,,survey ,,department1 ,,public ,,works 
,,ministry                              
,,egypt4                                
99 99 99 99 99                          
,,baharia ,,oasis3                      
,,its ,,topography ,,and ,,geology      
,,by             ,,john ,,ball1 ,,ph4   
,d41 ,a4,r4,s4,m41 ,,assoc4 ,m4 ,,inst4 
,c4,e4                                  
,,and                   ,,hugh ,j4 ,l4  
,,beadnell1 ,f4,g4,s41 ,f4,r4,g4,s4     
,decoration                             
,,cairo                       ,,national
 ,,printing ,,department                
#aijc                                   
,,contents4                             
99 99 99 99 99                          
,pages4      ,,preface                  
#e      ,,chapter   ,i4 --              
,,introduction                          
#g              ,,ii4 -- ,,surveying    
,,methods ,,and ,,general ,,results     
#aa             ,,iii4 -- ,,the ,,roads 
,,connecting ,,the ,,oasis ,,of         
,,baharia ,,with                   ,,the

 ,,nile ,,valley ,,and ,,with ,,other   
,,oases               #ag               
,,iv4 -- ,,topography1 ,,with ,,notes   
,,on ,,the ,,water-,,supply1            
,,inhabitants1 ,,etc4                   
#cg               ,v4 -- ,,geology      
#dg              ,,vi4 -- ,,antiquities 
#gc                                     
,,plates4      ,,plate     ,i4 -- ,map  
of the ,oasis geologically coloured     
at end              ,,ii4 -- ,sketch    
,map showing ,position of the ,oasis    
,,iii4 -- ,villages and ,principal      
,sources of ,water                      
,,iv4 -- ,section through ,western      
,escarpment1 #aa                        
kilometres north of south end of        
,depression                        ,v4  
-- ,diagrammatic ,section from hill #ae 
kilometres                   north-east 
of ,ain el ,haiss to the                
,eocene-,cretaceous junction on desert  
to west                      ,,vi4 --   
,section from ,mandisha through ,jebel  
,mayesra                   and ,conical 

,hill to ,western ,plateau              
,,vii4 -- ,map of the ,synclinal fold   
from ,jebel ,hefhuf to                  
its termination in the ,western         
,plateau1 #ac                           
kilometres north-west of ,ain el ,haiss 
,,viii4 -- ,sketch sections of ,eastern 
,scarp                                  
,,illustrations ,,in ,,the ,,text4      
,,fig4 #a4      -- ,section across      
,syncline1 #ab kilometres               
north-west of ,ain el ,haiss            
#ff          #b4      -- ,sketch shewing
 probable relations of ,eocene          
and ,cretaceous in ,anticline on        
,western ,desert                        
,plateau1 #aa kilometres north-west of  
,el ,qasr      #fi                      
99 99 99 99 99                          
,,preface                               
99 99 99 99 99    ,the geological       
examination of the ,oases of the ,libyan
 ,desert was  commenced in #ahig1 when  
two parties were sent out to ,baharia   
,oasis1 one  under the charge of ,dr4   

,ball1 who1 with ,mr4 ,g4 ,vuta as      
topographer1  started from ,minia and   
explored the eastern half of the area1  
while ,mr4  ,beadnell with ,mr4 ,l4     
,gorringe as his topographer started    
from ,maghagha  and examined the western
 side of the oasis4 ,the expeditions    
commenced  work in ,october1 and mapping
 on the scale of  the whole area  was   
surveyed before the end of the year4    
,the return traverses were  made to     
,minia by the first party via ,farafra  
to ,assiut by the second4  ,the         
following chapters and maps set forth   
the results of this joint  exploration1 
certain gaps being filled from the data 
of ,ascherson4                          
99 99 99 99 99                          
,,baharia ,,oasis                       
99 99 99 99 99                          
,,chapter ,i4                           
99 99 99 99 99                          
,,introduction4      ,the ,oasis of     
,baharia 7or ,northern ,oasis71 also    
known as the ,little  ,oasis1 lies      

between the parallels #bg #dh and #bh   
#cj of north  latitude1 and between the 
meridians #bh #ce and #bi #aj east  of  
,greenwich1 being thus situated in the  
,libyan ,desert about #ahj  kilometres1 
or four to five days' march by camel1   
west of the ,nile  ,valley 7,sketchmap1 
,plate ,,ii74 ,like the other oases of  
the ,western  ,desert 7,farafra1 ,dakhla
 and ,kharga7 to the south1 ,baharia is 
a large  natural excavation in the great
 ,libyan plateau2 it differs1 however1  
from those oases1 which are open on one 
or more sides1 in being  entirely       
surrounded by escarpments1 and the vast 
number of isolated  hills within the    
depression form an unique topographical 
feature4 ,in  ,baharia1 as1 with the    
exception of ,dakhla1 in the oases      
generally1  the cultivated area bears   
only a very small proportion to the     
total  oasis-area1 the remainder of the 
floor of the natural excavation  being  
barren desert4 ,the oasis contains four 
principal villages1  all situated in its

 northern portion1 and it is in the     
neighbourhood  of these that water1 and 
consequently vegetation1 is most        
abundant4    ,the early history of      
,baharia is shrouded in an obscurity    
greater even  than that surrounding the 
history of ,kharga4 ,that it was        
inhabited  at a very early date is shown
 however by a stela of the reign  of    
,thothmes ,,ii 7about ,b4,c4 #afjj-aejj7
 found there by ,ascherson1  by a tomb  
of the #aith dynasty 7,b4,c4 #acjj7 and 
fragments of two  temples1 one dating   
from the reign of ,king ,apries 7,b4,c4 
#ehh-egj7  and the other from the reign 
of ,amasis 7,b4,c4 #efi-ebf71 discovered
  by ,steindorff in #aijj1 and by the   
references to it in the ,ptolemaic      
inscriptions of the temple of ,edfu4    
,the oasis of ,baharia is referred  to  
in the hieroglyphic inscriptions of its 
newly-discovered temples as  8the       
northern oasis of ,amenhotep10 and as   
8the oasis ,huye02  by ,strabo it is    
called  8the second0 and by  ,ptolemy   

8the small oasis40 ,the ,romans  have   
left traces of their occupation of      
,baharia in an arch near the  village of
 ,el ,qasr#a and other ruins1 as well as
 in numerous wells  and underground     
aqueducts1 which latter are still used  
by the present  inhabitants4            
,fragmentary ruins of churches and a    
,coptic village attest  the fact of the 
occupation of the place during          
,christian times4 ,at  present ,baharia1
 along with the neighbouring oasis of   
,farafra to  the south1 is administered 
as part of the ,mudiria of ,minia1 and  
is  fairly prosperous1 though lacking in
 enterprise to an even greater  extent  
than is shown by the two southern oases 
of ,dakhla and ,kharga4    ,the first   
,european traveller to reach the oasis  
of ,baharia appears  to have been       
,belzoni1#b who reached it from ,beni   
,suef on ,may #bfth1  #ahai1 and after  
spending some eleven days there returned
 by the same  route4 ,though his        
observations appear to have been        

correctly made1  the description of his 
travels is largely coloured by          
imagination1  and his map appears only  
to have been a rough sketch4 ,he        
erroneously  confused ,baharia with the 
oasis of ,jupiter ,ammon1 whose temple  
he  imagined he had found in the remains
 of the ,roman arch near ,el ,qasr1  the
 chief village of the oasis4 ,it is     
hardly necessary to remark  that the    
oasis of ,jupiter ,ammon is really that 
now known as ,siwa1  situated some #cdj 
kilometres west-north-west of ,baharia4 
,the earliest connected modern account  
of the oasis of any value  is that of   
,cailliaud1#c who with ,letorzec visited
 the place in  #ahbj on his way from    
,siwa to ,farafra1 and during a stay of 
about  six weeks examined and mapped    
some of its principal features4 ,he     
drew attention to its antiquities and   
gave a careful description of  the hot  
springs and ancient aqueducts1 besides  
taking a number of  observations of     
latitude and noting some of the         

topographical and  geological features1 
such as the occurrence of volcanic rocks
 in  the oasis4 ,cailliaud records his  
meeting in ,baharia with ,hyde1 an      
,english traveller1 who1 however1 does  
not appear to have published  any       
account of his wanderings4    ,in the   
winter of #ahbc-ahbd ,baharia was       
visited by ,pacho in company  with ,f4  
,muller4 ,in an account of ,pacho's     
travels#d published  after his unhappy  
death1 there is no reference to his     
observations  in this oasis beyond an   
indication of his route on the map4     
,wilkinson#e visited the oasis of       
,baharia in #ahbe4    ,the ,rohlfs'     
expedition of #ahgd1f with the          
distinguished scientists  ,k4 von       
,zittel and ,w4 ,jordan as geologist and
 topographer respectively1  added very  
considerably to our knowledge of        
,baharia1 more especially  in the way of
 fixing precisely the geographical      
positions and levels  of its principal  
points4 ,zittel1 however1 did not visit 

this oasis1  and in consequence its     
geological structure was not studied1   
the few  references to it made in the   
publications of the ,rohlfs' expedition 
being based on an examination of        
specimens collected by ,ascherson4      
,probably the most accurate map hitherto
 existing of ,baharia ,oasis  is that of
 ,ascherson1#g who spent nearly three   
months there in  #ahgf4 ,ascherson1 who 
entered the oasis by the road from the  
,fayum  and returned to ,samalut1       
chiefly directed his attention to       
botanical  observations1 but his memoir 
contains some valuable topographical    
and geological information which        
supplements that of previous and  later 
observers in important measure2 he has  
also the distinction  of finding the    
stela of the reign of ,thothmes ,,iii   
already referred  to1 and the remains of
 an ,egyptian temple2 the latter is     
probably  identical with one of those   
discovered by ,steindorff in #aijj4     
,the short memoir by ,capt4 ,h4 ,g4     

,lyons1 ,r4,e41#h published in #ahid1   
brought together a number of            
observations on the geology of the      
,libyan  ,desert generally1 and his     
discovery of fossils1 referred to       
,exogyra  ,overwegi1 for the first time 
established the ,upper ,cretaceous age  
of the clays and sandstones forming the 
floor and lower part of the  scarp in   
the northern end of the depression4     
,in #ahig the ,geological ,survey       
carried out its examination1 the        
results of which are set forth in the   
following chapters4    ,since the survey
 expedition1 ,baharia has been visited  
by  ,steindorff1#i who during his five  
days' stay in the oasis made  important 
additions to our knowledge of its       
antiquities4 ,these will  be further    
referred to in the chapter on the       
topography of the oasis4                
99 99 99 99 99      ,footnote #a3 ,this 
ruin was described by ,,cailliaud       
7,voyage   ,mro4 etc41 vol4 ,i1 p4 #ahc7
 who records that in his time 7#ahbj7   

only the central arcade remained        
standing4 ,steindorff found in #aijj    
that even this last fragment had fallen4
    ,footnote #b3 ,narrative of the     
,operations and ,recent ,discoveries    
within the ,pyramids1 ,tombs1 and       
,excavations in ,egypt and ,nubia1 and  
of a ,journey to the ,coast of the ,red 
,sea1 in search of the ,ancient         
,berenice1 and another to the oasis of  
,jupiter ,ammon4--,london1  #ahbj1 pp4  
#cie-dcc4    ,footnote #c3 ,voyage      
,mro1 au ,fleuve ,blanc1 an-del de      
,fzogl  dans le midi du ,royaume de     
,sennr1  ,syouah et dans cinq autres    
,oasis4 ,paris1 #ahbf4 ,the work        
consists of four volumes1 accompanied   
by numerous maps and plates illustrating
 the antiquities4    ,footnote #d3      
,relation d'un voyage dans la           
,marmarique1 la  ,cyrnaique et les      
,oasis d',audjelah et de ,maradh4       
,paris1  #ahbg4 7,this date is probably 
wrong1 as a reference is made in the    
work1 7p4 ,,vii7 to the suicide of      

,pacho on ,jan4 #bfth1 #ahbi74          
,footnote #e3 ,modern ,egypt and        
,thebes4 ,london1 #ahdc1 vol4 ,,ii1  p4 
#ceg-cga4    ,footnote #f3 ,see ,g4     
,,rohlfs1 ,drei ,monate in der libyschen
 ,wste1  ,cassel1 #ahge2 ,,jordan1      
,physische ,geographie und ,meteorologie
 der  libyschen ,wste1 ,cassel1 #ahgf2  
and ,,zittel1 ,geologie der libyschen   
,wste4 ,cassel1 #ahhc4 ,jordan appears  
to have been the only member  of the    
,rohlfs' party to actually visit        
,baharia4 ,he left the other  members at
 ,lake ,sittra 7,n4 lat4 #bh #db #dj1   
long4 #bg #d  #bc1 ,e4 of ,green47 and  
entered ,baharia from the ,n4,w4 of ,el 
,qasr2  after passing about #a days in  
,baharia ,oasis he journeyed southwards 
via ,farafra to rejoin his colleagues in
 ,dakhla4    ,footnote #g3 ,zeitschrift 
der ,gesellschaft fr ,erdkunde zu       
,berlin1  ,band #bj1 ,heft ,,ii1 #ahhe4 
,also ,dr4 ,schweinfurth's summary of   
,ascherson's results in 8,petermann's   
,mittheilungen10 #bb4 ,band1  #ahgf1 p4 

#bfd4    ,footnote #h3 ,on the          
,stratigraphy and ,physiography of the  
,libyan  ,desert of ,egypt4 ,q4 ,j4 ,g4 
,s4 ,nov1 #ahid1 pp4 #eca-edg4          
,footnote #i3 ,vorlafiger ,bericht ber  
seine im ,winter  #ahii-aijj nach der   
,oase ,siwa und nach ,nubien            
unternommenen  ,reisen4--,knigl4 ,schs4 
,gesellschaft der ,wissenschaften zu    
,leipzig1 #aijj1 p4 #bbf4 ,steindorff   
entered the ,oasis from ,siwa1 and      
returned from it via the ,fayum4 ,he    
appears only to have visited the        
northern part of ,baharia4              
,,chapter ,,ii4                         
99 99 99 99 99                          
,,surveying ,,methods ,,and ,,general   
,,results4      ,crossing the ,libyan   
,desert from ,maghagha and ,minia       
respectively1  the two parties of the   
,geological ,survey met at a joint camp 
close  to ,zubbo1 one of the chief      
villages of the oasis4 ,it was desirable
  to fix this meeting-point as a primary
 station for the subsequent  plotting of

 the maps4 ,cailliaud#aj gave the       
latitude of ,zubbo as  #bh #ba #dg1 and 
its longitude as #bf #dc #df ,e4 of     
,paris1  7equivalent to #bi #c #ee ,e4  
of ,greenwich74 ,jordan gave for        
,bawitti the position ,n4 lat4 #bh #ba  
#ab1 long4 ,e4 of ,greenwich  #bh #ef   
#de4 ,taking the difference of latitude 
and longitude  between ,bawitti and     
,zubbo as found by the ,survey1 viz41   
lat4   #ee1 long4  #d #af1 we have as   
the equivalent of ,jordan's  latitude   
for ,zubbo #bh #bb #g1 and for his      
longitude #bi #a  #a ,e4 of ,greenwich4 
,thus1 while there is a fair agreement  
between  the two authors as regards     
latitude1 there is a difference of #b   
#ed in the values of the longitude4     
,the longitude is of course always the  
difficult matter in the  geographical   
determination of places not easy of     
access4 ,cailliaud's  value rests on the
 method of distance and azimuths1 both  
roughly  determined only2 ,jordan1 on   
the other hand1 used the absolute       

though not very precise method of lunar 
distances measured with a  sextant4 ,the
 ,survey parties depended entirely on   
direct measurement  by means of         
measuring-wheels from known points in   
the ,nile ,valley2  the values obtained 
in this way are tabulated below#aa4     
,i4--,traverse from ,maghagha to ,zubbo4
      ,maghagha ,railway ,station1 long4
 ,e4 of ,greenwich          #cj  #ej    
#di      ,recorded west departure1      
,maghagha to ,zubbo1 #ahggg km4    #a   
#ef   #df                               
-------------                           
,giving long4 of ,zubbo   #bh   #ed     
#c      ,,ii4--,traverse from ,minia to 
,zubbo4      ,minia ,railway ,station1  
long4 ,e4 of ,greenwich             #cj 
#de  #ci      ,recorded west departure1 
,minia to ,zubbo1 #agfcb km4       #a   
#dg   #ej                               
-------------                           
,giving long4 of ,zubbo      #bh   #eg  
#di      ,,iii4--,traverse from ,zubbo  
to ,minia1 via the south end of the     

,oasis4      ,recorded east departure1  
,zubbo-,minia1 #agdhg km4          #a   
#df  #de      ,minia ,railway ,station1 
long4 ,e4 of ,greenwich             #cj 
#de   #ci                               
-------------                           
,giving long4 of ,zubbo         #bh     
#eh   #ed    ,the arithmetic mean of    
these three determinations is #bh #ef   
#ee2 owing1 however1 to the breakdown of
 the measuring-wheel  during the outward
 traverse from ,maghagha1 and the       
consequent  necessity of estimating a   
part of the distance traversed by the   
time taken in marching1 the different   
traverses are not equal in  value1 and  
the longitude finally adopted by the    
survey1 as the  best approximation after
 investigation of the various sources of
  error in the measurements1 was #bh #eh
 #cd4 ,it would thus  appear that       
,jordan's position may be a little too  
far east1  the difference amounting to  
#b #bg1 or about #c kilometres1  while  
,cailliaud's value would place the      

position at a rather less  distance west
 of that adopted4    ,the survey        
observations confirmed the accuracy of  
,jordan's latitude  7#bh #bb #g71 from  
which the value found by ,cailliaud     
differs1  as already remarked1 only     
slightly4    ,the surveying operations  
within the oasis were based on a rapid  
plane-table triangulation from a        
measured base line within  it1 details  
being simultaneously sketched in1 on a  
scale of  4 ,the site chosen for the    
base was a level stretch  of ground     
extending between the camp at ,zubbo and
 an isolated clump  of date-palms to the
 north-east2 the length of this line was
 found  by repeated wheel-measurement to
 be #chh kilometres4 ,the two parties   
ran off their triangulations from this  
base to the surrounding hills1  and     
carried on the mapping southward by     
plane-table1 taking stations  chiefly on
 the hills and prominent points of the  
scarps1 and not  meeting again till ,ain
 el ,haiss1 in the southern part of the 

oasis1  was reached4 ,here a test was   
made as to agreement of the two sets  of
 maps1 only a small difference being    
found4 ,the position of ,ain  el ,haiss1
 as found by taking the mean of the two 
determinations1  is latitude #bh #b #aa 
,n41 longitude #bh #ci #ai ,e4 of       
,greenwich2 this places the spring about
 #d #ah east of ,jordan's  determination
 7lat4 #bh #a #ee ,n41 long4 #bh #ac #dg
  ,e4 of ,green474    ,the two parties  
made a third connection at the extreme  
south end  of the oasis-depression4 ,our
 observations for this point give its   
latitude as #bg #dh #ac ,n41 and its    
longitude as #bh #cb  #ai ,e4 of        
,greenwich1 placing it very near the    
position shown on  ,jordan's map4       
,the plane-table method making use of   
the magnetic meridian1  it was          
imperative to determine the amount of   
declination of the  compass4 ,this was  
done at one point only1 viz41 at the    
south end  of the oasis1 the value found
 7by observation of the transit of      

,polaris7 being #d #ej ,w4 ,the         
declination is fairly constant  over the
 entire area1 except near the eruptive  
dolerite masses1  the magnetite in which
 causes a very sensible deflection of   
the  needle2 in the neighbourhood of    
these1 however1 the surveying was       
carried on independently of the compass4
 ,with regard to the yearly  change of  
declination1 we have as data the        
previous observations  of ,cailliaud1   
who found the declination at ,zubbo in  
,january1 #ahbj1  to be #ab #ac ,w42 of 
,jordan1 who obtained the value #f #ef  
,w4 in ,march1 #ahgd2 and of ,capt4     
,lyons1#ab whose observations with  a   
,bamberg declinatorium at ,mandisha in  
,april1 #ahid1 gave the value  #e #hi   
,w4 ,tabulating these3--                
,observer4          ,date4              
,observed         ,yearly change4       
,declination ,w4      ,cailliaud        
,january #ahbj      #ab  #ac            
,jordan              ,march #ahgd       
#f  #ccf            #fc      ,lyons     

,april #ahid         #e   #hi           
#db      ,geological ,survey   ,december
 #ahig      #d  #ej              #ec    
,in view of the magnitude of the diurnal
 variation1 which may range up  to #aj  
of arc1 and our present lack of         
knowledge of the distribution  of this  
diurnal variation during the twenty-four
 hours1 a comparison  after so short an 
interval as that between the last two   
observations  is not to be trusted4 ,it 
would seem proved from the three        
foregoing  observations that the yearly 
variation is at present decreasing1  the
 mean from #ahbj to #ahgd being #fc as  
against #db for the  period #ahgd-ahid4 
,this decrease is also noticeable in    
comparisons of  the declinations        
observed at different times in other    
parts of ,egypt4    ,the altitudes above
 sea-level of the principal points1 more
  especially in the eastern half of the 
oasis1 were determined with  a ,watkin  
aneroid barometer1 which had been       
compared with the ,cairo  standard      

mercurial barometer4 ,a fairly long stay
 was made at the  ,zubbo camp1 and the  
altitude of this point may be regarded  
as fairly  accurately fixed by the      
observations tabulated below3--         
----------------------------------------
-------------------------               
,zubbo4        ,cairo4           ,date  
and ,time4          ,bar4          ,bar4
        ,difference4                    
7corrected74  7corrected74              
----------------------------------------
-------------------------               
mm4            mm4            mm4       
,october #ab1 #f p4m4       #geced      
#gfaaj          #gef                    
#ad1 #h a4m4       #gedid         #gfcjd
          #haj                          
#f p4m4       #gecgi         #gfaec     
#ggd                                    
#ae1 #g4cj a4m4    #gedee         #gfbfj
          #hje                          
#i p4m4       #gedcj         #gfbfd     
#hcd                                    
#ag1 #g4ae a4m4    #gedah         #gfahd

          #gff                          
#ah1 #g a4m4       #gecgi         #gfafd
          #ghe                          
noon      #gebeb         #gfacd         
#hhb                                    
#ai1 #h4cj a4m4    #gebfe         #gfbca
          #iff                          
,nov41   #bf1 #c p4m4       #gedha      
#gfcbi          #hdh                    
#bg1 #h a4m4       #gedha         #gfdab
          #ica                          
----------------------------------------
-------------------------               
,mean        #hcb                       
----------------------------------------
----------------------------    ,since  
#a mm4 of mercury corresponds at the    
mean temperature of  observation 7#bj   
,c47 to #aad metres of height1 we have  
height  of ,zubbo camp above ,cairo     
observatory  #hcb  #aad  #idg1 or  say  
#ie metres4 ,since the observatory is   
#cc metres above sea-level1  the camp at
 ,zubbo is #abh metres above sea-level4 
,jordan's altitude  for ,bawitti1 which 

probably lies at about the same level as
 ,zubbo1  is #aac metres1 and when it is
 remembered that the point of the       
,survey's observation lay not in ,zubbo 
itself1 but at the camp on  elevated    
ground some #aj or #ab metres above it1 
the results show a  very good agreement4
    ,at ,ain el ,haiss three barometric 
observations were taken on different    
days2 the comparison of these with the  
,cairo records would place this  point  
#aef metres above sea-level4 ,jordan's  
value is #abb metres1  the number of    
observations on which this figure is    
based not being  stated1 it is difficult
 to say which of the two altitudes is   
the  more probable4    ,at the remaining
 camps within the oasis1 and at the     
camps en route  between the oasis and   
,minia1 corresponding observations were 
taken1  the number of comparisons with  
,cairo varying from two to seven at an  
individual station4 ,these observations 
being reduced and corrected by          
comparison among themselves gave the    

levels of the different camps  with some
 degree of approximation to accuracy1   
and the altitudes of  intermediate      
points were found by interpolation based
 on barometric  readings4 ,the resulting
 altitudes will be found on the map     
7,plate ,i72  where no altitudes have   
been taken by the ,survey1 the values   
given  by ,ascherson on his map have    
been inserted4    ,the statistics       
relating to the oasis1 and the methods  
of cleaning  out wells1 are based on    
information supplied by the ,government 
officials at ,bawitti1 and may be taken 
as fairly reliable4 ,the  particulars   
regarding water-supply are of course    
based mainly on  direct observation     
during the survey of the villages4      
,the botany of the oasis having been    
fully studied by ,ascherson#ac  no      
attempt was made by the ,survey to      
collect or describe the plants  met     
with4 ,the abundant growths of the      
beautiful maiden-hair fern  7,adiantum  
,capillus ,veneris7#ad will not1        

however1 fail to strike  even the casual
 visitor to the old ,roman aqueducts1   
which still  serve as the principal     
water-channels of the oasis4 ,nor were  
the  animals of the oasis made the      
subject of any detailed observations1   
although the existence of several of the
 species of lizards and snakes  common  
to the ,nile ,valley was recorded1 and  
specimens collected when  easily        
obtainable4    ,baharia is not rich in  
archological remains1 and1 with few     
exceptions1 even those existing were not
 examined by the ,survey1  though the   
positions of all ruins met with during  
the work were  mapped4 ,in a later      
chapter will be found a connected though
 brief  account of all the antiquities  
noted1 the publications of previous     
authors being referred to wherever the  
descriptions cannot be given  from      
personal observations4    ,the principal
 point attended to in the topographical 
mapping by  the survey was the accurate 
delineation of the bounding scarps  of  

the oasis and of the large number of    
hills within it4 ,these  features1 of   
which an accurate map was essential for 
any proper  consideration of the        
geology1 had been only rapidly sketched 
by  previous travellers1 and the precise
 shape of the oasis was still  unknown4 
,in the cultivated spots1 on the other  
hand1 much had  been done by ,cailliaud1
 ,jordan and ,ascherson towards mapping 
the  detail4 ,hence1 beyond             
re-determining the precise positions of 
the main  points and the general limits 
of the cultivated areas1 no attempt  at 
detailed mapping in these areas was     
undertaken by the ,survey  parties1 it  
being felt that it would be preferable  
in the limited  time available to       
concentrate attention on the almost     
totally unknown  features1 so essential 
to any geological consideration1 rather 
than  to devote considerable time to the
 details of the inhabited spots4        
,thus1 while the field maps resulting   
from the survey represented  the oasis  

for the first time in its true shape1   
and the hills  within it in their true  
relative magnitudes and positions1 they 
fell somewhat short of the maps of      
,ascherson and ,cailliaud in the  number
 of springs1 ruins1 etc41 shown4 ,the   
more important ruins  overlooked by the 
survey have1 however1 been inserted     
approximately  from existing maps1 and  
the whole result 7,plates ,i1 ,,iii and 
,,vii71  is an advance on the existing  
representations4    ,the geology of the 
oasis was very carefully investigated1  
this being  a field in which            
comparatively little had been done1 and 
a number of  very interesting results   
were obtained4 ,the principal points in 
this  connection worthy of note         
resulting from the detailed examination 
of the scarps and hills are--    7i7    
,the existence of a marked unconformity 
between the ,upper  ,cretaceous and     
,eocene strata1 thus confirming the     
unconformity between  these two great   
systems which had been noted#ae earlier 

at ,abu ,roash2  this unconformity has  
now been remarked in many parts of      
,egypt4#af  ,the palontological proofs  
of this unconformity were obtained from 
the western scarp1 the beds of the      
eastern side1 though they show  the same
 thickening1 being much poorer in       
fossils2    7ii7 ,the occurrence of an  
extensive series of ,upper ,cretaceous  
beds  of ,cenomanian to ,danian age     
within the depression and forming a     
large part of the desert to the west2   
7iii7 ,the precise extent and relations 
of the dolerite capping some  of the    
sandstone hills in the north of the     
depression2    7iv7 ,the existence of   
well-marked folding having an important 
bearing  on the origin of the oasis2    
7v7 ,the presence of ferruginous        
sandstone deposits of later origin  than
 the primary formation of the           
oasis-hollow1 though long anterior  to  
the date when the work of excavation1   
which gave the oasis its  present form1 
took place4    ,these points will be    

found discussed at some length in the   
chapter  on the geology of the oasis4   
99 99 99 99 99      ,footnote #aj3 ,op4 
cit41 vol4 ,,iv4    ,footnote #aa3 ,the 
positions of the two points of          
connection in the  valley were          
determined by ,capt4 ,lyons in #ahif4   
,the return traverse via ,farafra to    
,assiut is left out of  consideration   
owing to its great length and consequent
 low value  in the determination of the 
longitude of ,zubbo4 ,it agrees however1
  very closely with the others1 owing to
 compensation of errors4    ,footnote   
#ab3 ,,lyons1 ,proceedings of the ,royal
 ,society1 vol4 #ga4    ,footnote #ac3  
,op4 cit4    ,footnote #ad3 ,the        
occurrence of this fern in the ravines  
of the  ,fayum may also be recorded     
here4    ,footnote #ae3 ,,beadnell1 ,h4 
,j4 ,l41 ,geological ,magazine4 ,jan41  
#aijj1  ,no4 #dbg1 pp4 #df-dh2 ,the     
,cretaceous ,region of ,abu ,roash1 near
 the  ,pyramids of ,giza4 ,geol4 ,surv4 
,egypt1 ,report #aijj1 ,part ,,ii1      

