,,the ,,jewish ,,religion4 ,,by ,m4 ,,friedl,,nder4 ,,second ,,edition1 ,,revised ,,and ,,enlarged4 ,,london3 ,p4 ,,vallentine ,,son1 #g1 ,,north ,,crescent1 ,,tottenham ,,court ,,road1 ,w4,c4 ,,and #cc1 ,,duke ,,street1 ,,aldgate1 ,e4,c4 #aijj4 ,,preface4 ,in presenting this volume to the public the author does not claim much originality4 ,he merely desires to reproduce the religious principles which were sown into his heart by his parents1 1 and cultivated by the great teachers of ,israel--the ,prophets1 the ,soferim1 and their successors--in order that the blessing which he himself has always derived from these principles may also be enjoyed by his brethren4 ,the original sources of religious knowledge1 viz41 the ,scriptures and ,post-,biblical ,jewish ,literature1 are of course accessible to all1 and every one may sit at the feet of our great teachers and listen to their instruction4 ,but there are many who are in need of assistance1 who require the aid of an interpreter4 ,the present volume is intended to render that assistance and to serve as such interpreter4 ,the author therefore addresses himself to his brethren1 especially to his disciples1 in the words of an ancient teacher of the ,mishnah 7,aboth v4 #be71 8,turn it1 and turn it over again20 and if he cannot add also 8for everything is in it10 he hopes that that which is in it will be found useful to those who seek religious knowledge1 and that it will prove an incentive to many 8to learn and teach1 to heed and do1 and to fulfil in love all the words of instruction in the ,divine ,law40 ,to a great extent this work owes its origin to the warm interest which the late ,mr4 ,jacob ,a4 ,franklin1 1 took in all matters connected with ,judaism4 ,he repeatedly urged upon the author the necessity of publishing a book on the ,jewish ,religion4 ,a plan was suggested1 discussed1 and finally adopted2 but the progress of the work was slow on account of other literary engagements of the author4 ,although ,mr4 ,franklin departed from our midst long before it was completed1 his philanthropy1 which survived him1 has a share in its completion1 the book being printed at the expense of the ,jacob ,a4 ,franklin ,trust ,fund for the advancement of ,judaism4 ,in recognition of these facts the author dedicates this work-- ,in ,piety1 ,,to ,,the ,,memory ,,of ,,his ,,late ,,friend1 ,,jacob ,a4 ,,franklin1 ,o4,b4,m4 ,,and ,,of ,,his ,,beloved ,,late ,,grandchildren3 ,,azriel ,,uriel ,,gaster4 ,in conclusion1 the author begs to thank the ,rev4 ,s4 ,singer for his assistance and his many valuable suggestions while the book was passing through the press ,m4 ,,friedl,,nder4 ,jews' ,college1 #c ,iyar #efea4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,edition4 ,the first edition being exhausted a second edition has been prepared4 ,there is no cause for any change in the body of the book4 ,religion1 both 8,glaubenslehre0 and 8,pflichtenlehre10 are given as objectively as possible1 and the most rigid examination of all that is taught in 8,the ,jewish ,religion10 discovered no misstatement4 ,a few unimportant errors1 which according to the ,psalmist 7,ps4 xix7 are excusable1 are rectified in the list of ,errata4 ,questions concerning religious principles which have arisen in the ,community since the publication have been foreseen and dealt with according to ,law and ,tradition4 ,a few notes are added in the second edition1 where further elucidations seemed necessary4 ,there is also appended the bibliography of text-books of ,jewish ,religion1 an abstract of a paper on ,religious ,education1 read before the ,jews' ,college ,literary ,society1 and the prayer which in the ,spanish and ,portuguese ,synagogues is offered up by the ,barmitzvah when called to the ,law4 ,the latter practice is worthy of imitation4 ,m4 ,f4 ,london1 ,adar ,i41 #effj4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,introduction #a-ah ,what is ,judaism8 #b ,,our ,,creed4 ,faith as commended in ,bible and ,tradition #e ,faith according to ,saadiah #i 11 11 11 ,ibn ,gabirol #aa 11 11 11 ,dunash ben ,tamim1 ,bachya b4 ,joseph #ab 11 11 11 ,shem-tob2 ,abraham b4 ,david2 ,jehudah hallevi #ac 11 11 11 ,ibn ,ezra2 ,maimonides2 ,joseph ,albo #ad 11 11 11 ,eliah del ,medigo #ae 11 11 11 ,moses ,mendelssohn #af ,the ,thirteen ,principles of ,faith #ai ,first ,group of ,principles--,existence of ,god #bb ,natural ,religion #bb ,polytheism #be ,pantheism #bf ,atheism #bg ,deism2 ,theism #bi ,the ,first ,principle3 ,god1 the ,creator and ,ruler of the ,universe #cj ,natural ,laws and ,miracles #ca ,evolution and ,creation #cc ,principle ,,ii4--,unity of ,god #ch 11 ,,iii4 #da ,anthropomorphism in the ,bible #da ,principle ,,iv4 #dc 11 ,v4 #dd ,various ,attributes of ,god #da ,second ,group of ,principles--,revelation #df ,general ,remarks--,early ,revelations #df ,prophet #di ,text of ,prophecies #ec ,massorah #ee ,names and ,authors of the ,books of the ,bible #ee ,pentateuch #eg ,earlier ,prophets #fb ,latter ,prophets #ff ,isaiah #ff ,jeremiah #gj ,ezekiel #ge ,minor ,prophets #gh ,hagiographa #hg ,psalms #hg ,proverbs #if ,job #ajh ,the ,song of ,solomon #aab ,ruth2 ,lamentations #aac ,ecclesiastes #aad ,esther2 ,daniel #aaf ,ezra2 ,nehemiah #abe ,chronicles #abf ,apocrypha #abg ,the ,book of ,wisdom #abg ,the ,wisdom of ,jesus1 ,son of ,sirach #abh ,baruch #abi ,tobit2 ,judith #acj ,the ,books of the ,maccabees #aca ,principle ,,vi4--,truth of the ,prophecies #aca 11 ,,vii4--,distinction of ,moses from other ,prophets #acc 11 ,,viii4--,authenticity of the ,torah #acd ,the ,oral ,law #acf ,principle ,,ix4--,immutability of the ,torah #aci ,third ,group of ,principles--,reward and ,punishment #adb ,divine ,justice and ,man's ,free-will #adb ,principle ,x4--,god's ,omniscience #adh 11 ,,xi4--,reward and ,punishment #aej ,principle ,,xii4--,messiah #aee 11 ,,xiii4--,resurrection--,future ,life #afc ,notes on the ,number of ,principles #afi ,on ,principle ,i4 #agd ,creation according to ,maimonides #agd 11 11 11 ,saadiah #agg ,bible and ,science #agh ,on ,principle ,v4--,efficacy of ,prayer #ahc 11 ,revelation #aij 11 ,principle ,,vi4 #aib ,revelation according to ,saadiah #aib 11 11 11 ,jehudah hallevi #aid 11 11 11 ,ibn ,ezra #aig 11 11 11 ,maimonides #aig 11 11 11 ,albo #bja ,on ,principle ,,vii4 #bja 11 11 ,,viii4 #bjb 11 ,vari ,lectiones1 ,tikkun ,soferim1 ,ittur ,soferim #bjc 11 ,al-tikre1 ,biblical ,quotations in ,talmud and ,midrash #bjd 11 ,bible ,criticism #bje 11 the ,pentateuch #bje ,explanation of #b ,kings xxii4 #h sqq4 #bjg ,abraham ibn ,ezra's ,view on the ,integrity of the ,pentateuch #baj ,authenticity of the ,book of the ,prophet ,isaiah #bab ,authenticity of the ,book of ,daniel #bad ,on ,principle ,,ix4 #bae ,explanation of ,jer4 xxxi4 #ca-cc #baf 11 11 some ,talmudical ,passages #baf ,the ,immutability of the ,torah according to ,maimonides #bag ,the ,immutability of the ,torah according to ,jehudah hallevi #bah ,the ,immutability of the ,torah according to ,albo and ,r4 ,abraham b4 ,david #bai ,on ,principle ,x4 #bbj 11 11 ,,xi4 #bba 11 ,eternal ,punishment #bbc 11 ,vicarious ,atonement #bbd 11 ,principle ,,xii4 #bbe ,maimonides on ,messiah1 ,jesus1 and ,mohammed #bbf ,principle ,,xiii4 #bca ,,our ,,duties4 ,on ,religious ,duties in ,general #bcc ,classification of the ,divine ,precepts #bci ,object of the ,divine ,law #bdb ,i4 ,the ,ten ,commandments #bdg-bgb ,notes on the ,ten ,commandments #bff-bgb ,different ,opinions on the ,division of the ,commandments #bff ,ibn ,ezra on ,exod4 xx4 #b #bfi ,abarbanel and ,r4 ,s4 ,hirsch on the ,ten ,commandments #bgj ,parallels to the ,decalogue #bgb ,,ii4 ,general ,moral ,principles #bgb-cbh ,duties towards ,god #bgc-bia 7a47 ,duties of the ,heart #bgc-bgh ,fear and ,love of ,god #bgc ,gratitude toward ,him #bge ,reverence for ,his ,name #bge ,obedience to ,his ,will #bgf ,faith and ,confidence in ,his ,goodness #bgg ,resignation to ,his ,will #bgg 7b47 ,duties with reference to ,speech #bgh-bhh ,prayer #bhj ,study of ,his ,word #bhe 7c47 ,duties with reference to ,action #bhh-bia ,sanctification of ,god's ,name #bhi ,imitation of ,his ,ways #bij ,duties towards our ,fellow-creatures #bib-cai ,general ,principles #bib ,duties in reference to the ,life and the ,property of our ,fellow-man #bib ,prohibition of ,interest and ,usury #bid ,duties in reference to our ,fellow-men's ,honour and ,well-being #bih ,charity1 and #cjb ,special ,duties #cje-cah ,children and ,parents #cje ,friends #cjf ,husband and ,wife #caj ,fellow-citizens #caj ,fellow-members of a ,community #cab ,duties towards ,members of another ,community #cab ,employers and ,employed #cac ,superiors and ,inferiors #cac ,teacher and ,pupil2 ,master and ,servant2 ,rich and ,poor #cad ,duties towards the ,old1 ,magistrates1 and all to whom ,honour is due #cag ,kindness to ,animals #cah ,duties to ,ourselves #cai-cbh ,,iii4 ,signs as ,outward ,reminders of ,god and ,his ,will #cbh-cch ,tsitsith #cbi ,tefillin #cca ,mezuzah #cce ,circumcision #ccf ,notes #ccf ,,iv4 ,sabbath1 ,festivals1 and ,fasts #cci-dac ,on ,sabbath and ,festivals in ,general #cci-cfj #a4 8,remember0 #cdj-cdi ,kiddush and ,habhdalah #cdj ,lessons from the ,pentateuch and the ,prophets #cde #b4 8,take ,heed0 #cdi-cec ,work ,forbidden #cdi #c4 8,delight0 #cec-cee ,sabbath and ,festivals ,days of ,cheerfulness #cec #d4 8,honour0 #cee-ceh ,sabbath and ,festival ,bread and ,lights #cee ,notes #ceh ,the ,jewish ,calendar #cfj ,notes #cfg ,the ,festivals #cfh-dji ,the ,three ,festivals #cfi-djj ,the ,four ,distinguished ,sabbaths #cfi ,passover #cgb-cib ,seder-evening #cgi ,counting of the ,omer #chi ,the ,days of the ,counting of the ,omer #cib ,the ,feast of ,weeks #cic-cid ,the ,feast of ,tabernacles #cie-djj ,solemn ,days #djj-dji ,new-year #djb ,day of ,atonement #dje ,historical ,feasts and ,fasts #dji-dac ,chanuccah #dji ,purim #daa ,the ,four ,fasts #dab ,optional ,fasts #dac ,v4 ,divine ,worship #dac-dee ,beginnings of ,divine ,worship #dac ,sacrifices #dad ,prayer #dah-dee ,devotion #dai ,minhag or ,custom #dai ,prayer in ,hebrew #dbj ,efficacy of ,prayer #dbb ,synagogue #dbc ,instrumental ,music in ,synagogue #dbg ,the ,ritual1 in ,talmud and ,midrash #dbi ,prayers at ,fixed ,times #dce ,shema1 #dcf ,amidah or ,tefillah #dcg ,abridged ,forms of the ,amidah #dci ,other ,constituent ,elements of the ,service #dci ,night-prayer #ddj ,public ,service #dda ,kaddish #dda ,kedushah #ddb ,repetition of ,amidah #ddb ,priests' ,benediction #ddb ,the ,reading of the ,law #ddb ,occasional ,prayers2 ,benedictions2 ,grace #ddb ,notes on ,customs in ,synagogue #ddd ,temporary ,substitutes for the ,service #ddf ,repetition of the ,amidah #ddf ,kedushah2 ,kaddish #ddg ,sermons and ,lectures #ddh ,special ,prayer-,meetings #ddi ,reform of the ,ritual #ddi ,congregations and their ,religious ,guide #ded ,,vi4 ,the ,dietary ,laws #dee-dff ,their ,object #dee ,fruit of ,trees in the ,first ,three ,years #deg 1 1 #deg ,meaning of #deh ,the ,killing of ,animals for ,food #dei ,prohibition of ,blood #dei ,trefah #dei ,clean and ,unclean ,animals #dei ,forbidden ,fat #dfa ,the ,sinew that ,shrank #dfa ,meat and ,milk #dfa ,notes4--,explanation of ,gen4 ix4 #d--,seven ,noachide ,precepts #dfb ,on ,shechitah #dfc ,how to ,kasher the ,meat #dfc ,explanation of ,num4 xi4 #bb and ,lev4 xvii4 #ac #dfd ,on ,clean and ,unclean ,birds #dfe ,meat and ,milk #dfe ,honey #dff ,wine of ,libation #dff ,,vii4 ,jewish ,life #dfg-dif ,guiding ,principles in ,jewish ,life #dfg ,torah and ,abodah2 ,beth-hammidrash and ,synagogue #dfi ,charity #dfi ,jewish ,women #dgj ,the ,days of the ,week #dgc ,anticipation of ,sabbath1 ,feast1 and ,fast #dgd ,friday ,evening4--,sabbath and ,festivals #dge ,new-moon and ,full-moon #dgf ,important ,moments in the ,life of the ,jew #dgf-did ,birth4--,initiation of the ,male ,child into the ,covenant of ,abraham #dgg ,redemption of the ,first-born #dgh ,thanksgiving of the ,mother after ,confinement #dgi #dgi ,education #dgi ,bar-mitsvah #dha ,choice of ,vocation #dhb ,marriage #dhc ,divorce #dhg ,obligatory ,marriage 77 and ,obligatory ,divorce 77 #dhh ,death and ,mourning #dhi ,regard for the ,memory of the ,deceased #did ,notes on ,customs in ,connection with the ,burial ,rites #dif ,appendices3-- ,i4 ,the ,thirteen ,principles in ,hebrew #dig-dih ,,ii4 ,the ,jewish ,calendar #dih-eja ,,iii4 ,religious ,education #eja99-ejd99 ,,iv4 ,prayer for ,barmitzvah #eje99-ejf99 ,v4 ,bibliography #ejg99-eaj99 ,i4 ,index of ,quotations from ,bible and ,post-,biblical ,literature #ejb-eab ,,ii4 ,general ,index #eac-ebj ,,iii4 ,index of ,names #eba-ebc ,,iv4 ,index of ,hebrew ,terms #ebd-ebh ,errata #ebi-ecj ,,the ,,jewish ,,religion4 ,,introduction4 8,man is the most privileged of creatures2 he has been made in the image of ,god4 ,his privilege is still further enhanced by the fact that he has been made aware of his distinction0 7,aboth iii4 #ad74 ,there is in man a consciousness or feeling of a certain relation between him and a superior ,being1 on whose ,will his own existence depends4 ,this consciousness is the basis of religion1 but is not religion itself4 ,it is the influence which this feeling exercises over man's actions and conduct in life that forms the essence of religion4 ,when man begins to feel that he is responsible for his actions to a higher ,being1 and forms his actions in harmony with this feeling1 he may be called religious4 ,two elements must therefore be distinguished in religion3 the notion of man's dependence on and responsibility to a superior ,being1 and the influence of this notion on his actions3 religious belief and religious practice1 or faith and duty4 ,religious belief or faith1 in its most simple and most general form1 may be said to be common almost to all mankind2 and in the great variety of faiths1 produced by various circumstances and experiences1 this simple idea may easily be detected as the fundamental principle of all of them4 ,the same can be said with regard to religious practice4 ,there are certain fundamental principles of duty which are recognised and adopted by the most diverse religious sects2 they form1 as it were1 the common stem from which a large number of branches spring forth in all directions4 ,these branches diverge more and more the larger they grow and the more numerous they become4 ,judaism is one of these various religions4 ,it has been the source of most of the religions of the civilised world1 and is destined to become1 in its simplest principles1 the universal religion4 ,what is ,judaism8 or what does ,judaism teach its adherents to believe1 and what does it teach them to do8 ,the answers to these two questions form the main subject of every book on our holy religion4 ,the answer to the first question must include our doctrine about ,god1 ,his attributes1 ,his relation to the material world1 and especially to man2 the mission of man1 his hopes and fears4 ,the answer to the second question must include our duties toward ,god1 toward our fellow-men1 and toward ourselves4 ,both answers must be based on that which we are taught in the ,holy ,writings1 and especially in the ,torah4 ,recourse may be had to philosophic speculation1 to which1 indeed1 the first question peculiarly invites1 but the result must be rectified by the teaching of the ,torah4 ,in accordance with the maxim1 8,the secret things belong to the ,lord our ,god2 but those things which are revealed belong unto us and to our children for ever3 that we may do all the words of this ,law10 abstruse metaphysical disquisitions about the essence and the attributes of the ,divine ,being will be avoided in the present work1 as also every attempt at proving1 philosophically or mathematically1 truths which have been revealed unto us in a supernatural way4 #a ,but the simple truths taught in the ,holy ,writings and explained by our sages will be expounded1 the different opinions about them will be examined1 and it will be shown that these truths are not contradicted by common sense or by the results of scientific research4 ,the second question1 however1 ,what does ,judaism teach us to do8 refers to 8the things which are revealed10 and must be treated more fully4 ,care will be taken1 as far as possible1 that nothing be omitted that is required for the right understanding and the correct estimate of our religious duties4 ,religion therefore includes two elements3 faith and practice4 ,in religious life1 as well as in the teaching of religion1 both elements are equally essential2 faith without religious practice does not suffice1 nor the latter without faith4 ,we are accustomed to look upon certain dogmas as fundamental1 and certain practices as essential1 and are therefore prone to renounce beliefs which are not fundamental in our eyes1 and to abandon such religious practice as seems to us less essential4 ,hence the frequent inquiry as to what is the minimum of belief1 and what the minimum degree of conformity to the ,law1 that ,judaism demands4 ,but in reality there can be no compromise in religion1 whether in matters of faith or of practice4 ,convinced of a certain number of truths1 it is impossible for us to abandon any of them without being false to ourselves2 being convinced of the binding character of certain religious commands and prohibitions1 it would be perverse to pronounce at the same time part of them as superfluous4 ,judaism is the adherence to the truths taught in the ,holy ,law1 and the faithful obedience to its precepts4 ,the principal ,hebrew equivalents for the modern term 8,religion10 and 1 confirm this view4 ,in the ,bible signifies 8instruction10 and is applied to the teaching of religions truth1 as well as to that of religious precepts4 ,the same is the case with the second term which signifies 8firmness10 8perseverance10 or 8permanence10 and is used of 8consistency0 in faith as well as of conscientiousness in the practice of the ,divine ordinances4 #b ,i4 ,,our ,,creed4 ,,introduction4 ,faith is the implicit and absolute belief in the truth of the communication made to us and in the trustworthiness of him who makes it to us4 ,the child has faith in its parents that their wishes or commands are for its good2 the pupil in his teachers that they impart correct knowledge2 we have faith in our friends that they have no intention to deceive us2 in the men of science and learning that the results of their researches may be accepted as well established4 ,in all these cases the faith is but imperfect and of a relative and temporary character4 ,time1 investigation1 and extended observation and knowledge may either confirm the contents of our faith or may convince us that we have been in error4 ,this is not the case with religious faith4 ,it keeps within the boundaries of its own domain and does not encroach on that of the senses and of reason4 ,whatever can be known by means of scientific research and thorough investigation we need not accept on faith4 ,religion--,i have1 of course1 our own religion1 the ,jewish1 in mind--does not only not forbid such examination1 but even encourages it4 ,thus we read in the ,book of ,proverbs1 8,a fool believeth every word1 but the prudent man looketh well to his going0 7xiv4 #ae74 ,for this purpose ,god has given us intellectual faculties that we should employ them in our search for truth4 ,at the same time1 however1 ,he has set limits to our faculties1 and there are things which are beyond these limits1 being nistaroth1 8things hidden0 from our senses1 whose existence has been made known to us through the grace of ,god1 by such means as ,his infinite wisdom determined4 ,we search and investigate1 examine and demonstrate1 within the sphere of our senses2 but all that is beyond their reach belongs to the nistaroth1 the knowledge of which can only be imparted to us directly by the ,almighty1 or indirectly by those to whom they have been communicated by ,him4 ,our belief with regard to these nistaroth may be supported or strengthened by philosophical or dialectical arguments1 but can never be proved by mathematical or logical demonstration4 ,the sources from which we derive our knowledge of these nistaroth are ,revelation and ,tradition4 ,god reveals things otherwise unknown to man to such persons or to such a generation as ,his wisdom chooses1 and from those thus privileged the knowledge spreads to the rest of mankind by means of ,tradition4 ,in addition to these two sources there is a third one in ourselves3 ,god implanted in our souls certain ideas common to all of us as essential elements of our inner life1 and these ideas form to some extent the basis of our faith4 ,such is1 e4g41 the idea of an all-powerful ,being1 ,god1 who is the source and origin of everything in existence4 ,there is no real conflict between faith and reason4 ,it may sometimes seem as if there were such a conflict1 and we then naturally begin to doubt4 ,in such cases the truth of our faith may be doubted1 but the correctness of our reasoning is no less subject to doubt4 ,we may have erroneously included in our faith beliefs which do not belong to it1 and on becoming aware that they are contrary to reason1 we cast them aside without the least injury to our faith4 ,on the other hand1 our reason is not perfect2 we frequently discover mistakes in our arguments and conclusions1 and reject opinions which we hitherto have considered as firmly established4 ,through patient and thorough investigation of our doubts1 without over-estimation of our reasoning faculties1 we shall be able to settle the seeming conflict between reason and faith in a satisfactory manner4 ,the examination of our doubts will prove that none of the truths which the ,almighty revealed to mankind are contrary to reason4 ,in this way we are enabled to separate from our faith all elements that in reality are foreign to it2 we shall be able to distinguish between faith and superstition4 ,the latter consists of erroneous notions and beliefs which can be tested and subjected to the ordinary means of inquiry4 ,superstition is not tolerated by true religion2 strict adherence to the teachings of our holy religion is the best check to superstitious beliefs4 ,the importance which the ,bible attaches to implicit faith in ,god and ,his word may be gathered from the following passages3-- 8,and he 7,abraham7 believed in the ,lord1 and ,he reckoned it to him as righteousness0 7,gen4 xv4 #f74 ,the ,hebrew for 8righteousness0 is in the original which is used in the ,bible as the sum-total of everything good and noble in man's life4 ,when the ,israelites had crossed the ,red ,sea1 it is said of them3 8,and ,israel saw the great work which the ,lord did upon the ,egyptians1 and the people feared the ,lord3 and they believed in the ,lord1 and in ,moses ,his servant0 7,exod4 xiv4 #ca74 ,again1 when ,moses and ,aaron had sinned at the waters of ,meribah by striking the rock instead of speaking to it1 they were rebuked for want of 8faith10 in the following words3 8,because ye believed not in me 7 7 to sanctify me in the eyes of the children of ,israel1 therefore ye shall not bring this assembly into the land which ,i have given them0 7,numb4 xx4 #ab74 ,when ,moses in his song blamed the ,israelites for their evil doings1 he called them 8children in whom there is no faith0 7,deut4 xxxii4 #bj74 ,king ,jehoshaphat1 addressing the army before the battle1 says3 8,have faith in the ,lord and you will be safe2 have confidence in ,his prophets and you will succeed0 7#b ,chron4 xx4 #bj74 ,in the same sense ,isaiah says to ,king ,ahaz3 8,if you have no faith1 surely you will not be safe0 7,isa4 vii4 #i74 ,also ,jeremiah1 speaking of ,israel's disobedience to the word of ,god1 exclaims3 8,the faith1 is perished1 and it is cut off from their mouth0 7,jer4 vii4 #bh74 ,the prophet ,habakkuk1 praying to ,god for an explanation why evil-doers succeed and prosper1 receives the divine answer3 8,the righteous shall live by his faith0 7,hab4 ii4 #d72 and when ,hosea predicts the future redemption of ,israel1 he tells them in the name of ,god1 8,and ,i will betroth thee unto me by faith0 7,hos4 ii4 #bb74 ,our teachers1 the sages and rabbis1 who succeeded the prophets1 have been equally emphatic in commending religious faith4 ,the following are a few of their sayings concerning faith3-- 8,great is the merit of faith4 ,through their faith in the ,creator of the universe the ,israelites were inspired by the holy spirit1 and were enabled to sing praises to the ,lord40 8,faith in the ,lord was the source of all the temporal and eternal blessings which were bestowed upon ,abraham2 it gave him the enjoyment of this world and the world to come40 8,when the ,psalmist says3 #8,this gate leads to the ,lord2 righteous people 77 shall come in through it1' he denoted by the term #8righteous' those who possess faith in ,god0 7,yalkut on ,ex4 xiv4 #ca74 ,in spite of the fact that the ,torah and the prophets most emphatically declare faith to be a very essential element in ,judaism1 it does not seem to have the same importance in the writings of ,jewish theologians and philosophers1 some of whom have endeavoured to substitute reasoning and logical arguments for simple faith1 and to rebuild upon scientific research the religious edifice erected on the foundation of faith4 ,the following are the utterances of the principal ,jewish theologians since the close of the ,talmud on the relation between faith and reason3-- ,the ,gaon ,saadiah of ,fayyum wrote a book on creeds and religious beliefs 7 74 ,in the ,introduction to this work the philosopher describes the causes of human error and doubt1 and assumes four classes of believers4 ,there are1 first1 those who recognise the truth found by them1 cling to it1 and are happy in it4 ,there are1 secondly1 those who have the true principle before them1 but do not recognise it1 doubt its correctness1 and abandon it again4 ,the third class includes those who adopt an opinion without having recognised it as true2 they mistake falsehood for truth4 ,the last division consists of those who form no definite opinion1 but remain continually in an unsettled state of mind4 ,saadiah is anxious to see at least his co-religionists in the first class1 and his work was intended to help them towards this end4 ,according to ,saadiah1 belief or faith must be an integral part of our soul2 the various truths which form the faith are stored up in the soul as in a repository1 completely ready for use whenever required4 ,it is1 however1 possible that we store up opinions as true which are false4 ,tests must be applied to each opinion in order to ascertain its right character4 ,three of the tests are of a general nature1 but the fourth has its force only for us1 the believers in the truth of the ,holy ,writings4 ,the first three tests will show us whether a certain opinion is confirmed or contradicted by our senses1 by our innate ideas1 or by our logical reasoning4 ,in addition to these we possess a fourth test in the trustworthy communication 7 71 i4e41 the contents of ,holy ,writ and ,tradition4 ,holy ,writ recognises the necessity of the three general tests1 and frequently exhorts us to apply them4 ,on the other hand1 ,saadiah is convinced that the contents of ,holy ,writ and ,tradition are never contradicted1 but in many cases are confirmed by these tests4 ,such confirmation is in reality superfluous2 but the human mind feels more at ease when it finds that the teaching of ,holy ,writ is supported by other proofs4 ,besides1 attacks on the ,bible come frequently from these tests1 and it is therefore useful to learn how to refute them4 ,according to ,saadiah1 the truth taught in the ,bible can never be contradicted by the results of scientific or philosophical research4 ,thus to ,saadiah philosophy and science are mere luxuries1 and cannot be considered as handmaids to the ,torah4 ,they are not studied on account of their intrinsic value or as helps for the understanding of ,holy ,writ1 but merely for the purpose of procuring proper weapons for theological warfare1 or of superadding the conviction that what is known to us from the most trustworthy source is confirmed from other less reliable sources4 ,the poet and philosopher ,solomon ibn ,gabirol1 who is lost in enthusiasm in contemplating the powers of the human soul1 humbly acknowledges that it was his faith that saved him from fall and ruin4 ,referring to man's faculty of acquiring knowledge1 he says in his 8,royal ,crown0 3 8,who can comprehend ,thy wisdom in giving to the soul the faculty of acquiring knowledge1 on which her existence depends1 knowledge being her foundation8 ,she is permanent and immortal in the same measure as her foundation is well established40 ,but1 reflecting on human weakness1 he expresses his feeling of gratitude to the ,creator for ,his guidance in the following words3 8,thou hast done yet more for me4 ,thou hast implanted in my heart a perfect faith1 so that ,i believe in ,thee as the true ,god1 and in ,thy prophets as true prophets2 ,thou hast not cast my lot among those that rebel against ,thee1 or among those who provoke ,thy name1 despise ,thy ,law1 attack ,thy servants1 and disbelieve ,thy prophets40 ,knowledge--philosophy and science--is the very essence1 the immortal element of the soul1 and yet without the ,word of ,god man would go astray and be lost4 ,the boundaries between faith and reason are more distinctly set forth in the ,commentary on ,sefer ,yetsirah by ,dunash ben ,tamim 7ed4 ,l4 ,dukes in ,shire ,shelomoh1 i4 p4 vi4 seq473 8,all these beings above and below have been created by ,god1 and it is within the province of man to explore and to examine all of them2 but he must not pass beyond these boundaries to investigate into the essence of ,god2 #8for in the city of his refuge shall he dwell1' and #8if he goeth out of his place1 and the avenger of blood smite him1 he hath no remedy4' ,besides1 wisdom and science acknowledge that man is unable to comprehend by his own intellect anything that exists outside the sphere of created beings40 ,r4 ,bachya1 son of ,joseph hassephardi1 who lived in the eleventh century1 treats1 in the ,introduction to his 8,duties of the ,heart10 of the three sources of human knowledge--,holy ,writ1 ,tradition1 and ,reason4 ,bachya is fully convinced that the knowledge derived from the first two sources is complete and correct4 8,if you are a man endowed with knowledge and reason1 and are able to demonstrate the principles of your belief and your religious practice1 which you have been taught by the ,sages in the name of the prophets1 it is your duty to do so1 and to let reason confirm what ,tradition teaches4 ,if you abstain from attempting this investigation1 you neglect your duty towards your ,creator40 ,still more emphatic is ,shem-tob ibn ,palqera in demanding the right of free inquiry into everything taught by ,revelation and ,tradition4 ,in a dialogue between the believer and the inquirer 7,hammebhakkesh7 the former is represented as ignorant of everything our mind desires to know2 whilst the wise man1 who combines belief and confidence in ,tradition with the right use of his reason1 knows how to satisfy the inquirer1 and lays down the rule1 8,let the study of the ,torah be the foundation1 and the study of other things secondary2 believe nothing that is not proved by reason or by ,god0 7i4e41 by the word of ,revelation74 ,r4 ,abraham ben ,david1 in ,emunah ramah3 8,because three out of four scholars 7,r4 ,akiba1 ,ben-azai1 ,ben-zoma1 and ,elisha7 were unsuccessful in their philosophical researches1 therefore many turn their backs upon science1 and in consequence of this neglect they remain ignorant of the chief principles of our religion40 ,the object of his book is to reconcile religion and science4 ,r4 ,judah hallevi1 in his 8,kuzari10 endeavours to convince the ,kuzarite king of the truth of the ,jewish religion by philosophical arguments1 but gives unhesitatingly the preference and the higher authority to ,divine revelation4 ,he is convinced that reason or philosophical argument could never refute any principle taught in the ,law4 ,he says3 8,prophecy is certainly stronger than logical inference40 ,r4 ,abraham ibn ,ezra believes that man's intellectual faculties are insufficient to solve all transcendental problems2 thus1 e4g41 the nature of the spirit of man is unknown to most1 and is only comprehended by him 8whose thoughts are weighed in the balance of reason1 and are established on the four elements of wisdom1 viz41 the three ,r's3 reading1 writing1 and reckoning2 7in ,hebrew1 the three 3 7 and the ,divine ,law40 ,ibn ,ezra recommends the study of science1 united with the belief in ,divine revelation4 8,the ,torah10 ,ibn ,ezra remarks in his ,commentary on ,ps4 xix4 #h1 8is perfect in itself2 it requires no evidence from without for the truths which it teaches40 ,maimonides' 8,guide to the ,perplexed0 is entirely devoted to the problem how to reconcile ,scripture and reason4 ,scripture cannot contain anything contrary to reason2 nor can the result of scientific research and philosophical speculation be conceived as contrary to reason1 which is their very basis4 ,but where any such contradiction is perceived1 we are at fault either in our reasoning or in our interpretation of the ,divine ,writings4 ,the ,incorporeality and ,unity of ,god are doctrines that have been fully proved1 and ,scripture cannot teach anything that is contrary to them4 ,where we believe them to be contradicted in the ,holy ,writings the contradiction is only apparent1 and by assuming an allegorical use of words and phrases the seeming contradiction is removed4 ,r4 ,joseph ,albo prefaces his book on the principles of ,judaism as follows3 8,as the human understanding is incapable of finding out what is true and what is good1 there must be a higher ,being that assists us in determining what is good and in comprehending what is true4 ,it is therefore necessary1 above all1 to study and to know the divine ,law that guides man in these problems40 ,r4 ,eliah del ,medigo1 in his ,bechinath haddath 7,examination of ,religion7 says as follows3-- 8,let us first see whether or not the study of philosophy is permitted to the followers of our religion2 and1 if it be permitted1 whether the study is to be considered a duty and a laudable act4 ,the right-minded ,jew does not doubt that the ,law aims at leading us to humane conduct1 good deeds1 and true knowledge1 the common people according to their capacity1 and the more gifted according to their abilities4 ,certain fundamental truths are therefore set forth in the ,law and the ,prophets in an authoritative1 poetical1 or dialectical style2 but the higher order of intellects are encouraged to search for proper proofs4 ,thus the whole nation is addressed by ,isaiah3 #8,lift up your eyes on high and see who hath created these1' and the like4 ,also the chief of the ,prophets tells the ,israelites3 #8,hear1 ,o ,israel1 the ,lord is our ,god2 the ,lord is ,one4' ,those who are more highly endowed than their fellow-men are exhorted1 either directly or indirectly1 to follow the course which is suitable to them4 ,the direct exhortation to philosophical research is contained in the words3 #8,know then this day1 and take it to thy heart1 that the ,lord ,he is ,god1' c42 and indirectly it is contained in the commandment to love and to fear ,god1 as has been explained by ,r4 ,moses ,maimonides4--,the study of science will certainly be of use to the scholar2 it leads to a knowledge of the created things1 and through these to a knowledge of the ,creator4 ,such study may even be considered as necessary to the ,jewish scholar1 though not to the ordinary ,jew4 ,the scholar must1 however1 not entirely rely on his research1 but on that which is taught in the ,law4 ,in this the scholar and the ordinary man are equal1 that both accept the teaching of the ,torah as infallible2 only with this difference1 that the scholar can in addition satisfy his thirst for knowledge and confirm by scientific proof what he has already accepted as true on the authority of the ,bible40 ,of modern scholars ,i only quote ,moses ,mendelssohn's theory4 ,he accepts unconditionally the teaching of the ,bible2 all its truths are absolute and perfect2 no reasoning whatever can refute them2 but difficulties may sometimes present themselves to us in reconciling the teaching of the ,bible with that of our reason4 ,what have we then to do8 ,the philosopher declares3 8,if ,i were to find my reason in contradiction to the ,word of ,god1 ,i could command reason to be silent2 but the arguments1 so long as they have not been refuted1 will nevertheless assert themselves in the innermost recesses of my heart2 the arguments will assume the form of disquieting doubts1 which will resolve themselves into childlike prayers1 earnest supplication for enlightenment4 ,i should utter the words of the ,psalmist3 #8,lord1 send me ,thy light1 ,thy truth1 that they may guide me1 and bring me to ,thy holy mount1 to ,thy dwelling-place6'0 ,the conception which ,moses ,mendelssohn had of ,jewish belief and its relation to reason we learn from the following passage3--8,i recognise no other eternal truths than those which are not only comprehensible to the human mind1 but also demonstrable by human powers4 ,this principle by no means brings me into conflict with my own religion2 on the contrary1 ,i consider it an essential element in ,judaism1 and the characteristic difference between ,judaism and ,christianity4 ,judaism has no revealed religion in the sense in which ,christianity has4 ,the ,jews have a revealed legislation which instructs them in the divinely ordained means by which they may attain the eternal bliss4 ,laws and rules for conduct in life were revealed to ,moses in a supernatural way1 but no doctrines1 no saving truth1 and no general laws of logic4 ,the latter the ,eternal reveals to us1 as to all men1 through nature and through the things themselves2 never through words and letters4 ,the divine book revealed to ,moses1 though a book of laws1 includes an inexhaustible treasure of truths and doctrines4444 ,the more we study it the more we wonder at the depth of the knowledge contained in it4 ,but these truths are taught1 and not forced upon us as dogmas4 ,belief does not allow itself to be commanded2 it is based upon conviction4 ,in the ,hebrew language1 the very word which is generally translated #8faith1' viz41 denotes originally confidence1 trust that the promise made will also be fulfilled1 and not what we understand by #8religious faith4'0 ,these words of ,mendelssohn show how greatly those err who quote his opinions in support of the dictum that ,judaism recognises no dogmas4 ,according to ,mendelssohn1 ,judaism does not consist entirely of laws2 it teaches also certain truths4 ,we have certain dogmas without which the laws can have no meaning1 yet there is no precept1 8,thou shalt believe40 ,nowhere in our ,law1 whether written or oral1 is a solemn declaration of our creed demanded4 ,in so far ,mendelssohn's view is correct2 but when he believes that all the truths we are taught in ,scripture can be made evident by logical demonstration he is mistaken4 ,as to the meaning of comp4 supra1 p4 #d4 ,,the ,,thirteen ,,principles ,,of ,,our ,,creed4 ,the main source of our creed is the ,bible1 and among the ,biblical books1 chiefly the ,pentateuch 774 ,in these books we find many truths taught by ,god ,himself1 or by ,his inspired messengers1 and they form the substance of our creed4 ,it matters little how we arrange them1 how we collect them into groups1 and subdivide these again1 provided we believe in them implicitly4 ,in the ,bible they are not arranged systematically2 they are intermingled with1 and are contained implicitly in1 the history and the laws that form the subject-matter of the ,scriptures2 it is the observance of those laws which constitutes the best evidence of the belief seated in the heart4 ,no declaration or recital of a creed is commanded in the ,pentateuch2 no tribunal is appointed for inquiring whether the belief of a man is right or wrong2 no punishment is inflicted or threatened for want of belief4 ,it became1 however1 necessary to formulate the truths taught in the ,bible1 when disputes arose as to their meaning and to their validity4 ,the ,mishnah1 therefore1 declares certain opinions as un-,jewish and contrary to the teaching of the ,divine ,word4 ,later on1 when controversies multiplied between the various sections of the ,jewish nation1 as well as between ,jews and ,christians and ,jews and ,mohammedans1 it was found most important to settle the form and arrangement of our beliefs4 ,moses ,maimonides1 the great religious philosopher1 taught1 in his ,commentary on the ,mishnah1 thirteen principles of faith1 which found general acceptance among the ,jews1 and are known as the ,thirteen ,principles4 ,they have found their way into the ,prayer-book in two different forms1 one in prose and one in poetry4 ,maimonides1 in commending them to the reader1 says3 8,read them again and again and study them well1 and let not your heart entice you to believe that you have comprehended their full meaning after having read them a few times2 you would then be in a great error1 for ,i have not written down what occurred to my mind at first thought4 ,i first thoroughly studied and examined what ,i was going to write1 compared the various doctrines1 the correct ones and the incorrect ones1 and when ,i arrived at what we ought to accept as our creed1 ,i was able to prove it by arguments and reasoning40 ,the thirteen articles as put forth by ,maimonides1 and called by him principles and foundations of our religion1 are the following3-- #a4 ,the first principle3 ,the belief in the existence of the ,creator2 that is1 the belief that there exists a ,being who requires no other cause for ,his existence1 but is ,himself the cause of all beings4 #b4 ,the second principle3 ,the belief in the ,unity of ,god2 that is1 the belief that the ,being who is the cause of everything in existence is ,one2 not like the unity of a group or class1 composed of a certain number of individuals1 or the unity of one individual consisting of various constituent elements1 or the unity of one simple thing which is divisible ad infinitum1 but as a unity the like of which does not exist4 #c4 ,the third principle3 ,the belief in the ,incorporeality of ,god2 that is1 the belief that this ,one ,creator has neither bodily form nor substance1 that ,he is not a force contained in a body1 and that no corporeal quality or action can be attributed to ,him4 #d4 ,the fourth principle3 ,the belief in the ,eternity of ,god2 that is1 the belief that ,god alone is without a beginning1 whilst no other being is without a beginning4 #e4 ,the fifth principle3 ,the belief that the ,creator alone is to be worshipped1 and no other being1 whether angel1 star1 or ought else1 all these being themselves creatures4 #f4 ,the sixth principle3 ,the belief in ,prophecy2 that is1 the belief that there have been men endowed with extraordinary moral and intellectual powers1 by which they were enabled to reach a degree and kind of knowledge unattainable to others4 #g4 ,the seventh principle3 ,the belief that our teacher ,moses was the greatest of all prophets1 both those before him and those after him4 #h4 ,the eighth principle3 ,the belief in the ,divine origin of the ,law2 the belief that the whole ,pentateuch was communicated to ,moses by ,god1 both the precepts and the historical accounts contained therein4 #i4 ,the ninth principle3 ,the belief in the integrity of the ,law2 that both the written and the oral ,law are of ,divine origin1 and that nothing may be added to it or taken from it4 #aj4 ,the tenth principle3 ,the belief that ,god knows and notices the deeds and thoughts of man4 #aa4 ,the eleventh principle3 ,the belief that ,god rewards those who perform the commandments of ,his ,law1 and punishes those who transgress them4 #ab4 ,the twelfth principle3 ,the belief that ,messiah will come at some future time1 which it is impossible for us to determine2 that he will be of the house of ,david1 and will be endowed with extraordinary wisdom and power4 #ac4 ,the thirteenth principle3 ,the belief in the revival of the dead1 or the immortality of the soul4 ,these thirteen principles 7 7 may be divided into three groups1 according to their relation to the three principles3--#a4 ,existence of ,god4 #b4 ,revelation4 #c4 ,reward and punishment4 ,the first group includes the first five principles1 the second the next four1 and the third the remaining four4 ,in this order they will now be considered4 #a4 ,,existence ,,of ,,god 4 ,the notion of the existence of ,god1 of an invisible power which exercises its influence in everything that is going on in nature1 is widespread1 and common to almost the whole human race4 ,it is found among all civilised nations and many uncivilised tribes4 ,the existence of ,god may be regarded as an innate idea1 which we possess from our earliest days4 ,this is the origin of ,natural ,religion4 ,thinkers of all ages and nations have attempted to confirm this innate idea by convincing arguments4 ,prophets and divine poets have frequently directed the attention of those whom they addressed to the marvels of nature in order to inspire them with the idea of an ,all-wise and ,all-powerful ,creator4 8,lift up your eyes on high1 and behold who hath created these8 ,who is ,he who bringeth them forth by number8 ,all of them ,he calleth by name1 by the greatness of ,his might1 and for that ,he is strong in power1 not one is lacking0 7,isa4 xl4 #bf74 8,the heavens declare the glory of ,god1 and the firmament sheweth ,his handywork0 7,ps4 xix4 #b74 ,the regularity in the rising and setting of the heavenly bodies1 which enables us to foretell the exact time and duration of an eclipse of the sun or the moon1 is certainly a strong argument for the belief that there is a mighty and wise ,creator who fixed the laws in accordance with which these luminaries move4 8,beautiful are the luminaries which our ,god has created4 ,he has formed them with knowledge1 reason1 and understanding2 ,he endowed them with power and strength to rule in the midst of the world4 ,full of splendour and beaming with light1 they illumine the whole world2 they rejoice when they rise1 they are glad when they set1 doing in reverence the will of their ,master0 7,sabbath ,morning ,service74 ,a similar regularity we notice when looking on the face of the earth4 ,the various seasons of the year1 each with its peculiar aspect and influence1 the sequence of day and night at regular intervals1 the gradual and systematic development of vegetable and animal life--all point forcibly to the fact that these things do not owe their existence to chance1 but to the will of an ,almighty and ,all-wise ,creator4 ,again1 if we consider the structure of a single plant1 or of a single animal1 we find that every one of the members and parts of which it is composed has its peculiar function or purpose in the economy of the whole plant or the whole animal4 ,let one of these component parts refuse its function or cease to fulfil its purpose and the whole is disorganised4 ,certainly there must be a ,being who makes the different members of an organism co-operate for the development and advantage of the whole4 ,the idea of purpose which regulates this co-operation cannot have originated in the parts nor in the whole1 but in the conception of ,him by whose ,will these were created4 8,the finger of ,god0 is further recognised in the important events of the life of the individual as well as in the history of whole nations4 ,we are frequently reminded of the lesson1 8,the heart of man deviseth his way1 but the ,lord directeth his step0 7,prov4 xvi4 #i74 8,salvation is the ,lord's1 and on ,thy people it is incumbent to bless ,thee0 7,ps4 iii4 #i74 ,another argument in support of the belief in the existence of ,god is taken from the moral consciousness which every human being possesses4 ,this points to the existence of a higher ,being1 perfect in goodness1 as the origin and cause of the moral consciousness in our own heart4 ,these and similar arguments are employed to strengthen and purify our belief in ,god4 ,the question1 however1 arises1 are these arguments alone sufficient to convince us8 ,are they strong enough to resist the attacks of scepticism8 ,on examining them thoroughly we shall find them of excellent service to the believer4 ,his belief is strengthened against many doubts by which he may be assailed2 and scepticism will be kept at bay by these arguments4 ,but of themselves and unsupported they may not always suffice to establish belief in ,god2 and if they carry conviction with them for the moment1 we are not sure whether fresh arguments of opponents might not again unsettle the mind4 ,another method was therefore chosen by the ,almighty1 by which certainty is attained1 and a sure guide is given for our moral and religious life4 ,it is ,revelation4 ,of this we shall speak later on4 ,the principal forms of religion or worship that sprang from the natural belief in ,god are ,polytheism1 ,pantheism1 ,atheism1 ,theism1 and ,deism4 #a4 ,the first form of ,divine worship of which history and archology give us information is ,polytheism4 ,the creating and ruling power of some invisible ,being was noticed everywhere4 ,every manifestation of such influence was ascribed to its peculiar deity1 which was worshipped according to the peculiar conception of the deity in the mind of the individual person1 family1 or nation4 ,this is chiefly the kind of idolatry mentioned in the ,bible and combated by the prophets4 ,a very general object of worship were the stars4 ,rabbi ,jehudah ha-,levi1 in ,kuzari iv4 #a1 in trying to explain the origin of this practice1 says as follows3--8,the spheres of the sun and the moon do not move in the same way4 ,a separate cause or god was therefore assumed for each1 and people did not think that there was a higher force on which all these causes depended40 ,the ancient monuments and the treasures stored up in our museums show how great was the variety of forms which idolatry took1 and to how great an extent people adhered1 and still adhere1 to this kind of worship4 ,but there have been thinkers and philosophers even among the idolatrous nations who sought a unity in the construction and working of the universe1 and early arrived at the idea of a ,first ,cause as the sole source of all that exists4 #b4 ,the fact that the influence of the ,divine power makes itself perceptible to the observing eye of man everywhere produced another kind of human error3 ,pantheism 7,all-,god74 ,modern ,pantheism dates from ,spinoza2 but long before ,spinoza1 when the secret forces at work in the changes noticed by us in all material objects were recognised as properties inherent in the substance of things1 these forces were considered as the sole independent causes of the existing universe1 and the combination of these forces1 called ,nature1 was considered to be the ,first ,cause1 or ,god4 ,a modification of this theory is contained in the philosophy of ,spinoza4 ,according to this great philosopher's system1 the universe in its entirety has the attributes of the ,deity3 there exists nothing but the ,substance 7,god71 its attributes1 and the various ways in which these attributes become perceptible to man4 ,spinoza tried to defend himself from the reproach of describing ,god as corporeal1 but he did not succeed4 ,the attribute of extension or space which ,god possesses1 according to ,spinoza1 is only conceivable in relation to corporeal things4 ,the philosophy of ,spinoza is in this dilemma3 either ,god is corporeal1 or the corporeal world does not exist4 ,both assumptions are equally absurd4 ,it is true1 in one of his letters he complains that he has been misrepresented1 as if he believed ,god to consist of a certain corporeal mass4 ,but we cannot help assuming the existence of a certain corporeal mass1 and if this is not ,god1 we must distinguish in our mind ,god and something that is not ,god1 contrary to the fundamental doctrine of ,pantheism4 ,besides1 there are many incongruities and improbabilities involved in this theory4 ,it has no foundation for a moral consciousness4 ,the wicked and the good are alike inseparable from ,god4 ,they both result with necessity from the attributes of ,god1 and they cannot be otherwise than they actually are4 ,if we1 by the consideration that injury done to us by our fellow-man was not done by that person alone1 but by a series of predetermined necessary causes1 may be induced to conquer hatred against the apparent cause of our injury1 we may equally be induced by the same reasoning to consider the kindness and benefits of our friends not worthy of gratitude1 believing that they were compelled to act in this manner1 and could not act otherwise4 #c4 ,pantheism1 by teaching ,all in ,one and ,one in ,all1 is opposed to the theory of man's responsibility to a higher ,being1 denies the existence of ,god in the ordinary sense of the word1 and is1 in its relation to true religion1 equal to atheism4 ,in the ,bible atheism is stigmatised as the source of all evils4 ,thus the patriarch ,abraham suspected the people of ,gerar1 that there was 8no fear of ,god0 in the place1 and was afraid 8they might slay him0 7,gen4 xx4 #aa72 whilst ,joseph persuaded his brothers to have confidence in him by the assertion1 8,i fear ,god0 7,ib4 xlii4 #ah74 ,the first instance of an atheist we meet in ,pharaoh1 king of ,egypt1 when he defiantly said1 8,i know not the ,lord1 neither will ,i let ,israel go0 7,exod4 v4 #b74 ,another form of atheism is warned against in the words of ,moses3 8,lest thou sayest in thine heart1 ,my strength and the power of my hand has got for me all this wealth0 7,deut4 viii4 #ag72 and 8,lest they say1 ,our hand is high1 and it is not the ,lord that hath done all this0 7,ib4 xxxii4 #bg74 ,the prophets likewise rebuke the people for want of belief in ,god4 ,in the ,psalms1 the crimes and evil designs of oppressors are traced to godlessness4 8,the wicked says in his heart1 ,there is no ,god0 7,ps4 xiv4 #a74 ,but this atheism of the ,bible is not a theoretical or dogmatic one2 it is not the result of thought1 or of deep inquiry into the causes of things1 but merely the voice of an evil inclination which tempts man to act contrary to the command of ,god1 and assures him of immunity1 under the impression that his actions are not watched by a higher authority4 ,in post-,biblical literature we meet with the phrase1 8,there is no judgment1 and there is no judge10 as the basis of atheism4 #d4 ,although the conviction of man's responsibility to a higher authority is the essential element in the belief in ,god1 yet the notion of godlessness was so intimately connected with crime and wickedness1 that those who rejected the authority and mastership of the ,deity refused to be called godless or atheists4 ,many philosophers retained the name 8,god0 7theos1 deus7 for their 8,first ,cause0 of the universe1 although it is deprived of the chief attributes of ,god4 ,thus we have as the principal religious theories resulting from philosophical investigations1 ,theism and ,deism4 ,literally these two terms denote1 ,theory of ,god1 or ,belief in ,god2 the one word being derived from the ,greek theos1 the other from the ,latin deus1 both meaning 8,god40 ,there is1 however1 an essential difference between the two theories4 ,theism and ,deism have this in common1 that both assume a spiritual power1 a divine being1 as the cause and source of everything that exists4 ,they differ in this3 to ,theism this power is immanent in us and the things round us2 ,deism considers this power as separate from the things4 ,revelation or prophecy is altogether denied by the ,deists1 whilst the ,theists would accept it after their own fashion and rationalise it4 ,all these various systems of religion have this in common1 that they attempt to remove from religion everything that cannot be comprehended by human reason4 ,but all attempts to substitute human reason for ,divine authority have failed4 ,a limit has been set to human reason1 and that cannot be overcome4 ,in every system of religion--the natural and the rational included--there is a mystic element1 which may be enveloped in a mist of phrases1 but remains unexplained4 ,whether we call the ,creator and ,ruler of the universe ,god1 ,deus1 or ,theos1 ,his relation to the universe1 and to man in particular1 cannot be determined by the laws which determine the natural phenomena in the universe1 created by ,his ,will4 ,what is our conception of the ,deity8 ,the fundamental idea1 from which all our notions concerning ,god are derived1 and which we have in common with all other believers in ,god1 is that ,he is the ,first ,cause1 the ,creator of the universe4 ,this idea expressed in the term forms the basis of our creed4 ,it is the ,creator that is described in it4 ,seven of the articles begin1 8,i believe with a perfect faith that the ,creator1 blessed be ,his name10 c4 ,we do not use the term 8,first ,cause10 because it is too narrow2 it only expresses part of the truth1 not the whole of it4 ,by 8,first ,cause0 some understand the cause of the gradual development of the primitive matter into the innumerable variety of things contained in the universe2 the development of the original chaos into system and order4 ,it is true that the ,creator is the cause of all this2 but ,he is more than this3 ,he is the cause of the primitive matter1 and of the original chaos4 ,for ,he has created the world out of nothing4 ,the first verse of the ,bible teaches us creation from nothing 7creatio ex nihilo73 8,in the beginning ,god created the heaven and the earth0 7,gen4 i4 #a72 that is1 the whole universe4 ,it is true that there were men who explained the meaning of the ,hebrew root in a different manner1 and desired to assign to it the meaning3 cutting out1 forming out of a given material4 ,but they certainly misunderstood the spirit of the ,scriptures4 ,the eternal coexistence of ,god and matter would imply a dualism utterly incompatible with the teaching of the ,bible4 ,the frequently repeated declaration1 8,he is our ,god2 there is none besides0 7 71 clearly excludes every form of dualism4 ,those who assert that the universe could not come from nothing belong to the class of people of whom the ,psalmist says1 8,and they returned and tempted ,god1 and set limits to the ,holy ,one of ,israel0 7,ps4 lxxviii4 #da74 ,if we cannot understand the act of the ,creation1 it is our own intellect that is limited2 and if we were to persuade ourselves that we understand better the eternity of matter1 we should deceive ourselves4 ,we cannot conceive matter without form as existing in reality1 nor can we have a clear notion of anything infinite4 ,we are human beings1 endowed by the will and wisdom of the ,creator with limited physical and intellectual faculties1 and in things that surpass our powers we cannot do better than follow the guidance of the ,divine ,word4 ,if we do so we may be sure that we shall be on the right way to truth4 ,the first principle declared in our creed is this3 ,god is not only the ,creator of the heavens and the earth1 with all their hosts2 ,he is also the constant ruler of all created beings2 ,he is 4 ,we therefore praise ,him in our daily ,morning prayer as 8,doing wonders2 renewing in ,his goodness the work of the creation every day40 ,when we observe the ordinary phenomena in nature1 occurring in accordance with certain fixed laws which have been discovered and described by man1 we see in them the greatness of the ,creator by whose will these laws are still in force1 and by whose will any or all of these laws may one day cease to continue4 ,it has been asserted that any interruption or change of these fixed laws would indicate a weakness and want of foresight on the part of the ,creator1 and a fault in the plan of the ,creation4 ,this notion has led people either to deny the truth of the ,biblical accounts concerning the miracles wrought by the ,almighty1 or to admit the correctness of the facts while denying their miraculous character1 or to consider the fixed laws of nature1 together with their exceptions1 as designed in the original plan of the ,creation4 ,how short-sighted is man6 ,he cannot even fully comprehend his own short-sightedness6 ,god made him ruler over the works of ,his hands1 and he presumes to be the ruler of ,god ,himself6 ,when we learn from numerous observations and experiments the law that seems to regulate certain recurring phenomena1 have we then fathomed the infinite wisdom of ,god in the ,creation8 ,do we know the reason which led ,him to produce certain things according to certain laws1 and not otherwise8 ,have we in discovering a law of nature obtained the power of prescribing the same law to ,god1 and disallowing ,him to deviate therefrom8 ,far be it from us human beings1 dust and ashes1 to arrogate to ourselves such a right6 ,it may even be one of the objects with which miracles were wrought to teach us that we do not yet know all things1 that events may happen which we are unable to foresee1 that phenomena may appear which we are unable to explain according to the laws hitherto discovered2 in short1 that our knowledge and wisdom are limited4 ,the fact that ,god has created the universe ex nihilo has been expressed by ,jewish philosophers as follows3--,god is the only ,being who demands no cause for ,his existence2 the very idea of ,god implies existence1 and cannot be conceived without it4 ,all other beings owe their existence to certain causes1 in the absence of which they would not exist4 ,god alone is therefore only active1 without ever being passive1 only cause without ever being effect1 whilst every other being is both active and passive1 cause and effect2 it has been produced by certain causes1 and is in its turn the cause of the existence of other beings4 ,in the first article a phrase expressing this idea has been added3 8,and ,he alone is the active cause of all things1 whether past1 present1 or future40 ,by the addition of this sentence it was intended to deny the ,eternity of matter 7 74 ,the reference to past1 present1 and future is to emphasise the constant action of the ,creator1 and the dependence of the natural forces on ,his ,will4 ,the first principle has1 therefore1 the following form3-- 8,i firmly believe that the ,creator1 blessed be ,his name1 is both ,creator and ,ruler of all created beings1 and that ,he alone is the active cause of ,,all things1 whether past1 present1 or future40 #c ,before passing on to the second principle concerning ,god1 let us briefly answer a question that has frequently been asked3 ,what is the relation between the theory of evolution1 or in general the results of modern science1 and the history of the creation as related in the ,bible8 ,in the ,biblical account of the creation the various kinds of plants and animals are described as the result or different and distinct acts of the ,creator1 whilst according to the theory of ,evolution one creative act sufficed1 and the great variety of creatures is the result of gradual development according to certain laws inherent in the things created4 ,the ,bible tells us of six days of the creation1 whilst according to the theory of evolution it must have taken millions of years before the various species could have developed the one from the other4 ,whilst the ,biblical account describes the earth as the centre of the universe1 astronomy shows that the earth is one of the most insignificant of the bodies that fill the infinite space of the universe4 ,according to astronomy and geology1 the age of the earth numbers millions of years2 from the ,biblical account we infer that the earth is comparatively young4 ,in the ,bible man is described as the aim and end of the whole creation2 natural history and the theory of evolution consider man simply as one of the forms resulting from a natural development of the animal world4 ,what shall be our decision in this discrepancy8 ,shall we shut our eyes to the results of modern science in our firm belief in the truth of the ,bible8 ,or shall we accept the former and abandon the latter8 ,we should adopt neither of these alternatives4 ,we have great confidence in our reasoning power1 and in the results of science based on reason1 but we have still greater confidence in the truthfulness of ,divine teaching4 ,the conflict is not a modern product2 it existed in former times as well4 ,when the ,jews first became acquainted with ,greek literature and philosophy1 faith was shaken in the heart of many a ,jew that was led away by the attractive language and the persuasive arguments of the ,greek4 ,such was the case with the ,jews in ,alexandria1 who were almost more ,greek than ,jewish4 ,feeling that their faith in their old traditions was beginning to give way1 they looked about them for the means of reconciling faith and philosophy4 ,where the literal sense of ,holy ,writ was awkward1 the allegorical interpretation was substituted for it2 but the authority of the ,bible was recognised4 ,later on1 in the ,middle ,ages1 when ,aristotle1 as understood and interpreted in the ,arabic schools1 was infallible1 perplexity again became general1 among the educated and learned1 as to the course to be pursued in case of a conflict2 whether to remain true to the ,bible or to join the banner of ,aristotle4 ,the most prominent amongst the ,jewish theologians who sought the way of reconciliation was ,moses ,maimonides4 ,this philosopher wrote his famous work1 8,guide of the ,perplexed10 expressly for those scholars who1 whilst firmly adhering to the inherited faith1 had been trained in the study of philosophy1 and were unwilling to abandon either4 ,maimonides shows the way how to explain ,biblical passages implying statements contrary to philosophical teachings1 and how to reconcile theology and philosophy4 ,a similar task was undertaken in modern times by ,moses ,mendelssohn in his 8,jerusalem0 and 8,morgenstunden10 in order to show that strict adherence to the ,jewish religion is quite compatible with the teaching of philosophy4 ,the various systems of philosophy in ,alexandria1 in the ,mohammedan countries in the ,middle ,ages1 and in ,germany in the last century1 which threatened to endanger our religion1 have lived their time and have gone to their fathers1 giving way to new systems and new ideas1 whilst the authority of the ,word of ,god has maintained its place4 ,this having been the case in former days1 there is no reason why we should not in the present conflict assume1 prim facie1 that the scientific and philosophical dogmas now in favour1 alike with ,jews and non-,jews1 will have their time1 and will ultimately give way to other theories1 and the present conflict will then likewise terminate1 dying a natural death4 ,this reflection should put us on our guard lest we be persuaded by the plausibility of the modern philosophical and scientific dogmas1 and throw aside our religious faith and traditions4 ,we ought to bear in mind that1 however correct the conclusions of modern science may appear that can be tested by our senses1 theories which are not subject to such tests are in reality nothing but hypotheses to which a greater or lesser degree of probability attaches4 ,suppose now--always bearing in mind the imperfect character of our powers of observation--we were to observe that certain plants or species of animals developed by training and circumstances into new species1 or to see plants being transformed into animals1 or even to notice literally 8the foal of a wild ass born a man10 what would all this prove8 ,that the ,creator endowed the species of plants and animals with such properties as would enable them to transform into new species1 or into any other of the species already in existence2 but it does not follow that the ,creator must have adopted the same method in the act of creation4 ,he created as many species as ,his wisdom determined1 although they might all have been able to develop from one single species4 ,suppose the problem which the ,alchymists of the ,middle ,ages proposed to themselves1 viz41 to produce an animal being by mere chemical combination1 had actually been solved1 would any one have believed that all animals had been produced in that way8 ,or does the success of artificial hatching of eggs convince any person that all birds have sprung from artificially hatched eggs8 ,the same argument applies to the geological formation of the earth4 ,we notice changes brought about through natural forces1 and mark the amount of change effected in a certain period2 we are then able to calculate what time would be required for such or such a change--provided that only those laws be in force which we have noticed in our calculation4 ,is it reasonable or logical to apply to the act of creation the laws which have been brought into force through this very act8 8,he said1 and it was3 ,he commanded1 and they were created0 7,ps4 xxxiii4 #i74 ,the word of ,god produced in a moment what the natural forces established by the ,creator would effect by gradual development in millions of years4 ,it is true that the earth is one of the most insignificant bodies in the universe1 and man is a small portion of the creatures on earth1 and yet it is neither impossible nor unreasonable to believe that the benefits which man derives from the various parts of the creation1 from the sun1 the moon1 and the stars1 were essential elements in the scheme of the ,all-wise ,creator4 ,attempts have frequently been made to interpret the ,biblical account of the creation in such a manner as to reconcile it with the scientific theories of the time4 ,thus it has been argued that the period between the creation of 8heaven and earth0 and the creation of 8the light0 is not described in the ,bible1 and may have been millions of millions of years4 ,it has likewise been suggested that the term 8day0 is to be understood in the sense of 8period40 ,it has further been pointed out that the account of the creation of animals indicates a process of development rather than a creatio ex nihilo2 for it says1 8,and ,god said1 ,let the waters bring forth abundantly living beings10 c4 7,gen4 i4 #bj74 8,let the earth bring forth living beings10 c4 7,ibid4 #bd74 ,these interpretations may be true1 and may suffice temporarily to check sceptical ideas that rise in our mind2 but without the firm belief in the ,word of ,god1 and the consciousness of the insufficiency of human reason thoroughly to understand the plans and ways of ,god1 our faith can never be safe4 ,supported by this belief we shall always be able to brave the ever-recurring billows of scepticism4 #b4 ,the next principle contained in our ,creed concerning ,god is the ,unity of ,god4 8,i am the ,lord thy ,god1 who brought thee out from the land of ,egypt1 out of the house of bondage3 thou shalt have no other gods before me0 7,exod4 xx4 #b-c74 ,this is the first lesson the ,israelites were taught when ,god revealed ,himself to them on ,mount ,sinai4 ,the words1 8,hear1 ,o ,israel2 the ,lord is our ,god1 the ,lord is ,one0 7,deut4 vi4 #d71 are proclaimed by us thrice every day2 we recite them when we rise2 keep them in memory during the day1 and repeat them in the evening before we go to rest2 they form our watchword throughout our life1 and with these words upon our lips we end our earthly existence4 ,the ,unity of ,god is the doctrine that distinguishes the ,jews from other religious sects1 in so far as the ,jews were the first nation of ,monotheists4 ,from them ,monotheism has spread among other peoples1 who1 however1 did not always receive or preserve it in its original purity4 ,we not only proclaim ,god as ,one1 refusing to recognise as divine any power beside ,him1 but refrain also from attributing to ,god anything that might directly or indirectly involve any notion contrary to the ,unity of ,god4 ,for this reason certain ,jewish philosophers considered it unlawful to assign to ,god any positive attribute4 ,they feared this might lead to dualism1 to believe in ,god and in ,his attribute as two distinct beings1 because attributes are so easily personified and addressed as separate deities4 ,some theologians even were of opinion that the admission of ,god's attributes is itself a form of dualism which must be excluded from our faith4 ,nevertheless1 attributes are assigned to ,god both in the ,scriptures and in our ,prayers4 ,we must not1 however1 forget that such attributes do not describe anything inherent in the ,divine ,being1 but only ,god's relation to man and ,his actions in such terms as are intelligible to human beings4 ,most of the attributes are interpreted as being of a negative character1 indicating what we must not say of ,god4 ,when we speak of the ,will1 ,wisdom1 and ,spirit of ,god1 we do not speak of anything separate from the ,divine ,being1 but of the ,divine ,being ,himself4 ,the ,jewish doctrine of the ,unity of ,god does not admit any kind of dualism in the ,divine ,being1 and therefore rejects the existence of ,divine ,attributes as distinct from ,god ,himself4 ,he is ,one1 simple and indivisible4 ,even this property of being ,one seemed to some theologians to be contrary to strict unity1 and we are therefore taught that we must not understand it in the sense of a numerical unit1 in which sense the term is used when applied to created beings4 ,the second article therefore declares3 8,the ,creator is ,one1 and there is no ,oneness like ,his in any way40 ,the ,unity of ,god is the creed which the ,jews have always proclaimed by word of mouth1 to which they have given expression throughout their literature1 and for which they have willingly sacrificed their lives as martyrs4 ,when persecuted by ,mohammedans or ,christians the ,jews were frequently forced to break the ,sabbath1 to ignore the dietary laws1 and to neglect ,divine worship4 ,they bore all this patiently when under pressure of persecution1 but when they were asked to renounce the belief in ,god's ,unity they did not doubt for a moment as to what their duty was2 they adhered firmly to 8the belief in ,god's ,unity10 and sacrificed their lives for 8the sanctification of ,god's name40 ,the ,jews have been victorious4 ,in spite of persecution and oppression they have maintained their faith4 ,the doctrine of the ,unity of ,god1 for which they had to suffer so much in past centuries1 is now admitted as true by most of their former persecutors4 ,in order to make clear what we mean by unity1 and to express that ,god could not be conceived as existing at any time in a double form1 we add the words3 8,and ,he alone was1 is1 and will be our ,god40 ,the second article runs therefore as follows3-- 8,i firmly believe that the ,creator1 blessed be ,his name1 is ,one2 that there is no ,oneness like ,his1 in any way1 and that ,he alone was1 is1 and will be our ,god40 #c4 ,the strict ,unity of ,god1 in the sense explained above1 implies ,his ,incorporeality1 which forms the subject of the third article4 ,corporeality implies substance and form1 a dualism which must be rigidly excluded from ,god4 ,it would not have been necessary to formulate a special article for the exclusion of corporeality from the idea of ,god but for the fact that many erroneous notions have been entertained on the subject4 ,besides the fact that the corporeality of ,god was assumed by certain religious sects1 there have been scholars among the ,jews who defended the literal sense of anthropomorphic phrases in the ,scriptures4 ,in the ,bible anthropomorphic expressions are employed in order to illustrate the different acts of ,divine ,providence in such a way as to render them more intelligible to us human beings4 ,we consist of body and soul1 and we produce an impression or exercise an influence on others by means of our body and by the activity of our bodily organs4 ,how an incorporeal being acts upon the corporeal world we are unable fully to comprehend1 much less to describe4 ,if we desire to picture to ourselves or to others the fact that through ,divine ,providence something has been produced on earth1 we must employ the same phrases which we use in describing human acts which effect a similar result4 ,in reality1 however1 there is no comparison or similarity between ,god and corporeal beings1 between ,his actions and ours4 ,when we therefore speak of the house of ,god we mean the house which we devote to our prayers1 in which we feel the omnipresence of the ,almighty more than in any other place4 ,the heaven is called the throne of ,god and the earth ,his footstool only to express the idea that the majesty of ,god is far beyond comparison with that of any earthly ruler1 and that the house of ,god built by human hands is not intended to satisfy the requirements of the ,supreme ,being but those of man4 ,we call ,him our ,father and ,he calls us ,his children1 because we love ,him as we love our father1 and ,he loves us as a father loves his children4 ,in the same sense the ,psalmist 7ii4 #g7 repeats the words of ,god to him1 8,thou art my son2 ,i have this day begotten thee40 ,such expressions as these are anthropomorphic4 ,the ,bible frequently exhorts us not to imagine or ascribe to ,god any form or likeness4 ,comp4 ,deut4 iv4 #ae1 8,take ye therefore good heed unto yourselves2 for ye saw no manner of form on the day that the ,lord spake unto you in ,horeb out of the midst of fire40 ,in the same sense the prophet asks in the name of ,god 7,isa4 xl4 #ah71 8,to whom then will you liken ,god1 or what likeness will you compare unto ,him80 8,to whom then will you liken ,me1 that ,i should be equal to ,him8 saith the ,holy ,one0 7,ibid4 #be74 ,we declare therefore in the third article3-- 8,i firmly believe that the ,creator1 blessed be ,his name1 is not a body1 that corporeal relations do not apply to ,him1 and that there exists nothing that is in any way similar to ,him40 #d4 ,the next property we declare of ,god in the ,creed is the eternity of ,god4 ,as ,he is the cause of everything in existence1 and requires no cause for ,his existence1 and as it is impossible to separate the idea of existence from the idea of ,god1 it follows that ,god is always in existence1 and that neither beginning nor end can be fixed to ,his existence4 ,maimonides1 in expressing his belief in the eternity of ,god1 lays stress only on ,god being without a beginning1 and in this sense he interprets the phrase ,dip 7,deut4 xxxiii4 #bg71 8the eternal ,god0 who is without a beginning4 ,that ,god is without end is equally true1 but ,maimonides did not desire to introduce this idea into the fourth article as a distinguishing characteristic1 as it is not necessary to believe that the universe will once come to an end4 ,if it please the ,almighty to give the universe existence for ever1 it will continue for ever4 ,following1 however1 the example of the prophets1 who told us in the name of ,god1 8,i am the first1 and ,i am the last10 we express this idea in our ,creed1 and understand it thus3 ,if1 by the will of the ,almighty1 the entire universe should come to an end1 ,god's existence would still continue4 ,thus the ,psalmist says1 8,of old hast ,thou laid the foundation of the earth2 and the heavens are the work of ,thy hands4 ,they shall perish1 but ,thou shalt endure2 yea1 all of them shall wax old like a garment3 as a vesture shalt ,thou change them1 and they shall be changed3 but ,thou art the same1 and ,thy years shall have no end0 7,ps4 cii4 #bf-bh74 ,the fourth article is3-- 8,i firmly believe that the ,creator1 blessed be ,his name1 was the first1 and will be the last40 #f4 ,after having declared our faith in ,god as the sole ,ruler of the universe1 who is ,one1 incorporeal and eternal1 we proclaim ,him as our ,supreme ,master1 who alone is capable of granting our petitions4 ,all existing things are under ,his control2 all forces in nature only work at ,his will and by ,his command4 ,no other being possesses the power and independence to fulfil our wishes of its own accord1 if it were approached by us with our prayers4 ,it is1 therefore1 to ,him alone that we can reasonably address our petitions1 and in doing so we have confidence in the efficacy of our prayers1 for 8the ,lord is nigh to all those who call upon ,him1 to all who call upon ,him in truth0 7,ps4 cxlv4 #ah74 ,this article1 although expressly directed against idolatry1 and primarily against the worship of 8the angels1 the stars1 and the spheres10 implies our belief in ,god as the ,omnipotent1 who can do everything1 and can help us when we have not any prospect of relief4 ,we therefore declare in the fifth article3-- 8,i firmly believe that the ,creator1 blessed be ,his name1 alone is worthy of being worshipped1 and that no other being is worthy of our worship40 ,the ,omnipotence of ,god is also implied in the first article1 which declares ,him the ,creator and the ,ruler of the universe4 ,that ,maimonides does not directly make omnipotence1 like unity1 incorporeality1 c41 the subject of a separate article has its good reason1 and is not 8the result of mere chance40 ,silly questions were frequently asked2 e4g41 how far the omnipotence of ,god extended1 whether it implied the power of making twice two equal to three1 or the whole of a magnitude larger than the sum of its parts1 and similar logical impossibilities4 ,to avoid misunderstanding1 ,maimonides did not express our belief in the omnipotence of ,god in a separate article1 but the first and the fifth articles imply it4 ,we believe of ,god that ,he is immutable or unchangeable4 ,it is1 however1 not necessary to express this in a separate article4 ,by declaring the ,unity of ,god we proclaim also ,his ,immutability1 since unity1 in the sense in which we conceive it1 is incompatible with any kind of change4 ,whatever the change might be that we assumed in ,god1 it would destroy the idea of ,his unity4 ,there are other qualities which we ascribe to ,god4 ,we call ,him perfect1 all-wise1 good1 kind1 merciful1 long-suffering1 and the like2 in short1 whatever we find in our own person good and noble we believe to be present in ,god in a higher degree1 in the most perfect form4 ,but these attributes approach very closely anthropomorphisms1 which ,maimonides rigidly excludes from the ,creed4 ,they express rather the impressions produced in our soul by the different acts of ,god's ,providence1 and do not describe ,god ,himself4 ,of this class of attributes are the thirteen divine attributes1 7,exod4 xxxiv4 #f74 ,they describe in thirteen terms the goodness and mercy of ,god towards man in his various conditions of innocence1 guilt1 and repentance4 ,these are not distinctly mentioned in our ,creed1 but when we declare that ,he is the only ,being whom we can address in our prayers1 we are certainly conscious and convinced that ,he1 being good1 kind1 and merciful1 listens to our supplications4 #b4 ,,revelation1 4 ,the second group of principles refers to ,revelation4 ,the real process of revelation1 by what means and in what manner the infinite and incorporeal ,being makes ,his ,will known to man1 and how the latter becomes conscious and convinced of the fact that a ,divine communication has been made to him1 remains a mystery to all but those privileged persons who have been actually addressed by the ,almighty4 8,as the blind man who had never possessed the sense of sight is incapable of comprehending the actual process of seeing1 so are we1 born without that wonderful prophetic eye1 without the prophetic faculty of the mind1 incapable of comprehending and depicting the process of inspiration that goes on within the mind of the privileged0 7,schmiedl1 ,studien1 p4 #ahc74 ,god reveals ,himself also in nature1 in the power and wisdom displayed in its phenomena4 ,he reveals ,himself in the history of nations1 and especially in the history of ,israel4 ,he reveals ,himself in the intelligence of man4 ,in all these cases the revelation is made to all alike4 ,those who have eyes may see1 those who have ears may hear1 and recognise1 every one according to his capacity1 the presence of the ,almighty in the working of the laws of nature1 in the development and fates of nations1 and in the life of every individual person4 ,in all these cases we can test and prove the revelation by ourselves1 and need not exclusively rely on authority4 ,when1 however1 a ,divine communication is made to one privileged individual1 through whom it is made known to a whole community1 or to mankind1 there is no other means of testing the correctness of the revelation than the trustworthiness of the privileged individual4 ,the first lesson or proof given to the ,israelites of the fact that such revelation was not only possible1 but had actually been vouchsafed by the ,almighty1 was the revelation on ,mount ,sinai1 the 1 which became the foundation of the faith of ,israel4 8,and the ,lord said unto ,moses1 ,lo1 ,i come unto thee in a thick cloud1 that the people may hear when ,i speak with thee1 and may also believe thee for ever0 7,exod4 xix4 #i74 ,the trustworthiness of ,moses having thus been tested and established 8for ever10 his teaching remained the foundation of the teaching of all succeeding prophets1 and the test of their truthfulness and genuineness4 ,a prophet who taught anything opposed to the law of ,moses could not be a true prophet1 although he supported his words by signs and miracles 7,deut4 xiii4 #b1 sqq474 ,besides1 revelation of the ,divine ,being had taken place before4 ,god revealed ,himself to the first man4 ,adam heard the voice of ,god2 he felt the presence of the ,almighty1 and learnt the amount of evil man brings upon himself by disobeying the word of ,god4 ,the consciousness of the existence of ,god1 and of the fact that ,he has revealed ,himself to man1 has been inherited by the descendants of ,adam4 ,it has not been preserved in all men in the same strength and purity4 ,the notion of a ,divine ,being1 and of ,his revelation to man1 became in course of time corrupt1 and led to the corruption of the human race1 with the exception of ,noah and his family4 8,noah was a righteous man2 perfect he was in his generations3 with ,god did ,noah walk0 7,gen4 vi4 #i74 ,the inherited consciousness of ,god's existence and of ,his rule over man was strengthened in him by fresh1 direct revolution of ,god4 ,he was told that the wicked would be destroyed by a flood1 and that he with his family would be saved4 8,the righteous man0 witnessed the infliction which the wicked brought upon themselves by evil deeds1 and also that protection of himself and his family which had been promised and granted by the ,almighty4 ,after ,noah had left the ark the word of ,god was again communicated to him1 promising that never again would a flood be sent to destroy all living beings--a promise which succeeding generations up to the present have seen fulfilled4 ,in the midst of rain the 8sign of covenant10 the rainbow1 reminds us still of ,his promise and its fulfilment4 ,of the descendants of ,noah the ,semites alone seem to have preserved the belief in ,god's existence and ,his revelation to man in its original purity2 and of the ,semites it was ,abraham who was chosen by ,providence to be the founder of a family of faithful believers in ,god1 who formed1 as it were1 the centre from which the true faith should spread in all directions over the whole face of the earth4 ,abraham received ,divine communications1 and so also his son ,isaac and his grandson ,jacob4 ,even when the children of ,israel were in ,egyptian slavery1 and when they did not hearken to ,moses 8because of anguish of spirit1 and because of cruel bondage10 the memory of these revelations was never entirely extinguished in their minds2 and when again addressed by ,moses and ,aaron 8the people believed2 and when they heard that the ,lord had visited the children of ,israel1 and that ,he had seen their affliction1 then they bowed their heads and worshipped0 7,exod4 iv4 #ca74 ,their faith was strengthened when they witnessed the fulfilment of the ,divine message which was brought to them by ,moses3 8,and they believed in the ,lord1 and in ,moses ,his servant0 7,ibid4 xiv4 #ca74 ,the foundation of the belief in the possibility of ,divine revelation having thus been laid1 that belief was further strengthened through the revelation on ,mount ,sinai1 when every ,israelite heard and understood the words addressed to him by ,god1 8who had brought them out of ,egypt1 of the house of bondage20 they heard the very words which ,moses subsequently told them in the name of ,god1 and they were convinced of the truth of the words of ,moses4 ,he taught them that there would be other persons chosen by ,god to bring messages from ,him to the children of ,israel or to mankind1 and at the same time he laid down the rule by which the truth of such messages could be tested4 ,a person favoured by ,divine communications was called a prophet1 4 ,that which characterised a prophet and distinguished him from the ordinary man was the privilege of being chosen by ,providence to be 8the messenger of ,god0 to man4 ,this notion of the characteristics of a prophet explains the circumstance that1 although ,daniel was favoured with numerous prophetic visions1 the book called after his name was not placed among the ,prophets1 but among the ,hagiographa4 ,it is on account of his addressing his brethren and informing them of the ,will of ,god that a person was called a prophet4 #d ,by simply receiving a communication1 without the direction to impart the knowledge acquired to others1 a person may become a man of ,god1 a man in whom there is the spirit of ,god1 but not a prophet4 ,it is our belief that ,god would not reveal ,himself to any one that is unworthy of such distinction4 ,as a conditio sine qu non it was necessary that the prophets distinguished themselves in every kind of virtue1 that they set to their fellow-men an example of purity in thought1 loftiness in speech1 and nobility in action4 ,as regards general knowledge and experience they were inferior to none of their contemporaries4 ,in the ,talmud the saying occurs3 8,the ,divine spirit does not rest on man1 unless he is wise1 strong1 and rich0 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,shabbath1 #ib;a74 ,this is certainly a true conception of the character of a prophet1 8strong0 and 8rich0 being understood in a figurative sense3 8strong0 in possessing mastery over his passions1 and 8rich0 in being contented with what he has 7,aboth iv4 #a74 ,it was a matter of indifference1 however1 whether the prophet was strong in body or weak1 whether he had many earthly possessions or none at all4 ,in spite of his distinction from his fellow-men in wisdom1 moral strength1 and contentedness1 the prophet remained a human being2 he was1 like every other person1 exposed to the temptation to sin and liable to error4 ,the sins and errors of prophets are recorded in order to save us from despair when we are conscious of our sinfulness1 and to show us the way to repentance4 ,this is illustrated especially in the history of the prophet ,jonah4 ,the records of the sins of prophets serve as a warning that we should not consider any man as perfect or deify him4 ,although the prophet is assumed to have been wise1 surpassing his fellow-men in knowledge and wisdom1 it is by no means necessary to believe that he was familiar with all sciences1 or that he knew any of the discoveries made in later times4 ,the prophet had frequently to inform his brethren of what would happen in future1 to tell them of things which no human eye could foresee4 ,but he had in general no greater knowledge of coming events than other men1 except in reference to those events concerning which he had received a message from ,god for ,his people or for mankind4 ,can a man be trained for the office of a prophet8 ,was there a school or institution for this purpose8 ,every one could certainly be trained in the primary conditions of a prophet1 in the exercise of all human virtues1 and in the acquisition of all available knowledge2 and it was the duty and the aim of the prophets to encourage all their brethren to such training by their own example4 ,but the principal element in prophecy the ,divine communication1 depended solely on the ,will of ,god4 8,the sons of the prophets0 are generally believed to be the pupils of the prophets2 they formed 8the schools of the prophets40 ,these schools1 however1 could not have been schools or colleges in the ordinary sense of the word4 ,the sons of the prophets were instructed by the prophets1 but not with the purpose of training them as prophets4 ,it seems that the sons of the prophets served as agents for promulgating the inspired messages of their chief4 ,most probably they led a simple1 pious life1 were ,god-fearing1 and spent their time when meeting together in music and song1 repeating hymns and lessons taught by their master4 ,an account of some of the messages and deeds of the prophets is given in the ,biblical books2 some of their speeches also are preserved1 in the section of the ,bible called 8,latter ,prophets10 4 ,the speeches of the prophets were in some cases prepared and written down before they were spoken1 in others delivered ex tempore without preparation1 and were written down afterwards from memory1 either by the prophet himself or by one of his hearers1 or were handed down viv voce from generation to generation before they were committed to writing4 ,there is another kind of ,divine revelation which did not find expression in any message to the ,israelites or to mankind1 but in a certain supernatural impulse given to the thought or will of a person as regards his words and actions4 ,such an impulse is called inspiration1 and the inspired person is moved to speak or act by the 8spirit of the ,lord40 ,it was the spirit of the ,lord that moved ,samson to heroic deeds against the enemies of his people2 ,david likewise felt that ,divine impulse when pouring forth his heart before the ,lord in his ,psalms4 ,he says3 8,the spirit of the ,lord spake in me1 and ,his word was on my tongue0 7#b ,sam4 xxiii4 #b74 ,it was the spirit of the ,lord that filled the hearts of those who collected and sifted the ,holy ,writings containing law1 history1 prophecies1 and poetry1 and gave them the form in which we possess them now4 ,we are not quite certain as to the form of the letters in the original copies of the ,holy ,writings2 but from the way in which the ,pentateuch is written now in the ,synagogue scrolls1 we may infer with certainty that the ancient copies of the ,torah contained no vowels or accents1 and that these have come down to us by oral tradition4 ,for the multiplication of copies1 human copyists had to be employed4 ,it is by no means contrary to our faith in the ,bible to assume that1 as far as the human work of these copyists is concerned1 it must have been subject to the fate of all human work1 to error and imperfection4 ,and1 in fact1 there are many copies of the ,bible that abound in mistakes2 there are passages in ,scripture that vary in the different manuscripts2 hence the numerous vari lectiones met with in the critical editions of the ,bible4 ,but1 on the other hand1 it would not be reasonable to assume that the holy literature and the national treasure1 very limited in size1 should have been neglected by the religious authorities of the time to such an extent that no reliable1 correct copy was kept1 to be consulted in case of doubt or difference of opinion4 ,this being the case with all ,biblical books1 it applies with special force to the ,torah or ,pentateuch1 which contains the ,divine commandments4 ,the least alteration made by copyists--unknowingly or knowingly--might involve a question of life and death4 ,must it not have been the duty of the judicial authority to keep a correct authorised copy in a safe place8 ,it is certainly most reasonable to assume that such a copy was kept1 and that there were in every generation among the priests or prophets men who had a thorough knowledge of the ,law1 and could easily detect any interference with the text4 ,as the laws do not form a separate section of the ,bible1 but are interwoven with a historical account of important events from the ,creation to the death of ,moses1 the entire ,pentateuch1 composed of both laws and history1 was preserved with the same anxiety and watchfulness4 ,that great care was taken in copying the ,law we learn from the fact mentioned in the ,talmud1 that ,ezra minutely examined the three scrolls he found in the ,temple1 and in three passages noticed different readings1 of which he adopted the one found in two copies4 ,the other books of the ,bible are of less importance1 but the exclusion of error on the part of the copyist1 though it has not the same1 has yet a high degree of certainty1 inasmuch as they too formed part of the holy1 national literature4 ,if a mistake should be clearly proved1 it would not be contrary to our religious principles to admit it4 ,but we shall find1 after thorough study and examination of the impugned passages1 that there is in each case far greater doubt as to the correctness of any of the numerous emendations suggested than of the traditional and ,massoretic text before us4 ,it may frequently occur that some emendations appear strikingly correct1 and yet after due reflection they are found more doubtful than the original4 ,it is therefore our duty thoroughly to examine each proposed emendation1 and to hesitate long before admitting the incorrectness of the received text and the correctness of the emendation4 ,one of the means of preserving the text of the ,scriptures in its integrity has been the ,massorah4 ,the notes which are found in the margin of ,biblical books form part of the ,massorah4 ,at first the ,massorah was part of the oral tradition2 exceptional forms of letters1 punctuation1 and words were probably taught viv voce1 and learnt by heart1 especially by scribes1 readers1 and teachers4 ,where a confounding with other and similar forms was apprehended1 attention was called to the fact1 and by certain notes and rules it was guarded against4 ,the material for the ,massorah increased in the course of time1 in the same degree as1 with the multiplication of copies of the ,scriptures1 the number of misreadings and misinterpretations increased4 ,although these notes were arranged and written down at a late period1 they helped to preserve the ,biblical text in its integrity1 and it is therefore stated in the ,mishnah 7,aboth iii4 #ac73 8,massorah 7tradition7 is a fence to the ,law40 ,as to the name of the author of each book or section1 and the time and place of its composition1 we are guided by the headings where such are extant2 in the absence of these we are left to the resources of our own judgment or fancy4 ,there is no reason whatever to doubt the correctness of these headings1 as the religious and learned authorities of the time were trustworthy men1 who would not add a heading where none was handed down to them by tradition4 ,several books and many psalms are therefore left without a heading2 there was no sure tradition about them4 ,how far the heading of a book or section extends1 whether it was meant only for the beginning or for the whole of it1 is in some cases doubtful1 and must be decided by the nature and contents of the book4 ,for instance1 the second part of ,isaiah1 from chap4 xl4 to the end1 has no heading of its own2 it is therefore open to discussion whether the heading in the first verse of the first chapter describes only the first thirty-nine or all the sixty-six chapters of the book4 ,it is possible that ,psalms1 ascribed1 according to their heading1 to ,david1 consist of two or more parts1 of which one only was composed by ,david4 ,the names of the books do not necessarily imply a reference to the author4 ,the ,book of ,joshua1 e4g41 may have received its name from its contents1 the history of the ,israelites under ,joshua being contained in it4 ,the two books of ,samuel could not have been written by ,samuel1 not even the whole of the first book1 since the death of ,samuel is therein recorded2 but they owe their name to the fact that the first book commences with the history of ,samuel4 ,,the ,,books ,,of ,,the ,,bible1 ,the collection of books known by these names are or 8holy books0 or 8holy writings10 because the authors of these books were holy men their object is a holy one1 viz41 to train man to holiness1 and the contents of the books is holy1 free from all blemish and error4 ,the books vary greatly in character1 in style1 and in purpose1 but truthfulness is common to all of them4 ,whether they narrate events or proclaim ,god's decrees1 or instruct or edify their hearers1 what they say is true4 ,the name ,bible is derived from the ,greek 1 8book40 7pronounced tenach7 has no meaning in itself1 and is a word formed of the initials of 4 ,sometimes 7the initials of the ,chaldee 7 is used instead of 4 ,another name is 8text for reading10 as opposed to viv voce tradition4 ,a passage quoted from the ,bible is called or or 4 ,christians call the books of the ,hebrew ,bible the ,old ,testament as distinguished from the ,new ,testament4 #a4 ,,law4 ,the ,torah or ,law is divided into five books1 and is therefore called or ,pentateuch 7,fivefold or ,five-book74 ,the names of the five books are3 7#a7 ,genesis 7,creation72 7#b7 ,exodus 7departure1 scil41 of the ,israelites from ,egypt72 7#c7 ,leviticus 7on the laws concerning the ,levites or priests71 also called 8law of the priests20 7#d7 ,numbers2 7#e7 ,deuteronomy1 a ,greek term denoting 8second-law0 or 8repetition of the law10 a translation of the ,hebrew 4 ,these names are derived from the beginnings of the books4 ,the ,hebrew names are either the first word of the book1 as is the case in the first and the third books 7 and 71 or the first characteristic word1 as is the case in the other three books 7 the second word1 the fifth1 the second74 ,the ,english or ,greek names describe the subject-matter of the first section of the book4 ,this applies also to the rest of the ,biblical writings4 ,the contents of the five books are as follows3-- ,the first book 774--,it begins with the important lesson1 the basis of all that is taught in the whole ,bible3 that ,god is the ,creator of the whole universe4 ,then follows an account of the ,creation1 the history of the first man and the first woman1 their transition from the state of innocence and happiness to the state of sin and toil1 their descendants1 the beginnings of industry and civilisation1 the deterioration of mankind1 the flood1 ,noah1 and the succeeding generations to ,abraham2 the history of the patriarchs ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob1 or ,israel2 the immigration of ,jacob with his family into ,egypt2 and with the death of ,joseph1 the son of ,jacob1 the book concludes4 ,the book contains principally history1 but mention is made also of some religious institutions4 ,reference is thus made to the institution of marriage 7ii4 #bc-be72 ,sabbath 7ii4 #a-c72 the ,covenant of ,abraham or the commandment of circumcision 7xvii4 #a-ad72 the prohibition of eating flesh cut off from an animal while alive 7ix4 #d1 71 of murder 7ix4 #e-f71 and of eating 8the sinew that shrank0 7xxxii4 #cc1 74 ,the second book 774--,the history of the family of ,jacob1 the ,israelites1 is continued3 their sojourn in ,egypt1 the ,exodus1 the journey to ,mount ,sinai1 the ,revelation1 the erection of the ,tabernacle1 and the events in the camp of the ,israelites during their stay in the wilderness of ,sinai4 ,the ,divine precepts take a more prominent place in this book4 ,chief among these are the institution of the ,jewish ,calendar1 appointing the month of ,abib--,nisan--to be the first month 7xii4 #b72 the ,sacrifice of the ,passover and the ,feast of ,unleavened ,bread 7chap4 xii472 the ,sabbath 7xvi4 #bb-cj72 the ,decalogue 7chap4 xx4 #a-ab72 civil legislation 7xxi4 to xxiii472 the year of release 7xxiii4 #aj1 #aa72 and the or festivals of pilgrimage to the sanctuary of the ,lord2 viz41 ,passover1 ,pentecost1 and ,tabernacles 71 and xxiii4 #ad-ag74 ,the third book 77 contains the laws revealed during the stay of the ,israelites near ,mount ,sinai4 ,a few historical incidents are mentioned in illustration of the ,law4 ,leviticus contains the laws concerning the sacrifices 7i4 to vii472 the initiation of ,aaron and his sons as priests 7viii4 to x472 dietary laws 7xi472 laws about cleanness and uncleanness 7 7 in man and woman 7xii4 to xv472 the ,day of ,atonement 7xvi472 prohibition of blood 7xvii4 #aj-ad72 marriage laws 7xviii4 and xx4 #aj-bb72 laws concerning the holiness of man 7xix472 laws concerning the priests 7xxi41 xxii4 #af7 and sacrifices 7xxii4 #ag-cc72 the ,festivals of the ,lord 7xxiii472 the year of release and the year of jubilee1 and land-laws connected with these 7xxv472 laws concerning the transfer of property to the sanctuary and the priests4 ,the fourth book records the departure of the ,israelites from ,mount ,sinai1 their journeyings until they came to the east of the ,jordan in the plains of ,moab2 the chief incidents during these travels1 viz41 the consecration of the altar1 and the instalment of the ,levites as assistants to the priests in the performance of the ,divine ,service2 the first appointment of a council of seventy elders2 the punishment of ,miriam for slander2 the spies2 the rebellion of ,korah2 death of ,miriam2 ,moses and ,aaron's sin at ,meribah1 and their punishment2 death of ,aaron2 wars with ,sihon and ,og2 the blessings of ,bileam instead of his intended cursings2 the zeal and distinction of ,phineas2 war against ,midian2 the appointment of ,joshua as future leader of ,israel4 ,there is also in the book a list of all the stations where the ,israelites had encamped during their travels through the ,arabian desert 7chap4 xxxiii471 and a minute description of the boundaries of the land of ,canaan 7chap4 xxxiv474 ,the following are the principal laws mentioned in ,numbers3 the laws concerning ,nazirites2 concerning a woman suspected of faithlessness against her husband2 the second ,passover 7 7 for those who could not fulfil their duty on the #adth of ,nisan2 the law of fringes 772 the law of purification of persons who have become unclean through contact with the dead body of any person 7 chap4 xix472 the law of inheritance 7xxvii472 the sacrifices for the festivals 7xxviii41 xxix472 the laws of vows 7xxx472 laws concerning murder and cities of refuge 7xxxv474 ,the fifth book 77 contains speeches of ,moses which he addressed to the ,israelites during the last year of his life1 reminding them of their repeated disobedience to the ,divine command1 and their want of confidence in ,him1 and exhorting them to be faithful to ,god4 ,he frequently emphasises the truth that blessing and happiness can only be obtained through obedience1 trouble and curses being the certain result of sin and transgression4 ,chapter xxviii41 called 8exhortation0 or 8rebuke0 7see also ,lev4 xxvi471 is especially devoted to this principle4 ,in the song 7chap1 xxxii471 which all the people were to learn by heart1 ,moses rebukes his brethren for their ingratitude to ,god1 and foretells them that1 in the remote future1 similar conduct will be visited severely1 and that after a period of punishment ,god will show mercy to them1 and again restore them to a state of happiness and glory4 ,before his death he gives a special blessing to each tribe4 ,the book concludes with the death of ,moses1 the succession of ,joshua1 and the praise of ,moses as the greatest of all prophets4 ,many of the commandments are repeated in the course of the exhortations3 the ,decalogue1 the laws concerning the three agricultural and national festivals 7 71 and such other laws as ,moses considered necessary to impress on the heart of the ,israelites before he departed from among them4 ,the ,israelites being near ,jordan1 and about to take possession of the promised land1 their attention is called to such laws as would then come into practice1 e4g41 those which refer to the political and judicial arrangements of the country 7xvi4 to xviii472 and the solemn declaration of allegiance to the ,will of ,god 7xxvii474 ,the ,pentateuch is divided into verses 771 paragraphs 771 and into sections called or 8weekly portions40 ,the division into chapters is of comparatively modern origin4 #b4 ,,the ,,prophets are divided into two groups3 ,earlier and ,latter ,prophets 7 74 ,the ,earlier ,prophets do not contain prophecies in the usual meaning of the word4 ,they contain the history of ,israel from the accession of ,joshua to the leadership of ,israel1 to the capture of ,jerusalem by ,nebuchadnezzar1 king of ,babylon4 ,they are1 nevertheless1 called 8,prophets10 for two reasons3-- 7#a47 ,the history is written in a prophetic spirit1 with the view of illustrating the principle that obedience to the word of ,god was the cause of ,israel's prosperity and success1 disobedience the cause of trouble and misery4 7#b47 ,the ,earlier ,prophets include the history of ,deborah1 ,samuel1 ,nathan1 ,ahijah1 ,elijah1 ,elisha1 and a few anonymous prophets4 ,no collection of their speeches has been made or preserved in the ,scriptures1 and they are thus distinguished from the latter prophets1 whose prophecies have been collected and form the contents of the 8,latter ,prophets40 ,the following books belong to the ,earlier ,prophets3-- #a4 ,the ,book of ,joshua 771 containing the history of the conquest and division of the land of ,canaan by the ,israelites1 from their crossing the ,jordan to the death of ,joshua4 ,among the various incidents related in the book the following are noteworthy3--,the circumcision of those who had been born during the wandering of ,israel in the wilderness2 the celebration of the first ,passover in the ,holy ,land2 the appearance of 8the prince of the host of the ,lord0 7v4 #ad71 just before the war commenced1 in order to remind ,joshua that 8the place upon which he stood was holy20 #e the crossing of the ,jordan2 the taking of ,jericho2 the disastrous consequences