4 ,each of these   
layers may stretch over a comparatively 
level tract of  perhaps hundreds of     
miles in extent4 ,again1 on climbing the
 hill-side1  another soil would present 
itself1 which would not change till we  
arrived at ,b4 ,then1 however1 we begin 
to walk over the edges of the  beds1 and

 the soil may vary with every new       
stratum 7or bed7 we pass  over1 till we 
gain the ascent to ,a1 where the beds   
are much thinner1  and where1 therefore1
 still more frequent variations may     
present  themselves4    ,everywhere over
 the ,british islands valleys are       
hollowed out1 as in  the former of these
 diagrams 7,no4 #a71 by which the rocks 
beneath are  exposed1 and differences of
 soil produced1--or the beds are more or
 less  inclined1 as in the latter       
diagram 7,no4 #b71 causing still more   
frequent  variations of the land to     
appear4 ,by a reference to these facts1 
nearly  all the great diversities which 
the soils of the country present may  be
 satisfactorily accounted for4          
,,section ,,iii4--,,of ,,the ,,constancy
 ,,in ,,the ,,character ,,and ,,order   
,,of ,,succession  ,,of ,,the           
,,stratified ,,rocks4    ,another fact  
alike important to agriculture and to   
geology1 is the  natural order or mode  
of arrangement in which the stratified  

rocks  are observed to occur in the     
crust of the globe4 ,thus1 if #a1 #b1   
#c1 in  diagram ,no4 #a represent three 
different kinds of rock1 a limestone1   
for  example1 a sandstone1 and a hard   
clay rock 7a shale or slate71 lying     
over each other1 in the order here      
represented2 then1 in whatever part  of 
the country nay1 in whatever part of the
 world1 these same rocks are  met with1 
they will always be found in the same   
relative position4 ,the  bed #b or #c   
will never be observed to lie over the  
bed #a4    ,this fact is important to   
geology1 because it enables this science
 to  arrange all the stratified rocks in
 a certain invariable order1--which     
order indicates their relative age or   
antiquity1--since that which is  lowest1
 like the lowest layer of stones in the 
wall of a building1 must  generally have
 been the first deposited1 or must be   
the oldest4 ,it also  enables the       
geologist1 on observing the kind of rock
 which forms the  surface in any        

country1 to predict at once1 whether    
certain other rocks  are likely to be   
met with in that country or not4 ,thus  
at ,c 7diagram1  ,no4 #a71 where the    
rock 7#c7 comes to the surface1 he knows
 it would be  in vain1 either by sinking
 or otherwise1 to seek for the rock     
7#a71 the  natural place of which is far
 above it2 while at ,d he knows that by 
sinking he is likely to find either #b  
or #c1 if it be worth his while to  seek
 for them4    ,to the agriculturist this
 fact is important1 among other         
reasons1--    #a4 ,because it enables   
him to predict whether certain kinds of 
rock1  which might be used with         
advantage in improving his soil1 are    
likely  to be met with within a         
reasonable distance or at an accessible 
depth4  ,thus if the bed ,d 7diagram    
,no4 #b7 be a limestone1 the instructed 
farmer  at ,e knows that it is not to be
 found by sinking into his own land1    
and1 therefore1 brings it from ,d2      
while1 to the farmer upon ,c1 it may  be

 less expensive to dig down to the bed  
,d in one of his own fields1  than to   
cart it from a distant spot where it    
occurs on the surface4 ,or  if the      
farmer requires clay1 or marl1 or sand1 
to ameliorate his soil1  this knowledge 
of the constant relative position of    
beds enables him to  say where these    
materials are to be got1 or where they  
are to be looked  for1 and whether the  
advantage to be derived is likely to    
repay the  cost of procuring them4      
#b4 ,it is observed1 that when the soil 
on the surface of each of a  series of  
rocks1 such as ,c1 or ,d1 or ,e1 in the 
same diagram1 is  uniformly bad1 it is  
almost invariably of better quality at  
the point  where the two rocks meet4    
,thus ,c may be dry1 sandy1 and barren2 
,d may  be cold1 unproductive clay2 and 
,e a more or less unfruitful limestone  
soil3 yet at either extremity of the    
tract ,d1 where the soil is made up  of 
an admixture of the decayed portions of 
the two adjacent rocks1 the  land may be

 of average fertility--the sand of ,c   
may adapt the adjacent  clay to the     
growth of turnips1 while the lime of ,e 
may cause it to  yield large returns of 
wheat4#ac ,thus1 to the tenant in       
looking out  for a farm1 or to the      
capitalist in seeking an eligible       
investment1 a  knowledge of the mutual  
relations of geology and agriculture    
will often  prove of the greatest       
assistance4 ,yet how little is such     
really useful  knowledge diffused among 
either class of men--how little are     
either  tenants or proprietors guided by
 it in their choice of the localities   
in which they desire to live6    #ac    
,see page #id4    ,and yet here and     
there the agricultural practice of more 
or less  extended districts1 if not     
really founded upon or directed by1 is  
yet to be explained only by principles  
such as those ,i have above             
illustrated4 ,i shall mention only one  
example4 ,the chalk in ,yorkshire1  in  
,suffolk1 and in other southern         

counties1 consists of a vast number  of 
beds1 which1 taken all together1 form a 
deposit of very great  thickness4 ,now1 
the upper beds of the chalk form poor1  
thin1 dry soils1  producing a scanty    
herbage1 and only under the most skilful
 culture  yielding profitable crops of  
corn4 ,the lower beds1 on the contrary1 
are marly2 produce a more stiff1        
tenacious1 and even fertile soil2  and  
are found in a remarkable degree to     
enrich the soils of the upper  chalk1   
when laid on as a top-dressing in       
autumn1 and allowed to crumble  under   
the action of the winter's frost4 ,hence
 in ,yorkshire1 ,wiltshire1  ,hampshire1
 and ,kent1 where the lower chalk covers
 the surface1 or is  found at no great  
depth beneath it1 it is dug out of the  
sides of the  hills1 or pits are sunk   
for it1 and it is immediately laid upon 
the  land with great benefit to the     
soil4 ,but in parts of ,suffolk1 where  
the  soil equally rests upon the upper  
chalk1 there is no other chalk in the   

neighbourhood1 or to be met with at any 
reasonable depth1 which will  materially
 improve the land4 ,the farmers find it1
 from long experience1  to be more      
economical to bring chalk by sea from   
,kent to lay on their  lands in         
,suffolk1 than to cover them with any   
portion of the same  material from their
 own farms4 ,the following imaginary    
section will  fully explain the fact    
here mentioned3--    ,illustration3     
,,no4 #c4    ,suffolk4 ,mouth of the    
,thames4 ,kent4      ,in this diagram #a
 represents the ,london clay2 #b1 the   
plastic clay which  is below it2 #c1 the
 upper chalk with flints1 rising to the 
surface in  ,suffolk2 and #d1 the lower 
chalk1 without flints1 which is too deep
 to  be reached in ,suffolk1 but which  
rises to the surface in ,kent1--where it
  is abundant1 is easily accessible1 and
 whence it is transmitted across  the   
estuary of the ,thames into ,suffolk4   
#c4 ,the further fact that the several  
stratified rocks are remarkably         

constant in their mineral character1    
renders this knowledge of  the order of 
relative superposition still more       
valuable to the  agriculturist4         
,thousands of different beds are known  
to geologists  to occur on various parts
 of the earth's surface--each occupying 
its  own unvarying place in the series4 
,most of these beds also1 when they     
crumble or are worn down1 produce soils 
possessed of some peculiarity  by which 
their general agricultural capabilities 
are more or less  affected1--and these  
peculiarities may generally be observed 
in soils  formed from rocks of the same 
age--that is1 occupying the same place  
in  the series--in whatever part of the 
world we find them4 ,hence if the       
agricultural geologist be informed that 
his friend has bought1 or is  in treaty 
for a farm or an estate1 and that it is 
situated upon such  and such a rock1 or 
geological formation1 he can immediately
 give a  very probable opinion in regard
 to the agricultural value of the soil1 

whether the property be in ,england1 in 
,australia1 or in ,new ,zealand4 ,if  he
 knows the nature of the climate also1  
he will be able to estimate  with       
tolerable correctness how far the soil  
is likely to repay the  labours of the  
practical farmer1--nay1 even whether it 
is likely to suit  better for arable    
land or for pasture1 and if for arable1 
what species  of white crops it may be  
expected to produce most abundantly4    
,these facts are so very curious1 and   
illustrate so beautifully  the value of 
geological knowledge--if not to ,a and  
,b1 the holders  or proprietors of this 
and that small farm1 yet to enlightened 
agriculturists1--to scientific          
agriculture in general1--that ,i shall  
explain this part of the subject more   
fully in a separate section4  ,to those 
who are now embarking in such numbers in
 quest of new  homes in our numerous    
colonies1 who hope to find1 if not a    
more  willing1 at least a more          
attainable soil in new countries1 no    

kind  of agricultural knowledge can at  
the outset1--,i may say1 even through   
life1--be so valuable as that to which  
the rudiments of geology will  lead     
them4 ,those who prepare themselves the 
best for becoming farmers  or           
proprietors in ,canada1 in ,new         
,zealand1 or in wide ,australia1  yet   
leave their native land in general      
without a particle of that  preliminary 
practical knowledge1 which would qualify
 them to say1  when they reach the land 
of their adoption1 8,on this spot1      
rather than  that1--in this district1   
rather than that1--will ,i purchase my  
allotment1  because1 though both appear 
equally inviting1 yet ,i know from the  
geological structure of the country1    
that here ,i shall have the more        
permanently productive soil2 here ,i am 
more within reach of the means  of      
agricultural improvement2 here1 in      
addition to the riches of the  surface1 
my descendants may hope to derive the   
means of wealth from  mineral riches    

beneath40 ,and this oversight has arisen
 chiefly from  the value of such        
knowledge not being understood--often   
from the very  nature of it being       
unknown1 even to otherwise well         
instructed practical  men4 ,it is not to
 men well skilled merely in the details 
of local  farming1 and who are therefore
 deservedly considered as authorities   
and good teachers in regard to local or 
district practice1 that we are  to look 
for an exposition1 often not even for a 
correct appreciation1  of those general 
principles on which a universal system  
of agriculture  must be based--without  
which principles1 indeed1 it must ever  
remain  a mere collection of empirical  
rules1 to be studied and laboriously    
mastered in every new district we go    
to--as the traveller in foreign  lands  
must acquire a new language every       
successive frontier he passes4          
,england1 the mistress of so many wide  
and unpeopled lands1 over which  the    
dwellings of her adventurous sons are   

hereafter to be scattered1 on  which    
their toil is to be expended1 and the   
glory of their motherland  by their     
exertions to be perpetuated--,england   
should especially  encourage all such   
learning1 and the sons of ,english      
farmers willingly  avail themselves of  
every opportunity of acquiring it4      
,,section ,,iv4--,,of ,,geological      
,,formations1 ,,and ,,the ,,general     
,,characters ,,of ,,the  ,,soils ,,that 
,,rest ,,upon ,,them4    ,the thousands 
of beds or strata of which ,i have      
spoken as lying one  over the other in  
the crust of the globe1 have1 partly for
 convenience1  and partly in consequence
 of certain remarkably distinctive      
characters  observed among them1 been   
separated by geologists into three great
  divisions--the primary1 which are the 
lowest and the oldest2 the  secondary1  
which lie over them2 and the tertiary1  
which are  uppermost1 and have been most
 recently formed4 ,the strata1 in these 
several divisions1 have again been      

subdivided into groups1 called          
formations4 ,the following table        
exhibits the names and thicknesses  of  
these formations1 and the mineralogical 
characters of the rocks of  which they  
severally consist4      ,i4 ,,tertiary  
,,strata4    #a4 ,the ,london and       
,plastic clays1 #ejj to #ijj feet thick1
 consist of  stiff1 almost impervious1  
dark-coloured clays1--chiefly in        
pasture4  ,the lower beds are mixed with
 sand1 and produce an arable soil1 but  
extensive heaths and wastes rest upon   
them in ,berkshire1 ,hampshire1 and     
,dorset4      ,,ii4 ,,secondary         
,,strata4    #b4 ,the ,chalk1 about #fjj
 feet in thickness1 consists in the     
upper part  7see diagram1 ,no4 #c1 p4   
#hh7 of a purer chalk with layers of    
flint2 in  the lower1 of a marly chalk  
without flints4 ,the soil of the upper  
chalk  is chiefly in sheep-walks1 that  
of the lower chalk is very productive   
of corn4    #c4 ,the ,green ,sand1 #ejj 
feet thick1 consists of #aej feet of    

clay1 with  about #ajj feet of sand     
above1 and #bej feet below it4 ,the     
upper sand  forms a very productive     
arable soil1 and the clay impervious1   
wet and  cold lands chiefly in pasture4 
,the lower sand is generally            
unproductive4    ,it is an important    
agricultural remark1 that where the clay
 7plastic  clay7 comes in contact with  
the top of the chalk1 an improved soil  
is  produced1 and that where the chalk  
and the green sand mix1 extremely       
fertile patches of country present      
themselves4 7,see pages #hf and #hg47   
#d4 ,the ,wealden formation1 nearly     
#ajjj feet thick1 consists of #djj  feet
 of sand1 covered by #cjj of clay1 and  
resting upon #bej of marls and          
limestones4 ,the clay forms the poor wet
 pastures of ,sussex and ,kent4 ,on  the
 sands below the clay rest heaths and   
brushwood2 but where the marls  and     
limestones come to the surface1 the land
 is of better quality1 and  is          
susceptible of profitable arable        

culture4    #e4 ,in the ,upper ,oolite1 
of #fjj feet in thickness1 we have a bed
 of  clay 7,kimmeridge clay7 #ejj feet  
thick1 covered by #ajj feet of sandy    
limestones4 ,the clay lands are         
difficult and expensive to work1 and are
  chiefly in old pasture4 ,the sandy    
limestone soils above the clay are  also
 poor1 but where they rest immediately  
upon1 and are intermixed  with the clay1
 excellent arable land is produced4     
#f4 ,the ,middle ,oolite of #ejj feet   
consists also of a clay 7,oxford  clay7 
dark-blue1 adhesive1 and nearly #ajjj   
feet thick1 covered by #ajj  feet of    
limestones and sandstones4 ,these latter
 produce good arable  land where the    
lime happens to abound2 the clays form  
close heavy  compact soils1 most        
difficult and expensive to work4 ,the   
extensive  pasture lands of ,bedford1   
,huntingdon1 ,northampton1 ,lincoln1    
,wilts1  ,oxford1 and ,gloucester1 rest 
chiefly upon this clay1 as do also the  
fenny tracts of ,lincoln and ,cambridge4

    #g4 ,the ,lower or ,bath ,oolite1 of
 #ejj feet in thickness1 consists of    
many beds of limestone and sandstone1   
with about #bjj feet of clay in  the    
centre of the formation4 ,the soils are 
very various in quality1  according as  
the sandstone or limestone predominates4
 ,the clays are  chiefly in             
pasture1--the rest is more or less      
productive1 easily worked1  arable land4
 ,in ,gloucester1 ,northampton1 ,oxford1
 the east of ,leicester1  and in        
,yorkshire1 this formation is found to  
lie immediately beneath  the surface1   
and a little patch of it occurs also on 
the south-eastern  coast of ,sutherland4
    #f4 ,the ,lias is an immense deposit
 of blue clay from #ejj to #ajjj feet   
in thickness1 which produces cold1 blue1
 unproductive1 clay soils4 ,it  forms a 
long stripe of land from the mouth of   
the ,tees1 in ,yorkshire1  to ,lyme     
,regis in ,dorset4 ,it is chiefly in    
old1 and often very valuable  pasture4  
#i4 ,the ,new ,red ,sandstone1 though   

only #ejj feet in thickness1 forms  the 
surface of nearly the whole central     
plain of ,england1 and stretches  north 
through ,cheshire to ,carlisle and      
,dumfries4 ,it consists of red          
sandstones and marls1--the soils on     
which are easily and cheaply worked1    
and form some of the richest and most   
productive arable lands in the  island4 
,in whatever part of the world the red  
soils of this formation  have been met  
with1 they have been found to possess in
 general the same  agricultural         
capabilities4    #aj4 ,the ,magnesian   
,limestone1 from #ajj to #ejj feet in   
thickness1 forms  a stripe of generally 
poor thin soil from ,durham to          
,nottingham1 capable  of improvement as 
arable land by high farming1 but bearing
 naturally a  poor pasture1 intermingled
 with sometimes magnificent furze4      
#aa4 ,the ,coal ,measures1 from #cjj to 
#cjjj feet thick1 consist of  beds of   
sandstones and dark-blue shales 7hard   
clays71 intermingled  7interstratified7 

with beds of coal4 ,where the sands come
 to the  surface1 the soil is thin1     
poor1 hungry1 sometimes almost          
worthless4  ,the shales1 on the other   
hand1 produce stiff1 wet1 almost        
unmanageable  clays2--not unworkable1   
yet expensive to work1 and requiring    
draining1  lime1 skill1 capital1 and a  
zeal for improvement1 to be applied to  
them1 before they can be made to yield  
the remunerating crops of corn  they are
 capable of producing4    #ab4 ,to the  
,millstone ,grits of #fjj feet or       
upwards in thickness the  same remarks  
apply4 ,they are often only a repetition
 of the sandstones  and shales of the   
coal measures1 forming in many cases    
soils still more  worthless4 ,when the  
sandstones prevail1 large tracts lie    
naked1 or  bear a thin and stunted      
heath2 where the shales abound1 the     
naturally  difficult soils of the coal  
shales again recur4 ,these rocks are    
generally found on the outskirts of our 
coal-fields4    #ac4 ,the ,mountain     

,limestone1 #hjj to #ajjj feet thick1 is
 a hard blue  limestone rock1 separated 
here and there into distinct beds by    
layers  of sandstones1 of sandy slates1 
or of blue shales like those of the     
coal measures4 ,the soil upon the       
limestone is generally thin1 but        
produces a naturally sweet herbage4     
,when the limestone and clay 7shale7    
adjoin each other1 arable land occurs1  
which is naturally productive of  oats1 
yet1 when the climate is favourable1    
capable of being converted  into good   
wheat land4 ,in the north of ,england a 
considerable tract of  country is       
covered by these rocks1 but in ,ireland 
they form nearly the  whole of the      
interior of the island4    #ad4 ,the    
,old ,red ,sandstone varies in thickness
 from #ejj to #aj1jjj  feet4 ,it        
possesses many of the valuable          
agricultural qualities of the  new red1 
consisting1 like it1 of red sandstones  
and marls1 which  crumble down into rich
 red soils4 ,such are the soils of      

,brecknock1  ,hereford1 and part of     
,monmouth2 of part of ,berwick and      
,roxburgh2 of  ,haddington and ,lanark2 
of southern ,perth2 of either shore of  
the  ,moray ,firth2 and of the county of
 ,sutherland4 ,in ,ireland1 also1 these 
rocks abound in ,tyrone1 ,fermanagh1 and
 ,monaghan2 in ,waterford1 in  ,mayo1   
and in ,tipperary4 ,in all these places1
 the soils they form are  generally the 
best in their several neighbourhoods1   
though here and  there1--where the      
sandstones are harder1 more siliceous   
and impervious  to water1--tracts1      
sometimes extensive1 of heath and bog   
occur4      ,,iii4--,,primary ,,strata4 
#ae4 ,the ,upper ,silurian system is    
nearly #djjj feet in thickness1 and     
forms the soils over the lower border   
counties of ,wales4 ,it consists  of    
sandstones and shales1 with occasional  
limestones2 but the soils  formed from  
these beds take their character from the
 general abundance  of clay4 ,they are  
cold1 usually unmanageable1 muddy clays1

 with  the remarkably inferior          
agricultural value of which the         
traveller is  immediately struck1 as he 
passes westward off the red sandstones  
of  ,hereford on to the upper silurian  
rocks of ,radnor4    #af4 ,the ,lower   
,silurian rocks are also nearly #djjj   
feet in thickness1  and in ,wales lie to
 the west of the upper silurian rocks4  
,they consist  of about #bejj feet of   
sandstone1 on which1 when the surface is
 not  naked1 barren heaths alone rest4  
,beneath these sandstones lie #abjj feet
 of sandy and earthy limestones1  from  
the decay of which1 as may be seen on   
the southern edge of  ,caermarthen1     
fertile arable lands are produced4      
#ag4 ,the ,cambrian ,system1 of many    
thousand yards in thickness1  consists  
in great part of clay slates1 more or   
less hard1 which often  weather slowly1 
and almost always produce either poor   
and thin soils1  or cold1 difficultly   
manageable clays1 expensive to work1 and
 requiring  high farming to bring them  

into profitable arable cultivation4     
,cornwall1 western ,wales1 and the      
mountains of ,cumberland1 in ,england2  
the high country which stretches from   
the ,lammermuir hills to  ,portpatrick1 
in ,scotland2 the mountains of          
,tipperary1 and a large tract  on the   
extreme south of ,ireland1--on its east 
coast1 and far inland  from the bay of  
,dundalk1--are covered by these slate   
rocks4 ,patches of  rich1 well          
cultivated land occur here and there on 
this formation1 with  much also that is 
improvable2 but the greater part of it  
is usurped by  worthless heath and      
extensive bogs4    #ah4 ,the ,mica      
,slate and ,gneiss systems are of       
unknown thickness1 and  consist chiefly 
of hard and slaty rocks1 crumbling      
slowly1 forming  poor1 thin soils1 which
 rest on an impervious rock1 and which1 
from  the height to which this formation
 generally rises1 are rendered more     
unproductive by an unpropitious climate4
 ,they form extensive heathy  tracts in 

,perth and ,argyle1 and on the north and
 west of ,ireland4 ,here  and there     
only1 in the valleys or sheltered       
slopes1 and by the margins  of the      
lakes1 spots of bright green meet the   
eye1 and patches of a  willing soil1    
fertile in corn4    ,a careful perusal  
of the preceding sketch of the general  
agricultural  capabilities of the soils 
formed from the several classes of      
stratified rocks1 will have presented to
 the reader many illustrations  of the  
facts stated in the preceding section2  
he will have drawn  for himself--to     
specify a few examples--the following   
among other  conclusions4    #a4 ,that  
some formations1 like the new red       
sandstone1 yield a soil  almost always  
productive2 others1 as the coal measures
 and millstone  grits1 a soil almost    
always naturally unproductive4    #b4   
,that good1 or better land at least1    
than generally prevails in a  district1 
may be expected where two formations or 
two different kinds  of rock meet1--as  

when a limestone and a clay mingle their
 mutual ruins  for the formation of a   
common soil4    #c4 ,that in almost     
every country extensive tracts of land  
on certain  formations will be found    
laid down to natural grass1 in          
consequence of  the original difficulty 
and expense of working4 ,such are the   
,lias1 the  ,oxford1 the ,kimmeridge1   
and the ,london clays4 ,in raising corn1
 it is  natural that the lands which are
 easiest and cheapest worked should be  
first subjected to the plough2 it is not
 till implements are improved1  skill   
increased1 capital accumulated1 and     
population presses1 that the  heavier   
lands will be rescued from perennial    
grass1 and made to produce  that greatly
 increased amount of food for both man  
and beast1 which  they are easily       
capable of yielding4    ,the turnip     
soils of ,great ,britain are in many    
districts1 it may be1  but indifferently
 farmed2 and the state has reason to    
complain of  much individual neglect of 

known and certain methods of increasing 
their productiveness2 but the next great
 achievement which ,british  agriculture
 has to effect1 is to subdue the        
stubborn clays1 and to  convert them    
into what many of them are yet destined 
to become1 the  richest corn-bearing    
lands in the kingdom4          ,,chapter
 ,,vii4          ,soils of the ,granitic
 and ,trap ,rocks4--,accumulations      
of transported ,sands1 ,gravels1 and    
,clays4--,use          of ,geological   
,maps in reference to ,agriculture4     
--,physical characters and ,chemical    
constitution          of                
,soils4--,relation between the nature of
 the ,soil          and the kind of     
,plants that naturally grow upon it4    
,it was stated1 in the preceding        
lecture1 7see p4 #hb17 that rocks are   
divided by geologists into the          
stratified and the unstratified4#ad     
,the stratified rocks cover by far the  
largest portion of the globe1 and  thus 
form a variety of soils1 of which a     

general description has just  been      
given4 ,the unstratified rocks are of   
two kinds--the granites  and the trap   
rocks2 and as a considerable portion of 
the area of our  island is covered by   
them1 it will be proper shortly to      
consider the  peculiar characters of    
each1 and the differences of the soils  
produced  from them4    #ad ,the        
unstratified are often called           
crystalline rocks1 because  they        
frequently have a glassy appearance1 or 
contain regular crystals  of certain    
mineral substances2 often also igneous  
rocks1 because they  appear all to have 
been originally in a melted state1 or to
 have been  produced by fire4           
,,section ,i4--,,soils ,,of ,,the       
,,granites ,,and ,,trap ,,rocks4    #a4 
,the granites consist of a mixture1 in  
different proportions1 of  three        
minerals1 known by the names of quartz1 
felspar1 and mica4  ,the latter1        
however1 is generally present in such   
small quantity1 that  in our general    

description it may be safely left out of
 view4 ,granites1  therefore1 consist   
chiefly of quartz and felspar1 in       
proportions which  vary very much1 but  
the former1 on an average1 constitutes  
perhaps from  one-third to one-half of  
the whole4    ,quartz has already been  
described--7see p4 #ea7--;as the        
substance of  flint1 the silica of the  
chemist4 ,when the granite decays1 this 
portion  of it forms a more or less     
coarse siliceous sand4    ,felspar is a 
white1 greenish1 or flesh-coloured      
mineral1 often more  or less earthy in  
its appearance1 but generally hard and  
brittle1 and  sometimes glassy4 ,it is  
scratched by1 and thus is readily       
distinguished  from1 quartz4 ,when it   
decays1 it forms an exceedingly fine    
clay4    ,a remarkable difference       
appears thus to exist1 in chemical      
constitution1 between these two         
minerals--a difference which must affect
  also the soils produced from them4 ,a 
granite soil1 in addition to the        

siliceous sand1 will consist chiefly of 
silica1 alumina1 and potash2  a         
hornblende soil1 in addition to silica  
and alumina1 of much lime1  magnesia1   
and oxide of iron--of nearly #b cwt4 of 
each of these latter  for every ton of  
decayed rock4 ,a hornblende soil1       
therefore1 contains  more of those      
inorganic constituents which the plants 
require for their  healthy sustenance1  
and therefore will prove more generally 
productive  than a soil of decayed      
felspar4 ,but when the two are mixed1 as
 in the  greenstones1 the soil must be  
still more favourable to vegetable life4
  ,the potash and soda1 of which the    
hornblende is nearly destitute1 the     
felspar is able abundantly to supply2   
while1 by the hornblende are  yielded   
lime and magnesia1 which are known to   
exercise a remarkable  influence on the 
progress of vegetation4    #b4 ,the trap
 rocks1 comprising the greenstones and  
basalts1 consist  essentially#ae of     
felspar and hornblende or augite4 ,in   

contrasting  the trap rocks with the    
granites1 it may be stated generally1   
that  while the granites consist of     
felspar and quartz1 the traps consist   
of felspar and hornblende 7or augite74  
,in the traps1 both the felspar  and the
 hornblende are reduced1 by the action  
of the weather to a more  or less fine  
powder1 affording materials for a soil2 
in the granites  the felspar is the     
principal source of all the earthy      
matter they are  capable of yielding4   
,if we compare together1 therefore1 the 
chemical  composition of the two        
minerals 7hornblende and felspar71 we   
shall see  in what respect these two    
varieties of soil ought to differ4 ,thus
 they  consist of                       
,felspar4  ,hornblende4      ,silica1   
#fe        #db      ,alumina1           
#ah        #ad      ,potash and soda1   
#ag       trace4      ,lime1            
trace4     #ab      ,magnesia1          
0        #ad      ,oxide of iron1       
0        #ad      ,oxide of manganese1  