#aijb4    ,footnote #af3 ,see ,reports  
of the ,geological ,survey on ,farafra1 
,kharga and the ,eastern ,desert4       
,,chapter ,,iii4                        
99 99 99 99 99      ,,the ,,roads       
,,connecting ,,the ,,oasis ,,of         
,,baharia ,,with ,,the ,,nile ,,valley  
,,and                                   
,,other ,,oases4      ,the roads        
traversed by the ,survey parties between
 ,baharia and other  places are three in
 number1 viz41 from near ,maghagha and  
from ,minia in  the ,nile ,valley1 and  
from ,baharia to ,farafra ,oasis4 ,other
 well-known  routes run from the ,fayum1
 from ,bahnessa1 ,samalut 7,ascherson7  
and  ,delga1 in the ,nile ,valley1 from 
,alexandria1 via ,mogara1 and from ,siwa
  7,jordan1 ,cailliaud74 ,the ,survey's 
return traverse to ,minia from  the     
south end of ,baharia did not follow any
 defined road1 but kept  on the open    
plateau on a course computed from the   
known positions  of the points of       
departure and destination4#ag           

,sidenote3 ,road from ,feshn and        
,maghagha to ,baharia4    ,the road from
 ,feshn and ,maghagha to ,baharia leaves
 the edge of the  ,nile ,valley         
cultivation at ,qasr el ,lamlum ,bey1   
which bears #ea  west of true north from
 ,maghagha railway station1 and is      
distant  #aed kilometres4 ,from this    
point the road is well-defined and      
easily followed right into the oasis4   
,in the following description  the      
distances are given from the edge of the
 ,nile ,valley cultivation4    ,the road
 at first leads over a strip of drift   
sand1 half a kilometre  broad1 with     
short prickly scrub1 passing a white    
mosque on the  left and then turning off
 somewhat to a direction #bf south of   
west1 and continuing in a straight line 
for #ae kilometres over an  undulating  
gravelly plain4 ,the high prominent     
cliffs1 about #g or  #h kilometres to   
the north-west1 are the flanks of ,jebel
 ,muailla1  and a valley known as ,wadi 
,muailla leads through them to the ,wadi

  ,rayan in the ,fayum depression4#ah   
,at #ai kilometres the valley scarp1    
with a number of isolated peaks1 is     
approached on the right1 while  ridges  
and low mounds form the plain below1    
well-marked lines of  drainage running  
from here in a south-east direction     
towards the  cultivation4 ,at #bc       
kilometres the scarp runs back1         
enclosing a large  bay1 across which the
 road runs and ascends to the plateau   
beyond at  #bgh kilometres4 ,numerous   
isolated parallel sand-dunes in the form
  of small ridges are seen running out  
into the bay from the cliff  at the far 
end1 all lying slightly west of north   
and east of south1  or parallel to the  
normal wind direction4    ,the          
escarpment bounding the ,nile ,valley at
 this point is only some  #ae metres in 
height1 being thus quite insignificant  
compared with  the cliffs on the east   
side4 ,the plateau here was found to be 
about  #adj metres above the            
cultivation1 the road having risen      

gradually  throughout4 ,the latter      
continues for about #a kilometres across
  the strip of plateau when it again    
descends1 making a slight detour  to the
 left for easy descent4 ,it then        
continues #i south of west1  slightly   
winding1 over gravelly undulating       
ground4 ,at #ca-cb kilometres  a line of
 low hills is passed on the right1 while
 a dark well-marked  range lies #f-g    
kilometres to the left4    ,a ridge of  
sandstone1 known as ,jebel el ,ghudda1  
is passed on the  right at #de          
kilometres1 from the end of which a     
small dune runs out2  beyond1 the plain 
resumes its monotonous undulating       
character1 a low  ridge being crossed at
 #fa kilometres4 ,there1 the road1      
consisting  of a number of more or less 
parallel well-marked narrow paths worn  
by camels1 which have a somewhat general
 habit of marching in line  one behind  
the other1 changes its direction to #cf 
south of west1  falling gradually in    
level until a patch of scrub is reached 

#f  kilometres further on4 ,this scrub  
was dead at the time of the  visit1 and 
furnished a useful supply of fuel4 ,from
 this point the  course is #g south of  
west 7true71 which direction is         
maintained  for the next #db kilometres 
over a remarkably monotonous undulating 
gravel-covered desert1 the typical      
8serir0 of the ,arabs4 ,at #ib  and #ic 
kilometres some more patches of dead    
scrub were passed on  the right1 while  
logs of silicified wood were noticed    
strewing the  plain on the left4 ,an    
,arab grave was met with at #if         
kilometres1 while  skeletons of camels  
lie about near the roadside at frequent 
intervals2  at #aaj kilometres the eye  
of the traveller is relieved by a small 
grove of green thorny flat-topped acacia
 trees 7,acacia nilotica1  or 8sunt0 of 
the ,arabs7 with a patch of coarse      
grass2 four gazelle  7probably ,gazella 
dorcas7 were observed browsing on the   
scrub here4    ,the course now continues
 #ab south of west1 over gently         

undulating  gravelly 8serir01 until the 
eastern scarp of ,el ,bahr is reached   
at #abe kilometres from the cultivation 
of the ,nile ,valley4 ,the  8serir0 or  
undulating gravelly type of desert then 
ceases4    ,el ,bahr is a depression1   
some #fj-gj metres deep1 cut out in     
white  limestone rocks2 its breadth at  
the point crossed by the road was #h    
kilometres4 ,within it are several high 
prominent hills1 one of which  near the 
centre on the left side of the road is  
called ,jebel ,gar  ,marzak4 ,the bottom
 of the depression was quite green with 
vegetation2  sufficient water is said to
 fall every year to keep these plants   
alive1 and in #ahid rain is said to have
 fallen to such an extent  that a pool  
of considerable size was formed2 the    
silt deposited by  this is plainly      
visible at the present time4 ,a good    
deal of blown  sand occurs within the   
depression4 ,el ,bahr evidently         
corresponds to  the ,bahr ,bela ,ma1    
7river without water7 figured on some   

authors'  maps1 which has been          
frequently but erroneously referred to  
as an  old river-course2 although this  
idea was shown to be untenable by       
,zittel#ai and ,ascherson#bj it has     
subsequently been maintained  by        
non-scientific writers4 ,no traces of   
any river deposit occur in  the         
depression1 which consists simply of a  
series of unconnected  depressions1     
eroded by wind-borne sand4#ba    ,the   
track leaves the depression at #acd     
kilometres1 rising over  heavy sand2 it 
then continues #c north of west4 ,the   
character of  the desert has now        
completely changed1 and instead of the  
smooth  undulating gravelly 8serir10 its
 surface is rough and hummocky1  being  
formed of hard bare limestone1 cut up   
into sharp knobs and  grooved into      
furrows by the powerful action of       
wind-borne sand2  it resembles closely  
the surface of the rough open sea4 ,this
 type  of desert is spoken of as        
8kharafish0 by the ,arabs4 ,while  the  

8serir0 forms an ideal surface for      
travelling over1 the  8kharafish0 is the
 worst imaginable1 the innumerable      
hillocks  necessitating incessant small 
deviations1 while the hard rough        
surface is in some places very          
troublesome to camels2 moreover1  an    
extensive view is out of the question   
and no tracks are visible  on the       
surface1 so that the road is easily lost
 except where marked  by frequent cairns
 built of loose stones4    ,occasional  
patches of blown sand are here met with1
 and the first  well-marked dunes were  
crossed at #ada kilometres4 ,from here  
onwards  for kilometres the whole area  
was more or less sandy with occasional  
narrow well-marked ridges or dunes1     
running almost due north and  south1 and
 varying in breadth from that of a      
single line to a  number of parallel    
ridges side by side half a kilometre    
broad4 ,the  largest dune of this group 
at #adf kilometres is known as ,ghard el
  ,shubbab4 ,the steepest sides are     

those facing west where the angle  may  
reach #cj4    ,at the particular        
locality crossed by this road the sand  
area is very  easily crossed1 a         
circuitous route being followed in order
 to take  advantage of the flatter dunes
 with the easiest slopes when crossing  
the steeper ridges4 ,probably the road  
crosses at one of the easiest  points4  
,this remarkable line of dunes1 known as
 the ,abu ,moharik1  has its origin in  
the neighbourhood of the oasis of       
,mogara and runs  southward1 almost     
without a break1 across the desert until
 ,kharga is  reached1 whence with a     
slight break owing to the broken        
character of  the ground it continues   
southward within the oasis-depression4  
,the  total width of the sand-belt on   
the road under description is about  #f 
kilometres4    ,at #aec to #aef         
kilometres a number of black conical    
hills1 ,gar el  ,hamra1 are situate from
 #a to #b kilometres from the road on   
the south  side4 ,one or two more       

sand-dunes were crossed and then the    
road1  maintaining its direction of #b-c
 north of west1 lay over a more  or less
 uneven dark-coloured limestone desert  
broken up into a number  of small hills4
 ,at #afi kilometres a broad ridge of   
sand-dunes was  encountered1 running #ah
 west of true north4 ,these light yellow
  dunes afford a beautiful and          
remarkable sight1 running northwards    
away to the horizon over a dark         
brown-coloured desert in an almost      
perfectly straight line and with a      
sharply maintained junction-line        
between the edge of the sand and the    
desert surface adjoining4    ,within a  
few hundred metres of the western side  
of the sand-dunes  the road commences   
the descent from the plateau into the   
oasis-depression4 ,the road enters at   
the most northerly extremity  of the    
oasis1 the descent being particularly   
easy at this point1  passing the large  
dark-coloured hill1 ,jebel ,horabi 7or  
,morabi871  on the right almost         

immediately afterwards4    ,a fine view 
of the depression is obtainable from the
 top of the  escarpment1 a broad        
low-lying expanse1 bounded by steep     
escarpments or  walls1 stretching away  
to the south1 its monotony relieved by  
several  large flat-topped hill-masses1 
near which1 on the lowest portions of   
the floor1 dark areas1 the cultivated   
lands and palm-groves can be            
distinguished4 ,the road crosses the    
depression in a south-westerly          
direction1 passes a spring known as ,ain
 el ,gidr1 the first watering  place1   
and divides in front of the great       
hill-masses separating the  two groups  
of villages1 the eastern branch keeping 
close under the  eastern scarp of ,jebel
 ,mayesra1 to avoid a large area of soft
 salty  ground1 and leading to the      
villages of ,zubbo and ,mandisha1 ,while
 the  western branch continues its      
course to the cultivation surrounding   
,el  ,qasr and ,bawitti4 ,the distance  
by this road from ,qasr el ,lamlum ,bey 

to  the village of ,zubbo is #aij       
kilometres and to ,bawitti #aie         
kilometres4      ,sidenote3 ,geology of 
the ,feshn-,baharia    ,having now      
described the topographical features of 
this road1 the  chief geological        
characters may be noticed4 ,the plain   
between the  ,nile ,valley cultivation  
and the scarp of the plateau is covered 
with  sandy gravel1 partly downwash from
 the higher ground in ,recent times1    
and partly the remains of definite      
gravel deposits belonging to the  ,nile 
,valley ,pleistocene series4#bb ,the    
pebbles now found strewn  over the plain
 consist chiefly of flints1 doubtless   
derived from  the ,eocene limestones    
forming the deserts on both sides of the
 ,nile  ,valley1 and occasional pebbles 
of hard felspar porphyry which must     
have originally been derived from the   
igneous massifs of the ,red ,sea        
,hills4 ,both are well rounded1 although
 the former are frequently  broken up   
into angular fragments by temperature   

changes4 ,white  granular beds of       
gypsum1 of various degrees of impurity1 
crop out on  the plain in places1 and in
 all probability there was in           
,pleistocene  times an extensive deposit
 of this mineral all over the surface of
  the low-lying country4 ,in the desert 
lying between the ,fayum and  the ,nile 
,valley further to the north1 these     
gypseous beds occur of  great thickness 
and wide extent1 and the deposits       
crossed on this  road are doubtless part
 of the same series4    ,the cliffs of  
,jebel ,muailla to the north are capped 
by a hard dark  bed of limestone1 which 
weathers with a vertical face1 while the
 more  gentle slopes1 generally more or 
less hidden with sand1 are doubtless    
formed of softer limestones1 marls1 and 
clays4 ,during the survey of  the ,fayum
 7see foot-note1 p4 #ag7 the hills      
surrounding ,wadi ,muailla  were found  
to be formed of ,lower ,mokattam beds   
7,middle ,eocene7  and the hills seen   
from this road are doubtless composed of

 the  same beds4 ,the ridges crossed at 
#bj kilometres are formed of hard1      
compact1 close-grained crystalline      
limestone1 covered with more or  less   
gypsum and flint gravel2 the limestone  
beds forming these ridges  show dips    
which suggest the existence of a fault  
running ,n4,e4-,s4,w41  parallel to the 
trend of the cliff behind1 and this may 
be part  of the extensive faults and    
folds of the ,nile ,valley4 ,in one     
small  hill 7#bb kilometres7 shales with
 ,ostrea were noticed at the base1  with
 occasional hard oyster-limestone bands2
 the upper part was  formed of #aj      
metres of gravel consisting of          
well-rounded limestone  pebbles4 ,this  
superficial deposit must be classed as  
,pleistocene and  may be a sea-beach1   
though no conclusive evidence was       
obtainable  on this point4 ,the         
escarpment passed at #bc kilometres is  
capped  by a bed of white limestone1    
shales forming the slope1 but was  not  
examined at close quarters4 ,the floor  

of the bay formed by the  receding cliff
 shows outcropping brown limestone with 
,ostrea1 and  the escarpment on the far 
side is capped by a hard white          
crystalline  limestone with much flint1 
the latter forming bands4 ,on the       
surface  is a thin calcareous gypseous  
gravel deposit1 doubtless of the same   
age as the gypseous beds already        
mentioned as occurring on the  plain    
below4 ,the flanks of the scarp are     
hidden by downwash4 ,the  cliff bounding
 this strip of plateau1 #a kilometres   
further on1  is composed of the same    
beds1 the limestone being here          
silicified1  with large silicified      
,conid4 ,with regard to the age of these
  limestones and clays they are probably
 equivalent to part of the ,lower       
,mokattam series already mentioned as   
forming the hill-masses round  ,wadi    
,rayan1 although no ,nummulites         
gizehensis beds were observed  in the   
sections examined4 ,a conspicuous black 
knob among the low  gravelly hills left 

two kilometres on the right at #cb      
kilometres1  was found to be a neck of  
hard dark andesitic basalt1 one of the  
few  occurrences of igneous rocks in the
 ,western ,desert4 ,several other       
similar looking dark hills were in      
sight1 but time did not admit  of their 
examination4 ,the dark well-marked range
 #f-g kilometres to  the left of the    
road is probably identical with a range 
of hills  occurring #aj kilometres west 
of ,bahnessa1 which was mapped#bc during
  the survey of the ,nile ,valley in    
#ahii1 and found to consist of a  mass  
of andesitic basalt similar to that     
forming the small neck on  this road4   
,doubtless they are both parts of the   
same intrusion4 ,the  surface of the    
plain is still composed in part of      
gypseous deposits1  with occasional     
outcrops of the underlying limestone1   
the surface  being covered with a       
certain amount of loose sand with       
rounded flints  and their broken        
fragments4 ,in the neighbourhood of     

,jebel el ,ghudda  the plain consists of
 limestone with numerous individuals of 
the large  ,nummulites gizehensis1 and  
are thus of ,lower ,mokattam age4 ,much 
of  the limestone is crystalline4 ,the  
hills of ,jebel el ,ghudda are formed   
by younger overlying beds consisting of 
hard silicified sandstones  and grits   
7quartzites71 which lithologically are  
very similar to  the beds of ,jebel     
,ahmar near ,cairo1 of ,oligocene age4  
,they may1  however1 belong to the      
,upper ,eocene series1 so well developed
 above  the ,upper ,mokattam in the     
escarpments to the north of the ,fayum1 
as  this series contains similar beds   
with similar silicified wood4 ,they     
enclose bands of coarse conglomerate and
 have a peculiar blackish  burnt colour4
 ,occasional patches of these grits are 
here and there  met with right up to the
 depression of ,el ,bahr1 and the       
silicified  wood passed at #ib          
kilometres belongs to the same series of
 beds4 ,from  the scrub area at #ic     

kilometres till the road approached ,el 
,bahr  there was hardly a sign either of
 the grits or of section anywhere  met  
with on this road4 ,the depression is   
cut down through the upper  series of   
sandstones and grits into the           
fossiliferous white limestones  and     
sandstones below4 ,the eastern scarp    
showed the following beds3--      ,top4 
,soft white ,sandstone4                 
,limestone with ,nummulites gizehensis4 
,,middle                                
,lower            ,,eocene4  ,limestone 
with ,ostrea1 ,exogyra and   ,mokattam4 
,lucina1 etc4                           
,the floor is covered in places with    
numerous weathered out individuals  of  
,n4 gizehensis and large oysters4 ,some 
of the hills occurring  within the      
depression showed brown siliceous       
limestone overlying white  limestones   
with beds containing ,nummulites        
gizehensis1 ,ostrea1  etc41 below4 ,in  
some of these hills the beds show       
evidences of  folding1 which like that  

within the ,baharia ,oasis may have     
partly  caused the formation of the     
depression by bringing the softer beds  
to the surface within the reach of the  
agents of denudation4 ,on  ascending the
 western scarp1 beds with ,ostrea1      
,turritella1  etc41 were crossed1 and   
near the top thick yellowish sandstones 
crowded with ,ostrea occur4 ,two of the 
species of ,ostrea were  afterwards     
examined by ,dr4 ,blanckenhorn1 one of  
which he regarded  as nearly related to 
,o4 ,fraasi1 and the other as a new     
species  with affinities to ,o4 ,hess1  
,may-,eym4    ,probably the whole of    
these fossiliferous beds belong to the  
,middle  ,eocene ,mokattam ,series2 the 
lower beds with ,n4 gizehensis1 are     
certainly ,lower ,mokattam1 and probably
 the upper1 although the latter  may    
represent the base of the ,upper        
,mokattam4 ,whether the upper bed  of   
sandstone capping the eastern scarp     
belongs to the same series  or is       
equivalent of the silicified grits with 

silicified wood passed  further back is 
open to some doubt4    ,beyond the ,bahr
 the desert is formed of a hard         
limestone much cut  up by the action of 
wind-borne sand as already mentioned4   
,this  limestone is very                
unfossiliferous1 occasional obscure     
nummulites  seen on fractured or smooth 
surfaces being the only indications of  
its ,eocene age4    ,the conical-peaked 
hills of ,gar el ,hamra on the left of  
the road  at #aea kilometres were so    
striking that a detour was made         
specially  to examine them4 ,they were  
found to be composed of black           
ferruginous  silicified sandstone or    
quartzite at top1 with false-bedded     
sandstones  below4 ,they overlie        
nummulitic limestones forming the       
surrounding  plain1 and are not         
improbable ,post ,eocene lacustrine     
deposits1  similar to those within      
,baharia ,oasis 7see pp4 #fj-fb74       
,from here onwards up to the            
oasis-depression the plateau consists of

  hard brown limestone1 more or less    
silicified1 and contains nummulites  and
 oysters4 ,the ,eocene strata1 thus     
extend right up to the escarpment  of   
the depression on the north side of the 
oasis4 ,the geological  structure within
 the depression will be found discussed 
in ,chapter ,v4      ,sidenote3 ,road   
from ,minia to ,baharia4    ,road from  
,minia to ,baharia4--,the cultivated    
land extends for some  #i or #aj        
kilometres west of ,minia town1 and at  
the time of the ,survey  expedition     
7early in ,october1 #ahig7 this area was
 mostly covered by  flood-water4 ,boats 
were therefore taken to the edge of the 
desert1  and the march west was         
commenced from ,nasl ,nadiub ,lengat1 a 
small  village on the cultivation-limit 
in lat4 #bh #f #bd1 long4 #cj  #ci #de  
,e41 bearing from ,minia railway station
 #i north of  west1 distance very nearly
 #aj kilometres4 ,the road westward     
being  ill-defined1 and the party       
knowing that any course followed a      

little  north of west would surely lead 
to the oasis1 no attempt was made to    
follow the track precisely1 the course  
being rather chosen to take  advantage  
of commanding points so as to map as    
much topography as  possible en route4  
,as will be seen further on1 however1   
the road  was struck some distance      
before reaching the oasis1 and was      
thence  followed to ,zubbo4    ,on      
leaving ,nasl ,nadiub ,lengat the course
 first taken was about  #cb north of    
west4 ,the desert here rises very       
gradually from the  flood-level1 7i4e4  
about #dj metres above sea-level71 there
 being  no cliff bounding the ,nile     
,valley on the ,west at this point4 ,for
  about #f kilometres the ground was    
sandy1 with occasional patches  of      
flood-water and some grass2 then came a 
stretch of level  gravelly ground1 and  
at #aa kilometres some low sand-dunes   
were  crossed4 ,the course was now      
changed to about #c south of west1  and 
at #ad kilometres a descent was made    

from the gravel-plain into  a           
limestone-depression1 with gravel-capped
 eminences on either  side4 ,at #bb     
kilometres the gravel-strewn plain was  
again come on1  a few low mounds1 also  
gravelly1 being passed at #ca           
kilometres1  and camel-tracks1 doubtless
 part of the ,minia-,baharia road1 being
  noticed coincident with the survey    
line at #cg kilometres4 ,continuing     
following these tracks1 another         
camel-road was found to branch off  at  
#df kilometres to the north-west4 ,the  
march was continued along  the same     
track going a little more south of west1
 over a monotonous  gravelly plain1 with
 limestone showing through it in small  
patches1  till at #gh kilometres from   
,nasl ,nadiub ,lengat a conspicuous     
though  small mass of fissile gritty    
limestone was come on1 which afforded a 
good survey-station4 ,north and west of 
this are low gravel-covered  hills4     
,turning a little north of west1 a large
 extent of low  table-like hills was    

seen on the south4 ,at about #ij        
kilometres low  plateaux of limestone1  
capped by gravel1 closed in so as to    
form  a defile about a kilometre wide1  
through which the line of survey        
passed1 and at #ih kilometres a large   
sandy and gravelly depression1  bounded 
by limestone scarps and containing      
numerous large limestone  hills1 was    
entered4 ,within the depression the     
course followed was  about #cj north of 
west1 so as to map roughly the          
escarpments on  either hand4 ,about #aj 
kilometres from the point where the     
depression  is entered a long stretch of
 heavy sand was crossed beyond which    
tracks going west were come on1 and the 
edge of the limestone plateau  on the   
left curved round so as to cross the    
road4 ,ascending this  low scarp at #aaf
 kilometres1 the course lay over white  
limestone1  with sharp angular flints on
 its surface1 and low limestone hills on
  either side4 ,at #abd kilometres the  
broad belt of sand-dunes1 the ,abu      

,moharik1 was reached4 ,the dunes1 which
 are of considerable height1 run  nearly
 north and south1 and have a total width
 of some #d kilometres2  they formed the
 most serious obstacle of the entire    
journey4 ,beyond  the dunes is a hard   
limestone plain1 crossed by a low ridge 
7forming  part of a higher plateau7 at  
#acf kilometres4 ,beyond this ridge are 
low limestone-hills on either side1 the 
floor being generally of  hard white    
limestone4 ,at #aea kilometres an oval  
depression in the  limestone plateau1   
with its longer axis 7about #d          
kilometres7 running  ,w4,n4,w41 was     
entered2 this depression is full of     
hills of white chalk1  which also forms 
the floor here4 ,ascending the opposite 
scarp of  the depression at #aei        
kilometres1 a narrow strip of higher    
plateau  of much harder limestone was   
crossed1 the edge of the scarp of the   
oasis of ,baharia being reached at #afj 
kilometres1 after marching for  #eg     
hours from ,nasl ,nadiub ,lengat4 ,up to

 this point there had been  a gradual   
rise of the ground1 from #dj metres at  
the ,nile ,valley to  #bfe metres above 
sea-level at the edge of the oasis4     
,the descent into the oasis is not      
difficult1 the scarp being sandy  and   
the fall gradual4 ,at about #d          
kilometres ,w4,n4,w4 from the edge  of  
the scarp is the first well or spring of
 the oasis1 ,ain ,gelid  7lat4 #bh #ai  
#bh ,n41 long4 #bi #h #dj ,e4 of        
,greenwich71  a small pool surrounded by
 grasses and with a tree growing near   
it4 ,the barometric observations gave   
for this point the level #acd  metres   
above sea1 so that the total drop from  
the edge of the scarp  is about #acj    
metres4 ,from ,ain ,gelid the village of
 ,zubbo bears about  #ae north of west1 
and is some #ag kilometres distant1 but 
owing  to the hills between the two     
places necessitating a slight detour1   
the actual distance to be traversed is a
 few kilometres greater4      ,sidenote3
 ,geology of the ,minia-,baharia ,road4 

