,transcriber's ,notes ,texts between underscores1 equal signs and tildes in this e-text represent texts printed in italics1 bold face and sans-serif in the source document4 ,small capitals have been transcribed as ,,all ,,capitals4 ,more ,transcriber's ,notes may be found at the end of this text4 ,,the ,,modern ,,packing ,,house ,a ,,complete ,,treatise ,,on ,,the ,,design1 ,,construction1 ,,equipment ,,and ,,operation ,,of ,,meat ,,packing ,,houses1 ,,according ,,to ,,present ,,american ,,practice1 ,,including ,,methods ,,of ,,converting ,,by-,,products ,,into ,,commercial ,,articles4 ,new ,edition ,revised1 ,amplified and ,enlarged by ,,david ,i4 ,,davis ,first ,edition by the ,late ,f4 ,w4 ,,wilder ,,for ,,many ,,years ,,general ,,superintendent ,,swift ,,co4 ,illustration ,,publishers ,,nickerson ,,collins ,,co4 ,,chicago ,,copyright1 #aije ,,and #aiba1 ,,by ,,nickerson ,,collins ,,co41 ,,chicago ,all ,rights ,reserved ,press of ,,ice ,,and ,,refrigeration ,chicago4 ,,preface4 ,in the preparation of the revised edition of this work1 the first complete treatise upon the subject of the meat packing house business published1 the original scheme has been followed4 ,first1 presenting in a convenient and simple form1 practical suggestions1 tables and formula that are needed in the operation of the packing house business according to modern practice4 ,second1 describing operations in the various ramifications of the business1 from the unloading of the animals at the pens to the production of the finished product and the disposition of it1 in the order in which the different operations are conducted4 ,the various operations described and subjects treated upon have been indexed so that any matter upon which it is desired to obtain instant information may be readily found4 ,the author arranged the chapters in the order of the various operations in the packing house1 together with descriptions of the machinery and appliances required4 ,the established packer1 as well as the beginner1 if he carefully digest the contents of this work1 will find he has valuable information1 the knowledge of which will aid him in conducting his business4 ,the chapters on proper construction and arrangement contain information in which the author has given the reader the benefit of his experience in the construction and operation of packing plants4 ,a portion of the contents of this work is devoted to tests showing the value and yields of the various products of a modern packing house1 based on prices and conditions existing at the time they were made1 in which the percentages and comparisons are reliable and are available to the reader by using the weights and percentage shown1 computed on present commercial prices4 ,the numerous formulas given for the manufacture and preservation of the various products of the packing house are those which have been proven to be the best after years of experience4 ,in every instance they have been put in the simplest form possible1 so that no mistake can be made in applying them4 ,in revising this work1 it is recognized that the use of some of the ingredients are now prohibited by regulation in the ,united ,states1 but in some instances1 it has been seen fit to not change the original formulas4 ,in some instances1 however1 the omission of the objectionable ingredient has been made1 though otherwise the formula remains the same as in the first edition4 ,many formulas rendered obsolete are omitted on account of conflicting with pure food laws4 ,the information furnished in these pages is based upon the author's experience1 there being very little theorizing upon the possibilities of what may be accomplished by adopting certain prescribed methods4 ,for this reason1 the book will be found of practical value to those interested in the meat packing business4 ,the present necessity of a work on packing house operation is more evident than when the first edition was published4 ,the original work has been entirely revised where considered necessary1 amplified in places and much new information added4 ,the chapters relative to construction1 refrigeration and mechanical operation have been revised to conform to advanced practice4 ,acknowledgment is made of the use of engravings1 photographs and original data1 and ideas developed and used by the reviser in his engineering practice4 ,that the volume will be well received and fill the needs as a hand book and reference work is the hope of the authors and publishers4 ,the assimilation of the contents as a foundation1 together with power of observation and application will greatly assist beginners in packing house work1 the methods of which are progressing--although the fundamentals remain the same4 ,the reviser hopes assistance will be given in this way1 which he in turn received by oral advice from the two outstanding superintendents in their day 7the days of the business growth71 ,messrs4 ,f4 ,w4 ,wilder and ,c4 ,o4 ,young4 ,d4 ,i4 ,,davis4 ,chicago1 ,july #a1 #aiba4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,modern ,,packing ,,houses #a ,introduction and ,growth -- ,concentration -- ,early ,methods -- ,yankee ,ingenuity -- ,chicago ,yards -- ,movement ,westward -- ,economic ,factors -- ,saving ,by-,products -- ,pioneer's ,troubles -- ,using ,box ,cars -- ,using ,refrigerator ,cars -- ,chilling ,rooms -- ,mechanical ,refrigeration -- ,freezing ,meats -- ,overseas ,shipments4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,location ,,and ,,construction #i ,location -- ,water ,supply -- ,sewage -- ,odors and ,prevailing ,winds -- ,cleanliness -- ,designs and ,errors -- ,character of ,business -- ,requirements -- ,principles of ,design4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,plant ,,design #ad ,description of ,plants -- ,plant ,no4 #a -- ,plant ,no4 #b -- ,plant ,no4 #c -- ,plant ,no4 #d -- ,type of ,plant -- ,loading ,facilities -- ,producing ,department -- ,abbatoir ,building -- ,rendering ,building -- ,live ,stock -- ,icing ,department -- ,cooler ,building -- ,pork ,house -- ,manufacturing ,building -- ,salt ,spaces -- ,power ,department -- ,gravity ,system -- ,how to ,build -- ,fireproof ,design -- ,advantages -- ,slow ,burning ,construction -- ,approval of ,plans4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,refrigeration ,,equipment #bi ,ammonia ,machines -- ,ammonia -- ,compressor -- ,condenser -- ,receiver -- ,cooler -- ,condensing ,water -- ,unit ,basis -- ,computing from ,unit ,basis -- ,how ,rated -- ,freezer ,requirements -- ,freezers in ,small ,plants -- ,cylinder ,arrangement -- ,why ,brine ,circulation -- ,air ,circulating -- ,force ,draft -- ,coil ,room ,systems -- ,brine ,chilling -- ,brine ,methods -- ,types of ,brine ,coolers -- ,balanced ,brine ,system -- ,direct ,expansion -- ,two ,stage ,compressors4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,refrigeration ,,requirements #de ,refrigeration -- ,necessities -- ,ice ,plants -- ,natural ,ice -- ,chilling -- ,quantity ,refrigeration to ,provide -- ,space ,per ,ton ,machine -- ,machinery ,per ,head -- ,for ,cooled ,meats -- ,ice ,computation -- ,compressor ,capacity -- ,chilling ,lard -- ,summary ,computations -- ,low ,temperature ,brine ,system4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,power ,,plant ,,requirement #eb ,steam ,making ,equipment -- ,uses of ,pumps -- ,types of ,pumps -- ,pumps for ,brine -- ,water ,supply -- ,pumps for ,wells -- ,water ,distribution ,systems -- ,pumps for ,boiler ,feeding -- ,heating ,boiler ,feed ,water -- ,wells -- ,cooling ,towers -- ,economizers -- ,superheaters -- ,steam ,engines -- ,exhaust ,steam -- ,advice as to ,exhaust ,steam -- ,boilers -- ,conclusion4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,coolers #fj ,meat ,chilling -- ,dividing ,beef ,coolers -- ,regular ,temperatures -- ,main ,cooler -- ,handling ,beef -- ,fore-,cooler -- ,heavy ,cattle -- ,domestic ,beef -- ,trimming of ,beef -- ,skirt ,trimming -- ,ribbing ,beef -- ,freezing ,beef -- ,loading ,beef -- ,weighing and ,tagging -- ,care of ,coolers -- ,mutton and ,veal -- ,chilling ,hogs -- ,cellars -- ,freezing ,meat4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,warehouses #gj ,warehouse ,design -- ,floor ,area -- ,fire ,proof ,buildings -- ,floor ,construction -- ,coolers -- ,fan and ,ventilation -- ,spray ,system -- ,galvanized ,sheet ,iron ,pipes -- ,coil ,rooms -- ,quantity of ,pipe -- ,method of ,erecting -- ,life of ,pipe -- ,cellar ,ceiling ,suspension -- ,ratio of ,piping -- ,defrosting -- ,gardner ,curtain ,system -- ,direct ,expansion ,piping -- ,chill-,room ,bunkers -- ,low ,temperature ,brine ,system -- ,freezer and ,storage ,buildings4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,slaughtering ,,cattle #ib ,receiving ,live ,stock -- ,watering -- ,driving ,cattle -- ,knocking ,cattle -- ,sticking -- ,heading -- ,pritch ,sticks -- ,foot ,skinning -- ,ripping and ,leg ,breaking -- ,flooring ,cattle -- ,breast ,sawing -- ,fell ,cutting -- ,rumping -- ,beef ,spreaders -- ,fell ,beating -- ,gutting -- ,backing -- ,tail ,sawing -- ,splitting -- ,splitting ,cleavers -- ,clearing ,out and ,hide ,dropping -- ,neck ,splitting -- ,bruise ,trimming -- ,skirt ,trimming -- ,washing ,cattle -- ,fountain ,brushes -- ,dressing ,cattle -- ,conveyors4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,dressing ,,yields ,,and ,,cattle ,,cutting #ajf ,yields of ,cattle -- ,yield from ,twenty-two ,native ,cattle -- ,yield from ,fifty-nine ,texas ,cattle -- ,yield from ,twenty ,heavy ,cattle -- ,yield from ,thirty-four ,cattle -- ,percentage of ,various ,cuts -- ,beef ,cuts -- ,diagram of ,cutting -- ,grading -- ,loins -- ,ribs -- ,rounds -- ,chucks -- ,plates1 ,shanks and ,flanks -- ,barreled ,beef4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,hides ,,and ,,pelts #abf ,green ,hides -- ,condition -- ,scores -- ,prod ,pole ,damage -- ,clean ,floors -- ,leather ,yields -- ,pattern -- ,proper ,storage for ,hides -- ,grading -- ,grubs in ,hides -- ,salt to ,be ,used -- ,building of ,packs of ,hides -- ,trimming of ,green ,hides -- ,switches -- ,shrinkage of ,hides -- ,sheep ,pelts4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,oleo ,,oil ,,and ,,stearine #acf ,fats -- ,origin of ,butterine -- ,oleo ,oil -- ,oleo ,fats -- ,selection and ,care -- ,cleanliness and ,collection -- ,chilling ,fat -- ,cooling ,water -- ,melting -- ,settling the ,oil -- ,clarifiers -- ,scrap ,vat -- ,seeding or ,graining ,oil -- ,press ,room -- ,collecting ,oil -- ,oil ,receivers -- ,temperature of ,oil ,drawn to ,tierce -- ,stearine -- ,oil ,house ,yields -- ,grading ,fats -- ,tests on ,oil ,fats -- ,butcher ,fats -- ,mutton ,fat -- ,oil ,selection -- ,oil ,house ,operation4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,bone ,,department #aei ,bone ,department -- ,hard ,bone -- ,glue ,bone -- ,bone ,products -- ,horns -- ,manufactured ,articles -- ,skulls -- ,test ,yield from ,skulls and ,feet -- ,buttocks and ,thighs -- ,blades and ,ribs -- ,drying -- ,crushed ,bone -- ,grinding ,bone -- ,neats ,foot ,oil ,storage -- ,neats ,foot ,oil ,purifier -- ,yield ,tests4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,tank ,,house ,,department #agj ,tank ,house ,design -- ,isolation and ,ventilation -- ,separation of ,press ,room -- ,digesters -- ,rendering ,tank -- ,surface ,box -- ,press and ,pump -- ,cooking ,killing ,stock -- ,operating ,tank ,blow ,off -- ,pressing ,tankage -- ,treatment of ,lard and ,tallow -- ,titer in ,tallow and ,lard -- ,steam for ,cooking -- ,cooking ,tests -- ,operating ,odorless -- ,tests -- ,catch ,basin4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,tank ,,water #ahi ,soil ,fertility -- ,animal ,feeding -- ,tank ,water -- ,separation of ,solids -- ,collecting ,grease -- ,testing ,tank ,water -- ,evaporating ,tank ,water -- ,description of ,apparatus -- ,cleaning ,evaporators -- ,table of ,boiling ,points -- ,testing ,stick -- ,copperas in ,water to ,evaporate -- ,solids in ,water -- ,drying ,stick -- ,value of ,tankage -- ,quantity of ,tank ,water -- ,cost of ,evaporating4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,fertilizer #bja ,fertilizer -- ,blood -- ,receiving ,tank -- ,cooking -- ,pressing -- ,purity -- ,storing -- ,quick ,handling -- ,tankage -- ,quotations and ,value -- ,grease -- ,influence of ,stick -- ,digester ,tankage -- ,slime -- ,dryers -- ,drying -- ,expense for ,drying -- ,commercial ,fertilizer -- ,state ,regulations -- ,mixing ,materials -- ,conversion ,factors4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,casings #bjh ,description of ,beef ,casings -- ,round ,casings1 ,how ,made -- ,selection of ,round ,casings -- ,export ,casings -- ,domestic ,rounds -- ,beef ,middles -- ,turning and ,sliming -- ,inspection and ,measuring -- ,beef ,bungs -- ,bung ,gut ,skins -- ,beef ,bladders -- ,beef ,weasands -- ,packages -- ,salt -- ,cleanliness -- ,water ,temperature -- ,machines for ,casings -- ,hog ,casings -- ,small ,casings4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,beef ,,miscellany #bag ,beef ,miscellaneous -- ,livers -- ,sweetbreads -- ,beef ,hearts -- ,tails -- ,weasand ,meat -- ,beef ,tongues -- ,washing -- ,hanging -- ,trimming -- ,curing -- ,freezing -- ,surplus ,rounds -- ,stripping ,beef ,hams -- ,formulas for ,curing -- ,smoking -- ,tests -- ,glass ,jar ,beef -- ,beef ,trimmings -- ,barrel ,beef -- ,tripe -- ,cleaning ,tripe -- ,pickling -- ,cost of ,production4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,sheep ,,and ,,calves #bbi ,increased ,production of ,sheep -- ,penning -- ,dressing by ,piece ,method -- ,string ,gang -- ,sheep ,ring -- ,sheep ,dressing -- ,legging -- ,pelting -- ,methods of ,finishing -- ,washing and ,its ,effect -- ,chilling -- ,lamb ,tongues -- ,pickled ,lamb ,tongues -- ,lamb ,tongue ,tests -- ,slaughtering ,calves -- ,heads and ,feet4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,hog ,,slaughtering #bea ,historical -- ,investment -- ,hog ,yarding -- ,hog ,dressing -- ,hoisting -- ,sticking -- ,neck ,washing -- ,scalding -- ,scraping ,machines -- ,hand ,scraping -- ,cleaning ,bodies -- ,ham ,facing and ,cutting -- ,leaf ,lard -- ,splitting -- ,washing -- ,drying -- ,care in ,chill ,rooms -- ,open ,air ,hanging -- ,chilling ,necessities -- ,shrinkage in ,chill ,room -- ,hog ,by-,products -- ,heads -- ,plucks -- ,paunches -- ,entrail ,fat4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,pork ,,cuttings #bff ,hog ,cutting -- ,variety and ,classes of ,hogs -- ,cutting ,floor -- ,pork ,cuts -- ,hams -- ,side ,meats -- ,bellies -- ,backs -- ,loins -- ,shoulders -- ,butts and ,plates -- ,percentage of ,yield -- ,change ,cuts ,one ,side -- ,test on ,five ,sides -- ,complete ,cutting ,test4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,curing ,,meats #caa ,curing ,cellars -- ,hams and ,their ,treatment -- ,wilder ,hams -- ,shoulder ,meats -- ,bellies -- ,overhauling ,meats -- ,fancy ,bacon -- ,shipping ,ages -- ,second ,pickle -- ,dry ,salt ,meats -- ,curing ,dry ,salt ,meats -- ,smoking ,dry ,salt ,meats -- ,barreled ,pork -- ,curing ,barreled ,pork -- ,english ,meats -- ,pigs ,feet -- ,pigs ,tongues -- ,pigs ,snouts4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,lard1 ,,compound ,,and ,,greases #cdj ,historical -- ,quantity and ,quality -- ,neutral ,lard -- ,kettle ,rendered ,lard -- ,prime ,steam ,lard -- ,refined ,lard -- ,bleaching ,lard -- ,filter ,press -- ,lard ,roll -- ,lard ,packing -- ,compound ,lard -- ,cottonseed ,oil -- ,refining ,crude ,oil -- ,deodorizing ,cottonseed ,oil -- ,pressing ,temperatures -- ,lard ,oil -- ,treatment for ,lard ,grease4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,smoke ,,house #cfd ,smoking ,meats -- ,nomenclature -- ,soaking -- ,smoking -- ,gas ,smoking -- ,temperatures -- ,treatment ,after ,smoking -- ,trolley ,system -- ,canvassed ,meats -- ,shrinkage -- ,wrapping -- ,white ,wash -- ,dried ,beef -- ,packages -- ,skipper ,fly4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,domestic ,,sausage #cgb ,meats and ,handling -- ,arrangement of ,department -- ,curing ,meats -- ,cooler for ,ground ,meats -- ,grinding and ,stuffing ,room -- ,smoke ,house -- ,cook ,room -- ,dry ,hanging ,room -- ,cooler -- ,smoking ,temperature -- ,cooking ,time -- ,shrinkages -- ,pickle-,cured ,products -- ,dry-,cured ,meats -- ,packing -- ,casings and ,spices -- ,sausage ,cereals -- ,sausage ,formulas -- ,bologna ,varnish -- ,boiled ,ham4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,dried ,,sausage #cii ,summer ,sausage -- ,preservatives -- ,cooling ,room -- ,stuffing -- ,hanging ,room -- ,smoke ,house -- ,dry ,room ,treatment -- ,dry ,room ,caution -- ,shipping ,ages -- ,storage -- ,preparation of ,casings -- ,trimming ,meats -- ,formulas for ,sausage4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,butterine #dbj ,ingredients -- ,colors -- ,equipment -- ,rooms -- ,arrangement -- ,testing ,milk -- ,acidity -- ,milk in ,butterine -- ,reasons for ,culture -- ,cream ,ripeness -- ,water vs4 ,brine -- ,milk ,not ,pasteurized -- ,preparatory ,culture -- ,starters -- ,cultivating the ,milk -- ,low ,grade ,butterine -- ,graining -- ,working the ,butterine -- ,butterine ,packing -- ,high-,grade ,butterine -- ,cleanliness -- ,use of ,color -- ,formulas -- ,costs of ,butterine4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,boxes ,,and ,,cooperage #ddj ,specifications for ,boxes -- ,cooperage ,specifications -- ,government ,specifications for ,packages -- ,refrigerator ,boxes4 ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,departmental ,,accounting #dec ,departmental ,accounting -- ,expense ,accounts -- ,departments -- ,purchases -- ,inventories -- ,store ,accounts -- ,labor ,charged to ,departments and ,sub-,divisions -- ,general ,principles4 ,illustration3 ,,view ,,of ,,union ,,stock ,,yards1 ,,chicago1 ,,showing ,,horse ,,market ,,at ,,left ,,and ,,exchange ,,building ,,at ,,right4 ,illustration3 ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,union ,,stock ,,yards1 ,,chicago1 ,,showing ,,packing ,,houses ,,in ,,the ,,distance4 ,illustration3 ,,entrance ,,to ,,the ,,union ,,stock ,,yards1 ,,chicago1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,modern ,,packing ,,houses4 ,,introduction ,,and ,,growth -- ,,concentration -- ,,early ,,methods -- ,,yankee ,,ingenuity -- ,,chicago ,,yards -- ,,movement ,,westward -- ,,economic ,,factors -- ,,saving ,,by-,,products -- ,,pioneer',s ,,troubles -- ,,using ,,box ,,cars -- ,,using ,,refrigerator ,,cars -- ,,chilling ,,rooms -- ,,mechanical ,,refrigeration -- ,,freezing ,,meats -- ,,overseas ,,shipments4 ,introduction and ,growth4--,few industries in the ,united ,states have shown such rapid growth as has the packing house business4 ,the modern packing house1 as it exists today1 may be said to be less than forty years old since its inception4 ,one naturally inquires the causes which led to the growth of this industry to its present proportions in so short a time1 ranking practically fifth in importance among the industries of the ,united ,states4 ,the main factor which has been instrumental in the consummation of this immense growth is concentration--coupled with--conservation4 ,concentration4--,concentration permits the manipulation of by-products1 creating useful and valuable materials saleable in themselves and tending to reduce the commercial cost of the edible portion of the animal4 ,conservation in the saving of all parts of the animal to their best uses4 ,early ,methods4--,before the modern packing house was established the method in vogue was to either ship by car or drive live stock to the point of consumption1 where it was slaughtered and put on the market in a crude and expensive way compared with the methods of to-day4 ,in the evolution of the business the first step toward making the modern packing house was the concentration of live stock at a few markets where it was offered for sale4 ,prior to that time it would have been impossible for any one point to obtain sufficient stock to much more than supply its local demands1 and surely not enough to supply a modern establishment4 ,yankee ,ingenuity4--,in the ,united ,states during the early days of the live stock market1 buyers purchased their supplies where they best could1 and shipped them alive to the places where the animals were to be consumed4 ,at this point 8,yankee0 ingenuity interceded and devised the opposite plan1 viz3 that of shipping the live stock to a few central points and there changing it to dressed meats1 which were shipped to the consuming markets4 ,the development of this plan inaugurated a new line of business now recognized as one of the most important of modern industries--central stock yards and packing house centers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,live ,,stock ,,going ,,to ,,scale1 ,,union ,,stock ,,yards1 ,,chicago4 ,chicago ,yards4--,one of the first and largest of these central live stock depots to be established was the ,union ,stock ,yards1 ,chicago1 ,ill41 ,u4 ,s4 ,a41 where are located the largest slaughter houses4 ,views of these great yards are shown4 ,fig4 #a shows one of the places where live stock is passed to the scales and weighed prior to delivery to the purchaser2 ,fig4 #b1 a view of the live stock pens and an alleyway on a busy day2 ,fig4 #c1 a view of a pen containing choice yearling cattle1 and ,fig4 #d1 one containing a bunch of choice ,polled-,angus cattle4 ,these views are typical of many markets now established throughout the ,united ,states and where the business is conducted upon a parallel basis4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,a ,,busy ,,alley1 ,,union ,,stock ,,yards1 ,,chicago4 ,movement ,westward4--,many factors and conditions contributed to the possibility of the modern packing plant4 ,the feature of slaughtering the cattle near to the point of growth lessened the shrinkage and abuse of the animal and its resulting food product4 ,there are many of the conditions that might be gone into in detail but which are now of no consequence4 ,however1 among the conditions that made the business possible was the fact that on the vast plains of the west1 innumerable cattle were being raised at a minimum cost1 with but little local sale1 whereas in the thickly settled east1 in the manufacturing districts1 a ready market was found for the beef4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,,pen ,,containing ,,choice ,,yearling ,,cattle4 ,economic ,factors4--,economic conditions make the raising of live stock1 in juxtaposition to the production of grain1 a fixed fact4 ,and apparently the nearer to the source of supply the animal is slaughtered the less deterioration in the product1 animal and meat considered together4 ,the packing business of this country would practically be impossible in older countries that are thickly settled1 as the cost of raising live stock would be actually about the same in all parts1 and the cost of shipping from one point to another would only add to the original cost4 ,with the lower cost of raising the animal on low value land1 the eastern farmer with his high priced land was unable to compete1 hence the practice of raising live stock in the west and consuming it in the east2 and the concentration of live stock at the large markets1 with the improved devices1 has made the business a possibility1 and the money and energy expended in adopting the best methods has caused its growth to its present magnitude4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,,pen ,,containing ,,choice ,,polled-,,angus ,,cattle4 ,saving ,by-,products4--,another important feature adding to the growth of this industry1 is the saving effected by utilizing the by-products4 ,when animals were killed promiscuously throughout the country this was impossible1 for a man killing a few at some local point could not save the by-products1 consequently they were lost4 ,neither could the small killer afford the necessary appliances with which to turn the material out economically and compete with business on a large scale1 any more than the ancient cobbler sitting at his bench1 could afford the labor-saving machines and devices which are seen in modern shoe factories4 ,the general health of the public has been served by having their meats properly inspected and delivered in a much better condition than they could be at the time when the animal was killed and the meat consumed without it being properly chilled4 ,that the meat is delivered to the consumer in a more palatable condition than it was formerly is generally conceded by all4 ,foreigners who visit this country are invariably impressed with the superior meats with which they are served1 due to the process in chilling1 and the age at the time of consumption4 ,the by-products which are saved in modern plants1 which1 under the older methods were almost entirely lost1 have a good value4 ,heads and feet1 for example1 which were ordinarily thrown away1 are to-day made up into various products1 all of which have a value4 ,the blood1 fats and refuse1 are turned into commercial commodities1 and the saving of these different parts creates a profit in the business1 a profit heretofore lost4 ,further details on this subject will be given in the chapters treating on by-products4 ,pioneer's ,troubles4--,when the pioneers of the business first broached the idea of killing cattle in ,chicago and selling the dressed beef in the east it was considered wholly impracticable1 and the people who started the business were looked upon as a 8little queer40 ,there were many bitter experiences1 in the way of financial losses before it was accomplished4 ,shipping perishable products long distances caused the loss of many thousands of dollars before the proper methods were discovered1 but the beginners felt they were working along the right lines4 ,obstacles were overcome and to-day meats are delivered in eastern markets in a far better and a more healthful condition than they were ever offered to the public under the old methods from local abattoirs4 ,using ,box ,cars4--,in the early days of the concentrated cattle markets1 fresh meat products were only shipped during the winter months and in a common or what is now known as a 8box0 car1 as differentiated from a 8refrigerator0 car4 ,using ,refrigerator ,cars4--,the next step was the use of ice in the car and from this to the 8refrigerator0 car4 ,this type of car with the improved dispatch service offered by the railways1 made the business of shipping freshly dressed beef to any part of the country feasible4 ,the ,chilling ,room4--,notably and most essential was the development of a chilling department in which the slaughtered animal could be properly chilled4 ,this is now a matter of such common occurrence that but little consideration is given the subject4 ,however1 in the days when ice was used1 and before the introduction of mechanical refrigeration it was a matter of large consequence4 ,mechanical ,refrigeration4--,mechanical refrigeration1 and this alone1 has made it possible to properly cool meats for shipment to remote points as fresh meats1 or to properly prepare them for curing1 and to preserve them after curing beyond a comparatively limited time4 ,mechanical refrigeration made possible the equipping of ships for the transportation of meats under refrigeration from any point to any market on the globe4 ,freezing ,meats4--,the freezing of meats such as beef and poultry1 and holding them to a desirable season has rapidly become an important factor in packing house work4 ,not only beef1 poultry1 butter and other food products are accumulated1 but pork cuts1 such as hams1 shoulders1 bellies1 etc41 are frozen and carried indefinitely or until it appears desirable to thaw and cure them4 ,overseas ,shipments4--,a contributing feature to the development of the packing house business1 was the overseas shipment of meats4 ,in the early part of the decade #aijj-aiaj a very large business in fresh beef was conducted between the ,united ,states and ,england4 ,at the outset it was considered an impossibility1 but by the most careful and detailed attention and the utilization of modern methods1 it was found possible to kill cattle or sheep in the hottest months of the year at interior points in the ,united ,states1 ship the meats in refrigerator cars to the seaboard1 transfer into refrigerated rooms on the steamers and thence to ,england1 the meat being sometimes four or five weeks en route from the abattoir where the animal was killed1 to the place where the meat finally reached the consumer4 ,even though the ,english authorities gave it the most critical examination1 it was found in proper state for consumption4 ,in the same manner vast quantities of meat is finding its way from ,south ,america to the ,european markets1 most of it shipped 8chilled10 not frozen4 ,for a time the ,united ,states furnished the largest part of the fresh meat consumed in ,england4 ,it is true that for many years we have supplied foreign markets with cured and canned meats1 but the fresh meat trade in ,england is a business developed within a comparatively few years and it grew to magnitude4 ,however1 owing to our growth1 increasing home demands1 and the changed economic conditions1 this business dwindled in the last decade so that on beef it was practically gone1 except that during the ,european war owing to prevailing conditions1 it was revived for a time at least4 ,the pre-eminence of the ,united ,states pork products1 however1 is everywhere recognized and until new corn producing lands are developed and utilized1 the corn and the pig supply for the world will be that part of the ,united ,states west of the ,alleghany mountains and east of the ,rocky mountains4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,location ,,and ,,construction4 ,,location -- ,,water ,,supply -- ,,sewage -- ,,odors ,,and ,,prevailing ,,winds -- ,,cleanliness -- ,,designs ,,and ,,errors -- ,,character ,,of ,,business -- ,,requirements -- ,,principles ,,of ,,design4 ,location4--,location is a moderate sized word with a vast meaning4 ,it has two definitions as applied to meat packing houses4 ,first4--,location as to a live stock supply4 ,pioneers in foreign lands looking for a cheap supply must take into consideration the quantity immediately available1 the probabilities based upon feeding1 climate1 natural enemies--beast and bug--and the ambition of the people to produce as well as their ability to produce4 ,sometimes an apparent supply is at hand but a searching investigation will show that it is an accumulated surplus1 soon exhausted1 with a resultant dearth4 ,in the case of cattle1 a supply cannot be created in a day but by persistent effort and in several generations of human life4 ,transportation by trooping and by train1 or the ability of the cattle to withstand the first or the ability of the railways to handle for want of facilities1 are at times matters of much consequence4 ,second4--,location as applied to a position for operating1 applicable to domestic or foreign works4 ,there are several items of prime importance to be considered in selecting a location from this standpoint4 ,in many instances a plant is established near a locality producing a sufficient quality of live stock suitable for a certain purpose1 for example pigs suitable for export trade4 ,in some instances the selection of a location is made for trade reasons1 or to be adjacent to a stock yards2 and in instances because property is owned in a certain locality4 ,where situation can be of choice1 the matters for most serious consideration are sewage disposal1 water supply1 prevailing winds and transportation facilities4 ,water ,supply4--,this is of great consequence4 ,the quantity to be used for condensing purposes1 refrigerating machinery operation1 for cleansing1 and in the regular course of business1 is a very large amount1 and if purchased from water supply corporations or municipalities1 at prevailing rates1 become a burdensome item of expense4 ,the principal use for water can be classified under three headings3 ,boiler ,purposes--,this naturally will be selected from available sources based upon fitness1 irrespective of cost4 ,condensing--,first1 for refrigerating machinery ammonia condensing and for steam engine condensing1 in conjunction with the production of power and operating steam engines on refrigerating equipment4 ,for this purpose cold water is desirable4 ,if it can be obtained from wells it is the best practice1 owing to such water usually being of low temperature4 ,however1 the cost of production must be considered1 and that calls for engineering knowledge as to relative conditions4 ,usually1 unless the surface water be in large quantity and available from a stream1 the wells prove economical unless the water must be raised from great depths involving air lift pumping4 ,there are instances1 however1 where turbidity makes water from streams undesirable and where well water is unobtainable1 and in instances of this kind use of settling basins1 reservoirs and cooling towers is resorted to4 ,for ,cleaning and ,other ,purposes--,the water for cleansing purposes1 for food products1 fats and premises1 should be clean and free from contamination that render it unfit for potable uses4 ,sewage4--,the question of sewage disposal from a packing house is of more consequence than the water supply1 which is usually determined by the relative cost4 ,the former is a matter of disposition4 ,no matter how carefully the refuse from the slaughtered animal is collected for passing through the rendering department1 or how carefully the waters from cooking are collected for evaporation1 quite large quantities of nitrogenous particles and many substances which are more cheaply disposed of by the way of the sewers1 ultimately reach them4 ,if the refuse finds its way to a rapidly flowing stream1 it is taken care of by bacterial action1 but if discharged into a dry stream or pool1 or to a sewage disposal plant1 it becomes a serious burden that sooner or later reverts to the packer4 ,odors and ,prevailing ,winds4--,naturally to minimize the distance of transport to stations for shipping or delivery to the consumer1 or to be near to a supply of labor1 every manufacturer is desirous of locating his works near to a city or on its outskirts1 if not at a commercial stock yards4 ,where the latter are of comparatively large consequence to a community1 the odors arising are usually considered a 8necessary evil0 and the packing plant as a part of that4 ,no matter how carefully the plant may be operated1 if the full commercial value is taken out of all products there are some departments in which it is difficult to abate the smells1 and if the prevailing winds are towards a residence district1 it is likely to cause disturbance4 ,this statement can be qualified1 however1 because it is a fact that plants can be designed and can be operated so as to be kept within proper bounds and be of no more nuisance than the handling of the live animals1 but it will always be well for the prospective packer to recognize that he would not care to live on the premises1 nor will his neighbor appreciate his works any more than he4 ,a packing house properly belongs to a district at a reasonable distance from residence property1 and where the prevailing winds are not toward the residence district4 ,cleanliness4--,the features contributing most to the operation of a plant so as to avoid it becoming noisome is that of cleanliness1 first1 last and always2 ample equipment to promptly dispose of all by-products1 and to do it promptly4 ,design and ,errors4--,the location disposed of1 the design and construction is a problem that cannot have too careful consideration4 ,there are two grievous errors that may creep in2 overbuilding and under building4 ,overbuilding recognizes the construction of a plant too large for present needs1 thereby making the capital investment too large for the business to be done1 and sometimes resulting in the handicap of insufficient monies for plant operation with all the difficulties entailed4 ,under building1 failing to recognize the growth that might occur and failing to so arrange that the growth can be made in a way that keeps the plant in balance and makes for economical operation4 ,either condition may lead to regrets4 ,character of ,business4--,at this point comes the consideration of the character of the business to be conducted and the proportioning of departments one to another suitably4 ,for instance1 in a beef shipping plant for fresh beef the coolers may have a hanging capacity equal to at least three times the daily slaughtering capacity1 while at some market points the ratio may be ten times4 ,whereas1 at a freezing plant it becomes a question of room to accumulate a cargo dependent upon transport facilities4 ,requirements4--,the requirements in the various localities1 as to arrangement of departments2 to comply with sanitary necessities as to light and ventilation1 and the classes of materials required in construction1 are changing from time to time and no set rule can be made1 but these are axiomatic3 7#a7 ,products prepared for food purposes must be quickly and thoroughly isolated from non-edible products4 7#b7 ,all departments should1 so far as possible1 be maintained in separate buildings4 7#c7 ,building materials should1 so far as possible1 be non-absorbent4 7#d7 ,light and air should be arranged for in plenty4 7#e7 ,the question of movement of product to minimize labor should be given proper attention4 ,in the building of a packing house it is only within the last few years that this matter has been studied from the standpoint of obtaining the best results at the least expenditure for operating4 7#f7 ,formerly it was considered proper to build the killing house and coolers on the ground level1 excavating a cellar for the storage of some of the products2 the power house1 tank rooms and other buildings for the disposition of by-products were placed without reference to economy in operation4 ,experience has proven that it is economical to slaughter animals on the upper floor of a building1 and instead of spreading out on the ground and covering a large area as formerly1 to build higher over a smaller area4 ,with a proper incline the animals will walk to an elevation of #ej or #fj feet without detriment to their condition1 and it is much cheaper to do this than to kill them on the ground level and elevate the products1 or to convey or transport them to distant buildings on the same level4 7#g7 ,the use of gravity is recognized as a proper procedure in all departments from a low labor cost standpoint4 ,the locating of the buildings1 one to another2 to minimize the transferring of products2 and the grouping of products as to convenience in shipping by wagon1 by car or by boat1 as the case may require1 are also important4 7#h7 ,very important is the question of grouping cold storage departments so as to minimize the wall space and exposure from radiation2 likewise the concentration of buildings requiring heat to avoid the loss of fuel by reason of long steam lines1 and radiation which can not be prevented4 ,principles of ,design4--,the crux of the plant appears to be the slaughtering department for it is here the work begins and from this source radiates the various parts for disposal4 ,one well-known and successful designer works with the idea of beginning at the rendering department1 and establishing the tops of the rendering tanks1 or digestors1 on a level with the viscera separating floor1 from which the refuse is readily transported without the use of elevator or lift service4 ,the slaughtering floor is naturally above this level1 and all other departments disposed to meet the various needs4 ,obviously there being so many controlling factors1 no examples can be set out to meet all conditions4 ,there follows however1 a ground plan and sectional view of several plants of varying sizes with descriptive data4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,plant ,,design4 ,,description ,,of ,,plants -- ,,plant ,,no4 #a -- ,,plant ,,no4 #b -- ,,plant ,,no4 #c -- ,,plant ,,no4 #d -- ,,type ,,of ,,plant -- ,,loading ,,facilities -- ,,producing ,,department -- ,,abbatoir ,,building -- ,,rendering ,,building -- ,,live ,,stock -- ,,icing ,,department -- ,,cooler ,,building -- ,,pork ,,house -- ,,manufacturing ,,building -- ,,salt ,,spaces -- ,,power ,,department -- ,,gravity ,,system -- ,,how ,,to ,,build -- ,,fireproof ,,design -- ,,advantages -- ,,slow ,,burning ,,construction -- ,,approval ,,of ,,plans4 ,description of ,plants4--,this chapter is devoted to a description of several types of plants4 ,plant ,no4 #a4--;,a moderate sized beef1 mutton1 and pork producing plant capable of slaughtering six hundred cattle1 fifteen hundred sheep and fifteen hundred hogs daily1 and taking care of the products of manufacture resulting therefrom4 ,this design was developed upon the principle of gravity for movement of products with as little use of elevators as possible2 the avoidance of excessive use of mechanical conveyors and contrivances2 the grouping of buildings intended for hot or cold temperatures2 economy of operation1 and for minimum car movement4 ,loading ,facilities4--,the general arrangement provides for wagon and dray loading facilities fronting the main thoroughfare4 ,the garage and office are at the left and right sides of the court4 ,three tracks are situated between the two groups of buildings to take care of the car loading4 ,usually the refrigerated products are loaded upon the east track1 and non-refrigerated products1 such as hides and bones1 and the oleo department products1 upon the west track4 ,the intermediate track is used for the storing of cars4 ,by use of the connecting platform at the south end either kind of cars can be loaded on either track4 ,a separate non-interfering railroad spur is provided for unloading coal1 and cotton seed oil1 and for loading tallow1 while a distinct track is provided for loading cars of dry salt meats from the pork warehouse4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,,plant ,,no4 #a1 ,,moderate ,,size ,,packing ,,house4 ,producing ,department--,the abattoir is made the center of distribution1 with the refrigerated buildings and departments directly communicative1 situated nearby4 ,the rendering and manufacturing departments--users of steam and power--are grouped near to the abattoir and to the power plant1 while the buildings requiring refrigeration are grouped together and isolated from the manufacturing buildings4 ,the stock pens connected with the plant are to the left of the manufacturing groups1 but are not shown on the plan4 ,abattoir ,building--,this building1 six stories high1 is given over to the following uses3 ,fourth floor1 slaughtering2 third floor1 treatment1 separation and cooking of by-products and manufacture of casings2 second floor1 oleo oil manufacturing2 first floor1 oleo oil storage1 and shipping purposes2 basement and sub-basement1 storage of tallow and curing of hides4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,,exterior ,,view ,,beef1 ,,sheep ,,and ,,pork ,,plant4 ,rendering ,building--,divided into two sections and separated by partitions1 one side is used for the refining of cotton seed oil and the manufacture of edible tallows2 the other side for cooking blood and rendering inedible tallows4 ,the floors are used as follows3 ,second floor1 level with viscera separating floor in abattoir1 from whence raw stock is trucked to the filling floor without requiring use of elevators for filling of tanks2 first floor1 tank bodies and receptacles for collection of tallow4 ,the skimming vats to which the tank residue1 after drawing off the tallows1 is passed1 are level with this floor1 enabling the separation and floating of the tallow and its collection2 basement for press room1 and sub-basement for drying tankage4 ,the tank water to be evaporated is collected and passed to a separate building for treatment and evaporation4 ,live ,stock--,the live stock pens are situated to the left of the rendering department extending north of the oil storage tanks from which position leads an incline1 delivering the live stock into an elevated storage pen covering the area between the rendering house and the abattoir1 and over the dressing room4 ,icing ,department--,facilities for manufacturing ice for cooling cars are provided in the space directly north of the abattoir building4 ,the three railroad tracks between the two groups of buildings are covered with a protecting shed1 and from the bottom member of the trusses are suspended trolley rails for handling buckets of ice to be dumped into the tanks of the refrigerator cars4 ,cooler ,building--,the dressed beef1 mutton and pork is transferred via bridge with chain conveyors1 carrying the carcasses from the slaughtering house floor to the cooling rooms situated upon the third floor of the cooler building4 ,from this floor the carcasses are conveyed for storage purposes to the second and first floor1 and from there they are passed to the cutting room1 city sales department1 or cars4 ,the basement and sub-basement are used for curing beef and pork joints4 ,the fourth floor of this building is set aside for freezing products which1 after being frozen1 are shipped for storage to other premises owned by the same company4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,,sectional ,,view ,,indicating ,,levels ,,and ,,comparative ,,levels ,,of ,,department ,,floors4 ,pork ,house--,the fourth floor of the pork house is utilized for chilling hogs2 the third for cutting them1 and all floors below for curing purposes4 ,note1 the arrangement whereby the pork house and the cooler building are each connected with the team-loading platform and also closely arranged for car loading4 ,manufacturing ,building--,a manufacturing building given over to the production of sausage1 smoked meats1 lard and the packing and shipping of same is immediately north of the cooler and pork buildings1 and connected thereto at all floors where necessary4 ,the city shipping department has its allotted space on the ground floor of the cooler building and the products finished in the manufacturing building move south toward the team loading platforms4 ,salt ,spaces1 etc4--,in this instance1 but which rarely occurs1 the city's main sewer system is located at a deep level1 which affords proper drainage and permitted the construction of two cellars4 ,there are1 therefore1 two stories practically under ground4 ,this is a decided advantage from the standpoint of radiation exposure1 and it also affords an opportunity to provide salt storage and cooperage stowing spaces on two levels adjacent to the railroad tracks4 ,it further provides a means for securing a connecting tunnel below the track level1 thus providing facilities for a perfect interchange from all cellar departments4 ,of equal consequence is the opportunity to pass all pipes for water1 steam and refrigeration1 power and lighting wires1 as well as products1 from one department to another4 ,this makes for a low upkeep cost1 little exposure1 less radiation and greatly reduces the annual upkeep4 ,power ,department--,the boilers were placed on a floor level with the basement4 ,the coal pocket into which coal is dropped extends to the sub-basement level1 providing a comparatively large coal storage4 ,at the sub-basement level are the ash collecting bins4 ,from this level are provided elevators of the continuous bucket type for raising the coal and ashes to tanks provided for storage1 from which the coal and ashes gravitate to the furnaces and disposal cars respectively4 ,the engine foundations extend to the sub-basement level1 with the main engine situated upon the basement level4 ,the pumps are located in part on the lower level4 ,all pipes and wires leading to the operating department are carried through the sub-basement1 permitting the arrangement of all exhaust and steam piping beneath the engine room floor4 ,gravity ,system--,attention is called to the fact that in the rendering department1 for example1 the products in their steps of manufacture are handled by gravity entirely until the finished dried fertilizer is produced1 which has to be elevated to the ground level for car shipment1 or for wagon delivery4 ,the same features are true of the abattoir1 hides and tallow in casks only1 requiring the use of elevators for shipment4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,,plant ,,no4 #b1 ,,ground ,,plan ,,for ,,country ,,packing ,,house4 ,plant ,no4 #b4--,this plant was designed for a country point where the shipping by local freight cars or the city delivery was quite limited2 where the major part of the product would be shipped by car1 and where provision was made for quite an extensive growth4 ,the capacity as designed being four hundred hogs and fifty cattle daily1 with a complementary quantity of calves and sheep4 ,loading ,facilities--,again the three railways are provided for convenience in loading and for facilitating switching and icing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,,plant ,,no4 #b1 ,,section ,,through ,,slaughtering ,,and ,,rendering ,,building4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,,plant ,,no4 #b1 ,,section ,,through ,,manufacturing ,,building4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,,plant ,,no4 #b1 ,,section ,,through ,,cooler ,,building4 ,producing ,department--,in this plant the slaughter of hogs is the predominant business4 ,the hog killing department was consequently designed amply large and for a growth to upwards of fifteen hundred hogs daily1 while the rendering department provides for additional tanking facilities to be added as required4 ,in this building1 near to the source of production is placed a small air blast type of meat and leaf lard cooling space4 ,rendering ,department--,owing to abattoir being isolated it was possible to set aside a portion of the building for the rendering department1 and make the construction comply with the sanitary requirements as to light1 air and ventilation4 ,these features are illustrated by the sectional views4 ,live ,stock--,the live stock receiving pens for cars and wagons are located on the ground as shown on plans1 and a long ramp is arranged for the slow driving of hogs4 ,again1 all products are passed downward in the process of manufacture4 ,icing ,department--,facilities are provided for harvesting ice from a stream situated north of the premises4 ,the railroad tracks extend to the ice storage houses where facilities are provided for icing cars4 ,pork ,building--,advantage was taken of the relative grouping and the space available to provide an open air hanging or drying room for hogs at a level of the killing floor and hog chill rooms4 ,the hogs pass through this space on their way to the cooler4 ,the pork building is arranged with chilling rooms on the upper floor and curing rooms beneath on all floors to and including the basement4 ,manufacturing ,building--,adjacent to the cooler building1 space is provided for the making of sausage1 cutting hogs1 and trimming of sausage meat1 processing of meats for smoking1 packing and shipping4 ,power ,department--,this is a minor matter since the electric current is purchased from a municipal lighting corporation1 and the plant being in a cold climate1 advantage is taken of these conditions4 ,note that in this plant every department except the killing department1 which was made as large a unit as appeared to be necessary1 may be extended without in any manner disturbing the relative situation of the departments4 ,the uses of the several floors are shown in the sectional drawings4 ,plant ,no4 #c4--,type of plant4 ,the diagram 7,fig4 #ab7 is illustrative of a small local plant situated in a southwestern city1 and built principally for a local mixed business4 ,the plant will properly take care of one hundred hogs and fifty cattle daily1 the necessary by-products and the manufacturing departments1 therefor4 ,an ice business is operated in conjunction with this plant4 ,the buildings are chiefly two stories in height4 ,the plan and sectional drawings are sufficiently explicit to require no description4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,,plant ,,no4 #c1 ,,ground ,,plan ,,of ,,small ,,local ,,packing ,,house4 ,plant ,no4 #d4--,the accompanying vignette and ground plan are illustrative of an alongside deep water export plant4 ,the photograph of front view illustrates the loading facilities which show ramps or inclines upon which conveyors are operated4 ,these endless chains convey beef in quarter to the wharf at right angles thereto1 where it is picked off the rail by ship's tackle and lowered into the ship's chambers4 ,discussing the plant arrangement1 note the position of the slaughter house with relation to the coolers and trace the movement of the products to the coolers1 rendering1 wool house4 ,also the further movement of the products to shipment4 ,particular attention is called to the arrows indicating the direction of growth of every department without disarranging the first intention as to movement1 and minimizing the labor on the extended plant4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,,plant ,,no4 #d1 ,,showing ,,deep ,,water ,,export ,,plant4 ,the steam producing department is in close proximity to the steam using buildings1 viz3 ,power ,department1 ,rendering ,house1 ,fertilizer and ,slaughter ,house4 ,preference being given over electricity or refrigeration which can be transmitted longer distances at less loss4 ,how to ,build4--,the question of design being settled the next matter of importance is the one involving the materials to be used in construction4 ,that becomes a matter of investment and permanent size or location of the buildings4 ,fireproof buildings are desirable on account of low cost of upkeep and a lower insurance rate4 ,they are permanent in every way1 but the difficult question is that of modifying1 provided changes become necessary4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,,plant ,,no4 #d1 ,,ground ,,plan ,,for ,,export ,,packing ,,house4 ,fireproof ,design4--,if decision is made for a fireproof building1 re-inforced concrete is the first suggestion owing to its universal use as a building material1 but there are several points to be given serious consideration before reaching a decision4 ,one of these points being how to insulate so as to prevent losses4 ,this matter will be taken up in a subsequent chapter describing a cold storage warehouse of eminent design4 ,it is one of great importance4 ,advantages of ,fireproof ,construction4--,the fireproof buildings have naturally a very great advantage in permanence from a standpoint of cost of upkeep and insurance charges1 and from the greater loss of a cessation of business incident to destruction by fire4 ,in most plants there are sufficient departments of such staple character so unlikely to be changed that it appears judicious to make them fireproof4 ,slow ,burning ,construction4--,many people are quite content with buildings of moderate height of slow burning construction2 otherwise1 a modified type of 8mill construction0 and with the use of sprinkler systems which minimize the insurance costs4 ,approval of ,plans4--,there are many points in building construction to take care of in the matter of design1 to meet the requirements of the insurance interests and local city building department regulations1 which in the main coincide4 ,before entering into a contract to construct1 it is well to have the drawings approved by the insurance boards and the city inspection bureau4 ,it obviates expensive changes and additions4 ,to build in such a manner as to bring the insurance rates to a minimum is certainly desirable4 ,it is an advantage1 too1 to have the plant divided so that in case of fire the spread of the flames can be retarded and the fire confined to the building where it originated1 or if some of the buildings are burned the balance can be saved4 ,fires invariably represent1 to a well managed business1 a far greater loss than is collectible on the insurance policies4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,refrigeration ,,equipment ,,ammonia ,,machines -- ,,ammonia -- ,,compressor -- ,,condenser -- ,,receiver -- ,,cooler -- ,,condensing ,,water -- ,,unit ,,basis -- ,,computing ,,from ,,unit ,,basis -- ,,how ,,rated -- ,,freezer ,,requirements -- ,,freezers ,,in ,,small ,,plants -- ,,cylinder ,,arrangement -- ,,why ,,brine ,,circulation -- ,,air ,,circulating -- ,,force ,,draft -- ,,coil ,,room ,,systems -- ,,brine ,,chilling -- ,,brine ,,methods -- ,,types ,,of ,,brine ,,coolers -- ,,balanced ,,brine ,,system -- ,,direct ,,expansion -- ,,two-,,stage ,,compressors4 ,mechanical ,refrigerating ,equipment4--,this agent is of great consequence in the operation of packing houses1 and1 therefore1 it is deemed essential to explain the principles briefly2 as well as to describe the uses4 ,ammonia ,machines4--,the use of ammonia refrigeration equipment either absorption or compression has so generally displaced all others for stationary or land use1 and particularly in meat plants and cold storage houses1 that for the present purpose it is unnecessary to go into a discussion of others4 ,the compression system being so predominant in its use1 a description of same is given4 ,the diagram indicates a compression system in elementary form consisting of3 7#a7 ,a pump or compressor which withdraws the gas from the cooler or expansion tank1 prepares and passes it to the condenser4 7#b7 ,the condenser or liquifier which gives to the water flowing over it the heat carried to it by the gas from the cooler4 7#c7 ,the cooler or expansion tank in which the heat extracted from the carcasses1 the building walls or elsewhere1 is passed to the ammonia gas for conveyance to the condenser4 ,ammonia4--,leaving for a moment the description of the apparatus to acquaint the reader with ammonia3 ,in the form used in a compression refrigerating machine1 it bears the name 8liquid anhydrous ammonia0 meaning in a 8dry liquid0 form differentiating from the common household ammonia which is a water solution containing ammonia gas in variable quantity4 ,the distinction between these two is that 8anhydrous ammonia0 will evaporate to naught2 from household ammonia the gas will evaporate but the water will remain4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,,diagram ,,showing ,,ammonia ,,compression ,,system4 ,ammonia is a chemical compound made up of one part nitrogen and three parts hydrogen and is expressed by the chemical symbol ,,nh4 ,it has some peculiar characteristics being analogous to water4 ,it will assume a solid1 liquid and gaseous form1 at -#aae ,f4 and -#bh ,f4 for solid and liquid respectively and will modify to a gaseous form at any temperature above -#bh ,f4 under 8atmospheric0 or conditions of no pressure4 ,water1 as is known1 changes from a liquid to a solid at #cb ,f4 and changes to a vaporous form at #bab ,f4 but here the analogy ceases4 ,ammonia has further peculiar advantages for use in refrigerating production that it becomes a liquid at variable pressures and temperatures2 for example1 when the temperature is reduced to #fj ,f4 under a pressure of #ib pounds1 when reduced to #hj under a pressure of #aci pounds and at #ajj1 under a pressure of #bjj pounds2 with variables above1 between and below these conditions4 ,ammonia1 as will be seen1 has variable forms and capacities under the conditions imposed upon it4 ,substances passing from a liquid to a gaseous form require heat to make this change and consequently absorb it2 the complement to the giving up of heat when the process is reversed and the substance changed from a gaseous to a liquid form4 ,the adoption or harnessing of these principles is the nucleus upon which mechanical refrigerating effect is built4 ,a pound of water passing to steam will absorb about one thousand degrees of heat1 ammonia has the same characteristic to a different degree4 ,they both return the heat when the process is reversed4 ,type of ,machine ,illustrated4--,the diagram illustrates a single acting pump showing its piston1 a liquifier or condenser where the ammonia is modified in form from a gas as received therein to a liquid2 a receiver to which it flows and a cooler in which it is expanded and where the heat brought to it by the returning brine is picked up by the ammonia and carried to the condenser4 ,the arrows indicate the direction of flow4 ,compressor4--,the 8,compressor0 is a pump1 a cylinder fitted with a piston which withdraws the ammonia from the tank in which it is expanded4 ,the piston is tightly fitted and when it travels in one direction1 the gas flows in1 filling the space1 like any ordinary pump whether it be a water or gas pump4 ,upon the return stroke1 the gas is compressed in the cylinder until the pressure in the piston is sufficient to equal or overcome that exerted against it accumulated in the condenser1 when it is discharged thereto4 ,there are spring actuated valves interposed in the line of gas travel which close and retain in the condenser that gas which has been discharged1 allowing the piston and compressor to repeat the just described performance many times per minute4 ,condenser4--,the use of this element is to liquify the ammonia1 really to extract the heat absorbed by the ammonia in the cooler and the heat generated in the compression4 ,this condensing operation changes the form of the substance from gaseous to liquid4 ,the most simple style of condenser is a series of pipes stacked together with ammonia on the inside of the several pipes1 and water flowing over the outside4 ,the gas on leaving the compressor is hot and at a high temperature1 frequently as high as #bej ,f4 or more1 and the pressure from #adj to #bbj lbs41 depending upon the water supply1 its temperature and quantity1 and the area of the surface of the condenser4 ,the water flowing over the condenser absorbs the heat from within1 the ammonia becoming cooled by contact with the comparatively cool walls of the pipe while flowing from one end to the other of the condensing coil1 gradually changing from a gaseous to a liquid form4 ,receiver4--,from the condenser the liquid ammonia is collected in the receiver so as to have a quantity stored for use and in reserve for the fluctuating requirements4 ,expansion ,valve4--,a small but important item in the system is the expansion valve which is a valve with a controllable opening and comparatively small4 ,this is interposed in the line between the liquid receiver and the cooler or expansion tank4 ,cooler or ,expansion ,tank4--,the next element is the cooler in whatever form it may exist1 whether it be ammonia coils submerged in brine tank1 shell and tube cooler built like a boiler in which the ammonia surrounds the tube through which the brine solution is pumped1 or ammonia 8direct0 expansion coils in the air within a room1 it matters not4 ,at this point the heat given off by the substance to be cooled is absorbed by the ammonia and taken up for discharge to the water flowing over the condenser4 ,no substance will change from a liquid to a gaseous form unless heat be supplied to perform the work of making this change4 ,at the outset it was stated ammonia will boil or evaporate at #bh below zero ,fahr4 when under no pressure or in the open air4 ,further1 if ammonia be contained in a vessel and the pressure be reduced below atmosphere1 the boiling point is lowered still further4 ,for example at #aj4f vacuum gauge pressure the boiling point will be #dj below zero4 ,imagine a brine cooler such as a tank with coil submerged and surrounded by a brine solution3 ,this brine is circulated through the building and by common knowledge we know it absorbs heat and is returned warmer than it was sent out4 ,it is supplying the heat for boiling the ammonia gas4 ,reverting to the expansion valves3 ,assume there is a pressure of #ahj pounds in the condenser and a liquid temperature of perhaps #he to #ij degrees2 the same conditions existing in the receiver2 also assume a pressure of #ae pounds on the ammonia coils which will produce a temperature condition of zero4 ,in the diagram1 the coil in the tank is attached to the expansion valve while on the other end of the coil is made the connection to the pump or compressor4 ,this by its action is withdrawing the ammonia gas as rapidly as it is generated1 due to the tightness of the piston1 which if it is properly fitted will pump a vacuum upwards of #bb to #be inches upon the system attached to it1 unless gas be supplied to fill the space4 ,in operation1 the expansion valve is opened slightly1 the liquid is freed into a space where the pressure is lowered1 a condition created for expanding the ammonia to a gas and the heat contributed by the surrounding brine is absorbed by the ammonia changing from a liquid to a gaseous form4 ,the ,cycle4--,the cycle1 therefore1 is a gas in the expansion tank at low pressure and temperature1 admitted to the pump or compressor under this condition1 compressed to a small volume and increased in pressure1 discharged in this condition to the condenser where it becomes a liquid and in a condensed form at a lowered temperature and ready to return to the expansion tank to be used over again4 ,ammonia gas is the heat carrier4 ,if it be used in packing house service1 either it absorbs the heat directly from the rooms in which the animals are suspended or the brine in the tank is circulated through the rooms to absorb the heat and carry it back to the cooler or expansion tank4 ,condensing ,water4--,in ,chapter ,,ii reference was made to the condensing water for refrigerating system4 ,this is important because the lower its temperature1 the less the pressure will be created which means the less the power must be exerted in the production of the mechanical refrigerating effect4 ,the water flowing over the condenser carries the heat to the sewer4 ,thus the heat from the carcasses1 the sun heat on the walls of the building1 the actinic rays through the windows1 the heat from the men employed within1 that from the electric lights within1 and that absorbed from the earth upon which the building stands must all be collected and eventually passed into the sewer4 ,absorption ,equipment4--,absorption refrigeration equipment is used to some extent in packing house work1 but its complexity makes unnecessary an attempt of its description in this work4 ,unit ,basis4--,the unit basis of refrigeration commonly used in expressing quantity is tons of refrigeration1 meaning the tons of refrigerating duty that can be performed per day of twenty-four hours4 ,the standard measurement per ton as adopted by the ,american ,society of ,refrigerating ,engineers1 is a cooling effect equal to #bhh1jjj ,b4t4u41 being equivalent to the extraction of this quantity of heat from any substance4 ,it has been established by the ,bureau of ,standards that in freezing one pound of water at #cb ,f41 to ice at #cb ,f41 #adc4e ,british thermal units of heat must be withdrawn from the water4 ,for convenience in practice the fractional part is ignored1 and #add ,b4t4u4 per pound of water is accepted as standard in calculations4 ,computing ,from ,unit ,basis4--,if #add ,b4t4u4 are withdrawn from each pound of water at #cb ,f4 to convert the water into ice at the same temperature1 the melting of the pound of ice at the same temperature must re-absorb an equal heat in the process of freezing1 consequently the melting of one ton 7#b1jjj pounds7 of ice to water at the same temperature would absorb #b1jjj #add ,b4t4u41 or #bhh1jjj ,b4t4u41 the accepted standard for computing the heat absorbed in the performance of one ton of refrigeration duty4 ,in ice melting this absorption of heat is latent1 not sensible to the thermometer1 as no change is apparent by thermometer test in the temperature of the ice and the water1 nevertheless an appreciable cooling of surrounding is measurable by thermometer wherever ice melting takes place2 for example1 in an air-tight room1 or in contact with solid substances1 or with liquids1 having a higher temperature than #cb ,f4 ,how ,rated4--,the rating of refrigerating compressors as usually stated by manufacturers is expressed in tons4 ,this refers to the tons of duty that a machine will develop in a period of twenty-four hours continuous operation under assumed conditions of about fifteen pounds gauge1 back or suction pressure1 and #ahe pounds head pressure4 ,to perform this duty the compressor should be of sufficient size to displace or pump a volume of gas equal to #d cubic feet per minute4 ,this rating of the machine is proper when you are producing temperatures of about #cb ,f4 or over1 and presupposes the plant to be properly balanced as to condensers1 and to be properly provided with liquid receivers1 oil extractors and other complementary equipment4 ,freezer-,requirement4--,the growing demand for freezer space in and about packing houses1 however1 is so important that special means and methods must be provided to meet the conditions4 ,it is impossible to produce freezer temperatures and conditions under the same back pressure as described above2 the back pressures must be lowered and in doing so the capacity of the compressor is reduced very rapidly4 ,the same compressor producing one hundred tons refrigeration duty at fifteen pounds back pressure and #ahe pounds head pressure will only perform half the work when operating under a back pressure of five pounds1 the head pressure remaining the same4 ,the purchaser must never lose sight of the fact that in cooling freezer spaces the compressor capacity is reduced practically by half and that this is applicable to all portions of the system working under these conditions4 ,system to ,adopt4--,no hard and fast rule can be adopted regarding the system of refrigeration to be adopted1 whether by use of brine circulation or direct expansion4 ,the case in hand and the nature of the business to be done seems to govern4 ,for example1 if the plant in which the business is mixed1 wherein hogs1 cattle and sheep are killed1 curing performed1 and lard made1 with a limited amount of freezing1 brine circulation for general use would seem the better4 ,the excellent results obtained by the use of spray coolers1 later described1 seem to point to its use in chilling coolers1 with brine circulated through ceiling or wall coils for cooling storage rooms4 ,freezers in ,small ,plants4--,if the plant be quite moderate in size and only sufficient to justify the installation of one compressor the amount of space required for freezing purposes is thus limited1 and if commercial freezer space is available it is a question as to whether the operator can afford to deplete his small equipment capacity by installing freezers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,,suction ,,connection ,,for ,,duo-,,purpose ,,compressor4 ,cylinder ,arrangements4--,if the plant be sufficiently large so that the machine equipment can be afforded in two units then it would be proper to install freezers4 ,supposing then that the plant justifies this arrangement the compressors would be connected to the brine tank for chilling purposes1 and to the closed cooler for circulating purposes4 ,the gland end of the compressors would be arranged so that they could be operated independently upon the freezer space at will4 ,why ,brine ,circulation4--,the chief reason for using brine in the moderate sized plant is that with a reasonably large brine capacity there is a reserve cold 7so to speak7 stored in the brine which will permit of stopping the compressor1 the brine continuing in circulation by pumping1 and there is less likelihood of changes in temperature4 ,direct expansion chilling requires an almost constant machine operation4 ,air ,circulating4--,the chilling of packing houses and methods involved are various1 each with its advocates4 ,in ,europe and where ,english methods are followed the system is chiefly forced draft4 ,this system has been used to some extent in the ,united ,states1 but the majority of the coolers are handled with lofts1 and circulation therefrom is of natural sequence4 ,the cellars and freezers are handled by pipes hung in the rooms4 ,force ,draft4--,the force draft or indirect cooling system consists of forcing chilled air1 cooled by passing through batteries of expansion coils operated dry1 or over which brine is passed1 through a series of ducts1 and withdrawing it2 thence passing it through the coils and repeating4 ,it is not favored among ,american packers owing to a belief that it increases shrinkage1 and tends to darken beef2 that large quantities of cold air are lost through open doors2 because of the expense of operating fans1 as well as the room taken up by ducts and the interference occasioned with meat rails4 ,coil ,room ,systems4--,the overhead bunker system as described under 8,construction0 in this work details the application of the ,united ,states practice4 ,accepting the use of the coil room system and of still storage the question arises as to the application4 ,a visit of inspection to the various packing plants throughout ,america will impress one with the fact of the existence of a wide variation of opinion and practice with regard to the methods of applying refrigeration for packing house purposes4 ,there are two principal applications--direct expansion1 wherein the ammonia gas is circulated through the coils throughout the premises1 and brine circulation1 open or closed1 where chilled brine is circulated throughout the works4 ,brine ,chilling4--,the two types of brine chilling1 open and closed1 produce the same result1 except as to the actual brine cooler1 of which there are several1 namely3 7#a7 ,brine tank in which are submerged ammonia expansion coils4 7#b7 ,double or triple pipe coolers in which brine and ammonia are circulated in annular spaces between pipes4 7#c7 ,shell type coolers in which the brine is passed through tubes within a shell similar to an ordinary flue boiler4 ,for a close brine system1 which is the term applied to a system where brine is circulated through pipes and not exposed to the atmosphere so as to absorb moisture1 the shell type cooler is a convenient and economical means of chilling brine4 ,it is so readily applicable to the use of a balanced system1 thereby lessening the power requirement for pumping4 ,double pipe coolers can be used in the same method1 but are not quite so favorably considered owing to the aggregate quantity of joints4 ,either the shell type cooler or the double pipe cooler can be safely used with an open system4 ,the open type brine system is any system used wherein the cooling effect is produced by bringing the cold brine in direct contact with the air to be chilled1 as in the spray system1 the 8,gardner0 sheet system1 or an open pan system4 ,brine ,methods--,recommendation4--,where it would seem best for other reasons to use a brine system1 and the plant would justify the expenditure1 it would appear well to use a double brine system--open brine in the hog chill rooms1 and a closed system on the freezers1 beef chill rooms1 storage rooms4 ,types of ,brine ,coolers4--,open tanks with submerged coils are used on some plants4 ,the investment is greater1 but the risk is slightly less than in the use of closed type brine coolers1 commonly called shell and tube type4 ,unless the engineering force of the plant is fully qualified and alert1 there is danger of diluted brine and freezing the solution in shell type coolers1 which is likely to split the tubes1 causing leaks and the possibility of brine finding its way to the ammonia compressors1 rendering them liable to damage of a serious nature4 ,whereas1 with the open type tank and submerged coils1 weakened brine might cause ice to form on the expansion pipes and render them inert1 but no comparable damage could arise4 ,however1 we advocate an alert engineering force and the closed system4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--;,,diagram ,,showing ,,balanced ,,brine ,,system4 ,balanced ,brine ,system4--,the balanced brine system as referred to in the preceding1 is indicated by diagram and has the advantage of keeping the pipes full at all times1 also of reducing the power requirement to the actual friction through the pipes in the shell type cooler1 and a slight increase for passing through the coils4 ,in practice twenty to twenty-five pounds friction represents the total head to pump against in a building nine stories high4 ,the two types of the balanced brine system are as follows3 ,open ,system4--,beginning at shell and tube coolers the brine passes into supply pipes which decrease in size as they approach the ends4 ,the return line tapers in opposite direction4 ,the pressure carried is only sufficient to make a sufficiently rapid circulation4 ,a small pump is inserted in the line so that the pressure can be increased on that portion through the spray nozzles4 ,this lessens the power over carrying the entire system at a high pressure4 ,the balance tank is located at such point as will best serve to collect the brine from closed coils and the return from the spray coolers4 ,a vacuum valve is put on the closed line to prevent siphon4 ,a return connection to the main pumps is made1 and also connections to the concentrator from balance tank so that a portion of the brine can be concentrated4 ,this system requires more concentration than the closed system4 ,it has the advantage that coolers can be used as sharp freezers if insulation be proper4 ,closed ,system4--,beginning at shell and tube coolers the discharge mains and piping are the same as for the open system4 ,return mains as indicated4 ,balance tank is located elevated above upper coils4 ,a localized defrosting system is installed with individual pump circulating brine over coils1 continuously as required4 ,the collecting tank is located as near as convenient to lessen pumping head4 ,the brine flowing over coils in the lofts is concentrated to a strength equal to circulating brine and introduce into circulation replenishing brine for defrosting from mains4 ,concentrator is located where suitable4 ,in using closed coils the arrangement is different for beef and hogs so as to assist in the circulation for hog cooler with a view to producing uniform temperatures4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,,concentrating ,,arrangement1 ,,balance ,,brine ,,system1 ,,closed ,,type4 ,in any system using open brine1 there is a quite appreciable gain in the quantity of brine in the system1 and a weakening of its strength lowering the freezing point4 ,this necessitates vigilance as if the brine weaken too much there is a possibility of it freezing solidly and insulating submerged coils in an open brine tank rendering them inert or splitting the pipes in a shell type cooler with disastrous results4 ,it is consequently necessary to evaporate the brine which can be done with a concentrator as provided for in ,figs4 #ag and #ah4 ,the concentrator apparatus consists of a balance or storage tank in elevated position according to whether the closed or open system is used2 one or more stands of pipe coils2 a catch pan for concentrated brine2 a reservoir and a small pump for passing brine into system4 ,the brine flows from storage tank1 entering the bottom pipe of the coils and passes upward through seventeen pipes1 from which point it is delivered to the trough at the top of the coil and allowed to flow down over the entire battery of pipes1 steam being circulated through the top six pipes1 thus heating the brine and concentrating it by evaporation4 ,the hot concentrated brine is cooled as it passes over the lower seventeen pipes through which it originally entered as cold weak brine4 ,direct ,expansion4--,many plants are equipped completely with direct expansion systems4 ,this is quite satisfactory provided means are arranged to dispose of the accumulating ice and snow on the coils4 ,this is particularly applicable to coils in pipe lofts where moisture rapidly accumulates1 and is accomplished by some arrangement of defrosting such as circulating a brine over coils by permitting it to drip over the coils1 pumping over and over again4 ,two-,stage ,compressors4--,the revising editor brought into prominence the two-stage compression system by building a successfully operating plant which functioned with quite astounding results4 ,the system consists of a large low temperature gas compressor and a smaller second stage compressor1 arranged the reverse to a compound steam engine4 ,ammonia gas which at the low temperatures resulting when low back-pressures are required1 becomes highly attenuated 7light71 it is necessary to handle a very large volume per ton of refrigeration developed4 ,to provide for this1 the low pressure cylinder is made about double the volume of the high pressure cylinder4 ,in the low pressure cylinder the gas is compressed to a pre-determined pressure and passed at a relatively high pressure1 making for a very high efficiency4 ,the gas is chilled by the introduction of expanded ammonia to take up the superheat4 ,the use of this compressor arrangement with its refinement makes an economical cold producing unit4 ,a record of one year's run follows3 ,,two-,,stage ,,compression ,,system4 ,per ,per year4 ton4 ,tons received #fj1jjj ,cu4 ft4 space cooled #b1icj1jjj ,coal cost #ag1cji4aa 4#bhh ,labor #ae1aef4gc 4#beb ,oil and waste #a1jcj4hb 4#jag ,water and chemicals #b1ajc4ba 4#jce ,repairs and changes #a1fih4ch 4#jbh ---------- ---- ,total cost #cg1bih4be 4#fb ,expense per cu4 ft4 space per year 4#jac ,ample ,capacity4--,all of the above factors must be considered in the calculations for refrigerating requirements1 and it is best to make allowances for a considerable factor of safety over and above the actual maximum1 as well as for the economical operation of the plant4 ,it never pays to crowd a plant to its limit or capacity4 ,guard against emergencies and possible abnormal demand for refrigeration by providing ample equipment4 ,the plant should be constructed as far as possible in duplicate1 not only as regards the machinery but also in the apparatus1 as a safeguard against accidents and total cessation of refrigeration4 ,with two machines and duplicate apparatus one-half the maximum refrigeration is always available1 and the preservation of the product in storage is assured1 even if it be found necessary to stop killing for a sufficient period to make the repairs on the broken machinery or apparatus1 while with one machine only available1 a breakdown might result in a very serious loss and considerable damage to the stored products4 ,with regard to insulation1 it may be said that the best is the most economical in the long run4 ,there is no such thing as absolute insulation1 some heat leakage must occur through the very best insulation1 and the reduction of this heat leakage to the minimum should be the chief object or factor for consideration4 ,first-class insulation costs more in original investment1 but it creates a continuous saving and economy in refrigeration1 resulting oftentimes in a less investment also in refrigerating1 pumping and steam equipment4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,refrigeration ,,requirements4 ,,refrigeration -- ,,necessities -- ,,ice ,,plants -- ,,natural ,,ice -- ,,chilling -- ,,quantity ,,refrigeration ,,to ,,provide -- ,,space ,,per ,,ton ,,machine -- ,,machinery ,,per ,,head -- ,,ice ,,computation -- ,,compressor ,,capacity -- ,,summary ,,computations -- ,,low ,,temperature ,,brine ,,system4 ,refrigeration4--,this word covers the 8bugbear0 and the 8solace0 of the packers4 ,no other one thing is of so much importance4 ,since the abolishment of the use of chemicals1 such as borax1 boracic acid1 etc41 as a preventive or retardant in the propagation of bacilli during the curing process1 the packer's sole dependence is refrigeration4 ,consequently there has been considerable development and importance in its use4 ,from the moment the animal is killed until the parts are disposed of1 refrigeration is a necessity4 ,the proportion of freezing space to be provided or hired at a commercial storage house is growing daily4 ,in many plants the total volume of freezer space approaches or exceeds1 that given over for moderate temperature storage purposes4 ,necessities4--,in the order of progress the first necessity for refrigeration is the use of ice for chilling water for fats and meats4 ,practically every packing house is now equipped with a small ice making plant both for its use1 and with commercial possibilities of selling ice4 ,ice ,plants4--,ice plants are of various kinds3 7#a7 ,common ice made from filtered water without processing4 7#b7 ,raw water ice made from filtered or treated water1 aerated or agitated1 while freezing4 7#c7 ,distilled water ice made from condensed steam1 reboiled4 7#d7 ,plate ice1 made from raw water in large plates and cut up into blocks of convenient size4 ,in the production of distilled water there are various methods which will not be treated upon here4 ,for the icing of cars and for ordinary cooling purposes ice made by process ,no4 #a is amply good except1 perhaps1 if the water from which the ice is made should not be clear1 it may be necessary to use a portion of the bottom of the cake for car icing purposes only4 ,natural ,ice4--,the situation and climate has much to do with the determination as to whether the packer can afford to harvest natural ice for general use4 ,for example1 if the plant be situated in a northern climate alongside a suitable stream adjacent to the plant1 the harvesting of ice and its storage can be afforded4 ,however1 if the ice is stored at a remote point and teaming or car shipment of ice is necessary1 then the manufacturing plant will probably be the more economical4 ,chilling4--,the chilling of the meat immediately after killing is perhaps the most important function in the whole refrigerating process and one that cannot have too much attention4 ,in the matter of beef it is the practice of the best operators to see to it that immediately after the hide is removed the beef is placed in the coolers4 ,at most it should not be allowed to stand out in the open air to exceed half an hour4 ,sheep and veal should be treated in the same manner4 ,as for hogs in some climates1 such as latitude equal to ,chicago or north thereof1 if space is available an open air hanging room is a valuable adjunct where the animal can be air dried1 depending upon seasons1 from one hour to over night4 ,this feature also permits of increased slaughtering during the winter season4 ,it is a custom that can be abused1 however1 by careless handling--resulting in sour meats4 ,quantity of ,refrigeration to ,provide4--,there are so many factors which enter into the question of packing house refrigeration1 and so many details of construction and application of refrigerating apparatus1 that it is almost impossible to cover this subject practically and intelligibly without devoting a volume to refrigeration alone4 ,to give a fixed rule for packing house refrigeration1 applicable to all conditions1 would be impossible1 as much depends upon conditions and surroundings1 and the requirements would vary accordingly4 ,for instance1 atmospheric conditions1 quantity of space to be cooled1 temperature to be maintained1 time for chilling1 etc41 these and many other factors affecting the general results must be taken into consideration and provided for1 and as these vary1 so will the refrigeration requirements vary4 ,a few ideas will be set out to assist in the computation of the quantity of equipment to provide4 ,the capacity or size of the refrigerating equipment required for any given plant is variable but can be reasonably closely computed by assuming certain conditions4 ,space ,per ,ton ,machine4--,practice has demonstrated that one ton of mechanical refrigerating effect duty1 as rated by manufacturer used continuously during a period of twenty-four hours will maintain at a temperature of #cc to #ch ,f4 from #g1jjj to #ab1jjj cubic feet of storage space4 ,conditions of exposure1 insulation and outside temperature affect this4 ,the minimum for beef storage coolers1 the maximum for curing cellars4 ,the area of room or quantity of space enters into each of these assumptions4 ,if small rooms are used the unit to be assumed is smaller4 ,concrete buildings are easier to control due to the stored cold in the building mass of floors1 columns and girders4 ,machinery ,per ,head4--,it is customary to figure that in addition to that needed for cooling the space1 one ton of refrigeration for twenty-four hours would be required for either one of the following items3 ,from fifteen to twenty-two hogs1 average weight1 #bbe pounds4 ,from five to six head of cattle1 average weight1 #gjj pounds4 ,about forty-five calves1 average weight1 #hj pounds4 ,from fifty to sixty-five sheep1 average weight1 #fj pounds4 ,for ,cooled ,meats4--,for cold storage rooms1 where meats which have already been chilled or cooled are stored and held for a greater or lesser period1 the refrigeration requirements are not so great as in chill and cooling rooms4 ,the animal heat has been removed and the meats cooled down to a low temperature1 consequently but little more refrigeration is required than that necessary to take care of the heat leakage through the insulation1 and possibly the recooling of the meat through a range of a few degrees1 when the meats may have gained a little in temperature by exposure4 ,therefore it is estimated that one ton of refrigerating duty will handle #ab1jjj cubic feet of curing or storage space for temperature of #cc to #ce ,f4 ,freezer ,space4--,as will be explained in the chapter relating to refrigerating machine capacity1 the capacity of a compressor very rapidly decreases when operating under conditions necessary to produce low freezer temperatures1 and owing to the severe conditions imposed it seems necessary to compute that one ton of refrigerating duty will handle about #c1jjj feet of freezer space4 ,ice ,computations4--,before the application of mechanical refrigeration to packing house purposes1 all artificial refrigeration was accomplished by means of ice melting alone1 and at that time the packers computed ice melting requirements on a basis of cooling three pounds of meat from #hj ,f4 to as low as it could be cooled by ice melting1 for each pound of ice melted4 ,while this rule undoubtedly was the result of practical experience with well constructed coolers1 and was in no wise based upon theoretical or heat unit formulas1 yet it is interesting to note how close this old rule compares with modern formulas of computing refrigeration4 ,for example1 the cooling of #ajj head of hogs1 averaging #bej pounds dressed1 by the packer's rule1 would require-- #ajj #bej --------- #h1ccc pounds1 or #d4af tons ice melting4 #c ,and on a heat unit basis1 cooling the same number and weight of hogs from #hj to #cb ,f4 would require-- #ajj #bej 7#hj - #cb7 --------------------- #d4aff tons refrigeration4 #bhh1jjj ,the above comparison shows that theory and practice approach very closely to a common line1 although in the calculation the factor of specific heat of the meat is ignored1 and in practice this may well be left out1 as specific heat of meats at various temperatures has by no means been accurately established4 ,chilling ,lard4--,the chilling of lard is a severe task on refrigerating equipment owing to the very heavy duty imposed in a short time4 ,for example1 with an eight-foot lard roll turning off #d1jjj pounds per hour and changing the temperatures of the lard from #ij to #ej ,f4 requires a very large compressor capacity per hour4 ,summary--,computations4--,assuming the killing of #ajj cattle and #bej hogs per day2 making #aj1jjj pounds of lard1 fifteen tons ice2 maintaining a freezer of #ajj1jjj cubic feet and the small work connected with the establishment3 ,for #ajj cattle killed daily1 and storage of #djj hanging1 about #f1ejj square feet area of cooler would be required2 the height of this with the lofts would be about twenty-two feet or a capacity of #adc1jjj cubic feet4 ,for #bej hogs daily or #gej total hanging1 there would be required #c1jjj square feet of floor area and a height of #ah feet or #ed1jjj cu4 ft4 ,the above number of hogs daily would also require a storage or cellar capacity based upon one hundred pounds meat sent to cellar for a turn over in sixty days equal to storing #a1ejj1jjj pounds of product1 or #ae1jjj to #bj1jjj square feet of floor area1 requiring #bjj1jjj cubic feet of building space4 ,ten thousand pounds lard daily in four hours running would require the extraction of about two tons of duty1 but by reason of the heat transmission and the low temperature brine necessary would require twelve tons duty while applied4 ,fifteen tons daily ice making capacity requires about #cj tons refrigerating duty1 allowing for radiation and other losses4 ,a freezer capacity of #ajj1jjj cubic feet which would store #a1ejj1jjj pounds would not appear excessive4 ,from known results this would require about one ton refrigerating duty for #c1jjj cubic feet of space or thirty-five tons machine duty4 ,we have then3 ,,summary ,,of ,,refrigeration ,,required ,tons #adc1jjj cubic feet beef cooler space #aj1jjj #ad4c #ajj cattle daily #ejj pounds #ej1jjj pounds #ej1jjj pounds meat chilled #gj or #gj ,b4t4u4 per pound #ej1jjj #gj #c1ejj1jjj #bhh1jjj ,b4t4u4 #ab4b #ed1jjj cubic feet hog cooler space #aj1jjj #e4d #bej hogs #ahj pounds each #de1jjj pounds #de1jjj #gj #bhh1jjj #aj4i #bjj1jjj feet cellar space #ab1jjj #af4f #ae tons ice #b tons refrigerating duty #cj4j #aj1jjj pounds lard cooler #ab4j #ajj1jjj cubic feet freezer space #ce4j ----- ,total tonnage refrigerating effect #acf4d ,low ,temperature ,brine ,system4--,the use of low temperature brine1 cooled by two stage compressors1 a new development1 is in the writer's opinion preferable to direct expansion4 7,see description of two stage compression in ,chapter ,,iv47 ,a lineal foot of pipe filled with a liquid like chilled brine seems to have greater heat absorbing power than the same pipe filled with a light gas and consequently less piping can be used4 ,preference ,reasons4--,occasion arose to compare for a new large installation the relative merits of direct expansion versus brine and the following items suggested themselves3 7#a7 ,the direct expansion plant would require #aej1jjj lbs4 ammonia in excess of brine plant4 7#b7 ,there would be approximately #h1jjj more joints to prevent leaking4 7#c7 ,unavoidable ammonia leakage through rods1 glands1 valve stems1 compressor rods and purging would amount to at least #bj1jjj per year based on experience with good practice4 7#d7 ,the installation by the same manufacturer estimated to cost #ae more than a brine system4 7#e7 ,there would be no stored energy in the ammonia pipes as in brine pipes should the refrigerating plant suspend operation temporarily4 7#f7 ,the compressor hazard from returning liquid and possible machine wrecking with line breaks1 ammonia losses1 and danger to life4 7#g7 ,in case of extension or modification of piping1 the difficulty with ammonia pipes over brine is marked4 7#h7 ,in direct expansion plants the cooling effect is stopped immediately when the compressor is stopped4 ,it is required to operate incessantly1 or if speed be reduced the current is chiefly wasted in resistance grids if electrically driven4 ,whereas in a brine plant the compressors can be stopped several hours1 the brine being circulated rises in temperature but not sufficiently to vary room temperatures4 ,this is a great advantage1 permitting keeping 8off peaks0 on commercial electric lines and consequently earning lower rates4 7#i7 ,with an electrically driven compressor1 speed control is fixed within quite limited bounds and if direct expansion system is used more power is purchased than needed for reasons already mentioned4 7#aj7 ,the total cost for operating pumps and calcium taken collectively will be far less than the uncontrollable ammonia leakage4 ,the coil attendants can be less skilled4 7#aa7 ,brine temperature #be degrees below zero1 ,fahr41 can be carried1 sufficiently low for all purposes4 ,rooms can not be controlled at as exact temperatures with direct expansion as with brine1 owing to its sensitiveness4 7#ab7 ,lastly and very important1 the complicated piping system to carry several back pressures to produce varying temperatures and the necessity of operating several compressor 8ends0 makes a complicated installation of small units as against a simple system carrying one temperature brine4 ,plants of the character described usually operate on direct expansion1 require three sets of temperatures1 three sets of suction pressures and three sets of suction mains with various cross connections and intricate pump-out arrangements4 ,this necessitates multiplicity of machines and connections to various cylinder ends4 ,progressive authorities recognize the necessity of freezer storage in meat plants4 ,in combination pork and beef or pork plants1 newer installations will be made with far less curing space for sweet pickled meats and far greater space for storing meats frozen either before or after curing to the end of producing palatable meats1 not salt soaked and of inferior quality4 ,there are slaughtering plants for export where beef is shipped chilled or frozen1 and mutton frozen4 ,some have exclusive freezer buildings1 others parts set aside for freezers4 ,one temperature brine is circulated1 the temperature in the rooms being governed by the quantity of pipe in service4 ,in all instances1 sharp freezers1 storage rooms and curing rooms are equipped with pipes therein--and the chilling rooms for beef and pork closed coils or spray1 optional4 ,shell and tube coolers have proven so fitting that no hesitancy need be made about using them1 and the possibility of freezing is negligible with reasonable prudence4 ,tanks with submerged coils can be used1 but it prevents the saving made by using balanced brine pumping1 on high buildings1 a quite material one4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,power ,,plant ,,requirement4 ,,steam ,,making ,,equipment -- ,,uses ,,of ,,pumps -- ,,types ,,of ,,pumps -- ,,pumps ,,for ,,brine -- ,,water ,,supply -- ,,pumps ,,for ,,wells -- ,,water ,,distribution ,,systems -- ,,pumps ,,for ,,boiler ,,feeding -- ,,heating ,,boiler ,,feed ,,water -- ,,wells -- ,,cooling ,,towers -- ,,economizers -- ,,superheaters -- ,,steam ,,engines -- ,,exhaust ,,steam -- ,,advice ,,as ,,to ,,exhaust ,,steam -- ,,boilers -- ,,conclusion4 ,steam ,making ,equipment4--,the quantity and type of boilers needed for a plant is entirely dependent upon the quantity of steam required and its economical or uneconomical use4 ,the refrigerating and electric producing apparatus in the average packing house are usually looked upon as the chief using elements1 but they each frequently require less steam than is used for pumping purposes1 and less than is used for cooking and kindred operations4 ,it would be well to discuss the uses of steam and return to the boilers4 ,uses of ,pumps4--,pumps are used for water circulating1 brine circulating1 boiler feeding and pumping products4 ,these are named in the order of their steam