0                                       
-----    -------                        
#ajj       #ig    #ae ,the reader is    
referred for more precise information to
 the  author's 8,,lectures10 pp4 #cgg to
 #cij4    ,thus theory shews1 that while
 granite soils may be eminently         
unfruitful1 trap soils may be eminently 
fertile4 ,and such is actually  the     
result of observation and experience in 
every part of the globe4  ,unproductive 
granite soils cover nearly the whole of 
,scotland north  of the ,grampians1 and 
large tracts of land in ,devon and      
,cornwall1 and  on the east and west of 
,ireland2 while fertile trap soils      
extend over  thousands of square miles  
in the lowlands of ,scotland1 and in the
  north of ,ireland2 and where in       
,cornwall they occasionally mix with    
the granite soils1 they are found to    
redeem them from their natural          
barrenness4    ,while such is the       
general rule in regard to these two     
classes of soils1  it happens on some   

spots that the presence of other        
minerals in the  granites1 or of        
hornblende or mica in larger quantity   
than usual1 give  rise to a granitic    
soil of average fertility1 as is the    
case in the  ,scilly isles2 while1 in   
like manner1 the trap rocks are         
sometimes1 as  in parts of the isle of  
,skye1 so peculiar in constitution as to
 condemn  the land to almost hopeless   
infertility4    ,in some districts the  
decayed traps are dug up1 and applied   
with  advantage1 as a top-dressing1 to  
other kinds of land2 and as by          
admixture with the decayed trap1 the    
granitic soils are known to be  improved
 in quality1 so an admixture of decayed 
granite with many trap  soils1 were it  
readily accessible1 might add to their  
fertility also4      ,,section          
,,ii4--,,of ,,the ,,superficial         
,,accumulations ,,of ,,transported      
,,materials  ,,on ,,different ,,parts   
,,of ,,the ,,earth',s ,,surface4    ,it 
is necessary to guard the reader against

 disappointment1 when he  proceeds to   
examine the existing relation between   
the soils and the  rocks on which they  
lie1 or to infer the quality of the soil
 from the  known nature of the rock in  
conformity with what has been above laid
  down1--by explaining another class of 
geological appearances which  present   
themselves not only in our own country  
but in almost every  other part of the  
globe4    ,the unlearned reader of the  
preceding section and chapter may       
say--,i  know excellent land resting    
upon the granites1 fine turnip soils on 
the  ,oxford or ,london clays1 tracts of
 fertile fields on the coal measures1   
and poor1 gravelly farms on the boasted 
new red sandstone3 ,i have no  faith in 
theory--,i can have none in theories    
which are so obviously  contradicted by 
natural appearances4 ,such1 it is to be 
feared1 is  the hasty mode of reasoning 
among too many locally#af excellent     
practical men1 familiar1 it may be1 with
 many useful and important  facts1 but  

untaught to look through and beyond     
isolated facts to the  principles on    
which they depend4    #af ,by locally   
excellent1 ,i mean those who are the    
best possible  farmers of their own     
district and after their own way1 but   
who would  fail in other districts      
requiring other methods4 ,to the        
possessor of  agricultural principles   
the modifications required by difference
 of  crop1 soil1 and climate1 readily   
suggest themselves1 where the mere      
practical man is bewildered1            
disheartened1 and in despair4    ,every 
one who has lived long1 on the more     
exposed shores of our island1  has seen1
 that when the weather is dry1 and the  
sea winds blow strong1  the sands of the
 beach are carried inland and spread    
over the soil1  sometimes to a          
considerable distance from the coast4   
,in some countries  this sand-drift     
takes place to a very great extent1 and 
gradually  swallows up large tracts of  
fertile land4    ,again1 most people are

 familiar with the fact1 that during    
periods of  long continued rain1 when   
the rivers are flooded and overflow     
their  banks1 they not unfrequently bear
 with them loads of sand and gravel1    
which they carry far and wide1 and strew
 at intervals over the surface  soil4   
,so the annual overflowings of the      
,nile1 the ,ganges1 and the river of    
,amazons1 gradually deposit             
accumulations of soil over surfaces of  
great  extent2--and so also the bottoms 
of most lakes are covered with thick    
beds of sand1 gravel1 and clay1 which   
have been conveyed into them from  the  
higher grounds by the rivers through    
which they are fed4    ,to these and    
similar agencies1 a large portion of the
 existing dry land  of the globe has    
been1 and is still exposed4 ,hence in   
many places1  the rocks1 and the soils  
naturally derived from them1 are buried 
beneath accumulated heaps or layers of  
sand1 gravel1 and clay1 which  have been
 brought from a greater or less         

distance1 and which have  not           
unfrequently been derived from rocks of 
a totally different kind  from those of 
the district in which they are now      
found4 ,on these  accumulations of      
transported materials1 a soil is        
produced which often  has no relation in
 its characters to the rocks which cover
 the country1  and the nature of which a
 familiar acquaintance with these rocks 
would  not enable us to predict4    ,to 
this cause is due that discordance      
between the first indications  of       
geology1 as to the origin of soils from 
the rocks on which they  rest1 and the  
actually observed character of those    
soils in certain  districts--of which   
discordance mention has been made as    
likely to  awaken doubt and distrust in 
the mind of the less instructed student 
in  regard to the predictions of        
agricultural geology4 ,there are several
  circumstances1 however1 by which the  
careful observer is materially  aided in
 endeavouring to understand what the    

nature of the soils is  likely to be1   
and how they ought to be treated1 even  
when the subjacent  rocks are thus      
overlaid by masses of drifted materials4
 ,thus--    #a4 ,it not unfrequently    
happens1 that the materials brought from
 a  distance are more or less mixed up  
with the fragments and decayed  matter  
of the rocks which are native to the    
spot1 so that though  modified in       
quality1 the soil1 nevertheless1 retains
 the general  characters of that which  
is formed on other spots from the decay 
of  these rocks alone4    #b4 ,where the
 formation is extensive1 or covers a    
large area1 as the  new red sandstones  
and coal measures do in this            
country1--the mountain  limestones in   
,ireland1 and the granites in the north 
of ,scotland--the  transported sand1    
gravel1 or clay1 strewed over one part  
of the  formation1 has not unfrequently 
been derived from the rocks of another  
part of the same formation1 so that1    
after all1 the soils may be said  to be 

produced from the rocks on which they   
rest1 and may be judged of  from the    
known constitution of these rocks4      
#c4 ,or if not from the rocks of the    
same formation1 they have most          
frequently been derived from those of a 
neighbouring formation--from  rocks     
which are to be found at no great       
distance1 and generally on  higher      
ground4 ,thus the ruins of the millstone
 grit rocks are often  spread over the  
surface of the coal measures--of these1 
again1 over the  magnesian              
limestone1--of the latter1 over the new 
red sandstone1 and so  on4 ,the effect  
of this kind of transport upon the      
soils1 is merely to  overlap1 as it     
were1 the edges of one formation with   
the proper soils  of the formations that
 adjoin it in the particular direction  
from which  the drifted materials are   
known to have come4    ,it appears1     
therefore1 that the occurrence on       
certain spots1 or tracts  of country1 of
 soils that have no apparent relation to

 the rocks on  which they immediately   
rest1 tends in no way to throw doubt    
upon1 to  discredit or to disprove1 the 
conclusions drawn from the more general 
facts and principles of geology4 ,it is 
still generally true that soils  are    
derived from the rocks on which they    
rest4 ,the exceptions are  local1 and   
the difficulties which these local      
exceptions present1  require only from  
the agricultural geologist a more       
careful study of  the structure of each 
district1 before he pronounces a decided
 opinion  as to the degree of fertility 
it either naturally possesses1 or by    
skilful cultivation may be made to      
attain4    ,geological maps point out   
with more or less precision the extent  
of  country over which the chalk1 the   
red sandstone1 the granites1 c41  are   
found immediately beneath the loose     
materials on the surface2 and  these    
maps are of great value in indicating   
also the general quality of  the soils  
over the same districts4 ,it may be     

true1 that here and there  the natural  
soils are masked or buried by           
transported materials1  yet the         
political economist may1 nevertheless1  
with safety estimate  the general       
agricultural capabilities and resources 
of a country by  the study of its       
geological structure--the capitalist    
judge in what  part of it he is likely  
to meet with an agreeable               
investment--and the  practical farmer in
 what country he may expect to find land
 that will  best reward his             
labours--that will admit of the kind of 
culture to which  he is most accustomed1
 or1 by the application of better       
methods1 will  manifest the greatest    
agricultural improvement4      ,,section
 ,,iii4--,,of ,,the ,,physical          
,,characters ,,of ,,soils4    ,the      
influence of climate on the fertility of
 a soil is often very  great4 ,this     
influence depends very much upon what   
are called the  physical properties of  
soils4    #a4 ,some soils are heavier   

and denser than others1 sand and marls  
being  the heaviest1 and peaty soils the
 lightest4 ,in reclaiming peat lands1   
it is found to be highly beneficial to  
increase their density by a  covering of
 clay1 sand1 or limestone gravel4    #b4
 ,again1 some soils absorb the rains    
that fall1 and retain them in  larger   
quantity and for a longer period than   
others4 ,strong clays  absorb and retain
 nearly three times as much water as    
sandy soils do1  while peaty soils      
absorb a still larger proportion4 ,hence
 the more  frequent necessity for       
draining clayey than sandy soils2 hence 
also the  reason why1 in peaty lands1   
the drains must be kept carefully open1 
in  order that the access of springs and
 of other water from beneath1 may  be as
 much as possible prevented4    #c4     
,when dry weather comes1 soils lose     
water by evaporation with  different    
degrees of rapidity4 ,in this way a     
siliceous sand will give  off the same  
weight of water in the form of vapour1  

in one-third of the  time necessary to  
evaporate it from a stiff clay1 a peat1 
or a rich  garden mould1 when all are   
equally exposed to the air4 ,hence the  
reason  why plants are so soon burned up
 in a sandy soil4 ,not only do such     
soils retain less of the rain that      
falls1 but that which is retained  is   
also more speedily dissipated by        
evaporation4 ,when rains abound1        
however1 or in very moist seasons1 these
 same properties of sandy soils  enable 
them to sustain a luxuriant vegetation1 
when plants will perish  on clay lands  
from excess of moisture4    #d4 ,in     
drying under the influence of the sun1  
soils contract and  diminish in bulk in 
proportion to the quantity of clay or of
 peaty  matter they contain4 ,sand does 
not at all diminish in bulk in drying1  
but peat shrinks in one-fifth1 and      
agricultural clay nearly as much4  ,the 
roots are thus compressed1 and air is   
excluded1 especially from  the hardened 
clays1 and thus the plant is placed in a

 condition  unfavourable to its growth4 
,hence the value of proper admixtures of
  sand and clay4 ,by the latter 7the    
clay71 a sufficient quantity of         
moisture is retained1 and for a         
sufficient length of time2 while1 by    
the former1 the roots are preserved from
 compression1 and a free access  of air 
is permitted4    #e4 ,in the hottest and
 most drying weather1 the soil has      
seasons of  respite from the scorching  
influence of the sun4 ,during the cooler
  season of the night1 even when no     
perceptible dew falls1 it has the  power
 of again extracting from the air a     
portion of the moisture it  had lost    
during the day4 ,perfectly pure sand    
possesses this power in  the least      
degree2 it absorbs little or no moisture
 from the air4 ,a  stiff clay1 on the   
other hand1 will in a single night      
absorb sometimes  as much as a #cjth    
part of its own weight1 and a dry peat  
as much as a  #abth of its weight2 and1 
generally1 the quantity thus drunk in by

 soils  of various qualities1 is        
dependent upon the proportions of clay  
and  vegetable matter they severally    
contain4 ,we cannot fail to perceive    
from these facts1 how much of the       
productive capabilities of a soil  is   
dependent upon the proportions in which 
its different earthy and  vegetable     
constituents are mixed together4    #f4 
,the temperature of a soil1 or the      
degree of warmth it is capable  of      
attaining under the influence of the    
sun's rays1 materially affects  the     
progress of vegetation4 ,every gardener 
knows how much bottom  heat forces the  
growth1 especially of young plants2 and 
wherever a  natural warmth exists in the
 soil1 independent of the sun1 as in the
  neighbourhood of volcanoes1 there it  
exhibits the most exuberant  fertility4 
,one main influence of the sun in spring
 and summer is  dependent upon its power
 of thus warming the soil around the    
young  roots1 and thus rendering it     
propitious to their rapid growth4 ,but  

the  sun does not warm all soils alike3 
some become much hotter than others1    
though exposed to the same sunshine4    
,when the temperature of the air  in the
 shade is no higher than #fj to #gj1 a  
dry soil may become so  warm as to raise
 the thermometer to #ij or #ajj4 ,mrs4  
,ellis states1  that among the ,pyrenees
 the rocks actually smoke after rain    
under the  influence of the summer sun1 
and become so hot1 that you cannot sit  
down upon them4 ,in wet soils the       
temperature rises more slowly1 and      
never attains the same height as in a   
dry soil by #aj or #ae4 ,hence it  is   
strictly correct to say1 that wet soils 
are cold2 and it is easy  to understand 
how this coldness is removed by perfect 
drainage4 ,dry  sands and clays1 and    
blackish garden mould1 become warmed to 
nearly  an equal degree under the same  
sun2 brownish red soils are heated      
somewhat more1 and dark-coloured peat   
the most of all4 ,it is probable1       
therefore1 that the presence of         

dark-coloured vegetable matter renders  
the soil more absorbent of heat from the
 sun1 while the colour of the  dark-red 
marls of the new and old red sandstones 
may1 in some degree1  aid the other     
causes of fertility in the soils which  
they produce4    ,granite generally     
forms hills and sometimes entire ridges 
of mountains4  ,when it decays1 the     
rains and streams wash out and carry    
down the fine  felspar clay1 and leave  
the 7quartz7 sand on the sides of the   
hills4  ,hence the soil in the bottoms  
and flats of granite countries consists 
of a cold1 stiff1 wet1 more or less     
impervious clay1 which often bears  only
 heath1 bog1 or a poor and unnutritive  
pasture4 ,the hill sides are  either    
bare or covered with a thin1 sandy1 and 
ungrateful soil1 of  which little can be
 made by the aid even of skill and      
industry4 ,yet  the opposite sides of   
the same mountains often present a      
remarkable  difference in this respect1 
those which are most beaten by the rains

  having the light clay most thoroughly 
washed from their surfaces1 and  being  
therefore the most barren4    ,in       
reading the above observations1 the     
practical reader can hardly  fail to    
have been struck with the remarkable    
similarity in physical  properties      
between stiff clay and peaty soils4     
,both retain much of the  water that    
falls in rain1 and both part with it    
slowly by evaporation4  ,both contract  
much in drying2 and both absorb moisture
 readily from the  air in the absence of
 the sun4 ,in this similarity of        
properties1 we  see not only why the    
first steps in improving both kinds of  
soil must  be very nearly the same2 but 
why1 also1 a mixture either of clay or  
of  vegetable matter will equally impart
 to a sandy soil many of those aids  to1
 or elements of1 fertility--of which    
they are alike possessed4      ,,section
 ,,iv4--,,of ,,the ,,chemical           
,,constitution ,,of ,,soils4    ,soils  
perform at least three functions1 in    

reference to vegetation4  ,they serve as
 a basis in which plants may fix their  
roots and sustain  themselves in their  
erect position1--they supply inorganic  
food to  vegetables at every period of  
their growth1--and they are the medium  
in  which many chemical changes take    
place1 that are essential to a right    
preparation of the various kinds of food
 which the soil is destined to  yield to
 the growing plant4    ,we have spoken  
of soils as consisting chiefly of sand1 
lime1 and clay1  with certain saline and
 organic substances in smaller and      
variable  proportions4 ,but the study of
 the ash of plants 7see chap4 iv47 shews
  us1 that a fertile soil must of       
necessity contain an appreciable        
quantity of at least eleven different   
substances1 which in most cases  exist  
in greater or less relative abundance in
 the ash both of wild and  of cultivated
 plants4    ,two well known geological  
facts lead to precisely the same        
conclusion4  ,we have seen that the     

soils formed from the unstratified      
rocks1--the  granites and the           
traps1--while they each contain certain 
earthy  substances in proportions       
peculiar to themselves1 yet contain also
 in  general a trace of most of those   
different kinds of matter which are     
found in the ash of plants4 ,and when to
 this fact is added the other1  that the
 stratified rocks appear to be only the 
long accumulating  fragments and ruins  
of more ancient unstratified            
masses--which1 under  various agencies1 
have gradually crumbled to dust1 been   
strewed over  the surface in alternate  
layers1 and afterwards again            
consolidated1--the  reader will readily 
grant1 that in all rocks1 and           
consequently in all  soils1 traces of   
every one of these substances may       
generally be  presumed to exist4        
,actual chemical analysis confirms these
 deductions in regard  to the           
constitution of soils4 ,it shews that1  
in most soils1 the  presence of the     

several constituents of the ash of      
plants may be  detected1 though in very 
variable proportions4 ,and following up 
its  investigations1 in regard to the   
effect of this difference in the        
proportion of the generally less        
abundant constituents of the soil1 it   
establishes certain other points of the 
greatest possible importance to         
agricultural practice4 ,thus1 it has    
found1 for example1    #a4 ,that as a   
proper adjustment of the proportions of 
clay and sand  is necessary1 in order   
that a soil may possess the most        
favourable  physical properties--so that
 the mere presence of the various kinds 
of inorganic food in a soil is not      
sufficient to make it productive  of a  
given crop1 but that they must be so    
adjusted in quantity that  the plant    
shall be able readily and at the proper 
time to obtain an  adequate supply of   
each4    #b4 ,that when a soil is       
particularly poor in certain of these   
substances1 the valuable1 cultivated    

corn crops1 grasses1 and trees1  refuse 
to grow upon them in a healthy manner1  
and to yield remunerating  returns4     
,and1    #c4 ,that when certain other   
substances are present in too great     
abundance1 the soil is rendered equally 
unpropitious to the most  important     
crops4    ,in these facts the           
intelligent reader will perceive the    
foundation of  the varied applications  
to the soil which are everywhere made   
under  the direction of a skilful       
practice1 and of the difficulties which1
 in  so many localities1 lie in the way 
of bringing the land into such a  state 
as shall fit it readily to supply all   
the wants of those kinds of  vegetables 
which it is the special object of       
artificial culture easily  and          
abundantly to raise4    ,chemical       
analysis is a difficult art1--one which 
demands much chemical  knowledge1 and   
skill in chemical practice              
7manipulation1 as it is  called71 and   
calls for both time and perseverance--if

 valuable1  trustworthy1 and minutely   
correct results are to be obtained4 ,i  
believe it is only by aiming after such 
minutely correct results that  chemical 
analysis is likely to throw light on the
 peculiar properties  of those soils    
which1 while they possess much general  
similarity in  composition and in       
physical properties1 are yet found in   
practice to  possess very different     
agricultural capabilities4 ,many such   
cases  occur in every country1 and they 
are the kind of difficulties in  regard 
to which agriculture has a right to say 
to chemistry--8,these are  matters which
 ,i hope and expect you will            
satisfactorily clear up40 ,but  while   
agriculture has a right to use such     
language1 she has herself  preliminary  
duties to perform4 ,she has no right in 
one breath to deny  the value of        
chemical theory to agricultural         
practice1 and in another  to ask the    
sacrifice of time and labour in doing   
her chemical work4  ,chemistry is a wide

 field1 and many zealous lives may be   
spent in the  prosecution of it without 
at all entering upon the domain of      
practical  agriculture4 ,it may be that 
here and there it may fall in with the  
humour or natural bias of some one      
chemist to apply his knowledge to  this 
most important art2 but hitherto the    
appreciation of such efforts  has1 in   
general1 been so small--the reception of
 scientific results and  suggestions by 
the agricultural body so                
ungracious--that little wonder  can     
exist that so many have quitted the     
field in disgust--that the  majority of 
capable men should studiously avoid it4 
,hence it has happened that1 in         
,england1 the analysis of soils has     
rarely been undertaken1 except as a     
matter of professional business1  where 
so much time was1 by a fair calculation1
 given for so much money1  and an       
analysis made1 of that degree of        
accuracy only which the time  allotted  
to it permitted the analyst to attain4  

