,,non-,,te*nical ,,*ats ,,on ,,iron ,,& ,,/eel ,,& ,,_! ,,application ,,to ,,mod]n ,,indu/ry ,,by ,,la ,,v]ne ,w4 ,,spr+1 ,a4,b4 ,,*ief ,,*emi/ ,,& ,,metallurgi/1 ,,crane ,,co41 ,,*icago ,,) ,,two ,,hundr$ ,,& ,,n9ety-,,f\r ,,illu/rations ,,& ,,diagrams ,illu/ration3 ,logo ,,new ,,york ,,fr$]ick ,a4 ,,/okes ,,company ,,publi%]s ,copyright1 #aiag1 by ,,fr$]ick ,a4 ,,/okes ,,company ,all rights res]v$1 includ+ t ( translation into =eign languages ,,to ,,my ,,fell[ ,,work]s ,,9 ,,! ,,va/ ,,iron ,,& ,,/eel ,,indu/ry ,,?is ,,book ,,is ,,affectionately ,,d$icat$ ,,=eword ,x has long be5 a desire ( ! au?or to put into non-te*nical =m ! int]e/+ data "h giv54 ,dur+ sev]al ye>s sp5t 9 ! s]vice ( "o ( ! great /eel companies ( ?is c\ntry1 fir/ 9 ! laboratories & aft]w>d 9 ! roll+ mills1 he acquir$ a love = ! indu/ry t is n[ ( fairly long /&+4 ,sp5d+ z mu* ( 8 sp>e "t !n & s9ce 9 visit+ v>i\s p>ts ( t mammo? plant & z _m o!rs z he 0 able1 he has always felt t ?is extremely int]e/+ subject c\ld n fail to prove fasc9at+ ev5 to ^? :o _h previ\sly kn[n little ( ! manufacture ( /eel & /eel products4 ,lat] "w ) gray & malleable ca/ irons & ) ca/ /eel enl>g$ ! outlook & fur!r urg$ 8 %>+ ^! int]e/+ ?+s ) o!rs n s =tunately situat$4 ,su* an inspiration1 if x may s be call$1 is ! reason = ! appe>ance ( ^! articles4 ,practically z "h repr9t$1 ! fir/ ?irte5 ( !m 7 publi%$ dur+ #aiae & #aiaf 9 s]ial =m 9 ! 8,valve ,_w10 ! h\se organ ( ,crane ,company ( ,*icago1 ) :i* ! writ] = "s "t has be5 connect$4 ,! en?usiasm ) :i* !y 7 receiv$ has be5 v gratify+1 :ile ! scores ( lett]s be>+ favorable comm5t te/ify to ! correctness ( ! judgm5t t ! metallurgy ( our mo/ useful metal1 iron1 is ( v g5]al int]e/4 ,x may be rem>k$ by "s t c]ta9 ( ! /atem5ts made 9 ! book are n /rictly accurate 9 t few details h be5 /at$ or exceptions made4 ,?is is true1 b x seem$ necess>y if ma9 facts 7 to be made to /& =? ) ! boldness requir$ to accompli% ! purpose :i* ! au?or _h 9 m9d4 ,! *apt]s are 9 no way int5d$ to be an encyclop$ia ( ! subject4 ,! idea ?r\gh\t has be5 to pres5t only ! ma9 po9ts & to %[ ! d]ivation ( ! products f ! raw mat]ials & _! relation%ips to ea* o!r4 ,9 o!r words ! book is int5d$ only z a sort ( outl9e4 ,ref]5ces are giv5 :i* w aid 9 ! selection ( works to be consult$ by any :o are suffici5tly int]e/$ to g f>!r4 ,)\t ! enc\ragem5t & cop]ation ( ,crane ,company & ! k9d assi/ance ( fri5ds1 "s )9 & "s )\t ! iron & /eel indu/ry1 ?is little book w\ld n h be5 possible4 ,special m5tion mu/ be made ( ! aid giv5 by ,messrs4 ,i4 ,m4 ,breg[sky1 ,j4 ,a4 ,mat!ws1 ,c4 ,d4 ,c>p5t]1 & o!rs ^: read+ ( & sugge/ions conc]n+ p>ts ( ! manuscript 7 ( mu* help4 ,?anks are due also to _m individuals & firms = _! v he>ty cop]ation 9 furni%+ in=mation & ! photographs :i* appe> 9 ! pages ( ! book4 ,l4 ,w4 ,s4 ,illu/rations are f ! foll[+ s\rces3 ,a4 ,m4 ,by]s ,co41 ,pittsburg4--,national ,tube ,co41 ,pittsburg4--,u4 ,s4 ,/eel ,corporation1 ,new ,york4--,t5nessee ,coal1 ,iron ,railroad ,co41 ,birm+ham1 ,ala4--,%5ango ,furnace ,co41 ,pittsburg4--,pick&s1 ,ma!r ,co41 ,pittsburg4--,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey4--,wellman-,seav]-,morgan ,co41 ,clevel&1 ,o4--,lackawanna ,/eel ,co41 ,buffalo4--,clevel&-,cliffs ,iron ,co41 ,i%pem+1 ,mi*4--,j4 ,h4 ,hillman ,sons ,co41 ,pittsburg4--,h>bison-,walk] ,refractories ,co41 ,pittsburg4--,by-,products ,coke ,corporation1 ,*icago4--,h4 ,kopp]s ,co41 ,pittsburg4--,f$]al ,furnace ,co41 ,*icago4--,crucible ,/eel ,company ( ,am]ica1 ,pittsburg4--,crane ,co41 ,*icago4--,int]/ate ,iron ,/eel ,co41 ,*icago4--,la,belle ,iron ,works1 ,/eub5ville1 ,o4--,morgan ,con/ruction ,company1 ,worce/]1 ,mass4--,j4 ,a4 ,mat!ws4 ,syracuse1 ,n4 ,y4--,mc,lain's ,sy/em1 ,milwaukee1 ,wis4--,allis-,*alm]s ,co41 ,milwaukee1 ,wis4--,j4 ,h4 ,williams ,co41 ,new ,york4--,griff9 ,:eel ,co41 ,*icago4--,u4 ,s4 ,mold+ ,ma*9e ,co41 ,clevel&4--,bradley ,manufactur+ ,co41 ,bradley1 ,ill4 7,se>s1 ,roebuck ,co41 ,*icago74--,snyd] ,electric ,furnace ,co41 ,*icago4--,commonweal? ,/eel ,co41 ,/4 ,l\is4--,john ,a4 ,cr[ley ,co41 ,detroit4--,ill9ois ,/eel ,co41 ,*icago4--,pick&s1 ,br[n ,co41 ,*icago4--8,sket*es ( ,creation10 by ,alex&] ,w9*ell4 ,h>p] ,bros41 ,new ,york4--8,descriptive ,metallurgy ( ,iron10 by ,s4 ,groves4--8,mat]ials ( ,eng9e]+10 by ,r4 ,h4 ,?ur/on4 ,john ,wiley ,sons1 ,new ,york4--8,*amb]s' ,encyclop$ia40 ,j4 ,b4 ,lipp9cott1 ,philadelphia4--8,ca/ ,iron 9 ! ,light ( ,rec5t ,rese>*10 by ,w4 ,h4 ,hatfield4 ,*>les ,griff9 ,co41 ,ltd41 ,london4--8,h&book ( ,*emical ,te*nology10 ,wagn]-,crookes4 ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 ,new ,york4--8,! ,ore ,deposits ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,canada10 by ,j4 ,f4 ,kemp4 ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,co41 ,new ,york4--8,! ,valve ,_w40 ,crane ,co41 ,*icago4--8,! ,romance ( ,/eel10 by ,h4 ,casson4 ,a4 ,s4 ,b>nes ,co41 ,new ,york4--8,! ,metallurgy ( ,/eel10 by ,h>bord ,hall4 ,*as4 ,griff9 ,co41 ,ltd41 ,london4--8,metallurgy ( ,/eel10 by ,h4 ,m4 ,h[e4 ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,co41 ,new ,york4--,toml9son's 8,encyclop$ia ( ,useful ,arts0 7#ahed74 ,g4 ,virtue ,co41 ,new ,york4--8,liquid ,/eel10 by ,e4 ,g4 ,c>negie4 ,longmans1 ,gre5 ,co41 ,new ,york4--8,iron & ,/eel 9 ,all ,ages10 by ,james ,swank4 ,am]ican ,iron ,/eel ,association1 ,philadelphia4--8,! ,a4,b4,c4 ( ,iron & ,/eel40 ,p5ton ,publi%+ ,co41 ,clevel&1 ,o4--8,! ,iron ,age40 ,david ,williams1 ,new ,york4--8,! ,iron ,trade ,review40 ,p5ton ,publi%+ ,co41 ,clevel&1 ,o4--8,high ,spe$ ,/eel10 by ,o4 ,beck]4 ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,co41 ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,cont5ts ,,*apt] ,,page ,i ,,! ,,e>ly ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,iron #a ,,ii ,,! ,,raw ,,mat]ials #ag ,,iii ,,raw ,,mat]ials 7,cont9u$7 #cg ,,iv ,,! ,,bla/ ,,furnace #eb ,v ,a ,,g5]al ,,glimpse ,,ahead #fi ,,vi ,,wr\ght ,,iron #ia ,,vii ,,cem5tation ,,& ,,crucible ,,/eels #ajf ,,viii ,,bessem] ,,/eel #abc ,,ix ,,! ,,op5-,,he>? ,,process #adb ,x ,,ca/ ,,iron #afj ,,xi ,,ca/ ,,iron 7,cont9u$7 #agh ,,xii ,,malleable ,,ca/ ,,iron #aie ,,xiii ,,ca/ ,,/eel #bad ,,xiv ,,! ,,alloy ,,/eels #bcc ,,xv ,,! ,,high-,,spe$ ,,/eels #bdj ,,xvi ,,! ,,me*anical ,,treatm5t ,,( ,,/eel #bde ,,xvii ,,! ,,roll+ ,,process #bei ,,xviii ,,! ,,roll+ ,,( ,,rods #bgg ,,xix ,,wire ,,& ,,wire ,,draw+ #bhd ,,xx ,,! ,,manufacture ,,( ,,pipe ,,& ,,tubes #bib ,,xxi ,,! ,,manufacture ,,( ,,seamless ,,/eel ,,tubes #cjb ,,xxii ,,trans=mations ,,& ,,/ructures ,,( ,,! ,,/eels #caj ,,xxiii ,,! ,,equilibrium ,,diagram ,,( ,,! ,,iron-,,c>bon ,,alloys #cce ,,ref]5ces #cej ,,index #cee ,,non-,,te*nical ,,*ats ,,on ,,iron ,,& ,,/eel ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,e>ly ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,iron ,illu/ration3 ,,prehi/oric ,,man ,:5 9 imag9ation we see ! iron mak] ( e>ly days sitt+ cross-legg$ on 8 plat=m betwe5 two crude bell[s =m$ f goat sk9s ) slits = air intakes & nozzles ( bamboo1 work+ !m alt]nately to deliv] _! pitifully small /reams ( air into ! hole 9 ! side ( a bank ( clay :i* s]v$ z a furnace1 we wond] at 8 pati5ce2 & aft] long h\rs ( su* ef=t 8 rew>d 0 only a few p\nds ( iron6 ,contra/ ) ?is1 if y please1 ! mod]n bla/ furnace ) its t[]+ height ( #ajj feet1 its f\r huge heat+ /oves1 ! big bl[+ eng9es :i* ea* m9ute deliv] to ! furnace #ej1jjj cubic feet ( bla/1 & ! :ole array ( du/ arre/]s1 gas wa%]s1 & automatic ore & coke h&l+ ma*9]y :i* are ess5tials ( ?is k+ ( mod]n metallurgical devices4 ,h[ insignificant seems ! output ( ! anci5t furnace :5 comp>$ ) ! daily yield ( #ejj tons f ?is giant ( to-day6 ,h[ has ?is come ab\t8 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,fir/ ,,razor ,look+ back ov] ! c5turies we see a p]iod _m ?\s&s ( ye>s ago :5 primitive man liv$ 9 caves or o!r rude habitations & 0 entirely )\t ! implem5ts :i* we n[ consid] indisp5sable4 ,! weapons ) :i* he def5d$ 8 wife & babes f ! wild bea/s & f 8 w>like neighbors 7 clubs1 wood5 spe>s ) p]haps a bone or %ell tip1 & hat*ets ( *ipp$ /one ti$ ) ?ongs ( hide into a split /ick4 ,he manag$ by +5i\s sn>es & 8 crude weapons to provide game & fi% = ! support ( 8 family4 ,he did n %ave (t51 = 8 wife 0 n z p>ticul> 9 reg>d to 8 appe>ance z are mod]n wom51 b :5 su* a ?+ happ5$1 a piece ( %ell 0 8 razor4 ,! good wife _h no /eel ne$les ) :i* to sew toge!r sk9s = _! crude clo?+4 ,if %e d>n$ h] husb&'s socks x is n record$1 nor did %e use /eel cro*et hooks 9 mak+ ! 8doilies0 = _! p>lor table4 ,:5 gra9 began to supplem5t ! wild game1 fruit1 & b]ry diet1 x 0 brok5 betwe5 flat /ones or gr\nd 9 /one mort>s4 ,fires 7 k9dl$ aft] long & labori\s twirl+ or rubb+ toge!r ( two dry pieces ( wood4 ,) 8 /one hat*ets & by lib]al burn+ away ( p>ts by fire he =m$ 8 canoes f trunks ( fall5 trees4 ,?is 0 ! 8,/one ,age10 & iron & /eel 7 unkn[n & n to be he>d ( = _m ?\s&s ( ye>s4 ,9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w copp] always has occurr$ 8native02 i4e41 9 ! metallic =m & n 9 comb9ation ) o!r elem5ts z an e>? or ore4 ,z ! c5turies roll$ on1 man ev5tually le>n$ t ?is s(t r$ metal c\ld be p\nd$ into ?9-edg$ implem5ts & t x made m useful tools ?an ^? ( /one1 :i* 8 ance/ors _h taught him to =m4 ,"s ( ^! metal implem5ts 7 h>d & _h fairly good cutt+ edges1 made s by accid5tal or int5tional pres5ce ( t91 & little did he dream t ! tw5tie? c5tury ^u f9d+ 8 buri$ bronze implem5ts w\ld ?9k 8 crude alloy s wond]ful & talk rev]5tly ( a 8lo/ art ( temp]+ copp]40 ,illu/ration3 ,,implem5ts ,,( ,,! ,,/one ,,age ,gold1 too1 became kn[n to him because x also occurs 8native40 ,its melt+ po9t 0 l[ en\gh t he c\ld fa%ion x into ornam5ts1 idols1 & o!r articles = religi\s purposes4 ,b dur+ ! hundr$s ( c5turies ( ! 8,/one ,age0 & dur+ mu* ( ?is--! 8,bronze ,age0--copp]1 bronze1 & gold 7 ! only metals us$4 ,?\gh ! smi?s became v dextr\s 9 ca/+ & model+ ^! metals1 !y yet knew n iron or /eel4 ,illu/ration3 ,,implem5ts ,,( ,,! ,,bronze ,,age ,r\nd ab\t !m dur+ ^! _m c5turies1 z multi-color$ e>?s or rocks1 7 ! ores ( v>i\s metals4 ,!y little dream$ t :5 rightly treat$ c]ta9 ( ! heavy r$1 yell[1 or black e>?s :i* lay "r at _! doors c\ld give up t mo/ useful metal1 iron4 ,no "o ev5 _h k ( su* a sub/ance1 =1 unlike copp] & gold1 iron nev] occurs 8free10 hav+ too great a t5d5cy to *emically comb9e ) o!r elem5ts1 = example1 oxyg5 ( ! air1 ) :i*1 9 moi/ climates1 x s readily =ms 8iron ru/40 ,besides1 its melt+ po9t is high & s mu* heat & c>bon are ne$$ = its 8r$uction0 f ! ore t1 dur+ ! ?\s&s ( ye>s t _h gone be=e1 x _h nev] be5 produc$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,primitive ,,furnace ,,= ,,smelt+ ,,iron ,b "o day by accid5t & "u =tunate co9cid5ce ( ri* ore1 high heat1 & pl5ty ( c>bon 9 ! =m ( *>coal f ! wood1 a lump ( metallic iron 0 =m$ und]nea? a pile ( logs :i* _h got afire & burn$ fi]cely because ( a high w9d4 ,:5 p\nd$ betwe5 two /ones ?is new heavy metal1 too1 0 malleable & c\ld be =m$ into a spe>head sup]ior to any?+ yet kn[n4 ,e "o 0 int]e/$ & an obs]vant "o soon 8dop$ out0 t c]ta9 e>?s c\ld be made to yield ?is new metal1 iron4 ,! art ( extract+ x spread sl[ly1 ea* artisan le>n+ f 8 neighbor1 &1 z ri* ores 7 pl5tiful 9 _m di/ricts1 iron became m & m g5]ally produc$4 ,n only 9 "o c\ntry 0 ?is s b evid5ce %[s t 9 _m o!rs--9 ,egypt1 ,*aldea1 ,borneo1 ,india1 ,*9a1 etc41--r\ghly simil> processes & crude furnaces came to be us$4 ,tubal-,ca91 suppos$ly ab\t #djjj ye>s ,b4,c41 is m5tion$ 9 ! ,bible z an 8artific] 9 iron & brass10 & a w$ge ( wr\ght iron 0 buri$ 9 ! great pyramid ( ,*eops probably z e>ly z #cejj ,b4,c4 ,?is w$ge 0 rec5tly f\nd & is n[ ! prop]ty ( ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,! ,*9ese made use ( iron _m c5turies be=e ! ,*ri/ian era1 b ! ,assyrians are suppos$ to h be5 ! fir/ to use ! metal on a really ext5sive scale4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,pill> ,,at ,,delhi1 ,,india ,! mu* discuss$ pill> at ,delhi1 ,india1 :i* is /ill /&+ 9 a rem>kable /ate ( pres]vation1 is tw5ty-two feet high4 ,x is made up ( sev]al wr\ght iron sections clev]ly weld$ toge!r4 ,z ! natives reg>d x ) religi\s awe1 metallurgi/s h be5 unable to make ?or\gh inve/igation & *emical analysis4 ,:ile ! date ( its erection is some:at 9 d\bt1 x is suppos$ to h be5 ab\t ! #d? or #e? c5tury ,a4,d4 ,b f our mod]n viewpo9t ^? e>ly iron furnaces 7 que] ?+s4 ,! fir/ 7 little m ?an piles ( ore & wood or *>coal on ! tops ( hills :]e a brisk w9d w\ld make a hot fire4 ,lat]1 ) ! inv5tion ( ! crude/ ( bell[s1 ! smelt+ 0 done 9 small holes 9 ! side ( banks ( clay1 *>coal made f ! =e/ trees be+ us$ z fuel4 ,inde$1 "s ( ^! types ( furnaces /ill exi/ & are s op]at$ to-day 9 neglect$ di/ricts 9 ,we/]n ,india & else:]e1 produc+ _! little five to #ajj p\nd balls ( iron aft] sev]al h\rs ( t$i\s "w4 ,:5 ! ,romans invad$ ,brita9 7n[ ,engl&71 !y f\nd ! ,britons mak+ iron 9 crude furnaces call$ bloom>ies2 & n a great deal ( improvem5t1 except 9 size1 0 made up to ,que5 ,elizabe?'s "t1 :5 /rict laws _h to be enact$ to prev5t de/ruction ( ! =e/s :i* 7 be+ d5ud$ = production ( *>coal1 coke1 :i* we "k s well1 n yet hav+ be5 produc$ = fuel4 ,illu/ration3 ,,milady',s ,,ne$le ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,catalan ,,=ge ,b ! real =]unn] ( our mod]n bla/ furnace 0 ! ,catalan =ge1 develop$ 9 & nam$ f ,catalonia1 nor? ,spa91 :]e x orig9at$4 ,! ,catalan1 h[ev]1 & all ( su* crude e>ly furnaces1 includ+ ^? ?us f> describ$1 produc$ a v>iable k9d ( :at we n[ "k z 8wr\ght iron10 & our mod]n 8ca/0 iron did n appe> until ab\t #acej :51 ) l>g] furnaces1 an excess ( *>coal1 ) great] heat & o!r favorable conditions1 ! ,g]mans f\nd t ! pa/y1 difficultly melt+ metal c\ld be made to absorb c>bon en\gh to make x easily fusible4 ,?is 0 ! secret4 ,to /ate ! matt] 9 a simple way1 iron ore1 :i* is ess5tially a natural 8iron ru/10 is ! metal1 iron1 held 9 ! /rong *emical grip ( ! gas1 oxyg51 :i* normally =ms "o-fif? ( ! air we brea!4 ,z y note1 ! comb9ation =ms a sub/ance entirely unlike ei!r ! iron or ! oxyg51 b bo? ( ^! c be reg5]at$ f x 7! ore7 by *emical me?ods4 ,"u influ5ce ( high heat 7?is is "o ( ! *emical me?ods1 by ! way71 ?is /ranglehold c be brok5 by c>bon1 ( :i* lampblack1 graphite1 *>coal1 & coke1 are our mo/ famili> examples4 ,! result1 9 ! small1 crude1 & ineffici5t furnaces ( long ago 0 a disappo9t+ly small ball ( crude iron1 pa/y & sc>cely meltable1 ev5 at highe/ heats1 b s(t & malleable :5 cold4 ,z m5tion$1 x 0 a v>iety ( :at is n[ commonly call$ 8wr\ght iron40 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,catalan ,,=ge ,,) ,,italian ,,trompe1 ,,or ,,wat] ,,bl[] ,! anci5ts got ?is f>4 ,b ?is 0 n 8ca/ iron40 ,:51 h[ev]1 mu* m *>coal 0 pres5t 9 ! highly heat$ furnace ?an 0 necess>y simply to comb9e ) ! oxyg5 ( ! ore1 ! lib]at$ iron gre$ily absorb$ en\gh ( ! extra c>bon to *ange its own nature4 ,! metal !n became v fluid1 :]eas be=e x _h be5 pa/y & /iff ev5 at mu* high] temp]atures1 or1 inde$1 at :ite heat4 ,?is liquid iron c\ld be 8ca/10 t is1 p\r$ into molds & 9 t way made into v>i\s useful %apes4 ,x !re=e became kn[n z 8ca/ iron0 because ( ?is prop]ty4 ,s ! brittle metal 7ca/ iron7 9 our kit*5 ranges1 = in/ance1 is only ! e>ly malleable =m ( ! metal sur*>g$ ) or hav+ a l>ge am\nt ( c>bon 7#c p] c5t to #e p] c5t7 9 its make-up1 & x is ?is sup]c>bon cont5t :i* conf]s ! fluid quality :ile hot & ! extreme brittl5ess :5 cold4 ,true1 !re are o!r important con/itu5ts 9 our mod]n ca/ iron1 b = our pres5t purpose !y ne$ n be dealt )4 ,x has be5 /at$ t ! anci5ts got only z f> z balls ( wr\ght iron4 ,!y really got fur!r z _! v f9e sword /eels %[--! 8,wootz0 ( ,india1 ! 8,damascus0 ( ,syria1 & lat] ! 8,tol$o0 ( ,spa94 ,^! !y produc$ by heat+ ri* ore 9 v small1 clos$ crucibles ) j en\gh c>bon 7pieces ( wood or gre5 leaves7 to make :at we n[ call 8c>bon tool /eel40 ,z c>bon /eel is simply iron :i* has absorb$ n ov] #b p] c5t ( c>bon 7ca/ iron describ$ above has a sup]saturation ) its #c p] c5t to #e p] c5t ( c>bon & !re=e is entirely diff]5t7 !y 7 able to make x 9 small quantities4 ,:5 h>d5$ by cool+ quickly 9 wat]1 a =g$-out blade ( ?is product w\ld cleave )\t dull+ its edge a piece ( iron1 x is said1 or cut cleanly a tuft ( silk floss toss$ into ! air4 ,^! /eels atta9$ well des]v$ r5[n4 ,:ile no "o c desire to ca/ ! slighte/ disp>agem5t on ! product ( t p]iod1 mu* ( :i* 0 excell5t1 a/oni%+ly s consid]+ ! p]iod1 a mom5t's consid]ation w conv9ce "o t mod]n products n only d n suff] 9 comp>ison b 9 reality are imm5sely sup]ior4 ,! anci5ts _h little or no k ( ! reason = ! prop] qualities ( _! tools & !y made ! metal f v>iable mat]ials 9 a crude way 9 su* small quantities t little uni=mity 0 possible4 ,:ile "s ( ! product 0 und\bt$ly excell5t1 mu* mu/ h be5 less desirable4 ,mod]n discov]ies & inv5tions1 ) ! great me*anical progress ( ! la/ ?ree c5turies & ! sc>cely half-c5tury-old application ( *emical control1 h giv5 dur+ rec5t ye>s products ( great uni=mity & m>vel\s quality4 ,:at c comp>e ) ?irty ?\s& p\nd lots ( /eel turn$ out f "o ,bessem] conv]t] ea* sev5te5 m9utes dur+ ! #bd h\rs 9 ! day1 t is1 a total ( #acjj tons or #b1fjj1jjj p\nds1 9 :i* n only ! ma9 controll+ elem5t1 c>bon1 b also f\r less] ones1 silicon1 manganese1 sulphur1 & phosphorus1 are held )9 extremely n>r[ limits2 or ! mod]n bla/ furnace :i* produces a million p\nds ea* #bd h\rs1 run ) ! same c]ta9ty ( control8 ,mod]n high-spe$ /eels :i* are e day be+ made h su* high quality t tools =m$ f !m w /& up = h\rs work+ r$-hot "u a la! spe$ ( two or ?ree hundr$ l9e> feet p] m9ute tak+ a deep cut & 8pl[+ out0 *ips fa/] ?an a labor] c c>ry !m away4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,g]man ,,/uck(5 ,mod]n w> armam5t :i* has rec5tly be5 s well adv]tis$ is suffici5t answ] z to :e!r mod]n metallurgy is 9 advance ( t ( c5turies ago4 ,! only necessity = su* comp>isons is t x seems to be a fail+ ( _m to ?9k t our =efa!rs 7 m wise & bett] 9 o!r ways ?an we4 ,x 0 b a few ye>s ago t ! fallaci\s ann\ncem5t 0 made t dur+ ar*eological excavations 9 ,egypt !re _h be5 f\nd a fully equipp$ telephone sy/em4 ,! inf]5ce int5d$ to be convey$1 ( c\rse1 0 t ,bell's inv5tion ( ! telephone _h be5 ant$at$ _m hundr$s ( ye>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,g]man ,,bla/ ,,furnace ,,( ,,fifty ,,ye>s ,,ago ,! =]unn] ( ! mod]n /eels 0 crucible /eel1 fir/ made by ,huntsman ab\t ! middle ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,previ\s to 8 "t /eel _h be5 made by ! 8cem5tation0 process by :i* me?od hamm]$-out b>s ( wr\ght iron 7 giv5 a h>d /eel cru/ by heat+ to a r$ heat 9 *>coal or bone du/4 ,huntsman's product began to come s uni=m & ( su* quality t 8 competitors 7 q outdi/anc$4 ,x is relat$ t "o ( !m took advantage ( a v sev]e /orm to ga9 admittance to ! =e/ =ge ( ,huntsman1 :o1 he knew1 c\ld n refuse %elt] at su* a "t4 ,:at he beheld 0 a v simple ?+--! melt+ 9 a clay pot ( pieces ( cem5tation /eel4 ,ev5 to-day ! crucible process is hold+ its own :]e quality is ! ma9 consid]ation4 ,x is ! me?od by :i* practically all ( ! tool1 automobile1 & o!r special /eels ( to-day are manufactur$ & c h>dly be giv5 too high a rat+4 ,! newly devis$ electric furnace process is ! only possible competitor 9 sight4 ,( c\rse = quantity & = l[] co/ ! ,bessem] & ! op5-he>? processes are ! only available ones1 b crucible /eel has be5 ! mighty factor 9 ! comm]cial developm5t ( ! _w--at lea/ until ! latt] half ( ! la/ c5tury :5 ! two o!r processes la/ m5tion$ began to acquire honor ( _! own )\t1 h[ev]1 detract+ mu* f ! importance ( crucible /eel z ! /eel ( 8quality40 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,fir/ ,,iron ,,ca/+ ,,made ,,9 ,,am]ica ,?\gh m int]e/+ ?an any ( ! 8six be/ sell]s0 mu* ( ! subsequ5t hi/ory ( iron w h to be pass$ ov] at ?is "t4 ,we c n[ only m5tion ^? v great & revolution>y discov]ies & inv5tions :i* l$ to & absolutely are ! basis ( ! quantity & excell5ce ( mod]n irons & /eels2 namely1 ! trial = a "t ( coke made f pit coal by ,dud ,dudley ( ,engl& & its failure :i* 0 turn$ into a great success a c5tury lat] 7ab\t #agac7 by ,abraham ,d>by2 ,watt's inv5tion ( ! /eam eng9e 9 #aggj :i* made possible application ( a /rong cont9u\s bla/2 inv5tion ( ! process ( 8puddl+0 ( iron & ( ! roll+ mill by ,cort ab\t #aghd2 ! introduction by ,neilson ab\t #ahcj ( ! hot in/ead ( ! cold bla/ :i* increas$ bla/ furnace production f\rfold2 ! reg5]ative sy/em ( furnace heat+ inv5t$ by ,fr$]ick & ,william ,siem5s2 & ! inv5tion ( ! ,bessem] & ,siem5s-,m>t9 or op5-he>? processes :i* provid$ me?ods = /eel mak+ on su* an imm5se scale t ?is invaluable mat]ial 0 made available = g5]al purposes4 ,x %\ld be repeat$ t ! inv5tions j m5tion$ h be5 ( ! utmo/ importance to ! iron indu/ry1 & ?r\gh !m only has x acquir$ its consequ5ce ( to-day4 ,)\t !m we w\ld n h ! wond]ful /eel bridges1 ! skyscrap]s1 ! gigantic /eel %ips1 ! all-/eel railway tra9s1 etc41 & ! hundr$s ( iron products t are to-day s pl5tiful & s con/antly ab\t u t we disreg>d _! pres5ce4 ,x is difficult ?us to pass !m by1 b z mo/ ( !m w be ref]r$ to 9 lat] *apt]s we mu/ d s4 ,e>ly iron mak+ 9 ,am]ica is ( int]e/ to u & mu/ be briefly /at$4 ,! coloni/s 7 aw>e ( "s ( ! iron ore deposits ab\t !m & s5t samples to ,engl& :]e ^! yield$ v f9e iron4 ,9 #afai a company kn[n z ! 8,london ,colony0 0 s5t out f ,engl& to engage 9 ! manufacture ( iron at ,fall+ ,creek1 ne> ,jame/[n1 ,virg9ia1 b ?ree ye>s lat] all 7 massacr$ by ,indians4 ,x 0 _m ye>s be=e attempt 0 aga9 made to manufacture iron 9 ,virg9ia4 ,ab\t #afcg ! ,g5]al ,c\rt ( ,massa*usetts grant$ to ,abraham ,%aw "o-half ( ! b5efit ( 8any coles or yron /one w* %all bee f\nd 9 any comon gr\nd w* is 9 ! c\ntryes dispos+40 ,app>5tly little result$ f ?is high-s\nd+ grant4 ,real iron mak+ 9 ,am]ica began six ye>s lat] ) ,john ,w9?rop1 ,jr41 & 8 8,company ( ,und]tak]s = ! ,iron ,works0 :i* = _m ye>s op]at$ 9 sev]al localities 9 ! ,new ,engl& ,/ates4 ,heaps ( c9d]s left f _! furnaces may /ill be se5 & te/ify to _! v ext5sive op]ation4 ,"o ( ,w9?rop's m5 0 ,joseph ,j5ks1 :o became kn[n z ! 8,tubal-,ca90 ( ,new ,engl&4 ,:at is claim$ to h be5 ! fir/ ca/+ made on ! ,we/]n ,cont95t 0 made by him4 ,x is a small pot1 :i* 0 acquir$ & is said to be /ill own$ by ! family ( ,?omas ,hudson1 a desc5dant ( ,h5dryk ,hudson4 ,s& mold+ z us$ at pres5t 0 introduc$ by an +5i\s ,engli%man1 ,j]emy ,floris1 & is va/ly sup]ior to ! previ\sly us$ sy/em ( mold+ 9 clay4 ,holl[w>e began to be ext5sively produc$ ab\t ?is "t4 ,z ! c\ntry develop$1 iron works sprung up "h & !re & v>i\s k9ds ( articles came to be regul>ly manufactur$4 ,( ! e>ly plants we c only m5tion ! ,/irl+ ,iron ,works1 at ,w>wick1 ,new ,york1 :i* made ! great #ahf-ton *a9 ) l9ks weigh+ #adj p\nds ea*1 :i* spann$ ! ,hudson ,riv] ne> ,we/ ,po9t1 & :]e 9 #ahaf 0 ca/ ! fir/ cannon made 9 ,am]ica2 ! f\ndry ( ,%>p ,curt5ius1 9 ,new ,york1 :]e 0 ca/ ! fir/ /eam cyl9d]2 & ! ,tr5ton ,roll+ ,mills1 :i* fir/ roll$ iron z firepro( /ructural mat]ial4 ,be=e ! ,revolution>y ,w> ! colonies export$ consid]able b> & pig iron to ,europe1 & z e>ly z #agia ,engl& began to =esee t ?is c\ntry w\ld ev5tually be a s]i\s rival4 ,pittsburg's great advantage z an iron & /eel c5t] has be5 due to its proximity to an ext5sive seam ( bitum9\s coal & ore 9 adjac5t c\nties1 & to its location s ne> ! ,great ,lakes1 :i* provid$ *eap wat] transportation = ! ,lake ,sup]ior ores4 ,! fir/ iron works !re 0 t ( ,turnbull ,company1 :i* 0 e/abli%$ 9 #agij4 ,?\gh ,reameur1 a ,fr5*man1 is ! accr$it$ discov]] ( ! process ( malleableiz+ ca/ iron1 ,se? ,boyd51 9 a little %op 9 ,new>k1 ,new ,j]sey1 made malleable iron ca/+s a comm]cial success4 ,illu/ration3 ,,two ,,mod]n ,,bla/ ,,furnaces1 ,,%[+ ,,skip-,,hoi/s1 ,,ca/ ,,h\ses1 ,,/oves1 ,,& ,,ore ,,pile ,! utilization ( ! great b$s ( high grade cok+ coal ( ea/]n ,p5nsylvania1 well kn[n z ! ,connellsville di/rict1 & ! discov]y & developm5t ( ! ,lake ,sup]ior ore deposits h made ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! lead+ produc] ( iron & /eel ( ! _w4 ,! developm5t ( ! ,birm+ham1 ,alabama1 di/rict1 also has be5 a *apt] ( great importance b lack ( space =bids description at ?is "t4 ,we c h only a v slight appreciation ( ! debt :i* civilization owes to iron1 = practically ev]y?+ we see or ) :i* we daily come 9 contact conta9s or has result$ f application ( iron 9 "s way or o!r4 ,our cook+ ut5sils & implem5ts 7ev5 ! enamel$ & t9n$ ones71 ! kit*5 range1 ! wat] & dra9 pipes1 & ! furnace & heat+ plants ( our h\ses1 are !y n l>gely ( iron8 ,our ma9 build+ mat]ials--! /eel frames ( skyscrap]s & bridges1 & are n ev5 wood1 brick1 /one1 & cem5t ei!r %ap$1 mold$1 or ( necessity made by aid ( iron ma*9]y8 ,! conveyances by :i* we travel--wagons1 automobiles1 /reet c>s1 /eam railways & /eam%ips--h[ w\ld !y be possible )\t iron or /eel8 ,consid] ! p[] plants ( our factories1 ( gas & electric light+ plants1 ! pump+ ma*9]y & di/ribution sy/ems ( wat] works1 m9es1 etc4 ,w\ld ! electric curr5t :i* supplies s mu* ( our p[] & light be kn[n to-day or ev5 be possible b = ! magnetic prop]ties ( iron8 ,& h[ _m ( ! mat]ials & articles :i* we we>1 use1 & h ab\t u con/antly w\ld be 9 any way possible )\t ! weal? ( /eel ma*9]y & tools :i* are available & absolutely necess>y = _! production8 ,! iron indu/ry is (t5 spok5 ( z ! b>omet] ( a p's civilization4 ,if all iron & iron products & _! influ5ce ^u ! _w %\ld be oblit]at$1 x seems impossible t we c\ld be ev5 />t$ on ! road to civilization4 ,no matt] h[ we try1 probably none ( u ev] realizes ! imm5sity & importance ( ! iron & /eel indu/ry ) approximately #dfj huge bla/ furnaces "h1 #ejjj ca/ & malleable iron f\ndries1 ab\t #ajjj ,bessem] & op5-he>? /eel & "s #cjjj puddl+ furnaces1 & ! _m ?\s&s ( factories :i* ea* day are turn+ ! products ( ^! into rails1 plate1 wire1 pipe1 & ! inf9itude ( f9i%$ articles :i* ent] into & are mighty factors ( our civilization4 ,yet ) ^! furnaces1 =ges & factories at our v doors1 #ii4i p] c5t ( u are entirely oblivi\s to _! wond]s & to _! pres5ce except to be annoy$ by _! noise & smoke4 ,ev5 ! blacksmi?s & _! s]vice we sc>cely note1 ?\gh !y are daily fa%ion+ = u a mat]ial :i* is va/ly m important & m wond]ful ?an any ( ! 8,sev5 ,wond]s ( ! ,_w40 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,raw ,,mat]ials ,a /ory has x t a m9i/] once visit$ a fri5d :o 0 a zologi/4 ,^u realiz+ = ! fir/ "t h[ highly organiz$ a creature 0 ! humble e>?-worm ) its ?ree-lay] sk9 cov]+1 alim5t>y canal1 nephridia or excretory sy/em1 reproductory organs1 rude n]v\s sy/em1 & set = purposes ( locomotion1 he exclaim$3 8,wond]ful6 ,i _h always suppos$ t worms 7 only sk9 & squa%40 ,) millions ( tons ( heavy r$di%-br[n e>? f nor!rn ,mi*igan & ,m9nesota go+ by our doors cont9u\sly dur+ ! %ipp+ season1 ! position ( mo/ ( u is v simil> to t ( ! m9i/] relative to ! e>?-worm4 ,we "k t some?+ is go+ on b we are n aw>e ( its importance or ! imm5sity ( x4 ,iron ,ore ,almo/ e "o kn[s t !re are ext5sive copp] deposits along ! ,lake ,sup]ior %ore ( :at is n[ nor!rn ,mi*igan4 ,9 ! #ag? c5tury ^w ( ^! 0 sev]al times tak5 to ,europe :]e 9 old publications 0 m5tion$ a huge +ot ( copp] f :i* ! ,indians *opp$ pieces ) _! hat*ets4 ,at t e>ly date maps ( ! region 7 drawn :i* are wond]fully accurate1 &1 f "t to "t ov] a p]iod ( a c5tury & a half1 adv5tur]s attempt$ to ga9 weal? 9 ?is favor$ region4 ,illu/ration3 ,,map ,,%[+ ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,iron ,,ores ,,( ,,am]ica ,h[ev]1 despite ! def9ite k ( consid]able m9]al weal? !re & rumor$ claims ( mu* m1 ,mi*igan at ! "t ( h] admission to ! ,union 9 #ahcf bitt]ly oppos$ hav+ :at is n[ ! nor!rn p59sula includ$ )9 h] t]ritory 9 lieu ( a t5 mile wide /rip ( nor!rn ,indiana & ,ohio1 & x has be5 said t %e ne>ly w5t to w> to resi/ x4 ,ev5 aft] ! discov]y ( ! iron ore deposits1 no "o realiz$ ! full importance ( ! m9]als ( ?is region4 ,illu/ration3 ,,%[+ ,,typical ,,mesaba ,,ore ,,b$ ,,:i*1 ,,aft] ,,e>? ,,cov]+ ,,is ,,remov$1 ,,becomes ,,an ,,op5 ,,pit ,,m9e ,dur+ ! _m ye>s ( campaign+ = ,f$]al help 9 ! build+ ( a canal at ,sault ,sa9te ,m>ie1 ! fi%]ies1 valu$ at #a1jjj1jjj a ye>1 7 giv5 z ! lead+ reason :y a canal %\ld be built1 & x 0 no less a p]sonage ?an ,h5ry ,clay1 :o1 9 oppos+ appropriation = ?is purpose1 ref]r$ to ! project & ! di/rict z 8beyond ! remote/ settlem5t1 if n 9 ! moon40 ,n[1 )9 eighty ye>s ( t "t1 ! annual tonnage ( %ipp+ pass+ ?r\gh ! ,sault ,sa9te ,m>ie canal is z great z ! comb9$ tonnage f ! ports ( ,new ,york1 ,london1 ,liv]pool1 ,antw]p1 & ,hamburg1 &1 z aga9/ ! #a1jjj1jjj value ( ! fi%]ies1 ! value at ! m9es ( ! ore alone %ipp$ f ?is region am\nts to ab\t #ajj1jjj1jjj ye>ly4 ,illu/ration3 ,,%5ango ,,op5 ,,pit ,,m9e1 ,,*i%olm1 ,,m9n4 ,illu/ration3 ,,int]ior ,,( ,a ,,h>d ,,or ,,lump ,,ore ,,m9e ,z ! copp] deposits are mo/ly along ! %ore ( ! lake & ! great iron ore b$s occur sev5 or m miles inl&1 ! latt] 7 n discov]$ until ,sept4 #ai1 #ahdd1 :5 ,william ,a4 ,burt1 a ,deputy ,unit$ ,/ates ,surveyor1 notic$ t ! ne$le ( a sol> compass ( :i* he 0 ! inv5tor became unreliable4 ,9 look+ ab\t to discov] ! magnetic s\rce :i* mu/ be ! cause ( ! v>iation1 memb]s ( 8 p>ty discov]$ ore j b5ea? ! sod ne> :at is n[ ,negaunee1 ,mi*igan4 ,inv5tor-l1 ,burt's only conc]n 0 to devise "s prev5tive = future int]f]5ce by /ray magnetic curr5ts4 ,he simply not$ 9 8 book t !re 0 "h a deposit ( iron ore & nei!r he nor any ( 8 p>ty pr(it$ or app>5tly attempt$ to pr(it f ! discov]y4 ,illu/ration3 ,,%[+ ,,ore ,,body ,,& ,,%aft ,,me?od ,,( ,,m9+ ,! ,indians seem to h _h no previ\s k ( ^! ore deposits4 ,! fir/ %ipm5ts ( ore naturally 7 samples tak5 f :at aft]w>d came to be kn[n z ! ,jackson m9e & trials ( !m 9 blacksmi?s' =ges 7 made at ,jackson1 ,mi*igan 7f :i* t[n w5t ! fir/ s]i\sly-m9d$ pione]1 ,philo ,m4 ,ev]ett71 & at ,cucu% ,prairie4 ,!y 7 soon aft]w>d tri$ 9 a bla/ furnace at ,%>on1 ,pa4 ,! fir/ plan 0 to build =ges & manufacture iron ne> ! m9es4 ,s !re 0 e/abli%$ on ,c>p ,riv] a =ge to :i* ! ore 0 haul$ 9 w9t] :5 ! gr\nd 0 froz54 ,x turn$ out1 h[ev]1 t :ile v good b> iron 0 manufactur$ "h1 x c\ld n be deliv]$ 9 ,pittsburg at a co/ less ?an #bjj a ton4 ,z ! m>ket rate = iron !n 0 b #hj a ton ! plan 0 n f9ancially successful4 ,illu/ration3 ,,light+ ,,! ,,fuses ,,9 ,a ,,%aft ,,m9e ,att5tion 0 turn$ to ! %ipp+ ( ore to furnaces bett] locat$ z reg>ds coke supply & m>ket4 ,x 0 possible to make ?is a pr(itable und]tak+ only ?r\gh *eap ore h&l+ & transportation4 ,s1 to-day1 ! ore :i* is bett] adapt$ ?an ! o!r raw mat]ials = h&l+ by labor-sav+ devices & transport+ )\t det]ioration1 is tak5 to ! coke & lime/one1 & to ! m>ket = ! product4 ,:ile ! weight ( coke us$ is b half t ( ! ore smelt$1 its great] bulk1 loss by breakage :5 h&l$ 9 quantities1 & det]ioration ^u exposure preclude its manipulation 9 ! way :i* w\ld be necess>y to get x to ! ore4 ,illu/ration3 ,,view ,,( ,,hull-,,ru/ ,,m9e1 ,,ne> ,,hibb+1 ,,m9n4 ,! m>vel\s developm5t ( ?is t]ritory into ! greate/ ore produc] ( ! _w1 includ+ ! haul+ ( ! fir/ small %ipm5t on mule back1 ! build+ ( ! plank & !n ! 8/rap0 railroad ) grades s /eep t ! small trucks (t5 ran ov] & kill$ ! mules1 ! build+ ( ! /eam railroad1 ! successive build+ & enl>g+ ( canal locks at ,sault ,sa9te ,m>ie connect+ = use ( ev] l>g] & l>g] ore boats ! wat]s ( ,lake ,sup]ior & ,lake ,mi*igan1 & ! gr[? ( ore boat fleets to su* size t dur+ ! %ipp+ season sc>cely ev] is "o boat out ( sight ( ano!r ov] ! entire #hjj mile j\rney f ,dulu? to ! furnaces along ,lake ,mi*igan & ,lake ,erie1 is )9 ! memory ( m5 /ill liv+4 ,m>quette 0 ! %ipp+ po9t dur+ ! e>li] days & ! hi/ory ( ?is & adjac5t regions dur+ ! latt] half ( la/ c5tury vies 9 pione]+ flavor ) ! tales ( our e>ly we/]n fronti]s1 & ) ! m rec5t ,yukon m9+ camps4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,r\tes ,,by ,,:i* ,,lake ,,sup]ior ,,ores ,,g ,,to ,,! ,,furnaces ,! fir/ two m9es1 ! ,jackson & ! ,m>quette1 h come to be p>ticul>ly well kn[n hi/orically4 ,! developm5t ( ^! & o!r ranges 9 nor!rn ,mi*igan & ,m9nesota1 p>ticul>ly ! ,m5om9ee1 ,gogebic1 ,v]million1 etc41 &1 s9ce #ahij1 ! ,mesaba & ,cuyuna1 h br\ght ab\t revolutions 9 ore digg+1 h&l+ & transportation1 :i* foll[$ ea* o!r ) extreme rapidity4 ,! ore c>ry+ boats1 = in/ance1 may almo/ be said to h jump$ f a l5g? ( ?ree hundr$ to six hundr$ feet1 & ! ,sault ,sa9te ,m>ie canal locks 7 sev]al times almo/ imm$iately outgr[n1 ?\gh rebuilt aga9 & aga91 ea* "t s mu* l>g] ?an be=e t !y 7 deem$ impossible to be outgr[n4 ,illu/ration3 ,,load+ ,,ore ,,at ,,an ,,op5 ,,pit ,,m9e ,illu/ration3 ,,%[+ ,,o!r ,,typical ,,ore ,,bodies1 ,,%aft ,,m9$ ,practically all ( ! ore b$s1 ) ! exception ( ! ,mesaba1 yield h>d or lump ores & mo/ ( !m are %aft m9es 9 :i* m9+ has to be done und]gr\nd & ! ore bla/$ d[n4 ,bla/ furnaces _h nev] us$ any b lump ores :5 along came discov]y ( ! imm5se s(t ore deposits ly+ j b5ea? ! surface ( ! gr\nd ov] a region "o-hundr$ miles long 9 :at is kn[n z ! ,mesaba di/rict ( ,m9nesota4 ,^! s(t ores 7 s accessible & s ri* t !y drew ! att5tion ( ! iron mak]s ( ! :ole c\ntry4 ,b1 alas6 ,:ile p]fectly good 9 e o!r respect1 !y 7 m]ely dry p[d] & n adapt$ to bla/ furnace me?ods4 ,!re 7 great discussion1 excitem5t1 & ridicule among or at ^? :o inve/$ 9 ^! s(t ore m9es4 ,ev5tually1 ( c\rse1 bla/ furnace m5 work$ out feasible me?ods ( conv]t+ s(t or :at are t]m$ 8,mesaba ,range0 ores into iron 9 ! bla/ furnace4 ,^? brave spirits1 :o 9 ! face ( ridicule d>$ to inve/ 9 & develop ,mesaba prop]ties1 h long be5 reap+ _! f9ancial rew>d :i* /ill %[s no sign ( dim9i%+1 z 8,mesaba ,range0 m9es are 8!0 m9es ( to-day4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,close ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,hoov] ,,mason ,,unload]s ,:ile x may be done1 x has n be5 f\nd desirable to make up ! entire 8burd50 or furnace *>ge ( s(t ores alone z long z lump or h>d ores are obta9able to mix ) !m1 b (t5 m ?an half is s(t ore4 ,illu/ration3 ,,/>t+ ,,an ,,op5 ,,pit ,,m9e4 ,,! ,,e>? ,,cov]+ ,,is ,,be+ ,,remov$ ,:ile ores f ! %aft m9es1 call$ 8,old ,range0 ores1 are won by go+ d[n into ! e>? sometimes z f> z #c1jjj feet1 drill+ holes 9 ! rock1 bla/+ d[n ! ore1 & load+ x into buggies :i* are hoi/$ to ! surface1 8,mesaba ,range0 ores are made available by simply 8/ripp+0 (f ! ?9 e>? cov]+1 !n cav+ or load+ ) /eam %ovels ! s(t ore into railway c>s4 ,"s ( ! illu/rations pres5t$ %[ ! ore tra9s & %ovels1 & ! mann] 9 :i* ! op5 pits are work$ 9 t]races4 ,"o naturally wond]s h[ x is possible to m9e & c>ry ^! ores to ! %ipp+ ports ( ,dulu?1 ,sup]ior1 ,two ,h>bors1 ,m>quette1 ,a%l&1 ,escanaba1 etc41 put !m abo>d ore c>ry+ boats1 transport !m by /eam p[] to ,milwaukee1 ,*icago1 ,g>y1 ,detroit1 ,clevel&1 ,pittsburg1 ,buffalo1 & ! _m o!r iron c5t]s & conv]t !m into iron & /eel at a pr(it4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 is only possible because ( ! inv5tive g5ius ( man4 ,= e op]ation +5i\s ma*9]y has be5 con/ruct$ :i* has br\ght ! co/ ( su* op]ations to its l[e/ t]ms4 ,illu/ration3 ,,unload+ ,,c>s ,,( ,,coal ,,or ,,ore ,,is ,a ,,simple ,,matt] ,,) ,,! ,,mod]n ,,c> ,,dump] ,illu/ration3 ,,ore ,,c>s ,,are ,,unload$ ,,by ,,gravity ,,at ,,docks4 ,,! ,,*utes ,,!n ,,convey ,,! ,,ore ,,f ,,! ,,ore ,,pockets ,,into ,,! ,,boat',s ,,hold ,by mod]n me?ods ! c>s c>ry+ ! ore f ! m9es are run up tre/le-"w into positions above ! ore b9s high ov] ! docks4 ,! mammo? ore c>ry+ boats are m]ely /eel %ells ) qu>t]s = crew & ma*9]y at b[ & /]n1 & hat*es built ) exact twelve foot c5t]s betwe54 ,!y are ti$ alongside ! dock1 long /eel *utes1 also spac$ twelve feet ap>t1 are l[]$ along mo/ ( ! l5g? ( ! boat & ! ore slides into ! vessel's hold ev5ly all along z x has to d1 else ! buoyancy ( light] p>ts ( ! boat might break ! frail %ell4 ,! entire load ( #aj1jjj tons ( ore is ord9>ily tak5 abo>d 9 less ?an "o h\r4 ,pull+ out imm$iately ! vessel trav]ses ,lake ,sup]ior1 ! ,sault ,sa9te ,m>ie canal1 ,lake ,mi*igan or ,lakes ,huron & ,erie z ! case may be1 & ties up at ! dock at de/9ation4 ,ye>s ago x w\ld h be5 unload$ by m5 ) buckets or :eel-b>r[s1 requir+ "s days at be/4 ,n[1 h[ev]1 ! hat*es are uncov]$ & sev]al ore unload]s ) huge clam %ell buckets tak+ z high z fifte5 tons ( ore at a 8bite0 desc5d l vultures ^u x4 ,)9 f\r or five h\rs ! boat is aga9 empty ) no manual labor hav+ be5 done ^u ! ore f ! m9e to ! furnace pile ) ! exception ( a little heap+ up ( ! ore 9 ! corn]s ( ! boat's hold1 :i* ! ore unload]s c\ld n rea*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,hoov] ,,mason ,,unload]s ,,at ,,! ,,ill9ois ,,/eel ,,co41 ,,s\? ,,*icago1 ,,ill4 ,a "y man nam$ ,alex&] ,e4 ,br[n c\ld n be>1 9 ! old days1 to see ! ore s awkw>dly unload$1 & 9 #ahhj />t$ ! procession ( ore unload+ devices4 ,!re are n[ sev]al successful ore unload]s ( :i* ! ,br[n hoi/1 ! ,hoov] ,mason1 & ! ,hulett are probably ! be/ kn[n4 ,) ! ,hulett unload] ! op]ator has to be an aviator1 z 8 position is directly above ! grab bucket4 ,he desc5ds into ! hold ) ! bucket1 comes up ) x & is ) x 9 its entire j\rney f ! boat's hold to ! dump & back aga94 ,x mu/ be dizzy bus9ess4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,hulett ,,unload]4 ,,note ,,! ,,op]ator',s ,,head ,,9 ,,:ite ,,spot ,,j ,,above ,,! ,,grab ,"t is too preci\s to hold ! boat at ! dock long en\gh t ea* bucketful1 l>ge z x is1 c g directly to its f9al b94 ,x is dropp$ j back ( ! unload+ ma*9e f :i* x is aga9 pick$ up by o!r buckets :i* c>ry x back t[>d ! furnaces & deposit x 9 cem5t ore tr\ghs await+ fur!r j\rney to ! ore h\se1 f :i* x goes to ! furnaces4 ,! empty ore boat imm$iately coals ) :ole c> loads ( ! fuel dump$ into *utes lead+ to h] bunk]s by ! c> dump] & proce$s on h] way back to ! m9es = ano!r c>go ( ore4 ,! r\nd trip1 includ+ load+ & unload+1 requires b sev5 days4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,good ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,hat* ,,sy/em ,,( ,,mod]n ,,ore ,,boats ,,& ,,f\r ,,hulett ,,unload]s ,,at ,,"w ,z 9 _m o!r l9es ( comm]cial endeavor ( to-day1 spe$ & l>ge tonnage h be5 ! aim & x w\ld seem t 9 ore h&l+ & convey+ devices ! limit has ab\t be5 rea*$4 ,! big /eam %ovels1 gravity docks1 ore tanks or boats1 & unload+ & coal+ devices1 ) ! l[ co/ ( wat] transportation h made our mod]n iron & /eel prem95ce possible4 ,to %[ ! importance to u ( ?is wat] transportation1 we might m5tion t ! rate = c>ry+ ore f ,lake ,sup]ior ore ports to ! ,lake ,erie furnaces has be5 z l[ z 4#jjjg p] ton p] mile :ile ! transportation co/ by way ( a well op]at$ railway at t p>ticul> "t 0 m ?an 4#jje p] ton p] mile--m ?an sev5 times z mu*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,reh&l+ ,,bridge ,,) ,,/ock ,,ore ,,pile ,,& ,,bla/ ,,furnace ,,at ,,re> ,?\gh = "s ye>s pa/ m ?an ?ree-qu>t]s ( all ( ! iron ore us$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates has come f sev5 or eight m9es 9 ! nor!rn p59sula ( ,mi*igan & ! adjac5t "p ( ,m9nesota1 x mu/ n be und]/ood t ! ,lake ,sup]ior m9es are ! only ore deposits 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,figures %[ t su* an inf]5ce is f> f ! tru?4 ,x is true1 h[ev]1 t !y h made ! ,unit$ ,/ates :at x is1 ! lead+ iron produc] ( ! _w4 ,!re are /ill imm5se quantities to be m9$ on ! ,lake ,sup]ior ranges4 ,_! heavy production ( *eaply h&l$ high grade ore has1 ( c\rse1 held back developm5t ( o!r di/ricts1 :i* also h great natural res\rces4 ,! ,birm+ham1 ,ala41 region = in/ance1 is a great ore & iron produc]1 "r n[ produc+ ! ?ird l>ge/ tonnage ( any di/rict 9 ! c\ntry4 ,"s "t 9 ! n f> (f future1 ,alabama ) h] great deposits ( iron ore1 coal1 & o!r natural res\rces is go+ to ann\nce h]self 9 no small voice4 ,new ,york1 ,p5nsylvania1 ,t5nessee1 & ,virg9ia rank next aft] ,m9nesota1 ,mi*igan1 & ,alabama z ore produc]s1 & sev]al o!r /ates ( ! ,union are n paup]s 9 res\rces ( iron ore4 ,illu/ration3 ,,hulett ,,grab ,,buckets ,,9 ,,! ,,hold ,,( ,,an ,,ore ,,boat ,we %\ld n get s en?usia/ic ov] our ore supply & iron production z to ?9k t o!r c\ntries are devoid ( su* mat]ial4 ,almo/ e civiliz$ c\ntry has ore en\gh t x does pretty well4 ,) _m ! tr\ble is t ! ore has objectionable con/itu5ts or t supply ( *eap fuel is n available4 ,g]many has l>ge deposits ( iron ore1 b until ! inv5tion ( ! basic ,bessem] process ab\t #ahgj %e 0 h&icapp$ because ( ! high phosphorus cont5t ( h] ore4 ,! basic processes1 bo? ,bessem] & op5-he>?1 all[ ( ! removal ( ?is phosphorus dur+ ! conv]sion into /eel1 & !y !re=e br\ght ,g]many to ! front z an iron produc]4 ,! excell5ce ( ,sw$5's iron & /eel has long be5 kn[n ! _w ov]4 ,sw$5 produces approximately "o p] c5t ( ! _w's total production ( iron & /eel1 b h] ore has be5 ( su* high grade t iron made f x has ma9ta9$ its position z a /&>d = use 9 ! manufacture ( highe/ grade crucible /eels4 ,! v f9e/ /eels = cutl]y & tools1 & ev5 ! s(t] grades ( /eel ( nor?we/]n ,europe1 h be5 made f ,sw$i% iron z a base4 ,iron ore1 ( c\rse1 is classifi$ by geologi/s & *emi/s into v>ieties ) su* names z hematite1 magnetite1 sid]ite1 etc41 :i* "h little conc]n u4 ,to be work$ at a pr(it1 ! iron cont5t ( ! ore mu/ be high ) ! smalle/ possible am\nts ( undesirable impurities1 p>ticul>ly phosphorus1 sulphur1 & silica4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 c]ta9 impurities :i* are n undesirable1 = in/ance1 lime1 :i* w act z a flux & neutralize ! effect ( "s ( ! undesirable impurities4 ,= ^! reasons ! prices = iron ore are bas$ on ! iron cont5t & modifi$ by ! relative am\nts ( undesirable & desirable impurities4 ,phosphorus is almo/ a dom9e]+ factor & at pres5t approximately fifty c5ts a ton m is paid = ,bessem] ore 7t conta9+ less ?an 4#jej p] c5t phosphorus7 ?an = non-,bessem] ore4 ,z might be expect$ ! be/ ores h be5 ! fir/ us$ & ! grade is con/antly fall+4 ,in/ead ( ! #ff p] c5t iron ores ( "s ye>s ago ^? com+ n[adays conta9 n mu* m ?an #ei p] c5t ( iron & ! ,bessem] ores describ$ above are gett+ sc>c]1 s t = "s ye>s practically all ( ! furnaces h be5 mix+ ) !m z mu* high] phosphorus ore z c\ld be us$ )\t pu%+ ! phosphorus cont5t ( ! mixture ov] ! all[able limit4 ,we (t5 he> p surmis+ :at is to become ( u :5 all ( ! iron ore ( ?is planet has be5 us$4 ,!re is no h>m 9 tak+ /ock ( res\rces & 9 ?is case x does u mu* good4 ,x happ5s t ea* "t ! c\nt is tak5 ( iron ore available & t :i* "u future & bett] me?ods ( work+ c be utiliz$1 we f9d ourselves imm5sely bett] (f ?an ! previ\s report _h made out & we h less cause to worry ab\t ! future4 ,! la/ inv5tory 0 tak5 by ! extremely ambiti\s ,int]national ,geological ,congress held at ,/ockholm1 ,sw$51 9 #aiaj4 ,x %[s t ! _w yet has en\gh ri* ore to make #aj1aib1jjj1jjj tons ( iron1 &1 a fur!r supply ( ore = #ec1acf1jjj1jjj tons ( iron1 :i* c\ld be us$ if necess>y4 ,s we w get along = a :ile yet4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,o!r ,,raw ,,mat]ials ,illu/ration3 ,,old ,,*>coal ,,kilns1 ,,ne> ,,negaunee1 ,,mi*4 ,s9ce ! beg9n+s ( iron manufacture1 *>coal has be5 a favorite fuel4 ,?\gh dur+ ! pa/ two c5turies coke has gr[n to be ! /&>d1 ) an?racite & "s few bitum9\s coals f9d+ use 9 c]ta9 favor$ localities1 *>coal may be consid]$ ! fuel :i* develop$ ! iron indu/ry1 at lea/ until rec5t ye>s4 ,*>coal ,z mo/ ( u "k1 *>coal is completely *>r$ wood1 usually h>d wood1 ?\gh sometimes res9\s or o!r s(t woods are us$4 ,( well-dri$ timb] m ?an #ej p] c5t by weight is moi/ure4 ,?is & c]ta9 o!r con/itu5ts are driv5 (f by heat 9 ! abs5ce ( air1 :i* process is usually call$ 8de/ructive di/illation40 ,by primitive me?ods a consid]able "p ( ! wood 0 completely burn$ & wa/$ dur+ ! production ( *>coal4 ,/ack$ 9 piles or long r[s ! cut wood 0 well cov]$ ) e>?1 except = a small op5+ at ! top ?r\gh :i* ! fire 0 light$ d[n a c5t] cavity left to ! bottom ( ! pile4 ,! air com+ 9 ?r\gh ! op5+ at ! top 0 suffici5t to keep ! wood smold]+4 ,aft] a p]iod1 :i* _h be5 %[n by exp]i5ce to give ! be/ results1 ! op5+ 0 clos$ & ! fire smo!r$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,beehive ,,coke ,,ov5s ,brick ov5s ( ! beehive %ape 7 built at a lat] date :]e consid]able *>coal 0 to be made4 ,^! 7 op]at$ on mu* ! same g5]al pr9ciple z ! meill]s or e>?-cov]$ piles1 describ$ above4 ,! fire 0 light$ at ! bottom ( ! c5tral cavity ( ! cord$ wood1 ! only air at fir/ com+ f ! top1 ?\gh lat] 9 ! process a little 0 admitt$ ?r\gh holes 9 ! walls4 ,aft] ab\t t5 days1 :5 gas ceas$ to come (f1 ! kiln 0 tightly clos$ = a p]iod ( tw5ty days m = ! fire to die out & ! *>coal to cool4 ,by bo? ( ^! processes valuable con/itu5ts 7 burn$ or driv5 (f by ! heat & lo/4 ,^! 7 ma9ly me?yl alcohol1 acetic acid1 & wood t>4 ,mod]n indu/ry s emphatically disapproves ( any wa/e ( mat]ials t app>atus has be5 devis$ to produce *>coal :i* all[s ( recov]y ( ! by-products at ! same "t4 ,9 nor!rn ,mi*igan1 :i* is practically ! only di/rict 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 :i* ! *>coal indu/ry z an indu/ry /ill survives1 long /eel tubes or retorts are built ) brick fire-boxes "u ea* end1 mu* z a /ation>y boil] is set4 ,into ^! retorts are run /eel c>s load$ ) ! wood4 ,! retorts be+ clos$1 ! heat drives or di/ills (f ! moi/ure & gase\s comp\nds ?r\gh pipes connect+ !m ) cond5s+ app>atus4 ,aft] ab\t tw5ty h\rs ! wood has be5 *>r$1 ! doors ( ! kilns are sudd5ly op5$ & ! c>s are ru%$ into o!r & simil> retorts = cool+1 :ile fre% loads ( wood replace !m 9 ! fir/4 ,illu/ration3 ,,/&>d ,,beehive ,,coke ,,ov5 ,illu/ration3 ,,beehive ,,ov5s ,z may be surmis$ va/ quantities ( wood & ( wood-produc+ l& are requir$ = ext5sive *>coal manufacture1 & ?is is ! mo/ s]i\s problem = ! manufactur] ( *>coal4 ,sev]al squ>e miles ( timb] l& mu/ be cut ov] ea* ye> & ! wood effici5tly transport$ 9 ord] to op]ate a l>ge plant pr(itably4 ,pig iron z a by-product is a r novel idea1 b t is practically :at ! *>coal pig iron produc$ 9 our ,lake ,sup]ior region is4 ,sev]al companies op]ate wood di/illation plants = ! production ( me?yl alcohol1 acetic acid1 acetate ( lime1 etc41 & use _! *>coal 9 ! manufacture ( *>coal pig iron f ! ores s close at h&4 ,! v l[ sulphur cont5t & ! small am\nt ( a% h be5 ! great advantages possess$ by *>coal ov] o!r solid fuels4 ,result+ *>act]i/ics made *>coal pig iron a =m] favorite = manufacture ( c]ta9 articles su* z *ill$ c> :eels1 etc41 & x1 !re=e1 br\ght a high] price ?an coke pig iron4 ,dur+ rec5t ye>s1 h[ev]1 by c>eful selection ( coal & improvem5ts 9 ! cok+ process ! sulphur & a% ( coke h be5 s r$uc$ t *>coal has n s great an advantage z =m]ly4 ,*>coal iron to-day br+s only ab\t #a4ej p] ton m ?an coke iron2 :]eas1 ! diff]5tial a few ye>s ago 0 z great z #e4jj or #f4jj p] ton4 ,*>coal is q fragile & /ructurally weak1 s mu* s t bla/ furnaces = its use _c be built high] ?an sixty feet2 :]eas1 ! great /r5g? ( coke all[s !m to be built to exce$ "o hundr$ feet 9 height ) correspond+ly increas$ output4 ,:at ?is means may be realiz$ by e "o conv]sant ) ! dem&s ( mod]n indu/ry4 ,coke ,illu/ration3 ,,*>g+ ,,coal ,,into ,,! ,,ov5s ,z *>coal is completely *>r$ wood1 s coke = analogy's sake may be said to be completely *>r$ coal1 practically always ( ! bitum9\s type4 ,by 8bak+0 bitum9\s coal at a *]ry-r$ heat1 its volatile con/itu5ts are driv5 (f z ! well-kn[n 8coal-gas0 ( almo/ e small t[n1 & a /rong1 brittle & por\s mat]ial or coke residue is left4 ,if ! bak+ is done )\t any admission ( air to ! retort1 practically none ( ! coal burns & ! 8cake0 or coke :i* is left conta9s ! a% ( ! orig9al coal & :at is kn[n z ! 8fix$ c>bon10 i4e41 c>bon :i* _c be di/ill$ or driv5 (f by heat alone1 ?\gh x w\ld burn 7 air admitt$4 ,! gases or volatile con/itu5ts :i* are giv5 (f consi/ ma9ly ( moi/ure & a mixture ( gase\s *emical comp\nds1 :i* are kn[n z 8hydro-c>bons40 ,^! conta9 t "p ( ! c>bon ( ! orig9al coal :i* does n rema9 z 8fix$ c>bon0 9 ! coke4 ,illu/ration3 ,,qu5*+ ,,aft] ,,coal ,,has ,,be5 ,,cok$ ,j :y "s coals w coke :ile o!rs ( app>5tly ! same composition z %[n by ! *emi/'s analyses1 w n1 b in/ead ( ! h>d brittle mass w leave a heap ( br[n or black p[d]1 is n z yet def9itely kn[n4 ,x is easy en\gh = *emi/s to det]m9e ) accuracy ! am\nts ( hydrog51 nitrog51 oxyg51 c>bon1 sulphur1 & o!r elem5ts2 b x is a difficult & p]haps an impossible matt] to det]m9e j h[ ^! elem5ts are 8hit*$ up0 9 ! v complex m9]al1 coal1--"o ( ! mo/ complex sub/ances :i* we "k4 ,v>i\s !ories h be5 advanc$ 9 ! attempt to expla9 ! cok+ quality4 ,a bullet9 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey claims t ! relative p]c5tages ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 9 ! coal det]m9es x2 o!rs h held t x dep5ds ^u ! comp\nds ( a t>ry or asphaltic nature pres5t4 ,! fact rema9s t "s coals coke )\t tr\ble1 :ile o!rs d n coke at all4 ,z yet ! only real way to tell :e!r a new v>iety ( coal w or w n coke is to try x4 ,s9ce #agac1 :5 ,abraham ,d>by 9 ,engl& succe$$ 9 introduc+ x z a sub/itute = ! fa/ disappe>+ *>coal = use 9 bla/ furnaces1 coke has become ! /&>d fuel4 ,x is v /rong & w be> up "u ! great weight ( iron ore & lime/one ) :i* ! furnace is *>g$4 ,s furnaces = use ) coke may be built mu* l>g] ?an ^? 