consuming demand as it usually occurs4 ,they consume from #dj to #abj pounds of steam per horse power hour based on the kind of pump used and the skill in its operation4 ,the most economical are electrically operated centrifugal pumps provided the current is economically generated1 steam turbine centrifugal pumps1 next if in good condition1 and reciprocating simplex or duplex pumps third and fourth4 ,types of ,pumps4--,the types chiefly used in packing house work are simplex and duplex reciprocating1 centrifugal single and multi-stage operated by motor or steam turbine directly attached to the motive power1 also power pumps of triplex type and rotary or impeller pumps for fats and oils4 ,there are endless varieties of each type4 ,pumps for ,brine4--,for brine pumping chiefly reciprocating and direct connected horizontally set motor driven centrifugal pumps of one or more stages are used4 ,at times power operated triplex pumps are used but the most satisfactory are the second named4 ,pumping brine for refrigerating purposes is a never ending process since it must be constantly performed4 ,the common practice of an open brine tank with submerged coils is being fast superseded by the use of shell and tube type closed coolers which superseded double pipe coolers4 ,the use of either the latter two types enables the operator to take advantage of hydraulic head by installing a balanced system described in this work which very greatly reduces the power necessary to exert to pump brine4 ,the friction in an eight to twelve pass brine cooler is from ten to fifteen pounds1 and this with the pipe friction on a balanced system will total to perhaps thirty pounds on large systems1 but less than the ordinary open system--depending upon the building height4 ,water ,supply4--,the water demand for packing house operation is quite an important element in relation to steam consumption4 ,the quantity required for ammonia condensing1 steam condensing 7if done71 and for plant purposes1 washing1 etc41 is1 in the aggregate1 quite a large amount4 ,for example3 ,for ammonia condensing1 from #a to #a gallons per minute is required per ton of refrigeration developed2 for steam condensing for steam engine from #cb to #dj pounds per pound of steam condensed2 for boiler operation about four gallons per horse power per hour2 for plant purposes from #bej to #c1jjj gallons or more per hour1 depending upon the size of plant and its intelligent use4 ,it will be readily seen that those quantities will mount in power consumption if the head or pressure pumped against is high4 ,pumps for ,wells4--,water pumped from wells is usually pumped by one of four methods3 7#a7 ,suction type reciprocating pumps4 7#b7 ,deep well heads with low set pumping barrel4 7#c7 ,submerged centrifugal pumps4 7#d7 ,compressed air4 ,for small plants where one or two wells will supply the water1 the first named pump is usually used owing to cheapness of cost for installing and particularly if the water rises in the well to a height reachable by a suction type pump1 viz3 #bc to #be feet4 ,power operated suction pumps are also available for this service4 ,if the water be too low for the above named type to handle1 deep well pumps with steam head serve pretty well and usually cost less than air pumped wells4 ,for larger plants1 larger wells are installed and submerged centrifugal pumps or compressed air is used1 the latter always as a last resort from a cost of pumping standpoint1 although its simplicity and reliability appeals to many4 ,submerged centrifugal pumps can be operated with steam turbine or motor set on top of shaft above ground4 ,the motor operated set is the more economical1 particularly if the current be generated at low cost4 ,water ,distribution ,systems4--,the intelligent laying out of water systems and the pressure pumped against is a factor worth great attention4 ,it is far better to have pumps of proper proportions for the service intended1 even though it involves the use of a separated piping system4 ,taking advantage of water once raised to a high level in its return to service is a power saving4 ,for example3 ,it is usual to locate ammonia condensers at a point where there is a good circulation of air4 ,this is done to permit the winds to carry away the moist air from about the condensers1 together with the heat delivered up through it and to the air by the discharged gas from the ammonia compressors4 ,from the catch pan beneath the ammonia condenser the water can be diverted through the steam condenser and if the shell be bought sufficiently strong in the case of a closed condenser1 the water can be delivered to the suction side of a pump which in turn will deliver it for house use for cleansing purposes4 ,if a barometric condenser is used1 the water is delivered to a hot well from whence it can be pumped or flow to sewer4 ,pumps ,for ,boiler ,feeding4--,dependent upon the size of plant and the pressure carried pumps are usually provided as follows3 ,small boiler plant up to #ejj ,h4 ,p4 low pressures4 ,steam #hj to #abe lbs4 simplex or duplex piston packed reciprocating pumps4 ,medium ,boiler ,plant up to #a1jjj to #a1ejj ,h4 ,p4 steam #abe to #aej pounds simplex or duplex outside piston packed reciprocating pumps4 ,over #a1ejj ,h4 ,p4 the same or centrifugal type multi-stage pump motor or steam driven4 ,heating ,boiler ,feed ,water4--,every plant1 large or small1 should be equipped with boiler water heating devices4 ,these are so common and the practice so usual that it is scarcely necessary to mention it but the writer has seen plants where the exhaust steam from pumps and engines was being thrown to the air and feed water pumped into boilers at low temperatures4 ,there are two types3 closed and open4 ,in the first named the water is circulated through tubes enclosed in a vessel1 the tubes surrounded by steam4 ,in the open type the steam is brought in direct contact with the water and performs the heating in this manner4 ,the closed types are used on the principle that no oil carried in the steam is passed to the boilers1 but the latter type are usually equipped with an oil separator that eliminates the oil and prevents danger from this source4 ,wells4--,in most instances wells of various depths from #hj to #b1jjj feet will find water4 ,a few localities1 however1 do not yield water via wells and this is a poor situation from a packing house standpoint4 ,the water from surface or shallow wells is1 at times1 improper for use on meats owing to contamination1 in which case1 resort must be made to other sources4 ,in some localities the neighboring streams yield suitable waters but in this case sewage contamination must be guarded against4 ,the quality of boiler supply water is an important factor in the boiler operation in its bearing to shutdowns for cleaning1 blowing down1 repairs1 etc41 all of which contribute to or impair economy4 ,cooling ,towers4--,where it is necessary to husband water for condensing ammonia or steam the use of cooling towers comes into play4 ,these function by the cooling of water by evaporation1 the evaporation abstracting the heat4 ,there are various kinds--sprays over ponds1 water dripping over spatter boards made in various ways1 such as brush piled loosely2 a checker work of wood slats2 screen wire1 etc4 ,these usually depend upon the circulation of air in a natural way4 ,there are various patented types1 depending upon fans1 to pass air through falling water4 ,the efficiency is dependent upon the fineness of the water and the quantity of air passing through it1 the relative humidity of the air controlling greatly the cooling effect4 ,economizers4--,where the utmost economy of fuel is striven for and on larger plants1 these are installed4 ,an economizer is a bank of cast iron flues placed in a position between the boilers and the smoke stack4 ,water is circulated through the tubes and the furnace gases pass about them4 ,they are usually calculated upon to decrease the stack temperatures from #ajj to #aej degrees--dependent upon its initial temperature and to heat the feed water one hundred degrees4 ,this is a saving from a wasted source1 since it is impossible to take up this heat in any boiler yet designed4 ,superheaters4--,in an earlier chapter reference was made to superheated steam4 ,the office of this apparatus is to heat the steam to a higher point than it rises to1 under ordinary boiler conditions4 ,for instance1 steam as delivered from the nozzle of a boiler is spoken of as 8saturated0 steam1 but1 if before use this is subjected to a further heating before it is used1 it is said to be 8superheated40 ,superheaters are of two types4 ,they can be described as follows3 ,a bank of coils located in the flame pass in the boilers1 the steam within the coils and the flame on the outside2 or a bank of coils in a separate furnace1 the flame or heat generated in the furnace passing over the coils4 ,steam superheated beyond #dej ,f4 total sensible temperature requires especial pipe fittings1 type of valves1 and engines for reasonable safe operation1 and renders an economy that a small plant cannot afford1 due to the expenditure1 to take advantage of4 ,steam ,engines4--,owing to the cheapness of fuel in the ,united ,states1 users have been satisfied with equipment at a low initial cost and in consequence pay bills continually by using uneconomical prime movers1 viz43 ordinary steam engines of the simple ,corliss type1 using from #bf lbs4 to #ce lbs4 of steam per horsepower hour1 or compound condensing at #ae lbs4 to #ah lbs4 of steam per horsepower hour or high speed direct connected slide valve engine generator sets using from #ce to #ej lbs4 steam per horsepower1 depending upon load4 ,european engineers1 where fuel costs are double and triple ,american fuel costs1 have of necessity paid more attention to the subject of steam economy and have outstripped this country in design and use of economical steam engines1 notably of the so-called 8uniflow10 8drop valve10 8poppet valve10 or 8,lentz0 type and with the use of superheated steam1 have reached much higher efficiencies4 ,the fast increasing costs of fuel in this country have necessitated ,american builders resorting to high steam pressures with independent or integral superheaters in conjunction with steam boilers1 and as a result ,american manufacturers are offering simple uniflow engines for high speed 7say #bjj r4 p4 m47 direct connection to electric generators4 ,also compound drop valve or poppet valve or ,lentz types for slowly moving engines1 viz43 #fj r4 p4 m4 for connecting to ammonia compressors and in either case with steam at an initial pressure of #afj lbs4 and ordinary superheat of #ajj operating condensing1 engines of the above types under the conditions named can be readily bought under guarantees to produce an indicated horsepower with the use of #ab lbs4 of steam per horsepower hour4 ,the uniflow engine is now offered by several builders and is adaptable to most any service1 atmospheric exhaust1 condensing or against a back pressure using the exhaust for cooking or heating4 ,there is but little advantage1 however1 in a uniflow engine under this circumstance unless it be the flexibility as to conditions of operation4 ,exhaust ,steam4--,the practice of using exhaust steam1 that is steam which has passed through engines1 for heating and cooking is considered economical4 ,it is based upon the theory that the quantity of heat contained in a pound of steam that has been reduced in pressure from its initial or high pressure1 say #ajj1 to a low one--example #e lbs41 and then used for heating1 etc41 contains almost as many heat units as it did originally4 ,there are many places where this low pressure or exhaust steam can be used advantageously1 but if extensively used1 the likelihood will be to have long mains into which certain equipment will pass its exhaust and from which the demand will be spasmodic for cooking purposes and intermittent for heating1 except during winter seasons1 and as a result there is a considerable quantity of steam passed to the air at most times4 ,a careful analysis is necessary for intelligent use of this idea1 since the maintaining of a balance owing to business fluctuations and changing seasons makes an almost unmatchable combination4 ,during one season live steam will be used for make up1 and at other times there is a surplus4 ,advice ,as ,to ,exhaust ,steam4--,aside from heating feed water and drying where the requirement is constant1 a better practice is probably to limit the extent of exhaust steam systems and use live steam for most purposes4 ,the sources of exhaust steam1 engines or pumps1 are operating usually twenty-four hours daily and constantly pouring steam into the exhaust mains1 which is constantly radiating1 leaking and the accumulated moisture is being trapped away to a sewer or feed water heater4 ,the traps are usually just a little out of order1 and the little leaks in multiple mount up fast4 ,again the apparatus in almost any department used for cooking and manufacturing is irregular in its use and an actual record will show hardly to exceed six hours' demand or use4 ,why operate engines and pumps at a disadvantage all the time for the sake of a supply six or eight hours daily8 ,the engine and pump requirement increases rapidly with the exhaust steam pressure and requires larger production from the boiler4 ,any power like that needed for pumping can be transmitted on a wire with far less loss than as steam through a pipe4 ,the recommendations then are3 ,produce electricity as cheaply as possible2 if electricity is made1 use high class equipment operating condensing and take advantage of superheat if possible2 produce refrigeration or compress air with the same intelligence2 perform all pumping with electrically operated pumps2 distribute steam for all uses at high pressure1 at high velocity through small pipes1 well insulated and have the heat at the process when needed2 fit boilers so they can arise to a demand when needed with ample stack and draft2 install stokers1 if the plant will justify it2 insulate the boiler walls and generate steam as cheaply as possible--and don't waste it4 ,boilers4--,the common types of boilers in the ,united ,states are the fire tube boiler and the water tube boiler4 ,the first named kind is that which suggests itself to the reader when a boiler is mentioned and consists of a shell cylindrical in form with a head in each end into which tubes are expanded4 ,in operation the water surrounds the tubes and the fire passes through them4 ,the water tube boiler is the opposite of this4 ,there are variations of these and boilers that are built using both principles in part4 ,there are also ,cornish1 ,lancashire and ,yorkshire types used in ,england which are fire tubes using only one or two tubes4 ,where a plant requirement is up to #ejj horsepower1 the fire tube is the usual installation owing to its cheaper cost1 and more units which enables more continuous operation1 especially if a unit is out of service for cleaning1 #ajj1 #abe or #aej horse-power being the standard size units4 ,if a plant requires #gej horse-power or more1 installation of the water tube is preferable owing to their requiring less floor space1 higher pressures are usually carried and they are regarded as more safe under these conditions4 ,they can be forced to a higher output if demanded1 which is an advantage in times of rush business4 ,conclusion4--,the mounting costs of fuel prompts the writer to say that the management of a power plant of any packing house demands intelligence in the selection of equipment and in its operation4 ,the losses that occur are silently passing on perpetually and are immeasurable to the proprietor since they are intangible in dollars and cents4 ,in these days of educated engineers1 a mixture of education and common sense is obtainable and it takes this training or the practical man who has augmented his practice with ability to use a pencil to figure out his conditions1 and suggest remedies that will stop a leak of no inconsiderable consequence4 ,it is a usually neglected department by the proprietary interests4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,coolers4 ,,meat ,,chilling -- ,,dividing ,,beef ,,coolers -- ,,regular ,,temperatures -- ,,main ,,cooler -- ,,handling ,,beef -- ,,fore-,,cooler -- ,,heavy ,,cattle -- ,,domestic ,,beef -- ,,trimming ,,of ,,beef -- ,,skirt ,,trimming -- ,,ribbing ,,beef -- ,,freezing ,,beef -- ,,loading ,,beef -- ,,weighing ,,and ,,tagging -- ,,care ,,of ,,coolers -- ,,mutton ,,and ,,veal -- ,,chilling ,,hogs -- ,,cellars -- ,,freezing ,,meat4 ,meat ,chilling4--,meat chilling must be done intelligently with opportunity afforded for gradual chilling without too rapid hardening4 ,the meat should not be subjected to sudden contracting low temperature effects1 but to a gradual tempering that will carry the meat from blood heat down to the desired temperature4 ,this effect is readily attained by properly constructed chill rooms4 ,air circulation is the great requisite4 ,sufficient attention has not been paid in the past to provide ample room above the hanging carcass1 that is space between the carcass and the underside of pan loft4 ,note slope on spray loft in ,fig4 #ag 7,chap4 ,,iv71 showing design of ,balanced ,brine ,system4 ,coil lofts should follow the same principle4 ,dividing ,beef ,coolers4--,regarding the subject of dividing beef coolers to avoid freshly killed animals from being brought into contact with chilled ones4 ,this is a disputed point1 but it would seem that if space were available it would be a benefit to provide for it4 ,any moisture that might be given off from the freshly killed animal would1 upon coming in contact with the chilled one naturally condense1 and moisture is a detriment to the preservation of meats4 ,the nature of the business being conducted and the length of time it might be desired to store the meat should be considered4 ,regular ,temperature4--,temperature is the all important feature in meat preservation4 ,the best practice appears to be1 for beef in domestic meat trade1 to reduce the temperature to #cd ,f4 as quickly as possible and endeavor to maintain it at a uniform temperature4 ,main ,cooler4--,when these rooms are being filled from the fore cooler they should be held to a maximum temperature of #ch ,f4 ,as soon as the filling of the cooler is finished the refrigeration should be turned on full force with a view to bringing the temperature down to #cd ,f4 in twelve to fifteen hours after the cooler is closed4 ,while it might be possible to bring it down in much less time it is not advisable2 neither should it be longer than this4 ,at the end of twenty-four hours for domestic shipment or city sales1 the cooler should be held at a temperature of #cd ,f4 ,handling ,beef4--,when the beef is ready to go into coolers it is supposedly well dressed and absolutely clean4 ,such being the case1 care should be taken to see that the carcasses1 as they are moved along the rails1 are kept bone to bone1 or back to back1 for if they are thrown in promiscuously 7as more or less blood will run out of the kidneys if run together1 one front against another back of beef7 they will certainly become discolored4 ,the beef should be handled speedily and with as little jerking and throwing around as possible1 for when handled roughly veins will purge more or less and the beef1 even though clean1 will be highly colored4 ,the sides of beef should be placed at least a foot apart in the preliminary or fore-cooler4 ,they should be placed so that under no condition does one side of meat touch the other1 for if it does touch it will show an unchilled spot on the beef1 which disfigures it4 ,beef should always1 if possible1 be hung a foot apart the first twenty-four hours2 later it can be hung closer without detriment1 although it should not be allowed to touch4 ,fore-,cooler4--,when a fore-cooler is used beef should be held in the fore-cooler1 which consists of one-third of the length of the cooler cut off by a partition or a separate room1 a large amount of the moisture and animal heat that is left in the carcass is here abstracted4 ,when killing choice cattle it is advisable to have the temperature of the fore-cooler as near #ch ,f4 as possible1 #dc ,f4 is not detrimental4 ,sides of heavy cattle should hang at least eighteen inches apart in order that the air may circulate freely around the carcasses2 lighter cattle may be hung closer4 ,secondary ,cooler4--,the room temperature of this secondary cooler can be safely reduced to #be ,f41 before filling4 ,the maximum temperature should not rise above #dj ,f4 ,it is dependent upon the quantity of product placed in the cooler1 the excellence of the air circulation1 the quantity of cooling surface such as sheets1 sprays1 brine or ammonia pipe and the quantity and temperature of ammonia gas or brine in use4 ,the possibilities can be ascertained by test and practice established from this4 ,within twelve hours after killing the beef should be in storage reduced to #cf1 and further to #cc to #cd ,f4 as quickly as possible and maintained thereat until the beef is disposed of4 ,meat which is intended for freezing purposes should be thoroughly chilled before being sent to the freezers1 as it not only aids in the freezing of the beef1 but it has a much better appearance when it comes from the freezer if it is properly chilled before being frozen4 ,heavy ,cattle4--,these held in the main coolers should be reduced to a lower temperature4 ,heavy cattle for domestic trade should be carried at #cb ,f4 for the first twenty-four hours2 after which #cd is not detrimental4 ,export cattle for chilled beef shipment should be reduced to a temperature of #bi ,f4 as quickly as possible and held there until loaded in cars or on boat4 ,domestic ,beef4--,for domestic beef the coolers should be brought to a temperature of #cd ,f4 in twelve hours after they are filled1 not allowing the temperature to drop below that point4 ,it is true that in extremely cold weather it can not always be avoided1 and oftentimes in transit it is lower than that in the cars1 but it is not well to permit beef to reach that temperature if it can be avoided4 ,if coolers are properly handled and have a good circulation1 and beef is put in at the above temperature and allowed to remain forty-eight to seventy-two hours1 it will be found to be in excellent condition and the chances of 8bone-sour0 will be practically eliminated1 although it is impossible to always prevent it4 ,trimming of ,beef4--,while this is an item of which little can be said1 it is one which merits consideration where one is doing a large volume of business4 ,the necks of cattle are trimmed to make them look smooth and even1 cutting off the ragged ends4 ,on large cattle there are two or three pounds of brisket fat in each animal4 ,when oleo oil is high and beef is low it is advisable to cut this fat out2 when the conditions are reversed it is profitable to leave it in4 ,skirt ,trimming4--,on export beef it is advisable to trim out part of the skirts as usually the skirt in the beef is the first place where moisture will accumulate4 ,if the skirt is removed entirely1 this accumulation is prevented1 and mould stops4 ,the hanging tenderloin is supposed to be cut out on export beef1 and if the man cutting it out cuts it from the kidneys1 slanting toward the backbone1 on a hundred cattle he can easily leave in quite an amount of weight which sells at beef price2 if cut out it would be worth only sausage price4 ,ribbing ,beef4--,if the beef is ribbed properly it shows to the best advantage2 if improperly ribbed it does not1 and the buyer's opinion of its value depends largely upon its appearance4 ,ribbing shows the quality of the beef to a large extent1 hence it is very essential that it should be done properly4 ,the secret of ribbing is to follow close1 without uncovering1 the top part of the lower rib on the plate1 following down gradually between the two ribs to the point in the backbone where the vertebra is the thinnest1 bringing the knife across perfectly level4 ,beef should hang in the proper temperature for forty-eight hours before shipment4 ,it should not be ribbed prior to that unless absolutely necessary1 as it has not sufficiently set1 hence the outer layers of beef will slip and give the cut beef a bad appearance1 the object being to show as much meat as possible when the beef is ribbed and as little backbone4 ,the exact place to cut probably does not exceed one-half inch wide1 hence it will be seen that it requires skill to do it rapidly and properly4 ,freezing ,beef4--,beef prepared for freezing should be handled as if for chilling or export and at the end of thirty-six hours the coolers should be reduced to as low temperature as consistent1 until the beef is transferred to freezing chambers4 ,if a plant is constructed for freezing beef it is preferable to set aside and prepare spaces for freezing independent of the chill rooms4 ,the freezing temperature should be maintained at zero or below1 and if the meat is to be kept for a long time it should be stored in #ab to #ae above zero temperature4 ,loading ,beef4--,the cars must be properly iced prior to loading and the temperature in the cars brought down to the right point4 ,it is generally customary to ice the cars one day before loading1 as a car should never be loaded that is not #ch ,f4 or lower when the doors are opened4 ,in the loading1 if it is a warm day1 the temperature will creep up much higher1 but the beef coming out of a temperature of #cd or #ce ,f4 carries a great deal of cold with it1 so to speak1 and even though the cars may be #ej to #fj ,f4 the cold beef1 combined with the refrigeration from the ice compartments of the car1 will bring the temperature down rapidly4 ,cars1 of course1 should be thoroughly cleaned and aired out prior to the icing1 so that when they are open they are perfectly clean as well as of the proper temperature4 ,beef should be put into the cars as fast as it comes from the coolers1 not being allowed to hang on the rails and be exposed before being placed in the refrigerator car4 ,great care should be used in hanging the beef1 that it is hung perfectly solid and wedged tightly otherwise with the motion of the car the beef will become chafed and a bone from one quarter of meat will mangle and tear the meat on the quarter hanging next to it1 often very seriously injuring its appearance4 ,fig4 #ai illustrates a typical beef loading scene at a large ,american packing plant4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,,loading ,,beef ,,into ,,refrigerator ,,cars4 ,weighing and ,tagging4--,in order to watch the business and to know exactly what each and every purchase realizes it is necessary to keep an account of each purchase separately1 and this is invariably done in up-to-date establishments4 ,cattle are killed in lots in which they are purchased1 whether there be one or #ejj in the lot2 everything in a particular purchase is kept absolutely separate1 the weight of the beef1 hide and tallow separated1 and a record sent to the office as soon as obtainable4 ,night clerks usually figure the cost of the beef1 and when the day force comes on in the morning1 the actual cost of all the live stock killed the day previous is before them for their guidance in the day's shipments4 ,to do this1 as the cattle are dressed1 the beef is weighed before placing in the cooler4 ,here the weight of each individual carcass is taken and tagged1 showing the lot to which it belongs for guidance in shipping1 the tag also having the grading of the particular carcass4 ,any lot of cattle will run unevenly1 or in other words1 there are some that are better than others4 ,as they go to the scale an experienced man looks them over and grades them as ,no4 #a1 ,no4 #b or ,no4 #c1 considering only this particular lot of cattle1 as a ,no4 #b of one lot may be much better than a ,no4 #a of another lot2 but they are graded by taking into consideration the whole of this particular bunch of cattle1 as purchased4 ,any cattle that are badly bruised or damaged or discolored are thrown out and sent to some other department where they are cut up or treated to the best advantage possible4 ,as fast as the cattle are graded and tagged they are put into the cooler1 each special grade on a separate rail1 irrespective of the lot to which it belongs1 so that when the shipping clerk gives orders to the loading gang to have the beef taken out of the coolers1 he will order so many ,no4 #a cattle off such a rail1 lot1 etc4 ,as all cattle of that particular grade are on this rail it greatly expedites shipping4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,,view ,,in ,,beef ,,cooler ,,of ,a ,,chicago ,,packing ,,house4 ,a great deal depends1 in the expense of loading as well as the speed at which it is possible to be done1 upon having the beef put into the cooler in such a way that it comes out readily and without a great deal of handling and overhauling to get odd cattle4 ,care of ,coolers4--,it is necessary to keep coolers sweet and clean1 and it is advisable to use a liberal amount of sawdust on the floors1 so that the drippings from the meats may be rapidly absorbed2 the sawdust should be changed bi-weekly or frequently enough to keep the coolers in a sweet and cleanly condition4 ,entrance doors should be washed daily1 as they accumulate grease and blood1 which if allowed to remain will soon become sour and disagreeable4 ,in all packing house plants where a comparatively large volume of business is done there should be one man whose sole duty it is to look after the refrigerators4 ,this is a matter which necessarily needs constant attention and care4 ,when the cooler is filled with warm meat and the doors are shut it is his duty to increase the refrigeration and see that the meat is brought down to the required temperature in the required time4 ,it is apparent that the refrigerators should receive careful consideration1 and be in charge of a man of reliability4 ,beef should be placed in the cooler immediately after it is killed and never allowed to hang outside any longer than necessary4 ,while it may take a little more refrigeration to handle it this way than to have it partially chilled by the outside air1 the general appearance of the beef will more than repay for the additional cost of refrigeration4 ,mutton and ,veal4--,mutton and veal follow the same general rule as beef as to handling4 ,beef offal of every character should be handled under conditions described for export beef4 ,in the handling of any warm product it should all be spaced so as to provide for ample circulation4 ,chilling ,hogs4--,during a summer season and where hogs may have been hung out for say two hours to air dry1 the chill rooms should be reduced to a temperature of #cj ,f4 at the time the hogs are put in and sufficient refrigeration applied in to prevent the maximum temperature exceeding #ch ,f4 ,it should then be forced sufficiently to again reduce the temperature of the chill rooms to #cb ,f4 within twelve hours after killing1 maintained thus for twenty-four hours additional1 then reduced to #bh ,f4 and maintained at this temperature until hogs are cut out2 forty-eight to seventy-two hours after slaughtering4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,,view ,,in ,,hog ,,chilling ,,room ,,of ,a ,,large ,,packing ,,house ,,in ,,chicago4 ,the chilling of hogs is handled in a measure the same as cattle1 except that the hog is a much more difficult animal to chill owing to the character of the animal4 ,the chilling is of such vital importance that most successful meat curers have a set schedule for operation4 ,it is better to segregate the day's killing in sections of coolers sixteen to thirty-two feet wide2 to insulate each cooler section from the adjacent one2 to make a filling limit of #dj ,f4 and to require sufficient refrigeration capacity and facility to reduce the chamber to #cb ,f4 the morning after killing2 and to maintain these temperatures until cutting1 about forty-eight hours after killing4 ,cellars4--,dry salt cellars should be carried at a temperature of #ch ,f42 sweet pickle meat cellars at #ce ,f41 and for almost any kind of curing4 ,cellars are occasionally reduced to #cb ,f4 to suspend rapidity of cure4 ,dry packed meats carry safely for ninety days in #bj ,f41 and for longer holding should be reduced to #ab ,f4 ,freezing ,meat4--,the freezing of pork1 which has become so important during the last decade1 seems to produce the best results when performed at low temperatures4 ,many firms maintain freezers at a temperature of from #ae to #aj below #j ,f4 ,some insist upon storage of meats under conditions of #j ,f4 to #e ,f4 ,unquestionably the prompt freezing of the product is a benefit1 but the storage in these excessively low temperatures would seem questionable since there is a very marked 8drying0 tendency in low temperature rooms owing to the very low percentage of moisture the air will contain4 ,it is the practice among some to coat the edges of piles of pork1 or the individual pieces1 with water after the style of dipping fish in fish-freezing4 ,for all practical purposes1 however1 it would appear as well to store the meat in rooms at #g to #ac ,f41 with #aj as a standard4 ,canvas covering to prevent air circulation is a benefit4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,warehouses4 ,,warehouse ,,design -- ,,floor ,,area -- ,,fire ,,proof ,,buildings -- ,,floor ,,construction -- ,,coolers -- ,,fan ,,and ,,ventilation -- ,,spray ,,system -- ,,galvanized ,,sheet ,,iron ,,pipes -- ,,coil ,,rooms -- ,,quantity ,,of ,,pipe -- ,,method ,,of ,,erecting -- ,,life ,,of ,,pipe -- ,,cellar ,,ceiling ,,suspension -- ,,ratio ,,of ,,piping -- ,,defrosting -- ,,gardner ,,curtain ,,system -- ,,direct ,,expansion ,,piping -- ,,chill-,,room ,,bunkers -- ,,low ,,temperature ,,brine ,,system -- ,,freezer ,,and ,,storage ,,buildings4 ,warehouse ,design4--,under this heading we will discuss the standard pork building for curing meats and for chilling hogs4 ,floor ,area4--,the warehouse building as usually laid out should provide #aj1jjj square feet on each floor1 and as many stories in height as needed and as many units as needed4 ,it is common and usually best to set posts sixteen feet centers in each direction1 making sections sixteen feet square4 ,this area seems to lend itself best to practical usage in packing house work4 ,fire-,proof ,buildings4--,the permanence of the premises1 the value of the product in storage1 and many other points make the advocacy of fire-proof warehouses commendable4 ,the warehouse1 where floors are likely to be used for storing moist or wet goods1 or for curing meats1 should preferably be solid concrete floors1 rather than tile1 with concrete joists and concrete topping4 ,floor ,construction4--,the ideal packing house floor is as yet to be discovered4 ,what appears to be the best in a warehouse is a monolithic floor1 treated under the zones where meats are to be piled1 and all trucking thoroughfares paved with brick or tiles1 or perhaps an asphaltum preparation1 as the latter can be replaced4 ,coolers4--,in most instances it is best to arrange the coolers on one or more of the upper floors4 ,cooler design varies1 but late practice has been drifting back to the old system of open spray brine which is described elsewhere4 ,the customary practice in the ,united ,states is for some type of natural circulation1 as by the use of ducts with air chilling facilities above the chill rooms4 ,practice has proven for fresh meats that the use of this system is far superior to that of forced draft1 sometimes called 8indirect0 refrigeration4 ,fan and ,ventilation4--,in northern climates it is a good practice to place a window at each end of the pipe or brine loft to admit a circulation of air during cold weather1 locating an exhaust fan centrally over the coolers with a duct connecting with the fan from each room1 drawing air from either end toward the center via the open windows in the end of the loft4 ,this induces a circulation through the hot and cold air ducts which produces quite sufficient circulation and a uniformity of temperature in the contents in the room below4 ,in warm climates the use of roof plugs1 and airing or venting the cooler at each filling1 is1 in our judgment1 an expensive method1 and not justified by the results obtained4 ,spray ,system4--,the 8spray system0 has been rejuvenated and is very popular4 ,this system is particularly effective for warm beef and sheep coolers and for hog coolers4 ,it can well be installed at slaughter and shipping points1 but its use in hanging rooms where beef is aged and held for sale is questionable1 by reason of the probability of shrinkage owing to the rapid air circulation maintained4 ,width of ,rooms4--,there are various opinions as to the width and height required in a bunker room for installation of the spray system4 ,a room from thirty-two feet to forty-eight feet wide can be successfully operated4 ,increased width beyond that means increased height and this1 in turn1 means more construction cost4 ,rooms twenty-five feet wide with twenty feet pans have been built and successfully operated1 but at less widths the brine is likely to carry over4 ,the value of the spray system1 and the rapidity with which a room and its contents can be cooled by its use1 seems to be due to two causes1 the direct contact of the air with the finely divided brine spray and the induced air currents created by a mechanical circulation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,,section ,,of ,,cold ,,storage ,,house ,,equipped ,,with ,,spray ,,system4 ,types of ,construction4--,the accompanying diagrams show two types of construction4 ,one wherein the brine pan is made of cast concrete and the rails suspended from wood rail beams hung on rods attached to the ceiling4 ,the other one shows the brine pan made of wood built up from supported rail beams4 ,in the first instance the brine spray is collected on what might be termed a composition roof 7without the gravel covering7 made from asphalt saturated paper1 and asphalt laid over a cork sub-base spread upon and cemented to the concrete pan4 ,in the second instance the pan is made from wood1 exhibiting a wood paneled surface on the underside1 covered with cork1 more wood and then lined with a galvanized iron pan4 ,arrangement of ,piping4--,in both instances the brine spray header was located near the top of the hot air flue partition and the sprays directed to a line below the horizontal1 to insure the brine falling well within the pan1 to prevent splash through the cold air flue4 ,the brine is collected and returned through a main pipe to the brine tank in which are placed the submerged coils4 ,salt ,brine--,calcium ,brine4--,one system is operated on salt brine in which the accumulation is sterilized by boiling1 then filtered and used for curing purposes4 ,the other is operated on calcium brine which is concentrated by passing over a concentrator4 ,it is then returned to the brine tank4 ,spray ,devices4--,there are various spray devices purchasable on the market1 some approaching atomizers4 ,the owner usually selects something to his taste4 ,a common spigot can be used with a piece of bent tin to distribute the brine at the outlet1 but more efficient devices are obtainable4 ,the location of the nozzles at a distance of about four feet apart seems to be ample for most purposes4 ,the outlet opening should be about one-half inch1 valve controlled to suit4 ,it is well to arrange long length of pipe so that each cock is supplied with an equal quantity of brine by use of forked connections on a complete supply circuit4 ,galvanized ,sheet ,iron ,pipes4--,for room cooling1 formerly used to a considerable extent was sheet iron pipes4 ,the three-inch galvanized iron spiral riveted pipe is recommended1 or where this is not readily obtainable three-inch galvanized iron crimp-joint and soldered seam pipe may be substituted4 ,while not quite so substantial as the spiral riveted pipe1 it will1 with ordinary care and attention last a long time4 ,the use of spiral riveted pipe has been found unnecessary1 provided ,no4 #bd gauge metal is used in lock seamed pipe4 ,open-hearth steel1 galvanized1 is preferable to ,bessemer4 ,the writer experienced one failure with the latter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--,,section ,,showing ,,brine ,,salt ,,and ,,spray ,,systems4 ,ten different pieces of this pipe ten feet long were capped on either end and submitted to a hydrostatic pressure test2 the bursting pressure average of the ten pieces was found to be #adf pounds to the square inch1 while some of the samples stood a pressure of over #ahj pounds to the square inch4 ,in actual practice the pipe used for this purpose is never subjected to a pressure exceeding forty pounds to the square inch4 ,coil ,rooms4--,fig4 #bd shows the end view of the cooler with the detail of the hangers on which the pipe rests4 ,fig4 #be shows the end view of one bay with the pipe located and connected4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--;,,end ,,view ,,of ,,cooler2 ,,detail ,,of ,,pipe ,,hangers4 ,quantity of ,pipe4--,in brine pipe refrigeration for cattle the author would recommend to each sixteen-foot bay1 eight series of three-inch galvanized spiral riveted pipes with six pipes in each series4 ,these make a total of forty-eight pipes for the fore-cooler1 where the largest proportion of pipe is needed1 and forty pipes per section in storage beef cooler4 ,for hog coolers forty-eight pipes per section throughout is recommended4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--;,,end ,,view ,,of ,,bay ,,showing ,,refrigerating ,,pipe ,,hung ,,to ,,ceiling4 ,method of ,erecting4--,adoption of this system where brine circulation is used can be made for meat storage rooms4 7,see ,fig4 #bf for detail of the end pipes with fittings for the hose connections47 ,pipes are usually furnished in ten-foot lengths1 riveted and soldered1 and are slipped together like ordinary stovepipe joint1 all of these slip joints being carefully soldered to be brine tight1 a sufficient number joined together to make runs of the required length to suit the pipe chamber4 ,at the end of the runs one of the three hose connection fittings shown in ,fig4 #bf 7feed connection1 intermediate connection and return connection7 is put on for the purpose of connecting the runs together by means of the rubber hose4 ,chatterton's compound is put on the nipple of the fitting connection quite warm1 the hose being slipped over at once and a wire clamp then put around the hose very tightly1 when the connection is complete4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--;,,detail ,,of ,,end ,,pipes1 ,,showing ,,different ,,fittings4 ,life of ,pipe4--,this pipe is recommended for the following reasons3 ,first1 for its economy2 second1 for its lasting qualities4 ,as proven by experience1 galvanized pipe will last fully twice as long as the ordinary black iron pipe4 ,this would hardly seem possible when first considered by anyone not having had the experience1 and would naturally seem contrary to his judgment4 ,there was installed in #ahij over #ajj1jjj lineal feet of this light galvanized pipe in a ,chicago plant1 some of which is still in use4 ,samples of the galvanized pipe that had been in use for upward of ten years were found to have a very slight coating or deposit of rust on the inside of the pipe1 less than one-thirty-second of an inch thick1 and adhering very tightly to the surface4 ,by removing this rust with a sharp instrument it was found that the galvanizing was as clear and bright as when originally put on4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,,simple ,,method ,,of ,,supporting ,,brine ,,pipes4 ,cellar ,ceiling ,suspension4--,in ,fig4 #bg is shown a very simple1 inexpensive and effective method of supporting brine pipes in cold storage rooms1 or in rooms used as curing cellars1 etc4 ,this arranges a combination whereby a drip pan can be suspended for catching the drip1 the construction being illustrated4 ,it is preferable to line the pans with galvanized iron so as to preclude possibilities of leakage4 ,the wooden construction of the ordinary class is usual4 ,ratio of ,piping4--,regarding the quantity of pipe required1 this in a measure depends upon the insulation of the cellars and the temperature of brine circulated4 ,with brine at a temperature of #aj ,f41 one lineal foot of pipe will supply radiation sufficient for twenty cubic feet of cellar4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--;,,gardner',s 8,,curtain0 ,,system ,,for ,,brine ,,circulation ,,as ,,installed ,,in ,a ,,chicago ,,packing ,,house4 ,length of ,coil4--,the inlet and outlet pipe should have a #a-;inch connection1 this being ample for a coil about four hundred feet in length4 ,defrosting4--,to dispose of the accumulation of frost that collects on the coils within the coil bunkers over the beef and hog coolers1 it is usual to have a warm brine arrangement consisting of an independent feed header1 cross connections to the coils1 a tank containing a heating coil and a small pump4 ,when the frost collects so as to be detrimental1 a supply of brine in the small storage tank is heated to about #fj ,f41 and it is continuously pumped through the small auxiliary header1 thence into the coil it is desired to remove the frost from1 until the frost is loosened1 when it is lightly tapped and falls to the floor of the bunker pan4 ,unless the cellar temperatures are carried low it is unnecessary to use this system in the curing cellars1 as the coils will drip from natural melting4 ,the use of this system of brine installation with a proper defrosting arrangement has much to recommend it as to economy and efficiency1 particularly in use with a balanced brine system4 ,later ,practice4--,a better system superseding that just described is to arrange the coil loft or cooler coils with a brine drip over them to remove the frost1 the drip being collected in the pan1 conducted to a reservoir and re-circulated4 ,similar to the manner used with direct expansion piping4 ,gardner ,curtain ,system4--,one of the early types of open brine chilling was the ,gardner curtain system4 ,for this system a refrigerator or curtain room is provided1 directly above the meat coolers1 and of same length and width1 in which is fixed an open pan or brine distributing trough1 located over the sheets and distributing the brine thereon4 ,fig4 #bh shows a photograph of the curtains in a refrigerator or bunker room4 ,a plan of installation showing position of curtains is given in ,fig4 #bi1 and ,fig4 #cj shows a cross section of a bunker room with the arrangement and insulation in a wood constructed building4 ,direct ,expansion ,piping4--,there is a decided opinion among many operators that direct expansion ammonia system piping1 is preferable over any brine circulation system1 owing to the non-requirement of pumps for circulating purposes4 ,caution is necessary in erecting all direct expansion piping4 ,it must be amply and securely erected1 avoiding the use of coach-screws or lag-bolts1 owing to the danger of rotting and giving away1 thus causing perhaps fatal injuries4 ,room piping will appear best situated when grouped over alleys and arranged with drip pans so located as to avoid drip onto meats or packages4 ,the ratio of piping given for brine pipe will hold as to lineal feet1 substituting foot for foot of two-inch instead of three-inch pipe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,,plan ,,of ,,gardner 8,,curtain0 ,,system ,,of ,,refrigeration4 ,chill-,room ,bunkers4--,in chill-room bunkers there should be a brine system arranged to drip the brine over the pipes for use during the early hours of filling1 since a double advantage can be gained by so doing4 ,this is quite effective when intelligently operated4 ,freezer and ,storage ,buildings4--,the use of freezer buildings have become of such consequence in larger packing plants for the storage of meats that it would seem opportune to introduce a description of a freezer storage building and to discuss the requirements necessary for it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--;,,cross ,,section ,,cooler1 ,,bunker 8,,curtain0 ,,system4 ,growth4--,the growth to include as it now does1 in most instances1 a produce merchandising business with its seasons of production and storage together with the necessity of providing low temperature storage space for storing delicately cured hams and bacon over seasons1 make it almost a necessity to provide low temperature storage or seek it away from the premises1 with the incident expense involved in transfer and return1 storage charges1 and the damage resultant from exposure4 ,location4--,a first consideration is the location of the building for operating advantages1 which is a local matter1 but involves shipping facilities by team and by car1 convenience to the source of production1 and power plant4 ,naturally the value of the commodity in storage1 which at present prices1 reaches a considerable amount1 and the safety of the product becomes a matter of no small thought4 ,permanence4--,the permanence of a building for this purpose once constructed1 and the likelihood of changes due to variation in business being small1 together with the safety of its contents and a consequent low insurance rate1 makes fire-proof cold storage buildings highly desirable4 ,in these days of increasing insurance rates1 buildings that are rated from twenty to thirty cents per thousand dollars--non-sprinkled--appeal to us4 ,these rates are not uncommon4 ,such can be obtained on properly constructed buildings with adequate exposure protection4 ,concrete or ,steel ,frames4--,fire-proof cold storage buildings can be of various styles of construction4 ,the two types mostly used being1 first1 of steel frame with either cast iron or steel columns1 girders and beams with tile or concrete in combination for floors1 or secondly1 reinforced concrete frame with concrete and tile in combination1 or monolithic concrete floors4 ,for moderate heights the walls can be self-sustaining1 that is1 built up solidly2 but beyond a certain height it becomes economical to use curtain walls similar to the well known 8skyscraper40 ,in buildings up to eight stories1 reinforced concrete frame with monolithic floors prove more economical than steel frame with tile or concrete floors4 ,reinforced concrete buildings are more lasting1 since it is impossible to closely fit tile around steel columns and girders and exclude air1 moisture1 heat and condensation1 existing in this class of building1 conditions most contributing to rust4 ,the life of steel framing under these conditions is an untried experiment4 ,on the other hand1 in the reinforced concrete building the strength is much derived from the concrete and when well designed and the work well executed the steel is imbedded and thoroughly concealed in the concrete1 remote from the conditions above stated and contributing to an indefinitely long life4 ,however1 steel columns and girders encased in concrete make them practically the same4 ,limit for ,economic ,concrete ,columns4--,eight-story warehouses with basement appear to be ample in height for ordinary conditions4 ,meeting the insistent demands of building ordinances in some cities like ,chicago1 these can be constructed of reinforced concrete with a maximum column diameter of twenty-eight inches1 with all floors designed for #bjj pounds per square foot4 ,this height of building with such loadings approximates the practical limit of sustaining on footings on the usual underlying earth1 with building panels sixteen feet square1 the column spacing best adapted to storage purposes4 ,types of ,construction4--,in concrete buildings just referred to1 our preference in style of construction is either of the mushroom type1 that is1 flat ceilings without girders2 or secondly1 with girders extending in one direction only4 ,an inexperienced engineer in his efforts to minimize the quantity of steel and concrete requirement will invariably wish to carry girders from column to column and cross beams between girders1 making the ceiling look like a checkerboard1 losing perhaps twenty inches or more head room on every story and making a much more expensive building to construct and operate4 ,the same fault is noticeable in steel frame buildings1 since nearly always there are cross beams between girders4 ,this drops the chilling pipes1 curtailing head room and makes an unsatisfactory arrangement4 ,whereas with a mushroom or flat ceiling with girders in one direction1 the difficulty is overcome4 ,space ,losses2 ,beams ,two ,directions4--,in an eight-story building the additional height above referred to amounts to from ten to fifteen feet of unnecessary building and adds greatly to the construction cost4 ,exterior ,walls4--,as for the exterior surface of the building1 this should be brick1 the lighter the color the better1 making absorption of heat less probable4 ,when building reinforced concrete frame with curtain walls1 the design should be such that the brick work entirely covers the concrete frame1 since it is very difficult to obtain tight joints abutting beams and columns when attempting to build panels of brick in concrete framing4 ,it is desirable to prevent air and moisture leakage4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--;,,ground ,,plan ,,of ,a ,,freezer ,,and ,,storage ,,building4 ,qualities in ,brick4--,in the selection of brick sufficient attention is rarely paid to the obtaining of brick burned approximately to vitrification4 ,the presence of salt1 as is frequently noticed on exterior walls of packing houses adjacent to floor lines1 indicates that brine has been percolating the walls1 due to their porosity4 ,in the same manner water will pass through the opposite direction1 and very far disqualify the insulation materials unless they be non-absorbing1 and even these are lessened in value owing to the accumulating moisture4 ,wall ,construction4--,all kinds of tile and plaster or concrete exteriors should be avoided1 since it is impossible to prevent shrinkage cracks which permit percolation of water1 eventually shelling off plastered surfaces and deteriorating insulation4 ,ventilation4--,in northern climates it is desirable to take advantage of the winter air when it equals or is lower in temperature than the rooms where product is stored1 or when empty to air and cleanse an apartment4 ,for convenience in this it is advisable to locate refrigerator windows in the same line to permit ready flow through the room2 these being put on hinges similar to a door4 ,insulation4--,when undertaking to construct buildings fire proof1 problems in insulation are encountered4 ,the more dense or heavier the material used in building1 the more cold radiated from all surfaces unless effectually cut off4 ,in ordinary type of construction the various floors rest on exterior walls and in no way is it possible to prevent a very great loss of cold being carried through the floors1 thence to the walls and dissipated thereby4 ,such matters are not trivial in their importance4 ,at one wholesale distributing market deterioration in insulation during six or seven years has necessitated the doubling of refrigerating machine service and the volume of business is practically the same4 ,to obviate this the remedy seems to be to surround the building on all sides and cover the roof with an encasing of insulation1 putting an exterior covering of brick or impervious material over this to protect the insulation1 and to prevent moisture coming in contact with the insulation4 ,it is just like dropping a small box within a larger one1 the space between the sides being the insulation4 ,double ,posts or ,walls4--,this is accomplished when building self sustaining walls by constructing a set of columns adjacent to the walls with girders from column to column and supporting floor slabs upon the girders1 not permitting either columns1 girders or slab to be in contact with the exterior wall4 ,in a skeleton construction design there are twin columns1 girders and beams1 the inner set carrying the floor loading and the outer the building walls1 the insulation lining being unbroken between them4 ,varying ,temperatures4--,commercial demands require a variety of temperatures1 some at zero1 some at fifteen degrees and some at thirty-two or over1 in the one building4 ,the maintaining of these varying temperatures in one building requires most careful designing1 since the concrete everlastingly conveys cold and attempts to cut off a floor from that above can only be done by comprehensive and extravagant insulating4 ,there have been storage houses where with a freezer situated over or under an egg room a stove was maintained in the egg room to offset the cold temperature from above or below4 ,a dangerous1 costly expedient as well as the risk of freezing eggs4 ,to encase and isolate a room to maintain zero to fifteen degrees in it and1 say1 thirty-two above1 it is necessary to perform the following insulating3 ,line the ceiling and beams2 cover the floor2 cover the columns1 so as to really envelop the cold4 ,when insulation is placed on the floor1 naturally the question of a wearing surface over the insulation is apparent and to maintain it fire-proof this must be cement or perhaps mastic4 ,this causes an expenditure for wearing surface over the floor insulation1 increased column quantity and strength1 increased deadload of floors1 insulation of floor and ceiling1 of columns1 and this1 conservatively speaking1 amounts to a total of eighty-five to ninety cents per square foot of area4 ,this over one foot is but a small amount1 but on a building one hundred feet square it becomes eighty-five hundred dollars per story4 ,how to ,sub-divide4--,to meet the variety of temperatures required1 subdividing the premises into sections1 but doing it vertically rather than attempt to divide it horizontally1 with a portion set aside for each division of temperature4 ,if the business is of such volume as to permit this1 make no attempt to insulate one floor from that above1 as there is no practical way to do it and obviate an investment in insulation from which there is no return4 ,a thorough external wall and roof insulation is strongly recommended1 and the cold radiating into a room above that may be only partially filled or empty may be considered as no great loss1 provided the outer contacts are eliminated or minimized4 ,in fire-proof construction the loss of cold through the ground is an unsolvable problem4 ,to effectually do so it would be required to insulate every floor slab1 top and bottom1 all wall beam and column surfaces4 ,from the foregoing deduction the cost would be prohibitive4 ,basement ,freezers4--,it is obvious from this argument that freezers should not be located in basements4 ,it is far better to locate them on the upper floors of the buildings and make the cellar a moderately cold room1 permitting the cold that will to radiate from the columns to chill it1 but supplying such additional piping as may be required to maintain a regular temperature4 ,if a freezer is placed on a first floor1 it requires insulating the basement ceiling1 which can be readily done4 ,the basement columns are not insulated4 ,piping ,systems4--,with reference to piping for freezing boxed goods or beef cuts1 the shelving system made from coils of pipe upon which to store the product while freezing is preferable4 ,they are equally efficacious1 whether used in brine circulation or direct expansion of ammonia4 ,the coils in the freezing rooms are located on ceilings1 making one layer over ceiling for fifteen-degree rooms where conditions permit1 for handiness in removing frost4 ,if the rooms be carried at thirty-two degrees or over1 group the coils in alleys to enable easy location of pans for collecting drip1 when coils are out of service4 ,whether one uses direct refrigerating by expansion of ammonia or brine circulation through pipes hung in rooms or indirect refrigerating by circulation of chilled air is a matter governed by local conditions and requirements4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,,longitudinal ,,section ,,of ,a ,,freezer ,,and ,,storage ,,room4 ,area and ,division4--,the plant shown in ,figs4 #ca1 #cb and #cc has a large ground area and is a non-sprinkled risk4 ,this building has a frontage of #bcj feet by #acj feet depth4 ,to avoid an insurance area charge for too large floor areas1 and because of a desire to carry several temperatures1 the building was subdivided into three sections1 ,a1 ,b and ,c1 by putting in fire walls4 ,it was designed to have ,section 8,c0 subdivided into two halves1 permitting the maintenance of two classes of low temperature4 ,section 8,b0 was set aside primarily for carrying eggs and apples and thoroughly isolated4 ,section 8,a0 was treated in like manner to ,section 8,c10 except that provision was made for the division wall1 which was not put in at time of construction4 ,illustrating the design is a general floor plan of the premises together with a longitudinal section drawing and a cross section drawing of ,section 8,c40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,,transverse ,,section ,,through ,,freezer ,,section 8,c40 ,receiving and ,discharging4--,referring to the plan1 attention is drawn to the three sections4 ,ingress and egress have been provided by railroad track at one end of ,section 8,a0 and double track with platforms on each side connected at end4 ,twin elevators with stairs are located within a continuous vestibule and the center section can be served from either elevator and stairs in either vestibule4 ,the corner stairs in ,sections 8,a0 and 8,b0 were demanded by the ,city ,building ,department1 but not necessary to the operation of the plant4 ,insulation ,lines4--,referring to the longitudinal section observe the twin columns1 twin girders on each floor level1 the inner carrying the floor construction and the outer the curtain walls4 ,notice the inlay of insulation4 ,the outer walls entirely enclose the concrete skeleton1 making the brick work continuous and sightly4 ,the transverse drawing of ,section 8,c0 shows a partition continuous from basement to ceiling of sixth floor4 ,this partition is not built from floor to floor1 but continuous through the floors1 making either end virtually an isolated building4 ,warm ,storage--,one ,floor4--,it was desirable in this instance to use the upper floors of the building for warm storage1 consequently the top encasing insulation is placed on the ceiling of the sixth story1 continuing to and meeting the wall insulation1 which with the wall insulation encases the cold storage1 as spoken of for the ideal4 ,the floor construction is of flat ceiling type1 there being no girders to contend with in piling product or installing piping4 ,part ,freezers4--,frequently the space required for freezing purposes will not be sufficient to justify the construction of an independent building4 ,sometimes consideration is given to building freezers in a horizontal belt1 horizontally across the building4 ,this is not a proper construction1 since it costs much more to insulate than if the same volume were arranged vertically with one section above the other4 ,in other words1 if one desires to cover a floor surface of #bj1jjj square feet it would be far better to make it four areas of #e1jjj feet in a four-story building than on one or two floors4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,slaughtering ,,cattle4 ,,receiving ,,live ,,stock -- ,,watering -- ,,driving ,,cattle -- ,,knocking ,,cattle -- ,,sticking -- ,,heading -- ,,pritch ,,sticks -- ,,foot ,,skinning -- ,,ripping ,,and ,,leg ,,breaking -- ,,flooring ,,cattle -- ,,breast ,,sawing -- ,,fell ,,cutting -- ,,rumping -- ,,beef ,,spreaders -- ,,fell ,,beating -- ,,gutting -- ,,backing -- ,,tail ,,sawing -- ,,splitting -- ,,splitting ,,cleavers -- ,,clearing ,,out ,,and ,,hide ,,dropping -- ,,neck ,,splitting -- ,,bruise ,,trimming -- ,,skirt ,,trimming -- ,,washing ,,cattle -- ,,fountain ,,brushes -- ,,dressing ,,cattle -- ,,conveyors4 ,receiving ,live ,stock4--,the beginning of the packing business relating to hogs and cattle starts when they are received in the pens4 ,the pens in most climates should be paved1 provided with proper drainage and ample watering facilities4 ,before animals are slaughtered the first essential point is to see they are in condition to be slaughtered1 namely1 that they are not excited1 fevered1 out of condition1 under fed1 or1 in other words1 that they are as near their normal condition as possible4 ,cattle should be allowed to rest over night before they are slaughtered1 if they have been driven or transported any distance2 for if the animal is tired or excited it will not bleed properly when slaughtered1 and if killed in this condition the meat has a red1 fiery appearance1 and is generally unwholesome4 ,it is a condition which the practical eye of the tradesman will take cognizance of very readily1 and he will not be slow to use it to his advantage4 ,water and ,sprinkling4--,ample fresh water should be provided for drinking purposes1 and sprinkling hogs and cattle is very desirable in hot weather4 ,fig4 #cd is a view of suitable resting pens4 ,after the animals have rested a sufficient length of time to be in normal condition they should be driven to the killing pens carefully1 and without undue violence1 such as striking them across the back with heavy sticks1 or prodding them unnecessarily while in the pens1 as this abuse shows on the meat very readily when the hide is removed4 ,this damage is invariably done on the loin and rump of the animal1 and as this is the high-priced part of the meat1 it will readily be seen that the loss is quite considerable4 ,with stubborn or wild cattle it is often necessary to be quite severe1 but a practiced handler of live stock will do it in such a manner as to avoid injuring the carcass4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--;,,cattle ,,resting ,,in ,,pens ,,before ,,being ,,slaughtered4 ,driving ,cattle4--,a wooden knob for the end of a prod pole will prevent a great deal of bruising and consequent discoloration of the meat4 ,when penning cattle from overhead1 the penner invariably prods the animal in the loin1 oftentimes using his pole as a harpoon4 ,the force of the blow thus inflicted1 covering so small a surface1 invariably makes a bloodshot spot1 whereas1 if the force of the blow were distributed over a portion three times as large no ill effect would be noticed1 hence the use of the knobs on these poles will do away with the bruising of loins in handling and penning cattle4 ,poles electrically charged by a wire extending through the pole with a connection to the lighting system are used by many with good results4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--,,view ,,illustrating ,,modern ,,method ,,of ,,stunning ,,cattle4 ,knocking or ,stunning ,cattle4--,this represents really the first act in the slaughtering of cattle4 ,after they have been driven into the narrow pens provided for the purpose1 as shown in ,fig4 #ce1 the knocker follows and with a four pound hammer strikes the animal a stunning blow in the middle of the forehead4 ,in former times cattle were speared1 which was accomplished by walking over the top of the runways and with a long1 sharp-pointed spear1 severing the spinal cord4 ,this method of killing1 however1 is barbarous and not nearly so efficacious as stunning by knocking1 and has been superseded in all the large abattoirs of the ,united ,states by the method of knocking as shown in the view4 ,it is advisable to use a hammer of comparatively large face1 so as not to indent the skulls4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--,,stunned ,,cattle ,,being ,,hoisted ,,for ,,sticker4 ,immediately after the stunning a sliding door is hoisted and the stunned animal rolled out to be hoisted for sticking1 heading1 etc41 as shown in ,figs4 #cf and #cg4 ,sticking4--,in sticking great care should be taken that the throat is well opened1 thereby giving the blood a free flow1 also that in sticking both arteries and veins are severed1 otherwise the beef will purge on the back and look discolored when finished4 ,care should also be taken not to stick cattle 8through10 for if this is done1 when the bullock is thrown on its back1 the blood flows onto the chime bones1 causing a bad discoloration4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--;,,heading ,,and ,,skinning ,,cattle4 ,heading4--,care should be used to see that all the fat possible is left on the tongue1 leaving it perfectly smooth on the outer surface2 that as little hide as possible is left around the horns4 ,the header1 in cutting around the side of the head1 leaves all the fat on the heads1 and keeps as close to the side of the tongue as he can without injury to same2 when this is done1 the hide dropper can leave a full shaped neck1 otherwise considerable meat which should be on the carcass is left on the head1 where it is afterward trimmed and only worth tallow price4 ,in taking the tongue from the head the trimmer should cut close to the jaw-bone1 so that all the meat possible may be left on the tongue4 ,pritch ,sticks4--,for convenience in handling the carcasses on the beds1 a pritch is used 7,see ,fig4 #ch74 ,this stick is arranged with a spike in one end and a ferrule on the other2 used to hold the animal when rolled on its back4 ,pritches were formerly made with spikes at both ends4 ,a spike should not be used on the end of the pritch coming in contact with the beef1 as the spike often punctures the hide4 ,the end of the pritch1 which is to rest upon the floor should have a spike inserted4 ,the end which is to support the carcass1 should have a ferrule of #a-;inch pipe1 roughened like a saw tooth1 which prevents it from slipping and at the same time does not injure the hide4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--,,pritch ,,to ,,support ,,animal ,,when ,,turned ,,on ,,back4 ,foot ,skinning4--,foot skinning is the term applied to taking off the feet4 ,in doing this1 cut around the hoofs closely4 ,do not open the hide any higher than necessary to unjoint the feet4 ,if the shank is uncovered more than necessary1 it is likely to become dirty1 and it is impossible to make it clean if the tissue becomes stained4 ,be careful to see that none of the cords from the front part of the shin-bone are left on the hide4 ,the men skinning the front feet usually raise the gullet4 ,in doing this they should be careful to open the neck straight from where the sticker left off1 and guard against cutting the weasand4 ,the gullet should not be raised too high with the knife when clearing1 for if this is done1 it allows the blood to run back on the ribs1 producing the same effect as if the bullock had been stuck through4 ,ripping and ,leg ,breaking4--,in this operation care should be exercised to see that the first cut is made exactly where the sticker left off1 opening the breast and hide in the center the full length of the animal1 in a straight line4 ,uncover the gam only sufficient to reach the joint1 leaving the hide over balance of shank to protect it4 ,in this way you get very much better shanks than if skinned too low4 ,cut closely to hoofs so all hide possible comes off around the feet1 but that none of the cords are left on the hide4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--,,view ,,showing ,,double-,,bed ,,killing ,,floor ,,in ,a ,,modern ,,slaughter ,,house4 ,flooring ,cattle4--,this expression describes rimming over and siding the bullock4 ,the special object of this operation is to attain a smooth hide without scores or cuts1 smooth work on the bullock1 which consists in saving the fell very carefully1 clearing the rose on shoulder fully1 also the saving of the fell back of the elbow and the forward shoulder4 ,the latter part is a very particular point1 as if the fell is not left it shows black upon chilling4 ,breast ,sawing4--,in sawing the breast1 it should be done centrally1 holding saw at same angle as that at which the animal is lying1 otherwise the saw works toward one side1 and makes a very bad-looking brisket on one side of the beef4 ,saw where marked1 otherwise it will become necessary to trim meat from the neck1 if the marks have not been followed4 ,caul pulling consists in taking out the caul in a tidy1 cleanly condition1 keeping same off the floor1 and putting it into a box4 ,care should also be taken not to cut or tear the intestines1 and if so1 that they are immediately skewered4 ,fell ,cutting4--,fell cutting consists in skinning the hide off the hind legs when animal is on the first hoist4 ,the points to be carefully looked after in this work is to see that smooth work is done both on the hides and on the beef itself4 ,rumping4--,this operation requires very skillful work1 and calls for a great deal of attention4 ,points to be attained are a smooth hide free from scores or cuts1 and smooth work on the beef4 ,care must be used in this work to see that the rumper keeps very close to the hide on outside of the leg1 in order that the fell-beater may do good work4 ,if the rumper is careless and breaks through the fell1 it is impossible to carry this down smoothly4 ,in working around the tail1 care must be taken not to cut into the lean meat1 especially on thin cattle1 where there is comparatively little covering4 ,fell ,beating4--,if the floorman and rumper do their work properly1 it is comparatively easy to do a good job at fell beating4 ,the fell-beaters should then use care to see that they do not tear through1 and1 in marking with the chopper1 to mark in such a way that they tear back instead of cutting off4 ,gutting4--,the objects sought for in this particular work are3 ,first1 cleanliness1 and next1 to save the fat smooth and without tearing it around the bones4 ,the liver should be taken out without tearing4 ,special care should be used in cutting between kidneys1 to open in the center without cutting tenderloin4 ,also to leave all tenderloin in the bullock1 for1 if any comes out with the 8pluck0 it is wasted4 ,the workmen should also be careful about cutting intestines or weasands4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,,ordinary ,,beef ,,spreader4 ,backing4--,the objects to be attained in this particular work1 are3 ,first1 smooth hides1 free from scores or cuts1 at the same time leaving no fat on the hide1 and next1 particular care should be taken in the work required in the dropping of the hide to see that the fat is not removed from the loins4 ,tail ,sawing4--,the point in this work is to see that the saw is absolutely in the center1 and that the first bone is sawed centrally4 ,better work can doubtless be done by sawing the tail from the rear1 8popping0 it twice4 ,beef ,spreaders4--,in slaughtering cattle it was formerly the custom to use an ordinary spreader as shown in ,fig4 #dj1 which spread all carcasses1 large or small1 a certain distance and kept them spread from the time they were hung until finished splitting4 ,the spring beef spreader illustrated in ,fig4 #da1 is a great improvement over this old spreader4 ,when the cattle are first hung on this appliance the center piece is raised up1 allowing the hooks to hang in a normal condition proportionate to the size of the animal which is hung on them4 ,hanging in this shape1 the rumper is given a chance to do his work better4 ,splitting4--,great care should be exercised in this particular work1 especially on 8hard-bone0 cattle4 ,they should split the bone down centrally1 the entire length of the carcass4 ,great care should be taken to see that they split the short fin-bone in the neck1 thereby giving the neck-splitter a chance to start centrally with his work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,,spring ,,beef ,,spreader4 ,splitting ,cleavers4--,care should be exercised to see that these are in the very best condition to do the work4 ,they should be ground as thin as possible1 yet not so thin that they will shatter4 ,if the splitters do not break a chopper occasionally1 it is evidence that these are not ground as thin as they should be1 and1 unless they are1 it is impossible to do good work in splitting4 ,the workmen should1 however1 have choppers ground different thicknesses for different boned cattle1 and never use thin-ground choppers on cows or hard-boned steers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4--,,view ,,showing ,,beef ,,carcasses ,,being ,,split ,,and ,,hung ,,on ,,trolley4 ,clearing ,out and ,hide ,dropping4--,in clearing the shanks the workmen should look carefully to see that they do not score the hide1 or make any miscuts in the meat4 ,they should also save the veins in the under side of forward shoulder1 for when these are cut they continue to purge1 making bad-looking shanks4 ,in hide dropping care should be used to see that the workmen do not score or cut hides1 make miscuts in the neck1 or leave any unnecessary fat on the hide4 ,they should also skin hides as low down as possible on the necks4 ,neck ,splitting4--,this should be done carefully1 splitting the neck fairly in the center4 ,the last bone1 or 8deacon0 joint1 in the neck should be broken centrally1 in order to give equal weights and appearance to the beef4 ,bruise ,trimming4--,this is a very essential feature in the dressing of cattle1 and one in which good judgment must be exercised4 ,it is1 therefore1 very hard to lay down any set rules further than the following3 ,the object of trimming bruises is to take off all blood accumulations1 and at the same time leave all the fat possible on the hips1 etc41 to be bleached out by using hot water and thorough wiping4 ,the great danger1 generally speaking1 is that they are trimmed too much and scrubbed too little4 ,these are points which require very careful attention4 ,skirt ,trimming4--,skirt trimming consists in cutting off the edge of the skirts evenly on native cattle without exposing the lean meat4 ,on western cattle and thin stock1 the skirts should be trimmed high enough so that they will expose the lean meat1 which gives a chance for all moisture which has gathered under the film to escape1 making the beef dryer than if otherwise trimmed4 ,washing ,cattle4--,it will be noted that the carcasses are then separated into two pieces and should be thoroughly washed and scrubbed with fountain brushes to insure absolute cleanliness in every part4 ,the washing and wiping should be carefully performed1 and incidental to the washing is the scraping of slime from the back and shoulders previous to wiping4 ,many slaughter floors are now equipped with centrifugal wringers for wringing out boiled cloths and cleanliness is made paramount in handling beef4 ,in the washing of beef the work should start at the hind legs1 the step-ladder men being the first to use water on the beef after it is split4 ,next1 the back washers and wipers2 after these1 the neck and rib washers1 the policy being to start at the top and clean the beef as they go along4 ,the washers should be kept close up1 handling the beef promptly1 running it into the cooler as fast as it is dressed4 ,fountain ,brushes4--,a convenient apparatus for washing carcasses is the fountain brush4 ,it consists of an ordinary brush with a spray attachment on the front of it1 as shown in ,fig4 #dc4 ,to this is attached a hose which supplies hot water from the vat above4 ,when the men are ready to scrub the beef a valve is turned on1 the water gravitating through the hose to the meat4 ,in wetting it continuously the blood or discoloration which may be gathered on the meat is rapidly taken off1 leaving it in a bright1 clean condition4 ,the beef is then wiped with a cloth made of ten or twelve thicknesses of very coarse cheese cloth which rapidly absorbs the moisture4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,,the ,,fountain ,,brush4 ,dressing ,cattle4--,the mechanical labor of dressing cattle is about the same whether slaughtering ten or ten hundred1 except in the former case the work would be performed by one man and in the latter by probably one hundred and thirty4 ,the facilities for doing the work vary with the quantity and style of beds4 ,some beds are burdened with mechanical appliances where the apparatus more than counteracts any possible labor saving that can be effected4 ,common sense in this instance would indicate simplicity1 as conveyors and mechanical appliances are costly for installation and for upkeep4 ,dressing ,conveyors4--,dressing conveyors to take the animal after siding would1 however1 appear advantageous1 since it permits of the concentration of the viscera for inspection and manipulation1 and makes for facilities where the same can be handled to meet the regulations and avoid the troubles of food products touching the floor on being trucked4 ,these conveyor systems can be simple or complicated and each house requires treatment comparable with the quantity of business performed4 ,the type of killing beds1 where the pens range across the building with one pen for each two beds1 and a waiting pen where the drive can be moved forward for knocking1 is1 in the writer's opinion1 the least costly for standard operation1 particularly if an automatic hanging-off arrangement is provided4 ,,chapter ,x ,,dressing ,,yields ,,and ,,cattle ,,cuttings4 ,,yields ,,of ,,cattle -- ,,yield ,,from ,,twenty-,,two ,,native ,,cattle -- ,,yield ,,from ,,fifty-,,nine ,,texas ,,cattle -- ,,yield ,,from ,,twenty ,,heavy ,,cattle -- ,,yield ,,from ,,thirty-,,four ,,cattle -- ,,percentage ,,of ,,various ,,cuts -- ,,beef ,,cuts -- ,,diagram ,,of ,,cutting -- ,,grading -- ,,loins -- ,,ribs -- ,,rounds -- ,,chucks -- ,,plates1 ,,shanks ,,and ,,flanks -- ,,barreled ,,beef4 ,yields of ,cattle4--,the following are carefully prepared calculations made from data obtained in operation1 showing yields of different products on several different lots of cattle4 ,these were choice cattle in each instance and the average yield of the products is generally larger than would be the case with the ordinary run of cattle slaughtered4 ,a perusal of the different tests given in the following pages will give the reader the average yield in different lines from the cattle handled1 together with the value of the different items at time tests were made4 ,the prices were in vogue at the time of the original publication and while now obsolete are left for comparative purposes4 ,the quantities and percentages would remain and can be used as a basis for present computations4 ,yield from ,twenty-,two ,native ,cattle4--,the following tables show the yield in beef1 hides and tallow and value of offal of twenty-two native cattle1 the first in each test showing the weight and percentage of yield of beef1 hides and tallow4 ,the yield of sweetbreads of twenty-two cattle was twenty-two pieces1 weighing six pounds1 valued at #bj;c per pound1 total value #a4bj4 ,the yield in tripe was twenty-two pieces1 weighing #dbj pounds1 valued at c per pound1 total value #b4aj4 ,total value of sweetbreads and green tripe1 #c4cj4 ,,percentage ,,of ,,yield ,,of ,,beef1 ,,hides ,,and ,,tallow4 ,weight ,weight ,per ,product lbs4 ,averages lbs4 ,cent ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,live weight #bc1gjj;,average #a1jgg4jj 444 ,dressed weight #ad1bci;,average #fdf4jj #fj4jh ,shipping weight #ad1afb,shrinkage 444 #j4ed ,hides weight #a1gee;,average 444 #g4dj ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,total fat weight #a1cia;,average per head #fc4be #e4hj ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,,trimmings ,,from ,,lot ,,of ,,twenty-,,two ,,cattle4 ,product ,pounds ,value ,total ,value ---------------------------------------- ------- #bb tongues #adi #j4ee each #ab4aj #bb livers #bdh 4#ce each #g4gj #bb hearts #ef 4#jg each #a4ed #bb tails #dj 4#jc each 4#gg ,cheek meat #hh 4#jc per lb4 #b4fd ,head meat #af 4#jc per lb4 4#dh ,fine meat #g 4#jc per lb4 4#ba ,head trimmings #aa 4#jc per lb4 4#cc ---------------------------------------- ------- ,total value 444 444 #be4gg ---------------------------------------- ------- ,,casings ,,from ,,lot ,,of ,,twenty-,,two ,,cattle4 ,per cent ,product used ,value ,total ,value ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #bj sets round guts #ia #j4ad set #b4hj #h sets middles #cf 4#ej set #d4jj #bb pcs4 bungs #ajj 4#aa each #b4db #bj pcs4 bung gut skins #ia 4#ja each 4#be #ai pcs4 weasands #hf 4#je per pce4 4#ie #h pcs4 bladders #cf 4#cj per doz4 4#bb #ad lbs4 weasand meat 4#ja per lb4 4#ad ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,total value 444 444 #aj4gh ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,yield ,,from ,,heads ,,and ,,feet ,,of ,,twenty-,,two ,,cattle4 ,wt4 per ,total head1 ,value ,product ,wt4 lbs4 lbs4 ,price ,am't per head ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,skulls #hh #d4jj #ah4jj per ton #j4gij4jceij ,jaws #dc #a4ie #ah4jj per ton 4#ci 4#jaggb ,knuckles #fc #b4hf #ah4jj per ton 4#ef 4#jbede ,dark hoofs #ci #a4gg #bb4jj per ton 4#dc 4#jaied ,no4 #a r'nd shins #bf #a4ah #db4jj per ton 4#ed 4#jbded ,flat shins #ai 4#hf #cj4jj per ton 4#bi 4#jacah ,no4 #a tallow #ade #f4ei 4#jf per lb4 #i4gh 4#ddded ,neatsfoot oil #bc #a4je 4#fd per gal4 #a4ic 4#jhggc ,tankage #aaj #e4jj #af4jj per ton 4#hh 4#jdjjj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,total 444 444 444 #ae4eij4gjhfj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,the product sent to tank room was #a1fge pounds green weight1 the average per head being #gf4ad pounds4 ,in figuring the value of the offal in the different tests the materials sent to the tank room are not taken into consideration4 ,the blood from the twenty-two cattle was eight pounds per head of dry blood2 total1 #agf pounds2 value1 at the rate of #cc4jj per ton1 equals #b4ij4 ,the sinews from the twenty-two lot was #a4ic pounds per head2 total weight1 #db pounds2 value at the rate of #ai4jj per ton1 equals #dj;c4 ,the fat from the twenty-two native cattle showed the following yield in oleo stock3 #a1abb lbs4 ,no4 #a stock #hj4jj per cent4 #a1cia lbs4 tallow #aic lbs4 scrap tallow #ac4hh per cent4 #gf lbs4 waste #e4df per cent4 ------ #ajj4jj per cent4 ,the #a1abb pounds of stock showed the following yield in oleo oil and stearine3 ,,yield ,,in ,,oleo ,,oil ,,and ,,stearine4 ,per ,weight1 ,price ,product cent lbs4 per lb4 ,value ---------------------------------------- ---- ,no4 #a oil #gi4gg #hie #j4aj #id4cg ,no4 #a stearine #ai4eb #bai 4#ac #bi4ef ,waste in pressing 4#ga #h 444 444 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,totals #ajj4jj #a1abb 444 #abc4ic ---------------------------------------- ----- ,the total value of the offal of the twenty-two native cattle1 including the tallow1 was #ahb4fg1 an average per head of #h4cj4 ,yield from ,fifty-,nine ,texas ,cattle4--,the following table shows the yield in beef1 hides and tallow and the value of offal of fifty-nine fed ,texas cattle3 ,,percentage ,,of ,,yield ,,of ,,beef1 ,,hides ,,and ,,tallow4 ,weight1 ,weight1 ,per ,product lbs4 ,averages lbs4 cent ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,live weight #fd1bfj ,average #ajhj4 444 ,dressed weight #ci1fji ,average #fga4 #fa4fd ,shipping weight#ci1cfe ,shrinkage 444 4#fb ,total fat #c1hif ,average per head #ff4jc #f4jj ,hides #d1idf ,average per head #hc4ib #g4gj ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,the yield in sweetbreads was #ei pieces1 weight #bj pounds1 value #bj;c per pound2 total1 #d4jj4 ,the output of tripe was #ei pieces1 weighing #a1jhj pounds1 valued at c per pound2 total value1 #e4dj4 ,total value of sweetbreads and green tripe1 #i4dj4 ,,trimmings ,,from ,,fifty-,,nine ,,texas ,,cattle4 ,weight1 ,total ,product lbs4 ,value value ---------------------------------------- --- #ei tongues #dah #j4ee each #cb4de #ei livers #gdd 4#ce each #bj4fe #ei hearts #afj 4#jg each #d4ac #ei tails #hh 4#jc each #b4jf ,cheek meat #bbg 4#jc per lb4 #f4ha ,head meat #cg 4#jc per lb4 #a4ja ,fine meat #ah 4#jc per lb4 4#ed ,head trimmings #bd 4#jc per lb4 4#gb ---------------------------------------- --- ,total value 444 444 #fh4cg ---------------------------------------- --- ,,yield ,,in ,,casings ,,from ,,fifty-,,nine ,,cattle4 ,per cent ,total ,product used ,value value ---------------------------------------- ------------ #eb sets round guts #hhj4ad per set #g4bh #bj sets middles #cd 4#ej per set #aj4jj #ei pcs4 bungs #ajj 4#aa per pce4 #f4di #df pcs4 bung gut skins #gh 4#ja per pce4 4#eg #ej pcs4 weasands #he 4#je per pce4 #b4ej #dc pcs4 bladders #gc 4#cj per doz4 #a4jg #bd lbs4 weasand meat 444 4#ja per lb4 4#bd ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,total value 444 444 #bh4ae ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,,yield ,,in ,,heads ,,and ,,feet ,,from ,,fifty-,,nine ,,cattle4 ,total,wt4 per ,value ,wt4 head per ,product lbs4 lbs4 ,price ,amount head ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,skulls #bdg #d4ai #ah4jj per ton #b4bbj4jcgg ,jaws #acj #b4bj #ah4jj per ton #a4ag 4#jaih ,knuckles #afa #b4gc #ah4jj per ton #a4di 4#jbde ,dark hoofs #aab #a4ij #bb4jj per ton #a4bc 4#jahi ,piths #gc #a4bd #bj4jj per ton 4#gc 4#jabd ,no4 #a r'nd shins #fa #a4jd #db4jj per ton #a4bh 4#jbah ,flat shins #dc 4#gc #cj4jj per ton 4#fe 4#jaji ,no4 #a tallow #ebg #h4ic 4#jf per lb4 #ce4ef 4#fjbg ,no4 #a horns #eg 4#ig #bjj4jj per ton #e4gj 4#jigj ,neatsfoot oil #ee 4#ic 4#fd per gal4 #d4fi 4#jgic ,tankage #bae #c4fd #af4jj per ton #a4gb 4#jbia ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,total amount 444 444 444 #ef4ddj4ieff ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,the yield in the tank room of fifty-nine ,texas cattle was #d1dff pounds green weight to tanks1 the average per head being #ge4gj pounds4 ,the yield in blood of fifty-nine ,texas cattle was eight pounds per head of dry blood2 total1 #dgb pounds2 value1 at the rate of #cc4jj per ton1 equals #g4gh4 ,the yield in sinews of fifty-nine ,texas cattle was #a4hg pounds per head2 total weight1 #aaj pounds2 value1 at the rate of #ai4jj per ton1 equals #a4jd4 ,the fat from the fifty-nine ,texas cattle showed the following yield in oleo stock3 #c1afi lbs4 ,no4 #a stock #ha4cd per cent4 #c1hif lbs4 tallow #eci lbs4 scrap tallow #ac4hd per cent4 #ahh lbs4 waste #d4hb per cent4 ------ #ajj4jj per cent4 ,the above #c1afi pounds of stock showed in oleo oil and stearine3 ,,yield ,,in ,,oleo ,,oil ,,and ,,stearine4 ,per ,weight1 ,price ,product cent lbs4 per lb4 ,value ---------------------------------------- ------ ,no4 #a oil #hj4ge #b1eei #j4aa #bha4di ,no4 #a stearine #ah4di #ehf 4#ac #gi4aa ,waste in pressing 4#gf #bd 444 444 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,totals #ajj4jj #c1afi 444 #cfj4fj ---------------------------------------- ------ ,the total value of the offal of fifty-nine ,texas cattle1 including tallow1 was #eca4gh2 average per head1 #i4ajc4 ,yield from ,twenty ,heavy ,cattle4--,the following tables show the yield in beef1 hides and tallow1 and the value of offal of twenty cattle1 eight hides1 classified as natives and twelve as spreadies4 ,the yield in sweetbreads from twenty cattle was3 #bj pieces weighing seven pounds1 valued at #bj;c per pound2 total value1 #a4dj4 ,the yield in tripe was #bj pieces weighing #dbj pounds1 valued at c per pound2 total value1 #b4aj4 ,total value of sweetbreads and green tripe1 #c4ej4 ,the product sent to tank room was #a1fbf pounds green weight to tanks1 the average per head being #ha4c pounds4 ,,percentage ,,of ,,yield ,,in ,,beef1 ,,hides ,,and ,,tallow4 ,weight1 ,weight1 ,per ,product lbs4 ,averages lbs4 cent ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,live weight #bd1fej;,average #a1bcb 444 ,dressed weight #ae1hid;,average #geh #fa4fd ,shipping weight #ad1iad,shrinkage #a4hd ,hides weight 7eight natives and twelve spreadies7 #a1gca 444 #hf4e #g4aj ,total fat #a1eeb;,average per head #gg4f #f4bj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,yield ,,in ,,trimmings ,,from ,,twenty ,,cattle4 ,total ,product ,pounds ,value ,value ---------------------------------------- -- #bj tongues #agc #j4ee each #aa4jj #bj livers #bfa 4#cj each #g4jj #bj hearts #fd 4#jg each #a4dj #bj tails #cc 4#jc each 4#gj ,cheek meat #ie 4#jc per lb4 #b4he ,head meat #af 4#jc per lb4 4#dh ,fine meat #aj 4#jc per lb4 4#cj ,head trimmings #ae 4#jc per lb4 4#de ---------------------------------------- -- ,total value 444 444 #bd4ah ---------------------------------------- -- ,,yield ,,in ,,casings ,,from ,,twenty ,,cattle4 ,per cent ,total ,product used ,value ,value ---------------------------------------- --------- #ai sets rounds #iej4ad per set #b4ff #g sets middles #ce 4#ej per set #c4ej #bj pcs4 bungs #ajj 4#aa each #b4bj #ae pcs4 bung gut skins #ge 4#ja each 4#ai #h pcs4 weasands #dj 4#je each 4#dj #i pcs4 bladders #de 4#cj per doz4 4#bb #aa lbs4 weasand meat 444 4#ja per lb4 4#aa ---------------------------------------- --------- ,total value 444 444 #i4bh ---------------------------------------- --------- ,the yield in blood from twenty cattle was #h4ce pounds per head of dry blood2 total1 #afg pounds2 value at the rate of #cc4jj per ton1 equals #b4ge4 ,yield in sinews of twenty cattle was two pounds per head1 total weight #dj pounds2 value at the rate of #ai4jj per ton1 equals #ch;c4 ,,yield ,,from ,,heads ,,and ,,feet ,,of ,,twenty ,,cattle4 ,wt4 ,total per ,value wt41head1 per ,product lbs4 lbs4 ,price ,amount head ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,skulls #hd #d4bj #ah4jj per ton #j4gej4jcge ,jaws #df #b4cj #ah4jj per ton 4#da 4#jbje ,knuckles #fi #c4de #ah4jj per ton 4#fb 4#jcaj ,hoofs #dc #b4ae #bb4jj per ton 4#dg 4#jbce ,no4 #a r'nd shins #be #a4be #db4jj per ton 4#ec 4#jbde ,flat shins #bj #a4jj #cj4jj per ton 4#cj 4#jaej ,no4 #a tallow #afe #h4be 4#jf per lb4 #aa4ac 4#eefh ,neatsfoot oil #cb #a4fj 4#fd per gal4 #b4gb 4#acfj ,tankage #gb #c4fj #af4jj per ton 4#eh 4#jbij ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,totals 444 444 444 #ag4ebj4hgfj ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,the fat from twenty cattle produced a yield in oleo stock of #a1bfe lbs4 ,no4 #a stock #ha4ea per cent4 #a1eeb lbs4 fat #bae lbs4 scrap tallow #ac4he per cent4 #gb lbs4 waste #d4fd per cent4 ------ #ajj4jj per cent4 ,the above #a1bfe pounds of stock showed the following yield in oleo oil and stearine3 ,,yield ,,in ,,oleo ,,and ,,stearine4 ,per ,weight1 ,price ,product cent lbs4 per lb4 ,value ---------------------------------------- ------ ,no4 #a oil #gi4cg #a1jjd #j4aa #aaj4dd ,no4 #a stearine #bj4jh #bed 4#ad #ce4ef ,waste in pressing 4#ee 444 444 444 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,totals #ajj4jj #a1beh 444 #adf4jj ---------------------------------------- ------ ,the total value of the offal of above twenty cattle1 including the tallow1 was #bjc4fa1 an average per head of #aj4ahje4 ,yield from ,thirty-,four ,cattle4--,the following table shows the yield in beef1 hides and tallow and the value of offal of thirty-four cattle3 ,,percentage ,,of ,,yield ,,in ,,beef1 ,,hides ,,amd ,,tallow4 ,weight1 ,weight1 ,per ,product lbs4 ,averages lbs4 cent ---------------------------------------- ------ ,live weight #db1cej;,average #abei 444 ,dressed weight #be1efc;,average #gea #fj4cf ,shipping weight #be1jfg,shrinkage 444 #a4ih ,hides weight #c1jbg 444 #hi4jj #g4aj ,total fat #b1fff;,fat per head #gh4da #f4cj ---------------------------------------- ------ ,,yield ,,from ,,trimmings ,,of ,,thirty-,,four ,,cattle4 ,weight1 ,total ,product lbs4 ,value ,value ---------------------------------------- --- #cd tongues #bfc #j4ee each #ah4gj #cd livers #dbe 4#ce each #aa4ij #cd hearts #agc 4#jg each #b4ch #cd tails #di 4#jc each #a4ai ,cheek meat #ahe 4#jc per lb4 #e4ee ,head meat #cb 4#jc per lb4 4#if ,fine meat #ai 4#jc per lb4 4#eg ,head trimmings #bf 4#jc per lb4 4#gh ---------------------------------------- --- ,total value 444 444 #db4jc ---------------------------------------- --- ,,yield ,,from ,,casings ,,of ,,thirty-,,four ,,cattle4 ,per cent ,total ,product used ,value ,value ---------------------------------------- --------- #cd sets rounds #ajjj4ad set #d4gf #ac sets middles #ch 4#ej set #f4ej #cd pcs4 bungs #ajj 4#aa each #c4gd #cb pcs4 bung gut skins #id 4#ja each 4#dj #cj pcs4 weasands #hh 4#je each #a4ej #be pcs4 bladders #gd 4#cj per doz4 4#fc #aj lbs4 weasand meat #bj 4#ja per lb4 4#bj ---------------------------------------- --------- ,total value 444 444 #ag4gc ---------------------------------------- --------- ,the yield in sweetbreads of same thirty-four cattle was #bi pieces1 weighing nine pounds1 valued at #bj;c per pound2 total value of #a4hj4 ,the yield in tripe was #cd pieces1 weighing #gaj pounds1 valued at c per pound2 total value1 #e4ce4 ,the yield in tank room of same thirty-four cattle was #b1ffe pounds green weight to tanks1 the average per head being #gh4ch pounds4 ,yield in blood of same thirty-four cattle was as follows3 #h4f pounds per head of dry blood2 total1 #bib pounds2 value at the rate of #cc4jj per ton equals #d4hb4 ,the yield in sinews of thirty-four cattle was #a4dd pounds per head2 total weight1 #di pounds2 value at the rate of #ai4jj per ton equals #df;c4 ,the fat from the thirty-four cattle showed the following yield in oleo stock3 #b1ahi lbs4 ,no4 #a stock #hb4aa per cent4 #b1fff lbs4 fat #chc lbs4 scrap tallow #ad4cg per cent4 #id lbs4 waste #c4eb per cent4 ------ #ajj4jj per cent4 ,the above #b1ahi pounds of stock showed the following yield in oleo oil and stearine3 ,,yield ,,in ,,oleo ,,and ,,stearine4 ,price ,per ,weight1 per ,product cent pounds lb4 ,value ---------------------------------------- -- ,no4 #a oil #gh4jd #a1gjh #j4aaahg4hh ,no4 #a stearine #ba4jf #dfa 4#ad #fd4ed ,waste in pressing 4#ij #bj 444 444 ---------------------------------------- -- ,totals #ajj4jj #b1ahi 444 #beb4db ---------------------------------------- -- ,the total value of the offal of these thirty-four cattle1 including the tallow1 was #cef4hj2 an average per head of #aj4dig4 ,the foregoing records of tests will show the reader the actual value of the by-products figured at the time these tests were made4 ,owing to changes in the market prices1 these figures are not correct for present conditions1 but the percentage of yield and different items are correct1 and the reader can take any one of these tests and by substituting the market prices of today obtain figures of value4 ,these tests also give the percentage of the hide and tallow4 ,the latter1 as will be noted1 is quite high1 as it will be seen that the tests were made on a fairly fat grade of cattle4 ,percentage of ,various ,cuts of ,beef4--,nearly every large city has its special ways and peculiarities of cutting meats1 consequently the percentage of the different cuts varies largely4 ,the following table is a record of results from a cutting test and shows the percentage of 8,chicago cut0 meat with square cut chucks3 ,per ,chicago ,cuts-- ,cent4 ,chucks #bh4jj ,rounds #bc4jj ,navels #h4jj ,flanks #b4jj ,flank steaks 4#ej ,kidney 4#be ,ribs #aj4jj ,loins #ae4jj ,no4 #b suet 4#ej ,no4 #a suet #c4jj ,shanks #d4jj ,brisket #e4jj ,necks 4#ge ------- #ajj4jj ,the following table shows percentage on cattle cut ,chicago style1 with the exception of a 8,kosher chuck0 the latter consisting of five-rib1 four-quarter cut-off from the side of the beef3 ,per ,new ,york ,cuts 7,natives7-- ,cent4 ,ribs #i4ee ,loins #ae4gd ,flanks #e4ee ,navels #h4fa ,suet #c4fb ,rounds #bc4bg ,new ,york chucks #cc4ff ------ #ajj4jj ,the following table shows the percentage on cattle cut ,philadelphia style3 ,per ,philadelphia ,cuts-- ,cent4 ,rump and round #cd4jj ,rattler 7chuck1 plate1 brisket and shank7 #dd4jj ,ribs and loins #bb4jj ------ #ajj4jj ,the following table gives the result of tests and shows in detail the percentages in cutting canner cattle4 ,as will be understood1 for canning purposes1 a light grade of animals is always used2 cattle that are too light or too thin are always used for other purposes4 ,in such cases the meats are always boned-out and the different cuts of the meat are here enumerated1 showing their percentages3 ,per ,packing ,house ,cuts-- ,cent4 ,sirloin butts #c4ijc ,strips #d4bjd ,tenderloins #b4eeb ,boneless chucks #ac4hac ,rolls #b4eeb ,plates #ab4afb ,insides #g4ieg ,outsides #e4eee ,knuckles #e4eee ,clods #e4aje ,rump butts #b4djb ,flank steak 4#fjj ,hanging tenderloin 4#dej ,front shanks #g4bjg ,hind shanks #d4fej ,soft bones #f4ijf ,trimmings #h4ajh ,tallow #d4eai ,kidneys 4#fjj ------ #ajj4jj ,explanatory4--,part of the data following and quoted in this chapter is from an excellent bulletin issued by the ,university of ,illinois ,agricultural ,experiment ,station1 by ,louis ,d4 ,hall4 ,this is so clearly expressed and well illustrated that nothing need be added to the subject4 ,the same is true regarding data shown on mutton and on hogs4 ,beef ,cuts4--8,wholesale fresh beef0 trade is about equally divided between carcass beef and beef cuts4 ,the latter are sold both as 8straight cuts0 and as subdivisions thereof4 ,the 8straight cuts0 handled in ,chicago markets are ,loins1 ,ribs1 ,rounds1 ,chucks1 ,plates1 ,flanks and ,shanks 7,fig4 #dd74 ,the loin is separated from the round at the hip joint4 ,the flank is cut from about the middle of the thirteenth rib to the opposite lower corner of the loin4 ,the shank is sawed off just below the second knuckle 7shoulder joint74 ,the plate is cut off on a line extending from about the middle of the twelfth rib through the point at which the shank is removed4 ,the rib and chuck are separated between the fifth and sixth ribs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--;,,chicago ,,beef ,,cuts4 #a1 #b1 #c4 ,round #d1 #e1 #f4 ,loin #g4 ,rib #h4 ,chuck #i4 ,flank #aj1 #aa4 ,plate #ab4 ,shank #ac4 ,suet #a4 ,hind shank #b4 ,round1 ,r4 ,s4 off #c4 ,rump #d1 #e4 ,loin end #f4 ,pinbone loin #e1 #f4 ,flatbone loin #aj4 ,navel #aa4 ,brisket #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #i4 ,hind quarter #g1 #h1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab4 ,fore quarter #g1 #h4 ,back #g1 #aj4 ,piece #h1 #aa1 #ab4 ,kosher chuck #h1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab4 ,triangle a4 ,aitch-bone b4 ,rump-bone c4 ,crotch d4 ,cod e4 ,chine-bones f4 8,buttons0 g4 ,skirt h4 ,breast-bone ,the standard grades of straight cuts are ,no4 #a1 ,no4 #b and ,no4 #c4 ,cuts that are too deficient in thickness and quality to be used on the butcher's block1 and which are consequently made into boneless cuts1 barreled beef1 sausage1 etc41 are termed 8strippers40 ,diagram of ,cutting4--,the page illustrating a diagram of cutting shows the 8,chicago0 method of dividing the animal if cut for sale4 ,grading4--8,weight affects the grade of a beef cut about the same as in grading a carcass4 ,no4 #a cuts are principally from choice and prime #hjj to #a1jjj-pound native steer carcasses and choice #gej to #ijj-pound native cows2 ,no4 #b's are largely from medium and good #fej to #hjj-pound steers and #fjj to #gej-pound cows2 and ,no4 #c's are made chiefly from #dej to #fjj-pound common and medium cows1 also from ,texas and light ,western steers4 ,stripper cuts are made from canners1 medium and common bulls1 ,texas and common light ,western cattle4 ,,average ,,weights ,,of ,,straight ,,beef ,,cuts 7,,pounds7 ,grade ,loins ,ribs ,rounds ,chucks ,plates ,flanks ,shanks ,no4 #a #ej-he #cj-ej #ge-aaj #ge-aaj #dj-hj #ae-bj #aj-bj ,no4 #b #dj-fj #be-ce #fj-hj #fj-hj #cj-ej #aj-ae #e-aj ,no4 #c #be-dj #bj-be #dj-fj #dj-fj #bj-ce #e-aj #e-aj ,strippers #bj-cj #ae-bj #cj-dj #cj-dj #ae-bj #e-aj #e-aj ,loins4--8,the loin is the highest-priced cut of the carcass because of the tenderness and quality of the lean4 ,the grade of a loin may be determined by marked excellence or deficiency in either thickness1 covering or quality1 or by a uniform degree of development in all respects4 ,no4 #a's must have a full1 well-rounded shape1 a complete covering of white fat1 the thickness of which is in proper proportion to the lean1 and bright1 firm1 fine-grained1 well-marbled flesh4 ,no4 #b's are generally less rounded in form1 with insufficient1 excessive1 or uneven covering and a slight deficiency in grain1 marbling or color of flesh2 while ,no4 #c's are more flat in shape1 nearly or entirely lacking in covering of fat and very deficient in thickness and quality of flesh1 but sufficiently developed to be cut into porterhouse and sirloin steaks for cheap trade 7,fig4 #de74 ,stripper loins have no outside fat and are usually extremely flat and rough in shape1 with dark-colored1 coarse-grained flesh1 and hard1 white bone4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4--;,a4 ,,flat ,,bone ,,loins1 ,,no4 #a1 ,,no4 #b ,,and ,,no4 #c ,,grades4 ,b4 ,,regular ,,loins1 ,,no4 #a1 ,,no4 #b ,,and ,,no4 #c ,,grades4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4--,,ribs1 ,,no4 #a1 ,,no4 #b ,,and ,,no4 #c ,,grades4 ,a4 ,,front4 ,b4 ,,rear4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--,,rounds1 ,,no4 #a1 ,,no4 #b ,,and ,,no4 #c ,,grades4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--;,,chucks1 ,,no4 #a1 ,,no4 #b ,,and ,,no4 #c ,,grades4 7,,above1 ,,rear ,,view4 ,,below1 ,,side ,,view47 ,ribs4--8,this cut1 which includes the portion between the loin and chuck1 contains the best roasts4 ,the poorer quality of ribs are boned and make #8the roll4' ,a #8regular roll' consists of the lean part of the rib with backbone removed and shoulder blade fat cut away4 #8,spencer' rolls are of the same type1 except that the covering is left on the lean1 exclusive of that over blade bone1 which is removed4 ,rounds4--8,the cut surface of the full round is identical with the butt end of the corresponding loin4 ,cuts of various types of rounds are shown in ,fig4 #dg4 ,an excess of rounds under average conditions makes it necessary to divide the rounds further into rump butts used for corn beef2 beef hams used for dried beef1 and shanks for sausage meat4 8,in stripping a bullock for beef hams1 it is divided into three parts1 known as a set1 viz41 inside1 outside1 and knuckle pieces4 ,chucks4--8,the style of cutting shown in ,fig4 #dh is known as the square chuck1 and is the style most used in ,chicago wholesale markets4 ,chucks are sometimes cut #8knuckle out' by removing the shank with a knife at the second knuckle instead of sawing off below the joint4 ,the lower grades of chucks are often further divided in order to make the cut more saleable4 ,such cuts are the shoulder clod and boneless chuck4 ,the shoulder clod is a wedge-shaped piece cut from the fleshy part of the chuck just back of the shoulder blade1 and extending from the elbow of the shank nearly or quite to the backbone4 ,it is taken mainly from ,no4 #c and #8stripper' cuts1 and to a small extent from ,no4 #a's and #b's4 ,it is a boneless cut weighing six to fifteen pounds1 and sells from #aj to #bj per cent above chuck quotations40 ,a 8kosher0 chuck consists of the square chuck1 shank1 brisket and neck in one piece1 the forequarter with rib and navel piece off4 ,plates1 ,shanks1 and ,flanks4--8,these are usually boned and the parts used in sausage department and bonehouse1 except in the heavier cuts of plates and flanks1 which are used in mess beef4 ,barreled ,beef4--8,the demand for barreled beef is a receding item in packing house usage4 ,formerly it was a large item4 ,the quotation gives the grading and naming3 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4--;,a1 ,,beef ,,hams 7,,left1 8,,inside02 ,,center1 8,,outside02 ,,right1 8,,knuckle074 ,b1 ,,tenderloin4 ,c1 ,,shoulder ,,clod4 8,extra ,india ,mess ,beef is made from heavy fat ,no4 #a plates weighing #fe to #hj pounds1 cut into pieces of about eight pounds average and packed in tierces or barrels4 ,it is the highest grade of barreled beef and is sold largely through ,british markets for army and navy use4 ,fulton ,market ,beef is of the same quality as ,extra ,india1 but from #fj to #gj pound plates1 and is usually put up in half barrels or tubs for domestic trade4 ,these and the two following grades of plate beef are usually packed with the lower side of the brisket piece removed4 8,extra ,plate 7,extra ,family7 ,beef is cut from moderately fat ,no4 #a plates 7#ej to #fj pounds71 and packed like ,extra ,india4 ,it is exported principally to various countries in northern ,europe4 8,regular ,plate or ,family ,beef consists of ,no4 #b plates 7#dj to #ej pounds71 with a good proportion of fat and lean1 cut into pieces of six to eight pounds and packed the same as ,extra ,india4 ,it is also sold largely in northern ,european countries4 8,packet ,beef is made from #cj to #dj-pound plates 7heavy ,no4 #c's and light ,no4 #b's7 cut the same as other grades of plate beef4 ,it is used throughout ,europe1 the ,west ,indies1 ,central and ,south ,america4 8,common ,plate ,beef is made from ,no4 #c plates1 #bj to #cj pounds average1 cut and packed as explained above4 ,it is the lowest grade or barreled plate beef4 ,this grade1 also ,prime ,mess and ,extra ,mess ,beef1 is sold to the same trade as ,packet ,beef4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,,shanks4 ,,no4 #a ,,grade1 ,,no4 #b ,,grade1 ,,no4 #c ,,grade4 ,,clod ,,on4 8,rolled ,boneless ,beef 7,rolled ,beef or ,rollettes7 consists of plates with a portion of the brisket cut off1 the remainder of plate being boned1 rolled and wound with twine4 ,it is made from ,no4 #b and ,no4 #c plates of #be to #dj pounds average4 ,the rolls weigh eight to twelve pounds and are cured in mild brine4 8,prime ,mess ,beef consists of about #ajj pounds of plates and #ajj pounds of chucks1 rumps and flanks per barrel cut into pieces of six to nine pounds4 ,the proportions of the cuts named are varied according to demands and may contain #ajj pounds of chucks with the remainder plates1 flanks and rumps1 or as otherwise specified4 ,this grade is made from heavy ,no4 #c and light ,no4 #b cuts4 8,extra ,mess ,beef contains the same assortment of cuts as ,prime ,mess1 but is made only from ,no4 #c cuts4 8,ramp ,butt ,beef is cut from rumps off the medium and lower grades of rounds1 and is boneless except a small piece of tail-bone4 ,the pieces average four to six pounds each4 ,it is sold largely in lumbering districts and to the fisheries trade40 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,hides ,,and ,,pelts4 ,,green ,,hides -- ,,condition -- ,,scores -- ,,prod ,,pole ,,damage -- ,,clean ,,floors -- ,,leather ,,yields -- ,,pattern -- ,,proper ,,storage ,,for ,,hides -- ,,grading -- ,,grubs ,,in ,,hides -- ,,salt ,,to ,,be ,,used -- ,,building ,,of ,,packs ,,of ,,hides -- ,,trimming ,,of ,,green ,,hides -- ,,switches -- ,,shrinkage ,,of ,,hides -- ,,sheep ,,pelts4 ,green ,hides4--,next in value to the beef is the hide and the handling1 curing1 etc41 of this particular part of the animal1 until it is ready to be delivered requires careful attention to obtain the best results4 ,for convenience in handling green hides a special hide truck1 shown in ,fig4 #ea1 is usually employed4 ,the platform of the truck is #c #e feet1 with a #a inch hardwood plank eight inches high on one side and on front end4 ,the wheels are about eighteen inches in diameter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--;,,hide ,,truck ,,for ,,carting ,,beef ,,hides4 ,condition4--,the first consideration1 of course1 is the condition of the hide4 ,there has been marked improvement in recent years in the handling of hides4 ,formerly1 where unskilled workmen were killing only a few cattle daily1 or weekly1 they did not become proficient in the removal of hides and the hide was more or less damaged by scores and cuts4 ,when cattle are killed in large numbers it is necessary to make a division of labor1 and instead of one man doing many parts of the work1 he simply does one part continuously1 and hence becomes very skillful2 the 8take-off0 of the hide1 particularly1 is improved4 ,that this condition is appreciated by tanners is evidenced by the difference in price paid for country and packers hides2 the tanners paying from c to #a;c more per pound for packers hides because the hide has been properly taken off1 while a country hide1 which is usually taken off by workmen less skilled has been cut and scored1 the scores being particularly objectionable4 ,scores4--,a score in a hide is made by cutting into it when removing1 far enough to damage the grain of the leather1 and when it comes from the tannery1 scores show very plainly and in many cases one-half of the thickness of the leather is lost by this defect4 ,hides taken off properly1 should not show these imperfections1 in fact1 should be as smooth as though slipped off the animal1 were that possible1 instead of by a knife1 and with skilled workmanship such is the case4 ,one man doing one particular operation continuously1 the 8take-off0 of hides has been so improved that less than ten hides out of a thousand are found to be 8,no4 #b0 quality when taken out of the cellar in a well-regulated house4 ,the 8take-off0 of the hides particularly should be watched by the killing foreman and the workmen's attention drawn to the slightest defects continuously1 as much depends upon the reputation a house may have for its take-off4 ,many of the small scores which are found to materially damage the hide when tanned are invisible when the hide is taken out of the packer's cellar1 as owing to discoloration1 salt1 etc41 it is impossible to see many of them1 but they are all visible when the leather is turned out4 ,consequently1 if a house has a reputation for bad 8take-off10 buyers usually aim to buy the hides from a plant with a good take-off4 ,hence it will be seen that in this particular department it means a great deal to have a good reputation for 8take-off40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--;,,diagram ,,of ,,hides4 ,prod ,pole ,damage--,clean ,floors4--,outside of the 8take-off0 there are several other points which should be watched carefully on the killing floor in the handling of this particular article4 ,the hides should not be damaged with prod poles by the men handling cattle in the pens4 ,the floors should be kept as clean as possible1 especially where the cattle are thrown out of the knocking pens1 as blood is very objectionable on the hides4 ,it is liable to cause decomposition when the hide is in pack1 and if it does sufficiently for the hair to slip on the hides1 it becomes a 8,no4 #b40 ,another bad feature is that a bloody hide will discolor the flesh side of the skin next to it in pack1 and it is always advisable to get the hides out as bright and clean as possible1 as buyers prefer them so4 ,another reason why they should be kept as dry as possible is that the hides are weighed as taken off for general record and also for estimating the cost of the beef4 ,if the hides are allowed to get wet they will absorb four or five pounds per hide1 which if deducted from the calculations1 will represent a false credit of #dj;c or #ej;c per head on the cattle4 ,it is best to keep them as dry as possible1 so that weights used for figuring and record purposes may be accurate4 ,if the hides go into the packs excessively wet1 when shipped1 they will necessarily show an excess shrinkage from green to cured weights1 causing confusion as to actual shrinkage4 ,leather ,yields4--,while it is advisable to have hides carry as much moisture as is acceptable to the buyer1 it is not profitable to have them too wet1 as the buyers watch such matters and if a lot of hides from a certain house do not show the yield in leather which they should1 purchases made after that from such a house are made proportionate to the yield1 hence the additional weight that may be gained is more than lost in the price realized4 ,there is a happy medium to be sought in this matter where the seller gets all that he is entitled to and the buyer is satisfied with the yield he obtains4 ,pattern4--,the diagram1 ,fig4 #eb1 shows the pattern of a packing house hide and1 as nearly as can be indicated on paper1 it shows the part removed by each workman4 ,proper ,storage for ,hides4--,this is a point usually not given due consideration1 some packers reasoning that as long as their hides are in a building1 little else is to be considered4 ,the following figures which are accurate1 will give the reader an idea of the loss that lack of attention in this particular matter may represent4 ,it will be noted that the test extends over a period of one year1 representing a test on a total of #aih1cda hides4 ,a total of #hg1ehg hides were cured in house ,no4 #a1 which consists of a cellar under refrigerated rooms4 ,while no attempt was made to refrigerate this room there was a natural radiation to the floor above which held the temperature at from #ee to #fj ,f4 in hot weather4 ,there were but two openings in the cellar and naturally little circulation of air1 hence the moisture of the cellar was retained and the hides show a shrinkage of #ad4gd per cent from the green weight on bed to shipping weight4 ,,shrinkage ,,of ,,hides ,,for ,,year ,,ending ,,aug4 #a1 #aijc1 ,,in ,,house ,,no4 #a4 ,shrink- ,shrink- age1 ,green ,cured age1 per ,kind ,number weight weight lbs4 cent ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,free of brands #da1hgjc1cbh1accb1hdb1edb #dhe1eia #ae4ei ,butt brands #f1jhg #ejg1fhd #dcb1gbb #gd1ifb #ad4gg ,side brands #ac1aija1jgh1iei #ibg1hce #aea1abd #ad4jf ,spreadies #b1cgf #bae1fgf #aij1bhf #be1cij #aa4gi ,texas #aa1bhe #hga1egc #gca1afe #adj1djh #af4aa ,h'y native cows #h1jbi #eib1cch #ejj1ice #ia1djc #ae4dc ,light native cows #b1gei #aej1iie #abg1ajh #bc1hhg #ae4hb ,branded cows #a1iia #abh1bfi #ajg1efc #bj1gjf #af4ad ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,totals #hg1ehgf1hgc1fbge1hfj1aefa1jac1dga #ad4gd ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,,shrinkage ,,of ,,hides ,,for ,,year ,,ending ,,aug4 #a1 #aijc1 ,,in ,,house ,,no4 #b4 ,shrink- ,shrink- age1 ,green ,cured age1 per ,kind ,number weight weight lbs4 cent ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,free of brands #cd1aibb1fib1faeb1bfb1dbf #dcj1ahi #ae4ih ,butt brands #ad1bgia1agd1jic #igg1idc #aif1aej #af4ga ,side brands #ag1cjba1dea1heja1aih1ibe #beb1ibe #ag4db ,spreadies #c1ifi #cfc1bcc #cjg1daj #ee1hbc #ae4cg ,native bulls #a1cfb #abg1iaj #ajc1bfc #bd1fbg #ai4bg ,branded bulls #beb #be1hhe #ba1gfa #d1abd #ae4ic ,h'y native cows #h1bbb #egf1cac #dgb1ich #ajc1cge #ag4id ,texas #e1bdg #cie1fbj #cbd1ajj #ga1ebj #ah4jh ,l't native cows #ad1hie #hda1dha #gji1aha #acb1cjj #ae4gb ,branded cows #aa1jcd #fid1ejc #egd1ffi #aai1hcd #ag4be ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,totals #aaj1gedh1cdc1ejcf1ieb1fafa1cij1hfg #af4fg ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,a total of #aaj1ged of these hides were cured in house ,no4 #b4 ,this was on the first floor of the building and no refrigeration was used in any of the departments4 ,there were several openings into this room1 permitting the outside air to circulate through the building and a great deal of moisture naturally absorbed4 ,it will be noted by comparing the reports that the shrinkage in this cellar was #af4fg per cent from the green weight to the shipping weight1 showing an excess of #a4hc per cent1 which would show a loss of #aed1fhf pounds4 ,this1 at an average of #aj;c per pound1 would indicate a loss of #ae1dfh4fj sustained by having this number of hides in this particular cellar1 as against what would have been realized had they shown no more shrinkage than those in house ,no4 #a1 so that it will readily be seen that it is of vital importance to the owner to see that the hides are stored in suitable storage1 that there is as little circulation as possible of outside air through this department1 and that all doors and openings are kept closed as much as possible4 ,this is paramount1 in case hides are sold1 seller's weights1 at works4 ,on long shipments involving many transfers and exposures1 the matter is not of such consequence4 ,grading4--,this is a question which must be governed largely by the local conditions4 ,many small killers find it profitable to sell their hides without selections1 rather than to try to make the different selections with a comparatively limited number to select from1 whereas1 where cattle are killed in large numbers it is advisable to make just as many selections as is profitable1 being governed1 of course1 at all times by the market quotations and demands4 ,the usual grades of hides are termed as follows3 ,natives4--,native steer hides are hides from native steers which are free of brands4 ,another selection of natives is what is called 8spreadies10 which are hides taken from native cattle free of brands1 cuts1 scores1 or grubs and must be six feet four inches wide at the shoulders4 ,texas4--,this is the term used to designate all hides taken off southern cattle where the hide is very thick and heavy4 ,brands are not taken into consideration on these selections4 ,butt ,brands4--,these are either natives or western hides which are branded on the butts4 ,colorados4--,these are hides from the western cattle1 which are too thin for ,texas and are branded on the sides4 ,a distinction is also made in all these hides as to weights1 sixty-one pounds and up being heavy1 sixty pounds and below being light and fifty pounds and below being extra light4 ,cow hides are selected as natives and branded cows2 bull hides as natives and branded bulls4 ,while all bull hides are not sold as such1 hides with a thick neck or pate are sold under this term4 ,grubs in ,hides4--,there are two cattle 8bot-flies0 or 8warble-flies10 as they are often termed4 ,one of these 7,hypoderma lineata7 is found in the ,united ,states1 being found more frequently in the southern part of the country4 ,the adult is about the size of a honey bee4 ,the female deposits her eggs in summer in the region of the heel of the animal1 causing very much discomfort4 ,in licking the irritated spot the eggs are taken into the mouth of the animal and hatched1 the larvae entering the esophagus or gullet and finally working their way into the cellular tissue beneath the skin of the back4 ,in early spring they develop1 forming lumps known as 8warbles10 and become what are known as 8grubs40 ,after working their way through the skin they drop to the ground1 into which they burrow and pupate1 finally emerging as adult flies4 ,the damage caused by these insects to the hides amounts to millions of dollars per year1 as in general practice five grub holes constitute a 8,no4 #b0 hide1 on which there is a deduction of one cent per pound4 ,according to the rules of the trade1 ,texas and branded cows are grubbed from ,november #a to ,june #a1 ,colorados are grubbed from ,december #a to ,june #a1 native steers1 native bulls and native cows are grubbed from ,january #a to ,june #a4 ,no allowance is made after ,june #a for grubs in hides taken off after that date4 ,salt ,to ,be ,used4--,the kind of salt generally used in large plants for this purpose is a rock salt1 which is a mined product run through crushers and screens4 ,large lumps are more or less objectionable and if allowed to be used will injure the appearance of the hide4 ,hides in a pack weigh very heavily per cubic foot and the lower hides are subject to a considerable pressure1 or weight4 ,large lumps of salt between the hides in the pack make bad looking indentations1 although they do not necessarily injure the hides for tanning purposes4 ,three parts of rock salt and one part of fine salt make a very good combination4 ,the fine salt quickly forms a moisture which the hides will absorb1 preventing quite a perceptible shrinkage as shown by careful tests4 ,when a pack of hides is taken up the 8second salt0 is saved and by using one-third new with two-thirds of old salt it can be used over4 ,it will be found that this addition of new salt about makes up for the loss in salt that is dissolved in the pack during the curing process4 ,salt for the hides should be kept clean4 ,if there is a great deal of manure and dirt mixed with the salt1 it discolors the hides1 injuring their appearance4 ,when the salt is found to be dirty and out of condition it is advisable to screen it1 using a screen same as is used for screening sand4 ,the salt is thrown against the screen1 the finer salt will sift through and the coarser salt1 dirt1 etc41 will gather at the bottom of the screen4 ,salt that has been through the screen will be found comparatively clean and ready for use2 that which has not passed through should be washed4 ,while this will dissolve a considerable amount of it1 it will1 at the same time1 wash out most of the impurities4 ,if handled in the above manner1 a careful workman should be able to salt hides with from thirty-one to thirty-five pounds of salt per hide4 ,building of ,packs of ,hides4--,packing hides is an operation which should receive close and careful attention4 ,in the building of the pack1 the outer edges should be kept high all the way around1 so that the center of the pack will hold liquid4 ,when the pack is finished it should be leveled off at the top so that it will be as near even as possible4 ,the natural moisture in the hides1 together with the salt1 will form a liquor which the hides absorb1 and if the pack is built slanting1 so as to allow the liquid to pass off1 it will be found that the hides are continuously drawing on the sides1 and when they are taken up the shrinkage from green weights will be considerably in excess of those from packs properly built4 ,trimming of ,green ,hides4--,before the hides are packed they should be examined for brands1 etc41 and be distributed to their proper packs1 according to assortment4 ,the switch is cut off from the tail1 any loose ends of the hides are trimmed off and the ears split4 ,unless this is done1 it makes an uneven pack on account of the thickness of the ears2 furthermore the salt does not have a chance to penetrate the ears and they are liable to spoil4 ,any loose pieces of meat that the butchers may have left on the hide should be taken off1 as well as any excess amount of fat4 ,the hides after being trimmed should be allowed to lay for three to five hours to cool4 ,if the hides are put into the pack without doing this1 it is likely that1 when the pack is taken up1 some hides will be found on which the hair has slipped2 these are necessarily ,no4 #b hides1 and as the uniform rule is #a;c per pound less for ,no4 #b's than for ,no4 #a's1 it will show a loss of approximately #ej;c to #fj;c per hide4 ,another bad feature of having 8slip-hides0 is the fact that if the buyer finds them at all1 he is always suspicious that there are others in the pack which are out of condition1 that he has not seen1 and that they will come out of the tannery with unsatisfactory results4 ,when hides are put in the pack1 extreme care should be used to see that every part of the hide is exposed to salt4 ,the legs should be straightened out flat and the pates thoroughly spread1 so that the salt may reach every part4 ,hides should lie in pack and salt for from twenty-five to thirty days before they are fully cured4 ,at the expiration of this time they are ready for shipment1 and are taken out of salt1 inspected and each one rolled into a bundle and tied4 ,switches4--,the switches should be spread out on the floor and given a thorough chance to cool off1 when they are thrown into a pack by themselves and heavily salted4 ,they should be watched closely1 as there is unavoidably considerable blood and moisture in them1 and if any sign of heating is found they should be overhauled and resalted4 ,shrinkage of ,hides4--,no set rule can be made as to how much hides will actually shrink1 but if the foregoing directions are followed closely and intelligently the shrinkage may be kept at the minimum1 which will usually range from #ab to #ae per cent4 ,this is governed largely1 as before stated1 by the amount of water which the hides take up on the killing floor1 which if weighed with the hide will nearly all seep out when put into the packs and cause an excess shrinkage from the original green weights4 ,further the storage has a great deal to do with it1 but if proper care is taken the shrinkage should be kept within the figures given4 ,sheep ,pelts4--,the handling of sheep pelts1 especially in hot weather1 requires careful attention4 ,the pelts1 as soon as taken off1 should be spread out in a room where it is as cold as possible without being refrigerated1 and allowed to cool off for at least twelve hours before salting4 ,this is especially necessary when the animal slaughtered has a very heavy fleece2 with shearlings there is little or no necessity for taking this precaution4 ,fleece skins1 however1 hold the heat1 so that when put into a pack and salted1 if not properly cooled1 they soon begin to warm and decompose1 and as soon as the wool slips1 the leather of the skin is ruined4 ,after the pelts have been spread out and allowed to thoroughly chill1 as suggested1 they should be salted in piles not to exceed thirty inches high by putting one skin on top of another1 flesh side up1 and using a fine solar salt1 care being taken that they are thoroughly salted around the heads and leggings4 ,after they have been in salt for a week1 it is well1 especially in warm weather1 to overhaul them1 shifting the packs so that when through1 the top pelts are on the bottom and vice versa4 ,after they have lain in salt for two weeks they are ready for shipment4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,oleo ,,oil ,,and ,,stearine4 ,,fats -- ,,origin ,,of ,,butterine -- ,,oleo ,,oil -- ,,oleo ,,fats -- ,,selection ,,and ,,care -- ,,cleanliness ,,and ,,collection -- ,,chilling ,,fat -- ,,cooling ,,water -- ,,melting -- ,,settling ,,the ,,oil -- ,,clarifiers -- ,,scrap ,,vat -- ,,seeding ,,or ,,graining ,,oil -- ,,press ,,room -- ,,collecting ,,oil -- ,,oil ,,receivers -- ,,temperature ,,of ,,oil ,,drawn ,,to ,,tierce -- ,,stearine -- ,,oil ,,house ,,yields -- ,,grading ,,fats -- ,,tests ,,on ,,oil ,,fats -- ,,butcher ,,fats -- ,,mutton ,,fat -- ,,oil ,,selection -- ,,oil ,,house ,,operation4 ,fats4--,the largest item of value in slaughtered cattle is the beef4 ,as already stated1 the second largest item is hides4 ,the third item in value is fats4 ,it has been one of the world's staple articles of trade for centuries and is made use of in the manufacture of many kinds of articles for man's use1 from those of comfort to those of destruction1 perhaps only displaced in its multitude of uses by the one raw product1 coal tar4 ,origin of ,butterine4--,prior to the ,franco-,prussian war1 or in #ahga1 fats were used almost exclusively for soap making and other manufacturing purposes1 comparatively little of it being used for food purposes4 ,during the siege of ,paris a reward was offered to anyone who would find a substitute for butter4 ,a ,french scientist reasoned as follows3 ,careful observation teaches that a cow that is fat and in good health makes better butter and more butter than one of the same quality that is poor and emaciated1 hence it must follow the cream of the milk1 or the 8butter-fat10 is in reality nothing more or less than ,nature's surplus fat in the animal1 and that in all cattle that are fed each day more than the requirements to build up the broken-down tissues a surplus fat is deposited4 ,this fat1 the chemist decided1 was as much a natural butter as though it had been skimmed from milk1 and starting on this theory originated the manufacture of oleomargarine4 ,result of ,investigation4--,the creating of this industry has meant millions of dollars to this country in returns that have been made from the sale of fats prepared into oil for manufacturing oleomargarine instead of being melted into tallow for soap making and other purposes4 ,oleo ,oil4--,oleo oil is the name of one of the principal ingredients used in making oleomargarine1 or imitation butter4 ,the fat is put through a hasher1 which thoroughly disintegrates it1 cutting the tissue so that the oil is made free when heated4 ,oleo ,fats4--,the fats used for the manufacture of oleo oil are usually all the fats removed when the animal is slaughtered1 including the 8caul0 fat or that fat surrounding the 8omentum02 the ruffle fat1 which is that fat surrounding the intestines1 and to which the 8runners0 or round gut is attached2 the heart casing1 and fats attached4 ,selection and ,care4--,it is reasonable to suppose that all of these fats are of the same quality1 but in the handling of this1 during the course of slaughtering and treatment thereof1 some of it necessarily becomes unfit for oleo oil purposes1 and is used in tallow4 ,the amount used for tallow is regulated by the care and intelligence of the men in charge1 and if properly handled a very small percentage of the fat in the animal should find its way to the tank house1 as it nets much better results when put into oleo oil1 as will be noted from the tests hereafter submitted4 ,cleanliness and ,collection4--,the fats1 as rapidly as removed from the animal1 should be taken quickly in clean utensils and washed in medium temperature water to remove any blood present4 ,thorough chilling of the fat is a very essential feature in making oleo oil4 ,in order that this may be done it is necessary that the fat be cut in small pieces1 so that the cold water can get at every part of it4 ,a machine illustrated in ,fig4 #ec is used for cutting the fat before passing it into the cold water4 ,the water is circulated by the use of a pump and distributed over the fats from a perforated pipe4 ,chilling ,fat4--,the fat1 while chilling1 should be allowed to remain in cold water for about five hours1 or until it has become thoroughly chilled4 ,precaution should be taken to see that no fat goes to the hasher1 or melting kettle1 until it is thoroughly chilled4 ,failure to do this is not particularly noticeable in the oleo oil when made1 but soon afterward results in a deterioration of the oil4 ,it is never objectionable to hold the fat from twelve to twenty hours1 if necessary1 in the cold water1 although five hours is sufficient4 ,the constant submergence of the fat by mechanical means or by hand is of prime importance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--,,oleo ,,fat ,,cutter4 ,the fats are ladled or forked from the chilling vat and placed on a table to drain4 ,the dryer the fat the better1 but it must not lay unduly long to drain4 ,from this table they are passed through an ,enterprise steam jacketed hasher for grinding4 ,steam is kept on the jacket to assist in rapidity in passing it through the hasher4 ,cooling ,water4--,the chilling or cooling of water is accomplished in two ways1 by the introduction of ice or the cooling of the water or by submerging pipes in the tanks1 and circulating chilled brine or ammonia gas through the pipes1 same being a part of the refrigerating system4 ,in the latter case the pipes should be covered by a removable screen to prevent fats attaching to the pipes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--,,kettle ,,for ,,melting ,,fats ,,for ,,oleo ,,oil4 ,melting4--,the fat when hashed is passed to an open top water jacketed kettle of the type shown in the illustration1 ,fig4 #ed4 ,just previous to beginning to hash the fat into the kettle the stirrer is placed in motion4 ,the water in the jacket is heated up to a temperature of about #ahj ,f4 ,when the kettle is partially filled and as the fat accumulates1 it will collect and hang to the stirring gear4 ,to meet this condition the stirring gear is arranged to rise vertically on the shaft by lifting and assistance of the counterweight attached to it4 ,the fat is removed by the use of a paddle1 the stirrer lowered and started in motion4 ,the fat is mixed with a large paddle so that the melting oil at the sides and bottom of the kettle is freely intermingled with the partially melted fat4 ,the mass gradually assumes a murky yellow appearance as the oil is made free4 ,the man in charge of melting uses a bath thermometer constantly and regulates the temperature of the water in the jacket by the admittance of cold water to chill it or steam to warm it so that the temperature of the melting oil does not exceed #aef ,f4 ,it usually takes #a hours to properly melt the contents of a full kettle4 ,when the melting is complete the stirrer is raised out of the oil and allowed to remain raised while the oil is settled4 ,settling the ,oil4--,when the oil comes to rest about twenty pounds of fine salt is scattered over the surface1 thrown in moderate handfuls so as to sprinkle the entire surface4 ,this salt in settling clears the oil by carrying down the floating fibre by mechanical as well as chemical action4 ,the oil usually has a scum on top and this is gently skimmed off and saved as a bottom for the next kettle4 ,after settling about fifteen minutes the oil is run off by gently lowering the hinged pipe1 the oil as de-canted is passed to the clarifier4 ,when the pure oil is run as low as can be conveniently done without carrying off any scrap of settlings1 the oil laying on the surface of the water and sediment in the bottom is passed to some receptacle and sent to the pressure tanks4 ,the kettle is well scrubbed1 made clean and the skimmed bottoms deposited ready for filling again with hashed fat4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--,,settling ,,kettle ,,for ,,oleo ,,oils4 ,clarifiers or ,settling ,kettles4--,each kettle is provided with two clarifying or settling kettles4 ,these are cone-shaped tanks in which the oil from one melting kettle is deposited4 ,the oil is allowed to stand as long as possible in a quiet state and the sediment or fibre collects in the bottom of the cone4 ,this is withdrawn at the bottom at frequent intervals so as to free the oil from sediment and dirt4 ,the temperature of the oil carried in the clarifiers is #adj1 kept uniform by use of warm water in the jacket4 ,after settling the oil about two hours it is drawn to the seeding trucks4 ,cotton flannel bags are usually put on over the outlet pipe so as to strain the oil and collect any floating pieces of tissue that would otherwise pass to the seeding truck4 ,scrap ,vat4--,a vessel which requires attention and in which the yield in the oil house can be very materially increased and improved by proper handling is the scrap vat4 ,after the vat is melted and the oil siphoned off1 the balance or residue in kettle is drawn out of the bottom into the scrap vat1 which is located directly under the melting kettle4 ,this kettle should be kept full of hot water at a temperature of about #acj ,f41 and when the scrap is dropped in the oil will immediately come to the surface2 this should be skimmed off promptly1 for if it is allowed to lie in the scrap vat a bad flavor will result and it will then have to be sold as an inferior grade of oil2 but if skimmed as stated this strong flavored feature may be avoided4 ,when through melting for the day1 the steam should be turned on the scrap vats to bring them up to a temperature of #aij to #bjj ,f4 ,this will release any fat yet remaining in the scrap1 which should be skimmed and used for a lower grade of oil1 as it will have a strong flavor4 ,the balance of the scrap is then sent to the tank house1 where it is cooked under pressure and the remaining oil taken out4 ,seeding or ,graining ,oil4--,the oil when settled in the clarifiers is passed to the seeding or graining trucks4 ,the seeding truck plays a very important part in the handling of oleo oil and is one of the points where a great deal of trouble can be developed if not properly watched4 ,when the oil is drawn into the seeding trucks there should be no signs of any water4 ,if there is any water left in the oil it naturally settles to the bottom of the seeding truck4 ,the oil usually being at a temperature of #abj to #abe ,f41 and it being three and sometimes four days before it is cooled1 the heat held in the oil1 together with the water and sediment that may be in the bottom1 causes a decomposition and the result is 8sour bottoms10 which are very offensive4 ,if any of this sour material has gotten into the press1 the stearine will be spotted and out of conditions4 ,the oil will also show it more or less1 so that it is absolutely necessary that this particular point be given very close and careful attention4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--,,oleo ,,seeding ,,truck4 ,advantage of ,wood ,seeding ,trucks4--,it has for many years been considered necessary to line the seeding truck with galvanized iron1 in fact many of the large melters today are using this style of truck4 ,the seeding truck1 however1 which gives the best results is a wooden truck 7see ,fig4 #ef7 without any lining1 made of basswood1 or whitewood1 which are odorless1 and can be readily cleaned and kept sweet4 ,the objections to a truck lined with galvanized iron might be summarized as follows3 ,in the first place1 considerable salt is used in the material1 more or less of which is left in the oil4 ,when the melted fat is drawn off into the seeding trucks and is left to stand for three or four days1 this salt attacks the iron1 and if not watched very carefully small pin-holes will be eaten through the iron1 the result being that the galvanized iron pan will leak into the wooden box proper4 ,again1 every time the seeding trucks are emptied1 they are thoroughly washed and steamed out and more or less of this water for washing finds its way in between the lining and the wooden box4 ,when the seeding truck is filled with oil1 the weight of the oil causes this water1 which is held between the iron and the wood1 to ooze into the oil1 causing 8sour bottoms40 ,this particular point has caused the loss of a great many thousands of dollars in the manufacture of this product1 even though it is apparently a very unimportant matter4 ,manufacture of ,wooden ,trucks4--,in using wooden seeding trucks1 attention is called to a very important item to be considered1 and if not carefully looked after the results will be unsatisfactory4 ,the oil is drawn into seeding trucks at a temperature of about #abj to #abe ,f41 which will shrink wood very rapidly1 therefore the trucks should be made out of thoroughly kiln-dried lumber1 which should be extra kiln-dried4 ,the bottom and sides of the truck are bolted together with a bolt running through them and one on either end1 so that any shrinkage of the wood can be taken up4 ,the same is true of the sides of the truck4 ,in each of the joints1 after they are perfectly made1 a strand of wicking should be put in between the edges1 so that when it is drawn down it forms a perfect packing4 ,as is well understood1 the shrinkage of wood is mostly crosswise of the grain1 there being very little lengthwise2 thus it will be seen that the wood in these trucks1 both at the sides and at the ends1 must be put in so that it will all shrink uniformly4 ,the bottom of the truck will naturally shrink sidewise and if the bolts are drawn up it stops the opening1 while if the sides of the truck shrink1 the bottom bolts can be drawn up1 readily stopping the leak4 ,the ends of the truck must have the grain running up and down instead of crosswise1 for if the bottom of the truck joins sidewise and the end pieces are running crosswise of this grain1 it will be impossible to draw the bottom up tight1 on account of the lack of shrinkage of the ends where the grain runs lengthwise of the end4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--,,knuckle ,,type ,,oleo ,,oil ,,press4 ,press ,room and ,pressing ,stock4--,the room into which the seeding trucks with their contents are run should be held at a temperature of #ge to #ij ,f4 ,the material in the seeding trucks1 which is now called 8stock0 should be pressed at a temperature of from #gh to #hd ,f41 according to its quality1 as well as to the percentage of stearine which it is desirable to make4 ,the lower the temperature at which the oil is pressed the more stearine will be retained in the cloths4 ,after the stock is chilled to above temperature it will be found that a granulation has taken effect and oil will be observed on the top1 whereas the heavier and granulated parts of the fat will be at the bottom4 ,this should be thoroughly mixed up before it is sent to the press1 either by use of a dipper or mechanically1 care being used not to disturb the bottom of the cooler4 ,if there is any moisture in the bottom of the truck it would spoil the stock by mixing it4 ,whereas1 if it is not agitated1 when the stock is removed1 the bottom can be examined1 and1 if it is good1 it can be used2 otherwise it should be sent to the tallow tanks4 ,after the stock is thoroughly broken up or mixed it is ready for the press1 it first being wrapped in cloths4 ,the cloth used in connection with this press is a medium weight piece of cotton canvas1 which is cut in the proper sized pieces1 about eighteen inches square4 ,the cloth is first put on the 8former0 which is filled with a dipper full of stock2 the attendant wraps it up carefully and the man filling the press as it comes around in the wheel1 takes the wrapped stock and lays it on the plate1 using eight bags of stock on each plate in the press1 generally using sixty steel plates for each press4 ,when the press is full the power is turned on4 ,the slow speed should be used almost exclusively after the press is started in order to give the oil sufficient time to strain through the canvass4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--,,oleo ,,oil ,,receiver4 ,collecting ,oil4--,the oil from the press should run to a receiving tank1 as many being used as is necessary to keep the different grades of oil separated4 ,where oil is being made in large quantities it is always advisable to have the receiving tank hold sixty tierces1 or a car load of oil1 for if smaller receivers are used the oil is likely to be irregular4 ,the quality of oil varies1 as does the quality of cattle2 for instance1 choice native cattle1 which are very fat1 make a finer1 better oil than western cattle which are not in as good condition1 and as the killing is always liable to run irregular1 if the oil is not assembled in large quantities1 it is often perceptible1 and a manufacturer soon acquires the reputation of making irregular oil4 ,when that reputation is once established buyers scrutinize closely before making purchases4 ,oil ,receivers4--,the receivers of the oil should be either jacketed or have a boat bottom2 that is1 one vat placed inside of the other 7see ,fig4 #eh71 so that the temperature of the oil in the receivers may be regulated1 but under no conditions should steam pipes be submerged in oleo oil2 all heating should be done by contact surfaces with hot water4 ,in having the vat made with a boat bottom it is simply necessary to fill up the space with water and turn on steam1 holding the water at the desired temperature4 ,temperature of ,oil ,drawn to ,tierce4--,the oil in the receiver1 when ready to be tierced1 should be raised to a temperature of from #aaf to #aah ,f41 and then drawn off1 the tierces being filled through a side bung hole4 ,after the tierce is filled it should be rolled away and left undisturbed in a temperature of #ej ,f4 for at least four days4 ,the oil thus handled will show a granulation1 which is very desirable4 ,if the oil is not allowed to stand until it has thoroughly granulated1 or 8seeded0 it will come out smooth or pasty1 and pasty oil is very objectionable to the purchaser4 ,if the oil is not drawn off at this temperature it will be found difficult to have it seed properly1 as it chills too quickly for a good granulation to take effect4 ,it is not wise to draw the oil into a temperature lower than #ej ,f4 ,after the oil has been seeded it can be kept in any storage that is available below #fj ,f41 but it must be put into the refrigerating temperature for the first three or four days1 and not at any time carried at a temperature below #de4 ,stearine4--,stearine is the product left in the cloths after pressing the stock4 ,this product is used for many purposes1 but largely for the manufacture of compound lard on account of its hardness4 7,ordinary tallow will run #da to #dc2 oleo oil runs #dj to #db2 oleo stearine should run #ej to #eb1 titer47 ,after the oil is thoroughly pressed out1 the press is opened and the stearine taken out of the cloths4 ,the stearine should be thrown into a bin where there is an abundant circulation of pure air1 in order to thoroughly cool1 for if it is put into the package too warm1 a mold will form which deteriorates it and reduces its value4 ,after it is thoroughly chilled it is put into packages1 compressed by a machine as shown1 which saves labor and puts more material into the package2 or pounding it with a maul as it is deposited in the tierces4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--,,stearine ,,packer4 ,stearine ,storage4--,stearine1 after being put in packages1 can be held for thirty days in ordinary storage4 ,if held longer than that1 it should be put into a room kept at a temperature of from #dj to #de ,f4 and which is perfectly dry4 ,stearine1 generally speaking1 is a very unsatisfactory article to carry any length of time1 for1 in pressing1 any moisture which may be in the stock is left in the stearine1 and if carried for some time this moisture produces a discoloration1 which is known to the trade as 8spotted stearine40 ,it also causes a moldy or musty smell1 which injures it for edible purposes1 and while it is often carried for months for an anticipated rise in the market1 it is quite as often regretted that it was not sold when it was in good condition for the market4 ,packages4--,stearine is always packed in slack packages1 the regular package being #cd inches high1 #ij inches in circumference at the bilge and #bc inches across the head with eight patented hoops4 ,oleo oil is always put into a special tierce which is #cd inches high1 #ha inches in circumference at bilge and #ba inches across heads1 with six iron hoops4 ,oil ,house ,yields4--,the yields of oleo oil and stearine from stock are regulated largely by the prices of the different articles1 as1 for instance1 when oil is low and stearine is high it is advisable to press the stock at a lower temperature1 making all the stearine possible4 ,reverse the conditions and it is advisable to press the stock at a high temperature1 making all the oil possible1 hence the general yield of oil in stearine is largely regulated by the price of the two4 ,grading ,fats4--,as the different kinds of fat have more or less different flavors1 it is wise to make careful selections in order to get the best results1 it being impossible to make a grade of all ,no4 #a oil1 #aj or #ae per cent of the total being ,no4 #b4 ,the balance of the product1 eliminating the #aj or #ae per cent should be strictly ,no4 #a oil1 but if the whole output is made into one grade1 it would not be acceptable as ,no4 #a4 ,hence it will be seen that it is the better part of wisdom to make two and sometimes three grades of this product1 as indicated above4 ,of all the oleo oil made in this country1 #ge to #ij per cent is shipped to ,holland1 where it is made into butterine and distributed throughout the continent and ,england4 ,the requirements of these consumers seem to have changed within the last few years1 and the melters of oleo oil strive to get the oils in the condition to best suit the ,hollanders' demands4 ,what they seem to require is1 first of all1 a very neutral oil1 or in other words an oil with as little flavor and smell as possible1 whereas only a few years ago just the opposite was the case1 and the whole endeavor at that time was to get an oil with as much flavor as could be made4 ,in grading the fats a neutral or ,no4 #a oil is obtained from the following parts3 ,caul fat4 ,ruffle fat4 ,briskets trimmings4 ,crotch trimming from pickings4 ,paunch trimmings4 ,pluck trimmings4 ,reed trimmings4 ,heart casing fats4 ,for a ,no4 #b1 or second grade1 which1 though it may realize nearly as high a price as the first oil1 is an oil of high flavor1 the following parts are used3 ,small fat4 ,chipped fat1 which is taken off of the middles4 ,machine fat1 which is fat taken off of rounds by the fatting machines4 ,heart trimmings4 ,pluck trimmings4 ,miscellaneous bed pickings of the second grade4 ,kidney fat4 ,clean trimmings from cattle which are being cut up for canning or sausage purposes4 ,skimmings from scrap vat of ,no4 #a oil4 ,a third grade of oleo oil1 which will be quite inferior to either of the other two named1 but for which at times there is a good demand1 often netting more than the same product would1 if made into rendered tallow1 is made from the following trimmings3 ,head fat4 ,fat trimmed from cattle heads when cheeking4 ,plucked sweetbreads trimming4 ,liver trimmings4 ,bladder trimmings4 ,fat from chilled beef tongues1 when they are trimmed4 ,miscellaneous fats from other departments4 ,the skimmings from the oleo press cloths boiling before soda has been used4 ,scrap vat skimmings from the second grade of oil4 ,if fat is graded as above suggested1 and handled properly in the different departments in the oleo house1 satisfactory grades of oil should be made4 ,tests on ,oil ,fats4--,the following are tests showing the pounds and percentages of yield of different kinds of fat when made into oleo oil4 ,the tables1 as will be noted1 only show the percentages of fat in oleo stock1 this consisting of the oil and stearine before pressing4 ,,test ,,no4 #a4 ,caul fat run to ,no4 #a oleo oil3 ,hot weight from beds 7dry7 #a1eje lbs4 ,chilled twenty hours1 net weight #a1icg lbs4 ---------- ,gain from hot weight #bh4gj #dcb lbs4 ,weight of chilled fat to oil house #a1icg lbs4 ,this fat1 hashed into melting kettle1 cooked one hour and five minutes1 settled one hour1 drawn into receiver1 settled two hours1 and drawn into coolers1 gives following3 ,yield of oleo stock #a1bch lbs4 #hb4bf from hot weight #fc4ia from chilled weight ,ruffle fat run to ,no4 #a oleo oil3 ,hot weight from beds 7dry7 #a1eah lbs4 ,chilled twenty hours1 net weight #a1gce lbs4 ---------- ,gain from hot weight #ad4bi #bag lbs4 ,weight chilled fat to oil house #a1gce lbs4 ,this fat1 hashed into melting kettle and cooked one hour then settled one hour fifteen minutes1 after which drawn into receiver and again settled for two hours1 and drawn into cooler1 gives following3 ,yield of oleo stock #a1jah lbs4 #fg4jf from hot weight #eh4fg from chilled weight ,the second test is similar1 except that it is made on the 8peck and reed0 fat1 which is used in a ,no4 #a oil4 ,in the third test chipped fat is used for ,no4 #a oleo4 ,this is a fat which is cut off the middle gut1 when fatted4 ,test ,no4 #d is made on the gut end fat1 which consists of miscellaneous trimmings from the gut1 ends1 etc4 ,no4 #e was a test to determine the value and yield of caul and ruffle fat from #afe cattle4 ,,test ,,no4 #b4 ,peek and reed fat to oleo oil3 ,hot weight from trimming bench 7dry7 #a1jhb lbs4 ,through small wash vat to wash 7weight from water7 #a1baa lbs4 ---------- ,gain in washing from hot weight #aa4ib #abi lbs4 ,weight to chill vat #a1baa lbs4 ,chilled sixteen hours1 weight #a1bee lbs4 ---------- ,gain from washed weight #dd lbs4 ,gain in chilling from hot weight #ae4ij #agb lbs4 ,weight chilled fat to oil house #a1bee lbs4 ,handled in the usual way gives following3 #fg4ai from hot weight ,yield of oleo stock #gbg lbs4 #fj4jc from washed weight #eg4ic from chilled weight ,,test ,,no4 #c4 ,chip fat to ,no4 #a oleo oil3 ,hot weight from trimming bench 7dry7 #a1ejj lbs4 ,through small vat to wash 7weight from water7 #a1fci lbs4 ---------- ,gain in washing from hot weight #i4bf #aci lbs4 ,weight to chill vat #a1fci lbs4 ,chilled eighteen hours1 weight #a1gfj lbs4 ---------- ,gain from washed weight #g4ch #aba lbs4 ,gain in chilling from hot weights #ag4cc #bfj lbs4 ,weight chilled fat to oil house #a1gfj lbs4 ,handled in the usual way1 gives following3 #fe4dj from hot weight ,yield in oleo stock #iha lbs4 #ei4he from washed weight #ee4gd from chilled weight ,,test ,,no4 #d4 ,no4 #a gut end fat to oleo oil3 ,net weight from trimming bench 7dry7 #a1cdg lbs4 ,through small vat to wash 7weight from water7 #a1ead lbs4 ---------- ,gain from hot to washed weight #ab4dj #afg lbs4 ,weight to chill vat #a1ead lbs4 ,chilled twenty hours1 weight #a1ecb lbs4 ---------- ,gain from washed weight #a4ai #ah lbs4 ,gain to chilled from hot weight #ac4gc #ahe lbs4 ,weight of chilled fat to oil house #a1ecb lbs4 ,handled in usual way gives following3 #fa4ci from hot weight ,yield of oleo stock #hbg lbs4 #ed4fb from washed weight #ec4ih from chilled weight ,,test ,,no4 #e4 ,test on caul and ruffle fat3 ,total weight #e1beb lbs41 av4 wt4 per head1 #cb lbs4 ,yield 8,a0 oleo oil #eb4ch #b1gea lbs4 at #h4ae per cwt4 #bbd4ba ,yield ,no4 #a stearine #bb4ib #a1bjd lbs4 at #h4fe per cwt4 #ajd4ad ,yield skimmings to ,no4 #c oil #a4ga #ij lbs4 at #f4dj per cwt4 #e4gf ------ #gg4ja ,yield scrap to tank #dba lbs4 ,yield tallow #ai4bd #ha lbs41 at #d4fj per cwt4 #c4gc ,yield tankage 7dry7 #c4hj #af lbs41 at #ag4ej per ton 4#ad ------- #ccg4ih ,value per cwt4 of fat #f4dc ,value per head of fat #b4je ,the prices on oil1 stearine and skimmings are the market prices at time test was made1 less department expense for #fj cents per #ajj pounds4 ,the price on tallow is market price less #dj cents per #ajj pounds1 department expense4 ,the following is a test of tripe fat made into ,no4 #a oleo stock3 ,,test ,,no4 #f4 ,tripe fat to oleo oil3 ,hot weight from trimming bench 7dry7 #a1fci lbs4 ,through small vat to wash 7weight from water7 #a1hfj lbs4 ---------- ,gain in washing from hot weight #ac4dh #bca lbs4 ,weight to chill vat #a1hfj lbs4 ,chilled twenty hours1 weight #b1jji lbs4 ---------- ,gain from washed weight #h4ja #adi lbs4 ,gain in chilling from hot weight #bb4eg #cgj lbs4 ,weight chilled to oil house #b1jji lbs4 ,handled in the usual way1 gives following3 #fe4bh from hot weight ,yield in oleo stock1 #a1jgj lbs4 #eg4ec from washed weight #ec4de from chilled weight ,butcher ,fats4--,kidney fat yields the largest percentage of stock of any fat in the animal4 ,the fat in this particular part seems to be richer in oil and in the general handling of same it rarely goes into the water to absorb additional weight1 as it is generally purchased from the retail butcher after the carcass has been cut up4 ,this in itself is a large branch of the business1 in many places melters making a practice of collecting from the butchers their bones1 tallow and fat4 ,the following test will give an idea of the yield of the different products brought from a butcher's shop1 when used in an oleo factory or tank room4 ,the prices quoted are those that were paid at the time tests were made4 ,the percentages1 however1 are accurate4 ,,stock ,,yield ,,from #fdi ,,pounds ,,of ,,kidney ,,and ,,cod ,,fat4 ,stock #ejg lbs41 or #gh4ab1 at #i;c per lb4 #dh4af ,expense ,pkgs41 #a4de2 labor1 #a4bg #b4gb ------- ,net value #de4dd ,value per #ajj lbs41 based on weight of fat1 #g4jj4 ,,stock ,,yield ,,from #b1jjd ,,pounds ,,of ,,pickings4 ,stock #a1abd lbs41 or #ef1 at #i;c per lb4 #ajf4gh ,expense ,pkgs41 #c4hc2 labor1 #e4ja #h4hd ------- ,net value #ig4id ,value per #ajj lbs41 based on weight of fat1 #d4hi4 ,,tallow ,,yield ,,from #aj1ghg ,,pounds ,,of ,,bones4 ,no4 #a tallow #a1eac lbs41 or #ad4jb1 at #f;c per lb4 #ih4cd ,stock of tankage #a1gej lbs41 or #af4bb1 at #af per ton #ad4jj ,waste #g1ebd lbs41 or #fi4gf4 ,expense1 labor #b4be ------- ,net value #aaj4ji ,value per #ajj lbs41 based on weight of raw bones1 #a4jb4 ,,summary4 ,per #ajj lbs4 ,net value kidney and cod fat #g4jj ,net value pickings #d4hi ,net value bones #a4jb ,net value kidney1 cod and pickings combined #e4dj ,net value kidney1 cod1 pickings and bones combined #a4hi ,the above is based on green weights4 ,no deductions for steam power and administrative expenses4 ,the following is the percentages of products used in above test3 ,per cent4 ,kidney and cod #d4hc ,pickings #ad4ia ,bones #hj4bf ------ #ajj4jj ,test on ,oleo ,scrap4--,the following is a test on the scrap from foregoing test after all the oil had been extracted1 which was put into a rendering tank and cooked for twelve hours with forty pounds pressure3 ,,test ,,on ,,oleo ,,scrap4 ,per ,product ,pounds cent ----------------------------------- ,scrap to tank #d1bdf 444 ,produced tallow #a1aiebh4ad ,produced pressed tankage #dcdaj4bb ----------------------------------- ,mutton ,fat4--,the fat derived in the killing of sheep is often used to good advantage in making mutton oleo oil4 ,there are times when there is a ready sale for this oil1 in which event it is run in the oil house by precisely the same rules as those laid down for the melting of beef tallow4 ,the yields on mutton fat are considerably less1 however1 than on beef fat4 ,when it is not advisable to put it into mutton oleo1 it is nearly always advisable to make a mutton tallow1 providing there is sufficient amount of the raw stock on hand to warrant it1 as mutton tallow invariably brings a better price than ordinary commercial tallow4 ,mutton tallow runs considerably higher in titer than ordinary tallow4 ,it is also much whiter and is often used in the manufacture of cosmetics1 etc4 ,when made into oil it should be made from mutton fat only4 ,many lard refiners have discovered that where a complaint was made regarding the quality of their lard it was traceable to their oleo stearine1 in which mutton fat had been used1 this fat having a tendency to turn the lard rancid much earlier than where beef oleo stearine is used4 ,oil ,selection4--,in some establishments where high colored oils disposing toward a yellow tint are produced1 they are selected separately in the seeding room and the oil segregated on account of its desirability for domestic butterine4 ,oil ,house ,operation4--,the following instructions if complied with will result in a satisfactory operation4 ,first4--,see that the fat is in good condition1 properly trimmed1 all pieces of meat1 lungs1 guts1 etc41 completely removed1 and that the fat is handled promptly1 not allowing it to become stale1 and sour before it is received4 ,second4--,when it is received1 don't pile up in the vats2 see that the ice water is in contact with all parts of it and thoroughly chill it4 ,when caul fat is extra heavy1 examine all the largest pieces closely and see that they are thoroughly chilled through4 ,third4--,arrange to have no ice or cooling pipes in the vat where the fat is received1 it being thrown in here to give it a thorough washing4 ,the next vat to which it is thrown1 however1 should have cooling pipes4 ,the water in the vats into which the fat is washed and chilled must be changed daily4 ,fourth4--,do not begin hashing until the fat is properly cooled4 ,it will take from three to five hours to accomplish this1 under ordinary conditions4 ,fifth4--,it is wise never to begin hashing until there is fat enough to either finish the day's work1 or at least to keep the house running and to hash a kettle full regularly1 as it is impracticable to stop in the middle of the operation of hashing a kettle of fat1 for when once commenced it must be completed4 ,sixth4--,use sufficient steam on the hasher jacket to facilitate the cutting1 having the material come through as cold as possible4 ,if too much steam is used it partially melts the fat in the hasher and disintegration is not perfect4 ,seventh4--,for melting kettles which hold about #a1djj pounds of hashed fat about half an hour should be required to do the hashing4 ,while the capacity of the hasher might be much greater it is well to have the fat partially melted during the course of hashing1 so as not to have too large a body of unmelted fat in the melters4 ,eighth4--,the time for melting1 settling and letting down the stock into the clarifiers from the melting kettles should not exceed two hours and twenty minutes4 ,as soon as hashing is begun1 the agitator should be started revolving4 ,when through hashing1 the man overseeing the melting1 after allowing the agitator to run five or ten minutes1 should lift it out of the kettle and clean it off thoroughly with a paddle1 and then drop it back into the kettle4 ,if this is not done several times during the course of hashing1 unmelted fats will be found in the bottoms when they are ready to drop to scrap vat4 ,the steam should be turned on in the jacket of the kettle as soon as hashing is started4 ,keep the steam on until the fat shows a temperature of #adj to #adb ,f4 ,the steam should then be shut off and the surplus heat in the kettle will run the fat up to #aee ,f41 which should be the maximum melting point for ,no4 #a melting oil4 ,no4 #b1 or the flavored oil1 may be melted to #aeh ,f4 ,no4 #c1 or lowest grade of oil1 may be melted at #afj ,f41 and in some instances #afe ,f4 ,as soon as it is evident that the fat is thoroughly melted the agitator should be stopped and pulled out of the oil1 and it should stand at least an hour1 the steam being shut off from the jacket1 giving it a chance to settle4 ,on this particular process depends the entire result of the making of oleo oil1 as the fat being so thoroughly disintegrated in the hasher when it is melted1 a great deal of tissue from this fat is held in suspension in the oil and it must have very careful handling in order to get it thoroughly settled out4 ,if it is not all removed from the oil1 the latter will turn strong from the decomposition of the tissues4 ,after the oil has settled throw in about fifteen to twenty pounds of fine salt1 scattering it thoroughly over the surface of the oil1 the salt having the effect of carrying with it any unsettled tissues which may still remain in the oil4 ,the top of the oil should then be carefully skimmed1 for there is a scum floating on the top when it is settled4 ,after this is done the siphon pipe is dropped down into the oil and the oil is taken off very carefully4 ,it is very essential in drawing this with the siphon pipe that as little scrap and water as possible be taken with it4 ,after the oil has been taken off1 the bottom valve of the melting kettle is opened1 dropping the contents into the scrap vat4 ,the kettle should be thoroughly washed and cleaned before it is used again4 ,ninth4--,the oil now in the clarifier should be kept at a temperature of about #adj ,f4 ,it should be allowed to remain in the clarifying kettle about an hour1 and during this time should lose about ten degrees in temperature1 perfect settling being possible only by lowering the temperature of the material4 ,while oil is in the clarifier1 sprinkle about four pounds of salt over it4 ,as soon as it is settled skim immediately1 and again a second time before the oil is drained into seeding truck4 ,it should be drawn off into the seeding truck at a temperature of #abj to #abe ,f41 care being taken at all times in siphoning the oil from the different kettles to see that no water has gotten into the oil4 ,as it is impossible to draw the oil all out of the different kettles with the siphon1 the oil that is left in the bottom of the kettle each time should be taken back and put into the melting kettle and allowed to run through with the next melting of fat4 ,tenth4--,be particular to have the kettles washed each time after being emptied and see that they are kept at proper heat to receive each lot of fat when ready4 ,eleventh4--,see that all water1 siphon pipes1 and drawing-off pipes to the seeders be thoroughly scalded and steamed out before drawing1 as there is invariably an accumulation in these pipes1 which1 if allowed to go uncared for1 will turn rancid and injure the quality of the oil4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,bone ,,department4 ,,bone ,,department -- ,,hard ,,bone -- ,,glue ,,bone -- ,,bone ,,products -- ,,horns -- ,,manufactured ,,articles -- ,,skulls -- ,,test ,,yield ,,from ,,skulls ,,and ,,feet -- ,,buttocks ,,and ,,thighs -- ,,blades ,,and ,,ribs -- ,,drying -- ,,crushed ,,bone -- ,,grinding ,,bone -- ,,neats ,,foot ,,oil ,,storage -- ,,neats ,,foot ,,oil ,,purifier -- ,,yield ,,tests4 ,bone ,department4--,the bone department is where the bones are cared for and prepared for commercial purposes4 ,nearly all bones that are of value1 to be sold as such1 come from cattle1 and to this department is sent the horns1 skulls1 jaws1 feet1 shank bones1 thigh bones1 blade bones1 rib bones and those resulting from cutting and boning cattle4 ,these yield what is known as manufacturing bone1 such as shins1 blades1 buttocks and thigh bones4 ,most of the balance is used for bone fertilizer1 glue and grinding4 ,the bone usually produced in the bone department is hard bone4 ,hard ,bone4--,hard bones are those not cooked sufficiently to extract the glue stock1 but enough to remove all grease4 ,they are cooked in open vats4 ,excessive boiling brings the bones out in what is known to the trade as a 8chalky condition0 and injures the quality4 ,glue ,bones4--,bones used for glue stock are green bones just as taken from the animal1 or dried hard bone4 ,in the former case the bone is crushed green1 washed1 boiled1 and the liquor collected1 filtered and evaporated4 ,the residue is dried and is the article of commerce sold under the heading of 8,steam ,bone10 used extensively in fertilizer manufacturing4 ,those who slaughter on a moderate scale are usually not in a position to undertake the manufacture of glue4 ,consequently they are most interested in proper methods of manufacturing hard bones4 ,bone ,products4--,small bones are also converted into bone charcoal1 which is largely used for the purpose of bleaching sugar and in various medicinal preparations4 ,bones are used for a great variety of purposes1 including the manufacture of bone charcoal for bleaching1 empyreumatic oils2 tallow2 black pigment for painting1 shoe blacking and filling sheet rubber for overshoes2 bone dust for manure2 sulphate of ammonia2 cupels2 vitrified bone of use in making opal glass1 and in the manufacture of knife-handles1 combs1 fans1 buttons1 etc4 ,bones also furnish gelatine and glue1 and are the starting point for the manufacture of phosphorus4 ,horns4--,horns are the most valuable bone products measured by weight4 ,owing to the dehorning of cattle as well as the breeding of polled cattle1 the supply of horns has been greatly diminished1 and whereas twenty-five years ago horns were worth #bj4jj a ton they are now worth from #bhj4jj to #cjj4jj per ton if they are of the proper selections1 hence it will be seen that intelligent handling is worth while4 ,the horns severed from the head preferably by sawing and cutting at a point beyond the meeting point of skull and horn1 are thrown into a vat of water1 held at a temperature of from #adj to #aej ,f4 ,after soaking for ten or fifteen minutes they are taken out and by hammering the horn across some solid substance1 or by laying it on a block and pounding it with a weight or mallet1 the pith slips out4 ,the piths are dried and used in the manufacture of glue4 ,the horns should be stored in a room where there is ample outside air circulation and not too dry4 ,artificial heat will cause them to crack4 ,they are never dried on steam coils4 ,selections are made for some markets1 although they are usually sold as taken off4 ,manufactured ,articles4--,the manufacture of horns into manufactured articles is a highly specialized work and rarely undertaken by the packer as a commercial possibility4 ,horns are used for the manufacture of combs and various other ornamental articles4 ,in the course of manufacturing1 the tip is sawed off to the hollow part of the horn4 ,it is then split open1 the horn is steamed1 softened and flattened by pressure1 usually hydraulic pressure4 ,any checks or flaws in the horn damage it for manufacturing purposes4 ,if submitted to excessive heat in drying or stored in a room that is hot and dry they are sure to become damaged4 ,when in storage they should be placed in a cellar or room where there is some moisture1 but not enough to cause them to mold4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--;,,cattle ,,head ,,splitters4 ,skulls4--,the treatment of skulls in process is as follows3 ,the cheek meat is removed from the head1 the jaws pulled out1 the head split and brain removed1 and the skull is ready for the cooking vat4 ,the brain is an edible product1 for which there is a ready sale in most markets1 consequently they should be properly taken out4 ,the illustration1 ,fig4 #fj1 is of a machine with a hollow knife intended for splitting the skull but not damaging the brain4 ,with this machine the heads are split after the jaws are pulled4 ,the head is laid on the table with the teeth up4 ,the knife is made with a semi-circular space in the sharp edge which comes down over the brain without touching same as the balance of the blade is forced through the skull1 leaving the brain intact while separating the skull bones4 ,where a large number of heads are handled in this manner it saves a great deal of labor4 ,it is desirable to remove the brains before cooking the skulls1 as the bones become discolored if the brain is left in the skull4 ,cooking4--,after the skulls are placed in a tank they should be kept covered with cold water until collected in sufficient quantity for cooking4 ,they should be thoroughly washed1 as there is a large amount of clotted blood usually adhering to the skull1 and if not well washed the grease derived from the cooking is discolored and injured4 ,in connection with the washing1 it is always well1 when the vat is filled1 to heat the water to a point about #ij ,f4 and draw this water off4 ,the vat is then filled with water sufficient to cover the skull and the steam turned on1 the temperature raised to #bjj ,f4 ,the steam should be graduated so as to hold this temperature eight and one-half or nine hours1 when the heads will be found to be cooked sufficiently4 ,the steam is then shut off and the oil cooked from the heads is allowed to collect on the surface1 after which it is skimmed and strained1 and allowed to settle4 ,it is then ready for tiercing4 ,cleaning4--,the skulls should be kept covered with water until ready for washing4 ,this is done by passing through a reel screen arranged with a central hollow axle or a perforated pipe suspended in the top1 used for spraying the revolving bones with a plentiful supply of warm water for cleansing them4 ,jaw ,bones4--,jaw bones should be handled the same as skulls1 except that they should be cooked from nine to ten hours4 ,the jaws are cracked at right angles to their length in order to open the bone for extracting all oil4 ,drying4--,the bones are now ready for drying4 ,dryers are mentioned subsequently4 ,feet4--,the cattle feet are of prime importance owing to the value of the products resulting4 ,in mentioning feet1 we mean comprehensively the feet from knee to hoof1 inclusive4 ,washing ,feet4--,the feet upon being taken from the animal should be washed promptly1 and all manure and refuse removed preferably through a revolving washer4 ,cutting ,sinews and ,sawing ,bones4--,the sinews are removed from the feet1 and the shin bones sawed out4 ,the sawing of the bone is an important matter4 ,the bone should be rigidly held and sawed by a sharp moving blade1 the saw carriage moved against the tightly held foot4 ,the set of saw should be such as to avoid a ragged edge4 ,saw should have high speed up to #a1bjj r4 p4 m4 and be filed with but little set4 ,in moving the blade it should be done firmly and regularly--not jerky4 ,the cutting should be done about midway through the 8sponge0 formation at end of bone so that the oil can be cooked clean4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--;,,bone ,,saw ,,with ,,iron ,,frame4 ,raw ,shin ,bones ,cooling4--,these bones should be kept in clear cold running water until the day's cook is collected4 ,removal of ,hoofs4--,the removal of hoofs is to be done by putting the feet in a tank or tub of water4 ,steam is injected into the water and the temperature raised to about #ahj ,f41 where it is maintained for #bj to #cj minutes1 or until the hoofs will slip4 ,hoofs are pinched off and feet passed to cook boxes4 ,hoofs are usually air dried and selected into white and striped hoofs1 the most valuable used and sold for manufacturing4 ,black hoofs are ordinarily coil dried and ground for fertilizer4 ,the oil is the neatsfoot oil of commerce4 ,cooking ,shin ,bones4--,shin bones should be cooked about eight hours at a temperature of #afj to #agj ,f4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--;,,hand ,,hoof ,,puller4 ,judgment is to be used in the cooking as the age of the cattle and the hardness of the bone will have to do with the bone appearing 8chalky0 when dry4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--,,power ,,hoof ,,puller4 ,cooking ,feet4--,the foot portion resulting in the small knuckles when cooked is cooked separately from the shin bones and oil handled in the same manner4 ,skimming the ,oil4--,the oil rising to the top of the cook vats should be carefully skimmed off with as little water as possible4 ,it should be strained through a fine mesh screen covered with two thicknesses of scrim1 so as to take out all floating fibre or floaters4 ,skimming and ,settling4--,upon skimming deposit oil in the oil receivers1 keep the oil under heat at a temperature of #aej ,f4 ,the settling or sediment should be daily removed at the drain outlet until oil begins to show1 since the settling and moisture are sure means of making oil sour4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--,,revolving ,,bone ,,washer4 ,purifying ,oil4--,the oil is kept in the containers until ready for purifying4 ,the two receivers are connected together by a common pipe which terminates in a pipe arranged in the form of a cross with a tee connection at each end4 ,over the ends of this cross are suspended cotton flannel bags of double thickness tied tightly over the tees4 ,the oil is strained through these into the purifier where it is settled for two or three hours4 ,should any moisture appear it is withdrawn at the drain cock at bottom4 ,bags should be used once and carefully washed4 ,the oil is then dried out by heating the same through the steam jacket on kettle until it reaches a temperature of about #bej ,f41 at which temperature it is held several hours4 ,the oil is to be stirred occasionally during the drying period4 ,the steam is closed and the oil allowed to settle and cool and is then put in casks4 ,temperature of oil when drawn into casks1 about #hj to #ij ,f41 casks1 hard wood1 well hooped and of superior quality to prevent leakage4 ,neatsfoot ,oil4--,obtained from cooking round shin1 flat shin1 small knuckle bones 7being bones from feet7 and shin bones4 ,finishing ,bones4--,after taking the oil and depositing same in the neatsfoot oil receiver1 the shin bones are removed and placed in the polisher where they are revolved for about one hour or until the bones are cleaned4 ,warmed water is passed through the bones during this process1 introduced through hollow shaft in washer4 ,the substance washed out contains more or less oil which should be trapped and the clear oil skimmed off1 and balance of material sent to the rendering tanks4 ,the knuckles are similarly treated until cleaned4 ,drying ,bones4--,when the shin bones are washed and cleaned they should be spread on racks to dry1 in natural temperature 7not coil dried7 and out of draft or cold temperatures to avoid checking or splitting4 ,small knuckle bones from the feet are to be coil dried for manufacturing bone4 ,sinews4--,these are chiefly sold for glue stock4 ,in removing sinews from the legs1 care must be used not to cut too deep in the heel of the foot1 it being preferred to leave some glue stock on the foot rather than to cut too deep and remove the fat which goes to make up the neatsfoot oil which is much more valuable than the glue stock4 ,this part of the product1 well drained1 should be taken to a cool1 although not necessarily refrigerated room1 and thoroughly salted2 ,it is often found necessary to overhaul it and resalt it in order to keep it from 8sweating40 ,after it has been cured ten days or two weeks it is ready for the glue department4 ,test ,yield from ,skulls and ,feet4--,test on following page shows the yield from head and feet of #acj1dgj cattle1 same based on the market prices prevailing at the time the test was made4 ,while prices vary the percentages given are accurate4 ,buttocks and ,thighs4--,these leg bones are treated substantially the same as the shin bones in cooking and to completion4 ,,average ,,yield ,,of ,,head ,,and ,,feet ,,on ,,kill ,,of #acj1dgj ,,cattle4 ,market price ,yield------------------- ,value per per per per per ,product cent ton gal4 lb4 head ---------------------------------------- ----- ,skulls #d4jgiah4jj 444 444 #j4jcfg ,jaws #b4bhi #ah4jj 444 444 4#jbjf ,knuckles #b4fda #ah4jj 444 444 4#jbcg ,hoofs #a4gdd #bb4jj 444 444 4#jaia ,hoofs1 white 4#adg #ej4jj 444 444 4#jjcf ,piths 4#def #ba4jj 444 444 4#jjdg ,round shins #a4aih #db4jj 444 444 4#jbea ,flat shins 4#ief #cj4jj 444 444 4#jadc ,horns 4#eahbjj4jj 444 444 4#jeah ,neatsfoot oil #a4jfa 444 #j4fd 444 4#jije ,cheeks #c4ehj 444 444 #j4jc 4#ajgd ,head meat 4#fih 444 444 4#jc 4#jbid ,fine meat #a4jgb 444 444 4#jc 4#jcba ,sinews #a4hii #ai4jj 444 444 4#jahj ,tallow #a4gcj 444 444 4#jf 4#aafg ,tankage #a4afj #af4jj 444 444 4#jjib ,brains 4#fej 444 444 4#jb 4#jadf ,head oil #a4jfh 444 444 4#jf 4#jgbf ---------------------------------------- ----- ,total value 444 444 444 444 #j4fija ---------------------------------------- ----- ,blades and ,ribs4--,where cutting and shipping cattle is done in profusion there are many small bones resulting4 ,if hard bone is being made these bones are cooked in open vat from six to eight hours4 ,cellular bones are usually cracked so as to make for free extraction of oil4 ,drying4--,two systems of drying are used in the bone department4 ,the open air system for horns1 selected white and striped hoof for manufacturing1 shin bones1 buttock bones1 and those sold for manufacturing purposes2 the coil1 or room1 drying principle1 for grinding bone4 ,the latter1 crushed bone1 is sold to glue makers and grinders4 ,the usual method of handling the latter style of drying is to make platform coils or grids of #a-;inch pipe of an area convenient1 as ten by sixteen feet1 or units convenient to the space4 ,these are in multiple and arranged to be accessible from two or more sides for convenience in filling and removing bones4 ,the grids should be placed twelve or fifteen inches above the floor to permit cleaning underneath4 ,the pipes or grids are usually substantially supported to carry the weight placed upon them4 ,a wire screen of ,no4 #e screen #a-;inch mesh is a convenience to prevent bones dropping through4 ,the bones are piled upon the grids to dry1 when they are then transferred to storage rooms4 ,crushed ,bone4--,the skulls1 jaws and larger bones1 are usually crushed before storing so as to get a greater weight in less space4 ,in this condition they are ready for grinding into 8raw bone meal10 the name given to ground bone for sale to glue makers for extracting glue4 ,grinding ,bone4--,ground bone is usually ground through an attrition mill1 of which there are several types4 ,the mill delivers the grindings to a bucket type endless chain elevator1 which in turn passes it through a screen--shaking or revolving--preferably the latter4 ,the screen is usually about three feet in diameter by twelve feet long and covered with a screening of ,no4 #af wire1 eight meshes per inch1 which screens it to a size that will readily pass through a grain drill4 ,the tailings or over sized bone is returned to the mill for further grinding4 ,neatsfoot ,oil ,storage ,tank4--,this is preferably a jacketed tank1 one tank within the other1 and must be made with a jacket to withstand the pressure that may be applied4 ,consequently the jacket should be reinforced with stay bolts so as to prevent distortion when pressure is applied4 ,any and all oil settling vats are best made cylindrical in form with a sharp cone at bottom4 ,the cone is equipped for withdrawing sediment at the bottom and for withdrawing oil for purification sufficiently high in the cone to avoid withdrawing any sediment4 ,neatsfoot ,oil ,purifiers4--,the same type of kettle or tank as described above is required1 the latter being sufficient in size to accumulate a week's work4 ,yield ,tests4--,the appended tests give the resulting yields from handling skulls and jaws1 feet and shanks3 ,,test ,,yield ,,from ,,skulls ,,and ,,jaws ,,of #a1bji ,,cattle ,per ,average ,cent per ,green ,products ,weight head ,weight ---------------------------------------- ---- ,no4 #a ,ground ,bone #aigb #a4fc #i4dh ,no4 #b ,ground ,bone #bhb 4#bc #a4ce ,bone ,meal #acha #a4ad #f4fd ,butter ,stock ,tallow #acec #a4ab #f4ea ,bone ,house ,tallow #ehe 4#dh #b4ha ,pressed ,tankage #ej water #feab #e4cg #ca4cb ,total weight of feet from #a1bji cattle1 #bj1gij4aa pounds4 ,average weight green feet per cattle1 #ag4ai pounds4 ,,test ,,yield ,,from ,,feet ,,of #a1cia ,,heavy ,,cattle ,average per ,products ,weight head ------------------------------ ,green ,sinews #cdbd #b4df ,white ,hoofs #ebh 4#ch ,striped ,hoofs #bejf #a4hg ,black ,hoofs #ecd 4#ch ,neatsfoot ,oil #adgf #a4jf ,bone and ,grease #bhj 4#bj ,grinding ,bone #dffg #c4bi ,heavy ,round ,shins #abdg 4#ij ,light ,round ,shins #aie 4#ad ,heavy ,flat ,shins #ajib 4#gh ,light ,flat ,shins #gc 4#je ,tankage #fhb 4#di ------------- #afgjd ,total weight of feet from #a1cia cattle1 #bd1ggh pounds4 ,average weight green feet per cattle1 #ag4h pounds4 ,,test ,,yield ,,in ,,finished ,,products ,,from ,,shanks ,per ,cent ,total ,green ,products ,weight,weight ---------------------------- ,butter ,stock #abde #ah4hf ,butter ,tallow #fj 4#ia ,thigh ,bones #bge #d4ah ,blades #bgh #d4ba ,buttocks #bjc #c4jh ,cannons #ahj #b4gc ,knuckles 7large7 #aiee #bi4fb ,tankage #agi #b4ga ,weight #c1cjj pounds each1 fore and hind shanks1 total #f1fjj pounds4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,tank ,,house ,,department4 ,,tank ,,house ,,design -- ,,isolation ,,and ,,ventilation -- ,,separation ,,of ,,press ,,room -- ,,digesters -- ,,rendering ,,tank -- ,,surface ,,box -- ,,press ,,and ,,pump -- ,,cooking ,,killing ,,stock -- ,,operating ,,tank ,,blow ,,off -- ,,pressing ,,tankage -- ,,treatment ,,of ,,lard ,,and ,,tallow -- ,,titer ,,in ,,tallow ,,and ,,lard -- ,,steam ,,for ,,cooking -- ,,cooking ,,tests -- ,,operating ,,odorless -- ,,tests -- ,,catch ,,basin4 ,introductory4--,when slaughtering was done promiscuously throughout the country1 sufficient product was not available at any one point to necessitate a tank house1 consequently open kettles were used either with fire under them1 or jacketed for steam1 the best of the fat was thus rendered1 and the balance was thrown away4 ,it being impossible to render offal to advantage under these conditions1 the 8digester0 as it is called by many1 was evolved4 ,it consists of a closed tank in which cooking is done at forty pounds steam pressure1 giving a temperature of nominally #bhg ,f41 this high temperature thoroughly disintegrating all products in the tank1 liberating all the grease4 ,the residue from cooking in this manner1 after being pressed1 is dried and sold as fertilizer4 ,the effectiveness of this process is shown1 for instance1 by the fact that if a hundred cattle heads are put into a tank1 after cooking1 the bones are entirely disintegrated1 except the teeth4 ,tank ,house ,design4--,almost any arrangement of tank1 surface box and press can be made to serve the purpose of rendering4 ,the method and arrangement shown herein are those practiced by one of the revisors of this work and embodies principles as described4 ,the requisite apparatus for a rendering or tank house consists of but few articles1 viz3 the rendering tank or digester1 the surface or skimming box1 and a press1 but the design and operation is of such consequence that the same will be described in detail4 ,isolation and ,ventilation4--,the rendering building from its character should be isolated and arranged for ventilation on at least three sides4 ,the ,united ,states sanitary requirements compel the complete separation of the edible from the inedible section by the use of separate buildings or a parting wall4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--,,section ,,through ,,tank ,,house4 ,separation of ,press ,room4--,if the business is large the owner is fully justified in extending the parting wall through and dividing the press room4 ,this arrangement requires the double investment in presses1 cloths and all equipment1 but gives the advantage that the pressings can be collected from edible tankage and used for edible purposes1 provided always that the equipment is kept in proper shape4 ,whereas1 if the parting wall is not extended through the press room1 the oils are considered contaminated and are usable only for inedible purposes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--,,little ,,neck ,,rendering ,,tank4 ,the section shown indicates that type of house where the press room is single1 and the house above the press floor is divided4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--,,tank ,,house1 ,,showing ,,nesting ,,of ,,tanks4 ,tank ,house ,hazards4--,the tank house1 from the nature of the business being hazardous1 is best to be of fire-proof construction4 ,tanks constructed as shown in ,fig4 #ff1 with the little neck head can be nested four in a bay and be made fully accessible on all floors4 ,the nesting of tanks six feet in diameter in a sixteen-foot square bay provides sufficient strength to make it possible to suspend the tanks from the floor beams above1 suitably arranged1 it further avoids the necessity of supports near to the tanks1 which greatly facilitate cleanliness4 ,situation of ,surface ,boxes4--,the grease content in the fertilizer is a matter of dollars and cents4 ,when the oil is withdrawn from the tanks it cannot be seen and no matter how closely watched considerable oil will pass through to the surface box where it can be collected4 ,consequently the second story of the tank house is a high story with the surface boxes placed convenient to the second floor so as to be readily worked4 ,further reference to this is made later4 ,press ,room4--,the press room is arranged so that the press can be built directly beneath the surface boxes1 from whence the car is passed to the press for pressing out the moisture4 ,digesters4--,the 8digester0 indicated1 together with its method of suspension and nesting has been successfully used and was the practice followed by a well known designer for a number of years4 ,the diameter and height of the digester ordinarily used is #f #af feet on the tank body4 ,the writer invariably has specified half-inch thick tank steel for the reason that the increased thickness is of so little additional weight1 and the labor being such a considerable factor1 that it was thought well to provide this additional thickness to take care of corrosion and acid attack4 ,little ,neck ,rendering ,tank4--,lugs can be placed in any position desirable for support4 ,the little neck for filling needs no comment4 ,it is provided with a six-point security and by the use of ring-bolts with male and female flanged closing and gasket1 can readily be made steam tight4 ,tank ,gate ,valve4--,tank department foremen are divided in ideas as to using sliding steam gate valves1 in which the gate is operated by lever for quick opening or the screw type valve4 ,the latter should be the rising stem type4 ,surface ,box4--,the surface box shown is a jacketed type used for plants where tank water is collected for evaporation4 ,the cost of this is justified as against being annoyed with coils in the tank4 ,press and ,pump4--,practically all presses now in use are hydraulic4 ,these are overhead or under types1 the latter being mostly used4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--,,section ,,of ,,rendering ,,tank4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--;,,design ,,of ,,steam ,,jacketed ,,surface ,,box4 ,the style of pump used is a question of importance4 ,the writer specifies steam operated hydraulic pumps in preference to power driven pumps1 since the former can be operated from a governor that automatically keeps full pressure on the pump4 ,with the power pump1 when the motive power is stopped1 a leak1 the size of a pin point1 in a valve1 will cause a leakage that releases the pressure and makes poor pressing4 ,be aware of the fact that there is no method of extracting water from the fertilizer so cheap as pressing and the only limit should be the strength of the cloths4 ,fig4 #gj shows how a hydraulic press and pump should be connected4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--;,,diagram ,,of ,,hydraulic ,,press ,,with ,,piping ,,and ,,pump4 ,cooking ,killing ,stock4--,the tank should be clean2 draw in about two hogsheads of water for a #f #af foot tank1 or a proportionate amount for tanks of other sizes2 turn on the steam to boil the water1 and then begin filling the tank4 ,allow sufficient steam to enter to keep the tank boiling slowly4 ,when the tank is two-thirds full1 shut off the steam1 draw off the water and refill with water2 turn on the steam1 bringing the contents to a boil the second time4 ,do not fill the tank to exceed three-fourths full1 as the cooking is better done if sufficient room is left4 ,after cooking for a half hour1 draw off the water a second time4 ,it will be found1 especially in cooking product from the killing department1 that the water drawn off is dark colored1 from the blood and dirt that has accumulated on the tissue4 ,if this is not withdrawn it has the effect of darkening the lard or tallow materially4 ,after the water has been drawn the second time1 put on the tank head and turn on the steam1 the condensation from the steam is sufficient to cook the material2 no more water is needed4 ,see that the blow-off and escape pipes are shut and the pet-cock is open4 ,continue cooking in this manner until a moderate pressure is built up1 then admit steam to full pressure of forty-five pounds1 open the escape valve just enough so that you may know the gas is escaping4 ,at the completion of this operation the cooking begins4 ,a tank of tallow should cook thoroughly in from nine to ten hours with forty pounds pressure4 ,cold ,spots4--,oftentimes freshly killed material will lie closely together and a 8cold spot0 will occur--a spot where the material has become partially solidified and the steam has not penetrated4 ,in such case1 shut off the steam1 draw off the water1 and then turn on the steam1 the cold spots will disappear4 8,cold spot0 has the effect of souring lard and tallow2 in other words before the heat has penetrated into the solid mass1 the heat surrounding it will have caused it to sour4 ,this point should be watched closely1 especially in cooking lard4 ,tankmen should try the pet-cock on the tank each half hour to find out if the tank is 8flush40 ,if the tank is 8flush0 or foaming1 the foam will come out instead of steam4 ,in this case1 shut off the tank ten minutes1 then draw off the water1 but see that no grease is drawn off with it4 ,the cause of the flushing1 or foaming1 is that the tank is too full1 or that there is too much water in it1 consequently it is necessary that the tankman should try his pet-cock very often during the operation of cooking to see that the contents are being properly cooked4 ,cutting ,tanks4--,cuttings and cold products of like character are usually carried in cold water while filling1 and are not parboiled as described for 8killing0 tanks4 ,releasing ,pressure4--,when the tank is cooked1 shut off the steam and open the pet-cock for about ten minutes1 then the escape valve1 being careful not to give it too much escape at first1 or the tank will 8roll40 ,by this is meant that the original heat in the oil contents will generate steam in the contents beneath which1 when the pressure is relieved1 will cause the contents to boil violently1 but if the pressure is reduced slowly1 this condition will not arise4 ,when a tank has 8rolled0 it takes a great deal more time to settle it1 the grease being thoroughly mixed up with the residue of the tank4 ,as the pressure decreases the operator can increase the rapidity of release4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--;,,detail ,,of ,,piping ,,connections4 ,,top ,,of ,,rendering ,,tank4 ,the pressure being relieved from the tank1 take out the head1 use about a water-pail full of fine salt to settle the tank4 ,this salt is scattered over the contents in the tank and has the effect of settling sediment and tissue which may be held in suspension4 ,the tank should stand about two hours to thoroughly settle before drawing the oil4 ,draw the oil from the side valves of the tank into coolers4 ,it is often necessary1 in doing this1 to raise the contents of the tank1 as there may be considerable tallow or lard below the lowest draw-off valve4 ,such being the case run water into the bottom of the tank sufficient to raise its contents so that all the rendered oil can be drawn through the lowest valve4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--;,,detail ,,of ,,piping ,,connections1 ,,bottom ,,of ,,rendering ,,tank ,operating ,tank ,blow-,off4--,descriptive of the connections for operating rendering tank connections is the following subject matter4 ,the exhaust connections are illustrated in drawings1 ,figs4 #ga and #gb1 and essentially consist of1 beginning at tank neck3 7#a7 ,spring pop safety valve set at #de pound pressure to automatically release in case of excessive pressure arising and failure of weighted pop valve to relieve4 7#b7 ,pressure gauge on each riser to indicate pressure on the individual tank to insure its being under pressure and under heat4 ,the siphon bend between gauge and pipe is preferably filled with glycerine4 7#c7 ,try cock on bottom of drip line to open occasionally as test for 8gas40 7#d7 ,globe valve1 inch1 operated slightly open to allow gas to release from tank and create very small circulation4 7#e7 ,globe valve1 #a inch2 blow down valve to be used when releasing all pressure from tanks4 7#f7 ,angle type pop safety valve to relieve into the discharge line4 7#g7 ,check valve attached to the line to prevent any foaming or steam from an adjacent tank discharging into this unit via the exhaust system4 7#h7 ,exhaust header used in conjunction with the system to collect all gases and steam discharged from the battery of tanks4 7#i7 ,cooking connections3 ,it is preferable to drill the inlet nozzle at bottom of tank at the lowest point possible and to admit steam on two sides of nozzle not opposite but on an angle as shown in plan4 ,this prevents 8dancing0 tanks4 ,check ,valves4--,check valves are placed in the admission valve to prevent floaters or foreign materials entering lines and stopping the control valves and steam and water4 ,inlet ,header4--,for usual purposes steam and water are admitted into the tank at one point and steam at one1 see ,nos4 #ab-;a and #ab-;b on diagram4 ,if tank water is being collected and evaporated1 line #ab-;c is introduced and used as follows3 ,ordinarily the use of #ab-;b is for admitting water into bottom of tank in case the oil line after tank contents are cooked and settled are below the draw cocks4 ,in the event tank water is being saved to avoid weakening tank water by introduction of cold clean water1 this result is accomplished by pumping tank water into the tank via the connection #ab-;c4 ,if tank water is not being evaporated1 #ab-;c line and connection is omitted4 ,draw ,down ,pipe4--,if the oil is high and water appears at the draw-cocks #ad and #ae1 then the content is lowered by opening cock ,no4 #ac and lowering the body as much as required4 ,oil ,draw ,cocks1 #ad and #ae4--,when the tank is cooked1 oil settled and the tank raised or lowered by use of ,no4 #ab connections or ,no4 #ac cock1 the oil belt should be such that the bottom of it is about on a line with cock #ad1 and the main body of oil is drawn through cock ,no4 #ae4 ,surface ,box ,treatment4--,after the oil is drawn out of the tank1 the residue is dumped into the surface box4 ,anything that has not been thoroughly cooked will float on top in the vat4 ,these floaters should all be skimmed off and put back into the tank to be re-cooked4 ,the contents should be thoroughly agitated with a pole or rake1 cooked fifteen minutes1 allowed to settle and the oil carefully skimmed off4 ,this should be done two or three times on each vat so as to free all the oil possible4 ,if tank water is being collected the boiling is done by steam jacket on the box2 if not1 by direct application of free live steam4 ,in either case stir contents freely4 ,pressing ,tankage4--,as soon as the operation of the skimming of the vat has been thoroughly accomplished the contents are in the proper condition to be pressed and should be handled while still hot4 ,the water is mostly drained off4 ,in building the cakes1 a portable car is run under the surface box4 ,by the use of a quick opening lever gate the contents are dropped in quantity desired upon a press cloth2 between each cheese is placed a rack--the process being thus1 a rack made of #a inch material1 usually elm1 thoroughly nailed together1 is first laid on the press head2 next a frame of the size and depth required to handle the product is used4 ,this frame should not exceed two inches in depth4 ,the press cloth is then spread over them and the material drawn onto the press4 ,well spread out1 the cloth is carefully folded over the top of it4 ,the form is then lifted off the press1 another press rack is put on top of the cheese already made1 and the process repeated4 ,ten or twelve plates are usually used to a press4 ,after the car is filled it is placed in the hydraulic press and pressure applied4 ,this should be done slowly at first1 giving the water ample time to run out of the press4 ,if the pressure is applied too rapidly the tendency is for the material to slide out on one side or the other1 but if the water is pressed out slowly the material adheres better or gets a good 8bond10 so that it will not slip4 ,after the press has run until the cakes are about one-half of their original thickness spray with hot water1 thoroughly washing off the sides of the press1 turn on more pressure until this reaches about #cjj tons on a #e #e foot plate4 ,it will be found that it is the last pressing which brings out the grease4 ,where tankage is properly handled it should run from six to eight per cent of residual grease on a dry basis4 ,where improperly handled it will oftentimes run from eighteen to twenty per cent1 the excess being lard or tallow which should have been saved1 but worthless if left in tankage4 ,treatment of ,lard and ,tallow4--,as the oils are being withdrawn from the rendering tanks the same should be passed through a small over-flow type of catch tank arranged so that the oils pass through a straining system to remove fibre or floaters4 ,from the above basin the oils should be passed to the receivers or coolers preparatory to settling4 ,in the judgment of the writer these tanks should preferably be in a department or room separated from the rendering department1 to avoid possibility of contact and absorbing odors4 ,the receivers or reservoirs should be circular in form with a coil of heating pipe arranged1 supported from the sides of the kettles4 ,the pipe should be sufficiently spread to allow perfect cleaning4 ,the cones on the bottom should be at an angle of #de so as to collect the sediment1 water or scrap that may deposit in small volume4 ,the scrap should be settled out and removed daily4 ,tallow and lard should be allowed to cool to a tiercing temperature and kept in as large volume as conditions permit1 so as to obtain uniformity in cooler4 ,in case of lard1 killing and cutting lard should be intimately mixed in equal proportions if possible4 ,titer in ,tallow and ,lard4--,titer in tallow1 frequently referred to1 is a relative test of hardness4 ,the test was originally devised for the use of candle makers who wanted an oil containing the largest percentage of stearic acid4 ,stearic acid has a hardness of about #ee ,centigrade4 ,the hardness of other substances is relative to this as follows3 commercial oleo stearine1 about #ej4e ,c42 tallow1 #da to #dc ,c42 ,no4 #b tallow or grease1 #ci to #dc ,c42 ,p4 ,s4 lard1 #ce4e to #cg ,c4 ,every trimming in the animal has a different hardness2 the thinner the cattle1 the harder the tallow4 ,bone fat or marrow is very soft4 ,animals of different feeding show varying hardness1 so there is no method of manufacture that will vary the hardness content of product other than selection4 ,in a general way1 cattle ruffle1 caul1 or that used usually in oleo melting is relatively hard4 ,for example1 oleo stock will analyze as hard as #df ,c41 while the tallow from the same house will analyze #dc ,c4 ,this hardness is determined in the chemical laboratory as follows3 ,the fat is melted and #be cubic centimeters are drawn and mixed with #bj ,c4 ,c4 wood alcohol1 #aj ,c4 ,c4 of #ej ,baume caustic soda solution and the contents boiled until completely saponified4 ,the alcohol is evaporated by drying4 ,the residue is ground and boiled with an excess of diluted sulphuric acid until all the soap has been changed to fatty acid and the clear oil floats4 ,the water in the vessel is drawn from below the fat1 and the fatty acids collected in a glass vessel1 which are allowed to stand on steam coils until the oily stratum is clearly defined4 ,the fatty acids are placed in an observation room and the point of solidification observed4 ,the result is the titer1 which is the degree ,centigrade at which the fatty acid from an oil or stearine solidifies after being melted4 ,the other item of consequence in tallow analysis is the rancidity1 known as the free fatty acid4 ,this should be kept low and is usually variable with the care given the product4 ,no4 #a tallow1 for example1 should show under two per cent of low grade greases1 and will run as high as twenty per cent4 ,steam for ,cooking4--,a question frequently asked is the quantity of steam required to cook a tank4 ,an accurate test conducted on a mixed tank of pork products1 killing and cutting stock1 under standard conditions showed thus3 ,weight of ,raw ,stock #ab1bff ,water filled in ,tank #i1fcd ------ #ba1ijj ,after ,cooking3-- ,lard #f1jdj ,skimmings #dgi ,water ,tankage #ai1cfj #be1hgi -------------- ,accumulation-,steam ,condensed #c1igi ,steam per #a1jjj pounds1 ,raw ,stock #cbd lbs4 ,cooking ,test and ,expense4--,the following test on the cost for cooking was made on killing and cutting lard--very large digesters--and from it valuable deductions can be made4 ,expert opinion has pronounced test ,no4 #a and test ,no4 #c as producing comparatively the best results in manufacture4 ,,killing ,,and ,,cutting ,,stock ,product ,no4 #a ,no4 #b ,no4 #c ,no4 #d ,weight raw product #da1egb lbs4 #da1bcf lbs4 #dh1dia lbs4 #da1cbb lbs4 ,under pressure #ab hrs4 #aa hrs4 #aa hrs4 #aa hrs4 ,yield ,p4 ,s4 lard #cb1ffe lbs4 #cb1hhj lbs4 #bd1ebe lbs4 #ba1ibj lbs4 ,boilers ,water evaporation while cooking #ce1dfj lbs4 #bd1dbj lbs4 #cf1hjj lbs4 #bc1iij lbs4 ,reduced to coal on #f to #a evap4 #e1iaj lbs4 #d1jgj lbs4 #f1acd lbs4 #c1ihf lbs4 ,boiler pressure average #eg4f lbs4 #fb4h lbs4 #ea4f lbs4 #ej lbs4 ,tank pressure average #dj4b lbs4 #dj4e lbs4 #cd4e lbs4 #cb4e lbs4 ,results ,cost fuel at #a4cf per ton #d4jb #b4gg #d4ag #b4ga ,steam1 per #a1jjj lbs4 raw product #hec lbs4 #eic lbs4 #gei lbs4 #egi lbs4 ,fuel1 per #a1jjj lbs4 raw product #adb lbs4 #ii lbs4 #abf lbs4 #ih4e lbs4 ,cost fuel1 #a1jjj lbs4 raw product 4#jig 4#jfg 4#jhf 4#jfe ,clear ,snowy ,clear ,clear ,temperature #cb to #cd #cd to #ce #bb to #ch #ac to #ah ,remarks on ,cooking3 ,no4 #a ,test ,cooked with three waters1 boiled two hours before heading4 ,no4 #b ,test ,cooked with one water1 tank filled before heading4 ,no4 #c ,test ,cooked with two waters1 boiled two hours before heading4 ,no4 #d ,test ,cooked with one water1 tank filled before heading4 ,tests4--,innumerable tank house tests are made4 ,the following few are submitted for quick reference1 giving an idea as to yields of various kinds of products3 ,,test ,,on ,,condemned ,,hogs--,,yield ,,of ,,grease4 ,condemned hogs to tank #ied lbs4 ,yield of white grease #dfg lbs4 #dh4ie ,yield pressed tankage #agc lbs4 #ah4ac ,yield dry tankage #hf lbs4 #i4ja ,on the above the leaf lard was left in and heads off4 ,,comparative ,,test ,,of ,,sheep ,,heads ,,and ,,jaws ,,to ,,tank ,,and ,,bone ,,house4 #cbe sheep heads and jaws 7cheeks off7 to tank #gfe lbs4 ,yield to tallow #gc lbs4 #j4jf per lb4 #d4ch ,yield dried tankage #aej lbs4 #ai4jj per ton #a4db ,total value #e4hj ,value1 per head1 #j4jagh2 tallow1 #i4ed2 dried tankage1 #ai4dg4 #cbe sheep heads and jaws 7cheeks off7 to bone house #gfe lbs4 ,yield to tallow #ea lbs4 #j4jg per lb4 #c4eg ,yield dried bones #agg lbs4 #ah4jj per ton #a4ei ,total value #e4af ,value1 per head1 #j4jaei2 tallow1 #f4ff2 dried bones1 #bc4ad4 ,,test ,,on ,,tripe ,,trimmings4 ,green weight to tank #a1bjf lbs4 ,yield prime tallow #cef lbs4 #bi4eb ,yield tankage #ec lbs4 #d4ci ,,test ,,on ,,condemned ,,livers4 ,green weight to tank #a1jaj lbs4 ,yield ,no4 #b tallow #db lbs4 #d4af ,yield pressed tankage #bjf lbs4 #bj4ch ,yield dry tankage #ajc lbs4 #aj4ai ,,test ,,on ,,cattle ,,pecks ,,to ,,tank4 ,green weight to tank #a1cjf lbs4 ,yield ,no4 #b tallow #af lbs4 #a4bb ,yield tankage #ie lbs4 #g4bg ,,test ,,on ,,cattle ,,paunches ,,to ,,tank4 ,green weight to tank #a1jef lbs4 ,yield prime tallow #id lbs4 #h4ij ,yield pressed tankage #ajf lbs4 #aj4jd ,yield finished tankage #ec lbs4 #e4jb ,,test ,,on ,,hog ,,stomachs ,,to ,,tank1 ,,untrimmed4 ,killed1 #bdj pigs and #hcf hogs1 a total of #a1jgf4 ,green weight to tank #b1hde lbs4 ,yield prime steam lard #a1bge lbs4 #dd4ha ,yield finished tankage #ahh lbs4 #f4fj ,,test ,,on ,,windpipes ,,to ,,tank4 ,green weight to tank #hhj lbs4 ,yield ,no4 #a tallow #ada lbs4 #af4jj ,yield tankage #cc lbs4 #c4ge ,,test ,,on ,,sheep ,,paunches ,,and ,,plucks ,,to ,,tank4 7,trimmings from sheep house47 ,green weight to tank #a1aej lbs4 ,yield ,no4 #a tallow #aje lbs4 #i4ac ,yield pressed tankage #hi lbs4 #g4gc ,yield dry tankage #de lbs4 #c4hf ,,test ,,on ,,sheep 7,,offal74 ,green weight to tanks #bh1fhj lbs4 ,yield tallow ,no4 #a #d1ech lbs4 #b4bh lbs4 per head ,yield tallow ,no4 #b #gcj lbs4 4#cg lbs4 per head ,yield tankage #b1hic lbs4 #a4df lbs4 per head ,,test ,,on ,,neck ,,trimmings ,,from ,,killing ,,floor4 ,green weight to tanks #hhj lbs4 ,yield ,no4 #a tallow #cig lbs4 #de4aa ,yield dry tankage #di lbs4 #e4ef ,,test ,,on ,,sheep ,,feet ,,to ,,tank4 ,green weight to tank #a1agj lbs4 ,yield ,no4 #b tallow #dj lbs4 #c4db ,yield dry tankage #adh lbs4 #ab4fe ,operating ,odorless4--,the question is frequently asked if rendering departments can be operated odorless4 ,they can be operated so as not to become a nuisance4 ,to do this requires3 7#a7 ,ample tanks with no neglect about promptly rendering all products and reducing them to lard1 tallow or dry fertilizer4 7#b7 ,collecting and evaporating all tank waters4 7#c7 ,drying of tankage done under vacuum or otherwise controlling odors4 7#d7 ,catch basins under cover1 skimmed frequently and contents cooked promptly4 7#e7 ,the rendering department kept tightly closed and department operated with forced draft1 all discharged air passed through large water-wash1 and the introduction into the air of gas boiled from tar oil4 7#f7 ,all tank exhaust and vapors connected to a piping system1 the steam condensed by water spray1 and the vapor collected and passed under furnaces of boilers4 7#g7 ,keep everything hot1 allow nothing to lay around and sour4 ,catch ,basin4--,every packing house needs an adequate catch basin system4 ,local basins established in departments near to points where products are handled1 serve to collect many fats and oils that1 by clean handling1 are edible products1 and can be used as such4 ,where melted fats are produced cold water sprays should be introduced to coagulate the oils4 ,wiers for over and under-flow should be put in to retard flow and submerge particles so they may harden and float4 ,a large general basin should be introduced so that all outflowing sewers can be passed to them1 to the end that all water flows slowly through the basin to catch any and all particles of floating fats or meats4 ,the basins should be placed under the care and jurisdiction of one person1 who should see that they are kept clean and frequently skimmed4 ,it is to good purpose to place them under roof so they will have attention at all times4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,tank ,,water4 ,,soil ,,fertility -- ,,animal ,,feeding -- ,,tank ,,water -- ,,separation ,,of ,,solids -- ,,collecting ,,grease -- ,,testing ,,tank ,,water -- ,,evaporating ,,tank ,,water -- ,,description ,,of ,,apparatus -- ,,cleaning ,,evaporators -- ,,table ,,of ,,boiling ,,points -- ,,testing ,,stick -- ,,copperas ,,in ,,water ,,to ,,evaporate -- ,,solids ,,in ,,water -- ,,drying ,,stick -- ,,value ,,of ,,tankage -- ,,quantity ,,of ,,tank ,,water -- ,,cost ,,of ,,evaporating4 ,soil ,fertility4--,the constant drain on the soil by raising of grain2 feeding animals and sending them away for slaughter1 and the non-return of the nitrogen element has made great inroads on the productivity of soil4 ,through volume after volume and in every manner possible1 economic writers are impressing this upon the agricultural interests and advocating the making up of such deficit by rotating crops1 turning under legume and plants that might extract nitrogen from the air by the processes of nature which daily are becoming more familiar to every one4 ,value and demand for the nitrogenous elements for this purpose has caused the packer to exercise all possible care to produce and conserve for sale any and all nitrogenous products4 ,animal ,feeding4--,experiment has also shown that nitrogenous products have a very high value as a nutritive food for growing and fattening animals1 so much so in fact1 that in many agricultural districts the entire output of tankage from local packing houses is now sold in the immediate neighborhood for stock foods4 ,under various names evaporated tank water is an ingredient of these4 ,tank ,water4--,invisible but in considerable quantity1 nitrogenous solids were formerly lost in the various waters from cooking1 but they are now collected and reduced to a semi-solid1 or solid form4 ,these are classified under the one broad name of tank water1 but they include almost any water in which animal matter is cooked unless the water be of such character that it can be used for edible purposes4 ,the chief sources of supply are rendering tank water1 blood water1 bone house cooking water1 ham and tripe boiling water1 etc4 ,it is estimated that any water showing density of ,beaume scale is worthy of concentration4 ,keeping ,water ,concentrated4--,evidently the more dilute the water1 the more water it is necessary to evaporate1 and hence more costly to concentrate4 ,in raising the tanks so as to flow the oil from the tank cocks1 it is necessary at times to admit fresh water4 ,to avoid this the water from one tank is usually transferred to another of the same character by use of a pump4 ,collection of ,waters4--,after the tankage has been dumped into the skimming box and all grease skimmed off1 the tank water should be drawn into a separate vat4 ,the 8press water10 which is the water from the pressing of the tankage1 should also be collected4 ,the floor drainage except from the tank filling floor1 and practically all water produced in the tank house1 should be collected2 in fact1 some operators go to the extreme of not connecting the tank house sewer system to the city sewer so as to intentionally preclude the wasting of water4 ,preparation of ,solids4--,the tank water is collected in large vats for processing4 ,the solids or sludge is undesirable to handle1 consequently in draining the tank water from the surface vats into the storage1 it is necessary to have the holes of the screens in the surface vats reduced to about one-quarter of an inch in size in order that all of the solids will be retained in the surface vats and not be permitted to go into the tank water catch basins4 ,the tank water storage vats should be equal to a day's capacity and should be filled in rotation in order that agitation will be going on only in the vat being filled or the vat being emptied1 and that the water in the balance of the storage vats will be permitted to be held under a settling process in the meantime1 which is as follows3 ,heat the water to a temperature of #ahj to #ahe ,f41 and then allow it to drop down to #agj ,f41 carrying it at this temperature from eight to twenty-four hours1 according to the length of time it is possible to carry the water for settling purposes1 up to #cf hours is an advantage4 ,collecting ,grease4--,in the surface boxes spoken of in preceding chapter1 it is very essential to agitate the tankage in the surface vats and keep it under steam long enough for some of the grease to rise to the top of the surface boxes and be skimmed off before the tank water is run into the storage vats4 ,skim the grease very carefully from the top of the water in any vat that is to be used for evaporation2 then pump the water to the evaporator supply tank4 ,after the water is pumped out of the basin1 it will be necessary to remove the bottom of settlings each time after the tank is emptied4 ,settlings in ,bottom of ,vat4--,pump the bottoms from the holding tanks into a surface box from which these settings are passed on to the press cheeses with pressed tankage1 so that the fibrous material will collect the sludge4 ,it is absolutely necessary that these settlings be taken out of the storage vats each time the vats are emptied in order to keep them sweet and to prevent the tank water from souring as it certainly will1 unless cleaned at least twice a week4 ,it is much better to clean them every time4 ,testing ,tank ,water4--,tank water is tested with a standard hydrometer for liquids heavier than water1 and as stated previously1 any water indicating on the ,beaume scale1 is collected4 ,a sample of the tank water is cooled to #aej ,f4 ,drop a hydrometer into the water and take reading at a point on a level with the water2 a hydrometer reading from #a to #bj1 is used for this purpose4 ,if hydrometer reads #b4jj1 the amount of the solids in the water is estimated at #c4hc per cent as shown on the table for figuring tank water4 ,if the hydrometer should read #b4ej1 the estimated solids is one-half of the difference between solids shown on table at #b ,beaume and #c ,beaume added to solids at #b ,beaume which is #d4hj per cent4 ,evaporating ,tank ,water4--,the evaporating of tank water1 it is proposed to do in the most economical manner possible1 and advantage is taken of the fact that as the pressure is lowered the boiling point is reduced4 ,for example1 water at atmospheric pressure and sea level boils at #bab ,f41 and water under a twenty-eight inch vacuum boils at #ajj ,f4 ,advantage is taken of these physical facts in the evaporating of tank water4 ,there are a number of types of evaporators using the same principle1 although we show one only1 that which is most extensively used1 the well-known ,swenson machine4 ,this apparatus consists of one1 two or three cells1 dependent upon the economy it is wanted to attain4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--,,swenson ,,evaporator4 ,descriptive of the ,apparatus4--,the cells are numbered #a1 #b and #c1 beginning at the left4 ,the rectangular box at the bottom of each cell consists of a cast iron false head or chamber at either end1 in which copper flues are expanded4 ,steam is introduced into the chamber of ,no4 #a1 and the tubes surrounded with tank water4 ,the steam in the coils causes the water to boil and the steam boiled off is passed to the steam chamber of the second cell4 ,the tank water in cell ,no4 #a by this boiling is condensed and is passed to cell ,no4 #b1 where a further boiling takes place1 and the concentrated liquid is passed to cell ,no4 #c for its last boiling4 ,the auxiliary pumps shown are for transfer purposes from cell to cell1 and for pumping the condensate from the steam chambers4 ,vacuum4--,the large pump at the right hand is the vacuum pump4 ,the vapor withdrawn from cell ,no4 #c by the withdrawal action of the pump is condensed by the introduction of cold water in the conical enlargement shown4 ,this condensation produces a partial vacuum1 the customary gauge measurement showing #bc to #bg inches1 dependent upon the quantity and temperature of the water4 ,this vacuum continues in a lesser degree to the second cell1 thence to the first and where the vacuum usually maintained is six inches4 ,by reference to the table of boiling points the comparative temperature in each cell is ascertainable4 ,cleaning the ,evaporators4--,evaporators to be effective must be clean1 on the same principle as cleaning boilers produce best results4 ,at regular intervals1 say1 fortnightly1 they should be boiled out with a solution of #ge lbs4 caustic soda in #aejj gallons of water4 ,this will clean the flues and maintain the machine output4 ,,table ,,of ,,boiling ,,points4 #bi inch vacuum #gi4jg ,fahr4 #bh inch vacuum #aja4ae ,fahr4 #bg inch vacuum #aae4jf ,fahr4 #bf inch vacuum #abe4ch ,fahr4 #be inch vacuum #acc4gg ,fahr4 #bd inch vacuum #adj4fd ,fahr4 #bc inch vacuum #adf4gh ,fahr4 #bb inch vacuum #aeb4af ,fahr4 #ba inch vacuum #aeg4jj ,fahr4 #bj inch vacuum #afa4db ,fahr4 #ai inch vacuum #afe4db ,fahr4 #ah inch vacuum #afi4ad ,fahr4 #ag inch vacuum #agb4fc ,fahr4 #af inch vacuum #age4ic ,fahr4 #ae inch vacuum #agi4jc ,fahr4 #ad inch vacuum #aha4ib ,fahr4 #ac inch vacuum #ahd4fh ,fahr4 #ab inch vacuum #ahg4ca ,fahr4 #aa inch vacuum #ahi4hc ,fahr4 #aj inch vacuum #aib4dc ,fahr4 #e inch vacuum #bjb4ib ,fahr4 #a inch vacuum #bab ,fahr4 ,storing ,stick4--,the residue from the evaporators or the 8,stick0 as it is now called1 should be pumped into a receptacle fitted with closed steam coils4 ,the tank water vats are similarly fitted4 ,testing ,stick4--,stick is tested the same as tank water1 excepting a hydrometer graduated from #bj to #dj is used4 ,it is usual to evaporate to a density of #bi ,beaume1 which is #fd4fa per cent dry solid4 ,to calculate the quantity of concentrated or dry stick containing #d per cent moisture produced from #bi ,beaume stick1 multiply the number of gallons of stick by #aj4bg lbs4 to get weight of #bi ,beaume stick2 then take #fd4fa per cent of this weight1 which is weight of dry solids1 then add #d per cent moisture to this amount by dividing the weight of dry solids by 4#if2 the result is weight of concentrated tankage containing #d per cent moisture4 ,copperas4--,this is usually 8sulphate of iron0 of commerce1 although some institutions make their supply thus3 ,using a lead-lined vat holding about #bjj gallons2 into this put about #afj gallons of #fj-;degree sulphuric acid1 adding water enough to make the solution about #ab ,beaume4 ,into this solution place scrap iron of any description and allow it to stand until the solution will dissolve no more iron4 ,pump the solution into a shallow lead-lined vat with lead coils1 and evaporate to about #dj degrees ,beaume4 ,it is next drawn off into barrels of fifty gallons each and to each barrel add forty pounds of black oxide of manganese and thoroughly mix4 ,copperas in ,water to ,evaporate4--,an early practice and one which had the merit of fixing free ammonia before it passes off in a gaseous form was the introduction of copperas in tank water1 while settling1 and before evaporation4 ,the vats of tank water are tested with a ,beaume hydrometer and for every #b1jjj gallons of tank water at indicated degree1 ,beaume1 ordinary commercial copperas should be added as follows3 ,water testing #e ,baume #aff lbs4 dry copperas ,water testing #d ,baume #aej lbs4 dry copperas ,water testing #d ,baume #acc lbs4 dry copperas ,water testing #c ,baume #aag lbs4 dry copperas ,water testing #c ,baume #ajj lbs4 dry copperas ,these varying amounts of copperas are put into a barrel of hot water and thoroughly stirred until dissolved4 ,the solution is then poured into a vat of tank water1 the mass allowed to stand six or eight hours1 and then skimmed off before being pumped to the evaporating machine4 ,solids in ,water4--,the percentage of solids and liquids1 as well as the respective weights in tank water at different degrees ,beaume1 are shown in the following table3 ,,table ,,for ,,tank ,,water4 ,weight ,per ,per of ,weight ,degrees cent cent cubic of ,baume solidswater foot gallon ------------------------------ #a #a4ijih4aj #fb4ad #h4cj #b #c4hcif4ag #fb4df #h4cd #c #e4ggid4bc #fb4gi #h4ci #d #g4ggib4bc #fc4aa #h4dc #e #i4heij4ae #fc4dc #h4dg #f #aa4ichh4jg #fc4ia #h4ed #g #ad4jdhe4if #fd4da #h4fj #h #af4aihc4ha #fd4hi #h4fg #i #ah4chha4fb #fe4ch #h4gc #aj #bj4fjgi4dj #fe4ha #h4hj #aa #bb4gagg4bi #ff4ci #h4hg #ab #bd4hdge4af #ff4ib #h4id #ac #bf4iggc4jc #fg4dd #i4ja #ad #bi4aagj4hi #fg4ig #i4jh #ae #ca4bgfh4gc #fh4di #i4ae #af #cc4eeff4de #fi4je #i4bc #ag #ce4hhfd4ab #fi4fa #i4cj #ah #ch4bbfa4gh #gj4ag #i4cg #ai #dj4eiei4da #gj4gb #i4de #bj #db4iheg4jb #ga4bh #i4eb #ba #de4aaed4hi #ga4hi #i4fj #bb #dg4bdeb4gf #gb4gi #i4fh #bc #di4cgej4fc #gc4ji #i4gg #bd #ea4ejdh4ej #gc4gj #i4he #be #ec4fcdf4cg #gd4cj #i4ic #bf #ef4cadc4fi #gd4ie #aj4ja #bg #ei4jddj4if #ge4fj #aj4aj #bh #fa4hjch4bj #gf4be #aj4ai #bi #fd4face4ci #gf4ij #aj4bg #cj #fg4edcb4df #gg4ee #aj4cf #ca #gj4cdbi4ff #gh4ce #aj4df #cb #gc4bgbf4gc #gh4id #aj4ee #cc #gf4bdbc4gf #gi4fd #aj4fd #cd #gi4bebj4ge #hj4cc #aj4gc #ce #hc4baag4gi #ha4jj #aj4hc ------------------------------ ,drying #bi ,beaume ,stick4--,this is done in two ways1 by the use of drying rolls and by mixing with drying tankage in a rotary dryer4 ,when drying stick over the rolls1 evaporate it in the evaporators to #bf ,beaume and mix with this #bf ,beaume stick1 about #ag per cent of copperas before putting the mixture over the rolls4 ,this has a tendency to prevent the concentrated tankage from absorbing moisture when in storage4 ,many operators dry stick without the use of copperas1 but the copperas prevents in a measure the stick absorbing moisture from the air4 ,stick ,rolls4--,fig4 #gd shows a standard twin stick roll4 ,this equipment is made of two cast iron rolls built when new to sustain #ej lbs4 pressure4 ,the stick is deposited in a pan beneath and the revolving roll collects a film of substance which is dried as the roll revolves and is sliced from the surface of the roll by a close fitting scraper1 being removed in a powdered form4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--,,standard ,,twin ,,stick ,,roll4 ,drying with ,tankage4--,the practice now generally adopted is the mixing of the stick with tankage and drying in the standard fertilizer dryer1 using a fifteen foot dryer with stationary shell and revolving shaft1 with arms cylindrical type1 usually known as the 8,smith0 dryer4 ,the usual charge is #d1jjj lbs4 pressed tankage and #a1bjj lbs4 stick1 agitating while the stick is being admitted so as to assist in equal mixing4 ,the stick should be at a temperature of #aij ,f41 or near thereto when used4 ,the heated substance seems to produce less tailings1 or small balls requiring milling4 ,value of ,tankage4--,to appreciate the value of the substances to be collected in this manner1 we refer to copy of test1 made by an expert1 on a plant handling about #e1jjj cattle and #e1jjj hogs per week1 as follows3 ,,estimate ,,of ,,the ,,production ,,and ,,value ,,of ,,tankage ,,made ,,by ,,evaporating ,,tank ,,water4 ,,test ,,for ,,amount ,,of ,,water ,,drained ,,off ,,vats ,,before ,,pulling ,,tankage4 ,av4 ,tank ,product ,gallonsgallons ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,no4 #a ,prime tallow 7cutting room bones1 etc47 #a1dde ,no4 #a ,prime tallow 7cutting room bones1 etc47 #a1gcd #a1ehi ------- ,no4 #b ,prime tallow 7bed fat1 etc47 #a1fde ,no4 #b ,prime tallow 7bed fat1 etc47 #a1cfe ,no4 #c ,prime tallow 7bed fat1 etc47 #a1dbf ,no4 #c ,prime tallow 7bed fat1 etc47 #a1hbg #a1eff ------- ,no4 #d ,no4 #b tallow 7catch basin stuff7 #ffh ,no4 #f ,pluck tank #ije ,no4 #i ,pluck tank #efb ,no4 #aj ,pluck tank #fbd ,no4 #aj ,pluck tank #hdg #gce ------- ,no4 #aa ,prime steam lard #a1chb ,no4 #aa ,prime steam lard #a1bdh #a1cae ------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,,total ,,number ,,of ,,times ,,tanks ,,filled ,,and ,,cooked4 ,no4 ,product4 ,tanks ,prime tallow with cutting room bones #f ,prime tallow with bed fat1 etc4 #aj ,no4 #b tallow #f ,pluck tanks #ac ,prime steam lard #f -- ,total #da ,,basis ,,for ,,estimate ,,of ,,production4 ,average ,total ,solids ,total ,units ,no4 ofcontentscontentsper gal4solids,per cent of ,tanks gals4 gals4 lbs4 lbs4 ,ammonia ,ammonia ---------------------------------------- ----------- #f #a1ehi #i1ecd #j4hh #h1cij #af4gf #a1djf #aj #a1eff #ae1ffj #a4jc #af1acj #af4hi #b1gbd #f #ffh #d1jjh 4#cii #a1eii #ad4ei #bcc #ac #gce #i1eee 4#gfc #g1bij #af4he #a1bbh #f #a1cae #g1hij 4#jdha #chj #af4jj #fa ---------------------------------------- ----------- 444 #df1fdg 444 #cc1ghi #af4gc #e1feb ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,total units of ammonia per tank1 #e1feb4 ,average units of ammonia per tank1 #af4gc4 #h per cent of moisture1 dry basis4 ,this production at #a4ff per unit would be worth #bg4gg per ton1 or the yearly production would bring #bd1cif4cb4 ,figuring the production of tankage to be #ff1jjj pounds per week and that with this could be mixed through the dryer #fjj pounds or #ajg4c gallons of stick1 #be ,beaume with each ton of dry tankage--then #cc #fjj pounds1 or #ai1hjj pounds1 would be the limit of production from the tank water4 ,the regular tankage runs on an average of #aj per cent ammonia and #af4d bone phosphate1 and as shown above the production from the tank water with #h per cent moisture would run #af4gc per cent ammonia4 ,the product would therefore consist of the following3 ,weight,per cent ,units ,per cent ,units ,materials pounds,ammonia ,ammonia,phosphate,phosphate ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,regular tankage #ff1jjj #aj4jj #f1fjj #af4d #aj1hbd ,evaporated tank water#ai1hjj #af4gc #c1cab 444 444 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,total production #he1hjj 444 #i1iab 444 #aj1hbd ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,analysis1 ammonia #aa4ee1 bone phosphate #ab4fb ,value per ton #ai4ic1 or for the yearly production1 #dd1dei4hd4 ,should there be added worthless material sufficient to reduce the percentage of ammonia to #aj1 the following formula would apply3 ,weight,per cent ,units ,per cent ,units ,materials pounds,ammonia ,ammonia,phosphate,phosphate ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,regular tankage #ff1jjj #aj4jj #f1fjj #af4d #aj1hbd ,evaporated tank water#ai1hjj #af4gc #c1cab 444 444 ,worthless material #ac1cbj 444 444 444 444 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,total production #ii1abj 444 #i1iab 444 #aj1hbd ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,analysis1 ammonia #aj2 bone phosphate #aj4ib4 ,value per ton #ag4be1 or for yearly production #dd1dfh4cb ,,recapitulation4 ,value of total production for one year #dd1dfh4cb ,value of tankage for one year #cj1jcj4jj #f per cent interest on #aj1jjj investment #fjj4jj #ae per cent depreciation on #aj1jjj investment #a1ejj4jj ,additional labor1 five men1 8full time0 #b1cdj4jj #cd1dgj4jj ---------------------- ,net profit on investment #i1iih4cb ,quantity of ,tank ,water ,produced4--,this is variable1 depending upon closeness of saving and density2 also quantity of solid substance measured1 and other items1 but generally speaking from cattle slaughtered--ten gallons per head1 and from pigs two and one-half gallons per head are collected4 ,expense of ,evaporating ,stick4--,the following test shows the cost of producing stick through evaporators4 ,the cost at the present time would be #ajj higher owing to coal costs3 ,,cost ,,of ,,evaporating ,,tank ,,water4 ,duration of ,test #i hours #h hours ,average ,steam ,pressure--#ast effect #e4a lbs4 #e4a lbs4 ,average ,vacuum--#ast effect #aa4d lbs4 #aa4i lbs4 ,average ,vacuum--#bnd effect #ai4j lbs4 #ah4f lbs4 ,average ,vacuum--#crd effect #bg4g lbs4 #bg4d lbs4 ,density of ,tank ,water at #aej #c ,b4 #b ,b4 ,average ,temperature of ,tank ,water #bjc #aii ,gallons ,tank ,water ,fed #aa1dgf #i1fbe ,gallons ,tank ,water ,fed ,per ,hour #a1bge #a1acb ,gallons ,tank ,water ,fed ,per ,hour #a1cch #a1bbj ,gallons ,stick ,produced #a1jib4ge #ijg ,density ,stick at #aej #cj ,b4 #bh ,b4 ,pounds ,stick ,produced 7#aj4bje lbs4 and #aj4jh lbs4 per gal47 #aa1aea #i1adb ,pounds ,water ,evaporated #hc1jff #fi1gdh ,pounds ,steam ,used--#ast effect #ag1gab #ah1eji ,pounds ,steam ,used--,pumps #aa1baj #aj1igb ------ ------ ,pounds ,steam ,used--,total #bh1ibb #bi1dha ,pounds ,steam ,used per #ajj lbs4 ,stick--#ast effect #aei #bjb ,pounds ,steam ,used per #ajj lbs4 ,stick--,pumps #ajj #abj --- --- ,pounds ,steam ,used per #ajj lbs4 ,stick--,total #bei #cbb ,cost ,steam ,used per #ajj lbs4 ,stick--#ast effect at 4#acb per #a1jjj lbs4 4#jba 4#jbg ,cost ,steam ,used per #ajj lbs4 ,stick--,pumps 4#jac 4#jaf ---- ----- ,cost ,steam ,used per #ajj lbs4 ,stick--,total 4#jcd 4#jdc ,pounds ,steam ,used per #ajj lbs4 ,stick--,water evaporated--#ast effect #ba4c #bf4f ,pounds ,steam ,used per #ajj lbs4 ,stick--,pumps #ac4e #db4c ---- ---- ,pounds ,steam ,used per #ajj lbs4 ,stick--,total #cd4h #db4c ,cost ,steam ,used per #ajj lbs4 ,stick1 ,water evaporated--#ast effect 4#jjbh 4#jjce ,cost ,steam ,used per #ajj lbs4 ,stick1 ,water evaporated--,pumps 4#jjah 4#jjba ----- ----- ,cost ,steam ,used per #ajj lbs4 ,stick1 ,water evaporated--,total 4#jjdf 4#jjef ,,note3 ,the equivalent gallons concentrated from #aj to #gj solids are calculated from a table and not from analysis of the tank water and stick2 therefore1 are only approximately correct4 ,the steam cost at #j4acb per #a1jjj pounds is far below present average conditions4 ,quantity ,stick ,produced4--,the quantity of stick it is possible to produce is indicated in the following table3 ,,annual ,,production ,,tank ,,water ,,and ,,stick4 ,basis for ,approximate ,killing ,approximation ,head ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,cattle #bjh1cjd #a to #a #bjh1cjd ,calves #cf1dgd #g to #a #d1hfc ,sheep #daf1cbe #g to #a #ee1eaj ,packer ,hogs #dif1bai #b to #a #bca1efi ,shipper ,hogs #de1jid #e to #a #i1jai ------- ,total approximate killing #eji1bfe ,gallons tank water saved #d1iab1dhd ,gallons tank water per approximate head #i4fd ,pounds of ,stick made #b1gff1fdh ,pounds of ,stick made per approximate head #e4dc ,the relative quantity of ,stick to dried fertilizer produced is about #dj1 but the stick is more valuable due to its higher ammonia content and the mixture of the stick with the standard fertilizer increases the value per ton of the fertilizer4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,fertilizer4 ,,fertilizer -- ,,blood -- ,,receiving ,,tank -- ,,cooking -- ,,pressing -- ,,purity -- ,,storing -- ,,quick ,,handling -- ,,tankage -- ,,quotations ,,and ,,value -- ,,grease -- ,,influence ,,of ,,stick -- ,,digester ,,tankage -- ,,slime -- ,,dryers -- ,,drying -- ,,expense ,,for ,,drying -- ,,commercial ,,fertilizer -- ,,state ,,regulations -- ,,mixing ,,materials -- ,,conversion ,,factors4 ,fertilizer4--,in this department we discuss the manipulation of the products after leaving the tanking process in the case of tankage1 and of blood1 beginning with its release from the animal4 ,blood4--,the sources of the collection of blood are from animals slaughtered1 viz3 cattle1 sheep1 calves and pigs4 ,in nearly every instance this is collected at a given point near the sticking rails and transferred to the fertilizer department for processing4 ,it is rather difficult to pump blood1 although it can be readily done with a ball valve pump1 or a centrifugal pump4 ,the latter is satisfactory if foreign substances can be kept out1 and if the reservoir can be situated high enough so that the blood can gravitate to the suction of the pump4 ,mechanical agitation is a benefit in the receivers4 ,a very satisfactory way to handle blood is by means of a blow tank4 ,this is a tight1 heavily constructed cylinder with an admittance valve on the inlet pipe1 and a closing valve on the discharge pipe2 the latter preferably a quick opening valve4 ,a means for admitting air or steam to the blood is arranged4 ,to operate1 the valve on the inlet line as well as the outlet valve is closed1 and air or steam pressure is built up as required for the lift4 ,the outlet valve is then quickly opened when the contents of the tank is virtually 8shot0 to the receiving tanks4 ,receiving ,tank4--,this is preferably a closed type of tank with an air vent to allow displacement of air when blowing blood4 ,it is preferably situated above the cook tank with an admittance valve between them so that blood can be lowered to the cooking tank at will4 ,cooking4--,blood should be 8baked10 not boiled4 ,by this is meant1 the steam should be admitted slowly and the heat dispersed through the mass rather than boiled violently1 by admitting high pressure steam4 ,the blood1 by this method1 seems to coagulate in larger grains1 and1 in pressing1 a larger proportion is retained in the cloths1 while the serum or white water draining away is of a lighter color1 with the net result that the yield of blood is better4 ,pressing4--,the pressing is performed in the same manner as described for tankage1 except that the material is handled dry4 ,the waters from cooking1 as well as from pressing1 are saved for evaporation as tank water4 ,blood when pressed properly is 8caked40 ,it should be broken up before being passed to the dryers4 ,purity4--,means should be provided and arrangements made to keep all raw or fluid blood free from water and manure4 ,frequently cattle that are hay or grass fed1 have a draining from the stomach via the mouth when hung1 and comparatively large quantities of undigested food are spilled4 ,this should be collected before the animal is stuck and prevented from mixing with the blood4 ,storing4--,after drying1 blood should be cooled and stored in piles on the floor in dry rooms to be put in bags at the time of shipment4 ,it is usually unnecessary to grind or screen it4 ,it should be dried to #h moisture4 ,quick ,handling4--,blood is so highly susceptible to decay that it should be handled quickly and with as little contact with air as possible4 ,tankage4--,this name embodies the dried material from the residue in the tanks after cooking in digesters1 and pressing4 ,it is classified into several grades4 ,digester tankage1 is usually sold for stock foods4 ,no4 #a tankage of commerce1 has a high nitrogen content and low percentage of bone1 it is usually produced from beef tanks2 ,no4 #b tankage is low in nitrogen or ammonia1 as it is known to the lay-mind1 and high in bone4 ,the usual comparative analysis is3 ,blood ,no4 #a ,no4 #b ,bone ,phosphate 444 #aj #bh ,ammonia #af-ag #aj-ab #f-h ,quotations and ,values4--,tankage and blood is usually sold on its value per unit of ammonia4 ,that is to say1 if blood be quoted at #c4jj per unit of ammonia and analyzes sixteen per cent1 it sells for #dh4jj per ton4 ,tankage may contain eleven per cent ammonia and twelve per cent bone phosphate1 quoted at #b4ge per unit1 and #aj;c per unit respectively1 which would make the relative market #ca4de per ton4 ,by reference to market quotations it will be noted usually that the lower the ammonia content1 the lower the price per unit of ammonia1 consequently it behooves the maker to produce all the ,no4 #a tankage possible1 and this is accomplished by cooking bone as raw bone and separately--in preference to tanking it4 ,grease4--,grease in fertilizers or dried tankage is a positive detriment4 ,it is useless and valueless1 consequently the point to be striven for is to lower the percentage of grease to the minimum4 ,the best methods known are described under tanking4 ,some packers doing business on a large scale have 8degreasing0 plants where the grease is extracted by naphtha process1 but1 this is a highly specialized department and not desirable in a small plant4 ,by careful attention the grease can be lowered to eight per cent on dry basis analysis4 ,influence of ,stick4--,the use of stick in tankage drying adds greatly to the average ammonia content4 ,dried stick separately analyzed yields #ae per cent ammonia1 greatly increasing the value of the product in which it is used4 ,digester ,tankage4--,this is a general name for the product sold to pig feeders for providing a nitrogenous element in their feeding4 ,state ,agricultural ,departments and packers have been conducting campaigns for years introducing this as a feed4 ,it is usually a ,no4 #a tankage made from freshly killed material and promptly dried4 ,it is supposed to contain a stated protein content1 which is really a multiple or unit based upon its nitrogen content1 #e4acg being the factor4 ,stick is used in the digester tankage and with benefit provided it is kept sweet4 ,in hog producing localities practically the entire output of tankage can be disposed of to the farmer for stock food purposes4 ,slime4--,the slime scraped from intestines in the casing department has a high ammonia value and should be collected and cooked in a manner similar to the method used in cooking blood4 ,drying4--,this operation consists of extracting the moisture from the tankage by means of air which is used as a vehicle to carry away the moisture4 ,various devices are employed for performing this function1 such as barometric condensers1 siphon tees1 pipe condensers1 and fan with air wash tower4 ,there is some objection to all of these types1 and each operator usually has some home-made device based upon experience4 ,the fan is the more logical2 it sweeps a large volume of air through the dryer by withdrawing it and passing it to the wash tower4 ,the air carries away the moisture4 ,to dry cheaply have a positive circulation of air through the dryer by keeping the inlet open1 the fan attached to the air outlet connection4 ,single or multiple of dryers can be arranged on one fan4 ,dryers4--,the principal apparatus in the fertilizer department is the dryer4 ,of these there are several types4 ,direct ,fire ,dryers4--,in direct fire dryers1 the tankage and flame produced by the use of oil1 coke or coal1 are introduced and passed through a cylindrical rotating machine similar to a cement dryer4 ,the dried tankage is discharged at the opposite end from the feed1 and the gases and moisture pass through a water spray and chimney to the air4 ,it is practically impossible to operate a dryer of this type without producing an offensive odor in the surrounding territory and they are also considered hazardous from a fire standpoint4 ,smith ,type4--,this type of dryer is shown in the illustration 7,fig4 #ge7 and is of the steam jacketed type4 ,the barrel is stationary with a revolving shaft and extended arms carrying the tankage upward which falls back through the air4 ,ord ,type4--,this dryer is also illustrated1 ,fig4 #gf1 and is of the same type1 except that the shaft is placed vertical and the revolving arms at right angle to the shaft device which accomplishes the same result4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--;,,illustrating ,,the ,,smith ,,type ,,of ,,dryer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--,,showing ,,the ,,ord ,,type ,,of ,,dryer4 ,expense for ,drying4--,in a charge type of machine where batches are placed in the machine and unit lots dried1 the expense for drying seems to be per short ton1 about as follows3 ,labor1 #a4be to #b4jj2 ,dryer repairs1 #j4ge to #a4be2 ,steam1 variable4 ,the item of steam is quite a large factor4 ,in a well handled equipment1 properly insulated1 about of a pound of moisture can be extracted per pound of steam condensed in the jacket1 when drying tankage1 and of a pound when drying blood4 ,the latter requires about twice as long to dry as tankage2 in other words1 the output per hour of dryer operation is about one-half4 ,commercial ,fertilizer4--,commercial ,fertilizer is the name generally applied to prepared or diluted mixtures thought to be best adapted for use on ground or for some special crop4 ,the standard tankage as produced contains an ammonia content of from eight to twelve per cent and may be short in other ingredients such as potash and acid phosphate1 which are mineral substances1 usually converted to a form readily soluble1 or in condition to be assimilated4 ,also the ammonia content is reduced to a moderation1 the dilution being accomplished by the use of a filler1 such as pulverized dried peaty soil1 which has the advantage of carrying a certain quantity of humus or selected sand which serves a drill nicely4 ,state ,regulations4--,most states have found it desirable to protect the purchaser by insisting that an analysis of the fertilizer be supplied with each shipment1 indicating the content1 the state then making sporadic analyses to see that it generally qualifies to the stated contents4 ,mixing ,materials4--,the mixing materials used are3 ,dried ,tankage4 ,dried ,blood4 ,bone ,meal4 ,steam ,bone4 ,acid phosphates1 which is phosphate rock treated with sulphuric acid--a more or less complicated process--and which product is usually purchased by small works4 ,muriate of potash1 a substance known as kainit usually produced from mines in ,germany1 although some potash is being produced from sea weed in ,america4 ,conversion ,factors4--,the following table will be found handy for changing the bone quantity into another term1 as for example1 wishing to know the per cent of nitrogen if ammonia be expressed3 ,,conversion ,,factors ,multiply by ,a ,b ,a to ,b ,b to ,a ,nitrogen ,ammonia #a4baeh 4#hbbe ,nitrogen ,nitrate of ,soda #f4jfgh 4#afdh ,nitrogen ,nitrate of ,potash #g4bagj 4#achf ,nitrogen ,protein #f4bejj 4#afjj ,ammonia ,nitrate of ,soda #d4iijf 4#bjjd ,ammonia ,nitrate of ,potash #e4iceh 4#afhe ,ammonia ,protein #e4adjd 4#aide ,ammonia ,sulphate of ,ammonia #c4hgia 4#begh ,nitrate of ,soda ,nitrate of ,potash #a4ahid 4#hdjh ,actual ,potash ,muriate of ,potash #a4ehcj 4#fcag ,actual ,potash ,sulfate of ,potash #a4hejj 4#edje ,actual ,potash ,nitrate of ,potash #b4adfg 4#dfeh ,actual ,potash ,carbonate of ,potash #a4dfga 4#fhaf ,muriate of ,potash ,sulphate of ,potash #a4afhg 4#heeg ,muriate of ,potash ,carbonate of ,potash 4#ibfh #a4jgij ,phosphoric ,acid ,bone ,phos4 of ,lime #b4ahej 4#degg ,carbonic ,acid ,carbonate of ,lime #b4bgdh 4#dcif ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,casings4 ,,description ,,of ,,beef ,,casings -- ,,round ,,casings1 ,,how ,,made -- ,,selection ,,of ,,round ,,casings -- ,,export ,,casings -- ,,domestic ,,rounds -- ,,beef ,,middles -- ,,turning ,,and ,,sliming -- ,,inspection ,,and ,,measuring -- ,,beef ,,bungs -- ,,bung ,,gut ,,skins -- ,,beef ,,bladders -- ,,beef ,,weasands -- ,,packages -- ,,salt -- ,,cleanliness -- ,,water ,,temperature -- ,,machines ,,for ,,casings -- ,,hog ,,casings -- ,,small ,,casings4 ,description of ,beef ,casings4--,casing is a product made from the intestines of cattle1 sheep and hogs4 ,they are saved when animals are slaughtered in quantities sufficiently large to warrant the care and attention required4 ,this was one of the products which was wasted where animals were slaughtered on a small scale4 ,it is a product worthy of careful attention to its production in order that it be in a good1 marketable condition4 ,casings consist of round or small guts1 middle or large intestines1 bungs1 weasands and bladders1 these being the names of casings obtained from cattle4 ,in the preparation of casings there are five essential points to be considered3 ,first4--,clear water and plenty of it4 ,second4--,that they be handled promptly1 otherwise they become discolored and color in casings has much to do with their value4 ,third4--,that too hot water is not used so as to injure them4 ,fourth4--,that the pieces are long and the casings are put up free from tearing or holes4 ,fifth4--,cleanliness and good workmanship4 ,round ,casings4--,these are the small intestines and are taken from the edge of the ruffle by cutting with a knife4 ,the running1 as this work is termed1 is skillful work and care has to be exercised to avoid cutting4 ,they should if possible be removed in two lengths4 ,they are then stripped free from contents1 and the clinging fat removed either by hand scraping or passing through a machine4 ,it is essential that all the fat from the casing should be removed1 as it is detrimental if left on4 ,after they have been 8fatted0 they are put into a vat of water and 8turned10 which process turns them wrong side out1 exposing the internal part of the intestine4 ,they are then put through a scraping-machine1 which removes all the membrane4 ,this operation is sometimes done by hand4 ,when this work is completed it is only the muscular portion of the intestine that remains4 ,after they are thus finished they are inspected either by examination in passing through the fingers or by air blowing1 preferably the latter4 ,the casings are measured into sets of #ajh to #aaj feet1 green length4 ,a standard set of rounds is supposed to measure #ajj feet1 but the larger measure is allowed as in the salting and curing they shrink so that when measured1 cured1 they will not exceed #ajj feet4 ,a set of rounds should not have to exceed five holes1 or consist of more than five pieces1 the less the number of either holes or pieces the more desirable4 ,after they are thus measured they are put in a salting box1 where they are shaken up by hand so as to make all the salt possible adhere to them4 ,they are then piled on an open truck or rack1 so that all the water possible will drain off4 ,remaining in this condition for a day they are resalted and packed into tierces4 ,it is necessary1 in order to get the quantity of casings in a tierce to use pressure and press them tightly4 ,selection of ,round ,casings4--,round casings are classified under several headings1 namely1 export1 wide1 narrow and domestic4 ,export ,casings4--,the export rounds are reasonably narrow and absolutely free of knots4 ,the knots referred to are those on the intestines chiefly found in the entrails of native cattle1 or cattle that have been highly fed1 and are objectionable to the foreign trade4 ,they are packed #bjj sets per tierce4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--;,,fatting ,,machine ,,for ,,casings4 ,domestic ,rounds4--,these are for domestic trade4 ,they are wider and heavier than those exported4 ,they are handled in the same manner1 packed from #aej to #agj sets to the tierce1 the difference in the number of the sets indicating that they are wider casings and not as carefully selected4 ,beef ,middles4--,after the ruffle has been pulled off the intestines1 the middles are pulled apart1 leaving all the fat that will adhere to them4 ,the contents are washed by inserting a hose at the larger end1 partially filling the casing and pouring the contents into a separate pipe leading to the catch basin4 ,the workmen press the casing rather than strip it1 as the latter method strips the fat and causes a considerable loss on account of fat carried to catch basin4 ,the contents of the intestine washed out1 the gut then goes to the fatter1 who cuts off all the fat with a knife4 ,it is very important to see that no fat is left on the casing4 ,any fat which may be left on the casing will detract from the appearance4 ,it is usual after fatting1 to scrape the casing with a wood scraper so as to remove any clinging tissue and fat4 ,turning and ,sliming4--,the casing is now turned1 fatted side in1 and when turned exposes the inner surface4 ,this is hand or machine scraped and must be perfectly clean1 inspection being made to ascertain this condition exists4 ,inspecting and ,measuring4--,it is best to inspect middle casings by air1 at which time they are selected for wide and narrow standards1 especially in the larger works4 ,they are measured #fb feet to the set1 allowance being made for shrinkage in salting1 so that after they have been salted they will measure #eg feet1 this being the standard commercial length per set4 ,these are handled on the salting benches1 etc41 the same as rounds4 ,they are selected as follows3 ,they must be of prime quality1 properly cleaned1 slimed and salted1 closely fatted1 free from holes1 good color and smell1 no piece to be less than three feet in length1 not more than one such piece in a set1 and the thin end of the gut must be cut off4 ,they should be assorted in accordance with requirements into-- ,narrows ,packed #adj sets to the tierce ,wides ,packed #ie sets to the tierce ,regulars 7which means the medium casings7 ,packed #aaj sets to the tierce ,the salting and packing process is the same as described for round casings4 ,beef ,bungs4--,these are the larger intestines and have one blind or closed end4 ,they have an average length of four feet1 but vary with the cattle size4 ,the opening1 where the small intestine connects with the large1 should be in the center4 ,the cleaning process is similar to other casings1 except the scraping is done by hand work1 or using a revolving washing machine4 ,bungs1 handled practically the same as the previously described casings1 to be of good quality1 full length1 properly cleaned1 slimed1 salted and fatted1 free from holes1 reasonably free from scores and cuts and of good color4 ,the regular run of these casings should be packed #djj pieces to the tierce1 tied in bundles of five each4 ,bung ,gut ,skins4--,from the bung gut is often removed the membrane1 known as 8bung gut skins40 ,these are used by gold beaters4 ,they are handled as follows3 ,the bung gut skins should be started at the cap end1 being careful to remove the skin for about four to six inches from the end of the cap1 then remove same around the bung end1 back of the cap end first1 and next take off toward the open end1 after the bung is skinned back as far as possible beyond the small intestine4 ,the skins are thin and difficult to remove2 there is no difficulty experienced1 however1 in getting them thirty inches or over in length4 ,after the skin is removed it is placed in ice water1 and1 when well chilled1 is salted thoroughly in the cap and outside4 ,the object of putting the skin in ice water is to facilitate handling4 ,after they are thoroughly salted they are hung over a bar covered with a piece of burlap and allowed to hang for one or two days1 until they are thoroughly drained1 or dried4 ,when dry each skin is separately handled1 the loose salt shaken off1 and examined for holes and fat and ragged ends4 ,holes near the edge of the skins can be cut out without materially injuring them4 ,all fat on the edge and ragged ends should be cut off4 ,after the skins have passed this inspection they should be spread full length and width on a table1 one over the other1 gathered in bunches of fifty1 tied in the center and packed in a tierce4 ,care should be taken in handling the skins not to let them come in contact with any iron as that will discolor them4 ,many casing men object to removing the bung gut skins1 believing that it injures the casing4 ,if they are handled carefully1 however1 the injury will not be more than five per cent4 ,beef ,bladders4--,bladders should be cut with a long neck and after they have been fatted should be blown up as large as possible and hung in a dry room to dry4 ,after they are blown and dried1 the necks are cut off and they are flattened out and packed in bundles of twelve each4 ,the first grade consists of bladders fourteen inches in length1 with or without necks4 ,the second grade consists of bladders from eleven to thirteen inches in length with the neck4 ,the third grade consists of bladders with or without necks1 not under nine inches in length4 ,beef ,weasands4--,after the meat has been removed from the outside the weasand is turned wrong side out1 washed1 both ends tied1 and blown full of air4 ,after they are blown with compressed air they are hung in a dry room1 which should have a temperature of #aaj to #abj ,f41 and left there until thoroughly dried4 ,they are then taken out1 the ends cut off1 the weasands put in bundles of twenty-five each1 twenty bundles tied together into a large bundle1 five or ten of these large bundles constituting a case4 ,regular weasands must be of prime quality1 properly dried1 entirely free from worms1 and at least twenty-four inches long1 allowing not over four pieces of shorter 7same to be at least eighteen inches long7 to the bundle of twenty-five4 ,two of such short ones will be counted as one full weasand4 ,narrow weasands are those which1 while being dried1 have a weight of about three pounds hung on the end1 drawing them out as long as possible1 which has the tendency to make them narrow4 ,these should not be blown as full of air as those not drawn4 ,after they are dried they must be at least twenty-six inches long and from two to two and one-half inches in width when flattened out4 ,other conditions same as the regular weasands1 except that they must be entirely free from skin worms and skin-worm marks4 ,packages4--,the packages used for beef casings are usually soft wood tierces1 free from any stain such as occurs in an oak stave4 ,a second-hand glucose tierce is preferable4 ,they should be cleaned thoroughly before filling1 by scraping free from any char1 and then well washed4 ,salt4--,the salt usually used is the 8,no4 #a ,fine0 grade of evaporated salt4 ,in first and second saltings the casings must be carefully covered1 particularly at the points where the bunch is tied4 ,cleanliness4--,it is difficult to properly describe the care necessary in every stage to insure clean casings4 ,water from inland or murky rivers should be settled of filtered to make clean1 bright casings4 ,every particle of fat or fibre to which any sediment or stain can adhere makes a black spot upon the finished salted casings4 ,there is perhaps no department where such scrupulous care is needed4 ,water ,temperature4--,water used in cleaning casings should be about #ij ,f41 in temperature1 and kept uniformly so1 until the casing has been turned and slimed1 when it should be submerged and kept in cool water at a temperature of about #dj ,f41 until passed to the salting boxes4 ,machines for ,casings4--,beef casing machines equipped with rice-root brushes are termed 8fatting machines10 while those fitted with bristle brushes are termed 8sliming machines40 ,to process middle guts by machine1 they are passed twice through a fatting machine1 turned and passed three times through the sliming machine4 ,to process round guts they are passed through the fatting and sliming machines twice4 ,to obtain the best results the brushes should run #aeej r4 p4 m4 ,about three horse-power is required to operate a machine4 ,salt in the sliming water is an advantage4 ,hog ,casings4--,it is more difficult to describe the saving of hog casings4 ,the first item is the removing of the bung which should be pulled carefully1 and be as long as possible4 ,the removal of the bung without scoring1 breaking or cutting is a part of the slaughtering work and requires skillful knife work to accomplish it properly4 ,as soon as the bung gut is pulled it is stripped and trimmed carefully so as to not destroy the crown4 ,the clinging fat is removed and the bung is then turned1 after which they are classified and salted over night in a pickle for the purpose of curing4 ,the following day they are bundled and packed in second-hand hardwood tierces4 ,the grading is difficult to describe since the standards vary slightly4 ,they are usually classified as ,no4 #a1 medium primes1 and ,no4 #b quality4 ,the grading of hog bungs for export and medium primes require that they shall be full crown1 free from cuts and scores1 pulled full length1 and when wind tested and blown to about the distention when stuffed1 are measured eighteen inches from the crown3 ,exports #a inches diameter and over ,medium ,prime #a inches diameter and over ,no4 #b ,less than #a inches diameter ,small ,casings4--,the small casings are pulled from the set stripped and soaked over night to allow a fermentation or decay of the slime and muscle on the tissue4 ,the length of time for the soaking and the fermentation are controlled by the workman4 ,soaking too long or too much heat rots the casing4 ,too little makes it difficult to properly clean4 ,water test each gut4 ,this is an advantage since it washes each piece and locates all holes4 ,at the same time the casings are selected for width4 ,after selecting and cleaning in this manner the casings are put in bundles of equal size measured as to quantity4 ,they are then well salted and placed upon draining benches to cure4 ,after a period of from three to five days they are shaken free from salt1 rubbed with new finely ground salt and packed in hardwood barrels4 ,these barrels should be cloth lined after soaking several days1 the water being changed every forty-eight hours4 ,the salting process is the trick in the casing business4 ,casings are usually sold on a free of salt basis1 and are supposed to contain forty per cent salt1 this quantity being allowed4 ,on shaking1 at times1 they will show sixty per cent1 therefore it behooves the buyer or seller to be on guard4 ,machines are used for passing the casing through for removal of muscle and slime4 ,in these1 rapidly revolving knives or scrapers fitting closely to a roller1 perform the process4 ,the casings after passing through the machines are handled by hand1 each piece being scraped while on a board and any holes that may appear being cut out1 as well as ragged ends cut square4 ,the average yield in hog casings is usually one-quarter pound per hog4 ,it takes close attention to develop this quantity4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,beef ,,miscellany ,,beef ,,miscellaneous -- ,,livers -- ,,sweetbreads -- ,,beef ,,hearts -- ,,tails -- ,,weasand ,,meat -- ,,beef ,,tongues -- ,,washing -- ,,hanging -- ,,trimming -- ,,curing -- ,,freezing -- ,,surplus ,,rounds -- ,,stripping ,,beef ,,hams -- ,,formulas ,,for ,,curing -- ,,smoking -- ,,tests -- ,,glass ,,jar ,,beef -- ,,beef ,,trimmings -- ,,barrel ,,beef -- ,,tripe -- ,,cleaning ,,tripe -- ,,pickling -- ,,cost ,,of ,,production4 ,beef ,miscellaneous4--,the rising value of all flesh foods makes it imperative to carefully conserve all kinds of products and this chapter is devoted to a description of the care and handling of these products4 ,livers4--,there is no edible part of the animal which becomes stale as quickly as the liver4 ,the large proportion of water in its makeup together with the presence of blood and the residual matter from its function in the body all contribute to this rapid decay1 and only by the most careful attention will they keep a very great length of time unless they are frozen4 ,the vital point in handling livers successfully is to promptly send them to a proper cooler4 ,as soon as they are taken from the animal they should be trimmed1 care being taken that in cutting the gall bag from the liver they are not contaminated with gall1 the trimming consisting of cutting around the lower lobe so as to permit the blood contained therein to drip out4 ,the cooler in which they are stored should be of the same character as a beef cooler with an overhead loft and a positive and good circulation4 ,the livers should be separated so that warm ones will not come in contact with cold ones4 ,the temperature of the cooler should be about #cb ,f4 ,in hanging1 the cooling racks are preferably metal1 frequently cleansed by scalding and should be arranged so that livers do not drip on those below4 ,at certain times of the year it is profitable to freeze them for the winter trade4 ,where this is done it will be found that if they are first properly dried and chilled1 they freeze in much better condition than if put into the freezer when they are full of moisture4 ,they should be frozen at a temperature as near zero ,fahr4 as possible1 for if frozen quickly they retain their natural color1 whereas1 if they are put into a higher temperature and the freezing is delayed1 they will have a dark appearance when thawed4 ,sweetbreads4--,this is a delicate piece of meat and practically the only one in the packing house that improves by being kept in water4 ,the sweetbread should be cut out before the animal is stuck1 thereby avoiding their becoming bloody and discolored4 ,after washing and fat is trimmed off1 they should be put in ice water in the coolers and held over night2 the next day they are ready for shipment and should be packed in cracked ice4 ,if they are to be frozen they should be allowed to drain properly before placing them in the freezers4 ,a low temperature is very essential for the preservation of sweetbreads1 in order to obtain the best possible appearance4 ,when frozen quickly they retain a bright appearance when thawed4 ,if they are frozen slowly they turn slate color when thawed and have an undesirable and unwholesome look1 which operates against their being disposed of to advantage4 ,western or range cattle1 yield a very small proportion of sweetbreads1 they being undeveloped by the animal when living in their natural state4 ,cattle which have been fattened in feed lots1 however1 yield much larger sweetbreads4 ,beef ,hearts4--,this piece of meat is generally used in sausage and canning1 largely in the former4 ,the hearts after being taken from the animals are trimmed and washed and should be hung in a cooler where there is a temperature of from #cc to #cf ,f4 ,after they are thoroughly chilled they are used for sausage purposes1 either fresh or cured4 ,tails4--,there is little to be said on the handling of tails1 except that they should be kept clean1 for if handled carelessly and allowed to become stained it is impossible ever to get them clean afterward1 and it is always preferable not to wash them1 as this has a tendency to discolor them when chilled4 ,if they are to be frozen they should be put into the freezer under a low temperature in order to have them come out in desirable condition4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--,,mechanical ,,washer4 ,weasand ,meat4--,this is a meat taken off the weasands4 ,it is a low grade of meat and is at times 8tanked0 rather than saved4 ,when cured it should be packed in tierces1 and to a tierce of #djj pounds sprinkle through thoroughly a mixture of twenty pounds of salt and one pound of saltpetre4 ,the goods should be held in storage at from #cf to #ch ,f4 during the process of curing4 ,beef ,tongues4--,the tongue should receive careful attention from the time it is taken out of the head1 until it is cured4 ,in taking the tongue out of the head it should be left smooth on the bottom1 leaving on all fat4 ,it should be cut close to the jaws1 taking off with it all fat possible1 as it is worth much more on the tongue than if left on the head4 ,washing4--,the tongue should be thoroughly washed in warm water1 say at #hj ,f41 as soon as taken from the head4 ,mechanical washers like that shown in the accompanying illustration1 ,fig4 #gh1 are frequently used to good advantage4 ,immediately upon washing they should be chilled in clean1 cold water1 when they are hung to drip and then sent to the cooler4 ,hanging4--,in hanging1 the tongue should be suspended from a hook at the point where the tongue was attached to the jaw bone and the tip also fastened upon the same hook4 ,this gives the tongue a compact appearance1 but if it is hung up by the point alone when warm1 its own weight stretches it out of shape1 and it never looks as well as when hung as described4 ,tongues should be hung in a temperature of from #cb to #cd ,f4 for forty-eight hours4 ,trimming4--,tongues are selected for trimming into short and long cuts4 ,in trimming1 the side bones should be cut equally and the side meats cut with a long knife and a draw movement so as to make a smooth appearing tongue4 8,long cut tongue0 means that the gullet and about two joints of the windpipe are left on4 ,in 8short cut tongue0 the gullet is entirely cut away4 ,long cut tongue should average not less than five pounds in weight4 ,the trimmings are retrimmed1 the lean parts being suitable for sausage and the fat for tank4 ,curing4--,they should first be put into a plain pickle1 eighty degrees strong1 at a temperature of #ch to #dj ,f4 for twenty-four hours4 ,this is done to remove all the saliva from the tongue1 which has the effect of making the pickle 8strong10 if the tongues are put direct into the curing pickle4 ,after treatment with plain pickle they are put into a sweet pickle to be cured1 the sweet pickle consisting of #bhj pounds of salt1 ,english salt being preferable1 to which is added ten pounds of saltpetre and twenty-four pounds of sugar to each #afj gallons of water4 ,this should be stirred well to insure thorough dissolving of the ingredients4 ,the tongues are then put into barrels1 hogsheads or vats1 as the case may be1 and sufficient pickle put on to submerge them4 ,at the end of five days they should be shifted from one package to another1 and at the end of fifteen days they should be rehandled1 this being done to bring the pickle into thorough contact with the different pieces4 ,tongues should be fully cured at the end of thirty days1 ready to smoke1 or for shipment4 ,when tongues are packed in barrels1 after being fully cured1 they should be packed1 #bjb pounds to the barrel1 filling the package up with the same pickle in which they were cured4 ,they are then ready for shipment4 ,tongues readily become excessively salty if allowed to remain in cure too long4 ,it is desirable to have them 8off cure0 about as wanted4 ,freezing4--,as there is an increased demand for tongues in the warm months over any other part of the year1 it is advantageous to hold them frozen until the demand develops4 ,in freezing it is necessary that they should be put in a very low temperature and frozen quickly1 as if handled otherwise it has a tendency to give them an undesirable color when cured4 ,they can be thawed1 cured1 and smoked as required4 ,test on ,freezing ,beef ,tongues4--,the following is a test on tongues thus handled1 showing the percentage of shrinkage1 freezing1 curing and smoking3 ,,test ,,on ,,freezing ,,beef ,,tongues4 ,per ,lbs4 cent4 ,weight of twenty-five #e-lb4 beef tongues to freezer #adj ,in freezer one week--weight #ach --- ,freezing shrinkage #b #a4dc ,taken from freezer to leacher--weight #ach ,leached twenty hours in city water--weight #add ,after leaching1 drained twelve hours--weight #adb --- ,gain leaching from frozen to drained weight #d #b4ij ,gain leaching from green to drained weight #b #a4dc ,after leaching--pickled--weight to pickle #adb ,rubbed in salt and packed in bbls4 with seventy-deg4 pickle to remain for forty-five days2 overhauled in forty days1 and five days later dumped at forty-five days weight #ada ,drained eight hours--weight #aci --- ,shrinkage from green to cured--drained weight #a #j4ga ,shrinkage from leached to cured--drained weight #c #b4aa ,weight from cellar to smoke house #aci ,smoked fifteen hours--average temperature1 #aaf ,f4--smoked weight #aag --- ,shrinkage to smoked from green weight #bc #af4dc ,shrinkage to smoked from leached weight #be #ag4fj ,shrinkage to smoked from cured weight #bb #ae4hb ,surplus ,beef ,rounds4--,where cattle are cut in large quantities it is almost impossible to sell the rounds fresh1 there being comparatively small demand for round steak4 ,it is necessary to use this particular part of the meat in some other product1 which is done by making what is known as 8beef hams40 ,the very light rounds1 or rounds out of canning cattle1 are generally used for canning purposes1 they being too light to suit the trade for 8beef hams40 ,stripping ,beef ,hams4--,in preparing 8beef hams0 the rounds are cut by what is known as the 8packing house cut10 which leaves a piece of meat from the rump on the round1 as compared to the ordinary cut4 ,this piece is what is known as the 8knuckle0 piece of the set4 ,rounds cut this way are considered regular4 ,when rounds1 cut for market purposes1 are stripped1 they are known as short knuckled rounds and are not accepted as regular4 ,before the round is stripped1 the fell1 or covering1 is skinned off1 and the seam of the knuckle followed around by the knife1 cutting clear to the bone4 ,the round is hung on a hook and an incision made just above the stifle joint and the knuckle piece peeled from the bone4 ,the round is then turned on the hook and opened to the bone1 making what is known as the 8inside-and-outside piece0 of the round4 ,in opening the round1 what is known as the 8kernel fat0 should be equally divided4 ,these three pieces are what is known as regular beef hams when packed in sets4 ,when separated they are known as 8insides10 8outsides0 and 8knuckles40 ,these hams are cured and smoked and are sold at retail as dried beef1 the largest sale for this kind of meat being in warm weather4 ,the piece that is left is the shank4 ,curing4--,on the manner in which beef hams are cured depends1 to a great extent1 their sale4 ,the object in curing is to have them not too salty1 thoroughly cured through1 and of a bright and attractive color when smoked4 ,the hams when cut from the cattle should be either spread out or hung up in a room held at a temperature of from #cc to #ce ,f41 for twenty-four hours1 thereby insuring proper chilling4 ,they are then best cured in vats holding #a1jjj pounds each2 many1 however1 cure them in tierces or barrels4 ,formulas for ,curing ,beef ,hams4--,two formulas for the pickle follow3 ,first ,formula4--,to #a1ejj gallons of #hj-;degree strength pickle1 add #cjj pounds granulated sugar1 #aje pounds saltpetre4 ,where a smaller amount of pickle is wanted make it proportionately4 ,as the meat is packed in vats1 sprinkle in a little fine salt4 ,the vat should then be filled with above pickle1 and a rack and weight put on to keep the meat submerged4 ,the hams should be overhauled three times1 first in ten days1 again twenty-five days later and again forty days after the second overhauling4 ,beef hams should be considered fully cured in from seventy-five to eighty-five days4 ,if cured in tierces or barrels1 they should be rolled at the same periods as in the case of overhauling in the vats1 giving the pickle a chance to thoroughly reach all parts of the meat4 ,second ,formula4--,another formula used extensively1 where beef hams are packed and cured exclusively in barrels1 is as follows3 ,dissolve #aej pounds of saltpetre in hot1 #hh-;degree pickle1 made from ,ashton or dairy salt1 a sufficient amount of pickle being used to make fifty-two gallons when dissolved4 ,it is necessary to heat the pickle in order to dissolve this amount of salt4 ,add #dej pounds of granulated sugar and sufficient cold #hh-;degree pickle to make #bjj gallons of the finished solution4 ,this is then chilled to a temperature of #dj to #de ,f4 ,one gallon of this solution is put into each barrel before commencing to pack the meats4 ,when packing the meat in barrels1 use twenty-three pounds of ,ashton1 or dairy salt1 sprinkling between the layers as they are put in4 ,when the barrel is needed1 water at a temperature of #dj to #de ,f41 barrels to be rolled in ten1 thirty and fifty days after being packed4 ,they should be stored in a temperature of from #ch to #dj ,f4 if they are to be used in ninety days4 ,if they are to be held for five or six months they should be kept at a temperature of #ce to #ci ,f4 for the first thirty days and thereafter at a temperature of from #bh to #bi ,f4 until used4 ,meats cured with this formula will be found to have a very good color and flavor and at the same time will not be too salty4 ,in putting the meat in packages1 pack #bae pounds green weight per barrel4 ,smoking4--,the smoking of beef hams is treated in the chapter on the ,smoke ,house4 ,tests4--,the following are three smoking tests on regular beef hams1 given to illustrate yields in the finished product from a sample lot of each cut3 ,,regular ,,outsides ,,for ,,shipment4 ,wt4 ,per ,packed lbs4 cent4 ,twenty-three tcs4 dry packed #ddi lbs4 each1 marked weight #ddj lbs4 each #a1abg pcs4 #aj1cbg ,twenty-three tcs4 dumped to smoke1 actual weights #a1abg pcs4 #aj1bae ------ ,pounds loss while in storage #aab ,per cent loss while in storage 4#jabh ,culls not smoked #dd pcs4 #bce ,actual weights to smoke #a1jhc pcs4 #i1ihj ,smoked weights #a1jhc pcs4 #g1jii ----- ,shrinkage in smoking #b1hha ,per cent shrinkage in smoking 4#bhhg ,smoked #ajh hours1 temperature #aab to #abh ,f4 ,,regular ,,insides ,,for ,,shipment4 ,wt4 ,per ,packed lbs4 cent4 ,sixteen tcs4 dry packed1 #ddi lbs4 each1 marked weight #ddj lbs4 each #dig pcs4 #g1ahd ,sixteen tcs4 dumped to smoke1 actual weights #dig pcs4 #g1jbg ----- ,pounds loss in storage #aeg ,per cent loss in storage 4#jbaai ,culls not smoked #h pcs4 #gc ,actual weights to smoke #dhi pcs4 #f1ied ,smoked weights #dhi pcs4 #e1cea ----- ,shrinkage in smoking #a1fjc ,per cent shrinkage in smoking 4#bcjd ,smoked ninety-six hours1 temperature #aab to #abd ,f4 ,,regular ,,knuckles ,,for ,,shipment4 ,wt4 ,per ,packed lbs4 cent4 ,eight tcs4 dry packed #djh lbs4 each1 marked weight #djj lbs4 each #chi pcs4 #c1bfd ,eight tcs4 dumped to smoke1 actual weights #chi pcs4 #c1aij ----- ,pounds loss in storage #gd ,per cent loss in storage 4#jbbg ,culls not smoked #a pc4 #d ,actual weights to smoke #chh pcs4 #c1ahf ,smoked weights #chh pcs4 #b1chh ----- ,shrinkage in smoking #gih ,per cent shrinkage in smoking 4#beje ,smoked ninety-four hours1 temperature #aab to #abh ,f4 ,glass ,jar ,beef4--,a great deal of dried beef is put up in glass jars under a vacuum1 as well as in tin cans4 ,beef handled in this manner is cured by formulas given1 but in smoking it is handled somewhat differently1 being smoked less and dried more1 it being necessary to have all the pickle and moisture evaporated from the meats to insure keeping4 ,after the meat has been handled as described it is generally put in smoke houses equipped with steam coils1 the heat brought up to #aaj to #abj ,f41 and left to dry from three to four days4 ,it then shows a shrinkage anywhere from #ce to #db per cent4 ,it is necessary to dry beef in this manner in order to make it keep satisfactorily when put in cans4 ,the following test will show the shrinkage of this product when smoked in the manner described above for canning purposes3 ,,shrinkage ,,of ,,smoked ,,dried ,,beef ,,hams4 ,wt4 ,packed lbs4 ,pct4 ,thirty-two tcs4 beef hams1 four months old1 weight to smoke #a1dfa pcs4 #ab1edb ,smoked weight #a1dfa pcs4 #g1bed ------ ,shrinkage in smoking #e1bhg ,per cent shrinkage in smoking #db4ae ,smoked eleven hours2 temperature #aab degrees ,f42 hanging in house to dry1 seventy-two hours4 ,beef ,trimmings4--,in the slaughtering of live stock in large numbers there is an accumulation of trimmings which has to be cured for the sausage room or canning department1 as the case may be4 ,the following formula will serve for the curing of beef1 pork and sheep cheek meat and hearts1 hanging tenderloins and other meats for sausage and canning purposes3 ,to #a1ajj gallons of seventy-degree pickle dissolve seventy-nine pounds saltpetre4 ,use this pickle for the curing of beef cheek meat1 pig snouts1 pork cheek meat1 sheep cheek meat1 ox-lips1 beef hearts1 etc4 ,this material is usually cured in vats and should be overhauled in five1 fifteen and thirty days after being packed4 ,if freezer space is available it is preferable to box it in convenient sizes and to freeze it1 using it as a fresh product1 when thawed4 ,barreled ,beef4--,barreled beef1 graded as described1 in a previous chapter1 is usually packed in barrels1 using a plain pickle fully saturated4 ,it is cured in the packages with a pickle of the following formula1 for plate beef1 rump butts1 briskets1 clods1 and all trimmings of a similar character3 ,to #a1ejj gallons of #ajj-;degree strength pickle add ninety-eight pounds of saltpetre4 ,it will be found necessary to dissolve the saltpetre before putting it into the pickle4 ,store in a cellar at #ch ,f4 temperature4 ,repack with capping salt at time of shipment if for long exposure4 ,tripe4--,tripe is an article for which there is a large demand in the eastern states1 comparatively little of it being consumed in other states1 while there is not a very great foreign demand4 ,it is made from the stomachs of cattle and is a very wholesome and nutritious dish4 ,it is also being used extensively in sausage4 ,cleaning ,tripe4--,the stomach after being made empty is thoroughly washed in such a manner or with such devices as to permit of removing all manure from the inside surface4 ,after it is thoroughly washed1 put into a kettle1 or vat1 scalded1 the temperature of the water being from #adj to #afj ,f4 ,after a few minutes immersion the inside lining of the stomach may be easily removed4 ,when sufficiently scalded it is scraped1 leaving a clean1 white surface4 ,after scraping it is put into a vat and boiled for about three hours1 or until it is tender4 ,it is then put into cold water and chilled1 the fat from the seams is removed and the 8finishing process0 begins1 first scraping off all the loose fat with a sharp scraper and then removing a membrane on the outside of the stomach1 which1 when worked carefully1 comes off1 leaving the 8tripe0 perfectly clean and free of any fat1 etc41--the tripe being the muscular part of the stomach4 ,pickling4--,it should first be put into a #de-;grain vinegar pickle for ten to fifteen hours4 ,after it has been submitted to the first pickling it is ready to be put into barrels and the vinegar in which it was first pickled should be strengthened with full-strength vinegar1 making it again #de-;grain1 when it is packed in barrels and should be held in a temperature of from #de to #ej ,f4 ,there is a remarkable gain in tripe if properly handled4 ,a barrel of tripe packed at #ace pounds1 at the end of three weeks1 will weigh out #bjj pounds and sometimes as high as #bae pounds4 ,the tripe absorbs the vinegar1 and it is essential in storing tripe that it be kept at a temperature so this absorption can take place1 if it is kept in too cool a temperature it will not take up the vinegar as it should1 consequently the gain will not be found when the package is opened4 ,the following test will show the gain in a barrel of honey-comb and a barrel of plain tripe1 one barrel of each being packed in #de-;degree vinegar and one barrel of each in #fj-;degree vinegar4 ,,test ,,packing ,,tripe ,,hot ,,direct ,,from ,,finishing ,,table4 ,per ,lbs4 cent4 ,one barrel honey-comb1 #de-;degree vinegar1 #ie pcs4 packed weight #abe ,held in cellar for two weeks and unpacked1 weight #bbg --- ,gain #ajb #ha4fj ,drained over night on racks1 weight #ahc ,loss draining from pickled weight #dd #ai4ch ,gain to drained weight from packed weight #eh #df4dj ,one barrel honey-comb1 #fj-;degree pickle1 ninety-three pcs4 packed1 weight #abe ,held in cellar for two weeks and unpacked1 weight #bbg --- ,gain #ajb #ha4fj ,drained over night on racks1 weight #aid ,loss draining from pickled weight #cc #ad4ec ,gain to drained weight from packed weight #fi #ee4bj ,one barrel plain1 #de-;degree pickle1 thirty-nine pcs4 packed weight #abe ,held in cellar for two weeks and unpacked1 weight #aic --- ,gain #fh #ed4ej ,drained over night on racks1 weight #ahb ,loss draining from pickled weight #aa #e4gj ,gain to drained weight from packed weight #eg #de4fj ,one barrel plain1 #fj-;degree pickle1 thirty-eight pcs4 packed weight #abe ,held in cellar two weeks and unpacked1 weight #bja --- ,gain #gf #fj4hj ,drained on racks over night1 weight #ahd ,loss draining1 from pickled weight #ag #h4de ,gain to drained weight from packed weight #ei #dg4bj ,temperature all pickle when put on tripe #fe ,f4 ,temperature cellar1 from #ej to #eb ,f4 ,cost of ,production4--,the expense of saving tripe is shown in the following table illustrating the cost of #ajj tripe1 including packages and vinegar3 ,,test ,,on #ajj ,,tripe ,,finished4 #ajj regular bellies #b1jec lbs4 average weight #bj4ec lbs4 ,honey-comb #djj lbs4 average weight #d4jj lbs4 ,plain #a1fec lbs4 average weight #af4ec lbs4 ,debits3 #e barrels #j4hj each #d4jj #ge gallons #de-;grain vinegar 4#jb per gallon #a4hh #ajj bellies 4#acji each #ac4ji ,labor and expense #a4jh per cwt4 finished #g4ac ------ ,total #bf4aj ,credits3 ,scrapings to tank #cab lbs4 ,yield tallow #ae lbs4 #j4jebe per lb4 #j4gi ,yield dry tankage #ge lbs4 #ad4jj per ton 4#ec ,trimmings to tank #bjj lbs4 ,yield tallow #h lbs4 4#jebe per lb4 4#db ,yield dry tankage #e lbs4 #ad4jj per ton 4#jd ,seam fat--finishing bench #hc lbs4 ,yield oil #be lbs4 4#ajce per lb4 #b4ei ,grease from cooking into oil #ge lbs4 4#fhej per lb4 #e4ad #i4ea ------ ,total cost #af4ei ,cost per barrel1 #ace lbs41 #c4ca per cwt41 fresh1 loose1 #b4ea4 ,green weight1 #a1fec pounds2 scraped1 #a1ccc pounds2 cooked1 #icc pounds2 finished1 #ffj pounds4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,sheep ,,and ,,calves ,,increased ,,production ,,of ,,sheep -- ,,penning -- ,,dressing ,,by ,,piece ,,method -- ,,string ,,gang -- ,,sheep ,,ring -- ,,sheep ,,dressing -- ,,legging -- ,,pelting -- ,,methods ,,of ,,finishing -- ,,washing ,,and ,,its ,,effect -- ,,chilling -- ,,lamb ,,tongues -- ,,pickled ,,lamb ,,tongues -- ,,lamb ,,tongue ,,tests -- ,,slaughtering ,,calves -- ,,heads ,,and ,,feet4 ,increased ,production of ,sheep4--,the increased consumption of mutton has been marked in this country in the last twenty-five years4 ,prior to that time1 while there were many sheep raised1 mutton1 except in the large centers1 was comparatively little used4 ,the packers being able to obtain sheep in large quantities at live stock centers1 and with their superior distributing facilities1 soon created a demand for mutton at points where previously there had been little demand4 ,as a consequence there has been a large increase in the production of sheep and consumption in this country4 ,it is a meat for which many must acquire a taste1 but it is very healthful and nutritious4 ,at the central abattoirs1 where government inspection is in force1 comparatively few diseases1 or few diseased sheep1 are found1 this particular kind of live stock proving to be much healthier than either cattle or hogs4 ,penning4--,sheep should always be kept in dry pens before killing1 for if their fleece is allowed to become dirty1 it is practically impossible to prevent the meat from becoming stained4 ,where the sheep get wet and muddy it is found of great advantage to hold them for a time in pens with two to four inches of dry sawdust on the floor1 this sawdust having the effect of cleaning and drying the legs and under part of the body so that after slaughtering1 when the pelt is removed1 the meat may be kept much cleaner than otherwise4 ,dressing by ,piece ,methods4--,the dressing of an individual sheep1 8round dress10 as commonly performed is such a simple process that one would naturally ask why change4 ,in the economic use of labor about the modern packing house1 probably no other department can show the benefit of modern methods to greater advantage than in sheep slaughtering4 ,the effects of this division are first1 economy1 and second1 better workmanship4 ,it is natural that a man performing one particular operation day after day becomes more expert than if he were doing various kinds of work4 ,string ,gang4--,formerly sheep were slaughtered largely on a piece-work basis1 one man dressing the sheep throughout4 ,with the modern method each man does one particular part of the work1 becoming very quick and expert in his line4 ,in ,fig4 #gi a string gang at work killing and dressing sheep is shown4 ,a gang sufficient to handle #cjj sheep an hour should have at least thirty-six to forty sets of hooks1 or1 in other words1 facilities for working on thirty-six to forty sheep at one time on the dressing rails4 ,sheep ,ring4--,an early type of 8sheep rings0 is shown in the accompanying drawing1 ,fig4 #hj4 ,the principles formerly in use are now modified to the extent that an endless conveyor is substituted for the stationary dressing beams1 the output being increased4 ,some additional beneficial features are added1 namely the use of a wheel hoist which is substituted for the friction hoist4 ,in a space #hj #cb feet in size1 #b1jjj sheep per day can be handled readily by means of the complete ring method4 ,the sheep are hoisted with a double shackle1 two at a time1 and the work is continuous from there on until they are dressed1 the sheep never touching the floor again1 which means a great saving of labor over the old way of handling sheep by hand entirely4 ,this diagram illustrates the different processes in the arrangement1 it also gives height of rails1 trucks1 spreaders and hooks used on the different rails4 ,wherever a volume of thirty sheep per hour or over are being slaughtered a saving can be effected by adopting this method of handling4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--,,view ,,of ,a 8,,string ,,gang0 ,,at ,,work ,,killing ,,and ,,dressing ,,sheep4--,,conveyors ,,are ,,now ,,substituted4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--;,,diagram ,,showing ,,arrangement ,,for ,,sheep ,,killing ,,and ,,dressing ,,with 8,,string ,,gang40 ,in ,fig4 #aja is shown how the hogs are handled by means of a wheel hoist1 two at a time1 and hung on the sticking rail4 ,likewise where sheep are killed in large numbers1 it is advantageous to hoist two at a time1 the shackle being modified4 ,the men shackling become very expert and can shackle two in practically the same time that they can one1 and if a gang are running on a capacity of five hundred per hour1 it will be seen that considerable time is gained by doing it in this manner4 ,illustration3 ,choice4 ,good4 ,medium4 ,common4 ,,fig4 #ha4--,,wethers4 ,sheep ,dressing4--,in the dressing of sheep the following suggestions will prove advantageous in turning out work with the best results1 whether the sheep are dressed by day work1 one man dressing them throughout1 or whether they are handled by a string gang4 ,legging4--,this consists in opening up the skin around the legs and center of the body4 ,in doing this work care should be taken that the skin be opened up as little around the necks and butts as possible1 for wherever the skin is removed in the legging there is more or less stain on the meat1 which it is impossible to wash off4 ,pelting4--,in removing the pelt from the carcass care should be taken that the 8fell0 is not broken in any part1 for wherever this is broken1 the meat will show the effect of age1 and will present a very unsightly appearance4 ,the removal of the skin over the brisket is important4 ,methods of ,finishing4--,this is a part of the work which is very hard to describe1 as the dressing at different points varies to such an extent that there are hardly two large cities where the methods are alike1 especially in the case of lambs4 ,generally speaking mutton is 8round dressed10 using no back sets and not using the caul4 ,lambs are dressed according to localities1 some round dressed1 same as mutton1 others with double back sets and the caul on1 others with single back sets and the ribs broken and still others with inside sets1 in every instance the caul being left on4 ,the photograph illustrates dressings for various ,american markets4 ,washing and its ,effect4--,when the mutton is run immediately into a well-built refrigerator where the proper circulation and temperatures can be maintained1 there is no danger in using an excess amount of water in the washing4 ,a wash cloth made of ten to fifteen thicknesses of very loosely woven cheese cloth quilted together1 makes an excellent cloth with which to wash sheep4 ,this1 in connection with plenty of hot water1 will give a bright and attractive appearance to the meat4 ,illustration3 ,good4 ,medium4 ,,fig4 #hb4--;,,bucks4--,,round ,,dressed ,,sheep4--,,indicating ,,quality4 ,illustration3 ,a1 choice yearlings4 ,b1 medium yearlings4 ,c1 choppers4 ,,fig4 #hc4--,,showing ,,round ,,dress ,,and ,,lamb ,,dress4--,,caul ,,on4 ,illustration3 ,choice4 ,good4 ,,fig4 #hd4--,,spring ,,lambs ,,showing ,,quality4--,,note 8,,boots40 ,where the dressed mutton is not run into a cooler1 and outside air is depended upon for chilling1 very little water should be used1 the meat simply being wiped with a rag1 made as heretofore described1 dipping in hot water and wringing dry4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4--8;,,genuine0 ,,spring ,,lamb4 ,illustration3 ,medium4 ,common4 ,canner4 ,,fig4 #hf4--;,,ewes4 ,illustration3 ,boston style sheep4 ,boston style lambs4 ,philadelphia style lambs4 ,,fig4 #hg4--,,shipping ,,mutton ,,and ,,lambs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--;,a1 ,,providence ,,style ,,lambs2 ,b1 ,,connecticut ,,style ,,lambs2 ,c1 ,,goats4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--,,mutton ,,and ,,lamb ,,chops4 #a1 #b4 ,saddle4 #c1 #d1 #e4 ,rack4 #a1 #b1 #c4 ,long saddle4 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e4 ,body4 #a4 ,leg4 #b4 ,loin4 #c4 ,short rack4 #b1 #c4 ,back4 #d4 ,breast4 #e4 ,chuck4 #d1 #e4 ,stew4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--;,a1 ,,mutton ,,saddles4 ,b1 ,,mutton ,,racks4 7,choice4 ,good4 ,medium4 ,common47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--,,view ,,in ,,sheep ,,chill ,,room4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--;,a1 ,,choice ,,calves4 ,b1 ,c1 ,,good ,,calves4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--,,veal ,,cuts4 #a1 #b4 ,saddle 7or #b hind quarters74 #a4 ,leg4 #b4 ,loin4 #c1 #d4 ,back 7or #b fore quarters74 #c4 ,ribs4 #d4 ,stew4 ,chilling4--,as fast as sheep are slaughtered they should be placed in coolers and hung on racks as shown4 ,if left out1 and partially air-chilled it has the effect of discoloring them about the legs and thin parts of the carcasses1 causing these to look dark and less attractive than when placed in the cooler immediately after slaughtering4 ,there is little or no danger of chilling sheep too fast1 as long as the temperature is above #cb ,f41 and the colder the room into which they are put1 as long as it is above freezing point1 the better will be the appearance of the mutton when it comes out of the cooler4 ,sheep chilled for twenty-four hours in proper coolers1 and thoroughly dried and hardened1 are ready for shipment or the cutting block4 ,in many places1 especially in ,australia and ,south ,america1 they are frozen4 ,they should be thoroughly chilled in a dry cooler where there is a good circulation of air1 for twenty-four hours1 after which they may be put into the freezers at a temperature as near zero as possible1 so that the freezing will not be delayed4 ,if they are frozen quickly they retain a clear1 bright appearance when thawed4 ,illustration3 ,choice4 ,good4 ,,fig4 #id4--,,veal ,,saddles4 ,lamb ,tongues4--,all tongues from sheep come under this head4 ,after they have been taken out of the heads they should be thrown into ice water1 washed and spread on a table1 or in pans1 in the cooler at a temperature of from #cd to #ch ,f4 for twenty-four hours4 ,following that they should be trimmed1 cutting off the extra pieces of fat and the gullet4 ,they are then ready for curing4 ,they should be cured in a plain #ge-;degree strength pickle with six ounces of saltpetre to #a1jjj pounds of meat1 holding them in this pickle for a week or ten days4 ,they are then ready for use1 either in sausage or for cooking4 ,illustration3 ,medium4 ,common4 ,,fig4 #ie4--,,veal ,,saddles4 ,pickled ,lamb ,tongues4--,when tongues are pickled they are put up with a white wine vinegar and are handled as follows3 ,after they are thoroughly chilled they are scalded sufficiently to take off the outside film or skin on the tongue4 ,this is then scraped off with a hand scraper1 or knife1 and the tongue trimmed1 cutting off any parts that are discolored1 or any loose pieces of fat4 ,the tongues are afterwards cooked until they are soft enough for the bone to pull out readily4 ,no special time can be fixed upon for this work as the cooking varies greatly1 according to the condition of the animals from which the tongues were taken1 and it is well in cooking them to keep the sheep and lamb tongues separate4 ,illustration3 ,choice4 ,good4 ,,fig4 #if4--,,veal ,,racks4 ,after they are cooked and the bones are pulled out at the root of the tongue1 they are ready for pickling4 ,they should first be pickled in #de-;degree vinegar for at least twenty-four hours1 when they are ready to be packed in packages for shipment using #dj-;degree vinegar by adding full strength fresh vinegar to the pickle they were first put in4 ,in packing them in small packages especially1 they are generally seasoned with coriander seed1 bay leaves and sliced lemon4 ,lamb ,tongue ,tests4--,the following tests show yields of pickled lamb tongues at values prevailing at the time they were made3 ,,test ,,on #a1jjj ,,pieces ,,of #cbj ,,pounds ,,lamb ,,tongues4 ,cost of #a1jjj pieces lamb tongues at c each #g4ej ,scraping1 #aj;c per #ajj pieces #a4jj ,snouting1 cooking1 etc41 one and a half hours1 at #ah;c 4#bg ,trimming at #e;c per #ajj pieces 4#ej ,pickling1 #aj;c per #ajj pieces #a4jj ,miscellaneous labor 4#ag ,general expense1 #db;c per cwt4 on #adc lbs4 produced 4#fj ----- #aa4jd ,produced3 ,green weight #cbj lbs4 ,cooked weight #adc lbs4 --- ,shrinkage #agg lbs4 or #ee ,credit #bc lbs4 trimmings at #a;c per lb4 4#ce ----- ,cost of #adc lbs4 of lamb tongues #aj4fi ,cost per pound1 #j4jgdg4 ,slaughtering ,calves4--,this item is so simple that it scarcely needs mentioning4 ,the chief thing is cleanliness of the hide4 ,where the work is performed in quantity the calves are knocked1 hoisted to a rail2 stuck1 bled and passed through a washing tub2 soaked and curried so the hides are made entirely free from manure1 and then scraped reasonably dry4 ,the calf is then gutted and placed in a cooler1 if it is to be sold skinned and it is preferable that it be cold skinned4 ,the color justifies the labor expense4 ,some fancy dressed calves with caul spread are hot skinned but this is a local matter common to but few markets4 ,heads and ,feet4--,heads and feet are scalded in sets1 and sold fresh or frozen4 ,eastern markets consume these in quite large quantities4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,hog ,,slaughtering ,,historical -- ,,investment -- ,,hog ,,yarding -- ,,hog ,,dressing -- ,,hoisting -- ,,sticking -- ,,neck ,,washing -- ,,scalding -- ,,scraping ,,machines -- ,,hand ,,scraping -- ,,cleaning ,,bodies -- ,,ham ,,facing ,,and ,,cutting -- ,,leaf ,,lard -- ,,splitting -- ,,washing -- ,,drying -- ,,care ,,in ,,chill ,,rooms -- ,,open ,,air ,,hanging -- ,,chilling ,,necessities -- ,,shrinkage ,,in ,,chill ,,rooms -- ,,hog ,,by-,,products -- ,,heads -- ,,plucks -- ,,paunches -- ,,entrail ,,fat4 ,historical4--,in no department of the industry has the progress been so extensive as in pork packing4 ,only a few years ago1 comparatively1 it was impossible to kill hogs for packing purposes1 except during the winter season1 and the various packing plants located throughout the country worked during the winter months in their crude way1 packing as many hogs as conditions would permit1 turning out the cured meat in the spring1 in inferior condition4 ,under the conditions then existing there was little of the hog sold fresh1 for being killed as they were1 in isolated places1 there was little opportunity to make it available for general consumption1 consequently fresh pork was sold only in the immediate vicinity of the slaughtering place and it was necessary to cure the balance4 ,under present methods1 fresh pork product is shipped to ,england and delivered in good condition to the consumer4 ,the important step in the evolution of 8all-the-year packing0 from 8winter packing0 was the introduction of the refrigerating machine1 and in packing houses today little or no regard is paid to the outside temperature4 ,another great advantage is the transportation facilities now available4 ,when killing hogs in large quantities the fresh pork product is sold fresh and consumed as such1 and a much greater revenue is derived than when salted as formerly1 and sold as cured meats4 ,with the present facilities for distribution the public can buy fresh pork at any time of the year1 while a few years ago it was impossible to obtain it at any price during warmer seasons1 unless in the immediate neighborhood of the place where the animals were slaughtered4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--,,unloading ,,hogs ,,from ,,car4 ,investment4--,the investment capital used in pork packing is much greater than for beef1 for in slaughtering cattle there is comparatively little left that requires storage1 but in slaughtering hogs fully seventy per cent of the carcass goes into the curing department1 to stay from thirty to ninety days2 consequently a much larger and more expensive set of buildings is required than for slaughtering cattle4 ,for instance1 in the matter of chill room it is customary to require cooler space for twice or three times the killing capacity and storage area equal to five times the hog hanging area2 in other words1 if a plant was to be built to kill a thousand hogs a day there should be hanging capacity for #b1ejj and five times the floor area should be sufficient for curing the product1 providing it is sold promptly as cured4 ,if it is to be carried for any length of time a greater ratio than five to one should be used4 ,this1 of course1 does not refer to any of the auxiliary departments of the plant but only to the cold storage and chill room department4 ,hog ,yarding4--,hogs should be rested in closed covered pens arranged for summer ventilation1 and winter warmth4 ,it is essential that they be well rested and cooled before they are slaughtered4 ,to rest twenty-four hours is by no means detrimental4 ,in driving provide the driver with a flat canvass belt attached to a short wooden handle so that the hogs are not abused by clubbing4 ,keep plenty of water in the troughs and keep pens clean4 ,more care should be used in handling hogs than any other live stock1 as hogs are more easily injured4 ,special pens should be provided for their reception4 ,hogs should never be killed until they are thoroughly rested and in normal condition4 ,in the summer weather they should be sprinkled4 ,hog ,dressing4--,the principal points for attention in hog slaughtering are briefly referred to under the following headings4 ,hoisting4--,when passing to the catch pens for hoisting1 the pen floor should be arranged with raised or corrugated surfaces to avoid the possibility of its becoming slippery and the hogs 8spreading0 as a result4 ,the hogs should be headed in such a direction that when the shackle is attached to the wheel the hind quarter of the hogs are the first to move upward1 without unduly twisting or wrenching the hog4 ,the transfer to the sticking rail should be done smoothly and without jerking4 ,a hoist1 shown in ,fig4 #ajb1 is often used2 it is not only a very useful device but it is also economical from the fact that it does not jar or injure the hogs when hung up1 as is often the case with an ordinary hand hoist4 ,this particular machine is adapted for small slaughter houses rather than where business is done on a large scale1 in which case a double machine will be found almost indispensable4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ih4--;,,diagram ,,of ,,covered ,,pen ,,for ,,hogs ,,and ,,sheep ,,with ,,detail ,,of ,,construction4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ii4--;,,elevation ,,for ,,covered ,,pen ,,for ,,hogs ,,and ,,sheep ,,with ,,detail ,,of ,,fence ,,and ,,gate4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4--;,,hogs ,,resting ,,and ,,cooling ,,off ,,before ,,being ,,taken ,,to ,,the ,,slaughtering ,,hoist4 ,sticking4--,make a large and free opening4 ,to insert a knife and make a slit only large enough to admit it is insufficient4 ,the sticker's knife should be sharpened on both front and back and when it is withdrawn1 a long smooth opening four or five inches long should be made4 ,it is far better1 as hogs bleed more freely and die much sooner4 ,be careful to see that the veins and arteries are cut1 and at the same time do not cut into the shoulder1 as in that instance the blood settles there and it becomes necessary to trim1 resulting in considerable loss4 ,see that sufficient hogs are kept on the rail so that they may bleed out well before dropping in the tub4 ,the sticker should keep close to the hanging off--sticking the hogs immediately upon hanging4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aja4--;,,hoisting ,,hogs ,,on ,a ,,hurford ,,revolving ,,wheel4 ,neck ,washing4--,where space is available a washing spray of cold water to drench the forequarters1 head and feet1 is a great advantage1 as the washing of the blood enables better scalding and makes for cleaner hands and feet4 ,scalding4--,see that the tub is long enough to permit carrying a comparatively low temperature and a good soaking of the hogs4 ,this will assist very materially in the removal of the hair1 either by hand or by machine4 ,the scalding water should be alkaline1 by the use of potash or lime4 ,it should be kept at an even temperature and the hogs put in systematically4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4--;,,hurford ,,small ,,hog ,,hoist4 ,scraping ,machines4--,there are a variety of mechanical scrapers on the market1 and the output of goods per hour is perhaps the guide in selecting a scraper for a large output4 ,all things considered1 a vertical type barrel equipment1 with scraping arms1 delivering the hog into a horizontal beater type would appear as the most efficient and the less expensive for up-keep4 ,the up-keep on a hog scraper is a matter of no small figure and is worthy of careful consideration in the selection of the equipment4 ,in small plants1 the choice is a matter of personal preference1 the beater types being probably the most popular4 ,hand ,scraping4--,hair should be scraped out when possible in preference to cutting off by shaving4 ,a bench is provided following the scraper for the finishing touches in this respect4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajc--,,sticking ,,and ,,bleeding ,,hogs4 ,body ,cleaning4--,a most important feature in dressing hogs is the matter of getting the hair off1 the skin cleaned and washed before opening the hog4 ,inspection requirements as to cleanliness practically demand this1 and it is a proper method of dressing4 ,ham ,facing and ,cutting4--,in ham facing care should be used to see that the workmen cut off the fat down to the lean meat1 and at the same time do not cut the striffen4 ,in opening the hog it is requisite that the opening cut should be a straight line from the stickers cut to the bung4 ,the breast splitting and opening over breast bone is made so as to equally divide the sides and avoid trimming when cutting hogs2 the intestines are removed without cutting or breaking4 ,,fig4 #ajd4--;,,hog ,,scalding4 ,leaf ,lard4--,pulling the leaf lard just before the splitting1 should be done with care in order that the leaves may be pulled clean4 ,if this operation is performed in an indifferent manner1 a considerable amount of the leaf lard will be left in the carcasses and it is afterward scraped out4 ,lard left after pulling the leaf1 should be scraped out1 as it is often worth more as lard than if left as meat4 ,its presence greatly disfigures the meat4 ,splitting4--,this should be done carefully and accurately through the backbone4 ,a wide blade chopper is by all means preferable4 ,washing4--,the hog when once cleaned1 and after eviscerating and before splitting or pulling the leaf lard1 should not be washed further unless it be on the neck1 since water on split backs is detrimental to the keeping quality of pork loins4 ,drying4--,few appreciate the value and importance of 8skin drying0 hogs by dry-shaving and dry-scraping the surface4 ,the advantage to refrigerating more than overcomes the initial cost of the labor necessary4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aje4--;,,hog ,,scraping ,,gang ,,at ,,work4 ,care in ,chill ,room4--,it is in this particular part of the house that the most careful and minute attention to details is necessary in order to turn out meats in the best marketable condition1 as only a few degree deviation in temperatures from carefully set rules in the handling of chill rooms1 shows excess per cent of sour meat found thirty to sixty days afterward1 when the meats are brought from the curing cellar4 ,this1 therefore1 is a department that should receive the most careful attention4 ,a wrong start here can never be righted afterward4 ,the rule for operation is previously given under another chapter4 7,see ,chapter on ,coolers74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4--;,,cleaning ,,hog ,,carcasses4 ,open ,air ,hanging4--,it was formerly considered a necessity to have an open-air hanging room where hogs could dry after slaughtering1 in many cases allowing them to hang over night2 the object being to save refrigeration4 ,it is the common opinion that the economy thus obtained is anything but economy4 ,past experience has proved that there are certain conditions which must be adhered to closely in the safe handling and curing of pork products1 and proper temperatures are among the most important of these4 ,it is very rare that these temperatures prevail in the outside atmosphere1 and hogs that are left on hanging floor over night are either insufficiently chilled or over-chilled4 ,many packers feel it advantageous1 however1 to run hogs into a hanging room1 allowing them to dry out for one or two hours prior to putting them in the chill room4 ,while this has no deteriorating effect on the product1 the expense of handling them and the cost of labor incurred is about equal to the saving in refrigeration1 if they are put directly into the chill room4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4--,,scraping ,,leaf ,,lard4 ,chilling ,necessities4--,the essential feature in a chill room is that it be properly constructed and have sufficient refrigeration so that the temperatures can be controlled precisely as desired4 ,it is advisable that the coolers be partitioned into tunnels4 ,into this the hogs are run as fast as killed1 providing that the temperature is not run up too high4 ,if the temperature goes above #de ,f41 the carcasses should be run into another tunnel and placed in the first one as the temperature goes down4 ,when the carcasses are to be cut after being forty-eight hours in the chill room1 the cooler should be brought down gradually to a temperature of #bh ,f4 ,if they are to be cut when seventy-two hours old1 which from the author's experience is preferable1 the cooler should be brought down gradually to a temperature of #cj ,f4 ,with a cooler properly equipped1 and a careful attendant1 these instructions can be carried out in detail1 and when thus followed the safe curing of the product will be found to be practically assured4 ,while there are other matters which need careful attention1 if the chilling is not done properly1 the rest of the operation will never save the product4 ,the cooler should at all times be kept dry and clean with dry sawdust on the floor1 to absorb drippings1 clots of blood1 etc41 from the carcasses2 whereas1 if the drippings are allowed to remain on the floor they soon become soured and a menace to the product4 ,shrinkage in ,chill ,rooms4--,the question is often raised as to how much hogs shrink in the cooler from dressed warm weight to chilled weight1 and many people figure this shrinkage represents a loss4 ,it is a variable quantity depending upon conditions such as the dryness of the hogs1 the quantity of the air circulation1 its temperature and other agents4 ,if the hogs be sold whole plant weights it represents a loss1 but no cooler can be controlled to prevent shrinkage if it be working properly4 ,aside from this quite a proportion of the hog is passed to curing rooms for treatment in salt or pickle and the original inherent moisture is hardly a traceable factor here and also the shrinkage in that portion rendered into lard is immaterial1 while the portion shipped as fresh pork must be well dried out to arrive in good condition upon shipment4 ,the following figures give an idea of the actual shrinkage of hogs placed directly in the coolers4 ,it will be noted the tests were made on light hogs used for shipping purposes4 ,the percentage of shrinkage would not be as great on heavier carcasses3 ,,test ,,no4 #a ,,on ,,shrinkage ,,of ,,hogs ,,in ,,cooler4 ,forty-five hogs weighed in cooler direct from killing floor--,warm weight1 #f1hib pounds2 average1 #aec pounds2 temperature of cooler1 #ea to #dh ,f4 ,weight after hanging in cooler forty-eight hours1 #f1fhb pounds2 shrinkage of #baj pounds or #c4jd per cent2 temperature of cooler1 #ce to #cf ,f4 ,weight after hanging cooler seventy-two hours1 #f1egj pounds2 shrinkage of #cbb pounds or #d4fg per cent2 temperature of cooler1 #ca to #cb ,f4 ,weight after hanging in cooler ninety-four and one-half hours1 #f1eeb pounds2 shrinkage of #cdj pounds or #d4ic per cent2 temperature of cooler1 #cb ,f4 ,,test ,,no4 #b4 ,forty-five hogs weighed into cooler direct from killing floor--,warm weight1 #f1igj pounds2 average1 #aee pounds2 temperature of cooler1 #ed ,f4 ,weight after hanging in cooler forty-six hours1 #f1ffj pounds2 shrinkage of #caj pounds or #d4de per cent2 temperature of cooler1 #cf ,f4 ,weight after hanging in cooler seventy-two hours1 #f1fbc pounds2 shrinkage1 #cdg pounds or #d4ig per cent2 temperature of cooler1 #cb ,f4 ,weight after hanging in cooler ninety-four hours1 #f1fac pounds2 shrinkage1 #ceg pounds or #e4ab per cent2 temperature or cooler1 #cb ,f4 ,hog ,by-,products4--,these consist of the heads1 plucks and entrails1 and so much ingenuity is being used to make commercial products thereof1 that nearly as much labor is expended upon these parts as upon the dressing of the hog4 ,heads4--,the heads are best made free from hair before severing from the carcass4 ,if the loose hair is properly removed before the head is dropped1 there is far less likelihood of hair coming in contact with cheek meat and tongues1 from which parts it is difficult to hand pick4 ,the heads cleaned1 they are skinned1 the tongue is taken out1 cheek meat cut off1 jaws pulled1 brains removed from skulls1 skull frame cut into1 to separate the teeth section and upper part of skull1 cleansed of lithoids2 snouts and ears are separated from face pieces and prepared for food products4 ,plucks4--,plucks are separated into livers1 lungs and hearts4 ,the hearts are used as sausage meat4 ,the livers are selected for quality and many sold at retail4 ,defective livers are used for meat meal or digester tankage4 ,hog ,paunches4--,thoroughly clean1 strip from fat1 remove lining for sale to pepsin factories4 ,hog pouches are used for head cheese stuffing or cleaned like tripe for sheep sausage4 ,entrail ,fats4--,all entrail fats are satisfactory for use in prime steam lard if properly cleaned4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,pork ,,cuttings ,,hog ,,cutting -- ,,variety ,,and ,,classes ,,of ,,hogs -- ,,cutting ,,floor -- ,,pork ,,cuts -- ,,hams -- ,,side ,,meats -- ,,bellies -- ,,backs -- ,,loins -- ,,shoulders -- ,,butts ,,and ,,plates -- ,,percentage ,,of ,,yield -- ,,change ,,cuts ,,one ,,side -- ,,test ,,on ,,five ,,sides -- ,,complete ,,cutting ,,test4 ,hog ,cutting4--,the division of a carcass into its parts for disposal of fresh pork and for curing purposes1 is a part of the expert work in the packing house business4 ,the cuts placed in the curing cellar for shipment six or seven months hence and a prognostication as to what cut will meet a favorable future market2 the sale1 etc4 are true problems4 ,there are a number of standard cuts1 however1 that are usually readily disposed of4 ,a description of the various cuts1 etc4 is given herein4 ,use is made of much valuable data collected and published in the ,illinois ,state ,agricultural ,department ,bulletin previously referred to4 ,variety and ,classes of ,hogs4--,a day's buying of hogs unless selected to yield a given quality1 is likely to yield the following classes3 ,carcass ,weights ,smooth ,heavy or ,heavy ,loin ,hogs #bdj to #djj lb4 ,butcher or ,light ,loin ,hogs #afj to #bdj lb4 ,packing ,hogs #ajj to #djj lb4 ,bacon or ,marked ,hogs #ij to #agj lb4 ,shippers #ajj to #bjj lb4 ,pigs #bj to #ajj lb4 ,different styles of dressing are characteristic of the different classes of carcasses except heavy and light loin hogs1 and shippers and pigs4 ,dressed hogs of all classes are cut open along the underline and through the aitch-bone and brisket1 but the method of splitting and trimming varies with the class1 as follows3 8,loin ,hogs4--,these are split down through the center of the back-bone 7#8loin-split' or #8center-split'7 in order that pork loins may be cut from the sides4 ,they are dressed 8packer style10 i4 e41 head off1 leaf out and hams faced4 ,illustration3 ,inside4 ,outside4 ,,fig4 #ajh4--,,smooth ,,heavy ,,hogs4 8,packing ,hogs4--,are usually split like loin hogs2 sometimes on one side of the back bone1 making a hard and soft side4 8,bacon ,hogs4--,or those used for ,english meats are usually dressed #8marked'2 that is1 a knife is passed down each side of the back bone and the backbone removed4 ,the hogs are dressed regular unless the ham is intended for a long cut ham4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aji4--;,,butcher ,,hogs4 ,a1 ,,heavy4 ,b1 ,,light4 8,smooth ,heavy or ,heavy ,loin ,hogs4--,the following description is of the usual commercial selection of hogs3 ,these are prime smooth hogs1 either barrows or good1 clear 7not seedy7 sows1 weighing #bdj to #djj pounds1 with from four to six inches of fat on the back2 thick1 wide1 level sides without depressions in the back2 heavy hams1 filled out even with sides1 full at the rump and well rounded down toward hocks1 without flabbiness4 ,as their name indicates such hogs are suitable for heavy loins4 ,the remainder of the sides are being used for heavy short clears or fat backs and bellies4 8,butcher or ,light ,loin ,hogs4--,a large proportion of the fresh pork sold in retail markets is pork loins1 which are cut into chops and roasts2 hence light loin or #8pork loin' hogs are those from which these cuts can be obtained to best advantage4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4--,,packing ,,hogs 7,,sows74 ,a1 ,,heavy4 ,b1 ,,medium4 8,to yield loins of the proper size and quality1 a hog carcass should weigh about #afj to #bdj pounds and have the same shape1 smoothness and general quality described for heavy loin hogs4 ,the covering of fat should be two to four inches thick on the back4 ,this class is composed of barrows and smooth1 clear sows4 ,the weights most preferred for butcher hogs are #bjj to #bbj pounds4 ,they are principally cut up by packers1 the loins being sold to retail dealers or jobbers4 ,besides loins1 fat backs1 clear bellies1 extra ribs and extra short clears are commonly made from sides of butcher hogs4 ,the hams are cut short and the shoulders principally made into picnics1 ,new ,york-cut shoulders and ,boston butts4 ,in some instances carcasses of this class are sold to retail markets for fresh trade1 in which case they are dressed either #8head on' or #8head off' as ordered4 7,see ,fig4 #aji47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4--;,,choice ,,bacon ,,hogs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aab4--,,pork ,,cuts4 ,english ,cuts4 ,a1 ,long cut ham4 ,b1 ,long side or middle4 ,domestic ,cuts4 #a4 ,short cut ham4 #b4 ,loin4 #c4 ,belly4 #d4 ,picnic butt4 #e4 ,boston butt4 #f4 ,jowl4 #g4 ,hock4 #h4 ,fat back4 #i4 ,clear plate4 #b1 #h4 ,back4 #b1 #c1 #h4 ,side4 #d1 #g4 ,picnic shoulder4 #e1 #i4 ,shoulder butt4 #h1 #i4 ,long fat back4 #d1 #e1 #g1 #i4 ,rough shoulder4 8,quality of ,packing ,hogs4--,this class includes mixed hogs of all weights which are too coarse in quality1 rough in shape or soft and uneven in finish to be suitable primarily for fresh pork products or smoked meats and are therefore principally packed in such forms as barreled pork and dry-salt meats4 8,heavy ,packing ,hogs4--,these are also known as ,rough ,heavy or ,mess ,pork ,hogs1 consist of rough and seedy sows1 coarse barrows1 boars and stags averaging #bdj to #djj pounds4 ,all heavy hogs that are too rough to be classed as loin hogs are included in this grade4 ,defects common to these carcasses are thick1 rough and wrinkled skin1 dark-colored and coarse-grained flesh1 soft1 oil fat1 large bones and carcass bruises4 7,fig4 #aaj47 ,they are more largely cut into short ribs and mess pork1 and less into loins1 fat backs and bellies than ,heavy ,loin ,hogs1 and consequently are more frequently #8marked' and side-split although at times a large proportion of them are loin-split and pork loins taken out4 ,the hams are sweet pickled and shoulders made into picnics and ,boston butts4 8,marked ,hogs4--,light marked hogs are those that are suitable primarily for sugarcured breakfast-bacon bellies and #8,english' meats4 ,since such meats must be comparatively lean1 firm and of good quality1 the leading features of bacon hogs are long1 deep1 smooth sides with a light1 even covering of fat over the entire carcass and especially uniform on the back and sides4 ,the hams should be full but lean and the shoulders light and smooth4 ,the flesh must be firm1 the fat solid and the carcass sufficiently mature to insure proper curing4 ,hogs which fulfil these conditions weigh #ij to #agj pounds dressed4 ,the most desirable weights are #abj to #aej pounds4 ,they consist principally of barrows1 but for most grades of bacon1 smooth clear sows that resemble barrows in general quality and finish are used to some extent4 ,the products principally made from them are #8,english' middles1 backs and bellies1 domestic breakfast-bacon bellies1 long-cut and short-cut hams4 ,bacon hogs vary from choice to common in quality1 finish and shape1 although no fixed grades are universally recognized among packers4 ,this grade is used for the manufacture of #8,wiltshire' and #8,staffordshire' sides1 #8,english' backs and bellies1 and fancy breakfast-bacon bellies1 also #8,cumberland' sides to some extent4 ,they weigh about #abj to #afj pounds40 ,cutting ,floors4--,the hogs thoroughly chilled are ready for the cutting room4 ,to be safe1 however1 the hogs should show a temperature of from #cd to #cf ,f4 inside of the hams and shoulders4 ,if this temperature in the meat has been reached by gradual chilling1 very little trouble should be experienced in curing the meats4 ,the proper cutting of the hog carcass is one of the most important items in the economical handling of hogs4 ,the great variety of cuts and the percentage of yield of the various cuts are given on succeeding pages4 ,for cutting and trimming economically it is essential that suitable facilities be provided4 ,a cutting floor must be laid out for the quantity to be handled and for the style of meats to be cut4 ,the carcass being heavy1 the use of slides1 conveyor mechanical saws1 etc41 are resorted to4 ,in hog cutting floors of large capacity the arrangement is usually on three floors or decks1 the parts gravitating in the movement toward a finished cut4 ,it is preferable to do the cutting in a cooled room in most climates and where a uniform temperature of #dj to #de can be maintained4 ,lower temperature would be better but it is difficult to keep working people satisfied1 particularly where female help is employed1 for trimming purposes4 ,be it said that moisture and heat are not conducive to the keeping quality of meats and it is to be avoided4 ,the handling of cold meat in warm rooms brings about this condition1 consequently it is far better to avoid exposure in cutting hogs into the several parts4 ,the usual method is to remove the ham1 preferably by knife and hand saw2 to chop the shoulder1 further separated by power saw2 to pull the loin and pass the side on for separation to backs and bellies4 ,the further finishing of the cuts1 either immediately on separation from the side or in an adjacent room1 is a matter of space available4 ,pork ,cuts4--,fresh pork cuts are taken more or less from all classes of hogs4 ,since the pork loin is by far the leading fresh cut1 light loin hogs are more extensively used for fresh pork than any other class4 ,the varying demand for loins determines to a considerable extent the method of cutting other classes of hogs from time to time4 ,tenderloins and spareribs are also primarily fresh cuts4 ,skinned shoulders1 shoulder butts1 hams1 bellies1 fat backs1 and raw leaf fat are sold fresh to a small extent4 ,illustration3 ,skinned ,ham4 ,second ,brand4 ,first ,brand4 ,third ,brand4 ,,fig4 #aac--,,short ,,cut ,,hams4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aad4--,,smoked ,,short ,,cut ,,hams--,,first ,,brand4 ,the grading of pork cuts is complex since it involves their quality1 shape1 proportions of fat and lean1 and weight4 ,many of the grade names refer merely to different methods of cutting and curing2 but since they are applied only to cuts of specified quality1 thickness or weight1 the grades are in reality based on the latter factors to a large extent4 ,the various cuts differ considerably as to methods of grading2 consequently an adequate explanation of the factors involved and their relative importance can be presented only by describing the grades of each class4 ,hams4--,hams are of two general kinds1 short-cut and long-cut4 ,the former are made from comparatively fat1 plump hams1 trimmed short and round at the butt1 and the shank cut off at the hock joint4 ,they are sold either as ,regular ,short-,cut1 ,skinned1 or ,boneless ,rolled ,hams4 ,long-cut hams are lean1 long hams1 with the butt left full and the foot taken off at the first joint below the hock4 ,the principal grades are ,regular ,long-,cut1 ,stafford ,cut1 ,manchester ,cut and ,italian ,cut ,hams4 ,short-,cut or ,american ,cut ,hams4--,these are cut from the side midway between the hench-bone and slip-bone1,a trimmed round at the butt1 cushion,b faced full1 not undercut on the skin side1 and shank cut off in or above the hock joint4 ,until #aiji the ,board of ,trade required that the shank be cut above the hock so as to expose the marrow4 ,practically all hams are sold as sweet-pickled or smoked meats4 ,for regular delivery on the ,chicago ,board of ,trade as sweet-pickled hams1 they must average1 in lots1 not to exceed #af pounds1 with no ham to weigh less than #ab pounds and none to weigh over twenty pounds4 ,the short-cut hams is the leading ham cut and has to a large extent taken the place of the long-cut ham in export trade4 ,a ,the hench-bone is the flat portion of the hip-bone that remains attached to the socket joint of the ham when the hog is split4 ,the slip bone is the portion of the hip-bone that lies in contact with the back-bone near the end of the loin4 ,b ,the cushion is the fat butt of the ham where the tail piece is cut off4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aae4--;,,boneless ,,rolled ,,hams4 ,short-cut hams are graded by packers according to the brand of smoked hams for which they are suitable4 ,for the first brand 7known as 8extra selected0 or 8fancy-cured0 hams7 they are selected for thickness and firmness of lean meat1 plump1 well rounded shape1 solid1 white fat or medium thickness 7one to two inches on a medium-weight ham71 smooth1 soft skin1 bright color1 small shank and absence of bruises4 ,the bulk of this grade weigh #aj to #af pounds1 #aj to #ab pounds being most desirable for family trade1 and #ad to #af pounds for hotels and restaurants4 ,see ,fig4 #aac4 ,second brand or second grade hams 7frequently termed ,no4 #a's7 are deficient in one or more of the points just mentioned1 but must be reasonably good in general quality and not exceedingly deficient in any particular4 ,many of them are too fat for the first brand4 ,the third brand 7also known as 8seconds071 includes those from which a skin-bruise has been removed1 also thin1 light hams and any others which lack the shape and quality required for regular meat market trade4 ,illustration3 ,regular4 ,manchester4 ,stafford4 ,italian4 ,,fig4 #aaf4--,,long ,,cut ,,hams4 ,illustration3 ,short ,rib4 ,extra ,short ,rib4 ,short ,clear4 ,extra ,short ,clear4 ,,fig4 #aag4--,,sides4 ,skinned ,hams4--,these are cut short as explained above1 the skin is removed down to the shank and the fat trimmed off within one inch of the lean4 ,until #aiji the ,board of ,trade regulation required the fat to be trimmed off within one-half inch of the lean4 ,they are made from fat hams of first and second grades1 weighing from #ab to #cj pounds1 but the bulk weigh #af to #bb pounds4 ,many skin-bruised hams are also skinned in order to remove bruises4 ,boneless ,rolled ,hams4--,these are made from sweet-pickled short-cut hams by lifting the skin1 removing the surplus fat and the bone1 and pressing or tying in the form of a roll with skin on4 ,they are also made from skinned hams4 #ae to #bf-pound hams of first and second brands are used4 ,these are usually prepared from cured hams4 ,regular ,long ,cut ,hams4--,these are lean1 long hams with only one-half to one and one-half inches of outside fat1 and are 8cut from the side by separating with a knife the hip-bone from the rump1 properly rounded1 foot unjointed at first joint below the hock40 ,they are not faced2 and the butt end is left full1 which gives it a flat1 lean appearance4 7,fig4 #aaf47 ,average weights are #aj to #bj pounds but usually above #ad pounds4 ,this cut is made from good and choice bacon hogs4 8,yorkshire0 or 8,york0 hams are cut slightly longer at the butt than regular1 but are otherwise as described above4 8,smithfield0 or ,virginia ,style hams are long-cut and very lean1 dry salt cured1 long smoking1 spiced1 and 8aged0 for several months before using4 ,they weigh #i to #ah pounds4 8,stafford0 ,hams are cut about two inches shorter at the butt end than regular long-cut hams1 hench-bone taken out exposing the socket joint1 and foot cut off at the first joint below the hock4 ,they are cut from good and choice bacon hogs and cured for ,english trade4 ,this grade is made principally from #ad to #ah-pound hams4 ,see ,fig4 #aaf4 8,manchester0 ,hams are a very lean grade of long-cut hams comparatively flat in shape1 butted like 8,staffords10 and averaging #ad to #ah pounds4 ,see ,fig4 #aaf4 8,italian0 ,hams are very thin1 long hams1 of #i to #ah-pounds average1 and of common to good quality4 ,the hench-bone is removed as from 8,staffords10 the leg is left extra long1 the butt trimmed like ,american or short-cut hams1 the ham pressed flat1 dry-salt cured1 smoked dark and seasoned with pepper4 ,see ,fig4 #aaf4 ,numerous other styles of grades of hams which were formerly packed in large quantities1 especially for export trade1 are no longer made or used sufficiently to be regarded as standard products4 ,side ,meats4--,this class includes various grades and cuts of ,short ,ribs1 ,short ,clears and 8,english0 ,bacon ,sides4 ,short ,rib ,sides4--,regular ,short ,ribs are middles of hogs from which short-cut hams and regular or ,new ,york shoulders have been taken off1 with back-bone and tenderloin removed1 hench-bone and breast-bone sawed or cut down smooth and even with face of side1 feather of blade not removed and no incision made in the side4 ,this is a regular ,board of ,trade cut and is quoted in provision reports simply as 8,ribs40 ,it is made from medium to heavy packing hogs1 in averages from #be to #hj pounds1 but principally from #de to #fe pounds4 ,on the ,board of ,trade regular ribs averaging not less than #cj nor more than #fj pounds are deliverable at contract price2 those over #fj and not over #gj pounds average are deliverable at a discount of #bj cents per #ajj pounds2 those over #gj and not over #hj pounds are discounted #cj cents1 per #ajj pounds4 ,regular ribs are mainly shipped south either as dry-salt or bacon meat4 ,many are afterward converted into other cuts1 as extra ribs1 extra clears1 backs and bellies1 as determined by current prices of the various cuts4 ,jobbing or ,rough ,short ,ribs consist of short ribs with the back-bone left in1 the hog being center-split leaving equal part of the back-bone on each side4 ,they are sold at a discount of two per cent under regular ribs and must average not less than #cj nor more than #ej pounds for ,board of ,trade delivery4 ,hard ,short ,ribs are made the same as ,jobbing ,ribs except that the hog is split so as to leave the back-bone all on one side4 ,the side containing the back-bone is known as the ,hard ,side or ,hard ,short ,rib and the other as the ,soft ,side1 the latter being the same as the ,regular ,short ,rib4 ,they usually weigh #ej to #gj pounds1 are cut from heavy packing hogs and are sold principally in the ,south as dry-salt pork4 ,extra ,short ,ribs or 8,extra ,ribs0 are made from ,short ,ribs by removing the loin4 ,they average #ce to #ej pounds4 #bj to #cj per cent of the stocks of sides usually consist of ,extra ,ribs4 ,square ,cut or 8,english0 ,short ,ribs are the middles of hogs from which square shoulders and long-cut hams have been cut1 thus making the side shorter than a regular rib1 square-cut and with the feather of the blade-bone out4 ,they are selected from the better grades of medium weight packing hogs1 and average #bj to #cj pounds4 ,short ,clear ,sides4--,regular ,short ,clears are made from regular short ribs by removing the ribs and cutting reasonably square at each end4 ,they are graded and handled in the same manner as short ribs4 ,short ,clears average #cj to #gj pounds and to grade regular must average not less than #ce pounds4 ,it is primarily a domestic cut but is exported to some extent4 ,square-,cut ,short ,clears are the same as ,square-,cut ,short ,ribs except the ribs are taken out4 ,extra ,short ,clear ,sides or 8,extra ,clears0 are made the same as short clears except that the loin is also removed4 ,they may be made from extra short ribs by cutting out the ribs4 ,the pieces weigh #be to #fj pounds1 and must average not less than #cj nor more than #fj pounds to grade regular4 8,english0 ,bacon ,sides4--,these so-called sides or long middles include both the side and shoulder1 and in one instance 7,wiltshires7 the ham is also included4 ,after arrival in ,great ,britain1 they are usually made into 8rolled sides10 which are dried for ,english trade1 but in ,scotland are usually smoked4 8,wiltshire0 ,sides consist of the side1 ham and shoulder left together in one piece2 the blade-bone is taken out1 foot cut off1 the shoulder trimmed the same as 8,cumberlands10 hip-bone taken out1 not backstrapped1 the belly trimmed smooth and even1 and leg of the ham cut off below the hock joint4 ,these sides average #dj to #gj pounds and are selected especially for thickness of lean meat with a light1 even covering of fat from #a to #b inches thick1 not exceeding #a inches in the best grades4 ,they are made exclusively from choice lean bacon hogs1 and are the highest grade of ,english bacon sides4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aah4--,,short ,,ribs4 ,,cut ,,for ,,mess ,,pork4 ,illustration3 ,heavy4 ,medium4 ,light4 ,,fig4 #aai4--,,pork ,,loins4 8,cumberland ,sides0 have the end from which the ham is taken cut square2 the leg cut off below the knee joint2 the shoulder ribs1 neckbone1 back-bone and blood vein taken out2 breast-bone sawed or cut down smooth and even with the face of the side2 and should not be back-strapped or flanked4 ,they are made from good and choice bacon hogs and average #bj to #fj pounds1 but the bulk run #be to #dj pounds4 ,this is by far the leading export side cut1 and being made in various grades and averages is suitable for converting into other ,english side cuts1 such as 8,yorkshires10 8,birminghams10 8,staffords40 ,illustration3 ,wiltshire4 ,cumberland4 ,dublin4 ,long clear4 ,yorkshire4 ,staffordshire4 ,,fig4 #abj4--,,long ,,sides4 ,long ,rib ,sides are made from the same as ,cumberlands except the shoulder bones are taken out and the leg cut off close to the breast4 ,the average weight is #ah to #be pounds4 ,long ,clear ,sides are cut the same as long ribs and in addition have the ribs taken out4 ,for ,english trade1 they are made from good bacon hogs weighing #abj to #afj pounds dressed1 and the sides weigh #ah to #bf pounds4 ,for regular ,board of ,trade delivery they must not average less than #de pounds4 ,the latter are used in domestic trade and ,continental ,europe1 and are made from the heaviest bacon hogs and from comparatively lean butcher hogs4 ,extra long clears are made like long clears except that the loin is also removed4 ,they are seldom used4 8,dublin0 ,middles are thin lean sides cut like 8,cumberlands0 and in addition the leg cut off close to the breast4 ,they are made from light1 common bacon hogs and pigs4 ,the sides weigh #ab to #bj pounds4 ,see ,fig4 #abj4 ,bellies4--,the grades of this cut are ,dry-,salt1 ,sweet-,pickle1 ,breakfast-,bacon and 8,english0 ,bellies4 ,dry ,salt ,bellies4--,these are made from short rib sides of mixed packing hogs by cutting off the back4 ,for delivery on the ,board of ,trade they must be 8,well cut and trimmed2 no bellies that are coarse1 bruised1 soft or unsound shall be accepted40 ,however1 they are not as closely trimmed as sweet-pickle bellies4 ,they are made in averages from #aj to #de pounds4 ,they are quoted as ,dry-,salt ,rib and ,dry-,salt ,clear ,bellies1 the latter having the ribs removed and being made usually from bellies weighing less than #be pounds4 ,when smoked they are known as 8,bacon ,meats40 ,sweet-,pickle ,bellies4--,these are made from butcher bacon and good packing hogs1 being 8well cut and trimmed1 to average1 in lots1 not to exceed #ad pounds40 ,the edges are squared and trimmed more closely than ,dry-,salt bellies4 ,they are made in #f to #ad pound averages4 ,breakfast-,bacon ,bellies4--,these are clear bellies cut from bacon or light butcher hogs and selected with reference to firmness1 color1 proportions of fat and lean1 smooth skin and general quality4 ,they are trimmed still more closely than the regular sweet-pickle bellies4 ,selected bellies of this class weighing #d to #aj pounds are known as ,fancy or ,special ,breakfast ,bacon ,bellies and are made into the best brands of sugar-cured breakfast-bacon4 ,the second brand includes bellies that are too fat for fancy bacon1 or which lack the necessary firmness of flesh and thin smooth skin4 ,they weigh #d to #af pounds4 ,illustration3 ,dry ,salt ,rib4 ,sweet ,pickle ,rib4 ,english ,clear4 ,sweet ,pickle ,clear4 ,fancy ,clear4 ,,fig4 #aba4--;,,bellies4 ,illustration3 ,english ,rib4 ,english ,clear4 ,short ,fat ,back4 ,sweet ,pickle ,clear4 ,,fig4 #abb4--;,,backs4 8,english0 ,bellies4--,these are clear bellies weighing #aj to #bj pounds1 cut from choice heavy bacon hogs and light butcher barrows1 and selected for firmness and a large proportion of lean4 ,they are cut square on all edges4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abc4--,,smoked ,,breakfast ,,bacon ,,bellies 7,,first ,,brand74 ,backs4--,the grades of backs are ,short ,ribs1 ,short ,clear1 ,short ,fat and ,long ,fat ,backs4 ,short ,rib ,backs4--,these are made from short rib sides by cutting off the belly2 they therefore contain the loin1 back fat and back-ribs but not the back-bone nor tenderloin4 ,it is a dry-salt cut1 weighing #be to #de pounds and is not commonly made4 ,hard ,backs are made from hard rib sides1 thus containing the back-bone4 8,english0 ,rib ,backs are made from ,square ,short ,ribs1 and average #ab to #bj pounds4 ,short ,clear ,backs4--,these are 8made from the sides of smooth hogs from which the bellies have been cut1 back-bone and ribs taken out and the lean left on1 tail-bone sawed off even with the face of the meat1 and trimmed smooth and square on all edges40 ,they are cut from medium and heavy packing hogs4 ,the weights run from #af to #dj pounds4 8,english0 ,short ,clear ,backs are lighter than regulars1 averaging #aj to #bj pounds1 and are shorter at the butt end1 being cut off in front of the hip-bone4 ,pickled ,clear ,backs are short clear backs of light weight and lean quality4 ,they weigh #f to #aj pounds and are sweet-pickled1 smoked1 and sold as 8,loin ,back ,bacon0 or 8,breakfast ,bacon ,backs40 ,short ,fat ,backs4--,these are 8made from the sides of heavy1 well-fatted hogs from which the bellies have been cut1 back-bone and ribs taken out and all the lean taken off1 to be trimmed smoothly and properly squared on all the edges40 ,it is made from packing and loin hogs when cutting pork loins1 and is usually quoted as a dry-salt cut in #h to #bj pound averages4 ,export ,short ,fat ,backs have the blade-bone taken out1 are more closely trimmed and squared than domestic fat backs and are made principally in heavy averages1 #af to #dj pounds4 ,paprika ,fat ,backs are thin1 light fat backs1 weighing #d to #h pounds4 ,long ,fat ,backs4--,these consist of 8the upper half of the side cut through the center of the ribs from the ham to and including the shoulder1 with the loin and blade-bone taken out1 trimmed smoothly and squared on all edges40 ,it is a dry-salt cut1 not as commonly made as formerly and used only for export trade4 ,loins4--,loins1 consisting of the back with the fat trimmed off1 are sold either as ,regular ,pork ,loins or as ,loin ,rolls4 ,pork ,loins4--,these are made from sides of loin hogs1 with the belly and back-fat cut off2 they contain the back-bone1 back-ribs and tenderloins1 and have but a small amount of fat 7one-fourth to one-half inch7 on the outside4 ,the weights of regular pork loins are #h to #ah pounds and the price usually varies inversely with the weight4 #ad pounds is the heaviest average generally used for fresh trade4 ,extra or ,long ,pork ,loins include1 in addition to the regular loin1 the top or lean cut of the shoulder1 but this cut is seldom made4 ,tenderloins consist of short round muscles lying underneath and on each side of the back-bone2 they are attached to the 8slip-bone0 and extend from the loin butt almost to the last rib4 ,they weigh one-fourth to one pound each1 but those weighing three-fourths pound or over are most extensively used4 ,they are cut from hogs that are too heavy and rough to yield regular pork loins1 and from which short ribs1 mess pork and boneless loins are made4 ,loin ,rolls4--,these are made from heavy loins 7#ae to #bb pounds7 by boning them completely4 ,shoulders4--,the standard grades are ,rough1 ,regular1 ,picnic1 ,new ,york ,cut1 ,skinned1 ,square1 ,new ,orleans ,cut and ,boneless ,rolled ,shoulders4 ,rough ,shoulders4--,these are untrimmed shoulders as cut from the hog1 separated from the side between the first and second ribs and with the jowl cut off square4 ,regular ,shoulders4--,these are 8cut as close as possible to the back part of the forearm joint without exposing the knuckle1 7leaving two ribs on the shoulder7 butted off square on top1 the neck-bone and short ribs taken out1 neck squared off1 blood vein lifted and cut out1 breast flap cut off on or above the knee joint40 ,they are made principally from hogs that are too heavy and rough for ,new ,york style shoulders1 and at times when the supply of 8picnics0 exceeds the demand4 ,sausage ,shoulders are regular-cut shoulders which are unsuitable for dry-salt or sweet-pickle because of being trimmed to remove bruises1 cut from 8shoulder stuck0 hogs1 or otherwise deficient1 and are used for the purpose which their name indicates4 ,bladed ,shoulders are cut the same as ,regulars except the shoulder-blade is taken out and the corners rounded4 ,picnics or ,calas4--,formerly termed ,california hams--,these are cut #b ribs wide1 trimmed and packed as follows3 8,shank cut off above the knee joint1 trimmed as full on the face 7lean surface7 as possible1 butt taken off to the edge of the blade1 well rounded at the butt in the shape of a ham1 breast flap taken off1 and trimmed close and smooth1 reasonably uniform in size1 and to average1 in lots1 not to exceed #ab pounds4 ,the lighter averages 7#d to #h pounds7 are sometimes termed ,boston ,shoulders1 and were formerly butted shorter than ,calas and only slightly rounded4 ,skinned ,picnics are made from the fatter grades of ,picnics by removing the skin and trimming the fat off within one-half inch of the lean4 ,they average #f to #aj pounds4 ,new ,york ,cut ,shoulders4--,these are cut two ribs wide1 butted one inch from blade-bone1 trimmed smooth1 neck and breast flap cut off1 and shank cut off between knee and brisket4 #h to #ad-pound grades are made for domestic trade and the bulk weigh #aj to #ab pounds4 ,skinned ,shoulders4--,these are cut similar to ,new ,york ,cut ,shoulders and in addition the skin is taken off down to the shank and the fat trimmed off close to the lean4 ,they weigh #f to #af pounds1 and are sold fresh1 sweet-pickled and smoked4 ,skinned shoulders with the shank cut off close to the breast are termed 8,chicago ,shoulders10 or 8,skinned ,shoulders1 hock off40 ,square or #c-,rib ,shoulders4--,these are cut three ribs wide1 squared on all sides1 neck-bones out1 breast flap off1 foot cut off at the knee joint1 butted just above blade-bone1 and so trimmed as to expose the lean as much as possible4 ,this is the leading 8,english0 shoulder cut1 and is made in averages from #aj to #bj pounds4 ,new ,orleans ,cut ,shoulders4--,these are made #a ribs wide1 smooth and rounded on neck end1 part of shoulder butt left on and neck-bone out4 ,they are cut principally in #ab to #ad pound averages1 but are also made from #aj to #af pounds1 from shoulders that are too rough and fat to make ,new ,york ,cut or ,picnic ,shoulders4 ,boneless ,rolled ,picnics4--,these are made from heavy picnics by lifting the skin1 removing the surplus fat and the bone1 pressing or rolling and tying with cord in the form of a roll in the same manner as rolled hams4 ,they are also made from skinned picnics4 ,boneless rolled shoulders are made similarly from regular shoulders4 ,butts and ,plates4--,butts are cut from the end or top of the shoulder and from the jowl4 ,plates are made from shoulder butts4 ,the various grades of these cuts are ,boston ,style1 ,milwaukee ,style1 ,boneless1 ,buffalo ,style1 ,new ,york ,style1 ,picnic1 ,dry-,salt and ,square-,cut ,butts2 ,regular ,plates1 ,clear ,plates and ,back ,plates4 ,illustration3 ,rough4 ,new ,york4 ,skinned4 ,new ,orleans4 ,square4 ,,fig4 #abd4--,,shoulders4 ,illustration3 ,boston ,butt4 ,regular ,plate4 ,clear ,plate4 ,picnic ,butt4 ,boneless ,butt4 ,new ,york ,butt4 ,,fig4 #abe4--;,,butts ,,and ,,plates4 ,illustration3 ,heavy4 ,light4 ,,fig4 #abf4--,,picnics4 ,illustration3 ,spare ,ribs 7full sheet74 ,spare ,ribs 7half sheet74 ,dry salt butt 7jowl74 ,square cut butt4 ,virginia style jowl4 ,,fig4 #abg4 ,boston ,style ,butts4--,these are the ends or top pieces cut from heavy shoulders when making picnics2 the neck-bone1 ribs and surplus fat being removed and the piece trimmed smooth4 ,they include the end of the shoulder blade4 ,average weights are #c to #g pounds4 ,milwaukee ,style ,butts4--,these are the same as ,boston butts with the neck-bone and rib left on4 ,boneless ,butts or ,lean ,butts4--,also termed ,cala ,butts--,these consist of the lean1 boneless portion of ,boston butts between the blade-bone and neck-bone4 ,buffalo ,style ,butts4--,these are cut the same as boneless butts except that the neck-bone is left in4 ,they are used fresh4 ,new ,york ,style ,butts4--,these are shoulder butts cut from picnics of the thinner and lighter grades4 ,they contain the neck-bone1 fat and lean1 and are mainly plain-pickled4 ,picnic ,butts4--,these are picnics from which the surplus fat and the skin are removed and the shank cut off close to the breast4 ,they are not trimmed as closely as regular picnics4 ,dry-,salt ,butts4--,these are made from the jowl 7lower part of the neck and cheek7 with the edges trimmed smooth and the piece pounded flat4 ,they weigh #c to #e pounds4 ,square-,cut ,butts4--,these are also made from the jowl but are more closely trimmed and squared4 ,they average #b to #d pounds4 ,regular ,plates4--,these are made from shoulder butts by removing a boneless butt1 thus making a fat piece with a facing of lean1 containing the end of the blade-bone1 and weighing #f to #ab pounds4 ,percentages of ,yield4--,the variety of cuts into which a hog can be divided are many and the tables following indicate the percentages of yield of the different cuts1 based on the live weight of the hogs4 ,the percentage of yield of lard includes both prime steam lard and leaf4 ,it should be understood that the total yield of the various cuts mentioned will vary slightly in different markets1 and in the same market at different seasons of the year1 according to the quality of the hog4 ,these variations will not be more than #b per cent1 probably1 on the total yield4 ,the percentages here given are about an average1 or possibly a little under the average1 and are based on hogs averaging from #bdj to #bge pounds live weight4 ,extra short clears1 extra short ribs1 pork loins1 fat backs and bellies are made out of mixed packing hogs1 averaging #bbj to #cjj pounds2 at some seasons of the year averaging twenty-five to thirty pounds heavier4 ,in the percentages given it is estimated that the offal1 such as hair1 blood1 fertilizer1 casings1 blade bones1 etc41 will cover the cost of killing and cutting and in figuring these tests prices of green meat should be used4 ,,cut ,,into ,,extra ,,short ,,clears ,,will ,,yield4 ,per cent4 ,extra short clears #bf ,loin #i ,ham #ab ,shoulder #i ,lard #ac ----- ,total #fi ,,cut ,,into ,,extra ,,short ,,ribs ,,will ,,yield4 ,per cent4 ,extra short ribs #bf ,loin #i ,ham #ab ,shoulder #i ,lard #ac ----- ,total #gj ,,cut ,,into ,,pork ,,loins1 ,,belly ,,and ,,short ,,fat ,,backs ,,will ,,yield4 ,per cent4 ,loin #i ,belly #ab ,backs #ab ,shoulders #i ,hams #ab ,lard #ac ----- ,total #fg ,,cut ,,into ,,regular ,,short ,,ribs ,,and ,,rough ,,ribs ,,will ,,yield4 ,per cent4 ,ribs #cg ,hams #ab ,shoulders #h ,lard #ad ----- ,total #gb ,,cut ,,into ,,rough ,,ribs ,,will ,,yield4 ,per cent4 ,rough ribs #cg ,hams #ab ,shoulders #h ,lard #ad ----- ,total #gb ,,cut ,,into ,,regular ,,short ,,clears ,,will ,,yield4 ,per cent4 ,short clears #cf ,hams #ab ,shoulders #h ,lard #ad ----- ,total #ga ,,cut ,,into ,,mess ,,pork ,,will ,,yield4 ,per cent4 ,mess pork #ch ,hams #ab ,shoulders #h ,lard #ad ----- ,total #gc ,,cut ,,into ,,cumberlands ,,will ,,yield4 #abj-lb4 ,,live ,,hog4 ,per cent4 ,cumberlands #cg ,american cut hams #ad ,lard #aj -- ,total #fa #agj-lb4 ,,live ,,hog4 ,per cent4 ,cumberlands #ci ,american cut hams #ad ,lard #aa ----- ,total #fd #ade-lb4 ,,live ,,hog4 ,per cent4 ,cumberlands #ch ,american cut hams #ad ,lard #aa -- ,total #fc #aij-lb4 ,,live ,,hog4 ,per cent4 ,cumberlands #dj ,american cut hams #ad ,lard #ab ----- ,total #ff ,,cut ,,into ,,english ,,long ,,clears ,,will ,,yield4 ,per cent4 ,long clear #ch ,american cut hams #ad ,lard #ab ----- ,total #fd ,change ,cuts ,one ,side4--,the following tests indicate how one side might be manipulated and changed to various cuts4 ,this side weighed forty-four pounds1 with ham and shoulder removed4 ,the prices were those current at the time of making the tests and indicates the variable commercial value of the side by the various manipulations4 ,the same weight side of meat made into different cuts varies in value from #d4jj to #d4cd3 ,,summary ,,of ,,tests4 ,product ,value ,hard ribs #d4bdbh ,standard ribs #d4afdh ,short clear #d4agbd ,back and dry salt bellies #d4bgij ,back and dry salt rib bellies #d4cbha ,back and sweet pickle bellies #d4aigi ,extra rib #d4bgdc ,extra short clear #d4bgci ,dry salt fat backs and dry salt rib bellies #d4cdce ,dry salt fat backs and dry salt bellies #d4bidg ,dry salt fat backs and sweet pickle clear bellies #d4bfce ,fat back 7tank7 and dry salt rib bellies #d4jfgg ,fat back 7tank7 and dry salt clear bellies #d4jcag ,fat back 7tank7 and sweet pickle clear bellies #d4jjje ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abh4--;,,hard ,,short ,,ribs4 7,,not ,,deliverable1 ,,board ,,of ,,trade47 ,,hard ,,short ,,rib ,,test4 ,yield ,lbs4 ,per lb4 ,value ----------------------------------- ,hard short ribs#dc #j4jifged4afjc ,lean trimmings 4#jg 4#jage ,fat trimmings 4#jfe 4#jcbe ,tenderloins 4#ac 4#jcbe ----------------------------------- ,totals #dd 444 #d4bdbh ----------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abi4--,,short ,,rib4 ,,standard ,,short ,,rib ,,test4 ,yield ,lbs4,per lb4 ,value -------------------------------------- ,standard short ribs#da #j4jigd4jdih ,lean trimmings 4#jg 4#jcej ,fat trimmings 4#jfe 4#jcbe ,tenderloins 4#ac 4#jcbe ,back bone #a 4#jae 4#jaej -------------------------------------- ,totals #dd 444 #d4afdh -------------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acj4--;,,extra ,,short ,,rib4 ,,extra ,,short ,,rib ,,test4 ,yield ,lbs4 ,per lb4 ,value ----------------------------------- ,extra short rib#cdj4jife #c4cbic ,pork loin #h 4#aje 4#ijca ,lean trimmings 4#jffbe 4#jage ,fat trimmings 4#jife 4#jbdd ----------------------------------- ,totals #dd 444 #d4bgdc ----------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aca4--,,short ,,clear 7,,short ,,rib ,,and ,,spare ,,rib ,,removed47 ,,short ,,clear ,,test 7,,short ,,rib ,,and ,,spare ,,rib ,,removed47 ,yield ,lbs4 ,per lb4 ,value ---------------------------------- ,short clears #cij4ajjbec4idig ,lean trimmings 4#jg 4#jcej ,fat trimmings 4#jfe 4#jcbe ,tenderloins 4#ac 4#jcbe ,back bone #a 4#jae 4#jaej ,spare ribs #b 4#jee 4#aajj ---------------------------------- ,totals #dd 444 #d4agbd ---------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acb4--;,,extra ,,short ,,clear4 ,,extra ,,short ,,clear ,,test4 ,yield ,lbs4 ,per lb4 ,value -------------------------------------- ,extra short clears#ccj4jig #c4bdie ,pork loins #h 4#ajfge 4#ijca ,lean trimmings 4#jg 4#jage ,fat trimmings 4#jfe 4#jdhh ,spare ribs #a 4#jee 4#jeej -------------------------------------- ,totals #dd 444 #d4bgci -------------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acc4--;,,clear ,,back4 ,,clear ,,back4--,s4 ,p4 ,,belly ,,test4 ,yield ,lbs4 ,per lb4 ,value ---------------------------------------- -------- ,clear backs #baj4ajjgeb4aijc ,clear bellies 7sweet pickle7#ae 4#aje #a4fjac ,lean trimmings #a 4#jg 4#jgjj ,fat trimmings #b 4#jfe 4#aghh ,tenderloin 4#ac 4#jcbe ,back bone #a 4#jae 4#jaej ,spare ribs #b 4#jee 4#aajj ---------------------------------------- -------- ,totals #dd 444 #d4aigi ---------------------------------------- -------- ,,clear ,,back4--,d4 ,s4 ,,belly ,,test4 ,yield ,lbs4 ,per lb4 ,value ---------------------------------------- ---- ,clear back #baj4ajjgeb4aiad ,clear bellies 7dry salt7#ag 4#ajde #a4hbhh ,lean trimmings 4#jg 4#jebe ,fat trimmings 4#jfe 4#jdhh ,tenderloin 4#ac 4#jcbe ,back bone #a 4#jae 4#jaej ,spare ribs #b 4#jee 4#aajj ---------------------------------------- ---- ,totals #dd 444 #d4bgij ---------------------------------------- ---- ,,clear ,,back4--,d4 ,s4 ,,rib ,,belly ,,test4 ,yield ,lbs4 ,per lb4 ,value ---------------------------------------- -- ,clear back #baj4ajjgeb4aijc ,rib bellies 7dry salt7#ai 4#ajb #a4ihij ,lean trimmings 4#jg 4#jebe ,fat trimmings 4#jfe 4#jdhh ,tenderloin 4#ac 4#jcbe ,back bone #a 4#jae 4#jaej ---------------------------------------- -- ,totals #dd 444 #d4cbha ---------------------------------------- -- ,,loin4--,s4 ,p4 ,,belly1 ,d4 ,s4 ,,fat ,,back ,,test4 ,yield ,lbs4 ,per lb4 ,value ---------------------------------------- -------- ,fat backs 7dry salt7 #afj4jiebea4egaf ,clear bellies 7sweet pickle7#ad 4#aje #a4dgjj ,pork loins #h 4#ajfge 4#ijca ,lean trimmings 4#jg 4#jebe ,fat trimmings #c 4#jfe 4#baac ,spare ribs #a 4#jee 4#jeej ---------------------------------------- -------- ,totals #dd 444 #d4bfce ---------------------------------------- -------- ,,loin4--,s4 ,p4 ,,belly1 ,,fat ,,back 7,,tank7 ,,test4 ,yield ,lbs4 ,per lb4 ,value ---------------------------------------- -------- ,clear bellies 7sweet pickle7#ad #j4aje #a4dgjj ,pork loins #h 4#ajfge 4#ijca ,lean trimmings #a 4#jg 4#ajej ,fat trimmings #c 4#jfe 4#baac ,back fat1 tank #ae 4#jgige #a4befa ,spare ribs #a 4#jee 4#jeej ---------------------------------------- -------- ,totals #dd 444 #d4jjje ---------------------------------------- -------- ,,loin4--,d4 ,s4 ,,belly1 ,,fat ,,back 7,,tank7 ,,test4 ,yield ,lbs4 ,per lb4 ,value ---------------------------------------- ---- ,fat backs1 tank #aej4jgigea4befa ,pork loins #h 4#ajfge 4#ijca ,lean trimmings #a 4#jg 4#jgjj ,fat trimmings #b 4#jfe 4#acjj ,clear bellies 7dry salt7#ae 4#ajbge #a4fage ,spare ribs #a 4#jee 4#jeej ---------------------------------------- ---- ,totals #dd 444 #d4jcag ---------------------------------------- ---- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acd4--,,rib ,,belly4 ,,loin4--,d4 ,s4 ,,fat ,,backs4 ,d4 ,s4 ,,rib ,,belly ,,test4 ,yield ,lbs4 ,per lb4 ,value ---------------------------------------- -- ,rib bellies 7dry salt7#afj4ajbgea4gbjc ,fat backs 7dry salt7 #af 4#jiebe #a4egaf ,pork loin #h 4#ajfge 4#ijca ,lean trimmings 4#jg 4#jage ,fat trimmings #b 4#jfe 4#acjj ---------------------------------------- -- ,totals #dd 444 #d4cdce ---------------------------------------- -- ,,loin4--,d4 ,s4 ,,fat ,,back4--,,clear ,,belly ,,test4 ,yield ,lbs4 ,per lb4 ,value ---------------------------------------- ---- ,fat backs 7dry salt7 #afj4jiebea4egaf ,clear bellies 7dry salt7#ae 4#ajbge #a4fage ,pork loin #h 4#ajfge 4#ijca ,lean trimmings 4#jg 4#jage ,fat trimmings #b 4#jfe 4#acjj ,spare ribs #a 4#jee 4#jeej ---------------------------------------- ---- ,totals #dd 444 #d4bidg ---------------------------------------- ---- ,,loin4--,d4 ,s4 ,,rib ,,belly4 ,,fat ,,backs 7,,tank ,,test74 ,yield ,lbs4 ,per lb4 ,value ---------------------------------------- --- ,fat backs1 tank #aej4jgige #a4befa ,pork loins #h 4#ajfge 4#ijca ,lean trimmings #a 4#jg 4#jgjj ,fat trimmings #b 4#jfe 4#acjj ,rib bellies 7dry salt7#af 4#ajb #a4gjhe ---------------------------------------- --- ,totals #dd 444 #d4jfgg ---------------------------------------- --- ,tests on ,five ,sides4--,the following tests show the results of cutting sides in various manner and are useful as showing the percentage yield in various lots3 ,,recapitulation4 ,value per cwt4 ,five rough ribs1 tenderloin in1 made into extra short clears #i4iaj ,five rough sides with the tenderloin in1 made into extra short ribs and pork loins #i4idf ,five rough sides made into extra short clears1 this cut being the same as the previous one1 except that the spare rib is removed from the side #i4hhj ,five rough ribs1 tenderloin in1 made into regular ribs #i4gcd ,five rough sides made into pork loins1 clear bellies1 which consist of taking out the spare ribs and fat backs #i4fjj ,five rough ribs with tenderloin in1 made into rib bellies1 pork loins and fat backs #i4fad ,five rough ribs made into short clear backs by removing spare rib on loin and leaving spare ribs in bellies #i4gjj ,five rough ribs made into short clear backs1 removing the spare rib from the bellies1 making them clear bellies #i4gjj ,in the foregoing tests the prices were effective at the time the tests were made4 ,the percentages are accurate4 ,it will be noted that the different cuts vary in value from #i4fj to #i4ia1 a variation of #ca;c per hundred pounds4 ,from this will readily be seen the advantage of cutting hogs according to the market conditions4 ,,five ,,rough ,,ribs1 ,,tenderloin ,,in1 ,,made ,,into ,,regular ,,ribs4 ,per ,yield ,lbs4 cent4,per lb4 ,value ---------------------------------------- ,five regular ribs #cej #ie4hij4jihjcd4cj ,back bones #h #b4ai 4#jb 4#af ,tenderloins #e #a4cg 4#ai 4#ie ,fat #b 4#ee 4#jfbe 4#ab ---------------------------------------- ,totals #cfeajj4jj 444 #ce4ec ---------------------------------------- ,value1 #i4gcd per #ajj pounds4 ,,five ,,rough ,,ribs ,,converted ,,to ,,rib ,,bellies ,,in ,,short ,,clear ,,backs4 ,per ,yield ,lbs4 cent4,per lb4 ,value ---------------------------------------- ------- ,five short clear backs#abh #dg4gfj4jigeab4dh ,five rib bellies #aab #da4gi 4#aja #aa4ca ,tenderloins #d #a4di 4#ai 4#gf ,ribs #f #b4db 4#jh 4#eb ,fat trimmings #i #c4cf 4#jfbe 4#ef ,blade bones #c #a4ab 4#jg 4#ba ,back bones #e #a4hg 4#jb 4#aj ,lean trimmings 4#ai 4#jgge 4#jd ---------------------------------------- ------- ,totals #bfh #ajj4jj 444 #be4ih ---------------------------------------- ------- ,value1 #i4gj per #ajj pounds4 ,,five ,,rough ,,ribs ,,converted ,,to ,,short ,,clears4 ,per ,yield ,lbs4 cent4 ,per lb4 ,value -------------------------------------- ,short clears#ccj #ij4eej4ajabecc4df ,spare ribs #af #d4ch 4#jh #a4bh ,tail bones #c 4#if 4#jc 4#aj ,back bones #h #b4ai 4#jb 4#af ,tenderloins #e #a4cg 4#ai 4#ie ,fat #b 4#ee 4#jfbe 4#ab ---------------------------------------- ,totals #cfe #ajj4jj 444 #cf4jg ---------------------------------------- ,value1 #i4hh per #ajj pounds4 ,,five ,,sides ,,clear ,,backs4--,,clear ,,bellies4 ,per ,yield ,lbs4 cent4,per lb4 ,value ---------------------------------------- ------- ,five short clear backs#abh #dg4gfj4jigeab4dh ,five clear bellies #aje #ci4ah 4#ajbe #aj4gf ,spare ribs #g #b4fa 4#jh 4#ef ,tenderloins #d #a4di 4#ai 4#gf ,ribs #f #b4db 4#jh 4#eb ,fat trimmings #i #c4cf 4#jfbe 4#ef ,blade bones #c #a4ab 4#jg 4#ba ,back bones #e #a4hg 4#jb 4#aj ,lean trimmings 4#ai 4#jgge 4#jd ---------------------------------------- ------- ,totals #bfh #ajj4jj 444 #be4ii ---------------------------------------- ------- ,value1 #i4gj per #ajj pounds4 ,,five ,,rough ,,sides1 ,,made ,,into ,,pork ,,loins1 ,,clear ,,bellies4 ,per ,yield ,lbs4 cent4,per lb4 ,value ---------------------------------------- --- ,five pork loins #fc #bb4fdj4ajge #f4hb ,five clear bellies#aja #cf4ja 4#ajbe #aj4ce ,spare ribs #h #c4jc 4#jh 4#fh ,five fat backs #he #cj4cj 4#ji #g4fe ,fat trimmings #ah #f4ei 4#jfbe #a4af ,lean trimmings 4#ah 4#jgge 4#jd ,blade bones #c #a4be 4#jg 4#bd ---------------------------------------- --- ,totals #bhjajj4jj 444 #bf4id ---------------------------------------- --- ,value1 #i4fj per #ajj pounds4 ,,five ,,rough ,,ribs1 ,,tenderloin ,,in1 ,,converted ,,to ,,extra ,,short ,,clears4 ,per ,yield ,lbs4 cent4 ,per lb4 ,value ---------------------------------------- ------- ,five extra short clears #ahi #gb4fij4jihgeah4ff ,spare ribs #e #a4ic 4#jh 4#dj ,five pork loins #eg #ba4ib 4#ajge #f4ac ,fat trimmings #h #c4jh 4#jfbe 4#ej ,lean trimmings #a 4#ch 4#jgge 4#jh ---------------------------------------- ------- ,totals #bfjajj4jj 444 #be4gg ---------------------------------------- ------- ,value1 #i4ia per #ajj pounds4 ,,five ,,rough ,,ribs1 ,,tenderloin ,,converted ,,to ,,rib ,,bellies1 ,,pork ,,loins ,,and ,,fat ,,backs4 ,per ,yield ,lbs4 cent4,per lb4 ,value ---------------------------------------- - ,five pork loins #fc #bb4fdj4ajge #f4hb ,five rib bellies#aji #ci4jd 4#aja #aa4jf ,five fat backs #he #cj4cj 4#ji #g4fe ,fat trimmings #ah #f4ei 4#jfbe #a4af ,lean trimmings 4#ah 4#jgge 4#jd ,blade bones #c #a4be 4#jg 4#bd ---------------------------------------- - ,totals #bhjajj4jj 444 #bf4gi ---------------------------------------- - ,value1 #i4fad per #ajj pounds4 ,,extra ,,short ,,ribs4 ,per ,yield ,lbs4 cent4 ,per lb4 ,value ---------------------------------------- ----- ,five extra short ribs #aid #gd4fbj4jihgeai4ae ,five pork loins #eg #ba4ib 4#ajge #f4ac ,fat trimmings #h #c4jh 4#jfbe 4#ej ,lean trimmings #a 4#ch 4#jgge 4#jh ---------------------------------------- ----- ,totals #bfjajj4jj 444 #be4hf ---------------------------------------- ----- ,value1 #i4idf per #ajj pounds4 ,special ,test on #a1bfe ,mixed ,hogs4--,average ,live ,weight #bde ,pounds4 ,in all well-managed houses a test is made at least weekly to determine the actual profit or loss appearing4 ,these tests are of value as a guide when buying hogs to secure a quality best adapted to make cuts sell to the best advantage4 ,the following tests on #a1bfe live hogs1 averaging #bde pounds1 shows the method in use4 ,it will be noted that this test is carried through carefully1 taking the market price on the various cuts4 ,the recapitulation shows the actual results at the time the test was made4 ,all percentages of cuts of meats shown in the following tables are figured from the live weight of hogs3 ,,hams4 ,green ,average ,average ,wt4,no4 of,weight ,price ,product ,lbs4 ,pieces ,lbs4 ,per lb4 ,value ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,amer4 cut hams #aj and under #fh #fafj4aacge #gj4jg ,amer4 cut hams #aa-ac #adc #a1gdj 4#jige #afi4fe ,amer4 cut hams #ad-af #feh #i1ife 4#jibe #iba4gf ,amer4 cut hams #ah and over #eijaa1aad 4#jibe #a1jbh4jd ,amer4 cut hams 7skinned7 #dae #g1ejc 4#ajbe #gfi4jf ,special hams #aa-ac #bbc #b1hib 4#aj #bhi4bj ,special hams #ad-af #ccg #e1ahg 4#jie #dib4gg ,face and cushion bruised hams #i #ade 4#jhe #ab4cc ,no4 #b hams #ad and under #fc #icc 4#jibe #hf4cj ,no4 #b hams #ae and over #bd #bhh 4#jhge #be4cj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,totals #b1ecjdj1chcj4jieg #c1hfd4dh ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,,shoulders4 ,green ,average ,average ,wt4 ,no4 of,weight ,price ,product ,lbs4 ,pieces ,lbs4 ,per lb4 ,value ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,n4 ,y4 shoulders 444 #gg #fhjj4jfge #de4ij ,rough 444 #h #bjb 4#jgcge #ad4ij ,skinned 444 #bhc #b1gca 4#jge #bjd4hc ,three rib 444 #ah #bej 4#jh #bj4jj ,california hams #e and under #ibi #d1gje ,california hams #e - #g #hef #e1hch 4#jfabe #hbh4ij ,california hams #h - #aj #cbd #b1ecb ,california hams #aj and over #de #deh ,clear plates 444 #hij 4#jegge #ea4dj ,boneless ham butts 444 #chb 4#jge #bh4fe ,jowl butts 444 #bad 4#jdbe #i4aj ,rough butts 444 #bde 4#jgfge #ah4jg ,boston butts 444 #f1gjc 4#jge #ejb4gc ,barrel pork 444 #a1aaj 4#jfjbe #ff4hh ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,totals 444 #b1ecjbf1idjj4jffd #a1gia4cf ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,sides4 ,average ,green ,average ,wt4 ,no4 of ,weight ,price ,product ,lbs4 ,pieces ,lbs4 ,per lb4 ,value ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,dry salt fancy bellies #d- #f #he #chcj4aa #db4ac ,sweet pickle clear bellies #f- #h #ec #bge 4#ajge #bi4ef ,sweet pickle clear bellies #h-aj #beb #b1aeh 4#ajbe #bba4ai ,sweet pickle clear bellies #aj-ac #bgd #c1jei 4#jie #bhh4gj ,sweet pickle clear bellies #ac-ae #fg #hic 4#jhge #gh4ac ,dry salt clear bellies #ah-bj #add #b1hjc 4#jggge #bag4ic ,dry salt clear bellies #be-cj #ace #c1gaa 4#jgf #bhb4jd ,regular short ribs #fj-gj #aaf #g1gca 4#jgb #eef4fc ,extra short ribs #cj-dj #a1djd #eb1fjj 4#jfi #c1fbi4dj ,fat backs #aj-ab #aaj #a1bdf 4#jeg #ga4jb ,fat backs #be-cj #aj #bfj 4#jfe #af4ij ,back pork 444 444 #c1ccj 4#jehe #aid4hj ,back fat 7fifty ,k4 ,r4 lard7 444 444 #e1ajj 4#jeg #bij4gj ,brisket pork 444 444 #bde 4#jh #ai4fj ,regular loins 444 #b1dad #bg1bfh 4#ajbe #b1gid4ig ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,totals 444 #e1jfdaaa1jdbj4jghg #h1gcc4gj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,lard4 ,green ,average ,weight ,price ,product ,lbs4 ,per lb4 ,value ---------------------------------------- --------- ,prime steam lard 7killing7#af1jge 444 444 ,prime steam lard 7cutting7#ag1jei 444 444 ---------------------------------------- --------- ,totals #cc1acdj4jgabeb1bhi4ee ---------------------------------------- --------- ,leaf lard #g1ifej4jg #eeg4ee ---------------------------------------- --------- ,,miscellaneous4 ,green ,average ,weight ,price ,product ,lbs4 ,per lb4 ,value ------------------------------- ,spare ribs #a1dgdj4jd #eh4if ,tenderloins #ge 4#ae #aa4be ,tails #if 4#jb #a4ib ,neck bones #a1jab 4#ja #aj4ab ,blade bones #bif 4#jd #aa4hd ,trimmings #g1chc 4#jd #bie4cb ,feet #d1hjc 4#ja #dh4jc ------------------------------- ,totals #ae1acij4jbhidcg4dd ------------------------------- ,,offal4 ,green ,average ,no4 of,weight ,price ,product ,pieces ,lbs4 ,per lb4 ,value ---------------------------------------- ----- ,cheek and head meat 444 #a1ffd #j4jb #cc4bh ,tongues 444 #iej 4#jee #eb4be ,hearts 444 #cce 4#ja #c4ce ,kidneys 444 #chj 4#ja #c4hj ,brains 444 #df 4#jb 4#ib ,plucks #fjj 444 4#jb #ab4jj ,heads 444 #ajb 4#jce #c4eg ,ears 444 #be 4#jb 4#ej ,snouts 444 #ihe 4#jb #ai4gj ---------------------------------------- ----- ,totals 444 #d1dhg 444 #abi4cg ---------------------------------------- ----- ,estimated value of blood and casings at #f;c per head1 #gg4aj4 ,added to #abi4cg1 the value of the offal1 makes a total value of #bjf4dg4 ,,recapitulation4 ,per ,average cent ,lbs4 ,price ,product ,yield ,weight ,per lb4 ,value ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,hams #ac4jd #dj1chcj4jieg #c1hfd4ch ,shoulders #h4gj #bf1idj 4#jffe #a1gia4cf ,sides #ce4hfaaa1jdb 4#jghg #h1gcc4gj ,prime steam lard #aj4ch #cb1acd 4#jgabe #b1bhi4ee ,leaf lard #b4eg #g1ife 4#jg #eeg4ee ,miscellaneous #d4hi #ae1aci 4#bhi #dcg4dd ,offal 7#j4afg per head7 444 444 444 #bjf4dg ,no4 #a grease 444 #a1bha 4#jgabe #ia4bg ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,total yield #ge4ddbcd1hhd 444 #ag1iga4gb ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,,net ,,results #a1bfe hogs--,net live weight #cji1ibe pounds at average #j4jecc per lb4 #af1eah4ij --,killing expense #fdb4ej #ac condemned for ,no4 #a grease1 weighing #c1aeh lbs4 and #g condemned for ,no4 #b grease1 weighing #a1ijh lbs41 at average1 #j4jaej per lb4 #ge4ii ---------- ,total #ag1bcg4ci ,gain1 #gcc4cc1 or #eh;c per hog1 or #bc;c per #ajj pounds alive4 ,prices on preceding tests are changeable--the percentage yield is practically the same at present4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,curing ,,meats ,,curing ,,cellars -- ,,hams ,,and ,,their ,,treatment -- ,,wilder ,,hams -- ,,shoulder ,,meats -- ,,bellies -- ,,overhauling ,,meats -- ,,fancy ,,bacon -- ,,shipping ,,ages -- ,,second ,,pickle -- ,,dry ,,salt ,,meats -- ,,curing ,,dry ,,salt ,,meats -- ,,smoking ,,dry ,,salt ,,meats -- ,,barreled ,,pork -- ,,curing ,,barreled ,,pork -- ,,english ,,meats -- ,,pigs ,,feet -- ,,pigs ,,tongues -- ,,pigs ,,snouts4 ,curing ,cellars4--,curing ,cellars are pretty generally carried at a temperature of #ce to #cf ,f41 for sweet-pickled meats and #ch to #dj ,f4 for dry salted meats4 ,at times the temperature in the foregoing is lowered to #cd ,f41 but not frequently4 ,vessels4--,formerly tierces were used almost entirely1 but the trend has been toward the use of vats or casks1 uniform so far as possible in capacity1 since it tends to better standardization4 ,the vats can be taken out for airing1 washing and sunlight1 which is a prime requisite4 ,dimensions of a standard vat are about as follows3 ,for #a1ejj pounds capacity1 #db inches high1 #db inches in diameter at the head1 #dh inches in diameter at the bilge or center of vat4 ,thickness of stave one inch4 ,heads #a inch yellow pine2 five galvanized iron hoops1 two inches wide1 made from ,no4 #ab iron4 ,heads to be set flush with the chime1 so that the weight of the contents comes directly on the floor4 ,vats of this kind seem to last indefinitely and are much cheaper to handle than tierces1 saving a large expense in coopering1 and making it possible to use the space in the curing houses to better advantage4 ,cold storage houses should be sufficiently high under the joists1 so these vats can be double-decked1 one setting on top of the other1 leaving about twenty inches of space4 ,when handled in this manner the space in the cellar is used to much better advantage with vats than tierces4 ,into a vat of the dimensions named1 should be put #a1dej pounds of meat4 ,it will take practically sixty-eight gallons of pickle to fill the vat on a basis of #ba pounds of meat to be cured1 to each gallon of pickle4 ,hams and their ,treatment4--,in the handling of product there is no part of the animal that requires as close and skillful attention as does the ham during the curing process4 ,it is a thick1 compact body of meat and it takes considerable time to chill1 it becomes tainted very soon if not properly chilled4 ,if the heat is removed1 and the curing agent does not reach the interior promptly1 decomposition sets in4 ,as before stated the first chilling of the carcass has everything to do with the curing of this meat4 ,if hams are properly chilled in the cooler1 the balance of the process is comparatively simple4 ,if they are only partially chilled from lack of proper attention or because of improper coolers1 no curing agency will bring the hams out in a satisfactory condition4 ,chilling4--,in hog coolers properly operated1 on light and medium weight hogs1 where a ham temperature of #cc to #ce ,f4 is obtained1 hams can be packed directly into the vats or tierces4 ,heavy hams are sometimes placed in a holding room for twenty-four hours and kept at a temperature of #cc ,f4 to thoroughly chill4 ,some curers prefer to shelve all hams and to pump them before shelving4 ,meat ,temperatures4--,each day's cutting of hams should be tested internally with a thermometer made especially for this purpose to find the internal temperature4 ,light hams averaging from twelve to fourteen pounds should run from #cc to #cd ,f41 heavy hams from #ce to #cg ,f4 ,temperatures higher than those designated are not safe1 from a curing standpoint1 and should be reduced to these points before the hams can be safely cured4 ,what is meant by 8safely cured0 is the minimum percentage of sour1 which should run less than one ham in #a1jjj pieces4 ,if previous directions as to refrigeration1 handling1 etc41 are followed closely this condition is possible4 ,pumping4--,the use of a pump in curing hams is a requisite to reasonably safe cure4 ,a pump similar to that shown in ,fig4 #ace is used1 the pickle being inserted around the joint by means of a hollow nickel needle4 ,the needle is put in where the pickle is wanted1 and with one stroke of the pump the pickle is forced into the inside of the ham4 ,it is advisable to use a strong pickle1 getting as much of the curative properties as possible into the ham with a minimum amount of water4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ace4--;,,ham ,,pump4 ,the pump illustrated is designed so that a measured quantity must be thrown per stroke4 ,it was formerly thought unwise to pump the selected or fancy hams1 but if the work be carefully done1 whatever damage might occur1 is justified by the general results4 ,in pumping hams care should be used not to pump them heavy enough to burst the tissues1 and to get as much as possible of the ingredient pumped in around the stifle joint1 as this is the joint where decomposition sets in4 ,pumping ,pickle4--,ham pumping pickle is usually quite a strong solution4 ,a good recipe is one gallon of #ajj brine1 to which is added fifteen ounces of saltpetre 7potassium nitrate7 and fifteen ounces sugar2 in the same proportion for larger quantities4 ,the sugar has the effect of toning down the brash salt effect in the meat1 giving it a more palatable flavor1 also to a certain extent it aids in curing4 ,the saltpetre aids in curing the meat1 and gives it a bright1 attractive color4 ,meat which is cured without the use of saltpetre has a dead appearance1 and is very unattractive4 ,pumping ,quantities4--,fancy hams should be pumped with one stick of the needle pushed in from the shank end1 delivering along the bone at the stifle joint1 using two strokes of the pump4 ,regular hams should be pumped as above with an additional stick in the stifle and one under the aitch bone1 one in the butt of the ham1 two strokes per stick4 ,heavy hams1 eighteen to twenty pounds1 use three strokes for each stick4 ,picnics or ,californias should be pumped with one stroke4 ,stick in shank1 in blood vessel over blade-bone and under blade-bone4 ,ham ,curing ,pickle4--,ham curing pickle varies among different curing authorities4 ,the use of freezers for storing fully cured meats is now so general that the curing pickle1 even for fancy hams1 can be made somewhat stronger with no serious saltiness resulting1 provided the ham is removed at about the cured age4 ,fancy hams1 owing to the selection and usually being of lighter weight are put in a medium pickle1 with a pickle of #gh-;degree density4 ,to one-thousand gallons of #gh-;degree brine add #bej pounds of sugar and #ej pounds of saltpetre1 using #e gallons of solution per #ajj pounds net weight of meat4 ,the #gh-;degree pickle referred to being the density of salt solution measured by a ,salometer test4 ,for standard hams use #gh-;degree pickle with #bjj pounds of sugar and #fe pounds of saltpetre4 ,pickle ,making4--,for sake of uniformity it is best to have as large vessels as possible for making pickle solutions1 so as to minimize the likelihood of error2 storage vats should be provided1 with coils1 through which refrigerated brine should be circulated for the purpose of chilling the pickle to a uniform temperature1 usually #ce ,f4 ,wilder ,hams4--,a ham cure method advocated by ,mr4 ,wilder was as follows3 ,a very satisfactory method of handling hams1 before beginning to pickle is 7providing the hogs have been properly chilled in the cooler for from sixty to seventy-two hours71 as soon as they are inspected and graded1 to spread them on the floor1 piling them up carefully1 shank down1 about #b to #c feet high1 salt each ham slightly with fine salt1 and let them lie packed over night in the cooler at a temperature of from #cf to #ch ,f4 ,the next day they are put into process of curing4 ,when hogs are properly chilled in a dry cooler1 they come out more or less dried1 and the surface of the ham1 as well as the rind1 is not sufficiently porous and open to absorb the pickle promptly1 the meat being cooler than the curing room4 ,when1 however1 it comes in contact with the fine salt1 this causes moisture to form on the meat1 which opens up the pores1 in which condition the ham readily absorbs the pickle4 ,formula for ,wilder ,ham ,pickle4--,inasmuch as the hams have been salted on the floor1 the pickle should carry correspondingly less salt in curing4 ,otherwise the meat will be too salty4 ,a #ge-;degree plain pickle is as strong as should be used for hams thus handled4 ,to a tank holding #a1fhj gallons1 filled with #ge-;degree pickle1 there should be added3 #dge pounds granulated sugar4 #ij pounds saltpetre4 ,this makes a very safe and effective cure4 ,the hams when being put down should be pumped as follows3 ,five stitch in the shank2 ,one on the shank joint2 ,one on the aitch bone2 ,one on top of the shank2 ,two in the body2 making a total of ten stitches per ham4 ,the meat should be overhauled from one vat to another at the end of five days1 second overhauling ten days later1 pumping at that time with three stitches3 ,one in the shank2 ,one in the body2 ,one in the aitch bone4 ,it adds greatly to the certainty of the cure of meats to be thus pumped4 ,wilder ,sirup ,curing4--,the best flavored meats are produced with sirup1 instead of sugar1 but meats handled in this way have not the keeping qualities that meats have when cured with a granulated or light sugar4 ,the sirup also has a tendency to discolor the meat1 making it look less attractive1 and this1 coupled with its tendency to cause fermentation1 has made the curing of meat with sirup1 in large concerns at least1 undesirable4 ,a formula for the use of sirup in a #a1ejj-;gallon vat would be as follows3 #hh gallons sugarhouse sirup4 #ge pounds saltpetre4 ,this will make a dark-colored pickle4 ,hams turned out in this manner are of a very delicate flavor4 ,shoulder ,meats ,pickle4--,shoulder meats are quite difficult to cure1 probably owing to the blood content1 etc4 ,the chilling is quite as essential as for ham1 and it is customary to use a stronger pickle1 as well as to pump the meat somewhat heavily4 ,the pickle for shoulder meats is to add to #a1jjj gallons of #he-;degree brine1 #aej pounds of sugar and #fe pounds of saltpetre4 ,bellies4--,bellies cured in vats are a comparatively easily cured product4 ,the process being to simply put the requisite quantity of meat in the cask and add the pickle4 ,s4 ,p4 ,bellies can be nicely cured in a pickle of #gj-;degree strength with #aej pounds of sugar and #fe pounds of saltpetre per #a1jjj gallons4 ,overhauling ,meats4--,overhauling is the term used in cellars to describe the process of transferring meat from one cask to another to insure its being shifted so that all parts of the meat may be equally exposed to the curing solution4 ,it is a laborious task1 but a necessity1 and perhaps one of the first processes to be neglected in case of labor shortage4 ,in most establishments its importance is recognized to be of such magnitude that a record is kept of each cask to see that the transaction is carried out4 ,the following table gives the periods at which the meats should be changed3 ,fancy hams #e1 #ae and #cj days4 ,regular hams #e1 #bj and #dj days4 ,picnics #e and #bj days4 ,bellies #d and #ae days4 ,fancy ,bacon4--,this particular part of the animal is cured either in dry salt or sweet pickle1 according to the requirements of the trade and the grade or quality of the meat4 ,the highest class bacon used in this country is generally 8dry salt10 being specially handled and prepared to make the most attractive appearance4 ,a much sought for point in bacon is to so prepare it that when fried it is of a light color4 ,the only way to obtain this color is to use less sugar in curing1 as it causes discoloration in cooking2 but at the same time it greatly adds to the flavor1 hence curing by the dry salt method adds to the looks4 ,when it is cured in this way it should be dry packed in air-tight boxes lined with galvanized iron1 or other material1 the meat being put down with a fine salt combination1 thoroughly mixed per #ajj pounds of meat as follows3 #b4ge pounds ,english salt4 #a4be pounds sugar4 #c ounces saltpetre4 ,the meat should be held in this cure about twenty days4 ,the meats are packed with the rind down uniformly1 the salt being spread between the layers1 the top layer being put on with the rind up and the box closed1 keeping the air from it as much as possible2 meat must not be overhauled4 ,it should be fully cured in twenty-five days4 ,meat handled in this manner1 as stated before1 when fried cooks white2 it also has a very bright appearance when smoked4 ,this is a delicate cure and must be handled accordingly4 ,shipping ,ages4--,the table on next page gives what is considered the age1 in days1 at which different kinds and weights of sweet pickled hams and sides are cured sufficiently to smoke2 also at which different kinds of barrel pork are cured sufficiently to be sold2 also the cuts which should and should not be pumped4 ,second ,pickle4--,a wasteful practice in packing houses1 is to throw away pickle as soon as the meat is cured4 ,a pickle which will show #gh-;degree strength1 to which has been added five to seven degrees of sugar1 saltpetre1 etc41 making it #hc to #he-;degree when used1 if tested after meats have been cured1 will show a strength of from #eb to #eh-;degrees1 the meat having absorbed the balance of the curative ingredients4 ,the remaining ingredients in this pickle are good when purified--salt and sugar being the same under all conditions--hence when meats are fully cured the pickle should be pumped into a vat1 in the bottom and sides of which are galvanized iron coils4 ,steam should then be turned on these coils heating the pickle by the radiation from the pipe4 ,,shipping ,,ages4--,,time ,,required ,,for ,,curing4 ,average wt4,days to,days to ,product lbs4 smoke ship ,pumped ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,s4 ,p4 hams #aj and under #cj #cj ,yes ,s4 ,p4 hams #aj-ad #ce #ce ,yes ,s4 ,p4 hams #ad -#ah #ej #ej ,yes ,s4 ,p4 hams #ah -#bc #gj #gj ,yes ,s4 ,p4 hams #bd and over #hj #hj ,yes ,s4 ,p4 hams skinned #ad -#af #ej #ej ,yes ,s4 ,p4 hams skinned #ah and over #gj #gj ,yes ,s4 ,p4 hams fancy #aa -#ac #fj #fj ,no ,s4 ,p4 hams fancy skinned#ad -#af #fe #fe ,no ,s4 ,p4 hams export #aj -#ad #cj #cj ,yes ,s4 ,p4 hams export #ad -#ah #ce #ce ,yes ,s4 ,p4 ,california hams #h #cj #cj ,yes ,s4 ,p4 ,california hams #h -#aj #ce #ce ,yes ,s4 ,p4 ,california hams #aj -#ad #ej #ej ,yes ,s4 ,p4 ,n4 ,y4 shoulders #ab and under #ej #ej ,yes ,s4 ,p4 ,n4 ,y4 shoulders #ac and over #ee #ee ,yes ,bellies #f - #h #bj #bj ,no ,bellies #h -#aj #bb #bb ,no ,bellies #aj -#ab #be #be ,no ,bellies #ab -#ad #cj #cj ,no ,bellies #ad -#af #ce #ce ,no ,bellies rib 444 #be #bj ,no ,bacon backs 444 #cj #cj ,no ,belly pork 444 444 #ae 444 ,bean pork 444 444 #ae 444 ,loin pork 444 444 #ae 444 ,fat back pork 444 444 #ae 444 ,short cut pork 444 444 #ae 444 ,s4 ,p4 pork trimmings 444 444 #ae 444 ,brisket pork 444 444 #ae 444 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,after the pickle has been thoroughly boiled for an hour or so1 it should be allowed to settle1 when the particles of grease1 as well as all the albumin drawn from the meat will rise to the surface in the form of a thick heavy scum2 this should be carefully skimmed off and the pickle again boiled1 when a second skimming is necessary1 after which it should be drawn off1 cooled and sufficient fresh ingredients added to give it its original strength1 when it is as useful as new4 ,for instance1 to a vat of #a1ejj gallons of old pickle1 #ej-;degree strength1 add3 #bjj pounds sugar1 #ch pounds saltpetre4 ,dry ,salt ,meats4--,these are domestic cuts or those saleable in the standard trade4 ,they are distinct from ,english meats1 described subsequently4 ,short ,ribs4--,this is a regular ,board-of-,trade cut and is quoted on the market daily4 ,the price of same is used as a basis of value for other cuts of dry salt meats4 ,short ribs are made from the sides of the hog between the ham and shoulder1 having the loin and ribs in1 and the backbone removed4 ,graded usually as follows3 #dj to #de lbs4 average4 #de to #ej lbs4 average4 #ej to #ee lbs4 average4 #ee to #fj lbs4 average4 #fj to #fe lbs4 average4 ,prices vary according to weight4 ,this cut is known as 8regular short ribs0 and is delivered on ,board-of-,trade transactions4 ,hard ,ribs4--,these are the same as regulars1 except that the backbone is removed4 ,this cut cannot be delivered on the ,board-of-,trade without removing of the backbone4 ,this is a cut sold largely in the south and is made out of the heaviest1 roughest hogs4 ,short ,clears4--,these are the same as short ribs1 but have the spare ribs and backbone removed4 ,they are cut square at each end and graded as to average weight1 same as short ribs4 ,short ,clear ,backs4--,these are made from the backs of hogs with the loin left in1 the ribs and backbone removed4 ,this cut is also known as 8lean backs0 and 8loin backs40 ,values vary according to average weight as follows3 #ad to #af lbs4 average4 #ah to #bj lbs4 average4 #bj to #be lbs4 average4 #be to #cj lbs4 average4 ,extra ,short ,clears4--,these are made from sides of hogs between the ham and shoulders with the rib and loin taken out4 ,they are sold on an average from-- #ce to #dj lbs4 average4 #dj to #de lbs4 average4 #de to #ej lbs4 average4 ,extra ,short ,ribs4--,these are the same cut as extra short clears1 in every respect1 except that the spare ribs are left in the belly4 ,short ,fat ,backs4--,these are made from back pork of prime hogs1 being free from lean and bone1 properly squared on the edges4 ,they are generally quoted as follows3 #aj to #ab lbs4 average4 #ad to #af lbs4 average4 #ah to #bj lbs4 average4 #bj to #be lbs4 average4 #be to #cj lbs4 average4 #cj to #ce lbs4 average4 #ce to #dj lbs4 average4 ,these cuts may be used for the domestic trade and are usually under twenty-five pounds average in weight4 ,the heavier backs are1 however1 in general practice used mainly for the export trade4 ,long ,clears4--,these are made from the sides1 hams being cut off1 backbone and ribs removed1 shoulder blade taken out1 the leg cut off close to the brisket2 being the entire side of the hog1 with the ham and the bones removed4 ,extra ,long ,clears4--,these are trimmed the same as long clears1 except that the loin is cut out4 ,bellies4--,these are cut with the sides squared and well trimmed on all edges4 ,they are cured in sweet pickle1 plain pickle1 or dry salt and graded generally1 as follows3 #aj to #ab lbs4 average4 #ad to #af lbs4 average4 #ah to #bj lbs4 average4 #bj to #be lbs4 average4 #be to #cj lbs4 average4 ,regular ,plates4--,these are made from the end of the shoulder when this is cut into ,california hams1 and have half of the blade bone with a facing of lean left on4 ,the usual weight averages six to eight pounds4 ,clear ,plates4--,these are the same as regulars except blade bones are never trimmed out4 ,dry ,salt ,butts4--,this is a cut made from the fat cheek or jowl1 trimmed to average from three to four pounds each and is a uniform cut of the hog4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acf4--,,long ,,clear4 ,curing ,dry ,salt ,meats4--,dry salt meats1 as the name implies1 are supposedly salted dry and piled to cure4 ,being mostly fat1 which contains but little moisture1 and absorbs but little salt1 the fat portion1 or cuts consisting principally of fat are easy to cure4 ,those cuts which contain lean parts1 bone or blood vessels need the most careful attention4 ,as a result all cuts of the latter type are pumped by use of hollow needles through which brine solution is forced1 varying with the weight and with the cut4 ,a hard rib is pumped more than a short rib4 ,dipping4--,the meats are usually passed through a dipping tub so as to make the edges moist and cover the entire surface with salt2 damp salt being caused to adhere to the edges4 ,salt to be ,used4--,the salt usually used is known as ,no4 #a ,fine or ,common salt1 evaporated1 rather than mined or ground salt4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acg4--;,,extra ,,long ,,clear4 ,pumping4--,a standard pumping schedule1 using an open point needle and common type dry salt pump1 would be as follows3 ,,standard ,,pumping ,,schedule4 ,strokes per ,products ,points ,point ,dry salt shoulders #d #b ,plates #b #b ,short ribs #g #a ,short clears #g #a ,rib bellies #d #d ,clear bellies #d #a ,hard ribs #aj #a ,dry salt pumping pickle should be #ajj brine using one pound of saltpetre per gallon4 ,overhauling and ,piling4--,the sides are always piled hollow side up so that pickle made by solution of moisture purging from the meat is contained on the meats4 ,the piles are overhauled at regular intervals so as to insure the meats being subjected to salt at all points4 ,overhauling should be made3 first1 eight to twelve days2 second1 eighteen to twenty-five days2 third1 forty-five to fifty-five days4 ,green meats should not be piled to exceed three and one-half feet in height until the third overhauling when they can be stacked higher to make room4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ach4--;,,jowl 7,,dry ,,salt ,,butts47 ,smoking ,dry ,salt ,meats4--,the following table shows the age1 in days1 at which dry salt meat should be cured in order to smoke safely2 also at which to ship safely2 also the cuts that should and should not be pumped3 ,,time ,,required ,,for ,,curing4 ,average wt4 ,days to,days to ,product lbs4 smoke ship ,pumped ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,extra short clears 444 #be #ae ,yes ,short clears #de-ee #ej #dj ,yes ,extra short ribs 444 #be #bj ,yes ,short ribs #de-ej #ee #ee ,yes ,short ribs #ej-hj #ge #gj ,yes ,bellies #ae-ag #be #be ,yes ,bellies #ah-ba #cj #bg ,yes ,bellies #ah-bb and over #ce #cb ,yes ,bellies fancy #d- #f #bj #bj ,no ,english bellies 444 #ae #bj ,no ,shoulders 444 #cj #cj ,yes ,shoulders ,english 444 #be #cj ,yes ,cumberlands 444 #bj #cj ,yes ,dublins 444 #bj #bj ,yes ,long cut hams 444 #bj #be ,yes ,fat backs 444 #bj #be ,no ,jowl butts-- #aj days in brine 444 #bj #bj ,no #aj days in salt 444 ,backs 444 #be #be ,yes ,plates 444 #aj #aj ,no ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,meats put into a smoke house before they are sufficiently cured develop a condition known to the trade as 8puffy10 which means that the meats being insufficiently cured when submitted to the heat of the smoke house1 decompose and a gas forms which produces the condition referred to4 ,in cold weather and by arrangement1 meats are frequently shipped at younger ages4 ,barreled ,pork4--,being usually cut and handled by the ,cellar ,department1 barreled pork is consequently described therewith4 ,mess ,pork4--,regular ,mess ,pork is 8made from sides of well fatted hogs1 split through or one side of the back-bone and equal proportions on both sides1 cut into strips of reasonably uniform width1 properly flanked and not back stripped40 ,the regular proportion of flank and shoulder cuts must be included4 ,the strips average about six inches in width1 and not over sixteen pieces may be packed in a barrel for regular delivery4 ,mess ,pork is made from rough and heavy packing hogs and occasionally from heavy loin hogs4 ,mess pork packed between ,october #a of one year and ,september #cj of the succeeding year is 8new pork0 until ,january #a of the following year1 and is thereafter termed 8old pork40 ,mess ,pork made during ,december1 ,january and ,february must have been packed at least ten days before delivery1 and that delivered during the period from ,march to ,november1 inclusive1 must have been packed at least thirty days before delivery to grade regular4 ,for ,mess ,pork4--,the hog is split through the center of the back-bone1 after the shoulders and hams are removed1 about six inches wide1 and are packed #aij pounds to the barrel1 but it is supposed to weigh #bjj pounds when sold2 the gain of pickle making up the difference in weight4 ,when it is six months old1 it will1 weigh more than #bjj pounds1 and if repacked will make #ajd to #aje barrels per #ajj barrels when packed1 and should be repacked at #bjj pounds4 ,when a number of pieces is not specified1 mess pork is packed from eleven to fifteen pieces per barrel4 ,prime ,mess ,pork is made from the shoulder and side1 containing the back-bone and ribs1 cut into square pieces of about four pounds each4 ,the shank is cut off close to the breast4 ,in making this cut1 the side is split lengthwise1 the back cut into about six pieces and the belly into four4 ,it is made from light packing hogs4 ,extra clear pork is 8made from the sides of extra heavy1 well-fatted hogs1 the back-bone and ribs to be taken out1 7the same as short clear sides7 the number of pieces in each barrel not to exceed fourteen1 and in all other respects to be cut1 selected and packed in the same manner as mess pork40 ,clear pork is 8made from the sides of extra heavy1 well-fatted hogs1 the back-bone and half the ribs next the back-bone to be taken out1 the number of pieces in each barrel not to exceed fourteen1 and in all other respects to be cut1 selected and packed in the same manner as mess pork40 ,loin clear pork is 8made from the sides of medium-weight packing hogs1 the loin1 back-bone and back ribs being removed and belly ribs left in40 ,it consists of extra short ribs cut into strips1 and is also known as long-cut clear pork4 ,the pieces average five inches in width4 ,belly ,pork4--,regular belly pork consists of heavy1 fat rib bellies cut into five-inch widths and packed as plain-pickled pork in barrels of fifty to sixty pieces4 ,this pork is made from the same grade of bellies as dry-salt rib bellies4 ,brisket pork rib is made by cutting a five-inch strip from the brisket end of heavy rib bellies 7fourteen to twenty pounds average7 and packing like other barreled pork4 ,the pieces average about four pounds each4 ,this cut is made only when it is desired to reduce the weight of heavy bellies4 ,clear brisket pork is made in the same manner as the above except the pieces are cut from clear bellies4 ,fancy clear pork is a strip cut from the brisket end of fancy breakfast bacon