,in order1 therefore1 to illustrate the 
deductions which1 as above  stated1 may 
be drawn from an accurate chemical      
analysis1 ,i shall  exhibit the         
constitution of three different soils as
 determined  by ,sprengel1 a ,german    
chemist1 now at the head of the         
,prussian  ,agricultural school1 and    
whose own taste1 as well as his         
professional  function1 have long       
directed his attention1 and with much   
success1 to  scientific agriculture4    
,no4 #a is a very fertile alluvial soil 
from ,east ,friesland1 formerly         
overflowed by the sea1 but for #fj years
 cultivated with corn and pulse  crops  
without manure4    ,no4 #b is a fertile 
soil near ,gttingen1 which produces     
excellent crops  of clover1 pulse1 rape1
 potatoes1 and turnips1 the two last    
more  especially when manured with      
gypsum4    ,no4 #c is a very barren soil
 from ,lunenburg4    ,when washed with  
water in the manner described in pages  
#gj to #gc1 they  gave1 respectively1   

from #ajjj parts of soil--              
,no4 #a4  ,no4 #b4  ,no4 #c4            
,soluble saline matter1                 
#ah       #a       #a      ,fine earthy 
and organic matter 7clay71   #icg       
#hci     #eii      ,siliceous sand1     
#de     #afj     #djj                   
----    ----    ----                    
#ajjj    #ajjj    #ajjj    ,the most    
striking distinction presented by these 
numbers is the large  quantity of saline
 matter in ,no4 #a4 ,this soluble matter
 consisted of  common salt1 chloride of 
potassium1 sulphate of potash and       
gypsum1  with a trace of sulphate of    
magnesia1 sulphate of iron1 and         
phosphate  of soda4 ,the presence of    
this comparatively large quantity of    
these  different saline                 
substances1--originally derived1 no     
doubt1 in great  part from the sea1--was
 probably one reason why it could be so 
long  cropped without manure4    ,the   
unfruitful soil is much the lightest of 
the three1 containing  #dj per cent4 of 

sand2 but this is not enough to account 
for its  barrenness--many light soils   
containing a larger proportion of sand1 
and  yet being sufficiently fertile4    
,the finer portions separated from the  
sand1 and soluble matter1  consisted in 
#ajjj parts of                          
,no4 #a4     ,no4 #b4     ,no4 #c4      
,organic matter1              #ig       
#ej         #dj      ,silica1           
#fdh        #hcc        #ggh            
,alumina1                     #eg       
#ea         #ia      ,lime1             
#ei         #ah          #d             
,magnesia1                     #h       
#h          #a      ,oxide of iron1     
#fa         #cj         #ha      ,oxide 
of manganese1           #a          #c  
,potash1                       #b       
trace4      trace4      ,soda1          
#d          0          0      ,ammonia1 
trace4        0          0              
,chlorine1                     #b       
0          0      ,sulphuric acid1      
#b                    0      ,phosphoric

 acid1              #d         #a       
0      ,carbonic acid1               #dj
          #d         0      ,loss1      
#ad          --         #d              
------      ------    ------            
#ajjj        #ajjj      #ajjj    #a4    
,the composition of ,no4 #a illustrates 
the first of those general  deductions  
above stated1 that a considerable supply
 of all the  species of inorganic food  
is necessary to render a soil eminently 
fertile4 ,not only does this soil       
contain a comparatively large quantity  
of soluble saline matter1 but it        
contains also nearly #aj per cent4  of  
organic matter1 and1 what in connection 
with this is of great  importance1 #f   
per cent4 of lime4 ,the potash and soda1
 and the several  acids1 are also       
present in sufficient abundance4    #b4 
,in the second1--a fertile soil1 but one
 which cannot dispense with             
manure1--there is little soluble saline 
matter1 and in the insoluble  portion we
 see that there are mere traces of      

potash1 soda1 and the  important acids4 
,it contains also #e per cent4 only of  
organic matter1  and about #b per cent4 
of lime1 which smaller proportions1     
together  with the deficiencies above   
stated1 remove this soil from the most  
naturally fertile class to that class   
which is susceptible1 in  hands of      
ordinary skill1 of being brought to1 and
 kept in1 a very  productive condition4 
#c4 ,in the fine part of the third soil1
 we observe that there are many  more   
substances deficient than in ,no4 #b4   
,the organic matter amounts  apparently 
to #d per cent41 and there seems to be  
nearly half a per  cent4 of lime4 ,but  
it will be recollected1 that this soil  
contains #dj  per cent4 of sand1 so that
 in every hundred of soil there are only
 #fj  of the fine matter1 of which the  
composition is presented in the table1  
or #ajj lbs4 of the native soil contain 
only #b lbs4 of organic matter  and  lb4
 of lime4    ,but all these wants would 
not condemn the soil to hopeless        

barrenness1 because in favourable       
circumstances1 and where it was worth   
the cost1 they might all be supplied4   
,but the oxide of iron amounts to  #h   
per cent4 of this fine matter1 a        
proportion of this substance which1  in 
a soil containing so little organic     
matter1 appears1 from practical         
experience1 to be incompatible with the 
healthy growth of cultivated  crops4 ,to
 this soil1 therefore1 there requires to
 be added not only  those substances of 
which it is destitute1 but such other   
substances  also as shall prevent the   
injurious effect of the large proportion
 of  oxide of iron4    ,in these three  
soils1 then1 we have examples1 first1 of
 one which  contains within itself all  
the elements of fertility2 second1 of a 
soil which is destitute1 or nearly so1  
of certain substances1--which1  however1
 can be readily added by the ordinary   
manures in general  use1--and to which  
the elements of gypsum are especially   
useful1 in  aiding it to feed the potato

 and the turnip2 and1 third1 of a soil  
not only poor in many of the necessary  
species of the inorganic food  of       
plants1 but too rich in one which1 when 
present in excess1 is  prejudicial to   
vegetable life4    ,this illustration1  
therefore1 will aid the general reader  
in  comprehending how far rigid chemical
 analysis is fitted to throw light  upon
 the capabilities of soils1 and to      
direct agricultural practice4           
,,section ,v4--,,of ,,the ,,relation    
,,that ,,exists ,,between ,,the         
,,character ,,of ,,the  ,,soil ,,and    
,,the ,,kind ,,of ,,plants ,,that ,,grow
 ,,upon ,,it4    ,the importance of this
 study of the chemical constitution of  
soils  will1 perhaps1 be most readily   
appreciated by a glance at the very     
different kinds of vegetables which1    
under the same circumstances1  different
 soils naturally produce4    ,there are 
none so little skilled in regard to the 
capabilities of the  soil1 as not to be 
aware that some lands naturally produce 

abundant  herbage or rich crops1 while  
others refuse to yield a nourishing     
pasture1 and are deaf to the often      
repeated solicitations of the  diligent 
husbandman4 ,there exists1 therefore1 a 
universally understood  connection      
between the kind of soil and the kind of
 plants that  naturally grow upon it4   
,it is interesting to observe how close 
this  relation in many cases is4    #a4 
,the sands of the sea-shore1 and the    
margins of salt-lakes1 are              
distinguished by their peculiar tribes  
of salt-loving plants2--the  drifted    
sands more remote from the beach produce
 their own long waving  coarser         
grass1--while further inland again1     
other vegetable races appear4    #b4    
,peaty soils laid down to grass1 or     
existing as natural meadows1  produce   
one woolly soft grass almost exclusively
 7the ,holcus  lanatus72 when limed1    
again1 these same soils become          
propitious to  green crops and produce  
much straw1 but refuse to fill the ear4 

#c4 ,on the margins of water-courses1 in
 which silica abounds1 the  mare's-tail 
7,equisetum7 springs up in abundance2   
while1 if the stream  contain much      
carbonate of lime1 the water-cress      
appears and lines its  sides1 and the   
bottom of its shallow bed1 sometimes for
 many miles from  its source4    #d4    
,the ,cornish heath 7,erica vagans7     
shews itself only above the  serpentine 
rocks2 the red clover and the vetch     
delight in the presence  of gypsum2 and 
white clover1 of alkaline matter in the 
soil4    #e4 ,then1 again1 plants seem  
to alternate with each other on the same
  soil4 ,burn down a forest of pines in 
,sweden1 and one of birch takes  its    
place for a while4 ,the pines after a   
time again spring up and  ultimately    
supersede the birch4 ,the same takes    
place naturally4 ,on the  shores of the 
,rhine are seen ancient forests of oak  
from two to four  centuries             
old1--gradually giving place to a       
natural growth of beech2 and  others    

where the pine is succeeding to both4   
,in the ,palatinate1 the  ancient oak   
woods are followed by natural pines2 and
 in the ,jura1 the  ,tyrol1 and         
,bohemia1 the pine alternates with the  
beech4    ,these and other similar      
differences depend upon the chemical    
constitution of the soil4 ,the slug may 
live well1 and therefore infest  a field
 almost deficient in lime2 the common   
land snail will abound at  the roots of 
the hedges only where lime is plentiful1
 and can easily  be obtained for the    
construction of its shell4 ,so it is    
with plants4  ,each grows spontaneously 
where its wants can be most fully and   
most  easily supplied4 ,if they cannot  
move from place to place like the       
living animal1 yet their seeds can lie  
dormant1 until either the hand  of man  
or the operation of natural causes      
produces such a change in the           
constitution of the soil as to fit it   
for ministering to their most  important
 wants4    ,and such changes do         

naturally come over the soil4 ,the oak1 
after  thriving for long generations on 
a particular spot1 gradually sickens2   
its entire race dies out1--and other    
races succeed it4 ,the operation  of    
natural causes has gradually removed    
from the soil that which  favoured the  
oak1 and has introduced or given the    
predominance to those  substances which 
favour the beech or the pine4    ,in the
 hands of the farmer the land grows sick
 of this crop1--it becomes  tired of    
that4 ,these facts are generally        
indications of a change in  the chemical
 constitution of the soil4 ,this        
alteration may proceed  slowly and for  
many years1 and the same crops may still
 grow upon it  for a succession of      
rotations4 ,at length the change is too 
great for  the plant to bear2 it        
sickens1 yields an unhealthy crop1 and  
becomes  ultimately extinct4    ,the    
plants we raise for food have similar   
likes and dislikes with those  that are 
naturally produced4 ,on some kinds of   

food they thrive1--fed  with others1    
they sicken or die4 ,the soil must      
therefore be prepared  for their special
 growth4    ,in an artificial rotation  
of crops1 we only follow nature4 ,one   
crop  extracts from the soil a certain  
quantity of all the inorganic           
constituents of plants2 but some of     
these in much larger proportions  than  
others4 ,a second crop carries off in   
preference a larger quantity  of those  
substances which the former had left2   
and thus it is clearly  seen1 both why  
an abundant manuring may so alter the   
constitution of  the soil1 as to enable 
it to grow almost any crop2 and why1 at 
the same  time1 this soil may in        
succession yield more abundant crops and
 in  greater number1 if the kinds of    
plant sown and reaped be so varied as   
to extract from the soil1 one after the 
other1 the several different  substances
 which the manure we have originally    
added is known to  contain4    ,the     
management and tilling of the soil1 in  

fact1 is a branch of  practical         
chemistry1 which1 like the art of dyeing
 or of lead smelting1  may advance to a 
certain degree of perfection1 without   
the aid of pure  science2 but which can 
only have its processes explained1 and  
be led on  to shorter1--more            
simple1--more economical1--and more     
perfect processes1  by the aid of       
scientific principles4                  
,,chapter ,,viii4          ,of the      
,improvement of the ,soil--,mechanical  
and ,chemical                           
,methods--,draining--,subsoiling--,ploug
hing1 and ,mixing          of           
,soils--,use of ,lime1 ,marl1 and       
,shell-sand--,manures                   
--,vegetable1 ,animal1 and ,mineral     
,manures4    ,the soil is possessed of  
certain existing and obvious qualities1 
and  of certain other dormant           
capabilities2 how are these qualities to
 be  improved1--these dormant           
capabilities to be awakened8    ,there  
are two distinct methods by which these 

ends may be1 in some  measure1          
attained1--by the use of mechanical1 and
 by the application  of chemical1 means4
 ,mechanical operations produce changes 
chiefly  in the physical properties of  
the soil1--chemical means alter its     
elementary constitution4 ,ploughing1    
draining1 mixing1 c4 belong to  the     
former class of operations2 manuring and
 irrigation belong to the  latter4 ,it  
will be proper to consider these methods
 separately4      ,,section ,i4--,,of   
,,mechanical ,,methods ,,of ,,improving 
,,the ,,soil4    #a4 ,draining4--,the   
first step to be taken1 in order to     
increase the  fertility of nearly all   
the improveable lands of ,great         
,britain1 is  to drain them4 ,so long as
 they remain wet1 they will continue to 
be  cold4 ,the heat of the sun's rays1  
which is intended by nature to warm  the
 soil1 will be expended in evaporating  
the water from its surface2  and thus   
the plants will never receive that      
genial warmth about their  roots which  

so much favours their rapid growth4     
,where too much water  is present in the
 soil also1 that food of the plant which
 the soil  supplies is so much diluted1 
that either a much greater quantity of  
fluid must be taken in by the           
roots1--much more work done1--or the    
plant  will be scantily nourished4 ,the 
presence of so much water in the stem   
and leaf keeps down their temperature   
likewise1 when the sunshine  appears2 an
 increased evaporation takes place from 
their surfaces1 a  lower natural heat1  
in consequence1 prevails in the interior
 of the  plant1 and the chemical changes
 on which its growth depends proceed    
with less rapidity4    ,by the removal  
of the water1 the physical properties of
 the soil also  are in a remarkable     
degree improved4 ,dry pipe-clay can be  
easily  reduced to a fine powder1 but it
 naturally1 and of its own accord1  runs
 together when water is poured upon it4 
,so it is with clays in  the field4 ,the
 soil expands1 becomes close and        

adhesive1 and excludes  the air from the
 roots of the growing plant1--the access
 of which air  appears to be almost an  
essential element in the healthy growth 
of the  most important vegetable        
productions4    ,open an outlet for the 
water below1 and as it trickles away1   
the air  from above will follow it and  
take its place among the pores of the   
soil1 carrying to every root the        
salutary influences it is appointed  to 
bear with it wherever it penetrates4    
,when freed from water also1  the stiff 
soil becomes more mellow2 and when once 
stirred up to a  considerable depth1    
more universally porous1--so that air   
can make  its way everywhere1 and the   
roots can find their easy way in every  
direction4 ,the presence of vegetable   
matter1--whether existing naturally  in 
a soil thus physically altered1 or      
artificially added to it1--becomes  of  
double value4 ,when drenched with water1
 this vegetable matter  either          
decomposes very slowly1 or produces acid

 compounds more or less  unwholesome to 
the plant1 and even exerts injurious    
chemical reactions  upon the earthy and 
saline constituents of the soil4 ,in the
 presence  of air1 on the contrary1 this
 vegetable matter decomposes rapidly1   
produces carbonic acid in large         
quantity1 as well as other compounds    
fit for food1 and even renders the      
inorganic constituents of the soil  more
 fitted to enter the roots1 and thus to 
supply more rapidly what  the several   
parts of the plant require4    ,nor is  
it only stiff and clayey soils to which 
draining can with  advantage be applied4
 ,it will be obvious to every one1 that 
when  springs rise to the surface in    
sandy soils1 a drain must be made to    
carry off the water1--it will also      
readily occur1 that where a sandy  soil 
rests upon a hard or clayey bottom1     
drains may also be necessary2  but it is
 not unfrequently supposed1 that when   
the subsoil is sand or  gravel1 that    
drains can only in special cases be     

necessary4    ,every one1 however1 is   
familiar with the fact1 that when water 
is  applied to the bottom of a          
flower-pot full of soil1 it will        
gradually  find its way to the surface1 
however light the soil may be4 ,so it is
  in sandy soils or subsoils in the open
 field4 ,if water abound at the  depth  
of a few feet1 or if it so abound at    
certain seasons of the year1  that water
 will rise to the surface2 and as the   
sun's heat dries it  off by evaporation1
 more water will follow to supply its   
place4 ,this  attraction from beneath   
will always go on when the air is dry   
and warm1  and thus a double evil will  
ensue--the soil will be kept moist and  
cold1  and instead of a constant        
circulation of air downwards1 there will
 be a  constant current of water        
upwards4 ,thus will the roots1 the under
 soil1  and the organic matter it       
contains1 be all deprived of the        
benefits  which the access of the air is
 fitted to confer4 ,the remedy for these

  evils is to be found in an efficient  
system of drainage4    ,on this subject 
,i shall add one important practical    
remark1 which will  readily suggest     
itself to the geologist who has studied 
the action of  air and water on the     
various clay beds that occur here and   
there as  members of the series of      
stratified rocks4 ,there are no clays   
which do  not gradually soften under the
 united influence of air and of running 
water4 ,it is false economy1 therefore1 
to lay down tiles without               
soles--however hard and stiff the clay  
subsoil may appear to be4 ,in  the      
course of ten or fifteen years the      
stiffest clays will soften1 so  as to   
allow the tile to sink2 and many very   
much sooner4 ,the passage  for the water
 is thus gradually narrowed2 and when   
the tile has sunk a  couple of inches1  
the whole must be taken up4 ,thousands  
of miles of  drains have been thus laid 
down1 both in the low country of        
,scotland  and in the southern counties 

of ,england1 which have now become      
nearly  useless2 and yet the system     
still goes on4 ,it would appear even as 
if  the farmers and proprietors of each 
district--unwilling to believe in or  to
 be benefitted by the experience of     
others--were determined to prove  the   
matter in their own case also1 before   
they will consent to adopt  that surer  
system which1 though demanding a        
slightly greater outlay  at first1 will 
return upon the drainer with no         
after-calls for either  time or capital4
 ,if my reader live in a district where 
this practice  is now exploded1 and if  
he be inclined to doubt if other        
counties be  farther behind the advance 
of knowledge than his own1 ,i would     
invite  him to spend a week in crossing 
the county of ,durham1 where he may find
  opportunities not only of satisfying  
his own doubts1 but of scattering  here 
and there a few words of useful advice  
among the more intelligent  of our      
practical farmers4    #b4               

,subsoiling4--,the subsoil plough is an 
auxiliary to the drain4  ,though there  
are few subsoils through which the water
 will not at  length make its way1 yet  
there are some so stiff either naturally
  or from long consolidation1 that the  
good effect of a well-arranged  line of 
drains is lessened by the slowness with 
which they allow the  superfluous rains 
to pass through them4 ,in such cases1   
the use of the  subsoil plough is most  
advantageous in loosening the under     
layers of  clay1 and allowing the water 
to find a ready escape downwards and to 
either side until it reach the drains4  
,it is well known that if a piece of    
stiff clay be cut into the shape of  a  
brick1 and then allowed to dry1 it will 
contract and harden--it will  form an   
air-dried brick1 almost impervious to   
any kind of gas--wet it  again1 it will 
swell and become still more impervious4 
,cut up while  wet1 it will only be     
divided into so many pieces1 each of    
which will  harden when dry1 or the     

whole of which will again attach        
themselves  and stick together if       
exposed to pressure4 ,but tear it       
asunder when  dry1 and it will fall into
 many pieces1 will more or less crumble1
 and  will readily admit the air into   
its inner parts4 ,so it is with a clay  
subsoil4    ,after the land is provided 
with drains1 the subsoil being very     
retentive1 the subsoil plough is used to
 open it up--to let out the  water and  
to let in the air4 ,if this is not done1
 the stiff under-clay  will contract and
 bake as it dries1 but it will neither  
sufficiently  admit the air nor open a  
free passage for the roots4 ,but let    
this  operation be performed when the   
clay is still too wet1 a good effect    
will follow1 in the first instance2 but 
after a while1 the cut clay  will again 
cohere1 and the former will pronounce   
subsoiling to be a  useless expense on  
his land4 ,defer the use of the subsoil 
plough till  the clay is dry--it will   
then tear and break instead of cutting1 

and its openness will remain4 ,once give
 the air free access1 and it1  after a  
time1 so modifies the drained clay1 that
 it no longer has an  equal tendency to 
cohere4    ,mr4 ,smith of ,deanston very
 judiciously recommends that the subsoil
  plough should never be used till at   
least a year after the land has  been   
thoroughly drained4 ,this in many cases 
will be a sufficient  safeguard--will   
allow a sufficient time for the clay to 
dry2 in other  cases two years may not  
be too much4 ,but this precaution has by
 some  been neglected1 and subsoiling   
being with them a failure1 they have    
sought1 in some supposed chemical or    
other quality of their soil1  for the   
cause of a want of success which is to  
be found in their own  neglect of a most
 necessary precaution4 ,let not the     
practical man be  too hasty in desiring 
to attain those benefits which attend   
the  adoption of improved modes of      
culture2 let him give every method a    
fair  trial2 and above all1 let him make

 his trial in the way and with  the     
precautions recommended by the author of
 the method1 before he  pronounce its   
condemnation4    #c4 ,deep-ploughing1   
like subsoiling1 aids the effect of the 
drains1  and so far1 and where it goes  
nearly as deep1 more completely effects 
the same object4 ,but independent of    
this1 it has other uses and merits1  and
 where it has been successfully applied1
 has improved the land by  the operation
 of other causes4    ,subsoiling only   
lets out the water1 and allows access to
 the air and a  free passage to the     
roots4 ,deep-ploughing1 in addition to  
these1 brings  new earth to the surface1
 forms thus a deeper soil1 and more or  
less  alters both its physical qualities
 and its chemical constitution4    ,if  
the plough be made to bring up two      
inches of clay or sand1 it will  stiffen
 or loosen the soil1 as the case may be1
 or it may affect its  colour or        
density4 ,it is clear and simple enough1
 therefore1 that by  deep-ploughing the 

physical properties of the soil may be  
altered4    ,but there are certain      
substances contained in every soil1     
whether  in pasture or under the plough1
 which gradually make their way down    
towards the subsoil4 ,they sink till    
they reach at last that point  beyond   
which the plough does not usually       
penetrate4 ,every farmer knows  that    
lime thus sinks4 ,in peat-soils         
top-dressed with clay1 the clay  thus   
sinks4 ,in sandy soils also which have  
been clayed1 the clay sinks2  and in all
 these cases1 ,i believe1 the sinking   
takes place more rapidly  when the land 
is laid down to grass4 ,where soils are 
marled1 the marl  sinks2 and the rains1 
in like manner1 gradually wash out that 
which  gives their fertilizing virtue to
 the under chalk-soils 7see page #hh71  
and render necessary a new application  
from beneath1 to renovate its           
productive powers4    ,if this be the   
case with earthy substances such as     
those now mentioned1  which are         

insoluble in water1 it will be readily  
believed that those  saline ingredients 
of the soil which are readily soluble   
will be still  sooner washed out of the 
upper and conveyed to the under soil4   
,thus  the subsoil may gradually become 
rich in those substances of which the   
surface-soil has been robbed4 ,bring up 
a portion of this subsoil by            
deep-ploughing1 and you restore to the  
land a portion of what it has           
lost--substances1 perhaps1 which may    
render it much more fruitful than       
before4 ,such is an outline of the      
theory of deep-ploughing1 and it is     
entirely unexceptionable4    ,but       
suppose the land to have originally     
contained something noxious  to         
vegetation1 which in process of time has
 been washed down into the  subsoil1    
then to bring this again to the surface 
would be materially  to injure the land4
 ,this also is true1 and a sound        
discretion must no  doubt be employed1  
in judging when and where such evil     

effects are  likely to follow4    ,such 
cases1 however1 are more rare than many 
suppose4 ,there are few  subsoils which 
a full and fair exposure to a winter's  
frost will not in  a great degree       
deprive of all their noxious qualities1 
and render fit  to ameliorate the       
general surface of the poorer lands4 ,if
 the reader  doubt this fact1 let him   
visit ,yester1 and give a calm          
consideration to  the efforts produced  
by the use of deep-ploughing on the     
home-farm of  the ,marquis of           
,tweeddale4    ,in many cases the farmer
 fears1 as he does in the county of     
,durham1 to  bring up a single inch of  
the yellow clay that lies beneath his   
soil4  ,in the first inch lodges1 among 
other substances1 the iron worn from    
his plough1 which in some soils1 and    
after a lapse of years1 amounts to  a   
considerable quantity4 ,till it is      
exposed to the air1 this iron is        
hurtful to vegetation1 and one of the   
benefits of a winter's exposure  of such

 subsoils to the air1 is the effect     
produced upon the iron it  contains4    
,it is the want of drainage1 however1   
and of the free access of  air1 that    
most frequently renders subsoils for a  
time injurious to  vegetation4 ,let the 
lands be well drained--let the subsoils 
be washed  for a few years by the       
rain-water passing through them1--and   
there are  few of those which are clayey
 in their nature that may not ultimately
  be brought to the surface1 not only   
with safety1 but with advantage to  the 
soil4    #d4 ,ploughing4--,other        
benefits1 again1 attend upon the        
ordinary  ploughings1 hoeings1 and      
workings of the land4 ,its parts are    
more  minutely divided--the air gets    
access to every particle--it is rendered
  lighter1 more open1 more permeable to 
the roots4 ,the vegetable matter  it    
contains decomposes more rapidly by a   
constant turning of the soil1  so that  
wherever the fibres of the roots        
penetrate1 they find organic  food      

provided for them1 and an abundant      
supply of the oxygen of the  atmosphere 
to aid in preparing it4 ,the production 
of ammonia and of  nitric acid also 7see
 pages #cc to #cf71 and the absorption  
of one or  both from the air1 take place
 to a greater extent1 the finer the soil
  is pulverised1 and the more it has    
been exposed to the action of the       
atmosphere4 ,the general advantage1     
indeed1 to be derived from the  constant
 working of the soil1 may be inferred   
from the fact1 that ,tull  reaped twelve
 successive crops of wheat from the same
 land by the  repeated use of the plough
 and the horse-hoe4 ,there are few soils
 so  stubborn as not to shew themselves 
grateful in proportion to the amount  of
 this kind of labour that may be        
bestowed upon them4    #e4 ,mixing4--,it
 has been shewn 7page #aad71 that the   
physical properties  of the soil have an
 important influence upon its average   
fertility4 ,the  admixture of pure sand 
with clay soils produces an alteration  

which is  often beneficial1 and which is
 wholly physical4 ,the sand merely opens
  the pores of the clay1 and makes it   
more permeable to the air4    ,the      
admixture of clay with sandy or peaty   
soils1 however1 produces both  a        
physical and a chemical alteration4 ,the
 clay not only consolidates  and gives  
body to the sand or peat1 but it also   
mixes with them certain  earthy and     
saline substances useful or necessary to
 the plant1 which  neither the sand nor 
peat might originally contain in        
sufficient  abundance4 ,it thus alters  
its chemical constitution1 and fits it  
for  nourishing new races of plants4    
,such is the case also with admixtures  
of marl1 of shell-sand1 and of  lime4   
,they slightly consolidate the sands and
 open the clays1 and  thus improve the  
mechanical texture of both kinds of     
soil1 but their  main operation is      
chemical2 and the almost universal      
benefit they  produce depends upon the  
new chemical element they introduce into

 the  constitution of the soil4    ,it  
is a matter of almost universal remark1 
that in our climate soils  are          
fertile--clayey or loamy soils1 that    
is--only when they contain an           
appreciable quantity of lime4 ,in       
whatever way it acts1 therefore1 the    
mixing of lime in any of the forms above
 mentioned1 with a soil in  which little
 or no lime exists1 is one of the surest
 practical methods  of bringing it      
nearer in composition to those soils    
from which the  largest returns of      
agriculture produce are usually         
obtained4 ,some of  the chemical effects
 of the lime upon the soil will be      
explained in a  subsequent section4     
7,see page #aie47      ,,section        
,,ii4--,,of ,,the ,,chemical ,,method   
,,of ,,improving ,,the ,,soil ,,by ,,the
 ,,use ,,of  ,,manures4    ,none of the 
above methods of improving the soil are 
mechanical  only--they all involve some 
chemical alterations also1 which are    
readily  to be explained by a knowledge 

of elementary chemical principles4  ,but
 the manuring of the land is more       
strictly a chemical operation1  and may 
therefore with propriety be separated   
from those methods of  improving its    
quality which involve at the same time  
important and  expensive mechanical     
operations4    ,in commencing the       
tillage of a piece of land1 the         
conscientious farmer  may have three    
objects in view in regard to it4    #a4 
,he may wish to reclaim a waste1 or to  
restore a neglected farm to an  average 
condition of fertility4    #b4 ,finding 
the land in this average state1 his     
utmost ambition may be  to keep it in   
its present condition2 or1    #c4 ,by   
high farming he may wish to develope all
 its capabilities1  and to increase its 
permanent productiveness in the greatest
 possible  degree4    ,the man who aims 
at the last of these objects is not only
 the best  tenant and the best citizen1 
but he is also his own best friend4 ,the
  highest farming1 skilfully and        