of ,achan's sin1 as an illustration of the principle that the whole community is made responsible for the crime of the individual till the crime is discovered and punished2 the battle at ,gibeon1 famous through ,joshua's exclamation1 8,sun1 stand thou still upon ,gibeon2 and thou moon1 in the valley of ,ajalon60 7x4 #ab72 and the appointment of the cities of refuge4 #b4 ,the ,book of ,judges 77 contains episodes of the history of the ,israelites from the death of ,joshua to the days of the high-priest ,eli4 ,the name 8,judge0 is identical with that of chief magistrate1 or simply chief or leader4 ,the judges were persons chosen by ,god1 and inspired with an extraordinary spirit of courage and bravery1 to be the liberators of the country1 or part of the country1 from the tyranny of oppressors4 ,the virtues that were required in order to qualify them for this mission were patriotism and courage4 ,some of them may have continued in power after the restoration of peace and order1 but on the whole their mission as judges was fulfilled with the cessation of war4 ,they were not the religious teachers of the nation1 nor are they set up as examples of piety4 ,during the period of the judges the tribes of ,israel were not united 7song of ,deborah1 ,judges v4 #ae-ag74 ,there was no common government1 or if there was one1 it must have possessed little power and influence4 ,the people became degraded2 many worshipped idols and altogether ignored the ,divine commandments4 ,but the conscience of the nation was roused when a shocking crime was committed at ,gibeah in the tribe of ,benjamin1 and all ,israel united in demanding the punishment of the evil-doers 7chaps4 xix4 to xxi474 ,the book contains two beautiful poetical passages1 the song of ,deborah 7v47 and the parable of ,jotham 7ix474 #c4 ,the two books of ,samuel 7 7--also called the first and second books of ,kings--contain the history of ,israel during the time of the high-priest ,eli1 the prophet ,samuel1 and ,saul1 the first king of ,israel 7,book ,i472 and the reign of ,david 7,book ,,ii474 ,the following passages are noteworthy3-- ii4 #f-g3 8,the ,lord killeth and maketh alive2 ,he bringeth down to the grave and bringeth up4 ,the ,lord maketh poor and maketh rich2 ,he bringeth low and lifteth up40 xii4 #bb3 8,the ,lord will not forsake ,his people1 for ,his great name's sake2 because it hath pleased the ,lord to make you ,his people40 xv4 #bb-bc3 8,hath the ,lord as great delight in burnt offerings and sacrifices as in obeying the voice of the ,lord8 ,behold1 to obey is better than sacrifice1 and to hearken than the fat of rams4 ,for rebellion is as the sin of witchcraft1 and stubbornness is as iniquity and idolatry2 because thou hast rejected the word of the ,lord1 ,he hath also rejected thee from being king40 xvi4 #g3 8,the ,lord seeth not as man seeth2 for man looketh on the outward appearance1 but the ,lord looketh on the heart40 xxiv4 #ad3 8,wickedness proceedeth from the wicked40 ,,ii41 xxiv4 #ad3 8,i am in a great strait2 let us fall now into the hand of the ,lord2 for ,his mercies are great3 and let me not fall into the hand of man40 ,the following poetical passages of the book should also be marked3-- ,the prayer of ,hannah 7ii4 #a-aj72 ,david's lament over ,saul's death 7,,ii41 i4 #ah-bg72 ,parable of the prophet ,nathan 7xii4 #a-f72 ,song of thanksgiving by ,david 7xxii472 ,david's faith in ,god's justice 7xxiii4 #a-g74 #d4 ,the first and the second books of ,kings 7 71 also called the third and fourth books of ,kings1 contain the history of ,israel from the death of ,david to the ,babylonian exile4 ,the first book describes the last days of ,king ,david1 the reign of ,solomon1 the division of the country into two kingdoms1 ,judah and ,israel1 the history of the kingdom of ,judah from ,rehoboam to ,jehoshaphat1 and the history of the kingdom of ,israel from ,jeroboam to ,ahab4 ,the second book continues the history of the kingdom of ,israel from ,ahab to the conquest of ,samaria by ,shalmanessar1 king of ,assyria1 and that of the kingdom of ,judah from ,abijam1 son of ,jehoshaphat1 to the conquest of ,jerusalem by ,nebuchadnezzar1 king of ,babylon4 ,i41 ii4 #b3 8,i go the way of all the earth2 be thou strong therefore1 and show thyself a man40 xviii4 #ba3 8,how long halt ye between two opinions8 ,if the ,lord be ,god4 follow ,him2 but if ,baal1 then follow him40 ,,ii41 xiv4 #i3 8,the thistle that was in ,lebanon sent to the cedar that was in ,lebanon1 saying1 ,give thy daughter to my son to wife3 and there passed by a wild beast that was in ,lebanon and trod down the thistle40 #f ,note1 besides1 prayer of ,solomon 7,i41 viii4 #ab-fa7 and message of ,isaiah to ,king ,hezekiah 7,,ii41 xix4 #ba-ca74 ,the ,latter ,prophets1 contain the following books3-- ,i4 ,isaiah 774--,isaiah prophesied chiefly during the ,assyrian invasions in ,palestine in the reign of ,uzziah1 ,jotham1 ,ahaz1 and ,hezekiah1 kings of ,judah4 ,the book is divided into two main sections1 separated from each other by the narrative of ,sennacherib's invasion and defeat1 ,hezekiah's illness and recovery1 and the congratulatory message of the ,babylonian king to ,hezekiah 7chaps1 xxxvi4 to xxxix474 ,the first section is divided into five parts with separate headings3-- 7#a47 ,chap4 i4--,this prophecy was probably repeated by ,isaiah many times from the beginning to the end of his prophetic mission4 ,the ,israelites in ,jerusalem and ,judah are rebuked for their rebellion against ,god1 which has brought a series of misfortunes upon the nation2 ,god does not accept their sacrifices unless they return to ,him and improve their conduct4 ,they will be punished1 but the punishment is only the means for their purification4 ,when this effect is obtained their redemption will follow4 7#b47 ,chaps4 ii4 to v4--,the fulfilment of the mission of the ,israelites--the ,messianic period--is depicted1 when the ,israelites will be so perfect in the knowledge and the worship of ,god1 that all nations will seek enlightenment and guidance in the house of the ,god of ,jacob4 ,the prophet shows his brethren how they receded from that aim1 and1 estranging themselves from the ,almighty1 trusted in things that are powerless4 ,but all these things1 grand and high as they may appear1 will prove worthless1 and the glory of ,god will in the end be recognised4 ,the prophet illustrates the conduct of the ,israelites and their punishment in the beautiful parable of the vineyard 7v4 #a-g74 ,as special sins are named3 greediness1 lust1 mockery1 and injustice4 ,the punishment threatened is the invasion of a cruel conqueror4 7#c47 ,chap4 vi4--,on the occasion of the death of ,king ,uzziah1 who had presumed to approach ,god and to offer incense in the ,holy of ,holies1 contrary to the ,law1 and was punished with leprosy1 ,isaiah had a vision in which he despairingly contrasted the infinite holiness of the ,almighty with his own sinfulness1 living as he did among people of unclean lips4 ,he is reassured1 and shown that his sin is removed when his words are inflamed by the holy fire taken from the altar of ,god4 ,he must1 nevertheless1 not expect a speedy effect from his words to the people2 they will continue in disobedience and bring upon themselves continued punishments1 but ultimately1 when the leaves have fallen off1 the stem will remain--a seed of holiness4 7#d47 vii4 to xii4--,the invasion of ,judah by ,pekah1 king of ,israel1 and ,rezin1 king of ,aram1 brings to light the want of faith in ,god and ,his word on the part of ,ahaz1 king of ,judah4 ,isaiah1 taking with him his son ,sh'ar-yashub 78,a-remnant-will-return071 a reminder of punishment and of redemption1 rebukes ,ahaz1 and gives him a sign 773 8,the young woman is with child1 and will bear a son1 and call his name ,immanuel0 7 8,god-is-with-us074 8,cream and honey shall he eat1 when he will know to reject the evil and to choose the good40 ,by this sign ,ahaz is informed 7#a7 that at the time of the birth of the child ,judah will be freed from the armies of the two kings1 and the name ,immanuel was to be the expression of thanks for the delivery2 7#b7 another more serious invasion of the ,assyrians will come and devastate the country2 and after their departure the ,israelites will not have any corn or bread2 8cream and honey will every one eat that is left in the midst of the land40 ,the invasion of ,syria and ,palestine by the ,assyrians is also foretold in the very name of ,isaiah's own son1 ,maher-shalal-'hash-baz 78,the spoiler hastens to be quick with the spoil074 ,in spite of such dark prospect the prophet sets forth the testimony and the lesson 71 73 8,hope in the ,lord1 though ,he hides ,his face from the house of ,jacob4 ,for often have people in affliction seen great light40 8,a child #g has been born unto us1 called ,the ,almighty1 the ,eternal1 the ,prince of ,peace1 devises wonders1 for the purpose of increasing the dominion and establishing endless peace upon the throne of ,david and his kingdom1 to order it and support it by judgment and righteousness from now even for ever0 7ix4 #e1 #f74 ,the ,assyrian invasion is a punishment for the sins of the ,israelites1 and its success will continue so long as the ,israelites refuse to repent and to return to ,god4 ,this1 however1 will ultimately come to pass1 and ,ashur will then receive the penalty for his insolence and presumptuousness4 ,israel will in the end be guided by a wise and just ruler1 who will spring forth from the roots of ,jesse4 ,the ,messianic times will then begin1 and amidst universal peace all mankind will join in the praises of ,god4 7#e47 xiii4 to xxxv4--,this group of prophecies was probably delivered during the ,assyrian invasion4 ,isaiah takes a survey of the neighbouring states1 their conduct in times of success1 and their well-deserved punishment in the immediate or the remote future4 ,the prophecies are directed against ,babylon1 ,plesheth1 ,moab1 ,damascus1 ,egypt1 ,ashdod1 ,babylon1 ,dumah1 ,arab1 the ,assyrian ,shebnah1 ,tyre1 ,edom1 and ,ephraim4 ,great confusion will ensue1 amid which ,judah will suffer much1 but he will ultimately be delivered through the ,divine intervention1 and will thus be strengthened in his faith in ,god4 ,isaiah rebukes ,judah for seeking help from ,egypt against ,assyria1 because such an act indicates want of faith in ,god4 ,it is only the ,almighty that can help in times of distress4 7#f47 xxxvi4 to xxxix4--,the historical chapters which intervene between the two large prophetical sections of the book conclude with an account of ,hezekiah's conduct towards the ,babylonian ambassadors1 and the rebuke he received of ,isaiah1 who announced to the king that the ,babylonians would one day be conquerors of ,jerusalem4 7#g47 xl4 to xlviii4--,the prediction of the ,babylonian exile is followed by comforting messages and by the good tidings of the promised ,restoration4 ,contrasting the omnipotence of ,god with the helplessness of earthly powers and idols1 the prophet calls for absolute faith in ,god1 who has already appointed the conqueror of ,babylon and the liberator of the exiled ,jews4 7#h47 xlviii4 to liv4--,it is not only deliverance from exile that the ,jews have to hope for1 but far greater things4 ,the people of the ,lord are to become glorious1 and to be the source of salvation to all mankind4 ,they will suffer at the hand of the nations1 but the latter will ultimately see what wrong they have done to ,israel4 ,notwithstanding all apparent obstacles1 this prophecy will be fulfilled4 7#i47 lv4 to lx4--,the prophet exhorts the people to follow the word of ,god1 to abandon idolatry1 and to be sincere in their prayer and repentance2 only then might they hope for salvation4 ,god has punished ,israel1 but the redeemer will come unto ,zion4 7#aj47 lxi4 to lxvi4--,encouragement is given especially to the 8the meek10 8the broken-hearted20 the day of vengeance is announced against the haughty and sinners4 ,the prophet prays to ,god1 and ,god answers him with the promise of the ultimate triumph of the and 8the meek and the ,god-fearing40 #b4 ,jeremiah 774--,jeremiah prophesied in the thirteenth year of ,josiah1 and continued to prophesy during his reign and that of his successors1 and after the fall of ,jerusalem1 but it is not certain how long he lived after the destruction of the ,temple1 and where he died4 ,he was the son of ,hilkiah1 of the priests in ,anathoth1 in the tribe of ,benjamin4 ,he was exposed to cruel persecutions1 but these did not deter him from delivering the ,divine message with which he was entrusted to the king and to the people4 ,the prophecies of ,jeremiah were written down by ,baruch1 at ,jeremiah's dictation 7chap4 xxxvi471 but the book was seized by ,king ,jehoiakim1 and burnt by him4 ,the ,book of ,jeremiah1 in our ,bible1 is probably the copy made later on by ,baruch1 and mentioned in ,jer4 xxxvi4 #cb4 ,the book is composed of the following parts3-- 7#a47 ,chap4 i4--,the appointment of ,jeremiah as prophet 8over the nations and the kingdoms1 to pluck up and to break down1 and to destroy and to overthrow1 to build and to plant0 7ver4 #aj74 7#b47 ,chaps1 ii4 to vi4--,jeremiah addresses the inhabitants of ,jerusalem4 8,israel is a holy portion1 belonging to the ,lord2 whosoever eats of it is guilty1 and will be punished40 ,israel ought therefore to be faithful to ,god4 ,this they are not1 in spite of the benefits bestowed on them2 they are exhorted to repentance3 in vain4 ,they are therefore threatened with a hostile invasion from the north4 7#c47 ,chaps1 vii4 to x4--,the prophet addresses the people in the gate of the ,temple1 exhorting them to true repentance4 ,without obedience to ,god the ,temple and sacrificial service have no value4 ,the foundation of the ,law is1 8,you shall be to me a people1 and walk in the way which ,i command you40 ,you have not obeyed1 and punishment is determined upon4 ,jeremiah1 foreseeing the desolation of the country and the ruin of the nation1 laments and weeps1 but he is sure that ,god is 8one who doth loving-kindness1 judgment1 and righteousness10 and that those nations which indulged in cruelties against the ,israelites when under ,divine punishment will themselves not escape retribution4 7#d47 xi4 to xiii4--8,the covenant was3 ,hear my voice1 and do what ,i command you3 ye shall be my people1 and ,i will be your ,god40 ,you have broken this covenant and worshipped idols2 evil must come upon you4 ,this ,jeremiah proclaimed in 8the cities of ,judah and the streets of ,jerusalem10 and probably also in ,anathoth2 whereupon he was threatened with death4 ,such conduct gave occasion to further prophecies concerning the wickedness of the people and their impending punishment4 ,the fact that ,israel has been chosen to be the people of the ,lord and has shown himself unworthy of the distinction1 is symbolised by a girdle1 forming at first an ornament to man1 but which when rotten by moisture in the crevices of rocks1 is no longer of any use4 7#e47 ,chaps1 xiv4 to xvii4--,drought visits ,judah2 ,jeremiah prays to ,god for relief from famine4 ,god rejects his petition4 ,the prophet is disappointed1 but he is assured that ,god will protect him from the attacks of the people1 if he tries 8to bring forth a precious thing from the vile40 ,he tries1 but in vain4 7#f47 xvii4 #ai-bg4--;,exhortation to keep the ,sabbath1 to abstain from all manner of work1 and from carrying burdens out of or into the town4 7#g47 xviii4--,god changes ,his decrees according to the deeds of man1 as a potter transforms the clay from one vessel to another4 ,jeremiah is again insulted and threatened1 and he prays to ,god against his persecutors4 7#h47 xix4 and xx4--,in the valley of ,hinnom1 ,jeremiah denounces the idolatry of ,israel1 and as a symbol of the impending ruin of ,israel1 he breaks a pot of earthenware4 ,returning from the valley1 he announces the coming evil in the court of the ,temple in the presence of the people2 he is taken into prison by ,pashchur1 the chief of the ,temple1 for one day4 ,when released he repeats the same prophecy1 but feels that he has given offence1 and in utter despair curses the day of his birth4 7#i47 ,chaps1 xxi4 to xxiv4--,nebuchadnezzar attacked ,judah1 and ,zedekiah 7later king of ,judah7 sent to ,jeremiah asking him to pray for the safety of the people4 ,but ,jeremiah prophesied defeat and disgrace on account of their iniquity4 ,he went even by the command of ,god to the royal palace1 and repeated there the ,divine decree against the royal family1 ,shallum 7 ,joahaz71 ,jojakim1 and ,coniah 7 ,jeboiachin74 ,there will come1 however1 one day a righteous offspring of ,david1 who will rule justly and prosperously2 ,he shall be called 8,the ,lord is our salvation40 ,for the present it would be better to submit to the ,babylonian rule4 ,they are false prophets who flatter and speak in the name of ,god of victories over the ,babylonians4 ,the false prophets will all be punished--those who proclaim as their own prophecy the very words they heard from true prophets1 those who in different words reproduce messages of the true prophets as their own1 and those who invent falsehood4 ,the advisability of submitting to the ,babylonian power is also illustrated by the vision of two baskets of figs2 good figs representing those who will submit1 and bad figs those who prefer war with the ,babylonians4 7#aj47 xxv4 to xxvii4--,jeremiah continues1 during the reign of ,jehoiakim1 his prophecies in favour of a peaceful submission to the ,babylonians1 with the ,divine promise of a redemption from the exile and the restoration to their own country and dominion4 7#aa47 xxviii4--,the same prophecy is continued during the reign of ,zedekiah4 ,he was opposed by the false prophet ,hananiah1 to whom ,jeremiah foretold that he would be punished and die the same year2 this came also to pass4 7#ab47 xxix4 to xxxi4--,to the ,jews already in ,babylon ,jeremiah sends a letter of consolation and encourages them in their hopes for the redemption from exile4 ,of the same tenor were the messages spoken by ,jeremiah to all ,jews4 ,in days to come a new covenant will be instituted2 new in so far as it will not be broken again1 the ,law remaining permanently written on their heart1 8,i shall be their ,god1 and they shall be my nation40 7#ac47 xxxii4 and xxxiii4--,jeremiah1 kept in prison1 bought property from his uncle ,hanamel1 wrote and signed the document of transfer1 and handed it to ,baruch4 ,by this he expressed his conviction that the ,jews would return from exile and take possession of their land4 ,in addition to this he sent forth from the prison a ,messianic prophecy1 describing the future greatness of the seed of ,david1 and the restoration of the priests and ,levites to the sacrificial service4 7#ad47 xxxiv4 and xxxv4--,jeremiah exhorts the people to keep 8the year of release10 and held up the family of the ,rechabites as patterns of piety1 who could not be induced to break their vow of abstinence1 though it was voluntarily undertaken4 7#ae47 xxxvi4 to xlv4--,jeremiah continues to prophesy1 advising1 though fruitlessly1 submission to the ,babylonian king4 ,zedekiah made war against ,nebuchadnezzar1 was defeated1 and ,jerusalem was taken by the ,babylonians4 ,when some ,jews wanted to emigrate to ,egypt1 ,jeremiah warned them in the name of ,god not to do so4 ,he was not listened to2 he was even forced to go with them2 but he prophesied against them1 and foretold their ruin4 ,baruch1 to whom ,jeremiah dictated his prophecies1 was discontented at being driven from place to place2 ,jeremiah appeased and encouraged him4 7#af47 xlvi4 to lii4--,jeremiah prophesies against ,egypt1 the ,philistines1 ,moab1 ,ammon1 ,edom1 ,damascus1 ,kedar1 ,elam1 and ,babylon4 ,the book concludes with an account of the fall of ,jerusalem1 similar to that given at the end of the second book of ,kings4 #c4 ,,ezekiel 77--,ezekiel prophesied in exile4 7#a47 ,chap4 i4 to vii4--,in the fifth year of the exile of ,joiachin1 ,ezekiel1 in the vision of the chariot1 representing the rule of ,god over the universe1 is appointed a ,divine messenger1 to warn the people and tell them of the impending danger1 that they might not be ignorant of the fate awaiting them1 whether they listened or forbore to listen4 ,the message with which he is inspired is represented as a scroll which he swallows4 ,the threatened danger he indicates by symbolic acts1 followed by their explanation4 ,the siege of ,jerusalem is illustrated by the prophet besieging a brick representing ,jerusalem1 and the ruin of the nation by cutting and scattering the hair of his head and beard4 7#b47 viii4 to xi4--,in the sixth year1 on the sixth day of the fifth month1 in the presence of the elders of ,judah1 ,ezekiel is carried in a prophetic vision to ,jerusalem1 is shown there the sins committed by the ,israelites in the very ,temple1 and the consequent departure of the ,divine ,presence from the ,temple4 ,israel will suffer for his sins1 but will at last repent and improve4 ,god promises1 8,i will give them one heart1 and ,i will put a new spirit within you2 and ,i will take the stony heart out of their flesh1 and will give them a heart of flesh2 that they may walk in my statutes1 and keep mine ordinances1 and do them2 and they shall be my people1 and ,i will be their ,god0 7xi4 #ai1 #bj74 7#c47 xii4 and xiii4--,the prophet indicates the coming captivity by the symbolic act of preparing the things necessary for going into exile4 ,the false prophets and prophetesses1 who tell the people to have no dread of any coming exile1 will be disappointed and punished4 ,the falsehood of the proverb1 8,in the length of time every vision faileth10 will then be evident4 7#d47 xiv4 to xix4--,ezekiel describes the sinfulness of ,israel1 and exhorts them to return to ,god1 or else the threatened calamity will overcome them4 ,he illustrates the approaching calamity by the figure of a cedar-tree and the eagle4 ,although the fathers have sinned1 if the sons abstain from sinning they may prevent the catastrophe2 for the proverb1 8,the fathers have eaten the sour grapes1 and the teeth of the children are set on edge10 will prove untrue4 ,if they do not improve1 the catastrophe must take place which the prophet depicts in the parables of the lioness caught and of the vine consumed by fire4 7#e47 xx4--,in the seventh year1 the ,elders of ,israel came to ,ezekiel 8to inquire of the ,lord10 4 ,ezekiel describes the wickedness of ,israel1 and the punishment they deserved4 7#f47 xxi4 to xxiii4--,comparing ,jerusalem and ,samaria to two sisters1 ,oholibah and ,oholah1 he complains that the former1 having witnessed the punishment of the latter1 has not profited by it4 7#g47 xxiv4--,on the tenth day of the tenth month in the ninth year ,ezekiel prophesies the siege and fall of ,jerusalem on the very day on which the siege commenced4 ,the greatness of the calamity1 to express which the usual outward signs of grief would be inadequate1 is indicated by the ,divine command that the prophet on the death of his wife should exhibit no signs of mourning4 7#h47 xxv4 to xxxii4--,like ,isaiah and ,jeremiah1 he foretells the fate of the neighbouring nations1 ,ammonites1 ,moabites1 ,edomites1 ,philistines1 ,tyrians1 and ,egyptians4 ,the last-named are promised recovery after forty years' desolation of their country4 7#i47 xxxiii4 and xxxiv4--,the prophet describes the duties and responsibilities of watchmen and shepherds1 and blames those of his own time as not fulfilling their duties3 8,but ,i will save my flock1 and they shall no more be a prey2 and ,i will judge between cattle and cattle4 ,and ,i will set up one shepherd over them1 and he shall feed them1 even my servant ,david3 he shall feed them1 and he shall be their shepherd4 ,and ,i the ,lord will be their ,god1 and my servant ,david prince among them0 7xxxiv4 #bb-bd74 7#aj47 xxxv4--,he prophesies against ,seir1 for their enmity against ,israel4 7#aa47 xxxvi4 and xxxvii4--,ezekiel foretells the restoration of ,israel in the parable of the dry bones4 ,the union of ,israel and ,judah is symbolically shown by the union of two staves4 7#ab47 xxxviii4 and xxxix4--,gog1 the prince of ,rosh1 ,meshech1 and ,tubal1 will make the last efforts for the destruction of ,israel4 ,all his preparations will be in vain4 ,he and his army will fall in the land of ,israel4 ,and the ,divine promise is given3 8,they shall know that ,i am the ,lord their ,god1 in that ,i caused them to go into captivity among the nations1 and have gathered them into their own land1 and ,i will leave none of them any more there3 neither will ,i hide my face any more from them2 for ,i have poured out my spirit upon the house of ,israel1 saith the ,lord ,god0 7xxxix4 #bh1 #bi74 7#ac47 xl4 to xlviii4--,in the fourteenth year after the fall of ,jerusalem1 in the beginning of the year1 on the tenth day of the month1 ,ezekiel is carried in a vision to the land of ,israel1 and is shown there the rebuilding of the future ,temple1 and the division of the land among the twelve tribes1 the ,levites and the priests4 #d4 ,,the ,,twelve ,,minor ,,prophets1 -- 7#a47 ,hosea 774--,hosea1 a contemporary of ,isaiah1 prophesied about the sinfulness of the northern kingdom of the ten tribes1 and turns his attention to ,judah only in so far as ,judah participated in the sins of ,israel1 and their consequences4 7a47 ,chaps1 i4 to iii4--,in an allegory of a faithless woman and her three children the sin of the ten tribes is represented1 who faithlessly turned away from the worship of ,god in ,jerusalem4 ,the consequent three stages of punishment are represented by the names of the three children3 ,jezreel1 referring to the catastrophe of the house of ,ahab1 ending in the death of ,jezebel in ,jezreel2 ,lo-ruhama 78,not pitied071 indicating the fall of the house of ,jehu1 from which the mercy of ,god was withdrawn after it had been shown in the successes of ,king ,jeroboam ,,ii42 and the third1 ,lo-ami 78,not-my-people071 predicting the final dissolution of the kingdom4 ,but a time of mercy and ,divine protection is foretold by the prophet when he said in the name of ,god1 8,i will betroth thee unto me for ever2 and ,i will betroth thee unto me in righteousness and judgment and in loving-kindness and in mercy2 and ,i will betroth thee unto me in faithfulness1 and thou shalt know the ,lord2 and ,i will sow them unto me in the land1 and ,i will show mercy to ,lo-ruhama2 and ,i will say to ,lo-ami1 ,thou art my people2 and he shall say1 ,my ,god0 7ii4 #ba1 #bb1 #be74 ,this happy time1 however1 will only come after a period of trial1 represented in the allegory by the period of trial of a faithless woman before the husband has again full confidence in her4 8,for many days shall the children of ,israel dwell without king1 without prince1 without sacrifice1 without a statue1 and without ephod and teraphim4 ,after that the children of ,israel will return and seek the ,lord their ,god1 and ,david their king2 and they will anxiously hasten to the ,lord and to ,his goodness in latter days0 7iii4 #d1 #e74 7b47 iv4 to viii4--,hosea rebukes ,ephraim for their sinfulness and obstinacy4 ,when an attempt is made at repentance it is not made in earnest1 and is soon abandoned4 ,the sins of ,ephraim find imitation in ,judah1 and therefore the punishment of ,ephraim will also affect ,judah4 7c47 ix4 to xiv4--,the prophet blames ,israel for seeking help in their distress in ,egypt or ,assyria4 ,he censures their conduct1 and contrasts it with the kindness of ,god in the course of the history of ,israel since the time of the patriarchs4 ,samaria must fall1 but ,israel need but earnestly return to ,god1 and 8he will be like dew to ,israel1 who will blossom like the lily1 and extend his roots like the cedars of ,lebanon0 7xiv4 #f72 for 8straight are the ways of the ,lord3 whilst the righteous walk by them1 transgressors stumble by them0 7,ibid4 #aj74 7#b47 ,joel 774--,joel is a contemporary of ,isaiah4 ,locusts have devastated the fields in ,judah4 ,joel exhorts the people to repentance and prayer4 ,his exhortation is acted upon1 and relief is promised4 ,at the same time the punishment of the enemies of ,israel in the valley of ,jehoshaphat is announced4 8,the day of the ,lord1 great and wonderful10 will be indicated by extraordinary phenomena in heaven and on earth1 so clear that all will understand their significance and foresee the coming judgment4 7#c47 ,amos 77--,amos1 a contemporary of the former1 prophesied during the reign of ,uzziah1 king of ,judah1 and ,jeroboam1 king of ,israel4 ,amos first mentions in short paragraphs the sinful conduct of the neighbouring states1 ,damascus1 ,gaza1 ,tyre1 ,edom1 ,ammon1 ,moab1 and ,judah1 and the punishment decreed against them1 introducing each paragraph with the words1 8,for three sins of 444 7scil41 will ,i take back the decree of punishment71 but for the fourth1 ,i will not take it back40 ,he then dwells on the sins of ,israel1 laying special stress on the luxuries of the rich1 obtained through oppression of the poor1 and tells them that1 though ,god has frequently pardoned1 ,he will pardon no more4 ,amaziah1 a priest of ,beth-el1 warns ,amos1 and bids him leave the country1 but the prophet1 nevertheless1 continues to proclaim the coming judgment of ,god1 viz41 the exile of ,israel1 adding1 however1 the comforting prophecy that the time will come when ,israel shall be restored to his own land and enjoy lasting happiness4 7#d47 ,obadiah 774--,obadiah prophesies against the ,edomites1 and announces the ,divine decree against them for their cruel treatment of ,judah in times of distress4 7#e47 ,jonah 774--,jonah1 son of ,amittai1 prophesied success to ,king ,jeroboam ,,ii4 7#b ,kings xiv4 #be74 ,he was sent to threaten the inhabitants of ,nineveh with the destruction of their city in forty days4 ,instead of going to ,nineveh he set out in a boat for ,tarshish2 during a storm he was thrown overboard1 swallowed by a fish1 and again brought to the shore4 ,he then carried out the ,divine mission1 the result of which was that the ,ninevites repented of their evil deeds and obtained a respite4 ,jonah1 disappointed that the threat of which he was the bearer was not fulfilled1 was rebuked by ,god1 and taught by his own grief at the destruction of a plant 8that had come up in a night0 how wrong it was to wish that ,god should not show mercy upon the inhabitants of ,nineveh1 and to neglect anything that could lead to their repentance and consequent salvation4 7#f47 ,micah 774--,micah of ,moresha was likewise a contemporary of ,isaiah4 ,he prophesied in ,judah4 #a4 7i4-iii47 ,he raises his voice especially against the princes1 magistrates1 and false prophets1 who unite in oppressing and ruining the people4 ,when ,micah tells them their sins and the coming punishment1 they say to him1 8,do not preach2 they do not preach for such things2 they do not offend0 7ii4 #f74 ,but the prophet of the ,lord is not deterred from his mission1 but continues to denounce their wickedness3 8,her chiefs judge for bribery1 and her priests teach for payment1 and her prophets decide for silver2 yet will they lean upon the ,lord1 and say1 ,is not the ,lord in our midst8 no evil shall come upon us4 ,therefore shall ,zion be plowed into a field1 and ,jerusalem shall become heaps1 and the mountain of the ,temple as the high places of a forest0 7iii4 #aa1 #ab74 #b4 7iv4-v47 ,like ,isaiah1 he depicts the ,messianic period1 in which the house of ,jacob will be an example of true faith in ,god to all nations2 in which ,israel will be restored to his land1 under the rule of a descendant of ,david4 ,but a period of trials and troubles must precede those happy days1 in order to punish ,israel1 and to purify and prepare him for his future greatness4 #c4 7vi4-vii47 ,the same principles are taught in the next part 7vi4 and vii47 in the form of a controversy 7 7 between the ,lord and ,his people4 ,the latter are reminded of the benefits ,god has bestowed on them2 and when they ask how they are expected to show their gratitude1 the prophet says1 8,o man1 ,he has told thee what is good2 and what does the ,lord require of thee but to do justice1 love kindness1 and to walk humbly with thy ,god80 7vi4 #h74 7#g47 ,nahum 774--,the fall of ,nineveh is predicted4 ,the power of the mighty ,assyrian ,empire1 hitherto a terror to ,judah and other kingdoms1 will come to an end2 no remedy can save her any more4 7#h47 ,habakkuk 774--,habakkuk prophesied at the time when the ,casdim or ,chaldeans were about to occupy the place of the ,assyrians as conquerors of ,syria1 ,palestine1 and ,egypt1 and to become the rod in the hand of ,god for the punishment of ,israel4 ,habakkuk1 on receiving the mission to announce the ,casdim as the executors of the ,divine decree1 is at a loss to understand why these wicked and cruel people should be chosen to chastise those who are far less wicked2 why the evil-doer should swallow him who is more righteous4 ,the answer he receives is1 8,but the just shall live by his faith40 ,the evil-doer will in due time receive his full punishment4 ,habakkuk then gives expression to his implicit faith in the justice of ,god1 in a hymn which is superscribed1 8,prayer 77 of the prophet ,habakkuk on account of errors20 for in it he rectifies1 as it were1 his previous groundless doubt4 7#i47 ,zephaniah 774--,he prophesied in the days of ,king ,josiah4 ,he proclaims the approach of the great day of the ,lord1 on which all those who turned away from ,him will receive their punishment1 all the rich and powerful who say the ,lord does neither good nor evil4 ,he appeals to the humble in the land 7 7 to seek the ,lord in prayer1 in order to be saved on 8the day of the anger of the ,lord40 ,for the ,philistines1 the ,phnicians1 ,moab1 ,ammon1 and ,assyria will be punished1 nor will ,jerusalem escape free4 8,i will then turn10 he says in the name of ,god1 8a pure language to the nations1 that all of them will call by the name of ,god1 and serve ,him with one accord0 7iii4 #i74 8,in that day shalt thou not be ashamed for all thy doings wherein thou hast transgressed against me2 for then ,i will take away out of the midst of thee them that rejoice in thy pride1 and thou shalt no more be haughty on my holy mountain4 ,and ,i will leave in thy midst a poor and humble people1 and they shall trust in the name of the ,lord4 ,the remnant of ,israel shall not do iniquity1 and they shall not speak falsehood1 and a tongue of deceit shall not be found in their mouth0 7iii4 #i1 #aa-ac74 7#aj47 ,haggai 77--,the ,israelites1 who by the command of ,cyrus had discontinued the rebuilding of the ,temple after the foundation had been laid by his permission1 were exhorted by ,haggai1 in the second year of the reign of ,darius1 to resume the work4 ,guided by ,zerubbabel and ,joshua1 son of ,jehozadak1 they obeyed1 and the prophet describes to them the blessing which they will henceforth enjoy4 7#aa47 ,zechariah 773-- #a4 7i4 to vii47 ,zechariah1 a contemporary of ,haggai1 exhorts the ,israelites to listen to the words of the prophets1 seeing that the words of former prophets have been fulfilled4 ,the ,divine scheme for the restoration of ,israel and the rebuilding of the ,temple in spite of all obstacles1 is shown to the prophet in various visions4 ,in one vision ,joshua is appointed high-priest1 notwithstanding the aspersions of his adversary 771 and ,zerubbabel or ,zemach1 the political chief of the community4 ,joshua is exhorted 8to walk in the ways of the ,lord1 to keep the charge entrusted to him1 and to guard the ,house of ,god and ,his courts20 and ,zerubbabel is reminded that success is not obtained 8by might and strength1 but by the spirit of the ,lord40 8,thus the one--,zemach by name--shall sit on his throne and be ruler1 and the other--,joshua--shall sit on his throne and be priest1 and a counsel of peace shall be between the two0 7vi4 #ac74 #b4 ,chap4 viii4--,the prophet is asked whether the day of mourning in the fifth month is to be continued4 ,the prophetic answer is as follows3 ,the reason for the mourning was1 that your fathers did not listen to the word of ,god1 and were punished for their disobedience4 ,now1 as the time of punishment is over1 it is for you to prevent a recurrence of these sad experiences4 ,what you have to do is this3 ,speak the truth one to another2 truth and judgment of peace judge in your gates4 ,let no one plan in his heart the ruin of his neighbour1 and do not love to swear falsely4 ,let the fasts of the fourth1 fifth1 seventh1 and tenth months be to the house of ,judah for rejoicing1 joy1 and good seasons2 love truth and peace 7viii4 #af1 #ag1 #ai74 ,at the same time the promise is given that the time will come when nations will seek the ,lord in ,jerusalem1 and say to the ,jews1 8,we will go with you1 for ,god is with you0 7viii4 #bc74 #c4 7ix4-xi47 ,the prophet encourages ,zion to rejoice in her future mission2 her enemies round about will be brought to silence1 and her king1 meek and humble1 8poor and riding on an ass10 8will speak peace to the nations1 and his rule will extend from sea to sea1 and from the river to the ends of the earth0 7ix4 #i1 #aj74 ,judah and ,ephraim will unite1 and both will enjoy the ,divine protection4 ,if this has not yet taken place1 it is the fault of the 8bad shepherds10 i4e41 the bad leaders of the people4 #d4 7xii4-xiv47 ,the prophet foretells troubles which will come upon ,jerusalem when the nations will make the last effort to take that city4 ,they will be defeated1 and ,judah will be filled on that occasion with 8a spirit of grace0 7 71 and will pray to ,god for the safety of his enemy2 the very ,jews1 8whom the enemy desired to pierce10 will pray for him1 and mourn for his death as a father mourneth for the loss of his only child4 ,judah will then be free from false prophets and bad shepherds4 ,god will make ,himself known to all3 8,and the ,lord will be a ,king over the whole earth2 on that day will the ,lord be ,one and ,his name ,one0 7xiv4 #i74 ,all will come to ,jerusalem 8to worship the ,king1 the ,lord ,zebaoth1 and to celebrate the feast of ,succoth0 7,ibid4 #af71 expressing thereby their conviction that ,god alone is able to afford protection and blessing4 7#ab47 ,malachi 774--,malachi1 the last of the prophets1 exhorts the priests to true reverence of the sanctuary1 and to conscientious fulfilment of their duties4 ,the distinction of the priest was based on the distinction of his conduct3 8,the law of truth was in his mouth1 and iniquity was not found on his lips2 in peace and uprightness he walked with me1 and many turned he back from iniquity4 ,for the lips of the priest shall keep knowledge1 and instruction shall they seek of his mouth1 for he is a messenger of the ,lord ,zebaoth0 7ii4 #f1 #g74 ,judah is then rebuked for his faithlessness4 ,both1 the ,levites 7including the priests7 and ,judah1 will pass through a process of refining2 the wicked will be removed1 whilst for 8those who fear the name of ,god0 the sun of salvation will shine4 ,those who desire to obtain a place among these latter must 8remember the law of ,moses1 the servant of ,god1 which ,god commanded him on ,horeb for all ,israel2 statutes and judgments0 7iii4 #bb74 ,before the great day of the ,lord1 the day of judgment1 the ,lord will send 8the prophet ,elijah1 who will cause the hearts of fathers and children to unite in returning to ,god40 #c4 ,,the ,,hagiographa 774 ,the ,hagiographa form the last collection of holy writings1 composed by men who1 although they were not prophets1 were filled with the spirit of the ,lord 7 74 ,they include the three larger works3 7a7 7or 7 ,psalms1 ,proverbs1 and ,job2 7b7 the ,five ,scrolls 7 71 viz41 ,song of ,songs1 ,ruth1 ,lamentations1 ,ecclesiastes1 ,esther2 7c7 the historical books3 ,daniel1 ,ezra1 ,nehemiah1 and the two books of ,chronicles4 #a4 ,psalms 774--,the ,psalms are hymns containing praises of ,god's greatness1 prayers for ,his mercy1 and meditations on ,his wisdom1 power1 justice1 and goodness4 ,however various the ,psalms are in form and contents1 they have this in common1 that they all are based on the purest and sincerest trust in ,god's justice and goodness4 8,the mighty and proud1 who rely on their own strength and are guided by the dictates of their own will1 cannot succeed for ever2 the poor and humble1 who rely on ,god's mercy and are guided by the word of ,god1 will not suffer for ever40 ,this is the truth which the ,psalmist proclaims in his songs over and over again4 ,yet there is a great variety in the contents of the ,psalms4 ,some are simply praises of ,god's greatness1 e4g41 viii41 xix41 xxxii41 xcii41 xcv4 to xcix41 ciii41 civ41 c4 ,others are the expression of gratitude1 e4g41 ix41 xviii41 xxxiv41 lxvi41 lxviii41 c4 ,many are prayers in time of trouble2 in most of these the suppliant feels sure that ,god will accept his prayer1 and is confident that help will come4 ,such psalms are iii41 iv41 v41 vi41 xii41 xiii41 c4 ,to this class belong also all the psalms which refer to the troubles of ,david during the reign of ,saul1 as lii41 liv41 lvi41 lix41 lxiii41 c42 some of the ,asaph-psalms1 lxxiii41 lxxvii41 lxxix41 lxxx42 the penitential psalms1 in which the sinner prays for mercy1 as xxv41 xxxii41 xxxviii41 li42 and those in which a longing is expressed for the ,house of ,god1 e4g41 xxvii41 xlii41 xliii41 lxv41 lxxxiv4 ,some psalms are a protest against those who rely on human force and human cunning instead of having faith in ,god1 a protest of the against the view and creed of the and or e4g41 ix4 and x41 xi41 xiv41 xvi41 xvii41 c4 ,some psalms are of a more didactic character1 showing the way of true happiness 7,ps4 i471 depicting a truly pious life 7xv41 xxiv471 or the excellence of the word of ,god1 as xix41 cxix42 or the uselessness of sacrifice without purity of heart 7xl41 l41 li474 ,the poetical form of the ,psalms1 as of ,hebrew poetry in general1 is parallelism4 ,the sentences are formed in such a manner that the psalm can be arranged in lines divisible into two parts1 which are either two elements of a single idea1 or a double expression of the same idea1 or a combination of two ideas or things opposed to each other1 illustrating an idea by its antithesis4 ,in some of the ,psalms the parallelism is perfect throughout1 in others it is partly abandoned1 probably in order not to slavishly subordinate the idea to the form of its expression4 ,the same is to be noticed as regards other forms of the ,psalms4 ,some are arranged alphabetically1 that is1 the successive verses begin with successive letters of the alphabet2 but deviations from the plan are met with almost in all such psalms4 ,there are psalms which are divided into a certain number of parts or strophes1 each part beginning or ending with the same phrase or verse2 but almost invariably these phrases or verses undergo some modification4 ,the style is naturally poetical1 and figurative language is employed throughout4 ,god is a ,rock 771 an habitation 771 a ,shepherd 771 who feeds ,his flock with great care and love2 ,he is an eagle1 under whose wings 71 7 the weak find protection2 ,he rides in the heavens of the heavens of old 7 74 ,man is compared to 8grass that withers10 to a 8flower that blossoms in the morning1 and in the evening it is withered and dried up20 the life of man is but a breath 772 a lie 772 light in the balance 7 72 he changes like a garment1 like a raiment4 ,the days of a long life are like the days of the heavens1 the sun or the moon 7 1 1 or 74 ,the mighty are mountains with many peaks 7 71 they have horns like those of the unicorns1 whilst the weak are 8a wall bent0 7 71 8a fence thrust down0 7 72 8they have sunk in deep mire20 8they have come into fire and into water20 8the waters have come unto the soul40 ,the meek are 8broken in heart10 8crushed in spirit40 ,the wicked and unjust are like lions and dogs2 they have poison 8like the poison of a serpent1 like a deaf adder that stoppeth its ears1 that does not listen to the voice of charmers1 to the clever sorcerer40 ,their words are smooth like cream and oil1 whilst in the heart there are war1 daggers1 sharp swords4 ,the threatened one runs like a hind1 escapes like a bird4 ,those who have no higher aim than material enjoyments are like 8sheep driven to death20 8man in his dignity1 without understanding1 is like cattle that perish40 ,mishaps come upon man like the waves of the sea4 ,the ,divine judgment visits the wicked like a thunderstorm2 it shakes the earth like an earthquake or volcano4 ,sinners receive 8the cup of confusion0 7 7 at the hand of ,god2 for 8a cup is in the hand of the ,lord1 and the wine therein is red2 it is full with drink1 and ,he pours out from it1 but its dregs all the wicked of the earth will suck and drink40 ,the sinner is punished by his own deed2 8he digs a pit and falls into it20 he feels like a sick person whose 8bones are troubled1 and wither20 his purification is toe healing of the soul2 he is purified with hyssop2 he becomes whiter than snow 7li4 #i74 ,when man sins he feels as if he had become a changed creature1 as if he had now been born and conceived in sin 7ver4 #g72 when he repents and improves1 ,god creates in him a new heart1 and renews a firm spirit within him 7ver4 #ab74 ,the wife of the ,god-fearing man is compared to the fruitful vine1 his children to young olive-trees 7cxxviii474 ,the righteous will flourish like a palm-tree1 will grow high like a cedar upon ,lebanon 7xcii4 #ac74 ,whilst the righteous is like a tree planted by the brook of water1 the wicked are like chaff which the wind drives away 7i4 #c1 #d74 ,israel is likened to a vine brought from ,egypt and planted in ,palestine 7lxxx4 #i74 ,peacefulness and brotherly love1 between high and low1 the mighty and the weak1 the rich and the poor1 the wise and the simple1 are illustrated by the fine oil that flows down from the head to the beard1 the beard that descends over the garments1 and the dew of the high ,hermon that comes down to the lower mountains of ,zion 7cxxx474 ,there are some instances of play upon words 7lvi4 #i71 and of rhymes 7cxlv4 #aa2 xxxiv4 #f72 the latter are apparently not intentional4 ,although we generally speak of the ,psalms of ,david1 only a portion of them was composed by ,king ,david2 the headings ascribe also one psalm to ,moses1 two to ,king ,solomon1 twelve to ,asaph1 one to ,heman1 and one to ,ethan2 and some have no author mentioned in the heading4 ,many have no superscription at all1 and most of these seem to belong to a later period4 ,the individual psalms have various names4 ,the most general of them is a poem1 set in music4 ,of some it is distinctly stated that they were intended to be sung2 this is expressed in the heading by the word 8song10 which either precedes or follows the title or stands alone without 4 ,the term1 8song10 is further qualified by 8of the dedication of the house10 8of love10 and or 8of degrees leading upward10 i4e41 towards ,god4 ,another name occurring in twelve psalms is 8instructive song20 the maschil proclaims the lesson that ,god is ,king of the universe1 and that those are happy who trust in ,his justice and mercy4 ,a similar meaning attaches to the word superadded to in ,ps4 lx42 lit4 8to teach10 i4e41 that the song be learnt by all1 in order that people may strengthen their confidence in ,god in times of trouble 7comp4 #b ,sam4 i4 #ah74 ,the meaning of which occurs in two psalms 7xxxviii4 and lxx471 is 8for prayer40 ,there is one psalm 7c471 8for thanksgiving20 another 8for the ,sabbath-day10 7xcii474 ,four psalms are called 8prayer0 7xvii41 lxxxvi41 xc1 cii472 one 7cxlv471 8praise20 one 7vii471 8an error10 #h referring to the miscalculation of the wicked in preparing weapons against the innocent1 which weapons are turned against themselves2 and six are superscribed 8a jewel40 ,such a jewel is the ,psalmist's 8faith in ,god10 that inspires him with hope and pure joy in the midst of misfortune4 ,the headings include also instructions for the singers and references to the musical instruments which are to be used4 ,the most general term is 8to the chief10 scil41 of the singers or ,levites2 it refers to the chief of a particular division of the ,levites if it is followed by a qualifying phrase1 and to the chief of all the ,levites if it is not followed by any qualification4 ,the term describes the psalm as a ,temple-song1 although this may not have been its original object4 ,even poems which have been composed by ,david on certain personal events became--perhaps slightly modified--national songs1 and formed part of the public service4 ,the adaptation was easy1 because these historical psalms rarely contain any allusion to the particular event mentioned in the superscription4 ,the term is qualified by 8on a stringed instrument10 being the particular instrument of the ,levites1 of whom this was the master4 ,the term which in several psalms follows the word is grammatically unconnected with the latter2 it means 8on stringed instruments10 and is the instruction for the 4 ,there were several kinds of such instruments2 two kinds are named and 8the neginath with eight strings0 or 8chords10 and 8the gittith0 coming from ,gath1 a town in the land of the ,philistines4 ,other kinds of musical instruments are 7v471 7liii471 and 7xlvi472 these are hollow flute-like instruments1 also called 7#a ,chron4 xv4 #bj74 ,in some cases the division of ,levites is named instead of the instrument3 8,jeduthun0 7xxxix41 lxii4 and lxxvii42 comp4 #a ,chron4 xxv4 #c72 8to the sons of ,korah0 7xlii4 to xlix41 and lxxxiv4 to lxxxviii472 once the direction occurs 7lxxxviii471 8to sing alternately10 referring to the two divisions of ,levites headed by and 8the ,ezrahite ,heman10 and 8the ,ezrahite ,ethan0 7lxxxviii4 and lxxxix474 ,a few terms are met with in the headings which describe the contents of the psalm in a poetical style4 ,such are 7a47 1 and 7lx41 lxxx41 xlv41 and lxix471 8,testimony for the lily or lilies10 or 8for lilies40 ,the poet calls by this name the flower of the nation1 the meek and ,god-fearing1 who are under the special protection of ,god1 and are destined to be crowned in the end with glory and victory1 7b47 7xxii471 8,the strength of the dawn40 ,the phrase refers to the strength given to the sufferer in the darkness of his despair by the awakening of his faith in ,god1 which is compared by the poet to the dawn as the forerunner of daylight1 7c47 8,do not destroy0 7lvii41 lviii41 lix41 and lxxv474 ,by this heading the author indicates that the psalm is a protest against the self-confidence of the wicked in the success of their wickedness1 either with reference to their evil designs against the author himself1 or to their plans in general4 7d47 8,dove in the force of those far10 scil41 from ,god 7lvi474 ,the psalm contains the expression of ,david's faith in ,god when he was caught by the ,philistines in ,gath4 ,in some of the headings the event is mentioned which prompted the ,psalmist to compose the psalm3 ,david's flight from ,jerusalem when ,absalom rebelled against him 7iii472 the slander of the ,benjamite ,kush 7vii472 the death of ,labben 7ix472 rescue from the hands of ,saul and other enemies 7xiii472 dedication of the house 7xxx472 ,david's escape from ,abimelech1 king of the ,philistines 7xxxiv472 his capture by the ,philistines in ,gath 7lvi472 his stay in the cave of ,adullam 7lvii41 cxlii472 danger of being put to death by the servants of ,saul 7lix472 war with ,aram and ,edom 7lx472 sojourn in the wilderness of ,judah 7lxiii474 ,the order of the ,psalms is not chronological2 e4g41 chap4 iii4 refers to the rebellion of ,absalom1 whilst chap1 cxlii4 was composed before the death of ,saul4 ,the principle which guided the collector in fixing the place of each psalm is not known4 ,but it is certainly not the result of mere chance that the first two psalms speak of the ,law of ,god1 and of the punishment of those who rebel against ,god and against ,his anointed2 and that the last psalm calls upon all to praise ,god with all their soul3 8,let every thing that hath breath praise the ,lord1 ,hallelujah60 ,nor is it mere chance that the psalms are divided1 like the ,law1 into five groups or books1 each one ending with a doxology4 ,it is possible that the psalms were recited or sung at the public service in a manner corresponding to the reading of the ,law and the ,prophets4 ,the first two books contain most of the psalms superscribed 8by ,david10 but there are also some in the other books 7one in ,,iii41 two in ,,iv41 fourteen in ,v474 ,at the end of the second book 7lxxii4 #bj7 the following words are added3 8,the prayers of ,david1 the son of ,jesse1 are ended20 i4e41 the hope which has just been expressed in the words 8,and the whole earth shall be filled with the glory of ,god10 forms the aim and end of all the prayers of ,david1 the son of ,jesse4 ,the verse does not mean that the first seventy-two chapters of the ,psalms contain all the prayers of ,david1 as there are several psalms of ,david between chaps1 lxxiii4 and cl4 ,the ,psalms were composed by ,david and other authors partly for private use1 partly for the public service in the ,temple and other places of worship4 ,of those that were originally for private use some were subsequently adapted for public service1 and even those intended from the beginning for public worship were adapted to the different modes of recitation or singing4 ,the ,book of ,psalms includes1 therefore1 two recensions of several chapters2 e4g41 xiv4 and liii42 xviii4 and #b ,sam4 xxii42 lx4 #g-ad and cviii4 #g-ad2 lvii4 #h-ab and cviii4 #b-f2 cv4 #a-ae and #a ,chron4 xvi4 #h-bb2 xcvi4 and #a ,chron4 xvi4 #bc-cc2 cxxxv4 and cxxxvi4 ,a considerable portion of our daily prayers consists of psalms4 ,we distinguish the following groups3--7a47 8,verses of song10 ,ps4 cxlv4 to cl42 to which the following are added on ,sabbaths and ,festivals3 xix41 xxxiv41 xc1 xci41 cxxxv41 cxxxvi4 7called 8the great ,hallel071 xxxiii41 xcii41 and xciii4 7b47 8,song of the day20 a different psalm is recited each day of the week after the morning prayer in the following order3 xxiv41 xlviii41 lxxxii41 xciv41 lxxxi41 xciii41 xcii4 7c47 8,friday evening psalms10 xcv4 to xcix4 7d47 ,sabbath afternoon psalms3 civ41 cxx4 to cxxxiv4 7e47 8,praise10 cxiii4 to cxviii4 7f47 ,penitential psalms after evening prayer on week-days1 in the following order3 xxv41 xxxii41 xxxviii41 li41 lxxxvi4 #b4 ,proverbs of ,solomon1 the son of ,david1 king of ,israel4 ,the ,book of ,proverbs belongs to those ,biblical books which are called 8books of wisdom40 ,they appeal to the reason of man1 and do not support their words by the authority of ,revelation1 although the authors and those who gave them the final shape were inspired and guided by the 8the divine spirit40 ,the commandments of ,god and ,his ways are referred to as the safest guide for man in all conditions of life4 ,three books are included in this class3 ,proverbs1 ,job1 and ,ecclesiastes4 8,the ,proverbs of ,solomon0 are divided into the following six sections3--7,a47 ,introduction1 i4 to ix42 7,b47 ,collection of ,proverbs3 7a47 ,proverbs of ,solomon1 x4 to xxii4 #af2 7b47 ,words of the ,wise1 xxii4 #ag to xxiv4 #bb2 7c47 ,second group of ,words of the ,wise1 #bc to #cd2 7d47 ,proverbs of ,solomon collected by the men of ,hezekiah1 xxv4 to xxviii42 7e47 ,words of ,agur-bin-yakeh1 xxx42 7f47 ,words of ,lemuel1 xxxi4 ,the fourth section 7chaps1 xxv4 to xxix47 is introduced by the following superscription3--8,also these are the ,proverbs of ,solomon1 which the men of ,hezekiah1 king of ,judah1 had removed40 ,the men of ,hezekiah seem to have been uncertain whether this section should form part of the book1 because of the seeming contradiction between the fourth and fifth verses of the twenty-sixth chapter4 ,the men of the ,great ,synagogue decided the question in favour of its incorporation in the book1 and reconciled the seeming contradiction by their interpretation4 ,the fifth collection of proverbs is ascribed to ,agur-bin-yakeh1 an allegorical phrase meaning 8collection deserving respect40 ,the collection is further called 8the burden0--the usual heading of prophecies--in order to give it more weight4 ,also the rest of the superscription1 8,the saying of the man ,lethiel10 ,lethiel ve-ucchal1 is of an allegorical character1 signifying1 8,god--i4e41 the word of ,god--is my task1 and ,i shall prevail40 ,the phrase is set forth more clearly in the succeeding verses3 human knowledge is insufficient1 but 8,all the word of ,god is pure2 he is a shield to those who trust in him0 7xxx4 #e74 ,the second half of this collection has the heading ,la-alukah1 8,for a necklace0 7comp4 i4 #i71 similar in meaning to the heading 8,jewel10 in the ,psalms4 ,the form of these proverbs1 based on the numbers two1 three1 and four1 is similar to that of the prophecies of ,amos 7chaps1 i4 and ii474 ,the last collection is headed1 8,words to ,lemuel1 the king2 the burden wherewith his mother instructed him40 ,the contents of the instruction is1 8,be not licentious and intemperate2 help the poor and oppressed40 ,the name ,lemuel is likewise allegorical1 meaning 8,god-ward40 ,the book concludes with the praises of a virtuous woman4 7,a47 ,introduction4--,the object of the book is set forth in verses #b to #g of the first chapter as follows3 8,to make man know wisdom and instruction1 comprehend words of understanding1 and take the instruction of acting wisely1 with justice1 judgment1 and righteousness2 to give skill to the simple2 to the young knowledge and discretion2 that the wise may hear and increase doctrine1 and the prudent acquire cleverness to understand proverb and figure1 the words of wise men and their allegories4 ,the beginning of knowledge is the fear of the ,lord2 wisdom and instruction fools despise40 ,this last sentence is the basis of the book4 ,without fear of the ,lord all knowledge and wisdom will prove insufficient for establishing man's true happiness4 ,the ,introduction consists of several connected addresses1 in which the author persuades the reader to listen to his advice1 and keep away from wicked people before it is too late4 ,he exhorts man to entrust himself to the guidance of the ,lord1 and not to rely on his own understanding4 8,be not wise in thine eyes1 fear the ,lord1 and depart from evil0 7iii4 #g74 ,he warns against bad society1 against becoming security for debtors1 and against idleness4 ,the two ways open to man are allegorically represented by two women1 the one wise1 the other foolish2 the one leading to happiness1 the other to ruin2 each one inviting man to her house1 and displaying in the very act of invitation her full character4 7,b47 ,the collections of proverbs begin with the tenth chapter4 ,the proverbs have the form of parallelism1 each verse being divided into two parts1 mostly containing an antithesis illustrating the difference between the wise and the foolish1 the good and the bad1 the just and the unjust1 the industrious and the idle1 the rich and the poor1 and the like4 ,each verse is a proverb by itself1 and is independent of the verses which precede and follow4 ,there are only a few passages in which several verses are connected1 and these occur in the later collections1 e4g41 xxii4 #bb-bc1 #bd-be1 #bf-bg2 xxiii4 #a-c1 #d-e1 #f-i1 #aj-aa1 #ab-ac1 #bj-ba1 #bi-ce2 xxiv4 #c-g1 #aj-ab1 #cj-cd2 xxvii4 #bc-bg4 ,the whole of the thirtieth chapter consists of small paragraphs of three or four verses1 and the last chapter consists of two continuous parts4 ,in these collections of proverbs we find advice for every condition of our life4 ,our relation to ,god is shown2 how ,he loves the good and just3-- 8,the way of the wicked is an abomination of the ,lord2 but he loveth him who pursues righteousness0 7xv4 #i74 8,the sacrifice of the wicked is an abomination of the ,lord1 but the prayer of the righteous is his pleasure0 7xv4 #h74 8,the ,lord is far from the wicked1 but he heareth the prayer of the righteous0 7xv4 #bi74 8,to do justice and judgment is more acceptable to the ,lord than sacrifice0 7xxi4 #c74 ,he protects the poor1 the weak1 the widow1 and the orphan3-- 8,he who oppresseth the poor1 blasphemeth his ,maker2 and he who is gracious to the needy1 honoureth him0 7xiv4 #ca74 8,he who is gracious to the poor1 lendeth to the ,lord1 and he will repay him his reward0 7xix4 #ag74 8,do not rob the poor because he is poor2 and do not crush the poor in the gate1 for the ,lord will plead their cause1 and will take the soul of those who rob them0 7xxii4 #bc74 8,the ,lord will pull down the house of the proud1 and will establish the border of the widow0 7xv4 #be74 8,the rich and the poor meet2 the ,maker of them all is the ,lord0 7xxii4 #b74 ,he punishes the evil-doer and rewards the righteous3-- 8,do not say1 ,i will repay evil2 hope in the ,lord1 and he will help thee0 7xx4 #bb74 8,he who closeth his ear because of the crying of the poor1 he also will call and will not be answered0 7xxi4 #ac74 8,he who keepeth a command1 keepeth his soul2 he who despiseth his ways shall die0 7xix4 #af74 8,when the ,lord is pleased with the ways of man1 he will cause even his enemies to make peace with him0 7xvi4 #g74 8,the ,lord will not let the soul of the righteous be hungry1 but the desire of the wicked will he thrust back0 7x4 #c74 ,he knows the heart of man3-- 8,there is a test for silver1 and a refining pot for gold2 but ,god trieth the hearts0 7xvii4 #c74 ,he directs all events3-- 8,man's heart planneth his way1 but the ,lord directeth his step0 7xvi4 #i74 8,the horse is prepared for the day of war1 but the victory is the ,lord's0 7xxi4 #ca74 ,his blessing is a true blessing3-- 8,the blessing of the ,lord1 it maketh rich1 and doth not increase trouble with it0 7x4 #bb74 ,his ,will alone must be obeyed3-- 8,there is no wisdom1 and no understanding1 and no counsel against the ,lord0 7xxi4 #cj74 8,whoso despiseth a word will be punished1 but he who feareth a commandment will be rewarded0 7xiii4 #ac74 8,without a vision the people cometh into disorder2 but he who keepeth the ,law1 happy is he0 7xxix4 #ah74 ,the fear of the ,lord is the basis of a virtuous and happy life3-- 8,the fear of the ,lord is the beginning of knowledge 7i4 #g72 the fountain of life 7xiv4 #bg72 the fear of the ,lord adds days1 but the years of the wicked will be short0 7x4 #bg74 ,according as we display wisdom or folly we make others and ourselves happy or unhappy3-- 8,a wise son giveth joy to his father1 and a foolish son is the sorrow of his mother0 7x4 #a74 8,the wisdom of woman buildeth her house1 and folly pulleth it down by her hands0 7xiv4 #a74 8,eat1 my son1 honey1 for it is good1 and honeycomb1 which is sweet for thy palate2 know that thus is wisdom for thy soul2 if thou hast found it1 there is a future1 and thy hope will not be cut off0 7xxiv4 #ac1 #ad74 8,the prudent seeth evil1 and is hidden2 the ignorant pass by1 and are punished0 7xxvii4 #ab74 8,as a jewel of gold in a swine's snout1 so is a fair woman without discretion0 7xi4 #bb74 8,the simple believeth every word2 but the prudent man looketh well to his going0 7xiv4 #ae74 ,the ways of wisdom and folly are frequently displayed in our words3-- 8,in the multitude of words there wanteth not sin1 but he who spareth his words acts wisely0 7x4 #ai74 8,a soft answer turneth back wrath1 but a harsh word raiseth anger0 7xv4 #a74 8,also a fool when silent is considered wise2 he who closeth his lips is prudent0 7xvii4 #bh74 8,he who keepeth his mouth and his tongue1 keepeth his soul from troubles0 7xxi4 #bc74 8,by long-suffering the prince is persuaded2 and a soft tongue breaketh a bone0 7xxv4 #ae74 8,answer not a fool like his folly1 lest thou be equal to him4 ,answer a fool according to his folly1 lest he be wise in his eyes0 7xxvi4 #d1 #e74 ,the principal virtues recommended to man are righteousness 771 honesty 771 truthfulness 771 meekness 771 industry1 thrift1 temperance1 contentment1 and moderation3-- 8,treasures of wickedness are of no profit1 but righteousness delivereth from death0 7x4 #b74 8,better a little in the fear of the ,lord than a large treasure1 and confusion therewith0 7xv4 #af74 8,the righteousness of the upright maketh his way straight1 but the wicked falleth by his wickedness0 7xi4 #e74 8,the remembrance of the righteous is for blessing2 but the name of the wicked will rot0 7x4 #g74 8,guilt is the interpreter of fools1 but favour that of the straightforward0 7xiv4 #i74 8,to do justice is joy to the righteous1 and a terror to evil-doers0 7xxi4 #ae74 8,like a fountain made turbid and a well that is corrupted1 is the righteous that yieldeth in the presence of the wicked0 7xxv4 #bf74 8,where a man of honesty is1 there is multitude of blessings2 but he who hasteneth to become rich will not be guiltless0 7xxviii4 #bj74 8,the lip of truth will be established for ever1 but the tongue of falsehood for a moment0 7xii4 #ai74 8,a witness of faithfulness is he who does not lie1 but he who uttereth falsehood is a false witness0 7xiv4 #e74 #i 8,a lip of excellency becometh not a low man2 how much less doth a lip of falsehood a noble man60 7xvii4 #g74 8,pride came1 and shame came2 but with the meek is wisdom0 7xi4 #b74 8,meekness cometh before honour0 7xv4 #cc74 8,pride cometh before the fall1 and haughtiness of spirit before the stumbling0 7xvi4 #ah74 8,let another praise thee1 and not thy mouth2 a stranger1 and not thy lips0 7xxvii4 #b74 8,he is poor who worketh with a slack hand1 but the hand of the industrious maketh rich0 7x4 #d74 8,better is he who thinketh little of himself1 and is a slave to himself1 than he who thinketh much of himself and lacketh bread0 7xii4 #i74 8,the hand of the industrious shall rule1 but the slack hand shall be tributary0 7xii4 #bd74 8,in all labour there is profit2 but when there is only a word of lips it leads but to want0 7xiv4 #bc74 8,also he who is lazy in his work is a brother to the man that destroyeth0 7xviii4 #i74 8,i passed by the field of a slothful man1 and the vineyard of a man wanting heart2 and behold1 thorns have come up over the whole of it2 its surface is covered with thistles1 and its stone-fence is pulled down4 ,and ,i beheld1 ,i turned my heart1 ,i saw1 ,i took instruction3 a little of sleep1 a little of slumber1 a little of joining the hands to lie down2 then thy poverty cometh like a traveller1 and thy want like an armed man0 7xxiv4 #cj-cd74 8,the righteous eateth to the fulness of his soul1 but the belly of the wicked shall want0 7xiii4 #be74 8,wine is a mocker1 strong drink roareth1 and every one that erreth therein will not be wise0 7xx4 #a74 8,who hath woe8 who hath sorrow8 who hath contentions8 who hath complaining8 who hath wounds without cause8 who hath redness of eyes8 ,those who tarry long at the wine2 those who come to search mixed drink4 ,do not look upon the wine though it be red1 though it send forth its colour through the cup1 though it flow smoothly2 in the end it biteth like a serpent and stingeth like an asp2 thine eyes shall see strange things1 and thy heart shall speak perverse things2 and thou shalt be like one that lieth in the midst of the sea1 and like one that lieth on the top of the mast4 ,they have stricken me1 shalt thou say1 and ,i was not sick4 ,they have beaten me2 ,i felt it not4 ,when shall ,i awake8 ,i will seek it yet again0 7xxiii4 #bi-ce74 8,he who is greedy after gain troubleth his house1 but he who hateth gifts shall live0 7xv4 #bg74 8,he whose desire is wide stirreth up strife1 but he who trusteth in the ,lord shall be fattened0 7xxviii4 #be74 8,there are who spend liberally1 and there is an increase2 and there are who withhold more than is right1 and yet it leads to want0 7xi4 #bd74 8,know well the state of thy flock2 set thy heart to the droves2 for treasure is not for ever1 nor a crown for generation and generation4 ,when hay is gone1 and grass is spoilt1 and the herbs of the field are gathered in1 there are lambs for thy clothing1 and he-goats are the price of a field3 and there will be goats' milk enough for thy food1 for the food of thy house1 and maintenance for thy maidens' 7xxvii4 #bc-bg74 8,lust overcome is sweet to the soul2 but to depart from evil is the abomination of fools0 7xiii4 #ai74 8,better is he who is long-suffering than a hero2 and he who ruleth his spirit is better than he who conquereth a city0 7xvi4 #cb74 8,like an open town without a wall is the man whose spirit is without restraint0 7xxv4 #bh74 ,the following proverbs refer to the relation between husband and wife1 and between man and his neighbour as friend or enemy1 father and child1 rich and poor1 king and people3-- 8,he who hath found a wife hath found a good thing1 and obtained favour of the ,lord0 7xviii4 #bb74 8,a virtuous wife is the crown of her husband1 but a wicked woman is like rottenness in his bones0 7xii4 #d74 8,house and wealth are the inheritance of fathers1 but a wise wife is from the ,lord0 7xix4 #ad2 chap4 xxxi4 #aj to end74 8,he who revealeth a secret is a slanderer1 but he who is faithful in spirit covereth a thing0 7xi4 #ac74 8,hatred stirreth up strifes1 but love covereth all sins0 7x4 #ab74 8,better is a meal of herbs where love is1 than a stalled ox and hatred therewith0 7xv4 #ag74 8,he who covereth transgression seeketh love1 but he who repeateth a matter separateth a friend0 7xvii4 #i74 8,open rebuke is better than secret love0 7xxvii4 #e74 8,he who saith to the wicked1 ,thou art righteous1 him shall the people curse1 nations shall abhor him2 but to them that rebuke him shall be delight1 and a good blessing shall come upon them0 7xxiv4 #bd1 #be74 8,faithful are the wounds of a friend1 but the kisses of an enemy are like smoke0 7xxvii4 #f74 8,when there is no wood the fire goeth out2 so when there is no tale-bearer strife ceaseth0 7xxvi4 #bj74 8,a kind man doth good to his soul1 and a cruel man troubleth his flesh0 7xi4 #ag74 8,rejoice not when thine enemy falleth1 and let not thy heart be glad when he stumbleth1 lest the ,lord see it and it displease ,him1 and ,he turn away ,his wrath from him0 7xxiv4 #ag1 #ah74 8,the righteous knoweth the feelings of his cattle1 but the heart of the wicked is cruel0 7xii4 #aj74 8,he who curseth his father and his mother1 his lamp shall be put out in obscure darkness0 7xx4 #bj74 8,children's children are the crown of old men1 and the glory of children are their fathers0 7xvii4 #f74 8,the eye that mocketh at his father1 and despiseth to obey his mother1 the ravens of the valley shall pick it out1 and the young eagles shall eat it0 7xxx4 #ag74 8,where there is the instruction of the father1 there is a wise son2 but a mocker will he be who heard no rebuke0 7xiii4 #a74 8,he who spareth his rod hateth his son1 and he who loveth him chastiseth him early0 7xiii4 #bd74 8,chastise thy son while there is hope1 and let not thy soul turn to his crying0 7xix4 #ah74 8,train the lad in his way1 and when he is old he will not depart from it0 7xxii4 #f74 8,foolishness is bound in the heart of a child1 but the rod of correction shall drive it far from him0 7xxii4 #ae74 8,withhold not correction from the child2 for if thou beatest him with the rod1 he shall not die4 ,thou shalt beat him with the rod1 and shalt deliver his soul from death0 7xxiii4 #ac1 #ad74 8,the benevolent shall be blessed1 for he hath given of his bread to the poor0 7xxii4 #i74 8,the liberal soul shall be made fat1 and he that stilleth the thirst of others shall also have his thirst stilled0 7xi4 #be74 8,he who despiseth his neighbour sinneth1 but whoso is gracious to the poor is happy0 7xiv4 #bd74 8,in the multitude of people is the glory of the king2 but in the want of people is the destruction of the prince0 7xiv4 #bh74 8,the king's wrath is like messengers of death2 but a wise man will pacify it0 7xvi4 #ad74 8,the heart of a king is in the hand of the ,lord like brooks of water2 ,he turneth it whithersoever ,he liketh0 7xxi4 #a74 ,on miscellaneous subjects3-- 8,there is that maketh himself rich1 yet hath nothing2 there is that maketh himself poor1 yet hath great riches0 7xiii4 #g74 8,the heart knoweth its own bitterness1 and a stranger doth not intermeddle with its joy0 7xiv4 #aj74 8,if care is in the heart of man1 let him still it2 if a good thing1 let him brighten it up0 7xii4 #be74 8,he is a guide to life who keepeth instruction1 but he that refuseth reproof misleadeth0 7x4 #ag74 8,boast not thyself of to-morrow2 for thou knowest not what a day may bring forth0 7xxvii4 #a74 8,all the ways of man are clean in his own eyes2 but the ,lord weigheth the spirits0 7xvi4 #b74 ,job1 --,the ,book of ,job consists of the following three parts3-- 7a47 ,introduction 7i4 and ii474--,god is figuratively represented as presiding over a council of ministers 7 8sons of ,god071 amongst whom also the accuser 7 8the hinderer10 one who is hostile to the word of ,god7 appears4 ,while ,god praised the piety of ,job1 the accuser doubted the purity of his heart1 and suggested that if any adversity were to befall ,job he would no longer be pious2 ,job1 exposed to hard trials1 remained firm in his faith in ,god4 8,naked came ,i forth from my mother's womb1 and naked shall ,i return thither2 the ,lord hath given1 and the ,lord hath taken3 let the name of the ,lord be praised0 7i4 #ba74 8,skin for skin10 said the accuser1 8and everything that man hath1 he giveth for his soul2 but stretch now forth thy hand and touch his bone and his flesh3 surely he will take leave of thee in thy presence0 7ii4 #e74 ,the trial was granted4 ,and when ,job's wife was surprised that ,job was still holding to his integrity1 adding 8,take leave of ,god and die10 he replied1 8,thou speakest like the speaking of one of the wicked women4 ,are we to accept of ,god the good1 and shall we not accept the evil80--8,in all this did ,job not sin with his lips1 and did not find fault with ,god0 7i4 #bb74 ,his friends came to see him1 but felt so distressed that they sat with him for seven days without uttering a word4 7b47 ,discussion between ,job and his friends ,eliphaz1 ,bildad1 ,zophar1 and ,elihu2 ,job asserting his innocence1 and consequent inability to see the justice of his afflictions2 his friends contending that he has sinned1 and has been justly punished2 ,elihu attempts to justify ,job's sufferings1 on the plea that they are merely a reminder sent by ,god that ,job has sinned1 and must seek reconciliation with ,god1 who is ,all-wise1 ,all-good1 and ,all-powerful2 ,god addresses ,job1 and shows him man's inability to comprehend the ,divine power and wisdom in the creation and in the ruling of the universe2 whereupon ,job repents4 7c47 ,conclusion4--,god rebukes the friends of ,job1 that they have not spoken rightly like ,his servant ,job 7xlii4 #g71 and richly compensates ,job for his sufferings and losses4 ,the book has no heading1 and therefore we do not know by whom or when it was written4 ,there is1 however1 a tradition1 mentioned in the ,talmud 7,baba ,bathra1 p4 #ad;b71 that ,moses wrote the ,book of ,job4 ,even about ,job himself it is impossible to ascertain at what time he lived4 ,but the description of his riches and the length of his life leads us to think of the time of the patriarchs4 ,his name is mentioned only in one other book of the ,bible4 ,the prophet ,ezekiel names him together with ,noah and ,daniel as a righteous man who would1 by his piety1 save himself in the time of general calamity1 though he would not be able to save his generation 7,ezek4 xiv4 #ad74 ,there is also an opinion that ,job never existed at all4 8,job never lived2 nor has he had any existence2 the story is all only an allegory0 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,baba ,bathra1 #ae;a74 ,this dictum can only refer to the detailed account of the manner in which the misfortune came upon ,job1 and the poetical discussion of ,job and his friends4 ,but it is undeniable that a pious man of the name of ,job lived1 and escaped from a calamity to which others succumbed2 since it is clear that ,ezekiel refers to real and not to imaginary personages4 ,job and his friends were not ,israelites4 ,the patriarch lived in the land of ,uz in ,arabia2 the friends came from ,teman1 ,shuah1 ,naamah1 and ,buz1 in the south1 east1 west1 and north of ,uz4 ,like the ,book of ,jonah1 this book conveys the lesson1 8,the pious of all nations have a portion in the world to come0 7,maim41 ,mishneh-torah ,i4 ,hilchoth ,teshubah1 iii4 #e74 ,god rewards the righteous of all nations1 punishes those among them who deserve punishment1 and pardons the penitent4 ,the introduction and conclusion are written in prose1 but the principal part of the book is poetical1 and consequently parallelism is a predominant feature of the book4 ,the following are a few sentences from the book3-- 8,shall we receive good at the hand of ,god1 and shall we not receive evil80 7ii4 #aj74 8,the small and great are there 7in the grave71 and the servant is free from his master0 7iii4 #ai74 8,shall mortal man be more just than ,god8 shall a man be more pure than his ,maker80 7iv4 #ag74 8,behold1 happy is the man whom ,god correcteth3 therefore despise not thou the chastening of the ,almighty0 7v4 #ag74 8,is there not an appointed time to man upon earth8 are not his days also like the days of an hireling80 7vii4 #a74 8,he is wise in heart1 and mighty in strength2 who hath hardened himself against him1 and hath prospered80 7ix4 #d74 8,though he slay me1 yet will ,i trust in him0 7xiii4 #ae74 8,for ,i know that my ,redeemer liveth1 and he will rise in the end over the dust0 7xix4 #be74 8,and when my skin is gone1 when worms have destroyed this body1 and when my flesh is no more1 yet shall ,i see ,god0 7xix4 #bf74 8,and unto man he said1 ,behold1 the fear of the ,lord1 that is wisdom2 and to depart from evil1 that is understanding0 7xxviii4 #bh74 ,the following passages are noteworthy1 on account of both their lofty thought and their poetical form3-- ,eliphaz mildly rebukes ,job1 exhorting him to repentance 7iv474 ,job's charge against the cruelty of his friends 7v4 #ab-cj74 ,bildad's view of ,god's justice 7viii4 #c-ac74 ,job's conception of ,god's ,omnipotence 7ix4 #b-ab74 ,zophar's explanation of ,god's justice 7xi4 #b-g1 #aj-ae74 ,job's declaration of his faith in ,god 7xiii4 #f-af2 xix4 #bc-bg2 xxiii4 #c-ab74 ,job's confession of man's dependence on ,god's wisdom 7xxviii4 #a1 #b1 #ab-bh74 ,job's defence of his innocence 7xxxi474 ,elihu's defence of ,god's justice 7xxxiii4 #h1 #i1 #ab-cj74 ,job is shown his ignorance 7xxxviii4 #c-bd72 his impotence 7xl4 #i-ad74 ,job's contrition 7xlii4 #b-f74 ,the three books1 ,psalms1 ,proverbs1 and ,job1 are distinguished from the rest of the ,bible by their peculiar accents1 which are on this account called 8the accents of the books1 1 and 40 ,the ,song of ,solomon1 7lit41 ,the ,song of ,songs the most poetical song74--,the faithfulness of the beloved to her lover1 her resistance to all temptation1 and the concentration of all her thoughts on the well-being of her lover1 form the theme of the book4 ,the relation between lover and beloved has been interpreted allegorically as representing the relation between ,god and ,israel4 ,the latter remains faithful to his ,god1 throughout all vicissitudes of fortune4 8,i am for my lover1 and my lover is for me10 is the centre of this feeling of faith4 ,according to the heading and the tradition1 ,king ,solomon is the author of the book4 ,ruth1 --,the book contains the history of ,ruth1 a ,moabite woman1 who1 by her marriage with ,boaz1 became the founder of the house of ,david4 ,elimelech of ,beth-lehem in ,judah1 with his wife ,naomi and his two sons1 left his country in time of famine in order to stay in the land of ,moab4 ,there the two sons marry ,moabite women1 ,orpah and ,ruth4 ,elimelech and the two sons die4 ,naomi returns to ,judah2 ,orpah1 at the request of ,naomi1 remains in ,moab and goes back to her family1 but ,ruth insists on accompanying ,naomi1 saying1 8,whither thou goest ,i will go1 and where thou lodgest ,i will lodge2 thy people shall be my people1 and thy ,god my ,god3 where thou diest will ,i die1 and there will ,i be buried3 so the ,lord do to me1 and more also1 if ought but death will part thee and me0 7i4 #af1 #ag74 ,naomi having lost her property1 ,ruth was obliged to glean ears of corn in the fields in order to maintain herself and her mother-in-law4 ,she happened to glean in the field of ,boaz1 a near relative of ,elimelech4 ,boaz having noticed her1 and having heard of her conduct toward ,naomi1 married her2 his son was ,obed2 the son of the latter was ,jesse1 the father of ,david4 ,thus the virtues of ,ruth1 modesty1 faithfulness1 and industry1 were rewarded2 this is one of the lessons derived from the book4 ,the principal object of the book1 however1 is to show the origin of the house of ,david4 ,the ,lamentations of ,jeremiah1 --,the name of the author is not mentioned in the book1 but tradition informs us that the prophet ,jeremiah composed these lamentations4 ,the first four chapters are alphabetical2 in the third chapter there are three verses for each letter2 the fifth chapter is not alphabetical4 ,the cause of the lamentations is the catastrophe of the kingdom of ,judah through the victories of ,nebuchadnezzar1 king of ,babylon1 although neither ,nebuchadnezzar nor ,babylon is mentioned in the book4 ,ecclesiates1 --,this book contains reflections on the vanity of man's labours and plans2 whatever man aims at as the source of his happiness and blessing proves in the end useless and deceptive4 ,man is disappointed to find everything transient2 he discovers just people in misery1 and wicked people in apparent comfort2 he begins to doubt whether virtue and wisdom are really conducive to true happiness4 ,thus man1 left to himself1 is at a loss to find the right way to happiness4 ,the author therefore concludes his reflections with the exhortation3 8,the end of the word in which everything is heard is1 ,fear ,god1 and keep ,his commandments1 for that is the whole of man4 ,for every deed will ,god bring to account1 together with every hidden thought1 whether good or bad0 7xii4 #ac1 #ad74 ,koheleth mentioned in the heading is ,king ,solomon4 ,the philosophical reflections are frequently intermixed with proverb-like lessons and maxims1 of which the following are a few examples3-- 8,for in much wisdom is much grief2 and he that increaseth knowledge increaseth sorrow0 7i4 #ah74 8,to every thing there is a season1 and a time to every purpose under the heaven0 7iii4 #a74 8,the fool foldeth his hands together1 and eateth his own flesh0 7iv4 #e74 8,better is an handful with quietness1 than both the hands full with travail and vexation of spirit0 7iv4 #f74 8,keep thy foot when thou goest to the house of ,god1 and readiness to hear is better than the fools' giving of sacrifice2 for they consider not that they do evil0 7iv4 #ag74 8,be not rash with thy mouth1 and let not thine heart be hasty to utter any thing before ,god3 for ,god is in heaven1 and thou upon earth2 therefore let thy words be few0 7v4 #a74 8,when thou vowest a vow unto ,god1 defer not to pay it2 for ,he hath no pleasure in fools3 pay that which thou hast vowed0 7v4 #c74 8,a good name is better than precious ointment2 and the day of death better than the day of one's birth0 7vii4 #a74 8,be not hasty in thy spirit to be angry2 for anger resteth in the bosom of fools0 7vii4 #i74 8,be not righteous over much2 neither make thyself over wise3 why shouldst thou destroy thyself80 7vii4 #af74 8,be not over much wicked1 neither be thou foolish3 why shouldst thou die before thy time80 7vii4 #ag74 8,there is not a just man upon earth1 that doth good1 and sinneth not0 7vii4 #bj74 8,let thy garments be always white2 and let thy head lack no ointment0 7ix4 #h74 8,a wise man's heart is at his right hand2 but a fool's heart at his left0 7x4 #b74 8,he that diggeth a pit shall fall into it2 and whoso breaketh an hedge1 a serpent shall bite him0 7x4 #h74 8,he that observeth the wind shall not sow2 and he that regardeth the clouds shall not reap0 7xi4 #d74 8,remember now thy ,creator in the days of thy youth1 while the evil days come not1 nor the years draw nigh when thou shalt say1 ,i have no pleasure in them0 7xii4 #a74 8,then shall the dust return to the earth as it was1 and the spirit shall return to the ,god who gave it0 7xii4 #g74 ,esther1 --,the history of the conception and frustration of the wicked plans of ,haman against ,mordecai and the ,jews is described in this book4 ,ahasuerus1 king of ,persia1 sent ,vashti1 his wife1 away1 and married ,esther1 a cousin of ,mordecai4 ,haman1 enraged against the ,jews because ,mordecai did not bow before him1 planned to kill the ,jews on the thirteenth of ,adar2 but ,esther frustrated ,haman's design2 ,haman himself and his ten sons were killed2 and the ,jews were allowed to take up arms against those who attacked them4 ,the ,jews defended themselves victoriously on the thirteenth of ,adar2 in ,shushan1 the capital1 also on the fourteenth4 ,this deliverance was the cause of the institution of ,purim4 ,the name of the author is not mentioned2 the book was probably written by ,mordecai and ,esther 7comp4 ,esther ix4 #bi74 ,daniel1 --,the author of this book is not named4 ,the book is called ,daniel because it contains the history and the visions of ,daniel4 ,according to a tradition mentioned in the ,babylonian ,talmud 7,baba ,bathra1 #ae;a71 the men of the ,great ,synagogue wrote or edited the book probably from trustworthy traditions1 partly written1 partly oral4 ,the last six chapters seem to have been written by ,daniel himself2 he speaks in them of himself in the first person4 ,the object of the book is to show that ,god is the ,ruler of the ,universe4 ,the author1 therefore1 gives1 on the one hand1 examples of men of great piety and genuine faith in ,god--,daniel and his friends2 and1 on the other hand1 examples of men of great wickedness--,nebuchadnezzar and ,belshazzar2 the former enjoyed glorious victories1 the latter received their due punishment4 ,the style is throughout bold and emphatic2 the frequent heaping of synonyms is to serve the purpose of emphasis4 ,in the last chapters the author shows that the misdeeds of the wicked and the sufferings of the pious are foreseen by ,god1 and that both the punishment of the former and the redemption of the latter form part of the ,divine plan in the government of mankind4 ,we are thus exhorted to remain firm in our faith in time of oppression1 and to wait patiently for deliverance1 which is sure to come4 ,although ,daniel belonged to those distinguished men to whom ,god communicated coming events in visions1 he is not classed among the prophets1 because he had no ,divine message to bring to his fellow-men1 and he was not charged to address them in the name of ,god4 ,daniel was brought to ,babylon1 together with other captives1 in the third year of ,jehoiakim1 and remained there during the reigns of ,nebuchadnezzar1 ,belshazzar1 ,darius the ,mede1 and the first years of ,cyrus the ,persian4 ,he distinguished himself by great piety and wisdom1 so that in a prophecy of ,ezekiel 7xiv4 #ad71 in the sixth year of the exile of ,king ,jehoiachin1 he is mentioned1 together with ,noah and ,job1 as famous for piety1 as one of those whom ,god protects from danger because of their righteousness1 although their piety could not save their fellow-men4 ,the same prophet mentions him as a wise man 7xxviii4 #c74 ,the book is divided into two parts3 7,a47 ,an account written in ,chaldee of ,daniel's wisdom and piety1 with a ,hebrew ,introduction 7i4 to vi474 7#b47 ,the visions of ,daniel in ,chaldee and ,hebrew 7vii4 to xii474 ,in the introductory chapter the author narrates the principal facts of the training of ,daniel in ,babylonian wisdom1 and his great success at the court of ,nebuchadnezzar4 ,then follows the ,chaldee portion1 including the following subjects3-- 7#a47 ,nebuchadnezzar's ,dream4--,the king demands that the sages initiated in ,babylonian wisdom shall tell him his dream1 which he himself has forgotten1 and its interpretation4 ,they cannot do it1 and many of them are put to death4 ,daniel arrests the slaughter2 for he prays to ,god1 and ,god reveals to him the king's dream4 ,when ,daniel appeared before the king he began thus3 8,the secret which the king wants to know1 no wise men can tell4 ,but there is a ,god in heaven1 the revealer of secrets1 and ,he has let ,king ,nebuchadnezzar know what will come to pass in the remote future0 7ii4 #bg1 #bh74 ,the dream was this3 ,he saw a big statue1 its head of gold1 breast and arms of silver1 belly and thighs of brass1 legs and feet of iron and clay4 ,a large stone fell upon the legs of the statue1 broke them1 and the whole statue fell together and was crushed into pieces2 then the stone grew larger1 and filled the whole earth4 ,the following was the interpretation of the vision3 ,the statue represented a series of earthly kingdoms2 the gold was ,nebuchadnezzar1 the silver referred to his successors1 the brass to the ,persian government1 the iron to the ,greek1 and the mixture of iron and clay to the kingdoms that would then follow1 all of which would ultimately be overthrown1 and the ,divine kingdom would then be recognised by all4 ,daniel was greatly rewarded2 he and his friends received high positions in the government of the empire4 7#b47 ,nebuchadnezzar erected a large statue1 and commanded that at certain times all should worship it2 disobedience was to be punished with death4 ,daniel's friends did not bow before it1 and were accused before the king4 ,they said to the king1 8,there is a ,god whom we worship2 ,he can save us from the burning furnace and from thy hand1 ,o king4 ,and if ,he does not save us1 let it be known to thee1 ,o king1 that we shall not worship thy god1 and not bow down before the golden image which thou hast set up0 7iii4 #ag1 #ah74 ,they were thrown into the furnace1 and miraculously saved4 ,thereupon ,nebuchadnezzar sends letters to all the peoples of his empire1 testifying to the greatness of ,god1 and narrating what wonderful thing had occurred to him4 ,he had a strange dream1 and none but ,daniel was able to interpret it2 the dream was literally fulfilled according to ,daniel's interpretation4 ,the dream1 which1 after the manner of such phenomena1 introduced and mingled together diverse elements1 was this3 ,he saw a high tree with many branches and much foliage4 ,suddenly an angel from heaven came1 and ordered the tree to be cut down1 but the root to be left for seven seasons1 bound with fetters of iron and brass1 in the midst of the grass of the field4 ,the heart of man was to be taken from it1 and replaced by a heart of beasts4 ,the interpretation was1 that the mighty ,nebuchadnezzar would be removed from the society of man1 and live like a beast with beasts for seven seasons4 ,this happened to him just when he was boasting of his greatness and said1 8,is this not great ,babylon which ,i have built for the royal house1 in my great power1 and to my great glory80 7iv4 #bg74 ,he was humbled1 recognised the dominion of ,god over the whole universe1 and was again1 after seven seasons1 restored to his former power and dignity4 8,praised be ,god10 he exclaimed1 8whose deeds are all truth1 and whose ways are justice1 and who can humble those who walk in pride0 7,ibid4 #cd74 7#c47 ,king ,belshazzar1 in the midst of a banquet1 at which the holy vessels of the ,temple in ,jerusalem were used1 perceived a hand writing on the wall opposite him strange signs which none could read4 ,daniel was called1 and read the writing3 8,mene1 mene1 tekel upharsin10 and explained it thus3 ,the days of thy government are counted and brought to a close2 thou hast been weighed and found wanting2 thy kingdom is divided1 and given to the ,medes and ,persians 7v4 #be-bh74 ,that same night ,king ,belshazzar was killed1 and the ,mede ,darius was made king 7v4 #cj-vi4 #a74 7#d47 ,king ,darius1 advised by his officers1 who sought to find an opportunity for overthrowing ,daniel1 issued an order1 that within thirty days no god or other being except ,darius should be prayed to1 and that transgressors against this decree should be punished with death4 ,daniel prayed to ,god three times a day at his open window4 ,he was thrown into the lions' den2 but ,god protected him from the mouths of the lions4 ,when he was taken out of the den1 his accusers were thrown into it1 and the lions immediately devoured them4 ,thus ,darius was forced publicly to recognise the ,omnipotence of ,god4 7#e47 ,a dream of ,daniel is related by the author in ,daniel's own words1 who had written down the dream1 and explained the chief points4 #aj ,the following is the dream3--,he saw four beasts1 viz41 a lion1 a bear with three ribs in its mouth1 a leopard with four wings and four heads1 and a fourth beast with iron teeth and ten horns1 one of the horns being small1 but having 8a mouth speaking haughtily40 ,in a court of justice the latter beast was sentenced to death1 and the other beasts were to be deprived of their power2 but respite was granted to them for a time and a season4 ,the royal power was given to one who approached the judge appearing like a human being1 and not like any of the beasts4 ,his rule was to remain for ever4 ,the interpretation of the dream is this3 ,there will be four different kingdoms2 out of the fourth ten different kingdoms will be formed4 ,one of these will haughtily presume to oppose the ,will of ,god1 and to abolish the festivals and the religion of the holy ones4 ,it will succeed for 8a season1 seasons1 and half a season10 and will then be utterly destroyed1 whilst the rule of 8the holy ones0 #aa will in the end be firmly established and continue for ever4 ,the indefinite character of the vision shows that it was intended to apply to all those oppressors of the ,jews who at different times have presumed1 or still presume1 to be able to abolish the religion of 8the holy ones40 ,whether the oppression lasts a 8season of seasons0 7or 8a season and seasons071 i4e41 a very long time1 or 8half a season10 i4e41 a very short time1 the holy ones are exhorted to remain firm in their faith in ,god's justice4 ,the truth of this vision is especially illustrated by the failure of the attempts of ,antiochus ,epiphanes after a temporary success4 ,more definite are the numbers #bcjj 8evening-mornings0 7viii4 #ad71 #abij days and #acce days 7xii4 #aa1 #ab72 but the absence of any further description as to the date of the first of these days leaves even to these numbers a certain degree of indetermination4 ,from the context we learn that they are somehow connected with the persecution to which the ,jews were subjected by ,antiochus ,epiphanes4 #bcjj days 7or #f years #aaj days7 passed between the decree of the ,syrian king enforcing idolatry and the peace with ,lysias granting religious liberty2 there were #abij days between the decree forbidding the practice of the holy religion and the enforcement of idolatry in the ,temple of ,jerusalem1 and #acce days is the period between the latter event and the death of ,antiochus4 7,b47 ,the second part contains visions of ,daniel as written down by himself4 7#a47 ,in the third year of ,belshazzar1 ,daniel had the following vision3--,being in ,susan1 in the province of ,elam1 near the river ,ulai1 he saw a ram with two unequal horns pushing towards west1 north1 and south4 ,from the west came a goat with one horn1 and overthrew the ram2 in the place of the one horn four horns grew up in all directions2 there was one small horn which pushed on against the south1 the east1 and ,palestine2 it rose even against the host of heaven and the chief of the host1 and destroyed his holy place4 ,daniel heard one holy one saying to another1 8,this state of things will last till #8evening-morning #bcjj4'0 ,the angel ,gabriel gave him the interpretation of the vision3 ,the ram represented the empire of the ,medes and the ,persians1 the goat that of the ,greeks1 out of which four kingdoms would be formed2 in one of these a wicked king would venture to rise against the ,prince of princes1 but his power would in the end be destroyed4 ,daniel was told to keep the vision secret1 for it referred to a distant future 7viii4 #bf74 7#b47 ,in the first year of ,darius1 son of ,ahasuerus1 of the seed of the ,medes1 ,daniel reflected on the seventy years of exile foretold by ,jeremiah1 and fervently prayed to ,god for pardon and the restoration of ,jerusalem4 ,at the end of his prayer the angel ,gabriel appeared to him1 and told him that the hoped-for restoration would not take place before the lapse of seventy weeks of trouble and anxiety4 ,there would elapse seven weeks before the 8princely anointed0 7 7 led the ,jews back to ,palestine2 sixty-two weeks of trouble and anxiety were predicted for the time of the rebuilding of ,jerusalem and the ,temple2 and one week's misery on the arrival of a new prince or governor1 who would strengthen the covenant of the enemies and entirely suspend the ,divine ,service in the ,temple for a short time4 #ab 7#c47 ,in the third year of ,cyrus1 king of ,persia1 ,daniel1 after three weeks' mourning and fasting1 had the following vision on the twenty-fourth day of the first month3--,he saw near the river ,tigris 7,hiddekel7 a man of extraordinary appearance1 who told him that he came in answer to his prayers2 that for twenty-one days 7x4 #ac7 he was opposed by the prince of the kingdom of ,persia1 and had on his side only one of the princes1 ,michael4 ,future events are foretold3 the fall of ,persia1 the division of the ,greek kingdom1 the wars between the ,northern country 7,syria7 and the ,southern 7,egypt71 the troubles of the ,jews1 the ultimate deliverance of the ,jews out of danger1 and the glorious victory of the teachers 8who taught many1 and led them to righteousness0 7 xii4 #c74 ,when ,daniel asked1 8,till when have we to wait for the end of these wondrous things80 7 ,ibid4 #f71 he was told1 8,after a season1 seasons1 and a half 7 ,ibid4 #g7 #ac all these things will come to an end40 ,he further asks1 8,what then80 ,he is told1 8,the things must remain sealed till the time of the end 7 ,ibid4 #i71 when the wise and good 77 will understand them40 ,the vision ends with the words addressed to ,daniel3 8,but thou go toward the end1 and thou wilt rest1 and rise for thy lot at the end of the days0 7xii4 #ac74 ,ezra1 --,the ,book of ,ezra relates the first return of the ,jews under ,zerubbabel from ,babylon to ,palestine by the permission of ,king ,cyrus 77 of ,persia1 the construction of the altar1 the foundation and the building of the ,temple by permission of ,king ,darius4 ,it also describes the second settlement of ,jews from ,babylon in ,palestine under ,ezra1 the ,scribe1 in the reign of ,artaxerxes1 and his energy in purifying the community from intermarriages with heathen people4 ,the book is written in ,hebrew1 with the exception of iv4 #h-vii4 #bg1 which includes several documents written in ,chaldee by the ,persian kings4 ,the author of the book is probably ,ezra2 he speaks of himself in the first person 7vii4 #bh2 viii4 #a1 c472 he is also named as the author of the book in the ,babylonian ,talmud2 and lastly1 the name of the book is ,ezra1 although ,ezra is only mentioned in the second half of the book4 ,the special merit of ,ezra was the promotion of the study of the ,law2 his name is followed by the title1 8,a ready scribe of the ,law of ,moses0 7 vii4 #f71 and 8,scribe of the words of the commandments of the ,lord and ,his statutes for ,israel0 7 vii4 #aa72 the task he set to himself was 8to study the ,law of ,god 7 71 and to practise it1 and to teach in ,israel ,law and judgment0 7vii4 #aj74 ,nehemiah1 --,the heading probably indicates the author1 8,words of ,nehemiah1 son of ,hachaliah40 #ad ,the book contains the history of ,nehemiah's visit to ,jerusalem by the permission of ,king ,artaxerxes1 and the building of the walls of ,jerusalem under ,nehemiah's supervision1 in spite of the opposition of ,sanballat and ,tobiah the ,ammonite2 his example of disinterestedness and of liberality towards the poor1 which is followed by the princes and the rich2 the reading and expounding of the ,law by ,ezra2 the celebration of the festival of the first of ,tishri and of ,tabernacles2 the renewal of the covenant 8to walk in the ,law of ,god1 which was given through ,moses the servant of ,god10 to keep ,sabbath1 to abstain from intermarrying with the heathen1 and to contribute towards maintaining the ,sanctuary2 the provision for filling ,jerusalem with inhabitants by selecting by lot one-tenth of the general population to dwell in the holy city2 the dedication of the walls of ,jerusalem2 and ,nehemiah's energy in enforcing the laws of ,sabbath and of marriages4 ,the two books ,ezra and ,nehemiah are also called by some 8two books of ,ezra10 and by some 8the book of ,ezra40 ,nehemiah is written in ,hebrew4 ,the ,chronicles1 --,the two books of ,chronicles contain the following three parts3 7#a7 ,genealogical tables 7,i41 i4-ix472 7#b7 the history of the death of ,king ,saul1 the history of ,david and ,solomon 7,i41 x4-,,ii41 ix472 7#c7 the history of the kingdom of ,judah from ,rehoboam till the destruction of ,jerusalem by ,nebuchadnezzar 7,,ii41 x4-xxxvi474 ,special attention has been given by the author to the arrangements made at various periods for the ,temple-service1 by ,king ,david 7,i41 xxiii4 sqq471 ,king ,hezekiah 7,,ii41 xxix471 and ,king ,josiah 7,,ii41 xxxiv41 xxxv474 ,the author is not named in the book2 according to the tradition it is ,ezra4 ,as the genealogical tables give six generations after ,zerubbabel 7,i41 iii4 #ai-bd71 we may assume that the author wrote about fifty years after ,zerubbabel2 that is1 the last years of ,ezra and ,nehemiah4 ,the sources from which the author derived his information were1 besides the ,biblical books1 the following3--,the book of the kings of ,judah2 the book of the kings of ,israel1 registers probably kept in the ,temple archives2 the histories of ,samuel the ,seer1 ,nathan the prophet1 and ,gad the ,seer2 the prophecy of ,ahijah of ,shilo2 the visions of ,jedo2 the ,midrash of the prophet ,iddo2 the history of ,jehu1 son of ,hanani2 the history of ,isaiah1 son of ,amoz1 and the history of ,hozai4 ,this is the last book of the series of ,holy ,writings4 ,books that were written later1 whatever their intrinsic value may be1 were not considered holy1 and were not received into this collection4 ,there are a number of books known as ,apocrypha 771 lit4 8,hidden things0 or 8put aside10 that is1 kept separate from the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,they were not considered as genuine1 as they consisted of a mixture of fact and fiction1 truth and error4 ,they were1 however1 not suppressed or forbidden2 in the ,talmud several quotations from these books are met with4 ,the following are the principal books belonging to the ,apocrypha3-- 7#a47 ,the ,book of ,wisdom1 or the ,wisdom of ,solomon4 ,wisdom based on the fear of ,god1 and guided by it1 is the source of man's true happiness1 and if wisdom and virtue are not rewarded by success in mundane affairs1 the reward is sure to come in the future world4 ,this is the quintessence of the lessons taught in this book4 ,the kings and potentates of the earth are frequently exhorted to be just and kind towards their people1 and to remember that they are but human beings1 weak and mortal1 like the rest of mankind2 wisdom alone can raise them to higher perfection and happiness4 8,for the very true beginning of her is the desire of discipline1 and the care of discipline is love4 ,and love is the keeping of her laws2 and the giving heed unto her laws is the assurance of incorruption4 ,and incorruption maketh us near ,god4 ,therefore the desire of wisdom bringeth to a kingdom4 ,if your delight be then in thrones and sceptres1 ,o ye kings of the people1 honour wisdom1 that ye may reign for evermore0 7vi4 #ag-ba74 8,for regarding not wisdom1 they got not only this hurt1 that they knew not the things which were good1 but also left behind them to the world a memorial of their foolishness1 so that in the things wherein they offended they could not so much as be hid4 ,but wisdom delivered from pain those that attended upon her4 ,when the righteous fled from his brother's wrath1 she guided him into right paths1 shewed him the kingdom of ,god1 and gave him knowledge of holy things that made him rich in his travels1 and multiplied the fruit of his labours0 7x4 #h-aj74 7#b47 ,the ,wisdom of ,jesus1 son of ,sirach4--,proverbs1 maxims1 and moral lessons collected by ,joshua 7,jesus71 son of ,sirach of ,jerusalem4 ,after having studied the ,law1 the ,prophets1 and the other ,holy ,writings1 he thought it advisable to write a book on knowledge and wisdom for those who seek instruction1 in order to lead them to greater obedience to the ,law4 ,joshua's grandson migrated from ,palestine to ,egypt1 and translated the work of his grandfather into ,greek for those who could not read the ,hebrew original4 ,the translation was made in the thirty-eighth year of ,king ,euergetes ,,ii4 of ,egypt 7#chhh ,a4,m474 ,the contents of the book are similar to those of the ,proverbs of ,solomon3 the author recommends the acquisition of wisdom1 patience1 faith in ,god1 meekness1 obedience of children to parents1 charity1 cautiousness in the use of the tongue1 temperance1 honesty1 and the like4 ,as models of piety and wisdom the principal heroes in the ,bible1 from ,adam to ,joshua1 son of ,jehozadak1 are named1 and in addition to these ,simon the high priest4 8,my son1 if thou come to serve the ,lord1 prepare thy soul for temptation4 ,set thy heart aright1 and constantly endure1 and make not haste in time of trouble4 ,cleave unto him1 and depart not away1 that thou mayest be increased at thy last end4 ,whatsoever is brought upon thee take cheerfully1 and be patient when thou art changed to a low estate4 ,for gold is tried in the fire1 and acceptable men in the furnace of adversity4 ,believe in him1 and he will help thee3 order thy way aright1 and trust in him0 7ii4 #a-f74 8,but he that giveth his mind to the law of the ,most ,high1 and is occupied in the meditation thereof1 will seek out the wisdom of the most ancient1 and be occupied in prophecies4 ,he will keep the sayings of most renowned men1 and where subtle parables are1 ,he will be there also4 ,he will seek out the secrets of grave sentences1 and be conversant in dark parables0 7xxxix4 #a-c74 7#c47 ,baruch4--,the book may be divided into two parts4 ,in the first part ,baruch1 son of ,nerijah1 the amanuensis of the prophet ,jeremiah1 addresses1 in ,babylon1 ,jehoiachin1 the captive king of ,judah1 and the other captive ,jews2 they send money to ,jerusalem for sacrifices1 with a letter exhorting their brethren to return to ,god1 and comforting them with the prospect of a glorious future4 ,the second part contains a letter of ,jeremiah to his brethren in ,jerusalem denouncing idolatry4 ,the letters are probably not genuine1 not being in harmony with the facts related in the books of ,jeremiah and ,kings4 7#d47 ,the ,book of ,tobit4--,tobit1 of the tribe of ,naphtali1 a good and pious man1 was one of those who were carried away into the ,assyrian captivity4 ,one of the charitable acts to which he devoted himself with special zeal was the burying of the dead4 ,twice was misfortune brought upon him for practising this deed of piety4 ,once he had to flee1 and to remain away from his family in misery and want1 and a second time something fell into his eyes1 and he became blind4 ,in both cases he was saved out of his trouble1 and was greatly rewarded for his patience1 his faith in ,god1 and his perseverance in the performance of the ,divine commandments4 ,the author of the book is not known4 7#e47 ,judith4--,an incident of ,jewish history during the ,persian rule4 ,judith is set forth as an ideal of piety1 beauty1 courage1 and chastity4 ,holofernes1 a general in the service of ,nebuchadnezzar1 king of ,assyria1 conquers many lands1 but meets with vigorous resistance in ,judea2 he besieges ,bethulia and endeavours to suppress the ,jewish religion4 ,he falls by the hands of ,judith4 ,thus the stratagem and the courage of the ,jewish heroine1 combined with the plans of ,divine justice1 frustrated the wicked plans of the heathen conqueror1 and delivered the besieged city4 7#f47 ,additions to the ,books of ,daniel and ,ezra1 containing-- 7a47 ,the song of the three men in the furnace 7,dan4 iii474 7b47 ,the false charges brought against ,susanna1 and her deliverance through ,daniel4 7c47 ,bel and the ,dragon4 ,cyrus1 the ,persian1 worshipped these idols1 but was convinced by ,daniel that they had no claim whatever to man's worship4 7d47 ,the apocryphal ,book of ,esdras1 containing portions of the ,books of ,chronicles1 ,ezra1 and ,nehemiah2 only chaps4 iii4 and iv4 being original4 ,in these it is related how ,zerubbabel distinguished himself before ,king ,darius in describing ,woman and ,truth as the mightiest rulers of mankind1 and thus obtained permission to return to ,palestine and rebuild the ,temple4 ,a second apocryphal ,book of ,esdras is named1 in which ,ezra is represented as a prophet addressing his brethren in the name of ,god1 and telling them the visions he had4 7#g47 ,the ,books of the ,maccabees4--,three books containing the history of the ,maccabees1 and various episodes of the wars against the ,syrian oppressors1 both legendary and historical4 ,sixth ,principle4--8,i firmly believe that all the words of the ,prophets are true40 ,by 8the ,prophets0 the prophets thus designated in the ,bible are to be understood who have proved themselves to be the true messengers of ,god1 and were accepted as such by the people4 ,they either counselled the people what to do under various circumstances1 in times of peace and in times of war1 in times of security and in times of danger1 or they announced the coming catastrophe as a punishment sent by the ,almighty for disobedience1 and foretold future happiness and prosperity in case of improvement and return to ,god4 ,those prophecies that referred to the proximate future have been verified