bellies1 averaging one to one and one-half pounds per piece4 ,lean belly pork consists of lean clear bellies1 thirteen to fifteen pounds average1 cut into three pieces each and barreled in plain pickle4 ,back ,pork4--,regular back pork 7short cut mess1 or family back pork7 is 8made from the backs of well-fatted hogs1 after bellies have been taken off1 cut into pieces of about six pounds each1 and in all other respects to be cut1 selected and packed in the same manner as mess pork40 ,this cut contains the loin1 back-bone and back ribs1 with tenderloin out1 and the pieces are cut six inches wide1 averaging four to six pounds4 ,clear back pork is 8made from the backs of heavy1 well-fatted hogs1 after bellies have been taken off1 and back-bone and ribs taken out1 cut into pieces of about six pounds each1 and in all other respects to be packed in the same manner as mess pork40 ,in other words1 it consists of short clear backs cut into strips about six inches wide1 and is the same as regular back pork with the rib removed4 ,it is sometimes called loin clear pork4 ,the pieces average two to seven pounds4 ,fat back pork or short cut clear pork is made from short fat backs by cutting them into five-inch strips4 ,the pieces average from two to seven pounds and are packed like mess pork4 ,ham butt pork 7loin end or rump pork7 consists of triangular pieces cut from the ham end of short clear backs or sides and includes a portion of the tail-bone4 ,it is made when cutting short-cut harps and 8,english0 sides1 or when it is desired to reduce the weight of heavy sides or backs4 ,it is packed in barrels1 the pieces averaging three to four pounds4 ,shoulder ,pork4--,consists of the following products made from shoulders and butts3 ,extra prime pork is 8made from heavy untrimmed shoulders cut into three pieces1 the leg to be cut off close to the breast1 and in all other respects to be cut1 selected and packed in the same manner as mess pork40 ,the pieces average about four pounds4 ,this and the preceding cut are not used as extensively as formerly4 ,boston style butt pork is made from ,boston style butts averaging four to seven pounds1 packed in plain pickle4 ,bean pork or clear butt pork is made from the jowl or fat cheek of the hog1 cut square1 trimmed smooth and averaging three to four pounds1 packed in plain pickle4 ,spareribs4--,consist of the ribs trimmed from the carcass or side with as little lean as possible4 ,they are termed 8full-sheet10 8half-sheet0 and 8back-bone0 spareribs according as they are cut from full sides1 bellies or backs respectively4 ,they are essentially a fresh pork product and are sold in retail markets especially in fall and winter1 for which purpose 8half-sheet0 ribs are principally used4 ,they are packed in limited amounts in sweet pickle at times when the demand for fresh spareribs is dull2 dry-salt spareribs are taken from dry-salt sides and bellies when making them into clear cuts after curing4 ,curing ,barrel ,pork4--,barreled or plain-pickled pork is packed in plain salt brine in tight barrels 7eighteen feet twenty inches7 at #bjj pounds net weight of cured pork per barrel 7#cee pounds gross74 ,the strength of brine is varied somewhat according to the cuts of pork and their destination4 ,the regulation of the ,chicago ,board of ,trade governing standard barreled pork 7except prime mess7 is as follows3 8,between ,october #a1 and the last day of ,february1 inclusive1 #aij lbs41 and between ,march #ast and ,september #cjth1 inclusive1 #aic lbs41 of green meat--shall be packed in each barrel1 with not less than forty pounds of coarse salt and barrel filled with brine of full strength2 or forty pounds of coarse salt and in addition thereto fifteen pounds of salt and barrel filled with cold water40 ,standard prime mess pork is packed twenty pounds salt and twelve ounces of saltpetre per barrel1 otherwise as above4 ,english ,meats4--,there is1 at times1 a demand in ,england for ,american pork products1 and the ,english cuts1 as well as their methods of curing in many cases1 vary from the ,american methods on account of the natural fat hardness due to feeding and breeding1 and to the fact that the ,english market is supplied chiefly from ,denmark1 ,ireland and ,holland1 except as to the pigs raised locally4 ,the result is that the cure of ,english meats is quite mild owing to non-exposure and prompt consumption4 ,these conditions make it requisite that much care be taken in the production of meats shipped ,england4 ,pumping4--,it is usual to pump ,english meats with a pumping pickle of saturated brine1 containing three ounces of saltpetre to the gallon4 ,in pumping ,cumberlands 7,fig4 #aci7 and shoulders1 pump into the blood vein and under the blade1 using one and one-half to two ounces of pickle in each place1 and exercising care to lodge the pickle near the bone and away from the fat on the side of the meat4 ,in pumping long cut hams1 use ham pumping pickle and pump in the same manner as described for fancy hams4 ,salting4--,imported ,english salt is invariably used4 ,there are a number of standard brands1 but the endeavor is to obtain a salt free from lime or magnesia compounds4 ,the quantity should be exact4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aci4--;,,cumberland ,,cut4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adj4--,,long ,,cut ,,ham4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ada4--,,manchester ,,ham4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adb4--,,staffordshire ,,ham4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adc4--,,yorkshire ,,side4 ,on meats not overhauled not less than four and one-half nor more than five and one-half pounds of salt to the one-hundred pounds on all cuts excepting long cut hams1 should be used4 ,on the latter from five to six pounds of salt per one-hundred pounds of meat should be applied4 ,in the summer months the maximum amounts heretofore described should be used4 ,on meats overhauled used three to three and one-half pounds of salt per one-hundred pounds when putting down1 and three pounds per one-hundred pounds when overhauling4 ,rub salt in well under the sides of shanks of shoulders1 and use plenty on the top of shanks of both4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #add4--,,staffordshire ,,side4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ade4--;,,dublin ,,cut4 ,rubbing ,side and ,pockets4--,in salting sides1 salt the heaviest on the shoulder and along the loin1 rubbing the edges of all cuts carefully1 seeing that the salt adheres to all parts of the meat before it is piled1 for if there are places where there is no salt on the meat1 it will discolor and eventually become slippery and in bad condition4 ,in stuffing the pockets of long clears and long ribs1 do not use more than one and one-half times the amount of salt on the same area of shoulder or loin4 ,too much salt used in the pockets of the sides gives the meat a burned salty appearance and condition4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adf4--;,,antwerp ,,back ,,cut4 ,in rubbing the salt into the pockets be careful to put the salt into every part1 otherwise meat will spoil in places missed4 ,bellies require less salt1 the fixed rule being #db4 ,they are not usually overhauled but are frozen at cure1 if shipping is deferred4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adg4--,,square ,,export ,,short ,,rib4 ,color4--,a great deal depends upon the color of ,english meats4 ,the trade demands a bright1 attractive appearance in same and considerable saltpetre is necessary4 ,four ounces of saltpetre to the #ajj pounds of meat on cuts weighing from three to five pieces per #ajj pounds1 to as high as six ounces per #ajj pounds on smaller cuts1 should be used4 ,the salt and saltpetre should be thoroughly mixed before applying4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adh4--,,wiltshire ,,side4 ,piling4--,use extra care to pile meats closely and exclude the air1 for they will not develop a desirable color when they are exposed to the air4 ,after the meats are all piled evenly1 the edges should be gone over1 and any exposed parts covered with a fine sprinkling of salt4 ,sides are piled so as to make a cup of the hollow portion with a tendency for the pickle to drain slightly toward the back4 ,hams are piled shank down on an angle of about #de4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adi4--,,square ,,short ,,clear4 ,overhauling4--,english middles weighing from twenty-three to thirty pounds average1 and long cut hams from twelve to fourteen pounds and heavier1 should be overhauled at from eight to twelve days old1 salting them as before described4 ,do not overhaul ,english meats unless necessary in order to hold them after they are cured4 ,,shipping ,,age4 ,oct4 #ae to ,march #a ,average ,march #a to ,oct4 #ae ,product wt4 lbs4 ,days ,days ---------------------------------------- --------- ,bellies 444 #ae to #be #ae to #be ,boneless backs 444 #ae to #be #ae to #be ,cumberlands #bj-bd #bj to #be #bj to #be ,cumberlands #bd-cj #bj to #be #be to #cj ,cumberlands #cj-dj #be to #cj #be to #cj ,long clears under #cj #bj to #be #bj to #be ,long clears over #cj #bj to #be #be to #cj ,dublins and long ribs 444 #bj to #be #bj to #be ,long cut hams #aj-ad #bj to #be #bj to #be ,long cut hams #ad-ah #be to #cj #be to #cj ---------------------------------------- --------- ,shipping ,ages4--,the table on the preceding page shows the ages at which ,english meats can be safely shipped during seasons from ,october #ae to ,march #a1 and from ,march #a to ,october #ae4 ,these ages for shipping should be followed closely1 but when necessary the following exception may be made without detriment4 ,from ,october #ae to ,march #a1 shortest shipping age may be reduced five days4 ,boxing ,meats4--,meats to be packed in borax1 cured as above1 should be put in a plain cold pickle #ajj-;degree strong1 then scraped on the skin side and wiped with cloths wrung out of hot water4 ,if the meats are old and have a slippery appearance1 they should be scrubbed with a brush in warm pickle and wiped afterwards4 ,they should then be rubbed in borax with the rind placed upon a grating and the surplus borax brushed off the skin side of the meat1 using a fine brush for so doing4 ,it is customary to use from five and one-half to six and one-half pounds of borax per #cjj pounds of meat4 ,meats to be packed in salt should not be washed4 ,the skin and edges of the meat should be thoroughly scraped and then rubbed in fine salt before being put in the boxes4 ,meats are nailed under heavy pressure so as to exclude all the air possible4 ,wiltshires4--,singed ,wiltshires1 a cut which was revived during the 8,great ,war10 are made from hogs suitable for ,cumberlands4 ,weights vary by averages4 ,the hogs are singed during slaughter1 cured in plain pickle1 and shipped on ten days' pickling1 packed in dry salt4 ,,long ,,cut ,,hams ,,and ,,cumberland ,,tests4 ,av4 wt4 live ,average ,per cent ,per hogs1 weight ,per cent,cumber- ,per cent cent lbs4 cuts1 lbs4 hams lands miscellaneous total ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,p4 ,s4 lard #i4hf #aij ,long cuts #af-ah #ah4cg #dj4dc ,raw leaf #c4eigc4ig ,cumberlands #cf-db ,trimmings #a4ib ,p4 ,s4 lard #g4db #afh ,long cuts #ad-af #ah4ff #ci4ag ,raw leaf #c4cjgj4dg ,cumberlands #cb-ch ,trimmings #a4ib ,p4 ,s4 lard #h4dh #acf ,long cuts #ab-ad #ah4de #cg4dh ,raw leaf #c4chfi4cd ,cumberlands #bd-bh ,trimmings #a4ee ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,test4--,this test may be of service4 ,it shows the percentage of yields of different weight hogs made into long cut hams and ,cumberlands1 also average weights4 ,pig ,feet4--,usually only the front foot is used as it is a better shaped foot to prepare than the hind foot4 ,the hind feet are more or less disfigured and out of condition by having the gam strings opened in order to hang the hog on the sticks4 ,the hind foot being used largely for making a low grade of glue4 ,it can1 however1 be used in boneless pig's feet4 ,preparation4--,the feet are scalded1 after which the hoofs are removed and the feet are shaved and cleaned1 put into a plain salt pickle1 #ij-;degree strong by salometer test1 and to this pickle should be added six ounces of saltpetre to each #ajj pounds of feet4 ,the feet should be left in this curing pickle for from six to eight days1 or until they show a bright red appearance when cooked4 ,if this red appearance does not extend clear through the feet after being cooked1 it shows that they are not fully cured4 ,they should not be left in the pickle longer than necessary to fully cure them for if heavily salted it has the effect of making them break in the cooking water4 ,cooking4--,after properly cured in the salt pickle the feet should be cooked in a wooden vat 7an iron vat discoloring them7 provided with a false bottom about six inches above the bottom1 so that the direct heat from the steam pipe does not come in contact with the feet4 ,the water should be brought to a temperature of #bjj to #bjf ,f4 and held at this temperature until the feet are sufficiently cooked4 ,the water should never be brought to the boiling point1 as the feet will become badly broken1 which greatly injures their appearance4 ,after the feet are sufficiently cooked and thoroughly chilled in cold water1 they should be put into a white wine vinegar pickle #de-;degree strong1 it being preferable to pack feet which are to be used at once in open vats in a refrigerated room held at a temperature of #ch to #dj ,f4 ,where feet are to be held for some months before using it is advisable to put them into barrels or tierces after filling the tierces with vinegar of #de-;degree strength4 ,the packages should be stored in a temperature #dj ,f4 ,when held this way it will be found that the feet have absorbed a great deal of the vinegar and a very marked increase in weight is obtained4 ,there should be a gain of from #aj to #ae per cent in weight at the end of three months4 ,tests4--,prepared pig's feet at certain seasons of the year are difficult of sale and there are times when it pays better to tank them or use them for glue purposes4 ,the following tests on rough uncleaned fore and hind feet will show the yield when tanked4 ,percentages in tests are correct4 ,the prices are those ruling at the time tests were made3 ,,test ,,on ,,tanked ,,pigs ,,feet4 ,total weight of front feet tanked #a1jgj pounds cooked in tank five hours at forty pounds pressure3 ,sixty pounds hock meat1 #e4fa per cent1 at #c;c per pound #a4hj ,prime steam lard1 #ach pounds1 #ab4ij per cent1 at #i4ce per cwt4 #ab4ij ,tankage 7dry basis71 #abe pounds1 #aa4fh per cent1 at #ag4ej per ton #a4ji ------ ,total #ae4gi ,gross value1 #a4dg per cwt4 ,weight hind feet to tank1 #iif pounds1 cooked in test tank five hours1 with forty pounds pressure3 ,prime steam lard1 #afc pounds1 #af4cg per cent1 at #i4ce per cwt4 #ae4bd ,tankage 7dry basis71 #ac4gf per cent1 at #ag4ej per ton #a4ai ------ ,total #af4dc ,gross value1 #a4fb per cwt4 ,the following tests show costs1 in detail1 of pig's feet put up in different sized packages1 costs being figured at the regular ,chicago market prices at the time these tests were made3 ,,test ,,on #dhc ,,pieces ,,or #ejj ,,pounds ,,pigs ,,fore ,,feet4 ,debit3 ,cost of #ejj pounds pigs fore feet at #a;c per pound #e4fc ,shaving1 hand and machine1 #cb;c per #ajj pieces #a4ee ,pulling toes1 #e;c per #ajj pieces 4#bd ,counting1 pickling and cooking 4#bj ,splitting1 #b;c per #ajj pounds 4#aj ,miscellaneous labor 4#aj ,fifty-five pounds salt at c per pound 4#ad ,two pounds saltpetre at #e;c per pound 4#aj ,administrative expense at #dg;c per #ajj pounds on #cjj pounds produced #a4da ----- ,total #i4dg ,credit3 ,pigs feet oil1 #ah pounds at #e4fj per cwt4 #a4jj ,pigs feet bones1 #eh pounds at c per pound 4#dc ,pigs feet trimmings1 #ac pounds at #a;c per pound 4#ac ------ ,total #a4ef ,total net cost of #cjj pounds of prepared feet #g4ia ,cost per pound1 including administrative expense1 #j4jbf4 ,green weight1 #ejj pounds2 cleaned weight1 #dej pounds2 split weight1 #cjj pounds4 ,pig ,tongues4--,various uses are made of this piece of meat4 ,they are very extensively used in canning factories where they are put up and known as 8lunch tongue02 they are also used in different kinds of sausage1 and are put up to quite an extent in vinegar pickle4 ,when handled in the latter manner the following suggestions are of practical value4 ,the tongues after being trimmed should be cured in a #ge-;degree plain salt pickle using three ounces of saltpetre to #ajj pounds of tongue4 ,after the tongues are fully cured1 which will require from eight to twelve days1 they are scalded1 the outer surface of the tongue being scraped off4 ,in some instances the scalding is done before the tongues are put in the pickle4 ,either way is proper4 ,after being scraped and cleaned they are cooked as desired and afterward pickled in a white wine vinegar pickle of #de-;degree strength4 ,the following tests will show the cost of tongues packed in different sized packages1 the cost being determined by the cost of meat and supplies at the time tests were made3 ,,test ,,on #a1jjj ,,pieces1 ,,or #iaj ,,pounds ,,pig ,,tongues4 ,debit3 #iaj pounds pig tongues1 at #f;c per pound #ef4hh ,scraping at #ae;c per #ajj pieces #a4ej ,counting1 cooking1 etc41 three hours at #ah;c per hour 4#ed ,trimming at #e;c per #ajj pieces 4#ej ,miscellaneous labor 4#bj ,administrative expense1 #dg;c per #ajj on #efj pounds produced #b4fc ------ ,total #fb4be ,credit3 ,green weight1 #iaj pounds2 cooked weight1 #efj pounds2 shrinkage1 #ch per cent4 ,trimming #aab pounds at #a;c #a4fh ------ ,net cost #fj4eg ,cost per pound1 #aj;c2 cost handling per cwt41 including administrative expense1 #j4ffe per #ajj pounds finished4 ,,cost ,,of ,,one ,,barrel ,,pig ,,tongues ,,packed ,,at #aij ,,pounds ,,net4 #aij pounds pig tongues at #aj;c per pound #bj4eb ,one barrel 4#gh ,packing1 one-half hour at #ag;c per hour 4#ji ,pickle1 ten gallons at #b;c per gallon 4#be ,coopering1 one-sixth hour at #be;c per hour 4#jd ,spices1 #b;c 4#jb ,miscellaneous labor 4#jc ------ ,total cost per barrel #ba4gc ,formula for ,export ,hog ,tongue ,pickle4--,there is at times quite a demand for fresh pig tongues in ,liverpool and other foreign points1 in which case the trade demands that they arrive there without being salt-cured4 ,the following formula will be found very valuable for this purpose and also point out how to carry tongues without salting them1 when it is desired to do so3 ,use #aaf pounds of boracic acid1 fifty-eight pounds of borax1 twenty-nine pounds of fine salt and seven and one-quarter pounds of saltpetre4 ,the method of mixing is as follows3 ,the boracic acid and borax are put into a vat containing sixty gallons of water4 ,the vat should be connected with steam supply so that it can be brought to the boiling point1 cooking same slowly and stirring it well for half an hour4 ,the salt and saltpetre is then added and should be stirred until thoroughly dissolved4 ,after the solution has been allowed to cool1 add sufficient cold water to give it a strength of #ba degrees by salometer test4 ,chill the solution to a temperature of #ch ,f4 ,the tongues should be trimmed and thoroughly chilled1 it being essential that they are in perfect condition4 ,they should then be packed in a tierce1 after which the tierce is filled with the preservative4 ,tongue should be shipped in refrigerator cars where the temperature is not allowed to go above #ch ,f4 ,pig ,snouts4--,these consist of the snout of the hog together with the upper lips and front part of the nose4 ,during preparation they are handled very much in the same manner as pig's feet4 ,they are first shaved and cleaned1 afterward scalded1 removing the outer skin or membrane of the nose4 ,then they are cured1 using a #ij-;degree plain salt pickle and adding thereto three ounces of saltpetre to #ajj pounds of snouts4 ,after they are fully cured1 which will require from five to eight days1 they should be cooked in a wooden vat to the desired degree of tenderness after which they are chilled in cold water and pickled in white wine vinegar of #de-;degree strength4 ,the following tests show the cost of preparing pig snouts in different sized packages3 ,,test ,,on #a1jfj ,,pieces1 ,,or #a1jjj ,,pounds ,,pig ,,snouts4 ,debit3 ,cost of #a1jjj pounds pig snouts at #b;c per pound #be4jj ,shaving at #dj;c per #ajj pieces #d4bd ,labor1 trucking1 cooking1 inspecting1 pickling1 etc4 #a4aj #ajj pounds salt at c per pound 4#be ,two pounds saltpetre at #e;c per pound 4#aj ,administrative expenses1 #dg;c per #ajj pounds on #faj pounds production #b4hg ------ ,total #cc4ef ,credit3 ,trimmings1 #ij pounds at #b;c per pound #a4hj ------ ,net cost #ca4gf ,cost per pound1 #e;c2 cost of handling1 administrative expense1 #he;c per cwt4 ,green weight1 #a1jjj pounds2 cleaned weight1 #ijj pounds2 cooked weight1 #faj pounds4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,lard1 ,,compound ,,and ,,greases ,,historical -- ,,quantity ,,and ,,quality -- ,,neutral ,,lard -- ,,kettle ,,rendered ,,lard -- ,,prime ,,steam ,,lard -- ,,refined ,,lard -- ,,bleaching ,,lard -- ,,filter ,,press -- ,,lard ,,roll -- ,,lard ,,packing -- ,,compound ,,lard -- ,,cottonseed ,,oil -- ,,refining ,,crude ,,oil -- ,,deodorizing ,,cottonseed ,,oil -- ,,pressing ,,temperatures -- ,,lard ,,oil -- ,,treatment ,,for ,,lard ,,grease4 ,historical4--,the refining of lard in packing houses is comparatively recent1 and many people will be surprised to know that even the largest packers only added lard refining to their business within the past twenty-five to thirty years4 ,previous to that time lard refineries were operated by independent firms1 who bought their supply of prime 8steam0 lard1 converting it into the different grades in their own establishments4 ,in the natural evolution of the business this branch was taken up by the packers4 ,before the advent of present methods1 lard refining consisted in pressing from the lard about #cj to #dj per cent lard oil1 sold for lubricating and lighting purposes1 etc41 and mixing the stearine with straight lard1 making a high grade pure lard4 ,at this time the method of bleaching in all lard refineries was accomplished by the use of caustic soda1 pearl ash1 lime1 alum1 or other substances1 the principal ingredient1 being caustic soda4 ,the underlying principle is that alkali1 used in proper proportion1 saponified the acid in the lard4 ,this process1 however1 is a thing of the past4 ,quantity and ,quality4--,as shown in a previous chapter from thirteen to fifteen percent of the live weight of the hog is fresh lard1 consequently where large numbers of hogs are killed the manufacture of lard is an important factor in the packing business4 ,the principal grades are known as neutral lard1 kettle rendered lard1 prime steam lard1 refined lard and compound lard4 ,tallow and stearine also enter into the manufacture of refined and compound lards4 ,neutral ,lard4--,when oleomargarine was first manufactured it was considered necessary to use natural butter in the mixture in order to give it the proper consistency1 as the oleo oil was grainy and coarse1 therefore sufficient natural butter was added to change that condition4 ,some one conceived the idea of using neutral lard made from leaf lard in place of natural butter in oleomargarine4 ,when this was worked out successfully the term oleomargarine practically disappeared and the term 8butterine0 was substituted4 ,in most of the butterine made today no natural butter is used4 ,the conditions in making oleo oil and tallows have their parallel in neutral lard and kettle rendered lard4 ,when leaf lard is cooked for kettle rendered lard1 if a temperature of from #bej to #bfj ,f4 is obtained the tissues of the lard are burned or partially consumed1 this heat giving it a flavor which is called 8high kettle rendered0 flavor4 ,when it is made into neutral this condition is reversed1 the lard being melted at a temperature of from #abf to #abh ,f4 ,at this temperature no burning of tissues is possible1 hence the oil extract is neutral in every sense of the word1 in color1 flavor and smell4 ,with these three essential points the material readily forms the chief substance for butterine by adding milk or cream and oleo oil and cotton seed oil1 as desired4 ,manufacture of ,neutral4--,the following steps define the process of manufacture necessary to produce neutral3 ,chilling4--,the leaves as pulled from the hogs are rapidly sent to a cooling room to be thoroughly chilled4 ,the leaves are spread separately in flat sheets on metal supports1 which are preferable to wood4 ,if it is chilled too slowly a strong 8hoggy0 flavor is developed1 which it is impossible to eradicate from the fresh product4 ,the leaf lard should be chilled for twenty-four hours in a temperature of #cb to #cd ,f4 ,melting4--,it is put through a hasher of the ,enterprise type to an open top water jacketed kettle1 similar in type to an oleo kettle4 ,frequently the melting kettle is a wooden vat with a galvanized iron kettle inside1 the space between the wooden vat and the galvanized kettle being filled with water which is heated to the desired temperature for melting the product4 ,it is not practicable to use a steam jacket as the heat would be excessive and it would be difficult to control4 ,this kettle properly is water jacketed and open top so no pressure is generated4 ,in a kettle holding #d1jjj to #e1jjj pounds1 water should be warmed in the jacket before lard is put in1 the agitator started slowly1 not to exceed #aj to #ab revolutions per minute1 and the heat should be regulated so as to have the lard all melted and ready to drop in one and one-half hours from the time of starting to hash4 ,by the time the lard is thoroughly melted the temperature should be #abf to #abh ,f4 ,settling4--,as soon as the lard is melted it should be drawn off with a siphon into receiving kettles1 which are also jacketed and held at practically the same temperature4 ,when dropped it should be salted with one-half to one per cent of fine salt1 letting it stand from fifteen to thirty minutes4 ,in drawing off it should be siphoned through several layers of cheese cloth1 forming a strainer1 into receiving tanks1 where it should settle four hours4 ,it is drawn into tierces through a pipe raised from the bottom to leave one and one-half to two inches of lard in the tank1 care being taken that no 8bottoms0 are drawn into the tierce1 as these contain tissues which are1 for the most part1 undiscernible2 also moisture4 ,these ingredients in neutral1 being only partially cooked1 immediately begin to decompose4 ,it is a delicate article to handle and the settling of all impurities is important4 ,the neutral1 when drawn into tierces1 should be at a temperature of from #aae to #aah ,f4 ,storage4--,the tierced lard should be kept at a temperature of about #ge ,f4 for about ten or fifteen hours1 and then put into a cooler with a temperature of from #de to #ej ,f4 ,the tierces should be filled through the bilge and not closed when stored in the first mentioned temperature1 the bungs being left out1 while the heat is permitted to escape1 thus carrying with it considerable flavor1 and making the material more neutral than if the tierces were closed as soon as filled4 ,no4 #b ,neutral ,lard4--,this is a neutral lard made from back fat4 ,at times it is profitable to make this product into ,no4 #b neutral instead of steam lard1 for when the market for ,no4 #a neutral is extremely high there is demand for a good ,no4 #b4 ,when making this1 the rind should be skinned off from the back fat1 leaving clear back fat to be hashed for neutral4 ,if the rinds are put in1 it gives the product a 8hoggy0 flavor1 which makes it undesirable4 ,it is hashed and melted the same as ,no4 #a neutral1 except as to temperature1 the melting point for this being #acb to #acd ,f41 method and apparatus as described for the making of ,no4 #a neutral1 being applicable to this4 ,test--,pure ,steam ,lard vs4 ,neutral4--,below is a test on raw leaf lard rendered into neutral1 showing yield1 and percentage of the neutral lard produced2 the scrap and bottoms from the kettle being run into kettle rendered lard4 ,,test ,,on ,,leaf ,,lard ,,rendered ,,into ,,neutral4 ,raw leaves #h1ieh pounds at #j4jh per pound #gbg4hd ,salt for settling #ce pounds at #d4ij per ton 4#ji ------- #gbg4ic ,production3 ,neutral lard #g1hhj pounds at #j4jiabe per pound #gah4if ,neutral bottoms #a1jee pounds 7,run under forty pounds pressure two and one-half hours47 ,prime steam lard #dig pounds at #j4jhb per pound #dj4ge ,tankage #ef pounds at #ah4jj per ton 4#de ------- #gfj4af ------- ,gain on production #cb4bc ,gain per #ajj pounds on raw weight1 #j4jcf4 ,percentage ,production3 ,neutral lard to raw weight #hg4ig ,neutral bottoms to raw weight #aa4gh ,prime steam lard to raw weight #e4ee ,tankage to raw weight 4#fc ,prime steam lard to weight of bottoms #dg4aa ,tankage to weight of bottoms #e4ca ,total production of lards #ic4eb ,total production of raw weights #id4ae ,tanking ,leaf ,lard3 ,raw leaves #a1jjj pounds at #j4jhabe per pound #ha4be ,prime steam lard #ibi pounds at #j4jhbe per pound #gf4ah ,tankage #e pounds at #ah4jj per ton ------ ,loss on production #e4jg ,loss per pound on raw weight 4#jjea ,prime steam lard to raw weight1 per cent1 #ib4i4 ,test--,chilling and ,tanking4-- ,,test ,,on ,,chilled ,,leaf ,,lard ,,to ,,determine ,,value ,,and ,,yield4 ,warm leaf lard to cooler #a1jjj lbs4 ,chilled leaf lard #ihf lbs4 ,shrinkage1 #a4d per cent #ad lbs4 ,weight to test tank1 #ihf pounds2 value per cwt41 #g1eef4 ,yield prime steam lard #id4ab per cent2 #ibh lbs4 at #h4jbe per cwt4 #gd4dg ,yield tankage 7pressed7 4#ha per cent2 #h lbs4 at #i4hi per ton 4#jd ------ ,total #gd4ea ,test4--,showing manipulation of #e1jjj pounds of back fat to make neutral1 kettle rendered lard and pure steamed lard3 ,,test ,,on #e1jjj ,,pounds ,,of ,,back ,,fat ,,converted ,,to ,,no4 #b ,,neutral ,,kettle ,,rendered ,,lard ,,and ,,prime ,,steam ,,lard4 ,net wt4 ,per lbs4 cent4 ,back fat #e1jjj ,less skins removed #ehf #aa4gb ----- ,skinned back fat rendered to ,no4 #b neutral #d1dad ,production ,no4 #b neutral #a1hdf #da4hb ,bottoms left in kettle #b1efh ,bottoms from ,no4 #b neutral rendered to kettle rendered lard #b1efh ,stearine added #bgj #aj4ea ----- ,total #b1hch ,production of kettle rendered lard from above #a1idj #fh4cf ----- ,bottoms from ,no4 #b neutrals #hih ,kettle rendered bottoms #fgc ----- ,loss on production #bbe ,bottoms from kettle rendered to prime steam lard to tank #fgc ,production of prime steam lard #cjg #de4fb ----- ,skins from back fat rendered to prime steam lard #ehf ,production of prime steam lard #aib #cb4gf ,,recapitulation4 ,net wt4 lbs4 ,rendering back fat #e1jjj ,oleo stearine added #bgj ----- ,total #e1bgj ,production ,no4 #b neutral lard #a1hdf pounds ,production kettle rendered lard #a1idj pounds ,production prime steam lard #dii pounds #d1bhe ------------------- ,waste #ihe ,kettle ,rendered ,lard4--,kettle rendered lard is the purest and best lard made in packing houses and consists of leaf lard and back fat1 the proportions varying according to the value of the raw product1 usually on a basis of about #fj per cent back fat and #dj per cent leaf4 ,while kettle rendered lard is sold under the label of 8pure leaf lard0 there is little leaf used1 as this part is worth more as a neutral lard than when made into kettle rendered4 ,a very acceptable formula for kettle rendered lard1 if handled properly1 is as follows3 #gj per cent back fat2 #ae per cent leaf scraped lard1 which is pieces of leaf1 scraped out of the hog after the leaf lard has been pulled1 and thoroughly chilled2 #ae per cent lard stearine4 ,where neutral lard and kettle rendered lard are made together a nice flavor may be imparted to the kettle rendered lard by using the bottoms of neutral lard when cooking it1 as the scrap from the neutral when brought to the high temperature of kettle rendered lard imparts a rich flavor4 ,process for ,kettle ,rendered ,lard4--,the raw product is put through a hasher which cuts the fat tissues1 so that when the heat is applied the oil readily separates4 ,the kettle generally used for this purpose is about five feet in diameter and from five to seven feet deep1 made of wrought iron1 jacketed for steam1 with an agitator to keep the product agitated while cooking4 ,the jacket should be kept heated until through hashing1 then increased until the temperature of the lard reaches #bee to #bfj ,f41 when the pressure should be shut off for one and one-half hours at least--one and one-half hours should be taken to reach this period4 ,if lard stearine is used it should be added at this time1 using about #ae per cent for the summer formula4 ,after this period of shut-off1 again turn on the steam1 holding temperature1 allowing the contents to cook until dry1 or until no further steam arises1 which will consume probably from thirty to forty-five minutes4 ,stop agitating and add twenty pounds of salt1 let stand to settle one hour1 then lower into the kettle below1 strain through a cloth sieve1 the lard being taken off the scrap with a siphon4 ,the scrap will remain in the bottom of the cooking kettle2 if handled carefully1 very little will pass through the pipe4 ,the lard1 when being drawn into the kettle below1 should be passed through several thicknesses of cheese cloth in order to catch any small pieces of scrap or tissue4 ,settling4--,after the lard is lowered into the settling kettle1 allow it to stand two to three hours1 then siphon to a third kettle1 as considerable scrap will have gone through into the lard from the cooking kettle1 strain it through a double thickness of cheese cloth stretched over a frame4 ,in the third kettle a scum will arise on it1 which should be immediately skimmed off1 and about ten pounds of fine salt added to a #e1jjj-pound batch1 to aid in settling4 ,if convenient1 it is advisable to allow the lard to settle in this kettle for twelve hours before drawing it off1 although this length of time is not necessary1 but a perfect settlement of the impurities is necessary to make the best lard4 ,scrap4--,after the lard is drawn from the cooking kettle1 the scrap should be drawn from the bottom4 ,this scrap is used in the prime steam lard tank4 ,if1 however1 there is no other provision for handling the scrap1 it should be put into a hoop press 7,fig4 #aej71 and pressure applied1 thereby liberating all the oil left in the residue1 the scrap then being used as 8pressed scrap40 ,packing and ,cooling4--,kettle rendered lard is usually sold and used more extensively during the cooler weather4 ,it is very desirable that there should be a light1 fluffy top4 ,this is only possible when the lard is drawn hot in a cool room2 chilling the lard rapidly causes this appearance at the top1 which is always looked upon by the trade as a mark of excellence4 ,when the lard is drawn off into small packages they are placed one on top of the other1 covering the top with paper4 ,the cover should not be put on the package until it is chilled1 otherwise the fluffy appearance is lost4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aej4--;,,hoop ,,press4 ,drawing ,temperatures4--,when drawn into wooden packages1 such as ten1 twenty or fifty pound pails1 lard should be drawn at #aej ,f4 ,if drawn into tins it should be drawn off at #age to #ahj ,f42 when drawn into tierces1 barrels or half barrels it should be drawn at about #acj ,f4 ,when drawing lard into wooden packages they should be silicated the day before1 giving them ample time to dry1 as this prevents the packages from soaking up the lard and also prevents excessive shrinkage of the package4 ,refining ,prime ,steam ,lard4--,refined prime steam lard is made into two products1 pure refined lard and lard with beef fat added4 ,pure ,refined ,lard4--,pure refined lard consists of prime steam lard with lard stearine added4 ,this is a product resulting when prime steam lard is pressed to obtain lard oil1 a process described later2 however1 the quantity available is quite limited4 ,descriptions will be confined to the making of lard with beef fat added4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aea4--,,section ,,through ,,tank ,,for ,,mixing ,,fullers ,,earth ,,and ,,lard4 ,fullers ,earth4--,about thirty years ago the method of refining lard with fullers earth was first inaugurated1 and for years only imported earth from ,england was thought suitable for this purpose4 ,deposits of fullers earth1 of fair quality1 have been discovered in the ,united ,states and ,american fullers earth is today used in some lard refineries4 ,indications are that with improvements in mining and methods of grinding1 and possibly also in the discovery of better beds or layers of this substance1 manufacturers will not continue to go abroad for supplies of fullers earth4 ,an explanation of how fullers earth bleaches lard and its kindred fats would be interesting1 if anyone knew the exact explanation1 but so far there has been no scientific reason given that accounts for this property of this material1 therefore no chemical test can be applied to different samples of fullers earth to determine whether they are suitable for refining or not4 ,the only safe test is the practical one of heating a sample together with lard and watching the result of the bleach4 ,fullers earth is used for bleaching cotton seed oil and other greases and fats which are subjected to the bleaching process4 ,in improving the color of lard it is done at the expense of flavor1 and a wholesome odor1 which is natural to the lard1 is sacrificed in a greater or lesser degree to the advantage of color4 ,the tendency is to make lard white1 even though it loses in odor and taste4 ,in compounding lard this is intensified by the general use of tallow4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeb4--;,,fullers ,,earth ,,kettle ,,for ,,small ,,houses4 ,bleaching ,kettle4--,this can be of a predominant size dependent upon the volume of business4 ,for a moderate business the most suitable dimensions are about six feet in diameter and four feet deep4 ,a sectional view of such a kettle is shown in ,fig4 #aea and a smaller kettle is illustrated in ,fig4 #aeb4 ,it was the practice to use compressed air for agitation so as to mix the fullers earth with the lard4 ,this has been discontinued in the best refineries1 as it was found that agitation with air had a tendency to make the lard turn rancid more readily than if agitated by mechanical device4 ,the kettle is supplied with a vertical shaft1 to the bottom of which is attached a propellor about fourteen inches in diameter4 ,around this is fitted a wire screen about thirty inches high made of galvanized wire1 -inch mesh1 this screen clearing the blades of the fan about an inch4 ,on top of this screen is fixed an iron pipe approaching to within about eighteen inches of the surface of the lard when the kettle is filled4 ,a kettle of this size will hold about #e1jjj pounds of lard for treatment4 ,the agitating blade should revolve at a speed of from #abe to #age revolutions per minute4 ,this has the effect of producing a miniature whirlpool in the body of lard by driving the lard through the screen against the sides of the kettle1 where it rises to the surface and goes down through the funnel-shaped tube to be again driven through the screen4 ,in this way the fullers earth is thoroughly mixed in and if there is a tendency to 8lump0 the lumps are readily broken up by impact4 ,bleaching ,lard4--,if cold lard is used it should be melted and any sediment or moisture which settles should be drawn off4 ,it is best not to draw off too close to the bottom so as to avoid any moisture4 ,the temperature at which lard should be bleached is an important matter to be determined4 ,if the lard has been heavily cooked and has a strong steam flavor1 a temperature of #ahj ,f4 is correct4 ,if the lard has not been well cooked a somewhat lower temperature is necessary4 ,as a rule the lower the temperature at which bleaching is done1 the more fullers earth is required to get the proper bleach and at the same time as little earth flavor as possible is a point for careful and intelligent consideration4 ,the best way to determine1 where there are large quantities of lard1 is to take a small sample and make tests in the laboratory4 ,the point to be obtained is to get the bleach with as little of the flavor of the earth as possible4 ,generally speaking1 from three-fourths to one and one-half per cent of fullers earth will get the desired result4 ,when the lard is brought to the proper temperature1 fullers earth is put in the kettle1 when it is agitated from eight to twelve minutes1 then pumped through the filter press as rapidly as possible4 ,it takes a certain length of time for fullers earth to do its work properly1 and a strong agitation of from eight to twelve minutes appears to be the best method to adopt in order to obtain the full effect of the earth4 ,refining ,tallow ,separately4--,where tallow is used in lard1 it is always advisable to bleach the tallow separately4 ,this is done in the same manner as described for lard1 with the exception that about three per cent of fullers earth is used1 after which it is pumped through the filter press and into the receiving tanks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aec4--;,,filter ,,press4 ,when it is compounded with the lard1 the desired amount should be put into the kettle with the lard after it is treated4 ,the same is true of oleo-stearine1 except that in the bleaching of this article from one-half to one and one-half per cent of fuller earth is sufficient4 ,measures must be taken to see that ingredients are intimately mixed before passing the product to the rolls4 ,the use of tallow or stearine is for the purpose of cheapening the product1 as well as hardening it1 the formula for same being made according to the values and conditions under which the lard is to be sold4 ,for instance lard going south1 or into a warm climate1 is made much harder than lard for a temperate climate2 hence lard formulas1 generally speaking1 are worthless for general use1 the different formulas being made to suit widely different conditions1 and their availability also depends to a considerable extent upon the fluctuation of values4 ,filter ,press4--,after the contents of the kettle have been pumped through the filter air pressure should be turned into the filter press in order to blow out all the lard possible4 ,after this live steam should be turned on1 expelling the balance of the lard from the pipe4 ,a large portion of this latter lard1 however1 is unfit to be used again1 as it contains sediment and fullers earth combined1 having a rank1 strong odor1 and can be used only for grease4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aed4--,,lard ,,cooling ,,cylinder4 ,lard ,roll4--,this is a device provided for cooling lard in a film so as to bring plenty of air in contact with the surface during the congealing4 ,after the lard has been put through the filtering press it goes to a receiving tank and is next passed over rollers for chilling4 7,fig4 #aed47 ,these are cast iron cylinders containing refrigerated brine4 ,the cylinders revolve at from ten to fourteen revolutions per minute1 the lard being congealed on the outer surface4 ,fixed against the side of the cylinder is the edge of a steel knife which scrapes close to its surface4 ,the lard1 in contact with the cool surface of the cylinders1 congeals and as it passes to the knife it is removed and drops into the trough4 ,here it is thoroughly beaten by a revolving shaft with pickers on it1 so that all lumps are broken and the grain is of a smooth1 even consistency4 ,pure lard passes to an agitator1 which is a jacketed kettle1 where it is given a thorough agitation and drawn off cool as possible1 the object being to have the different ingredients thoroughly mixed at a low temperature4 ,at times rolls are used in tandem4 ,when a bountiful supply of cold water1 say at #fj ,f41 is available1 the saving in refrigeration justifies the use of tandem rolls4 ,in this instance the first roll is elevated so as to gravitate the lard to the feed of the second4 ,,weight ,,of ,,lard ,,packages4 ,weight ,avg4 ,weight packages material weight ---------------------------------------- ------ #c-,,pound ,,pails3 #ajj pails #dc lbs41 #g oz4 #f4ie oz4 #ajj bails #e lbs41 #d oz4 4#hd oz4 #ajj covers #i lbs41 #g oz4 #a4ea oz4 #ajj summer covers #f lbs41 #c oz4 4#ii oz4 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,average weight each 444 #aj4bi oz4 #e-,,pound ,,pails3 #ajj pails #eh lbs41 #ab oz4 #i4dj oz4 #ajj bails #e lbs41 #ae oz4 4#ie oz4 #ajj covers #ac lbs4 #b4jh oz4 #ajj summer covers #h lbs41 #aj oz4 #a4ch oz4 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,average weight each 444 #ac4ha oz4 #aj-,,pound ,,pails3 #ajj pails #ib lbs41 #ad oz4#ad4hf oz4 #ajj bails #g lbs41 #ab oz4 #a4bd oz4 #ajj covers #ai lbs41 #e oz4 #c4ji oz4 #ajj summer covers #ac lbs41 #aj oz4 #b4ah oz4 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,average weight each 444 #ba4cg oz4 #bj-,,pound ,,pails3 #ajj pails #add lbs41 #ae oz4#bc4ai oz4 #ajj bails #aj lbs41 #i oz4 #a4fi oz4 #ajj covers #cd lbs4 #e4dd oz4 #ajj summer covers #bb lbs41 #d oz4 #c4ef oz4 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,average weight each 444 #cc4hh oz4 #dj-,,pound ,,square ,,cans3 #ajj cans #bfh lbs41 #h oz4#db4if oz4 #ajj caps #b lbs41 #h oz4 4#dj oz4 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,average weight each 444 #dc4cf oz4 #ej-,,pound ,,round ,,cans3 #ajj cans #bgj lbs41 #aj oz4#dc4cj oz4 #ajj covers #ej lbs41 #b oz4 #h4jb oz4 #ajj summer covers #ch lbs41 #ab oz4 #f4bj oz4 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,average weight each 444 #eg4eb oz4 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,lard ,packing4--,refined lard is not usually drawn in a cooler4 ,in most climates the non-refrigerated rooms will suffice4 ,it is packed in tubs1 barrels or tierces of wood4 ,the lard1 when available1 in the picker trough1 is usually chilled and stiff4 ,the use of a pump is made to withdraw and force it through a strainer in an enlarged section of the pipe1 so as to effectually break all lumps4 ,a relief valve should be placed on the line to spill into the picker in case the draw cocks are all suddenly closed4 ,lard ,packages4--,in wooden packages tare is deducted4 ,the table on preceding page shows the actual weight of the different packages which are usually made from an ,x ,l grade of tin4 ,inasmuch as lard sells at more per pound than the tin costs1 there is always an endeavor to get the packages as heavy as consistent4 ,country ,style ,lard4--,many moderate sized plants that do not cater to a trade accustomed to highly refined lard1 prefer to make kettle rendered lard as most of their output1 using leaf1 back fat and trimmings1 adding the complimentary proportion of killing lard and agitating the whole in a water jacketed agitator4 ,all implements used are similar to those described previously1 also the method of drawing from the agitator to packages is the same4 ,beef fat can be rendered in the same way when oleo departments are not operated1 and it can thus be used to good advantage4 ,compound--,what it is4--,compound is a substitute for lard and is made of cotton seed oil and oleo stearine1 or tallow1 or both4 ,the formula on this article varies according to the relative values of the ingredients4 ,the generally accepted formula is #hj per cent cotton seed oil1 and #bj per cent oleo stearine4 ,if the market price of oleo stearine is high1 a formula may be substituted as follows3 #ge per cent cotton seed oil1 #g percent tallow1 #ag per cent oleo stearine4 ,in cold weather even a smaller amount of stearine may be used and a proportionately larger amount of tallow4 ,cottonseed ,oil4--,this is a product derived from cotton seed4 ,before the manufacture of cotton seed oil1 the cotton seed1 removed from the cotton1 was thrown in large compost heaps and after decomposition1 was used sparingly as a fertilizer4 ,an idea of its value may be gained from the following table4 ,from one ton of seed1 by average1 is obtained3 #bgj pounds or #cf gallons of oil at #bh;c per gallon #aj4jh #gej pounds cotton seed meal at #ij;c per #ajj pounds #f4ge #hej pounds hulls at #ae;c per #ajj pounds #a4bg #cj pounds lint at #c;c #a4je ------ ,total value #ai4ae #ajj pounds waste and dirt4 ,the oil when extracted from the seed is termed 8crude oil40 ,in refining this oil the loss varies from #g per cent to #ab per cent1 on an average about #i per cent4 ,refining ,crude ,oil4--,the crude oil is purchased by refiners and treated to produce 8yellow oil40 ,in this process it is put into a tank 7it is generally considered profitable to refine cotton seed oil only in large quantities7 supplied with a revolving agitator4 ,into the tank is put a solution of eighteen to twenty per cent caustic soda4 ,the quantity and strength of the solution necessary is determined by treating a small sample4 ,to a small sample of oil add the soda solution1 stirring continuously1 having it heated to a temperature of #afj to #ahj ,f4 ,when sufficient soda lye has been added a floculent precipitation will be noticed4 ,this indicates a 8breaking0 of the oil4 ,by calculation of the relative amount the comparative quantities can be arrived at4 ,an excessive amount of lye will saponify its equivalent in good oil1 therefore care must be exercised to see that only the proper amount is used4 ,in a practical way the soda is introduced in the crude oil solution and agitation is started to insure the thorough mixing of the caustic soda and the oil4 ,the floculent substance appearing1 the agitation is stopped and the oil allowed to settle1 the sediment and substance other than oil collecting at the bottom of the tank4 ,a small quantity 7about one-quarter of one per cent by weight7 of fullers earth is added and the oil removed by pumping through a filter press producing what is known to the trade as 8yellow oil40 ,the sediment1 known as 8foots0 is collected in kettles and treated with additional lye1 boiled and settled with salt2 water added1 settled and drawn4 ,this treatment is duplicated as many times as necessary1 until the soap stock will separate from impurities4 ,when thoroughly settled draw the soap stock into packages for the soap trade4 ,the finished 8foots0 contains about #cc to #dj per cent of moisture and a small percentage of lye4 ,deodorizing ,cotton ,seed ,oil4--,the 8yellow oil0 of trade has a decided flavor which it is desirable to remove1 and this process is accomplished by deodorizing4 7,see ,fig4 #aee47 ,treating ,tank4--,this tank is equipped for heating the oil to a very high temperature by the introduction of a large coil surface1 preferably rings1 one within the other and arranged so that each ring is accessible4 ,the kettle coils1 etc41 should be made extra heavy4 ,the top of the kettle must also be hooded and as the oil boils violently the steam must be given free opportunity to escape4 ,the escape pipe should be at least sixteen to twenty inches in diameter in a tank six feet in diameter1 and should be provided with a goose neck1 so that the steam rising which condenses1 does not drip back into the tank4 ,fig4 #aee show the construction of an oil treating tank4 ,the exhaust pipe extends into the atmosphere a short distance above the deodorizing tanks4 ,on account of the extreme agitation caused by the heat1 the oil is likely to boil over and waste4 ,special attention is called to the crook or neck in the exhaust pipe with two-inch outlet at the lowest point4 ,this is done so that the condensation will not run back into the oil1 but can be taken out at this point4 ,process ,for ,oil4--,the tank is filled with oil to about half its capacity4 ,the oil is then heated to a temperature of #cbj to #cfj ,f4 ,after being held at this temperature for an hour to an hour and a half1 it is ready for the washing process4 ,this is done by means of a two-inch perforated pipe at the top of the kettle1 through which is sprinkled cold water on the oil4 ,the extreme temperature evaporates the water very rapidly and at the same time causes a precipitation4 ,the water should be allowed to run for five minutes1 and then the body of oil should stand for from one to two hours4 ,the cone1 or bottom of the kettle1 will be found to have a sediment which has been precipitated from the oil4 ,this 8bottom0 should be drawn off1 and the steam again turned on the coils4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aee4--;,,deodorizing ,,tank ,,for ,,cotton ,,seed ,,oils4 ,blowing4--,the oil is heated to the original temperature and steam of high pressure and temperature introduced into the body of the oil4 ,the length of time required for treating the oil depends largely upon its nature1 some oils being more neutral and more nearly odorless than others1 consequently no exact rule can be laid down that would fit all cases2 it must be left to the judgment of the person handling the oil4 ,pressure and ,temperature4--,to obtain the temperature above mentioned a pressure of #aej pounds should be carried1 and late practice introduces a superheater for reheating the steam to insure high temperature by adding #ajj to #aej ,f4 to the steam temperature4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aef4--,,section ,,of ,,bottom ,,of ,,deodorizing ,,tank4 ,bleaching ,process4--,as soon as the oil is deodorized it is drawn off and allowed to cool4 ,it is pumped into the treating kettle1 or what is known in refineries as the 8dirt0 kettle4 ,there it is brought up to a temperature of #afj ,f41 when the fullers earth is added1 generally using from one to two percent of earth with this bleach1 following an agitation of about ten minutes4 ,it should then be pumped through the filter press into the receiving tank1 where it is held until used4 ,after going through this process the oil is known to the trade as 8water white40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeg4--,,section ,,through ,,exhaust ,,hood ,,of ,,deodorizing ,,tank4 ,mixing4--,refined tallow or oleo stearine melted and clarified by pumping through a filter press without the use of fullers earth is added to the cotton seed oil so prepared1 and the mixed substance1 containing proportions previously described1 are ready for passing over the cooling roll4 ,filter ,press4--,the filter press 7,fig4 #aeh7 should not be used more than two or three times until it is taken apart1 all the sediment and dirt removed and clean cloths substituted4 ,continued use of filter cloths1 without proper cleaning1 has a deteriorating effect upon the material pumped through the presses1 and different kinds of products should not be passed through the same press4 ,color and ,roll ,treatment4--,color is an important feature of compound1 when an odorless oil has been produced4 ,the mixture passed to the rolls is usually at a temperature of #abj ,f4 and this heated body of material amounting to #djjj pounds per hour on an eight foot roll requires a very large capacity of refrigerating equipment4 ,it is desirable to maintain a brine temperature in the shell of from zero to five degrees above4 ,a fifty-ton refrigerating equipment of commercial rating is inadequate for this duty4 ,consequently compound manufacturers must have ample refrigerating machine capacity4 ,the lard roll is preferably of the size noted and should operate at not to exceed seven revolutions per minute1 provided brine of the above temperature is supplied2 fewer revolutions if temperature is higher1 which naturally reduces the capacity4 ,the lard roll1 pump1 and strainer equipment is the same as described for lard1 except that the lard is packed directly from the picker trough without the use of an additional agitator4 ,hydrogenation of ,oils4--,a new process has been devised whereby soft oils1 such as cotton seed oil1 can be hardened so as to make a purer vegetable product4 ,the substance has quite a large field but it is not intimately connected with the packing business4 ,cotton ,seed ,stearine4--,this is a purchasable product and is used at times as a substitute for oleo stearine4 ,lard ,oil4--,the production of lard oil used in compounding lubricating oils and illuminating oils is still carried on to some extent4 ,the process consists of graining the oils in graining tanks or in seeding trucks similar to oleo oil graining trucks4 ,pressing4--,the lard cooled to a temperature of #dj ,f4 is placed in cloth wrapper arranged so that all oil is strained through the wrapper4 ,the solid substance contained in the wrapper is lard stearine used to harden pure lard4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeh4--;,,filter ,,press ,,for ,,lard ,,or ,,oleo ,,oil4 ,graining4--,after the fats have been washed they should be drawn into trucks or tierces and placed in a room where there is good ventilation1 and kept there for about two days1 giving the acid fumes an opportunity to pass off2 the fat will then be found to be lowered to about #hj ,f4 and should then be removed to a room that is refrigerated4 ,after remaining in this temperature three or four days the fats will be found to be crystallized1 or grained1 and of about the temperature of the rooms4 ,it is then ready to go to press4 ,pressing ,temperatures4--,the usual pressing temperatures for the several kinds of commodities pressed are as follows3 ,tallow #eh to #fe ,f4 ,prime steam lard #dh to #ej ,f4 ,neatsfoot oil #de to #dh ,f4 ,these and the temperature of the room1 however1 are subject to variations4 ,no4 #b ,lard ,oil4--,a lower quality of lard oil is made from hog greases4 ,these are made from condemned hogs1 catch basin skimmings and similar sources4 ,the methods are similar to those used for ,no4 #a lard oil1 except that the former is treated as an edible product and the latter as inedible4 ,the extracted stearine is sold or used for soap purposes4 ,cold ,test-,oil4--,it is not customary to speak of any particular cold test of cotton or grease oils2 however1 in case of pure lard oil1 pressed1 it would have a cold test of about #db ,f4 ,pure neatsfoot would have a cold test of about #de ,f4 ,in case colder degree oils are desired1 either pure lard or neatsfoot1 it would be necessary to make the lard colder than above2 as to neatsfoot oil1 if it is desired to make a #cj ,f4 test1 it would be best to make two pressings4 ,first chill stock to a temperature of #db ,f41 pressing it in a room at #de ,f4 and then take the oil that is made in this way1 refrigerating it in a room at #cb ,f4 and pressing it at a temperature of #cb ,f4 ,treatment for ,lard ,grease4--,before pressing the low grade greases it is necessary to wash with sulphuric acid to eliminate the impurities1 such as water1 lime soaps1 albuminous matters and ordinary dirt4 ,shallow wooden vats are ordinarily used for this purpose1 the vats being of greater width than depth1 as the acid water settles best in a shallow receptacle4 ,where a comparatively small amount of work is to be done an ordinary wooden vat made out of good sound pine1 with three-inch staves and well bolted together1 is all that is necessary1 but where the work is continuous these wooden vats should be lined with ten-ounce lead1 as the acid very soon destroys the vats4 ,washing ,methods4--,the method of washing with the sulphuric acid is as follows3 ,into the wooden or lead-lined vat run clear water to the amount of about #aj to #ae per cent of the weight of the grease to be treated1 and when the water is in1 add one per cent of sulphuric acid to the fat to be washed1 the acid to be #ff-;degree density4 ,it is important that the water be put in first1 for if the acid is put into the tank first and the water afterwards run in1 an explosion is liable to occur on account of the intense heat generated by the absorption of the water by the acid4 ,in case of an explosion the acid is liable to be thrown on the attendants4 ,after the water and acid have been mixed1 add grease1 turn on steam and boil until the fat and acid show clear2 at first it will be muddy or cloudy4 ,usually a boiling of twenty to thirty minutes is sufficient4 ,this work should be done on the top floor of the building1 or some place where there is ample room for the escape of the vapor1 as the fumes of the acid are very strong and are injurious to the building4 ,after the boiling is finished1 allow the tank to settle ten to twelve hours1 draw off the acid water from the bottom1 and if the same is clear and clean it shows that the fat had little foreign substance and the solution can be used over again4 ,if it shows a great deal of foreign matter in the solution it should be run away4 ,all pipes leading from such treating vats should be of lead4 ,it is also necessary that the pipes in the vats be of perforated lead coils1 as iron pipes would very soon be destroyed4 ,filtration4--,at times1 for bleaching purposes1 and especially on low grade greases1 it is usual to refine and bleach the oil4 ,the amount of fullers earth to be used in filtering depends upon the condition of the oil to be filtered4 ,with prime steam lard no fullers earth should be used2 it is simply filtered through clean press cloths4 ,in the case of lard oils and tallow oils1 the color of the oil desired must also determine the amount of fullers earth to be used1 no set rule as to the amount to be used in every case being practicable4 ,every manufacturer of these different grades of oils has his own grades and standards established1 to which the lard refiners usually work1 and the amount of bleaching1 etc41 which is necessary for each individual lot should be governed by the knowledge of the operator1 rather than by any set rules4 ,in the pressing of these articles the oils generally run from #dj to #eb per cent of stock1 the balance being stearine1 the percentage of oil obtained varying according to the temperature at which it is pressed1 and according to the relative market prices for oils and stearines4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,smoke ,,house ,,smoking ,,meats -- ,,nomenclature -- ,,soaking -- ,,smoking -- ,,gas ,,smoking -- ,,temperatures -- ,,treatment ,,after ,,smoking -- ,,trolley ,,system -- ,,canvased ,,meats -- ,,shrinkage -- ,,wrapping -- ,,white ,,wash -- ,,dried ,,beef -- ,,packages -- ,,skipper ,,fly4 ,smoking ,meats4--,the smoking of meats is an ancient method of preserving for future use4 ,in the smoking process which drys the meat and to some extent impregnates it1 a preservative result is brought about1 and meats which are smoked can be carried for quite a long period of time without becoming unfit for food4 ,notably a ,virginia ham4 ,the old style developed in ,virginia was to smoke the ham for a month or six weeks4 ,the ham1 dried to about #ge per cent of its original weight and in this form hung in a moderately dry place1 would be edible at the end of twelve months4 ,nomenclature4--,the naming of meats has grown up among the trade and it is understood that the prefix1 8bacon10 as applied to meats indicated the same to be dry salted1 when smoked4 ,whereas1 when used as a suffix it indicates a sweet pickled cure4 ,for example1 8,bacon ,bellies0 means dry salted1 smoked bellies2 while 8,breakfast ,bacon0 means sweet pickle cured1 smoked meats4 ,soaking ,meats4--,before meats are placed in the smoke house1 they are soaked in fresh water4 ,this is done to remove the surplus salt1 making the meat more palatable2 and to give it a better appearance4 ,if it is not properly soaked the salt forms a white crust on the surface4 ,meat over-soaked becomes 8water-logged0 and often becomes water-sour when exposed to the heat for smoking1 also moulds quickly after smoking1 hence it is essential that this part of the work receives careful attention4 ,the best results from soaking are obtained by using soaking water at a temperature of #fe ,f4 ,a soaking schedule that will be found to give excellent results is as follows3 ,,the ,,time ,,required ,,to ,,soak ,,meats4 ,hams at full cured age #b hrs4 7#c min4 for each day older7 ,bellies1 #h-aj lbs41 #bj days #a hrs4 7#c min4 for each day older7 ,bellies1 #aj-ab lbs41 #be days #a hrs4 7#c min4 for each day older7 ,bellies1 #ab-af lbs41 #cj days #a hrs4 7#c min4 for each day older7 ,dry salt meats hrs4 7except bellies1 two hours7 ,if meats still show salt after smoking change water once1 as the fresh water will take up salt rapidly4 ,it will be found better to change water than to soak longer4 ,mildly cured bacon is washed to remove salt on surface1 and not soaked4 ,thorough washing of all meats with a stiff brush is done before hanging4 8,bacon0 or dry salted meat is not soaked4 ,smoking4--,after the meats are washed and hung in the smoke house1 they should be allowed to dry about three hours1 or until they stop dripping1 for if the smoke is applied while the meats are still dripping1 wherever one piece of meat is subjected to the dripping of another1 the smoke fails to take effect1 giving the meats a striped and discolored appearance4 ,the meat1 thoroughly dry1 fire should be built in the smoke house with either hickory1 maple or oak wood 7partially green being preferred7 and the temperature brought up from #aab to #aah ,f41 and maintained until the surface of the meat has become thoroughly dried and has a partially glazed appearance4 ,as soon as this effect is noticed1 which will be in five to eight hours1 hardwood sawdust should be added1 which will form a dense1 penetrating smoke4 ,at the same time the temperature should be gradually increased in the smoke house1 or brought up to from #aae to #abj ,f4 ,a pile of sawdust1 quantity depending upon the size of the smoke house used1 should be raised in the center of the house and a few burning brands of wood laid around it4 ,these will cause the sawdust to ignite and a small fire1 producing a great deal of smoke1 will result therefrom4 ,if the sawdust is put on a fire already burning much of the sawdust will go up through the house in the form of a light ash1 which is deposited upon the meat1 injuring its appearance4 ,a house of sweet-pickle meats should be smoked for about twenty-four to thirty hours1 to get good results1 and be allowed to stand for twelve hours with the ventilators open1 to give the meat a chance to thoroughly cool off before discharging4 ,gas ,smoking4--,the growing scarcity and consequent increased cost of wood is forcing many packers to use gas and sawdust for smoking4 ,with this system the use of sawdust and gas is made in combination1 the gas being burned by slow delivery through a perforated pipe1 and the sawdust banked nearby to burn with a creeping fire4 ,the use of steam coils for heating the house is a valuable assistance particularly if exhaust steam is available for use4 ,temperatures4--,the following temperatures will be found to give very satisfactory results in smoking and while it will be found impossible to adhere to them absolutely1 it is advisable to do so as closely as possible during the smoking period3 #c hours in smoke #ajg ,f4 #f hours in smoke #aad ,f4 #i hours in smoke #aaf ,f4 #ab hours in smoke #aah ,f4 #ae hours in smoke #aai ,f4 #ah hours in smoke #aah ,f4 #ba hours in smoke #abj ,f4 #bd hours in smoke #aah ,f4 #bg hours in smoke #aai ,f4 #cj hours in smoke #aae ,f4 ,it should be the aim to have the house at a temperature of #aah ,f4 after twelve hours1 and it should be held at that if possible4 ,meats thus handled will be found to have a light amber color which indicates a light smoke1 whereas a dark amber would indicate a heavy smoke4 ,the color of the meats should be regulated by the requirements of the trade4 ,lighter meats1 such as fancy bacon1 should be hung on the upper floors with the hams nearer the fire4 ,treatment ,after ,smoking4--,when meats are finished smoking the fire should be put out1 the house opened up1 giving it a free circulation of air1 and the meats allowed to thoroughly dry and cool before being removed4 ,smoked meats should be handled as little as possible1 for every time they are handled or piled on trucks1 it detracts from their appearance4 ,they become greasy and soon lose their bright1 attractive appearance4 ,after being cooled1 the meat should not be handled until inspected and packed for shipment1 thereby preserving a very desirable appearance1 as well as reducing the cost of labor in operation4 ,trolley ,system4--,originally meats were hung from nails in beams or from cross sticks suspended from beams1 the smoke house being an open shaft4 ,many devices have been originated for saving time in taking meats in and out of smoke1 and various forms of racks operated on overhead rails have been devised4 ,some sort of arrangement of this kind is a necessity4 ,a trolley storage space is usually arranged near to the packing space and meats packed direct from the trolley4 ,it is usual to make a complete inspection out of smoke and pass the hams to the storage trolley1 graded1 wiped and ready for packing4 ,canvased ,meats from ,weight4--,canvased meats are usually sold on packed weight1 cloth included4 ,the gain in weight usually pays for all cost involved and somewhat better1 as the test below indicates3 ,,canvasing #a1jca ,,hams4 #cbe yards sheeting at #d;c #ae4hd #c yards ,andover twine at #cj;c #a4ab #bgd yards paper at #a;c #d4cb ,one man three hours at #ag;c per hour 4#eb ,sewing at #a4aj #aa4cd ------ ,cost of canvasing #cc4ad #dde pounds wash at #b4a;c #i4cd #a1jca labels at #a per #a1jjj #a4jc ,eight men two hours twenty-eight min41 seven men thirty-five min4 #d4aa #ad4dh --------------- ,total actual cost #dg4fb ,weight before canvasing #aj1eej lbs4 ,weight after canvasing #aa1jda lbs4 ,weight after washing #aa1dhf lbs4 ,it will be noted from the previous test that there was a gain of #icf pounds in canvasing these hams1 at a cost of #e4ji per #ajj pounds4 ,as hams always sell at a much higher price than this1 the difference would represent the profit in this operation4 ,shrinkage4--,shrinkage of smoked meats is a matter tangible in dollars and cents4 ,meats for prompt consumption1 such as those smoked and distributed from a branch house1 can be smoked for less than meats smoked at the parent house for shipment via carload or local freight4 ,the aim is to smoke out the meat as near green weights as possible1 the amount of shrinkage depending largely upon the requirements at points to which meats are to be shipped and the conditions to which they are to be subjected4 ,for instance1 hams and shoulders which are to be used for immediate consumption should smoke out #ih to #ajj per cent green weight1 whereas meats which are to be held for some length of time after being smoked1 or which are intended for a warmer climate1 will smoke out from #ie to #ig per cent of the green weight4 ,meats1 which are to be consumed immediately and not shipped to a warm climate1 may carry more moisture and hence show less shrinkage4 ,at the same time they have a much finer and more attractive appearance4 ,this is a matter to which an owner or manager of a smoke house must necessarily give minute and close attention in order to obtain the best results4 ,perhaps as important a point as any1 is when the condition of the meats as to dryness is concerned4 ,meats should be shipped promptly when in condition and not allowed to remain in the smoke house awaiting disposition4 ,the following table shows the result of tests on #a1acf pounds of meat hung in smoke house for seven consecutive days1 temperature of smoke house about #ij ,f4 ,lbs4 ,weight when fully smoked #a1acf #bd hours later #a1abi #bd hours later #a1aba #bd hours later #a1aad #bd hours later #a1ajh #bd hours later #a1aje #bd hours later #a1ajj ,thirty-six pounds shrinkage in seven days' hanging4 ,wrapping ,smoked ,meats4--,fancy meats1 now almost entirely distributed in wrappers of paper or cloth1 should be well cooled before wrapping4 ,a piece of cheese cloth is wrapped over the butt1 and absorptive paper folded next1 usually doubled at the butt1 with an outer covering of parchment paper4 ,the neatness and appearance of the package must be considered and naturally the package should be kept clean4 ,for some trade1 meats are sewn in burlap4 ,others are covered with whitewash solution1 or yellow wash4 ,meats put out in such manner are usually intended for distant shipment and should be harder smoked4 ,canvassed or white-washed meats are paper wrapped1 same as fancy meats1 before covering with the outer bag4 ,white-,wash4--,the following recipe can be used for making white-wash3 #a1bjj pounds floated barytes4 #ij pounds flour4 #adj pounds water4 #fc pounds white ham wash glue4 #a teaspoon blueing4 ,the glue should be cooked and strained through a piece of cloth before being added to the solution1 as there is liable to be more or less sediment in the glue1 which should be removed1 after which mix with the flour2 let stand about twelve hours1 then add the barytes1 using hot water in mixing4 ,after it is mixed add the blueing4 ,this material should be put in a tub1 held at a temperature of #ij to #ajj ,f41 into which the canvassed meats are to be immersed4 ,after being dipped they are hung up over the tub while an attendant rubs his hand over them1 taking off the surplus material which has adhered to the package1 and at the same time forcing the wash into the openings of the cloth4 ,they should next be brushed over with a heavy paint brush1 smoothing off the surface1 and then hung in a dry-room to dry4 ,after being allowed to hang for eight to ten hours1 until the wash is thoroughly dry and has hardened1 they are ready for shipment4 ,yellow ,wash for ,meat ,canvas4--,this is practically the same as white wash1 except that a chrome yellow color is used1 and the mixture will have a yellow instead of a white shade when finished4 ,handle same as white wash for meats4 ,a formula for yellow wash is given as follows3 #a1bjj pounds floated barytes4 #baj pounds whiting4 #aie pounds water4 #aad pounds lemon yellow4 #ce pounds joiner's glue4 ,this is used at a temperature of from #ij to #ajj ,f4 ,as all meats canvassed are sold gross weight1 the barytes is added to give an additional weight to the meats which are canvassed4 ,a dry room in which meats can be dried by forced draft from fan is a valuable adjunct for quick deliveries4 ,smoking ,dried ,beef4--,dried beef is an article which has to be smoked heavier1 dried more1 than pork hams1 and unless the moisture is well evaporated the time it may be kept will be short4 ,an approved method for handling dried beef is as follows3 ,steam coils should be placed at the top and also at the bottom of the smoke house4 ,the steam should be turned on until the temperature of house is between #acj and #adj ,f4 ,after the meat has hung in this temperature about thirty hours1 a light fire should be started1 by using two or three sticks of wood1 and plenty of hard wood sawdust scattered close to the fire1 so as to form a dense smoke4 ,it is very essential that dried beef should have a strong smoked flavor4 ,steam should be kept on the house all the time the beef is being smoked and it will require eighty to ninety hours under these conditions to bring the beef out in the best condition4 ,beef can be smoked in a regular house1 but it takes much longer and it cannot be handled as satisfactorily as with steam heat in connection with the smoking process4 ,after the meat is sufficiently smoked the house should be allowed to cool off1 and the meat to hang for about twenty-four hours before being handled4 ,it is then ready for packing and shipping4 ,dried beef thus handled will shrink about #ch to #cc per cent from the cured weight to the smoked weight4 ,the following test will show the shrinkage on #ajj pieces of dried beef hams1 also the shrinkage each twenty-four hours after3 ,,shrinkage ,,on ,,dried ,,beef4 #ajj pieces1 cellar weight #a1ahd lbs4 ,after smoking #he hours #hab lbs4 #bd hours later #hjf lbs4 #bd hours later #gic lbs4 #bd hours later #gha lbs4 #bd hours later #gfb lbs4 #bd hours later #gee lbs4 #bd hours later #gej lbs4 ,packages4--,the packing of meats for shipment is best done in open type barrels or crates4 ,fancy meats should not be packed to exceed one hundred pounds per box so as not to injure the shape4 ,skipper ,fly4--,the skipper1 the larvae in the life cycle of a fly is the one pest needing close watching in a smoke house4 ,this fly does not attack either green or salted meats1 but will select a piece of pork ham in preference to a beef ham4 ,the fly lays an egg which hatches to a larvae1 and this is the disgusting form in which it is the enemy of sweet-smoked meats4 ,the preventive seems to be such as windows and doors finely screened1 regular 8gassing0 with sulphur fumes and ample light4 ,it is claimed by some that if smoke houses are well lighted1 for instance as a show room1 the skipper fly will not frequent them since it prefers darkness for the egg laying period4 ,there is no known chemical agent that can be used without conflicting with pure food laws that will destroy the egg once deposited4 ,a fly lays upward of thirty eggs during the life cycle of about two weeks1 consequently it multiplies rapidly4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,domestic ,,sausage ,,meats ,,and ,,handling -- ,,arrangement ,,of ,,department -- ,,curing ,,meats -- ,,cooler ,,for ,,ground ,,meats -- ,,grinding ,,and ,,stuffing ,,room -- ,,smoke ,,house -- ,,cook ,,room -- ,,dry ,,hanging ,,room -- ,,cooler -- ,,smoking ,,temperature -- ,,cooking ,,time -- ,,shrinkages -- ,,pickle-,,cured ,,products -- ,,dry-,,cured ,,meats -- ,,packing -- ,,casings ,,and ,,spices -- ,,sausage ,,cereals -- ,,sausage ,,formulas -- ,,bologna ,,varnish -- ,,boiled ,,ham4 ,introductory4--,there is probably no department where there is more diversity of methods than in the sausage room4 ,the business of sausage making is an old one1 and was largely developed in ,europe1 where on account of the low wages and the high prices for meats it was necessary to make the cheaper meat products into an edible article4 ,the gradually increasing value of meats in the ,united ,states makes the same conditions paramount4 ,in the operation of packing houses the cutting of meats into many parts so as to supply the various purchasers with what they require1 makes a comparatively large amount of wholesome meat product1 equally nutritious with porter house steak1 but not quite so tender or pleasing to the taste4 ,cheek meat1 hearts and various trimmings are wholesome as a porterhouse1 but not so delectable1 at least1 in their original condition2 hence1 the art of sausage making consists in taking these products and making from them a palatable1 wholesome and less costly article4 ,meats and ,handling4--,sausage is made in such varieties that there are a multitude of ingredients in a multitude of forms4 ,primarily beef and pork trimmings are the broad classes1 but of these there are many forms1 each of different physical properties4 ,hearts and cheeks are1 for example1 the toughest part of the animal organism1 and these usually find their way to the sausage room4 ,on the other hand the parts of hams and shoulders used are equally delicate with the meats so conserved1 but are of necessity relegated to the sausage room on account of their shape as a trimming4 ,it is the skillful manipulation of these various meats that makes for the real results in this department4 ,too frequently1 the sausage department is regarded as a necessity1 like the tank house1 to put things through4 ,the most successful operators are those who regard the department otherwise1 and many good and successful businesses have been builded on the sausage department as a basis2 not by trying to make sausage to retail at five cents per pound1 extravagantly speaking4 ,arrangement of ,department4--,this department becomes quite comprehensive in its scope in large establishments requiring3 ,refrigerated space for curing fresh meats4 ,cooler for curing meats after ground4 ,grinding and stuffing room4 ,smoke houses4 ,cook room4 ,dry hanging room for smoked sausage4 ,cooler for sausage other than smoked sausage4 ,curing ,meats4--,in certain sausages cured meats are a necessity1 in others they can be used without detriment1 while there still remain others in which cured meats are positively bad4 ,therefore exactly how to handle the meats so as to have them available for use in proper form becomes a matter of concern4 ,formerly when preservatives1 like borax and boracic acid could be used1 many products were put into cure with a preservative of saltpetre1 borax1 boracic acid1 sugar and salt1 and kept sufficiently mild to be acceptable1 but the pure food laws abolishing the use of preservatives have changed conditions4 ,the result is that sausage products should be cured like hams and frozen when cured or frozen before curing and carried in this form until wanted4 ,however1 quite a large space should be provided near the sausage department for curing products4 ,cooler for ,ground ,meats4--,in close proximity to the sausage room is provided a shelving room arranged for placing ground fresh spiced meats for curing processes2 spiced completely and ready for stuffing4 ,meats can be held in this manner and stuffed1 smoked1 cooked and packed rapidly as the exigencies of shipping demand4 ,this enables the maker to shorten the time between himself and the consumer1 most necessary for a successful business4 ,grinding and ,stuffing ,room4--,this should be a well lighted and well ventilated room4 ,here the grinding equipment and stuffing tables are located4 ,the principal equipment needed are 8,enterprise0 type grinders1 silent cutters1 mixer and back fat choppers1 with a spice mill4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aei4--;,,device ,,for ,,running ,,sausage ,,into ,,smoke ,,house4 ,mechanical cutters are expected to be an aid to teeth and therefore they should be made to perform their part by being fitted with sharp knives to do the cutting4 ,choppers are only necessary in making summer sausage although some manufacturers prefer to rock their fancy breakfast sausage4 ,smoke ,houses4--,the management of sausage smoke houses for ordinary sausage vary considerably4 ,figs4 #aei and #afj with description illustrate one of the sliding carriage types4 ,the smoke house carriage is made of angle irons and is run on a track which is supported by vertical columns4 ,the outside tracks can be raised to any height desired to match the tracks in the smoke house4 ,the sausage is hung on this carriage and run into the smoke house1 and when it is sufficiently smoked the carriage can be drawn out on the movable rails1 the sausages taken off1 others put in their place and the operation repeated4 ,this device necessitates a carriage for each set of tracks in the smoke house4 ,later practice tends toward the use of some sort of cage--operated from overhead rails2 the sausage department being arranged with rails near to the stuffing tables4 ,extending to the smoke houses1 thence to the cook boxes and on to the hanging rooms4 ,this arrangement is so familiar that it does not require further description4 ,the tracks are made in such form and size as to fit the houses and usually conform to one of the types illustrated4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afj4--;,,detail ,,of ,,smoke ,,house ,,carriage4 ,the modern houses are built of brick1 about #ed inches in width1 which will allow1 clear of the frame1 two to four inches4 ,in depth the houses vary and can be from ten to sixteen feet4 ,where possible1 they should be built on a corresponding level to the cook rooms and grinding rooms1 so as to avoid the necessity of using elevators4 ,this brings the fire pit within a reasonable distance1 which is a decided advantage for high temperature smoke houses4 ,smoke house compartments for summer or dried sausage can be from two to three stories and should be built exclusively of brick1 as it has been shown by numerous experiments with sheet iron and iron lined houses that these are not a success for smoking all kinds of sausage4 ,the draft of the house is1 of course1 regulated by ventilators at the top4 ,better results are obtained by the use of tin clad wood center doors than by the use of plate iron doors4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afa4--;,,diagram ,,smoke ,,house ,,sausage ,,stack4 ,in smoking domestic sausage1 it is always preferable to use hard wood1 never to put green or unsmoked sausage into a cold smoke house1 the house should be warmed by first building a fire in it1 in case it has not been recently used4 ,in hot weather or in the summer time this is not so important1 as smoke houses then are sufficiently warm at all times4 ,in cool weather or during the winter1 the smoke house should either be kept warm by constant usage or by warming up before using in case the house is empty and has become cold4 ,the fire should not be over eight feet from the cage4 ,cooking ,time4--,to successfully manufacture sausage it should be cooked properly4 ,the following schedule gives the time and temperature of cooking different kinds of sausage1 forming the 8,cooking ,schedule0 referred to in many of the foregoing formulas3 ,,cooking ,,schedule ,,for ,,sausage4 ---------------------------------------- ---- 444 444 ,temperature ,time ,time degrees ,kind of sausage hoursminutes ,fahrenheit ---------------------------------------- ---- ,long ,bologna 444 #cj #afj ,large ,bologna #b 444 #afj ,round ,bologna 444 #bj #aee ,bag ,bologna #b 444 #afj ,bologna in weasands 444 #de #aee ,knoblauch 444 #bj #afj ,leona ,bologna long 444 #dj #aee ,leona ,bologna large #b 444 #afj ,regular ,frankfurts 444 #g #afj ,vienna ,frankfurts 444 #g #afj ,high grade ,frankfurts 444 #g #afj ,blood #b 444 #bjj ,tongue #b 444 #bjj ,liver 444 #cj #afj ,minced ham #d 444 #aej ,berlin ham #b 444 #agj ,head cheese 444 #de #ahj ,cooked pressed ham #b #cj #ahj ---------------------------------------- ---- ,cook ,room4--,the cook room should be provided with vats of various types1 usually of iron plate on account of ease in cleaning4 ,a later type is provided with a hood1 the apparatus looks like a piano box1 a lifting cover being provided which permits it to be raised and lowered at will4 ,permanent ventilating spouts are attached to the top to dispose of the steam--something that must be contended with in the cook room4 ,the vats are usually arranged in pairs and are accessible from three sides4 ,in some large institutions cook tanks are set in the floor and the sausage cage submerged with the sausage hanging thereon4 ,this is not advisable as there is sure to be a discoloration from the cages4 ,sausage upon removal from the cook tanks should be drenched with cold water1 preferably sprayed on from the top4 ,this washes the sausage and cools it1 preparatory to hanging in the sales or packing department4 ,smoking ,temperatures4--,the smoking of sausage is a very important factor1 and in the different formulas given in the instructions for handling1 reference has been made to the 8,smoking ,schedule40 ,this schedule has been carefully compiled and the time and temperatures given should be closely followed in order to get the best results4 ,,smoking ,,temperatures ,,for ,,sausage4 ,temperature ,time degrees ,kind of sausage hours ,fahrenheit ---------------------------------------- ---- ,long ,bologna #c #ade to #aej ,large ,bologna #c #ade to #aej ,round ,bologna #b #ace to #adj ,bag ,bologna #a #adj to #ade ,bologna in weasands #d #ahe ,knoblauch #a #acj ,leona ,bologna long #c #ade ,leona ,bologna large #c #ade ,regular ,frankfurts #b to #c #acj to #ace ,vienna ,frankfurts #c #adj to #ade ,high grade ,frankfurts#c to #c #aej to #afj ,blood #ab #fe to #gj ,tongue #ab #fe to #gj ,liver #a to #a #aaj to #abj ,polish #c to #c #aej to #afj ,minced ham #c to #c #ace ,berlin #e #acj to #adj ,cooked pressed ham #e #acj to #adj ,cottage ham #cb #abj ,boneless ham #dh #hj ---------------------------------------- ---- ,a thermometer in a smoke house is a necessity--not an ornament4 ,a clock is of the same consequence4 ,dry ,hanging ,room4--,a well ventilated room with all the light possible should be provided for storage of smoked sausage awaiting shipment4 ,this should not be a cooler4 ,sixty degree ,fahr4 is amply low1 and in summer a higher temperature is advisable4 ,if smoked sausage is placed in a cooler it condenses moisture on the surface and becomes slimy1 mouldy and rotten in rapid succession4 ,shrinkages of ,domestic ,sausage4--,as is known to all sausage makers it is in very rare cases that #ajj pounds of meat makes #ajj pounds of finished sausage2 there is always a shrinkage and before the cost of the finished sausage can be determined one must know the shrinkage from original weights of raw materials4 ,the following tabulated statement is compiled from experience with very large amounts of the different kinds of sausage1 extended over a year and a half of actual manufacture4 ,the mean average of shrinkage is accurate information and may safely be used as a guide4 ,the cost of the formulas is not given as there is such a variation in prices of ingredients induced by market prices that any figures would be misleading4 ,to find out the cost of the formulas1 figure the given weights at market value1 shrinking them according to the table below1 adding cost for labor and supplies1 and a very close approximate cost of the manufactured article will be obtained4 ,per cent of ,kind of ,sausage4 ,shrinkage4 ,long ,bologna #h to #aa ,large ,bologna #g to #aj ,round ,bologna #h to #aa ,bag ,bologna #f to #i ,bologna in weasands #f to #i ,knoblauch #aj to #aa ,leona1 long #aj to #ac ,leona1 large #aj to #ab ,regular ,frankfurts #aa to #ac ,vienna ,frankfurts #ai to #bb ,high grade ,frankfurts #ah to #bj ,regular pork #b to #d ,little pig pork #b to #d ,high grade breakfast #a to #c ,blood #ca to #cf ,liver #ab to #ad ,tongue #ch to #dj ,polish #ab to #ad ,head cheese #ci to #db ,luncheon beef #dg to #ej ,boneless pigs feet #bb to #be ,minced ham #f to #i ,berlin ham #bb to #bg ,cooked pressed ham #ae to #ag ,cooler for ,fresh ,sausage4--,fresh pork sausage tongue and other varieties of cooked sausage are usually placed in a cooler4 ,dryness in this cooler is a first and prime essential4 ,likewise a spreading of the product so as to give it opportunity to dry4 ,moisture in this department creates a bad condition in the product4 ,fans are an assistance in that they produce a circulation which adds to dryness4 ,pickle-,cured ,product4--,the following products are used in sausage making4 ,they are of little value except in the cured condition3 ,pork snouts1 ,pork hearts1 ,pork cheeks1 ,pork skins1 ,pork heads1 ,pork hocks1 ,pork ears1 ,pork tails1 ,beef hearts1 ,beef cheeks1 ,ox lips1 ,sheep hearts4 ,these products should be thoroughly chilled by spreading them out on racks and placing them in a chill room having a temperature of from #cd to #cf ,f4 ,they should be turned while being chilled4 ,after being thoroughly chilled for from twenty-four to thirty-six hours1 they should be put into vats or tierces with an eighty-degree plain pickle1 using eight ounces of saltpetre to the one-hundred pounds of meat4 ,a wooden frame and weight is placed on the product in order to keep it immersed in the pickle4 ,to cure these meats in vats use the following quantities of pickle3 #a1djj pounds of meat will require #ed gallons of pickle4 #a1jjj pounds of meat will require #db gallons of pickle4 #hjj pounds of meat will require #cf gallons of pickle4 ,the meats should be kept in a cellar during the pickling process1 with the temperature ranging from #ch to #dj ,f41 and overhauled every five1 ten and fifteen days in order that all the pickle may thoroughly penetrate the meats4 ,the different kinds of meats will be found to be sufficiently cured after being in pickle the following number of days3 ,pork snouts #be to #cj days ,pork hearts #be to #cj days ,pork cheeks #be to #cj days ,pork skins #aj to #ae days ,pork heads #ce days ,pork ears #aj days ,pork hocks #be days ,pork tails #aj days ,beef hearts #be to #cj days ,beef cheeks #be to #cj days ,ox lips #bj days ,sheep hearts #be to #cj days ,dry ,cured ,meats4--,for some classes of sausage dry-cured meats are used4 ,this consists of a process of curing meat in tierces1 the meat packed closely and curing product interspersed4 ,for this product a formula made from the following serves4 ,for one tierce of #djj pounds use the following mixture3 #af pounds salt1 #d pounds sugar1 #a pounds saltpetre1 #b quarts old ham pickle1 which must be sweet and in good condition4 ,pork and beef trimmings should be fresh1 and if they have been packed in barrels for transport the blood should be allowed to drain off before being packed in the preservative4 ,they should not be washed in pickle before being used1 but should be handled dry4 ,the two quarts of old ham pickle mentioned in the above formula should be sprinkled through as uniformly as possible when pounding the trimmings down into the tierce4 ,if packing fresh beef and pork hearts1 head meat1 beef and pork cheek meat1 giblet and weasand meat1 they should be thoroughly washed in a mild pickle so as to remove the blood and slime before packing in the tierce4 ,head1 cheek1 and giblet meat should not be put into ice water when cut off on the killing floor1 but should be promptly removed to a cooler where the temperature is #cc to #cf ,f41 and spread or hung up on racks to refrigerate4 ,care must be taken not to allow these meats to accumulate in any bulk while warm4 ,hearts and large pieces should be split to reduce their size and make accessible to the curing ingredient4 ,in the packing of these meats the pickle used with dry trimming is omitted4 ,packing4--,after the trimmings are properly prepared they are to be mixed with the curing ingredients4 ,this is best accomplished by the use of a tumbler churn1 weighing a given amount of the trimmings and placing with the allotted proportion of curing materials into the churn4 ,when mixed with the preservative1 the trimmings should be put in a tierce1 in layers1 and pounded down as tightly as possible with a maul1 and the operation continued until the tierce is as full as possible1 allowing for the head to be put on4 ,before heading up spread a cheese cloth or thin cotton cloth over the top to protect the trimmings from the head4 ,the tierce when headed up is removed to cold storage1 where the temperature must be kept as near #ch ,f4 as possible from thirty to forty-five days1 when the trimmings are ready for use4 ,if it is desired to keep the product sixty days1 after it has been in the temperature above mentioned for thirty to forty-five days1 remove to a lower temperature1 #cb to #cd ,f42 and for more than sixty days to a temperature of #bj ,f4 ,casings and ,spices4--,all classes of beef casings1 namely1 rounds1 bungs1 middles and weasands1 as well as hog bungs1 hog casings and sheep casings are used in the ,sausage ,department4 ,there is perhaps more chicanery used in ,sausage ,room supplies than in any other one department1 consequently care in purchase of these supplies is worthy of attention4 ,in sheep casings it is a matter of grading as to width1 pieces and yardage per bundle2 in hog casings1 a matter of salt per pound purchased1 and grading as to width and pieces2 in rounds and middles one of holes1 pieces and measurement per set4 ,spices should so far as possible be bought in the natural state and mixed on the premises4 ,pure ,food laws pretty well take care of the purity of the spice in most states4 ,sausage ,cereals4--,this is a very important factor in the manufacture of sausage4 ,the province of 8fillers0 is to absorb water1 preventing shrinkage1 and while this is advisable to an extent1 if overdone1 it detracts from the quality of the product4 ,the main base ingredients for fillers are rice flour1 corn flour and potato flour4 ,there are many sausage fillers on the market but the foregoing ingredients are most frequently used4 ,potato flour or starch is not used to any extent today1 manufacturers finding that there is a great deal of trouble attached to the manufacture of sausage containing these ingredients1 on account of the liability to sour and spoil4 ,corn flour is the best filler that can be used1 being less liable to ferment1 while it absorbs the water quickly4 ,while fillers are used to a great extent1 the sausage manufacturer should remember that the quality of sausage is deteriorated proportionately to the amount of water that is worked in4 ,hence fillers should be used with discretion1 and manufacturers who aim to make a name for their goods1 are frugal with fillers4 ,sausage ,formulas4--,the following methods are tried and used for the manufacture of various kinds of sausage4 ,sausage makers vary procedure according to stocks on hand4 ,however1 for uniformity1 it is best to conform to a standard so far as possible4 ,pork ,sausage4--,this is produced in various grades1 from a fancy breakfast quality to a substance whose chief claim to the name is the form4 ,a good pork sausage can be made as follows3 #ajj lb4 pork trimmings1 preferably shoulder trimmings1 about one-third fat4 #c pounds salt4 #h ounces pepper4 #c ounces sage4 ounce ginger4 ounce mace4 ,this should be chopped by passing through a 8,enterprise0 plate4 ,mix in an arm type mixer1 rather than the blade type4 ,mix as little as possible but sufficiently to get spice evenly distributed2 stuff in medium sheep casing1 #e inch links4 ,the matter of spicing is one of taste and can be varied4 ,note the absence of water and filler in the formula4 ,some makers prefer to 8rock0 their fancy breakfast sausage4 ,this produces good results but is unnecessary4 ,it is possible to use many meats in the making of this sausage and still have it passably good1 but generally speaking1 there is less chance for manipulation of this sort in this kind of sausage than in many of the others4 ,the following formulas make a cheap and palatable pork sausage3 ,,formula ,a4 #ge pounds pork trimmings1 #be pounds tripe1 #h pounds water1 #c pounds salt1 #d ounces sage1 #aj ounces white pepper1 #c ounces saltpetre1 #aj pounds corn flour4 ,,formula ,b4 #ij pounds regular pork trimmings1 #aj pounds tripe1 #f pounds corn flour1 #aj pounds water1 #b pounds1 #h ounces salt1 #d ounces sage1 #aj ounces white pepper1 #c ounces sugar1 #a pound1 #h ounces color water4 ,the preceding formulas are for sausage meat1 often sold loose or without stuffing1 also for sausage stuffed in hog casings4 ,stuff in medium or narrow hog casings4 8,tripe0 is the source of refuge to produce cheap pork sausage4 ,bologna ,style4--,this is one of the most common and generally used type of sausage manufactured4 ,it is in demand in nearly every locality4 ,in the manufacture of ,bologna1 ingredients are used which are not in themselves palatable1 but are nutritious4 ,the seasoning makes it palatable4 ,the formulas which are given below1 if they are accurately followed and fresh and wholesome material carefully prepared is used1 will make a sausage which is very