,the ,gaekwad ,studies                  
in                         ,religion and
 ,philosophy3 ,x                        
,,some ,,religious ,,and ,,moral        
,,teachings ,,of ,,al-,,ghazzali        
,printed by ,mr4 ,k4 ,g4 ,patel at the  
,lakshmi ,vilas ,p4 ,press              
,co4 ,ltd4 and published by ,a4 ,g4     
,widgery1 the ,college1                 
,baroda1 #e-a-aiba4          ,other     
,works by ,professor ,nawab ,ali        
,,maa',,rij-,,uddin4    ,the ,ladder of 
,religion4 ,a ,comparative ,study of    
,religions4    ,,tarikhi-,,sohaf4       
,history of the ,holy ,scriptures4      
,,tazkiral-,,ul-,,mustafa4    ,life of  
,prophet ,mohammed4    ,may be had from 
,the ,seminar1 ,the ,college1 ,,baroda  
,,some ,,religious ,,and ,,moral        
,,teachings ,,of ,,al-,,ghazzali        
,being brief extracts from his          
,ihya-u-,ulum-id-din                    
,freely rendered into ,english by       
,,syed ,,nawab ,,ali ,m4 ,a4            
,professor of ,persian1 the ,college1   

,baroda4                                
,with an introduction by                
,,alban ,g4 ,,widgery ,m4 ,a4           
,professor of the ,comparative ,study of
 ,religions1                            
,the ,college1 ,baroda4                 
,,baroda          ,,preface      ,the   
perusal of the constructive treatises of
 the foremost leaders of the  different 
religions should help to promote at     
least more mutual respect1  if not1     
indeed1 actual co-operation1 among their
 devotees than the study  of the        
critical discussions of lesser minds4   
,for this reason the present  small     
volume of extracts from the chief       
constructive work of ,al ,ghazzali  has 
been included in the ,gaekwad ,studies  
in ,religion and ,philosophy4 ,the      
purpose of that series is to be         
constructive rather than critical1 and  
further1 it is meant to contain volumes 
appealing to the general public  as well
 as to the scholar4 ,for a wider and    
more correct understanding and          

appreciation of the spirit of ,islam1 it
 is to be regretted that there  are so  
few ,english translations of ,muslim    
works in ,arabic and ,persian4  ,it is  
to be hoped that in future more         
attention will be turned in this        
direction4 ,in the meantime the present 
volume may serve at least to  arouse    
some interest4    ,this work was        
undertaken at the request of ,professor 
,widgery1 to whom ,i  am indebted for   
several suggestions and for going       
through the whole of  the manuscript and
 the proofs4                            
,,nawab ,,ali    ,baroda1 #aibj4        
,,contents          ,preface            
,page #e        ,introduction           
#i        ,list of ,al ,ghazzali's works
                                #cj     
,i4 ,the ,nature of ,man                
#da          ,,ii4 ,human ,freedom and  
,responsibility                     #ec 
,,iii4 ,pride and ,vanity               
#gh          ,,iv4 ,friendship and      
,sincerity                              

#ie           ,v4 ,the ,nature of ,love1
 and ,man's highest ,happiness     #aaf 
,,vi4 ,the ,unity of ,god               
#ach         ,,vii4 ,the ,love of ,god  
and its ,signs                          
#ade        ,,viii4 ,riza or ,joyous    
,submission to ,his ,will               
#afd          ,,introduction      ,the  
,comparative ,study of ,religions1      
interesting as a form of intellectual   
research1 has for many a further value  
in the influence it may exert upon  the 
widening and the deepening of the       
religious life4 ,the practical value    
may become more and more acknowledged1  
if1 as signs suggest1 the reality  of   
the religious experience is more keenly 
felt and mankind recognise  the place of
 religious goods in the highest type of 
life4 ,though it is  certainly premature
 to say that there is much serious      
acknowledgement and  recognition of     
these values amongst the peoples of the 
world1 there are  reasons to think that 
tendencies of thought and feeling in    

this direction  are increasing in power4
 ,one of the best means of aiding the   
,comparative  ,study of ,religions and  
promoting these tendencies is by the    
publication  of important books         
connected with the religions1           
representing the views  of leading      
thinkers and saints4    ,if we turn to  
,islam1 we find that some ,western      
writers describe it as in  a condition  
of progressive decay1 while others would
 have us believe that  its onward march 
is a menace4 ,it is well to be able to  
avoid the obvious  purpose which lies   
behind both contentions4 ,nevertheless1 
to the present  writer it appears true  
to say that there is much stagnation in 
,islam 7,in  which religion is there    
not871 and that its spirit is often lost
 and  its real teachings neglected owing
 to the general use of ,arabic in the   
recitation of the ,quran by persons     
entirely ignorant of that language1  and
 also to the prevalent mechanical       
conception of the character of the      

,quran as a form of divine revelation4  
,we believe that the ,comparative       
,study of ,religions will help to turn  
the attention of ,muslims away  from    
these to the emphasising of the         
essential spirit of ,islam4 ,this       
should be central and normative in the  
rising movements of reform and          
rejuvenescence4 ,in this connection1 as 
bringing out this spirit1 it is         
especially appropriate1 both for the    
students of the religions and for  those
 directly interested in the spiritual   
revival in ,islam1 to publish  in an    
easily accessible form some of the      
religious and moral teachings of        
,ghazzali4 ,a ,western scholar has      
written of him that he is 8the greatest1
  certainly the most sympathetic figure 
in the history of ,islam 444 the  only  
teacher of the after generations ever   
put by ,muslims on a level  with the    
four great ,imams40#a ,and he goes on to
 remark further2 8,in the  renaissance  
of ,islam which is now rising to view1  

his time will come and  the new life    
will proceed from a renewed study of his
 works40#b ,but  ,dieterici says of him3
 8,as a despairing sceptic he springs   
suicidally  into the all-,god 7i4e4     
all-pervading deity of the ,pantheists7 
to kill  all scientific reflection40#c  
,to justify such a judgment would indeed
  be impossible if the whole course of  
,ghazzali's works is taken into         
consideration4 ,the greatest eulogy is  
perhaps that of ,tholuck3 8,all that  is
 good1 worthy1 and sublime1 which his   
great soul had compassed1 he  bestowed  
upon ,muhammedanism1 and he adorned the 
doctrines of the ,quran  with so much   
piety and learning that in the form     
given them by him they  seem1 in my     
opinion1 worthy of the assent of        
,christians4 ,whatsoever was  most      
excellent in the philosophy of          
,aristotle or in the ,sufi mysticism1   
he discreetly adapted to the ,muhammedan
 theology4 ,from every school he  sought
 the means of shedding light and honour 

upon religion1 while his  sincere piety 
and lofty conscientiousness imparted to 
all his writings a  sacred majesty40#d  
,one feature of ,ghazzali's attitude has
 considerable significance in  looking  
to an increased study of his works as a 
factor towards the  revivification of   
,islam3 his tolerance4 ,although        
regarding ,al ,hallaj's  expressions1   
7for example1 ,i am the truth1 i4e4     
,god7 as incautious1  he helped to      
defend him and to save him from         
execution on a charge of  blasphemy4 ,he
 wrote a treatise on tolerance3 ,the    
,criterion of the  ,difference between  
,islam and ,heresy4 ,in this teaching of
 tolerance he  felt himself to be       
pointing back to the policy of the      
earliest ,muslim  times and to the      
greatest authorities of early ,islam4   
,he 8strove to  attract the souls of his
 fellow ,muslims to spiritual faith     
which unifies1  to worship at the altars
 which are in the hearts of men04#e     
,the influence of ,ghazzali has been    

represented by ,mr4 ,macdonald as       
chiefly that he led men back from       
scholastic labours upon theological     
dogmas to living contact with1 study and
 exegesis of the ,quran and             
,traditions2 gave ,sufiism an assured   
position within the ,church of ,islam2  
and brought philosophy and philosophical
 theology within the range of the       
ordinary mind4#f    ,al ,ghazzali has   
given some account of his own religious 
development in a  work entitled3        
,munqidh min-ad-dalal4 ,this account is 
significant1 but  as the ,baron ,carra  
de ,vaux remarks1 his eventual explicit 
adoption of a  ,sufi mysticism was not  
merely a consequence of the failure of  
his other  attempts to find a solution  
to life's profoundest problems but a    
result  of his early influences4 ,for1  
soon after his birth at ,tus in         
,khorassan in  #dej ,a4,h4 7#ajei       
,a4,d471 his father died and he was     
brought up by a ,sufi4  ,nevertheless   
his mystical leanings did not assert    

themselves vigorously  till he was well 
on to maturity4 ,up to that time he     
devoted himself to  the usual studies of
 canon law1 the orthodox theology1 the  
doctrines of  the ,mutazillites1 and a  
variety of other subjects including the 
works of  the ,sufis4 ,for a time he was
 a student of the ,asharite ,imam ,al   
,haramayn  at ,nysabur4 ,he himself     
represents his attitude as at this time 
that of  one working and wishing for    
reputation and wealth4 ,in #dhd ,a4,h4  
he was  honoured by appointment to the  
8,university0 or 8,academy0 of ,baghdad1
  where he soon acquired great renown as
 lawyer and theologian4    ,on the      
threshold of maturity he was afflicted  
by doubts as to the  validity and worth 
of the theological and philosophical    
bases of his  religious belief4 ,the    
strain of his reflection and the        
intensity of  his anxiety to reach a    
secure faith seem to have caused a      
breakdown of  health4 ,with unexpected  
suddenness he left ,baghdad4 ,that was  

in #dhh ,a4,h4  7#ajie ,a4,d47 ,he had  
examined in all details the traditional 
orthodox  scholastic system of the      
,kalam1 the positions of the            
,mutazilites and  the philosophers1 and 
in the light of his new doubts and      
experiences  turned again also to a     
closer study of the writings of the     
leading  mystics1 such as ,abu ,talib1  
,al ,muhasibi1 and ,al ,junayd4 ,his    
early  training had predisposed him to  
the acceptance of mysticism1 and this   
acceptance was led up to by the         
conclusions of his reflection1 in which 
it has been maintained he carried doubt 
as far back as did ,descartes4    ,thus 
he himself writes3 8,a thirst to        
comprehend the essential natures of  all
 things was1 indeed1 my idiosyncrasy and
 distinctive characteristic  from the   
beginning of my career and prime of my  
life3 a natural gift and  temperament   
bestowed on me by ,god1 and implanted by
 ,him in my nature  by no choice or     
device of my own1 till at length the    

bond of blind  conformity was loosed    
from me1 and the beliefs which ,i had   
inherited1  were broken away when ,i was
 little more than a boy40#g    ,carra de
 ,vaux#h thus graphically describes the 
process in ,al ,ghazzali's  mind1 as he 
himself suggests it to us3 8,religious  
beliefs1 he reflected1  are transmitted 
by the authority of parents2 but        
authority is not proof4  ,to arrive at  
certitude it was necessary for him to   
reconstruct all  his knowledge from the 
very foundation4 ,with a vivid feeling  
of this  necessity1 he aspired to       
certitude1 defining it in a purely      
psychological  fashion as a state in    
which the mind is so bound up with and  
so satisfied  with a piece of knowledge 
that nothing might henceforth deprive   
him of  it4 ,this curious definition1   
which is applied to religious faith as  
well  as to scientific knowledge1 does  
not escape from being purely subjective4
  ,as one might foresee1 the great      
desire for certitude only led him at    

first into a series of doubts4 ,as he   
sought this state of perfect  assurance1
 step by step he saw it recede before   
him4 ,he looked for  certitude in the   
perceptions of the senses1 with the     
result that he could  no longer trust   
his senses4 ,sight1 the most powerful of
 the faculties  of sense1 for example1  
led him to the perception of an         
immovable shadow  on the sun and an hour
 afterwards this shadow was gone4 ,sight
 showed  him a star which is very small1
 and geometry made him recognise it to  
be greater than the earth4 ,then he     
turned to the first principles of       
reason2 but the perception of the senses
 took its revenge in saying to  him3    
#8,previously you believed in me and you
 abandoned me when this judge  reason   
presented itself4 ,if this judge had    
remained hidden you would have          
continued to believe in me4 ,who can    
tell you that beyond the reason there   
is no other judge1 which if it made     
itself evident1 would convict reason  of

 falsehood8'4 ,that is a movement of    
thought which is dramatic enough1       
though perhaps a little                 
artificial4--,the thinker continued his 
search for  the certain4 ,he halted and 
concerned himself with the famous       
comparison  of life with a dream and    
death with an awakening4 ,perhaps after 
that  awakening he would see things in a
 different manner from that in which he 
then saw them4 ,mysticism thus suggested
 itself to him3 ,this actual dream  of  
death could be anticipated by the       
condition of ecstasy1 by less than      
ecstasy1 by a light which ,god pours    
into the heart4 ,in this light1 he saw  
not only the truth of the dogmas of the 
faith or the beauty of the moral  life1 
but he was assured of the truth of the  
first principles of reason1  the basis  
of all knowledge and all reasoning4 ,he 
doubted no longer2 he  was cured of his 
pains2 he had found certitude and       
peace40    ,on leaving ,baghdad1 he     
retired to meditate in the mosques of   

,damascus1  and is further reported to  
have made pilgrimages to ,jerusalem1    
,hebron  7the burial place of ,abraham71
 ,medina and ,mecca4 ,in abandonment to 
his  immediate religious experience of  
the love of ,god he found more peace4   
,in  the course of time he associated   
again more definitely with his family4  
,eventually in #dii ,a4 ,h4 7#aajf      
,a4,d47 he was ordered by the ,sultan to
 teach  in the ,academy at ,nysabur4    
,after a life in which he had written a 
large  number of independent treatises  
and indeed brought about a great change 
in the tendencies of ,islam1 he died at 
his native town of ,tus in #eje  7#aaaa 
,a4,d474    ,if in his initial process  
of doubt ,ghazzali resembled ,descartes1
 in his  view of causality he reminds us
 of ,hume2 in his general attitude he   
approaches ,kant and ,schleiermacher4   
,on the one hand he insists on the      
limitation of the efficiency of the     
theoretical reason1 on the other he     
finds in will1 in the moral and the     

religious experience a more immediate   
avenue to real knowledge4 ,for the study
 of religion in our day it is  important
 to note that ,ghazzali 7here unlike    
,kant7 sees in religious  experience a  
way to certitude4 ,but in this he is led
 to acknowledge that  the advance of the
 human mind towards its goal of real    
knowledge and  peace is dependent upon  
an active influence of ,god upon man4   
,it may be  maintained that he puts here
 in religious terminology the central   
idea  of the ,aristotelian conception of
 ,scholastic times1 the relation of the 
8,active ,intelligence0 to the minds of 
men4 ,his view enabled him to give a    
due position to the ,prophet and the    
,quran4 ,for the knowledge of ,god is to
  be conceived as coming not in         
immediate mystical intuition to all     
alike1  but while in some degree to all1
 to some in a special degree4 ,these are
  the prophets4 ,the position which     
,maimonides presents in his ,guide to   
the  ,perplexed#i with relation to      

religious knowledge and the functions of
  the prophets is parallel with that of 
,ghazzali4    ,from the accompanying    
list and classification of the works of 
,ghazzali1  it will be seen that he was 
a writer on all sides of the theory  and
 practice of his religion4 ,he was an   
authority on canon law and              
jurisprudence1 and a commentator of the 
,quran4 ,he examined the positions  of  
the ,scholastic theologians1 and found  
that they depended entirely on  the     
acceptance of their initial dogmatic    
assumptions4 ,the disputes of the       
,scholastics amongst themselves appeared
 to have little or no relation  with    
religious life1 rather if anything they 
were a hindrance to true  religion4 ,and
 in face of the philosophers the        
,scholastic theologians  were almost    
helpless4 ,but the books which exerted  
the greatest influence  both within and 
beyond ,muslim circles1 and the books   
that still retain  their interest today 
are the ,maqasid ul ,falasafa 7,the ,aim

 or ,goal  of the ,philosophers7 the    
,tahafat ul ,falasafa 7the ,refutation  
of the  ,philosophers7 and the          
,ihya-u-,ulum-id-,din 7,the ,renovation 
of the ,sciences  of ,religion47 ,in the
 first of these he gives an account of  
the different  philosophical positions  
which were more or less prevalent4 ,in  
the second  he critically examines those
 positions4 ,in the third he gives a    
general  survey with a constructive     
purpose chiefly moral and religious4 ,it
  is due to this last work more than all
 others that ,ghazzali has been  called 
8,the ,regenerator of ,religion01 8,the 
,proof of ,islam04 ,the ,ihya  8expounds
 theology and ethics from the moderate  
,sufi school04 ,though it  was committed
 to the flames1 chiefly in ,spain1      
probably by those holding  opinions     
which ,ghazzali had bitterly attacked1  
it soon established its  position in the
 ,muslim world1 in which it has been    
widely studied up  to today4 ,from it   
the passages translated in this book are

 taken4 ,the  following table of        
contents will show the range of the     
subjects with  which it deals4    ,,the 
,,renovation ,,of ,,the ,,sciences ,,of 
,,religion4    ,,part ,i4        #a4 ,on
 ,knowledge4 ,articles of ,faith4       
#b4 ,on ,purification4      #c4 ,prayer 
and ,its ,meaning4      #d4 ,zakat and  
,its ,meaning4      #e4 ,fasting and    
,its ,meaning4      #f4 ,pilgrimage and 
,its ,meaning4      #g4 ,the ,reading of
 the ,quran4      #h4 ,varieties of     
,orisons4      #i4 ,the ,order of       
,praying1 and ,vigils4    ,,part ,,ii4  
#a4 ,on ,eating4      #b4 ,on ,marriage4
      #c4 ,on ,business4      #d4 ,the  
,lawful and the ,unlawful4      #e4     
,social ,relations and ,etiquette4      
#f4 ,on ,retirement4      #g4 ,on       
,travel4      #h4 ,on ,music4      #i4  
,on ,enforcing ,good and ,checking      
,evil4      #aj4 ,good ,living3         
,description of the ,prophet's ,mode of 
,living4    ,,part ,,iii4        #a4    
,psychological ,description of the      

,nature of ,man4      #b4 ,on ,virtues  
and the ,purification of the ,heart4    
#c4 ,on ,appetite and ,passion4      #d4
 ,on the ,tongue3 ,its ,goods and       
,evils4      #e4 ,on ,anger3 ,enmity and
 ,envy4      #f4 ,the ,evils of the     
,world4      #g4 ,parsimony and the     
,evils of the ,love of ,wealth4      #h4
 ,on the ,evils of ,reputation and      
,hypocrisy4      #i4 ,pride and ,vanity4
      #aj4 ,self-deception4    ,,part   
,,iv4        #a4 ,repentance4      #b4  
,patience and ,thanksgiving4      #c4   
,hope and ,fear4      #d4 ,the ,poor and
 the ,hermit1      #e4 ,unity of ,god1  
and ,dependence on ,him4      #f4 ,on   
,love1 ,ecstasy1 and ,joyous ,submission
 to ,his will4      #g4 ,on ,intention1 
,sincerity and ,truth4      #h4         
,meditation4      #i4 ,contemplation and
 taking a ,warning4      #aj4 ,on ,death
 and the ,after-,life4    ,against the  
philosophers he argued for the belief in
 the reality of the  divine attributes  
and against the view of the eternity of 

the world4 ,he  contended against the   
theory that there would be no physical  
punishments  and rewards hereafter1     
maintaining1 as he did1 the doctrine of 
the  resurrection of the body4 ,he      
virtually denied that there is real     
causal  connection in events as         
experienced by us3 but only sequence3 in
 this he  adumbrates the theory of      
,hume4 ,for ,ghazzali1 ,god is the only 
efficient  cause4 ,from the scepticism  
to which his consideration of philosophy
 led  him he turned to the acceptance of
 revelation1 this as found in the       
mystic experience and in the words of   
saints and prophets1 especially the     
,prophet ,muhammed4    ,the knowledge of
 moral principles ,ghazzali conceived as
 coming not  through rational reflection
 but by immediate intuition of the      
divine  character revealing itself4     
,moral truths come especially through   
moral  and religious teachers1 as the   
most fit persons for the transmission of
  these revelations4 ,he possessed great

 skill in psychological analysis  of    
moral conditions1 and passages in       
illustration of this have been  included
 here1 treating of pride and vanity1    
friendship and sincerity4 ,as  almost   
all great practical moral and religious 
teachers1 ,ghazzali makes  considerable 
use of apt stories1 and of striking     
sayings from the saints  and prophets4  
,he continually harks back to the time  
of the ,prophet and  his 8,companions04 
,ghazzali's abandonment of his academic 
position at ,baghdad1 his  retirement to
 mosques and journeyings on pilgrimage1 
are sufficient  evidence that he        
recognised that the truth of mysticism  
could not be  tested by theoretical     
reflection but only by an attempt at    
practice4  ,only the experience itself  
could prove its own reality4 ,he appears
  to have held that for the attainment  
of the condition of ecstasy the  means  
of asceticism and meditation should be  
used4 ,but it does not  seem quite      
correct to suggest as does ,carra de    

,vaux that ,ghazzali did  not recognise 
the fact of divine 8grace01 though he   
did not use a  corresponding term4 ,the 
beatific vision of the mystic certainly 
depended  in part1 for ,ghazzali1 on    
,god's mercy in removing the veil4 ,how 
far he  himself was successful in       
attaining the bliss of the mystic vision
 it is  impossible to tell3 in this     
direction he gained no such reputation  
as  did several other ,sufis4 ,he taught
 that repentance1 a moral conversion1   
is a necessary preliminary to the mystic
 life1 and he fought against a  common  
tendency of mystics towards             
antinomianism4 ,similarly he tried to   
avoid the danger of interpreting the    
union of the soul with ,god as its      
identification with ,god in a           
pantheistic view of the universe4       
,goldzieher  says he differed from the  
,sufis generally in the rejection of    
their  pantheistic aims and low estimate
 of religious ordinances4#aj          ,a
 ,,list ,,of ,,works ,,by ,,al          