prudently conducted1 is also the most   
remunerating4    ,but whichever of these
 three ends he aims at1 he will be      
unable to  attain it without a due      
knowledge of the various manures it may 
be in  his power to apply to his        
land--what these manures are1 or of what
 they  consist--the general and special 
purposes they are each intended to      
serve--which are the most effective for 
this or that crop--how they are  to be  
obtained in the greatest abundance1 and 
at the least cost--how  their strength  
may be economized1--and in what state   
and at what seasons  they may be most   
beneficially applied to the land4 ,such 
are a few of  the questions which the   
skilful farmer should be ready to ask   
himself1  and should be able to answer4 
,by a manure is to be understood        
whatever is capable of feeding or of    
supplying food to the plant4 ,and us    
plants require earthy and saline  as    
well as vegetable food1 gypsum and      
nitrate of soda are as properly  called 

manures as farm-yard dung1 bone-dust1 or
 night-soil4    ,manures naturally      
divide themselves into such as are of   
vegetable1 of  animal1 and of mineral   
origin4      ,i4 ,,of ,,vegetable       
,,manures4    ,there are two purposes   
which vegetable manure is generally     
supposed to  serve when added to the    
soil4 ,it loosens the land1 opens its   
pores1  and makes it lighter2 and it    
also serves to supply organic food to   
the  roots of the growing plant4 ,it    
serves1 however1 a third purpose3 it    
yields to the roots those saline and    
earthy matters which it is their  duty  
to find in the soil1 and which exist in 
decaying plants in a state  more        
peculiarly fitted to enter readily into 
the circulating system of  new races4   
,decayed vegetable matters1 therefore1  
are in reality mixed manures1  and their
 value in enriching the land must vary  
considerably with the  kind of plants   
and with the parts of those plants of   
which they  are chiefly made up4 ,this  

depends upon the remarkable difference  
which  exists in the quantity and kind  
of inorganic matter present in          
different vegetable substances1 as      
indicated by the ash they leave 7see    
pages #eb to #fb74 ,thus if #ajjj lbs4  
of the saw-dust of the willow be        
fermented1 and added to the soil1 they  
will enrich it by the addition  of only 
#d lb4 of saline and earthy matter1     
while #ajjj lbs4 of the  dry leaves of  
the same tree fermented1 and laid on1   
will add #hb lbs4  of inorganic matter4 
,thus1 independent of the effect of the 
vegetable  matter in each1 the one will 
produce a very much greater effect upon 
the soil than the other4#ag    #ag ,it  
is owing to this large quantity of      
saline and other inorganic  matter that 
fermented leaves form too strong a      
dressing for flower  borders1 and that  
gardeners therefore generally mix them  
up into a  compost4    ,there are three 
states in which vegetable matter is     
collected by the  husbandman for the    

purpose of being applied to the         
land--the green  state2 the dry state2  
and that state of imperfect decay in    
which it  forms peat4    #a4 ,green     
,manuring4--,when grass is mown in the  
field1 and laid in  heaps1 it speedily  
heats1 ferments1 and rots4 ,but1 if     
turned over  frequently and dried into  
hay1 it may be kept for a great length  
of  time without undergoing any material
 alteration4 ,the same is true of  all  
other vegetable substances--they all rot
 more readily in the green  state4 ,the 
reason of this is1 that the sap or juice
 of the green plant  begins very soon to
 ferment in the interior of the stem and
 leaves1  and speedily communicates the 
same condition to the moist fibre of    
the plant itself4 ,when once it has been
 dried1 the vegetable matter  of the sap
 loses this easy tendency to decay1 and 
thus admits of long  preservation4      
,the same rapid decay of green vegetable
 matter takes place when it is  buried  
in the soil4 ,thus the cleanings and    

scourings of the ditches and            
hedge-sides form a compost of mixed     
earth and fresh vegetable matter1  which
 soon becomes capable of enriching the  
ground4 ,when a green crop  is ploughed 
into a field1 the whole of its surface  
is converted into  such a compost--the  
vegetable matter in a short time decays 
into a  light1 black mould1 and enriches
 in a remarkable degree and fertilizes  
the soil4    ,hence the practice of     
green manuring has been in use from very
 early  periods4 ,the second or third   
crop of lucerne was ploughed in by the  
ancient ,romans--as it still is by the  
modern ,italians4 ,in ,tuscany1 the     
white lupin is ploughed in1 in          
preference--in ,germany1 borage4  ,in   
,french ,flanders1 two crops of clover  
are cut1 and the third is  ploughed in4 
,in ,sussex1 turnip seed has been sown  
at the end of  harvest1 and after two   
months again ploughed in1 with great    
benefit to  the land4 ,turnip leaves and
 potato tops decay more readily1 and    

more  perfectly1 and are more enriching 
when buried in the green state4 ,it is  
a prudent economy1 therefore1 where     
circumstances admit of it1 to bury  the 
potato tops on the spot from which the  
potatoes are raised4 ,since  the time of
 the ,romans1 it has been the custom to 
bury the cuttings  of the vine stocks at
 the roots of the vines themselves2 and 
many  vineyards flourish for a          
succession of years without any other   
manuring4    ,buckwheat1 winter tares1  
clover1 and rape1 are all occasionally  
sown  for the purpose of being ploughed 
in4 ,this should be done when the       
flower has just begun to open1 and if   
possible at a season when the  warmth of
 the air and the dryness of the soil are
 such as to facilitate  decomposition4  
,that the soil should become richer in  
vegetable matter by this burial  of a   
crop than it was before the seed of that
 crop was sown1 and should  also be     
otherwise benefitted1 will be understood
 by recollecting 7see  page #db7 that   

perhaps three-fourths of the whole      
organic matter we bury  has been derived
 from the air--that by this process of  
ploughing in1  the vegetable matter is  
more equally diffused through the whole 
soil  than it could ever be by any      
merely mechanical means2--and that by   
the  natural decay of this vegetable    
matter1 ammonia and nitric acid are1  to
 a greater extent 7pages #cc and #cd71  
produced in the soil1 and its           
agricultural capabilities in consequence
 materially increased4    ,these        
considerations1 while they explain the  
effect and illustrate  the value of     
green manuring1 will also satisfy the   
intelligent  agriculturist that there   
are methods of improving his land       
without  the aid either of town or of   
foreign manures--and that he overlooks  
an important natural means of wealth who
 neglects the green sods  and crops of  
weeds that flourish by his hedgerows and
 ditches4 ,left  to themselves1 they    
ripen their seeds and sow them annually 

in his  fields--collected in compost    
heaps they would materially add to his  
yearly crops of corn4                   
,sea-weeds4--,among green manures1 the  
use of fresh sea-ware deserves  especial
 mention1 from the remarkably           
fertilizing properties it is  known to  
possess1 as well as from the great      
extent to which it is  employed on all  
our coasts4 ,the produce of the isle of 
,thanet in ,kent  is said to have been  
doubled or tripled by the use of this   
manure2 the  farms on the ,lothian      
coasts are said to be let for #bjs4 or  
#cjs4 more  rent when they have a right 
of way to the sea1 where the weed is    
thrown  on shore2 and in the ,western   
,isles the sea-ware1 the shell-marl1 and
  the peat-ash1 are the three great     
natural fertilizers to which the        
agriculture of the district is indebted 
for the comparative prosperity  to which
 it has in some of the islands already  
attained4    ,sea-weeds decompose with  
great ease when collected in heaps or   

spread  upon the land4 ,during their    
decay1 they yield not only organic food 
to  the plant but saline matters also1  
to which much of their efficacy both  on
 the grass and the corn crops is no     
doubt to be ascribed4    #b4 ,manuring  
with dry ,vegetable ,matter4--,almost   
every one knows that  the saw-dust of   
most common woods decays very slowly--so
 slowly1 that  it is rare to meet with a
 practical farmer who considers it worth
 the  trouble of mixing with his        
composts4 ,this property of slow decay  
is  possessed in a certain degree by all
 dry vegetable matter4 ,heaps  of dry   
straw alone1 or even mixed with earth1  
will ferment with  comparative          
difficulty and with great slowness4 ,it 
is necessary1  therefore1 to mix it1 as 
is usually done1 with some substance    
that  ferments more readily1 and which  
will impart its own condition to the    
straw4 ,animal matters of any kind1 such
 as the urine and droppings of  cattle1 
are of this character2 and it is by     

admixture with these that  the straw    
which is trodden down in the farm-yard  
is made to undergo a  more or less rapid
 fermentation4    ,the object of this   
fermentation is twofold--first1 to      
reduce the  particles of the straw to   
such a minute state of division1 that   
they  may admit of being diffused       
through the soil2 and1 second1 that the 
dry  vegetable matter may be so changed 
by exposure to the air1 and other       
agencies1 as to be fitted to yield both 
organic and inorganic food to  the roots
 of the plants it is intended to        
nourish4    ,we have seen that this     
decomposition takes place very speedily1
 and of  its own accord1 when the       
vegetable matter is green1 but that it  
can  be induced or brought on in the    
case of dry straw by the agency  of     
animal matter4 ,the same means will     
cause the fermentation of any  other    
vegetable substance which is in a minute
 state of division4  ,even saw-dust made
 into a compost heap with soil or sods1 

and watered  regularly and copiously    
with the liquid manure of the           
farm-yards1 may  be thus converted into 
a fertilizing vegetable mould4          
,differences of opinion have prevailed1 
and discussions have taken  place1 as to
 the relative efficacy of long and      
short--or of half  fermented and of     
fully rotten dung4 ,but if it be added  
solely for the  purpose of yielding food
 to the plant1 or of preparing food for 
it1 the  case is very simple4 ,the more 
complete the state of fermentation--if  
not  carried too far--the more immediate
 will be the agency of the manure2      
hence the propriety of the application  
of short dung to turnips and  other     
plants it is desirable to bring rapidly 
forward2 but if the  manure be only half
 decayed1 it will require time in the   
soil to  complete the decomposition1 so 
that its action will be more gradual and
  prolonged4    ,though in the latter   
case the immediate action is not so     
perceptible1  yet the ultimate benefit  

to the soil1 and to the crops1 may be   
even  greater1 supposing them to be such
 as require no special forcing  at one  
period of the year4 ,with a view to this
 slow amelioration1  vegetable matter of
 any kind may be added with benefit1 if 
in a  sufficient state of division1 to  
the soil4 ,even saw-dust applied        
largely to the land1 has been found to  
improve it1 though little at  first1 yet
 more during the second year after it   
was applied1 still more  during the     
third1 and most of all in the fourth    
season after it was  mixed with the     
soil4 ,that any dry vegetable matter1   
therefore1 does not  produce an         
immediate effect1 ought not to induce   
the practical farmer  to despise the    
application to his land--either alone1  
or in the form  of a compost--of every  
thing of the kind he can readily obtain4
 ,if his  fields are not already very   
rich in vegetable matter1 both he and   
they  are likely to be ultimately       
benefitted by such additions to the     

soil4    ,rape ,dust4--,it is from the  
straw of the corn-bearing plants1 or    
from  the stems and leaves of the       
grasses1 that the largest portion of the
  strictly vegetable manures applied to 
the soil is generally obtained  or      
prepared4 ,but the seeds of all plants  
are much more enriching  than the       
substance of their leaves and stems4    
,these seeds1 however1  are in general  
too valuable for food to admit of their 
application  as a manure4 ,still the    
refuse of some1 as that of different    
kinds  of rape-seed after the oil is    
expressed1 and which is unpalatable to  
cattle1 is applied with great benefit to
 the land4 ,drilled in with  spring     
wheat1 or scattered as a top-dressing in
 spring at the rate of #e  cwt4 to an   
acre1 it gives a largely increased and  
remunerating return4  ,it is applied    
with equal success to the cultivation of
 potatoes1 and  generally it may be     
substituted for farm-yard manure at the 
rate of  about #a cwt4 of rape dust for 

each ton of manure4    ,malt ,dust      
consists of the dried sprouts of barley1
 which1 when the  sprouted seed is dried
 in the process of malting1 break off   
and form  a coarse powder4 ,this is     
found to be almost equal to rape dust in
  fertilizing power4    ,charcoal       
,powder possesses the remarkable        
property of absorbing  noxious vapours  
from the air and soil1 and unpleasant   
impurities from  water4 ,it also sucks  
into its pores much oxygen from the air4
 ,owing  to these and other properties1 
it is a valuable substance for mixing   
with liquid manure1 night-soil1         
farm-yard manure1 ammoniacal liquor1 or 
other rich applications to the soil4 ,it
 is even capable by itself of  yielding 
slow supplies of nourishment to living  
plants1 and is said1 in  many cases1    
without any admixture1 to have been used
 with advantage in  practical           
agriculture4 ,in moist charcoal the     
seeds of the gardener are  found to     
sprout with remarkable quickness and    

certainty4    ,soot1 whether from the   
burning of wood or of coal1 is of       
vegetable  origin1 and consists chiefly 
of a finely-divided charcoal1 possessing
  the properties above mentioned4 ,it   
contains1 however1 ammonia and  certain 
other substances in small quantity1 to  
which its well known1  and especially   
its immediate1 effects upon vegetation  
are in part to  be ascribed4    #c4 ,the
 use of ,peat4--,in many parts of the   
world1 and in none more  abundantly1    
perhaps1 than in ,gt4 ,britain1 is      
vegetable matter collected  in the form 
of peat4 ,this ought to supply an       
inexhaustible store of  organic matter  
for the amelioration of the adjacent    
soils4 ,we know that  by draining off   
the sour and unwholesome water1 and     
afterwards applying  lime and clay1 the 
surface of peat bogs may be gradually   
converted into  rich corn-bearing lands4
 ,it must1 therefore1 be possible to    
convert  peat itself by a similar       
process into a compost fitted to improve

 the  condition of other soils4    ,the 
late ,lord ,meadowbank1 who made many   
important experiments on  this subject1 
found1 that after being partially dried 
by exposure to  the air1 peat might be  
readily fermented1 and brought into the 
state  of a rich fertilizing compost by 
the same means which are adopted  in the
 ordinary fermenting of straw4 ,he mixed
 with it a portion of  animal matter1   
which soon communicated its own         
fermenting quality to  the surrounding  
peat1 and brought it readily in to a    
proper heat4 ,he  found that one ton of 
hot fermenting manure1 mixed in         
alternate layers  with two of half dry  
peat1 and covered by the same1 was      
sufficient to  ferment the whole2 and   
subsequently that the vapours which rise
 from  naturally fermenting farm-yard   
manure or animal matters1 would alone   
produce the same effect upon peat1      
placed so as readily to receive and     
absorb them4    ,as ammonia is one of   
the compounds specially given off by    

putrifying  animal substances1 it is not
 unlikely that a watering with          
ammoniacal  liquor would materially     
prepare the peat for undergoing         
fermentation4  ,at all events it seems  
possible to prepare any quantity of     
valuable  peat compost by mixing the    
peat with a still less quantity of      
fermented  manure than was employed by  
,lord ,meadowbank1 provided the liquid  
manure  of the farm-yard be collected in
 a cistern1 and be thrown at intervals  
by means of a pump over the prepared    
heaps4    ,one important use also to    
which ,i think peat may be applied is1  
after  it is partly dried1 to build it  
into covered heaps1 and half burn or    
char it till it become readily reducible
 into a fine powder4 ,in this  state it 
would be of great value as a mixture to 
preserve the virtues  of liquid manures 
of all kinds1 of night-soil1 and of     
ammoniacal liquor4      ,,section       
,,iii4--,,relative ,,value ,,of         
,,different ,,vegetable ,,manures4      

,there are two principles on which the  
relative value of different  vegetable  
substances1 as manures1 may be stated to
 depend--first1 on  the relative        
quantity and kind of inorganic matter   
they contain2 and  second1 on the       
relative proportions of nitrogen present
 in each4    #a4 ,valued according to   
the quantity of inorganic matter they   
contain--the worth of the several kinds 
of straw and hay would be  represented  
by the following numbers3--             
,wheat straw1       #gj to #cfj         
,oat straw1        #ajj to #ahj         
,hay1              #ajj to #bjj         
,barley straw1     #ajj to #abj         
,pea straw1        #ajj      ,bean      
straw1        #fj to  #hj      ,rye     
straw1         #ej to  #gj      ,dry    
potato tops1  #ajj      ,dry turnip     
tops1  #bfj      ,rape1 cake1           
#abj    that is1 a ton weight of each of
 these substances1 when made into       
manure--provided nothing is washed out  
by the rains--will return to the  soil  

the above quantities of inorganic matter
 in pounds4 ,generally1  perhaps1 these 
numbers will give the reader an idea of 
the relative  permanent effect of these 
different kinds of vegetable matter when
  laid upon the soil4 ,but1 by a        
reference to the facts stated in pp4 #eh
  to #fd1 in regard to the quality of   
the inorganic matter contained in       
plants1 he will satisfy himself1 that   
the effect of these manures on          
particular crops is not to be judged of 
solely by the absolute quantity  of     
earthy and saline matter they           
contain2--that which the turnip-top1    
for example1 or the bean-stalk1 returns 
to the soil1 may not be exactly  what   
will best promote the growth of wheat4  
#b4 ,on the other hand1 if the          
fertilizing value of vegetable          
substances  is to be calculated by the  
relative quantities of nitrogen they    
severally contain1 we should place them 
in the following order3--the  number    
opposite to each substance representing 

that weight of it in  pounds1 which     
would produce the same effect as #ajj   
pounds of farm-yard  manure1 consisting 
of the mixed droppings and litter of    
cattle4                                 
,equivalent                             
quantities                           in 
pounds4      ,farm-yard manure1         
#ajj      ,wheat straw1             #hj 
to #agj      ,oat straw1                
#aej      ,barley straw1           #ahj 
,buckwheat1               #he      ,pea 
straw1               #de      ,wheat    
chaff1             #ej      ,green      
grass1             #hj      ,potato     
tops1             #ge      ,fresh       
sea-weed1          #hj      ,rape dust1 
#h      ,fir saw-dust1           #bej   
,oak saw-dust1           #ahj      ,coal
 soot1               #cj    ,this table 
again presents the same substances in a 
somewhat different  order of value2     
shewing1 for example1 not only that such
 substances  as rape dust and soot      
should produce a much more remarkable   

effect  upon vegetation1 than the same  
weight even of farm-yard manure1 but    
also that certain dry vegetables1 such  
as chaff and pea straw1 will  yield1    
when not unduly fermented1 a more       
enriching manure than barley1  oat1 or  
wheat straw4 ,it agrees1 also1 with the 
known effect of green  manuring upon the
 land1 since #hj pounds of meadow-grass 
ploughed in1  will be equal in virtue to
 #ajj of farm-yard manure4    ,some     
writers ascribe the entire action of    
these measures to the  nitrogen they    
contain4 ,this1 however1 is taking a    
one-side view of  their real natural    
operation4 ,the nitrogen1 during their  
decay1 is  liberated chiefly in the form
 of ammonia--an evanescent substance1   
producing an immediate effect in        
hastening or carrying further forward   
the growth of the plant1 but not        
remaining permanently in the soil4 ,the 
reader1 therefore1 will form an opinion 
consistent alike with theory  and with  
practice1 if he conclude--    #a4 ,that 

the immediate effect of a vegetable     
manure1 in hastening the  growth of     
plants1 is dependent1 in a great degree1
 upon the quantity of  nitrogen it      
contains and gives off during its decay 
in the soil4    #b4 ,that the permanent 
effect and value of manures is to be    
estimated  chiefly by the quantity and  
quality of the inorganic matter they    
contain--of the ash they leave when     
burned4    ,the effect of the nitrogen  
may be nearly expended in a single      
season--that of the earthy and saline   
matter may not be exhausted for  several
 years4    ,nor is the carbon of        
vegetable substances without its        
important uses  to vegetation4 ,from the
 statements contained in the earlier    
chapters  of the present work1 it may be
 inferred that1 however much influence  
we may allow to the nitrogen and to the 
earthy matter of plants in  aiding the  
growth of future races--the soundest    
view of these important  natural        
operations is that which considers each 

element present in  decaying plants to  
be capable of ministering food to such  
as are still  alive1--though we may not 
be able as yet1 either to estimate the  
precise  importance of each element to  
any particular kind of crop1 or exactly 
to adjust their relative quantities in  
our manures1 so as to promote  the      
growth of such a crop in the greatest   
possible degree4          ,,chapter     
,,ix4          ,animal ,manures--,their 
relative value and mode of              
,action--,difference between ,animal and
 ,vegetable          ,manures--,cause of
 this difference--,mineral ,manures     
--,nitrates of ,potash and              
,soda--,sulphate of ,soda1              
,gypsum1 ,chalk1 and                    
,quicklime--,chemical action of         
these ,manures--,artificial             
,manures--,burning and                  
,irrigation of the ,soil--,planting and 
laying down          to grass4    ,the  
animal substances employed as manure    
consist chiefly of the flesh1  blood1   

bones1 horns1 and hair of animals1 of   
fish--which in some places  are found in
 sufficient quantity to be laid upon the
 land--and of the  solid and liquid     
excrements of animals and birds4        
,,section ,i4--,,of ,,undigested        
,,animal ,,manures4    ,animal          
substances1 in general1 act more        
powerfully as manures than  vegetable   
substances--it is only the seeds of     
plants which can at all  compare with   
them in efficacy4    ,the flesh of      
animals is rarely used as a manure1     
except in the case  of dead horses1 or  
cattle which cannot be used for food4   
,fish is  chiefly applied in the form of
 the refuse of the herring and pilchard 
fisheries1 though occasionally such     
shoals of sprats1 herrings1 and  even   
mackerel1 have been caught on our       
shores1 as to make it necessary  to     
employ them as manure4 ,these recent    
animal substances are found to  be too  
strong when applied directly to the     
land2 they are generally1  therefore1   

made into a compost1 with a large       
quantity of soil4 ,five  barrels of     
fish1 or fish refuse1 made into twenty  
loads of compost1  will be sufficient   
for an acre4 ,the refuse of fish        
oils1--of the fat of  animals that has  
been melted for the extraction of the   
tallow--of skins  that have been boiled 
for the manufacture of glue--horns1     
hair1 wool  7woollen rags71 and all     
similar substances1 when made into      
composts1  exercise1 in proportion to   
their weight1 a much greater influence  
upon  vegetation than any of the more   
abundant forms of vegetable matter4     
,even the bodies of insects are in many 
parts of the world important  manures of
 the soil4 ,in warm climates1 a handful 
of soil sometimes  seems almost half    
made up of the wings and skeletons of   
dead  insects--the peasant in ,hungary  
and ,carinthia occasionally collects as 
many as thirty cart-loads of dead marsh 
flies in a single year2--and in  the    
richer soils of ,france and ,england1   

where worms and other insects  abound1  
the presence of their remains in the    
soil must also aid its  natural         
productiveness4    ,blood is rarely     
applied to the land directly--though1   
like the other  parts of animals1 it    
makes an excellent compost4 ,as it comes
 from  the sugar refineries1 however1 in
 which1 with lime water and animal      
charcoal1 it is employed for the        
refining of sugar1 it has obtained  a   
very extensive employment1 especially in
 the south of ,france4 ,this  animal    
black1 or animalized charcoal1 as it is 
sometimes called1  contains about twenty
 per cent4 of blood1 and has risen to   
such a price  in ,france1 that the sugar
 refiners actually sell it for more than
 the  unmixed blood and animal charcoal 
originally cost them4 ,this has given   
rise to the manufacture of artificial   
mixtures of charcoal1 fecal  matters1   
and blood1 which are also sold under the
 name of animalized  charcoal4 ,the only
 disadvantage attending these artificial

 preparations  is1 that they are liable 
to be adulterated1 or1 for cheapness1   
prepared  in a less efficient manner4   
,horn1 hair1 and wool1 depend for their 
efficacy precisely on the  same         
principles as the blood and flesh of    
animals4 ,they differ chiefly  in this1 
that they are dry1 while blood and flesh
 contain #hj to #ij  per cent4 of their 
weight of water4 ,hence1 a ton of horn  
shavings1 of  hair1 or of dry woollen   
rags1 ought to enrich the soil as much  
as ten  tons of blood4 ,in consequence1 
however1 of their dryness1 the horn and 
wool decompose much more slowly than the
 blood4 ,hence1 the effect of  soft     
animal matters is more immediate and    
apparent1 that of hard and  dry         
substances less visible1 but continuing 
for a much longer period of  time4      
,bones1 again1 while they resemble horn 
in being dry1 differ from it  in        
containing1 besides the animal matter1 a
 large quantity of earthy  matter also1 
and hence they introduce a new agent to 

aid their effect  upon the soil4 ,thus1 
the bones of the cow consist of #ajj    
lbs4 of        ,phosphate of lime1      
#ee      ,phosphate of magnesia1        
#c      ,soda and common salt1          
#c      ,carbonate of lime1             
#c      ,fluoride of calcium1           
#a      ,gelatine 7the substance of     
horn71   #cc                            
-------                                 
#ajj    ,while #ajj lbs4 of bone-dust1  
therefore1 add to the soil as much      
organic animal matter as #cc lbs4 of    
horn1 or as #cjj or #djj lbs4  of blood 
or flesh1 they add1 at the same time1   
much inorganic  matter--lime1 magnesia1 
soda1 common salt1 and phosphoric acid  
7in  the phosphates71--all of which1 as 
we have seen1 must be present in a      
fertile soil1 since the plants require a
 certain supply of them all  at every   
period of their growth4 ,these          
substances1 like the inorganic  matter  
of plants1 may remain in the soil1 and  
may exert a beneficial  action upon     

vegetation after all the organic or     
gelatinous matter has  decayed and      
disappeared4    ,from what is above     
stated1 therefore1 the reader will      
gather these  general conclusions3      
#a4 ,that animal substances which1 like 
flesh and blood1 contain much  water1   
decay rapidly1 and are fitted to operate
 immediately and  powerfully upon       
vegetation1 but are only temporary or   
evanescent in  their action4    #b4     
,that when dry1 as in horn1 hair1 and   
wool1 they decompose1 and  consequently 
act more slowly1 and continue to        
manifest an influence1 it  may be1 for  
several seasons4    #c4 ,that bones1    
acting like horn1 in so far as their    
animal matter  is concerned1 and1 like  
it1 for a number of seasons1 more or    
less1  according as they have been more 
or less finely crushed--may ameliorate  
the soil by their earthy matter for a   
still longer period--permanently        
improving the condition and adding to   
the natural capabilities of the  land4  