by subsequent events1 and so also will those prophecies that refer to the remote future and have not yet been fulfilled4 8,a prophet out of thy midst1 of thy brethren1 like unto me1 will the ,lord thy ,god raise up unto thee2 unto him ye shall hearken0 7,deut4 xviii4 #ae74 8,the former things1 behold1 they are come to pass1 and new things do ,i declare2 before they will spring forth1 ,i shall let you hear0 7,isa4 xlii4 #i74 8,i have also spoken unto the prophets1 and ,i have multiplied visions1 and by the ministry of the prophets have ,i used similitudes0 7,hosea xii4 #aa74 8,and by a prophet the ,lord brought ,israel out of ,egypt1 and by a prophet was he preserved0 7,ibid4 #ad74 ,in the sixth article we declare our belief in the fact that the ,almighty has communicated ,his ,will to human beings1 although we are incapable of forming a clear and definite idea of the manner in which such communication took place4 ,the selection of the individual for the office of a prophet1 as well as of the time1 the place1 and the object of the ,divine communication1 is dependent solely on the ,will of ,god1 whose ,wisdom and ,plan no mortals are able to fathom4 ,we know only the fact that ,malachi closed the series of ,prophets1 but are ignorant of the reason why since ,malachi no human being has 8found a vision from the ,lord40 ,mankind is1 however1 not altogether deprived of the benefit of prophecy2 the holy book need only be opened1 and the message of the prophets is heard once more4 ,seventh ,principle4--8,i firmly believe that the prophecy of ,moses was a direct prophecy1 and that ,moses was the chief of the prophets1 both of those who preceded him and of those who followed him40 ,all that has been said with regard to the sixth article applies to the prophecy of ,moses4 ,there is1 however1 this distinction between the words of ,moses and the words of other prophets3--whilst other prophets chiefly addressed their own generation1 blaming their brethren for disobedience to the ,divine ,law1 threatening with punishments and comforting with blessings of which experience was to be made in the remote future1 ,moses addresses all times and generations1 communicating to them laws 8for all generations10 8everlasting statutes10 8the things which have been revealed for us and our children for ever40 ,he is therefore proclaimed by the ,almighty as the greatest prophet4 ,when ,miriam and ,aaron had spoken against ,moses1 ,god rebuked them1 saying1 8,if there be among you a prophet of the ,lord1 ,i will make myself known unto him in a vision1 ,i will speak with him in a dream4 ,my servant ,moses is not so2 he is faithful in all my house2 with him will ,i speak mouth to mouth1 even manifestly1 and not in dark speeches2 and the form of the ,lord shall he behold0 7,num4 xii4 #f-h74 ,the ,torah concludes with the praise of ,moses1 as follows3 8,and there hath not arisen a prophet since in ,israel like unto ,moses1 whom the ,lord knew face to face3 in all the signs and the wonders1 which the ,lord sent him to do in the land of ,egypt1 to ,pharaoh1 and to all his servants1 and to all his land2 and in all the mighty hand1 and in all the great terror1 which ,moses wrought in the sight of all ,israel0 7,deut4 xxxiv4 #aj-ab74 ,the phrase 8knew ,god face to face10 or 8,i will speak with him mouth to mouth10 and the like1 denotes figuratively 8the clearest1 most direct1 and most simple communication10 the figure being taken from the way in which men communicate to each other things when they desire to be clearly understood1 and to leave no doubt as to the truth and the meaning of the communication4 ,eighth ,principle4--8,i firmly believe that the ,law which we possess now is the same which has been given to ,moses on ,sinai40 ,the whole ,torah1 including both history and precepts1 is of ,divine origin2 nothing is contained in the ,torah that was not revealed to ,moses by the ,almighty1 although we do not know in what manner ,moses received the information4 ,the history of preceding generations was probably handed down to his time by tradition2 in part it may have been contained in documents then extant1 as is likely to have been the case with the various genealogies mentioned in the ,pentateuch4 ,but it was by ,divine inspiration that ,moses knew to distinguish between truth and error1 between fiction and reality4 ,the events recorded in the ,pentateuch are to demonstrate and to keep constantly before our eyes the fact that there is a higher ,power that ordains the fate of men and nations according to their deeds4 ,everything is described in a simple and objective manner4 ,although the whole ,torah is the work of ,moses1 the great prophet speaks of himself everywhere in the third person1 except in the ,book of ,deuteronomy1 in which he records his addresses to the people in the last year of his life4 ,the last few verses1 which describe the death of ,moses1 the mourning of the ,israelites for the death of their teacher1 and his exaltation above all other prophets1 have been added to the ,torah by ,joshua the son of ,nun1 the leader of the ,israelites after the death of ,moses4 ,thus1 from that day until the present the ,torah1 in its integrity1 has been in the hands of the children of ,israel4 ,it was guarded as the most valuable national treasure1 and although there have been not a few generations which were corrupt and idolatrous1 ,israel has never been entirely bereaved of pious and faithful worshippers of the true ,god2 and when in one generation or period the study and the practice of the ,torah were neglected1 they were resumed with greater vigour and zeal in the next4 ,there is a tradition recorded in the ,talmud that after the ,babylonian exile ,ezra1 the ,scribe1 replaced the ancient ,hebrew characters in which the ,torah had originally been written by the square characters still in use4 ,nothing1 however1 was omitted from or added to the contents of the ,torah1 when the present forms of the letters were introduced by ,ezra4 ,in the scrolls of the ,law the letters were not provided with vowel-points and accents2 the manner in which the words1 phrases1 and sentences were to be read was a subject of oral teaching4 ,also many explanations and details of the laws were supplemented by oral teaching2 they were handed down by word of mouth from generation to generation1 and only after the destruction of the second ,temple were they committed to writing4 ,the latter are1 nevertheless1 called ,oral ,law 7 71 as distinguished from the ,torah or ,written ,law 7 71 which from the first was committed to writing4 ,those oral laws which were revealed to ,moses on ,mount ,sinai are called 8,laws given to ,moses on ,mount ,sinai40 ,there are several passages in the ,bible from which it appears that a certain unwritten law must have supplemented the written ,law2 e4g41 when a man was found in the wilderness gathering sticks on the ,sabbath-day1 the persons who discovered him brought him to ,moses4 ,they must have been taught before1 that the gathering of sticks constituted a 1 labour prohibited on the ,sabbath-day1 although this had not been distinctly stated in the written ,sabbath-laws4 ,had this not been the case the ,sabbath-breaker could not have been put to death1 since he would have committed the sin in ignorance4 ,the same can be said of the man who cursed the name of ,god2 he must have known that cursing the name of ,god was a capital crime2 for he would not have been put to death if the ,israelites had not yet been taught that death would be inflicted for such an act4 ,the question which the prophet ,haggai 7ii4 #aa7 addressed to the priests1 and the answers which the priests gave1 lead to the conclusion that the details of the laws on uncleanness and cleanness 7 7 must have been known to the priests and the prophets to a greater extent than has been explained in the written ,law4 ,besides1 there were many precepts that came at once into force4 ,these must have been fully explained to the people1 who were anxious to obey the word of ,god4 ,all these explanations and the detailed rules with regard to the written ,divine precepts of the ,pentateuch1 together with laws and institutions established in the course of time by the highest authorities of the nation in obedience to the dictates of the ,pentateuch1 form the contents of the ,oral ,law4 ,the ,oral ,law or the ,tradition has been handed down in two different forms3 7a7 in the form of a running ,commentary on the ,pentateuch2 such ,commentaries were called ,midrashim2 7b7 arranged according to the different subjects1 and treated independently of the text of the ,torah4 ,this is done in the ,talmud 78lesson10 8tradition074 ,the principal ,midrashim are3 ,mechilta 7lit4 8measure07 on ,exodus2 ,sifra 78book07 on ,leviticus2 ,sifre 78books07 on ,numbers and ,deuteronomy4 ,rabboth on the ,pentateuch and the five ,megilloth4 ,yalkut 78collection07 on all the books of the ,bible4 ,the ,talmud--which exists in two different recensions1 viz41 the ,jerusalem ,talmud and the ,babylonian ,talmud--consists of two elements1 which have to each other the relation of text and commentary1 and are called ,mishnah 7 8learnt by heart071 and ,gemara 7 lit4 8completion10 8a thing settled072 the former contains the traditional laws mostly without argumentation2 in the latter these laws are further discussed1 examined1 and finally settled4 ,following the example of the ,pentateuch1 the ,talmud includes two elements3 laws and narratives1 or ,halachah 77 and ,agada 772 the latter1 the ,agada1 contains history1 fables1 allegory1 meditations1 prayers1 reflections1 philosophical and religious discussions1 and a large number of moral sayings4 ,the ,midrashim likewise include these two elements4 ,the ,mishnah is divided into the following six orders or sections 773 #ae-- #a4 8,seeds40 ,laws referring to agriculture2 preceded by laws on ,divine ,worship4 #b4 8,seasons40 ,on ,sabbath and ,festivals4 #c4 8,women40 ,marriage ,laws4 #d4 8,damages40 ,civil and criminal legislation2 the ,government4 #e4 8,holy things40 ,on ,sacrifices4 #f4 8,purity40 ,on the distinction between clean and unclean4 ,the laws taught in the ,talmud are3 7i7 those which are directly or indirectly derived from the text of the ,pentateuch2 they are called 8laws derived from the ,torah0 7 or 72 7#b7 those which trace their origin to the time of ,moses1 or1 in general1 to the remote past2 they are called 8,law given to ,moses on ,sinai20 7#c7 those laws which originated between the period of the ,pentateuch and the close of the ,bible2 they are called 78words of tradition072 7#d7 those which have been introduced in post-,biblical times2 they are laws 8laws introduced by our teachers40 ,these are either preventives against breaking any of the ,divine precepts1 and are then called or 8a fence10 or tekanoth 7 8institutions0 or 8regulations07 made in order to ensure obedience to the ,law and improvement of conduct1 to remove abuses and prevent error and misunderstanding2 7#e7 ,minhag1 8,custom0 772 religious practices which have not been introduced by any authority or based on a particular ,biblical text1 but in consequence of long usage have become as sacred as a law established by the proper authority4 ,these laws1 as finally settled1 were again codified1 in various works1 the most important of which are the following two3 7#a7 ,mishneh-torah 7 or #af lit4 8,copy of the ,law10 or 8,strong ,hand071 by ,moses ,maimonides 7twelfth century7 in fourteen books2 7#b7 ,shulchan-aruch 7 1 lit4 8,table-arranged071 by ,rabbi ,joseph ,caro 7sixteenth century74 ,ninth ,principle4--8,i firmly believe that this ,law will not be changed1 and that there will not be any other ,law given by the ,creator1 blessed be ,his ,name40 ,in this article we pronounce our belief in the immutability of the ,law4 ,over and over again the phrase 8an everlasting statute0 7 7 occurs in the ,pentateuch4 ,it is true that the ,hebrew term is used in the ,bible in the sense of 8a very long time10 but in the phrase the word cannot have that meaning4 ,some indication would have been necessary to inform the people when the laws would cease to be in force4 ,on the contrary1 the test of a prophet addressing his brethren in the name of ,god1 as a ,divine messenger1 consists in the harmony of his words with the precepts of the ,pentateuch4 ,a prophet who1 speaking in the name of ,god1 abrogates any of the laws of the ,pentateuch is a false prophet4 8,if there arise in the midst of thee a prophet or a dreamer of dreams1 and he give thee a sign or a wonder1 and the sign or wonder come to pass whereof he spake unto thee1 saying1 ,let us go after other gods which thou hast not known1 and let us serve them3 thou shalt not hearken unto the words of that prophet or unto that dreamer of dreams4444 ,ye shall walk after the ,lord your ,god1 and fear him1 and keep his commandments1 and obey his voice1 and ye shall serve him1 and cleave unto him4 ,and that prophet or that dreamer of dreams shall be put to death2 because he hath spoken rebellion against the ,lord your ,god1 which brought you out of the land of ,egypt1 444 to draw thee aside out of the way which the ,lord thy ,god commanded thee to walk in0 7,deut4 xiii4 #b-f74 ,moses distinctly says1 8,the things that are revealed belong unto us and to our children for ever1 that we may do all the words of this law0 7,ibid4 xxix4 #bh74 ,there is also an express commandment given3 8,ye shall not add unto the word which ,i command you1 neither shall you diminish from it1 that ye may keep the commandments of the ,lord your ,god which ,i command you0 7,ibid4 iv4 #b74 ,in two ways this law may appear to have been disregarded3 there are certain sections of the ,law which are at present not in force2 and1 on the other hand1 there are many apparently new precepts at present in force which have been introduced in the course of time by the religious authorities of the nation4 ,but these are only apparent exceptions2 in reality they are entirely in harmony with the ,pentateuch4 ,as to the first class1 there are many of the ,divine commandments the fulfilment of which depends on certain conditions2 e4g41 the existence of the ,tabernacle or of the ,temple and its service1 the possession of ,palestine by the ,israelites1 the independence of the ,jewish ,state4 ,in the absence of these conditions such laws cannot be fulfilled4 ,the laws of sacrifices belong to this class4 ,we are1 in reference to these laws1 in the same condition as a person who is physically prevented from doing what he is commanded to do1 and what he is actually longing to do4 ,the ,law is not altered2 our circumstances demand a temporary suspense of such laws and not their abrogation4 ,the second class contains all those precepts which are known as 8,rabbinical precepts10 and 8,institutions0 and 8,customs40 ,but these imply no addition to the ,torah2 they are merely byelaws and regulations as regards the method of carrying out the laws of the ,pentateuch1 and are designed to facilitate or ensure their fulfilment1 and to prevent ourselves from forgetting or disregarding them4 ,our teachers1 the ,rabbis1 made it a matter of conscience to describe their own regulations as non-,pentateuchical1 and throughout the ,oral ,law and the entire ,talmudic literature the distinction between and is noted and scrupulously upheld4 ,it is useless to investigate whether it would be in harmony with the immutability of the ,divine ,being to change the laws or any of them1 or to grant a new revelation4 ,certainly the words 8,i1 the ,lord1 have not changed0 7,mal4 iii4 #f7 have great weight2 so also1 8,for ,god is not a son of man that he should change his mind0 7,num4 xxiii4 #ai74 ,but the fact that the laws were given by ,god as 8an everlasting statute for all generations0 makes all philosophical speculation on that point superfluous4 ,persons who address us in the name of ,god as ,his messengers1 and bid us turn away from any of the laws commanded in the ,pentateuch1 are in our eyes impostors1 who1 knowingly or unknowingly1 give forth their own opinions as ,divine inspirations4 #c4 ,,reward ,,and ,,punishment1 4 8,behold ,i have set before thee this day life and good1 and death and evil3 in that ,i command thee this day to love the ,lord thy ,god1 to walk in his ways1 and to keep his commandments and his statutes and his judgments1 that thou mayest live and multiply1 and that the ,lord thy ,god may bless thee in the land whither thou passest over ,jordan to go in to possess it0 7,deut4 xxx4 #ae74 8,i call heaven and earth to witness against you this day1 that ,i have set before thee life and death1 the blessing and the curse3 therefore choose life1 that thou mayest live1 thou and thy seed3 to love the ,lord thy ,god1 to obey his voice1 and to cleave unto him3 for that is thy life and the length of thy days0 7,ibid4 xxx4 #ai1 #bj74 ,the doctrine taught in this passage is the alpha and the omega of the sacred literature4 ,the whole history related in the ,bible from the ,creation to the ,babylonian captivity and the restoration of the ,jews to their land is but one continuous series of illustrations of this doctrine4 ,obedience to ,god's word is followed by ,his blessings1 while disobedience is the cause of ruin and misery4 ,thus1 in ,lamentations the poet exclaims in the name of his nation1 8,just is the ,lord1 for ,i rebelled against his commandment0 7,lam4 i4 #ah74 ,moses1 in his last song exhorting the people to obedience to the ,almighty1 begins his address with a praise of ,god's justice1 saying1 8,the ,rock1 his work is perfect1 for all his ways are judgment3 a ,god of faithfulness1 and without wrong1 just and right is he0 7,deut4 xxxii4 #d74 ,even those who doubted the ,divine justice1 in respect to the fate of individual persons or nations1 admitted1 8,surely ,i know that it shall be well with them that fear ,god1 which fear before him3 but it shall not be well with the wicked1 neither shall he prolong his days1 which are as a shadow3 because he feareth not before ,god0 7,eccles4 viii4 #ab1 #ac74 ,job1 wondering why he should be subjected to the greatest trials1 cannot help confessing1 8,even he will be to me an help1 for there shall not come before him an hypocrite0 7,job xiii4 #af74 ,god is therefore called 8,god of judgment10 7,mal4 ii4 #ag72 8,judge0 7#a ,sam4 xxiv4 #ae72 8just10 8just ,judge0 7,ps4 vii4 #ab72 8a jealous ,god0 7,exod4 xx4 #e72 8,god of vengeance0 7,ps4 xciv4 #a72 8,god0 in the sense of 8,judge40 ,the rejection of this belief by the wicked is expressed by the phrase 8,there is no ,god40 ,thus ,david exclaims1 8,the fool hath said in his heart1 ,there is no ,god2 they are corrupt2 they have done abominable things2 there is none that doeth good0 7,ps4 xiv4 #a74 ,in post-,biblical literature we find this unbelief1 which is characterised as the source of all corruption and wickedness1 expressed by the phrase1 8,there is no judgment1 and there is no judge0 7,targ4 ,ps4 ,jonathan1 ,gen4 iv4 #h74 ,there are two different sources from which such unbelief springs forth--limitation of ,god's powers and limitation of man's capacities4 ,the one of these sources leads to a denial of ,god's ,omniscience1 whilst the other deprives man of his freewill4 ,there are some who argue that ,god is too high to notice the ways and the acts of individual men1 and that these must be utterly insignificant in comparison with ,god's greatness4 8,they crush thy people1 ,o ,lord1 and afflict thine heritage4 ,they slay the widow and the stranger1 and murder the fatherless4 ,and they say1 ,the ,lord shall not see1 neither shall the ,god of ,jacob consider0 7,ps4 xciv4 #e-g74 8,and thou sayest1 ,what doth ,god know8 ,can he judge through the thick darkness8 ,thick clouds are a covering to him1 that he seeth not2 and he walketh in the sphere of heaven0 7,job xxii4 #ac1 #ad74 ,the very words which the ,psalmist addresses to ,god with a heart full of gratitude1 8,what is man that thou art mindful of him1 and the son of man that thou visitest him80 7,ps4 viii4 #e71 are uttered in a rebellious spirit by the unbeliever1 who thus 8sets limits to the ,holy ,one of ,israel0 7,ps4 lxxviii4 #da74 ,but the power of ,god is not limited1 nor is ,his wisdom or ,his goodness2 ,he is not only 8the ,god of heaven10 but also 8the ,god of the earth40 ,he who has created everything has certainly a knowledge of everything4 8,lift up your eyes on high and see who hath created these things4 ,he who bringeth forth by number their host1 calleth all of them by name2 not one of them escapeth the knowledge of him who is great in might and strong in power0 7,isa4 xl4 #bf74 ,the ,psalmist thus replies to those who deny ,god's ,omniscience3 8,consider1 ye brutish among the people2 and ye fools1 when will ye be wise8 ,he that planted the ear1 shall he not hear2 he that formed the eye1 shall he not see8 ,he that chastiseth the nations1 shall he not correct1 even he that teacheth man knowledge8 ,the ,lord knoweth the thoughts of man1 however vain they be0 7,ps4 xciv4 #h-aa74 ,it would indeed be absurd to imagine that the ,creator of all things should not take notice of everything that ,his hands have made4 ,what difference can it make to the ,almighty whether ,he provides for the whole human race or for one individual man8 ,it would be attributing to the ,divine ,being human weakness and false pride if we assumed that ,he is too great to take notice of any single creature of ,his6 ,rabbi ,jochanan said wherever in the ,bible we find a description of the greatness of ,god1 there we find ,his meekness4 ,thus1 e4g41 it is said in the ,torah3 8,for the ,lord1 your ,god1 he is the ,god of gods and the ,lord of lords1 the mighty1 the great1 the strong1 and the terrible1 who regardeth not persons1 nor taketh reward4 ,he doth execute the judgment of the fatherless and widow1 and loveth the stranger in giving him food and raiment0 7,deut4 x4 #ag1 #ah74 ,that man is not insignificant in the eyes of ,god is clearly expressed in the account of the ,creation1 where we are taught that man was made by ,god ruler 8over the fish of the sea and over the fowl of the air1 and over the cattle1 and over all the earth1 and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth0 7,gen4 i4 #bf74 8,man is loved by the ,almighty10 say our ,sages1 8because he is created in the image of ,god2 but it was by a love still greater that it was made known to him that he was created in the image of ,god0 7,mishnah ,aboth1 iii4 #ah74 ,one of the chief blessings man received at the hands of his ,creator is freewill4 ,within certain limits man can determine his own actions4 ,when he is about to do a thing1 he can reflect on it1 examine its nature1 investigate into its consequences1 and accordingly either do it or refrain from doing it4 ,god said to the ,israelites1 8,i call heaven and earth to witness against you this day1 that ,i have set before thee life and death1 the blessing and the curse2 and thou shalt choose life0 7,deut4 xxx4 #ai74 ,our freedom1 however1 is not unlimited4 ,there are various causes that prevent us from remaining firm to our will4 ,if we resolve to do what is beyond our physical condition1 we cannot carry it out4 ,again1 if a man chooses to do what would interfere with the will of his fellow-men1 he will frequently be compelled to abandon or change his own determination2 especially as he is in most cases ignorant of the thoughts and plans of his fellow-men4 ,in a still higher degree this is the case with regard to the designs of the ,supreme ,being4 ,hence the great difference between our will and our actual deeds4 ,we have1 however1 the conviction that 8,he who wishes to purify himself is helped by ,heaven towards his aim1 while he who desires to defile himself will find the means thereto0 7,babyl4 ,tal4 ,shabbath1 p4 #ajd74 ,we admit that there are influences over which man has no control1 and which1 on the contrary1 help to shape his will4 ,no man is so isolated as to be entirely inaccessible to outward influences4 ,man inherits certain ideas and habits from his parents2 others are forced upon him by his surroundings1 especially in his earliest youth2 society and the ,state compel him to conform to certain notions and laws2 climate and temperature also have no small share in the formation of man's will4 ,but in spite of all these influences man's will is free1 and it is by reason of his free-will that he chooses to conform to the rules of society and the laws of the ,state4 ,hence it happens that individuals1 subject to almost the same influences1 still vary greatly in their resolutions4 ,what the one praises is an abhorrence to the other2 what repels the one attracts the other2 what is recommended by the one is denounced by the other4 ,although there may be many who profess to believe in predestination or fate1 as a matter of fact all nations1 ancient and modern1 have based their constitutions on the belief in man's responsibility for his actions4 ,every ,state has its laws1 its system of reward and punishment4 ,a principle so general and so essential for the safety and welfare of society1 as well as of each individual1 cannot be a mere illusion2 its good effect has been tested and is generally recognised4 ,in case of criminals and sinners1 we make allowance for the possible outward influences under which the offender may have fallen2 we assume the broad principle1 8,no one sinneth unless the spirit of folly has entered into him0 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,sotah1 #c;a72 but no one would go so far as to acquit the sinner altogether from blame4 ,we pity him and try to teach him how to return to the right path1 and how to overcome outward evil influences4 ,when ,david had become aware of the greatness of his sin and sincerely repented1 he prayed1 8,create in me a clean heart1 ,o ,god2 and renew a right spirit within me4 ,cast me not away from thy presence2 and take not thy holy spirit from me4 ,restore unto me the joy of thy salvation2 and uphold me with a willing spirit4 ,then will ,i teach transgressors thy ways2 and sinners shall return unto thee0 7,ps4 li4 #aj-ac74 ,both elements are here harmoniously united4 ,god's interference is asked for2 ,he helps man to carry out his good resolution2 but man has free-will1 and the author of the psalm1 in seeking the assistance of ,god1 feels nevertheless the weight of his own responsibility4 ,tenth ,principle4--8,i firmly believe that the ,creator1 blessed be ,his name1 knoweth all the actions of men and all their thoughts1 as it is said1 #8,he that fashioneth the hearts of them all1 ,he that considereth all their works' 7,ps4 xxxiii4 #ae740 ,in the rhymed form of the ,creed 77 this article is expressed thus3 8,he watcheth and knoweth our secret thoughts2 ,he beholdeth the end of a thing in its beginning40 ,here the author proclaims not only the ,omniscience of ,god1 but also ,his foresight2 ,his knowledge is not limited1 like the knowledge of mortal beings1 by space and time4 ,the entire past and future lies unrolled before ,his eyes1 and nothing is hidden from ,him4 ,although we may form a faint idea of the knowledge of ,god by considering that faculty of man that enables him1 within a limited space of time1 to look backward and forward1 and to unroll before him the past and the future1 as if the events that have happened and those that will come to pass were going on in the present moment1 yet the true nature of ,god's knowledge no man can conceive4 8,god considereth all the deeds of man10 without depriving him of his free-will2 he may in this respect be compared to a person who observes and notices the actions and the conduct of his fellow-men1 without interfering with them4 ,it is the ,will of ,god that man should have free-will and should be responsible for his actions2 and ,his foresight does not necessarily include predetermination4 ,in some cases the fate of nations or of individual men is predetermined2 we may even say that the ultimate fate or development of mankind is part of the design of the ,creation4 ,but as the actual design in the ,creation is concealed from man's searching eye1 so is also the extent of the predetermination a mystery to him4 ,to solve this problem is beyond the intellectual powers of short-sighted mortals2 it is one of 8the hidden things that belong to the ,lord our ,god40 ,david1 in ,ps4 cxxxix4 #a-ab1 describes the ,omniscience and the ,omnipresence of ,god in the following way3 8,o ,lord1 thou hast searched me1 and known me4 ,thou knowest my down-sitting and mine up-rising2 thou understandest my thoughts afar off4 ,thou searchest out my path and my lying down1 and art acquainted with all my ways4 ,for there is not a word in my tongue1 but lo1 ,o ,lord1 thou knowest it altogether4 ,thou hast beset me behind and before1 and laid thine hand upon me4 ,such knowledge is too wonderful for me2 it is high1 ,i cannot attain unto it4 ,whither shall ,i go from thy spirit8 or whither shall ,i flee from thy presence8 ,if ,i ascend up into heaven1 thou art there2 if ,i make my bed in the grave1 behold1 thou art there4 ,if ,i take the wings of the morning1 and dwell in the uttermost parts of the sea3 even there shall thy hand lead me1 and thy right hand shall hold me4 ,if ,i say1 ,surely the darkness shall cover me1 and the light about me shall be night2 even the darkness hideth not from thee2 but the night shineth as the day2 the darkness and the light are both alike to thee40 ,our belief in ,god's ,omniscience is beautifully expressed in the ,musaph prayer of ,new-year3 8,thou rememberest the work of bygone times1 and thinkest of all the imaginations of former days2 all hidden things are revealed before thee2 also all the multitude of hidden things which are from the beginning4 ,for there is no forgetting before the throne of thy glory1 and nothing is concealed from thine eye4 ,thou rememberest every deed1 and no thought is hidden from thee4 ,everything is revealed and known before thee1 ,o ,lord our ,god1 who beholdest and seest to the end of all generations40 ,eleventh ,principle4--8,i firmly believe that the ,creator1 blessed be ,he1 rewards those who keep ,his commandments1 and punishes those who transgress ,his commandments40 ,the immediate reward and punishment for our conduct we receive in the pleasure and happiness we experience in doing something good1 and in the grief and remorse we ought to feel on learning that we have displeased the ,almighty by our conduct4 ,as a rule1 every good act leads to further good acts1 and every sin to further sins2 and our ,sages say therefore3 8,the reward of a good act 77 is another good act1 and the punishment for a transgression is another transgression40 ,but when we speak of the principle of ,retribution1 we generally mean such reward and punishment as is given in addition to the feeling of happiness or unhappiness inseparable from our actions4 ,this principle of retribution has been proclaimed in the grand ,revelation made to all ,israel on ,mount ,sinai1 in the ,decalogue which has been accepted by all civilised nations as the basis of religion3 8,i the ,lord thy ,god am a jealous ,god1 visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children1 upon the third and upon the fourth generation of them that hate me2 and showing mercy unto thousands of them that love me and keep my commandments0 7,exod4 xx4 #e1 #f74 ,we understand the doctrine of retribution only in its general outlines2 we are convinced of the truth of the ,divine words1 8,there is no peace to the wicked0 7,isa4 lvii4 #ba72 but how the law is applied in every single case is known to ,god alone4 ,it is presumptuous on the part of short-sighted man to criticise ,god's judgments1 and to find injustice in the seeming prosperity of the wicked and the seeming misery of the righteous4 ,what man is able to estimate the merits of his neighbour fully and correctly8 8,for the ,lord seeth not as man seeth2 for man looketh on the outward appearance1 but the ,lord looketh on the heart0 7#a ,sam4 xvi4 #g74 ,this our inability of rightly estimating the merits of our neighbour's actions1 is illustrated by the ,biblical narrative of ,cain and ,abel4 ,both brought sacrifices to the ,lord2 and we cannot discover any difference in their actions1 and yet the sacrifice of ,cain was rejected by ,god and that of ,abel was accepted4 ,some important element there must therefore be in man's deeds which is hidden from his neighbour's eye1 but is known to the ,almighty4 ,the inability of man to penetrate into the secret of ,god's rule is also illustrated by the prophet ,habakkuk4 ,he asked1 8,wherefore lookest thou upon them that deal treacherously1 and holdest thy peace when the wicked swalloweth up the man that is more righteous than he2 and makest men as the fishes of the sea1 as the creeping things that have no ruler over them80 ,whereupon he receives the ,divine answer3 8,write the vision1 and make it plain upon tables1 that he may run that readeth it4444 ,behold1 there is crookedness in the eyes of him whose soul is not straight2 but the just will live by his faith0 7,hab4 i4 #ac1 #ad1 and ii4 #b1 #d74 ,one of the ,psalmists 7,asaph2 ,ps4 lxxiii4 #b seq47 confesses that this problem had greatly troubled him and endangered his faith4 ,he says3 8,as for me1 my feet were almost gone2 my steps had well nigh slipped4 ,for ,i was envious of the arrogant1 when ,i saw the prosperity of the wicked4 ,for there are no bands in their death2 but their strength is firm4 ,they are not in trouble as other men2 neither are they plagued like other men4444 ,therefore his people return hither3 and waters of a full cup are wrung out by them4 ,and they say1 ,how doth ,god know8 and is there knowledge in the ,most ,high8 ,behold1 these are the wicked1 and being always at ease1 they increase in riches4 ,surely in vain have ,i cleansed my heart1 and washed my hands in innocency2 for all the day long have ,i been plagued1 and chastened every morning4 ,if ,i had said1 ,i will speak thus2 behold1 ,i had dealt treacherously with the generation of thy children4 ,when ,i think how ,i might know this1 it is trouble in mine eyes3 until ,i come into the sanctuary of ,god2 then shall ,i consider their latter end40 ,the temporary success and seeming prosperity of the wicked does not shake the firm belief of the singer in the justice of ,god2 his communion with ,god1 his coming into the sanctuaries of ,god1 is a blessing which the soul of the pious yearns for1 and in comparison with which all the wealth and power of the wicked is but a deceitful shadow4 ,the ,book of ,job illustrates the vanity of man's attempts to lift the veil that conceals the plan of ,god's decrees4 ,the reader is informed beforehand why ,job is afflicted with pains and troubles4 ,but ,job and his friends have not been informed4 ,job desires to know what act of his has brought upon him that terrible calamity1 if it is to be endured as a punishment2 he protests his innocence1 and criticises the justice of the ,almighty4 ,the three friends declare with certainty that ,job's sufferings are a punishment for sins committed1 and are angry that ,job does not accept their view4 ,god appears1 rebukes ,job for his presumption1 but declares that the view expressed by his friends1 insinuating sinful conduct to ,job1 was wrong1 and that ,job1 who contended that he did not know the cause of the suffering1 spoke more rightly than his friends4 ,for ,job had not been afflicted because of his sins1 and this was shown to the friends of ,job by the compensation which ,god gave ,job for all that he had lost and suffered4 ,koheleth likewise shows the futility of man's endeavour to find independently of ,divine revelation the aim and object of man's life on earth1 or the share his free-will has in the performance of his actions and the determination of his fate4 ,man is lost in a labyrinth of problems1 out of which he can extricate himself only by faith in ,god and ,his guidance4 ,the result to which the investigations of ,koheleth led him is expressed thus3 8,fear ,god1 keep his commandments2 for this is the whole of man's duty4 ,for every action ,god will bring to judgment together with all hidden thoughts1 whether good or evil0 7,eccles4 xii4 #ac74 ,the acts of ,divine justice recorded in the sacred literature serve as a warning to the evil and an encouragement to the good4 ,they are all of a material character1 as only in this shape can they be perceived by man4 ,but by no means do they exhaust all the ways of ,god4 ,the ,divine retribution so frequently referred to in the ,law points mostly to the good or evil consequences which the conduct of the ,israelites will bring upon the whole community or state1 because the whole community is benefited by the virtues and injured by the misconduct of each of the members composing it2 it is the duty of the authorities1 by watchfulness and by well-defined punishments1 to prevent the spread of disobedience to the ,divine ,law4 ,what other rewards or punishments await the individual in this life or after death we do not know4 ,but there are1 especially in the ,psalms1 numerous indications that the pious sufferer was sure that everlasting happiness would more than compensate for the absence of material and transient success in this life4 ,the following passages may serve as an illustration3-- 8,many sorrows shall be to the wicked1 but he that trusteth in the ,lord1 mercy shall compass him about0 7,ps4 xxxii4 #aj74 8,how precious is thy loving-kindness1 ,o ,god6 and the children of men take refuge under the shadow of thy wings4 ,they shall be abundantly satisfied with the fatness of thy house2 and thou shalt make them drink of the river of thy pleasures4 ,for with thee is the fountain of life3 in thy light shall we see light0 7xxxvi4 #h-aj74 8,for evil-doers shall be cut off3 but those that wait upon the ,lord1 they shall inherit the land0 7xxxvii4 #i74 8,for the ,lord loveth judgment1 and forsaketh not his saints2 they are preserved for ever3 but the seed of the wicked shall be cut off0 7,ibid4 #bh74 8,mark the perfect man2 and behold the upright3 for the latter end of that man is peace4 ,as for transgressors1 they shall be destroyed together2 the latter end of the wicked shall be cut off0 7,ibid4 #cg1 #ch74 ,in these and similar passages the pious and enthusiastic singer has in his mind something more durable and permanent than this short life1 or otherwise the conflict between his hopes and the reality would have shaken his faith4 ,twelfth ,principle4--8,i firmly believe in the coming of ,messiah2 and although he may tarry1 ,i daily hope for his coming40 ,when ,abraham was chosen by ,god to be the founder of a nation proclaiming the ,unity of ,god1 when he was commanded to separate from his relatives and friends and to travel a stranger in a foreign land1 the blessing promised to him was not to be enjoyed by him in the present1 but by his descendants in remote future3 8,all the families of the earth shall be blessed in thee0 7,gen4 xii4 #c74 ,the same promise was repeated when ,abraham stood the trial1 and was ready to bring any sacrifice in obedience to the ,will of the ,supreme ,being3 8,all the nations of the earth shall bless themselves in thee0 7,ibid4 xxii4 #ah74 ,the conviction that the seed of ,abraham have the distinction and the mission to become a source of a blessing to all mankind was transmitted from generation to generation2 from ,abraham through ,isaac to ,jacob or ,israel1 whose descendants1 the ,israelites1 guarded the inherited charge1 as their peculiar treasure4 ,before receiving the ,decalogue on ,mount ,sinai1 the ,israelites were reminded of this their mission in the words1 8,and ye shall be unto me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation0 7,exod4 xix4 #f74 ,it was not by force of arms or by persuasion that they were to influence the whole earth1 but by setting an example of noble1 pure1 and holy conduct4 ,a special spot was selected for them where they should1 in seclusion from the rest of the world1 be trained in the true worship of ,god and in the practice of virtue4 ,zion and ,jerusalem became in course of time the religious centre from which 8instruction came forth and the word of the ,lord40 ,the ,israelites became negligent in their mission and faithless to their holy charge4 ,instead of leading other nations to the true worship of ,god1 they allowed themselves to be misled by them to idolatry2 instead of living a pure life of justice and righteousness1 they yielded to luxury and lust1 and committed acts of injustice and oppression4 ,they were punished4 ,troubles followed troubles2 they lost their independence and their religious centre4 ,the men of ,god1 the prophets1 from ,moses to the last of the prophets1 ,malachi1 foretold the catastrophe1 but at the same time added words of comfort and encouragement1 pointing to a distant future1 when 8her appointed time of trouble will be complete1 and her guilt atoned for20 when ,israel will be restored to his land1 and under the guidance of ,messiah1 8the ,anointed of the ,lord10 he will be filled with the fear of the ,lord and an earnest desire to do that which is just and right4 ,moses1 in one of his last addresses to ,israel1 said1 8,and it shall come to pass1 when all these things have come upon thee1 the blessing and the curse1 which #a have set before thee2 and thou shalt call them to mind among all the nations whither the ,lord thy ,god hath driven thee1 and shalt return unto the ,lord thy ,god1 and shalt obey his voice1 according to all that ,i command thee this day1 thou and thy children1 with all thine heart1 and with all thy soul2 that the ,lord thy ,god will return thy captivity1 and have compassion on thee1 and will return1 and gather thee from all the peoples whither the ,lord thy ,god hath scattered thee4 ,if any of thy outcasts be in the uttermost parts of heaven1 from thence will the ,lord thy ,god gather thee1 and from thence will he fetch thee10 c4 7,deut4 xxx4 #a-c74 ,the glorious times of ,messiah are described by ,isaiah in the following words3 8,and it shall come to pass in the end of days1 that the mountain of the ,lord's house shall be established in the top of the mountains1 and shall be exalted above the hills1 and all nations shall flow unto it4 ,and many peoples shall go and say1 ,come ye1 and let us go up to the mountain of the ,lord1 to the house of the ,god of ,jacob1 and he will teach us of his ways1 and we will walk in his paths1 for out of ,zion shall go forth the ,law1 and the word of the ,lord from ,jerusalem4 ,and he shall judge among the nations1 and shall reprove many peoples2 and they shall beat their swords into plough-shares1 and their spears into pruning-hooks3 nation shall not lift up sword against nation1 neither shall they learn war any more0 7,isa4 ii4 #b-d74 ,the same has been prophesied in almost identical words by ,micah 7iv4 #a-d71 a contemporary of ,isaiah4 ,the peace of the ,messianic period is figuratively described by ,isaiah in the following verses3 8,and the wolf shall dwell with the lamb1 and the leopard shall lie down with the kid2 and the calf1 and the young lion1 and the fatling together2 and a little child shall lead them4 ,and the cow and the bear shall feed3 their young ones shall lie down together1 and the lion shall eat straw like the ox4 ,and the sucking child shall play on the hole of the asp1 and the weaned child shall put his hand on the basilisk's den4 ,they shall not hurt nor destroy in all my holy mountain2 for the earth shall be full of the knowledge of the ,lord1 as the waters cover the sea0 7,isa4 xi4 #f-i74 ,in the days of ,messiah all people will unite in the proclamation of the ,unity of ,god and in ,his worship3 8,and the ,lord shall be ,king over all the earth3 in that day shall the ,lord be one1 and his name one0 7,zech4 xiv4 #i74 8,then will ,i turn to the peoples a pure language1 that they may all call upon the name of the ,lord1 to serve him with one consent0 7,zeph4 iii4 #i74 ,the distinction given to ,israel and to his land will again appear in all its glory4 ,israel is punished1 deprived of independence1 even despised and ill-treated at times2 but with all this he is loved by ,god1 and not rejected by ,him for ever4 ,isaiah prophesies as follows3 8,remember these things1 ,o ,jacob and ,israel1 for thou art my servant3 ,i have formed thee2 thou art my servant2 ,o ,israel1 thou shalt not be forgotten of me0 7,isa4 xliv4 #ba74 8,for the mountains shall depart1 and the hills be removed2 but my kindness shall not depart from thee1 neither shall my covenant of peace be removed1 saith the ,lord that hath mercy on thee0 7,ibid4 liv4 #aj74 ,comp4 lix4 #bj1 #ba2 lx4 #ai-ba2 lxvi4 #bb2 ,jer4 xxxiii4 #be1 #bf2 ,hos4 ii4 #ba1 #bb4 ,those who during the years of ,israel's punishment have despised and ill-treated him will repent of their conduct when they witness his wonderful redemption4 ,their repentance is beautifully depicted by ,isaiah in the passage beginning1 8,behold1 my servant will be successful0 7lii4 #ac74 ,israel1 the servant of ,god1 patiently bears insults and persecution1 faithfully waiting for the fulfilment of the ,divine promise4 ,israel's oppressors will then1 on seeing how ,god loves him1 confess their wrong and own that ,israel has innocently suffered at their hands4 ,with the redemption of ,israel is connected the restoration of the throne of ,david4 8,a branch of the house of ,david0 will be at the head of the nation1 upon whom 8the spirit of the ,lord will rest1 the spirit of wisdom and understanding1 the spirit of counsel and might1 the spirit of knowledge1 and of the fear of the ,lord0 7,isa4 xi4 #b74 ,thus ,jeremiah prophesies3 8,behold1 the days come1 saith the ,lord1 that ,i will raise unto ,david a righteous branch1 and he shall reign as king1 and deal wisely1 and shall execute judgment and justice in the land4 ,in his days ,judah shall be saved1 and ,israel shall dwell safely3 and this is his name1 whereby he shall be called1 ,the ,lord is our righteousness0 7xxiii4 #e1 #f74 ,all the attributes of ,messiah are those of a human being in his highest possible perfection4 ,no superhuman qualities are ascribed to him2 all his glory1 all his success1 is dependent on the ,will of ,god4 ,he is an ideal man1 and an ideal king1 but not more2 if miracles are to be wrought1 it is not ,messiah who will perform them1 but ,god1 who will act wondrously for ,messiah and ,israel4 ,the advent of ,messiah is not expected to change the nature of man1 much less the course of the world around us4 ,the only change we expect is1 that the ,unity of ,god will be acknowledged universally1 and that justice and righteousness will flourish over all the earth4 ,those who believe in a superhuman nature of ,messiah are guilty of idolatry4 ,our ,sages express this principle in the words1 1 8,there is no other difference between the present time and the days of ,messiah but the restoration of ,israel's independence40 ,an opinion is mentioned in the ,talmud in the name of a ,rabbi ,hillel--not the great ,hillel1 the ,babylonian--that 8there is no ,messiah for the ,israelites1 because they have already enjoyed the blessings of ,messiah in the reign of ,hezekiah0 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,sanhedrin1 #ih;b74 ,this can only refer to the miraculous defeat of the enemy1 and the direct benefits derived therefrom by the ,israelites4 ,but the ,rabbi by no means rejects our belief that ,messiah will come1 and with him the universal worship of the ,one ,god1 the universal practice of virtue in all its forms1 and universal peace and prosperity4 #ag ,hillel1 however1 found no support for his view2 on the contrary1 his error is at once shown to him1 that he forgot the prophets who prophesied after ,hezekiah4 ,there are some theologians who assume the ,messianic period to be the most perfect state of civilisation1 but do not believe in the restoration of the kingdom of ,david1 the rebuilding of the ,temple1 or the repossession of ,palestine by the ,jews4 ,they altogether reject the national hope of the ,jews4 ,these theologians either misinterpret or wholly ignore the teaching of the ,bible1 and the ,divine promises made through the men of ,god4 ,the hopes with which our religion inspires us can never lead us to intrigues1 political combinations1 insurrection1 or warfare for the purpose of regaining ,palestine and appointing a ,jewish ,government4 ,on the contrary1 our religion teaches us to seek the welfare of those nations in whose midst we live1 and to conscientiously take part in the work for their national progress and prosperity1 whilst patiently waiting for the miraculous fulfilment of the prophecies4 ,even if a band of adventurers were to succeed in reconquering ,palestine for the ,jews by means of arms1 or reacquiring the ,holy ,land by purchasing it from the present owners1 we should not see in such an event the consummation of our hopes4 ,does the advent of ,messiah and the rebuilding of the ,temple in ,jerusalem imply the restoration of the ,sacrificial ,service8 ,the last of the prophets1 ,malachi1 declares that 8then the offering of ,judah and ,jerusalem shall be pleasant unto the ,lord1 as in the days of old1 and as in ancient years0 7,mal4 iii4 #d74 ,in the same spirit all the prophets spoke1 and when in some cases prophets denounce sacrifices1 it is only the sacrifices of the wicked that they denounce4 ,sacrifices must be preceded by purification of the heart1 and by the earnest resolve to obey the word of ,god1 otherwise they constitute an increase of sin4 ,when we express our longing for the rebuilding of the ,temple and the restoration of the ,temple-,service--the return of the priests to their service1 and the ,levites to their song and music--it is solely our desire for the opportunity of serving ,god according to ,his ,will and command1 and is not a feeling that should be modified by fashion or taste4 ,it is because of our sins that we have been deprived of our ,temple2 the rebuilding of the ,temple and the restoration of the ,sacrificial ,service will be the result of our own purification1 and the consequent ,divine pardon4 ,when will this take place8 ,we do not know1 and are content to bear in mind that the time of our redemption is one of the 8hidden things which are the ,lord our ,god's20 8,if it tarries10 says ,habakkuk1 8wait for it1 for it will surely come1 and not later than the time fixed0 7ii4 #c74 ,certain numbers of days and weeks are mentioned in ,daniel1 #ah but it is not stated how these are to be counted2 to which period they are intended to apply2 whether to the time of the restoration under ,zerubbabel1 to the period of the ,maccabees1 to the destruction of the second ,temple1 or to the future and final redemption4 ,it is also possible that these numbers have some symbolic signification4 ,in reference to these mysterious numbers ,daniel says 7xii4 #h-aj73 8,and ,i heard1 but ,i understood not2 then said ,i1 ,o my lord1 what shall be the issue of these things8 ,and he said1 ,go thy way1 ,daniel2 for the words are shut up and sealed till the time of the end4 ,many shall purify themselves and make themselves white1 and be refined2 but the wicked shall do wickedly1 and none of the wicked shall understand2 but they that be wise shall understand40 ,these words of ,daniel are a warning to all those who are inclined to compute by means of the numbers given in ,daniel the exact year of ,messiah4 ,many have disregarded the warning and have fallen into gross error4 ,it is the duty of the pious ,israelite to have faith in ,god's wisdom1 goodness1 and power3 8,the righteous shall live in his faith0 7,hab4 ii4 #d74 ,thirteenth ,principle4--8,i firmly believe that there will take place a revival of the dead at a time which will please the ,creator1 blessed be ,his name and exalted ,his memorial for ever and ever40 ,as imperfect as is our conception of a creation from nothing1 so imperfect is our notion of the resurrection of the dead4 ,we only perceive the dissolution of the body into its elements1 which enter into new combinations and form new bodies2 and it is almost impossible for us to imagine a reconstruction of the original body out of its own elements4 ,there is no doubt that the ,almighty produces fresh life from death--we need only observe the action of ,nature in the world around us to convince ourselves that ,god is 8that he gives life to things dead40 ,but how this will be done in reference to our own selves1 whether we shall enjoy the same life1 whether our future life will be an improved edition of the present one1 whether all will be restored to life1 or whether the new life after death will be enjoyed by the soul alone1 or by body and soul jointly3 these and similar questions transcend the bounds of human knowledge4 ,we know nothing but the bare fact that ,god can restore to life that which is dead1 and that a resurrection will take place4 ,but all further description of this event rests on man's imaginative powers4 ,the fact itself is stated by ,daniel 7xii4 #b73 8,and many of them that sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake1 some to everlasting life1 and some to shame and everlasting contempt20 it is indicated in the ,pentateuch in the words1 8,i shall kill and ,i shall make alive2 ,i have wounded and ,i shall heal0 7,deut4 xxxii4 #ci74 ,according to ,maimonides1 the author of the ,thirteen ,principles1 the doctrine of the resurrection of the dead is identical with that of the immortality of the soul1 calling the life of the soul after separation from the body1 resurrection2 the verse quoted from ,daniel is accordingly interpreted in a figurative sense4 ,the belief in 8the resurrection of the dead10 emphatically enjoined in the ,talmud1 was thus restricted by ,maimonides to the separate life of man's soul after his death1 because the immortality of the soul appeared to him more rational and more acceptable to thinking man4 ,this may be the case1 but we1 human beings1 a combination of soul and body1 are1 in reality1 as unable to conceive the separate existence of our soul as we are to comprehend the resurrection of our body4 ,we are taught that there exists for us a life beyond the present one4 ,but any attempt to describe that life must be considered merely as an act of imagination rather than of knowledge4 ,it is probably for this reason that no distinct ordinance in the ,pentateuch sanctioned the belief in future life1 or in the immortality of the soul4 ,the belief1 nevertheless1 existed among the ,israelites1 and found expression in several passages of the ,bible4 ,foremost among these is the following verse of ,koheleth 7xii4 #g73 8,and the dust shall return to the earth as it was1 and the spirit shall return unto ,god who gave it40 ,david also gives frequent expression to this belief in his ,psalms4 ,in the ,seventeenth ,psalm1 e4g41 he speaks with contempt of the wealth and the success of the wicked1 and says of himself3 8,as for me1 ,i shall see thy face in righteousness2 ,i shall be satisfied1 when ,i awake1 with beholding thy likeness0 7,ps4 xvii4 #ae74 ,similarly he says in ,ps4 xvi4 #h-aa3 8,i have set the ,lord always before me2 because he is at my right hand1 ,i shall not be moved4 ,therefore my heart is glad and my glory rejoiceth3 my flesh also shall dwell in safety4 ,for thou wilt not leave my soul to death1 neither wilt thou suffer thine holy one to see corruption4 ,thou wilt show me the path of life2 in thy presence is fulness of joy1 in thy right hand there are pleasures for evermore40 ,in the ,book of ,proverbs 7xii4 #bh7 we read3 8,in the path of righteousness there is life1 and a smoothed way where there is no death40 ,these and similar verses show that the belief in the immortality of the soul was firmly established among the ,israelites1 and found frequent expression in the words of the men of ,god4 ,the belief in the ,resurrection assists us in our endeavour of reconciling the apparent contradictions between the justice of ,god and our own experience4 ,the latter comprises only the transient pleasures of the wicked and the sufferings of the just in this short life1 and cannot be compared with the pleasure of the good and the suffering of the bad in the future1 eternal life4 ,another benefit derived from this belief consists in its raising us above the ordinary sphere of earthly gains and losses2 it turns our minds to higher aims2 it purifies our heart and elevates it4 ,opponents of this belief quote some passages from ,job in support of their view2 e4g43 8,before ,i go whence ,i shall not return1 even to the land of darkness and of the shadow of death0 7x4 #ba74 8,as the cloud is consumed and vanishes away1 so he that goeth down to the grave shall come up no more0 7vii4 #i74 ,these and similar words were uttered by ,job when he suffered great pain1 and wished1 as many would wish under similar circumstances1 to be relieved by death from his momentary troubles1 unconcerned as to what might happen in distant future4 ,besides1 ,job is not an ,israelite2 he is described as a man just and upright1 but need not have had the same convictions and beliefs as the ,israelites4 ,how little the above verses represent the exact view of ,job may be learnt from the fact that he gives also expression to the opposite belief3 8,if a man dieth1 will he live again8 ,all the days of my appointed time will ,i wait1 till my relief cometh0 7xiv4 #ad74 8,and when my skin is gone1 when worms have destroyed this body1 and when my flesh is no more1 yet shall ,i see ,god0 7xix4 #bf74 ,,notes4 ,on page #ai sqq4 ,the ,number of the ,principles of our ,creed4--,the contents of our ,creed has its source in the ,bible2 there the ,principles are taught1 some directly1 others indirectly2 but they are neither formulated nor enumerated4 ,the most ancient declaration of faith is contained in the verse3 8,hear1 ,o ,israel1 the ,lord is our ,god2 the ,lord is ,one0 7,deut4 vi4 #d74 ,there is even a tradition 7,midrash ,rabboth ,gen4 ch4 xcviii47 that these words were first uttered by the sons of ,jacob1 when their father1 in the last hour of his life1 wished to know whether all his children were faithful to the inherited religion4 ,we repeat these words thrice a day1 in the morning and in the evening2 with these words on their lips the martyrs of our nation suffered death2 these words are the last which the pious ,israelite utters before 8his spirit returneth to him who hath given it40 ,when the ,israelites took possession of ,palestine1 at the solemn assembly between the mountains of ,gerizim and ,ebal1 they were not commanded to recite or sign a series of articles of faith1 but to declare their determination to obey the ,will of ,god as expressed in the ,torah4 ,this was also done by our forefathers when standing round ,sinai4 ,they declared1 8,all that the ,lord hath said1 will we do and hear0 7,exod4 xxiv4 #g74 ,when ,elijah on ,mount ,carmel had demonstrated the perverseness of the ,baal-worship1 the ,israelites declared1 8,the ,lord1 he is ,god40 ,jonah describes himself thus3 8,i am a ,hebrew2 and ,i fear the ,lord1 the ,god of the heavens1 who hath made the sea and the dry land0 7,jonah i4 #i74--;,also1 after the ,restoration in the days of ,zerubbabel1 ,ezra1 and ,nehemiah1 the ,jews were exhorted to act according to the words of the ,torah1 and they renewed their covenant with ,god in this respect1 but nothing is known of a declaration of belief1 of reciting or signing articles of faith4--,the struggle with the ,samaritans produced special legislation with regard to certain religious observances1 but there was no need for the formulation of a creed4 ,but care has been taken that the principles of our faith should find expression in our daily prayers4 ,thus the sections which precede and follow the ,shema contain an indirect declaration of the three fundamental principles of our religion1 the ,existence of the ,creator1 ,revelation1 and ,divine ,justice4 ,the first section1 called praises ,god as the sole source of everything1 of light and darkness1 of good and evil4 ,in the second section 7 7 we acknowledge in gratitude the benefits of ,revelation2 and in the third 7 7 we thank ,god for the redemption of our forefathers from ,egypt1 by inflicting punishment on our oppressors4 ,although much stress is laid on faith 771 and he who was found wanting in faith was stigmatised as or unbeliever or infidel1 yet no creed was officially formulated4 ,even the discussions between the ,sadducees and ,pharisees1 which concerned also the principles of faith1 brought only about certain changes in the prayer--such as the substitution of for in the responses of the congregation during the public service1 in order to establish the belief in the existence of another world and another life beyond the grave4 ,the necessity of formulating the principles of faith arose when the contact and intercourse with other religious communities gave frequent occasion to discussions on these and similar subjects4 ,without some fixed basis1 it was feared1 disorder and confusion would disturb the peace in the camp of ,israel4 ,thus ,saadiah says in ,emunoth ,ve-deoth3 8,i have seen men drowned1 as it were1 in the sea of doubts1 covered by the waves of error1 and there was no diver to bring them up from the depth1 nor any swimmer to take hold of them and draw them out4 ,as ,i possessed enough of what ,god taught me to support them1 and had the power for upholding them granted to me1 ,i considered it my duty to assist and guide my fellow-men according to the best of my abilities40 ,in ten chapters ,saadiah discusses the various theological problems1 and defends the following articles of faith3 ,existence of ,god2 ,his ,unity2 ,revelation2 ,free-will2 ,immortality of the ,soul2 ,resurrection of the ,dead2 ,final ,redemption of ,israel2 ,reward and ,punishment4 ,although these principles do not seem to have been shaped into the form of a solemn declaration or embodied in the prayer1 they are treated as themes familiar to the reader1 and as elements essential in the ,jewish faith 7 74 ,rabbi ,abraham ben ,david 7,rabad1 71 in his ,haemunah haramah 78,the ,lofty ,faith071 seems to assume three principles3 ,existence of ,god1 ,prophecy1 and ,reward and ,punishment1 which to defend from the attacks of the unbeliever1 he considers as the first duty of the ,jewish scholar 772 but he does not follow this decision in his book4 ,he comprises all religious truths which he has to demonstrate under six heads 774 ,the first of them he calls 8,root of the faith20 it expresses the conviction that all things in the universe owe their existence to a 8,first ,cause0--,god4 ,next comes 8,unity of ,god10 which is followed by 8,attributes of ,god10 8,the intermediate causes of natural changes40 8,prophecy0--or 1 8the subsequent belief10 i4e41 the belief which follows the belief in ,god--and 8,divine ,providence40 ,rabbi ,jehudah ha-levi explains to the ,kuzarite king his faith as follows3 8,we believe in the ,god of our forefathers1 who brought the ,israelites forth from ,egypt by signs and miracles1 sustained them in the wilderness with manna1 divided for them the sea and ,jordan1 gave them the ,law through ,moses1 exhorted them through ,his prophets to obey ,his commandments3 in short1 we believe all that is written in the ,torah0 7,kuzari1 i4 #h74 ,he then explains philosophically 8the root of the faith0 in the following ten propositions3 7#a7 ,the universe is finite2 7#b7 it had a beginning2 7#c7 the time of the beginning had to be determined by the ,divine ,being2 7#d7 ,god is without a beginning2 7#e7 ,god is eternal 7i4e41 without an end72 7#f7 incorporeal2 7#g7 omniscient2 7#h7 all-wise1 all-powerful1 living2 7#i7 free in ,his actions2 7#aj7 without change4 ,to these must be added the belief in prophecy1 in the truth of the prophecies1 and in man's free-will1 which he fully discusses in the course of the book4 ,rabbenu ,bachya1 in his 8,duties of the ,hearts0 7 71 considers also faith as one of these duties1 and expresses it in the most simple form1 8,belief in ,god and in ,his ,law40 ,he does not1 however1 devote a special chapter to faith4 ,the first chapter treats of the distinctively ,jewish creed of ,god's ,unity1 but less as a duty of belief than as a duty of research and study for the purpose of philosophically establishing that ,god is ,one4 ,the author states only briefly in the prefatory notes to the first chapter1 that it is our duty to believe in the ,existence1 ,providence1 and ,unity of ,god1 as commanded in the verse1 8,hear1 ,o ,israel1 the ,lord is our ,god1 the ,lord is ,one40 ,maimonides comprehended our belief in thirteen articles1 known as the ,thirteen ,principles of our ,creed4 ,he insists on the fact that these articles are not the product of chance2 they are the result of long study and deep research4 ,every one of them is essential1 and he who rejects any of them is an infidel 771 and puts himself by such rejection outside the ,jewish community 7 74 ,rabbi ,joseph ,albo criticised ,maimonides' thirteen articles of faith 774 ,whilst recognising all of them as true1 he would make a difference between fundamental principles 77 and secondary beliefs 774 ,the former are all those dogmas by which ,judaism falls and stands1 without which ,jewish faith cannot be imagined2 the latter are those principles which are actually true1 but ,judaism can be conceived without them4 ,to the former he counts1 e4g41 the belief in the existence of ,god1 to the latter the belief that to ,him alone prayer is to be offered4 ,for ,judaism cannot be conceived without the belief in ,god's existence1 but could be conceived without the belief that only ,god is to be prayed to4 ,albo further finds fault with ,maimonides for not having embodied in the ,creed the belief in man's free-will1 in the truth of the ,biblical account of the miracles1 in the ,creatio ex nihilo1 and the like4 ,to these objections ,maimonides would reply1 that the articles enumerated by him were all actually fundamental1 the question whether ,judaism could be imagined without this or that principle being of no importance whatever2 and that the dogmas named by ,albo as omitted1 were implied in the ,thirteen ,principles4 ,according to ,albo there are three fundamental principles 773 ,existence of ,god1 ,revelation1 and ,reward and ,punishment4 ,the first includes four articles 773 ,unity of ,god1 ,his ,incorporeality1 ,eternity1 and ,perfection2 the second implies three3 ,god's ,omniscience1 ,divine inspiration1 and ,divine messengers 7prophets72 the third only one3 ,providence4 ,albo's criticisms on ,maimonides have passed away without effect4 ,the ,principles of ,faith as formulated by ,maimonides have found their way into the daily ,prayer-book in prose and poetry1 and have since formed an essential element in every text-book of ,jewish religion4 ,modern theologians erroneously quote ,albo in favour of rejecting some of the articles1 because he speaks of three fundamental principles2 but they forget that ,albo never rejects any of the thirteen principles2 he only insists on making a difference between those which are more and those which are less fundamental4 ,on the ,first ,principle1 pp4 #bb sqq4 ,maimonides does not mention the term ,creator except in the beginning of each paragraph as a substitute for 8,god40 ,he employs the philosophical term 8,first ,cause0 in defining the existence of ,god4 ,in the sixty-ninth chapter of the first book of 8,the ,guide0 we find the explanation thereof4 ,he says3 8,the philosophers1 as you know1 call ,god the ,first ,cause 7 and 72 but those who are known by the name ,mutakallemim 7,mohammedan theologians7 are very much opposed to the use of that name1 and prefer to call ,him #8,maker' 771 believing that there is a great difference whether we use the one term or the other4 ,they argue thus3 ,those who say that ,god is the ,cause1 implicitly assume the coexistence of the ,cause with that which was produced by that ,cause1 and believe that the universe is eternal1 and that it is inseparable from ,god4 ,those1 however1 who say that ,god is the ,maker do not assume the coexistence of the maker with his work2 for the maker can exist anterior to his work2 we cannot even imagine how a maker can be in action unless he existed before his own work4 ,this is an argument advanced by persons who do not distinguish between the potential and the actual4 ,for there is no difference whether we say #8cause' or #8maker2' #8cause' as a mere potentiality precedes its effect2 and #8cause' as actuality coexists with its effect4 ,the same is the case with #8maker2' so long as the work is not done1 he is a maker potentially1 and exists before his work2 he is an actual maker when the work is done1 and then he coexists with his work40 8,the reason why the philosophers called ,god #8the ,cause' and did not call ,him #8the ,maker' is not to be sought in their belief that the universe is eternal1 but in other principles1 which ,i will briefly explain to you4 ,everything owes its origin to the following four causes3 the substance1 the form1 the agens1 the final cause4 ,the philosophers believe--and ,i do not differ from them--that ,god is the agens1 the form1 and the final cause of everything2 in order to express this1 they call ,god #8the ,cause' of all things4 ,every one of these three causes leads1 through a chain of causes1 to ,god as the ,first ,cause40 ,maimonides further points out in this chapter that the choice of the term by no means decides the question whether the universe has had a beginning or not4 ,maimonides has been severely criticised by his successors for the absence of the belief in 8,creation from nothing0 from the ,creed4 ,in 8,the ,guide0 ,maimonides distinctly states that the arguments for 8,creation from nothing0 and the arguments against it are equi-balanced1 and that for this reason he follows the literal interpretation of the ,scripture as regards ,creation4 ,were the arguments in favour of the eternity of the universe stronger1 he would not have found any difficulty in interpreting ,scripture accordingly4 ,such being the view of our great philosopher1 he could not make the belief in ,creation part of the ,creed1 or declare that all who denied the ,creation from nothing were unbelievers4 ,however strange this argumentation of ,maimonides may appear1 and however arbitrary his treatment of ,scriptural teaching1 his view is not without justification4 ,it seems strange that1 in spite of all his reverence for the ,bible1 he should have entrusted himself entirely to the guidance of his own reason1 and forced1 as it were1 the ,bible by peculiar interpretations to follow his reasoning4 ,in truth1 however1 the method of ,maimonides is neither strange nor arbitrary4 ,there is no doubt that figurative language is extensively used in the ,scriptures1 especially in the poetical and the prophetical books4 ,whether a certain expression or phrase was to be understood in its literal meaning or in a figurative sense must be learnt from the context2 in some cases--as1 e4g41 in the exhortation1 8,ye shall circumcise the foreskin of your heart0 7,deut4 x4 #af7--the figurative sense is accepted by all1 whilst in other cases opinions are divided4 ,our decision in favour of the one interpretation or the other is based on our conviction that the ,bible contains nothing but truth4 ,when we discover a contradiction between a ,biblical statement and the dictates of our reason1 we are sure that we have erred either in the right understanding of the words of the ,bible or in our reasoning4 ,on finding the mistake in our reasoning we abandon what we have hitherto considered as fully established2 but so long as we are unable to discover where our reasoning is faulty1 we either suspend our judgment for the present and consider the question as one of the problems which we have not yet been able to solve satisfactorily1 or1 whenever possible1 we attempt to reconcile by figurative interpretation the teaching of the ,bible with the results of our research4 ,maimonides is therefore justified in saying that so long as reason does not decide against the teaching of the ,bible in its literal sense he would adhere to the latter1 and only if reason were to decide against the ,creatio ex nihilo1 he would follow reason and interpret ,scripture accordingly4 ,it cannot be denied that ,maimonides travelled here on rather slippery ground1 and set a dangerous example when he admitted that he would interpret ,scripture according to his preconceived view of the world's beginning4 ,but1 on the other hand1 it must be owned that many passages of the ,bible admit of a figurative interpretation1 and the reader must follow his own reason and discretion in deciding in each particular case which of the two interpretations is the correct one4 ,maimonides has not made excessive use of this license4 ,saadiah in his ,emunoth ,ve-deoth devotes the first chapter to the problem of the ,creation4 ,it is headed 8,creation10 and examines thirteen different opinions as to the origin of the universe4 ,in the conclusion of this chapter he makes the following remarks3 8,perhaps some one might ask in what manner something was produced from nothing4 ,to this we reply as follows3 ,if we were able to understand this1 we should not have ascribed the creative act to ,god alone4 ,but we declare ,god as the only ,creator1 because we can form no idea as to the manner in which something is created from nothing4 ,those who desire us to show them how to do this1 desire1 in fact1 that we should make them and ourselves creators4 ,we only conceive in our mind the fact of the ,creation1 but cannot form an idea or image of the process itself4444 ,there may be some who think little of the universe1 and wonder that this should be the result of all the power and wisdom of ,god4 ,we reply that ,he created as much as1 according to ,his knowledge1 would be within the range of man's observation and perception1 and would be sufficient to teach man the existence of ,god4444 ,how can we conceive the idea that the universe counts only #dfcc years8 ,but the universe has been created1 as we believe1 and must have had a beginning at a certain time4 ,suppose we had been living in the year #ajj2 we should then not have been surprised3 why should we be surprised now80 ,the question as to the purpose for which the universe was created1 ,saadiah makes three attempts to answer4 ,maimonides1 however1 in 8,the ,guide10 more correctly1 shows that the question is unanswerable and superfluous4 ,for1 whatever purpose we assume1 we must always further inquire what is the purpose of this purpose1 and so on ad infinitum1 till we arrive at the answer1 it was the ,will of ,god4 ,if the prophet declares that ,god 8hath not created it in vain1 but hath formed it for dwelling10 he likewise says implicitly it was the ,will of ,god that the earth should be for a dwelling4 ,the question1 however1 arises whether the ,biblical account of the ,creation harmonises in all its parts with the results of scientific research4 ,to prove the existence of harmony between the two discordant elements has been since days of old the task which theologians proposed to themselves2 philosophic culture forced them to accept the doctrines of a certain school of thought as established truths1 whilst religious feeling would not allow them to abandon the teaching of the inspired writers4 ,but the search after this harmony was superfluous1 and the harmony found was illusory4 ,for1 whilst the teaching of the ,bible remains unchanged1 the systems of philosophy and science1 like everything human1 have no claim to permanency2 each system has its season2 it begins to shine1 and rises higher and higher2 and when it has reached the zenith1 it begins steadily to decline till it disappears beneath the horizon of science4 ,so long as ,aristotle and ,ptolemy were dominant1 theologians exerted themselves to show that the account contained in the first chapter of ,genesis fully harmonises with ,aristotle and ,ptolemy4 ,when these princes were dethroned1 and their places were occupied by others1 the old harmony was gone1 and a new method had to be invented4 ,maimonides has clearly pointed out how the conflict between reason and faith1 where it existed1 could best be brought to a conclusion4 ,such of the laws of nature as have been established by human acumen and human observation have been discovered in the phenomena of existing nature2 but the phenomenon of creation has never been observed in nature from which we could learn the laws of creation4 ,in the seventeenth chapter of the ,second ,book of 8,the ,guide0 ,maimonides says as follows3 8,everything produced comes into existence from non-existence2 even when the substance of a thing has been in existence1 and has only changed its form1 the thing itself which has gone through the process of genesis and development1 after having arrived at its final state1 has properties different from those which it possessed at the commencement of the transition from potentiality to reality or before that time4444 ,it is quite impossible to infer from the qualities which a thing possesses after having passed through all the stages of its development what its condition was at the moment when this process commenced2 nor does the condition of a thing at that moment show what its previous condition had been4 ,if you make this mistake1 and attempt to prove the nature of a thing in potential existence by its properties when actually existing1 you will fall into great confusion2 you will reject evident truth and admit false opinions4444 ,if philosophers would consider this well1 and reflect on it1 they would find that it represents exactly the dispute between ,aristotle and ourselves4 ,we1 the followers of ,moses1 our teacher1 and of ,abraham1 our father1 believe that the universe has been produced from nothing1 and has developed in a certain manner1 and that it has been created in a certain order4 ,the ,aristotelians oppose us1 and found their objections on the properties which the things in the universe possess when in actual existence and fully developed4 ,we admit the existence of these properties1 but hold that these properties themselves have come into existence from absolute non-existence4 ,the arguments of our opponents are thus refuted2 they have demonstrative force only against those who hold that the nature of things as at present in existence proves the ,creation4 ,but this is not my opinion40 ,this reasoning holds good with regard to the modern theory of ,evolution4 ,we may be able to discover numerous facts in evidence of this theory1 we may well conceive the idea of a protoplasm developing into a whole system of worlds1 and yet our belief in the truth of the ,biblical account of the ,creation is not shaken in the least4 ,the laws of ,evolution are the result of the creative act of the ,almighty1 and not its causes2 they include nothing that could disprove the correctness of the theory of ,creatio ex nihilo4 ,rabbi ,s4 ,r4 ,hirsch1 in his 8,commentary on ,genesis0 7i47 says3 8,the word #8in the beginning1' teaches that nothing preceded the act of ,creation2 that there was a ,creatio ex nihilo4 ,this truth forms the foundation of the faith which the ,divine ,law is intended to establish in our hearts4 ,the opposite theory is the doctrine of the eternity of the substance1 a theory which leaves to the ,creator nothing but the function of giving form to the substance that has existed already from eternity1 and which has been the basis of the heathen belief up to the present day4444 ,the first word of the ,torah dispels the darkness of this false belief2 and the words1 #8,the opening of thy word giveth light' 7,ps4 cxix4 #acj71 have in the ,midrash correctly been applied to the word 4 ,everything1 the matter and the form of all beings1 is the result of the free will of the ,creator1 who continues to rule matter and form1 and to determine both the natural forces and the laws of their action4 ,for it is ,his free will that created matter1 endowed it with certain forces1 and fixed the laws by which the forces impress the different forms on it40 ,the idea of development and evolution is not entirely excluded from the account of the ,creation4 ,not in one moment or in one day was the universe produced1 but in six days by successive creations of a systematic order4 ,in ,mishnah ,aboth 7v4 #a7 this is expressed in the following way3 8,by ten words 77 the universe was created1 although this could have been done by one word40 ,commentators have variously attempted to explain this fact1 and to show that the order observed in the ,creation was determined by the nature of the things themselves4 ,thus ,ibn ,ezra believes that the successive creations were the results of the continued action of light and heat4 #ai ,but it is by no means necessary to reconcile the ,biblical account with every theory that happens to be considered by some scholar or school as the right one4 ,there may be found in nature and in the working of the natural laws some facts analogous to certain acts of the creation2 but a perfect equality of two such incongruent things as the creation from nothing and development of created beings is impossible4 ,by forcing the text of the ,bible into such harmony we deprive the account of its poetry and beauty1 and weaken the force of its teaching4 ,science teaches that millions of millions of years must have elapsed before the earth received its present form2 that it took millions of years before the light of certain stars could reach the earth4 ,in all these calculations one important factor is ignored1 viz41 that for every development something must be given1 which is subject to the process of developing2 to determine in what condition that something was1 when it passed from the passive state of creation to the active state of developing1 is a problem for the solution of which there is no analogy in nature4 ,he who could create a germ endowed with all the natural forces required for development and differentiation into the great variety of forms which we perceive at present1 must certainly have been able to create the things actually endowed with these forms4 ,thus1 also1 the various strata of the earth1 whatever forms they contain1 cannot with certainty be described as the results of development2 they may just as well have come directly from the hand of the ,creator4 ,maimonides 7,the ,guide1 xxx47 says in reference to this question3 8,you should also know the dictum of our ,sages--#8,all the beings of the work in the beginning 7 7 were created in their full height1 their fully developed reason1 and endowed with the best of properties4' ,note this1 for it involves an important principle4--,the work of the ,creation went on for six days2 every day brought to light a new force1 a new result of a creative action1 but on the seventh day #8,god declared #bj the work which ,he had done as finished1' as endowed with the properties and forces required for their further development0 7,the ,guide1 ,i4 lxvii474 ,science has proved1 it is maintained1 that the earth does not form the centre of the universe1 and that man does not form the principal object in nature1 in opposition to the teaching of the ,scriptures that the earth is the centre round which the whole universe revolves1 and that man on earth is the lord of the creation4 ,whatever view the authors of the ,biblical books held as regards the systems of the universe1 whether they placed the earth in the centre or not1 whether all the stars and systems of stars existed1 in their opinion1 only for the sake of the earth or for the benefit of man1 their object was to address man1 to instruct him1 and to teach him the omnipotence1 wisdom1 and goodness of ,god4 ,for this reason the account of the ,creation is given in such a manner that man should be able to reproduce in his mind the work of each day of the ,creation1 to view it from his standpoint1 and to recognise the benefits each day's work bestowed on him4 ,the fact that other beings are benefited at the same time1 and that the benefit they derive is likewise part of the ,creator's design1 is by no means denied by those who believe that the well-being of man was included in the design of the ,creator4 ,it is part of our duty of gratitude to ascribe the benefits we enjoy to their ,author4 ,the prophets and the inspired singers knew well the place which weak and mortal man occupies in the universe2 but they did not ignore the dignity and importance with which the ,creator endowed him in spite of all his weakness and apparent insignificance4 8,what is man10 exclaims the ,psalmist1 8that thou art mindful of him8 and the son of man1 that thou visitest him8 ,and yet thou hast made him a little lower than angels1 and hast crowned him with glory and honour0 7,ps4 viii4 #e1 #f74 ,on the ,fifth ,principle1 p4 #dd4 ,the principle that no other being but ,god is worthy of being addressed in prayer implies the belief that ,god can fulfil our petitions4 ,we believe in the efficacy of prayer4 ,it is true that when we communicate our wishes to the ,most ,holy1 our just ,lord and our loving ,father1 we are eo ipso reminded to examine our desires1 whether they contain anything unholy1 anything unjust or ignoble4 ,prayer to ,god has therefore the salutary effect of purifying1 refining1 and ennobling our heart4 ,it banishes evil thoughts1 and thus saves us much pain and sorrow4 ,this effect may have been designed by the ,creator1 and it may be for this purpose that ,he has endowed us with a natural impulse to pray1 and has taught us to pray in ,his ,holy ,word4 ,but this cannot be the direct object of prayer4 ,the immediate effect sought to be obtained by this act is the fulfilment of our wishes4 ,every such fulfilment implies a miracle1 a deviation from the regular course of nature4 ,we are not in the habit of praying for things which we expect as the sure result of the natural laws2 we may praise and admire nature in its workings1 but we shall never ask nature for the fulfilment of our desires4 ,only those things which we believe to be dependent solely on the free decision of the ,supreme ,being can form the substance of our petitions2 and since we believe that everything1 the regular working of the natural laws not excepted1 depends on the ,will of ,god1 we include in the objects of prayer whatever concerns the well-being of individual man and society at large4 ,there have been thinkers that formed such an idea of ,god that they were compelled to deny ,him every direct influence on human affairs4 ,some thought it incompatible with the notion of ,god's ,unity and ,immutability that ,he should be moved by man's prayer to do something which otherwise ,he would not have done4 ,again1 others believe that the laws of nature--whether given by ,god or not--are so permanent that they never change under any circumstances4 ,prayer has therefore been explained to be of a purely subjective character1 and to effect only the above-mentioned improvement of man's heart4 ,but could we really pray to ,god to grant us the one thing or the other if we were convinced that ,he cannot grant us anything1 but must allow nature to take its course8 ,can a prayer offered in such a frame of mind be called a 8prayer without lips of deceit08 ,in opposition to such theories our teachers purposely introduced into the daily prayer here and there a reminder of the true theory in words like the following3 8,who repeateth anew every day regularly the work of the ,creation40 ,he is constantly 1 1 2 ,he constantly 8formeth light10 8createth darkness10 8giveth life to the dead10 c42 they have expressed our gratitude to ,god 8for ,his miracles which in our behalf ,he performs every day1 and for ,his wonders and kindnesses shown at all times40 8,this idea of ,god's real and active rule in the universe is the basis of prayer4 ,it is not only the belief in the truth of the ,biblical account of miracles that enables us to pray to our ,father1 but the conviction that wonders and miracles are constantly wrought by ,him4 ,in the ,talmud and in the ,midrash man's earning his daily bread 77 is declared to be a miracle by no means inferior to the miracles wrought for the deliverance of the ,israelites from ,egypt4--#8,is need greatest1 is ,god nearest1' is a well-known saying1 the truth of which many have experienced in the course of their life4 ,those who have been dangerously ill1 and after having found that man1 with all his science and resources1 was incapable of affording relief1 gradually recover their former health2 those who have shared with others a common danger1 and while their companions1 under exactly the same circumstances1 perished1 were themselves saved2 those who1 having exhausted every means conceivable to them of obtaining a livelihood1 at length find a new path of subsistence opened to them3 all these have experienced the ,divine help and ,his nearness in their distress2 they have learnt to recognise the miraculous power of ,providence4 ,but it is not only in such extraordinary events that the finger of ,god is seen2 to him who has eyes to see they appear daily and hourly4 ,we are exposed to many dangers1 the existence of which we frequently only learn when we are safe2 we escape them by a miracle40 #ba ,the ,immutability of ,god and of ,his decrees is frequently insisted upon in ,scripture4 8,i1 the ,lord1 ,i change not0 7,mal4 iii4 #f74 8,god is not a man1 that he should lie2 neither the son of man1 that he should repent0 7,num4 xxiii4 #ai74 8,the ,strength of ,israel will not lie nor repent2 for he is not a man1 that he should repent0 7#a ,sam4 xv4 #bi74 8,and he hath established them for ever and ever3 he hath made a decree1 and it shall not pass away0 7,ps4 cxlviii4 #f74--,this immutability1 however1 does not interfere with the free-will of man and its consequences4 ,the teaching of the ,bible is beautifully expressed in the well-known sentence3 8,repentance1 prayer1 and good deeds remove the evil of the divine decree0 7,musaf of ,rosh ha-shanah72 whatever a man has forfeited by evil deeds1 he may recover by prayer and improved conduct4 ,this lesson is taught in the ,bible on every page1 and is illustrated by the history of ,israel4 ,for this reason the prophets were sent to the people of ,israel to exhort them1 and to show them how they could1 by means of repentance1 ward off the impending catastrophe4 ,to non-,israelites the same mercy was extended1 as is shown by the history of the mission of the prophet ,jonah4--,mishnah ,aboth 7iv4 #ac7 therefore declares1 8,repentance and good deeds are like a shield against punishment10 4 ,the seeming incongruity of the two principles1 ,god's immutability and man's hope for mercy and pardon from ,god1 has to some extent occupied the attention of our ancient teachers4 8,if our condition for a whole year is determined in advance1 what is the good of our daily prayers and our supplication for ,god's help in times of trouble80 ,such is the question asked in the ,babylonian ,talmud1 ,rosh ha-shanah 7#af;a71 and the answer is given1 8,prayer is of good effect both before the decree and afterwards40 ,it is always in the power and in the will of the ,almighty to accede to our petitions and to fulfil our wishes4 ,the question has since been repeated frequently1 but no better solution has as yet been supplied4 ,abraham1 who was the first teacher of monotheism1 has also been made by tradition the father of prayer4 ,in the ,biblical account he is the first who uttered a prayer2 a prayer in the true sense of the word1 not for himself1 but for his fellow-men4 ,the words of ,cain1 8,my punishment is greater than ,i can bear10 have not the character of prayer1 nor can the 8calling by the name of ,god0 in the age of ,enosh be considered with certainty as an expression of prayer4 ,tradition relates1 therefore1 that before ,abraham there was no one that called ,god by the name 8,lord40 ,abraham was the first who recognised ,god as ,lord of man1 in whose hand his fate lies1--the condition sine qu non of prayer4 ,from ,abraham onwards prayer remained the chief refuge in danger1 and the best1 solace and relief in time of trouble4 ,whilst1 however1 insisting on the belief in the efficacy of prayer1 our ,sages teach us that it would be wrong to expect that every petition uttered before ,god must be granted4 ,we pray to the ,almighty1 being convinced that it is in ,his power to grant what we pray for2 but we must trust in the wisdom and mercy of ,god1 that the rejection of our petition is also for our good4 8,he is near to all those who call on him1 to all those that call on him in truth10 who continue to trust in ,him and ,his goodness even when their wishes are not fulfilled4 ,it would be almost equal to superstition to believe that any words1 however earnest and devout1 uttered by us will infallibly have the desired effect4 ,the ,mishnah 7,aboth ii4 #ac7 therefore teaches3 8,do not make thy prayer a fixed claim or demand1 which must be fulfilled1 but a supplication for mercy1 which may or may not be granted40 ,the belief that the prayer will undoubtedly be fulfilled is denounced in the ,talmud as 8,looking out with certainty for the effect of the prayer40 #bb ,since the principal object of prayer is the granting of our petitions1 prayer will be superfluous when no wants will any longer be felt1 8,in future prayers will be discontinued20 only 8,the prayer of thanksgiving will never be discontinued40 8,in the enjoyment of the purest blessings our feelings of gratitude will never die out0 7,yalkut on ,ps4 lvi474 ,rabbi ,joseph ,albo1 in the book ,ikkarim1 says 7,,iv4 xvi473 8,although ,prayer is not one of the principles of our ,torah1 it is intimately connected with the belief in ,providence1 and every one who believes in ,providence ought to believe in the efficacy of prayer4 ,for he who does not pray to ,god in time of trouble either does not believe in ,divine ,providence1 or if he does believe1 he doubts whether ,god is able to supply his wants2 in both cases man is an unbeliever4 ,it is also possible that a person who believes in ,divine ,providence and in ,god's ,omnipotence doubts whether he deserves that his prayer should be granted--a feeling of humility which ought indeed to fill the heart of every person--but this idea must not prevent him altogether from praying to ,god concerning his wants4 ,if he does not pray from this reason1 he may believe in ,god's justice1 but he does not believe in ,his mercy and kindness4 ,it is also contrary to the teaching of the ,bible4 #8,not relying on our righteousness do we offer our supplication before you1 but on your great mercy6' ,for the benefits bestowed by ,god on ,his creatures are acts of love1 not of recompense4444 ,man receives benefits1 whether he is entitled to them or not1 because prayer gives him a qualification which he does not possess by nature1 and enables him to receive such good things as could not be obtained from any other being or through any other means4444 8,there are some who doubt the efficacy of prayer2 they argue thus3 ,we must assume that a certain good thing has been either decreed or not decreed in favour of a certain person3 if it has been decided1 prayer is not wanted2 and if it has not been decided1 how can prayer effect a change in the ,will of ,god1 who is unchangeable8 ,neither righteousness in action1 nor prayer1 is of any avail in procuring any good thing that has not been ordained1 or in escaping any evil that has been decreed4 ,this is also the argument of ,job in chap4 xxi4 ,but the answer to these arguments is this3 ,whatever may have been decreed1 certain conditions must be fulfilled before the decree is executed4 ,if a good harvest is decreed to a certain person1 he must plough and sow before he can secure such a harvest2 if punishment is decreed against him1 the punishment is not inflicted in the absence of continued and repeated sinning4 ,the history of ,king ,ahab shows that the evil decreed against any sinner takes no effect if the sinner repents and is turned into another man4 ,the change that takes place in man himself is the direct effect of prayer and righteousness2 it prepares and qualifies him for receiving benefits and protection from evil4 ,our ,sages say therefore3 ,prayer has its good effect both before and after the ,divine decree4 ,the ,immutability of ,god is not less consistent with ,efficacy of ,prayer than it is with ,his knowledge of things which are possible1 and may happen or may not happen4 ,god and ,his knowledge being unchangeable1 everything must be certain and nothing merely possible4 ,and yet we are convinced of the existence of these things1 and believe at the same time in the ,immutability of ,god's knowledge4 ,in the same manner we are convinced of the ,efficacy of ,prayer without doubting the ,immutability of ,god's ,will40 ,on ,revelation1 p4 #df4 ,the term 8prophet0 only expressed the prophet's function of addressing his fellow-men when inspired and impelled by the ,spirit of the ,lord4 ,the verb 8to prophesy0 is therefore in ,hebrew expressed by the nifal or passive4 ,in so far as the ,word of ,god has been revealed to him he is called 1 and 8,seer10 8,man of ,god10 8,the inspired40 ,in the time of ,samuel the title was generally given to the prophet instead of 7#a ,sam4 ix4 #i71 as his advice was also sought by many who believed him to be able to foresee coming events and to know everything4 ,as1 however1 the word only describes the prophet as addressing his fellow-men1 it is used both of the true and the false prophets1 and also of teachers and preachers generally4 ,the ,targum on the ,prophets 7,jer4 xxix4 #ae2 ,isa4 xxix4 #aj7 renders1 therefore1 the term in some instances3 8teachers10 8scholars40 ,the enthusiasm manifested by the prophet in his mode of address1 or in his endurance of insult and ill-treatment1 made him sometimes appear in the eyes of the public as though he were struck with madness1 so that scoffers used and 8mad10 as synonyms 7,jer4 xxix4 #bf71 and is both one who acts as a prophet and one who imitates the appearance of a prophet 7#a ,sam4 xviii4 #aj74 ,the false prophets are divided by ,jeremiah into three classes3 there were those who were guilty of a direct plagiarism1 preaching the ,divine messages of the true prophets and describing them as their own inspiration4 ,there were others who plagiarised and reproduced true prophecies in a form and style of their own1 and others again who altogether invented dreams and visions4 ,the principal test for distinguishing between the true and the false prophets was the purity of moral and religious conduct4 ,in matters wholly indifferent as regards morality and religion the prophet was believed after having established his trustworthiness in some way or other1 and his advice was acted upon4 ,the prophet himself could easily detect the fraud of a false prophet2 for what he was commanded by ,god to do1 another prophet could not1 speaking in the name of the same ,god1 order not to be done4 ,the prophet1 therefore1 who deceitfully induced 8the man of ,god0 to return to ,beth-el by the very way which the word of ,god had forbidden him to go again 7#a ,kings xiii4 #ah71 could not have been a true prophet1 although he was subsequently entrusted with a ,divine message for 8the man of ,god40 ,bileam was likewise for a certain purpose made the bearer of ,god's words1 although he was by no means a good man4 ,in either case the sinful intention of the false prophet was stigmatised as contrary to the ,will of the ,most ,high1 and both had1 as it were1 to own the wickedness of their intention or the wrong of their actions4 ,the subject-matter of the prophecy is called 8the vision10 8the word of ,god10 or 8the burden of the word of ,god40 ,in the days of ,jeremiah the term 8burden of the ,lord0 seems to have been used contemptuously of the prophetic utterances in the sense of 8trouble0 and 8strife0 7comp4 ,deut4 i4 #ab71 and the prophet was ironically asked by the people1 8,what is the burden of the ,lord80 ,jeremiah exhorts them to say1 8,what hath the ,lord answered thee80 or 8,what hath the ,lord spoken80 8,but the burden of the ,lord shall ye remember no more2 for the burden shall be the man's to whom ,his word is brought0 7,jer4 xxiii4 #cf74 ,on the ,sixth ,principle1 p4 #aca4 ,saadiah in ,emunoth ve-deoth iii4 says3 8,some men believe that we have no need of prophets1 our reason being able to distinguish between good and evil4 ,but if this were the case1 ,god would not have sent messengers to us1 because ,he does not do a thing that is purposeless4 ,i considered the question thoroughly1 and found that the mission of the prophets was necessary1 not only for the promulgation of categorical commands1 but also for that of rational precepts4 ,thus the duty of thanksgiving to ,god for ,his goodness is dictated by our own reason1 but the ,divine messengers had to fix the time and the form of thanksgiving4 ,again1 adultery is rejected by our reason as a crime2 but the ,divine teaching determines the conditions of the bond that unites man and wife4444 8,as a test of the prophet's truthfulness and trustworthiness a sign is given1 which consists of an act implying a deviation from the ordinary laws of nature 7comp4 ,exod4 iii4 and iv474 ,the ,israelites are therefore frequently reminded of #8the great wonders which their eyes saw' 7,deut4 vii4 #ai74 ,those who believed after the sign was given were #8the righteous1' whilst those who did not believe #8went astray4' 444 8,the object of #8the wonders' was to produce belief in the prophecies2 except for such a purpose as this1 the regular course of ,nature is not disturbed1 so that man can make his plans and arrange his affairs on the basis of the continuance of the laws of ,nature4 ,the messengers sent by ,god were not angels1 but men like ourselves1 in order that the force of the sign may be more apparent2 for1 seeing that beings like ourselves perform things which we cannot perform1 we conclude that a higher ,being has endowed them with extraordinary power for a special purpose4 ,if1 however1 angels had been chosen for the task of prophets1 we should not have considered their performance as signs2 but1 not knowing the nature of angels1 we should have thought that such acts were within the regular and natural powers of angels4 ,prophets1 like other human beings1 cannot dispense with the regular functions of the organs of their body2 they are subject to the different conditions of health2 to poverty1 ill-treatment on the part of their fellow-men1 and to ignorance about future events1 except those communicated to them by ,divine inspiration4--,i found it necessary to state this here1 because there are people who believe that the prophet does not die like ordinary people2 others deny him the sensation of hunger and thirst2 others again think that he does not suffer from violence and wrong directed against him1 and some even believe that nothing is hidden from him4 ,these #8do not know the thoughts of the ,lord1 and do not understand ,his counsel4' 8,it is1 further1 my conviction that the prophets were satisfied1 by some extraordinary supernatural phenomena1 that they were addressed by the ,almighty4 7,comp4 ,exod4 xxxiii4 #i and ,ps4 xcix4 #g3 #8,in a pillar of cloud he speaketh to them4'7 8,as to the relation of the ,egyptian ,magicians to ,moses1 we are informed that ten miracles were wrought by ,moses and only three by the ,magicians4 ,even these three were only mentioned in order to show the difference between ,moses and the ,magicians4 ,moses acted openly1 the ,magicians secretly2 the effect of ,moses' doing was felt throughout the whole country1 that of the ,magicians only in a limited space4444 8,some one might ask1 #8,how could ,jonah have been chosen for his mission8 ,wisdom would forbid us to appoint for an important mission a messenger that is disobedient4' ,but ,i have examined the ,book of ,jonah1 and have not found any statement as regards the disobedience of ,jonah4 ,on the contrary1 ,i assume that he1 like all prophets1 brought the ,divine message to the ,ninevites4 ,we frequently find in the ,pentateuch4 #8,speak to the children of ,israel and tell them1' and we assume that ,moses told the ,israelites1 although this is not distinctly mentioned4 ,the reason why ,jonah fled is this3 the first message which he actually brought to the inhabitants of ,nineveh contained simply a summons to repentance4 ,he feared that he would be again sent to threaten with punishment if they did not return2 and if they returned and the threatened catastrophe did not occur1 they might in course of time begin to doubt the veracity of his words4 ,he therefore left the land1 which was distinguished as the land of prophecy 7,jonah iv4 #b740 ,rabbi ,jehudah ha-levi1 in the book ,cuzari 7,v4 xii471 describes prophecy as an extraordinary gift granted by the ,almighty to such human beings as are qualified for it by the highest degree of intellectual development1 moral conduct1 and an earnest desire for communion with ,god4 ,such qualification is found only in a few privileged individuals--8the heart of mankind0 7 7--who1 as it were1 possess it as an inheritance transmitted from generation to generation1 but it can only be possessed or acquired under certain favourable conditions1 e4g41 that the prophet live in ,palestine1 the land of prophecy1 or have his attention directed to ,palestine 7,i4 xcv474 ,it was1 however1 necessary that mankind should derive a benefit from the revelations made to the prophets4 ,all had to learn that it was possible for a human being to receive a direct communication from ,god4 ,this lesson was given when the ,israelites stood round ,mount ,sinai1 and suddenly became prophets4 ,for1 although the ,israelites believed in the ,divine mission of ,moses after he had done many wonderful deeds1 there remained yet a doubt in their minds whether ,god could speak to man1 and whether the ,torah did not originate in the plans and schemes of human beings1 which by the help and assistance of ,god developed to perfection2 for it seemed strange to them to ascribe speech1 which is corporeal1 to a spiritual being4 ,it is this doubt which ,god intended to remove from their hearts2 they were therefore commanded to sanctify themselves inwardly and outwardly1 whereby they were prepared for the condition of prophets and for hearing the words of ,god which were to be directly addressed to them4 ,after a preparation of three days they received the ,decalogue1 not from any prophet or other person1 but from ,god ,himself4 ,but they felt their weakness and their inability to witness such a great sight again4 ,they were convinced that the ,torah was communicated by ,god to ,moses1 and was not the result of human invention2 that prophecy does not consist in the union of the soul of man with the active intellect1 in his attaining to great wisdom1 or in his mistaking his own words for the words of ,god4 ,such erroneous opinions were refuted by the revelation on ,mount ,sinai4--,but1 objects the king of the ,cuzarites1 to believe that ,god spoke to the ,israelites and wrote the ,decalogue on the tables of stone amounts to believing in a corporeification of the ,deity4--,to which objection the following reply is given3--8,far be it from us to think that the ,torah contains anything contrary to reason4 ,the ,decalogue commences with the commandment to believe in ,god1 and prohibits in the second commandment the representation of ,god in any corporeal form4 ,how could we1 who deny corporeality even to some of ,his creatures1 attribute any corporeal property to the ,supreme ,being8 ,for it is not the tongue1 heart1 or brain of ,moses that speaks to us1 instructs and guides us1 but his soul which is rational1 incorporeal1 and not subject to the relations of space2 we ascribe to the soul attributes of angels1 of spiritual beings4 ,how much more is this the case with ,god6 ,we have1 therefore1 no reason for rejecting the ,biblical account of the revelation on ,mount ,sinai2 but we admit that we do not know how the idea became corporeal and was turned into audible speech1 what new thing was then created or what things then in existence were annihilated4 ,he is ,almighty1 and when we say that ,he created the tablets and covered them with ,his writing1 it was done1 like the creation of the heavens1 by ,his word2 that is1 it was ,his ,will that ,his thought should become corporeal to a certain extent and assume the form of tables1 and that a certain writing be inscribed on them4 ,just as the division of the sea and the formation of a broad path between the walls of water was done directly by ,his ,will1 without using instruments or employing intermediate causes1 so the air that reached the ear of the prophet assumed such a form that sounds were perceived expressing the idea which ,god desired to communicate to the prophet or to the people0 7,i41 lxxxvii4-lxxxix474 ,in describing the different meanings of the names of ,god1 ,elohim and the ,tetragrammaton1 #bc the author says3 8,the nature of ,elohim can be perceived by reason1 which teaches us that there exists a being who governs the universe4 ,the opinions at which people arrive vary according to the different modes of reasoning which they employ2 the opinions of the philosophers have the greatest probability4 ,but the idea contained in the ,tetragrammaton cannot be found by reasoning1 but is perceived intuitively by that prophetic vision during which man is almost separated from his fellow-men1 transformed into an angel1 and filled with another spirit2 444 previous doubts concerning ,god disappear1 he smiles at the arguments by which men generally arrive at the idea of a deity and unity2 he then worships ,god in love1 and would rather sacrifice his life than abandon the worship of ,god0 7,,iv41 xv474 ,abraham ,ibn ,ezra explains the words 8,and the ,lord spake to ,moses0 as referring to true speech and not to speech with the mouth1 which is merely a representation of the other4 8,god spake to ,moses0 as man speaketh to his neighbour2 that is to say1 directly and not through a messenger 7,on ,exod4 xxxiii4 #aa74--;,in