,,ghazzali#aa                           
,a3 ,,canon ,,law4      ,title4         
,subject4                ,place and date
                                        
of publication4      ,k4 ,wajiz         
7,compendium74  ,canon ,law4            
,cairo   #acag ,a4 ,h4                  
,risalat-ul-,qudsiyya4                  
7,transcendence of ,god7                
included in ,ihya as the                
#crd section of the #bnd                
,chapter of its ,book #a4      ,anqud ul
 ,mkhtasir4        ,summary of ,jowim's 
,mukhtasar4      ,ghait ul ,ghor fi     
,masail    ,divorce4    il dor4         
,gaur ul ,durar4      ,qanun ul ,rasul4 
,the ,canon ,law of the                 
,prophet4                               
,b3 ,,jurisprudence4      ,al ,mustafa4 
,jurisprudence4             ,boulac     
#acbb ,a4 ,h4      ,al ,manhul wal      
,muntahal4   ,doctrines falsely         
attributed to others                    
and falsely claimed                     
by some4 ,jurisprudence4      ,wajiz fil

 ,furu4           ,jurisprudence4       
,egypt   #acje ,a4 ,h4      ,khulasat ul
 ,fikh          ,jurisprudence4         
7,quintessence of    ,jurisprudence74   
,al-durr ul ,manzum fi       ,an        
,exposition of    sirr il ,muktum       
,wasit4      ,shafite ,jurisprudence4   
,c3 ,,logic4      ,mizan ul ,amal4      
,logic4                     ,cairo      
#acbh ,a4 ,h4      ,mihakkul ,nazar fil 
,logic4                     ,cairo      
,mantaq4 7,whetstone of    reflection74 
,maayar ul ,ilm4            ,logic4     
,al ,maarif ul ,aqliyyah                
,discourses on ,logic4    wal           
,allahiyyah ,al    ,mutaqid4      ,mayar
 ul ,ilm ,fannil        ,on ,logic4     
,cairo   #acbi ,a4 ,h4    ,mantaq4 7the 
weighing    scale of the science74      
,d3 ,,philosophy4      ,ihya            
u-,ulum-id-,din4       7,the most       
important        ,cairo   #acbb1        
book for his philosophy74          #acbd
 ,a4 ,h4                                
,egypt   #abhb   0                      

,lucknow #abha   0                      
,meerut  #abhj   0      ,maqasid ul     
,falasafa4                              
,cairo   #acbf   0    7,the aims of the 
philosophers74      ,maznun bihi ala    
,ghairi     ,exposition of ,ghazzali's  
0     #acbh   0    ,ahlihi4             
own views4      ,kitab-ul-,arbain4      
,abridgement of ,ihya4         0        
#acbh   0      ,risalat ul ,luduniyya4  
,knowledge 7,ilham and ,wahi7   0       
#acbh   0      ,al-,kashfu-wat-,tabyin  
fi    ,on the delusion of men in    0   
#acbd   0    ,ghurur il khalqi ,ajmain4 
general4 7,on the margin of             
,as-,shurain's ,tanbihal                
,mughtarrin47      ,faysalut-,tafriqa   
baynal    ,refutation of ,atheists4     
,cairo   #acbe ,a4 ,h4    ,islami-wa-z  
,zandiqah4      ,al ,fikratu al ,ibrah4 
,meditation and ,contemplation4         
,tahafat ul ,falasafa4      ,destruction
 of the           0     #acba   0       
,philosophers4      ,iljam ul ,awam4    
,abbreviation of the ,ihya4             

,al-,imla-u-' an             ,statements
 on disputed     ,in the margin of      
ishkalat-il-,ihya4          passages of 
,ihya4          #accd edition of        
,ihya4      ,mustazhiry4                
,a guide for novices4      ,al          
,hikmat-u-fi-            ,wisdom of     
,god4             ,cairo   #acbf ,a4 ,h4
    ,makhluq-i-,ilahi4      ,hakikat ul 
,ruh4           ,on ,soul4              
,e3 ,,ethics4      ,badayat ul ,hidayah4
       ,ethics4                         
,cairo   #acag1                         
#acbf ,a4 ,h4      ,kimiya i ,saadat4   
,ethics4                      0         
,tibr ul ,masbuk4           ,an ethical 
mirror for        0     #acag   0       
princes4 ,a letter4      ,ayyuh al      
,walad4           ,a letter of faith and
        0     #acbh   0                 
conduct4                     ,f3        
,,theology3 ,,exegetical ,,and          
,,dogmatical4      ,al durr ul ,fakhira4
       ,on eschatology4              0  
#acbb   0      ,yaqut ul ,tawil fi      

,tafsir   ,a commentary on the ,quran   
il ,tanzil4                 in #dj vols4
 ,not found4      ,k4 ,iqtisad          
fil-,i'tiqad4   ,exposition of ,faith4  
,cairo      ,fadhaih ul ,abahiya4       
,the exposure of the                    
,doctrines of the                       
,free-thinkers      ,al ,quistas ul     
,mustaqim4   7,no ,imam is necessary    
0                                except 
the ,prophet                            
himself74      ,al ,qual ul ,jamil fil  
,criticism of those who    ,raddi ,ala  
man ,ghayyar       have changed the text
    al ,injil4                  of the  
,bible4      ,haqiqat ul ,qualain4      
,an ,exposition of truth                
of two sayings4      ,tadlis ,iblis4    
,the intrigue of the devil4             
,jawahir ul ,quran4         ,a          
collection of the best     0     #acbi  
,a4 ,h4                                 
verses of the ,quran4      ,risalat ul  
,wahdah          ,a brief letter on     
preaching    wal-,i'tiqad4              

and ,belief4      ,risalat-ul-',aqaid4  
,doctrines of ,islam and     ,cairo     
#acbe ,a4 ,h4                           
the duties of rulers4      ,al ,maqasid 
ul ,khilaf       ,different theories of 
fi fan il ,kalam4           ,kalam4     
,g3 ,,sufiism4      ,al-,adab-fid-din4  
7,fitting behaviour in        0         
#acbh   0                               
religion74      ,al-,qawaid ul-,ashara4 
7,a very brief summary        0         
#acbh   0                               
of general advice of                    
religious matters74      ,maqasid ul    
,hasana ,sharh    ,an exposition of     
,divine      0     #acbb   0    ,asma   
i-illahi'l ,husna4     names4           
,minhaj ul ,abidin4         ,the path of
 the devout4    ,cairo   #acac ,a4 ,h4  
7,said to be the last of                
his work74      ,nasihat-ul ,talmiz4    
,an ,epistle4                  0        
#abie   0      ,kitab ,asrar al ,anwar4 
,madkhal ul ,suluk ila       ,a ,guide  
for kings4    ,manazil il ,muluk4       

,al ,munqid min ad ,dalal4              
,autobiographical statement    0        
#acjc1    7,deliverer from error74      
of his spiritual progress4         #acbj
 ,a4 ,h4      ,tajrid fil-,kalimat il   
,exposition of ,kalima4         0       
#acbe   0    ,tauhid4      ,murshid ul  
,talibin4       ,a ,guide for novices4  
,mishkat ul anwar fi        ,esoteric   
exposition of the    0    #acbe   0     
,lataif il ,akhbar4          verse 8,god
 is the light of    7,niche for the     
lights74     heaven and earth40         
,kitab ul-,madnun-i-,saghir4 ,esoteric  
exposition of     ,cairo   #acbh ,a4 ,h4
                                the     
verse 8,then shaped                     
him and breathed of ,his                
,spirit into him40                      
,makashifat-ul-,qulub4                  
7,abridgement of a work     ,boulaq     
,cairo                                of
 doubtful authorship             #acfj  
,a4 ,h4                                 
ascribed to ,al ,ghazzali74  ,cairo     

#acjf ,a4 ,h4          ,,moral ,,and    
,,religious ,,teachings ,,of ,,al       
,,ghazzali          ,,the ,,nature ,,of 
,,man#ab      ,though man shares with   
the other animals external and internal 
senses1 he  is at the same time also    
endowed with two qualities peculiar to  
himself1  knowledge and will4 ,by       
knowledge is meant the power of         
generalisation1  the conception of      
abstract ideas1 and the possession of   
intellectual  truths4 ,by will is meant 
that strong desire to acquire an object 
which  after due consideration of its   
consequences has been pronounced by     
reason  to be good4 ,it is quite        
different from animal desire1 nay1 it is
 often  the very opposite of it4    ,in 
the beginning children also lack these  
two qualities4 ,they have  passion1     
anger1 and all the external and internal
 senses1 but will  finds its expression 
only later4 ,knowledge differs according
 to the  capacity for it1 according to  
the latent powers in a man4 ,hence there

  is a variety of stages amongst        
,prophets1#ac the ,ulamas1 the ,sufis   
and  the ,philosophers4 ,further        
progress is possible even beyond these  
stages1  for divine knowledge knows no  
bounds4 ,the highest stage is reached by
  one to whom all truths and realities  
are revealed intuitively1 who by  virtue
 of his exalted position enjoys direct  
communion and close relation  with the  
,most ,holy4 ,the real nature of this   
position is known only to  him who      
enjoys it4 ,we verify it by faith4 ,a   
child has no knowledge of  the          
attainments of an adult2 an adult is not
 aware of the acquisitions  of a learned
 man4 ,similarly1 a learned man is not  
cogniscant of the  holy communion of the
 saints and the prophets1 and of the    
favours  bestowed on them4 ,although the
 divine blessings descend freely1 those 
are fit recipients of them1 whose hearts
 are pure and wholly devoted to  ,him4  
8,verily10 says the ,hadis1 8the desire 
of the virtuous is to hold  communion   

with me1 and ,i long to look at them04  
8,he who approaches me a  span1 ,i      
approach him an arm04#ad ,the divine    
favours are not withheld1  but hearts   
bedimmed by impurity fail to receive    
them4 8,had it not been  that the devils
 hover round the hearts of men1 they    
would have seen the  glories of the     
,kingdom of the ,heaven04#ae    ,the    
superiority of man consists thus in his 
being cogniscant of divine  attributes  
and actions4 ,therein lies his          
perfection2 thus he may be  worthy of   
admission to ,god's presence4    ,the   
body serves as a vehicle for the soul1  
and the soul is the abode  for knowledge
 which is its fundamental character as  
well as its  ultimate object4 ,the horse
 and the ass are both beasts of burden1 
but a  superiority of the former is     
found in its being gracefully adapted   
for  use in battle4 ,if the horse fails 
in this it is degraded to the rank of   
mere burden bearing animals4 ,similarly 
with man4 ,in certain qualities  man    

resembles a horse and an ass1 but his   
distinguishing trait is his             
participation in the nature of the      
angels1 for he holds a middle position  
between the beast and the angel4        
,considering the mode of his nourishment
  and growth he is found to belong to   
the vegetable world4 ,considering his   
power of movement and impulses he is a  
denizen of the animal kingdom4 ,the     
distinguishing quality of knowledge     
lifts him up to the celestial world4    
,if he fails to develop this quality and
 to translate it into action he  is no  
better than a grunting pig1 a snarling  
dog1 a prowling wolf1 or a  crafty fox4 
,if he wishes for true happiness1 let   
him look upon reason as a monarch       
sitting on the throne of his heart1     
imagination as its ambassador1  memory  
as treasurer1 speech as interpreter1 the
 limbs as clerks1 and the  senses as    
spies in the realms of colour1 sound1   
smell1 etc4 ,if all these  properly     
discharge the duties allotted to them1  

if every faculty does  that for which it
 was created--and such service is the   
real meaning of  thanksgiving to        
,god--the ultimate object of his sojourn
 in this transitory  world is realised4 
,man's nature is made up of four        
elements1 which produce in him four     
attributes1 namely1 the beastly2 the    
brutal1 the satanic1 and the divine4    
,in man there is something of the pig1  
the dog1 the devil1 and the saint4  ,the
 pig is the appetite which is repulsive 
not for its form but for  its lust and  
its gluttony4 ,the dog is passion which 
barks and bites1  causing injury to     
others4 ,the devil is the attribute     
which instigates  these former two1     
embellishing them and bedimming the     
sight of reason  which is the divine    
attribute4 ,divine reason1 if properly  
attended to1  would repel the evil by   
exposing its character4 ,it would       
properly control  appetite and the      
passions4 ,but when a man fails to obey 
the dictates of  reason1 these three    

other attributes prevail over him and   
cause his ruin4  ,such types of men are 
many4 ,what a pity it is that these who 
would find  fault with those who worship
 stones do not see that on their part   
they  worship the pig and the dog in    
themselves3 ,let them be ashamed of     
their  deplorable condition and leave no
 stone unturned for the suppression  of 
these evil attributes4 ,the pig of      
appetite begets shamelessness1  lust1   
slander1 and such like2 the dog of      
passion begets pride1 vanity1  ridicule1
 wrath and tyranny4 ,these two1         
controlled by the satanic power  produce
 deceit1 treachery1 perfidy1 meanness   
etc4 but if divinity in man  is         
uppermost the qualities of knowledge1   
wisdom1 faith1 and truth1 etc4  will be 
acquired4    ,know then that mind is    
like a mirror which reflects images4    
,but just as  the mirror1 the image1 and
 the mode of reflection are three       
different  things so mind1 objects1 and 
the way of knowing are also distinct4   

,there  are five reasons which may      
prevent the object from being reflected 
in the  mirror4 #a4 ,there may be       
something wrong with the mirror4 #b4    
,something  other than the mirror may   
prevent the reflection4 #c4 ,the object 
may  not be in front of it4 #d4         
,something may come between the object  
and  the mirror4 #e4 ,the position of   
the object may not be known1 so that    
the mirror may be properly placed4      
,similarly1 for five reasons1 the  mind 
fails to receive knowledge4 #a4 ,the    
mind may be imperfect1 like the         
child's4 #b4 ,sin and guilt may bedim   
the mind and throw a veil over it4 #c4  
,the mind may be diverted from the real 
object4 ,for example1 a man may  be     
obedient and good1 but instead of rising
 higher to the acquisition  of truth and
 contemplation of ,god is contented with
 bodily devotions  and acquirement of   
means of living4 ,such a mind1 though   
pure1 will not  reflect the divine image
 for his objects of thought are other   

than this4  ,if this is the condition of
 such mind1 think what will be the state
 of  those minds which are absorbed in  
the gratification of their inordinate   
passions4 #d4 ,an external screen1 may  
as it were1 come before the objects4    
,sometimes a man who has subjugated his 
passions still through blind  imitation 
or prejudice fails to know the truth4   
,such types are found  amongst the      
votaries of the ,kalam4 ,even many      
virtuous men also fall a  prey to it and
 blindly stick to their dogmas4 #e4     
,there may be ignorance  of the means   
for the acquisition of truth4 ,thus for 
illustration1 a man  wants to see his   
back in a mirror3 if he places the      
mirror before his  eyes he fails to see 
his back2 if he keeps it facing his back
 it will  still be out of sight4 ,let   
him then take another mirror and place  
one  before his eyes and the other      
facing his back in such a position that 
the  image of the latter is reflected in
 the former4 ,thus he will be able to   

see his back4 ,similarly the knowledge  
of the proper means is a key to the     
knowledge of the unknown from the known4
    ,the divine dispensation is liberal 
in the distribution of its bounties1    
but for reasons mentioned above1 minds  
fail to profit by them4 ,for human      
minds partake of the nature of the      
divine and the capacity to apprehend    
truth is innate4 ,the ,quran says3      
8,surely we offered the trust to the    
heavens and the earth and the mountains1
 but they declined to bear it  up and   
were afraid of it and man took it up4   
,surely he is not just 7to  himself7 and
 is ignorant04#af ,in this passage the  
innate capacity of man  is hinted at and
 refers to the secret power of knowing  
,god1 latent in  human minds by virtue  
of which they have preference over other
 objects  and the universe4 ,the        
,prophet says3 8,every child is born in 
the right  state 7,fitrat7 but his      
parents make him a ,jew1 a ,christian1  
or a ,magian40  ,and again3 8,had it not

 been that evil spirits hover round the 
hearts of  the sons of ,adam they would 
have seen the kingdom of heaven04 ,ibn  
,umar  reports that the ,prophet was    
once asked as to where ,god is found    
either  on earth or in heaven4 8,he is  
in the hearts of his faithful servants01
  replied the ,prophet4    ,it will not 
be out of place to throw some light here
 on the following  terms which are often
 vaguely applied while dealing with the 
question of  human nature4    #a4 ,qalb 
7heart7 has two meanings4 7a7 a conical 
shaped piece of  flesh on the left side 
of the chest1 circulating blood1 the    
source of  animal spirits4 ,it is found 
in all animals4 ,the heart thus belongs 
to  the external world and can be seen  
with the material eyes4 7b7 ,a          
mysterious divine substance which is    
related to the material heart like  the 
relation between the dweller and the    
house or the artisan and his            
implements4 ,it alone is sentient and   
responsible4    #b4 ,ruh 7spirit7 means 

7a7 a vapoury substance which1 issues   
from the  material heart1 and quickens  
every part of the body4 ,it is like a   
lamp  which is placed in a house and    
sheds its light on all sides4 7b7 ,the  
soul which is expressed in the ,quran as
 #8divine commandment'#ag and is  used  
in the same sense as the second meaning 
of ,qalb1 mentioned above4    #c4 ,nafs 
7self7 which means 7a7 the substratum   
for appetite and passion4  ,the ,sufis  
call it the embodiment of vices4 7b7    
,the ego which receives  different names
 in accordance with the qualities       
acquired from changes  in its           
conditions4 ,when in subjugating        
passions it acquires mastery  over them 
and feels undisturbed1 it is called the 
peaceful self  7,nafsi mutmainna74 ,the 
,quran says3 8,nafs that art at rest4   
,return to  thy ,lord well pleased with 
,him1 well pleasing40 ,when it upbraids 
man  for his actions it is called       
conscience 7,nafsi lauwama74 ,when it   
freely indulges in the gratification of 

his passions1 it is called the          
inordinate self 7,nafsi ammara74        
,,human ,,freedom ,,and                 
,,responsibility#ah      ,actions are   
either voluntary or involuntary4 ,the   
difference between them  is not of kind 
but of degree4 ,analyse the process of  
an involuntary  action and you will find
 that if1 for example1 a man intends to 
thrust  a needle in your eye or draws a 
sword to strike on your head1 your eye  
in the former case will at once close   
and in the latter your hand will        
suddenly be raised up to shield your    
head4 ,this prompt action on the  part  
of your eye and hand is due to your     
consciousness of the evil to  be evaded1
 and this gives rise to volition which  
moves the eye and the  hand without the 
least delay4 ,there are1 however1 cases 
the desirability  or rejection of which 
needs meditation1 but the moment mind   
decides1  the decision is carried out as
 promptly as in the above example4 ,this
  meditation translated into choice or  

rejection constitutes will4 ,now will   
makes its choice between two            
alternatives and takes its cue either   
from  imagination or reason4 ,for       
example1 a man may be unable to cut his 
own  throat1 not because his hand is    
weak or a knife is not available1 but   
because will is lacking which would give
 the stimulus to suicide4 ,for  man     
loves his own life4 ,but suppose he gets
 tired of his life1 owing to  having    
harrowing pains and unbearable mental   
sufferings4 ,he has now to  choose      
between two alternatives which are both 
undesirable4 ,a struggle  commences and 
he hangs between life and death4 ,if he 
thinks that death  which will put an end
 to his sufferings quickly is preferable
 to life  with its lingering intolerable
 pains1 he will choose death although he
  loves his life4 ,this choice gives    
rise to will1 the command to which1     
communicated through proper channels1   
would then be faithfully executed  by   
his hand in the manner of suicide4      