,,section ,,ii4--,,of ,,digested        
,,animal ,,manures4    ,practical men   
have long been of opinion that the      
digestion of food1  either animal or    
vegetable1--the passing of it through   
the bodies of  animals1--enriches its   
fertilizing power1 weight for weight1   
when  added to the land4 ,hence1 in     
causing animals to eat up as much of the
  vegetable productions of the farm as  
possible1 it is supposed that not  only 
is so much food saved1 but that the     
value of the remainder in  fertilizing  
the land is greatly increased4 ,in a    
subsequent section we  shall see how far
 theory serves to throw light upon these
 opinions4  7,see ,section ,,iv41 p4    
#ahb to #ahf47      ,i4 ,,liquid        
,,excretions4    ,the digested animal   
substances usually employed as manures  
are1 the  urine of the cow and the      
sheep1 the solid excrements of the      
horse1 the  cow1 the sheep1 and the pig1
 the droppings of pigeons and other     
birds1  and night-soil4 ,the liquid     

manures act chiefly through the saline  
substances they hold in solution1 while 
the solid manures contain also          
insoluble matters1 which decay slowly in
 the soil1 and there become  useful only
 after a time4 ,the former1 therefore1  
will influence  vegetation more         
powerfully at first2 the action of the  
latter will be  less evident1 but will  
continue to operate for a much longer   
period4    ,urine4--,human urine        
consists1 in #ajjj parts1 of            
,water1                                 
#icb      ,urea1 and other organic      
matters containing nitrogen1    #di     
,phosphates of ammonia1 lime1 soda1 and 
magnesia1         #f      ,sulphates of 
soda and ammonia1                       
#g      ,sal ammoniac and common salt1  
#f                                      
----                                    
#ajjj    ,a thousand pounds of urine    
therefore contain #fh lbs4 of dry       
fertilizing  matter of the richest      
quality1 worth1 at the present rate of  

selling  artificial manures in this     
country1 at least #bjs4 a cwt4 ,as each 
person voids almost #ajjj lb4 of urine  
in a year1 the national waste  incurred 
in this form amounts1 at the above      
valuation1 to #abs4 a head4  ,and if    
five tons of farm-yard manure per acre1 
added year by year1 will  keep a farm in
 good heart1 four cwt4 of the solid     
matter of urine would  probably have an 
equal effect2 or the urine alone        
discharged into the  rivers by a        
population of #aj1jjj inhabitants would 
supply manure to a  farm of #aejj acres1
 yielding a return of #dejj quarters of 
corn or an  equivalent produce of other 
crops4    ,the urine of the cow is said 
to contain less water than that of man1 
though of course much must depend upon  
the kind of food with which it  is fed4 
,reckoning1 then1 the large quantity of 
liquid manure that  is yielded by the   
cow 7#bjjj or #cjjj gallons a year71 we 
may safely  estimate the solid matter   
given off by a healthy animal in this   

form in  twelve months at #abjj to #aejj
 pounds weight1 worth1 if it were in the
  dry state1 from #aj to #ab sterling4  
,in the liquid state1 the urine  of one 
cow collected and preserved as it is in 
,flanders1 is valued in  that country at
 about #b a year4 ,any practical farmer 
may calculate for  himself1 therefore1  
how much real wealth1 taking it even at 
the ,flemish  value1 is lost in his own 
farm-yard--how much of the natural means
 of  reproductive industry passes into  
his drains or evaporates into the air4  
,this liquid manure is invaluable1 when 
collected in tanks1 for watering  the   
manure and compost heaps1 and thus      
hastening their decomposition2  but     
great part of it may also be sprinkled  
directly upon the fields of  grass and  
upon the young corn1 with the best      
effects4 ,it must1 however1  be         
permitted to stand till fermentation    
commences1 and afterwards  diluted with 
a considerable quantity of water1 before
 it will be in the  best condition for  

laying on the land4    ,urate4--,in     
order to obtain the virtues of animal   
urine in a  concentrated form1 the      
custom has been adopted of mixing burnt 
gypsum  with it1 in the proportion of   
#aj lbs4 to every #g gallons1 allowing  
the  mixture1 occasionally stirred1 to  
stand some time1 pouring off the        
liquid1 and drying and crushing the     
gypsum4 ,this is sold by manure         
manufacturers under the name of urate4  
,it never can possess1 however1  the    
virtues of the urine1 since it does not 
contain the soluble saline  substances1 
which the gypsum does not carry down    
with it4 ,except the  gypsum1 indeed1   
#ajj lbs4 of urate contain no greater   
weight of saline  and organic matter    
than #aj gallons of urine4 ,if it be    
true1 then1 as  the manufacturers state1
 that #c or #d cwt4 of urate are        
sufficient  manure for an acre1 the     
practical farmer will1 ,i hope1 draw the
  conclusion1--not that it is well worth
 his while to venture his money  in     

trying a portion of it upon a piece of  
his land1--but that a far  more         
promising adventure will be to go to    
some expense in saving his  own liquid  
manure1 and1 after mixing it with burned
 gypsum1 to lay it  abundantly upon all 
his fields4      ,,ii4 ,,solid          
,,excretions4    ,cow and ,horse        
,dung4--,so much of the saline1         
nutritive1 and soluble  organic matters 
from the cow pass off in the liquid     
form1 that cow  dung is correctly called
 cold1 since it does not readily heat   
and run  into fermentation4 ,mixed with 
other manures1 however1 or well diffused
  through the soil1 it aids materially  
in promoting vegetation4 ,the horse     
being fed generally on less liquid food1
 and discharging less urine1  yields a  
hotter and richer dung1 which1 however1 
answers best also when  mixed with other
 varieties4 ,the dung of the swine is   
soft and cold1  like that of the cow1   
containing1 like it1 at least #ge per   
cent4 of  water4 ,as this animal lives  

on more varied food than any other      
reared  for the use of man1 the manure  
obtained from it is also very variable  
in quality4 ,applied alone1 as a manure 
to roots1 it is said to give  them an   
unpleasant taste1 and even to injure the
 flavour of tobacco4 ,it  answers best  
for hemp1 and1 it is said1 also for     
hops2 but1 mixed with  other manures1 it
 may be applied to any crop4            
,night-soil is probably the most        
valuable1 and yet1 in ,europe at  least1
 the most disliked and neglected of all 
the solid animal manures4  ,it varies no
 doubt in richness with the food of the 
inhabitants of each  district1--chiefly 
with the quantity of animal food they   
consume1--but  when dry1 no other solid 
manure1 weight for weight1 can probably 
be  compared with it in general         
efficacy4 ,it contains much soluble and 
saline matter1 and as it is made up from
 the constituents of the food  we eat1  
of course it contains most of those     
elementary substances  which are        

necessary to the growth of the plants on
 which we principally  live4            
,attempts have been made to dry this    
manure also1 so as to render it  more   
portable1--to destroy its unpleasant    
smell1 so as to reconcile  practical men
 to a more general use of it1--and by   
certain chemical  additions1 to prevent 
the waste of ammonia and other volatile 
substances1 which are apt to escape and 
be lost when this and other  powerful   
animal manures begin to putrify through 
decay4 ,in ,paris1  ,berlin1 and other  
large cities1 the night-soil1 dried     
first in the air  with or without a     
mixture of gypsum or lime1 then upon    
drying plates1  and finally in stoves1  
is sold under the name of poudrette1 and
 is  extensively exported in casks to   
various parts of the country4 ,in       
,london also it is dried with various   
mixtures1 while in others of our  large 
towns an animalized charcoal is prepared
 by mixing and drying  night-soil with  
gypsum and ordinary wood charcoal in    

fine powder4    ,the half-burned peat   
above described 7p4 #hj17 would answer  
well for  such a purpose1 while few     
simple and easily attainable substances 
would  make a better compost with       
night-soil1 and more thoroughly preserve
 its  virtues1 than half-dry peat or    
rich vegetable soil1 mixed with more or 
less marl or gypsum4 ,it is impossible  
to estimate the proportion of  waste    
which this valuable manure undergoes by 
being allowed to ferment1  without      
mixture1 in the open air4               
,taffo4--,in ,china it is kneaded into  
cakes with clay1 which are dried  in the
 air1 and1 under the name of taffo1 form
 an important article of  export from   
all the large cities of the empire4     
,pigeons' ,dung4--,the dung of all birds
 is found to possess eminent            
fertilizing virtues4 ,some varieties are
 stronger than others1 or more          
immediate in their action1 and all are  
improved for the use of the  farmer by  
being some time kept1 either alone or in

 compost4 ,in ,flanders  the manure of  
one hundred pigeons is considered worth 
#bjs4 a year for  agricultural purposes4
    ,guano is the name given by the     
natives of ,peru to the dung of         
sea-fowl1 which in former periods used  
to be deposited in vast  quantities on  
the rocky shores and isles of the       
,peruvian coast4 ,the  numerous shipping
 of modern times has disturbed and      
driven away many of  the sea-fowl1 so   
that comparatively little of their      
recent droppings  is now preserved or   
collected4 ,ancient heaps of it1        
however1 still  exist in many places1   
more or less covered up with drifted    
sand1 and  also more or less decomposed4
 ,these are now largely excavated for   
exportation1 not only to different parts
 of the coast of ,peru1 as seems  to    
have been the case from the most remote 
periods1 but also to ,europe1  and      
especially to ,england4 ,it is at       
present sold at #bjs4 a cwt4 in this    
country1 and is capable of entirely     

replacing farm-yard dung1--that is  to  
say1 turnips may be manured successfully
 with guano alone2--but it  has not yet 
been satisfactorily determined that the 
,english farmer can  afford to use it in
 this way to any extent1 at the price   
now asked for  it4    ,the dung of birds
 possesses the united virtues of both   
the liquid and  solid excretions of     
other animals4 ,it contains every part  
of the food  of the bird1 with the      
exception of what is absolutely         
necessary for  the support and for the  
right discharge of the functions of its 
own  body4 ,it is thus fitted1          
therefore1 to return to the plant a     
greater  number of those substances on  
which plants live1 than either the solid
  or the fluid excrements of other      
animals2 in other words1 to be more     
nourishing to vegetable growth4         
,,section ,,iii4--,,of ,,the ,,relative 
,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,different ,,animal
 ,,manures4    ,the fertilizing power of
 animal manures1 in general1 is         

dependent1  like that of the soil       
itself1 upon the happy admixture they   
contain  of a great number1 if not of   
all1 those substances which are required
  by plants in the universal vegetation 
of the globe4 ,nothing they  contain1   
therefore1 is without its share of      
influence upon their  general effects1  
yet the amount of nitrogen present in   
each affords the  readiest and most     
simple criterion by which their         
agricultural value1  compared with that 
of vegetable matters and with that of   
each other1  can be pretty nearly       
estimated4    ,in reference to their    
relative quantities of nitrogen1        
therefore1 they  have been arranged in  
the following order1 the number opposite
 to each  representing the weight in    
pounds which is equivalent to or would  
produce the same sensible effect upon   
the soil as #ajj lbs4 of farm-yard      
manure4        ,farm-yard manure1       
#ajj      ,solid excrements of the cow1 
#abe        0       0        0    horse1

      #gc      ,liquid    0        0    
cow1        #ia        0       0        
0    horse1      #af      ,mixed     0  
0    cow1        #ih        0       0   
0    horse1      #ed        0       0   
0    sheep1      #cf        0       0   
0    pig1        #fd      ,dry flesh1   
#c      ,pigeons' dung1                 
#e      ,flemish liquid manure1         
#bjj      ,liquid blood1                
#ae      ,dry blood1                    
#d      ,feathers1                      
#c      ,cow hair1                      
#c      ,horn shavings1                 
#c      ,dry woollen rags1              
#b    ,it is probable that the numbers  
in this table do not err very widely    
from the true relative value of these   
different manures1 in so far as  the    
organic matter they severally contain is
 concerned4 ,the reader  will bear in   
mind1 however1    #a4 ,that the most    
powerful substances in this table1      
woollen rags1 for  example1--#b lbs4 of 
which are equal in virtue to #ajj lbs4  

of farm-yard  manure1--may yet shew less
 immediate sensible effect upon the crop
 than  an equal weight of sheep's dung1 
or even of urine4 ,such dry substances  
are long in dissolving and decomposing1 
and continue to evolve  fertilizing     
matter1 after the softer and more fluid 
manures have spent  their force4 ,thus1 
while farm-yard manure or rape dust will
 immediately  hasten the growth of      
turnips1 woollen rags will come into    
operation at  a later period1 and       
prolong their growth into the autumn4   
#b4 ,that besides their general relative
 value1 as represented in the  above    
table1 each of these substances has a   
further special value not  here         
exhibited1 dependent upon the kind and  
quantity of saline and  other inorganic 
matter which they severally contain4    
,thus three of dry  flesh are equal to  
five of pigeons' dung1 in so far as the 
organic  part is concerned2 but the     
latter contains also a considerable     
quantity  of bone-earth and of saline   

matter scarcely present at all in the   
former4 ,hence pigeons' dung will       
benefit vegetation in circumstances     
where dry flesh would in some degree    
fail4 ,so the liquid excretions  contain
 much important saline matter not       
present in the solid  excretions1--not  
present either in such substances as    
horn1 wool1 and  hair1--and1 therefore1 
each must be capable of exercising an   
influence  upon vegetation peculiar to  
itself4    ,hence the practical farmer  
sees the reason why no one simple manure
  can long answer on the same land2 and 
why in all ages and countries the  habit
 of employing mixed manures and         
artificial composts has been            
universally diffused4      ,,section    
,,iv4--,,natural ,,distinction ,,or     
,,difference ,,between ,,animal ,,and   
,,vegetable ,,manures1 ,,and ,,the      
,,cause ,,of ,,this ,,difference4    ,in
 what do animal manures differ from     
vegetable manures1--what is the  cause  
of this difference1--how does the       

digestion of vegetable matter  improve  
its value as a manure8    #a4 ,the      
characteristic distinction between      
animal and vegetable manures  is        
this1--that the former contain a much   
larger proportion of nitrogen  than the 
latter4 ,this will be seen at once1 by  
comparing together  the tables given in 
the two preceding sections1 in which the
 numbers  represent the relative        
agricultural values of certain animal   
and  vegetable substances compared with 
farm-yard manure4 ,the lowest numbers   
represent the highest value1 and the    
largest amount of nitrogen1 and  these  
low numbers are always opposite to the  
purest animal substances4    #b4 ,in    
consequence of containing so much       
nitrogen1 animal substances  are further
 distinguished by the rapidity with     
which1 when moist1 they  putrify or run 
to decay4 ,during this decay the        
nitrogen they contain  gradually assumes
 the form of ammonia1 which is          
perceptible by the  smell1 and which1   

when proper precautions are not taken1  
is apt in  great part to escape into the
 air4 ,hence the loss by fermenting     
manure  too completely1--or without     
proper precautions to prevent the escape
 of  volatile substances4 ,and as animal
 manure1 when thus over-fermented1 or   
permitted to lose its ammonia into the  
air1 is found much less active  upon    
vegetation than before2 it is reasonably
 concluded1 that to this  ammonia1      
chiefly1 their peculiar virtue1 when    
rightly prepared1 is in a  great measure
 to be ascribed4    ,vegetable          
substances do not decay so rapidly1--do 
not emit the odour of  ammonia when     
fermenting1--nor1 when prepared in the  
most careful way1  does vegetable manure
 exhibit the same remarkable action upon
 vegetable  life as is displayed by     
almost every substance of animal origin4
    #c4 ,whence do animal substances    
derive all this nitrogen8 ,animals live 
only upon vegetable productions         
containing little nitrogen2 can they    

then procure all they require from this 
source alone8 ,again1 does the  act of  
digestion produce any chemical          
alteration upon the food of  animals1   
that their excretions should be a better
 manure1--should be  richer in nitrogen 
than the substances on which they feed8 
,does theory  throw any light upon the  
opinion generally entertained among     
practical  men upon this point8         
,these two apparently distinct questions
 will be explained by a brief  reference
 to one common natural principle4       
,animals have two necessary vital       
functions to perform1--to breathe and   
to digest4 ,both are of equal importance
 to the health and general  welfare of  
the animal4 ,the digester 7the stomach7 
receives the food1  melts it down1      
extracts from it what is best suited to 
its purposes1  and conveys it into the  
blood4 ,the breathers 7the lungs7 sift  
the blood  thus mixed up with the newly 
digested food1 combine oxygen with it1  
and extract carbon1--which carbon1 in   

the form of carbonic acid1 they         
discharge by the mouth and nostrils into
 the air4    ,such is a general         
description of these two great          
processes1--their  effect upon the food 
that remains in the body and has to be  
rejected  from it1 is not difficult to  
perceive4    ,suppose an animal to be   
full grown4 ,take a full grown man4 ,all
 that he  eats as food is intended      
merely to renovate or replenish his     
system1  to restore that which is daily 
removed from every part of his body by  
natural causes4 ,in the full grown      
state1 every thing that enters the  body
 must come out of the body in one form  
or another4 ,the first part  of the food
 that escapes is that portion of its    
carbon that passes off  from the lungs  
during respiration4 ,this quantity      
varies in different                     
individuals--chiefly according to the   
quantity of exercise they take4  ,from  
#e to #i ounces a day is the average    
quantity1 though in periods of  violent 

bodily exertion #ac to #ae ounces of    
carbon are breathed out in  the form of 
carbonic acid4    ,suppose a man to eat 
a pound and a half of bread and a pound 
of beef in  #bd hours1 and that he gives
 off by respiration #h ounces of carbon 
7#cejj  grains7 during the same time4   
,then he has                            
,carbon4          ,nitrogen4            
,taken1 in his food1 about #dejj grains1
 and #ejj grs4 while        ,he has     
given off in           respiration1     
#cejj and little or no nitrogen1        
,leaving to be converted       into     
food1 or to         #ajjj grs4 and      
#ejj grs4      be rejected1             
,our two conclusions1 therefore1 are    
clear4 ,the vegetable food1 by          
respiration1 is freed from a large      
portion of its carbon1 which is         
discharged into the air1--nearly the    
whole of the nitrogen remaining  behind4
 ,in the food consumed the carbon was to
 the nitrogen as #i to #a2  in that     
which remains1 after respiration has    

done its work1 the carbon  is to the    
nitrogen in the proportion of only #b to
 #a4    ,it is out of this residue1 rich
 in nitrogen1 that the several parts of 
animal bodies are built up4 ,hence the  
reason why they can be formed  from food
 poor in nitrogen1 and yet be themselves
 rich in the same  element4    ,it is   
this same residue also which1 after it  
has performed its  functions within the 
body1 is discharged again in the form of
 solid and  liquid excretions4 ,hence   
the greater richness in nitrogen1--the  
greater  fertilizing power of the dung  
of animals than of the food on which    
they  live4    ,two other remarks ,i    
shall add for the benefit of the        
practical man4    #a4 ,the manure of the
 cow1 taking it mixed1 is not so rich in
 nitrogen  as that of man1--because the 
cow in the stall1 large though it be1   
and  great the bulk of food it consumes1
 does not give off much more carbon  by 
respiration than an active full grown   
man4 ,hence the proportion of  carbon in

 the excretions of this animal is       
greater than in those of  man4 ,the dry 
manure is richer than the dry food1     
weight for weight1 but  not in the same 
proportion as if the cow respired a     
quantity of carbon  more nearly         
corresponding to its bulk1 when compared
 with the weight of  carbon thrown off  
from the lungs of man4    #b4 ,since the
 parts of animals--their blood1 muscles1
 tendons1 and  the gelatinous portion of
 the bones--contain much nitrogen1 young
  beasts which are growing1 must        
appropriate to their own use1 and  work 
up into flesh and bone1 a portion of the
 nitrogen contained  in the non-respired
 part of their food4 ,but the more they 
thus  appropriate1 the less will pass   
off into the fold-yard2 and hence it  is
 natural to suppose that the manure1    
either liquid or solid1 which  is       
prepared where many growing cattle are  
fed1 will not be so rich  as that which 
is yielded by full grown animals4 ,i am 
not aware how  far this deterioration   

has been observed in practice1 but it   
may with  some degree of certainty be   
expected to take place1--unless by      
giving  a richer food to the young      
cattle1 the difference to the farm-yard 
be  made up4#ah    #ah ,though ,i have  
dwelt as long upon these interesting    
and1 ,i believe1  novel considerations1 
as the limits of this little work will  
permit1  yet ,i must refer the reader   
for fuller details1 and to perhaps a    
clearer exposition of the principles    
above advanced than ,i have here  been  
able to give1 to my 8,,lectures on      
,agricultural ,chemistry and  ,geology40
      ,,section ,v4--,,of ,,mineral     
,,waters4    ,the general nature and    
mode of operation of such mineral       
substances as  are capable of acting as 
manures1 will be in some measure        
understood  from what has already been  
so fully stated in regard to the        
necessity  of inorganic food to living  
plants1 and to the kinds of such food   
which they specially require4 ,a slight 

notice1 therefore1 of the more          
important of these manures now in use   
will here be sufficient4    #a4         
,nitrates of ,potash and                
,soda4--,saltpetre and nitrate of soda  
have  been deservedly commended for     
their beneficial action1 especially     
upon young vegetation4 ,they are        
distinguished by imparting to the       
leaves a beautiful dark green colour1   
and are applied with advantage  to grass
 and young corn1 at the rate of #a cwt4 
to  cwt4 per acre4 ,the  nitric acid    
they contain yields nitrogen to the     
plant1 while potash and  soda are also  
put within reach of its roots1 and no   
doubt serve many  beneficial purposes4  
,sulphate of ,soda1 or ,glauber's salt1 
has lately been recommended in  this    
country for clovers1 grasses1 and green 
crops4 ,mixed with nitrate  of soda it  
produces remarkable crops of            
potatoes4#ai    #ai ,see the author's   
8,suggestions for ,experiments in       
,practical  ,agriculture10 ,nos4 #a  #b4