,the road from ,minia to ,baharia shows 
essentially the same geological         
features as the one from ,maghagha      
already described4 ,the gravel which    
strews so large a portion of the road to
 the east is mainly composed  of        
quartzite and flint pebbles1 of a       
prevailing brown colour4 ,some  of the  
rounded flints show a concentric        
structure1 and are evidently            
segregation-nodules derived from        
chalk-beds2 a very fine specimen  of    
these1 measuring some #bj c4m4 in       
diameter1 of almost perfectly           
spheroidal form1 was obtained4 ,the     
gravelly covering is frequently  very   
thin1 the limestones underlying it      
showing through in numerous  places4 ,no
 evidences of the precise age of this   
gravel have come  to the authors'       
knowledge1 but it is certainly          
,post-,eocene4 ,it  appears to be the   
same formation which is found covering  
the edge  of the plateau west of        
,girga#bd and south of ,assuan 7east    

bank7  and at various other points of   
the ,nile ,valley4 ,it overlies beds of 
every age from the ,nubian ,sandstone to
 the ,lower ,mokattam4    ,the          
limestones which underlie the gravel    
near the ,nile1 and which are  well     
exposed in the depression crossed #ad   
kilometres from the edge  of the        
cultivation1 are crowded with nummulites
 of various species1  ,n4 gizehensis and
 ,n4 curvispira being specially common2 
these  rocks belong therefore to the    
,lower ,mokattam ,series 7,middle       
,eocene74    ,the limestone underlying  
the gravel further west 7from about #cj 
to  #hj kilometres west of the          
cultivation-limit7 is only seen in small
  patches2 it varies in character1 being
 in some places loose and  tufaceous in 
texture1 and in others gritty and       
fissile1 passing into  a calcareous     
grit4 ,the mass of gritty limestone at  
#gh kilometres1  noted above1 is about  
#f metres in length by #b metres high   
and broad2  it shows a peculiar         

stalagmitic structure1 the layers always
 parallel  to the free surface4 ,several
 smaller masses found around all show  a
 similar structure1 and where the rock  
is exposed on the floor  concentric     
fissuring is frequently seen4 ,the sand 
which strews the  surface here is       
largely calcareous1 being doubtless in  
part derived  from the gritty           
limestones4    ,the eastern part of the 
low hills lying to the left of the track
 at  about #he kilometres from the      
cultivation-limit show the following    
section 7total height about #ac         
metres73--      ,top4              #a4  
,flinty gravel1 the flints containing   
nummulites4              #b4  ,tufaceous
 white limestone4              #c4      
,hard pink siliceous limestone4         
#d4  ,fissile sandy marls and gritty    
limestones4    ,on the western part of  
the hills the gravel covering is absent1
  the succession here seen being3--     
,top4              #a4  ,sandy marls1   
#fj centimetres4              #b4  ,very

 hard pink calcareous grit1 #a metre4   
#c4  ,white sandy marl1 fissile1 #b     
metres4              #d4  ,soft red and 
white marls1 #aj metres4    ,no fossils 
were seen in these beds except the      
nummulites in the  gravel1 which prove  
the latter to be at least in part       
derived from  ,eocene deposits4    ,the 
hills left of the road a little further 
on show the following  section3--       
,top4              #a4  ,flinty gravel2 
thin deposit unconformably overlying the
                limestone below4        
#b4  ,tufaceous white limestone 7thin   
bed74              #c4  ,hard grey      
crystalline limestone1 #ab m4           
#d4  ,slope of sand and debris1         
doubtless covering soft                 
marly beds4    ,on entering the         
depression at #ih kilometres a band of  
earthy reddish  limestone with ,bryozoa 
is crossed1 this bed appearing to       
overlie the  fissile sandy limestone    
already mentioned4 ,from here a good    
view  of the numerous limestone hills is

 obtained1 the top beds of hard         
limestone showing out sharply from the  
lower sand-covered slopes2  the beds    
show a stratigraphical depression here  
in addition to the  eroded surface      
depression4 ,the floor of the depression
 is covered with  sandy gravel and      
,ostrea shells2 an examination of the   
left scarp1  about #c kilometres after  
entering the hollow1 showed the         
following  succession of beds 7total    
height of section #bj metres73--        
,top4              #a4  ,hard white     
limestone with numerous shell-casts and 
containing some shaly layers1 #c m4     
#b4  ,debris-covered slope of softer    
beds with ,ostrea                shells1
 #af m4              #c4  ,red earthy   
limestone with shells at base of hill4  
,one of the hills within the depression1
 to the left of the track  about #f     
kilometres further on1 showed in a face 
of about #bh metres  the following      
beds3--      ,top4              #a4     
,hard white limestone1 sand-eroded4     

#b4  ,brown fossiliferous limestone4    
#c4  ,white limestone with many small   
fossils4    ,the slopes of this hill    
were covered with large black ,ostrea   
shells4    ,the floor of the depression 
further west showed limestones of       
varying  character1 frequently highly   
fossiliferous4 ,beyond the depression   
the ground passed over was mainly white 
limestone1 strewn with large  sharp     
angular flints1 and many spheroidal     
flint-masses derived from  the          
limestones4 ,the surrounding hills show 
that we have here two  white limestones 
with brown beds between1 the floor and  
the hillcaps  being white1 while the    
feet of the hills are brown4    ,the    
plateau-rock near the great belt of     
sand-dunes is a hard white  limestone   
with large ,conid4 ,just beyond the     
dunes this rock is  very siliceous1 the 
exposed surfaces showing a smoky-black  
colour2  the rock is however quite white
 on fracture4 ,the hills rising from    
the plateau here consist entirely of    

limestone1 beds of white chalk          
alternating with harder yellowish and   
brown limestones1 in which no  fossils  
were noticed4 ,further on the plateau   
rises1 so that at the  entrance to the  
depression the surface is formed of the 
same brown  limestone-beds which are    
seen in the hills behind4 ,the hills    
within  the oval depression here are    
composed of alternations of chalky with 
harder limestones4 ,the narrow ridge    
which separates the depression  just    
described from the oasis-depression is  
of very hard horny  siliceous limestone4
    ,on the descent into the oasis the  
following beds are passed  through3--   
,top4              #a4  ,very hard      
yellowish and reddish-brown siliceous   
limestone1                in part       
crystalline4              #b4  ,fissile 
sandy limestone4              #c4  ,soft
 yellow ochreous marly limestone4       
#d4  ,greyish-white chalky limestone1   
with ferruginous layers4                
#e4  ,sand-covered slope1 mainly        

consisting of clays4    ,it seems       
probable that the entire mass of the    
limestones forming  the surface of the  
plateau are ,eocene1 occupying an       
horizon in and  below that of the       
,mokattam series4 ,that the fissile     
sandy limestone  and calcareous grit    
cannot be the equivalent of the ,post   
,eocene  sandstone deposits encountered 
on the road from ,maghagha is proved  by
 their being intercalated in the ,eocene
 limestones of the plateau4             
,sidenote3 ,traverse from south end of  
,baharia to ,minia4    ,the return      
journey from ,baharia ,oasis to ,minia  
was made1 as already  mentioned1 across 
the open desert1 not following any road4
 ,the  starting-point was the point on  
the southern scarp of the oasis1  where 
the ,farafra road leaves ,baharia4 ,our 
observations give for the  position of  
this point#be lat4 #bg #df #ac ,n4 long4
 #bh #cb  #dg ,e4 of ,greenwich2 height 
above sea level1 #bdg metres4 ,the      
course  was shaped so as to reach the   

village of ,nasl ,nadiub ,lengat1 whence
  the outward traverse had started1 so  
as to give a closed polygon of          
survey-lines4 ,the following            
topographical and geological notes were 
taken on the journey4    ,the first #b  
kilometres of the way1 going about      
,s4,s4,e41 lay over  a plateau of sandy 
limestone1 often mammilated and strewn  
with  limonite-fragments4 ,sand-dunes of
 small size were passed on the  left4   
,an ascent was then made of some #ce    
metres on to a flat-topped  ridge1      
consisting of white and yellow marls and
 clays1 capped by  a horizontal bed of  
hard brown calcareous grit1 passing into
 brown  crystalline limestone with      
calcite shell-casts4 ,on this ridge1    
which  is about #fjj metres in width at 
the place seen1 a turn was made so as   
to go almost due east4 ,the descent from
 the ridge on the other side  is on to a
 plain strewn with whitish-brown        
laminated and mammilated  limestone and 
some limonite1 and from the plain rise  

hills showing  the same structure as the
 ridge just crossed4 ,a camel-road      
running  south was crossed #g kilometres
 from the starting-point1 and beyond    
this1 the ground having gradually risen 
to the level of the brown  calcareous   
grit1 we came among numerous low hills2 
these consist  of white chalk beds1     
capped by sandy greyish limestone and   
then by  thick beds of harder           
greyish-white limestone1 weathered grey 
on the  surface4 ,no fossils were seen  
here1 but continuing the journey east1  
over uneven ground of white and greyish 
limestone of considerable  hardness1 a  
small hill was met with1 at about #ab   
kilometres from the  starting-point1 and
 found to consist of limestone with     
,nummulites1  and these foraminifera    
were found in great abundance a little  
further  on4 ,the finding of these      
forms1 so distinctively ,eocene1 is     
important  as showing that whatever the 
age of the limestones at the actual     
edge of the south part of the oasis may 

be1 the beds forming the  plateau only a
 few kilometres east of the oasis are1  
like those which  form the top of the   
northern scarp1 of undoubted ,eocene    
age4 ,the  nummulites were visible in   
the rocks of the plateau till about #ag 
kilometres from the starting-point1 none
 being noticed further on  till the     
neighbourhood of the great sand-dunes   
was reached4 ,at  #be kilometres a      
slight depression containing numerous   
hills of  white chalk was entered4 ,the 
floor of this depression1 #bfg metres   
above sea-level1 is strewn with         
fragments of crystalline calcite1       
probably derived from veins or druses in
 the chalk4 ,the beds here  dip slightly
 to the south4 ,about #c kilometres     
further on the beds dip  about #e       
,e4,s4,e41 so that higher beds were come
 on2 the dip however  soon diminished4  
,at #bi kilometres the plateau rock     
consisted of  porous siliceous          
limestone1 generally white1 but in      
places yellow1  closely resembling that 

found capping the scarp in the northern 
parts of the oasis4 ,the march was      
continued over white limestones  of     
varying hardness1 with flints and       
fragments of chalcedony on the  surface1
 and numerous low limestone-hills4 ,at  
#cf kilometres a chalky  area was       
entered on1 covered with countless small
 rounded hills of  chalky limestone2    
these hills1 of which there are         
literally millions1  cover the ground   
like haycocks in a field2 they are      
generally about  #bj metres high1 and up
 to #ajj metres in diameter4 ,no fossils
 were  seen in the rocks4 ,at #gj       
kilometres the hills began to get       
smaller1  becoming presently mere       
chalk-mounds4 ,a slight depression1     
about a  kilometre wide1 with larger    
chalk hills1 was crossed at #gc         
kilometres1  beyond which was a long    
stretch of flat ground composed of      
snow-white  limestone1 chalky to fairly 
hard1 unfossiliferous1 with thin        
siliceous  bands4 ,at #hc kilometres    

occasional low limestone hills were seen
  on ground otherwise fairly level1     
strewn with flints4 ,a camel-road  going
 south-east was crossed at #gg          
kilometres4 ,at #ib kilometres  numerous
 small gasteropod casts were noticed in 
the chalk1 but no  other fossils4 ,the  
plateau further on was seen to be formed
 of a hard  thin bed of siliceous       
limestone1 with chalk below2 it shows   
occasional  depressions with low hills  
within them4 ,at #ajc kilometres the    
great  belt of sand-dunes running       
,n4,w4-,s4,e4 was entered on4 ,close to 
the  dunes and in the interspaces       
between them the plateau-rock is hard   
semi-crystalline white to brownish      
limestone1 with nummulites and  small   
gasteropod-casts4 ,the sand contains a  
good deal of calcareous  matter in      
addition to the grains of quartz4 ,the  
dunes have a total  width of about #c   
kilometres1 some of them are of great   
height1 and  the passage with heavily   
laden camels is not without some        

difficulty4    ,beyond the dunes the    
limestone is frequently siliceous1      
weathered  smoky-grey on surface1 and   
crowded with nummulites2 the surface of 
the ground is generally sandy and       
flint-strewn4 ,at #aac kilometres a     
narrow band of highly silicified1       
superficially blackened1 limestone  is  
crossed4 ,this band1 which is only a few
 centimetres broad1  running north and  
south1 stands up like a vein above the  
plateau1  and is evidently caused by    
infiltration of siliceous solutions in  
a crack4 ,in the silicified part of the 
limestone here the fossils  can be      
easily seen2 they are chiefly corals4   
,further on1 the plateau  consists of   
hard semi-crystalline and horny white   
limestone in which  fossils are not     
seen4    ,at #abc kilometres the course1
 hitherto nearly eastward1 was  changed 
about #cj to the north1 over the same   
hard semi-crystalline  limestone1 with  
hillocks showing alternations of soft   
chalky beds with  harder ones4 ,some    

large flat-topped hills passed at #acj  
kilometres  consist of horizontal       
limestone-beds1 the lower ones being    
chalky1  the upper ones hard1 grey1 and 
somewhat porous4 ,beyond this small     
rounded flints are seen on the plain1   
and these continue1 increasing  in      
number1 till a low plateau in front is  
reached4 ,at #acd kilometres a  broad   
camel-road going south-east was crossed1
 and at #ace kilometres  the scarp of a 
higher plateau was ascended4 ,the lower 
plain has an  altitude of #abg metres   
above sea-level1 the top of the plateau 
being  some #gj metres higher2 the      
ground however rises gradually before   
reaching the escarpment1 so that the    
actual rise at the scarp is  only about 
#dj metres4 ,the beds passed through on 
the ascent are--      ,top4             
#a4  ,gravels of rounded flints and     
pebbles1 thin covering4              #b4
  ,white chalk1 #b metres4              
#c4  ,earthy limestone1 #fj centimetres4
              #d4  ,red and white clays 

and marls1 about #cj metres4            
#e4  ,sandy limestone1 #bj centimetres4 
#f4  ,clayey limestone1 #ae centimetres4
              #g4  ,sandy limestone1 #fj
 centimetres4              #h4          
,limestone conglomerate1 #a metre4      
#i4  ,red and yellow clays at base4     
,these beds appear to dip slightly      
eastward4 ,no fossils were seen4    ,the
 top of the plateau is a huge level     
gravel-plain1 with white chalky         
limestone showing through occasionally4 
,sometimes this rock shows a  loose     
tufaceous texture2 at other places it is
 sandy and fissile1  and now and again  
it encloses small pebbles4 ,a broad     
camel-road  going south-east was crossed
 at #ade kilometres1 and another in the 
same direction was crossed at #aeg      
kilometres4 ,at #afb kilometres1 the    
gravelly ground having gradually fallen 
to #agi metres above sea-level1  a turn 
so as to take again an eastward course  
was made1 and a long  stretch of gently 
undulating gravelly ground1 with white  

limestone  showing through in small     
patches1 was traversed4 ,a camel-road   
going  east was crossed obliquely at    
#ahe kilometres4 ,at #aif kilometres1   
low  gravel-covered hills of some extent
 were passed4 ,the pebbles range  up to 
#aj or #ae centimetres in diameter1 and 
are well-rounded4 ,in  the lower part of
 one of these hills1 sandy chalky       
limestone is seen  cropping out through 
the gravel which covers the slope4 ,then
 a little  further on are other low     
hills of white and grey nummulitic      
limestone1  only thinly sprinkled with  
pebbles and sand4 ,some of the beds here
  contain cylindrical nearly vertical   
holes1 one being measured and  found to 
be #h centimetres diameter and #de      
centimetres deep4    ,beyond the hills  
just mentioned is a further stretch of  
gravel1 till  at #aii kilometres a broad
 low ridge of white and creamy          
limestone1  crowded with large          
nummulites 7,n4 gizehensis7 is reached4 
,the beds  of this ridge dip slightly   

west4 ,the hollows of the ridge are full
  of blown sand4 ,beyond is a flat      
depression1 the floor of which is       
strewn with small nummulites 7,n4       
curvispira71 and with ,ostrea  and other
 shells2 then another small nummulitic  
ridge is crossed1  after which comes    
some hard smoky-grey silicified         
limestone1 with  much sand on the       
surface4 ,at #bjb kilometres from the   
starting-point a  slight descent was    
made from the limestone on to a shelving
 gravelly  tract with some sand-dunes4  
,some #d kilometres further on the wide 
belt of low sand-dunes fringing the     
cultivated area west of ,minia  was     
entered4 ,this sandy tract has a width  
of about #d kilometres2  it contains    
some patches of grassy land with pools  
of water4    ,the village of ,nasl      
,nadiub ,lengat1 at the edge of the     
valley-cultivation1 was reached after   
covering #bab kilometres from the  south
 point of the oasis1 the march having   
occupied about #fj hours4    ,to        

summarise the geology of the area       
crossed in the traverse just  described1
 it will be clear that although the beds
 which form the  top of the scarp at the
 south end of the oasis are probably of 
,upper  ,cretaceous age1 yet these beds 
are overlain by ,eocene limestone  with 
nummulites at a short distance 7about   
#aj kilometres7 east of  the            
,baharia-,farafra road4 ,it is probable 
that the entire stretch of              
limestone-plateau between this point and
 ,minia is ,eocene1 nummulites  being   
recorded both from near the centre of   
the tract and from the  edge of the     
desert near ,minia4 ,the softer chalky  
beds traversed  appear stratigraphically
 lower than the ,nummulite-limestone1   
and  would seem to correspond to the    
chalky-limestones with ,operculina      
libyca and ,lucina thebaica which occur 
so constantly near the base  of the     
,eocene in ,kharga ,oasis4 ,the gravels1
 as already remarked in  referring to   
the ,minia-,baharia road1 are of        

uncertain age1 but are  certainly       
,post-,eocene4 ,the sand-dune belt      
crossed near the centre  of the tract is
 the same as that crossed on the outward
 journey from  ,minia1 and extends for a
 great distance north and south4        
,sidenote3 ,baharia-,farafra road4      
,the road from ,baharia to ,farafra1    
traversed by ,cailliaud in #ahbj1bf  and
 by ,jordan in #ahgdbg1 was taken by a  
party of the ,geological  ,survey in    
proceeding to ,farafra after surveying  
the west side  of ,baharia4 ,the start  
was made from the same point as the     
return  traverse to ,minia1 viz41 the   
point of ascent of the ,farafra road  at
 the south scarp of ,baharia 7lat4 #bg  
#dh #ac ,n41 long4 #bh  #cb #di ,e4 of  
,greenwich71 and the general course     
taken was in a  direction #cj-dj west of
 south4 ,a second1 almost disused1 road 
from ,baharia to ,farafra ascends the   
western escarpment from the  depression 
#c kilometres further north1 follows a  
narrow plateau  at the base of the chalk

 escarpment and joins the main road some
  distance south of the extreme end of  
the oasis-depression4    ,the main road 
after ascending the scarp at the extreme
 south end  of the depression1 at the   
point mentioned1 proceeds at first in a 
direction about #cj west of south1 over 
a limestone plateau1 with  sandstones   
and clays below4 ,after #d kilometres   
hard concretionary  grey sandstones are 
noticed1 and #c kilometres further on a 
small  hill of hard false-bedded grey   
sandstone is passed4 ,the escarpment  of
 the ,white ,chalk now approaches within
 #b kilometres of the road  on the right
 hand1 on the left being slightly       
further away4 ,these  escarpments run   
parallel with the road for some #e      
kilometres1 forming  a large bay1 until 
at #ab kilometres the road passes       
through a  narrow pass with the cliffs  
of white chalk quite close on either    
side4 ,almost immediately the cliffs    
again recede1 forming a small  bay      
opening into another still larger at #ad

 kilometres4 ,at this  point an isolated
 chalk stack1 with great masses of      
fibrous calcite  at the base1 is passed1
 and this hill makes a convenient point 
for a  survey-station4 ,several more    
isolated hills are now passed and then  
the chalk scarps on either side close up
 and join1 the road passing  up the     
escarpment at the end of the bay and    
gaining the summit of the  white chalk  
at #bj kilometres4 ,the beds forming the
 plateau between  the end of the        
oasis-depression and this escarpment of 
white chalk  belong to the middle series
 of the ,upper ,cretaceous1 the         
8variegated  clays and sandstones10     
fully described in ,chapter ,v4    ,from
 the top of the white chalk escarpment  
the road continues in a  well-maintained
 direction of about #dj west of south1  
over a more or  less level gravelly     
plain with outcrops of hard crystalline 
limestone  or chalk4 ,another1 less     
used1 road to ,farafra1 via the bay to  
the  north-east of ,ain el ,wadi 7in    

,farafra ,oasis71 probably branches  off
 about this point4 ,at #ce kilometres a 
small hill of siliceous  limestone is   
passed and the chalk forms a slight     
escarpment a little  way to the left4   
,about a kilometre further on a ridge of
 dark brown ferruginous  sandstone is   
crossed and almost immediately          
afterwards1 at #di  kilometres1 the road
 descends through snow-white chalk      
cliffs into  the depression of ,farafra4
 ,the chalk forming the cliffs weathers 
in  places to a smoky-black colour4 ,at 
the bottom of the descent1 which  is    
gentle and presents no difficulties1 an 
isolated hill occurs  on the left and   
from this the dark clump of palms of    
,ain el ,wadi  is plainly visible       
bearing #i west of south and distant    
about #af  kilometres4 ,from ,ain el    
,wadi to ,farafra village is another    
day's  march of #dc kilometres1 the road
 bearing about #ce west of south1  but  
for details the reader is referred to   
the report on ,farafra  ,oasis4#bh ,with

 regard to the geology of the road      
across the plateau  separating ,baharia 
and ,farafra1 the age of the beds first 
passed over  has already been mentioned4
 ,after rising on to the white chalk the
  surface of this formation is followed 
right up to the descent into  ,farafra4 
,although occasional crystalline        
limestones are crossed1  these1 with the
 surface accumulations of flinty        
material1 are only  skin deep and the   
former probably represents the upper    
part of the  chalk itself4 ,no ,eocene  
beds were observed1 and it is extremely 
doubtful if any exist2 in the latter    
case they would be patches of           
,operculina-nummulitic limestone from   
the base of the ,esna ,shales1  as this 
limestone is sometimes left capping the 
surface of the white  chalk after       
complete denudation of the shales above1
 as in the bay  to the north-east of    
,ain el ,wadi4 ,we thus see that the    
,cretaceous of  ,baharia is continuous  
with that of ,farafra and that the      

intervening  desert is not formed of the
 ,nummulitic limestones of the ,eocene  
as  formerly supposed and shown on the  
,rohlfs ,expedition map4#bi             
,sidenote3 ,other ,roads4    ,besides   
the routes already mentioned1 there are 
several other roads  connecting ,baharia
 with ,siwa ,oasis1 the ,fayum1 and the 
,nile ,valley4 ,of  the principal of    
these we have a fairly accurate         
knowledge from the  records of          
scientific travellers1 such as ,jordan  
and ,ascherson1 and  it may be well to  
mention briefly the chief points        
concerning them4    ,the road from      
,siwa#cj was traversed by ,jordan in    
#ahgd1 the march  occupying ten days4   
,leaving ,siwa 7,n4 lat4 #bi #ab #j1    
long4 #be  #ca #j ,e4 of ,greenwich1    
altitude #be metres below sea-level71   
the road follows an east-south-east     
course for about #hj kilometres2  it    
then turns slightly more southwards1    
rounding the corner of the  plateau     
7,pacho ,mt4 of ,rohlfs7 and afterwards 

passing through the deep  depressions of
 ,aradj 7- #gj m47 and ,uttiah 7- #bj   
m47 to the south  side of ,lake ,sittra 
7- #be m41 ,n4 lat4 #bh #db #dj1 long4  
#bg  #d #bc ,e4 of ,greenwich1 #agj     
kilometres distant from ,siwa74 ,from   
,sittra an easterly course is taken for 
some #eb kilometres1 when  another      
slight turn to the south is made1 the   
oasis of ,baharia being  entered by     
descending the scarp some #c kilometres 
slightly north of  west of ,el ,qasr4   
,between ,sittra and the edge of the    
oasis the ground1  which is of          
nummulitic limestone1 rises gradually   
but steadily1  the level at the edge of 
the oasis being #aid metres above sea4  
,the  distance from ,sittra to ,el ,qasr
 is about #ahj kilometres1 making the   
total distance along the route taken    
from ,siwa about #cej kilometres4       
,the road from the ,fayum to ,baharia1  
taken by ,belzoni in #ahai1  ,pacho in  
#ahbc1 and ,ascherson in #ahgf1 has a   
total length of about  #bdj kilometres1 

and occupies some six days in marching4 
,leaving  ,medinet el ,fayum the road   
proceeds south-west via ,gharag to ,wadi
  ,rayan 7#bi m4 below sea-level1 about 
#ge kilometres from ,medinet el  ,fayum7
 where a supply of water is obtainable  
from several different  springs4 ,from  
,ain ,rayan the road proceeds south-west
 over a rising  nummulitic limestone    
plateau1 crossing the so-called ,bahr   
bela  ,ma a little north of the         
,maghagha-,baharia road4 ,at 8,el ,bahr0
  7#ajj kilometres from ,ain ,rayan7 a  
turn is made to the ,w4,s4,w42 the      
sand-dunes of ,abu ,moharik are crossed 
a little further on1 and the  oasis is  
entered at the northern extremity by the
 same 8agaba0 as  that taken by the     
,maghagha road4 ,within the oasis the   
road branches  as already described1 the
 west branch leading to ,el ,qasr and   
the  east one to ,zubbo4    ,another    
route making use of the same point of   
entry into the oasis  as that just      
described is marked on ,ascherson's map 

as coming from  ,bahnessa1 a large      
village on the ,bahr ,yusuf1 near the   
western edge of  the ,nile ,valley4     
,this road1 which is some #aij          
kilometres in length1  leads almost due 
west over a monotonous plateau till near
 the oasis1  where it joins the roads   
from the ,fayum and ,maghagha4    ,the  
road between ,baharia and ,samalut1     
traversed on his return journey  by     
,ascherson in #ahgf1 appears to be the  
shortest connection between  the oasis  
and the ,nile ,valley4 ,its course is   
due west1 and its  total length to      
,mandisha about #ahj kilometres4        
,leaving ,samalut the  cultivation is   
crossed via ,mangatin to ,rubi2 this    
latter village is  on the edge of the   
desert1 about #e kilometres west of     
,samalut4 ,the  road proceeds over a    
monotonous rocky and gravelly plateau1  
crossing  the great sand-dune belt of   
,abu ,moharik about #abb kilometres west
 of  ,samalut1 and entering the oasis   
near ,ain ,gelid by the same descent  as

 that used by the ,survey party from    
,minia4 ,the journey from ,bawitti  to  
,samalut occupied ,ascherson four days4 
,still another road from the ,nile      
,valley1 likewise entering the oasis    
near ,ain ,gelid1 is marked on          
,ascherson's map as coming from ,delga1 
a village near the west edge of the     
valley-cultivation4 ,this road has  a   
,n4,n4,w4 course1 and a total length    
from ,delga to ,mandisha of about  #aij 
kilometres4 ,it crosses the sand-dunes  
of ,abu ,moharik about #acj  kilometres 
from ,delga1 i4e41 about #dj kilometres 
before reaching  the edge of the oasis4 
,several other roads start from points  
still further south1 such as  ,der el   
,maragh1 ,beniadi1 ,assiut1 etc41 and   
most of the villages along  the west    
side of the ,nile ,valley between       
,assiut and the ,fayum have  branch     
tracks which join the main roads at     
different points4                       
99 99 99 99 99      ,footnote #ag3 ,for 
remarks on the surveying of desert      

roads1 and on  the possibility of       
traversing the open desert1 see ,,ball  
,kharga ,oasis  7,reports of the        
,geolog4 ,survey for #ahii1 ,part ,,ii7 
,cairo1 #aija1 p4 #af4    ,footnote #ah3
 ,for details of these hills and ,wadi  
,muailla see  ,,beadnell1 ,the          
,topography and ,geology of the ,fayum1 
etc41 ,survey  ,dept4 ,p4 ,w4 ,m4       
,cairo1 7in the press74    ,footnote    
#ai3 ,op4 cit4 p4 ,,cxxxvi4    ,footnote
 #bj3 ,see ,schweinfurth in 8,pet4      
,mitt40 #ahgf1 p4 #bfe2  also ,ascherson
 in 8,zeitschrift d4 ,gesellschaft fr   
,erdkunde0  zu ,berlin1 #ahhe1 p4 #aae4 
,footnote #ba3 ,,beadnell1 ,dcouvertes  
,gologiques ,rcentes dans la  ,valle du 
,nil et le ,dsert ,libyen1 compte rendu1
 ,v,i,i,ie ,congrs  ,gologique          
international1 #aijj2 ,paris #aija1 p4  
#hdg4    7,recent ,geological           
,discoveries in the ,nile ,valley and   
,libyan ,desert1  ,london1 #aijj47      
,footnote #bb3 ,for a brief description 
of these deposits see  ,dcouvertes      