,thus1 though the process from the      
commencement of mental struggle for the 
choice between too alternatives  down to
 the stimulus to physical action is     
uniformly determinate there is  at any  
rate a sort of freedom traceable in the 
will4    ,man holds the balance between 
determinism and freedom4 ,the uniform   
succession of events is on the lines of 
determination but his choice  which is  
an essential element of will is his own4
 ,our ,ulamas have  therefore coined a  
separate phrase3 ,kasb 7acquisition71   
distinguishing  it from ,jabr           
7necessity7 and ,ikhtiyar 7freedom7     
,they say that  fire burns of necessity 
7,jabr7 but man may acquire fire through
 the  appropriate methods1 while in     
,almighty ,god is the ultimate cause of 
fire  7,ikhtiyar74 ,but it must be noted
 that when we use the word ,ikhtiyar for
  ,god1 we must exclude the notion of   
choice1 which is an essential element   
of will in man4 ,let it be here         
recognised once for all as a general    

principle that all the words of man's   
vocabulary when used for ,god's         
attributes are similarly                
metaphorical4#ai    ,the question may be
 asked3 ,if ,god is the ultimate cause  
why should there  be a causal connection
 in the orderly succession of events8   
,the answer  to this lies in the correct
 understanding of the nature of         
causation4  ,nothing causes anything4   
,antecedents have consequents4#bj ,god  
alone is  the efficient cause1 but the  
ignorant have misunderstood and         
misapplied  the word power4 ,as to the  
orderly succession of events1 let it be 
understood that the two events are      
conjoined like the relation between  the
 condition and the conditioned4 ,now    
certain conditions are very  apparent   
and can be known easily by people of    
little understanding1 but  there are    
conditions which are understood only by 
those who see through  the light of     
intuition3 hence the common error of    
miscalculating the  uniformity of       

events4 ,there is a divine purpose      
linking the antecedents  to the         
consequents and manifesting itself in   
the existing orderly  succession of     
events1 without the least break or      
irregularity4 8,verily01  says the      
,quran4 8,we did not create the heavens 
and the earth and what is  between them 
in sport4 ,we did not create them both  
but with truth1 but  most of them do not
 know04#ba    ,surely1 there is a set   
purpose pervading the universe4 ,the    
uniform  succession of events is not at 
random4 ,there is no such thing as      
chance4  ,here again it may be asked3   
,if ,god is the efficient cause1 how    
will  you account for actions attributed
 to man in the scriptures8 ,are we to   
believe that there are two causes for   
one effect8 ,my answer to this will  be 
that the word cause is vaguely          
understood4 ,it can be used in two      
different senses4 ,just as we say that  
the death of ,a was caused by 7#a7  ,b4 
the executioner1 and 7#b7 ,c the king's 

order4 ,both these statements  are      
correct4 ,similarly ,god is the cause of
 actions as ,he has creative  power and 
efficiency4 ,at the same time man is the
 cause of actions as he  is the source  
of the manifestation of uniform         
succession of events4 ,in  the former   
case we have a real causal connection1  
while in the latter  a relation of the  
antecedent to the consequent after the  
manner of the  connection between the   
condition and the conditioned4 ,there   
are passages  in the ,quran where the   
word cause is used in different senses4 
8,the angel of death who is given charge
 of you shall cause you to die3  then to
 your ,lord you shall be brought        
back04#bb 8,allah takes the souls  at   
the time of their death04#bc    8,have  
you considered what you sow80#bd 8,we   
pour down the water1 pouring  it down in
 abundance4 ,then we cleave the earth2  
cleaving it asunder4 ,then  we cause to 
grow therein the grain04#be    8,fight  
them3 ,allah will chastise them by your 

hands and bring them to  disgrace04#bf  
8,so you did not slay them1 but it was  
,allah who slew  them1 and thou didst   
not smite when thou didst smite1 but it 
was ,allah  who smote1 that he might    
confer upon the believers a good gift   
from  himself04#bg    ,these passages   
show that the word1 cause1 signifies    
creative power1 and  must be applied to 
,god alone4 ,but as man's power is the  
image of ,god's  power the word was     
applied to him figuratively4 ,yet1 just 
as the death of  a culprit is caused by 
the actual killing by the hand of the   
executioner  and not the king's order1  
so the word cause actually applied to   
man is  contrary to fact4 ,god alone is 
the real efficient cause1 and the word  
must be applied to him in its root sense
 of power4    ,it may be asked then1 why
 man should be rewarded for his good    
actions and  punished for his misdeeds4 
,let us consider first the nature of    
reward  and punishment4 ,experience     
tells us that things have natural       

properties  and that physical laws      
operate in a uniform manner4 ,take1 for 
example1  the science of medicine4      
,certain drugs are found to possess     
certain  qualities4 ,if a man swallows  
poison of his own accord he has no right
  to ask why poison kills him4 ,its     
natural property has simply operated in 
his system and caused his death4        
,similarly actions make an impression on
  mind4 ,good and bad actions are       
invariably followed by pleasure and pain
  respectively4 ,a good action is its   
own reward of pleasure and a bad one  of
 pain4 ,the former works like an elixir2
 the latter like poison4 ,the           
properties of actions have been         
discovered1 like discoveries in         
medicine1  but by the physicians of the 
heart1 the saints and the prophets4 ,if 
you  will not listen to them you must   
suffer the consequence4 ,now hear a     
parable3    ,a certain king sent a      
horse1 a robe of honour1 and travelling 
expenses to  one of his suzerains in a  

distant land4 ,although the king had no 
need of  his services1 the royal gift   
was a favour shown to his suzerain1 so  
that  he might come to the king's court 
and be happy in his presence4 ,if the   
suzerain understands the king's         
intention from the nature of the gift   
and  utilizes it properly with a        
grateful heart1 he will wait on the king
 and  live happily1 but if he misuses   
the gift or takes no heed of it1 he will
  prove an ungrateful wretch4    ,it is 
thus that the boundless mercy of the    
omnipotent and omniscient  ,god bestowed
 on us the gift of life1 providing us   
with bodily organs1  mental and moral   
faculties1 so that we uplift ourselves  
by utilizing  them properly1 and be     
worthy of being admitted into his holy  
presence4  ,if we misuse them or pay no 
regard to them1 surely we shall be      
7,kafirs7  7literally 8ungrateful07 for 
his blessings bestowed on us for our    
good1  and thus be doomed4    8,verily10
 says the ,quran1 8we created man in the

 best make4 ,then we  render him the    
lowest of the low4 ,except those who    
believe and do good1  so they shall have
 a reward never to be cut off04#bh4bi4  
,the ,allegory of the ,pen    ,a certain
 devotee who was on the way to          
illumination saw a piece of paper  with 
lines written on it4 8,why01 said the   
devotee1 8hast thou blackened  thy      
bright face80 8,it is not fair to take  
me to task01 replied the  paper1 8,i    
have done nothing4 ,ask the ink why she 
has sallied forth from  the inkstand    
where she was quite at ease1 and        
forcibly blackened my  face04 8,you are 
right0 said the devotee4 ,then he turned
 to the ink and  enquired of her4 8,why 
do you ask me01 she said1 8,i was       
sitting still in  the inkstand and had  
no mind to come out but this truculent  
pen rushed at  me1 drew me out and      
scattered me over the page4 ,there you  
see me lying  helpless1 go to the pen   
and ask him04 ,the devotee turned to the
 pen and  interrogated him about his    

high-handedness4 8,why do you trouble   
me01  answered the pen1 8,look1 what am 
,i8 an insignificant reed4 ,i was       
growing  by the banks of silvery streams
 amidst shady green trees1 when lo3 a   
hand stretched at me4 ,it held a knife1 
which uprooted me1 flayed me and        
separated my joints1 hewed me1 cleaved  
my head then1 chopped it off4 ,i  was   
sent headlong towards the ink1 and have 
to serve abjectly4 ,do not add  insult  
to my injuries1 go to the hand and ask  
him04 ,the devotee looked  at the hand  
and said3 8,is it true8 ,are you so     
cruel80 8,do not be angry1  ,sir0       
replied the hand 8,i am a bundle of     
flesh1 bones1 and blood4 ,have you  ever
 seen a piece of flesh exerting power8  
,can a body move of itself8  ,i am a    
vehicle used by one called vitality4 ,he
 rides on me and forces  me round and   
round4 ,you see1 a dead man has hands   
but cannot use them  because vitality   
has left them4 ,why should ,i1 a mere   
vehicle1 be blamed8  ,go to vitality and

 ask him why he makes use of me40 8,you 
are right01 said  the devotee1 and then 
questioned vitality4 8,do not find fault
 with me01  answered vitality1 8,many a 
time a censurer himself is reproved1    
while  the censured is found faultless4 
,how do you know that ,i have forced the
  hand8 ,i was already there before he  
moved1 and had no idea of the motion4   
,i was unconscious and the on-lookers   
were also unaware of me4 ,suddenly  an  
agent came and stirred me4 ,i had       
neither strength enough to disobey  nor 
willingness to obey him4 ,that for which
 you would take me to task ,i  had to do
 according to his wish1 ,i do not know  
who this agent is4 ,he is  called will  
and ,i know him by name only4 ,had the  
matter been left to me ,i  think ,i     
should have done nothing40 8,all right01
 continued the devotee1 8,i  shall put  
the question to will1 and ask him why he
 has forcibly employed  vitality which  
of its own accord would have done       
nothing04 8,do not be in  too great a   

hurry01 exclaimed will1 8perchance ,i   
may give you sufficient  reason4 ,his   
majesty1 the mind1 sent an ambassador1  
named knowledge1  who delivered his     
message to me through reason1 saying3   
#8,rise up1 stir  vitality'4 ,i was     
forced to do so1 because ,i have to obey
 knowledge and  reason1 but ,i know not 
why4 ,as long as ,i receive no order ,i 
am happy1 but  the moment an order is   
delivered ,i dare not disobey4 ,whether 
my monarch  be a just ruler or a tyrant1
 ,i must obey him4 ,on my oath1 as long 
as  the king hesitates or ponders over  
the matter ,i stand quiet1 ready to     
serve1 but the moment his order is      
passed my sense of obedience which is   
innate forces me to stir up vitality4   
,so1 you should not blame me4 ,go  to   
knowledge and get information there04   
8,you are right10 consented the         
devotee1 and proceeding1 asked mind and 
its ambassador1 knowledge and  reason1  
for an explanation4 ,reason excused     
himself by saying he was a  lamp only1  

but knew not who had lighted it4 ,mind  
pleaded his innocence  by calling       
himself a mere tabula rasa4 ,knowledge  
maintained that it was  simply an       
inscription on the tabula rasa1         
inscribed after the lamp of  reason had 
been lighted4 ,thus he could not be     
considered the author of  the           
inscription which may have been the work
 of some invisible pen4 ,the  devotee   
was puzzled by the reply1 but collecting
 himself1 he spoke thus  to knowledge3  
8,i am wandering in the path of my      
enquiry4 ,to whomsoever  ,i go and ask  
the reason ,i am referred to another4   
,nevertheless1 there  is pleasure in my 
quest1 for ,i find that everyone gives  
me a plausible  reason4 ,but pardon me1 
,sir if ,i say that your reply1         
knowledge1 fails to  satisfy me4 ,you   
say that you are a mere inscription     
recorded by a pen4 ,i  have seen pen1   
ink1 and tablet4 ,they are of reed1 a   
black mixture1 and of  wood and iron1   
respectively4 ,and ,i have seen lamps   

lighted with fire4 ,but  here ,i do not 
see any of these things1 and yet you    
talk of the tablet1  the lamp1 the pen  
and the inscription4 ,surely you are not
 trifling with  me80 8,certainly not01  
returned knowledge1 8,i spoke in right  
earnest4 ,but  ,i see your difficulty4  
,your means are scanty1 your horse is   
jaded1 and  your journey is long and    
dangerous4 ,give up this enterprise1 as 
,i fear  you cannot succeed4 ,if1       
however you are prepared to run the     
risk1 then  listen4 ,your journey       
extends through three regions4 ,the     
first is the  terrestrial world4 ,its   
objects pen1 ink1 paper1 hand etc4 are  
just what  you have seen them to be4    
,the second is the celestial world1     
which will  begin when you have left me 
behind4 ,there you will come across     
dense  forests1 deep wide rivers and    
high impassable mountains and ,i know   
not  how you would be able to proceed4  
,between these two worlds there is a    
third intermediary region called the    

phenomenal world4 ,you have crossed     
three stages of it1 vitality1 will1 and 
knowledge4 ,to use a simile3 a man  who 
is walking is treading the terrestrial  
world3 if he is sailing in a  boat he   
enters the phenomenal world3 if he      
leaves the boat and swims and  walks on 
the waters1 he is admitted in the       
celestial world4 ,if you do  not know   
how to swim1 go back4 ,for1 the watery  
region of the celestial  world begins   
now when you can see that pen inscribing
 on the tablet of  the heart4 ,if you   
are not of whom it was said3 #8,o ye of 
little faith1  wherefore didst thou     
doubt8'#cj prepare thyself4 ,for1 by    
faith you shall  not simply walk on the 
sea but fly in the air04 ,the wondering 
devotee  stood speechless for awhile1   
then turning to knowledge1 began3 8,i am
 in  a difficulty4 ,the dangers of the  
path which you have described unnerve   
my heart1 and ,i know not whether ,i    
have sufficient strength to face  them  
and to succeed in the end04 8,there is a

 test for your strength01  replied      
knowledge1 8,open your eyes and fix your
 gaze on me4 ,if you see  the pen which 
writes on the heart1 you will in my     
opinion1 be able to  proceed further on4
 ,for he who crosses the phenomenal     
world1 knocks at  the door of the       
celestial world1 then sights the pen    
which writes on  hearts04 ,the devotee  
did as he was advised1 but failed to see
 that pen1  because his notion of pen   
was no other but of a pen of reed or    
wood4  ,then knowledge drew his         
attention1 saying3 8,there's the rub4   
,do you not  know that the furniture of 
a palace indicates the status of its    
lord8  ,nothing in the universe         
resembles ,god1#ca therefore his        
attributes are  also transcendental4 ,he
 is neither body nor is in space4 ,his  
hand is not  a bundle of flesh1 bone1   
and blood4 ,his pen is not of reed or   
wood4 ,his  writing is not from ink     
prepared from vitriol and gall4 ,but    
there are  many who ignorantly cling to 

an anthropomorphic view of ,him1 there  
are  few who cherish a transcendentally 
pure conception of ,him1 and believe    
that ,he is not only above all material 
limitation but even above the           
limitation of metaphor4 ,you seem to be 
oscillating between these two  views1   
because on the one hand you think that  
,god is immaterial1 that ,his  words    
have neither sound nor shape2 on the    
other hand you cannot rise to  the      
transcendental conception of ,his hand1 
pen and tablet4 ,do you think  that the 
meaning of the tradition 8,verily ,god  
created ,adam in ,his own  image0#cb is 
limited to the visible face of man8     
,certainly not3 it is  the inward nature
 of man seen by the inward sight which  
can be called  the image of ,god4 ,but  
listen3 ,you are now at the sacred      
mount1 where  the invisible voice from  
the burning bush speaks3 8,i am that ,i 
am20#cc  8,verily ,i am thy ,lord ,god1 
put off thy shoes04#cd ,the devotee1 who
  listening with rapture1 suddenly saw  

as it were a flash of lightning1  there 
appeared working the pen which writes on
 hearts-formless4 8,a  thousand         
blessings on thee1 ,o knowledge1 who    
hast saved me from falling  into the    
abysm of anthropomorphism 7,tashbih74 ,i
 thank thee from the  bottom of my      
heart4 ,i tarried long1 but now1 adieu04
    ,the devotee then resumed his       
journey4 ,halting in the presence of the
  invisible pen1 politely he asked the  
same question4 8,you know my reply0     
answered the mysterious pen1 8,you      
cannot have forgotten the reply given   
to you by the pen in the terrestrial    
world04 8,yes1 ,i remember10 replied    
the devotee1 8but how can it be the same
 reply1 because there is no  similitude 
between you and that pen04 8,then it    
seems you have forgotten  the tradition3
 ,verily ,god created ,adam in his own  
image04 8,no1 ,sir01  interrupted the   
devotee1 8,i know it by heart04 8,and   
you have forgotten  also that passage in
 the ,quran3 8,and the heavens rolled up

 in his right  hand40#ce 8,certainly    
not01 exclaimed the devotee1 8,i can    
repeat the  whole of the ,quran by      
rote04 8,yes1 ,i know1 and as you are   
now treading  the sacred precincts of   
the celestial world ,i think ,i can now 
safely  tell you that you have simply   
learnt the meaning of these passages    
from  a negative point of view4 ,but    
they have a positive value1 and should  
be  utilised as constructive at this    
stage4#cf ,proceed further and you will 
understand what ,i mean04 ,the devotee  
looked and found himself reflecting     
upon the divine attribute omnipotence4  
,at once he realised the force  of the  
mysterious pen's argument1 but goaded by
 his inquisitive nature  he was about to
 put the question to the holy being1    
when a voice like  the deafening sound  
of thunder was heard from above1        
proclaiming3 8,he  is not questioned for
 his actions but they shall be asked04  
,filled with  surprize2 the devotee bent
 his head in silent submission4    ,the 

hand of the divine mercy stretched      
towards the helpless devotee2 into  his 
ear were whispered in zephyr tones3     
8,verily those who strive in our  way we
 will certainly show them the path which
 leads to us0#cg4 ,opening  his eyes1   
the devotee raised his head and poured  
forth his heart in  silent prayer4      
8,holy art thou1 ,o ,god ,almighty3     
blessed is thy name ,o ,lord  of the    
universe4 ,henceforth ,i shall fear no  
mortal3 ,i put my entire trust  in thee3
 thy forgiveness is my solace3 thy mercy
 is my refuge40    7,light may be thrown
 on the matter by consideration of the  
unity of  ,god4#ch7          ,,pride    
,,and ,,vanity#ci      ,when a man feels
 a superiority over others and with this
 a sort of  inward elation1 this is     
called pride4 ,it differs from vanity in
 as much  as vanity means consciousness 
of one's elation while pride requires  a
 subject1 an object and a feeling of    
elation4 ,suppose a man is born         
solitary in the world1 he may be vain   

but not proud1 because in pride  man    
considers himself superior to others for
 certain qualities of his  self4 ,he    
allots one position to his self and one 
to another1 and then  thinks that his   
position is higher and is therefore     
elated4 ,this 8puffed  up0 feeling which
 imparts a sense of 8touch me not0 is   
called pride4 ,the  ,prophet says3 8,o  
,god save me from the puffing up of     
pride04 ,ibn ,abbas  says that the      
sentence in the ,quran 8,and they have  
pride in their hearts  and will fail to 
reach it0 means that the thought of     
inward greatness  will be denied to     
them4 ,this thought is the source of    
inward and outward  actions1 which are  
so to speak the fruits of it4    ,a     
proud man will not tolerate any other to
 be on equal terms with  himself4 ,in   
private and in public he expects that   
all should assume a  respectful attitude
 towards him and acknowledging his      
superiority treat  him as a higher      
being4 ,they should greet him first1    

make way for him  wherever he walks2    
when he speaks everyone should listen to
 him and  never try to oppose him4 ,he  
is a genius and people are like asses4  
,they  should be grateful to him seeing 
that he is so condescending4 ,such proud
  men are found especially among ulamas4
 ,sages are ruined by their pride4  ,the
 ,prophet says3 8,he who has an atom of 
pride in his heart will fail  to enter  
paradise40 ,this saying requires        
explanation1 and should be  carefully   
listened to4 ,virtues are the doors of  
,paradise1 but pride and  self esteem   
lock them all4 ,so long as man feels    
elated he will not like  for others what
 he likes for himself4 ,his self esteem 
will deprive him  of humility1 which is 
the essence of righteousness4 ,he will  
neither be  able to discard enmity and  
envy1 resentment and wrath1 slander and 
scorn1  nor will he be able to cultivate
 truth and sincerity1 and calmly listen 
to any advice4 ,in short1 there is no   
evil which a proud man will not         

inevitably do in order to preserve his  
elation and self-esteem4 ,vices  are    
like a chain of rings linked together   
which entangle his heart4  ,therefore1  
an atom of pride is ,satan's spark1     
which secretly consumes the  nature of  
the sons of ,adam4    ,know then that   
pride is of three kinds3 #a4 ,against   
,god2 #b4 ,against  prophets and saints2
 #c4 ,against fellowmen4    #a4 ,against
 ,god4 ,it is due to mere foolishness   
when a biped creature  considers himself
 as if ,lord of the universe4 ,namrud   
and ,pharoah were  such types1 who      
disdained to be called ,god's creatures 
on earth3 8,verily1  ,verily10 says the 
,quran1 8the ,messiah does by no means  
disdain that he  should be a servant of 
,allah1 nor do the angels who are near  
to ,him1  and whoever disdains ,his     
service and is proud ,he will gather    
them all  together to ,himself40#dj     
#b4 ,against prophets and saints4 ,it is
 due to unwarranted self esteem when    
one considers obedience to any mortal   

being as lowering his own position4     
,such a person either fails to reflect  
on the nature of prophetship  and       
thereby feels proud of himself and does 
not obey the prophet1 or  refuses to    
consider the claims of prophetship as   
being derogatory to  his elated self and
 therefore pays no regard to the        
prophet4 ,the ,quran  quotes the words  
of such persons3--8,and they say3 what  
is the matter with  this ,apostle that  
he eats food and goes about in the      
markets1 why has  not an angel been sent
 down to him so that he should have been
 a warner  with him4 ,or 7why is not7 a 
treasure sent down to him or he is made 
to  have a garden from which he should  
eat04 ,and those who do not fear our    
meeting1 say3 8,why have not angels been
 sent down to us1 or 7why7 do we  not   
see our ,lord8 ,now certainly they are  
too proud of themselves and have        
revolted in great revolt40#da    ,our   
,prophet ,mohammed was an orphan and had
 scanty means of livelihood1 so  the    

,koraishite chief ,walid bin ,moghera   
and ,abu ,masood ,sakfi used to speak   
contemptuously of him4#db ,and when     
people believed in him and accepted     
,islam1 the proud ,koraishites used to  
say3 ,mohammed is surrounded by poor    
men1 let him send them off and then we  
of the aristocracy of ,mecca will       
listen to him4 ,but ,god spoke to       
,mohammed 8,and withhold thyself with   
those  who call on their ,lord morning  
and evening1 desiring ,his good will1   
and  let not their eyes pass from them1 
desiring the beauties of this world's   
life1 and do not follow him1 whose heart
 we have made unmindful to our          
resemblance1 and he follows his low     
desires1 and his case is one in which   
due bounds are exceeded40#dc    #c4     
,against fellowmen4 ,a proud man        
considers himself a superior being  and 
would like to see everybody humbled     
before him4 ,he is therefore            
quarrelling with ,god1 trying to share  
with ,him ,his attribute omnipotence4   

,god is spoken of in the ,hadith1 as    
saying3 8,omnipotence is my mantle1 he  
who quarrels with me for it1 him will ,i
 crush04 ,surely men are all ,his       
servants and no servant has a right to  
treat his fellow servants as their      
master4 ,but a proud man in the         
intoxication of his elation takes       
himself  as ,god on earth4 ,he is too   
haughty to listen to truth from the lips
 of  any of his fellowmen4 ,ibn ,masud  
says3 8,it is enough for sin if a       
person1  who is advised to fear ,god    
answers his advisor3 ,look to thine own 
self40    ,the consciousness of         
superiority which begets pride is due to
 certain  attributes or accomplishments 
which can be summed up as3        a4    
,spiritual1 divided into 7#a7 knowledge2
 7#b7 devotion4        b4 ,worldly1 of  
five kinds3 7#c7 pedigree2 7#d7 beauty2 
7#e7      strength2 7#f7 wealth2 7#g7   
kith and kin4    ,there are thus seven  
causes in all1 and these need some      
description4    ,knowledge is power4    