    ,sulphate of ,magnesia1 or ,epsom   
salts1 might also be beneficially       
applied in agriculture1 probably to     
clovers and corn crops4 ,as it can  be  
had in pure crystals at #ajs4 a cwt41   
and in an impure state at a  much less  
price1 from the alum works1 it might    
readily be submitted to  trial4         
,sulphate of ,lime1 or ,gypsum1 is in   
,germany applied to grass lands  with   
great success1 over large tracts of     
country4 ,in the ,united ,states  it is 
used for every kind of crop4 ,it is     
especially adapted to clovers  and      
legumes4    ,these three substances all 
afford sulphur to the growing plant1    
while the lime1 soda1 and magnesia are  
themselves in part directly             
appropriated by it1 and in part employed
 in preparing other kinds of  food1 and 
in conveying them into the ascending    
sap4    ,though there can be no question
 that these and similar substances are  
really useful to vegetation1 yet the    
intelligent reader will not be          

surprised to find1 or to hear1 that this
 or that mineral substance has  not     
succeeded in benefitting the land in    
this or that district4 ,if he  has      
already bricks enough at hand1 you must 
carry the builder mortar1  or he will be
 unable to go on with his work3 so1 if  
the soil contain  gypsum or sulphate of 
magnesia in sufficient natural          
abundance1 it is  at once a needless and
 a foolish waste to attempt to improve  
the land  by adding more2 it is still   
more foolish to conclude that these same
  saline compounds are unlikely to      
reward the patient experimenter in      
other localities4    ,common ,salt has  
undoubtedly1 in very many districts1 a  
fertilizing  influence upon the soil4   
,the theoretical agriculturist knows    
that a  small quantity of it is         
absolutely necessary to the healthy     
growth  of all our cultivated crops1 and
 he will therefore1 early try by a      
preliminary experiment upon one of his  
fields1 whether or not they  require the

 addition of this species of vegetable  
food4 ,it is in inland  and sheltered   
situations1 and on high lands often     
washed by the rains1  that the effect of
 common salt is likely to be most       
appreciable4 ,the  spray of the sea1    
borne to great distances by the winds1  
is in many  districts1 where prevailing 
sea winds are known1 sufficient to      
supply  an ample annual dressing of     
common salt to the land4                
,kelp4--,among mineral substances kelp  
ought not properly to be  included1     
since it is the ash left by the burning 
of sea-weed4 ,it1  however1 partakes of 
the nature of mineral substances1 and   
may1  therefore1 be properly considered 
in this place4 ,it contains potash1     
soda1 silica1 sulphur1 chlorine1 and    
several other of the inorganic          
constituents of plants required by them 
for food4 ,it is nearly the same        
also--with the exception of the organic 
matter which is burned away--with  the  
sea-weed which produces such remarkably 

beneficial effects upon the  soil4 ,in  
the ,western ,isles a method is         
practised of half burning or  charring  
sea-weed1 by which it is prevented from 
melting together1 and  is readily       
obtained in the form of a fine black    
powder4 ,the use of this  variety ought 
to combine the beneficial action of the 
ordinary saline  constituents of kelp1  
with the remarkable properties observed 
in animal  and vegetable charcoals4     
,wood-ash1 among other compounds1       
contains a portion of common  pearl-ash 
in an impure form1 with sulphate also1  
and silicate of  potash4 ,these are all 
valuable in feeding and in preparing the
 food of  plants1 and hence the         
extensive use of wood-ash as a manure in
 every  country where it can readily be 
procured4    ,dutch ashes are the ashes 
of peat burned for the purpose of being 
applied to the land4 ,they vary in      
constitution with the kind of peat  from
 which they have been prepared4 ,they   
often contain traces of potash  and     

soda1 and generally a quantity of gypsum
 and carbonate of lime1 a  trace of     
phosphate of lime1 and much siliceous   
matter4 ,in almost every  country where 
peat abounds1 the value of peat ashes as
 a manure has  been more or less        
generally recognised4      ,,section    
,,vi4--,,use ,,of ,,lime1               
,,shell-,,sand1 ,,and ,,marl4    ,the   
use of lime is of the greatest          
importance in practical  agriculture4   
,it has been employed1 in ,europe at    
least1 in one or  other of its forms of 
shells1 shell-sand1 marl1 chalk1        
limestone1 and  quicklime1 from the most
 remote periods4    ,native limestone1  
and all the unburned varieties of chalk1
 shells1 c4  consist of carbonate of    
lime 7p4 #ea71 more or less pure4 ,when 
burned  in the kiln1 the carbonic acid  
is driven off1 and lime1 burned lime1 or
  quicklime remains4    ,quicklime1 when
 exposed to the air1 gradually falls    
into the state  of an exceedingly fine  
white powder4 ,it will do so more       

rapidly if  water be thrown upon it1    
when it also heats much1 swells1 and    
becomes  about one-third heavier than   
before4 ,after being exposed to the air 
for some time in this white powdery     
state1 it is found to have again        
absorbed from the air a portion of      
carbonic acid1 though a very long       
period generally elapses before it is   
all reconverted into carbonate4  ,in    
compost heaps1 where much carbonic acid 
is formed during the  fermentation1 the 
conversion of any quicklime that may be 
mixed with  them into carbonate of lime1
 is much more rapid and complete than in
  the open air4    ,lime1 therefore1 is 
laid on the land in two states4    #ast1
 ,in the mild state--that of            
carbonate--in marls1 in chalk1 in       
shell-sand1 c4    #b;d1 ,in the caustic1
 or quick state1 as it comes hot from   
the kiln1  or after it is simply slaked4
    ,limes are laid on also in a more or
 less pure form4 ,marl contains only    
from #e to #bj per cent4 of carbonate of

 lime1 generally in the state  of a very
 fine powder4 ,shell-sand consists of a 
mixture of minute  fragments of shells  
with from #bj to #ej per cent4 of       
siliceous sand4 ,the  limestones which  
are burned are also more or less impure1
 though1 when  the impurity is very     
great1 they do not burn well1 and are   
therefore  usually rejected4    ,some   
limestones contain much magnesia1 by    
which their agricultural  qualities are 
materially affected4 ,these are known by
 the name of  magnesian limestones4     
,there are few limestones in which a    
small  quantity of magnesia may not be  
detected1 and this minute proportion is 
likely to be beneficial rather than     
otherwise2 but when it is present  to   
the amount of #aj per cent4 or upwards1 
it appears to have for some  time a     
poisonous influence upon vegetation1 if 
added in the same large  doses in which 
other lime may be safely spread upon the
 land4    ,the quantity of lime laid on 
at a single dressing1 and the frequency 

with which it may be repeated1 must     
depend upon the kind of land1 upon  the 
depth of the soil1 and upon the species 
of culture to which it is  subjected4   
,if land be wet1 or badly drained1 a    
larger application is  necessary to     
produce the same effect1 and it must be 
more frequently  repeated4 ,when the    
soil is thin1 again1 a smaller addition 
will  thoroughly impregnate the whole1  
than where the plough usually descends  
to the depth of #h or #aj inches4 ,on   
old pasture lands1 where the tender     
grasses live in two or three inches of  
soil only1 a feebler dressing1  more    
frequently repeated1 appears to be the  
more reasonable practice1  though in    
reclaiming and laying down lands to     
grass1 a heavy first  liming is often   
indispensable4    ,in arable culture    
larger doses are admissible1 both       
because the soil  through which the     
roots penetrate must necessarily be     
deeper1 and  because the tendency to    
sink beyond the reach of the roots is   

generally  counteracted by the frequent 
turning up of the earth by the plough4  
,where vegetable matter abounds1 much   
lime may be usefully added1 and on      
stiff clay lands after draining1 its    
good effect is most remarkable4  ,on    
light land1 chiefly because there is    
neither moisture nor vegetable  matter  
present in equal quantity1 very large   
applications of lime are  not so usual1 
and some prefer adding it to such lands 
in the shape of  composts only4    ,the 
largest doses1 however1 which are       
applied in practice1 alter in  a very   
immaterial degree the chemical          
constitution of the soil4 ,we  have seen
 that the best soils generally contain a
 natural proportion  of lime1 not fixed 
in quantity1 yet scarcely ever wholly   
wanting4 ,but  an ordinary liming1 when 
well mixed up with a deep soil1 will    
rarely  amount to one per cent4 of its  
entire weight4 ,it requires about #cjj  
bushels of burned lime per acre to add  
one per cent4 of lime to a soil  of     

twelve inches in depth2 if only mixed to
 a depth of six inches1 this  quantity  
would add about two per cent4 to the    
soil4    ,the most remarkable visible   
alterations produced by liming are--upon
  pastures1 the greater fineness1       
closeness1 and nutritive character  of  
the grasses--on arable lands1 the       
improvement in the texture and          
mellowness of stiff clays1 the more     
productive crops and the earlier  period
 at which they ripen4    ,but these     
effects gradually diminish year by year1
 till the land  returns again nearly to 
its original condition4 ,on analyzing   
the  soil1 the lime originally added is 
found to be in great measure1 or        
altogether1 gone4 ,in this condition the
 land must either be limed  again1 or   
must be left to produce sickly and      
un-remunerating crops4    ,this removal 
arises from two causes4 ,the rain-water 
that descends upon  the land holds in   
solution carbonic acid which it has     
absorbed from  the air4 ,but water      

charged with carbonic acid is capable of
 dissolving  carbonate of lime1 and thus
 year after year the rains slowly remove
  as they sink to the drains1 or run    
over the surface1 a portion of the  lime
 which the soil contains4 ,acid         
substances are also formed naturally  in
 the land1 by which another portion of  
the lime is rendered easily  soluble in 
water1 and1 therefore1 readily removable
 by every shower  that falls4    ,the   
chemical effects of lime upon the soil  
are chiefly the following3--    #a4     
,when laid upon the land in the caustic 
state1 the first action of  the lime is 
to combine immediately with every       
portion of acid matter  it may contain1 
and thus to sweeten the soil4 ,some of  
the compounds it  thus forms being      
soluble in water1 either enter into the 
roots and feed  the plant1--supplying it
 at once with lime and with organic     
matter1--or  are washed out by the      
springs and rains1 while other          
compounds1 which  are insoluble1 remain 

more permanently in the soil4    #b4    
,another portion decomposes certain     
saline compounds of iron1  manganese1   
and alumina1 which naturally form       
themselves in the soil1  and thus       
renders them unhurtful to vegetation4 ,a
 similar action is  exerted upon certain
 compounds of potash and soda1 and of   
ammonia1--if  any such are present1--by 
which these substances are set and      
placed  within the reach of the plant4  
#c4 ,its presence in the caustic state  
further disposes the organic  matter of 
the soil to undergo more rapid          
decomposition--it being  observed1 that 
where lime is present in readiness to   
combine with the  substances produced   
during the decay of organic matter1 that
 decay1  if other circumstances be      
favourable1 will proceed with much      
greater  rapidity4 ,the reader will not 
fail to recollect1 that during this     
decay many compounds are formed which   
are of importance in promoting          
vegetation4    #d4 ,further1 quicklime  

has the advantage of being soluble in   
cold water1  and thus the complete      
diffusion of it through the soil is     
aided by the  power of water to carry it
 in solution in every direction4    #e4 
,when it has absorbed carbonic acid1 and
 become reconverted into  carbonate1 the
 original caustic lime has no chemical  
virtue over  chalk1 rich shell-sand or  
marl1 or crushed limestone4 ,it has1    
however1  the important mechanical      
advantage of being in the form of a far 
finer powder1 than any to which we could
 reduce the limestone by  art--in       
consequence of which it can be more     
uniformly diffused through  the soil1   
and placed within the reach of every    
root1 and of almost  every particle1 of 
vegetable matter that is undergoing     
decay4 ,i shall  mention only three of  
the important purposes which1 in this   
state of  carbonate1 lime serves upon   
the land4    #a4 ,it directly affords   
food to the plant1 which1 as we have    
seen1  languishes where lime is not     

attainable4 ,it serves also to convey   
other  food to the roots in a state in  
which it can be made available to       
vegetable growth4    #b4 ,it neutralizes
 7removes the sourness7 of all acid     
substances as  they are formed in the   
soil1 and thus keeps the land in a      
condition to  nourish the tenderest     
plants4 ,this is one of the important   
agencies  of shell-sand when laid on    
undrained grass lands--and this effect  
it  produces in common with wood-ashes1 
and many similar substances4    #c4     
,during the decay of organic matter in  
the soil1 it aids and  promotes the     
production of nitric acid1--so          
influential1 as ,i believe1  in the     
general vegetation of the globe 7see    
page #ce74 ,with this acid  it combines 
and forms nitrate of lime--a substance  
very soluble in  water--entering        
readily1 therefore1 into the roots of   
plants1 and  producing upon their growth
 effects precisely similar to those of  
the  now well known nitrate of soda4    

,the success of frequent ploughings1    
harrowings1 hoeings1 and other modes of 
stirring the land1 is partly  owing to  
the facilities which these operations   
afford to the production  of this and   
other natural nitrates4      ,,section  
,,vii4--,,of ,,the ,,irrigation ,,of    
,,the ,,land4    ,the irrigation of the 
land is1 in general1 only a more refined
 method  of manuring it4 ,the nature of 
the process itself1 however1 is         
different  in different countries1 as   
are also the kind and degree of effect  
it  produces1 and the theory by which   
these effects are to be explained4      
,in dry and arid climates1 where rain   
rarely falls1 the soil may contain  all 
the elements of fertility1 and require  
only water to call them  into operation4
 ,in such cases1 as in the irrigations  
practised so  extensively in eastern    
countries1 and without which1 whole     
provinces  in ,africa and ,southern     
,america would lie waste1 it is         
unnecessary to  suppose any other virtue

 in irrigation than the mere supply of  
water it  affords to the parched and    
cracking soil4    ,but in climates such 
as our own1 there are two other         
beneficial  purposes in reference to the
 soil1 which irrigation may1 and one at 
least of which it always does1 serve4   
#b4 ,the occasional flow of pure water  
over the surface1 as in  our irrigated  
meadows1 and its descent into the       
drains1 where the  drainage is perfect1 
washes out acid and other noxious       
substances  naturally generated in the  
soil1 and thus purifies and sweetens it4
  ,the beneficial effect of such washing
 will be readily understood in  the case
 of peat lands laid down to water       
meadow1 since1 as every one  knows1 peat
 soils abound in matters unfavourable to
 general vegetation1  and which are     
usually in part drawn off by drainage1  
and in part  destroyed by lime and by   
exposure to the air1 before boggy lands 
can be  brought into profitable         
cultivation4    #c4 ,but it seldom      

happens that pure water is employed for 
the purposes  of irrigation4 ,the water 
of rivers1 more generally1 is diverted  
from  its course1 more or less loaded   
with mud and other finer particles of   
matter1 which are either gradually      
filtered from it as it passes over  and 
through the soil1 or in the case of     
floods subside naturally when  the      
waters come to rest4 ,or in less        
frequent cases1 the drainings of  towns1
 and the waters from common sewers1 or  
from the little streams  enriched by    
them1 are turned with benefit upon the  
favoured fields4  ,these are evidently  
cases of gradual and uniform manuring4  
,and even  where the water employed is  
clear and apparently undisturbed by mud1
  it always contains saline substances  
grateful to the plant in its  search for
 food1 and which it always contrives to 
extract more or less  copiously as the  
water passes over its leaves or along   
its roots4 ,every  fresh access of water
 affords the grass in reality another   

liquid  manuring4    ,in the refreshment
 continually afforded to the plant by a 
plentiful  supply of water1 in the      
removal of noxious substances from the  
soil1 or  in the frequent additions of  
enriching food to the land--the         
efficiency  of irrigation1 therefore1   
seems entirely to consist4              
,,section ,,viii4--,,of ,,paring ,,and  
,,burning1 ,,and ,,of ,,burned ,,clay4  
,a mode of improvement often resorted to
 is the paring and burning of  poor     
land4 ,the efficacy of burned clay1     
also1 even in superseding  manure on    
good lands1 has been highly extolled by 
some practical men4    #a4 ,the effect  
of paring and burning is easily         
understood4 ,the matted  sods consist of
 a mixture of much vegetable with a     
comparatively small  quantity of earthy 
matter4 ,when these are burned the ash  
of the plants  only is left1 intimately 
mixed with the calcined earth4 ,to strew
 this  mixture over the soil is much the
 same as to dress it with peat or  wood 

ashes1 the beneficial effect of which   
upon vegetation is almost  universally  
recognised4 ,and the beneficial         
influence of the ash itself  is chiefly 
due to the ready supply of inorganic    
food it yields to the  seed1 and to the 
effect which the potash and soda it     
contains exercise  either in preparing  
organic food in the soil1 or in         
assisting its  digestion and            
assimilation in the interior of the     
plant4    ,another part of this process 
is1 that the roots of the weeds and     
poorer  grasses are materially injured  
by the paring1 and that the subsequent  
dressing of ashes is unfavourable to    
their further growth4    #b4 ,much      
greater uncertainty hangs over the      
alleged virtues of burned  clay4 ,that  
benefits are supposed to have been      
derived from its use  there can be no   
doubt1 though in many cases the better  
tillage of the  land generally          
prescribed along with the use of burned 
clay1 may have  had some share in       

producing the good results actually     
experienced  during its use4    ,by the 
burning1 in kilns or otherwise1 any     
organic matter the clay may  contain    
will be consumed1 and the texture of the
 clay itself will be  mechanically      
altered4 ,it will crumble down like a   
burned brick into a  hard friable       
powder1 and will never again cohere into
 a paste as before  the burning4 ,it    
will1 therefore1 render clay soils more 
open1 and may  thus1 when mixed in large
 quantity1 produce a permanent          
amelioration  in the mechanical texture 
of many stiff wheat soils4 ,it cannot   
itself  undergo any chemical change that
 is likely so to alter its constitution 
as to make it a more useful chemical    
constituent of the soil than  before4   
,any saline matter we may suppose to be 
set free could be far  more cheaply     
added in the form of a top-dressing to  
the soil4    ,bricks1 however1 are      
generally more porous than the clay from
 which  they are formed2 burned clay is 

so also4 ,and all porous substances suck
  in and condense much air and many     
vapours in large quantities into  their 
pores4 ,in consequence of this property1
 porous substances1 like  charcoal and  
burned clay1 are supposed1 when mixed   
with the soil1 to be  continually       
yielding air to decaying vegetable      
matter on the one hand1  and as         
continually re-absorbing it from the    
atmosphere on the other1  and by this   
means to be of singular service in      
supplying the wants of  plants in the   
earlier seasons of their growth4 ,the   
vapours of nitric  acid and of ammonia1 
which float in the air1 they are also   
supposed to  imbibe1 and by the         
beneficial action of the substances     
believed to be  thus conveyed by burned 
clay into the soil1 the fertilizing     
virtues  ascribed to it are attempted to
 be explained4    ,it must be confessed1
 however1 that on this point            
considerable  obscurity still rests4 ,it
 is in some measure doubtful what the   

true  action of charcoal and of burned  
clay is1 both in kind and in  quantity4 
,it is the part of science1 therefore1  
to decline offering  more than a mere   
conjecture till the facts to be         
explained are more  fully and           
satisfactorily demonstrated4            
,,section ,,ix4--,,planting ,,and       
,,laying ,,down ,,to ,,grass4    #a4    
,planting4--,it has been observed that  
lands which are unfit for  arable       
culture1 and which yield only a trifling
 rent as natural  pasture1 are yet in   
many cases capable of growing profitable
  plantations1 and of being greatly     
increased in permanent value by the     
prolonged growth of wood4 ,not only1    
however1 do all trees not thrive  alike 
on the same soil1 but all do not improve
 the soil on which they  grow in an     
equal degree4    ,under the ,scotch fir1
 for example1 the pasture is not worth  
#f;d4 more  per acre than before it was 
planted--under the beech and spruce1 it 
is worth even less than before1 though  

the spruce affords excellent            
shelter2--under ash1 it gradually       
acquires an increased value of #bs4  or 
#cs4 per acre4 ,in oak copses1 it       
becomes worth #es4 or #fs41 but only    
during the last eight years 7of the     
twenty-four71 before it is cut  down4   
,but under the larch1 after the first   
thirty years1 when the  thinnings are   
all cut1 land not worth originally more 
than #as4 per  acre1 becomes worth #hs4 
to #ajs4 per acre for permanent         
pasture4#bj    #bj ,the result of trials
 made on the mica slate and gneiss soils
  7see page #ajj7 of the ,duke of       
,atholl4    ,the cause of this          
improvement is to be found in the nature
 of the soil1  which gradually          
accumulates beneath the trees by the    
shedding of their  leaves4 ,the shelter 
from the sun and rain which the foliage 
affords1  prevents the vegetable matter 
which falls from being so speedily      
decomposed1 or from being so much washed
 away1 and thus permits it to  collect  

in larger quantities in a given time1   
than where no such cover  exists4 ,the  
more complete the shelter1 therefore1   
the more rapid will  the accumulation of
 soil be in so far as it depends upon   
this cause4    ,but the quantity of     
leaves which annually falls has also    
much influence  upon the extent to which
 the soil is capable of being improved  
by any  given species of tree1 as well  
as the degree of rapidity with which    
those leaves1 under ordinary            
circumstances1 undergo decay4 ,the broad
  membranous leaf of the beech and oak  
decay more quickly than the             
needle-shaped leaves of the pine tribes1
 and this circumstance may  assist in   
rendering the larch more valuable as a  
permanent improver4    ,we should expect
 likewise that the quantity and quality 
of the  inorganic matter contained in   
the leaves1--brought up year by year    
from  the roots1 and strewed afterwards 
uniformly over the surface where the    
leaves are shed1--would materially      

affect the value of the soil they  form4
 ,the leaves of the oak contain about #e
 per cent4 of saline and  earthy matter1
 and those of the ,scotch fir less than 
#b per cent42 so  that1 supposing the   
actual weight of leaves which falls from
 each kind  of tree to be equal1 we     
should expect a greater depth of soil to
 be  formed in the same time by the oak 
than by the ,scotch fir4 ,i am not      
aware of any experiments on the quantity
 of ash left by the leaves of  the      
larch4    ,the improvement of the land1 
therefore1 by the planting of trees1    
depends in part upon the quantity of    
organic food which the trees  can       
extract from the air1 and afterwards    
drop in the form of leaves  upon the    
soil1 and in part upon the kind and     
quantity of inorganic  matter which the 
roots can bring up from beneath1 and in 
like manner  strew upon the surface4    
,the quantity and quality of the latter 
will1 in  a great measure1 determine the
 kind of grasses which will spring up1  

and the consequent value of the pasture 
in the feeding of stock4 ,in the  larch 
districts of the ,duke of ,atholl1 the  
most abundant grasses that  spring up   
are said to be the holcus mollis and the
 holcus lanatus1 7the  creeping and the 
meadow soft-grasses47    #b4 ,laying    
down to grass4--,on this point two facts
 seem to be pretty  generally           
acknowledged3    ,first1 that land laid 
down to artificial grasses for one1 two1
 three1  or more years1 is in some      
degree rested or recruited1 and is      
fitted for  the better production of    
after-corn crops4 ,letting it lie a year
 or two  longer in grass1 therefore1 is 
one of the received modes of bringing   
back to a sound condition a soil that   
has been exhausted by injudicious       
cropping4    ,second1 that land thus    
laid down with artificial grasses       
deteriorates  more or less after two or 
three years1 and only by slow degrees   
acquires a thick sward of rich and      
nourishing herbage4 ,hence the  opinion1

 that grass-land improves in quality the
 longer it is  permitted to lie1--the   
unwillingness to plough up old          
pasture1--and the  comparatively high   
rents which1 in some parts of the       
country1 old grass  lands are known to  
yield4    ,granting that grass lands do 
thus generally increase in value1  three
 important facts must be borne in mind  
before we attempt to  assign the cause  
of this improvement1 or the             
circumstances under which  it is likely 
to take place for the longest time and  
to the greatest  extent4    #a4 ,the    
value of the grass in any given spot may
 increase for an  indefinite period--but
 it will never improve beyond a certain 
extent--it  will necessarily be limited1
 as all other crops are1 by the quality 
of the land4 ,hence the mere laying down
 to grass will not make all  land good1 
however long it may lie4 ,the extensive 
commons1 heaths1  and wastes1 which have
 been in grass from the most remote     
times1 are  evidence of this4 ,they have

 in most cases yielded so poor a herbage
  as to have been considered unworthy of
 being enclosed as a permanent  pasture4
    #b4 ,some grass lands will retain   
the good condition they thus slowly     
acquire for a very long period1 and     
without manuring1 in the same  way1 and 
upon the same principle1 that some rich 
corn lands have  yielded successive     
crops for #ajj years without manure4    
,the rich grass  lands of ,england1 and 
especially of ,ireland1 many of which   
have been in  pasture from time         
immemorial1 without1 it is said1        
receiving any return  for all they have 
yielded1 are illustrations of this fact4
    #c4 ,but that others1 if grazed1    
cropped with sheep or meadowed1 will    
gradually deteriorate1 unless some      
proper supply of manure be given to     
them1--which required supply must vary  
with the nature of the soil1 and  with  
the kind of treatment to which it has   
been subjected4    ,in regard to the    
acknowledged benefit of laying down to  

grass1 then1  two points require        
consideration1--what form does it       
assume8--and how is  it effected8    #a4
 ,the improvement takes place by the    
gradual accumulation of a  dark-brown   
soil on the surface1 rich in vegetable  
matter3 and which  soil thickens or     
deepens in proportion to the time which 
elapses from  its being first laid down 
to grass4    ,if the soil be very light 
and sandy1 the thickening is sooner     
arrested2  if it be moderately heavy    
land1 the improvement continues for a   
longer  period2 and some of the heaviest
 clays in ,england are known to bear    
the richest permanent pastures4 ,on     
analyzing the soils of the richest  of  
these pastures1 whatever be the degree  
of tenacity of the clays  or loams 7the 
subsoils7 on which they rest1 or their  
deficiency in  vegetable matter1--they  
are found to be generally characterized 
by  containing from #h to #ab per cent4 
of organic1 chiefly vegetable matter1   
from #e to #aj only of alumina1 and from