,gologiques1 etc41 pp4 #hfc-hfe4        
,footnote #bc3 ,geolog4 ,mag4 ,jan4     
#aijj1 ,no4 #dbg1 p4 #ah1 and op4 cit4  
7,dcouvertes gologiques71 p4 #hdg4      
,footnote #bd3 ,,ball4 ,kharga ,oasis1  
p4 #bc1 ,cairo #aijj4    ,these gravels 
were examined and mapped in the ,survey 
of the ,nile  ,valley in #ahif4 7,h4 ,j4
 ,l4 ,b47    ,footnote #be3 ,jordan's   
position for this point is approximately
  lat4 #bg #df #bj ,n41 long4 #bh #cf   
#bj ,e4 of ,greenwich1  altitude #aic   
metres above sea-level4    ,footnote    
#bf3 ,voyage  ,mro1 etc41 vol4 #a1 p4   
#aif4    ,footnote #bg3 ,physische      
,geographie der libyschen ,wste1 p4     
viii4    ,footnote #bh3 ,,beadnell1     
,farafra ,oasis1 its ,topography and    
,geology1  ,geol4 ,surv4 ,egypt ,report1
 ,pt4 ,,iii1 ,cairo1 #aija4    ,footnote
 #bi3 ,dcouvertes ,gologiques ,rcentes  
etc41 p4 #hej4    ,footnote #cj3 ,see   
the geological map accompanying         
,zittel's ,geologie  der libyschen      
,wste1 ,cassel #ahhc4                   

,,chapter ,,iv4                         
99 99 99 99 99                          
,,topography ,,of ,,the ,,oasis4        
,as already mentioned in the            
,introduction1 ,baharia ,oasis is a     
large  natural excavation in the ,libyan
 ,desert plateau4 ,previously existing  
maps frequently indicate this depression
 as being open towards the  east1 but   
one of the results of the survey        
expedition has been to  show that such a
 representation is erroneous1 ,baharia  
differing from  the southern oases in   
being entirely surrounded by an         
escarpment1  for the most part steep and
 difficult of ascent4 ,in plan the oasis
 is  of highly irregular outline1 more  
particularly on its western side2  but  
the general shape of the excavation is  
that of a large oval1 with  its major   
axis running north-east and south-west1 
and with a narrow  blunt pointed        
extension at each end4 ,the extreme     
length 7,n4,e4-,s4,w47 is  about #id    
kilometres1 and its greatest width1     

measured at right angles  to its length1
 some #db kilometres4 ,the average depth
 from the general  desert plateau-level 
to the floor of the excavation is rather
 less  than a hundred metres4 ,thus1    
though commonly called the 8little      
oasis0 in contradistinction to the still
 larger areas of ,farafra1  ,kharga and 
,dakhla1 ,baharia is of considerable    
size1 covering in all  over #a1hjj      
square kilometres4 ,within the          
excavation1 and rising up  from its     
floor1 in some cases to a greater height
 than the bounding  scarps1 are numerous
 hills1 the larger generally having flat
 tops and  the smaller ones being more  
or less conical4 ,the cultivated lands1 
which lie almost entirely around the    
villages in the north part of  the      
oasis1 bear only a very small ratio to  
the entire oasis-area1  probably not    
exceeding in all1 including palm-groves1
 #aa square  kilometres2 the remainder  
of the floor is1 however1 by no means   
absolutely waterless or totally devoid  

of vegetation1 as numerous  springs     
exist in certain areas1 outside the     
cultivation-limits1  and desert grasses 
and scrub cover considerable tracts2    
extensive  salines1 now mostly nearly   
dried up1 are found in some localities4 
,it will be convenient to consider the  
topography of the oasis under  the      
following principal heads3--      #a4   
,the bounding escarpments2      #b4     
,the hills within the oasis2      #c4   
,the floor of the oasis1 including the  
villages1        hamlets and springs4   
,i4--,the ,bounding escarpments4--,at   
the most northerly point of the  oasis  
is a narrow extension some #d kilometres
 wide1 enclosing a  large black hill1   
,jebel ,horabi4 ,the portion of the     
scarp1 or wall1  which bounds this      
extension is lower and less steep than  
that  further south1 as the level of the
 oasis-floor rises considerably  towards
 the hill just mentioned4 ,the roads    
from ,feshn1 ,maghagha  and the ,fayum  
enter at the north-east point of the    

extension2  the descent is easy1 the    
fall from the plateau into the          
oasis-area  being about #gj metres1 with
 a further drop of some #cj metres just 
after passing ,jebel ,horabi4 ,at this  
latitude the depression opens  out      
considerably1 the escarpment on the one 
side trending to the  south-west1 while 
that on the other side turns a little   
east of  south2 about #h kilometres     
further on there is a sudden widening of
  the excavation1 the scarps retreating 
respectively east and west1  so that    
before the latitude of the villages is  
reached the oasis has  a width of some  
#bh kilometres4 ,between the latitude of
 the villages  and ,ain el ,haiss a     
marked difference in the two scarps is  
noticeable2  both curve round so as to  
enclose a wide oval area1 but while that
 on  the east side shows a comparatively
 smooth outline1 broken only by  a few  
small projecting headlands and gullies1 
the western bounding  wall displays a   
highly irregular shape1 long irregular  

tongues of  plateau being separated by  
wide or narrow 8bays40    ,on the east  
side1 the most considerable irregularity
 is near ,ain  ,gelid2 south-east of    
this spring the road from ,minia enters 
down a  gently-falling open sandy gully1
 with a long square-ended tongue of     
plateau to the south of it4 ,further    
south two other roads1 perhaps  branches
 of the one just mentioned1 enter by    
smaller gullies2 the  scarp here has    
become much less formidable than further
 north1 and  the top of the plateau is  
covered with countless small conical    
hills  of white chalk4 ,near the north  
end of the large hill-mass ,e4,n4,e4 of 
,ain el ,haiss1 the eastern scarp almost
 disappears1 the oasis-floor  having    
risen considerably2 it becomes more     
marked further on1 and  continues to the
 south1 though of no great height1 with 
limestone  ridges at its foot4 ,just    
south of the large hill-mass referred   
to1  the lower limestone ridges unite so
 as to form a regular escarpment1  which

 continues southward as the             
limiting-wall of the oasis1 the upper   
scarp now forming the edge of a higher  
plateau about a kilometre  away from the
 oasis-edge4 ,the two escarpments run   
almost parallel1  one forming a step    
above the other1 to the south end of the
 oasis2 the  lower one1 forming the     
oasis-wall proper1 is much more         
considerable  than the upper1 and the   
edge of the upper one is frequently     
broken  into hills4 ,small chalk-hills  
continue to cover the upper plateau4    
,from ,jebel ,horabi1 at the extreme    
north end of the depression1 the        
western wall1 or escarpment1 trends in a
 general direction of #cj  south of west
 for about #bj kilometres before it     
turns and runs some #e  kilometres      
south1 forming the prominent headland   
about #b kilometres  north-west of ,el  
,qasr4 ,this cliff1 probably the boldest
 part of the  whole oasis-wall1 attains 
a height of some #age metres above the  
lowest  part of the floor of the        

depression4 ,it is steep throughout and 
the  only practicable passes to the     
plateau above are through occasional    
gullies1 in which the slopes are of     
easier gradient4 ,the main caravan  road
 from ,el ,qasr and ,bawitti to ,mogara 
and ,alexandria gains the  plateau by   
the long narrow gully #f kilometres     
,n4,n4,w4 of ,el ,qasr4 ,to  the south  
of the headland1 #b kilometres          
north-west of ,el ,qasr1 the  escarpment
 runs back and forms a remarkable narrow
 bay1 running east  and west1 with an   
average width of only #d kilometres1 and
 extending  some #ah kilometres west of 
,el ,qasr4 ,this indentation is         
separated  from a much larger opening to
 the south by a long narrow promontory1 
or tongue of plateau1 barely a kilometre
 wide in places4 ,the extreme  point of 
this tongue is #i kilometres south-west 
of ,bawitti4    ,the large bay to the   
south is bounded on the north by the    
usual  steep wall of rock1 but this     
becomes much less prominent at the      

western extremity1 where the escarpment 
is low and easily accessible  to camels4
 ,a few kilometres out to the west is   
another escarpment of  white chalk      
trending irregularly in a ,n4,n4,e4 and 
,s4,s4,w4 direction4 ,an  old road1     
probably joining the main caravan road  
from ,bawitti to ,siwa  further west1   
runs up this bay and on to the plateau  
beyond4 ,numerous  large and small hills
 occur within the bay4 ,the southern    
cliff1  formed of dark brown or black   
ferruginous sandstones1 is remarkably   
irregular1 and quite different in       
appearance and weathering from  the     
northern wall4 ,the promontory to the   
south of this bay juts out  boldly into 
the oasis-area4 ,further south the      
escarpment recedes and  runs in the most
 irregular manner some #be kilometres   
south-west1  several times retreating to
 form well-marked indentations in the   
general line of cliff2 it afterwards    
trends #ae kilometres south-east  up to 
the prominent corner #d kilometres west 

of ,ain el ,haiss4 ,a  road from ,ain el
 ,haiss to ,siwa reaches the escarpment 
#ae kilometres  north-west of the       
spring1 passing up a gully of easy      
gradient to  the plateau4 ,about #g     
kilometres further on the chalk         
escarpment1  already mentioned1 is seen 
running ,n4,n4,e4 and ,s4,s4,w4         
,about the latitude of ,ain el ,haiss   
the east and west escarpments  approach 
each other considerably1 the width of   
the depression  narrowing from some #cf 
to about #ae kilometres4 ,this narrowing
  continues1 though more gradually1 to  
the southern extremity1 where  the width
 is only #d kilometres4 ,the western    
side1 south of ,ain el  ,haiss1 is      
formed of three separate scarps1 one    
behind the other1 the  outermost being  
that of white chalk which has already   
been referred  to4 ,on the east a second
 scarp of less height is found behind   
the  lower4 ,the height of the main     
scarp above the oasis floor at the      
southern end of the oasis is about #hj  

metres4    ,at the extreme south the    
main road from ,baharia to ,farafra     
ascends  up an easy gradient to the     
plateau above the lowest escarpment1    
the others being crossed further to the 
south4      ,the ,hills within the      
,oasis-excavation4--,the most striking  
feature  in the topography of ,baharia  
,oasis is the large number of hills     
within the area4 ,these hills impede the
 view1 so that from very  few points on 
the low ground can any extended outlook 
be obtained1  and they give to ,baharia 
an appearance entirely different from   
that  which characterises the other     
,egyptian oases4 ,for the most part     
these  hills have a black aspect1 due to
 the nature of the rocks 7ferruginous   
quartzites and dolerite7 capping them2 a
 few are reddish 7ferruginous  sandstone
 and ochreous clay72 others again are   
white 7limestone74    ,the most         
strongly-marked group of hills is that  
extending in a  nearly straight         
north-easterly direction a few          

kilometres south  of the villages4      
,forming a prolongation of the long     
tongue of the  west scarp already       
mentioned1 this line of hills almost    
cuts the  oasis in two4 ,the largest    
hill of the range1 ,jebel ,hefhuf1 a    
narrow1  ridge-like hill of limestone1  
has a black appearance at its northern  
end1 being here composed of dolerite2   
the others capped entirely by  brown    
limestone and partly swathed in         
accumulations of blown sand  are of     
lighter aspect4 ,they rise to a height  
of some #acj metres  above the level of 
the villages4    ,the large1 dark1      
dolerite-capped hill between ,el        
,qasr-,bawitti and  ,zubbo-,mandisha    
7,jebel ,mandisha7 divides the two main 
cultivated  tracts of the oasis from    
each other1 the road from ,mandisha to  
,el  ,qasr passing over its southern    
end4 ,a similar mass is ,jebel ,mayesra1
  the large triangular hill north of    
,jebel ,mandisha2 the blackness  of     
,jebel ,horabi1 in the north end of the 

oasis1 is1 on the other  hand1 due not  
to eruptive rocks but to the presence of
 iron ore in  considerable quantity4    
,the huge hill-mass near the east scarp1
 north of the latitude of ,ain  el      
,haiss1 is of blackened sandstone1 like 
most of the hills near it2  some of     
those west of it are1 however1 white1   
owing to a capping of  limestone1 and   
these stand out in striking contrast to 
the others4 ,no  purpose would be served
 by a detailed description of the       
smaller  hills2 their positions will be 
evident from the map 7,plate ,i71 and   
except in the case of the larger ones1  
there is a great monotony of  form1     
nearly all the smaller hills being      
conical4 ,one of the most  striking     
conical hills is seen near the west     
scarp in lat4 #bh  #bf ,n4 7#aj         
kilometres north-east from ,el ,qasr72  
this1 however1  is a limestone-capped   
hill1 thus differing from the numerous  
cones  in the south part of the oasis1  
which are mostly capped by hard dark    

ferruginous quartzites and sandstones4  
,the ,floor of the ,oasis4--,the lowest 
part of the oasis-floor  appears to be  
in the neighbourhood of ,el ,qasr1 where
 the altitude  above sea-level is about 
#aac metres4 ,mandisha lies somewhat    
higher1  and the hamlet of ,harra1 with 
the springs ,ain ,gelid and ,ain ,haswi 
lie on a level tract some #acd metres   
above sea-level4 ,ain el ,haiss1        
according to the ,survey's barometric   
comparisons with ,cairo1 has  an        
altitude of #aef metres above sea2 as   
,jordan's determination1  however1 gave 
only #abb metres1 there is some little  
uncertainty  about the actual altitude  
of this point4 ,as might be expected1   
the lowest parts of the oasis-floor are 
those where springs abound2  in the     
neighbourhood of the hills and          
escarpments there is always a  gradual  
upward slope towards the bases of the   
hills and plateau4 ,the  major part of  
the oasis-floor is flat or gently       
undulating ground  of sandstones and    

clays1 strewn with fragments of rock    
derived from  the hills2 large areas1   
however1 are overgrown with grasses and 
scattered bushes1 notably to the north  
and west of the villages1  in the       
neighbourhood of ,ain ,gelid1 south-east
 of ,jebel ,hefhuf1  and in the vicinity
 of ,ain el ,haiss2 while other         
extensive tracts  north of the villages1
 as well as south-east of ,mandisha and 
between  ,harra and ,ain ,gelid1 are    
covered by salty marshes1 now partly    
dried  up4 ,the white salty crusts on   
the ground at these places give them  a 
striking appearance1 like a slightly    
rough glittering sheet of  water4 ,the  
tracts north of ,zubbo and near ,harra  
still contain much  water and salty     
sludge2 travelling over them needs great
 caution1  as the dry crust will often  
support the weight of a man1 while a    
camel sinks through into the soft mire  
beneath4 ,sand-accumulations  do not    
cover such large tracts in ,baharia as  
in the southern oases2  there are1      

however1 some small dunes around the    
cultivated lands of  ,mandisha and      
,zubbo1 as well as on some of the       
hill-sides2 the dunes  support a scanty 
growth of tamarisk-bushes4    ,the      
principal villages of ,baharia are four 
in number1 all situated  near together  
in the north part of the oasis in ,n4   
lat4 #bh #ba  to #bh #bb4 ,they are     
separated into two groups by a large    
hill  7,jebel ,mandisha71 ,el ,qasr and 
,bawitti lying to the west1 and         
,mandisha  and ,zubbo to the east4 ,the 
,government officials reside at ,bawitti
  and ,el ,qasr4 ,according to the last 
census1#ca the population of the  oasis 
in #ahig was #f1jha divided among the   
four villages as follows3--      ,el    
,qasr      #a4gab      ,bawitti         
#a4gac      ,mandisha     #a4gih        
,zubbo          #hehcb    ,the males    
slightly outnumber the opposite sex4    
,the villages are small uninteresting   
collections of mud hovels1  surrounded  
by gardens1 palm-groves1 and cultivated 

lands4 ,besides  the cultivated tracts  
existing close around the villages1     
there  are others at points more or less
 distant from them1 tilled by men  from 
the villages4 ,such are seen1 for       
instance1 west of ,zubbo2  at ,ain      
,bayum1 a spring with a small cultivated
 area1 among the  sand-dunes #d         
kilometres north-east of ,zubbo1 where a
 clump of  date-palms forms a           
conspicuous landmark2 ,ain ,sini and    
,ain ,murun1  #g kilometres north-east  
of ,el ,qasr2 also some small tracts    
west of1  and a large area south-west   
of1 ,bawitti4 ,ain ,auena1 ,el ,ayun1   
and other  points marked on ,ascherson's
 map1 are probably within this last     
area4 ,taking the whole cultivated land1
 inclusive of palm-groves1  at #aa sq4  
kilometres1 the area per individual of  
population works  out to about #jdc     
feddans2 this figure is somewhat lower  
than  ,kharga 7#jef feddan7 and         
considerably less than that of ,dakhla  
7#adi74 ,while ,kharga exports          

practically nothing1 ,baharia does a    
considerable export trade with the ,nile
 ,valley1 principally in dates1         
although not on so large a scale as     
,dakhla4    ,in and near the villages   
springs are extremely numerous2 the     
water  is met with at shallow depths1   
and does not require1 as in ,kharga and 
,dakhla1 deep-bored wells4 ,it is led   
from its sources along underground      
aqueducts1 which date from the ,roman   
occupation2 a description of  these will
 be found in the chapter on antiquities 
7p4 #gc-hj74 ,no  attempt was made by   
the survey to map or number the wells   
and springs  within the vicinity of the 
villages2 they are mostly concealed in  
the palm-groves and gardens4 ,the water 
is slightly ferruginous1  and frequently
 warm1 bubbles of carbon dioxide rising 
with it4 ,at  ,bawitti1 the largest     
spring is cold1 but one close by it is  
warm1  although none approach the high  
temperature of the ,dakhla wells4 ,one  
of the principal sources of water in    

,mandisha1 is a well1 situated  near the
 cemetery1 #g metres deep and timbered  
with palm trunks2  the temperature of   
the water is #bf ,c4 7air #ab ,c471 and 
when  freshly drawn it is turbid with   
bubbles of carbon dioxide4#cc    ,the   
process of cleaning out wells and boring
 fresh ones in ,baharia is  done with a 
very simple apparatus1 an iron jumper   
about #a metres in  length1 #e          
centimetres diameter1 worked by a rope  
passing through an  eye at one end1     
being the only boring-tool used4        
,cleaning out wells  is carried on by   
this tool in conjunction with the 8fass0
 7a  sort of blunt adze used universally
 for digging operations in ,egypt7  and 
a rude basket-apparatus for the removal 
of sand and sludge4 ,the  upper part of 
the hole having been excavated by the   
8fass10 the  jumper is worked by hand1  
no tripod or other frame being erected2 
the sludge is raised by a small basket  
of plaited grass1 fitted on  to the     
lower end of the jumper1 lowered into   

the hole by a rope1  the sand settling  
in the basket after jumping the iron    
tool1 with  the basket attached1 within 
the well4 ,the hole is generally made   
#ge centimetres diameter1 and sinking is
 said to go on at the rate  of  metre   
per hour1 ten men being employed1 who   
relieve each  other4 ,it does not       
appear1 however1 that this apparatus is 
capable  of sinking new wells1 being    
only used for cleaning out old ones2    
most of the water used is derived from  
ancient ,roman adits4    ,the water from
 a single spring often supplies several 
land-owners2  the usual method of       
distribution is by means of a wooden    
weir1 in  the upper edge of which       
rectangular notches are cut1 each       
individual  being entitled to the water 
which flows through a certain number of 
notches4 ,as a rule1 the springs are    
banked up at night1 so that the  water  
accumulates in a large pool near1 and is
 allowed to run on to  the fields in the
 daytime4    ,taxation in ,baharia and  

,farafra is based on the land cultivated
 and  not1 as in ,kharga and ,dakhla1 on
 the water4 ,date-palms1 are taxed  #ae 
milliemes per annum4 ,the numbers of    
trees at the #ahig assessment  were1    
apricots1 #d1hfc2 olives1 #e1cgj2 palms1
 #ic1jjj1 or about fifteen  of the      
latter per inhabitant4#cd ,the great    
article of produce in  the oasis is     
therefore dates1 and at the             
date-gathering season the  inhabitants  
are busily employed in gathering1 drying
 and packing the  fruit for export to   
the ,nile ,valley4 ,three-fourths of the
 whole date  production are exported4   
,the dates are of excellent quality1 and
 find  a ready sale1 the villages of the
 oasis being crowded with camels and    
traders from the valley each ,november4 
,a camel-load of dates1 packed  in two  
plaited-grass bags1 is bought in the    
oasis for #ejj milliemes1  and is said  
to be sold in the ,nile ,valley for four
 times that sum1  so that the ,beduin1  
to whom the trading is almost wholly    

confined1  even allowing for            
difficulties of transport1 make a good  
profit4    ,though dates are the only   
fruit exported1 olives1 apricots1       
grapes1  pomegranates1 oranges1 lemons1 
and figs are grown in great numbers1    
and about #fjj feddans are cultivated   
with rice1 wheat and barley  crops4     
,clover is sown after the rice crop is  
gathered4 ,the area of  land cultivated 
for cereals is said to be slowly        
diminishing year by  year1 having been  
#ijj feddans fifteen years ago2 the     
decrease is put  down to a diminished   
yield from the springs1 owing to their  
becoming  sanded and choked up1 but for 
this the inhabitants are themselves     
largely to blame1 as they do not take   
sufficient measures to keep the  wells  
free4 ,it may be that water has been    
diverted to the palm-groves1  these     
furnishing the saleable article4 ,it    
will be apparent1 from the  figures     
already given1 that palm-groves cover   
the greater portion  of the irrigated   

land around the villages4    ,the public
 health of the oasis is far from good4  
,though free from the  opthalmia which  
is so prevalent in the ,nile ,valley1   
the inhabitants  suffer much from fevers
 and gastric disorders1 and according to
 the  ,government doctor virulent       
epidemics of small-pox occasionally     
visit  the place4 ,the low standard of  
health is partly attributable to the    
bad quality of the water1 but is        
probably highly aggravated by the       
swampy ground found in many localities4 
,it is also noticeable that  no trouble 
is taken to protect the drinking-water  
from contamination4    ,besides the four
 principal villages already mentioned1  
small  settlements exist at ,mandisha   
,aguza1 #b kilometres east by south from
  ,mandisha2 at ,harra1 a tiny hamlet   
#ad kilometres east of ,mandisha2  at   
,ain ,jafarra1 #f kilometres south of   
,mandisha2 and at ,ain el ,haiss1  in   
the south part of the oasis4 ,the       
populations1 etc41 of these  outlying   

settlements are included in the figures 
given above for  the chief villages4    
,mandisha ,aguza consists of a group of 
mud dwellings aggregated  round a low   
sandstone eminence1 surrounded by a     
small cultivated  tract4 ,ascherson     
records that in #ahgf the inhabitants   
still spoke  the ,siwa dialect among    
themselves4 ,cailliaud had already      
remarked in  #ahbj that the spot was    
peopled by colonists from ,siwa4 ,harra 
consists  of about half a dozen hovels1 
sheltering a population which cannot    
exceed fifty1 with several springs and  
palm-groves1 and a small  tract of      
cultivated land4 ,the principal spring  
is marked by a large  pool of clear     
water1 about #dj metres in diameter1    
lying in a slight  depression to the    
south of the houses2 the water has a    
temperature  of #bd ,c4 7hotter than the
 air74 ,there is plenty of water at this
  place1 and more can easily be got by  
digging to a small depth4    ,at ,ain   
,jafarra there is only one house1       

tenanted by a single  family4 ,at least 
two springs exist here1 one being near  
the house  and the other at a distance  
of some #gjj metres to the east2 the    
water from the latter spring is led by a
 long canal to the small  palm-grove and
 patch of cultivated land near the      
house4 ,the water1  though somewhat     
saline1 is drinkable4    ,ain el ,haiss 
is an important point on the road from  
the villages of  ,baharia to ,farafra4  
,it lies some #dj kilometres ,s4,s4,w4  
from ,bawitti1  in about lat4 #bh #b    
,n41 long4 #bh #ci ,e4 of ,g4 ,it is a  
small  settlement1 being tenanted at the
 time of survey by only three or four   
men4 ,there are two springs1 one at a   
higher level than the other4 ,the  upper
 spring is close to the house occupied  
by the inhabitants2  the water1 which   
has a temperature of #ae4f ,c4 7i4e4 #c 
warmer  than the air at the time of     
measurement7 is collected into a shallow
  muddy pool1 surrounded by a mud dam1  
whence it flows westward on  to the     

fields4 ,the lower spring forms a pool  
of about #djj square  metres in extent1 
the temperature of the water here being 
#ad ,c4 ,it  is situated about #djj     
metres south-west of the one just       
described1  and like it serves for      
irrigation4 ,rice was the crop growing  
at  the time of our visit4 ,the total   
irrigated area at ,ain el ,haiss is     
about #fj or #gj feddans1 and there are 
only a few palms4 ,besides the  house   
there is a sheikhs' tomb1 which is an   
object of veneration  in the oasis1 a   
small walled-in garden1 and a large     
ruin2 the last  named will be described 
among the antiquities of the oasis4     
,another  small cultivated tract1 some  
#ae or #bj feddans in extent1 with at   
least one spring1 exists about #c       
kilometres north-west of ,ain el        
,haiss4 ,according to ,jordan there are 
two springs here1 named ,ain  ,hassab   
and ,ain el ,gharb1 owned in #ahgd by   
the ,kadi of ,el ,qasr1  but the place  
is usually spoken of as ,ain el ,haiss  

el ,bahari4    ,east of ,ain el ,haiss  
are two considerable patches of         
cultivated  land which were mapped from 
the east scarp1 and thus not examined   
by the survey4 ,of these1 the most      
northerly one is situated about #i      
kilometres east of ,ain el ,haiss2      
according to ,ascherson it bears the    
name of ,tablemun1 and its principal    
spring had a temperature of #bg  ,c4    
,the ruins of a ,coptic village existing
 here show that the place  was inhabited
 in early times4 ,it lies some #e       
kilometres ,s4,s4,w4 from  ,tablemun1   
and about #g kilometres ,e4,s4,e4 from  
,ain el ,haiss1 and thus  forms the most
 southerly cultivated spot in the oasis4
 ,both these  localities were reported  
by our men1 sent there to obtain water1 
to be untenanted2 the lands are         
doubtless cultivated by men sent  from  
,ain el ,haiss or from the villages for 
the purpose4 ,a long line  of sand-dunes
 and scrub runs ,s4,s4,w41 hiding these 
places from a  traveller approaching    

from ,ain el ,haiss4    ,besides the    
springs at the inhabited spots above    
described1 and  those used for irrigated
 lands more or less near to them1 there 
are  numerous outlying springs1 which1  
while not serving for irrigation1  are  
important as localities where water may 
be obtained4 ,the chief  of these are   
,ain ,gelid1 on the road from ,minia and
 ,samalut1 #c  kilometres south-east of 
,harra2 ,ain ,haswi1 #i kilometres due  
south  of ,harra1 to which two roads    
from the east scarp converge2 ,ain      
,beled1  #g kilometres west of ,bawitti2
 and ,ain ,khaman1 half-way between ,ain
 el  ,haiss and the south point of the  
oasis4 ,the water at ,ain ,khaman is    
said to be bitter and the spring is     
apparently frequently sanded-up  and    
difficult to find1 so that travellers to
 ,farafra should take in  their supplies
 at ,ain el ,haiss4                     
99 99 99 99 99      ,footnote #ca3      
,recensement gnral de l'gypte1 tome     
,,iii1 #ahif4    ,footnote #cb3         