commenting on the ,nineteenth ,psalm he says3 8,the first part shows how the intelligent man can find in nature evidence for the existence and power of the ,deity2 but there is a far better and more trustworthy witness3 the ,law1 c1 called by ,david #8perfect1' because no other evidence is required in support of the ,divine utterances contained in the ,holy ,writings0 7,on ,ps4 xix4 #h74--;,ibn ,ezra is so firm in his belief in the truth of the ,divine ,writings that he sets aside the contrary opinions of men as absurd4 8,we believe in the words of our ,god and abandon the vain opinions of the sons of man0 7,on ,gen4 vii4 #ai74--,whatever message they brought from ,god was true1 and its realisation could be relied upon provided that the conditions were fulfilled1 which were either expressed or implied4 ,in other things1 however1 which were not contained in the ,divine message they were not infallible 7,on ,exod4 iv4 #bj74 ,the prophets were trained for the office4 ,the sons of the prophets 7or 8the disciples07 led a contemplative life of seclusion1 in the hope of receiving inspiration1 every one according to his faculty 7,on ,exod4 iii4 #ae74 ,the first step in this preparation was 8the training in the fear of the ,lord10 which leads man to heed the negative precepts of the ,law4 ,then follows 8the worship of ,god10 which includes the observance of all positive precepts 7,yesod ,mora1 vii474 ,maimonides 7,mishneh torah1 ,i42 ,yesode ha-torah1 vii4 #a73--8,one of the principles of our faith is to believe that ,god inspires men4 ,the inspiration can only take place in men who distinguish themselves by great wisdom and moral strength2 who are never overcome by any passion1 but1 on the contrary1 overcome all passions2 who possess wide and profound knowledge4 ,if those who are endowed with these various gifts1 and1 being physically perfect1 enter the garden of speculation1 are absorbed in these great and difficult problems1 have the mind to understand and to comprehend1 sanctify themselves more and more1 abandon the ways of the common people that walk in the deep darkness of the time1 and zealously train themselves in freeing their mind from useless things1 the vanities and tricks of the time1 in order always to keep the mind free for reflecting on higher things1 on the most holy and pure forms1 on the whole work of the ,divine ,wisdom from the first sphere to the centre of the earth1 and to comprehend thereby the greatness of ,god3 then they will at once be inspired with the holy spirit1 their soul will then be in the society of angels1 they will become other beings1 they will feel that they are not the same as before1 that they are above other men1 even above the wise4 ,thus it is said of ,saul1 #8,and thou wilt prophesy with them1 and be turned into another man'0 7#a ,sam4 x4 #f74 ,the same opinion is expressed by ,maimonides in his 8,commentary on the ,mishnah0 7,sanhedrin1 xi4 #a71 and in 8,the ,guide0 7,,iii41 xxxii474 ,in the latter 7l4c47 the various views on prophecy are fully discussed1 and the difference between the view of ,maimonides and that of the 8philosophers0 is given more distinctly4 ,according to the philosophers1 the highest physical1 moral1 and intellectual development is the sole means for the acquisition of the prophetic faculty4 ,maimonides demands in addition to this the ,divine ,will2 he reserves1 as it were1 for the ,supreme ,being a kind of veto1 and believes that the prophetic faculty may1 by ,divine interference1 i4e41 by a miracle1 be withheld from a person in spite of all preparation and fitness4 ,he compares this interference to the sudden paralysis and equally sudden recovery of the hand of ,king ,jeroboam 7#a ,kings xiii4 #d74 ,although the physical conditions for the motion of the hand were present1 the motion could not take place1 because it was the ,will of ,god that the hand should at that particular time not be able to perform its natural functions4 ,the question naturally suggests itself1 ,why1 then1 is the number of prophets so exceedingly small8 ,why are there no prophets amongst the large host of philosophers whose intellectual faculties have been most highly developed1 and who apparently live in a sphere of ideals far above earthly and ordinary passions8 ,maimonides denies the fact that the conditions are fulfilled2 he believes that the life of the philosophers is on the whole not so pure as would qualify them for the office of prophecy 7,,ii41 xxxvi474 ,but ,bileam1 ,laban1 and ,abimelech enjoyed the privilege of ,divine communication1 although they had not attained to the highest degree of moral sanctity4 ,maimonides says in reference to the dreams of ,abimelech and ,laban 7ibid41 chap4 xli473 8,the sentence1 #8,and ,elohim 7an angel7 came to a certain person in the dream of the night1' does not indicate a prophecy1 and the person to whom ,elohim appeared is not a prophet2 the phrase only informs us that the attention of the person was called by ,god to a certain thing1 and at the same time that this happened at night4 ,for just as ,god may cause a person to move in order to save or kill another1 so ,he may cause1 according to ,his ,will1 certain things to rise in man's mind in a dream by night4 ,we have no doubt that the ,syrian ,laban was a wicked man and an idolater4 ,abimelech1 though himself a virtuous man1 is told by ,abraham1 #8,i said1 ,surely there is no fear of ,god in this place' 7,gen4 xx4 #aa74 ,and yet of both it is said that ,elohim appeared to them in a dream4 ,note and consider the distinction between the phrases #8,elohim came' and #8,elohim said2' between #8in a dream by night' and #8in a vision by night4' ,in reference to ,jacob it is said1 #8,and an angel said to ,israel in visions by night' 7,gen4 xlvi4 #b71 whilst in reference to ,abimelech and ,laban it is said1 #8,elohim came to ,abimelech 7or to ,laban7 in the dream by night' 7,ibid4 xx4 #c and xxxi4 #bd74 ,onkelos therefore renders this phrase3 #8,a word came from the ,lord1' and not #8,god revealed himself4'0 ,bileam is1 according to ,maimonides1 in some respect like ,laban and ,abimelech2 what ,god told him in a dream by night was not a prophecy4 ,in other respects he is described by this philosopher as a person endowed with 8the holy spirit20 i4e41 he felt that some influence had come upon him1 and that he had received a new power which encouraged him to speak for a certain object 7,the ,guide1 xlv474 ,maimonides adds that at that time ,bileam was still a virtuous man4--,this view of the position which ,bileam occupies in the class of inspired men is different from the place assigned to him in the ,midrash1 where the following passage occurs3 8#8,there arose no prophet again in ,israel like ,moses2' that is to say1 in ,israel none arose1 but among other nations there was a prophet as great as ,moses1 namely1 ,bileam0 7,sifre1 ,deut4 xxxiv4 #aj74 ,whatever may be the meaning of these words--whether they are meant as a satire or not--they seem to indicate that ,bileam possessed a high degree of prophetic faculty4 ,but comparing the deeds of ,bileam with those of ,moses1 we find that the latter guided the ,israelites and led them to good deeds and to a virtuous life1 whilst ,bileam misled those who followed his guidance to sin and vice4 ,the view of ,maimonides1 that man after due preparation and training may still be debarred from the rank of prophet1 is severely criticised by the ,commentators of the ,guide4 ,they maintain that ,god1 after having invited and encouraged man to approach ,him1 would not then thwart the very hope ,he had implanted4 ,according to their opinion1 ,god's hand is extended to all2 every one may acquire the prophetic faculty1 and those who have not acquired it have not been duly qualified for it4 7,comp4 the ,comm4 of ,ephodi1 ,narboni a4 o4 on 8,the ,guide10 ,,ii41 xxxii474 ,albo 7,ikkarim1 ,,iii41 vii4 sqq47 likewise admits that it is impossible to imagine a prophet who has not attained a high degree of moral and intellectual perfection4 ,but he does not consider the prophetic faculty as a natural development of man's intellectual faculties4 ,it is solely and directly due to ,divine inspiration 7 71 by means of which man acquires a knowledge of things which are otherwise beyond the limits of human intellect4 ,of what nature the inspiration is1 how it gives certitude to the prophet1 and by what psychical process it is accomplished1 only the prophet himself can fully comprehend4 ,albo1 like ,maimonides1 assumes different degrees of inspiration from the inspiration 7 7 which moved ,samson to heroic deeds and ,david to sacred songs1 to the prophetic communion of ,moses with ,god 8face to face40 ,the clearness of the prophet's utterances varies according to the different degrees of his prophetic faculty1 although all are equally true4 ,on the ,seventh ,principle1 p4 #acc4 ,the words have been wrongly translated 8that the prophecy of ,moses was true10 because this is contained in the sixth principle1 which applies equally to ,moses and to all other prophets4 ,the term does here not denote 8true10 but 8real10 8perfect10 or 8direct20 and the difference between the ,divine inspiration of ,moses and that of other prophets is expressed in the above phrase1 in accordance with the distinction made in the ,pentateuch 7,num4 xii4 #h74 ,it has been considered necessary to formulate this distinction between ,moses and other prophets in a separate article1 because it is of great importance in the proof of the ,immutability of the ,law4 ,maimonides in 8,the ,guide0 7chap4 xxxv47 and ,mishneh torah 7,i41 ,hilchoth ,yesode ha-torah vii4 #f7 fully describes the difference between ,moses and other prophets4 ,he enumerates four points3--7#a47 ,other prophets received the ,divine message in a vision or a dream1 whilst ,moses received it in a state of complete consciousness1 being awake1 and apprehending the words like those spoken by a man to his fellow-men4 7#b47 ,other prophets received the message in images1 which they had first to interpret before communicating it to their fellow-men2 ,moses was addressed by ,god in clear words and not in figurative speech4 7#c47 ,other prophets were overcome by the sight1 and were in a state of fear and trembling2 ,moses experienced nothing of this kind4 7#d47 ,moses was sure to receive a ,divine reply whenever he sought it2 not so the other prophets4 ,maimonides comes thus to the conclusion that the term 8prophet0 when applied to ,moses cannot have the same meaning as it has when applied to other ,divine messengers2 and the prophecy of ,moses differs from that of other prophets not only in degree1 but in kind4 ,there are1 however1 other theologians who hold that the prophecy of ,moses is of the same kind as that of other prophets1 and excels the rest only by a higher degree of prophetic faculty4 7,comp4 ,albo ,ikkarim1 ,,iii41 xvii47 ,on the ,eighth ,principle1 p4 #acd4 ,the integrity and authenticity of the ,pentateuch has been subjected to all kinds of tests by critics of every age4 ,the ,massoretic remarks1 to which allusions are found in the ,talmud1 seem to include the result of critical examination of the text of the ,bible4 ,thus we read in the treatise ,aboth di-,rabbi ,nathan 7chap4 xxxiv473 8,there are ten passages in the ,pentateuch which are provided with points on the top of the letters1 namely1 ,gen4 xvi4 #e2 xviii4 #i2 xix4 #cc2 xxxiii4 #d2 xxxvii4 #ab2 ,num4 iii4 #ci2 ix4 #aj2 xxi4 #cj2 xxix4 #ae2 ,deut4 xxix4 #bh4 ,what is the meaning of these points8 ,ezra--who is supposed to have added them--said1 #8,if ,elijah should come and show me that the reading was wrong1 ,i should tell him that for that reason ,i marked them with points2 and if he should say that ,i wrote correctly1 ,i should remove the points4'0 ,in the treatise ,soferim 7vi4 #d7 the following passage occurs3--8,rabbi ,simeon ben ,lakish said1 ,three copies of the ,pentateuch were found in the hall of the ,temple2 they are called ,sefer meonah1 ,sefer zatute1 and ,sefer hee4 ,in the one was written instead of 7,deut4 xxxiii4 #bg71 in the other 7,exod4 xxiv4 #e7 instead of 1 and in the third eleven times instead of 4 ,the reading that was found only in one of the three copies was rejected1 and that of the other two preferred4 ,the received text has therefore 1 1 and 40 ,these instances which tradition has preserved1 are evidence of the great care and conscientiousness with which ,ezra the ,scribe and other men transcribed and multiplied copies of the ,pentateuch4 ,we learn further from these instances that the text was never altered1 even where the sense did not seem quite clear2 and where the reading had been changed in some cases1 the ,massoretic notes show the way how to read the word whilst the text was retained in its original form4 ,this is the cause of the ,keri and ,kethib1 8,how the word is read0 and 8,how it is written40 ,in the ,talmud a certain number of passages are described as tikkun soferim1 8,the style of the scribes20 others as ittur soferim1 8,elegance of the scribes40 ,commentators have interpreted these terms as indicating alterations of the text2 but the instances quoted for illustration do not contain any trace of such a process4 ,an instance of tikkun soferim is1 8,and ,abraham stood yet before the ,lord0 7,gen4 xviii4 #bb74 ,these words were believed to continue the account of the ,divine vision introduced by the words1 8,and ,god appeared to ,abraham0 7ibid4 xviii4 #a71 and interrupted by the narrative of the visit of the three angels4 ,the reader might have expected1 8,and ,god stood yet before ,abraham40 ,the method of expressing the same in the above form for the sake of euphemism is called tikkun soferim4 ,from the instances of ittur soferim quoted in the ,talm4 ,nedarim #cg;b1 we infer that the occasional omission of the copulative vav was designated by that name4 7,comp4 ,gen4 xviii4 #e1 74 ,in ,midrashic interpretations of the ,bible we frequently meet with the phrase 1 8,do not read10 seemingly implying an emendation of the ,biblical text4 ,it is1 however1 certain that the authors of such interpretations did not for a moment entertain the idea that the passage in question was corrupt and required correction4 ,what was meant by the above phrase is this3 ,a ,jewish audience was supposed to be familiar with the text of the ,bible1 and it was therefore believed that the lessons which the teacher or preacher desired to impart would better reach the heart of the listener1 and be more easily retained in his memory1 if it were expressed in the words of some ,biblical passage4 ,if a passage could1 by a slight alteration1 be made to serve this purpose1 such alteration was adopted and introduced with the words 1 8,do not read1 444 but 4440 ,there are also some instances in the ,talmud and the ,midrashim of ,biblical quotations not in harmony with the received text4 ,this discrepancy is either due to the fact that preachers and expounders quoted from memory1 and may have erroneously confounded two similar passages1 or it is due to the carelessness of the copyists4 ,indications of a ,biblical text at variance with the received text are found in the ancient ,versions4 ,but1 with the exception of the ,chaldee ,version of the ,pentateuch by ,onkelos1 and that of the ,prophets by ,jonathan1 we have no authorised ,version1 and it is uncertain how many of the discrepancies have their origin in a corrupt text in the hands of the translator1 and how many of them are due to the error of the translator in misreading or mistranslating the correct text before him4 ,by no means are these facts sufficient ground for doubting the correctness of the received text1 however plausible the suggested emendations may appear4 ,samaritans and ,mohammedans have accused the ,jews of having altered the text of the ,bible2 but they have not proved the charge4 7,see ,emunah-ramah1 #eth ,principle1 chap4 ii47 ,modern critics have impugned the authenticity of most of the ,biblical books4 ,we will discuss their opinions concerning three of these books1 and these are the most important ones concerning which ,tradition speaks most decidedly1 viz41 the ,pentateuch1 the ,prophecies of ,isaiah1 and the ,book of ,daniel4 ,the existence of the ,pentateuch at the time when the other ,biblical books were written is clear from the frequent references to the history and the laws contained in it4 ,such are1 e4g43 8,only be thou strong and very courageous1 that thou mayest observe to do according to all the law which ,moses1 my servant1 commanded thee10 c4 8,this book of the law shall not depart out of thy mouth10 c4 7,jos4 i4 #g1 #h74 8,as ,moses1 the servant of the ,lord1 commanded the children of ,israel1 as it is written in the book of the law of ,moses10 c4 8,and he wrote there upon the stones a copy of the law of ,moses which he wrote in the presence of the children of ,israel4 ,and afterward he read all the words of the law1 the blessing and cursing1 according to all that is written in the book of the law0 7,ibid4 viii4 #ca1 #cb1 #cd74 8,keep the charge of the ,lord thy ,god1 to walk in his ways1 to keep his statutes and his commandments1 and his judgments1 and his testimonies1 as it is written in the law of ,moses10 c4 7#a ,kings ii4 #c74 8,but the children of the murderers he slew not3 according unto that which is written in the book of the law of ,moses10 c4 7#b ,kings xiv4 #f74 8,keep the passover unto the ,lord your ,god1 as it is written in the book of the covenant0 7,ibid4 xxiii4 #ba74 8,remember the law of ,moses1 my servant1 which ,i commanded unto him in ,horeb for all ,israel1 statutes and judgments0 7,mal4 iii4 #af74 ,the authors of the other books of the ,bible show familiarity with the words1 the phrases1 and the contents of the ,pentateuch4 ,thus ,psalm civ4 is based on the first chapter of ,genesis2 the flood is mentioned in ,ps4 xxix4 and in the prophecies of ,isaiah 7liv4 #i72 the history of the ,patriarchs and of the ,israelites in ,egypt and in the wilderness in ,ps4 cvi41 lxxviii42 the history of ,jacob is alluded to in ,hosea xii42 the destruction of ,sodom and ,gomorrah in ,isa4 i4 #i1 ,amos iv4 #aa4 ,of the laws contained in the ,pentateuch many are mentioned or alluded to in the books of the ,prophets and the ,hagiographa2 the feast of ,passover 7,jos4 iv471 ,tabernacles 7,zech4 xiv4 #af-bj1 ,ezra iii4 #d1 ,neh4 viii4 #ad-ah72 the first day #bd of the seventh month 7,new-year7 is mentioned as a 8holy day0 7,neh4 viii4 #aj74 ,the dietary laws are referred to by ,isaiah 7lxvi4 #ag72 the laws of cleanness and uncleanness form the text of a prophecy of ,haggai 7ii4 #aj sqq474 ,such phrases as 8,uncircumcised in heart0 7,jer4 ix4 #be7 and 8,thou wilt purify me with hyssop and ,i shall be clean0 7,ps4 li4 #i7 show familiarity with the laws of the ,pentateuch4 ,sabbath and sacrifices are frequently mentioned4 ,critics1 however1 assert that certain laws seem to have been unknown or out of practice in the period of the ,judges and the ,kings4 ,there is1 e4g41 a perfect silence as to the celebration of 8the ,day of ,blowing the shofar0 and 8the ,day of ,atonement10 even where such mention is suggested by the context1 as ,kings viii4 #fe1 #ff1 and ,nehemiah viii4 ,but the inspired historians preferred to describe the celebration of those festivals that had been neglected1 or those that were also of national and political importance by concentrating the mass of the people in the capital2 such festivals were ,passover and ,tabernacles4 ,the ,day of ,blowing the shofar and the ,day of ,atonement were set aside for quiet1 private devotion and meditation1 the additional service in the ,temple being in the hands of the priests1 and the observation of these days as holy days in accordance with the ,law was a matter of course1 and was not considered by the authors as a memorable event that required special notice4 ,one of the prophecies of ,isaiah 7chap1 lviii47 seems to have reference to the ,day of ,atonement4 ,that in the days of the ,judges1 when 8every man did what was right in his eyes10 and during the reign of wicked kings many laws were ignored or broken is not at all surprising4 ,when the sacrifices offered up by ,samuel and ,solomon are adduced as a proof that the ,law1 which only allows priests to sacrifice1 was not known in those days1 the argument is based on a misinterpretation of the ,biblical text4 ,when laymen brought sacrifices1 the priests performed the service for them2 the principal thing to be mentioned was in whose name or in whose presence the sacrifice was brought2 it was unnecessary to state that the priests had to sprinkle the blood and to burn certain portions upon the altar2 no one doubted it4 ,another argument against the authenticity of the ,pentateuch has been based on the fact related in the second book of ,kings 7xxii4 #h sqq473 8,and ,hilkiah the high priest said unto ,shaphan the scribe1 ,i have found a book of the law in the house of the ,lord4 ,and ,shaphan the scribe showed the king1 saying1 ,hilkiah the priest hath delivered me a book4 ,and ,shaphan read it before the king4 ,and it came to pass when the king had heard the words of the book of the law1 that he rent his clothes40 ,it is maintained by some scholars that the book1 which seems to have been an unknown thing to those who found it and to the king1 had only just then been written4 ,this is not what is directly stated in the ,bible4 ,hilkiah speaks of the ,law 1 the well-known ,torah2 he would not have said so if the ,torah had not been in existence before4 ,furthermore1 the king on hearing the words of the book rent his garments1 and sent to inquire of the ,lord concerning the words of this book2 for 8great is the wrath of the ,lord that is kindled against us because our fathers have not hearkened unto the words of this book40 ,these words of the king clearly show that the king was convinced of the divine character of the book1 and also of its existence in the time of his forefathers4 ,the fact that ,king ,josiah accuses 8the fathers0 suggests the following explanation of the event3--,during the reign of the wicked ,king ,manasseh the reading of the ,law was interrupted2 the book itself was hidden lest it should be destroyed by the idolatrous priests2 now that it was found again1 the king was reminded that the ,torah had been neglected in the interval through the sin of the preceding generation4 ,whether there was another copy of the ,law in the ,temple1 whether the one found by ,hilkiah was complete1 or contained only a portion of the ,law1 perhaps ,deuteronomy1 chap4 xxvii4 and chap4 xxviii41 which are in the ,pentateuch called 8the words of this covenant0 and also 8the words of the curse10 titles which occur also in reference to the above copy in the books of ,kings and ,chronicles2 to these and similar questions the ,biblical account gives no decided answer4 ,only so much is certain that the book found was not new or unknown to those who found it1 and the king recognised it as the book of the ,torah4 ,far from finding in the other books of the ,bible any evidence--whether positive or negative--of the later origin of the ,torah1 we feel convinced that their contents presuppose not only the existence of the ,torah1 but also the authors' familiarity with it4 ,without the ,torah the other books are unintelligible4 ,there is nothing in the ,pentateuch that betrays a post-,mosaic origin4 ,if the ,pentateuch had been written in the period of the ,kings1 the author would have mentioned ,jerusalem as the appointed place for the ,sanctuary2 in the rebukes 771 in addition to idolatry1 the social corruption pointed out by the prophets would have been mentioned2 the restrictive law concerning the marriage of heiresses would have been superfluous1 as it only applied to the first generation that entered ,palestine4 ,the phrase has been quoted as a proof that the author of the ,pentateuch must have lived in ,palestine1 or else he could not have called the east banks of the ,jordan 8the other side of ,jordan20 but this translation is wrong4 ,the phrase only means the banks of ,jordan4 ,in the ,talmud the ,pentateuch in its entirety is ascribed to ,moses4 8,moses wrote his book and the book of ,bileam0 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,baba ,bathra1 #ad;b74 ,the book of ,bileam is the section of ,numbers which contains the parables of ,bileam 7from xxii4 #b to xxiv474 ,there is1 however1 a difference of opinion with regard to the last eight verses of the ,pentateuch4 ,according to ,rabbi ,jehudah 7or ,rabbi ,nehemiah7 ,joshua wrote this passage4 ,rabbi ,shimeon objected3 8,is it possible that the ,torah was incomplete when ,moses was told1 #8,take this book of the law8' 7,deut4 xxxi4 #bf74 #be ,god dictated the last eight verses of the ,pentateuch to ,moses1 and the latter wrote them with tears40 ,with this exception1 no doubt was entertained by any of the ,rabbis as to the integrity of the ,torah4 ,various1 however1 were the opinions as to the method followed by ,moses in writing down the events and the laws4 ,rabbi ,jochanan1 following the opinion of ,rabbi ,banaah1 held that the ,torah was written by ,moses piecewise at different times1 just as the events happened or as each law was revealed to him4 ,rabbi ,shimeon ben ,lakish said 8it was given at one time in its entirety0 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,gittin #fj;a74 ,passages of the ,torah which seemed to contradict each other1 or to be contradicted by statements found in other books of the ,bible1 were thoroughly discussed and explained4 ,the belief in the integrity and divinity of the ,torah was so strong that those who rejected either of these beliefs were considered as unworthy of the blessings of the future world 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,sanhedrin #ii;a74 ,with the rise of ,karaism ,bible criticism received new encouragement1 as in the warfare between ,karaism and ,rabbinism1 or ,scripturalists and ,traditionalists1 it furnished both sides with sharp weapons4 ,some1 however1 of the commentators went further1 and gave utterance to all sorts of heterodox views4 ,thus a certain ,yitzchaki of ,spain was of opinion that ,gen4 xxxvi4 #ca-dc was a later addition1 on account of the phrase1 8,these were the kings who ruled over ,edom before a king ruled over ,israel40 ,the critics forgot that this passage is intended to point out the advance which ,esau's descendants had made1 when the prophecy1 8,and kings shall come forth out of thee0 7xxxv4 #aa7 had not yet been fulfilled in the case of the ,israelites4 ,of the ,commentators of the ,middle ,ages1 ,ibn ,ezra is generally singled out as an advanced scholar who held certain passages of the ,pentateuch as later additions4 ,ibn ,ezra was far from such views1 and he sharply rebuked those who entertained them4 ,thus he says of ,yitzchaki1 the author of the above criticism1 8,every one who will hear this will laugh at him1 and his book deserves to be burnt40 ,with equal vigour he criticises a grammarian who pointed out certain passages as grammatically incorrect1 and also another scholar who in his interpretations of the ,bible did not take sufficient notice of the traditional accents4 ,the error concerning ,ibn ,ezra has its origin in his habit of adding the phrase1 8,the words have some deeper sense0 7 71 whenever the literal interpretation does not quite satisfy him1 or when the object of the author in adding a seemingly superfluous sentence is not clear to him2 as1 for instance1 in the four passages referred to in the ,commentary on ,deuteronomy i4 #b1 namely1 8,the ,canaanite was then in the land0 7,gen4 xii4 #f71 8,on the mount of the ,lord will it appear0 7,ibid4 xxii4 #ad71 the repetition of the sacrifices of the twelve princes 7,num4 vii471 and the stations enumerated in ,numbers 7chap4 xxxiii471 in addition to the detailed geographical description of ,deut4 i4 #a sqq4 ,the meaning of this remark has been misunderstood by the early expounders of ,ibn ,ezra's ,commentary1 and since then the mistake has been repeated by most of the critics of the ,bible4 ,spinoza1 in his theological treatise1 quotes ,ibn ,ezra1 with the usual misinterpretation1 in support of his view concerning the ,torah4 ,modern critics have attempted to analyse the ,pentateuch1 and to assign to it several authors1 revisers1 and editors4 ,but there is little harmony among the critics2 the one considers as the latest addition what the other holds to be the oldest portions of the book4 ,numerous emendations are made by every one of them in order to establish his special theory4 ,the fundamental principle of most of them is that the section in which the name ,elohim is prevalent could not have been written by the author of another section in which the ,tetragrammaton is employed4 ,but the two names1 though denoting the same ,being1 are not identical in meaning3 the one signifies the ,almighty1 who is the ,ruler of the universe1 the ,master and ,judge of all beings2 the other is the name of the ,merciful ,father1 who reveals ,himself to man1 interferes in his behalf1 and has especially revealed ,his ,providence and ,kindness to the ,israelites4 ,a careful study of the ,hebrew ,bible will show that it is not the author1 or the age of the author1 but the contents of the passage that determined which of the ,divine names was to be used4 ,the same author repeats the same account with some variation1 according to the lesson which he intends to convey to the reader4 ,the proofs which are based on the differences discovered in two accounts of apparently the same event1 or on seeming contradictions or anachronisms1 are so indifferently supported that they are not able to conquer the fortress of ,faith and ,tradition4 ,the difficulties pointed out by the critics vanish before patient study and the earnest longing for instruction and comfort offered by the ,bible4 ,the ,book of ,isaiah has likewise been subjected to the analytical test of the critic1 and it is generally believed that the prophecies contained in the book have not all been written by the same author or in the same age4 ,the book is divided into two large sections2 the second section1 from chap4 xl4 to chap1 lxvi41 is thought to have been composed shortly before the return of the ,jews from ,babylon4 ,although it is possible that anonymous prophecies were added to a book1 the reasons which induced critics to make such a division are untenable4 ,the first reason is the difference in style2 but we must take account of the difference in the contents of the two sections4 ,the prophecies in the first section have mostly a threatening tendency with regard to imminent punishment1 whilst in the second section ,israel is to be encouraged in his faith in the ,almighty and in his hopes for a better future4 ,it is but natural that the style should not be the same in both sections4 ,another reason for ascribing the second section to a later prophet is the fact that ,koresh 7,cyrus71 king of ,persia1 is mentioned by name1 and the fall of ,babylon and the consequent deliverance of the ,jews are described as well-known facts of the past4 ,this and similar arguments are based on a misunderstanding of the character of the prophecies4 ,the critics ignore the essential difference between the writings of inspired messengers of ,god and those of ordinary men4 ,they deny to the man of ,god the power of foreseeing and foretelling coming events of which his fellow-men could not have any knowledge4 ,by such arguments the critics set limits to the power and wisdom of ,god1 and employ the same measure for both that which is ,divine and that which is human4 ,a ,divine prophet has1 by the ,will of the ,almighty1 the future unrolled before him2 he sees the catastrophe which is to come centuries later1 and perceives its effect and its end4 ,even when he reviews the present state of affairs and takes the immediate future into consideration1 his eyes frequently behold scenes and events of 8the end of the days0 7 71 which he points out as the goal of our hopes and aspirations4 ,when he warns1 advises1 or encourages his brethren with regard to their present wants1 the virtues and the happiness of the ,messianic age are not rarely introduced4 ,earlier events1 though still future in time1 appear then in the light of accomplished facts1 and in their description the past tense is used instead of the future4 ,thus it happened that the prophet ,isaiah1 who flourished during the reign of ,king ,hezekiah1 could take his standpoint on the return of the ,jews from ,babylonia1 look back at the exile as a thing of the past1 and reveal to his brethren further troubles1 the succeeding final redemption1 and the ultimate triumph of the faithful and ,god-fearing over the faithless and wicked4 ,it is true that it is an unusual thing for a prophet to name a king who is to rule centuries after the death of the prophet1 unless the name is a common noun1 and has by its meaning some bearing on the prophecy4 ,the name ,cyrus fulfils1 perhaps1 this condition2 according to ,ktesias1 it signifies 8sun10 an appropriate name to be given to the king who is destined to be the deliverer of a captive people4 ,king ,cyrus may have assumed this name when he became convinced of the mission entrusted to him by ,providence4 ,the authenticity of the ,book of ,daniel has likewise been impugned1 and its advocates are1 it must be admitted1 at present very few4 ,the narratives which the book contains are considered as improbable or even impossible1 and its visions as prophecies ex facto4 ,it was written1 according to these critics1 in the period of the ,maccabees1 and the name of ,daniel was chosen in order to give more weight to the contents of the book1 ,daniel being known as a man famous for his piety among his fellow-exiles4 ,against this we have the distinct evidence in the book1 in which the author is described as the same ,daniel that lived during the ,babylonian exile2 ,jewish tradition knew of no other author of the book than ,daniel4 ,although the ,book of ,daniel was not placed amongst the books of the ,prophets1 because he was not charged with any mission to his fellow-men1 the visions described in ,daniel were nevertheless1 in ,jewish literature1 considered as true and genuine prophecy4 ,the narratives have the distinct object to teach that piety and firmness in obedience to the word of ,god can conquer the rage of the most powerful tyrants2 this tendency on the part of the author is especially noticed in the manner in which every circumstance bearing on this lesson is depicted4 ,this1 however1 does not detract the least from the truth and genuineness of the facts which1 by the plan of ,providence1 seem to have taken place for this very purpose4 ,the demand of the king that the magicians should tell him his dream1 which he himself had forgotten1 and that failing to do so they should be put to death2 the decree commanding his subjects to worship the idol and to pray to him1 and other foolish royal acts1 almost incredible to us1 are strange indeed1 but would appear less strange if all the records of the acts of ,eastern tyrants had been preserved4 ,it has been contended that the history of the ,syrian wars with ,egypt1 and the suffering of the ,jews through the ,syrian invasion1 is given in such detail as could only be done by a contemporary4 ,but apart from the fact that a careful study of the visions of ,daniel will convince us that we have here only a faint outline of the ,syrian wars and not a detailed description1 it must not be forgotten that the author only reproduces what was shown to him by the ,omniscient concerning the most important event in the history of the nation--the preservation of the holy religion through the firmness and the courage of a few faithful servants of ,god4 ,the fulfilment of the portion of the vision which referred to the period of the ,maccabees is a guarantee for the fulfilment of the prophecies yet unrealised4 ,in like manner have the authenticity and the integrity of other ,biblical books been rejected2 the method and the arguments are the same2 they are based on a misunderstanding of the true essence of prophecy and inspiration1 and originate in a want of belief in the ,omniscience and ,omnipotence of the ,divine ,being4 ,on the ,ninth ,principle1 p4 #aci4 ,in the ,pentateuch there is not the slightest indication that the laws revealed on ,sinai might be superseded by a future ,revelation4 ,on the contrary1 we meet repeatedly with the phrases1 1 8an everlasting statute10 1 8for everlasting generations10 and similar expressions1 which clearly show the intention of ,him who gave the laws that these should last for ever4 ,the ,israelites were told that ,prophets would be sent to them1 and that they must listen to the ,prophets and obey them1 but at the same time they were commanded to put to death a prophet who would attempt 8to turn them aside from the way which the ,lord commanded them to walk therein0 7,deut4 xiii4 #f74 ,besides1 the ,prophets never speak of a new ,revelation1 which would supersede the ,torah4 ,when ,jeremiah prophesies about a new covenant1 the context teaches the reader what is meant by the 8new covenant40 ,he speaks of the future and final restoration of ,israel as follows3 8,behold1 days will come1 saith the ,lord1 when ,i shall make a new covenant with the house of ,israel and with the house of ,judah4 ,not like the covenant which ,i made with their fathers on the day when ,i took hold of their hand to bring them out of the land of ,egypt1 because they broke my covenant1 and ,i rejected them1 saith the ,lord4 ,but this is the covenant which ,i shall make with the house of ,israel after those days1 saith the ,lord1 when ,i set my ,law among them and write it upon their heart3 both ,i shall be to them a ,god1 and they shall be to me a people0 7,jer4 xxxi4 #ca-cc74 ,the ,law is not to be altered1 but it will dwell more firmly in the heart of ,israel2 the deliverance from ,egypt was soon forgotten1 but the future deliverance will plant the fear and love of ,god--here called the ,law of ,god--in the hearts of the people in such a manner that it will take a deep root and will not be plucked out of it again4 ,there occur1 however1 in ,talmud and ,midrash sayings which seem to imply a future alteration of the ,law2 e4g41 8,in future all prayers will cease except that of thanksgiving3 in future all sacrifices will cease except that of thanks-offering0 7,midrash on ,ps4 c474 ,in these sayings their authors simply intended to emphasise the duty of thanksgiving2 even in the state of physical and moral perfection1 when there will be a perfect absence of trouble and fear and a perfect immunity of sin1 so that there will be nothing to be prayed for1 nothing to be atoned for through sacrifice1 the duty of offering prayers and sacrifices of thanksgiving will still remain in full force4 ,another saying of this kind is3 8,if all festivals were to cease1 ,purim will never be forgotten0 7,piyyut for ,sabbath ,zachor72 that is1 even if other festivals should be neglected1 ,purim is so much liked that it will never be forgotten by the ,jews4 ,in ,talmud ,jerus4 ,megillah 7i4 #g7 we read3 8,the reading from the ,prophets and the ,hagiographa may at some future time be discontinued1 but the reading of the ,pentateuch will never be abolished40 ,the idea expressed by this dictum is1 that the warnings or consolations or prayers may become superfluous by the changed condition of the future1 but the laws and statutes of the ,pentateuch will always remain in force4 ,in sayings of this kind the time to which they are meant to apply is not defined4 8,the future0 7 7 may mean the time of ,messiah1 or else the time of the ,resurrection1 or what we are used to call 8the future life40 ,as in the above quotation1 the authors aimed at inculcating some moral lesson for the present state of things1 and not at describing the results of philosophical speculation with regard to remote times4 ,a new revelation1 or the abrogation of the ,law or part of it1 is nowhere mentioned4 ,on the contrary1 it is emphasised in the ,talmud that the ,torah has been given to ,israel in its entirety1 and nothing has been reserved for a second revelation4 8,the ,law is not any longer in heaven10 it is entirely in the hands of man4 ,the only authority recognised in the interpretation of the ,law was that based on knowledge1 tradition1 and common sense4 ,authority claimed for this purpose on the ground of supernatural privilege1 prophecy1 bath-kol or miracle1 was not recognised 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,baba ,metsia1 #ei;b74 ,maimonides 7,mishneh torah1 ,hilchoth ,yesode ha-torah ix47 says on this principle as follows3--8,it has been distinctly stated in the ,torah that its precepts remain in force for ever without change1 diminution1 or addition4 ,comp4 #8,the word which ,i command you that you must keep to do1 thou shalt not add ought unto it nor take ought away from it' 7,deut4 xiii4 i72 #8,that which has been revealed for us and for our children for ever is to do all the words of this ,law' 7,ibid4 xxix4 #bh74 ,hence it follows that we are bound for ever to do according to the words of the ,torah4 ,it is further said1 #8,an everlasting statute for all your generations' 7,exod4 xii4 #ad1 #ag1 et passim72 #8,it is not in heaven' #bf 7,deut4 xxx4 #ab74 ,hence we see that a prophet cannot reveal any new law4 ,if1 therefore1 any man1 whether an ,israelite or a non-,israelite1 should rise1 perform signs and miracles1 and say that the ,lord sent him to add one precept or to abolish one of the ,divine precepts1 or to interpret a precept in a way different from what has been handed down to us from ,moses1 or assert that the precepts which were given to the ,israelites had only temporary force and were not permanent laws3 such a man is a false prophet1 because he contradicts the prophecy of ,moses4 ,the mission of the ,prophets after ,moses is to exhort the people to obey the ,law of ,moses1 and not to make a new religion40--,comp4 8,the ,guide10 ,,ii4 xxxix42 and ,saadiah1 ,emunoth ve-deoth1 ,,iii4 chap4 vii4 to x4 ,rabbi ,jehudah ha-,levi1 in the book ,cuzari1 seems to have a different view4 ,he likewise believes in the permanent character of the ,torah1 but he modifies his view in accordance with his interpretation of the words1 8,and thou shalt do according to the word which they--viz41 the priests and the judge that shall be in those days--will tell thee from that place which the ,lord shall choose2 and thou shalt observe to do according to all that they will teach thee0 7,deut4 xvii4 #i1 #aj74 ,according to his view1 these words imply that from time to time prophets or inspired men1 or the highest authority of the nation1 whilst the ,shechinah was still filling the ,temple1 issued laws and orders1 which had legal force1 and all were bound to obey them4 ,but since the destruction of the ,temple there has not been any man or any court that had the authority to make new permanent laws4 ,according to ,maimonides1 however1 there were no additions made to the ,torah2 the ,rabbinical laws are either temporary regulations or served as a means of ensuring the strict observance of the ,torah4 ,albo1 in criticising the principles of faith as laid down by ,maimonides1 objects also to the ,ninth ,principle1 and contends that it is not fundamental1 since the belief in the ,divine origin of the ,law does not necessarily imply the belief in its eternity4 ,but although the possibility of a second revelation superseding the first is admitted in principle or theory1 it does not follow that such revelation has in reality been made4 ,if any person asserts that he is sent by ,god to repeal the old laws or to alter them1 he must prove his ,divine mission before he can be believed4 ,we are fully convinced of the ,divine mission of ,moses1 and our conviction of the ,divine mission of the new prophet must at least be equally strong4 ,the ,divine character of the mission of ,moses was revealed to the ,israelites by ,god ,himself2 and only such direct revelation could satisfy us as to the trustworthiness of the new prophet 7,ikkarim ,,iii4 xix474 ,r4 ,abraham ben ,david1 in his book ,emunah-ramah1 finds in various passages of the ,bible indications that the ,torah was to remain in force permanently4 ,thus ,isaiah and ,zechariah1 speaking of the remote future1 refer respectively to the celebration of ,sabbath and ,new-moon1 and to the celebration of ,sukkoth4 ,again1 in refuting the claims of ,christians on behalf of ,jesus1 and of ,mohammedans on behalf of ,mohammed1 to a ,divine mission to substitute a new covenant for the old one1 ,rabbi ,abraham argues thus3 8,the divinity of the old covenant1 or the ,torah1 has been admitted by both ,jesus and ,mohammed2 we need not prove it4 ,but the ,divine authority asserted by them for its abrogation or change is not admitted by us2 it must be proved2 and since no proof has been given1 it must be rejected0 7,fifth ,principle1 chap4 ii474 ,on the ,tenth ,principle1 p4 #adh4 ,it is noteworthy that this principle is exceptionally supported by a ,biblical verse4 ,the same may be noticed in the book ,cuzari 7,v4 xviii471 in the enumeration of the principles of faith according to the methods of ,mohammedan ,theologians 7,medabberim72 the principle of ,god's ,omniscience is supported by a ,biblical verse1 only with this difference1 that in the ,cuzari it is not exactly the principle of ,god's ,omniscience1 but its proof derived from the ,creation1 that is supported by a quotation from ,ps4 xciv4 ,the reason of the anomaly is this3 ,some of the opponents of this principle contend that it would be derogatory to the greatness of ,god if ,he were to take notice of the doings of each individual being4 ,to this the reply is given3 ,the ,psalmist1 who was far from saying anything derogatory of ,god1 declared that ,god knows the deeds and the thoughts of each individual4 ,the problem how to reconcile ,god's ,prescience and ,omniscience with man's ,free-will has of course engaged the attention of all ,jewish theologians and philosophers1 and1 though in different ways and words1 they all assume that ,god's knowledge of a thing is by no means the cause of its existence4 7,see ,cuzari1 ,v4 xx42 8,guide10 ,,iii4 xx42 ,saadiah1 ,emunoth1 ,,ii4 chap1 ix47 ,perhaps a reconciliation is not necessary at all1 there being no conflict4 ,we should not call it a defect in ,god if ,his ,omniscience were restricted to things knowable2 a prescience of things to be determined by man's free-will is contradictory in itself1 and illogical1 and to say that ,god would not be omniscient if ,he did not know them1 is as absurd as to say that ,god would not be omnipotent if ,he could not make twice two to be three4 ,on the ,eleventh ,principle1 p4 #aej4 ,the subject of this creed has been the main thought of the lesson preached by the prophets1 of the hymns sung by the psalmists1 and of the narratives written by the sacred chroniclers1 as has been illustrated above 7p4 #aee7 by ,biblical quotations4 ,to these may be added 7#a47 the song haazinu1 the professed object of which was to remind the ,israelites of ,god's ,justice whenever evil should befall them4 ,the words which form the basis of the song1 viz41 8,the ,rock1 perfect is his work10 c4 7,deut4 xxxii4 #d71 are also at present recited at funeral rites1 as 1 an expression of our firm belief in ,god's ,justice4 7#b47 ,the prophet who laments over the fall of ,jerusalem declares3 8,out of the mouth of the ,most ,high do not come forth the evil things and the good 7i4e41 man causes them by his evil or good deeds1 which are the result of his own free will and not of the ,will of ,god74 ,why should man complain 7of what has befallen him71 being master over his sins80 7,lam4 iii4 #ch1 #ci74 ,in the ,talmud the doctrine of ,god's ,justice is expressed thus3 8,thy employer is trustworthy1 that he will pay thee the reward of thy deeds0 7,aboth ii4 #ba74 8,the shop is open1 and the merchant gives on credit1 and all who like may come and borrow2 but the collectors go constantly about1 and exact payment whether the debtor is willing to pay or not1 for they have something to rely upon1 and the judgment is a just judgment2 and everything is prepared for a banquet0 7,aboth iii4 #bj74 8,god does not withhold ought of the desert of any creature0 7,pesachim1 #aah;a74 ,it is1 however1 emphatically declared in the ,talmud that the reward of good deeds is given to the righteous in the future life1 1 8,the reward for obedience to the ,divine commandments is not to be expected in this world0 7,kiddushin1 #ci;b74 8,the ,law says with reference to the ,divine precepts1 #8,which ,i command thee this day to do them2' hence we infer that their performance is to take place this day1 i4e41 in this life1 but their reward will be received in the future life0 7,abodah-zarah1 #c;a74 8,rabbi ,elazar ha-kappar used to say1 #8,those that have been born will die2 those that have died will come to life again2 those that have come to life again will be judged4' ,he said so in order that he himself might bear in mind1 and tell others1 and that it might become generally known1 that ,god1 who has formed and created man's heart and understands all his doings1 is the ,judge1 the ,witness1 and the ,prosecutor2 ,he before whom there is no wrong1 no forgetfulness1 no partiality1 and no bribery1 will one day judge4 ,let thy imagination not persuade thee that the grave is a refuge for thee4 ,for without thy consent hast thou been born1 and without thy consent wilt thou die1 and without thy consent thou art brought to life again to account for thy deeds before the ,king of kings1 blessed be ,he0 7,aboth iv4 #bb74 ,the immediate enjoyment of the reward is1 however1 not excluded4 ,we read in the ,law1 8,do this and thy days will be long20 and the ,mishnah teaches1 8,these are the good acts1 the fruit of which man enjoys in this life1 whilst the full reward awaits him in the world to come3 honouring father and mother1 the practice of charity1 peace-making between man and man1 and above all the study of the ,law0 7,mishnah1 ,peah4 i4 #a74 ,the faithful ,israelite is not discouraged at the sight of the successes of the wicked2 on the contrary1 he believes3 8,if to those who break the ,divine laws such kindness is shown by ,god1 what must be ,his goodness to those who obey ,him60 7,midrash ,yalkut on ,isaiah viii4 #a74 ,as regards the troubles of the good1 our ,sages teach that the good will receive their reward 8in proportion to their suffering40 ,yet pious men do not seek trouble and pain merely for the prospect of future compensation2 on the contrary1 they avail themselves of every possible means to secure relief1 and would even renounce in their agony all compensation in the future world1 in order to secure release from pain in the present 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,berachoth1 #e;a74 ,as the life of ,adam and ,eve in the garden of ,eden was free from care and trouble1 and such a life was the ideal of human hopes and wishes1 the ,garden-,eden1 7lit41 8the garden of pleasure071 became the symbol of man's happiness in its perfection1 such as will fall to the share of the good and the righteous4 ,on the other hand1 the valley of ,hinnom1 near ,jerusalem1 was a place of horror and disgust2 a place where at one time children were burnt to ,moloch1 and where later the refuse of the city was cast4 ,dwelling in the valley of ,hinnom 77 became the symbol of the punishment to be inflicted on the wicked4 ,gan-eden or ,paradise1 and ,gehinnom or ,hell1 are thus mere figures to express our idea of the existence of a future retribution1 and must not be taken literally as names of certain places4 ,the detailed descriptions of ,paradise and hell as given in books both profane and religious are nothing but the offspring of man's imagination4 ,the question has been asked1 ,how long shall the punishment of the wicked last8 ,will it be eternal8 and if so1 is it compatible with ,god's goodness8 ,this and similar questions do not concern us in the least4 ,our task is to do what the ,lord has commanded us to do1 and to trust1 as regards the future1 in ,him1 who knows best to combine goodness and justice4 ,we must here bear in mind that 8,god's thoughts are not ours40 ,equally ignorant are we as to the cause of the suffering and of the death of each individual2 but of this we are certain1 if death is punishment1 that every one dies for his own sin4 ,this theory is so frequently repeated in the ,bible that it is surprising how the theory of ,vicarious ,death and ,vicarious ,atonement could be considered as harmonising with the teaching of the ,bible4 ,we are taught that ,god visits the iniquity of the fathers upon the children1 upon the third and upon the fourth generation2 but at the same time we are told that the children are only punished if they repeat the sins of their fathers1 and even then only for their own sins 7comp4 p4 #bea74 ,it has been asserted that ,isaiah in chap4 liii4 assumes the principle of vicarious atonement4 ,that this is not the case we can easily see if we turn from the ,anglican ,version to the original ,hebrew1 and translate it literally and in accordance with the context4 ,isaiah1 in describing the future glory of the servant of the ,lord 7 ,israel71 tells us what those people who oppress ,israel will then feel1 and how they will give expression to their feeling of shame and regret1 saying1 8,surely he hath borne griefs caused by us1 and carried sorrows caused by us3 yet we did esteem him stricken1 smitten of ,god1 and afflicted4 ,but he was wounded through our transgressions1 bruised through our iniquities0 7comp4 ,family ,bible1 ,anglican ,version1 revised by ,m4 ,friedlnder74 ,sin-offerings were brought1 but not as a vicarious atonement1 although the sinner might well have felt that he himself deserved the treatment endured by the sacrifice4 ,the sin-offering could not have been a vicarious atonement1 as it was not offered when the sin was committed knowingly4 ,maimonides explains the various laws concerning sin-offering as based on the principle that the sacrifices serve as the means of reminding us more vividly of our sins1 and of their evil consequences 7,the ,guide1 ,,iii4 xlvi42 comp4 ,mic4 vi4 #f-h74 ,on the ,twelfth ,principle1 p4 #aee4 ,a belief in ,messiah1 although not directly taught1 is assumed in the ,mishnah as existing2 and the days of ,messiah 7 7 are spoken of as an event that admits of no doubt 7comp4 ,mishnah ,berachoth1 i4 #e74 ,that this belief was in reality taught by the religious heads of the ,jewish community is clearly shown by the introduction into the ,amidah of a prayer #bg for the speedy appearance of ,messiah4 ,the belief in the coming of ,messiah in some future time has been1 like the belief in the ,unity of ,god1 the source of vexatious disputations between ,jews and non-,jews4 ,mohammedans and ,christians tried by all means in their power to convince the ,jews that the ,anointed whose advent was prophesied by the ,prophets had already appeared1 the former pointing to ,mohammed1 the latter to ,jesus1 as the person realising those predictions4 ,the ,biblical passages adduced as evidence prove nothing of the kind4 ,e4g41 the three names1 ,sinai1 ,seir1 and ,paran1 in ,deut4 xxxiii4 #b1 were interpreted by ,mohammedans to refer to three revelations through ,moses1 ,jesus1 and ,mohammed2 and ,mohammed being mentioned last1 his revelation was to be the final one4 ,it is not necessary to contradict such reasoning2 one need only read the text in order to see the absurdity of the argument4 ,christians quoted passages from ,isaiah which had no reference whatever to ,messiah in evidence of the ,messianity of ,jesus4 ,children born in the days of ,isaiah 7vii4 #ad2 viii4 #ah71 whose names had reference to good or evil events of the time1 were wrongly interpreted as referring to the birth of ,jesus2 the sufferings and final relief of the servant of the ,lord1 that is1 ,israel 7chaps4 lii4 and liii471 were applied to ,jesus2 the ,psalmist who sings of victories which ,god will grant to ,david 7cx47 is made to declare the divinity of ,jesus4 ,commentators and philosophers have taken notice of these arguments and refuted them4 ,of the many works on these topics a few may be named3 8,nitsachon0 771 by ,lipmann ,mhlhausen 7#adjj71 8,strengthening of ,faith0 7 71 by ,isaak ben ,abraham ,troki 7#aeid71 8,vindici ,judorum10 by ,manasseh ben ,israel 7#afej74 ,in refuting arguments brought by ,christians and ,mohammedans against ,jews and ,judaism1 and rejecting the ,messianic claims of ,jesus and ,mohammed1 ,jews are ready to acknowledge the good work done by the religions founded by these men1 ,christians and ,mohammedans1 in combating idolatry and spreading civilisation4 ,maimonides says as follows3--8,the ,king ,messiah will in some future time come1 restore the kingdom of ,david to its former power1 build the ,temple1 bring together the scattered of ,israel1 and all the ancient laws will again be in force3 sacrifices will be offered1 and years of release and ,jubilees will be kept as prescribed in the ,law4 ,whoever does not believe in him1 or does not hope for his coming1 shows a want of faith not only in the ,prophets1 but also in the ,law2 for the ,law testifies concerning him in the words3 #8,and the ,lord thy ,god will again bring back thy captivity1 show mercy to thee1 and again gather thee1 c4 ,if thy outcasts be at the end of the heavens1 thence will the ,lord gather thee1' c1 #8and the ,lord will bring thee1' c4 7,deut4 xxx4 #c-e71 c4 8,you must not imagine that ,messiah must prove his ,messianity by signs and miracles1 doing something unexpected1 bringing the dead to life1 or similar things1 c4 ,the principal thing is this3 the statutes and precepts of our ,torah remain for ever1 and nothing can be added to them nor ought taken from them4 ,if1 therefore1 a descendant of ,david earnestly studies the ,law1 observes1 like ,david his father1 what the ,law1 both the written and the oral1 enjoins1 causes all ,israelites to act similarly1 exhorts those who are lax in the performance of the commandments1 and fights the wars of the ,lord3 he may possibly be ,messiah4 ,if he succeeds1 builds the ,temple in its place1 and gathers the outcasts of ,israel1 he is certainly ,messiah2 and if he does not succeed1 or is killed in war1 it is certain that he is not the ,messiah promised in the ,law2 he is like all the noble and good kings of the ,house of ,david who have died2 and the ,almighty only caused him to rise in order to try us thereby1 as it is said1 #8,and of the wise some will stumble1 and through them the people will be tested1 purified1 and made white1 till the time of the end comes2 for there is yet a vision for an appointed time' 7,dan4 xi4 #ce74 ,also ,jesus1 the ,nazarene1 who imagined that he would be ,messiah1 and was killed through the court of law1 is alluded to in the ,book of ,daniel1 as it is said1 #8,and the sons of the transgressors among thy people will rise1 in order to establish a vision1 and will stumble' 7ibid4 xi4 #ad74 ,can there be a greater stumbling than this8 ,all the prophets said that ,messiah will be a redeemer and a saviour to the ,israelites1 will bring together their outcasts1 and will strengthen their obedience to the ,divine precepts1 but he 7,jesus7 caused destruction by the sword to ,israel1 the dispersion of those left1 and their humiliation2 he changed the ,law1 and misled many people to worship a being beside ,god4 ,but the thoughts of the ,creator of the universe cannot be understood by any human being1 for the ways of men are not ,his ways1 nor their thoughts ,his thoughts2 for all the events connected with ,jesus and with ,mohammed1 that rose after him1 served only to pave the way for the ,king ,messiah1 who will reform all mankind and lead them to the unanimous service of ,god1 as it is said1 #8,for then will ,i turn to the peoples a pure language1 that all may call by the name of ,god1 and serve him unanimously' 7,zeph4 iii4 #i74 ,how can this be done8 ,almost all people have through them--,jesus and ,mohammed--become acquainted with the idea of ,messiah1 with the words of the ,torah and the ,divine precepts4 ,through them the knowledge of the ,bible spread even unto the remotest islands and unto many nations #8uncircumcised' in heart and uncircumcised in flesh4 ,they seek to justify their disobedience to the precepts of the ,torah2 some of them say that these precepts are ,divine1 but are not in force at present1 and were never intended to be permanent laws2 others maintain that they must not be taken literally1 as they are mere symbols1 the meaning of which has already been explained by ,messiah4 ,but when the true ,king ,messiah will rise1 he will prosper1 be high and exalted2 all will then at once know that it was falsehood what their fathers have inherited1 and that their prophets and their teachers have misled them4 8,do not imagine that in the days of ,messiah the course of ,nature will be altered in any way1 or that any new creation will take place4 ,when ,isaiah said1 #8,the wolf will dwell with the lamb1 and the leopard will lie down with the kid1' he merely employed allegorical and figurative speech2 and he meant to say that the ,israelite will dwell in safety together with his enemy1 who has been as cruel to him as wolves and leopards1 c42 all will join the true religion2 they will not rob1 nor commit any violence1 c41 and in the days of ,messiah the meaning of the allegories will be clearly known4 8,our ,sages said that there will be no other difference between the present time and the days of ,messiah but the independence of the people of ,israel4 8,it appears from the literal meaning of the prophecies that the ,messianic period will be preceded by the war of ,gog and ,magog1 and that before the war a prophet will appear to guide the ,israelites1 and to direct their hearts to repentance4 ,comp4 #8,behold1 ,i will send you ,elijah1' #bh c4 7,mal4 iii4 #bc74 ,elijah will not come to declare unclean that which is clean1 or clean that which is unclean2 nor to disqualify persons who are believed to be qualified for joining the congregation of the ,lord1 or to qualify persons who are believed to be disqualified2 but he will come to establish peace on earth1 as it is said1 #8,he shall turn the heart of the fathers to the children' #bi 7,ibid4 #bd74 8,some of our ,sages believe that ,elijah will come before ,messiah1 but of all these and similar things no man knows how they will come to pass2 they are unexplained in the ,prophets1 and our ,sages have no tradition about them2 they only adopt what they believe to be the meaning of the ,biblical passages which refer to this subject4 ,hence the difference of opinion4 ,at all events1 the order and the detail of these events do not form an essential portion of our creed2 we must not take too much notice of ,agadoth and ,midrashim speaking on these and similar themes4 ,we must not attribute great importance to them1 for they do not lead to the fear or the love of ,god4 ,we must also abstain from calculating the time of the coming of ,messiah1 c4 ,all we have to do is to believe in the coming of ,messiah1 to wait and hope4 8,it is not because they desired to have dominion over all lands and nations1 and be honoured by all people1 or because they desired to have plenty to eat and drink1 and other pleasures1 that the wise men and the prophets longed for the ,messianic days1 but because they would then be at leisure to study the ,law and its teaching without being interrupted by any oppressor1 and would thus make themselves worthy of the life in the world to come 7 74 8,there will not be in those days any famine1 war1 jealousy1 or quarrel1 because the good things will be in plenty1 and even luxuries will be found everywhere2 all will only busy themselves with trying to know the ,lord4 ,therefore the ,israelites will be great sages1 knowing things which are at present hidden2 they will obtain a knowledge of their ,creator as far as is possible by human understanding2 #8,for the earth is full with the knowledge of the ,lord as the waters that cover the sea'0 7,maim41 ,mishneh-torah xiv42 ,hilchoth ,melachim xi4-xii474 ,the war of ,gog and ,magog against the ,holy ,land referred to by ,maimonides is described by the prophet ,ezekiel 7chaps4 xxxviii41 xxxix47 as preceding the complete restoration of ,israel4 ,saadiah has a different view of this war4 ,the punishment of ,israel in exile is to come to an end at a fixed time1 or as soon as the ,israelites by earnest and thorough repentance show themselves worthy of ,divine grace4 ,in that case no war of ,gog and ,magog will be waged against them4 ,but if the ,israelites should allow the approach of the time fixed for the redemption without having given signs of repentance and improvement1 great troubles will be brought upon them1 which will forcibly remind them of the necessity of returning to ,god2 they will come together under a leader1 ,messiah ben ,joseph1 under whose leadership they will fight against their enemies1 but will be beaten1 and ,messiah ben ,joseph himself will be killed4 ,then ,messiah ben ,david will appear1 and with him the period of glory1 of permanent peace and prosperity1 and of the worship of the ,one ,god by all nations4 ,the idea of a double ,messiah1 a warlike and a peaceful1 an unsuccessful and a successful1 is not expressed in any of the prophecies in the ,bible1 and seems to be of a later origin4 ,maimonides is silent about ,messiah ben ,joseph2 so also ,albo in ,ikkarim1 and ,rabbi ,jehudah ha-levi in the book ,cuzari4 ,albo discusses the question about ,messiah in chap4 xlii4 of the fourth section of ,ikkarim4 ,he refutes the opinion of those who maintain that the ,messianic prophecies refer to the reign of ,hezekiah or to the restoration of ,israel under ,zerubbabel and ,ezra4 ,the condition of the ,israelites in the reign of ,hezekiah did not resemble the state of prosperity and glory and universal peace as depicted in the ,messianic prophecies2 the fulfilment of these prophecies is still hoped for1 and our hope is founded on our belief in the truthfulness of the ,word of ,god4 7,comp4 ,saadiah1 ,em4 ve-deoth1 ,,viii4 iii474 ,on the ,thirteenth ,principle1 p4 #af ,the belief in the ,resurrection of the ,dead has been formulated in the ,mishnah 7,sanhedrin x4 i7 as an essential creed3 8,he who says that the belief in the ,resurrection of the ,dead is not implied in the ,law has no portion in the world to come40 ,there is no doubt that the ,almighty has the power to give fresh life to the body in which life has been extinct4 ,we set no limits to the ,omnipotence of ,god4 ,but it is different if we ask whether it is the ,will of ,god to give new life to the dust and ashes of the dead1 and to restore the soul to the dead body in which it has dwelt before4 ,maimonides substitutes the ,immortality of the ,soul for the ,resurrection of the ,dead1 and has been vehemently attacked by those who had a different opinion4 ,he defended his view in an essay called 1 8,on the ,resurrection of the ,dead10 in which he attempts to prove that the ,agadoth and ,midrashim in depicting the future life employed figurative language1 but in reality meant only a spiritual life1 without any material enjoyment4 ,saadiah defends the literal interpretation of 8,resurrection of the ,dead0 7,emunoth ve-deoth1 ,,vii471 and believes that the event will take place at the time of the final redemption 7 74 ,rabbi ,jehudah ha-levi1 in ,cuzari1 though mentioning this principle1 seems to understand it as identical with the ,immortality of the ,soul4 ,the king1 who was at first surprised at the scarcity of references to the future life in our prayers1 confessed his complete satisfaction1 after having heard the exposition of our prayers by the ,jewish scholar4 8,i see10 he says1 8that ,i was in error2 those who pray to have the ,divine light vouchsafed to them during lifetime1 who long to see it with their own eyes1 and to attain to the degree of prophecy1 they certainly seek something better even than the future life1 and they who attain it may be sure that they will also enjoy the blessing of the future life2 for if the soul of a man1 troubled by the wants of the body1 is nevertheless cleaving to the ,divine glory1 how much more may this be the case after the soul has left this body60 7,,iii4 #bj74 ,,ii4 ,,our ,,duties4 ,,introduction4 ,the king1 in ,rabbi ,jehudah ha-levi's ,cuzari1 anxious to lead a good and religious life1 was told by an angel who appeared to him in a dream that his heart was good1 but his deeds were not acceptable4 ,the purity and goodness of our heart certainly ennobles our deeds and gives them the stamp of sincerity and holiness1 though they may not be marked by absolute perfection4 ,but an inner voice1 our conscience1 does not allow us to be content with the goodness of the heart2 we feel the necessity of seeking also perfection of words and deeds4 ,we wish not only our heart but also our entire self to be good1 so that our inner life and outer life1 our feeling and thinking1 our speaking and doing1 may combine into one harmonious whole1 which comes as near perfection as possible4 ,it has been shown above that one of the principles of faith which we confess is our belief in the ,divine origin of the ,torah1 and in the obligatory character of its precepts4 ,when we pray to ,god to make us understand the ,torah we are not content with the mere knowledge of the words of the ,law2 we also seek ,god's assistance to enable us 8to obey1 to observe1 and to perform0 all that ,he has commanded us4 ,man's nature is not the same in all individuals2 one person finds special delight in the performance of this duty1 another in the performance of that4 ,every one likes to devote his energies to that work for which he considers himself best qualified1 and which promises to yield the best fruit4 ,but this individual liking or aptitude must not mislead us into thinking that the ,law is divided into important and unimportant precepts4 ,so far as they represent the ,will of the ,almighty they are all alike1 and equally demand our attention and our obedience4 ,thus the 1 #cj our unconditional submission to the ,will of the ,almighty as our ,king1 is followed in our ,service by 1#cj the acknowledgment of the binding force of ,his precepts4 ,there are persons who question the wisdom and usefulness of the precepts2 they call it legalism1 and are opposed to the tendency of subjecting every act of ours to the control of the ,law4 ,they argue that legalism tends to weaken our regard for the ,law1 and trains hypocrites rather than true servants of the ,lord4 ,it is a bold assertion1 but one that rests on imagination and prejudice4 ,is it possible that such a constant reminder of ,god's presence as the ,divine precepts supply should not have a beneficent influence over us1 by making us feel encouraged by ,his presence when we are engaged in a good cause1 and discouraged when we are about to do wrong8 ,if persons are found who are devout worshippers at one time and criminals at another1 it only shows human weakness in the moment of trial in spite of good resolves and genuine devotion2 and were it not for the effect of such devotion1 the number of crimes would probably be far greater4 ,a truly pious man will never imagine that he may freely transgress one set of the precepts1 if he strictly obeys another set2 that he may1 e4g41 wrong his neighbour1 and compensate for his sins by regular attendance at the place of worship1 or by a strict observance of the dietary laws1 or the laws of ,sabbath and ,festivals2 or that he may freely break the latter1 if only he is honest1 just1 and charitable4 ,the precepts have all the same ,divine origin2 the all-wise and all-kind ,god1 who has commanded us to walk in the way of justice and righteousness1 has also ordained the ,sabbath1 given the dietary laws1 and established the sacrificial service4 ,he who selects some of the precepts and rejects the rest substitutes his own authority for that of the ,almighty1 and places his own wisdom above the wisdom of ,him who gave us the ,law4 8,be as zealous in the performance of an unimportant precept as of an important one10 is one of the maxims taught in the 8,sayings of the ,fathers40 ,a difference between precept and precept is here admitted1 but only in so far as they seem to us more or less important1 with regard to the good which their observance produces or the evil which is caused by their neglect4 ,in case of a conflict of two duties we give the preference to that which seems to us more important4 ,in times of religious persecution the question frequently arose how far resistance was necessary1 and how far religious practice might yield to physical force4 ,the rule has been laid down1 that when our life is threatened we may transgress any precept2 but we must not allow ourselves1 under any circumstances1 to be forced to idolatry1 murder1 or adultery 7 72 we must prefer death to committing any of these sins4 ,but in times of trouble and persecution the spirit of resistance is as a rule too strong to be kept within the strict lines of demarcation1 and life is willingly and heroically sacrificed for any religious duty4 ,this is not surprising1 for every religious act which is chosen by the enemy as a test to prove the faithfulness or the faithlessness of the persecuted sect to its own religion1 receives thereby the stamp of great importance4 ,similar questions are also asked in times of peace1 when some of our brethren reject the authority of the ,oral ,law1 while others refuse even to recognise the authority of the ,written ,law1 when some set aside the ,divine precepts out of convenience1 and others from principle1 and still others from ignorance2 when some limit their ,judaism to the nominal membership of the ,jewish race1 and others to a negation of other creeds4 ,are all these ,jews8 ,whatever the answer to this question may be from a practical1 political1 social1 and communal point of view1 the fact is that they are ,jews4 ,they may have forfeited certain privileges1 they may be disqualified for certain religious offices1 they may be dangerous to the religious peace of our family or community3 they are notwithstanding ,jews1 and are bound to live in accordance with the ,law which the ,almighty has given to the ,jews and for the ,jews4 ,our ,sages say3 1 8,although a man may have sinned1 he is an ,israelite still40 ,no theologian1 ,rabbi1 or teacher1 or ,beth-din1 or ,sanhedrin1 has the power of granting absolution1 or telling those who break or reject any portion of the ,divine precepts that they are not doing wrong4 ,no human being has the authority to abrogate laws revealed by ,god4 ,why then1 some may ask1 do prophets and moralists1 the ,rabbis of the ,talmud not excluded1 single out ethical principles for special recommendation to their fellow-men1 generally observing silence about the rest of the ,divine commands8 ,the answer is simple4 ,the ethical principles and the ,divine commandments embodying them are different in kind from the rest of the commandments4 ,the latter are distinct1 well defined1 and the punishment for their transgression is fixed2 they are unchangeable1 and not capable of expansion4 ,the dietary laws1 e4g41 are exactly the same now as they were in the days of ,moses4 ,so also the laws concerning ,sabbath4 ,what was then prohibited by the ,sabbath is prohibited still4 ,the ethical principles1 however1 are capable of development1 and the moral standard rises with the progress of civilisation4 ,hence the constant dissatisfaction of prophets1 preachers1 and teachers with the moral principles of their followers4 ,they have a higher standard of morality1 and strive to raise the moral consciousness of their generations to their own height4 ,it is1 therefore1 no wonder that the prophet ,isaiah exhorts his brethren3 8,wash you1 make you clean2 put away the evil of your doings from before mine eyes2 cease to do evil3 learn to do well3 seek judgment1 relieve the oppressed1 judge the fatherless1 plead for the widow0 7i4 #af1 #ag74 8,he that walketh righteously1 and speaketh uprightly2 he that despiseth the gain of oppressions1 that shaketh his hands from holding of bribes1 that stoppeth his ears from hearing of blood1 and shutteth his eyes from looking upon evil1 he shall dwell on high10 c4 7,ibid4 xxxiii4 #ae1 #af74 ,in the same sense the virtuous man is described by all prophets2 also in ,ps4 xv4 and ,ps4 xxiv4 ,r4 ,akiba says3 8#8,thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself' 7,lev4 xix4 #ah7 is an important principle in the ,torah10 but at the same time he shows what importance he ascribes to all other principles and precepts of the ,law by most carefully examining the details of every one of them alike4 ,the great ,hillel told the ,gentile who desired to become a ,jew3 8#8,do not to thy neighbour what is hateful to you2' this is our whole religion20 but that he did not ignore the remainder of the ,torah1 or consider it as not essential1 is proved by the additional words3 8,the rest is its explanation2 go and learn0 7,babyl4 ,talmud1 ,sabbath1 #ca;a74 ,hillel only gave the proselyte a lesson which would lead him to obey all the words of the ,almighty4 ,rabbi ,simlai 7,yalkut on ,micah vi4 #h7 said3 8,six hundred and thirteen commandments were given to ,moses on ,mount ,sinai2 ,david reduced them to eleven 7,ps4 xv472 ,isaiah reduced them to six 7xxxiii4 #af1 #ag72 ,micah 7vi4 #h7 to three2 then ,isaiah reduced them again to two 7lvi4 #a72 and ,habakkuk to one--,faith 7ii4 #d740 ,this ,rabbi does certainly not mean to say that ,isaiah cancelled some of the eleven virtues mentioned by ,david1 or that ,habakkuk only demanded ,faith1 and did not consider it essential that man should be righteous1 truthful1 c4 ,rabbi ,simlai intended only to point out that by training ourselves in the practice of certain virtues1 the fulfilment of all ,divine precepts will be greatly facilitated4 ,all the commandments of the holy ,torah are equally ,divine4 ,laws concerning justice and humanity1 and laws concerning ,sabbath and ,holydays1 are equally introduced by the declaration1 8,and the ,lord spake unto ,moses1 saying40 ,the commandments1 8,thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself10 and 8,a garment of diverse kinds1 of linen and wool1 shall not come upon thee10 stand side by side in the same paragraph4 ,the equality of all the precepts as the expression of the ,will of the ,almighty is clearly set forth in the ,law1 in the frequent exhortations that the ,israelites should obey all the precepts1 whatever their nature may be1 whether they be of the class of 8statutes0 or of 8judgments10 or of any other class of ,divine commands4 7,comp4 ,exod4 xv4 #be1 #bf2 ,lev4 xxvi4 #ae1 #dc2 ,num4 xv4 #ci1 #dj2 ,deut4 iv4 #a1 #e1 #h1 c47 ,as to the various terms employed in the ,pentateuch to designate the ,divine precepts3 words 771 commandments 771 statutes 771 judgments 771 and laws 771 they may be considered as synonyms signifying similar things4 ,but even synonyms are as a rule distinguished from each other by a certain variation in their meaning1 especially when the terms occur in one and the same sentence4 ,a definition of these terms is not given in the ,pentateuch or in the ,bible2 from the context1 however1 in which they occur the following distinction may be drawn3-- or 1 8statute10 is applied to those laws which are absolute and do not depend on certain conditions1 whilst mishpat1 8judgment10 is a law the performance of which varies according to circumstances4 ,thus the ,paschal sacrifice is called chukkah1 and must absolutely be performed1 whilst the civil laws concerning slaves1 damages1 c41 are mishpatim1 because cases of slavery or damages need not occur1 and the respective precepts are then not carried into effect4 ,in a similar manner ,jewish theologians divide the ,divine precepts into and precepts which our duty of obedience to ,god makes us perform1 and precepts which1 without distinct ,divine command1 our own reason would impel us to do4--,the other terms1 mitsvah1 8commandment10 and mishmereth1 8charge10 are used in a general sense1 the former in reference to the ,giver of the law1 and the latter in reference to those to whom it is addressed4 ,the division of the precepts into and is a vague one1 and the line of demarcation will be moved farther to the one side or the other1 according to the judgment exercised by the interpreter4 ,of greater importance is the division into positive and negative precepts1 commandments1 and prohibitions1 and 4 ,the prohibitions are of two kinds3 such as admit of amends being made for their transgression and such as do not admit3 and 4 ,the number of the commandments is1 according to ,rabbi ,simlai1 #fac 771 and in some editions of the ,pentateuch the number of each commandment has been noted in the margin4 ,rabbi ,moses ben ,maimon1 in the introduction to his ,mishneh-torah1 enumerates the #fac mitsvoth4 ,they are also contained in liturgical compositions1 called 8exhortations10 or 8precepts10 such as are met with in the ,machzor for the ,feast of ,weeks4 ,maimonides1 in 8,the ,guide0 as well as in ,mishneh-torah1 treats of the precepts of the ,torah under the following fourteen heads3 7#a7 ,fundamental principles of our faith2 #ca 7#b7 ,divine worship2 7#c7 ,sabbath and festivals2 7#d7 ,marriages2 7#e7 ,forbidden food and forbidden relations of the sexes2 7#f7 ,vows2 7#g7 ,agriculture2 7#h7 ,the ,temple and the regular sacrificial service2 7#i7 ,occasional sacrifices2 7#aj7 ,cleanness and uncleanness2 7#aa7 ,compensation for damages2 7#ab7 ,transfer of property2 7#ac7 ,contracts2 7#ad7 ,administration of the law4 ,another theologian1 ,rabbenu ,jakob1 divided the code of laws into four sections3 7#a7 ,divine worship1 ,sabbath1 festivals1 and fasts2 7#b7 ,things forbidden and things permitted in satisfying our bodily desires2 7#c7 ,marriages2 7#d7 ,civil laws4 ,the latter work was recast by ,rabbi ,joseph ,caro1 and in the new form1 with the new title ,shulchan ,aruch1 it has become the standard work of ,jewish law and life1 and its authority has been recognised and upheld by ,jews in the ,east and the ,west4 ,annotations 77 were added by ,rabbi ,moses ,isserles1 but his opinion1 when differing from that of ,rabbi ,joseph ,caro1 was only accepted by the ,polish and ,german ,congregations1 not by the ,sephardim4 ,rabbi ,joseph ,caro1 ,rabbenu ,jakob1 and ,maimonides appear1 in their respective codes1 not as legislators but as compilers4 ,the ,torah and the ,talmud were the sources from which they all drew their laws4 ,but laws1 minhagim or customs1 and institutions 77 of a post-,talmudic date were not neglected4 ,questions arising in the course of time1 through new and changed conditions of life1 are1 as a rule1 discussed and decided in notes and commentaries on the ,shulchan ,aruch4 ,there are also numerous special works on such occasional questions2 they are called 8,responsa0 7 8,answers10 or 8,questions and ,answers071 and the importance attributed to them varies according to the reputation of the respective authors4 ,what is the object of the ,divine laws8 ,this is a question that naturally rises in the minds of those to whom they are addressed4 ,but the question has been anticipated by ,him 8who knoweth the thoughts of the sons of man10 and the answer is found in clear and distinct words in the fountain of living waters1 the ,torah1 that never fails to satisfy our thirst for truth3 8,thou shalt keep his statutes and his commandments which ,i command thee this day1 that it may be well with thee and thy children after thee0 7,deut4 iv4 #dj74 8,and now1 ,o ,israel1 what doth the ,lord thy ,god require of thee1 but to fear the ,lord thy ,god1 to walk in all his ways and to love him1 and to serve the ,lord thy ,god with all thy heart and with all thy soul3 to keep the commandments of the ,lord and his statutes which ,i command thee this day1 for thy good0 7ibid4 x4 #ab1 #ac74 ,it is for our benefit1 for our well-being1 that the laws were revealed to us2 they serve to make us good and happy2 they train us in the mastery over our appetites and desires1 in the practice of charity and justice1 and in the conception of noble1 pure1 and lofty ideas1 and bring us nearer and nearer in perfection the ,being in whose image and likeness we have been created4 ,what share each individual precept has in the attainment of this end we cannot state with certainty1 because in the ,torah the reason and purpose of each precept is1 with very few exceptions1 withheld from us4 ,in many cases our reflection on the nature of a special law1 or on the context in which it occurs in the ,pentateuch1 leads to a discovery of some reason for it4 ,but1 whatever reason we may thus discover1 we must not lose sight of the fact that it is we who have found it1 we whose knowledge is imperfect1 and that we or others might in future discover a better reason4 ,if we1 e4g41 find that certain dietary laws serve to train us in temperance1 and see that the virtue of temperance is frequently recommended in the ,bible1 we may well obey these dietary laws1 and strive to be temperate in every respect in accordance with the spirit we detect in them4 ,it would1 however1 be a gross error if1 believing the training in temperance to be their only object1 we assumed that we could neglect them1 and attain the same object by substituting our own insufficient knowledge and imperfect reason for the ,will and ,wisdom of the most perfect ,being4 ,moralists1 our teachers and preachers of ancient and modern times1 have found in these precepts an inexhaustible treasure of lessons exhorting to virtue and warning against vice1 and the great variety of inferences thus drawn from the same source proves the error of those who imagine that their own exposition is the only right one4 ,whatever reason we assign to a religious precept1 and whatever wholesome lesson we derive from it1 our first duty towards the commandment1 and towards ,him who commanded it1 is strict and unconditional obedience4 ,maimonides1 who may be considered as the representative of the school which seeks to establish a rational explanation for all precepts1 admits that the reason we may assign to any of the commandments cannot affect their validity and immutability1 and we are bound to obey them1 although the supposed reason may be of a local or temporary character4 ,according to ,maimonides1 the object of the ,law is to promote the well-being of our body and the well-being of our soul2 and every commandment has therefore some bearing upon one of the following three things3 the regulation of our opinions1 the removal of sin1 or the teaching of good morals4 ,he does not except the 8statutes0 from this rule1 but confesses that in a few cases he is unable to show clearly the relation of the commandment to any of these objects4 ,he also restricts the principle of rational interpretation to the main element in each commandment1 and does not apply it to its details2 the latter1 as a rule1 do not demand an explanation4 ,he says3-- 8,the general object of the ,law is twofold3 the well-being of the soul and the well-being of the body0 7,guide1 iii4 #bg74 8,i am prepared to tell you my explanations of all these commandments 7the so-called chukkim or 8statutes071 and to assign for them a true reason supported by proof1 with the exception of some minor rules and of a few commandments4 ,i will show that all these and similar laws must have some bearing upon one of the following three things1 viz41 the regulation of our opinions or the improvement of our social relations1 which implies two things3 the removal of wrong-doing and the teaching of good morals0 7ibid4 xxviii474 8,the repeated assertion of our ,sages that there are reasons for all commandments1 and the tradition that ,solomon knew them1 refer to the general purpose of the commandments1 and not to the object of every detail4 ,this being the case1 ,i find it convenient to divide the six hundred and thirteen precepts into classes2 each class to include many precepts of the same kind4 ,i will first explain the reason of each class of precepts1 and show their common object1 and then ,i shall discuss the individual commandments and expound their reasons4 ,only very few will be left unexplained1 the reason for which ,i have been unable to trace unto this day4 ,i have also been able to comprehend in some cases even the object of many of the conditions and details of the laws as far as it can be discovered0 7ibid4 xxvi474 8,it is also important to note that the ,law does not take into account exceptional circumstances2 it is not based on conditions which rarely occur40 8,we must therefore not be surprised when we find that the object of the ,law does not fully appear in every individual case40 8,from this consideration it follows that the ,law cannot1 like medicine1 vary according to the different conditions of persons and times4 ,whilst the cure of a person depends on his particular constitution at the particular time1 the ,divine guidance contained in the ,law must be certain and general1 although it may be effective in some cases and ineffective in others4 ,if the ,law depended on the varying conditions of man1 it would be imperfect in its totality1 each precept being left indefinite4 ,for this reason1 it would not be right to make the fundamental principles of the ,law dependent on a certain time or a certain place4 ,on the contrary1 the statutes and the judgments must be definite1 unconditional1 and general1 in accordance with the ,divine words3 #8,as for the congregation1 one ordinance shall be for you and for the stranger' 7,num4 xv4 #ae74 ,they are intended1 as has been stated before1 for all persons and for all times0 7ibid4 xxxiv474 ,in the present treatise our religious duties will be expounded under the following seven heads3-- #a4 ,exposition of the ,decalogue4 #b4 ,general ethical principles-- 7a47 ,duties towards ,god4 7b47 11 11 our fellow-men4 7c47 11 11 ourselves4 #c4 ,outward reminders of ,god's ,presence4 #d4 ,sabbath1 ,festivals1 and ,fasts4 #e4 ,divine ,worship4 #f4 ,dietary ,laws4 #g4 ,jewish ,life4 ,i4 ,,the ,,ten ,,commandments4 ,the 8,ten ,words0 are distinguished from all other lessons of the ,torah both on account of their intrinsic value and on account of the extraordinary manner in which they have been revealed by the ,almighty on ,mount ,sinai4 ,they form the contents of 8the covenant which ,god made with us0 7,deut4 v4 #c74 ,but it must not be forgotten that they are not the only ,divine commandments4 ,when1 therefore1 ,moses repeated them before his brethren in the plain of ,moab1 he prefaced it by the exhortation3 8,hear1 ,o ,israel1 the statutes and the judgments which ,i speak unto you to-day1 and learn them and keep them to do them0 7ibid4 #a72 and after he had finished reciting them he reminded the ,israelites how they received the ,ten ,commandments from the midst of the fire1 and how they prayed that further commandments should be given to them through ,moses2 adding that the ,almighty1 in compliance with their petition1 said to him3 8,stand thou here with me1 and ,i will tell thee the whole commandment1 both the statutes and the judgments which thou shalt teach them0 7ibid4 #bh74 8,and ,god spake all these words1 saying30 ,,first ,,commandment4 8,i am the ,lord thy ,god1 who brought thee out of the land of ,egypt1 out of the house of bondage40 ,the ,israelites who now stood round ,mount ,sinai and heard the voice of ,god saying1 8,i am the ,lord thy ,god10 were the same who a very short time before had been slaves in ,egypt2 they were delivered from slavery1 and saw their cruel taskmasters perish in the waves of the ,red ,sea4 ,pharaoh1 the king of the ,egyptians1 and his people had believed that they were the masters of the ,israelites1 and that they could do with them as they pleased4 ,and ,pharaoh said1 8,who is the ,lord1 that ,i should listen to his voice8 ,i know not the ,lord1 nor will ,i let ,israel go40 ,it has now been shown that ,pharaoh and his people were not the true masters2 that there was a higher ,being that ruled over all men1 over kings and their peoples4 ,after the ,israelites had crossed the ,red ,sea1 they sang with ,moses3 8,this is my ,god1 and ,i will praise him1 the ,god of my father1 and ,i will exalt him40 ,they all felt that their liberty was not obtained by human strength and skill2 that there must be a higher ,being who is ,all-powerful1 ,all-wise1 and ,all-good2 and that it was ,he who freed them1 and punished the wicked ,egyptians by whom they had been kept in slavery4 ,what the ,israelites at first felt in their hearts they were now1 when standing round ,sinai1 taught by ,god ,himself1 in plain1 clear1 and intelligible words3 8,i am the ,lord thy ,god1 who brought thee out of the land of ,egypt1 out of the house of bondage40 ,this is the first commandment2 it is only one commandment1 but it contains several important lessons3-- #a4 ,god has shown great kindness to our nation2 we ,jews must therefore more than other people show ourselves grateful to ,him1 love ,him as our ,deliverer and ,benefactor1 and do willingly all that ,he commands us to do4 #b4 ,when we are in trouble we must trust in ,god1 pray to ,him1 and hope that ,he will help us when our fellow-men cannot do so4 ,when they give us up as lost we need not despair2 for the ,almighty can help where human wisdom and power are insufficient4 #c4 ,the wicked may for a time succeed in doing wrong1 whilst the good and just suffer2 but this does not last for ever4 ,there is a ,master above all of us1 who in due time punishes the wicked and saves the good4 ,,second ,,commandment4 8,thou shall have no other gods before me4 ,thou shalt not make unto thee a graven image1 nor the form of anything that is in heaven above1 or that is in the earth beneath1 or that is in the water under the earth4 ,thou shalt not bow down thyself unto them1 nor serve them1 for ,i1 the ,lord thy ,god1 am a jealous ,god1 visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children1 upon the third and upon the fourth generation of them that hate me2 and showing loving-kindness to the thousandth generation of them that love me and keep my commandments40 ,there are no other gods in existence2 it is impossible for us to have other gods4 ,there is only one ,god1 as we repeatedly declare1 8,hear1 ,o ,israel1 the ,lord is our ,god1 the ,lord is one40 ,the commandment is nevertheless not superfluous4 ,there have been whole nations1 and there are still people1 who1 in their ignorance and folly1 attribute ,divine power to things that have no ,divine power1 and who give the name of god to things that are not gods4 ,such people are called heathens1 idolaters1 or idol-worshippers4 ,the second commandment forbids us to do any such thing4 ,it was the custom in some countries to worship the king1 either during his lifetime or after his death1 as a ,divine being2 it is still the custom in some countries to pray to departed saints4 ,all this our holy religion forbids us to do4 ,we must respect our king1 we must honour the memory and the name of good men1 but only as human beings1 not as gods2 we may not deify them4 ,as to our prophets1 our great men1 the ,patriarchs1 the kings1 their names are a pride unto us1 their memory a blessing1 --they are honoured by us as human1 mortal beings3 they are not worshipped4 ,when we visit the graves of those near and dear to us1 and honour their memory by reflecting on their virtues1 when we revere those holy men who have devoted their lives to the service of ,god1 or the martyrs who have sacrificed their lives for the sanctification of the ,name of ,god 7 71 we do not endow them with ,divine attributes1 and do not offer up any prayer to them4 ,the second commandment1 in forbidding all kinds of idolatry1 includes the following prohibitions3-- 7#a47 ,the worship of sun1 moon1 stars1 animals1 human beings1 or any part of ,nature1 as endowed with ,divine power4 7#b47 ,the worship of images representing things that exist in reality or in man's imagination4 7#c47 ,the worship of angels as ,divine beings4 ,they are only messengers of ,god1 and we must not pray to them4 7#d47 ,the belief in evil spirits1 demons1 devils1 and the like1 and the fear of them4 7#e47 ,the belief in charms1 witchcraft1 fortune-telling1 and similar superstitions4 ,the words1 8,for ,i1 the ,lord thy ,god1 am a jealous ,god10 are to be understood in a figurative sense2 we cannot say of ,god that ,he is jealous1 in the literal sense of the word4 ,it is only because we call a person jealous who is anxious that no one else shall enjoy the same right or privilege as he enjoys1 that we apply the term 8jealous0 figuratively to ,god1 because ,he does not concede ,divine worship and service to any other being4 ,he demands of ,his worshippers that they serve ,him alone and none besides4 ,those who break this commandment 8hate ,god10 and will surely receive their punishment4 ,he 8visits the iniquity of the fathers upon the children upon the third and upon the fourth generation40 ,the bad example set by a man frequently corrupts his children1 grandchildren1 and great-grandchildren4 ,in that case they will all receive their punishment1 and there is no excuse for them1 that they were misled by the bad example of their father or their forefathers4 ,a bad example must not be followed1 even if it be set by those whom we love dearly4 ,the good example of a man should always be followed1 and his good deeds bear good fruit and are the source of blessing even long after his death4 ,for to those that love ,god and keep ,his commandments ,god 8showeth mercy even to the thousandth generation40 ,,third ,,commandment 8,thou shalt not take the name of the ,lord thy ,god in vain2 for the ,lord will not hold1 him guiltless that taketh his name in vain40 ,we pronounce the name of ,god when we read the ,bible1 when we pray1 when we take an oath1 or when we speak of ,god's wisdom1 power1 and goodness4 ,we take the name of ,god in vain when we read the ,bible without attention1 or pray without devotion1 or take an oath without necessity or contrary to truth4 ,when we utter the name of ,god we must bear in mind that it is the name of the most ,holy and most ,perfect ,being that we are pronouncing2 that it is a privilege to us to be allowed and to be able to pronounce it4 ,the more we meditate on the greatness and holiness of ,god1 the more careful should we be 8not to utter the name of ,god in vain40 ,we should guard ourselves from falling into the bad habit of uttering it thoughtlessly to no purpose whatever4 ,many people are heard to exclaim every minute1 8,o ,god10 or similar phrases4 ,to them the sacredness of the name is entirely lost1 and they are no longer reminded by it of the holiness of ,him who is designated by that name4 ,still greater is the thoughtlessness of those who swear by ,god without any necessity4 ,in swearing by ,god we call upon ,god to bear witness that our words are true4 ,but such a testimony is only required when our statement is not believed4 ,if we swear before we know whether we are believed or not1 we indicate that1 according to our estimate of ourselves1 we are not trustworthy1 and it has often been observed as a fact that those who swear most are least to be believed4 ,the worst of all forms of swearing is to swear falsely1 that is1 to swear that something is the case without knowing that it is true1 or knowing that it is not true4 ,this is a terrible crime1 and is called 8the profanation of ,god's name10 4 ,there is still another kind of 8profanation of ,god's name30 if we ,jews who are called by ,his name1 the people of the ,lord1 or children of the ,lord1 bring contempt upon ,god's people by disgraceful conduct1 we profane the name of ,god4 ,we sanctify it by noble and generous deeds2 by leading a pure and blameless life we cause a 8sanctification of the name of ,god40 ,the third commandment forbids us-- 7#a47 ,to utter the name of ,god unnecessarily in our common conversation4 7#b47 ,to read the ,bible carelessly1 or to pray without attention and devotion4 7#c47 ,to swear otherwise than when required by the law to do so1 as1 e4g41 in courts of law4 7#d47 ,to swear when we are not fully convinced of the truth of our declaration4 ,the additional sentence1 8for he will not hold him guiltless who taketh his name in vain10 is to remind us that it is against ,god the ,omniscient that we sin in breaking this commandment4 ,god knows our innermost thoughts1 whether we think of what we utter or not2 whether we are convinced of what we declare on oath or not4 ,he will punish us if we break ,his commandments1 although we may be able to conceal our sins from men and escape condemnation by a human tribunal4 ,,fourth ,,commandment4 8,remember the ,sabbath day to keep it holy4 ,six days shalt thou labour and do all thy work4 ,but the seventh day is a ,sabbath unto the ,lord thy ,god3 in it thou shalt not do any work1 thou1 nor thy son1 nor thy daughter1 thy manservant1 nor thy maidservant1 nor thy cattle1 nor thy stranger that is within thy gates4 ,for in six days the ,lord made heaven and earth1 the sea1 and all that is therein1 and rested the seventh day2 wherefore the ,lord blessed the ,sabbath day1 and hallowed it40 ,the ,sabbath day1 that is1 the day of rest1 is to be kept holy4 ,in two ways it should differ from other days2 it is to be a day of rest and also a holy day4 ,we keep it as a day of rest by not doing on it any kind of work2 we keep it as a holy day by devoting the greater part of it1 since we are free from our ordinary occupation1 to prayer and to reading the ,bible4 ,we are thankful to ,god for having commanded us to keep the ,sabbath1 and give expression to our feeling of gratitude in our prayers1 especially at the beginning and the end of the ,sabbath2 thus1 on ,friday evening1 before the meal1 we praise ,god for sanctifying the ,sabbath by a prayer called ,kiddush1 8sanctification10 and on ,sabbath evening1 after the close of the ,sabbath1 we recite the ,habhdalah1 in which ,god is praised for the distinction made between ,sabbath and the six week-days4 ,the ,israelites were told to remember the ,sabbath day2 that is1 the well-known day of rest1 the same day which was instituted as a day of rest in connection with the manna4 ,on five days they collected one omer of the manna1 on the sixth day two omers for each person2 on the seventh day no manna was collected nor was any found1 and the ,israelites were commanded to bake and to cook on the sixth day not only for the sixth day1 but also for the seventh1 on which day baking and cooking was not to be done4 ,this same seventh day we are told in the fourth commandment to remember to keep holy1 that we should not forget it1 or choose another day instead of it4 ,it is the same seventh day on which ,god rested after the six days of the ,creation1 and which 8he blessed and sanctified40 ,it is to be a day of rest not only for ourselves2 we must not have work done for us by our children1 or by our servants1 or by strangers2 even our cattle must rest4 ,after six days of work we enjoy the blessing of one day's rest1 and are rendered more fit to work another six days4 ,the harder we work on six days1 the more welcome is the rest of the seventh day to us4 ,when ,moses repeated the commandments1 he laid special stress on the rest of the servants1 reminding the ,israelites that they themselves had once been slaves1 and must therefore recognise the necessity of granting a day of rest to their servants4 ,it is not to be a day of mere idleness4 ,complete idleness leads to evil thoughts and evil deeds4 ,whilst our body rests our mind should be occupied with holy thoughts2 we should commune with ,god1 reflect on ,his works1 learn from them the power1 wisdom1 and goodness of ,god1 study the ,word of ,god1 listen to the instruction of our teachers and preachers1 and altogether try to raise ourselves into a loftier sphere4 ,on the day of rest we reflect on the works of ,god1 on the work of ,creation which ,he completed in six days1 and thus by keeping the ,sabbath we testify to our belief in ,god as the ,creator of the ,universe4 ,on this account it is that the ,creation is referred to in this commandment as the reason why rest was enjoined for the seventh day4 8,for in six days10 c4 8,therefore the ,lord blessed the ,sabbath day20 the rest on the seventh day is a blessing to those who have worked hard during the preceding six days2 it is a blessing to those who spend the ,sabbath in a proper manner4 8,and he hallowed it0 by giving man an opportunity to sanctify himself by more frequent communion with the ,most ,holy4 ,the fourth commandment tells us-- 7#a47 ,to remember to keep the same day as ,sabbath which has been set apart as such from the beginning4 7#b47 ,to abstain on that day from all kind of work4 7#c47 ,to devote part of the day to our sanctification4 ,,fifth ,,commandment4 8,honour thy father and thy mother3 that thy days may be long upon the land which the ,lord thy ,god giveth thee40 ,the strongest desire that animates a father and a mother is to see their children good and happy4 ,from the first day of their existence children are guarded by the watchful eyes of their parents that no evil may befall them4 ,how delighted are father and mother when they notice the progress of their child in health and strength1 in heart and soul6 ,what an amount of trouble and anxiety parents undergo when they see their child suffering6 ,no sacrifice is too great for them so long as it ensures the child's well-being4 ,it is painful to them to be compelled to deny their child anything1 or to rebuke or to punish it4 ,to this they are impelled only by the anxiety for the welfare of the child4 ,the mutual affection between parent and child is one which nature has implanted4 ,without it the home would be the dwelling of misery and misfortune2 with it comfort and happiness flourish therein4 ,the loving parents have pleasure in whatever they do for the benefit of the child1 and the affectionate child is delighted with the goodness of its parents4 8,honour thy father and thy mother10 says the ,almighty to us4 ,how does a child honour father and mother8 ,in the eyes of the child father and mother must be the king and the queen of the house1 however small that may be4 ,every word that comes from their mouth1 every desire that they express1 must be regarded as of the greatest importance1 and be well remembered by the child4 ,when the king or the queen speaks1 all present stand and listen respectfully2 their words are read by every one with the greatest interest4 ,so it must be with the words of our parents4 ,whenever they tell us to do or not to do a thing1 obedience is a blessing to us2 disobedience is the chief cause of all misery and trouble4 ,we feel pleasure and honour in being able to do something that gratifies our parents1 and we like to give them at times some material token of our affection4 ,the best present we can give them is a good heart1 sincere love that prompts us to avoid everything that would grieve them1 and to do everything we can to give them pleasure and to make them happy4 ,this is one of the few laws the reward of which is distinctly stated1 8,that thy days may be long upon the land1 which the ,lord thy ,god giveth thee40 ,we can easily understand the good effect of keeping the fifth commandment4 ,pleasure and contentment contribute a good deal to the health and well-being of man1 whilst anger1 trouble1 and dissatisfaction produce ill-health and weakness4 ,the mutual affection between parent and child is therefore the cause that the days of both the parents and the children are prolonged1 and the harmony and happiness of the house firmly established4 ,the blessing attending children's obedience and love towards their parents does not end here4 ,the whole ,state consists of small homes and families1 and the greater the well-being of the individual homes1 the greater is the well-being of the whole country4 ,thus the child by acting in accordance with this ,divine commandment contributes its share towards the prosperity of the whole country4 ,when our parents are not present1 we should1 out of love towards them1 obey those who take their place1 as1 e4g41 our elder brothers or sisters1 our guardians1 and our teachers1 since all these only do what the parents would themselves like to do were the opportunity granted them4 ,we are bound to honour our parents not only so long as we are under their care and live in their house1 but also when we have left our parents' home1 and have become independent4 ,even when they have become old1 weak1 and poor1 and we support them1 we must not forget the natural relation between parent and child1 and the honour due to parents from their children must still be shown to them4 ,when they have departed from this life1 and we are no longer able to show our feeling of love and respect in the usual way1 we must honour their name and memory1 and hold in respect the wishes and commands which they expressed when still alive4 ,death is no bar to true love and sincere affection4 ,thus we obey the fifth commandment-- 7#a47 ,by listening respectfully to the words of our parents and obeying what they say4 7#b47 ,by doing that which pleases them1 and avoiding that which would displease them4 7#c47 ,by supporting them when they are weak and poor by all our best exertion and with genuine pleasure4 7#d47 ,by honouring their name and memory after their death4 7#e47 ,by being obedient to our elder brothers or sisters1 to our guardians1 and to our teachers4 ,,sixth ,,commandment4 8,thou shalt not murder40 ,murder is a most terrible thing2 we shudder at the sound of the word1 even at the mere idea of it4 ,we wonder how it is possible that a person should be so wicked1 so cruel1 and so unnatural as to take the life of another human being6 ,one who can do such a thing must have lost all human feeling1 and is rather a brute than a being created in the image of ,god4 ,but1 unfortunately1 there have been and there are