 #a to #f per cent4 of lime4    ,thus   
the soil formed on the surface of all   
rich old pasture lands  is possessed of 
a remarkable degree of uniformity1--both
 in physical  character and in chemical 
composition4 ,this uniformity they      
gradually  acquire1 even upon the stiff 
clays of the ,lias and of the ,oxford   
clay1 which originally1 no doubt1 have  
been1--as many clay lands still         
are1--left to natural pasture from the  
difficulty and expense of  submitting   
them to arable culture4    #b4 ,but how 
do they acquire this new character1 and 
why is it the work  of so much time8    
,when the young grass throws up its     
leaves into the  air1 from which it     
derives so much of its nourishment1 it  
throws down  its roots into the soil in 
quest of food of another kind4 ,the     
leaves  may be mown or cropped by       
animals1 and carried off the field1 but 
the  roots remain in the soil1 and1 as  
they die1 gradually fill its upper  part
 with vegetable matter4 ,it is not known

 what average proportion the  roots of  
the natural grasses bear to the leaves2 
no doubt it varies  much1 both with the 
kind of grass and with the kind of soil4
 ,when wheat  is cut down1 the quantity 
of straw left in the field1 in the form 
of  stubble and roots1 is sometimes     
greater than the quantity carried off   
in the sheaf4 ,upon a grass field two or
 three tons of hay may be reaped  from  
an acre2 and if we suppose only a tenth 
part of this quantity to  die every year
 in the form of roots or parts of roots1
 or of excretions  from roots1 we can   
easily understand how the vegetable     
matter in  the soil thus gradually      
accumulating1 should at length become   
very  considerable in quantity4 ,in     
arable land this accumulation is        
prevented  by the constant turning up of
 the soil1 by which the vegetable fibres
  being exposed to the free access of   
air and moisture1 are made to  undergo a
 more rapid decomposition4    ,but the  
roots and leaves of the grasses contain 

inorganic earthy and  saline matter     
also4 ,dry hay leaves from an eighth to 
a tenth part of  its weight of ash when 
burned4 ,along with the dead vegetable  
matter of  the soil1 this inorganic     
matter accumulates also on the surface1 
in the  form of an exceedingly fine     
earthy powder2 hence one cause of the   
universal fineness of the surface mould 
of old grass fields4 ,and the  earthy   
portion of this inorganic matter        
consists chiefly of silica and  lime1   
with scarcely a trace of alumina1 so    
that1 even on the stiffest  clays1 a    
surface soil may be ultimately formed1  
in which the quantity  of alumina will  
be comparatively small4    ,but there   
are still other agencies at work by     
which the surface of  stiff soils is    
made to undergo a change4 ,as the roots 
penetrate into  the clay1 they more or  
less open up a way into it for the      
rains4 ,now  the rains in nearly all    
lands1 when they have a passage         
downwards1  have a tendency to carry    

down the clay along with them4 ,they do 
so1  it has been observed1 on sandy and 
peaty soils1 and more quickly when      
these soils are laid down to grass4     
,hence the mechanical action of the     
rains1--slowly in many localities1 yet  
surely1--has a tendency to lighten  the 
soil1 by removing a portion of its clay4
 ,they constitute one of  those natural 
agencies by which1 as elsewhere         
explained1 important  differences are   
ultimately established1 almost          
everywhere1 between the  surface        
crop-bearing soil and the subsoil on    
which it rests4    ,but further1 the    
heats of summer and the frosts of winter
 aid this slow  alteration4 ,in the     
extremes of heat and of cold1 the soil  
contracts  more than the roots of the   
grasses do2 and similar though less     
striking  differences take place during 
the changes of temperature experienced  
in our climate in a single day4 ,when   
the rain falls on the parched  field1 or
 when a thaw comes on1 the earth        

expands1 while the roots of  the grasses
 remain nearly fixed2 hence the soil    
rises up among the  leaves1 mixes with  
the vegetable matter1 and thus assists  
in the slow  accumulation of a rich     
vegetable mould4    ,the reader has     
witnessed in winter how1 on a field or a
 by-way side1  the earth rises above the
 stones1 and appears inclined to cover  
them2  he may even have seen in a       
deserted and undisturbed highway1 the   
stones  gradually sinking and           
disappearing altogether1 when the       
repetition of  this alternate           
contraction and expansion of the soil   
for a succession  of winters has        
increased in a great degree the effects 
which follow  from a single accession of
 frosty weather4    ,so it is in the    
fields4 ,and if a person skilled in the 
soils of a given  district can make a   
guess at the time when a given field was
 laid  down to grass1 by the depth at   
which the stones are found beneath the  
surface1 it is because this loosening   

and expansion of the soil1 while  the   
stones remain fixed1 tends to throw the 
latter down by an almost  imperceptible 
quantity every year that passes4        
,such movements as these act in opening 
up the surface-soil1 in mixing  it with 
the decaying vegetable matter1 and in   
allowing the slow action  of the rains  
gradually to give its earthy portion a  
lighter character4  ,but with these1    
among other causes1 conspire also the   
action of living  animals4 ,few persons 
have followed the plough without        
occasionally  observing the vast        
quantities of earthworms with which some
 fields seem  to be filled4 ,on a close 
shaven lawn many have noticed the       
frequent  little heaps of earth which   
these worms during the night have thrown
  out upon the grass4 ,these and other  
minute animals are continually  at work1
 especially beneath an undisturbed and  
grassy sward--and they  nightly bring up
 from a considerable depth1 and         
discharge on the  surface1 their burden 

of fine fertilizing loamy earth4 ,each  
of these  burdens is an actual gain to  
the rich surface soil1 and who can doubt
  that in the lapse of years1 the unseen
 and unappreciated labours of  these    
insect tribes must both materially      
improve its quality and  increase its   
depth8    ,there are natural causes1    
then1 which we know to be at work1 that 
are  sufficient to account for nearly   
all the facts that have been observed1  
in regard to the effect of laying lands 
down to grass4 ,stiff clays will        
gradually become lighter on the surface1
 and if the subsoil be rich in  all the 
kinds of inorganic food which the       
grasses require1 will go  on improving  
for an indefinite period without the aid
 of manure4 ,let  them1 however1 be     
deficient1 or let them gradually become 
exhausted of  any one kind of this food1
 and the grass lands will either        
gradually  deteriorate after they have  
reached a certain degree of             
excellence--or  they must be supplied   

with that ingredient--that manure of    
which they  stand in need4 ,it is       
doubtful if any pasture lands are so    
naturally  rich as to bear to be cropped
 for centuries without the addition of  
manure1 and at the same time without    
deterioration4#ba    #ba ,see pages #bdj
 and #bda4    ,on soils that are light1 
again1 which naturally contain little   
clay1  the grasses will thrive more     
rapidly1 a thick sward will be sooner   
formed1 but the tendency of the rains to
 wash out the clay may prevent  them    
from ever attaining that luxuriance     
which is observed upon the old  pastures
 of the clay lands4    ,on undrained    
heaths and commons1 and generally on any
 soil which is  deficient in some       
fertilizing element1 neither abundant   
herbage1 nor  good crops of any other   
kind1 can be expected to flourish4      
,laying such  lands down1 or permitting 
them to remain in grass1 may prepare    
them  for by-and-by yielding one or two 
average crops of corn1 but cannot be    

expected alone to convert them into     
valuable pasture4    ,finally1 plough up
 the old pastures1 on the surface of    
which this light  and most favourable   
soil has been long accumulating--and the
 heavy soil  from beneath will be again 
mixed up with it--the vegetable matter  
will  disappear rapidly by exposure to  
the air1--and if again laid down to     
grass1 the slow changes of many years   
must again be begun through the  agency 
of the same natural causes1 before it   
become capable of again  bearing the    
same rich herbage it was known to       
nourish while it lay  undisturbed4      
,many have supposed that by sowing down 
with the natural grasses1 a  thick sward
 may at once be obtained--and on light  
loamy lands1 rich in  vegetable matter1 
this method may1 to a certain extent1   
succeed--but on  heavy lands1 in which  
vegetable matter is defective1          
disappointment  will often follow the   
sowing of the most carefully selected   
seeds4  ,by the agency of the causes    

above adverted to--the soil gradually   
changes1 so that it is unfit1 when first
 laid down1 to bear those  grasses      
which1 ten or twenty years afterwards1  
will naturally and  luxuriantly grow    
upon it4          ,,chapter ,x4         
,the ,products of                       
,vegetation--,importance of             
,chemical quality as well as quantity of
          ,produce--,influence of       
different ,manures on the               
quantity and quality of the             
,crop--,influence of the          time  
of ,cutting--,absolute quantity of ,food
 yielded          by different          
,crops--,principles on which the        
,feeding          of ,animals           
depends--,theoretical and experimental  
value of different kinds of ,food for   
,feeding          ,stock--,concluding   
,observations4    ,the first object of  
the practical farmer is1 to reap from   
his land the  largest possible return of
 the most valuable crops1 without       
permanently  exhausting the soil4 ,with 

this view he adopts one or other of the 
methods of treatment above adverted to1 
by which either the physical  condition 
or the chemical constitution of the soil
 is altered for  the better4 ,it may be 
useful to shew how very much both the   
quantity  and the quality of a crop is  
dependent upon the mode in which it is  
cultivated and reaped1 and how much     
control1 therefore1 the skilful         
agriculturist really possesses over the 
ordinary productions of nature4         
,,section ,i4--,,of ,,the ,,influence   
,,of ,,manure ,,on ,,the ,,quantity ,,of
 ,,the ,,wheat ,,and  ,,other ,,corn    
,,crops4    ,every one knows that some  
soils naturally produce much larger     
returns  of wheat1 oats1 and barley than
 others do1 and that the same soil will 
produce more or less according to the   
mode in which the land has been         
prepared by manure1 or otherwise1 for   
the reception of the seed4 ,the         
following table shews the effect        
produced upon the quantity of the crop  

by equal quantities of different manures
 applied to the same soil1  sown with an
 equal quantity of the same seed4       
,return in bushels from each            
,manure applied4          bushel of     
seed4                         ,wheat4   
,barley4   ,oats4  ,rye4      ,blood1   
#ad       #af     #ab      #ad          
,night-soil1          --       #ac      
#ad      #ac      ,sheep's dung1        
#ab       #af     #ad       #ac         
,horse dung1         #aj       #ac      
#ad       #aa      ,pigeon's dung1      
--       #aj     #ab        #i      ,cow
 dung1            #g       #aa     #af  
#i      ,vegetable matter1    #c        
#g     #ac        #f      ,without      
manure1      --        #d      #e       
#d    ,it is probable that on different 
soils the returns obtained by the use   
of these several manures may not be     
always in the same order1 yet1          
generally speaking1 it will always be   
found that blood1 night-soil1 and       
sheep1 horse1 and pigeon's dung1 are    

among the most enriching manures  that  
can be employed4    ,we have already    
seen a theoretical reason for believing 
that night-soil  should be among the    
most enriching manures1 and the result  
of actual  trial here shews that it is  
one of the most practically valuable    
which  the farmer can employ4    ,two   
other facts will strike the practical   
man on looking at the above  table4     
#a4 ,that exclusive of blood1 sheep's   
dung gave the greatest increase in  the 
barley crop4 ,the favourite ,norfolk    
system of eating off turnips  with sheep
 previous to barley1 besides other      
benefits which are known  to attend the 
practice1 may owe part of its           
acknowledged utility to  this powerful  
action of sheep's dung upon the barley  
crop4    #b4 ,the action of cow dung    
upon oats is equally striking1 and the  
large return obtained by the use of     
vegetable manure alone--thirteen        
fold--may perhaps explain why in poorly 
farmed districts oats should be  a      

favourite and comparatively profitable  
crop1 and why they may be  cultivated   
with a certain degree of success on     
lands to which no rich  manure is ever  
added4      ,,section ,,ii4--,,influence
 ,,of ,,the ,,kind ,,of ,,manure ,,on   
,,the ,,chemical ,,quality ,,of  ,,the  
,,grain4    ,but the quality of the     
grain also1 as well as its quantity1 is 
materially affected by the kind of      
manure by which its growth is  assisted4
 ,the apparent quality of wheat and oats
 is very various2 but  in samples       
apparently equal in quality1 important  
chemical differences  may exist1 by     
which it is believed that the nourishing
 properties of  the grain are materially
 affected4    ,it has been stated in a  
previous chapter 7p4 #dc71 that when    
flour is  made into dough1 and this     
dough is washed upon a linen cloth with 
water  as long as the latter passes     
through milky1--the flour is separated  
into  starch1 which subsides from the   
water1 and gluten1 which remains        

behind4 ,the quantity of gluten thus    
left varies more or less with  almost   
every sample of flour1 and the nutritive
 properties of each  sample are supposed
 to depend very much upon the quantity  
of gluten it  contains4 ,so far it seems
 to be pretty well ascertained1 that    
those  varieties of grain which contain 
the largest amount of gluten yield  also
 the greatest return of flour1 and the  
heaviest weight of bread4    ,the weight
 of gluten contained in #ajj lbs4 of dry
 wheat has been found  to vary from #h  
to #cd lbs41 and this proportion is     
affected in a very  remarkable manner by
 the kind of manure which has been      
applied to the  land4 ,thus the         
proportions of starch and gluten in #ajj
 lbs4 of the  grain of the same wheat1  
grown on the same land1 differently     
manured1  was as follows3--             
,manure4        ,starch4  ,gluten4      
,blood1             #da lbs4  #cd lbs4  
,sheep's dung1      #db  0    #cc  0    
,horse dung1        #fb  0    #ad  0    

,cow dung1          #fb  0    #ab  0    
,vegetable manure1  #ff  0    #aj  0    
,potato-flour1 which consists entirely  
of starch1 makes a fine light  bread1   
easily raised4 ,wheaten-flour1 which    
contains little gluten1  approaches in  
this respect to potato-flour4 ,when the 
quantity of gluten  is large1 greater   
care is required to make a good light   
bread2 but  the bread from such flour is
 generally found to be more nutritive in
  its quality4 ,a dough peculiarly rich 
in gluten is required for the           
manufacture of macaroni and vermicelli2 
such is said to be the flour  naturally 
produced in southern ,italy4 ,by the    
above table it appears1  that the use of
 richer animal1 or poorer vegetable     
manures1 would  enable the farmer to    
raise1 at his pleasure1 either a rich   
macaroni  wheat1 or one poor in gluten  
suited for the makers of fancy bread4   
,an equally striking effect is not      
produced upon other kinds of grain by   
varying the manure4 ,thus the           

proportions of starch and gluten in the 
dry grain of barley and oats1           
differently manured1 were found to be as
  follows3--                            
,,barley4            ,,oats4            
,starch4  ,gluten4  ,starch4  ,gluten4  
,blood1             #ff       #f        
#fj       #e      ,night-soil1          
#ff        #f       #fj       #e        
,sheep dung1        #ff       #f        
#fa       #d      ,horse dung1          
#ff        #f       #fa      #d         
,cow dung1          #fi        #c       
#fb       #c      ,vegetable manure1    
#fi        #c        #ff      #b        
,unmanured1         #fi       #c        
#ff      #b    ,though a variation in   
the proportion of gluten can be observed
 in both  of these kinds of grain1      
according as one or other of the above  
kinds  of manure was employed1 yet      
neither the average quantity of gluten  
present in them1 nor the variations to  
which the quantity is liable1  are at   
all equal in amount to what are observed

 in the case of wheat4    ,the malting  
of barley is known to be affected by a  
variety of  circumstances4 ,it should be
 so uniform in ripeness as to sprout    
uniformly1 so that no part of it should 
be beginning to shoot when  the rest has
 already germinated sufficiently for the
 maker's purpose4  ,on this perfect     
sprouting of the whole depends in some  
degree the  swelling of the malt1 which 
is of considerable consequence to the   
manufacturer4    ,but the melting       
quality of the grain1 which is of more  
consequence  to the brewer and          
distiller1 is modified chiefly by the   
proportion of  gluten which the barley  
contains4 ,that which contains the least
 gluten1  and therefore the most starch1
 will melt the most easily and the most 
completely1 and will yield the strongest
 beer or spirit from the same  quantity 
of grain4 ,hence the preference given by
 the brewer to the  malt of particular  
districts1 even where the sample appears
 otherwise  inferior4 ,thus the brewers 

on the sea-board of the county of       
,durham  will not purchase the barley of
 their own neighbourhood1 while ,norfolk
  grain can be had at a moderate        
increase of price4 ,but that which      
refuses to melt well in the hands of the
 brewer1 will cause pigs and  other     
stock to thrive well in the hands of the
 feeder1 and this is the  chief outlet  
for the barley which the brewer and     
distiller reject4    ,so far as a       
practical deduction can be drawn from   
the effects of  different manures on the
 proportion of gluten in barley1 it     
would  appear that the larger the       
quantity of cow dung contained in the   
manure  applied to barley land--in other
 words1 the greater the numbers of      
stock folded about the farm-yard1 the   
more likely is the barley to be  such as
 will bring a high price from the       
brewer4    ,the folding of sheep        
produces a larger return 7p4 #bjf71 from
 the  barley crop--while the folding of 
cattle gives grain of a better  malting 

quality4      ,,section                 
,,iii4--,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,time   
,,of ,,cutting1 ,,on ,,the ,,quantity   
,,and  ,,quality ,,of ,,the ,,produce4  
,the period at which hay is cut1 or corn
 reaped1 materially affects the         
quantity 7by weight7 and the quality of 
the produce4 ,it is commonly  known that
 when radishes are left too long in the 
ground they become  hard and woody--that
 the soft turnippy stem of the young    
cabbage  undergoes a similar change as  
the plant grows old1--and that the      
artichoke becomes tough and uneatable if
 left too long uncut4 ,the same  natural
 change goes on in the grasses which are
 cut for hay4    ,in the blades and     
stems of the young grasses there is much
 sugar1  which1 as they grow up1 is     
gradually changed1 first into starch1   
and  then into woody fibre 7pages #dd   
and #de47 ,the more completely the      
latter  change is effected--that is1 the
 riper the plant becomes--the less sugar
  and starch1 both readily soluble      

substances1 they contain4 ,and though   
it has been ascertained that woody fibre
 is not wholly indigestible1  but that  
the cow1 for example1 can appropriate a 
portion of it for food  as it passes    
through her stomach2 yet the reader will
 readily imagine1  that those parts of  
the food which dissolve most easily1 are
 also  likely--other things being       
equal--to be most nourishing to the     
animal4    ,it is ascertained1 also1    
that the weight of hay or straw reaped1 
is  actually less when allowed to become
 fully ripe2 and therefore1 by  cutting 
soon after the plant has attained its   
greatest height1 a larger  quantity1 as 
well as a better quality of hay1 will be
 obtained1 while  the land also will be 
less exhausted4    ,the same remarks    
apply to crops of corn1--both to the    
straw and to the  grain they yield4 ,the
 rawer the crop is cut1 the heavier and 
more  nourishing the straw4 ,within     
three weeks of being fully ripe1 the    
straw  begins to diminish in weight1 and

 the longer it remains uncut after  that
 time1 the lighter it becomes and the   
less nourishing4    ,on the other hand1 
the ear which is sweet and milky a month
 before it  is ripe1 gradually          
consolidates1 the sugar changing into   
starch1 and  the milk thickening into   
the gluten and the albumen#bb of the    
flour4  ,as soon as this change is      
nearly completed1 or about a fortnight  
before  ripening1 the grain contains the
 largest proportion of starch and       
gluten2 if reaped at this time1 the     
bushel will be heavier1 and will  yield 
the largest quantity of fine flour and  
the least bran4    #bb ,albumen is the  
name given by chemists to the white of  
the egg4  ,a small quantity of this     
substance is present in every kind of   
grain4  ,it is closely related to       
gluten4    ,at this period the grain has
 a thin skin1 and hence the small       
quantity  of bran4 ,but if the crop be  
still left uncut1 the next natural step 
in  the ripening process is1 to cover   

the grain with a better protection1  a  
thicker skin4 ,a portion of the starch  
of the grain is changed into  woody     
fibre1--precisely as in the ripening of 
hay1 of the soft shoots of  the         
dog-rose1 and of the roots of the common
 radish4 ,by this change1  therefore1   
the quantity of starch is lessened and  
the weight of husk  increased2 hence the
 diminished yield of flour1 and the     
increased  produce of bran4    ,theory  
and experience1 therefore1 indicate     
about a fortnight before  full ripening 
as the most proper time for cutting     
corn4 ,the skin is  then thinner1 the   
grain fuller1 the bushel heavier1 the   
yield of flour  greater1 the quantity of
 bran less2 while1 at the same time1 the
 straw  is heavier1 and contains more   
soluble matter than when it is left     
uncut  until it is considered to be     
fully ripe4#bc    #bc ,on this subject  
the reader will consult with advantage  
an  excellent practical paper in the    
,quarterly ,journal of ,agriculture for 

,june #ahda1 by ,mr4 ,hannam of ,north  
,deighton1 ,yorkshire1 to whom ,i have  
to express my obligations for           
information regarding the results of    
some  further experiments made by him   
during the last autumn 7#ahda74         
,,section ,,iv4--,,on ,,the ,,absolute  
,,quantity ,,of ,,food ,,yielded ,,by   
,,different ,,crops4    ,the quantity of
 food capable of yielding nourishment to
 man1 which can  be grown from an acre  
of land of average quality1 depends very
 much  upon the kind of crop we raise4  
,in seeds1 when fully ripe1 little sugar
 or gum is generally present1  and it is
 chiefly by the amount of starch and    
gluten they contain1 that  their        
nutritive power is to be estimated4 ,in 
bulbs1 such as the turnip  and potato1  
sugar and gum are almost always present 
in considerable  quantity in the state  
in which these roots are consumed1 and  
this is  especially the case with the   
turnip4 ,these substances1 therefore1   
must  be included among the nutritive   

ingredients of such kinds of food4      
,if we suppose an acre of land to yield 
the following quantities of the  usually
 cultivated crops1 namely--        ,of  
wheat1        #be bushels1 or  #aejj    
lbs4      ,of barley1       #ch    0    
or  #bjjj  0      ,of oats1         #ej 
0     or  #bbej  0      ,of peas1       
#ae    0     or  #ajjj  0      ,of      
beans1        #be    0     or  #afjj  0 
,of ,indian corn1  #fj    0     or      
#cabj  0      ,of potatoes1     #aj     
tons1   or #bbdjj  0      ,of turnips1  
#be    0     or #efjjj  0    ,the weight
 of dry starch1 gluten1 sugar1 and gum1 
reaped in each crop1  will be           
represented very nearly by the following
 numbers3--                             
,starch4   ,gluten and  ,sugar and      
,woody                                  
,albumen4      ,gum4    ,fibre4         
,wheat1         #hbe lbs4   #cae lbs4   
#fj       --      ,barley1       #abjj  
0     #abj  0        #afj       --      
,oats1         #abae  0     #ajj  0     

#bej       --      ,peas1          #dbj 
0     #bfj  0         #bj       --      
,beans1         #fgj  0     #cgj  0     
--       --      ,indian corn1  #bajj  0
     #bhj  0         #ij       --       
,potatoes1     #bfhh  0     #bbd  0     
--      #abec      ,turnips1      #cjij 
0    #adjj  0       #ejjj       --      
,if it be granted that the crops above  
stated are fair average returns  from   
the same quality of land--that the acre1
 for example1 which  produces #be       
bushels of wheat1 will also produce #aj 
tons of potatoes1  and so on--then it   
appears that the land which1 by cropping
 with wheat1  would yield a given weight
 of starch1 would1 when cropped with    
barley  or oats1 yield one-half more1   
with ,indian corn or potatoes about     
three  times as much1 and with turnips  
five times the same quantity4 ,in other 
words1 the piece of ground which1 when  
sown with wheat1 will maintain  one man1
 would support one and a half if sown   
with barley or oats1  three with ,indian

 corn or potatoes1 and five with        
turnips--in so far  as the nutritive    
power of these crops depends upon the   
starch and sugar  they contain4         
,again1 if we compare the relative      
quantities of gluten1 we see that       
wheat1 beans1 and ,indian corn yield1   
from the same breadth of land1  nearly  
an equal quantity of this kind of       
nourishment--potatoes one-third  less1  
and barley and oats only one-third of   
the quantity--while turnips  yield four 
times as much as either wheat1 beans1 or
 ,indian corn4    ,on whichever of these
 two substances1 therefore1 the starch  
or the  gluten1 we consider the         
nutritive property of the above kind of 
food  to depend1 it appears that the    
turnip is by far the most nutritive     
crop we can raise4 ,it is by no means   
the most nutritive weight for  weight1  
but the largeness of the crop 7#be tons7
 affords us from the  same field a much 
greater weight of food than can be      
reaped in the form  of any of the other 

crops here mentioned4    ,in this the   
practical farmer will see the peculiar  
adaptation of the  turnip husbandry to  
the rearing and fattening of stock4     
,could the  turnip be made an agreeable 
article of general human consumption1   
the  produce of the land might be made  
to sustain a much larger population     
than under any other of the above kinds 
of cropping4    ,the relative nourishing
 power or value as food of different    
vegetable  substances1 is supposed by   
some to depend entirely upon the        
relative  proportions of gluten they    
contain4 ,according to this view1 the   
pea and  the bean are much more         
nourishing1 weight for weight1 even than
 wheat1  and this latter grain1 than any
 of the other substances mentioned in   
the above table4 ,thus1 #ef lbs4 of     
beans would afford as much sustenance   
to an animal as #fg of pease1 #ajj of   
wheat-flour1 or #agg of rice4    ,in    
order to understand the value of this   
opinion1 it will be proper  to consider 

the several purposes which the food is  
destined to serve  in the animal        
economy--what the animal must derive    
from its food to  maintain its existing 
condition1 or to admit of a healthy     
increase of  bulk4      ,,section       
,v4--,,of ,,the ,,feeding ,,of          
,,animals1 ,,and ,,the ,,purposes       
,,served ,,by ,,the  ,,food ,,they      
,,consume4    ,the food of plants we    
have seen to consist essentially of two 
kinds1  the organic and the inorganic1  
both of which we have insisted upon  as 
equally necessary to the living         
vegetable--equally indispensable to  its
 healthy growth4 ,a brief glance at the 
purposes served by plants in  the       
feeding of animals1 will not only       
confirm this view1 but will also  throw 
some additional light upon the kind of  
inorganic food which the  plants must be
 able to procure1 in order that they may
 be fitted to  fulfil their assigned    
purpose in the economy of nature4       
,man1 and all domestic animals1 may be  

supported1 may even be fattened1  upon  
vegetable food alone3 vegetables1       
therefore1 must contain all  the        
substances which are necessary to build 
up the several parts of  animal bodies1 
and to supply the waste attendant upon  
the performance  of the necessary       
functions of animal life4 ,let us       
consider what these  substances are1 and
 in what quantities they must be        
supplied to the  human body4    #a4 ,the
 food must supply carbon for            
respiration4    ,a man of sedentary     
habits1 or whose occupation requires    
little bodily  exertion1 may respire    
about #e ounces of carbon in twenty-four
 hours--one  who takes moderate         
exercise1 about #h ounces--and one who  
has to undergo  violent bodily exertion1
 from #ab to #ae ounces4    ,if we take 
the mean quantity of #h ounces1 then to 
supply this alone1 a  man must eat #ah  
ounces of starch or sugar every day4 ,if
 he take it in  the form of wheaten     
bread1 he will require #a lbs4 of bread1

 if in the  form of potatoes1 about #g  
lbs4 of raw potatoes1 to supply the     
waste  caused by his respiratory organs 
alone4    ,when the habits are          
sedentary1 #e lbs4 of potatoes may be   
sufficient1  when violent and continued 
exercise is taken1 #ab to #ae lbs4 may  
be too  little4 ,at the same time1 it   
must be observed1 that where the supply 
is  less1 the quantity of carbonic acid 
given off will either be less also1  or 
the deficiency will be supplied at the  
expense of the body itself4  ,in either 
case the strength will be impaired1 and 
fresh food will be  required to recruit 
the exhausted frame4    #b4 ,the food   
must repair the daily waste of the      
muscular parts of the  body4    ,when   
the body is full grown1 a portion from  
every part of it is  daily abstracted by
 natural processes1 and rejected either 
in the  perspiration or in the solid and
 fluid excrements4 ,this portion must   
be supplied by the food1 or the strength
 will diminish--the frame will          

gradually waste away4    ,the muscles of
 animals1 of which lean beef and mutton 
are examples1  are generally coloured by
 blood1 but when well washed with water1
 they  become quite white1 and1 with the
 exception of a little fat1 are found   
to consist of a white fibrous substance1
 to which the name of fibrin  has been  
given by chemists4 ,the clot of the     
blood consists of the  same substance2  
while skin1 hair1 horn1 and the organic 
part of the  bones1 are composed of     
varieties of gelatine4 ,this latter     
substance  is familiarly known in the   
form of glue1 and though it differs in  
its sensible properties1 it is          
remarkably analogous to fibrin in its   
elementary constitution1 as both of     
these substances are to the white  of   
the egg 7albumen71 to the curd of milk  
7casein71 and to the  gluten of flour4  
,they all contain nitrogen1 and all     
consist of the  four elementary bodies  
7organic elements71 very nearly in the  
following  proportions3--               