,consciousness of power easily elates a 
man1 who  considers himself superior to 
others and treats them in a supercilious
  manner4 ,if he accepts the greetings  
or the invitation of his fellowmen  or  
receives them in audience he thinks they
 should be thankful to him  for his     
condescension4 ,people should obey and  
serve him1 for by virtue  of his        
knowledge he thinks he has a right over 
them4 ,such a proud 8,alim0  is sorry   
for the sins of others but unmindful of 
his own condition4  ,while he freely    
distributes ,heaven and ,hell among his 
fellowmen1 he  claims salvation and     
,heaven for himself4 ,the question is   
whether he is  really justified in      
holding the title of ,alim4 ,for an     
,alim is one who1  knowing himself knows
 ,god1 who fears the ,lord most1 who    
holds himself  more responsible for his 
actions for he knows good and evil and  
feels  the awful presence of a mighty   
and just ,being who looks to            
righteousness  alone4    ,let us        

consider why men of knowledge become    
proud4 ,there are two main  causes which
 should be noted4 ,first there is a     
false conception about  the nature of   
real knowledge4 ,devoted to certain     
sciences and arts such  as mathematics1 
physics1 literature1 and dialectics1    
they think that  proficiency in them    
makes a man perfect4 ,but real knowledge
 means the  lifting of the veil from    
before the eyes of the heart so as to   
see the  mysterious relation between man
 and his maker and to be filled with a  
sense of awe and reverence in the       
presence of an omniscient holy ,being   
who pervades the universe4 ,this        
attitude of mind1 this enlightenment is 
real knowledge4 ,it produces humility   
and repels pride4    ,secondly1 there is
 an indifference to moral training      
during student  life4 ,wicked habits    
thus produce bitter fruits of pride4    
,wahb has well  illustrated this point1 
when he says3 8,knowledge is like rain  
falling  from above1 so pure and sweet  

but the plants when they absorb it1     
embitter or sweeten it1 according to    
their tastes4 ,man in acquiring         
knowledge acquires power1 which gives   
strength to the hidden qualities  of his
 heart4 ,if he was prone towards pride  
and paid no attention to  the           
subjugation of it1 he would prove more  
proud when he acquires  knowledge40     
8,there will be men10 says the ,prophet 
8who will have the  ,quran on their lips
 but it will not go down their throats4 
,they will  claim knowledge of it1      
calling themselves learned ,qari4 ,they 
will be  from among you my companions1  
but woe to them1 for they will see the  
consequence of it in ,hell04#dd         
,warned by their ,prophet1 his          
companions lived a life of humility and 
their example taught its lesson to their
 successors4 ,a person came to  ,khalif 
,omar after morning prayers and said3   
8,i should like to give public          
sermons04 8,my friend01 said the        
,khalif1 8,i am afraid you would soon be

  puffed up with pride04 ,huzaifa1 the  
companion of the ,prophet1 was a  leader
 of prayer4 ,one day he said to his     
congregation3 8,brethren1 have  another 
leader1 or go and pray alone1 for ,i    
begin to feel puffed up with  your      
leadership04    ,thus1 the companions of
 the ,prophet lived meekly1 the humble  
servants  of ,god on earth1 keenly      
watching the changing phases of their   
,hearts and  promptly seeking the       
remedy4 ,but we who call ourselves their
 followers  not only do not try to      
purify our hearts but do not even think 
it worth  while to consider the means   
for their purification4 ,how can we     
expect  salvation8 ,but we ought not to 
lose heart4 ,the apostle of mercy for   
the  worlds 7,rahmet ul lilalamin7 has  
said3 8,soon a time will come when if   
any  person will do even one tenth of   
what you are doing now1 he will have his
  salvation04#de    ,devotion and       
religious service elicit admiration and 
praise for the  devotee1 who finding    

himself respected by the people is      
elated4 ,this  elation quietly develops 
into pride and then the devotee         
considers  himself a superior being and 
favoured of ,god4 ,he despises his      
fellow men  and calls them sinners1 who 
will be doomed for ever4 ,but he does   
know  that he himself will be doomed for
 despising his fellowmen and thinking   
too much of himself4 ,the ,prophet says3
 8,when you hear any person1 saying3    
#8,woe to the people they are doomed1'  
know that he himself will be doomed     
first04    ,it is recorded that a       
certain sinner among the ,jews passed by
 a well  known ,pharisee4 ,struck with  
the appearance of the ,pharisee's piety 
and  devotion1 the poor sinner sat down 
by him1 believing in the saving grace   
of his holy touch4 ,but the proud       
,pharisee disdainfully spoke out3       
8,touch  me not thou filthy sinner1 and 
leave my presence04 ,whereupon ,god sent
  ,his word to the prophet of that age3 
8,go and tell that sinner2 thou art     

forgiven4 ,as for that ,pharisee1 his   
devotion is cast aside and he is        
doomed04    #c4 ,people are usually     
proud of their lineage1 and look down on
 men of low  birth4 ,they refuse to     
treat them on equal terms1 and          
boastfully speak of  their ancestors in 
the presence of men1 who are treated by 
them in a  haughty manner4 ,this evil   
lurks even in the hearts of good and    
virtuous  men1 although their manners   
and actions throw a veil over it4 ,but  
in an  unguarded moment of excitement   
and fury1 this demon of pedigree is let 
loose from the innermost corner of the  
heart4    ,the ,prophet's companion     
,abuzar says3 8,i was quarrelling with  
someone in  the presence of the ,prophet
 when suddenly in a fit of rage ,i      
abused the  man2 ,thou son of a         
negress60 ,on this the ,prophet         
coaxingly said to me3  8,abuzar1 both   
the scales are equal4 ,the white has no 
preference over the  black40 ,hearing   
this ,i fell and said to the person3    

8,brother come and  trample on my face  
and then forgive me40    ,it is reported
 in the ,hadith that two men were       
quarrelling before  the ,prophet4 ,one  
said to the other2 8,i am the son of    
such and such  illustrious man1 tell me 
who thy father is80 ,the ,prophet1      
addressing  the boastful man said2      
8,there were two men in the time of     
,moses who  boastfully spoke of their   
pedigree4 ,one said to the other3 8,look
 how  my nine ancestors all in one line 
were men of renown40 ,and ,god said to  
,moses3 8,tell this man3 ,all thy nine  
ancestors are in ,hell and thou art  the
 tenth40    #d4 ,women generally feel   
proud of their beauty4 ,this leads to   
finding  fault with others1 and this    
gradually assumes the form of contempt  
and  disdain4 ,ayesha1 the wife of the  
,prophet1 says3 8,one day a woman came  
to  the ,prophet and ,i said to him3    
#8,look at this dwarf4' ,the ,prophet   
turned  towards me and said3 #8,ayesha1 
repent of what thou hast said1 for it is

  slander4'0    #e1 #f1 #g4 ,people feel
 a sort of elation at the sight of their
 possessions4  ,a merchant is elated    
with his stores1 a landowner with his   
fields and  groves1 and a nobleman with 
his retinue and riches4 ,in short1 every
  person feels proud of his worldly     
possessions and looks down on those  who
 are lacking in them4 ,he believes in   
riches and worships mammon4#df  ,he has 
no idea of what is meant by3 8,blessed  
are the poor in spirit3 for  their's is 
the kingdom of ,heaven04#dg    ,we may  
quote a parable from the ,quran4 8,and  
set forth to them a parable  of two men4
 ,for one of them we made two gardens of
 grape vines1 and  we surrounded them   
both with palms1 and in the midst of    
them we made  corn-fields4 ,both these  
gardens yielded their fruits and failed 
nothing4  ,we caused a river to gush    
forth in their midst4 ,the man possessed
 much  wealth and he said to his        
companion while he disputed with him3 ,i
 have  greater wealth than you and am   

mightier in followers4 ,while he entered
  his garden he was unjust to himself4  
,he said3 ,i do not think that this     
will ever perish4 ,i do not think the   
hour will come1 yet even if ,i return   
to my ,lord ,i shall most certainly find
 a place better than this4 ,his         
companion said to him1 while disputing  
with him3 ,do you disbelieve in ,him    
who created you from dust1 then from a  
small germ life1 then he made you  a    
perfect man8 ,but as for me1 ,allah is  
my ,lord and ,i do not associate any    
one with my ,lord4 ,when you entered    
your garden1 why did you not say3 ,it   
is as ,allah has pleased4 ,there is no  
power save ,allah4 ,if you consider me  
to be inferior to you in wealth and     
children1 perhaps my ,lord will give  me
 something better than your garden1 and 
send on it a reckoning from  heaven1 so 
that it shall become even ground with no
 living plant4 ,or the  waters may sink 
into the ground so that you are unable  
to find them4 ,his  wealth was indeed   

destroyed1 and he began to wring his    
hands for what he  had spent on it4     
,while it lay there 7for it had fallen  
down from the  roofs7 he said3 ,ah me6  
would that ,i had not associated anyone 
with my  ,lord4 ,he had none to help him
 besides ,allah nor could he defend     
himself4  ,in ,allah1 alone is          
protection1 the ,true ,one4 ,in the     
bestowal of reward  and in requital he  
is best4    ,set forth to them also the 
parable of the life in this world4 ,it  
is  like the water which we send down   
from the clouds on account of which  the
 herbs become luxuriant4 ,then these    
become dry1 break into pieces  and the  
winds scatter them4 ,allah holds power  
over all things4 ,wealth  and children  
are an adornment of the life of this    
world4 ,the good  works1 the            
ever-abiding1 are with your ,lord better
 in reward than in  expectation04#dh    
,how fleeting are our worldly gains1 and
 how foolish are we in feeling  proud of
 them6 ,let us then1 live as meek and   

humble servants of ,god on  earth4      
,,friendship ,,and ,,sincerity#di       
,friendship is one of ,god's favours1   
says the ,quran4 ,and hold fast by the  
covenant of ,allah all together and be  
not disunited1 and remember the  favour 
of ,allah on you when you were enemies1 
then ,he united your marts  so by ,his  
favour you became brethren#ej4 ,the     
,prophet says3 ,those amongst  you are  
my close companions who have good       
dispositions1 are affectionate  and     
tenderly love each other4 ,and again3   
8,god when ,he shows ,his kindness      
towards any person gives him a ,good    
friend40#ea 8,verily ,god will say  on  
the day of resurrection where are those 
who loved each other for my  sake2 today
 they shall rest under my shelter when  
there is no other  shelter40#eb         
8,seven kinds of men will1 on the ,day  
of ,judgment1 rest under ,his shelter   
when there will be no other             
shelter3--7#a7 ,a just ,imam1 7#b7 ,an  
adult who  is devoted to ,god1 7#c7 ,a  

man who after coming out from the mosque
 finds  his heart attached to it till he
 enters again1 7#d7 ,two friends who    
lived  and died in their friendship for 
,god's sake1 7#e7 ,he who for fear of   
the  ,lord wept in secret1 7#f7 ,he whom
 a beautiful woman of good birth allures
  but he replies3 ,i have fear of my    
,lord1 7#g7 ,he who gives alms in a     
manner  that his left hand does not know
 what is given by his right hand40#ec   
,friendship1 then1 is ,god's favour and 
should be cultivated for ,his sake4     
,but if we shun the company of our      
fellowmen let it also be for ,god's     
sake4 8,the strongest rope of ,faith01  
says the ,prophet1 8is love and hate    
both for ,god's sake40    ,christ says1 
8,love ,god by avoiding the wicked2 seek
 ,his nearness by  shunning their       
company and please ,him by courting     
their displeasure40  8,with whom should 
we keep company1 ,o ,word of ,god01     
asked the people4 ,and  ,christ replied1
 8,sit with those whose appearance      

reminds you of ,god1  whose words add to
 the stock of your knowledge and whose  
actions serve as  an incentive for      
acquiring the kingdom of ,heaven40      
,god spoke to ,moses saying1 8,son of   
,amran be up and find out a friend for  
thee and he who would not be with thee  
for my good will is thy enemy40         
,choose a friend who has five qualities 
viz3 wisdom1 good disposition1          
abstinence from sin1 heresy and greed4  
,a fool's company gives no good1 it ends
 in gloom4 ,good disposition is         
necessary in as much as a man may be    
wise but be subservient to his          
inordinate passion and hence unfit for  
company4 ,and a sinner and a  heretic   
are to be avoided for the simple reason 
that they who have no  fear of the ,lord
 and are regardless of committing       
forbidden actions are  not to be relied 
on4 ,besides contagion will secretly    
spread and he too  will think of sin    
lightly and gradually lose power of     
resisting it4 ,and  a greedy worldling  

is to be avoided because his company    
will deaden the  heart in the quest of  
the kingdom of ,heaven4    ,alkama on   
his death bed gave a fine description of
 a friend4 8,my son01  said he1 8,if you
 wish to keep company try to find out   
such a friend who1  when you live with  
him defends you1 adds to your prestige1 
bears the  load of your hardships1 helps
 you in your doings1 counts your        
virtues1  dissuades you from vices1     
readily responds to your requests1      
inquires  himself for your needs when   
you keep quiet1 shows his deep sympathy 
in your sufferings1 bears witness to    
your sayings1 gives good advice  when   
you intend to do some work and prefers  
you to his own self when  difference    
arises between you and him40 ,this piece
 of advice gives the  qualities of a    
friend in a nutshell4 ,when ,caliph     
,mamun the ,abbaside heard  of it1 he   
said1 8,where should we find such a     
friend04 ,and ,yahya replied1           
8,alkama's description means that we    

should live in retirement40    ,imam    
,jafar #8,assadiq' 7the veracious7 gives
 a negative description of a  friend4   
8,do not keep company with five sorts of
 men viz3 a false man who  deceives you 
like a mirage2 a fool who cannot benefit
 you1 7even if he  tries to do so he    
would do harm through his foolishness27 
a miser who  when you need his help the 
most1 severs himself from you2 a coward 
who  will leave you when you are in     
danger2 a wicked sinner who will sell   
you  for a piece of bread40    ,sahl of 
,taster says1 8,avoid the company of #c 
kinds of men1 7#a7 tyrants  who forget  
,god1 7#b7 ,ulamas who practise         
dissimulation1 7#c7 ,sufis who are      
ignorant40    ,it must be remembered    
here that the above passages serve as an
 ideal but  for purposes we should look 
to the present practical conditions and 
try  to get as much good as may be had  
from them4 ,for man's life seems dreary 
when he has no friends4 ,and men are    
like trees4 ,some are fruit-bearing  and

 shady1 some are shady only and some are
 mere thorns and thistles4  ,similarly  
some friends are a blessing both here   
and hereafter2 some are  for worldly    
gain for the world is a shadow1 and some
 are of no good in  this world and the  
next as if they are scorpions in human  
form4    8,and they were not enjoined   
anything except that they should serve  
,allah1 being sincere to ,him in        
obedience1 upright1 and keep up prayer  
and pay the poor rate 7zakat7 and that  
is the right religion04#ed  8,then serve
 ,god1 being sincere in religion unto   
,him1 ,aye1 ,god's is the  sincere      
religion04 ,musab says that his father  
,saad was considering  himself superior 
to other poor and destitute companions  
of the ,prophet4  8,god01 said the      
,prophet1 8has helped my people with my 
poor and humble  followers' prayer and  
sincerity40#ee 8,sincere action10 says  
the  ,prophet 8even if it be little will
 suffice for thee40#ef ,the following   
saying of the ,prophet is reported by   

,abu ,huraira3 8,three persons shall  be
 questioned first on the day of         
resurrection4 ,one will be the learned  
man who would be asked as to what he had
 done with his learning04 8,day  and    
night10 the learned man will reply 8,i  
tried my best to propagate  it1 ,o      
,lord04 8,thou speakest falsely01 ,god  
will answer and the angels  will also   
join with him4 8,thy sole aim was to be 
called a learned man by  the people1 and
 the title was thine04 ,the second will 
be the rich man  who would be asked     
about his riches4 8,day and night01 the 
rich man will  reply1 8,i gave it in    
charity40 8,thou speaker of untruth01   
,god and his  angels will say4 8,thou   
wishest to be labelled a generous man1  
and it was  done04 ,the third will be   
the martyr who too will be asked about  
his deed4  8,o ,lord01 the martyr will  
reply1 8,thou didst command us to wage  
,holy  war 7,jehad71 ,i obeyed thee and 
fell fighting04 8,thou liest10 ,god and 
,his  angels will answer4 8,thy aim was 

to be trumpeted as a hero and it was    
done04 8,then10 says ,abu ,huraira1 8the
 ,prophet after finishing the sermon    
pressed me and said3 ,these three would 
be the first to be thrown into the      
flames of hell04    ,in the narratives  
of the ,israelites1 a story is told of a
 certain devotee  who had served ,god   
for many years4 ,once he was informed of
 the apostacy  of a tribe1 which1       
forsaking the true worship of ,yahweh   
had taken to tree  worship4 ,the hermit 
filled with the spirit of the 8jealous0 
,god took an  axe and set out to level  
the tree to the earth4 ,but the devil in
 the  shape of an old man met him on the
 way and inquired of his intention4     
,the hermit told him of his             
determination1 whereupon ,satan         
addressed him  thus3 8,why on earth are 
you leaving aside your prayers and      
vigils and  devoting yourself to other  
work60 8,but this too is a sacred cause0
  replied hermit4 8,no1 nor will ,i     
allow you to do so0 exclaimed the devil4

  ,whereupon the hermit in the white    
heat of his pious rage caught hold of   
the devil and forcibly held him down4   
8,spare me ,sir01 begged the devil1  8,i
 have something to say to you40 ,the    
hermit let him go4 ,then spoke  ,satan2 
8,i think ,god has not commanded you to 
do this thing4 ,you do not  worship the 
tree1 you are not responsible for the   
sins of others4 ,if  ,god wills it he   
will send some prophet1 and they are so 
many1 who would  carry out his order4   
,so ,i think it is not your duty1 why   
then trouble  yourself80 8,but ,i belong
 to the chosen people of ,yahweh1 and ,i
 am in  duty bound to do so01 replied   
the hermit4 ,whereupon they again began 
to  wrestle and eventually ,satan was   
thrown down4 8,o6 ,i see0 cried ,satan4 
8,an idea has just come into my mind2   
let me go please1 and ,i will tell      
you40 ,thus obtaining his release1 the  
,evil ,one addressed him as follows3    
8,is it not the case that you are poor  
and have to live on the alms of  those  

who are devoted to you8 ,but in your    
heart of hearts you would like  to      
shower your bounties on your brethren   
and neighbours so generous and          
compassionate is your nature4 ,what a   
pity that such a noble soul lives  on   
alms04 8,you have read my mind aright10 
quietly responded the hermit4  8,may ,i 
hope10 said the ,evil ,one entreatingly1
 8that you will be pleased  to accept   
two golden dinars which you will find at
 your bed side every  morning from      
tomorrow4 ,you will then be relieved of 
depending on others  and be in a        
position to do charity to your poor     
relations and brethren4  ,as for that   
wretched tree1 what if that be cut down4
 ,surely your poor  needy brethren would
 get nothing and you would lose the     
opportunity of  helping them while the  
tree would grow again04 ,the hermit     
pondered over  these words and said to  
himself 8,this old man speaks quite     
reasonably1  but let me think over the  
pros and cons of the case4 ,am ,i a     

prophet8 ,no1  ,i am not2 therefore ,i  
am not bound to cut it down4 ,am ,i     
commanded to do  so8 ,no4 ,then if ,i do
 not do it ,i shall not be guilty of the
 iniquity4  ,should ,i accept his       
proposal8 ,no doubt from the religious  
point of view  it is more useful4 ,no   
doubt4 ,i think ,i should accept it3    
yes1 ,i must40  ,thus the two pledged   
their words and the hermit returned4    
,next morning  he found the two dinars  
at his bed side and was highly pleased4 
,another  morning the glittering gold   
was there1 but on the third morning the 
hermit searched for them in vain4 ,his  
fury knew no bounds4 ,he rushed for  his
 axe1 and hurried with it towards the   
place of idolatry4 ,satan again  met him
 in the way as before4 8,thou wretch1   
thou arch-devil01 cried out  the hermit 
8wilt thou prevent me from my sacred    
duty80 8,you cannot do it1  you dare not
 do it01 retorted the ,evil one4 8,hast 
thou forgotten the  test of my powers01 
sharply replied the infuriated hermit   

and rushed at  him4 ,but to his great   
discomfort and humiliation the hermit   
instantly  fell flat on the ground like 
a dry leaf from a tree4 ,the devil      
planted  his foot on his chest1 holding 
him by the throat1 dictating the        
following  terms3 8,either swear not to 
touch that tree or be prepared to die04 
,the  hermit finding himself quite      
helpless said1 8,i swear1 but tell me   
why ,i  am so discomfitured04 8,listen01
 answered ,satan4 8,at first thy wrath  
was  for ,god's sake1 and zealous       
vindication of his commandments4 ,hence 
,i was  defeated1 but now thou art      
furious for thyself1 and worldly gain04 
,the  story illustrates the saying 8,i  
will certainly cause them all to deviate
  from the way except thy servants from 
among those who are sincere04 ,a        
devotee cannot be immune from ,satan's  
temptation except by sincerity and      
therefore saint ,maaruf of ,karkh used  
to upbraid himself1 saying3 8,if thou   
wishest salvation1 be sincere04         