9 :i* *>coal is to be ! fuel4 ,! por\s nature ( coke all[s x to burn rapidly ) int5se heat1 s t ! output ( an iron works is greatly increas$ ?r\gh its use--a v desirable ?+ 9 ^! days ( big ?+s4 ,x has its disadvantages1 ( c\rse1 ma9ly high sulphur1 a delet]i\s sub/ance = :i* molt5 iron1 un=tunately1 has a voraci\s appetite1 & a r high p]c5tage ( a% :i* mu/ be flux$ out4 ,b all 9 all1 x is a v desirable fuel = bla/ furnace & o!r metallurgical purposes1 z is %[n by ! fact t x is us$ 9 ! production ( ab\t n9ety-n9e p] c5t ( all iron & /eel n[ made4 ,illu/ration3 ,,draw+ ,,! ,,coke ,:at is kn[n z ! ,appala*ian coal region produces coal = m ?an sev5ty-five p] c5t ( ! coke made 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,?is region includes ! /rip ( t]ritory ext5d+ f ,we/]n ,p5nsylvania & ,ohio d[n to ,t5nessee1 ,georgia1 & ,alabama4 ,! fam\s ,connellsville di/rict is a "p ( ?is region4 ,ill9ois & ,indiana h a great deal ( coal1 :i*1 h[ev]1 has r indiff]5t cok+ qualities4 ,almo/ con/ant exp]im5tation has be5 c>ri$ on 9 ! attempt to induce ^! semi-cok+ coals to coke4 ,! be/ t has s f> develop$ is ! use ( a consid]able p]c5tage ( !m 9 admixture ) coals ( good cok+ qualities4 ,su* mixtures yield q satisfactory coke4 ,! ,beehive ,ov5 ,process ,illu/ration3 ,,l>ge ,,pieces ,,( ,,coke ,9 ! old days !re 0 no desire or inc5tive to avoid wa/e ( coal res\rces4 ,if dur+ ! cok+ process "s air got into ! ov5 & "p ( ! coal 0 burn$1 or if all ( ! gas giv5 (f 0 wa/$1 x did n matt]4 ,!re 0 pl5ty m ( coal & ! ?+ desir$ 0 to get ! requisite coke 9 ! quicke/ & *eape/ way4 ,illu/ration3 ,,:]e ,,coals ,,are ,,pulv]iz$ ,,& ,,mix$ ,,= ,,cok+ ,9 ,we/]n ,p5nsylvania1 ,ohio1 & ,virg9ia1 7 great b$s ( high grade cok+ coal4 ,9 ?is region & p>ticul>ly ar\nd ,pittsburg1 num]\s bla/ furnaces & /eel mills grew up4 ,! coke = ^! 0 made 9 ! mo/ conv5i5t way--9 ! wa/eful beehive ov5s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,batt]y ,,( ,,by-,,product ,,coke ,,ov5s1 ,,%[+ ,,gas-,,collect+ ,,ma9 ,z ! "n signifies1 ^! ov5s or retorts are brick *amb]s %ap$ l beehives4 ,9 ! l>g] plants !y are built ei!r 9 s+le r[s aga9/ long hills or 9 d\ble r[s back to back4 ,ov] ! tops ( ! ov5s 9 ea* r[ runs a c> call$ a *>g+ 8lorry40 ,coal is p\r$ f ! bottom ( ?is ?r\gh a hole 9 ! top ( ea* ov5 :ile x is /ill hot f ! prec$+ *>ge4 ,no air gets 9 except t admitt$ ?r\gh ! hole 9 ! ov5 top & a small slit left ov] ! "o side door1 ?r\gh :i* ! coke is drawn :5 ! cok+ process is f9i%$4 ,! heat ( ! ov5 />ts ! di/illation ( ! moi/ure & ! volatile comp\nds :i* escape ?r\gh ! hole 9 ! ov5 top4 ,! small am\nt ( air admitt$ burns a little ( ! coal & gas & raises ! temp]ature ( ! ov5 to t requir$ = cok+4 ,aft] #dh or #gb h\rs a spray ( wat] is ?r[n 9 ov] ! gl[+ coal to qu5* ! fire4 ,! p>tially cool$ coke is drawn ?r\gh ! op5 door1 sort$ & load$ into c>s = %ipm5t4 ,?\gh ?is me?od ( cok+ is a v wa/eful "o1 x yet produces ! l>g] quantity ( ! coke made 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,h[ev]1 conditions are rapidly *ang+ & x w n be _m ye>s be=e ! mu* less wa/eful 8by-product0 process ga9s ! asc5d5cy4 ,by #aiad x _h already come to produce ab\t tw5ty-five p] c5t ( ! total coke made "h1 & s9ce t date ! p]c5tage has be5 rapidly increas+4 ,! ,by-product ,process ,illu/ration3 ,,top ,,( ,,ov5s ,,) ,,*>g+ ,,b9 ,,& ,,lorry ,,at ,,f> ,,end ,by ?is sy/em ( cok+ a great] yield ( coke is obta9$ & mo/ ( ! by-products are sav$4 ,! value ( ! latt] dep5ds l>gely1 ( c\rse1 ^u local conditions1 su* z transportation1 co/s ( ! mat]ial1 co/ ( labor1 & available m>ket = ! coke ov5 gas4 ,!y are usually figur$ z hav+ a value ( #a4ej p] ton ( coal cok$1 equival5t to a total ( #ga1jjj1jjj p] ye> = ! coal cok$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,illu/ration3 ,,lorry ,,= ,,*>g+ ,,coal ,,into ,,ov5s ,! ov5s & app>atus requir$ are consid]ably m exp5sive1 b1 s9ce ?is indu/ry has develop$ 9 ?is c\ntry dur+ ! la/ tw5ty-two ye>s to a po9t :]e "o-qu>t] ( all ( ! coke manufactur$ is made by ! by-product process1 !re c be no d\bt t x is a pr(itable proposition & t ev5tually ! wa/eful beehive ov5s w be a ?+ ( ! pa/4 ,practically all ( ! types ( by-product coke ov5s 9 use h be5 develop$ 9 ,g]many or ,belgium1 :]e circum/ances =c$ e>li] cons]vation ( res\rces ?an 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,! ?ree be/ kn[n types are ! ,semet-,solvay1 ! ,otto ,h(fman1 & ! ,kopp]s--! latt] a rec5t arrival4 ,!y diff] ma9ly 9 details ( con/ruction & op]ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,ma*9e ,,= ,,pu%+ ,,coke ,,f ,,ov5s ,9 a g5]al way a 8batt]y0 ( coke ov5s consi/s ( f #dj to #hj long n>r[ brick-wall$ *amb]s plac$ closely side by side ) heat+ flues or 8*eck]-"w0 betwe5 !m4 ,! fire = ! bak+ process is 9 ^! flues1 :i* are int]connect$1 & ! heat develop$ is suffici5t to drive (f ! moi/ure & volatile sub/ances ( ! coal 9 ! n>r[ *amb]s j on ! o!r side ( ! brick walls4 ,*>g+ is done by a 8lorry0 z 9 ! beehive process4 ,aft] f sev5te5 to tw5ty-f\r h\rs at a r$ heat1 ! coke is 8pu%$0 f ! ov5s1 "o aft] ano!r1 by an electric ram :i* ent]s at "o end4 ,! #cj #g #a foot block ( gl[+ coke em]ges f ! o!r end1 :]e1 break+ "u its own weight into good-siz$ pieces1 x falls into a /eel c> on a track j b5ea?4 ,a spray ( wat] qu5*es x & x is tak5 to ! /orage b9s to be sort$4 ,ri* coal-gas is ! ma9 by-product4 ,t :i* comes (f dur+ ! fir/ sev5 h\rs is ! ri*e/ & has ! greate/ illum9at+ or 8c&le0 p[]4 ,aft] wa%+ free f du/1 t>1 ammonia1 etc41 ! gas is usually run into hold]s or tanks f :i* x is di/ribut$ = use = illum9at+ or = heat+ purposes4 ,t :i* comes (f dur+ ! latt] "p ( ! cok+ p]iod has mu* less ( ^? con/itu5ts :i* give illum9at+ value4 ,x has good heat value1 h[ev]1 & z fuel is requir$ = keep+ ! ov5s up to ! cok+ temp]ature1 ?is poor] gas f ! cok+ *amb]s is swit*$ into & burns 9 ! flues betwe5 ! cok+ *amb]s z m5tion$4 ,?us ! l>g] "p ( ! gas is sold to cu/om]s1 usually 9 ! city ne> :i* ! ov5s h be5 locat$1 & ! poor] "p is utiliz$ 9 heat+ ! ov5s & ! /eam boil]s :i* run ! plant4 ,illu/ration3 ,,qu5*+ ,,c> ,,await+ ,,its ,,load ,! coal t>1 :i* ! ,g]man *emi/s h made s fam\s ?r\gh its manufacture into ! almo/ endless v>iety ( beautiful dyes1 is ano!r ( ! by-products :i* is recov]$ by ?is1 b burn$ or lo/ 9 ! beehive ov5 process4 ,f a long ma9 ov] ! tops ( ! ov5s :i* connects ! gas pipes1 ! t> fl[s along ) ! gas to ! scrubb+ & gas clean+ plant1 :]e by r intricate op]ations x is fre$ f o!r sub/ances4 ,9 ?is c\ntry mu* ( ! t> is us$ = build+ purposes1 etc41 & "s z fuel1 b n mu* has be5 made into ! *emical products = :i* ,g]many is s fam\s4 ,= a long "t a few dyes & o!r *emical comp\nds h be5 made "h f coal t>4 ,s9ce ! e>ly days ( ! w> 9 ,europe & ! cessation ( imports ( su* mat]ials on ?is acc\nt1 !re has come ab\t consid]able expansion 9 _! manufacture "h2 b x is d\btful if ! "t is yet ripe = a :olesale entry into ! manufacture ( ^! coal t> 8d]ivatives10 especially ! v ext5sive v>iety ( dye/uffs4 ,naph?al5e & b5zol f :i* _m o!r *emical comp\nds z well z munitions ( w> c be made1 are among ! by-products4 ,illu/ration3 ,,qu5*+ ,,! ,,coke ,mo/ ( ! ammonia :i* ! corn] drug /ore sells1 comes f ! by-product manufacture ( coke4 ,! l>ge/ "p ( ! ammonia :i* is produc$ 9 ! process1 h[ev]1 is manufactur$ into sulphate ( ammonia1 a well-kn[n f]tiliz]4 ,coal ,an?racite or h>d coal has be5 us$ 9 c]ta9 di/ricts 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 especially 9 ,new ,j]sey & ea/]n ,p5nsylvania4 ,x is n an ideal fuel z x is too solid to burn rapidly1 spalls or cracks "u heat & int]f]es ) ! bla/4 ,s9ce #ahfj :5 coke became available "h mu* less coal has be5 us$1 ?\gh "s is yet us$ 9 admixture ) coke4 ,"s bitum9\s coals :i* conta9$ little t>ry matt] also h be5 us$ 9 ?is way4 ,fluxes ,lime/one1 ! rock :i* is ord9>ily us$ = flux+ purposes1 ne$s no introduction to any ( u4 ,z ! m>ble ( /atu>y1 ! mat]ial ( :i* oy/] & o!r sea %ells & ! :ite tomb/ones ( our cemet]ies are compos$1 x is well kn[n4 ,any ( ^! v>ieties ( ! mat]ial may be us$ = flux+ purposes1 b usually x is lime/one :i* is qu>ri$ = ! purpose or obta9$ z *ipp+s or spalls f build+ blocks4 ,illu/ration3 ,,coke ,,go+ ,,f ,,qu5*+ ,,c> ,,to ,,b9s ,illu/ration3 ,,load+ ,,coke ,,9 ,,box ,,c> ,! active ag5t1 :i* produces ! *emical or flux+ action 9 ! bla/ furnaces1 is c>bonate ( calcium 7lime7 ( :i* lime/one conta9s ab\t #ih p] c5t4 ,dolomite is a mixture ( c>bonates ( lime & magnesium1 ab\t #ec p] c5t ( ! =m] & #de p] c5t ( ! latt]1 & is sometimes us$ 9 place ( lime/one4 ,fluor sp>1 a rock compos$ ( calcium & fluor9e1 is us$ 9 small quantities 9 "s ( ! metallurgical processes4 ,x is a v p[]ful flux4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,bla/ ,,furnace ,up ! d>k t[] %oots ! elevator ) its 8buggy0 ( coke4 ,its spe$ is n condition$ to ! com=t ( man1 :o is n suppos$ to be a pass5g]1 except ! occasional labor] ^: duty z buggy-pu%] requires 8 pres5ce on twelve-h\r %ifts at ! top4 ,s we1 ^: exploratory proclivities h l$ u at ! (fice to sign away our lives = grant ( a pass to ! bla/ furnace1 f9d our brea? ab\t tak5 f u ) ! fir/ mad da% into ! d>kness ( ! climb4 ,t /one t[] _h look$ mu* m innoc5t f bel[4 ,b n[ ! rickety elevator has z sudd5ly em]g$ into ! light aga9 & /opp$ abruptly at ! *>g+ floor :i* ext5ds across ! *asm to ! top ( ! furnace4 ,z ! smoke-begrim$ buggy-pu%]s ru% ! buggy ( coke across to ! furnace bell1 we h opportunity to notice t we are a full hundr$ feet above gr\nd4 ,j "h1 seem+ly s close t we c put our h&s on !m1 9 a r[1 are ! r\nd /eel tops ( ! f\r /oves :i* are = ! purpose ( preheat+ ! bla/4 ,! huge pipes1 du/ arre/]s1 tanks1 & build+s1 all s necess>y to ! plant1 look almo/ l a tangl$ mass f our high /ation1 :ile ! *>g+ floor ^u :i* we /&1 ! %\ld]-high /eel f5ce ar\nd x1 ! furnace top1 ! adjac5t /oves & 9 fact ev]y?+ = a half mile ar\nd u1 is color$ yell[-r$ ) iron du/4 ,we und]/& ! reason = ?is :5 ! buggies ( ore :i* h succe$$ ! coke are dump$ into ! funnel-%ap$ depression ar\nd ! conical bell at ! c5t]4 ,z ! huge bell is l[]$ & ! *>ge slides 9 !re is consid]able bl[+ out ( ! f9e ore du/1 :i*1 9 fact1 cont9ually 8oozes0 out ( all crevices "u ! heavy pressure ( ! bla/ inside4 ,illu/ration3 ,,h&-,,f$ ,,bla/ ,,furnace ,day & night1 mon? 9 & mon? out1 dur+ ! life ( ! fire-brick l9+ ( ! furnace1 ?is r\t9e ( *>g+1 fir/ coke1 next ! !oretically correct *>ge ( analyz$ iron ores1 !n lime/one1 9 rotation goes on4 ,f #f ,a4,m4 to #f ,p4,m4 & f #f ,p4,m4 to #f ,a4,m4 on twelve-h\r %ifts1 alt]nat+ gangs ( labor]s pu% ! buggies across to ! furnace top1 dump & return !m to ! elevator already up ) ano!r load4 ,! incessant quiv] ( ! iron plates b5ea? our feet ) ! rumbl+ & groan+ f ! inside ( ?is mon/] are disquiet+ & ! ?\ght con/antly recurs3 8,:at if ?is p[]ful creature %\ld j n[ rebel1 z q occasionally occurr$ 9 ! old days :5 all ( its moods _h n be5 s well und]/ood80 ,= ?is k+ ( metallurgical devices1 ?\gh g5tle & ob$i5t z a lamb "u prop] treatm5t1 is a dom9e]+ fury :5 x has dyspepsia z occurs :5ev] its att5dants are remiss 9 _! att5tions to its diet4 8,^? explosion doors j bel[ ! furnace top--are !y 9 work+ ord] & w\ld !y be adequate80 ,b :e!r1 z 9 record$ in/ances1 ! :ole furnace top is torn (f z evid5ce ( its wra?1 or its displeasure is exhibit$ 9 a mild] way1 we mu* pref] to be abs5t4 ,! ?\ght is disquiet+ & we are glad to leave4 ,illu/ration3 ,,c9d] ,,or ,,slag ,,fl[+ ,,into ,,ladles ,illu/ration3 8,,fireworks0 ,,at ,,! ,,c9d]-,,not* ,unwill+ to te/ aga9 ! elevator = ! d[nw>d trip1 we take to ! n>r[ iron /airway :i* leads f ! top ( ! furnace to ! gr\nd4 ,b ?is is worse ?an ! elevator1 = ! /air treads are v n>r[ & made only ( ?ree sl5d] iron rods4 ,to our palpitat+ he>ts !y seem to give v insecure foo?old & ! gaps %[ t !re is no?+ b e>? b5ea? u1 & t a hundr$ feet bel[4 ,to make matt]s worse1 be=e we creep+ly get half way d[n "s visitors bel[ h /opp$ to wat* our sl[ & trembl+ /eps & our n]v\s clut* on ! l[ 8/+y0 h& rail4 ,we he> !m innoc5tly inquire ( "o ano!r :y we move s sl[ly4 ,we wi% t we c\ld appe> brave1 especially be=e ! wom5 9 ! p>ty1 b we c\ld n move ) great] alacrity if our lives dep5d$ ^u x4 ,once bel[ aga9 ) our brea? rega9$1 ?+s are m int]e/+4 ,! r$-hot molt5 slag :i* has j be5 tapp$ out is runn+ f ! furnace along a long tr\gh into a ladle six feet high re/+ ^u a c> on ! railway track alongside ! 8ca/ h\se10 z ! huge /ructure :i* h\ses ! l[] "p ( ! furnace is call$4 ,?is smok+1 molt5 slag /ream gives (f a p[]ful sulphur smell & ?r[s a lurid gl>e ov] ev]y?+ r\nd ab\t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,slag ,,dump ,! furnace sup]9t5d5t is j expla9+ to ! o!r p>ty t ,no4 #b furnace has be5 8hang+0 = a c\ple ( days & is /ill dang]\s4 8,if y realize10 said he1 8! great weight ( coke1 ore1 & lime/one 9 t furnace1 y c see :at a spla% x w\ld make if ! clogg$1 bridg$ "p ) all above x %\ld fall sudd5ly into ! molt5 pool 9 ! #8he>?' ( ! furnace4 ,two ye>s ago ,no4 #a broke out & ! molt5 metal caught & burn$ to dea? "o ( our m5 & injur$ sev]al o!rs4 #8,hang+' does n occur :5 ! furnace is work+ "r1 b failure ( ! *>ge to come d[n ev5ly is v s]i\s sometimes4 ,a bla/ furnace is l a coquette2 %e has to be h&l$ j s1 & ev5 !n y _c always be sure :at %e is go+ to d next4 8,oh yes1--:]e does ! iron come f8 ,well1 we (t5 read n[adays ( a man & 8 #8aff9ity4' ,n[ ! *emi/ has us$ t ^w #8aff9ity' = ye>s to describe ! lik+ or attraction ( "o *emical #8elem5t' = ano!r2 9 fact1 t is :]e ?is rec5t colloquial use ( ! ^w orig9at$4 ,iron ore is no?+ m nor less ?an metallic iron1 ! elem5t1 *emically comb9$ ) oxyg51 ano!r elem5t :i* con/itutes "o-fif? ( ! air we brea!4 ,"u conditions produc$ 9 ! bla/ furnace1 ?\gh = c5turies w$d$ to iron1 oxyg5 des]ts him = h] #8aff9ity' c>bon1 :i* is be/ kn[n to y z coke1 coal1 or *>coal4 ,! iron1 n[ free1 becomes molt5 at ! high temp]ature enc\nt]$ 7ab\t #bhjj to #cjjj ,f47 & desc5ds into ! #8he>?' or bottom ( ! furnace1 :ile oxyg5 & h] new p>tn] escape out ( ! top ( ! furnace 9 gase\s =m4 ,:5 molt5 iron has accumulat$ 9 ! he>? to ! ext5t desir$ x is tapp$ out z y w soon see4 ,illu/ration3 ,,diagrammatic ,,sket* ,,( ,,bla/ ,,furnace 8,! lime/one *>g$ has #8aff9ity' = dirt & c]ta9 o!r impurities ( ! ore :i* x removes 9 molt5 =m z ! #8c9d]' or #8slag' :i* is !re runn+ into ! ladle4 ,:5 cold1 ?is c9d] is a d>k gre5i%-black1 glassy sub/ance1 :i* ( rec5t ye>s has come to be us$ to a c]ta9 ext5t 9 ! manufacture ( ,portl& cem5t b is ma9ly us$ = fill+-9 purposes4 ,"s is cru%$ & utiliz$ 9 concrete mixtures & = road build+4 ,9 ,*icago consid]able l& has be5 #8made' by dump+ slag into ! lake1 & ,s\? ,*icago is report$ z /&+ on a swamp :i* has be5 fill$ 9 ) slag f ! /eel works !re4 ,illu/ration3 ,,old-,,fa%ion$ ,,pig ,,b$ 8,?is imm5se furnace is simply a /rong /eel %ell l9$ two or ?ree feet ?ick ) fire bricks4 ,at ! #8bo%1' :i* is ! region :]e ! greate/ heat is produc$1 holl[ bronze plates are ins]t$ among ! bricks ( ! l9+ ?r\gh :i* circulat+ cold wat] keeps ! bricks f be+ fus$4 8,! hot gases :i* are l$ f ! upp] "p ( ! furnace ?r\gh t brick-l9$ #8d[ncom]' are burn+ 9 ?ree ( ^? #8/oves' to heat !m1 :ile cold1 clean air f ! bl[+ eng9es is com+ ?r\gh ! o!r /ove1 :i*1 t5 m9utes ago1 :5 x 0 put on bla/1 0 ! hotte/ ( ! f\r4 ,x is n[ giv+ up "p ( its accumulat$ heat to ! bla/ on its way to ! furnace4 ,swit*+ ! cold incom+ air e little :ile f a p>tially cool$ /ove ?r\gh a hott] "o :ile all[+ ! =m] to reheat1 provides cont9u\s bla/ ( a temp]ature ( #hjj to #adjj ,f4 ,! #8hot bla/' idea orig9at$ ab\t #ahcj ) ,james ,neilson1 a gas eng9e] ( ,engl&1 & its introduction revolutioniz$ ! bla/ furnace indu/ry & made ! highly effici5t mod]n practice possible4 ,illu/ration3 ,,furnace ,,& ,,s& ,,b$ ,,ready ,,= ,,iron 8,?is big pipe above our heads :i* encircles ! furnace is ! #8bu/le pipe4' ,x also has to be l9$ ) fire bricks4 ,! hot bla/ is di/ribut$ by ?is #8bu/le pipe' to ! tuyres "h--^! ,l-%ap$ pipes--:i* %oot x directly into ! furnace4 ,?r\gh ! peep-holes 9 ! tuyres y c get a glimpse ( ! dazzl+ int]ior ( ! furnace4 ,! bla/ ( heat$ air is caus+ ! coke to burn fi]cely !re s t x melts ! iron1 :i* f>!r up 9 ! furnace has be5 =c$ to "p f ! oxyg51 z ,i expla9$ to y40 ,illu/ration3 ,,lay\t ,,( ,,bla/ ,,furnace ,,plant ,b n[ six m5 ) a long /eel b> are />t+ to break ?r\gh ! two or ?ree feet ( clay ) :i* ! 8tap hole0 ( ! mon/] furnace is plugg$1 & our in=mant hurries away4 ,illu/ration3 ,,skip ,,hoi/ ,,at ,,"w4 ,,skip ,,dump+ ,,into ,,hopp] ,= t5 m9utes ) /rong sl$ge bl[s ! tapp]s /ruggle to break ?r\gh ! plug ( burn$ clay4 ,mean:ile ! monoton\s :i/le ( ! heavy bla/ into & ?r\gh ! bu/le pipe & tuyres goes on & ! dis*>ge pipes ( ! wat]-cool+ plates empty into ! gutt] ar\nd ! furnace bottom ! wat] :i* has be5 circulat+ to keep ! inn] bricks f fus+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,section ,,( ,,bla/ ,,furnace ,,%[+ ,,fill+ ,,arrangem5t1 ,,b9s ,,& ,,ore ,,bridge ,& n[ a %\t & ! /rong r$ gl[ ?r\gh\t ! ca/ h\se tell u t ! tap hole is op5 & ! iron is runn+ d[n ! ma9 *annel ( ! s& b$4 ,pa/ ! plugg$ entrances to ! lat]al bran*es runs ! molt5 iron /ream to ! end ( ! ca/ h\se ne>ly "o hundr$ feet di/ant :]e x divides1 fill+ ! lat]als on ea* side & f !m runn+ into _m op5 molds arrang$ l ! tee? ( a comb4 ,ea* ( ^! molds is ab\t five feet long4 ,!y =m ! 8pigs10 & ! lat]als :at are kn[n z 8s[s40 ,z ea* lat]al & its molds fill1 ! lat]al ahead ( x is op5$ & ! process repeat$1 lat]als & pigs fill+ up simultane\sly on opposite sides ( ! ma9 *annel till ! :ole ca/ h\se floor is fill$ ne>ly up to ! furnace ) ! r$ smok+ metal4 ,illu/ration3 ,,s& ,,ca/ ,,pig ,,iron ,!re are few sights m glori\s ?an ! ca/ h\se ) b$ j fill+ ) metal1 & especially is x s at night4 ,! /rong yell[-r$ light ( ! flam+ metal issu+ f ! furnace & ! int5se gl[ ( t already 9 ! b$ illum9ates ev]y?+ 9 & ab\t ! build+4 ,b already1 be=e ! furnace is empty1 ! workm5 are spray+ ) wat] ! e>lie/ ca/ pigs4 ,cov]+ !m ) a light lay] ( s& !y v5ture ^u !m ) ?ick-sol$ %oes & break ! 8pigs0 f ! 8s[s0 ) sl$ge hamm]s4 ,?is is ! old-fa%ion$ 8s& ca/0 pig iron4 ,aft] remelt+ 9 ! cupola furnaces ( neighbor+ t[ns & ca/+ into /ove p>ts or o!r =ms x is kn[n z 8ca/ iron02 ?r\gh 8puddl+0 9 rev]b]atory or special furnaces x becomes 8wr\ght iron02 aft] dec>boniz+ treatm5t 9 /eel furnaces ( v>i\s design x is *ang$ into ! wond]ful mat]ial call$ 8/eel40 ,pig iron is ?us ! int]m$iate or semi-raw mat]ial f :i* practically all ( our v>i\s iron & /eel products are made & ! transition product ?r\gh :i* !y pass4 ,illu/ration3 ,,ma*9e ,,ca/ ,,pig ,,iron ,b ! romantic p]iod ( ! h&-f$ furnace & ! glori\sly beautiful pig b$s at ca/+ "t are rapidly pass+2 9 fact1 are almo/ pa/4 ,mod]n 8skip-hoi/s0 c>ry+ automatically dump$ buckets or c>s *>ge ! furnace m economically ?an ev5 l[-wag$ labor]s c d x4 ,! two *>g+ c>s alt]nate1 "o fill+ at ! bottom 9 ! /ock h\se :ile ! o!r is dump+ ?r\gh ! d\ble bell at ! top ( ! furnace4 ,furnaces are n[ tapp$ by p[] driv5 drills :i* make quick "w ( a =m]ly difficult op]ation4 ,in/ead ( runn+ x into ! s& b$1 ! molt5 iron f ! furnace is n[adays run into ladles alongside ! ca/ h\se z is ! c9d] :i* 0 describ$ above4 ,if ! metal is to be made into pigs x goes to ! pig ca/+ ma*9e1 :]e ! travel+ iron molds v quickly conv]t ! entire ca/ into 8*ill$ ca/0 pigs4 ,at ! top ( ! incl9e ^! pigs :i* h be5 cool+ "u sprays ( wat] fall f ! travel+ molds into railroad c>s bel[ :i* deliv] !m to ! consum]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,h[ ,,pig ,,iron ,,is ,,n[ ,,ca/ ,,into ,,travel+ ,,molds ,illu/ration3 ,,upp] ,,end ,,( ,,ca/+ ,,ma*9e ,,:]e ,,pigs ,,are ,,dump$ ,,f ,,travel+ ,,molds ,,into ,,railway ,,c>s ,9 l>ge /eel works ! great] "p ( ! molt5 iron is n ca/ into pigs at all b :ile yet molt5 is directly *>g$ into ! op5-he>? or ,bessem] furnaces :i* conv]t x at once into /eel ( :i* ! great] "p is made into plate1 rails1 or o!r %apes be=e be+ all[$ to cool4 ,ev5 ! gas is recov]$ n[adays4 ,its j\rney ?r\gh ! 8du/ arre/]0 rids x ( mo/ ( its du/1 aft] :i* filt]s & wa%]s clean x ?or\ghly4 ,t n requir$ = ! heat+ ( ! /oves is us$ = fir+ ! /eam boil]s ab\t ! plant & z fuel = batt]ies ( huge gas eng9es :i* 9 l>ge plants h be5 in/all$ to g5]ate l[-pric$ electric curr5t4 ,x %\ld be not$ t 9 mod]n practice iron is m9$1 load$1 transport$ to ! furnaces1 unload$1 *>g$ & made into pigs or conv]t$ into /eel & ev5 into ! f9i%$ products ) practically no h& labor1 all op]ations be+ p]=m$ by ma*9]y4 ,?\gh a 8direct0 process = conv]t+ ! ore into wr\ght iron or /eel has be5 long s\ght1 a me?od has nev] be5 f\nd1 except t us$ 9 ! v small way foll[$ by ! old iron-work]s ) _! crude furnaces4 ,x has always prov$ comm]cially advantage\s to make pig iron 9 ! bla/ furnace z an int]m$iate /ep & !n by a second /ep conv]t x into wr\ght iron1 /eel1 etc4 ,s ! ore is br\ght f ! m9es to ! furnace1 ! coke & lime/one arrive f ano!r region1 & batt]ies ( huge bla/ furnaces ?r\gh ! c\ntry make f !m ! pig iron4 ,,bla/ ,,furnace ,,data ,,& ,,annual ,,pig ,,iron ,,production ,ye> ,av]age ,av]age ,av]age ,tons ,pig ,iron ,produc$ ,dur+ ,height#a ,cu4 ,ft4 ,daily ,ye> ( ,bla/ ,capacity ,output 9 ,furnace ( ,bla/ ,tons ,ea* ,furnace ,unit$ ,great ,g]many ,/ates ,brita9 & ,luxemb]g #ahej #cj #bjjj #bi #efe1jjj #ahfj #ibj1jjj #ahgj #a1hfe1jjj #e1ifc1jjj #a1cia1jjj #ahhj #gj #hbjj #aag #c1hce1jjj #g1gdi1jjj #b1gbi1jjj #ahij #ij #ahbjj #cfj #i1jjj1jjj #g1ijd1jjj #d1feh1jjj #aijj #ajj #bdjjj #fjjac1gij1jjj #i1jjc1jjj #g1eej1jjj #aije #ij to #ajj #bdjjj #fjjbc1jjj1jjj #i1gdf1jjjaj1ihh1jjj #aiaj #ij to #ajj #bdjjj #fjjbg1cjj1jjjaj1chj1jjjad1die1jjj #aiab #ij to #ajj #bdjjj #fjjcj1jjj1jjj #i1jcg1jjjag1hfi1jjj #aiac #ij to #ajj #bdjjj #fjjca1jjj1jjjaj1fed1jjjai1bib1jjj ,footnote #a3 ,no advantage has be5 f\nd 9 furnaces hav+ a height ( ov] #aaj feet4 ,! *emical laboratory plays a v important rle 9 iron mak+4 ,analyses made ( ea* c> or boat load ( ore by ! furnace *emi/s repres5t+ ! buy] mu/ *eck v closely ! analyses made by ! m9e *emi/s = ! sell]1 z ! price ( e ton ( ore is bas$ on its iron & its phosphorus cont5ts & ! p]c5tages ( c]ta9 o!r con/itu5ts pres5t4 ,9 calculat+ ! 8burd50 or *>ges = ! furnace1 ea* ( ^! con/itu5ts is e/imat$ 9 p\nds actually pres5t p] *>ge1 losses or ga9s dur+ ! j\rney ?r\gh ! furnace are all[$ =1 & by comb9+ ! v>i\s ores ! *>ges are s made up t ! result+ iron w be ( c]ta9 desir$ composition4 ,! clos5ess ( actual composition obta9$ to calculat$ results is />tl+4 ,truly ?is is an age ( effici5cy4 ,?\gh te*nical in=mation & /ati/ics are n to be inflict$ ^u our read]s to any ext5t 9 ?is s]ies ( articles1 x may n be amiss to give "o table ( int]e/+ figures :i* %[ ! increase 9 height & capacity ( furnaces f #ahej to ! pres5t "t4 ,dur+ ?is p]iod ! annual production ( pig iron 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates has ris5 f #efe1jjj to #ca1jjj1jjj long tons 7#bbdj p\nds74 ,x w be not$ t s9ce #ahhg1 :5 we pass$ ,great ,brita91 ! ,unit$ ,/ates has be5 ! *ampion pig iron produc] ( ! _w4 ,! record production ( a s+le bla/ furnace to date 0 t ( "o ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,/eel ,corporation's furnaces at ,duquesne1 ,p5n41 :i* produc$ #ijj tons ( pig iron 9 "o day4 ,,*apt] ,v ,a ,,g5]al ,,glimpse ,,ahead ,we h arriv$ at ! p>t+ ( ! ways4 ,f ! va/ b$s ( iron ore1 ! coal fields & coke ov5s1 & f ! qu>ries ( lime/one1 all roads h l$ to ! bla/ furnace4 ,?is we h visit$ & we n[ "k h[ pig iron is made4 ,f ?is po9t ! sev]al pa?s div]ge4 ,"o by "o we are to foll[ !m to get acqua9t$ ) ! int]e/+ c\ntry :i* !y trav]se & ! regions to :i* !y lead4 ,h[ev]1 be=e *oos+ any "o ( ^! pa?s = our fir/ trip1 x w be to our advantage to pause1 to /udy = a mom5t our position & get a g5]al view ( ! c\ntry ahead ( u4 ,we %\ld "k ! relative locations & importance ( ! places we are go+ to visit1 = only by gett+ a compreh5sive idea ( ! g5]al plan ( ?is f]r\s 7mean+ iron7 _w1 c we und]/& to ! be/ advantage ! position ( ea* ( ! ma9 products1 wr\ght iron1 /eel1 ca/ iron1 malleable iron1 etc41 & acquire a satisfactory k ( !m4 ,9 ! la/ *apt] pig iron 0 call$ ! int]m$iate /age betwe5 ! ore & ! f9i%$ iron product1 & su* ! sket* giv5 %[s x to be4 ,x is only z an int]m$iate product t pig iron has value1 = n[h]e 9 ! comm]cial _w has x a purpose except z a mat]ial to be *emically & /ructurally trans=m$ into o!r mat]ials :i* may !mselves be us$ )\t fur!r trans=mation4 ,x is desirable t we fully realize ! position ( ?is v important semi-raw mat]ial1 pig iron1 be=e pass+ on to ! /udy1 "o at a "t1 ( ! ref9$ f]r\s products :i* are susceptible ( direct use 9 our comm]cial life4 ,illu/ration3 ,,electric ,,arc1 ,,microscope1 ,,& ,,cam]a1 ,,"p ,,( ,,metallographic ,,app>atus ,f ,table ,a 7page #ga7 x w be se5 t f bla/ furnace metal sev]al well-kn[n products are =m$ by ! v>i\s processes ( ref9em5t4 ,ea* ( ^! me?ods ( purification may be said to result 9 a c]ta9 g5]al composition & /ructure :i* give to ! mat]ial =m$ its "* & prop]ties4 ,! ,metallographic ,me?od ( ,classification ,by aid ( ! microscope x is possible actually to look into ! /ructure ( ^! mat]ials4 ,,table ,a ,,iron ,,& ,,/eel ,,production ,,( ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,= #aiab #cjjj ,furnaces4 ,b> ,iron1 ,%eets4 ,,wr\ght ,,iron4 ,pipe1 ,boil] ,tubes1 #a1fcg1ehb tons ,/ay ,bolts4 ,/ock = 7#gej1jjj tons ,pig ,cem5tation & ,iron us$74 ,crucible ,/eel4 #ajb ,plants4 ,rails1 ,axles1 ,rods1 ,,bessem] ,,/eel4 ,wire1 ,nails4 #a1cbg1ijj tons ,/ructural ,%apes4 7#aa1jjj1jjj tons ,pig ,pipe1 ,b> ,/eel1 us$74 ,/eel ,ca/+s4 #gh ,plants4 ,,acid ,,op5-,,he>? ,rails1 ,plate1 ,axles4 ,,/eel4 ,/eel ,ca/+s4 #a1aci1bba tons ,miscellane\s4 7#ejj1jjj tons ,pig us$74 #ajj ,plants4 ,,basic ,rails1 ,plate1 ,axles1 ,,iron ,,ore ,,op5-,,he>? ,,/eel4 ,rods4 ,/ructural #ei1ige1jjj #ai1fda1ejb tons ,%apes4 ,pipe1 ,boil] ,,tons 7#aa1ejj1jjj tons ,pig ,tubes1 ,b> ,/eel1 us$74 ,/eel ,ca/+s4 ,/ove1 ,radiator1 #dff ,,bla/ ,ma*9]y ,p>ts1 ,,coke ,,us$ ,,furnaces ,,ca/ ,,iron4 ,valves1 ,pipe #ce1dia1bib ,,pig ,,iron #f1gej1jjj tons ,fitt+s1 etc41 ,ba? ,,tons ,,made 7#e1jjj1jjj tons ,pig ,tubs1 ,s9ks1 #bi1gbf1icg us$74 ,c>:eels1 ,,tons ,brake%oes1 ,rolls1 ,misc4 ,ca/+s4 ,railway ,c> & ,,*>coal ,,malleable ,,iron4 ,agricultural #ce1dcf1jag #a1jjj1jjj tons ,ma*9]y ,ca/+s1 ,,bu%els 7#gej1jjj tons ,pig ,pipe ,fitt+s1 us$74 ,miscellane\s ,ca/+s4 ,,lime/one #ajh ,plants4 ,tool ,/eels1 ,ordnance #ae1jib1aff ,,crucible ,,/eel4 ,mat]ials1 ,b> ,/eel1 ,,tons #aba1eag tons4 ,ca/+s4 #ad ,plants4 ,rails1 ,b> ,/eel1 ,,electric ,,/eel4 ,ca/+s4 #ah1cji tons4 #d ,plants4 ,,o!r ,,/eel ,tool ,/eels1 ,b> ,,processes4 ,/eel1 ,miscellane\s4 #bhec tons4 99 ,figures = ,pig ,iron ,us$ are ,e/imates1 no ,conclusive ,/ati/ics be+ available4 ,illu/ration3 ,,"p ,,( ,a ,,*emical ,,laboratory ,,:]e #f1jjj ,,samples ,a ,,ye> ,,are ,,analyz$ ,by cutt+ 9 any direction ?r\gh a piece ( metal or alloy1 poli%+ ! surface expos$ v clean & smoo? & !n et*+ 7corrod+7 slightly ) acid1 ! expos$ gra9s ( ! metal may be se5 :5 suffici5tly magnifi$4 ,n only may ! gra9s ( metal be se51 b c]ta9 ( ! o!r con/itu5ts :i* are pres5t are visible4 ,photographs1 also1 c be tak5 by atta*+ a cam]a to ! microscope4 ,?is me?od ( analysis1 :i* is kn[n z 8metallography10 has prov$ z valuable an aid to ! metallurgi/ z x prov$ to ! geologi/ :5 appli$ to ! /udy ( rocks & geological specim5s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,ma*9e ,,= ,,det]m9+ ,,/r5g? ,,( ,,iron ,,& ,,/eel ,,b>s ,! metallography ( wr\ght iron1 ca/ iron1 malleable iron & /eel diff]5tiates !m to u ) consid]able accuracy1 z is %[n by a glance at ! accompany+ photomicrographs1 z photographs tak5 ?r\gh ! microscope are call$4 ,= our imm$iate purpose ( ga9+ a g5]al k ( ! relative positions ( ^! products1 ?is me?od ( analysis probably _c be excell$4 ,aft] ! processes ( manufacture ( ^! mat]ials h be5 tak5 up "o by "o 9 lat] *apt]s1 ! photomicrographs w be ev5 bett] und]/ood ?an n[1 z w ! diff]5ces ( *emical composition & physical prop]ties ( ! alloys1 su* z /r5g?1 h>dness1 brittl5ess1 =g+ quality1 etc4 ,! photomicrographs are giv5 at ?is "t to %[ t ! mat]ials are /ructurally v diff]5t & to aid 9 ! g5]al classification4 ,to make !m comp>ative1 all h be5 tak5 at ! same magnification ( sev5ty diamet]s2 i4e41 ! microscope has made ev]y?+ %[n j sev5ty times z l>ge z x actually 0 9 ! alloy4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #aih4 ,,photomicrograph ,,( ,,s& ,,ca/ ,,pig ,,iron4 ,,! ,,?ick ,,black ,,l9es ,,are ,,graphite ,,flakes ,z /at$ be=e1 ! alloy pig iron normally conta9s f #c to #e p] c5t ( c>bon4 ,?is 0 absorb$ dur+ ! j\rney ?r\gh ! bla/ furnace4 ,z long z ! iron 0 molt5 all ( ?is c>bon 0 9 ! 8comb9$0 =m2 i4e41 9 *emical comb9ation ) ! iron itself4 ,cold iron1 h[ev]1 _c reta9 9 ! *emically comb9$ =m z mu* c>bon z does molt5 iron1 s1 dur+ ! solidification & cool+ ( ! alloy1 m or less ( its c>bon 0 precipitat$1 i4e41 ?r[n out ( solution & f *emical comb9ation ) ! iron1 ! am\nt dep5d+ ma9ly ^u ! spe$ ( ! cool+4 ,x appe>$ !n z ! 8free0 c>bon 7cry/all9e graphite7 :i* rema9$ di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! alloy & may be se5 z ! jet black flakes 9 photomicrograph ,no4 #aih4 ,e pure metal is suppos$ to be compos$ ( cry/als or gra9s :i* w\ld h be5 ( ! true cubic =m if ! sev]e int]nal pressure dur+ solidification & cool+ _h n di/ort$ !m4 ,photomicrograph ,no4 #ii;b repres5ts q well a pure metal4 ,x is t ( an extremely mild /eel made by special me?ods 9 ! op5-he>? /eel furnace4 ,x is s highly ref9$ t x c h>dly be call$ /eel at all b is (t5 call$ 8op5-he>? iron0 or 8+ot iron40 ,x is probably ! pure/ iron on ! m>ket 9 comm]cial quantities to-day4 ,:ile 9 ! *emical laboratory iron ( consid]ably great] purity c be made1 = a comm]cial product ?is is rem>kably pure1 seldom conta9+ m ?an p] c5t ( elem5ts o!r ?an ! metal1 iron4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #ii;b4 ,,op5-,,he>? ,,iron4 ,,probably ,,! ,,pure/ ,,comm]cial ,,iron ,,product ,! b\nd>y l9es ( ! cry/als or gra9s may be pla9ly se54 ,ea* gra9 %\ld %[ practically :ite4 ,! d>k p>allel l9es1 ! dots1 & ! grayi% portions result f inequalities 9 ! poli%+ & et*+4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #a;d4 ,,section ,,( ,,wr\ght ,,iron ,,cut ,,l5g?wise ,,( ,,! ,,b>4 ,,black ,,pat*es ,,& ,,filam5ts ,,are 8,,slag0 ,,or 8,,c9d]0 ,aft] not+ ! appe>ance ( photomicrograph ,no4 #ii;b1 :i* is ( a ne>ly pure iron1 "o ne$ h no difficulty 9 realiz+ t pig iron & ! /eels are alloys & n simple metals4 ,! tru? is t ( all alloys "s ( ! well-kn[n iron products :i* we are /udy+ are by f> ! mo/ complicat$1 mu* m s ?an are ! nonf]r\s alloys1 :i* include ! brasses1 bronzes1 babbitts1 ,g]man silv]1 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,physical ,,te/ ,,room ,,:]e #ae1jjj ,,specim5s ,,are ,,te/$ ,,ea* ,,ye> ,?is %\ld n worry u1 h[ev]1 = we %all n attempt to foll[ !m into _! complications4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #c;b4 ,,/eel ,,conta9+ 4#aj ,,p] ,,c5t ,,( ,,c>bon4 ,,! ,,c>bon ,,is ,,9 ,,! ,,black ,,pat*es ,! important po9t j n[ is to obs]ve ! crook$ black flakes ( cry/all9e graphite 9 ?is photomicrograph ,no4 #aih4 ,x is l>gely because ( ^! flakes ( brittle1 s(t graphite t pig iron & ! ca/ irons are s fragile4 ,"o has no difficulty 9 realiz+ t ^! flakes1 :i* cut 9 e direction ?r\gh ! metal1 make x /ructurally weak1 especially t[>d a sudd5 bl[4 ,no4 #a;d %[s a typical section ( wr\ght iron cut l5g?wise ( ! roll$ b>4 ,x w be not$ t1 z 9 photomicrograph ,no4 #ii;b1 !re are no graphite flakes4 ,9 ! process ( wr\ght iron manufacture practically all ( ! c>bon ( ! orig9al pig iron is burn$ out1 leav+ little besides ! iron itself & "s visc\s c9d] or slag4 ,9 ! roll+ or hamm]+ out ( ! result+ :ite-hot 8bloom10 ! slag enclosures :i* rema9 aft] ! squeez+ process are ext5d$ l5g?wise ?r\gh ! b>4 ,^u obs]v+ ) ! microscope any prep>$ section ( wr\ght iron :i* has be5 cut l5g?wise ( ! b> ! filam5ts ( slag may be pla9ly se51 all p>allel or practically s4 ,:5 su* filam5ts ( slag c be disc]n$ 9 a longitud9al section x is practically an absolute indication t ! mat]ial 9 "q is wr\ght iron4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #bb;c4 ,,/eel ,,) 4#ej ,,p] ,,c5t ,,( ,,c>bon ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #cf;a4 ,,/eel ,,) #a4ih ,,p] ,,c5t ,,( ,,c>bon ,photomicrograph ,no4 #c;b is t ( mild /eel conta9+ 4#aj p] c5t 7 p] c5t7 ( c>bon4 ,"h we h nei!r ! graphite flakes ( ,no4 #aih nor ! slag filam5ts ( ,no4 #a;d4 ,we c pla9ly see ! b\nd>y l9es ( ! gra9s4 ,! irregul> d>k pat*es :i* are ev5ly di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t are ! def9+ features ( /eel4 ,9 :at might be call$ a *emical-me*anical comb9ation1 ^! d>k pat*es conta9 all ( ! small p]c5tage ( c>bon :i* gives to c>bon /eel its def9ite prop]ties4 ,dur+ ! manufacture ( ?is alloy all b a small am\nt ( c>bon is elim9at$ by burn+ x out1 z happ5s ) wr\ght iron4 ,b ! /eel is molt5 or fluid :5 f9i%$ & ! slag :i* has be5 =m$ floats on top & is also elim9at$1 :i* does n occur ) wr\ght iron1 :i* is ?ick & pa/y at its f9i%+ temp]ature4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #gd4 ,,gray ,,ca/ ,,iron4 ,,! ,,crook$ ,,black ,,l9es ,,are ,,graphite ,,flakes ,!re=e1 /eel conta9s no graphite & no slag b has only ! small p]c5tage ( c>bon :i* 0 purposely put back to give to x its valuable prop]ties4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #ib;d4 ,,semi-,,/eel1 ,a ,,/rong] ,,gray ,,ca/ ,,iron ,photomicrograph ,no4 #bb;c is typical = /eel :i* conta9s 4#ej p] c5t 7 p] c5t7 ( c>bon4 ,! irregul> pat*es conta9+ ! c>bon are mu* l>g] & m frequ5t4 ,x w be se51 !re=e1 t ?r\gh metallography ! v>i\s iron alloys1 to a consid]able ext5t1 may be analyz$ z well z classifi$4 ,photomicrographs ,nos4 #gd & #ib;d repres5t s(t & /rong] grades ( ord9>y gray ca/ iron respectively4 ,x w be not$ at once t bo? mu* resemble pig iron 9 /ructure1 z ( c\rse !y %\ld1 = simple remelt+ 9 ! cupola does n effect mu* modification 9 composition or /ructure4 ,occasionally ca/+s are made f molt5 iron direct f ! bla/ furnace1 b su* practice is n v satisfactory & is little done4 ,x =ms probably ! only exception to ! /atem5t made above t pig iron has no useful purpose 9 ! comm]cial _w except z some?+ to be trans=m$ by "s ref9+ process into ano!r mat]ial4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #acb4 ,,gray ,,ca/ ,,iron #bjj ,,ye>s ,,old ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #aji4 ,,malleable ,,ca/ ,,iron ,,be=e ,,anneal+ ,! remelt+ = ! well-kn[n ca/ iron is usually ( su* select$ br&s ( pig iron & ca/ scrap z w produce ca/ iron be/ adapt$ to ! purposes int5d$4 ,! result+ alloy /ill conta9s #c p] c5t or #c p] c5t ( c>bon4 ,no4 #acb is int]e/+4 ,x is a photomicrograph ( a piece ( ca/ iron :i* is approximately #bjj ye>s old4 ,f ! /&po9t ( ! metallurgi/ x is ! same z o!r photomicrographs ( ca/ iron1 ! diff]5ce 9 appe>ance result+ probably f ca/+ conditions1 etc4 ,malleable ca/ iron is made mu* z is gray ca/ iron except t x is br\ght to su* a composition t sections ( ca/+s made f ! melt %[ a :ite fracture :5 brok54 ,ca/+s ( gray iron ( c\rse %[ a gray fracture4 ,! =m] are extremely h>d & are z brittle z glass until !y h gone ?r\gh a c>eful long anneal or heat s(t5+ process4 ,by ma9ta9+ !m at *]ry-r$ heat away f air = sixty h\rs or m & cool+ sl[ly1 !y become 8malleable02 i4e41 n brittle at all b capable ( consid]able di/ortion )\t crack+4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #ce4 ,,malleable ,,ca/ ,,iron ,,anneal$ ,f ! viewpo9t ( malleability1 malleable iron may be consid]$ to occupy a position betwe5 gray ca/ iron & /eel4 ,photomicrographs ,nos4 #aji & #ce are ^? ( malleable iron be=e & aft] ! anneal+ treatm5t4 ,! =m] %[s ! typical /ructure ( :ite ca/ iron1 :ile ! latt] pla9ly %[s ! m9ute lumps ( pure c>bon & ! surr\nd+ gra9s ( pure iron metal1 ! two hav+ become divorc$ ?r\gh ! anneal+ process4 ,note t ! l>ge am\nt ( c>bon 9 ?is1 ! 8temp] c>bon0 =m1 does n make ! alloy brittle ?r\gh cutt+ ( ! gra9s z does ! cry/all9e graphite =m ( c>bon4 ,! above gives v briefly ! mo/ ess5tial po9ts 9 ! classification ( ! irons & /eels f ! /ructural /&po9t4 ,true x has n ent]$ into ! va/ complications ( ! high] c>bon or tool /eels :i* are ^? :i* w take a 8temp]02 i4e41 ! tool /eel's quality ( h>d5+ by qu5*+ 9 wat] f a *]ry r$ heat4 ,! simpl] po9ts ( ^! w be tak5 up lat]4 ,b en\gh has be5 giv5 t we n[ und]/& some?+ ( ! relative positions ( ! great ma9 products1 "s reasons !re=1 & _! g5]al /ructures4 ,illu/ration3 ,,no4 #h4 ,,b> ,,roll$ ,,f ,,scrap2 ,,conta9s ,,bo? ,,wr\ght ,,iron ,,& ,,/eel ,x has be5 se5 t _! micrographs q def9itely diff]5tiate !m & probably no "o w h difficulty 9 recogniz+ & nam+ su* specim5s4 ,z te/+ ?is x may be int]e/+ to note photomicrograph ,no4 #h4 ,two diff]5t iron alloys made up ! mat]ial f :i* ?is photomicrograph 0 tak54 ,app>5tly ! b> 0 "o made by heat+ & roll+ toge!r scrap metals4 ,su* mat]ial is on ! m>ket4 ,! photomicrograph %[s t "s ( ! scrap us$ 0 wr\ght iron & "s ( x mild /eel ( ab\t 4#jh c>bon4 ,classification by ,*emical ,analysis & by ,physical ,te/s ,s f> n mu* has be5 said ab\t composition except t ^u x to a great ext5t dep5ds ! /ructure & physical prop]ties ( ! alloy4 ,composition & physical *>act]i/ics z well z /ructures are necess>y to a fair ,,table ,b--,,*emical ,,composition ,,& ,,physical ,,prop]ties ,p] ,p] ,c5t ,p] ,p] ,beg9n+ ,t5sile ,c5t ,graphitic,c5t ,c5t ( ,/r5g?#c ,silicon ,c>bon ,total ,freez+#b ,c>bon #a4 ,s& ,ca/ #b4ej #c4ge 4#be #d4jj #bajj ,pig ,iron #b4 ,ma*9e #b4ej #c4jja4jj #d4jj #bajj ,ca/ ,pig ,iron #c4 ,op5-,he>? 4#jc 4#jj 4#jb 4#jb #bgdj #ej1jjj ,iron #d4 ,wr\ght ,slag 4#jj 4#je 4#je #bgdj #eb1jjj ,iron #e4 ,mild ,/eel 4#je 4#jj 4#aj 4#aj #bgdj #ee1jjj #f4 ,m$ium 4#je 4#jj 4#be 4#be #bgbj #fe1jjj ,/eel #g4 ,rail ,/eel 4#je 4#jj 4#fj 4#fj #bfhj #ij1jjj #h4 ,l[ ,c>bon 4#ae 4#jj 4#ge 4#ge #bffj #ajj1jjj ,tool ,/eel #i4 ,m$ium 4#ae 4#jja4jj #a4jj #bfcj #abj1jjj ,c>bon ,tool ,/eel #aj4 ,high ,c>bon 4#ae 4#jja4be #a4be #bfjj #ace1jjj ,tool ,/eel #aa4 ,v ,high 4#ae 4#jja4ej #a4ej #befj #abd1jjj ,c>bon ,tool ,/eel #ab4 ,high ,/eel 4#jja4ge #a4ge #becj #ac4 ,:ite ,iron 4#jjb4ej #b4ej #bdfj #ad4 ,:ite ,ca/ 4#gj 4#ajb4fe #b4ge #bdjj #da1jjj ,iron #ae4 ,anneal$ 4#gj #b4gj 4#je #b4ge #dj1jjj ,malleable ,ca/ ,iron #af4 ,ca/ ,iron #a4jj #a4jjb4jj #c4jj #bccj #ce1jjj = ,*ill$ ,ca/+s #ag4 ,semi-,/eel #a4ge #b4hj 4#dj #c4bj #bcjj #ce1jjj #ah4 ,gray ,ca/ #b4jj #c4aj 4#cj #c4dj #bbjj #be1jjj ,iron #ai4 ,s(t ,gray #b4ej #c4cj 4#ae #c4de #bbjj #bc1jjj ,ca/ ,iron ,elongation#d ,weld+ ,pr9cipal ,uses ,prop]ties #a4 ,s& ,ca/ ,fur!r ,ref9+4 ,pig ,iron #b4 ,ma*9e ,fur!r ,ref9+4 ,ca/ ,pig ,iron #c4 ,op5-,he>?#b ,good ,b>s1 pipe1 ,iron %eet4 #d4 ,wr\ght #b ,f9e ,b>s1 pipe1 ,iron boil] tubes1 /ay bolts4 #e4 ,mild ,/eel #b ,good ,b>s1 pipe1 wire1 %eet1 %aft+1 tubes4 #f4 ,m$ium #b ,good ,b>s1 plate1 ,/eel /ructural4 #g4 ,rail ,/eel #a ,fair ,rails1 ge>s4 #h4 ,l[ ,c>bon #a ,fair ,hamm]s1 cold ,tool *isels1 saws1 ,/eel spr+s4 #i4 ,m$ium #a ,poor ,la! tools1 ,c>bon *isels1 ,tool drills1 dies1 ,/eel spr+s4 #aj4 ,high ,c>bon#a ,slight ,la! tools1 ,tool *isels1 files1 ,/eel saws4 #aa4 ,v ,high ,slight ,razors1 lancets1 ,c>bon grav+ tools1 ,tool saws = /eel4 ,/eel #ab4 ,high ,/eel #j ,none ,dies = wire draw+4 #ac4 ,:ite ,iron #j ,none ,dies = wire draw+4 #ad4 ,:ite ,ca/ #j ,none ,= ,iron malleableiz+1 c>:eels4 #ae4 ,anneal$ ,none ,railway & ,malleable agricultural ,ca/ ,iron ca/+s1 fitt+s4 #af4 ,ca/ ,iron #j ,none ,rolls1 ge>s1 = brake%oes4 ,*ill$ ,ca/+s #ag4 ,semi-,/eel #j ,none ,ge>s1 /eam cyl9d]s1 valves4 #ah4 ,gray ,ca/ #j ,none ,ma*9e p>ts1 ,iron grates1 radiators1 valves1 soil pipe4 #ai4 ,s(t ,gray #j ,none ,/oves1 ,ca/ ,iron holl[w>e1 pipe fitt+s1 misc4 ,footnote #b3 ,9 degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,= our purposes1 ! same z ! melt+ po9ts ( ! alloys4 ,footnote #c3 ,p\nds requir$ to pull ap>t l5g?wise a b> "o in* squ>e4 ,footnote #d3 ,numb] ( in*es t a b> eight in*es long w /ret* be=e x breaks4 ,illu/ration3 ,,iron ,,& ,,/eel ,,te/ ,,pieces ,,& ,,in/rum5ts ,,us$ ,,9 ,,measur+ ,,_! ,,size1 ,,ela/ic ,,limit ,,& ,,elongation und]/&+ ( ! subject4 ,!re is giv5 !re=e1 a table %[+ approximate comp>ative values ( *emical compositions & physical prop]ties ( ! alloys "u discussion4 ,x %\ld be di/9ctly und]/ood t ! figures giv5 9 ,table ,b are approximate only & are int5d$ to be av]age1 or r1 p]haps1 typical4 ,!re are all sorts ( conditions :i* 9 practice modify ! figures giv5 9 ! table1 & criticism may be ma9ta9$ ju/ly aga9/ "s ( ! too specific /atem5ts :i* "h x 0 necess>y to make4 ,! classification is giv5 ) consid]able hesitation & only because1 arrang$ 9 ?is way1 x br+s out exi/+ relation%ips :i* o!rwise w\ld escape notice & :i* we _c af=d to ov]look4 ,b please d n ga9 ! impression t ^! alloys are divid$ into di/9ct classes4 ,!re are no divid+ l9es at all4 ,"o gr\p m]ges into ! next s gradually t x is impossible to tell :]e ! "o ends & ! o!r beg9s4 ,x is to be hop$ t no "o w make himself mis]able by try+ to dige/ ^! r =midable figures ( ,table ,b all at "o sitt+4 ,!y are giv5 ma9ly = comp>ison & = ref]5ce4 ,x is sugge/$ t aft] not+ c>efully ! simil>ities & diff]5ces to :i* att5tion is call$1 !y be res]v$ until ! processes ( manufacture ( ! v>i\s alloys are tak5 up "o by "o4 ,ref]5ce to ^! figures on ^? occasions %\ld be pr(itable4 ,! ma9 po9ts to be not$ at ?is "t are3 #a4 ,op5-he>? iron is practically pure iron1 hav+ no con/itu5ts or slag inclusions :i* mat]ially affect its prop]ties4 #b4 ,wr\ght iron1 = all practical purposes1 is pure iron except = its cont5t ( slag4 ,x is ! only "o ( ! iron family :i* does normally conta9 slag4 #c4 ,nei!r op5-he>? iron nor wr\ght iron conta9s c>bon 9 appreciable quantities4 #d4 ,! di/+ui%+ & active elem5t ( ! /eel family is c>bon4 ,) increase ( c>bon ! h>dness ( ! alloy increases z does its t5sile /r5g?1 b ! ductility 7elongation or /ret*7 decreases4 #e4 ,o!r conditions be+ equal1 ! m c>bon ! alloy conta9s ! m easily x melts2 i4e41 at l[] temp]ature4 ,s ! pur] irons su* z op5-he>? iron1 wr\ght iron1 & mild /eel 7i4e41 /eel ) l[ c>bon1 usually "u #j4ae p] c5t7 h relatively high & ! ca/ irons l[] melt+ po9ts4 ,,table ,c--,,p]c5tages ,,( ,,! ,,s-,,call$ 8,,metalloids0 ,,by ,,weight ,,& ,,by ,,volume ,silicon ,manganese ,sulphur ,phosphorus ,wt4 ,vol4 ,wt4 ,vol4 ,wt4,vol4 ,wt4 ,vol4 ,gray ,ca/ ,iron #b4ejaj4j 4#gj 4#g4ji4cf 4#gec4b ,semi-,/eel #a4ge #g4ja4jja4j4aj4dj 4#cea4e ,malleable ,ca/ ,iron 4#gj #b4h 4#ej 4#e4ae4fj 4#ag 4#g ,ca/ ,/eel 4#cj #a4b 4#ej 4#e4je4bj 4#jd4ag ,mild ,/eel 4#je 4#b 4#dj 4#d4jd4af 4#jc4ac ,op5-he>? ,iron 4#jc 4#a 4#jb4jb4ja4jf 4#ja4jf ,wr\ght ,iron #a4bj #e4j 4#jh4jh4ja4jd 4#ae4fe ,total ,iron#e ,total ,c>bon ,metalloids ,wt4 ,vol4 ,wt4 ,wt4 ,vol4 ,gray ,ca/ ,iron #c4deab4a #ib4e #g4ebf4d ,semi-,/eel #c4bjaa4b #ic4f #f4dba4a ,malleable ,ca/ ,iron#b4ge #i4f #ie4g #d4cad4c ,ca/ ,/eel 4#ce #a4b #ih4h #a4b #c4c ,mild ,/eel 4#aj 4#ce #ii4d 4#f #a4b ,op5-he>? ,iron 4#jb 4#jg #ii4i 4#a 4#c ,wr\ght ,iron 4#je 4#ag #ig4g #b4c #e4i ,footnote #e3 ,^! alloys conta9 small am\nts ( o!r elem5ts s ^! p]c5tages ( iron are a little high1 ?\gh approximately correct4 ,note ! purity 7high p]c5tage ( iron7 ( ! op5-he>? iron4 #f4 ,9 ! ca/ irons1 ! c>bon occurs n 9 "o only b 9 two diff]5t =ms2 i4e41 z graphitic c>bon1 commonly call$ graphite 7,gr4 ,c47 & ! comb9$ =m 7,c4 ,c474 ,! sum ( ^! is usually betwe5 #c4jj p] c5t & #c4ej p] c5t4 ,x is n s mu* ! total am\nt ( ! c>bon t causes ! diff]5ces 9 /ructure & physical prop]ties :i* h be5 not$ 9 #a & #b & 9 #af & #ag above1 z x is ! relative proportions 9 :i* ^! two v>ieties occur4 ,illu/ration3 ,,exhibition ,,case ,,%[+ ,,f\r ,,well-,,kn[n ,,iron ,,alloys ,,) ,,_! ,,metalloids #g4 ,no "o kn[s j :51 ) increase ( c>bon1 /eel ceases to be /eel & becomes :ite ca/ iron4 ,!re is no def9ite divid+ l9e ei!r 9 *emical or physical prop]ties4 ,! *anges are extremely gradual ?r\gh\t ! scale4 ,aid$ by ! microscope1 mod]n physical *emi/ry has disclos$ ! fact t alloys ( iron ) c>bon 8freeze0 f molt5 to solid condition accord+ to two diff]5t laws4 ,! *ange f "o to ! o!r occurs some:]e betwe5 #a4g p] c5t & #b4b p] c5t ( c>bon z is describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,?is is our only basis = call+ alloys ) less ?an #b p] c5t ( c>bon1 /eels1 & ^? ) great] am\nts1 ca/ irons4 #h4 ,= our imm$iate purposes ! o!r 8metalloids0 or con/itu5ts are ( second>y importance & w n be tak5 up n[4 ,f ?is x mu/ n be und]/ood t !y c be slight$ by ! metallurgi/ & furnace man 9 8 "w4 ,!y _c4 ,e "o ( !m is ( importance & mu/ be acc\nt$ = 9 ! f9al product or tr\ble results4 ,volumetric ,analysis ( ! ,iron ,alloys ,!re is a way 9 :i* we may visually get a v intimate idea ( ! relative composition ( ^! alloys4 ,! cab9et ( :i* a photograph is giv5 is p>tition$ into f\r sections4 ,ea* "o ( ^! conta9s a b> & six specim5 j>s4 ,z y may or may n be able to read f ! labels1 ! b>s1 all ( exactly ! same size1 are s(t ca/ iron1 semi-/eel 7a /rong] ca/ iron71 anneal$ malleable iron & ca/ /eel4 ,! six j>s above ea* b> conta9 ! exact am\nts ( ! v>i\s con/itu5ts o!r ?an iron :i* are 9 ! b> b5ea?4 ,z none ( ! con/itu5ts except manganese are z heavy z iron1 _! volumes p] unit ( weight are correspond+ly great]4 ,putt+ x into approximate figures we h ! p]c5tages by weight & by volume %[n 9 ,table ,c4 ,?is means1 ( c\rse1 t ( ! ca/ iron plates ( y\r cook /ove or /eam or wat] radiators fully "o-qu>t] 7#bf p] c5t by volume7 is n iron at all b brittle sub/ances ( little or no /r5g?4 ,^! elem5ts1 silicon1 sulphur1 phosphorus1 & c>bon1 are commonly call$ 8metalloids40 ,:ile ! fir/ ?ree nam$ are n 9 8free0 =m 9 ! alloy & !re=e all[ ( "s d\bt z to j ! space !y require1 we h good reason to suppose t ! figures giv5 are n f> f correct4 ,) su* a volume ( weak5+ con/itu5ts & p>ticul>ly ) ! graphite flakes cutt+ ?r\gh & sep>at+ ! iron gra9s z ! photomicrographs %[1 c "o wond] t ca/ iron is fragile--m s ?an /eel or wr\ght iron8 ,to sum up1 nam+ only ! mo/ famili> alloys & ! two or ?ree qualify+ features ( ea* :i* /& =? ) p>ticul> boldness1 we h3 ,pig ,iron--,v ,high ,c>bon4 ,brittle4 ,gray ,ca/ ,iron--,high ,c>bon4 ,brittle4 ,malleable ,ca/ ,iron--,high ,c>bon4 ,made ,malleable by ,anneal+4 ,wr\ght ,iron--,slag4 ,little or no ,c>bon4 ,v ,malleable )\t ,anneal+4 ,mild ,/eel--,v ,l[ ,c>bon4 ,no ,slag4 ,v ,malleable )\t ,anneal+4 ,c>bon ,tool ,/eel--,m$ium ,c>bon4 ,no ,slag4 ,( ,m$ium ,malleability4 ,s /eel :i* is n call$ 8iron0 at all is a v pure metal 9 comp>ison ) gray & malleable ca/ iron & usually has a l>g] p]c5tage ( ! *emical elem5t1 iron f :i* all are d]iv$1 ?an has ! well-kn[n wr\ght iron itself4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,wr\ght ,,iron ,we ( ,am]ica1 & especially ( ! ,we/1 nev] h be5 p>ticul>ly devot$ to ! /udy ( our g5ealogies4 ,h[ev]1 x is likely t mo/ ( u at "o "t or o!r 9 our m9d's eye h se5 t little c\ntry t[n back 9 ,massa*usetts or ,new ,york ,/ate1 :5ce came our =ebe>s4 ,s9ce ^? days ( long ago1 :51 ) y ^u 8 knee1 gr&fa!r wax$ rem9isc5t & relat$ tales ( 8 boyhood1 hav5't y _m times wi%$ t ,fa!r ,"t c\ld c>ry y back ) him a hundr$ & fifty ye>s & all[ y = a few h\rs to walk among ^? good p ) _! qua9t dress & cu/oms8 ,h[ int]e/$ y w\ld be 9 ! relatives & fri5ds ^: que]ly transcrib$ v]ses1 be>+ date ( a c5tury & a half ago1 adorn ! yell[ pages ( y\r great aunt's autograph album1 :i* is "o ( y\r treasures6 ,to ! pres5t r uns5tim5tal _w we admit ( mu* ! same sort ( rev]5t feel+ z we trav]se ! pa?s1 c5turies old1 ( ! wr\ght iron region4 ,"h is some?+ :i* l9ks u ) ! antiquities & we 8take (f our hats & tread lightly0 ov] ! l&s & ! c5turies 9 & ?r\gh :i* ?is primal mat]ial1 wr\ght iron1 has be5 produc$4 ,b we come back to a pla9 /atem5t ( ! case4 ,let n ! fact be ov]look$ t x is wr\ght iron :i* 9 "s =m or o!r has be5 made dur+ ! =ty or m c5turies t iron has be5 kn[n4 ,x und\bt$ly 0 ! pione] ( ! iron family & ?r\gh all ( ! c5turies x has ma9ta9$ its importance4 ,f x z a base dur+ ! e>li] c5turies 7 made ! /eels = :i* ! anci5ts 7 s fam\s1 & simil> practice has prevail$ f ^? e>ly times up to ! pres5t day4 ,illu/ration3 ,,wr\ght ,,iron ,,b> ,/eel has no 8fib]0 & c n be split 9 ?is way4 ,we say t ! iron made by ! anci5ts 0 9 reality a v>iety ( :at we n[ t]m wr\ght iron1 = x fulfill$ ?ree ( ! pr9cipal requirem5ts = wr\ght iron1 viz41 x 0 n necess>ily melt$ dur+ production1 x 0 a malleable metal1 & x conta9$ c9d] or slag1 b practically no c>bon4 ,e>ly iron & /eel1 ( c\rse1 7 comp>atively r>e1 s mu* s z to be available only = implem5ts ( w> & = p>ticul> purposes4 ,moreov]1 all ( ! /eel made 0 ( ! high c>bon1 h>d v>iety1 none ( x be+ ( ! l[ c>bon sort :i* we "k z ! s(t or mild /eels4 ,! latt] h all come s9ce ! inv5tion ( ! ,bessem] process 9 #ahee & ! ,siem5s-,m>t9 7! op5-he>?7 process ( a few ye>s lat]4 ,z y w rememb] ! next developm5t 9 ! iron indu/ry 0 ! use ( ! l>g] bla/ furnace & mu* m fuel1 ) high] temp]atures & ! production ( ca/ iron :i*1 by reason ( ! absorption ( consid]able c>bon f ! fuel1 0 fluid en\gh to run out ( ! furnace4 ,&1 z y also "k1 ?is bla/ furnace metal has come to be ! great int]m$iate product 9 :at has come to be kn[n z ! ,indirect ,process ( mak+ iron & /eel4 ,illu/ration3 ,,pickl+ ,,9 ,,weak ,,acid ,,exposes ,,! 