such wicked people4 ,we read in the ,bible that a dispute arose between the two sons of ,adam1 and the one1 ,cain1 slew the other1 ,abel4 ,he repented it1 but he could not restore to his brother the life which he had taken4 ,the severest punishment is therefore inflicted on those who have committed this crime4 ,this commandment and those which follow it have their root in the principle1 8,love thy fellow-man as thyself10 applied to the life 7sixth commandment71 the home 7seventh commandment71 the property 7eighth commandment71 and the honour of our fellow-man 7ninth commandment74 ,we wish to enjoy life as long as possible2 it must therefore be our desire to see our fellow-man enjoy the longest possible life4 ,but we must not rest satisfied with the mere desire4 ,an earnest desire is followed by acts dictated by it4 ,we must try our utmost1 even as we do with regard to ourselves1 to preserve the life of our fellow-man4 ,we have1 e4g41 seen before how by obeying the fifth commandment we lengthen not only our own life1 but also that of our parents1 whilst by breaking this law we shorten their life as well as our own4 ,by supporting the poor and nursing the sick we may be the means of increasing a human life by many days or even years1 whilst by neglecting the duty of charity we neglect to save the life of our fellow-man when it is in our power to do so4--,another instance of criminal neglect it would be if a person saw another in actual danger of life1 and did not try everything in his power to save him4 ,without having directly broken the sixth commandment1 without having taken the life of our neighbour by violence1 we may still be guilty of having shortened his life and caused his untimely death4 ,talebearers and slanderers1 e4g41 often undermine the peace and happiness of an individual1 and even of a whole family1 and sow the seed of misery and ruin where well-being and prosperity seemed well established4 ,the sixth commandment enjoins that we should respect the life of our fellow-man1 and forbids us therefore-- 7#a47 ,to take it by violent means4 7#b47 ,to do anything by which the peace and well-being of our fellow-man might be undermined4 7#c47 ,to neglect anything in our power to save our neighbour from direct or indirect danger of life4 ,,seventh ,,commandment4 8,thou shalt not commit adultery40 ,the institution of marriage is of very ancient date4 ,when ,eve had been formed out of the rib of ,adam1 and was brought to him1 he exclaimed1 8,she is bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh10 and the account of the first marriage concludes thus3 8,therefore man shall leave his father and his mother and cleave unto his wife1 and they shall be one flesh0 7,gen4 ii4 #bd74 ,every married couple1 husband and wife1 bind themselves by a solemn promise to be true and faithful to each other1 to remain throughout life united in love and affection1 and to establish a home founded on purity and sanctity4 ,adultery is the breaking of this promise4 ,that love and affection which unites man and wife cannot be shared by a third person without involving a breach of the seventh commandment4 ,jewish homes have always been distinguished by sanctity and purity4 ,in order to retain this distinction it is necessary that we should be trained in this virtue from our childhood4 ,our language must be pure and holy2 unclean and indecent expressions must never be uttered in our homes1 either by the old or by the young4 ,the purer our speech is1 the more sanctified will our heart be4 ,bad society often corrupts the heart of the young through bad example in words and conduct4 ,it is therefore essential that immoral persons should not come in contact with our children2 that everything that is contrary to the virtue of modesty 77 should be rigorously excluded from ,jewish homes4 ,the seventh commandment forbids3-- 7#a47 ,faithlessness of a man to his wife1 or a woman to her husband4 7#b47 ,the use of improper and indecent language4 7#c47 ,immodest conduct4 7#d47 ,associating with immoral persons4 ,,eighth ,,commandment4 8,thou shalt not steal40 ,we do not like that any one should take a part of our property without our knowledge or consent4 ,an old saying of the ,rabbis teaches3 8,let the property of thy neighbour be as dear in thy eyes as thine own0 7,aboth ii4 #ab72 that is to say1 as you do not wish a diminution or destruction of what is yours1 so you must not cause a diminution or destruction of what belongs to your neighbour4 ,by secretly taking anything for ourselves that does not belong to us1 we steal1 and break the eighth commandment4 ,this commandment has also a wider sense1 and forbids every illegal acquisition of property1 whether it be directly by theft or robbery1 or by cheating1 by embezzlement or forgery4 ,property acquired by any of these or similar means may be considered as stolen property1 and is by no means a blessing to him who possesses it4 ,even if human justice does not reach the evil-doer1 he is watched by an ,all-seeing ,eye1 and will in due time receive his full punishment4 ,this commandment prohibits3-- 7#a47 ,theft and robbery4 7#b47 ,all kinds of fraud and dishonesty4 ,,ninth ,,commandment4 8,thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour40 ,it gives us pain to hear that others speak ill of us4 8,let the honour of thy neighbour be as dear to thee as thine own0 7,aboth ii4 #aj74 ,we must therefore not speak ill of our neighbour4 ,but it is not only the speaking ill of others that this commandment forbids2 we must not say of our fellow-man anything that is not true4 ,if we are called as a witness in a court of justice1 we must be most careful that every word we utter be perfectly true4 ,we must weigh our words well and guard ourselves against stating as facts things about which we are not quite certain4 ,if we are careless we may become false witnesses1 and may even be guilty of perjury4 ,the consequences of false evidence are of a very grave nature2 it misleads the judge1 perverts justice1 ruins innocent people2 and the false witness himself--whether he sinned with intention or by carelessness--will not escape punishment4 ,god declared through the mouth of the prophet ,zechariah 7v4 #d73 8,i will bring forth the curse1 saith the ,lord of hosts1 and it shall enter into the house of the thief and into the house of him that sweareth falsely by my name2 and it shall remain in the midst of his house1 and shall consume it1 with the timber thereof and the stones thereof40 ,in order to guard ourselves against the possibility of such a crime1 we must train ourselves in speaking the exact truth in everything1 however trifling it may appear to us4 ,even in their play children must be careful in what they utter4 ,idle talk1 gossip1 frequently leads us to speak of our neighbours what is not in harmony with facts4 ,though we may believe it to be harmless and to have no evil consequence1 it has in reality very pernicious results2 for we get into the habit of being careless about our words1 and of ignoring the line that parts truth from falsehood1 and when we have then to speak on more important things1 or even in a court of justice1 we may prove ourselves equally careless4 ,there is a proverb 7,prov4 xix4 #e73 8,a faithful witness is he who doth not lie1 but he who uttereth lies will be a false witness20 i4e41 the conduct of a witness with regard to truth in ordinary and less important utterances is a test of his trustworthiness in more important matters4 ,the ninth commandment-- 7#a47 ,forbids us to give false evidence2 and 7#b47 ,to utter an untruth of any kind whatever4 7#c47 ,it commands us to be careful in our utterances4 ,,tenth ,,commandment4 8,thou shalt not covet thy neighbours house2 thou shalt not covet thy neighbour's wife1 nor his man-servant1 nor his maid-servant1 nor his ox1 nor his ass1 nor any thing that is thy neighbour's40 ,the coveting which the tenth commandment forbids is the root from which the crimes forbidden in the four preceding commandments spring4 ,coveting is a desire to possess what we cannot get in an honest and legal manner4 ,an instance of such coveting is the desire of ,ahab to possess the vineyard of ,naboth4 ,it must have been more than an ordinary desire1 for it led him to most wicked acts 7#a ,kings xxi474 ,it is not every desire that is prohibited4 ,if we see a thing that pleases us1 we begin to feel a desire for its possession4 ,our reason must then step in and tell us whether we can obtain it in an honest way or not4 ,in the latter case we must conquer our desire and suppress it1 lest it obtain the mastery over us4 ,we must work and try to make progress4 ,we cannot be blamed if we are not quite content with our present condition1 and wish to improve it4 ,without such a desire all industry and progress would disappear4 ,but we must consider that the improvement of our material condition1 the increase of our property1 is not the whole mission of man4 ,we must not forget that we have a higher mission3 to improve our heart and our moral conduct1 and to make ourselves worthy of being called 8the children of ,god40 ,the increase of our property must not impede the progress of the purity and goodness of our heart4 ,the tenth commandment-- 7#a47 ,forbids us to covet that which does not belong to us2 and 7#b47 ,commands us to suppress any such desire when it rises in our heart4 ,note #a4--,there is another way of enumerating the ,ten ,commandments1 namely1 to combine the first and the second into one1 and to divide the tenth into two4 ,the ,masoretic text seems to point in this direction2 for there is no pause between the first and the second commandments1 while there is one in the middle of the tenth4 ,the inference from the ,masoretic text1 however1 is not quite certain4 ,it is possible that the first two commandments were joined closely together in order to separate more pointedly those commandments in which ,god speaks of ,himself in the first person from those in which ,he speaks of ,himself in the third person2 or1 to use the words of the ,midrash1 to separate the first two1 which the ,israelites heard directly from ,god1 from the rest1 which they heard through ,moses4 ,the last commandment was1 on account of its great importance1 given in two different forms4 ,in the first the general term 8house0 is employed2 in the second the various elements constituting the 8house0 are enumerated instead4 ,the two forms of the commandment are separated by the sign of a pause1 because each of them is complete in itself4 ,tradition supports our division of the ,decalogue4 8,i am0 77 and 8,thou shalt not have0 7 7 are mentioned in ,talmud and ,midrash1 also in ,targum1 as two distinct commandments4 ,according to ,philo 7,on the ,ten ,comm47 and ,josephus 7,antiq4 ,,iii4 v4 #e71 the verse1 8,thou shalt have 444 before me0 belongs to the first commandment4 ,the text of the ,decalogue1 as repeated by ,moses in the plain of ,moab 7,deut4 v4 #f-h71 differs from the original 7,exod4 xx4 #b-ad74 ,one of the differences1 the first word of the fourth commandment--1 8,remember10 in ,exodus1 and 1 8,observe10 in ,deuteronomy--is pointed out in ,midrash and ,talmud1 and also in the hymn for the ,eve of ,sabbath1 beginning1 8,come1 my friend0 7 74 ,tradition explains the first expression as referring to affirmative commandments1 and the second to prohibitions2 it further teaches that 8both expressions were spoken by ,god simultaneously20 that is to say1 the fourth commandment in ,deuteronomy1 though different in form1 does not imply anything that has not been revealed by ,god on ,mount ,sinai4 ,the same applies to all points of difference4 ,why did ,moses introduce the alterations8 ,ibn ,ezra1 in his ,commentary on the ,decalogue1 is of opinion that the question need not be asked1 or answered if asked1 because in the repetition of a ,divine message the original words may be changed so long as the sense remains intact4 ,but the addition of the phrase1 8as the ,lord thy ,god commandeth thee0 in two cases1 and the reference to the deliverance from ,egyptian servitude1 substituted 7in ,deut47 in the fourth commandment for the reference to the ,creation 7in ,exod471 lead us to think that the changes were not introduced unintentionally or without any purpose4 ,the repeated ,decalogue is a portion of an address in which ,moses exhorted a new generation in the plains of ,moab to obey the ,divine ,law4 ,it is1 therefore1 not unlikely that he made additions and alterations for the sake of emphasis1 where he noticed a certain laxity among those whom he addressed4 ,having come in contact with heathen nations and observed their rites in connection with their sacred days1 the ,israelites may have been inclined to imitate them2 they were therefore exhorted to sanctify the ,sabbath in the way ,god commanded2 hence also the more emphatic 8,observe10 4--,a similar reason may have caused the addition of the same phrase1 8as the ,lord1 c410 to the fifth commandment4 ,the participation of a portion of the ,israelites in the licentious feasts of the ,moabites and ,midianites disturbed the peace of their homes and loosened the sacred family tie4 ,moses therefore points to the ,divine origin of the law commanding obedience to parents1 and also emphasises the blessings which it will yield by adding the words1 8and in order that it may be well with thee40--,the change of circumstances has also caused another alteration in the fourth commandment4 ,during the forty years which the ,israelites were compelled to spend in the wilderness1 they almost forgot the condition of their former servitude2 the new generation did not know it at all1 and they grudged their slaves the one day of rest in the week4 ,they were therefore reminded of their servitude in ,egypt1 and were asked to remember it in order that they might1 out of gratitude to the ,almighty1 keep the ,sabbath as ,he commanded them4 ,another indication that changed circumstances caused the alterations is noticed in the tenth commandment4 ,having arrived at the border of ,palestine1 the ,israelites were about to take possession of houses and fields1 and two and a half tribes were already in possession of landed property4 ,the term 8house0 771 which at first denoted 8the home0 or 8the household10 including the wife1 was now in the minds of the people chiefly 8a permanent building40 8,the wife10 the centre and the chief element in the home1 was therefore substituted for 8the house0 in the first part of the commandment1 and vice vers1 8the house0 for 8the wife0 in the second part1 where appropriately 8nor his field0 has been added4--,the substitution of 8,thou shalt not desire0 7 7 for the original 8,thou shalt not covet0 7 7 may have been intended to teach the ,israelites that all kinds and degrees of desire were forbidden1 and to remind them of the consequences of desire which they had experienced at 8the graves of the desire0 7 ,num4 xi474--,one more important alteration is to be noticed1 the conjunctive 8and0 77 before the seventh and the following commandments1 which served to create in the minds of the hearers the idea that the crimes forbidden in the second part of the ,decalogue are to some extent connected1 and that he who broke one of these commandments was likely to break the others also4 ,we are thus bidden to be on our guard1 and to take good care that none of them be violated by us4 ,note #b4--;,ibn ,ezra1 in his ,commentary on ,exodus xx4 #i1 says3 8,rabbi ,jehudah ha-levi asked me why it is said in the ,decalogue1 #8who brought thee out of the land of ,egypt1 out of the house of bondage1' and not #8who created heaven and earth4' ,my answer was as follows3 ,know that those who believe in ,god have not all the same kind of faith4 ,some believe because they were told of ,his existence by others2 those who believe in ,god because the holy ,torah teaches this belief possess a higher degree of faith4 ,if an unbeliever argues with either of these1 they are not able to refute his argument4 ,those1 however1 who study sciences--,astronomy1 ,botany1 ,zoology1 and ,anthropology--learn to understand the works and the ways of ,god1 and from these the ,creator ,himself4 ,the words #8,i am the ,lord thy ,god' can only be understood by the wise and intelligent of all nations4 ,for they all see that ,god has made heaven and earth4 ,but there is this difference3 the ,israelites believe that the ,creation has taken place five thousand years ago3 non-,israelites assume that ,god has been continually creating from eternity4 ,now1 ,god wrought signs and wonders in ,egypt by which ,he delivered the ,israelites out of ,egypt1 and thus showed them ,his ,divine justice and goodness4 ,in reference to these miracles it is said1 #8,thou hast been shown to know that the ,lord is ,god2' all ,israelites1 wise and simple1 equally witnessed ,his miracles4 ,the beginning of the ,decalogue1 therefore1 #8,i am the ,lord thy ,god1' is well understood by the wise2 but for the rest of the nation the words #8who brought thee out1' c41 have been added1 in order that all without exception should understand it40 ,note #c4--;,don ,isaac ,abarbanel1 in his ,commentary on ,exodus xx41 says3 8,the ,ten ,commandments are distinguished from the other ,divine precepts in three things3 they were directly communicated by ,god to the ,israelites1 not through a prophet2 they were revealed to a whole nation at once2 and they were written on the two tables of stone by the finger of ,god4 ,such distinction necessarily indicates a greater intrinsic value of the ,ten ,commandments4 ,my opinion is therefore that they are laws of a general character1 and principles including all the #fac precepts which the ,holy ,one1 blessed be ,he1 gave to ,his people4 ,e4g41 love and worship of ,god4 sanctification of ,his ,name1 submission to ,his judgment1 fear of ,god1 reverence of ,his sanctuary1 and other duties towards ,god2 ,passover1 ,tabernacles1 ,tefillin1 ,mezuzah1 and such other precepts as are #8a memorial of the departure from ,egypt2' the separation of the first-born1 tithes1 c4--all these duties are implied in the first commandment4 ,also ,rabbi ,levi ben ,gershon and the ,gaon ,saadiah assume that all the #fac precepts are implicitly contained in the ,decalogue4 ,although all precepts involving practice 7 7 are implied in the ,decalogue1 and even allusions to each one of the thirteen principles of faith may be discovered in it1 there is no precept concerning our faith4 ,it has already been proved by ,rabbi ,chisdai that by the ,divine commands we are either told to do a certain thing1 or told not to do a certain thing2 but what we have to believe or not to believe the ,almighty taught us through signs1 wonders1 and revelation4 ,the words #8,i am the ,lord thy ,god1 who brought thee out of the land of ,egypt1 out of the house of bondage1' teach a certain truth1 a principle from which many of the #fac precepts may be derived1 but which is in itself no commandment4--,the ,decalogue 7 7 must therefore not be understood as designating ten commandments1 but #8ten words' or #8ten paragraphs' indicated in the ,hebrew text by the pauses1 or spaces left between two paragraphs4 8,the #8ten words' were written on two tables1 five on each4 ,the first five1 containing positive and negative precepts1 with the announcement of reward and punishment1 were exclusively addressed to the ,israelites4 ,the latter five are simple prohibitions without any mention of punishment2 because they were addressed to man as man1 and include only such laws as are also suggested to him by human reason1 without direct revelation40 ,rabbi ,r4 ,s4 ,hirsch1 in his ,commentary on ,exodus xx41 says in reference to the first commandment3 8,as this verse is not understood as a mere declaration1 but as a commandment 771 it does not say #8,i am thy ,god1' but #8,i1 the ,lord1 shall be thy ,god1' and thus contains as the foundation of all our duties towards ,god an exhortation to acknowledge the sovereignty of ,god1 4 8,the so-called #8belief in the existence of ,god1' as ancient and modern theologians generally express this idea1 differs widely from that which underlies this fundamental doctrine of ,judaism4 ,the truth which affords me the foundation of a ,jewish life is not the belief that there is a ,god1 or that there is only one ,god1 but the conviction that this ,one1 ,only1 and true ,god is my ,god2 that ,he has created and formed me1 has placed me here1 and given me certain duties2 that ,he constantly makes and forms me1 preserves1 protects1 directs1 and guides me2 not the belief that ,i1 an accidental product of the ,universe whose ,first ,cause ,he was millions of years ago1 am through a chain of thousands of intervening beings related to ,him1 but the belief that every moment of my existence is a direct personal gift from the ,almighty and ,all-good1 and that every moment of my life ought to be spent in ,his service2 not the knowledge that there is a ,god1 but the recognition of ,god as my ,god1 as the sole ,cause of my fate1 and my sole ,guide in all that ,i do1 gives me the foundation for my religious life4 ,the response to the exhortation1 #8,i shall be thy ,god1' is #8,thou art my ,god4'0 ,note #d4--,the importance attached to the ,decalogue may be gathered from the various attempts made1 on the one hand1 to classify the ,divine laws according to the ,ten ,commandments1 showing that the latter contain all the #fac precepts2 and1 on the other hand1 to find in such important passages as the ,shema and ,leviticus xix4 a parallel for each of the ,ten ,commandments4 7,jerus4 ,talm4 ,ber41 chap4 i42 ,rabboth1 ,vayyikra ad locum47 ,,ii4 ,,general ,,moral ,,principles4 ,the ,ten ,commandments1 flowing as it were from the one source1 8,i am the ,lord thy ,god10 branch off in all directions1 and penetrate all man's relations1 guide him in his conduct towards ,god1 towards his fellow-men and towards himself1 and teach him how to rule his thought1 his speech1 and his actions4 ,when the ,almighty proclaims to us1 8,i am the ,lord thy ,god10 we willingly respond1 8,thou art my ,god40 ,but this declaration involves also duties on our part1 the fulfilment of which is the natural consequence and the verification of our response4 ,if our words1 8,thou art my ,god10 come from our hearts1 and are not empty sounds1 uttered merely by the lips1 we must be conscious of the duties they impose on us4 ,these are3-- ,a4 ,duties towards ,god1 as our ,master1 ,creator1 and ,father4 ,b4 ,duties towards our fellow-men1 as children of one ,god4 ,c4 ,duties towards ourselves1 as the object of ,god's ,providence4 ,a4 ,,duties ,,towards ,,god4 7a47 ,duties of the ,heart4 #a4 ,fear of ,god4 --,the true knowledge of ,god1 of ,his ,wisdom and ,greatness1 as visible in ,his works1 leads us to fear ,god2 that is1 to fear doing anything that might displease ,him and make us unworthy of ,his love4 ,it is not a fear that terrifies us and drives us away from ,his presence2 on the contrary1 it draws us nearer to ,him1 and causes us to try to become more and more worthy of ,his love4 8,and now1 ,o ,israel1 what doth the ,lord thy ,god require of thee but to fear the ,lord thy ,god80 7,deut4 x4 #ab74 8,if thou wilt not observe to do all the words of this law that are written in this book1 that thou mayest fear this name which is to be honoured and revered1 the ,lord thy ,god2 then the ,lord will make thy plagues wonderful0 7,deut4 xxviii4 #eh74 8,the fear of the ,lord is the beginning of knowledge0 7,prov4 i4 #g74 8,the beginning of wisdom is the fear of the ,lord0 7,ps4 cxi4 #aj74 8,the fear of the ,lord is to hate evil0 7,prov4 viii4 #ac74 8,the fear of the ,lord prolongeth days0 7,prov4 x4 #bg74 8,fear ,god1 and keep his commandments2 for this is the whole duty of man0 7,eccles4 xii4 #ac74 8,he who possesses learning but is without fear of ,god1 resembles a treasurer who has the key for the inner door1 but not for the outer one0 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,sabb4 #ca;b74 8,everything is in the hand of ,god except the fear of ,god0 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,ber4 #cc;b74 #cb #b4 ,love of ,god4 --,the true fear of ,god is associated with the love of ,god4 ,the latter means the constant longing for communion with ,him1 feeling happy and joyful when with ,him1 but unhappy and miserable when without ,him4 ,love of ,god creates in us an anxiety to do everything in our power that might please the ,almighty4 ,he who is filled with love of ,god is 1 pious2 he does not rest content with doing what he is commanded1 but anxiously seeks the opportunity of fulfilling a ,divine command2 he is 1 8eager in the pursuit of ,mitsvoth40 ,the fear of ,god is the beginning of knowledge1 but love of ,god is the aim and end of all our religious thinking and striving4 8,thou shalt love the ,lord thy ,god with all thine heart1 and with all thy soul1 and with all thy might0 7,deut4 vi4 #e74 8,the ,lord preserveth all those who love him 7,ps4 cxlv4 #bj74 8,thou wilt show me the path of life4 ,in thy presence is fulness of joy2 in thy right hand there are pleasures for evermore0 7,ps4 xvi4 #aa74 8,as the hart panteth after the water brooks1 so panteth my soul after thee1 ,o ,god0 7,ps4 xlii4 #b74 8,blessed are they who dwell in thy house3 they will be still praising thee0 7,ps4 lxxxiv4 #e74 8,the desire of our soul is to thy name1 and to the remembrance of thee0 7,isa4 xxvi4 #h74 8,i will rejoice in the ,lord2 ,i will joy in the ,god of my salvation0 7,hab4 iii4 #ah74 #c4 ,gratitude towards ,god4--,all that we possess1 the very breath we breathe1 is a present received at the hands of the ,almighty4 ,whatever success we desire to achieve1 whatever undertaking we desire to accomplish1 we must ourselves first strive for it to the utmost of our power1 and this done1 we may hope for the ,divine blessing4 ,when we have attained what we sought1 we are warned against believing that 8our power and the strength of our hand hath gotten us this wealth40 ,we are to 8remember the ,lord our ,god1 for it is he that giveth us power to get wealth0 7,deut4 viii4 #ag-ah74 8,for all things come of thee1 and of thine own hand have we given thee0 7#a ,chron4 xxix4 #ad74 8,whoso offereth the sacrifice of thanksgiving glorifieth me0 7,ps4 l4 #bc74 8,though all sacrifices should cease1 the sacrifice of thanksgiving will never cease0 7,vayyikra ,rabba ix474 #d4 ,reverence for ,his ,name4--,the more we fear and love ,god1 the deeper and the more intense is our feeling of reverence for everything which is connected in our thoughts with the name of the ,almighty4 ,whenever we enter a place dedicated to ,his worship1 or open the ,book that bears ,his name1 or celebrate the days set apart as 8seasons of the ,lord10 this feeling of reverence overcomes us1 and finds expression in our conduct4 ,the reverence for the name of ,god impels us also to respect ministers and teachers who spend their life in spreading the knowledge of ,god and ,his ,will4 8,how awful is this place6 this is none other but the house of ,god0 7,gen4 xxviii4 #ag74 8,i will come into thy house in the multitude of thy mercy3 and in thy fear will ,i worship toward thy holy temple0 7,ps4 v4 #h74 8,when ,i will publish the name of the ,lord1 ascribe ye greatness unto our ,god0 7,deut4 xxxii4 #c74 #e4 ,obedience to the ,will of ,god4--,whatever the ,almighty1 whom we love and fear1 bids us do1 we not only do1 but find pleasure in doing4 8,to obey is better than sacrifice1 and to hearken than the fat of rams4 ,for rebellion is as the sin of witchcraft1 and stubbornness is as iniquity and idolatry0 7#a ,sam4 xv4 #bb1 #bc74 8,but this thing commanded ,i them1 saying1 ,obey my voice1 and ,i will be your ,god1 and ye shall be my people0 7,jer4 vii4 #bc74 8,thy statutes have been my song in the house of my pilgrimage0 7,ps4 cxix4 #ed74 8,thy testimonies have ,i taken as an heritage for ever3 for they are the rejoicing of my heart0 7,ps4 cxix4 #aaa74 8,sacrifice and offering thou didst not desire2 mine ears hast thou opened2 burnt offering and sin offering hast thou not required4 ,then said ,i1 ,lo1 ,i come with the volume of the book written for me3 ,i delight to do thy will1 ,o my ,god3 yea1 thy law is written within my heart0 7,ps4 xl4 #g-i74 #f4 ,faith and ,confidence in ,god4--,god is ,all-kind1 ,all-wise1 and ,all-powerful4 ,the ,lord is good to all1 and ,his mercy is over all ,his creatures3 ,he wills that which is good for us4 ,being ,all-wise1 ,he knows best what is good for us1 and by what means it can be attained2 being ,all-powerful1 ,he can always carry ,his ,will into effect4 ,he is1 therefore1 the only ,being to whom we can safely entrust ourselves everywhere and always4 ,in ,his words and commands1 exhortations and warnings1 we have the best and surest guide through life4 ,our confidence in ,god causes us to turn to ,him for help in time of need1 and for comfort in time of sorrow4 8,into his hand ,i commend my spirit1 when ,i sleep and when ,i wake2 and with my spirit my body also3 the ,lord is for me1 and ,i shall not fear0 7,daily ,prayers1 ,morning ,service74 8,blessed is the man that trusteth in the ,lord1 and whose hope the ,lord is0 7,jer4 xvii4 #g74 8,trust in the ,lord1 and do good0 7,ps4 xxxvii4 #c74 8,wait on the ,lord3 be of good courage1 and he shall strengthen thine heart2 and wait on the ,lord0 7,ps4 xxvii4 #ad74 8,the ,lord is my shepherd1 ,i shall not want0 7,ps4 xxiii4 #a74 #g4 ,resignation to the ,will of ,god4--,trusting in ,god's goodness1 we are contented with the lot which ,he determined for us4 ,when we are prosperous we hope for ,his protection1 lest we become corrupted and unworthy of ,his goodness2 when we fail1 faith in ,god will keep us from despair and encourage us to fresh attempts2 when misfortune befalls us which it is impossible for us to remedy1 we resign ourselves unto ,his ,will1 and say1 8,the ,lord gave1 and the ,lord hath taken away6 blessed be the ,name of the ,lord60 8,my flesh and my heart failed2 but ,god is the strength of my heart and my portion for ever0 7,ps4 lxxiii4 #bf74 8,i am in a great strait3 let us fall now into the hand of the ,lord2 for his mercy is great0 7#b ,sam4 xxiv4 #ad74 8,we are bound to bless ,god in evil even as we bless ,him in good fortune4 ,it is written3 #8,and thou shalt love the ,lord1 thy ,god1 with all thine heart1 and with all thy soul1 and with all thy might' 7,deut4 vi4 #e72 love ,him with all thy soul or life--i4e41 even though for ,his sake thou risk thy life2 and with all thy wealth--that is1 whatever measure ,he metes out to thee1 acknowledge with exceeding gratitude0 #cc 7,mishnah ,berachoth ix4 #e74 7b47 ,duties towards ,god3 ,in ,speech4 ,the feelings of fear and love of ,god1 of reverence1 obedience1 faith1 gratitude1 and resignation1 must also find adequate expression in our speech4 ,god1 the ,omniscient1 knows our thoughts and sentiments1 and there would be no necessity for giving them an outward expression1 if we only intended thereby to make them known to the ,almighty4 ,but as in our relations to our fellow-men--e4g41 to our parents or to our children--we frequently1 in obedience to an irresistible impulse1 communicate to them in words what we think and what we feel1 even when convinced that we only tell them things well known to them already1 so we address the ,almighty1 who is everywhere near unto us1 and listens to our speech1 although our wishes are known to ,him before we utter them1 and our innermost feelings are open before ,him before we express them in words4 ,we are aware that there is an immeasurable difference between the ,divine ,being and earthly creatures like ourselves4 ,we know that ,he is not subject to human weaknesses1 and that the audible sound of words cannot move ,him more than the thoughts and feelings that prompt the words to come forth4 ,and yet the mere communion of our heart with our ,creator does not satisfy us2 we feel ourselves impelled by some inner force to give it an outward expression4 ,besides1 there is a constant interaction between our thoughts and our spoken words4 ,thoughts and feelings that remain unspoken1 are seldom permanent3 we soon cease to be conscious of them ourselves1 and they often disappear without leaving any trace behind them1 whilst sentiments and ideas expressed in spoken words become strengthened and take a deeper and firmer root in our hearts4 ,the relationship between our lips and our heart is therefore of mutual benefit to both3 the words uttered with the lips receive their value and importance from the heart1 and the emotions of the heart derive strength and support from the lips4 #a4 ,prayer4--,all our feelings and sentiments towards the ,almighty1 our love and fear1 faith and confidence1 gratitude and resignation1 find in ,divine worship their due expression4 ,when our soul is full of the love of ,god1 and yearns for ,his presence1 we call upon ,him in hymns and songs of praise1 and ,he is 8nigh to all them who call upon him1 to all that call upon him in truth0 7,ps4 cxlv4 #ah74 8,i will sing unto the ,lord as long as ,i live2 ,i will sing praise to my ,god while ,i have any being4 ,let my meditation be sweet unto him3 ,i will rejoice in the ,lord0 7,ps4 civ4 #cc1 #cd74 8,praise ye the ,lord3 for it is good to sing praises unto our ,god2 for it is pleasant1 and praise is comely0 7,ps4 cxlvii4 #a74 8,i will bless the ,lord at all times3 his praise shall continually be in my mouth0 7,ps4 xxxiv4 #b74 8,o ,lord1 open my lips2 and my mouth shall show forth thy praise0 7,ps4 li4 #ag7 ,our desire to please ,him whom we love sincerely1 our longing for an opportunity to do what is good in ,his eyes1 ought not to remain hidden and silent4 ,the sooner and the more frequently we give expression to these wishes in audible words1 the sooner do they become realised1 and the sooner are the promptings of our heart followed by deeds4 8,with my lips have ,i declared all the judgments of thy mouth0 7,ps4 cxix4 #ac74 8,how sweet are thy words unto my palate6 yea1 sweeter to my mouth than honey0 7,ps4 cxix4 #ajc74 8,let my tongue sing of thy word2 for all thy commandments are righteousness0 7,ps4 cxix4 #agb74 ,we fear lest we offend and displease ,him by our words or acts2 we recall to our mind the holiness of a ,god 8who has no pleasure in wickedness1 and with whom evil shall not sojourn0 7,ps4 v4 #e72 we not only meditate on the ,holy ,one1 but speak and sing of ,him4 ,our meditation finds expression in songs on the holiness of ,god1 and these songs again supply fresh material for meditation2 we thus hope to fence and guard our heart against the intrusion of anything unworthy of the presence of the ,most ,holy4 8,who shall ascend the hill of the ,lord8 and who shall stand in his holy place8 ,he that hath clean hands and a pure heart0 7,ps4 xxiv4 #c1 #d74 8,i will wash mine hands in innocency2 so will ,i compass thine altar0 7,ps4 xxvi4 #f74 ,our weakness and helplessness in many conditions of life fill us with trouble and care4 ,when we enjoy good health1 we fear a change might take place2 in possession of wealth1 we are in anxiety3 it might be taken from us4 ,the pleasures of home and family we know to be but temporary3 how soon may sorrow visit us there6 ,from all these fears and anxieties we seek and find refuge in ,him1 who is 8a stronghold to the weak1 a stronghold in times of trouble0 7,ps4 ix4 #aj74 ,we tell ,him confidently all the troubles and cares of our heart1 as we would do to a friend who is always willing and ready to help us4 ,we have faith in ,god1 and therefore we approach ,him with our petitions2 and when we have poured forth our heart before the ,all-merciful we feel more at ease1 and our faith and confidence have gained in strength4 8,he shall call upon me1 and ,i will answer him3 ,i will be with him in trouble2 ,i will deliver him and honour him0 7,ps4 xci4 #ae74 8,when they have cried unto the ,lord in their trouble1 he will save them out of their distresses0 7,ps4 cvii4 #f74 8,because he hath inclined his ear unto me1 therefore will ,i call upon him as long as ,i live4 ,when ,i find trouble and sorrow1 then will ,i call upon the name of the ,lord4 ,when ,i take the cup of salvation1 then will ,i call upon the name of the ,lord0 7,ps4 cxvi4 #b1 #d1 #ac74 8,what sufferings may be called chastisements of love8 ,such as do not prevent us from prayer0 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,ber4 #e;a74 8,even when the edge of the sword touches already a man's neck1 even then he must not abandon his faith in praying to ,god0 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,ber4 #aj;a74 8#8,i was asleep1 but my heart was awake2' ,i have no sacrifices1 but ,i have #8,shema' and #8,prayer'0 7,shir ha-shirim ,rabba on v4 #b74 8#8,hope in the ,lord1' and pray again0 7,rabboth1 ,deuter41 chap4 ii474 ,our ,rabbis teach1 8,prayer is good for man both before his fate has been decreed and after it has been decreed0 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,rosh-hashshanah1 p4 #af;a74 ,but at the same time we are warned against impatiently expecting and demanding an immediate effect from the words uttered by our lips1 however devoutly they may have been spoken4 ,such expectation--denounced in the ,talmud as #cd--would indicate our confidence in the wisdom of our petition1 whilst confidence in the wisdom and goodness of ,god would suggest that 8the ,lord will do what is good in his eyes40 ,we give expression to our feelings of gratitude towards our benefactor by acknowledging the fact1 that whatever we enjoy1 we are enabled to enjoy through ,his kindness4 ,the various blessings formulated by our ,sages serve a double purpose3 first1 they facilitate the expression of our feelings2 secondly1 they remind us of the presence of the ,almighty1 and of ,his goodness in providing for us and all ,his creatures4 ,from the time we awake in the morning till the evening when we lie down to sleep1 there is not a moment that does not bring to our knowledge some ,divine act of kindness towards us4 ,in the morning we perceive the benefit of light1 in the evening we have reason to welcome the blessing of repose it brings with it1 while the interval between the two periods constantly reveals to him who does not wilfully shut his eyes the hand of ,him 8who is good1 and whose loving-kindness endureth for ever40 8,i will give thanks to thee1 for thou hast answered me1 and art become my salvation0 7,ps4 cxviii4 #ba74 8,i will sacrifice unto thee with the voice of thanks giving0 7,jon4 ii4 #aj74 8,though all prayers were to be discontinued1 prayers of thanksgiving will never be discontinued0 7,vayyikra ,rabba1 chap4 ix474 ,when things happen which are not pleasant to us1 which give us pain and sorrow1 we ought to consider that the plans of ,god are different from our plans1 and ,his ways from our ways1 and what ,he wills is better for us than our own wishes4 ,with resignation1 without murmuring1 we ought to utter words of praise and thanks to the ,almighty4 8,the ,lord gave1 and the ,lord hath taken away2 blessed be the name of the ,lord0 7,job i4 #ba74 8,learn to say1 #8,whatever the ,almighty does1 is done for our good'0 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,ber4 #fj;b74 ,public ,service4--,man has a natural desire to communicate his sentiments to his fellow-men1 and finds a certain pleasure or relief in knowing that others share in his joys and sorrows4 ,the same is the case with regard to his sentiments towards the ,most ,high4 ,if1 yearning for communion with ,god1 we fervently appeal to ,him in solitude1 where we are undisturbed by the intrusion of any other person1 it will not be long before we shall feel ourselves in the very presence of ,him who is 8nigh to all those who call upon him in truth40 ,standing before the ,almighty1 the ,creator and ,master of the whole ,universe as well as of ourselves1 we should like all nature to join in ,his praises1 and we summon the inhabitants of the heavens above1 ,his angels and hosts1 sun1 moon1 and all the stars of light2 and the dwellers on earth below1 inanimate and animate1 irrational and rational1 kings with their peoples1 to come and to praise the name of ,god 7,ps4 cxlviii474 ,such moments of solitary devotion are very precious1 and are by no means to be despised4 ,but they are not frequent1 and not always successful4 ,public worship has this advantage1 that the object of our meeting1 the holiness of the place1 and the union in a worship with our fellow-men combine to create1 maintain1 or intensify our devotion4 ,although each one has his individual wants1 joys1 and sorrows1 there are many wants1 joys1 and sorrows which we have all in common1 and concerning which we may in common give expression to our feelings in prayer1 praise1 and thanksgiving4 8,bless ye the ,lord in congregations0 7,ps4 lxviii4 #bg74 8,if ten pray together1 the presence of ,god is with them0 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,ber4 #f;a74 8#8,but as for me1 my prayer is unto thee1 ,o ,lord1 in an acceptable time' 7,ps4 lxix4 #ad73 which is the acceptable time8 ,the time of public worship0 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,ber4 #h;a74 #b4 ,study of the ,law 7 74--,another way of employing speech in the service of the ,lord is the reading and the study of the ,word of ,god3 the ,holy ,scriptures and their ,commentaries4 ,our love and reverence of ,god ought to induce us frequently to consult the book which contains ,his commandments1 and which ,he has given us as a guide and companion4 ,even if we derived no further benefit than the consciousness of having spent some time in reading ,his ,word revealed to us by the mouth of the ,prophets1 the time thus spent would not be wasted4 ,but we derive a further advantage4 ,it is impossible to imagine that our devoting a certain time1 however short it may be1 to the reading of the words of the ,most ,holy should have no purifying influence upon us1 provided we approach the book before us with due reverence1 and with the intention to be guided by its teachings4 ,joshua1 when placed at the head of the nation1 is exhorted by the ,almighty as follows3 8,this book of the law shall not depart out of thy mouth2 but thou shalt meditate therein day and night1 that thou mayest observe to do according to all that is written therein0 7,joshua i4 #h74 8,as for me1 this is my covenant with them1 saith the ,lord3 my spirit that is upon thee1 and my words which ,i have put in thy mouth1 shall not depart out of thy mouth1 nor out of the mouth of thy seed1 nor out of the mouth of thy seed's seed1 saith the ,lord1 from henceforth and for ever40 7,is4 lix41 #ba7 #c4 ,teaching4--,the gift of speech is of service also in communicating our thoughts1 feelings1 and convictions to our fellow-men4 ,they who are able to read the ,word of ,god and to understand it1 ought to read and expound it to those who are less favoured2 they who feel the presence of ,god1 and comprehend ,his holiness1 goodness1 and unity1 ought to direct the hearts of their brethren to ,god1 ,his words and works4 ,it is a special duty and privilege of the ,jew to proclaim and teach the ,existence and the ,unity of ,god-- 4 8,and thou shalt teach them diligently unto thy children1 and shalt talk of them when thou sittest in thine house1 and when thou walkest by the way1 and when thou liest down and when thou risest up0 7,deut4 vi4 #g74 8,happy are we6 how goodly is our portion1 and how pleasant is our lot1 and how beautiful our heritage6 ,happy are we who early and late1 morning and evening1 twice every day1 declare1 #8,hear1 ,o ,israel1 the ,lord is our ,god1 the ,lord is ,one'60 7,daily ,prayers1 ,morning ,service74 #d4 ,reverence of the ,name of ,god4--,the mention of the name of ,god ought to make us most careful about that which we utter in connection with it4 ,if a person makes a promise or statement on oath carelessly or with levity1 he shows that he has no reverence of the name of ,god2 no fear of ,god4 ,it is only through such irreverence that a person is capable of breaking the third commandment4 ,blasphemy1 a sin treated in the ,bible as a capital crime1 has likewise its source in want of due reverence of ,god's name4 ,in order to preserve and strengthen that reverence we must avoid pronouncing the ,divine name too frequently4 ,hence arose the custom of substituting such words as 8the ,name10 8the ,omnipresent10 for the names of ,god1 and employing in ordinary writing letters like or or instead of any of the ,divine names4 ,in writing single letters instead of the full names we also intend to guard ourselves against causing irreverence towards the name of ,god2 as our writing is frequently destroyed or liable to be thrown among the refuse4 ,this precaution1 dictated by a feeling of reverence for ,god and ,his name1 serves at the same time to strengthen that feeling4 #ce ,from the same reason1 the word which is exclusively used as a name of ,god1 the ,tetragrammaton1 #cf was rarely pronounced1 and in reading the ,bible the word ,adonai1 8,my ,lord10 is substituted wherever it occurs4 ,it was only pronounced in the ,temple by the ,high-priest on the ,day of ,atonement1 in the ,confession of ,sins1 and in the ,prayer for ,forgiveness2 and by the ordinary priests when they blessed the people in accordance with the ,divine precepts 7,num4 vi4 #bd-bf74 ,since the destruction of the ,temple the ,tetragrammaton has not been pronounced1 and thus it has come about that the right pronunciation of the word is at present unknown4 #e4 ,the consciousness that we frequently address the ,almighty with our lips1 and read ,his ,holy ,word1 ought to make us strive for the utmost purity and holiness in our speech4 ,when the prophet ,isaiah1 in a ,divine vision1 perceived the majesty of the ,most ,high1 and heard the sound of ,his ministering angels proclaiming ,his holiness1 a sense of his own failings forced even from this chosen messenger of ,god the confession1 8,woe is me6 for ,i am undone2 because ,i am a man1 unclean in lips1 and ,i dwell in the midst of a people unclean in lips1 for mine eyes have seen the ,king1 the ,lord of hosts0 7,isa4 vi4 #e74 ,duties towards ,god3 ,in our ,actions4 ,rabbi ,jose teaches1 8,let all thy deeds be in the service of heaven10 7,sayings of the ,fathers1 ii4 #ab74 ,the feeling of love and fear of ,god which fills our heart and soul1 and to which we frequently give expression in words1 must also be visible in our actions4 ,our whole life must be devoted to ,his service1 and ought to be one continuous worship of ,god4 ,every act of ours must aim at the sanctification of ,his name4 ,he has revealed unto us ,his ,will1 and shown us the way in which we should walk2 unconditional submission to ,his guidance and strict obedience to ,his command should distinguish the people of the ,lord4 ,true love of ,god and faith in ,his goodness make us 8bold as a leopard1 light as an eagle1 swift as a stag1 and strong as a lion to carry out the will of our ,father in heaven0 7,sayings of the ,fathers1 v4 #bj74 ,for what could be the value of our professions of love for ,god1 if we refused to listen attentively to ,his voice1 to walk in the way ,he has prepared for us1 or to observe ,his statutes8 ,from this point of view we may consider all our duties as duties towards ,god1 since their fulfilment implies obedience to ,his ,will4 ,but there are certain duties which chiefly or exclusively concern our relations to ,god4 ,such duties are3 the observance of ,sabbath and ,festivals1 providing reminders of ,god's ,presence1 establishing and supporting ,public ,worship1 sanctifying ,god's ,name 7 71 and imitating ,his ways4 ,of these duties1 the first three will be fully treated in special sections4 ,the sanctification of ,god's ,name is a duty incumbent on all mankind1 but it is incumbent on us ,jews in a higher degree1 for we are called the people of the ,lord1 the chosen people1 a holy nation1 and a kingdom of priests4 ,we sanctify the name of ,god by remaining faithful to ,him and to ,his ,word1 resisting every kind of force or temptation to turn us away from our faith1 making sacrifices for our holy religion1 and conducting ourselves in such a manner that our fellow-men may become convinced that the tree of our ,law bears good and holy fruit4 ,every action that brings disgrace upon us as ,israelites1 and causes our neighbours to despise 8the people of the ,lord1 who profess to be the guardians of the revealed ,torah10 is 8,profanation of the ,name of ,god40 8,and ye shall not profane my holy name1 but ,i will be hallowed among the children of ,israel0 7,lev4 xxii4 #cb74 8,profanation of the name of ,god is a greater sin even than idolatry0 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,sanhedrin #ajf;a74 ,imitating the ,ways of ,god4--,we know that ,god is perfect1 and that all ,his ways are perfect2 we are conscious also of our weakness and of the impossibility of ever becoming perfect4 ,but this conviction must not deter us from seeking perfection as far as our nature permits it1 or from setting before us the ways of ,god as an example for us to follow1 as the aim which should direct the course of our life1 the balance in which to weigh our actions1 and the test by which to determine their value4 8,ye shall be holy2 for ,i1 the ,lord your ,god1 am holy0 7,lev4 xix4 #b74 8,i set the ,lord always before me0 7,ps4 xvi4 #h74 8#8,ye shall walk after the ,lord your ,god' 7,deut4 xiii4 #e74 ,is it possible for man to walk after the ,lord8 ,has it not been said1 #8,the ,lord thy ,god is a consuming fire'8 7ibid4 iv4 #bd74 ,the meaning of the verse1 however1 is this3 ,follow the ways of ,god3 ,he clothes the naked1 as we are told1 #8,and the ,lord ,god made coats of skin for ,adam and his wife' 7,gen4 iii4 #ba72 do the same4 ,he visits the sick1 as is indicated in the words1 #8,and ,god appeared to him in the plain of ,mamre' 7ibid4 xviii4 #a72 you must also visit the sick4 ,he comforts the mourners1 as appears from the passage1 #8,and it came to pass after the death of ,abraham1 that ,god blessed his son ,isaak' 7ibid4 xxv4 #aa72 do the same1 and comfort mourners10 c4 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,sotah #ad;a74 ,it may happen that we are sometimes disposed to exclude a fellow-man from our brotherly love4 ,it would be against human nature to love those who have hurt or wronged us4 ,but1 on the other hand1 we are taught that we must keep our heart free from feelings of revenge and hatred4 ,if an offence has been committed against us by our brother1 the ,law directs us as follows3 8,thou shalt not hate thy brother in thine heart2 thou shalt surely reprove thy neighbour1 and not bear sin against him4 ,thou shalt not revenge1 and thou shalt not keep a grudge against the children of thy people1 but love thy fellow-man like thyself3 ,i am the ,lord0 7,lev4 xix4 #ag1 #ah74 ,the traditional interpretation illustrates revenge and grudge in the following way3 ,if your neighbour1 after having been unkind to you1 is in need of your assistance1 and you refuse it on the ground of his want of kindness towards you1 you are guilty of revenge2 if you grant him his request1 but at the same time remind him of his unkind conduct1 you are guilty of 8bearing a grudge against your neighbour40 7,sifra1 ad locum47 ,b4--,,duties ,,towards ,,our ,,fellow-,,creatures4 7a47 ,duties towards our ,fellow-men in ,general4 8,have we not all one father8 hath not one ,god created us80 7,mal4 ii4 #aj74 8,thou shalt love thy fellow-man as thyself0 7,lev4 xix4 #ah74 ,these are the sentiments which1 according to the ,will of ,god1 ought to guide us in our relation to our fellow-men4 ,when1 therefore1 a ,gentile came to ,hillel and asked him to explain to him in one moment the duties which ,judaism enjoins on its adherents1 he replied1 8,what is displeasing to thee1 that do thou not to others4 ,this is the text of the ,law2 all the rest is commentary2 go and learn0 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,shabbath #ca;a74 ,in a different form this idea has been expressed by ,rabbi ,akiba and by ,ben-,azai1 who respectively quoted as a fundamental principle of the ,law1 8,love thy neighbour as thyself10 and 8,this is the book of the generations of man2 in the day that ,god created man1 he made him in the likeness of ,god0 7,yalkut on ,gen4 v4 #a74 ,from this principle we derive the following general maxims with regard to our neighbour's 7#a7 life and health1 7#b7 property1 7#c7 honour1 and 7#d7 well-being3-- #a4 ,life and ,health of our ,fellow-man4--,life is a precious treasure which the ,almighty has given us2 if it is once taken from us1 no man is able to restore it4 ,among the first lessons revealed to man in ,scripture is the value of the life of a human being1 created by ,god in ,his own likeness1 and when the first murder had been committed1 ,god said to the murderer1 8,what hast thou done8 the voice of thy brother's blood is heard that crieth unto me from the ground0 7,gen1 iv4 #aj74 ,the first commandment in the second section of the ,decalogue is directed against this crime3 8,thou shalt not murder40 ,the significance of these words1 the general lessons implied in this commandment1 and the extent to which a person1 though not an actual murderer1 may become guilty of having broken this commandment1 have already been explained in the chapter on the ,ten ,commandments 7p4 #bfa74 ,it has been shown how the sixth commandment forbade-- 7#a47 ,the taking of the life of a fellow-man by violent means4 7#b47 ,the doing of anything by which the health1 the peace1 and the well-being of our fellow-man is undermined4 7#c47 ,the omission of any act in our power to save our fellow-man from direct or indirect danger of life4 #b4 ,the ,property of our ,neighbour4--,the eighth commandment in its wider sense comprehends all our relations to our neighbour's property4 ,it prohibits1 as has been shown above 7p4 #bfc71 the appropriation of anything that belongs to our neighbour-- 7#a47 ,by theft and robbery1 or 7#b47 ,by any kind of fraud and dishonesty4 ,our ,sages teach3 8,let the property of thy fellow-man be as dear to thee as thine own0 7,aboth ii4 #ab72 i4e41 you do not like to see your own property damaged1 diminished1 or destroyed2 so it would be wrong if you were to cause loss and ruin to your fellow-man1 whether you did it directly or indirectly4 #cg ,let every one enjoy the labour of his hands2 partake of the gifts of the earth and the ,divine blessings as much as his physical and mental powers enable him to do in a righteous manner4 ,it is not only direct illegal appropriation of our neighbour's goods that is condemned as theft or robbery2 it is equally wicked to buy things which one knows to have been stolen by others4 #ch ,he who does it is worse than the thief2 for1 whilst the latter injures only the person whom he robs1 the former encourages and corrupts the thief1 hardens his heart1 helps to silence the voice of his conscience1 and thus obstructs the way to repentance and improvement4 ,there are transactions which are legal and do not involve any breach of the law1 and which are yet condemned by the principles of morality as base and disgraceful4 ,such are all transactions in which a person takes advantage of the ignorance or embarrassment of his neighbour for the purpose of increasing his own property4 ,usurers frequently belong to this low and heartless class of society4 ,the worst thing1 however1 they do is1 that they plan the ruin of others2 in many cases they bring about disaster by inducing young and inexperienced persons to borrow money and to spend it in luxuries1 or increase the embarrassment of the distressed by charging exorbitant interest and imposing cruel conditions1 which make it impossible for those who have once fallen into the hands of usurers to free themselves from their bondage4 ,it makes no difference whatever whether the victim be a ,jew or a non-,jew2 the transaction is equally condemnable1 and the usurer equally wicked4 ,this statement would be superfluous1 were it not for the misunderstanding that exists both among some of our co-religionists and among non-,jews with regard to the principle it involves4 ,great stress is laid in the ,pentateuch on the prohibition of taking interest for advances of money or articles of food4 8,and if thy brother be waxen poor and fallen in decay with thee1 then thou shalt relieve him3 yea1 though he be a stranger or a sojourner1 that he may live with thee4 ,take thou no interest of him1 or increase3 but fear thy ,god1 that thy brother may live with thee4 ,thou shalt not give him thy money upon usury1 nor lend him thy victuals for increase4 ,i am the ,lord your ,god10 c4 7,lev4 xxv4 #ce-ch2 comp4 ,exod4 xxii4 #bd74--;,it is one of the characteristics of the pious who is worthy to 8abide in the tabernacle of ,god10 that 8he putteth not out his money to usury0 7,ps4 xv4 #e74 ,the strict prohibition to take interest on advances of money or goods served a twofold purpose4 ,in the first place1 the surplus money of the wealthy was to be employed in disinterested charity4 ,secondly1 labour and activity1 both physical and mental1 were to be the sources of income and wealth for the individual as well as for the whole nation2 money without labour was not to bear any fruit or produce any increase4 ,an exception from this law was made for the benefit of the stranger4 ,the inhabitants of a town or a country who lived in the midst of their relatives1 friends1 and countrymen could1 as a rule1 be trusted to return the loan in due time4 ,if they were not known themselves1 they could find persons who would recognise them or even offer themselves as security for them4 ,it was different with the stranger 77 8who came from a far land0 7,deut4 xxix4 #ba72 he was not known2 he was1 as a rule1 without friends2 he had none to offer security for him4 #ci ,when in need1 therefore1 he would be unlikely to obtain a loan1 if the lender were not permitted in such cases to take interest as compensation for risking the capital itself4 ,the same reason explains also a second exception made in the law with regard to a stranger when a debtor4 ,the payment of old debts is1 as a rule1 a great hardship to the insolvent1 especially at a time when the benefit derived from the loan has already been forgotten4 ,it was therefore ordained that every seven years a remission of all debts should take place4 ,the debtor that lived in the country could easily be urged or forced to pay his debts1 and the creditor could safely expect that he would receive his money before the year of release began4 ,this was not the case with the stranger1 who might with impunity keep out of sight for some time before the beginning of the seventh year3 a circumstance that increased the uncertainty of the repayment1 and would have rendered it almost impossible for a stranger to enjoy the benefit of a loan in times of temporary embarrassment1 but for the exception made in his case from the law commanding the remission of all debts in the seventh year4 ,we see here a difference made in our duties towards our fellow-men between an ,israelite and a stranger1 but solely for the benefit of 8the stranger40 ,at present1 when the original relation between the ,israelite and the stranger has ceased1 the spirit of charity and justice towards the stranger 77 or non-,jew1 which is the basis of this law1 must continue to regulate our intercourse with our neighbours1 and if the non-,jew would recognise the prohibition of taking interest as equally binding upon him as upon the ,jew1 the latter would not be allowed to take any kind of interest from a non-,jew4 ,at all events1 if any of our co-religionists take this law as a pretext for imposing upon their non-,jewish fellow-men1 and injuring and ruining them by exorbitant usury1 they pervert alike the letter and the spirit of the ,divine command2 they do not act in a ,jewish spirit1 and instead of being members of a holy nation or the people of the ,lord1 they are guilty of 1 the profanation of the name of ,god1 and do not deserve to be honoured by the name of ,jews4 ,denunciations are sometimes levelled against the ,jews1 on account of the misdeeds of some individuals1 as cruel usurers4 ,those non-,jews who would take the trouble of thoroughly studying ,jews and ,judaism would soon discover the error and the baselessness of such denunciations4 ,judaism has never sanctioned usury1 but1 on the contrary1 always condemned it4 #dj ,with regard to the property of our neighbour our ,sages expressed the following maxim3-- 8,there are four characters among men3 he who says1 #8,what is mine is mine and what is thine is thine1' his is a neutral character2 some say this is a character like that of ,sodom2 he who says1 #8,what is mine is thine and what is thine is mine' is a boor2 he who says #8,what is mine is thine and what is thine is thine' is a saint2 he who says #8,what is thine is mine and what is mine is mine' is a wicked man0 7,aboth v4 #aj74 ,we are not only commanded to abstain from injuring our neighbour with regard to his property1 but we are exhorted to protect it as far as lies in our power4 8,if thou meetest the ox of thine enemy or his ass going astray1 bring it back to him0 7,exod4 xxiii4 #d74 8,thou shalt not see thy brother's ox or his sheep go astray1 and hide thyself from them3 thou shalt surely bring them again unto thy brother0 7,deut4 xxii4 #a74 8,thou shalt not see thy brother's ass or his ox fallen down by the way1 and hide thyself from them3 thou shalt surely help him to lift them up again0 7ibid4 ver4 #d74 #c4 ,the ,honour of our ,fellow-man4--8,let the honour of thy fellow-man be as dear to thee as thy own0 7,aboth ii4 #aj74 ,we are very sensitive about our own honour2 and many of us--nay1 all right-minded persons--are more anxious for the good name acquired through integrity of character than for the safety of their property4 ,we must be equally sensitive about the honour of our fellow-man1 and take good care lest we damage his repute by falsehood1 slander1 or spreading evil reports in apparently innocent gossip4 ,an evil tongue 7 7 is a serious failing from which few are exempt2 even if a person is not guilty of the sin of evil speech1 he does not entirely escape 8the dust of the evil tongue0 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,b4 ,bathra #afe;a74 ,calumny1 it is said1 kills three--the slanderer himself1 him who listens1 and the person spoken of4 ,we therefore add to the ,amidah the words3 8,my ,god1 guard my tongue from evil1 and my lips from speaking guile20 and in one of the ,psalms we read3 8,who is the man that desireth life1 and loveth days1 that he may see good8 ,keep thy tongue from evil and thy lips from speaking guile0 7,ps4 xxxiv4 #ac1 #ad74 ,our ,sages are very severe against those who attack the honour of their fellow-men4 ,in one passage it is said3 8,whoever causes by offensive words the face of his fellow-man to turn pale is almost guilty of shedding blood0 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,b4 ,metsia #eh;b74 ,another passage runs thus3 8,rather let a man throw himself into a furnace than publicly offend his fellow-man0 7ibid4 #ei;a74 ,the ,law does not only forbid the utterance of evil reports1 but also the encouragement given to the tale-bearer by listening to his stories4 8,thou shalt not take up a false report0 7,exod4 xxiii4 #a74 ,in the ,book of ,proverbs the evil consequences of listening to slander are thus depicted3 8,if a ruler hearkeneth to falsehood1 all his servants are wicked0 7,prov4 xxix4 #ab74 8,he who giveth heed to wicked lips causeth evil-doing2 he who giveth ear to a mischievous tongue feedeth lies0 7ibid4 xvii4 #d74 ,when we hear evil reports about our neighbour1 we should try to defend him2 when we are convinced that he has done wrong1 we must rebuke him1 lead him back to the right way1 and not utterly reject him2 we may still find some redeeming feature in his character that makes it worth our while to save him4 ,thus ,joshua1 the son of ,perachjah1 teaches us3 8,judge every man favourably0 7,aboth i4 #f72 that is1 if you are uncertain as to a man's faults1 let him have the benefit of the doubt4 ,when we criticise our neighbour's character--and idle gossip frequently leads to this practice--we are too often inclined to dwell upon his weak points--his vices--and to pass over his merits in silence2 but we ought to consider how little we should like to see the same treatment applied to ourselves4 ,another fault of ours is to judge the doings of other people without fully understanding all the circumstances and the causes that led to such actions4 ,hillel said1 8,do not judge thy neighbour until thou hast come into his place20 that is1 do not pass judgment upon your neighbour before you are able to place yourself in his position1 and to say with certainty what1 you would have done under the same circumstances4 ,the ,law forbids us to use divers weights and divers measures in our business transactions1 lest we damage the property of our neighbour2 equally unlawful is the use of one kind of weights and measures for weighing our own words and deeds1 and another kind for weighing the words and the deeds of others1 to the injury of our fellow-man's name and repute4 ,contrary to the usage of courts of justice1 our neighbour's words and deeds are generally reported by us1 interpreted1 tried and condemned in his absence1 when he is unable to defend himself1 to show his innocence1 or to prove the falsehood of the report1 the error of the interpretation1 and the injustice of the trial and the condemnation4 ,the perversity of such conduct is evident1 especially in the case of the departed4 ,the prohibition1 8,thou shalt not curse the deaf0 7,lev4 xix4 #ad7 has been interpreted to apply to all kinds of slander about those absent or dead4 ,our respect for the memory of the dead is expressed in the ,latin maxim1 8,de mortuis nil nisi bonum20 or in the ,hebrew1 #da 8,after their death say of them #8saints4'0 ,similar maxims are the following3 8,we must not refute the lion after his death20 8,death atones for all offences40 #d4 ,the ,well-being of our ,fellow-man4--,the duties expounded in the above are of a negative character4 ,the commandment1 8,love thy neighbour as thyself0 implies also certain positive duties1 which are comprehended in the terms1 and 8charity40 ,the literal meaning of the term tsedakah is 8righteousness10 but it occurs also frequently in the sense of 8charity20 and we may infer from this that charity was to the ,hebrew a mere act of righteousness4 ,in the ,book of ,daniel and in post-,biblical ,hebrew tsedakah is 8alms10 and distinguished from gemilluth-chesed1 8charity40 ,the former is given to the poor2 the latter to poor and rich alike3 tsedakah1 consisting of money or things that can be purchased for money1 is a duty chiefly incumbent on the wealthier class2 gemilluth-chesed1 consisting of personal acts of kindness1 is a virtue that can be acquired and practised by every one1 whether he be poor or rich2 and whilst tsedakah can only be given to those that live1 gemilluth-chesed can be shown even to the departed4 ,when ,jacob asked his son for a burial in the cave of ,machpelah1 he relied on his son's 1 8,kindness and truth20 and the ,midrash adds the remark1 8,kindness shown to the dead is an act of true love1 as there can be no prospect of gratitude or repayment40 ,the principal kinds of are the following3-- 7#a47 ,visiting the sick4 #db ,the object of the visit ought to be to cheer up the sufferer by pleasant conversation1 to assist him by good advice1 to render him any service that is wanted1 to inspire him with hope1 and to strengthen his faith in ,god by the comforting words of ,scripture and by prayer4 7#b47 8,accompanying the dead0 to his last resting-place1 and doing everything that our love and regard for the departed requires4 ,almost every ,jewish community includes an association whose members undertake to perform personally1 as far as possible1 these acts of love4 ,such a society is generally called 8,association for practising loving-kindness towards our fellow-men10 or 8,holy ,association20 that is1 an association for a holy object4 7#c47 ,comforting the mourners1 who find relief in the conviction that their fellow-men have sympathy with them4 7#d47 8,peace-making40--,war1 whether carried on between nations1 or between parties1 or between one individual and another1 is equally detestable2 and all those who by their exertion and intercession contribute to a diminution of warfare are engaged in praiseworthy work4 ,the principal prayers in our ,liturgy conclude with a petition for peace1 and we look forward for the state of uninterrupted peace1 the ,messianic time1 as the most perfect condition of mankind4 ,forbearance1 a kind word1 a judicious counsel1 frequently averts the great evil of strife and enmity4--,peace1 harmony1 and friendship are best promoted by-- 7#e47 ,judging favourably the deeds and words of our fellow-men4 ,it is not an easy task to correctly estimate the motives which guide our neighbour in his actions1 and in doing so we err frequently2 but it is better to err by over-estimating them2 since this produces far less harm than going astray in the other direction and speaking ill of others without any justifiable cause4 ,conduct like this leads to peace and happiness within and without4 8,speaking peace to all his seed0 is the climax of the virtues praised in ,mordecai1 the ,jew 7,esther x4 #c74 ,charity 7tsedakah7 in its narrower sense1 as a duty towards the poor1 includes-- 7#a47 ,alms-giving to the poor for the purpose of alleviating temporary suffering4 7#b47 ,providing for the comfort of the aged and sick1 widows and orphans4 7#c47 ,assisting the stranger4 ,the ,law lays special stress on this branch of charity1 and reminds us that we all have once been strangers in the land of ,egypt4 ,even in the various countries of which we have become citizens1 our forefathers1 three or four generations back1 were strangers2 and1 besides1 we are told by the ,almighty1 8,ye are strangers and sojourners with me30 7,lev4 xxv4 #bc74 ,this kind of charity is known by the name 7#d47 ,support given to the poor towards obtaining a livelihood1 by procuring occupation for them1 teaching them a trade and giving them a start in it4 7#e47 ,providing for the religious and secular education of the children of the poor4 7#f47 ,raising their intellectual1 social1 and moral condition by personal intercourse with them1 and by kind words of advice1 comfort1 and encouragement4 7#g47 ,helping those who have gone astray and have fallen into vice or crime to return to the path of virtue1 industry1 and righteousness4 ,there are generally associations formed for the various branches of gemilluth-chesed1 the number of which grows1 especially in large towns1 with the increase of misery4 ,it is our duty to support such institutions1 as combined action is in most cases more practical and productive of good result4 ,but the existence of public institutions1 and our support given to them1 by no means exempt us from assisting individually those who apply to us for help4 ,we must be judicious in our charitable acts1 lest we nurse poverty and promote imposture4 ,but1 on the other hand1 we must not be over cautious1 and must not unduly suspect every applicant for assistance as guilty of idleness or other vices1 lest by refusal or hesitation to help we become guilty of neglect1 when by prompt action we might save from utter ruin a person or a whole family well worthy of our sympathy4 ,in this regard we are warned by ,king ,solomon3 8,withhold not good from them to whom it is due1 when it is in the power of thine hand to do it4 ,say not unto thy neighbour1 ,go1 and come again1 and to-morrow ,i will give2 when thou hast it by thee0 7,prov4 iii4 #bg1 #bh74 7b47 ,special ,duties towards our ,fellow-men4 #a4 ,children towards their ,parents4--8,honour thy father and thy mother0 is one of the ,ten ,words which ,god spoke to the ,israelites on ,mount ,sinai4 ,the child honours his parents by considering them as his superiors1 as endowed with authority over him1 and entitled by experience to be his guides and instructors2 by listening respectfully when they speak to him1 and by speaking with reverence when he speaks of or to them4 ,the love of parents towards their child should find an echo in the heart of the latter4 ,the child's love of his parents finds expression in willing1 cheerful obedience2 in the endeavour to do everything that pleases them1 in the sacrifice made for the purpose of giving them pleasure1 in the assistance given them when1 through age1 sickness1 or misfortune1 they are in need of aid4 ,the parents' duty towards the child is to do everything that true love demands1 for his physical1 moral1 and intellectual well-being4 ,with regard to the child's duty towards his parents the following verses from ,proverbs may be noticed3-- 8,the eye that mocketh at his father1 and despiseth to obey his mother1 the ravens of the valley shall pick it out1 and the young eagles shall eat it0 7xxx4 #ag74 8,whoso robbeth his father or his mother1 and saith1 ,it is no transgression1 the same is the companion of a destroyer0 7xxviii4 #bd74 8,whoso curseth his father or his mother1 his lamp shall be put out in obscure darkness0 7xx4 #bj74 8,he that wasteth his father and chaseth away his mother is a son that causeth shame1 and bringeth reproach0 7xix4 #bf74 8,the glory of children are their fathers0 7xvii4 #f74 #b4 ,all other special duties towards our fellow-men may be divided into 7i47 ,duties towards our equals2 7ii47 ,duties towards our superiors and towards our inferiors4 7,i47 ,,duties ,,towards ,,our ,,equals4 7#a47 ,a bond of friendship frequently exists between equals4 ,friends have certain duties to fulfil towards each other4 ,it is expected that friends should have faith in their mutual friendship4 8,as in water face answereth to face1 so in the heart man answereth to man0 7,prov4 xxvii4 #ai74 ,as the water reflects the face of him who looks into it1 so the heart of man reflects the friendship and faithfulness of him who has penetrated into it4 ,our estimation of our friend's feeling toward us is the measure of the genuineness and value of our own friendship towards him4 ,disinterestedness is an essential condition of genuine friendship4 ,every service we render to our friend must be prompted by the desire to be of use to him4 and not to advance our own interest4 ,if any other motive enters our mind1 if we speculate on his gratitude1 and think that our kindness must eventually be returned with interest1 we have no knowledge or feeling of friendship4 ,thus our ,sages declare1 8,friendship dictated by a selfish motive comes to an end together with the speculation2 but friendship which is not based on any selfish motive comes never to an end4 ,an instance of the first kind is the friendship between ,amnon and ,tamar 7#b ,sam4 xiii472 of the second kind1 the friendship between ,david and ,jonathan 7#a ,sam4 xviii470 7,aboth v4 #af74 ,friends bound to each other by genuine and sincere love find great pleasure in the fulfilment of the duties involved in friendship4 ,they do not hesitate to bring sacrifices for each other's well-being2 they evince heartfelt sympathy for each other in good and evil fortune4 ,all the duties of charity--gemilluth chesed--which we owe to our fellow-men in general1 apply with increased force when our fellow-man is also our friend4 ,one of these duties demands our special attention1 because it is frequently neglected through human weakness3 truthfulness and openness4 ,flattery1 objectionable as it is in every case1 is most detestable between friends4 ,we must encourage our friends by kind words1 and acknowledge their merits1 but we must not spoil them by undue flattery4 ,if1 on the other hand1 we discover errors or vices in our friend1 it is our duty to communicate to him openly our opinion1 and to do all that is in our power to bring him back to the path of righteousness and truth4 8,thou shalt surely rebuke thy friend1 and not suffer sin upon him0 7,lev4 xix4 #ag74 ,friendship is mostly formed without premeditation1 and without any aim2 we are friends1 we do not know how and why2 some similarity in our character1 in our talents1 in our views1 in our successes and failures1 or in our fortunes and misfortunes1 draws us together1 and we become friends before we are aware of the fact4 ,but as far as we have control over our feelings we ought to be careful not to plunge into friendship without knowing something of the character and the tendencies of those with whom we are to associate ourselves in such close relationship4 ,in ,proverbs we are told1 8,make no friendships with an angry man1 and with a furious man thou shalt not go0 7xxii4 #bd74 ,ben-sira 7vi4 #f7 exhorts us1 8,if thou wouldst get a friend1 prove him first1 and be not hasty to credit him40 ,our ,sages say1 8,it is easy to make an enemy2 it is difficult to make a friend0 7,yalkut on ,deut4 vi4 #af74 ,the acquisition of a true friend is by no means an easy task4 ,but it is a task that cannot be dispensed with4 ,persons who enjoy a life spent in loneliness uncheered by friendship are exceptions to the rule2 such a life is miserable1 and the climax of all the evils complained of by ,heman the ,ezrahite 7,ps4 lxxxviii4 #ai7 is3 8,lover and friend hast thou put far from me1 and darkness is mine acquaintance40 ,job in his great sufferings longs for 8the love which is shown to the unhappy by his friend0 7,job vi4 #ad74 ,friendship being one of our most valuable possessions1 it must be well guarded and cultivated1 lest it be lost or weakened4 8,thine own friend and thy father's friend1 forsake not0 7,prov4 xxvii4 #aj74 8,let thy foot be seldom in thy friend's house1 lest he be weary of thee1 and so hate thee0 7ibid4 xxv4 #ag74 ,true friendship can be extended only to a few2 but those who are not our friends need not be our enemies4 ,they are all our fellow-men1 and our conduct towards them is to be guided by the principle1 8,love thy fellow-man as thyself40 ,we are distinctly commanded1 8,thou shalt not hate thy brother in thine heart0 7,lev4 xix4 #ah71 8brother0 having here the same meaning as fellow-man4 ,enmity1 like friendship1 comes frequently unawares2 we dislike or even hate a person without knowing why4 ,but it is our duty1 as soon as such an ill-feeling has stolen into our heart1 to search for its origin2 and this being done1 we shall generally feel ashamed of having allowed our heart to be invaded by such an unworthy intruder4 ,we must keep away from evil-doers1 and not associate with wicked people2 but this is a very different thing from hating our neighbour4 ,the pious wish1 8,may sinners cease to exist1 and the wicked be no more0 7,ps4 civ4 #ce71 is explained in the ,talmud in the words of ,beruria1 daughter of ,rabbi ,meir1 as follows3 8,may sins cease to exist1 and the wicked will be no more40 ,we often conceive just indignation at the misdeeds of our neighbours1 and cannot well separate the doer from the deed4 ,but we ought in such cases of indignation to examine ourselves1 whether the source of our indignation is pure1 or has its root in selfishness4 ,such an analysis of our motives would soon purify our heart of all ill-feeling4 ,in our conduct towards those whom we consider our enemies1 or who consider us their enemies1 we must show forbearance and a desire to offer or to seek forgiveness1 according as we are the doers or the sufferers of wrong4 ,self-love and self-esteem1 if not kept within due limits1 easily produce feelings of revenge4 ,without entirely suppressing human nature1 we are bound to control our feelings1 and to let love of our fellow-men in all conditions occupy the first place in our heart4 ,we are taught by our ,sages1 8,he who is forbearing1 receives also pardon for his sins0 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,yoma #bc;a72 8,be of the persecuted1 and not of the persecutors0 7ibid4 ,baba ,kama #ic;a72 8,to those who being offended do not offend1 being insulted do not insult1 the verse applies3 #8,and they who love him shall be as the sun when he goeth forth in his might'0 7,judges v4 #ca2 ,babyl4 ,talm4 ,shabbath #hh;b74 7#b47 ,man and wife are united by the holy bond of marriage4 ,they owe to each other love1 faithfulness1 confidence1 and untiring endeavour to make each other happy4 ,the neglect of these duties turns a happy home into an abode of misery and wretchedness4 #dc ,the last of the prophets1 ,malachi1 rebuking such neglect1 says3 8,the ,lord hath been witness between thee and the wife of thy youth1 against whom thou hast dealt treacherously1 yet is she thy companion and the wife of thy covenant40 7#c47 ,as citizens of a ,state we must take our proper share in all work for the welfare of the ,state4 ,when the ,state is in danger we must evince patriotism1 and must not withdraw ourselves from those duties which1 under such circumstances1 devolve upon every citizen4 ,all our means1 our physical and intellectual faculties1 must be at the disposal of the country in which we live as citizens4 ,thus ,jeremiah exhorts his brethren in ,babylonia3 8,build ye houses and dwell in them2 and plant gardens1 and eat the fruit of them2 444 and seek the peace of the city whither ,i have caused you to be carried away captives1 and pray unto the ,lord for it3 for in the peace thereof shall you have peace0 7,jer4 xxix4 #e1 #g74 ,similarly we are taught1 8,pray for the welfare of the government0 7,aboth iii4 #b74 #dd ,an important dictum of ,samuel1 a ,rabbi famous for his decisions in questions of civil law1 is accepted in the ,talmud as law3 8,the law of the ,state is binding upon us10 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,baba ,kamma #aac;a74 ,it is1 according to the teaching of the ,talmud1 incumbent upon us1 as citizens of the ,state1 to obey the laws of the country4 ,there is no difference between ,jews and their fellow-citizens with regard to the duty of loyalty4 ,it is only in case of an attempt to force us aside from our religion that we are not only justified in resisting and disobeying laws framed with this intention1 but we are commanded to do so4 ,but in the absence of such intention1 we must fulfil all those duties which devolve upon all citizens alike--such as military service in countries that have general conscription--although such obedience may carry with it a breach of some of the laws of our religion4 ,on the contrary1 evasion and desertion of all national obligations is a serious offence against our holy ,law4 7#d47 ,as members of the same religious community1 we must unite in working for the well-being of the whole body4 8,do not separate thyself from the congregation0 7,aboth ii4 #d7 is a principle taught by the great ,hillel4 ,a ,jew who violates this principle1 and keeps aloof from his brethren1 unwilling to take his share of the communal burdens1 is guilty of a serious dereliction of duty1 and is set forth in the ,talmud as an example of most disgraceful conduct4 8,when your brethren are in trouble1 do not say1 #8,i have my home1 my food and drink2 ,i am safe4' ,if you ever were to think so1 the words of the prophet would apply to you3 #8,surely this iniquity shall not be purged from you till you die'40 8,he who does not join the community in times of danger and trouble will never enjoy the ,divine blessing0 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,taanith1 p4 #aa;a72 8,he who separates from the ways of the community has no portion of the world to come10 7,maim41 ,mishneh-torah1 ,hilchoth ,teshubah iii4 #f74 7#e47 ,as to members of another community1 we have to show due regard for their religious convictions1 and not to wound their feelings in respect of anything they hold sacred4 ,respect for the religious feelings of our fellow-men will increase their regard for our own religion1 and evoke in them the same consideration for our religious feelings4 ,all our duties towards our fellow-men are equally binding upon us whether in relation to members of ether faiths or of our own4 7#f47 ,employers and employed1 sellers and buyers1 must act towards each other with the strictest honesty4 ,in cases of dispute a friendly explanation or discussion is more likely to promote the interest of both parties than mutual animosity4 ,each party must bear in mind that prosperity depends on the co-operation of the other party1 and not on its ruin4 ,note4--,we meet in the ,talmud and works based on the ,talmud with dicta which seem at first sight to exclude ,gentiles 71 or 7 from our duty of love towards our fellow-men4 ,this1 however1 was never intended4 ,sayings of this kind originated in days of warfare between the oppressor and the oppressed1 and were an outburst of feelings of pain and anger1 caused by an enemy who was not restrained from tyranny and cruelty by any sense of justice and humanity4 ,but this state of affairs has ceased1 and such sayings have since entirely lost their force and meaning1 and are practically forgotten4 ,some of these passages have been removed from the ,talmudical works by hostile censors2 but having led1 and being still likely to lead1 to errors or misunderstanding1 less on the part of ,jews than of non-,jewish readers1 they ought to be eliminated in future editions of any of these works by ,jewish censors1 especially as the notices on the first page of the books1 that the terms 1 or do not apply to our non-,jewish neighbours at the present day1 appear to have proved ineffectual against calumny and persecution4 7,,ii47 ,,duties ,,to ,,our ,,superiors ,,and ,,inferiors4 ,although we are all equally children of one ,god1 and before the ,most ,high all our petty differences disappear1 ,his infinite wisdom willed it that there should be a certain degree of inequality among ,his creatures2 that some men should be wise1 others simple2 some talented1 others less skilful2 some strong1 others weak2 some high1 others low2 some imperious1 others submissive2 some rulers1 others subjects2 some fit to guide1 and others only fit to be guided4 ,this inequality is the source of certain special duties between man and man4 8,be submissive to your superior1 agreeable to your inferior1 and cheerful to every one0 7,aboth iii4 #ab74 7#a47 ,the teacher who patiently strives to benefit his pupils by his instruction and counsel has a just claim on their respect4 ,it is in the interest of the pupils themselves to regard their teacher as a friend1 to have confidence in him1 and faith in his superiority4 ,it is themselves they benefit most if they lighten the labours of their teacher by due attention and obedience1 and themselves they injure most1 if by want of proper respect they render his task difficult and disagreeable4 ,on the other hand1 it is the duty of the teacher to try to win the respect and the affection of the pupils by conscientiousness in his work1 by patience and forbearance1 by kindness and justice1 by genuine interest in the progress and welfare of those entrusted to his care1 and1 above all1 by a pure1 good1 and noble life4--,the pupils owe much to their teachers1 but the latter also owe something to their disciples4 8,much have ,i learnt from my teachers1 more from my fellow-students1 most from my pupils10 is a well-known ,talmudical saying 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,taanith #g;a74 ,of the priest1 who in ancient time used to be the principal teacher1 the prophet ,malachi says3 8,the priest's lips shall keep knowledge1 and they shall seek the law at his mouth2 for he is the messenger of the ,lord of hosts0 7,mal4 ii4 #g74 ,rabbi ,jochanan1 in commenting on these words1 said1 8,if the teacher is like the messenger of the ,lord1 i4e41 leads a pure life in the service of the ,lord1 then people shall seek instruction at his mouth2 if not1 they cannot be instructed by him in the ,law0 7,yalkut ad locum74--8,let the honour of thy disciple be as dear to thee as thy own1 and the honour of thy colleague as dear as the fear of thy teacher1 and the fear of thy teacher as dear as the fear of ,heaven0 7,aboth iv4 #ae74--8;,he who has been taught something by his neighbour1 whether it be a chapter1 a law1 a verse1 a phrase1 or a letter1 owes him respect4 ,thus ,david1 who only learnt two things from ,ahitophel1 called him #8teacher1 chief1 and friend'0 7ibid4 vi4 #c74 ,reverence is shown by a pupil to his teacher1 not only by outward signs of respect1 but also by refraining from opposing him1 his teaching1 or his decisions 7,maimonides ,i4 ,hilchoth ,talmud torah v4 #a74 ,a pupil who altogether relinquishes the teaching of his master is to the latter a source of intense grief4--,among the outward signs of regard for the teacher we find the ancient custom or rule to pay a visit to the teacher on the three festivals3 ,passover1 ,feast of ,weeks1 and ,tabernacles 7ibid4 v4 #g74 7#b47 ,master and ,servant4--,the relation between master and servant is legally regulated by the same rules as that between employer and employed4 ,strict honesty in the fulfilment of the duties undertaken by either party is the basis of a good understanding between master and servant4 ,the former must not exact from the latter more than was agreed upon1 and the latter must not fail to perform all that he has undertaken to do4 ,the relation between master and servant can be made more pleasant on both sides1 if they are sensible enough to recognise their mutual obligations4 ,on the part of the master1 it is necessary that he should consider his servant as a human being like himself1 who has a right to expect due reward for faithful service4 ,a treatment of the servant from this point of view inspires him with a feeling of regard and attachment for his master1 which finds expression in good and honest service4 ,the servant will feel comfortable in his work1 and be convinced that to be a servant is no degradation4--8,thou shalt not defraud an hired servant that is poor and needy1 whether he be of thy brethren or of thy strangers that are in the land within thy gates0 7,deut4 xxiv4 #ad74 7#c47 ,rich and ,poor4--8,the rich and poor meet together3 the ,lord is the maker of them all0 7,prov4 xxii4 #b74 ,those who are fortunate enough to possess more than is wanted for the necessities of life1 are expected to spend part of the surplus in relieving those who possess less than they require for their maintenance4 ,sympathy towards the poor and needy is the duty of the rich2 gratitude towards the generous and benevolent is the duty of the poor4 ,but the rich must by no means make their gifts dependent on the signs of gratitude on the part of the poor2 they must even avoid eliciting expressions of thanks1 as these lead too often to flattery1 hypocrisy1 and servility4 ,the rich find ample reward for their benevolence in the joyous feeling that ,providence has chosen them as the means of diminishing the sufferings1 the troubles1 and the cares of some of their fellow-men4 7#d47 ,the following have a just claim on our respect3-- ,learned ,men 7 71 who1 even if not directly our teachers1 in many ways benefit us by their learning4 8,it is a great sin to despise or to hate the wise3 ,jerusalem has chiefly been destroyed as a punishment for the contempt shown for the learned2 as it is said 7#b ,chron4 xxxvi4 #af71 #8,they mocked the messengers of ,god1 and despised his words1 and misused his prophets1 until the wrath of the ,lord arose against his people till there was no remedy'0 7,maimonides1 l4 c4 vi4 #aa74 8,he who despises talmide-chachamim10 says ,rab1 8has no remedy for his disease0 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,shabbath1 #aai;b71 and belongs to those who forfeit their portion in the world to come 7 1 ibid41 ,sanhedrin #ij74 ,the ,aged4--8,thou shalt rise up before the hoary head1 and honour the face of the old man1 and fear thy ,god0 7,lev4 xix4 #cb74 ,the ,bible illustrates1 in the history of ,rehoboam 7#a ,kings xii471 the evil consequences of the contempt shown by this king to the words of the old men4--8,with the ancient is wisdom1 and in length of days understanding0 7,job xii4 #ab74 8,the building of the young is destruction2 the destruction of the old is building0 7,b4 ,t4 ,megillah #ca;b74 #de ,great men who have accomplished great works in the interest of mankind1 and have thus merited the gratitude of all4 ,the great men of our nation1 their works and the institutions founded by them at various periods of our history4 8,do not despise thy mother1 though she hath become old0 7,prov4 xxiii4 #bb74 ,the feeling of piety and reverence towards our ,sages and ,teachers of former generations1 and towards institutions of ancient times that have come down to us1 is an essential element in our inner religion 7 74 ,the magistrates1 judges1 and statesmen1 who devote their time1 their talents1 and their energy to promoting the well-being of the ,state4 ,the ,head of the ,state4--8,fear the ,lord1 ,o my son1 and the king1 and do not mix with rioters0 7,prov4 xxiv4 #ba74 7,c47 ,,kindness ,,to ,,animals4 8,be fruitful1 and multiply1 and replenish the earth1 and subdue it3 and have dominion over the fish of the sea1 and over the fowl of the air1 and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth0 7,gen4 i4 #bh and ix4 #b1 c42 comp4 ,ps4 viii4 #g1 c474 ,thus spake the ,creator to the first man4 ,he gave him a right to make use of the animals for his benefit2 and man makes the animals work for him2 they serve him as food1 provide him with clothing and other necessary or useful things4 ,in return for all these services the animals ought to be treated with kindness and consideration4 ,it is a necessity to force certain beasts to work for us1 and to kill certain animals for various purposes4 ,but in doing so we must not cause more pain than is absolutely necessary4 ,it is a disgraceful act to give pain to animals merely for sport1 and to enjoy their agony4 ,bullfights and similar spectacles are barbarous1 and tend to corrupt and brutalise the heart of man4 ,the more we abstain from cruelty to animals1 the more noble and loving is our conduct likely to be to one another4 8,a righteous man regardeth the feelings of his beast1 but the heart of the wicked is cruel0 7,prov4 xii4 #aj74 ,the following are instances of kindness to animals enjoined in the ,pentateuch3-- 8,ye shall not kill an animal and its young on one day0 7,lev4 xxii4 #bh74 8,if a bird's nest happen to be before thee on the way upon the earth or upon a tree1 with young ones or eggs1 thou shalt not take the mother with the young4 ,let the mother go away2 then thou mayest take the young ones1 in order that it may be well with thee1 and thy days be long0 7,deut4 xxii4 #f1 #g74 8,thou shalt not muzzle the ox when he treadeth out the corn0 7ibid4 xxv4 #d74 ,in the ,talmud we have the following saying in the name of ,rab3--8,we must not begin our meal before having given food to our cattle2 for it is said1 #8,and ,i will give you grass in thy field for thy cattle1' and after that #8thou shalt eat and be full'0 7,deut4 xi4 #ae2 ,babyl4 ,talm4 #dj;a74 ,c4--,,duties ,,to ,,ourselves4 ,our duties to ourselves are to a great extent included in our duties towards ,god and towards our fellow-men1 because these likewise tend to promote our own well-being4 ,the fundamental principle of our duties towards ourselves is to make the best use of the gifts which the kindness of ,god has bestowed upon us4 #a4 ,life and health are precious gifts received by us at the hands of ,divine ,providence4 ,we must therefore guard them as valuable treasures1 and must not endanger them without absolute necessity4 ,on the contrary1 as much as lies in our power1 we must improve our health and preserve our life4 ,food and bodily enjoyment1 however pleasant for the moment1 must be let alone if they are injurious to health4 ,if we find ourselves inclined to exceed the right measure in the enjoyment of a thing1 it is advisable to turn1 for a while at least1 to the other extreme and avoid that enjoyment altogether4 ,thus persons that are easily misled to excess in drink should become total abstainers from drink4 ,but in ordinary cases the golden mean is preferable1 especially for us ,jews who are trained by the ,dietary ,laws1 and by other precepts1 to have control over our appetites4 ,we are not commanded to be ascetics and to lead a gloomy1 miserable life4 ,on the contrary1 we are frequently told in the ,pentateuch1 8,and ye shall rejoice before the ,lord your ,god40 ,the ,psalmist exhorts us to 8serve the ,lord with gladness2 to come before his presence with singing0 7,ps4 c4 #b74 8,he who doeth good to his own soul is a man of love2 and he who troubleth his own flesh is a cruel man0 7,prov4 xi4 #ag72 i4e41 he who does good to himself is of a cheerful disposition1 and is likely to do good to others2 but he who deprives himself of enjoyments is often also cruel to his fellow-creatures4 ,the ,nazirite had to bring a sin-offering after the expiration of the period of his vow4 8,what sin has he committed80 was asked4 ,the answer is given in the ,talmud by ,samuel3 8,because he deprived himself of wine20 and the ,rabbi further infers from this1 that it is prohibited to impose a voluntary fast upon oneself4 ,rabbi ,eleazar1 however1 thinks that the vow of a ,nazirite is a praiseworthy act1 and his view found many followers1 especially in the ,middle ,ages4 ,abraham ,ibn ,ezra1 e4g41 explains that the sin of the ,nazirite consists in not prolonging the state of ,naziritism4 ,but1 however different their opinions may be theoretically1 all agree that no voluntary fast should be undertaken1 if it endangers the health of the faster1 changes cheerfulness into sadness1 and disables him from doing necessary or useful work4 #b4 ,wealth1 if acquired in an honest manner1 by hard work1 is conducive to our well-being4 ,but in our search for wealth we must bear in mind that it is not an end in itself1 but serves only as a means of securing our well-being4 ,koheleth tells us1 what experience endorses1 that there are 8riches kept for the owners thereof to their hurt0 7,eccles4 v4 #ab74 ,it is true we must struggle for the means of our existence4 ,but in the struggle for wealth we must not entirely suppress the claims of our moral and intellectual wants1 and if we were to suppress them1 we should only work for our own ruin4 8,two things have ,i required of thee2 deny me them not before ,i die3 ,remove far from me vanity and lies2 give me neither poverty nor riches2 feed me with food convenient for me3 lest ,i be full1 and deny thee1 and say1 ,who is the ,lord8 or lest ,i be poor1 and steal1 and take the name of my ,god in vain0 7,prov4 xxx4 #g-i74 ,to this golden mean we should adhere4 ,it is our duty to seek an honest livelihood1 but we are told1 8,labour not to be rich3 cease from thine own wisdom0 7,prov4 xxiii4 #d74 ,one of the various duties of parents towards their children is to take good care that they learn a trade1 and 8he who does not teach his son a trade10 say our ,sages1 8is as guilty as if he directly taught him to rob0 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,kiddushin1 p4 #bi;a74 ,there is an erroneous opinion abroad1 that commerce is more congenial to ,judaism than handicraft4 ,in our ,law no trace of such preference is noticeable2 on the contrary1 agriculture was the principal occupation of the ,israelites4 8,when thou eatest the labour of thine hands1 happy art thou1 and it is well with thee0 7,ps4 cxxviii4 #b74 8,love work1 and hate lordship0 is a well-known lesson of the sayings of the ,fathers 7,aboth i4 #aj74 ,bible and post-,biblical literature equally teach us the lesson that our comfort and happiness do not depend on the amount of wealth we have amassed1 but on the degree of contentment our heart has acquired4 8,sweet is the sleep of the labourer1 whether he eat little or much3 but the abundance of the rich will not suffer him to sleep0 7,eccles4 v4 #aa74 ,industry is one of the sources of human happiness2 but the blessing of industry is easily lost1 if it is not combined with thrift and temperance4 ,in days of prosperity we must bear in mind that days of misfortune may come2 we must1 so far as we can1 provide for them1 so that we may be able to hold out 8till the storm has passed40 ,temperance is inseparable from thrift and industry4 ,intemperance not only consumes the products of thrift and industry1 but in course of time destroys these very sources of our prosperity4 ,even with regard to ,sabbath1 in honour of which some degree of comfort and even of luxury may be indulged in1 the principle is laid down3 8,treat thy ,sabbath like an ordinary day1 if additional expense is likely to make thee dependent on charity0 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,shabbath #aah;a74 #c4 ,knowledge4--,god has made man 8a little lower than the angels1 and has crowned him with glory and honour0 7,ps4 viii4 #f72 ,he has endowed him with the faculty of acquiring knowledge3 8,there is a spirit in man1 and an inspiration of the ,almighty1 that gives him understanding0 7,job xxxii4 #h74 ,it is our duty to cultivate this faculty1 to nurse it with all possible care1 that it may grow1 produce beautiful blossoms1 and bear goodly fruit4 ,the training must begin very early1 at an age in which we are entirely dependent on the assistance and guidance of others4 ,parents1 to whom the ,almighty has entrusted the care of their children1 are therefore commanded to provide for their education2 and as parents are not always capable of doing this1 the duty devolves on the community or on the ,state4 ,every civilised country has its schools1 colleges1 and seminaries for the development of the intellectual and moral faculties of its inhabitants1 and as these institutions increase in number and efficiency1 the prosperity of the nation grows in like proportion4 ,but the success of these educational institutions1 however well provided they may be with an excellent teaching staff and the best appliances1 depends on the regular and punctual attendance of the children1 their attention1 and their industry4 ,it is the duty of parents to see1 as far as it is in their power1 that these conditions be fulfilled4 ,among the various branches of knowledge we seek to acquire1 there is one branch of paramount importance1 the absence of which would make all other knowledge valueless3 it is-- #d4 ,moral and ,religious ,training4--8,the fear of the ,lord is the beginning of knowledge2 fools despise wisdom and correction0 7 ,prov4 i4 #g74 ,the author of the ,book of ,proverbs teaches that knowledge must be combined with 8fear of ,god20 and that it is a perverse idea to separate wisdom 77 from moral training 771 and to seek knowledge 77 without the fear of the ,lord 7 74 ,our ,sages teach us that our training should include both fear of ,god and wisdom4 8,if there is no wisdom1 there is no fear of ,god2 and in the absence of the latter there is no wisdom0 7,aboth iii4 #ag74 ,fear of the ,lord1 however1 and fear of sin must have precedence4 ,rabbi ,chanina1 son of ,dosa1 says3 8,if a man's wisdom is preceded by fear of sin1 his wisdom is well established2 if the fear of sin is preceded by wisdom1 his wisdom is not well established0 7ibid4 #i74 ,the result of our training must be the acquisition of good manners and noble principles4 ,avoid extremes1 and hold to the golden mean1 is an excellent rule that leads us safely through the various conditions of life and wards off many troubles and dangers4 ,the following examples may serve as an illustration of this rule3 ,do not ignore your own self2 let self-love and self-respect influence your conduct2 but these must not be allowed to develop into selfishness and arrogance4 ,look after your own interests1 but do not consider them as the supreme rulers of your actions4 ,be self-reliant1 and keep equally far from self-conceit and self-distrust4 ,haughtiness and self-contempt are extremes to be avoided3 be modest4 ,when wronged or insulted by your neighbour1 be neither callous nor over-sensitive2 ignore insult and wrong in most cases1 forgive them readily in others1 and resent them only when forced to do so4 ,in disputes and discussions be neither weak nor obstinate3 be firm4 ,be neither passionate nor indifferent3 be calm4 ,do not trust every one1 lest your credulity mislead you2 do not suspect every one1 lest you become misanthropic3 be discreet4 ,do not seek danger1 nor fear it2 but be prepared to meet it with courage4 ,be temperate in eating and drinking1 and avoid both excess and needless privation4 ,in spending your earnings show neither niggardliness nor recklessness3 be economical4 ,work1 but not in such a manner as to ruin your health4 ,as to your future1 be neither too sanguine in your hopes1 nor despondent3 do your duty1 and trust in ,god4 ,there are1 however1 exceptions from this rule2 for in certain cases there is only the choice between two extremes4 ,such is ,truthfulness4 ,it is our duty to approach nearer and nearer the extreme of this virtue1 and to consider the least deviation from it as vice4 ,from our earliest youth we should train ourselves in the practice of this virtue4 ,every word that we desire to utter should be well examined before it passes our lips4 ,we must be on our guard that nothing should escape our lips that is not in harmony with what we feel or think4 ,in small matters as well as in important things truthfulness must be the principle which guides us in our utterances4 8,the lips of truth shall be established for ever1 but for a moment only the tongue of falsehood0 7,prov4 xii4 #ai74 8,keep thee far from a word of falsehood0 7,exod4 xxiii4 #g74 8,falsehood10 say our ,sages1 8has no legs to stand upon2 whilst #8truth' is declared to be the seal of the ,holy ,one1 ,blessed be ,he0 7 74 ,our moral and religious training is based on the ,word of ,god1 on the ,torah1 and the study of the ,torah1 1 is an essential element in ,jewish education4 ,the term ,torah is to be understood in no narrow sense1 but as including the written and the oral ,law1 all the books of the ,holy ,writings1 and such works as have from time to time been composed for the purpose of facilitating and promoting the study of the ,torah4 ,the importance of this duty has been recognised from ancient times1 and ,jewish congregations1 before building a synagogue1 made provision for the religious education of the young and for the study of the ,law1 by establishing schools and colleges 7 or and 74 ,talmud-torah is one of those duties to which no measure was fixed 7 ,mishnah ,peah i4 #a74 ,whenever we can find time and leisure1 we ought to turn to the ,word of ,god1 every one according to his capacity and his opportunities4 ,the readings from the ,torah1 both the written and the oral1 which form part of our ,service1 have been introduced for the purpose of facilitating for the general public the fulfilment of the duty of ,talmud-torah4 ,the study of the ,law and the regular and punctual attendance at the ,beth-hammidrash belong to those religious acts which 8bear fruit here on earth and procure bliss in the future life0 7ibid474 ,our ,sages exhort us in various sayings to devote ourselves earnestly to the study of the ,torah4 ,the object of this study is1 in the first instance1 to enable us to live in accordance with ,his ,commandments2 secondly1 to purify our thoughts by turning them from common1 ordinary things to higher and loftier subjects2 for while we are reading the ,divine messages and reflecting on them1 we move in a purer atmosphere and must be inspired with holy and noble thoughts4 ,the book which is expected to produce these results must be approached 8with awe1 with meekness1 with cheerfulness1 and with purity0 7,aboth vi4 #f74 ,our intention must be to be instructed and guided by what we read4 ,we must not presume to criticise the ,divine decrees therein recorded4 ,if we meet with passages that strike us as strange or objectionable1 we may be sure that we have not yet comprehended the true sense of the ,divine words4 ,modesty must cause us rather to assume shortcomings on our part than to find fault with the ,holy ,writings4 8,turn it over1 and read it again and again2 for all is in it1 and behold everything through it2 and even when old and weak1 cleave to it1 and do not move away from it2 for there is no better guide for thee than this one0 7,aboth v4 #bb74 ,there is one great advantage in the study of the ,torah2 it constantly supplies us with one of the best means of promoting our moral training1 viz41 with good company4 ,the society in which we move and the persons with whom we associate are an important factor in the formation of our character4 ,bad companions corrupt us1 and lead us to ruin2 good companions improve our moral conduct by their example and not rarely by their words4 8,if one joins mockers1 he will be a mocker2 if he joins the lowly1 he will show grace0 7,prov4 iii4 #cd74 8,keep away from a bad neighbour2 do not associate with the wicked1 and do not believe thyself safe from evil0 7,aboth i4 #g74 ,in our daily prayers we ask ,god for ,his assistance in our endeavour to act according to this principle4 ,the aim and end of all our moral training must be to keep our mind pure from evil thoughts1 to make our heart the seat of noble and lofty desires2 to accustom our tongue to the utterance of that which is good and true1 and to lead a pure1 honourable1 and godly life4 ,if we succeed1 we establish our well-being during our life on earth1 and secure ,divine blessing for our soul in the future world4 ,,iii4 ,,signs ,,as ,,outward ,,reminders ,,of ,,god',s ,,presence4 ,the voice that comes from within1 from our own heart and conscience1 is the best reminder of ,god's ,presence and ,will4 ,but it does not always sound with sufficient force to make itself heard1 and we1 weak mortals1 have the weakness of forgetting even most important duties1 unless we are reminded of them from time to time4 ,the ,divine ,law has therefore set up signs as outward reminders4 ,such are the commandments of 8fringe10 8ornaments10 and 8door-post symbol40 8,fringe0 or 8,tassel40 8,thou shalt make thee fringes upon the four corners of thy vesture1 