,yacub1 the ,sufi1 says3 8,he who       
conceals his virtues like vices1 is     
sincere40 ,in a dream a man saw a ,sufi 
who was dead and inquired about the     
actions of his previous life4 8,all     
those actions0 said the ,sufi1 8which   
were for ,god's sake ,i was rewarded    
for1 even the least of them4 ,for       
example1 ,i had thrown aside a          
pomegranate's peel from the             
thoroughfare4  ,i found my dead cat but 
lost my ass worth one hundred dinars1   
and a  silken thread on my cap was found
 on the side of iniquities4 ,once1 ,i   
gave  something in charity1 and was     
pleased to see people looking at        
me1--this  action has neither reward nor
 punishment for me04 8,how is it that   
you  got your cat and lost your ass80   
said the man to the ,sufi4 8,because01  
responded the latter1 8,when ,i heard of
 the death of my ass ,i said3 #8,damn   
it'4 ,i ought to have thought of ,god's 
will04 ,saint ,sufyan ,saori1 when he   
heard of this dream1 said1 8,the ,sufi  

was fortunate as no punishment was      
meted out to him for that charity which 
pleased him when people watched  him04  
,there is a report that a man1 putting  
on a woman's dress used to frequent     
purdah parties in marriage and funeral  
processions4 ,once a lady's pearl  was  
lost in a party4 ,everybody was being   
closely searched1 and the man  was very 
much afraid of the disclosure of his    
identity1 as it would mean  the loss of 
his life4 ,he sincerely repented in his 
heart1 never to do the  same thing      
again1 and asked ,god's forgiveness and 
help4 ,then he found  that it was now   
the turn of himself and his companion to
 be searched4 ,his  prayer was heard1   
the pearl being found in his companion's
 clothes and he  was saved4#eg    ,a    
,sufi narrates the following story3 8,i 
joined a naval squadron which was  going
 on holy war 7,jehad74 ,one of us was   
selling his provision bag1 and ,i       
bought it1 thinking it would prove      
useful in the war1 and that when the    

war was over ,i might dispose of it with
 profit4 ,that same night ,i dreamt     
that two angels came down from heaven4  
,one of them said to the other3  ,make a
 complete list of the crusaders4 ,the   
other began to write down3 ,so  and so  
goes on a trip2 so and so for trading1  
so and so for reputation2  so and so for
 ,god's sake4 ,then he looked at me     
saying3 ,put this man down  as trader4  
,but ,i spoke3 ,for ,god's sake do not  
misrepresent me4 ,i am not  going for   
business4 ,i have no capital1 ,i have   
simply started for the  holy war4 8,but 
,sir01 said the angel 8,did you not buy 
that provision bag  yesterday1 and were 
you not thinking of making some profit80
 ,i wept and  entreated them not to put 
me down as a trader4 ,the angel looked  
at the  other1 who said3 8,well1 write  
thus3 ,this man set out for the holy    
war1  but on the way bought a provision 
bag for profiting3 now ,god will judge  
the man04    ,saint ,sari ,saqati says3 
8,two rakats of prayer offered with     

sincerity in  seclusion are better than 
copying seventy or seven hundred        
traditions  with the complete list of   
authorities4 ,some say that one moment's
  sincerity is salvation1 but it is very
 rare4 ,knowledge is the seed1  practice
 is the crop1 and sincerity is the water
 nourishing it4 ,some say  that ,god's  
displeasure is revealed in a person who 
is given three things2  and is denied   
the same number4 ,he gets access into   
the society of the  virtuous1 but       
derives no benefit therefrom4 ,he       
performs good actions but  lacks        
sincerity4 ,he learns philosophy but    
fails to understand truth40  ,says      
,susi3 8,god looks to sincerity only1   
and not to the action of his            
creatures04 ,says ,junaid3 8,there are  
some servants of ,god who are wise1  who
 act as wise men1 who are sincere when  
they act1 then sincerity leads  them to 
virtue40 ,mohammed1 son of ,said        
,marwazi1 says3 8,the whole course  of  
our actions tends towards two           

principles1 viz4 7#a7 ,his treatment    
meted out to thee2 7#b7 thy action for  
him4 ,then willingly submit to what  is 
meted out to thee and be sincere in all 
thy dealings4 ,if thou art  successful  
in these two things thou shalt be happy 
in both the worlds04    ,says ,sahl3    
8,sincerity means that all our actions  
or intentions--all the  states of our   
minds whether we are doing anything or  
at rest1 be solely  for ,god40 ,but this
 is very difficult to acquire as it does
 not in the  least attract the ego      
itself4 ,rowim says3 8,sincerity means  
disregard of  recompense for action in  
both the worlds04 ,in this he wishes to 
point  out that the gratifications of   
our sensuous desires whether in this    
world or the next are all insignificant 
and low4 ,he who worships ,god in  order
 to attain joy in paradise is not       
sincere4 ,let him act for ,god's        
8,riza04 ,this stage is reached by      
,siddiks 7,sincerely devoted to ,god71  
and  is sincerity par excellence4 ,he   

who does good actions for fear of hell  
or hope of heaven is sincere in as much 
as he gives up at present his  sensual  
worldly enjoyment1 but wishes for the   
future1 the gratification  of his       
appetite and passion in paradise4 ,the  
longing of true devotees  is their      
,beloved's ,riza4 ,it may be objected   
here that men's motive is  pleasure1    
that freedom from such pleasures is a   
purely divine attribute4  ,but this     
objection is based on misunderstanding4 
,it is true that man  desires pleasure  
but pleasure has different meanings4    
,the popular view  is gratification of  
sensuous desires in ,paradise but it has
 no idea of  the nature of higher       
pleasures of communion and beatitude or 
the vision  of ,god1 and hence fails to 
consider them as pleasures4 ,but these  
are  the pleasures and he who enjoys    
them will not even look to the popular  
pleasures of ,paradise for his highest  
pleasure4 ,his summum bonum is the  love
 of ,god4    ,tufail says3 8,to do good 

for men's sake is hypocrisy2 not to do  
is  infidelity2 sincere is he who is    
free from both and works for ,god only04
  ,these definitions suggest the ideal  
of sincerity aimed at by noble souls4   
,let us now look to the practical side  
of it for the sake of the average  man4 
,actions make an impression on the      
heart1 and strengthen that quality of   
it which served as a stimulus for them4 
,for example1 hypocrisy deadens  the    
heart and godly motive leads to         
salvation4 ,both of them will gather    
strength in proportion to the actions   
which proceed from their respective     
sources4 ,but as they are intrinsically 
opposed to each other an action  which  
gets an equal stimulus at one and the   
same time will be stationary  in its    
effect on the heart4 ,now take a mixed  
action which draws the doer  nearer to  
virtue1 say1 by one span1 but removes   
him away by two spans1  the inward      
result of his progress will be that he  
would remain where he  was1 although he 

would be rewarded or punished according 
to his motive4  ,a man starts for 8,haj0
 but takes with him some articles for   
trade1 he  will get his reward of       
pilgrimage but if his motive was trade  
only1 he  could not be considered a     
8,haji04 ,a crusader who fights for his 
religion  would have his recompense     
although he acquires booty1 for so long 
as his  sole motive is to uphold the    
cause of religion the latent desire of  
booty  would not come in the way of his 
recompense4 ,granted that he is inferior
  to those noble souls who are wholly   
absorbed in ,him 8who see through ,him1 
who hear through ,him1 who act through  
,him10 7,hadis7 ,he still belongs  to   
the good and the virtuous4 ,for if we   
apply the highest standard to  all1     
religion will be considered a hopeless  
task1 and will ultimately be  reduced to
 pessimism4    ,at the same time we must
 sound a note of warning for those who  
are  satisfied with the low standard4   
,they are very often deceived4 ,they    

consider their motive is purely for     
,god's sake while in reality they  aim  
at some hidden sensuous pleasure4 ,let a
 doer1 after he has  exerted himself and
 pondered over his motive1 be not       
over-confident  of his sincerity4 ,with 
the fear of its rejection let him hope  
for its  acceptance--this is the creed  
of the righteous who fears the ,lord and
  hopes from him4          ,,the        
,,nature ,,of ,,love#eh                 
,experiences are either agreeable and   
therefore desired or disagreeable  and  
avoided4 ,inclination towards a desired 
object when deeply rooted and  strong   
constitutes love4 ,knowledge and        
perception of the beloved is the  first 
requisite for love which is consequently
 divided according to the  division of  
the five senses each of which is        
inclined towards its desired  object4   
,thus the eye apprehends beautiful      
forms1 the ear harmonious  sounds1 etc4 
,this kind of experience we share with  
the animals4 ,there is1  however1 one   

more sense1 peculiar to man1 which      
delights the soul4 ,the  prophet has    
said3 8,i desire three things from your 
world1 sweet smell1  tender sex1 and    
prayer1 which is the delight of my eye04
 ,now prayer is  neither smelt nor      
touched--in fact its delight is beyond  
the scope of the  five senses and yet it
 has been described as the 8delight of  
my eye01  which means the inner eye--the
 soul with her sixth sense4 ,concepts of
 this  special sense are more beautiful 
and charming than sensuous objects--nay1
  they are more perfect and strongly    
attract the soul4 ,is it not1 then1     
possible1 that ,one who is not perceived
 by the five senses may yet be  found   
and felt attractive by that sense and   
loved by the soul8    ,let us now       
enumerate the circumstances which excite
 love4 #a4 ,every living  being first of
 all loves his own self1 that is to say1
 the desire for  continuity of his      
existence as opposed to annihilation is 
innate4 ,this  desire is augmented by   

the desire of the perfection of his self
 by means  of sound body1 wealth1       
children1 relations and friends4 ,for   
all of these  serve as a means to the   
end of the continuity of his self and   
therefore  he cherishes love for them4  
,even 8unselfish0 love of his dear son1 
if  probed1 smacks of love for the      
continuity of his self1 because his son 
who is part of his self serves as a     
living representative of his self's     
continuity4    #b4 ,the second cause is 
the love for one's benefactor towards   
whom the  heart is naturally attracted4 
,even if he be a stranger1 a benefactor 
will  always be loved4 ,but it must be  
remembered that the benefactor is loved 
not for himself1 but for his            
beneficence1 the extent of which will be
 a  dominating factor in determining the
 degree of love4    #c4 ,the third cause
 is love of beauty4 ,it is generally    
supposed that  beauty consists in red   
and white complexions1 well proportioned
 limbs1  and so forth1 but we can also  

say 8beautiful writing01 8beautiful     
horse01 etc4 ,hence beauty of an object 
consists in its possession of  all      
possible befitting perfections4 ,it will
 vary in proportion to the  perfections 
attained4 ,that writing in which all the
 rules of caligraphy  are properly      
observed will be called beautiful and so
 on4 ,at the same  time there can be no 
one standard for judging the beauty of  
different  objects4 ,the standard for a 
horse cannot be the same for1 say1      
writing  or man4 ,it must also be       
remembered that beauty is not connected 
with  sensible objects only but is also 
related to concepts4 ,a person is  not  
always loved for his external beauty1   
but often the beauty of his  knowledge  
or virtues attracts the heart4 ,it is   
not necessary that the  object of such  
kind of love be perceived by the senses4
 ,we love our  saints1 imams1 and       
prophets but we have never seen them4   
,our love  for them is so strong that we
 would willingly lay down our lives for 

upholding their good name4 ,if we wish  
to create love for them in young  minds 
we can produce it by giving graphic     
accounts of their virtues4  ,stories of 
the heroes of any nation will excite    
love for them4        8,love looks not  
with the eyes but with the mind2 and    
therefore      is winged ,cupid painted 
blind04    #d4 ,the fourth cause is a   
sort of secret affinity between two     
souls1  meeting and attracting each     
other4 ,it is what is called 8love at   
first  sight04 ,this is what the prophet
 meant when he said 8,the souls had     
their rendezvous3 ,those who liked each 
other1 then love here2 those  who       
remained strangers then do not join     
here04 ,if a believer goes to a  meeting
 where there are a hundred manafiks     
7hypocrites7 and one momin  7faithful7  
he will take his seat by the side of the
 momin4 ,it seems that  likes are       
attracted by their likes4 ,malik bin    
,dinar says3 ,just as birds  of the same
 feather fly together two persons having

 a quality common to  both will join4#ei
    ,let us now apply these causes and  
find out who may be the true object  of 
love4 ,first1 man who is directly       
conscious of his own self in whom  the  
love for continuity of the self is      
innate1 if he deeply thinks on  the     
nature of his existence will find that  
he does not exist of his own  self1 nor 
are the means of the continuity of his  
self in his power4  ,there is a being1  
self-existent1 and living who created   
and sustains  him4 ,the ,quran says3    
8,there surely came over man a period of
 time when  he was not a thing that     
could be spoken of4 ,surely we have     
created man  from a small life germ     
uniting4 ,we mean to try him1 so we have
 made him  hearing1 seeing4 ,surely we  
have shown him the way1 he may be       
thankful  or unthankful40#fj ,this      
contemplation will bear the fruit or    
love for  ,god4 ,for how could it be    
otherwise when man loves his own self   
which is  dependent on ,him1 unless he  

be given up to the gratification of his 
passions and thereby forgetting his true
 self and his sustainer4    ,secondly1  
if he thinks over the aim and scope of  
beneficence1 he will  find that no      
creature can show any purely            
disinterested favour to another  because
 his motive will be either #a4 praise or
 self-gratification  for his generosity1
 or #b4 hope of reward in the next world
 or divine  pleasure4#fa ,paradoxical   
though it sounds1 deep insight into     
human  nature leads us1 inevitably to   
the conclusion that man cannot be called
  8benefactor01 in as much as his action
 is prompted by the idea of gain  and   
barter4 ,a true benefactor is one who in
 bestowing his favours has  not the     
least idea of any sort of gain4 ,purely 
disinterested beneficence  is the       
quality of the ,all-merciful ,providence
 and hence ,he is the true  object of   
love4    ,thirdly1 the appreciation of  
inward beauty1 that is to say the       
contemplation of any attractive quality 

or qualities of the beloved  causes a   
stronger and more durable love than the 
passionate love of the  flesh4 ,however 
such a beloved will still be found      
lacking in beauty from  the standpoint  
of perfection because the three genders 
are creatures and  therefore cannot be  
called perfect4 ,god alone is perfect   
beauty--holy1  independent1 omnipotent1 
all-majesty1 all-beneficent1            
all-merciful4 ,with  all this knowledge 
of ,his attributes we still do not know 
,him as ,he is4  ,the prophet says3 8,my
 praise of ,thee cannot be              
comprehensive1 ,thou art  such as       
wouldst praise ,thyself04#fb ,are not   
these attributes sufficient  to evoke   
love for him8 ,but beatitude is denied  
to the inwardly blind4  ,they do not    
understand the attitude of the lovers of
 ,god towards ,him4  ,jesus once passed 
by some ascetics who were reduced in    
body4 8,why are  you thus08 he said to  
them4 ,and they replied 8,fear of hell  
and hope of  heaven have reduced us to  

this condition04 8,what a pity01        
rejoined ,jesus1  8your fear and hope is
 limited to creatures04 ,then he went   
onward and saw  some more devotees1 and 
put the same question4 8,we are devoted 
to ,god and  revere him for his love01  
they replied with downcast eyes4 8,ye   
are the  saints0 exclaimed ,jesus1 8you 
will have my company04#fc    ,fourthly1 
the affinity between two souls meeting  
and loving each other is  a mystery1 but
 more mysterious is the affinity between
 ,god and his loving  devotee4 ,it      
cannot and must not be described before 
the uninitiated4  ,suffice it to say    
that the souls possessing the higher    
qualities of  beneficence1 sympathy1    
mercy1 etc4 have that affinity hinted at
 in the  following saying of the        
prophet3 8,imitate divine attributes04  
,for man has  been created in the image 
of ,god1 nay he is1 in a way1 akin to   
,him1 says  the ,quran4 8,and when the  
,lord said to the angels3 ,surely ,i am 
going to  create a mortal from dust1 so 

when ,i have made him complete1 and     
breathed  into him of ,my ,ruh 7soul71  
fall down making obeisance to him04#fd  
,it is  this affinity which is pointed  
out in the following tradition3 ,god    
said  to ,moses 8,i was sick and thou   
didst not visit ,me04 ,moses replied 8,o
 ,god1  thou art ,lord of heaven and    
earth3 how couldst thou be sick80 ,god  
said 8,a  certain servant of mine was   
sick3 hadst thou visited him1 thou      
wouldst  have visited me04 ,therefore   
our prophet ,mahommed has said3 8,says  
,god3  ,my servant seeks to be near me  
that ,i may make him my friend1 and when
  ,i have made him my friend1 ,i become 
his ear1 his eye1 his tongue40#fe  ,it  
must1 however1 be remembered that       
mystical affinity vaguely conceived     
leads to extremes4 ,some have fallen    
into abject anthropomorphism2 others    
have gone so far as to believe in the   
airy nothings of pantheism4 ,these  are 
all vagaries of the imagination1 whether
 they take the form of 8,ibn  ,allah01  

7,son of ,god7 or 8,anal ,haq0 7,i am   
,god74#ff ,they are to a great  extent  
responsible for the evils of            
superstition and scepticism4    ,these  
four causes when properly understood1   
demonstrate that the true  object of our
 love is ,god and therefore it has been 
enjoined3 8,thou shalt  love the lord   
thy ,god with all thy heart and with all
 thy soul and with  all thy mind04#fg   
,man's highest happiness    ,the        
constitution of man possesses a number  
of powers and propensities1  each of    
which has its own distinctive kind of   
enjoyment suited to it  by nature4 ,the 
appetite of hunger seeks food which     
preserves our body  and the attainment  
of which is the delight of it1 and so   
with every  passion and propensity when 
their particular objects are attained4  
,similarly the moral faculty--call it   
inward sight1 light of faith or         
reason--any name will do provided the   
object signified by it is rightly       
understood--delights in the attainment  

of its desideratum4 ,i shall call it    
here the faculty of reason 7not that    
wrangling reason of the ,scholastics    
and the dialecticians7--that distinctive
 quality which makes him lord  of       
creation4 ,this faculty delights in the 
possession of all possible  knowledge4  
,even an expert in chess boastfully     
delights in the knowledge  of the game  
however insignificant it may be4 ,and   
the higher the subject  matter of our   
knowledge the greater our delight in it4
 ,for instance  we would take more      
pleasure in knowing the secrets of a    
king than the  secrets of a vizier4 ,now
 delights are either 7a7 external1      
derived from  the five senses1 or 7b7   
internal1 such as love of superiority   
and power1  love of the knowledge1 etc4 
enjoyed by the mind4 ,and the more the  
mind is  noble the more there will be a 
desire for the second kind of delights4 
,the simple will delight in dainty      
dishes1 but a great mind leaving them   
aside will endanger his life and his    

honour and reputation from the  jaws of 
death4 ,even sensuous delights present  
an amusing example of  preference4 ,an  
expert in chess while absorbed in       
playing will not come to  his meals     
though hungry and repeatedly summoned1  
because the pleasure  of check-mating   
his adversary is greater to him than the
 object of his  appetite4 ,thus we see  
that inward delights and they are       
chiefly love of  knowledge and          
superiority are preferred by noble      
minds4 ,if then a man  believes in a    
perfect being1 will not the pleasure of 
,his contemplation  be preferred by him 
and will it not absorb his whole self8  
,surely the  delights of the righteous  
are indescribable1 for they are even in 
this  life1 in a paradise which no eye  
has seen and no ear has heard4    ,abu  
,sulaiman ,darani1#fh the renowned      
,sufi1 says3 8,there are servants of    
,god whom neither fear of hell nor the  
hope of heaven can deviate from the     
divine love1 how can the world with its 

temptations come in their way804  ,abu  
,mahfuz ,karkhi was once asked by his   
disciples3 8,tell us what led you  to   
devotion0 but he kept quiet4 8,is it the
 apprehension of death40 said  one of   
them4 8,it matters little0 replied the  
saint 8,is it due to hell  or to        
paradise01 inquired another4 8,what of  
them0 said the saint 8both  belong to a 
supreme ,being1 if you love him you will
 not be troubled by  them04 ,saint      
,rabia#fi was once asked about her      
faith3 8,god forbid01  answered ,rabia3 
8,if ,i serve him like a bad labourer   
thinking of his wages  only04 ,and then 
she sang3 8,love draws me nigh1 ,i know 
not why04 ,thus we  see that the hearts 
of those who ate and drank and breathed 
like us felt  delights of divine love   
which was their highest happiness4      
,if we think over man's gradual         
development we find that every stage of 
his life is followed by a new sort of   
delight4 ,children love playing and     
have no idea of the pleasures of        

courtship and marriage experienced by   
young men1 who in their turn would not  
care to exchange their enjoyments  for  
wealth and greatness which are the      
delights of the middle aged men  who    
consider all previous delights as       
insignificant and low4 ,these last      
mentioned delights are also looked upon 
as unsubstantial and transitory  by pure
 and noble souls fully developed4       
,the ,quran says3 8,know that this      
world's life is only sport and play and 
boasting among yourselves1 and vying in 
the multiplication of wealth  and       
children04 8,say1 shall ,i tell you what
 is better than these8 ,for  the        
righteous are gardens with their ,lord1 
beneath which rivers flow1  to abide in 
them and pure mates and ,allah's        
pleasure and ,allah sees the  servants04
 8,those who say3 ,our ,lord1 surely we 
believe1 so forgive us our  faults1 and 
keep us from the chastisement of fire2  
the patient and the  truthful and the   
obedient and those who spend            