8,,fib]s0 ,,( ,,wr\ght ,,iron ,z pig iron conta9s #c or m ( c>bon1 :ile wr\ght iron has none or comp>atively little ( ?is embrittl+ elem5t1 any process = conv]t+ ! pig iron into wr\ght iron mu/ elim9ate ! c>bon4 ,foll[+ ! adv5t ( pig iron z a comm]cial product sev]al furnaces & processes 7 develop$ to turn x into wr\ght iron4 ,all ( ^! 7 bas$ ^u ! elim9ation ( ! c>bon by oxidation1 :i* means ! burn+ ( ! c>bon 9 pres5ce ( oxyg5 ( ! air4 ,! be/ kn[n ones 7 ! ,walloon or ,sw$i% ,lanca%ire process1 ! ,s\? ,wales process1 ! ,f9]y ,fire1 ! ,runn+-,out ,fire & ! ,*>coal ,f9]y or ,knobbl+ process4 ,! ,walloon furnace1 l>gely us$ 9 ,sw$51 is %[n 9 ! illu/ration on page #id4 ,:ile by ! process g5]ally us$ to-day wr\ght iron is m easily & *eaply produc$1 x mu/ be said t by ! processes above nam$ has be5 made z f9e iron z has ev] be5 produc$4 ,! ,%effield manufactur]s1 ^: high grade /eel made by ! crucible process1 is s widely & favorably kn[n = cutl]y1 tools1 etc41 9 _m cases yet dem& ! ,walloon process iron made f high grade ,sw$i% ores z ! />t+ po9t = _! product4 ,illu/ration3 ,,b> ,,iron ,,w ,,/& ,,sev]e ,,b5d+ ,,ev5 ,,aft] ,,x ,,has ,,be5 ,,nick$ ,illu/ration3 ,,sw$i% ,,walloon ,,furnace ,"o ( sev]al types ( furnaces t prec$$ ! ,rev]b]atory4 ,"s ( !m are /ill us$4 ,9 ^! furnaces :i* consi/$ ma9ly ( a %all[ he>? fill$ ) gl[+ *>coal1 ) tuyres = bla/ supply1 ! pigs ( iron 7 heat$ until molt54 ,at high temp]atures ! metalloids ( pig iron w readily burn 9 a bla/ ( air4 ,aft] ! air bl[n ov] & ^u ! molt5 metal has burn$ out mo/ ( ! c>bon1 ! ma9 metalloid1 ! melt+ po9t ( ! purifi$ metal becomes s mu* high] t ! heat ( ! furnace is n suffici5t to keep x molt54 ,x becomes m & m pa/y & /iff !re=e4 ,?is is :at ! iron mak] calls 8com+ to nature40 ,x is ! signal t ! c>bon is ab\t gone & t he mu/ be c>eful or ! iron w suff] 9 quality4 ,at ?is /age he sees to x t ! mass ( pa/y iron is well protect$ by gl[+ *>coal until x is remov$ to be hamm]$ or work$ into a b>4 ,?is 9 g5]al is ! process :i* 0 us$ f ab\t ! f\rte5? c5tury up to #aghc :5 ,cort inv5t$ ! rev]b]atory furnace :i* has s9ce be5 ! type g5]ally us$4 ,9 ! processes j ref]r$ to1 all v simil>1 x %\ld be not$ t ! iron 0 9 contact ) ! fuel1 :i*1 !re=e1 _h to be *>coal1 ! fuel ) little or no sulphur4 ,illu/ration3 ,,cort',s ,,rev]b]atory ,,furnace ,?is is ! type ( furnace g5]ally us$ to-day4 ,*>coal 0 an exp5sive fuel1 &1 moreov]1 !re 0 an insuffici5t supply because ( ! great de/ruction ( =e/s necess>y = its production4 ,naturally ! ?+ to d 0 to sub/itute coal1 :i* 0 pl5tiful4 ,b ! sulphur ( ! coal spoil$ ! iron4 ,?is prov$ to be a great b>ri] until #aghc :5 ,h5ry ,cort ( ,engl& succe$$ 9 mak+ wr\ght iron 9 a new type ( furnace :]e9 ! iron 0 ref9$ 9 "o comp>tm5t :ile ! fuel 0 made to furni% its heat f ano!r2 i4 e41 ! fuel & ! metal 7 n 9 contact & ! ref9$ metal did n suff] f ! sulphur cont5t ( ! coal4 ,! figure illu/rat+ ,cort's furnace pla9ly %[s h[ ?is 0 accompli%$ & x repres5ts almo/ z well ! furnace us$ to-day4 ,9 ! "o-hundr$ & ?irty-?ree ye>s t h elaps$ s9ce x 0 design$1 8 furnace has be5 *ang$ only 9 c]ta9 details1 & b two important *anges h be5 made 9 8 process--! use ( an iron bottom in/ead ( ! s& b$ by ,s4 ,b4 ,rog]s 9 #ahjd & ! introduction ( 8pig boil+0 by ,joseph ,hall 9 #ahcj4 ,cort's process is kn[n z 8dry puddl+0 & 8 tr\ble 0 ! excessive loss ( iron1 due to 8 use ( ! s& bottom & ! abs5ce ( a prop] c9d]4 ,! loss 0 said to h be5 f #ej to #gj ( ! iron *>g$2 i4 e41 x took ab\t #b tons ( pig iron to make "o ton ( wr\ght iron4 ,because ( ! great dem& = iron & ! fact t he 0 us+ su* a *eap fuel1 coal1 8 process at t "t 0 a success f9ancially4 ,illu/ration3 ,,e>ly ,,iron ,,rolls ,:ile ,cort did n orig9ate ! idea1 x 0 he :o fir/ made ! roll+ process successful1 &1 !re=e1 he is giv5 cr$it = ! inv5tion4 ,b ,cort did n /op "h4 ,he saw ! desirability ( a quick] & m economical me?od ( r$uc+ ! 8blooms0 or balls ( iron into b>s or o!r f9i%$ %apes ?an ! hamm]+ process up to t "t us$4 ,he accompli%$ ?is by ! use ( p[] driv5 rolls1 su* z ^? %[n 9 ! cut4 ,^! two inv5tions ( ,cort's 7 epo* mak+1 ?\gh ( ! two ! m important "o 0 ! inv5tion ( ! rolls f :i* has develop$ ! mod]n roll+ mill4 ,!re rema9s to be describ$ 9 a little m detail ! mak+ ( wr\ght iron z practic$ to-day4 ,! puddl+ furnace us$ has a grate ^u :i* is built ! coal fire4 ,! long flame passes ov] ! fire wall & is deflect$ by ! ro( d[n ^u ! *>ge ( pig iron pil$ ^u ! 8fettl+0 or l9+ ( iron oxide 7iron ore or mill scale7 ov] ! air or wat] cool$ iron plates :i* =m ! bottom & ! sides ( ! he>?4 ,) a long iron b> ! 8puddl]0 7! exp]t att5dant7 turns ! pigs until !y h melt$ d[n into ! ba? ( slag or c9d] *>g$ & cont9ually be+ =m$ by ! *emical union ( iron f ! ore or pig & "s ( ! s& & o!r impurities pres5t4 ,?is c9d]1 :i* is l>gely a silicate ( iron1 is a protection = ! ba? ( molt5 iron & its use prev5ts excessive oxidation & loss ( metal4 ,dur+ ! melt+ ( ! *>ge ! heat is kept z high z possible & ! molt5 iron is 8puddl$10 i4 e41 /irr$1 by ! 8puddl]0 or 8 help] ) a 8rabbl]0 or iron b>4 ,9 ord] to take out ! phosphorus & sulphur1 :i* = be/ results %\ld be remov$ be=e ! c>bon is elim9at$1 ! heat ( ! furnace is l[]$ some:at z soon z all ( ! pig has melt$1 & "s iron oxide is mix$ into ! 8ba?0 ( molt5 iron & c9d]4 ,mo/ ( ! phosphorus & sulphur are *emically act$ ^u & pass into ! c9d] :i* cov]s ! iron4 ,soon ! mass beg9s to boil or see! & small blue flames break ?r\gh ! c9d] cov]+4 ,?is indicates t ! c>bon is be+ oxidiz$ by ! oxyg5 ( ! iron ore :i* 0 add$1 ! oxyg51 z 9 ! bla/ furnace1 hav+ a great] 8aff9ity0 = c>bon ?an x has = ! iron4 ,?is 8pig boil+0 goes on = tw5ty or ?irty m9utes1 ! 8puddl]0 mean:ile 8rabbl+0 ! *>ge 9 ord] to hurry ! reactions & to make sure t all p>ts ( ! ba? ( molt5 metal are uni=mly expos$ to ! oxidiz+ conditions4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,mak+ ,,( ,,wr\ght ,,iron ,,to-,,day4 ,,*>g+ ,,! ,,pig ,,iron ,soon ! metal beg9s to 8come to nature0 & little lumps ( pure iron "h & !re ?r\gh ! ba? /iff5 up into little pa/y balls4 ,"s may be se5 /ick+ out ?r\gh ! c9d] cov]+ ( ! ba? & o!rs mu/ be torn loose f ! bottom ) ! rabbl]4 ,?is 8ball+0 p]iod la/s f fifte5 to tw5ty m9utes1 dur+ :i* "t all ( ! iron has 8come to nature40 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,coal ,,pile ,,& ,,fire ,,box ,,( ,a ,,rev]b]atory ,,furnace ,illu/ration3 ,,turn+ ,,! ,,pigs ,,to ,,insure ,,ev5 ,,melt+ ,! puddl] quickly sep>ates into two or ?ree :ite-hot balls ! #djj p\nds or s ( spongy iron4 ,^! balls1 full ( & dripp+ ) c9d]1 are seiz$1 "o at a "t1 ) long tongs1 remov$ f ! furnace & ru%$ to ! rot>y squeez] ?r\gh :i* !y are twi/$ & turn$1 ev] becom+ long] & small] 9 diamet] until !y em]ge f ! o!r & n>r[] side mu* compact$ & ) b little ( ! c9d] :i* !y orig9ally c>ri$4 ,)\t be+ giv5 "t to cool1 ! blooms are seiz$ & %ov$ into ! 8muck rolls10 :5ce aft] a few passes !y em]ge z long flat b>s1 v r\gh & imp]fect 9 appe>ance4 ,aft] %e>+ into %ort l5g?s1 _m pieces ( ?is 8muck b>10 z x is call$1 are made into 8box piles0 & ti$ toge!r ) wires4 ,^! are *>g$ into ! furnace ( ! f9i%+ mill4 ,aft] com+ to a :ite heat ! box piles g to ! f9i%+ rolls :]e !y are roll$ into b>s1 rods1 plates1 or o!r %apes desir$4 ,by repeat$ cutt+1 pil+1 heat+1 & roll+1 d\ble ref9$ & o!r high grades ( wr\ght iron are made1 ea* repil+ & r]oll+1 ( c\rse1 produc+ a m compact & bett] product4 ,illu/ration3 ,,puddl+ ,,! ,,melt$ ,,*>ge ,illu/ration3 ,,consid]able ,,c9d] ,,ov]fl[s ,,dur+ ,,! 8,,boil+0 ,,/age ,wr\ght iron has a 8fib]10 z may be se5 f two ( ! illu/rations pres5t$4 ,9 8com+ to nature0 small p>ticles ( iron cry/allize out z !y become pur]4 ,^! measure p]haps or 9 diamet]4 ,z x goes to ! squeez] ! ball ( 8sponge0 is made up ( su* gra9s ( iron loosely weld$ toge!r ) ! int]/ices fill$ ) c9d]4 ,! squeez]1 & lat] ! rolls1 elongate ! p>ticles ( iron into ?reads1 :i*1 weld$ toge!r1 make ! b>4 ,x is ?\ght by "s t films ( c9d]1 too ?9 to be se5 "u ! microscope1 surr\nd ea* fib] ( iron & t ^! af=d protection f ru/+ & give to wr\ght iron ! excell5t weld+ quality t x possesses4 ,illu/ration3 ,,draw+ ,,"o ,,( ,,! ,,balls ,,f ,,! ,,furnace ,illu/ration3 ,,on ,,! ,,way ,,to ,,! 8,,squeez]0 ,/eel has no fib] & = ?is reason x _c be split z 0 ! wr\ght iron b> %[n 9 ! illu/ration ( page #ib4 ,x w h be5 notic$ t only small am\nts ( iron c be ref9$ at "o "t4 ,?is1 inde$1 has be5 ! un=tunate "p ( wr\ght iron manufacture1 = x may readily be se5 t production ( any su* mat]ial 9 lots z small z a qu>t] ton results 9 labor co/s :i* are almo/ prohibitive 9 ^! days ( ma*9e-made goods4 ,n only is ! output ( a furnace small b mu* skill & judgm5t are necess>y = ! production ( a high grade product4 ,v /urdy & /rong m51 too1 are requir$ z puddl]s1 = ! "w is heavy & ! extremes ( heat & cold to :i* !y are expos$ necessitate m5 ( rugg$ heal?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,a 8,,squeez]0 ,?is mat]ial 9 b> iron1 eng9e /ay bolts1 butt & lap-weld$ pipe & c]ta9 o!r products has long held a high place4 ,?\gh n z /rong z /eel1 its v excell5t weld+ prop]ties & comp>ative fre$om f 8cry/allization0 & trea*]\s breakage "u long cont9u$ vibration or sudd5 j> h fo/]$ its application 9 su* products z /ay bolts1 *a9-l9ks1 cable hooks & o!rs :]e failure might h s]i\s consequ5ces4 ,too1 x is ?\ght by _m t pipes1 %eets & o!r articles ( wr\ght iron resi/ ! corrosive influ5ces ( moi/ air1 soil1 etc41 p>ticul>ly well4 ,! c9d] films 9 :i* ! fib]s are suppos$ to be encas$ are giv5 cr$it = su* protective influ5ce4 ,illu/ration3 8,,box ,,piles0 ,,ready ,,= ,,! ,,re-,,heat+ ,,furnace ,?\gh ! product has always be5 a favorite ) iron us]s1 ! indu/ry has suff]$ dur+ ! la/ sixty ye>s by reason ( ! high co/ ( manufacture1 :i* has v l>gely re/rict$ ! application ( wr\ght iron to c]ta9 uses = :i* fir/ co/ is n a ma9 factor4 ,! production ( wr\ght iron rails has rapidly dw9dl$ s9ce ! ye> #ahhj1 :5 !y began g5]ally to be replac$ by rails made f ,bessem] /eel4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,ball ,,go+ ,,into ,,! 8,,squeez]0 ,illu/ration3 ,,%e>+ ,,! ,,muck ,,b> ,,into ,,%ort ,,l5g?s ,,= 8,,pil+0 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,bloom ,,f ,,! ,,squeez] ,,goes ,,to ,,! 8,,muck0 ,,rolls ,,:i* ,,roll ,,x ,,d[n ,,into 8,,muck ,,b>0 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,re-,,heat$ 8,,box ,,piles0 ,,be+ ,,roll$ ,,into 8,,skelp0 ,,= ,,pipe1 ,,9 ,,! ,,f9i%+ ,,mills ,illu/ration3 ,,cross ,,pil+ ,,gives ,,cross ,,fib]s ,,9 ,,! ,,f9i%$ ,,b>--,a ,,desirable ,,quality ,( rec5t ye>s1 mild /eel has be5 ! great competitor ( wr\ght iron4 ,) m>vel\s en]gy1 skill1 & mu* capital ! manufactur]s ( ,bessem] & op5-he>? /eels h adapt$ _! products v well to ! ne$s ( ! iron us]1 :ile ! enorm\s tonnages turn$ out 9 %ort "t by use ( +5i\s furnaces & o!r devices has result$ 9 a l[ co/ ( production4 ,_h any ( ! sev]al me*anical puddl+ furnaces devis$ = ! manufacture ( wr\ght iron prov$ really successful1 ?+s might be m rosy comm]cially = ?is v excell5t mat]ial4 ,accord+ to ! #aiaf ,/ati/ical ,report ( ! ,am]ican ,iron & ,/eel ,in/itute1 ! rec5t ye>ly production 9 ?is c\ntry ( wr\ght iron & /eel m]*ant b>s1 plates & %eets1 & skelp = pipe 9 gross tons has be53 ,m]*ant ,b>s ,plate & ,%eets ,skelp = ,pipe ,iron ,/eel ,iron ,/eel ,iron ,/eel #aijea1cbb1dcib1bga1afb #gb1aefc1dfj1jgd #deb1gig #ihc1aih #aijfa1dha1cdhb1eaj1heb #gd1cgcd1ajg1ghc #cia1eaga1acg1jfh #aijga1ddj1cefb1ecj1fcb #gd1jchd1agd1gid #ddd1ecfa1ceh1jia #aijh #fhe1bcca1cja1dje #ed1jccb1eie1ffj #big1jdi #hec1ecd #aiji #ieb1bcjb1caa1cja #gf1bjbd1aeh1add #cgj1aeaa1ffc1bcj #aiaja1jgd1afcb1gaa1efh #ia1aahd1hfd1cff #cej1egha1dgg1faf #aiaa #hce1fbeb1baa1gcg #hi1dbgd1cih1fbb #cbb1ciga1feh1bgf #aiab #idd1gijb1geb1cbd #ge1jdde1hjj1jcf #cbg1jabb1aai1hjd #aiaca1jbf1fcbb1icj1igg #fd1gbie1fhf1cjh #cab1gdfb1ahi1bah #aiad #efc1agaa1ifj1dfj #ef1eijd1ffb1fef #bfd1cdja1gah1jia #aiae #feg1ajgc1dgd1ace #bj1becf1jeg1dda #bfb1aihb1jcg1bff #aiaf #iic1idhe1fbe1eih #ac1cjcg1ddj1fgg #cee1ddeb1egb1bbi ,!re is consid]able s-call$ wr\ght iron on ! m>ket to-day :i* is n truly wr\ght iron1 by :i* we mean iron 8puddl$0 f pig iron4 ,bu%ell$ ,iron ,aft] heat+ a mixture ( ?9 %eet or o!r s(t /eel & wr\ght iron scrap to a weld+ heat 9 a rev]b]atory furnace1 x may be ball$ & put ?r\gh ! squeez]1 muck rolls1 etc41 z 0 ! true wr\ght iron made by puddl+4 ,?is manipulation ( scrap is kn[n z ! bu%ell+ process & ! product z 8bu%ell$ iron0 or 8scrap b>40 ,by us+ scrap b> = ! out] lay]s & old wr\ght iron b>s cut to l5g? = ! int]ior1 box piles are made1 :i*1 heat$ & roll$1 make v good mat]ial1 ?\gh n z good z puddl$ iron4 ,c]ta9 grades on ! m>ket1 e4 g41 common b> iron1 conta9 m or less ( ?is bu%ell$ iron1 b ! bett] grades1 ref9$ wr\ght iron1 d\ble ref9$ wr\ght iron1 eng9e & /ay-bolt iron1 are usually ! pure puddl$ product4 ,z ) ! latt]1 repeat$ %e>+1 pil+1 & roll+ improve ! quality4 ,bu%ell$ iron is l>gely ! result ( an endeavor to r$uce ! co/ ( production ( wr\ght iron4 ,! mat]ial has a legitimate place & consid]able ( x is us$4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,cem5tation ,,& ,,crucible ,,/eels ,9 ! e>ly days practically ! only /eels recogniz$--c]ta9ly ! only ones desir$--7 ( ! high c>bon or h>d5+ v>iety4 ,^! 7 requir$ = ! manufacture ( swords & o!r implem5ts ( w>1 = tools1 etc41 mo/ ( :i* _h to h h>d & %>p cutt+ edges4 ,:5 s(t] & less brittle metal 0 desir$1 wr\ght iron 0 available1 b 9 all probability high c>bon /eel 0 ! mat]ial mo/ l>gely us$4 ,hav+ b ! two iron alloys & ^! ( v diff]5t prop]ties1 x 0 n difficult to di/+ui% betwe5 !m4 ,a piece ( metal c\ld be heat$ to r$ness & plung$ into cold wat]4 ,if x became glass h>d :5 cool$ 9 ?is way x 0 !reby prov$ to be /eel2 if /ill s(t1 x 0 iron4 ,b ! problem is n s simple to-day4 ,m$ium1 mild & yet s(t] /eels1 & o!r alloys :i* h /eel *>act]i/ics h appe>$ & are us$ 9 imm5se quantities4 ,_! adv5t introduc$ consid]able complication4 ,x w be well1 !re=e1 be=e tak+ up our subject1 8,cem5tation & ,crucible ,/eel10 & ! sev]al /eels :i* are to foll[1 to make sure t we all und]/&1 z well z we may1 :at is 8/eel0 z def9$ to-day1 :at are ! be/ kn[n v>ieties1 & :at are _! *>act]i/ics8 ,= a r\gh classification x is safe = u to divide ! /eel _w into f\r g5]al divisions z foll[s3 #a4 ,! h>d]1 high c>bon /eels us$ = tools1 dies1 etc4 #b4 ,! mild & m$ium /eels ( :i* wire1 rod1 b>1 plate1 pipe & /ructural %apes = bridges1 %ips & 8sky scrap]s0 are made4 ,illu/ration3 ,,h>d5+ ,a ,,piece ,,( ,,tool ,,/eel4 ,,ready ,,to ,,qu5* #c4 ,alloy /eels1 to :i* "s metal su* z nickel1 manganese or *romium gives def9ite prop]ties & ! "n4 #d4 ,^? o!r mod]n mat]ials :i* are kn[n z 8self-h>d5+0 & 8high-spe$ /eels40 ,illu/ration3 ,,b[knot ,,made ,,f ,,piece ,,( ,,/eel ,,pipe ,! two classes la/ nam$ are n simple iron-c>bon alloys & _! prop]ties are less directly d]iv$ f & d n s pla9ly dep5d ^u c>bon4 ,metallurgically1 !n1 !y are n /eels 9 ! exact =m] s5se ( ! ^w2 b z !y d require c>bon--?\gh p]haps 9 less] am\nt1 are made by regul> /eel processes1 h mo/ ( ! *>act]i/ics ( /eel & are us$ = ! same g5]al purposes1 !y are und\bt$ly entitl$ to ! appellation 8/eel40 ,h[ev]1 to di/+ui%1 !y are usually t]m$ 8alloy /eels40 ,we are j n[ conc]n$ only ) ! /eels ( classes "o & two--! c>bon /eels4 ,z expla9$ 9 a previ\s *apt]1 ^! are alloys ( iron ) n m ?an #b p] c5t ( c>bon4 ,illu/ration3 ,,high ,,c>bon ,,tool ,,/eel 7#a4be ,,p] ,,c5t ,c7 ,,z ,,ca/ 7,magnification #gj diamet]s7 ,illu/ration3 ,,l[ ,,c>bon ,,tool ,,/eel 74#ej ,,p] ,,c5t ,c7 ,,anneal$ 7,magnification #gj diamet]s7 ,illu/ration3 ,,l[ ,,c>bon ,,tool ,,/eel 74#ej ,,p] ,,c5t ,c7 ,,z ,,ca/ 7,magnification #gj diamet]s7 ,illu/ration3 ,,m$ium ,,c>bon ,,tool ,,/eel 74#hf ,,p] ,,c5t ,c7 ,,z ,,ca/ 7,magnification #djj diamet]s7 ,c>bon is ! elem5t ! pres5ce ( :i* conf]s ^u iron ! ability to h>d5 :5 cool$ sudd5ly f a *]ry-r$ heat1 z by qu5*+ 9 wat] or oil4 ,if ! /eel conta9s less ?an f\r-t5?s ( "o p] c5t ( c>bon x has little or no h>d5+ p[] "u ?is treatm5t2 b /eel ) six-t5?s ( "o p] c5t or m ( ! elem5t1 has ! wond]ful prop]ty ( be+ slightly malleable :5 9 ! anneal$ /ate1 b extremely h>d & brittle aft] ?is sudd5 cool+--leads a dual life1 s to speak4 ,illu/ration3 ,,l[ ,,c>bon ,,tool ,,/eel 74#ej ,,p] ,,c5t ,c7 ,,h>d5$ 7,magnification #ajj diamet]s7 ,at any "t1 h>d5$ /eel may be return$ to its =m] condition ( s(tness by ! well kn[n process ( anneal+1 :]e9 x is reheat$ to ! same *]ry-r$ heat & sl[ly cool$4 ,at ! w ( ! blacksmi? or metal work] alt]nate h>d5+ & s(t5+ may be repeat$ a great _m times )\t app>5t det]ioration4 ,v>i\s degrees ( h>dness also1 may be obta9$ accord+ to 7#a71 ! p]c5tage ( c>bon 9 ! /eel1 & 7#b71 ! complet5ess & sudd5ness ( ! cool+4 ,z consid]able brittl5ess & int]nal /ra9 9 ! metal necess>ily foll[ h>d5+1 ! h>dness is usually 8temp]$0 or 8let d[n0 by a c>eful reheat+ to a mu* l[] temp]ature1 usually #dbe to #eej degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,f ?is temp]ature a second qu5*+ 8fa/5s0 ! temp] at :atev] ( ! orig9al h>dness ! /eel reta9s at ! temp]ature *os5 by ! smi? = ! second qu5*+4 ,mu* ( ! brittl5ess is 9 ?is way reliev$4 ,! smi? calls x 8t\gh5+0 ! /eel4 ,tools s treat$ are mu* less liable to break4 ,! /eels t w h>d5 7we w call !m 8c>bon tool /eels071 range ord9>ily f ! 4#fj p] c5t c>bon v>iety1 us$ = hamm]s1 cold *isels1 etc41 to ^? conta9+ #a4ej p] c5t ( c>bon :i* are select$ = razors1 scalpels1 & o!r tools requir+ high temp]4 ,ea* "o ( ^! _m grades is susceptible ( a wide v>iety ( temp] 9 ! h&s ( a capable man1 :o mu/ select 8 /eel & give to x ! mo/ desirable temp] = ! "w = :i* ! tool is design$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,mild ,,/eel ,,pipe 74#aj ,,p] ,,c5t ,c7 7,magnification #gj diamet]s7 ,blacksmi?s & o!r tool mak]s become extremely pr(ici5t 9 judg+ /eels & ! prop] temp]ature at :i* ea* %\ld be h>d5$ & 8drawn0 7temp]$74 ,!y judge temp]atures solely by ! color ( ! /eel :5 heat$4 ,e five or t5 degree *ange imp>ts a slightly diff]5t %ade z ! /eel gr[s hott] 9 ! =ge fire or cool] :5 ab\t to qu5*4 ,obs]vation ( a good blacksmi? at "w & a few m9utes' conv]sation ) him ab\t 8 8art0 w give "o great] k & appreciation ( ! c>bon tool /eels ?an volumes ( writ+s conc]n+ !m4 ,along ) x w come m respect = ! skill ( ^! clev] m5 ^: h&iwork is nev] exhibit$ 9 salons & ab\t :om ! _w he>s little1 ?\gh indebt$ to !m = a great measure ( its civilization & prosp]ity4 ,illu/ration3 ,,high ,,c>bon ,,tool ,,/eel ,,is ,,extremely ,,brittle ,,:5 ,,h>d5$ ,,& ,,has ,,v ,,little ,,malleability ,,:5 ,,anneal$ ,:at & h[ mu* w\ld be possible )\t ma*9es & prop] tools8 ,illu/ration3 ,,qu>t]-,,in* ,,mild ,,/eel ,,plate ,,) ,,d\ble ,,fold4 ,,fold$ ,,cold ,,)\t ,,slighte/ ,,crack ,ab\t sixty ye>s ago /eels ( mu* l[] c>bon cont5t appe>$4 ,!y h be5 made s(t] & s(t] until we h :at we n[ "k z ! 8mild0 /eels & ev5 ! almo/ or practically c>bonless mat]ial :i* we call$ 8op5-he>? iron0 or 8+ot iron0 9 a =m] *apt]4 ,^! h n ! h>d5+ prop]ty b !y possess s(tness1 ductility & fre$om f brittl5ess :i* ! high] c>bon /eels always lack4 ,= su* real evid5ces ( our ,tw5tie? ,c5tury civilization z ! great bridges1 %ips1 build+s1 etc41 !y are indisp5sable1 = !y are easily cut1 b5t & o!rwise work$ into %ape1 & !y comb9e pliability ) suffici5t /r5g? = ! s]vice int5d$4 ,su* /eels are desirable1 = :5 ov]load$ !y b5d be=e !y break1 ?us giv+ w>n+ ( ! dang]4 ,^! mild & m$ium /eels are ( imm5se importance indu/rially4 ,( ! #ca1jjj1jjj tons ( /eel made 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates dur+ #aiab probably #ii p] c5t 0 ( ! s(t & m$ium v>ieties4 ,x has be5 said t 8! exception proves ! rule40 ,cem5tation /eel is ! exception to ! rule :i* we gave 9 ,*apt] ,,vi t /eel is always melt$ dur+ its manufacture4 ,if a ?9 piece ( b> iron be pack$ 9 p[d]$ *>coal & heat$ at l[ r$ heat = "s "t1 ! metal1 aft] cool+1 w be f\nd to h acquir$ ! h>d5+ prop]ty4 ,9 o!r words by absorption ( c>bon x w h become /eel ) all ( ! *>act]i/ics ( t mat]ial4 ,nei!r ! iron nor ! c>bon by :i* x 0 surr\nd$ h melt$1 yet 9 "s way c>bon has p5etrat$ into ! iron & if ! heat+ has be5 suffici5tly long1 c>bon w be f\nd at ! c5t] ( ! b>4 ,b always !re w be m c>bon 9 ! out] lay]s ( ! b> ?an 9 ^? f>!r inside1 i4 e41 x w be f\nd 9 dim9i%+ am\nts z we approa* ! c5t]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,%elby ,,seamless ,,/eel ,,tub+ ,,cru%$ ,,endwise ,j h[ & :5 ! cem5tation process = mak+ /eel1 to be n[ describ$1 0 discov]$ is n kn[n4 ,x may h be5 ! result ( ! non-uni=m work+ ( ! l>g] bla/ furnaces :i* 7 develop+ 9 ,cont95tal ,europe dur+ ! ,?irte5? c5tury4 ,f ! ,g]man 8natural /eel0 :i* 0 probably ! /eely product too ri* 9 c>bon = ! wr\ght iron :i* !y int5d$ to make & mu* too poor 9 c>bon to be ! fluid ca/ iron :i* ) ! gr[+ height & heat ( ! bla/ furnace !y lat] did make1 may h come ! idea4 ,m likely1 a piece ( ?9 wr\ght iron 0 accid5tally left imb$d$ 9 gl[+ *>coal until x _h absorb$ "s c>bon4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,crucible ,,melt+ ,,room4 8,,melt+ ,,holes0 ,,are ,,b5ea? ,,! ,,squ>e ,,cov]s ,,on ,,! ,,floor ,,at ,,! ,,left4 ,,note ,,! ,,new ,,crucibles ,,dry+ ,,on ,,! ,,%elves1 ,,& ,,! ,,+ot ,,molds ,,at ,,! ,,"r ,! fir/ m5tion ( cem5tation /eel appe>s to h be5 by an ,italian metallurgi/1 ,vannuccio ,bir+uccio1 :o1 9 #aedj1 describ$ ! mak+ ( /eel by heat+ billets ( s(t iron = a long "t 9 molt5 ca/ iron4 ,! mod]n me?od1 ! heat+ ( wr\ght iron 9 p[d]$ *>coal1 0 c]ta9ly kn[n 9 ! sixte5? c5tury & ?is me?od ( cem5tation has be5 practic$ 9 ,france1 ,engl&1 ,belgium & ,g]many s9ce ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,%effield 7,,engl&7 ,,cem5tation ,,furnace ,reaumur1 ! ,fr5*man1 ^: process ( mak+ ca/ iron s(t by anneal+ be>s 8 "n & is /ill us$ 9 ,europe1 0 ! fir/ to /udy & und]/& to any ext5t ! cem5tation process4 ,publication1 ab\t #agbb1 ( 8 complete directions = cem5t+ iron gave great impetus to ! manufacture ( /eel by ?is process4 ,fate1 h[ev]1 0 unk9d & 8 own nation1 ,france1 by reason ( h] small production ( suitable iron = ! "w1 0 unable to pr(it greatly ?r\gh 8 discov]ies4 ,sw$51 ,engl& & ,g]many 7 b5efit$ to a mu* great] ext5t4 ,dur+ ! e>ly ye>s _m 7 ! secret & wond]ful mixtures & comp\nds (f]$ = ?is "w1 b ( !m all c>bon 9 "s =m 0 ! only necess>y elem5t4 ,f9ely divid$ or p[d]$ *>coal or bone du/ has be5 mo/ly us$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,huntsman ,,crucible ,,furnace--,,orig9al ,,type ,illu/ration3 ,,"o ,,type ,,( ,,oil-,,fir$ ,,crucible ,,furnace ,%effield1 ,engl&1 /eel mak]s1 h be5 v successful 9 ! manufacture ( cem5tation /eel4 ,_! usual me?od is to pack flat /rips ( be/ ,sw$i% ,walloon iron 9 *>coal 9 rectangul> /one boxes ab\t f\r feet wide1 ?ree feet high & f\rte5 feet long4 ,alt]nate lay]s ( small-siz$ *>coal & ?9 iron b>s are pil$ 9 ^! boxes until !y are fill$1 ! b>s n be+ all[$ to t\* "o ano!r4 ,:5 full1 top slabs are lut$ on to ! boxes to make !m airtight4 ,fire is k9dl$ 9 ! firebox bel[ & ! heat gradually rais$ until furnace & boxes are *]ry-r$ 9 color4 ,?is heat is ma9ta9$ = sev5 to elev5 or m days1 dep5d+ ^u ! h>dness desir$1 i4e41 ! am\nt ( c>bon !y desire absorb$4 ,! furnace is clos$ & all[$ to cool sl[ly1 :i* requires ano!r sev5 or m days4 ,^u unpack+ ! furnace ! b>s are f\nd to be brittle & ( a /eely fracture in/ead ( ! s(t malleable mat]ial :i* 0 put 94 ,!y h become high c>bon /eel4 ,exp]t workm5 are able to judge v closely ! h>dness ( ! /eel by look+ at ! fracture & !y sort ! b>s 9 ?is way1 pil+ b>s ( simil> h>dness toge!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,huntsman ,,coke-,,fir$ ,,crucible ,,furnace--,,mod]n ,,type ,b>s ?us made %[ _m bli/]s on ! surface & ! /eel became kn[n z 8bli/] /eel0 on ?is acc\nt4 ,! reason = ^! bli/]s 0 n discov]$ until along ab\t #ahfd1 :5 ! well-kn[n ,engli% metallurgi/1 ,p]cy1 prov$ t ! bli/]s 7 caus$ by ! *emical action ( c>bon on ! slag conta9$ 9 ! wr\ght iron4 ,! gases =m$ produc$ ! bli/]+ ( ! b>4 ,t ?is is ! explanation is prov$ by ! fact t b>s ( mild /eel or iron )\t slag d n bli/]4 ,bli/] b>s heat$ to a =g+ heat & drawn out "u ! hamm] or roll$ into b> /eel are kn[n z 8spr+ /eel01 or 8plat$ b>s40 ,z 9 wr\ght iron manufacture1 a cutt+ to l5g?1 repil+1 heat+1 weld+ & aga9 draw+ d[n by hamm]+ or roll+ produces mu* m homog5e\s & reliable /eel4 ,pil$ & rework$ /eel ( ?is sort became kn[n z 8%e>0 /eel because blades ( %e>s = cropp+ wool5 clo? 7 always made 9 ?is way4 ,_m ( u w recognize 9 ! cem5tation process an ext5d$ 8case h>d5+40 ,case h>d5+ is v l>gely resort$ to by iron & /eel work]s1 :o 9 a few h\rs c give a h>d5$ & long-we>+ ?9 out] lay] ( /eel to a piece ( iron or s(t /eel aft] x has be5 =g$ or ma*9$ into ! desir$ %ape4 ,illu/ration3 ,,siem5',s ,,gas-,,fir$ ,,crucible ,,furnace--,,reg5]ative ,,sy/em ,"o pair ( ,*eck]-"w ,*amb]s1 k4 h41 is be+ heat$ by ! hot outgo+ flame & wa/e gases :ile ! o!r pair is heat+ incom+ gas & air4 ,!y are work$ alt]nately4 ,?is %e> /eel 0 l>gely made & 0 q satisfactory1 until1 z describ$ be=e1 ,huntsman1 a ,%effield clock mak]1 conceiv$ ! idea ( melt+ toge!r 9 a pot or crucible bli/] b>s or b>s ( %e> /eel4 ,?is he did to equalize ! c>bon cont5t & give uni=mity ( product :i* _h nev] be5 atta9able ?r\gh ! cem5tation process alone4 ,f t date 7#agdj7 to ?is ! crucible process has und]gone only m9or alt]ations & to-day x produces ! highe/ grades ( /eel :i* we h4 ,practically all ( ! high grade tool /eels are produc$ by ?is process4 ,nor has ,huntsman's =m ( furnace be5 greatly *ang$1 z ! illu/rations prove4 ,?\gh gas & oil z well z coal are1 9 _m cases1 us$ z ! fuel1 ! g5]al design ( ! furnace has rema9$ ! same4 ,= a c5tury crucibles 7 made f clay mold$ to =m1 sl[ly dri$ & v c>efully burn$4 ,usually ea* /eel mak] made 8 own crucibles4 ,!y c\ld be us$ b ?ree times1 becom+ s ?9 & t5d] aft] use = ?ree bat*es ( /eel t !y 7 n safe = a f\r?4 ,graphite crucibles are n[ v l>gely us$4 ,!y )/& ! sev]e heat mu* bett] & c be us$ five or six times4 ,! exp5se item = ei!r clay or graphite crucibles is a l>ge "o4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,/alw>t ,,melt]s ,aft] fill+ ) small pieces ( bli/] or %e> /eel ! crucibles are entirely surr\nd$ by coal or coke 9 ! furnace pit4 ,! fire is s regulat$ t ! /eel is n too quickly melt$4 ,fre% coal or coke mu/ be put 9 ar\nd ! crucibles two or ev5 ?ree times4 ,:5 he ?9ks ! /eel %\ld be molt51 ! exp]t att5dant kn[n z ! 8melt]0 quickly removes ! tight fitt+ cov] ( ! crucible & ) an iron rod det]m9es :e!r any unmelt$ pieces rema94 ,aft] complete melt+ ! /eel mu/ be 8kill$10 else x w boil up 9 ! mold ^u p\r+ & leave a spongy or insuffici5tly solid 8+ot0 or block ( /eel4 ,?is 8kill+0 ( /eel is a r peculi> ph5om5on4 ,x is accompli%$ by all[+ ! /eel to rema9 quiet 9 ! furnace = ano!r half h\r or s4 ,und\bt$ly ! quiet+ is ! result ( ! escape ( ! gases or impurities :i* are conta9$ 9 ! *>ge1 & absorption ( ! *emical elem5t1 silicon1 f ! walls ( ! crucible4 ,we h met ?is elem5t1 silicon1 be=e 9 our metallurgical j\rney & we w likely meet x sev]al times aga94 ,to ! metallurgi/ x is second>y 9 importance only to c>bon4 ,illu/ration3 ,,pull+ ,,! ,,crucible ,:5 ! /eel has be5 prop]ly melt$ & kill$ x is ready to p\r4 ,an assi/ant lifts ! cov] f ! melt+ hole1 ! 8pull]-out0 seizes ! crucible j bel[ ! bulge ) circul> tongs & pulls x f ! coke :i* surr\nds x4 ,! slag is skimm$ (f ! top & ! /eel p\r$ into iron molds =m+ small 8+ots10 usually f #b to #d in*es squ>e & two feet or m long4 ,e "p ( ! process1 ev5 ! p\r+1 mu/ be done ) extreme skill & c>e or ! product suff]s4 ,aft] lib]ation f _! molds1 ! +ots are heat$ & ei!r roll$ or hamm]$ d[n to ! sizes desir$ = tools1 etc4 ,z /at$ be=e1 crucible /eel necess>ily is an exp5sive mat]ial bo? on acc\nt ( high labor & crucible co/s4 ,= ?is reason1 _m h resort$ to ! process us$ 9 ! v small way m5tion$ = ! manufacture ( ,wootz /eel--! melt+ ( wr\ght iron b> or s(t /eel 9 a crucible ) c>bon4 ,9 ! ,wootz process *opp$ wood & gre5 leaves 7 us$4 ,n[adays *>coal is sub/itut$ or !re is add$ ! prop] am\nt ( ca/ iron to give ! desir$ am\nt ( c>bon to ! wr\ght iron or s(t /eel *>g$4 ,dur+ ! melt+ ! iron takes up ! *>coal & alloys ) x4 ,illu/ration3 8,,teem+0 ,,or ,,p\r+ ,,into ,,+ots4 ,,! ,,+ots ,,lat] ,,are ,,=g$ ,,or ,,roll$ ,,into ,,b>s ,,f ,,:i* ,,! ,,tools ,,are ,,made ,prop] am\nts ( silicon1 manganese1 & o!r b5eficial mat]ials are also *>g$1 :i* become ei!r "p ( ! alloy itself or h a clean+ or flux+ action ^u x4 ,/eels made 9 ?is way are practically1 ?\gh p]haps n q1 z good z /eels made by melt+ toge!r ! prop]ly select$ cem5tation b>s4 ,! me?od has come to be v g5]ally us$ on acc\nt ( its directness & because x elim9ates ! long & exp5sive prelim9>y cem5tation process4 ,:5 ,bessem] & op5-he>? /eels made _! appe>ance 9 ! m>ket an attempt 0 made to use !m in/ead ( wr\ght iron z ! base = high grade crucible /eels4 ,?\gh seem+ly pure en\gh1 app>5tly pur] ev5 ?an wr\ght iron1 ^! metals 7 n able to compete ) wr\ght iron = ?is purpose4 ,= "s reason1 n yet satisfactorily expla9$1 ^! new mat]ials :i* are made 9 #ae1 #ce & #ej-ton bat*es1 :5 us$ z a base1 d n give z high quality tool /eel z puddl$ wr\ght iron1 :i* is sl[ly & labori\sly made 9 #ejj-p\nd lots4 ,consid]able ( ^! mat]ials are utiliz$ b x is = a some:at l[] grade ( crucible /eel4 ,= _m ye>s mild /eels = ca/+s h be5 q l>gely made by ! crucible process4 ,!y are among ! be/ b ! crucible & labor co/s are usually too great to all[ crucible /eel ca/+s to compete 9 pres5t m>kets4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,bessem] ,,/eel ,! 8,manufacture ( ,malleable ,iron & ,/eel )\t ,fuel0 0 ! />tl+ title ( a sci5tific pap] read 9 #ahef be=e ! ,briti% ,association = ! ,advancem5t ( ,sci5ce4 ,?is 0 ! ann\ncem5t to ! _w ( ,h5ry ,bessem]'s inv5tion ( ! process = mak+ iron & /eel :i* l$ to ! greate/ comm]cial developm5t ! _w has se54 ,to ^? ( u :o h _h little or no exp]i5ce along manufactur+ l9es ! ann\ncem5t seems /range en\gh1 b metallurgi/s1 eng9e]s & manufactur]s :o "k h[ s]i\s is ! matt] ( fuel bills realize at once h[ revolution>y ! claim ( ,bessem] mu/ h seem$ to m5 ( ^? days4 ,z occurs ) s _m new ?+s ! idea 0 sc(f$ at2 ,bessem]'s s*eme 0 "o purport+ to give 8some?+ = no?+0 &--well1 x c\ld n be4 ,x 0 ridicul\s6 ,& :y %\ld x n h seem$ /range :5 we consid] t up to t "t fuel _h be5 requir$ 9 all metallurgical processes4 ,9 ! old ,catalan furnace & ! types t prec$$ x1 9 ! ,f9]y ,fire1 ! ,walloon & ! sev]al o!r ref9+ furnaces fuel _h to be provid$ )\t /9t4 ,! l[e/ proportion t sev5ty ye>s ( exp]im5t & practice _h br\ght ab\t 9 ,cort's puddl+ process 0 "o ton ( coal p] ton ( iron1 :ile ! bla/ furnace requir$ at ! lea/ f\r-fif?s ( a ton ( coke = ea* ton ( pig iron produc$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,kelly',s ,,fir/ ,,tilt+ ,,conv]t] ,:e!r ,bessem]1 an ,engli%man ( ,fr5* desc5t1 or ,william ,kelly1 an ,am]ican ( ,iri% desc5t1 ( ,eddyville1 ,ky41 fir/ conceiv$ ! idea ( ! 8pneumatic0 process is a moot "q4 ,consid]able evid5ce sub/antiates ! claim t ! latt] fir/ hit ^u ! s*eme & dur+ ! t5 ye>s betwe5 #ahdf & #ahef _h consid]able success ) its developm5t4 ,p]haps ,bessem] _h he>d ( ,kelly's exp]im5ts4 ,!re is no pro( t he did4 ,:e!r he did or n1 ! fact rema9s t he q indep5d5tly & v fully develop$ ! process 9 ,engl&1 & ) great bus9ess sagacity & en]gy made x ! success t x is4 ,z =tune has )held f ,kelly & f ?is c\ntry cr$it :i* 0 des]v$1 x is desirable to tell briefly ! "p :i* he _h 9 ! developm5t ( ?is process t ) a s+le furnace conv]ts pig iron into /eel at ! rate ( a ?\s& tons 9 #bd h\rs & fir/ made mild /eel available z a build+ mat]ial4 ,9 #ahdf ,kelly1 ) a bro!r1 b\ght ! ,suwanee ,iron ,works1 ne> ,eddyville1 ,ky4 ,aft] ab\t a ye> !y enc\nt]$ ! same difficulty t *>coal iron manufactur]s usually h enc\nt]$--! failure ( ! supply ( fuel4 ,?is difficulty ,kelly1 a bett] inv5tor ?an bus9ess man1 app>5tly _h n =ese54 ,8 bus9ess 0 ?reat5$ unless "s o!r way ( ref9+ 8 iron 0 f\nd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,crucible ,,) ,,:i* ,,bessem]',s ,,fir/ ,,exp]im5ts ,,7 ,,conduct$ ,"o day :ile wat*+ ! op]ation ( 8 ,f9]y ,fire he notic$ t ! bla/ ( air f ! tuyre made ! molt5 iron :]e x imp+$ v mu* :it] & app>5tly hott] ?an ! re/4 ,l o!r iron mak]s1 he _h always suppos$ t a bla/ ( cold air *ill$ molt5 iron4 ,x appe>s t ,kelly 0 n long 9 surmis+ ! tru?4 ,9 a few days he _h rigg$ up a crude app>atus & made s(t iron f :i* a horse%oe & a horse%oe nail 7 fa%ion$ by a blacksmi?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fix$ ,,conv]t] ,,( #ahef ,,) ,,six ,,tuy,,res ,,ab\t ,,! ,,sides ,be+ cons]vatives1 ,kelly's cu/om]s 7 n sl[ 9 in=m+ him t !y did n want iron made by any?+ o!r ?an ! 8good old process0 & he 0 oblig$ to acc$e to _! dem&s or lose _! trade4 ,l ,galileo1 h[ev]1 he _h n really surr5d]$4 ,9 ! woods ne> by he built & exp]im5t$ ) sev5 successive 8conv]t]s10 z ! furnaces are call$ 9 :i* ,bessem] /eel is made4 ,^u le>n+ t ,bessem] ( ,engl& _h be5 grant$ a ,unit$ ,/ates pat5t 7#ahef71 ,kelly came be=e ! pat5t (fice & prov$ t he _h sev]al ye>s be=e us$ ! same process4 ,! priority ( 8 inv5tion 0 ackn[l$g$1 & a pat5t 0 grant$ to him also 7#aheg74 ,illu/ration3 ,,bottom ,,bl[+ ,,tilt+ ,,conv]t] ,f9ancial tr\bles & f9ally bankruptcy h&icapp$ him4 ,h[ev]1 ! ,cambria ,/eel ,co41 ( ,john/[n1 ,pa41 became int]e/$ & let him exp]im5t ) 8 process at ! company's plant4 ,"h 9 #aheg he built 8 fir/ 8tilt+0 conv]t]4 ,8 fir/ public demon/ration result$ 9 failure & ridicule1 b a few days lat] he 0 successful4 ,/eel mak]s b\ght int]e/s 9 8 pat5t1 :i* at its expiration 9 #ahgj 0 r5ew$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,pat5t ,(fice1 :ile r5ewal ( ,bessem]'s pat5t 0 refus$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,9 #aheh ,,bessem] ,,erect$ ,,8 ,,fir/ ,,conv]t] ,,( ,,! ,,=m ,,g5]ally ,,us$ ,,to-,,day ,! ,kelly ,pneumatic ,process ,company1 :i* 0 organiz$ to op]ate "u ,kelly's pat5ts1 built a conv]t] at an iron works at ,wy&otte1 ,mi*igan4 ,"h ! fir/ pneumatic process /eel ev] made 9 ?is c\ntry 9 o!r ?an an exp]im5tal way 0 8bl[n0 9 #ahfd4 ,mean:ile ,alex&] ,l4 ,holley1 an ,am]ican eng9e]1 _h obta9$ = ano!r ,am]ican company ! "r to manufacture /eel "h "u ,bessem]'s pat5ts4 ,he built a plant at ,troy1 ,new ,york1 :i* began mak+ /eel 9 #ahfe4 ,illu/ration3 ,,ev5 ,,! ,,deta*able ,,bottom--,,to ,,facilitate ,,repairs--,,0 ,,?\ght ,,( ,,& ,,pat5t$ ,,by ,,bessem]--#ahfc ,x 0 soon decid$ to m]ge ! int]e/s ( ! two companies & 9 #ahff ?is 0 done1 ! process !reaft] be+ kn[n z ! ,bessem] ,process4 ,dur+ ! e>ly ye>s ( ! process "h ,holley became v well kn[n4 ,z consult+ eng9e] he design$ practically all ( ! ,bessem] plants :i* 7 built dur+ ! fir/ t5 or fifte5 ye>s4 ,to ! majority ( ! p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates to-day ,kelly & 8 p>allel "p 9 ! great inv5tion are practically unkn[n1 & ?us n only he b ! ,unit$ ,/ates is )\t cr$it :i* %\ld be ours4 ,=tunately ,kelly did n entirely fail to pr(it f9ancially z s _m times is ! case ) inv5tors4 ,he receiv$ a total ( ab\t #ejj1jjj4 ,bessem]'s return f 8 process is said to h approximat$ #aj1jjj1jjj & he 0 knight$ by ! ,briti% sov]eign4 ,m intimate details reg>d+ ,kelly & 8 "w may be f\nd 9 ,munsey's ,magaz9e = ,april1 #aijf1 :]e ,h4 ,casson gives in=mation :i* he receiv$ direct f sev]al ( ! m5 :o knew & work$ ) ,kelly4 ,:ile app>5tly n ! orig9ator ( ! process1 ,bessem] is )\t any d\bt entitl$ to mo/ ( ! cr$it he receiv$4 ,!re is no pro( t he _h he>d ( ,kelly's exp]im5ts :5 he began 8 own or t he 0 aid$ by ,kelly's discov]ies4 ,he work$ out ! details ( ! process indep5d5tly1 z _h ,kelly1 & x 0 ,bessem] :o put x on a comm]cial basis4 ,z has occurr$ ) o!r new processes ,bessem]'s fir/ lic5sees 7 n p>ticul>ly successful4 ,:5 ^? :o _h b\ght ! "r to use 8 process _h fail$ 9 _! ef=ts to use x1 & become disc\rag$ z mo/ ( !m did1 he quietly b\ght back _! rights & w5t ahead ) 8 developm5t ( ! process4 ,p]haps no man ev] exhibit$ m p]sev]ance 9 cont9u+ exp]im5ts & developm5t "u v disc\rag+ conditions ?an did ,h5ry ,bessem]4 ,he _h fai?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,sectional ,,view ,,( ,a ,,mod]n ,,conv]t] ,,%[+ ,,air ,,duct ,,& ,,tuy,,res ,he _h a g5ius = inv5tion & 0 ?or\gh 9 8 exp]im5tal "w4 ,practically no type ( conv]t] has s9ce be5 br\ght out t he did n ?9k ( & try1 & ! process has be5 modifi$ 9 b "o or two important p>ticul>s 9 ! ye>s t h pass$4 ,! ess5tial "p ( ! ,bessem] process is ! bl[+ ( air ?r\gh molt5 ca/ iron to remove ! metalloids by :i* ca/ iron diff]s f /eel & wr\ght iron1 z has be5 expla9$ be=e4 ,?is be+ ! ess5tial po9t1 & at fir/ ?\ght ! lack ( fuel seem+ s peculi>1 we mu/ describe :at happ5s dur+ ! ,bessem] 8bl[40 ,illu/ration3 ,,p\r+ ,,*>ge ,,( ,,molt5 ,,pig ,,iron ,,into ,,conv]t] ,te*nically speak+1 ! metalloids are 8oxidiz$40 ,oxidation is ! *emical unit+ ( oxyg51 g5]ally f ! air1 :i* has #ba p] c5t ( ?is elem5t1 ) ano!r elem5t or mat]ial su* z iron1 silicon1 c>bon1 wood1 coal1 etc4 ,if ! oxidation is sl[ z 9 ! 8ru/+0 ( iron1 ! result+ heat dissipates z fa/ z x is g5]at$ & ! *ange is h>dly noticeable4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! reaction occurs rapidly & ) vigor en\gh1 we say t ! mat]ial 8burns40 ,! latt] sort ( oxidation is :at we call 8combu/ion40 ,! aff9ity betwe5 ! metalloids & oxyg5 has be5 not$ by u be=e1 b 9 ^? cases mo/ ( ! oxyg5 came f a diff]5t s\rce4 ,9 ! wr\ght iron process mo/ ( x 0 furni%$ by ! iron ore or scale :i* 0 /irr$ into ! metal1 or by ! slag :i* cov]$ ! 8ba?40 ,9 ! ,bessem]1 or z x 0 fir/ kn[n 9 ,am]ica1 8,kelly's air bl[+ process10 ! oxyg5 ( ! air bl[n ?r\gh ! molt5 metal directly oxidizes or burns out ! c>bon1 silicon1 & manganese4 ,! extremely rapid oxidation ( ^! furni%es ! heat4 ,! iron1 !n1 furni%es its own fuel & no outside combu/ible is ne$$4 ,h[ c ?is be8 ,9 e ton ( molt5 ca/ iron !re are approximately #gj p\nds ( c>bon1 #be p\nds ( silicon1 & #ae p\nds ( manganese or a total ( ab\t #bjjj p\nds ( ^! metalloids 9 ! fifte5-ton *>ge ( molt5 metal :i* goes into ! ord9>y /eel plant conv]t]4 ,we "k t if burn$ 9 a furnace ?is ton ( high grade fuel w\ld g5]ate mu* heat4 ,burn$ inside ( ! mass ( molt5 metal x g5]ates exactly t same am\nt ( heat & ! heat is appli$ ) su* rapidity1 directness & effici5cy t ! molt5 iron :i* _h a temp]ature ( #bcjj ,f41 say1 :5 *>g$1 9 n9e or t5 m9utes has become /eel ) a temp]ature ( ab\t #cjjj ,f4 simply ?r\gh ?is rapid oxidation ( its #d to #f p] c5t ( metalloids4 ,h[ ! bla/ "u #ae to #cj p\nds p] squ>e in* is appli$ ?r\gh little nozzles 9 ! bottom ( ! mod]n 8conv]t]0 & ! sev]al types ( vessels ) :i* ,bessem] exp]im5t$ 9 ! c\rse ( 8 inve/igations are %[n 9 ! illu/rations4 ,nor is x necess>y t ! air be bl[n ?r\gh ! metal4 ,air bl[n ^u its surface accompli%es practically ! same purpose1 & 9 _m ( ! /eel f\ndries ( to-day small] conv]t]s ( ?is 8surface-bl[n0 type are us$ = produc+ /eel = ca/+s4 ,! l>ge /eel plants1 h[ev]1 use ! l>g] 8bottom-bl[n0 conv]t]4 ,two or ?ree ( ^! vessels1 work+ ) prop] metal f ! 8mix]10 produce an imm5se tonnage ( /eel ea* #bd h\rs4 ,! 8mix]0 is q necess>y4 ,x is a l>ge vessel or furnace hold+ & keep+ hot f #ge to #cjj or m tons ( metal f ! bla/ furnace4 ,x mixes & equalizes irons ( v>i\s compositions1 s t ! conv]t]s h ! advantage ( uni=m & hot metal ) :i* to "w4 ,9 addition x is made to p]=m a 8ref9+0 s]vice4 ,by mix+ into ! metal a quantity ( manganese1 consid]able ( ! sulphur pres5t 7a delet]i\s sub/ance7 is remov$4 ,! fifte5 or tw5ty m9ute bl[+ ( #ae tons ( metal 9 ! big egg-%ap$ conv]t]s ( a /eel plant pres5ts a spectacle :i*1 :5 once obs]v$1 w nev] be =gott54 ,"o sees a little 8d9ky0 eng9e come %oot+ into ! conv]t] build+ ) its ladle ( molt5 iron f ! 8mix]40 ,) ,am]ica's "t sav+ r\t9e n a s+le m9ute is lo/ :ile empty+ ! metal into ! conv]t]1 n[ 9 a horizontal position4 ,almo/ be=e ! ladle is out ( ! way1 ! conv]t] sw+s to ! upright position ) ! bla/ already on1 = o!rwise ! metal w\ld fl[ into ! tuyre holes at ! bottom4 ,illu/ration3 ,,comp>ison ,,( ,,+ots ,a4 ,f ,f\r ,pot ,crucible ,furnace3 ,ea* ,heat #djj ,p\nds 9 #d ,h\rs or #ajj ,p\nds an ,h\r1 ,ea* ,heat ,p\rs #d ,+ots #c #c #cf4 ,b4 ,f ,fifte5 ,ton ,bessem] ,conv]t]3 #cj1jjj ,p\nds 9 #bj ,m9utes or #ij1jjj ,p\nds an ,h\r1 ,ea* ,heat ,p\rs #f ,+ots #ai #bj #fb4 ,c4 ,f ,fifty ,ton ,op5-,he>? ,furnace1 #ajj1jjj ,p\nds 9 #h ,h\rs or #ab1ejj ,p\nds an ,h\r1 ,ea* ,heat ,p\rs #f ,+ots #bd #cb #gb4 ,r$di%-br[n smoke & a %[] ( sp>ks come f ! conv]t]4 ,^! gradually develop into a flame4 ,! bla/ %[s consid]able p>tiality 9 select+ = its fir/ att5tion ! metalloids silicon & manganese1 9 pref]5ce to ! iron itself or any o!r ( ! metalloids pres5t4 ,aft] f ?ree to five m9utes half ( ! silicon & manganese h be5 burn$ out4 ,if ! temp]ature ( ! metal & o!r conditions h become "r ! c>bon !n beg9s to burn4 ,?is gives a *ange 9 ! nature ( ! flame :i* becomes l>ge & ( a dazzl+ :it5ess4 ,! metal is hot--v hot--s mu* s t pieces ( cold /eel (t5 mu/ be dropp$ 9 to cool x some:at4 ,?is is kn[n z 8scrapp+0 ! *>ge4 ,an exp]i5c$ bl[] c judge ?r\gh e p]iod ( ! op]ation ( ! condition ( 8 metal & j h[ ?+s are progress+4 ,aft] "s m9utes ! flame beg9s to wav] & lat] 8drops02 i4e41 !re is sc>cely a flame at all4 ,?is signal1 :i* is v def9ite to an exp]i5c$ man1 _c be lightly disreg>d$4 ,oxyg5 has aff9ity = iron z well z = ! metalloids & x is only because ( its great] love = silicon1 manganese & c>bon t x has ?us f> l>gely neglect$ ! iron4 ,) ! metalloids m5tion$ out ( ! way1 z !y are :5 ! drop occurs1 ! iron w beg9 to burn4 ,7 ! 8bl[+0 cont9u$ we w\ld %ortly h no iron left1 b 9 its place a mass ( iron oxide & slag4 ,?us we see t dur+ ! fir/ m9utes ( ! bl[1 m ?an "o-half ( ! silicon & manganese are burn$4 ,! rema9d] ( ^! & all ( ! c>bon are remov$ 9 ! subsequ5t five or six m9utes4 ,at ! end ( ?is %ort bl[+ p]iod we h practically pure iron4 ,illu/ration3 ,,two ,,conv]t]s ,,9 ,,op]ation ,,& ,a ,,?ird ,,p\r+ ,! metal is n yet 9 condition to p\r well1 h[ev]1 l>gely because ( ! dissolv$ air & gases :i* x holds4 ,some?+ ak9 to ! 8kill+0 ( ! /eel :i* we obs]v$ 9 ! crucible process mu/ be accompli%$ or +ots f x w be spongy4 ,&1 hav+ practically no c>bon1 x is n yet 8/eel40 ,bessem]1 kn[+ t ! f9i%$ /eel %\ld conta9 c>bon1 tri$ to /op ! bl[ long en\gh be=e ! drop ( ! flame to leave exactly ! desir$ am\nt ( ?is elem5t4 ,he f\nd ?is difficult to d & !re=e unc]ta94 ,x 0 f\nd to be f> bett] to bl[ until ! drop ( ! flame & !n put back suffici5t c>bon to give ! prop] composition4 ,an ,engli% metallurgi/ nam$ ,mu%et discov]$ t addition ( manganese ridd$ ! metal ( injuri\s gases & oxides & :at is kn[n z 8r$-%ortness40 ,aft] a p]iod ( difficulty )\t x ,bessem] ackn[l$g$ ! necessity ( manganese & adopt$ its use4 ,x _h be=e ?is be5 us$ 9 crucible /eel4 ,^u turn+ d[n ! conv]t] at ! drop ( ! flame1 ! bla/ is turn$ (f & a small] ladle is run 9 on a track above4 ,?is br+s a molt5 mixture ( irons1 usually kn[n z 8spiegel0 or 8spiegeleis50 :i* conta9s j en\gh c>bon1 manganese & silicon to give to ! :ole ( ! molt5 metal 9 ! conv]t] ! metalloids ne$$ to make ( x /eel ( ! composition desir$4 ,?is addition also accompli%es ! 8deoxidation0 ( ! metal4 ,by deoxidation we mean t ! iron is reliev$ ( ! oxyg5 & gases :i* h rema9$ z a result ( ! bla/4 ,?is is necess>y 9 ord] to give prop] fluidity = p\r+ & ! be/ physical prop]ties to ! f9i%$ /eel4 ,aft] 8rec>burization10 z ?is addition ( manganese-silicon-c>bon metal is call$1 ! /eel & slag are quickly p\r$ out into a ladle wait+ bel[ f :i* ! /eel is 8teem$0 7i4e41 p\r$71 ?r\gh a 8nozzle0 or hole 9 ! bottom into +ot molds arrang$ on trucks on ! railroad track :i* runs ?r\gh ! build+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,teem+ ,,! ,,f9i%$ ,,/eel ,,into ,,! ,,+ot ,,molds ,:5 ! molds h be5 fill$ & a /rong cru/ develops on ! /eel ! c>s are pull$ to ! 8/ripp]0 :]e ! molds are remov$1 leav+ ! :ite-hot +ots /&+ on ! c>s4 ,! +ots m5tion$ 9 ! *apt] on ,cem5tation & ,crucible ,/eel 7 usually small en\gh t "o pot ( #ajj p\nds ( metal fill$ ! mold4 ,a f\r pot furnace !re=e produc$ #djj p\nds4 ,n[ = ! fir/ "t1 we are talk+ 9 tonnage figures4 ,in/ead ( a bat* ( /eel mak+ f\r #c #c #cf +ots ( #ajj p\nds ea*1 ! ord9>y 8heat0 ( ,bessem] /eel f ! #ae-ton conv]t] gives six or sev5 +ots ab\t #ah #bj #fj 9 size4 ,ea* ( ^! weighs ab\t two tons4 ,! total is #cj1jjj p\nds4 ,f ! /ripp] ! +ots g to ! gas-fir$ soak+ pits :]e ! molt5 int]iors ( ! +ots gradually solidify by cool+ :ile ! out] cru/s are reheat$4 ,aft] equaliz+ ! temp]atures ( ext]iors & int]iors 9 ?is way1 ! +ots are :ite-hot aga9 & ready = roll+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,molds ,,be+ ,,/ripp$ ,,f ,,+ots ,! purpose = :i* ! /eel is int5d$1 ( c\rse1 det]m9es ! %apes & sizes into :i* ! +ots are roll$4 ,= rails !y are roll$ d[n directly1 ea* +ot mak+ ab\t six rails1 ( ?irty-?ree-foot l5g?4 ,= mo/ o!r purposes ! +ots are roll$ 9 ! slabb+ mill into billets or slabs :i* are ( int]m$iate %apes & sizes :i* are reheat$ & fur!r roll$ d[n into axles1 b>s1 %apes1 wire or o!r products4 ,mean:ile ! conv]t] :i* we saw empti$ has n be5 idle4 ,! ,am]ican /eel eng9e] has g5ius = me*anical effici5cy & all p>ts ( a great /eel plant are s co-ord9at$ t enorm\s quantities ( mat]ial c be h&l$ ) n a mom5t lo/ betwe5 trips4 ,almo/ be=e ! ladle ( /eel _h swung away f ! conv]t]'s m\?1 any rema9+ slag 0 dump$ f ! conv]t] by fur!r tipp+1 ! vessel return$ to receiv+ position & ! ladle c>1 back aga9 f ! mix]1 p\r$ 9 ! next *>ge4 ,?us bl[ aft] bl[ is made )\t loss ( "t4 ,repairs are all[$ to take no long] ?an is absolutely necess>y4 ,:5 ! l9+ ar\nd ! tuyres gets too badly cut by ! action ( ! air & metal ! bottom is remov$1 ano!r "o is quickly sub/itut$ & ! /eel mak+ goes on4 ,bl[]s1 ladlem51 cranem51 p\r]s1 pat*]s1 vesselm51 sample boys & ! o!r workm5 are reliev$ by _! 8p>tn]s0 at ! end ( ea* %ift1 ea* man ( necessity work+ until reliev$--twelve1 tw5ty-f\r1 or ev5 ?irty-six h\rs1 = !re mu/ be no delay4 ,s day & night1 ?r\gh ! entire week f ,monday morn+ at six1 :5 !y beg91 until ! next ,sunday morn+ at six1 :5 ! plant %uts d[n = a brief spell1 ! conv]t]s g on turn+ out ?ree heats p] h\r or f\r to five hundr$ p] week ea*4 ,x has be5 m5tion$ t mo/ ( ,bessem]'s fir/ lic5sees fail$ ) ! new process4 ,! reasons = ?is 7 v>i\s1 b "o 9 p>ticul> 0 ! attempt ( _m to use metal ( high phosphorus cont5t4 ,bessem] soon discov]$ t no phosphorus 0 remov$ dur+ ! 8bl[0 & t1 z phosphorus 9 quantity ov] "o-t5? ( "o p] c5t 0 detrim5tal to /eel1 x 0 necess>y to use raw mat]ial :i* _h little ( ?is elem5t4 ,?is c\ld be done1 b x b>r$ _m pig irons o!rwise good4 ,=tunately ,sw$i% & _m ,engli% irons _h l[ phosphorus4 ,g]many's va/ b$s ( high phosphorus ores1 h[ev]1 7 useless = ! purpose4 ,= tw5ty ye>s ?is situation exi/$1 dur+ :i* "t _m metallurgi/s endeavor$ to make ! process applicable to irons :i* conta9$ high phosphorus4 ,aft] long /udy & _m exp]im5ts ! problem 0 solv$ by ,sidney ,?omas1 an ,engli% metallurgi/4 ,) a c\s91 ,p]cy ,gil*ri/1 he made hundr$s ( bl[s ) a toy conv]t] hold+ only eight p\nds ( iron4 ,bessem]'s l9+s _h be5 ( s&1 clay & o!r e>?s :i* are kn[n *emically z 8acid0 mat]ials4 ,by us+ 8basic0 mat]ials su* z lime/one1 dolomite1 etc41 = ! conv]t] l9+ & additions ( lime/one or burnt lime to ! *>ge be=e & dur+ ! bl[ to make & keep ! slag 8basic10 ,?omas 0 able to make ! phosphorus burn aft] ! c>bon _h be5 remov$4 ,!re=e1 a ?ree or f\r m9ute 8aft] bl[0 foll[+ ! 