wherewith thou coverest thyself0 7,deut4 xxii4 #ab74 ,the object of this commandment is described as follows3--8,it shall be unto you for a fringe1 that ye may look upon it1 and remember all the commandments of the ,lord1 and do them1 and that ye seek not after your own heart and your own eyes1 after which ye use to go astray3 that ye may remember and do all my commandments1 and be holy unto your ,god0 7,num4 xv4 #ci1 #dj74 ,in obedience to this commandment1 we have two kinds of four-cornered garments provided with 8fringes40 ,the one is small1 and is worn under the upper garments the whole day2 it is called arba' kanfoth1 8four corners10 or talith katan1 8small scarf40 ,the other and larger one is worn over the garments during the ,morning ,service4 #df ,it is called simply talith1 8scarf10 or talith gadol1 8large scarf40 ,the form of the blessing which accompanies the performance of this mitsvah varies according as it refers to the small talith or to the large one4 ,in the former case the blessing concludes with 8concerning the commandment of tsitsith20 in the latter with 1 8to wrap ourselves with a garment provided with tsitsith40 #dg ,the tsitsith1 which is appended to each of the four corners1 consists of four long threads drawn through a small hole about an inch from the corner2 the two parts of the threads are bound together by a double knot2 the largest thread--called shammash1 8the servant0--is then wound seven1 eight1 eleven1 and thirteen times round the other seven halves of the four threads1 and after each set of windings a double knot is made4--,if one of the four tsitsith is not in order1 e4g41 two of the threads being torn off1 the talith is called pasul1 8disqualified0 for the mitsvah1 and must not be worn till that tsitsith is replaced by a new one4 ,there is1 however1 an important element in this ,divine commandment1 which is now altogether neglected1 viz41 8,and they shall put upon the fringe of the corner a thread of purple blue wool0 7,num4 xv4 #ch74 ,tradition determined the exact shade of the purple blue indicated by the term 2 in the ,talmud 7,menachoth #db;b7 the various ways of its preparation are given4 ,but the colour seems to have been rare1 and we are warned against using imitations of techeleth4 ,regulations were also made providing for the case when techeleth could not be obtained4 ,the natural white colour was then substituted1 and no other colour was allowed4 ,after the conclusion of the ,talmud doubts seem to have arisen as regards the exact shade of the purple blue demanded by the ,divine precept in the term 1 and thus the use of the thread of purple blue wool gradually ceased to form part of the tsitsith4 ,the exact time when it ceased cannot be fixed4 #dh 8,ornaments40 ,four times the ,law repeats the commandment concerning the tefillin3 8,and thou shalt bind them0--the words of ,god--8for a sign upon thy hand1 and they shall be for a frontlet between thine eyes0 7,deut4 vi4 #h and xi4 #ah72 8,and it shall be unto thee for a sign upon thy hand1 and for a memorial between thine eyes1 in order that the ,law of the ,lord be in thy mouth0 7,exod4 xiii4 #i72 8,and it shall be for a sign upon thy hand1 and for a frontlet between thine eyes0 7ibid4 #af74 ,the object of this commandment is to direct our thoughts to ,god and ,his goodness1 and to remind us of the important lessons taught in the following four paragraphs1 in which the commandment of tefillin is mentioned3-- 7#a47 ,the first paragraph 7 ,exod4 xiii4 #a-aj7 teaches that we must1 in various ways1 express our belief in ,god as the ,king and ,ruler of the universe4 ,two laws are contained in this paragraph which are to serve this object--the sanctification of the first-born to the service of the ,lord1 and the celebration of the ,feast of ,unleavened ,cakes4 7#b47 ,the second paragraph 7 ,exod4 xiii4 #aa-af7 reminds us of the wonderful way in which ,god delivered our forefathers from ,egyptian bondage4 ,remembering this deliverance1 we are strengthened in our faith in ,god in days of trouble1 for ,his ways are not ours1 and when we do not see any prospect of relief ,god may be preparing help for us4 7#c47 ,the third paragraph 7 ,deut4 vi4 #d-i7 proclaims the ,unity of ,god1 and teaches us to love ,god and obey ,him out of love4 7#d47 ,the fourth paragraph 7 ,deut4 xi4 #ac-bj7 teaches that ,providence deals with men according to their merits1 according as each deserves reward or punishment4 ,tradition has handed down to us the way in which this precept is to be carried out4 ,the four above-mentioned paragraphs are written twice on parchment1 once on one piece1 and once on four pieces1 each piece containing one paragraph4 ,the two sets are put into two leather cases 771 one of which is divided into four compartments1 for the four separate slips of parchment1 and marked outside by the letter shin4 #di ,through a loop attached to each bayith a leather strap 77 is passed1 the two parts of which are tied together #ej in such a manner as to hold the bayith on the arm or on the head4 ,on the arm the case is placed that contains the four paragraphs written on one piece1 on the head that which contains them written on four pieces4 ,the former is called tefillah shel yad1 8tefillin of the hand20 the latter tefillah shel rosh1 8the tefillin of the head40 ,the tefillin are put on in the following way3--7#a47 ,tefillah shel rosh4 ,the case is placed in front1 just over the forehead in the middle1 and the knot of the straps 77 on the back of the head over the middle of the neck2 the remainder of the two straps hang down in front1 one on each side4 7#b47 ,tefillah shel yad4 ,the case containing the parchment is placed on the inner side of the left upper arm1 near the elbow2 the knot is kept near it1 and the strap is twisted seven times round the arm and three times round the middle finger2 there are1 however1 different customs with regard to this latter practice4 ,tefillah shel yad is put on first1 being mentioned first in the ,divine precept4 ,the reverse order is observed in taking off the tefillin4 ,originally the tefillin were worn all day long1 #ea but at present they are worn only during the morning prayer4 ,the tefillin are not worn on ,sabbath or ,festival4 ,the observance of these days is 8a sign for ever0 of our belief 8that in six days the ,lord made the heavens and the earth40 ,the very days of rest thus remind us of the truths of which the tefillin are 8a sign40 ,the tefillin became1 therefore1 unnecessary on those days4 ,the commandment of tefillin applies to all male persons from their thirteenth birthday4 #eb ,the performance of this commandment is preceded by the usual benediction 7 71 concluding 1 8to place the tefillin10 scil41 on the arm and on the head4 ,according to the ,german rite1 a second benediction is recited before placing the tefillah shel rosh on the head1 viz41 1 8concerning the commandment of tefillin40 #ec ,in order to prevent a mere perfunctory observance of this commandment1 we are taught to reflect on the importance and the object of the tefillin1 and to declare that by placing the tefillin on the head and on the arm1 near the heart1 we indicate our consciousness of the duty to employ the thoughts that rise in our mind1 and the desires of our heart1 in the service of the ,lord1 who gave us the powers of thought and will4 #ed ,door-post ,symbol4 ,the ,mezuzah is a piece of parchment on which the two first paragraphs of ,shema 7,deut4 vi4 #d-i1 xi4 #ac-bj7 are written4 ,the parchment is rolled together1 put into a small case1 and fixed on the right-hand door-post4 ,a small opening is left in the case1 where the word 8,almighty10 written on the back of the scroll1 is visible4 #ee ,the object of the mezuzah1 commanded in the words1 8,and thou shalt write them on the door-posts of thy house and upon thy gates0 7,deut4 vi4 #i and xi4 #bj71 is to remind us of the ,presence of ,god1 of ,his ,unity1 ,providence1 and ,omnipotence1 both on entering our home and on leaving it2 of the all-seeing eye that watches us1 and of the ,almighty who will one day call us to account for our deeds1 words and thoughts4 ,the mezuzah thus serves to sanctify our dwelling and protect it from being polluted by evil deeds4 ,signs of ,god's ,covenant4 ,besides the signs mentioned above1 there are two other signs of the covenant between ,god and ,israel4 #a4 ,sabbath is called 8an everlasting covenant10 and 8a sign between ,god and the children of ,israel for ever0 7,exod4 xxxi4 #af1 #ag74 ,see pp4 #bed sqq4 and #cci sqq4 #b4 ,the covenant of ,abraham 7 8the covenant of circumcision074 ,god made a covenant with ,abraham1 and said1 8,thou shalt keep my covenant1 thou and thy seed after thee in their generations4 ,this is my covenant which ye shall keep between me and you1 and thy seed after thee3 ,every male child among you shall be circumcised when eight days old0 7,gen4 xvii4 #i1 #aj1 #ab74 ,if the eighth day happens to be on a ,sabbath1 the circumcision takes place on that day2 but if1 because of illness1 or from any other cause1 the rite has not been performed on the eighth day1 it must be done on some other day1 but not on a ,sabbath or ,festival4 ,notes4--#a4 ,in reference to the importance of these mitsvoth1 ,maimonides1 in ,mishneh-torah1 says as follows3-- 8,although we are not commanded to get a talith1 and to put it on in order to join the tsitsith 78fringes07 to it1 a religious person will not consider himself free from this duty1 but will always endeavour to wear a garment to which fringes must be affixed4 ,during prayer we must be especially careful to provide ourselves with a talith4 ,it is a disgrace for a scholar 7,talmid chacham7 to say the prayer without the talith4 ,we must be particularly anxious to perform this mitsvah2 it is of great importance with regard to all the precepts1 according to the words1 #8,and ye shall look upon it1 and remember all the commandments of the ,lord'0 7#bnd ,book1 ,ahabhah1 ,hilchoth tsitsith iii4 #ab74 8,the holiness of the tefillin is great1 for so long as the tefillin are upon the head and the arm of a man1 he is humble and ,god-fearing1 keeps away from levity and idle talk1 does not conceive evil thoughts1 but turns his heart exclusively to words of truth and justice4 ,we ought therefore to wear them all day long2 this would be the proper way4 ,it is said of ,rab1 the pupil of ,rabbi ,jehudah1 the ,holy1 that he was never seen otherwise than with torah or tsitsith or tefillin4 8,although we ought to wear tefillin all day long1 it is our special duty to wear them during prayer4 ,our ,sages said1 #8,he who reads ,shema without tefillin rejects1 as it were1 his evidence concerning the ,almighty as false'0 7ibid41 ,hilchoth tefillin iv4 #bf74 8,we should be particular with regard to the mezuzah1 which is a duty incumbent uninterruptedly on every one4 ,whenever we enter or leave the house our eye meets with the name of ,god2 we remember ,his love1 and rousing ourselves from our torpitude1 we are led to regret our foolish devotion to the vanities of the time1 and recognise that nothing remains for ever except the knowledge of the ,rock of the universe4 ,we shall then at once devote ourselves to know ,him1 and walk in the way of uprightness4 ,our ancient ,sages said1 #8,he who has tefillin upon his head and upon his arm1 tsitsith on his garment1 and mezuzah on his door1 he is safe from sin1 since he has many reminders of his duties1 and these are the angels that protect him from going astray2 and to him the following verse applies3 8,an angel of the ,lord encampeth round those who fear ,him0'0 7ibid41 ,hilchoth mezuzah vi4 #ac74 #b4 ,the great importance of the tefillin1 as described by ,maimonides1 was not understood or recognised by all ,jews4 ,various sayings occurring in the ,talmud indicate the existence of laxity or even opposition with regard to the carrying out of this precept in its literal sense4 ,when persons with tefillin on their head and on their arm showed by their conduct that their heart was not filled with the holiness and uprightness of which the tefillin are the symbol1 it was but natural that not only were these persons accused of hypocrisy1 but the ,divine precept itself was discredited4 ,but the greater the opposition by one section of the ,jewish community1 the more the enthusiasm of the other section grew in its favour4 ,hence the numerous ,talmudical and ,rabbinical utterances concerning the sanctifying force inherent in the tefillin 7comp4 ,tur ,orach ,chayyim xxxvii474 ,thus1 when a ,rabbi was cautioned not to be over joyous1 as excess of joy led to sin1 he replied1 8,i lay tefillin20 i4e41 8,the thoughts which the observance of this precept awakens protects me from sin40 ,this idea of protection from sin may be the origin of the ,greek name phylacterion1 8protection40--,in times of persecution1 when the ,jews were forbidden by their oppressors to perform any of their religious rites on penalty of death1 the precept of tefillin was not included among those which they performed even at the risk of their life4 ,to this circumstance ,rabbi ,simeon b4 ,elazar ascribes the laxity with regard to the tefillin 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,shabbath #acj;a74 #c4 ,there occurs in the ,midrash 7,sifre on ,deut4 xi4 #ah71 in reference to tsitsith and tefillin1 the following passage3 8,also when in exile deck yourselves with mitsvoth1 in order that on your return to your own land the ,divine precepts should not seem to you new and unknown40 ,this passage has been misinterpreted as if the author of that passage were of opinion that precepts like tsitsith and tefillin did originally not apply to those who are outside the ,holy ,land4 ,the meaning is rather this3 ,although a large portion of the laws is not in force outside ,palestine1 yet continue to wear these reminders in exile1 in order that by this act your attention may constantly be turned to the whole ,torah1 to those precepts which are in force at present as well as to those which are not4 ,thus all the precepts will be familiar to you1 and when the time comes in which the observance of all the laws will again be possible1 none of the laws will appear to you new and strange4 #d4 ,there is1 on the whole1 no difference between men and women with regard to the obedience due to the ,divine commandments4 ,all ,jews are equally bound to obey the ,will of ,god expressed in the ,law4 ,this is absolutely the case with all prohibitions 7 74 ,in the case of positive commandments 7 7 the following rule has been laid down by our ,sages3 ,women are exempt from the performance of such religious duties as are restricted to a certain period of time 7 74 ,the object of the seeming anomaly is probably this3 the principal duty and the privilege of women is to manage the household1 a task that demands constant attention4 ,religious acts which are to be performed at a certain time might involve an interference with such of their household duties as demand immediate attention2 e4g41 nursing a patient1 a task which generally falls to the lot of the female section of the family4 ,jewish women1 nevertheless1 zealously fulfil most of the duties from which the above rule exempts them4 ,they thus are most eager to obey the laws concerning shofar on ,new-year1 lulab on ,tabernacles1 and the like2 and some of them are named as having conscientiously laid tefillin 7,mechilta on ,exod4 xiii4 #i74 ,,iv4 ,,sabbath ,,and ,,festivals4 ,the daily work which has chiefly the well-being of the body as its aim must be interrupted on certain days which the ,almighty has appointed for the promotion of man's spiritual well-being4 ,sabbath and ,festivals are the days thus appointed1 and are therefore called 8the seasons of the ,lord10 and 8holy convocations40 ,the blessing derived from the observance of ,holy-days in the true spirit is described by the prophet as follows3 8,if thou keep back thy foot because of the sabbath1 from doing thy business on my holy day2 and call the sabbath a delight1 the holy of the ,lord1 honourable1 and shalt honour it1 not doing thine own ways1 nor finding thine own business1 nor speaking thine own words3 then thou shalt delight thyself in the ,lord3 and ,i will cause thee to ride upon the high places of the earth1 and feed thee with the heritage of ,jacob1 thy father0 7,isa4 lviii4 #ac1 #ad74 ,to those who fail to observe the seasons of the ,lord in the true spirit1 the prophet says in the name of the ,almighty3 8,your new-moons and your festivals my soul hateth3 they are a trouble unto me2 ,i am weary to bear them0 7ibid4 i4 #ad74 ,maimonides #ef comprehends the various duties and observances of the ,holy-days in the following four terms3 8remember10 8take heed10 8honour10 and 8delight40 ,the first two are found in the ,pentateuch1 and form the beginning of the fourth commandment in ,exodus and ,deuteronomy respectively2 the other two occur in the above description of the ,sabbath quoted from ,isaiah 7lviii4 #ac1 #ad74 ,following the example of our great teacher1 we shall likewise treat of the laws and customs of ,sabbath and ,festivals under these four heads3 #eg-- a4 8,remember40 ,remember the ,sabbath-day2 speak of it1 of its holiness and its blessings4 ,we fulfil this duty when ,sabbath comes in1 by the ,kiddush1 8the sanctification of the day10 in which we praise the ,almighty for the boon bestowed upon us by the institution of the ,sabbath2 and when ,sabbath goes out1 by the ,habhdalah1 in which we praise ,god for the 8distinction0 made between the holy and the ordinary days4 ,we have both ,kiddush and ,habhdalah in a double form3 7a7 as a portion of the ,amidah in the ,evening ,service2 the ,kiddush being the middle section of the ,amidah1 the ,habhdalah consisting of a prayer added to the fourth paragraph beginning 2 7b7 as a separate service especially intended for our homes4 ,it is this home-service that we generally understand by the terms ,kiddush and ,habhdalah1 and in this sense they are employed in the following4 #eh ,kiddush4 ,there is a traditional explanation of the term zachor3 8remember it over the wine40 ,as 8wine gladdens the heart of man0 and forms an important element in a festive meal1 it has been ordered that our meal on the eve #ei of ,sabbath and ,festival should be begun with a cup of wine in honour of the day1 and that mention should be made of the holiness of the day before partaking of the wine4 ,the ,kiddush consists of two blessings 773 one over the wine1 #fj and one that refers to the holiness of the day4 ,on ,holy-days--except the last days of ,passover--a third blessing 77 follows1 praising ,god for having granted us life and enabled us again to celebrate the ,festival4 ,on ,friday evening a portion from ,genesis 7i4 #ca to ii4 #c7 is added1 which contains the first mention of the institution of ,sabbath4 ,if a ,festival happens to fall on ,sunday1 we add part of the ,habhdalah to the ,kiddush on ,saturday evening1 #fa referring to the distinction between the holiness of the ,sabbath and that of the ,festivals4 ,the ,kiddush is part of the ,sabbath or ,festival evening meal1 and in the absence of the latter the ,kiddush is omitted4 #fb ,in ,synagogues of the ,german and ,polish ,minhag the ,reader recites the ,kiddush at the conclusion of the ,maarib ,service4 ,this custom is a survival of the ancient way of providing for the poor and the stranger4 ,in the absence of better accommodation lodging and food were given to the needy in rooms adjoining the ,synagogue1 or even in the ,synagogue itself4 ,it was for these that the ,reader recited the ,kiddush1 before they commenced the evening meal1 as most probably wine was not served to all4 ,although circumstances have changed the mode of maintaining the poor1 and the latter find no longer lodging and board in the ,synagogue1 the ,kiddush has been retained as part of the ,maarib ,service1 except on the first two nights of ,passover1 when there had never been an occasion for reading ,kiddush in the ,synagogue4 ,the poor were treated on these nights with four cups of wine each1 and they recited ,kiddush by themselves as part of the ,seder4 ,habhdalah 4 ,habhdalah is recited in the evening following ,sabbath or ,holy-day1 after the ,evening ,service4 ,a cup of wine is raised1 and the over wine is followed by another 1 in which ,god is praised for the distinction made between the holy and the ordinary day 7 71 or between two kinds of holiness 7 7 in case ,sabbath is followed by a ,holy-day4--,on ,sabbath night we take a candle and a spice-box1 and add two blessings after that over wine2 in the one we thank ,god for the enjoyment of the fragrance1 in the other for the benefit ,he bestowed on us by the creation of light4 ,a few verses from the ,bible1 especially the ,prophets1 precede the ,habhdalah4 ,the origin of the introduction of the blessings for light and for spices in the ,habhdalah may be the following3--,the principal meal of the day used to be taken about sunset2 light and burning incense were essential elements of a festive meal4 ,on ,sabbath these could not be had1 and were therefore enjoyed immediately after the going out of ,sabbath4 ,although the custom of having incense after the meal has long ceased1 it has survived in the ,habhdalah1 and has1 in course of time1 received another1 a more poetical interpretation4 ,the ,sabbath inspires us with cheerfulness1 gives us1 as it were1 an additional soul-- --traces of which are left on the departure of ,sabbath1 and are symbolised by the fragrance of the spices4 ,for the use of the special light there has likewise been suggested a second reason1 namely1 that it is intended at the commencement of the week to remind us of the first product of ,creation1 which was light4 ,there are a few customs connected with the ,habhdalah that may be noticed here4 7#a47 ,the wine1 when poured into the cup1 is allowed to flow over1 as a symbol of the overflowing ,divine blessing which we wish and hope to enjoy in the coming week4 7#b47 ,some dip their finger in wine and pass it over their eyes1 in allusion to the words of the ,nineteenth ,psalm 7ver4 #i71 8,the commandment of the ,lord is pure1 enlightening the eyes40 ,the act expresses the love of the ,divine commandments 7 74 7#c47 ,only male persons partake of the wine2 they have more interest in the ,habhdalah as the signal for the resumption of ordinary work and business4--,the exclusion of women from the wine of ,habhdalah may also have its origin in the fact that ,jewish women generally abstained from taking wine1 considering strong drink suitable only for the male portion of mankind4 ,they only partake of the wine of ,kiddush on account of its importance2 to ,habhdalah less importance was ascribed4 7#d47 ,on reaching the words 1 8between light and darkness10 some hold their hands against the light1 the fingers bent inside1 in illustration of the words which they utter1 showing darkness and shadow inside and light outside4--,with the practice of these and similar customs we must take good care that we should not combine any superstitious motive1 or join actions which are really superstitious1 and did not originate in ,jewish thought and ,jewish traditions4 ,we further remember the ,sabbath-day to sanctify it by increased devotion1 by reading special ,lessons from the ,pentateuch and the ,prophets1 and by attending religious instruction given by teachers and preachers4 ,besides various additions in the ,service1 and the substitution of one paragraph concerning ,sabbath or ,festival for the thirteen middle paragraphs of the ,amidah1 there is another ,service inserted between the ,morning and the ,afternoon ,services2 it is called ,musaph1 8the ,additional ,service10 and corresponds to the additional offering ordained for ,sabbath and ,festival 7,num4 xxviii4 #i1 sqq474 ,an essential element in the ,morning ,service is the ,reading from the ,torah 7 7 and the ,prophets 774 ,a periodical public reading from the ,law was enjoined in the following words3 8,at the end of every seven years1 in the solemnity of the year of release1 in the feast of tabernacles1 when all ,israel is come to appear before the ,lord thy ,god in the place which he shall choose1 thou shalt read this law before all ,israel in their hearing4 ,gather the people together1 men and women and children1 and the stranger that is within thy gates1 that they may hear1 and that they may learn1 and fear the ,lord your ,god1 and observe to do all the words of this law2 and that their children1 which have not known anything1 may hear and learn to fear the ,lord your ,god0 7,deut4 xxxi4 #aj-ac74 ,a seven years' interval would surely have destroyed the impression produced by the reading4 ,the reading was probably repeated throughout the country at shorter intervals4 ,tradition ascribes to ,moses the institution of reading the ,law every ,sabbath1 ,monday1 and ,thursday morning1 in order that three days might never pass without ,torah4 ,ezra is said to have added the reading on ,sabbath afternoon1 and to have made various other regulations with regard to the reading of the ,law4 ,quantity and manner of reading were at first1 no doubt1 variable4 ,in the course of time certain systems found favour and became the fixed rule4 ,some completed the reading of the whole ,pentateuch in three years1 others in one year4 ,the former mode was gradually displaced by the latter1 and the attempts which have lately been made to revive it have not succeeded4 ,traces of the triennial reading may be noticed in the number of sedarim contained in the five books of the ,pentateuch4 ,at present1 however1 the annual course is followed in almost all our ,synagogues4 ,the section read on one ,sabbath is called sidra2 the first1 1 is read the first ,sabbath after the ,feast of ,tabernacles1 and the last sidra is read on ,simchath-torah 7the #bcrd of ,tishri74 ,for the ,festivals such sections were selected as contained either direct or indirect reference to the ,festivals4 ,if these happen to be on a ,sabbath1 the ordinary reading is interrupted1 and that of the ,festivals substituted for it4 ,the number of persons who were to take part in the reading varied according as the people were likely to devote less or more time to ,divine ,service3 on weekdays and on ,sabbath afternoon three1 on ,new-moon and ,chol-hammoed four1 on the ,festivals five1 on the ,day of ,atonement six1 #fc and on ,sabbath seven4 ,some may have required the assistance of the chazan1 and in some cases the chazan's voice was the only one that was heard2 gradually the chazan became the reader1 and the original reader became silent1 being content with reciting the b'rachoth4 ,only in the case of the ,bar-mitsvah1 the ,chathan-torah1 and the ,chathan-b'reshith the original practice has been retained4 ,as regards the order of those who take part in the reading of the ,law1 the first place is given to a ,cohen1 i4e41 a descendant of ,aaron1 the priest2 the second to a ,levite1 i4e41 a non-priest of the tribe of ,levi2 and then follow other ,israelites1 that are neither ,levites nor ,cohanim1 without any prescribed order4 ,the last who concludes the reading from the ,law on those days on which a chapter from the ,prophets is also read is called maftir1 8concluding20 and the lesson from the ,prophets is called haphtarah1 8conclusion40 ,in the selection of the haphtarah care was taken that it should contain some reference to the contents of the lesson from the ,pentateuch1 and as there was not much choice1 the haphtarah1 once chosen1 was as a rule read again on the recurrence of the same sidra4 ,different communities had different series of haphtaroth4 ,a few negative rules concerning the selection of the haphtarah are mentioned in the ,mishnah 7,megillah iv4 #aj72 ,ezek4 i4 and xvi41 #b ,sam4 xi4 and xiii41 are to be excluded4 ,these rules1 however1 were not observed1 as ,ezek4 i4 is the haphtarah for the first day of the ,feast of ,weeks4 ,there is an ancient rule about the nature of the haphtaroth between the ,fast of ,tamuz and ,new-year2 viz41 there should be three haphtaroth of 8rebuke0 and seven of 8comfort0 7 1 74 ,the former are taken from ,jeremiah 7i4 and ii47 and ,isaiah 7i472 the latter are selected from ,isaiah 7xl4 to lxvi47 ,various accounts are given of the origin of the haphtarah4 ,one account traces its origin to a period of persecution1 when the ,jews were not allowed to read from the ,torah1 and the scrolls of the ,law were either confiscated or concealed4 ,in both cases it was easy to read from the ,prophets1 for this could be done by heart and in any place2 whilst for the reading of the ,torah it was necessary to produce a copy of the ,law4 ,according to another account1 the haphtarah served as a protest against the theory of the ,samaritans1 who recognised the ,torah alone as holy4 ,but it is more likely and more natural to suppose that the haphtarah was introduced as soon as the ,prophets became part of the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,there was a tendency to have recourse to the ,divine messages of future comfort and glory when the present was gloomy and sad4 ,at the end of the ,service or a religious discourse1 just before leaving the ,synagogue or the ,beth ha-midrash1 passages from the ,prophets were read1 in order that the people might carry away with them a strengthened faith in ,god and in the ultimate victory of their religion4 ,on ,sabbath morning the lessons from the ,prophets were of greater importance1 since a larger number congregated1 and more time could be devoted to it4 ,a b'rachah therefore introduced it1 and b'rachoth1 including a prayer for the restoration of ,zion1 followed it4 ,the name haphtarah suggests this explanation2 it denotes literally 8causing to leave10 8departure10 or 8conclusion40 ,after the return of the ,jews from ,babylon they spoke the ,chaldee dialect2 the lessons from the ,bible were accordingly accompanied by a ,chaldee translation called targum4 ,the translation was not always literal1 but was frequently a paraphrase4 ,it was given1 as a rule1 after each verse1 by an appointed methurgeman4--,in communities which only understood ,greek the ,greek version was read4 ,a ,spanish translation of the haphtarah is still added at present on the ,fast of ,ab in the ,portuguese ,ritual2 but otherwise the practice of adding a translation to the text has long since been discontinued4 b4 8,take ,heed40 ,the negative commandment concerning the ,holy-days is3 1 8,thou shalt do no manner of work40 ,the very name ,sabbath 71 8rest07 implies absence of labour4 ,we are commanded to rest on the ,sabbath1 but not to indulge in laziness and indolence1 which are by no means conducive to the health of the body or the soul4 ,the ,sabbath rest is described in our ,sabbath ,afternoon ,service as 8voluntary and congenial1 true and faithful1 and happy and cheerful40 ,moderate exercise1 cheerful reading1 and pleasant conversation are indispensable for a rest of this kind4 ,what is to be understood by the term 8labour0 or 8work0 in the prohibition 8,thou shalt not do any manner of work08 ,the ,pentateuch gives no definition of the term4 ,but the ,israelites1 when they were told that work was prohibited on ,sabbath1 and that any breach of the law was to be punished with death1 must have received orally a full explanation of the prohibition4 ,a case is mentioned of one who profaned the ,sabbath by gathering sticks1 and was put to death2 this could not have been done if any doubt had been left in his mind whether the act of gathering sticks was included in the prohibition4 ,a few instances of work prohibited on a ,sabbath-day are met with in the ,bible4 ,in connection with the manna1 the prohibition of cooking and baking is mentioned2 also the commandment1 8,let no man go out of his place on the seventh day0 7,exod4 xvi4 #bi72 i4e41 we must not travel or go beyond a certain distance #fd on the ,sabbath4 ,another act distinctly forbidden is contained in the words1 8,ye shall kindle no fire in all your dwellings on the day of rest0 7ibid4 xxxv4 #c74 ,the prophet ,amos 7viii4 #e71 in rebuking the ,israelites for cheating their fellow-men1 puts the following words into their mouth3 8,when will the new moon be gone1 that we may sell corn8 and the ,sabbath1 that we may open our stores of wheat80 ,this shows that the ,israelites conducted no business on ,new-moon and ,sabbath4 ,jeremiah 7xvii4 #ba sqq47 says as follows3 8,thus saith the ,lord1 ,take heed to yourselves1 and bear no burden on the sabbath day1 nor bring it in by the gates of ,jerusalem2 neither carry forth a burden out of your houses on the sabbath day1 neither do ye any work1 but hallow ye the sabbath day40--,nehemiah relates 7xiii4 #ae73 8,in those days saw ,i in ,judah some treading wine-presses on the sabbath1 and bringing in sheaves1 and lading asses2 as also wine1 grapes1 and figs1 and all manner of burdens1 which they brought into ,jerusalem on the sabbath day3 and ,i testified against them in the day wherein they sold victuals4 ,then ,i said unto them1 ,what evil thing is this that ye do and profane the sabbath day80 ,as a general rule1 we may say that the work prohibited on ,sabbath and ,festivals embraces two classes3 viz41 7#a7 ,all such acts as are legally--i4e41 in the ,oral ,law--defined as 8work40 ,it makes no difference whether we consider any of them as labour or not4 ,under thirty-nine different heads #fe they are enumerated in the ,mishnah 7,shabbath vii4 #b74 ,the following are a few of them3--,ploughing1 sowing1 reaping1 threshing1 grinding1 baking1 hunting1 killing an animal1 tanning1 sewing1 writing1 kindling light or fire1 and carrying things abroad4 7#b47 ,everything which our conscience tells us to be inappropriate for the ,sabbath2 acts which come neither under the head of nor under that of 1 but which would tend to change the ,sabbath into an ordinary day2 e4g41 preparing for our daily business transactions1 although such preparation does not involve an actual breach of any of the ,sabbath laws4 ,whatever we are not allowed to do ourselves1 we must not have done for us by a co-religionist1 who deliberately disregards the fourth commandment4 ,neither must we employ non-,israelites to do our work on ,sabbath1 except in case of need2 e4g41 in case of illness or fear of illness4 ,as regards ,holy-days1 there is the general rule that work 77 prohibited on ,sabbath must not be done on ,holy-days3 8,save that which every man must eat1 that only may be done of you0 7,exod4 xii4 #af72 that is to say1 it is allowed on ,festivals to cook1 to bake1 or to prepare food in any other way4 #ff ,of course1 for the ,festival that happens to fall on a ,sabbath1 the laws of ,sabbath remain in force4 ,the ,day of ,atonement is in this respect equal to ,sabbath4 c4 8,delight40 ,the principal and noblest delight yielded by ,holy-days is the pleasure we feel in more frequent communion with the ,divine ,being1 in the purer and holier thoughts with which we are inspired when at rest from ordinary work1 and able to devote ourselves more fully to the contemplation of the works and words of ,god4 ,in this sense the day of rest is described in one of the hymns 77 after supper as 8a foretaste of the world to come0 7 74 ,but oneg shabbath includes also delight of a less spiritual character4 ,we are not commanded on the days of rest to forget altogether the wants of the body4 ,on the contrary4 ,nehemiah1 when on the first day of the seventh month1 that is1 on ,new-year1 he perceived that his brethren were sad1 addressed them thus3 8,go your way1 eat the fat and drink the sweet1 and send portions unto him for whom nothing is prepared3 for this day is holy unto the ,lord3 neither be ye grieved2 for the joy of the ,lord is your strength0 7,neh4 viii4 #aj74 ,the same conception of 8the sabbath unto the ,lord0 is met with in ,talmud1 ,midrash1 and throughout the whole of the ,rabbinical literature4 ,in one of our ,sabbath-hymns 77 we say3 8,this day is for ,israel1 light and joy1 a sabbath of rest20 and in our prayers for ,sabbath we glory in being shom're shabbath ve-kor'e oneg1 8observers of the sabbath1 and such as call it a delight40--,with regard to the ,festivals1 the duty of rejoicing is repeatedly enjoined 7,deut4 xvi4 #aa1 #ad74 ,in our regulations1 customs1 and prayers for ,sabbath and ,festivals1 this duty is clearly indicated4 ,all fasting and mourning is prohibited4 ,care was taken that ,divine ,service should be free from such prayers as would be likely to create feelings of grief and sadness4 #fg ,a special formula has also been introduced for the expression of our sympathy with the sick and the mourner on ,sabbath and ,festivals4 #fh ,when any of the obligatory fasts--except the ,day of ,atonement--happens to fall on a ,sabbath1 the fasting is put off 77 till the next day1 or kept1 as in the case of the fast of ,esther1 on the preceding ,thursday4 ,tradition has raised the taking of the three regular meals on ,sabbath 7 71 viz41 supper1 breakfast1 and dinner1 to a religious act--a mitsvah1 and the religious character of the meals is shown by the special prayers and hymns--zemiroth--which accompany them4 ,a fourth meal is1 according to some authority1 likewise obligatory2 whilst1 according to another authority1 it may be replaced by spiritual food1 by reading and studying the ,torah4 d4 8,honour40 ,we honour the day inwardly by considering it a holy1 distinguished season1 which ought to be devoted to higher objects than the wants of our body4 ,our mind should be entirely turned aside from our daily business1 in order to be free for loftier and holier thoughts4 ,for the purpose of effecting this inward distinction of the ,sabbath1 we honour it also outwardly by various things1 which are partly a symbol1 partly a reminder of the distinction claimed by the day4 ,we honour the ,sabbath1 therefore1 by giving a festive appearance to our meals1 our dress1 and our dwelling4 ,the principal thing required is neatness and cheerfulness2 not luxury4 ,on the contrary1 we are guided in this respect by the principle3 ,make rather thy ,sabbath an ordinary day--i4e41 omit the distinction in food and dress--than render thyself dependent on the support of thy fellow-men4 #fi ,it is customary to have two loaves on the table1 over which the blessing ha-motsee is said4 ,they are to remind us of the double portion of bread or manna 7 1 ,exod4 xvi4 #bb7 given to the ,israelites in the wilderness on the sixth day because of the succeeding ,sabbath-day4 ,the cloth spread beneath the loaves1 and the cover over them1 represent symbolically the dew which both lay on the ground under the manna and also over it4 #gj ,the origin of this custom of covering the bread may perhaps be found in the following ,talmudic law3 8,if a meal that has commenced on ,friday afternoon is continued in the night1 it must be interrupted when ,sabbath comes in2 a cloth is to be spread over the bread whilst the ,kiddush is recited0 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,pesachim1 #ajj;a74 ,the spreading of the cloth appears to be here merely a sign of the pause1 and the distinction between the ordinary meal and that of ,sabbath4 #ga ,that which was at first ordained for special cases became in course of time a general custom4 #gb ,the loaves are called birchoth 771 taashir 771 or challah 774 ,the first name they received as symbols of ,god's blessing1 the double portion of manna which the ,almighty sent to the ,israelites on ,friday because of the ,sabbath 7see ,rashi on ,gen4 ii4 #c74 ,the verse1 8,the blessing of the ,lord1 it maketh rich0 71 ,prov4 x4 #bb71 suggested the second name4 ,challah reminds us of the commandment to give the first part of the dough to the priest 7,num4 xv4 #ag-ba74 ,although at present this commandment cannot be carried out1 we separate a small piece1 called challah1 of the dough which we prepare for bread1 and burn it1 after having recited an appropriate blessing4 #gc ,it is customary to prepare the dough for the ,sabbath loaves at home1 in order to be able to act in accordance with this custom4 ,this is one of the religious acts which it is the special duty of women to perform1 and some of the pious women of ,israel 7 7 have the praiseworthy custom to lay something aside for charity when performing this or similar religious acts4 ,another act performed in honour of ,sabbath and ,festivals is the kindling of special lights before the holy day comes in1 to indicate symbolically the approach of a day of light and cheerfulness4 ,this duty is likewise the privilege of the housewife #gd or her representative4 ,before #ge kindling the lights the following blessing is recited3 ''' 8,blessed art thou 444 and hast commanded us to kindle the sabbath lights40 1 1 1 or is substituted for according as a ,holy-day1 the ,day of ,atonement1 or these days when they happen to fall on a ,saturday1 come in4 ,on ,festivals1 except the last days of ,passover1 the following blessing1 called 1 is added3 ''' 8,blessed art thou 444 who hast kept us in life1 preserved us1 and enabled us to reach this season40 ,,notes4 #a4 ,the reading of the ,law is preceded and followed by a blessing4 ,in the first we praise ,god for having distinguished ,israel by revealing the ,law to them1 and in the second for the benefit derived from the ,law as the source of eternal life4 ,the love and regard for the ,law expressed in these blessings should be shown by the congregants in silent and respectful attention to what is recited by the ,reader4 ,those who are called up to the ,law consider this as an important event1 and make it an occasion of special prayers for relatives and friends 7mi-shebberach71 accompanied by promises of contributions to communal and charitable institutions4 ,on days of family rejoicing1 as well as on days of mourning1 the religious privilege of being called to the ,reading of the ,law is especially valued2 in the former case offerings are vowed in honour of our living friends1 in the other case in memoriam of those near and dear to us1 who have departed from our midst4 ,these additional prayers thus serve a double purpose2 they help to preserve the bond of relationship and friendship1 and secure a material support for the benevolent and other institutions of the community4 ,objections have been raised to this in itself praiseworthy custom for two reasons3 first1 the mi-shebberach only concerns a few1 and appears to the rest of the congregation a useless interruption in the reading of the ,law2 secondly1 it gives occasion to a display of vanity and pride4 ,as to the first objection1 provision could and should be made that the interruption be not unduly long1 and cause irritation among the congregants4 ,due regard should be shown to the fact that the ,divine ,book is open on the reading-desk1 and everything should be avoided that might diminish the reverence proper to such an occasion4 ,the second objection is based on a pessimistic estimate of our fellow-men2 if there is any one whose offerings are made from vain and ostentatious motives1 he is certainly lost in the multitude of those who take a more serious and a more dignified view of their duties when standing before the open ,torah4 #b4 ,there is an old tradition that we should recite daily a hundred benedictions4 ,on ,sabbath and ,holy-days1 when the ,amidah contains only seven berachoth instead of eighteen1 the deficiency is made up by seeking an occasion for birchoth ha-nehenin4 ,hence the minhag spread of partaking on these days of various kinds of fruit between the meals4 #c4 ,tradition teaches us that on the holy days of rest we must not only abstain from actual work1 but also from ordering anything to be done by those who refuse to recognise the ,sabbath-laws as binding on them4--,circumstances force us to deviate at times from this rule4 ,there were ,jews who would not allow any work to be undertaken on ,friday which would continue of its own accord after the ,sabbath had set in4 ,thus they would not have light in their homes on ,friday evening or warm food on the ,sabbath-day1 although all necessary precautions had been taken before ,sabbath came in to keep the light burning and the food warm for twenty-four hours4 ,but the more these ,jews insisted on excluding light and fire from their homes1 the more did our ,sages demand light and warm food as essential comforts of the ,sabbath1 and to them the ,sabbath-candles and the warm food were a mitsvah of great importance4 ,much work is done on ,sabbath for the public by non-,jews2 e4g41 in connection with railway-trains1 steamboats1 and other public conveyances4 ,may the ,jew avail himself of the work thus done for all alike without his bidding8 ,he may in some cases--e4g41 for a long sea-voyage--in others not4 ,but he must always bear in mind that ,judaism depends on the adherence of the ,jews to the noble principle1 8,all ,israelites are sureties responsible for each other40 ,the meaning of this principle is this3 ,if a certain act appears to one of us allowable1 but at the same time our action might mislead others and cause them to break the ,law1 we must not do it4 ,thus if ,jews were to avail themselves of the public conveyances1 the whole aspect of the ,sabbath would change1 and the day would ultimately be forgotten4 #d4 ,when dire necessity compels a ,jew to break the ,sabbath1 let him not think that the ,sabbath is lost to him1 or he to ,judaism4 ,so long as ,jewish conscientiousness is alive within him1 let him endeavour to keep as much of the ,sabbath as he is able4 ,he must not say1 8,i have broken the ,sabbath4 ,how can ,i join my brethren in the ,sabbath ,service60 ,whatever he does conscientiously will be acceptable before ,god1 and he will thus find himself exhorted to watch carefully1 and to seize the first opportunity of returning to the full observance of ,sabbath4 ,the same principle applies to all the ,divine ,precepts4 ,,the ,,jewish ,,calendar4 ,the ,jewish ,calendar #gf reckons the day from evening to evening1 in accordance with the order observed in the verse1 8,and it was evening and it was morning1 one day0 7,gen4 i4 #e74 ,the evening begins after sunset1 at the moment when stars become visible under normal conditions of the atmosphere3 at 8the coming forth of the stars10 scil41 of at least three stars of middle size4 ,the day is divided into evening1 morning1 and afternoon4 ,with each of these periods is connected an appropriate prayer or service1 viz41 ,maarib or ,evening-prayer1 ,shacharith or ,morning-prayer1 and ,minchah or ,afternoon-prayer4 ,seven days form a week4 ,the days of the week are described in the ,bible and the ,talmud simply as the first day1 the second day1 c4 ,only the seventh day has a second name1 ,yom ha-shabbath or shabbath1 8the day of rest10 or 8the rest40 ,in post-,biblical literature the sixth day is called ,erebh shabbath or ,ma'ale shabbatha1 8the eve of ,sabbath10 or 8the coming in of ,sabbath40 ,the evening following ,sabbath is named ,motse shabbath1 8the departure of ,sabbath40 ,similarly the day preceding a ,festival and the evening following it are called ,erev yom-tobh and ,motse yom-tobh1 8the eve of the ,festival40 and 8the departure of the ,festival40 ,four weeks and one or two days make one month1 or 4 ,the length of the month is determined by the duration of one revolution of the moon round the earth4 ,such revolution is completed in twenty-nine days and a half4 #gg ,as1 however1 the calendar mouth does not commence in the middle of the day1 but at the beginning of the evening1 it was necessary to add half a day to one month1 and to take off half a day from the next4 ,the months have therefore alternately twenty-nine and thirty days4 ,the months are named according to their order1 the first month1 the second1 c42 the first being the first month in the spring4 ,other names1 implying agricultural and climatic relations1 were likewise in use1 and the following four of them have been preserved in the ,bible3 the first month is called ,abib1 8ears of corn20 the second ,ziv1 8beauty20 the seventh ,ethanim1 8hardy fruit20 and the eighth1 ,bul1 8rain40 #gh ,since the return of the ,jews from the ,babylonian exile1 names of foreign origin have been in use1 viz41 ,nisan1 ,iyar1 ,sivan1 ,tammuz1 ,abh1 ,elul1 ,tishri1 ,cheshvan1 ,kislev1 ,tebheth1 ,shebhat and ,adar4 #gi ,roughly speaking1 these months correspond to ,april1 ,may1 ,june1 ,july1 ,august1 ,september1 ,october1 ,november1 ,december1 ,january1 ,february1 and ,march4 ,the year is either an ordinary year or a leap-year1 the former consisting of twelve1 the latter of thirteen months4 ,the extra month is called ,adar-sheni1 8the second ,adar10 and is added between ,adar and ,nisan4 ,it serves to adjust from time to time the lunar to the solar year2 #hj for there is between the lunar year--that is1 the time of twelve revolutions of the moon round the earth--and the solar year1 or the time of one revolution of the earth round the sun1 a difference of about eleven days1 the one consisting of about #ced1 the other of about #cfe days4 ,in nineteen years the difference amounts to about seven months4 ,we have therefore seven leap-years in every cycle 77 of nineteen years1 viz41 the #crd1 #fth1 #hth1 #aath1 #adth1 #agth1 and #aith4 ,neither the ordinary years nor the leap-years have a uniform duration2 the former fluctuate between #cec1 #ced1 and #cee days2 the latter between #chc1 #chd1 and #che days4 ,the following is the cause of this variety3 ,there are certain days in the week which are never made the beginning of the new year 7the #ast of ,tishri74 ,whenever the astronomical beginning of the year happens to be on one of these days1 a day is added to one year1 and taken from the next4 ,the addition in the former case is made in the month of ,cheshvan1 and the curtailing in the latter case in the month of ,kislev4 ,the length of the months is therefore as follows3--,nisan1 #cj2 ,iyar1 #bi2 ,sivan1 #cj2 ,tammuz1 #bi2 ,abh1 #cj2 ,elul1 #bi2 ,tishri1 #cj2 ,cheshvan1 #bi or #cj2 ,kislev1 #cj or #bi2 ,tebheth1 #bi2 ,shebhat1 #cj2 ,adar1 #bi1 in leap-year #cj2 ,adar-sheni 7in leap-year71 #bi days4 ,the first day of the month is called ,new-moon-day #ha or 1 8beginning of the month40 ,in those months which have thirty days1 the thirtieth day is likewise kept as ,rosh-chodesh4 ,the beginning of the astronomical month is the moment of the conjunction of sun and moon1 #hb when the moon is exactly between the earth and the sun4 ,nothing is then visible of the moon4 ,six hours at least later a very small portion of the moon can1 under favourable conditions1 be seen1 and the day on which this takes place is the first of the calendar month4 ,at first1 from the earliest days down to ,hillel ,,ii4 7about #cfj ,c4,e471 ,rosh-chodesh was determined by direct observation4 ,the highest court1 the great ,sanhedrin1 examined the witnesses who had noticed the reappearance of the moon1 and accordingly determined the first day of the month by the solemn declaration1 ,mekuddash1 8sanctified20 that is1 the day is to be kept as ,rosh-chodesh4 ,these proceedings took place on the thirtieth day of the month4 ,if witnesses presented themselves who testified to the appearance of the new moon1 and after due examination their statement was found to be correct1 the same day was proclaimed as ,rosh-chodesh1 and the preceding month had twenty-nine days2 if no witnesses presented themselves1 or the witnesses could not sustain their evidence1 the day was added to the expiring month1 and the day following was the first of the next month4 ,the decision of the ,sanhedrin concerned only the thirtieth day of the month4 ,as soon as their decision was arrived at1 ,jewish congregations located within a certain distance were informed by signal or by trustworthy messengers which day had been fixed as the first of the new month4 ,the decrees of the ,sanhedrin1 the highest religious council of the nation1 were accepted by all ,jewish congregations as law1 and the ,festivals were celebrated in accordance with the ,new ,moon thus appointed4 ,there were1 however1 ,jewish congregations in distant parts that could not be reached by the messengers in due time1 and these were in doubt concerning the day on which a ,festival had to be celebrated4 ,being anxious not to miss the day kept as a ,festival on the authority of the ,sanhedrin by their brethren at the religious centre of the nation1 the ,jews abroad observed two days as ,holy-days instead of one2 only the ,fast of the ,day of ,atonement had no additional day1 because1 being a fast-day1 the majority of the people were unable to abstain from food for two consecutive days4 ,new-year1 on the other hand1 was1 as a rule1 everywhere observed two days1 even in places near the seat of the ,sanhedrin1 and sometimes even in the very place where the ,sanhedrin met1 on account of the uncertainty whether the #cjth of ,elul or the day following would be fixed by the ,sanhedrin as ,rosh ha-shanah4 ,though1 with regard to the most holy ,festival1 the uncertainty of the day admitted of no remedy1 this circumstance did not prevent our pious ancestors from applying a remedy where it could be done4 ,it was not ignorance that led ,jews outside ,palestine to observe two ,holy-days instead of one4 ,a rough calculation of the time in which the various phenomena of the moon are to be noticed is not difficult1 and could be made by many ,rabbis and laymen long before ,hillel ,,ii4 framed the permanent ,calendar4 ,nevertheless1 two days were kept1 because it was impossible to calculate or anticipate all the accidental circumstances that might cause the ,sanhedrin to defer the fixing of ,rosh-chodesh for the next day4 ,nor was it a decree of the ,sanhedrin1 or of a ,rabbinical assembly1 that ordered the observance of 1 8a second day of the ,festival40 ,this was done by the voluntary act of the nation1 and their resolution was confirmed by continued usage4 ,it was the outcome of genuine piety1 of the earnest desire to be at one with the central authority of the nation4 ,the observance of is so old that no trace of its actual introduction can be discovered in the ,talmud2 wherever mention is made of it1 it is represented as an institution already in existence4 ,it may already have existed in the days of the prophets1 and traces of the celebration of a second day of ,rosh-chodesh may be recognised in the first book of ,samuel 7i4 xx4 #bg74 ,this practice1 which sprang from true fear and love of ,god1 was spontaneously adopted by all the ,jews outside ,palestine1 continued by generation after generation for more than two thousand years1 and has1 as a minhag of long standing1 become law4 ,it is not a precept commanded in the ,written ,law1 or decreed in the ,oral ,law2 it is only a minhag 8practice10 but a minhag that must be cherished and respected as a national institution4 ,there may come a time when the institution of will be abolished2 this can1 however1 only be done by the national will1 confirmed by a ,sanhedrin which will be recognised by the whole nation as the only religious authority4 ,until then it is incumbent upon us to adhere firmly to the observance of the second days of the ,festivals4 ,,notes4 ,the following are the general principles upon which our ,calendar is based3-- #a4 ,twenty-nine days #abgicajhj hours elapse between one molad and the next4 #hc #b4 ,an ordinary year must not have less than #cec or more than #cee days1 nor the leap-year less than #chc or more than #che days4 #c4 ,the #ast of ,tishri is fixed on the day of the molad of ,tishri4 ,there are four exceptions 773-- a4 4 ,if the molad of ,tishri falls on a ,sunday1 ,wednesday1 or ,friday4 b4 4 ,if the molad of ,tishri is at noon or later4 c4 ,if the molad of ,tishri in an ordinary year is on ,tuesday #cbjdajhj ,a4,m4 or later 7 74 d4 ,if the molad of ,tishri of a year succeeding a leap-year is on ,monday #iehiajhj ,a4,m4 or later 7 74 ,the first of these four exceptions is to prevent the ,day of ,atonement from falling on ,friday or ,sunday1 and ,hoshaana-rabba from falling on ,sabbath2 the third exception is to guard against having an ordinary year of more than #cee1 and the last from having a leap-year of less than #chc days4 #d4 ,the character of the year is described by three letters1 the first of which indicates the day of the week for the #ast of ,tishri1 the last the day of the week for the #ast of ,nisan1 the middle letter1 according as it is 1 1 or 7 8regular20 8defective20 8perfect071 indicates a regular year of #ced 7in leap-year #chd7 days1 a defective year of #cec 7in leap-year #chc71 or a perfect one of #cee 7in leap-year #che7 days4 ,the present year 7,september #ahij to ,october #ahia7 is1 according to ,jewish tradition1 #hd the year #efea ,a4,m4 7of the ,creation72 its characteristics are 2 i4e41 the #ast of ,tishri is on ,monday2 the year is defective2 and the #ast of ,nisan is on ,thursday4 ,the year is1 besides1 a leap-year1 consisting of #ac months2 it is the eighth year of the #bihth cycle 7of #ai years74 ,it is the first year of the ,septennate1 or the first year after the year of release 74 ,see ,lev4 xxv474 ,,the ,,festivals4 8,the feasts of the ,lord1 even holy convocations1 which ye shall proclaim in their seasons0 7,lev4 xxiii4 #d71 are ,passover1 ,feast of ,weeks1 ,day of ,memorial1 ,day of ,atonement1 and ,feast of ,tabernacles4 ,these are divided into two groups called and 1 8three festivals0 and 8solemn days40 ,in the ,pentateuch the two groups are kept distinctly asunder4 ,thus in ,exod4 xxiii4 #ad-ag and xxxiv4 #ah1 and ,deut4 xvi41 only the former group is mentioned4 ,the name shalosh regalim derives its origin from the following ,biblical passage3 8,three times thou shalt keep a feast unto me in the year10 7,exod4 xxiii4 #ad74 ,although in a parallel passage the word has been replaced by 7ibid4 ver4 #ag71 of the same meaning1 8times10 shalosh regalim has been preferred1 because reminds one also of 8a journey on foot10 8a pilgrimage10 an important element in the celebration of these three festivals1 according to the ,divine commandment1 8,three times every year shall thy males appear before the ,lord thy ,god1 in the place which he shall choose1 in the feast of unleavened bread1 in the feast of weeks1 and in the feast of tabernacles0 7,deut4 xvi4 #af74 ,the name yamim noraim for the remaining two feasts is not founded on a ,biblical phrase1 but on the fact that these festivals are devoted more than the rest to earnest reflection and solemn devotion4 ,i4 ,,the ,,three ,,festivals 7 74 ,the three festivals have the following three characteristics in common3-- #a4 ,they refer to important events in our national history2 viz41 ,passover to the deliverance of the ,israelites from ,egyptian bondage2 ,feast of ,weeks to the ,revelation on ,mount ,sinai2 and ,tabernacles to the travels of the ,israelites through the ,arabian desert4 #b4 ,they mark the various stages of the harvest2 viz41 ,passover marks the season of the early harvest1 ,feast of ,weeks the second harvest1 and the ,feast of ,tabernacles the ingathering of the fruit4 #c4 ,they serve as a means for imparting essential religious truths2 viz41 ,passover embodies the principle of the ,existence of ,god1 the ,feast of ,weeks that of ,revelation1 and the ,feast of ,tabernacles that of ,divine ,providence4 ,,the ,,distinguished ,,sabbaths 7 74 #he ,there are in the months ,adar and ,nisan four ,sabbaths distinguished by the circumstance that on them additional sections are read from the ,pentateuch and special lessons from the ,prophets4 ,two of them are connected with the celebration of ,passover4 #a4 8,sabbath of the shekels20 i4e41 on which the law concerning the half-shekel contribution is read from the ,pentateuch 7,exod4 xxx4 #aa-af71 and also the account of the gifts for the repair of the ,temple in the reign of ,king ,joash 7#b ,kings xii4 #a-ag74 ,every male ,israelite1 twenty years old or upward1 had to contribute annually one half-shekel towards the maintenance of the ,temple and the ,temple ,service4 ,the year commenced the #ast of ,nisan1 when public sacrifices had to be bought with money of the new contributions4 #hf ,every one was therefore expected to send his contribution before the #ast of ,nisan4 ,on the #ast of ,adar proclamations were made throughout the country that the half-shekel was due4 #hg ,hence the custom to read the above-named sections on the ,sabbath before the #ast of ,adar1 or on the #ast1 if this happens to be on a ,sabbath4 #b4 8,sabbath ,remember0 is the ,sabbath on which the paragraph concerning the enmity of ,amalek is read from the ,pentateuch 7,deut4 xxv4 #ag-ai71 and the defeat of ,amalek by ,king ,saul from the ,prophets 7,i ,sam4 xv474 ,the ,agagite ,haman1 one of the principal figures in the history of ,purim1 is believed to be a descendant of ,agag1 king of ,amalek 7ibid4 ver4 #h74 ,and as the ,law commands us to remember the hostilities of ,amalek against ,israel1 it has been found appropriate to read the above sections on the ,sabbath before ,purim4 #c4 8,the ,sabbath of the ,red ,heifer10 i4e41 the ,sabbath on which the law concerning the sacrifice of the red heifer and the purification with its ashes is read from the ,pentateuch 7,num4 xix471 and 8the future purification of ,israel0 7,ezek4 xxxvi4 #ag-ch7 from the ,prophets4 ,it is the ,sabbath after ,purim1 or1 when the #aeth or #afth of ,adar falls on ,saturday1 the second ,sabbath after ,purim4 ,all ,israelites had to come to the ,temple1 and to offer the ,passover-lamb on the #adth of ,nisan1 and this could not be done by any unclean person4 ,by the reading of the above sections1 all are1 as it were1 reminded to take the necessary steps for their purification1 and thus prepare themselves for the celebration of ,passover4 #d4 8,the ,sabbath of ha-chodesh10 i4e41 the ,sabbath before the #ast of ,nisan1 or on the #ast of ,nisan if it falls on a ,saturday1 on which the law that fixes ,nisan as the first month #hh and the commandment concerning ,passover are read from the ,pentateuch 7,exod4 xii4 #a-bj71 and the description of the sacrifices of the #ast of ,nisan1 ,passover1 and other ,festivals in the future ,temple from the ,prophets 7,ezek4 xlv4 #af-xlvi4 #ah74 ,in addition to these four ,sabbaths1 the ,sabbath preceding ,passover is to be mentioned4 ,it is not distinguished by any special lesson from the ,pentateuch1 but it has nevertheless received the title 8the ,great ,sabbath10 #hi on account of the importance of the approaching ,festival4 ,the last part of ,malachi 7iii4 #d-bd7 is read as the haphtarah of the day1 in which the ultimate triumph of the ,god-fearing is described by the ,prophet4 ,,passover4 ,passover is the first of the ,three ,feasts1 and is kept eight days1 from the #aeth of ,nisan to the #bbnd2 the four middle days being half-,holy-days1 called chol ha-mod 78the week-days of the festival074 ,the name ,pesach1 8,passover10 #ij reminds us of the way in which the ,israelites enjoyed the ,divine protection before they left ,egypt4 ,pharaoh1 king of ,egypt1 kept the ,israelites as slaves1 and when asked in the name of ,god to let them go1 refused to obey4 ,but the ten plagues which consecutively afflicted his land without causing injury to the ,israelites taught him the existence of a higher ,power1 to whose decrees the will of earthly rulers has to submit4 ,it was especially the tenth plague1 the slaying of the first-born1 that convinced the king and his people of this truth4 ,when the ,lord smote all the first-born in the land of ,egypt1 8he passed over the houses of the children of ,israel0 7,exod4 xii4 #bg74 ,the ,feast has a second name1 viz41 8feast of unleavened bread10 1 a name derived from the commandment to eat 8unleavened bread10 instead of the ordinary 8leavened bread10 during the ,festival4 ,the purpose of this commandment is to commemorate the deliverance of the ,israelites from ,egypt as well as the mode of their actual departure4 ,for when the tenth plague1 the slaying of the first-born1 had visited the ,egyptians1 they were overcome with fear1 and urged the ,israelites at once to leave the country4 ,the ,israelites therefore left ,egypt hurriedly1 and had no time for preparing the ordinary 8leavened bread10 and baked for themselves unleavened cakes 77 of the dough which they had made4 ,passover thus commemorates two distinct moments in the deliverance of the ,israelites from ,egyptian slavery1 viz4 7#a7 the special protection which the ,almighty granted them in ,egypt1 and 7#b7 their departure from the house of bondage4 ,two distinct observances1 therefore1 were ordained for the ,feast of ,passover1 viz4 7#a7 the sacrifice of the ,passover-lamb1 and 7#b7 the eating of 8unleavened bread0 and the abstaining from 8leavened bread40 #a4 ,the ,passover-lamb4--,a short time before their departure from ,egypt the ,israelites were commanded by the ,almighty that on the tenth of the first month every family should procure a lamb1 keep it four days1 #ia kill it in the afternoon of the fourteenth1 sprinkle of its blood on the 8lintel and the two door-posts10 and 8eat in the evening the meat roast in fire1 with unleavened bread and bitter herbs1 in haste1 their loins girded1 their shoes on their feet and their staff in their hand0 7,exod4 xii4 #c-aa74 ,whatever the material benefit was which the ,israelites1 in the moment of starting for a long and uncertain journey1 derived from the meal prepared and partaken of in this manner1 there was a higher purpose in the ,divine commandment2 it was demanded that the lamb should be 8a passover sacrifice unto the ,lord0 7ibid474 ,the proceedings should be an expression of faith in ,god1 #ib and of gratitude to ,him for ,his protection4 ,every house should thus form a place holy unto the ,lord2 an altar1 as it were1 on which the blood of the sacrifice was sprinkled4 ,the ,passover sacrifice first observed in ,egypt was afterwards ordained as a permanent institution 7ibid4 ver4 #bd74 ,this difference1 however1 was observed1 that the ,passover-lamb1 like all sacrifices1 had to be brought to the ,sanctuary1 to 8the place which the ,lord chose to place his name in0 7,deut4 xvi4 #f74 ,all who were prevented from performing their duty on the #adth of ,nisan were allowed to offer the ,passover on the #adth of the second month 7,iyar74 ,by way of distinction from the sacrifice on the first date1 this offering was called 8the second passover0 7 1 #ic ,num4 ix4 #i-ad74 ,since the destruction of the ,temple all sacrificial service has been discontinued1 and in accordance with the words1 8,we will compensate with our lips for the bullocks0 7,hos4 xiv4 #c71 prayers and recitals from the ,bible have taken the place of sacrifices1 whilst psalms and hymns are added such as used to accompany the act of offering sacrifices4 ,the ,passover sacrifice has therefore been discontinued2 but the law of eating unleavened bread and bitter herbs is still observed4 #b4 ,the ,unleavened ,bread4--8,seven days shall ye eat unleavened bread2 even the first day ye shall have put away leaven out of your houses3 for whosoever eateth leavened bread from the first day until the seventh day1 that soul shall be cut off from ,israel0 7,exod4 xii4 #ae74 8,unleavened bread shall be eaten seven days2 and there shall no leavened bread be seen with thee1 neither shall there be leaven seen with thee in all thy quarters0 7ibid4 xiii4 #g74 8,seven days shall there no leaven be found in your houses0 7ibid4 xii4 #ai74 ,the distinction between leavened and unleavened only applies to bread or any other form of food prepared out of any of the following five kinds of grain3 barley1 wheat1 rye1 oats1 and spelt4 ,bread or cake prepared from any of these five kinds is called unleavened bread1 or 1 if the dough is baked immediately after it has been prepared1 no time being left for fermentation4 #id ,it is not only forbidden during the ,festival to eat leavened bread1 but it is not permitted to derive any benefit whatsoever from it4 #ie ,all leaven and leavened bread must be removed before ,passover comes in2 and in accordance with the traditional interpretation of the precept1 8,thou shalt not offer the blood of my sacrifice with leavened bread0 7ibid4 xxiii4 #ah71 the leaven must be removed before the time in which the ,passover was offered4 #if ,the law forbidding 8leavened bread10 to be kept in the house during ,passover is frequently and most emphatically repeated in the ,torah4 ,jews have therefore1 as a rule1 been very conscientious and zealous in the fulfilment of this ,divine command4 ,in accordance with this law1 the following observances have been ordained3-- 7#a47 8the searching for leavened bread0 on the eve of the #adth of ,nisan4 #ig ,the head of the family1 or his deputy1 examines his residence thoroughly1 and keeps the chamets1 which he has found1 in a safe place till the next morning4 ,this searching1 like every other performance of a religious duty1 is preceded by a blessing1 viz41 ''' 8,blessed art thou 444 who hast sanctified us by thy commandments1 and hast commanded us concerning the removal of the leavened bread40 #ih 7#b47 1 8the removal or the destruction of chamets40 ,all the chamets that is left after the first meal on the #adth of ,nisan must be removed1 i4e41 sold or given as a present to a non-,israelite1 or destroyed4 ,in addition to the actual removal or destruction of chamets1 a solemn declaration is made by the head of the family1 that if any chamets should be left in his house without his knowledge1 he would not claim it as his4 ,the object of this declaration is to free the master of the house from all responsibility in case any chamets should be found on his premises1 contrary to the ,law4 #ii 7#c47 ,utensils which have been used for chamets are put away1 and replaced by new ones1 or by such as have exclusively been kept for ,passover4 ,some vessels used during the year may be used for ,passover1 after having undergone a certain process called kasher2 #ajj i4e41 8fitting0 them as vessels for use on ,passover4 7#d47 ,although the articles of food that are directly forbidden as chamets are very few1 there are a great many things that contain an admixture of chamets1 and those 8who fear the word of the ,lord0 use during ,passover only those articles of food concerning which there is no doubt whatever that they are perfectly free from chamets4 ,articles of food for ,passover are therefore only bought of persons who can be trusted to hold these observances in respect4 ,in addition to the commandments of the ,passover-offering and the unleavened bread1 there is a special duty1 mentioned four times in the ,pentateuch1 for the ,israelite to relate to his children the history of the departure from ,egypt1 and to explain to them the meaning of the several rites connected with the celebration of ,passover4 ,this duty is called haggadah1 8relating10 and a service has been arranged for the purpose1 called ,seder1 8the ,order40 ,the first two evenings of ,passover are therefore called 8,seder-evenings10 and the book which contains this ,service is generally called ,haggadah4 ,the ,seder-service contains four elements3 7#a7 the relation of the deliverance of the ,israelites from ,egypt2 7#b7 the festive meal1 preceded by ,kiddush and the partaking of bitter herbs and unleavened bread1 and followed by ,grace2 7#c7 ,hallel and other hymns2 7#d7 the partaking of four cups of wine 7arba kosoth74 #aja ,the head of the family or his substitute who reads the ,service has before him on the table3 7#a7 three unleavened cakes 7matsoth72 #ajb 7#b7 bitter herbs and other vegetables2 #ajc 7#c7 salt water1 in which the vegetables 7karpas7 are dipped before they are eaten1 and charoseth1 a mixture of apples1 almonds1 various spices1 especially cinnamon1 and wine1 in which mixture the bitter herbs are dipped2 #ajd 7#d7 a bone with some meat on it and an egg1 #aje both roasted4 ,the order of the ,service is indicated in most editions of the ,haggadah in rhymed ,hebrew as follows3-- 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,the following is the explanation of these lines3-- #a4 ,say ,kiddush4 ,see above1 page #cgi4 #b4 8,wash10 scil41 your hands4--,only the head of the family does so at this part of the ,service4 #ajf #c4 8,vegetables40 ,a piece of parsley or salad or bitter herb is dipped in salt water1 and eaten after the recitation of the blessing3 ''' 8,blessed art thou 444 who hast created the fruit of the ground40 #ajg #d4 8,he divides40 ,of the three matsoth before him1 the head of the family breaks the middle one1 part of which is laid aside1 to be eaten at the end of the meal4 #ajh #e4 8,relating10 #aji scil41 the history of the departure from ,egypt4 ,the reader1 pointing to the broken before him1 exclaims1 8,such was the bread of poverty which our forefathers ate in the land of ,egypt20 as if to say1 8,we are all alike descendants of those who ate the bread of poverty in ,egypt40 ,in the same sense1 the reader continues1 8,we all alike should rejoice in the kindnesses shown by the ,almighty to our nation1 and all alike should seek and find true comfort in the hope of the ,messianic blessing promised by ,him for the future40 #aaj ,one of the company1 usually the youngest1 puts to the reader four questions1 as formulated in the paragraph beginning 8,why is different80 #aaa ,additions and alterations may1 of course1 be made by the inquirer according to his knowledge and intellect4 ,the object of these questions is to obtain an explanation of the rites that distinguish this evening from others4 ,in answer to these questions1 the reader refers to the past history of ,israel in three different forms1 #aab viz43-- 7#a47 ,the first answer begins1 1 8,we were slaves20 and ends1 8,when unleavened bread and bitter herbs lie before thee40 ,here the reader restricts himself1 without any comment1 to the one fact that our forefathers were at first slaves in ,egypt1 and were then delivered1 and illustrates the duty of speaking that night more fully concerning the departure from ,egypt1 by precedent1 by the authority of the ,mishnah1 and by the ,midrashic interpretation of the law commanding us to tell our children this event4 7#b47 ,the second form of the answer begins1 8,our forefathers were at first worshippers of idols10 and ends1 8delivers us out of their hand40 ,here the exodus from ,egypt is described as the fulfilment of the promise made by ,god to ,abraham1 that his descendants would be delivered out of the hands of their oppressors4 7#c47 ,the passage from ,deut4 xxvi4 #e-h is recited with its ,midrashic interpretations1 #aac and in conclusion all the benefits received by the ,israelites from the departure from ,egypt till the building of the ,temple are enumerated1 and our duty of gratitude is shown4 ,in all these three forms no notice has been taken of the particular questions4 ,rabban ,gamaliel insists that this should be done1 and a section is therefore added1 containing the explanation why the ,passover-offering1 the unleavened bread1 and the bitter herbs were to be eaten2 this1 like the three other sections1 concludes with the emphatic declaration that we--after so many generations--are still bound to praise and to thank ,god for the benefits bestowed upon our nation so long ago4 ,hereupon follows the ,hallel1 of which the first two paragraphs1 containing special reference to the departure from ,egypt1 are sung before supper2 the first part of the ,seder-,service concludes with a blessing1 in which we praise ,god for our past deliverance and pray for the approach of our future redemption4 #f4 8,washing40 ,all those who partake of the meal wash their hands1 as is ordinarily done before meals4 #g4 4 ,two pieces of are taken2 one piece1 broken off the whole cake1 representing the bread eaten at ordinary meals for 1 and the other piece taken from the broken one1 representing the we are commanded to eat on the ,seder-night4 ,before eating the two pieces two blessings are recited ''' 8,blessed art thou 444 who bringest forth bread from the earth10 and ''' 8,blessed art thou 444 who hast sanctified us by ,thy commandments and hast commanded us to eat 40 #aad #h4 8,bitter herb40 ,bitter herbs dipped in charoseth are eaten1 after the following blessing has been recited ''' ''' 8,blessed art thou 444 who hast sanctified us by thy commandments and hast commanded us to eat bitter herbs40 #i4 8,combining20 scil41 unleavened bread and bitter herbs2 these are eaten together1 just as formerly1 in the time of the ,temple1 ,hillel used to eat together meat of the ,passover-offering1 unleavened bread1 and bitter herbs 7,exod4 xii4 #h2 ,num4 ix4 #aa74 #aj4 8,table laid40 ,the evening meal is taken4 #aa4 8,laid aside40 ,the meal is concluded with a piece of the half matsah that has been laid aside at the beginning of the ,service4 ,it is called afikuman1 8dessert40 #aae #ab4 8,say grace40 #aaf #ac4 8,hallel40--,the rest of ,hallel is sung1 followed by ,ps4 cxxxvi41 and the whole of with the concluding blessing4--,the fourth cup of wine is then taken1 and the usual prayer after the partaking of wine is recited4 #ad4 8,completed40 #aag--,the ,seder-,service is completed2 it concludes with a prayer for the rebuilding of the ,temple and the restoration of ,israel to ,zion4 ,the prayer seems to have been originally the conclusion of a ,piyyut or liturgical poem on the ,passover ,sacrifice4 ,the ,haggadah contains1 besides1 several hymns and songs1 of which the following are found in the ordinary editions of the work3-- #a4 8,and it was in the middle of the night40 ,the author reflects on the various marvellous events in our history that happened in the night-time4 #b4 8,and ye shall say1 ,it is a sacrifice of ,passover40 ,a song referring to wonderful events which1 according to ,tradition1 took place on ,passover4 #c4 8,to him praise is seemly40 ,a praise of ,god as the only ,being worthy to be called ,king and ,ruler4 #d4 8,he is mighty40 ,a praise of ,god1 and an expression of hope that ,he will soon rebuild the ,temple4 #e4 8,one1 who knows80 ,a popular song enumerating persons and objects in ,jewish ,history and ,tradition1 as well as in ,nature according to numbers up to thirteen1 with the object of emphasising the ,unity of ,god4 #f4 8,one kid40 ,a popular song that illustrates the working of ,divine ,justice in the history of mankind4 ,passover as an agricultural feast was kept 8in the season of the month of ripeness0 7 71 when the barley sown in the winter had become ripe4 ,on the second day of ,passover an offering was brought of 8the beginning of the harvest20 it consisted of an omer #aah of barley 7,lev4 xxiii4 #i sqq474 ,before this offering was presented it was not allowed to eat of the new corn 7ibid4 #ad74 ,from the bringing of the ,omer to 8the harvest feast0 the days are counted1 viz41 forty-nine days1 and the fiftieth day is the feast of harvest 7 71 or 8the day of the first-fruit offering0 7 74 ,the counting commences on the second evening4 ,it is done either immediately after ,maarib1 or later on during the ,seder-,service2 it is preceded by the following blessing3 ''' ''' 8,blessed art thou 444 who hast sanctified us by thy commandments and hast commanded us 444 to count the days of the ,omer40 ,the following is the way of counting3 ''' 8,this day is the first day since the ,omer40 ,from seven upward the number of weeks is likewise expressed1 #aai ''' ''' ''' 8,this day completes 444 that is 444 weeks 444 since the offering of the ,omer40 ,the celebration of ,passover serves to inculcate into our hearts the first principle of our faith3 the existence of ,god1 the ,supreme ,being who rules the whole universe1 in whose hand are the destinies of kings and peoples1 whose power was recognised by the ,egyptians when they were punished for their misdeeds1 and whose might was seen by the ,israelites when ,he divided the ,red ,sea for them1 and fulfilled the ,divine promise made to the patriarchs1 ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob4 ,the season of ,passover1 in which we celebrate our liberation from earthly taskmasters1 is called 8,the season of our freedom40 ,the deliverance from ,egypt1 the first step leading to the fulfilment of the promise1 8,and ,i will take you unto me for a people10 has been poetically conceived as the betrothal of ,israel to ,god1 and in the ,piyyut for ,passover ample use has been made of this idea4 ,it has further found expression in the custom of reading the ,song of ,solomon on the first ,sabbath after the first two days of ,passover1 and by some also on the ,seder-evening after the conclusion of the ordinary ,service4 ,the ,service is1 in general outline1 the same as on ,sabbath4 ,it consists of ,maarib1 ,shacharith1 ,musaph1 and ,minchah4 ,the ,morning-,service includes ,hallel1 the reading of the ,law1 and ,lessons from the ,prophets 7 and 74 ,the following sections1 containing description of1 or reference to1 ,passover or to the departure from ,egypt1 are read consecutively on the eight days3 ,exod4 xii4 #ba-ea1 on the ,passover celebrated by the ,israelites in ,egypt2 ,lev4 xxii4 #bf to xxiii4 #dd1 on 8the seasons of the ,lord20 ,exod4 xiii41 xxii4 #bd to xxiii4 #ai1 and xxxiv4 #a-bf3 ,num4 ix4 #a-ad1 on the second ,passover2 ,exod4 xiii4 #ag-xv4 #bf1 the crossing of the ,red ,sea2 ,deut4 xv4 #ai 7on ,sabbath1 xiv4 #bb7 to xvi4 #ag contains laws referring to the three ,festivals4 ,on ,sabbath chol-ha-mod1 ,exod4 xxxiii4 #ab to xxxiv4 #bf4--;,in addition to these sections verses from ,num4 xxviii4-xxix41 referring to the sacrifices prescribed for each day of the ,festival1 are read from a second sefer4 ,the ,lessons from the ,prophets are the following3--,josh4 v4 7preceded in the ,german ,ritual by iii4 #e-g71 on the first ,passover kept by the ,israelites in ,palestine2 #b ,kings xxiii4 #a-i and #ba-be1 on the ,passover celebrated in the days of ,king ,josiah2 #b ,sam4 xxii41 the song of ,david after deliverance from his enemies1 a parallel to the ,song of ,moses2 ,isa4 x4 #cb--xii41 on the defeat of ,sennacherib1 and the blessings of the ,messianic days4 ,according to ,tradition the defeat of ,sennacherib took place on ,passover2 moreover1 the celebration of the deliverance from ,egypt suggests the reflection on the final ,redemption of ,israel4 ,the ,lesson from the ,prophets chosen for ,sabbath chol-ha-mod is taken from ,ez4 xxxvi4 #a-ad4 ,the prophet sees in a vision how the dry bones of the dead are awakened to fresh life by the ,will and the ,spirit of the ,lord3 a precious lesson for us1 designed to strengthen our hope of a revival of every good and noble idea1 though for the present it be dormant within us4 ,nature around us awakening to fresh life in the spring supplies a parallel to the vision of ,hezekiel4 ,the ,machzor 7lit4 ,cycle7 or ,prayer-book for the ,holy-days contains numerous additions to the ordinary prayers4 ,they are called ,piyyutim1 and vary according to the custom and the taste of the congregation4 ,the ,piyyut added in the second paragraph of the ,musaph-amidah on the first day of ,passover is called tal1 8dew10 or prayer for dew2 the rain season having come to an end1 we pray that the vegetation may1 during the hot season1 be refreshed by the regular descent of the dew4 ,the praise for 8sending down rain0 in the same paragraph1 viz41 1 8,thou causest the wind to blow and the rain to fall10 is discontinued after the shacharith prayer of the first day of ,passover4 ,in the ,portuguese ,ritual the words 1 8,thou causest the dew to fall10 are introduced instead4 ,similarly1 there is an additional prayer for rain 77 in the ,musaf of ,shemini-atsereth4 ,the time chosen for these prayers is in accordance with the meteorological conditions of ,palestine4 ,this custom1 however1 does not exclude the addition of prayers for rain or dew1 according to the needs of the country in which we live4 ,,the ,,days ,,of ,,the ,,counting ,,of ,,the ,,omer1 ,the period from ,passover to the ,feast of ,weeks is full of sad memories of massacres of ,jews that took place in the days of the ,crusades2 also of the miseries that befell the ,jews in ,palestine in the days of the ,emperor ,hadrian4 ,during the month of ,iyar1 the ,jews abstain from rejoicings and weddings1 #abj with the exception of the #ahth of the month1 which is the #ccrd of the ,omer1 because1 according to ,tradition1 a plague that had raged among the disciples of ,rabbi ,akiba ceased on that day4 ,the #ahth of ,iyar1 is therefore called 8the scholars' festival40 ,,the ,,feast ,,of ,,weeks1 ,the ,feast of ,weeks is celebrated on the fiftieth day #aba of the ,omer 7,lev4 xxiii4 #af72 i4e41 the #fth of ,sivan4 ,it is1 in the first place1 8the feast of harvest10 7,exod4 xxiii4 #af71 especially of the wheat1 and 8the day of the first-fruit offering10 7,num4 xxviii4 #bf74 ,the first sacrifice of the new corn was offered3 8the bread of the first-fruit10 which was to serve as an expression of gratitude for the blessing of the harvest4 ,in the absence of sacrifices in our days1 the custom widely prevails of adorning the ,synagogue and the home with plants and flowers1 in order that the sight of these beautiful objects might awaken and strengthen feelings of gratitude toward the ,almighty for ,his loving-kindness4 ,each one of the plants and flowers reveals a special form of the ,creator's wisdom1 power1 and goodness4--,the feast is called ,feast of ,weeks1 7,deut4 xvi4 #aj71 on account of the completion of the seven weeks counted from the day of the ,omer4 ,the ,feast of ,weeks1 the #fth and the #gth of ,sivan1 commemorates also an historical event3 the ,law-giving on ,mount ,sinai4 ,it is therefore called 8the season of the giving of our ,law10 4 ,as ,passover has been poetically called the day of ,israel's betrothal to ,god1 the ,feast of ,weeks would correspond to the wedding-day1 and the counting of the ,omer does thus not only connect two harvest-feasts1 but represents the longing of the bride for the day of her complete happiness2 i4e41 the longing of the ,israelites for the ,divine ,revelation1 which was to complete the work of their deliverance from ,egypt4 ,the celebration of the ,feast of ,weeks thus involves the second principle of our faith3 8,the belief in the ,divine origin of the ,law10 or 8,divine ,revelation40 ,on the first day we read ,exod4 xix4-xx41 the account of the ,law-giving on ,mount ,sinai1 and ,ez4 i41 the first vision of the prophet ,ezekiel1 in which the glory of ,god is revealed to him4 ,on the second day ,deut4 xv4 #ai 7on ,sabbath1 xiv4 #bb7 to xvi4 #ag2 and ,hab4 iii41 8the prayer of ,habakkuk10 in reference to ,god's ,revelation as the ,ruler of the universe4--,there is also the custom to read the ,book of ,ruth1 which contains the account of ,ruth's embracing the true faith1 and a description of the harvest and the treatment of the poor in the harvest-season4 ,there is a custom among some of our brethren to employ the first night of the ,feast in preparing themselves for the coming celebration of the giving of the ,law4 ,the greater part of the night is spent in reading passages from the ,scriptures and from the ,talmudical books4 #abb ,the custom has its basis in the preparation commanded by ,god to be made during 8the three days of bordering0 7 7 which preceded the ,law-giving 7,exod4 xix4 #aj-ab74 ,,the ,,feast ,,of ,,tabernacles1 8,the fifteenth day of this seventh month 7,tishri7 shall be the ,feast of ,tabernacles 77 for seven days unto the ,lord0 7,lev4 xxiii4 #cd74 ,the name has its explanation in the commandment1 8,ye shall dwell in booths seven days0 7ibid4 #db72 8that your generations may know that ,i made the children of ,israel to dwell in booths1 when ,i brought them out of the land of ,egypt0 7ver4 #dc74 ,we are thus commanded to commemorate the travelling of the ,israelites through the wilderness4 ,they dwelt in tents1 that gave them shelter to some extent2 but without the ,divine protection this shelter would have proved insufficient4 ,of this twofold shelter and protection we are reminded by the tabernacle in which the ,law commands us to dwell during the ,festival4 ,in fulfilment of this commandment we make booths 774 ,the chief difference between a booth and an ordinary house consists in the mode and in the material employed for roofing the two structures4 ,for the succah must not be covered with fixed boards and beams or with canvas1 but with detached branches of trees1 plants1 flowers1 and leaves1 in such a manner that the covering is not quite impenetrable to wind and rain1 or starlight4 ,during the ,festival the succah is our dwelling-house1 in which we take our meals1 study1 receive our friends1 and1 if possible1 enjoy rest and sleep4 ,if1 on account of the severity of the climate1 the constant dwelling in the succah threatens to prove injurious to our health1 we content ourselves with taking our meals in the succah4 ,before each meal we recite the blessing ''' ''' 8,blessed art thou 444 who hast sanctified us by thy commandments and hast commanded us to dwell in the booth40 ,the first time we are in the succah we add the blessing1 7p4 #ceh74 ,the ,festival is1 secondly1 called 8the ,feast of ,ingathering10 4 ,the produce of the fields and gardens have been gathered in1 and the people rejoice before the ,lord in gratitude for the blessings which ,he has granted to them4 8,and ye shall take unto you on the first day the fruit of the goodly tree1 branches of palm-trees1 and boughs of thick-leaved trees1 and willows of the brook2 and ye shall rejoice before the ,lord your ,god seven days0 7,lev4 xxiii4 #dj74 ,in accordance with the traditional interpretation of this verse1 we take four kinds of plants 7 71 viz41 8the citron20 1 8a branch of the palm-tree20 1 three 8myrtle branches20 and 1 two 8branches of the willow40 ,according to a ,midrashic interpretation1 they represent four different types of plants1 that which has a pleasant fragrance and a beautiful form 7esrog72 the beautiful in form1 but without fragrance 7lulabh72 that which smells pleasantly1 but is inferior in form 7hadassim72 and that which has neither a goodly form nor an agreeable fragrance 7arabhoth71 as if to say that we are thankful to ,god for all that ,he has given us1 although to our mind some of these seem imperfect in comparison with others4 ,in obedience to this commandment we take1 every day of ,succoth except ,saturday1 #abc the above four kinds into our hands1 hold them during the recitation of the ,hallel1 and make with them a procession round the ,synagogue1 #abd while singing the hymns called hoshaanoth 7so called on account of the repeated occurrence of the word hoshaanah in them74 ,before taking the arbaah minim into our hands we say the following blessing3 ''' ''' 8,blessed art thou 444 who hast sanctified us by thy commandments and hast commanded us to take the lulabh40 #abe ,on the first day is added4 ,succoth lasts seven days1 the last five days being half ,holy-days1 4 ,the seventh day is called ,hoshaana-rabba1 because on that day many prayers beginning with hoshaana are offered up1 during the chanting of which seven processions round the ,synagogue are made4 #abf ,the ,feast of ,tabernacles is closely followed by 8the feast of the eighth day10 1 #abg which1 like all other ,festivals1 is kept two days4 ,the second day is1 in addition1 called 8,rejoicing of the ,law10 because on this day the reading of the ,pentateuch is completed and recommenced4 ,the nine days of the ,festival are called 8,the season of our rejoicing10 and it is the third principle of our faith1 the belief in ,divine ,providence1 that this ,festival impresses on our hearts4 ,on the one hand1 we have the rejoicing and the four species of plants as proofs and tokens of ,divine blessing2 and1 on the other hand1 the succah is a symbol of human frailties and imperfections4 ,thus1 in all our rejoicings we should remember that our abode on earth is not permanent1 and that all earthly happiness is like the plants that easily fade away4 ,in order to impress this idea on our mind1 we read the book of ,koheleth on ,sabbath chol-ha-mod or on ,shemini-atsereth4 ,the following portions are read from the ,pentateuch3 ,lev4 xxii4 #bf to xxiii4 #dd #abh 7on the first two days72 ,exod4 xxxiii4 #ab to xxxiv4 #bf 7on ,sabbath chol-ha-mod72 ,deut4 xiv4 #bb to xvi4 #g 7on the eighth day72 ,deut4 xxxiii4 to end of ,pentateuch2 and ,gen4 i4 #a to ii4 #c 7on ,simchath ,torah74 ,in addition1 the paragraph of the sacrifices of the day 7,num4 xxix4 #ab-ci7 is read from a second sefer4 ,the ,lessons for chol-ha-mod are taken from the same passage4 ,the ,lessons from the ,prophets are the following3 ,zech4 xiv41 prophecy on the future of ,israel and on the punishment of those who would not come to ,jerusalem to celebrate there the ,succoth ,festival2 #a ,kings viii4 #b-ba1 on the opening of the new ,temple2 on ,sabbath chol-ha-mod1 ,ez4 xxxviii4 #ah to xxxix4 #af1 on the war with ,gog2 #a ,kings viii4 #bb-ff1 prayer of ,solomon on the eighth day of the services for the consecration of the ,temple2 ,jos4 i41 accession of ,joshua to the leadership of ,israel4 ,,solemn ,,days1 ,by 8solemn days10 we understand the first ten days of the month ,tishri1 especially their beginning and their end3 1 8,new-year10 and 8the ,day of ,atonement40 #abi ,it is customary to prepare for the 8solemn days0 during the month of ,elul1 by additional prayers1 called 8forgiveness10 after or before the ,daily ,service1 and by blowing the shofar at the close of the ,daily ,service4 #acj ,according to the ,portuguese ,ritual1 the ,selichoth begin on the #ast of ,elul1 and are continued morning and evening till the ,day of ,atonement4 ,the ,german ,ritual has ,selichoth only in the ,morning ,service2 they begin on the ,sunday before ,new-year1 and if the ,festival is on ,monday or ,tuesday1 on the second ,sunday before1 and end on the ,day of ,atonement4 ,the blowing of the shofar takes place in the ,german ,synagogues during the month of ,elul1 in the ,portuguese this custom is not practiced4 ,,new-,,year4 ,the first and the second days of ,tishri are kept as ,new-year4 #aca ,in accordance with the command1 8,the first of the first-fruits of thy land thou shalt bring unto the house of the ,lord thy ,god0 7,exod4 xxxiv4 #bf71 we devote the first ten days of the year as an offering to the ,lord2 they are days of increased devotion1 earnest self-examination1 and new efforts to lead a good1 virtuous1 and godly life4 ,they are called 8ten days of return0 to ,god1 or 8ten penitential days40 ,we greet and congratulate each other on ,new-year1 using the phrase1 --or 1 1 according as a male1 a female1 several males1 or several females are addressed--8,may you be inscribed for a happy year40 ,it is a figurative expression1 borrowed from the writing and signing of decrees by earthly judges4 ,in the ,bible the ,festival is not called ,new-year1 #acb but 8,day of blowing the shofar0 7,num4 xxix4 #a72 and 8,memorial of the blowing of the shofar0 7,lev4 xxiii4 #bd72 in our prayers the names and 8,day of ,remembering0 and 8,day of ,judgment10 are also used4 ,the first of these four names implies1 according to the traditional interpretation1 the commandment of blowing the shofar4 ,as a rule the shofar is blown during the ,morning ,service before the sefer is returned to the ,ark1 and during ,musaf4 #acc ,the blowing of the shofar is expressed by 1 which denotes the sound of an alarm2 hence we learn that the shofar is intended to awaken us1 and to call us forth to range ourselves under our banner4 ,it is an ideal banner1 the worship of ,god and faith in ,him1 that we are called upon to protect and to defend from enemies without and within4 #acd ,prominence is therefore given in our ,service for ,new-year to the proclamation of ,god as ,king of the universe1 and to our longing for the time when all mankind will unite in the worship of the ,one ,god4 ,the name 8,memorial of blowing the shofar0 indicates that we are to remember some historical event suggested by the sound of the shofar4 ,we are reminded of the period when the ,israelites1 encamped round ,mount ,sinai1 on hearing the ,divine message1 8,ye shall be my peculiar people10 8a kingdom of priests10 and 8a holy nation10 joyfully replied1 8,all that the ,lord hath spoken we will do0 7,exod4 xix4 #h74 ,the shofar thus awakens us to greater watchfulness and activity in the purification and sanctification of our heart4 ,the third name1 8,day of ,memorial10 seems to be a modification of the second2 but it has a more general meaning4 ,the second name1 that reminds us of our duty as ,god's peculiar people1 suggests also the idea that ,god1 who declared us to be ,his people1 watches over us2 that what we do1 we do in ,his presence4 ,he perceives1 notes1 and remembers all our deeds1 words1 and thoughts4 ,when1 therefore1 we appeal to the goodness of ,him1 who remembers all ,his creatures and provides for the wants of every one of them1 we must not forget that ,he is also just4 ,this idea1 again1 suggests the fourth name1 8,day of ,judgment10 the day on which we are judged according to our deeds1 both our merits and our shortcomings being taken into account4 ,the essential elements in our ,service are the three sections in the ,amidah of ,musaf3 1 and 4 ,they chiefly refer to the three fundamental principles of our religion3 7#a7 ,existence of ,god1 a ,being that is ,king of the universe2 7#b7 ,divine ,justice1 and 7#c7 ,revelation4 ,ten passages are quoted from the ,bible in support of each of these principles4 ,tradition has fixed the #ast of ,tishri as the date of several events in the history of ,israel1 e4g41 the birth of ,isaac1 the binding of ,isaac 771 and the birth of ,samuel 7,b4 ,t4 ,rosh ha-shanah #aj;b74 ,hence ,gen4 xxi4 and xxii4 are read on the two days of ,new-year1 in addition to the paragraph on the sacrifices of the ,festival 7,num4 xxix4 #a-f74 ,from the ,prophets1 we read on the first day #a ,sam4 i4 #a to ii4 #aj1 on the birth of ,samuel1 and the prayer of ,hannah praising the justice of ,god2 on the second day1 ,jer4 xxxi4 #b-bj1 a prophecy concerning the restoration of ,israel4 #ace ,the ,sabbath between ,new-year and the ,day of ,atonement is called because the haphtarah1 taken from ,hosea 7xiv4 #a seq471 commences with the word and is an exhortation of ,israel to return to ,god4 8,,day ,,of ,,atonement40 ,the tenth day of the seventh month1 ,tishri1 is the most important of all the ,holy-days4 ,it is the ,day of ,atonement1 on which 8,god will forgive you1 to cleanse you1 that you may be clean from all your sins before the ,lord0 7,lev4 xvi4 #cj74 8,ye shall do no manner of work2 it shall be a statute for ever throughout your generations in all your dwellings4 ,it shall be unto you a sabbath of rest1 and ye shall afflict yourselves3 in the ninth day of the month at even1 from even unto even1 shall ye celebrate your sabbath0 7,lev4 xxiii4 #ca1 #cb74 ,the ,day of ,atonement is therefore a day of resting1 fasting1 prayer1 and spiritual improvement4 ,it is a day of rest1 and the prohibition of work is the same as on the ordinary ,sabbath4 ,the fasting begins the #ith of ,tishri-- --about sunset1 and lasts till the beginning of night on the following day4 ,the phrase1 8,ye shall afflict yourselves10 is explained by ,tradition to signify the total abstinence from all kinds of food and the gratification of other bodily desires 7,mishnah1 ,yoma viii4 #a74 ,the reason of this commandment may be the following3 ,the principal source of sin is the gratification of our bodily appetites2 8return0 to the right way must therefore include the earnest attempt to control1 and when necessary to suppress1 such appetites4 ,fasting is such an attempt4 ,but it must be borne in mind that fasting is only one of the duties we have to fulfil on the ,day of ,atonement1 and that the other duties are equally essential4 8return10 is the principal object of the celebration of the ,day of ,atonement2 it implies the following four steps3-- #a4 ,consciousness of sin1 4 ,we must again and again examine ourselves and try to discover our failings2 our actions and our words must pass in review1 and we must remember that1 however good we may be1 no man is righteous upon earth 8that doeth good and sinneth not0 7,eccles4 vii4 #bj74 #b4 ,confession of sin1 4 #acf ,on the discovery of sin1 we must have the courage to confess our guilt before him against whom we have sinned2 if it is against ,god alone that we have sinned1 we make silent confession before ,him2 if we find ourselves guilty of an offence against our fellow-man1 we must confess our sin to him4 #c4 ,regret1 4 ,having discovered and confessed our sin1 we should feel pain and remorse1 alike for the evil we have done and for the good we have left undone4 #d4 ,amendment1 4 ,the regret should be followed by a firm resolve to abandon the way of evil1 and not to sin again1 even if occasion be given for a repetition of the sinful act4 ,there are five ,services on the ,day of ,atonement3 7#a7 ,evening ,service1 2 #acg 7#b7 ,morning ,service1 2 7#c7 ,additional ,service1 2 7#d7 ,afternoon ,service1 2 7#e7 ,concluding ,service1 4 #ach--,the confession of sin1 is the most essential and characteristic element in the ,services of the ,day of ,atonement4 ,in the ,morning ,service we read ,lev4 xvi41 and ,num4 xxix4 #g-aa1 on the sacrifices on the ,day of ,atonement2 in the ,afternoon ,service1 ,lev4 xviii41 on forbidden marriages4 ,the ,lessons from the ,prophets are3 in the morning1 ,isa4 lvii4 #ad-lviii4 #ad1 on our duties on the fast-day2 in the afternoon1 the ,book of ,jonah1 illustrating the effect of sincere repentance1 and ,micah vii4 #ah-bj1 on ,israel's repentance4 ,,historical ,,feasts ,,and ,,fasts4 ,besides the ,festivals commanded in the ,torah1 we celebrate also in the course of the year anniversaries of certain days both of joy and of sorrow4 ,of the former kind are and 2 of the latter1 the #ith of ,ab and four other fasts4 ,,feast ,,of ,,dedication4 ,on the #beth of ,kislev we begin to celebrate eight days of or ,dedication1 in commemoration of the victories of the ,maccabees over ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 king of ,syria4 ,antiochus had attempted to force the ,jews to idolatry1 and to make them abandon the worship of the true ,god4 ,the ,jews1 led by the ,maccabees1 resisted1 and1 armed with faith in ,god1 gained the victory over large armies of the enemy4 ,the ,temple1 which had been defiled by the heathen soldiers1 was again purified1 and the ,service of ,god re-established4 ,for lighting the continual lamp 7 7 pure oil was wanted1 that had not been touched by the heathen4 ,only a small cruse of pure oil was found1 which was believed to be sufficient for one night2 but it sufficed for eight days1 by which time a fresh supply could be procured4 ,the ,feast of ,dedication commemorates the victory of the faithful over the faithless1 of the true religion over idolatry1 of light over darkness1 and is celebrated-- 7#a47 ,by lighting lights1 one on the first evening1 and adding one light each successive evening1 so that on the eighth evening eight lights are kindled4 7#b47 ,by giving expression to our feeling of gratitude in psalms 77 and prayers of thanks 7 74 ,in the ,morning ,service a few verses from ,num4 vii41 on the dedication of the ,altar1 are read4 ,on ,sabbath ,chanuccah1 ,zechariah's vision1 ,zech4 ii4 #aj to iii4 #g1 including the vision of the golden candlestick1 is read as haphtarah2 and if there happen to be a second ,sabbath ,chanuccah1 #a ,kings vii4 #dj-ej1 a description of the various vessels and ornaments in the ,temple of ,solomon is read on that ,sabbath4 ,note #a4--,the lights remind us1 in the first place1 of the reopening of the ,temple and the resumption of the regular ,temple ,service4 ,but they are also intended to remind us of the light of our holy faith1 which ,antiochus ,epiphanes attempted in vain to extinguish4 ,for it shed forth its light again1 and shone brighter and brighter every successive day4 ,we thus learn that when our religion is imperilled1 firmness against temptation or force is sure to lead to success and victory4 #b4 ,before lighting the ,chanuccah lights the following blessings are said3 ''' ''' 8,blessed art thou 444 who hast sanctified us by thy commandments and hast commanded us to kindle the lights of ,chanuccah40 ''' 8,blessed art thou 444 who wroughtest miracles for our fathers in days of old at this season40 ,on the first night is added4 ,,purim4 or 8,feast of ,lots10 is celebrated on the #adth and the #aeth of ,adar 7second ,adar in a leap-year71 in commemoration of the defeat of ,haman's wicked plans4 ,haman was chief minister to ,ahasuerus1 king of ,persia1 and planned to kill all the ,jews in the ,persian ,empire1 but the ,almighty frustrated his designs through the agency of ,mordecai and his cousin ,esther4 ,the ,feast is called ,purim1 that is1 8lots10 because ,haman had cast lots in order to discover the day most favourable to his plans4 ,we celebrate ,purim-- 7#a47 ,by reading twice1 once during the ,evening ,service and once during the ,morning ,service1 the ,book of ,esther 7 71 which contains the history of ,haman's plans and their frustration4 ,the reading is preceded by the following blessing3 ''' ''' 8,blessed art thou 444 who hast sanctified us by thy commandments and hast commanded us to read the ,megillah40 ''' 8,blessed art thou 444 who wroughtest miracles for our fathers in days of old at this season10 and 4 7#b47 ,by giving presents to our friends 7 7 and gifts to the poor 7 74 7#c47 ,by a festive meal 7 74 ,comp4 ,esth4 ix4 ,during the ,morning ,service the account of the war with ,amalek is read from ,exod4 xvii4 #h-af4 ,the #aeth of ,adar is called ,shushan ,purim1 because the ,jews in ,shushan continued to fight against the enemy on the #adth of ,adar1 and kept ,purim on the #aeth4 ,the #acth of ,adar1 being the day appointed for the slaughter of the ,jews1 is now kept as a fast-day1 and is called 8the ,fast of ,esther40 ,,the ,,four ,,fasts4 ,there are four days kept as fast-days in commemoration of events connected with the fall of ,jerusalem4 ,they are called in the ,bible 7,zech4 viii4 #ai7 8the fast of the fourth month and the fast of the fifth1 and the fast of the seventh and the fast of the tenth40 ,these days are the anniversaries of the commencement of the siege of ,jerusalem 7#ajth of ,tebeth71 of the breach made in the wall 7#agth of ,tammuz71 of the destruction of the ,temple 7#ith of ,ab71 and of the murder of ,gedaliah 7#crd of ,tishri74 ,the #ith of ,ab is kept as a day of fasting and mourning for the destruction of the ,temple4 ,according to ,tradition1 both the first and the second ,temple were destroyed on the same day4 ,the ,lesson from the ,pentateuch read in the ,morning and in the ,afternoon ,services on the fast-days is ,exod4 xxxii4 #aa-ad and xxxiv4 #a-aj4 ,on the #ith of ,ab this section is read in the afternoon only2 the ,morning ,lesson being ,deut4 iv4 #be-dj and ,jer4 viii4 #ac to ix4 #bc2 in the ,afternoon ,service on all fasts ,isa4 lv4 #f to lvi4 #h is read as haphtarah4 ,note #a4--,these fasts begin with daybreak1 except the fast of the #ith of ,ab1 which commences with the previous evening and lasts twenty-four hours1 and is in all respects like that of the ,day of ,atonement4 ,during the day the ,lamentations of ,jeremiah1 various elegies called 1 8,lamentations10 and the ,book of ,job are read4 ,on the ,fast of ,ab1 as a sign of mourning1 talith and tefillin are not worn during the ,morning ,service4 ,they are1 however1 put on for the ,afternoon ,service4 #b4 ,the ,sabbath preceding the ,fast of ,ab is called 1 and the ,sabbath following1 because the ,haphtaroth on these ,sabbaths 7ch4 i4 and ch4 xl4 of ,isaiah7 begin respectively with the words and 2 the one containing rebukes and threats1 the other a message of comfort4 ,besides these historical fasts1 there are voluntary fasts observed by some as an expression of deep-felt piety2 e4g41 the three fasts of of ,monday1 ,thursday1 and ,monday1 kept after the festive seasons of ,passover and ,tabernacles1 in imitation of ,job1 who after the days of feasting sanctified his sons1 and brought special sacrifices 7,job i474 ,to this class of fasts may be reckoned the day before ,new-moon1 called on which in some congregations the ,afternoon ,service is enlarged by propitiatory prayers4 ,v4 ,,divine ,,worship1 4 ,in the ,midrash the following legend is related3 ,when1 at the conclusion of the seventh day1 the sun had set and darkness had spread over the earth1 ,adam was afraid that the world was now coming to an end4 ,but the ,almighty caused him to find two stones1 by means of which he produced light4 ,on seeing this ,adam was full of joy1 and although he had himself produced the spark1 he felt that it was to his ,creator and ,master that thanks were due1 and gave expression to his feelings in the words1 8,blessed art ,thou1 ,o ,lord1 our ,god1 ,king of the ,universe1 who createst the light of the fire40 ,thus the legend traces the beginning of ,divine ,worship to the first man2 and1 in fact1 the desire to commune with the ,creator and to give outward expression to the inner feeling of reverence and allegiance is so general that it seems to be part of man's nature4 ,in a different way this feeling was expressed by the sons of ,adam1 by ,cain and ,abel4 ,they brought presents to the ,lord1 probably accompanied by words of praise and prayer4 ,no essential difference is noticed by us in the offerings of the two brothers2 each of them brought what seemed best in his eyes4 ,and yet the offering of ,cain was rejected1 whilst that of ,abel was received favourably4 ,an important lesson it is that ,scripture teaches here at the very threshold of the history of sacrifices4 ,it is this3 ,the value of an offering does not lie in its outward appearance1 in that which is open to man's judgment1 but in something that is known to the ,omniscient alone1 in the heart of him who approaches his ,creator with a gift1 in the motives which prompt him to do so1 and in the feelings which accompany that act4 ,from these beginnings the two forms of ,divine ,worship1 ,sacrifice and ,prayer1 gradually developed4 ,,sacrifice 71 74 ,what