7benevolently7 and those  who ask       
forgiveness in morning times04#gj       
,let us now point out some drawbacks    
which hinder the path of the divine     
love4    ,man from his infancy is       
accustomed to enjoy sensual delights    
which  are firmly implanted in him4     
,blind imitation of the creed with vague
  conception of the deity and his       
attributes fails to eradicate sensual   
delights and evoke the raptures of      
divine love4 ,it is the dynamic force   
of direct contemplation of his          
attributes manifested in the universe   
that  can prove an incentive for his    
love4 ,to use a figure3 a nation loves  
its national poet1 but the feeling of   
one who studies the poet will be  of    
exceeding strong love4 ,the world is a  
masterpiece2 he who studies it  loves   
its invisible ,author in a manner which 
cannot be described but is  felt by the 
favoured few4 ,another drawback which   
sounds like a paradox1  should be deeply
 studied4 ,it is as follows3 when we    

find a person writing  or doing any     
other work1 the fact that he is living  
will be most apparent  to us3 that is to
 say1 his life1 knowledge1 power and    
will will be more  apparent to us than  
his other internal qualities1 e4g4      
colour1 size1  etc4 which being         
perceived by the eye may be doubted4    
,similarly stones1  plants1 animals1 the
 earth1 the sky1 the stars1 the         
elements1 in fact  everything in the    
universe reveals to us the knowledge1   
power and the  will of its originator4  
,nay1 the first and the foremost proof  
is our  consciousness1 because the      
knowledge that ,i exist is immediate1#ga
  and more apparent than our            
perceptions4 ,thus we see that man's    
actions  are but one proof of his life1 
knowledge1 power and will1 but with     
reference to ,god the whole phenomenal  
existence with its law of causation  and
 order and adaptability bears testimony 
of him and his attributes4  ,therefore1 
,he is so dazzlingly apparent that the  

understanding of the  people fails to   
see ,him just as the bat pereeaes at    
night fails to see  in daylight1 because
 its imperfect sight cannot bear the    
light of the  sun1 so our understanding 
is blurred by the effulgent light of his
  manifestations4 ,the fact is that     
objects are known by their opposites but
  the conception of one who exists      
everywhere and who has no opposite would
  be most difficult4 ,besides1 objects  
which differ in their respective        
significances can also be distinguished 
but if they have common  significances  
the same difficulty will be felt4 ,for  
instance if the sun  would have shone   
always without setting1 we could have   
formed no idea of  light1 knowing simply
 that objects have certain colours4 ,but
 the setting  of the sun revealed to us 
the nature of light by comparing it with
  darkness4 ,if then light1 which is    
more perceptible and apparent would     
have never been understood had there    
been no darkness notwithstanding its    

undeniable visibility1 there is no      
wonder if ,god who is most apparent  and
 all pervading true light 7,nur7#gb     
remains hidden1 because if he  would    
have disappeared 7which means the       
annihilation of the universe71  there   
would have been an idea of him by       
comparison as in the case of the  light 
and darkness4 ,thus we see that the very
 mode of his existence and              
manifestation is a drawback for human   
understanding4 ,but he whose inward     
sight is keen and has strong intuition  
in his balanced state of mind  neither  
sees nor knows any other active power   
save ,god omnipotent4 ,such a  person   
neither sees the sky as the sky nor the 
earth as the earth--in fact  sees       
nothing in the universe except in the   
light of its being work of an  all      
pervading ,true ,one4 ,to use a figure3 
if a man looks at a poem or a  writing1 
not as a collection of black lines      
scribbled on white sheets of  paper but 
as a work of a poet or an author1 he    

ought not to be considered  as looking  
to anything other than the author4 ,the 
universe is a unique  masterpiece1 a    
perfect song1 he who reads it looks at  
the divine author  and loves him4 ,the  
true ,mowahhid is one who sees nothing  
but ,god4 ,he  is not even aware of his 
self except as servant of ,god4 ,such a 
person  will be called absorbed in ,him2
 he is effaced1 the self is annihilated4
  ,these are facts known to him who sees
 intuitively1 but weak minds do not     
know them4 ,even ,ulamas fail to express
 them adequately or consider the        
publicity of them as unsafe and         
unnecessary for the masses4             
,,the ,,unity ,,of ,,god#gc      ,there 
are four stages in the belief in the    
unity of ,god4 ,the first is  to utter  
the words3 8,there is no ,god but ,god0 
without experiencing any  impression in 
the heart4 ,this is the creed of the    
hypocrites4 ,the a  second is to utter  
the above words and to believe that     
their meaning  is also true4 ,this is   

the dogma of ordinary ,muslims4 ,the    
third is  to perceive by the inward     
light of the heart the truth of the     
above  ,kalima4 ,through the            
multiplicity of causes the mind arrives 
at the  conception of the unity of the  
final cause4 ,this is the stage of the  
initiates4 ,the fourth is to gaze at the
 vision of an all-comprehensive1        
all-absorbing ,one1 losing sight even of
 the duality of one's own self4  ,this  
is the highest stage of the true        
devotee4 ,it is described by the  ,sufis
 as ,fanafittauhid 7i4e4 the effacement 
of one's individuality in  contemplating
 the unity of ,god74#gd ,to use a simile
 these four stages  may be compared with
 a walnut which is composed of an       
external hard rind1  an internal skin1  
the kernel1 and oil4 ,the hard rind1    
which is bitter in  taste1 has no value 
except that it serves as a covering for 
some time4  ,when the kernel is         
extracted the shell is thrown away4     
,similarly the  hypocrite who1 uttering 

the ,kalima1 is associated with the     
,muslims and  safely enjoys their       
privileges1 but at death is cut off from
 the faithful  and falls headlong into  
perdition4 ,the internal skin is more   
useful than  the external in as much as 
it preserves the kernel and may be used1
 but  is in no way equal to the kernel  
itself4 ,similarly the dogmatic belief  
of the ordinary ,muslim is better than  
the lip service of the hypocrite1  but  
lacks that broad clear insight which is 
described as 8,he whose heart  ,allah   
has opened to ,islam walks in his       
light04    ,the kernel is undoubtedly   
the desired object1 but it contains some
  substance which is removed when oil is
 being pressed out4 ,similarly the      
conception of an efficient final cause  
is the aim and object of the  devotees1 
but is inferior to the vision of the    
all-pervading ,holy ,one1  because the  
conception of causality involves        
duality4    ,but the objection may be   
urged3 ,how can we ignore the           

diversities and  multiplicities of the  
universe8 ,man has hands and feet1 bones
 and blood1  heart and soul1--all       
distinct--yet he is one individual4     
,when we are  thinking of a dear old    
friend and suddenly he stands before us1
 we do not  think of any multiplicity of
 his bodily organs1 but are delighted to
 see  him4 ,the simile1 though not quite
 appropriate is suggestive1 especially  
for beginners4 ,when they reach that    
stage they will themselves see its      
truth4 ,words fail to express the       
beatitude of that highest stage4 ,it can
  be enjoyed1 but not described4#ge     
,let us consider the nature of the third
 stage4 ,man finds that ,god alone  is  
the prime cause of everything4 ,the     
world1 its objects1 life1 death1        
happiness1 misery1 all have their source
 in his omnipotence4 ,none is           
associated with ,him in this4 ,when man 
comes to recognise this1 he has no  fear
 of anything1 but puts his trust in ,god
 alone4 ,but ,satan tempts him  by      

misrepresenting the agencies of the     
inorganic and organic worlds as  potent 
factors independent in the shaping of   
his destiny4    ,think first of the     
inorganic world4 ,man thinks that crops 
depend on  rain descending from clouds1 
and that clouds gather together owing to
  normal climatic conditions4 ,similarly
 his sailing on the sea depends  on     
favourable winds4 ,without doubt1 these 
are immediate causes1 but  they are not 
independent4 ,man who in the hour of    
need calls for ,god's  mysterious help1 
forgets ,him and turns to external      
causes as soon as he  finds himself safe
 and sound4 8,so1 when they ride in     
ships1 they call  upon ,allah1 being    
sincerely obedient to ,him1 but when he 
brings them safe  to land1 they         
associate others with ,him4 ,thus they  
become ungrateful  for what we have     
given them1 so they might enjoy3 but    
they shall soon  know04#gf ,if a        
culprit1 whose death sentence is revoked
 by the king1  looks to the pen as his  

deliverer1 will it not be sheer         
ignorance and  ingratitude8 ,surely1 the
 sun1 the moon1 the stars1 the clouds1  
in fact1  the whole universe is like a  
pen in the hand of an omnipotent        
dictator4  ,when this kind of belief    
takes hold of the mind1 ,satan is       
disappointed  in covertly tempting man1 
and uses subtle means1 insinuating thus3
  8,do you not see that the king has    
full power either to kill or favour     
you1 and though the pen1 in the above   
simile1 is not your deliverer1  the     
writer certainly is08 ,as this sort of  
reflection led to the vexed  question of
 free will1 we have dealt with it       
already at some length4    ,at the      
outset1 let us point out that just as an
 ant1 owing to its limited  sight will  
see the point of the pen blackening a   
blank sheet of paper  and not the       
fingers and hand of the writer1 so the  
person whose mental  sight is not keen  
will attribute the actions to the       
immediate doer  only4 ,but there are    

minds1 which1 with the searchlight of   
intuition1  expose the lurking danger of
 wrongly attributing power to any except
 the  all-powerful omniscient being4 ,to
 them every atom in the universe speaks 
out the truth of this revelation4 ,they 
find tongues in trees1 books in  the    
running brooks1 sermons in stones4 ,the 
worldling will say3 ,though we  have    
ears1 we do not hear them4 ,but asses   
also having ears do not hear4  ,verily  
there are such ears which hear words    
that have no sound1 that are  neither   
,arabic nor any other language1 known to
 man4 ,these words are  drops in the    
boundless unfathomable ocean of divine  
knowledge3 8,if the  sea were ink for   
the words of my ,lord1 the sea would    
surely be consumed  before the words of 
my ,lord are exhausted40#gg             
,,the ,,love ,,of ,,god ,,and ,,its     
,,signs#gh      ,love of ,god is the    
highest stage of our soul's progress and
 her summum  bonum4 ,repentance1        
patience1 piety1 and other virtues are  

all preliminary  steps4 ,although rare  
these qualities are found in true       
devotees and the  commonality1 though   
devoid of them1 at any rate believe in  
them4 ,love  of ,god is not only very   
rare3 the possibility of it is doubted1 
even by  some ,ulamas who call it simply
 service4 ,for1 in their opinion love   
exists  amongst species of the same     
kind1 but ,god being ultra-mundane and  
not  of our kind1 ,his love is an       
impossibility and hence the much talked 
of  ecstatic states of the 8true lovers 
of ,god0 are mere delusions4 ,as this   
is far from truth and impedes the       
progress of the soul1 by spreading      
false notions1 we shall briefly discuss 
the subject4 ,first we shall quote      
passages from the ,quran and the ,hadith
 testifying to the existence of  the    
love of ,god4    8,o you who believe1   
whosoever from among you turns back from
 his  religion1 then ,allah will bring a
 people3 ,he shall love them1 and  they 
shall love him1 lowly before the        

believers1 mightily against the         
unbelievers1 they shall strive hard in  
,allah's way and shall not fear the     
censure of any censurer3 this is        
,allah's grace1 ,he gives it to whom ,he
  pleases and ,allah is ample-giving1   
knowing40#gi    8,and there are some    
among men who take for themselves       
objects of worship  besides ,allah1 whom
 they love4 ,allah and those who believe
 are stronger  in love of ,allah40#hj   
,these passages not only refer to the   
existence of  the love of ,god but point
 to the difference in degree4 ,the      
,prophet has  taught us that the love of
 ,god is one of the conditions of faith4
 8,none  among you shall be a believer  
until he loves ,allah and his apostle   
more  than anything else40#ha    ,true1 
as the ,quran says 8,if your fathers and
 your sons and your brethren  and your  
mates and your kinsfolk and property    
which you have acquired and  trade1 the 
dullness of which you fear1 and         
dwellings which you like1 are  dearer to

 you than ,allah and ,his apostle and   
striving in ,his way1 then  wait till   
,allah brings about ,his command1 and   
,allah does not guide the  transgressing
 people40#hb    ,a man came to the      
,prophet and said3 8,i love thee1 ,o    
,apostle of ,god04  8,be ready for      
poverty40 replied the ,prophet4 8,and ,i
 love ,allah01 said  the man4 8,prepare 
to face tribulations0#hc replied the    
,prophet4 ,the  following tradition is  
narrated by the ,khalif ,omar3 ,the     
,prophet one day  saw ,masah1 son of    
,umair coming to him with a lambskin    
round his loins4  8,look0 said the      
,prophet to his companions1 8how ,god   
has illumined his  heart4 ,i have seen  
him living in ease and well provided by 
his parents  but now the love of ,allah 
and ,his apostle has wrought a change in
  him40#hd    ,the ,prophet used to pray
 thus3 8,my ,god1 give me thy love and  
the love of  him who loves thee and the 
love of that action which will bring me 
nearer  to thee and make thy love       

sweeter than cold water to the          
thirsty04#he    8,verily ,allah loves   
those who repent and those who purify   
themselves40#hf ,say 8,if you love      
,allah1 then follow me4 ,allah will love
  you and forgive you your faults1 and  
,allah is forgiving1 merciful04#hg  ,we 
have said before that love means        
yearning towards a desired object  and  
that beneficence and beauty1 whether    
perceived or conceived1 equally  attract
 our hearts4 ,but in using the word love
 for ,god1 no such meaning  is possible 
as it implies imperfection4 ,god's love 
towards men is the  love of ,his own    
work4 ,someone read the following verse 
of the ,quran3 8,he  loves them and they
 love him0 in front of ,shaikh ,abu     
,said of ,mohanna1  who interpreted it  
saying3 8,he loves ,himself because he  
alone exists4  ,surely an author who    
likes himself2 his love is limited to   
his self40  ,god's love means the       
lifting the veil from the heart of ,his 
servant1 so  that he might gaze at ,him4

 ,it also means drawing him close to    
,himself4  ,let us give an illustration4
 ,a king permits some of his slaves to  
approach his presence1 not because he   
requires them but because the  slaves   
possess or are acquiring certain        
qualities which are worthy of  being    
displayed before the royal presence4    
,this privilege1 this lifting  of the   
veil1 brings us nearer to the conception
 of ,god's love4 ,but it  must be       
remembered that approaching the divine  
presence should entirely  exclude the   
idea of space1 for then it would imply  
change in ,him1 which  is absurd4       
,divine proximity means the attainment  
of godly virtues by  abstaining from the
 promptings of the flesh and hence it   
implies approach  from the point of view
 of quality and not of space4 ,for      
example1 two  persons meet together     
either when both of them proceed towards
 each other  or one is stationary and   
the other starts and approaches him4    
,again a  pupil strives to come up to   

the level of his teacher's knowledge who
 is  resting in his elevated position4  
,his uphill journey towards knowledge   
keeps him restless1 and he climbs higher
 and higher till he catches a  glimpse  
of the halo which surrounds his master's
 countenance4 ,the nature  of divine    
proximity resembles this inward journey 
of the pupil2 that  is1 the more a man  
acquires insight into the nature of     
things1 and by  subjugating his passions
 leads the life of righteousness1 the   
nearer  will he be coming to his lord4  
,but it must be remembered that a pupil 
may equal his teacher1 even be greater  
than he1 but as regards divine          
proximity1 no such equality is possible4
 ,god's love means that which  purifies 
the heart of his servant in a manner    
that he may be worthy of  being admitted
 before his holy presence4    ,it may be
 asked3 8,how can we know that ,god     
loves a certain person80 ,my  answer is 
that there are signs which bear         
testimony to it4 ,the ,prophet  says3   

,when ,god loves his servant1 ,he sends 
tribulations1 and when ,he  loves him   
most he severs his connection from      
everything4 ,some one said  to ,jesus3  
8,why do you not buy a mule for         
yourself08 ,jesus answered3 8,my  ,god  
will not tolerate that ,i should concern
 myself with a mule04 ,another  saying  
of ,mohammed is reported thus3 ,when    
,god loves any of ,his servants  ,he    
sends tribulations1 if he patiently     
bears them1 he is favoured1 and if  he  
cheerfully faces them1 he is singled out
 as chosen of ,god4 ,surely it  is this 
joyous attitude of his mind whether evil
 befalls him or good1  that is the chief
 sign of love4 ,such minds are          
providentially taken care  of in their  
thoughts and deeds and in all their     
dealings with men4 ,the  veil is lifted 
and they live in wrapped communion4     
,as for the signs of a man's love for   
,god1 let it be borne in mind  that     
every body claims ,his love1 but few    
really love ,him4 ,beware of            

self-deception2 verify your statement by
 introspection4 ,love is like a  tree   
rooted in the ground sending its shoots 
above the starry heaven2 its  fruits are
 found in the heart1 the tongue and the 
limbs of the lover--in  fact his whole  
self is a witness to love just as smoke 
is a sure sign of  fire burning4    ,let
 us1 then1 trace the signs which are    
found in the true lover4    ,death is a 
pleasure to him1 for it removes the     
barrier of body and lets  the fluttering
 soul free to soar and sing in the      
blissful abode of his  beloved4 ,sufyan 
,thauri and ,hafi used to say3 8,he who 
doubts dislikes  death1 because a friend
 will never dislike meeting a           
friend04#hh    ,a certain ,sufi asked a 
hermit whether he wished for death1 but 
he gave  no answer4 ,then the ,sufi said
 to him3 8,had you been a true hermit   
you  would have liked death4 ,the ,quran
 says3 ,if the future abode with ,allah 
is especially for you to the exclusion  
of the people1 then invoke death  if you

 are truthful4 ,they will never wish it 
on account of what their  hands have    
sent on before1 and ,allah knows the    
unjust04#hi ,the hermit  replied3 8,but 
the ,prophet says3 #8,do not wish for   
death'04 8,then you are  suffering01    
said the ,sufi1 8because acquiescence in
 divine decree is  better than trying to
 escape it04    ,it may be asked here3  
,can he who does not like death be      
,god's lover8 ,let  us consider first   
the nature of his dislike4 ,it is due to
 his attachment  to the worldly objects1
 wife1 children1 and so forth1 but it is
 possible  that with this attachment1   
which no doubt comes in the way of his  
love  of ,god there may be some         
inclination towards ,his love1 because  
there  are degrees of ,his love4 ,or it 
may be that his dislike is due to his   
feeling of unpreparedness in the path of
 love4 ,he would like to love  more so  
that he might be able to purify himself 
just as a lover hearing  of his         
beloved's arrival would like to be given

 some time for making  preparations for 
a fitting reception4 ,for these reasons 
if a devotee  dislikes death1 he can    
still be ,his lover1 though of inferior 
type4    ,he should prefer1 both        
inwardly and outwardly1 ,god's pleasure 
to his  desires4 ,for he who follows the
 dictates of his desires is no true     
lover1 for the true lover's will is his 
beloved's4 ,but human nature is  so     
constituted that such selfless beings   
are very rare4 ,patients would  like to 
be cured but they often eat things which
 are injurious to their  health4        
,similarly1 a person would like to love 
,god but very often  follows his own    
impulses4 ,naaman was a sinner1 who     
being repeatedly  excused by the        
,prophet was at last flogged4 ,while he 
was being flogged a  certain person     
cursed him for his iniquity4 8,do not   
curse him01 said he  8he has a regard   
for ,god and his apostle04              
,experience tells us that he who loves  
loves the things connected with his     

beloved4 ,therefore another sure sign of
 ,god's love is the love of his         
creatures who are created by and are    
dependent on him2 for he who loves  an  
author or poet1 will he not love his    
work or poem8 ,but this stage is        
reached when the lover's heart is       
immersed in love and the more he is     
absorbed in ,him1 the more will he love 
,his creatures1 so much so that  even   
the objects which hurt him will not be  
disliked by him--in fact the  problem of
 evil is transcended in his love for    
him4    ,it may be objected here that it
 follows that he loves the evil-doers   
and  sinners4 ,but a deep insight into  
the nature of such love shows that he   
loves them as creatures of ,god1 but at 
the same time hates their actions  which
 are contrary to the command of his     
beloved4 ,if this point is lost  sight  
of1 people are apt to be misguided in   
their love or hatred of ,his  creatures4
 ,if they show their love towards any   
sinner1 let it be in pure  compassion1  

and not any sense of taking the sin     
lightly4 ,similarly their  hatred should
 proceed from the consciousness of ,his 
stern law and justice  and not from     
ruthless bigotry4    ,in one of the     
,hadisi-,qudsi#ij ,god has said3 8,my   
saints are those who cry  like a child  
for my love1 who remember me like a     
fearless lion at the  sight of          
iniquities04    ,a reverent attitude of 
mind is another sign of his love4 ,some 
hold that  fear is opposed to love1 but 
the truth is that just as the conception
  of beauty generates love1 the         
knowledge of his sublime majesty        
produces  the feeling of awe in us4     
,lovers meet with fears which are       
unknown to  others4#ia ,there is the    
fear of being disregarded4 ,there is    
fear of the  veil being drawn down4     
,there is the fear of their being turned
 away4 ,when  the ,sura ,hud was        
revealed1 in which the awful doom of the
 wicked nations  is narrated13 8,away   
with ,samood1 away with ,midian10 the   

,prophet heaved a  sigh and said3 8,this
 ,sura has turned me into an old man40  
,he who loves  ,his nearness will feel  
acutely the fear of being way from ,him4
 ,there is  another fear of remaining at
 a particular stage and not rising      
higher1  for the ascending degrees of   
,his nearness are infinite4 ,a true     
lover is  always trying to draw nearer  
and nearer to ,him4 8,a thin veil covers
 my  heart10 says the ,prophet1 8then ,i
 ask for ,his forgiveness seventy times 
in day and night40#ib ,this means that  
the ,prophet was always ascending  the  
scales of his nearness1 asking for ,his 
forgiveness at every stage  which was   
found lower than the next one4    ,there
 is another fear of over confidence     
which slackens the efforts and  mars    
progress4 ,hope with fear should be the 
guide of love4 ,some ,sufis  say that he
 who worships ,god without fear is      
liable to err and fall2  he who worships
 him with fear turns gloomy and is cast 
off1 but he who  lovingly worships him  

with hope and fear is admitted by him   
and favoured4  ,therefore lovers should 
fear him and those who fear him should  
love him4  ,even excess of his love     
contains an inkling of fear3 it is like 
salt in  food4 ,for human nature cannot 
bear the white heat of ,his love1 if it 
is  not chastened and tempered by the   
fear of the ,lord4    ,keeping love     
secret and giving no publicity to it is 
another sign of ,his  love4 ,for love is
 the beloved's secret3 it should not be 
revealed nor  openly professed4         
,however1 if he is over-powered by the  
force of his  love1 and unwittingly and 
without the least dissimulation his     
secret  is out1 he is not to be blamed4 
,some ,sufis say3 ,he who is very often 
pointing towards ,him is far from ,him1 
because he feigns and makes a show  of  
his love of ,him4 ,zunnun#ic of ,egypt  
once went to pay a visit to one  of his 
brother ,sufis1 who was in distress1 and
 who used to talk of his  love openly4  
8,he who feels the severity of pain     

inflicted by ,him10 said  ,zunnun1 8is  
no lover40 8,he who finds no pleasure in
 such pain10 returned  the ,sufi1 8is no
 lover40 8,true10 replied ,zunnun1 8but 
,i say to you that  he who trumpets his 
love of ,him is no lover40 ,the ,sufi   
felt the force of  ,zunnun's words and  
fell down prostrate before ,god and     
repented and did  not talk again of his 
love4    ,it may be objected3 ,divine   
love is the highest stage1 it would be  
better  to manifest it1 where is the    
harm8 ,no doubt love is good and if of  
itself  it is evident1 there is no harm1
 but those who give themselves trouble  
to  make it known are blameable4 ,let   
our hearts speak1 let our deeds proclaim
  it1 but not our tongue4 ,nay1 he      
should always aim at making it evident  
before his beloved4 ,the gospel says3   
8,take heed that ye do not give your    
alms before men to be seen3 otherwise ye
 have no reward of your ,father  which  
is in heaven4 ,therefore1 when thou     
doest thine alms do not sound  a trumpet

 before thee as the hypocrites do in the
 synagogues and in the  streets1 that   
they may have the glory of men4 ,verily 
,i say unto you they  have their reward4
 ,but when thou doest alms let not thy  
left hand know  what thy right hand     
doeth4 ,that thine alms may be in       
secret1 and thy  ,father which seeth in 
secret himself shall reward thee openly4
 ,moreover  when ye fast1 be not as the 
hypocrites1 of sad countenance3 for they
  disfigure their faces1 that they may  
appear unto men to fast4 ,verily ,i  say
 unto you they have their reward4 ,but  
thou1 when thou fastest1 anoint  thine  
head and wash thy face1 that thou appear
 not unto men to fast1 but  unto thy    
,father which is in secret2 and thy     
,father which seeth in secret  shall    
reward thee openly40#id    ,the essence 
of religion is love2 some signs of which
 have been enumerated  above4 ,the love 
of ,god may be of two kinds4 ,some love 
him for his  bounties1 others for his   
perfect beauty irrespective of bounties4