8drop0 ( ! c>bon flame took out ! phosphorus1--aga91 ) g5]ation ( heat4 ,s !re are two v>ieties ( ! process--! acid ,bessem] & ! basic ,bessem]1 b ! =m]1 only1 is us$ 9 ?is c\ntry z we h few high phosphorus ores4 ,! analog\s op5-he>? processes1 :i* are next to be describ$1 are bo? us$ 9 ?is c\ntry ) ! basic op5-he>? greatly 9 ! lead4 ,h[ev]1 ! basic ,bessem] process ( ,?omas & ,gil*ri/ is cr$it$ ) mak+ ,g]many's great indu/rial developm5t possible4 ,ye> ,,table ,,no4 #a ,,table ,,no4 #b ,mat]ials ,us$ = ,rails#f ,total ,/eel ,made by ,processes#f ,wr\ght ,bessem] ,op5-,he>? ,bessem] ,op5-,he>? ,crucible ,iron ,/eel ,/eel ,/eel ,/eel ,/eel #ahdi #ba1gaj #ahej #ci1cfj #ahee #abd1jjj #ahfj #ahc1jjj ,no ,data #ahfe #cah1jjj #ahfg #daj1jjj #b1bhj #b1fgi #ahfh #dde1igj #f1dej #g1ehi #ahfi #eba1cgj #h1fbj #aj1gad #hic #ahgj #ebc1jjj #cj1cfj #cg1ejj #a1cci #ahgeddh1jjj #bfj1jjj #cce1jjj #h1jhj #ce1ahj #ahhj #dda1jjj #heb1jjj #ab1afj #a1jgd1jjj #aaj1hej #fd1ffj #ahhe #ac1jjj #iei1jjj #d1bhj #a1eae1jjj #acc1jjj #eg1fjj #ahij #ad1jjj #a1hfh1jjj #c1eij #c1fhi1jjj #eac1jjj #ga1bjj #ahie #e1haj #a1cjj1jjj #gjj #d1iji1jjj #a1acg1jjj #fh1gjj #aijj #fie #b1chd1jjj #a1ccj #f1fhe1jjj #c1cih1jjj #ajj1ejj #aije #cah #c1aib1jjj #ahc1jjj #aj1ida1jjj #h1iga1jjj #ajb1bjj #aijf #ae #c1cia1jjj #ahf1jjj #ab1bgf1jjj #aj1ihj1jjj #abg1ejj #aijg #ibe #c1chj1jjj #bec1jjjaa1ffh1jjj #aa1eej1jjj #aca1jjj #aijh #ga #a1cdi1jjj #egb1jjj #f1aag1jjjg1hcg1jjj #fc1fjj #aiji #a1gfg1jjj #a1beg1jjj #i1cca1jjjad1did1jjj #ajg1djj #aiaj #bcja1hhd1jjj #a1gea1jjj #i1dac1jjjaf1eje1jjj #abb1cjj #aiab #a1ajj1jjjb1aje1jjj #aj1cbh1jjjbj1ghj1jjj #aba1ejj #aiac #hah1jjj #b1ebh1jjj #i1edf1jjjba1fjj1jjj #aba1bjj #aiad #cbd1jjj #a1ebf1jjj #f1bba1jjjag1age1jjj #hi1ijj #aiae #cbg1jjj #a1gge1jjj #h1bhg1jjjbc1fgi1jjj #aac1hjj #aiaf #ddj1jjj #b1bgj1jjj #aa1jei1jjjca1dae1jjj #abi1gjj ,footnote #f3 ,9 ,unit$ ,/ates--long tons ( #b1bdj p\nds4 ,! well-kn[n 8,?omas ,slag0 :i* is 9 dem& z a f]tiliz] on acc\nt ( its phosphorus cont5t is ! by-product ( ! basic-l9$ conv]t]4 ,an idea ( :at ! inv5tion ( ! ,bessem] process meant to railroad developm5t alone may be ga9$ by /udy+ = a mom5t ,table ,no4 #a4 ,wr\ght iron 0 our fir/ mat]ial = rails1 b1 be+ v s(t1 x did n give long s]vice4 ,b a %ort "t 0 requir$ = ,bessem] /eel to displace x = rails :5 /eel became available4 ,! great] uni=mity1 /r5g? & h>dness ( ! alloy gave su* excell5t we>+ prop]ties t few rails ( iron 7 laid aft] ! ye> #ahhj4 ,dur+ rec5t ye>s rails h be5 made ( great] & great] /r5g? & h>dness to keep pace ) ! fa/ increas+ weight1 spe$ & frequ5cy ( railroad tra9s1 /eel be+ susceptible to mu* modification ( prop]ties4 ,n[ x appe>s t ,bessem] /eel is giv+ way to o!r products :i* %[ ev5 sup]ior prop]ties4 ,:at happ5$ 9 ! railroad _w to a great ext5t has happ5$ else:]e1 z ! figures ( ,table ,no4 #b %[4 ,!y are a b>omet] :i* indicates :at has be5 our indu/rial developm5t & our advance 9 civilization4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,! ,,op5-,,he>? ,,process ,bessem]'s 0 a wond]ful process1 b ! "t seem$ to be ripe = great developm5t along metallurgical l9es1 & ! me?od ( conv]t+ pig iron into /eel :i* he devis$ soon _h a competitor :i* 0 de/9$ ev5tually to take ! lead 9 /eel production4 ,_m ye>s pass$ be=e ! tonnage turn$ out annually by ,bessem]'s process 0 equal$ by t ( ! new1 b z %[n 9 ! la/ *apt] ! ,siem5s-,m>t9 or op5-he>? process 9 #aijg produc$ ! great] tonnage4 ,x has s9ce reta9$ its lead & probably w cont9ue to d s4 ,z f> back z #ahde ,john ,m>%all ,hea? took out a pat5t = a process = mak+ /eel patt]n$ aft] ! old puddl+ process4 ,9 a way he may !re=e be said to h devis$ or =eca/ ! op5-he>? process1 b because ( ! great ob/acles t _h to be surm\nt$ 9 gett+ a furnace t w\ld fulfill ! requirem5ts he 0 unable to c>ry out 8 s*eme4 ,y w rememb] t 9 ! puddl+ furnace ! purifi$ metal became pa/y because ( its high melt+ po9t4 ,because ( ! great heat requir$ x 0 n until ! inv5tion ( ! reg5]ative sy/em by ,c4 ,w4 ,siem5s 9 #ahfj t ! op5-he>? process 0 possible4 ,siem5's furnace 0 ! fir/ "o t c\ld keep ! iron molt54 ,x 0 9 ,birm+ham1 ,engl&1 t ! fir/ successful op5-he>? furnace 0 us$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,e>ly ,,type ,,( ,,gas ,,produc]1 ,,reg5]ators1 ,,& ,,op5-,,he>? ,,furnace4 ,,c\rse ,,tak5 ,,by ,,air1 ,,gas1 ,,& ,,products ,,( ,,combu/ion ,,are ,,pla9ly ,,%[n1 ,,z ,,are ,,! ,,valves ,,t ,,rev]se ,,direction ,,( ,,fl[ ,:ile n z spe$y nor z prolific a produc] z ! ,bessem] process & f> less spectacul>1 ! op5-he>? has sev]al advantages4 ,! acid ,bessem] 0 always h&icapp$ because pig iron ) less ?an #j4a p] c5t ( phosphorus 0 necess>y4 ,! majority ( ores c>ry m ?an ?is am\nt4 ,! basic ,bessem] requires pig iron conta9+ n less ?an #b p] c5t ( phosphorus4 ,! va/ quantities ( mat]ial :i* conta9 p]c5tages ( phosphorus betwe5 ^! limits are useless z f> z ! ,bessem] process is conc]n$4 ,to be successfully us$ ! pig iron mu/ be fur!r limit$ z to composition4 ,x mu/ h suffici5t silicon1 manganese1 & c>bon to give ! heat requir$ = ,bessem]iz+1 z ! burn+ ( ^! metalloids has to be dep5d$ ^u = ! conv]sion to /eel & to give prop] fluidity to ! f9i%$ alloy4 ,!n1 too1 ! l>ge am\nt ( air =c$ ?r\gh to a c]ta9 ext5t 8ov]-oxidizes0 ! ba? & "s ( ! gases are me*anically reta9$ by ! /eel no matt] h[ complete ! deoxidation4 ,!re also is loss ( metal due to unavoidable 8spitt+10 = ! rapid /reams ( air me*anically c>ry "s metal & slag ) ! flame out ( ! vessel4 ,on ! o!r h&1 = ! op5-he>? process c be us$ pig iron ( widely v>i$ "* & composition &1 fur!r1 l>ge p]c5tages ( l[-pric$ /eel scrap c be utiliz$ 9 ! *>ges2 z no air is bl[n ?r\gh ! metal & little comes 9 contact ) x1 ! conv]sion takes place quietly & smoo?ly & ) mu* less loss by oxidation1 ! yield ( /eel usually be+ f #ij to #ig p] c5t ( ! metal *>g$ z aga9/ #hc to #hg p] c5t :i* is ! yield by ! ,bessem] process2 besides giv+ less ov]-oxidation & gases 9 ! metal1 ! sl[ness ( ! conv]sion is an advantage1 z control is v easy1 &1 :5 desir$1 samples = te/ may be tak54 ,f 8 te/s ! melt] c be q c]ta9 :5 he taps out ! /eel t x is ( ! composition desir$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,section ,,?r\gh ,,typical ,,/ation>y ,,op5-,,he>? ,,furnace1 ,,%[+ ,,con/ruction ,,( ,,furnace1 ,,l9+1 ,,ba? ,,& ,,air ,,& ,,gas ,,ports ,! melt+ 9 an op5-he>? furnace is done l>gely by indirect or radiat$ heat1 & x is n int5d$ t ! flame %all imp+e too directly ^u ! surface ( ! ba?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,boxes ,,( ,,/eel ,,scrap ,,& ,,electric ,,*>g+ ,,ma*9e ,,9 ,,front ,,( ,,*>g+ ,,doors ,,at ,,re> ,,( ,,furnaces ,except dur+ ! melt+ d[n ( ! pig iron & o!r mat]ials *>g$ 9 ! furnace1 ! flame & air take little "p 9 ! actual elim9ation ( ! metalloids4 ,_! ma9 function is to furni% ! heat necess>y4 ,be+ us$ s indirectly--mo/ly by radiation f ! ro( & walls--v great heat mu/ be us$ & mu* w\ld be wa/$ if special precautions 7 n tak5 to save x4 ,! ba? mu/ be kept hot en\gh to rema9 molt5 aft] purification ( ! metal1 :i* we 7 unable to accompli% 9 ! wr\ght iron puddl+ furnace4 ,"u ea* end ( ! rectangul> furnace are two *amb]s built up ) *eck]-"w ( fire brick4 ,^! sets are 9 duplicate & ea* has "o *amb] = air & "o = gas4 ,illu/ration3 ,,*>g+ ,,ma*9e ,,) ,,box ,,( ,,scrap ,,half ,,way ,,into ,,furnace ,?us an op5-he>? furnace w be se5 to occupy a sort ( holl[ squ>e1 ! furnace prop] =m+ "o side1 ! reg5]ative *amb]s two sides1 ) ! *imney & flues ! rema9+ side4 8,rev]s+0 valves =ce ! incom+ gas & air to travel ea* ?r\gh its respective hot reg5]at+ *amb] up ?r\gh ! ports & into ! furnace :]e !y unite & burn ) a v hot flame4 ,! hot gases leave ?r\gh simil> ports 9 ! o!r end ( ! furnace & on _! way to ! *imney heat ! *eck]-"w 9 ! reg5]ative *amb]4 ,e fifte5 or tw5ty m9utes ! valves are rev]s$ & ! direction ( fl[ is *ang$4 ,9 ?is way ! incom+ gas & air are preheat$ & 9 ! furnace burn ) a v mu* hott] flame ?an w\ld cold gas ) cold air4 ,no bla/ is requir$1 ! draft caus$ by ! *imney be+ suffici5t4 ,= protection ( ! ro( f ! great heat develop$ & ! metal ( ! ba? f too great oxidation1 ! air ports usually are locat$ above ! gas ports4 ,! /reams ( air1 :ile protect+ ! ro( f ! flame1 at ! same "t are prev5t$ f directly imp++ ^u & too /rongly oxidiz+ ! metal ( ! ba?4 ,! diagrammatic sket*es giv5 %[ r\ghly a furnace1 reg5]ative *amb]s1 ports1 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,*>g+ 8,,hot0 ,,metal ,! orig9al int5tion 0 to melt pig iron & r$uce x2 i4 e41 burn out ! silicon1 manganese1 & c>bon by action ( ! flame & addition ( iron ore4 ,?is 0 ! process work$ out by ,siem5s 9 ,engl&4 ,9 ,france1 ,p4 & ,e4 ,m>t9 alt]$ ! me?od by dilut+ molt5 pig iron 9 ! ,siem5s furnace by melt+ & dissolv+ 9 x /eel scrap4 ,x 0 soon f\nd t a comb9ation ( ! two me?ods 0 bett] ?an ei!r "o alone & ! op5-he>? process acquir$ its "n--! ,siem5s-,m>t9--9 ?is way4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ab\t #bj1jjj1jjj tons ( /eel are made annually by ! basic op5-he>? process :ile only #a1ajj1jjj tons are produc$ by ! acid op5-he>? process4 ,! two processes are practically ! same except t by ! basic process ! phosphorus z well z ! silicon1 manganese1 & c>bon are r$uc$ or elim9at$4 ,9 ord] to take out ! phosphorus1 additions ( lime 7i4 e41 calcium oxide or calcium c>bonate7 are made j z occurr$ ) ! basic ,bessem] process4 ,%\ld we use lime 9 a furnace hav+ an acid l9+1 mu* ( ! lime1 :i* is a 8base10 w\ld react ) ! 8acid0 7silica7 bricks ( ! l9+1 &1 becom+ neutraliz$1 w\ld n d its "w4 ,s1 z 9 ! basic ,bessem] process1 we "h h to use ei!r 8basic0 or 8neutral0 l9+4 ,! mat]ial g5]ally us$ is burnt magnesium c>bonate :i* is kn[n z 8magnesite40 ,dolomite1 :i* is a comb9ation ( ! c>bonates ( calcium & magnesium1 is sometimes us$4 ,*rome bricks1 ! usual neutral mat]ial1 are r too exp5sive = ext5sive use4 ,! be/ magnesite comes f ,au/ria & is usually n v *eap4 ,z acid mat]ials 7^? ( silica or clay7 are *eap] & me*anically /rong]1 a compromise is (ttimes effect$ by us+ basic mat]ials = ! furnace bottom & acid bricks = ! sidewalls & ro(4 ,a few r[s ( *rome bricks may be put 9 to =m a neutral divid+ l9e j at & above ! edge ( ! ba? :]e ! action ( ! slag is ! mo/ sev]e4 ,x also s]ves to keep ! basic & acid mat]ials ap>t & f react+ ) ea* o!r4 ,at ! comm5cem5t ( *>g+1 lime/one or sometimes burnt lime is %ovel$ 9 ^u ! bottom or 8he>?0 ( ! :ite-hot furnace4 ,:5 cold metal is *>g$1 ! pigs ( iron are convey$ into ! furnace by ! melt] & 8 help]s by means ( long h&l$ flat iron tools call$ 8peels40 ,?is is foll[$ by *>g+ "s or all ( ! scrap or iron :i* is to be made a "p ( ! *>ge4 ,ev5 9 ! small] #ae or #be-ton furnaces h& *>g+ takes a great deal ( "t1 sometimes z mu* z six or eight h\rs1 & ! labor co/ z well z ! heat loss is !re=e excessive4 ,mod]n ma*9e *>g+ :i* requires n m ?an an h\r is !re=e highly desirable4 ,illu/ration3 ,,r[ ,,( ,,op5-,,he>? ,,furnaces ,,%[+ ,,pit ,,or ,,tapp+ ,,side ,dur+ ! melt+ d[n ( ! pig iron ) ! scrap t has be5 *>g$1 ! air & flame burn out ab\t half ( ! silicon & manganese ( ! metal4 ,to remove ! rema9d] ( ^! & ! c>bon ( ! *>ge1 additions are made f "t to "t ( suffici5t ore to keep ! ba? 8boil+40 ,?is ph5om5on results f ! giv+ (f ( c>bon monoxide gas =m$ f ! oxyg5 ( ! iron ore & ! c>bon ( ! metal1 j z happ5$ :5 ! puddl] 9 ! manufacture ( wr\ght iron us$ iron ore 9 8 furnace4 ,! cov]+ ( slag :i* =ms & protects ! ba? f ! flame und\bt$ly transf]s oxyg5 f ! furnace gases to ! ba? & ?is helps to burn out ! c>bon4 ,! lime *>g$ unites ) ! phosphorus ( ! iron & takes x into ! slag :i* cov]s ! ba?4 ,if necess>y1 fur!r additions ( lime may be made f "t to "t dur+ ! melt+ & ! 8work+ d[n0 7elim9ation ( ! metalloids7 ( ! *>ge4 ,z long z ! slag is kept basic x reta9s ! phosphorus1 b %\ld x turn acid ! iron ( ! ba? w\ld take ! phosphorus back aga94 ,^! reactions are all *emical1 j z mu* s z are ! burn+ ( wood & coal & ! ?\s&s ( reactions :i* are br\ght ab\t 9 *emical laboratories4 ,additions ( ore are made f "t to "t & ! ba? rabbl$4 ,samples are tak5 n[ & !n ) a long h&l$ iron spoon or ladle & ^! are p\r$ into molds to =m small b>s ( /eel1 :i*1 aft] qu5*+1 are brok54 ,illu/ration3 ,,op5-,,he>? ,,furnace 8,,tapp+0 ,! melt] has become v pr(ici5t 9 judg+ ! composition ( ! metal ( ! ba? f ! fracture ( ^! brok5 te/ pieces4 ,by means ( ! samples tak5 he wat*es ! elim9ation ( ! metalloids4 ,:5 he ?9ks ! reactions h progress$ f> en\gh he takes a la/ sample :i* is ru%$ to ! *emi/ :o makes a hurri$ 8control0 analysis = c>bon & phosphorus1 ! metal be+ held 9 ! furnace mean:ile4 ,if ! results ( ?is analysis %[ ! ba? to h ! desir$ composition ! /eel is p\r$4 ,if ! reactions h n be5 complete1 ! *emi/'s report %[s t ! c>bon & p]haps ! phosphorus are /ill too high1 9 :i* case ! *>ge mu/ be /ill fur!r work$ d[n4 ,"s melt]s are able to make fairly uni=m & satisfactory /eel )\t a *emi/1 b = be/ results a *emical laboratory is desirable4 ,:5 ready to tap1 ! big ladle is susp5d$ f a crane "u ! sp\t ( ! furnace4 ,) a tapp+ b> ! plug ( clay is remov$ f ! tap hole & ! molt5 /eel gu%es out into ! ladle4 ,! slag :i* has cov]$ ! ba? is ! la/ to dra9 out4 ,_m times ?is w ov]fl[ ! ladle1 mak+ a beautiful cascade z x p\rs ov] ! sides all ar\nd to ! floor b5ea?4 ,especially at night is ?is a glori\s sight4 ,illu/ration3 ,,teem+ ,,! ,,/eel ,,into ,,+ot ,,molds ,rec>burization is n done to ! same ext5t z x is 9 ! ,bessem] process4 ,z ! op5-he>? elim9ation ( c>bon is sl[] & "u s mu* bett] control1 ! furnace usually is tapp$ :5 ! c>bon has be5 r$uc$ to ! p]c5tage desir$ 9 ! f9i%$ /eel4 ,:5 x is necess>y to add c>bon x is done sometimes by add+ pig iron to ! ba? & sometimes by ?r[+ a weigh$ am\nt ( coal or coke 9 ! ladle z ! /eel is go+ 94 ,molt5 iron & /eel h /rong appetites = c>bon & dissolve x v readily4 ,f]ro-manganese is us$ to prev5t r$-%ortness & to deoxidize ! metal4 ,?is also is usually put into ! ladle z too mu* loss w\ld occur 7 x add$ 9 ! furnace4 ,:ile ! furnace is aga9 be+ *>g$ ?r\gh ! *>g+ doors at ! re>1 ! /eel is teem$ ?r\gh ! nozzle ( ! big ladle into ! wait+ +ot molds4 ,^! g to ! /ripp]1 to ! soak+ pits1 & !n to ! rolls ( ! bloom+ mills j z did ! ,bessem] +ots4 ,illu/ration3 ,,at ,,! 8,,/ripp]0 ,9 ! acid-l9$ furnace no attempt is made to r$uce ! phosphorus4 ,x w\ld be futile4 ,!re=e ! mat]ials *>g$ mu/ be v l[ 9 phosphorus & sulphur4 ,no lime additions are made1 ! flame simply melts d[n ! pig iron & scrap1 ! iron oxide lat] is add$ f "t to "t to keep up ! boil until ! te/ b>s %[ t ! c>bon z well z ! silicon & manganese h be5 elim9at$ z fully z is desir$4 ,! metal is !n tapp$ z describ$ above4 ,?ree or m h\rs are usually requir$ to melt d[n cold *>ges4 ,! elim9ation ( ! rema9d] ( ! silicon1 manganese1 & ! c>bon requires ab\t f\r or five h\rs m4 ,s = ea* heat ! op5-he>? furnace requires f eight to twelve h\rs1 dep5d+ l>gely ^u ! spe$ ( *>g+ & melt+4 ,( late ye>s ! difficulties att5d+ ! use ( molt5 metal f ! bla/ furnace 9 place ( cold pig iron h be5 l>gely surm\nt$4 ,! use ( uni=m metal f ! 8mix]10 :i* 0 describ$ 9 ! article on ! ,bessem] process1 has aid$ ! op5-he>? process also4 ,( c\rse1 :5 molt5 metal is add$ none ( its silicon & manganese is r$uc$ by ! flame z occurr$ ) ! cold metals dur+ ! melt+ d[n1 s ! molt5 metal *>g$ is usually l[ 9 ^! elem5ts to comp5sate4 ,by use ( 8hot0 7molt57 metal ! "t necess>y to produce a 8heat0 ( /eel is consid]ably %ort5$4 ,! fir/ & p]haps ! majority ( furnaces yet build+ are 8/ation>y40 ,"s h f\nd x advantage\s to con/ruct furnaces t c be tipp$ to p\r ! metal into ! ladle4 ,su* are kn[n z 8tilt+0 furnaces4 ,"o furnace design] has ev5 gone s f> 9 a small] type us$ = /eel ca/+s z to make ! furnace removable1 ?us do+ away ) a ladle entirely4 ,! big crane simply lifts ! :ole furnace out f betwe5 ! h\s+s :i* conta9 ! ports4 ,x is tak5 bodily to ! molds :i* are p\r$ directly4 ,op5-he>? furnaces h be5 built ( l>g] & l>g] capacity4 ,a great _m fifty-ton furnaces h be5 built & furnaces :i* produce eighty or m tons at a heat are n[ n uncommon4 ,furnaces ( ! ,talbot type are built = z mu* z #bjj & ev5 #cjj tons ( metal1 b f ^! only "p ( ! f9i%$ /eel is tapp$ at a "t1 ! rema9d] be+ left to help "w d[n ! additions ( new mat]ial :i* is add$ to replace ! /eel tapp$ out4 ,! roll+ mill indu/ry is s intimately connect$ ) & dep5d5t ^u ! /eel-mak+ me?ods & equipm5t t ea* is design$ ) ref]5ce to ! o!r4 ,bessem] /eel has be5 l>gely us$ = ! manufacture ( rails1 rod1 wire1 pipe1 m]*ant b>1 etc41 :ile op5-he>? /eel has gone into plate1 boil] tubes1 /ructural %apes1 billets = axles1 etc4 ,rec5tly x is be+ us$ = rails & v _m ( ! products :i* 7 =m]ly made f ,bessem] /eel4 ,illu/ration3 ,,l[] ,,half ,,( ,a 8,,batt]y0 ,,( ,,mod]n ,,gas ,,produc]s ,x %\ld n be inf]r$ f ?is t ,bessem] /eel is no long] 9 dem& or t x is n good /eel4 ,z y w notice f ! table giv5 9 ! la/ *apt]1 ! production ( ,bessem] /eel has n decl9$ appreciably1 if at all4 ,! fact is t op5-he>? /eel production has be5 increas+ at a great rate1 :ile ! production ( ,bessem] has rema9$ /ation>y4 ,) ! gr[+ sc>city ( ores suitable = pig iron = ,bessem]iz+1 ! op5-he>? process is becom+ able to compete ) ! ,bessem] process 9 ! matt] ( co/4 ,= "s purposes ! /eel is consid]$ to be a little m desirable1 b1 z is ! case ) _m good ?+s1 ! p5dulum sw+s too f> & !re is no d\bt t op5-he>? /eel is (t5 dem&$ & us$ = purposes = :i* ,bessem] /eel w\ld be j z good & p]haps bett]4 ,= _m ye>s x has be5 said t ! ,bessem] process is 8doom$40 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 0 because ( ! sc>city ( l[ phosphorus ores4 ,j h[ 8doom$0 x is1 x is p]haps impossible to say4 ,c]ta9ly x is /ill a v live process & ! comb9+ ( processes1 su* z 8duplex+10 w probably prolong its life4 ,by ! 8duplex0 process1 molt5 bla/ furnace iron f ! mix] is 8desiliconiz$0 9 ! ,bessem] conv]t]4 ,be=e too mu* ( ! c>bon has be5 burn$1 ! metal is transf]r$ to a basic op5-he>? furnace :]e ! rema9d] ( ! c>bon & mo/ ( ! phosphorus is remov$4 ,by ?is me?od ! advantages ( ! op5-he>? & mu* ( ! spe$ ( ! ,bessem] process are comb9$4 ,! output ( ! op5-he>? furnace is ?us greatly increas$4 ,to-day all k9ds ( comb9ations ( ,bessem]1 op5-he>?1 & electric furnace are be+ project$ & x is difficult & likely impossible = any "o to pr$ict ! future ( any ( ! processes4 ,le/ ! metallurgical facts scatt]$ ?r\gh sev]al *apt]s escape1 let u summ>ize a little4 ,r\ghly speak+1 ! capabilities ( & mat]ials requir$ = ! processes are z foll[s--! *emical symbols = silicon1 manganese1 c>bon1 phosphorus1 & sulphur be+ us$ = brevity3 ,,process ,,ref9+ ,,capability ,,mat]ial ,,requir$ ,crucible ,process4 ,removes no metalloids1 ,v l[ ,si4 ,p4 ,s4 & b simply remelts4 ,c4 ,acid ,bessem] ,process4 ,takes out ,si4 ,mn4 & ,v l[ ,p4 & ,s4 ,c4 7"u #j4a74 ,basic ,bessem] ,process4 ,takes out ,si4 ,mn4 ,c4 ,p4 ,v high ,p4 7#b & & "s ,s4 ov]74 ,acid ,op5-,he>? ,takes out ,si4 ,mn4 ,c4 ,v l[ ,p4 & ,s4 ,process4 7"u #j4a ( ea*74 ,basic ,op5-,he>? ,takes out ,si4 ,mn4 ,c4 ,p4 ,wid] ,v>iety4 ,process4 & "s ,s4 ,electric ,furnace ,takes out ,si4 ,mn4 ,c4 ,p4 ,wid] ,v>iety4 ,process4 & ,s4 ,9 fur!r explanation ( ! competition 9 quality ( ,bessem] & ( op5-he>? /eels x %\ld be und]/ood t 9 bo? ! acid ,bessem] & ! acid op5-he>? furnaces we get out 9 quality j :at we put 94 ,:ile = "s purposes phosphorus & sulphur ( #j4a p] c5t is all[able1 = o!r purposes !y %\ld n be ov] #j4jbe or #j4jc p] c5t4 ,to produce /eel ( ! latt] high quality1 mat]ial conta9+ slightly less ?an ?is ( sulphur & phosphorus mu/ be *>g$1 & ^! are usually mu* high] 9 price ?an are pig iron & scrap conta9+ great] p]c5tages ( ^! metalloids4 ,illu/ration3 ,,*>g+ ,,floor ,,( ,,! ,,batt]y ,,( ,,gas ,,produc]s ,,%[+ ,,rock+ ,,arms ,,= ,,gradual ,,fe$+ ,,( ,,! ,,coal ,:]e mat]ials ( #b4e to #c p] c5t ( phosphorus are obta9able1 z1 g5]ally speak+1 !y are n 9 ?is c\ntry1 ! basic ,bessem] %\ld make z l[ phosphorus /eel z does ! basic op5-he>?4 ,! great advantages ( ! basic op5-he>? process1 !n1 are t = x c be utiliz$ a mu* wid] v>iety ( raw mat]ials ?an is possible ) ! acid op5-he>? or ei!r ( ! ,bessem] processes1 &1 p>ticul>ly t "h1 at lea/1 ! prop] mat]ials are readily available4 ,! fuels us$ v>y1 ( c\rse1 accord+ to :at is mo/ available1 consid]+ quantity1 quality1 & price4 ,natural gas has be5 a favorite fuel1 z also has oil4 ,b 9 _m localities natural gas nev] 0 available & 9 o!rs :i* 7 ?us bless$1 ! supply has be5 exhau/$4 ,by-product coke ov5 gas & t> are be+ exp]im5t$ ) ) "s success4 ,l>gely because ( ! great size ( ! op5-he>? furnace solid fuel1 su* z coal :i* c be us$ = puddl+ furnaces1 is n adaptable4 ,z f> back z #ahci attempts 7 made to gasify coal by burn+ x to a% & utiliz+ ! gase\s products = indu/rial purposes4 ,^! attempts succe$$ & ! process has be5 br\ght to q a high /ate ( developm5t4 ,!re are to-day a l>ge numb] ( effici5t types ( 8gas produc]s0 :i* furni% gas = g5]al indu/rial use & x is ) ?is 8produc] gas0 t a great deal ( ! /eel n[adays is made4 ,:ile endeavor+ to leave out ( ^! articles mo/ ( ! *emi/ry & z mu* ( ! te*nical detail z is consi/5t ) cle>ness1 ! *emi/ry ( combu/ion & ! 8gas produc]0 is s int]e/+ t x w be well to expla9 t c>bon 7coal1 coke1 wood1 etc47 c burn ei!r 9 "o or two /ages4 ,ne>ly e "o has notic$ ! blue flame ) :i* coal burns 9 ! p>lor coal heat] or 9 o!r furnaces :]e little draft is us$ & mo/ ( u rememb] t ! gas :i* is giv5 (f f su* a fire has asphyxiat$ _m :o 7 un=tunate en\gh to be sleep+ 9 a clos$ room1 :5 ?r\gh insuffici5t *imney draft or a leaky /ove "s ( ! unburnt gas fill$ ! room4 ,?is gas1 :i* is c>bon monoxide1 is label$ ,,co 9 books on *emi/ry4 ,x is ! result ( burn+ ! coal ) insuffici5t air4 ,*emically x is expla9$ by ! second ( ! *emical 8equations0 :i* foll[4 ,! ?ird equation expla9s ! second /age ( ! burn+ :i* w\ld occur 7 fur!r air or oxyg5 admitt$ to ! upp] "p ( ! furnace4 ,! usual "o-/age combu/ion ) pl5ty ( air3 #a4 ,c 7c>bon7 #b,o 7oxyg57 burns to ,,co#b 7c>bon dioxide74 ,non-poison\s4 ,! two-/age combu/ion ) insuffici5t air3 #b4 ,c ,o burns to ,,co 7c>bon monoxide74 ,poison\s4 #c4 ,,co ,o burns to ,,co#b4 ,non-poison\s4 ,c>bon monoxide asphyxiates by =m+ a *emical comp\nd ) ! hmoglob9 ( ! blood1 :i* !re=e is prev5t$ f supply+ ! body ) ! oxyg5 t is requir$ = ! su/5ance ( life4 ,c>bon dioxide is no su* poison\s product1 z may be inf]r$ :5 we rememb] t x is ! gas ) :i* our c>bonat$ wat]s are *>g$ & :i* is s commonly s]v$ ) ice cream 9 ice cream soda4 ,n[ 9 a gas produc]1 by ma9ta9+ a suffici5tly ?ick b$ ( gl[+ coal & admitt+ only su* am\nts ( air z w produce ma9ly c>bon monoxide gas1 a product ( high burn+ value is obta9$4 ,a kilogram 7#b4b p\nds7 ( c>bon 9 burn+ f ,c to ,,co g5]ates only #bdej calories or heat units1 :]eas its complete burn+ to ,,co#b w\ld give #hjhj calories4 ,s by conduct+ ! c>bon monoxide gas--! product ( ! fir/ /age ( ! combu/ion--?r\gh brick-l9$ pipes to ! furnace1 & 9 ! latt] by addition ( air all[+ x to burn to ,,co#b1 ! great] am\nt ( heat 7i4 e41 #hjhj m9us #bdej or #efcj calories7 is evolv$ 9 ! furnace4 ,( c\rse1 "s ( ?is !oretical two-?irds :i* is 9 ?is way made available at ! furnace is lo/ because a little ,,co#b is =m$1 & always ! nitrog5 ( ! air us$ greatly dilutes ! gas4 ,b !re are ga9s1 notably ! great heat :i* is c>ri$ ov] by ! hot gas f ! gl[+ b$ ( coal & t f ! wat]-gas :i* is =m$ f /eam us$ 9 ! produc]4 ,s1 all 9 all1 ! gas g5]at$ 9 a 8batt]y0 ( gas produc]s1 all ( :i* dis*>ge into "o l>ge ma9 or head] to ma9ta9 gas ( av]age composition1 is q a satisfactory fuel4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,ca/ ,,iron ,f ! prec$+ *apt]s we n[ "k pretty well ! place :i* ca/ iron occupies 9 ! iron family4 ,9 ! *apt]s :i* h succe$$ ! "o 9 :i* we discuss$ ! bla/ furnace & pig iron1 e "o ( ! products except crucible /eel has be5 produc$ ?r\gh "s 8ref9+0 op]ation :i* greatly *ang$ ! composition1 /ructure & prop]ties ( ! product4 ,ca/ iron is n ! result ( a ref9+ op]ation 9 ?is s5se ( ! ^w4 ,x is produc$ ?r\gh simple mix+ ( pig irons ( v>i\s compositions1 usually ) "s admixture ( iron ca/+s ( simil> composition :i* h outliv$ _! usefulness 9 ! indu/rial _w & h be5 return$ z scrap to be remelt$4 ,:5 we say t ca/ iron is n produc$ ?r\gh a ref9+ op]ation1 x mu/ n be inf]r$ t no *ange 9 composition occurs dur+ ! remelt+4 ,!re is "s *ange1 notably a loss ?r\gh oxidation f ! air bla/ ( a little ( ! silicon & manganese4 ,aside f ?is !re usually w be absorption ( en\gh1 or sometimes m ?an en\gh1 c>bon f ! coke us$ 9 melt+ to make up = ! c>bon :i* is oxidiz$4 ,usually "s sulphur also is tak5 up f ! fuel4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 no su* actual or int5d$ alt]ation ( composition ?r\gh burn+ out ( ! metalloids z is necess>y = ! production ( wr\ght iron & /eel4 ,b f ?is we mu/ n assume t ! manufacture ( ca/ iron = *ill$ rolls1 c> :eels1 ma*9e p>ts1 valves & fitt+s1 etc41 is an easy proposition4 ,z we w soon see1 accurate regulation is requir$ ( metal = prop] dep?s ( 8*ill0 = rolls1 c> :eels & ca/+s :i* mu/ h high resi/ance to we>4 ,too1 ! metal = valves & fitt+s & o!r m or less complicat$ ca/+s = high /eam1 air1 ammonia1 wat]1 etc41 mu/ be uni=m1 ( close gra91 /rong1 yet s(t en\gh to ma*9e easily at ! extremely high spe$s :i* mod]n effici5t tools & me?ods dem&4 ,! production ( ! be/ metal = su* "w requires ! use ( prop]ly select$ mat]ials1 judici\s mix+1 & clev] op]ation ( ! cupola furnace1 t ! molt5 metal deliv]$ to ! f\ndry = ! p\r+ ( ! molds may be hot & fluid & ( ! "r composition = ! p>ticul> "w 9 h&4 ,illu/ration3 ,,sampl+ ,,c>s ,,( ,,high ,,silicon ,,pig ,,iron ,x is always int]e/+ & in/ructive to foll[ ! mat]ials ?r\gh _! c\rse f ! 8raw0 /ate to f9i%$ products1 &1 !re=e1 we are go+ to take y on a little trip f ! receiv+ y>d ( a firm mak+ ca/ iron goods :]e we see ! c>s ( pig iron j 9 f ! bla/ furnace & :]e ! mat]ials are sampl$ & held p5d+ analysis1 to ! laboratory :]e ! samples are analyz$1 !n to ! /orage b9s :]e ! mat]ials are unload$1 &1 lat]1 ) ! weigh$ *>ges1 to ! cupolas :i* conv]t !m into molt5 ca/ iron ( ! prop] composition & quality = high grade ca/+s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,sampl+ ,,o!r ,,pig ,,irons ,pig irons ( l[] silicon cont5t _c be brok5 easily ) a sl$ge b usually are ?r[n f a height across an iron block4 ,tw5ty ye>s ago x look$ z if ! iron f\ndry w\ld be "o ( ! la/ /rongholds ( 8rule-(-?umb0 to give way to sci5tific me?ods4 ,x does n look s to-day1 ?\gh !re are _m f\ndries :i* yet buy & use _! pig iron on ! basis ( fracture2 i4e41 ! f\ndryman guesses by judg+ ( ! color & clos5ess ( gra9 & o!r *>act]i/ics ( fre% fractures ( ! pig irons h[ suitable !y are = 8 purpose & 9 :at proportion to mix !m4 ,a skillful man c get fair results 9 ?is way only s long z he uses ! small numb] ( br&s ( pig iron ) :i* he is p]fectly famili>1 & ev5 !n !re mu/ be b little fluctuation 9 composition ( ! irons us$ & he mu/ be all[$ consid]able latitude 9 ! quality ( ! iron :i* he produces4 ,success by ?is me?od is ev5 m difficult n[ ?an x 0 t5 ye>s ago1 = ! adv5t ( _m new bla/ furnaces & _! great] v>iety ( products h made ?is rule-(-?umb mix+ a mu* m unc]ta9 matt] ?an x =m]ly 04 ,ma*9e-made pigs1 :i* are s g5]ally on ! m>ket n[1 give fractures :i* tell little reg>d+ _! compositions4 ,illu/ration3 ,,drill+ ,,! ,,samples ,no oil or o!r lubricant is all[able & ! drill+s are tak5 up ) a magnet t no s& or o!r impurity may get into ! sample = analysis4 ,:ile "s f\ndries /ill attempt to accompli% ?is difficult & sometimes impossible feat1 ! majority are n[ apply+ m sci5tific me?ods to _! manufacture ( ca/ iron4 ,?\gh ! eye _c tell surely f ! fracture ! composition or quality ( ! iron :i* is us$ 9 mak+ up ! *>ges1 *emical analysis does def9itely give ?is in=mation4 ,!re=e1 e c> ( pig iron pur*as$ by ?is firm is sampl$ & analyz$1 ! composition ( all o!r mat]ials us$ 9 its mixtures is det]m9$1 &1 irrespective ( fracture1 :i* may or may n tell ! tru? reg>d+ _! composition1 ! raw mat]ials are *>g$ ) respect only to _! actual cont5t ( ! metalloids4 ,! result+ molt5 iron ea* day is analyz$ to confirm ! correctness ( ! mixture & to furni% analysis ( ! 8sprues0 :i* next day are to be us$ z a "p ( ! day's *>ge4 ,physical te/ b>s1 too1 are ca/ ea* h\r or s1 & ! t5sile1 transv]se /r5g?s1 h>dness1 %r9kage1 etc4 are accurately det]m9$ 9 te/+ ma*9es & record$4 ,9 ?is way absolutely no?+ is left to *ance or to guess "w1 &1 z y may surmise1 any slight deviation f ! composition desir$ is %[n at once & ! mixture imm$iately *ang$ to ! ext5t necess>y to br+ ! iron back to normal4 ,x is surpris+ )9 :at n>r[ limits ( v>iation compositions & physical prop]ties c be held1 ) furnace op]ations cont9ually "u su* surveillance4 ,illu/ration3 ,,weigh+ ,,out ,,portions ,,= ,,analysis ,! f9ely divid$ mix$ drill+s are %ak5 f a ?9-blad$ spatula on to ! balance pan4 ,drill+s are add$ or tak5 (f until ! long ne$le atta*$ to ! beam ( ! balance sw+s ov] an equal numb] ( divisions on ea* side ( ! c5t] m>k ( ! :ite scale 9 ! middle4 ,accuracy is #a_/dec1jjj ( an avoirdupois p\nd2 ?is is approximately ! weight ( ! lead ( a 8p5cil m>k0 "o in* long4 ,z ! basis = its ca/ iron1 _m ?\s&s ( tons ( pig iron are ea* ye> us$ direct f ! bla/ furnaces4 ,! raw mat]ials come 9 railroad c>s or by boat4 ,! inspector :o repres5ts ! metallurgical dep>tm5t ent]s ea* c> & inspects ! mat]ials1 tak+ f ea* a repres5tative sample = analysis4 ,9 ! case ( pig iron ?is w be f f\r to eight half pigs1 x hav+ be5 f\nd by exp]i5ce t ^! repres5t v well ! cont5ts ( ! c>4 ,s ea* c> ( mat]ial is held )\t unload+ until x has be5 det]m9$ by inspection & analysis t x is fully up to ! specifications ^u :i* ! iron 0 pur*as$4 ,arriv+ at ! laboratory1 ! half pigs f ea* c> are drill$1 equal am\nts ( ! drill+s be+ tak5 & mix$ 9 an envelope :i* be>s ! "n ( ! br& ( iron1 ! numb] ( ! c>1 ! date1 etc4 ,! sample pigs f ea* c> are treat$ 9 ?is same way1 ea* c> be+ treat$ individually4 ,! envelopes conta9+ ! drill+s !n g to ! *emi/s4 ,frequ5tly samples f fifte5 or tw5ty c>s ( pig iron1 ) z _m o!r samples ( v>i\s d]ivation1 are be+ analyz$ at ! same "t = ! f\r or six diff]5t con/itu5ts :i* x is necess>y = ! metallurgi/s to "k & control 9 ord] t a highly satisfactory product may result4 ,?\gh a hundr$ diff]5t det]m9ations may be 9 progress at ! same "t1 spell+ 8*aos0 9 ! m9d ( "o n entirely famili> ) ! details ( ! "w1 x w be int]e/+ to s+le out & expla9 briefly h[ ! samples are analyz$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,clos] ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,weigh+ ,9 su* analytical "w ev]y?+ is bas$ ^u weight2 i4e41 con/itu5ts are det]m9$ & report$ 9 p]c5tages by weight4 ,9 *emical laboratory "w ev]y:]e ! metric sy/em is us$1 ! cumb]some ,engli% sy/em ( weights & measures be+ practically impossible4 ,?us1 ! metric sy/em is ! int]national sci5tific /&>d4 ,! unit tak5 is ! gram1 :i* is equival5t to "p ( an avoirdupois p\nd4 ,"o gram ( pig iron drill+s is su* an am\nt z c\ld be held on an ord9>y t5-c5t piece4 ,work+ ) su* small am\nts ( ! sample1 exactness & skill are extremely necess>y4 ,! balances us$ are necess>ily v delicate--j z delicate z 7 ! scales ^u :i* ! jewel] weigh$ y\r diamonds--y rememb]1 ( c\rse4 ,on ^! balances we c weigh an in*-long m>k made by an ord9>y lead p5cil4 ,illu/ration3 ,,dissolv+ ,,9 ,,acids ,?is is done "u a hood t ! irritat+ fumes giv5 (f may be kept f ! room4 ,z ! results ( ! analysis h to be kn[n inside ( ?ree or f\r h\rs t ! c>s may be quickly unload$ 9 ord] to avoid demurrage1 :i* is ! p5alty = hold+ c>s long] ?an ! all[able "t1 sep>ate portions ( ea* sample are weigh$ out = det]m9ation ( ! silicon1 manganese1 sulphur1 phosphorus1 graphitic c>bon1 & comb9$ c>bon4 ,^! are necess>y 9 ord] to det]m9e t ! iron is up to ! quality specifi$ 9 ! pur*ase contract & also to provide = its mo/ effici5t use 9 ! manufacture ( iron ca/+s4 ,! exactly weigh$ portions are put into clean1 numb]$ beak]s1 :i* are small pieces ( high grade glassw>e t w /& sudd5 *anges ( heat & cold4 ,"s ( ^! portions are dissolv$ 9 nitric acid1 "s 9 hydro*loric acid1 o!rs 9 comb9ations ( acids4 ,9 ea* case ! drill+s g into solution 9 ! acids1 & aft] v>i\s treatm5ts ( boil+1 evaporat+1 filt]+1 etc41 well kn[n to ^? ( ! *emical pr(ession1 ! desir$ results are obta9$4 ,9 "s cases x is by actually weigh+ a con/itu5t :i* has be5 filt]$ out & burn$ to a% ( a con/ant kn[n composition1 9 o!rs x is by comp>ison ( color ) /&>ds ( kn[n composition1 & sometimes x is by o!r means4 ,illu/ration3 ,,filt]+ ,,silicons ,aft] evaporat+ ! excess acid1 bak+ dry1 cool+1 & r$issolv+ 9 weak] acid1 ! silicon comp\nd =m$ may be filt]$ out4 ,! iron & o!r soluble con/itu5ts1 n[ 9 solution1 pass ?r\gh ! filt]1 :i* is ( pure1 por\s1 unglaz$ pap]4 ,9 all ( ?is analytical "w ! *emi/ mu/ take c>e to lose n "o drop ( ! solution or "o gra9 ( ! a% f ! burn$ 8precipitate10 z ! 8filt]$ out0 con/itu5t is call$4 ,! pig iron is always b\ght ^u gu>antee t x w conta9 a c]ta9 p]c5tage ( silicon--! elem5t :i* 9 ca/ iron is kn[n z a 8s(t5]40 ,b ?is is n ! only ?+ necess>y 9 ! iron t is pur*as$4 ,x mu/ also %[ prop] specifi$ quantities ( manganese1 phosphorus & c>bon1 :i* also are v desirable elem5ts 9 iron ca/+s1 & z little ( t undesirable elem5t1 sulphur1 z possible4 ,!re=e !y pay 9 proportion to ! cont5t ( silicon1 manganese1 phosphorus1 & c>bon--& p5alize ! sell] = sulphur4 ,illu/ration3 8,,burn+ ,,(f0 ,,! ,,silicons ,! pap] & cont5ts1 9 a little crucible1 are plac$ 9 a r$-hot muffle furnace4 ,! pap] is su* pure cellulose t x leaves no weighable a%4 ,t :i* rema9s aft] burn+ is silicon oxide1 :i* is a p]fectly :ite1 f9e s&4 ,?is is v c>efully weigh$4 7,ord9>y s& is silicon oxide usually slightly color$ ) iron47 ,! laboratory holds copies ( ! contracts ^u :i* ^! mat]ials 7 b\ght4 ,if1 ^u comp>ison1 ! analysis obta9$ complies ) ! t]ms ( ! contract1 an ,o4 ,k4 unload+ slip is made out & ! receiv+ dep>tm5t is giv5 directions into :at raw-mat]ial b9 9 ! receiv] build+ x %all be unload$4 ,if n fully up to ! /&>d call$ = 9 ! contract1 ! pur*as+ dep>tm5t is notifi$ & ! c> is ei!r reject$ or accept$ ^u "s prop] t]ms ( adju/m5t if x c be us$ )\t detrim5t to ! product 9 :i* x is to be utiliz$4 ,c>s ( coke1 lime/one1 fluorsp>1 etc41 are inspect$1 analyz$ & treat$ 9 ! same way1 s t no?+ is left to guess "w4 ,! compositions z det]m9$ by ! laboratory s]ve n only z ! basis = acceptance or rejection1 b ! analyses ( accept$ mat]ials are =w>d$ at once to ! metallurgi/s1 :o f !m figure ! mixtures to be us$ 9 ! cupolas4 ,hav+ great /ocks ( analyz$ raw mat]ials 9 ! label$ b9s 9 ! receiv] build+1 ! metallurgi/s :o sup]vise ! mix+ & melt+ ( ! iron det]m9e by ma!matical calculation j :at irons & h[ mu* ( ea* mu/ be tak5 to give molt5 iron ( ! be/ composition & prop]ties = ! ca/+s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,titrat+ ,,! ,,sulphur ,sulphur is evolv$ f ! drill+s z a gas 7hydrog5 sulphide74 ,?is is absorb$ 9 a solution ( *loride ( z9c4 ,! am\nt ( sulphur is measur$ by sl[ly runn+ 9 f a burette a solution ( iod9e ( v accurately kn[n /r5g?4 ,! iod9e unites ) ! sulphur comp\nd z long z any ( ! latt] rema9s1 b ! fir/ drop add$ !reaft] turns blue ! :ole solution because ( ! reaction ( ! excess ( iod9e ) />* pa/e t has be5 add$ previ\sly z an indicator4 ,accuracy is ab\t 4#jje p] c5t ( sulphur4 ,! total iron mat]ials *>g$ mu/ h a def9ite am\nt ( silicon1 ( manganese1 ( phosphorus & ( c>bon4 ,= a #d1jjj-p\nd *>ge = s(t ca/ iron1 = in/ance1 ! total silicon 9 ! mat]ials :i* make up ! *>ge mu/ be some:]e ne> #aah p\nds1 ! manganese & ! phosphorus ab\t #cj p\nds ea*4 ,! usual losses ( ^! mat]ials ?r\gh oxidation are kn[n1 ( c\rse1 & suffici5t excess has be5 all[$ t ! desir$ f9al composition w result4 ,illu/ration3 ,,titrat+ ,,phosphorus ,a yell[ precipitate conta9+ ! phosphorus is filt]$ out on filt] pap]4 ,x is r$issolv$ 9 alkali & titrat$ ) a /&>d solution ( nitric acid1 simil>ly to ! sulphur4 ,! solution 9 ! flask turns p9k ) ! fir/ drop add$ aft] ! phosphorus has be5 measur$4 ,on sev]al scales :i* are regul>ly inspect$ & kept c>efully adju/$1 ! weigh]s weigh out ! prescrib$ quantities ( ! raw mat]ials4 8,buggies0 hold+ ne>ly "o ton ea* are load$ 9 turn ) coke1 ) prop] am\nts ( pig iron1 ca/ iron scrap1 sprues f ! f\ndry ca/+s ( ! prec$+ day1 & a prop] weight ( lime/one flux4 ,ea* *>ge ( two tons ( iron requires f\r buggies = its transportation f ! raw-mat]ial b9s & scales to ! cupolas4 ,! old-"t way 0 = labor]s to dump ! *>ges into ! cupola & spread ! mat]ials by h&1 b 9 mod]n f\ndries bett] ways h be5 provid$4 ,"h a *>g+ ma*9e op]at$ by compress$ air lifts into ! furnace1 "o by "o1 ! buggies ( coke1 & ( ! o!r mat]ials1 :5ce1 aft] ! dump+ ( _! cont5ts1 ! buggies are return$ to ! receiv] build+ to be fill$ aga94 ,?us _m *>ges p] h\r pass ?r\gh ! yawn+ *>g+ doors ( ! cupolas1 be+ dump$ 9 fa/ en\gh to ma9ta9 ! level approximately ev5 ) ! bottom ( ! *>g+ door4 ,illu/ration3 ,,read+ ,,! ,,c>bons ,! high] ! comb9$ c>bon ! d>k] ! nitric acid solution ( ! iron or /eel4 ,! solution is dilut$ ) wat] or weak acid until ! color mat*es t ( a 8kn[n0 sample or /&>d4 ,accurately graduat$ comp>ison tubes are us$4 ,9 />t+1 a wood fire has be5 made on ! s& bottom ( ! cupola4 ,?is is cov]$ ) coke 9 su* a way & 9 su* am\nt t1 :5 ready = *>g+ ( ! metal1 a column ( gl[+ coke ext5ds to a di/ance ( "o foot or two above ! tuyres4 ,^u ?is 8b$0 9 alt]nat+ lay]s are pil$ ! weigh$ am\nts ( pig iron1 sprue1 scrap & lime/one z describ$ above4 ,foll[+ ea* *>ge is a lay] ( coke suffici5t 9 am\nt to replace ! 8b$0 coke :i* is burn$ away 9 melt+ ! iron *>ge1 ?us ma9ta9+ ! top ( ! b$ ( coke ?r\gh\t ! day at approximately ! same height4 ,illu/ration3 ,,weigh+ ,,! ,,graphitic ,,c>bon ,! graphite is filt]$ out on an asbe/os pad 9 a p]=at$ plat9um crucible4 ,aft] dry+ until all moi/ure is gone x is weigh$1 ignit$1 & weigh$ aga94 ,! loss ( weight equals ! weight ( ! graphite ( ! sample4 ,ev] s9ce #g o'clock ,a4,m41 :5 ! twelve to sixte5 ounces ( bla/ pressure 0 put on1 ! *>ges h be5 desc5d+ gradually f ! *>g+ door4 ,enc\nt]+ ! int5se heat 9 ! 8melt+ zone0 at ! top ( ! b$ ( coke a little above ! tuyres1 ! iron melts & trickles d[n ?r\gh ! ?ree to five-foot b$ ( gl[+ coke on to ! s& cupola bottom or he>? :]e x accumulates4 ,! tapp]1 ) 8 iron b> & 8bod /ick0 ) its little ball ( moi/ fire clay1 alt]nately op5s & plugs ! tap hole at ! bottom ( ! furnace z occasion requires1 b ?r\gh\t ! day ( t5 or m h\rs !re is almo/ con/antly a full /ream ( iron fl[+ f ! sp\t4 ,! big 8bull ladle0 :i* receives x1 9 turn gives x up to small] or 8%ank0 ladles1 9 :i* x is convey$ along trolleys to /ill small] ladles f :i* x is p\r$ into ! s& molds to =m ! ca/+s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,ano!r ,,close-,,up ,,view ,z 9 ! bla/ furnace1 lime/one is add$ z flux to make liquid & dispose ( s&1 dirt1 scale1 etc41 :i* are detrim5tal4 ,! liquid slag =m$ f union ( lime/one ) ^! impurities floats ^u ! molt5 iron 9 ! cupola he>?1 z x is less ?an half z heavy z ! iron itself4 ,x fl[s almo/ cont9u\sly f a high] hole call$ ! 8slag hole10 9 ! re> ( ! furnace & j b5ea? ! tuyres4 ,! slag has little value except z mat]ial = fill+ purposes1 etc4 ,s-call$ 8slag wool0 c be made by bl[+ air ?r\gh x4 ,sometimes ! bla/ f ! cupola bl[s x 9 su* a way t ?is pure :ite 8wool0 is =m$ & bl[s out ( ! slag hole ( ! cupola4 ,ab\t ,*ri/mas "t "s ( ! workm5 take quantities ( x home = decoration & = firepro( :isk]s = 8,santa ,claus40 ,^! op]ations g on cont9u\sly ?r\gh\t ! day1 ea* cupola mak+ ! p>ticul> grade ( ca/ iron or 8semi-/eel0 :i* is be/ adapt$ to ! p>ticul> ca/+s to be p\r$1 size1 %ape & purpose ( ,illu/ration3 ,,det]m9+ ,,c>bon ,,by ,,direct ,,combu/ion ,9 an electric furnace ) pure oxyg5 pass+ ov] !m1 ! drill+s burn z w\ld spl9t]s ( wood4 ,f ! gas giv5 (f ! total c>bon is det]m9$ ) great accuracy4 ,illu/ration3 ,,weigh+ ,,pig ,,iron ,,= ,,! ,,cupola ,f ?ree to six v>ieties ( pig iron are us$ 9 ea* *>ge4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,receiv] ,,build+ ,"h pig irons ( diff]5t compositions are sep>ately kept 9 numb]$ & label$ b9s4 ,! magnet :i* is us$ = unload+ & h&l+ ! iron may be se54 ,! grab bucket = s& is at ! "r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,weigh+ ,,! ,,*>ge ,,( ,,coke ,close weigh+ is necess>y1 = a v>iation ( t5 or fifte5 p\nds may affect ! runn+ ( ! cupola4 ! ca/+s be+ ! ?ree ma9 det]m9+ factors4 ,illu/ration3 ,,sectional ,,view ,,( ,a ,,cupola ,:5 ne>+ ! end ( ! day1 *>g+ ceases1 ! *>g+ door is clos$ & ! la/ *>ge1 gradually desc5d+1 melts & fl[s into ! bull ladle ab\t an h\r lat]4 ,z soon z ! bull ladle is empti$ x is run out ( ! way1 ! cupola is dra9$ ( all iron & consid]able slag ?r\gh ! tap hole1 & ! bottom doors ( ! cupola are dropp$ by pull+ f "u !m ! 8props0 :i* h held !m 9 position4 ,! great mass ( b$ coke foll[s ) a great bur/ ( heat1 light & flame4 ,?is is quickly subdu$ ) a /ream ( wat] & remov$4 ,:5 cool1 ! slag & accumulations are *ipp$ f ! cupola l9+1 burn$ areas are pat*$ ) bricks & /iff1 fire-resi/+ mud1 ! bottom doors are rais$ & fa/5$ 9 position1 & ! eight-in* s& bottom is pack$ 9 ready = ! next day's run4 ,aft] build+ a fire & gett+ a good 8b$0 ( gl[+ coke1 ! cupola is ready aga9 = ! *>g+ ( iron4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,cupola ,,9 ,,op]ation ,! /ream ( iron f ! cupola sp\t fl[s into a 8bull ladle0 & f t into 8%ank-ladles40 ,! bull ladle s]ves z a res]voir & mix]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,ca/+s ,,( ,,ca/ ,,iron ,,z ,,!y ,,come ,,f ,,! ,,molds ,! 8sprues0 h n be5 remov$4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,ca/ ,,iron 7,cont9u$7 ,unlike ! mod]n ,bessem]1 op5-he>?1 & o!r /eel products :i* are rework$1 i4e41 roll$1 =g$1 etc41 ca/ iron is a comp>atively old alloy dat+ back ov] sev]al c5turies4 ,x _c be roll$1 =g$1 or o!rwise re%ap$1 s its f9al =m mu/ be giv5 to x at once by p\r+ or 8ca/+0 ! molt5 metal into a mold4 ,its ca/+s s]ve exce$+ly well 9 ! hundr$s ( places = :i* !y are adapt$4 ,!y are comp>atively *eap1 c be readily duplicat$ 9 small or l>ge quantities1 & ^? f ! s(t] grades ( ca/ iron may be ma*9$ easily4 ,^! ca/ iron alloys h only f "o-?ird to "o-half ! /r5g? ( /eel or wr\ght iron & are1 comp>atively speak+1 v brittle4 ,:]e resi/ance to sev]e %ock mu/ be )/ood !y %\ld n be us$4 ,also1 "s v>ieties h a 8habit0 ( gr[+ l>g] ^u repeat$ heat+ & cool+4 ,?is 8p]man5t gr[?0 is p>ticul>ly noticeable :5 ! alt]nate heat+ & cool+ is at r$ heat or ov]4 ,pieces ( ca/ iron h be5 made to ga9 #ae p] c5t 9 l9e> dim5sions1 & x is q common k among ma*9i/s t a piece ( ca/ iron :i* is slightly too small c be p]man5tly exp&$ by heat4 ,nev]!less1 ! ca/ irons h l>ge & legitimate fields 9 :i* !y are v s]viceable4 ,f mo/ ( _! important pres5t uses !y are n likely soon to be displac$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,because ,,( ,,_! ,,l>ge ,,size ,,molds ,,= ,,v ,,l>ge ,,ca/+s ,,h ,,to ,,be ,,made ,,on ,,! ,,floor ,,( ,,! ,,f\ndry1 ,,or ,,p>tly ,,9 ,,pits ,ca/ irons 9 consid]able v>iety ( compositions & physical prop]ties are available1 z 0 indicat$ by alloys ,nos4 #ad to #ai :i* 7 giv5 9 ! table on page #hc1 "p ( :i* is "h reproduc$4 ,9 alloys #c to #ac ! c>bon ex]ts ! great influ5ce on ! physical prop]ties1 & ?is is true also ( ! ca/ irons4 ,b all ( ! latt] h a total c>bon cont5t ( m ?an #b p] c5t1 &1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 "s ( ! c>bon assumes a diff]5t =m f t :i* we enc\nt]$ 9 ! /eels4 ,?is modifi$ =m is 8graphite10 well kn[n to u z a flaky1 black1 greasy-feel+ mat]ial1 :i* is s(t & v fragile4 ,graphite 9 ! iron alloy naturally weak5s x &1 z x is itself su* a good lubricant1 x makes ca/ iron ma*9e easily if suffici5t am\nt is pres5t4 ,a ,,few ,,( ,,! ,,ca/ ,,irons ,silicon1,graphite1,comb9$ ,total ,p] ,c5t,p] ,c5t ,c>bon1 ,c>bon1 ,p] ,c5t ,p] ,c5t ,no4 #ad4 ,:ite ,ca/ ,iron 4#gj 4#aj #b4fe #b4ge,v ,h>d ,no4 #ae4 ,anneal$ 4#gj #b4gj 4#je #b4ge,ma*9able ,malleable ,iron ,no4 #af4 ,ca/ ,iron = #a4jj #a4jj #b4jj #c4jj,v ,h>d ,*ill$ ,ca/+s ,no4 #ag4 ,semi-/eel #a4ge #b4hj 4#dj #c4bj,ma*9able ,no4 #ah4 ,gray ,ca/ ,iron #b4jj #c4aj 4#cj #c4dj,ma*9able ,no4 #ai4 ,s(t ,gray ,ca/ #b4ej #c4cj 4#ae #c4de,ma*9able ,iron ,n[1 ! above mu/ be und]/ood z be+ typical compositions only4 ,!re are1 ( c\rse1 irons ( all int]m$iate compositions1 also1 & :ile ! total1 graphitic & comb9$ c>bons1 typically1 are ab\t z indicat$1 !re may be wide v>iation4 ,to illu/rate :at a v>iety ( *emical & physical prop]ties may be produc$1 let u assume t ! total c>bon 9 a c]ta9 ca/ iron is #c4be p] c5t4 ,if ?is c>bon is all 9 ! *emically comb9$ =m 7i4 e41 comb9$ ) ! iron to =m ! v h>d comp\nd :i* is kn[n to ! metallographi/ z 8cem5tite07 ! fracture w be :ite & ! alloy extremely h>d4 ,if none ( ?is c>bon is comb9$1 b all is 9 ! =m ( graphite flakes ?r\gh\t ! alloy1 ! fracture w be 8gray0 & ! alloy s(t & ma*9able4 ,x is possible to produce ei!r ( ^! two conditions or practically any int]m$iate /age2 i4e41 we c almo/ at w split up ! #c4be p] c5t ( c>bon into v>y+ p]c5tages ( graphitic & comb9$ c>bon--! total always equal+ #c4be p] c5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #cj4 ,,v ,,s(t ,,ca/ ,,iron4 ,,note ,,l>ge ,,graphite ,,flakes ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #ca4 ,,m$ium ,,h>d ,,ca/ ,,iron ,! 8comb9$ c>bon0 is 9 ! r\ndi%1 d>k p>ts4 ,x is ! 8comb9$ c>bon0 t increases ! /r5g? ( ca/ iron & /eel4 ,! 8precipitation0 ( graphite :i* is necess>y = s(tness is br\ght ab\t ma9ly ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( silicon1 :i* we be=e t]m$ ! 8s(t5]40 ,o!r conditions be+ equal1 ! high] ! silicon 7if n above #d p] c5t71 ! high] w be ! graphite & ! l[] ! comb9$ c>bon2 & vice v]sa1 ! l[] ! silicon ! l[] w be ! graphite & ! high] ! comb9$ c>bon4 ,x is ma9ly due to ! 8comb9$ c>bon0 :i* is left aft] precipitation ( ! graphite t ! alloy has great] /r5g?1 h>dness1 & clos] gra94 ,s1 j z ! /eels are /rong] & h>d] z ! c>bon increases 79 /eel all ! c>bon is comb9$71 s1 o!r conditions be+ equal1 ! /r5g?s & h>dnesses ( ! ca/ irons1 )9 usual limits1 increase z ! comb9$ c>bon increases4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #ib;d4 ,,semi-,,/eel4 ,a ,,clos] ,,gra9$ ,,& ,,yet ,,/rong] ,,ca/ ,,iron ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #cc;e4 ,,mottl$ ,,ca/ ,,iron ,s-call$ because x is a mixture ( :ite & gray iron4 ,j "h x is int]e/+ to rememb] t f ! /&po9t ( metallography ca/ irons are simply /eels 9 :i* !re is :at we might call an impurity or an adult]ant1 graphite cry/als4 ,x w be se5 at once t c\ld ^! graphite cry/als be remov$ f ! ca/ irons %[n 9 photomicrographs ,no4 #gd1 ,no4 #ib;d1 ,no4 #cj & ,no4 #ca1 we w\ld h alloys q simil> 9 appe>ance to ! /eels %[n 9 photomicrographs ,no4 #c;b & ,no4 #bb;c :i* appe>$ on pages #gg & #gh4g ,footnote #g3 ,magnification #gj diamet]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #g4 ,,:ite ,,ca/ ,,iron ,s ! s(t] ca/ irons :i* are us$ = valves & fitt+s1 ma*9e p>ts1 radiators1 holl[w>e1 etc41 h high silicon4 ,p>ts t d n h to be ma*9$ c be ( 8h>d]0 iron2 i4 e41 made ( iron hav+ l[] silicon cont5t4 ,manipulation ( ! silicon cont5t is n ! only me?od by :i* ! h>dness ( ca/ iron c be influ5c$4 ,graphite c 8precipitate0 7i4e41 sep>ate ?r\gh\t ! ca/+7 only if suffici5t "t is giv5 x to d s4 ,t is1 ! cool+ ( ! ca/+ aft] p\r+ mu/ be suffici5tly sl[4 ,9 a s& mold ! iron rema9s molt5 = a "t1 & aft] solidification x cools sl[ly en\gh t ! great] portion ( ! c>bon sep>ates z graphite4 ,!re=e1 ca/+s ( prop] composition made 9 s& molds are s(t & ma*9able4 ,if ! iron is p\r$ into a mold ! surfaces ( :i* are made ( iron1 ! molt5 metal ^u ent]+ becomes solid almo/ z soon z x takes ! =m ( ! mold1 & x cools ) great rapidity4 ,"u su* conditions ! c>bon ( ! alloy is d5i$ ! "t necess>y to *ange into ! graphitic =m & ! ca/+ has a :ite fracture & is s h>d t x _c be ma*9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,section ,,( ,,*ill$ ,,c> ,,:eel ,%[+ :ite iron rim4 ,!re are _m purposes = :i* ! alloy %\ld h extreme h>dness & ! great resi/ance to we> :i* accompanies su* h>dness4 ,! we>+ faces ( ge>s1 brake %oes1 rolls1 & c> :eels1 = in/ance1 mu/ be h>d4 ,= su* products1 :ite ca/ iron1 ! extremely h>d condition ( ! alloy1 j ref]r$ to1 is utiliz$4 ,su* ca/+s are usually produc$ ) a :ite ca/ iron face1 b ) a gray iron int]ior1 gray iron be+ less brittle & less likely to break "u %ock or /ra94 ,a c> :eel1 = in/ance1 has approximately an in* 9 dep? ( :ite iron on ! surface :i* lies next to ! rail on :i* x runs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,*ill$ ,,ca/ ,,iron ,! :ite edge result$ f ! m rapid cool+ aga9/ an iron *ill1 z did ! :ite rim ( ! :eel %[n above4 ,su* are kn[n z 8*ill$ ca/+s40 ,molds = !m are usually made ( s&1 ) pieces ( iron 7call$ 8*ills07 imb$d$ :]e :ite iron is to be produc$4 ,! molt5 iron next to ! s& surfaces cools 9 ! usual way & is gray & s(t1 :ile t :i* lies next to ! 8*ill0 is :ite & extremely h>d4 ,! 8dep?0 ( ! *ill$ lay] c be increas$ or dim9i%$ accord+ to ! ?ickness ( ! iron 8*ill0 us$1 its temp]ature1 & by ! composition & temp]ature ( ! molt5 ca/ iron ) :i* ! mold is p\r$4 ,! sulphur & total c>bon ( ! molt5 ca/ iron also h consid]able influ5ce on ! dep? ( 8*ill40 ,illu/ration3 ,,two-,,"p ,,mold+ ,,flasks ,!re is a ca/ iron alloy :i* is famili>ly kn[n z 8semi-/eel40 ,x is simply a high grade & /rong] 8gray0 iron & mu/ be class$ z a ca/ iron1 z our table on page #ahj %[s4 ,:ile x c\ld und\bt$ly be made f mat]ials :i* are commonly us$ = ca/ iron1 x is practically always produc$ by *>g+ ) ^! a c]ta9 am\nt ( /eel scrap to br+ ab\t ! l[] silicon1 phosphorus & total c>bon desir$4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,holl[ ,,cyl9d] ,! ca/+ :i* we are ab\t to make4 ,because /eel has a high] t5sile /r5g? ?an has ca/ iron1 _m h inf]r$ t x 0 ! /eel addition :i* made semi-/eel /rong] ?an ! ord9>y s(t ca/ iron alloy4 ,! r un=tunate "n1 8semi-/eel10 app>5tly 0 giv5 because ( ! /eel us$ & ! int]m$iate /r5g? :i* ! result+ product possess$4 ,h[ev]1 dur+ ! melt+ d[n ( ! *>ge ! /eel scrap becomes molt5 & its con/itu5ts m]ge ) ^? ( ! o!r iron mat]ials *>g$4 ,we get out ( ! cupola1 !n1 a mixture :i*1 disreg>d+ ! losses & ga9s due to ! air ( ! bla/1 ! fuel1 etc41 is an av]age ( ! mat]ials *>g$4 ,we1 !re=e1 no long] h any /eel1 b a ca/ iron :i* has a some:at l[] silicon1 phosphorus & c>bon ?an ! s(t] ca/ irons4 ,! great] /r5g? ( ! alloy is due to its composition & only indirectly to ! fact t /eel 0 us$ 9 its production4 ,! physical prop]ties ( ! /eel *>g$ h be5 entirely oblit]at$ 9 ! melt+ process4 ,illu/ration3 ,,split ,,patt]n ,,( ,,wood1 ,,surface-,,coat$ ,,) ,,%ellac ,,v>ni% ,?is view t semi-/eel only indirectly gets its increase 9 /r5g? f ! /eel *>g$ is confirm$ by its /ructural appe>ance "u ! microscope1 z 0 %[n 9 numb]s #gd & #ib;d :i* 7 giv5 on page #gi1 & ! photomicrographs giv5 "h1 & by its extreme brittl5ess "u hamm] bl[s4 ,"u su* %ock x is b little m resi/ant ?an ca/ iron4 ,illu/ration3 ,,core ,,t ,,makes ,,hole ,,9 ,,ca/+ ,?is weakness "u 8%ock0 0 %[n by te/s f :i* ! table :i* foll[s 0 compil$4 ,b>s "o in* squ>e & ?irte5 in*es long laid on supports exactly twelve in*es ap>t1 7 /ruck at ! c5t] by a tw5ty-five p\nd weight4 ,x took sev5 bl[s to break ! ca/ iron b>1 ! semi-/eel b> requir$ elev51 :ile ca/ /eel )/ood n9ety-two bl[s4 ,ev5 ?is does n adequately express ! great resi/ance ( ! ca/ /eel 7ano!r alloy n yet discuss$71 = ! height ( ! 