acceptable to the consumer4 ,this is the product that is usually made from the tougher meats such as cheeks and hearts4 ,for a good bologna use3 #be pounds beef trimmings1 #ej pounds pork cheeks1 #g pounds corn flour1 #a pounds pepper1 #d ounces coriander1 #gj pounds pork trimmings1 #cj pounds beef cheeks1 #e pounds salt1 #b ounces allspice1 #d ounces saltpetre1 #be pounds water4 ,a cheaper product can be made as follows3 #de pounds hearts 7pork71 #bj pounds sheep cheek meat1 #fe pounds beef cheeks1 #g pounds corn flour1 #d ounces coriander 7ground71 #d ounces saltpetre 7ground71 #bj pounds pork cellar fat trimmings1 #be pounds weasand meat1 #e pounds salt1 #ah ounces pepper 7ground71 #b ounces allspice 7ground71 #be pounds water4 ,to manufacture1 the product should be passed through an 8,enterprise0 type of grinder1 using th plate4 ,transfer to silent cutter and chop for full five minutes1 adding spice and water as the mixture is cut and turned4 ,transfer to shelving room and allow to lay for twenty-four hours4 ,stuff in casings as required1 put in smoke house at a temperature of #abj ,f4 for one and one-half hours1 raise temperature to #ace ,f4 and carry for another one and one-half hours4 ,cook in water at #aee ,f4 for thirty minutes2 rinse with hot water after removal1 then chill with cold water and hang in shipping room4 ,the length of cooking and smoking varies with the weight and thickness of the package4 ,see schedule4 ,this recipe is for wide middle casings4 ,frankfurt ,style4--,this popular sausage is made from a variety of formulas4 ,perhaps there is no one piece of sausage as susceptible of being made so excellent or so tasteless1 it being entirely a matter of what it is made from4 ,the better grades are made from freshly killed bull beef1 hashed warm4 ,the process consists in boning bull beef and opening the meats along the seams1 so to speak1 skinning each bundle of muscle to remove the wrapping and cutting out all ligaments4 ,fresh pork1 preferably1 shoulder meat is treated in the same manner4 ,the meats are then passed through a 8,enterprise0 plate1 and passed to a silent cutter4 ,here cracked ice is added in quantity and the meats cut until they are a light fluffy pulp4 ,the spices are added during the last five minutes of cutting1 and the whole mass transferred to a shelving room for twenty-four hours1 when it is ready to stuff1 smoke1 cook1 cool and sell4 ,wide sheep casings are used for stuffing4 ,make the links uniform4 ,the proportions of meat used should be as follows3 #fj pounds bull beef1 #dj pounds pork shoulder 7fat71 #ce pounds ice1 #aj pounds corn flour1 #d pounds salt1 #ab ounces pepper1 #c ounces saltpetre1 #c ounces mace1 #f ounces sugar4 ,the following formulas are for less costly products and provide a means for disposing of some by-products3 ,,formula ,,no4 #a4 #eg pounds regular pork trimmings1 #fe pounds beef cheek meat1 #ae pounds cooked tripe1 #be pounds pork kidneys1 #bj pounds dry salt or pickled pork trimmings1 #i pounds corn flour1 #de pounds water1 #a pound1 #d ounces white pepper1 #c pounds salt1 #b pounds color water1 #d ounces saltpetre1 #c ounces allspice1 #c ounces mace1 #c ounces coriander1 #a ounces cloves4 ,,formula ,,no4 #b4 #ij pounds lean pork cheek meat1 #fj pounds regular pork trimmings1 #i pounds corn flour1 #fj pounds water1 #e pounds salt1 #b pounds1 #g ounces color water1 #ab ounces sugar1 #c ounces saltpetre1 #a pound black pepper1 #b ounces mace4 ,the use of a mixer is unnecessary with this sausage since the silent cutter will perform this work4 ,it should take about ten minutes to do the cutting4 ,smoke at #aaj ,f4 for one and one-half hours1 then at #ace ,f4 for one hour4 ,cook at #aee ,f4 for eight to ten minutes1 rinse and cool4 ,in medium and low priced frankfurts1 cattle lights are used in moderate proportion1 say1 #aj per cent4 ,tripe can also be used in increased quantity4 ,leona ,style ,sausage4--,the following formula will be found acceptable for this variety of sausage3 #cj pounds pork knuckle meat1 #fe pounds lean pork trimmings1 #ej pounds back fat trimmings or moderately fat trimmings1 #bb pounds pork neck fat1 #h pounds corn flour1 #ee pounds water1 #e pounds salt1 #a pound white pepper1 #c ounces mace1 #b ounces saltpetre1 #ab ounces sugar1 #b ounces grated onions1 ounce garlic4 ,knuckle meat to be ground through a moderately fine plate4 ,balance of pork should be chopped in the 8silent cutter40 ,corn flour and seasoning should be added to the knuckle meat after it is put into the ,buffalo chopper and the machine has made two or three revolutions4 ,chop for four minutes1 stuff in eighteen-inch pieces1 beef middle casings or beef bung casings4 ,smoke1 cook as per schedule4 ,cool and send to hanging room4 ,knoblauch ,style ,sausage4--,following are two formulas for ,knoblauch sausage3 #cj pounds pork knuckle meat1 #fe pounds very lean pork trimmings1 #ej pounds back fat trimmings or moderately fat trimmings1 #bb pounds pork neck fat1 #h pounds corn flour1 #ee pounds water1 #e pounds salt1 #a pound white pepper1 #c ounces mace1 #b ounces saltpetre1 #ab ounces sugar1 #b ounces grated onions1 #c ounces garlic1 #h ounces color water4 ,stuff in beef rounds and tie with twine every five inches4 ,knuckle meat may be ground through a moderately fine plate4 ,balance of pork should be chopped in a 8,buffalo ,silent ,cutter40 ,corn flour and seasoning should be added to the knuckle meat after it is put into the ,buffalo chopper and the machine has made two or three revolutions4 ,,second ,,method4 #ej pounds pork cheeks1 #aj pounds tripe1 #dj pounds standard pork trimmings1 #e pounds salt1 #c ounces mace1 #i ounces sugar1 #c ounces garlic1 #ce pounds pork trimmings 7lean71 #ae pounds ,d4 ,t4 or ,s4 ,p4 trimmings1 #i pounds corn flour1 ounce pepper1 #d ounces coriander1 #c ounces saltpetre1 #cj pounds water4 ,grind pork cheeks through plate 8,enterprise0 cutter4 ,transfer to silent cutter1 add water and chop one minute1 add balance of trimmings and chop five minutes1 then pass to shelving room1 stuff in beef round casings1 tie with ,no4 #ab twine in four-inch links4 ,smoke at #aaj for one hour and increase temperature to #ace for one and one-half hours4 ,cook twenty minutes at #aee and chill after cooking1 draw and pass to hanging room4 ,polish ,style ,sausage4--,formula for making this sausage is as follows3 #ajj pounds beef cheek meat1 or shank meat1 #ej pounds dry salt or pickled pork trimmings1 #ej pounds pork trimmings1 #i pounds corn flour1 #cj pounds water1 #a pound white pepper1 #e pounds salt1 #f ounces saltpetre1 #f ounces coriander1 #c ounces garlic4 ,grind the beef cheek meat through a th plate1 add corn flour and seasoning1 work in as much water as possible and then add the pork trimmings4 ,this is a very coarse chopped sausage and the pork trimmings should be chopped about as fine as small dice4 ,beef is the binder of this sausage1 and must be handled according to instructions4 ,the meat1 after it is chopped1 can be handled the same as ,bologna and ,frankfurt meat by putting in a cooler for a few hours before stuffing4 ,after the sausage is stuffed1 it can also be handled as ,bologna and ,frankfurts1 if desired1 before smoking4 ,this sausage should be smoked carefully and strictly in accordance with the smoking schedule1 as it is not cooked1 this being done practically in the smoke house1 during the process of smoking4 ,after it is smoked it has a very wrinkled appearance1 which is essential for this article4 ,in fact1 it is not ,polish sausage unless it has this appearance4 ,the dicing of the meat other than the beef can be done with a rocker4 ,note that a 8silent cutter0 is not used in this manufacture4 ,the sausage is stuffed in beef round casings4 ,blood ,sausage4--,this sausage is made as follows3 #bje pounds shoulder fat1 #ed pounds pig skins1 #dg pounds beef blood1 #e pounds onions1 #g pounds salt1 #a pound white pepper1 #c pounds corn flour1 #h ounces marjoram1 #d ounces cloves4 ,use pickled shoulder fat and skins1 cook for one hour at a temperature of #baj ,f4 and run through fat cutting machine or cut into size of small dice4 ,pass the beef blood through a fine sieve in order to separate foreign matter4 ,cook pig skins for about two hours at a temperature of #baj ,f4 and grind through a th plate4 ,mix the shoulder fat1 skins1 blood and seasoning thoroughly together and stuff in cap end bungs4 ,smoking and cooking as indicated in schedules4 ,tongue ,sausage4--,for ,tongue ,sausage the following formula is given3 #ej pounds hog or sheep tongue1 #acj pounds shoulder fat1 #cd pounds hog skins1 #cj pounds blood1 #h pounds salt1 #a pound1 #d ounces white pepper1 #b pounds onions1 #aj ounces marjoram1 #d ounces cloves4 ,use pickled shoulder fat1 skin and cook for one hour at a temperature of #baj ,f4 and run through fat cutting machine or cut into size of small dice4 ,use beef blood1 passed through a fine sieve in order to separate any foreign material4 ,cook hog skins for about two hours at a temperature of #baj ,f4 and grind through a th inch plate4 ,pickled sheep tongues are preferable to pickled hog tongues1 as they are smaller and make a better appearing sausage when cut4 ,the tongue should be cooked one and three-quarter hours at a temperature of #baj ,f4 ,before mixing the above ingredients1 rinse the fat off the tongues with hot water in order to remove as much grease as possible4 ,mix the ingredients thoroughly with the seasoning by hand4 ,when stuffing put about four pieces of tongue to each bung4 ,however1 this varies according to the size of the bungs used4 ,cap end bungs should be used in all cases4 ,smoking and cooking to be done as indicated in schedule4 ,minced ,ham4--,the following formula for ,minced ,ham is given3 #ej pounds beef trimmings1 #bj pounds pork cheek meat1 #hj pounds regular pork trimmings1 #e pounds corn flour1 #bj pounds water1 #e pounds salt1 #h ounces sugar1 #c ounces white pepper1 #c ounces saltpetre4 ,grind meats through a th plate2 pass to 8,silent ,cutter10 add water and spices2 chop three minutes and shelve for curing4 ,stuff in calf bladders if available1 otherwise small beef bladders4 ,in tying the bladders1 it is best to use a wooden skewer and twine and it is preferable to use small calf bladders in place of large ones1 as the time required for smoking and cooling is so long that if large bladders are used the weight of them would break the bladders where they are skewered or tied and would result in shrinkage or loss4 ,new ,england or ,pressed ,ham4--,this ham is made from dry cured pork trimmings put down under the formula given4 ,the best and leanest trimmings obtainable are cured for this purpose4 ,shoulder blade trimmings or lean shoulder trimmings are more desirable than any other kind4 ,after the trimmings have been cured sufficiently1 which is when they show a bright cured color throughout and are without dark spots in the center of the meat1 the trimmings are weighed up in #ajj-pound batches1 and about ten per cent of lean beef trimmings1 ground through a th-inch plate1 is mixed thoroughly4 ,immediately after the trimmings are mixed the mass should be stuffed into large beef bung ends1 usually from fourteen to sixteen inches long4 ,to obtain the best results a stuffer arranged with a large sized filler is necessary4 ,however1 a hand stuffer arranged with a large sized filler1 about three inches at the small end1 or opening1 can be used4 ,care should be taken to stuff the bungs as tightly as possible4 ,they should be skewered instead of tied at the ends and should be wrapped with heavy twine1 each piece having from four to six wrappings of the twine1 which should terminate with a hanger for the ham4 ,the pieces are very heavy and will break during the processes of smoking and cooking unless they are properly wrapped or tied4 ,this ham is smoked five hours at a temperature of from #acj to #adj ,f4 and the house should be moderately warm before the ham is hung in the smoke4 ,a small fire should be started to dry off the casings1 after which the meat should be smoked the same as ,bologna4 ,cook at least three hours at a temperature of #afj ,f4 ,after it has been cooked it is taken immediately to a cooler1 where the temperature is from #ch to #dj ,f41 and put under a press4 ,if no press is obtainable place the ham in layers1 putting a board between each layer with a weight on top4 ,place the hams in a pile or under the press so that they can be picked with a long1 thin skewer about one-half the thickness of a ham tryer in order to permit the water which is in the ham to escape4 ,after pressure for twelve hours1 take them out and hang up so that boiling hot water can be thrown on them to wash off the grease2 thoroughly washed in this manner remove to a dry cooler4 ,new ,jersey ,ham4--,new ,jersey ham is made according to the following formula3 #fj pounds lean ham trimmings #hj pounds lean back trimmings1 #aj pounds lean beef chucks or shank meat1 #d pounds1 salt1 #c pounds cracker meal1 #d ounces formula saltpetre1 #ab ounces sugar1 ounce red pepper4 ,beef is ground through an ,enterprise th-inch plate and rocked about five minutes1 when the pork trimmings are added with the seasoning4 ,the seasoning should all be mixed thoroughly and added to the meat4 ,the whole is then chopped about as coarse as summer sausage1 or about twenty to twenty-five minutes4 ,it is taken to a cooler after being rocked and spread about six or eight inches thick on a table1 where it is allowed to remain about three days at a temperature of from #ch to #dj ,f4 ,it is then stuffed by hand stuffers into bags1 which will weigh after being stuffed and dried about five pounds4 ,these bags are made of heavy drilled cloth and should be stuffed as tightly as possible4 ,they should be kept very clean during the process of stuffing1 as any sausage meat which may stick to the cloth will leave a bad appearance after the sausage has been smoked4 ,after the ham has been stuffed1 it should be taken to the dry room1 where the temperature can be kept at all times between #df and #ee ,f41 #ej being preferable4 ,the room must be airy and dry and it will take at least ten days under favorable circumstances to get the ham in proper condition to smoke4 ,it should be smoked about four hours in as cold a smoke as possible1 #gj to #ge ,f4 being as hot as it is safe to smoke it1 #fj ,f4 being nearer the proper temperature4 ,after it has been smoked1 it should be again hung in a cool temperature for three days1 when it will be ready for shipment4 ,this sausage is manufactured extensively in ,new ,jersey and the east4 ,head ,cheese4--,head cheese is made as follows3 #dd pounds cooked pig skins1 #ee pounds cooked pig snouts1 #cc pounds cooked pig ears1 #ee pounds cooked beef hearts1 #ea pounds cooked neck fat1 #bj pounds water in which the meat has been cooked1 #a pound white pepper1 #aj pounds onions1 #d ounces allspice1 #b ounces cloves1 #c ounces marjoram1 #c ounces carroway seeds4 ,the cooked meats are chopped by hand with a knife until reduced to the proper size1 except the skins1 which are ground through a th-inch plate after being cooked4 ,the mass usually is mixed by hand and stuffed into cured hog paunches or beef bungs and cooked as per cooking schedule appended hereto4 ,after the sausage is cooked1 it is taken to a cooler and usually pressed by laying the paunches or bungs side by side with a board between each layer and a moderate weight on top of the last board4 ,however1 if properly made this is unnecessary as the gelatine from the skins and the water in which the meat has been cooked will bind the other ingredients together sufficiently without much1 if any1 pressing4 ,boneless ,pigs ,feet4--,this product is prepared as follows3 #be pounds fresh pigs feet1 #cj pounds fresh pigs skins1 #ae pounds fresh pigs snouts1 #ae pounds fresh pigs ears1 #bj pounds fresh pork trimmings1 #ae pounds fresh beef trimmings1 #aj pounds white pepper1 #ej pounds water in which meat has been cooked1 #d pounds1 #a ounce salt1 #d ounces cloves4 ,use one gallon 7#de-;grain7 vinegar to five-hundred pounds of the above mass4 ,cook all of the meats in one vat1 thoroughly1 in pudding nets1 and chop same as headcheese1 mix seasoning1 water and vinegar with the meat in a large tub or tight-bottom truck4 ,it is necessary to use tin moulds for this sausage and they are generally of one size1 shaped as a ten-pound wooden bucket or other sized packages which may be intended to be used for shipping purposes4 ,fill these molds with the mixed mass and put on top of each a wooden block the size of the mold and about three inches thick4 ,then remove to a cooler and press tightly by placing on top a board with a weight4 ,in order to obtain the best results1 the molds or cans should be cooled quickly1 therefore a temperature of about #cf ,f4 is desirable4 ,to remove the contents from the cans or molds1 submerge in hot water for a few seconds1 when the meat will loosen from the sides of the molds and can be turned out readily4 ,after the product has been removed from the molds allow it to stand for a short while in the cooler before placing in shipping packages4 ,this sausage can be made without using wooden tops on the cans or molds and without pressing it4 ,if the pig skins1 after they are cooked1 are ground through a th-inch plate and then mixed with the mass1 more of a jelly will be produced and they will not require pressing4 ,in preparing meats be particular to remove all bone1 gristle or cartilage4 ,liver ,sausage4--,the following formula is for ,liver ,sausage3 #bj pounds cooked lean pork trimmings1 #bj pounds cooked pork cheek meat1 #bj pounds cooked pork skins1 #aj pounds cooked hog livers1 #ej pounds cooked tripe1 #f pounds cooked shoulder fat1 #c pounds salt1 #c pounds onions1 #i ounces white pepper1 #b ounces marjoram1 #b ounces cloves1 #a ounces allspice4 ,above is all ground through a th-inch plate except the shoulder fat1 which is run through a fat cutting machine or cut into size of small dice4 ,it is necessary to mix this sausage in a sausage mixer4 ,the seasoning should be put into the mixer when starting to mix1 but the shoulder fat should not be put in until about half through4 ,stuff immediately into hog bungs1 or beef middles1 as desired4 ,cook immediately as per cooking table and then place in cooler1 at a temperature of #cf to #dj ,f4 until thoroughly chilled1 when it is ready for shipping4 ,boneless ,ham4--,this is made from pork shoulder butts1 cured in sweet pickle and stuffed in small ,no4 #b beef bungs4 ,smoke forty-eight hours at a temperature of #abj ,f4 ,the bungs may be slightly colored1 the same as ,polish sausage casings1 before stuffing1 if desired4 ,not cooked4 ,cottage ,ham4--,this is made from boneless ham butts or shoulder butts1 cured the same as boneless ham butts4 ,it is not stuffed but strung from the large end of the butt and smoked thirty-two hours at a temperature of #abj ,f4 and not cooked4 ,stuffed ,hogs ,heads4--,select a well shaped head1 cut off about three to four pounds behind the ears and remove the bones4 ,care should be taken in entering above the eyes1 where the skin is thinnest and lies directly on the bone4 ,do not remove the snout bones1 but saw off the hindmost jaw bone right behind the mouth4 ,remove the cheek meat on either side until with the skin it is about one-half inch thick4 ,cut off about three inches square from the lower cheek at the back to make the head more shapely4 ,sew from the snout up the back bone1 where the head is to be filled and cut around cover from the skin to fit the back opening4 ,prepare the stuffing as follows3 ,good firm young pork1 moderately fat1 is coarsely chopped with the required quantity of salt and allowed to stand twenty-four hours4 ,use about ten pounds chopped fine1 spiced with five and one-quarter ounces of salt1 one-half ounce of ground white pepper1 seventy-seven grains of finely ground mace1 mixed with one pound of boiled tongue meat cut into shape of dice1 one-half the size of a walnut4 ,mix all thoroughly and fill head with the mass4 ,sew the cover on and smoke for two hours until it turns to a yellow brown color4 ,after it is smoked1 tie the head up in a cloth1 wrapping a string around it very evenly from front to rear4 ,cook in boiling water from three to three and one-half hours1 and then allow to cool4 ,the head must be a chestnut brown when thoroughly smoked and cooked4 ,scrapple4--,for making scrapple use two pig heads1 two pig tongues and two pig livers4 ,these should be cooked in an iron-jacketed kettle that will hold about forty-five gallons4 ,cover thoroughly and then remove from kettle and cut up the same as for head cheese4 ,after the heads1 tongues and livers are taken from the water1 skim the grease and add forty pounds of corn meal and five pounds of buckwheat to the water1 putting in a little at a time1 stirring as put in4 ,cook slowly for five hours4 ,seasoning should be added before buckwheat and corn meal are put in1 consisting of3 #b ounces white pepper1 #a ounce red pepper1 #h ounces sage1 #d pounds salt4 ,after the meal and water has been cooked about four hours and forty-five minutes1 add the heads1 tongues and livers1 stir thoroughly about fifteen minutes1 shut off steam1 and place in pan4 ,when about cool1 but while plastic1 add to each pan top a coating of the grease skimmed from cooking4 ,bologna ,sausage in ,oil4--,this is a sausage manufactured quite extensively by packers1 who find the principal markets for it in the south4 ,in fact1 it is not used anywhere but in warm climates and it is usually put up in twenty-pound and fifty-pound tin packages4 ,much experimenting has been done to ascertain the best size for packages to put up sausage in oil4 ,the following formula is generally considered to be a good method for making this sausage3 #bj pounds fresh head pork meat1 #ej pounds fresh pork hearts1 #cj pounds fresh regular pork trimmings1 #ae pounds fat pork trimmings1 #hj pounds fresh beef cheek meat1 #a pound1 #h ounces corn flour1 #c pounds1 #h ounces salt1 ounce cloves1 ounce coriander1 #c ounces saltpetre4 ,stuff in different sized beef rounds4 ,the beef cheek meat1 pork hearts1 and pork cheek meat are ground through a th inch plate1 and afterward chopped with a 8,silent ,cutter0 the seasoning being added at the same time4 ,use no water in this sausage under any circumstances4 ,after the beef and beef hearts1 also the pork cheek meat1 have been chopped as fine as desired1 add the pork trimmings and chop the same as any other ,bologna4 ,it is desirable to stuff this sausage immediately after it is chopped1 and if a steam stuffer is used care should be taken that no water from the evaporation of the steam is allowed to get into the sausage4 ,the bench where the sausage is stuffed should be absolutely free from water or moisture4 ,this is the principal factor in the successful manufacture of this product4 ,after the sausage is stuffed1 it is smoked about three hours at a temperature of #aej to #afj ,f41 or until it is dry clear through4 ,this sausage is not cooked4 ,keep it away from all water and moisture4 ,after the sausage is smoked allow it to cool in a dry airy room1 but do not put it in a cooler4 ,when it is thoroughly cool1 pack into twenty-pound and fifty-pound packages1 as desired1 as follows3 ,in twenty-pound cans1 place sixteen pounds ,bologna and four pounds oil4 ,in fifty-pound cans1 place thirty-six pounds ,bologna and fourteen pounds oil4 ,in order to pack the cans properly1 it is necessary to stuff different sized beef rounds1 as mentioned above1 so that they will fit in nicely without breaking the casings1 and without filling the cans too full4 ,after the cans have been filled with the required amount of ,bologna1 crimp on the summer top1 which has a two-inch hole and a cap to fit4 ,fill the cans as full as possible with deodorized cotton seed oil1 which must be cold4 ,allow the cans to stand for thirty minutes1 then refill so that the oil runs over the top through the hole1 put on the cap immediately and solder right through the oil which will accumulate around the cap and on the top of the can4 ,this will not hinder the process of soldering and it prevents the possibility of any air getting into the cans4 ,after the caps have been secured1 solder around the crimps of the summer top4 ,this can be done before the oil is put in if desired4 ,extreme care must be used in soldering the cans so that no air whatever gets in1 or oil leaks out1 as the sausage will spoil if this occurs4 ,the cans should also be fitted with the regular covers so as to protect the summer top4 ,pack in crates1 the twenty-pound size1 two to four to a crate2 the fifty-pound size1 one to two to a case4 ,the case should be large enough so as to admit of packing sawdust beneath the bottom1 around the sides and on the tops4 ,a crate large enough to permit one-half inch space around the cans is the size generally used and there should be a partition in the crates where more than one can is packed in a crate4 ,in freighting this class of merchandise in the south1 in fact wherever it is shipped1 it receives more or less rough handling and a great many freight handlers use box hooks1 which they stick into the sides of the crates1 and if there is not sufficient protection from the amount of sawdust put in1 the cans are punctured1 the oil leaks out and the sausage spoils4 ,sausage handled in the above manner has been known to keep two years in temperature ranging from #dj to #ajj ,f4 ,pork ,sausage in ,oil4--,use the same formula as for regular pork sausage except that the trimmings must be moderately lean1 and the sausage absolutely free from water4 ,use also the same spices4 ,stuff immediately after the sausage is chopped1 using the same care as to moisture as for ,bologna in oil1 and smoke over a very cold smoke until the sausage seems dry all the way through4 ,allow it to cool1 handling and packing in every other respect the same as ,bologna ,oil4 ,bologna ,varnish4--,where it can be used and not conflict with ,food regulations bologna varnish can be used to advantage4 ,it improves the appearance and decreases shrinkage4 ,as considerable water is used1 in addition to the natural moisture in meats there is1 after it is manufactured1 considerable shrinkage1 and if allowed to hang for any length of time1 the casings become wrinkled on account of the evaporation of this internal moisture4 ,the varnishing of the sausage creates a covering on the outside which prevents this wrinkled appearance1 improving its looks1 and retarding the evaporation of moisture from the sausage4 ,the formula is as follows3 #f pounds white shellac1 #a pound boracic acid1 #b pounds aqua ammonia1 #ad pounds of water4 ,the mixture should be put into a vessel and heated to a point where the shellac is well dissolved4 ,when this is accomplished1 add four gallons of water4 ,this varnish1 in order to be ready for use at any time1 must be kept lukewarm4 ,it should1 therefore1 be kept in a jacketed pan1 surrounded by either hot water or steam1 to hold it at the proper temperature4 ,the sausage should be immersed and immediately hung up to dry4 ,this varnish can be used without any detrimental effect whatever on all kinds of smoked ,bologna sausage or smoked cooked pressed ham4 ,it preserves the sausage1 keeps it from molding1 and is especially effective where it is necessary to pack ,bologna in boxes for shipment long distances4 ,where the dipping pan is used1 it is only necessary to dip the sausage in the above solution a few seconds before hanging on racks to dry4 ,the sausage is usually ready for shipment in one hour after it is dipped1 if the preparation is properly made1 where a large amount of ,bologna is being dipped it is1 of course1 necessary to have a larger dripping pan and a larger quantity of varnish4 ,the proportions should be increased accordingly4 ,it is also important that1 after the varnish has stood from one period of dipping to another1 to skim the grease off the top of the varnish before again using it1 and the ,bologna should always be dipped immediately after it is taken from the cooking vats2 in other words1 while hot4 ,boiled ,ham4--,boiled ham and shoulders1 also cooked meats1 are usually included as a sausage product4 ,there is nothing that determines the cost of the finished product as much as the shrinkage1 hence the method that will produce the least loss in weight from original to finished product is the process desired4 ,there are two methods of cooking hams1 one is to steam them in a retort or some receptacle where they are cooked by the heat generated by steam2 another is to cook them in water4 ,the latter process1 from careful observation1 seems to be the one that gives the best results as regards the shrinkage1 although steaming perhaps makes the ham more palatable4 ,the hams before being cooked should be bound and wrapped with twine to hold them in shape4 ,a form made of galvanized iron1 clamping plates which are put into a press1 with the ham tightly clamped on the inside should be used4 ,the ham is cooked and chilled in this mold4 ,the cure of the ham has much to do with the shrinkage and it is therefore preferable to use fully cured hams instead of old cured hams1 as the shrinkage is greater on over-cured meats4 ,it is also advisable to sort the hams as to size1 having each vat or tank of hams uniform4 ,if not uniform in size there is an excessive shrinkage on small hams which are overcooked4 ,in all cases the hams should be soaked1 removing the surplus salt4 ,the length and time of soaking depends altogether on the age of the meats4 ,the hams should be thoroughly washed and if they are to be branded this should be done before they are boned or cooked4 ,rules for ,boiling ,hams4--,when hams are boned 7if desirable7 and wrapped1 they should be put into a vat of water1 temperature about #bab and the temperature regulated until it reaches #aee to #afj ,f4 ,the hams are held at this temperature until they are cooked1 which requires somewhat longer time than when they are cooked1 by steam at a higher temperature4 ,a twelve-pound ham will require from four and one-half to five hours4 ,after the hams are cooked they should be allowed to cool in the water in which they were cooked2 not taken out1 or drained1 or set in the cooler1 for in the water in which they are cooked are juices which are absorbed by the hams as they cool1 and the shrinkage is much less than if taken out immediately4 ,the hams should then be taken to the smoke house1 laid on racks and given a very light smoke1 then to the cooler4 ,shrinkage in ,boiling ,hams4--,hams taken out of pickle and drained for twelve hours to shipping weight1 will show the following shrinkages under favorable circumstances3 ,per cent4 ,hams not boned1 smoked after cooking #i to #ab ,hams with bone out1 including the shank bone1 skin on1 not fatted #ab to #ah ,hams with bone out1 skin lifted1 fat removed #ah to #bc ,hams with bone out1 the skin and fat removed #cc to #dj ,hams skinned1 fatted1 bones left in #bh to #ce ,skinned shoulders1 bone out #cj to #ce ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,dried ,,sausage ,,summer ,,sausage -- ,,preservatives -- ,,cooling ,,room -- ,,stuffing -- ,,hanging ,,room -- ,,smoke ,,house -- ,,dry ,,room ,,treatment -- ,,dry ,,room ,,caution -- ,,shipping ,,ages -- ,,storage -- ,,preparation ,,of ,,casings -- ,,trimming ,,meats -- ,,formulas ,,for ,,sausage4 ,summer ,sausage4--,under the head of 8,summer ,sausage0 we take up an entirely different article1 a sausage that is dried and smoked 7not cooked71 during which time the ingredients used for seasoning effect a cure4 ,this sausage will keep for months if properly handled4 ,it is necessary1 however1 that every detail be very carefully watched1 as a slight omission or error in its manufacture causes immense losses at times4 ,as this is strictly an air dried sausage1 weather conditions have a great deal to do with its successful manufacture1 and it is necessary to have special facilities in the way of coolers1 smoke houses and dry rooms1 the proper arrangement of which is somewhat expensive4 ,air conditioning and fan circulation can be used4 ,it is impracticable for any manufacturer to attempt to make this article in large quantities unless he has proper facilities1 and it is the manufacturers who do make it in large quantities that are financially successful1 and are able to keep their cost of production to a minimum4 ,preservatives4--,previous to the enactment of the ,pure ,food ,laws the liberal use of preservatives made the handling of summer sausage1 while always requiring care1 a matter of not so great consequence as at present4 ,now1 the only preservative used is the agent saltpetre1 and such preservative help as is obtained from the spices which are used4 ,these conditions require the use of absolutely sweet materials4 ,cooling ,room4--,clean airy cooling rooms are necessary4 ,they should be provided with spreading shelves of sufficient area to allow the cut spiced meats to be spread from twelve to forty-eight hours so as to enable the spices1 saltpetre and salt to permeate the product before stuffing and to make the meat firm4 ,if the sausage is stuffed immediately after it is rocked1 it is liable to wrinkle in the smoke house1 which gives it an unsavory appearance4 ,temperature of room should be #cg ,f4 ,stuffing4--,the stuffing should be performed in a semi-cool room1 using mechanical or hand operated stuffers at a moderate pressure4 ,some manufacturers use steam or hydraulic equipment1 but these are usually arranged so that no moisture1 condensation or drip comes in contact with the meats4 ,the temperature of the room should be about #de ,f4 ,hanging ,room4--,a hanging room in which the temperature can be properly controlled should be available in which the sausage can be hung until the casings are sufficiently dried for smoking4 ,while the sausage should be dry1 it should not be allowed to become so dry that the casings are glossy or hard4 ,this is a very important matter as the sausage will not take the correct color if the smoke does not penetrate the casings1 or if they are allowed to become too dry4 ,this applies particularly to sausage stuffed in beef middles1 also to sausage stuffed in hog bungs1 though not to so great an extent4 ,in preparing the sausage for the smoking process1 by endeavoring to prevent the sausage from becoming too dry there is danger of their becoming slimy1 which is more detrimental than excessive dryness4 ,slimy sausage will not take the smoke and will sour quickly if not properly handled4 ,sausage in both beef casings and hog casings should be dried before smoking1 so that the outside will feel about dry to the touch4 ,in order to obtain this result it is necessary to have plenty of hanging room so that the proper temperature and ventilation is available for the entire lot of sausage which is being prepared for smoke4 ,if the sausage is too closely hung it should be moved about from the center to the sides of the room occasionally so that all the sausage receives the same ventilation4 ,the manufacturer should have sufficient space to allow the sausage to hang after it is stuffed and before it is smoked1 for from two to three days1 and sometimes longer4 ,in the winter season1 which is the proper time for manufacturing high grade summer sausage1 it is a good practice to allow it to hang as long as possible before smoking1 but it must be watched to prevent sliming or becoming too dry4 ,smoke ,houses4--,the smoke houses should be built of brick1 sheet iron houses which have been experimented with1 especially for summer sausage1 have proved to be complete failures4 ,the brick not only protect the house from the varying outside temperatures1 but retain the heat1 which is desirable and necessary in the successful smoking of this kind of sausage4 ,smoke houses are preferably equipped with rails and trolleys4 ,the houses are usually built like ham houses1 viz3 #ab #ab feet1 or some size convenient to the trolleys to be used4 ,the distance from the fire should be in any case1 whether the track system or the ordinary smoke house with the beam system is used1 twelve feet1 and in some cases1 such as in smoking summer sausage in bladders1 or ,braunschweiger in hog casings1 the distance from the fire should be twenty feet or more4 ,this1 however1 will be explained in the formulas for making the different kinds of sausage4 ,the main point to be considered in the construction of a smoke house for summer sausage is to have it so arranged that the heat can be regulated to different temperatures1 also the amount of smoking1 as each kind of sausage requires a different temperature4 ,the ventilation of the smoke house should be perfect and absolutely controllable1 as the weather conditions have a great deal to do with the successful smoking of sausage and the houses should be arranged so that they can be kept at a uniform temperature and humidity during any kind of weather4 ,as in the case of domestic sausage1 no smoke house should be used for summer sausage unless the temperature can be maintained uniform and the walls in proper condition4 ,since1 summer sausage is not cooked before it goes to smoke1 a cold or damp smoke house will 8ring0 the sausage even quicker than a cold smoke house will 8ring0 ,bologna1 therefore extreme caution should be used in this particular4 ,hardwood and hardwood sawdust are used exclusively in smoking summer sausage1 and both wood and sawdust should be absolutely dry when the fire is started4 ,in some cases1 however1 after the sausage is very nearly smoked1 it is advisable to use a little damp sawdust before completing the operation4 ,dry ,room ,treatment4--,after the smoking process is completed the sausage is taken to the drying rooms where the temperature can be kept at all times between #df and #ec ,f41 the proper temperature being #dh ,f41 if it can be maintained4 ,the dry room must be fitted with steam pipes running underneath the sausage and around the sides of the room and underneath the windows in order to supply the necessary heat4 ,the room must be supplied with ample windows for light and ventilation and should be very high so as to permit the required overhead ventilation4 ,at all times the windows must be kept open a little to allow fresh air to enter no matter how cold the outside temperature4 ,if the weather is damp the windows nearest the top or the top ventilator of the room should be opened a little4 ,sausage is not usually hung adjacent to the windows4 ,steam should always be turned on in damp weather to dry the air1 providing the weather is not too warm and the temperature in the room can be kept as low as #ec ,f4 ,the room should be arranged in sections1 so that there may be an empty section between each lot of new sausage4 ,as the sausage becomes drier it can be hung more closely4 ,the sausage1 should not dry too quickly as too much air will dry it near the casing1 which will cause the sausage to stick to it and become dry4 ,in that case the inside will not dry uniformly and the sausage will wrinkle and in some instances become sour4 ,the different kinds of sausage require different places in the dry room4 ,some require an abundance of air and others1 like 8,holsteiner0 and 8farmer0 sausage1 if properly smoked1 can be hung where it would not be policy to hang summer sausage in hog bungs4 ,as both of these sausages are coarse chopped1 they can be handled with much less fear of being spoiled than the finer chopped sausage4 ,however1 with every description of dry sausage1 constant attention must be given or poor results will follow4 ,summer sausage in hog bungs can be subjected to more draft or air than summer sausage in beef casings4 ,consequently beef casings are generally hung near the center of the room where they receive plenty of air1 but no drafts4 ,this is a place where the human element comes greatly into play4 ,dry ,room ,caution4--,do not hang green and dry sausage in the same room4 ,it is advisable to keep dry rooms for smoked sausage as free from mold as possible4 ,while a slight mold does not hurt summer sausage 7in fact some summer sausage requires this before it is ready for shipment71 it will be found that smoked sausage drys better and quicker in a room that can be kept free of mold4 ,sausage that molds too much before it is dry necessarily has to be washed4 ,this process does not hurt the sausage1 and in some cases washing does it good1 especially if by neglect or otherwise it has become greasy in the smoke house4 ,sausage will not dry as rapidly if greasy and the process of washing it quickens the drying4 ,in washing sausage warm water1 not hot1 should be used4 ,a little sal soda in the water is desirable4 ,shipping ,ages4--,summer sausage in both hog bungs and beef casings if properly handled can be shipped1 in three stages of dryness1 as follows3 ,new1 twenty to twenty-five days old2 medium dry1 forty to forty-five days old2 dry1 sixty to seventy-five days old4 ,in cheaper grades of summer sausage1 many kinds of which are manufactured1 can be shipped in much less time than indicated above4 ,in fact1 there is sausage made which can be shipped almost immediately from the smoke house4 ,this sausage is allowed to stand for some time after chopping and before stuffing1 previous to being put in the smoke house4 ,it is then smoked very hard1 or with more heat than the better grades of this sausage4 ,some manufacturers use more heat than smoke1 but it does not produce a first-class article4 ,storage4--,summer sausage when thoroughly dried should be stored in a cooler at a temperature of #ce ,f4 ,it can be so handled if boxed1 but it is preferable that it hang from racks1 closely1 since it will require an inspection upon shipping4 ,preparation of ,casings4--,in preparing casings for summer sausage of all kinds it is necessary1 in order to insure good results1 that casings be prepared1 certainly hog bungs1 at least thirty days or even several months before they are used4 ,there are always many fat bungs in hog casings and in preparing them and putting them down in salt brine for thirty days or longer1 the fat on the casings becomes dry and there is less danger of the sausage becoming sour4 ,summer sausage will become sour as quickly from using fat hog bungs as from any other cause1 therefore these must be thoroughly fatted before they leave the preparing rooms4 ,they are generally in good condition in this respect when received1 and therefore do not require as much time in the curing or preparing as do hog bungs4 ,fat beef middles or beef rounds spoil the appearance of the goods4 ,trimming ,meats4--,the selection and the trimming of meats for summer sausage is a matter of great consequence4 ,sinews1 muscle cover and tough binding elements should be removed so as to avoid the sausage being tough in the eating4 ,all knives and cutting tools should be sharp4 ,formulas4--,under the formulas given below are descriptions of the methods of manufacture in detail rather than generalizing4 ,where the term 8rocking0 is used it describes cutting with a rocker cutter4 ,the description for making ,cervelat should be carefully noted1 as the methods are utilized with slight changes in making other kinds4 ,cervelat ,style ,sausage4--,a very satisfactory formula for this sausage is as follows3 ,,formula ,a4 #dj pounds beef chucks1 very lean and entirely free from all sinews1 #ij pounds work trimmings1 trimmed in same manner1 #bj pounds shoulder fat1 cut into strips about #b inches square and cut into shavings as fine as it is possible to get them1 #e pounds1 #ab ounces salt1 #b ounces whole white pepper1 #f ounces saltpetre4 ,the beef is first ground through a -inch plate1 after which it is placed on the rocker together with the fat and seasoning and rocked for about five minutes4 ,then the pork trimmings are added1 the whole being rocked for from twenty-five to thirty minutes4 ,the pepper is spread through the meat during the rocking process1 and about five minutes before rocking finished4 ,the sausage is taken to a cooler where the temperature is not lower than #ch ,f41 nor higher than #dj ,f4 ,it is spread upon shelving about ten or twelve inches thick1 where it is allowed to remain three days1 after which it is stuffed by hand machines into hog bungs or beef middles as required4 ,the sausage is taken to the hanging room to hang for two or three days according to the weather1 at a temperature of from #dh to #ej ,f4 ,if the weather is damp care must be taken to prevent the sausage from sliming and it is sometimes necessary to keep the temperature up to #ee ,f4 in order to keep the room free from dampness4 ,if the sausage begins to slime there is danger of its becoming sour or hollow in the center4 ,it is advisable1 if it is impossible otherwise to keep the sausage from sliming1 to put it into smoke as soon as the slime is detected1 which stops it4 ,when the sausage is ready for smoke1 under favorable circumstances1 from two to three days after it is stuffed it should be hung in a smoke house where the temperature is as near #dh ,f4 and gradually heated until the temperature reaches #gj ,f4 ,it must be kept at this point throughout the entire process of smoking1 or for about twenty-four hours for beef middles and forty-eight hours for hog bungs4 ,in starting a fire in the smoke house as little wood should be used as possible1 say1 one stick of ash cord wood1 just enough fire to keep the sawdust smoking without blazing4 ,keep adding sawdust until there is sufficient fire to scatter it over the entire bottom of the smoke house1 keeping the sawdust ignited only from the coals of the wood with which the fire was started and which generally lasts through the entire process of smoking4 ,if the smoke houses are naturally cold it may be necessary to keep more fire than mentioned in order to keep the temperature up to #gj ,f4 ,the smoking of this sausage requires all possible care4 ,if the temperature is allowed to rise too high for any length of time1 it will sour4 ,if the fire is too low and smoke too dense there will be a smoke ring1 especially so if the sausage is not properly dried before smoking4 ,it is advisable that the sausage should not be exposed to too sudden or severe a change in temperature upon removing from the smoke house4 ,if it is some distance from the smoke house to the dry room1 cover the sausage on the trucks with a tarpaulin1 cover so that the cold air cannot strike it4 ,it is a good idea not to hang the sausage up on the racks immediately1 but to place it on the bottom rack1 close together1 so that it may cool gradually4 ,the following are additional formulas for the making of cervelat sausage3 ,,formula ,b4 #de pounds beef chucks1 #hb pounds lean pork trimmings1 #bc pounds shoulder fat1 #e pounds1 #ab ounces salt1 #b ounces whole white pepper1 #f ounces saltpetre4 ,,formula ,c4 #cj pounds pork cheek meat1 #cj pounds beef trimmings1 #ij pounds pork trimmings1 #e pounds1 #ab ounces salt1 #b ounces whole white pepper1 #f ounces saltpetre4 ,,formula ,d4 #dj pounds pork cheek meat1 #cj pounds beef trimmings1 #ej pounds lean pork trimmings1 #bj pounds shoulder fat1 #aj pounds pickled pork trimmings1 #e pounds1 #ab ounces salt1 #b ounces whole white pepper1 #f ounces saltpetre4 ,trim beef chucks very lean1 free from sinews4 ,pork trimmings must be lean except in ,formula ,c1 where fat pork trimmings are used4 ,shoulder fat should be handled the same as in ,formula ,a4 ,pickled pork trimmings are ground through an ,enterprise -inch plate4 ,beef chucks and trimmings are ground through an ,enterprise -inch plate4 ,pork trimmings and cheeks are chopped on a rocker2 otherwise handled same as ,formula ,a4 ,if neck fat is used it is cut into small pieces but not shaved4 ,if fat from ,boston butts is used it is run through an ,enterprise -inch plate4 ,this fat1 of course1 has more or less lean in it but might be called very fat trimmings4 ,pork hearts1 beef cheek and shank meat are all ground through an ,enterprise -inch plate4 ,beef and fat are always put on the block with the seasoning first4 ,pork trimmings and cheeks are added five or ten minutes after rocking2 otherwise handled same as ,formulas ,a1 ,b1 ,c and ,d4 ,,formula ,e4 #dj pounds shank meat1 #cj pounds pork cheek meat1 #aj pounds beef cheek meat1 #aj pounds pork hearts1 #bj pounds pork trimmings1 #dj pounds neck fat or fat trimmed from ,boston butts1 #e pounds1 #ab ounces salt1 #b ounces whole white pepper1 #f ounces saltpetre4 ,farmers ,style ,sausage4--,the following formulas are for ,farmers ,sausage3 ,,formula ,a4 #ej pounds shank meat1 #aj pounds beef cheek meat1 #cj pounds pork trimmings1 #cj pounds pork cheek meat1 #aj pounds pickled pork trimmings1 #bj pounds shoulder fat1 #e pounds1 #ab ounces salt1 #b ounces whole white pepper1 #f ounces saltpetre4 ,shank meat1 beef cheek and pork cheek meat are ground through an ,enterprise -inch plate2 shank fat is cut into small pieces but not shaved4 ,ground material and shank fat should be put on the block first with the seasoning and chopped five or ten minutes1 when the pork trimmings are added1 the whole being chopped fifteen or twenty minutes4 ,as this meat is coarse1 it should1 after chopping be mixed in a mixer four minutes and be thoroughly mixed by hand1 after which it is taken to the cooler and handled the same as cervelat4 ,it is stuffed in beef middles cut #aa inches in length1 and allowed to hang in the dry room1 same as cervelat for the same length of time1 before smoking4 ,the same precautions should be taken with this as with cervelat1 relative to slime1 etc4 ,it is smoked from six to eight hours at a temperature of from #fe to #gj ,f4 ,it must be handled very carefully in smoke as too much heat will wrinkle it4 ,a great deal of farmer sausage is allowed to dry naturally without smoking1 especially in the winter months1 and where there is plenty of room and a proper place4 ,however1 in damp weather and in the summer months it is always advisable to smoke it4 ,this sausage can be made throughout the summer months1 provided there are proper dry rooms1 which can be regulated and kept moderately cool4 ,some manufacturers use dry cooler space in the summer time1 kept at a temperature of #df to #dh ,f41 but the best results are obtained by drying in a room where the sausage can have the benefit of the outside air4 ,this sausage1 if handled properly according to the directions1 will be ready for shipment in twenty-five days2 it should then be in a medium dry state4 ,,formula ,b4 #hj pounds medium fat pork trimmings1 #bj pounds pork cheek meat1 #ej pounds beef trimmings or shank meat1 #e pounds1 #ab ounces salt1 #b ounces whole white pepper1 #f ounces saltpetre4 ,beef and pork cheek meat ground through an ,enterprise -inch plate4 ,put ground material with seasoning on block first and chop five or ten minutes1 then add pork trimmings and chop fifteen or twenty minutes4 ,stuff and handle same as ,formula ,a4 ,,formula ,c4 #dj pounds beef trimmings or shank meat1 #aj pounds pickled beef trimmings1 #ajj pounds pork trimmings1 #e pounds1 #ab ounces salt1 #b ounces whole white pepper1 #f ounces saltpetre4 ,the beef trimmings or shank meat should be ground through an ,enterprise -inch plate4 ,put ground material with seasoning on block first and chop five or ten minutes2 then add pork trimmings and chop fifteen or twenty minutes4 ,stuff in beef middles2 otherwise handle same as ,formula ,a4 ,holstein ,style ,sausage4--,this sausage is farmer sausage and is handled the same except that it is stuffed in beef rounds4 ,the same care is necessary as with the farmer from the time it leaves the block until ready for shipment1 which should be in about twenty-five days4 ,swedish ,style ,medwurst4--,the following formula is for ,swedish ,medwurst or ,gottberg sausage3 ,,formula4 #cj pounds pickled beef trimmings1 #cj pounds fresh beef trimmings1 #ij pounds medium fat pork trimmings1 #a pound rice flour or corn flour1 #e pounds salt1 #b ounces coriander1 #c ounces white pepper1 #f ounces saltpetre4 ,beef trimmings are ground through an ,enterprise th-inch plate4 ,ground beef and seasoning are put on block first and chopped five or ten minutes when pork trimmings are added1 the whole being chopped twenty to twenty-five minutes4 ,this sausage is stuffed in beef middles #ad inches in length1 and handled in other respects same as ,cervelat in beef middles4 ,the old fashioned way of handling ,swedish medwurst was to pickle the sausage1 after it was stuffed1 in a vat of #ej degree strength pickle1 for ten hours1 when it was taken out of the vats1 hung up and allowed to dry for twenty-four hours1 then smoked the same as cervelat in beef middles4 ,if this process is used1 four and one-half pounds of salt to #aej pounds of meat is all that is necessary4 ,however1 good results can be obtained without pickling the sausage1 and it is not generally done by manufacturers of this article4 ,braunschweiger ,style ,sausage4--,this sausage is made according to the following formula3 ,,formula4 #ej pounds selected back fat trimmings1 #de pounds selected ham trimmings1 #be pounds selected shoulder trimmings1 #bj pounds beef chucks trimmed extra lean and free from sinews1 #aj pounds shoulder fat1 #e pounds salt1 #b ounces white pepper 7ground71 #a ounce whole white pepper1 #f ounces saltpetre4 ,beef chucks are ground through a th-inch plate4 ,shoulder fat is cut into strips about two inches square1 and cut into shavings1 as fine as it is possible to cut them4 ,ground beef1 shoulder fat and seasoning are put on the block and rocked ten minutes when ham and shoulder trimmings are added1 the back fat trimmings being the last to go on the block4 ,the whole is rocked twenty to thirty-five minutes4 ,this is not a fine chopped sausage1 however1 and is not as coarse as farmer sausage but a great deal coarser than regular cervelat4 ,it should be stuffed into short1 lean1 thick hog bungs about fourteen inches in length1 and handled in every respect1 from the block to the smoke house1 same as cervelat in hog bungs4 ,as this is a very fat sausage greater care needs to be taken in smoking than with any other summer sausage made1 and it should be hung near the top of the smoke house as far away from the fire as possible4 ,for this reason it is important that the sausage should be properly dried after stuffing before smoking4 ,smoke at a temperature as near #fe ,f4 as possible for thirty-six to forty-eight hours4 ,d',arles ,style ,sausage4--,this sausage is made as follows3 ,,formula4 #cj pounds extra lean beef chucks trimmed absolutely free from sinews1 #gj pounds fresh lean especially trimmed pork shoulder trimmings free from sinews1 #cj pounds selected back fat pork trimmings1 #bj pounds shoulder fat1 #e pounds salt1 #b ounces white pepper 7ground71 #a ounce whole pepper1 #c ounces saltpetre4 ,in order to use the following additional seasoning it is advisable to chop at least six blocks of sausage1 #aej pounds each1 and mix in a large truck as this seasoning is to be added immediately after the meat has been chopped4 ,for #ijj pounds1 use3 -pound package pure white gelatine1 #b quarts strong imported ,french red wine1 #a whole nutmeg1 #a ounces whole cloves1 ounce stick cinnamon4 ,put the gelatine1 nutmeg1 cloves and cinnamon in a thin bag and cook with the wine for ten or fifteen minutes1 just below boiling point4 ,strain the wine through a cloth to remove all particles of spice4 ,when moderately cool mix in the meat thoroughly by hand2 at the same time mix in the shoulder fat1 which is cut into shape of small dice chopped on the rocker2 the beef ground through an ,enterprise th-inch plate2 after which the mixture is placed on the rocker with the dry seasoning and rocked for seven to ten minutes1 when the pork trimmings are added and the whole chopped eighteen to twenty-two minutes1 providing the speed of the rocker is from fifty-two to fifty-four strokes per minute4 ,this is a coarse sausage but not as coarse as ,farmer4 ,take to the cooler to remain from twelve to twenty-four hours4 ,it is then stuffed by hand into ,no4 #a selected hog bungs entirely free from fat4 ,hang in dry room where the temperature is about #ej ,f4 where it is entirely separate from other sausage and where there is plenty of air but no currents4 ,after it has hung for thirty-six to forty-eight hours1 if firm and the casing moderately dry1 wrap the casings with ,no4 #d flax twine commencing at the small end1 making a hitch with the twine every two inches the whole length of the sausage to the top or the bung end2 then hitch back every inch on the off side and back and forth again until two more hitches are made so that the strings will be about one-half inch apart when the last hitch is complete4 ,care must be taken to wrap the sausage tightly so that the strings will not fall off in the process of drying4 ,after the sausage has been wound with string it should be taken to the dry room and dried very slowly without becoming moldy too soon4 ,if hung in a room with other sausage1 this article should be hung between so that it will not get too much air or dry too quickly4 ,it should be moved frequently1 from the bottom to the top1 and from the middle to the front and back of the section4 ,this is one of the most difficult of summer sausages to make and but few manufacturers are successful in making them4 ,therefore the above instructions should be followed closely to obtain satisfactory results4 ,do not smoke4 ,italian ,style ,salami4--,practically the same formula is used for ,italian salami sausage as for ,d',arles sausage1 except that usually not as high grade trimmings either beef or pork1 are required4 ,however1 it is advisable for a high grade ,italian salami that the same grade of trimmings be used and the same care is taken in preparing them4 ,identically the same seasoning is used and also the same procedure is followed in every respect in regard to the chopping and handling of the meat4 ,smaller or less expensive hog bungs are used4 ,they are medium primes and the sausage is usually shorter in length4 ,this is a matter of preference as this sausage is made in lengths of from twelve to twenty-two inches4 ,handling after stuffing1 to the wrapping process1 is the same as that for ,d',arles sausage4 ,wrapping1 however1 is much simpler and usually the same grade of twine is used1 but instead of wrapping the twine both ways1 it is simply wound around tightly after three or four strings have been run from the top to the bottom of the sausage4 ,this sausage is not smoked and is tied the same as ,d',arles1 the same care being taken in every respect as regards temperatures1 etc4 ,milanese ,style ,salami ,sausage4--,the formula for this sausage is as follows3 ,,formula4 #ej pounds fresh lean specially trimmed pork shoulder1 trimming free from sinews1 #fj pounds fresh ,boston butt trimmings1 #bj pounds extra lean beef chucks1 trimmed absolutely free from sinews1 #bj pounds shoulder fat1 #e pounds salt1 #b ounces white pepper1 #a ounces saltpetre1 #a ounce whole pepper4 ,chop at least six blocks 7#ijj pounds7 of this sausage and mix at one time by hand in a large truck constructed for the purpose1 in order to add the following additional seasoning4 ,for the six blocks use3 #c quarts strong imported ,french red wine1 -pound package pure white gelatine1 #d nutmegs1 ounce whole cloves1 #a ounce stick cinnamon4 ,prepare same as similar formula for ,d',arles sausage and mix with the meat after it has been rocked by hand thoroughly4 ,the beef is ground through an ,enterprise th-inch plate4 ,shoulder fat is cut into small thin pieces but not in the shape of dice4 ,rock the beef and the shoulder fat together with the dry seasoning for seven to ten minutes1 then add the pork trimmings1 the whole being chopped twenty to twenty-five minutes4 ,this sausage is not as coarse as ,d',arles or ,italian salami4 ,after the meat and wet seasoning have been mixed thoroughly put in cooler twelve to twenty-four hours4 ,then stuff by hand into hog middle guts1 as large as can be obtained4 ,the way to stuff them successfully is to arrange a board to hold the casings after they are stuffed so that it will be just high enough from the filler to permit the casings to be filled and not handled other than to hold them with sufficient pressure to stuff as tightly as possible without breakage4 ,if the middles break1 which they do in many cases1 patch them with a piece of hog middle when they are being wound with string4 ,they should be lifted with care from the stuffing board1 placed upon a truck and wrapped immediately with ,no4 #d flax twine1 the same as ,d',arles sausage1 the string running equidistant around the sausage from either end and being wound around it so as to form squares4 ,as the casings are so very tender1 it requires great care in wrapping and the sausage is usually not of uniform appearance4 ,greater care must be used in tying this sausage than ,d',arles1 salami or any other sausage known4 ,the casings are so thin that the meat will become dry and hard on the outside or near the casings while the inside will remain moist1 therefore too much exposure is not desirable4 ,they should be watched closely after stringing1 because1 not being allowed to dry before they are strung1 the handling which they get will naturally make them slime very easily4 ,it takes at least sixty days to dry this sausage properly with the best conditions4 ,not smoked4 ,german ,style ,salami4--,this sausage may be made according to the following formula3 ,,formula4 #dj pounds beef chucks or beef shank meat1 #aaj pounds regular pork trimmings1 #e pounds salt1 #e ounces white pepper1 #a ounces garlic1 #f ounces saltpetre4 ,beef is ground through an ,enterprise th-inch plate1 rocked with the seasoning five to ten minutes1 when the pork trimmings are added and the whole chopped fifteen to twenty minutes4 ,this is a coarse sausage1 about the same as 8,farmers0 sausage4 ,it is well to mix the meat thoroughly by hand after it has been rocked1 or to mix it carefully with a mixer4 ,a 8,stallman0 mixer is better than a 8,zimmerman0 for farmer sausage and coarse chopped summer sausage4 ,however1 the teeth in a 8,zimmerman0 mixer can be reversed so that it will not tear the meat1 as it otherwise does4 ,after the meat has been chopped it is removed to a cooler for the same period as farmer sausage before stuffing4 ,it is stuffed in either beef middles or hog bungs4 ,after stuffing1 the sausage is handled the same as ,italian salami1 except that it is wrapped with hitches same as ,d',arles sausage1 there being only about one-half the number4 ,this sausage can be very lightly smoked1 but it is preferable to dry it the same as ,d',arles and ,italian sausage4 ,if stuffed in beef middles it should be handled the same as farmer except that it is wrapped with string about the same number of hitches as salami in hog bungs4 ,the majority of manufacturers smoke ,italian salami in beef casings a very little1 usually about twelve hours with as little smoke as possible4 ,this is done to prevent sliming1 as it is difficult to air-dry beef-middle sausage without the very best conveniences1 or dry rooms where it can be hung apart from other sausage4 ,hungarian ,style ,salami4--,the formula for this sausage is as follows3 ,,formula4 #ij pounds lean pork trimmings1 #ce pounds beef chucks trimmed free from sinews1 #be pounds shoulder fat1 #e pounds salt1 #a ounces white pepper1 #a ounce garlic1 #e ounces saltpetre4 ,the beef chucks are ground through an ,enterprise th-inch plate4 ,the shoulder fat is shaved into thin pieces and both the beef and the fat1 with the seasoning1 are rocked seven to ten minutes1 when the pork trimmings are added1 and the whole is rocked from eighteen to twenty-two minutes4 ,this is a moderately coarse sausage1 about the same as ,milanese salami4 ,after the meat is rocked it is handled in the cooler the same as other summer sausage and stuffed into extra large beef middle ends1 which are1 when stuffed1 twenty-two to twenty-six inches long and weigh from twelve to twenty pounds each4 ,great care must be taken in stuffing this sausage to stuff it tightly and two or three lengths of string should be run from the large to the small end and vice versa1 so as to prevent it from breaking1 also to keep it straight1 and it should be hung1 of course1 the small end down4 ,this sausage is allowed to hang1 before being put in the smoke house1 three or four days in a dry atmosphere1 and then smoked over a cold smoke at a temperature the same as for cervelat in beef middles1 for from fifty-five to sixty hours4 ,handle after smoking the same as cervelat in beef casings4 ,it usually takes1 under favorable circumstances1 sixty to seventy days before the sausage is ready for shipment4 ,this sausage is used extensively in ,germany and ,austria and there is some of it used in ,pennsylvania4 ,there is not a very general demand for it in the ,united ,states4 ,thuringer ,style ,salami4--,formula for this sausage is as follows3 ,,formula4 #cj pounds extra lean beef chucks1 trimmed free from sinews1 #ij pounds fresh pork blade or shoulder meat1 trimmed free from sinews1 #cj pounds shoulder fat1 #e pounds salt1 #a ounce garlic1 #c ounces white pepper1 #f ounces saltpetre4 ,beef is ground through an ,enterprise th-inch plate and rocked with the fat and seasoning1 the fat having been cut into small pieces and shaved4 ,rock from seven to ten minutes1 when the pork trimmings are added and the whole is chopped eighteen to twenty-two minutes4 ,this sausage is rocked about as coarse as ,milanese salami4 ,after it is rocked it is handled in the cooler the same as other summer sausage and stuffed in large calf bladders which have been soaked a short time before stuffing so that they will be pliable4 ,care must be taken in stuffing this sausage to fill the bladders as full as possible4 ,use a skewer1 also a string hanger4 ,allow it to hang two or three days before smoking1 in a moderately cool temperature 7#ej to #ee ,f471 where there is no draft1 and smoke over a cold smoke for forty-eight hours1 the same as ,braunschweiger1 and ,gothair1 the sausage being hung near the top of the smoke house4 ,do not smoke at the same time with any other sausage4 ,unless care is taken in smoking1 the bladders will come out wrinkled1 which spoils the appearance and consequently the sale of the sausage4 ,hang in the dry room with beef middle cervelat and handle in every respect the same4 ,this sausage is usually ready for shipment in forty to fifty days4 ,mortadella ,style ,sausage4--,this sausage is made by the following formula3 ,,formula4 #ace pounds absolutely fresh lean trimmings1 #ae pounds fresh lean beef chucks1 #aj pounds shoulder fat1 #e pounds salt1 #a ounces saltpetre1 #b ounces white pepper4 ,additional wet seasoning is used for this sausage1 therefore it is advisable to chop it six blocks at a time and mix by hand in a large truck the seasoning must be added immediately after the meat has been chopped4 ,for six blocks use3 #c quarts strong imported ,french red wine1 -pound package pure white gelatine1 #h nutmegs1 #a ounce whole cloves1 #c ounces stick cinnamon1 #d ounces bay leaves1 #b ounces split coriander4 ,prepare this seasoning same as ,d',arles sausage1 then mix the wet seasoning with the meat in a truck4 ,scatter through it twelve ounces of whole white pepper and two ounces of coriander4 ,the beef is ground through an ,enterprise th-inch plate and chopped on the block with the dry seasoning for seven to ten minutes1 when the pork trimmings are added and the whole chopped thirty to thirty-five minutes4 ,this is a very fine sausage4 ,after the meat has been chopped mix the shoulder fat1 which is cut into the shape of small dice 7same as for ,d',arles sausage71 with the meat and mix in the wet seasoning at the same time4 ,remove to a cooler and allow it to stand from twelve to twenty-four hours1 then stuff into medium-sized beef bladders which must be soaked in lukewarm water a few moments before they are stuffed1 in order to make them pliable1 and care must be taken to stuff them as tightly as possible4 ,skewer1 as well as tie them1 and also wrap immediately with heavy coarse flax twine1 making about two wraps the long way to the bladder and one wrap around the center1 the twine terminating in a hanger4 ,this sausage must not be hung by tied end or by the same string that the bladder is tied with1 for in such case they will fall in the smoke house1 or when drying4 ,hang for twelve hours after stuffing in a hot smoke house with more heat than smoke at a temperature of about #ij ,f42 then cook in clear water for four hours at a temperature of #aej ,f42 wash off thoroughly with boiling water when taken from the cooking vat and hang them up in a moderately cool place or dry room where the temperature is about #dh to #ej ,f4 ,they will be ready to ship in four or five days4 ,this sausage can be smoked sufficiently heavy1 so that cooking is unnecessary if proper facilities are available in smoke house4 ,the house should be arranged with steam coils so that a temperature as high as #aej ,f4 can be obtained during the process of smoking4 ,this really is the most satisfactory way of handling this sausage4 ,lyon ,style ,sausage4--,for this sausage the following formula is used3 ,,formula4 #abj pounds extra lean selected pork trimmings1 pork blade meat being preferred1 trimmed free from sinews1 #bj pounds extra lean beef chucks1 trimmed free from sinews1 #aj pounds shoulder fat1 #e pounds salt1 #b ounces white pepper1 #a ounce whole pepper1 #a ounces saltpetre4 ,it is necessary to use an additional wet seasoning for this sausage2 at least six blocks should be chopped so as to mix properly and the seasoning must be added immediately after chopping4 ,for six blocks ,lyon sausage use the same formula for wet seasoning as for ,milanese salami1 and prepare in the same way4 ,grind the beef through a th-inch plate and chop first on the block with the dry seasoning for seven to ten minutes when pork trimmings are added and the whole chopped thirty to thirty-five minutes4 ,this is a very fine chopped sausage4 ,after the beef and pork have been rocked the wet seasoning and shoulder fat1 which has been previously cut into the shape of small dice1 are mixed with it thoroughly by hand4 ,the meat is then taken to a cooler for the same period as ,d',arles or ,milanese salami1 when it is stuffed by a hand stuffer into ,no4 #a hog bungs free from fat1 and hung in a dry room where the temperature is about #ej ,f41 and where it can be kept entirely separate from other sausage1 with plenty of air and no draft4 ,after it has hung for thirty-six to forty-eight hours and the casings are moderately dry1 wrap the sausage with ,no4 #d flax twine1 both lengthwise and around so as to form a mesh about -inch square4 ,it is handled the same as ,d',arles or ,milanese salami4 ,gothair ,style ,sausage4--,this sausage is made according to the following formula3 ,,formula4 #bj pounds extra lean beef chucks free from sinews1 #aaj pounds extra lean pork trimmings free from sinews1 #bj pounds pork shoulder fat1 #e pounds salt1 #c ounces white pepper1 #f ounces saltpetre4 ,the beef is ground through an ,enterprise th-inch plate and together with the shoulder fat1 which has been shaved as thin as possible and cut into the shape of small dice1 is mixed in mixer with the seasoning for from seven to ten minutes1 when the pork trimmings are added and the whole chopped for thirty to thirty-five minutes1 after which it is taken to a cooler and handled the same as other summer sausage4 ,it is stuffed into short ,no4 #a lean hog bungs1 or bungs that are free from fat4 ,this sausage is handled in every respect the same as cervelat sausage1 except smoking4 ,it should be smoked lightly with the same temperature and same relative position in the smoke house as ,braunschweiger sausage and about the same length of time4 ,it is handled after smoking1 in the dry room1 same as ,braunschweiger4 ,lehigh ,valley ,style ,summer ,sausage4--,this sausage is made from lean bull chucks1 the meat being ground through an ,enterprise one-quarter inch plate1 then reground through an ,enterprise th-inch plate and rocked on a rocker for fifteen minutes4 ,the seasoning is mixed on the rocker and is as follows for #ajj pounds of meat3 ,,seasoning ,,formula4 pound fine salt1 #a ounces saltpetre1 #d ounces saltpetre1 #e ounces mace1 #a ounce ground cloves1 #b ounces allspice1 #d ounces black pepper1 #f ounces coriander1 #a ounce sugar4 ,after it is chopped it is put into a 8,zimmerman0 mixer and mixed for about five minutes4 ,it is then taken to a cooler and spread on tables made for the purpose1 about eight or ten inches thick1 and allowed to remain for about three days1 when it is stuffed into beef bungs1 sack pieces being preferable4 ,after it is allowed to stand in a temperature of #dh ,f4 until the casings become moderately dry1 it is hung in a smoke house and smoked for ten days or two weeks1 at a temperature of between #ej and #fj ,f4 ,great care should be taken in smoking this article1 as it requires but a light smoke4 ,after it is taken from the smoke house1 it is hung in a dry room1 where a temperature of #dh to #ej ,f4 can be maintained1 and where the sausage can be kept perfectly dry4 ,this sausage takes from two to three months to dry thoroughly1 and sometimes longer4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,butterine ,,ingredients -- ,,colors -- ,,equipment -- ,,rooms -- ,,arrangement -- ,,testing ,,milk -- ,,acidity -- ,,milk ,,in ,,butterine -- ,,reasons ,,for ,,culture -- ,,cream ,,ripeness -- ,,water ,,vs4 ,,brine -- ,,milk ,,not ,,pasteurized -- ,,preparatory ,,culture -- ,,starters -- ,,cultivating ,,the ,,milk -- ,,low ,,grade ,,butterine -- ,,graining -- ,,working ,,the ,,butterine -- ,,butterine ,,packing -- ,,high-,,grade ,,butterine -- ,,cleanliness -- ,,use ,,of ,,color -- ,,formulas -- ,,costs ,,of ,,butterine4 ,introductory4--,butterine is a product possessing value as food and places within the reach of the masses an article which is wholesome1 palatable and moderate in price4 ,national and state legislation has done much to curtail its sale since it was found to be a competitor of the dairyman and farmer4 ,the restrictions in force limit the volume of business1 but the consumption is increasing4 ,most of the oleo oil made is shipped to ,europe1 where it is used in the manufacture of butterine4 ,with the comparatively dense population of ,european countries they are unable to supply themselves with dairy butter4 ,while prejudice exists in many places against butterine1 it is wholesome1 as it is made in a cleanly manner1 for if it is not made with absolute cleanliness1 and if the ingredients are in the least tainted from any cause1 the whole mass is injured4 ,this is true to a greater extent than it is in the manufacture of pure butter1 and more marked in butterine4 ,considerable progress has been made in the manufacture of this article within the past few years1 and a more desirable product has been made since neutral lard has been used as an ingredient4 ,it is1 however1 necessary to use milk or cream or butter to give the goods the flavor1 and many manufacturers use a percentage of the highest quality creamery butter4 ,ingredients4--,the ingredients of butterine are butter1 milk1 cream1 oleo oil1 neutral lard1 cottonseed oil1 peanut oil1 and palm oil4 ,the latter two being comparatively new compounds4 ,these1 together with salt make the butterine of commerce4 ,the manufacture of oleo oil1 neutral lard1 and a description of cotton seed oil is described in previous chapters1 although the cottonseed oil used is usually bought ready prepared and known to the trade as 8,butter0 oil1 peanut oil and palm oil are standard articles of commerce of varying qualities1 and are usually bought on sample4 ,colors4--,there are three standard qualities of color in butterine4 ,white goods1 tested goods1 and colored goods1 in which an artificial color is used1 with due acknowledgement and the payment of ten cents per pound tax4 ,the production of butterine is closely supervised by the ,federal ,government of the ,united ,states1 with scrupulous care and exactness1 particularly as to any attempt to produce a color resembling that of butter4 ,at least ten per cent of the quantity of any given ingredient must be used as a constituent or component part4 ,there are1 for instance1 many vegetable oils1 that would be considered edible but of high color1 the introduction of a relatively small amount of which would help to produce the yellow color of butter4 ,objection is not made to their uses1 but ten per cent of the quantity must be used in the formulas1 and this quantity is usually prohibited for the reason that the pungency or some peculiarity of the foreign oil makes it undesirable in butterine4 ,the manufacturer must closely watch his purchases of product to see they are not artificially colored since the introduction of any coloring substance in cottonseed or peanut oil1 for example1 would react upon the manufacturer of the butterine4 ,it is best not to attempt any innovations in making butterine without consulting the ,federal authorities so as to be sure you are within the law4 ,equipment4--,the equipment required in the manufacture of butterine is a comparatively simple outfit1 consisting of the following items enumerated in the order of their use in the making of the product4 ,storage tanks for cottonseed oil received in carload lots4 ,storage tanks within the building for containing oils for immediate use4 ,oleo oil melting kettles for reducing oleo oil to a fluid state4 8,starter0 cans in which the milk culture is kept and developed ready for use in the cream ripener4 8,ripeners0 for milk and cream for pasteurizing and propagating culture in milk preparatory for churning4 8,emulsion0 churns in which the various ingredients are mixed4 ,flume type crystalizers4 ,tempering trucks4 ,butter ,workers4 ,packing tables where prints and tubs are packed4 ,print trucks for setting prints after making4 ,rooms4--,the factory is necessarily divided into several rooms1 notably3 7a7 ,one in which the milk receiving1 testing1 weighing1 pasteurizing and ripening is performed4 7b7 ,one in which--temperature #gj ,f4--the oil and melting facilities are arranged4 7c7 ,the tempering room in which the butterine is tempered after crystalizing4 ,the temperature #eh to #fj ,f4 7d7 ,the packing room where prints are made4 ,temperatures #dj to #de ,f4 7e7 ,the storage cooler where prints are set up before boxing and after boxed4 ,temperatures #cd ,f4 ,arrangement4--,in the usual arrangement butterine factories are designed so that the work begins on an upper floor and terminates on a shipping floor4 ,the extent of the factory and the space allotted to each operation depending upon the volume of business4 ,usually decks are introduced upon which part of the work is performed4 ,local pumps1 readily cleansed1 are used for transfer of materials via pipes1 and these are arranged with flow toward outlet so as to admit of perfect drainage4 ,testing the ,milk4--,consider the methods of receiving the milk1 and also making proper tests to determine its value and the amount of fat it contains4 ,it is very essential this be done carefully and intelligently1 as the result of the test determines the value of the product purchased4 ,milk and cream are frequently paid for on the butter fat percentage4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afb4--;,,emulsion ,,churn4 ,the test generally accepted is obtained by using ,babcock's 8,acme0 steam turbine test machine4 ,this machine is made to accommodate twenty-four bottles4 ,the machine should be set up well1 secured and balanced perfectly for each test4 ,this is accomplished by placing bottles exactly opposite each other4 ,should a test be desired on only one sample of milk1 fill a bottle with water and place in machine opposite sample4 ,the machine in motion makes #c1jjj revolutions per minute4 ,it will1 therefore1 be seen that equilibrium is necessary4 ,test bottles are arranged so they will contain the amount of milk or cream and acid needed4 ,a #ag4f cc4 pipette is used for measuring the milk or cream and a #ag4f cc4 graduated tube for the acid4 ,first pour #ag4f cc4 milk in bottle1 then pour in #ag4f cc4 commercial grade sulphuric acid4 ,do not drop the acid on top of the milk1 but hold the bottles sidewise so that the acid will slip into the milk at side4 ,otherwise a burnt taste will result and make it impossible to correctly read the test4 ,shake the bottle well until milk has entirely disappeared1 then place in machine4 ,after bottles are filled in this manner the machine balanced1 steam is admitted gradually1 increasing until machine is running at full speed4 ,allow to run five minutes1 then stop1 fill each bottle with hot water up to the lowest mark on graduate neck of bottle2 start machine again and allow it to run for three minutes1 when again it will be necessary to add hot water up to within one-half inch of top of neck of bottle2 run machine two minutes longer1 and read test4 ,use a pair of compasses in reading the fat in neck of bottle and read it quickly1 as the fat recedes if left long4 ,this test determines the percentage of fat in sample of milk1 consequently its comparative value4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afc4--;,,butterine ,,truck4 ,acidity4--,the 8sourness0 or acidity of the milk can be determined by taste or smell1 but not accurately4 ,a test is necessary to determine the exact condition of the milk when purchased4 ,when milk contains six-tenths of one per cent acid1 the most desirable point has been reached1 as then it imparts the best flavor to the goods4 ,if more than six-tenths of one per cent acid is used the flavor is not as good4 ,this is also the case if a lower percentage of acidity is used4 ,hence the milk or cream should be brought to this exact degree of sourness before using4 ,to determine this accurately1 it is necessary to do it by a test1 as milk may be three-tenths of one per cent acid before it is perceptible to the taste or smell4 ,milk that would pass as sweet by taste or smell will show two-tenths of one per cent acid4 ,the test to determine this is simple4 ,any chemist is able to furnish all alkali solution and the necessary neutralizer of proper strength4 ,the usual way1 however1 is to use what is known as ,farrington's tablets1 prepared by ,prof4 ,farrington of the ,wisconsin ,dairy ,school4 ,these tablets are dissolved in water1 a convenient strength being five tablets to fifty cubic centimeters of water4 ,the solution is mixed with the milk to be tested and shaken2 the acid in the milk acting upon the alkali of the solution immediately turns the milk to a pink color and the amount of the solution required to produce the pink color determines the acidity of the milk4 ,milk in ,butterine4--,cleanliness is the all-important factor1 since milk is easily contaminated by foreign flavors and germ life4 ,milk readily absorbs the odors given off by articles placed in the same room4 ,only pure and absolutely sweet milk and cream should be used1 but as absolutely pure milk1 though sweet1 is difficult to secure1 it becomes necessary to adopt some method whereby the condition of such milk can be righted4 ,careless milkers care little whether hair1 dirt1 dust1 etc41 drop into the pails while milking1 thinking that in straining the milk1 all particles and impurities are removed4 ,it does remove most particles1 but the germs which were clinging to these particles are not strained out4 ,they remain in the milk and under favorable temperatures thrive and multiply unless arrested4 ,when the milk has been tested and accepted it should be strained through several thicknesses of clean cloth into the ripening machine1 bringing the temperature in the different vats to the same point1 so that as the milk is used it will all be in the same condition4 ,in cold weather the temperature should be held at #gj ,f41 while during the warmer seasons from #fj to #fe is desirable4 ,in cloudy1 murky summer weather a lower temperature will be required4 ,under such conditions the temperature should be held at from #ee to #fj ,f4 until the storm is passed1 when it should again be held at the normal temperature named4 ,reasons for ,culture4--,to make an acidity test1 a #bj cc4 pipette is used for measuring the milk or cream4 ,each cubic centimeter of solution is equal to two one-hundredths of one per cent acid1 hence if #aj cc4 of solution is necessary to turn the milk or cream a pink color1 the milk would contain just two-tenths of one per cent acid and would be sweet4 ,any more than that would show the milk too sour for use4 ,in receiving sweet milk1 it must be assumed to contain impure bacteria1 which only await the proper temperature to develop and sour the milk1 producing bad flavors4 ,it must be neutralized by pasteurizing and then cultivated with pure bacteria4 ,another advantage obtained in the use of the 8starter0 is1 that it permits the ripening of milk and cream at low temperatures4 ,bacteriologists state1 and it is proved by experience1 that a temperature of about #fe ,f4 is most favorable to the development of the best fermentation in ripening milk and cream4 ,prior to the use of cultures it was customary to sour the milk at a much higher temperature1 which was correspondingly favorable to all the objectionable bacteria in the milk4 ,without the use of the 8starter0 the conditions were beyond the control of the operator4 ,cream ,ripeners4--,to produce these conditions the milk should be pasteurized1 which can be performed by the use of a standard pasteurizer of the type shown in ,fig4 #afd4 ,there are a variety of pasteurizers in use4 ,this apparatus is equipped with an internal revolving coil of pipe or discs1 built sufficiently strong to withstand the pressure of steam1 water or brine circulated through the coils or discs1 which is usually done in the order named4 ,to pasteurize1 the milk is heated to a temperature of #ahj ,f4 for twenty minutes4 ,this practically destroys the bacteria present4 ,the milk is then rapidly cooled by passing cold water or chilled brine1 or both1 in turn1 through the coil to reduce the temperature of the body quickly to that desired1 usually #ee to #gj ,f41 according to conditions as described4 ,the starter or culture is introduced and the milk agitated to insure a thorough intermingling4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afd4--,,wizard ,,pasteurizer ,,and ,,ripener1 ,,style ,b ,,with ,,vitrified ,,porcelain ,,enameled ,,jacket ,,and 8,,side ,,lift0 ,,piano ,,hinge ,,metal ,,cover4 ,water ,versus ,brine4--,where an abundant supply of cold water is available cream ripeners are arranged so that the first cooling is done by cold water passing through the chilling coil1 since much cooling can be done in this manner4 ,the work is completed by cold brine4 ,it is best not to attempt this unless the volume of business is sufficient to justify intelligent supervision on the ripeners1 because if it is done1 some means such as compressed air must be attached to the coil in the ripener for the purpose of flowing out the water before admitting brine as the mixing would reduce the brine to a point where it would freeze on the brine coils or in the double pipe ammonia brine coolers with disastrous results4 ,in providing brine cooling capacity ample volume should be arranged for 8reserve or inertia0 since the demand is insistent and large in a short period of time4 ,milk not ,pasteurized4--,some manufacturers do not pasteurize the milk and conduct operations as described in the following paragraphs4 ,however1 the acidity test is equally applicable in either system4 ,preparation of ,milk and ,cream4--,only sweet milk should be used4 ,milk that is sour before reaching the factory causes troubles impossible to remedy1 and no matter how good the 8starter0 the milk will have developed bacteria that cannot be destroyed2 and1 as the milk or cream becomes older the development of the proper bacteria is impossible to control4 ,this is as true after it has been worked into the butterine as before4 ,hence it will be seen1 that a great deal depends upon the milk and cream being sweet in developing proper conditions with the 8starter40 ,the milk upon being received is passed to the ripener1 the temperature reduced as desired1 and the process of 8starter0 is followed4 ,what are ,starters8--,the 8starters0 referred to are cultures--the bacteria found in clean1 fresh milk1 cultivated in vast numbers and when incorporated in milk containing an impure variety1 miniature warfare is at once begun4 ,if the 8starter0 is right1 the warfare ends with the pure germs victorious4 ,there are two ferments or 8starters0 on the market which are commendable on account of their uniformity and purity4 ,they are produced in laboratories1 every care being taken to see that no foreign germs come in contact with them4 ,preparatory ,cultures4--,into a commercial starter can put four gallons of sweet1 skimmed milk1 which tests two-tenths of one per cent acid1 no more4 ,strain through a double thickness of perfectly clean cloth1 heat the milk to #ahj ,f41 holding at this temperature for one-half hour4 ,this 8,pasteurizes0 the milk by killing all life in it4 ,it also destroys all flavor4 ,the milk should be cooled quickly to #ij ,f4 ,as soon as this temperature has been reached pour in a four-ounce bottle of 8starter0 or culture1 holding the bottle close to the milk so as to avoid contamination4 ,the bottle should not be opened until ready for use4 ,after adding the ferment cool down slowly to #gj ,f41 stirring all the while so as to thoroughly mix the milk4 ,the bacteria grow very rapidly at this temperature4 ,in twelve hours1 if kept evenly at this temperature in a tightly closed vessel1 a sufficient quantity of the proper germs will have been developed to produce an acidity of five-tenths of one per cent4 ,the milk will also have thickened somewhat4 ,if the conditions are found at the termination of twelve hours1 cool the milk quickly to #dj ,f4 and hold at this temperature until ready to make a large 8starter40 ,if the milk has not grown sufficient germs to produce the above named acidity1 that is1 five-tenths of one per cent1 reheat to #ij ,f4 and hold at this temperature until it does4 ,do not stir it at this stage1 as the 8starter0 should be kept with as little agitation as possible after the germs have been propagated4 ,the ,regular 8,starter04--,when ready to make the factory 8starter10 place twenty gallons of sweet1 skimmed milk in a sterilizer1 after having cleaned the vessel1 and heat as before to #ahj ,f42 hold at this temperature for one-half hour1 then chill to #gj ,f4 and add the four gallons of preparatory 8starter0 already described1 stirring well while adding4 ,let this stand twelve hours as before in a temperature of #gj ,f41 when it should appear as the preparatory starter did1 slightly thickened and showing an acidity of five-tenths of one per cent4 ,when acidity test shows this to have been reached1 chill to #dj ,f4 7at this temperature the bacteria are dormant and will not develop71 and hold until ready to ripen the day's run of milk and cream for churning4 ,when the milk has been brought in the ripeners to the proper temperature1 distribute the larger 8starter0 evenly through it4 ,three per cent is sufficient during the summer months1 while even as high as ten per cent is necessary in cold weather4 ,cultivating the ,milk4--,put the requisite amount of factory 8starter0 in the ripeners1 thoroughly agitate and allow to remain quiet4 ,at the expiration of twelve hours1 the milk should be ripened sufficiently for churning and by test it should show1 as above stated1 six-tenths of one per cent acid4 ,when this acidity has been developed cool to #eh ,f4 and place in churn4 ,at this temperature the butter-fat will form in small1 firm globules and separate nicely from the casein4 ,if the temperature is lower than this it takes much longer to separate the fat from the casein and it is impossible to separate all of it1 hence some fat is lost4 ,at a higher temperature1 the fat1 when separate1 will be fluffy and soft and will not produce a firm body4 ,as texture is one of the essential points to be sought after in producing artificial butter1 the churning of the milk1 in order to produce the proper texture in the butter-fat1 is a very important function and one which should be carefully performed4 ,before putting the milk into the churn it should be stirred thoroughly1 as during the twelve hours occupied in ripening1 the butter-fat1 being the lightest1 has come to the top and unless again thoroughly mixed1 one churn will contain most of the fat and the others will contain comparatively little1 and as each churning of milk going into the mixer constitutes a separate run1 the quality of the butterine manufactured will be uneven4 ,quality in ,butterine4--,butterine is made in various grades1 differing in constituents and proportions1 also color1 according to selections4 ,some manufacturers reduce the milk and cream content and add pure butter4 ,formulas for various methods follow3 ,in the matter of color large oleo producers select fats in the raw for making high colored oil1 keeping it separate in manufacture2 also select oil while graining for color1 and press it all separately4 ,another source of a high colored oil is the boiling of large knuckles from shank or leg bones in cutter cattle1 cooking them in open tanks and skimming the oil4 ,the bones are cracked and boiled several times and the oil skimmed4 ,the flavor is not sufficient to be detrimental4 ,this is purely an animal oil that can be used in the oleo oil to make tinted mixtures4 ,low ,grade ,butterine4--,this is composed of cotton seed oil1 ,no4 #b oleo oil and ,no4 #b neutral lard4 ,straight milk is used for flavor4 ,the oils go into an emulsion churn at the following temperatures3 ,cotton seed oil at #ge ,f42 neutral lard1 added next1 at #ie ,f41 and oleo oil next at #ij ,f4 ,the cotton seed oil should be agitated for about fifteen to twenty minutes before the other oils are added1 leaving the lid of the emulsion churn open4 ,this has the effect of removing some of the flavor from the oil and while it may be slight1 it is an advantage4 ,the neutral lard should be added next1 care being taken to see that it is free from flakes and grainy mixtures4 ,in other words1 it should be brought to the proper temperature1 viz41 #ie ,f4 and held there long enough before going to the agitator to be sure that the grain of the lard has entirely disappeared1 for if this is allowed to go in it can never be removed in the finished product4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afe4--;,,churn ,,room ,,for ,,butterine4 ,the oleo oil is next added and after these three ingredients have been agitated for twenty minutes and thoroughly mixed1 the milk should be added last and the whole mass left in the agitator for five minutes with the lid closed tightly4 ,at this stage the salt and color are added1 if color is used4 ,the amount of salt required should be decided by the necessities of the particular trade to be supplied1 but #e per cent will be found a medium salting4 ,experience is that it is better to add salt at this time because it is more evenly distributed in the emulsion than in the granular butterine4 ,after the color and salt are thoroughly mixed1 let the whole body run into the graining vat filled with water at a temperature of #dj ,f4 ,the oils and milk will show a temperature of about #ij ,f4 as a whole4 ,if not1 heat to that point before drawing into the graining vat4 ,this should be drawn through a #e-;inch galvanized pipe flattened out at the end to form a spreading exit for the butterine4 ,the butterine passes into the water vat directly behind a paddle wheel arranged so that one-half of it is above water4 ,the wheel revolves rapidly causing the butterine to be quickly submerged1 thereby graining it as fast as it hits the cold water4 ,the quicker butterine is grained1 the more flavor it retains1 as the globules formed increase the flavor4 ,should the water be too cold1 the butterine will be hard and dry1 and is likely to crumble and mottle1 besides causing a reduction in gain4 ,on the other hand1 if the water is too warm the butterine will be soft and mushy and cannot be worked properly1 although the gain will be larger4 ,warm water is used on very cheap grades when butterine is to be packed in solids and a large gain is desired4 ,as fast as the butterine to be grained shows on the top of the water1 it should be lifted onto a cloth in the hands of two men to a clean box truck4 ,sluice ,trough4--,many factories have discarded the graining vat and provided a sluice trough1 being a trough into which the contents are passed from the emulsion churn4 ,water is introduced1 thoroughly intermingled with the oils and performing an instantaneous chilling4 ,the sluice trough is arranged with slats in the bottom at intervals so as to produce the effect of ripples4 ,it flows directly to the seeding trucks1 where as with the graining vat1 it was dipped and poured onto the graining trucks4 ,graining or ,tempering4--,the butterine should then be covered with a sprinkling of fine salt and the trucks placed in the tempering room1 where a temperature of #fj ,f4 should be maintained1 to remain twelve hours4 ,in this time1 it will develop all the flavor it is possible to obtain and be ready for the workers4 ,the temperature of the tempering room is something that must be watched carefully and should never be allowed to go above #fj ,f4 as the ingredients in this condition contain a large amount of water1 and at a warmer temperature action of the water and grease are liable to cause the goods to sour4 ,milk and cream undergo many changes after being incorporated in the finished butterine and the more cream there is in the product the lower the temperature in the tempering room should be4 ,it is not at this stage that flavor is made4 ,only the flavor the product already contains is developed and many batches of sour or 8off0 butterine are traced to too warm tempering rooms1 whereby the butter fat and oil because of their mixture with water decompose and become rancid4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aff4--,,making ,,butterine ,,prints4 ,working4--,butterine differs from creamery butter1 in that the butter-fat and casein are both used in the butterine1 whereas in creamery butter the fat alone is utilized4 ,this is done in butterine to gain all the flavor possible by passing the buttermilk through the oils4 ,it is later washed out in the water vats1 but in passing through the oils1 it imparts some flavor4 ,butterine also requires much less working1 thereby avoiding a 8salvey0 or pasty condition1 also preventing a loss of moisture and increasing the yield of the article4 ,salt being the primary cause of the 8mottle0 or discoloration1 that danger is also avoided when goods are not over-worked4 ,after remaining in the tempering room twelve hours the butterine is taken out to the workers4 ,it should be worked as little as possible to obtain a smooth1 compact body1 as over-working produces a 8salvey0 condition4 ,a very successful butter worker is illustrated in ,fig4 #afg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afg4--;,,butterine ,,kneading ,,table4 ,butterine ,packing4--,from the worker the butterine is transferred to the print making or packing room4 ,in packing the product is worked up into prints or rolls1 or packed solid into tubs1 as the case may be1 and should be run into a cooler kept at a temperature of from #cb to #ce ,f41 and there held twelve hours1 at least1 before being shipped4 ,this gives the butterine time to properly set4 ,the prints are arranged on trays to 8set0 before boxing4 ,high ,grade ,butterine4--,the formula for high grade butterine differs from low grade in that it does not contain cotton seed oil and that cream is used instead of straight milk4 ,the oils are also treated in a different manner and at different temperatures4 ,larger quantities of cream are used to improve the quality and grades4 ,the treatment of oils is the same in all high grades4 ,the neutral oil should be placed in the agitator first4 ,before being put in1 however1 it should be brought to a temperature of #aaj ,f4 or enough to remove the flakes and grain4 ,then cooled quickly with clear ice1 or by means of refrigeration1 to #ie ,f4 and run into the emulsion churn1 in motion1 with the lids open4 ,oleo oil should be heated just enough to remove the grain and make it smooth1 about #aae ,f41 then chilled quickly to #he ,f4 and run into the agitator4 ,let it be agitated five minutes and then add the cream4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afh4--;,,butterine ,,solid ,,packing ,,room4 ,the whole body is then agitated enough to insure mixture1 ten minutes being sufficient1 after which it is dropped into the graining vat1 the temperature of the water being #cf ,f4 ,it should be removed from the water into trucks at once and put into the tempering room at a temperature not over #fj ,f41 tempered twelve hours and worked the same as low grades4 ,cleanliness and ,water ,supply4--,cleanliness of all utensils is very important and live steam should be run through all pipes after each time they are used so that there is no possibility of any fats or grease adhering to the inside and becoming rancid1 as it is carelessness of this kind that often causes a large amount of trouble in a butterine factory4 ,the use of clean1 clear water is imperative4 ,if the ordinary supply is not so1 it should be made thus by the use of local filtration4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afi4--,,print ,,cooler ,,for ,,butterine4 ,use of ,color4--,the reader will understand that this is the particular point upon which federal restrictions have been placed1 and the goods today cannot be colored except upon payment of a tax amounting to ten cents per pound4 ,on uncolored goods the tax is one-quarter cent per pound4 ,while the goods are equally as wholesome uncolored as colored1 they are not as attractive and sales are proportionately curtailed4 ,after the different ingredients have been thoroughly agitated in the mixer1 the proper or desired coloring matter is added an article manufactured especially for this purpose4 ,from four to forty ounces to a batch of #ajj pounds1 according to the color and shade required1 should be used4 ,formulas for ,making ,butterine4--,the following formulas show the amount of different ingredients used and cost of finished product at time tests were made4 ,the first is a formula for high grade1 then a formula for medium grade and lastly a formula for low grade butterine4 ,the excess of yield over ingredients used shows amount of water absorbed3 ,,formula ,,for ,,and ,,cost ,,of ,,high ,,grade ,,butterine4 ,cost per ,total ,materials and quantities lb4 cost ---------------------------------------- ----- #ebe pounds ,no4 #a oleo oil #j4jhge #de4ai #dge pounds ,no4 #a neutral lard 4#jhabe #ch4eg #ej gallons #cj per cent4 cream 4#db #cj4bd #cjj pounds creamery butter 4#bh #hd4jj ,labor and package 4#ja #ae4jj ,salt and color 444 #a4jj ---------------------------------------- ----- ,total 444 #bad4jj ---------------------------------------- ----- ,this will yield #a1ejj lbs42 cost per lb41 #j4adbf4 ,,formula ,,for ,,and ,,cost ,,of ,,medium ,,grade ,,butterine4 ,cost per ,total ,materials and quantities lb4 cost ---------------------------------------- ----- #ebe pounds ,no4 #a oleo oil #j4jhge #de4ai #dge pounds ,no4 #a neutral lard 4#jhabe #ch4eg #dj gallons #cj per cent4 cream 4#db #dj4cb ,labor and package 4#ja #ab4jj ,salt and color 444 #a4jj ---------------------------------------- ----- ,total 444 #acg4jh ---------------------------------------- ----- ,this will yield #a1bjj lbs42 cost per lb41 #j4aadb4 ,,formula ,,for ,,and ,,cost ,,of ,,low ,,grade ,,butterine4 ,total ,materials and quantities ,cost cost ---------------------------------------- -------------- #cej pounds ,no4 #b oleo oil #j4jh per lb4 #bh4jj #bej pounds cotton seed oil 4#jd per lb4 #aj4jj #dej pounds neutral lard 4#jhabe per lb4 #cf4ed #fj gallons #c per cent4 milk 4#ab per gal4 #g4bj ,labor and package 444 #ab4jj ,salt and color 444 #a4jj ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,total 444 #id4gd ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,this will yield #a1bjj lbs42 cost to produce and pack for shipment1 #j4jghi per lb4 ,cost of ,butterine4--,the following table shows shrinkage and costs of different grades of butterine1 these being compiled from actual tests4 ,it shows the different quantities of water absorbed by the butterine at different temperatures and it is readily understood that the amount of water absorbed regulates the yield1 although the more water that is absorbed the poorer the texture1 so that1 generally speaking1 high yields are obtained by loss of texture and general character of the product4 ,it will be seen at a glance that the higher the temperature of the water in the graining vat the greater the yield1 and the lower the temperature of the water the less the yield1 although the texture of the product is improved4 ,the high grade shrinks considerably less than the low grade4 ,this is explained in two ways4 ,first there is very little loss of cream in the high grade1 because one-third of the entire quantity of cream used in butter fat1 or solid matter4 ,while in the low grade only one-sixth of the milk used is solid matter1 and as the emulsion goes into the graining vat the milk is lost in the water4 ,furthermore1 cotton seed oil being absent from the high grade quality1 the mass retains more water1 as cotton seed oil has little affinity for water at any temperature4 ,a less amount of salt was used in this particular test on the high grade on account of the presence of salt in creamery butter used in the formula4 ,a careful perusal of the following table will prove interesting3 ,,test ,,showing ,,shrinkage ,,and ,,cost ,,of ,,butterine4 ,cot- ,neu- ton ,cream- ,oleotralseed ery ,temp4 oil oil oil,milk,creambutter,salt waterlbs4lbs4lbs4lbs4 lbs4 lbs4 lbs4 ,butterine ,fahr4 wt4 wt4 wt4 wt4 wt4 wt4 wt4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,low grade #ch #cej #dej #bej #dej 444 444 #fj ,low grade #de #cej #dej #bej #dej 444 444 #fj ,medium high grade #dj #ebe #dge 444 444 #cjj 444 #fj ,high grade #dj #ebe #dge 444 444 #bbe #cjj #ej ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,shrink-,shrink-,cost ,color,total,yield age age per oz4 lbs4 lbs4 lbs4 per #ajj ,butterine wt4 wt4 wt4 wt4 cent4 lbs4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,low grade #bj #aefj #abaj #cej 4#bbdc #g4hb ,low grade #bj #aefj #abij #bgj 4#agcj #g4cf ,medium high grade #bj #acfj #abid #ff 4#jdhe #aj4ei ,high grade #bj #aege #adig #gh 4#jdie #ad4bi ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,note the excessive shrinkage where weight of milk is taken into consideration with other ingredients used1 the milk being lost in the chilling water and the flavor being retained4 ,where natural butter is used the shrinkage is much less4 ,the computations can be made on prevailing prices4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,,boxes ,,and ,,cooperage ,,specifications ,,for ,,boxes -- ,,cooperage ,,specifications -- ,,government ,,specifications ,,for ,,packages -- ,,refrigerator ,,boxes4 ,specifications for ,boxes4--,of the many supplies needed about a packing house1 one of the most important is boxes into which the finished products are packed ready for shipment4 ,where they are used in such large numbers1 it is very essential to have a box suitable for the products which will be packed into it without waste of room1 sufficiently strong to withstand handling in transit and at the same time of minimum weight on account of freight charges4 ,the kind of lumber used for packing boxes varies in different localities4 ,cottonwood is the best and wherever available1 should be used4 ,the packing house industry has created a very important outlet for this otherwise almost worthless wood4 ,it has no natural flavor and is very desirable for lard1 butterine boxes1 etc4 ,it is used for making the small-sized packages into which lard is drawn direct instead of using pails or tubs4 ,boxes for these purposes are usually dovetailed and have a sliding cover4 ,where cottonwood is not available white pine is used1 although in this case it is necessary to use thicker lumber1 which as a consequence makes the boxes heavier4 ,the following list gives the kind of boxes1 inside measurements1 thickness of lumber in the sides1 top1 bottom1 ends and cleats1 where necessary4 ,the figures are applicable to cottonwood only3 ,,pork ,,packing ,,boxes4 ,contents ,remarks ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #ejj lbs4 ,english bellies ,two hardwood hoops #ejj lbs4 ,english bellies ,two hardwood hoops #ejj lbs4 ,english bellies ,two hardwood hoops #ejj lbs4 hog hams ,two hardwood hoops #ejj lbs4 ,new ,york shoulders,two hardwood hoops #ejj lbs4 dry salt fat backs,two hardwood hoops #ejj lbs4 dry salt fat backs,two hardwood hoops #ejj lbs4 dry salt fat backs,two hardwood hoops #ejj lbs4 ,english bellies ,two hardwood hoops #ejj lbs4 sweet pickle hams ,two hardwood hoops #ejj lbs4 sweet pickle hams ,two hardwood hoops #ejj lbs4 ,new ,york shoulders,two hardwood hoops #ejj lbs4 dry salt fat backs,two hardwood hoops #ejj lbs4 ,manchester hams ,two hardwood hoops #ejj lbs4 dry salt and smkd mts ,two hardwood hoops #aej lbs4 dry salt meats ,two hardwood hoops #ejj lbs4 hog fat backs ,two hardwood hoops #ajj lbs4 short clears ,two hardwood hoops ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,inside ,thickness measurement of lumber in inches in inches ------------------------------------ ,top and ,contents ,length ,width ,depth ,sidesbottom ,ends ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #ejj lbs4 ,english bellies #cd #bb #bb #a #a #a #ejj lbs4 ,english bellies #cc #bb #bc #a #a #a #ejj lbs4 ,english bellies #ce #bb #ba #a #a #a #ejj lbs4 hog hams #bh #be #bb #a #a #a #ejj lbs4 ,new ,york shoulders #cj #bf #bb #a #a #a #ejj lbs4 dry salt fat backs #bh #bb #bh #a #a #a #ejj lbs4 dry salt fat backs #ca #bf #bd #a #a #a #ejj lbs4 dry salt fat backs #bh #bd #bg #a #a #a #ejj lbs4 ,english bellies #ca #bj #be #a #a #a #ejj lbs4 sweet pickle hams #ca #bb #bd #a #a #a #ejj lbs4 sweet pickle hams #bf #bd #bd #a #a #a #ejj lbs4 ,new ,york shoulders #ca #bd #ba #a #a #a #ejj lbs4 dry salt fat backs #cd #bd #bb #a #a #a #ejj lbs4 ,manchester hams #ca #bd #bc #a #a #a #ejj lbs4 dry salt and smkd mts #cj #ba #bj #aej lbs4 dry salt meats #bd #bb #aj #ejj lbs4 hog fat backs #cb #bb #bg #a #a #a #ajj lbs4 short clears #cj #bj #h #a ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,width of ,contents ,cleats cleats,box or crate ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #ejj lbs4 ,english bellies ,outside #a #c,t4 ,g4 ,box #ejj lbs4 ,english bellies ,outside #a #c,t4 ,g4 ,box #ejj lbs4 ,english bellies ,outside #a #c,t4 ,g4 ,box #ejj lbs4 hog hams ,outside #a #c,t4 ,g4 ,box #ejj lbs4 ,new ,york shoulders,outside #a #c,t4 ,g4 ,box #ejj lbs4 dry salt fat backs,outside #a #c,t4 ,g4 ,box #ejj lbs4 dry salt fat backs,outside #a #c,t4 ,g4 ,box #ejj lbs4 dry salt fat backs,outside #a #c,t4 ,g4 ,box #ejj lbs4 ,english bellies ,outside #a #c,t4 ,g4 ,box #ejj lbs4 sweet pickle hams ,outside #a #c,t4 ,g4 ,box #ejj lbs4 sweet pickle hams ,outside #a #c,t4 ,g4 ,box #ejj lbs4 ,new ,york shoulders,outside #a #c,t4 ,g4 ,box #ejj lbs4 dry salt fat backs,outside #a #c,t4 ,g4 ,box #ejj lbs4 ,manchester hams ,outside #a #c,t4 ,g4 ,box #ejj lbs4 dry salt and smkd mts ,inside #b,t4 ,g4 ,box #aej lbs4 dry salt meats ,outside #b;,box #ejj lbs4 hog fat backs ,outside #a #c,t4 ,g4 ,box #ajj lbs4 short clears ,outside #b;,box ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,,canning ,,department ,,boxes4 ,contents ,remarks ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #bd #b-lb4 cans ox tongues ,one piece sides #bd #c-lb4 cans ox tongues ,one piece sides #f #f-lb4 cans ox tongues ,one piece sides #ab #f-lb4 cans ox tongues ,one piece sides #bd -lb4 cans ox tongues,one piece sides #f #f-lb4 cans lunch tongues ,one piece sides #cf #b-lb4 cans roast beef ,one piece sides #dh #a-lb4 cans roast beef ,one piece sides #bd #b-lb4 cans ,english brawn ,one piece sides #f #e-lb4 cans chipped beef,dove tailed #bd -lb4 cans ,vienna sausage ,dove tailed #bd #a-lb4 cans ,vienna sausage ,dove tailed #bd -lb4 cans veal loaf ,dove tailed #bd #a-lb4 cans veal loaf ,dove tailed #bd #a-lb4 cans chipped beef,dove tailed #bd #b-lb4 cans roast beef ,dove tailed #bd #b-lb4 cans chipped beef,government box1 #b-;in4 strap #ab #b-lb4 cans roast beef ,government box #f #ad-lb4 cans chipped beef ,one piece sides #bd #b-lb4 cans chipped beef,one piece sides #ab #b-lb4 cans chipped beef,one piece sides #bd #a-lb4 cans chipped beef,one piece sides #bd #b-lb4 cans tall roast beef ,one piece sides #bd #b-lb4 cans flat roast beef ,one piece sides #ab #b-lb4 cans flat roast beef ,one piece sides #dh #a-lb4 cans lunch tongue,one piece sides #bd #a-lb4 cans lunch tongue,one piece sides #dh -lb4 cans boneless ham ,one piece sides #bd -lb4 cans boneless ham ,one piece sides #bd -lb4 cans boneless ham ,one piece sides #ab -lb4 cans boneless ham ,one piece sides #ab #b-lb4 cans chipped beef,one piece sides #dh #a-lb4 cans chipped beef,one piece sides #ab #b-lb4 cans roast beef ,one piece sides #bd #a-lb4 cans ox tongues ,one piece sides #bd #a-lb4 cans roast beef ,one piece sides #ab #f-lb4 cans chipped beef,one piece sides ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,inside ,thickness measurement of lumber in inches in inches ------------------------------------ ,top and ,contents ,length ,width ,depth ,sidesbottom ,ends ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #bd #b-lb4 cans ox tongues #bd #ab #i #bd #c-lb4 cans ox tongues #bd #ab #aj #f #f-lb4 cans ox tongues #ah #ab #f #ab #f-lb4 cans ox tongues #ah #ab #ac #bd -lb4 cans ox tongues #ag #h #d #f #f-lb4 cans lunch tongues #ah #ab #g #cf #b-lb4 cans roast beef #ag #ab #ac #dh #a-lb4 cans roast beef #ag #ab #i #bd #b-lb4 cans ,english brawn #af #h #i #f #e-lb4 cans chipped beef #aj #g #c #bd -lb4 cans ,vienna sausage #aa #h #f #bd #a-lb4 cans ,vienna sausage #aa #i #i #bd -lb4 cans veal loaf #af #i #c #bd #a-lb4 cans veal loaf #adaj #f #bd #a-lb4 cans chipped beef #ag #ab #e #bd #b-lb4 cans roast beef #af #aa #ab #bd #b-lb4 cans chipped beef #ae #i #aa #a #a #a #ab #b-lb4 cans roast beef #af #aa #e #a #a #a #f #ad-lb4 cans chipped beef #bd #ac #ad #bd #b-lb4 cans chipped beef #af #h #i #ab #b-lb4 cans chipped beef #af #h #e #bd #a-lb4 cans chipped beef #ac #ac #d #bd #b-lb4 cans tall roast beef #ag #ab #i #bd #b-lb4 cans flat roast beef #bb #aa #h #ab #b-lb4 cans flat roast beef #af #aa #e #dh #a-lb4 cans lunch tongue #ag #ac #i #bd #a-lb4 cans lunch tongue #ag #ab #d #dh -lb4 cans boneless ham #ae #aj #c #bd -lb4 cans boneless ham #ab #i #d #bd -lb4 cans boneless ham #aj #g #d #ab -lb4 cans boneless ham #g #e #c #ab #b-lb4 cans chipped beef #ae #i #e #dh #a-lb4 cans chipped beef #ag #aj #h #ab #b-lb4 cans roast beef #ag #ab #d #bd #a-lb4 cans ox tongues #bb #aa #g #bd #a-lb4 cans roast beef #bb #aa #h #ab #f-lb4 cans chipped beef #ah #ab #ab ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,width of ,contents ,cleats cleats,box or crate ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #bd #b-lb4 cans ox tongues ,none 444 ,box #bd #c-lb4 cans ox tongues ,outside #b;,box #f #f-lb4 cans ox tongues ,none 444 ,box #ab #f-lb4 cans ox tongues ,outside #b;,box #bd -lb4 cans ox tongues,none 444 ,box #f #f-lb4 cans lunch tongues ,none 444 ,box #cf #b-lb4 cans roast beef ,outside #b;,box #dh #a-lb4 cans roast beef ,none 444 ,box #bd #b-lb4 cans ,english brawn ,none 444 ,box #f #e-lb4 cans chipped beef,none 444 ,box #bd -lb4 cans ,vienna sausage ,none 444 ,box #bd #a-lb4 cans ,vienna sausage ,none 444 ,box #bd -lb4 cans veal loaf ,none 444 ,box #bd #a-lb4 cans veal loaf ,none 444 ,box #bd #a-lb4 cans chipped beef,none 444 ,box #bd #b-lb4 cans roast beef ,outside #b;,box #bd #b-lb4 cans chipped beef,none 444 ,box #ab #b-lb4 cans roast beef ,none 444 ,box #f #ad-lb4 cans chipped beef ,none 444 ,box #bd #b-lb4 cans chipped beef,none 444 ,box #ab #b-lb4 cans chipped beef,none 444 ,box #bd #a-lb4 cans chipped beef,none 444 ,box #bd #b-lb4 cans tall roast beef ,none 444 ,box #bd #b-lb4 cans flat roast beef ,none 444 ,box #ab #b-lb4 cans flat roast beef ,none 444 ,box #dh #a-lb4 cans lunch tongue,none 444 ,box #bd #a-lb4 cans lunch tongue,none 444 ,box #dh -lb4 cans boneless ham ,none 444 ,box #bd -lb4 cans boneless ham ,none 444 ,box #bd -lb4 cans boneless ham ,none 444 ,box #ab -lb4 cans boneless ham ,none 444 ,box #ab #b-lb4 cans chipped beef,none 444 ,box #dh #a-lb4 cans chipped beef,none 444 ,box #ab #b-lb4 cans roast beef ,none 444 ,box #bd #a-lb4 cans ox tongues ,none 444 ,box #bd #a-lb4 cans roast beef ,none 444 ,box #ab #f-lb4 cans chipped beef,outside #b;,box ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,,sausage ,,packing ,,boxes4 ,contents ,remarks ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #be lbs4 sausage ,one -in4 open space in sides #cj lbs4 sausage ,one -in4 open space in sides #ej lbs4 sausage ,one -in4 open space in sides #fj lbs4 sausage ,one -in4 open space in sides #ge lbs4 sausage ,one -in4 open space in sides #d #aj-lb4 boxes ,frankfurts,two #b-;in4 pcs4 sides1 #c #b-;in4 top btm4 #e lbs4 boneless pigs feet,dove tailed #aj lbs4 boneless pigs feet,dove tailed #be lbs4 boneless pigs feet,dove tailed #ae #a-lb4 tin meat ,two #b-;in4 pcs4 sds41 #c #b-;in4 top btm4 #ae #b-lb4 tin meat ,two #b-;in4 pcs4 sds41 #c #b-;in4 top btm4 #be #a-lb4 tin meat ,two #b-;in4 pcs4 sds41 #c #b-;in4 top btm4 #be #b-lb4 tin meat ,two #b-;in4 pcs4 sds41 #c #b-;in4 top btm4 #ajj lbs4 summer sausage 444 #ajj lbs4 summer sausage 444 #ab #a-lb4 cans ,bologna ,dove tailed #f #a-lb4 cans ,bologna ,dove tailed #f #aj-lb4 cans ,frankfurts ,one #a-;in4 open space in sides1 two #b-;in4 open spaces in top bottom #ej lbs4 boiled ham ,one piece sides #cj lbs4 sausage ,one -in4 open space in sides #be lbs4 ,bologna ,one -in4 open space in sides #a #ej-lb4 can ,bologna in oil 444 #b #bj-lb4 can ,bologna in oil 444 #a #bj-lb4 can ,bologna in oil 444 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,inside ,thickness measurement of lumber in inches in inches ------------------------------------ ,top and ,contents ,length ,width ,depth ,sidesbottom ,ends ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #be lbs4 sausage #ah #ab #f #cj lbs4 sausage #ah #ab #g #ej lbs4 sausage #ai #ae #h #fj lbs4 sausage #ai #ae #aj #ge lbs4 sausage #bc #ag #i #d #aj-lb4 boxes ,frankfurts #ah #ab #h #e lbs4 boneless pigs feet #g #e #c #aj lbs4 boneless pigs feet #ac #e #d #be lbs4 boneless pigs feet #bf #aa #d #ae #a-lb4 tin meat #ac #ac #f #ae #b-lb4 tin meat #bf #ac #f #be #a-lb4 tin meat #ac #ac #i #be #b-lb4 tin meat #bf #ac #i #ajj lbs4 summer sausage #bh #ag #aj #ajj lbs4 summer sausage #bc #ag #ab #ab #a-lb4 cans ,bologna #af #aj #c #f #a-lb4 cans ,bologna #af #aj #a #f #aj-lb4 cans ,frankfurts #bg #ab #h #ej lbs4 boiled ham #be #ah #f #cj lbs4 sausage #ai #ae #f #be lbs4 ,bologna #ae #i #f #a #ej-lb4 can ,bologna in oil #ab #ab #ab #b #bj-lb4 can ,bologna in oil #bj #aj #i #a #bj-lb4 can ,bologna in oil #aj #aj #i ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,width of ,contents ,cleats cleats,box or crate ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #be lbs4 sausage ,none 444 ,box #cj lbs4 sausage ,none 444 ,box #ej lbs4 sausage ,inside #b;,box #fj lbs4 sausage ,inside #b;,box #ge lbs4 sausage ,inside #b;,box #d #aj-lb4 boxes ,frankfurts ,none 444 ,crate #e lbs4 boneless pigs feet,none 444 ,box #aj lbs4 boneless pigs feet,none 444 ,box #be lbs4 boneless pigs feet,none 444 ,box #ae #a-lb4 tin meat ,none 444 ,crate #ae #b-lb4 tin meat ,none 444 ,crate #be #a-lb4 tin meat ,none 444 ,crate #be #b-lb4 tin meat ,none 444 ,crate #ajj lbs4 summer sausage ,inside #b;,box #ajj lbs4 summer sausage ,inside #b;,box #ab #a-lb4 cans ,bologna ,none 444 ,box #f #a-lb4 cans ,bologna ,none 444 ,box #f #aj-lb4 cans ,frankfurts ,none 444 ,crate #ej lbs4 boiled ham ,none 444 ,crate #cj lbs4 sausage ,none 444 ,crate #be lbs4 ,bologna ,none 444 ,crate #a #ej-lb4 can ,bologna in oil ,none 444 ,crate #b #bj-lb4 can ,bologna in oil ,none 444 ,crate #a #bj-lb4 can ,bologna in oil ,none 444 ,crate ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,,lard ,,refinery ,,boxes4 ,contents ,remarks ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #bj #c-lb4 pails ,three #b-;in4 strips1 side1 top bottom #ab #e-lb4 pails ,three #b-;in4 strips1 side1 top bottom #f #aj-lb4 pails ,three #b-;in4 strips1 side1 top bottom #d #bj-lb4 pails ,three #b-;in4 strips1 side1 top bottom #a #ej-lb4 pail ,three #b-;in4 strips1 side1 top bottom #b #ej-lb4 pails ,three #b-;in4 strips1 side1 top bottom #bh lbs4 net lard ,dove tailed #ef lbs4 net lard ,dove tailed #f #aj-lb4 pails ,two -in4 iron straps #ab #e-lb4 pails ,two -in4 iron straps #bj #e-lb4 pails ,two -in4 iron straps #aj #aj-lb4 pails ,two -in4 iron straps #bj #e-lb4 pails 7,cuban trade7 ,two -in4 iron straps #aj #aj-lb4 pails 7,cuban trade7 ,two -in4 iron straps #d #be-lb4 pails ,two -in4 iron straps ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,inside ,thickness measurement of lumber in inches in inches ------------------------------------ ,top and ,contents ,length ,width ,depth ,sidesbottom ,ends ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #bj #c-lb4 pails #be #aj #aj #ab #e-lb4 pails #ah #ab #ac #f #aj-lb4 pails #bb #ae #h #d #bj-lb4 pails #ai #ai #i #a #ej-lb4 pail #ab #ab #ac #b #ej-lb4 pails #bf #ab #ac #bh lbs4 net lard #ac #i #g #ef lbs4 net lard #ahac #g #f #aj-lb4 pails #bb #ae #h #ab #e-lb4 pails #ah #ab #ac #bj #e-lb4 pails #cj #ab #ac #aj #aj-lb4 pails #ch #ae #h #bj #e-lb4 pails 7,cuban trade7 #ca #ac #ab #aj #aj-lb4 pails 7,cuban trade7 #da #af #g #d #be-lb4 pails #bj #bj #aa ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,width of ,contents ,cleats cleats,box or crate ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #bj #c-lb4 pails ,outside#a ,crate #ab #e-lb4 pails ,inside #a ,crate #f #aj-lb4 pails ,inside #a ,crate #d #bj-lb4 pails ,inside #a ,crate #a #ej-lb4 pail ,inside #a ,crate #b #ej-lb4 pails ,inside #a ,crate #bh lbs4 net lard ,none 444 ,box #ef lbs4 net lard ,none 444 ,box #f #aj-lb4 pails ,inside ,cor'r ,box #ab #e-lb4 pails ,inside ,cor'r ,box #bj #e-lb4 pails ,inside ,cor'r ,box #aj #aj-lb4 pails ,inside ,cor'r ,box #bj #e-lb4 pails 7,cuban trade7 ,inside ,cor'r ,box #aj #aj-lb4 pails 7,cuban trade7 ,inside ,cor'r ,box #d #be-lb4 pails ,inside ,cor'r ,box ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,,smoked ,,meat ,,boxes4 ,contents ,remarks ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #be lbs4 bacon 444 #ej lbs4 bacon 444 #ej lbs4 shoulder 444 #ge lbs4 bacon 444 #ae lbs4 bacon 444 #ajj lbs4 canvased meats ,one #a-;inch open space in sides1 tops and bottoms #ae lbs4 shoulder and bacon444 #aej lbs4 bacon ,two hardwood hoops #bjj lbs4 bacon ,two hardwood hoops #bej lbs4 bacon ,two hardwood hoops #ajj lbs4 bacon ,two hardwood hoops ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,inside ,thickness measurement of lumber in inches in inches ------------------------------------ ,top and ,contents ,length ,width ,depth ,sidesbottom ,ends ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #be lbs4 bacon #bb #ab #g #ej lbs4 bacon #bc #ag #g #ej lbs4 shoulder #ah #ae #aa #ge lbs4 bacon #bc #ag #aa #ae lbs4 bacon #bj #h #e #ajj lbs4 canvased meats #bc #ag #ac #ae lbs4 shoulder and bacon #ai #aj #e #aej lbs4 bacon #bd #bb #ad #bjj lbs4 bacon #cj #ba #ad #bej lbs4 bacon #cj #ba #ag #ajj lbs4 bacon #bb #ag #ac ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,width of ,contents ,cleats cleats,box or crate ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #be lbs4 bacon ,none 444 ,box #ej lbs4 bacon ,none 444 ,box #ej lbs4 shoulder ,inside #b;,box #ge lbs4 bacon ,inside #b;,box #ae lbs4 bacon ,none 444 ,box #ajj lbs4 canvased meats ,inside #b;,crate #ae lbs4 shoulder and bacon,none 444 ,box #aej lbs4 bacon ,inside #b;,box #bjj lbs4 bacon ,inside #b;,box #bej lbs4 bacon ,inside #b;,box #ajj lbs4 bacon ,inside #b;,box ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,,beef ,,cutting1 ,,offal ,,and ,,freezer ,,boxes4 ,contents ,remarks ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,loin butts 444 ,loin strips 444 ,beef tenderloins 444 ,beef rolls 444 ,beef kidneys 444 ,beef livers and beef knobs 444 ,ox tails 444 #bj pcs4 plucks and hog livers 444 ,small ox tongues 444 #e lbs4 hog brains 444 #ae pieces sheep plucks 444 #aj lbs4 beef brains 444 #e lbs4 beef brains 444 #ajj pieces lamb tongues 444 #bjj lbs4 ice case #c-;in4 ice space on sides and bottom #ajj lbs4 ice case #c-;in4 ice space on sides and bottom #aej lbs4 ice case #c-;in4 ice space on sides and bottom #ab pieces sheep plucks 444 #hj lbs4 brains ice case #c-;in4 ice space on sides and bottom ,large ox tongues 444 #ej pieces lambs tongues 444 #e lbs4 hog brains iced 444 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,inside ,thickness measurement of lumber in inches in inches ------------------------------------ ,top and ,contents ,length ,width ,depth ,sidesbottom ,ends ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,loin butts #bh #ab #f ,loin strips #bi #ai #d ,beef tenderloins #bi #ac #d ,beef rolls #bi #ai #d ,beef kidneys #af #i #e ,beef livers and beef knobs #bd #af #ab ,ox tails #bd #ae #h #bj pcs4 plucks and hog livers #bi #ac #e ,small ox tongues #bh #ad #h #e lbs4 hog brains #ab #aa #a #ae pieces sheep plucks #bd #ac #e #aj lbs4 beef brains #ab #aa #b #e lbs4 beef brains #ab #i #b #ajj pieces lamb tongues #bh #ab #c #bjj lbs4 ice case #cb #bd #af #ajj lbs4 ice case #bh #ah #ad #aej lbs4 ice case #bh #ba #ad #ab pieces sheep plucks #bb #ac #e #hj lbs4 brains ice case #be #bd #ag ,large ox tongues #bh #ad #i #ej pieces lambs tongues #ad #ab #c #e lbs4 hog brains iced #ai #aa #a ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,width of ,contents ,cleats cleats,box or crate ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,loin butts ,none 444 ,box ,loin strips ,none 444 ,box ,beef tenderloins ,none 444 ,box ,beef rolls ,none 444 ,box ,beef kidneys ,none 444 ,box ,beef livers and beef knobs ,inside #b;,box ,ox tails ,none 444 ,box #bj pcs4 plucks and hog livers ,none 444 ,box ,small ox tongues ,none 444 ,box #e lbs4 hog brains ,none 444 ,box #ae pieces sheep plucks ,none 444 ,box #aj lbs4 beef brains ,none 444 ,box #e lbs4 beef brains ,none 444 ,box #ajj pieces lamb tongues ,none 444 ,box #bjj lbs4 ice case ,inside #b,t4 ,g4 ,box #ajj lbs4 ice case ,inside #b,t4 ,g4 ,box #aej lbs4 ice case ,inside #b,t4 ,g4 ,box #ab pieces sheep plucks ,none 444 ,box #hj lbs4 brains ice case ,inside #b,t4 ,g4 ,box ,large ox tongues ,none 444 ,box #ej pieces lambs tongues ,none 444 ,box #e lbs4 hog brains iced ,none 444 ,box ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,,fresh ,,pork ,,packing ,,boxes4 ,contents ,remarks ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #ej lbs4 short pork loins ,one #a-;in4 open space in sides1 two in top and bottom #ej lbs4 regular pork loins,one #a-;in4 open space in sides1 two in top and bottom #ej lbs4 long cut pork ,one #a-;in4 open space in sides1 two loins in top and bottom #ajj lbs4 pork loins ,two #a-;in4 open spaces in sides1 two in top and bottom #ej lbs4 export ham butts ,one #a-;in4 open space with runner on sides1 two same1 with runner on btm #ej lbs4 export pork loins ,one #a-;in4 open space with runner on sides1 two same1 with runner on btm #ajj lbs4 pork shoulder ,three #a-;in4 open spaces in bottom nd top and two #a-;in4 on sides #ajj lbs4 pork loin ice case#c-;in4 space for ice inside bottom of box with rack #ej lbs4 shoulder ice case #c-;in4 space for ice inside bottom of box with rack #ajj lbs4 shoulder ice case #c-;in4 space for ice inside bottom of box with rack #ajj lbs4 pork ice case #c-;in4 space for ice inside bottom of box with rack #be lbs4 butt ice case #c-;in4 space for ice inside bottom of box with rack #be lbs4 pork loins #a-;in4 open space in sides #ej lbs4 pork loins 444 #ajj lbs4 pork loins 444 #ajj lbs4 pork shoulder 444 #ej lbs4 pork shoulder ,tight #ej lbs4 pork shoulder ,one #a-;in4 open space in sides and two #a-;in4 in top and bottom ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,inside ,thickness measurement of lumber in inches in inches ------------------------------------ ,top and ,contents ,length ,width ,depth ,sidesbottom ,ends ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #ej lbs4 short pork loins #bf #ab #g #ej lbs4 regular pork loins #bi #ab #g #ej lbs4 long cut pork loins #cd #ab #g #ajj lbs4 pork loins #bi #ad #ab #ej lbs4 export ham butts #bi #ab #f #ej lbs4 export pork loins #bi #ab #g #ajj lbs4 pork shoulder #be #ah #aa #ajj lbs4 pork loin ice case #bi #ab #aj #ej lbs4 shoulder ice case #ah #ae #ab #ajj lbs4 shoulder ice case #be #ah #ad #ajj lbs4 pork ice case #bi #ad #ad #be lbs4 butt ice case #bb #ab #i #be lbs4 pork loins #bh #h #f #ej lbs4 pork loins #bi #ab #g #ajj lbs4 pork loins #bi #ad #ab #ajj lbs4 pork shoulder #be #ah #aa #ej lbs4 pork shoulder #ah #ae #i #ej lbs4 pork shoulder #ah #ae #i ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,width of ,contents ,cleats cleats,box or crate ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #ej lbs4 short pork loins ,inside #b;,crate #ej lbs4 regular pork loins ,inside #b;,crate #ej lbs4 long cut pork loins ,inside #b;,crate #ajj lbs4 pork loins ,inside #b;,crate #ej lbs4 export ham butts ,inside #b;,crate #ej lbs4 export pork loins ,inside #b;,crate #ajj lbs4 pork shoulder ,inside #b;,crate #ajj lbs4 pork loin ice case ,inside #b;,box #ej lbs4 shoulder ice case ,inside #b;,box #ajj lbs4 shoulder ice case ,inside #b;,box #ajj lbs4 pork ice case ,inside #b;,box #be lbs4 butt ice case ,inside #b;,box #be lbs4 pork loins ,none ,crate #ej lbs4 pork loins ,inside #b;,box #ajj lbs4 pork loins ,inside #b;,box #ajj lbs4 pork shoulder ,inside #b;,box #ej lbs4 pork shoulder ,inside #b;,box #ej lbs4 pork shoulder ,inside #b;,box ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,,dry ,,salt ,,and ,,sweet ,,pickle ,,pork ,,packing ,,boxes4 ,contents ,remarks ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #ejj lbs4 export hams ,two hardwood hoops #ejj lbs4 export bellies ,two hardwood hoops #ejj lbs4 export bellies ,two hardwood hoops #ejj lbs4 dry salt fat backs,two hardwood hoops #ejj lbs4 dry salt fat backs,two hardwood hoops #ejj lbs4 export ,cumberlands,two hardwood hoops #ejj lbs4 export ,cumberlands,two hardwood hoops #ejj lbs4 export ,cumberlands,two hardwood hoops #ejj lbs4 export ,cumberlands,two hardwood hoops #bej lbs4 fat backs ,two hardwood hoops #bjj lbs4 fat backs ,two hardwood hoops #ajj lbs4 fat backs ,two hardwood hoops #ej lbs4 fat backs ,two hardwood hoops #ejj lbs4 ,cumberlands ,two hardwood hoops #ejj lbs4 long ribs ,two hardwood hoops #ejj lbs4 ,english bellies ,two hardwood hoops #ejj lbs4 ,english bellies ,two hardwood hoops #ejj lbs4 fat backs ,two hardwood hoops #ejj lbs4 fat backs ,two hardwood hoops #ejj lbs4 ,english bellies ,two hardwood hoops ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,inside ,thickness measurement of lumber in inches in inches ------------------------------------ ,top and ,contents ,length ,width ,depth ,sidesbottom ,ends ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #ejj lbs4 export hams #bh #bc #bd #a #a #a #ejj lbs4 export bellies #cb #bj #bc #a #a #a #ejj lbs4 export bellies #cc #bb #bd #a #a #a #ejj lbs4 dry salt fat backs #ca #bg #bc #a #a #a #ejj lbs4 dry salt fat backs #cd #bd #bd #a #a #a #ejj lbs4 export ,cumberlands #cb #ba #bh #a #a #a #ejj lbs4 export ,cumberlands #cj #ah #cd #a #a #a #ejj lbs4 export ,cumberlands #bh #ah #cg #a #a #a #ejj lbs4 export ,cumberlands #bf #ah #ci #a #a #a #bej lbs4 fat backs #cb #ba #ad #bjj lbs4 fat backs #bg #bd #ab #ajj lbs4 fat backs #bf #ad #ad #ej lbs4 fat backs #bf #ad #g #ejj lbs4 ,cumberlands #cd #ag #da #a #a #a #ejj lbs4 long ribs #bf #be #bc #a #a #a #ejj lbs4 ,english bellies #cd #bj #bb #a #a #a #ejj lbs4 ,english bellies #cc #bb #bc #a #a #a #ejj lbs4 fat backs #bh #bf #bc #a #a #a #ejj lbs4 fat backs #ce #bb #bj #a #a #a #ejj lbs4 ,english bellies #cb #bb #bd #a #a #a ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,width of ,contents ,cleats cleats,box or crate ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #ejj lbs4 export hams ,outside #a #c,t4 ,g4 ,box #ejj lbs4 export bellies ,outside #a #c,t4 ,g4 ,box #ejj lbs4 export bellies ,outside #a #c,t4 ,g4 ,box #ejj lbs4 dry salt fat backs,outside #a #c,t4 ,g4 ,box #ejj lbs4 dry salt fat backs,outside #a #c,t4 ,g4 ,box #ejj lbs4 export ,cumberlands,outside #a #c,t4 ,g4 ,box #ejj lbs4 export ,cumberlands,outside #a #c,t4 ,g4 ,box #ejj lbs4 export ,cumberlands,outside #a #c,t4 ,g4 ,box #ejj lbs4 export ,cumberlands,outside #a #c,t4 ,g4 ,box #bej lbs4 fat backs ,outside #b,t4 ,g4 ,box #bjj lbs4 fat backs ,outside #b,t4 ,g4 ,box #ajj lbs4 fat backs ,outside #b,t4 ,g4 ,box #ej lbs4 fat backs ,none 444 ,t4 ,g4 ,box #ejj lbs4 ,cumberlands ,outside #a #c,t4 ,g4 ,box #ejj lbs4 long ribs ,outside #a #c,t4 ,g4 ,box #ejj lbs4 ,english bellies ,outside #a #c,t4 ,g4 ,box #ejj lbs4 ,english bellies ,outside #a #c,t4 ,g4 ,box #ejj lbs4 fat backs ,outside #a #c,t4 ,g4 ,box #ejj lbs4 fat backs ,outside #a #c,t4 ,g4 ,box #ejj lbs4 ,english bellies ,outside #a #c,t4 ,g4 ,box ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,cooperage ,specifications4--,the following specifications will serve for all kinds of cooperage used throughout a packing house and makes a very satisfactory package for the different requirements3 ,,six-,,hoop ,,no4 #a ,,tierces4 ,staves #cc inches long ,heads #bj inches wide ,bilge #gi inches circumference ,chime inch ,six iron hoops4 ,head hoops #a inches wide1 ,no4 #ah iron ,quarter hoops #a inches wide1 ,no4 #ai iron ,bilge hoops #a inches wide1 ,no4 #ah iron ,heads inch thick ,staves inch thick ,,wood-,,bound ,,beef ,,tierces4 ,staves #cc inches long ,heads #bj inches wide ,bilge #gi inches circumference ,chime #a inches ,hoops3 ,first wooden hoop on bilge2 then one iron hoop2 then five wooden hoops2 then one iron hoop2 then one chime hoop on each end4 ,staves inch ,heads inch ,,lard ,,tierces4 ,staves #cc inches long ,heads #bj inches wide ,bilge #gi inches circumference ,chime #a inches ,two-thirds of the tierce to be covered with wooden hoops for prime steam lard4 ,staves inch ,heads inch ,,eight-,,hoop ,,tierces4 ,same specifications as six-hoop tierces1 with two more hoops on1 that is1 one additional hoop on each end1 #a inches wide4 ,no4 #ai iron used for prime steam and export refined lard1 two weights for latter2 on tierce weighing seventy-seven pounds1 figure #ag per cent tare2 on tierce weighing seventy-two pounds1 figure #af per cent tare4 ,,iron-,,bound ,,oak ,,pork ,,barrels4 ,staves #cj inches long by inch thick ,heads #ag inches wide by inch thick ,bilge #fi inches circumference ,chime #a inch ,six iron hoops1 ,no4 #ah iron4 ,head hoops #a inches ,quarter hoops #a inches ,bilge hoops #a inches ,,wood-,,bound ,,oak ,,pork ,,barrels4 ,just the same as iron-hoop pork barrels1 but covered with wooden hoops--no iron hoops--in two and four series4 ,,ash ,,pork ,,barrels4 ,same specifications as iron-bound pork barrels put up bound with both wood and iron1 wood being most expensive4 ,,basswood ,,lard ,,export ,,half ,,barrels4 ,staves #bb inches by inch ,head #ad inches wide by inch thick ,bilge #ef inches circumference ,three wooden hoops on bilge1 then one-quarter hoop1 then one iron collar hoop 7,no4 #bj iron1 #a inch wide71 then one wood chime hoop at each end4 ,,wood-,,bound ,,basswood ,,tierces ,,for ,,export ,,casings4 ,staves #cf inches long by inches thick ,head #bb inches wide by inch thick ,bilge #hf inches in circumference ,chime #a inches ,one head2 one bilge hoop of ,no4 #ah iron1 #a inches wide2 one quarter hoop1 #a inches wide1 ,no4 #ah iron1 at each end2 one chime hoop #a inches wide ,no4 #ah iron2 balance1 wooden hoops4 ,,no4 #ai ,,slack ,,barrels4 ,staves #cj inches long ,head #ah inches wide ,bilge #ge inches in diameter ,three patent wooden hoops on each end4 ,,slack ,,tierces ,,for ,,stearine4 ,staves #ce inches long ,heads #bc inches wide ,bilge #hi inches ,chime inch ,two patent wood hoops on each end1 and two on each bilge4 ,,wood-,,bound ,,hog ,,bung ,,tierces4 ,staves #ca inches by inch ,heads #bj inches by inch ,bilge #gi inches in circumference ,chime #a inches ,two iron collar hoops 7,no4 #ah iron1 #a inches wide72 twelve wooden chime hoops4 ,,eighty-,,pound ,,pigs ,,feet ,,package ,,made ,,of ,,white ,,pine ,,and ,,birch4 ,staves #ai inches long ,heads #a inches wide ,bilge #di inches ,chime inch ,three wooden hoops on each bilge and three on each head4 ,,forty-,,pound ,,quarter ,,barrel ,,package ,,made ,,of ,,white ,,pine ,,or ,,birch1 ,,for ,,pigs ,,feet1 ,,tripe ,,and ,,other ,,offal4 ,staves #ag inches long ,heads #aj inches wide ,bilge #ch inches ,chime inch ,two head hoops and two bilge hoops of wood each end4 ,government specifications for ,packages4--,the following are the government specifications for packages containing pork or beef3 ,the packages must be made entirely new and of the best seasoned heart-of-white oak staves and headings3 ,the staves shall not be less than -inch thick and the headings not less than -inch thick4 ,they shall be three-quarter hooped over1 including galvanized iron hoops with the best hickory hoops1 and each one-half barrel shall have on it four galvanized iron hoops2 one of #a inches in width to each bilge and one of #a inches in width on each chime1 and each shall be -inch thick4 ,each half barrel shall have a capacity of sixteen gallons and must be branded1 if it contains beef1 by burning on its head 8,navy ,beef10 name of the contractor1 name of packer's brand1 and on the bung stave1 the letter 8,p40 ,refrigerator ,boxes4--,in the shipping of fresh meats which are to be sent by express1 or where small quantities are sent in insufficient amounts to warrant the use of a car1 thousands of refrigerator boxes are used4 ,in such cases a good refrigerator box is made necessary in the handling of the product to the trade--a box that will stand the abuse1 wear and tear in shipping and at the same time one that is not excessively heavy1 adding unnecessarily to the express charges4 ,the dimensions given below are for wooden boxes which are generally made of #a-;inch clear pine lumber1 the corners being securely fastened with angle iron1 or with heavy galvanized iron1 and the covers put on with specially strong hinges as the boxes meet with a great deal of hard usage and when filled must necessarily be strong in order to withstand the jar and strain4 ,a galvanized iron box containing the meat is placed inside of the wooden box1 leaving about two inches of space around it and four inches of space on top4 ,the meat to be shipped is packed tightly into the galvanized iron box1 which is then placed in the wooden box and the space around the sides and top filled with crushed ice4 ,in this condition meat will keep fresh in hot weather for from thirty-six to forty-eight hours under ordinary conditions4 ,the following dimensions are those generally in use for the different sized wooden boxes enumerated3 ,capacity ,inside measure1 inches #ej pounds #bf #af #i #ajj pounds #bd #ah #ad #ajj pounds #bf #ah #ac #bjj pounds #cd #ah #ah #bjj pounds #cd #bj #af #cjj pounds #ch #bd #ai #ejj pounds #db #bh #ah ,,chapter ,,xxix ,,departmental ,,accounting ,,departmental ,,accounting -- ,,expense ,,accounts -- ,,departments -- ,,purchases -- ,,inventories -- ,,store ,,accounts -- ,,labor ,,charged ,,to ,,departments ,,and ,,sub-,,divisions -- ,,general ,,principles4 ,why and ,how4--,the large packing houses are usually operated on a departmental basis1 so that monthly or yearly1 a balance can be drawn off showing the profit and loss of each department4 ,there is a great advantage in handling a large business in this manner1 for it is probable that while in the aggregate the house is making money1 there might be departments that are losing money continuously without being detected unless each one is put on an individual basis4 ,each department is made a separate business carrying its proportion of the divisible expenses1 buying the raw product and supplies going into the manufacture and receiving credit for all sales effected in the same manner as if owned by an individual and the business conducted at some remote point4 ,the raw material transferred from one department to another is charged4 ,at the end of each period1 or weekly1 those in charge1 put a price on all the different products transferred from one department to another1 generally using the market price which could be obtained if sold outside4 ,this method of analysis frequently shows that the department has lost money4 ,it may develop that some other manufacturer has developed a field wherein he can pay a price for the raw product in excess of its value as used in the department and that it should be sold for cash rather than to use it for manufacturing purposes4 ,expense ,account4--,there are a number of expense accounts that are borne upon an allocation1 that is1 apportioned among several departments1 perhaps by percentage of sales1 units in use1 tonnage or other means devised by the ingenuity of the accountant1 all with a view to an equitable division4 ,these embrace1 for example1 ,steam-,expense1 which1 as its name implies1 is the cost of producing steam subdivided into four general uses1--cooking1 power1 lighting and refrigerating4 ,each made up of all items going into its cost4 ,this provides a total of four items4 ,administrative or ,executive ,expenses embrace the cost of office1 telegraph1 telephone1 stationery1 printing1 advertising1 insurance1 interest and all other items of general expense4 ,there are also some general plant expenses that are itemized for other purposes that may be included in this ledger account1 or divided upon some basis and charged to the departmental ledger account4 ,department4--,the parent products are cattle1 sheep and hogs4 ,these are subdivided into accounts about as follows3 ,cattle4 ,hogs4 ,sheep4 ,beef ,fresh ,pork ,mutton ,hides ,sweet ,pickle ,skins ,oleo ,dry ,salt ,casings ,lard ,refining ,tallow ,sausage ,fertilizer ,smoke ,house ,bones ,tongue ,tripe and ,pigs ,feet ,beef ,cutting ,beef ,cellars ,veal ,where one subdivision1 such as ,tongue1 embraces several kinds of products1 like sheep1 beef and pork1 it is operated as one department and not further sub-divided4 ,usually the outside departments are separated so that the departmental results are ascertainable4 ,the divisions are carried on indefinitely depending upon the size of the business4 ,purchases4--,all purchases of every nature that can be charged directly so are distributed from purchase vouchers4 ,the departmental manager and foreman have a direct interest in these and usually look out for all supplies and like expense items4 ,inventories4--,an actual physical inventory is taken at the terminating date of each month or period1 making a record of the items of every nature on hand that is a liquid asset and not usually including interests which are charged off as an item of expense4 ,store ,account4--,to avoid duplication of purchases of material used1 it is usual to have a general store in which these are carried and dispersed to operating departments on order4 ,this store account usually includes the distribution of mechanical labor1 such as pipe fitters1 carpenters1 machinists and labor of similar classes1 being charged out to the department requiring their services4 ,labor4--,plant labor is a large item of the expense of manufacture and one that is controllable within measure by the management4 ,there are certain standards of divisions recognized by practice and for such departments if the business be large it is well to have a weekly analysis and a cost per unit developed4 ,for a lesser business1 monthly will serve4 ,this expense item keeps the departmental men on the alert and serve as a basis of distribution of labor for departmental ledger purposes4 ,a system of labor classification is as follows3 7#a7 ,cattle ,yards4--,all labor in the care of cattle from arrival at plant1 and delivering into knocking pens4 ,includes expense items of caring for cattle1 cleaning pens1 troughs1 feeding and driving4 7#b7 ,cattle ,killing4--,all labor on handling cattle from pens and delivering dressed beef to coolers4 ,includes all labor expense beginning with knocking cattle and all items of labor involved in the dressing of cattle and all the disposal of parts1 as follows3 ,hides dropped on floor ready for inspection4 ,beef completely dressed1 washed1 weighed and delivered in the cooler department4 ,casings1 the gut sets delivered on floor ready for collection or passed to chute4 ,tallow fats pulled from animal ready for disposal by rough tallow gang4 ,heads and feet delivered on floor ready for picking up by rough tallow gang4 ,blood passing to reservoir ready for pumping or flowing to fertilizer department4 ,the killing of cattle cost shall include all labor for washing premises1 grinding choppers1 filing saws1 or mechanic in charge of machinery and equipment other than breakdowns or repairs4 7#c7 ,rough ,tallow ,department4--,heads1 taken from ,killing ,department1 delivery constituting separation from the animal4 ,perform all labor of separating heads into various parts and delivery to the receiving department of fats1 horns1 meats1 bones1 tongues1 all meat parts1 washed and in proper merchantable or manufacturing condition4 ,feet1 the picking up of feet and deliver to bone department4 ,casing1 the delivery of the gut sets to the casing department upon the bench where the casings are cleaned and removed4 ,fats1 the collection of all fats from killing floor1 casing department or where produced and the delivery to the oleo oil or tallow departments4 ,paunches1 etc41 the opening1 cleaning and disposal of paunches1 reeds1 tripe in all their parts4 ,plucks1 the collection of the heart1 liver1 lungs and the separation into fats1 refuse or meats and the disposal of the parts4 7#d7 ,coolers4--,include expense of chilling beef in chill rooms1 spreading for chilling1 receiving1 chilling and caring for small meats and the labor of packing and shipping to manufacturing departments4 ,includes sorting1 tagging and loading in cases or on wagons or delivery to cutting department4 7#e7 ,casing ,department4--,the expense of removing casing from the entrails and the complete manufacture of rounds1 middles1 bungs1 weasands and bladders whether salted or blown or dried4 ,complete manufacture includes all work up to and placing in packages and shipping4 7#f7 ,hides4--,the labor involved in taking hides from floor where dropped1 inspecting1 fleshing1 splitting ears1 washing1 dipping1 draining1 salting and curing4 ,the taking up1 packing1 loading and delivery to car1 conveyance for shipment4 7#g7 ,bone ,department4--,includes all labor in manufacturing bone products such as horns1 hoofs1 manufacturing1 bone grinding1 bone and neatsfoot oils4 ,the collecting and drying of pizzles and sinews1 manufacture includes the packing and shipping of all products4 ,per ton handled4 ,sum of weight received and weight shipped4 7#h7 ,oleo ,department4--,the expense for manipulating raw fat to make oil1 stearin1 tierce1 pack and ship4 ,fat is considered as delivered to oleo department when placed in chilling or washing vats4 ,includes cooperage work occurring in oleo department4 ,the skimming of all catch basins connected with and a part of the oleo department4 7#i7 ,tallow4--,labor for inspecting1 products1 filling tanks1 cooking1 pressing and all other work involved in making tallow or grease4 ,tallow to be tierced for shipment includes all labor for skimming catch basins and collecting the fats4 7#aj7 ,fertilizer ,department4--,the collection of tank water and the care including evaporation and returning of skimmed grease to rendering department4 ,the drying1 storing1 grinding1 packing and shipping of tankage4 ,the collection1 cooking1 pressing1 drying1 screening1 bagging and shipping of blood4 7#aa7 ,hog ,killing4--,all expense involved in dressing pigs from their receipt in yards to delivery in chill rooms4 ,including any attention in pens1 cleaning pens4 ,the dressing of pigs completely1 including the disposal and disposition of all offal and the delivery of separated offal to rendering tanks or to chill rooms4 ,include all labor1 cleaning department1 utensils and equipment4 ,at times this department is separated into a dressing department which performs all labor incidental to dressing the hog1 all labor on the heads and entrails being separated into another item4 7#ab7 ,hog ,cutting4--,to begin with the receipt of pigs at cooler4 ,to cut pigs into various parts and dispose of said parts4 ,sausage department1 lard refinery1 rendering department or to curing cellars4 ,includes packing of any and all cut meats for disposal for sale4 7#ac7 ,pork ,trimming ,room4--,this department takes the fats as delivered to them by the hog cutting gang1 performs the trimming and assorting of same1 delivering the lean trimmings to the sausage or curing departments1 and the bones or fat to the lard tanks4 7#ad7 ,curing ,cellars4--,the expense for curing1 salting1 boxing and packing meats1 being all labor of every nature involved on the receipt from cutting department to its disposal1 as a finished product4 ,includes unloading supplies and boxes4 ,includes all overhauling and any labor involved in curing processes4 ,this department is usually divided into sweet pickle and dry salt sections upon the basis of the meat handled by each--but operated entirely separate4 7#ae7 ,sausage ,department4--,expense for manufacturing sausage in all its work from receipt of green meat to its saleable condition boxed1 and shipped4 ,includes smoking1 boiled ham1 work4 ,this department is at times divided into a manufacturing and shipping department1 in which case the manufactured goods are delivered to the packing room4 7#af7 ,lard ,refining4--,the expense for handling processing1 manufacturing1 packing and shipping lard1 including all labor used on receipt and care for supplies4 7#ag7 ,smoke ,house4--,the soaking1 washing1 scrubbing1 smoking1 inspecting1 packing and shipping of all meats1 care of houses and all supplies4 7#ah7 ,tripe and ,pig ,feet4--,the receiving of raw tripe from the rough tallow gang1 washed ready for use4 ,the cleaning1 curing1 packing1 shipping1 pig feet as cut from ham or shoulder and their complete manufacture ready for shipment4 7#ai7 ,beef ,curing4--,this department takes products as delivered to it1 curing and loading same or delivering to next department4 ,the cleaning of ox lips is charged to this department4 ,also against tongue department for curing1 packing and loading tongues4 7#bj7 ,sheep ,killing4--,to be the complete expense for dressing sheep from their receipt in the pens to delivery to chill rooms2 including all occupations1 necessary thereto except the disposal of sheep offal and sheep by meats4 7#ba7 ,sheep ,tallow4--,all labor on sheep other than that described in the preceding paragraph1 including disposal to manufacturing departments of all parts and of all meats to the chill rooms4 ,involving all work on sheep offal other than sheep casing4 ,general ,principles4--,the following items describe the intent of the instructions4 7#bb7 ,delivery4--,constituted by trucking the product into the department and unloading the trucks or in case mechanical means such as conveyors are provided for delivering from one department to another1 delivery is constituted by placing in the conveyor leading to the department4 7#bc7 ,cleaning4--,each department is to keep clean the premises1 utensils and equipment used by it in the operating or manufacture4 7#bd7 ,supplies4--,each department is to receive1 unload1 care for1 and be responsible for all packages1 such as wrappings1 tins1 boxes1 bags1 kits1 barrels1 tierces1 or casks1 used for filling with product produced in that department4 7#be7 ,shipping or ,loading4--,the item of shipping or loading expense shall be borne by the respective producing departments1 upon a pro rata basis4 7#bf7 ,returned ,utensils4--,any department using a vehicle for the delivering of the product to another department shall take the vehicle1 truck or car back to the originating department4 7#bg7 ,cleaning and ,icing ,cars4--,this department includes all labor of cleaning and icing cars and hooking up same for beef loading4 ,the cleaning of refrigerator boxes being done by this department1 a transfer is made against the departments using same on the basis obtained from the relative number of boxes used in each department4 7#bh7 ,steam ,expense4--,the total labor1 cost for taking coal from quantity store alongside boiler room1 to and firing boilers and disposal of ash4 ,includes all boiler cleaning1 conveyor attention and labor connected with pumps on water connected with the making of steam4 ,expense of transportation from ship not included4 ,expense per ton fuel burned4 7#bi7 ,power ,expense4--,all labor for engineers1 engine watch1 oilers1 janitors1 pumpmen1 ammonia or brine piping tenders1 electricians or other labor attendant to or used in the production of electrical power1 refrigeration1 water production on pumping of water or brine4 7#cj7 ,repair ,department4--,machinery4 ,in this item are to be included all expense for wages for machinists1 blacksmiths1 pipe fitters1 tin smiths and workers in metal1 performing work for repairs for operating departments4 7#ca7 ,carpentry4--,in this item1 shall be included wages for all carpenters or wood workers and their helpers used in performing work for repairs for operating departments4 7#cc7 ,laborers4--,under this class shall be included the wages of all employes other than those named in the two preceding sections for operating departments4 7#cd7 ,store ,department4--,in this item is to be included all labor employed in the stores department for disbursing and distributing and the accounts of the repair1 carpentry1 labor and kindred departments4 ,items not directly chargeable to operating departments4 ,,topical ,,index ,a ,abattoir ,building #ae ,absorption ,equipment #cd ,accounting1 ,departmental 7,chapter ,,xxix7 #dec ,acidity of ,milk #dbd ,test for ,determining #dbf ,adopting of ,refrigerating ,system #ce ,advantages of ,fireproof ,construction #bh ,advice as to ,exhaust ,steam #eh ,air ,circulating #cg ,ammonia #cj ,compression ,system1 ,diagram 7,fig4 #ae7 #cj ,machines #bi ,value1 ,slime from ,intestines has ,high #bjd ,animal ,feeding #ahi ,antwerp ,back ,cut 7,fig4 #adf7 #cca ,approval of ,plans #bh ,arrangement of ,butterine ,factories #dbb ,b ,back1 ,clear 7,fig4 #acc7 #cjj ,fat1 ,test on1 ,converted into ,neutral and ,prime ,steam ,lard #cdd ,backing ,hides #ajj ,backs1 ,pork 7,fig4 #abb7 #bhf1 #cbe ,bacon ,bellies1 ,smoked ,breakfast 7,fig4 #abc7 #bhg ,curing ,fancy #cag ,hogs #bfg ,choice 7,fig4 #aaa7 #bgj ,balanced ,brine ,system #ch ,barrel ,pork1 ,curing #cbg ,barreled ,beef #abc1 #bbe ,pork #cbd ,basement ,freezers #hh ,beef1 ,barreled #abc1 #bbe ,bladders #bac ,bungs #bab ,carcasses ,being ,split and ,hung on ,trolley1 ,view of1 7,fig4 #db7 #ajb ,casings1 ,machines for #bad ,description of #bjh ,chucks 7,fig4 #dh7 #abb ,cooler1 ,view in1 of a ,chicago ,packing ,house 7,fig4 #bj7 #ff ,coolers1 ,dividing #fj ,cuts #aaf 7,pounds7 ,average ,weight of ,straight #aah ,domestic #fb ,freezing #fd ,glass ,jar #bbe ,grading #aah1 #aca ,hams1 7,fig4 #di7 #abd ,curing #bbb ,formulas for ,curing #bbc ,smoked1 ,shrinkage of #bbe ,stripping #bbb ,tests on ,smoking ,regular #bbd ,handling #fa ,hearts #bah ,hides and ,tallow1 ,yield of #ajg1 #ajh1 #aaa1 #aac ,hides1 ,building of ,packs #acc ,diagram of 7,fig4 #eb7 #abh ,green #abf ,proper ,storage for #abi ,salting of #acb ,shrinkage of #acj1 #acd ,trimming of ,green #acc ,truck for ,carting 7,fig4 #ea7 #abf ,livers #bag ,loading #fd ,loins 7,fig4 #de7 #aai ,middles #baa ,miscellany 7,chapter ,,xxiii7 #bag ,percentage of ,various ,cuts #aae ,plates1 ,shanks and ,flanks #abc ,ribbing #fc ,ribs 7,fig4 #df7 #abj ,rounds1 7,fig4 #dg7 #aba ,surplus #bbb ,shanks 7,fig4 #ej7 #abe ,smoking ,dried #cgj ,spreader1 ,ordinary 7,fig4 #dj7 #ajj ,spring 7,fig4 #da7 #aja ,switches1 ,salting #acc ,tails #bah ,tongues #bai ,test on ,freezing #bba ,trimming of #fc ,trimmings #bbe ,weasands #bac ,bellies1 ,curing #caf ,pork 7,fig4 #aba7 #bhe ,belly ,pork #cbe ,rib 7,fig4 #acd7 #cjc ,bladders1 ,beef #bac ,blades and ,ribs1 ,cattle #afg ,bleaching ,kettle #cdi ,lard #cej ,blood #bja and ,tankage1 ,quotations and ,values #bjc ,cooking #bjb ,handling #bjb ,pressing #bjb ,storing #bjb ,blow-off1 ,operating the ,tank #aha ,boiled ,ham #cig ,boiler ,feed ,pumps #ed ,water1 ,heating #ee ,boilers #ei ,boiling ,hams1 ,rules for #cih ,shrinkage in #cih ,points1 ,table of #aic ,bologna ,varnish #cif ,bone1 ,crushed #afh ,department 7,chapter ,,xiii7 #aei ,grinding #afh ,hard #aei ,products #afj ,quantity1 ,conversion ,factors of1 into ,another ,term #bjg ,saw 7,fig4 #fa7 #afc ,washer ,revolving 7,fig4 #fd7 #afe ,boneless1 ,ham #cic ,pigs ,feet #cia ,bones1 ,cutting ,sinews and ,saving #afc ,glue #aei ,jaw #afb ,shins1 ,cooking #afd ,systems of ,drying #afg ,box1 ,surface #agd ,cars1 ,using #f ,boxes and ,cooperage 7,chapter ,,xxxiii7 #ddj ,specifications for ,packing #ddj to #ddh ,breast ,sawing #ii ,brine1 ,calcium #gc ,chilling #cg ,circulation1 ,gardner 8,curtain0 ,system 7,fig4 #bh7 #gi ,coolers1 ,types of #ch ,methods--,recommendations #ch ,pipes1 ,simple ,method of ,supporting 7,fig4 #bg7 #gh ,salt #gc and ,spray ,systems1 ,section ,showing 7,fig4 #bc7 #gd ,spray1 ,arrangement of ,piping for #gc ,system1 ,balanced #ch ,low ,temperature #ej vs4 ,water in ,cream ,ripener #dbg ,breakfast ,bacon ,bellies1 ,smoked #bhg ,bruise1 ,trimming #ajb ,brush1 ,fountain 7,fig4 #dc7 #ajd ,bucks 7,fig4 #hb7 #bce ,build1 ,how to #bf ,building1 ,division of1 ,to avoid ,insurance ,area #ij ,errors in #aa ,freezer and ,storage1 ,ground ,plan of 7,fig4 #ca7 #he ,buildings1 ,fire ,proof #gj1 #hc ,freezer #hb ,how to ,subdivide #hh ,location of #hc ,permanence of #hc ,storage #hb ,bung ,gut ,skins #bab ,bungs1 ,beef #bab ,bunker 8,curtain0 ,system1 ,cross ,section ,cooler 7,fig4 #cj7 #hb ,bunkers1 ,chill-,room #hb ,business1 ,character of #ab ,butcher ,fats #aec ,hogs 7,fig4 #aji7 #bfh ,butt1 ,dry ,salt1 and ,square ,cut 7,fig4 #abg7 #bic ,butterine1 7,chapter ,,xxvii7 #dbj ,churn ,room for 7,fig4 #afe7 #dca ,colors of #dba ,cost of #dch ,emulsion ,churn 7,fig4 #afb7 #dbc ,equipment ,required for ,manufacture of #dba ,factories1 ,arrangement of #dbb ,formulas for ,making #dcg ,graining or ,tempering #dcb ,high ,grade #dcd ,ingredients of #dba ,kneading ,table 7,fig4 #afg7 #dcd ,low ,grade #dcj ,milk in #dbe ,origin of #acf ,packing #dcd ,print ,cooler for 7,fig4 #afi7 #dcf ,prints1 ,making 7,fig4 #aff7 #dcc ,quality in #dcj ,solid ,packing ,room 7,fig4 #afh7 #dce ,test ,showing ,shrinkage and ,cost of #dch ,testing ,milk for #dbb ,truck 7,fig4 #afc7 #dbc ,utensils1 ,cleanliness of #dce ,working of #dcc ,butts and ,plates #bij1 #bib ,by-,products1 ,concentration ,permits ,manipulation of #a ,saving #e ,c ,calcium ,brine #gc ,calves 7,fig4 #ib7 #bde and ,sheep 7,chapter ,,xix7 #bbi ,slaughtering #bej ,canvased ,meats1 ,weight of #cfg ,white ,wash for #cfi ,yellow ,wash for #cfi ,canvasing ,hams #cfg ,care of ,coolers #fg ,carriage for ,tracks in ,smoke ,house1 ,detail of 7,fig4 #afj7 #cge ,casings1 7,chapter ,,xvii7 #bjh ,beef #ajg1 #aji1 #aaa1 #aac ,description of #bjh ,packages for #bad ,clearing of #bad ,export #bji ,fatting ,machine for #baj ,hog #bad ,inspecting and ,measuring #baa ,machines for #bad ,preparation of1 for ,summer ,sausage #djd ,round #bjh ,selection of ,round #bji ,small #bae ,sausage #chb ,temperature of ,water for ,cleaning #bad ,turning and ,sliming the #baa ,catch ,basin #ahh ,cattle ,blades and ,ribs #afg ,casings #ajg1 #aji1 #aaa1 #aac ,cuttings1 ,dressing ,yields and 7,chapter ,x7 #ajf ,dressing #ajd ,driving #ic ,feet #afb ,flooring #ii ,head ,splitters 7,fig4 #fj7 #afa ,heading and ,skinning 7,fig4 #cg7 #if ,heads and ,feet #ajg1 #aji1 #aab ,heavy #fb ,knocking and ,stunning #id ,resting in ,pens ,before ,being ,slaughtered 7,fig4 #cd7 #ic ,skulls and ,feet1 ,test ,yield from #aff ,slaughtering 7,chapter ,,ix7 #ib ,stunned1 ,being ,hoisted for ,sticker 7,fig4 #cf7 #ie ,stunning1 ,modern ,method of 7,fig4 #ce7 #id ,trimmings #ajg1 #aji1 #aaa1 #aac ,washing #ajc ,yields of #ajf ,cellar ,ceiling ,suspension of ,pipes #gh ,cellars #fi ,curing #caa ,cereals for ,sausage #chb ,character of ,business #ab ,chicago ,beef ,cuts 7,fig4 #dd7 #aag ,chicago ,cuts1 ,beef #aae ,chilling ,fat #ach ,hogs #fg ,lard #di ,meat #df1 #fj ,room1 ,the #f ,slaughtered ,sheep #bch ,chill-,room ,bunkers #hb ,care of ,hogs in #bfa ,shrinkage of ,hogs in #bfd ,chucks1 ,beef 7,fig4 #dh7 #abb ,churn ,room for ,butterine 7,fig4 #afe7 #dca ,clarifying ,kettles #ada ,clean ,floors #abg ,cleaning ,hogs ,bodies #bei of ,casings #bad ,skulls #afb the ,evaporators #aic ,cleanliness #aa and ,collection of ,oleo ,fats #acg of ,butterine ,utensils #dce ,clear ,back 7,fig4 #acc7 #cjj ,tests #cja ,long 7,figs4 #acf and #acg7 #cba1 #cbb ,clearing the ,shanks #aja ,clears1 ,short 7,figs4 #aca and #acb7 #bii1 #cjj ,closed ,system #dj ,coil1 ,length of #hj ,room ,systems #cg ,rooms #ge ,coils1 ,method of ,erecting ,pipe #ge ,cold ,storage ,house1 ,section of1 ,equipped with ,spray ,system 7,fig4 #bb7 #gb ,test ,oil #cfb ,collecting ,grease #aia ,color of ,butterine #dcf ,colors of ,butterine #dba ,commercial ,fertilizer #bjf ,compound1 ,lard--,what ,it ,is #ced ,compressor #ca ,compressors1 ,two-,stage #db ,computations1 ,summary #di ,computing from ,unit ,basis #cd ,concentration and ,by-products #a ,concentrating ,arrangement1 ,balanced ,brine ,system1 ,closed ,type 7,fig4 #ah7 #da ,concrete ,columns #hd ,condenser #cb ,condensing ,water #cc ,construction1 ,floor #gj of ,spray ,systems1 ,types of #gb ,slow ,burning #bh ,wall #hf ,types of #hd ,conversion ,factors of ,bone ,quantity into ,another ,term #bjg ,conveyors1 ,dressing #ajd ,cook ,room for ,sausage #cgg ,cooking ,blood #bjb ,feet #afd of ,killing ,stock #agg ,schedule for ,various ,kinds of ,sausage #cgg ,shin ,bones #afd ,skulls #afb ,steam for #ahe ,cool ,room1 ,stuffing ,sausage in a #djj ,cooler ,building #ag ,diagram 7,fig4 #aa7 #bc ,cross ,section1 ,bunker 8,curtain0 ,system 7,fig4 #cj7 #hb ,end ,view of3 ,detail of ,pipe ,hangers 7,fig4 #bd7 #ge for ,fresh ,sausage #cgi ,ground ,sausage ,meats #cgc or ,expansion ,tank #cb ,coolers1 ,care of #fg 7,chapter ,,vii7 #fj ,cooling ,room for ,sausage #djj ,towers #ee ,cooperage and ,boxes 7,chapter ,,xxviii7 #ddj ,specifications #ddi to #dej ,copperas #aid in ,water to ,evaporate #aid ,cost of ,butterine #dch ,cottage ,ham #cic ,cottonseed ,oil #ced ,deodorizing #cef ,stearine #cei ,country ,packing ,house1 ,ground ,plan for 7,fig4 #h7 #bj ,cream ,ripeners 7,fig4 #afd7 #dbg ,crude ,oil1 ,refining #cee ,crushed ,bone #afh ,cultivating the ,milk #dbi ,cultures1 ,preparatory #dbh ,reason for ,using1 in ,milk #dbf ,cumberland ,cut 7,fig4 #aci7 #cbh ,curing ,barrel ,pork #cbg ,beef ,hams #bbb ,cellars #caa ,dry ,salt ,meats #cba1 #cbc ,fancy ,bacon #cag ,hams1 ,time ,required for #cah ,meats 7,chapter ,,xxii7 #caa for ,sausages #cgc 8,curtain0 ,system1 ,gardner #hj ,cuts1 ,beef #aaf ,average ,weight of ,straight #aah ,chicago ,beef 7,fig4 #dd7 #aag ,new ,york ,beef 7,natives7 #aae of ,beef1 ,percentage of ,various #aae ,packing ,house1 ,beef #aaf ,philadelphia1 ,beef #aae ,cutter1 ,oleo ,fat #ach ,cutting ,sinews and ,sawing ,bones #afc ,tanks #agh ,cycle1 ,the #cc ,cylinder ,arrangements #cf ,d ,defrosting #hj ,deodorizing ,cottonseed ,oil #cef ,tank1 ,section ,through ,exhaust ,head 7,fig4 #aeg7 #cfj ,department1 ,bone #aei ,departmental ,accounting 7,chapter ,,xxix7 #dec ,departments1 ,requirements as to ,arrangements of #ab ,description of ,plants #ad ,design #aa ,fireproof #bg of ,steam ,jacketed ,surface ,box 7,fig4 #fi7 #age ,plant #ad ,principles of #ac ,warehouse #gj ,diagram ,ammonia ,compression ,system 7,fig4 #ae7 #cj ,arrangement for ,string ,gang 7,fig4 #hj7 #bcb ,balanced ,brine ,system 7,fig4 #ag7 #ci ,cooler ,building 7,fig4 #aa7 #bc ,cutting ,beef #aah ,hydraulic ,press with ,piping and ,pump 7,fig4 #gj7 #agg ,manufacturing ,building 7,fig4 #aj7 #bb ,slaughtering and ,rendering ,department 7,fig4 #i7 #ba ,digesters #agd ,direct ,expansion #db ,piping #ha ,dividing ,beef ,coolers #fj ,domestic ,beef #fb ,rounds #bji ,sausage 7,chapter ,,xxv7 #cgb ,draft1 ,force #cg ,dressing ,cattle #ajd ,conveyors #ajd ,hogs #bed ,sheep by ,piece ,methods #bcj ,yields and ,cattle ,cuttings 7,chapter ,x7 #ajf ,dried ,beef1 ,smoking #cgj ,sausage 7,chapter ,,xxvi7 #cii ,dry ,cured ,meats for ,sausage #cha ,drying ,apparatus 7,figs4 #ge and #gf7 #dje ,bones1 ,systems of #afg ,tankage #bjd ,dry ,room ,caution in ,handling ,sausage #djc ,salt ,meats #cai ,curing #cba ,standard ,pumping ,schedule for ,curing #cbb ,smoking #cbc ,time ,required for ,curing #cbc ,dublin ,cut 7,fig4 #ade7 #ccj ,duo-,purpose ,compressor1 ,suction ,connection for 7,fig4 #af7 #cf ,e ,early ,methods #a ,economic ,factors #d ,economizers #ef ,emulsion ,churn1 ,butterine 7,fig4 #afb7 #dbc ,engines1 ,steam #ef ,english ,meats #cbg ,salting #cbh ,shipping ,ages for #ccc ,equipment ,absorption #cd ,refrigeration #bi ,required for ,manufacture of ,butterine #dba ,evaporating ,stick1 ,expense of #aii ,tank ,water #aia ,evaporator1 ,swenson 7,fig4 #gc7 #aib ,evaporators1 ,cleaning the #aic ,ewes 7,fig4 #hf7 #bci ,exhaust ,steam #eg ,expansion1 ,direct #db ,tank #cb ,valve #cb ,expense1 ,cooking ,test and #ahe for ,drying ,tankage #bjf ,export ,casings #bji ,packing ,house 7,fig4 #ad7 #bg ,export ,plant1 ,deep ,water 7,fig4 #ac7 #bf ,exterior ,walls #hd ,extra ,long ,clear 7,fig4 #acg7 #cbb ,f ,fan and ,ventilation #ga ,fat1 ,chilling #ach ,mutton #aee ,fats #acf ,butcher #aec ,grading #adi ,fatting ,machine for ,casings 7,fig4 #gg7 #baj ,feeding1 ,animal #ahi ,feet and ,heads1 ,cattle #ajg1 #aji1 #aab ,cattle #afb ,cooking #afd ,fell ,beating #ii ,cutting #ii ,fertilizer 7,chapter ,,xvi7 #bja ,commercial #bjf ,grease in1 a ,detriment #bjc ,materials1 ,mixing #bjf ,state ,regulations ,applying to #bjf ,filter ,press 7,fig4 #aec7 #cea for ,lard and ,clear ,oil 7,fig4 #aeh7 #cfa ,fire-proof ,buildings #gj1 #hc ,construction1 ,advantages of #bh ,design #bg ,fittings1 ,detail of ,end ,pipes1 ,showing ,different 7,fig4 #bf7 #gg ,flanks1 ,shanks and ,plates1 ,beef #abc ,floor ,area #gj ,construction #gj ,flooring ,cattle #ii ,floors1 ,clean #abg ,floors of ,hog ,cutting ,rooms #bgc ,fly1 ,skipper #cga ,foot ,skinning #ig ,force ,draft #cg ,fore-,cooler #fa ,formula for ,export ,hog ,tongue ,pickle #cch ,wilder ,ham ,pickle #cae ,formulas for ,curing ,beef ,hams #bbc ,making ,butterine #dcg ,sausage #chc to #chh1 #djd to #dai ,fountain ,brush 7,fig4 #dc7 #ajd ,freezer and ,storage ,room1 ,longitudinal ,section of a 7,fig4 #cb7 #hi ,buildings #hb ,requirement #ce ,freezer ,section1 ,transverse ,section through 7,fig4 #cc7 #ij ,space #dh ,freezers1 ,basement #hh in ,small ,plants #cf ,freezing ,beef #fd ,meats #g1 #fi ,fullers ,earth #cdh and ,lard1 ,tank1 for ,mixing #cdh ,kettle for ,small ,houses #cdi ,g ,galvanized ,sheet ,iron ,pipes #gc ,gardner 8,curtain0 ,system of ,refrigeration1 ,plan of 7,fig4 #bi7 #ha ,gardner's 8,curtain0 ,system for ,brine ,circulation 7,fig4 #bh7 #gi ,gate ,valve1 ,tank #agd ,glass ,jar ,beef #bbe ,glue ,bones #aei ,government ,specifications for ,beef or ,pork ,packages #dea ,grading1 ,beef #aah1 #aca ,fats #adi ,graining or ,seeding ,oil #adb ,tempering ,butterine #dcb ,gravity ,system #bj ,grease1 ,collecting #aia in ,fertilizer a ,detriment #bjc ,yield of--,test on ,condemned ,hogs #ahf ,greases1 ,lard ,compound and 7,chapter ,,xxiii7 #cdj ,grinding ,bone #afh ,ground ,plan of ,freezer and ,storage ,building 7,fig4 #ca7 #he of ,small ,local ,packing ,house 7,fig4 #ab7 #be for ,country ,packing ,house 7,fig4 #h7 #bj for ,export ,packing ,house 7,fig4 #ad7 #bg ,grubs in ,hides #acb ,gutting #ajj ,h ,ham1 ,boiled #cig ,boneless #cic ,cottage #cic ,curing ,pickle #cad ,facing and ,cutting #bei ,long ,cut 7,fig4 #adj7 #cbh ,manchester 7,fig4 #ada7 #cbi ,minced #chi ,new ,england or ,pressed #chi ,new ,jersey #chi ,pump 7,fig4 #ace7 #cac ,staffordshire 7,fig4 #adb7 #cbi and their ,treatment #cab ,beef 7,fig4 #di7 #abd ,curing #bbb ,formulas for ,curing #bbc ,stripping #bbb ,boneless ,rolled 7,fig4 #aae7 #bgf ,canvasing #cfg 8,italian0 #bgi ,lone ,cut 7,fig4 #aaf7 #bgg ,cumberland ,tests #ccd 8,manchester0 #bgi ,picnic 7,fig4 #abf7 #bic ,rules for ,boiling #cih ,short ,cut 7,fig4 #aac and #aad7 #bgd ,shrinkage in ,boiling #cih ,smoked ,dried ,beef1 ,shrinkage of #bbe 8,stafford0 #bgi ,time ,required for ,curing #cah ,two ,general ,kinds of #bge ,wilder #cae ,handling ,beef #fa ,hanging ,room for ,sausage #djf ,hard ,bone #aei ,short ,ribs 7,fig4 #abh7 #big ,head ,cheese #cia ,heading #if and ,skinning ,cattle 7,fig4 #cg7 #if ,heads and ,feet1 ,cattle #ajg1 #aji1 #aab ,hogs1 ,stuffed #cic ,hearts1 ,beef #bah ,heating ,boiler ,feed ,water #ee ,heavy ,cattle #fb ,hide ,dropping1 ,clearing ,out and #aja ,truck for ,carting ,beef 7,fig4 #ea7 #abf ,hides and ,pelts 7,chapter ,,xi7 #abf ,tallow1 ,beef1 ,yield of #ajg1 #ajh1 #aaa1 #aac ,beef1 ,building ,packs of #acc ,diagram of 7,fig4 #eb7 #abh ,proper ,storage for #abi ,salting of #acb ,scores in #abg ,shrinkage of #acj1 #acd ,beef1 ,trimming of ,green #acc ,green1 ,beef #abf ,grubs in #acb ,high ,grade ,butterine #dcd ,historical--,pork ,packing ,industry #bea ,the ,refining of ,lard in ,packing ,houses #cdj ,hog ,by-,products #bfe ,carcasses1 ,cleaning 7,fig4 #ajf7 #bfb ,casings #bad ,chill ,room ,necessities #bfc ,chilling ,room of ,large ,packing ,house 7,fig4 #ba7 #fh ,cutting #bff ,room1 ,floors of #bgc ,dressing #bed ,hoist1 ,small 7,fig4 #ajb7 #beh ,hoisting #bed ,scalding #beg 7,fig4 #ajd7 #bfj ,scraping ,gang at ,work 7,fig4 #aje7 #bfa ,machines #beh ,splitting #bfj ,sticking #bef ,washing #bfa ,yarding #bed ,hogs1 ,bacon #bfg ,butcher 7,fig4 #aji7 #bfh or ,light ,loin #bfi ,care of1 in ,chill ,room #bfa ,chilling #fg ,choice ,bacon #bgj ,cleaning ,body #bei ,condemned1 ,test on--,yield of ,grease #ahf ,drying #bfa ,hoisting on ,revolving ,wheel 7,fig4 #aja7 #beg ,loin #bfg ,marked #bgb ,necks1 ,washing #beg ,open-,air ,hanging ,room for #bfb ,packing #bfg1 #bgj ,percentages of ,yield from #bid ,resting and ,cooling 7,fig4 #ajj7 #bef ,scraping by ,hand #bei ,shrinkage of1 in ,chill ,rooms #bfd ,slaughtering 7,chapter ,,xx7 #bea ,smooth ,heavy 7,fig4 #ajh7 #bfg ,special ,test on1 ,mixed #cjg1 #caj ,sticking and ,bleeding 7,fig4 #ajc7 #bei ,unloading from ,car 7,fig4 #ig7 #beb ,variety and ,classes of #bff ,hoist1 ,hog1 ,small 7,fig4 #ajb7 #beh ,hoisting ,hogs #bed ,hoof ,puller1 ,hand 7,fig4 #fb7 #afd ,power 7,fig4 #fc7 #afd ,hoofs1 ,removal of #afc ,hoop ,press 7,fig4 #aej7 #cdg ,horn-,manufactured ,articles #afj ,horns #afj ,hydrogenation of ,oils #cei ,i ,ice ,computations #dh ,plants #de ,icing ,department #ag1 #bd ,ingredients of ,butterine #dba ,inspecting and ,measuring ,middle ,casings #baa ,insulation #hf ,lines #ia ,insurance ,area and ,division of ,buildings #ij ,introductory4 ,the ,business of ,sausage ,making #cgb ,investment in ,pork ,packing ,industry #beb ,isolation and ,ventilation ,rendering ,building #aga 8,italian0 ,hams #bgi ,j ,jaw ,bones #afb ,jowl--,dry ,salt ,butts 7,fig4 #ach7 #cbc ,k ,kettle1 ,bleaching #cdi for ,melting ,fats for ,oleo ,oil 7,fig4 #ed7 #aci ,rendered ,lard #cde ,settling1 for ,oleo ,oils 7,fig4 #ee7 #ada ,kettles1 ,clarifying or ,settling #ada ,killing and ,cutting ,stock #ahe ,floor1 ,double ,bed1 ,view in ,modern ,packing ,house ,showing 7,fig4 #ci7 #ih ,stock1 ,cooking #agg ,kneading ,table1 ,butterine 7,fig4 #afg7 #dcd ,knocking and ,stunning ,cattle #id ,l ,lamb ,tongue ,tests #bdi ,tongues #bdg and ,mutton ,chops 7,fig4 #hi7 #bdb ,genuine ,spring 7,fig4 #he7 #bch ,lambs1 7,fig4 #hh7 #bda and ,mutton1 ,shipping 7,fig4 #hg7 #bdj ,spring1 ,showing ,quality 7,fig4 #hd7 #bcg ,lard and ,fullers ,earth1 ,tank for ,mixing #cdh ,tallow1 ,titer in #ahd ,bleaching #cej ,chilling #di ,compound ,greases 7,chapter ,,xxiii7 #cdj ,country ,style #ced ,filter ,press for 7,fig4 #aeh7 #cfa ,grease1 ,treatment for #cfb ,kettle ,rendered #cde ,leaf #bfj ,leaf1 ,scraping 7,fig4 #ajg7 #bfc ,neutral #cda1 #cdc ,oil #cei ,no4 #b #cfb ,packages #ced ,weight of #cec ,packing #ced ,refining ,prime ,steam #cdh ,roll #aed ,stoling ,cylinder 7,fig4 #aed7 #ceb ,leaf ,lard #bfj ,scraping 7,fig4 #ajg7 #bfc ,test on ,rendered into ,neutral #cdc ,leather ,yields #abi ,leg ,breaking #ig ,live ,stock #bd ,going to ,scale 7,fig4 #a7 #b ,pens #ag ,receiving #ib ,livers1 ,beef #bag ,loading ,beef #fd ,facilities #ad1 #bj ,location and ,construction 7,chapter ,,ii7 #i of ,buildings #hc ,loin1 ,pork #bhh ,loins1 ,beef #aah ,long ,clears 7,fig4 #acf7 #cba ,cut ,ham 7,fig4 #adj7 #cbh ,sides1 ,pork 7,fig4 #abj7 #bhc ,low ,grade ,butterine #dcj ,temperature ,brine ,system #ej ,m ,machine1 ,space per ,ton #dg ,machinery per ,head ,killed #dg ,machines for ,beef ,casings #bad ,main ,cooler #fa 8,manchester0 ,hams #bgi1 #cbi ,manufactured ,articles1 ,horn #afj ,manufacturing ,building #ai1 #bd ,meat ,chilling #fj ,meats1 ,after ,smoking1 ,treatment of #cff ,canvased1 ,weight of #cfg ,white ,wash for #cfi ,yellow ,wash for #cfi ,curing 7,chapter ,,xxii7 #caa for ,sausages #cgc ,english #cbg ,freezing #g1 #fi ,fresh1 ,refrigerator ,boxes for ,shipment of #dea ,naming of #cfd ,overhauling #caf ,sausage1 and ,handling #cgb ,smoked1 ,shrinkage of #cfg ,wrapping #cfh ,smoking #cfd1 #cfe by ,gas #cff ,temperatures for #cff ,soaking1 ,before ,sending to ,smoke ,house #cfd ,trolley ,system for ,hanging #cfg ,mechanical ,refrigeration #g ,washer 7,fig4 #gh7 #bai ,melting ,oleo ,fats #adj ,mess ,pork #cbd ,middle ,casings1 ,inspecting and ,measuring #baa ,middles1 ,beef #baa ,milk1 ,acidity of #dbd ,cultivating the #dbi in ,butterine #dbe not ,pasteurized #dbg ,testing for ,butterine #dbb ,minced ,ham #chi ,mixing ,fertilizer ,materials #bjf ,moderate ,size ,packing ,house 7,fig4 #e7 #ae ,modern ,packing ,houses #a ,movement ,westward #c ,mutton #fg ,mutton and ,lamb ,chops 7,fig4 #hi7 #bdb ,fat #aee ,saddles and ,racks 7,fig4 #ij7 #bdc ,n ,naming of ,meats #cfd ,natural ,ice #df ,neatsfoot ,oil #aff ,purifiers #afh ,storage ,tank #afh ,necessity for ,refrigeration #de ,neck ,splitting #ajc ,neutral ,lard #cda1 #cdc ,test on ,leaf ,lard ,rendered into #cdc ,new ,england or ,pressed ,ham #chi ,jersey ,ham #chi ,new ,york ,cuts1 ,beef 7,natives7 #aae ,o ,odorless1 ,operating #ahg ,odors and ,prevailing ,winds #aa ,oil1 ,clear1 ,filter ,press for 7,fig4 #aeh7 #cfa ,cold ,test #cfb ,collecting #adf ,cottonseed #ced ,deodorizing #cef ,fats1 ,tests on #aea ,house ,operation #aee ,yields #adi ,lard #cei ,no4 #b #cfb ,neatsfoot #aff ,purifiers #afh ,storage ,tank #afh ,pork ,sausage in #cif ,process for #cef ,purifying #afe ,receivers #adg ,refining ,crude #cee ,seeding or ,graining #adc ,selection #aee ,skimming the #afe ,temperature of1 ,drawn to ,tierce #adg ,cottonseed1 ,deodorizing ,tank for 7,figs4 #aee and #aef7 #ceg1 #ceh ,hydrogenation of #cei ,oleo ,fat ,cutter 7,fig4 #ec7 #ach ,fats #acg ,oleo ,fats1 ,cleanliness and ,collection of #acg ,melting #adj ,oil #acg and ,stearine 7,chapter ,,xii7 #acf ,yield in #ajh1 #aaj1 #aab1 #aad ,press1 ,knuckle ,type 7,fig4 #eg7 #ade ,receiver 7,fig4 #eh7 #adf ,settling ,kettle for 7,fig4 #ee7 #ada ,kettle for ,melting ,fats for 7,fig4 #ed7 #aci ,selection and ,care of #acg ,settling the #adj ,scrap1 ,test on #aed ,seeding ,truck 7,fig4 #ef7 #adc ,stock1 ,press ,room and ,pressing #add ,system #dj ,operating ,odorless #ahg ,operation4 ,oil ,house #aee ,overhauling ,meats #caf ,overseas ,shipments #g ,p ,packages1 ,beef or ,pork1 ,government ,specifications for #dea for ,beef ,casings #bad ,lard #ced ,weight of #cec ,stearine #adi ,packer1 ,stearine 7,fig4 #ei7 #adh ,packing1 ,butterine #dcd ,house ,cuts1 ,beef #aaf ,industry1 ,growth of1 in ,u4 ,s4 #a ,moderate ,size 7,fig4 #e7 #ae ,small ,local 7,fig4 #ab7 #be ,houses1 ,modern 7,chapter ,i7 #a ,lard #ced ,sausage ,materials for ,curing #cha ,smoked ,meats for ,shipment #cga ,pasteurized ,milk #dbg ,pelts1 ,hides and 7,chapter ,,xi7 #abf ,sheep #ace ,penning ,sheep #bbi ,pens for ,hogs and ,sheep 7,figs4 #ih and #ii7 #bec1 #bee ,permanence of ,buildings #hc ,philadelphia ,cuts1 ,beef #aae ,pickle-,cured ,products for ,sausage #chj ,formula for ,export ,hog ,tongue #cch ,wilder ,ham #cae ,pickle1 ,ham ,curing #cad ,making #cad ,second #cag ,shoulder ,meats #caf ,pickled ,lamb ,tongues #bdh ,picnic ,hams 7,fig4 #abf7 #bic ,pig ,feet #cce ,snouts #cch ,test on #cci ,tongues #ccg ,feet1 ,boneless #cia ,pioneers' ,troubles #f ,pipe ,coils1 ,method of ,erecting #ge ,hangers1 ,detail of 7,fig4 #bd7 #ge ,life of #gg ,quantity of #ge ,refrigerating1 ,hung to ,ceiling1 ,view of 7,fig4 #be7 #gf ,pipes1 ,brine1 ,simple ,method of ,supporting 7,fig4 #bg7 #gh ,cellar ,ceiling ,suspension of #gh ,galvanized ,sheet ,iron #gc ,showing ,fittings1 ,detail of 7,fig4 #bf7 #gg ,piping ,arrangement for ,brine ,spray #gc ,direct ,expansion #ha ,ratio of #gh ,systems #hh ,plan of ,gardner 8,curtain0 ,system of ,refrigeration 7,fig4 #bi7 #ha ,plans1 ,approval of #bh ,plant1 ,beef1 ,sheep and ,pork1 ,exterior ,view of 7,fig4 #f7 #af ,design 7,chapter ,,iii7 #ad ,plants1 ,description of #ad ,plates and ,butts1 ,boston ,style #bij 7,fig4 #abe7 #bib ,shanks and ,flanks1 ,beef #abc ,polled-,angus ,cattle1 ,pen ,containing ,choice 7,fig4 #d7 #e ,pork ,backs 7,fig4 #abb7 #bhf1 #cbe ,pork1 ,barrel1 ,curing #cbg ,barreled #cbd ,bellies 7,fig4 #aba7 #bhe1 #cbe ,building #bd ,cuts 7,fig4 #aab7 #bga1 #bgc ,cuttings 7,chapter ,,xxi7 #bff ,house #ai ,loins 7,fig4 #aai7 #bhb1 #bhh ,mess #cbd ,packing ,industry--,historical #bea ,sausage in ,oil #cif ,short ,ribs 7,fig4 #aah7 #bhb ,shoulders 7,fig4 #abd7 #bia1 #cbf ,sides 7,fig4 #aag7 #bgh1 #bhj ,power ,department #ai1 #bd ,plant ,requirement 7,chapter ,,vi7 #eb ,preparatory ,cultures #dbh ,preservatives and the ,pure ,food ,laws #cii ,press1 ,filter 7,fig4 #aec7 #aea ,hydraulic1 ,diagram of1 with ,piping and ,pump 7,fig4 #gj7 #agg ,oleo ,oil1 ,knuckle ,type 7,fig4 #eg7 #ade ,press ,room #agd and ,pressing ,oleo ,stock #add ,separation of #aga ,pressing ,blood #bjb ,tankage #ahb ,temperatures of ,commodities #cfa ,principles of ,design #ac ,print ,cooler for ,butterine 7,fig4 #afi7 #dcf ,pritch ,sticks to ,support ,animal 7,fig4 #ch7 #ig ,process for ,oil #cef ,prod ,pole ,damage #abg ,producing ,department #ae1 #bj ,production of ,sheep1 ,increased #bbi ,products1 ,bone #afj ,pump1 ,vacuum #aic ,pumping ,schedule for ,curing ,dry ,salt ,meats #cbb ,pumps for ,boiler ,feeding #ed ,brine #ec ,wells #ec ,types of #di ,uses of #eb ,pure ,food ,laws and ,preservatives #cii ,purifiers1 ,neatsfoot ,oil #afh ,purifying ,oil #afe ,q ,quality in ,butterine #dcj ,quantity of ,refrigeration to ,provide #df ,r ,rating of ,refrigerating ,compressors #ce ,recapitulation of ,tests on ,cutting ,pork ,sides in ,various ,manners #cjd1 #cjg ,receiver #cb ,oleo ,oil 7,fig4 #eh7 #adf ,oil #adg ,receiving and ,discharging ,facilities #ij ,live ,stock #ib ,tank #bjb ,refining ,crude ,oil #cee ,prime ,steam ,lard #cdh ,tallow #cea ,refrigerating ,compressors1 ,rating of #ce ,refrigerating ,pipe ,hung to ,ceiling #gf ,system1 ,adopting of #ce ,refrigeration #de ,equipment 7,chapter ,,ix7 #bi ,mechanical #g ,necessity for #de ,plan of ,gardner 8,curtain0 ,system of 7,fig4 #bi7 #ha ,quantity to ,provide #df ,required1 ,summary of #di ,requirement 7,chapter ,v7 #de ,unit ,basis of #cd ,refrigerator ,boxes for ,shipment of ,fresh ,meats #dea ,cars1 ,loading ,beef into 7,fig4 #ai7 #fe ,cars1 ,using #f ,regular ,temperature #fa ,regulations1 ,state ,applying to ,fertilizer #bjf ,rendering ,building #ag ,isolation of #aga ,department #bd ,tank1 ,detail of ,piping ,connection #agi1 #ahj ,tank1 ,little ,neck #agb1 #agd ,section of #age ,rib ,belly1 ,pork 7,fig4 #acd7 #cjc ,ribbing ,beef #fc ,ribs and ,blades1 ,cattle #afg ,ribs1 ,beef 7,fig4 #df7 #abj1 #abc ,short 7,figs4 #abh-abi-acj7 #big1 #bih ,ripeners1 ,cream 7,fig4 #afd7 #dbg ,ripping and ,leg ,breaking #ig ,rocking ,meat ,with ,rocker ,knife #djd ,rooms ,necessary in ,butterine ,factory #dbb ,round ,casings #bjh ,selection of #bji ,rounds1 ,beef1 7,fig4 #dg7 #aba1 #abc ,domestic #bji ,rumping #ii ,s ,salt #bad ,brine #gc ,meats1 ,dry #cai to be ,used on ,beef ,hides #acb ,salting ,english ,meats #cbh ,sausage ,casings #chb ,cook ,room for #cgg ,cooking ,schedules #cgg ,cooler for ,fresh #cgi ,cooling ,room for #djj ,department ,arrangement #cgc ,device for ,running1 into ,smoke ,house 7,fig4 #aei7 #cgd ,domestic 7,chapter ,,xxv7 #cgb ,shrinkage of #cgi ,dried 7,chapter ,,xxvi7 #cii ,dry ,cured ,meats for #cha ,room ,treatment of #djb ,formulas #chc1 #chh1 #djd1 #dai ,grinding and ,stuffing ,room #cgd ,hanging ,room for ,smoked #cgh ,making1 ,introductory #cgb ,materials1 ,packing for ,curing #cha ,meats and ,handling #cgb ,cooler for ,ground #cgc ,pickle-,cured ,products for #chj ,pork1 in ,oil #cif ,stack1 ,smoke ,house 7,fig4 #afa7 #cgf ,stuffing1 in a ,cool ,room #djj ,summer #cii ,preparation of ,casings for #djd ,shipping ,ages for #djc ,storage of #djc ,temperatures for ,smoking #cgh ,smoke ,houses for #cgd1 #dja ,saving ,by-,products #e ,saw1 ,bone 7,fig4 #fa7 #afc ,scalding ,hogs #beg ,scores in ,hides1 ,beef #abg ,scrap ,vat #adb ,scraping ,gang1 ,hog1 at ,work #bfa ,hogs by ,hand #bei ,machines1 ,hog #beh ,scrapple #cid ,secondary ,cooler #fb ,selection and ,care of ,oleo ,oil #acg ,seeding or ,graining ,oil #adb ,settling ,kettles #ada ,oleo ,oil #adj ,settlings in ,bottom of ,vats #aia ,sewage #aj ,shanks and ,flanks1 ,beef ,plates #abc ,shanks1 ,beef 7,fig4 #ej7 #abe ,sheep and ,calves 7,chapter ,,xix7 #bbi ,chill ,room1 ,view in 7,fig4 #ia7 #bdd ,chilling ,slaughtered #bch ,dressing #bcd by ,piece #bcj ,heads1 ,comparative ,test of #ahf ,increased ,production of #bbi ,killing and ,dressing1 ,string ,gang ,method of #bcj ,pelts #ace ,penning #bbi ,ring #bcj ,round ,dress and ,lamb ,dress ,caul on 7,fig4 #hc7 #bcf ,washing1 and ,its ,effect #bcd ,shipment of ,fresh ,meats1 ,refrigerator ,boxes for #dea ,shipments1 ,overseas #g ,shipping ,ages for ,english ,meats #ccc ,short ,clear1 ,square 7,fig4 #adi7 #ccc ,clears 7,figs4 #aca and #acb7 #bii1 #cjj ,rib1 ,square ,export 7,fig4 #adg7 #cca ,ribs1 ,hard 7,fig4 #abh7 #big ,pork 7,fig4 #aah7 #bhb ,shoulder ,meats1 ,pickle #caf ,shoulders1 ,pork 7,fig4 #abd7 #bhi1 #bia1 #cbf ,shrinkage of ,smoked ,meats #cfg ,domestic ,sausage #cgi ,beef ,hides #acd in ,boiling ,hams #cih ,side ,meats1 ,pork #bhj ,sinews1 ,cutting1 and ,saving ,bones #afc ,skinning and ,heading ,cattle 7,fig4 #cg7 #if ,skipper ,fly #cga ,skirt ,trimming #fc1 #ajb ,skulls #afa ,slaughtering and ,rendering ,department #ba ,calves #bej ,cattle 7,chapter ,,ix7 #ib ,slime from ,intestines ,has ,high ,ammonia ,value #bjd ,sliming and ,turning the ,casing #baa ,slow ,burning ,construction #bh ,sluice ,trough in ,butterine ,factories #dcb ,smoke ,house ,carriage1 ,detail of 7,fig4 #afj7 #cge 7,chapter ,,xxiv7 #cfd ,device for ,running ,sausage into 7,fig4 #aei7 #cgd ,smoke ,house1 ,sausage ,stack1 ,diagram of 7,fig4 #afa7 #cgf ,soaking ,meats ,before ,sending to #cfd ,houses for ,sausages #cgd1 #dja ,smoked ,dried ,beef ,hams1 ,shrinkage of #bbe ,meats1 ,packing for ,shipment #cga ,meats1 ,shrinkage of #cfg ,wrapping #cfh ,smoking ,dried ,beef #cgj ,dry ,salt ,meats #cbc ,meats #cfd1 #cfe by ,gas #cff ,temperatures for #cff ,temperatures for ,sausages #cgh ,tests on ,regular ,beef ,hams #bbd ,treatment of ,meats after #cff ,soaking ,meats ,before ,sending to ,smoke ,house #cfd ,soil ,fertility #ahi ,solids in ,water #aie ,preparation of #aij ,space1 ,freezer #dh ,losses #hd per ton ,machine #dg ,spare ,ribs 7,fig4 #abg7 #bic1 #cbf ,specifications for ,cooperage #ddi to #dej ,packing ,boxes #ddj to #ddh ,splitters1 ,cattle ,head 7,fig4 #fj7 #afa ,splitting #aja ,cleaver #aja ,spray and ,brine ,salt ,systems1 ,section ,showing 7,fig4 #bc7 #gd ,spray ,devices #gc ,system1 ,section of ,cold ,storage ,house ,equipped with 7,fig4 #bb7 #gb ,spring ,beef ,spreader 7,fig4 #da7 #aja 8,stafford0 ,hams #bgi ,staffordshire ,hams #cbi ,side 7,fig4 #add7 #ccj 8,starter10 ,the ,regular #dbi ,starters1 ,what ,are8 #dbh ,state ,regulations ,applying to ,fertilizer #bjf ,steam ,engines #ee ,exhaust #eg for ,cooking #ahe ,stearine #adg and ,oleo ,oil 7,chapter ,,xii7 #acf and ,oleo ,oil ,yield in #ajh1 #aaj1 #aab1 #aad ,cottonseed #cei ,packages #adi ,packer 7,fig4 #ei7 #adh ,storage #adh ,stick ,drying #bf ,baume #aie with ,tankage #aif ,expense of ,evaporating #aii ,influence of #bjc ,quantity ,produced #bjj ,roll1 ,standard ,twin 7,fig4 #gd7 #aif ,storing #aic ,testing #aid ,sticking #ie ,hogs #bef ,stock1 ,killing and ,cutting #ahe ,stock1 ,oleo1 ,press ,room and ,pressing #add ,storage ,buildings #hb of ,summer ,sausage #djc ,proper1 for ,beef ,hides #abi ,stearine #adh ,tank1 ,neatsfoot ,oil #afh ,storage1 ,warm #ia ,storing ,blood #bjb ,stick #aic ,string ,gang ,method of ,killing and ,dressing ,sheep #bcj1 #bca ,stuffed ,hogs ,heads #cic ,stuffing ,sausage in a ,cool ,room #djj ,stunned ,cattle ,being ,hoisted for ,sticker 7,fig4 #cf7 #ie ,sub-divide ,building1 ,how to #hh ,suction ,connection for ,duo-,purpose ,compressor 7,fig4 #af7 #cf ,summer ,sausage #cii ,preparation of #djd ,shipping ,ages of #djc ,storage of #djc ,summary ,computations #di of ,refrigeration ,required #di ,superheaters #ef ,surface ,box #agd ,steam ,jacketed #agf ,treatment #ahb ,boxes1 ,situation of #agd ,sweetbreads #bah ,switches1 ,beef1 ,salting #acd ,system1 ,closed #d ,open #dj ,t ,table for ,tank ,water #aie of ,boiling ,points #aic ,tagging and ,weighing #fd ,tail ,sawing #ajj ,tails1 ,beef #bah ,tallow and ,hides1 ,beef1 ,yield of #ajg1 #ajh1 #aaa1 #aac ,lard1 ,titer in #ahd ,refining #cea ,tank ,blow-,off1 ,operating #aha ,cooler or ,expansion #cb ,deodorizing1 for ,cottonseed ,oils 7,figs4 #aee1 #aef7 #ceg1 #ceh ,exhaust ,head 7,fig4 #aeg7 #cfj for ,mixing ,fullers ,earth and ,lard #cdh ,gate ,valve #agd ,house ,department 7,chapter ,,xiv7 #agj ,design #agj ,hazards #agc ,section ,through #aga ,showing ,nesting of ,tanks 7,fig4 #fg7 #agc ,tests #ahf ,receiving #bjb ,rendering1 ,detail of ,piping ,connections #agi1 #ahj ,little ,neck #agb1 #agd ,section of #age ,tank ,water 7,chapter ,,xv7 #ahi ,cost of ,evaporating #aii ,evaporating #aia ,produced1 ,quantity of #aii ,table for #aie ,testing #aia ,tankage #bjb and ,blood1 ,quotations and ,value #bjc ,digester #bjc ,drying #bjd ,stick with #aif ,expense for ,drying #bjf ,pressing #ahb ,value of #aig ,tanks1 ,cutting #agh ,nesting of 7,fig4 #fg7 #agc ,releasing ,pressure from #agh ,temperature of ,hanging ,room for ,sausage #djj ,regular #fa for ,smoking ,meats #cff ,pressing1 of ,several ,commodities #cfa ,temperatures1 ,varying #hg ,tempering or ,graining ,butterine #dcb ,test1 ,comparative1 of ,sheep ,heads #ahf ,cooking and ,expense #ahe for ,determining ,acidity of ,milk #dbf on ,back ,fat ,converted into ,neutral and ,prime ,steam ,lard #cdd on ,condemned ,hogs1 ,yield of ,grease #ahf ,leaf ,lard ,rendered in ,neutral #cdc ,oleo ,scrap #aed ,packing ,tripe #bbg ,showing ,shrinkage and ,cost of ,butterine #dch ,special1 on ,mixed ,hogs #cjg1 #caj ,yield from ,cattle ,skulls and ,feet #aff ,testing ,milk for ,butterine #dbb ,stick #aid ,tank ,water #aia ,tests1 ,clear ,backs #cja ,lamb ,tongue #bdi ,long ,cut ,hams and ,cumberland #ccd on ,oil ,fats #aea ,smoking1 on regular ,beef ,hams #bbd ,tank ,house #ahf ,tierce1 ,temperature of ,oil ,drawn to #adg ,titer in ,tallow and ,lard #ahd ,tongues1 ,beef #bai ,test on ,freezing #bba ,lamb #bdg ,transverse ,section through ,freezer ,section 7,fig4 #cc7 #ij ,treatment for ,lard ,grease #cfb of ,meats after ,smoking #cff ,tallow and ,lard #ahc ,trimming of ,beef #fc ,green ,beef ,hides #acc ,tripe #bbf ,cost of ,production #bbg ,test on ,packing #bbg ,trolley ,system for ,hanging ,meats #cfg ,truck1 ,oleo seeding #adc ,butterine 7,fig4 #afc7 #dbc ,turning and ,sliming the ,casing #baa ,two-,stage ,compressors #db ,types of ,pumps #eb ,u ,union ,stock ,yards1 ,chicago #b1 #c ,unit ,basis1 ,computing from #ce of ,refrigeration #cd ,uses of ,pumps #eb ,v ,vacuum ,pump #aic ,value of ,tankage #aig ,valve1 ,expansion #cb ,gate ,tank #agd ,varnish1 ,bologna #cif ,vat1 ,bottom of1 ,settlings in #aia ,scrap #adb ,veal #fg ,cuts 7,fig4 #ic7 #bdf ,racks 7,fig4 #if7 #bdi ,saddles 7,figs4 #id and #ie7 #bdg1 #bdh ,ventilation #hf ,fan and #ga ,view ,illustrating ,modern ,method of ,stunning ,cattle 7,fig4 #ce7 #id in ,beef ,cooler of a ,chicago ,packing ,house 7,fig4 #bj7 #ff ,hog ,chilling ,room of a ,large ,packing ,house in ,chicago 7,fig4 #ba7 #fh ,showing ,beef ,carcasses ,being ,split and ,hung on ,trolley 7,fig4 #db7 #ajb ,deep ,water ,export ,plant 7,fig4 #ac7 #bf ,double-,bed ,killing ,floor in a ,modern ,slaughter ,house 7,fig4 #ci7 #ih ,w ,wall ,construction #hf ,warehouse ,design #gj ,warehouses 7,chapter ,,viii7 #gj ,warm ,storage #ia ,washer1 ,mechanical 7,fig4 #gh7 #bai ,washing ,cattle #ajb ,hogs #bfa ,sheep and ,its ,effect #bcd ,water and ,sprinkling #ib ,condensing #cc ,cooling of #ach ,water ,distribution ,systems #ed ,supply #aj1 #ec ,temperature for ,cleaning ,casings #bad vs4 ,brine in ,cream ,ripener #dbg ,weasand1 ,beef #bac ,meat #bai ,weighing and ,tagging #fd ,weight of ,canvased ,meats #cfg ,wells #ee ,wethers 7,fig4 #ha7 #bcc ,white ,wash for ,canvased ,meats #cfi ,wilder ,hams #cae ,sirup ,curing #caf ,wiltshire ,side 7,fig4 #adh7 #ccb ,winds1 ,prevailing #aa ,working of ,butterine #dcc ,wrapping ,smoked ,meats #cfh ,y ,yankee ,ingenuity #b ,yarding ,hogs #bed ,yellow ,wash for ,canvased ,meats #cfi ,yield1 ,percentages of1 from ,hogs #bid1 #bie1 #bif ,yields of ,cattle 7,tables7 #ajf ,oil ,house #adi ,yorkshire ,side 7,fig4 #adc7 #cbi ,,publications ,,of ,,nickerson ,,collins ,,co4 ,,publishers ,,of ,trade ,journals and ,technical ,books #egjg ,west ,lake ,street ,chicago ,ice and ,refrigeration ,a ,,monthly ,,review ,,of ,,the ,,ice1 ,,ice ,,making1 ,,refrigerating1 ,,cold ,,storage ,,and ,,kindred ,,industries4 ,the oldest publication of its kind in the world and the only journal which furnishes a complete and reliable record of the scientific1 experimental and practical progress made in the manufacture of ice and the harvesting and handling of ice1 as well as a thorough exposition of the various methods adopted in all parts of the world1 to produce low temperatures for preserving perishable goods in store and for use in the arts and sciences4 ,,subscription ,,price4 ,in ,u4 ,s4 ,island ,possessions1 ,mexico and ,cuba #c4jj per year ,in all other countries1 #d4jj per year ,,payable ,,in ,,advance ,packing ,house and ,cold ,storage ,construction ,,by ,h4 ,,peter ,,henschein ,a general reference work on the design construction and equipment of modern meat packing and cold storage plants including refrigeration1 insulation and other data4 ,reveals in detail the latest approved methods with particular reference to the requirements of the ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,animal ,industry regarding sanitary construction ,,price ,bound in ,full ,cloth #e4jj ,bound in ,full ,morocco #f4jj ,the ,modern ,packing ,house ,,by ,f4 ,w4 ,,wilder ,,and ,d4 ,i4 ,,davis ,,price ,bound in ,full ,cloth #aj4jj ,bound in ,full ,morocco #ab4jj ,ice and ,refrigeration ,blue ,book and ,buyers ,guide ,the ,,blue ,,book gives an alphabetical list by states and towns of the now numerous concerns in the ,united ,states and ,canada--upwards of twenty thousand--using ice making or refrigerating machinery4 ,it gives1 besides the name and street address1 and in most cases name of manager1 also the business1 the number of machines installed1 the capacity of each in tons1 kind and make of the machines1 employed in each case1 tons of ice made per day1 and capacity in cubic feet of cold storage space4 ,,price ,bound in ,cloth1 #e4jj ,bound in ,flexible ,morocco1 #f4jj ,the ,absorption ,refrigerating ,machine ,,by ,,gardner ,t4 ,,voorhees1 ,s4 ,b4 ,a complete practical1 elementary treatise of the absorption system of refrigeration and its broad general principles of operation1 showing also its development4 ,the subject is presented with practical references to well known natural laws as parallels1 so that one need not possess engineering knowledge to follow the text4 ,,price ,bound in ,cloth #b4ej ,bound in ,full ,morocco #c4jj ,compend of ,mechanical ,refrigeration ,,by ,,dr4 ,j4 ,e4 ,,siebel ,this book presents in a convenient form the rules1 tables1 formulae and directions which are needed by contractors and engineers of refrigerating machinery1 ice manufacturers1 cold storage men1 meat freezing establishments1 packers and all others interested in the practical application of refrigeration4 ,it is1 in fact1 designed to give ready and plain answers to most of such questions as are daily occuring in any one of the different branches of practical refrigeration4 ,,price ,bound in ,cloth #c4jj ,bound in ,flexible ,morocco #c4ej ,refrigeration ,memoranda ,,by ,,john ,,levey ,a ,,collection ,,of ,,useful ,,information ,,relating ,,to ,,ice ,,making ,,and ,,refrigerating1 ,,gathered ,,from ,,engine ,,room ,,practice4 ,in this little book the author has endeavored to assemble a number of useful memoranda and tables such as are suitable for instant use by any one1 whether an accomplished refrigerating engineer1 or an assistant1 or a beginner1 and all in plain every-day engine room language and in plain figures4 ,,price3 ,bound in ,flexible ,morocco #a4jj ,practical ,cold ,storage ,,by ,,madison ,,cooper ,this is the first work ever published in which the theory and practice of cold storage in all its varied applications to commercial and industrial life has been thoroughly and exhaustively treated4 ,the book is intended to cover the field of applied refrigeration with the exception of the technical and theoretical side of the mechanical production of ice and refrigeration1 which has already been very fully covered by several very comprehensive works4 ,,price ,bound in ,cloth #c4ej ,bound in ,full ,morocco #d4ej ,the list of books given above represent the best works in their respective fields4 ,our ,book ,department is prepared to supply promptly any books of a technical or general nature1 as well as any of the trade journals or class publications and will gladly assist in the selection of books on any subject4 ,our complete list of books cover the ,ice making1 ,refrigerating1 ,packing1 ,meats1 ,provisions1 ,ice ,cream1 ,creamery1 ,dairy and kindred industries4 ,all prices quoted above include postage4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,the language used in this e-text is that used in the source document4 ,inconsistencies and unusual spelling and style have been retained4 ,differences in wording between lists of subjects1 the table of contents and the text have not been rectified4 ,errors or unclear data in calculations and 7table7 data have not been corrected except when the source of the error was clear2 such corrections are mentioned under ,changes made below4 ,pages #aah-abe and #bfg-bgb3 the unusual use of quote marks has not been standardised4 ,page #bbd1 table3 the column 8per cent0 contains the decimal fraction1 not the percentage4 ,page #bda3 reference letters ,a and ,b are not visible in the illustration4 ,page #bhi1 8,shank cut off above the knee joint 4443 the closing quote mark is missing4 ,page #dai1 ,seasoning ,formula3 ,saltpetre is mentioned twice 7in different quantities7 in the source document4 ,page #dfa ff43 ,deviations from the alphabetical order of entries have not been corrected4 ,changes made ,illustrations and tables have been moved out of text paragraphs4 ,footnotes have been moved to directly underneath the paragraph to which they refer4 ,some obvious minor typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected silently4 ,in tables1 the ditto-symbol has been replaced with the dittoed text and some data have been re-aligned for consistency and legibility4 ,some tables have been split or otherwise re-arranged for legibility and to fit the available width4 ,temperatures 7,f and ,f7 and densities 7,b and ,b7 have been standardised to ,f and ,b1 dimensions and multiplications to m n1 salt petre and variants to saltpetre4 ,page #ce3 ,the purchaser must never loose sight 444 changed to ,the purchaser must never lose sight 4444 ,page #de3 444 a preventive or retardent in the propogation 444 changed to 444 a preventive or retardant in the propagation 4444 ,page #hj3 superceding changed to superseding4 ,page #aee3 ,,test ,,on ,,olio ,,scrap changed to ,,test ,,on ,,oleo ,,scrap4 ,page #afc3 ,cutting ,sinews and ,saving ,bones4 changed to ,cutting ,sinews and ,sawing ,bones4 7changed in ,index as well74 ,page #afh1 table ,test yield of #a1bji cattle3 column header per head ,average changed to ,average per head4 ,page #aia3 444 to prevent the tankwater from souring 444 changed to 444 to prevent the tank water from souring 4444 ,page #aii1 table ,,recapitulation3 #ae per cent depreciation on #aj1jj investment changed to #ae per cent depreciation on #aj1jjj investment4 ,page #bbd1 table ,,regular ,,insides ,,for ,,shipment3 column headers inserted cf4 the other two tables on this page4 ,page #cfb3 neatsfood oil changed to neatsfoot oil4 ,page #dcg1 table ,,medium ,,grade ,,butterine1 second row3 #cj1eg changed to #ch1eg4 ,page #dda ff43 ,for ease of reference1 the table headers have been repeated above the split parts of the tables4 ,the tables have been split so1 that they may easily be recombined to their full width4