 ,the  former love increases according  
to the bounties received1 but the latter
  love is the direct result of the      
contemplation of his perfect attributes 
and is constant even in tribulations4   
8,these are ,his favoured few10 says    
,junaid of ,baghdad4#ie ,but there are  
many who pose as his lovers and  with   
much talk of his love lack the signs of 
true love4 ,they are deluded  by the    
devil1 slaves of their passions1 seeking
 a hollow reputation1  shameless        
hypocrites who try to deceive the       
omniscient ,lord their  creator4 ,they  
are all enemies of ,god1 whether they   
are revered as divines  or ,sufis4 ,sahl
 of ,taster who used to address everyone
 as 8,friend01 was  once asked by a     
person the reason of his doing so1 as   
all men could not  be his friends4 ,sahl
 whispered in his ear saying3 8,he will 
either be a  believer or a hypocrite2 if
 he is a believer1 he is ,god's friend2 
if a  hypocrite1 the devil's friend40   
,abu ,turab ,nakshabi has composed some 

verses describing the signs of love4    
,their translation is as follows3    ,do
 not profess your love4 ,hearken to me3 
,these are the signs of his  love4 ,the 
bitterness of tribulations is sweet to  
him1 he is happy for  he believes that  
everything proceeds from him2 for praise
 or censure  he cares not1 the will of  
his beloved is his will4 ,while his     
heart is  burning with love his         
countenance is radiant with joy4 ,he    
guards the  secret of love with all his 
might1 and no thought save of his       
beloved  enters into his mind4 ,yahya   
bin ,maaz ,razi#if adds some lines3     
8,another  sign is that he is up and    
ready like a diver at the bank of a     
river2 ,he  sighs and sheds tears in the
 gloom of night1 and day and night he   
appears  as if fighting for the sacred  
cause of his love4 ,he entrusts his     
whole  self to his love and gladly      
acquiescing abides in his love40#ig     
8,,riza0 ,,or ,,joyous ,,submission ,,to
 ,,his ,,will#ih      ,riza is the      

quintessence of love and is one of the  
highest stages of the  favoured few4    
,but some doubt its existence1 saying1  
,how can man be joyous  for what is     
against his own will4 ,he may submit to 
,god's will1 but it  does not follow    
that he also shares the feeling of joy4 
,we shall discuss  the nature of ,riza  
and prove its existence4    ,let us     
first turn to the ,quran and the ,hadis4
 8,allah has promised to  the believing 
man and the believing women gardens1    
beneath which rivers  flow1 to abide in 
them1 and goodly dwellings in gardens of
 perpetual  abode and best of all is    
,allah's goodly pleasure--that is the   
grand  achievement04#ii ,in this passage
 ,god's pleasure 7,rizwan7 is described 
as best of all blessings4 ,in another   
passage this blessing is also  bestowed 
on those who joyfully submit to his     
will1 8,allah is well pleased  with them
 and they are well pleased with him2    
that is for him who fears  his          
,lord40#ajj 8,who fear the beneficent   

,god in secret and come with a  penitent
 heart1 enter it in peace that is the   
day of abiding4 ,they have  therein what
 they wish and with us is more yet40    
,some commentators  while commenting on 
the words in italics say that three     
gifts will be  given in paradise3 7i7 a 
rare gift of which 8no soul knows 7in   
this  world7 what is hidden for them of 
that which will refresh the eyes04#aja  
7ii7 ,the salutation as mentioned in the
 ,quran3 8,peace 7,salam7 a word  from  
the merciful ,lord04#ajb 7iii7 ,his     
goodly grace and pleasure as  mentioned 
in 8wa ,rizwanumminallahi akbar0 7and   
best of all is ,allah's  goodly         
pleasure74    ,the ,prophet once asked  
some of his companions to point out the 
signs of  the faith which they          
professed4 8,o apostle of ,god10 said   
the companions1  8we are patient in     
tribulations1 grateful in felicity and  
pleased with  what is ordained04 8,ye   
are ,muslims0 said the ,prophet4 ,again 
the ,prophet  said3 8,ye who are poor be

 pleased with what ,god has put you in  
and then  you shall have your reward04  
,let us discuss the nature of ,riza4    
,those who deny the existence of ,riza1 
saying that man can be patient in       
sufferings but joyous submission to     
,his will is not possible1 really deny  
the existence of love and its           
all-absorbing nature4 ,a lover always   
loves his beloved's actions4 ,now  this 
love of actions is of two kinds3 7#a7   
,redemption from the experience  of pain
 caused in mental or physical suffering4
    ,experience shows that many warriors
 while enraged do not feel the pain  of 
their wounds1 and know it only when they
 see blood gushing from them4  ,even    
when a man is engaged in some action    
which absorbs his attention1  the pain  
of a thorn pricking him will not be     
felt4 ,if then in such  cases--and there
 are many such--pain is not felt1 will  
it not be possible  that a devotee who  
is absorbed in him does not feel pain1  
which in his  belief is inflicted by his

 beloved8    ,or 7#b7 although pain is  
felt1 he would desire it just as a      
patient who  feels the pain caused by   
the surgeon's lancet is glad to be      
operated  upon and is pleased with the  
surgeon's action4 ,similarly he who     
firmly  believes that tribulations are  
like ,god-sent curatives will be pleased
  with them and be thankful to ,god4    
,anyone who ponders over the nature of  
the above mentioned kinds and then in   
the light of them reads the lives  and  
the sayings of the lovers of ,god1 will1
 ,i believe1 be convinced of  the       
existence of ,riza4    ,saint ,basher1  
son of ,harith1 narrates the story3 ,in 
the ,sharkia ,lane of  ,baghdad1 ,i saw 
a man who received a thousand stripes1  
but did not cry  in his agony4 ,he was  
then sent to prison and ,i followed him4
 8,why have  you been punished so       
mercilessly80 ,i asked4 8,because they  
have found out  the secret of my love04 
8,but why were you so strangely quiet   
while you  were punished so severely01  

,i asked in astonishment4 8,because01   
answered  the poor fellow with a sigh1  
8,she was looking at me from her        
balcony04  8,oh that you might see the  
true ,beloved01 ,i murmured4 ,hearing   
this1 his  colour at once changed1 and  
with a loud cry he fell dead4    ,the   
same saint tells another story3 8,while 
,i was a student of ,sufiism ,i  went to
 ,jazirai ,abbadan1#ajc where ,i saw a  
blind epileptic leper1 lying  on the    
ground while worms were eating his      
flesh4 ,i sat by his side and  placed   
his head on my lap and spoke gently to  
him4 ,when he came to his  senses1 he   
spoke3 #8,who is this stranger who comes
 between me and my  ,lord4 ,even if each
 and every limb is severed from my body1
 ,i will love  ,him4' ,that scene of    
,riza1 says the saint1 ,i shall never   
forget2 it is a  life-long lesson for   
me40    ,it is said that ,christ once   
saw a blind forlorn leper who was       
praying3  8,blessed art thou1 ,o ,lord1 
who hast saved me from such maladies    

which  have overtaken many of us04 8,art
 thou not in misery0 asked ,christ1     
8,tell  me which is that malady which   
has not overtaken thee04 8,thank ,god01 
cried  the leper1 8,i am not like him   
who does not know ,god04 8,you are      
right01  said ,christ1 8,give me your   
hand04 ,and the breath of ,christ       
instantly  healed the leper1 and he     
became one of his followers4    ,the    
,prophet's companion ,said bin          
,wakas1#ajd lost his eyesight in old    
age1 and resigning his post returned to 
,mecca4 ,people flocked to him for      
blessing as he was known to be one whose
 prayers were always heard4 ,says       
,abdullah bin ,said3 8,i was then a mere
 boy2 ,i too went to pay my respects  to
 the venerable ,said4 ,he spake kindly  
to me and blessed me4 ,then ,i said3    
#8,uncle1 how is it that you who are    
praying for everybody would not pray    
for the restoration of your eyesight8'  
#8,my son'1 answered ,said with a       
smile1 #8to be pleased with ,his sweet  

will is better than eyesight'04    ,some
 people went to see ,shibli#aje at      
,maristan1 where he was imprisoned4     
8,who are you80 asked the saint4        
8,friends01 they all replied with one   
voice4 ,hearing this ,shibli fetched    
some stones and began to throw them at  
them1 and they all fled calling him a   
madman4 8,what's this01 exclaimed       
,shibli1 8,you call yourselves my       
friends but if you are sincere1 bear    
patiently what ye receive from me10 and 
then he sang3 8,his love has  turned my 
brain4 ,have you ever seen a lover who  
is not intoxicated with  love60         
,these narratives point out that ,riza  
or joyous submission to ,god's will  is 
possible and is one of the highest      
stages to which the souls of true       
devotees could aspire4 ,people believe  
in eccentricities of ,cupid's  votaries 
but give no ear to the ecstasies of the 
true lovers of ,god4  ,perhaps they have
 no eyes to look at the manifestation of
 ,his beauty2 no  ears to listen to the 

music of ,his love1 no heart to gaze at 
and enjoy  ,his sweet presence4 ,perhaps
 they are proud of their learning and   
think  too much of their good deeds but 
they have no idea of humble and broken  
hearts4    ,a certain nobleman of       
,bustam1 comely in appearance and lordly
 in bearing1  used to attend the sermons
 of saint ,bayazid of ,bustam4#ajf ,one 
day he  said to the saint3 8,for thirty 
years ,i have been keeping fasts waking 
for the whole night and offering my     
prayers1 but still ,i do not find in  me
 the animating force of what you teach1 
although ,i believe in it and  cherish  
love for you40 8,thirty years03         
ejaculated the saint3 8,why for  three  
hundred years if you do as you have done
 till now you will not have  a bit of   
it40 8,how is that80 asked the          
astonished nobleman4 8,because0         
answered the saint 8the veil of your    
egotism has fallen heavily on your      
mind's eye04 ,the chief then asked the  
saint to tell him of some remedy1  but  

he declined saying that the chief would 
not like to take it4 8,but do  tell me01
 entreated the nobleman1 8,and ,i will  
try my best to follow your  kind        
advice04 8,listen then01 calmly answered
 the saint1 8,this very moment  go to   
the barber1 get your head and beard     
shaven1 take off this apparel1  and gird
 your loins with a piece of blanket2    
gather children round you  and tell them
 that whosoever gives you a slap with   
the hand will get a  walnut2 pass       
through the throngs in all the bazars1  
followed by those  children and then    
show yourself to your intimate friends04
    8,subhan ,allah0 exclaimed the      
chief1 8,do you say that to me04 8,hold 
thy  tongue01 retorted the saint1 8thy  
,subhan ,allah is blasphemy40 8,how is  
that01 asked the chief4 8,because10     
replied the saint1 8you uttered ,subhan 
,allah not for any reverence for the    
,holy ,being but out of respect for     
your own vain self04 8,well01 said the  
chief1 8tell me some other remedy1      

please04 8,try this remedy first01      
continued the saint4 8,i cannot do so10 
rejoined the chief4 8,there you are01   
spoke the saint finally1 8,did ,i not   
tell you that you would not like the    
remedy40    ,our egoistic tendencies    
impede the progress of our souls towards
 higher  virtues1 and hence some of us  
go the length of denying the possibility
 of  their existence4 ,let the lives of 
the true lovers of ,god be our guide4   
,,footnotes      #a ,d4 ,b4 ,macdonald3 
,muslim ,theology ,london #aijc4 p4     
#bae4 ,this book  gives the best account
 of ,al ,ghazzali's work yet available  
in ,english4    #b ibid4 p4 #bdj4    #c 
,quoted in ,e4 ,g4 ,browne3 ,literary   
,history of ,persia #aijc4 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 
#bid4    #d ibid4 p4 #bic4    #e ,i4    
,goldzieher3 ,vorlesungen uber den      
,islam ,leipzig #aiaj4 p4 #ahe4 ,see    
translation in the ,indian              
,philosophical ,review by the present   
writer3  ,vol4 #a4 pp4 #bfj-f4    #f    
,op4 cit4 pp4 #bch-dj4    #g ,from ,al  

,munqidh min ad'-,dalal4    #h ,gazali4 
,paris #aijb4 pp4 #dd-de4    #i ,see the
 ,english translation of the ,guide by  
,friedlnder2 ,the ,guide  to the        
,perplexed1 ,london1 especially pp4 #bbe
 ff4 ,al ,ghazzali's works  were so     
widely studied that it is hardly        
possible to suppose that  ,maimonides   
was not influenced by them4 ,the        
influence may have been  direct1 as     
,maimonides was not only a student in   
,spain but also physician  in the court 
of ,saladin in ,alexandria4 ,indirectly 
the influence may have  come through the
 ,jewish poet ,yehuda ,halevi4    #aj   
op4 cit4 p4 #agi4    #aa ,this list is  
taken from ,a ,chronological ,list of   
,muslim ,works on  ,religion and        
,philosophy which has been for a short  
time in preparation  at the ,seminar for
 the ,comparative ,study of ,religions1 
,baroda1 by  ,professor ,j4 ur ,rehman  
of ,hyderabad1 and ,professor ,f4 ,s4   
,gilani of ,surat1  ,fellows of the     
,seminar4 ,the list has been compared   

with that of ,shibli in  his ,urdu life 
of ,ghazali 7,cawnpore #aijb7 whose     
classification is followed  with slight 
modification4    #ab ,ihya ,,iii4 #a4   
#ac ,this word is used both for ,rasul  
and ,nabi1 but the ,muslim notion  of   
,rasul differs from that of ,nabi4      
,malachi was a prophet 7,nabi71  but    
,moses was more than a prophet 7,rasul74
 ,thus in ,st4 ,matthew ,,xi4 #i  we    
have3 8,but wherefore went ye out8 to   
see a prophet8 ,yea1 ,i say unto  you1  
and much more than a prophet04    #ad   
,abuhuraira's report given in ,bokhari  
and ,muslim4    #ae ,reported by        
,abuhuraira in ,ahmad's ,masnav4 ,egypt 
#acjj ,a4 ,h4    #af ,quran ,,xxxiii4   
#gb4    #ag ,quran ,,xvii4 #he4    #ah  
,ihya ,,iv4 #e4    #ai ,it is           
interesting to note here the following  
passage from a modern  ,european author3
 8,if we form a conception of a ,perfect
 or ,infinite ,mind  it is in this sense
 that we must speak of such a mind as   
free4 ,to speak  of choice between      

alternatives is to suggest that another 
than the  best might be chosen and this 
would be inconsistent with the idea of  
perfection4    ,a finite mind1 limited  
in knowledge and power and distracted by
 desires  other than the will to        
goodness1 may yet have a partial measure
 of  self-determination which is        
complete only in the infinite4 ,it is   
incompletely determined by forces       
external to itself4 ,and if it stand--as
  it does stand--between the realm of   
nature and the realm of goodness1       
conscious of the good and yet beset by  
many temptations to fall to a  lower    
level1 then the relative independence or
 partial spontaneity of  such a mind may
 be exhibited in the power to direct its
 own path toward  the goal of goodness  
or to allow it to lapse into evil4 ,its 
freedom  will be neither complete       
independence of external determination  
nor  complete agreement with the ideal  
of goodness2 but it will exclude total  
subordination to the forces beyond      

itself1 and it will give opportunity    
for choosing and serving the good4 ,in  
spite of its restrictions human         
activity will be recognized as          
possessing a core of spontaneity04 ,w4  
,r4  ,sorley3 ,moral ,values and the    
,idea of ,god4 ,cambridge #aiah pp4     
#ddf-g4    #bj ,ghazzali here           
anticipated ,hume4 8,seven hundred years
 before ,hume1  ,ghazzali cut the bond  
of causality with the edge of his       
dialectic04  ,journal of the ,american  
,oriental ,society vol4 ,,xx4 #ajc4     
#ba ,quran ,,xliv4 #ch1 #ci4    #bb     
,quran ,,xxxii4 #aa4    #bc ,quran      
,,xxxix4 #db4    #bd ,quran ,,lvi4 #fc4 
#be ,quran ,,lxxx4 #be-g4    #bf ,quran 
,,ix4 #ad4    #bg ,quran ,,viii4 #ag4   
,this passage refers to the battle of   
,badr1 the  first battle of the         
,prophet4 ,the ,muslims slew the enemy  
but it is  affirmed that really they did
 not slay1 but it was ,allah who slew   
them2  the meaning apparently being that
 ,allah's hand was working in the       

battle1  which is also clear from the   
fact that three hundred ,muslims mostly 
raw  and equipped with neither horses   
nor sufficient arms1 prevailed against  
a thousand of the most renowned warriors
 who had come to crush the  growing     
power of ,islam4 8,and ,thou didst not  
smite when thou didst smite04  ,ghazzali
 points out that negation and           
affirmation for one and the same  action
 throw new light on the nature of       
causation4 ,negation affirms ,god  as   
the efficient and real cause2           
affirmation establishes man's free-will 
faithfully executing divine order4      
,whose branches are ever shaken by the  
wind1      ,and whose fruit is showered 
on the sleeper's heads4      ,fatalism  
means sleeping amidst highwaymen4       
,can a cock who crows too soon expect   
peace8      ,if ye cavil at and accept  
not ,god's hints1      ,though ye count 
yourselves men1 see1 ye are women4      
,the quantum of reason ye possessed is  
lost1      ,and the head whose reason   

has fled is a till4      ,inasmuch as   
the unthankful are despicable1          
,they are at last cast into the fiery   
pit4      ,if ye really have trust in   
,god1 exert yourselves1      ,and strive
 in constant reliance on the ,almighty4 
7,translation by ,e4 ,whinfield4        
,masnavi4                    #bnd ed4   
#ahih4 ,bk4 ,i1 pp4 #ai-bj47    #bh     
,quran ,,xcv4 #d-f4 ,whether man is by  
nature good or bad is a question  which 
has vexed great thinkers from ancient   
times4 ,various answers have  been      
suggested1 which are summed up in three 
distinct theories3    #a4 ,evil is      
innate4 ,education simply muzzles the   
brute in man4  ,civilisation is mere    
veneering process4 ,this cynical view of
 human nature  is the religion of       
despair4    #b4 ,man is neither good nor
 bad4 ,mind is a tabula rasa4 ,good or  
bad  actions leave their impression4    
,thorns and roses are alike gathered by 
it4    #c4 ,good and evil are mixed up  
in man4 ,he has an angelic as well as a 

satanic nature4 ,the development of this
 double nature depends on the  force of 
external circumstances and surrounding  
influences4 ,good and evil  are like two
 seeds3 whichever is sown and taken care
 of will grow into a  tree4    ,the     
,quranic expression3 8we created man in 
the best make0 emphasises  the purity of
 his nature4 ,he is born with good and  
for good1 but has to  preserve and to   
develop his goodness to his full        
capacity in the struggle  of life4 ,he  
has but one seed which is good if it    
grows and bears fruit it  is called     
goodness2 if it be crushed or nipped in 
the bud it is called  evil4 ,evil1      
therefore has no separate entity in him1
 it is simply a  negative which will    
lose his soul and reduce him to the     
lower depths4    #bi ,it is interesting 
to note a parallel passage from the     
,masnavi of  ,jal al uddin ,rumi1 who   
was born in #abjg ,a4,d4 ninety-seven   
years after the  death of ,al ,ghazzali3
        ,when a master places a spade in

 the hand of a slave1      ,the slave   
knows his meaning without being told    
,like this spade1 our hands are our     
,master's hints to us2      ,yea1 if ye 
consider1 they are his directions to us 
,when ye have taken to heart ,his hints1
      ,ye will shape your life in       
reliance on their direction2            
,wherefore these hints disclose ,his    
intent1      ,take the burden from you1 
and appoint your work1      ,he that    
hears it make it hearable by you4       
,he too is able to make it within your  
ability4      ,accept his command and   
you will be able to execute it          
,seek union with ,him1 and you will find
 yourselves united4      ,exertion is   
giving thanks for ,god's blessings2     
,think ye that your fatalism gives such 
thanks2      ,giving thanks for         
blessings increases blessings      ,but 
fatalism snatches those blessings from  
your hands      ,your fatalism is to    
sleep on the road2 sleep not      ,till 
ye behold the gates of the ,king's      

palace4      ,ah6 sleep not1            
unreflecting fatalists1      ,till ye   
have reached that fruit-laden ,tree of  
,life4                                  
,e4 ,whinfield1 trs1 ,masnavi4    #cj   
,st4 ,matthew ,,xiv4 #ee-ca4 8,and in   
the fourth watch of the night  he came  
unto them1 walking on the sea4 ,and when
 the disciples saw him  walking on the  
sea1 they were troubled saying1 ,it is  
an apparition and  they cried out for   
fear4 ,but straightway ,jesus spake unto
 them1 saying3  ,be of good cheer1 it is
 ,i1 be not afraid4 ,and ,peter answered
 him and  said3 ,lord1 if it be thou1   
bid me come unto thee upon the water4   
,and  ,peter went down from the boat and
 walked upon the waters to come to      
,jesus4 ,but when he saw the wind he was
 afraid1 and beginning to sink he       
cried1 saying13 ,lord1 save me4 ,and    
immediately ,jesus stretched forth his  
hand1 and took hold of him and said unto
 him3 ,o thou of little faith1          
wherefore didst thou doubt80    #ca     