8drop0 0 be+ increas$ "o in* ) e bl[1 & ! ca/ /eel b>1 on acc\nt ( its b5d+1 _h to be regul>ly turn$4 ,! total foot-p\nds ex]t$ by ! bl[s are giv5 9 ! table :i* foll[s3 ,illu/ration3 ,,drag1 ,,or ,,bottom ,,half ,,( ,,mold1 ,,aft] ,,patt]n ,,is ,,)drawn ,illu/ration3 ,,drag ,,) ,,core ,,9 ,,place ,,& ,,cope1 ,,or ,,top ,,half ,,( ,,mold ,,ready ,,to ,,close ,illu/ration3 ,,transp>5t ,,mold1 ,,%[+ ,,relative ,,positions ,,( ,,core1 ,,ca/+1 ,,sprue1 ,,etc4 ,alloy ,t5sile ,numb],total ,/r5g? ( ,foot ,bl[s ,p\nds ,ca/ ,iron #bc1djj #g #ajb ,semi-,/eel #ce1jej #aa #bjf ,malleable ,ca/ ,iron#h #cg1adj #bb #a1ehj ,ca/ ,/eel#h #gb1abj #ibaj1aab ,footnote #h3 ,on acc\nt ( b5d+1 ! malleable iron & ! /eel b>s _h to be turn$ sev]al times4 ,semi-/eel is a v close-gra9$ alloy ( t5 or twelve ?\s& p\nds p] squ>e in* great] /r5g? ?an ca/ iron4 ,x is a mo/ satisfactory mat]ial = m$ium & l>g] siz$ ca/+s = :i* ca/ iron =m]ly 0 us$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,ca/ ,,iron ,,tee1 ,,cock ,,plugs1 ,,& ,,return ,,b5ds1 ,,) ,,sprues ,,& ,,gates ,,atta*$ ,did we say t ca/ iron 0 v brittle8 ,s x is1 comp>atively speak+4 ,b j z ! *emi/ w tell y t !re are no sub/ances :i* are absolutely insoluble1 j s does ca/ iron appe> to be extremely brittle only :5 comp>$ ) ! iron alloys ( consid]ably less brittl5ess4 ,! ?ree pictures ( ! hoop$ & twi/$ ca/+ illu/rate h[ unwise x might be to speak ) absolut5ess4 ,a few ye>s ago ! ca/+ illu/rat$ on pages #aij & #aib 0 br\ght to ?is c\ntry by a visitor to ,europe1 ) an expression ( regret t ca/ iron produc$ 9 ?is c\ntry did n h su* qualities ( ela/icity z _h ca/ iron made abroad4 ,:]eupon1 )\t any *ange :atev] 9 8 iron mixture or cupola practice1 ! sup]9t5d5t ( a well-kn[n f\ndry made ca/+s :i* 7 exact duplicates ( t submitt$4 ,! ?ree photographs %[n fur!r on 7,figs4 ,a1 ,b1 ,c7 7 ( "o ( ^! ca/+s4 ,! ability to b5d )\t break+ is1 ( c\rse1 l>gely due to ! %ape4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plugs ,,& ,,:eels ,,z ,,!y ,,come ,,f ,,! ,,mold ,occasionally z _m z #bjj ca/+s c be made 9 "o mold4 ,illu/ration3 ,,type ,,( ,,mold+ ,,ma*9e ,z a matt] ( fact1 su* ca/+s 7 n at all new 9 ?is c\ntry1 hav+ be5 furni%$ by ,am]ican f\ndries = electrical "w = _m ye>s4 ,ca/ iron spr+s1 pi/on r+s1 & _m o!r articles ( ca/ iron are regul>ly made1 :i* %[ su* ela/ic quality4 ,we h said consid]able ab\t 8ca/+s40 ,9 g5]al we "k :at ca/+s are1 b 9 ! m9ds ( "s !re may be a little unc]ta9ty z to ! mann] 9 :i* !y are produc$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,ano!r ,,( ,,! ,,_m ,,k9ds ,,( ,,mold+ ,,ma*9es ,!re are few l9es ( human endeavor :i* require great] judgm5t & skill ?an does ! mak+ ( molds = ca/+s4 ,s\nd judgm5t bas$ on long exp]i5ce1 k ( conditions "u :i* ! "w imm$iately 9 h& mu/ be done1 obs]vation1 & accurate1 d$uctive reason+ z to ! causes ( failure are absolutely necess>y = success4 ,illu/ration3 ,,ca/+1 ,,:i* ,,because ,,( ,,its ,,l5g? ,,& ,,small ,,cross ,,sections1 ,,requires ,,v ,,fluid ,,ca/ ,,iron4 7,,fig4 ,a7 ,9 g5]al1 mold+ may be said to be done 9 8pit0 or on ! 8floor0 = l>ge "w1 on ! 8b5*0 = small] "w1 or by 8ma*9e40 ,pit1 floor1 & b5* mold+ are applicable = production ( ca/+s ( all sizes & descriptions & ?is g5]al type :i* we might t]m 8h& mold+10 is ! =m t has be5 practic$ longe/4 ,mold+ ma*9es are m or less rec5t inv5tions :i* h enabl$ c]ta9 /&>d %apes & sizes ( ca/+s :i* are 9 suffici5t dem& to be produc$ 9 great numb]s by unskill$ workm5 & !re=e at less co/ ?an is possible by ! old] h& me?od4 ,ea* design = ca/+ may be said to dem& individual treatm5t1 & ! mold] mu/ select t me?od out ( ! _m :i* alone1 p]haps1 c be successful4 ,! subject is su* a broad "o t little w be "h attempt$ fur!r ?an to give by description & illu/ration ! pr$om9ant po9ts ( ! mak+ ( molds & ca/+s4 ,a simple1 typical case ( b5* mold+ w be tak51 t ! relation ( patt]n1 mold1 core & ca/+ may be cle>4 ,! mold+ s&s us$ are usually natural s&s :i* conta9 great] or less] am\nts ( clay1 :i*1 :5 moi/1 acts z a 8b9d]0 ( ! gra9s ( s&4 ,:5 us$ )\t dry+1 ! mold is said to be a 8gre5 s&0 mold2 if dri$1 a 8dry0 or 8bak$0 mold1 z ! case may be4 ,! majority are 8gre5 s&0 molds4 ,= ! usual ca/+ ( :i* only a few or sev]al duplicates are want$1 ! 8split0 patt]n is g5]ally ! mo/ conv5i5t4 ,! two halves ( ! mold1 ! 8cope0 7top7 & ! 8drag0 7bottom71 are sep>ately made 9 ! two p>ts ( ! 8flask0 or mold+ box by 8ramm+0 prop]ly select$ & 8temp]$0 7moi/5$1 mix$1 & siev$7 s& ov] ! halves ( ! patt]n4 ,( ^!1 ! drag is made fir/ ov] ! l[] half ( ! sep>able patt]n plac$ flat side d[n ^u a bottom bo>d4 ,aft] 8ramm+10 i4e41 pack+ ! s&1 j h>d en\gh b n too h>d1 ?is half mold is rev]s$ & ! top half ( ! patt]n plac$ ^u ! l[] half1 n[ at ! upp] face ( ! drag & flat side up4 ,a little 8p>t+ p[d]0 or f9e1 dry s& is spr9kl$ ov] ! fre% surface ( ! half mold s t ! upp] half1 next to be made1 w n /ick to ! l[] half1 b c be lift$ (f at ! prop] "t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,x ,,may ,,be ,,b5t ,,d\ble ,,readily ,,)\t ,,break+4 7,,fig4 ,b7 ,! cope half ( ! two-"p 8flask0 is n[ put on1 fill$ & ramm$ ) s& z 0 ! drag4 ,any extra s& is scrap$ (f ) a /raight edge & at ! prop] place a hole is cut ) ! 8sprue cutt]0 /raight d[n ?r\gh ! cope to ! 8p>t+40 ,m commonly1 p]haps1 ?is 8sprue0 hole is made by )draw+ a 8sprue0 /ick 7( wood7 ab\t :i* s& _h be5 pack$ dur+ ! mak+ ( ! cope4 ,x is ?r\gh ?is hole t ! molt5 metal w be p\r$ into ! mold4 ,illu/ration3 ,,because ,,( ,,its ,,ability ,,to ,,)/& ,,b5d+ ,,& #ahj-;,,degree ,,twi/s ,,x ,,is ,,(t5 ,,jocul>ly ,,ref]r$ ,,to ,,z ,,! 8,,rubb] ,,ca/+40 7,,fig4 ,c7 ,lift+ ! cope or top half1 x is turn$ upside d[n1 &1 aft] cutt+ 9 ! drag ! 8runn]0 or 8gate0 connect+ ! 8sprue0 hole ) ! ca/+1 ! halves ( ! patt]n are c>efully drawn t ! s& may n be di/urb$4 ,n[ 9 ! cavity left 9 ! drag1 to make ! hole 9 ! ca/+1 is hung ! bak$ 8core0 ( s&1 held toge!r by fl\r or ros9 or a 8dry+0 oil4 ,! cope is c>efully replac$ ^u ! drag1 ?us 8clos+0 ! mold4 ,z w be not$ f ! draw+s1 !re is left betwe5 ! core & ! mold a space all ar\nd1 :i* w be fill$ by ! metal ( ! ca/+ :5 p\r$4 ,!re=e ! surface ( ! core %apes ! inside1 & ! mold itself ! outside & ends ( ! ca/+4 ,! molt5 metal1 ent]+ ?r\gh ! v]tical 8sprue0 hole1 fl[s along ! 8runn]0 & into ! mold ?r\gh ! m or less con/rict$ entrance call$ ! 8gate40 ,! gases =m$ dur+ p\r+ & ! air ) :i* ! mold 0 fill$ are driv5 out ?r\gh ! por\s bodies ( s& ( ! mold & core4 ,_h ! mold be5 ramm$ too h>d ! gases c\ld n escape ?r\gh ! s& & an imp]fect ca/+ w\ld result4 ,! p\r$ mold is all[$ to /& until ! metal has solidifi$ & cool$ suffici5tly1 :5 ! ca/+ is 8%ak5 out40 ,! s& is return$ to ! mold] to be us$ aga94 ,! sprue & runn] are brok5 f ! ca/+1 :i*1 aft] clean+ by 8tumbl+0 ) o!rs 9 a revolv+ mill1 or o!rwise1 goes to ! ma*9+ & assembl+ %ops4 ,"s =m ( ! above g5]al me?od is ev]y:]e us$ = ! production ( all k9ds ( ca/+s1 except = ^? :i* c be made by ma*9e at a l[] co/ = molds4 ,?is k9d ( mold+1 :i* we h t]m$ 8h& "w10 requires exp]t mold]s & is too sl[ & exp5sive = ! hundr$s ( /&>d %apes & sizes ( ca/+s :i* are 9 great & con/ant dem&4 ,! latt] are made on clev]ly devis$ mold+ ma*9es work+ ) compress$ air or by h& p[] appli$ ?r\gh a lev]4 ,! patt]n is atta*$ to ! ma*9e1 set & v accurately adju/$ by a skill$ me*anic4 ,!reaft] ! s& is ramm$1 ! runn] =m$ & ! patt]n drawn by ! ma*9e itself1 all ( ^! v critical movem5ts be+ !re=e rapidly & un]r+ly duplicatable any desir$ numb] ( times by unskill$ labor1 :i* has b to put on ! p>ts ( ! 8flasks10 fe$ 9 ! s&1 set ! cores1 close & remove ! mold1 & beg9 ! next4 ,sometimes !re is b "o1 b = ! small] sizes !re are (t5 t5 or tw5ty1 &1 occasionally1 z _m z two hundr$ pieces or ca/+s 9 a s+le mold4 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,malleable ,,ca/ ,,iron ,x almo/ goes )\t say+ t ! capacity to )/& di/ortion )\t break+ 0 ! mean+ ( & ! reason = ! use ( ! t]m 8malleable40 ,b wr\ght iron is malleable z also is mild /eel1 &1 9 ,europe fifty ye>s ago 7?\gh 9 g5]al n n[7 by ! t]m 8malleable iron0 0 meant & und]/ood :at we "k z wr\ght iron4 ,y w rememb] t ,bessem]'s pap] ann\nc+ 8 great process 0 entitl$ 8,! ,manufacture ( ,malleable ,iron & ,/eel )\t ,fuel40 ,! fir/ ref]5ce 0 to wr\ght iron4 ,bessem] did n succe$ 9 mak+ ?is by 8 process b 8 success 9 ! manufacture ( /eel 0 imm5se4 ,!re=e1 :ile 9 ord9>y conv]sation su* def9it5ess is n necess>y1 p]haps1 & n usual "h1 to be safe "o %\ld say 8malleable ca/ iron10 & n simply 8malleable iron10 = by ! latt]1 _m ,europeans /ill und]/& wr\ght iron4 ,l 8,topsy0 ( 8,uncle ,tom's ,cab90 fame1 ! v>i\s memb]s ( ! iron family 8j gr[$40 ,!re=e a /rictly logical classification & nom5clature is h>dly to be expect$4 ,x 0 m5tion$ 9 a =m] article t a process = mak+ malleable ! brittle :ite ca/ iron 0 discov]$1 or at lea/ describ$1 by ,reaumur1 a ,fr5*man1 ab\t #agbb4 ,x is likely t 8 discov]y or acqua9tance ) x came ab\t ?r\gh 8 ext5d$ exp]im5ts ) cem5tation /eel4 ,illu/ration3 ,,malleable ,,ca/ ,,iron ,,b>s ,illu/ration3 ,,malleable ,,iron ,,ca/+s ,! publicity :i* ,reaumur volunt>ily gave to 8 rese>*es =ms a notable exception to ! cu/oms ( ^? days :5 x 0 ! usual ?+ = manufactur]s jeal\sly to gu>d all trade secrets4 ,^! 7 h&$ d[n f fa!r to son or to o!rs ( close int]e/ 9 ! bus9ess4 ,s aside f ,reaumur's ann\ncem5ts conc]n+ malleable iron1 few details ( its manufacture came to light dur+ ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,ev5 dur+ ! hundr$ ye>s :i* h j pass$ !re h be5 few l9es 9 :i* great] secrecy has be5 ma9ta9$ bo? 9 ,europe & ,am]ica4 ,dur+ ! la/ ?irty ye>s1 only1 has real sci5tific "w be5 done to make kn[n ! reactions :i* occur dur+ anneal+ & ! real causes ( ! malleability4 ,! fa!r ( malleable iron 9 ?is c\ntry 0 ,se? ,boyd51 ( ,new>k1 ,new ,j]sey1 a v +5i\s man :o well des]ves ! monum5t erect$ 9 8 honor by ! citiz5s ( ! city1 :i* is p>donably pr\d ( him4 ,illu/ration3 ,,te/ ,,sprues1 ,,%[+ ,,:ite1 ,,slightly ,,mottl$1 ,,m$ium ,,mottl$1 ,,& ,,gray ,,fractures ,boyd5 app>5tly _h no k ( ! exi/5ce 9 ,europe ( ! malleableiz+ process1 b aft] notic+ t a piece ( =m]ly brittle ca/ iron _h become r malleable1 app>5tly ?r\gh ! action ( heat1 he set ab\t mak+ exp]im5ts to produce a malleable mat]ial :i* c\ld be produc$ m *eaply ?an wr\ght iron4 ,by melt+ 9 a =ge pieces ( pig iron & !n anneal+ 9 a small furnace 9 8 kit*5 fireplace ! b>s :i* he ca/ f ! melt1 he _h work$ out by #ahbf a process t produc$ ca/ iron :i* 0 malleable4 ,9 #ahca he />t$ a f\ndry & made a ?\s& or m diff]5t articles = :i* !re 0 dem&1 &1 f ?is beg9n+1 an imm5se indu/ry develop$ 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,illu/ration3 ,,te/ ,,b>s ,,) ,,"o ,,edge ,,ca/ ,,aga9/ ,a 8,,*ill0 ,! composition ( ! mixture is regulat$ accord+ to ! dep? ( ! *ill z well z by appe>ance ( te/ sprues4 ,we mu/ n =get t ! malleable ca/ iron z produc$ 9 ?is c\ntry is an entirely sep>ate & di/9ct ?+ f ! ,european malleable iron1 z w be %[n lat]4 ,s our imm5se indu/ry is our own & n a copi$ "o4 ,x is only c]ta9 memb]s ( ! ca/ iron family t c be made malleable by prop] heat treatm5t4 ,alloys ,no4 #ad & ,no4 #ae repres5t "o ( ^! alloys be=e & aft] ! anneal+ process4 ,:ile ,no4 #ad 0 giv5 z a typical analysis = :ite ca/ iron = malleableiz+ x mu/ be und]/ood t compositions c v>y consid]ably )\t detrim5t f t giv54 ,!re is "o ?+1 h[ev]1 :i* is absolutely necess>y & t is t all or practically all ( ! c>bon ( ! alloy mu/ be 9 ! comb9$ =m previ\s to ! anneal+ process4 ,?is means t ! alloy %all be :ite ca/ iron & h no free graphite1 = any graphite flakes w rema9 ?r\gh & aft] ! anneal+ process & weak5 ! alloy j z x weak5s gray ca/ iron4 ,illu/ration3 ,,sket* ,,( ,a ,,coal-,,fir$ ,,air ,,furnace ,= produc+ ?is :ite ca/ iron two processes are 9 g5]al use--! 8cupola0 & ! 8air furnace40 ,! latt] pr$om9ates4 ,op]ation ( ! cupola = malleable iron requires great skill & v close att5tion to detail1 =1 to malleableize easily & ) ! be/ results1 ! composition ( ! alloy mu/ be regulat$ )9 n>r[ limits1 v mu* n>r[] ?an = gray ca/ iron4 ,h[ev]1 ?is is entirely possible & cupolas are op]at$ cont9u\sly = malleable ca/ iron = t5 or m h\rs ) v slight fluctuation4 ,9 g5]al1 op]ation is v simil> to t describ$ = ca/ iron except t ! composition ( ! *>ge is necess>ily diff]5t1 mu* l[] silicon be+ requir$1 & m coke has to be us$ = ! melt+4 ,mo/ malleable iron ca/+s are made 9 s& molds1 &1 z /at$1 ! iron p\r$ mu/ be ( su* composition & temp]ature t ! ca/+s s made w be :ite ( fracture4 ,x is possible to get a quick indication ( ! condition ( ! iron = p\r+ by mak+ te/ pieces1 e "o 9 ! same way1 :i*1 aft] cool+ & break+1 w %[ by fracture ! approximate composition ( ! metal4 ,accord+ to ^! te/ pieces1 call$ 8sprues10 :i*1 at times1 may be ca/ z (t5 z e five or t5 m9utes1 ! mixture is regulat$ to produce a uni=m product4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fir+ ,,an ,,air ,,furnace ,to illu/rate3 ,! fracture ( a r\nd sprue1 or te/ piece1 always in* 9 diamet]1 :5 p\r$ 9 ! s&1 cool$ !re to l[ r$ heat1 qu5*$ 9 wat] & !n brok51 %\ld be :ite ) only a few flecks ( d>k con/itu5t4 ,a gray iron fracture indicates too high silicon cont5t & su* iron is usually t]m$ 8l[0 iron4 ,ca/+s ( m$ium or heavy section1 :i*1 !re=e1 cool sl[ly 9 ! s&1 if p\r$ ( too high silicon1 i4e41 8l[0 iron1 might precipitate a little graphite dur+ cool+1 ev5 ?\gh ?9n]-section$ ca/+s :i* cool s mu* m rapidly w\ld come :ite f ! same iron4 ,:ile iron giv+ ne>ly :ite sprues is necess>y = p>ticul>ly l>ge ca/+s1 to make sure t ! usual run ( malleable ca/+s w come :ite 9 ! s& requires v slightly mottl$ te/ sprues4 ,te/ blocks also1 ) "o side ca/ aga9/ an iron 8*ill0 are p\r$ to det]m9e ! dep? ( *ill+1 & te/ b>s ( v>i\s %apes are regul>ly made1 to te/ aft] anneal+1 = t5sile /r5g?1 torsion & o!r physical prop]ties4 8,air furnaces0 are mu* l long] puddl+ furnaces4 ,!y v>y 9 capacity f t5 to =ty-five tons :ile occasionally small ones ( z little z ?ree or five tons capacity are met )4 ,illu/ration3 ,,tak+ ,,(f ,,! ,,slag ,! usual fuel is s(t coal4 ,! long flame passes f ! grate at "o end ov] ! bridge wall & is deflect$ by ! ro( d[n ^u ! ba? b5ea?4 ,a *imney at ! outgo+ end furni%es draft4 ,! furnace b$ is usually ( brick ^u :i* is fritt$ 7slightly fus$7 a mixture ( s& ) a little lime4 ,9 ord] to facilitate *>g+ ( ! mat]ials to be melt$ ! ro( is usually removable 9 p>ts1 call$ 8bungs40 ,^! h frame "w ( iron :i* hold 9 place ! fire bricks t come 9 contact ) ! flame4 ,dur+ *>g+ ^! bungs are lift$ (f "o at a "t1 & ! iron mat]ials are dump$ ?r\gh ! op5+s4 ,small doors 9 ! sides j above ! ba? all[ 8rabbl+0 or mix+ ( ! *>ge & skimm+ ( ! slag :i* =ms1 & "o or m sp\ts l9$ ) fire bricks & clay provide = tapp+ out ! metal :5 x is ready to p\r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,tapp+ ,unlike puddl+ furnace & op5-he>? no burn+ out ( ! silicon1 manganese & c>bon is desir$1 ?\gh1 ( c\rse1 "s occurs & has to be all[$ = 9 calculat+ ! mixture4 ,! int5tion is simply to melt toge!r ) ! lea/ possible loss a mixture ( su* mat]ials z w give ! av]age f9al composition :i* long exp]i5ce has %[n to give ! prop] qualities to ! f9i%$ product4 ,*>ges usually are ( c]ta9 p]c5tages ( pig iron ) n too mu* phosphorus1 sprues f previ\s melts1 m or less good malleable iron scrap & small am\nts ( /eel scrap4 ,^! are melt$ d[n z quickly z possible4 ,occasionally ! slag :i* accumulates is skimm$ (f &1 aft] rabbl+1 te/ plugs are p\r$ f ! fractures ( :i* ! composition ( ! iron is judg$4 ,:5 ! silicon cont5t is deem$ prop] or has be5 adju/$ ?r\gh long] action ( ! flame if too high or addition ( m silicon 9 ! =m ( a high silicon alloy if too l[1 ! iron is tapp$1 provid$ x is hot en\gh4 ,malleable iron is l>gely us$ = v small ca/+s4 ,^! require v hot & fluid metal4 ,s1 ev5 if x is ( prop] composition1 ! metal mu/ be held 9 ! furnace until x is ( a high en\gh temp]ature to p\r prop]ly4 ,?r\gh prolong$ & /rong heat+ ! iron may easily become oxidiz$ or 8burnt0 & mu* skill is necess>y = prop] op]ation ( ! furnace4 ,aft] tapp+1 ! iron mu/ be got into ! molds ) ! lea/ possible delay4 ,z has be5 m5tion$ ) =m] processes ! melt+ ( iron 9 contact ) coke or coal results 9 m or less contam9ation ) sulphur4 ,= ?is reason cupola malleable has consid]ably high] sulphur ?an has malleable ca/ iron made 9 ! air furnace4 ,cupola & air furnace ea* has c]ta9 advantages & c]ta9 disadvantages4 ,:ile /r5g? & elongation are some:at great] 9 air furnace ?an 9 cupola malleable1 bo? anneal well & give mat]ials :i* are satisfactory = ! purposes = :i* !y are int5d$4 ,cupola metal has an advantage 9 t ! temp]ature & ! composition c be closely ma9ta9$ ! same ?r\gh\t ! heat1 p]haps m s ?an ) ! air furnace4 ,) ! latt] ! metal at ! top ( ! ba? is hott] ?an t und]nea?1 &1 ?r\gh action ( ! flame & air1 silicon is some:at l[]$ be=e all ( ! heat c be p\r$1 especially ) air furnaces ( l>ge size4 ,! metal c easily be 8burnt0 unless extreme c>e is tak54 ,9 ! cupola we c get v hot iron cont9u\sly s t x is unnecess>y to prolong ! heat ) ! dang] ( burn+ t occurs ) ! air furnace4 ,air furnace iron anneals r m readily ?an does ! product ( ! cupola1 & ! /r5g? & malleability are usually great]4 ,! =m] requires a temp]ature ( ab\t #acej ,f41 :ile ! latt] mu/ h #aejj ,f41 a diff]5ce ( ab\t #aej ,f4 ,:e!r ?is results alone f ! some:at high] sulphur ( cupola malleable is n def9itely kn[n1 b x is probable t1 also1 ! slightly high] total c>bon gives ! iron-c>bon *emical comp\nd a t5d5cy to p]si/ m /rongly4 ,! op5-he>? furnace is sometimes us$ = mak+ malleable ca/ iron4 ,x melts mu* m quickly ?an does ! air furnace :i* requires f ?ree & "o-half to n9e h\rs p] heat1 dep5d+ ^u ! size4 ,! quality ( ! product :i* ! op5-he>? furnace produces is ( ! be/1 b on acc\nt ( ! cont9u\s op]ation necess>y1 ?is type ( furnace is n l>gely us$4 ,malleable iron has also be5 made 9 ! ,bessem] conv]t]1 &1 occasionally1 9 ! crucible furnace1 b 9 ?is c\ntry ! practice is n at all common4 ,9 ,g]many a great deal ( malleable iron is made 9 ! crucible furnace4 ,:5 dump$ f ! molds ! ca/+s are extremely brittle4 ,! sprues are knock$ (f & ! ca/+s g to ! 8tumbl+0 mills :]e !y are tumbl$1 ei!r ) ! sprues1 ) h>d iron 7:ite iron7 %ot or />-%ap$ pieces ( iron :i* quickly clean ! s& f !m & give smoo?1 clean surfaces4 ,at ! *ipp+ & sort+ b5*es any rema9+ pieces ( gates & o!r excresc5ces are remov$ :ile ! ca/+s are be+ h&pick$ & sort$4 ,:ite iron1 because ( its brittl5ess1 breaks easily & small protrud+ p>ts c m readily & *eaply be remov$ be=e anneal+ ?an aft] ! ca/+s h be5 !reby t\gh5$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,anneal+ ,,furnaces1 ,,%[+ ,,sets ,,( ,,pots ,,or 8,,sagg]s0 ,,9 ,,:i* ,,! ,,ca/+s ,,are ,,anneal$ ,hav+ ! clean$ ca/+s ( :ite iron ( prop] composition1 malleability is giv5 to !m by ! heat treatm5t kn[n z 8anneal+40 ,?r\gh ! influ5ce ( a *]ry-r$ heat cont9u$ ov] a suffici5tly long p]iod ! iron & c>bon1 :i* 9 ! :ite iron are *emically comb9$1 gradually become divorc$1 &1 aft] complete anneal+1 ! ca/+ w be f\nd to consi/ ( free iron 9 :i* are imb$d$ ?r\gh\t v small p>ticles ( coke-l c>bon4 ,ca/+s t be=e ?is heat treatm5t 7 s brittle t !y broke into _m pieces "u a bl[ & s h>d t !y might scrat* glass1 are n[ f\nd to be capable ( )/&+ consid]able di/ortion )\t fracture & s s(t5$ t a ne$le may scrat* !m4 ,n only is a prop] temp]ature necess>y = be/ anneal+1 b1 z /at$1 a suffici5t "t mu/ be all[$ = ! sep>ation ( ! c>bon & iron4 ,! sep>ation requires _m h\rs & ! cool+ f ! anneal+ temp]ature mu/ be sl[ 9 ord] t ! c>bon & iron may n aga9 unite1 z !y c]ta9ly w\ld d 7 ! ca/+s *ill$ 9 wat] or o!rwise cool$ too fa/4 ,mo/ manufactur]s produce tonnage en\gh t ca/+s h to be anneal$ 9 quantity4 ,z iron at r$ or high] heat wa/es v rapidly on acc\nt ( scal+ 79 fact w\ld take fire 9 air if hot en\gh71 & ! quality ( ca/+s det]iorates some:at if ev5 a small am\nt ( air is all[$ to come 9 contact ) !m dur+ ! anneal+ process1 !y are g5]ally protect$ by enclos+ 9 iron conta9]s on :i* tops are lut$ & cracks fill$ ) /iff1 fire-resi/+ mud :i* keeps out ! air4 ,^! iron drums are ( suitable size & %ape t !y c be /ack$ "o ^u ! o!r to a height ( f f\r to six feet4 ,! /acks or 8sets0 ( 8sagg]s0 z !y are call$1 are run into l>ge brick-l9$ retort *amb]s :i* are heat$ ei!r ) coal f a grate1 by p[d]$ coal1 oil1 produc] gas or o!r fuel4 ,! l>g] ! furnace & ! great] ! tonnage ( iron :i* mu/ be heat$1 ! long] w be ! "t necess>y = br++ ! furnace & ca/+s up to ! *]ry-r$ heat :i* is necess>y = ! anneal+4 ,!re=e1 ! l>g] furnaces require a some:at long] "t ?an ^? ( small] size1 ?\gh ! "t requir$ = ! anneal+ ( ! ca/+s !mselves is no long]4 ,9 ?is c\ntry ) ord9>y-siz$ furnaces ! usual "t = ! anneal+ op]ation is approximately "o week4 ,?is includes ! heat+ ( ! furnace & ca/+s & ! cool+ to a black heat aga94 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #aji4 ,,photomicrograph ,,( ,,:ite ,,ca/ ,,iron ,"s manufactur]s1 h[ev]1 anneal )\t pots b !y aim to h ! ca/+s protect$ f ! flame & air4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #aaj4 ,,photomicrograph ,,( ,,no4 #aji ,,aft] ,,sev]al ,,h\rs ,,( ,,anneal+ ,h&l+ devices h be5 design$ :i* facilitate load+ & unload+ ! furnaces4 ,) ^! ! _m sets ( pots or sagg]s :i* ! furnace holds c be v quickly *>g$ or remov$4 ,aft] %ak+ ! ca/+s out ( ! cool$ pots1 ! d>k coat+ is remov$ f !m by 8tumbl+0 ) iron %ot1 pieces ( lea!r or o!r poli%+ mat]ial 9 tumbl+ mills aft] :i* !y are ready = any ma*9+ :i* may be necess>y4 ,photomicrographs ,nos4 #aji1 #aaj1 #aac & #ce :i* %[ ! samples at #ge diamet]s magnification %[ ! c\rse ( ! anneal+ process4 ,no4 #aji 0 tak5 f an unanneal$ ca/+4 ,no4 #aaj 0 ( ! same iron aft] approximately ?irty h\rs 9 ! furnace4 ,no4 #aac %[s t aft] ab\t =ty-five h\rs ne>ly all ( ! iron-c>bon *emical comp\nd has be5 brok5 d[n into black pat*es ( free c>bon1 surr\nd$ by ! :ite areas ( pure iron4 ,aft] ab\t sixty h\rs all ( ! iron & c>bon h be5 divorc$ & ! anneal+ op]ation is complete1 z is %[n by photomicrograph ,no4 #ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #aac4 ,,photomicrograph ,,( ,,no4 #aji ,,:5 ,,ne>ly ,,anneal$ ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #ce4 ,,completely ,,anneal$ ,,malleable ,,ca/ ,,iron ,:ile heat alone effects ! divorc+ ( ! c>bon & iron1 :i* is ! ess5tial "p ( ! anneal+ process1 9 ! great] numb] ( cases aid is giv5 by :at may be t]m$ *emical means4 ,reaumur1 :o ab\t #agbb discov]$ ! anneal+ process1 us$ iron oxide = ! purpose4 ,! :ite iron 0 pack$ 9 iron ore or mill scale4 ,at ! high temp]atures employ$ ! oxyg5 ( ! ore 9 "s way n yet def9itely kn[n1 gradually remov$ ! great] am\nt ( ! c>bon f ! ca/+4 ,x has always be5 a sci5tific conundrum h[ a solid1 iron oxide1 surr\nd+ ano!r solid1 a piece ( :ite iron1 c\ld remove f ! latt] its c>bon :5 nei!r ( !m melts nor m+les ) ! o!r4 ,:e!r "s ( ! oxyg5 f ! ore p5etrates ! iron & burns out its c>bon or :e!r ! c>bon ( ! ca/+ itself migrates is n yet def9itely settl$4 ,c]ta9 x is t ! c>bon is gradually remov$ f ! ca/+1 f ! surface fir/ & ) increas+ l5g? ( "t f great] dep?s4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #cij;b4 ,,photomicrograph ,,%[+ ,,dec>boniz$ ,,out] ,,lay] ,! photomicrograph also %[s t ?is ca/+ 0 n fully anneal$4 ,9 ,european practice malleable iron ca/+s are /ill malleableiz$ 9 ?is way1 i4 e41 by burn+ out ! c>bon4 ,! ca/+s are made z ?9 z possible & ! anneal+ 9 8pack+0 7iron ore or mill scale7 is cont9u$ = f "o to two weeks4 ,at ! expiration ( ?is "t ! ca/+s h a :ite1 /eely fracture :i* is entirely unlike ! fractures ( malleable iron ca/+s :i* are made 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,photomicrographs ( su* malleable iron %[ few or none ( ! black spots :i* ,no4 #ce exhibits1 & analyses ( ca/+s anneal$ 9 ?is way give v l[ results = c>bon4 ,illu/ration3 ,,malleable ,,ca/ ,,iron ,,9 ,,:i* ,,practically ,,all ,,( ,,! ,,c>bon ,,has ,,be5 ,,remov$ ,,by ,,reaumur ,,process ,,anneal+ ,:ile 9 ?is c\ntry ! ,reaumur process ( anneal+ is n foll[$1 a 8pack+0 ( ore or scale is g5]ally us$4 ,"s use an in]t pack+ su* z s&1 & z fir/ m5tion$1 "s use no pack+ at all4 ,really1 "o ( ! ma9 purposes ( ! 8pack+0 z n[ us$ is ! prev5tion ( w>p+ ( ! ca/+s 9 ! pots :ile anneal+4 ,! anneal+ temp]ature is n s high z 9 ,europe nor is ! anneal+ cont9u$ s long1 b :5 pack+ is us$ = ! %ort] "t only1 "s surface c>bon is remov$ & ! c>bon ?r\gh\t ! c5t] portions ( ! ca/+s is precipitat$ 9 ! coke-l =m :i* is kn[n z 8temp] c>bon0 to di/+ui% x f graphite :i* is %[n 9 photomicrograph ,no4 #ce4 ,to ! eye1 !n1 fractures ( su* ca/+s %[ black c5t]s & :ite rims4 ,!y are kn[n z 8black he>t0 ca/+s & ^! =m ! bulk ( ! malleable ca/ iron made 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fracture ,,( ,,black ,,he>t ,,iron ,note ! :ite rims & black coke-l int]iors4 ,! majority ( ,am]ican malleable iron is ( ?is 8black he>t0 v>iety4 ,we may say1 !n1 t !re are 9 g5]al ?ree v>ieties ( malleable ca/ iron3 ! 8all black0 :i* is anneal$ )\t 8pack+10 ! 8black he>t10 anneal$ 9 8pack+0 & ! mo/ common k9d 9 ?is c\ntry1 & 9 ,europe1 b v r>ely "h1 ! 8:itehe>t0 f :i* practically all ( ! c>bon has be5 burn$ dur+ ! 8anneal40 ,illu/ration3 ,,malleable ,,ca/ ,,iron ,,swivels ,,( ,,:i* ,,p>ts ,,no4 #b ,,are ,,ca/ ,,tightly ,,ar\nd ,,no4 #a ,,& ,,loos5$ ,,only ,,^u ,,anneal+4 ,comp>ison ( photomicrographs ,no4 #ce & ,no4 #cj giv5 on page #aha1 w %[ at once "o ( ! reasons = ! mu* great] malleability ( malleable ca/ iron4 ,:ile ! total c>bon pres5t is v ne>ly ! same 9 ! two irons1 ! diff]5ce 9 physical =m causes great diff]5ce 9 ! malleability ( ! two4 ,9 ! gray ca/ iron1 ,no4 #cj1 ! c>bon is cry/all9e & 9 ! =m ( long brittle flakes :i* cut ?r\gh & sep>ate ! gra9s ( iron4 ,?us 8planes ( cleavage0 are =m$ :i* make ! alloy unable to resi/ sev]e %ock & cause x to be any?+ b malleable4 ,x is n s ) anneal$ malleable ca/ iron4 ,"h ! c>bon is 9 ! =m ( small pellets :i* are imb$d$ among ! gra9s ( pure iron1 ! malleability ( :i* is n s]i\sly impair$ l>gely because ( ! cont9uity ( ! 8pure iron0 /ructure4 ,a second reason = ! ability ( malleable ca/ iron to )/& %ock is t 9 ! burn+ out ( ! c>bon ( ! out] portions ( ! ca/+ v small cavities are left4 ,^! all[ ! surface to become consid]ably de=m$ & batt]$ "u successive %ocks )\t great /ra9 on ! ca/+ itself4 ,no?+ has be5 said s f> conc]n+ "o trait ( all ( ! irons & inde$ ( mo/ metals & alloys :i* are us$ = ca/+ purposes4 ,?is is ! t5d5cy to 8%r9k0 dur+ ! solidification & cool+ ( ! metal ( ! ca/+4 ,on acc\nt ( ! freez+ ( ! out] portions ( ! ca/+ be=e ! metal ( ! inside1 !re mu/ result c]ta9 holl[ places or cavities aft] ! inside metal has cool$ unless "s *annel is kept op5 ?r\gh :i* fluid metal c pass inside to keep cavities f =m+4 ,we w n "h g into ! matt] ( %r9kage ) its great worry to ! mold] nor ! +5uity & /rategy ?r\gh :i* he produces ca/+s )\t %r9kage cavities4 ,"o ( ! me?ods tak5 to ov]come ! tr\ble w be expla9$ 9 ! *apt] on ,ca/ ,/eel :i* is to foll[4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 ano!r type ( %r9kage--t exhibit$ by ! contraction ( ! entire piece ( metal z x gradually cools aft] solidification4 ,?is pres5ts a r curi\s & int]e/+ case4 ,x is well kn[n among f\nd]s & patt]n mak]s1 t gray ca/ iron %r9ks dur+ cool+ ab\t in* p] foot1 :ite iron in* p] foot & ca/ /eel in* p] foot4 ,t is1 a b> ca/ exactly "o foot long w be f\nd :5 cold to be in* %ort if ( gray ca/ iron1 in* %ort if ( :ite ca/ iron & in* %ort if ( ca/ /eel4 ,! patt]ns h to be made l>g] ?an ! ca/+s desir$ to all[ = ?is %r9kage4 ,b1 dur+ anneal+1 :ite ca/ iron loses "o-half ( its in* p] foot %r9kage & ! result+ malleable ca/ iron is f\nd to h a net %r9kage ( b in* p] foot :i* is ! same z t ( gray iron4 ,x appe>s t ! precipitation ( ! temp] c>bon exp&s ! b> ?r\gh\t to practically ! same dim5sions :i* x w\ld h _h if flake graphite _h be5 all[$ to precipitate ?r\gh sl[ cool+1 z is ! case ) gray ca/ iron4 ,?is is clev]ly tak5 advantage ( by manufactur]s ( swivels ( malleable iron1 su* z ^? %[n4 ,! inn] portions are sep>ately ca/ fir/ & ?or\ghly clean$ aft] :i* !y are imb$d$ 9 ano!r mold4 ,! out] portions are !n ca/ ar\nd !m1 %r9k+ s tightly ^u ! inn] portions t !y _c be turn$ at all4 ,h[ev]1 ^u anneal+ !y loos5 en\gh t !y c readily be turn$ yet rema9 tight en\gh t !y _c be sep>at$4 ,malleable iron f :i* ! c>bon has n be5 remov$ c be h>d5$ & giv5 a /eely fracture by sudd5 cool+ f a r$ heat ev5 if x has previ\sly be5 anneal$4 ,dec>boniz$ malleable iron1 also1 c readily be rec>boniz$ by ! cem5tation process4 ,^! *>act]i/ics are (t5 tak5 advantage ( = ! manufacture ( tools f malleable iron4 ,hamm]s1 wood work+ *isels1 ge>s1 etc41 are q l>gely made4 ,:]e !y are sold at a *eap] price ?an ! bett] /eel tools & )\t misrepres5tation1 !re c be little objection1 b sometimes !y pass = /eel4 ,(ttimes malleable iron ca/+s are made 9 :at are kn[n z 8p]man5t molds0 ( iron4 ,!y are really 8*ill$ ca/+s40 ,anneal+ ( ^! is accompli%$ 9 ! regul> way4 ,su* ca/+s h v smoo? & beautiful surfaces b z ! iron molds h high fir/ co/ !y c be us$ only = ca/+s = :i* ! sales w>rant ! exp5se4 ,:ile mu* less malleable ?an is wr\ght iron or mild /eel1 anneal$ malleable ca/ iron has consid]able malleability4 ,x w resi/ great %ock & c be sev]ely batt]$ & b5t )\t break+4 ,x has ab\t #ge p] c5t or m ( ! t5sile /r5g? ( mild /eel & because ( ! *eapness ( its ca/+s ! malleable iron indu/ry has develop$ wond]fully4 ,ab\t a million tons ( ?is product are produc$ "h ea* ye>4 ,naturally malleable iron ca/+s are us$ :]e a mat]ial ) prop]ties int]m$iate betwe5 ca/ iron & /eel w suffice4 ,su* are ca/+s = railroad c>s1 = reap]s1 b9d]s1 & o!r agricultural ma*9es1 pipe fitt+s1 & ! *eap] grades ( tools4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,ca/ ,,/eel ,we h se5 h[ primitive man hunt$ & f\ght ) no implem5ts & weapons bett] ?an clubs1 b[s & arr[s1 & /one hat*ets1 & h[ 8 wife crack$ & gr\nd ! corn betwe5 flat rocks or 9 mort>s ( /one4 ,9 ! succe$+ 8,bronze ,age0 we f\nd ornam5ts1 idols & tools be+ made ( copp] or ! copp] alloy1 bronze4 ,x 0 only aft] ! next great advance t we f\nd man utiliz+ iron = 8 purposes ( civilization4 ,?is metal1 :i* ) u is s common1 0 9 ^? days v exp5sive1 s mu* s t x c\ld be us$ only = purposes ( w> & z ! gifts ( k+s4 ,b ! _w 0 travel+ fa/ & x 0 n long be=e ! iron-c>bon alloy1 /eel1 0 produc$4 ,ev5 s1 _m hundr$s ( ye>s elaps$ be=e ! pres5t wond]ful age 0 u%]$ 9 ?r\gh ! great inv5tions ( ,h5ry ,bessem] & ! ,siem5s bro!rs4 ,& :ile f9e /eels = swords & tools h _h an incalculably great influ5ce ^u ! developm5t ( ! human race1 x 0 ! mammo? production ( ,bessem] & op5-he>? /eel :i* p]mitt$ its g5]al use z a mat]ial = con/ruction ( %ips1 bridges1 build+s1 & = railroads1 t made ?is ! 8,age ( ,/eel40 ,speak+ 9 t]ms ( ! p[] h\se1 x is also ! 8,age ( ,ca/ ,/eel40 ,tw5ty-five ye>s ago ! manufactur] & p[] h\se man 7 q cont5t ) _! 8saturat$0 /eam temp]atures & pressures4 ,) ca/ iron valves & fitt+s _! plants 7 well equipp$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,/eel ,,ca/+s ,,%[+ ,,! ,,ris]s ,,on ,,! ,,flanges ,ca/+s = use on /eam1 ammonia1 wat] l9es1 etc41 mu/ be ( v close-gra9$ metal & require mu* l>g] ris]s ?an ca/+s = less exact+ s]vice4 ,b ! _w did n /& /ill4 ,x became kn[n t by heat+ ! /eam out ( contact ) ! wat] 9 ! boil] x lo/ ! moi/ure :i* x c>ri$ & became dry & !n c\ld be *>g$ ) z mu* additional heat z x 0 desir$ to give to x4 ,?is 8sup]heat$0 /eam1 ( c\rse1 w\ld d m "w & x _h also c]ta9 o!r advantages :i* ! old-fa%ion$ 8saturat$0 /eam _h n4 ,b :ile ca/ iron fitt+s gave satisfactory s]vice up to temp]atures1 say1 ar\nd #dej ,f41 !y falt]$ :5 =c$ to "w "u ! new conditions :i* meant decid$ly high] temp]atures & pressures4 ,&1 too1 ! repeat$ heat+s & cool+s :i* 7 (t5 necess>y1 disclos$ a disadvantage previ\sly unkn[n--a s-call$ 8p]man5t gr[?0 ( ! ca/ iron :i* 0 att5d$ by loss ( /r5g?1 & altoge!r x 0 soon f\nd out t :5 sup]heat$ /eam 0 to be us$1 high] types ( mat]ials 7 advisable ?an ^? :i* _h be5 us$ "u old conditions4 ,illu/ration3 ,,/eel ,,ca/+s ,,9 ,,! ,,anneal+ ,,ov5 ,sup]heat$ /eam has rapidly come into g5]al use4 ,"s ( ! new locomotives & mo/ ( ! mod]n p[] plants are n[ built = z mu* z #bjj sup]heat1 i4e41 a total temp]ature ( approximately #fjj ,fahr5heit4 ,valves & fitt+s ( ca/ /eel n only are ! articles 8de luxe0 = su* s]vice b !y h come to be consid]$ ! necess>y articles & _! advantages h only fairly begun to be appreciat$4 ,?\gh our mo/ augu/ sci5tific societies are propos+ & debat+ ^u sy/ems ( classification :i* %all include & satisfactorily def9e all ( our f]r\s metals1 a satisfactory "o has n yet be5 evolv$1 &1 consid]+ ! intricacy ( our f]r\s metallurgy & ! discov]ies :i* are be+ made almo/ daily1 ! outlook = a /rictly logical classification is n yet flatt]+4 ,) 8,ca/ ,/eel0 our metallurgical nom5clature is aga9 faulty4 ,be=e :at we n[ call ! 8/eel ca/+0 0 kn[n1 crucible /eel 0 p\r$ into +ots1 8=g$0 into tools j z x n[ is & (t5 w5t "u ! "n 8,ca/ ,/eel0 to di/+ui% x f ! contemporane\s mat]ial1 wr\ght iron4 ,s to-day we buy _m tools & implem5ts :i* be> ! "n ca/ /eel1 :i* we "k to h be5 =g$ 9 br++ !m into _! f9al %ape4 ,b x is n ^! :i* we mean by ! t]m1 ca/ /eel1 b r ^? /eel products :i* get _! f9al =m by be+ 8ca/0 f a fluid condition into a mold4 ,^! are :at are rapidly com+ to be und]/ood :5 ! t]m 8ca/ /eel0 is us$4 ,satisfactory metal = /eel ca/+s may be made 9 any ( ?ree or f\r types ( furnaces1 b1 z 0 sugge/$ be=e1 ! mak+ ( molds = ca/+s is a f9e art1 z is ! prep>ation ( ! metal :i* is to g into !m4 ,fur!r1 ! mak+ ( t special class ( ca/+s :i* are to )/& wat]1 /eam or air pressure is a v diff]5t ?+ f ! mak+ ( /eel ca/+s = o!r purposes1 & ?is is too (t5 =gott54 ,= ! =m] are necess>y p>ticul>ly close-gra9$ ca/+s1 free f flaws or spongy spots4 ,"u ! great pressures appli$ su* defects w\ld c]ta9ly all[ leakage4 ,illu/ration3 ,,flanges ,,& ,,fitt+s ,,( ,,ca/ ,,/eel ,:atev] ! me?od ( production ( /eel = ca/+s ! metal is p\r$ into molds to receive its f9al %ape4 ,because ( ! int5sely high heat ( ! /eel only s&s ( great refractor9ess 7resi/ance to heat7 c be us$ z mat]ial = ! mold4 ,:ite silica s& is su* a mat]ial & is g5]ally us$1 mix$ ) en\gh clay & molasses-wat] to give x 8bond40 ,:ile molds = "s /eel ca/+s are made 9 8gre50 7i4e41 undri$ or unbak$7 s&1 bak$ molds are pref]r$ = f9e f9i% & sure/ results4 ,aft] ! mak+ ( ! molds 9 ! usual way !y are spray$ ) v f9ely p[d]$ :ite s& or qu>tz mix$ ) a little molasses-wat]4 ,!y are !n ?or\ghly dri$ 9 an ov54 ,ca/ /eel %r9ks dur+ cool+ ev5 m ?an malleable iron & ! patt]n & mold mu/ be made to all[ = ?is4 ,^u ! freez+ ( ! surfaces ( ! ca/+ ) consequ5t atta9m5t ( rigidity1 ! int]iors1 :i* freeze la/1 may h cavities unless means = avoid+ !m is provid$4 ,= ?is purpose heavi] pieces1 :i* lat] c be cut (f1 are ca/ ^u su* p>ts ( ! ca/+ z t5d to h 8%r9k holes40 ,^! may be lik5$ to receptacles fill$ ) fluid metal1 :i* be+ l>g] ?an ! p>ts ( ! ca/+s :i* !y 8fe$10 hold excess metal 9 fluid condition until ! ca/+ itself has become solid ?r\gh\t4 ,su* are usually call$ 8ris]s0 or1 9 ,europe1 8lo/ heads10 & ! molt5 metal 9 !m fl[s d[n into ! int]ior ( ! ca/+ & fills ! %r9k holes :i* are =m+4 ,n only mu/ ! ris]s be l>ge en\gh t ! metal 9 !m is ! la/ to solidify b !y mu/ be built high en\gh above ! ca/+ t suffici5t pressure is ex]t$ on ! /eel ent]+ ! %r9k+ p>ts to make its entry sure4 ,illu/ration3 ,,gra9 ,,( ,,/eel ,,ca/+s ,,z ,,!y ,,come ,,f ,,! ,,mold ,illu/ration3 ,,gra9 ,,( ,,/eel ,,ca/+s ,,aft] ,,anneal+ 7,magnification #fj diamet]s7 ,bak$ molds1 ( c\rse1 are comp>atively rigid4 ,z ! ris]s :i* /& on top ( ! flanges & o!r high p>ts ( ca/+s aid 9 resi/+ ! natural %ort5+ ( long ca/+s dur+ & aft] 8sett+0 ( ! metal1 !re is great liability t ! /ill r$-hot ca/+ w crack some:]e along its l5g?4 ,x is !re=e necess>y to loos5 ) b>s ! s& ( ! mold z soon z ! metal ( ! ca/+ has set1 p>ticul>ly betwe5 ! ris]s1 & to break out ! s& ( ! core inside1 ar\nd :i* ! %r9k+ metal might crack 7 ! s& left 9 its h>d pack$ condition4 ,aft] ! ca/+ is %ak5 out f ! mold1 x is clean$ & ! ris]s cut (f ei!r by saw+ or ) ! m mod]n oxy-acetyl5e tor* flame4 ,illu/ration3 ,,o!r ,,typical ,,/eel ,,ca/+s ,/eel ca/+s %\ld be anneal$ 9 ord] to 8ref9e10 i4e41 make f9] ! gra9 ( metal & to equalize 8/ra9s0 :i* are set up 9 ! ca/+s dur+ cool+4 ,co>se gra9 & int]nal /ra9s t5d to make ! ca/+s brittle4 ,no su* ext5d$ anneal+1 h[ev]1 is necess>y z is ! case ) malleable ca/ iron1 = no divorc+ ( c>bon f ! iron ) sep>ation ( free c>bon is possible4 ,! ca/+s are c>efully heat$ to a temp]ature ( ab\t #afjj or #agjj ,fahr5heit & all[$ to cool sl[ly4 ,aft] anneal+1 !y are clean$ & excresc5ces remov$ by *ipp+1 aft] :i* ! ca/+s are tapp$1 drill$ or o!rwise ma*9$ accord+ to ! purposes = :i* !y are int5d$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,ca/ ,,/eel ,,valves1 ,,/eam ,,sep>ator1 ,,& ,,direct-,,return ,,trap ,,= ,,use ,,) ,,sup]heat$ ,,/eam ,:ile m co/ly 9 manufacture & in/allation ?an are ^? ( ca/ iron1 valves1 fitt+s & o!r ca/ /eel products are1 s f> z we n[ "k1 practically p]man5t4 ,_! notable %ock resi/+ quality is well %[n 9 ! foll[+ table :i* is repr9t$ f page #ahh4 ,illu/ration3 ,,p\r+ ,,/eel ,,into ,,molds ,,f ,a ,,bottom-,,p\r ,,ladle ,x is to be not$ t :ile malleable ca/ iron f> surpasses 8semi-/eel0 9 ?is prop]ty1 ?\gh _! t5sile /r5g?s are ord9>ily some:]e ne> ! same1 ca/ /eel1 9 turn1 (f]s m ?an six times ! resi/ance ( ! malleable iron to %ock & has ne>ly d\ble its t5sile /r5g?4 ,x is ?is great /r5g? & resi/ance to %ock1 heat & pressure1 ) fre$om f 8p]man5t gr[?0 "u alt]nate heat+s & cool+s t make ca/ /eel su* a valuable mat]ial = ! _m purposes = :i* ca/+s are to-day employ$4 ,millions ( /eel ca/+s annually f9d v>i$ application4 ,alloy ,t5sile ,numb],total ,/r5g? ( ,foot ,bl[s ,p\nds ,ca/ ,iron #bc1djj #g #ajb ,semi-/eel #ce1jej #aa #bjf ,malleable ,ca/ ,iron #cg1adj #bb #a1ehj ,ca/ ,/eel #gb1abj #ibaj1aab ,9 mod]n p[] h\ses & o!r comm]cial /eam & hydraulic in/allations p>ticul>ly1 /eel ca/+s h come to be ! mat]ials usually specifi$ & approximately ! only ones :i* satisfactorily s]ve "u ! sev]e conditions ( to-day4 ,illu/ration3 ,,p\r+ ,,f ,a ,,lip-,,p\r ,,ladle ,und\bt$ly ! fir/ /eel ca/+s 7 p\r$ f crucible /eel1 ?\gh we mu/ rememb] t ! crucible is a melt+ & n a ref9+ furnace4 ,?is 0 only natural4 ,9 ! crucible ! metal c be made v hot & fluid1 & if ( prop] composition & prop]ly 8kill$0 crucible /eel makes v f9e ca/+s4 ,crucible /eel ca/+s1 h[ev]1 are n 9 z =tunate a position z are o!r products ( ?is high grade mat]ial4 ,tool /eels ord9>ily br+ high en\gh price t !re rema9s a pr(it to ! manufactur] ?\gh 8 manufactur+ co/ is necess>ily high4 ,9 ! /eel ca/+ l9e1 h[ev]1 !re is mu* ke5] competition & crucible /eel has _h consid]able difficulty 9 ma9ta9+ its place4 ,x seems to be a matt] ( price alone4 ,op5-he>? /eel is v l>gely us$ = /eel ca/+s1 m ?an two-?irds ( all made 9 ?is c\ntry be+ ( ?is mat]ial4 ,ab\t "o half ( ^! are p\r$ f basic op5-he>? metal1 & ! o!r half f acid metal4 ,x is g5]ally consid]$ t ! product ( ! acid-l9$ furnace is a little fre] f ov]-oxidation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,tapp+ ,,side ,,( ,,two-,,ton ,,oil-,,burn+ ,,op5-,,he>? ,,furnace ,,= ,,/eel ,,ca/+s ,op5-he>? /eel _c g5]ally be z hot & fluid z are ! /eels made 9 o!r types ( furnaces4 ,= ?is reason z well z because ( ! l>g] size ( ! usual op5-he>? furnace1 small ca/+s are n g5]ally p\r$ f ?is /eel4 ,x is = /eel ca/+s ( consid]able size & :]e !re are suffici5t ord]s to w>rant a /eady & l>ge output t ! op5-he>? has its place4 ,true1 small] op5-he>?s are n[ built1 "s ( !m ( only two or ?ree tons capacity1 b1 9 g5]al1 ! /&>d op5-he>? = /eel ca/+s is ( fifte5 tons or m capacity & ( ! /yle ( ! op5-he>? furnaces :i* 7 describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,ix4 ,9 _! prop] sph]e !y are highly satisfactory1 b !y are 8inela/ic0 9 t !y mu/ be run cont9u\sly day & night & %\ld n be all[$ to cool until ext5sive repairs are imp]ative4 ,x 0 m5tion$ t 9 ! op5-he>? process ! furnace is always hott] ?an ! metal :i* x conta9s & t ! heat :i* c be put into ! /eel is limit$ by ! ability ( ! refractories ( :i* ! ro( & side walls are made to )/& melt+4 ,9 ! ,bessem] process ! metal is hott] ?an ! furnace because ! heat is g5]at$ by combu/ion ( c]ta9 ( ! metalloids conta9$ 9 ! metal itself4 ,z metal = ca/+s mu/ be v hot & fluid ! ,bessem] process is v satisfactory = ! mak+ ( /eel = ca/+s4 ,illu/ration3 ,a #cj-,,ton ,,basic ,,op5-,,he>? ,,furnace ,,tapp+ ,! ov]fl[ f ! ladle into ! pit is slag4 ,x has1 also1 ! advantage ( 8ela/icity40 ,! supply ( metal is practically cont9u\s & "o furnace c make f "o to eighte5 or ev5 m heats on day turn only & be %ut d[n = ! night turn or long] & !n />t$ aga9 )\t su* loss z w\ld result f ! %utt+ d[n ( an op5-he>? furnace ) reg5]ators4 ,= ! mak+ ( metal = /eel ca/+s1 v small-siz$ ,bessem] conv]t]s are us$ :i* make f "o to ?ree tons ( metal p] bl[4 ,"s conv]t]s ( z little z "o-half ton capacity are be+ us$4 ,:ile "s are ( ! 8bottom-bl[n0 type already describ$1 ! majority are :at are call$ 8surface-bl[n0 or 8side-bl[n40 ,9 ^!1 f f\r to eight r\nd tuyres1 ab\t "o & "o-half in*es 9 diamet] ea*1 pi]ce ! brick or gani/] l9+ j above ! surface ( ! ba?4 ,!y slope d[nw>d a little t[>d ! ba? s t :5 ! conv]t] is tipp$ to its upright or bl[+ position ! air bla/ w /rike ! adjac5t edge ( ! metal & bl[ across its surface4 ,?is ?ree or f\r p\nds p] squ>e in* ( air bla/ keeps ! metal 9 circulation1 mean:ile burn+ out its silicon1 manganese1 & c>bon1 j z x does 9 ! l>g] bottom-bl[n conv]t]s4 ,surface-bl[n give hott] metal ?an d bottom-bl[n conv]t]s & v f9e /eel ca/+s are made f _! metal4 ,= ^! conv]t]s1 :i* are practically all acid-l9$ 7i4e41 ) silica or clay brick or gani/]71 metal l[ 9 phosphorus & sulphur is regul>ly drawn f a cupola specially run = ! purpose4 ,illu/ration3 ,,small ,,side-,,bl[n ,,conv]t] ,,mak+ ,,/eel ,,= ,,ca/+s ,! rema9+ recogniz$ type ( furnace = /eel = ca/+s is ! comp>atively new electric furnace4 ,comm]cial melt+ ( metals by ! electric curr5t has be5 s\ght = half a c5tury4 ,9 #ahgi ! fir/ furnaces ( promise 7 pat5t$ by ,sir ,william ,siem5s1 "o ( ! ,siem5s bro!rs :o became s well kn[n ?r\gh _! great "w ) ! op5-he>? furnace1 ! gas produc] & _m o!r ?+s metallurgical4 ,:ile ,siem5s melt$ z mu* z tw5ty-two p\nds ( iron p] h\r 9 8 furnace1 ! co/ ( ! electric curr5t at t "t 0 s high z to be practically prohibitive = ! manufacture ( /eel 9 competition ) ! op5-he>?1 ,bessem] & crucible processes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,draw+ ,,( ,,side-,,bl[n ,,conv]t] ,,9 ,,bl[+ ,,position1 ,,%[+ ,,edge ,,( ,,metal ,,ev5 ,,) ,,r[ ,,( ,,tuy,,res ,little ( great mom5t 9 ! electric furnace l9e develop$ dur+ ! n9ete5 ye>s :i* foll[$4 ,!n1 9 #ahih1 ,/assano 9 ,rome1 ,italy1 con/ruct$ a furnace 9 :i* ?ree c>bons gave an electric arc above ! surface ( ! ba?4 ,ab\t ! same "t1 ,h]\lt1 a ,fr5*man1 0 develop+ ! electric furnace :i* to-day has become s well kn[n 9 ?is c\ntry1 & :i* be>s 8 "n4 ,o!r well kn[n furnaces ( ! arc type are ! ,gronwall-,dixon1 ! ,snyd]1 ! ,girod & ! ,r5n]felt4 ,9 g5]al1 electric furnaces h m or less r\nd /eel %ells ) %all[ brick1 magnesite or s&-l9$ he>?s1 & sidewalls & removable ro(s ( brick4 ,heat1 ( c\rse1 is furni%$ electrically4 ,9 mo/ ( !m long c>bon electrodes are l[]$ ?r\gh holes 9 ! ro( until ! l[] ends /rike an arc ) ! metal on ! he>?4 ,! numb] ( c>bons may be f "o to f\r or m dep5d+ ^u ! /yle & size ( ! furnace & ! mann] 9 :i* electrical connections are made4 ,all ( ! furnaces m5tion$ h be5 us$ = ! production ( /eel = ca/+s & ! ,h]\lt & ,girod are 9 use 9 l>g] sizes = electric /eel = rails & miscellane\s products4 ,! /eel is fir/ ca/ into +ot molds & is lat] roll$ d[n into b>s1 rods1 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,gronwall-,,dixon #e-,,ton ,,electric ,,furnace ,,tapp+ ,illu/ration3 ,,fir/ ,,exp]im5tal ,,arc ,,electric ,,furnaces ,,pat5t$ ,,by ,,sir ,,william ,,siem5s ,,9 #ahgi ,all ( ! above use c>bon electrodes & are kn[n z 8arc0 furnaces4 ,!re is a di/9ctly diff]5t type ( furnace :i*1 also1 is 9 use 9 comm]cial sizes4 ,?is is ! 8induction0 furnace4 ,9 ?is1 :at is kn[n to electricians z a second>y curr5t is 8induc$0 9 ! ba? itself & heats ! metal4 ,( ?is type ! ,kjell9 & ! ,ro*l+-,rod5haus] are ! be/ kn[n 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,:ile !y are 9 use 9 ! l>g] sizes = production ( /eel = +ots1 ^! two furnaces d n seem to h be5 us$ to any ext5t = metal = /eel ca/+s4 ,! details ( con/ruction ( ! furnaces :i* are us$ = metal = ca/+s are m or less diff]5t1 b !y are n ( p>ticul> int]e/ to u4 ,! work+ ( all is simil> & a g5]al description %\ld suffice4 ,illu/ration3 ,,draw+ ,,( ,,! ,,snyd] ,,electric ,,furnace ,illu/ration3 ,,small ,,snyd] ,,electric ,,furnace ,,tapp+ ,:e!r />t+ ) furnace cold or hot1 mat]ials 9 molt5 or 9 ! m usual 8cold0 =m are *>g$ on ! %all[ he>? ( ! furnace4 ,! *>g+ doors are clos$1 ! curr5t is turn$ on & ! c>bon electrodes are l[]$ until an arc is /ruck betwe5 ! upp] electrodes & ! metal on ! he>?1 :i* 9 "s way is made to connect ) ! negative electrodes4 ,9 "o or two ( ! types m5tion$ ! arc plays betwe5 ! c>bons1 all ( :i* are above ! ba?4 ,at fir/ !re are great fluctuations 9 ! curr5t int5sity because ( ! unev5 surface pres5t$ by scrap /eel on ! he>?4 ,9 a %ort "t1 h[ev]1 ! curr5t /eadies4 ,! int5se heat ( ! arcs soon br+s cold /eel to a molt5 condition4 ,occasional att5tion f ! att5dant is necess>y to see t ! melt+ is ev5 & t any outly+ pieces ( /eel are pu%$ to ! c5t] :]e !y mu/ melt4 ,illu/ration3 ,,sket* ,,( ,,! ,,h]\lt ,,?ree-,,phase ,,electric ,,furnace ,!re are ?ree electrodes1 all ( !m above ! ba?4 ,only two %[ "h4 ,9 ! basic-l9$ furnaces lime is usually *>g$ ) ! cold /eel4 ,) ! iron oxide :i* is add$ f "t to "t ?is =ms a highly oxidiz+ slag1 :i*1 aft] x takes ! phosphorus f ! metal1 is skimm$ (f4 ,z y w rememb]1 ! o!r processes /op at ?is po9t1 little fur!r ref9+ be+ possible4 ,9 ! electric furnace1 h[ev]1 ! sulphur1 also1 c be r$uc$ to almo/ any desir$ am\nt by use ( a fur!r addition ( lime1 & great] heat4 ,n only c ! sulphur be r$uc$ to v small p]c5tages b ! ov]-oxidiz$ ba? c be br\ght to neutral condition & ! gre5 or black slag made :ite ) return ( its manganese & iron to ! ba?4 ,?is is accompli%$ by addition ( small am\nts ( p[d]$ coke or coal4 ,! :ole process is "u v accurate control4 ,) a practically :ite slag1 :i* is ! signal t ! deoxidation ( ! ba? is complete1 & ! sulphur r$uc$1 ! /eel is ready to p\r provid$ x is hot en\gh4 ,te/s ( ?is are usually made ei!r by p\r+ a little ( ! /eel f a small ladle & obs]v+ its fluidity or by obs]v+ ! quickness ) :i* ! end ( an iron b> is melt$ (f :5 plung$ into ! metal 9 ! furnace4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,h]\lt ,,electric ,,furnace ,( all ! metallurgical /eel furnaces1 ! electric furnace is ! mo/ susceptible ( accurate control4 ,) ! heat appli$ directly to ! metal 9 ! cleane/ way possible1 i4 e41 )\t ! admission ( coal a% or gas or air ( ! bla/1 ! atmosph]e 9 ! tightly clos$ electric furnace c be made 8oxidiz+10 8neutral10 or 8r$uc+0 at w4 ,! metal c be held 9 ! furnace & additions made1 samples tak51 & ! op]ations conduct$ ) regulation & c]ta9ty4 ,?is newly devis$ metallurgical app>atus is com+ to be l>gely us$ 9 ! production ( tool /eels4 ,:ile x has n displac$ ! crucible me?od = ! production ( /eels ( ! v highe/ qualities1 x has proce$$ f> en\gh 9 ?is direction 9 ! v limit$ numb] ( ye>s s9ce its introduction1 t x is c]ta9 t ! crucible1 ev5 = tool /eels1 is to h a ke5 competitor4 ,tool /eels 9 consid]able v>iety are to-day be+ q satisfactorily made 9 ! electric furnace & x is n at all unlikely t /eels ( ! v highe/ grade w %ortly be produc$ by ?is me?od4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,! ,,alloy ,,/eels ,we h le>n$ t /eel1 fundam5tally1 is an alloy ( iron ) c>bon1 i4e41 c>bon is ! *>act]i/ic elem5t4 ,we are n[ to note :at (t5 seem to be exceptions to ?is rule4 ,:ile 9 reality /eel is j ?is iron-c>bon alloy1 !re are alloys kn[n z /eels to :i* su* /rong *>act]i/ics are giv5 by elem5ts o!r ?an c>bon1 t c>bon seems n to be ! def9+ con/itu5t at all4 ,inde$1 9 "s ( ^!1 ! c>bon cont5t may be small en\gh t1 judg+ f our exp]i5ce ) ! c>bon /eel s]ies1 we w\ld n expect any su* physical prop]ties z "s ( ^! alloy /eels %[4 ,y rememb] t 9 old5 days !y di/+ui%$ betwe5 wr\ght iron & /eel by qu5*+ ! piece 9 wat] f a *]ry-r$ heat4 ,if ! piece 0 h>d5$ & made brittle1 by ?is treatm5t1 x 0 !reby prov$ to be 8/eel40 ,also1 x is g5]ally kn[n t by anneal+ a piece ( h>d5$ /eel1 :i* usually means hold+ at a *]ry-r$ heat = a "t & !n cool+ sl[ly1 x is made s(t4 ,!n :at %all we say conc]n+ a c]ta9 "o ( ^! new alloys1 ,hadfield's manganese /eel1 :i* is made v mu* less brittle & a little s(t] by qu5*+1 b :i* refuses absolutely to s(t5 "u anneal+ treatm5t--9 o!r words1 is almo/ ! opposite ( :at we "k z /eel 9 ^! *ief def9+ traits8 ,! nickel /eel :i* conta9s #ae p] c5t ( nickel1 also1 exhibits j ^! *>act]i/ics1 be+ s(t5$ by qu5*+ b n by anneal+4 ,aga91 :ile iron1 ! c>bon /eels1 & ev5 ! magnetic oxide ( iron :i* conta9s only ab\t #gb p] c5t ( ! metal1 are /rongly magnetic1 manganese /eel :i* has #he p] c5t ( iron is s non-magnetic t x is sometimes us$ 9 place ( brass or bronze :]e an entirely non-magnetic mat]ial is requir$4 ,! nickel /eels ) #bd p] c5t or m ( nickel are also non-magnetic ?