was the main idea that prompted man to bring an offering to the ,almighty8 ,he felt1 as it were1 the existence of a higher ,being1 the ,creator and ,ruler of all things2 he was conscious that his own life and welfare depended on the ,will of the ,being to whom in reality everything belongs that man believes himself to possess and to enjoy4 ,in order to give expression to this feeling of allegiance man brought the first and best of what he had acquired to the true ,owner1 and thus introduced #aci himself by such gifts as a faithful subject who is anxious to merit the favour of his ,master4 ,that which was at first introduced by man voluntarily1 was afterwards sanctioned and regulated by ,divine command4 ,there were two kinds of sacrifices3 bloodless sacrifices1 minchah and nesech1 8flour-offering0 and 8drink-offering10 and blood sacrifices3 animal-offerings4 ,but no difference is discernible between these two kinds with regard to their importance1 sanctity1 and efficiency4 ,as a rule1 the animal-offering was supplemented by minchah and nesech4 ,the treatment of sacrifices varied according as they were intended to express the feeling of reverence1 rejoicing1 gratitude1 or repentance1 and special rules had to be observed in each case1 the various kinds of sacrifice being 8burnt-offering10 or 8peace-offering10 or 8thanksgiving10 or 8sin-offering10 or 8guilt-offering40 ,the ,law further fixed the place1 the time1 and the method of sacrificing1 and appointed also the persons who alone were allowed to attend to this function1 so that no strange element1 no idolatrous or superstitious customs1 could be introduced into the sacrificial service ordained by the ,law4 ,great stress is laid on the sprinkling of the blood of the sacrifice upon the altar4 8,the blood10 the ,law says1 8is the soul of all flesh2 and ,i have given it to you upon the altar to make an atonement for the soul0 7,lev4 xvii4 #aa74 ,we are thus reminded that1 in so far as the animal life is concerned1 8the pre-eminence of man over the beast is nought10 and yet the ,creator gave us the right to shed the blood of animals in order to save our life4 ,why8 ,because man has a higher mission to fulfil2 he has been created in the image of ,god4 ,these and similar reflections were suggested by the different elements constituting the sacrificial rite4 ,with the destruction of the ,temple sacrifices ceased2 with the ,restoration of ,israel and the ,rebuilding of the ,temple the ,sacrificial ,service will likewise be resumed4 7,comp4 ,mal4 iii4 #d74 ,there are persons who believe that the ,sacrificial ,service1 implying much of anthropomorphism1 could not have been intended to be permanent1 and that it was only a concession made to the fashion and the low degree of culture of the age4 ,those who reject sacrifices on this account must also reject prayer1 which is likewise based on a certain degree of anthropomorphism1 though less strikingly than sacrifice4 ,if the law concerning offerings were only intended for a certain age1 such limitation would have been indicated in the ,law4 ,in the absence of such indication we have no right to criticise the ,word of ,god1 and to think that we are too advanced in culture to obey the ,divine commands1 ,it has been further argued that1 according to ,maimonides and his followers1 the laws concerning sacrifices only served as a means of counteracting the idolatrous tendencies of the age4 ,but ,maimonides never went so far as to contend that these laws have served their purpose1 and are now null and void4 ,even those laws which have been enacted by human authority remain in force till they are repealed in a regular and legal manner4 ,but what human being can claim a right to abolish laws given by the ,almighty8 ,whether any of the laws of the ,torah will ever be abrogated we do not know1 but we are sure that1 in case of such abrogation taking place1 it will be done by a revelation as convincing as that on ,mount ,sinai4 ,on the other hand1 the revival of the ,sacrificial ,service must likewise be sanctioned by the divine voice of a prophet4 ,the mere acquisition of the ,temple ,mount or of all ,palestine by ,jews1 by war1 or political combinations1 or purchase1 would not justify the revival4 ,it is only the return of the ,jews to ,palestine1 and the rebuilding of the ,temple by ,divine command and by ,divine intervention1 that will be followed by the restoration of the ,sacrificial ,service4 ,and however contrary the slaughter of animals1 the sprinkling of their blood1 and the burning of their flesh be to our taste1 we ought to look forward with eagerness and pleasure for the revival of the full ,temple ,service as an event that will enable us to do the ,will of the ,almighty revealed in the ,torah4 ,instead of modelling the ,divine laws according to our liking1 we ought rather to regulate the latter according to the teaching of ,scripture1 and suppress it when contrary to the express ,will of ,god4 ,we therefore give expression to our hope 8for the restoration of the ,temple with its ancient ,service0 in frequent and fervent prayers1 and in accordance with the exhortation of ,hosea 7xiv4 #b7 we read each day during the ,service ,scriptural passages referring to the sacrifice of the day4 8,sacrifices have been condemned by prophets and psalmists06 ,but in the passages which seem antagonistic to sacrifices only those sacrifices are referred to which are brought in a wrong spirit or from bad motives4 7,comp4 #a ,sam4 xv4 #bb2 ,isa4 i4 #aa-ac1 xliii4 #bd1 lxvi4 #b2 ,jer4 vii4 #ba2 ,hosea vi4 #f2 ,amos v4 #be2 ,ps4 l4 #h47 ,,prayers1 #adj ,prayer is the general name for that form of ,divine ,worship which is expressed in words2 it has a wider scope than sacrifices1 for it is not limited to a special place1 or to a certain time1 or to one privileged family4 ,it is accessible to all1 in all places and at all times4 ,all alike are addressed by the ,psalmist1 8,let everything that hath breath praise the ,lord4 ,praise ye the ,lord0 7,ps4 cl4 #f74 ,there is no direct commandment in the ,torah concerning prayer2 it is rather assumed as a matter of course1 and as inseparable from our belief in ,god4 ,according to ,tradition 7,sifre on ,deut4 xi4 #ac71 the exhortation to serve ,god with all the heart implies the duty of prayer4 8,what duty depends on the heart8 ,it is the duty of prayer40 7,comp4 ,maim4 ,mishneh-torah1 ,hilchoth ,tefillah i4 #a47 ,the following are a few of the general rules laid down by our ,sages with regard to ,prayer3-- 8,better little with devotion 77 than much without devotion0 7,shulchan-aruch1 ,orach ,chayyim i4 #d74 8,during prayer bear in mind before whom you stand0 7,babyl4 ,t41 ,berachoth #bh;b74 8,the value of the words uttered with the lips is determined by the devotion of the heart0 7,babyl4 ,t41 ,berachoth #ae;b74 ,what is devotion8 ,the concentration of all our attention upon the words we utter1 the banishment of all foreign thoughts from the mind1 and the consciousness that we stand in the presence of the ,almighty1 whom it is our duty to love1 fear1 and obey4 ,a prayer uttered in this frame of mind is called 8a prayer without lips of deceit0 7,ps4 xvii4 #a74 ,comp4 ,maim41 l4 c41 iv4 #ae4 ,it is a matter of course that indecorous conduct1 unbecoming attitudes1 and the like cannot harmonise with true devotion4 ,with regard to language1 form1 time1 and place of prayer nothing was fixed originally2 all was regulated by the momentary impulse of the heart of the worshipper4 ,but people who considered themselves incapable of giving adequate expression to their devotional feelings borrowed the words of those more capable than themselves and followed their leading4 ,such a course was also necessary for common and united devotion4 ,when a certain prayer or a certain order of ,service was frequently repeated at the same season and in the same place1 the form1 the time1 and the place of prayer became to a certain degree fixed by custom--minhag--and that which had in the beginning been voluntary 77 was subsequently made law or duty 7 or 74 #ada ,the minhag is a most important element in ,jewish religious life4 ,what one has been accustomed to do for a long time1 or even from his earliest youth1 is deeply impressed on the heart1 and is not readily surrendered4 ,such customs are sometimes more cherished and more firmly adhered to than express precepts4 #adb ,it is the outcome of this respect for custom that in all countries the ,jews pray in ,hebrew4 ,but nevertheless the general principle remains in force that it is not the language that determines the value of prayer but 8the devotion of the heart10 and those who do not understand ,hebrew may give expression to 8the devotion of their heart0 in the language they understand and speak4 ,women1 who as a rule were not expected to be ,hebrew scholars1 used to read translations of the ,hebrew prayers in the vernacular instead of1 or in addition to1 the original2 they had also prayers composed for them in the vernacular 774 ,and in more ancient times1 when the ,jews of ,babylon had adopted the ,aramean dialect spoken in that country1 and retained it also after their return to ,palestine1 many prayers were composed in the more familiar language1 although ,hebrew was retained for the principal prayers4 ,hebrew has a special claim to privilege and distinction among the ,jews4 ,it is our national language1 which our forefathers once spoke2 it is the language in which the ,almighty addressed the prophets1 and through them the ,israelites2 the language in which ,god revealed ,his ,will to the ,israelites on ,mount ,sinai2 the language in which the holy ,psalmist sang the praises of the ,creator1 the priests blessed the people1 and worshippers prayed in the ,temple at ,jerusalem4 ,it must be the pride of every ,jew to be enabled to pray at home1 and especially in the ,synagogues1 in that same language1 and if ,hebrew be not the language of his every-day life1 he should seek to perfect his knowledge of it to such an extent that he shall be able to understand the prayers and to pray with his whole heart4 ,those who seek the abolition of ,hebrew in our ,services aim1 consciously or unconsciously1 at the destruction of our nationality as the people of the ,lord1 by breaking asunder one important link which connects us with the wonderful past of our nation4 ,equally indifferent with regard to the value of prayer are its length and its form4 ,the ,bible offers examples for all kinds and lengths of prayer4 ,if one wishes to pray in a few words1 he need only follow the example of ,moses1 who in the moment of anguish uttered nothing beyond the words1 8,o ,god1 heal her now0 7,num4 xii4 #ac74 ,if one prefers a long prayer1 he may also take ,moses as a guide1 who prayed forty days for the forgiveness of the ,israelites after they had made the golden calf 7,deut4 ix4 #ah1 #be74 ,both prayers were equally efficacious4 ,miriam was healed1 and the ,israelites obtained pardon4 ,with regard to the form1 we have in the ,bible prayers in prose and in poetry2 some uttered in simple speech1 others in song2 some with musical accompaniment1 some without it4 ,all of them seem to have been at first the response to a momentary impulse1 but were afterwards repeated on similar occasions in the original or in a modified form4 ,among the various motives that impel us to seek communion with our ,father1 is the desire for certain things which we have not1 and the conviction that it is solely in ,his hand to fulfil our wishes4 #adc ,a genuine prayer of this kind--for the fulfilment of certain wishes of ours--is impossible without the belief in the efficacy of prayer4 ,we cannot with certainty expect that our petition will be granted1 but we hope that it will2 we submit our wishes to the ,will of the ,almighty4 ,the ,hebrew name for prayer implied the idea of judgment1 as if we judged whether the concession of our petition might fairly be anticipated4 ,such judgment1 however1 is not to be considered as decisive2 and if our request is to be granted1 it will be as an act of mercy and grace 7 71 and not because it is a claim fully proved 774 #add ,we hope that our prayer will be granted1 but never lose sight of the condition 8if it please ,god40 ,there are a few exceptional cases4 ,prophets like ,moses 7,exod4 viii4 #f71 ,samuel 7#a ,sam4 xii4 #ag71 ,elijah 7#a ,kings xviii471 ,elisha 7#b ,kings iv4 #cc sqq471 and others1 men inspired by the ,almighty1 were1 on certain occasions1 sure of the effect of their prayer4 ,in the ,mishnah 7,taanith iii4 #h7 the case of ,choni 7 7 is mentioned1 who spoke with certainty of the result of his prayer4 ,it must1 however1 in the latter case be added that the head of the ,sanhedrin1 ,shimeon ben ,shatach1 blamed him for his conduct4 ,this we know for certain1 that whenever and wherever we respond to an inner impulse by the utterance of a prayer1 ,god is near us1 for 8,he is nigh unto all them that call upon him1 to all that call upon him in truth0 7,ps4 cxlv4 #ah72 that we and the place on which we stand are hallowed by the ,divine ,presence4 ,places once hallowed by such devotion1 whether of our own or of our fellow-men1 we like to visit again and again for the same purpose4 ,the spot of ,jacob's first communion with ,god thus became 8the house of ,god20 and even during the period when there was one central ,sanctuary for the ,sacrificial ,service in ,israel1 at ,gilgal1 ,mizpah1 ,shiloh1 and later in ,jerusalem1 there were houses of ,god throughout the country for devotion unaccompanied by sacrifices4 ,these were 8the meeting-places of ,god0 7,ps4 lxxiv4 #h71 in which the ,israelites assembled to meet their ,creator4 ,such houses of ,god were established wherever ,jews settled2 their main purpose was united devotion2 but they served also many other purposes--in fact1 every holy1 good1 and noble cause4 ,the house of ,god was the ,assembly-house1 ,synagogue 7 71 in which the affairs of the community 7 7 were settled2 the young had there their school1 adults came there for religious instruction1 and found there opportunity for the study of the ,law1 and the poor and stranger received there support and hospitality4 ,in a ,jewish ,synagogue there were two important features1 the platform 77 and an ark 77 containing scrolls of the ,law4 ,from the platform in the middle of the ,synagogue1 the lessons from the ,pentateuch and the ,prophets were recited1 and everything else that was directly or indirectly addressed to the congregants4 ,but prayers addressed to the ,most ,high were offered up from a lower place near the ,holy ,ark1 #ade in accordance with the words of the ,psalmist 7cxxx4 #a71 8,out of the depth have ,i cried unto thee1 ,o ,lord40 ,the ,ark1 or ,holy ,ark 7 or 71 in almost all modern ,synagogues--in places west of ,jerusalem--occupies the middle of the east side of the ,synagogue4 ,in the time of the ,talmud the ,synagogues were to some extent made to resemble the ,tabernacle which the ,israelites built in the wilderness or the ,temple in ,jerusalem4 ,the entrance was from the east1 and the ,ark1 which was to represent the ,most ,holy1 was in the west4 ,the ,ark was1 like the original one1 movable4 ,it was called tebhah1 lit4 8box10 in order to distinguish it from the original4 ,the recess in which it was kept was the ,hechal or ,kodesh1 8,the ,holy40 ,the tebhah seems to have served both as a receptacle for the scrolls of the ,law1 and as a desk on which these were put whenever they were required for the reading of the ,torah4 ,on certain extraordinary occasions1 when1 on account of the absence of rain1 a general fast was ordered1 the tebhah1 with a ,sefer-torah on it1 was carried into the street1 #adf where a special service was held4 ,the reason why the entrance to the ,sanctuary and to the ,synagogues was from the east1 and the worshippers consequently stood during prayer with their face toward the west1 may1 according to the ,mishnah 7,succah v4 #d71 be explained thus3 ,the principal prayer of the day being that in the morning1 the ,jews1 as a protest against the sun-worship of the idolaters1 who at that hour were accustomed to greet the sun with their prayer1 turned away from the east and offered up their prayer to the ,almighty in the opposite direction4 ,when sun-worship had ceased1 probably after the destruction of the second ,temple1 the national grief and hope found expression in the custom of praying toward the ,sanctuary in ,jerusalem4 ,hence the ,jews who live west of ,jerusalem stand during prayer with the face toward the east1 while those east of ,jerusalem turn westward4 ,this custom is1 besides1 supported by the following passage from the prayer of ,king ,solomon3 8,and they pray unto thee toward their land1 which thou gavest unto their fathers1 the city which thou hast chosen1 and the house which ,i have built for thy name0 7#a ,kings viii4 #dh74 #adg ,in most ,synagogues there is a continual lamp 7 7 burning4 ,it is a ,biblical institution1 but only designed for the ,sanctuary2 its presence in the ,synagogue is of comparatively modern date4 ,the ner tamid of the ,sanctuary1 however1 is explained to be a lamp burning 8from evening to morning0 7,exod4 xxvii4 #ba74 ,a golden candlestick standing in the ,sanctuary against the south side1 with its seven branches arranged from east to west1 served this purpose4 ,according to ,tradition it was the second branch1 counting from east to west1 which really burnt continually2 but this was not considered as implied in the term ner tamid1 which only meant 8a continual lamp0 in the sense of a lamp that burns regularly every night4 ,the ner tamid in the ,synagogue1 which burns continually day and night1 is not mentioned by any of the earlier ,rabbinical authors4 ,it has been introduced as a symbol representing our conviction that from the ,synagogue shall continually come forth the light of instruction1 the light of comfort and blessing1 and the light of love and peace4 ,in the ,synagogue women are separated from men4 ,there was also in the ,temple an 8court of the women10 distinguished from the 8court of the men10 to which women had no access4 ,during the ,feast of ,tabernacles1 when the great rejoicings in the ,temple attracted a large assembly1 special care was taken 7 7 that the separation of the sexes should be maintained 7,mishnah1 ,succah v4 #b2 and ,talm4 ,b41 ,succah #ea;b74 ,this precedent has been followed in the ,synagogue1 and has been accepted as law up to this day4 ,reservedness and modesty 77 have always been the pride and ornament of ,jewish women1 both in their homes and in the ,synagogue2 hence also their taking a silent part in the public devotion is an honour to them1 and by no means derogatory4 ,in addition to the above-mentioned points1 a ,synagogue ought to be distinguished by the greatest possible simplicity1 by the absence of all kinds of images1 portraits1 or statues representing living beings1 whether real or imaginary4 ,the ,jewish religion is void of every visible symbol2 and the so-called magen-david 7the double triangle7 is probably not of ,jewish origin1 and has no connection with our holy religion4 ,it is not a symbol of this kind1 but some inscription of a passage from the ,scriptures that in most houses of worship reminds us of the sacredness of the place4 ,we enter it with due reverence1 manifesting it outwardly1 in our peculiar traditional manner1 by keeping the head covered4 ,it is our ancient custom to cover the head when engaged in prayers1 in reading the ,bible or ,talmud and their commentaries4 ,this outward sign serves to remind us that not only our ,service but even our literature is something holy1 and its study a religious act 774 #adh ,before we proceed to describe the details of our ritual1 we mention one important point in which the present ,synagogal ,service differs from the ancient ,service in the ,temple4 ,from what we are told in the ,scriptures and in the ,talmud1 we learn that instrumental music was an essential element in the ,service1 and that ,king ,david and his successors paid great attention to it1 whilst1 with a few exceptions1 it is almost entirely absent from our ,synagogues4 ,the principal reason why instrumental music is excluded from the ,synagogue is its prohibition on ,sabbaths and ,holy-days by ,rabbinical law 7,babyl4 ,t41 ,erubin #ajd;a74 ,this prohibition1 like many other enactments1 did not apply to the ,temple ,service2 for the sacrificial laws had to be obeyed1 irrespective of the fact that they involved acts which1 if performed apart from the ,temple ,service1 would constitute a breach of the ,sabbath laws4 ,apart from the ,temple ,service the ,sabbath laws remained in full force for the priests as well as for the general public4 ,there were also other considerations that helped to keep instrumental music out of the ,synagogue ,service4 ,its absence1 though not directly a sign of mourning1 served to preserve the memory of the destruction of the ,temple1 and to strengthen our longing for its restoration4 ,it is also urged that the introduction of instrumental music into the ,service would not satisfy any real want of ,jewish worshippers1 but would merely be a concession to the desire to assimilate our ,divine ,service to that of our non-,jewish neighbours1 contrary to the prohibition of chukkoth haggoyim contained in the words1 8,ye shall not walk in their statutes0 7,lev4 xviii4 #c71 i4e41 in the statutes of the ,gentiles4 ,but1 on the other hand1 it has been argued that the feeling once expressed by the nation in the words 8,this is my ,god1 and ,i will worship him in a beautiful manner0 7,exod4 xv4 #b71 still animates us4 ,it is said that it is our duty to make our ,service as beautiful and as attractive as possible4 ,this argument deserves consideration1 and might even outweigh some of the above-mentioned arguments against the introduction of music into our ,service1 if we were sure of the result of such introduction4 ,but this is by no means the case1 for the experiment1 where tried1 has not been successful if judged by the most practical test4 ,the number of worshippers has not been increased1 and discontent has not been removed4 ,whether the devotion of the worshippers has been improved1 refined1 or intensified by music is a question that cannot be answered with certainty4 ,even if the answer were satisfactory1 it could only apply to the introduction of instrumental music into our ,service on week-days1 on ,friday evening before the commencement of ,sabbath1 but not on ,sabbaths and ,holy-days4 ,,the ,,ritual4 ,in the ,bible there is no indication of a fixed ritual2 there are1 however1 a few instances of forms of prayer prescribed for certain occasions4 ,there is the priests' blessing 7,num4 vi4 #bd-bf72 the thanksgiving on bringing the first-fruit offering to the ,temple 7,deut4 xxvi4 #c-aj72 prayer on distributing the tithes which accumulated in three years 7ibid4 #ac-ae74 ,david 7,ps4 lv4 #ah7 says1 8,evening1 and morning1 and at noonday do ,i pray20 ,daniel 8kneeled upon his knees three times a day and prayed1 and gave thanks before his ,god1 as he did aforetime0 7,dan4 vi4 #aa72 but nothing is said about the form and the contents of these prayers4 ,the ,mishnah first speaks of certain fixed forms of prayer3 the 8,eighteen0 7 71 the reading of ,shema 7 71 and ,benedictions 774 ,the composition of the tefillah1 8,prayer0 par excellence1 is attributed to the ,men of the ,great ,synagogue 7 71 but only in its outlines4 ,the number of the paragraphs1 the theme of each paragraph1 and the formula by which it is concluded may then have been fixed1 the rest being left to be filled up by each supplicant according to his capacity4 ,it was but natural that prayers uttered repeatedly by men eminent for their piety should be eagerly copied by others1 and gradually become1 to some extent at least1 fixed forms of prayer4 ,the tefillah1 however1 in the time of the ,mishnah was by no means identical with the tefillah of the ,men of the ,great ,synagogue4 ,the destruction of the ,temple necessitated several changes2 e4g41 the prayers for the welfare of ,jerusalem1 for the prosperity of ,israel and of the ,holy ,land1 and for the acceptance of the ,service in the ,temple were altered in accordance with the new state of affairs4 ,the ,mishnah speaks of the tefillah as a well-known existing institution2 it seems that it was the regular prayer in the ,synagogue ,service1 and the discussion whether the tefillah should be repeated every day in extenso or in an abbreviated form 7,mishnah1 ,berachoth iv4 #c7 refers probably to the prayer recited privatim 7 71 and not to the ,service in the ,synagogue4 ,the prescribed 8,eighteen ,blessings0 were the framework1 into which each man was expected to fit in his peculiar1 individual supplications2 whilst in the public ,service the tefillah remained uniform4 ,in the days of ,rabban ,gamliel of ,jamnia1 and with his sanction1 an important addition was made by ,samuel3 a prayer for the discomfiture of those who by slander1 denunciation1 or other wicked means attempt to undermine the existence of the ,jewish religion and community 7 or 74 #adi ,in some congregations two other paragraphs 7 and 7 were at the same time combined into one1 in order to keep to the traditional 8,eighteen ,blessings40 #aej ,the reading of shema in the evening and in the morning1 the three sections constituting the shema1 and the order of these sections1 are assumed in the ,mishnah as fully established by law and usage4 ,only a few regulations are discussed concerning the time and the mode of the reading4 ,there was this difference between the custom of the ,babylonian ,jews and that of their brethren in ,palestine1 that the latter omitted in the evening the passage referring to tsitsith4 ,later on1 however1 the ,palestine ,jews conformed to the ,babylonian custom4 ,suggestions have been made to substitute other ,biblical passages for shema1 but they have been rejected4 ,several attempts have been made to introduce1 as an addition to the three sections of shema1 the reading of the ,decalogue2 the addition was disallowed1 lest people should be misled to think that the ,ten ,commandments alone were to be observed1 and that the other laws were not binding 7,babyl4 ,t41 ,berachoth #ab;a74 #aea ,the ,benedictions which precede and follow the reading of shema were fixed in the time of the ,mishnah as regards number1 order1 and form2 but the contents were left unsettled for some time 7,mishnah1 ,berachoth i4 #d72 in the ,gemara their wording is still a subject for discussion4 ,the same can be said with regard to the relative order of shema and tefillah4 ,for the ,evening ,service the tefillah seems to have generally been considered as optional4 ,as to ,benedictions in general1 their obligatory character is assumed in the ,mishnah as admitted by all1 and only their form seems to have been fixed by the regulations mentioned in ,berachoth vi4-ix4 ,the ,mishnah 7,megillah iii4 #d-;iv4 #aj7 includes a number of regulations concerning the reading of the ,law1 the ,prophets1 and the ,book of ,esther4 ,detailed rules were laid down for the reader and the translator 7methurgeman71 pointing out which passages should be omitted in the translation1 and which should be omitted even in the original4 ,it seems that there was a regular1 consecutive reading1 which was interrupted on extraordinary days by the reading of passages referring to these days4 ,the ritual which was adopted for the priests in the ,temple was an abridged form of the ritual then in general use4 ,it was as follows3 ,they commenced with a benediction--the first of those which precede the shema 7 72 then they read the ,decalogue1 shema 7the three paragraphs71 and three further benedictions1 1 7corresponding to in our prayer71 and the blessing of the priests 7,mishnah1 ,tamid v4 #a74 ,a special ritual is also mentioned in the ,talmud 7,mishnah1 ,taanith iv4 #b7 for the ,maamadoth and the ,fast-days4 #aeb ,there were four ,services daily1 as on the ,day of ,atonement4 ,the principal feature in the ,service of the ,maamadoth was the reading of the first chapter of ,genesis4 ,at the conclusion of the ,talmud 7about #ejj ,c4,e47 the essential parts of our present ritual were already in a settled state2 the shema with the benedictions preceding and following1 the tefillah with its variations for ,new-moon1 ,sabbath1 and ,holy-days1 the reading from the ,law and the prophets1 and ,hallel4 ,the ,seder evening ,service was complete in its main parts4 ,of the ,benedictions 7,berachoth7 on various occasions both form and contents were fixed1 and the rule was laid down by ,rabbi ,meir 7,berachoth #dj;a7 that he who uttered a berachah in a form different from that fixed by our ,sages has not fulfilled his duty 7or1 according to ,maimonides1 ,hilchoth ,berachoth i4 #e1 is in error74 ,notwithstanding this rule1 however1 changes were made2 new benedictions were introduced and old ones discontinued4 #aec--,kaddish and ,kedushah seem to have formed part of the ,service2 of the latter the ,talmud mentions the name1 of the former the response3 8,may his great ,name be praised0 or 7,comp4 ,babyl4 ,talm41 ,berachoth #c;a74 ,in the next period1 that of the ,geonim1 we meet with the complete ,siddur1 8,arrangement0 or 8,order0 of ,service for ordinary days1 for ,sabbaths and ,festivals1 ,benedictions for all occasions1 and ,piyyutim as optional additions4 ,such a ,siddur was arranged by the ,gaon ,rabbenu ,saadiah 7#hib-idb71 and another by the ,gaon ,rabbenu ,amram 7about #hhj74 ,henceforth the principal prayers underwent only insignificant alterations4 ,of the next period the most important ,siddurim are those included in the ,mishneh-torah1 at the end of the second book1 and that contained in the ,machzor ,vitry4 #aed ,the additional prayers and piyyutim1 being optional1 varied according to the taste of each congregation and its leaders2 in course of time these variations became permanent2 the same was the case with minor changes1 especially in the less essential elements of the ,service1 and thus the various ,minhagim 7,rites7 of the various congregations came into existence4 ,the principal ,minhagim of importance for us are3 the ,polish1 the ,sephardic1 the ,german1 and the ,italian ,rites4 #aee ,in the following description of the ,ritual only the two rites adopted in the principal ,synagogues of the ,anglo-,jewish congregations in ,england will be noted4 ,,prayers ,,at ,,fixed ,,times4 ,although we constantly enjoy the blessings of ,god1 the very breath we breathe being the gift of our ,heavenly ,father1 yet certain seasons of the day1 of the week1 of the month1 and of the year have been selected as especially fit for reminding us of ,god's kindness1 and predisposing our heart to devotion4 ,thus in the day1 morning1 noon and evening have been fixed for prayer2 in the week1 ,sabbath2 in the month1 ,new-moon2 in the year1 the ,festivals4 ,we have three daily ,services3 ,maaribh1 8,evening prayer20 ,shacharith1 8,morning prayer10 #aef and ,minchah1 8,afternoon prayer40 ,on ,sabbath1 ,new-moon1 and ,festivals an 8,additional prayer10 ,musaf1 is inserted between the ,morning and the ,afternoon ,services1 and on the ,day of ,atonement1 ,nelah1 8,concluding ,service10 is added after ,minchah4 ,the two most essential elements in these ,services are3 7#a7 the ,reading of ,shema 7 71 in the ,maaribh and the ,shacharith2 7#b7 the ,tefillah or ,amidah1 common to all the ,services4 #a4 ,,the ,,reading ,,of ,,shema4 ,in obedience to the precept1 8,thou shalt speak of them10 i4e41 of 8the words which ,i command thee this day--when thou liest down and when thou risest up10 three sections of the ,law are read daily in the morning and in the evening1 viz41 7#a7 ,deut4 vi4 #d-i1 beginning 8,hear20 7#b7 ,ibid4 xi4 #ac-ba1 beginning 8,and it shall be if ye will diligently hearken20 7#c7 ,num4 xv4 #cg-da1 beginning 8,and the ,lord said40 ,the first section teaches the ,unity of ,god1 and our duty to love this ,one ,god with all our heart1 to make ,his ,word the subject of our constant meditation1 and to instil it into the heart of the young4--,the second section contains the lesson of reward and punishment3 that our success depends on our obedience to the ,will of ,god4 ,this important truth must constantly be kept before our eyes and before the eyes of our children4--,the third section contains the commandment of tsitsith1 the object of which is to remind us of ,god's precepts3 8,ye shall see it and remember all the commandments of the ,lord and do them1 and that ye seek not after your own heart and your own eyes1 after which ye use to go astray1 that you remember and do all my commandments1 and be holy unto your ,god40 ,the reading of the shema is preceded by two berachoth3 7#a7 ,praise of the ,creator for the regular sequence of day and night1 light and darkness2 7#b7 or ,praise of ,his goodness in giving us the ,torah1 and prayer for ,his assistance in the study of the ,torah4 ,the shema is followed by a berachah on the ,redemption of ,israel2 it contains a reflection on the last words of shema1 8,i am the ,lord your ,god10 an expression of our faith in the truth of these words1 which strengthen our belief in the future ,redemption of ,israel4 #aeg ,in the ,evening ,service a second berachah follows1 beginning 1 and containing a prayer for protection during the night4 #aeh #b4 ,,the ,,tefillah ,,or ,,amidah4 ,the ,tefillah1 8,prayer0 par excellence1 is called ,amidah 7lit41 8standing071 because the worshipper stands during the time he offers it up4 ,it is also called ,shemoneh-esreh1 8,eighteen10 because it contains on most occasions eighteen 7or nineteen1 comp4 p4 #dca7 paragraphs1 each concluding with a benediction4 ,the first three paragraphs contain praise of ,god's goodness to us1 the descendants of the pious patriarchs 7#a71 ,his omnipotence 7#b71 and ,his holiness 7#c74 ,the next thirteen paragraphs are petitions for our individual and national well-being4 ,for our individual well-being 7#d-i71 namely1 for reason and wisdom 7#d71 assistance in our endeavour to return to ,god 7#e71 forgiveness of our sins 7#f71 deliverance from trouble 7#g71 from illness 7#h71 and from want 7#i74--;,for our national well-being 7#aj-ae71 namely1 for the gathering of those who are scattered 7#aj71 under good leaders 7#aa71 protected from the evil designs of our foes 7#ab71 for the support of the faithful 7#ac71 the rebuilding of ,jerusalem 7#ad71 and the advent of ,messiah 7#ae74 ,the sixteenth paragraph is a prayer that our petition may be accepted4--,the last three paragraphs include a petition for the re-establishment of ,divine ,service in the ,temple of ,jerusalem 7#ag71 thanksgiving 7#ah71 and prayer for peace and prosperity 7#ai74 ,when the prayer is finished we express the wish that our lips1 from which prayer to ,god has come forth1 may not be defiled by unworthy language4 ,on ,sabbaths1 ,holy-days1 and in every ,musaph the thirteen middle paragraphs are replaced by one in which reference is made to the characteristic feature of the day2 in the ,musaph of ,new-year three berachoth 7p4 #djd7 are substituted for the thirteen middle berachoth of the ordinary tefillah4 ,the thirteen paragraphs have been eliminated in order that we should not be reminded on ,sabbath and ,holy-days of our failings1 wants1 and troubles2 that those seasons should be marked by a happier and more cheerful mood than ordinary days 7supra1 p4 #ced74 ,there are two shorter forms of the tefillah for urgent occasions3 the one is a substitute for the 8,eighteen10 in which the middle thirteen paragraphs are contracted into one2 it is called 7the first word of this middle section71 or 8abstract of the #8,eighteen4'0 ,the other is a contraction of the ,friday evening tefillah1 and is called 8abstract of the #8,seven'0 7scil41 paragraphs forming the tefillah71 originally intended for those who were too late for the full ,service4 #aei ,each of the above ,services ends with a prayer called after its initial word alenu1 8,it is our duty40 ,in this prayer we thank ,god that we have the privilege of proclaiming ,his ,unity1 and express our hope to see the worship of the ,one ,god adopted by all mankind4 ,it is omitted between two ,services following closely the one upon the other4 ,in addition to the above1 the ,service contains the following parts3-- 7#a47 8,blessings of the ,morning10 forming the first part of the ,morning ,service4 ,it contains benedictions1 reflections1 and prayers suggested by the change from night to day1 from sleep to wakefulness1 from rest to activity4 7#b47 ,psalms4--,our ,service contains various groups of psalms3 chief among them the mizmorim or pesuke dezimrah 78songs0 or 8verses of song071 and shir shel yom 78song of the day071 in the ,morning ,service4 ,the former include ,ps4 cxlv4 to cl41 some other psalms1 and the song of ,moses 7,exod4 xv474 ,the latter correspond to the songs of the ,levites in the ,temple1 and consist of ,ps4 xxiv4 7for ,sunday71 xlviii4 7for ,monday71 lxxxii4 7for ,tuesday71 xciv4 7for ,wednesday71 lxxxi4 7for ,thursday71 xciii4 7for ,friday71 and xcii4 7for ,saturday74--,the repetition of ,ps4 cxlv4 three times a day1 twice during ,shacharith and once during ,minchah1 is an old minhag 7,babyl4 ,talm41 ,berachoth1 p4 #d;b74 7#c47 ,supplications 77 added in the ,morning and the ,afternoon ,services after the tefillah4 7#d47 ,readings from the ,bible and ,post-,biblical ,sacred ,literature1 such as ,num4 vi4 #bb sqq4 7priests' blessing72 ,gen4 xxii4 7binding of ,isaac72 ,exod4 xvi4 7manna72 ,mishnah1 ,peah i4 #a1 and ,babyl4 ,t41 ,shabbath #abg;a1 in the earlier part of the ,morning ,service2 and words of comfort 7beginning 7 from the ,prophets after the 8,supplications40 ,originally an exposition of the ,written and the ,oral ,law followed the 8,supplications10 and concluded with ,messianic prophecies1 recited in ,hebrew and in the ,chaldee ,version4 7#e47 ,biblical and ,post-,biblical passages referring to the ,sacrificial ,service1 in the ,morning and the ,afternoon ,services4 ,in addition to the above ,services1 read either in the ,synagogue or privately at home1 there is a special prayer read by us before retiring to rest4 ,the chief element in it is the first section of shema2 hence the name 8,reading of shema before going to bed40 ,some psalms and supplications are generally added4 ,,public ,,service1 4 #afj ,the following points mark off the ,public ,service from the various forms of private prayer3-- 7#a47 ,kaddish1 8,sanctification10 a prayer for the universal sanctification of ,god's name1 which will distinguish the age of ,messiah4 ,in the second part of the ,kaddish we pray for the ,messianic peace1 and in the last sentence express our hope that it may soon be granted4 ,formerly the ,kaddish concluded the ,service2 at present it is recited at the end of the ,service in its full form 7 8the whole ,kaddish072 the first half 7 8half-,kaddish07 has its place at the end of a section of the ,service--e4g41 after the in the ,morning ,service2 a third form is recited by mourners after and after special hymns or psalms2 it is the whole ,kaddish with the omission of the sentence beginning 4 ,it is called 8,kaddish of the orphan10 and is intended to express the mourner's faith in ,god and his resignation to ,his ,will4--,sometimes a special ,kaddish1 called ,kaddish dirabbanan1 is recited after the reading of some ,talmudic or ,midrashic passages4 ,it is the same as ,kaddish shalem1 except that the sentence beginning is replaced by a prayer for the welfare of the scholars1 the ,rabbis1 and their pupils4 7#b47 ,repetition of the tefillah by the ,reader1 with the addition of ,kedushah before the third paragraph1 and the ,priests' ,blessing before the last paragraph1 of the tefillah4 ,the ,kedushah1 8,proclamation of the ,holiness of ,god10 is based on the visions of ,isa4 vi4 and of ,ezek4 iii41 with citation of three verses1 ,isa4 vi4 #c1 ,ezek4 iii4 #ab1 and ,ps4 cxlvi4 #aj1 in which the ,holiness1 ,glory1 and ,kingdom of ,god are proclaimed4 ,the ,priests' ,blessing1 originally spoken by priests1 descendants of ,aaron1 is now in most ,synagogues included by the ,reader in the tefillah by way of quotation2 only on ,holy-days it is pronounced by the priests4 7#c47 8the ,reading of the ,law10 and the 8,lessons from the ,prophets0 771 with the benedictions preceding and following 7supra1 p4 #cdh74 ,,occasional ,,prayers--,,benedictions1 4 ,the feeling of our dependence on the goodness of ,god must constantly be present to our mind4 ,whatever we enjoy1 be it in the form of eating or drinking1 or some pleasing or remarkable sight1 an agreeable smell1 a festivity on a joyful event1 or the performance of a ,divine commandment 772 whatever befall us1 whether it be pleasant or unpleasant--all this we consider as sent to us by the ,will of the ,almighty1 and we express our conviction by a suitable berachah4 ,the general rule is thus laid down by our ,sages3 ,it is unlawful for man to enjoy anything on earth without previously acknowledging by a berachah that ,god is the source whence the enjoyment is derived4 ,for different cases different forms of 8blessings0 have been fixed by our ,sages4 ,in some cases the enjoyment is also followed by a prayer of thanksgiving1 the most important being the prayer after meals1 called 8,benediction for food or ,grace40 #afa ,in the ,mishnah it is called 8,three ,blessings0 7 71 because it consisted originally of three paragraphs1 each ending with a benediction4 ,the three paragraphs are the following3 7#a7 78,benediction commencing 071 in which we praise ,god's providential care of all creatures4 7#b7 8,thanksgiving10 or 7,benediction referring to ,palestine74 ,in this paragraph we offer thanks for our individual sustenance1 as well as for our national gifts3 ,palestine1 the ,covenant1 and the ,law4 7#c7 ,prayer for the restoration of ,zion and the rebuilding of the ,temple 7 74--,subsequently a fourth paragraph was added 7 8who is good and causes ,his creatures to be good07 in commemoration of the relief given to the ,jews after the close of the war with ,hadrian4 #afb--,on certain occasions1 e4g41 at a wedding repast1 suitable additions are made4 ,besides these1 various supplications have been added in later times4 ,there are various short forms of this 2 the shortest is that for children1 8,blessed be the ,merciful1 the ,giver of this bread40 #afc--,when three grown-up male persons or more have their meal together1 a special introductory form is used1 called 8summons to prayer10 one of the company acting as ,reader1 and the rest forming the congregation4 ,another form of thanksgiving is the 8,abstract of the ,three ,blessings0 7 71 consisting of one paragraph which contains the whole of the ,grace in a contracted form1 and is used after cake1 wine1 and the like4 ,no restriction is enforced upon us if we desire on our part to give expression to our feeling of gratitude and reverence toward the ,almighty in our own words on occasions not provided for in the ancient forms of benedictions and prayers4 ,in order1 however1 to make a distinction between the forms of obligatory berachoth fixed by our ,sages and the optional ones introduced by ourselves1 we do not employ the words1 8,o ,lord1 our ,god1 ,king of the ,universe10 which are essential in the former4 ,,notes4 #a4 ,on ,page #dbd sqq4 ,among the different minhagim observed in the ,synagogue the following are noteworthy3--,the head is kept covered1 the hands uncovered2 gloves are generally taken off before the beginning of the ,service4 ,it was customary to spread forth the hands during prayer1 and the phrase 8spreading forth the hands0 is used in the ,bible in the sense of 8praying40 ,the priests still raise their hands when pronouncing the blessing4 ,isaiah1 rebuking those who prayed to ,god without seeking purification from evil deeds1 says1 8,and when you spread forth your hands ,i will hide mine eyes from you2 yea1 when ye make many prayers ,i will not hear2 your hands are full of blood0 7,isa4 i4 #ae74 ,following the example of the ,psalmist1 8,i will wash my hands in innocency1 so will ,i compass thine altar0 7,ps4 xxvi4 #f71 we wash our hands before prayer1 as a symbol of the duty of purifying our conscience from guilt before approaching the ,almighty with our petitions4 ,we thus uncover our hands as if to say1 8,the reproach of ,isaiah does not apply to us2 we have tried to free our heart and our hands from guilt40 ,a custom frequently animadverted upon is the habit which many ,jews have adopted of swinging their bodies forward and backward during prayer4 ,we consider it a more decent way to stand or sit still when communing with the ,supreme ,being4 ,both ways find support in the ,talmud 7,babyl4 ,t41 ,berachoth #ca;a1 and ,shabbath #aj;a72 whilst the one stands like 8a servant in the presence of his master10 the other gives way to his emotions and excitement4 ,the ,magen ,abraham1 on chap4 xlviii4 #d1 says3 8,he who follows the one example is right1 and he who follows the other is likewise right3 all depends on the devotion of the heart40 ,rabbi ,jehudah ha-,levi in his ,cuzari 7,book ,,ii4 chap4 xli47 mentions and explains the custom of shaking during prayer4 ,the habit of accompanying the emotions of our heart by corresponding motions of our body has produced the custom of raising the whole body upwards when uttering the word 8holy0 in the kedushah4 ,during tefillah we remain standing in the same place2 at the end1 when we have finished our petition1 we retire slowly a few steps backward2 the same is done by the ,reader during the last paragraph of the kaddish4 ,it is as if1 our petition ended1 we reverently withdrew from the heavenly ,king who has given us audience during the prayer4 ,we bend the knee1 incline our head1 and bow down on certain occasions during the ,service1 but we do not kneel during prayer4--,it has perhaps been avoided as an idolatrous practice1 with reference to ,judges vii4 #e4 ,when the ,ark is opened and the ,sefer is taken out or put back1 we stand and show our respect for the ,word of ,god in various ways4 ,some bow the head2 others1 considering this as worship1 kiss the ,sefer1 or otherwise express their reverence4 ,the traditional way in which the kohanim proceed to bless the people is this3 they remove their shoes1 as the priests did who ministered in the ,temple2 water is then poured over their hands by the ,levites1 the ablutions of the ancient priests being thus imitated to some extent 7see ,exod4 xxx4 #bj74 ,it is a holy act1 and is done in the ,synagogue generally in front of the ,ark4 ,the priests ascend the steps of the hechal and wait till called upon by the ,reader to pronounce the blessing4 ,they turn toward the congregation1 spread forth their hands in the traditional manner1 and cover head and face with the talith1 in order not to be disturbed in their devotion by the sight of the congregation before them2 the ,reader dictates the words of the benediction to them to guard against any mistakes being made by them4 ,the congregation1 giving special importance to each word1 add ,biblical quotations and special supplications during the interval between one word and the other4 ,of greater importance1 however1 is respectful listening to the words uttered by the priests1 and chanted by them in a peculiar traditional tune4 ,the priests turn to all directions while pronouncing the blessing1 expressing thereby that they would have no one excluded from the blessing4 ,some kohanim refuse to perform this duty1 pretending or believing that they are unworthy to bless the congregation4 ,this is a mistake4 ,those who feel that they are unworthy must try by improved conduct to render themselves worthy1 but disobedience to the direct commandment of the ,divine ,law is certainly not the beginning of improvement4 ,others object to the singing1 in which they are unable to join2 others to taking off their boots4 ,the excuses are certainly insufficient4 ,but as these two elements are less essential1 they might1 if necessary1 be dispensed with if the fulfilment of the commandment is secured thereby4 #b4 ,on ,page #dci4 ,there are various parts in our ,service which originally seem to have formed a substitute1 under certain circumstances1 for a section of the ,service or for the whole of it1 but were subsequently1 when the circumstances altered1 embodied as an integral part of the ,service in addition to the sections which they had replaced4 ,in the ,morning ,service there is in the section called a prayer beginning and concluding 4 ,this prayer1 preceded by an exhortation to be ,god-fearing in secret--when persecution prevented public worship of ,god--contains an expression of pride in our history1 and of gratitude to ,god that we have the privilege to proclaim the ,unity of ,god in the words1 8,hear1 ,o ,israel10 c41 and a petition for the fulfilment of the ,messianic prophecies4 ,in the ,maaribh the part beginning and ending was originally a substitute for the ,amidah1 and the conclusion of the ,evening ,service for those who considered the tefillah in the evening optional4 ,similarly1 on ,friday evening the contracted tefillah was originally a substitute for the tefillah for those who came late4 ,in both these and similar cases the substitute and its original have been retained as integral parts of the ,service4 #c4 ,on ,page #ddb 7#b74 ,in the public ,service the tefillah is repeated by the ,reader after the silent prayer 77 of the congregation4 ,this minhag must have been introduced very early4 ,in the ,talmud 7end of ,rosh ha-shanah7 it is spoken of as a regular institution1 its purpose is discussed1 and the reason stated why we should not dispense with the ,reader's repetition or with the silent tefillah4 ,it seems that there was1 on the one hand1 a desire on the part of the congregants to have an uninterrupted silent tefillah in which they could give suitable expression each one to his personal and peculiar wants and wishes4 ,on the other hand1 there was also a desire felt by many to be guided in their devotions by the ,reader4 ,our minhag satisfies both requirements4 ,but it is a grave error to think1 as unfortunately many do1 that1 while the ,reader repeats the tefillah1 the congregants may turn their heart and mind to other things1 however holy these be4 ,the congregation and the ,reader must be united in devotion during 1 and where the continued concentration of thought during the tefillah and its repetition seems unattainable1 it would be better to sacrifice the minhag of repeating the tefillah rather than to have the repetition of the prayer without the participation of the congregants1 or even without decorum4 ,in the repetition of the tefillah the kedushah forms an important addition4 ,the essential idea of the kedushah is repeated thrice during the ,morning ,service1 viz41 in the first of the benedictions preceding the shema1 in the tefillah or ,amidah1 and in the concluding section commencing 4 ,in the first kedushah 7called 71 while praising ,god as the ,creator of light and of the heavenly luminaries1 we introduce these1 as proclaiming1 as it were1 the holiness and glory of ,god in the words of the ,prophets4 ,in the last kedushah 7called or 7 we merely read1 among other passages from the ,prophets1 those verses of ,isaiah and ,ezekiel which contain the chief sentences of the kedushah4 ,in the kedushah of the tefillah the ,reader summons the congregation to proclaim the sanctification of ,god in the manner of the angels above2 it has therefore its place only in ,public ,worship1 whilst as to the other two kedushoth there is no difference whether a person prays by himself or in a congregation of worshippers4 ,as regards 1 two prayers generally united1 it must be remarked that in their meaning they are disunited3 the half-kaddish is the conclusion of the mizmorim or pesuke dezimrah1 and is the commencement of the next section3 shema1 with its benedictions4 ,the half-kaddish1 wherever it occurs1 concludes some section of the ,service4 ,in shacharith1 after ,amidah1 or after 8,supplications10 or after the ,reading of the ,law2 at ,musaf1 ,minchah1 ,nelah1 and ,maaribh after the introductory psalms4 ,the half-kaddish before the ,amidah in the ,maaribh is probably a remnant of the whole kaddish that used to be said when the ,service ended there and the ,amidah was considered optional 774 #d4 ,on ,page #ddb 7#c74 ,an important element in the ,service is religious instruction4 ,the means adopted were the reading of the ,torah and ,haphtarah1 the introduction of moral lessons1 principles of faith1 exposition of ,divine precepts into the ,service1 and lectures containing various lessons1 exhortations1 and explanations of the ,biblical and ,post-,biblical ,sacred ,literature4 ,these lectures are an ancient institution4 ,the prophets instructed the people1 especially on ,new-moon and ,sabbath 7#b ,kings iv4 #bc72 the ,scribes and the ,rabbis of the ,talmudic age expounded the ,torah and other ,biblical and ,post-,biblical writings2 they were followed by darshanim and maggidim1 the modern preachers and ministers4 ,the aim of these lectures is to create1 maintain1 or intensify the fear of ,god and the love of the ,torah 7 74 ,the ,sermon has lost much of its original force and influence4 ,the cause of this fact is probably to be sought chiefly in the materialism and scepticism of the age1 but to some degree also in the character of the sermon4 ,it cannot be denied that the pulpit1 instead of being made a place from which ,love of ,torah and ,fear of ,god receive life1 encouragement1 and strength1 is frequently turned into a platform for discussing communal or personal quarrels or theological controversies1 or creating a discontent with existing institutions1 without sufficiently considering the result of such discontent4 ,themes like these are not outside the province of the preacher1 but they must not be the staple of his discourses1 which must principally seek to foster in the hearts of the congregants4 ,as to the history and literature of this branch of the ,service1 see ,zunz1 ,die ,gottesdienstlichen ,vortrge der ,juden4 ,berlin1 #ahcb4 #e4 ,on ,page #dbj4 ,the question is frequently asked whether special meetings and ,services may be arranged with a view of improving the religious status of the ,jewish community4 ,there is no reason why attempts should not be made in this direction4 ,by all means let everything be done that is conducive to a revival of religious feeling and religious practice4 ,but in such attempts care must be taken that nothing be done that is contrary to the precepts of the ,law1 both ,written and ,oral2 that the teachers1 preachers1 or lecturers do not themselves display a disregard for recognised religious authority1 and by such conduct undermine the existing reverence for the inherited traditional ,religion4 ,on this basis meetings on ,sabbath for the purpose of reading the ,bible1 praying1 and singing1 in whatever language this be done1 and special ,services for the pupils of ,religion ,classes at the close of the session1 must be welcome to all who have a love for our holy ,religion4 #f4 ,on ,page #dbj4 ,a question of equal importance that frequently disturbs the peace of the congregation is this3 whether and in how far the established ,ritual or minhag of a ,synagogue may be altered4 ,the ,ritual is not the work of one man or of one age2 it is the product of the thoughts and the feelings of our nation through many centuries4 ,its foundation was laid by the ,men of the ,great ,synagogue in the time of ,ezra4 ,generation after generation were busy in the construction of the building2 storey was added to storey2 from time to time new wings made their appearance4 ,reverence and piety made successive builders reluctant to pull down what the same feelings of preceding generations had reared4 ,the whole formed a ,sanctuary every single stone of which was cherished and guarded against desecration4 ,notwithstanding the storms and tempests to which it was exposed1 and which certainly caused a breach here and there1 our ,sanctuary stands still on its ancient foundations1 and its walls retain their power of resistance4 ,what is the duty of the present generation with regard to this structure8 ,architects or would-be architects examine it minutely from foundation to top-stone2 but they come to different conclusions4 ,we will examine these conclusions1 sine ir et studio1 assuming that the examination has been conducted bon fide1 with a view of strengthening the ,sanctuary1 and that the reports are in accordance with truth and the examiners' innermost conviction4 7#a47 ,some declare 8the ,building no longer attractive2 there are so many other edifices full of points of attraction both without and within2 these must in course of time draw away the visitors from our ,sanctuary1 and estrange those who used to fill it40 ,we admit the force of the argument4 ,it has always been the aim of those who had the management of the ,synagogue in their hands to make the ,service attractive2 there is no reason why it could or should not be done at present4 ,means of attraction are mostly of an external character3 the art and luxury displayed in the building and its furniture1 the eloquence of the preacher1 the voice of the reader1 the singing of the choir1 introduction of novelties1 such as instrumental music 7scil41 on week-days7 and prayers in the vernacular4 ,in themselves these things are harmless1 and although they are not the essence of the worship1 they may lead to it2 #afd and1 for this reason1 it must be considered a condition sine qu non1 that the style of singing1 reading1 and preaching should be such as to please the majority1 if not every one1 of the congregants4 #afe ,but there is this to be feared and guarded against3 viz41 that the husk be mistaken for the fruit1 and true devotion be lost4 ,besides1 the experiment has been made1 and the desired result has not been obtained4 ,there are plenty of places for the enjoyment of vocal and instrumental music1 with which the ,synagogue would vie in vain in point of attractiveness1 and novelties1 as novelties1 soon wear away1 and bring no real improvement4 ,let the leaders of the ,synagogue strengthen the faith of their brethren in ,god and ,his ,word1 maintain1 by good example1 their reverence for our ancient traditions and customs1 and be themselves earnest and devout worshippers2 they will then surely be more successful in drawing others to the ,house of ,god4 7#b47 ,another critic says3 8,the ,synagogue ,services are discordant20 that is1 the feelings expressed in our prayers have no echo in the hearts of the worshippers4 8,education and general progress have so entirely changed the whole life of man that he can no longer be edified by the prayers and method of devotion followed by our forefathers40 ,those who assert this1 of course1 only assert it of themselves1 and so far their statement may be accepted as correct4 ,but on examining it more closely we find that there must be something misleading in it4 ,for what is the central idea of the ancient prayers and hymns8 ,the conviction that we address our ,heavenly ,father1 who is the ,creator and ,ruler of the ,universe2 who is just1 good1 and holy2 who alone can fulfil the wishes which we utter in our prayers1 and 8who is near to all those who call upon him in truth40 ,does progress of education force us to abandon this principle8 ,certainly not4 ,those who do abandon it cannot be said to do so by force of education1 for they are found among the educated and uneducated alike2 and we should be false to our own ,faith if we were to abandon this fundamental principle of our ,divine ,service4 ,the second of the fundamental ,principles of our ,faith1 though less general than the preceding1 is yet equally essential in ,judaism1 viz41 the belief in ,revelation1 in the ,integrity and the ,divine origin of the ,torah1 and the truth of the ,divine messages sent through the prophets4 ,the ,ritual is replete with references to this belief1 and it would amount to a rejection of this essentially ,jewish ,principle1 if we were to expunge such references from the ,ritual in order to please a few unbelievers4 ,references to the ,sacrificial ,service1 and especially prayers for its restoration1 are disliked by some1 who think such restoration undesirable4 ,let no one pray for a thing against his will2 let him whose heart is not with his fellow-worshippers in any of their supplications silently substitute his own prayers for them1 but let him not interfere with the devotion of those to whom 8the statutes of the ,lord are right1 rejoicing the heart2 the commandment of the ,lord pure1 enlightening the eyes2 the judgments of the ,lord true and righteous altogether0 7,ps4 xix4 #i1 #aj71 and who yearn for the opportunity of fulfilling ,divine commandments which they cannot observe at present4 #aff ,prayer1 in the true sense of the word1 is impossible without the recognition of ,god as our ,master1 whom we are willing to serve1 and whose commands we desire to do1 whether the act implied in them be in other respects agreeable to us or not4 7#c47 ,the ,ritual contains many sections which owe their existence to particular circumstances that have passed away1 and to local conditions which are different from those prevailing in the countries in which we live4 ,have these a right to be kept perpetually in the ,ritual8 ,certainly not4 ,there is no reason why prayers which have become obsolete and meaningless should not be modified or discontinued4 ,but as a rule our prayers are free from references to the particular causes of their composition1 and there is no need to expunge from the ,service petitions1 thanksgivings1 or praises which were originally intended for a special occasion1 if they are expressed in general terms1 and have become in the ,synagogue a source of devotion and edification4 ,but as to the latter condition1 it is difficult to decide whether a liturgical composition has become1 and is still1 an aid to devotion4 ,much depends on the individual character of the particular congregation in which the question has been raised1 and each case should be decided on its own merits by a competent and responsible authority4 ,many of the ,piyyutim #afg and ,selichoth belong to this class2 also a few sections in the ordinary ,ritual 7see note #b71 and the repetition of the ,amidah1 and the ,kiddush in the ,synagogue on the eve of ,sabbaths and ,festivals4 7#d47 ,it is further asserted that the ,ritual was formulated in bygone times2 our wants and tastes are different from those of former ages4 ,we can neither pray for the same things nor in the same way as our ancestors4 ,but what did our ancestors pray for8 ,for the well-being of their body and of their soul2 for the realisation of our national hopes and the ultimate triumph of our holy ,religion4 ,just the same ends we wish to obtain at present1 and these objects form the substance of our ,ritual4--,there are some petitions which seem to many out of place1 and out of date4 ,such are petitions against cruel oppressors4 ,our fathers had good reason to cry to the ,almighty for relief1 for they were oppressed1 whilst we1 living in a free country1 in the enjoyment of all the rights of citizens1 have no cause whatever for complaint4 ,if we were to separate ourselves from our brethren in distant countries1 we could expunge all such petitions from the ,ritual4 ,this is1 however1 not the case2 we feel deeply grieved at the sufferings of our brethren4 ,we should like to see them relieved from oppression and persecution1 and pray to ,god for ,his interference in behalf of the persecuted4 ,when we use the term 8revenge0 77 we do not associate with it any base desire to see the enemy crushed or annihilated2 we use it rather in the sense of a just and merited penalty for evil-doers1 and associate with it the idea of the ultimate victory and triumph of our holy ,religion after long periods of oppression and persecution4 ,it is their ,faith for which our fathers suffered1 and our brethren in some countries still suffer1 and the triumph of which forms the centre of these petitions4 ,intense grief and sorrow sometimes suggested harsh expressions1 such as 8,destroy our enemies10 8,put an end to them10 but these are figurative expressions1 and are used in the sense explained by ,beruria1 the wife of ,rabbi ,meir3 8,may the sinners cease from sinning1 and sinners will be no more40 ,similarly we pray in the ,amidah3 8,let our slanderers have no hope of success1 so that evil-doers may soon vanish and disappear2 break the power of the presumptuous1 and humble them40 ,in these words we give expression to our feeling of indignation against the slanderers of our holy ,religion1 the revilers of ,judaism1 such1 e4g41 as from time to time renew the blood-accusations1 or by false and deceptive arguments or other means entice ,jews to abandon their faith4 #afh 7#e47 ,we hear frequently the complaint that the ,public ,service is too long4 ,this complaint is of a relative character2 it is different from the feeling of joy expressed in the words1 8,blessed are those who dwell in thy house20 it is different from the sentiment of those chasidim 7,mishnah1 ,berachoth v4 #a7 who sat still a while before the commencement of the prescribed prayer1 or those who after the conclusion thereof sit down again1 saying1 8,surely the righteous shall give thanks to thy name2 the upright shall dwell in thy presence0 7,ps4 cxl4 #ad74 ,as regards the length of the ,service1 we should bear in mind the principle of our ,sages3 ,it makes no difference whether the ,service is long or short3 only be devout4 ,it is provocative of irreverence to protract the ,service unnecessarily until it becomes wearisome2 but it is equally unbecoming to hurry over it as though it were an unpleasant task4 ,on the whole the ,services1 especially when they are well regulated1 are not too long1 unless too much time be spent in singing or in unnecessary interruptions4 ,in all cases in which a modification seems advisable and lawful it must be borne in mind that the ,ritual is a ,sanctuary every element of which is holy1 and that hasty reforms may be less effective than is hoped4 ,it may perhaps be easy to pull down1 but it is not so easy to build up4 ,devout members of a congregation may easily be alienated1 but not so easily will new members be attracted1 or if attracted1 permanently retained4 #g4 ,on ,page #dbd4 ,rabban ,gamaliel said1 8,provide thyself a teacher1 and be quit of doubt0 7,aboth i4 #af74 ,the rule laid down in these words for every individual applies also to the whole community4 ,questions like those mentioned in the preceding note frequently arise in ,jewish congregations1 and cause dissension where union is so much needed4 ,a teacher must be appointed in every community1 who shall be able to guide and to instruct it as to what is right and wrong4 ,in fact1 such a teacher has1 as a rule1 been appointed in ,jewish congregations2 he is known by various names3 ,haham 771 ,rav 7 8,teacher071 ,rabbi 7 8,my teacher071 ,teacher of righteousness 7 71 and ,judge 774 ,the weight of his authority is less to be determined by the nature of his office or by written conditions than by his learning1 piety1 and personal influence4 ,according to the rule1 8,judge not alone0 7ibid4 iv4 #h71 he is generally assisted by two councillors 7dayganim71 with whom he forms a court of judgment--,beth-din--when questions of more than ordinary importance have to be decided4 ,the congregation must accept his decisions as final1 and must have confidence that he1 like the high-priest of old1 will give his answers according to 8light and integrity40 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,dietary ,,laws4 8,thou shalt not eat any abominable thing0 7,deut4 xiv4 #c72 that is1 according to our traditional explanation1 everything that the ,word of ,god declares to be abominable 7,sifre1 ad locum74 ,one of the sections of the ,dietary ,laws concludes thus3 8,for ,i am the ,lord that brought you up out of the land of ,egypt1 to be your ,god3 ye shall therefore be holy1 for ,i am holy0 7,lev4 xi4 #de74 ,holiness is therefore the only object of these laws that is distinctly mentioned in the ,pentateuch4 ,but what is the nature of the holiness which they are intended to produce or to promote8 8,the ,dietary ,laws10 says ,maimonides1 8train us in the mastery over our appetites2 they accustom us to restrain the growth of desire1 the indulgence in seeking that which is pleasant1 and the disposition to consider the pleasure of eating and drinking the end of man's existence0 78,the ,guide10 ,,iii41 chap4 xxv4 p4 #afg74 ,and1 indeed1 wherever the ,law commands restraint of some bodily enjoyment1 or restriction of any of our appetites1 such commandment is followed or preceded by the exhortation to be holy1 or the warning not to defile oneself4 ,is there any secondary object in these laws besides the motive distinctly mentioned8 ,it has frequently been observed that ,jews have enjoyed a certain degree of immunity from epidemics that raged among their non-,jewish neighbours4 ,it has further been noticed that they have a lower rate of mortality and a greater longevity4 ,these facts are generally explained to be the result of a temperate life1 regulated by the ,divine ,law4 ,finding that such is the consequence of obedience to the ,dietary ,laws1 we may fairly assume that in distinguishing certain things from the rest1 in prohibiting some and permitting others1 the ,lawgiver aimed at the health and the well-being of man's body4 ,our conception of the goodness of ,god compels us to believe that in recommending certain things for our use ,he intended thereby to promote our well-being1 and to show us what is good for our health1 and what is injurious4 ,but we must take care that we do not on that account consider these precepts exclusively as sanitary regulations1 however important such regulations may be4 ,we must not lose sight of the fact that ,holiness is the only object of the ,dietary ,laws1 mentioned in the ,pentateuch4 ,but what difference can it make to the ,almighty whether we eat this or that8 ,surely it makes no difference to the ,almighty2 but we have faith in ,his ,goodness and ,wisdom1 and are convinced that ,he knows by what means we may best attain to that holiness which we are so frequently exhorted to seek1 and that the ,divine ,laws which ,he revealed to us for this very purpose show the shortest and the safest road to this aim4 ,with the following exceptions1 the ,dietary ,laws concern only animal food3-- 7#a47 8,forbidden fruit10 i4e41 the fruit of a tree during the first three years after its planting 7,lev4 xix4 #bc74--,the fruit of the fourth year 7 7 was formerly1 in the time of the ,temple1 brought to ,jerusalem1 and consumed there amidst praises and thanksgiving to ,him who is the source of all blessing 7ibid4 v4 #bd74 ,those who lived far from ,jerusalem were allowed to redeem the fruit of the fourth year with silver1 and to spend the latter in the holy city4 7#b47 8,new corn40--,the ,omer of barley offered on the second day of ,passover is called 8the first of your harvest0 7,lev4 xxiii4 #aj71 and it was enjoined1 8,ye shall eat neither bread1 nor parched corn1 nor fresh ears1 #afi until this selfsame day1 until ye have brought the oblation of your ,god0 7ibid4 #ad74 ,these two laws 7 and 7 seem to have their source in the dictum1 8,the first of the first-fruits of thy ground thou shalt bring into the house of the ,lord thy ,god0 7,exod4 xxiii4 #ai74 7#c47 4--,mixture of different kinds4 8,thou shalt not sow thy field with two kinds of seed0 7,lev4 xix4 #ai74 #agj 8,thou shalt not sow thy vineyard with two kinds of seed0 7,deut4 xxii4 #i74 ,in the former case only the sowing of divers kinds is prohibited1 but the produce of such sowing is not forbidden2 in the latter case1 if the law is transgressed1 the produce of both the vine and the seed is not to be used for any purpose whatever 7 71 for the law is followed by the words1 8lest the whole fruit be forfeited1 the seed which thou hast sown and the increase of the vineyard40 ,although these and similar #aga precepts are introduced by the words 8,ye shall keep my statutes 7710 and no reason is given for the enactment of these statutes1 it seems1 from the position occupied by these laws in a section of moral precepts1 that they serve as reminders of the important lesson that our conduct should be regulated by the principles of contentment and simplicity of life1 principles which are the best safeguard against undue desire for luxury and superfluity4 ,the prohibition of sowing divers kinds of seed further reminds us of the importance of preserving our heart in a state of simplicity and purity2 that twofold weights1 twofold measures1 and especially a twofold heart are an abomination to the ,lord4 ,in reference to animal food the following principles are observed3-- #a4 ,the killing of animals and the consuming of their flesh must not tend to create savage and cruel habits4 ,it is therefore forbidden-- 7a47 ,to cut off a piece of flesh from a living animal for our food 7 8a limb of a living animal074 7b47 ,to kill the parent with its young on the same day 7,lev4 xxii4 #bh2 comp4 ,deut4 xxii4 #f74 7c47 ,to give unnecessary pain to the animal in killing it4 ,the various regulations for the lawful killing of animals1 1 handed down by ,tradition as ,mosaic1 1 are not only in harmony with this principle1 but seem in many instances to have been dictated by it4 7d47 ,to eat the blood of beasts and birds 7,lev4 xvii4 #ab1 #ad74 ,the blood contained in the meat is removed as far as possible by having the meat soaked in water for half-an-hour1 and then kept covered with salt for an hour1 the salt being again removed by rinsing4 ,this process is called kasher2 that is1 preparing the meat so as to make it kasher 7 8fit for food074 #b4 ,the flesh of beasts and birds that have died from any other cause than having been killed in the manner prescribed is forbidden4 ,the flesh of animals that have been killed in the prescribed manner1 but are found to have been affected with some dangerous disease1 is also forbidden as t'refah 774 #agb #c4 ,with regard to the distinction between animals allowed for food and those forbidden1 all animals are divided into and 8cattle and beast10 8bird10 8fish10 and 8creeping thing40 7a47 ,with regard to cattle and beasts1 the rule is given1 8,whosoever parteth the hoof and is cloven-footed and cheweth the cud1 that you may eat0 7,lev4 xi4 #c74--,the clean cattle 7 7 and the clean beasts 7 7 are enumerated in ,deut4 xiv4 #d and #e respectively4 7b47 ,a number of birds are enumerated 7,lev4 xi4 #ac-ai7 as forbidden1 but no general characteristics of the clean or the unclean birds are given2 and as we are uncertain as to the exact meaning of the names of many of the birds1 we only use for food such birds as are traditionally known as 8clean birds40 7c47 ,fish that have scales and fins are permitted2 others--e4g41 the eel--are 8unclean0 7ibid4 xi4 #i-ab74 7d47 8,all winged animals that creep 7 71 going upon all four1 shall be an abomination unto you4 ,yet these may ye eat of1 every flying creeping thing that goeth upon all four1 which have legs above their feet1 to leap withal upon the earth2 even these of them ye may eat2 the arbeh with its kind1 and the soleam with its kind1 the chargol with its kind1 and the chagabh with its kind0 7ibid4 #bj-bb74 ,these are certain kinds of locusts that satisfy the above condition4 7,comp4 ,maimonides1 ,mishneh-torah1 ,hilchoth maachaloth asuroth i4 #ba-bc47 7e47 8,and every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth shall be an abomination2 it shall not be eaten0 7,lev4 xi4 #da74 ,in this prohibition are included all kinds of worms such as are found in fruit1 and mites1 snails1 oysters1 lobsters1 crabs1 c4 #d4 ,the milk of 8unclean0 cattle or beasts 7e4g41 asses' milk71 the eggs of 8unclean0 birds1 and the roe of 8unclean0 fish 7e4g41 caviare prepared of the roe of the sturgeon7 are likewise forbidden4 #e4 8,ye shall eat no manner of fat1 of ox1 or of sheep1 or of goat0 7,lev4 vii4 #bc74 ,from the context we learn that only those portions of the fat of cattle are forbidden which in the case of sacrifices were burnt upon the altar as an offering made by fire unto the ,lord1 viz41 8the fat that covereth the inwards1 and all the fat that is upon the inwards1 and the fat that is upon the kidneys which is by the flanks0 7ibid4 iii4 #c1 #d74 ,the forbidden fat is known by the name 1 chelebh1 whilst the fat permitted as food is called 1 shuman4 #f4 8,therefore the children of ,israel do not eat of the sinew which shrank1 which is upon the hollow of the thigh1 unto this day3 because he touched the hollow of ,jacob's thigh in the sinew that shrank0 7,gen4 xxxii4 #cc74 ,this law is designed to remind us of the wrestling of ,jacob with the man who attacked him1 which struggle forms a type of ,israel's fight against the evil threatening him from within and from without1 and teaches us the lesson that1 despite temporary troubles and struggles1 ,israel will ultimately be victorious4 ,the hind-quarters of cattle are not eaten unless the forbidden fat and 8the sinew that shrank0 7 7 have first been removed from them4 #g4 8,thou shalt not seethe the kid in its mother's milk0 7,exod4 xxiii4 #ai74 ,tradition explains this law as forbidding all mixture of meat and milk 7 74 ,in its literal sense the verse in which this law is mentioned seems to point to the duty of self-restraint1 as if to tell us that we should not greedily devour the first ripe fruit1 or the young immediately after their birth4 ,the significance of the law may be learnt from the fact that it is mentioned three times in the ,pentateuch4 ,hence the strictness with which this commandment is observed in ,jewish homes4 ,in a ,jewish household1 established in accordance with ,jewish law and tradition1 there are two separate sets of utensils1 the one to be used for the preparation of meat-diet1 the other for the preparation of milk and butter diet4 ,the flesh of fish is not considered as meat in this respect1 nor are fish subject to the laws of shechitah4 ,,notes4 #a4 ,on ,page #dei--a;a4 ,the prohibition of eating meat taken from the body of an animal whilst alive is based on the words 8,but flesh1 when the blood thereof is in its soul1 shall ye not eat0 7,gen4 ix4 #d74 ,the phrase 8to be in the soul0 means to be surrounded and animated by the soul1 to be in the midst of active1 living organs of the animal4 8,the blood of an animal is in the soul thereof0 may therefore be paraphrased thus1 8,the blood hath its vital powers and the animal is alive40 7,comp4 ,lev4 xvii4 #aa47 ,this prohibition is one of the 8the seven ,noachide commandments10 i4e41 commandments which1 according to ,tradition1 were already in force in the days of ,noah1 and are binding on all his children or all mankind1 and not on the ,israelites alone2 viz41 7#a7 the prohibition of idolatry 7 71 7#b7 of murder 7 71 7#c7 of adultery 7 71 7#d7 of blasphemy 7 71 7#e7 of robbery 771 7#f7 of eating meat taken from a living animal 7 71 and 7#g7 the institution of courts of justice 774 ,see ,babyl4 ,talm41 ,sanhedrin #ef;a4 #b4 ,on ,page #dei--a;c4 ,the existence of certain rules concerning killing animals for food included in the oral teaching of the ,torah is derived from the following passage3 8,thou shalt kill of thy herd and of thy flock which the ,lord hath given thee as ,i have commanded thee0 7,deut4 xii4 #ba74 ,in the ,commentary of ,rashi1 ad locum1 we read3 8,here we see that certain commandments have been given with regard to the killing of animals1 how this should be done4 ,these commandments are comprised in ,hilchoth ,shechitah1 which form part of the ,oral ,law1 revealed to ,moses on ,sinai40 ,they are fully discussed and explained in the first chapter of the treatise ,chullin4 ,any deviation from these rules in the act of killing the animal renders the shechitah unlawful 774 ,the killing of cattle1 beasts1 or fowl for food is therefore entrusted only to such persons as possess a knowledge of the rules of shechitah and are skilled and trustworthy4 ,the beth-din or the ,chief-,rabbi decides whether a person has duly qualified himself for the office of shochet 771 and whether he may kill animals for kasher food4 ,it is the duty of the shochet to examine the animal before killing it1 and to satisfy himself that it is not in a dying condition2 after the shechitah of any cattle or beast 7 or 7 he must examine the lungs to assure himself that they are in a normal condition4 ,if he finds them in a diseased state he declares the flesh of the animal as t'refah 77 and unfit for food4 ,in the case of poultry the examination is not made by the shochet2 but if any deviation from the normal state is discovered in the lungs or in any other part1 the meat must not be used as food unless the animal has been examined by a competent person 7,rabbi or dayyan71 and declared by him to be kasher4 ,as to the beneficial influence of these examinations on the general condition of health in the ,jewish community1 see ,dr4 ,h4 ,behrend's articles in ,jewish ,chronicle1 ,november #ab1 #ahhj1 and ,october #bd1 #ahij1 and ,nineteenth ,century1 ,october #ahij4 #c4 ,on ,page #dei--a;d4 ,the following particular rules are to be observed in kashering meat3-- 7a47 ,the meat is first soaked in water for half-an-hour2 this must be done within three days after the killing of the animal4 ,it is then taken out of the water1 placed on a slanting board or in a wicker-basket1 and after a few minutes1 when the water has sufficiently run off1 sprinkled on all sides with salt4 ,after the lapse of an hour the salt is again removed by soaking and rinsing4 7b47 ,in case of urgency1 when1 e4g41 the meat is wanted for a patient1 or when on ,friday afternoon there would not be left time enough for cooking or roasting the meat1 it need only be kept in water for fifteen minutes and in salt for half-an-hour4 7c47 ,in kashering poultry all the inner parts of the animal must be taken out and salted separately2 the rest must be sprinkled with salt both within and without4 7d47 ,liver is salted a little and roasted on fire1 not in the oven or in any vessel4 ,this done1 the liver may be cooked or roasted in any way4 7e47 ,the heart is cut open before the salting1 and a piece is cut off at the apex1 in order that the blood may run off more easily4--,for the same purpose the horny part of the legs is cut off4--,the head must be opened and sprinkled with salt on both sides1 after the brain has been taken out2 from the latter the skin is drawn off1 and then it is salted4 7f47 ,eggs found in poultry are treated as meat1 but must be salted separately4 7g47 ,the vessels used for soaking and salting the meat should not be used for other purposes4 #d4 ,on ,page #dei--a;c4 ,the law of shechitah applies only to cattle1 beasts1 and birds 71 and 72 there is no commandment as regards the killing of fish4 ,tradition supports this exception by reference to the distinction made in ,num4 xi4 #bb3 8,shall the flocks and the herds be slain 77 for them1 to suffice them8 or shall all the fish of the sea be gathered together 77 for them1 to suffice them80 ,although the latter term 77 is also used of quails 7ibid4 #cb71 no such inference is made with regard to birds1 because in ver4 #cb the term is not contrasted by 2 besides1 the verb is frequently applied in the ,law to birds1 but never to fish4 ,comp4 ,babyl4 ,talm41 ,chullin1 p4 #bg;b4 ,there is this difference to be observed between on the one hand1 and and on the other4 ,in the case of the latter two the shechitah must be followed by the covering of the blood 7 ,lev4 xvii4 #ac74 ,the object of this law is1 according to some1 to prevent the blood being used for idolatrous and superstitious purposes1 as birds and beasts were generally hunted in the fields1 mountains1 and woods1 places frequently associated in the imagination of the ancients with evil spirits and the like4 7,comp4 ,commentary of ,r4 ,obadiah ,seforno on the ,pentateuch1 ad locum47 ,the law was perhaps intended to impress the lesson on the mind of the hunter that the blood shed of a living being presents a ghastly sight that offends the eye of man4 ,he will accustom himself to think that taking away the life of another being1 even of an animal1 is an act of grave responsibility1 and will not be led to misuse his weapons against any of his fellow-men4 #e4 ,on ,page #dfj--c;b4 ,comp4 ,mishnah1 ,treatise ,chullin1 iii4 #f4--,the characteristics of the clean and the unclean cattle and beasts are given in the ,pentateuch1 but the characteristics of the clean or the unclean birds are not mentioned in the ,law4 ,our ,sages1 however1 declared every bird of prey--or every bird that seizes its food with its claws1 and lifts it up from the ground before eating it 7,rashi7 to be an unclean bird2 while all birds are clean that have a projecting claw 7 a claw longer than the rest7 and a crop 771 and whose stomach has a membrane that can easily be peeled off 7 74 ,another rule is this3 ,birds that dwell and associate with unclean birds are unclean4 8,not without reason does the starling go to the raven3 they are of the same species0 7,babyl4 ,talm41 ,chullin #fe;b74 ,the sentence serves also as a moral lesson 7ibid41 ,baba ,kama #ib;a74 ,at present1 however1 only those birds are killed for food which are known traditionally to have always been considered as 8clean birds0 7,maimonides1 ,mishneh-torah1 ,hilchoth maachaloth asuroth1 i4 #ad-bj2 ,tur ,joredeah1 chap4 lxxxii474 #f4 ,on ,page #dfa--g4 ,onkelos translates this commandment3 8,thou shalt not eat meat in milk10 in accordance with the ,oral ,law4 ,the threefold repetition of the commandment forbidding the seething of a kid in its mother's milk is explained traditionally to indicate a threefold prohibition3 that of boiling meat and milk together1 that of eating such mixture1 and that of deriving any benefit whatever from it 71 1 74 ,in obedience to the principle1 8,make a fence round the ,law10 we abstain from milk or butter for some time after having partaken of meat4 #g4 ,on ,page #dfa--d4 ,the honey of bees is an apparent exception from the rule that the products of the unclean animals are forbidden4 ,the honey mentioned in the ,bible is mostly the juice of fruit1 especially of dates2 but the honey of bees is also mentioned 7,judges xiv4 #h74 ,it is assumed that honey does not contain any part of the bee itself1 but is merely the juice of the flowers sucked and again discharged by the bees4 7,see ,babyl4 ,talm41 ,bechoroth #g;b2 ,maim41 ,mishneh-torah1 ,hil4 maachaloth asuroth iii4 #c47 ,note #h4 ,in addition to the things enumerated in this chapter as forbidden1 there is the prohibition of 8wine of libation0 7 74 ,everything used in the worship of idols was condemned1 and could not serve as food1 drink1 or any purpose2 it was 4 ,wine was frequently used by heathens in libations to their idols4 ,the wine of a heathen was therefore always suspected of having been employed in idolatrous libations1 and was consequently forbidden as 4 ,since1 however1 such libations have ceased this prohibition has also lapsed4 ,it has1 however1 not lapsed in its entirety4 ,it is only the that is no longer in force4 ,the prohibition of using wine prepared by non-,jews 7 7 as a beverage still continues4 ,this and similar prohibitions were intended as a barrier against the increase of mixed marriages among the ,jews4 7,comp4 ,babyl4 ,talm41 ,shabbath #ag;b47 ,,vii4 ,,jewish ,,life4 ,the first paragraph of the ,shulchan-aruch runs thus3 8#8,i have set the ,lord always before me' is one of the most important principles of our holy ,religion20 and1 indeed1 the more the actions of the ,jew conform to this principle1 the nearer does he approach the ideal of a true servant of ,god1 who is faithful in the service of his ,master1 and whose life is the expression of genuine recognition of ,god's sovereignty 7 7 with unconditional obedience to ,his ,will 7 74 ,neither attendance at ,public ,service1 nor the regular recitation of prayers1 nor the study of the ,law1 nor the performance of certain religious acts1 constitute by themselves ,jewish ,life1 but the supreme influence which the ,word of ,god--the ,torah--is constantly made to exercise over man's doings4 ,every movement of his is regulated by the ,law1 and wherever he turns he is met by a ,divine precept that elevates his heart towards ,him who gave us the ,law4 ,the very garments he wears1 though not different from those of his fellow-men1 #agc except by the absence of shaatnez 7combination of wool and linen71 include the arba kanfoth1 8the four-cornered garment10 with tsitsith2 his house1 the same in every other respect as those of his neighbours1 is distinguished by the mezuzah on the doorposts4 ,these distinctive characteristics1 however1 are not intended to attract the attention of others2 they only concern the man himself2 they serve him as reminders of ,god and ,his ,will4 ,within the house the furniture and the whole arrangement are in accordance with the custom and fashion of the place2 #agd there is simplicity or luxury1 taste or want of taste1 according to the individual character of the occupier4 ,only the kitchen and the table have a distinctly ,jewish aspect2 these must be adapted to the requirements of the ,dietary ,laws4 ,the most striking feature is the double set of kitchen utensils and of vessels for the table1 the one set for meat1 the other for butter and milk4 ,in the choice of his occupation1 trade1 or profession1 the ,jew1 like all his fellow-men1 is influenced by his inclination1 capabilities1 and opportunities2 but1 in addition to these1 there is another important factor that must ultimately determine the choice--his religion2 and such occupation as would be likely to compel him to abandon any of the ,divine precepts1 cannot be chosen4 ,no manner of labour or trade is in itself derogatory2 on the contrary1 all labour is honourable1 unless man degrades it by his conduct1 and by the object he aims at achieving by means of it4 ,thrift1 economy1 and temperance are essential conditions of success4 ,but success1 however desirable1 and however sweet when obtained1 leads only to the material well-being of man4 ,as to his spiritual well-being1 the ,jew1 though busy with urgent work1 will try to find some spare moments in which to turn his attention to 8the three things upon which the world is based3 ,study of the ,torah1 ,divine ,service1 and ,charity0 7,aboth i4 #b74 ,before the work of the day commences1 and when it is finished1 attention is paid to torah and abhodah4 ,the ,service1 especially the ,morning ,service1 contains various sections which are not prayers1 but rather lessons for study4 ,in addition to these1 the ,jew1 according to his capacity or opportunity1 should read the ,bible1 the ,mishnah1 and the ,talmud4 ,for those who have no opportunity at home1 the ,beth ha-midrash is open with its library4 ,synagogue and ,beth ha-midrash are the places of spiritual recreation where the ,jew refreshes his mind1 elevates his heart1 and gathers new strength1 courage1 and hope for the battle of life4 ,charity in its various branches1 tsedakah and gemiluth chasadim1 is a virtue practised by the wealthy and the poor alike4 ,any heart or house from which this virtue is absent does not deserve to be called ,jewish4 ,some ,jews have charity-boxes in their houses1 and whenever any member of the family has something to spare or is moved by a special impulse of charity1 these boxes receive an addition to their contents4 ,others imitate the law of maaser 78tithe071 and set aside a tenth part of their earnings and profits for charitable purposes4 ,hospitality 7 7 is another method of charity1 and it forms one of the ornaments of a true ,jewish house4 ,although societies and public institutions do at present what was formerly considered to be the duty of the members of the community1 individual hospitality has by no means become superfluous1 and there is ample opportunity for its practice4 ,hospitality graces especially the lady of the house2 it is her duty to provide for the comfort of the guests1 and to act according to the rule1 8,let the poor be the children of thy house0 7,aboth i4 #e74 ,this is one of the privileges possessed by women4 ,according to the principle of division of labour1 woman rules supreme in the house3 8,the ,king's daughter is all glorious within0 7,ps4 xlv4 #ad72 whilst man is more in contact with the outer world1 devotes himself to labour1 trade1 or profession in order to provide the necessities of life for those who are dependent upon him4 ,there are1 however1 many exceptions to the rule1 and there is scarcely any trade or profession in which women have not been engaged4 ,women were not excluded even from the highest honours4 ,the ,jews had their prophetesses1 and women were entrusted with judgeship and even with sovereignty4 ,there are instances of women distinguished by learning1 experience1 wit1 and especially by piety4 ,women of piety 7 7 were never wanting in ,israel2 and many a scholar owes the success he has attained in the field of learning to the piety of his wife1 who willingly undertook her husband's burdens and cares in trade and business in order to facilitate his devotion to study4 ,no sacrifice is too great for a true ,jewish mother to have her children instructed in the ,word of ,god1 and nothing adds more to the happiness and pride of the mother than the progress her son has made in the knowledge of the ,torah4 8,what is the great merit of women8 ,they have the merit of making their children attend the school1 and of encouraging their husbands to study the ,talmud0 7,babyl4 ,talm41 ,berachoth #ag;a74 ,the moral and the intellectual as well as the physical training of the children is in its earliest stages almost exclusively in the hands of the mother4 ,if we add to this the responsibility for having the food prepared according to the requirements of the ,dietary ,laws1 we easily understand the reason why ,jewish women are exempt from various religious duties incumbent on the other sex4 ,the rule is this3 8,women are exempt from the fulfilment of all precepts which are restricted to a certain time0 7,mishnah1 ,kiddushin i4 #g71 in order to prevent any collision between these and her principal and most important duties in the house4 ,thus it happens that there are ,jewish women who faithfully cling to the inherited religion1 and yet are rare visitors of the ,synagogue4 ,on week-days the ,synagogue is only in exceptional cases attended by women4 ,from this reason women are disqualified for forming the quorum 7minyan7 required for public worship 7tefillah batsibbur74 ,this and similar disqualifications are based on the principle of regard for women and their home-duties1 and by no means on a belief in their inferiority4 ,passages in the ,talmudical and ,midrashic ,literature which ascribe to women vanity1 levity1 and other shortcomings are outweighed by sayings which evidence a sense of high regard for the virtues and accomplishments of women4 ,the following sentences are a few examples2 8,woman has been endowed by the ,creator with greater intelligence than man0 7,babyl4 ,talm41 ,niddah #de;b74 8,who is rich8 ,he who possesses a wife fair in her doings0 7ibid41 ,shabbath #be;b74 8,it was through the merit of pious women that the ,israelites were redeemed from ,egypt0 7ibid41 ,sotah #aa;b74 #age ,modesty and reservedness 77 are the distinguishing virtues of ,jewish women4 ,the principle1 8,the daughter of the ,king is all glorious within10 was applied literally4 ,in the fulfilment of her home-duties the daughter of ,israel seeks her happiness and her pride4 ,it used to be opposed to the sense of propriety of ,jewish ladies to speak1 sing1 or act in public4 #agf ,this was the main cause of the preservation of the sanctity of the ,jewish home and the purity of ,jewish family life1 a treasure and a blessing which ought to be well guarded4 ,the working days of the week are divided between labour and devotion4 ,three ,services are attended daily either in the ,synagogue or at home1 and every meal is preceded and followed by prayer4 ,jewish women have1 in addition to the ,prayer-book1 a small volume of supplications 77 in the vernacular for every day1 every season1 and every occasion4 ,mondays and ,thursdays1 on which days a ,lesson from the ,law is read during the ,morning ,service1 are considered as special days for earnest devotion4 ,there have been pious ,jews who fasted the whole or part of these days4--,tuesday is looked upon as a favoured day1 because it is distinguished in the account of the ,creation 7,gen4 i4 #aj1 #ab7 by a repetition of the phrase1 8,and ,god saw that it was good40 ,it is therefore called 8the day with double ki-tobh 7that it was good740 ,this circumstance may be the cause of the belief that it is not advisable to begin a new undertaking on ,monday or ,wednesday2 #agg preference should be given to ,tuesday4 ,but this belief1 although seemingly founded on a ,biblical phrase1 is contrary to ,jewish principles1 and is included in the prohibition1 8,ye shall not observe times0 7,lev4 xix4 #bf71 to declare a particular day as lucky or unlucky4 ,friday is an important and busy day in a ,jewish house4 ,it is not only the circumstance that food is being prepared for two days #agh that causes greater activity1 but also the anticipated pleasure at the approach of a beloved guest4 ,the same is the case when a ,festival is near4 ,each ,festival has its own particular wants and pleasures4 ,in some houses the activity in preparing for ,passover may be noticed a whole month before1 although the actual clearing of the chamets is done in a very short time4 ,before ,succoth all hands are busy with preparing and ornamenting the ,tabernacle1 and selecting esrog and lulabh4 ,it is genuine religious enthusiasm #agi in the fulfilment of ,divine duties that inspires this kind of activity1 and gives to the house a peculiarly ,jewish tone and ,jewish atmosphere4 ,we feel in it 8the season of our joy0 before and during the ,three ,festivals1 and 8the season of solemnity and earnest reflection0 during the penitential days2 grief when the #ith of ,ab approaches1 and hilarity when ,purim is near4 ,twice a year we are invited by law and custom to give ourselves up to gladness and merriment3 on ,simchath-torah and on ,purim4 ,although even a certain excess of mirth is considered lawful on the latter occasion1 there are but very few that indulge in this license4 ,all the seasons of rejoicing are also occasions for mitsvoth--charity1 and for strengthening the bond of love between husband and wife1 between parents and children1 and the bond of friendship between man and man4 ,every erebh shabbath and erebh yom-tobh afford the opportunity of giving challah1 #ahj kindling ,sabbath or ,festival lights1 #aha and inviting strangers #ahb 7 7 to our meals4 ,on ,sabbaths and ,festivals children1 even when grown up1 come to their parents and ask for their blessing4 #ahc ,before ,kiddush the husband chants the section of ,prov4 xxxi4 beginning 1 in praise of a good wife4 ,the ,shabbath shalom or ,good shabbath1 ,shabhua tobh or ,good woch1 ,good yom tobh1 and similar salutations1 remind us that we ought to have only good wishes for each other4 ,sabbath and ,festivals afford suitable occasions for home-devotion1 in which all the members of the family1 males and females1 should take part4 ,the meals are preceded and followed by the usual berachoth1 but it is customary to add extra psalms and hymns 7zemiroth7 in honour of the day1 and those who are gifted should add to these1 or even substitute for them1 compositions of their own in any language they like in gloriam ,dei4 ,a second kind of home-devotion which ought not to be neglected1 but should rather be revived where it is neglected1 is the reading of the ,scriptures4 ,on ,friday evening the pious ,jew reads the ,sidra twice in the original and once in the ,targum2 but all should at least read ,sidra and ,haphtarah in the vernacular4 ,the moon by its gradual increase in light from its minimum to full-moon1 and the subsequent decrease from full-moon to its minimum1 has in ,agadic and ,midrashic ,literature frequently served as a symbol of the history of ,israel1 of his rise and his fall4 ,the last day of the decline1 the eve of ,new-moon1 is kept by some as a special day of prayer and fasting1 #ahd while the first day of the rise1 ,new-moon1 is distinguished by ,hallel and ,musaph4 ,if people1 as a symbol of happiness 7 71 prefer the middle of the month for marriage1 their choice is harmless2 but if they hold that season as more lucky than the rest of the month1 they are guilty of superstition4 ,as at the sight of other natural phenomena1 so also has a benediction been fixed on observing the reappearance of the moon in the beginning of the month4 ,for the above-mentioned reason1 importance is attached to this berachah1 and prayers are added for the redemption of ,israel4 ,the berachah1 which is generally recited in the open air1 is the chief element in the ceremony2 the additional prayers and reflections are non-essential4 ,in the foregoing1 ,jewish ,life has been described as it appears at the various seasons of the year2 in the following1 it will be given as it appears at the various periods of man's existence4 ,the first important moment is1 of course1 the moment of birth4 ,the father1 friends1 and relatives are filled with anxiety for the life of both mother and child4 ,prayers are daily offered up for the safety and recovery of the patient and the well-being of the child4 ,the ,twentieth ,psalm is sometimes written on a tablet placed in the room where the confinement takes place1 probably as a reminder or an invitation for visitors to pray to the ,almighty2 in this sense the custom is to be commended2 but if the tablet is filled with meaningless signs1 letters1 and words1 and is used merely as a charm1 the custom should be discontinued1 being a superstitious practice4 ,in some parts it has been the custom that during the week preceding the ,berith-milah friends visited the house to pray there for the well-being of the child1 and boys recited there ,biblical passages containing blessings1 such as ,gen4 xlviii4 #af4 #ahe ,the night before the berith was spent in reading ,bible and ,talmud1 so that the child might from the beginning breathe1 as it were1 the atmosphere of torah4 #ahf ,on the eighth day the male child is initiated into the covenant of ,abraham 7,lev4 xii4 #c74 ,circumcision is one of 8those mitsvoth which the ,israelites in times of religious persecution carried out notwithstanding imminent danger to life40 ,the performance of this ,divine precept is therefore made the occasion of much rejoicing4 ,in some congregations the operation1 as a sacred act1 takes place in the ,synagogue after the ,morning ,service2 in others the privacy of the home is preferred4 ,in ancient days mothers circumcised their sons1 but now the operation is only entrusted to a person who has been duly trained1 and has received from competent judges a certificate of his qualification for the functions of a mohel4 #ahg ,although1 according to the ,law1 any person1 otherwise capable of doing it1 may do the mitsvah1 preference is given1 and ought to be given1 to a person of genuine piety and of true enthusiasm for our holy ,religion1 who performs the act in gloriam ,dei4 ,not only the mohel1 but all who assist in the act do a mitsvah1 and the meal which is prepared for the occasion is a 7a meal involving a religious act74 #ahh ,immediately after the operation a name is given to the child4 #ahi ,the next important moment in a boy's life is the 8,redemption0 7 7 in case of the first-born male child 7,exod4 xiii4 #ac1 #ae71 which act is likewise made the occasion of a 4 ,a cohen 7descendant of ,aaron7 receives the redemption-money to the amount of five shekels 7or #aes471 according to ,num4 xviii4 #af4 #aij ,in the case of a female child the naming generally takes place in the ,synagogue on a ,sabbath1 when the father is called up to the ,law4 ,in many congregations this takes place when the mother has sufficiently recovered to attend again for the first time the ,service in the ,synagogue on ,sabbath4 ,those who live at a great distance from the ,synagogue pay the first visit to the place of worship on a week-day4 ,a special ,service has been arranged for the occasion4 #aia ,great care is now taken by the parents for the physical well-being of the child1 without entirely ignoring its moral and intellectual development4 8,at five years the child is fit to be taught ,mikra1 i4e41 reading the ,bible0 7,aboth v4 #ba71 so the ,mishnah teaches4 ,but long before this the child is taught to pray1 and to repeat short ,biblical passages or prayers in ,hebrew4 ,it must1 of course1 be borne in mind that children are not all alike1 and that each child must be taught according to its own capacities and strength4 ,the knowledge must be imparted in such a manner that the child should seek it as a source of pleasure and happiness4 ,as to the subjects which are to be taught1 there is no branch of general knowledge from which ,jewish children are debarred by their ,religion1 nor is there any branch of knowledge that is more ,jewish than the rest4 ,jewish children must learn like other children1 as far as possible1 that which is considered necessary and useful1 as well as that which is conducive to the comfort and happiness of life4 ,but ,religion1 ,scripture1 and ,hebrew must never be absent from the curriculum of studies of a ,jewish child4 ,the instruction in ,religion need not occupy much time1 for the best teaching of ,religion is the good example set by the parents at home and the teacher in the school4 ,the religious training of a child should begin early2 the surroundings and associations must teach the child to act nobly1 to speak purely1 to think charitably1 and to love our ,religion4 8,train up a child in the way he should go2 and when he is old1 he will not depart from it0 7,prov4 xxii4 #f74 ,early practical training 77 is also of great importance with regard to the observance of religious precepts4 ,children should be accustomed to regard with reverence that which is holy1 to honour ,sabbath and ,festivals1 and to rejoice in doing what the ,almighty has commanded4 ,twice a year we have special occasion for the fulfilment of this duty1 viz41 on ,simchath-torah and on the ,seder-evening4 ,in teaching our children ,hebrew our aim must be to make them understand the holy language1 to enable them to read the ,word of ,god in the original1 and to pray to the ,almighty in the language in which the ,prophets and the ,psalmists gave utterance to their inspirations1 and in which our forefathers addressed the ,supreme ,being in the ,temple4 ,a special ceremony used to introduce the child into the study of the ,bible in the original4 #aib ,teacher and pupil went to the ,synagogue1 took a sepher from the ,hechal1 and the pupil was made to read the first lesson from the sepher4 ,this and similar ceremonies were intended as a means of impressing on the pupil the great importance of studying the ,word of ,god in the original language4 ,after having acquired a sound knowledge of the ,bible1 the study of other branches of ,hebrew literature1 of ,talmudical and ,rabbinical works1 is approached4 ,as a rule1 boys devote more time to ,hebrew studies than girls1 only because girls are considered physically more delicate and not capable of doing so much work as boys4 ,girls are by no means excluded from acquiring a sound ,hebrew knowledge2 on the contrary1 every encouragement should be given to them1 if they are inclined to study ,hebrew beyond the first elements4 #aic ,the boy when thirteen years old is bar-mitsvah 7lit41 8a son of the commandment071 bound to obey the ,law1 and responsible for his deeds4 ,on the ,sabbath following his thirteenth birthday the boy is called up to the ,law2 he reads the whole of the ,sidra or a section of it1 and declares in the blessings which precede and follow the lesson his belief in the ,divine origin of the ,torah1 and his gratitude to ,god for having given us the ,law4 #aid ,the school-years come gradually to a close1 and the practical preparation for life begins4 ,a vocation has to be determined upon4 ,from a moral and religious point of view all kinds of trade1 business1 and profession are equal4 ,they are honourable or base according as they are carried on in an honourable manner or not4 ,whatever course is chosen1 the moral and religious training must continue with unabated energy4 ,when the school-years are over1 when the youth is no longer under the control of the master1 and is sometimes left even without the control of the parents1 he is exposed to various kinds of temptation1 especially through the influence of bad society4 ,the vices against which the youth must guard himself most at this period of life are sensuality1 excessive desire for pleasure1 gambling1 and dishonesty1 which bring about his moral1 social1 and physical ruin4 ,self-control1 acquired through continued religious training1 is the best safeguard against these dangers4 ,it is therefore advisable that those who have left the school should continue attending some religious class1 or otherwise devote part of their free time to ,talmud-torah1 to the study of the ,torah1 and of works relating to it4 8,at the age of eighteen years one is fit for marriage0 7,aboth1 ibid47 is an ancient dictum1 but which could never have been meant as an absolute law4 ,for there are other qualifications equally important1 and even more essential than age4 ,maimonides 7,mishneh-torah1 ,hil4 ,deoth v4 #aa7 says3 8,man should first secure a living1 then prepare a residence1 and after that seek a wife4 ,but fools act otherwise3 they marry first1 then look out for a house1 and at last think of the means of obtaining a livelihood40 7,comp4 ,deut4 xx4 #e-g and xxviii4 #cj47 ,marriage is called in the ,bible 8a divine covenant0 7,prov4 ii4 #ag71 or 8the covenant