,comp4 ,quran ,,xlii4 #aa3 ,nothing is  
like a likeness of ,him4 ,he is the     
hearing1 the seeing4    #cb ,comp4      
,genesis ,i4 #bg4    #cc ,exodus ,,iii4 
#ad4    #cd ,quran ,,xx4 #ab4 ,it is    
generally supposed that ,moses was      
ordered to  take off his 8leather shoes0
 out of respect for the sacred place4   
,but  ,razi in his ,commentary calls it 
an idiom and says that the ,arabs used  
the  word ,na'al 7shoe7 for wife and    
family4 ,the command to put off the     
shoes  is therefore a metaphorical      
expression for making the heart vacant  
from  care of family4 ,see              
,tafsir-i-,razi vol4 ,,vi4 #ai4         
,stamboul edition4    #ce ,quran        
,,xxxix4 #ig4 ,the full text runs3 ,and 
they have not honoured  ,allah with the 
honour due to him3 and the whole earth  
shall be in his  grip on the day of     
resurrection and the heavens rolled up  
in his right  hand2 glory be to him and 
may he be exalted above what they       
associate  with him4    #cf ,ghazzali   

has dealt with the question fully in his
 work entitled  #8,iljamal awam'4 ,he   
says that every object has four stages  
of existence4  ,to use a figure3 8,fire0
 is 7#a7 written on paper3 7#b7         
pronounced as ,fire  7#c7 burns2 and    
7#d7 is perceived by the mind to be     
inflammable4 ,the first  two are purely 
conventional but have an educational    
value4 ,similarly the  anthropomorphism 
of the passages of the ,scriptures      
should be studied in  the light of the  
above stages4    #cg ,quran ,,xxix4 #fi4
    #ch ,see ,section vi of this book4  
#ci ,ihya ,,iii4 #i4    #dj ,quran ,,iv4
 #agb4    #da ,quran ,,xxv4 #g1 #h2 #ba4
    #db ,quran ,,xliii4 #ca4 8,and they 
say3 why was not this ,quran revealed to
  a man of importance in the two towns40
 7,mecca and ,taif74    #dc ,quran      
,,xviii4 #bh4    #dd ,ibn ,abbas4    #de
 ,trimizi3 ,abu ,huraira's report4      
#df ,comp4 ,matt ,,vi4 #bd 8,no man can 
serve two masters for either he will    
hate the one and love the other2 or else

 he will hold to the one and  despise   
the other4 ,ye cannot serve ,god and    
mammon04    #dg ,matt ,v4 #c4    #dh    
,quran ,,xviii4 #cb-df4    #di ,ihya    
#aae2 ,,iv4 #g4    #ej ,quran ,,iii4    
#ajb4    #ea ,tibrani and ,abu ,daud4   
#eb ,muslim4    #ec ,bokhari and        
,muslim4    #ed ,quran ,,xviii4 #e4     
#ee ,nasai and ,bokhari4    #ef ,adu    
,mansur4    #eg ,rumi has beautifully   
described this story of ,nasuh in       
,masnavi ,bk4  ,v4    #eh ,ihya ,,iv4   
#f4    #ei ,bukhari and ,muslim4    #fj 
,quran ,,lxxvi4 #a-c4    #fa ,ghazzali's
 remark should not be confounded with   
either egoistic or  universalistic      
hedonism4 ,see his remark on the        
affinity of souls 7pages  #ie ff74      
#fb ,muslim4    #fc ,from uncanonical   
sayings of ,christ4    #fd ,quran       
,,xxxviii4 #ga1 #gb4    #fe ,see        
,bukhari ,haddis ,qudsi4    #ff ,al     
,ghazzali condemns all such expressions 
which are called by  ,cardinal ,newman  
8eccentricities of the saints40 ,he is  

aware of their  liability to abuse and  
points out their error in a manner which
 six  hundred years later took the form 
of ,bishop ,butler's dictum that reason 
cannot abdicate its right of judging    
obvious improprieties in religious      
doctrines and persons4 8,ibn ,allah01   
7,son of ,god7 refers to the orthodox   
,christian view of ,jesus4 8,anal ,haq0 
7,i am the truth1 i4e4 ,god7 refers  to 
the expression of ,husain bin ,mansur al
 ,hallaj1 who in #cji ,a4,d4 was        
crucified in ,bagdad for his blasphemy4 
,the poet ,hafiz says of him3  8,jurmash
 an bud ki asrar huwaida bikard40 7,his 
crime was that he revealed  the         
secrets47    #fg ,st ,matthew ,,xxii    
#ce-eg4 8,and one of them1 a lawyer1    
asked him a  question1 tempting him13   
,master1 which is the great commandment 
in the  law8 ,and he said unto him3     
,thou shalt love the ,lord thy ,god with
 all thy  heart and with all thy soul1  
and with all thy mind40 ,in the above   
passage  the law referred to is         

,deuteronomy ,,vi4 #e1 where instead of 
mind1 the  word might is used4    #fh   
,daran1 a village near ,damascus1 where 
he died in #bae ,a4,h4    #fi ,a famous 
,muslim woman saint of ,basrah1         
considered to be an authority  on       
,sufiism4 ,she died in #hja ,a4 ,d4     
#gj ,quran ,,lvii4 #bj and ,,iii4       
#ad-af4    #ga ,compare ,descartes'3    
,cogito ergo sum4    #gb ,compare ,quran
 ,,xxiv4 #ce4 8,allah is the light of   
the heavens and the  earth3 a likeness  
of his light is a pillar on which is a  
lamp1 the lamp  is in a glass 7and7 the 
glass is as it were a brightly shining  
star lit  from a blessed olive tree1    
neither eastern nor western1 the oil    
whereof  almost gives light though fire 
touches it not 7heads daffor47 ,allah   
guides to his light whom he pleases1 and
 ,allah sets forth parables for  men and
 ,allah is cogniscant of all things40   
,al ,ghazzali has written a  separate   
treatise called ,mishkat ul ,anwar      
dealing exhaustively with the  above    

passage4 ,an excellent summary of his   
views is given by ,razi in his          
,commentary1 vol4 ,,vi4 #cic-djh4       
7,stamboul edition74 ,in the above      
parable  ,islam is represented as a     
likeness of the divine light1 a light   
placed  high on a pillar so as to       
illumine the whole world1 a light       
guarded by  being placed in a glass so  
that no puff of wind can put it out1 a  
light  so resplendent that the glass    
itself in which it is placed is as a    
brilliant star4 ,just as a fig tree     
stands for a symbol of ,judaism 7see    
,st4 ,matthew ,,xxi4 #ai7 the olive     
stands for ,islam1 which must give light
  to both the ,east and the ,west1 and  
does not specifically belong to either  
one of them4    ,the doctrine of ,fana  
is misunderstood by many ,western       
scholars4  ,tennyson puts it3           
8,that each1 who seems a separate whole1
      ,should move his rounds and fusing
 all      ,the skirts of self again1    
should fall      ,remerging in the      

general soul1      ,is faith as vague as
 all unsweet40                          
7,in ,memoriam ,,xlvii47    ,ghazzali's 
vivid description is neither vague nor  
unsweet4 ,to him ,fana  is 8a prayer of 
rapture04 8,in that state man is effaced
 from self1 so  that he is conscious    
neither of his body nor of outward      
things1 nor of  inward feelings4 ,he is 
rapt from all these1 journeying first to
 his ,lord  and then in his ,lord1 and  
if the thought that he is effaced from  
self  occurs to him1 that is a defect4  
,the highest state is to be effaced from
  effacement04 ,e4 ,whinfield3 ,masnavi1
 ,introduction p4 xxxvii4    #gc ,ihya  
,,iv4 #e4    #gd ,usually ,fana is      
translated as 8annihilation10 but ,al   
,ghazzali here  means what is implied in
 the statement3 8,to live1 move1 and    
have our  being in ,him04    #ge        
8,and thou shalt one day1 if found      
worthy1 so defined      ,see thy ,god   
face to face1 as thou dost now40        
,byron ,childe ,harold's ,pilgrimage4   

,,clv4    #gf ,quran ,,xxix4 #fe-ff4    
#gg ,quran ,,xviii4 #aji4 ,compare      
,jalal-ud-,din ,rumi3--        ,air1    
earth1 water1 and fire are ,god's       
servants4      ,to us they seem         
lifeless1 but to ,god living4      ,in  
,god's presence fire ever waits to do   
its service1      ,like a submissive    
lover with no will of its own4          
,when you strike steel on flint fire    
leaps forth2      ,but 'tis by ,god's   
command it thus steps forth4            
,strike not together the flint and steel
 of wrong1      ,for the pair will      
generate more1 like man and woman4      
,the flint and steel are themselves     
causes1 yet      ,look higher for the   
,first ,cause1 ,o righteous man6        
,for that ,cause precedes this second   
cause4      ,how can a cause exist of   
itself without precedent cause8         
,that ,cause makes this cause operative1
      ,and again helpless and           
inoperative4      ,that ,cause1 which is
 a guiding light to the prophets1       

,that1 ,i say1 is higher than these     
second causes1      ,man's minds        
recognise these second causes1      ,but
 only prophets perceive the action of   
the ,first ,cause4                      
,e4 ,whinfield3 ,masnavi1 #bnd ed4      
#ahih4 p4 #af4    #gh ,ihya ,,iv4 #f4   
#gi ,quran ,v4 #ed4    #hj ,quran ,,ii4 
#afe4    #ha ,bukhari and ,muslim4      
#hb ,quran ,,ix4 #bd4    #hc ,tirmizi4  
#hd ,abu ,naim4    #he ,tirmizi4    #hf 
,quran ,,ii4 #bbb4 ,repentance is the   
first step towards ,god4 ,comp4  ,st4   
,matthew ,,iii4 #b4    #hg ,quran ,,iii4
 #cj4 ,keeping ,god's commandments      
revealed through his  holy prophets     
constitutes love of ,him4 ,comp4 ,st4   
,john4 ,,xv4 #aj 8,if  ye keep my       
commandments ye shall abide in my love2 
even as ,i keep my  ,father's           
commandments and abide in his love04    
#hh ,a ,sufi of great renown3 died at   
,baghdad in #hdj ,a4,d4    #hi ,quran   
,,ii4 #id-ie4    #ij ,hadisi ,qudsi is  
that kind of tradition in which ,god is 

himself  reported to speak4    #ia      
,comp3        ,let knowledge grow from  
more to more1      ,but more of         
reverence in us dwell2      ,that mind  
and soul1 according well1      ,may make
 one music as before1      ,but vaster4 
,we are fools and slight2      ,we mock 
thee when we do not fear2      ,but help
 ,thy foolish ones to bear1      ,help  
,thy vain worlds to bear1 thy light4    
,tennyson4    #ib ,see ,bukhari4    #ic 
,called the 8father of ,sufiism04 ,he   
founded a sect of ,sufis in ,egypt4  ,he
 died in #hfj ,a4,d4    #id ,st4        
,matthew ,,vi4 #a-d2 #af-ah4    #ie ,a  
celebrated ,sufi called ,syed ,uttaifa  
7chief of the sect74 ,he died  at       
,baghdad in #iaa ,a4,d4    #if ,a       
theologian and ,sufi of ,ray in ,persia4
 ,he died in #hga ,a4,d4    #ig ,comp3  
,good shepherd1 tell this youth what    
'tis to love4      ,it is to be all made
 of sighs and tears2      ,it is to be  
all made of faith and service2      ,it 
is to be all made of fantasy1      ,all 

made of passion and all made of wishes2 
,all adoration1 duty1 and observance1   
,all humbleness1 all patience and       
impatience1      ,all purity1 all trial1
 all observance4                        
,shakespeare3 ,as you like it4 ,act ,v4 
#ih ,ihya ,,iv4 #f4    #ii ,quran ,,ix4 
#gb4    #ajj ,quran ,,xcviii4 #h4       
#aja ,quran ,,xxxii4 #ag4    #ajb ,quran
 ,,xxxvi4 #eh4    #ajc ,in ,tigris4     
#ajd ,he conquered ,persia in the time  
of the ,khalifa ,omar4    #aje ,the     
,arabs address elders in this way4      
#ajf ,one of the most renowned of the   
early ,sufis4 ,his grandfather was a    
,magian who accepted ,islam4 ,he was    
born in #ggg ,a4 ,d4 and died at a great
  age in #hgh ,a4 ,d4          ,some    
,preliminary ,announcements    of       
,,the ,,gaekwad ,,studies    ,,in       
,,religion ,,and ,,philosophy    ,edited
 by    ,,alban ,g4 ,,widgery ,m4,a41    
,professor of ,philosophy and the       
,comparative ,study of ,religions1      
,baroda4      ,this ,series is          

established with the sanction and       
financial support of the  ,government of
 ,his ,highness the ,maharajah ,gaekwad 
of ,baroda4 ,the aim is  to provide an  
opportunity for the publication of works
 on religious and  philosophical        
subjects4 ,some of the volumes will be  
more popular and some  more technical in
 nature4 ,only books written in the     
tolerant spirit of  genuine scholarship 
will be included4                       
,the ,manager1                          
,,the ,,college1 ,,baroda4      ,,the   
,,gaekwad ,,studies ,,in ,,religion     
,,and ,,philosophy    ,first issues3    
,personality and ,atonement4 ,by the    
,editor4    ,human ,needs and ,the      
,justification of ,religious ,beliefs4  
,by the ,editor4    ,the ,heart of the  
,bhagavatgita4 ,by ,lingesha            
,mahabhagavat4    ,zoroastrian ,ethics4 
,by ,m4 ,a4 ,buch4    ,kant and         
,sankaracharya4 ,prof4 ,c4 ,g4 ,bhate1  
,poona4    ,selections from             
,al-,ghassali4 ,by ,professor ,syed     

,nawab ,ali4    ,the ,doctrine of       
,karma4 ,a ,volume of ,essays by various
 writers4    ,immortality and ,other    
,essays4 ,by the ,editor4    ,the       
,comparative ,study of ,religions4 ,by  
the ,editor4    ,a ,buddhist            
,bibliography4 ,by various scholars4    
,a ,chronology and ,bibliography of     
,muslim ,literature on ,religion and    
,philosophy4 ,by ,professor ,m4 ,jamil  
ur ,rehman and ,f4 ,s4 ,gilani1 ,m4 ,a4 
,some ,modern ,religious ,movements4 ,by
 various writers4    ,jesus4 ,by the    
,editor4    ,goods and ,bads3 ,outlines 
of a ,philosophy of ,life4 ,by the      
,editor4      ,,human ,,needs ,,and     
,,the ,,justification ,,of ,,religious  
,,beliefs    ,the ,burney ,prize ,essay 
,cambridge #aiji    and    ,,personality
 ,,and ,,atonement    ,essays in the    
,philosophy of ,religion4    by         
,,alban ,c4 ,,widgery    ,cloth3 ,six   
,rupees      ,,the ,,heart ,,of ,,the   
,,bhagavad-,,gita    ,,by    ,his       
,holiness ,sri ,vidya ,sankara ,bharati 

,swami1 ,jagadguru ,sankaracharya of    
,karvir ,pitha4    ,in this book one of 
the most enlightened leaders of ,modern 
,hindu  religious life discusses the    
important and ever interesting question3
  8,what is the value of the ,gita as a 
guide to practical life80 ,it should  be
 read by all educated ,hindus and by all
 non-,hindus who wish to know the       
religious attitude of a prominent ,hindu
 scholar and devotee4                   
,the ,manager1                          
,,the ,,college1 ,,baroda4              
,,immortality ,,and ,,other ,,essays    
,,by ,,alban ,g4 ,,widgery    ,paper    
covers3 ,two rupees    ,cloth3 ,three   
rupees4                                 
,the ,manager1                          
,,the ,,college1 ,,baroda4      ,,the   
,,confutation ,,of ,,atheism            
,translated by    ,,vali ,,mohammed     
,,chhaganbhai ,,momin4    ,this short   
treatise which comes down from the sixth
 ,imam1 ,hazrat ,imam  ,jafar-us-,sadak1
 should prove of great interest to all  

,muslims4 ,it will  attract others also 
by the beauty of its style and the      
remarkable  likeness it bears to the    
arguments of ,bishop ,butler in his     
,analogy of  ,religion4    ,fourteen    
annas1 post free4                       
,the ,manager1                          
,,the ,,college1 ,,baroda4              
,,zoroastrian ,,ethics    ,,by          
,,maganlal ,a4 ,,buch ,m4 ,a41          
,fellow of the ,seminar for the         
,comparative ,study of ,religions1      
,baroda4    ,,contents                  
,introduction4      ,bibliography4      
,part ,i      ,i4 ,the ,available       
,zoroastrian ,literature4      ,,ii4    
,the ,historical and ,social            
,conditions4      ,,iii4 ,psychological 
,conceptions4        ,part ,,ii         
,,iv4 ,the ,general ,moral ,attitude4   
,v4 ,the ,value of ,life3 ,industry and 
,indolence4      ,,vi4 ,truthfulness and
 ,deceit3 ,purity and ,impurity4        
,,vii4 ,the ,ethics of ,sex ,relations4 
,,viii4 ,benevolence3 other ,vices and  

,virtues4      ,,ix4 ,the ,ethical in   
,legal ,references in ,zoroastrian      
,literature4      ,x4 ,theological and  
,metaphysical ,conceptions4      ,index4
    ,paper covers3 ,two ,rupees4        
,cloth covers3 ,three ,rupees4          
,the ,manager1                          
,,the ,,college1 ,,baroda4      ,in the 
,press    ,,the ,,comparative ,,study   
,,of ,,religions    ,a ,systematic      
,survey    ,by    ,,alban ,g4 ,,widgery 
,m ,a41    ,professor of ,philosophy and
 the ,comparative ,study of ,religions1 
,baroda4    ,,contents4                 
,,introduction3 ,scientific ,theology   
and the ,comparative ,study of          
,religions4      ,i4 ,the ,sources and  
,nature of ,religious ,truth4      ,,ii4
 ,supernatural ,beings1 ,good and ,bad4 
,,iii4 ,the ,soul3 its ,nature1 ,origin1
 and ,destiny4      ,,iv4 ,sin and      
,suffering3 ,salvation and ,redemption4 
,v4 ,religious ,practices4      ,,vi4   
,the ,emotional ,attitudes and          
,religious ,ideals4      ,appendices2   

,maps2 ,illustrations2 ,bibliography2   
and ,index4    ,this volume is meant to 
be a systematic introduction to the     
subject4  ,much of the technical detail 
being in the form of notes the book is  
thus  adapted to the general reader as  
well as to the needs of students4       
,cloth1 superior paper ,rs4 #ab42 #aes4 
#j;d4    ,cloth1 ordinary paper ,rs4    
#aj42 #abs4 #f;d4                       
,the ,manager1                          
,,the ,,college1 ,,baroda4      ,in     
preparation    ,an important volume of  
,essays on    ,,the ,,doctrine ,,of     
,,karma    ,by    ,representatives of   
the different great religions4    ,the  
purpose of the volume is to present for 
comparison the views of  certain writers
 of distinction from the different      
religions upon the  theory that the     
suffering and happiness of the          
individual is due solely  to his own    
action1 past or present4    ,some       
,contributors        ,shams-ul-,ulama   
,j4 ,j4 ,modi1 ,c4 ,i4 ,e41 ,ph4 ,d4    

,the ,very ,rev4 ,hastings ,rashdall1   
,d4 ,lit2 ,d4,c4,l4      ,s4 ,khuda     
,buksch1 ,m4 ,a41 ,b4 ,c4 ,l41 7,oxon47 
,champat ,rai ,jain1 ,author of ,the    
,key of ,knowledge      ,israel         
,abrahams1 ,d4 ,lit4      ,alban ,g4    
,widgery ,m4 ,a4 7,cantab47             
,the ,manager1                          
,,the ,,college1 ,,baroda4      ,in     
preparation by ,various ,scholars    ,a 
,,buddhist ,,bibliography    ,,contents 
,preface4    ,introduction4    ,,book   
,i4    ,i4 ,buddhist ,literature in     
,pali with translations1 ,commentaries1 
and  ,references to specific works in   
,european ,languages4    ,,ii4 ,buddhist
 ,literature in ,sanskrit with          
translations1 ,commentaries1 and        
,references to specific works in        
,european ,languages4    ,,iii4         
,references to ,buddhism in             
non-,buddhist ,sanskrit ,literature4    
,,iv4 ,buddhism in ,general with special
 ,references to ,buddhist ,doctrine and 
,practice in ,european ,languages4      

,,book ,,ii4    ,i4 ,buddhism in ,india 
7works in ,european ,languages only74   
,,ii4 ,buddhism in ,ceylon4    ,,iii4   
,buddhism in ,burma4    ,,iv4 ,buddhism 
in ,malay and ,java4    ,v4 ,buddhism in
 ,siam and ,cambodia4    ,,vi4 ,buddhism
 in ,himalayan ,tracts4    ,,vii4       
,buddhism in ,tibet4    ,,viii4         
,buddhism in ,central ,asia and         
,mongolia4    ,,ix4 ,buddhism in ,china4
 ,x4 ,buddhism in ,korea4    ,,xi4      
,buddhism in ,japan4    ,appendices1    
,maps1 ,indices4                        
,the ,manager1                          
,,the ,,college1 ,,baroda4