\gh bo? con/itu5t metals1 alone1 are /rongly attract$ by ! magnet4 ,^! are "s ( ! ?+s :i* make a logical classification ( ! iron family s difficult4 ,?\gh d]iv$ f ! /eels :i* we knew & made f ! same mat]ials ) ! exception t a great] am\nt ( "o con/itu5t1 manganese1 is add$1 or p]haps1 9 o!r cases1 ano!r elem5t or two1 ! result+ alloys h m>k$ly diff]5t & (t5 contradictory prop]ties4 ,h[ev]1 we mu/ n be l$ a/ray4 ,9 all probability c>bon is /ill ! necess>y con/itu5t1 b mu* less ( x is ne$$ to produce results :5 ! o!r elem5ts are pres5t4 ,!re is no d\bt1 h[ev]1 t 9 8manganese /eel0 or 9 8nickel10 8*rome10 8tung/510 8silicon10 8vanadium10 8titanium10 & o!r alloy /eels1 ! add$ elem5t or elem5ts ex]t v /rong modify+ influ5ces1 & sometimes obscure ! influ5ce ( ! c>bon4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 we bett] at once dispose ( c]ta9 ( ^! /eels by t]m+ ! add$ elem5t a 8scav5g]0 only4 ,su* usually are 8titanium0 & 8alum9um0 /eels4 ,^! are g5]ally ord9>y c>bon /eels 9 :i* a v small am\nt ( titanium or alum9um has be5 us$ to rid ! alloy ( c]ta9 gase\s or o!r delet]i\s elem5ts4 ,^u analysis1 /eels s treat$ (t5 %[ no trace ( ! elem5t :i* has be5 add$ to d ! "w1 all ( x hav+ pass$ into ! slag1 c>ry+ ) x ! obnoxi\s sub/ances1 :i*1 _h !y rema9$ w\ld h injur$ ! quality ( ! /eel4 ,manganese & silicon :i* 7 spok5 ( 9 ! discussion ( ! ,bessem] process z deoxidiz+ ! metal1 also ex]t j ?is same influ5ce1 ?\gh !re is usually add$ ( ^! en\gh t a c]ta9 p]c5tage rema9s 9 ! f9i%$ /eel4 ,vanadium & titanium h a p>ticul> aff9ity = oxyg5 & nitrog51 & alum9um = oxyg54 ,by *emically comb9+ ) ^! gases 9 ! metal1 & ?r\gh possible o!r influ5ce1 !y help to produce s\nd /eel hav+ v good physical prop]ties4 ,vanadium1 h[ev]1 is mu* m ?an a 8scav5g]0 z w be se5 lat] on4 ,manganese ,/eel ,manganese /eel 0 discov]$ & highly develop$ by ,rob]t ,hadfield ( ,%effield1 ,engl&1 along ab\t #ahhb4 ,8 #aa p] c5t to #ad p] c5t manganese /eel ) ab\t #a p] c5t ( c>bon has su* great h>dness t x _c be drill$ or cut ) tools4 ,9 =g+s & ca/+s x is us$ = mill+ ma*9]y = ore treatm5t2 manganese /eel rails ins]t$ ar\nd %>p curves & = 8frogs10 etc41 "u sev]e s]vice conditions outla/ ord9>y /eel rails ?ree or f\r times2 x goes into v>i\s rolls & cru%] p>ts1 /eam & dr$ge %ovels1 grab buckets1 s& pumps1 ge>s1 p9ions1 etc41 :i* h to resi/ heavy we>4 ,x is mu* us$1 too1 z a mat]ial = burgl>-pro( safes4 ,! alloy is f> too h>d to drill & too t\gh & /rong to be brok54 ,x is said t no manganese /eel safe has ev] be5 drill$ or =cibly ent]$4 ,9 =m+ irregul> %apes1 manganese /eel mu/ be ca/ & f9i%$ by gr9d+ b = ord9>y b>s & rails x c be roll$4 ,9 ! 8raw0 condition x is q brittle & extremely h>d4 ,qu5*+ f a *]ry-r$ heat greatly t\gh5s x & makes x ductile4 ,?\gh n[ x c be d5t$ by a hamm] bl[ & m>k$ ) a file1 x always is s t\gh t x _c be ma*9$ ) any tool4 ,ord9>y anneal+ treatm5t has no s(t5+ effect on ! alloy4 ,silicon ,/eels ,:5 alloy$ 9 ! /eel 9 c]ta9 quantities1 silicon gives desirable prop]ties4 ,/eels ) f "o to two p] c5t ( silicon 9 ! temp]$ condition are v t\gh4 ,= ?is reason ! leaves ( automobile spr+s are (t5 made f x4 ,/eels ) f #c to #e p] c5t ( silicon are mu* us$ 9 electrical appliances because ( _! improv$ magnetic prop]ties4 ,molybd5um ,/eels ,to a c]ta9 ext5t /eels conta9+ #c or #d p] c5t ( ! metal molybd5um1 & #a or #a p] c5t ( c>bon are us$ 9 ! con/ruction ( p]man5t magnets4 ,x is said t molybd5um is us$ 9 "s mod]n guns1 :i* long] resi/ ! corrosive effect ( ! p[d]-gases because ( x4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt goes into ! high-spe$ /eels :]e x replaces "p or all ( ! tung/54 ,"h1 h[ev]1 x has be5 a disappo9tm5t & ! am\nt s us$ seems to be decreas+ r ?an increas+4 ,tung/5 ,/eels ,/eels ) ab\t p] c5t ( ea* ( c>bon & tung/5 are occasionally us$ = manufacture ( spr+s1 & ) great] am\nts1 e4g41 p] c5t ( c>bon & #e or #g p] c5t ( tung/51 = p]man5t magnets = :i* !y are claim$ to be ! be/ mat]ial kn[n4 ,! use ( tung/5 9 ! tool /eels 7o!r ?an ! high-spe$ /eels7 is consid]able4 ,nickel ,/eel ,nickel /eel is mu* us$ on acc\nt ( its high /r5g?4 ,! mo/ usual alloy1 p]haps1 is ! "o :i* conta9s ab\t #c p] c5t ( nickel4 ,?is is 9 addition to ! c>bon :i* may v>y betwe5 4#ae p] c5t & p] c5t4 ,?is #c p] c5t ( nickel adds sev]al ?\s& p\nds p] squ>e in* 9 /r5g? to ! /eel1 & :5 temp]$1 bo? ! /r5g? & t\ghness are greatly improv$4 ,nickel /eels ( ^! compositions c readily be =g$ & roll$4 ,!y are us$ = drop =g+s1 ma*9e p>ts1 eng9e & automobile p>ts1 9 seamless tubes & = bridge memb]s ( great span4 ,nickel w n ru/ s x does n surprise "o t ) #bb p] c5t or m ( nickel ! /eel is almo/ immune f ord9>y corrosion4 ,/eels conta9+ f #be to #df p] c5t nickel are v>i\sly us$ = resi/ance wire1 = valve /ems1 valves = motors1 etc4 ,! #cf p] c5t nickel /eel is ! alloy1 8,inv>10 :i* has su* slight expansion & contraction ) heat & cold t x is us$ = clock p5dulums1 wat* p>ts & = p>ts ( measur+ in/rum5ts4 ,=ty-six p] c5t nickel /eel is call$ 8,plat9ite40 ,x has practically ! same rates ( expansion & contraction ) heat & cold z glass & = ?is reason x f9ds ext5sive use 9 inc&esc5t electric lamps4 ,wires ( ! alloy are fus$ into ! glass bases & connect ) ! filam5ts 9 place ( ! exp5sive plat9um :i* =m]ly 0 us$4 ,z rem>k$ above1 ! #ac p] c5t to #ae p] c5t nickel-iron alloys s(t5 ) qu5*+ b n ) anneal+4 ,! #ae p] c5t nickel /eel has ! highe/ /r5g? ( ! nickel-iron-c>bon s]ies4 ,?\gh nickel & iron are ea* /rongly magnetic1 alloys ( ! two :i* conta9 #bd p] c5t or m ( nickel are n magnetic4 ,*rome & ,nickel-,*rome ,/eels ,:ile 8simple0 *rome /eel is pretty well kn[n z a mat]ial = products :i* require great h>dness1 su* z balls1 roll] be>+s1 files1 rolls1 five-ply safes1 /amp %oes1 projectiles1 etc41 & heat-treat$ *rome-vanadium /eels are n[ ext5sively us$ 9 =g$ frames & %afts ( automobile & o!r ma*9es1 a comb9ation ( nickel & *romium gives /eels :i* h be5 great favorites4 ,) #b to #c p] c5t ( nickel1 n ov] #c p] c5t ( *romium & p] c5t ( c>bon1 ^! /eels1 :5 exp]tly heat-treat$1 c give 8ela/ic limits0 any:]e betwe5 #dj1jjj & #bej1jjj p\nds p] squ>e in*1 ) good fre$om f brittl5ess4 ,!y are v l>gely us$ = automobile ge>s1 axles1 & o!r p>ts1 = armor plate1 = projectiles & = _m o!r purposes4 ,^! alloys are also us$ = ca/+s4 ,*rome-,vanadium ,/eels ,)9 a comp>atively %ort "t ! *rome-vanadium /eels h come to be v l>gely us$1 (t5 9 place ( ! *rome & nickel-*rome /eels4 ,z vanadium is a 8deoxidiz]10 :]eas nickel is n1 ! *rome-vanadium /eels %[ few] imp]fections ?an ! nickel-*rome /eels & !y also roll1 =ge & ma*9e bett]4 ,!y are us$ = automobile frames1 %afts1 = miscellane\s =g$ & roll$ articles & = heat-treat$ armor plates4 ,( ?is comp>atively new mat]ial ab\t #ij1jjj tons 7 made dur+ #aiac1 accord+ to a rec5tly issu$ bullet9 ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ! ,int]ior4 ,x is impossible1 ( c\rse1 to ev5 beg9 to imp>t any adequate conception ( ! qualities & great importance ( ! alloy /eels = purposes ( con/ruction4 ,z has be5 %[n !y are special /eels = special purposes & _! application is wide4 ,incorporation ( ! new elem5t 9 ! alloy imp>ts peculi> & valuable prop]ties3 = example1 #ab p] c5t ( manganese1 great h>dness & t\ghness2 #bc p] c5t ( nickel1 non-corrosive prop]ties & great /r5g?2 *romium1 nickel ) *romium or *romium ) vanadium1 /r5g? & high ela/ic limit 7resi/ance to di/ortion7 z well z great h>d5+ p[] :5 desir$1 ?is1 ( c\rse1 ! usual h>d5+ ?r\gh qu5*+ f a *]ry-r$ heat4 ,v (t5 in/ead ( ! s+le def9+ elem5t1 a comb9ation ( two1 ?ree or ev5 f\r ( !m is us$4 ,su*1 ( c\rse1 are r complicat$ /eels hav+ comb9ations ( prop]ties z might naturally be expect$1 ?\gh v (t5 ^! result+ prop]ties are n ^? :i* are expect$4 ,9 fact no "o c tell 9 advance :at prop]ties any new comb9ation ( metals 9 an alloy w produce & (t5 new proportions ( ! same con/itu5t metals give entirely diff]5t & unique results4 ,! only c]ta9 me?od ( asc]ta9+ :at *>act]i/ics & prop]ties a new alloy w h is to develop x & 9 t way f9d out4 ,description ( a special & extremely important class ( ^! alloys1 ! 8high-spe$ /eels10 w s]ve to %[ h[ labori\s1 sl[ & exp5sive a process developm5t ( new alloys may be & :at unlook$-= results are sometimes obta9$4 ,,*apt] ,,xv ,,! ,,high-,,spe$ ,,/eels ,dur+ e>ly c5turies ! art ( metal cutt+ made little progress except 9-s-f> z ! application ( great] driv+ p[] & ! use ( bett] ma*9es 7 conc]n$4 ,la!s _h be5 kn[n s9ce ! six? c5tury ,b4 ,c41 at lea/1 b1 ( c\rse1 little 0 or c\ld be accompli%$1 comp>atively speak+1 be=e ! inv5tion ( ! /eam eng9e by ,watt1 :i* 0 ! fir/ contrivance to give suffici5t p[] = ma*9+ purposes4 ,dur+ ! c5tury :i* foll[$ ,huntsman's "t1 /eel mak]s & smi?s became v exp]t 9 ! manufacture & temp]+ ( c>bon /eels4 ,la! tools 7 made ( ^! c>bon /eels1 ! only available mat]ial1 b ev5 ) ! bett] ma*9e %op practice ( ! #ai? c5tury !y 7 capable only ( :at we n[ consid] to be ineffici5t results4 ,! tr\ble 0 t s9ce c>bon tool /eel gets its h>dness f qu5*+ f a r$ heat & !n 8draw+0 ! temp] by reheat+ & sl[ly cool+ f #djj or #ejj ,f41 tools made f x c\ld n reta9 _! h>dness if _! cutt+ po9ts became mu* heat$1 z occurr$ if ! la! 0 run too fa/4 ,! usual cutt+ spe$1 !re=e1 0 #bj or #cj l9e> feet p] m9ute4 ,spe$s 9 excess ( ?is took ! temp] out ( ! tools & soon made !m useless4 ,ab\t #ahfh ,rob]t ,f4 ,mu%et1 a metallurgi/ ( ,%effield1 ,engl&1 made a mom5t\s discov]y4 ,he f\nd t a piece ( tool /eel :i* _h cool$ 9 ! air 0 z h>d z "s ( ^? :i* he _h qu5*$4 ,be+ an inve/igator he set ab\t discov]+ ! reason = ?is exp]i5ce :i* 0 )\t prec$5t4 ,analysis %[$ t beside ! usual con/itu5ts ( tool /eel ?is p>ticul> b> conta9$ tung/51 a comp>atively new metal4 ,he exp]im5t$ ) "s hundr$s ( mixtures & evolv$ an alloy1 :i*1 9 tools1 w\ld /& up "u ma*9e spe$s d\ble ^? :i* c\ld be us$ ) c>bon /eels4 ,^! new alloys became kn[n z 8air-h>d5+0 or self-h>d5+ tool /eels because !y requir$ no qu5*+4 ,! pr9cipal application ( ^! new /eels 0 9 ! cutt+ ( h>d] metal ?an x _h be=e be5 possible to cut1 & little att5tion1 app>5tly1 0 paid to ! gett+ ( great] outputs by increase ( ma*9e spe$s4 ,at ?is po9t ,fr$]ick ,w4 ,taylor ( 8effici5cy0 fame appe>s ^u ! sc5e4 ,:ile manag] ( ! ,be?lehem ,/eel ,works 9 ! n9eties ( ! la/ c5tury1 he 0 work+ ^u ! effici5cy inve/igations = :i* he lat] became s fam\s4 ,dur+ 8 inve/igations1 ) ,maunsel ,:ite he exp]im5t$ ) _m air-h>d5+ /eels to det]m9e ! be/ grades to use = _! %op "w4 ,gett+ "s inconsi/5t results !y det]m9$ ^u & made :at 0 a mo/ ext5d$ & sy/ematic inve/igation1 "o s ?or\gh & complete t ,taylor & ,:ite h become "p ( ! hi/ory ( high-spe$ /eels4 ,!y produc$ new compositions ! qu5*+ ( :i* c\ld be f temp]atures greatly 9 excess ( ^? :i* tool mak]s = c5turies _h held to be ru9\s & :i* really are ru9\s to c>bon tool /eels4 ,! be/ results 7 obta9$ :5 ! new /eels 7 qu5*$ by plung+ 9 oil f close to _! melt+ po9ts--a dripp+ or 8sweat+0 heat z x is call$4 ,?is 0 some?+ entirely new b x develop$ t aft] prop] draw+1 /eels qu5*$ f ^! extreme temp]atures1 w\ld /& up "u la! spe$s z great z #bjj or #cjj feet p] m9ute4 ,comp>e ^! ) ! mis]able spe$s ( #bj or #cj feet p] m9ute1 :i* 7 ! av]age p]=mances ( ! be/ c>bon /eels4 ,! secret ( ,taylor & ,:ite's treatm5t 0 n long 9 com+ out & soon high-spe$ /eel mak]s 9 ,europe & ,am]ica 7 vy+ ) ea* o!r 9 production ( f9] & f9] high-spe$ /eels4 ,! progress :i* has be5 made dur+ ! la/ tw5ty ye>s & p>ticul>ly dur+ ! pa/ t5 has be5 a/\nd+4 ,improvem5t has foll[$ improvem5t 9 composition1 manufacture & heat treatm5t1 s t to-day1 in/ead ( ! cut at #cj feet p] m9ute1 :i* 0 a high figure ) c>bon /eel tools1 ! mod]n la! or %ap] tool (t5 works at #cjj or #djj or m feet p] m9ute1 &1 ) suffici5t p[] beh9d x1 at some:at l[] spe$s pl[s out in* deep & in* wide *ips s fa/ t _! removal to keep ! ma*9e cle> is no mean problem4 ,(t5 #b1jjj p\nds ( ! mat]ial p] h\r c be ?us cut away ) "o tool4 ,z sugge/$1 ! new /eels d n suff] su* loss ( temp] f ! heat g5]at$ by ! friction ( ! tool 9 ! metal z occurs ) c>bon /eel tools4 ,9 fact1 tools ( high-spe$ /eel "w be/ aft] 8w>m+ up0 & !y c run = a consid]able p]iod ( "t ) ! po9t ( ! tool r$-hot1 ?\gh su* is n advisable4 ,z is readily se5 ! ess5tial prop]ty ( ! high-spe$ /eels is ! s-call$ 8r$ h>dness0 :i* is ! ability to reta9 h>dness at r$ heat4 ,?is is sev]al hundr$ degrees 9 excess ( ! temp]atures at :i* ! c>bon tool /eels quickly lose _! 8temp]40 ,z =eca/ by ,mu%et1 ! ess5tial con/itu5t ( ! new /eels is ! metal1 tung/54 ,b tung/5 alone _c give ! desir$ prop]ty4 ,mu%et1 x w be rememb]$1 0 ! metallurgi/ ^: pat5ts = ! use ( manganese 9 /eel ,bessem] 0 oblig$ to recognize to make 8 process a success1 ?\gh ! metal _h e>li] be5 us$ 9 crucible /eel4 ,! air-h>d5+ prop]ty ( ,mu%et's /eel 0 contribut$ by a happ5/ance comb9ation ( tung/5 & ?is same metal1 manganese4 ,x lat] develop$ t tung/5 & *romium 7 ! be/ h>d5+ elem5ts & ^! h ma9ta9$ _! place1 ?\gh ref9em5ts ( ! pa/ few ye>s h made use ( vanadium1 &1 m rec5tly1 cobalt 9 addition4 ,usual am\nts may be said to be tung/5 #ad to #be p] c5t1 *romium #b to #g p] c5t1 ) vanadium to #a p] c5t1 & cobalt up to #d p] c5t1 p]haps4 ,! c>bon cont5t is usually 4#f to 4#h p] c5t4 ,sometimes ano!r comp>atively r>e metal1 molybd5um1 is us$ 9 high-spe$ /eels 9 place ( "p ( ! tung/51 b its use does n seem to be on ! increase4 ,manufactur]s diff] consid]ably 9 =mulas4 ,x w be notic$ t at be/ !re is left room = only #gj or #hj p] c5t ( iron 9 ! alloy4 ,f c]ta9 /&po9ts1 ! high-spe$ /eels might n at fir/ ?\ght be call$ 8/eels0 at all s9ce c>bon seems to be ( s little importance4 ,!y might be consid]$ to be l[ c>bon alloys some:at simil> to ! new] 8/ellite0 7an alloy f :i* tools are made71 :i* conta9s little or no c>bon & no iron b is made up ma9ly ( cobalt & *romium4 ,!y fit 91 h[ev]1 ) ! g5]al & v compreh5sive s*eme ( classification ( ! iron-c>bon alloys :i* has be5 develop+ ov] a p]iod ( tw5ty ye>s & !re is no d\bt among metallurgi/s & metallographi/s t1 z is ! case ) ! alloy /eels describ$ above1 !y are iron-c>bon alloys--9 o!r words1 /eels--! prop]ties ( :i* h be5 greatly modifi$ ?r\gh ! pres5ce ( ! o!r elem5ts4 ,c>bon1 !re=e1 is an ess5tial1 ?\gh x is mu* less 9 am\nt ?an 9 ! c>bon tool /eels4 ,! h>d5+ & s(t5+ prop]ties1 also1 v def9itely classify ^! alloys ) ! 8tool /eels40 ,/ellite _c be s(t5$4 ,z ) ! c>bon tool /eels1 mo/ ( ! high-spe$ /eels are made by ! crucible me?od1 ?\gh a small b increas+ am\nt is ( late be+ produc$ 9 ! electric furnace4 ,aft] c>eful p\r+ into small +ots & cool+1 ! +ots are remov$ f ! iron molds & 8topp$0 to remove any 8pipe0 or uns\nd portion4 ,!n1 if )\t defect & satisfactory z to analysis1 !y are sl[ly & c>efully heat$ to =g+ temp]ature & are hamm]$ out into b>s4 ,by ?is me?od !y are tak5 ne>ly d[n to ! f9al size desir$4 ,! b>s are f9i%$ by roll+ to size4 ,aft] c>eful anneal+ !y are ready = %ipm5t to ! tool mak]4 ,:5 tak+ heavy cuts a tool ( to-day may ex]t z mu* z t5 tons' pressure aga9/ ! metal x is cutt+ & ! adv5t ( ?is wond]ful mat]ial = tools necessitat$ ! build+ ( imm5sely heavi] & /rong] la!s & o!r ma*9es1 :i*1 alone1 7 capable ( giv+ !m p[] to d _! "w4 ,! high-spe$ /eels1 !re=e1 h revolutioniz$ metal-cutt+ practice & %op me?ods & h v l>gely aid$ effici5cy4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi ,,! ,,me*anical ,,treatm5t ,,( ,,/eel ,molt5 /eel is practically always p\r$ into upright molds ( ca/ iron :i* %ape x into long slightly tap]+ blocks ( metal ( squ>e or rectangul> cross-section4 ,aft] ! +ot mold has be5 /ripp$ (f1 ! /ill r$-hot +ot _c well be tak5 directly to ! rolls1 =1 :ile ! ext]ior p>ts may h ! prop] temp]ature = roll+1 ! int]ior ( ! +ot may /ill be liquid4 ,! +ot1 ?r\gh\t1 %\ld be uni=m 9 temp]ature :5 x is roll$4 ,x is !re=e put into a clos$ pit or furnace ( prop] temp]ature :]e ! c5t] ( ! +ot c be cool+ :ile ! out] portions are kept hot or are reheat$ if necess>y1 until all is ready = ! roll+ op]ation4 ,x w\ld take a 8/eel man0 a long "t to tell y all ( ! un=tunate ?+s t c & d happ5 to su* blocks or +ots ( /eel :i* influ5ce _! applicability to ! purposes = :i* !y are int5d$4 ,y mu/ h le>n$ ( ! mo/ s]i\s ( ^!--8pipes10 8cracks10 8segregation10 etc41 ?r\gh reports ( inve/igations ( brok5 railroad rails & accid5ts caus$ !reby4 ,a ^w or two reg>d+ ^!3 ,9 ! +ot mold ! outside ( ! /eel +ot is1 ( c\rse1 ! fir/ to solidify4 ,x may be h\rs aft] ! freez+ ( ! out] cru/ be=e ! int]ior is able to cool suffici5tly t x1 too1 c set4 ,z /eel1 l mo/ o!r metals & alloys1 occupies less space :5 8froz50 ?an x does :5 molt51 !re mu/ occur a holl[ space 9 ! int]ior s9ce ! cru/ is solid & _c contract mu*4 ,?is holl[ space usually takes ! =m ( a m or less elongat$ cavity ext5d+ along ! axis ( ! upp] qu>t] ( ! +ot4 ,x is call$ a 8pipe40 ,illu/ration3 ,,pipe ,,& ,,bl[holes ,,9 ,,an ,,+ot ,,( ,,/eel ,!n1 too1 ! metalloids ( ! /eel d n always /ay :]e !y belong4 ,ev5 if ! /eel has be5 ( a uni=m *emical composition :5 p\r$1 ! int]ior portions ( ! +ot aft] cool+ w be f\nd to h a great] am\nt ( sulphur1 phosphorus & c>bon ?an p>ts :i* are ne>] ! surface4 ,su* ga!r+ toge!r ( con/itu5ts ( ! /eel is kn[n z 8segregation40 ,) ! developm5t ( ! /eel indu/ry & ! dem& = great] & great] tonnages1 +ots h be5 made l>g] & l>g]4 ,pip+1 segregation1 etc41 are v naturally acc5tuat$ 9 ! l>ge masses ( /eel4 ,mu* 8gray matt]0 has be5 exp5d$ 9 attempt+ to ov]come ^! & o!r defects to :i* l>ge /eel +ots are liable4 ,cov]+ ! molt5 +ot top ) *>coal2 fill+ 9 be=e complete solidification ) additional molt5 metal2 & keep+ ! +ot top molt5 by application ( p[]ful gas flames h be51 p]haps1 ! mo/ useful me?ods4 ,b1 ev5 s1 pip+ & segregation h n be5 completely prev5t$1 ?\gh great improvem5t has result$4 ,! usual way ar\nd ! difficulty is to make c]ta9 t only ! bottom 7or be/ half7 ( ea* +ot is us$ = ! mo/ important products1 su* z locomotive & c> axles1 firebox & boil] plates1 rails1 etc4 ,! next or ?ird qu>t] or a little m is utiliz$ = products :i* g into less exact+ s]vice4 ,^! may be plates = ord9>y wat] tanks1 = floor+1 = %ip plates1 etc4 ,! top "p :i* conta9s ! pipe is cut (f & goes back to ! furnace to be remelt$4 ,x is t]m$ 8disc>d40 ,! big /eel mak]s !mselves %ape mo/ ( _! /eel into su* f9i%$ products z rails1 plates1 rods1 & wire4 ,"s ( x is by !m r$uc$ f ! +ot into int]m$iate 8blooms10 8billets10 8b>s10 etc41 & sold 9 ?is =m = ! manufacture ( axles1 drop =g+s & ! hundr$s ( products :i* we ea* day see4 ,x is a v =tunate circum/ance t at a *]ry-r$ or :ite heat ! c>bonless irons & mo/ ( ! /eels c be q easily fa%ion$ into products4 ,z is well kn[n to u ! mo/ usual me?ods ( me*anically %ap+ ^! metals :ile hot are by hamm]+1 by roll+ & by =g+ 9 a press4 ,) suffici5t p[] & prop] appliances1 s(t & m$ium /eel to a consid]able ext5t c be fa%ion$ cold1 b1 ( c\rse1 9 ?is condition its resi/ance to re%ap+ is imm5sely great]4 ,! cold treatm5t ( ^! metals is usually "s =m ( tube or wire draw+4 ,c]ta9 o!r me?ods su* z extrusion1 sp9n+1 etc41 are also 9 use1 &1 ?r\gh !m1 "s o!rwise difficultly =m$ products are made4 ,9 "o ( ! e>li] *apt]s we saw t anneal+ ref9es 7make f9]7 ! gra9 ( a /eel ca/+ & improves its physical prop]ties4 ,anneal+ = ref9+ purposes is practic$ ) o!r /eel products also1 & ) j z effective results4 ,h[ev]1 ! me*anical %ap+ ( /eel :ile at *]ry-r$ or at a :ite heat mu* m mat]ially ref9es ! gra9 :ile help+ ! /r5g? & greatly increas+ ! ductility ( ! alloy4 ,/eel :i* has be5 hot-=g$ or roll$ is said to h be5 8hot work$40 ,/eel usually is 8hot work$10 = 8cold-work+0 me?ods are n s g5]ally applicable & ! product is m liable to suff] "u ! m dra/ic treatm5t4 ,! am\nt ( 8hot-"w10 at prop] temp]atures1 t l[ & m$ium c>bon /eels w /& ) improvem5t ( ! gra9 & physical prop]ties is consid]able4 ,z we mu/ anyway %ape ! metal into useful implem5ts & o!r products1 x is =tunate t ! quality ( ! metal is b5efit$ by ! process4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #fi;a4 ,,photomicrograph ,,( ,,cold-,,drawn ,,/eel ,,wire ,,%[+ ,,di/ortion ,,( ,,! ,,cry/als ,,f ,,cold ,,work+ ,hot ,work+ does n produce di/ortion b makes ! gra9 f9]4 ,anneal+ relieves ?is di/ortion to a great ext5t4 7,magnification #gj ,diamet]s47 ,=g+ ,illu/ration3 ,man ,und\bt$ly ! e>lie/ %ap+ ( f]r\s 7iron7 metals 0 by hamm]+ ! small balls ( metal into b>s1 spe>s or swords4 ,presumably x 0 done ) /one hamm]s :i* lat] _h to give way to hamm]s made ( iron4 ,^! _h suffici5t h>dness to s]ve ! purpose well4 ,= hundr$s ( c5turies ! %ap+ ( iron1 /eel & ! o!r metals into tools & weapons mu/ h be5 done by su* =g+ me?ods4 ,x is n difficult = u to picture ! e>ly smi?s at _! "w1 labori\sly & yet v skillfully hamm]+ into spe>-heads & sword-blades ! lumps ( iron or ,wootz ,/eel :i* !y _h made 9 _! crude furnaces4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,old ,,oliv] ,,foot-,,p[] ,,hamm] ,illu/ration3 ,,an ,,old ,,=ge ,,hamm] ,9 mu* ! same way1 ?\gh on a consid]ably l>g] scale & ) heavi] & bett] hamm]s & tools1 0 ! same "w done up to ! "t ( ! inv5tion ( ,cort's roll+ process--ab\t #aghc4 ,v>i\s /yles ( hamm]s 7 us$1 "s ) a spr+ pole atta*$ to raise !m = ! next /roke :i* 0 deliv]$ by foot p[]1 o!rs kn[n z 8helve0 or 8%+l+0 hamm]s gave p]iodical bl[s z tee? on a revolv+ :eel lift$ & all[$ ! hamm] heads to fall4 ,! heavi] ones (t5 gave z _m z sev5ty-five & ! light] ones :i* 7 us$ = 8tilt+0 7=g+7 %e> /eel into b>s or implem5ts z high z ?ree hundr$ bl[s p] m9ute4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,squeez] ,,0 ,,sometimes ,,us$ ,,9 ,,place ,,( ,,! ,,hamm] ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,old ,,tilt ,,hamm] ,?\gh ,cort's rolls v mat]ially aid$ 9 ! %ap+ ( balls ( iron f ! puddl+ furnace into b>s1 ! hamm]+ or =g+ me?od rema9$ ! "o by :i* f9i%$ iron & /eel articles 7 made4 ,ab\t #ahce x happ5$ t a v l>ge propell] %aft = a new %ip 0 desir$4 ,be+ s l>ge1 no "o 0 f\nd :o c\ld =ge x until ! matt] 0 put be=e an ,engli% iron-work] nam$ ,james ,nasmy?1 :o _h a reputation = +5uity4 ,nasmy? r\ghly sket*$ out an imm5se hamm] :i* he propos$ to op]ate by /eam4 ,!re 0 no opportunity to build x1 h[ev]1 = ! propell] %aft nev] 0 ord]$4 ,b ! idea ( ! /eam hamm] got to c]ta9 ,fr5* eng9e]s1 :o con/ruct$ "o :i* ,nasmy? came ^u dur+ a visit to a ,fr5* iron works4 ,nasmy? realiz$ ! importance ( 8 inv5tion1 :i*1 luckily1 ! ,fr5*m5 _h n attempt$ to pat5t4 ,a pat5t 0 grant$ to ,nasmy?4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,belt-,,driv5 ,,p[] ,,hamm] ,,( ,,to-,,day ,to mo/ ( u ! /eam hamm]1 /ill little *ang$ 9 ess5tials1 is q well kn[n & "s ( u h witness$ ! crack+ ( an egg )\t break+ ! egg cup :i* held x4 ,! adju/m5t & regulation ( ^! mammo? hamm]s is s nice t ) almo/ successive bl[s a skillful op]ator c flatt5 a piece ( iron & !n break ! cry/al ( a wat* )\t o!rwise injur+ ! timepiece4 ,ne$less to say1 ! /eam hamm] has prov$ to be ! only effici5t hamm]+ device = =g+ l>ge pieces4 ,illu/ration3 ,,two ,,bo>d ,,hamm]s ,,& ,,trimm+ ,,press ,b :e!r made 9 ! small way ( ! village blacksmi?1 by ! l>g] helve1 tilt1 ,bradley1 or by ! mon/] /eam hamm]1 ea* =g+1 unless made 9 a die1 mu/ be consid]$ to be specially =m$ & no two pieces1 :5 f9i%$1 are exactly alike4 ,!y are always 8h& made0 articles4 ,drop ,=g+s ,_m ye>s ago1 :at are kn[n z duplicate or int]*angeable p>ts1 !re=e1 7 q unkn[n & x is relat$ t p>ts ( ! fam\s ,engli% ,enfield rifle 7 made 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! civiliz$ _w1 %ipp$ to ! ,t[] ( ,london & !re assembl$4 ,b dur+ assembly1 ! v>i\s pieces _h to be fil$ & c>efully adju/$ by h& because no two p>ts 7 exactly alike4 ,b ! 8,yankee tool mak]s0 ( ,new ,engl& solv$ ! problem by =g+ ! pieces ( :i* _m duplicates 7 necess>y 9 a 8die0 or impression 9 a block ( /eel4 ,! =g$ pieces1 ( c\rse1 took ! exact impression ( ! 8die0 & successive pieces ?us made 7 alike 9 size & %ape4 ,f f9i%$ duplicate p>ts :i* w5t to ,london f ! ,new ,engl& /ates1 ! ,enfield rifle 0 assembl$ ) v little f9al f9i%+ ( ! 8cut & try0 v>iety4 ,done at fir/ ) ! die on a blacksmi?'s anvil & ) a light hamm]1 ?is promis+ me?od soon develop$ exp]t 8die-s9k]s0 7die mak]s71 also +5i\s m5 ( :om ! t]m 8,yankee ,tool ,mak]s0 is self-explanatory4 ,9 connection ) ?is "w :at are kn[n z 8drop hamm]s0 came to be l>gely us$4 ,( ^! an important type 7 ! 8bo>d hamm]s10 9 :i* ! heavy /eel hamm]-head 0 atta*$ at ! bottom end ( a v]tical bo>d set betwe5 pulleys4 ,z ! pulleys squeez$ & revolv$ aga9/ ! bo>d x 0 c>ri$ up betwe5 !m & dropp$1 :5 ! pulleys loos5$ x at :atev] height 0 desir$4 ,rapidly & p]iodically asc5d+ & dropp+ ^u ! anvil b5ea?1 x quickly =c$ ! :ite-hot iron into ! 8die0 ^u ! anvil1 =m+ :at h s9ce be5 kn[n z 8drop =g+s40 ,illu/ration3 ,,nasmy?',s ,,/eam ,,hamm] ,,revolutioniz$ ,,/eel ,,work+ ,commonly ! hamm] face itself c>ries ! impression ( ! upp] "p ( ! article to be =m$1 i4e41 !re is an upp] 8die0 on ! hamm] & a l[] "o on ! anvil4 ,illu/ration3 ,,mod]n ,,=g+ ,,( ,,an ,,automobile ,,crank ,,%aft 8,f9s0 7 ( c\rse1 left all ar\nd :]e ! excess metal 0 squeez$ out f betwe5 ! upp] & l[] dies4 ,x %ortly develop$ t a second pair ( dies %ap$ = trimm+ c\ld clean ! =g+ ( ?is excess metal1 :i* is s well kn[n "u ! appellation1 8fla%40 ,nasmy?'s /eam hamm]1 also1 has be5 us$ v l>gely = drop-=g+ "w4 ,a 8ca/0 metal is n & _c be z d5se1 free f holes1 spong9ess or o!r defects or z /rong z 8work$0 metal4 ,:ile (t5 n z *eap z ca/+s z f> z co/ ( production goes1 8drop =g+s0 are usually consid]ably sup]ior to !m & are to be pref]r$4 ,h[ev]1 x does n pay to make dies unless = _m pieces4 ,"o or sev]al 8ca/+s0 c be made )\t great exp5se4 ,=g+ ( ,l>ge ,pieces by ,hydraulic ,press ,( late ye>s mu* =g+ has be5 done1 n by ! hamm] :i* gives su* a sudd51 sup]ficial bl[ ) %all[ work+ ( ! piece1 b by hydraulic or o!r press1 :i* v sl[ly squeezes ! hot piece to small] & long] %ape4 ,sir ,h5ry ,bessem] 0 "o ( ! fir/ to realize ! advantages ( & make use ( ! press = /eel work+4 ,unlike ! hamm] ! press ex]ts a deep work+ ( ! piece :i* c be se5 to fl[ ?r\gh\t "u ! /ress r ?an 9 surface only z occurs "u ! hamm]4 ,?is is v desirable z ! int]ior1 :i* is kn[n to h mu* co>s] gra9 ?an out] p>ts1 p>ticul>ly ne$s to be 8work$40 ,9 pla9] t]ms ! press seems to knead ! mass mu* z ! bread-mak] kneads d\gh1 :ile ! hamm]+ me?od simply batt]s d[n ! outside4 ,at a glance an exp]i5c$ eye c tell f ! appe>ance ( ! end ( a =g+ :e!r x has be5 press$ or hamm]$4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,mod]n ,,hydraulic ,,=g+ ,,press ,pressures z high z #h1jjj p\nds p] squ>e in* are us$ 9 hydraulic presses1 ?\gh mu* l[] pressures are m common4 ,=g+ vs4 ,roll+ ,?\gh we h n yet consid]$ ! roll+ mill or its products1 we und]/& t1 9 g5]al1 only products ( regul> & uni=m cross-section & ( consid]able l5g? c conv5i5tly be roll$4 ,:]e !y c be obta9$ ( satisfactory %ape & size1 /eel products =m$ by ! roll+ process are highly desirable & are usually *eap] ?an ^? :i* are produc$ by ! =g+ process4 ,comp>$ ) ^? made by ! roll+ process1 =g$ products are usually q co/ly 9 labor & "t4 ,roll+ mills1 h[ev]1 co/ imm5sely m to build & equip ?an d plants in/all+ ev5 ! /eam hamm]+ outfit1 s ! roll+ process _c pay except = su* articles z are dem&$ 9 great quantities4 ,articles ( irregul> & odd %ape mu/1 ( c\rse1 be =g$ & "h1 especially = v small articles1 ! drop-=g+ process is available & highly satisfactory :]e en\gh pieces ( "o k9d & size are want$ to pay = ! requisite dies4 ,=g$ articles h ano!r advantage :i* we %\ld n ov]look4 ,! physical prop]ties :i* are imp>t$ dur+ =g+ are some:at sup]ior to ^? :i* ! rolls be/[4 ,! physical prop]ties %[n by ! latt] are v satisfactory1 h[ev]4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii ,,! ,,roll+ ,,process ,illu/ration3 ,,e>ly ,,rolls ,aft] inv5tion ( ! puddl+ furnace ) its r l>ge yield f ! /&po9t ( ^? days1 ,cort ab\t #aghc f\nd ! hamm]+ me?od unsatisfactory = 8 purposes & rolls 7 devis$ by him to facilitate work+ ( ! l>g] balls ( iron :i* 8 furnace produc$4 ,8 rolls 7 provid$ ) a s]ies ( grooves :i* sy/ematically r$uc$ ! balls ( iron to pieces ( long] & long] l5g? & proportionally decreas+ diamet]s4 ,!y 7 p[] driv5 & s]v$ v well z long z iron & /eel 7 made 9 quantities no l>g] ?an ^? :i* 7 produc$ 9 ! puddl+ & crucible furnaces4 ,q naturally !re 0 little or no *ange 9 ! ess5tials ( roll+ mill design until x 0 =c$ by ! inv5tion ( ! ,bessem] /eel-mak+ process4 ,) t occurr5ce tr\ble began4 ,! op5-he>? process foll[$1 &1 ) ! increas+ly l>ge /eel outputs ( mills us+ ^! processes1 necessity aft] necessity develop$ :i* result$ 9 ! highly develop$ roll+ mills ( to-day4 ,illu/ration3 ,mill ,! 8,two-,high0 ,mill ,! mill z inv5t$ by ,cort _h b two rolls & ^! 7 actuat$ by a fly :eel4 ,turn+ 9 "o direction cont9ually1 ! rolls all[$ ! piece be+ roll$ to g ?r\gh 9 only "o direction1 i4e41 x _h to be return$ f ! re> to ! front side ( ! mill aft] e passage1 usually call$ 8pass40 ,?is 0 done by ! 8cat*]10 a brawny man at ! re> ( ! mill1 seiz+ ! piece1 lift+ "o end bodily to ! top ( ! upp] roll ov] :i* x 0 c>ri$ back ) m or less difficulty & awkw>dness to ! 8roll]10 :o1 f ! front1 seiz$ & ent]$ x aga9 into ! next succe$+ or small] groove ( ! rolls4 ,illu/ration3 ,,two-,,high ,,rolls ,,& ,,effect ,,on ,,! ,,piece ,! 8,?ree-,high0 ,mill ,illu/ration3 ,,action ,,( ,,?ree-,,high ,,rolls ,9 #aheg ,john ,fritz 0 wat*+ 8 m5 at _! sl[ & fatigu+ "w at ! two-high mill ( ! ,cambria 7,pa47 ,iron ,works4 ,! ?\ght /ruck him t by add+ ano!r or ?ird roll at ! top1 ! piece c\ld also be giv5 a pass on e trip back to ! roll] 9 front4 ,! rolls w\ld ( c\rse pull x ?r\gh1 ! "w w\ld be less sev]e on ! m51 &1 receiv+ passes 9 bo? directions1 ! piece w\ld receive ! full numb] 9 approximately "o-half ( ! "t :i* 0 !n requir$1 &1 m important ?an all else1 x w\ld n h ne>ly s long a "t to cool & c\ld be f9i%$ at a m desirable temp]ature--a great advantage4 ,/range to say ! idea 0 imm$iately pron\nc$ impracticable :5 he m5tion$ x & x 0 necess>y = him to g ?r\gh a long fight to obta9 p]mission to make a trial4 ,! exp]im5t 0 f ! fir/ successful b ! mill burn$ "o ,saturday night1 hav+ suppos$ly be5 set afire by workm5 :o fe>$ loss ( _! jobs4 ,rebuilt & mann$ by new workm5 x ran ) success4 ,! succe$+ t5 ye>s saw ! 8?ree-high0 type ( mill come into ext5sive use bo? 9 ,am]ica & ,europe4 ,elevat+ or tilt+ tables h s9ce be5 provid$ :i* me*anically raise ! piece to ! upp] rolls1 !reby reliev+ ! workm5 ( ?is duty1 :i*1 ) ! great increase 9 size ( +ots & pieces roll$ soon became v ardu\s4 ,to-day ! 8?ree-high0 mill is j z important z ev]4 ,! ,rev]s+ ,mill ,hav+ a fly :eel = ! /or+-up ( p[]1 ! rolls mu/ keep turn+ cont9u\sly 9 ! e/abli%$ direction4 ,9 ,engl&1 ,nasmy?--! same man :o inv5t$ ! /eam hamm]--sugge/$ t ! fly :eel be disp5s$ ) & ! two-high rolls rev]s$ aft] ea* pass4 ,! piece w\ld g back to ! roll]'s side receiv+ "w 9 a regul> pass on ! way1 j z 9 ! ?ree-high return4 ,! idea 0 develop$ by ,mr4 ,ramsbottom ( ! ,london & ,nor?we/]n ,railway ,company4 ,by ! use ( p[]ful en\gh eng9es ! desir$ end 0 accompli%$ & ?is type is n[ q g5]ally us$ = v heavy +ots :i* x is n economical to lift by tilt+ tables 9 ! ?ree-high mill process4 ,!re are c]ta9 o!r advantages also4 ,! above are ! ?ree g5]al types ( mills4 8,break+-,d[n0 ! ,+ot ,:e!r x is to be sold 9 int]m$iate %apes or fur!r roll$ d[n into a f9i%$ product1 all +ots h to be 8cogg$0 or brok5 d[n into int]m$iate-siz$ slabs1 blooms or billets1 = an +ot conta9s altoge!r too mu* /eel = any s+le plate1 rail1 rod1 or o!r f9i%$ product4 ,! cogg+ or fir/ roll+ is accompli%$ 9 "o ( ! ?ree types ( rolls already describ$ b n[ m g5]ally 9 ! rev]s+ mill4 ,illu/ration3 ,,+ot ,,com+ ,,out ,,( ,,! 8,,soak+ ,,pit0 ,:5 ! tongs ( ! big ov]head crane h lift$ ! :ite-hot +ot out ( ! soak+ pit x is run back & =? ?r\gh ! rolls :i* are =c$ ne>] & ne>] toge!r by ! 8screw-d[n0 man s t ! piece cont9ually becomes ?9n] & mu* long] ) ea* pass4 ,tables made up ( small roll]s ge>$ toge!r receive ! long piece z x em]ges f ! rolls4 ,aft] ea* pass !y br+ ! piece back to ! rolls :i* are n[ turn+ 9 ! opposite direction4 ,! table on ! o!r side repeats ! process1 ! piece be+ regul>ly turn$ on edge or slid f "o side ( ! rolls to ! o!r by /eel guides :i* c be rais$ up betwe5 ! roll]s ( ! tables :]e desir$4 ,! direction ( ^! z well z ( ! rolls !mselves is controll$ ?r\gh lev]s by two or ?ree m5 /&+ at "o side ( ! mill4 ,rev]s+ aft] ea* pass1 ) ! big +ot app>5tly turn+ & slid+ itself into ! mo/ advantage\s position = ! next entry1 ! big eng9e1 mill & roll-tra9 seem almo/ human4 ,illu/ration3 ,,+ot ,,9 ,,! ,,rolls ,! ,roll+ ( ,/eel ,plates ,x is manife/ly impossible 9 ! space at disposal to give 9 mu* detail ! roll+ ( _m ( ! bett] kn[n products4 ,=tunately x is n necess>y1 = aft] description ( ! mak+ ( plate1 pipe & tube1 & ( rod & wire1 ! roll+ ( o!r =ms su* z rails1 b>s1 & ! /ructural %apes1 ,i beams1 *annels1 angles1 ,z b>s1 etc41 c well be imag9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,/eel ,,billets ,,= ,,=g+ ,,or ,,o!r ,,purposes ,f ! contract dep>tm5t to ! mill cl]k come ! ord]s = plate1 ) detail$ li/ ( sizes & ?icknesses1 & def9ite specifications ( quality 9 t]ms ( *emical & physical requirem5ts1 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,roll+ ,,+ot ,,into ,,slabs ,aft] /udy+ ^!1 ! cl]k makes requisition ^u ! op5-he>? furnace = su* tonnages ( /eel ( v>i\s compositions z he e/imates w give him suffici5t /ock = 8 purposes4 ,z soon z possible ! /eel is made & p\r$ into +ots :i* are transf]r$ to ! soak+ pits ( ! slabb+ mill !re to await disposition z soon z ! *emical laboratory has made analysis ( ! sample tak5 & has report$ by telephone ! result to ! cl]k :o ord]$ ! mat]ial4 ,if close en\gh to ! composition he ord]$1 he s5ds to ! slabb+ mill 8 requisition ord]+ !m to roll & cut ! f\r or six +ots ( ! 8heat0 into slabs ( def9ite weights1 ea* "o design$ = a plate on a cu/om]'s ord]4 ,! cl]k at ! slabb+ mill det]m9es to :at wid? & ?ickness ea* +ot %all be roll$ & 9 :at v>y+ l5g?s x is to be cut to furni% slabs ( ! def9ite weights ord]$ 9 ! requisition4 ,aft] roll+ ! +ot d[n to prop] wid? & ?ickness1 ! 8pip$0 end is cut (f & 8disc>d$40 ,slabs are cut & pil$ 9 regul> ord] on a little flat /eel c> on :i* !y are pull$1 /ill r$-hot1 by ! %riek+ little dummy eng9e out f ! slabb+ mill1 ?r\gh ! y>d & to ! plate mill furnaces1 into :i* !y are *>g$ 9 prop] ord]4 ,"h !y rema9 until !y are aga9 :ite-hot & ! plate mill roll] is ready = !m4 ,mean:ile record %eets giv+ ! heat numb]1 ! numb] ( ! +ot & ! weights ( ! slabs 9 ! ord] 9 :i* !y 7 pil$ come to ! plate mill cl]k4 ,f ^! & ! results ( analysis ( ! /eel he makes out ! roll+ ord]s = ! plates to be manufactur$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,slabs ,,f ,,:i* ,,plates ,,are ,,roll$ ,y h he>d h[ difficult x is to get solid +ots & h[ ! top eigh? 7or sometimes m7 ( an +ot is usually 8pip$0 & disc>d$4 ,n[ slabs f ! balance ( ! +ot 7 pil$ on ! c> & h be5 *>g$ 9 ! plate mill furnace4 ,^? f ! upp] "p ( ! +ot 7next to ! disc>d$ "p7 are us$ = ! less exact+ qualities ( plate4 ,only ! bottom half ( ! +ot1 :i* ( c\rse is ! solide/ & be/1 goes into ! high] grades ( plate1 su* z 8fire box10 ! *oice/ grades ( 8flange0 /eel1 etc4 ,! ?ird qu>t] goes into flange /ock1 8%ip0 & 8tank0 plate1 ! latt] repres5t+ miscellane\s l[]-pric$ plate :i* may be us$ = wat] tanks1 /eel floor+1 etc4 ,/eel kn[n z 8fire box0 ( c\rse mu/ be ( v high grade4 ,x is us$ = p>ts ( locomotives1 etc41 :i* come 9 contact ) & likely w suff] det]ioration f flame1 smoke1 etc4 ,! be/ 8flange0 goes into boil] plates & o!r products :i* h to /& consid]able b5d+ to %ape4 ,9 mak+ out 8 roll+ ord]s ! cl]k sees t ea* numb]$ slab is ord]$ roll$ only into a product = :i* x is well suit$4 ,he has to take into consid]ation ! *emical composition1 ! probable /r5g? & o!r physical prop]ties :i* 7 def9itely nam$ 9 ! specifications ( ! cu/om]'s ord]4 ,&1 z ! physical prop]ties ( su* /eel are mightily affect$ by temp]ature & spe$ ( roll+ & by rapidity ( cool+1 he mu/ "k mill practice & con/antly keep 9 t\* ) ! results :i* ! physical te/+ laboratory is gett+ f b>s %e>$ f su* ( 8 plates z h be5 8pull$0 = cu/om]s or ! inspectors :o repres5t !m4 ,:5 hot1 ! slabs "o by "o & 9 regul> ord] come to ! rolls f ! furnace4 ,foll[+ 8 roll+ ord]s ! roll] & 8 help]s put ea* slab back & =? ?r\gh ! plate mill rolls1 fir/ draw+ x out to a wid? a few in*es great] ?an ! plate to be %e>$ f x1 & !n turn+ x a qu>t] ar\nd1 !y draw x out 9 ! rolls until x has come d[n to ! prop] ?ickness or 8gauge40 ,if ! cl]k's computations h be5 correct ! plate w n[ h ! prop] l5g?4 ,h[ev]1 he may h ord]$ a slab ( insuffici5t weight to make x1 p>ticul>ly if ! rolls h become mu* worn4 ,x w h>dly be realiz$ h[ mu* ! wid? & ?ickness ( ! plate ord]$ h to d ) ! 8p]c5tage0 ( trimm$ plate :i* ! mill w get out ( ! slab ord]$4 ,!re is a 8fi% tail0 on ea* end ( a roll$ plate4 ,on a ?91 wide plate ?is becomes r s]i\s4 ,:]ev] possible ! cl]k puts two or ?ree plates end to end & p]haps n>r[ ones side by side1 b he mu/ n exce$ ! wid? :i* ! 8%e>s0 c 8split0 nor give ! mill su* a long plate t x w become too cold to roll or too long to be conv5i5tly h&l$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,an #hd-;,,in* ,,plate ,,mill ,= div]sion ! mill m5 take delight 9 ?r[+ an extra am\nt ( salt ^u ! plate to rid x ( scale :5 n]v\s visitors h come z close to ! rolls z _! conductor ?r\gh ! mill w br+ !m4 ,! explosion :i* comes f ! usual am\nts is mu* int5sifi$ & x is n at all out ( ! ord9>y to he> %rieks f ! wom5 & to see surpris$ & some:at dismay$ m5 among ! visitors4 ,plate mills are usually ?ree-high ) tables ( small roll]s on ea* side :i* tilt to fe$ ! plate into ! rolls & to receive x on ! o!r side f :i* x is f$ 9 aga91 ei!r above or bel[ z ! case may be4 ,z ! plates mu/ be flat1 p]fectly pla9 rolls are us$4 ,= plates :i* are v wide ^! rolls may be #adj in*es or m long & p]haps ?ree feet 9 diamet]4 ,! rolls1 ( c\rse1 are kept flood$ ) wat] to keep !m cool4 ,at fir/ ?\ght "o w\ld ?9k t ! wat] w\ld cool ! plates :i* are be+ roll$4 ,x does n mat]ially d s1 h[ev]1 ! extreme heat app>5tly keep+ ! wat] f com+ 9 actual contact ) !m4 ,?us !y are roll$ d[n f ! ?ree-in* ?ick slab to 1 or 1 & f #f1 #h1 #aj1 or #ab slabs into 1 or possibly #a or #a plates4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,roll+ ,,( ,,plates ,all plates mu/ be roll$ v accurately to gauge1 all[ance ( v>iation (t5 be+ n ov] "o or two hundr$?s ( an in*4 ,! roll] mu/ be a man ( exp]i5ce & ( v good judgm5t = slabs = almo/ any plate may come ( any "o ( sev]al ?icknesses & l5g?s4 ,he mu/ "k 8 temp]atures1 spe$s ( roll+ & ! am\nt ( r$uction giv5 ) ea* pass1 &1 p>ticul>ly 9 case ( ?91 wide plates1 ! condition ( 8 rolls1 :i* aft] two or ?ree days' we> w produce plates ?ick] 9 ! middle ?an at ! edges4 ,z ! 8screw-d[n0 man on top screws ! rolls toge!r a little ) ea* successive pass & ! 8hook]s0 "u ! roll]'s direction keep ! plate ent]+ ! rolls prop]ly1 he mu/ ) 8 v accurate gauge measure ! ?ickness ( ! plate z x ne>s completion4 ,especially :5 plates are ord]$ & paid = by av]age weight p] squ>e foot mu/ he judge accurately ! ?ickness ( ! c5t] ( ! plate :]e he _c measure1 & pull d[n ! edges en\gh t ! f9i%$ plate :5 %e>$ w av]age "r4 ,x is =tunate = ! /eel mill m5 ( ?is c\ntry :i* does n "k ! advantages ( ! metric sy/em t a /eel plate "o in* ?ick weighs v close to #dj4h p\nds p] squ>e foot4 ,?is is an easy figure & ! cl]k1 roll]1 hot b$ =eman1 weigh]s & all conc]n$ 8?9k0 9 t]ms ( a plate "o foot squ>e & "o in* ?ick4 ,"o-half in* plate1 !re=e1 weighs #bj4d lbs42 1 #aj4b lbs42 & 1 #g4ff lbs4 p] squ>e foot4 ,z w be se5 :5 we consid] wire draw+ & cold-drawn seamless tubes1 ! /r5g? & o!r physical prop]ties ( /eel dep5d fir/1 ^u composition1 &1 secondly1 ^u temp]ature at :i* !y are hamm]$1 roll$1 or o!rwise 8work$40 ,!re=e1 plates c be mu* modifi$ 9 physical prop]ties by f9i%+ at *os5 temp]atures4 ,a /eel conta9+ 4#ai ( c>bon & 4#de ( manganese1 = in/ance1 :i* 9 "o in* plate %\ld give a t5sile /r5g? ( ar\nd #ee1jjj p\nds p] squ>e in*1 #eh1jjj p\nds 9 or #fb1jjj p\nds 9 :5 f9i%$ at usual temp]atures1 by slightly 8cold] roll+0 c be made to %[ a consid]ably great] /r5g?4 ,( c\rse1 ! ductility is some:at r$uc$1 b1 ) a mod]ate am\nt ( cold roll+1 x w n be en\gh to d h>m4 ,all ( ^! & _m o!r details mu/ be n only kept 9 m9d b become second nature to ! plate work]4 ,aft] ! f9al pass ! plates g ^u ! 8hot b$0 :]e !y are laid out side by side 9 ! ord] 9 :i* !y h be5 roll$4 ,!y mu/ n[ h m>k$ out ^u !m ! b\nd>ies ( ! small] plates or pieces into :i* !y are to be cut4 ,f a duplicate ( ! roll]'s %eet ! hot b$ =eman m>ks ^u ! end ( ea* plate :at is to be laid out & boys or m5 we>+ %oes ) ?ick soles ( old belt+ or o!r *eap non-conduct+ mat]ial g ^u !m ) *alk & 8squ>es0 :i* are some:at simil> to ! c>p5t]'s squ>e b hav+ 8legs0 six & twelve or fifte5 feet long4 ,?\gh ! soles ( _! %oes smoke f contact ) ! /ill hot plate1 !y v quickly & accurately m>k out ^u its surface ! design :i* ! hot b$ =eman has signifi$4 ,usually ! plates laid out are rectangul> & ( /&>d size b (t5 ! boys h to lay out pieces ( odd sizes & %apes1 & sometimes1 :at are kn[n z 8sket*es0 h to be drawn us+ arcs1 *ords1 radii1 etc41 z ! /ud5t 9 geometry draws 8 geometrical figures4 ,r\nd plates = boil] heads1 tank ends1 etc41 9 plate mill p>lance are t]m$ 8heads40 ,^! are m>k$ out ) /r+ & a piece ( *alk4 ,a boy ) a pot ( :ite pa9t foll[s & pa9ts on ! surface ( ea* piece laid out its size1 ?ickness1 ! cu/om]'s "n1 ! ord] numb] & heat numb]4 ,t ! plate c always be id5tifi$1 ev5 aft] exposure to sev]e s]vice or wea!r conditions1 ano!r boy ) /eel /amps foll[s & /amps into ! /eel ! heat numb]4 ,cranes ) magnets or hooks convey ! long plates to ! 8goose necks0 ov] ! small roll]s ( :i* !y are pull$ to ! %e>s :]e ! p[]ful /eam or hydraulically-op]at$ squ>e-edg$ knife ) ease trims ! ends & irregul> edges along ! *alk l9es into ! sizes m>k$4 ,accuracy is ev]y:]e necess>y z ov] or "u ord]$ dim5sions or a v>iation ( two hundr$?s ( an in* 9 ?ickness may & probably w cause rejection ( a plate4 ,aft] weigh+ & record+1 ! plates are convey$ to ! %ipp+ y>d1 :]e !y are load$ by electro-magnets into c>s = %ipp+4 ,9 ! plate mill process above describ$ plates any:]e betwe5 #cj & #abj in*es 9 wid?1 say1 c be roll$4 ,& z m5tion$1 ! m or less irregul> edges on ! sides are 8%e>$0 (f4 ,?is extra all[ance1 :i* mu/ be giv51 ( c\rse becomes 8scrap40 ,= plates :i* c be/ be roll$ 9 long n>r[ l5g?s a 8univ]sal0 plate mill is (t5 us$4 ,?is has v]tical rolls j back ( ! two horizontal rolls1 :i* are adju/able s t ! plate c be regulat$1 n only z to ?ickness1 b also z to wid? z well4 ,su* mills give plates :i* h to be trimm$ on ! ends only1 ! sides be+ q smoo?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,load+ ,,plate ,,f ,,! ,,%ipp+ ,,y>d ,! roll+ ( plate has be5 describ$ ?us 9 detail t a slight conception c be obta9$ ( ! ref9em5t & ! m9utia :i* is a necess>y "p ( mod]n mill practice4 ,am]ican outputs :i* h gr[n to z mu* z sev]al hundr$ tons p] twelve-h\r turn1 require t e op]ation move along ) 8clock-l0 precision4 ,b ) ?is imm5se tonnage & ) all ( ! h&icaps ( occasional brok5 rolls & ma*9e p>ts1 electric crane delays1 & illness ( important m51 ! "w mu/ be & usually is kept up )\t s]i\s delay4 ,mod]n metallurgical & roll+ mill practice is a m>vel4 ,%eets ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,roll+ ,,( ,,%eets ,mo/ plates are roll$ f slabs :i* are ab\t #cf in*es wide1 b 8%eets10 :i* are plates less ?an ?ick are roll$ f mu* small]-siz$ slabs kn[n z 8%eet b>s40 ,aft] 8pull+ out0 into %eets ^! may be fold$ once or ev5 m times1 s t f two to eight ?9n] %eets are roll$ at once4 ,t !y may n weld or /ick toge!r "u ! heavy pressure1 !y mu/ be roll$ cold] ?an are s+le plates4 ,!y are lat] trimm$ & pull$ ap>t4 ,"s mills />t %eet b>s ( small] size1 = ea* %eet a sep>ate piece1 :i*1 aft] draw+ out some:at are pil$1 two1 ?ree1 f\r or five high4 ,) coal or *>coal du/--ei!r dry or mix$ ) wat]--betwe5 !m1 !y are heat$ & roll$1 ! *>coal & coal du/ keep+ !m f /ick+ toge!r4 ,aft] anneal+1 pickl+1 etc41 !y may be cold f9i%$ 9 poli%$ rolls or o!rwise treat$ accord+ to ! purpose = :i* !y are int5d$4 ,aft] /raight5+ "s are galvaniz$1 o!rs are t9n$1 blu$ or pa9t$4 ,mo/ ( !m are sold 8black10 i4e41 ) no coat+ at all4 ,t]neplate has a coat+ ( #ge ( lead & #be ( t94 ,! ,roll+ ( ,rails & ,/ructural ,%apes ,x w be readily und]/ood aft] read+ ! above1 t1 in/ead ( us+ pla9 rolls1 mills = roll+ /eel rails1 ,i beams1 *annels1 angles1 ,z b>s1 rods1 etc41 mu/ h groov$ rolls4 ,= ^! products ! fir/ pass w be ?r\gh a groove slightly small] ?an ! bloom or billet4 ,successive passes w be ?r\gh o!r grooves 9 ! same set ( rolls :i* w gradually make small] & br+ m ne>ly to ! f9i%$ %ape ! piece be+ roll$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,rail ,,9 ,,! ,,f9i%+ ,,rolls ,be=e our eyes ! :ite-hot bloom ent]s ! ?ree-high mill1 goes backw>d & =w>d ?r\gh ! rolls & v %ortly assumes ! g5]al %ape desir$4 ,ea* pass !reaft] br+s x ne>] to ! f9i%$ %ape4 ,rails1 = in/ance1 are roll$ out f ! blooms into "o long rail p]haps #adj feet 9 l5g? :i* glides along l a huge snake to ! swiftly revolv+ 8hot0 saws :i* are s spac$ t f\r #cc-;foot rails are saw$ f x at ! same "t4 ,z ! rails pass f ! saws to ! cool+ b$ !y are m>k$ by a revolv+ /amp4 ,:5 cool !y g to ! /raight5+ y>d1 are /raight5$1 drill$1 inspect$ & lat] load$ into c>s = %ipm5t4 ,! production ( all k9ds ( f9i%$ roll$ iron & /eel products 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates dur+ ! pa/ tw5ty-eight ye>s is giv5 9 ! foll[+ table :i* %[s h[ ext5sive are our roll+ mill indu/ries & ! rapidity ( _! developm5t4 ,ye>,iron & ,plates ,nail ,wire ,rods,/ructural,all ,o!r ,total ,/eel & ,plate ,%apes ,f9i%$ ,gross ,tons ,rails ,%eets ,roll$ ,prod4 #ahhgb1aci1fdj #fjc1ceecjh1dcb #b1ahd1bgi #e1bce1gjf #ahija1hhe1cjg #hji1ihabea1hbh #deg1jii #b1fah1ffj #f1jbb1hge #ahiea1cjf1ace #iia1dei #ie1jhe #gia1acj #eag1ibj #b1dhg1hde #f1ahi1egd #ahiib1bgb1gjja1ijc1eje #he1jaea1jcf1cih #hej1cgf #d1adf1dbeaj1bid1dai #aijab1hgd1fcib1bed1dbe #fh1heja1cfe1icd #a1jac1aej #d1ggb1cbiab1cdi1cbg #aijcb1iib1dggb1eii1ffe #fd1ajba1ejc1dee #a1jie1hac #d1ieb1aheac1bjg1fig #aijec1cge1ibic1ecb1bcj #fd1edba1hjh1fhh #a1ffj1eai #f1cih1ajgaf1hdj1jae #aijgc1fcc1fedd1bdh1hcb #eb1jbgb1jag1ehc #a1idj1ceb #g1igb1cgdai1hfd1hbb #aijic1jbc1hded1bcd1cdf #fc1gdfb1cce1fhe #b1bge1efb #g1gaa1ejfai1fdd1fij #aiaab1hbb1gijd1dhh1jdi #dh1ebbb1dej1dec #a1iab1cfg #g1caf1iijai1jci1aga #aiacc1ejb1ghje1gea1jcg #cg1ejcb1dfd1hjg #c1jjd1igbaj1jcj1addbd1gia1bdc #aiaeb1bjd1bjcf1jgg1fid #ca1ibic1jie1ijg #b1dcg1jjcaj1edf1ahhbd1cib1ibd ,specifications & ,inspection ,cu/om]s1 ( c\rse1 h a "r to see t _! specifications are liv$ up to4 ,?