,carbon1      #ee      ,hydrogen1     #g
      ,nitrogen1    #ah      ,oxygen1   
#bj                 ----                
#ajj    ,they all contain1 likewise1 a  
small proportion of sulphur and of      
phosphorus4    ,the quantity of one or  
other of these removed from the body in 
#bd  hours1 either in the perspiration  
or in the excretions1 amounts to  about 
five ounces1 containing #cej grains of  
nitrogen1 and this waste  at least must 
be made up by the gluten or fibrin of   
the food4    ,in the #a lb4 of wheaten  
bread we have supposed to be eaten to   
supply  carbon for respiration1 there   
will be contained also about #c ounces  
of gluten4 ,let the other #b ounces be  
made up in beef1 of which half a  pound 
contains #b ounces of dry fibrin1 and we
 have                                   
,for respiration4      ,for waste of    
muscle1 c4      #a lbs4 of bread        
yielding #ah oz4 starch and #c oz4 of   
gluten4      #h oz4 of beef yielding    
#b oz4 of fibrin4      ,total consumed  

by respiration1                         
gluten or        and the ordinary waste1
      #ah oz4 starch and #e oz4  fibrin4
    ,if1 again1 the #g lbs4 of potatoes 
be eaten1 then in these are  contained  
about #b ounces of gluten or albumen1 so
 that there remain #b  ounces to be     
supplied by beef1 eggs1 milk1 or cheese4
    ,the reader1 therefore1 will        
understand why a diet which will keep up
  the human strength is easiest         
compounded of a mixture of vegetable and
  animal food4 ,it is not merely that   
such a mixture is more agreeable  to the
 palate1 or even that it is absolutely  
necessary1--for1 as  already observed1  
the strength may be fully maintained by 
vegetable  food alone2--it is1 that     
without animal food in one form or      
another1  so large a bulk of vegetable  
food must be consumed in order to supply
  the requisite quantity of nitrogen in 
the form of gluten4 ,of ordinary        
wheaten bread alone1 about #c lbs4 daily
 must be eaten to supply the            

nitrogen1#bd and there would then be a  
considerable waste of carbon  in the    
form of starch1 by which the stomach    
would be overloaded1 and  which1 not    
being worked up by respiration1 would   
pass off in the  excretions4 ,the wants 
of the body would be equally supplied1  
and with  more ease1 by #a lbs4 of bread
 and #d ounces of cheese4    #bd ,the   
flour being supposed to contain #ae per 
cent4 of dry gluten1 on  which          
supposition all the above calculations  
are made4    ,of rice1 again1 no less   
than #d lbs4 daily would be required to 
impart  to the system the required      
proportion of gluten2 and it is a       
familiar  observation of those who have 
been in ,india and other countries1     
where  rice is the usual food of the    
people1 that the degree to which the    
natives distend1 and apparently overload
 their stomachs with this  grain1 is    
quite extraordinary4    ,the stomachs   
and other digestive apparatus of our    
domestic animals are  of larger         

dimensions1 and they are able1          
therefore1 to contain with  ease as much
 vegetable food1 of almost any wholesome
 variety1 as will  supply them with the 
quantity of nitrogen they may require4  
,yet every  feeder of stock knows that  
the addition of a small portion of      
oil-cake1  a substance rich in nitrogen1
 will not only fatten an animal more    
speedily1 but will also save a large    
bulk of other kinds of food4    #c4 ,but
 the blood and other fluids of the body 
contain much saline  matter of various  
kinds1 sulphates1 muriates1 phosphates1 
and other  saline compounds of potash1  
soda1 lime1 and magnesia4 ,all these    
have  their special functions to perform
 in the animal economy1 and of each  of 
them an undetermined quantity daily     
escapes from the body in the            
perspiration1 in the urine1 or in the   
solid excretions4 ,this quantity1       
therefore1 must be daily restored by the
 food4    ,no precise experiments have  
yet been made with the view of          

determining  how much saline matter is  
daily excreted from the body of a       
healthy  man1 or in what proportions the
 different inorganic substances are     
present in it2 but it is satisfactorily 
ascertained1 that without  a certain    
sufficient supply1 the animal will      
languish and decay1  even though carbon 
and nitrogen in the form of starch and  
gluten be  abundantly given to it4 ,it  
is a wise and beautiful provision of    
nature1  therefore1 that plants are so  
organized as to refuse to grow in a soil
  from which they cannot readily obtain 
a supply of soluble inorganic  food1    
since that saline matter which ministers
 first to their own wants  is afterwards
 surrendered by them to the animals they
 are destined to  feed4    ,thus the    
dead earth and the living animal are but
 parts of the same  system1--links in   
the same endless chain of natural       
existences1--the  plant is the          
connecting bond by which they are tied  
together on the one  hand1--the decaying

 animal matter which returns to the     
soil1 connects  them on the other4      
#d4 ,the solid bones of the animal are  
supplied from the same original         
source1--the vegetable food on which    
they live4 ,the bones of the cow        
contain #ee per cent4 of phosphate of   
lime1 of the sheep #gj1 of the  horse   
#fg1 of the calf #ed1 and of the pig #eb
 lbs41 in every hundred of  dry bone4   
,all this must come from the vegetable  
food4 ,of the bone-earth  also1 a       
portion1--perhaps a variable            
portion1--is every day rejected from    
the animal2 the food1 therefore1 must   
contain a daily supply1 or that  which  
passes off will be taken from the       
substance of the bones1 and the  animal 
will become feeble4    ,it is kindly    
provided by nature1 that a certain      
proportion of this  ingredient of bones 
is always associated with the gluten of 
plants  in its various forms1--with the 
fibrin of animal muscle and with the    
curd of milk4 ,hence1 man1 in using any 

of these latter along with his          
vegetable food1 obtains from them1 with 
comparative ease1 the quantity  of the  
earth of bones which is necessary to    
keep his system in repair2  while those 
animals which live upon vegetables      
alone1 extract all they  require along  
with the gluten of the plants on which  
they feed4    ,the provision is very    
beautiful by which the young            
animal1--the muscle  and bones of which 
are rapidly growing1--is supplied with a
 larger  portion of nitrogenous food and
 of bone-earth1 than are necessary to   
maintain the healthy condition of the   
full grown animal4 ,the milk of  the    
mother is the natural food from which   
its supplies are drawn4  ,the sugar of  
the milk supplies the comparatively     
small quantity of  carbon necessary for 
the respiration of the young animal2 as 
it gets  older1 the calf or young lamb  
crops green food for itself to supply   
an additional portion4 ,the curd of the 
milk 7casein7 yields the  materials of  

the growing muscles1 and of the animal  
part of the  bones1--while dissolved    
along with the curd in the liquid milk  
is the  phosphate of lime1 of which the 
earthy part of the bones is to be built 
up4 ,a glance at the constitution of    
milk will shew us how copious the       
supply of all these substances is1--how 
beautifully the constitution  of the    
mother's milk is adapted to the wants of
 her infant offspring4  ,cow's milk     
consists in #ajjj parts by weight of--  
,butter1                                
#bg    to    #ce      ,cheesy matter    
7casein71                   #de    to   
#ij      ,milk sugar1                   
#cf    to    #ej        ,chloride of    
potassium1 and         a little chloride
 of sodium1            #a               
,phosphates1 chiefly of lime1           
#b  to    #aj        ,other salts1      
#f      ,water1                         
#hhb   to   #hae                        
-----       ----                        
#ajjj        #ajjj    ,the quality of   

the milk1 and1 consequently1 the        
proportions of the  several constituents
 above mentioned1 vary with the breed of
 the  cow1--with the food on which it is
 supported1--with the time that has     
elapsed since the period of             
calving1--with its age1 its state of    
health1  and with the warmth of the     
weather2#be but in all cases this fluid 
contains the same substances1 though in 
different quantities4    #be ,in warm   
weather the milk contains more butter1  
in cold weather  more cheese and sugar4 
,milk of the quality above analyzed     
contains1 in every ten gallons1  #d lbs4
 of casein1 equal to the formation of   
#ah lbs4 of ordinary  muscle1 and #c    
ounces of phosphate of lime             
7bone-earth71 equal to  the production  
of #g ounces of dry bone4 ,but from the 
casein have to  be formed the skin1 the 
hair1 the horn1 the hoof1 c4 as well as 
the  muscle1 and in all these is        
contained also a minute portion of the  
bone-earth4 ,a portion of all the       

ingredients of the milk likewise  passes
 off in the ordinary excretions1 and yet
 every one knows how  rapidly young     
animals thrive1 when allowed to consume 
the whole of the  milk which nature has 
provided as their most suitable         
nourishment4    ,and whence does the    
mother derive all this gluten and       
bone-earth1 by  which she can not only  
repair the natural waste of her own full
 grown  body1 but from which she can    
spare enough also to yield so large a   
supply of nourishing milk8 ,she must    
extract them from the vegetables on     
which she lives1 and they again from the
 soil4    ,the quantity of solid matter 
thus yielded by the cow in her milk is  
really very large1 if we look at the    
produce of an entire year4 ,if the      
average yield of milk be #cjjj quarts1  
or #gej gallons in a year--every #aj    
gallons of which contain bone-earth     
enough to form about #g ounces of  dry  
bone--then the milking of the cow alone 
exhausts her of the earthy  ingredients 

of #cc lbs4 of dry bone4 ,and this she  
draws necessarily from  the soil6    ,if
 this milk be consumed on the spot1 then
 all returns again to the  soil in the  
annual manuring of the land4 ,let it be 
carried for sale  to a distance1 or let 
it be converted into cheese and butter1 
and in  this form exported1 there will  
then be a yearly drain upon the land  of
 the materials of bones1 from this cause
 alone1 equal to #cj lbs4 of  bone-dust4
 ,after the lapse of centuries1 it is   
conceivable that old  pasture lands in  
cheese and dairy countries should become
 poor in the  materials of bones--and   
that in such districts1 as now in       
,cheshire1 the  application of bone-dust
 should entirely alter the character of 
the  grasses1 and renovate the old      
pastures4    ,thus1 as was stated at the
 commencement of the present section the
  study of the nature1 and functions of 
the food of animals throws  additional  
light upon the nature also and final    
uses of the food of  plants4 ,it even   

teaches us what to look for in the      
soil--what a fertile  soil must contain 
that it may grow nourishing food--what  
we must add  to the soil when chemical  
analysis fails to detect its actual     
presence1  or when the food it produces 
is unable to supply all that the animal 
requires4    ,the principles above      
explained1 therefore1 shew that the     
value of any  vegetable production1     
considered as the sole food of an       
animal1 is  not to be judged of--cannot1
 in short1 be accurately determined--by 
the amount it may contain of any one of 
those substances1 all of  which together
 are necessary to build up the growing  
body of the young  animal1 and to repair
 the natural waste of such as have      
attained to  their fullest size4        
,hence the failure of the attempts that 
have been made to support the  lives of 
animals by feeding them upon pure starch
 or sugar alone4 ,these  substances     
would supply carbon for respiration1 but
 all the natural  waste of nitrogen1 of 

saline matter1 and of earthy phosphates1
 must  have been drawn from the existing
 solids and fluids of their living      
bodies4 ,the animals in consequence     
pined away1 and sooner or later died4   
,some have expressed surprise that      
animals have refused to thrive1  and    
have ultimately died1 when fed upon     
animal jelly or gelatine  7from bones7  
alone1 nourishing though that substance 
as part of the  food undoubtedly is4    
,when given in sufficient quantity1     
gelatine  might indeed supply carbon    
enough for respiration1 with a great    
waste  of nitrogen1 but it is deficient 
in the saline ingredients which a       
naturally nourishing food contains4     
,even on the natural mixture of starch  
and gluten in fine white bread1  dogs   
have been unable to live beyond #ej     
days1 though others fed on  household   
bread1 containing a portion of the      
bran--in which earthy  matter more      
largely resides--continued to thrive    
long after4 ,it is  immaterial whether  

the general quantity of the whole food  
be reduced  too low1 or whether one of  
its necessary ingredients only be too   
much  diminished or entirely withdrawn4 
,in either case1 the effect will be  the
 same--the animal will pine away1 and   
sooner or later die4      ,,section     
,,vii4--,,of ,,the ,,practical ,,and    
,,theoretical ,,value ,,of ,,different  
,,kinds  ,,of ,,food4    ,from what has 
been stated in the preceding section1 it
 appears1  that1 for various reasons1   
different kinds of food are not equally 
nourishing4 ,this fact is of great      
importance1 not only in the  preparation
 of human food1 but also in the feeding 
of stock4 ,it has1  therefore1 been made
 the subject of experiment by many      
practical  agriculturists1 with the     
following general results4    ,if common
 hay be taken as the standard of        
comparison1 then to yield  the same     
amount of nourishment with #aj lbs4 of  
hay1 a weight of the  other kinds of    
food must be given1 which is represented

 by the number  opposite to each in the 
following table3--        ,hay1         
#aj            ,carrots1          #be   
to  #cj      ,clover hay1        #h  to 
#aj    ,turnips1          #ej           
,green clover1     #de  to  #ej         
,cabbage1          #bj  to  #cj         
,wheat straw1      #dj  to  #ej         
,pease and ,beans1   #c  to   #e        
,barley straw1     #bj  to  #dj         
,wheat1             #e  to   #f         
,oat straw1        #bj  to  #dj         
,barley1            #e  to   #f         
,pea straw1        #aj  to  #ae         
,oats1              #d  to   #g         
,potatoes1         #bj                  
,indian corn1       #e      ,old        
potatoes1     #dj8           ,oil-cake1 
#b  to   #d    ,it is found in practice1
 as the above table shews1 that twenty  
stones  of potatoes or three of oil-cake
 will nourish an animal as much as ten  
stones of hay1 and five stones of oats  
as much as either4 ,something1  however1
 will depend upon the quality of each   

kind of food1 and upon  the age and     
constitution of the animal4 ,the skilful
 feeder of stock  knows also the value  
of a change of food1 or of a mixture of 
the  different kinds of vegetable food  
he may have at his command4    ,the     
nutritive value of different kinds of   
food has also been  represented         
theoretically1 by supposing it to be    
very nearly in  proportion to the       
quantity of nitrogen1 or of gluten1     
which vegetables  contain4 ,though this 
cannot be considered as a correct       
principle1  yet as the ordinary kind of 
food on which stock is fed contains in  
general an ample supply of carbon for   
respiration1 with a comparatively  small
 proportion of nitrogen1 these          
theoretical determinations are by  no   
means without their value1 and they     
approach in many cases very  closely to 
the practical values above given1 as    
deduced from actual  trial4 ,thus1      
assuming that #aj lbs4 of hay yield a   
certain amount  of nourishment1 then of 

the other vegetable substances it will  
be  necessary1 according to theory1 to  
give the following quantities1 in  order
 to produce the same effect3            
,hay1              #aj    ,turnips1     
#fj      ,clover hay1        #h         
,carrots1          #ce      ,vetch      
hay1#bf     #d    ,cabbage1          #cj
 to #dj      ,wheat straw1      #eb     
,pease and ,beans1   #b to  #c          
,barley straw1     #eb    ,wheat1       
#e      ,oat straw1        #ee          
,barley1            #f      ,pea straw1 
#f    ,oats1              #e            
,potatoes1         #bh    ,indian corn1 
#f      ,old potatoes1     #dj          
,oil-cake1          #b    #bf ,both cut 
in flower4    ,if the feeder be careful 
to supply his stock with a mixture or   
occasional change of food1 he may very  
safely regulate the quantity of  any one
 he ought to substitute for a given     
weight of any of the others1  by the    
numbers in the above tables--since the  
theoretical and practical  results do   

not in general very greatly differ4     
,as has been already stated1 it is not  
strictly correct that this or  that kind
 of vegetable is more fitted to sustain 
animal life1 simply  because of the     
larger proportion of nitrogen it        
contains2 but it  is wisely provided1   
that along with this nitrogen in all    
plants1  a certain proportion of starch 
or sugar and of saline and earthy       
matter are always associated--so that   
the quantity of nitrogen may be         
considered as a rough practical index of
 the proportion of some of the          
important saline and earthy ingredients 
also4    ,an important practical lesson 
on this subject is taught us by the     
study  of the wise provisions of        
,nature4 ,not only does the milk of the 
mother  contain all the elements of a   
nutritive food mixed up together--as the
  egg does also for the unhatched       
bird--but in rich natural pastures the  
same mixture uniformly occurs4 ,hence1  
in cropping the mixed herbage1  the     

animal introduces into its stomach      
portions of various plants--some        
abounding more in starch or sugar1 some 
more in gluten or albumen1 some         
naturally richer in saline1 others in   
earthy constituents2 and out of  these  
varied materials the digestive organs   
select a due proportion of  each1 and   
reject the rest4 ,wherever a pasture    
becomes usurped by one or  two          
grasses--either animals cease to thrive 
upon it1 or they must crop a  much      
larger quantity of food to supply the   
natural waste of all the  parts of their
 bodies4    ,it may indeed be assumed as
 almost a general principle1 that       
whenever  animals are fed on one kind of
 vegetable only1 there is a waste of one
  or other of the necessary elements of 
animal food1 and that the great  lesson 
on this subject taught us by nature is1 
that1 by a judicious  admixture1 not    
only is food economised1 but the labour 
imposed upon the  digestive organs is   
also materially diminished4             

,,section ,,viii4--,,concluding         
,,observations4    ,in this little work1
 now brought to a close1 ,i have        
presented the  reader with a slight1 and
 ,i hope plain and familiar1 sketch of  
the  various topics connected with      
practical agriculture1 on which the     
sciences of chemistry and geology are   
fitted to throw the greatest  light4    
,we have studied the general characters 
of the organic and inorganic  elements  
of which the parts of plants are made   
up1 and the several  compounds of these 
elements which are of the greatest      
importance in  the vegetable kingdom4   
,we have examined the nature of the     
seed1--seen  by what beautiful provision
 it is fed during its early             
germination--in  what form the elements 
by which it is nourished are introduced 
into  the circulation of the young plant
 when the functions of the seed are     
discharged1--and how earth1 air1 and    
water are all made to minister  to its  
after-growth4 ,we have considered the   

various chemical changes  which take    
place within the growing plant1 during  
the formation of its  woody stem1 the   
blossoming of its flower1 and the       
ripening of its seed  or fruit1--and    
have traced the further changes it      
undergoes1 when1 the  functions of its  
short life being discharged1 it hastens 
to serve other  purposes1 by mingling   
with the soil1 and supplying food to new
 races4  ,the soils themselves in which 
plants grow1 their nature1 their origin1
  the causes of their diversity in      
mineral character1 and in natural       
productiveness1 have each occupied a    
share of our attention--while  the      
various means of improving their        
agricultural value by manuring  or      
otherwise1 have been practically        
considered1 and theoretically           
explained4 ,lastly1 we have glanced at  
the comparative worth of the  various   
products of the land1 as food for man or
 other animals1 and  have briefly       
illustrated the principles upon which   

the feeding of  animals and the relative
 nutritive powers of the vegetables on  
which  they live are known to depend4   
,in this short and familiar treatise ,i 
have not sought so much to  satisfy the 
demands of the philosophical            
agriculturist1 as to  awaken the        
curiosity of my less instructed reader1 
to shew him how  much interesting as    
well as practically useful information  
chemistry  and geology are able and     
willing to impart to him1 and thus to   
allure  him in quest of further         
knowledge and more accurate details to  
my  larger work1#bg of which the present
 exhibits only a brief outline4    #bg  
,,lectures on ,agricultural ,chemistry  
and ,geology4    ,j4 ,p4 ,wright1       
,printer1 #ah ,new street1 ,n4 ,y4      
,wiley  ,putnam's ,new ,publications4   
,,library ,,for ,,the ,,young4          
,,tales ,,of ,,the ,,kings ,,of         
,,england4          ,stories of ,camps  
and ,battle-fields1 ,wars and           
,victories2          from the ,old      

,historians4 ,by ,,stephen ,,percy4     
,with numerous engravings on wood1 by   
,butler4        ,,stories ,,illustrative
 ,,of ,,the ,,instinct ,,of ,,animals3  
their ,character and ,habits4 ,by       
,,thos4 ,,bingley4          ,with       
engravings4        ,,tales ,,about      
,,travellers3                  their    
,perils1 ,adventures1 and ,discoveries4 
,by ,,thos4 ,,bingley4 ,with engravings4
        ,,william ,,tell1 ,,the ,,hero  
,,of ,,switzerland3          from the   
,french of ,m4 ,florian4 ,with a ,memoir
 of the          ,author4 ,to which is  
added1      ,,hofer1 ,,the ,,tyrolese3  
by the ,author of ,claudine1 c4         
,handsomely bound in #a volume4 ,with   
engravings4        ,,the ,,young        
,,naturalist',s ,,rambles ,,through     
,,many ,,lands2          containing an  
,account of the principal ,animals and  
,birds          of both the ,old and    
,new ,continents1 with ,anecdotes4      
,with engravings4                    99 
99       99       99       99           

,,hints ,,to ,,mothers1 for the         
,management of their ,health4           
,by ,,thos4 ,,bull1 ,m4 ,d4 ,from the   
third ,london          ,edition4 ,with  
additions4 #a vol4 #abmo4        ,,the  
,,zincali2 or1 an ,account of the       
,gipsies of ,spain4          ,with an   
original collection of their ,songs and 
,poetry4          ,by ,,geo4 ,d4        
,,borrow1 late ,agent of the ,british   
and ,foreign ,bible ,society in ,spain4 
#a vol4 #abmo4        ,,history ,,of    
,,the ,,christian ,,church1             
from the ,ascension of ,jesus ,christ   
to the ,conversion of ,constantine4     
,by the ,rev4 ,,edwd4 ,,burton4         
,with a ,memoir of the ,author1 c4 c4 #a
 vol4 #abmo4        ,,the ,,life ,,and  
,,times ,,of ,,red-,,jacket1 or         
,sa-go-ye-wat-ha2          being the    
sequel to the ,history of the ,six      
,nations4          ,by ,w4 ,l4 ,,stone1 
,esq41          ,author of the ,life of 
,brandt1 c4 #a vol4 #hvo4          with 
portrait1 c4        ,,catlin',s         

,,manners ,,and ,,customs ,,of ,,the    
,,north ,,american ,,indians2           
with upwards of #djj spirited etchings4 
#b vols4 royal #hvo4        ,a          
,,hand-,,book ,,of ,,needle-,,work4     
,by ,miss ,,lambert4                    
,embellished with numerous engravings by
 ,j4 ,j4 ,butler4          #a vol4 #hvo4
 uniform with 8,lockhart's ,spanish     
,ballads40          7,in press74        
,,the ,,botanical ,,text-,,book4        
,a new ,introduction to ,botany1        
designed as a ,text-,book for           
,lectures on the subject1 and for the   
use of ,colleges and          ,schools  
generally4 ,by ,dr4 ,a4 ,,gray4 #a vol4 
#abmo4          with numerous           
engravings4        ,,cottage            
,,residences4          ,designs for     
,cottage ,residences adapted to ,north  
,america1          including ,elevations
 and ,plans of the ,buildings1 and      
,designs          for laying out        
,grounds1 c4          ,by ,a4 ,j4       
,,downing1 ,esq4 #a vol4 #hvo4 numerous 

cuts4        ,,the ,,theory ,,of        
,,horticulture2 or1          an ,attempt
 to explain the ,principal ,operations  
of ,gardening          upon             
,physiological ,principles4          ,by
 ,,john ,,lindley4 ,first ,american     
,edition1 with ,notes1          c4 by   
,dr4 ,a4 ,,gray and ,a4 ,j4 ,,downing1  
,esq4          ,with numerous           
illustrations on wood4 #a vol4 #abmo4   
,a ,,treatise ,,on ,,the ,,theory ,,and 
,,practice ,,of ,,landscape ,,gardening3
          adapted to ,north ,america1   
with a view to the improvement of       
,country ,residences4          ,by ,a4  
,j4 ,,downing4 #a vol4 #hvo4            
,,blacklock',s ,,treatise ,,on ,,sheep2 
with the ,best ,means for their         
,improvement1 ,general ,management1     
and the ,treatment of their ,diseases4  
,with a ,chapter on ,wool1          and 
,history of the ,wool ,trade4 #a vol4   
#abmo4 with plates4        ,,boswell',s 
,,poultry-,,yard4          ,a ,practical
 ,view of the ,best ,method of          

,selecting1 ,rearing1          and      
,breeding the various species of        
,domestic ,fowl4          #a vol4 royal 
#ahmo4        ,,bees1 ,,pigeons1        
,,rabbits1 ,,and ,,the ,,canary ,,bird1 
familiarly described2 their ,habits1    
,propensities1 and                      
,dispositions fully explained2 ,mode of 
,treatment in ,health          and      
,disease plainly laid down2 and the     
whole adapted as a          ,text-,book 
for the young ,student4 ,by ,,peter     
,,boswell4          #a vol4 #afmo4