,includes about #ej inhabitants of the  
hamlet of ,harra4    ,footnote #cc3 ,a  
bottle of the water tightly corked burst
 shortly  afterwards by gaseous         
pressure2 the bottle having been filled 
at  the bottom of the well doubtless    
accounts for this1 the pressure  due to 
the head having caused solution of the  
gas to a greater  extent than could be  
supported at the surface4 ,the evolved  
gas was  at first suspected to be       
methane1 as there is frequently a great 
deal of decaying vegetable matter in the
 mouths of the wells2 but  it           
extinguished a taper1 and1 moreover1 the
 water runs too rapidly  for any        
accumulation of gaseous                 
decomposition-products to take place4   
,footnote #cd3 ,in ,dakhla and ,kharga  
,oases there are only seven and  a half 
and eight trees respectively per        
inhabitant4                             
,,chapter ,v4                           
99 99 99 99 99                          
,,geology ,,of ,,the ,,oasis4           

,sidenote3 ,previous geological work4   
,the earliest geological observations   
made in ,baharia ,oasis appear to  have 
been those of ,cailliaud1#ce who visited
 the district in #ahbj1  and recorded   
the occurrence of volcanic rocks within 
the depression4    ,in #ahgd the        
celebrated ,rohlfs ,expedition was      
organised1 and in  that and the         
succeeding year traversed large portions
 of the ,libyan  ,desert4 ,the work of  
this ,expedition1 forms indeed1 the     
basis of our  knowledge of the geology  
of ,egypt generally4 ,the eminent       
geologist  and palontologist of that    
,expedition1 ,karl ,a4 ,zittel1 did not1
  however1 visit ,baharia1 and the only 
information with regard to  the geology 
of this oasis was derived from specimens
 collected by  ,prof4 ,ascherson4 ,after
 examining these1 ,zittel stated#cf that
 the  floor of the oasis consisted of   
sandstones1 marls1 etc41 presenting a   
considerable resemblance to the lower   
part of the ,overwegi stage2#cg  but    

concluded1 that as they were succeeded  
at a very short interval  by ,nummulitic
 ,limestone1 precluding the possibility 
of the higher  ,cretaceous beds1 except 
in a very attenuated form1 they must be 
of  ,tertiary age4    ,in #ahid1 ,capt4 
,h4 ,g4 ,lyons1 ,r4,e41#ch visited      
,baharia1 and #e miles  ,n4,n4,e4 of    
,zubbo discovered a bed containing small
 examples of  ,exogyra4 ,these were     
examined by ,prof4 ,zittel and referred 
to as  undersized specimens of ,exogyra 
,overwegi ,beyr4#ci ,this discovery  of 
,capt4 ,lyons' thus showed the series to
 be undoubtedly of ,upper  ,cretaceous  
age4    ,in the latest edition of ,prof4
 ,zittel's map1 the depression was      
shown as consisting of ,cretaceous beds 
surrounded by an ,eocene  plateau1 which
 was also supposed to separate it from  
the oasis of  ,farafra to the south4    
,sidenote3 ,geological ,survey1         
,oct4-,dec4 #ahig4    ,a glance at      
,plate ,i will be sufficient to show    
that the work of the  ,geological       

,survey has resulted in large and       
important additions to our  knowledge of
 this oasis4 ,the ,eocene is seen to    
form the surrounding  plateau only on   
the north2 while the ,cretaceous1       
consisting of several  well-marked      
divisions1 occupies not only the        
depression itself1 but  forms part of   
the surrounding plateaux on the east and
 west sides1  and is continuous with    
that of ,farafra to the south4          
,moreover1 the  relations of the two    
great formations of ,cretaceous and     
,eocene are  now shown to be those of   
unconformability and overlap4 ,the      
actual  extent of volcanic rocks and    
post-,eocene lacustrine deposits1 the   
latter a newly-discovered and important 
series1 is now shown for  the first     
time4#dj ,important folding has been    
detected and numerous  organic remains  
have been discovered4    ,the deposits  
met with in the district admit of       
classification as  follows3--           
,,recent4                        #a4    

,sand-dunes1 salines1 and superficial   
deposits4                               
,,post ,,eocene 7,,oligocene874         
#b4  ,basalt and ,dolerite intrusions4  
#c4  ,ferruginous sandstones and        
quartzites1 with                        
limonite and pisolitic iron-ore1        
probably                                
lacustrine in origin4                   
,,eocene 7,,middle-,,lower47            
,,lower ,,mokattam-  #d4  ,limestones   
with ,nummulites1 ,operculina1          
,,upper ,,libyan4       ,echinids1      
,lucina1 etc4                           
,,upper ,,cretaceous4      ,,danian     
#e4  ,thick-bedded ,white ,chalk and    
grey                         crystalline
 limestone4      ,,cenomanian           
7,some ,,turonian   #f4  ,limestones and
 variegated sandstones4    or           
,,senonian74         ,,cenomanian       
#g4  ,sandstones1 clays and marls4      
,these groups will now be dealt with in 
succession1 commencing with  the oldest4
                                 ,,upper

 ,,cretaceous4                          
,,cenomanian4      #g4--,sandstones1    
,clays and ,marls--,these1 the lowest   
and oldest  beds1 form the floor and    
parts of the walls of the depression4   
,they  are best developed and exposed in
 the north end1 where their maximum     
thickness is about #agj metres2 the base
 of the series is not seen1  and thus   
their total thickness cannot be         
estimated4 ,in the north  part of the   
oasis they are capped1 with apparent    
conformability1 by  ,eocene limestones1 
although an intervening band of         
limestone-grit  may occasionally occur4 
,in the south1 the series is followed by
  the higher ,cretaceous divisions1     
while in the isolated hills within  the 
depression these beds are capped either 
by ,eocene limestones1  by basalt or    
dolerite1 or by ,post-,eocene           
ferruginous sandstones  and quartzites4 
,they consist of friable false-bedded   
variegated sands and sandstones1  with  
harder dark-brown ferruginous bands1    

alternating with sandy  shales and      
clays1 passing through every gradation4 
,some of the  sandstones are micaceous4 
,the clays are frequently saliferous1   
and bands of fibrous gypsum  are        
occasionally seen4    ,large well-formed
 groups of barytes crystals are         
occasionally found  in the sandstones of
 the oasis-floor1 and hard thin         
vein-like masses  of a sandstone1 in    
which the cementing material is barytes1
 are  frequently met with in the eastern
 part4 ,the weathering of these  veins1 
which are evidently produced by the     
action of infiltrated  solutions in     
cracks1 gives rise to the peculiar      
spheroidal belted  nodules which often  
strew the ground1 and of which the      
existence  has been already mentioned by
 ,ascherson and ,zittel4    ,although   
these strata are1 as a rule1            
unfossiliferous1 organic  remains are   
common in certain beds1 and especially  
in the dark-brown  ferruginous          
concretionary bands of the sandstones4  

,the commonest  form is ,exogyra1       
individuals of which are found crowded  
together  in some bands2 in most cases  
they are pseudomorphs in ironstone4     
,in the hills between ,mandisha and ,el 
,bawitti this series consists of  soft  
false-bedded variegated sands and       
sandstones with ferruginous  bands1     
alternating with sandy shales1 the whole
 locally showing a  slight westerly dip 
of between #c and #g4 ,some of the      
sandstones  contain flakes of colourless
 mica4 ,the whole series is capped and  
protected by a hard bed of dolerite1    
which has been intruded along  a bedding
 plane into the series1 and now forms   
the summit of these  hills4    ,the     
following section was measured about #d 
kilometres west of  ,mandisha--         
,top4                                   
,metres4             ,more or less      
columnar dolerite1 much broken up       
by weathering4                          
#aj             ,sandstones1 sandy      
clays2 unfossiliferous                  

#fe             ,ferruginous sandstone  
with casts of ,exogyra2                 
sandrock and sandstone1 with ferruginous
           unfossiliferous bands        
#aj    ,the section is much obscured by 
downwash and talus of angular  fragments
 of dolerite1 sand1 shale1 etc4 ,this   
downwash of shale and  clay is often    
covered by a hard coating of salt and   
sand cemented  together1 sometimes      
having the appearance of regular beds4  
,the following is a detailed section    
measured at the well-marked  isolated   
conical hill near the western           
escarpment1 #aj kilometres  north-east  
of ,el ,qasr 7,see ,plate ,i47 ,the     
series is here capped by  #f metres of  
nodular and hard compact limestone with 
,nummulites1  ,operculina1 ,lucina1     
etc41 of ,lower ,eocene 7,libyan series7
 age4      ,top4  7,hard compact        
limestone with ,nummulites1 etc41       
,metres4             ,eocene74          
,shaly clays with ferruginous bands1    
occasionally            containing      

,exogyra shells2 alternations of shales 
and shaly sandstones4                   
#gd              ,soft shaly and crumbly
 sandstones1 with many hard             
ferruginous bands and shaly clays4 ,in  
the sandstone            occur solid    
vertical rods of ironstone #e           
centimetres in diameter1 with concentric
 structure    #baj              ,gray   
marls with plant-stems and leaves       
#ae              ,yellow sandstone1     
well-marked thick compact bed1          
false-bedded                            
#aae              ,hard ferruginous band
 with fish-remains                #jb   
,gray shales                            
#ae              ,soft beds of crumbly  
sand1 harder sand-rock1 with            
clayey layers and ferruginous bands     
#fj              ,shaly clays with      
dark-red ferruginous sandy layers1      
with gasteropod and ,exogyra shells4    
,green shaly            sandstone on    
top1 and gray sandy clays below         
#afj              ,white and gray-bedded

 sand-rock                        #ij   
,obscured beds1 one containing small    
,exogyra and            gasteropods4    
#aej              ,shaly sandstone with 
hard reddish nodular                    
ferruginous bands containing gasteropods
            and ,exogyra4               
#ce              ,sandy beds1 hidden by 
downwash                         #fj    
,ferruginous bands containing ,exogyra  
casts                                   
#bjj            ,sandy shaly clay1      
false-bedded1 with white                
sand-rock4 ,plant-remains               
,bed of white sand-rock                 
#aj              ,thinly laminated gray 
shale                            #bj    
,reddish-brown nodular ferruginous band 
#jb              ,sandy or clayey beds1 
obscured by downwash                    
#ij            ,sandy clay              
,sandy beds with dark-brown ferruginous 
bands          #acj                     
,sandstone with hard ferruginous bands1 
full of ,exogyra                        

#fj              ,sandy bed1 crowded    
with well-preserved            ,exogyra 
shells                                  
#jb              ,yellow sandy clay with
 numerous ,exogyra casts        #cj     
,dark carbonaceous shale with obscure   
plant-remains                           
#aej            ,sandy beds with        
bone-fragments                          
-----    ,floor of ,oasis4              
#afhjda    ,at the extreme north end of 
the depression the cliffs and the lower 
part of the conspicuous dark hill1      
,jebel ,horabi1 are composed of  shales1
 clays and sandstones belonging to this 
series4 ,the cliffs  are capped by      
,eocene limestone-grits and limestone as
 in the section  just described4 ,the   
upper part of ,jebel ,horabi1 however1  
consists of  a mass of ironstone1 often 
coarsely pisolitic1 with some limonite1 
and red and yellow ochre4 ,this iron-ore
 appears to replace the sandy  beds more
 or less irregularly at the base1 but   
the great mass of  mineral above is     

probably a later and quite distinct     
deposit4 7,vide  under ,post-,eocene74  
,traces of shells occur in places4      
,in the isolated1 limestone-capped hill 
7,plate ,i71 #f kilometres  north-west  
of ,ain el ,haiss 7the northern spring7 
these beds are more  fossiliferous than 
usual4      ,top4  7,limestone1 the     
basal bed of the intermediate series74  
,limestone1 the basal bed of the        
intermediate series4              ,sandy
 beds with hard brown ferruginous       
concretionary               bands1      
containing numerous casts of ,cyprimeria
                   7,artemis87 ,arca1   
,cuculla1 ,odostomopsis                 
abeitrensis1 ,baculites aff4 syriacus1  
and                     ,neolobites     
,vibrayeanus                            
#ej m4            ,clays1 often shaly   
,hard ferruginous sandstone with pockets
 of                         clean white 
sand                                    
,numerous other sections at different   
points were examined and  measured4     

,such a series is naturally very        
variable1 and individual  beds do not   
maintain their characters over wide     
limits1 so that  correlation of         
different sections is not possible1     
except in the  roughest manner4    ,in  
the southern part of the depression     
fossils are more frequent1  otherwise   
the beds are very similar4    ,the      
series under consideration is by no     
means poor in organic remains1  although
 the latter are more or less restricted 
to certain bands  and localities4 ,no   
doubt most of the fossil shells have    
been removed  by solution1 etc41 as     
those now existing are generally        
preserved as  pseudomorphs in limonite4 
,the following is a list of fossils     
which have been obtained from  this     
series3--#db      ,cuculla sp4          
,odostomopsis abeitrensis4              
,arca sp4                  ,natica sp4  
,exogyra flabellata4       ,baculites   
7syriacus87                             
,e4 mermeti4               ,neolobites  

vibrayeanus4                            
,venus 7,artemis87 sp4    ,fish-teeth   
and bones4      ,silicified wood and    
plant-remains 7including leaves of      
,dicotyledons74    ,as regards the age  
of these beds1 it has already been      
mentioned  that the discovery of        
,exogyra by ,capt4 ,lyons some years    
ago1 in  the basal bands of the series1 
showed them at least to be ,cretaceous1 
although their correlation with the     
,overwegi stage1 on the supposition     
that the specimens collected were       
referable to ,e4 ,overwegi1 is now      
shown to be inadmissible4 ,the fairly   
extensive assemblage of organic  remains
 obtained from this and the overlying   
series enables the age  of the beds to  
be determined with accuracy1 and ,dr4   
,blanckenhorn1  who had the first       
opportunity of making a careful         
examination of  the collection1 has     
pronounced them to be ,cenomanian4#dc   
,the general lithological character of  
the beds and the prevalence  of         

false-bedded sandstones containing in   
places silicified wood  and             
plant-remains1 including leaves of large
 trees1 point to the  conclusion that   
the beds of this series were deposited  
in fairly  shallow water1 perhaps in an 
estuary1 at no great distance from  the 
land4      #f4--,limestones and         
,variegated ,sandstones4--,in the walls 
of  the south end of the oasis1 the     
series just described is always         
overlain by a bed of hard1 and usually  
more or less crystalline1  limestone4   
,this limestone forms the lowest member 
of the series  now under discussion4 ,at
 the extreme southern end of the oasis1 
on the western side1 this basal         
limestone forms a narrow platform1  of  
only some #bjj metres width1 separating 
the respective escarpments  of the two  
series #f and #g4 ,on the same side     
further north the upper  escarpment is  
usually further back1 and in some       
localities the beds  do not form a      
single well-marked escarpment at all4   

,the series also occurs forming a line  
of hills within the depression1  these  
hills owing their existence to a        
remarkable syncline1 by which  the beds 
in question have been folded down to the
 level of the floor  of the depression4 
,the beds of the series form1 as a rule1
 a well-marked group1  individual beds  
often being traceable for great         
distances and  correlable in different  
parts of the oasis4    ,the group as a  
whole consists of alternations of brown 
limestone#dd  7with grey crystalline    
varieties7 and variegated sandstones and
  clayey beds4 ,a typical section1 as   
exposed on the west scarp in  ,n4 lat4  
#bg #ec1 is as follows3--      ,top4    
7,buff-coloured limestone and white     
chalk of           ,metres4             
,division #e47                #a4  ,soft
 brown sandstones and sandy beds1       
much obscured                           
#gf                #b4  ,sandy beds1    
passing up into a very hard grey        
concretionary sandstone1 showing        

ripple-marks      #df                #c4
  ,thin-bedded dark sandstones1 mostly  
very hard      #ae                #d4   
,hard compact thick-bedded grey         
sandstone1                  very        
concretionary1 false-bedded             
#ba                #e4  ,shaly sandy    
beds with ferruginous concretions       
#ae                #f4  ,brown impure   
limestone                               
#jf                #g4  ,soft variegated
 sandy beds and sandstone           #ij 
#h4  ,rather friable buff-coloured      
sandstone1 more                  or less
 false-bedded1 with peculiar            
iron-staining                           
#fj                #i4  ,gray rather    
concretionary sandstone1 with           
dark-brown ferruginous bands            
#cj               #aj4  ,brown          
crystalline limestone with calcite1     
passing into harder grayish crystalline 
limestone1 flinty at top                
#fa               #aa4  ,gray marls and 
shaly clays                         #cj 

#ab4  ,brown crystalline limestone      
#jf                                     
----                                    
#def      ,base4  7,sandstones and clays
 of ,division #g47    ,in ,jebel        
,hefhuf1 the long narrow ridge-shaped   
hill a few kilometres  south-east of ,el
 ,bawitti 7,plate ,,vii71 the beds of   
this series are  implicated in the fold1
 and are found tilted at angles of #cj  
and #dj  degrees4 ,they here consist of 
a considerable thickness of crystalline 
limestone1 calcareous grits1 shaly clays
 and sandstones2 the softer  beds always
 form a gully between the harder4       
,the following were noticed at a point  
about #g kilometres from the  western   
end of the ridge3--      ,top4          
,metres4               ,calcareous grit1
 usually siliceous1 with bones          
7often a true bone-bed74                
,sandy clays1 etc41 with silicified     
wood#de                                 
,thick-bedded brown sandstone1 siliceous
 and             #ba                    

ferruginous in part4                    
,green and gray iron-stained sandy clays
                                        
,thick-bedded brown crystalline         
limestone                               
,brown crystalline limestone with       
calcite cavities             near base  
#bd                                     
--    ,base4                            
#de      ,below come the clays and      
sandstones of the lowest series1 ,no4   
#g4    ,in the section above1 the       
limestones are usually too crystalline  
to  show any traces of organic remains1 
although numerous casts of shells  occur
 at certain points4 ,the calcareous     
grit1 a very well-marked  bed1 has been 
observed at points widely distant within
 the oasis2  in places it is a true     
bone-bed1#df often highly siliceous and 
passing into a hard quartzite4 ,its     
occurrence here1 at the top of  the     
,cenomanian series and below the ,white 
,chalk 7to be described  later7 is of   
great interest1 as its position shows it

 to be probably  homotaxial with the    
bone-beds of ,dakhla ,oasis#dg and the  
,eastern  ,desert1#dh where they are of 
,campanian age4 ,the bone-beds on this  
horizon must thus have been deposited   
over an enormous area4    ,if followed  
round from the south end of the oasis   
along the east  scarp1 the beds of this 
division are found to gradually become  
more and more calcareous1 consisting    
often almost entirely of  limestone1#di 
and to dip more and more to the         
south-east1 till in the  neighbourhood  
of the large sandstone-hill near the    
scarp in latitude  #bh #e1 where the    
tilting reaches its maximum1 they dip at
 #de  and partly disappear under the    
sandy covering of the ground between    
the hill and the scarp4 ,further north  
the dip grows less and the  beds        
re-appear1 forming the top of the main  
scarp at the oasis-edge4    ,the organic
 remains in ,division #f include        
ammonites1 echinids1  with ,ostrea1     
,exogyra and masses of ,serpul2 fossil  

wood  and fragments of bone also occur4 
,these fossils are in places  abundant1 
some bands being almost entirely formed 
of the shells of  ,exogyra4 ,the        
ammonites1 although apparently          
specifically identical  with those of   
the lower series1 attain a much greater 
size4 ,the  assemblage of forms and the 
prevalence of bands of limestone point  
to deeper water conditions than the     
foregoing underlying series4    ,the    
following is a list of forms obtained as
 far as determined3--                   
,rhabdocidaris1 probably nov4 sp4       
,diplopodia marticensis4                
,heterodiadema libycum4                 
,toxaster radula4                       
,hemiaster lusitanicus 7roachensis87    
,serpula 7,galeolaria7 filiformis4      
,pinna1 probably nov4 sp4     ,corbula  
sp4                                     
9999,inoceramus cripsi4                 
9999,natica sp4                         
,ostrea sp4                   ,tylostoma
 syriaca4                               

,exogyra flabellata4                    
,turritella nov4 sp4 aff4 nodosa4       
,e4 olisiponensis4                      
9999,turritella sp4                     
,e4 mermeti4                  ,cerithium
 sp4                                    
,plicatula ,reynesi4                    
,pterodonta aff4 inflata4               
,spondylus 787                ,murex4   
,modiola sp4                9999,fusus  
sp4                                     
,cardium sp4                9999,drillia
 pleurotomoides4                        
,isocardia sp4                          
,nautilus ,munieri4                     
9999,pachydiscus peramplus4             
,neolobites vibrayeanus4    ,footnote   
99993 ,indicative of a somewhat later   
age than ,cenomanian4    ,the above     
fauna taken as a whole has a decided    
,cenomanian aspect1  although some of   
the forms 7marked 99997 are indicative  
of a somewhat  later age1 i4e41         
,turonian and ,senonian4 ,as the next   
bed above is  the ,danian ,white ,chalk1

 it is probable that some of the upper  
beds  of this series form a transitional
 stage between the ,cenomanian and      
,danian4 ,the presence of the bone-bed1 
as already mentioned probably  of the   
same age as the ,dakhla and ,eastern    
,desert bone-beds1 i4e41  ,campanian1   
supports this view4 ,in any case1       
however1 the great  thickness of beds1  
of ,senonian-,danian age1 of the        
southern oases of  ,dakhla and ,kharga1 
including the bone-beds1 the ,exogyra   
,overwegi  series and the ash-gray      
shales1 is here apparently only         
represented  by a few metres of         
deposits4                               
,,danian4      #e4 ,thick-bedded ,white 
,chalk and grey crystalline             
limestone4--,this  series conformably   
overlies the upper member of the last4  
,on the  west side the chalk forms a    
well-marked1 snow-white1 tortuous       
escarpment1 lying at a considerable     
distance 7#e to #aj kilometres7  from   
the oasis-wall4 ,towards the south1     

however1 it approaches the  depression1 
its escarpment following immediately    
above and behind that  of the underlying
 series4 ,south of the extreme end of   
the depression  proper1 the chalk       
escarpment forms a long narrow bay1 the 
furthest  point of which is #bj         
kilometres distant4 ,thence it runs     
northwards1  so that to the south-east  
of the depression the beds of the series
 are  seen at some little distance from 
the oasis-edge1 but further north  they 
appear to come to the edge and to       
overlie the brown limestone  as part of 
the main scarp in the neighbourhood of  
the large hill  already mentioned in    
latitude #bh #e ,n41 where the strata   
dip so  steeply into the plateau4 ,there
 is some difficulty in correlating the  
beds of this group on the two sides of  
the oasis1 for while on the  west they  
are chalky and in places fossiliferous1 
being only in part  altered to a        
crystalline limestone1 on the east1     
doubtless owing to  the folding which   

produced the strong dipping already     
referred to1  they are almost entirely  
composed of hard crystalline and horny  
greyish-white limestone1 apparently     
devoid of fossils4 7,vide p4 #fj74      
,within the depression it is probable   
that the ,white ,chalk is  represented  
in part by some of the hard gray        
crystalline limestone  in the synclinal 
fold of ,jebel ,hefhuf4    ,on the west 
and south-west sides of the depression  
the ,white ,chalk  covers a considerable
 area1 which is characterized by its    
rough  surface and by numerous          
depressions1 some of considerable size1 
eroded by wind-borne sand4 ,to the south
 it extends to ,farafra1  being         
continuous with the chalk of that oasis4
    ,lithologically1 on the west side of
 the oasis1 the series is  represented  
by a thick-bedded1 snow-white1 pure     
foraminiferal chalk1  #cj to #de metres 
thick1 partly altered in the upper part 
into hard  gray crystalline limestone4  
,it was probably deposited in water of  

considerable depth4    ,on the west side
 of the depression the ,white ,chalk    
yielded a fair  assemblage of           
fossil-remains1 the chief among which   
were great numbers  of corals4 ,in the  
upper part ,nautili are occasionally met
 with1  while ,spirorbis1 ,pecten1      
,grypha1 fragments of ,inoceramus  and  
other shells are fairly common4 ,in     
addition echinids occur  sparingly and  
sharks' teeth are seen here and there4  
,one of the  best fossil localities is  
#bd kilometres north of ,ain el ,haiss4 
,the following is a list of those       
obtained3--      ,closmilia4            
,exogyra overwegi4                      
,linthia nov4 sp4       ,pecten         
farafrensis4                            
,spirorbis4             ,spondylus nov4 
sp4 aff4 ,s4 ,dutempleanus4             
,inoceramus4            ,nautilus sp4   
,grypha vesicularis    ,corax           
pristodontus4    ,as regards the age of 
this ,white ,chalk the fossil facies has
 a very  young ,cretaceous aspect4      