\gh ye>s ago ! mills p]haps int5tionally sold to cu/om]s products :i* did n fulfill 8 specifications to ! lett]1 x is n g5]ally s to-day4 ,n[ ! mills' own inspectors are commonly m sev]e 9 _! rejections ( products ?an are ! repres5tatives :i* ! cu/om]s !mselves s5d4 ,n only does ! mill laboratory make c>eful & accurate analysis ( ea* heat or bat* ( /eel made1 b1 aft] its application to ord]s1 pieces ( plate1 %apes or rails roll$ f x are exam9$1 gaug$1 & te/ b>s ( ! /eel are pull$ 9 ! physical te/+ laboratory4 ,! mill rightly recognizes t x is = its own int]e/ t ! /&>d ( its product be kept high4 ,a trip ?r\gh "o ( ! l>ge /eel plants ) its furnaces1 its bloom+ & slabb+ mills1 its rail1 plate1 /ructural & rod mills is "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ t c be tak54 ,if ! visitor is n afraid ( smoke or du/ or ( :at seems to him an uncom=table heat on a w>m day he w discov] new worlds4 ,no p>ticul> att5tion is paid to ! casual visitor to ! plant1 b1 = ^? :o %[ real int]e/1 /eel m5 h a w>m welcome1 f manag] to ! sample boys4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii ,,! ,,roll+ ,,( ,,rods ,/eel rods & :at we w call l>ge wires are roll$ f billets :i* are long1 & approximately squ>e blocks ( /eel4 ,! size & %ape ( ! billets us$ v>y1 dep5d+ ^u ! process & ! size ( ! rod to be roll$4 ,mu* ( ! f9i%$ rod is sold z su* = v>i\s purposes = :i* r\nd /eel is desir$ & an imm5se tonnage ( "o ( ! small] sizes is us$ z ! int]m$iate raw mat]ial f :i* wire is drawn4 ,rod mills h a v int]e/+ hi/ory1 :i*1 by ! way1 is b "o ( sev]al hi/ories ( ! developm5t ( ! iron & /eel processes & products :i* %\ld make u pr\d ( ! g5ius ( man 9 ! way ( metallurgical1 me*anical & bus9ess developm5t4 ,! ,belgian ,mill ,! fir/ b>s & rods 7 roll$ 9 ! old two-high mill1 :]e1 aft] ea* pass !y 7 pull$ back ov] ! top roll & ins]t$ into ! next groove by ! roll] z is usual ) ! two-high mill4 ,!n along came ! ?ree-high mill :i* probably result$ 9 great] advantage to rod roll+ ?an to o!r l9es1 important1 ev51 z x 0 to !m4 ,b long1 ?9 b>s or rods are q pliable :5 at :ite or roll+ heat & ! 8cat*]0 soon discov]$ a way by :i* he c\ld save "t & pu% up 8 tonnage4 ,he skillfully caught ! =w>d end ( ! b> z x came ?r\gh1 &1 giv+ x a qu>t] twi/1 he ins]t$ x 9 ! prop] return groove )\t wait+ = ! :ole b> to run ?r\gh to 8 side be=e />t+ x on its return j\rney4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 0 easily possible ) ! sl[ spe$s !n us$4 ,naturally ! rod com+ ?r\gh f "o side & go+ back to ! o!r =m$ a loop4 ,! roll]1 at ! front1 0 n sl[ 9 discov]+ t on long rods he c\ld d ! same ?+1 s rods 7 soon regul>ly go+ ?r\gh ?ree or m passes at ! same "t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,wire ,,draw+ ,,( #cej ,,ye>s ,,ago ,x 0 soon f\nd out t x 0 bett] to use a second set ( rolls plac$ end to end ) ! fir/ = ! ?ird & subsequ5t passes z ! roll] _h h>dly room or "t to loop ! rod on ! return & />t 8 next "o4 ,?is second set ( rolls 0 connect$ on ! same %aft & !re=e made to run at ! same spe$ z ! fir/4 ,x work$ out t by use ( su* extra sets ( rolls & an additional help] or two ! same long rods c\ld be runn+ ?r\gh z _m z six or sev5 passes at once ) a great sav+ 9 "t4 ,z x came f ! f9al pass ! =w>d end ( ! f9i%$ rod 0 seiz$ 9 a pair ( tongs by a boy :o ran ) x away f ! rolls1 /ret*+ x out along ! floor to cool4 ,z ! v>i\s sets ( rolls 7 connect$ on ! same driv+ %aft & revolv$ at ! same spe$1 ! loops :i* 7 =m$ betwe5 passes cont9ually grew long]4 ,"h1 too1 boys ) iron hooks 7 useful 9 controll+ ! loops4 ,lat] x 0 f\nd advisable to h ea* succe$+ mill spe$$ en\gh to take ! rod z ! prec$+ pair ( rolls deliv]$ x2 !n ! loops rema9$ ( approximately con/ant l5g?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plan ,,( ,a ,,mod]n ,,loop+ ,,mill 7,,! ,,g>rett ,,mill7 ,to pu% production ! mill 0 run fa/] & fa/]4 ,z long] rods 7 roll$1 a h&-op]at$ reel 0 devis$ to :i* ! boy atta*$ ! =w>d end ( ! rod :ile ano!r turn$ ! reel4 ,b ! spe$ ( ! mill 0 limit$ ma9ly because ( ! sl[ reel & ! awkw>d me?od ( gett+ ! rod atta*$ to x4 ,! ,b$son ,cont9u\s ,mill ,ab\t #ahfg ,george ,b$son ( ,engl&1 inv5t$ ! fir/ 8cont9u\s0 mill4 ,in/ead ( loop+ ! rod ar\nd & back ?r\gh ! rolls he put sev]al sets ( rolls ea* 9 front ( ! o!r ) e o!r pair v]tical4 ,?is alt]nate horizontal & v]tical roll arrangem5t 0 necess>y because ! r$uction ( ! billet or rod 9 any pass c be only 9 a direction p]p5dicul> to ! axis ( ! rolls4 ,! roll] & cat*] _h giv5 x a qu>t]-turn twi/ ea* "t !y />t$ x into ! two-high rolls4 ,b$son's successive pairs ( rolls 7 set close toge!r1 ea* pair be+ spe$$ en\gh t x took ! rod exactly z fa/ z ! prec$+ pair deliv]$ x4 ,! billet or rod1 !re=e1 travel$ ?r\gh !m 9 a /raight l9e4 ,?is cont9u\s process 01 ( c\rse1 ( great advantage 9 t consid]able spe$ c\ld be atta9$ & !re 0 n ! rapid cool+ nor ! opportunity = loss by scal+ f exposure to ! air :i* occurr$ ) ! long loops ( ! ,belgian ,mill4 ,x 0 a great advance1 b ! spe$ 0 yet held d[n by ! f9i%+ pass & ! inability ( ! reel to coil ! rod fa/ en\gh4 ,! greate/ developm5t came ?r\gh ! inv5tive g5ius ( two m51 ,*>les ,morgan & ,george ,g>rett1 :o develop$ ! two sep>ate types ( mill :i* h made ! rod roll+ indu/ry :at x is to-day4 ,! "w ( bo? 0 done 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,! ,morgan ,cont9u\s ,mill ,morgan's also 0 a cont9u\s process4 ,! billet 0 put 9 at "o end ( a new type ( heat+ furnace :i* ,morgan devis$1 & 0 gradually pu%$ along to ! o!r end4 ,f ?is second or outgo+ end1 ! long1 n>r[1 :ite-hot billet w5t ?r\gh sev]al pairs ( two-high rolls set close toge!r1 ea* successive pair hav+ small] grooves ?an ! "o prec$+ x1 s t1 aft] trav]s+ ^! sev]al pairs ( rolls1 ! rods em]g$ f ! la/ pair f9i%$1 hav+ travel$ 9 a /raight l9e ?r\gh !m4 ,h& reel+ 0 mu* too sl[ = ,morgan :o inv5t$ two diff]5t types ( high-spe$ automatic reel :i*1 9 ! highly spe$$ mills ( to-day1 receive & coil wire com+ f ! f9i%+ passes at spe$s ( ov] "o-half mile p] m9ute4 ,x is /at$ t ! billets & rods !refrom trav]se ! rolls s fa/ & ! pressure is appli$ s quickly & s h>d t ! rods em]g+ f ! f9i%+ passes are hott] ?an 7 ! billets :5 !y w5t into ! rolls4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,billet ,,trav]ses ,,! ,,morgan ,,cont9u\s ,,mill ,,at ,,high ,,spe$ ,,em]g+ ,,f ,,! ,,la/ ,,roll ,,z ,,f9i%$ ,,rod ,z 0 expla9$1 no r$uction 9 ?ickness is br\ght ab\t by ! sides ( ! grooves 9 ! rolls4 ,!re=e1 a b> or rod mu/ be turn$ aft] ea* pass unless ,b$son's alt]nat+ horizontal & v]tical rolls are us$4 ,?is turn+ ,morgan did 9 spiral tubes ins]t$ betwe5 ! successive sets ( rolls1 all ( :i* 7 horizontal4 ,^! tubes op]ate z does ! 8rifl+0 9 a gun b>rel1 9 turn+ ! rod4 ,9 ,b$son's mill1 ) its alt]nat+ horizontal & v]tical pairs ( rolls1 x 0 possible to roll only "o rod at a "t4 ,) ,morgan's sy/em1 9 :i* all rolls 7 horizontal1 sev]al rods c\ld be trav]s+ ! mill side by side4 ,) ! high-spe$ reels & :at are kn[n z 8fly+ %e>s0 9 :i* billets or rods c be cut to any l5g? :ile go+ at full spe$1 ,morgan's mill _h come to a high /age ( developm5t4 ,x 0 practically automatic4 ,! ,g>rett ,mill ,:ile ,morgan 0 develop+ 8 cont9u\s mill1 ,william ,g>rett 0 improv+ ! old ,belgian mill4 ,g>rett believ$ & insi/$ t ) prop] work+1 rods c\ld be roll$ f billets ( mu* l>g] diamet] & great] weight ?an ! long n>r[ billets :i* _h be5 us$4 ,he ev5tually did away ) an int]m$iate roll+ op]ation by us+ l>g] billets4 ,y rememb] t 9 ! ,belgian mill ! 8cat*]s0 loop$ ! rods back into ! rolls4 ,to d ?is "w automatically ,g>rett ins]t$ betwe5 ! sets ( rolls loop+ tr\ghs :i* guid$ ! =w>d ends ( ! rods ar\nd & into ! next groove 9 ! rolls4 ,^! tr\ghs are call$ 8repeat]s40 ,x 0 f\nd t :ile !y work$ v well = loop+ ! cross-sections kn[n z ! squ>es1 !y 7 less suitable = loop+ ! oval sections :i* 7 produc$ ) e o!r pass4 ,^! 7 bett] & m safely done 9 ! old way1 i4e41 by manual labor4 ,!y are g5]ally s done to-day4 ,) ! ,morgan high-spe$ reel1 slop+ floors to bett] take c>e ( ! loops1 & ) successive pairs ( rolls ea* runn+ at high] spe$ ?an ! prec$+ pair1 ! ,g>rett mill has app>5tly kept pace ) ! ,morgan4 ,ea* has its advantages & ea* is us$ = c]ta9 classes ( "w4 ,= long cont9u$ runs on rod ( "o size ! ,morgan mill c produce m *eaply1 its product is m uni=m 9 temp] & ! loss f scal+ is less z little ( ! rod is expos$ :ile 9 ! mill4 ,z ! fir/ pair ( rolls 9 ! ,morgan mill is set close to ! furnace1 less ?an "o-qu>t] ( ! billet is 9 ! mill at any "o "t & ! =w>d end ( ! billet is on ! reel z f9i%$ rod be=e ! la/ ( ! billet leaves ! furnace4 ,) any process some?+ occasionally goes wrong s t ! rod does n foll[ ! pa? int5d$4 ,9 su* cases mis%ap5 or tangl$ rod results4 ,su* spoil$ billets or rods are call$ 8cobbles40 ,) :at is kn[n z ! 8fly+ %e>s10 :i* 9 ! ,morgan mill cuts ! billet or rod :ile x is travel+ at high spe$1 ! re> "p ( ! piece c be cut (f & sav$ 9 case ( cobbl+4 ,on ?is acc\nt ! ,morgan mill is said to give less scrap ?an ! ,g>rett4 ,! ,g>rett mill1 on ! o!r h&1 gives rod :i* is m uni=m all along 9 %ape & diamet] & x has ! consid]able advantage t x is quickly adaptable to *ange ( product2 x does n require su* complicat$ & nice adju/m5t z does ! ,morgan mill4 ,s1 despite ! great] dang] to ! roll]s f ! circl+ loops ab\t !m1 :i* occasionally become unmanageable1 ! ,g>rett mill is l>gely us$4 ,,*apt] ,,xix ,,wire ,,& ,,wire ,,draw+ ,x may be r disconc]t+ to "s en?usia/ic ones :o assume t we ,mod]ns h made all ! progress t is wor? :ile to le>n t s _m ( our suppos$ly new products 7 f> ant$at$4 ,9 ! case ( wire1 aga91 we 7 ant$at$ z mu* z #cj c5turies4 ,! wires :i* 7 produc$ by ! ,anci5ts1 h[ev]1 7 usually ( ! noble metals1 gold & silv]4 ,!y 7 n drawn ?r\gh dies z are ! wires t we "k1 b 7 hamm]$ into %ape f long1 ?9 /rips ( metal4 ,! e>lie/ use ( our 8drawplate0 me?od ( :i* we f9d au!ntic m5tion 0 9 ! #ad? c5tury 9 ,g]many4 ,! wire 0 h&-drawn4 ,ma*9e-drawn wire 0 be+ produc$ 9 ,engl& z e>ly z #aefe4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! wire draw+ indu/ry _h become pretty well e/abli%$ by ! middle ( ! #ag? c5tury4 ,z ,cort _h n at ?is "t inv5t$ ! roll+ process = b>s & rods1 v unev5 /rips ( metal only 7 available f :i* to draw ! wires4 ,b1 ev5 s1 ) our highly develop$ rod mills & our pres5t v satisfactory ,no4 #e wire rod to beg9 )1 our wire draw+ me?ods are yet seem+ly crude & %[ small advance comp>$ ) ! v great progress :i* has be5 made 9 o!r l9es ( ! iron & /eel indu/ry4 ,unlike ! processes ( =g+1 roll+1 etc41 draw+ ( wire is done cold4 ,9 ?is condition /eel has its highe/ /r5g? to /& ! /ra94 ,! rod or wire is pull$ ?r\gh v h>d ca/ iron or /eel dies1 ! g5]al process be+ well lik5$ to pull+ a rope ?r\gh a small knot hole4 ,z 0 se5 9 ! roll+ ( plates1 8cold work+0 raises ! /r5g?1 l[]s ! ductility & embrittles /eel m ?an does ! regul> 8hot work+0 at ! *]ry-r$ or :ite heats :i* are usual 9 ! =g+ & roll+ processes4 ,if ! s-call$ 8cold f9i%+0 at v l[ r$ or black temp]atures affects ! physical prop]ties ( plates1 x c be readily und]/ood t cold-draw+ ( wire & ( seamless tubes at ord9>y temp]atures ( #gj to #ajj ,f41 mu/ consid]ably acc5tuate ! effects not$4 ,s mu* is ?is s t drawn wires & tubes h to be frequ5tly anneal$1 i4e41 heat$ to a good r$ heat = a "t betwe5 successive trips ?r\gh ! dies1 anneal+ hav+ ! effect ( (f-sett+ ! l[]$ ductility & increas$ brittl5ess :i* w\ld cause ! wire to break4 ,9 "s cases ! wire has to be anneal$ aft] ea* pass or draft1 b (t5] sev]al passes are possible be=e anneal+ is necess>y4 ,?is dep5ds l>gely ^u ! quality ( ! /eel us$ & ! am\nt ( 8r$uction0 attempt$ 9 ea* pass4 ,! raw mat]ial1 ,no4 #e s(t wire rod1 :i* is ab\t "o-fif? ( an in* 9 ?ickness1 comes to ! wire-draw+ plant f ! rod mill4 ,?is ,no4 #e rod is ! ?9ne/ :i* ! mills h f\nd x economical to roll1 s fur!r pull+ d[n 9 size c be/ be done by 8draw+40 ,illu/ration3 ,,be=e ,,draw+ ,,into ,,wire ,,! ,,scale ,,mu/ ,,be ,,remov$ ,,f ,,! ,,rods ,,by 8,,pickl+0 ,,9 ,,acid ,z all iron & /eel mat]ials :i* h cool$ 9 air f a r$ heat are cov]$ ) a h>d1 brittle scale ( iron oxide1 ! rod mu/ fir/ be 8pickl$10 i4e41 dige/$ 9 hot1 weak sulphuric acid1 :i*1 9 #aj or #ae m9utes s dissolves & loos5s ! h>d surface t x c be readily j>r$ loose & wa%$ (f4 ,by imm]sion 9 a vat ( boil+ milk ( lime1 ! pickl$ rod is giv5 a lime coat+ :i* neutralizes any acid :i* rema9s1 &1 :5 dry mat]ially aids 9 ! lubrication ( ! wire :ile x is go+ ?r\gh ! dies4 ,?or\gh dry+1 call$ 8bak+10 is accompli%$ 9 ! dry h\se at #cjj or #djj ,f41 f :i* ! rod ) s(t1 scaleless1 lime-coat$ surface goes to ! 8draw+0 b5*es4 ,aft] r9s+ free f ! pickl+ acid1 ! wire is (t5 all[$ to acquire a s(t film ( ru/ by spray+ x ) wat] & keep+ x wet 9 ! air = a %ort "t be=e go+ to ! lime vat4 ,?is ru/ or 8sull0 coat itself assi/s 9 ! lubrication4 ,h[ev]1 ! color ( ! product is n z good z :5 ! 8sull0 coat is n us$1 & su* wire usually goes into articles = :i* d>k] color is no drawback4 ,illu/ration3 ,,s+le ,,wire-,,draw+ ,,block ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,wire-,,draw+ ,,die ,! dies ) m or less funnel-%ap$ holes ( accurate diamet] are set v]tically4 ,!y are ( extremely h>d mat]ial 9 ord] to /& z long z possible ! sev]e s]vice )\t excessive we>1 :i* soon] or lat] s enl>ges ! holes t ! dies become useless4 ,!n !y mu/ be remov$ & ei!r disc>d$1 or1 9 ! case ( /eel dies1 ! holes r$uc$ by hamm]+ & r$rill$4 ,(t5 ! holes ( worn ca/ iron & /eel dies are enl>g$ to ! next l>g] size & s us$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,draw+ ,,( ,,wire ,! loose end ( ea* coil ( rod ( wire is hamm]$ or o!rwise made small] = a l5g? long en\gh to be ?read$ ?r\gh ! hole 9 ! die & firmly grasp$ by tongs or 8pli]s40 ,! die be+ firmly fa/5$1 ! draw head1 ( :i* ! pli]s are a "p1 is drawn away until a suffici5t l5g? has come ?r\gh t x c be atta*$ to a revolv+ block or drum :i* !reaft] cont9u\sly pulls ! rod ?r\gh ! die & w9ds x into a coil ab\t ! block z x comes1 at spe$s z high z #djj feet a m9ute4 ,z ! rod passes ?r\gh ! box 9 :i* ! die is fa/5$1 besides its lime or sull coat+ x is sometimes provid$ & takes up o!r lubricants1 su* z soap1 grease1 or tall[4 ,! coil ( wire is lift$ (f ! drum & ti$1 or is r$rawn to wire ( a small] size4 ,aft] f "o to sev]al drafts1 dep5d+ ^u conditions1 ! wire mu/ be anneal$ = sev]al h\rs1 & aga9 pickl$ to remove ! scale =m$1 wa%$1 lime-coat$ & dri$4 ,= wire :i* mu/ und]go _m r$uctions or passes1 z mu/ all small wires1 sev]al draw+s1 anneal+s & clean+s mu/ be gone ?r\gh ) be=e x is d[n to ! desir$ size4 ,9 ord] to "w prop]ly & n cut ! die too fa/1 :i* w\ld rapidly enl>ge ! hole & cause ! re> end ( ! wire to be ( diff]5t ?ickness ?an ! =w>d end1 ! rod or wire mu/ be ( maximum s(tness4 ,ei!r "u-clean+ or ov]-clean+ w make ! metal h>%1 z1 also1 w "u-bak+ 9 ! dry ov5s4 ,^! !y endeavor to avoid 9 prep>+ ! rod4 ,o!r lubricants may be us$ & c]ta9 f9i%es or colors giv5 to ! wires4 ,su* are ! v>i\s :ite to r$ coat+s :i* come f us+ t9 & copp] sulphate solutions in/ead ( lime coat+s4 ,?is is m (t5 done ) f9e wire ?an ) ?ick]4 ,c]ta9 8pat5t+0 processes make use ( v>i\s me?ods ( temp]+ wires by cool+ 9 air aft] a la/ anneal+4 ,n only are wires ord]$ to size b _m times also ( c]ta9 temp] or grades ( h>dness & /iffness4 ,^! v>i\s temp]s are det]m9$ l>gely by ! *emical analysis ( ! /eel & ! numb] ( drafts aft] ! la/ anneal+4 ,piano wire is well kn[n to h a v high /r5g?1 sometimes z high z #djj1jjj p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,spr+ wire is roll$ & drawn f high] c>bon /eel ?an is ord9>y wire1 &1 ?r\gh heat treatm5t1 ! be/ prop]ties are imp>t$ to x4 ,besides be+ 9 ?is =m us$ = miscellane\s purposes1 ?\s&s ( tons ( wire are annually made into wire nails1 /aples1 wire f5ce1 b>b$ wire1 etc41 all ( :i* products are ( ,am]ican d]ivation1 ) ! possible exception ( wire nails4 ,ev5 ?is1 h[ev]1 if n orig9ally ours we h made ours ?r\gh our great production4 ,all are v spe$ily turn$ out by automatic ma*9es into :i* ! wire or wires fe$4 ,! product drops out into boxes bel[ or is roll$ into coils z is ! case ( ! wire f5ce & b>b$ wire4 ,! spe$ ( ! ma*9es is s great t ! eye _c beg9 to foll[ ! op]ation4 ,wire be+ s well kn[n x is n necess>y to speak ( its uses1 b x w be int]e/+ to call att5tion to ! v ext5sive production ( ?is /eel product4 ,( ! #cb1jjj1jjj tons ( /eel produc$ 9 #aiae1 = in/ance1 ov] #c1jjj1jjj tons 7 rods & wire1 & :5 we ?9k ( ! l5g? ( small or ev5 av]age siz$ wire t x takes to make a p\nd1 a hundr$ weight1 or a ton1 "s slight conception ( ! am\nt ( wire produc$ & us$ comes to u4 ,z ! mat]ial = wire gauze & clo?1 wire rope1 cable1 piano /r+s1 spr+s ( all sorts1 p9s1 ne$les1 nails1 f5ce1 b>b$ wire1 & ! myriad ( o!r ?+s1 wire really is "o ( our great products4 ,x 0 m5tion$ t piano wire _h be5 made :i* _h a t5sile /r5g? z high z #djj1jjj p\nds p] squ>e in*1 :i* is six or sev5 times ! /r5g? ( an equival5t cross-section ( /eel rail or plate4 ,wire is und\bt$ly ! /ronge/ product :i* is made f /eel4 ,?is is :y wire rope or cable is s /rong4 ,x is made by twi/+ toge!r _m small wires4 ,?\gh extremely rec5t f ! /&po9t ( our _w's hi/ory1 ! build+ ( ! fam\s ,brooklyn ,bridge by ! ,roebl+s 0 f> en\gh back t we likely h =gott5 t ea* ( ! f\r big #ae-;in* cables is made up ( #e1bif sep>ate wires ti$ into a bundle4 ,und\bt$ly ! be/ pres]vative aga9/ corrosion = iron & /eel is :at is kn[n z 8hot galvaniz+40 ,mu* wire is hot galvaniz$4 ,9 ?is process ! wire is 8pickl$0 9 weak acid to remove scale1 giv5 a s(t r$ coat+ by dipp+ 9 weak muriatic acid & dry+4 ,! /r&s ( wire #bj or #cj abrea/ are run ?r\gh a kettle ( molt5 z9c4 ,! wires are wip$ smoo? & free f excess z9c by pull+ !m ?r\gh asbe/os pads4 ,a cont9u\s coat+ ( z9c is ?us p]man5tly left ^u ! surfaces ( ! wires :i* v effectively keeps !m f ru/+4 ,wires :i* h to /& sev]e wea!r conditions may n h ! excess z9c wip$ f !m4 ,telegraph & telephone wires (t5 h ! ?ick] or unwip$ coat+4 ,v naturally ! draw+ ( wire requires use ( mu* great] p[] ?an ! roll+ ( rod & ! spe$ ( draw+ is n[h]e ne> z great4 ,!re=e ! co/ ( wire is comp>atively mu* great] ?an ! co/ ( roll$ products4 ,9 ! case ( wat* spr+s x 0 once comput$ t ! product _h to br+ #ej1jjj times ! co/ ( ! /eel f :i* ! wire 0 drawn4 8,cont9u\s0 wire draw+ has n be5 s successful nor advantage\s z 0 ! cont9u\s roll+ ( rods4 ,x has be5 possible 9 a small way & ) c]ta9 grades ( ! product to apply ! cont9u\s process1 b1 ma9ly on acc\nt ( me*anical difficulties1 cont9u\s draw+ ( wire seems to be comp>atively unimportant4 ,,*apt] ,,xx ,,! ,,manufacture ,,( ,,pipe ,,& ,,tubes ,tubes ( "s sort h be5 9 use by man s9ce v e>ly times4 ,nature provid$ ! fir/ ones 9 ! way ( holl[ /ems ( %rubs1 su* z ald] & bamboo4 ,"s ( ^! we saw 9 use by ! e>ly smi?s convey+ ! bla/ ( air f _! goat-sk9 bell[s into ! crude clay furnaces built 9 ! hillside4 ,tubes made ( clay1 /one1 lead & bor$ logs 7 also us$4 ,mu* lat] pipes made ( ca/ iron came into r ext5d$ use = ! conveyance ( wat]4 ,! g5]al use ( gunp[d] greatly accel]at$ ! manufacture ( small tubes :i* ! smi?s produc$ = gun b>rels by hamm]+ & weld+ toge!r long1 r$-hot /rips ( wr\ght iron ab\t r\nd rods or 8m&rels40 ,ab\t #ahae illum9at+ gas came to be us$ 9 ,engl& = h\se light+4 ,?is br\ght a dem& = tubes ( consid]ably great] l5g?1 :i* 7 fir/ made by screw+ or o!rwise fa/5+ toge!r old gun b>rels :i* 7 v pl5tiful at t p]iod4 ,! fir/ pat5ts = ! mak+ ( weld$ pipe z we "k x 7 tak5 out 9 #ahbd & #ahbe1 ! latt] = ! butt-weld+ me?od ( pull+ a n>r[ iron plate1 call$ 8skelp10 ?r\gh a bell-%ap$ orifice :i* curl$ x & weld$ ! edges toge!r v mu* z is done to-day by ?is process4 ,our mod]n pipe ( bo? butt-weld & lap-weld v>ieties is manufactur$ ei!r f wr\ght iron or f s(t /eel4 ,! ,butt-,weld ,process ,illu/ration3 ,,e>ly ,,wat] ,,pipes ,illu/ration3 ,,h[ ,,butt-,,weld ,,pipes ,,are ,,made ,f ! d\ble ref9$ puddl$ iron1 9 ! case ( wr\ght iron1 or f billets ( s(t ,bessem] or op5-he>? /eel1 long n>r[ plates are roll$4 ,! wid? & ?ickness ( ^! plates1 :i* are kn[n z 8skelps10 are exactly su* z w give pipe ( ! desir$ diamet] & gauge4 ,9 ord] t ! weld may be solid all along1 ! skelp z x leaves ! rolls has edges n exactly squ>e b v slightly bevel$1 s t ! surface :i* is to =m ! int]ior ( ! pipe is slightly n>r[] ?an ! o!r4 ,aft] trimm+ ! pieces ( skelp s t ea* has "o end ) a sort ( po9t :]e ! tongs are to take hold1 !y are laid side by side 9 a heat+ furnace & left !re until !y h become :ite-hot4 ,j 9 front ( ! furnace is ! 8bell10 ) a second & slightly small] "o 9 front4 ,) /rong tongs ! workman rea*es into ! furnace & fa/5s onto ! po9t$ end ( a piece ( ! :ite-hot skelp4 ,hook+ ! h&le ( 8 tongs into ! draw *a9 ! skelp is drawn ?r\gh ! fir/ & second bell1 ! fir/ b5d+ x almo/ into tube %ape1 ! second complet+ ! op]ation & press+ toge!r ! edges ( ! plate 9 ! top ( ! bell s tightly t !y weld4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plates ,,call$ 8,,skelp0 ,,are ,,fir/ ,,roll$ ,! pipe n[ goes ?r\gh :at are kn[n z cross rolls1 ! axes ( :i* are some:]e ne> p>allel ) ! axis ( ! pipe4 ,9 ^! ! pipe is rapidly spun ar\nd1 surface-clean$ & /raight5$4 ,go+ up a cool+ incl9e x goes to tables :]e ! ends are cut (f & ! product inspect$4 ,a v important "p ( ! inspection is ! hydro/atic or wat] te/4 ,"o at a "t ! pieces are tightly fitt$ 9 betwe5 two wat]-tight caps1 wat] is turn$ into ! pipe & gradually br\ght up to ! te/+ pressure ( #fjj p\nds or m p] squ>e in* accord+ to specifications4 ,illu/ration3 ,,*>g+ ,,skelp ,,into ,,! ,,heat+ ,,furnace ,illu/ration3 ,,draw+ ,,butt-,,weld ,,pipe ,pipes ( diamet]s betwe5 & #c are usually made by ! butt-weld process4 ,lap-,weld$ ,pipes ,pipes l>g] ?an #c1 & boil] tubes or o!r p>ticul>ly high grade weld$ tubes ( #b & ov] are usually 8lap-weld$40 ,?is process gives a consid]ably m reliable product ?an does ! butt-weld+ process1 = reasons :i* are readily se54 ,illu/ration3 ,,h[ ,,lap-,,weld ,,pipes ,,are ,,made ,illu/ration3 ,,b5t ,,skelp ,,= ,,lap-,,weld+ ,,be+ ,,*>g$ ,,into ,,furnace ,skelp = lap-weld+ is roll$ 9 j ! same way z is skelp = butt-weld+ except t ! edges are 8sc>f$0 or decid$ly bevel$ s t ! two edges c make a consid]able lap )\t increase ( ?ickness ( t "p ( ! wall4 ,^! pieces ( skelp are *>g$ into ! heat+ furnace j z occurr$ 9 ! butt-weld process &1 aft] com+ to a :ite heat1 !y are drawn ?r\gh a sort ( bell or die :i* curves !m s t "o edge consid]ably ov]laps ! o!r4 ,back !y g into ! furnace to rega9 any heat t has be5 lo/1 =1 to weld prop]ly1 ! skelp mu/ be hot en\gh t any scale :i* _h cov]$ x drips (f4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,lap-,,weld+ ,,rolls ,,) ,,m&rel ,,9 ,,position ,! weld+ rolls are v %ort rolls1 almo/ 8%eaves0 or :eels1 ) concave edges ( exactly ! outside diamet] ( ! pipe to be =m$4 ,betwe5 ^! two rolls1 at ! end ( a long /raight b>1 is a m&rel or projectile-%ap$ ball ( high-spe$ /eel ov] :i* ! :ite-hot tube mu/ be pu%$4 ,! reheat$1 curv$ skelp is pull$ f ! furnace & ! =w>d end =c$ into ! rolls :i* %oot x ?r\gh & ov] ! m&rel at high spe$1 =c+ toge!r & weld+ "u heavy pressure ! ov]lapp+ edges ( :at 0 =m]ly ! plate4 ,amid ! noise & ! %oot+ sp>ks an unsuspect+ by/&] is q />tl$ by ! sudd5ness ( x all4 ,:ile /ill hot ! pipes pass to 8siz+0 rolls :i* correct any v>iation 9 inside & outside diamet]s4 ,! cross or /raight5+ rolls next smoo? & clean _! surfaces :ile /raight5+ ! pipes or boil] tubes4 ,aft] ! fir/ trip ?r\gh ! weld+ rolls1 boil] tubes & c]ta9 o!r high grades ( pipe g back into ! furnace :]e !y are reheat$4 ,!y are aga9 put ?r\gh ! weld+ rolls to make absolutely sure ( a tight weld4 ,aft] cool+1 ! ends ( ea* pipe are cut (f4 ,because ( ! 8sc>f+0 ( ! edges & ! great pressure ( ! rolls1 x is difficult to tell :]e ! welds occur1 ! ?ickness ( ! walls be+ practically uni=m all ar\nd4 ,lap-weld$ pipe ( z great z #cf diamet] has be5 made 9 ?is way4 ,illu/ration3 ,,pipes ,,9 ,,siz+ ,,& ,,cross ,,rolls ,! wat]-pressure te/ is giv5 to all lap-weld$ pipe z are c]ta9 te/s = t5sile & torsional /r5g?s1 & = ability to flatt5 )\t break+4 ,9 ! case ( boil] tubes1 a piece is cut f ea* end ( ea* tube1 :i* mu/ /& flang+ or spread+ 8cold0 & also mu/ cru% d[n endwise "u ! heavy pressure appli$ 9 ! te/+ ma*9e )\t fracture or op5+ ( ! welds4 ,! pipe may be 8?read$0 to ord] or %ipp$ z x comes f ! te/+ b5*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,f9i%+ ,,end ,z rem>k$1 bo? butt & lap-weld$ pipe is regul>ly manufactur$ f wr\ght iron & f /eel4 ,illu/ration3 ,,hydro/atic ,,te/ ,,( ,,! ,,pipes ,x 0 sugge/$ dur+ ! discussion ( ! manufacture ( wr\ght iron1 t1 ow+ ma9ly to high labor co/s1 wr\ght iron 0 ) difficulty compet+ ) ! s(t /eels4 ,wr\ght iron is not$ = its weld+ prop]ties & x has always _h its loyal admir]s4 ,aside f its application z 8b> iron0 :i* always has be5 & /ill is 9 favor ) _m metal work]s = miscellane\s purposes & its use z ,sw$i% b> iron or l[ phosphorus melt+ b> by mak]s ( crucible /eel z a base = _! product1 wr\ght iron probably f9ds its next mo/ favor$ place z a mat]ial = pipe z is %[n by ! table giv5 9 ,*apt] ,,vi4 ,:ile n z /rong z /eel pipe "u hydro/atic te/1 _m pipe us]s insi/ t1 presumably on acc\nt ( its slag enclosures & c9d] films :i* are suppos$ by "s to surr\nd & protect ! fib]s1 wr\ght iron pipe outla/s /eel pipe :5 us$ "u conditions :i* induce corrosion4 ,o!rs are z /r5u\s 9 _! d5ial ( ?is ass]tion & ?is subject ( comp>ative wr\ght iron pipe & /eel-pipe corrosion is /ill a v live issue4 ,= _m ye>s ?is matt] has be5 "u inve/igation4 ,hundr$s ( te/s h be5 made & discuss$ by le>n$ societies & _! committees4 ,! laboratories & te/+ dep>tm5ts1 too1 ( ! l>ge pipe manufactur]s & _! cu/om]s1 h made ext5d$ inve/igations4 ,h[ev]1 ! conditions "u :i* pipe is us$ are s v>i$ & ! "t requir$ = any true & decisive te/ is s long t really conclusive results h n be5 =?com+4 ,) o!r mat]ials1 ea* condition & corrosive influ5ce is l>gely a 8law unto itself10 & "o wond]s if su* may n prove to be ! case ) ^! mat]ials also4 ,z sugge/$1 a great quantity ( publi%$ in=mation giv+ comp>ative s]vice te/s is available = ^? :o are p>ticul>ly int]e/$ 9 ?is subject4 ,h[ mu* ( ! decl9e 9 tonnage & 9 p]c5tage ( ! total skelp produc$1 is due to ! approximately #cj great] co/ ( wr\ght iron pipe & h[ mu* to satisfactory p]=mance ( its competitor mu/ be left to y to judge4 ,=tunately pipe ( bo? k9ds is available1 mean:ile1 & "o c get :i*ev] he pref]s4 ,! uses ( pipe are almo/ innum]able4 ,great quantities are us$ = conveyance ( wat]1 oils & gases1 = ice-mak+ & refrig]ation1 ! heat+ & dra9+ ( build+s1 = dry kilns1 hospital b$s & app>atus1 electric light1 railway & telegraph poles1 pipe rail+s1 = conduit "w1 etc4 ,= _m ( ^! applications1 ! seamless v>iety is n[ utiliz$1 h[ev]4 ,= _m purposes coat$ pipe is highly desirable4 ,?is may be by hot asphalt1 or o!r liquid dip1 by surface electro-galvaniz+ or by ! hot galvaniz+ me?od ( dipp+ 9 molt5 z9c1 by :i* me?od probably ! great] portion ( coat$ pipe is treat$4 ,c]ta9 o!r protective coat+s are us$ to a limit$ ext5t4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi ,,! ,,manufacture ,,( ,,seamless ,,/eel ,,tubes ,x is m ?an likely t ! popul>ity ( ! bicycle1 :i* creat$ ! rec5t great dem& = /rong1 light & p]fect tubes1 0 l>gely in/rum5tal 9 develop+ ! seamless tube indu/ry1 :i* may be said to h 8sprung up0 )9 ! la/ tw5ty-five ye>s4 ,previ\sly all ( ! iron & /eel pipes or tubes obta9able 7 ei!r ( ! 8butt0 or 8lap-weld0 v>iety ) ! exception ( ^? :i* 7 made f long pieces ( metal by bor+ holes l5g?wise ?r\gh !m4 ,tubes by ?is bor+ me?od are1 ( c\rse1 q difficult & exp5sive to make4 ,%ort] & ?ick] billets ( /eel c m easily be bor$4 ,:5 ! holes h be5 enl>g$ by pu%+ l>g] & l>g]-nos$ rams ?r\gh !m 9 a hydraulic press1 !y c be roll$ d[n to size ov] a m&rel1 j z lap-weld$ pipe is roll$1 only 9 ?is case !y are put ?r\gh sev]al times & consid]ably r$uc$ 9 diamet]4 ,9 ?is way "s ( ! seamless tubes are made4 ,! important />t+ po9t 9 all processes = seamless /eel tubes is ! pi]c+ op]ation & x is mo/ly 9 ! me?od ( gett+ ! fir/ hole ?r\gh ! billet t !y diff]1 s9ce ! hot-roll+ & ! cold-draw+ processes by :i* !y are f9i%$ h long be5 kn[n4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important mod]n processes = seamless tubes1 ! ,mannesmann1 is bas$ ^u ! pr9ciple t if a :ite-hot r\nd /eel b> is rapidly rotat$ betwe5 8cross rolls10 a longitud9al rupture :i* is almo/ a hole =ms along its c5t]4 ,we may lik5 ! motion ( ! b> 9 ! rolls to ! :irl+ ( a lead p5cil betwe5 ! palms ( our h&s1 except1 ( c\rse1 t ! b> is kept rotat+ 9 "o direction only4 ,?\gh some?+ l ?is t5d5cy ( a /eel b> to op5 along ! c5t] ?r\gh pressure appli$ at two opposite po9ts on ! outside1 seems to h be5 kn[n to =gem51 ! ,bro!rs ,mannesmann came ^u ! simil> t5d5cy "u action ( ! rolls1 by accid5t4 ,!y 7 ,g]man tool /eel manufactur]s4 ,a critical cu/om] want$ p]fectly r\nd & surface-poli%$ b>s ( /eel4 ,!y attempt$ to give 8 b>s ?is p]fect %ape & smoo?ness by f9i%+ !m betwe5 cross rolls :i* spun ! b>s rapidly ar\nd :ile !y 7 sl[ly pass+ along ?r\gh ! ma*9e4 ,! pieces 7 p]fect outw>dly1 b1 mu* to ! /eel mak]s' *agr91 ! cu/om] report$ t ! quality ( ! /eel 0 n z satisfactory z t :i* he previ\sly _h be5 receiv+4 ,^u inve/igation x 0 f\nd t ?is cross-roll+ "u pressure t5d$ to =m a small hole along ! c5t] ( ! b> ) slight cracks 9 ! metal all ar\nd x4 ,^u ?is happ5/ance discov]y is bas$ ! ,mannesmann process = pi]c+ ! b>1 :i* consi/s 9 pu%+ ov] a pi]c+ head su* a c5t]-weak5$ piece z x comes ?r\gh ! cross rolls4 ,"o or two modifications ( ! ,mannesmann pi]c+ me?od are also 9 use4 ,! mat]ial g5]ally us$ = seamless /eel tubes is m$ium s(t op5-he>? /eel ( 4#ae to 4#be c>bon4 ,x is receiv$ z billets :i* are roll$ d[n & cut at ! mill or !y are pur*as$ z #c to #f 8r\nds0 & cut into su* l5g?s z give prop] am\nts ( /eel = ! tubes :i* are to be =m$4 ,usually ! b>s cut = tubes are f ?ree to five feet 9 l5g?4 ,!y are heat$ 9 a furnace & aft] ! end has be5 d5t$ at ! c5t]1 !y g into ! rolls4 ,illu/ration3 ,,pi]c+ ,a ,,solid ,,billet ,,by ,,! ,,mannesmann ,,process ,illu/ration3 ,,roll+ ,,d[n ,,! ,,pi]c$ ,,tube ,! rolls seize ! =w>d end ( ! b> & swiftly :irl x z x is sl[ly pull$ 94 ,a pi]c+ head ( high-spe$ /eel at ! end ( a /iff m&rel ext5ds betwe5 ! rolls j z we saw x 9 ! pipe-roll+ process4 ,z ! =w>d end ( ! rapidly :irl+ :ite-hot /eel b> pu%es aga9/ ?is pi]c+ head1 ! piece1 weak5$ along its c5t] l9e is pi]c$4 ,z nei!r ! rolls nor ! pi]c+ head c be resi/$1 x is =c$ ?r\gh ! rolls & gr9ds its way ov] ! pi]c+ head ) ! support+ b>1 ! walls ( ! :ite-hot tube be+ ?9n$ d[n & ! piece v mat]ially l5g!n$4 ,x comes out a r\gh tube ) ?ick & irregul> walls4 ,aft] its removal f ! roll+ mill b> ^u :i* ano!r & cold] pi]c+ head is plac$ 9 read9ess = ! next tube1 x goes to o!r rolls ?r\gh :i* x is pass$1 fir/ )\t a m&rel inside1 & lat]1 ) "o1 until x has become some:]e ne> ! desir$ size & ! walls h be5 pull$ d[n to ! prop] ?ickness4 ,! m&rel1 ( c\rse1 det]m9es ! size ( ! int]ior ( ! tube1 & ! rolls1 its outside diamet]4 ,"s are sold 9 ?is =m z hot-f9i%$ tubes aft] hav+ be5 /raight5$ & cut to l5g? by removal ( ! ends4 ,a great deal ( ! seamless tub+ made is giv5 ! cold f9i%1 i4e41 x is drawn ?r\gh dies mu* z rods are drawn 9 ! mak+ ( wire4 ,= cold-draw+1 "o end ( ea* tube is r$uc$ 9 size ov] a l5g? ( a few in*es1 by =g+ or by o!r means4 ,?is is :]e ! 8pli]s0 are to take hold4 ,n[ we c nev] heat /eel )\t =m+ ^u x a brittle oxide or scale :i* is mu* h>d] & h>%] ?an ! metal itself4 ,dur+ its soj\rn 9 ! heat+ furnace & its j\rney ?r\gh ! rolls1 !re=e1 ea* ( ! tubes acquir$ a h>d brittle surface :i* mu/ be remov$ be=e ! tube c be 8drawn40 ,! mo/ practical way ( remov+ ?is scale is by 8pickl+0 ! tube 9 "s weak acid1 usually sulphuric 7oil ( vitriol74 ,! acid dissolves "s ( ! scale & loos5s ! rema9d] s t x c be wa%$ (f4 ,to neutralize any excess acid :i* cl+s to ! tube & to aid lubrication1 x is dipp$ into lime-wat] & !n dri$4 ,! tube n[ goes to ! draw+ b5*es :i* are long /eel frames along :i* a heavy /eel draw *a9 is cont9u\sly travel+ f ! c5t] t[>d "o end4 ,an*or$ at ! opposite end ( ! b5* is a long b> ^u :i* is fa/5$ ! m&rel or ball :i* is to det]m9e ! inside diamet] ( ! tube 9 ! draw+ z did ! m&rel betwe5 ! rolls 9 ! roll+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,tube-,,draw+ ,,b5* ,! tube to be drawn is ?read$ ov] ! long rod :i* is an*or$ 9 place1 & ! =g$-d[n small end is pu%$ ?r\gh ! 8die10 v firmly fa/5$ to ! b5* ne> its c5t]4 ,! pli]s take hold ( ! =g$-d[n end ( ! tube ) a vise-l grip1 & are !n hook$ into ! draw *a94 ,! tube is ?us sl[ly drawn ?r\gh ! hole 9 ! die4 ,z ^! dies are ( v h>d mat]ial1 ei!r h>d ca/ iron or h>d5$ /eel ) hole a little small] ?an outside ( ! tube1 !y compress ! tube ^u ! m&rel inside & ! ?ickness ( wall is ?us regulat$1 ! excess metal be+ squeez$ out s t ! tube is v mat]ially l5g!n$4 ,tall[ or grease ) ! lime-coat lubricate ! tube1 a little be+ cont9ually drawn into & ?r\gh ! some:at funnel-%ap$ die4 ,z 0 ! case ) ! 8cold f9i%+0 ( plate & ! draw+ ( wire1 ?is cold work+ increases ! ela/ic limit & t5sile /r5g? ( ! /eel4 ,s cold-f9i%$ tubes are /rong] ?an hot-f9i%$4 ,= _m purposes su* increase 9 /r5g? is highly desirable4 ,! ext]ior ( ! tube is also made v smoo? & uni=m 9 diamet] by ! draw+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,h[ ,,tubes ,,are ,,drawn ,! cold-draw+ has a disadvantage1 h[ev]4 ,x some:at embrittles ! /eel1 z may be inf]r$ f ! increase 9 /r5g?4 ,?is is n a s]i\s matt]1 h[ev]1 unless ! cold-draw+ has be5 ov]done4 ,b = small] sizes ( tub+ _m draw+s h to be resort$ to1 to r$uce ! /eel to ! size requir$4 ,sometimes t5 or ev5 fifte5 passes are requir$ be=e ! tubes rea* _! f9al size4 ,9 su* case ! tubes h to be anneal$ & repickl$1 lim$ & dri$ aft] ea* pass or two 9 ord] to re/ore to ! /eel its ductility4 ,if ?is 7 n done ! tube w\ld ev5tually break 9 ! die4 ,! la/ pass is ?r\gh an accurate 8siz+0 die :i* corrects any v>iation 9 inside or outside diamet]4 ,z ! pull+ /ra9 :i* ! /eel w /& is limit$1 too mu* ( a r$uction 9 size 9 any s+le pass mu/ n be attempt$4 ,z anneal+1 pickl+1 dry+1 etc41 h to be done aft] e pass or two1 a consid]able p]iod ( "t elapses betwe5 ! pi]c+ ( ! billet & its f9al pass z a small tube4 ,= economy 9 h&l+1 tubes _c be consid]$ or h&l$ s+ly1 b mu/ be treat$ 9 quantity1 s ?is p]iod betwe5 billet pi]c+ & ! f9al pass may be z mu* z two weeks1 possibly m4 ,! tubes mu/ next be /raight5$4 ,?is is done 9 cross rolls z has be5 m5tion$ "u ! manufacture ( lap-weld$ pipe1 or 9 v>i\s o!r types ( ma*9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,cupp+ ,,& ,,draw+ ,,seamless ,,tubes ,,f ,,plates ,mu* seamless tub+ goes into automobile1 bicycle1 & v>i\s o!r products = :i* v high grade & p]fect mat]ial is desirable4 ,"o ( ! _m int]e/+ applications ( seamless tub+ is its use 9 v f9e sizes = hypod]mic ne$les4 ,seamless tubes are easily b5t1 swag$1 upset1 spun or o!rwise *ang$ 9 =m1 z ! mat]ial is ductile & !re are no welds to op54 ,v l>ge tubes are n made 9 ! way j describ$4 ,!y are r made by 8cupp+0 flat1 r\nd /eel plates ?r\gh a die4 ,a cup is !n 9 sev]al successive draw+s put ?r\gh small] dies1 "u :i* treatm5t x gr[s long] ea* "t & gets a ?9n] wall until x has become a long tube ) ! "o end /ill clos$4 ,= op5 end$ tubes ?is & ! upp]1 op5 end are cut or trimm$ (f4 ,cold-draw+ "h necessitates anneal+ to re/ore ductility j z x does else:]e & ea* anneal+ op]ation is necess>ily foll[$ by pickl+ = removal ( ! scale =m$4 ,by rapidly sp9n+ l>ge tubes 9 la!s or o!r ma*9es & ! application ( pressure ) ! prop] tools & lubrication1 ! walls ( ! tubes may be de=m$4 ,9 ?is way ! ends may be exp&$1 made small]1 or completely clos$4 ,by su* 8sp9n+0 op]ations l>ge tubes are made into articles ( v>i\s %apes4 ,by ?is same 8cupp+0 or hydraulic draw+ ( flat1 well lubricat$ %eets ( s(t /eel1 seamless high-pressure gas cyl9d]s1 /eel drums1 b>rels1 & ! l are made4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii ,,trans=mations ,,& ,,/ructures ,,( ,,! ,,/eels ,x 0 8,ali ,baba0 :o is quot$ z say+1 8,^? :o d n "k h[ to take ! ,phili/9e1 bett] hadn't60 or words to t effect4 ,n[ ?r\gh ^! *apt]s we h attempt$ to discuss 9 an entirely non-te*nical mann] ! subjects pres5t$4 ,on ?is acc\nt we 7 compell$ to =ego discussion ( _m ?+s :i* are highly important & int]e/+ b :i* are m or less difficult ( explanation )\t ! use ( sci5tific t]ms & !ories4 ,"o su* has be5 ! 8me*anism0 ( ! h>d5+ ( /eel & its opposite1 its s(t5+ by anneal+4 ,= ^? :o may desire to get a glimpse into ?is 8wond]l&0 x is h>dly fair to refra9 f brief discussion ( ! subject j because x is te*nical & difficult & s may prove to be t$i\s to "s :o h little reason to be int]e/$4 ,x seems desirable1 !re=e1 to impose ?is m te*nical *apt] or two t ! subject ( ! real metallurgy ( iron & ! /eels may at lea/ be 8h9t$ at40 ,we say 8h9t$ at0 advis$ly = x is a long1 long /ory1 &1 ev5 n[1 aft] a great _m ye>s ( s]i\s /udy no "o has yet read x to ! end4 ,we are n say+ ?is 9 a disc\rag+ way1 h[ev]1 = !re seems little reason to d\bt t ! multitude ( facts :i* h be5 disclos$ ?r\gh ! tireless exp]im5ts & ! /udy ( hundr$s ( inve/igators h put u well on our way to ! solution ( ?is "o ( ,nature's great problems4 ,to ^?1 h[ev]1 :o are n int]e/$ 9 ! kn[n details ( 8h[0 & 8:y0 h>d5+ & s(t5+ ( /eel is possible & :y h>d5+ ( pure iron & mild /eels does n & _c take place1 we mu/ say z w\ld 8,ali ,baba03--8,^? :o d n c>e to /udy x bett] hadn't40 ,anyway1 ! /udy ( ?is r intricate subject is conducive ( 8heada*es10 & p]haps x is n extremely important :5 view$ f ! non-te*nical /&po9t ( ^! articles4 ,we h sev]al times ref]r$ to ! debt :i* civilization owes to iron & /eel /ructural mat]ials1 ma*9]y & tools & p>ticul>ly to ^? tools :i* h h>d5$ cutt+ edges4 ,almo/ e "o kn[s t h>d5$ cutt+ edges are imp>t$ to tools by sudd5 cool+ 9 wat] or oil f a good r$ heat4 ,probably mo/ ( u1 too1 "k t ! blacksmi? c aga9 s(t5 su* tools by reheat+ to ! same r$ heat & all[+ !m to cool sl[ly4 ,?is he calls anneal+4 ,9 ?is s(t5$ or anneal$ condition a piece c readily be saw$ or fil$1 :ile 9 its h>d5$ /ate a saw or file produces no result ^u x4 ,n[ :at are ! facts1 mean+ & ! cause ( ?is dual life ( ! alloy1 /eel1 )\t :i* we w\ld be s greatly h&icapp$4 ,to be bett] prep>$ to und]/& ! answ]1 let u consid] ?ree or f\r accompany+ & closely alli$ ph5om5a :i* close obs]vation ( ! habits ( /eel has disclos$4 ,! 8,po9t ( ,recalesc5ce0 ,if we drill a hole 9 a small piece ( c>bon tool /eel :i* we are ab\t to put into ! heat+ furnace1 & if into ?is hole we ins]t ! b>e tip ( an electric pyromet]1 ?is heat-measur+ in/rum5t w indicate at all times ! ris+ temp]ature ( ! piece ( /eel z x heats 9 ! r$-hot muffle or *amb] ( ! furnace4 ,z we wat* ! piece gr[ r$1 ! pyromet] regi/]s #ijj1 #ajjj1 #aajj1 #abjj ,f41--gradually & uni=mly indicat+ high] & high] temp]atures4 ,illu/ration3 ,,app>atus ,,= ,,det]m9+ ,,! ,,critical ,,po9ts ,,( ,,/eel ,b lo6 ,some?+ mu/ be wrong6 ,! pyromet] ne$le does n n[ move =w>d b is /&+ /ill4 ,?\gh we "k t 9 t hot furnace ! piece mu/ be absorb+ heat at ! same rate z be=e1 yet ! pyromet] ne$le does n budge6 ,b1 z our wond]m5t gr[s & we are /ill undecid$ z to ! mean+1 ! ne$le aga9 beg9s to advance & cont9ues aga9 regul>ly & uni=mly to high] & high] temp]atures z ?\gh x _h nev] tak5 ! vacation4 ,) ! piece n[ at a :ite heat1 we h proce$$ f> en\gh ) ! heat+4 ,turn+ (f ! electric curr5t f ! furnace & all[+ x to cool we aga9 wat* ! pyromet] ne$le z ! temp]ature ( ! piece 9 ! cool+ furnace gradually falls4 ,l[]1 l[]1 l[] sw+s ! ne$le1 always at a rate approximately uni=m4 ,b aga9 x sudd5ly /ops & rema9s immovable1 or p]haps ev5 rises slightly1 = a p]iod ( sev]al seconds1 aft] :i* x resumes its uni=mly-tim$ d[nw>d c\rse z ?\gh no?+ _h happ5$4 ,yes1 ^! pauses ( ! ne$le occurr$ at v ne>ly ! same m>k+ on ! pyromet] dial1 b n at exactly ! same ones4 ,go+ up x 0 at #acej ,f41 & on ! d[nw>d way x 0 at #abej ,f4 ,& y are correct 9 surmis+ t ^! two po9ts are closely relat$4 ,!y are p>ts ( ! same1 if we may s speak1 &1 9 reality !y repres5t "o po9t :i* is locat$ ab\t halfway betwe5 !m1 ! div]g5ce result+ f :at is kn[n z 8hy/]esis0 or 8lag10 :i* means1 ( c\rse1 a 8be+-beh9d-h&0 or t>d9ess4 ,= ! pres5t we may say t all c>bon /eels h ?is 8critical0 range z %[n by su* pauses ( ! pyromet] ne$le dur+ heat+ or cool+ ( ! /eel4 ,n[ z ! piece is mo/ c]ta9ly cont9u+ to absorb heat 9 ! furnace z x gr[s hott] & is los+ x uni=mly to ! air z ! furnace cools1 we h no alt]native b to judge t ! pause ( ! ne$le on its upw>d way 0 caus$ by "s int]nal affair ( ! piece ( /eel itself1 = :i*1 at j t /age ( its j\rney1 x requir$ & us$ = its purpose 7:i* 0 o!r ?an mak+ itself hott]71 ! heat furni%$ x by ! furnace2 &1 t on ! d[nw>d j\rney1 at j t same po9t1 x gave out aga9 t same heat4 ,x mu/ h be5 ! sett+ free ( ?is imprison$ heat1 if we may s t]m x1 :i* kept ! piece = ^? few mom5ts f cool+ at ! usual rate4 ,inde$1 _h we conduct$ our exp]im5t 9 a r d>k room & obs]v$ ! piece closely we w\ld h notic$ t dur+ ! pause ( ! pyromet] ! piece ( /eel did bright5 or gl[ some:at1 %[+ t x _h extra heat f "s hidd5 s\rce4 ,because ( ?is 8self-heat+0 ( ! /eel z %[n by ! pyromet] & ! bright5+1 ! temp]ature at :i* ! ph5om5on occurs has be5 nam$ ! 8po9t ( recalesc5ce10 :i* means ! po9t at :i* x spontane\sly becomes hott]4 ,loss ( ,magnetism ,n[ ano!r curi\s ?+ took place _h we b notic$ x4 ,we all "k t iron & /eel are our mo/ magnetic mat]ials4 ,f *ildhood we h se5 p9s1 ne$les1 /eel p5s1 & v>i\s o!r /eel or iron objects jump to a magnet held ne> !m4 ,:at1 n[1 :5 we f9d t our piece ( /eel 9 ! furnace :5 at a r$ or high] heat is entirely unresponsive or dead to ! attraction ( a /rong magnet8 ,/range6 ,d y suppose t our magnet has lo/ its p[]8 ,let u see4 ,suppose t e m9ute or s1 :ile wat*+ ! pyromet] ne$le g sl[ly d[n aga9 aft] turn+ (f ! heat1 we put ! magnet to ! /eel4 ,cont9ually l[] comes ! temp]ature ( ! piece--#aejj1 #adjj1 #acge1 #acej1 #acbe1 #acjj1 #abge ,f41--& lo6 ! piece jumps1 & f ?is all ! way d[n to cold x responds to ! attraction ( our magnet4 ,j to make sure t we are n 8see+ ?+s10 we aga9 />t our furnace1 &1 z ! /eel heats1 we te/ x ) ! magnet4 ,s f> !re is no d\bt ab\t its be+ magnetic6 ,at #ijj ,f41 ! pieces beg9s to %[ d>k r$1 at #ajjj1 #aajj1 #aaej1 #abjj1 #abej1 /rong] & /rong] r$4 ,at all ( ^! temp]atures ! /eel is attract$4 ,s x is at #abge & at #acjj ,f4 ,b j z we are ?9k+ t we mu/ h be5 mi/ak5 be=e1 we f9d t aga9 ! /eel is sudd5ly 8dead0 to ! pull ( ! magnet6 ,& at :at temp]ature8 ,! pyromet] indicates #acbj ,f4 ,b 0 n ?is ! same or v ne>ly ! same read+ at :i* ! pyromet] ne$le paus$ on ! way up1 & d y n rememb] t x 0 only a little bel[ #abej ,f4 t x paus$ on ! way d[n1 & ! disagreem5t ( ! two temp]atures we ascrib$ to 8lag08 ,no1 we made no mi/ake4 ,/eel loses all ( its magnetic prop]ties at ! 8critical range0 & has none above x4 ,dilatation & ,conductivity ,c]ta9 o!r great *anges1 too1 occur "h4 ,we "k t mo/ mat]ials exp& uni=mly ^u heat+ & contract z !y cool4 ,/eel is no exception1 b at ! critical range on heat+ x becomes fickle & = a %ort space contracts in/ead ( cont9u+ its uni=m expansion4 ,conv]sely1 dur+ cool+1 x ceases its uni=m contraction & sudd5ly dilates or exp&s = a %ort p]iod :5 x rea*es ! critical range1 aft] :i* ab]ration x aga9 resumes its old habit ( uni=m contraction z ! temp]ature falls4 ,j s ) its electrical conductivity4 ,at ! critical range ! electrical conductivity sudd5ly decreases abnormally z ! piece gets hott] & z abnormally increases z ! /eel cools ?r\gh ! critical range on ! return trip4 ,!re are c]ta9 o!r happ5+s at or ne> ?is p>ticul> temp]ature b we w n consid] !m "h4 ,manife/ly all ( ?is has a deep mean+4 ,recalesc5ce ,indicates ! ,h>d5+ ,po9t ,y rememb] t we said ! div]g5ce betwe5 ! go+ up & ! com+ d[n pauses ( ! pyromet] ne$le 0 due to t>d9ess or lag8 ,among humans habitual t>d9ess is n consid]$ a desirable trait1 b x is und\bt$ly ?r\gh ?is v lag or t>d9ess t /eel becomes s s]viceable to u4 ,illu/ration3 ,,heat+ ,,& ,,cool+ ,,curves ,,( ,,/eel ,,) 4#i ,,p] ,,c5t ,,( ,,c>bon ,?is lag is peculi> 9 t x gr[s less ! m sl[ly we heat or cool ! /eel1 &1 if ! heat+ or cool+ is done sl[ly en\gh1 ! lag disappe>s almo/ entirely1 i4e41 ! pause ( ! pyromet] ne$le occurs at ! same temp]ature on ! upw>d z on ! d[nw>d way4 ,conv]sely1 ! disagreem5t or split gr[s or wid5s ! fa/] ! temp]ature is rais$ or l[]$4 ,"h is ! vital po9t4 ,by extremely sudd5 cool+1 su* z qu5*+ 9 wat]1 ! lag becomes s great t x nev] cat*es up at all & any /ructure ) its consequ5t prop]ties :i* 0 br\ght ab\t 9 ! /eel by ! high] temp]ature is ?us froz5 or fix$ & made to 8p]si/0 aft] ! /eel has become cold4 ,x is j at ?is po9t1 ! 8po9t ( recalesc5ce10 t /eel *anges f its s(t & malleable1 to its extremely h>d & brittle condition4 ,if x is qu5*$ f temp]atures above ?is po9t1 x is extremely h>d1 if f temp]atures bel[ x1 ev5 ^? only a little bel[1 x is s(t & ductile4 ,x is f j a little above ?is po9t1 !n1 usually betwe5 #acej ,f41 & #aejj ,f41 t ! blacksmi? h>d5s 8 tools by plung+ !m into cold wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,heat+ ,,& ,,cool+ ,,curves ,,( ,,/eel ,,) 4#df ,,p] ,,c5t ,,( ,,c>bon ,/eels ( ,o!r ,composition ,n[ x %\ld be not$ p>ticul>ly t ! specim5 ) :i* we h be5 exp]im5t+ is a tool /eel ( 4#ij c>bon or !reab\ts4 ,?is is important1 =1 :ile all ( ! c>bon /eels %[ ?is same critical temp]ature1 at :i* occurs ! po9t ( recalesc5ce1 ^? conta9+ f 4#de to ab\t 4#he c>bon h ano!r po9t some:at high] on ! temp]ature scale1 & /eels :i* conta9 f 4#aj to 4#de ( c>bon h two o!rs1 or ?ree po9ts 9 all4 ,fur!r1 /eels hav+ less ?an 4#aj ( c>bon & iron ) no c>bon at all h ! two upp] po9ts b no po9t at #abij ,f4 ,?is l[] "o has disappe>$4 ,all ( ?is means t if in/ead ( a piece ( 4#ij c>bon /eel we _h us$ "o hav+ 4#fj ( c>bon1 say1 we w\ld h f\nd two diff]5t critical ranges or po9ts at :i* ! pyromet] paus$1 ! "o at #abij ,f41 & ano!r :5 we got to #acfj ,f4 ,_h ! /eel be5 "o conta9+ 4#cj c>bon we w\ld h discov]$ pauses at ?ree diff]5t po9ts1 viz41 at #abij ,f41 at #acie ,f41 & at #adhj ,f4 ,) v l[ c>bon /eel or ) wr\ght iron1 ! pyromet] w\ld h regi/]$ two pauses1 "o at ab\t #acie ,f41 & ! o!r at #afej ,f4 ,:5 records are c>efully kept ( ! "t :i* is requir$ = ! temp]ature to rise or l[] ov] ea* & e tw5ty-five degree p]iod1 say1 on ! upw>d & d[nw>d way1 & ^! are 8plott$10 :at are call$ 8heat+0 & 8cool+0 curves c be drawn ?r\gh ! />s & dots s set d[n & ^! =m a record ( ! behavior ( ! pyromet] ne$le at ea* temp]ature along ! scale4 ,two illu/rations ( su* curves are %[n4#i ,footnote #i3 ,special app>atus is n[ obta9able = det]m9ation ( critical po9ts1 heat+ & cool+ curves4 ,n[ if on prop]ly spac$1 dott$1 v]tical l9es1 :i* we w let repres5t ^! v>i\s alloys1 we m>k po9ts numb] ?ree1 two & "o z %[n by our 8cool+0 curves1 call+ ! topmo/ po9t ?ree1 x is readily se5 t ! po9ts are relat$4 ,! l9es & ! alloys :i* !y repres5t are1 7a7 ,! wr\ght iron1 7b7 4#ae c>bon /eel1 7c7 4#cj c>bon /eel1 7d7 4#de c>bon /eel1 7e7 4#fj c>bon /eel1 7f7 4#ge c>bon /eel1 & 7g7 ! /eel ) 4#ij c>bon4 ,illu/ration3 ,,critical ,,po9t ,,diagram ,,( ,,pure ,,iron ,,& ,,! ,,/eels ,( c\rse _m m cool+ curves1 especially ( /eels ) o!r p]c5tages ( c>bon w\ld be desirable1 b we h en\gh t we are safe 9 sket*+ ! horizontal & oblique l9es1 ,ar#a1 ,ar#b1 ,ar#c1 ,ar#cb & ,ar#cba1 ?r\gh ! po9ts :i* we h arrang$4 ,= conv5i5ce1 metallurgi/s ev]y:]e m>k ^! po9ts ,ar#a1 ,ar#b & ,ar#c1 ! fir/ be+ ! l[]1 & ,ar#c ! upp] "o4 ,arcm repres5ts an upp] po9t f\nd 9 /eels hav+ m ?an 4#i ( c>bon4 ,! lett] 8r0 is d]iv$ f ! ,fr5* ^w1 8refroidissem5t10 mean+ 8cool+40 ,! correspond+ po9ts disclos$ dur+ heat+ are m>k$ ,ac#a1 ,ac#b1 ,ac#cba1 etc41 f ! ^w1 8*auffage0 mean+ 8heat+40 ,! 8,a0 app>5tly 8j happ5$40 ,be=e ! upp] critical po9ts 7 kn[n x _h be5 us$ by ,ts*]n(f to designate ! temp]ature at :i* /eels h>d54 ,b x mu/ n be suppos$ t ! skeleton :i* we h con/ruct$ c be fully accept$ z true until x has be5 *eck$ & re*eck$ hundr$s & hundr$s ( times by o!r inve/igators4 ,a great _m h work$ ^u ^! critical po9ts & ^u ! 8freez+-po9t0 curves ( ! v>i\s alloys4 ,x 0 ( c\rse impossible = all ( !m to make _! det]m9ations 9 j ! same mann] & ) exactly ! same mat]ials4 ,exam9ation ( _! "w & consid]ation ( ! results :i* !y obta9$ %[ "s discrepancies z might be expect$1 l>gely probably because ( diff]5ce 9 purity ( ! mat]ials te/$1 e impurity su* z manganese1 nickel1 silicon1 sulphur1 phosphorus1 etc41 modify+ m or less ! results obta9$4 ,z we discov]$1 spe$ ( heat+ & cool+ also modify ! results4 ,:5 we consid] ! difficulties :i* att5d ! mak+ ( det]m9ations on metals & alloys at high temp]atures1 ! wond] is t !re is su* close agreem5t4 ,f ^! /&po9ts ! diff]5ces :i* exi/ 9 ! publi%$ results seem q small4 ,x 0 b tw5ty ye>s ago t ! fir/ outl9e 0 drawn & ! :ole 8fusibility0 or 8equilibrium diagram0 ( ! iron-c>bon alloys giv5 9 ! next *apt] has practically be5 develop$ )9 ?is "t4 ,b ov] ?is p]iod ( tw5ty or s ye>s ! po9ts ^u :i* ^! l9es ,ar#a1 ,ar#b1 ,ar#c1 ,ar#cb & ,ar#cba are bas$ h be5 *eck$ _m times & !y are n[ well sub/antiat$4 ,^! l9es =m b a small "p ( ! complete 8iron-c>bon diagram40 ,! ,mean+ ( ! ,po9ts ,y rememb] t wr\ght iron & /eels hav+ less ?an 4#aj c>bon %[$ no po9t ,ar#a1 & t 9 all o!r /eels ?is po9t becomes /rong] z !y conta9 high] & high] c>bon4 ,!re is little d\bt t ! po9t ,ar#a exi/s or results f & because ( ! c>bon ( ! alloy4 ,9 wr\ght iron !re is no c>bon1 h5ce !re is no po9t ,ar#a4 ,if ! extremely l[ c>bon /eels h an ,ar#a x is s weak t x _c be detect$4 ,_h we te/$ ! 4#de c>bon /eel = magnetic prop]ties we w\ld h f\nd t x lo/ magnetism at ab\t #acie ,f41 in/ead ( at #abij ,f41 at :i* temp]ature ! 