of ,god40 ,god is1 as it were1 made witness of the covenant2 in ,his presence the assurances of mutual love and the promises of mutual fidelity are given by husband and wife 7,mal4 ii4 #ad74 ,to break this covenant is therefore not only an offence of the one against the other1 but an offence against ,god4--,in addition to this religious basis of marriage1 conditions of a more material nature were agreed upon4 ,the maiden has been long of use in the house of her parents1 and he who sought the privilege of taking her to his house and making her his wife had to give to the parents 8dowry and gift0 7 1 ,gen4 xxxiv4 #ab74 ,later on1 in the time of the ,mishnah1 all that the husband promised to his wife was made the subject of a written document 771 signed by two witnesses4 ,in this document he guarantees to her #bjj zus 7or half the sum if she is a widow71 the value of her outfit and dowry 7in ,hebrew 71 and a certain amount added to the afore-mentioned obligatory sum 7 74 ,he further promises to honour her1 work for her1 maintain her1 and honestly provide her with everything necessary for her comfort4 ,the marriage was preceded by the betrothal 7 or 71 the solemn promise on his part to take her after a fixed time to his house as his wife1 and on her part to consider herself as his wife and to prepare herself for the marriage4 ,legally she was already his wife1 and infidelity was visited with capital punishment4 ,the interval between the betrothal and marriage used to be twelve months2 at present the two events are united in the marriage ceremony1 and are only separated from each other by an address or by the reading of the kethubhah4 ,that which is now called betrothal or engagement is merely a preliminary settlement of the conditions of the marriage 7 8conditions074 ,the conditions used to be written down1 including a fine 77 for breach of promise2 the agreement used to be followed by the breaking of a glass #aie and by a feast4 ,the actual betrothal takes place on the wedding-day1 and consists mainly of the following significant words addressed by the bridegroom to his bride3 8,behold1 thou art consecrated 7betrothed7 to me by this ring according to the ,law of ,moses and of ,israel40 ,while saying this he places a gold ring #aif on the second finger of the right hand4 ,this act is preceded by a berachah over wine1 read by the celebrant while holding a cup of wine in his hand1 and the birchath erusin 78blessing of betrothal071 in which ,god is praised for the institution of ,marriage4 ,bride and bridegroom1 who during the ceremony stand under a canopy 771 taste of the wine4 ,the canopy or chuppah #aig represents symbolically the future home of the married couple1 which they have to guard as a sanctuary1 and to render inaccessible to evil deeds1 words1 and thoughts that would pollute it4 ,the top of the canopy1 which is formed of a curtain 77 of the ,hechal1 or of a talith1 expresses the idea of sanctity4 ,after the birchath erusin the bridegroom makes the solemn declaration #aih mentioned above3 8,behold1 thou art consecrated 7betrothed7 unto me by this ring according to the ,law of ,moses and of ,israel10 #aii whereupon the kethubhah is read in ,aramaic #bjj or in ,english1 and an address is sometimes given4 ,then follow the 78,blessings of ,marriage071 called also after their number 8,seven ,blessings40 #bja ,the ceremony concludes with the breaking of a glass and the mutual congratulations of friends and relatives1 expressed in the words ,mazzal-tobh 7 8,good luck074 #bjb ,a banquet 7 7 follows1 which is a 4 ,it is introduced by the usual berachah 771 and followed by ,grace and the 8,seven ,blessings40 ,the following are a few of the various customs connected with a ,jewish marriage without being essential elements of the marriage ceremony3-- 7#a47 ,on the ,sabbath previous to the wedding-day the bridegroom1 his father1 and the father of the bride are called up to the ,law1 and offerings are made 7mi shebberach7 in honour of the bride and the bridegroom4 ,in some congregations ,gen4 xxiv4 is read after the ,service1 on the morning of the wedding-day4 7#b47 ,bride and bridegroom enter upon a new life2 the wedding-day is to them a day of rejoicing1 but also a day of great solemnity4 ,it is kept as a day of earnest reflections1 of prayer and fasting1 till after the ceremony1 when the fast is broken and the rejoicing begins4 ,the bridegroom adds in the ,minchah amidah the ,confession 77 of the ,day of ,atonement4 7#c47 ,the good wishes of friends and relatives are variously expressed4 ,rice1 wheat1 or similar things are thrown over the bride and the bridegroom as a symbol of abundance and fruitfulness4 7#d47 ,the feast is accompanied by speeches in praise of the bride and bridegroom2 it was considered a special merit to speak on such an occasion 7 1 ,babyl4 ,talm41 ,berachoth #f;b74 ,the bridegroom used to give a discourse 77 on some ,talmudical theme1 if he was able to do so4 ,he received presents for it 7derashah-presents74 7#e47 ,in the time of the ,bible and the ,talmud the feasting lasted seven days4--,the first day after the wedding used to be distinguished by a fish dinner 7 71 in allusion to ,gen4 xlviii4 #af4 ,in spite of all blessings and good wishes the marriage sometimes proves a failure1 husband and wife being a source of trouble and misery the one to the other1 instead of being the cause of each other's happiness4 ,in such a case a divorce may take place1 and man and wife separate from each other4 ,divorce is permitted 7,deut4 xxiv4 #a-d71 but not encouraged2 it is an evil1 but the lesser of two evils4 ,a written document was required 7 1 71 and later legislation made the writing and the delivery of the document difficult and protracted1 in order to facilitate attempts at reconciliation2 the fulfilment of the conditions agreed upon in the kethubhah also tended to render divorce a rare event4 ,the number of cases of divorce among the ,jews is therefore comparatively smaller than among other denominations1 but still unfortunately far too large1 owing to want of foresight and reflection in the choice of a companion for life4 ,there is a kind of obligatory marriage 77 and or obligatory divorce 771 viz41 with regard to the widow of a deceased brother who has died without issue 7,deut4 xxv4 #e-aj74 ,since the abolition of polygamy #bjc by ,rabbenu ,gershom 7eleventh century7 the obligatory marriage has almost disappeared1 and the obligatory divorce 77 must take place before the widow can marry again4 #bjd ,we acknowledge the principle laid down in the ,talmud1 8,the law of the country is binding upon us0 7 71 but only in so far as our civil relations are concerned4 ,with regard to religious questions our own religious code must be obeyed4 ,marriage laws include two elements--civil relations and religious duties4 ,as regards the former1 we abide by the decisions of the civil courts of the country4 ,we must1 therefore1 not solemnise a marriage which the law of the country would not recognise2 we must not religiously dissolve a marriage by 1 unless the civil courts of law have already decreed the divorce4 ,on the other hand1 we must not content ourselves with civil marriage or civil divorce2 religiously1 neither civil marriage nor civil divorce can be recognised unless supplemented by marriage or divorce according to religious forms4 ,furthermore1 marriages allowed by the civil law1 but prohibited by our religious law--e4g41 mixed marriages2 that is1 marriages between ,jews and non-,jews--cannot be recognised before the tribunal of our ,religion2 such alliances are sinful1 and the issue of such alliances must be treated as illegitimate4 ,those who love their ,religion and have the well-being of ,judaism at heart will do their utmost to prevent the increase of mixed marriages4 8,to every thing there is a season1 and a time to every purpose under the heaven3 a time to be born1 and a time to die0 7,eccles4 iii4 #a1 #b74 ,life is a precious gift the ,creator has given us2 while there is breath in our nostrils we thank ,him for it1 we pray to ,him for its prolongation1 do everything in our power to preserve it1 and consider its wilful destruction a criminal act4 ,but notwithstanding all this 8there is a time to die40 ,life and death are equally mysteries to us2 we trust in the mercy of ,him who has ordained life and death1 that both are for our good4 ,death is1 therefore1 not to be regarded with dread and horror2 it is the transition to another state of life1 the real nature of which is unknown to us4 ,but it is our belief that the future life 7 7 is infinitely superior to the present life 7 72 hence the saying in the ,midrash that the words 8exceedingly good0 7,gen4 i4 #ca7 applied to death4 ,the only fear of death that can reasonably be justified is the fear of departing from this life before we have completed our task1 before we have sufficiently strengthened 8the breaches of the house0 caused by our own dereliction of duty4 ,our ,sages advise1 8,return one day before thy death0 7,aboth ii4 #ae72 that is1 every day1 the day of death being concealed from our knowledge4 ,in this manner we constantly prepare ourselves for death without curtailing our enjoyment of life4 8,rejoice1 ,o young man1 in thy youth2 and let thy heart cheer thee in the days of thy youth1 and walk in the ways of thine heart1 and in the sight of thine eyes3 but know thou1 that for all these things ,god will bring thee into judgment4 ,therefore remove sorrow from thy heart1 and put away evil from thy flesh3 for childhood and youth are vanity0 7,eccles4 xi4 #i1 #aj74 ,when passion overcomes us and evil inclinations invite us to sin1 we are told by our ,sages to remember the day of death1 which may suddenly surprise us before we have been able by repentance to purify ourselves from our transgressions 7,babyl4 ,talm41 ,berachoth #e;a74 ,when death approaches1 and announces itself through man's illness1 we do everything that human knowledge and skill can suggest to preserve and prolong the earthly life with which ,god has endowed us2 in addition1 the patient himself and his friends invoke the mercy of ,god for his recovery4 #bje ,even when death appears invincible1 when 8the edge of the sword touches already man's neck1 we do not relinquish our hope in ,god's mercy1 and continue to pray to the ,all-merciful40 ,the patient is asked to prepare himself for the solemn moment1 although it may in reality be as yet far off4 #bjf ,the preparation consists of prayer1 meditation1 confession of sin1 repentance1 and of the profession of our ,creed1 especially of the ,unity of ,god1 in the words1 8,hear1 ,o ,israel1 the ,lord is our ,god1 the ,lord is ,one40 #bjg ,to visit the sick1 to comfort them by kind words and deeds1 to pray with and for the patient1 are acts included in the duty of 8visiting the sick0 7 74 #bjh ,in the moment of death those present testify their faith in ,god by proclaiming the ,dominion1 the ,omnipotence1 and the ,unity of ,god in the same way in which we make this declaration at the conclusion of the ,day of ,atonement4 ,although ,prayer-books contain certain forms of prayer for this purpose1 the patient and those present should rather follow the impulse of their heart1 and commune with the ,almighty in any form their heart suggests4 ,when life has come to an end friends and relatives give free expression to their grief2 #bji to check it by comforting words at this moment is useless 7,aboth iv4 #ah74 ,the mourners1 #baj father1 mother1 son1 daughter1 brother1 and sister1 have now to direct all their attention to the deceased relative1 in order that nothing be neglected in the last honours shown to him2 they are therefore free from all other religious obligations till after the burial4 ,in ,palestine and neighbouring countries1 where1 in consequence of the higher temperature1 decomposition of the body begins soon after death1 the burial takes place on the same day4 #baa ,in colder climates two or three days elapse between death and burial4 ,the mourners abstain during the interval from wine and meat4 ,every act of piety in honour of the deceased is a meritorious religious act1 a mitsvah1 an act of kindness and truth 7 71 and in every congregation there exists a society1 called 8holy society10 whose members devote themselves to the fulfilment of these pious duties4 ,according to the principle that death equalises all1 that 8the small and great are there0 7,job iii4 #ai71 the greatest simplicity and equality is observed in all matters connected with the obsequies #bab of the dead4 ,friends and relatives follow to the burial-ground2 the 1 or attending the dead to their last resting-place1 #bac is one of those mitsvoth 8the fruits of which a man enjoys in this world1 while the stock remains for him for the world to come40 ,burying the dead is a very old custom1 to which the ,jews adhered firmly at all ages4 ,the custom of the ,greeks1 who burnt their dead1 found no advocates among the ,jews4 ,in the ,written and the ,oral ,law only the burying of the dead is mentioned4 ,to leave a human body unburied and unattended was considered by ,jews1 as by other nations1 an insult to the deceased person1 and whoever found such a body was bound to take charge of it and to effect its burial4 #bad ,in the ,burial ,service we acknowledge the justice of ,god1 and resign ourselves to the ,will of the ,almighty 7 74 ,when the burial is over our attention is directed to the living2 words of comfort are addressed to the mourners #bae who return home and keep 8seven days of mourning40 ,a certain degree of mourning is then continued till the end of the year by the children of the deceased1 and till the end of the month 7 8thirty days07 by other relatives4 #baf ,our regard for the deceased 7 7 and our sympathies with the mourners 7 7 are expressed in different ways4 ,the funeral oration 77 occasionally spoken at the grave1 or in the house of mourning1 or in the ,synagogue1 generally combines both elements2 it contains a eulogy upon the deceased and words of sympathy and exhortation for the living4 ,the special prayers offered up on such occasions likewise include these two elements3 petitions for the well-being of the soul of the deceased1 that it may find ,divine mercy when appearing before the ,supreme ,judge1 and petitions for the comfort and relief of the mourners4 ,the ,kaddish of the ,mourners1 however1 does not contain such prayers1 but merely expresses their resignation to the ,will of the ,almighty1 their conviction that ,he is the only ,being that is to be worshipped1 and that ,he alone will be worshipped by all mankind in the days of ,messiah1 and their wish that the arrival of those days may be hastened4 ,there are1 besides1 the following customs1 the object of which is to express our regard for the memory of the deceased3 7#a47 ,a tombstone 77 is set up in front of or over the grave with the name of the deceased1 the date of his death1 and such words of praise as are dictated by the love and the esteem in which the deceased was held by the mourners4 7#b47 ,a lamp is kept burning #bag during the week1 or the month1 or the year of mourning1 and on the anniversary of the day of death 7,jahrzeit74 7#c47 ,by observing the anniversary of the death as a day devoted to earnest reflection1 and to meditation on the merits and virtues of the deceased2 we keep away from amusements1 and say ,kaddish in the course of the ,services of the day4 ,some observe the anniversary as a fast-day4 7#d47 ,by doing some mitsvah #bah in commemoration of the deceased4 7#e47 ,by regarding with respect and piety the wishes of the departed relative or friend1 especially those uttered when death was approaching4 ,our ,sages teach3 8,it is our duty to fulfil the wishes of the departed40 #bai ,the absence of this inner respect and piety makes all the outward signs of mourning1 however conscientiously observed1 valueless and illusory4 ,,notes4 ,in addition to the customs already mentioned1 there are a few calling for some observation1 customs which might seem superstitious1 but are not so if properly understood4 ,when life is extinct the eyes of the deceased are closed1 and in some cases also the mouth is kept shut4 ,this is probably done out of regard for the dead1 that their face should not present a too ghastly and repulsive appearance4 ,the custom is mentioned in the ,mishnah1 ,shabbath xxiii4 #e1 and is also alluded to in the words1 8,and ,joseph shall put his hands upon thine eyes0 7,gen4 xlvi4 #d74 ,from the house in which there was a dead person1 and from the houses in its immediate neighbourhood1 the water was poured out4 ,according to ,num4 xix41 everything in the house--and1 under certain conditions1 also in the neighbouring houses--was unclean2 the water was poured out1 from fear lest it be used in preparing holy food1 such as terumah 78heave-offering074 ,furthermore1 a kohen is not allowed to enter such a house1 and the pouring away of the water served as an indication that a dead person was in the house4 ,an important element in the preparation for the burial is the 8cleaning0 and robing of the body 772 the cleansing of the body before it returns to the earth is to be a symbol of the purification of the soul by the mercy of ,god4 ,it is customary that those who came into contact with the deceased during his lifetime express regret for any offence they may have committed1 knowingly or unknowingly1 against him--a good custom1 that might serve as an exhortation to us all to be careful in our actions towards our living fellow-men4 ,whenever we mention the name of a deceased friend or relative we add1 as a mark of respect1 7 or 7 1 77 1 or 77 7abbreviated1 1 1 or 71 8,peace be to him 7her or them710 8his 7or her7 memory be for a blessing10 8the memory of the righteous be for a blessing10 or 8his 7or her7 rest be ,eden40 ,comp4 ,zunz1 ,zur ,literatur u4 ,geschichte4 ,similarly we add to the names of living friends and relatives the wish 771 or 8,may he 7or she7 live10 or 8,may his light continue to shine40 ,,appendix4 ,i4 ,,the ,,thirteen ,,principles ,,of ,,faith4 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- ,note4-- 8when it will be decreed10 lit4 8when it--the resurrection--will ascend into the will40 ,comp4 the ,talmudical 8you think10 lit4 8it ascends into your mind40 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,jewish ,,calendar4 #a4 ,nisan4--,the ,sabbath before ,passover is called 8the ,great ,sabbath10 on account of the importance of the approaching festival4 #adth3 8the ,eve of ,passover40 ,fast of the ,first-born4 #aeth to #bbnd3 8,passover40 #afth3 8,beginning of counting the ,omer10 #agth to #bjth3 8,half-holydays40 #bcrd3 8,farewell to the ,festival40 #b4 ,iyar4--#adth3 8,second ,passover0 7,num4 ix4 #i sqq474 #ahth3 the #ccrd of the ,omer4 8,scholar's feast40 ,fasts kept by some1 on the first ,monday1 ,thursday1 and ,monday succeeding each other in the beginning of the month1 in order to atone for sins they may have committed on the ,holydays4 #c4 ,sivan4--#crd1 #dth1 and #eth3 8,the three days of bordering0 7,exod4 xix4 #aj-ab74 #eth3 8,the eve of the ,feast of ,weeks40 #fth and #gth3 8,feast of ,weeks10 also called 8,pentecost40 #hth3 8,farewell to the ,festival40 #d4 ,tammuz4--#agth3 8,fast of ,tammuz10 #e4 ,ab4--8,sabbath before the ,fast10 7see p4 #dac7 #ith3 8,fast of ,ab10 8,sabbath after the ,fast10 7ibid474 #aeth3 8#aeth of ,ab40 ,reconciliation of the ,benjamites with the other ,israelites 7,judges xxi474 #f4 ,ellul4-- 8,days of propitiatory prayers10 beginning on the first day of the month according to the ,spanish ,rite1 and according to the ,german ,rite1 on the ,sunday 7or #bnd ,s47 before #bith3 8,the eve of ,new-year40 #g4 ,tishri4--#ast and #bnd3 8,new-year10 #crd3 8,fast of ,gedaliah10 #ast to #ajth3 8,the ten penitential days10 8,the ,sabbath after ,new-year10 7see p4 #dje74 #ith3 8,the eve of the ,day of ,atonement40 #ajth3 or 8,the ,day of ,atonement40 #adth3 8,the eve of ,sukkoth40 #aeth to #bast3 8,feast of ,tabernacles40 #agth to #bast3 8,half-holyday40 #bast3 8,the ,great ,hoshana ,service40 #bbnd and #bcrd3 8,feast of the eighth day40 #bcrd3 8,rejoicing of the ,law40 #bdth3 8,farewell to the ,festival40 ,heshvan4-- 8,the ,fast of #8,monday1 ,thursday1 and ,monday1' kept by some in the course of the month40 #i4 ,kislev4--#beth to #bnd 7or #crd7 of ,tebeth3 8,feast of ,dedication40 #aj4 ,tebeth4--#ajth3 8,the ,fast of ,tebeth40 #aa4 ,shebhat4--#aeth3 8,new-year for trees40 ,the last ,sabbath in the month 7or the first of ,adar1 if on ,saturday7 is 8,the ,sabbath of ,shekalim40 ,exod4 xxx4 #aa-af is read in addition to the weekly section4 #ab4 ,adar4--#gth3 ,anniversary of death of ,moses4 ,sabbath before ,purim1 7,deut4 xxv4 #ag-ai74 #acth3 8,fast of ,esther40 #adth3 ,purim1 8,the ,feast of ,lots40 #aeth3 8,purim of ,shushan40 ,the last ,sabbath but one1 ,num4 xix4 is read as an extra lesson4 ,the last ,sabbath in the month1 or the first of ,nisan1 if on ,saturday1 is ,exod4 xii4 #a-bj is read as an extra lesson4 #ac4 ,adar ,sheni4-- 1 1 1 1 and which in an ordinary year are observed in ,adar1 are in a leap-year kept in ,adar ,sheni2 and either on the last ,sabbath in ,adar1 or on the first of ,adar ,sheni1 if on ,saturday4 ,note4--,the #aeth of ,shebhat is1 according to the opinion of the ,hillelites 7,mishnah1 ,rosh ha-shanah i4 #a71 8,new-year for the trees20 i4e41 in reference to tithes1 and to the fruit of the fourth or fifth year 7,lev4 xix4 #bd1 #be72 the fruit that begins to grow on a tree between the #aeth of ,shebhat of one year and the same date next year is reckoned as the fruit of one year4 ,various reasons are given for the distinction of the #aeth of ,ab3 7a47 ,the punishment decreed against the ,israelites in the wilderness in connection with the spies 7,num4 xiv4 #bi7 was discontinued from the #aeth of ,ab4 7b47 ,the posts set up by ,jeroboam on the borders of his kingdom for the purpose of preventing ,israelites from going up to ,jerusalem were removed on this date4 7c47 ,the preparation of the wood for the altar was completed on the #aeth of ,ab4 7d47 ,on this day the ,israelites obtained permission to bury the bodies of those killed in the war against ,hadrian4 7e47 ,the reconciliation between the ,benjamites and the other ,israelites took place on the #aeth of ,ab 7,judges xxi4 #ba sqq474 ,the ,mishnah 7,taanith iv4 #h7 states that the #aeth of ,ab and the ,day of ,atonement were to the ,israelites once days of the greatest national rejoicings for all alike1 rich and poor4 ,in memory of these general rejoicings the daughters of ,jerusalem wore on these days borrowed white garments1 in order that those poor who had none of their own should not feel ashamed4 ,the ,mishnah then describes the causes of the rejoicings2 namely1 the dancings in the vineyards 7,judges1 l4 c47 for the #aeth of ,ab1 and the giving of the ,law 7i4e41 the giving of the second tables1 which1 according to ,tradition1 took place on the #ajth of ,tishri71 and the building of the ,temple 7i4e41 the rearing of the ,tabernacle1 which1 according to ,tradition1 was commanded on the #ajth of ,tishri for the rejoicings on the ,day of ,atonement74 ,,iii4 ,,religious ,,education4 ,professor ,lazarus in his recent work 8,die ,ethik des ,judenthums0 made the following observations3 8,in the continuity of the spirit of our nation we discover the solution of the riddle1 which puzzled so many thinkers1 viz43 how the small tribe of the ,jews managed to outlive great and mighty nations40 ,this continuity of the spirit has been secured by our religious education4 ,it has been said that education aims at producing in the younger generation the capacity of receiving1 preserving and developing the culture we have acquired2 this applies pre-eminently to religious education4 ,that such continuity exists in our religious education1 is evident from the fact that up to the present day the chief text-book for religious instruction has remained the same3--the ,torah1 or in a wider sense1 the ,bible1 that everflowing fountain of living waters1 not only for us ,jews1 but for almost all civilised nations4 ,our duty to preserve this continuity by handing over to the next generation the religious principles inherited from our predecessors is frequently insisted upon in ,holy ,writ1 and emphasized on every occasion4 ,we have in this respect a double duty to perform3 ,every parent is bound to secure as far as possible the well-being of his children2 religious education is indispensable for the children's well-being4 ,the ,torah1 the source of our religious education1 is besides1 our ,national treasure and inheritance1 and every member of our community has as such the duty to guard and protect this treasure1 that the rising generation receive it in its integrity4 ,it is therefore not sufficient for any one of us to provide for the religious instruction of his own children1 it is his duty to contribute his share towards the maintenance of the public schools or classes established for the religious instruction of the young4 ,the ,israelites in the wilderness joyfully received the ,national treasure1 and solemnly declared 8the ,law which ,moses commanded us1 has been handed to us as an inheritance10 to be transmitted from generation to generation4 ,these very words form the beginning of the religious education of our children1 for as soon as they are able to speak1 they are taught to recite and to understand the verse 8,the ,law which ,moses commanded us1 ,o congregation of ,jacob1 is an inheritance40 7,deut4 xxxiii4 #d474 ,in accordance with this principle1 the ,torah1 the reading of the ,torah in its original language1 in the ,hebrew1 the translation and the understanding of the ,torah1 must form the basis of ,jewish ,religious ,education1 both in private and public instruction4 ,the ,torah is the essential element in the curriculum of ,jewish ,institutions for ,religious instruction4 ,our ,sages therefore teach 7,aboth v4 #b73 8,read the ,torah again and again1 for everything is in it1 and in it thou wilt see everything2 and even when thou art old and worn out1 remain faithful to it1 and from it do not move away1 for there is no better measure for thee than the ,torah40 ,there are other important subjects which ,jewish children of both sexes are expected to learn and to know3 ,the principles of ,religion1 ,scripture ,history1 ,jewish ,history and ,literature1 ,geography of ,palestine and ,hebrew ,grammar4 ,none of these subjects should be excluded from the curriculum of a ,jewish ,school4 ,they must be taught1 but must be taught in such a way that they help to illustrate the lessons of the ,law1 and to facilitate its study4 ,it is certainly of great importance that our children should acquire as much knowledge as possible of our ,history and ,literature2 of far greater importance1 however1 is the training of the heart in the faith of ,god1 the inculcation of reverence for the ,torah and the creation of a desire to live a pure1 good and holy life1 based on the fear and love of ,god4 ,text-books of ,religion1 though useful both to teacher and pupil1 must by no means supersede the original1 the ,torah4 ,where for some cogent reason a minimum of time is spared for religious instruction--as is e4g4 the case in many ,religion ,classes connected with ,public ,schools and ,colleges1 special care should be taken that the ,torah receive its due attention4 ,the best method must be employed1 the best possible teachers must be engaged1 who are well trained in the art of teaching1 and possess a thorough knowledge of our holy religion and our history4 ,if in addition to these qualifications1 the teacher devotes himself to his profession with love and enthusiasm1 his words1 coming from the heart1 will find their way into the heart of the pupil4 ,no time can be spared for metaphysical speculations or for problems of ,bible criticism4 ,besides1 8,the hidden things belong to the ,lord our ,god1 but the things which have been revealed are for us and our children for ever3 to do all the words of this ,law40 7,deut4 xxix4 #bh74 ,according to the teaching of ,aboth1 7v4 #bb7 8one moment of victory over sin and temptation in this life surpasses all the blessings of the future life10 and to train our youths in the way leading to such bliss1 is the aim and motive of all ,religious teaching4 ,,iv4 ,,prayer ,,for ,,barmitzvah4 ,prayer which the young ,candidate1 having previously undergone a religious examination1 should recite1 when called to the ,law1 before the ,blessing4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,,iv4 ,o ,,my ,,god ,,and ,,god ,,of ,,my ,,forefathers6 ,on this solemn and sacred day1 which marketh my passage from boyhood to manhood1 ,i humbly venture to raise my eyes unto ,thee1 and to declare1 with sincerity and truth1 that henceforth ,i will observe all ,thy commandments1 and undertake and bear the responsibility of all mine actions towards ,thee4 ,in my earliest infancy ,i was brought within ,thy sacred covenant with ,israel1 and to-day ,i again enter as an active responsible member1 the pale of ,thine elect congregation1 in the midst of which ,i will never cease to glorify ,thy holy name in the face of all nations4 ,do ,thou1 ,o ,heavenly ,father1 hearken unto this my humble prayer1 and vouchsafe unto me ,thy gracious blessings1 so that my earthly life may be sustained and made happy by ,thine ineffable mercies4 ,teach me the way of ,thy statutes1 that ,i may obey them1 and faithfully carry out ,thine ordinances4 ,dispose my heart to love ,thee and to fear ,thy holy name1 and grant me ,thy support and the strength necessary to avoid the worldly dangers which encompass the path lying before me4 ,save me from temptation1 so that ,i may with fortitude observe ,thy holy ,law1 and those precepts on which human happiness and eternal life depend4 ,thus ,i will every day of my life trustfully and gladly proclaim3 8,hear1 ,o ,israel1 the ,lord is our ,god1 the ,lord is ,one60 ,v4 ,,bibliography4 ,religious books for the use of children at home or in school were unknown in olden times4 ,the ,torah was taught1 and with it every thing else4 ,a great part of the ,book of ,proverbs and many of the ,psalms may have been intended for the education of the young4 ,in the early post-,biblical time we meet with books like ,the ,wisdom of ,solomon1 ,the ,wisdom of ,joshua1 son of ,sirach1 and ,sayings of the ,fathers1 which may have served the same purpose4 ,to these may be added 8,the ,duties of the ,heart10 by ,bachya ibn ,pekuda1 8,the ,examination of the ,world0 7,bechinath ,olam71 8,the ,choice of the ,pearls10 by ,ibn ,gabirol1 ,abraham ibn ,ezra's 8,foundation of the ,fear of ,god1 and ,principle of the ,law10 and 8,the ,book of the ,righteous10 by ,rabbenu ,jacob ,tam1 and 8,the ,moral ,lessons0 7,toaliyyoth7 by ,rabbi ,levi ben ,gerson1 and 8,the ,shulhan ,aruch0 of ,r4 ,judah ,aryeh di ,modena4 ,all these works are excellent books for the instruction of the young4 ,they inculcate religious lessons1 and shew the way to a pious life1 but they are not text books of religion in the modern sense of the term4 ,this branch of literature began to develop in the last century1 with the exception of ,abraham ,jaghel's ,lekach-tob1 which was written in the beginning of the seventeenth century1 and was the first ,catechism of ,jewish ,religion4 ,it was composed in the ,hebrew ,language and subsequently translated into ,latin and ,english4 ,since last century1 however1 religious books of all sizes1 forms and tendencies have been produced in all countries1 especially in ,germany4 ,the following list contains such books as are included in the ,jews' ,college ,library3-- ,,english-- ,albu1 ,i41 4 ,london1 #ahfj4 ,asher1 ,b4 ,h41 ,initiation of the ,youth4 ,london1 #ahej4 ,asher1 ,d41 ,outlines of ,jewish ,religion4 ,manchester1 #ahde4 ,cahen1 ,m41 ,catechism of ,religion4 ,liverpool1 #ahij4 ,cahun1 ,b41 ,the ,thirteen ,articles of ,faith4 ,english and ,french4 ,london1 #ahhe4 ,cohen1 ,m4 ,r41 ,principles of ,judaism4 ,sydney1 #ahee4 ,cohen1 ,s4 ,i41 ,elements of ,jewish ,faith4 ,philadelphia1 #ahac4 ,cohen1 ,s4 ,i41 ,elements of ,hebrew and ,english4 ,london1 #ahae4 ,davidson1 ,m41 ,moral and ,religious ,guide4 ,london1 #ahee4 ,early lesson in the ,jewish ,religion1 adopted from the ,catechism of ,giuseppi ,levi4 ,london1 #ahfi4 ,festivals of the ,lord4 ,london1 #ahci4 ,friedlnder1 ,m41 ,text book of ,jewish ,religion4 ,london1 #ahia4 ,goodman1 ,t41 ,faith of ,israel4 #ahce4 ,joseph1 ,n41 ,religion3 ,natural and ,revealed4 ,london1 #ahgi4 ,kley1 ,e41 ,catechism1 translated from the ,german by ,i4 ,lutomirski4 ,oxford1 #ahdb4 ,lesser1 ,isaac1 ,instruction in the ,mosaic ,religion4 ,philadelphia1 #ahcj4 ,meldola1 ,r41 ,way of ,faith4 ,london1 #ahdh4 ,mendez1 ,a4 ,p41 ,the ,law of ,moses4 ,london1 #ahfa4 ,moss1 ,ph41 ,calendar1 ,hebrew and ,english4 ,london1 #ahec4 ,van ,oven1 ,j41 ,manual of ,judaism4 ,london1 #ahce4 ,picciotto1 ,m4 ,h41 ,translation of ,reggio's ,guide for the ,religious ,instruction4 ,london1 #ahee4 ,,in ,,german-- ,arnhein1 ,a41 ,leitfaden4 ,glasgow1 #ahbi4 ,p4 ,beer1 ,handbuch4 ,prague1 #ahah4 ,ben-,zev1 4 ,wien1 #ahjf4 ,bing1 ,a41 ,hauptlehren des ,judenthums4 ,mnchen1 #ahbg4 ,bock1 ,m4 ,h41 ,catechismus4 ,berlin1 #ahad4 ,brck1 ,m41 ,ceremonialgebruche4 ,breslau1 #aheg4 ,bdinger1 ,a41 4 ,cassel1 #ahcj4 ,fassel1 ,h4 ,b41 ,mosaisch-rabbinische ,religionslehre4 ,gross ,kanisza1 #aheh4 ,feilchenfeld1 ,w41 ,systematisches ,lehrbuch der israelitischen ,religion4 ,posen1 #ahgh4 ,friedenthal1 ,m4 ,b41 ,prag1 #ahbg4 ,funk1 ,b41 ,die ,zehngebote4 ,breslau1 #ahaf4 ,grnbaum1 ,e41 ,die ,sittenlehre des ,judenthums4 ,mannheim1 #ahfg4 ,dr4 ,heinemann1 7,hebrew and ,german74 ,cassel1 #ahab4 ,dr4 ,herxheimer1 ,glaubens- und ,pflichtenlehre4 ,bernburg1 #ahdc4 ,hirsch1 ,r41 ,israel's ,pflichten4 ,altona1 #ahcg4 ,hochstdter1 ,b41 ,glaubenslehre4 ,ems1 #ahfb4 ,johlson1 ,j41 ,leitfaden1 ,pf4 a_/,m4 #ahci4 ,kaufmann ,d41 ,catechismus4 ,pest1 #ahhd4 ,kohn1 ,s41 ,religionslehre4 ,wien1 #ahec4 ,landau1 ,t41 ,das ,levitenhaus1 ,husliche ,ritual-,gesetze4 ,fkft4 a_/,m4 #ahei4 ,lash1 ,g41 ,die gttlichen ,gesetze4 ,halberstadt1 #aheg4 ,prof4 ,lazarus1 ,die ,ethik des ,judenthums4 ,berlin1 #ahih4 ,lehrbuch der israelitischen ,religion4 ,stuttgart1 #ahcg4 ,leimdoerfer1 ,d41 ,religionslehre4 ,nordhausen1 #ahgf4 ,loewenheim1 ,die mosaische ,religion4 ,liesnach1 #ahfd4 ,mannheimer1 ,i41 ,gebetbuch und ,religions ,unterricht4 ,darmstadt1 #ahha4 ,mira4 ,h41 ,leitfaden4 ,breslau1 #ahci4 ,neuman1 ,m4 ,s41 ,religionslehre4 ,pest1 #ahbf4 ,philippson1 ,l41 ,israelitische ,religionslehre4 ,leipzig1 #ahfa4 ,philippson1 ,s41 ,catechismus4 ,leipzig1 #ahdc4 ,plessner1 ,s41 ,jdisch-,mosaischer ,religions unterricht4 ,berlin1 #ahci4 ,stein1 ,l41 ,torah u4 ,mizwa4 ,fkft4 o_/,m4 #ahej4 ,stern1 ,m4 ,e41 ,handbuch zum jdischen ,religions-unterrichte4 ,wien1 #ahfa4 ,,french ,,and ,,italian-- ,bloch1 ,s41 ,la ,foi d',israel4 ,paris1 #ahei4 ,lambert1 ,l4 ,m41 ,catchisme ,hebreu1 ,allemand et ,franais4 ,paris1 #ahcg4 ,loeb1 ,h41 ,chemin de la foi4 ,paris1 #ahei4 ,vogue1 ,l41 ,la guide du croyant ,israelite4 ,metz1 #aheg4 ,castiglioni1 ,i4 ,v41 ,dottrina ,religiosa4 ,trieste1 #ahfa4 ,tremellius1 ,imm41 ,dottrina ,religiosa4 ,english translation4 ,london1 #ahah4 ,modena1 ,d4 ,z41 ,catechism4 ,reggio1 #ahbe4 ,,judaeo-,,german-- 4 ,warsaw1 #aheb4 ,moral lessons1 illustrated by tales from ,talmud and ,midrash4 ,rdelheim1 #ahcg4 ,,collections ,,of ,,moral ,,sayings-- ,maier1 ,j41 ,sprche4 ,texts for ,moral ,lessons4 ,tf o_/,m1 #ahcj4 ,steinschneider1 ,m41 4 ,berlin1 #ahdg4 ,mocatta1 ,m41 ,sayings from ,proverbs and ,ecclesiastes4 ,london1 #ahcg4 ,josh4 ,steinberg1 4 ,wilna1 #ahga4 ,edelmann1 ,h41 4 ,london1 #aheb4 ,,notes #a ,when our great theologians1 ,saadiah1 ,bachya1 ,maimonides1 ,albo1 c41 considered it necessary to write long and abstruse metaphysical essays in order to firmly establish certain truths1 it was done rather for the purpose of combating the views of opponent theologians than for the instruction of the multitude1 and it may fairly be said that ,maimonides has done far greater service to his brethren by the composition of a systematic code of laws than by his philosophical 8,guide40 ,the former1 the ,mishneh-,torah1 never fails to enlighten those who seek in it enlightenment with regard to some religious duty1 whilst the 8,guide0 would scarcely relieve anyone of his perplexities in matters of religious belief4 ,there is a saying in the ,talmud ,jerus4 7,chagigah1 ch4 i471 8,would that they had forgotten me1 and kept my commandments60 or1 in other words1 8,theologians would do better if they were less eager to investigate into the essence of ,god and ,his attributes1 and were more anxious to study and to do ,god's commandments40 ,instead of devoting their chief attention to the knowledge and the practice of the ,law1 they waste their energy and their time in attempts to solve problems to which the human mind is unequal 7,s4 ,plessner1 ,religions-,unterricht1 p4 xxxviii474 #b ,post-biblical authors frequently employ the term in the sense of religious belief1 and in the sense of religious duties2 the equivalent for religion is 4 #c ,for the ,hebrew see ,appendix ,i4 #d ,the ,hebrew as well as the ,greek 8prophet10 signifies 8speaker0 or 8preacher40 #e i4e41 that the war with the ,canaanite tribes was to be carried on as a holy war1 in fulfilment of ,god's command1 and not for the purpose of spoil and plunder4 #f ,king ,amaziah of ,judah challenged ,joash1 king of ,israel1 to fight with him4 ,joash considered this challenge as an arrogance to be compared to the arrogance of the thistle in the above fable4 #g ,the faith of ,israel in the ,omnipotence of ,god1 who can do wonders for the salvation of ,his people1 is figuratively represented as a child1 called 8,the ,almighty1 c41 deviseth wonders10 c4 #h ,comp4 p4 #hc4 #i i4e41 he who is truthful in ordinary conversation is also a trustworthy witness in a court of justice2 those who are accustomed to say falsehood cannot be trusted in important matters4 #aj ,it seems that the author copied the dream as ,daniel had written it down1 but the interpretation was handed down by tradition4 #aa ,the ,israelites4 ,comp4 ,exod4 xix4 #f4--,part of this vision refers to the time of the ,maccabees1 part to the ,messianic period4 #ab ,some are of opinion that the term 8weeks0 is not to be taken literally1 but in the sense of 8year10 or 8a period of seven years40 ,there is1 however1 no proof for such interpretation4 ,the many attempts to explain the seventy year-weeks have without exception proved a failure4 #ac ,see p4 #aba4 #ad ,it is1 however1 possible that 1 lit4 8words10 means here 8history40 #ae ,the ,talmud is also called 7,shass71 the initials of 4 #af ,the word is intended to indicate the number #ad1 the work being divided into #ad books4 #ag ,according to ,rashi1 ,rabbi ,hillel meant to say that the ,jews would not be redeemed by any ,messiah1 but by ,god ,himself4 ,comp4 ,haggadah for ,seder-evening1 8,and ,i will pass through the land of ,egypt2 ,i myself1 and not an angel40 #ah ,comp4 supra1 p4 #abb4 #ai ,see ,essays on the ,writings of ,ibn ,ezra1 by ,m4 ,friedlnder1 p4 #g note #a4 #bj ,the ,piel of a verb has frequently this meaning1 e4g41 8to be holy20 ,pi41 8to declare as holy20 8to be pure20 ,pi41 8to declare as pure20 so 8to be at an end20 ,pi41 8to declare as being finished40 #ba ,die ,religions-,philosophie der ,juden1 by ,s4 ,hirsch4 p4 #dde ff4 #bb ,the phrase is also used in the sense of 8devotion during prayer40 #bc ,i4e41 the name or ,god consisting of four letters 71 1 and 74 ,the correct pronunciation of the word not being known1 adonai1 8,lord10 is substituted for it4 #bd ,the 8second day0 7,neh4 viii4 #ac71 as a day of devotion and meditation on the ,word of ,god1 is probably the ,day of ,atonement4 #be ,it is here assumed that the ,torah was not intended to be written in a chronological order1 and that this commandment was given after the ,blessing of ,moses was written4 #bf ,maimonides accepts for this verse the ,midrashic explanation3 nothing of the ,torah has remained in heaven for later revelations4 #bg 4 #bh ,he is probably called ,elijah on account of the zeal which he will display in bringing men back to the service of ,god4 #bi ,mishnah ,eduyoth viii4 #g4 #cj ,lit41 8,the accepting of the yoke of the heaven's dominion20 8,the accepting of the yoke of the precepts40 ,the expression 8yoke0 is here by no means derogatory4 ,it simply indicates the duty which in the one case 8the dominion of heaven10 and in the other case 8the ,divine precepts10 impose upon us4 #ca ,hebrew titles of books are often fanciful names1 which more or less distinctly imply either the nature or contents of the books1 or the name of their authors4 ,the ,hebrew names for the fourteen books of ,mishneh-torah are as follows3 7#a7 8,knowledge20 7#b7 8,love20 7#c7 8,seasons20 7#d7 8,women20 7#e7 8,sanctification20 7#f7 8,distinction20 7#g7 8,seeds20 7#h7 8,service20 7#i7 8,sacrifices20 7#aj7 8,purity20 7#aa7 8,damages20 7#ab7 8,acquisition30 7#ac7 8,disputes20 7#ad7 8,judges40 ,rabbenu ,jakob calls his work 8,four ,rows10 a name borrowed from ,exod4 xxviii4 #ag4 ,the names of the four parts are3 8,path of ,life0 7,ps4 xvi4 #aa72 8,teacher of knowledge0 7,isa4 xxviii4 #i72 8,stone of ,help0 7#a ,sam4 vii4 #ab1 and ,gen4 ii4 #ah71 and 8,breastplate of ,judgment0 7,exod4 xxviii4 #ae74 #cb ,i4e41 if a person has no fear of ,god1 he is himself the sole cause of its absence1 and he alone is responsible for it4 #cc ,the words of the ,mishnah are ,the meanings of three roots are combined in this interpretation of the words viz41 8exceedingly10 8measuring10 and 8thanking40 ,the three words are similar in sound4 #cd ,the term 7lit41 8reflecting on prayer07 has two meanings3 7#a7 reflecting on the prayer while uttering it2 devotion2 in ,german1 ,andacht2 7#b7 reflecting on the prayer after having uttered it1 while we are waiting for the sure fulfilment of the wishes expressed in it4 #ce ,in the whole ,book of ,esther the name of ,god does not occur even once4 ,it is not mere chance2 there are several passages where the mention of the ,divine ,being is expected1 and it is believed that the omission is due to the fear of a subsequent desecration of the book in the hands of the ,persians4 #cf ,i4e41 the word consisting of four letters1 yod1 h1 vav and h4 #cg ,e4g41 by giving bad advice and transgressing the law1 8,thou shalt not put a stumbling block before the blind0 7,lev4 xix4 #ad74 #ch ,comp4 the saying1 8,not the mouse is the thief1 but the hole40 #ci ,those who become security for a stranger are blamed 7,prov4 vi4 #a seq47 as acting rashly1 and foolishly endangering their peace and welfare4 #dj ,see p4 #bid4 #da ,the ,hebrew is composed of the names of the three consecutive ,sidras1 ,lev4 xvi4-xxiv4 #db ,lit41 inquiring1 scil41 what the condition of the patient is1 and what is needed for his recovery4 #dc ,comp4 supra1 p4 #bfa4 #dd ,the prayer for the head of the ,state1 beginning has its origin in this sense of loyalty towards the ,state in which we live4 #de ,i4e41 ,when the old and experienced counsel to pull down a house1 the pulling down is essential to its rebuilding2 whilst the counsel of young and inexperienced men to build may imply destructive elements4 #df ,there are some exceptions to this rule3--,the ,reader wears the talith during every ,service2 in some congregations mourners wear it when they recite kaddish4 ,on the ,day of ,atonement the whole congregation wear the talith during all the ,services4 ,on the ,fast of ,ab the talith is put on before the ,afternoon ,service instead of during the ,morning ,service4 #dg ,there are two forms of the blessing which accompanies the performance of a ,divine precept3 the precept is expressed 7#a7 by a noun which is preceded by the preposition 8concerning20 7#b7 by the infinitive of a verb preceded by the preposition 8to10 e4g41 8concerning the commandment of tsitsith10 and 8to wrap ourselves with a garment provided with tsitsith40 ,the latter form is used 7#a7 when the blessing is recited before the performance of the mitsvah has commenced2 7#b7 when he who performs the mitsvah is personally commanded to perform it4 ,in all other cases the first form is used4 ,hence 1 because we are1 as a rule1 not in a fit state for prayer when we put it on1 and therefore recite the blessing later on2 2 because he who reads might just as well be one of the listeners4 ,we say at the commencement of the mitsvah2 before the second part4 7,see ,babyl4 ,talm4 ,pesachim1 p4 #g47 #dh ,the term reminds us of 8prayer10 and denotes things used during prayer4 ,originally it had probably the more general signification3 ornament or head-ornament2 in the ,chaldee ,version it is the translation of 1 which denotes 8head-ornament40 7,comp4 ,mishnah ,shabbath vi4 #a47 #di ,two sides of the bayith have the shin impressed on them1 the right and the left2 but in different forms1 on the right the letter has three strokes 771 on the left it has four strokes 771 in order to ensure the right order of the four paragraphs 77 which the bayith contains from right to left4 #ej ,the knot formed by the of the tefillah shel rosh has the shape of a daleth1 that of the tefillah shel yad is like a yod2 these two letters added to the shin of the tefillin shel rosh read shaddai1 8,almighty40 #ea ,in the evening it was but natural that tsitsith and tefillin should be laid aside1 as the greater part of the night was devoted to sleep2 the rule was therefore generally adopted3 8,the night is not the proper time for laying tefillin0 7 74 ,the opposite principle1 however1 8,the night is likewise a suitable time for laying tefillin0 7 71 had also its advocates among ,rabbinical authorities 7,babyl4 ,talm4 ,menachoth #cf;b74 #eb ,with the completion of the thirteenth year a boy becomes of age in reference to the fulfilment of all religious duties4 ,he is then called ,bar-mitsvah 7lit4 8a son of the commandment071 a member of the ,jewish community1 upon whom devolve all such duties as a ,jew has to perform4 ,on the ,sabbath following that birthday he is called to the ,law1 either to read a portion of the ,sidra or to listen to its reading1 and publicly acknowledge ,god as the ,giver of the ,law4 #ec ,compare p4 #cbi4 #ed ,see ,daily ,prayer ,book1 ,morning ,service4 #ee ,there are1 besides1 on the back of the scroll1 just behind the names of ,god in the first line three words of a mystic character consisting of the letters following in the alphabet the letters of these divine names4 ,the words have in themselves no meaning1 and it may be that their object is simply to indicate from outside where the names of ,god are written1 and to prevent a nail being driven through that part in fixing the mezuzah to the door-post4 #ef ,mishneh-torah ,,iii41 ,zemannim1 ,hil4 ,shabbath1 ch4 xxx4 #a4 #eg ,maimonides applies these terms to ,sabbath2 but they apply generally with equal force to the ,festivals4 #eh ,we 8remember0 also the ,sabbath or ,festival by naming after it the preceding day1 the night following1 and in the case of ,festivals the day following3 the eve of ,sabbath or ,festival 1 2 the night after ,sabbath or ,festival1 1 2 8the day after the ,festival10 7lit41 8bind the ,festival10 with reference to ,ps4 cxviii4 #bg74 #ei ,a similar ceremony takes place before the first meal in the morning4 ,a cup of wine or other spirituous liquor is poured out1 some ,biblical passages referring to the ,sabbath are recited1 and the usual blessing is said before partaking of the beverage4 ,the blessing containing the ,kiddush is not said1 and the ceremony has the name ,kiddush or ,kiddusha rabba1 8great ,kiddush10 only on account of its similarity with the evening ,kiddush4 ,the passages recited are the following3 ,exod4 xxxi4 #af1 #ag1 xx4 #h-aa2 ,isa4 lviii4 #ac1 #ad4 #fj ''' 8,blessed art thou1 ,o ,lord1 our ,god1 ,king of the universe1 who hast created the fruit of the vine40 ,in the absence of wine1 or if wine is disliked or injurious to health1 the blessing over bread is substituted for that over wine4--,the blessings are generally preceded by the word 8,is it your pleasure1 scil41 that ,i read80 whereby it is simply intended to call the attention of the company to the prayer4 #fa ,see p4 #ceb1 on the difference between the holiness of ,sabbath and that of ,festivals4--,the last two 1 viz4 and are added2 the second part of the latter is slightly modified in order to suit the transition from ,sabbath to ,festival4--,the ,habhdalah on the night following the ,day of ,atonement consists of three 1 that over spices being omitted1 except if ,jom-kippur falls on ,sabbath2 in that case the ,habhdalah includes all the four 4 #fb ,habhdalah is likewise omitted when ,sabbath is closely followed by the ,fast of ,ab4 ,on ,sabbath night1 eating and drinking being forbidden1 only the one blessing1 is recited2 that over spices is omitted1 and the remaining two blessings are recited on ,sunday evening after the fast4 #fc ,although the whole of the ,day of ,atonement is devoted to ,divine ,service1 less time is given to reading from the ,law than on ,sabbath1 in order to leave more time for ,prayers1 ,confessions1 and ,meditations4 ,rabbi ,akiba1 however1 was of opinion that seven should be called up to the ,law on the ,day of ,atonement1 and six on ,sabbath 7,b4 ,talm4 ,megillah #bc;a74 #fd ,the distance allowed is called 8a ,sabbath-journey10 and is #bjjj cubits in every direction2 it is reckoned from the outskirts of the place in which we live4 ,if1 however1 a person desires to perform a mitsvah1 such as milah1 at a place distant about a double ,sabbath-journey from his domicile1 he may fix before ,sabbath his abode for that day half-way between the two places1 and then traverse on ,sabbath the whole distance from the one place to the other4 ,this change of abode is called erubhe thechumin1 8combination of two ,sabbath-journeys into one10 by changing the centre from which they are measured4 #fe ,they are called 8principal kinds of work10 and are those which directly or indirectly were wanted in the erection of the ,tabernacle1 and were therefore included in the prohibition of doing any work for this purpose 7,exod4 xxxi4 #ae and xxxv4 #b74 ,there are certain things which cannot be brought under any of these heads1 and are nevertheless prohibited1 because they frequently lead to a breach of the ,sabbath laws2 e4g41 riding in a carriage or in any kind of conveyance2 playing music4 ,these prohibitions are called i4e41 acts prohibited on ,sabbath and ,holy-days by our ,sages2 or 7lit41 8decree071 safeguard against breaking the ,law4 ,divine precepts1 however1 ordained for the ,sabbath--e4g41 sacrifices--or for a certain day1 which happens to fall on a ,sabbath--e4g41 initiation of a male child into the covenant of ,abraham on the eighth day of its birth1 or saving the life of a fellow-man in case of illness or any other danger--must be performed although they may involve any of the acts otherwise prohibited on the day of rest4 #ff ,the preparation of food is only permitted on ,holy-days if wanted for the same day1 except when ,sabbath follows immediately after the ,holy-day4 ,in that case it is allowable to prepare the food for ,sabbath on the ,holy-day1 provided such preparation has commenced before and need only be continued on the ,holy-day4 ,the preparation made for ,sabbath before the ,holy-day comes in is called erubh tabhshilin1 8combination of dishes10 i4e41 of the dishes prepared for ,sabbath on the eve of the ,festival 7 7 and of those prepared on the ,festival itself2 it is accompanied by a blessing and a declaration of the significance of the erubh4 ,the following is the blessing3 ''' 8,blessed art thou 444 who hast sanctified us by thy commandments1 and hast ordained for us the mitsvah of erubh40 ,it may here be noted that there are1 besides1 three kinds of erubh1 viz43-- #a4 ,erubh techumim4 ,see above1 page #cej4 #b4 ,erubh chatseroth 7lit41 8combination of the houses in a court074 ,according to the traditional law1 we must not carry anything on ,sabbath from a private place 7 7 into the street 7 74 ,the former is defined to be a locality belonging to one person or family1 and separated from the public by a fence4 ,the ,jewish inhabitants of a court or a town closed on all sides combine to form one family1 and thus turn the into 4 ,the symbol of such combination consists of some food kept in a room1 to which all have access 7e4g41 the ,synagogue74 ,this is the origin and meaning of the ,passover-cake 77 which may still be noticed in some of the ,continental ,synagogues4 #c4 ,erubh par excellence4--,an opening left in a fence or wall round a must at least have some token that indicates the closing of the space2 e4g41 a wire drawn through the open space from one part of the fence to the other4 ,such symbol is called erubh1 8combination of the various parts of the fence or wall into one40 ,such erubh may likewise be noticed in some of the ,continental towns4 ,in all these cases the symbol was not introduced for the purpose of permitting the actual transgression of a law1 but rather for the purpose of reminding us of what the law forbids us to do2 since1 in fact1 that which becomes permitted through these symbols is even in their absence no direct breach of any of the ,sabbath laws4 #fg ,comp4 the two forms of the prayer in the ,evening ,service for week-days and for ,sabbath1 in the ,spanish ,ritual4 #fh 77 8,to-day is ,sabbath and we must not lament1 for recovery 7comfort7 is near to come2 now keep ,sabbath in peace40 #fi 7,b4 ,talm4 ,shabbath1 #ah;a74 #gj ,exod4 xvi4 #ac1 #ad4 #ga ,another explanation of this custom has been suggested4 ,bread and wine being before us1 it is doubtful which should have the preference for the purpose of ,kiddush2 the bread is therefore covered1 so that no choice is left 7,tur ,orach ,chayyim #bga74 ,bread being the ordinary requisite at our meals1 the use of wine for ,kiddush is considered more indicative of the distinction of the day4 ,if1 however1 wine is disliked or injurious1 bread is used us its substitute 7page #cda1 note #b74 #gb ,a peculiar ceremony may here be noticed4 ,some pass the knife over the bread before the berachah is said4 ,the origin of this custom is this3 the rule has been laid down that there should not be a long interval between the berachah and the partaking of the food4 ,the knife and the bread are therefore kept ready1 and originally an incision was made into the loaf in order to shorten that interval as much as possible4 #gc 1 8,blessed art thou1 ,o ,lord1 our ,god1 ,king of the ,universe1 who hast sanctified us by thy commandments1 and commanded us to separate challah40 #gd ,comp4 ,mishnah ,shabbath ii4 #af4 #ge ,some kindle the lights first1 and then say the blessing whilst their hands are spread out before the lights4 ,the origin of this latter practice is this3 ,it happens sometimes that the housewife is not ready in time for kindling the lights1 and lets another do it for her1 she reserving to herself the privilege of saying the berachah later on4 ,in that case the holding of the hands before the lights and withdrawing them after the blessing represents symbolically the kindling of the lights4 ,what was originally done in exceptional cases became subsequently the rule4 #gf ,calendar is derived from the ,latin ,calend1 which signifies the first of the month4 ,the ,hebrew term 1 used for 8,calendar0 or 8,almanac10 denotes 8table0 or 8tablet40 ,in the ,talmud4 ,sod 7or ,yesod7 ha-ibbur is used in the sense of 8the theory of the ,calendar30 literally1 the term denotes the fixing of the additional day to the month or the additional month to the year4 #gg ,or more exactly1 #bi days1 #ab hours1 #dd minutes1 #c seconds4 ,the technical formula in ,hebrew is3 #bi days1 #abgicajhj hours4 #gh ,in the first month the barley becomes ripe2 in the second the whole vegetation of the country stands in its full splendour2 in the seventh the hardy fruit1 which withstood the heat of the summer1 ripens2 and in the eighth the first rain of the season comes down4 #gi ,the meaning of most of these names is uncertain4 ,the two names ,elul and ,tishri seem to denote 8the disappearance0 and 8the beginning0 of the year4 #hj ,the adjustment is necessary for the right observance of ,passover1 which must be celebrated in the first month 7,exod4 xii4 #b71 the month of ,abib 7,deut4 xvi4 #a71 that is1 in the spring1 when in ,palestine the corn begins to ripen4 ,without the periodical insertion of a month1 ,passover would be celebrated in every succeeding year eleven days earlier than in the previous one1 and in course of time at different seasons1 contrary to the ,law4 #ha ,the ,hebrew term has a double meaning 8beginning of the month0 and 8month20 comp4 1 8day of rest10 and also 8week10 or the period that passes between two consecutive ,sabbaths4 #hb ,in ,hebrew molad1 8birth40 #hc ,the molad of ,tishri in the year #a is assumed to have been on ,sunday evening between eleven and twelve4 77 #hd ,in this tradition the period of the ,persian rule in ,palestine1 which lasted over two centuries1 is contracted to thirty-four years4 ,it is possible that the years were counted according to the years of ,release 77 or the years of the ,jubilee1 and these were probably not kept immediately after the return of the ,jews from ,babylon4 #he ,see ,mishnah1 ,megillah iii4 #d4 #hf ,talm4 ,jerush41 ,shekalim i4 #a4 #hg ,mishnah1 ,shekalim i4 #a4 #hh ,according to ,tradition1 ,exod4 xii4 #b not only deals with the appointment of ,nisan as the first month of the year1 but implies also the rules for fixing 1 ,new-moon1 or the first of the month2 and this verse1 with its traditional interpretation1 was therefore considered as the basis of the ,jewish ,calendar4 ,hence the prominence given to this section of the ,pentateuch by having it read on the #ast of ,nisan or on the ,sabbath before the #ast of ,nisan4 #hi ,various reasons are given for this title4 ,according to ,tradition1 the #ajth of ,nisan in the year of the ,exodus was on ,saturday2 it was considered a great event1 a miracle1 in fact1 that the ,israelites could on that day select a lamb for sacrifice without being molested by their ,egyptian masters1 who at other times would have stoned them for such daring 7,exod4 viii4 #bb74 ,another reason is this3 ,the ,sabbath before any of the chief ,festivals was called the great ,sabbath on account of the instruction sought and given respecting the importance and the observances of the coming ,festival 7see ,zunz1 ,ritus4 p4 #i74 ,this name has only been preserved in the case of the ,sabbath before ,passover4--,it is1 however1 possible that 8the great day10 the predominant idea in the haphtarah of the day1 suggested the name4 ,it is the custom in some congregations to read in the ,afternoon-service of ,shabbath haggadol part of the ,haggadah instead of the ,psalms 7civ4 and cxx4-cxxxiv474 #ij ,the word 8,passover10 signifies 7#a7 the act of passing over or sparing 7,exod4 xii4 #aa72 7#b7 the sacrifice of passover1 especially as object to the verb 8to make0 7ibid4 #dg1 #dh72 7#c7 the time when the passover was offered and consumed2 i4e41 the #adth of ,nisan1 afternoon and evening 7,lev4 xxiii4 #e2 ,num4 xxviii4 #af72 7#d7 the whole of ,passover 7,mishnah1 and in all post-,biblical literature74 ,the day on which an ,israelite brought a sacrifice was a ,festival to him and his family2 and no work was done on that day4 ,accordingly on the afternoon of the #adth of ,nisan1 1 the time fixed for the ,passover-offering1 no work was done2 some abstained from work the whole day 7,mishnah1 ,pesachim iv4 #a2 comp4 also ibid4 #e74--;,it is customary for the first-born to fast the whole or part of 7,talm4 ,jerus4 x4 #a1 and ,masecheth ,soferim xxi4 #c74 ,they might rather be expected to feast in memory of the deliverance of the first-born ,israelites in ,egypt4 ,but the case is similar to that of ,purim4 ,both the day of danger and the day of victory are celebrated2 the one by fasting 7fast of ,esther71 the other by feasting 7,purim74 ,so here the #adth of ,nisan was for the first-born the day of danger1 the following night the season of deliverance4 ,hence the fasting during the day and the feasting in the evening4 ,the day suggests thoughts like the following3 ,our forefathers were saved from danger3 should we deserve to be saved if danger threatened us8 ,such reflections may have been the origin of the fast of the first-born on the eve of ,passover4 ,some also fast on this day1 or at least abstain on it from a full meal1 in order to do honour to the festive meal in the evening and approach it with appetite 774 ,a similar custom obtains1 though not to the same extent1 on the eve of ,sabbath and of every ,festival 7,mishnah1 ,pesachim x4 #a74 #ia ,within the four days there was ample time for examining the lamb1 whether it was really 1 without blemish1 and fit both for sacrifice and for human food4--,some suggest that the keeping of the lamb for four days was to be a test of the faith of the ,israelites1 whether they would obey the ,will of ,god in spite of the dreaded wrath of the ,egyptians4 #ib ,their faith in ,god had to be shown by their willingly going forth whither the command of ,god led them1 without taking with them any provision for the journey4 ,the lamb which they had prepared was to be consumed before they left ,egypt1 and whatever was left had to be burnt4 ,this was probably also the object of the precepts that no bone of the lamb was to be broken1 and no part of it was to be carried from one house to another2 for the breaking of the bones and the carrying part of the meat about from place to place would facilitate its being stored away for the journey4--,other precepts1 which implied haste and readiness1 e4g41 the roasting it with fire1 eating it with loins girded1 c41 were to teach the ,israelites the lesson that they were to be always ready and willing to do ,god's bidding4 #ic ,an instance of ,passover being put off because of the unfitness of the priests to offer up sacrifices is met with in the ,second ,book of ,chronicles 7xxx4 #b74 ,it seems similar to the rule of ,pesach sheni1 but is in reality different from it4 ,king ,hezekiah did not put off the ,passover sacrifice for a month on account of the uncleanness of the priests1 but he made the preceding year a leap-year1 and the month which would have been the second became the first1 whilst the first was counted as the thirteenth of the past year 7comp4 ,mishnah1 ,pesachim iv4 #i74 #id ,it is only the fermentation of any of these five kinds of grain that forms 4 ,fermentation of grapes or other fruit constitutes no 4 #ie is both and 7,mishnah1 ,pesachim ii4 #a74 #if ,it is now the custom to eat on ,erebh ,pesach1 only during the first third of the day2 i4e41 till about ten o'clock in the morning 7ibid4 i4 #d74 #ig ,ibid4 i4 #a4--,the evening was chosen for this task1 because with a taper or lamp the corners and dark recesses can be better searched than by daylight4 ,besides1 in the evening1 when every one has finished his day's work1 people are more at ease to do the searching in a thorough manner4 #ih ,the formula with is employed here1 because we need not do the searching by ourselves2 it may be done by a substitute4--,although we only search in the evening1 we use the term 8concerning the removal or the destruction of the chamets10 because this removal or destruction is the object of the searching4 #ii ,the declaration1 printed usually on the first page of the ,haggadah1 is made twice3 once in the evening after the searching of the chamets1 and once in the morning after its removal2 with this difference1 that in the evening only the chamets that has not been found is disclaimed2 in the morning all chamets1 if left in the house1 is disclaimed1 whether it has been noticed in the course of searching or not4 #ajj ,there are different kinds of the process of kasher3 7#a7 by making the articles in question red hot--this applies to the iron oven and other iron vessels2 7#b7 by dipping the vessel in boiling water1 or pouring boiling water over it1 or letting the water in the vessel boil over4 ,the object of this process is to free the vessel from any chamets it may have absorbed4--,before the process of kasher begins1 the vessel must1 of course1 be thoroughly cleaned4 #aja ,the four cups of wine are not taken at once2 but one serves for ,kiddush1 as on ,sabbath and ,holy-days2 the second is taken at the conclusion of the first part of the ,seder2 the third after ,grace1 it being customary also on ordinary days to take a cup of wine after ,grace2 the fourth at the conclusion of the second part of the ,seder4 ,the four cups are also said to indicate our joy in reference to four elements constituting the redemption1 and implied in the four terms3 1 1 1 and 1 7,exod4 vi4 #f1 #g71 liberation from bondage1 deliverance from service1 redemption from all dependence on ,egypt1 and appointment as 8the people of the ,lord40--,these four cups were considered of such importance for the ,seder-evening that the poor were provided as of right with wine for the arba kosoth 7,mishnah1 ,pesachim x4 #a74--;,although the number of the four cups of wine is sanctioned by the reference to the above four expressions of redemption1 a fifth cup may1 if needed1 be interpolated before singing ,ps4 cxxxvi4 7,tosaphoth1 ,pesachim #aag;b74 ,it is customary to pour in an extra cup and keep it ready for any new-comer that might join the company4 ,the cup is called 8the cup of ,elijah10 because his advent may be looked for at any time4 ,comp4 ,mal4 iii4 #bc4 #ajb ,two of them are the 8double portion10 1 of ,sabbath and ,holy-day4 ,the third represents the 8bread of poverty10 and is therefore broken into pieces1 in order to be distinguished from the others as 8bread of poverty40 ,the bread of poverty is intended to remind us of the bread of poverty or affliction eaten by our forefathers when kept as slaves in ,egypt4 ,but les extrmes se touchent2 it is remarkable that this very term admits also of the meaning 8bread of song10 and has been interpreted to signify the bread eaten at a joyous meal1 such as the ,israelites in ,egypt ate the night of their liberation4 ,it is possible that the author of the opening paragraph of the ,haggadah purposely employed the term in this double sense 7,pes4 #aae;a74 ,among some ,israelites it is the custom to style the three unleavened cakes1 ,cohen1 ,levi1 and ,israel4 ,the three matsoth1 as a play upon words1 are also called mitsvoth1 8commandments20 i4e41 matsoth employed in fulfilment of the commandment1 8,in the evening ye shall eat unleavened bread40 ,these matsoth are distinguished from the rest by being baked especially for this purpose4 ,some are careful in regard to these matsoth to have every process in their preparation1 from the cutting of the wheat to the baking of the matsoth1 done for the express purpose of the ,seder1 and to have the wheat and the flour well guarded from moisture or any foreign admixture4 ,matsoth prepared in this way are called 1 8guarded matsoth40 ,people still more particular have all their unleavened bread for ,passover prepared in this way4 #ajc ,the vegetables1 that were ordinarily taken as a relish and a means of producing appetite for the meal1 have only been introduced here 7,pesachim #aad;b7 for the purpose of attracting the attention of the children4 ,according to the custom of those ancient days1 the master of the house had before him a table covered with the different dishes required for the meal1 and sent portions to every member of the company4 ,when the meal was finished1 before ,grace1 this table was removed4 ,but on the ,seder-evening the table was removed immediately after the partaking of a little parsley or other vegetables4 ,the child1 accustomed on ordinary evenings to have supper without such an introduction1 asks expressly or implicitly why things are different to-night1 adding also other questions4 ,instead of parsley1 other vegetables1 or even some of the bitter herbs1 may be taken4 ,this last act not being an essential element in the ,service1 and not being obligatory1 is not preceded by the berachah1 8,blessed art thou 444 who hast commanded us1 c410 but 8,blessed art thou 444 who hast created the fruit of the earth40--,at present the table is not removed1 but the lifting up of the ,seder-dish while reciting the first paragraph 7 7 is the survival of that custom4 #ajd ,two views are expressed in the ,talmud concerning charoseth3 7#a7 it is a medicinal protective against the evil effects of the bitter herbs2 7#b7 it is an essential part of the mitsvah1 a symbol and reminder of the bricks and mortar with which the ,israelites had to do the work imposed on them by their taskmasters 7,b4 ,talm41 ,pesachim #aae;b72 it may also serve to suggest to us the idea that there is a means of softening the bitterness of oppression1 viz41 faith in ,god 7,mishnah1 ,pesachim x4 #c74 #aje ,the bone and the egg are symbols of two dishes that used in the time of the ,temple to be on the table3 the ,passover sacrifice and the festive offering called 2 the latter was added when the company was large 7ibid4 vi4 #c1 and ,b4 ,talm41 ,pes4 #aad;b74 #ajf ,the eating of anything dipped in water or in any other liquid was usually preceded by the washing of the hands4 ,but as the eating of vegetables at this point is not obligatory1 the reader alone washes his hands1 but without reciting the blessing1 4 #ajg ,see p4 #cha1 note #a4 #ajh ,comp4 p4 #chj1 note #a4 ,the part laid aside is called afikuman1 a name of which many curious etymologies have been suggested4 ,the meaning is clear2 it is that which is eaten just before the table is removed 7p4 #cha1 note #a71 or before the dishes are cleared away3 the dessert4 ,the name is therefore a compound of two ,chaldaic words1 afiku-man1 8dish-remover10 i4e41 the dessert after which all dishes are removed and the company is ready for ,grace 7,b4 ,t4 ,pesachim #hf;a ,rashi74 #aji ,the term is derived from the words of the ,pentateuch1 8,and thou shall tell thy son0 7,exod4 xiii4 #h74 ,hence also the name of the book ,haggadah4 #aaj ,the first paragraph is not an invitation sent forth to those whom it cannot reach1 but an appeal to those present to join heartily in the ,service and the succeeding meal2 that none should feel ashamed of his poverty1 none elated on account of his possessions2 all having been brethren in past troubles1 and in the deliverance from them1 and all destined alike to share in the glories of the coming redemption4 #aaa ,the questions have been arranged according to their importance2 otherwise the third question might have been expected first 7see p4 #cha1 note #a74 ,the expression 8dipping0 77 used in this question merely signifies 8taking some relish10 in distinction from the real and solid meal1 and the meaning of the question is1 8,why do we to-night partake twice of the vegetables before approaching the actual meal8 ,it indicates a festive supper4 ,what is the reason for this80 #aab ,the three different forms correspond perhaps to the three characters or ages of the inquirers3 the ignorant1 the simple1 and the sceptic2 whilst the answer to the wise has not been formulated1 but depends on his question1 and the capacity of the father to instruct him4 ,it is only the general question as to the difference between the ,seder-evening and other evenings that is answered in these three forms4 ,each of these forms was probably followed by the explanation of ,pesach1 ,matsah1 and ,maror4 #aac ,the ,midrashic comparison of 8finger of ,god0 to 8,his hand0 and the multiplication of the number of plagues must not be understood as intended to gratify our feeling of revenge1 but merely as a simple and child-like illustration of the greatness of the ,divine ,power displayed on those occasions4--,rabbi ,jehudah1 probably from a feeling of tender sympathies with the sufferers1 would not mention even the full names of the plagues1 but merely indicated them by initial letters4 #aad ,it seems that in the time of the ,talmud the one piece was eaten after the first blessing1 and the other after the second4 ,as1 therefore1 the partaking of matsah has taken place before the second blessing1 the formula is used 7see p4 #cbi1 note #b74 ,the same is the case with regard to the blessing before 8eating bitter herbs10 as it was not contrary to usage to partake of bitter herbs instead of karpas at the beginning of the ,service4 #aae ,the afikuman has been reserved wrapped in a napkin 7reminding of ,exod4 xii4 #cd71 in order that the meal should finish up with matsah1 just as in the time of the ,temple it finished up with meat of the ,passover-sacrifice4--,in the ,talmud 7,pes4 #aji;a7 the rule is given 8,we make haste to come quickly to the eating of matsah10 before the younger members of the company become drowsy or fall asleep4 ,the words have erroneously been interpreted1 8,we should snatch away the matsah10 and this interpretation caused the ,service to be accompanied by a certain kind of childish amusement3 some one of the company stealthily possesses himself of the matsah laid aside for afikuman1 and does not surrender it until the master of the house promises him some present--,the custom is unseemly and ought to be discouraged4 #aaf ,after ,grace a few verses from the ,bible 7,ps4 lxxix4 #f1 #g1 and ,lam4 iii4 #ff7 have been added1 beginning and containing a prayer for ,god's wrath to be poured forth over the godless people who seek the destruction of ,israel4 ,the cause of the addition is this3 ,the season of ,passover was1 in the ,middle ,ages1 a season of constant terror and danger to the ,jews1 because of the hostilities of their ,christian neighbours against them4 ,helpless and defenceless1 the ,jews had no other way of meeting their foe than to cry to ,him 8who is near to all who call upon ,him in truth40 ,the conduct of their neighbours towards them hardly suggested thoughts of love1 especially at that moment4 ,for it frequently happened that several families met in one house for the purpose of hearing the ,seder-,service4 ,they dispersed after the first part of the ,service1 took their meals at home1 and assembled later in the evening for the second part of the ,seder4 ,sometimes another course was taken4 ,one person read the ,service in several houses consecutively for the benefit of those who were not capable of doing so for themselves2 then1 after having had his meal1 he began his circuit again for reading the second part of the ,service4 ,the return of the ,reader or of the several families was anxiously waited for4 ,the opening of the door before 1 at present meaningless1 had its origin in this circumstance4 ,on returning to the second part of the ,service1 the guests had too often a sad tale to tell of their experiences in the street1 and filled with indignation1 they gave expression to their feeling in the above verses4 ,we continue to read these verses now1 but in a different spirit4 ,we live in peace with our neighbours1 protected by the laws of the country and unmolested in the performance of our religious duties4 ,we have nothing but feelings and thoughts of love for our fellow-men1 and in reciting these verses we merely condemn the wickedness of those who seek the destruction of the people of the ,lord4 ,our ,christian neighbours may certainly join us in this condemnation4 #aag ,comp4 ,isa4 xl4 #b4 #aah ,an omer is1 according to ,tradition1 equal to the space occupied by #dc eggs of ordinary size2 it is about half a gallon4 #aai ,or ''' ''' 7,portug4 ,ritual74 #abj ,as the month of ,iyar corresponds to some extent to ,may1 some assert1 without foundation1 that the ,jews hold no weddings this month1 because ,may is held by non-,jews to be an unlucky season for marriages4 ,jews who refuse to celebrate marriages in ,may for this reason are guilty of gross superstition4 #aba ,according to the traditional interpretation of 8from the morrow after the ,sabbath10 the term 8,sabbath0 signifies 8day of rest0 or 8festival10 and refers to the first day of ,passover 7comp4 ,lev4 xxiii4 #cb74 ,the ,sadducees1 and afterwards the ,karaites1 contested the correctness of this interpretation1 but without success 7see ,babyl4 ,talm41 ,menachoth #fe2 and ,ibn ,ezra on ,lev4 xxiii4 #ae74 #abb ,the collection of these passages is called 4 ,a similar collection for the seventh night of ,tabernacles is called 4 ,see p4 #cih1 note #a4 #abc ,on ,sabbath the lulabh is not taken1 because it might be necessary to carry it from place to place through the street 7 71 and this is forbidden 7see ,mishnah1 ,shabbath i4 #a and vii4 #b74 ,for the same reason the shofar is not blown on the first day of ,new-year1 if it happens to fall on ,saturday4 ,in the ,temple1 however1 there was no occasion for the above apprehension2 the lulabh was therefore taken and the shofar was blown on ,sabbath 7,mishnah1 ,succah iv4 #a1 and ,rosh ha-shanah iv4 #a74 #abd ,in the ,temple willow-branches were placed round the altar1 the shofar was blown1 and the priests made then a circuit round the altar1 with the lulabh in their hands1 and singing part of ,hallel4--,the hoshaanoth refer chiefly to the redemption of ,israel and the rebuilding of the ,temple4--,the circuit round the altar reminds us of the taking of ,jericho1 and strengthens our hope that in future also the ,almighty will be with us1 and help us through all difficulties to ultimate victory4 #abe ,the lulabh alone is mentioned in the blessing1 because it is the most prominent1 and the other three species seem to be its appendages4--,the form is explained by the fact that we generally hold the four species in our hand1 and thus commence the mitsvah1 before the berachah 7see p4 #cbi1 note #b74--,the three species1 palm-branch1 myrtle1 and willow1 are usually bound together by means of leaves of the palm-tree4 ,some used to add golden bands to these leaves 7,mishnah1 ,succah iii4 #h74 #abf ,mishnah1 ,succah iv4 #e4--;,in the ,temple the shofar was sounded during the priests' circuit round the altar4 ,a similar custom exists in the ,spanish and ,portuguese ,synagogues on ,hoshaana-rabba4--,tradition attributed great importance to the ,morning ,service on ,hoshaana-rabba1 and made it a kind of sequel to the ,service on the 8,solemn ,days10 as if to give another opportunity of repentance to those who had not made full use of the means of grace afforded by the ,day of ,atonement1 before the final sentence 7 7 is pronounced4 ,the preceding evening is therefore spent by many in devotional exercises 7 74 ,comp4 p4 #cid4 ,it is an old custom to take a few extra twigs of the willow-tree on this day and keep them in one's hand during the chanting of the hoshaanoth4 ,these branches1 when shaken or struck1 lose their leaves one after the other2 so do the trees from which the branches have been cut1 and so also all other trees4 ,but the rain and heat sent by ,god in due time give them fresh life1 and they produce new leaves4 ,a similar experience is ours4 ,the struggle for life reduces our strength and weakens our health2 cares and troubles discourage us4 ,but faith in ,god and trust in ,his ,providence renew our strength2 our health improves1 our cares and troubles are diminished1 and we feel ourselves restored to fresh life4 #abg ,lit4 8the eighth day1 a festival40--,a prayer for rain 77 is inserted in the ,musaf-,service1 and corresponds to the prayer for dew on the first day of ,passover2 for fine weather we pray on the first day of the ,festival1 for rain on the eighth day4 ,from ,shemini-atsereth to the ,musaf of the first day of ,passover the words 8,thou causest the wind to blow and the rain to fall10 are inserted in the second paragraph of the ,amidah4 ,the words do not contain a direct prayer for rain1 but a praise of ,him who causes the rain to fall 7 71 whilst the daily direct prayer for rain 7 8,give dew and rain07 begins about two months later1--the time when the pilgrims that had come from distant countries to ,jerusalem to the ,festival were assumed to have reached their homes4 #abh ,it has always been considered a special mitsvah and honour to be called to the reading either of the last or of the first section of the ,pentateuch4 ,those on whom this honour is conferred are called respectively 8,bridegroom of the ,law10 and 8,bridegroom of the first section of the ,law40 ,in the rejoicing with the ,law special efforts are made to induce the younger members of the congregation to take part4 ,they are usually invited to join the procession with the scrolls of the ,law round the ,synagogue1 and have also the privilege of being called to the ,torah1 although they are not yet thirteen years old4 ,this and similar things are done in order to inspire our children with love for the ,torah and for the study of the ,torah4 #abi ,whilst the three ,festivals demanded great sacrifices of each individual ,israelite--to undertake a pilgrimage to the ,temple1 and not to appear empty before the ,lord--the 8,solemn ,days0 demanded only abstention from work1 and on one day also from food4 ,the ,sacrificial ,service on the ,day of ,atonement concerned directly the ,high-,priest and the priests in the ,temple1 the public at large but indirectly2 and if great multitudes assembled in the ,temple1 it was curiosity rather than duty that brought them there4 ,more importance was therefore attached by chroniclers and historians to the three ,festivals and the national gathering in and round the ,temple on the ,feasts of ,pilgrimage than to the ,day of ,memorial or the ,day of ,atonement4 ,the ,law deemed it necessary to urge on the ,israelites the celebration of the former more frequently than that of the latter4 ,when ,solomon at the dedication of the ,temple celebrated with the ,israelites twice seven days1 the first seven days probably commenced the #ast of ,tishri on the ,festival 7#a ,kings viii4 #b71 and the second seven days on the #aeth of the month2 therefore they are reckoned separately 7ibid4 viii4 #fe2 #b ,chron4 vii4 #i1 #aj74 ,ezra1 who read the ,law to the ,jews on the #ast of ,tishri 7,neh4 viii4 #b71 which was a ,holy-day 7ibid4 #aj71 read it also on the second day1 which may likewise have been a special day for reading the ,law1 probably the ,day of ,atonement1 and here they learnt that they were commanded to build booths for the next ,festival4 ,they must therefore have heard ,leviticus xxiii41 which includes the commandment concerning the fasting on the ,day of ,atonement4 ,it may also be noticed that1 although the commandment concerning the ,day of ,atonement is not mentioned in ,exodus1 the day is referred to as a well-known institution 7,exod4 xxx4 #aj74 #acj ,the reason ,tradition assigns for this observance is as follows3 ,after the giving of the ,law ,moses ascended ,mount ,sinai on the #gth of ,sivan1 and descended on the fortieth day1 the #agth of ,tammuz1 with the tables of testimony4 ,on the #ahth he ascended again1 and spent forty days in prayer for forgiveness for ,israel2 and ascended for the third time on the #ast of ,elul1 and returned on the #ajth of ,tishri with the ,divine message1 8,i have pardoned in accordance with thy words of prayer40 ,cherishing the hope that we may ourselves receive such a heavenly response on the ,day of ,atonement1 we follow the example of ,moses1 and add these ,selichoth or devotional exercises to our daily prayers1 while the sound of the shofar aids in awakening us to earnest reflection and true improvement4 ,there are various names for these additional prayers3 8,supplications10 and 8,prayers for forgiveness10 the latter being the general name for the early additional ,service4 ,some of them have special names3 8opening0 7i4e41 the first prayer72 8psalm10 a hymn sung or recited alternately by the ,reader and the congregation2 a composition referring to the binding of ,isaac2 8supplication10 generally at the end of the ,selichoth4 ,prominent among these prayers is the recitation of the ,thirteen ,attributes of ,mercy 7,exod4 xxxiv4 #f1 #g7 and the 8,confession of sins0 774 #aca ,although ,nisan1 the month of the departure of the ,israelites from ,egypt1 is the first month1 and ,passover the first of the ,festivals of the year1 ,tishri1 though the seventh month1 was in many respects the beginning of the year4 ,in the month of ,tishri the ,jubilee year commenced1 the slaves were liberated1 and landed property returned to the original owners 7comp4 ,mishnah1 ,rosh ha-shanah i4 #a74 #acb ,the name does1 however1 occur in the ,mishnah as a term long in use and well known4 ,it is impossible to decide when the name was introduced4 ,the words in ,ez4 7xl4 #a7 denote the beginning of the year1 including ten days or more1 but do not signify 8,new-year40 #acc ,the blowing of the shofar is preceded by the blessing3 ''' ''' 8,blessed art thou 444 who hast sanctified us by thy commandments and hast commanded us to hear the sound of the shofar40 ,this blessing is followed by 4 #acd ,according to ,saadiah1 the shofar reminds us of the following ten things with which it is directly or indirectly connected3--7#a7 ,creation2 7#b7 ,our duty to return to ,god2 7#c7 ,revelation on ,mount ,sinai2 7#d7 ,the exhortations of the ,prophets2 7#e7 ,destruction of the ,temple2 7#f7 ,the binding of ,isaac for sacrifice2 7#g7 ,imminent danger2 7#h7 ,day of ,judgment2 7#i7 ,redemption of ,israel2 7#aj7 ,resurrection4 #ace ,in some congregations it is the custom to walk in the afternoon of ,new-year along the banks of a river or the sea-shore1 in order to reflect on the purifying effect which water has on the body1 and to be reminded that even as the body is purified by water1 so ought our souls be purified by repentance and the appeal to the help and mercy of ,god4 ,an appropriate passage from ,micah 7vii4 #ah-bj7 is recited1 and the custom has received its name tashlich from the word 8and thou wilt cast10 which occurs in the passage4 #acf ,the confession of sins 77 as contained in our ,prayer-book is made by the whole community collectively2 and those who have not themselves committed the sins mentioned in the confession regret that they were unable to prevent them from being committed by others4 ,the form of the confession is therefore in the plural3 8,we have been guilty10 c4 ,the words 8,indeed we have sinned10 would suffice for the purpose of confession4 ,but the long lists of various forms of sins in the sections beginning 1 or and which are repeatedly recited during the ,service1 help us to remember our misdoings2 what has escaped our attention the first time may be revived in our memory1 when we read the confession a second or third time4 ,especially numerous are the terms denoting sins committed with our tongue2 and indeed they are numerous6 ,and where is the person that could say that his tongue has never been employed in falsehood1 or slander1 or self-praise1 or hasty promises1 and similar offences8 ,it is necessary that we should reflect over and over again on these vices1 and on the way in which to obtain better control over our tongue1 and thereby a fuller mastery over the passions of our heart4 #acg ,the ,evening ,service is preceded by a formal rescinding of previous vows4 ,of what kind were the vows which are thus annulled8 ,none of those that were made by a member of the community individually4 ,no one can by means of this formula free himself from the obligation to fulfil what he has promised to his fellow-man4 ,the declaration concerns the whole congregation1 and has probably its origin in the customs of former days1 when those who refused to join in the communal work1 or to submit to the law of the congregation1 or shocked by any act of theirs the conscience of their brethren1 or abandoned ,judaism outwardly1 were excommunicated and shut out from all contact with their co-religionists4 ,such transgressors1 abarjanim1 when desirous to pray in the ,synagogue on the ,day of ,atonement1 were admitted1 and all opposition was silenced by the solemn declaration4 ,that such was the original object of ,kol-nidre is sufficiently clear from its surroundings4 ,it is preceded by the following announcement3 8,in the name of ,god1 and in the name of the congregation1 with the sanction of the ,court above1 and that of the ,court below1 we declare that it is permitted to pray together with those who have been transgressors 7abarjanim740 ,kol-nidre is followed by the verse1 8,and it shall be forgiven all the congregation of the children of ,israel1 and the stranger that sojourneth among them2 seeing all the people were in ignorance0 7,num4 xv4 #bf74 ,the original object of this declaration does not apply at present2 but it serves as a reminder of the following principles3-- #a4 ,we should always be disposed to forgive those who1 in the heat of strife1 acting under strong irritation1 have offended us4 #b4 ,we should be careful with regard to vows1 and before making them consider their effect4 #c4 ,we should reflect on human weakness1 and consider that what we believe to be able to do to-day may prove impossible for us to-morrow4 ,this reflection would remove every thought of pride from our heart and inspire us with humility4 #ach ,at the conclusion of the ,service we once more proclaim the ,unity of ,god 7 71 repeat three times the praise of ,his kingdom1 and seven times that ,he alone is the ,almighty4 ,the sound of the shofar announces1 as on the occasion of the ,revelation on ,mount ,sinai1 the conclusion of the ,holy-day4 #aci ,the idea of introduction is implied in the term minchah1 8introduction0 7from the root 8to lead10 8to conduct074--,minchah1 originally denoting any present or offering1 was the special name of flour-offerings1 probably because flour or corn was the most common minchah offered by people to their sovereign4--,comp4 8,i will appease him with the present 7minchah7 that goeth before me1 and afterwards ,i will see his face0 7,gen4 xxxii4 #ba74 #adj from 8to judge10 implies self-examination whether we are worthy of addressing the ,most ,holy4 ,as to the purifying effect of prayer1 see above1 p4 #ahc4 #ada ,this was necessary for two reasons3 it served to foster a disposition for devotion and to assist the multitude in their endeavour to give expression to their feelings2 it gave also uniformity to the prayers1 which is indispensable in public ,divine ,worship 7 74--,the free effusion of our heart before our ,creator is by no means restrained1 and is certainly not intended to be excluded by these regulations4 #adb 8,custom overrules law10 is a well-known saying that is frequently acted upon 7,soferim xiv4 #ah74 #adc ,comp4 supra1 page #ahc sqq41 on the efficacy of prayer4 ,comp4 page #bhj sqq4 #add ,this is one of the three explanations suggested in ,babyl4 ,talm41 ,berachoth #bi;b3 7#a7 ,a burdensome task1 of which one desires to get rid2 7#b7 a claim and not a supplication2 7#c7 fixed without any spontaneous addition4 #ade ,hence the phrases in the ,talmud1 8,he went down toward the ,ark0 7tebhah71 or simply 8,he went down0 to read the tefillah4 ,it was not so in all places of worship1 because another phrase is sometimes used1 8,he passed toward the tebhah40 #adf ,on such occasions a large congregation was expected1 coming from the whole neighbourhood1 and the ,synagogue was considered too small4 ,it is also possible that a prayer-meeting in the open air was intended to attract the indifferent1 who did not attend the regular ,services in the ,synagogue4 #adg ,see ,mishnah1 ,berachoth iv4 #e1 #f1 and ,babyl4 ,talm41 ,berachoth #cj;a4 #adh ,as our religion demands frequent recitations of berachoth in the course of the day1 the custom spread among the ,jews of keeping the head always covered4 ,comp4 ,babyl4 ,t41 ,kiddushin #ca;a2 ,shulchan aruch1 ,orach ,chayyim ii4 #f4 #adi ,attempts have been made to modify and to soften down the seemingly harsh words against those who design our ruin2 some even wish to have the whole paragraph expunged from the prayer4 ,in these attempts it has been ignored that the prayer is not directed against certain persons or nations2 it is a petition for the protection of ,israel from the wicked plans of evildoers4 #aej ,this fact is probably the source of the statement in ,midrash ,rabboth 7,num4 xviii471 that the tefillah before the birchath ha-tsadukim was added contained seventeen paragraphs4 #aea ,in the ,temple the priests recited daily the ,decalogue1 and no objection was raised1 because the congregation--priests1 ,levites1 and general worshippers--constantly changed2 and secondly1 the very ,service in the ,temple sufficiently proved the existence of other ,divine laws4--,this ruling applies only to the addition of the ,decalogue to the shema1 not to its introduction into any other part of the ,service4 #aeb ,the priests were classed in twenty-four divisions2 they had to perform a week's active ,service in the ,temple by turns2 the same was the case with the ,levites4 ,the ,israelites of the district of which it was the turn of the priests and the ,levites to serve in the ,temple sent a deputation 7,maamad7 to ,jerusalem1 who represented them in the ,temple2 whilst they themselves held special prayer meetings1 called ,maamadoth4 #aec ,e4g41 the addition of to1 and the omission of from1 the 4 #aed ,machzor1 lit41 8,cycle0 of prayers1 both the obligatory and the optional1 or the ordinary tefilloth and the piyyutim1 for the various seasons of the whole year4 ,it is called ,machzor ,vitry1 after its compiler1 ,simcha of ,vitry 7about #aajj74 #aee ,as to the importance of minhag in our religious life1 see above1 p4 #dbj4 #aef ,according to the ,mishnah 7,berachoth iv4 #a71 the time fixed for this ,service is the first fourth of the day2 but the notions of 8early0 and 8late0 are now different from what they were in ancient times4 ,an extension of the time has long been conceded1 especially for the ,public ,service on ,sabbaths and ,festivals4 #aeg ,as to the principle expressed in these three berachoth1 see supra1 p4 #agj4 #aeh ,in the ,german ,ritual for week-days a third berachah1 beginning and concluding 1 is added4 ,this berachah seems to have been at first a substitute for the ,amidah1 which was optional in the ,maaribh ,service4 ,the substitute became in many congregations an integral part of the ,maaribh1 and was retained even when the ,amidah was generally adopted as obligatory4 ,on the eve of ,sabbath and ,festivals the ,amidah was always recited1 and there was no need for the substitute4 ,the third berachah is therefore absent from the ,maaribh on these evenings4 #aei ,see note #b on p4 #ddf sq4 #afj ,as to the merits of ,public ,service1 see above1 p4 #bhd4 ,ten male persons of thirteen years and upwards constitute a congregation1 7or 8number0 or 8quorum071 and their united devotions form ,public ,service 7 71 into which the additions enumerated above are introduced4 #afa ,before meals we wash our hands1 say the blessing1 1 and eat a piece of bread after having said the berachah1 4--,some wash their hands a second time 7 7 before ,grace4 ,see ,shulchan-aruch1 ,orach-chayyim clxxxi4 #afb ,comp4 ,babyl4 ,talm41 ,berachoth1 p4 #dh;b4 #afc or 4 #afd 4 #afe ,the ,reader must be the real representative of1 and acceptable to the congregants 7,shulchan-aruch ,i4 liii4 #d74 #aff ,see above1 page #dag4 #afg ,e4g41 and in the ,musaph of the first day of ,pesach and the eighth day of ,succoth are based on the climatic conditions of ,palestine4 #afh ,those who fear that the seemingly harsh expressions might imply or suggest ideas and feelings of a baser kind can easily modify them and remove the sting4--,similarly1 expressions contrary to our taste and sense of propriety ought to be removed4 #afi ,i4e41 of the new corn4 ,this law of applied to the corn sown during the year preceding the festival of ,passover and beginning with the previous ,passover 7,babyl4 ,talm41 ,menachoth #fi74 #agj ,the grafting of two species of trees one upon the other is included in this prohibition4 #aga ,e4g41 8,neither shall there come upon thee a garment of two kinds of stuff mingled together40 ,such mixture is called 1 and applies only to the mixture of wool and linen 7,deut4 xxii4 #aa74 ,another commandment belonging to this category is this3 8,thou shalt not plow with an ox and an ass together0 7ibid4 #aj74 ,ibn ,ezra1 in his ,commentary on the ,pentateuch 7ad locum71 suggests the following reason for this commandment1 8,the ,almighty has mercy upon all ,his creatures2 the strength of the ass being inferior to that of the ox1 an unfair demand would be made upon the strength of the former when drawing the ploughshares together with the latter40 #agb originally designated meat of animals torn by wild beasts1 but it is used to designate food1 especially meat1 forbidden by the ,law4 ,all permitted food is called kasher 774 #agc ,in accordance with the traditional explanation of the commandment1 8,thou shalt not destroy the corners of thy beard0 7,lev4 xix4 #bg71 a razor is not employed1 and shaving is avoided2 the hair of the beard and the face is clipped with scissors4 ,this prohibition1 like that of 8rounding the corners of the head0 7ibid471 belongs to a group of precepts which aimed at keeping the ,israelites away from the idolatrous customs of their heathen neighbours4 ,the second prohibition has led to the fashion noticeable among ,russian and ,polish ,jews of letting the hair of 8the corners of the head0 7in ,hebrew peoth7 grow very long4--,in the ,mishnah 7,kethubhoth vii4 #f7 it is mentioned as a distinctively 8,jewish custom0 that married women have their head covered when going out4 ,many ,jewish women observe also this custom within the house4--,with these exceptions there is nothing in his dress and appearance that need distinguish the ,jew from the ,gentile1 only that sometimes ,jews are more conservative with regard to fashion than their neighbours1 and old-fashioned style is then mistaken for 8,jewish fashion40 #agd ,some people leave on one of the walls of the house a certain piece unpapered and unpainted as a sign of mourning for the destruction of ,jerusalem and the ,temple4 ,from the same reason1 in some congregations1 the bridegroom on the wedding-day has ashes strewn on his head4 ,in accordance with ,ps4 cxxxvii4 #f we remember ,jerusalem on various occasions4 ,we recite ,ps4 cxxxvii4 on week-days1 and ,ps4 cxxvi4 on ,sabbath and ,holy-days1 after every meal4 ,again1 when we give expression to our sympathy with mourners we pray that ,god may comfort them together with those who mourn for the destruction of ,jerusalem4 #age ,the above-mentioned exceptions1 and the fact that the woman is passive in the marriage ceremony as well as in the case of a divorce1 have been erroneously interpreted as evidence of the low estimate in which she is held by the ,jewish ,law4 ,how the ,jews were taught to honour their wives may be gathered from the ,jewish marriage document1 in which the husband promises 8to honour his wife in accordance with the rule in practice among ,jews1 that every husband honours his wife40 ,there are1 unfortunately1 also bad ,jews who ill-treat1 neglect1 or entirely abandon their wives2 but these cases are exceptions1 and proportionately less numerous than among non-,jews4 ,on the whole1 ,jewish women are treated by their husbands with love and regard1 and the good relations that exist between husband and wife ensure the comfort and happiness of both4 #agf ,to this respect for feminine modesty is due the arrangement made in the ,synagogue for female worshippers 7see p4 #dbf74 ,it is also the reason why girls have no ceremony corresponding to the celebration of the bar-mitsvah4 #agg ,women do not like to do needlework on ,saturday evening immediately after the close of ,sabbath2 it was considered a mitsvah to prolong the ,sabbath1 just as it is a sign of love and esteem if we induce a friend to defer his departure4 ,the saying that only shrouds are to be sewn on ,sabbath evening may perhaps be traced to ,mishnah1 ,shabbath xxiii4 #d4 #agh ,in order to have warm food on ,sabbath without breaking any of the ,sabbath laws1 the food is put in an oven which is heated in such a manner that the fire continues to burn without requiring to be stirred or rekindled1 or in which the heat is otherwise retained4 ,such food is called chalet1 which is probably a ,french word1 corresponding to the ,hebrew 8warm40 #agi ,or 8love of mitsvah40 #ahj ,see p4 #ceg4 #aha ,see p4 #ceg sqq4 #ahb ,jews consider it a duty to have guests 77 at the table on three occasions1 viz41 the ,seder-evening1 ,purim1 and ,succoth4 #ahc ,the blessing generally consists of the priestly benediction1 and the words of ,jacob1 8,god make thee like ,ephraim and like ,manasseh0 7,gen4 xlviii4 #bj72 ,sarah1 ,rebeccah1 ,rachel1 and ,leah being substituted for ,ephraim and ,manasseh when females are addressed4 #ahd ,a special ,service of the day is called 4 #ahe ,friday evening was especially selected for this purpose2 the visitors were treated with fruit and sweets2 and this secondary element in the custom became in course of time the principal thing4 ,the custom received the name ,shalom-zachar1 probably from the usual greeting1 8,shalom6 78,peace10 corresponding to our 8,how do you do807 ,o male child60 #ahf ,in different countries there were different ways of expressing this sentiment4 ,in some congregations a band 7mappah7 for the ,sepher1 with the name and birthday of the child inscribed on it1 and ornamented with verses expressive of various good wishes1 is presented to the ,synagogue4 #ahg ,i4e41 a person who circumcises4 #ahh ,of those who assist in the mitsvah1 the sandek 7godfather71 who holds the child during the operation1 is the most prominent1 and is called 78who is in possession of the covenant10 i4e41 of the child to be initiated into the covenant74 ,the religious enthusiasm required for the performance of this mitsvah is symbolically represented by 8the chair of ,elijah0 7 71 upon which the child is placed before the operation2 ,elijah in ,jewish ,tradition being the type of religious zeal4 #ahi ,the ,service for the occasion is included in the ,daily ,prayer-book1 by ,rev4 ,s4 ,singer1 p4 #cjd4 #aij ,for the ,blessing and ,prayers on this occasion1 see ,prayer-book1 p4 #cjh4 #aia ,the chief element in this ,service is 1 the thanksgiving for the ,divine protection enjoyed in the moment of danger4 ,this ,blessing is pronounced by 7#a7 those who have crossed the sea1 7#b7 or a desert1 7#c7 or have recovered from a serious illness1 7#d7 or have been released from prison4 7,comp4 ,ps4 cvii47 #aib ,leviticus was generally taken first4 #aic ,a misinterpretation of the dictum of ,rabbi ,eliezer1 8,whoso teaches his daughter torah1 teaches her1 as it were1 levity0 7,mishnah1 ,sotah iii4 #d71 led many to believe that the ,rabbis did not wish the daughters of ,israel to know the ,law4 ,the dictum refers to a discussion which immediately precedes on the efficacy of the 8bitter waters40 ,rabbi ,eliezer holds that it is dangerous to the morality of a woman to engage her thoughts with the details of the ,law concerning a wife suspected of adultery 7,num4 v474 #aid ,the feast in honour of the bar-mitsvah is only when it is accompanied by 78,words of the ,law07 spoken by him4 #aie ,at festivities a glass was broken in order to remind those present of the transient nature of all earthly things1 and thus warn them against excess of joy 7,babyl4 ,talm41 ,berachoth #ca;a74--,the same is done after the wedding ceremony4 #aif ,in the ,talmud the custom of the ring is not mentioned2 anything could be used1 provided it had the value of a perutah1 a small coin1 and was the property of the bridegroom4 ,among ,jews the use of the ring is a modern fashion4 ,the ring must not contain any jewel or precious stone1 the value of which can in many cases not easily be estimated1 and which might therefore lead to misunderstanding and dispute4 #aig ,there are1 besides1 various explanations of the term chuppah3 7#a47 ,the wreath on the head of the bride when led to the marriage ceremony 71 ,mishnah1 ,kethubhoth ii4 #aj74 7#b47 ,a cover over the head of the bride2 in some countries1 therefore1 instead of erecting a canopy1 a talith is held over the bride and bridegroom during the ceremony2 in others a separate ceremony of covering the head of the bride takes place before the actual marriage 7comp4 supra1 p4 #dfg1 note #a74 7#c47 ,a private chamber into which bride and bridegroom retire for breakfast when the ceremony is over4 #aih ,in order to prevent mistakes the minister reads the formula slowly1 and the bridegroom repeats it2 the minister omits the word 8unto me10 and the bridegroom inserts the word by himself1 or assisted by some one else4 #aii 8,and of ,israel0 signifies3 8,according to the ,jewish traditional interpretation of the ,law of ,moses20 these words are added because the rules of kiddushin are not directly mentioned in the ,torah4 #bjj ,the kethubhah is in its essential elements very old1 and dates probably back to the time when the ,jews in ,palestine spoke ,aramaic4 ,the settlement described in this document should be made to correspond with the actual deed of settlement legally executed4 ,on the other hand1 even the poorer bridegrooms should be induced to make a real settlement corresponding to the promises made in the kethubhah4 ,the system of life insurance facilitates such a course4 ,otherwise the kethubhah has no importance4 #bja ,the contents of these ,blessings are3 7#a7 ,benediction over wine2 7#b7 praise of ,god as the ,creator of the ,universe1 7#c7 as the ,creator of man1 7#d7 and of woman2 7#e7 prayer for the comfort of ,zion1 7#f7 for the rejoicing of the young couple1 and 7#g7 for their united happiness4 #bjb ,lit41 8,good planet40 ,the term has entirely lost its original meaning1 and denotes simply 8hearty congratulation40 #bjc ,in the ,torah polygamy is not forbidden1 but not encouraged4 ,it was a luxury inaccessible to the multitude1 and the king is distinctly told that he must not have many wives 7,deut4 xvii4 #ag74 ,the principle of monogamy is implied in many ,biblical passages1 as1 e4g41 ,gen4 ii4 #bj sqq42 ,mal4 ii4 #ad2 ,ps4 cxxviii4 #c2 ,prov4 v4 #ah sqq4 #bjd ,a woman divorced from her husband by or from her brother-in-law by cannot marry a kohen4 #bje ,in every congregation there is a special society of those who devote themselves to the needs of the sick 7 74 ,see above1 p4 #cjb4 #bjf 8,many have made confession and have afterwards recovered0 are the very words to be addressed to the patient according to the ,shulchan-aruch1 ,jore deah cccxxxviii4 #bjg ,see ,sefer ha-chayyim1 and ,daily ,prayer-book1 p4 #cad sqq4 #bjh ,see supra1 p4 #cjb4 #bji ,those present exclaim3 8,blessed art thou 444 who art the true ,judge40 ,the same is done by those who are not present on hearing the sad news4 ,relatives rend also their garments 774 #baj ,in ,hebrew and 2 the former term is applied to the mourners during the time between the death and the interment of their relatives2 the latter after the interment during the whole period of mourning4 #baa ,some consider it a dishonour to the departed to leave the corpse unburied over night1 since the ,law does not allow even the body of a criminal to be treated in this way4 ,the practice may also have commended itself on sanitary grounds4 #bab ,the shroud is made of white linen4 ,the kittel or sargenes is part of the raiment in which the dead are clothed4 ,it is the custom in some countries that the bride presents the bridegroom with this article on the wedding-day2 and it is worn by the husband on ,new-,year's ,day and on the ,day of ,atonement1 and on the ,seder-evening during the ,service4 ,some think that the object of wearing it is to remind us of death1 and thus turn our thoughts away from the vanities of earthly life4--,the custom has probably its origin in the fact that the white kittel was the festive garment of the day4 #bac ,in ,hebrew or 8the house of life0 or 8the house of eternity40 #bad ,the case is known by the name of 8the corpse which claims attention as a mitsvah40 #bae ,the usual formula is1 8,may the ,almighty comfort you together with those who mourn for ,zion and ,jerusalem40 ,these words are addressed to the mourners when they return from the grave to the ,hall1 while passing the line 77 formed by those present1 and are repeated during the week of mourning1 especially on ,friday evening when the mourners enter the ,synagogue4 ,when the ,service is over1 the mourners return home1 and partake of a meal prepared for them by friends or neighbours 7 74 ,in days of old wine was taken on that occasion 7,kethubhoth #h;b71 but this custom1 like several others1 has dropped into oblivion4 ,in the ,grace the section which begins 8,and build10 is modified during the week of mourning in order to give expression to the sentiments of the mourners4 #baf ,during the week of mourning the mourners 7#a7 remain at home1 with the exception of ,sabbath2 7#b7 abstain from work and business2 7#c7 hold the ,morning and the ,evening ,services at home1 and add appropriate psalms 7such as xvi4 and xlix471 prayers1 and meditations2 7#d7 sit on the floor or on low chairs2 7#e7 listen to no music1 avoid play1 and all kinds of amusement1 and 7#f7 let the hair grow long4--,during the rest of the month--or of the year1 in case of mourning for father or mother--the last two observances are followed2 the hair is only cut when it has become cumbersome as well as unsightly1 and a banquet is only attended when it is a 4 #bag ,a symbol of the soul of the departed1 in reference to ,prov4 xx4 #bg4 #bah ,the three principal mitsvoth are3 ,study of the ,law 771 ,divine ,service 771 and ,charity 7 74 ,as regards the first1 a section of the ,mishnah is studied daily2 as regards the second1 the bereaved1 during the year of mourning1 or on the ,jahrzeit1 acts as ,reader in the ,synagogue for the whole or part of the ,service2 and as regards the third1 relief is given to the poor in memoriam4 #bai ,babyl4 ,talm41 ,gittin #ad;b4 #bbj ,the numbers refer to pages in the ,authorized ,daily ,prayer-book1 with a new translation by the ,rev4 ,s4 ,singer4