,zittel#ej has already shown that the   
,white  ,chalk of the ,libyan ,desert1  
studied by him in ,farafra1 ,dakhla and 
,kharga1 is ,danian1 and the identity of
 the chalk of ,baharia with  that of    
those oases was satisfactorily proved on
 the traverse from  the latter oasis to 
,farafra4    ,the ,white ,chalk brings  
our description of the ,cretaceous      
series of  ,baharia to a close4 ,as will
 be shown1 it is overlain unconformably 
by  ,eocene deposits4 ,throughout the   
deposition of the ,cretaceous in this   
area it is clear from the character of  
the beds that the sea-floor  had been   
continually sinking4 ,after the         
deposition of the white chalk           
subsidence probably ceased and the area 
became one of elevation1  the           
,cretaceous beds rising to form land4   
,during this elevation much  folding    
must have taken place1 and subsequently 
gradual subsidence  set in until in     
,lower ,eocene times the area again     
became marine and  the deposition of the

 rocks now to be described began to take
 place4                                 
99 99 99 99 99                          
,,eocene4                       ,,upper 
,,libyan--,,lower ,,mokattam4#ea        
#d4 ,limestones with ,nummulites and    
,operculina4--,in the north part  of the
 oasis1 both in the walls and in the    
isolated hills within  the depression1  
the lower ,cenomanian beds1 the         
8,sandstones1 clays  and marls10 are    
directly overlain by buff-coloured or   
yellowish  limestone of ,eocene age1    
containing ,nummulites1 ,operculina1    
,ostrea1 etc4 ,the beds of the two      
series being horizontal1 the  junction  
is one of apparent conformability1 but  
in many localities the  base of the     
,eocene is marked by a bed of           
limestone-grit1 indicating  the break in
 continuity of deposition which is known
 to have occurred  from the respective  
ages of the beds in question and from a 
study  of the same beds further to the  
south4    ,in a traverse across the     

plateau to the west of ,bawitti1        
,operculina-limestones with nummulites  
were found to form the surface  of the  
desert4 ,again on the traverse from     
,maghagha to the oasis1  already        
described1 no ,cretaceous beds were     
crossed1 so that the  plateau ,n4,n4,e4 
and ,n4,w4 of the northern end of the   
oasis is entirely  formed of ,eocene    
rocks4 ,on the east side1 however1 no   
certain evidence  of ,eocene age in the 
beds capping the scarp has been found   
south  of the fault which cuts the scarp
 as the prolongation of the sharp       
syncline of ,jebel ,hefhuf4    ,further 
south1 on the west side1 a very         
dissimilar succession was  found to that
 on the north4 ,here at a distance of   
#bj kilometres from  the oasis wall1 at 
a point #cj kilometres north-west of    
,ain el ,haiss1  the uppermost member of
 the ,cretaceous1 the ,white ,chalk     
itself1  is overlain by a hard gray     
crystalline limestone containing an     
abundance of ,nummulites and            

,operculina1 with ,lucina1 ,fusus  and  
,natica4 ,the actual junction of the two
 series is here difficult  to detect1 as
 the ,white ,chalk is itself altered in 
its upper part  into a hard gray        
crystalline limestone1 simulating the   
,eocene beds  themselves1 and there is  
little difference of dip between the two
  series4 ,the following foraminifera   
have been determined from this  locality
 by ,mr4 ,f4 ,chapman3--#eb             
,textularia8 gramen        ,n4          
discorbina                              
,globigerina bulloides     ,n4          
sub-discorbina                          
,operculina complanata1    ,orbitoides  
7,discocycloides7     var4 discoidea    
dispansa 7,o4 dilabida1 ,schwager74     
,nummulites gizehensis1       var4      
,pachoi                                 
,n4 curvispira               ,within the
 synclinal fold at one point 7,plate    
,,vii71 #ag kilometres  north-east of   
,ain el ,haiss1 ,eocene echinids and    
nummulites were  found1 but the beds    

from which they had weathered had been  
almost  completely removed by           
denudation4 ,the echinids have been     
recognized  by ,blanckenhorn as the     
following3--      ,porocidaris          
,schmedeli4      ,echinocyamus luciana4 
,sismondia ,smanni4    ,the following   
two species of nummulites have been     
determined by  ,chapman3--              
,nummulites ,beaumonti4      ,n4        
sub-,beaumonti4    ,sidenote3 ,beds of  
east side of depression4    ,in the     
scarp due north of ,harra1 the          
,cenomanian sandstones and clays  with  
,exogyra mermeti and ,e4 africana are   
conformably overlain  by a hard yellow  
crystalline limestone containing small  
nummulites2  so that here the ,eocene   
clearly overlies the ,cenomanian beds4  
,if this  upper limestone bed be        
followed southwards along the scarp 7see
 the  sections on ,plate ,,viii7 it     
appears to be continuous as far as the  
road leading to ,ain ,haswi1 where the  
ground forming the bottom of the        

oasis-depression rises to the level of  
the limestone1 and the clays  are       
completely hidden by sand and           
limestone-debris4 ,there commences      
here1 however1 a considerable thickening
 of the limestones1 and hard  brown     
limestones1 with calcite-filled         
cavities1 and some soft earthy  beds    
come in2 so that here we have the       
beginning of the series 7,no #f7  which 
has been described as recurring on the  
opposite scarp in the  same latitude1   
and which forms the hills north-west of 
,harra4 ,the  topmost bed of the scarp  
is a hard crystalline limestone1 which  
appears continuous with that containing 
nummulites further north1  and the top  
of the plateau is therefore probably    
here also ,eocene4 ,a  little further   
south1 the plateau-surface is covered   
with countless  small hills of white    
chalky limestones with siliceous beds2  
these  beds were searched without result
 for fossils1 but as they overlie the   
hard crystalline rock1 above mentioned  

as probably ,eocene1 they must  be of   
,tertiary age1 and therefore do not     
correspond with the ,danian  white chalk
 of the western plateau4 ,as the large  
hill near the plateau  east-north-east  
of ,ain el ,haiss is approached1 the    
thickening of the  lower crystalline    
brown and grayish-white limestones is   
very marked1  and here they probably    
comprise both ,cenomanian and ,danian   
rocks2 but  the dip south-eastward is so
 strong that the ,eocene must be close  
to  the edge of the plateau1 while the  
folding doubtless accounts for the      
crystalline nature of the rocks and     
their poverty in fossils4 ,south of  the
 large hill1 a second plateau is met    
with at a distance of about a  kilometre
 eastward from the main scarp2 this     
second plateau consists  of soft chalky 
beds similar to those above-mentioned1  
underlain by  clays and sandstones1     
while the main scarp still exhibits     
brown  and grayish crystalline          
limestones1 though both the dip and the 

thickness of these beds become gradually
 smaller4 ,as the south point  of the   
oasis is approached the limestones thin 
out1 till at the end  only a few beds of
 hard yellow-brown limestone occur in   
the clays2  these beds are continuous   
with those containing ,cenomanian       
fossils  on the west plateau4 ,thus at  
the south-east portion of the scarp the 
,danian is either absent1 or represented
 by very thin beds at a little  distance
 from the oasis4 ,it might be suggested 
that the soft chalky  limestones which  
form the second or upper plateau        
correspond with  the ,danian white chalk
 of the west side2 but several          
considerations  tend to negative this   
view4 ,in the first place1 it has been  
mentioned  above that similar soft      
chalky limestones occur at about the    
same  horizon further north1 where they 
overlie beds which are probably         
,eocene4 ,again1 on the line followed   
from the south end of the oasis  of     
,minia1 nummulites were found in        

abundance only a few kilometres  away   
from the oasis4 ,and lastly1 these      
chalky limestones never show  folding   
comparable with that of the lower beds1 
a fact which seems  nearly conclusive in
 view of the unconformity known to exist
 at  other points between the           
,cretaceous and the ,eocene4    ,if the 
,eocene age assigned above to the chalky
 limestones of the  eastern plateau be  
correct1 it is possible that the clays  
and  sandstones which underlie and      
separate them from the ,cretaceous      
limestones may represent the ,esna      
,shales of the more southern oases1     
though sandstones are elsewhere absent  
from this series4      ,unconformity and
 overlap4--,from the above description  
of the  ,eocene rocks of ,baharia we see
 that their relation to the underlying  
,cretaceous system is one of            
unconformable overlap4#ec ,in the north 
part of the oasis we have the ,eocene   
7,up4 ,lib4-,low4 ,mok47 overlying      
directly the lower beds of the          

,cenomanian2 further south1 on the      
west1 the same beds overlie the ,white  
,chalk of ,danian age1 and no  doubt at 
an intermediate point the ,eocene       
overlies the intermediate  beds4 ,on the
 east side1 though the actual           
demarcation of the ,eocene  and         
,cretaceous beds is a matter of some    
difficulty1 the difference  of dip      
between the two systems in some         
localities is well marked4    ,it seems 
certain then that after the deposition  
of the ,cretaceous  beds in this region1
 elevation took place with a            
considerable amount  of folding 7which  
will be noticed fully further on74 ,the 
land thus  formed underwent a marked    
denudation before subsidence took it    
below  the surface of the sea and       
allowed of the deposition of the ,eocene
  deposits just described4              
,,post-,,eocene 7,,oligocene874      #c4
 ,ferruginous grits and quartzites1 with
 limonite and pisolitic  iron-ore4 ,as  
already mentioned1 one of the most      

striking  topographical features of the 
oasis is the number of isolated  black1 
and for the most part perfectly conical1
 hills within  the depression4 ,these   
hills are composed of the lower         
,cenomanian  sandstones and clays of the
 ,cretaceous1 and owe their existence   
and dark colour to protecting caps of   
very hard1 dark1 ferruginous1           
silicified grits and quartzites1 often  
associated with limonite4 ,the  first   
impression obtained on examining these  
rocks1 is that they are  merely         
silicified and ferruginous bands of the 
sandstone series below1  which forms the
 general oasis-floor and part of the    
walls and hills4    ,a careful          
investigation of the deposits over a    
large area1 however1  shows this view to
 be untenable2 for while in most of the 
isolated  conical hills within the      
depression1 the beds in question cap the
  lower sandstones and clays 7,no4 #g7  
of the ,cenomanian1 on a portion  of the
 edge of the western plateau they cap   

the bed of limestone  7basal member of  
,no4 #f7 which itself caps the lower    
sandstones and  clays4 7,plate ,i74     
,there must therefore be an             
unconformable overlap  below the two    
series4    ,this is further borne out by
 the facts1 first1 that the ferruginous 
silicified grit has never been observed 
to pass under the limestone  in the     
walls of the oasis1 although found      
capping hills in close  proximity2 and  
secondly1 that the limestone never      
occurs below  the ferruginous silicified
 grit in the isolated conical hills4    
,the  former would happen if the deposit
 in question represented the top  of the
 sandstones and clays1 the latter if it 
represented the next  bed above the     
limestone4    ,furthermore1 these beds  
are found capping hills close to the    
oasis-wall1 and occurring on exactly the
 same level as the limestone  capping   
the latter1 suggesting at first sight   
some sort of connection  between the    
two2 the beds are1 however1 so entirely 

different that  it is not possible to   
imagine the one to be an altered        
condition  of the other2 moreover1 if   
such were so1 the gradual passage of    
limestone to the ferruginous beds should
 be visible1 but such has  never been   
observed4    ,the only possible view of 
the origin of these beds1 consistent    
with the above facts1 is that they      
represent a far younger deposit  than   
the strata on which they lie1 a deposit 
formed in fact in a  slight depression  
in the ,eocene and ,cretaceous rocks1   
long anterior  to the time when erosion 
was carving out the area to its present 
form4 ,the pisolitic character of the   
iron-ore of ,jebel ,horabi and  the     
usually large amount of ferruginous     
material1 as well as the  general       
character of the beds1 indicate         
shallow-water lacustrine  deposition and
 precipitation4 ,no organic remains have
 as yet been  observed in these         
deposits4    ,it should be mentioned    
here that it is frequently impossible to

  draw any sharp of line of demarcation 
between these deposits and the          
undoubted ,cenomanian sandstones below1 
when they rest on the latter  in the    
hills within the depression4 ,the       
sandstones themselves are  frequently   
ferruginous and limonitic in their upper
 layers4 ,this1  however1 is easily     
explained on the supposition that there 
would have  been considerable           
infiltration into these porous          
sandstones forming  the lake-floor1 with
 consequent deposition of ferruginous   
material4    ,lithologically the beds in
 question present a considerable        
similarity  to the quartzites and hard  
ferruginous sandstones of ,jebel el     
,ghudda  and ,gar el ,hamra on the road 
from ,feshn to the oasis 7ante1 p4 #ah1 
#bj71 and also to the beds of ,jebel    
,ahmar1 near ,cairo1 and in parts  of   
the ,fayum4 ,in the absence of evidence 
of their precise age1  they may be      
provisionally classed as ,oligocene4    
,sidenote3 ,jebel ,horabi4    ,a short  

description of these beds in a few      
special localities will  now be given4  
,this well-marked hill1 situated at the 
extreme northerly end  of the           
depression1 consists of a mass of       
ferruginous material1  including        
limonite1 pisolitic iron-ore1 red and   
yellow ochre1 etc41  lying on a series  
of sandy shales1 clays and sandstones   
belonging  to the ,cenomanian 7,series  
,no4 #g74 ,thin bands of limonite1 etc41
  occur in the clays and sandstones1 but
 the great mass of mineral  appears to  
form a distinct deposit capping1 and in 
part replacing1  the former4 ,the       
iron-ore occurs in every stage of       
purity4    ,samples from ,jebel ,horabi1
 analysed by ,mr4 ,a4 ,lucas1 gave the  
following results3--      ,pisolitic    
ironstone       ,ferric oxide  #ehfh    
#dajg iron4      ,limonite              
#hajf  #ehhd      ,sidenote3 ,isolated  
hills in centre of ,oasis4    ,these    
hills all show the same characters1 with
 the exception of one  or two capped by 

limestone or basalt4    ,they consist of
 sandstones1 with occasional shales and 
clayey bands1  of the ,cenomanian series
 7,no4 #g7 capped by a hard brown or    
black  silicified ferruginous grit1     
which frequently passes into a typical  
quartzite4 ,this cap may be of any      
thickness up to some seven or eight     
metres4 ,its junction with the          
sandstones below is generally obscured  
by the mass of talus lying on the       
slopes1 but where visible it is         
difficult to draw any line of           
demarcation between the two1 there      
being in some cases a more or less      
gradual increase of hardness and        
ferruginous material from the upper part
 of the sandstones upwards4 ,in  one    
hill an ordinary yellow sandstone was   
observed1 when followed  up1 to contain 
an increasing number of ferruginous     
concretions1  at first in isolated      
lumps1 or strings1 but higher in such   
quantity  as to present the appearance  
of a breccia1 which latter gradually    

passed up into a hard dense mass of     
ferruginous quartzite4 ,this  at first  
sight suggested a similar age for the   
whole rock-section1  but would be quite 
explicable on the supposition of        
infiltration1  as suggested above4      
#b4--;,basalt and ,dolerite4--,three    
large hills in the north-west  of the   
oasis1 notably ,jebel ,mayesra1 ,jebel  
,mandisha1 and the  northern half of    
,jebel ,hefhuf1 are capped with a basic 
volcanic  rock1 the existence of which  
was noted by ,cailliaud#ed so long  ago 
as #ahbj4 ,ascherson#ee further studied 
the distribution of  this rock in #ahgf1
 and collected specimens which were     
carefully  examined later by ,prof4     
,zirkel4#ef ,the latter diagnosed the   
rock  as a typical plagioclase-basalt1  
strongly resembling that of the         
,giant's ,causeway2 it is finely        
holocrystalline1 containing augite1     
plagioclase and olivine1 with some      
magnetite and ilmenite1 and very        
sparing flakes of biotite2 the          

resemblance of the rock to basaltic     
intrusions in ,tripoli and at ,abu      
,zabel 7between ,cairo and ,bilbeis7  is
 remarked on by ,zittel and ,ascherson1 
and the opinion that it was  intruded   
into the sandstones in later ,tertiary  
times is put forward4    ,the basaltic  
intrusions occur at four separate points
 in the oasis1  representing two more or
 less inclusive areas2 the total area   
covered  by the rock is about #ad square
 kilometres4 ,the intrusion appears  to 
have been in the form of laccolites2 in 
,jebel ,hefhuf the basalt  is           
intrusively interbedded in the          
,cenomanian1 between the lower          
sandstones and the overlying limestone1 
both of which rocks show  distinct signs
 of contact-metamorphism4 ,the sandstone
 shows generally  very little           
alteration1 though in some places much  
hardened2 while the  limestone is highly
 crystalline and of a beautiful red     
colour near the  igneous rock4 ,the     
crystalline nature is1 however1 more due

 to folding  than to                    
contact-metamorphism1 as it occurs in   
all the limestones of  the              
neighbourhood4 ,in several places the   
vertical pipes1 up which  the molten    
mass was thrust1 with disturbance of the
 sandstone1  can be traced2 and dykes   
are occasionally seen near the edge of  
the  deposits4 ,the section seen in     
,jebel ,mandisha is as follows3--       
,top4                                   
,metres4              ,columnar basalt  
and dolerite1 much broken up by         
weathering                              
#ib              ,sandstones1 clays and 
sandy shales                      #fdj  
,ferruginous sandstones with casts of   
,exogyra                  7thin bed7    
#ib                                     
,sand-rock and sandstone with           
ferruginous bands                       
----                                    
#hbd    ,in a small -shaped hill in lat4
 #bh #df ,n41 long4 #bh  #dh ,e4 of ,g4 
a mass of basalt occurs which appears to

 be mainly  the remains of a large pipe 
or 8neck40 ,the igneous rock here  shows
 flow-structure at the sides1 being hard
 and crystalline  in the centre4 ,it has
 altered the sandstones at the contact  
very considerably1 converting them into 
a greenish rock full of  chalcedony4    
,here1 as in the other deposits1 the    
basalt shows distinct  columnar jointing
 and the resulting blocks weather into  
spheroidal  masses where exposed4       
,the igneous rocks of ,baharia are      
therefore ,post-,cretaceous in age  and 
it seems reasonable to assume1 as       
suggested by ,mayer-,eymar1#eg  that    
they are of ,lower ,oligocene age1      
contemporaneous with the  basalt-sheets 
of the ,fayum1 of ,abu ,roash and the   
desert to the  west1 and of ,abu ,zabel4
 ,the andesite neck passed on the road  
between  ,maghagha and the oasis 7p4    
#bb7 and the larger masses of ,bahnessa 
and  other places in the ,western       
,desert were likewise probably erupted  
at the same time4                       

,,recent4                               
#a4--,,sand-,,dunes1 ,,salines ,,and    
,,superficial ,,deposits4      ,blown   
,sand1 carried along by the prevailing  
north and north-west  winds1 is heaped  
up against all obstacles in its path1   
such as hills  and vegetation2 sometimes
 it is carried over these obstacles1    
only  to fall and accumulate in the     
wind-shadow on the other side4 ,the     
cultivated lands of the villages are for
 the most part surrounded  by           
sand-accumulations1 and some low dunes  
occur in various parts of  the oasis2   
the positions of the latter will be     
better gathered from  the maps than from
 any mere description4 ,baharia itself  
is more free  from sand than any of the 
oases to the south of it1 but even here 
the deposits of this material are very  
considerable1 and as already  mentioned 
extensive sand-dunes occur on the desert
 to the east1  at a short distance from 
the depression4      ,salt-swamps occur 
in the north of the oasis1 having       

probably been  produced by the          
overflowing of springs forming lagoons1 
which have  taken the salt from the     
surrounding clays1 the water from the   
springs  only containing a small        
percentage of salt4 ,the salt-swamps    
round  ,mandisha are now covered with a 
thin rough dry white crust of salt      
mixed with clay and sand2 when this is  
broken through a salty sludge  is seen  
to exist below1 sometimes in a quite    
liquid state2 the depth  of sludge is   
probably not very great1 but there is   
enough to immerse  a camel up to its    
neck1 as was found by experience during 
the survey4      ,clays4--,sandy clays  
of recent origin occur at isolated spots
 on  the floor of the oasis1 notably    
near ,ain el ,haiss1 where they are now 
being rapidly removed by the action of  
the wind4 ,many of the springs  are also
 depositing a certain amount of clay on 
the low ground4                         
,,the ,,tectonics ,,of ,,the ,,oasis4   
,the rocks of the district have         

undergone a considerable amount of      
disturbance along certain lines4    ,the
 most important fold is a well-marked   
syncline beginning at the  west scarp in
 lat4 #bh #g ,n4 and running across the 
depression in  a direction #cj north of 
east until it strikes the eastern       
escarpment  in lat4 #bh #bc4 ,this      
synclinal fold is remarkably sharp1 the 
width  being generally only a few       
hundred metres1 but the dips so strong  
as to bring the limestone beds nearly   
vertical in places4 ,along the  line of 
fold we find the whole of the series #f 
and #g brought down  to the level of the
 floor of the oasis1 but on either side 
the beds  so quickly regain their       
horizontal position that no trace of the
  folding is to be seen 7,plate ,,vii74 
,the ,white ,chalk in these folds  is   
always altered by pressure into a hard  
crystalline limestone1  as are also the 
limestones of the ,cenomanian below4    
,the fold is not  actually continuous   
across the area1 but is in reality made 

up of a  number of long narrow          
ellipsoidal depressions1 or cup-shaped  
hills1  in which the end-dips are always
 less strong than those of the  sides4  
,at its most southerly point1 where it  
runs into the scarp  #ad kilometres     
north-west of ,ain el ,haiss1 the two   
series #f and #g  are found dipping     
northwards at angles up to #dj 7and at  
one spot  #gh74 ,on the other side of   
the fold the same beds dip southwards   
at only #e1 and the appearance of the   
fold at this point suggests  the        
existence of an accompanying fault 7fig4
 #a74    ,illustration3 ,fig4           
#a4--,section across ,syncline1 #ab     
kilometres  ,n4,w4 of ,ain ,haiss4    a4
 ,shales and sandstones with ,exogyra1  
,arca1 ,cucullaea1  etc41 ,neolobites   
vibrayeanus1 etc4 b4 ,hard crystalline  
limestone  with flints4 c4 ,sandstone   
passing into hard quartzite4 d4         
,variegated sandstones with bands of    
sandy limestone4 e4 ,hard  dark-brown   
siliceous crystalline limestone4 f4     

,calcareous grit  7 bone-bed7 passing in
 part into sandstone1 and capped by hard
  crystalline limestone with shells4    
,between this point and ,jebel ,hefhuf  
the fold is marked by a line  of low    
isolated limestone-capped1 cup-shaped   
hills1 the largest and  best marked of  
which is #af kilometres north of ,ain el
 ,haiss4 ,here the  maximum dip amounts 
to #ee on the western side of the       
basin-shaped  hill4    ,jebel ,hefhuf   
is1 perhaps1 the most striking part of  
the fold4 ,the  southern portion owes   
its existence entirely to this syncline1
  consisting as it does of a long1 and  
remarkably narrow1 ridge-shaped  hill of
 folded rocks4 ,dips of #ej and #fj are 
common in places1  and the limestones   
implicated in the fold are usually      
rendered hard  and highly crystalline4  
,the highest crystalline limestones in  
,jebel  ,hefhuf probably represent the  
,white ,chalk1 but the beds are too     
crystalline to show any traces of       
fossils4    ,it is noteworthy that all  

the basaltic rocks of the oasis occur on
 the  north-west side1 and at no great  
distance from this syncline4 ,to the    
north-east of ,jebel ,hefhuf the line of
 fold passes apparently between  the    
range of elongated hills west of ,harra 
and the larger somewhat  triangular hill
 to the north of it1 and although the   
limestones and  clays of these hills    
show a considerable amount of folding   
they do  not exhibit it in so striking a
 manner as ,jebel ,hefhuf4              
,continuing the line till it cuts the   
last scarp1 we arrive at a  prominent   
sandstone headland1 in the gullies on   
either side of which  the folding can be
 very well seen4 ,to the west of the    
headland the  beds are thrown sharply up
 in the valley so as to be nearly       
vertical2  this up-throw has resulted in
 an actual fault1 the denuded edges of  
the vertical sandstone and clay-beds    
being overlain by a horizontal  bed of  
limonite4 ,the nose of the promontory is
 of sandstone1 this  being thrown up    

somewhat on the south-east side of the  
fault2  the upper sandstone and clay    
beds dip south-east again somewhat      
sharply on the face of the headland and 
come down to the level of the  oasis    
floor4 ,it would seem therefore that at 
this point we have the  syncline between
 two sharp anticlines1 the north western
 of which  has culminated in the fault4 
,the southern end of the oasis is cut   
out in a well-marked gentle  anticline4 
,on the west side from ,ain el ,haiss   
southwards the whole succession  of     
,cretaceous rocks dip steadily to the   
north-west at from four to  five        
degrees1 while those on the east scarp  
show an equally constant  dip to the    
south-east1 which increases further     
north1 till in the  neighbourhood of    
lat4 #bh #e its magnitude reaches #de2  
it becomes  gradually less further      
northwards4 ,owing to this strong       
tilting of the  beds1 the large hill    
near the scarp consists entirely of     
sandstones  and clays with a cap of     

quartzite and limonite1 although nearly 
or quite as high as the scarp2 the beds 
here recover their nearly  horizontal   
position at a very short distance       
north-west of the line of  folding1 as  
do also those of the plateau on the     
other side the line4    ,besides the    
above-described disturbances of the     
beds1 there are some  smaller local     
disturbances which are extremely        
well-marked4 ,thus  for instance the    
large flat-topped hill in ,n4 lat #bh #g
 and  ,e4 long4 #bh #dh1 like several   
smaller hills ,e4,s4,e4 of it1 bears  a 
cap of limestones1 although its height  
is less than that of the  sandstone     
hills around it4 ,the section of this   
hill at its western  side is as         
follows3--      ,top4                   
,metres4              ,silicified       
limestone                               
#jf              ,hard impure chalk     
#bd              ,silicified limestone  
#ab              ,pale green soft sandy 
and clayey limestone               #fa  