4#ij /eel became non-magnetic4 ,! po9t ,ar#b1 !n1 %[s ! temp]ature at :i* loss or ga9 ( magnetism occurs4 ,! electrical conductivity *ange comes at nei!r ( ^! po9ts1 ,ar#a1 nor ,ar#b1 b at ,ar#c4 ,h[ev]1 ) increase ( c>bon ! l9e ,ar#c1 :i* 0 drawn ?r\gh ! po9ts1 ,ar#c1 rapidly desc5ds4 ,at ab\t 4#de or 4#ej c>bon cont5t1 ?is l9e ,ar#c1 repres5t+ ! *anges 9 conductivity1 jo9s l9e ,ar#b4 ,h5ce 9 /eels hav+ 4#de c>bon or m1 !re is a common po9t1 or "o :i* 9 reality is made up ( bo? po9ts4 ,at ?is common po9t ! ph5om5a peculi> to ea* ( ! po9ts occur4 ,?is common l9e1 n[ call$ ,ar#cb1 itself l[]s ) fur!r increase ( c>bon until1 9 /eels ( ar\nd 4#ij c>bon1 !re is b ! s+le po9t ,ar#cba1 & ! ph5om5a correspond+ to all ?ree ( ! po9ts occur at ?is "o po9t at #abij ,f41 z we f\nd 9 our exp]im5ts4 ,z po9ts ,ar#b & ,ar#c occur 9 c>bonless iron1 !y _c result 9 any way f c>bon b mu/ h to d ) ! iron itself4 ,f _! exp]i5ces ) o!r mat]ials1 *emi/s & physici/s are well acqua9t$ ) su* evolutions ( heat z occur at ,ar#b & at ,ar#c4 ,^! heat absorptions & evolutions1 ) ! sudd5 dilatation1 ga9 9 conductivity1 etc41 indicate t "s int]nal *ange or reorganization takes place 9 ! iron itself4 ,su* *anges seem to indicate :at are kn[n z 8allotropic0 modifications4 ,m famili> examples ( allotropic =ms ( mat]ials may be m5tion$4 ,phosphorus1 = example1 may exi/1 ei!r z ! 8yell[0 v>iety :i* is poison\s & s inflammable t x mu/ be kept con/antly "u wat]1 or z ! 8r$0 v>iety :i* is non-poison\s & non-inflammable4 ,too1 !re is c>bon1 :i* may exi/ 9 any "o ( sev]al =ms su* z amorph\s c>bon 7soot71 graphite1 & ! diamond4 ,x is believ$ t iron1 itself1 exi/s 9 ?ree allotropic /ates4 ,^! h be5 nam$ 8alpha10 8beta0 & 8gamma0 iron4 ,we d n ne$ to g into ?is "p ( ! great subject except to /ate t at ord9>y temp]atures & up to ,ar#b1 we h alpha iron1 betwe5 ,ar#b & ,ar#c1 beta iron1 & above ,ar#c1 gamma iron4 ,bo? beta & gamma iron are non-magnetic1 :ile alpha iron is /rongly magnetic4 ,9 cool+ ?r\gh ,ar#c1 i4e41 f gamma to beta iron1 "s re>rangem5t ( its molecules produces ! dilatation or expansion & ! *ange 9 conductivity :i* 0 not$ above4 ,f ! fact t by *emical analysis any c]ta9 /eel mu/ h ! same composition 9 its h>d5$ t x has 9 its unh>d5$ condition1 x w readily be se5 h[ futile x w\ld be to expect *emical analysis to give u complete in=mation reg>d+ x4 ,too1 t5sile /r5g? & ! o!r usual physical te/s c h>dly tell u all t we wi% to "k4 ,microscopic analysis or metallography1 h[ev]1 %[s u int]nal /ructure ( prop]ly prep>$ pieces ( ei!r ! h>d5$ or unh>d5$ alloy t we may see ! actual condition or gr\p+ ( ! con/itu5ts4 ,! view po9ts giv5 by all ?ree ( ^! me?ods1 *emical1 physical & metallographical1 are1 ( c\rse1 mu* bett] ?an any "o or two alone4 ,! ,/ructures ( ,qu5*$ & ,unqu5*$ ,/eel ,we saw t ! lag or t>d9ess is great] ! m rapid ! cool+4 ,along ) ?is v great lag :i* is br\ght ab\t by v rapid cool+ comes increas+ sl[ness1 i4e41 less ability to cat* up1 z ! temp]ature is l[]$4 ,h5ce qu5*+ produces su* a wide lag & s sl[s ! *anges :i* %\ld take place t !y d n take place at all1 i4e41 ! /ructure :i* ! piece _h at ! high] temp]atures _c *ange b is set or fa/5$ by ! quickness ( ! cool+4 ,?\gh no degree ( sudd5ness is suffici5t to set completely ! /ructure exi/+ at v high temp]atures1 = our pres5t purposes we c say t by qu5*+ 9 cold wat] we c freeze or fix any /ructure4 ,!n aft] we h qu5*$ a piece ( /eel1 x w h :5 cold1 ! /ructure :i* correspond$ ) or result$ f ! temp]ature :i* x _h at ! mom5t be=e ! qu5*+4 ,if s1 ! microscope %\ld give u aid4 ,illu/ration3 ,,illum9ation ,,( ,,! ,,sample ,,"u ,,! ,,microscope ,by break+ (f pieces ( a qu5*$ piece & v c>efully & sl[ly gr9d+ & poli%+ )\t heat+ a surface :i* 0 an int]ior "p we f9d aft] et*+ t we c actually see ! k9d ( /ructure :i* correspond$ ) ! temp]ature f :i* ! piece 0 qu5*$4 ,photomicrograph ,no4 #hj %[s ! appe>ance ( a piece ( h>d5$ c>bon /eel4 ,note ! ne$le-l /ructure "u ! microscope at magnification ( #djj diamet]s4 ,?is /ructure is *>act]i/ic4 ,! con/itu5t1 hav+ ?is ne$le-l appe>ance has be5 nam$ 8m>t5site0 9 memory ( a di/+ui%$ ,european metallurgi/1 ,a4 ,m>t5s4 ,x is suppos$ to be 8beta0 iron1 mu* ! h>de/ allotropic v>iety ( iron1 & to hold 9 solution ! c>bon ( ! alloy1 ei!r z c>bon alone or z ! extremely h>d *emical comp\nd1 iron c>bide1 ,fe#c;,c4 ,m>t5site1 !n1 is ! extremely h>d /ructure1 necess>ily conta9+ consid]able c>bon or iron c>bide 9 solution :i* gives to our c>bon tool /eels _! h>dness & great usefulness4 ,unh>d5$ /eels nev] look l ?is4 ,_! appe>ance is %[n 9 photomicrographs ,nos4 #c;b1 #e1 #bb & #bd;a4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #hj4 ,,m>t5site1 ,,! ,,con/itu5t ,,( ,,h>d5$ ,,/eel 7,magnification #djj ,diamet]s7 ,9 unh>d5$ /eels hav+ less ?an 4#ij ( c>bon we f9d two con/itu5ts4 8,f]rite0 is ! "n :i* has be5 giv5 to "o1 ! s(t & ductile con/itu5t1 pure iron4 ,) ord9>y et*+ ! f]rite usually %[s z light-color$ or :ite gra9s b\nd$ by black l9es1 :i*1 if ! pat* is l>ge en\gh1 give a fi%-net appe>ance4 ,x is s(t & ductile l copp]1 = pure iron & pure copp] are n s greatly diff]5t 9 malleability & ductility z "o might suppose4 ,! d>k] & m or less triangul> pat*es at ! corn]s ( ! f]rite gra9s are 8pe>lite10 a "n orig9at+ because ( _! 8pe>ly0 appe>ance "u ! microscope4 ,h[ ?is pe>ly appe>ance comes ab\t w be readily und]/ood f photomicrograph ,no4 #bc;e :i* 0 tak5 at a magnification ( #djj diamet]s4 ,x is se5 t x results f alt]nate black & :ite lay]s4 ,aga9 we mu/ give up ! idea ( any f9ality 9 ! ?+s we le>n or ?9k we h le>n$4 ,we j le>n$1 = in/ance1 t f]rite usually 0 light or :ite 9 color4 ,well1 9 pe>lite1 z %[n 9 photomicrograph ,no4 #bc;e1 e o!r plate is ( f]rite b !y are n ! :ite b ! black ones4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #bc;e4 ,,pe>lite ,,at ,,magnification ,,( #djj ,,diamet]s ,y may n h und]/ood be=e t color z %[n "u ! metallographic microscope dep5ds n s mu* ^u actual color ( ! mat]ial itself z ^u its ability to reflect light4 ,= metallographic obs]vations x is necess>y to h v /rong illum9ation4 ,usually ! p[]ful beam f an electric arc is conc5trat$ by means ( cond5s+ l5ses ^u a ?9 disc ( glass call$ an oblique reflector :i* directs ! beam ^u ! poli%$ & et*$ specim5 b5ea? ! objective ( ! microscope4 ,(t5 a prism is us$4 ,! rays ( light return+ f ?is highly illum9at$ 8field0 "u obs]vation return up ?r\gh ! tube & eye piece ( ! microscope & c be focus$ ^u a small scre5 conv5i5t = obs]vation or ^u ! gr\nd glass ( ! atta*$ cam]a by means ( :i* ! pictures are tak54 ,unless ! surface ( ! specim5 be+ exam9$ is p]fectly pla9 & level1 n all ( ! v]tical rays ?r[n d[n ^u x w be reflect$ back up ?r\gh ! tube & eye piece4 ,^? portions ( ! field :i* are absolutely at "r angles to ! v]tical rays appe> at ! eye piece or ^u ! scre5 z :ite or light-color$ portions1 :ile ^? :i*1 dur+ ! poli%+ or et*+ h be5 dug or eat5 away reflect ! light imp]fectly or 9 directions o!r ?an up ! tube ( ! microscope1 :]e=e su* portions %[ z d>k] or black sections4 ,! pe>lite1 !n1 is made up ( little plates ( s(t f]rite alt]nat+ ) o!rs ( a v mu* h>d] con/itu5t4 ,! h>d] plates are mu* less affect$ dur+ poli%+ & et*+ ?an are ^? ( ! s(t] f]rite1 h5ce !y /& out 9 relief & reflect abundant rays ( light1 :]eas ! 8dug-out0 f]rite plates reflect ! light imp]fectly or n at all & !re=e appe> z d>k l9es4 ,^! :ite1 h>d plates ( ! pe>lite conta9 all ( ! c>bon ( ! l[ c>bon alloys4 ,!y are ?is o!r con/itu5t1 8cem5tite10 s nam$ because x 0 fir/ discov]$ 9 /eel made by ! 8cem5tation0 process4 ,x is a v h>d & brittle sub/ance1 h>d en\gh to scrat* glass4 ,x is ! *emical comp\nd 7,fe#c;,c71 unv>y+ 9 composition z *emical comp\nds always are4 ,x consi/s ( j ?ree atoms ( iron 7#ic4d by weight7 & "o ( c>bon 7#f4f74 ,pe>lite1 !re=e1 is a sort ( me*anical mixture ( two sep>ate con/itu5ts1 f]rite or pure iron1 & ?is *emical comp\nd1 c>bide ( iron1 :i* is call$ cem5tite4 ,pe>lite is common to all unh>d5$ /eels :e!r ( l[1 m$ium or high c>bon cont5t & may be consid]$ *>act]i/ic4 ,t we may und]/& cle>ly ! /ructures ( ! anneal$ /eels1 let u />t ) pure iron & gradually *ange x into high] & high] c>bon /eels by gradual addition ( c>bon4 ,pages #cbh & #cbi %[ su* a s]ies4 ,photomicrograph ,no4 #ii;b is op5-he>? iron :i* is entirely made up ( free f]rite4 ,9 ,no4 #c;b !re is consid]able pe>lite1 "h appe>+ black1 ?\gh ! sample ( /eel yet conta9s b 4#aj ( c>bon4 ,9 ,no4 #e1 :i* is ( a /eel conta9+ 4#cj ( c>bon1 we h m pe>lite & 9 ,no4 #bb;c ) 4#ej c>bon we h yet m4 ,manife/ly at ?is rate ! comp>ative pe>lite areas are gr[+ s t !re w soon be room = no f]rite at all4 ,9 ,no4 #bc;g ?is has occurr$4 ,?is1 ! photomicrograph ( a /eel conta9+ 4#hf ( c>bon is "o ( ! /eels 9 :i* we f\nd t ! po9t ( recalesc5ce1 loss ( magnetism1 decrease 9 electrical conductivity & rate ( expansion take place all at ! "o po9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #ii;b4 ,,c>bonless ,,iron ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #c;b4 ,,/eel ,,) 4#a ,,p] ,,c5t ,,c>bon ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #e4 ,,/eel ,,) 4#c ,,p] ,,c5t ,,c>bon ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #bb;c4 ,,/eel ,,) 4#e ,,p] ,,c5t ,,c>bon 7,magnification #fj ,diamet]s47 ,n[ z we g /ill f>!r on up 9 p]c5tage ( c>bon cont5t1 i4e4 7beyond 4#hf1 we h a :ite con/itu5t beg9n+ to appe> z cell walls ar\nd ! gra9s ( ! pe>lite & ?is increases ) increase ( c>bon until1 ) alloys hav+ c>bon ar\nd #c1 we h a proportionately small am\nt ( pe>lite :ile ! :ite areas h s increas$ t x appe>s t ! m or less r\nd pat*es ( pe>lite float 9 a lake ( :ite4 ,?is :ite :i* appe>s fir/ z cell walls1 & lat] 9 great] & great] quantity is free cem5tite47 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #bc;g4 ,,/eel ,,) 4#i ,,p] ,,c5t ,,c>bon ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #bd;a4 ,,/eel ,,) #a4be ,,p] ,,c5t ,,c>bon ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #cf;b4 ,,/eel ,,) #b ,,p] ,,c5t ,,c>bon ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #aji4 ,,:ite ,,ca/ ,,iron ,,) #c ,,p] ,,c5t ,,c>bon 7,magnification #fj ,diamet]s47 ,su* are illu/rat$ 9 photomicrographs ,nos4 #bd;a1 #cf;b & #aji :i* conta9 #a4be1 #a4ih & #c4jj ( c>bon respectively4 ,:ile /eels ) ! typical :ite1 free f]rite areas are s s(t t a ne$le-po9t w pl[ furr[s across !m1 ^? ) ov] #a4be ( c>bon h su* excess ( free cem5tite t !y are v h>d to scrat* & too brittle to use except = special purposes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,au/5ite 7,,:ite7 ,,& ,,m>t5site 7,,d>k7 ,,magnifi$ #a1jjj ,,times ,,_! ,,actual ,,size ,s dur+ ord9>y cool+ f ! molt5 alloy or ! sl[] cool+ ( ! /eel dur+ ! anneal+ process1 ! m>t5sitic /ructure breaks d[n at ! recalesc5t temp]ature into pe>lite & f]rite 7s(t iron7 if ! c>bon cont5t ( ! /eel is l[] ?an ab\t 4#ij1 or pe>lite & ! o!r & v h>d con/itu5t1 8cem5tite10 if ! /eel has m ?an 4#ij ( c>bon4 ,if ! c>bon cont5t happ5s to be j 4#ij1 or !reab\ts1 !re is exactly suffici5t pe>lite to make up ! total area ( ! field %[n "u ! microscope4 ,ano!r con/itu5t :i* is ( great int]e/ sci5tifically1 ?\gh n at all comm]cially1 is 8au/5ite40 ,by qu5*+ v high c>bon /eels f a v high temp]ature v sudd5ly & completely1 we c fa/5 ! 8au/5ite0 /ructure1 :i* exi/s only at temp]atures high] ?an m>t5site1 i4e41 au/5ite is our gamma iron ) ! c>bon ( ! alloy 9 solid solution1 p]haps z iron c>bide1 :ile m>t5site is ?\ght to be ! beta iron solid solution1 p]haps ) "s gamma iron mix$ ) x4 ,:ile ord9>y qu5*+ fa/5s /ructures pretty well1 x is n usually quick en\gh to prev5t ! au/5ite f slid+ along d[n into m>t5site4 ,h[ev]1 c>bon disc\rages su* slipp+1 s1 ) high c>bon to act z a brake1 we c fa/5 "s ( x by *ill+ v sudd5ly & completely f a v high temp]ature4 ,/eels ) #a4e ( c>bon & temp]atures ( #bjjj ,f41 or ov]1 are usually necess>y to accompli% x4 ,h[ev]1 au/5ite1 aft] we get x1 is n z h>d z m>t5site & we h little use = x comm]cially4 ,z 0 /at$ be=e1 m>t5site is ! useful & prop] /ructure = c>bon /eel tools4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #gc4 ,,anneal$ ,,/eel ,,has ,,f9e ,,gra9 7,magnification #gj ,diamet]s7 ,temp]+ or ,draw+ 8,temp]+0 is done to relieve ! int5se brittl5ess ( /eel aft] qu5*+ to m>t5site4 ,:ile we dislike to sacrifice any ( ! h>dness1 x pays to temp] or 8t\gh50 ! /eel1 z ! toolmak] calls x1 by reheat+ x to some:]e betwe5 #djj & #egj ,f4 ,! high] ! temp]ature1 ! fre] & quick] is ! *ange f "o /ructure to ano!r1 z1 = in/ance1 ! au/5ite to m>t5site4 ,at ! l[ draw+ temp]atures ! *anges f m>t5site to ! pe>litic /ructure may be said to j creep along4 ,a second qu5*+ !n fa/5s x at ! new /ructure :i* gives a trifle less h>d b a t\gh] /eel4 ,z y w\ld guess1 ! microscope %[s on ^! :at we may t]m a 8transition0 or 8break+-d[n0 appe>ance & /ructures n at all def9ite4 ,^!1 ( c\rse1 give to ! /eels ! v>i\s degrees ( h>dness & brittl5ess & o!r qualities :i* are s desirable f ! practical /&po9t4 ,! production ( ^! f9e %ades ( temp] by ! practical tool mak] or blacksmi? may almo/ be consid]$ a f9e art4 ,h[ & ,:y ,d ! ,/eels ,h>d58 ,n[1 f all ( ^! facts1 :at1 %all we say1 is ! cause ( ! h>d5+ ( /eel8 ,! explanation mo/ g5]ally accept$ seems to be1 t1 ( ! ?ree allotropic =ms ( iron ! gamma & beta v>ieties are v mu* h>d] ?an alpha iron1 :i* is ! "o :i* we h 9 anneal$ /eel at ord9>y temp]atures1 &1 ( ! two1 ! beta is h>d] ?an ! gamma v>iety4 ,x is ?\ght also1 t c>bon1 p]haps z c>bide ( iron1 is held 9 solution 9 gamma or beta iron aft] ! qu5*+1 & increases ! h>dness proportionately ) increase ( ! c>bon cont5t ( ! /eel4 ,:ile ?is c>bon or iron-c>bide solid solution may & probably does itself conf] additional h>dness to ! /eel1 its ma9 function is to ret>d or sl[ d[n ! *ange f gamma into beta & alpha iron1 :i* *ange 9 c>bonless iron & l[ c>bon /eels is s insi/5t & extremely rapid t n ev5 ! mo/ sev]e qu5*+1 z 9 ice-wat] or liquid air1 c prev5t or /op x4 ,n only d we fail to get au/5ite1 :i* is gamma iron1 until we get #a or m ( c>bon pres5t & qu5* f v high to v l[ temp]atures1 b we _c ev5 /op ! transition at beta iron1 ! next l[] allotropic v>iety until we h at lea/ 4#cj ( c>bon1 &1 = s]viceable h>d5+ fully 4#fj ( c>bon 9 ! /eel4 ,=tunately = u1 ?is beta =m ( iron is ! "o we want1 = x is h>d] & m useful ?an ! gamma =m4 ,our mo/ s]viceable con/itu5t1 m>t5site1 !n1 is a solid solution ( c>bon or iron c>bide 9 beta iron4 ,x is magnetic b ?is probably results f its conta9+ "s alpha iron ?r\gh incomplete /oppage ( ! *ange by ! qu5*+4 ,z has be5 /at$1 8temp]+10 :i* means c>eful reheat+ to #djj ,f41 #ejj ,f41 or #fjj ,f41 all[s ! slight 8slipp+0 ( en\gh ( ! beta solution1 always eag] at temp]atures bel[ ! po9t ( recalesc5ce to return to alpha condition1 to relieve ! excessive brittl5ess ( ! h>d5$ /eel4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #gb4 ,,! 8,,sorbite0 ,,gra9 ,,is ,,produc$ ,,by ,,cool+ ,,9 ,a ,,bla/ ,,( ,,air ,,aft] ,,anneal+4 ,,x ,,gives ,,good ,,we>+ ,,prop]ties 7,magnification #gj ,diamet]s7 ,anneal+ is ! complete release ( beta iron & ! 8trapp$0 c>bon :i* all[s ( _! return to ! normal condition ( pe>lite ) alpha iron4 ,to accompli% ?is1 ! h>d5$ /eel has to be heat$ above its po9t ( recalesc5ce & cool$ m or less sl[ly4 ,diff]5t spe$s ( cool+ give diff]5t gra9 size1 /ructures & physical prop]ties4 ,?is explanation ( h>d5+1 :i* is kn[n z ! 8allotropic0 !ory1 is n univ]sally accept$1 conclusive evid5ce be+ lack+ at m ?an "o po9t4 ,x mu/ be /at$ also t "s :o hold ! 8allotropic !ory0 ( h>d5+ d\bt ! exi/5ce ( beta iron4 ,^! cont5d t ! s-call$ beta iron & m>t5site are only decomposition or transition =ms ( gamma iron & au/5ite4 ,two or ?ree o!r !ories h be5 m or less /rongly advocat$ b ^! also suff] f lack ( evid5ce4 ,! "o :i* p]haps ranks next 9 numb] ( advocates is ! 8c>bon !ory40 ,its support]s cont5d t by qu5*+1 alpha iron is made to hold c>bon or iron c>bide 9 solid solution & t x is ?is solution ( c>bon or c>bide :i* gives to ! /eel h>dness 9 proportion to its c>bon cont5t4 ,o!rs hold t ! great d5sity or /ra9 "u :i* qu5*$ /eel exi/s acc\nts = ! h>dness4 ,l _m o!r great problems ( ! univ]se ?is "o is n yet conclusively or satisfactorily solv$1 s reluctantly does ,nature yield h] secrets4 ,b :ile x may n h expla9$ all ( ! 8:ys0 & 8:]e=es10 ! "w :i* inve/igators h done has br\ght ab\t great improvem5t 9 me?ods ( manufacture & quality ( ! alloys :i* are mak+ our civilization great] & ?is ,age m wond]ful4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii ,,! ,,equilibrium ,,diagram ,,( ,,! ,,iron-,,c>bon ,,alloys ,x 0 a great day = metallurgy :5 x 0 discov]$ t molt5 mixtures 7 gov]n$ by ! same natural laws :i* gov]n our ord9>y liquid solutions4 ,probably x 0 because mo/ metallic alloys are solid at ord9>y temp]atures & liquid only at v high ones t = s long a "t we fail$ to suspect _! simil>ity4 ,if a s5sitive pyromet] is ins]t$ into an ord9>y solution or a molt5 alloy :i* is be+ gradually cool$1 x indicates ! fir/ in/ant t solidification 7freez+7 beg9s z well z ! t]m9ation ( ! freez+ p]iod4 ,unlike ! freez+ ( wat] or a pure metal1 complete solidification ord9>ily does n take place at a def9ite s+le temp]ature b ov] a great] or less] range ( temp]ature4 ,by tak+ su* upp] & l[] freez+-po9t measurem5ts = _m diff]5t p]c5tage compositions ( a b9>y 7two metal7 alloy1 = in/ance1 curves c be plott$ :i* %[ accurately ! habits ( any & all ( ! possible comb9ations 7i4e41 alloys7 ( ^? two metals4 ,su* are call$ 8freez+-po9t0 curves1 &1 z we %all see lat] on1 a /udy ( !m w give u mu* valuable & int]e/+ in=mation4 ,su* curves h be5 con/ruct$ = a great _m alloys s9ce ! discov]y ( ! analogy betwe5 _! behavior & t ( aque\s solutions l$ u to /udy alloys aft] ! mann] :i* physical *emi/s f\nd s satisfactory = ! /udy ( ord9>y solutions4 ,s9ce ! /udy ( b9>y or two metal alloys is (t5 v difficult1 x c be readily und]/ood :y ! det]m9ation & int]pretation ( ! curves ( alloys :i* conta9 ?ree1 f\r or m metals is a v mu* m s]i\s matt]4 ,mu* ( x has to be done by me?ods :i* are long & t$i\s1 su* z qu5*+ & microscopic /udy ( innum]able specim5s tak5 dur+ ! freez+ & subsequ5t cool+ ( v>i\s alloys ( ea* s]ies4 ,! value ( ! results dep5ds ^u ! skill1 devotion & cle> sight$ness ( ^? :o c>ry out ! "w4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,freez+-,,po9t ,,curves ,,( ,,! ,,iron-,,c>bon ,,alloys ,! 8freez+-po9t0 & 8decomposition0 curves ( ! iron-c>bon s]ies ( alloys h be5 br\ght to _! pres5t /age ( developm5t aft] some?+ l tw5ty ye>s ( labor by inve/igators 9 _m l&s4 ,if we look at ! diagram on page #cde1 we note at once t ! curves are q complicat$4 ,ev5 yet !y are n complete = all p]c5tage comb9ations ( iron & c>bon1 & ^? :o h giv5 ! mo/ "t & /udy to ! subject h n yet be5 able to int]pret ) entire satisfaction to all conc]n$ all ( ! discov]ies s f> made4 ,)\t endeavor+ to take up 9 detail ! te*nique ( ! mann] ( _! production1 :i* w\ld be unpr(itable = u )\t a great deal m ( prelim9>y /udy ?an we h "t & space to give1 we w at once exam9e ! freez+ curves ( ! iron-c>bon alloys z n[ develop$4 ,! works nam$ on page #ced z ref]5ces = ,*apt]s ,,xxii & ,,xxiii may be consult$ = ! v>i\s types & me?ods ( con/ruction & = explanation ( freez+ curves by ^? :o desire to /udy !m4 ,ref]r+ to ! freez+-po9t diagram on page #ccf1 ! upp] or broad ,v-%ap$ l9e1 ,,abc1 indicates ! temp]atures at :i* ! alloys ( v>i\s p]c5tages ( iron & c>bon beg9 to freeze1 & ! l[] "o1 ,,a$1 ! temp]atures at :i* ! freez+ ( ^! alloys ends4 ,f ! diagram x is readily se5 t pure iron 7#ajj71 has a v high freez+-po9t & solidifies at once4 ,iron :i* conta9s ab\t #b ( c>bon beg9s to freeze at a mu* l[] temp]ature & has a long p]iod ( solidification1 :ile iron ) #d4c ( c>bon has ! l[e/ freez+-po9t ( ! s]ies ) an extremely %ort solidification p]iod or range4 ,s9ce we h be5 unable to g suffici5tly into ! me?ods & te*nique ( freez+-curve con/ruction to be able to und]/& _! g5]al classification1 we mu/ accept ! /atem5t t ! curve ( ! iron-c>bon s]ies is really a d\ble "o4 ,! "p ( x t lies to ! left ( ! divid+ l9e ,,uv ( ! diagram on page #ccf1 is ( ! type exhibit$ by liquids :i* freeze f 8liquid solutions0 into :at are kn[n z 8solid solutions10 :i* by aid ( ! microscope are f\nd to be homog5e\s mixtures ( cry/als4 ,on ! o!r h&1 alloys :i* lie to ! "r ( ,,uv1 are ( ! type :i* =m 8eutectics40 ,?is w be describ$ lat]4 ,?is divid+ l9e ,,uv1 :i* occurs at ab\t #a4g ( c>bon1 divides ! iron-c>bon alloys into ^! two natural divisions4 ,x 0 ! basis = call+ ^? hav+ #b ( c>bon or less1 8/eels10 & ^? ) ov] ?is am\nt1 8ca/ irons40 ,molt5 iron is s gre$y = c>bon1 t1 :5 x c get x1 x readily holds 9 solution f #g to #aj ( ?is elem5t4 ,b solid 7froz57 iron _c reta9 any?+ l ?is am\nt4 ,z we le>n$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 gamma iron is ! only v>iety :i* c exi/ above our l9es ( loss ( conductivity1 magnetism & recalesc5ce1 i4 e41 ,ar#c1 ,ar#cb1 etc4 ,x is1 too1 ! only v>iety ( solid iron :i* is able to reta9 c>bon 9 solution1 & x c reta9 only ab\t #a4g ( x4 ,s :5 molt5 /eel conta9+ #a4e ( c>bon1 say1 cools until x rea*es ! temp]ature repres5t$ by ! l9e1 ,,ab1 :i*1 at its int]section ) ! #a4e c>bon l9e w\ld be at ab\t #behb ,f41 p>ticles or cry/als beg9 to freeze out & float 9 ! molt5 alloy4 ,z ! temp]ature falls1 m cry/als sep>ate until1 :5 ! temp]ature det]m9$ by int]section ( ! #a4e c>bon l9e ) ! l[] freez+ curve1 ,,ae1 is rea*$1 ! la/ ( ! n[ mu%y alloy solidifies4 ,alloys ( all o!r compositions bel[ #a4g ( c>bon d j ?is way except t ! temp]atures at :i* freez+ beg9s & ends are diff]5t & di/9ctive = ea* composition4#aj ,^u freez+1 e "o ( !m reta9s 9 8solid solution0 9 ! 8gamma0 iron :atev] c>bon x _h 9 ! liquid or molt5 solution4 ,b1 z /at$ above1 x c n be ov] ! #a4g limit4 ,footnote #aj3 ,temp]atures ( beg9n+ & end ( freez+ may always be asc]ta9$ by locat+ on ! freez+-po9t diagram ! po9ts at :i* ! v]tical l9e repres5t+ ! desir$ composition int]sects & crosses ! l9es ( ! freez+-po9t curves--9 ^! cases1 ,,ab & ,,ae4 ,( ! iron-c>bon alloys ( compositions ly+ to ! "r ( ! l9e ,,uv1 we f9d ! case to be diff]5t1 = ea* "o ( !m has m ?an ! #a4g ( c>bon :i* is ! maximum am\nt :i* 8gamma0 iron c reta94 ,n[ ! l[e/ temp]ature at :i* any iron-c>bon alloy c exi/ )\t freez+ is slightly above #bjff ,f41 & !re is b "o composition--#ie4g ( iron & #d4c ( c>bon--:i* c survive until ?is l[ temp]ature is rea*$4 ,a cont5t ( #d4c ( c>bon !n1 is ! greate/ & also ! lea/ conc5tration :i* ,nature w all[ to rema9 molt5 d[n to ?is m9imum temp]ature4 ,?is #d4c c>bon composition :i* is ! l[e/ melt+1 i4e41 ! easie/ melt$ alloy1 is call$ ! 8eutectic0 alloy f ,greek words :i* mean 8well melt+40 ,?is eutectic composition may be said to divide or r subdivide ?is gr\p ( alloys into two gr\ps1 ^? conta9+ betwe5 #a4g & #d4c ( c>bon1 & ^? :i* h #d4c & ov]4 ,z /at$ be=e1 freez+ is n an in/antane\s b a progressive process4 ,dur+ ! freez+ p]iod ( any ( ^! alloys :i* h ov] #a4g ( c>bon ! /ill liquid portion :i* rema9s aft] freez+ beg9s to become small] & small] 9 quantity z freez+ progresses j z x did 9 alloys ( ! 8solid solution0 gr\p4 ,& z ,nature all[s a conc5tration ( #d4c ( c>bon z ! highe/ conc5tration at ! m9imum temp]ature ! v la/ ( ! rema9+ liquid ( e alloy ev5tually gets to ?is eutectic composition j be=e ! alloy freezes4 ,^? to ! left ( ! eutectic or exact #d4c composition d s by ! gradual freez+ out ( iron conta9+ ! maximum or #a4g ( c>bon1 i4e41 iron is tak5 out fa/] ?an c>bon1 h5ce !re is gradual conc5tration ( c>bon 9 ! rema9+ liquid4 ,?is goes on until #d4c is rea*$4 ,! compositions to ! "r ( ! l9e ,,wx ?r[ out ! *emical comp\nd1 ,fe#c;,c1 :i* conta9s #f4f ( c>bon1 :]eby c>bon is elim9at$ fa/] ?an iron & ! desir$ #d4c c>bon alloy is arriv$ at f ! o!r direction4 ,to illu/rate1 take1 say1 ! composition repres5t$ by ! v]tical l9e at #c c>bon & #ig iron4 ,z ! molt5 alloy cools x rea*es ! temp]ature #bccj ,f41 at :i* temp]ature ! v]tical l9e repres5t+ ! #c c>bon composition cuts ! l9e ,,ab4 ,"h ! alloy beg9s to freeze by ! sep>ation ( small cry/als ( solidify+ iron conta9+ def9ite am\nts ( c>bon4#aa ,b z ! c>bon ?us tak5 along by ! freez+ cry/als ( iron is always less ?an #a4g1 a proportionally great] am\nt ( iron ?an c>bon is remov$ f ! unfroz5 "p ( ! alloy & ! rema9+ liquid or unfroz5 "p1 !re=e1 is left ) slightly m ?an ! #c ( c>bon ) :i* x />t$4 ,footnote #aa3 ,! p]c5tages ( c>bon c>ri$ by ! p>ticles ( iron freez+ at any p>ticul> temp]ature ( ! solidification range may be det]m9$ f ! diagram b ! works nam$ 9 ! ref]5ce li/ %\ld be consult$ = me?od & explanation4 ,?is we mu/ n[ consid] ano!r alloy ) a l[] freez+-po9t1 ! reason be+1 ( c\rse1 its high] c>bon cont5t4 ,at ! next l[] temp]ature1 m iron conta9+ c>bon is froz5 out & ! rema9+ liquid is aga9 left a little high] 9 c>bon ?an be=e4 ,9 ?is way ! cont9ually dim9i%+ am\nt ( rema9+ liquid keeps conc5trat+1 =m+ !reby a cont9u\s succession ( alloys ( high] & high] c>bon cont5t z ! temp]ature cont9u\sly drops4 ,ev5tually1 ( c\rse1 ! conc5tration ( ?is rema9+ liquor becomes #d4c ( c>bon j be=e completion ( ! freez+ at #bjff ,f4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! 8,,eutectic10 ,,! ,,"p ,,( ,,! ,,alloy ,,:i* ,,solidifies ,,la/ 7,magnification #gjj ,diamet]s7 ,n[ ) alloys conta9+ m ?an #d4c ( c>bon1 almo/ ! opposite occurs4 ,let u *oose ! "o hav+ #e c>bon & #ie ( iron4 ,?is molt5 alloy cools until at #bbae ,f41 small cry/als beg9 to freeze & =m 9 ! molt5 mass4 ,b1 z ! liquid already has m ?an ! favor$ #d4c ( c>bon1 x is n free iron :i* freezes out1 b in/ead1 ! *emical comp\nd1 ,fe#c;,c1 :i* conta9s #f4f ( c>bon4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 takes out c>bon proportionally fa/] ?an iron1 h5ce1 at ea* v slightly l[] temp]ature1 ! liquid :i* rema9s unfroz5 conta9s j a little less ( c>bon ?an did its pr$ecessor4 ,s ! con/antly decreas+ am\nt ( rema9+ liquid progresses ?r\gh a succession ( compositions ea* conta9+ j a little less ( c>bon ?an ! previ\s "o1 & ev5tually1 j be=e freez+ we get back to ! mixture :i* conta9s #d4c ( c>bon4 ,( c\rse !re is left unfroz5 by ?is "t only a v small am\nt ( ! alloy & x is ?is :i* has ! composition /at$4 ,! 8,eutectic0 ,n[1 hav+ j ! composition :i* %e wants1 :e!r arriv$ at f alloys l[] or high] ?an #d4c 9 c>bon1 ,nature lets ?is composition freeze at once 9 ?9 alt]nat+ plates :i* lie side by side ab\t & among ! e>li] froz5 cry/als ( ! alloy4 ,! appe>ance ( ?is typical eutectic =mation "u ! microscope is %[n on page #cda4 ,_h we *os5 ! #d4c alloy itself1 nei!r any ( ! solid solution ( c>bon 9 iron nor ! *emical comp\nd1 ,fe#c;,c1 w\ld h froz5 out1 b ! :ole mass w\ld h rema9$ liquid d[n to #bjff ,f41 :]e ! :ole w\ld h solidifi$ at once 9 ! plate-l eutectic =mation j describ$4 ,to sum up1 iron-c>bon alloys :i* conta9 less ?an #a4g ( c>bon1 9 o!r words1 ! /eels1 freeze z solid solutions ( c>bon 9 gamma iron4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 is ! metallographic con/itu5t :i* is call$ au/5ite4 ,x is n ( a def9ite composition z x conta9s :atev] c>bon is available up to #a4g4 ,alloys conta9+ betwe5 #a4g & #d4c ( c>bon gradually freeze out ?is solid solution1 au/5ite1 m & m be+ =m$ 9 ! freez+ alloy until1 ^u arriv+ at a conc5tration ( #d4c ( c>bon = ! rema9+ liquid1 ! latt]1 too1 freezes z a eutectic ( alt]nat+ plates ( m ( ?is same con/itu5t1 au/5ite1 & ! c>bide ( iron1 ,fe#c;,c1 ab\t & among ! cry/als ( ! previ\sly =m$ au/5ite4 ,f alloys :i* conta9 m ?an #d4c ( c>bon1 iron c>bide1 ,fe#c;,c1 gradually freezes out z ! temp]ature falls1 until1 at conc5tration ( #d4c ( c>bon1 ! eutectic ( rema9+ c>bide & au/5ite =ms ab\t & among ! e>li] froz5 c>bide cry/als1 always at ! same temp]ature1 #bjff ,f41 no matt] :at ! orig9al composition ( ! alloy4 ,^u reheat+1 ! con/itu5ts melt 9 rev]se ord]1 ! eutectic liquify+ fir/ at #bjff ,f41 ! rema9d] ( ! alloy gradually becom+ liquid betwe5 ?is temp]ature & ! temp]ature at :i* ! fir/ freez+ began dur+ cool+4 ,trans=mations & ,decompositions ,s f> we h consid]$ only ! freez+ ( ! iron-c>bon alloys f ! molt5 to ! solid condition4 ,n[ :at happ5s to !m at temp]atures bel[ #bjff ,f48 ,d !y rema9 z we left !m above1 until & aft] !y are fully cold8 ,we mu/ n[ comb9e ! little sket* :i* we made on page #cai1 by plott+ ! po9ts1 ,ar#a1 ,ar#b & ,ar#c1 ) ! freez+-po9t diagram :i* we h j n[ be5 consid]+4 ,y rememb] t we f\nd all sorts ( ?+s happ5+ to our #j to #a4g alloys--! /eels--at temp]atures ar\nd #abij ,f41 #acie ,f41 & #afej ,f4 ,simil>ly1 a great deal happ5s to ^! o!r alloys1 z !y cool f _! solidify+ temp]atures d[nw>d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,freez+-,,po9t ,,& ,,critical-,,po9t ,,curves ,,make ,,up ,,! ,,equilibrium ,,diagram ,b = ! mom5t consid]+ only ! /eels1 i4e41 ! ?ird ( ! diagram to ! left ( ! #a4g c>bon l9e1 we rememb] t ^u completion ( ! solidification ( any alloy1 we _h only a froz5 solution ( all ! c>bon 9 iron4 ,n[ 9 ! bottom "p ( ?is left ?ird ( our diagram on page #cdd1 ! l9e ,,gose does n look s v mu* diff]5t ?an ! freez+ l9e1 ,,abc1 does x8 ,x resembles x n only 9 appe>ance b also 9 actual exp]i5ce4 ,b 9 ?is case x repres5ts n a freez+ f liquid to solid b a decomposition1 or bett] p]haps1 a trans=mation4 ,! solid solutions or alloys :i* conta9 less ?an 4#i ( c>bon give up _! excess ( pure iron ^u gett+ d[n to temp]atures ly+ along ! l9e ,,gos1 by gradual decomposition ( ! au/5ite4 ,9 alloys ly+ to ! "r ( ?is 4#i c>bon v]tical l9e ! au/5ite rids itself ( excess c>bon by ?r[+ out ( solid solution & free+ ! *emical comp\nd1 ,fe#c;,c1 z ! l9e ,,se is rea*$ & pass$4 ,t is1 analog\sly to :at occurr$ dur+ freez+1 c]ta9 conc5trations occur 9 ! solid1 l[] c>bon alloys by gradual rejection ( pure iron cry/als until ! rema9d] ( ! mass has exactly 4#i ( c>bon1 or deconc5trate 9 ! high] ones by rejection ( ,fe#c;,c until !y r$uce ! c>bon to ?is 4#i figure4 ,9 all cases1 by ! "t ! temp]ature #abij ,f41 has be5 rea*$ ?is has be5 accompli%$ & ! rema9+ undecompos$ au/5ite1 n[ ) j 4#i ( c>bon1 9 "s way splits into ! alt]nat+ plate-l con/itu5t :i* is %[n 9 ! cut on page #cda4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,equilibrium ,,diagram ,,& ,,int]pretation ,,z ,,n[ ,,t5tatively ,,accept$ ,?is plate-l con/itu5t we c h>dly call eutectic or 8well-melt+0 alloy = x1 z well z ! re/ ( ! alloy1 has be5 solid = a long "t4 ,b be+ s simil> 9 d]ivation & appe>ance to ! eutectic :i* =ms dur+ freez+ ( a molt5 alloy1 x is propos$ t x be call$ ! next be/ ?+1 ! 8eutectoid40 ,x is (t5 call$ ! eutectic1 h[ev]4 ,by ?is "t y d\btless h se5 t ! free iron :i* 0 ?r[n out ( ! /eel hav+ less ?an 4#i c>bon is ! f]rite :i* we f\nd 9 ! s(t /eels1 & t ! *emical comp\nd1 ,fe#c;,c1 ( ! high] c>bon /eels is ! extremely h>d con/itu5t1 cem5tite4 ,! eutectoid or plate-l /ructure is1 ( c\rse1 pe>lite1 :i* 9 ! la/ *apt] we f\nd to consi/ ( j ^! alt]nat+ plates ( f]rite & cem5tite4 ,! ,ca/ ,irons ,all ( ! alloys ly+ to ! "r ( ! l9e ,,uv conta9 m ?an #a4g ( c>bon1 &1 accord+ to our classification1 !re=e1 are 8ca/ irons40 ,we h se5 h[ !y freeze ei!r z eutectic alone1 z cry/als ( au/5ite ) eutectic or z cry/als ( cem5tite 7,fe#c;,c7 & eutectic1 dep5d+ ^u ! orig9al composition ( ! molt5 alloy4 ,at & j bel[ ! temp]atures repres5t$ by ! l9e ,,ed1 ?is und\bt$ly repres5ts ! situation4 ,:at happ5s to ! alloys f ?is temp]ature d[n to normal dep5ds ^u conditions4 ,j :at occurs & ! me*anism ( x is n def9itely kn[n except 9 ! practical way4 ,c]ta9 x is1 ! 8precipitation0 ( free c>bon is necess>y = ca/ irons :i* are to be s]viceable = usual purposes4 ,?is may occur ) consequ5t s(t5+ dur+ ! fir/ cool+ or !y may be ca/ z 8h>d iron0 & s(t5$ aft]w>d4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,xi we said t silicon 0 a 8s(t5]0 z its pres5ce br\ght ab\t precipitation ( ! c>bon z graphite ?r\gh\t ! ca/ iron1 !reby s(t5+ x bo? by reason ( ! pres5ce ( ! s(t flakes ( graphite & because x leaves s little ( ! c>bon 9 ! 8comb9$0 or h>d5+ condition4 ,s silicon is a ready means ( br++ ab\t decomposition ( ! high] temp]ature /ructures z ! alloys cool4 ,! spe$ ( ! cool+ also ex]ts a v p[]ful influ5ce 9 det]m9+ ! am\nt ( graphite :i* w sep>ate4 ,o!r conditions be+ equal1 ! sl[] ! cool+1 ! great] ! decomposition ) result+ graphite4 ,swift cool+1 ev5 su* z results f ! dump+ ( ca/+s f ! molds :ile at ne>ly :ite or high r$ heat results 9 insuffici5t graphite & o!rwise h>d] metal4 ,cool+ ( v hot ca/+s on a cold floor or 9 a curr5t ( cool air has consid]able h>d5+ effect ev5 :5 ! composition ( ! alloy w\ld o!rwise give v s(t & ma*9able metal4 ,9 an extreme & v int]e/+ case a few v h>d ca/ iron flanges 7 ea* day f\nd among ! _m ?\s&s ( habitually s(t ca/+s regul>ly produc$4 ,ea* day two or ?ree exp5sive 8taps0 7 ru9$ by attempt+ ! impossible--! ma*9+ ( ^! pieces ( h>d5$ iron1 :i*1 on ! outside1 look$ j l all ! re/4 ,x 0 soon discov]$ t two or ?ree mold dump]s ea* noon & ev5+ 7 w>m+ wat] = 8wa%-up0 by dropp+ into ! pails a flange or two :i* 7 /ill :ite-hot aft] dump+ f ! molds4 ,! m5 7 innoc5t ( any int5tion ( h>m b _! w>m wat] co/ sev]al hundr$ doll>s be=e _! me?od ( produc+ x 0 discov]$4 ,silicon & rate ( cool+ are ! two mo/ p[]ful influ5ces b pres5ce ( c]ta9 elem5ts o!r ?an silicon also influ5ces to "s ext5t ! degree ( h>dness4 ,h[ev]1 :ile silicon has a /rong s(t5+ effect1 manganese & sulphur h an opposite or h>d5+ t5d5cy4 ,on ?is acc\nt ! am\nts ( ^! latt] elem5ts :i* c be us$ or all[$ mu/ be /rictly limit$4 ,f ! above x is se5 t all sorts ( ca/ iron c be produc$ rang+ f ! extremely h>d1 high cem5tite1 :ite irons ) l[ silicon cont5t d[n to ! v s(t gray irons :i* result ma9ly because ( high] silicon cont5t & sl[] cool+4 ,! :ite irons are m or less un/able z is %[n by ! decomposition ?r\gh :i* ! h>d1 :ite iron ca/+s become 8malleable0 by anneal+ z 0 told 9 ,*apt] ,,xii :i* discuss$ ,malleable ,ca/ ,iron4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #ca4 ,,gray ,,ca/ ,,iron ,,) ,,f]rite1 ,,pe>lite ,,& ,,graphite ,,flakes 7,magnification #gj ,diamet]s7 ,! gray ca/ irons are mu* m /able4 ,!y consi/ ( :at1 9 an e>ly *apt]1 we ref]r$ to z 8/eels ) an impurity1 ! graphite flakes40 ,!y consi/1 !n1 ( free1 s(t iron or f]rite1 c]ta9 am\nts ( ! *>act]i/ic /eel con/itu5t1 pe>lite1 & ! s(t graphite flakes4 ,!y arrive at ?is composition1 ?r\gh break+ d[n ( ! au/5ite & cem5tite /ructures dur+ ! cool+1--j h[ n hav+ be5 satisfactorily det]m9$4 ,consi/5t /udy is be+ put ^u ?is subject & sev]al unique & long-/udi$ possible explanations ( ?is section ( ! full equilibrium diagram h be5 propos$ & debat$1 all bas$ ^u ! data s f> available4 ,:ile mu* in=mation on ?is subject has be5 ga9$ ! matt] is /ill s mu* 9 dispute t x is be/ = u to v5ture no?+ def9ite 9 reg>d to j h[ ! *anges occur4 ,! ref]5ce books = ?is *apt] 7see page #ced7 give q completely ! data1 !ories & explanations s f> available4 ,comp>$ ) ! /eels1 ! ca/ irons are va/ly complicat$4 ,9 !m we h elem5ts :i* occur 9 practically negligible am\nts 9 ! /eels4 ,comm]cial ca/ irons1 = in/ance1 h silicon rang+ any:]e f to #c1 phosphorus 4#aj to #b1 graphite #j to #c4ej1 & c>bon 9 ! comb9$ =m 7pe>lite or cem5tite7 f #c4ej to 4#aj4 ,if ^! repres5t ! majority ( ca/ irons :at ab\t our pig irons :i* h #b1 #e1 #h1 #aj or ev5 #ae ( silicon1 o!rs ) #a or #b & occasionally v mu* m ( manganese1 & /ill o!rs :i* v>y widely 9 phosphorus cont5t8--= f ! metallographic & physical *emi/ry /&po9t pig irons are ca/ irons4 ,z we c nev] get p]fectly pure iron-c>bon alloys to exp]im5t )1 _! cont5t ( o!r elem5ts1 silicon1 nickel1 phosphorus1 etc41 vitiate m or less ! results obta9$1 b ev5 c\ld su* pure alloys be secur$ we are n greatly help$ s9ce our s]viceable alloys are nev] su*4 ,ea* add$ elem5t br+s ab\t great] complication & "o does n wond] t 9 ! %ort tw5ty ye>s :i* h elaps$ s9ce /udy 0 s]i\sly und]tak51 metallurgical sci5ce has n entirely solv$ ! big problem4 ,,ref]5ces ,,g5]al ,,v>i\s 8,! ,a ,b ,c ( ,iron & ,/eel10 ,p5ton ,publi%+ ,co41 ,clevel&4 8,! ,/eel ,f\ndry10 ,j4 ,h4 ,hall1 ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,co41 ,new ,york4 8,! ,metallurgy ( ,/eel10 ,h4 ,m4 ,h[e1 ,! ,sci5tific ,publi%+ ,co41 ,new ,york4 8,! ,manufacture & ,prop]ties ( ,iron & ,/eel10 ,h4 ,h4 ,campbell1 ,hill ,publi%+ ,co41 ,new ,york4 8,! ,metallurgy ( ,iron & ,/eel10 ,b4 ,/\ghton1 ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,co41 ,new ,york4 8,! ,metallurgy ( ,/eel10 ,h>bord & ,hall1 ,*>les ,griff9 ,co41 ,ltd41 ,london4 8,liquid ,/eel10 ,e4 ,g4 ,c>negie1 ,longmans1 ,gre5 ,co41 ,london4 8,krupp's ,/eel ,works10 ,f4 ,c4 ,g4 ,mull]1 ,wm4 ,he9emann1 ,london4 8,by ,bread ,alone0 7a novel71 ,i4 ,k4 ,fri$man1 ,mc,clure1 ,phillips ,co41 ,new ,york4 ,,*apt] ,i 8,! ,hi/ory ( ! ,manufacture ( ,iron 9 ,all ,ages10 ,james ,swank1 ,am4 ,iron & ,/eel ,assoc41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 8,! ,mat]ials ( ,eng9e]+--,iron & ,/eel10 ,rob]t ,?ur/on1 ,john ,wiley ,son1 ,new ,york4 ,,*apt] ,,ii 8,! ,honorable ,pet] ,:ite10 ,r4 ,d4 ,williams1 ,p5ton ,publi%+ ,co41 ,clevel&1 ,o4 8,! ,iron ,ore ,res\rces ( ! ,_w10 ,int]national ,geological ,society1 ,/ockholm1 #aiaj4 8,! ,/ory ( ,coal & ,iron 9 ,alabama10 ,e!l ,armes1 ,*amb] ( ,comm]ce1 ,birm+ham1 ,ala4 ,,*apt] ,,iii 8,mod]n ,cok+ ,practice10 ,t4 ,h4 ,byrom1 ,c4 ,lockwood ,son1 ,london4 8,coal & ,coke10 ,fr$]ick ,h4 ,wagn] 7#aiaf71 ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,co41 ,new ,york4 8,wa%+ & ,cok+ ,te/s ( ,coal10 ,a4 ,w4 ,beld51 ,g4 ,r4 ,delamat]1 ,j4 ,w4 ,groves1 ,bullet9 #cfh1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey1 #aiji4 8,wa%+ & ,cok+ ,te/s ( ,coal & ,cupola ,te/s ( ,coke10 ,r4 ,mold5ke1 ,a4 ,w4 ,beld51 & ,g4 ,r4 ,delamat]1 ,u4 ,s4 ,fuel ,te/+ ,plant1 ,/4 ,l\is1 ,mo41 ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey1 ,bullet9 #ccf1 #aijh4 8,manufacture ( ,coke & ,o!r ,prep>$ ,fuels & ! ,sav+ ( ,by-,products10 ,john ,fulton1 #aije1 ,int]national ,text ,book ,co41 ,pittsburg1 ,pa4 ,,*apt] ,,iv 8,! ,bla/ ,furnace & ,manufacture ( ,pig ,iron10 ,rob]t ,=sy!1 ,d4 ,williams ,co41 ,new ,york4 8,a ,/udy ( ! ,bla/ ,furnace10 ,h>bison-,walk] ,refractories ,co41 ,pittsburg1 ,pa4 8,! ,pr9ciples ( ,manufacture ( ,iron & ,/eel10 ,sir ,i4 ,l4 ,bell1 ,george ,r\tl$ge ,son1 ,london4 ,,*apt] ,,vi 8,! ,bus9ess ,message ( ! ,wr\ght ,iron ,b>10 ,int]/ate ,iron & ,/eel ,co41 ,*icago4 8,! ,control ( ,quality 9 ,e ,process10 ,a4 ,m4 ,by]s ,co41 ,pittsburg1 ,pa4 ,,*apt] ,,vii 8,! ,cem5tation ( ,iron & ,/eel10 ,gioletti1 ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,co41 ,new ,york4 8,! ,f9e ,/eel ,indu/ry10 ,j4 ,a4 ,ma!ws1 ,! ,halcomb ,/eel ,co41 ,syracuse1 ,new ,york4 ,,*apt] ,,viii 8,sir ,h5ry ,bessem]--,an ,autobiography10 ,(fices ( ,eng9e]+1 ,london4 8,! ,romance ( ,iron & ,/eel--,! ,/ory ( a ,?\s& ,millionaires10 ,h4 ,n4 ,casson1 ,munsey's ,magaz9e1 ,april1 #aijf1 & on2 ,9 book =m1 ,a4 ,s4 ,b>nes ,co41 ,new ,york4 ,,*apt] ,,ix 8,! ,manufacture ( ,op5-,he>? ,/eel ,ca/+s10 ,w4 ,m4 ,c>r1 ,p5ton ,publi%+ ,co41 ,clevel&4 8,! ,basic ,op5-,he>? ,/eel ,process10 ,c4 ,di*mann1 ,con/able ,co41 ,ltd41 ,london4 8,a ,/udy ( ! ,op5-,he>?10 ,h>bison-,walk] ,refractories ,co41 ,pittsburg1 ,pa4 ,,*apt]s ,x ,,xi 8,ca/ ,iron 9 ! ,light ( ,rec5t ,rese>*10 ,w4 ,h4 ,hatfield1 ,*>les ,griff9 ,co41 ,ltd41 ,london4 8,ca/ ,iron10 ,w4 ,j4 ,keep1 ,john ,wiley ,sons1 ,new ,york4 8,! ,metallurgy ( ,ca/ ,iron10 ,t4 ,d4 ,we/1 ,clevel& ,pr9t+ ,publi%+ ,co41 ,clevel&1 ,o4 8,am]ican ,f\ndry ,practice10 ,t4 ,d4 ,we/1 ,john ,wiley ,sons1 ,new ,york4 ,,*apt] ,,xii 8,! ,production ( ,malleable ,ca/+s10 ,ri*>d ,mold5ke1 ,! ,p5ton ,publi%+ ,co41 ,clevel&4 8,malleable ,ca/ ,iron10 ,s4 ,j4 ,p>sons1 ,a4 ,con/able ,co41 ,ltd41 ,london4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii 8,electric ,furnaces 9 ! ,iron & ,/eel ,indu/ry10 ,rod5haus] ,s*o5awa 7,translat$ by ,vom ,baur71 ,john ,wiley ,sons1 ,new ,york4 8,! ,electric ,furnace10 ,a4 ,/ansfield1 ,! ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,co41 ,new ,york4 8,electric ,furnaces = ,mak+ ,iron & ,/eel10 ,lyon & ,ke5ey1 ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau ( ,m9es1 ,bullet9 ,no4 #fg 7#aiad74 ,,*apt]s ,,xiv ,,xv 8,! ,manufacture & ,uses ( ,alloy ,/eels10 ,h4 ,d4 ,hibb>d1 ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau ( ,m9es1 ,bullet9 ,no4 #ajj 7#aiae74 8,high ,spe$ ,/eel10 ,o4 ,m4 ,beck]1 ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,co41 ,new ,york4 8,nickel ,/eel--,its ,practical ,developm5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates10 ,h4 ,f4 ,j4 ,port]1 ,cassi]'s ,magaz9e1 #aijb1 ,page #dhj4 8,*rome-,vanadium ,/eel10 ,w4 ,e4 ,gibbs1 ,cassi]'s ,magaz9e1 ,june1 #aiaj1 ,page #agd4 8,vanadium ,/eels10 ,j4 ,k5t ,smi?1 ,am]ican ,vanadium ,co41 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 8,alloy ,/eels 9 ,motor ,c> ,con/ruction10 ,j4 ,a4 ,ma!ws1 ,j\rnal ,frankl9 ,in/itute1 ,may1 #aiji1 ,page #cgi4 8,on ! ,art ( ,cutt+ ,metals10 ,f4 ,w4 ,taylor1 ,trans4 ,am4 ,soc4 ,me*4 ,eng4 #aijf-bh ,no4 #c4 8,high ,spe$ & ,c>bon ,tool ,/eels10 ,ma*9]y ,ref]5ce ,s]ies ,no4 #aag1 ,indu/rial ,press1 ,new ,york4 8,alloy ,/eels10 ,ma*9]y ,ref]5ce ,s]ies ,no4 #aah4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi 8,drop ,=g+1 ,die ,s9k+ & ,ma*9e ,=g+ ( ,tools ( ,/eel10 ,j4 ,v4 ,woodwor?1 ,n4 ,w4 ,h5ley ,publi%+ ,co41 ,new ,york4 8,metal ,work+10 ,hasluck1 ,david ,mc,kay1 #aijg4 8,drop ,=g+10 ,ma*9]y's ,ref]5ce ,s]ies ,no4 #de4 8,press ,work+ ( ,metals10 ,ob]l9 ,smi?1 ,john ,wiley ,sons 7#aiac74 ,,*apt] ,,xvii 8,! ,roll+ ,mill ,indu/ry10 ,f4 ,k9dl1 ,p5ton ,publi%+ ,co41 ,clevel&1 ,ohio4 ,,*apt]s ,,xviii ,,xix 8,wire ,manufacture & ,uses10 ,j4 ,b4 ,smi?1 ,john ,wiley ,sons1 ,new ,york4 ,,*apt]s ,,xx ,,xxi 8,mod]n ,weld$ ,pipe10 ,national ,tube ,co41 ,pittsburg1 ,pa4 8,! ,control ( ,quality 9 ,e ,process10 ,a4 ,m4 ,by]s ,co41 ,pittsburg1 ,pa4 8,seamless ,tub+1 ,bullet9 ,no4 #ag-;,a01 ,national ,tube ,co41 ,pittsburg1 ,pa4 8,! ,manufacture ( ,iron & ,/eel ,tubes10 ,e4 ,c4 ,r4 ,m>ks1 ,van ,o/r& ,co41 ,new ,york4 ,,*apt]s ,,xxii ,,xxiii 8,! ,metallography ( ,/eel & ,ca/ ,iron10 ,h4 ,m4 ,h[e1 ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,co41 ,new ,york4 8,! ,metallography & ,heat ,treatm5t ( ,iron & ,/eel10 ,alb]t ,sauveur1 ,sauveur & ,boyl/on1 ,cambridge1 ,mass4 8,metallic ,alloys3 ,_! ,/ructure & ,con/itution10 ,g4 ,h4 ,gulliv]1 ,*>les ,griff9 ,co41 ,ltd41 ,london4 ,,index ,acid l9+s = furnaces1 #aci1 #aef ,allotropic modifications ( iron1 #cbb ,alloy /eels1 #bcb ,ammonia f coke ov5s1 #di ,analysis1 *emical1 #afe ,anneal+ malleable ca/ iron1 #bjc ca/ /eel1 #bbj tool /eels1 #aji1 #bcc1 #ccc tubes1 #cjg wire1 #bhe ,b>1 ,m]*ant1 #aed muck1 #ii ,basic l9+s = furnaces1 #aci1 #aef1 #bcj ,beehive *>coal1 #ch coke1 #dd ,b5zol1 #di ,bessem]1 ,sir ,h5ry1 #abc /eel1 #abc1 #bbf ,black he>t malleable iron1 #bji ,bla/1 #a1 #aa1 #eb1 #eh1 #agb ,bla/ furnace1 #i1 #aj1 #eb ,bli/] /eel1 #aag ,bl[+ ( ,bessem] /eel1 #abh1 #bbe ,boyd51 ,se?1 #aif ,bu%el$ iron1 #aje ,butt-weld$ pipe1 #bic ,by-products1 #db1 #dg ,c>bon1 effect (1 on iron1 #h1 #gd1 #hc1 #hf1 #aji1 #aaf1 #ahj1 #aih1 #bcc1 #cai1 #ccg effect (1 on iron ore1 #d1 #eg ,ca/ iron4 ,see ,iron1 ca/ ,ca/+s1 #ahi ( ca/ iron1 #agh ,ca/+s ( malleable iron1 #aig ( pig iron 7direct ca/+s71 #hj 8rubb]10 #aib ( 8semi-/eel10 #ahh ( /eel1 #bad ,cem5tation /eel process1 #ajf1 #aab ,*>coal1 #g1 #cg1 #ie ,*emical *anges dur+ ref9+1 #g1 #ig1 #aai1 #abh1 #adi1 #aee1 #afj1 #bja1 #bcj ,*emi/ry ( gas produc]s1 #aeh ,*romium 9 /eel1 #bch1 #bdc ,c9d] 9 wr\ght iron1 #if1 #ig1 #aja1 #cjj ,classification accord+ to *emical analysis1 #hc ( iron alloys1 #fi1 #ahj metallographic1 #gj by physical te/1 #hc1 #ahh ( /eels1 #ajg1 #aee volumetric1 #hh ,coal1 #da1 #di ,cold f9i%+ ( /eel1 #bgj1 #cjf ,coke1 #aa1 #da ,coke ov5s1 #dd1 #df ,conductivity ( /eels1 #cae ,conv]t]s1 #abf1 #bbf ,cool+ curves ( /eels1 #caf ,cort1 ,h5ry1 #aa1 #ie1 #bei ,critical temp]ature or range 9 /eels1 #cae1 #cai ,crucibles1 #aah ,crucible /eel process1 #ajf1 #aah1 #bbc ,cupola melt+ process1 #afa1 #aga1 #aih ,dilatation ( /eel1 #cae ,dolomite1 #ej ,draw+ b5*1 #bhg1 #cjf ,draw+1 effect ( cold-draw+1 #bdh ( tubes1 #cje ( wire1 #bhd ,duplex /eel process1 #aee ,electric furnaces1 #bbg ,electric /eel1 #bbg ,equilibrium diagram ( iron-c>bon alloys1 #cce1 #cde ,eutectic1 #cdb ,eutectoid1 #cdf ,fib] ( wr\ght iron1 #ib1 #ic1 #aja ,fluor sp>1 #ea ,flux1 #ej1 #agc ,=g+1 #bdh ,freez+-po9t curves ( iron-c>bon alloys1 #ccg ,fuels1 #f1 #aa1 #ae1 #cg1 #id1 #if1 #aai1 #acj1 #aeg1 #agj ,furnaces1 air1 #aih ,bessem] conv]t]s1 #abc1 #bbf ,catalan1 #g ,cem5tation1 #aae ,cupola1 #aga e>ly types (1 #f1 #ic electric1 #bbg op5-he>?1 #adb puddl+1 #ie ,siem5s-,m>t91 #adb ,talbot1 #aec ,gas1 coke ov51 #da1 #dg natural1 #aeg produc]1 #aeg ,hadfield1 ,sir ,rob]t1 #bce ,hamm]s = =g+1 #bdi ,h>d5+1 air or self1 #bda ,h>d5+ ( /eels1 #aji1 #bcc1 #bdj1 #caf1 #ccc ,holley1 ,alex&] ,l41 #abg ,huntsman crucible melt+ process1 #aj1 #aah ,+ots1 /eel1 #bde ,irons1 8black he>t0 malleable ca/1 #bji ,bu%el$1 #aje ca/ 7,see also ,semi-/eel71 #g1 #gi1 #afj1 #agh1 #cdf classification (1 #fi1 #hi e>ly hi/ory (1 #a1 #d1 #ia +ot1 #ge malleable1 #d1 #abc malleable ca/1 #ha1 #aie pig1 #fc puddl$1 #ge1 #ia /r5g?s ( ! iron alloys1 #hc1 #ahh ,sw$i%1 #ic :ite1 #ha1 #ahd1 #aih 8:ite he>t0 malleable ca/1 #ba wr\ght1 #ge1 #gg1 #ia wr\ght1 e>ly processes =1 #d1 #ic ,kelly1 ,william1 #abd ,lap-weld$ pipe1 #bif ,lime1 use (1 #aci1 #adi1 #bcj ,lime/one z flux1 #ej1 #agc ,l9+s1 acid & basic1 #aci1 #aef1 #bcj ( ,bessem] conv]t]s1 #aci ( electric furnaces1 #bcj ( op5-he>? furnaces1 #adh ( puddl+ furnaces1 #ig ,magnetism1 loss (1 9 /eels1 #cad ,manganese1 #ace1 #aea ,hadfield's manganese /eel1 #bce ,mannesmann process = billet pi]c+1 #cjb ,melt+ po9ts ( iron-c>bon alloys1 #d1 #f1 #hc1 #id1 #adb ,metallography1 #gj1 #ahj1 #cbd ,metalloids1 #hf1 #hi1 #abh ,mills4 ,see ,roll+ mills ,mix]1 #aca1 #aec ,molds & ,mold+1 #ac1 #ahi1 #bah ,muck b>1 #ii ,mu%et1 ,rob]t ,f41 #ace1 #bdj ,nasmy?1 ,james1 #bea ,nickel 9 /eel1 #bcg ,op5-he>? /eel process1 #adb1 #bbc ,ore1 iron1 #c1 #ag1 #ec1 #add ,mesaba1 #bf unload]s1 #ca use ( 7iron oxide71 9 ref9+ processes1 #ig1 #adi1 #bcj ,phosphorus 9 iron & /eel1 #ig1 #aci1 #add1 #aeb1 #bcj ,pickl+ ( /eel1 #bhe1 #cje ,pi]c+ ( /eel billets = tubes1 #cjb ,pig b$1 #fa ,pig iron1 #fc ca/+s 78direct ca/+s071 #hj ,pipes & tubes1 e>ly1 #bib ,pipes1 butt-weld$1 #bic lap-weld$1 #bif 9 /eel +ots1 #bde ,plates1 mak+ ( /eel1 #bfd ,press1 =g+ by hydraulic1 #bef ,puddl+ ( iron1 #ig ,rails1 roll+ (1 #ach1 #bgc ,reaumur1 #aae1 #aie ,recalesc5ce1 #caa1 #caf ,rec>burization1 #ace1 #aea ,ref]5ces1 #cej ,reg5]ative sy/em ( heat+1 #adf ,ris]s on /eel ca/+s1 #bai ,rods1 roll+ (1 #bgg ,roll+ mills1 #bei1 #bgg1 #bid1 #cjd ,roll+ ( muck b>1 #ii ( rails1 #ach1 #bgc ( rods1 #bgg ,roll+ ( skelp = pipe1 #bic ( /eel plates1 #bfd1 #bfh ,roll+ vs4 =g+ ( /eel1 #beh ,segregation 9 /eel +ots1 #bdf 8,semi-/eel10 #gh1 #ahe ,%eets1 roll+ (1 #bgc ,siem5s-,m>t9 /eel process4 ,see ,op5-he>? ,silicon 9 iron-c>bon alloys1 #hc1 #abj1 #acc1 #afh1 #ahb1 #cdf ,skelp = pipe1 #bic ,slag & c9d]1 #ef1 #eh1 #if1 #ig1 #aea ,spiegeleis5 addition 9 ,bessem] process1 #ace ,squeez] = puddl$ iron1 #ii ,/eam hamm] = =g+1 #bea ,/eels1 acid1 #aci1 #aef alloy1 #ajg1 #bcb anneal+ (1 #aji1 #bbj1 #bcc1 #bhe1 #cjg1 #ccc basic1 #aci1 #aef1 #bcj ,bessem] process1 #abc1 #aed1 #bbf bli/]1 #aag c>bon1 #ajg ca/+s4 ,see ,ca/+s ( /eel cem5tation1 #ajf1 #aab *rome1 #bch classification (1 #ajg1 #aee crucible1 #ajf1 #aah1 #bbc duplex1 #aee electric1 #bbg h>d5+ (1 #aji1 #bcc1 #bdj1 #bda1 #caf1 #ccc high-spe$1 #ajg1 #bdj manganese1 #bce nickel1 #bcg op5-he>?1 #ajg1 #adb1 #bbc place 9 ! iron family1 #gh 8semi-/eel10 #gi1 #ahe %e>1 #aah /ructures1 decompositions & trans=mations (1 #caj1 #ccg1 #cdc tool1 #ajg1 #bdj tung/51 #bcf1 #bdc ,wootz1 ,damascus1 ,tol$o1 etc41 #h1 #aba ,/r5g?s ( iron-c>bon alloys1 #hc1 #ahh ( /eel plate1 #bgj ( wire1 #bij ,/ructures ( ! irons & /eels1 #caj1 #cbc1 #ccg1 #cdc ,see also ,metallography ,sulphur 9 fuels & alloys1 #dj1 #dc1 #ie1 #ig1 #aee1 #afh1 #bjc1 #bcj ,t>1 coal1 #dh ,taylor1 ,fr$]ick ,w41 #bda ,temp]+ ( /eels1 #aji1 #bdj1 #cca ,titanium 9 /eel1 #bcd ,tools1 #c1 #ajg1 #bab ,tool /eels1 c>bon1 #ajg high-spe$1 #ajg1 #bdj ,tubes & tube mak+1 #cjb ,tung/5 9 /eel1 #bcf1 #bda ,uses ( irons & /eels1 #ga1 #hc1 #ahd1 #bab1 #bac1 #bae1 #bdi ,vanadium 9 /eel1 #bce1 #bdc ,weld+ rolls1 #big ,weld+ ( /eel1 #hc1 #bid1 #bif 8,:ite he>t0 malleable ca/ iron1 #baj ,:ite iron1 #ha1 #ahd1 #aih ,:ite1 ,maunsel1 #bda ,wire1 draw+ (1 #bhd ,wootz /eel process1 #h1 #aba ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,transcrib]',s ,,notes #a4 ,sil5tly correct$ palpable typographical errors2 reta9$ non-/&>d spell+s & dialect4 #b4 ,re9dex$ footnotes us+ numb]s4 #c4 ,enclos$ italics font 9 und]scores4 #d4 ,enclos$ bold or blacklett] font 9 equals4 #e4 ,d5ot$ sup]scripts by a c>et be=e a s+le sup]script "* or a s]ies ( sup]script$ *>act]s enclos$ 9 curly braces1 e4g4 ,mr4 or ,mi/]4