,sandy ferruginous conglomerate         
#jc              ,clays with sandy and  
ferruginous layers1            extending
 to oasis floor4                        
approximately  #bbj                     
----                                    
#cbf    ,the beds are horizontal1 and   
the neighbouring smaller hills which    
possess a similar limestone covering are
 precisely of the same  height4 ,it     
would seem impossible to account for    
these limestone  caps in the midst of   
higher sandstone hills except by        
assuming that  they mark the positions  
of islands1 subsequently denuded1 in the
  post-,eocene lake which deposited the 
limonite caps on the other hills2  at   
the same time they evidently represent  
part of a synclinal fold1  though the   
horizontal position and non-crystalline 
character of the  beds show that this   
syncline must have been wide and        
shallow4 ,it is  scarcely possible to   
think there can have been a locally     
calcareous  deposit from the lake which 

generally deposited the sandstone and   
limonite2 the sudden transition from the
 black sandstone and limonite  of the   
surrounding hills to the snow-white     
limestones of those under  consideration
 is so strongly marked in the field as  
to forbid such  a supposition4 ,at the  
same time1 no fossils were found in the 
beds1  so they cannot be satisfactorily 
correlated with the limestones of  the  
oasis-scarps1 and they are of somewhat  
variable character at  different points 
of the hill4    ,it is evident then that
 in the south part of the depression the
  ,cretaceous beds as a whole form a    
large flat anticline1 which is          
continuous with that of ,farafra to the 
south4#eh ,this bears out  the statement
 of ,capt4 ,h4 ,g4 ,lyons1#ei some years
 ago1 that he  believed ,baharia and    
,farafra ,oases to lie on an anticlinal 
at right  angles to that of ,dakhla and 
,kharga4 ,the anticlinal and synclinal  
folds of ,baharia are parallel and were 
evidently produced by the  same         

earth-movements4    ,sidenote3 ,age of  
the folding4    ,within the oasis-area  
too1 some other traces of folding are   
visible2  in lat4 #bh #aa ,n41 long4 #bi
 #a ,e4 are two small hills of clays    
and sandstones 7the latter locally green
 in colour71 the beds of which  dip     
about #cj ,e4 and ,w4 respectively1     
showing a local anticline  whose axis   
runs nearly north-and-south4 ,in this   
neighbourhood1 as  in the oasis         
generally1 it is not possible to trace  
the folding in  the beds of the low     
ground1 owing to its thick sandy        
covering4    ,another point of          
disturbance is on the western plateau in
 ,n4 lat4 #bh  #bf1 ,e4 long4 #bh #di1  
some #aa kilometres north-west of ,el   
,qasr4 ,here 7,fig4 #b7 along a ,n4,e4  
and ,s4,w4 line1 crossing an otherwise  
level plateau1 the ,eocene beds1 and    
probably also the ,cretaceous  below1   
are thrown up in a sharp anticlinal     
fold1 which however1 is  not continuous 
but consists of a number of isolated    

bulges1 with dips  up to #ej4 ,the      
plateau at this point consists of       
,eocene ,operculina  and ,nummulitic    
limestone1 and the effect of the        
anticlinal fold is  to expose the beds  
of sandstone below1 which1 as already   
mentioned1  are probably ,cretaceous4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--,sketch       
showing probable relations of ,eocene   
and ,cretaceous in anticline on ,western
 ,desert plateau1 #aa kilometres  ,n4,w4
 of ,el ,qasr4    ,,eocene4--#a4 ,grey  
crystalline limestone4 #b4 ,hard white  
gritty  chalky limestone4 #c4 ,grey     
calcareous sandstone4 #d4 ,limestone    
with  ,nummulites and ,operculina4      
,,upper ,,cretaceous4--#e4              
,calcareous-grit4 #f4 ,white  sandstone4
 #g4 ,crystalline limestone4 #h4        
,cenomanian clays  and sandstones with  
,exogyra flabellata1 ,e4 ,mermeti and   
,e4 olisiponensis1 etc4    ,with regard 
to the age of the tectonic movements    
which produced the  synclinal and       
anticlinal folds of ,baharia1 it must be

 admitted that  it is not easy to speak 
with absolute certainty1 owing to want  
of  evidence at one or two points4 ,it  
appears certain1 however1 that  they    
belong to two great movements1 separated
 by a vast interval in  time4 ,the first
 disturbance of the beds would appear to
 have taken  place at the end of the    
,cretaceous period1 when it seems       
probable  that the area in question     
underwent upheaval into dry land4 ,it   
seems tenable that it was during this   
movement that the large flat  anticline1
 so well seen in the south part of      
,baharia and in the north  of ,farafra1 
was produced1 as the ,eocene beds       
forming the plateau  immediately to the 
east of the ,cretaceous beds do not show
 any sign of  disturbance4#fj ,the      
subsiding ,cretaceous land1 on which    
these ,eocene  deposits were laid down1 
must therefore have had the form of a   
long1  flat1 irregular ridge of         
anticlinal structure1 probably extending
  from ,dakhla through the oases of     

,farafra and ,baharia to ,abu ,roash4   
,the other folds of ,baharia1 being     
parallel to the anticline just  dealt   
with1 would at first sight appear to    
date from the same  movement4 ,with     
regard to the syncline1 however1 two    
observations  appear which force us to  
consider its age as very much later2    
these  are1 first1 the occurrence of    
nummulites and other ,eocene fossils    
within the fold at a point #af          
kilometres north of ,ain el ,haiss1  and
 secondly1 the fact that at the northern
 extremity of the fold1  where it meets 
the eastern scarp1 the ,eocene beds are 
affected4 ,with  regard to the first of 
these1 the beds themselves1 from which  
the  fossils had been derived1 were not 
observed to be actually affected  by the
 fold1 and therefore the evidence here1 
although suggestive1  is not conclusive4
 ,the evidence at the north end of the  
fold1  however1 if substantiated1 proves
 that the age of the fold must be       
post-,eocene4 ,with regard to the       

anticlinal fold on the north-western    
plateau there is no question1 as this   
clearly affects the ,eocene  beds2 it   
also is parallel to the other folds4    
,these folds affecting  ,eocene beds1   
lead us to the conclusion that there was
 another period  of possibly ever more  
important earth-movements1 of the exact 
date of  which we cannot be certain1    
although it is not impossible that it   
was  closely connected with those great 
earth-movements of ,pliocene times1     
which gave rise to the chief topographic
 fixtures of ,n4,e4 ,africa  and ,s4,w4 
,asia4      ,sidenote3 ,summary4        
,summary of the ,geological ,history of 
the ,oasis4--,the oldest#fa  sedimentary
 deposit in ,egypt is the ,nubian       
,sandstone of the  ,cretaceous4 ,from   
the general absence of marine shells in 
this rock  we may premise that the      
deposit was laid down in an inland sea  
or  lake1 which must have covered an    
enormous extent of country4 ,in the     
northern part of ,egypt the upper part  

of the ,nubian ,sandstone becomes       
fossiliferous1 the fauna having an      
undoubted ,cenomanian aspect2 this  is  
the case in ,wadi ,araba1 at ,abu ,roash
 and in ,baharia4 ,further to  the      
south1 however1 as in ,dakhla1 the      
,nubian ,sandstone first becomes        
fossiliferous in ,senonian times4 ,we   
may explain this difference  in the two 
localities on the supposition that a    
gradual subsidence  was taking place    
with a corresponding gradual            
encroachment of the  sea from the north1
 which covered the northern part of the 
country  7including ,wadi ,araba1 ,abu  
,roash and ,baharia7 in ,cenomanian     
times  but did not reach the latitude of
 ,dakhla till considerably later1  i4e41
 in ,senonian times4    ,from the       
,cenomanian onwards throughout the      
,cretaceous1 the  ,baharia area was one 
of continued subsidence1 the            
lithological and  palontological        
characters of the beds showing evidence 
of a gradual  increase in conditions of 

depth1 until the maximum was reached in 
the deposition of the ,white ,chalk in  
,danian times4    ,between the          
deposition of the uppermost ,cretaceous 
rocks and the  ,eocene it is probable   
that a considerable interval elapsed1   
during  which the ,cretaceous was       
elevated into land1 with much folding   
and fracturing of the rocks and         
subsequent denudation4#fb ,it was       
probably during this upheaval that the  
,cretaceous of ,baharia assumed  its    
anticlinal structure4    ,subsequently1 
subsidence taking place1 the ,eocene sea
 submerged the  area1 and deposits were 
laid down on the uneven ,cretaceous land
 in an  unconformable and overlapping   
manner4 ,in ,baharia the lowest member  
of the ,eocene of ,egypt1 the ,esna     
,shales1 is not present1 although       
further to the south towards ,farafra it
 has been observed4 ,on the  east side1 
some sandstones and clays met with below
 the white chalk  beds of the outer     
plateau may belong to this division4    

,the first undoubted ,eocene deposits in
 the ,baharia area are the  limestones  
with ,operculina and ,nummulites which  
unconformably  overlie different members
 of the ,cretaceous in the north and    
west  sides1 and eastward of the south  
end4 ,the whole of the ,eocene deposits 
are here1 however1 only a few metres    
thick1 which contrasts strangely  with  
the enormous thickness of the deposits  
of the same age in the  ,nile ,valley4  
,this is intelligible1 however1 on the  
supposition that  near the subsiding    
,cretaceous land the conditions for     
continued  accumulation of deposits were
 not so favourable as further to the    
east1 where deeper water conditions     
obtained4    ,subsequently1 in          
,post-,eocene times1 the whole underwent
 upheaval1 and  it is probable that     
during this elevation the main synclinal
 fold#fc  was produced1 together with   
the minor anticline4 ,the evidence for  
placing the date of the formation of the
 syncline anterior to the  deposition of

 the ferruginous grits1 limonite1 etc4  
7,series ,no4 #c7  stands on the        
following basis3 the absence of proof of
 the folding in  question having        
affected the beds of ,series #c1 and the
 presence of a  horizontal deposit of   
limonite on the upturned edges of the   
strata1  at the point where the fold    
meets the eastern scarp 7page #ff74     
,about  the same time1 probably1 basalt 
and dolerite was intruded into the      
,cenomanian rocks below4    ,sidenote3  
,formation of depression4    ,as a      
result of the sharp folds the upper     
limestones were cracked1 and  their     
denudation by natural agencies followed1
 forming a slight hollow  similar in    
shape to that which the oasis now       
exhibits2 the agent of  denudation      
cannot be stated with certainty1 but    
whatever force came  into operation it  
would find easy work in the cracked-up  
rocks1 and  still easier would be its   
task in partly removing the soft        
,cenomanian  sandstones and clays after 

the harder limestones had disappeared4  
,the  primary excavation of the hollow  
was followed by the formation of a      
great lake1 in which were laid down     
deposits of sandstone1 quartzite1  and  
iron-ore2 this lake doubtless surrounded
 islands1 represented  to-day by those  
hills which still preserve their        
limestone-caps2  it extended1 or similar
 lakes existed1 beyond the oasis-limits1
  forming the quartzites and ferruginous
 sandstones passed on the  way from     
,maghagha to ,baharia1 and was perhaps  
continuous with the  ,oligocene and     
post-,oligocene sea which covered a     
large part of the  country to the north4
    ,in later times the area finally    
became continental and denudation       
gradually sculptured the oasis to its   
present form2 this sculpturing  would no
 doubt proceed rapidly in the moist     
climate which is known  to have existed 
in ,egypt in ,pliocene and early        
,pleistocene times1  and is being       
continued to-day by the powerful agency 

of the desert  wind-borne sand and      
changes of temperature4    ,the         
water-supply of the oasis is probably   
derived from the tropical  rains of the 
mountainous regions of ,central ,africa1
 the water from  which penetrates the   
ground and flows northwards along       
permeable beds  of sandstone1 etc41 in  
which it is confined by other           
impermeable  strata1 until tapped       
naturally or artificially in the great  
oases  or depressions of the ,libyan    
,desert4                                
99 99 99 99 99      ,footnote #ce3      
,voyage  ,mro1 etc41 op4 cit4           
,footnote #cf3 ,geologie1 u4            
,palontologie der ,libyschen  ,wste4    
,cassel1 #ahhc4    ,footnote #cg3       
,zittel had divided the ,cretaceous of  
the ,western ,oases  into the following 
main divisions3--      ,top4            
#a4  ,well-bedded limestone and earthy  
chalk4              #b4  ,greenish and  
ash-grey shaly clays4              #c4  
,beds with ,exogyra ,overwegi4          

,footnote #ch3 ,on the ,stratigraphy and
 ,physiography of the ,libyan  ,desert  
of ,egypt1 ,quart4 ,jour4 ,geol4 ,soc41 
,nov4 #ahid1 ,vol4 #ej1  p4 #ece4       
,footnote #ci3 ,letter from ,prof4      
,zittel to ,capt4 ,lyons1 dated ,may    
#aith1 #ahid4 ,it was afterwards        
suggested 7,,beadnell1 op4 cit4  ,int4  
,geol4 ,congress1 p4 #aj7 that these    
specimens were possibly not  ,e4        
,overwegi at all1 and ,mr4 ,bullen      
,newton1 of the ,british ,museum1  who  
has undertaken the determination of the 
,baharia collection1  confirms this1    
stating that the so-called specimens of 
,exogyra  ,overwegi1 referred to in     
,capt4 ,lyons' paper1 are in reality    
examples of ,e4 mermeti4    ,footnote   
#dj3 ,a short account of the geological 
structure of ,baharia  has already been 
published3-- ,,beadnell1 op4 cit4       
7,dcouvertes  ,gologiques ,rcentes1     
etc47 ,int4 ,geol4 ,cong4 #aijj2 ,paris1
 #aijj4    ,footnote #da3 ,this1 with   
the #f metres of ,eocene limestone      

above1  gives the height of the hill    
above the floor as #agd metres4         
,ascherson  gives #afb1 but the         
difference is probably due to our       
readings being  commenced on the lowest 
ground in the neighbourhood1 where the  
oldest  beds were exposed4    ,footnote 
#db3 ,the specific names given in this  
report are based on  determinations made
 by ,dr4 ,blanckenhorn in ,cairo and by 
,mr4 ,bullen  ,newton at the ,british   
,museum4    ,footnote #dc3 ,in          
connection with the discovery of        
,cenomanian deposits  in ,baharia       
,oasis1 vide1 ,geological ,magazine1    
,nos4 #abg1 #dcj1 #dcb1  #aijj 7,h4 ,j4 
,l4 ,b474    ,footnote #dd3 ,a very     
striking feature of the brown limestones
 is  the abundance in them of           
calcite-lined cavities2 these are often 
arranged in planes parallel to the      
bedding1 as is well seen for  instance  
in the hills north-west of ,harra4      
,footnote #de3 ,mr4 ,gorringe first drew
 attention to the presence of  fossil   

wood in these beds4    ,footnote #df3   
,an analysis of this bone-bed is given  
in ,report on the  ,phosphates of       
,egypt1 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,egypt1           
publication1 ,cairo4 #aijj4    ,footnote
 #dg3 ,,beadnell1 ,dakhla ,oasis1 its   
,topography and  ,geology4 ,geol4 ,surv4
 ,egypt4 ,report1 #ahii1 ,pt4 ,,iv4     
,cairo4 #aija1  pp4 #if-ih4    ,footnote
 #dh3 ,,barron and ,,hume1 ,topography  
and ,geology of the ,eastern  ,desert of
 ,egypt1 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,report1 ,cairo1 
#aijc4    ,footnote #di3 ,it may perhaps
 be that the lowest limestone bed       
disappears1 having thinned out1 in which
 case it is difficult to  distinguish   
the sandstones and clays of this        
division from those of  the one below4  
,footnote #ej3 ,zittel1 op4 cit4        
,footnote #ea3 ,as it seems probable    
that the ,lower ,mokattam is a  somewhat
 local development of the upper part of 
the ,libyan ,series1  and it being      
difficult or impossible in many areas to
 separate the  two1 we shall in our     

description of the ,eocene of this oasis
 make  no attempt at a division4        
,footnote #eb3 ,,chapman1 ,geol4 ,mag4  
,dec4 ,,iv1 ,vol4 ,,ix1 ,feb4 and       
,march1  #aijb1 pp4 #fb-fg1 #ajf-aad4   
,footnote #ec3 ,it should be noted here 
that the presence of an overlap  was    
suspected by ,capt4 ,h4 ,g4 ,lyons as   
long ago as #ahid1 as in his  paper 7op4
 cit4 #ece7 he says3--    8,at the      
north-east and east of the ,baharia     
,oasis the ,upper ,mokattam  beds1      
characterized by ,ostrea ,fraasi and ,o4
 ,cloti 7as kindly  determined by ,dr4  
,zittel71 occur #cj miles north-east and
 #bj miles  east of ,upper ,cretaceous  
beds containing ,exogyra ,overwegi in   
the  oasis1 and with a difference in    
altitude of less than #bjj feet4 ,as    
there is no marked dip of the beds1 we  
have evidently an overlap  of the       
remainder of the ,cretaceous beds and   
the ,libyan and ,lower  ,mokattam beds  
of the ,eocene1 and this inference is   
borne out by the  short distance between

 the ,cretaceous and ,miocene outcrops  
to the  west on ,dr4 ,zittel's route to 
,siwa40    ,footnote #ed3 ,voyage  ,mro1
 ,i41 p4 #ahi4 ,the same observer  also 
noted the presence of nummulites in the 
northern scarp1 and the  ferruginous    
nature of the sandstones composing the  
hills of the oasis  7p4 #aij74          
,footnote #ee3 ,zeitsch4 d4 ,ges4 f4    
,erdkunde zu ,berlin1 #ahhe1 p4 #acd4   
,footnote #ef3 ,geol4 d4 ,liby4 ,wste1  
#ahhc1 pp4 #abb1 #abc4    ,footnote #eg3
 ,le ,ligurien et le ,tongrien en gypte1
  ,bull4 ,soc4 ,gol4 ,france1 sec4      
,,iii1 vol4 ,,xxi 7#ahic74    ,footnote 
#eh3 ,,beadnell1 op4 cit4 7,farafra     
,oasis7 p4 #bh4    ,footnote #ei3       
,,lyons1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ecg-edj4         
,footnote #fj3 ,op4 cit4 7,dcouvertes   
,gologiques ,rcentes1  etc47 pp4        
#hee-hef4    ,footnote #fa3 ,we except1 
of course1 the very local areas where a 
,carboniferous fauna has been detected4 
,footnote #fb3 ,compare1 op4 cit4 ,the  
,cretaceous ,region of ,abu  ,roash1    

etc4    ,footnote #fc3 ,or1 as suggested
 above1 these folds may have  been      
produced in later times1 i4e41          
,pliocene1 when important               
earth-movements were known to have taken
 place in ,n4,e4 ,africa and  ,s4,w4    
,asia4                                  
,,chapter ,,vi4                         
99 99 99 99 99                          
,,antiquities4      ,the archological   
remains of ,baharia ,oasis admit of a   
classification1  based on their ages1   
into the following three groups3--      
7a7  ,egyptian1 consisting principally  
of a stela of the #ahth1 a              
tomb of the #aith1 and temples of the   
#bfth ,dynasty4      7b7  ,roman1       
including the ruins of an arch and      
various other           structures2 also
 the subterranean aqueducts still in use
 for           conveying water from     
springs to the cultivated land4      7c7
  ,coptic1 embracing the ruins of       
several villages and a church4    ,as   
the literature concerning these is      

mostly fragmentary and  scattered1 it   
may be well to describe briefly the     
various remains1  following the above   
classification4                         
7a7 ,,egyptian ,,antiquities4    ,the   
oldest inscription yet found in ,baharia
 is that on a stela of  the time of     
,thothmes ,,ii1 which was discovered by 
,ascherson in #ahgf  to the west of     
,bawitti4    ,this stela is of          
historical importance1 as being not only
 the  oldest of all antiquities from the
 oases1 but also older than any         
inscription bearing reference to the    
oases1 and as proving that even  at the 
beginning of the ,new ,empire the       
,egyptians had taken possession  of the 
oases and erected temples to their gods 
therein4    ,ascherson was also the     
first to record the existence of the    
ruins  of an ,egyptian temple in the    
oasis4 ,this structure is marked on  his
 map#fd as existing some #b kilometres  
north-west of ,el ,qasr2  he appears1   
however1 to have noted no inscription on

 the walls 7the  only parts remaining7  
and his brief references to it in his   
memoir  do not give any data as to its  
age4    ,in his recent visit 7#aijj7 to 
,baharia1 ,steindorff#fe discovered  the
 remains of two ,egyptian temples4 ,the 
first of these exists under  modern     
dwellings in the middle of the village  
of ,el ,qasr1 in a farm  belonging to   
the ,omda4 ,it contains at present only 
one room1 with no  inscriptions except  
on the roof1 whence1 however1 we learn  
that the  building was erected during   
the reign of ,king ,apries 7,b4,c4      
#ehh-egj7  to 8,ammon-,re1 the ,lord of 
the ,oasis1 who dwells in ,desdest10  by
 a certain ,weh-eb-,re-nofr and one     
,ded-,khens-ef-,onkh4    ,the second    
temple found by ,steindorff1 erected by 
the same 8,prince  and ,ruler of the    
,oasis0 ,ded-,khens-ef-,onkh1 lies about
 #b  kilometres south-west of ,el ,qasr4
 ,it was erected in the reign of        
,amasis 7,b4,c4 #efi-ebf7 and is        
therefore of somewhat later date than   

the foregoing4 ,the large room1         
excavated from sand by ,steindorff1  has
 its walls ornamented with              
representations of ,egyptian deities1   
the colours of which are admirably      
preserved4    ,it is curious to note    
that at least one1 and perhaps both1 of 
the  temples discovered by ,steindorff  
had been previously visited by          
,ascherson in #ahgf4 ,this observer     
mentions 7op4 cit4 p4 #adj7 8a  well    
preserved underground chamber which     
serves as a dwelling for  the servants  
of the ,omda1 which may be of ,egyptian 
origin4 ,on the  roof of this chamber   
7which is #gbe metres long1 #bdj metres 
broad1  and #bij metres high7 is a line 
of inscription10 which latter he  was   
unable to read owing to the darkness4   
,there can be no doubt of  the identity 
of this place with the first of the     
temples described by  ,steindorff4      
,further on in his memoir 7p4 #adb7     
,ascherson also mentions  a ruin called 
8,qasr ,megasba1 a sandstone structure  

having its sides  oriented to the four  
cardinal points1 #he metres long1 #fi   
metres  broad1 with a small             
entrance-hall to the south and a large  
room which  can only be entered through 
the smaller one40 ,he relates that the  
door-way is walled up with crude brick1 
and does not say whether he  entered the
 building or not1 so that it is not     
certain whether this  place is identical
 with ,steindorff's second temple4 ,the 
distance  of the ruin from ,el ,qasr1 as
 shown on ,ascherson's map1 is about #d 
kilometres1 i4e41 double that mentioned 
by ,steindorff1 but otherwise  the      
nature of the building is strongly      
suggestive of an identity4    ,in his   
exploration of the large ,necropolis    
east of ,el ,qasr and  ,bawitti1        
,steindorff records the finding of a    
tomb of the ,new ,empire1  dating from  
the beginning of the #aith ,dynasty     
7,b4,c4 #acjj74 ,on clearing  out this  
tomb1 extremely interesting decorations 
were found on its  walls4 ,the tomb     

consists of several chambers hewn in the
 rock1  only two of which are decorated 
with reliefs1 and belonged to a  certain
 ,amenhotep1 prince of the ,northern    
,oasis and of the ,oasis  ,huye4 ,the   
explorer records that on one of the     
walls of the first  chamber ,amenhotep  
is represented sitting by his wife1 his 
people  bringing to him all kinds of    
drinks and food1 including fish2 on     
another wall he is seen superintending  
the manufacture of wine1  while on a    
third is a lively representation of the 
funeral of the  deceased4 ,the pictures 
on the walls of the second room are of  
similar  kind1 but of a more religious  
character4    ,steindorff remarks that  
this is the first important tomb of     
,egyptian  age to be found in the oases 
of the ,libyan ,desert4 ,it appears to  
have  been used later on for other      
interments1 as several clay mummy-shaped
  coffins were found2 from these the    
mummies had disappeared1 but a  few     
relics such as scarabei1 a gold earring1

 a bronze mirror1 etc41  were found4    
,to the ,egyptian period also belongs a 
limestone statue of the same            
,ded-,khens-ef-,onkh who erected the two
 temples of the #bfth ,dynasty  already 
mentioned2 ,steindorff found this in one
 of the houses at  ,el ,qasr4    ,a     
sandstone ruin situate #b kilometres due
 west of ,zubbo1 mapped but  not        
examined by the ,survey1 would appear to
 be that of another small  ,egyptian    
temple4 ,it is marked on ,cailliaud's   
map as 8dbris de  ,temple10 but is not  
mentioned in his description4    ,yet a 
fifth temple in ,baharia would seem to  
be represented by the ruin  8,qasr      
,mayesra10 #b kilometres north-west of  
,mandisha1 visited by  ,ascherson4 ,this
 ruin1 which is also mentioned by       
,belzoni1 ,cailliaud1  and ,wilkinson1  
is a small structure of sandstone #gia  
metres long1  #fbd metres broad1 having 
only one room 7entered from the north71 
and oriented to the cardinal points4    
,the stones of this ruin have  ,greek   

letters and other signs cut in them1    
possibly mason's marks2  they are so    
striking as to have been seen from a    
distance through  a telescope by        
,belzoni4    ,the rock-tombs south-east 
of ,mandisha1 mentioned by ,ascherson   
7l4c4  p4 #ade71 may possibly be further
 remains of the ,egyptian epoch1 and    
the same is the case with some          
rock-chambers found by the ,survey  in  
the south part of the oasis1 some #c    
kilometres south of ,ain el  ,haiss4    
,the latter are excavated in an isolated
 rock-mass 7sandstone7  some #bj metres 
in diameter and #f metres high4 ,the    
chief entrance is on  the south-east    
side of the rock1 by what looks from a  
short distance  like a mere crack2 this 
entrance leads into a series of four    
small low  chambers 7each about #c      
metres square71 with a deeper channel   
running  along the centre4 ,other       
similar chambers are found entering from
  the north side4 ,no inscriptions      
appear to exist except a few ,arabic    

scratches near the principal entrance1  
and the chambers were empty4            
7b7 ,,roman ,,antiquities4    ,the      
,roman structures in the oasis differ   
generally from those of the  ,egyptian  
era in being built of crude brick       
instead of stone4 ,they  show1 however1 
a great solidity of construction2 for   
this reason these  erections of the     
,romans have in many cases outlasted    
those of the  ,coptic period which were 
built long afterwards2 in ,baharia the  
old  ,roman underground aqueducts still 
serve for the conveyance of water  from 
the springs to the irrigated tracts1 and
 the present inhabitants  are far too   
indolent to construct similar channels  
for themselves4    ,according to        
,ascherson 7l4c4 p4 #adj7 the village of
 ,el ,qasr owes  its name to a ,roman   
castle1 abundant remains of which still 
exist  under the modern houses4    ,the 
most important of the ,roman ruins of   
,baharia was however until  recently an 
arch situated close to the north of ,el 

,qasr4 ,cailliaud  7l4c4 p4 #ahc7       
describes the structure 7as seen in     
#ahbj7 as  consisting of an 8arc de     
triomphe0 standing on an embankment #ci 
metres long1 with a dressed stone       
revetment2#ff this embankment  rises #aj
 metres from the ground-level at the    
north side1 and is  level with the soil 
of the village to the south4 ,the       
principal  faade is to the north4 ,the  
courses of the masonry are #bg to #cj   
centimetres high1 and show a peculiar   
construction1 headers and  stretchers   
being built in alternate courses4 ,the  
wall1 which was  about #bc metres thick1
 and built with a strongly-marked       
batter1  had an ornamental cornice all  
round2 above this came a sort of        
parapet #ij centimetres high4 ,the      
substance of the embankment is a  kind  
of concrete of irregularly-shaped stones
 set in cement4    ,the arch itself     
rises from the embankment in the middle 
of the north  faade1 and is of the      
,doric order1 its length being #gdh     

metres4 ,at  the time of ,cailliaud's   
visit only the central arcade was still 
standing2 from it one could descend by a
 flight of steps on to the  lower       
ground4 ,the faade was ornamented with  
pilasters1 and on each  side of the arch
 was a niche decorated with small       
columns4 ,in one  of the main pillars   
,cailliaud saw a spiral staircase       
leading to a  terrace on the top of the 
arch4 ,the stones are frequently marked 
with  ,greek letters1 doubtless to guide
 the builders2 no hieroglyphs or  other 
evidences of the ,ancient ,egyptians    
could be seen in the ruins4    ,this    
interesting ruin was found in a far less
 perfect state of  preservation on the  
visit of ,ascherson in #ahgf1 the       
revetment-wall  having mostly           
disappeared1 possibly owing to an       
earthquake which is  said to have taken 
place in the oasis about #ahdj4 ,the    
latest traveller  to visit the ruins    
7,steindorff1 #aijj7 found that the     
whole structure  had fallen4#fg    ,the 

ruin known as ,qasr ,alam1 situated     
about #b kilometres west of  ,bawitti1  
visited by ,wilkinson and by ,ascherson1
 is a rectangular  crude-brick structure
 on a slight eminence4 ,only the lower  
parts of  the walls remain1 and         
,wilkinson speaks of it as 8an          
insignificant  crude-brick ruin40       
,ascherson obtained a bronze hawk 7now  
in the  ,berlin museum7 found in this   
place4    ,wilkinson mentions another   
ruin1 similar to the above1 #a kilometre
  south-west of ,el ,qasr2 this does not
 appear to have been since  noted4      
,there is no evidence to show the date  
of either of these  structures4    ,a   
nearly square building with battered    
walls and a fortified  appearance1      
situated among the ruins of the ,coptic 
village  some #d kilometres ,e4,s4,e4   
from ,mandisha may possibly be a ,roman 
fort4 ,cailliaud gives its size as #adg 
metres long1 #ab metres  wide1 with     
walls #h metres in height1 the single   
door being to the  east4 ,the interior  

is full of debris1 so that the          
arrangement cannot  be well seen4       
,the same doubt as to age occurs        
concerning some underground chambers  at
 ,el ,qasr1 in one of which ,virchow#fh 
found an urn1 and similar  structures at
 ,bawitti mentioned by ,ascherson4      
,there is less uncertainty concerning a 
large crude-brick ruin in  the          
south-east part of the oasis1 some #f   
kilometres ,e4,s4,e4 of ,ain el  ,haiss4
 ,this ruin1 mentioned by ,belzoni      
7l4c41 p4 #dbg71 ,cailliaud  7l4c41 p4  
#aid1 and ,pl4 ,,xxxvi1 fig4 #a71 and   
,wilkinson 7l4c41  p4 #cfa71 stands     
conspicuous on an eminence2 it is of    
considerable  size1 its length being    
over #hg metres1 and the walls being #f 
metres  high4 ,in the interior is the   
debris of dwellings4 ,it appears to have
  been a ,roman castle4 ,belzoni and    
,cailliaud mention also a square        
building with small chambers1 with a    
square pit cut in the rock  in the      
centre2 this lies about #a kilometre    

,s4,s4,w4 from the castle1  and is      
regarded by these discoverers as an     
ancient bath4    ,to the ,roman period  
may possibly belong a large crude-brick 
rectangular enclosure close to ,ain el  
,haiss4 ,this building is #ge  paces    
square1 with a main door on the west    
side1 and has walls about  #b metres in 
height4 ,the brickwork is peculiar1 a   
course of stretchers  three bricks deep 
being followed by two courses of headers
 set on  edge1 with one or two rows of  
bricks in a perpendicular position  down
 the centre2 the walls are #ej          
centimetres thick4 ,the interior of  the
 place is a large court1 with numerous  
small rooms at the north  and south     
sides and two others on the west4 ,the  
rooms are used at  the present day by   
the men of ,bawitti when they come to   
gather the  rice-crop at ,ain el ,haiss4
 ,it is not a little remarkable that no 
reference to this large structure is to 
be found in ,cailliaud's  account2 its  
position 7some #cjj metres only         

south-west of the  sheikh's tomb at ,ain
 el ,haiss7 would seem to preclude the  
possibility of confusing it with the    
other ruins he describes4 ,he  gives    
however 7l4c4 p4 #aie7 the latitude of  
,el ,haiss as #bh #j  #cb1fi 8latitude  
du couvent chrtien10 from which it would
  appear likely that he considered this 
place a convent4 ,there is no  evidence 
to decide whether the building is of    
,roman or ,coptic origin4    ,far more  
enduring and more important 7in a modern
 sense7 than any  of their buildings1   
were the extensive excavations carried  
out by  the ,romans for the improvement 
of the water-supply of oasis4 ,in the   
neighbourhood of ,bawitti especially1   
long series of shafts sunk in  the      
sandstones and clays which form the     
ground1 are frequently to  be seen4     
,these shafts1 which vary from #a to #c 
metres in diameter1  are sometimes      
round1 sometimes rectangular1 and are   
placed at only  short distances apart4  
,they are connected below with long     

tunnels1  along which flows the water   
from the springs4 ,cailliaud mentions   
the  existence of ten of these ancient  
aqueducts near ,mandisha1 eight of      
which still conveyed water in #ahbj2 he 
entered one and followed it  for #dj    
metres4 ,he counted no less than        
fourteen shafts connected  with this    
tunnel in a length of #aej metres1 and  
records that one  measured had a        
rectangular shape1 #ade metres by #jde  
metres1 and  was perfectly cut in the   
rock1 with footholds for the descent of 
the  workmen4 ,the largest aqueduct     
found by ,cailliaud is south-west of    
,el ,qasr2 its size is such that a man  
is able to walk in it4 ,this  tunnel1   
which now contains no water1 leads from 
an excavation #e  metres in diameter by 
#h metres deep1 and in a length of #ee  
metres  it is entered by ten shafts4 ,in
 the same neighbourhood ,cailliaud      
counted more than thirty other          
aqueducts1 mostly coming from the       
south1 like those of ,mandisha4 ,four of

 these discharge their water  into a    
huge excavation #gj metres diameter and 
#ab metres deep4 ,the  only example of  
an underground aqueduct at present known
 to exist  in the south part of the     
oasis is one discovered by ,ascherson a 
few  kilometres east of ,ain el ,haiss2 
it is at present dry4    ,though more   
abundant in ,baharia than in any other  
of the ,egyptian  oases1 doubtless on   
account of the relatively shallow depths
 at  which water is there reached1 these
 ,roman levels are not peculiar to      
,baharia1 several existing in           
,farafra1#gj one of which was noticed   
by ,ascherson 7l4c4 p4 #acg72 other     
examples have been found at  ,ain ,um   
,dababib and near ,gennah in ,kharga4#ga
 ,it appears1 too1  that underground    
aqueducts of the same nature exist      
abundantly in  the oases of the         
,algerian and ,moorish ,sahara4         
7c7 ,,coptic ,,antiquities4    ,some #d 
kilometres ,e4,s4,e4 from ,mandisha are 
the ruins of a ,coptic#gb  village1     

which appear to be those described and  
figured by ,cailliaud1  although he     
gives the position as 8est #ce nord de  
,zabou0  ,cailliaud characterises these 
remains as 8miserable ruins10  but      
mentions specially1 besides the fort    
referred to1 two ruined  churches1      
larger than the other structures4 ,the  
first of these is  #aaa metres long1    
#fej metres wide1 and has walls still #f
 metres  high2 a principal door opens to
 the south1 while another smaller  door 
is situated on the north side4 ,the     
interior presents only one  room1 with a
 niche in the wall2 there are three     
windows on each of  the two longer      
sides4 ,the second ruin is of about the 
same size2  on each of its longer sides 
are nine niches in the wall1 and higher 
up are six small openings for light4    
,the building appears to have  been     
vaulted4 ,the ancient habitations which 
form the remainder of  the ruins are of 
a uniform type--low vaulted dwellings   
surmounted  by terraces1 access to which

 is got by steps4 ,the entire village   
has a circumference of about #ebj       
metres4 ,the name of the locality  where
 these ruins exist is not without       
interest4 ,ascherson quotes  it as      
8,denise10 while ,wilkinson gives       
8,bayrees20 the name1  like that of     
,beris in ,kharga ,oasis1 doubtless     
comes from the old  ,egyptian root 8rs0 
7the south74    ,another ,coptic village
 existed in the south-east part of the  
oasis1  in a district now called ,uxor1 
some #aj kilometres east of ,ain el     
,haiss4 ,the principal ruin is that of a
 church1 built of crude brick1  #aih    
metres in length4#gc ,the exterior      
displays only four bare  walls1         
battered1 with two doors in the east    
part opening respectively  north and    
south4 ,in the interior is a nave1 and  
on each side are three  arcades forming 
small chapels2 in the centre is a niche 
ornamented  with small columns with     
volute capitals4    ,above the chapels a
 gallery runs round the building4 ,the  

columns of  the nave have capitals      
rudely modelled on the plan of the      
lotus-flower  of the ancient ,egyptians4
 ,the remains of fresco paintings can   
still be traced on the walls1 with      
,greek crosses and fragments of         
inscriptions4 ,ascherson records that he
 visited this ruin in #ahgf  and found  
it in about the same state as ,cailliaud
 narrates1 though  he was unable to     
discover the inscriptions on the walls  
which that  author and ,wilkinson refer 
to4    ,besides the two above-mentioned1
 a third ,coptic village seems to  have 
existed about #g kilometres south-west  
of ,mandisha1 at the  south end of the  
range of hills which will be seen on the
 map4 ,this  village has not been seen1 
apparently1 by any ,european traveller1 
though its position was pointed out to  
,ascherson from a distance1  under the  
name 8,merharet-el-,fama40 ,information 
was derived on a  visit to ,ain ,jafarra
 7#f kilometres south of ,mandisha7 that
 some ruins  existed a short distance to

 the north-west1 and this would appear  
to coincide with the position given by  
,ascherson2 time unfortunately  failed  
for an excursion in search of them4     
99 99 99 99 99      ,footnote #fd3      
,zeitschrift der ,gesellschaft fr       
,erdkunde zu ,berlin1  ,band #bj1 #ahhe1
 pp4 #aaj-afj4    ,footnote #fe3        
,berichte der philologisch-historischen 
klasse der  ,konigl4 ,sachs4            
,gesellschaft der ,wissenschaften zu    
,leipzig1 #aijj1  pp4 #bji-bci4         
,footnote #ff3 ,belzoni1 as remarked on 
p4 #h4 mistook this  revetment-wall for 
that of a temple of ,jupiter ,ammon1 and
 the  builder's stone-marks for the     
remains of a ,greek inscription4        
,footnote #fg3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #bbf4       
,footnote #fh3 8,gesichtsurne aus der   
kleinen ,oase02  ,sitzungsber4 der      
,berliner anthropol4 ,gesellschaft1     
#ahgf1 pp4 #aga1  #agb 7with woodcut74  
,footnote #fi3 ,the ,survey observations
 give #bh #b #aa ,n4 as  the latitude of
 ,ain el ,haiss1 thus placing it about  

#c kilometres  further north4 ,jordan's 
value1 #bh #a #ee substantially         
confirms this2 the small difference is  
doubtless due to different  points of   
observation being used4    ,footnote    
#gj3 ,op4 cit4 ,farafra ,oasis1 etc41 p4
 #ab4    ,footnote #ga3 ,kharga ,oasis1 
etc41 p4 #hb4    ,footnote #gb3 ,op4    
cit4 p4 #adi4 ,pl4 ,,xxxviii4           
,footnote #gc3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #aic and    
,pl4 ,,xxxvi1 ,fig4 #b4                 
,,index4                                
99 99 99 99 99      ,abu ,moharik dunes1
 #bj1 #be1 #ce1 #cf2 see also ,dunes4   
,abu ,roash1 #af1 #fd1 #gj4      ,abu   
,zabel1 #fc1 #fd4      ,administration  
of ,oasis1 #h4      ,ain ,auena1 #db4   
,bayum1 #db4          ,beled1 #df4      
el ,gidr1 #bj4          el ,haiss1 #ab1 
#ad1 #ch1 #ci1 #dj1 #da1 #dd1 #de1 #df1 
#ea1 #ef1 #eh1 #ei1    #fe1 #ff1 #fg1   
#gj1 #ge1 #gg1 #gh4          el ,wadi1  
#cd4          ,gelid1 #be1 #bf1 #cf1    
#ch1 #da1 #df4          ,hassab1 #de4   
,haswi1 #da1 #df4          ,jafarra1    

#dd1 #de4          ,khaman1 #df4        
,murun1 #db4          ,rayan1 see       
,rayan4          ,sini1 #db4            
,um ,dababib1 #gi4      ,alexandria1    
#ag1 #ci4      ,altitudes1 #ac1 #ad1    
#bd1 #be1 #bi1 #cd4      ,amenhotep1    
northern oasis of1 #h4      ,andesite1  
see ,igneous rocks4      ,animals1 #ae1 
#ah4      ,antiquities1 see ,archology4 
,aqueducts1 #h1 #ae1 #db1 #gh4          
,aradj1 #ce4      ,archology1 #g1 #h1   
#i1 #ae1 #gc-hj4      ,area of          
depression1 #cg1 #db4      ,ascherson1  
#e1 #g1 #i1 #ad1 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 #ai1    
#cd1 #ce1 #cf1 #db1 #de1 #df1 #dg1      
#ea1 #fc1 #gc1 #gd1 #ge1 #gf1 #gg1 #gi1 
#hj4      ,assiut1 #aa1 #cf4            
,assuan1 #bf4        ,bahnessa1 #ag1    
#bb1 #ce1 #fd4      ,bahr bela ma1 see  
,el ,bahr4      ,bahr ,yusuf1 #ce4      
,ball1 ,j41 #ag4      ,barron1 ,t41 #ed4
      ,barytes1 #di4      ,basalt1 see  
,dolerite4      ,base-line measurement1 
#ab4      ,bawitti1 ,el1 #aa1 #ad1 #ae1 
#bj1 #ci1 #db1 #de1 #df1 #di1 #ec1 #eh1 

#gd1 #gg1 #gh4      ,bayrees1 #gi4      
,beadnell1 ,h4 ,j4 ,l41 #af1 #ag1 #ai1  
#cd1 #dg1 #dh1 #ed1 #fh4      ,belzoni1 
#h1 #ce1 #ge1 #gf4      ,beniadi1 #cf4  
,beni ,suef1 #h4      ,beris1 #gi4      
,bilbeis1 #fc4      ,blanckenhorn1 ,m41 
#bc1 #eb1 #ei4      ,blown sand1 see    
,dunes4      ,bone-beds1 #ed4           
,boring wells1 #dc4      ,botany1 #i1   
#ae1 #ah1 #dc4      ,bounding           
escarpments1 #ch1 #dj4      ,bullen     
,newton1 ,r41 #dg1 #eb4                 
,cailliaud1 #h1 #aa1 #ab1 #ac1 #ae1 #af1
 #ag1 #cc1 #de1 #fc1 #ge1 #gf1 #gg1 #gh1
    #gi1 #hj4      ,cenomanian deposits1
 #af1 #dh1 #di-ee1 #eh1 #ei1 #fb1 #fc1  
#fd1 #ff4      ,chapman1 ,f41 #eh1 #ei4 
,coptic remains1 #h1 #df1 #eh1 #gf1 #gg1
 #gh1 #gi4      ,cretaceous deposits1   
#i1 #aj1 #cb1 #cc1 #dg1 #dh1 #di-eg1    
#eh4      ,crops1 #dd1 #de4             
,cultivation1 #bj1 #cg1 #db1 #dd1 #de1  
#df1 #fe4        ,dakhla1 ,oasis1 #g1   
#h1 #i1 #cg1 #db1 #dc1 #dd1 #ed1 #eg1   
#fh1 #fi1 #gj4      ,danian deposits1   

#af1 #dh1 #ee-eg1 #ei4      ,dates1 #db1
 #dc1 see also ,palms4      ,declination
 of compass1 #ac4      ,decrease in     
cultivated land water-supply1 #dd4      
,delga1 #ag1 #cf4      ,denise1 #gi4    
,der el ,maragh1 #cf4      ,distribution
 of water1 #dc4      ,dolerite1 see     
,igneous rocks4      ,drift sand1 see   
,dunes4      ,dunes1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1
 #bd1 #be1 #bf1 #bh1 #cj1 #cb1 #ce1 #cf1
 #da1 #db1 #df1    #dh1 #fe4            
,earliest explorers of oasis1 #h1 #i4   
,eastern ,desert1 #af1 #ed1 #ee4        
,egyptian remains1 #i1 #gb-gd4      ,el 
,ayun1 #db4      ,el ,bahr1 #ah1 #ai1   
#bb1 #bc1 #ce4      ,el ,beled1 #df4    
,el ,gharb1 #de4      ,el ,haiss1 see   
,ain el ,haiss4      ,el ,qasr1 #h1 #bj1
 #cd1 #ci1 #dj1 #da1 #db1 #ej1 #fh1 #gb1
 #gc1 #gd1 #ge4      ,el ,wadi1 see ,ain
 el ,wadi4      ,eocene deposits1       
#ba-bd1 #bf-ch1 #dg1 #dh1 #di1 #ej1     
#eh-fa1 #fh1 #fi4      ,excavation of   
oasis1 #af1 #gb4      ,exports1 #db1    
#dc1 #dd4        ,farafra ,oasis1 #g1   

#h1 #i1 #aa1 #af1 #ag1 #bi1 #cc1 #cd1   
#cg1 #dj1 #dc1 #de1 #df1    #dh1 #ef1   
#eg1 #fh1 #fi4      ,faults1 #ba1 #eh4  
,fayum1 #i1 #aj1 #ae1 #ag1 #ba1 #bb1    
#bc1 #cd1 #ce1 #cf1 #fb1 #fd4           
,ferns1 #ae4      ,feshn1 #ag1 #ch4     
,floor of oasis1 #da-df4      ,folding1 
see ,tectonics4      ,formation of      
depression1 #af1 #gb4      ,fruit1 #dc1 
#dd4        ,gar el ,hamra1 #bj1 #bc1   
#fb4      ,gar ,marzak1 see ,jebel ,gar 
,marzak4      ,gennah1 #gi4             
,geographical determinations of         
villages1 etc41 #aa-ac4      ,geology1  
special description1 #dg-gb4            
,geological summary1 #af1 #dh1 #fi-gb4  
,geology1 ,farafra road1 #cc-cd1 ,feshn 
and ,maghagha road1 #ba-bd1    ,minia   
road1 #bf-cc4      ,gharag1 #ce4        
,ghard el ,shubbab dunes1 #ai4          
,girga1 #bf4      ,gorringe1 ,l41 #e1   
#ed4      ,gypsum1 #ba1 #di4            
,harra village1 #da1 #db1 #dd1 #de1 #df1
 #ec1 #ei1 #fg4      ,health statistics1
 #dd4      ,heights1 see ,altitudes4    

,hills within depression1 #dj1 #da4     
,history of oasis1 #g1 #h4      ,hot    
springs1 #h1 #dc1 #de4      ,hume1 ,w4  
,f41 #ed4      ,huye ,oasis1 #h1 #gd4   
,hyde1 #h4        ,igneous rocks1 #ac1  
#af1 #ba1 #bb1 #dj1 #dh1 #di1 #ej1 #fc1 
#fd4      ,inhabitants1 #de1 see        
,population4      ,ironstone1 #bi1 #ea1 
#fa1 #fb1 #fc1 #fh1 #gb4        ,jebel  
,ahmar1 #bb1 #fb4          el ,ghudda1  
#ah1 #bb1 #fb4          el ,hefhuf1 #dj1
 #ec1 #ef1 #eh1 #fc1 #ff4          ,gar 
,marzak1 #ai4          ,horabi1 #bj1    
#ch1 #ci1 #dj1 #ea1 #fb4                
,mandisha1 #dj1 #db1 #fc1 #fd4          
,mayesra1 #bj1 #dj1 #fc4                
,morabi1 see ,horabi4          ,muailla1
 #ag1 #ba4        ,jordan1 #i1 #aa1 #ab1
 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 #bi1 #cc1 #cd1 #da4     
,jupiter ,ammon temple1 #h4             
,kharafish1 #ai4      ,kharga ,oasis1   
#g1 #h1 #af1 #cb1 #cg1 #db1 #dc1 #dd1   
#eg1 #fh1 #gi4        ,latitude         
determinations1 #aa1 #ab1 #ac4          
,letorzec1 #h4      ,limonite1 see      

,ironstone4      ,longitude             
determinations1 #aa1 #ab1 #ac4          
,lucas1 ,a41 #fc4      ,lyons1 ,capt4   
,h4 ,g41 #i1 #ac1 #dg1 #eb1 #fj1 #fh4   
,maghagha1 #e1 #aa1 #ab1 #ag1 #bf1 #bi1 
#cc1 #eh1 #fd1 #gb4      ,magnetic      
,meridian1 #ac4      ,magnetite1 #ac4   
,mandisha1 #ac1 #bj1 #bf1 #dj1 #da1 #dd1
 #di1 #ej1 #fe1 #ge1 #gh1 #gi1 #hj4     
,mandisha ,aguza1 #dd1 #de4             
,mangatin1 #ce4      ,mayer ,eymar1 #fd4
      ,measurement of water1 #dc4       
,medinet el ,fayum1 #ce4      ,merharet 
el ,fama1 #hj4      ,mima1 #aa1 #ab1    
#ad1 #ag1 #bd1 #cb1 #cf1 #ch1 #fj4      
,mogara1 #ag1 #bj1 #ci4      ,muailla1  
see ,jebel ,muailla4      ,muller1 #i4  
,nasl ,nadiub ,lengat1 #bd1 #be1 #bi1   
#cb4        ,oligocene deposits1 #ba1   
#bb1 #dh1 #fa1 #fd2 see also ,post      
,eocene deposits4      ,origin of       
depression1 #af1 #gb4        ,pacho1 #i1
 #ce4      ,pacho ,mt41 #ce4            
,palms1 #bj1 #cg1 #db1 #dc1 #de4        
,pleistocene deposits1 #ba1 #fe4        

,population1 #db1 #dd1 #de4             
,position of oasis1 #g1 of ,ain el      
,hais1 #ab1 #gh1 of ,zubbo1 #aa1 of     
south    end of depression1 #ac1 #bi4   
,post ,eocene deposits1 #af1 #bd1 #bf1  
#bh1 #cb1 #dh1 #di1 #ea1 #fa1 #fg4      
,public health1 #dd4        ,qasr el    
,lamlum ,bey1 #ag1 #bj4      ,qasr      
,mayesra1 #ge4      ,qasr ,megasba1 #gd4
        ,rayan1 #ag1 #bb1 #be1 #ce4     
,recent deposits1 #ag-cf1 #fe4          
,roads1 #ag1 #cf2 ,bahnessa road1 #ce2  
,farafra road1 #cc-cd2 ,fayum road1     
#cd-ce1 #cf2 ,feshn and ,maghagha road1 
#ag-ba2 ,minia road1 #bd-cc2 ,siwa      
road1 #cd1 #ci4      ,rohlfs            
,expedition1 #i1 #cd1 #ce1 #dg4         
,roman remains1 #h1 #ae1 #db1 #dc1      
#gf-gi4      ,rubi1 #ce4                
,salines1 #cg1 #da1 #dh1 #fe4           
,samalut1 #i1 #ag1 #ce1 #cf1 #df4       
,sand dunes1 see ,dunes4      ,sand     
erosion1 #ai1 #bc1 #gb4                 
,schweinfurth1 #i1 #ai4      ,senonian  
deposits1 #dh1 #ee1 #ga4      ,serir1   

#ah1 #ai4      ,silicified wood1 #bb1   
#eb1 #ed4      ,sittra1 #i1 #ce4        
,siwa ,oasis1 #h1 #aj1 #ag1 #cd1 #ci1   
#dd4      ,springs1 #cg1 #db1 #df1 #fe1 
see also ,ain1 and ,water-supply4       
,statistics1 #ae1 #db1 #dc1 #dd4        
,steindorff1 #g1 #h1 #i1 #aj1 #gc1 #gd1 
#ge1 #gg4      ,surveying operations1   
#e1 #aa-af1 #ag4        ,tablemun1 #df4 
,tamarisk1 #da4      ,taxation1 #dc4    
,tectonics1 #af1 #dh1 #ec1 #eg1 #fa1    
#fe-fi4      ,temperature of wells1 #dc1
 #de1 see ,hot springs4                 
,topography1 #cg-df4      ,tripoli1 #fc4
      ,turonian deposits1 #dh1 #ee4     
,unconformity between ,eocene and       
,cretaceous1 #af1 #dh1 #eg1 #fj1 #fa4   
,underground aqueducts1 see ,aqueducts4 
,uttiah1 #ce4      ,uxor1 #gi4          
,villages1 #cg1 #db1 #dd1 #de4          
,virchow1 #gg4      ,volcanic rocks1 see
 ,igneous rocks4      ,vuta1 ,g41 #e4   
,wadi ,araba1 #ga4          ,muailla1   
#ag1 #bj4          ,rayan1 see ,rayan4  
,water-supply1 #ae1 #db1 #dc1 #dd1 #de1 

#df1 #gb4      ,wells1 #db1 #dc1 #de1   
#df1 see also ,water supply and ,ains4  
,wilkinson1 #i1 #ge1 #gg1 #gi1 #hj4     
,wind erosion1 see ,sand erosion4       
,zirkel1 #fc4      ,zittel1 #i1 #ai1    
#cd1 #dg1 #dh1 #di1 #eg1 #fj1 #fc4      
,zoology1 #ae1 #ah4      ,zubbo1 #aa1   
#ab1 #ac1 #bj1 #bd1 #bf1 #da1 #db1 #dg1 
#ge1 #gi4                               
99 99 99 99 99          ,illustration3  
,,baharia ,,oasis  ,,plate ,i4          
,illustration3 ,,sketch ,,map ,,of      
,,egypt ,showing the ,positions of the  
,,western ,,oases    ,,plate ,,ii4      
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iii4           
,,baharia ,,oasis    ,,map ,,of ,,the   
,,villages ,,and ,,principal ,,sources  
,,of ,,water ,,in ,,the ,,northern      
,,part ,,of ,,the ,,oasis4              
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iv4            
,,baharia ,,oasis    ,,section ,,through
 ,,western ,,escarpment #aa ,,kilom4 ,n4
 ,,of ,,south ,,end ,,of  ,,depression  
,illustration3 ,,plate ,v4    ,,baharia 
,,oasis    ,,diagrammatic ,,section     

,,from ,,hill #ae ,,kilometres          
,,north-,,east ,,of ,,ain ,,el  ,,haiss 
,,to ,,eocene-,,cretaceous ,,junction   
,,on ,,desert ,,to ,,west               
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vi4            
,,baharia ,,oasis    ,section from      
,,mandisha through ,,jebel ,,mayesra and
 ,conical ,hill to  ,,western ,,plateau4
    ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vii4       
,,baharia ,,oasis    ,,map ,,of ,,the   
,,synclinal ,,fold ,,from ,,jebel       
,,hefhuf ,,to ,,its ,,termination       
,illustration3 ,,baharia ,,oasis4       
,,sketch ,,of ,,geological ,,sections   
,,of  ,,east ,,scarp4    ,,plate ,,viii4
          ,transcriber's note3          
,pg4 #h 7footnotes #a and #c7 ,changed3 
,mre to3 ,mro      ,pg4 #ai 7footnote   
#bj7 ,changed3 ,gesellchaft fr ,erdkunde
 to3    ,gesellschaft      ,pg4 #ba     
,changed3 ,lower ,mokattam leds to3 beds
      ,pg4 #cc 7footnote #bg7 ,changed3 
,physiche geographie to3 ,physische     
,pg4 #ce ,changed3 about #aej kilometres
 to3 #cej      ,pg4 #dd ,changed3 camels

 and raders to3 traders      ,pg4 #ea   
,changed3 ,neolobolites to3 ,neolobites 
,pg4 #eb ,changed3 ,neobolites to3      
,neolobites      ,pg4 #eh ,changed3     
,textularia8 granien to3 gramen         
,pg4 #gg ,changed3 ruin kown as to3     
known      ,pg4 #gh ,changed3 undergroud
 aqueduct to3 underground      ,minor   
changes in punctuation have been done   
silently4